Arts, Faculty of
Geography, Department of
DSpace
UBCV
Lowman, John
Doctor of Philosophy - PhD
University of British Columbia
The purpose of this dissertation is to describe and challenge some of the basic premises, implicit ontological and epistemological beliefs and, by extension, the political values which form the core of the geography of crime. While the discussion concentrates on published research undertaken by geographers, it also introduces relevant research conducted in kindred disciplines utilizing a spatial or environmental perspective (urban sociology and environmental criminology). As a critical theoretical exegesis, the principal focus of the critique is the analytic separation of crime from the control of crime, which characterises much of the geographer's research manifesto. Geographers have tended to study either crime or (much less frequently) the judicial system without any systematic consideration of the impact of the control system on crime patterns. In explaining crime patterns geographers have focused their analyses on the criminal actor or, more commonly, the criminal event. In advocating the advantages of alternatives to the instrumentalist or positivist philosophy guiding the geography of crime, the discussion of interactionist and critical perspectives is designed to show how they facilitate an understanding of the way that control processes exercised by police, the courts, and by elected officials are vital to the explanation of crime patterns. The introduction of these alternative theoretical positions also serves to raise questions about the correctionalist impulse of much of the geography of crime, and its technocratic purpose. The discussion of the philosophical, theoretical and political consequences of research strategies which treat crime and control as analytically separate entities lays the foundation for a geographic perspective on crime in its socio-legal context, for an examination of the effects of criminal justice policy on the actual geography of crime; in short, for an integrated analysis of crime and its control. The effect of the "control environment" is conceptualized at three different levels. The first concerns the influence of various interpretations of official crime statistics on "scientific" images of who the criminals actually are. Conflicting interpretations are reviewed, particularly interactionist and critical perspectives which suggest that maps of crime based on official police statistics may be seriously distorted in a way that geographers have rarely considered; crime maps may be "mental maps" reflecting the selective activity of control agents as much as they represent officially sanctioned criminal behaviour. The second effect of the control environment on criminal behaviour is examined in terms of "ecological labelling", the process through which law enforcement practices may (in part) help shape the "problem" status of various city neighbourhoods or subcultural groups. The third level of analysis concerns the most direct impact of control practice on the configuration of crime. In terms of a geographic perspective at this level of analysis the relationship between crime and control is systematized through the concept of "displacement". Displacement effects are defined as changes of criminal (or related) behaviour in response to changes in legislation, case law, law enforcement policies, or crime prevention programs. In this section the emphasis changes from an analysis of who the criminals are, to an analysis of what certain offenders do (particularly in terms of their adaptive spatial behaviour). A review of research demonstrating the wide-ranging occurrence of displacement phenomena is presented to supplement two empirical vignettes of crime in Vancouver (one on street prostitution patterns, the other on patterns of burglary) which demonstrate the spatial adjustments of offenders to changes in the "control environment". The dissertation concludes by describing the implications of an integrated analysis of crime and control for a philosophical, epistemological and methodological reorientation of the geography of crime.
GEOGRAPHY, CRIME AND SOCIAL CONTROL by JOHN LOWMAN A THESIS SUBMITTED IN THE REQUIREMENTS DOCTOR OF PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF FOR THE DEGREE OF PHILOSOPHY THE FACULTY OF (Depar tment i n GRADUATE STUDIES of Geography) We accept t h i s t h e s i s as conforming to the r e q u i r e d standard The U n i v e r s i t y of B r i t i s h Columbia J u l y 1983 John Lowman 1983 In p r e s e n t i n g t h i s t h e s i s i n p a r t i a l f u l f i l m e n t of the requirements f o r an advanced degree at the U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h Columbia, I agree t h a t the L i b r a r y s h a l l make i t f r e e l y a v a i l a b l e f o r r e f e r e n c e and study. I f u r t h e r agree t h a t p e r m i s s i o n f o r e x t e n s i v e copying o f t h i s t h e s i s f o r s c h o l a r l y purposes may be granted by the head of my department or by h i s or her r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s . I t i s understood t h a t copying or p u b l i c a t i o n o f t h i s t h e s i s f o r f i n a n c i a l g a i n s h a l l not be allowed without my w r i t t e n p e r m i s s i o n . Department o f The U n i v e r s i t y of B r i t i s h Columbia 1956 Main Mall Vancouver, Canada V6T 1Y3 E-6 (3/81) ABSTRACT The purpose of t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n i s to d e s c r i b e and cha l l e n g e some of the b a s i c premises, i m p l i c i t o n t o l o g i c a l and e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l b e l i e f s and, by ext e n s i o n , the p o l i t i c a l values which form the core of the geography of crime. While the d i s c u s s i o n concentrates on p u b l i s h e d research undertaken by geographers, i t a l s o introduces r e l e v a n t research conducted i n kindred d i s c i p l i n e s u t i l i z i n g a s p a t i a l or environmental p e r s p e c t i v e (urban s o c i o l o g y and environmental c r i m i n o l o g y ) . As a c r i t i c a l t h e o r e t i c a l e xegesis, the p r i n c i p a l focus of the c r i t i q u e i s the a n a l y t i c s e p a r a t i o n of crime from the c o n t r o l of crime, which c h a r a c t e r i s e s much of the geographer's r e s e a r c h m a n i f e s t o . Geographers have tended to study e i t h e r crime or (much l e s s f r e q u e n t l y ) the j u d i c i a l system without any systematic c o n s i d e r a t i o n of the impact of the c o n t r o l system on crime p a t t e r n s . In e x p l a i n i n g crime patterns geographers have focused t h e i r analyses on the c r i m i n a l actor or, more commonly, the c r i m i n a l event. In advocating the advantages of a l t e r n a t i v e s to the i n s t r u m e n t a l i s t or p o s i t i v i s t philosophy g u i d i n g the geography of crime, the d i s c u s s i o n of i n t e r a c t i o n i s t and c r i t i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e s i s designed to show how they f a c i l i t a t e an understanding of the way that c o n t r o l processes e x e r c i s e d by p o l i c e , the c o u r t s , and by e l e c t e d o f f i c i a l s are v i t a l to the e x p l a n a t i o n of crime p a t t e r n s . The i n t r o d u c t i o n of these a l t e r n a t i v e t h e o r e t i c a l p o s i t i o n s a l s o serves to r a i s e questions about the c o r r e c t i o n a l i s t impulse of much of the geography of i i . crime, and i t s t e c h n o c r a t i c purpose. The d i s c u s s i o n of the p h i l o s o p h i c a l , t h e o r e t i c a l and p o l i t i c a l consequences of research s t r a t e g i e s which t r e a t crime and c o n t r o l as a n a l y t i c a l l y separate e n t i t i e s lays the foundation f o r a geographic p e r s p e c t i v e on crime i n i t s s o c i o - l e g a l context, for an examination of the e f f e c t s of c r i m i n a l j u s t i c e p o l i c y on the a c t u a l geography of crime; i n s h o r t , for an i n t e g r a t e d a n a l y s i s of crime and i t s c o n t r o l . The e f f e c t of the " c o n t r o l environment" i s c o n c e p t u a l i z e d at three d i f f e r e n t l e v e l s . The f i r s t concerns the i n f l u e n c e of vari o u s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s of o f f i c i a l crime s t a t i s t i c s on " s c i e n t i f i c " images of who the c r i m i n a l s a c t u a l l y are. C o n f l i c t i n g i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s are reviewed, p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t e r a c t i o n i s t and c r i t i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e s which suggest that maps of crime based on o f f i c i a l p o l i c e s t a t i s t i c s may be s e r i o u s l y d i s t o r t e d in a way that geographers have r a r e l y considered; crime maps may be "mental maps" r e f l e c t i n g the s e l e c t i v e a c t i v i t y of c o n t r o l agents as much as they represent o f f i c i a l l y s anctioned c r i m i n a l behaviour. The second e f f e c t of the c o n t r o l environment on c r i m i n a l behaviour i s examined i n terms of " e c o l o g i c a l l a b e l l i n g " , the process through which law enforcement p r a c t i c e s may ( i n part) help shape the "problem" stat u s of various c i t y neighbourhoods or s u b c u l t u r a l groups. The t h i r d l e v e l of a n a l y s i s concerns the most d i r e c t impact of c o n t r o l p r a c t i c e on the c o n f i g u r a t i o n of crime. In terms of a geographic p e r s p e c t i v e at t h i s l e v e l of a n a l y s i s the r e l a t i o n s h i p i i i . between crime and c o n t r o l i s systematized through the concept of "displacement". Displacement e f f e c t s are d e f i n e d as changes of c r i m i n a l (or r e l a t e d ) behaviour i n response to changes i n l e g i s l a t i o n , case law, law enforcement p o l i c i e s , or crime p r e v e n t i o n programs. In t h i s s e c t i o n the emphasis changes from an a n a l y s i s of who the c r i m i n a l s are, to an a n a l y s i s of what c e r t a i n o f f e n d e r s do ( p a r t i c u l a r l y i n terms of t h e i r adaptive s p a t i a l b e h a v i o u r ) . A review of research demonstrating the wide-ranging occurrence of displacement phenomena i s presented to supplement two e m p i r i c a l v i g n e t t e s of crime i n Vancouver (one on s t r e e t p r o s t i t u t i o n p a t t e r n s , the other on pat t e r n s of b u r g l a r y ) which demonstrate the s p a t i a l adjustments of of f e n d e r s to changes in the " c o n t r o l environment". The d i s s e r t a t i o n concludes by d e s c r i b i n g the i m p l i c a t i o n s of an i n t e g r a t e d a n a l y s i s of crime and c o n t r o l for a p h i l o s o p h i c a l , e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l and methodological r e o r i e n t a t i o n of the geography of crime. i v. TABLE OF CONTENTS A b s t r a c t i i L i s t of Tables ix L i s t of F i g u r e s x Acknowledgements x i Chapter 1 A Preamble on Geography, Crime and S o c i a l C o n t r o l 1 Towards a R e c o n s t r u c t i o n of the Geography of Crime 2 O u t l i n e of the D i s s e r t a t i o n 10 Chapter 2 The S o c i o l o g y of Deviance and the C r i t i q u e of T r a d i t i o n a l C r i m i n o l o g y 18 Preamble 18 The Emergence of the S o c i o l o g y of Deviance 23 The S o c i o l o g y of Deviance as Verstehen 26 The Verstehen E r k l a r e n Controversy 27 Verstehen P e r s p e c t i v e s and the C r i t i q u e of T r a d i t i o n a l S o c i o l o g y and C r i m i n o l o g y 30 P e r s p e c t i v e s W i t h i n Verstehen C r i m i n o l o g y 35 Symbolic I n t e r a c t i oni sm 37 S o c i a l Phenomenology 39 Ethnome thodol ogy 42 I n t e g r a t i v e Elements of the Verstehen Perspect i ves 44 The Substance of the S o c i o l o g y of Deviance 45 Chapter 3 P o w e r - C o n f l i c t and R a d i c a l Theory 51 Reactions to Verstehen C r i m i n o l o g y : Problems of S o c i a l S t r u c t u r e , Ideology and the P o l i t i c s of Theory 51 The Emergence of P o w e r - C o n f l i c t and R a d i c a l Perspect i ves 58 v. G e n e r a l T e n e t s o f P o w e r - C o n f l i c t and R a d i c a l P e r s p e c t i v e s 62 T h e S t r u c t u r e A c t i o n P r o b l e m : A T h e o r e t i c a l F r o n t i e r 68 C h a p t e r 4 T h e G e o g r a p h y o f C r i m e : A C r i t i q u e 82 E l e m e n t s o f t h e C r i t i q u e 82 1. T h e A n a l y t i c S e p a r a t i o n o f C r i m e a n d J u s t i c e 85 2 . T h e C o n s e n s u s M o d e l o f L a w and S o c i e t y . . . 