GEOGRAPHY, CRIME AND SOCIAL CONTROL by JOHN LOWMAN A THESIS SUBMITTED IN THE REQUIREMENTS DOCTOR OF PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF FOR THE DEGREE OF PHILOSOPHY THE FACULTY OF (Depar tment i n GRADUATE STUDIES of Geography) We accept t h i s t h e s i s as conforming to the r e q u i r e d standard The U n i v e r s i t y of B r i t i s h Columbia J u l y 1983 John Lowman 1983 In p r e s e n t i n g t h i s t h e s i s i n p a r t i a l f u l f i l m e n t of the requirements f o r an advanced degree at the U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h Columbia, I agree t h a t the L i b r a r y s h a l l make i t f r e e l y a v a i l a b l e f o r r e f e r e n c e and study. I f u r t h e r agree t h a t p e r m i s s i o n f o r e x t e n s i v e copying o f t h i s t h e s i s f o r s c h o l a r l y purposes may be granted by the head of my department or by h i s or her r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s . I t i s understood t h a t copying or p u b l i c a t i o n o f t h i s t h e s i s f o r f i n a n c i a l g a i n s h a l l not be allowed without my w r i t t e n p e r m i s s i o n . Department o f The U n i v e r s i t y of B r i t i s h Columbia 1956 Main Mall Vancouver, Canada V6T 1Y3 E-6 (3/81) ABSTRACT The purpose of t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n i s to d e s c r i b e and cha l l e n g e some of the b a s i c premises, i m p l i c i t o n t o l o g i c a l and e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l b e l i e f s and, by ext e n s i o n , the p o l i t i c a l values which form the core of the geography of crime. While the d i s c u s s i o n concentrates on p u b l i s h e d research undertaken by geographers, i t a l s o introduces r e l e v a n t research conducted i n kindred d i s c i p l i n e s u t i l i z i n g a s p a t i a l or environmental p e r s p e c t i v e (urban s o c i o l o g y and environmental c r i m i n o l o g y ) . As a c r i t i c a l t h e o r e t i c a l e xegesis, the p r i n c i p a l focus of the c r i t i q u e i s the a n a l y t i c s e p a r a t i o n of crime from the c o n t r o l of crime, which c h a r a c t e r i s e s much of the geographer's r e s e a r c h m a n i f e s t o . Geographers have tended to study e i t h e r crime or (much l e s s f r e q u e n t l y ) the j u d i c i a l system without any systematic c o n s i d e r a t i o n of the impact of the c o n t r o l system on crime p a t t e r n s . In e x p l a i n i n g crime patterns geographers have focused t h e i r analyses on the c r i m i n a l actor or, more commonly, the c r i m i n a l event. In advocating the advantages of a l t e r n a t i v e s to the i n s t r u m e n t a l i s t or p o s i t i v i s t philosophy g u i d i n g the geography of crime, the d i s c u s s i o n of i n t e r a c t i o n i s t and c r i t i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e s i s designed to show how they f a c i l i t a t e an understanding of the way that c o n t r o l processes e x e r c i s e d by p o l i c e , the c o u r t s , and by e l e c t e d o f f i c i a l s are v i t a l to the e x p l a n a t i o n of crime p a t t e r n s . The i n t r o d u c t i o n of these a l t e r n a t i v e t h e o r e t i c a l p o s i t i o n s a l s o serves to r a i s e questions about the c o r r e c t i o n a l i s t impulse of much of the geography of i i . crime, and i t s t e c h n o c r a t i c purpose. The d i s c u s s i o n of the p h i l o s o p h i c a l , t h e o r e t i c a l and p o l i t i c a l consequences of research s t r a t e g i e s which t r e a t crime and c o n t r o l as a n a l y t i c a l l y separate e n t i t i e s lays the foundation f o r a geographic p e r s p e c t i v e on crime i n i t s s o c i o - l e g a l context, for an examination of the e f f e c t s of c r i m i n a l j u s t i c e p o l i c y on the a c t u a l geography of crime; i n s h o r t , for an i n t e g r a t e d a n a l y s i s of crime and i t s c o n t r o l . The e f f e c t of the " c o n t r o l environment" i s c o n c e p t u a l i z e d at three d i f f e r e n t l e v e l s . The f i r s t concerns the i n f l u e n c e of vari o u s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s of o f f i c i a l crime s t a t i s t i c s on " s c i e n t i f i c " images of who the c r i m i n a l s a c t u a l l y are. C o n f l i c t i n g i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s are reviewed, p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t e r a c t i o n i s t and c r i t i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e s which suggest that maps of crime based on o f f i c i a l p o l i c e s t a t i s t i c s may be s e r i o u s l y d i s t o r t e d in a way that geographers have r a r e l y considered; crime maps may be "mental maps" r e f l e c t i n g the s e l e c t i v e a c t i v i t y of c o n t r o l agents as much as they represent o f f i c i a l l y s anctioned c r i m i n a l behaviour. The second e f f e c t of the c o n t r o l environment on c r i m i n a l behaviour i s examined i n terms of " e c o l o g i c a l l a b e l l i n g " , the process through which law enforcement p r a c t i c e s may ( i n part) help shape the "problem" stat u s of various c i t y neighbourhoods or s u b c u l t u r a l groups. The t h i r d l e v e l of a n a l y s i s concerns the most d i r e c t impact of c o n t r o l p r a c t i c e on the c o n f i g u r a t i o n of crime. In terms of a geographic p e r s p e c t i v e at t h i s l e v e l of a n a l y s i s the r e l a t i o n s h i p i i i . between crime and c o n t r o l i s systematized through the concept of "displacement". Displacement e f f e c t s are d e f i n e d as changes of c r i m i n a l (or r e l a t e d ) behaviour i n response to changes i n l e g i s l a t i o n , case law, law enforcement p o l i c i e s , or crime p r e v e n t i o n programs. In t h i s s e c t i o n the emphasis changes from an a n a l y s i s of who the c r i m i n a l s are, to an a n a l y s i s of what c e r t a i n o f f e n d e r s do ( p a r t i c u l a r l y i n terms of t h e i r adaptive s p a t i a l b e h a v i o u r ) . A review of research demonstrating the wide-ranging occurrence of displacement phenomena i s presented to supplement two e m p i r i c a l v i g n e t t e s of crime i n Vancouver (one on s t r e e t p r o s t i t u t i o n p a t t e r n s , the other on pat t e r n s of b u r g l a r y ) which demonstrate the s p a t i a l adjustments of of f e n d e r s to changes in the " c o n t r o l environment". The d i s s e r t a t i o n concludes by d e s c r i b i n g the i m p l i c a t i o n s of an i n t e g r a t e d a n a l y s i s of crime and c o n t r o l for a p h i l o s o p h i c a l , e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l and methodological r e o r i e n t a t i o n of the geography of crime. i v. TABLE OF CONTENTS A b s t r a c t i i L i s t of Tables ix L i s t of F i g u r e s x Acknowledgements x i Chapter 1 A Preamble on Geography, Crime and S o c i a l C o n t r o l 1 Towards a R e c o n s t r u c t i o n of the Geography of Crime 2 O u t l i n e of the D i s s e r t a t i o n 10 Chapter 2 The S o c i o l o g y of Deviance and the C r i t i q u e of T r a d i t i o n a l C r i m i n o l o g y 18 Preamble 18 The Emergence of the S o c i o l o g y of Deviance 23 The S o c i o l o g y of Deviance as Verstehen 26 The Verstehen E r k l a r e n Controversy 27 Verstehen P e r s p e c t i v e s and the C r i t i q u e of T r a d i t i o n a l S o c i o l o g y and C r i m i n o l o g y 30 P e r s p e c t i v e s W i t h i n Verstehen C r i m i n o l o g y 35 Symbolic I n t e r a c t i oni sm 37 S o c i a l Phenomenology 39 Ethnome thodol ogy 42 I n t e g r a t i v e Elements of the Verstehen Perspect i ves 44 The Substance of the S o c i o l o g y of Deviance 45 Chapter 3 P o w e r - C o n f l i c t and R a d i c a l Theory 51 Reactions to Verstehen C r i m i n o l o g y : Problems of S o c i a l S t r u c t u r e , Ideology and the P o l i t i c s of Theory 51 The Emergence of P o w e r - C o n f l i c t and R a d i c a l Perspect i ves 58 v. G e n e r a l T e n e t s o f P o w e r - C o n f l i c t and R a d i c a l P e r s p e c t i v e s 62 T h e S t r u c t u r e A c t i o n P r o b l e m : A T h e o r e t i c a l F r o n t i e r 68 C h a p t e r 4 T h e G e o g r a p h y o f C r i m e : A C r i t i q u e 82 E l e m e n t s o f t h e C r i t i q u e 82 1. T h e A n a l y t i c S e p a r a t i o n o f C r i m e a n d J u s t i c e 85 2 . T h e C o n s e n s u s M o d e l o f L a w and S o c i e t y . . . 9 1 3 . The C o r r e c t i o n a n d P r e v e n t i o n o f C r i m e : Some Comments on V a l u e - J u d g e m e n t s a n d T h e i r T h e o r e t i c a l I m p l i c a t i o n s 97 4 . T h e H y p o s t a t i z a t i on o f C r i m e 102 5 . T h e P h i l o s o p h i c B a s e s o f t h e G e o g r a p h y o f C r i m e : T h e D e f i c i e n c i e s o f I ns t r u m e n t a l i sm a n d P o s i t i v i s m 105 I n s t r u m e n t a l a n d P o s i t i v e I n f l u e n c e s on t h e G e o g r a p h y o f C r i m e I l l " T h e G e o g r a p h y o f C r i m e a n d V i o l e n c e " ; A n U n w a r r a n t e d T h e o r e t i c a l F o r e c l o s u r e 118 C h a p t e r 5 C r i m i n o l o g i c a l P e r s p e c t i v e s i n A c t i o n : I n t e r p r e t i n g O f f i c i a l S t a t i s t i c s 125 G e o g r a p h y and T r a d i t i o n a l C r i m i n o l o g y -P r i m a F a c i e I n t e r p r e t a t i o n s 127 A l t e r n a t i v e P e r s p e c t i v e s 128 T h e N a t u r e o f t h e C h a l l e n g e t o I n s t r u m e n t a l i s t I n t e r p r e t a t i o n s : " D i s c r e t i o n a r y B i a s " a n d t h e " I n s t i t u t i o n a l i s t " P e r s p e c t i v e 139 T h e E t h n o m e t h o d o l o g i c a l C r i t i q u e 142 L i m i t a t i o n s o f t h e E t h n o m e t h o d o l o g i c a l C r i t i q u e 147 F u r t h e r E l e m e n t s o f t h e I n s t i t u t i o n a l i s t C r i t i q u e : M e t h o d i c a l a n d I n c i d e n t a l S u s p i c i o n 150 C o n t r o l o g y : F r o m C r i m e R a t e s t o C o n t r o l R a t e s 151 v i . P r o a c t i v e and R e a c t i v e Policework: Problems with the G e n e r a l i z a t i o n of D i s c r e t i o n a r y Bias...161 Conceptual Problems with the P r o a c t i v e / R e a c t i v e Dichotomy 173 C r i t i c a l Theory and the I n t e r p r e t a t i o n of O f f i c i a l S t a t i s t i c s : A Return to the Problem of S t r u c t u r e and Ideology 178 O f f i c i a l S t a t i s t i c s and the Geography of Crime 181 Chapter 6 S o c i a l C o n t r o l and the S t r u c t u r e of S o c i a l L i f e : Crime C o n t r o l as a Context for Behav i our 187 P o l i c e P r a c t i c e s and Informal Influences on Crime Rates: P o l i c i n g as a Context for S o c i a l A c t i o n and the Problem of Crime A m p l i f i c a t i o n . . . 1 9 0 P o l i c e P a t r o l and Crime Rate P a t t e r n s 211 1. I nt r a j ur i sd i ct i onal E f f e c t s 211 2. I n t e r j u r i s d i c t i o n a l E f f e c t s -P o l i c i n g and Crime " S p i l l o v e r " 219 Chapter 7 Crime P r e v e n t i o n , Crime C o n t r o l and Displacement Phenomena: Towards An Int e g r a t e d Geography of Crime and J u s t i c e 224 The Displacement Concept 224 Temporal Displacement: An Example 232 T y p o l o g i c a l Displacement: Two Examples 233 Geographical Displacement: Three Cameos 236 A. Environmental Design as S o c i a l E n g i n e e r i n g : A Nineteenth Century A l legory? 238 B. S o c i a l C o n t r o l and M i g r a t i o n : The S p a t i a l E f f e c t of Poor Law P o l i c y i n Nineteenth Century England 241 C. V i c e Crusades and the D i s p e r s a l of Segregrated Areas 248 Chapter 8 P r o a c t i v e Law Enforcement and Displacement: The Problem of S t r e e t P r o s t i t u t i o n in Vancouver 1975 - 1979 256 v i i . A Changing Legal M i l i e u 256 P r o s t i t u t i o n S t a t u t e s - Ideology as Law 259 P o l i c e C u l t u r e , the P o l i t i c s of P o l i c e A d m i n i s t r a t i o n and the T r a n s l a t i o n of Law in the Books to Law i n the S t r e e t s 264 S t r e e t P r o s t i t u t i o n i n Vancouver: A Narrative...270 Chapter 9 Target Hardening and the Problem of Displacement Phenomena 289 "Neighbourhood Watch" in B r i t i s h Columbia 294 "Neighbourhood Watch": The R a t i o n a l e . . . 297 The Burnaby E x p e r i e n c e : Evidence for the D e t e r r e n t E f f e c t of Small S c a l e Programs 300 E f f e c t s of the General M u n i c i p a l Programs 303 Evidence f o r Displacement 312 (1) Burnaby: Evidence for Target Di s p l acement 312 (2) The West End Program in Vancouver: Evidence for A r e a l Displacement 316 I m p l i c a t i o n s of the A n a l y s i s 329 Chapter 10 C o n c l u s i o n : Towards an I n t e g r a t e d Geography of Crime and C o n t r o l 334 vi i i . LIST OF TABLES Table 1 P o t e n t i a l Displacement E f f e c t s A s s o c i a t e d with "Mechanical" S t r a t e g i e s 229 Table 1A P o t e n t i a l Displacement E f f e c t s A s s o c i a t e d with " S o c i a l E n g i n e e r i n g " S t r a t e g i e s 230 Table 2 Percentage of B u r g l a r i e s C l e a r e d in Vancouver and Burnaby P o l i c e J u r i s d i c t i o n s 310 Table 3 B u r g l a r y Rates in the West End of Vancouver: West End North and West End South ( P r o j e c t Area) 321 Tabl e 3A B u r g l a r y Rates i n the West End of Vancouver: West End West and West End East 322 i x. LIST OF FIGURES F i g u r e 1 Temporal Displacement of J u v e n i l e Offences 233 F i g u r e 2 Areas of S t r e e t P r o s t i t u t i o n i n Vancouver 277 F i g u r e 3 S o l i c i t i n g Charges i n Vancouver 1974 - 1978 283 F i g u r e 4 Burnaby R e s i d e n t i a l B reaking and E n t e r i n g s 1974 - 1981 305 F i g u r e 5 Vancouver R e s i d e n t i a l B reaking and E n t e r i n g s 1974 - 1981 308 F i g u r e 6 Vancouver West End Neighbourhood Watch P r o j e c t Area and Displacement Study Areas 319 F i g u r e 7 R e s i d e n t i a l Breaking and E n t e r i n g in Vancouver's West End: A Comparison of Rates in the Neighbourhood Watch P r o j e c t Area and West End North 325 x. A e k n o w l e d g e m e n t s My g r a t i t u d e i s e x t e n d e d t o t h e f o l l o w i n g p e r s o n s a n d i n s t i t u t i o n s f o r t h e p a r t t h e y p l a y e d i n t h e p r e p a r a t i o n o f t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n : t o D a v i d L e y , J i m D u n c a n , P a t B r a n t i n g h a m , B o b R a t n e r , J o h n H o g a r t h a n d A r t h u r F a l l i c k f o r t h e i r comments on v a r i o u s d r a f t s o f t h e m a n u s c r i p t ; t o t h e B u r n a b y a n d V a n c o u v e r P o l i c e D e p a r t m e n t s f o r p r o v i d i n g t h e c r i m e s t a t i s t i c s u t i l i z e d i n C h a p t e r s 8 and 9 ; t o A . H u n t a n d K . W e i n e r f o r p e r m i s s i o n t o r e p r o d u c e d i a g r a m s f r o m t h e i r a r t i c l e a p p e a r i n g i n t h e J o u r n a l o f P o l i c e S c i e n c e a n d A d m i n i s t r a t i o n ( 5 : 4 : 4 0 7 - 4 1 2 ) ; t o t h e C a n a d a C o u n c i l , t h e H u m a n i t i e s a n d S o c i a l S c i e n c e R e s e a r c h C o u n c i l , and t h e K i l l a m F o u n d a t i o n f o r t h e g r a d u a t e s c h o l a r s h i p f u n d i n g t h e y p r o v i d e d ; t o K a y C o o p e r f o r h e r d i l i g e n t t y p i n g s e r v i c e s ; t o P a u l J a n c e ( U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a D e p a r t m e n t o f G e o g r a p h y ) a n d t h e s t a f f o f t h e S i m o n F r a s e r U n i v e r s i t y G r a p h i c S e r v i c e s f o r t h e i r s k i l l e d p r e p a r a t i o n o f t h e v a r i o u s d i a g r a m s a p p e a r i n g i n t h e t e x t ; a n d t o L a u r a F r a s e r f o r h e r g e n e r a l s u p p o r t a n d p a t i e n c e . x i Chapter 1 A PREAMBLE ON GEOGRAPHY, CRIME AND SOCIAL CONTROL In very general terms there have been four major phases in the development of spa t ia l perspectives on crime; the nineteenth century cartographic school , the Chicago s o c i a l -eco log ica l school of the 1920's and 30's, the factor ana ly t i c school of the 1950's and 60's and, most recent ly , the development of environmental criminology and the geography of crime. Between each of the f i r s t three of these phases there was a waning of interest in spa t ia l perspect ives , p a r t i c u l a r l y fol lowing the gradual demise of soc ia l eco log ica l theory after 1930 (as a resul t of the work of such c r i t i c s as Robison, 1937 and A l i h a n , 1938). The development of factor ana ly t i c methods in the 1950's and 60's marked a resurgence of interest in spa t ia l perspect ives . And despite the devastating c r i t i q u e of Gordon (1967; see also Baldwin, 1979) some of the concepts of f a c t o r i a l ecology have been carr i ed over to the most recent phase of interest in spa t ia l perspect ives , one in which geographers, for the f i r s t time, have become involved with the study of crime. The study of crime has emerged as a d i s t i n c t , a lbe i t embryonic, subdi sc ip i ine of geography, and environmental approaches have been character ized as representing a d i s t i n c t perspective within criminology (Brantingham and Brantingham, 1981A). By v ir tue of their mutual in teres t s , the geography of crime and environmental criminology have tended to merge, and 1. geographers have become d i r e c t l y i n v o l v e d with mainstream cr iminology. The argument to be developed i n t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n i s that the convergence of geography and c r i m i n o l o g y has been rather too s e l e c t i v e on the part of geographers i n t h e i r i d e n t i f i c a t i o n and use of companion p e r s p e c t i v e s and t h e o r i e s because i t appears to have been guided by s p e c i f i c world views, e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l persuasions and o n t o l o g i c a l b e l i e f s . T h i s tendency has been p a r t l y r e i n f o r c e d by environmental c r i m i n o l o g i s t s (and other r e s e a r c h e r s from r e l a t e d d i s c i p l i n e s ) who ap p a r e n t l y share many of the same background assumptions and worldviews as a number of geographers i n t e r e s t e d in crime. It should be noted that t h i s convergence i s by no means complete, and the suggestion, at t h i s stage, that the geography of crime i s a coherent and u n i f i e d p e r s p e c t i v e would be hyperbole. But some dominant themes have been e s t a b l i s h e d and a number of e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l and o n t o l o g i c a l g u i d e l i n e s l a i d down, e i t h e r e x p l i c i t l y or i m p l i c i t l y . Towards a r e c o n s t r u c t i o n of the geography of crime The purpose of t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n i s to d e s c r i b e and ch a l l e n g e some of the b a s i c premises, i m p l i c i t o n t o l o g i c a l and e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l b e l i e f s and, by ext e n s i o n , the p o l i t i c a l values which form the core of the contemporary geography of crime. A l t e r n a t i v e p h i l o s o p h i c a l p o s i t i o n s are cons i d e r e d , and a conceptual framework developed to help r e o r i e n t the geography 2. o f c r i m e t o w a r d s a s t u d y o f s o c i a l c o n t r o l ( p a r t i c u l a r l y c r i m e c o n t r o l ) p r o c e s s e s as w e l l as t h e c r i m i n a l a c t o r o r t h e c r i m i n a l e v e n t . F o r t h e m o s t p a r t t h e d i s c u s s i o n c o n c e n t r a t e s on t h e r e s e a r c h o f members o f t h e g e o g r a p h i c d i s c i p l i n e . B u t b e c a u s e t h i s d i s t i n c t i o n i s a r b i t r a r y i n c e r t a i n c a s e s - a c a d e m i c d i s c i p l i n e s may t h e m s e l v e s be u n w a r r a n t e d a b s t r a c t i o n s o r r e i f i c a t i o n s o f a k i n d - t h e d i s c u s s i o n n e c e s s a r i l y g o e s b e y o n d t h e c o n f i n e s o f g e o g r a p h y t o c o n s i d e r r e l a t e d s u b - d i s c i p l i n a r y a r e a s w h i c h i m p o r t a n t l y i n f o r m , a n d a r e i n f o r m e d by t h e g e o g r a p h y o f c r i m e . A s a c r i t i c a l t h e o r e t i c a l e x e g e s i s , t h e p r i n c i p a l f o c u s o f t h e c r i t i q u e i s t h e a n a l y t i c s e p a r a t i o n o f c r i m e a n d t h e c o n t r o l o f c r i m e - o r m o r e p r o p e r l y t h e a n a l y t i c s e p a r a t i o n o f c r i m e a n d s o c i a l c o n t r o l 1 - t h a t has g u i d e d t h e g e o g r a p h i c r e s e a r c h m a n i f e s t o . G e o g r a p h e r s h a v e t e n d e d t o s t u d y e i t h e r c r i m e o r (much l e s s f r e q u e n t l y ) t h e j u d i c i a l s y s t e m w i t h o u t a n y s y s t ema t i c c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f t h e i m p a c t o f l e g a l a n d o t h e r s o c i a l c o n t r o l m e a s u r e s on c r i m e p a t t e r n s . T h i s d o e s n o t mean t o s a y t h a t g e o g r a p h e r s h a v e c o m p l e t e l y i g n o r e d t h e c r i m e c o n t r o l s y s t e m as an i m p o r t a n t e x p l a n a t o r y v a r i a b l e , and a f ew e x a m p l e s m e n t i o n e d i n t h e g e o g r a p h i c l i t e r a t u r e a r e d i s c u s s e d a t v a r i o u s p o i n t s i n t h e t e x t . M o r e i m p o r t a n t l y a number o f g e o g r a p h e r s h a v e r e c e n t l y p o i n t e d t o t h e n e e d f o r a u n i f i e d g e o g r a p h y o f c r i m e a n d c o n t r o l . K e i t h H a r r i e s , f o r e x a m p l e , i n C r i m e a n d t h e E n v i r o n m e n t a c k n o w l e d g e s t h a t t h e e f f e c t s o f w h a t he c a l l s t h e 3. "criminal jus t i ce environment" in the genesis of crime patterns "should not be e n t i r e l y overlooked" (pp. 63-64, 116). Nevertheless , such considerations remain almost e n t i r e l y beyond the scope of his d i scuss ion . In one of the few geographic studies i l l u s t r a t i n g the way that law enforcement can structure crime patterns (Shumsky and Springer , 1981), the evidence was introduced in order to show how a study of control as opposed to the cr iminal has "s ign i f i cant implicat ions for the geographic study of the whole f i e l d of crime, deviance, and delinquency" (p. 88). But this insight has been large ly neglected. David Herbert also represents a s i gn i f i can t exception to the geographical mainstream by suggesting that the soc ia l processes underlying crime patterns are of key explanatory s i gn i f i cance , but goes on to lament that while the p o s s i b i l i t y of research into the "antecedents" of crime patterns has been i d e n t i f i e d , their importance remains large ly untested in the geographic l i t e r a t u r e 2 (1977, pp. 216-219; 1979, pp. 118-119; 1982, pp. 21-29). Although the themes of spat ia l ecology and the loca l environment f a l l most c l e a r l y into the domain of a geographical approach, Herbert suggests that i t is increas ingly evident that these cannot form the exclusive terms of reference for the geographer; as with other types of urban problem, the pattern of crime i t s e l f is merely the spa t ia l outcome of a complex of soc ia l processes (1979, pp. 118-119; 1982, pp. 26-29). Thus he contends "For crime studies , the soc io - l ega l system is an 'antecedent' in i t s role as the c r i t i c a l 4. s t r u c t u r a l e l e m e n t f r o m w h i c h d e f i n i t i o n s o f c r i m i n a l b e h a v i o u r , s a n c t i o n s on s u c h d e v i a n c e a n d s t a t i s t i c a l r e c o r d s o f c r i m e a n d d e l i n q u e n c y p r o c e e d . N e a r e r t h e g r o u n d , p o l i c e a c t i v i t i e s a t t h e p o i n t o f c o n t a c t w i t h l a w b r e a k e r s s t r o n g l y i n f l u e n c e a n y p a t t e r n o f u r b a n c r i m e w h i c h may e m e r g e . " ( 1 9 7 9 , p . 1 1 8 ) H e r b e r t a l s o m o v e s b e y o n d a c r i m i n a l j u s t i c e s y s t e m p e r s p e c t i v e b y s u g g e s t i n g t h a t i n o r d e r t o u n d e r s t a n d c r i m e p a t t e r n s r e s e a r c h e r s m u s t c o n s i d e r a v a r i e t y o f s o c i e t a l a l l o c a t i o n p r o c e s s e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y t h o s e w h i c h g i v e r i s e t o p e r s i s t e n t s o c i e t a l i n e q u a l i t i e s . T h u s f o r H e r b e r t , t h e m a i n v a l u e i n P e e t ' s p o s i t i o n ( 1 9 7 5 , 1 9 7 6 ) i n h i s d e b a t e w i t h H a r r i e s ( 1 9 7 5 , 1 9 7 6 ) o v e r t h e r e l a t i v e m e r i t s o f l i b e r a l and r a d i c a l p o s i t i o n s i n t h e s t u d y o f c r i m e has b e e n t o r e m i n d g e o g r a p h e r s o f t h e b r o a d e r c a n v a s a g a i n s t w h i c h w h i c h a n y p a t t e r n s o f c r i m e n e e d t o be v i e w e d ( 1 9 7 9 , p . 1 1 8 , 1 9 8 2 , p . 2 7 ) . I n h i s m o s t r e c e n t w o r k , T h e G e o g r a p h y o f U r b a n C r i m e ( 1 9 8 2 ) , H e r b e r t p r o v i d e s a m o r e d e t a i l e d d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h i s b r o a d e r c a n v a s b y d e l i n e a t i n g t h e o r e t i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t s i n c r i m i n o l o g y w h i c h h a v e t h u s f a r r e c e i v e d s c a n t a t t e n t i o n f r o m g e o g r a p h e r s ( p p . 2 1 - 2 5 ) . F o r t h e m o s t p a r t g e o g r a p h e r s h a v e l o o k e d t o " t r a d i t i o n a l " c r i m i n o l o g i c a l t h e o r i e s i n d e v e l o p i n g s p a t i a l p e r s p e c t i v e s o f c r i m e u t i l i z i n g c o n c e p t s s p a w n e d i n t h e d a y s o f t h e C h i c a g o s o c i a l e c o l o g i s t s ( p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e c o n c e p t o f s o c i a l d i s o r g a n i z a t i o n ) o r w h a t a r e e s s e n t i a l l y d e v e l o p m e n t s o f t h i s e a r l y p e r s p e c t i v e - c u l t u r a l t r a n s m i s s i o n , d i f f e r e n t i a l a s s o c i a t i o n a n d t h e f o r m a t i o n o f s u b c u l t u r e s . B u t i n so d o i n g t h e y h a v e l a r g e l y i g n o r e d i m p o r t a n t d e v e l o p m e n t s i n c r i m i n o l o g y , p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f w h a t H e r b e r t t e r m s 5 . " t h e s o c i o l o g y o f d e v i a n c e " , t h a t i s , t h e o r i e s f o c u s i n g " o n s o c i a l c o n t r o l s a n d d e f i n i t i o n s , a n d on c r i m i n a l l a w a n d t h e j u d i c i a l s y s t e m , r a t h e r t h a n on o f f e n d e r s " ( 1 9 8 2 , p . 2 4 ) . W h i l e t h e m o r e r a d i c a l b r a n c h o f d e v i a n c e t h e o r y may be s a i d t o f i n d i t s c o u n t e r p a r t i n g e o g r a p h y ( e . g . H a r v e y , 1 9 7 3 ; S a n t o s , 1 9 7 5 , 1 9 7 8 ; P e e t , 1 9 7 8 ) , o n l y P e e t ( 1 9 7 5 , 1 9 7 6 ) has s u g g e s t e d s u c h a p e r s p e c t i v e f o r t h e g e o g r a p h y o f c r i m e . A n d s i m i l a r l y w h i l e i n t e r a c t i o n i s t a n d p h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e s h a v e f l o u r i s h e d i n s o c i a l g e o g r a p h y ( e . g . R e l p h , 1 9 7 0 , 1 9 7 7 ; T u a n , 1 9 7 1 , 1 9 7 5 , 1 9 7 6 ; B u t t i m e r , 1 9 7 4 , 1 9 7 5 ; L e y , 1 9 7 4 , 1 9 7 7 , 1 9 7 8 , 1 9 8 0 ) , t h e y r e m a i n u n d e v e l o p e d i n t h e g e o g r a p h y o f c r i m e ( w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f L e y , 1 9 7 5 ) . H e r b e r t l a m e n t s t h a t w h i l e r a d i c a l g e o g r a p h y b r o u g h t a c l e a r a w a r e n e s s o f t h e n e e d t o i n v e s t i g a t e l e v e l s o f a n a l y s i s o t h e r t h a n t h e l o c a l e n v i r o n m e n t ( t h e g e o g r a p h e r ' s c o n v e n t i o n a l c o n c e r n ) m o s t human g e o g r a p h y c o n t i n u e s t o f o c u s on p a t t e r n s , p r o c e s s e s a n d r e s p o n s e s w i t h i n t h i s i m m e d i a t e e n v i r o n m e n t . S i m i l a r l y he a r g u e s , " . . . m o s t a v a i l a b l e g e o g r a p h i e s o f c r i m e . . . a r e f i r m l y c a s t i n t h i s m o u l d . " ( 1 9 8 2 , p . 2 6 ) . H e r b e r t ' s p u r p o s e , h o w e v e r , i n h i s G e o g r a p h y o f U r b a n C r i m e i s p r i m a r i l y t o r e v i e w t h e e x i s t i n g g e o g r a p h i c l i t e r a t u r e a n d r e l a t e d s p a t i a l s t u d i e s o f c r i m e . H i s m a i n c o n c e r n i s t h u s a l s o r e s t r i c t e d t o p a t t e r n s , p r o c e s s e s a n d r e s p o n s e s a t t h e l e v e l o f t h e l o c a l e n v i r o n m e n t . B u t n o t b e i n g s a t i s f i e d w i t h t h i s f o c u s he d o e s a t t e m p t t o o u t l i n e a r e s e a r c h s t r a t e g y " w h i c h b o t h s e t s d i f f e r e n t a p p r o a c h e s i n t h e i r r e l a t i v e p o s i t i o n w i t h i n t h e o v e r a l l f r a m e w o r k a n d s e t s some c o n t e x t f o r 6 . the c r u c i a l task of integrat ing various ' sca les ' of analysis" (1982, p. 26). In very general terms, Herbert posits a three-leve l model of the geography of crime: level 1 (Production) SOCIAL FORMATION ideology, values, t r a d i t i o n s , power and resources leve l 2 (D i s t r ibut ion) Resource A l l o c a t i o n : urban managers, d i f f e r e n t i a l access, i nequali t i es. ALLOCATIVE PROCESSES Soc io - l ega l processes: p o l i c e , j u d i c i a r y , soc ia l serv ices , l a b e l l i n g , enforcement, sanct i ons. leve l 3 (Consumption) SPACE Patterns Processes Responses (crime areas) ( spat ia l behaviour) ( sub-cultures , meaning of place) Herbert notes that " . . . a s the geography of crime has developed (Harr ies , 1974, 1980; Pyle et a l . , 1974) i t has been contexted almost exc lus ive ly in the t h i r d level of a n a l y s i s . . . Levels 1 and 2 possess no empirical research record of note but i t is essent ia l at this stage to assess their place in a research strategy for c r i m e . . . " (1982, p. 16). Herbert has thus set the stage for substant ia l sh i f t s of emphasis in the geography of crime. But his contr ibut ion in 7. this respect remains at the programmatic level - i f he is correct about the importance of such s h i f t s , theoret ica l and empirical developments in these d irec t ions remain as important challenges s t i l l to be confronted. The purpose of this d i s s e r t a t i o n is to i n i t i a t e just such an engagement. With reference to Herbert ' s conceptual framework for a geography of crime this study represents an attempt, both t h e o r e t i c a l l y and e m p i r i c a l l y , to penetrate the "production" and "d i s t r ibut ion" scales of analys is ( leve ls 1 and 2 ) ; to out l ine the kind of analys is necessary for understanding how soc ia l formations and cr iminal jus t i ce a l l o c a t i v e processes are essent ia l for a more complete understanding of crime patterns . A word of caution is necessary at this juncture. Herbert ' s conceptual framework is a useful h e u r i s t i c for locat ing the type of ana ly t i c apparatus u t i l i z e d in the geography of crime, p a r t i c u l a r l y in terms of the level at which explanatory systems are constructed, and i t is in this h e u r i s t i c sense that I sha l l refer to i t . But a shortcoming is i t s impl icat ion that geographic approaches to crime have been remiss only in terms of the 1evel at which they operate. This is only part of the argument I wish to develop. More importantly, the ana ly t i c problems Herbert raises concern fundamental phi losophica l issues; geographers must respond to and accommodate the general c r i t i q u e developed in criminology and sociology during the past twenty years of the t r a d i t i o n a l crime perspective in these d i s c i p l i n e s , for i t is within this t r a d i t i o n a l perspective that the geography of crime is f irmly 8. l o c a t e d . A c c o m m o d a t i o n o f t h i s c r i t i q u e , w h i c h H e r b e r t s u g g e s t s has many t e l l i n g q u a l i t i e s ( 1 9 8 2 , p . 