9 1 3 . The C o r r e c t i o n a n d P r e v e n t i o n o f C r i m e : Some Comments on V a l u e - J u d g e m e n t s a n d T h e i r T h e o r e t i c a l I m p l i c a t i o n s 97 4 . T h e H y p o s t a t i z a t i on o f C r i m e 102 5 . T h e P h i l o s o p h i c B a s e s o f t h e G e o g r a p h y o f C r i m e : T h e D e f i c i e n c i e s o f I ns t r u m e n t a l i sm a n d P o s i t i v i s m 105 I n s t r u m e n t a l a n d P o s i t i v e I n f l u e n c e s on t h e G e o g r a p h y o f C r i m e I l l " T h e G e o g r a p h y o f C r i m e a n d V i o l e n c e " ; A n U n w a r r a n t e d T h e o r e t i c a l F o r e c l o s u r e 118 C h a p t e r 5 C r i m i n o l o g i c a l P e r s p e c t i v e s i n A c t i o n : I n t e r p r e t i n g O f f i c i a l S t a t i s t i c s 125 G e o g r a p h y and T r a d i t i o n a l C r i m i n o l o g y -P r i m a F a c i e I n t e r p r e t a t i o n s 127 A l t e r n a t i v e P e r s p e c t i v e s 128 T h e N a t u r e o f t h e C h a l l e n g e t o I n s t r u m e n t a l i s t I n t e r p r e t a t i o n s : " D i s c r e t i o n a r y B i a s " a n d t h e " I n s t i t u t i o n a l i s t " P e r s p e c t i v e 139 T h e E t h n o m e t h o d o l o g i c a l C r i t i q u e 142 L i m i t a t i o n s o f t h e E t h n o m e t h o d o l o g i c a l C r i t i q u e 147 F u r t h e r E l e m e n t s o f t h e I n s t i t u t i o n a l i s t C r i t i q u e : M e t h o d i c a l a n d I n c i d e n t a l S u s p i c i o n 150 C o n t r o l o g y : F r o m C r i m e R a t e s t o C o n t r o l R a t e s 151 v i . P r o a c t i v e and R e a c t i v e Policework: Problems with the G e n e r a l i z a t i o n of D i s c r e t i o n a r y Bias...161 Conceptual Problems with the P r o a c t i v e / R e a c t i v e Dichotomy 173 C r i t i c a l Theory and the I n t e r p r e t a t i o n of O f f i c i a l S t a t i s t i c s : A Return to the Problem of S t r u c t u r e and Ideology 178 O f f i c i a l S t a t i s t i c s and the Geography of Crime 181 Chapter 6 S o c i a l C o n t r o l and the S t r u c t u r e of S o c i a l L i f e : Crime C o n t r o l as a Context for Behav i our 187 P o l i c e P r a c t i c e s and Informal Influences on Crime Rates: P o l i c i n g as a Context for S o c i a l A c t i o n and the Problem of Crime A m p l i f i c a t i o n . . . 1 9 0 P o l i c e P a t r o l and Crime Rate P a t t e r n s 211 1. I nt r a j ur i sd i ct i onal E f f e c t s 211 2. I n t e r j u r i s d i c t i o n a l E f f e c t s -P o l i c i n g and Crime " S p i l l o v e r " 219 Chapter 7 Crime P r e v e n t i o n , Crime C o n t r o l and Displacement Phenomena: Towards An Int e g r a t e d Geography of Crime and J u s t i c e 224 The Displacement Concept 224 Temporal Displacement: An Example 232 T y p o l o g i c a l Displacement: Two Examples 233 Geographical Displacement: Three Cameos 236 A. Environmental Design as S o c i a l E n g i n e e r i n g : A Nineteenth Century A l legory? 238 B. S o c i a l C o n t r o l and M i g r a t i o n : The S p a t i a l E f f e c t of Poor Law P o l i c y i n Nineteenth Century England 241 C. V i c e Crusades and the D i s p e r s a l of Segregrated Areas 248 Chapter 8 P r o a c t i v e Law Enforcement and Displacement: The Problem of S t r e e t P r o s t i t u t i o n in Vancouver 1975 - 1979 256 v i i . A Changing Legal M i l i e u 256 P r o s t i t u t i o n S t a t u t e s - Ideology as Law 259 P o l i c e C u l t u r e , the P o l i t i c s of P o l i c e A d m i n i s t r a t i o n and the T r a n s l a t i o n of Law in the Books to Law i n the S t r e e t s 264 S t r e e t P r o s t i t u t i o n i n Vancouver: A Narrative...270 Chapter 9 Target Hardening and the Problem of Displacement Phenomena 289 "Neighbourhood Watch" in B r i t i s h Columbia 294 "Neighbourhood Watch": The R a t i o n a l e . . . 297 The Burnaby E x p e r i e n c e : Evidence for the D e t e r r e n t E f f e c t of Small S c a l e Programs 300 E f f e c t s of the General M u n i c i p a l Programs 303 Evidence f o r Displacement 312 (1) Burnaby: Evidence for Target Di s p l acement 312 (2) The West End Program in Vancouver: Evidence for A r e a l Displacement 316 I m p l i c a t i o n s of the A n a l y s i s 329 Chapter 10 C o n c l u s i o n : Towards an I n t e g r a t e d Geography of Crime and C o n t r o l 334 vi i i . LIST OF TABLES Table 1 P o t e n t i a l Displacement E f f e c t s A s s o c i a t e d with "Mechanical" S t r a t e g i e s 229 Table 1A P o t e n t i a l Displacement E f f e c t s A s s o c i a t e d with " S o c i a l E n g i n e e r i n g " S t r a t e g i e s 230 Table 2 Percentage of B u r g l a r i e s C l e a r e d in Vancouver and Burnaby P o l i c e J u r i s d i c t i o n s 310 Table 3 B u r g l a r y Rates in the West End of Vancouver: West End North and West End South ( P r o j e c t Area) 321 Tabl e 3A B u r g l a r y Rates i n the West End of Vancouver: West End West and West End East 322 i x. LIST OF FIGURES F i g u r e 1 Temporal Displacement of J u v e n i l e Offences 233 F i g u r e 2 Areas of S t r e e t P r o s t i t u t i o n i n Vancouver 277 F i g u r e 3 S o l i c i t i n g Charges i n Vancouver 1974 - 1978 283 F i g u r e 4 Burnaby R e s i d e n t i a l B reaking and E n t e r i n g s 1974 - 1981 305 F i g u r e 5 Vancouver R e s i d e n t i a l B reaking and E n t e r i n g s 1974 - 1981 308 F i g u r e 6 Vancouver West End Neighbourhood Watch P r o j e c t Area and Displacement Study Areas 319 F i g u r e 7 R e s i d e n t i a l Breaking and E n t e r i n g in Vancouver's West End: A Comparison of Rates in the Neighbourhood Watch P r o j e c t Area and West End North 325 x. A e k n o w l e d g e m e n t s My g r a t i t u d e i s e x t e n d e d t o t h e f o l l o w i n g p e r s o n s a n d i n s t i t u t i o n s f o r t h e p a r t t h e y p l a y e d i n t h e p r e p a r a t i o n o f t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n : t o D a v i d L e y , J i m D u n c a n , P a t B r a n t i n g h a m , B o b R a t n e r , J o h n H o g a r t h a n d A r t h u r F a l l i c k f o r t h e i r comments on v a r i o u s d r a f t s o f t h e m a n u s c r i p t ; t o t h e B u r n a b y a n d V a n c o u v e r P o l i c e D e p a r t m e n t s f o r p r o v i d i n g t h e c r i m e s t a t i s t i c s u t i l i z e d i n C h a p t e r s 8 and 9 ; t o A . H u n t a n d K . W e i n e r f o r p e r m i s s i o n t o r e p r o d u c e d i a g r a m s f r o m t h e i r a r t i c l e a p p e a r i n g i n t h e J o u r n a l o f P o l i c e S c i e n c e a n d A d m i n i s t r a t i o n ( 5 : 4 : 4 0 7 - 4 1 2 ) ; t o t h e C a n a d a C o u n c i l , t h e H u m a n i t i e s a n d S o c i a l S c i e n c e R e s e a r c h C o u n c i l , and t h e K i l l a m F o u n d a t i o n f o r t h e g r a d u a t e s c h o l a r s h i p f u n d i n g t h e y p r o v i d e d ; t o K a y C o o p e r f o r h e r d i l i g e n t t y p i n g s e r v i c e s ; t o P a u l J a n c e ( U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a D e p a r t m e n t o f G e o g r a p h y ) a n d t h e s t a f f o f t h e S i m o n F r a s e r U n i v e r s i t y G r a p h i c S e r v i c e s f o r t h e i r s k i l l e d p r e p a r a t i o n o f t h e v a r i o u s d i a g r a m s a p p e a r i n g i n t h e t e x t ; a n d t o L a u r a F r a s e r f o r h e r g e n e r a l s u p p o r t a n d p a t i e n c e . x i Chapter 1 A PREAMBLE ON GEOGRAPHY, CRIME AND SOCIAL CONTROL In very general terms there have been four major phases in the development of spa t ia l perspectives on crime; the nineteenth century cartographic school , the Chicago s o c i a l -eco log ica l school of the 1920's and 30's, the factor ana ly t i c school of the 1950's and 60's and, most recent ly , the development of environmental criminology and the geography of crime. Between each of the f i r s t three of these phases there was a waning of interest in spa t ia l perspect ives , p a r t i c u l a r l y fol lowing the gradual demise of soc ia l eco log ica l theory after 1930 (as a resul t of the work of such c r i t i c s as Robison, 1937 and A l i h a n , 1938). The development of factor ana ly t i c methods in the 1950's and 60's marked a resurgence of interest in spa t ia l perspect ives . And despite the devastating c r i t i q u e of Gordon (1967; see also Baldwin, 1979) some of the concepts of f a c t o r i a l ecology have been carr i ed over to the most recent phase of interest in spa t ia l perspect ives , one in which geographers, for the f i r s t time, have become involved with the study of crime. The study of crime has emerged as a d i s t i n c t , a lbe i t embryonic, subdi sc ip i ine of geography, and environmental approaches have been character ized as representing a d i s t i n c t perspective within criminology (Brantingham and Brantingham, 1981A). By v ir tue of their mutual in teres t s , the geography of crime and environmental criminology have tended to merge, and 1. geographers have become d i r e c t l y i n v o l v e d with mainstream cr iminology. The argument to be developed i n t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n i s that the convergence of geography and c r i m i n o l o g y has been rather too s e l e c t i v e on the part of geographers i n t h e i r i d e n t i f i c a t i o n and use of companion p e r s p e c t i v e s and t h e o r i e s because i t appears to have been guided by s p e c i f i c world views, e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l persuasions and o n t o l o g i c a l b e l i e f s . T h i s tendency has been p a r t l y r e i n f o r c e d by environmental c r i m i n o l o g i s t s (and other r e s e a r c h e r s from r e l a t e d d i s c i p l i n e s ) who ap p a r e n t l y share many of the same background assumptions and worldviews as a number of geographers i n t e r e s t e d in crime. It should be noted that t h i s convergence i s by no means complete, and the suggestion, at t h i s stage, that the geography of crime i s a coherent and u n i f i e d p e r s p e c t i v e would be hyperbole. But some dominant themes have been e s t a b l i s h e d and a number of e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l and o n t o l o g i c a l g u i d e l i n e s l a i d down, e i t h e r e x p l i c i t l y or i m p l i c i t l y . Towards a r e c o n s t r u c t i o n of the geography of crime The purpose of t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n i s to d e s c r i b e and ch a l l e n g e some of the b a s i c premises, i m p l i c i t o n t o l o g i c a l and e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l b e l i e f s and, by ext e n s i o n , the p o l i t i c a l values which form the core of the contemporary geography of crime. A l t e r n a t i v e p h i l o s o p h i c a l p o s i t i o n s are cons i d e r e d , and a conceptual framework developed to help r e o r i e n t the geography 2. o f c r i m e t o w a r d s a s t u d y o f s o c i a l c o n t r o l ( p a r t i c u l a r l y c r i m e c o n t r o l ) p r o c e s s e s as w e l l as t h e c r i m i n a l a c t o r o r t h e c r i m i n a l e v e n t . F o r t h e m o s t p a r t t h e d i s c u s s i o n c o n c e n t r a t e s on t h e r e s e a r c h o f members o f t h e g e o g r a p h i c d i s c i p l i n e . B u t b e c a u s e t h i s d i s t i n c t i o n i s a r b i t r a r y i n c e r t a i n c a s e s - a c a d e