2 8 ) , w i l l n o t s i m p l y o c c u r b y i n c o r p o r a t i n g d i f f e r e n t l e v e l s o f a n a l y s i s b e c a u s e t h e l e v e l s a r e n o t m u t u a l l y e x c l u s i v e . I n o t h e r w o r d s a l l t h e s e l e v e l s o f a n a l y s i s w i l l n e e d t o be t a k e n i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n i r r e s p e c t i v e o f t h e s e a l e o f a n a l y s i s . What t h i s means i s t h a t c o n s i d e r a t i o n s o f t h e s o c i a l f o r m a t i o n a n d s o c i a l a l l o c a t i v e p r o c e s s e s c a n n o t s i m p l y be t a c k e d o n t o t h e t h i r d l e v e l o f a n a l y s i s w h e r e t h e g e o g r a p h y o f c r i m e has b e e n g e n e r a l l y l o c a t e d . R a t h e r , c o n s i d e r a t i o n s o f " p r o d u c t i o n " a n d " d i s t r i b u t i o n " s h o u l d p e r m e a t e t h e s p a t i a l a n a l y s i s c o n d u c t e d a t l e v e l 3 . C o n s e q u e n t l y , H e r b e r t n o t e s t h a t t h e m o d e l o n l y " o f f e r s . . . a f r a m e w o r k w i t h i n w h i c h t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s among d i f f e r e n t s c a l e s o r l e v e l s o f a n a l y s i s c a n be r e c o g n i z e d . What no d i a g r a m c a n do i s t o show w a y s i n w h i c h d i f f e r e n t t h e o r e t i c a l p o s i t i o n s c a n be r e c o n c i l e d o r i n t e g r a t e d " ( 1 9 8 2 , p . 2 5 ) . N o r i n d e e d , one m i g h t a d d , c a n i t show i f s u c h an i n t e g r a t i o n i s a t t a i n a b l e . I f t h e r e c o r d i n c r i m i n o l o g y i s a n y t h i n g t o go by - w h e r e a l t e r n a t i v e p o s i t i o n s c o e x i s t w i t h v e r y l i t t l e b u t p o l e m i c a l i n t e r a c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e m - t h e r e i s n o t l i k e l y t o be an e a s y s y n t h e s i s o f t h e o l d and new p e r s p e c t i v e s w i t h i n g e o g r a p h y . A s y e t , t h e new p e r s p e c t i v e s H e r b e r t i s r e f e r r i n g t o h a v e h a r d l y b e e n c o n s i d e r e d i n t h e g e o g r a p h y o f c r i m e , a n d i t i s t o t h i s t a s k t h a t t h e p r e s e n t s t u d y i s d i r e c t e d . 9 . O u t l i n e o f t h e D i s s e r t a t i o n T h e d i s s e r t a t i o n b e g i n s w i t h w h a t H e r b e r t c a l l s t h e s o c i o l o g y o f d e v i a n c e l i t e r a t u r e a n d t h e c r i t i q u e o f t r a d i t i o n a l c r i m i n o l o g y ( C h a p t e r s 2 a n d 3) t o s e t a f o u n d a t i o n f o r a c r i t i q u e o f t h e g e o g r a p h y o f c r i m e a n d d e v i a n c e ( C h a p t e r 4 ) . A t t h i s p o i n t i t s h o u l d be n o t e d t h a t H e r b e r t i n h i s u s e o f t h e t e r m " s o c i o l o g y o f d e v i a n c e " i n c l u d e s " r a d i c a l " o r c r i t i c a l c r i m i n o l o g y , w h e r e a s i n t h e c r i m i n o l o g i c a l l i t e r a t u r e t h e t e r m r e f e r s e x p l i c i t l y t o w h a t I s h a l l s u b s e q u e n t l y t e r m " v e r s t e h e n " p e r s p e c t i v e s - p h e n o m e n o l o g y , s y m b o l i c i n t e r a c t i o n i s m , t h e l a b e l l i n g p e r s p e c t i v e a n d e t h n o m e t h o d o l o g y . C h a p t e r 2 t h u s c o n s i d e r s v e r s t e h e n p e r s p e c t i v e s a n d t h e c r i t i q u e o f t r a d i t i o n a l c r i m i n o l o g y on w h i c h t h e y a r e f o u n d e d . My s u b s e q u e n t u s e o f t h e t e r m " s o c i o l o g y o f d e v i a n c e " i s r e s t r i c t e d t o t h e v e r s t e h e n p e r s p e c t i v e s as c o n t r a s t e d t o r a d i c a l c r i m i n o l o g y . C h a p t e r 3 d e s c r i b e s r a d i c a l c r i m i n o l o g y a n d i t s t h e o r e t i c a l a n d p o l i t i c a l b r e a k w i t h t h e s o c i o l o g y o f d e v i a n c e . T h e c r i t i q u e o f t h e g e o g r a p h y o f c r i m e d e v e l o p s a s p e c t s o f t h e c r i t i q u e o f t r a d i t i o n a l o r " p o s i t i v i s t " c r i m i n o l o g y r e g i s t e r e d by p r o p o n e n t s o f v e r s t e h e n a n d r a d i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e s . T h e d i s c u s s i o n e x a m i n e s t h e t h e o r e t i c a l and p h i l o s o p h i c a l c o n s e q u e n c e s o f r e s e a r c h s t r a t e g i e s w h i c h t r e a t c r i m e a n d c r i m e c o n t r o l as a n a l y t i c a l l y s e p a r a t e e n t i t i e s . T h e i m p l i c i t p h i l o s o p h y o f s o c i a l s c i e n c e g u i d i n g many g e o g r a p h i c s t u d i e s o f c r i m e i s r e c o n s t r u c t e d by u n e a r t h i n g t h e i r 10. e p i s t e m o l o g y and m e t h o d s . T h e t e r m " r e c o n s t r u c t e d " i s u s e d a d v i s e d l y h e r e b e c a u s e g e o g r a p h e r s i n t e r e s t e d i n c r i m e h a v e g e n e r a l l y p a i d v e r y l i t t l e a t t e n t i o n t o t h e p h i l o s o p h i c a l q u e s t i o n s c a u s i n g d e e p i n s t i t u t i o n a l r i f t s i n c r i m i n o l o g y a n d e l s e w h e r e i n g e o g r a p h y . E v e n P e e t ' s p o s i t i o n ( 1 9 7 5 , 1 9 7 6 ) i n h i s d e b a t e w i t h H a r r i e s ( 1 9 7 5 , 1 9 7 6 ) r e m a i n s a t a p r o g r a m m a t i c l e v e l , a p r o g r a m , i t i s w o r t h n o t i n g , t h a t has l e d t o v e r y l i t t l e a c t i o n . T h e c r i t i q u e d e v e l o p e d i n C h a p t e r 4 a r g u e s t h a t f o r t h e m o s t p a r t t h e g e o g r a p h y o f c r i m e ha s f o l l o w e d a p o s i t i v i s t o r i n s t r u m e n t a l i s t p h i l o s o p h y o f s o c i a l s c i e n c e and a " c o r r e c t i o n a l i s t " p o l i t i c ( c o r r e c t i o n a l i s t i n t h e s e n s e t h a t " s c i e n t i f i c " r e s e a r c h i s g e a r e d t o p r o d u c i n g k n o w l e d g e w h i c h a i d s e i t h e r t h e " c o r r e c t i o n " o f c r i m i n a l s o r t h e " f i g h t " a g a i n s t c r i m e ) . T h e t h e o r e t i c a l c o n s e q u e n c e s o f t h e s e u n d e r l y i n g p o l i t i c a l and p h i l o s o p h i c a l t e n d e n c i e s w i l l be e x a m i n e d by c o n t r a s t i n g t hem t o a r g u m e n t s f r o m t h e s o c i o l o g y o f d e v i a n c e a n d r a d i c a l t h e o r y w h i c h a s s i g n c e n t r a l i m p o r t a n c e t o s y m b o l i c i n t e r a c t i o n a n d t h e s o c i a l c o n t r o l p r o c e s s i n u n d e r s t a n d i n g c r i m e . T h e p u r p o s e o f t h e r e m a i n d e r o f t h e d i s s e r t a t i o n i s t o e x a m i n e t h e e f f e c t s o f s o c i a l c o n t r o l a n d c r i m i n a l j u s t i c e p o l i c y on t h e a c t u a l g e o g r a p h y o f c r i m e ; t h a t i s , t o d e v e l o p i n g an i n t e g r a t e d a n a l y s i s o f c r i m e a n d j u s t i c e . T h e e f f e c t o f t h e " c o n t r o l e n v i r o n m e n t " i s c o n c e p t u a l i z e d i n t h r e e d i f f e r e n t w a y s . T h e f i r s t c o n c e r n s t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f o f f i c i a l c r i m e s t a t i s t i c s on c r i m i n o l o g i c a l i m a g e s o f who 1 1 . t h e c r i m i n a l s a r e . T h e t r a d i t i o n a l t a c t i c i n t h e g e o g r a p h y o f c r i m e ha s b e e n t o t a k e a p r i m a f a c i e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f c r i m e s t a t i s t i c s . A l t e r n a t i v e a r g u m e n t s d e v e l o p e d i n t h e s o c i o l o g y o f d e v i a n c e , h o w e v e r , c a n be i n t e r p r e t e d as s u g g e s t i n g t h a t c r i m e s t a t i s t i c s a r e s y s t e m a t i c a l l y s p a t i a l l y s k e w e d - t h a t t h e y do n o t r e p r e s e n t r a t e s o f c r i m e , b u t r a t e s o f c o n t r o l . B r a n t i n g h a m a n d B r a n t i n g h a m a p t l y s u m m a r i z e t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h i s d e b a t e f o r e n v i r o n m e n t a l c r i m i n o l o g y , a n d , by e x t e n s i o n , f o r t h e g e o g r a p h y o f c r i m e : " T h e s t a n d a r d a t t a c k on o f f i c i a l c r i m e s t a t i s t i c s i s o f c r i t i c a l i m p o r t a n c e i n t h e s p a t i a l a n a l y s i s o f c r i m e . . . i f o f f i c i a l s t a t i s t i c s a r e s y s t e m a t i c a l l y s p a t i a l l y b i a s e d s a m p l e s o f c r i m e w i t h i n a c i t y , t h e n a l l p a t t e r n s p r o d u c e d by e n v i r o n m e n t a l c r i m i n o l o g i s t s a r e s u s p e c t , a n d i n r e a l e c o n o m i c t e r m s , no p r o s p e c t s e x i s t f o r o b t a i n i n g b e t t e r s o u r c e s o f d a t a . " ( 1 9 8 1 , p . 23) I n C h a p t e r 5 t h e v a r i o u s a r g u m e n t s c o n c e r n i n g i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f o f f i c i a l s t a t i s t i c s a r e r e v i e w e d s u g g e s t i n g t h a t t h e y s h o u l d be an o b j e c t o f s t u d y i n t h e i r own r i g h t , a n d t h a t t h e y may s e r i o u s l y d i s t o r t a c r i m e r a t e map s o t h a t i t becomes a m e n t a l map r e f l e c t i n g t h e a c t i o n s o f c o n t r o l a g e n t s as w e l l as a d e p i c t i o n o f s a n c t i o n e d c r i m i n a l b e h a v i o u r . T h e s e c o n d e f f e c t o f t h e c o n t r o l e n v i r o n m e n t on t h e g e o g r a p h y o f c r i m e i s e x a m i n e d i n t e r m s o f " e c o l o g i c a l l a b e l l i n g " ( B r a n t i n g h a m and B r a n t i n g h a m , 1 9 8 1 A ) s u g g e s t i n g w a y s t h a t l a w e n f o r c e m e n t p r a c t i c e s may i n p a r t h e l p s h a p e t h e i d e n t i t y o f v a r i o u s d i s t r i c t s a n d s u b c u l t u r a l ( a n d s o m e t i m e s c r i m i n a l ) g r o u p s . T h e a r g u m e n t i n C h a p t e r 6 d e v e l o p s o u t o f 1 2 . t h e d i s c u s s i o n o f c r i m e s t a t i s t i c s n o t i n g t h a t a c o n s i d e r a t i o n n o t o n l y o f d i s c r e t i o n a r y l a w e n f o r c e m e n t b u t a l s o o f o t h e r i n f o r m a l s e l e c t i v e p r a c t i c e s o f c o n t r o l p e r s o n n e l may be n e c e s s a r y f o r u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e way t h a t c o n t r o l p r o c e s s e s i n d i r e c t l y s h a p e c r i m e o r c r i m i n a l r e s i d e n c e p a t t e r n s . M u c h o f t h e p o l i c e m a n d a t e , f o r e x a m p l e , i s t o g e n e r a l l y k e e p o r d e r , a n d t h e y i n t e r a c t w i t h many c i t i z e n s who do n o t e v e n t u a l l y end up b e i n g f o r m a l l y d e f i n e d as c r i m i n a l . T h i s i s b e c a u s e t h e p o l i c e c a n o f t e n m a i n t a i n o r d e r w i t h o u t t h e n e e d t o r e s o r t t o c r i m i n a l l a w . B u t i n so d o i n g t h e y s e l e c t c e r t a i n p r o b l e m p o p u l a t i o n s a n d i n t h i s s e n s e c o n t r o l p r a c t i c e s may h a v e s o m e t h i n g t o do w i t h t h e g e n e s i s o f " c r i m i n a l a r e a s " o r " c r i m i n a l s u b c u l t u r e s " . I f t h i s i s t h e c a s e , s e l e c t i v e c o n t r o l p r a c t i c e s p l a y an i m p o r t a n t p a r t i n t h e g e o g r a p h y o f c r i m e . T h e d i s c u s s i o n o f e c o l o g i c a l l a b e l l i n g i s e x t e n d e d t o a c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f t h e m o r e g e n e r a l e f f e c t s o f p o l i c e i n t e r a c t i o n s w i t h c i t i z e n s w h i c h do n o t r e s u l t i n a c r i m i n a l c h a r g e - on t h e f o r m a t i o n o f " s u b c u l t u r a l g r o u p s " w h o s e p a r t i c u l a r i d e n t i t y i s p a r t l y c o n s t i t u t e d by t h e i r l a w - b r e a k i n g a c t i v i t y . T h e s e c o n d p a r t o f C h a p t e r 6 e x a m i n e s t h e m o r e g e n e r a l i m p a c t o f p o l i c e p a t r o l d i s t r i b u t i o n i n s h a p i n g c r i m e p a t t e r n s as o p p o s e d t o t h e e f f e c t o f t h e i r a c t i v i t y i n t h e c r e a t i o n o f c r i m e ( a l t h o u g h i t s h o u l d be r e c o g n i s e d t h a t t h e s e two i s s u e s a r e n e c e s s a r i l y r e l a t e d ) . T h e l i t e r a t u r e on t h e e f f e c t o f b o t h i n t e r - a n d i n t r a - j u r i s d i c t i o n a l d i f f e r e n c e s o f l e v e l s o f p o l i c i n g on c r i m e r a t e s i s r e v i e w e d . T h e r e v i e w r a i s e s t h e 13. p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t p a t r o l p a t t e r n s may t e n d t o d i s p l a c e c r i m i n a l a c t i v i t y , a l t h o u g h t h e f i n d i n g s o f a v a i l a b l e r e s e a r c h a r e e q u i v o c a l i n t h i s r e s p e c t . M o r e g e n e r a l l y t h e d i s c u s s i o n s e r v e s t o i n t r o d u c e t h e c o n c e p t o f " d i s p l a c e m e n t " , t h e theme t o be s y s t e m a t i z e d i n t h e f i n a l s e c t i o n o f t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n . T h e t h i r d e f f e c t o f t h e c o n t r o l e n v i r o n m e n t on t h e g e o g r a p h y o f c r i m e c o n c e r n s t h e m o s t d i r e c t i m p a c t o f c o n t r o l p r a c t i c e on t h e c o n f i g u r a t i o n o f c r i m e . G i v e n t h a t c o n t r o l p e r s o n n e l o r c r i m e p r e v e n t i o n p r o g r a m s a r e n o t d i s t r i b u t e d e v e n l y , one o f t h e m o s t p o t e n t d e v i c e s f o r p e o p l e t o a v o i d t h e p o t e n t i a l o f c r i m i n a l l a b e l l i n g i s m o v e m e n t ; m o b i l i t y i s an a d a p t i v e s t r a t e g y t h r o u g h w h i c h c r i m i n a l o p p o r t u n i t i e s c a n be m a x i m i z e d a n d t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f a c r i m i n a l l a b e l m i n i m i z e d . W h a t I am m o s t i n t e r e s t e d i n h e r e i s t h e c o n c e p t o f m o b i l i t y as an a d a p t i v e s t r a t e g y a n d t h e i m p a c t o f l a w e n f o r c e m e n t o r c r i m e p r e v e n t i o n p r o g r a m s on p a t t e r n s o f s o c i a l ( p a r t i c u l a r l y c r i m i n a l ) a c t i v i t y . T h e s e i s s e s a r e t a k e n up i n C h a p t e r s 7, 8 a n d 9. T h e a p p r o a c h t a k e n i s p r o c e s s u a l ( r a t h e r t h a n t h e s t a t i c t y p e a n a l y s e s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h e g e o g r a p h y o f c r i m e ) f o c u s i n g on t h e i m p a c t o f c h a n g e s i n s o c i a l c o n t r o l p r a c t i c e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y l a w c h a n g e s , l a w i n t e r p r e t a t i o n c h a n g e s o r e n f o r c e m e n t c h a n g e s . I n t e r m s o f a g e o g r a p h i c a n a l y s i s a t t h i s l e v e l , t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n c r i m e a n d c o n t r o l i s s y s t e m a t i z e d t h r o u g h a c o n c e p t o f " d i s p l a c e m e n t " . D i s p l a c e m e n t e f f e c t s a r e d e f i n e d as c h a n g e s o f c r i m i n a l ( o r r e l a t e d ) b e h a v i o u r i n r e s p o n s e t o c h a n g e s i n w r i t t e n l a w , c a s e l a w o r l a w e n f o r c e m e n t . 1 4 . C o n s i d e r a t i o n o f d i s p l a c e m e n t phenomena i s o f f a i r l y r e c e n t v i n t a g e i n c r i m i n o l o g y w i t h a m o r e l i m i t e d a p p l i c a t i o n t h a n t h e one s u g g e s t e d h e r e . I n 1976 Thomas R e p p e t t o p u b l i s h e d an i n t r o d u c t o r y a n a l y s i s o f t h e d i s p l a c e m e n t phenomena a s s o c i a t e d w i t h " m e c h a n i c a l " c r i m e p r e v e n t i o n s t r a t e g i e s , i . e . t h o s e a i m e d a t r e d u c i n g c r i m i n a l o p p o r t u n i t y o r i n c r e a s i n g t h e r i s k t o o f f e n d e r s . I n C h a p t e r s 7 , 8 , and 9 e v i d e n c e i s p r e s e n t e d s u g g e s t i n g t h a t d i s p l a c e m e n t phenomena a r e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a w i d e r r a n g e o f c r i m i n a l j u s t i c e a n d o t h e r s o c i a l c o n t r o l p o 1 i c i e s . A r e v i e w o f r e s e a r c h d e m o n s t r a t i n g t h e w i d e - r a n g i n g o c c u r r e n c e o f d i s p l a c e m e n t phenomena i s p r e s e n t e d i n C h a p t e r 7 t o i l l u s t r a t e t h e s u b t l e r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e t w e e n c r i m e a n d c o n t r o l . I n C h a p t e r s 8 and 9 two o r i g i n a l r e s e a r c h v i g n e t t e s a r e p r e s e n t e d . T h e f i r s t o f t h e s e d e v e l o p s f r o m l i t e r a t u r e r e v i e w e d i n C h a p t e r 7 c o n c e r n i n g t h e i m p a c t o f l a w e n f o r c m e n t on t h e l o c a t i o n o f v i c e a r e a s . T h e e m p i r i c a l v i g n e t t e p r e s e n t e d i n C h a p t e r 8 d e m o n s t r a t e s t h e way c o n t r o l p r a c t i c e s h a v e b e e n t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r t o t a k e i n t o a c c o u n t i n e x p l a i n i n g c h a n g e s o f s t r e e t p r o s t i t u t i o n i n a c o n t e m p o r a r y C a n a d i a n c i t y . I n t h i s c a s e p a t t e r n s o f c r i m e i n c i d e n c e r e f l e c t c h a n g e s i n t h e s o c i o - l e g a l r e a c t i o n t o p r o s t i t u t i o n r a t h e r t h a n c h a n g e s i n t h e p o p u l a t i o n o f o f f e n d e r s . I n d e e d , t h e i s s u e o f j u s t who t h e o f f e n d e r s a c t u a l l y w e r e a l s o c h a n g e d . T h i s e x a m p l e s e r v e s t o i l l u s t r a t e t h e p o t e n t i a l l y b r o a d a p p l i c a b i l i t y o f t h e d i s p l a c e m e n t c o n c e p t -1 5 . displacement phenomena may not only be a s s o c i a t e d with mechanical crime p r e v e n t i o n s t r a t e g i e s . But even in the case of most mechanical s t r a t e g i e s , d i s c u s s i o n s of displacement have remained h y p o t h e t i c a l . For example, the suggestion that displacement e f f e c t s are a s s o c i a t e d with environmental design s t r a t e g i e s has never a c t u a l l y been demonstrated; as a r e s u l t t h i s issue becomes the subject of the second e m p i r i c a l v i g n e t t e . In Chapter 9 a t t e n t i o n turns to " t a r g e t hardening" crime p r e v e n t i o n programs and the p o t e n t i a l displacement e f f e c t s a s s o c i a t e d with them. The study examines the impact of "Neighbourhood Watch" b u r g l a r y p r e v e n t i o n programs on crime r a t e s , o f f e r i n g evidence which appears to c o n f i r m the hypothesis that although c e r t a i n types of crime p r e v e n t i o n program may deter or suppress crime i n one area, i t i s p a r t l y as the r e s u l t of displacement of a c t i v i t i e s to other t a r g e t s or areas (or because of changes in time or type of crime commi ss i o n ) . The c o n c l u s i o n of the d i s s e r t a t i o n examines the i m p l i c a t i o n s of analyses of crime c o n t r o l p r a c t i c e s for the development of theory i n the geography of crime, and the new res e a r c h avenues that such a c o n s i d e r a t i o n promises. 16. N o t e s t o C h a p t e r 1 1. A n y s e p a r a t i o n o f c r i m e c o n t r o l f r o m t h e w i d e r i n s t i t u t i o n s o f s o c i a l c o n t r o l c a n o n l y be j u s t i f i e d i n t e r m s o f a n a l y t i c c o n v e n i e n c e a n d m a n a g e a b i l i t y ; t h e c r i m i n a l j u s t i c e s y s t e m c a n n o t be t r e a t e d as a c l o s e d s y s t e m . 2 . A l t h o u g h , as we s h a l l s u b s e q u e n t l y s e e i n C h a p t e r s 5 a n d 6 , t h e r e i s a g r o w i n g i n t e r e s t i n many o f t h e s e i s s u e s i n t h e c r i m i n o l o g i c a l a n d s o c i o l o g i c a l l i t e r a t u r e e . g . A r m s t r o n g and W i l s o n ( 1 9 7 3 ) ; Darner ( 1 9 7 4 ) ; B a l d w i n , B o t t o m s and W a l k e r ( 1 9 7 6 ) ; G i l l ( 1 9 7 7 ) ; Mawby ( 1 9 7 9 ) ; B o t t o m s a n d X a n t h o s ( 1 9 8 1 ) . 17 . C h a p t e r 2 THE S O C I O L O G Y OF D E V I A N C E AND THE C R I T I Q U E OF T R A D I T I O N A L C R I M I N O L O G Y P r e a m b l e D a v i d H e r b e r t has n o t e d t h a t some o f t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t t h e o r e t i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t s o f c r i m i n o l o g y i n t h e p a s t t w e n t y y e a r s h a v e b e e n l a r g e l y i g n o r e d b y g e o g r a p h e r s i n t e r e s t e d i n c r i m e . G e o g r a p h i c p e r s p e c t i v e s h a v e t y p i c a l l y f o l l o w e d t r a d i t i o n a l c r i m i n o l o g i c a l t h e o r y a n d p a i d l i t t l e a t t e n t i o n t o d e v e l o p m e n t s o f w h a t H e r b e r t c a l l s t h e s o c i o l o g y o f d e v i a n c e l i t e r a t u r e a n d i t s t h e o r e t i c a l i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r t h e g e o g r a p h i c s t u d y o f c r i m e ' 1 T h e s o c i o l o g y o f d e v i a n c e as d e s c r i b e d by H e r b e r t ( 1 9 8 2 : 2 4 - 2 5 ) o f f e r s a t h e o r e t i c a l u n i t y i n o n l y one s e n s e a n d t h a t s e n s e i s n e g a t i v e . I t s u n i t y l i e s m o r e i n w h a t i t i s o p p o s e d t o t h a n t o w h a t i t i s ; a u n i t e d f r o n t d e v e l o p i n g i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s d u r i n g t h e 1 9 5 0 ' s a n d 6 0 ' s a n d i n B r i t a i n i n t h e l a t e 1 9 6 0 ' s , a g a i n s t t h e t r a d i t i o n a l s o c i o l o g y o f c r i m e - e s p e c i a l l y v a r i e t i e s o f w h a t a r e r e f e r r e d t o as " p o s i t i v i s t " a n d " f u n c t i o n a l i s t " t h e o r i e s o f c r i m e a n d s o c i e t y . T h e v a r i o u s p e r s p e c t i v e s c o n s t i t u t i n g t h e s o c i o l o g y o f d e v i a n c e , a n d t h e c r i t i c a l o r r a d i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e s p a r t l y g r o w i n g o u t o f t h e m , a l s o s h a r e a common i n t e r e s t i n t h e s t u d y o f s o c i a l c o n t r o l a n d c o n t r o l l e r s as w e l l as ( o r i n s t e a d o f ) t h e c r i m i n a l . T h e s e 1 8 . c o m m o n a l i t i e s a s i d e , t h e v e r y g r e a t d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n t h e s o c i o l o g y o f d e v i a n c e a n d r a d i c a l t h e o r y ( t h e p r e d o m i n a n t f o r m o f c r i t i c a l t h e o r y ) m u s t a l s o be r e c o g n i s e d . T h e y a r e p e r s p e c t i v e s a t o n c e u n i t e d and d i v i d e d , a n d , i f t h e r e c e n t l i t e r a t u r e i s a n y t h i n g t o go b y , t h e r i f t s c o n t i n u e t o d e e p e n (Downes a n d R o c k , 1 9 7 9 ) . F o r t h e p u r p o s e s o f t h i s d i s c u s s i o n , t h e n , t h e s o c i o l o g y o f d e v i a n c e , a l a r g e l y h u m a n i s t i c p r o j e c t , i s t o be d i s t i n g u i s h e d f r o m a c r i t i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e w h i c h t e n d s t o f o c u s on s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e . 2 T h e s e two p e r s p e c t i v e s may be f u r t h e r s u b d i v i d e d . T h e h u m a n i s t t r a d i t i o n e m b r a c e s s y m b o l i c i n t e r a c t i o n i s m , p h e n o m e n o l o g y a n d e t h n o m e t h o d o l o g y . T h e s y m b o l i c i n t e r a c t i o n i s t p o s i t i o n d e r i v e s f r o m G e o r g e H e r b e r t M e a d ' s s o c i a l p s y c h o l o g y ( e g . 1 9 3 4 , 1 9 3 8 ) , w h i l e t h e p h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l p o s i t i o n d e r i v e s f r o m A l f r e d S c h u t z ' s o c i a l p h e n o m e n o l o g y ( e g 1 9 7 0 ) . E t h n o m e t h o d o l o g y i s a h y b r i d d r a w i n g on b o t h S c h u t z a n d M e a d - t h e r e i s much i n common i n t h e w o r k o f t h e two a u t h o r s ( b u t t h e r e a r e some i m p o r t a n t d i f f e r e n c e s and t h e p o s i t i o n s s h o u l d n o t be c o n f l a t e d ) . O f t h e s e p e r s p e c t i v e s s y m b o l i c i n t e r a c t i o n i s m has r e c e i v e d m o s t a t t e n t i o n i n c r i m i n o l o g y , p a r t i c u l a r l y t h r o u g h t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e l a b e l l i n g p e r s p e c t i v e a n d r e l a t e d themes i n N o r t h A m e r i c a a n d B r i t a i n s i n c e 1 9 5 0 . 3 T h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f c r i t i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e s i n c r i m i n o l o g y has b e e n much m o r e r e c e n t - m a i n l y i n t h e 1 9 7 0 ' s . T h e c r i t i c a l l i t e r a t u r e i n b o t h N o r t h A m e r i c a a n d B r i t a i n i s p r e d o m i n a n t l y M a r x i s t a n d i s r e f e r r e d t o h e r e as t h e " r a d i c a l " 1 9 . p e r s p e c t i v e . 4 O t h e r c r i t i c a l t h e o r i s t s ( c r i t i c a l i n t h e s e n s e t h a t t h e y s e e c r i m e as t h e p r o d u c t o f s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s and t h e s o l u t i o n t o c r i m e i n t e r m s o f t h e m o d i f i c a t i o n o f s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s ) may u s e M a r x i a n a n a l y t i c c a t e g o r i e s b u t d i s a s s o c i a t e t h e m s e l v e s f r o m a M a r x i s t l a b e l ( e g . R e a s o n s d i s c l a i m e r t o t h i s e f f e c t on t h e c o v e r o f Q u i n n e y ' s M a r x i s t a n a l y s i s i n C l a s s , S t a t e a n d C r i m e , 1 9 7 7 ) . C r i t i c a l t h e o r y i n g e n e r a l ( M a r x i s t o r o t h e r w i s e ) s u g g e s t s t h a t s o c i a l s c i e n c e c a n n o t be o b j e c t i v e t h u s i m p l y i n g t h a t t h e t h e o r i s t / r e s e a r c h e r m u s t t a k e a p o l i t i c a l s t a n c e . A t h i r d p o s i t i o n p a r t l y r e l a t e d t o t h e c r i t i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e i s a l s o w o r t h n o t i n g a t t h i s p o i n t -" p o w e r - c o n f l i c t " i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f c r i m e a n d l a w a r e s i m i l a r t o c r i t i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e s i n t h e i r v i s i o n o f t h e r o l e o f power i n t h e g e n e s i s o f c r i m i n a l i t y , b u t r e a s s e r t t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f o b j e c t i v e s o c i a l s c i e n c e a n d t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f a c o n f l i c t a n a l y s i s w h i c h i s n o t p o l i t i c a l l y p a r t i s a n ( e g . T u r k 1 9 6 9 , 1 9 7 8 ; M c D o n a l d , 1 9 7 6 ) . A s w i t h t h e s o c i o l o g y o f d e v i a n c e , c a u t i o n s h o u l d be t a k e n i n v i e w i n g t h e r a d i c a l l i t e r a t u r e as a f u l l y c o h e r e n t e n t i t y . T h e r e i s a g r e a t d e a l o f d i s a g r e e m e n t i n g e n e r a l i n s o c i a l s c i e n c e o v e r t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f M a r x ' w r i t i n g s , a n d a number o f a l t e r n a t i v e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s a r e b e g i n i n g t o a p p e a r i n t h e c r i m i n o l o g i c a l l i t e r a t u r e ; i n t h e h i s t o r i c a l f i e l d T h o m p s o n ( 1 9 7 7 ) , a l t h o u g h o n l y p e r i p h e r a l l y i n t e r e s t e d i n c r i m e , has a d o p t e d a h u m a n i s t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f M a r x i m p l i c i t l y i n o p p o s i t i o n t o e c o n o m i c i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s ( G o r d o n 1 9 7 1 , 1 9 7 3 ) a n d w h a t c a n be d e s c r i b e d as s t r u c t u r a l f u n c t i o n a l i s t 2 0 . i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s ( Q u i n n e y 1 9 7 2 , 1 9 7 4 , 1 9 7 7 ; M i e h a l o w s k i and B o h l a n d e r 1 9 7 6 ; W e r k e n t i n , H o f f e r b e r t and B a u r m a n n 1 9 7 4 , S p i t z e r 1 9 7 5 ) . 5 A s i n s o c i o l o g y i n g e n e r a l , t h e s t r u c t u r e / a c t i o n i s s u e d i s t i n g u i s h e s M a r x i s t p e r s p e c t i v e s f r o m e a c h o t h e r ; i n d e e d m o s t o f t h e m a j o r p h i l o s o p h i c a l d e b a t e s a r o u n d t h e a p p r o p r i a t e m e t h o d o l o g i e s a n d e p i s t e m o l o g i e s f o r s o c i a l s t u d i e s seem t o be r e c o n s t i t u t e d w i t h i n M a r x i s m s u c h t h a t t h e t e r m , l i k e t h e t e r m s c i e n c e , has a h i g h l y p r o b l e m a t i c 0 m e a n i n g ( H o o k , 1 9 8 0 ) . A s M a r x i s t p e r s p e c t i v e s f l o u r i s h i n c r i m i n o l o g y , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n B r i t a i n , t h e s e d i f f e r e n c e s may become p a r a m o u n t , d e s p i t e H i r s t ' s c l a i m s ( 1 9 7 3 , 1 9 7 5 ) t h a t b e c a u s e " c r i m e " i s n o t a p r o p e r l y c o n s i t i t u t e d a n a l y t i c c a t e g o r y i n a M a r x i s t t h e o r e t i c a l f r a m e w o r k i t c o n s e q u e n t l y c a n n o t be an o b j e c t o f M a r x i s t a n a l y s i s . B u t t o t h i s p o i n t i n t i m e r a d i c a l c r i m i n o l o g y has t e n d e d t o o p e r a t e a t a s t r u c t u r a l l e v e l . I t i s t h u s n o t s u r p r i s i n g t h a t i t i s a l s o o v e r t h e s t r u c t u r e / a c t i o n i s s u e t h a t r a d i c a l t h e o r y p a r t s company w i t h t h e s o c i o l o g y o f d e v i a n c e , d i s m i s s i n g i t as t o o s u b j e c t i v i s t by v i r t u e o f f a i l i n g t o i n c o r p o r a t e a n y s y s t e m a t i c a n a l y s i s o f i d e o l o g y o r o t h e r a s p e c t s o f s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e ( T a y l o r , W a l t o n a n d Y o u n g , 1 9 7 3 ; M a n d e r s , 1 9 7 5 ; R e a s o n s a n d P e r d u e , 1 9 8 2 ) . T h e r a d i c a l c r i t i q u e o f t h e i m p u t e d s u b j e c t i v i s m o f t h e s o c i o l o g y o f d e v i a n c e does n o t e n t a i l a s w e e p i n g d i s m i s s a l o f t h e a p p r o p r i a t e n e s s o f an i n t e r a c t i o n i s t l e v e l o f a n a l y s i s . S e v e r a l a d v o c a t e s o f a r a d i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e s t r e s s t h e n e e d t o i n c o r p o r a t e an i n t e r a c t i o n i s t l e v e l o f a n a l y s i s i n a n y 2 1 . s o c i o l o g i c a l t h e o r y o f d e v i a n c e ( e g . T a y l o r , W a l t o n a n d Y o u n g , 1 9 7 3 ; H a l l , e t a l 1 9 7 8 ) a n d t h e s o c i o l o g y o f d e v i a n c e p l a y e d an i m p o r t a n t p a r t i n s t i m u l a t i n g and d e v e l o p i n g r a d i c a l s c h o l a r s h i p . A s we s h a l l s e e l a t e r t h e r e a c t i o n t o t r a d i t i o n a l c r i m i n o l o g y i n B r i t a i n b e g a n w i t h t h e f o r m a t i o n o f t h e N a t i o n a l D e v i a n c y C o n f e r e n c e ( t h e " Y o r k G r o u p " ) w h i c h was i n s t r u m e n t a l i n i m p o r t i n g i n t e r a c t i o n i