m i c d i s c i p l i n e s may t h e m s e l v e s be u n w a r r a n t e d a b s t r a c t i o n s o r r e i f i c a t i o n s o f a k i n d - t h e d i s c u s s i o n n e c e s s a r i l y g o e s b e y o n d t h e c o n f i n e s o f g e o g r a p h y t o c o n s i d e r r e l a t e d s u b - d i s c i p l i n a r y a r e a s w h i c h i m p o r t a n t l y i n f o r m , a n d a r e i n f o r m e d by t h e g e o g r a p h y o f c r i m e . A s a c r i t i c a l t h e o r e t i c a l e x e g e s i s , t h e p r i n c i p a l f o c u s o f t h e c r i t i q u e i s t h e a n a l y t i c s e p a r a t i o n o f c r i m e a n d t h e c o n t r o l o f c r i m e - o r m o r e p r o p e r l y t h e a n a l y t i c s e p a r a t i o n o f c r i m e a n d s o c i a l c o n t r o l 1 - t h a t has g u i d e d t h e g e o g r a p h i c r e s e a r c h m a n i f e s t o . G e o g r a p h e r s h a v e t e n d e d t o s t u d y e i t h e r c r i m e o r (much l e s s f r e q u e n t l y ) t h e j u d i c i a l s y s t e m w i t h o u t a n y s y s t ema t i c c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f t h e i m p a c t o f l e g a l a n d o t h e r s o c i a l c o n t r o l m e a s u r e s on c r i m e p a t t e r n s . T h i s d o e s n o t mean t o s a y t h a t g e o g r a p h e r s h a v e c o m p l e t e l y i g n o r e d t h e c r i m e c o n t r o l s y s t e m as an i m p o r t a n t e x p l a n a t o r y v a r i a b l e , and a f ew e x a m p l e s m e n t i o n e d i n t h e g e o g r a p h i c l i t e r a t u r e a r e d i s c u s s e d a t v a r i o u s p o i n t s i n t h e t e x t . M o r e i m p o r t a n t l y a number o f g e o g r a p h e r s h a v e r e c e n t l y p o i n t e d t o t h e n e e d f o r a u n i f i e d g e o g r a p h y o f c r i m e a n d c o n t r o l . K e i t h H a r r i e s , f o r e x a m p l e , i n C r i m e a n d t h e E n v i r o n m e n t a c k n o w l e d g e s t h a t t h e e f f e c t s o f w h a t he c a l l s t h e 3. "criminal jus t i ce environment" in the genesis of crime patterns "should not be e n t i r e l y overlooked" (pp. 63-64, 116). Nevertheless , such considerations remain almost e n t i r e l y beyond the scope of his d i scuss ion . In one of the few geographic studies i l l u s t r a t i n g the way that law enforcement can structure crime patterns (Shumsky and Springer , 1981), the evidence was introduced in order to show how a study of control as opposed to the cr iminal has "s ign i f i cant implicat ions for the geographic study of the whole f i e l d of crime, deviance, and delinquency" (p. 88). But this insight has been large ly neglected. David Herbert also represents a s i gn i f i can t exception to the geographical mainstream by suggesting that the soc ia l processes underlying crime patterns are of key explanatory s i gn i f i cance , but goes on to lament that while the p o s s i b i l i t y of research into the "antecedents" of crime patterns has been i d e n t i f i e d , their importance remains large ly untested in the geographic l i t e r a t u r e 2 (1977, pp. 216-219; 1979, pp. 118-119; 1982, pp. 21-29). Although the themes of spat ia l ecology and the loca l environment f a l l most c l e a r l y into the domain of a geographical approach, Herbert suggests that i t is increas ingly evident that these cannot form the exclusive terms of reference for the geographer; as with other types of urban problem, the pattern of crime i t s e l f is merely the spa t ia l outcome of a complex of soc ia l processes (1979, pp. 118-119; 1982, pp. 26-29). Thus he contends "For crime studies , the soc io - l ega l system is an 'antecedent' in i t s role as the c r i t i c a l 4. s t r u c t u r a l e l e m e n t f r o m w h i c h d e f i n i t i o n s o f c r i m i n a l b e h a v i o u r , s a n c t i o n s on s u c h d e v i a n c e a n d s t a t i s t i c a l r e c o r d s o f c r i m e a n d d e l i n q u e n c y p r o c e e d . N e a r e r t h e g r o u n d , p o l i c e a c t i v i t i e s a t t h e p o i n t o f c o n t a c t w i t h l a w b r e a k e r s s t r o n g l y i n f l u e n c e a n y p a t t e r n o f u r b a n c r i m e w h i c h may e m e r g e . " ( 1 9 7 9 , p . 1 1 8 ) H e r b e r t a l s o m o v e s b e y o n d a c r i m i n a l j u s t i c e s y s t e m p e r s p e c t i v e b y s u g g e s t i n g t h a t i n o r d e r t o u n d e r s t a n d c r i m e p a t t e r n s r e s e a r c h e r s m u s t c o n s i d e r a v a r i e t y o f s o c i e t a l a l l o c a t i o n p r o c e s s e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y t h o s e w h i c h g i v e r i s e t o p e r s i s t e n t s o c i e t a l i n e q u a l i t i e s . T h u s f o r H e r b e r t , t h e m a i n v a l u e i n P e e t ' s p o s i t i o n ( 1 9 7 5 , 1 9 7 6 ) i n h i s d e b a t e w i t h H a r r i e s ( 1 9 7 5 , 1 9 7 6 ) o v e r t h e r e l a t i v e m e r i t s o f l i b e r a l and r a d i c a l p o s i t i o n s i n t h e s t u d y o f c r i m e has b e e n t o r e m i n d g e o g r a p h e r s o f t h e b r o a d e r c a n v a s a g a i n s t w h i c h w h i c h a n y p a t t e r n s o f c r i m e n e e d t o be v i e w e d ( 1 9 7 9 , p . 1 1 8 , 1 9 8 2 , p . 2 7 ) . I n h i s m o s t r e c e n t w o r k , T h e G e o g r a p h y o f U r b a n C r i m e ( 1 9 8 2 ) , H e r b e r t p r o v i d e s a m o r e d e t a i l e d d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h i s b r o a d e r c a n v a s b y d e l i n e a t i n g t h e o r e t i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t s i n c r i m i n o l o g y w h i c h h a v e t h u s f a r r e c e i v e d s c a n t a t t e n t i o n f r o m g e o g r a p h e r s ( p p . 2 1 - 2 5 ) . F o r t h e m o s t p a r t g e o g r a p h e r s h a v e l o o k e d t o " t r a d i t i o n a l " c r i m i n o l o g i c a l t h e o r i e s i n d e v e l o p i n g s p a t i a l p e r s p e c t i v e s o f c r i m e u t i l i z i n g c o n c e p t s s p a w n e d i n t h e d a y s o f t h e C h i c a g o s o c i a l e c o l o g i s t s ( p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e c o n c e p t o f s o c i a l d i s o r g a n i z a t i o n ) o r w h a t a r e e s s e n t i a l l y d e v e l o p m e n t s o f t h i s e a r l y p e r s p e c t i v e - c u l t u r a l t r a n s m i s s i o n , d i f f e r e n t i a l a s s o c i a t i o n a n d t h e f o r m a t i o n o f s u b c u l t u r e s . B u t i n so d o i n g t h e y h a v e l a r g e l y i g n o r e d i m p o r t a n t d e v e l o p m e n t s i n c r i m i n o l o g y , p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f w h a t H e r b e r t t e r m s 5 . " t h e s o c i o l o g y o f d e v i a n c e " , t h a t i s , t h e o r i e s f o c u s i n g " o n s o c i a l c o n t r o l s a n d d e f i n i t i o n s , a n d on c r i m i n a l l a w a n d t h e j u d i c i a l s y s t e m , r a t h e r t h a n on o f f e n d e r s " ( 1 9 8 2 , p . 2 4 ) . W h i l e t h e m o r e r a d i c a l b r a n c h o f d e v i a n c e t h e o r y may be s a i d t o f i n d i t s c o u n t e r p a r t i n g e o g r a p h y ( e . g . H a r v e y , 1 9 7 3 ; S a n t o s , 1 9 7 5 , 1 9 7 8 ; P e e t , 1 9 7 8 ) , o n l y P e e t ( 1 9 7 5 , 1 9 7 6 ) has s u g g e s t e d s u c h a p e r s p e c t i v e f o r t h e g e o g r a p h y o f c r i m e . A n d s i m i l a r l y w h i l e i n t e r a c t i o n i s t a n d p h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e s h a v e f l o u r i s h e d i n s o c i a l g e o g r a p h y ( e . g . R e l p h , 1 9 7 0 , 1 9 7 7 ; T u a n , 1 9 7 1 , 1 9 7 5 , 1 9 7 6 ; B u t t i m e r , 1 9 7 4 , 1 9 7 5 ; L e y , 1 9 7 4 , 1 9 7 7 , 1 9 7 8 , 1 9 8 0 ) , t h e y r e m a i n u n d e v e l o p e d i n t h e g e o g r a p h y o f c r i m e ( w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f L e y , 1 9 7 5 ) . H e r b e r t l a m e n t s t h a t w h i l e r a d i c a l g e o g r a p h y b r o u g h t a c l e a r a w a r e n e s s o f t h e n e e d t o i n v e s t i g a t e l e v e l s o f a n a l y s i s o t h e r t h a n t h e l o c a l e n v i r o n m e n t ( t h e g e o g r a p h e r ' s c o n v e n t i o n a l c o n c e r n ) m o s t human g e o g r a p h y c o n t i n u e s t o f o c u s on p a t t e r n s , p r o c e s s e s a n d r e s p o n s e s w i t h i n t h i s i m m e d i a t e e n v i r o n m e n t . S i m i l a r l y he a r g u e s , " . . . m o s t a v a i l a b l e g e o g r a p h i e s o f c r i m e . . . a r e f i r m l y c a s t i n t h i s m o u l d . " ( 1 9 8 2 , p . 2 6 ) . H e r b e r t ' s p u r p o s e , h o w e v e r , i n h i s G e o g r a p h y o f U r b a n C r i m e i s p r i m a r i l y t o r e v i e w t h e e x i s t i n g g e o g r a p h i c l i t e r a t u r e a n d r e l a t e d s p a t i a l s t u d i e s o f c r i m e . H i s m a i n c o n c e r n i s t h u s a l s o r e s t r i c t e d t o p a t t e r n s , p r o c e s s e s a n d r e s p o n s e s a t t h e l e v e l o f t h e l o c a l e n v i r o n m e n t . B u t n o t b e i n g s a t i s f i e d w i t h t h i s f o c u s he d o e s a t t e m p t t o o u t l i n e a r e s e a r c h s t r a t e g y " w h i c h b o t h s e t s d i f f e r e n t a p p r o a c h e s i n t h e i r r e l a t i v e p o s i t i o n w i t h i n t h e o v e r a l l f r a m e w o r k a n d s e t s some c o n t e x t f o r 6 . the c r u c i a l task of integrat ing various ' sca les ' of analysis" (1982, p. 26). In very general terms, Herbert posits a three-leve l model of the geography of crime: level 1 (Production) SOCIAL FORMATION ideology, values, t r a d i t i o n s , power and resources leve l 2 (D i s t r ibut ion) Resource A l l o c a t i o n : urban managers, d i f f e r e n t i a l access, i nequali t i es. ALLOCATIVE PROCESSES Soc io - l ega l processes: p o l i c e , j u d i c i a r y , soc ia l serv ices , l a b e l l i n g , enforcement, sanct i ons. leve l 3 (Consumption) SPACE Patterns Processes Responses (crime areas) ( spat ia l behaviour) ( sub-cultures , meaning of place) Herbert notes that " . . . a s the geography of crime has developed (Harr ies , 1974, 1980; Pyle et a l . , 1974) i t has been contexted almost exc lus ive ly in the t h i r d level of a n a l y s i s . . . Levels 1 and 2 possess no empirical research record of note but i t is essent ia l at this stage to assess their place in a research strategy for c r i m e . . . " (1982, p. 16). Herbert has thus set the stage for substant ia l sh i f t s of emphasis in the geography of crime. But his contr ibut ion in 7. this respect remains at the programmatic level - i f he is correct about the importance of such s h i f t s , theoret ica l and empirical developments in these d irec t ions remain as important challenges s t i l l to be confronted. The purpose of this d i s s e r t a t i o n is to i n i t i a t e just such an engagement. With reference to Herbert ' s conceptual framework for a geography of crime this study represents an attempt, both t h e o r e t i c a l l y and e m p i r i c a l l y , to penetrate the "production" and "d i s t r ibut ion" scales of analys is ( leve ls 1 and 2 ) ; to out l ine the kind of analys is necessary for understanding how soc ia l formations and cr iminal jus t i ce a l l o c a t i v e processes are essent ia l for a more complete understanding of crime patterns . A word of caution is necessary at this juncture. Herbert ' s conceptual framework is a useful h e u r i s t i c for locat ing the type of ana ly t i c apparatus u t i l i z e d in the geography of crime, p a r t i c u l a r l y in terms of the level at which explanatory systems are constructed, and i t is in this h e u r i s t i c sense that I sha l l refer to i t . But a shortcoming is i t s impl icat ion that geographic approaches to crime have been remiss only in terms of the 1evel at which they operate. This is only part of the argument I wish to develop. More importantly, the ana ly t i c problems Herbert raises concern fundamental phi losophica l issues; geographers must respond to and accommodate the general c r i t i q u e developed in criminology and sociology during the past twenty years of the t r a d i t i o n a l crime perspective in these d i s c i p l i n e s , for i t is within this t r a d i t i o n a l perspective that the geography of crime is f irmly 8. l o c a t e d . A c c o m m o d a t i o n o f t h i s c r i t i q u e , w h i c h H e r b e r t s u g g e s t s has many t e l l i n g q u a l i t i e s ( 1 9 8 2 , p . 