s t a n d l a b e l l i n g p e r s p e c t i v e s t o B r i t i s h c r i m i n o l o g y . T h e Y o r k G r o u p d e v e l o p e d i n t o a t l e a s t two g e n e r a l f o l l o w i n g s - one o f i n t e r a c t i o n i s m , t h e o t h e r o f a r a d i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e . S i g n i f i c a n t l y t h e f i r s t c o l l e c t i v e p u b l i c a t i o n o f t h e g r o u p ( C o h e n , 1 9 7 1 ) f a l l s s q u a r e l y i n t o t h e i n t e r a c t i o n i s t f r a m e w o r k ( E r i c s o n , 1 9 7 4 ) . A n d as much as t h e two f o l l o w i n g s a r e now i n o p e n d i s a g r e e m e n t o v e r c e r t a i n i s s u e s ( s e e , f o r e x a m p l e , Downes a n d R o c k , 1 9 7 9 ) t h e y a r e s t i l l u n i t e d i n t h e i r o p p o s i t i o n t o p o s i t i v i s t a n d f u n c t i o n a l i s t p e r s p e c t i v e s . B u t t h i s i s n o t t h e o n l y p o i n t o f a g r e e m e n t b e t w e e n i n t e r a c t i o n i s t a n d c r i t i c a l t h e o r i s t s . U n l i k e t h e e x p l i c i t f o c u s on t h e c r i m i n a l a c t o r c h a r a c t e r i s i n g t r a d i t i o n a l c r i m i n o l o g y , t h e p r o c e s s a n d e f f e c t o f s o c i a l c o n t r o l a l s o f i n d t h e i r p l a c e i n t h e s o c i o l o g y o f d e v i a n c e a n d r a d i c a l t h e o r y t h u s g i v i n g t h e two p e r s p e c t i v e s f u r t h e r common g r o u n d ( i n d e e d some r e s e a r c h e r s f o c u s o n l y on s o c i a l c o n t r o l w i t h v e r y l i t t l e c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f t h e c r i m i n a l a c t o r ) . A n d i n t h i s s e n s e , one o f t h e m a j o r c r i t i c i s m s t h e two p e r s p e c t i v e s make o f t r a d i t i o n a l c r i m i n o l o g y i s t h e g e n e r a l f a i l u r e t o r e c o g n i z e t h e d i a l e c t i c r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n c r i m e a n d c o n t r o l . T h i s a r g u m e n t c a n be e x t e n d e d t o t h e g e o g r a p h y o f 22. c r i m e by s u g g e s t i n g t h a t v e r y l i t t l e s y s t e m a t i c c o n s i d e r a t i o n ha s b e e n g i v e n t o t h e e f f e c t o f s o c i a l c o n t r o l p r a c t i c e s i n m o d i f y i n g o r m o u l d i n g c r i m e p a t t e r n s . " ^ T h e f o u n d a t i o n f o r t h i s a r g u m e n t i s l a i d i n an e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e p h i l o s o p h i c a l p o s i t i o n t h a t d i s t i n g u i s h e s t h e s o c i o l o g y o f d e v i a n c e f r o m t r a d i t i o n a l c r i m i n o l o g i c a l t h e o r y , a n d i n t u r n t h e m a n d a t e o f c r i t i c a l t h e o r y i n i t s b r e a k f r o m t h e s o c i o l o g y o f d e v i a n c e . T h e E m e r g e n c e o f t h e S o c i o l o g y o f D e v i a n c e W h i l e i t was n o t e d e a r l i e r t h a t t h e s o c i o l o g y o f d e v i a n c e d e v e l o p e d as a r e a c t i o n t o t h e d o m i n a n t p e r s p e c t i v e s h o l d i n g sway on b o t h s i d e s o f t h e A t l a n t i c up t o t h e 1 9 5 0 ' s a n d 6 0 ' s , t h i s i s n o t t o s u g g e s t t h a t t r a d i t i o n a l p e r s p e c t i v e s a r e no l o n g e r i m p o r t a n t . R a t h e r , t h e s o c i o l o g y o f d e v i a n c e has d e v e l o p e d ( o f t e n i n p o l e m i c a l f o r m ) a l o n g s i d e e s t a b l i s h e d p e r s p e c t i v e s . T h e l a b e l l i n g p e r s p e c t i v e , i n f o r m e d by a s y m b o l i c i n t e r a c t i o n i s t e p i s t e m o l o g y , a r o s e t o c h a l l e n g e t r a d i t i o n a l p e r s p e c t i v e s w h i c h v i e w e d d e v i a n c e a n d c r i m e s i m p l y as f o r m s o f s o c i a l p a t h o l o g y , s o c i a l d i s o r g a n i z a t i o n , o r i n t e r m s o f s o c i a l f u n c t i o n s and d y s f u n c t i o n s . I n c o n t r a s t t o t h e t r a d i t i o n a l p e r s p e c t i v e s w h i c h a r e p r e d i c a t e d u p o n t h e i d e a t h a t d e v i a n c e l e a d s t o s o c i a l c o n t r o l , t h e f i r s t p h a s e o f t h e s o c i o l o g y o f d e v i a n c e r e v e r s e d t h e f o r m u l a t o s u g g e s t t h a t d e v i a n c e i s o f t e n t h e c o n s e q u e n c e o f s o c i a l c o n t r o l , o r a t l e a s t may be a m p l i f i e d by c o n t r o l m e a s u r e s . T h i s t h e s i s became t h e c e n t r a l a x i o m o f t h e l a b e l l i n g p e r s p e c t i v e t a k e n t o i t s 23. e x t r e m e i n B e c k e r ' s e a r l i e r w r i t i n g - s o c i a l g r o u p s c r e a t e d e v i a n c e a n d d e v i a n t b e h a v i o u r i s t h a t w h i c h i s so l a b e l l e d ( 1 9 6 3 p . 9 ) . W h i l e t r a d i t i o n a l p e r s p e c t i v e s h a d c o n c e n t r a t e d on t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f c a u s a l t h e o r i e s o f d e v i a n t and c r i m i n a l b e h a v i o u r , s y m b o l i c i n t e r a c t i o n i s t t h e o r y ( p a r t i c u l a r l y l a b e l l i n g t h e o r y ) , c h a n g e d t h e e m p h a s i s o f a n a l y s i s t o s o c i a l c o n t r o l a s a n a d d i t i o n a l o r e v e n p r i m a r y e l e m e n t i n i t s r e s e a r c h m a n i f e s t o . E a c h o f t h e p e r s p e c t i v e s i n t h e s o c i o l o g y o f d e v i a n c e r e t a i n s a c e n t r a l p l a c e f o r t h e a n a l y s i s o f s o c i a l c o n t r o l i n t h e e x p l a n a t i o n o f c r i m e a n d d e v i a n c e , a n d i t i s h e r e t h a t t h e y f o r c e f u l l y b r e a k f r o m t h e t r a d i t i o n a l p e r s p e c t i v e s . I n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s t h e f i r s t b r i e f i n t e r p r e t i v e i d e a s a d u m b r a t i n g t h e l a b e l l i n g p e r s p e c t i v e w e r e p r e s e n t e d as e a r l y as 1938 b y F r a n k T a n n e n b a u m w i t h h i s comments on t h e d e f i n i t i o n and d r a m a t i z a t i o n o f e v i l i n C r i m e and t h e C o m m u n i t y ( p p . 1 7 -2 2 ) . T a n n e n b a u m d i s c u s s e s t h e m a n n e r i n w h i c h t h e o f f i c i a l r e a c t i o n t o c r i m e a n d d e l i n q u e n c y t h r o u g h t h e " d r a m a t i z a t i o n o f e v i l " o p e r a t e s as a s e l f - f u l f i l l i n g p r o p h e c y m a k i n g a p e r s o n become t h e t h i n g h e / s h e i s d e s c r i b e d as b e i n g . L e m e r t ' s w o r k s o n s o c i o p a t h i c b e h a v i o u r ( 1 9 4 8 ) a n d S o c i a l P a t h o l o g y ( 1 9 5 1 ) w e r e t h e f i r s t a t t e m p t s a t c r y s t a l i z i n g t h i s p o i n t o f v i e w . B u t n o t u n t i l some t e n y e a r s l a t e r d i d t h e p o s i t i o n d e v e l o p i n t o w h a t has v a r i o u s l y b e e n c a l l e d t h e " l a b e l l i n g s c h o o l " ( g e n e r a l l y ) , t h e " n e o - c h i c a g o a n s " ( M a t z a 1 9 6 9 ) , a n d t h e W e s t C o a s t S c h o o l o r T h e P a c i f i c S e m i n a r ( L e m e r t 1972 p . 1 5 ) . L e m e r t l i s t s t h e w o r k o f K i t s u s e ( 1 9 6 0 ) , G o f f m a n ( 1 9 6 1 ) , E r i k s o n 2 4 . (1962), Becker (1963) and Scheff (1963) as the most i n f l u e n t i a l in d e s c r i b i n g and e s t a b l i s h i n g a new p e r s p e c t i v e f o c u s i n g on the moral order and s o c i a l c o n t r o l , seeking to show how c a t e g o r i e s of deviance are c r e a t e d and a p p l i e d to i n d i v i d u a l s and groups (1972 p. 15). While eastern' establishment s o c i o l o g y in the U n i t e d S t a t e s was p r i m a r i l y concerned with the e t i o l o g y of deviance, "the western l o o k i n g s o c i o l o g i s t s . . . h a v e given currency to such concepts as s o c i e t a l r e a c t i o n , stigma, degradation, m o r t i f i c a t i o n of s e l f , p o l i c e d i s c r e t i o n and t y p i f i c a t i o n , ideas which are e s p e c i a l l y s u i t e d to showing how agencies and i n s t i t u t i o n s o s t e n s i b l y organized for w e l f a r e , reform, r e h a b i l i t a t i o n , and treatment give form and meaning to deviance and s t a b i l i z e i t as secondary d e v i a t i o n " (Lemert, 1972 p.15). The importance of s e v e r a l of these concepts f o r geographic i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s of crime w i l l be d i s c u s s e d subsequently in terms of area or e c o l o g i c a l l a b e l l i n g (Brantingham and Brantingham, 1981A p. 8). Some of these same i n t e r e s t s were a l s o taken up i n other more recent t h e o r e t i c a l ventures, p a r t i c u l a r l y i n the development of ethnomethodology. During the l a t e 1960's the ethnomethodological p e r s p e c t i v e emerged in North American s o c i o l o g y as a polemic against p o s i t i v i s m and s t r u c t u r a l f u n c t i o n a l i s m . The foundation of the ethnomethodological program was l a i d down by G a r f i n k e l (1967) and subsequently e l a b o r a t e d by C i c o u r e l (1968, 1972), G a r f i n k e l and Sacks (1972) and Turner (1974). Ethnomethodology focuses on the conventions of the "commonsense" everyday world showing 25. how the meaning of s o c i a l o b j e c t s i s s o c i a l l y c o n s t r u c t e d and r e c o n s t r u c t e d , and how r e c o n s t r u c t i o n f o l l o w s t a k e n - f o r - g r a n t e d r u l e systems. Ethnomethodology and s o c i a l phenomenology refocus the concern of s o c i o l o g y to everyday l i f e p r o b l e m a t i z i n g what t r a d i t i o n a l s o c i o l o g i s t s have taken for granted - the hidden meaning and s t r u c t u r e s of mundane e x i s t e n c e . When compared to the l a b e l l i n g p e r s p e c t i v e , ethnomethodology provides a rather d i f f e r e n t i n s i g h t i n t o s o c i a l c o n t r o l processes s u g g e s t i n g how the meaning of c r i m i n a l and delinquent behaviour i s c o n s t i t u t e d through s o c i a l i n t e r a c t i o n and can not simply be " r e a d - o f f " from c r i m i n a l s t a t u t e s . In Chapter 5 t h i s issue w i l l be taken up in a d i s c u s s i o n of the i m p l i c a t i o n s of ethnomethodological s t u d i e s of the working p r a c t i c e s of the p o l i c e for the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of o f f i c i a l s t a t i s t i c s . While the ethnomethodological p e r s p e c t i v e tended to g a i n more currency i n the s o c i o l o g y of deviance than d i d s o c i a l phenomenology, the phenomenological p o s i t i o n i s s i m i l a r by v i r t u e of i t s c o n c e n t r a t i o n on the c o n v e n t i o n a l i t y of the "commonsense" world. In sh o r t , these are attempts to make s o c i o l o g i c a l sense of commonsense. In terms of deviancy theory ethnomethodology makes sense of l e g a l c a t e g o r i e s by attempting to understand the commonsense notions that a c t u a l l y imbue them with meaning. The S o c i o l o g y of Deviance as Verstehen In order to be able to understand the c r i t i c i s m s of 26. t r a d i t i o n a l s o c i o l o g y d e v e l o p e d i n t h e s o c i o l o g y o f d e v i a n c e i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o s i t u a t e t h i s c r i t i q u e i n a w i d e r p h i l o s o p h i c a l c o n t e x t . T h e c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n o f t h e s o c i o l o g y o f d e v i a n c e as " v e r s t e h e n " c r i m i n o l o g y s u g g e s t s a v e r y d i f f e r e n t k i n d o f p h i l o s o p h i c a l b a s i s t o t h a t i n f o r m i n g v a r i o u s t r a d i t i o n a l t h e o r i e s . I n v e r y s i m p l e t e r m s v e r s t e h e n means i n t e r p r e t i v e u n d e r s t a n d i n g , and t h e s t r e s s on t h e s o c i a l c o n s t r u c t i o n o f m e a n i n g so c e n t r a l t o s y m b o l i c i n t e r a c t i o n i s m , s o c i a l p h e n o m e n o l o g y a n d e t h n o m e t h o d o l o g y s t a n d s i n d i r e c t c o n t r a d i s t i n c t i o n t o p e r s p e c t i v e s w h i c h a t t e m p t e x p l a n a t i o n i n t e r m s o f d e t e r m i n i s t i c c a u s a t i o n . T h e d e b a t e b e t w e e n t h e s e two p o s i t i o n s i s f u n d a m e n t a l i n s o c i a l s c i e n c e , a n d r e v o l v e s a r o u n d t h e i s s u e o f t h e a p p r o p r i a t e n e s s o f t h e e p i s t e m o l o g y , o n t o l o g y a n d m e t h o d o f n a t u r a l s c i e n c e ( o r a t l e a s t t h e s o c i a l s c i e n t i s t ' s v i s i o n o f n a t u r a l s c i e n c e ) f o r e x p l a i n i n g human b e h a v i o u r . T h e d e b a t e o v e r t h e u n i t y o f s c i e n c e has i t s f o u n d a t i o n i n t h e e n l i g h t e n m e n t v i e w o f s c i e n c e , and s u b s e q u e n t r e a c t i o n s t o i t . A d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h i s d e b a t e s e r v e s t o l o c a t e t h e s o c i o l o g y o f d e v i a n c e , and i t s r e a c t i o n t o t r a d i t i o n a l c r i m i n o l o g i c a l t h e o r y . T h e V e r s t e h e n - E r k l a r e n C o n t r o v e r s y T h e v e r s t e h e n - e r k l a r e n c o n t r o v e r s y i n G e r m a n s o c i a l p h i l o s o p h y i s a s p e c i a l c a s e o f a m o r e g e n e r a l d i s p u t e o v e r m e t h o d o l o g i c a l a p p r o a c h e s t o t h e s t u d y o f s o c i a l p h e n o m e n a . A d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h i s d e b a t e p r o v i d e s a u s e f u l c o n t e x t f o r a 27 . d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e v a r i o u s t e n s i o n s s e p a r a t i n g c r i m i n o l o g i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e s . E r k l a r e n i s a p e r s p e c t i v e d e v e l o p e d i n t h e s p i r i t o f t h e E n l i g h t e n m e n t s u g g e s t i n g t h a t t h e m e t h o d o l o g i c a l u n i t y o f n a t u r a l a n d s o c i a l s c i e n c e s a n d t h e u n i v e r s a l a p p l i c a b i l i t y o f t h e g e n e r a l p r i n c i p l e s o f s c i e n t i f i c m e t h o d s makes p o s s i b l e t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f e m p i r i c a l l y t e s t a b l e o b j e c t i v e k n o w l e d g e o f s o c i a l p h e n o m e n a . T h i s was t h e s t a n d p o i n t o f n o t o n l y n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y p o s i t i v i s m , b u t a l s o o f many s u b s e q u e n t f o r m s o f e m p i r i c i s m , b e h a v i o u r i s m a n d n a t u r a l i s m . T h o s e M a r x i s t s who b e l i e v e i n u n i v e r s a l d i a l e c t i c a l l a w s o f n a t u r e , s o c i e t y and human t h o u g h t a l s o b e l o n g h e r e ( M a r k o v i c , 1972 p . 