2 8 ) , w i l l n o t s i m p l y o c c u r b y i n c o r p o r a t i n g d i f f e r e n t l e v e l s o f a n a l y s i s b e c a u s e t h e l e v e l s a r e n o t m u t u a l l y e x c l u s i v e . I n o t h e r w o r d s a l l t h e s e l e v e l s o f a n a l y s i s w i l l n e e d t o be t a k e n i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n i r r e s p e c t i v e o f t h e s e a l e o f a n a l y s i s . What t h i s means i s t h a t c o n s i d e r a t i o n s o f t h e s o c i a l f o r m a t i o n a n d s o c i a l a l l o c a t i v e p r o c e s s e s c a n n o t s i m p l y be t a c k e d o n t o t h e t h i r d l e v e l o f a n a l y s i s w h e r e t h e g e o g r a p h y o f c r i m e has b e e n g e n e r a l l y l o c a t e d . R a t h e r , c o n s i d e r a t i o n s o f " p r o d u c t i o n " a n d " d i s t r i b u t i o n " s h o u l d p e r m e a t e t h e s p a t i a l a n a l y s i s c o n d u c t e d a t l e v e l 3 . C o n s e q u e n t l y , H e r b e r t n o t e s t h a t t h e m o d e l o n l y " o f f e r s . . . a f r a m e w o r k w i t h i n w h i c h t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s among d i f f e r e n t s c a l e s o r l e v e l s o f a n a l y s i s c a n be r e c o g n i z e d . What no d i a g r a m c a n do i s t o show w a y s i n w h i c h d i f f e r e n t t h e o r e t i c a l p o s i t i o n s c a n be r e c o n c i l e d o r i n t e g r a t e d " ( 1 9 8 2 , p . 2 5 ) . N o r i n d e e d , one m i g h t a d d , c a n i t show i f s u c h an i n t e g r a t i o n i s a t t a i n a b l e . I f t h e r e c o r d i n c r i m i n o l o g y i s a n y t h i n g t o go by - w h e r e a l t e r n a t i v e p o s i t i o n s c o e x i s t w i t h v e r y l i t t l e b u t p o l e m i c a l i n t e r a c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e m - t h e r e i s n o t l i k e l y t o be an e a s y s y n t h e s i s o f t h e o l d and new p e r s p e c t i v e s w i t h i n g e o g r a p h y . A s y e t , t h e new p e r s p e c t i v e s H e r b e r t i s r e f e r r i n g t o h a v e h a r d l y b e e n c o n s i d e r e d i n t h e g e o g r a p h y o f c r i m e , a n d i t i s t o t h i s t a s k t h a t t h e p r e s e n t s t u d y i s d i r e c t e d . 9 . O u t l i n e o f t h e D i s s e r t a t i o n T h e d i s s e r t a t i o n b e g i n s w i t h w h a t H e r b e r t c a l l s t h e s o c i o l o g y o f d e v i a n c e l i t e r a t u r e a n d t h e c r i t i q u e o f t r a d i t i o n a l c r i m i n o l o g y ( C h a p t e r s 2 a n d 3) t o s e t a f o u n d a t i o n f o r a c r i t i q u e o f t h e g e o g r a p h y o f c r i m e a n d d e v i a n c e ( C h a p t e r 4 ) . A t t h i s p o i n t i t s h o u l d be n o t e d t h a t H e r b e r t i n h i s u s e o f t h e t e r m " s o c i o l o g y o f d e v i a n c e " i n c l u d e s " r a d i c a l " o r c r i t i c a l c r i m i n o l o g y , w h e r e a s i n t h e c r i m i n o l o g i c a l l i t e r a t u r e t h e t e r m r e f e r s e x p l i c i t l y t o w h a t I s h a l l s u b s e q u e n t l y t e r m " v e r s t e h e n " p e r s p e c t i v e s - p h e n o m e n o l o g y , s y m b o l i c i n t e r a c t i o n i s m , t h e l a b e l l i n g p e r s p e c t i v e a n d e t h n o m e t h o d o l o g y . C h a p t e r 2 t h u s c o n s i d e r s v e r s t e h e n p e r s p e c t i v e s a n d t h e c r i t i q u e o f t r a d i t i o n a l c r i m i n o l o g y on w h i c h t h e y a r e f o u n d e d . My s u b s e q u e n t u s e o f t h e t e r m " s o c i o l o g y o f d e v i a n c e " i s r e s t r i c t e d t o t h e v e r s t e h e n p e r s p e c t i v e s as c o n t r a s t e d t o r a d i c a l c r i m i n o l o g y . C h a p t e r 3 d e s c r i b e s r a d i c a l c r i m i n o l o g y a n d i t s t h e o r e t i c a l a n d p o l i t i c a l b r e a k w i t h t h e s o c i o l o g y o f d e v i a n c e . T h e c r i t i q u e o f t h e g e o g r a p h y o f c r i m e d e v e l o p s a s p e c t s o f t h e c r i t i q u e o f t r a d i t i o n a l o r " p o s i t i v i s t " c r i m i n o l o g y r e g i s t e r e d by p r o p o n e n t s o f v e r s t e h e n a n d r a d i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e s . T h e d i s c u s s i o n e x a m i n e s t h e t h e o r e t i c a l and p h i l o s o p h i c a l c o n s e q u e n c e s o f r e s e a r c h s t r a t e g i e s w h i c h t r e a t c r i m e a n d c r i m e c o n t r o l as a n a l y t i c a l l y s e p a r a t e e n t i t i e s . T h e i m p l i c i t p h i l o s o p h y o f s o c i a l s c i e n c e g u i d i n g many g e o g r a p h i c s t u d i e s o f c r i m e i s r e c o n s t r u c t e d by u n e a r t h i n g t h e i r 10. e p i s t e m o l o g y and m e t h o d s . T h e t e r m " r e c o n s t r u c t e d " i s u s e d a d v i s e d l y h e r e b e c a u s e g e o g r a p h e r s i n t e r e s t e d i n c r i m e h a v e g e n e r a l l y p a i d v e r y l i t t l e a t t e n t i o n t o t h e p h i l o s o p h i c a l q u e s t i o n s c a u s i n g d e e p i n s t i t u t i o n a l r i f t s i n c r i m i n o l o g y a n d e l s e w h e r e i n g e o g r a p h y . E v e n P e e t ' s p o s i t i o n ( 1 9 7 5 , 1 9 7 6 ) i n h i s d e b a t e w i t h H a r r i e s ( 1 9 7 5 , 1 9 7 6 ) r e m a i n s a t a p r o g r a m m a t i c l e v e l , a p r o g r a m , i t i s w o r t h n o t i n g , t h a t has l e d t o v e r y l i t t l e a c t i o n . T h e c r i t i q u e d e v e l o p e d i n C h a p t e r 4 a r g u e s t h a t f o r t h e m o s t p a r t t h e g e o g r a p h y o f c r i m e ha s f o l l o w e d a p o s i t i v i s t o r i n s t r u m e n t a l i s t p h i l o s o p h y o f s o c i a l s c i e n c e and a " c o r r e c t i o n a l i s t " p o l i t i c ( c o r r e c t i o n a l i s t i n t h e s e n s e t h a t " s c i e n t i f i c " r e s e a r c h i s g e a r e d t o p r o d u c i n g k n o w l e d g e w h i c h a i d s e i t h e r t h e " c o r r e c t i o n " o f c r i m i n a l s o r t h e " f i g h t " a g a i n s t c r i m e ) . T h e t h e o r e t i c a l c o n s e q u e n c e s o f t h e s e u n d e r l y i n g p o l i t i c a l and p h i l o s o p h i c a l t e n d e n c i e s w i l l be e x a m i n e d by c o n t r a s t i n g t hem t o a r g u m e n t s f r o m t h e s o c i o l o g y o f d e v i a n c e a n d r a d i c a l t h e o r y w h i c h a s s i g n c e n t r a l i m p o r t a n c e t o s y m b o l i c i n t e r a c t i o n a n d t h e s o c i a l c o n t r o l p r o c e s s i n u n d e r s t a n d i n g c r i m e . T h e p u r p o s e o f t h e r e m a i n d e r o f t h e d i s s e r t a t i o n i s t o e x a m i n e t h e e f f e c t s o f s o c i a l c o n t r o l a n d c r i m i n a l j u s t i c e p o l i c y on t h e a c t u a l g e o g r a p h y o f c r i m e ; t h a t i s , t o d e v e l o p i n g an i n t e g r a t e d a n a l y s i s o f c r i m e a n d j u s t i c e . T h e e f f e c t o f t h e " c o n t r o l e n v i r o n m e n t " i s c o n c e p t u a l i z e d i n t h r e e d i f f e r e n t w a y s . T h e f i r s t c o n c e r n s t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f o f f i c i a l c r i m e s t a t i s t i c s on c r i m i n o l o g i c a l i m a g e s o f who 1 1 . t h e c r i m i n a l s a r e . T h e t r a d i t i o n a l t a c t i c i n t h e g e o g r a p h y o f c r i m e ha s b e e n t o t a k e a p r i m a f a c i e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f c r i m e s t a t i s t i c s . A l t e r n a t i v e a r g u m e n t s d e v e l o p e d i n t h e s o c i o l o g y o f d e v i a n c e , h o w e v e r , c a n be i n t e r p r e t e d as s u g g e s t i n g t h a t c r i m e s t a t i s t i c s a r e s y s t e m a t i c a l l y s p a t i a l l y s k e w e d - t h a t t h e y do n o t r e p r e s e n t r a t e s o f c r i m e , b u t r a t e s o f c o n t r o l . B r a n t i n g h a m a n d B r a n t i n g h a m a p t l y s u m m a r i z e t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h i s d e b a t e f o r e n v i r o n m e n t a l c r i m i n o l o g y , a n d , by e x t e n s i o n , f o r t h e g e o g r a p h y o f c r i m e : " T h e s t a n d a r d a t t a c k on o f f i c i a l c r i m e s t a t i s t i c s i s o f c r i t i c a l i m p o r t a n c e i n t h e s p a t i a l a n a l y s i s o f c r i m e . . . i f o f f i c i a l s t a t i s t i c s a r e s y s t e m a t i c a l l y s p a t i a l l y b i a s e d s a m p l e s o f c r i m e w i t h i n a c i t y , t h e n a l l p a t t e r n s p r o d u c e d by e n v i r o n m e n t a l c r i m i n o l o g i s t s a r e s u s p e c t , a n d i n r e a l e c o n o m i c t e r m s , no p r o s p e c t s e x i s t f o r o b t a i n i n g b e t t e r s o u r c e s o f d a t a . " ( 1 9 8 1 , p . 23) I n C h a p t e r 5 t h e v a r i o u s a r g u m e n t s c o n c e r n i n g i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f o f f i c i a l s t a t i s t i c s a r e r e v i e w e d s u g g e s t i n g t h a t t h e y s h o u l d be an o b j e c t o f s t u d y i n t h e i r own r i g h t , a n d t h a t t h e y may s e r i o u s l y d i s t o r t a c r i m e r a t e map s o t h a t i t becomes a m e n t a l map r e f l e c t i n g t h e a c t i o n s o f c o n t r o l a g e n t s as w e l l as a d e p i c t i o n o f s a n c t i o n e d c r i m i n a l b e h a v i o u r . T h e s e c o n d e f f e c t o f t h e c o n t r o l e n v i r o n m e n t on t h e g e o g r a p h y o f c r i m e i s e x a m i n e d i n t e r m s o f " e c o l o g i c a l l a b e l l i n g " ( B r a n t i n g h a m and B r a n t i n g h a m , 1 9 8 1 A ) s u g g e s t i n g w a y s t h a t l a w e n f o r c e m e n t p r a c t i c e s may i n p a r t h e l p s h a p e t h e i d e n t i t y o f v a r i o u s d i s t r i c t s a n d s u b c u l t u r a l ( a n d s o m e t i m e s c r i m i n a l ) g r o u p s . T h e a r g u m e n t i n C h a p t e r 6 d e v e l o p s o u t o f 1 2 . t h e d i s c u s s i o n o f c r i m e s t a t i s t i c s n o t i n g t h a t a c o n s i d e r a t i o n n o t o n l y o f d i s c r e t i o n a r y l a w e n f o r c e m e n t b u t a l s o o f o t h e r i n f o r m a l s e l e c t i v e p r a c t i c e s o f c o n t r o l p e r s o n n e l may be n e c e s s a r y f o r u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e way t h a t c o n t r o l p r o c e s s e s i n d i r e c t l y s h a p e c r i m e o r c r i m i n a l r e s i d e n c e p a t t e r n s . M u c h o f t h e p o l i c e m a n d a t e , f o r e x a m p l e , i s t o g e n e r a l l y k e e p o r d e r , a n d t h e y i n t e r a c t w i t h many c i t i z e n s who do n o t e v e n t u a l l y end up b e i n g f o r m a l l y d e f i n e d as c r i m i n a l . T h i s i s b e c a u s e t h e p o l i c e c a n o f t e n m a i n t a i n o r d e r w i t h o u t t h e n e e d t o r e s o r t t o c r i m i n a l l a w . B u t i n so d o i n g t h e y s e l e c t c e r t a i n p r o b l e m p o p u l a t i o n s a n d i n t h i s s e n s e c o n t r o l p r a c t i c e s may h a v e s o m e t h i n g t o do w i t h t h e g e n e s i s o f " c r i m i n a l a r e a s " o r " c r i m i n a l s u b c u l t u r e s " . I f t h i s i s t h e c a s e , s e l e c t i v e c o n t r o l p r a c t i c e s p l a y an i m p o r t a n t p a r t i n t h e g e o g r a p h y o f c r i m e . T h e d i s c u s s i o n o f e c o l o g i c a l l a b e l l i n g i s e x t e n d e d t o a c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f t h e m o r e g e n e r a l e f f e c t s o f p o l i c e i n t e r a c t i o n s w i t h c i t i z e n s w h i c h do n o t r e s u l t i n a c r i m i n a l c h a r g e - on t h e f o r m a t i o n o f " s u b c u l t u r a l g r o u p s " w h o s e p a r t i c u l a r i d e n t i t y i s p a r t l y c o n s t i t u t e d by t h e i r l a w - b r e a k i n g a c t i v i t y . T h e s e c o n d p a r t o f C h a p t e r 6 e x a m i n e s t h e m o r e g e n e r a l i m p a c t o f p o l i c e p a t r o l d i s t r i b u t i o n i n s h a p i n g c r i m e p a t t e r n s as o p p o s e d t o t h e e f f e c t o f t h e i r a c t i v i t y i n t h e c r e a t i o n o f c r i m e ( a l t h o u g h i t s h o u l d be r e c o g n i s e d t h a t t h e s e two i s s u e s a r e n e c e s s a r i l y r e l a t e d ) . T h e l i t e r a t u r e on t h e e f f e c t o f b o t h i n t e r - a n d i n t r a - j u r i s d i c t i o n a l d i f f e r e n c e s o f l e v e l s o f p o l i c i n g on c r i m e r a t e s i s r e v i e w e d . T h e r e v i e w r a i s e s t h e 13. p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t p a t r o l p a t t e r n s may t e n d t o d i s p l a c e c r i m i n a l a c t i v i t y , a l t h o u g h t h e f i n d i n g s o f a v a i l a b l e r e s e a r c h a r e e q u i v o c a l i n t h i s r e s p e c t . M o r e g e n e r a l l y t h e d i s c u s s i o n s e r v e s t o i n t r o d u c e t h e c o n c e p t o f " d i s p l a c e m e n t " , t h e theme t o be s y s t e m a t i z e d i n t h e f i n a l s e c t i o n o f t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n . T h e t h i r d e f f e c t o f t h e c o n t r o l e n v i r o n m e n t on t h e g e o g r a p h y o f c r i m e c o n c e r n s t h e m o s t d i r e c t i m p a c t o f c o n t r o l p r a c t i c e on t h e c o n f i g u r a t i o n o f c r i m e . G i v e n t h a t c o n t r o l p e r s o n n e l o r c r i m e p r e v e n t i o n p r o g r a m s a r e n o t d i s t r i b u t e d e v e n l y , one o f t h e m o s t p o t e n t d e v i c e s f o r p e o p l e t o a v o i d t h e p o t e n t i a l o f c r i m i n a l l a b e l l i n g i s m o v e m e n t ; m o b i l i t y i s an a d a p t i v e s t r a t e g y t h r o u g h w h i c h c r i m i n a l o p p o r t u n i t i e s c a n be m a x i m i z e d a n d t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f a c r i m i n a l l a b e l m i n i m i z e d . W h a t I am m o s t i n t e r e s t e d i n h e r e i s t h e c o n c e p t o f m o b i l i t y as an a d a p t i v e s t r a t e g y a n d t h e i m p a c t o f l a w e n f o r c e m e n t o r c r i m e p r e v e n t i o n p r o g r a m s on p a t t e r n s o f s o c i a l ( p a r t i c u l a r l y c r i m i n a l ) a c t i v i t y . T h e s e i s s e s a r e t a k e n up i n C h a p t e r s 7, 8 a n d 9. T h e a p p r o a c h t a k e n i s p r o c e s s u a l ( r a t h e r t h a n t h e s t a t i c t y p e a n a l y s e s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h e g e o g r a p h y o f c r i m e ) f o c u s i n g on t h e i m p a c t o f c h a n g e s i n s o c i a l c o n t r o l p r a c t i c e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y l a w c h a n g e s , l a w i n t e r p r e t a t i o n c h a n g e s o r e n f o r c e m e n t c h a n g e s . I n t e r m s o f a g e o g r a p h i c a n a l y s i s a t t h i s l e v e l , t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n c r i m e a n d c o n t r o l i s s y s t e m a t i z e d t h r o u g h a c o n c e p t o f " d i s p l a c e m e n t " . D i s p l a c e m e n t e f f e c t s a r e d e f i n e d as c h a n g e s o f c r i m i n a l ( o r r e l a t e d ) b e h a v i o u r i n r e s p o n s e t o c h a n g e s i n w r i t t e n l a w , c a s e l a w o r l a w e n f o r c e m e n t . 1 4 . C o n s i d e r a t i o n o f d i s p l a c e m e n t phenomena i s o f f a i r l y r e c e n t v i n t a g e i n c r i m i n o l o g y w i t h a m o r e l i m i t e d a p p l i c a t i o n t h a n t h e one s u g g e s t e d h e r e . I n 1976 Thomas R e p p e t t o p u b l i s h e d an i n t r o d u c t o r y a n a l y s i s o f t h e d i s p l a c e m e n t phenomena a s s o c i a t e d w i t h " m e c h a n i c a l " c r i m e p r e v e n t i o n s t r a t e g i e s , i . e . t h o s e a i m e d a t r e d u c i n g c r i m i n a l o p p o r t u n i t y o r i n c r e a s i n g t h e r i s k t o o f f e n d e r s . I n C h a p t e r s 7 , 8 , and 9 e v i d e n c e i s p r e s e n t e d s u g g e s t i n g t h a t d i s p l a c e m e n t phenomena a r e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a w i d e r r a n g e o f c r i m i n a l j u s t i c e a n d o t h e r s o c i a l c o n t r o l p o 1 i c i e s . A r e v i e w o f r e s e a r c h d e m o n s t r a t i n g t h e w i d e - r a n g i n g o c c u r r e n c e o f d i s p l a c e m e n t phenomena i s p r e s e n t e d i n C h a p t e r 7 t o i l l u s t r a t e t h e s u b t l e r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e t w e e n c r i m e a n d c o n t r o l . I n C h a p t e r s 8 and 9 two o r i g i n a l r e s e a r c h v i g n e t t e s a r e p r e s e n t e d . T h e f i r s t o f t h e s e d e v e l o p s f r o m l i t e r a t u r e r e v i e w e d i n C h a p t e r 7 c o n c e r n i n g t h e i m p a c t o f l a w e n f o r c m e n t on t h e l o c a t i o n o f v i c e a r e a s . T h e e m p i r i c a l v i g n e t t e p r e s e n t e d i n C h a p t e r 8 d e m o n s t r a t e s t h e way c o n t r o l p r a c t i c e s h a v e b e e n t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r t o t a k e i n t o a c c o u n t i n e x p l a i n i n g c h a n g e s o f s t r e e t p r o s t i t u t i o n i n a c o n t e m p o r a r y C a n a d i a n c i t y . I n t h i s c a s e p a t t e r n s o f c r i m e i n c i d e n c e r e f l e c t c h a n g e s i n t h e s o c i o - l e g a l r e a c t i o n t o p r o s t i t u t i o n r a t h e r t h a n c h a n g e s i n t h e p o p u l a t i o n o f o f f e n d e r s . I n d e e d , t h e i s s u e o f j u s t who t h e o f f e n d e r s a c t u a l l y w e r e a l s o c h a n g e d . T h i s e x a m p l e s e r v e s t o i l l u s t r a t e t h e p o t e n t i a l l y b r o a d a p p l i c a b i l i t y o f t h e d i s p l a c e m e n t c o n c e p t -1 5 . displacement phenomena may not only be a s s o c i a t e d with mechanical crime p r e v e n t i o n s t r a t e g i e s . But even in the case of most mechanical s t r a t e g i e s , d i s c u s s i o n s of displacement have remained h y p o t h e t i c a l . For example, the suggestion that displacement e f f e c t s are a s s o c i a t e d with environmental design s t r a t e g i e s has never a c t u a l l y been demonstrated; as a r e s u l t t h i s issue becomes the subject of the second e m p i r i c a l v i g n e t t e . In Chapter 9 a t t e n t i o n turns to " t a r g e t hardening" crime p r e v e n t i o n programs and the p o t e n t i a l displacement e f f e c t s a s s o c i a t e d with them. The study examines the impact of "Neighbourhood Watch" b u r g l a r y p r e v e n t i o n programs on crime r a t e s , o f f e r i n g evidence which appears to c o n f i r m the hypothesis that although c e r t a i n types of crime p r e v e n t i o n program may deter or suppress crime i n one area, i t i s p a r t l y as the r e s u l t of displacement of a c t i v i t i e s to other t a r g e t s or areas (or because of changes in time or type of crime commi ss i o n ) . The c o n c l u s i o n of the d i s s e r t a t i o n examines the i m p l i c a t i o n s of analyses of crime c o n t r o l p r a c t i c e s for the development of theory i n the geography of crime, and the new res e a r c h avenues that such a c o n s i d e r a t i o n promises. 16. N o t e s t o C h a p t e r 1 1. A n y s e p a r a t i o n o f c r i m e c o n t r o l f r o m t h e w i d e r i n s t i t u t i o n s o f s o c i a l c o n t r o l c a n o n l y be j u s t i f i e d i n t e r m s o f a n a l y t i c c o n v e n i e n c e a n d m a n a g e a b i l i t y ; t h e c r i m i n a l j u s t i c e s y s t e m c a n n o t be t r e a t e d as a c l o s e d s y s t e m . 2 . A l t h o u g h , as we s h a l l s u b s e q u e n t l y s e e i n C h a p t e r s 5 a n d 6 , t h e r e i s a g r o w i n g i n t e r e s t i n many o f t h e s e i s s u e s i n t h e c r i m i n o l o g i c a l a n d s o c i o l o g i c a l l i t e r a t u r e e . g . A r m s t r o n g and W i l s o n ( 1 9 7 3 ) ; Darner ( 1 9 7 4 ) ; B a l d w i n , B o t t o m s and W a l k e r ( 1 9 7 6 ) ; G i l l ( 1 9 7 7 ) ; Mawby ( 1 9 7 9 ) ; B o t t o m s a n d X a n t h o s ( 1 9 8 1 ) . 17 . C h a p t e r 2 THE S O C I O L O G Y OF D E V I A N C E AND THE C R I T I Q U E OF T R A D I T I O N A L C R I M I N O L O G Y P r e a m b l e D a v i d H e r b e r t has n o t e d t h a t some o f t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t t h e o r e t i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t s o f c r i m i n o l o g y i n t h e p a s t t w e n t y y e a r s h a v e b e e n l a r g e l y i g n o r e d b y g e o g r a p h e r s i n t e r e s t e d i n c r i m e . G e o g r a p h i c p e r s p e c t i v e s h a v e t y p i c a l l y f o l l o w e d t r a d i t i o n a l c r i m i n o l o g i c a l t h e o r y a n d p a i d l i t t l e a t t e n t i o n t o d e v e l o p m e n t s o f w h a t H e r b e r t c a l l s t h e s o c i o l o g y o f d e v i a n c e l i t e r a t u r e a n d i t s t h e o r e t i c a l i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r t h e g e o g r a p h i c s t u d y o f c r i m e ' 1 T h e s o c i o l o g y o f d e v i a n c e as d e s c r i b e d by H e r b e r t ( 1 9 8 2 : 2 4 - 2 5 ) o f f e r s a t h e o r e t i c a l u n i t y i n o n l y one s e n s e a n d t h a t s e n s e i s n e g a t i v e . I t s u n i t y l i e s m o r e i n w h a t i t i s o p p o s e d t o t h a n t o w h a t i t i s ; a u n i t e d f r o n t d e v e l o p i n g i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s d u r i n g t h e 1 9 5 0 ' s a n d 6 0 ' s a n d i n B r i t a i n i n t h e l a t e 1 9 6 0 ' s , a g a i n s t t h e t r a d i t i o n a l s o c i o l o g y o f c r i m e - e s p e c i a l l y v a r i e t i e s o f w h a t a r e r e f e r r e d t o as " p o s i t i v i s t " a n d " f u n c t i o n a l i s t " t h e o r i e s o f c r i m e a n d s o c i e t y . T h e v a r i o u s p e r s p e c t i v e s c o n s t i t u t i n g t h e s o c i o l o g y o f d e v i a n c e , a n d t h e c r i t i c a l o r r a d i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e s p a r t l y g r o w i n g o u t o f t h e m , a l s o s h a r e a common i n t e r e s t i n t h e s t u d y o f s o c i a l c o n t r o l a n d c o n t r o l l e r s as w e l l as ( o r i n s t e a d o f ) t h e c r i m i n a l . T h e s e 1 8 . c o m m o n a l i t i e s a s i d e , t h e v e r y g r e a t d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n t h e s o c i o l o g y o f d e v i a n c e a n d r a d i c a l t h e o r y ( t h e p r e d o m i n a n t f o r m o f c r i t i c a l t h e o r y ) m u s t a l s o be r e c o g n i s e d . T h e y a r e p e r s p e c t i v e s a t o n c e u n i t e d and d i v i d e d , a n d , i f t h e r e c e n t l i t e r a t u r e i s a n y t h i n g t o go b y , t h e r i f t s c o n t i n u e t o d e e p e n (Downes a n d R o c k , 1 9 7 9 ) . F o r t h e p u r p o s e s o f t h i s d i s c u s s i o n , t h e n , t h e s o c i o l o g y o f d e v i a n c e , a l a r g e l y h u m a n i s t i c p r o j e c t , i s t o be d i s t i n g u i s h e d f r o m a c r i t i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e w h i c h t e n d s t o f o c u s on s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e . 2 T h e s e two p e r s p e c t i v e s may be f u r t h e r s u b d i v i d e d . T h e h u m a n i s t t r a d i t i o n e m b r a c e s s y m b o l i c i n t e r a c t i o n i s m , p h e n o m e n o l o g y a n d e t h n o m e t h o d o l o g y . T h e s y m b o l i c i n t e r a c t i o n i s t p o s i t i o n d e r i v e s f r o m G e o r g e H e r b e r t M e a d ' s s o c i a l p s y c h o l o g y ( e g . 