2 8 ) . T h e o p p o s i t e t e n d e n c y was f i r s t e l a b o r a t e d i n D i l t h e y ' s L e b e n s p h i 1 o s o p h i e and d e v e l o p e d by t h e n e o - K a n t i a n s R i c k e r t a n d W i n d e l b a n d , who s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e g o a l s o f s o c i a l i n q u i r y s h o u l d n o t be t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f g e n e r a l l a w s o f human b e h a v i o u r , b u t t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f s o c i a l a c t o r s ' s u b j e c t i v e m o t i v e s a n d i n t e n t i o n s ( M a r k o v i c , 1 9 7 2 ) . T h i s a n t i -E n l i g h t e n m e n t a n d , i n a l i m i t e d s e n s e , a n t i - s c i e n t i f i c s p i r i t 8 came t o e x p r e s s i o n i n v a r i o u s b r a n d s o f p h e n o m e n o l o g y , e x i s t e n t i a l i s m , s y m b o l i c i n t e r a c t i o n i s m , e t h n o m e t h o d o l o g y , h u m a n i s t i c v e r s i o n s o f M a r x i s m ( e s p e c i a l l y e x i s t e n t i a l M a r x i s m ) , a n d i n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e C r i t i c a l ( o r F r a n k f u r t ) S c h o o l o f G e r m a n s o c i a l p h i l o s o p h y . W h i l e b o t h e r k l a r e n ( i . e . g e n e r i c p o s i t i v i s m ) a n d v e r s t e h e n p o s i t i o n s c l a i m t o be e m p i r i c a l , t h e y d i f f e r o v e r t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f e m p i r i c a l r e a l i t y ; t h e y d i f f e r o n t o l o g i c a l l y 2 8 . a n d e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l l y ( a l t h o u g h i t s h o u l d be n o t e d t h a t M a r k o v i c , who I h a v e p a r t l y f o l l o w e d h e r e , does n o t s e e t h e two p o s i t i o n s as i r r e c o n c i 1 i a b l e ) . V e r s t e h e n p e r s p e c t i v e s g i v e o n t o l o g i c a l s t a t u s t o human i n t e n t i o n s a n d m e a n i n g s , b u t t h e s e a r e l a r g e l y e x c l u d e d f r o m t h e e r k l a r e n p e r s p e c t i v e o r b l a c k -b o x e d i n a s t i m u l u s - r e s p o n s e v i e w o f human m o t i v a t i o n . B e c a u s e o f t h e s t r e s s on t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e i n t e n t i o n s and m e a n i n g s o f s o c i a l a c t o r s , a n d t h e v i e w t h a t t h e s e a r e p r o d u c e d t h r o u g h human i n t e r a c t i o n r a t h e r t h a n d e r i v i n g f r o m some p r e g i v e n c o s m i c o r d e r , v e r s t e h e n p e r s p e c t i v e s d e n y t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f e s t a b l i s h i n g g e n e r a l l a w s o f human b e h a v i o u r t h r o u g h a p r i n c i p l e o f c a u s a l d e t e r m i n i s m . I n v e r y g e n e r a l t e r m s t h e s c i e n t i f i c mode o f i n q u i r y s e e k i n g t o p r o d u c e c a u s a l e x p l a n a t i o n s f o r d e t e r m i n i s t i c p r o c e s s e s has p r o d u c e d m o r e d i s p u t e i n s o c i a l s c i e n c e t h i s c e n t u r y t h a n a n y o t h e r i s s u e . A l t h o u g h t h e p h i l o s o p h i c a l m o t i v e o f t h e E n l i g h t e n m e n t was m a n i f e s t l y h u m a n i s t i c i n i t s i n t e n t i o n s , w h a t a t f i r s t was s e e n as a means o f human e m a n c i p a t i o n came t o be s e e n as a c e n t r a l i n s t r u m e n t o f human d o m i n a t i o n . N a t u r a l i s t i c e x p l a n a t i o n s s e e i n g man as p r o p e l l e d by e x t e r n a l f o r c e s o r c o m p e l l e d by p r e g i v e n i n t e r n a l f o r c e s l e a v e h i m as a " p s y c h i c r o b o t " o r " j u d g e m e n t a l d o p e " w i t h a p p a r e n t l y no f r e e - w i l l ( H o l l i s , 1 9 7 7 ) . Man t h u s becomes an o b j e c t r a t h e r t h a n a s u b j e c t , a f o r m o f o b j e c t i f i c a t i o n w h i c h may h a v e f a r - r e a c h i n g p o l i t i c a l i m p l i c a t i o n s . T h e r e a c t i o n a g a i n s t t h e e r k l a r e n p o s i t i o n has t h u s b e e n b o t h p h i l o s o p h i c a l a n d p o l i t i c a l . H u s s e r l ' s c r i t i c i s m s o f p o s i t i v i s m w e r e 2 9 . d e v e l o p e d by h i s d i s c i p l e S c h u t z , a n d t h o s e o f S c h u t z a n d M a n n h e i m w e r e b u i l t i n t o t h e p o l e m i c s d e v e l o p e d m u c h l a t e r i n t h e s o c i o l o g y o f d e v i a n c e . S i m i l a r l y M e a d ' s a t t a c k s on c r u d e b e h a v i o u r i s m f i n d t h e i r way i n t o t h e s o c i o l o g y o f d e v i a n c e by v i r t u e o f t h e i n t e r a c t i o n i s t p o s i t i o n i n f o r m i n g i t . P h i l o s o p h i c a l l y t h e e r k l a r e n - v e r s t e h e n d e b a t e r e v o l v e s a r o u n d t h e i s s u e o f f r e e - w i l l a n d d e t e r m i n i s m a n d ha s b e e n r e c a p i t u l a t e d i n many s o c i a l s c i e n c e s i n t h e p a s t t h i r t y y e a r s - i n g e o g r a p h y t h e r e a c t i o n t o t h e " q u a n t i t a t i v e r e v o l u t i o n " ( s o - c a l l e d ) o f t h e 1 9 6 0 ' s has a l s o r e c e n t l y b e e n c o u c h e d i n t e r m s o f t h i s d e b a t e ( L e y , 1 9 7 7 , 1 9 8 0 , 1 9 8 2 ; L e y a n d S a m u e l s , 1 9 7 8 ) a n d i s p a r a l l e l l e d b y e a r l i e r d e v e l o p m e n t s i n N o r t h A m e r i c a n s o c i o l o g y . ^ T h i s , t h e n , i s t h e g e n e r a l p h i l o s p h i c a l b a c k d r o p a g a i n s t w h i c h t h e r e a c t i o n o f v e r t e h e n p e r s p e c t i v e s t o t r a d i t i o n a l f o r m s o f s o c i o l o g i c a l c r i m e t h e o r y m u s t be u n d e r s t o o d . V e r s t e h e n P e r s p e c t i v e s a n d t h e C r i t i q u e o f T r a d i t i o n a l S o c i o l o g y a n d C r i m i n o l o g y H a v i n g s i t u a t e d t h e s o c i o l o g y o f d e v i a n c e i n t h e w i d e r c o n t e x t o f d e b a t e s i n t h e p h i l o s o p h y o f s o c i a l s c i e n c e , t h e d i s c u s s i o n now m o v e s t o a c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f t h e s p e c i f i c i s s u e s i n v o l v e d i n t h e c r i t i q u e o f t h e " t r a d i t i o n a l " s o c i o l o g i e s o f c r i m e ( v a r i e t i e s o f p o s i t i v i s m , s t r u c t u r a l i s m and s t r u c t u r a l f u n c t i o n a l i s m ) . T h e d i s c u s s i o n b e g i n s w i t h c r i t i c i s m s o f s t r u c t u r a l i s m a n d s t r u c t u r a l f u n c t i o n a l i s m a n d t h e n moves on t o 3 0 . a c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f p o s i t i v i s m , a n d t h e s u g g e s t e d p o s i t i v i s t e l e m e n t s o f s t r u c t u r a l i s m . F i n a l l y t h e p o l i t i c a l i m p l i c a t i o n s o f t h e s e p o s i t i o n s a r e e x a m i n e d . I n a p a p e r on d e v i a n c e , P h i l l i p s o n a n d R o c h e ( 1 9 7 6 ) i d e n t i f y f i v e m a i n c r i t i c i s m s w h i c h p h e n o m e n o l o g y a n d e t h n o m e t h o d o l o g y m i g h t e n t e r a g a i n s t t r a d i t i o n a l s o c i o l o g y ( p . 1 4 1 ) . T h e f o l l o w i n g f i v e p o i n t s a r e b a s e d u p o n t h e i r d i s c u s s i o n : 1. T h e l a c k o f c o n n e c t i o n a n d a r t i c u l a t i o n b e t w e e n s o c i a l t h e o r y a n d e m p i r i c a l r e s e a r c h . T h i s c r i t i c i s m i s p a r t i c u l a r l y a p p l i e d t o s t r u c t u r a l s o c i o l o g y w h i c h i s d e p i c t e d as a k i n d o f s o c i o l o g i c a l d e t e r m i n i s m i n w h i c h s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e s t h e t h e o r i s t i d e n t i f i e s by means o f l o g i c a l a r g u m e n t s a r e s a i d t o d e t e r m i n e human a c t i v i t y . I n w i d e r s o c i o l o g y t h i s s o c i o l o g i c a l d e t e r m i n i s m i s s u g g e s t e d as a p p l y i n g t o c e r t a i n v e r s i o n s o f M a r x i s m ( p a r t i c u l a r l y s t r u c t u r a l i s t a n d e c o n o m i c d e t e r m i n i s t r e n d i t i o n s ) a n d t o t h e w o r k o f D u r k h e i m , M e r t o n a n d P a r s o n s , a l t h o u g h a l l t h e s e t h e o r i s t s a r e s e n s i t i v e t o t h e p r o b l e m o f human c o n s c i o u s n e s s a n d m e a n i n g ( p a r t i c u l a r l y M a r x - d e p e n d i n g on how h i s w o r k i s i n t e r p r e t e d ) . K e a t a n d U r r y ( 1 9 7 5 , p . 1 3 8 ) r e f e r r i n g m o r e e x p l i c i t l y t o an e t h n o m e t h o d o l o g i c a l c r i t i q u e o f s t r u c t u r a l i s m s u g g e s t t h a t as much as s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e s may be s e e n t o c a u s e human a c t i v i t y , i t c a n n o t be d e n i e d t h a t human a c t i v i t i e s c r e a t e s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e s . T h e r e a r e p a r a l l e l s h e r e w i t h c r i t i c i s m s o f f u n c t i o n a l i s m a n d h o l i s m i n human g e o g r a p h y ( D u n c a n , 1 9 8 0 ; D u n c a n a n d L e y , 1 9 8 2 ) . 3 1 . 2. the gross i n a p p r o p r i a t e n e s s and i r r e l e v a n c e of much of the r a t i o n a l i d e a l - t y p e c o n s t r u c t i o n used to e s t a b l i s h a theory - r e s e a r c h connection ( C i c o u r e l ' s -1968- work on j u v e n i l e j u s t i c e represents a good example of the development of t h i s cr i t i c i sm). 3. S o c i o l o g y ' s a s p i r a t i o n to be an e m p i r i c a l d i s c i p l i n e concerned to understand and e x p l a i n r e a l and e x i s t e n t s o c i a l phenomena i s not served by i t s l a r g e l y i g n o r i n g the key f a c t that such phenomena are meaningful for both the a c t o r s and the s o c i o l o g i s t . In the same sense Keat and Urry (1975, p. 138) suggest that s t r u c t u r a l i s t accounts f a i l to consider the s u b j e c t i v e meanings a c t o r s place upon t h e i r experiences w i t h i n suggested s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e s ; there is no adequate a n a l y s i s of such meanings, how they are shared, and of how a c t o r s do not simply and d i r e c t l y respond to o b j e c t i v e s t r u c t u r a l f a c t o r s . T h i s theme i s a l s o taken up i n C i c o u r e l ' s S o c i a l O r g a n i z a t i o n of J u v e n i l e J u s t i c e 1969 and p a r t l y i n Matza's Becoming Devi ant. 4. T r a d i t i o n a l s o c i o l o g y does not show how meanings are c o n s t i t u t e d and n e g o t i a t e d between a c t o r s . Verstehen p e r s p e c t i v e s focus on t h i s " s o c i a l c o n s t r u c t i o n " of meaning. 5. T r a d i t i o n a l s o c i o l o g y has been incapable or u n w i l l i n g to make i t s own p r a c t i c e s and r e s e a r c h procedures the subject of r e s e a r c h ; research p r a c t i c e s must be r e f l e x i v e . It i s with these c r i t i c i s m s i n mind that P h i l l i p s o n and Roche conclude "Phenomenology and Ethnomethodology d i s c o v e r a theme and a problem in the n e c e s s a r i l y 32. intimate r e l a t i o n of the s o c i o l o g i c a l observer researcher and the observed actors in a common l i v e d world of meanings. The c r i t i c i s m of conventional sociology is not merely that i t has never had the imagination to discover this problem, but, more importantly, that this problem is of central s ign i f i cance for s o c i o l o g i c a l research methodology." (1976 p. 141) Some of the more extreme prac t i t i oners of ethnomethodology hold that sociology in general has no advantages whatsoever over commonsense (Douglas, 1971). P o s i t i v i s t sociology, i t is charged, in general assumes that consensual norms underly laws and that these w i l l be c l e a r l y followed except by deviants who are b a s i c a l l y and cons i s tent ly d i f ferent from other members of society ( i . e . they offer a consensus model of law and s o c i e t y ) . In contrast , ethnomethodologists argue that people follow the procedural rules of everyday l i f e , and these may be at odds with the p r e s c r i p t i o n of somebody e lse 's norms encoded into law ( i m p l i c i t l y a p l u r a l i s t model of soc i e ty ) . Indeed the procedural rules of everyday l i f e ac tua l ly give meaning to formal rules and categories . Thus formal rules and categories cannot be taken-for-granted as meaningful without documentory in terpre ta t ion of the s tructure of the rules of p r a c t i c a l a c t i v i t y . It is this argument that w i l l be taken up in much greater d e t a i l in chapter 5 on the meaning of o f f i c i a l s t a t i s t i c s . The i d e a l - t y p i c a l form of pos i t i v i sm that prac t i t i oners of the sociology of deviance have suggested underpins t r a d i t i o n a l theory is broadly consistent with the erklaren version of German philosophy. Fol lowing Kolakowski (1972) there are 33. s e v e r a l b a s i c p o s t u l a t e s o f l o g i c a l p o s i t i v i s m : 1. A h y p o t h e t i c o - d e d u c t i v e m e t h o d . 2 . T h e r u l e o f p h e n o m e n a l i s m - t h e r e i s no r e a l d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n e s s e n c e and p h e n o m e n a . 3 . T h e r u l e o f n o m i n a l i s m : no i n s i g h t f o r m u l a t e d i n g e n e r a l t e r m s c a n h a v e a n y r e a l r e f e r r e n t s o t h e r t h a n i n d i v i d u a l c o n c r e t e o b j e c t s ; t h e w o r l d we know i s a c o l l e c t i o n o f i n d i v i d u a l o b s e r v a b l e f a c t s a n d s c i e n c e a i m s a t o r d e r i n g t h e s e f a c t s . 4 . A s a c o n s e q u e n c e o f 2 . a n d 3 . an e s s e n t i a l d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n d e s c r i p t i v e and n o r m a t i v e s t a t e m e n t s i s w r o u g h t ; p o s i t i v i s m r e f u s e s t o c a l l t h e l a t t e r k n o w l e d g e . One m i g h t w i s h t o q u a l i f y K o l a k o w s k i ' s c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n o f l o g i c a l p o s i t i v i s m as e s s e n t i a l l y f o l l o w i n g a h y p o t h e t i c o -d e d u c t i v e mode o f r e a s o n i n g t o i n c l u d e an i n d u c t i v e - s t a t i s t i c a l mode a n d t h u s t o d e s c r i b e w h a t we m i g h t l a b e l as " g e n e r i c p o s i t i v i s m " ; t h i s w o u l d c o n f o r m i n g e n e r a l t o a n o m o l o g i c a l mode o f t h i n k i n g a n d i s q u i t e c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e o t h e r c l a i m s K o l a k o w s k i i d e n t i f i e d . T h e h y p o t h e t i c o - d e d u c t i v e m o d e l i s i t s e l f an i d e a l - t y p e w h i c h i n p r a c t i c e i s n e a r l y a l w a y s i n f o r m e d by e l e m e n t s o f i n d u c t i v e t h i n k i n g . I n g e n e r a l , t h e p o s i t i v i s t p e r s p e c t i v e a i m s a t d i s c o v e r i n g t h e c a u s e o f e v e n t s . T h r e e c r u c i a l a s p e c t s o f c a u s a t i o n c a n be o u t l i n e d . 1. T h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f e x t e r n a l r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n two d i s c r e t e e v e n t s o r o b j e c t s . 2 . C a u s e m u s t be t e m p o r a l l y p r i o r t o e f f e c t . 3 . T h e r e m u s t be a c o n s t a n t c o n j u n c t i o n b e t w e e n 3 4 . c a u s e a n d e f f e c t . W h i l e t r a d i t i o n a l c r i m i n o l o g i c a l t h e o r y i s o f t e n c l a s s i f i e d as p o s i t i v i s t by i t s r i v a l s , t h e u s e o f t h e t e r m t o i n c l u d e e m e r g e n t h o l i s t i c p e r s p e c t i v e s s u c h as t h o s e d e v e l o p e d b y D u r k h e i m a n d M e r t o n i s a t t h e b e s t m i s l e a d i n g , a t w o r s t i n c o r r e c t . T h e r e a s o n f o r t h e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f h o l i s t i c p e r s p e c t i v e s as p o s i t i v i s t l i e s i n t h e a t t e m p t o f v a r i e t i e s o f s t r u c t u r a l f u n c t i o n a l i s t t h e o r y t o s p e c i f y c a u s a l d e t e r m i n i s t i c r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e t w e e n s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e a n d human a c t i o n i n w h a t i s p e r c e i v e d as c l a s s i c s c i e n t i f i c r e a s o n i n g . B u t a n y h o l i s t i c s t r u c t u r a l i s t o r f u n c t i o n a l i s t a r g u m e n t b r e a c h e s t h e p o s i t i v i s t r u l e o f n o m i n a l i s m ; s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e c a n h a r d l y be c o n s i d e r e d an i n d i v i d u a l c o n c r e t e o b j e c t . F u n c t i o n a l i s m a l s o b r e a k s t h e r u l e o f p h e n o m e n a l i s m ; M e r t o n ' s l a t e n t f u n c t i o n s , f o r e x a m p l e , m o s t d e f i n i t e l y e n t a i l a d i s t i n c t i o n o f e s s e n c e a n d p h e n o m e n a . T h e t h e o r e t i c a l w o r k o f D u r k h e i m a n d M e r t o n i s t h u s b e t t e r c l a s s i f i e d ( a t l e a s t p a r t l y ) as r e a l i s t ( i n t h e s e n s e o u t l i n e d by K e a t a n d U r r y - - 1 9 7 5 , p p . 