1 9 3 4 , 1 9 3 8 ) , w h i l e t h e p h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l p o s i t i o n d e r i v e s f r o m A l f r e d S c h u t z ' s o c i a l p h e n o m e n o l o g y ( e g 1 9 7 0 ) . E t h n o m e t h o d o l o g y i s a h y b r i d d r a w i n g on b o t h S c h u t z a n d M e a d - t h e r e i s much i n common i n t h e w o r k o f t h e two a u t h o r s ( b u t t h e r e a r e some i m p o r t a n t d i f f e r e n c e s and t h e p o s i t i o n s s h o u l d n o t be c o n f l a t e d ) . O f t h e s e p e r s p e c t i v e s s y m b o l i c i n t e r a c t i o n i s m has r e c e i v e d m o s t a t t e n t i o n i n c r i m i n o l o g y , p a r t i c u l a r l y t h r o u g h t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e l a b e l l i n g p e r s p e c t i v e a n d r e l a t e d themes i n N o r t h A m e r i c a a n d B r i t a i n s i n c e 1 9 5 0 . 3 T h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f c r i t i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e s i n c r i m i n o l o g y has b e e n much m o r e r e c e n t - m a i n l y i n t h e 1 9 7 0 ' s . T h e c r i t i c a l l i t e r a t u r e i n b o t h N o r t h A m e r i c a a n d B r i t a i n i s p r e d o m i n a n t l y M a r x i s t a n d i s r e f e r r e d t o h e r e as t h e " r a d i c a l " 1 9 . p e r s p e c t i v e . 4 O t h e r c r i t i c a l t h e o r i s t s ( c r i t i c a l i n t h e s e n s e t h a t t h e y s e e c r i m e as t h e p r o d u c t o f s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s and t h e s o l u t i o n t o c r i m e i n t e r m s o f t h e m o d i f i c a t i o n o f s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s ) may u s e M a r x i a n a n a l y t i c c a t e g o r i e s b u t d i s a s s o c i a t e t h e m s e l v e s f r o m a M a r x i s t l a b e l ( e g . R e a s o n s d i s c l a i m e r t o t h i s e f f e c t on t h e c o v e r o f Q u i n n e y ' s M a r x i s t a n a l y s i s i n C l a s s , S t a t e a n d C r i m e , 1 9 7 7 ) . C r i t i c a l t h e o r y i n g e n e r a l ( M a r x i s t o r o t h e r w i s e ) s u g g e s t s t h a t s o c i a l s c i e n c e c a n n o t be o b j e c t i v e t h u s i m p l y i n g t h a t t h e t h e o r i s t / r e s e a r c h e r m u s t t a k e a p o l i t i c a l s t a n c e . A t h i r d p o s i t i o n p a r t l y r e l a t e d t o t h e c r i t i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e i s a l s o w o r t h n o t i n g a t t h i s p o i n t -" p o w e r - c o n f l i c t " i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f c r i m e a n d l a w a r e s i m i l a r t o c r i t i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e s i n t h e i r v i s i o n o f t h e r o l e o f power i n t h e g e n e s i s o f c r i m i n a l i t y , b u t r e a s s e r t t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f o b j e c t i v e s o c i a l s c i e n c e a n d t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f a c o n f l i c t a n a l y s i s w h i c h i s n o t p o l i t i c a l l y p a r t i s a n ( e g . T u r k 1 9 6 9 , 1 9 7 8 ; M c D o n a l d , 1 9 7 6 ) . A s w i t h t h e s o c i o l o g y o f d e v i a n c e , c a u t i o n s h o u l d be t a k e n i n v i e w i n g t h e r a d i c a l l i t e r a t u r e as a f u l l y c o h e r e n t e n t i t y . T h e r e i s a g r e a t d e a l o f d i s a g r e e m e n t i n g e n e r a l i n s o c i a l s c i e n c e o v e r t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f M a r x ' w r i t i n g s , a n d a number o f a l t e r n a t i v e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s a r e b e g i n i n g t o a p p e a r i n t h e c r i m i n o l o g i c a l l i t e r a t u r e ; i n t h e h i s t o r i c a l f i e l d T h o m p s o n ( 1 9 7 7 ) , a l t h o u g h o n l y p e r i p h e r a l l y i n t e r e s t e d i n c r i m e , has a d o p t e d a h u m a n i s t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f M a r x i m p l i c i t l y i n o p p o s i t i o n t o e c o n o m i c i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s ( G o r d o n 1 9 7 1 , 1 9 7 3 ) a n d w h a t c a n be d e s c r i b e d as s t r u c t u r a l f u n c t i o n a l i s t 2 0 . i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s ( Q u i n n e y 1 9 7 2 , 1 9 7 4 , 1 9 7 7 ; M i e h a l o w s k i and B o h l a n d e r 1 9 7 6 ; W e r k e n t i n , H o f f e r b e r t and B a u r m a n n 1 9 7 4 , S p i t z e r 1 9 7 5 ) . 5 A s i n s o c i o l o g y i n g e n e r a l , t h e s t r u c t u r e / a c t i o n i s s u e d i s t i n g u i s h e s M a r x i s t p e r s p e c t i v e s f r o m e a c h o t h e r ; i n d e e d m o s t o f t h e m a j o r p h i l o s o p h i c a l d e b a t e s a r o u n d t h e a p p r o p r i a t e m e t h o d o l o g i e s a n d e p i s t e m o l o g i e s f o r s o c i a l s t u d i e s seem t o be r e c o n s t i t u t e d w i t h i n M a r x i s m s u c h t h a t t h e t e r m , l i k e t h e t e r m s c i e n c e , has a h i g h l y p r o b l e m a t i c 0 m e a n i n g ( H o o k , 1 9 8 0 ) . A s M a r x i s t p e r s p e c t i v e s f l o u r i s h i n c r i m i n o l o g y , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n B r i t a i n , t h e s e d i f f e r e n c e s may become p a r a m o u n t , d e s p i t e H i r s t ' s c l a i m s ( 1 9 7 3 , 1 9 7 5 ) t h a t b e c a u s e " c r i m e " i s n o t a p r o p e r l y c o n s i t i t u t e d a n a l y t i c c a t e g o r y i n a M a r x i s t t h e o r e t i c a l f r a m e w o r k i t c o n s e q u e n t l y c a n n o t be an o b j e c t o f M a r x i s t a n a l y s i s . B u t t o t h i s p o i n t i n t i m e r a d i c a l c r i m i n o l o g y has t e n d e d t o o p e r a t e a t a s t r u c t u r a l l e v e l . I t i s t h u s n o t s u r p r i s i n g t h a t i t i s a l s o o v e r t h e s t r u c t u r e / a c t i o n i s s u e t h a t r a d i c a l t h e o r y p a r t s company w i t h t h e s o c i o l o g y o f d e v i a n c e , d i s m i s s i n g i t as t o o s u b j e c t i v i s t by v i r t u e o f f a i l i n g t o i n c o r p o r a t e a n y s y s t e m a t i c a n a l y s i s o f i d e o l o g y o r o t h e r a s p e c t s o f s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e ( T a y l o r , W a l t o n a n d Y o u n g , 1 9 7 3 ; M a n d e r s , 1 9 7 5 ; R e a s o n s a n d P e r d u e , 1 9 8 2 ) . T h e r a d i c a l c r i t i q u e o f t h e i m p u t e d s u b j e c t i v i s m o f t h e s o c i o l o g y o f d e v i a n c e does n o t e n t a i l a s w e e p i n g d i s m i s s a l o f t h e a p p r o p r i a t e n e s s o f an i n t e r a c t i o n i s t l e v e l o f a n a l y s i s . S e v e r a l a d v o c a t e s o f a r a d i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e s t r e s s t h e n e e d t o i n c o r p o r a t e an i n t e r a c t i o n i s t l e v e l o f a n a l y s i s i n a n y 2 1 . s o c i o l o g i c a l t h e o r y o f d e v i a n c e ( e g . T a y l o r , W a l t o n a n d Y o u n g , 1 9 7 3 ; H a l l , e t a l 1 9 7 8 ) a n d t h e s o c i o l o g y o f d e v i a n c e p l a y e d an i m p o r t a n t p a r t i n s t i m u l a t i n g and d e v e l o p i n g r a d i c a l s c h o l a r s h i p . A s we s h a l l s e e l a t e r t h e r e a c t i o n t o t r a d i t i o n a l c r i m i n o l o g y i n B r i t a i n b e g a n w i t h t h e f o r m a t i o n o f t h e N a t i o n a l D e v i a n c y C o n f e r e n c e ( t h e " Y o r k G r o u p " ) w h i c h was i n s t r u m e n t a l i n i m p o r t i n g i n t e r a c t i o n i s t a n d l a b e l l i n g p e r s p e c t i v e s t o B r i t i s h c r i m i n o l o g y . T h e Y o r k G r o u p d e v e l o p e d i n t o a t l e a s t two g e n e r a l f o l l o w i n g s - one o f i n t e r a c t i o n i s m , t h e o t h e r o f a r a d i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e . S i g n i f i c a n t l y t h e f i r s t c o l l e c t i v e p u b l i c a t i o n o f t h e g r o u p ( C o h e n , 1 9 7 1 ) f a l l s s q u a r e l y i n t o t h e i n t e r a c t i o n i s t f r a m e w o r k ( E r i c s o n , 1 9 7 4 ) . A n d as much as t h e two f o l l o w i n g s a r e now i n o p e n d i s a g r e e m e n t o v e r c e r t a i n i s s u e s ( s e e , f o r e x a m p l e , Downes a n d R o c k , 1 9 7 9 ) t h e y a r e s t i l l u n i t e d i n t h e i r o p p o s i t i o n t o p o s i t i v i s t a n d f u n c t i o n a l i s t p e r s p e c t i v e s . B u t t h i s i s n o t t h e o n l y p o i n t o f a g r e e m e n t b e t w e e n i n t e r a c t i o n i s t a n d c r i t i c a l t h e o r i s t s . U n l i k e t h e e x p l i c i t f o c u s on t h e c r i m i n a l a c t o r c h a r a c t e r i s i n g t r a d i t i o n a l c r i m i n o l o g y , t h e p r o c e s s a n d e f f e c t o f s o c i a l c o n t r o l a l s o f i n d t h e i r p l a c e i n t h e s o c i o l o g y o f d e v i a n c e a n d r a d i c a l t h e o r y t h u s g i v i n g t h e two p e r s p e c t i v e s f u r t h e r common g r o u n d ( i n d e e d some r e s e a r c h e r s f o c u s o n l y on s o c i a l c o n t r o l w i t h v e r y l i t t l e c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f t h e c r i m i n a l a c t o r ) . A n d i n t h i s s e n s e , one o f t h e m a j o r c r i t i c i s m s t h e two p e r s p e c t i v e s make o f t r a d i t i o n a l c r i m i n o l o g y i s t h e g e n e r a l f a i l u r e t o r e c o g n i z e t h e d i a l e c t i c r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n c r i m e a n d c o n t r o l . T h i s a r g u m e n t c a n be e x t e n d e d t o t h e g e o g r a p h y o f 22. c r i m e by s u g g e s t i n g t h a t v e r y l i t t l e s y s t e m a t i c c o n s i d e r a t i o n ha s b e e n g i v e n t o t h e e f f e c t o f s o c i a l c o n t r o l p r a c t i c e s i n m o d i f y i n g o r m o u l d i n g c r i m e p a t t e r n s . " ^ T h e f o u n d a t i o n f o r t h i s a r g u m e n t i s l a i d i n an e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e p h i l o s o p h i c a l p o s i t i o n t h a t d i s t i n g u i s h e s t h e s o c i o l o g y o f d e v i a n c e f r o m t r a d i t i o n a l c r i m i n o l o g i c a l t h e o r y , a n d i n t u r n t h e m a n d a t e o f c r i t i c a l t h e o r y i n i t s b r e a k f r o m t h e s o c i o l o g y o f d e v i a n c e . T h e E m e r g e n c e o f t h e S o c i o l o g y o f D e v i a n c e W h i l e i t was n o t e d e a r l i e r t h a t t h e s o c i o l o g y o f d e v i a n c e d e v e l o p e d as a r e a c t i o n t o t h e d o m i n a n t p e r s p e c t i v e s h o l d i n g sway on b o t h s i d e s o f t h e A t l a n t i c up t o t h e 1 9 5 0 ' s a n d 6 0 ' s , t h i s i s n o t t o s u g g e s t t h a t t r a d i t i o n a l p e r s p e c t i v e s a r e no l o n g e r i m p o r t a n t . R a t h e r , t h e s o c i o l o g y o f d e v i a n c e has d e v e l o p e d ( o f t e n i n p o l e m i c a l f o r m ) a l o n g s i d e e s t a b l i s h e d p e r s p e c t i v e s . T h e l a b e l l i n g p e r s p e c t i v e , i n f o r m e d by a s y m b o l i c i n t e r a c t i o n i s t e p i s t e m o l o g y , a r o s e t o c h a l l e n g e t r a d i t i o n a l p e r s p e c t i v e s w h i c h v i e w e d d e v i a n c e a n d c r i m e s i m p l y as f o r m s o f s o c i a l p a t h o l o g y , s o c i a l d i s o r g a n i z a t i o n , o r i n t e r m s o f s o c i a l f u n c t i o n s and d y s f u n c t i o n s . I n c o n t r a s t t o t h e t r a d i t i o n a l p e r s p e c t i v e s w h i c h a r e p r e d i c a t e d u p o n t h e i d e a t h a t d e v i a n c e l e a d s t o s o c i a l c o n t r o l , t h e f i r s t p h a s e o f t h e s o c i o l o g y o f d e v i a n c e r e v e r s e d t h e f o r m u l a t o s u g g e s t t h a t d e v i a n c e i s o f t e n t h e c o n s e q u e n c e o f s o c i a l c o n t r o l , o r a t l e a s t may be a m p l i f i e d by c o n t r o l m e a s u r e s . T h i s t h e s i s became t h e c e n t r a l a x i o m o f t h e l a b e l l i n g p e r s p e c t i v e t a k e n t o i t s 23. e x t r e m e i n B e c k e r ' s e a r l i e r w r i t i n g - s o c i a l g r o u p s c r e a t e d e v i a n c e a n d d e v i a n t b e h a v i o u r i s t h a t w h i c h i s so l a b e l l e d ( 1 9 6 3 p . 