8 1 - 8 7 - r e f e r r i n g t o D u r k h e i m ) . T r a d i t i o n a l t h e o r y t h u s e m b r a c e s a v a r i e t y o f a p p r o a c h e s . S i m i l a r l y , v e r s t e h e n c r i m i n o l o g y i n c l u d e s a number o f p e r s p e c t i v e s . P e r s p e c t i v e s W i t h i n V e r s t e h e n C r i m i n o l o g y T h e s o c i o l o g y o f d e v i a n c e c a n g e n e r a l l y be d e s c r i b e d as t a k i n g a v e r s t e h e n p o s i t i o n i n i t s a p p r o a c h t o t h e s t u d y o f 3 5 . c r i m e a n d s o c i a l c o n t r o l . I t s t a n d s i n s t a r k c o n t r a d i s t i n c t i o n t o t h e e r k l a r e n t y p e p o s i t i o n o f p o s i t i v i s m w i t h i n c r i m i n o l o g y , a l t h o u g h , as has b e e n s u g g e s t e d , a number o f c r i t i c s o f t r a d i t i o n a l t h e o r y h a v e o f t e n t e n d e d t o make t h e t e r m p o s i t i v i s m e m b r a c e p o s i t i o n s t h a t i t r e a l l y does n o t a d e q u a t e l y d e s c r i b e . N e v e r t h e l e s s t h e s e s t r u c t u r a l p e r s p e c t i v e s do s h a r e a common g r o u n d w i t h p o s i t i v i s m t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t t h e y a r e c o n c e r n e d w i t h d e v e l o p i n g d e t e r m i n i s t i c c a u s a l e x p l a n a t i o n s . A n d i t i s t h e v i s i o n o f c a u s a l d e t e r m i n i sm e m b o d i e d i n t r a d i t i o n a l c r i m i n o l o g i c a l t h e o r y t h a t p r o m p t e d t h e l i k e s o f M a t z a ' s c r i t i q u e o f t h e m o d e l o f man u n d e r p i n n i n g b o t h p o s i t i v i s m a n d s t r u c t u r a l i s m . H i s D e l i n q u e n c y a n d D r i f t ( 1 9 6 4 ) t h u s b e g i n s w i t h a c r i t i q u e o f t h e " p o s i t i v e d e l i n q u e n t " , t h e d e l i n q u e n t o f t r a d i t i o n a l t h e o r y , a n d p r o c e e d s t o r e i n t r o d u c e t h e c l a s s i c a l n o t i o n o f f r e e - w i l l o f f e r i n g a " s o f t " d e t e r m i n i s m a c k n o w l e d g i n g t h a t man i s f r e e t o c h o o s e a l b e i t i n a c o n s t r a i n e d way ( 1 9 6 4 , 1 9 6 9 ) . M a t z a i s d i f f i c u l t t o l o c a t e e x a c t l y w i t h i n t h e s o c i o l o g y o f d e v i a n c e , a l t h o u g h c l e a r l y h i s s y m p a t h y l i e s w i t h i n t e r a c t i o n i s m . S i m i l a r l y o t h e r a u t h o r s c a n o n l y be l o c a t e d g e n e r a l l y i n w h a t I h a v e d e s c r i b e d h e r e as t h e v e r s t e h e n a p p r o a c h . A number o f d i s t i n c t p o s i t i o n s h a v e e m e r g e d - my i n t e n t i o n i s s i m p l y t o p r o v i d e c a p s u l e d e s c r i p t i o n s o f t h e m by r e v i e w i n g t h e m a j o r a r g u m e n t s o f t h e m o s t s i g n i f i c a n t a u t h o r s . T h e s e d e s c r i p t i o n s a r e n e c e s s a r i l y i n a d e q u a t e f o r d e s c r i b i n g t h e r a n g e o f a r g u m e n t s , a n d t e n d t o mask c e r t a i n d i f f e r e n c e s . My p u r p o s e i s s i m p l y t o i n v e s t i g a t e t h e c o m m o n a l i t i e s o f t h e p o s i t i o n s t h a t make t h e m c o m p a t i b l e 3 6 . f o r t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f c r i m i n o l o g i c a l t h e o r y . S y m b o l i c I n t e r a c t i o n i s m r e f e r s t o a p a r t i c u l a r s e t o f o n t o l o g i c a l a s s u m p t i o n s a n d a m e t h o d o l o g y c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e m . M i t c h e l l ( 1 9 7 9 , p p . 1 7 6 - 1 7 7 ) s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e s o c i a l m e t a p h y s i c s o f s y m b o l i c i n t e r a c t i o n i s m r e s t on t h r e e b a s i c p r e m i s e s : 1) t h a t human b e i n g s a c t t o w a r d s o b j e c t s on t h e b a s i s o f m e a n i n g t h a t t h o s e o b j e c t s h a v e f o r t hem ( t h u s i m p l i c i t y d e n y i n g d e t e r m i n i s m t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t m e a n i n g i s r e l a t i v e , n o t a b s o l u t e ) 2) t h a t t h e m e a n i n g s o f s u c h o b j e c t s a r i s e o u t o f s o c i a l i n t e r a c t i o n 3) t h e s e m e a n i n g s a r e m o d i f i e d t h r o u g h an i n t e r p r e t i v e p r o c e s s u s e d by a p e r s o n i n d e a l i n g w i t h t h e o b j e c t s h e / s h e e n c o u n t e r s . G i v e n t h e s e p r e m i s e s , s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e i s v i e w e d as e m e r g i n g f r o m s o c i a l i n t e r a c t i o n , a n d c o n s t a n t l y i n f l u x . M e t h o d o l o g i c a l l y , t h e p e r s p e c t i v e i s " n a t u r a l i s t i c " i n t h e s e n s e t h a t i t s t r e s s e s t h e s t u d y o f i n t e r a c t i o n i n p a r t i c u l a r s o c i a l s i t u a t i o n s r a t h e r t h a n e x p e r i m e n t a l d e s i g n s o r s u r v e y s t u d i e s ( i t s h o u l d be n o t e d h o w e v e r t h a t i t i s n o t n a t u r a l i s t i c i n t h e p h i l o s o p h i c a l s e n s e ) . T h e p e r s p e c t i v e i s p h e n o m e n a l i s t i n t h e s e n s e t h a t i t s m e t h o d o l o g i c a l i n j u n c t i o n s c a l l f o r an a t t i t u d e o f r e s p e c t f o r t h e phenomena u n d e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n - t h e r e s e a r c h e r m u s t g a i n f i r s t - h a n d k n o w l e d g e o f t h e s o c i a l s i t u a t i o n w i t h w h i c h he o r s h e i s c o n c e r n e d , a n d d e p i c t i t as i t i s u n d e r s t o o d by t h o s e who l i v e i n i t ( M i t c h e l l , 1 9 7 9 , p p . 1 7 6 - 1 7 7 ) . S u b s e q u e n t l y t h e r e s e a r c h e r d e s c r i b e s t h e a n a l y t i c e l e m e n t s o f t h e s e t t i n g t h r o u g h t h e o r e t i c a l l y i n f o r m e d o b s e r v a t i o n . I t i s t h e s y m b o l i c 37 . i n t e r a c t i o n i s t f o c u s on l i n g u i s t i c a n d g e s t u r a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n , e s p e c i a l l y t h e r o l e o f l a n g u a g e i n t h e f o r m a t i o n o f m i n d , s e l f , a n d s o c i e t y ( T h e o d o r s o n a n d T h e o d o r s o n , 1979, p . 430) t h a t i s t a k e n up by e t h n o m e t h o d o l o g y . T h e i n t e r a c t i o n i s t p o s i t i o n c a n be t r a c e d t o M e a d ' s s o c i a l b e h a v i o u r i s m , an a t t e m p t t o c o r r e c t t h e c r u d i t i e s o f e a r l y b e h a v i o u r a l p s y c h o l o g y by s h o w i n g t h a t s t i m u l u s a n d r e s p o n s e a r e m e a n i n g f u l o n l y when v i e w e d as p a r t o f a c o m p l e t e c o m m u n i c a t i v e s y s t e m ( D e s m o n d e , p . 5 9 ) . M e a d ' s c o n c e p t i o n o f t h e human s e l f s u g g e s t s t h a t s e l f i s a p r o c e s s r a t h e r t h a n a s t r u c t u r e , c o n s t i t u t e d by w h a t he c a l l e d t h e " I " a n d t h e " m e " ; a c c o r d i n g t o Desmonde (1970, p .60) t h e " I " i s t h e r e s p o n s e o f a p e r s o n t o t h e a t t i t u d e o f o t h e r s ( a r e s p o n s e p a r t l y s h a p e d by a p e r s o n ' s b i o l o g i c a l c o n s t i t u t i o n ) , t h e "me" i s t h e o r g a n i z e d i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e a t t i t u d e s o f o t h e r s t h a t one a s s u m e s o n e s e l f . P e r s o n a l i t y a f f e c t s i n t e r a c t i o n o f t h e I a n d me a n d M e a d ' s f o r m u l a s u g g e s t s t h a t human b e h a v i o u r i s c o n s t a n t l y a d j u s t e d i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e a n t i c i p a t e d r e a c t i o n o f o t h e r p e o p l e . T h e " g e n e r a l i z e d o t h e r " r e p r e s e n t s a p e r s o n ' s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f o t h e r p e o p l e ' s a t t i t u d e s i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o t h e m e . T h u s f o r M e a d , an a c t i s c o n d u c t c o n s t r u c t e d by t h e a c t o r i n s t e a d o f a r e s p o n s e s o l i c i t e d f r o m h e r / h i m ( a s i n c r u d e f o r m s o f b e h a v i o u r i s m ) o r t h e r e s u l t o f some p r e f o r m e d o r g a n i z a t i o n i n h i m / h e r ( B l u m e r , 1970, p . 283), as i n t h e c a s e i n b i o l o g i c a l p o s i t i v i s m . B e c a u s e o f t h e s y m b o l i c n a t u r e o f s o c i a l i n t e r a c t i o n , o b j e c t s h a v e no i n t r i n s i c v a l u e - t h e y a r e human c o n s t r u c t i o n s 38. d e p e n d e n t on t h e o r i e n t a t i o n a n d a c t i o n o f p e o p l e t o w a r d t h e m ( B l u m e r , 1 9 7 0 , p . 2 8 7 ) . A s we s h a l l s e e l a t e r t h i s o b s e r v a t i o n has become c r i t i c a l i n t h e i n t e r a c t i o n i s t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f l e g a l c a t e g o r i e s , a n d i n t h e a m p l i f i c a t i o n o f d e v i a n c e t h e s i s i n h e r e n t i n t h e l a b e l l i n g p e r s p e c t i v e . F o r M e a d n e i t h e r r e s o r t i n g t o e x p l a n a t i o n o f b e h a v i o u r s o l e l y i n t e r m s o f s o c i e t a l f a c t o r s ( s u c h as r o l e s , v a l u e s o r s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e s ) n o r t o p s y c h o l o g i c a l i m p e r a t i v e s ( m o t i v e s , f e e l i n g s a n d a t t i d e s ) i s s u f f i c i e n t . Human b e i n g s r e s p o n d d i r e c t l y t o one a n o t h e r ' s a c t i o n s , a n d t h i s s o c i a l i n t e r a c t i o n becomes a p o s i t i v e s h a p i n g f o r c e ; e s t a b l i s h e d p a t t e r n s o f g r o u p l i f e a r e d e p e n d e n t on t h e r e c u r r i n g a f f i r m a t i v e d e f i n i t i o n s t h a t t a k e p l a c e i n s y m b o l i c i n t e r a c t i o n . T h u s " j o i n t - a c t i o n " becomes t h e m o s t f u n d a m e n t a l b u i l d i n g b l o c k o f s o c i e t y r a t h e r t h a n t h e s t r u c t u r e o f s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s ( a l t h o u g h M e a d d i d r e c o g n i z e t h e i r e f f e c t ) o r p s y c h o l o g i c a l e s s e n c e s ( B l u m e r , 1 9 7 0 , p p . 2 8 6 - 2 8 9 ) . S o c i a l P h e n o m e n o l o g y ( o r p h e n o m e n o l o g y o f t h e n a t u r a l a t t i t u d e ) . A l t h o u g h t h e d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e p h e n o m e n o l o g y o f t h e n a t u r a l a t t i t u d e a n d t r a n s c e n d e n t a l p h e n o m e n o l o g y was d e v e l o p e d by H u s s e r l , much o f h i s w o r k was d e v o t e d t o t h e e l u c i d a t i o n o f t r a n s c e n d e n t a l p h e n o m e n o l o g y . A l f r e d S c h u t z ( 1 9 7 0 ) was t h e f i r s t a u t h o r t o a r t i c u l a t e t h e c o n n e c t i o n s b e t w e e n p h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l p h i l o s o p h y a n d s o c i a l t h e o r y i n a p e r s p e c t i v e d r a w i n g as much f r o m Webe r as f r o m H u s s e r l . S c h u t z a d o p t e d H u s s e r l ' s c o n c e p t i o n o f k n o w l e d g e as 3 9 . r o o t e d w h o l l y i n t h e " l e b e n s w e l t " ( l i f e w o r l d ) i n w h i c h i n d i v i d u a l s s h a r e i n t e r s u b j e c t i v e m e a n i n g . T h e c o n n e c t i o n w i t h Webe r l a y i n S c h u t z ' d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e m e t h o d o f v e r s t e h e n as an a p p r o p r i a t e means o f p e n e t r a t i n g t h e l i f e w o r l d s o f o t h e r p e o p l e , a n d f o r u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e i n t e r s u b j e c t i v e m e a n i n g s t h e y s h a r e d . W e b e r ' s w o r k , b e c a u s e o f i t s c o n c e n t r a t i o n on s u b j e c t i v i t y , r e p r e s e n t e d a b r i d g e b e t w e e n p h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l p h i l o s o p h y a n d s o c i o l o g y , t h e s o c i o l o g i s t i n S c h u t z ' p r o g r a m b e c o m i n g an i n t e r p r e t e r o f human m o t i v a t i o n s ( c f W a g n e r ' s i n t r o d u c t i o n t o S c h u t z , 1 9 7 0 , p p . 1 - 1 1 ) . S c h u t z ' s o c i a l p h e n o m e n o l o g y f o c u s e s on t h e c o g n i t i v e s e t t i n g o f t h e l i f e - w o r l d , a c t i o n i n t h e s o c i a l w o r l d , a n d t h e n a t u r e o f s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s . I n a p h i l o s o p h i c a l s e n s e he s o u g h t t o d e s c r i b e a p h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l f o u n d a t i o n f o r s o c i o l o g y , a n d i n s o d o i n g t o d e m a r c a t e t h e p r o v i n c e o f s o c i o l o g i c a l r e a s o n i n g a n d m e t h o d o l o g y i n t h e w o r l d o f e v e r y d a y l i f e . I t i s i m p o r t a n t t o n o t e i n p a s s i n g t h e s i m i l a r i t y o f S c h u t z ' p r o j e c t a n d t h a t t a k e n up by s y m b o l i c i n t e r a c t i o n i s t s - b o t h f o c u s on mundane e x p e r i e n c e i n t e r m s o f t h e o r d e r a n d m e a n i n g o f t h e w o r l d s o f e v e r y d a y l i f e . S c h u t z ' i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f t h e c o g n i t i v e s e t t i n g o f t h e l i f e w o r l d e x a m i n e d t h e n a t u r a l a t t i t u d e o f t h e s o c i a l a c t o r s , t h e f a c t o r s c i r c u m s c r i b i n g t h e n a t u r a l a t t i t u d e a n d t h e n a t u r e o f t h e s t o c k o f k n o w l e d g e f o r a c t o r s ' m e a n i n g c o n s t r u c t i o n i n an i n t e r s u b j e c t i v e s e t t i n g . M e a d ' s n o t i o n o f " j o i n t a c t i o n " i s s i m i l a r t o S c h u t z ' u s e o f " i n t e r s u b j e c t i v i t y " - b o t h s u g g e s t m e a n i n g i s n o t a b s o l u t e , b u t c r e a t e d t h r o u g h p e o p l e ' s 4 0 . i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h e a c h o t h e r . S c h u t z t h e o r y o f s o c i a l a c t i o n c e n t r e d o n t h e s u b j e c t ' s " i n t e n t i o n s " . I t s h o u l d be n o t e d t h a t t h e m e a n i n g o f " i n t e n t i o n " c a n be c o n f u s i n g i n t h i s c o n t e x t , s i n c e t h e s u b j e c t i s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y a w a r e o f h i s / h e r i n t e n t i o n s . N e v e r t h e l e s s , i n t h e p h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l p r o g r a m c o n s c i o u s n e s s i s a l w a y s c o n s c i o u s n e s s o f s o m e t h i n g , a n d i n t h i s s e n s e c o n s c i o u s n e s s a l w a y s has an " i n t e n t i o n a l o b j e c t " ( S c h u t z , 1 9 7 0 , p p . 