9 ) . W h i l e t r a d i t i o n a l p e r s p e c t i v e s h a d c o n c e n t r a t e d on t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f c a u s a l t h e o r i e s o f d e v i a n t and c r i m i n a l b e h a v i o u r , s y m b o l i c i n t e r a c t i o n i s t t h e o r y ( p a r t i c u l a r l y l a b e l l i n g t h e o r y ) , c h a n g e d t h e e m p h a s i s o f a n a l y s i s t o s o c i a l c o n t r o l a s a n a d d i t i o n a l o r e v e n p r i m a r y e l e m e n t i n i t s r e s e a r c h m a n i f e s t o . E a c h o f t h e p e r s p e c t i v e s i n t h e s o c i o l o g y o f d e v i a n c e r e t a i n s a c e n t r a l p l a c e f o r t h e a n a l y s i s o f s o c i a l c o n t r o l i n t h e e x p l a n a t i o n o f c r i m e a n d d e v i a n c e , a n d i t i s h e r e t h a t t h e y f o r c e f u l l y b r e a k f r o m t h e t r a d i t i o n a l p e r s p e c t i v e s . I n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s t h e f i r s t b r i e f i n t e r p r e t i v e i d e a s a d u m b r a t i n g t h e l a b e l l i n g p e r s p e c t i v e w e r e p r e s e n t e d as e a r l y as 1938 b y F r a n k T a n n e n b a u m w i t h h i s comments on t h e d e f i n i t i o n and d r a m a t i z a t i o n o f e v i l i n C r i m e and t h e C o m m u n i t y ( p p . 1 7 -2 2 ) . T a n n e n b a u m d i s c u s s e s t h e m a n n e r i n w h i c h t h e o f f i c i a l r e a c t i o n t o c r i m e a n d d e l i n q u e n c y t h r o u g h t h e " d r a m a t i z a t i o n o f e v i l " o p e r a t e s as a s e l f - f u l f i l l i n g p r o p h e c y m a k i n g a p e r s o n become t h e t h i n g h e / s h e i s d e s c r i b e d as b e i n g . L e m e r t ' s w o r k s o n s o c i o p a t h i c b e h a v i o u r ( 1 9 4 8 ) a n d S o c i a l P a t h o l o g y ( 1 9 5 1 ) w e r e t h e f i r s t a t t e m p t s a t c r y s t a l i z i n g t h i s p o i n t o f v i e w . B u t n o t u n t i l some t e n y e a r s l a t e r d i d t h e p o s i t i o n d e v e l o p i n t o w h a t has v a r i o u s l y b e e n c a l l e d t h e " l a b e l l i n g s c h o o l " ( g e n e r a l l y ) , t h e " n e o - c h i c a g o a n s " ( M a t z a 1 9 6 9 ) , a n d t h e W e s t C o a s t S c h o o l o r T h e P a c i f i c S e m i n a r ( L e m e r t 1972 p . 1 5 ) . L e m e r t l i s t s t h e w o r k o f K i t s u s e ( 1 9 6 0 ) , G o f f m a n ( 1 9 6 1 ) , E r i k s o n 2 4 . (1962), Becker (1963) and Scheff (1963) as the most i n f l u e n t i a l in d e s c r i b i n g and e s t a b l i s h i n g a new p e r s p e c t i v e f o c u s i n g on the moral order and s o c i a l c o n t r o l , seeking to show how c a t e g o r i e s of deviance are c r e a t e d and a p p l i e d to i n d i v i d u a l s and groups (1972 p. 15). While eastern' establishment s o c i o l o g y in the U n i t e d S t a t e s was p r i m a r i l y concerned with the e t i o l o g y of deviance, "the western l o o k i n g s o c i o l o g i s t s . . . h a v e given currency to such concepts as s o c i e t a l r e a c t i o n , stigma, degradation, m o r t i f i c a t i o n of s e l f , p o l i c e d i s c r e t i o n and t y p i f i c a t i o n , ideas which are e s p e c i a l l y s u i t e d to showing how agencies and i n s t i t u t i o n s o s t e n s i b l y organized for w e l f a r e , reform, r e h a b i l i t a t i o n , and treatment give form and meaning to deviance and s t a b i l i z e i t as secondary d e v i a t i o n " (Lemert, 1972 p.15). The importance of s e v e r a l of these concepts f o r geographic i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s of crime w i l l be d i s c u s s e d subsequently in terms of area or e c o l o g i c a l l a b e l l i n g (Brantingham and Brantingham, 1981A p. 8). Some of these same i n t e r e s t s were a l s o taken up i n other more recent t h e o r e t i c a l ventures, p a r t i c u l a r l y i n the development of ethnomethodology. During the l a t e 1960's the ethnomethodological p e r s p e c t i v e emerged in North American s o c i o l o g y as a polemic against p o s i t i v i s m and s t r u c t u r a l f u n c t i o n a l i s m . The foundation of the ethnomethodological program was l a i d down by G a r f i n k e l (1967) and subsequently e l a b o r a t e d by C i c o u r e l (1968, 1972), G a r f i n k e l and Sacks (1972) and Turner (1974). Ethnomethodology focuses on the conventions of the "commonsense" everyday world showing 25. how the meaning of s o c i a l o b j e c t s i s s o c i a l l y c o n s t r u c t e d and r e c o n s t r u c t e d , and how r e c o n s t r u c t i o n f o l l o w s t a k e n - f o r - g r a n t e d r u l e systems. Ethnomethodology and s o c i a l phenomenology refocus the concern of s o c i o l o g y to everyday l i f e p r o b l e m a t i z i n g what t r a d i t i o n a l s o c i o l o g i s t s have taken for granted - the hidden meaning and s t r u c t u r e s of mundane e x i s t e n c e . When compared to the l a b e l l i n g p e r s p e c t i v e , ethnomethodology provides a rather d i f f e r e n t i n s i g h t i n t o s o c i a l c o n t r o l processes s u g g e s t i n g how the meaning of c r i m i n a l and delinquent behaviour i s c o n s t i t u t e d through s o c i a l i n t e r a c t i o n and can not simply be " r e a d - o f f " from c r i m i n a l s t a t u t e s . In Chapter 5 t h i s issue w i l l be taken up in a d i s c u s s i o n of the i m p l i c a t i o n s of ethnomethodological s t u d i e s of the working p r a c t i c e s of the p o l i c e for the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of o f f i c i a l s t a t i s t i c s . While the ethnomethodological p e r s p e c t i v e tended to g a i n more currency i n the s o c i o l o g y of deviance than d i d s o c i a l phenomenology, the phenomenological p o s i t i o n i s s i m i l a r by v i r t u e of i t s c o n c e n t r a t i o n on the c o n v e n t i o n a l i t y of the "commonsense" world. In sh o r t , these are attempts to make s o c i o l o g i c a l sense of commonsense. In terms of deviancy theory ethnomethodology makes sense of l e g a l c a t e g o r i e s by attempting to understand the commonsense notions that a c t u a l l y imbue them with meaning. The S o c i o l o g y of Deviance as Verstehen In order to be able to understand the c r i t i c i s m s of 26. t r a d i t i o n a l s o c i o l o g y d e v e l o p e d i n t h e s o c i o l o g y o f d e v i a n c e i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o s i t u a t e t h i s c r i t i q u e i n a w i d e r p h i l o s o p h i c a l c o n t e x t . T h e c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n o f t h e s o c i o l o g y o f d e v i a n c e as " v e r s t e h e n " c r i m i n o l o g y s u g g e s t s a v e r y d i f f e r e n t k i n d o f p h i l o s o p h i c a l b a s i s t o t h a t i n f o r m i n g v a r i o u s t r a d i t i o n a l t h e o r i e s . I n v e r y s i m p l e t e r m s v e r s t e h e n means i n t e r p r e t i v e u n d e r s t a n d i n g , and t h e s t r e s s on t h e s o c i a l c o n s t r u c t i o n o f m e a n i n g so c e n t r a l t o s y m b o l i c i n t e r a c t i o n i s m , s o c i a l p h e n o m e n o l o g y a n d e t h n o m e t h o d o l o g y s t a n d s i n d i r e c t c o n t r a d i s t i n c t i o n t o p e r s p e c t i v e s w h i c h a t t e m p t e x p l a n a t i o n i n t e r m s o f d e t e r m i n i s t i c c a u s a t i o n . T h e d e b a t e b e t w e e n t h e s e two p o s i t i o n s i s f u n d a m e n t a l i n s o c i a l s c i e n c e , a n d r e v o l v e s a r o u n d t h e i s s u e o f t h e a p p r o p r i a t e n e s s o f t h e e p i s t e m o l o g y , o n t o l o g y a n d m e t h o d o f n a t u r a l s c i e n c e ( o r a t l e a s t t h e s o c i a l s c i e n t i s t ' s v i s i o n o f n a t u r a l s c i e n c e ) f o r e x p l a i n i n g human b e h a v i o u r . T h e d e b a t e o v e r t h e u n i t y o f s c i e n c e has i t s f o u n d a t i o n i n t h e e n l i g h t e n m e n t v i e w o f s c i e n c e , and s u b s e q u e n t r e a c t i o n s t o i t . A d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h i s d e b a t e s e r v e s t o l o c a t e t h e s o c i o l o g y o f d e v i a n c e , and i t s r e a c t i o n t o t r a d i t i o n a l c r i m i n o l o g i c a l t h e o r y . T h e V e r s t e h e n - E r k l a r e n C o n t r o v e r s y T h e v e r s t e h e n - e r k l a r e n c o n t r o v e r s y i n G e r m a n s o c i a l p h i l o s o p h y i s a s p e c i a l c a s e o f a m o r e g e n e r a l d i s p u t e o v e r m e t h o d o l o g i c a l a p p r o a c h e s t o t h e s t u d y o f s o c i a l p h e n o m e n a . A d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h i s d e b a t e p r o v i d e s a u s e f u l c o n t e x t f o r a 27 . d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e v a r i o u s t e n s i o n s s e p a r a t i n g c r i m i n o l o g i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e s . E r k l a r e n i s a p e r s p e c t i v e d e v e l o p e d i n t h e s p i r i t o f t h e E n l i g h t e n m e n t s u g g e s t i n g t h a t t h e m e t h o d o l o g i c a l u n i t y o f n a t u r a l a n d s o c i a l s c i e n c e s a n d t h e u n i v e r s a l a p p l i c a b i l i t y o f t h e g e n e r a l p r i n c i p l e s o f s c i e n t i f i c m e t h o d s makes p o s s i b l e t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f e m p i r i c a l l y t e s t a b l e o b j e c t i v e k n o w l e d g e o f s o c i a l p h e n o m e n a . T h i s was t h e s t a n d p o i n t o f n o t o n l y n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y p o s i t i v i s m , b u t a l s o o f many s u b s e q u e n t f o r m s o f e m p i r i c i s m , b e h a v i o u r i s m a n d n a t u r a l i s m . T h o s e M a r x i s t s who b e l i e v e i n u n i v e r s a l d i a l e c t i c a l l a w s o f n a t u r e , s o c i e t y and human t h o u g h t a l s o b e l o n g h e r e ( M a r k o v i c , 1972 p . 