1 5 0 - 1 5 2 , 3 1 8 - 3 1 9 ) . N a t u r a l a t t i t u d e p h e n o m e n o l o g y has two i m p e r a t i v e s ; t h e d e s c r i p t i v e i m p e r a t i v e shows w h a t t h e phenomenon i s ( i n a s i m i l a r way t h a t p a r t o f t h e i n t e r a c t i o n i s t p r o g r a m a t t e m p t s t o d e p i c t s o c i a l s i t u a t i o n s as t h e y a r e u n d e r s t o o d by t h o s e who l i v e i n t h e m ) , t h e c o n s t i t u t i v e i m p e r a t i v e shows how i t i s c o n s t i t u t e d ( t h e i n t e r a c t i o n i s t s t h e o r e t i c a l a c c o u n t o f t h e a n a l y t i c e l e m e n t s o f a s o c i a l s i t u a t i o n ) . T h e c e n t r a l s l o g a n o f m o r e r e c e n t p h e n o m e n o l o g i s t s e c h o e d b y s y m b o l i c i n t e r a c t i o n i s t s " b a c k t o t h e t h i n g s t h e m s e l v e s " i s a p l e a t o g e t away f r o m s o c i o l o g i c a l a b s t r a c t i o n s n o t d e r i v e d f r o m s o c i a l r e a l i t y . A s we s h a l l s e e s h o r t l y , i t was t h i s b e l i e f t h a t p r o p e l l e d c r i m i n o l o g i c a l i n t e r e s t i n t h e s e o n t o l o g i c a l a n d e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l p o s i t i o n s as a t t e m p t s w e r e made t o u n d e r s t a n d c r i m e , d e l i n q u e n c y a n d g e n e r a l d e v i a n c y n o t f r o m an " o b j e c t i v e t e c h n i c a l " p o s i t i o n , b u t i n t h e s u b j e c t i v e t e r m s o f d e v i a n t s t h e m s e l v e s . I t r e p r e s e n t e d an e x p e d i t i o n i n t o t h e w o r l d o f e v e r y d a y d e v i a n t r e a l i t y ; t o d e s c r i b e i t , u n d e r s t a n d i t s s t r u c t u r e , a n d r e p r e s e n t i t s r a t i o n a l i t y when u n d e r s t o o d f r o m a d i f f e r e n t p o i n t o f v i e w . T h e p h e n o m e n o l o g y o f S c h u t z 4 1 . s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e s t r u c t u r e s a n d h i d d e n i m p e r a t i v e s o f e v e r y d a y l i f e a r e e s s e n t i a l l y t a k e n - f o r - g r a n t e d , a n d o n l y by d i s t a n c i n g o u r s e l v e s f r o m i t c a n we e v e r b e g i n t o u n d e r s t a n d i t . I n t h i s r e g a r d , t h e s o c i o l o g y o f d e v i a n c e t u r n e d t o t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f t h e t a k e n - f o r - g r a n t e d i m p e r a t i v e s u n d e r l y i n g d e v i a n t r e a l i t i e s a n d a c t i o n s ; o n l y t h r o u g h t h e p e n e t r a t i o n o f t h e t a k e n - f o r - g r a n t e d w o r l d c o u l d i n t e r p r e t i v e u n d e r s t a n d i n g ( a s o p p o s e d t o c a u s a l e x p l a n a t i o n i n i t s d e t e r m i n i s t i c s e n s e ) o f c r i m e a n d d e v i a n c e be c o n s t r u c t e d . S i m i l a r l y e t h n o m e t h o d o l o g i s t s , g u i d e d by s y m b o l i c i n t e r a c t i o n i s m , p h e n o m e n o l o g y a n d c e r t a i n a s p e c t s o f W i t t g e n s t e i n ' s l a n g u a g e p h i l o s o p h y , make t h e t a k e n - f o r - g r a n t e d a s p e c t s o f t h e w o r l d o f e v e r y d a y l i f e t h e i r c e n t r a l i n t e r e s t . E t h n o m e t h o d o l o g y c o n c e n t r a t e s on t h e d e s c r i p t i v e a n d i n t e r p r e t i v e e l e m e n t s o f s o c i a l p h e n o m e n o l o g y . T h u s e t h n o m e t h o d o l o g y c a n be v i e w e d as a b r a n d o f p h e n o m e n o l o g y ( T a y l o r , W a l t o n a n d Y o u n g , 1 9 7 3 , p . 1 9 9 ) a l t h o u g h C o u l t e r a r g u e s t h a t t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p i s n o t c l e a r ( 1 9 7 4 , p . 1 2 3 ) , a n d Baumann ( 1 9 7 3 ) s u g g e s t s t h a t i n a p u r e l y p h i l o s o p h i c a l s e n s e e t h n o m e t h o d o l o g y i s c l o s e r t o i t s p r o f e s s e d a r c h enemy p o s i t i v i s m t h a n i t i s t o H u s s e r l i a n p h e n o m e n o l o g y ( t h e s u g g e s t i o n i s t h a t e t h n o m e t h o d o l o g y i s s i m p l y t r y i n g t o s p e c i f y a d i f f e r e n t s e t o f c o r r e s p o n d e n c e r u l e s b e t w e e n o b s e r v a t i o n a l a n d t h e o r e t i c a l t e r m s t h a n t h o s e s u g g e s t e d by p o s i t i v i s t p h i l o s o p h y ) . L e a v i n g a s i d e f o r t h e moment t h e q u e s t i o n o f t h e p h i l o s o p h i c a l s t a t u s o f e t h n o m e t h o d o l o g y , i t s c o n n e c t i o n w i t h 4 2 . p h e n o m e n o l o g y , d e s p i t e C o u l t e r ' s a r g u m e n t , does seem s u f f i c i e n t l y c l e a r - b o t h G a r f i n k e l (who c o i n e d t h e t e r m ) a n d C i c o u r e l (who i s a s e l f - a c k n o w l e d g e d p r a c t i t i o n e r o f t h e p o s i t i o n ) p a y c o n s i d e r a b l e homage t o S c h u t z . A c c o r d i n g t o G a r f i n k e l : " E t h n o m e t h o d o l o g i c a l s t u d i e s a n a l y s e e v e r y d a y a c t i v i t i e s as m e m b e r s ' m e t h o d s f o r m a k i n g t h o s e same a c t i v i t i e s v i s i b l y r a t i o n a l a n d r e p o r t a b l e f o r a l l p r a c t i c a l p u r p o s e s i . e . ' a c c o u n t a b l e ' as o r g a n i z a t i o n s o f c o m m o n p l a c e e v e r y d a y a c t i v i t i e s . " ( 1 9 6 7 , p . 7 ) L i k e p h e n o m e n o l o g y , e t h n o m e t h o d o l o g y c o n c e n t r a t e s on t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l i t y o f t h e commonsense w o r l d . S p e c i a l a t t e n t i o n i s p a i d t o t h e " i n d e x i c a l i t y " o f l a n g u a g e a n d l a n g u a g e c a t e g o r i e s . L a n g u a g e i n d e x e s t h e t a k e n - f o r - g r a n t e d r u l e s u n d e r l y i n g d a i l y e x i s t e n c e , r u l e s w h i c h c a n n o t be u n c o v e r e d by s i m p l y s t u d y i n g t h e r u l e s o f l a n g u a g e u s a g e . T h e " e t c e t e r a a s s u m p t i o n " r e f e r s t o t h e u n s p o k e n i m p l i c a t i o n s o f l a n g u a g e t h a t a r e t a k e n - f o r - g r a n t e d by i t s u s e r s ; f o r e x a m p l e t h e t e r m " d e l i n q u e n t " c o n t a i n s a p a r t i c u l a r , b u t o n l y i m p l i c i t , s e t o f i m a g e s a b o u t t h e s o c i a l t y p e s who w h o u l d be c o n s i d e r e d d e l i n q u e n t as w e l l as r e f e r r i n g t o s p e c i f i c k i n d s o f b e h a v i o u r . I n g e n e r a l e t h n o m e t h o d o l o g y s u g g e s t s t h a t s o c i a l r e a l i t y i s an o n - g o i n g p r a c t i c a l a c c o m p l i s h m e n t o f t h e c o n c e r t e d a c t i v i t i e s o f e v e r y d a y l i f e . T h e w o r l d o f e v e r d a y l i f e i s a s s u m e d b y i t s i n h a b i t a n t s t o be known i n common s u c h t h a t t h e y t r e a t i t s f e a t u r e s as n a t u r a l o b j e c t i v e f a c t s ; t h e s e a t t i t u d e s e n s u r e t h a t t h e w o r l d o f e v e r y d a y l i f e i s u n q u e s t i o n e d and exempt f r o m s c r u t i n y ( M i t c h e l l , 1 9 7 9 ) . T h e c r i t i c a l and o f t e n 43. p o l e m i c a l t h r u s t o f e t h n o m e t h o d o l o g y l i e s i n t h e s u g g e s t i o n t h a t s o c i o l o g i s t s a r e no d i f f e r e n t f r o m o t h e r s o c i a l a c t o r s i n t h a t t h e y a l s o t a k e t h e mundane s o c i a l w o r l d f o r g r a n t e d , t y p i c a l l y b e i n g m o r e i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e s o c i a l s t r u c t u r a l a r r a n g e m e n t s w h i c h t h e y p r e s u m e a r e " b e h i n d " t h e a p p e a r a n c e s o f mundane s o c i a l r e a l i t y ( M i t c h e l l , 1 9 7 9 ) . S y m b o l i c i n t e r a c t i o n i s m , s o c i a l p h e n o m e n o l o g y a n d e t h n o m e t h o d o l o g y s h a r e i n common t h e r e j e c t i o n o f s t r u c t u r a l l y b a s e d a n a l y s e s w h i c h do n o t s t a r t f r o m t h e c o n v e n t i o n s o f e v e r y d a y l i f e . A l t h o u g h t h e r e a r e d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n t h e t h r e e p e r s p e c t i v e s , t h e y a r e e s s e n t i a l l y c o m p a t i b l e . T h e d i m e n s i o n s o f t h i s c o m p a t i b i l i t y may now be s p e c i f i e d m o r e c o n c r e t e l y . I n t e g r a t i v e E l e m e n t s o f V e r s t e h e n P e r s p e c t i v e s T h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t p h i l o s o p h i c a l u n i t y o f t h e t h r e e p e r s p e c t i v e s i d e n t i f i e d as c o n s t i t u t i n g t h e s o c i o l o g y o f d e v i a n c e i s t h a t r a t h e r t h a n a t t e m p t i n g t o d e v e l o p d e t e r m i n i s t i c c a u s a l e x p l a n a t i o n s t h e y s e e k t o d e v e l o p i n t e r p r e t i v e u n d e r s t a n d i n g . I n t h i s e n d e a v o r t h e v a r i o u s p e r s p e c t i v e s h a v e t h r e e p r i n c i p a l e l e m e n t s i n common. A c c o r d i n g t o A n d r e w T u d o r , t h e y a r e ( 1 9 7 7 , p p . 4 8 2 - 4 8 3 ) : 1. T h e P o s t u l a t e o f I n t e g r i t y o f t h e P h e n o m e n o n : s u g g e s t i n g t h a t t h e r e s e a r c h e r m u s t a d h e r e t o t h e c a t e g o r i c a l s y s t e m s a n d d e s c r i p t i o n s i n h e r e n t i n e v e r y d a y a c c o u n t i n g p r o c e d u r e s . I t i s an a t t e m p t t o r e m a i n t r u e t o t h e s t a t e o f a f f a i r s i n t h e phenomenon u n d e r s t u d y ( t h e s e s t a t e m e n t s a r e u s u a l l y q u i t e e x p l i c i t as i n D o u g l a s , 1 9 6 7 ; C i c o u r e l , 1 9 6 8 ; a n d 4 4 . M a t z a , 1 9 6 9 ) . 2 . T h e p o s t u l a t e o f t h e c e n t r a l i t y o f e v e r y d a y l i f e : t h i s s u g g e s t s t h a t s t u d i e s m u s t b e g i n w i t h t h e phenomena o f e v e r y d a y l i f e , a t r a d i t i o n b e g i n i n g w i t h H u s s e r l i n h i s r e a c t i o n t o E n l i g h t e n m e n t p h i l o s o p h y . D o u g l a s ( 1 9 7 1 ) a s s e r t s t h a t t h i s b e g i n n i n g i s a l s o t h e end o f s t u d y a n d t h a t a n y m o r e a b s t r a c t l e v e l o f a n a l y s i s i s u n w a r r a n t e d . 3 . T h e p o s t u l a t e o f t h e c e n t r a l i t y o f m e a n i n g : w h i c h s p e c i f i e s w h a t c a n be c o u n t e d as e v e r y d a y l i f e . T h e phenomena s t u d i e d by t h e s o c i o l o g i s t a r e d e f i n e d by t h e m e a n i n g s t h a t a c t o r s g i v e t o t h e i r own a n d o t h e r s ' s i t u a t i o n s . T h e S u b s t a n c e o f t h e S o c i o l o g y o f D e v i a n c e W h i l e much o f t h e s o c i o l o g y o f d e v i a n c e has b e e n c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f a t h e o r e t i c a l c r i t i q u e o f t r a d i t i o n a l c r i m i n o l o g y a n d t o o f f e r i n g p r o g r a m m a t i c s t a t e m e n t s d e s i g n e d t o r e o r i e n t t h e e p i s t e m o l o g y and m e t h o d o l o g y o f t h e c r i m i n o l o g i c a l e n t e r p r i s e , a s i g n i f i c a n t b o d y o f e m p i r i c a l r e s e a r c h has f o l l o w e d t h e g u i d e l i n e s e s t a b l i s h e d by M a t z a ( 1 9 6 4 , 1 9 6 9 ) , L e m e r t ( 1 9 5 1 , 1 9 6 7 ) , K i t s u s e a n d C i c o u r e l ( 1 9 6 3 ) a n d o t h e r s i n d e v e l o p i n g an i n t e r p r e t i v e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f c r i m e a n d d e l i n q u e n c y . Two m a i n b o d i e s o f e m p i r i c a l l i t e r a t u r e h a v e d e v e l o p e d , b o t h o f w h i c h g e n e r a l l y f o l l o w an e t h n o g r a p h i
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Geography, crime and social control Lowman, John 1983
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| Title | Geography, crime and social control |
| Creator |
Lowman, John |
| Publisher | University of British Columbia |
| Date Issued | 1983 |
| Description | The purpose of this dissertation is to describe and challenge some of the basic premises, implicit ontological and epistemological beliefs and, by extension, the political values which form the core of the geography of crime. While the discussion concentrates on published research undertaken by geographers, it also introduces relevant research conducted in kindred disciplines utilizing a spatial or environmental perspective (urban sociology and environmental criminology). As a critical theoretical exegesis, the principal focus of the critique is the analytic separation of crime from the control of crime, which characterises much of the geographer's research manifesto. Geographers have tended to study either crime or (much less frequently) the judicial system without any systematic consideration of the impact of the control system on crime patterns. In explaining crime patterns geographers have focused their analyses on the criminal actor or, more commonly, the criminal event. In advocating the advantages of alternatives to the instrumentalist or positivist philosophy guiding the geography of crime, the discussion of interactionist and critical perspectives is designed to show how they facilitate an understanding of the way that control processes exercised by police, the courts, and by elected officials are vital to the explanation of crime patterns. The introduction of these alternative theoretical positions also serves to raise questions about the correctionalist impulse of much of the geography of crime, and its technocratic purpose. The discussion of the philosophical, theoretical and political consequences of research strategies which treat crime and control as analytically separate entities lays the foundation for a geographic perspective on crime in its socio-legal context, for an examination of the effects of criminal justice policy on the actual geography of crime; in short, for an integrated analysis of crime and its control. The effect of the "control environment" is conceptualized at three different levels. The first concerns the influence of various interpretations of official crime statistics on "scientific" images of who the criminals actually are. Conflicting interpretations are reviewed, particularly interactionist and critical perspectives which suggest that maps of crime based on official police statistics may be seriously distorted in a way that geographers have rarely considered; crime maps may be "mental maps" reflecting the selective activity of control agents as much as they represent officially sanctioned criminal behaviour. The second effect of the control environment on criminal behaviour is examined in terms of "ecological labelling", the process through which law enforcement practices may (in part) help shape the "problem" status of various city neighbourhoods or subcultural groups. The third level of analysis concerns the most direct impact of control practice on the configuration of crime. In terms of a geographic perspective at this level of analysis the relationship between crime and control is systematized through the concept of "displacement". Displacement effects are defined as changes of criminal (or related) behaviour in response to changes in legislation, case law, law enforcement policies, or crime prevention programs. In this section the emphasis changes from an analysis of who the criminals are, to an analysis of what certain offenders do (particularly in terms of their adaptive spatial behaviour). A review of research demonstrating the wide-ranging occurrence of displacement phenomena is presented to supplement two empirical vignettes of crime in Vancouver (one on street prostitution patterns, the other on patterns of burglary) which demonstrate the spatial adjustments of offenders to changes in the "control environment". The dissertation concludes by describing the implications of an integrated analysis of crime and control for a philosophical, epistemological and methodological reorientation of the geography of crime. |
| Subject |
Crime prevention Social control |
| Genre |
Thesis/Dissertation |
| Type |
Text |
| Language | eng |
| Date Available | 2010-05-02 |
| Provider | Vancouver : University of British Columbia Library |
| Rights | For non-commercial purposes only, such as research, private study and education. Additional conditions apply, see Terms of Use https://open.library.ubc.ca/terms_of_use. |
| DOI | 10.14288/1.0095865 |
| URI | http://hdl.handle.net/2429/24315 |
| Degree |
Doctor of Philosophy - PhD |
| Program |
Geography |
| Affiliation |
Arts, Faculty of Geography, Department of |
| Degree Grantor | University of British Columbia |
| Campus |
UBCV |
| Scholarly Level | Graduate |
| AggregatedSourceRepository | DSpace |
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