2 8 ) . T h e o p p o s i t e t e n d e n c y was f i r s t e l a b o r a t e d i n D i l t h e y ' s L e b e n s p h i 1 o s o p h i e and d e v e l o p e d by t h e n e o - K a n t i a n s R i c k e r t a n d W i n d e l b a n d , who s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e g o a l s o f s o c i a l i n q u i r y s h o u l d n o t be t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f g e n e r a l l a w s o f human b e h a v i o u r , b u t t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f s o c i a l a c t o r s ' s u b j e c t i v e m o t i v e s a n d i n t e n t i o n s ( M a r k o v i c , 1 9 7 2 ) . T h i s a n t i -E n l i g h t e n m e n t a n d , i n a l i m i t e d s e n s e , a n t i - s c i e n t i f i c s p i r i t 8 came t o e x p r e s s i o n i n v a r i o u s b r a n d s o f p h e n o m e n o l o g y , e x i s t e n t i a l i s m , s y m b o l i c i n t e r a c t i o n i s m , e t h n o m e t h o d o l o g y , h u m a n i s t i c v e r s i o n s o f M a r x i s m ( e s p e c i a l l y e x i s t e n t i a l M a r x i s m ) , a n d i n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e C r i t i c a l ( o r F r a n k f u r t ) S c h o o l o f G e r m a n s o c i a l p h i l o s o p h y . W h i l e b o t h e r k l a r e n ( i . e . g e n e r i c p o s i t i v i s m ) a n d v e r s t e h e n p o s i t i o n s c l a i m t o be e m p i r i c a l , t h e y d i f f e r o v e r t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f e m p i r i c a l r e a l i t y ; t h e y d i f f e r o n t o l o g i c a l l y 2 8 . a n d e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l l y ( a l t h o u g h i t s h o u l d be n o t e d t h a t M a r k o v i c , who I h a v e p a r t l y f o l l o w e d h e r e , does n o t s e e t h e two p o s i t i o n s as i r r e c o n c i 1 i a b l e ) . V e r s t e h e n p e r s p e c t i v e s g i v e o n t o l o g i c a l s t a t u s t o human i n t e n t i o n s a n d m e a n i n g s , b u t t h e s e a r e l a r g e l y e x c l u d e d f r o m t h e e r k l a r e n p e r s p e c t i v e o r b l a c k -b o x e d i n a s t i m u l u s - r e s p o n s e v i e w o f human m o t i v a t i o n . B e c a u s e o f t h e s t r e s s on t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e i n t e n t i o n s and m e a n i n g s o f s o c i a l a c t o r s , a n d t h e v i e w t h a t t h e s e a r e p r o d u c e d t h r o u g h human i n t e r a c t i o n r a t h e r t h a n d e r i v i n g f r o m some p r e g i v e n c o s m i c o r d e r , v e r s t e h e n p e r s p e c t i v e s d e n y t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f e s t a b l i s h i n g g e n e r a l l a w s o f human b e h a v i o u r t h r o u g h a p r i n c i p l e o f c a u s a l d e t e r m i n i s m . I n v e r y g e n e r a l t e r m s t h e s c i e n t i f i c mode o f i n q u i r y s e e k i n g t o p r o d u c e c a u s a l e x p l a n a t i o n s f o r d e t e r m i n i s t i c p r o c e s s e s has p r o d u c e d m o r e d i s p u t e i n s o c i a l s c i e n c e t h i s c e n t u r y t h a n a n y o t h e r i s s u e . A l t h o u g h t h e p h i l o s o p h i c a l m o t i v e o f t h e E n l i g h t e n m e n t was m a n i f e s t l y h u m a n i s t i c i n i t s i n t e n t i o n s , w h a t a t f i r s t was s e e n as a means o f human e m a n c i p a t i o n came t o be s e e n as a c e n t r a l i n s t r u m e n t o f human d o m i n a t i o n . N a t u r a l i s t i c e x p l a n a t i o n s s e e i n g man as p r o p e l l e d by e x t e r n a l f o r c e s o r c o m p e l l e d by p r e g i v e n i n t e r n a l f o r c e s l e a v e h i m as a " p s y c h i c r o b o t " o r " j u d g e m e n t a l d o p e " w i t h a p p a r e n t l y no f r e e - w i l l ( H o l l i s , 1 9 7 7 ) . Man t h u s becomes an o b j e c t r a t h e r t h a n a s u b j e c t , a f o r m o f o b j e c t i f i c a t i o n w h i c h may h a v e f a r - r e a c h i n g p o l i t i c a l i m p l i c a t i o n s . T h e r e a c t i o n a g a i n s t t h e e r k l a r e n p o s i t i o n has t h u s b e e n b o t h p h i l o s o p h i c a l a n d p o l i t i c a l . H u s s e r l ' s c r i t i c i s m s o f p o s i t i v i s m w e r e 2 9 . d e v e l o p e d by h i s d i s c i p l e S c h u t z , a n d t h o s e o f S c h u t z a n d M a n n h e i m w e r e b u i l t i n t o t h e p o l e m i c s d e v e l o p e d m u c h l a t e r i n t h e s o c i o l o g y o f d e v i a n c e . S i m i l a r l y M e a d ' s a t t a c k s on c r u d e b e h a v i o u r i s m f i n d t h e i r way i n t o t h e s o c i o l o g y o f d e v i a n c e by v i r t u e o f t h e i n t e r a c t i o n i s t p o s i t i o n i n f o r m i n g i t . P h i l o s o p h i c a l l y t h e e r k l a r e n - v e r s t e h e n d e b a t e r e v o l v e s a r o u n d t h e i s s u e o f f r e e - w i l l a n d d e t e r m i n i s m a n d ha s b e e n r e c a p i t u l a t e d i n many s o c i a l s c i e n c e s i n t h e p a s t t h i r t y y e a r s - i n g e o g r a p h y t h e r e a c t i o n t o t h e " q u a n t i t a t i v e r e v o l u t i o n " ( s o - c a l l e d ) o f t h e 1 9 6 0 ' s has a l s o r e c e n t l y b e e n c o u c h e d i n t e r m s o f t h i s d e b a t e ( L e y , 1 9 7 7 , 1 9 8 0 , 1 9 8 2 ; L e y a n d S a m u e l s , 1 9 7 8 ) a n d i s p a r a l l e l l e d b y e a r l i e r d e v e l o p m e n t s i n N o r t h A m e r i c a n s o c i o l o g y . ^ T h i s , t h e n , i s t h e g e n e r a l p h i l o s p h i c a l b a c k d r o p a g a i n s t w h i c h t h e r e a c t i o n o f v e r t e h e n p e r s p e c t i v e s t o t r a d i t i o n a l f o r m s o f s o c i o l o g i c a l c r i m e t h e o r y m u s t be u n d e r s t o o d . V e r s t e h e n P e r s p e c t i v e s a n d t h e C r i t i q u e o f T r a d i t i o n a l S o c i o l o g y a n d C r i m i n o l o g y H a v i n g s i t u a t e d t h e s o c i o l o g y o f d e v i a n c e i n t h e w i d e r c o n t e x t o f d e b a t e s i n t h e p h i l o s o p h y o f s o c i a l s c i e n c e , t h e d i s c u s s i o n now m o v e s t o a c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f t h e s p e c i f i c i s s u e s i n v o l v e d i n t h e c r i t i q u e o f t h e " t r a d i t i o n a l " s o c i o l o g i e s o f c r i m e ( v a r i e t i e s o f p o s i t i v i s m , s t r u c t u r a l i s m and s t r u c t u r a l f u n c t i o n a l i s m ) . T h e d i s c u s s i o n b e g i n s w i t h c r i t i c i s m s o f s t r u c t u r a l i s m a n d s t r u c t u r a l f u n c t i o n a l i s m a n d t h e n moves on t o 3 0 . a c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f p o s i t i v i s m , a n d t h e s u g g e s t e d p o s i t i v i s t e l e m e n t s o f s t r u c t u r a l i s m . F i n a l l y t h e p o l i t i c a l i m p l i c a t i o n s o f t h e s e p o s i t i o n s a r e e x a m i n e d . I n a p a p e r on d e v i a n c e , P h i l l i p s o n a n d R o c h e ( 1 9 7 6 ) i d e n t i f y f i v e m a i n c r i t i c i s m s w h i c h p h e n o m e n o l o g y a n d e t h n o m e t h o d o l o g y m i g h t e n t e r a g a i n s t t r a d i t i o n a l s o c i o l o g y ( p . 1 4 1 ) . T h e f o l l o w i n g f i v e p o i n t s a r e b a s e d u p o n t h e i r d i s c u s s i o n : 1. T h e l a c k o f c o n n e c t i o n a n d a r t i c u l a t i o n b e t w e e n s o c i a l t h e o r y a n d e m p i r i c a l r e s e a r c h . T h i s c r i t i c i s m i s p a r t i c u l a r l y a p p l i e d t o s t r u c t u r a l s o c i o l o g y w h i c h i s d e p i c t e d as a k i n d o f s o c i o l o g i c a l d e t e r m i n i s m i n w h i c h s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e s t h e t h e o r i s t i d e n t i f i e s by means o f l o g i c a l a r g u m e n t s a r e s a i d t o d e t e r m i n e human a c t i v i t y . I n w i d e r s o c i o l o g y t h i s s o c i o l o g i c a l d e t e r m i n i s m i s s u g g e s t e d as a p p l y i n g t o c e r t a i n v e r s i o n s o f M a r x i s m ( p a r t i c u l a r l y s t r u c t u r a l i s t a n d e c o n o m i c d e t e r m i n i s t r e n d i t i o n s ) a n d t o t h e w o r k o f D u r k h e i m , M e r t o n a n d P a r s o n s , a l t h o u g h a l l t h e s e t h e o r i s t s a r e s e n s i t i v e t o t h e p r o b l e m o f human c o n s c i o u s n e s s a n d m e a n i n g ( p a r t i c u l a r l y M a r x - d e p e n d i n g on how h i s w o r k i s i n t e r p r e t e d ) . K e a t a n d U r r y ( 1 9 7 5 , p . 1 3 8 ) r e f e r r i n g m o r e e x p l i c i t l y t o an e t h n o m e t h o d o l o g i c a l c r i t i q u e o f s t r u c t u r a l i s m s u g g e s t t h a t as much as s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e s may be s e e n t o c a u s e human a c t i v i t y , i t c a n n o t be d e n i e d t h a t human a c t i v i t i e s c r e a t e s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e s . T h e r e a r e p a r a l l e l s h e r e w i t h c r i t i c i s m s o f f u n c t i o n a l i s m a n d h o l i s m i n human g e o g r a p h y ( D u n c a n , 1 9 8 0 ; D u n c a n a n d L e y , 1 9 8 2 ) . 3 1 . 2. the gross i n a p p r o p r i a t e n e s s and i r r e l e v a n c e of much of the r a t i o n a l i d e a l - t y p e c o n s t r u c t i o n used to e s t a b l i s h a theory - r e s e a r c h connection ( C i c o u r e l ' s -1968- work on j u v e n i l e j u s t i c e represents a good example of the development of t h i s cr i t i c i sm). 3. S o c i o l o g y ' s a s p i r a t i o n to be an e m p i r i c a l d i s c i p l i n e concerned to understand and e x p l a i n r e a l and e x i s t e n t s o c i a l phenomena i s not served by i t s l a r g e l y i g n o r i n g the key f a c t that such phenomena are meaningful for both the a c t o r s and the s o c i o l o g i s t . In the same sense Keat and Urry (1975, p. 138) suggest that s t r u c t u r a l i s t accounts f a i l to consider the s u b j e c t i v e meanings a c t o r s place upon t h e i r experiences w i t h i n suggested s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e s ; there is no adequate a n a l y s i s of such meanings, how they are shared, and of how a c t o r s do not simply and d i r e c t l y respond to o b j e c t i v e s t r u c t u r a l f a c t o r s . T h i s theme i s a l s o taken up i n C i c o u r e l ' s S o c i a l O r g a n i z a t i o n of J u v e n i l e J u s t i c e 1969 and p a r t l y i n Matza's Becoming Devi ant. 4. T r a d i t i o n a l s o c i o l o g y does not show how meanings are c o n s t i t u t e d and n e g o t i a t e d between a c t o r s . Verstehen p e r s p e c t i v e s focus on t h i s " s o c i a l c o n s t r u c t i o n " of meaning. 5. T r a d i t i o n a l s o c i o l o g y has been incapable or u n w i l l i n g to make i t s own p r a c t i c e s and r e s e a r c h procedures the subject of r e s e a r c h ; research p r a c t i c e s must be r e f l e x i v e . It i s with these c r i t i c i s m s i n mind that P h i l l i p s o n and Roche conclude "Phenomenology and Ethnomethodology d i s c o v e r a theme and a problem in the n e c e s s a r i l y 32. intimate r e l a t i o n of the s o c i o l o g i c a l observer researcher and the observed actors in a common l i v e d world of meanings. The c r i t i c i s m of conventional sociology is not merely that i t has never had the imagination to discover this problem, but, more importantly, that this problem is of central s ign i f i cance for s o c i o l o g i c a l research methodology." (1976 p. 141) Some of the more extreme prac t i t i oners of ethnomethodology hold that sociology in general has no advantages whatsoever over commonsense (Douglas, 1971). P o s i t i v i s t sociology, i t is charged, in general assumes that consensual norms underly laws and that these w i l l be c l e a r l y followed except by deviants who are b a s i c a l l y and cons i s tent ly d i f ferent from other members of society ( i . e . they offer a consensus model of law and s o c i e t y ) . In contrast , ethnomethodologists argue that people follow the procedural rules of everyday l i f e , and these may be at odds with the p r e s c r i p t i o n of somebody e lse 's norms encoded into law ( i m p l i c i t l y a p l u r a l i s t model of soc i e ty ) . Indeed the procedural rules of everyday l i f e ac tua l ly give meaning to formal rules and categories . Thus formal rules and categories cannot be taken-for-granted as meaningful without documentory in terpre ta t ion of the s tructure of the rules of p r a c t i c a l a c t i v i t y . It is this argument that w i l l be taken up in much greater d e t a i l in chapter 5 on the meaning of o f f i c i a l s t a t i s t i c s . The i d e a l - t y p i c a l form of pos i t i v i sm that prac t i t i oners of the sociology of deviance have suggested underpins t r a d i t i o n a l theory is broadly consistent with the erklaren version of German philosophy. Fol lowing Kolakowski (1972) there are 33. s e v e r a l b a s i c p o s t u l a t e s o f l o g i c a l p o s i t i v i s m : 1. A h y p o t h e t i c o - d e d u c t i v e m e t h o d . 2 . T h e r u l e o f p h e n o m e n a l i s m - t h e r e i s no r e a l d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n e s s e n c e and p h e n o m e n a . 3 . T h e r u l e o f n o m i n a l i s m : no i n s i g h t f o r m u l a t e d i n g e n e r a l t e r m s c a n h a v e a n y r e a l r e f e r r e n t s o t h e r t h a n i n d i v i d u a l c o n c r e t e o b j e c t s ; t h e w o r l d we know i s a c o l l e c t i o n o f i n d i v i d u a l o b s e r v a b l e f a c t s a n d s c i e n c e a i m s a t o r d e r i n g t h e s e f a c t s . 4 . A s a c o n s e q u e n c e o f 2 . a n d 3 . an e s s e n t i a l d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n d e s c r i p t i v e and n o r m a t i v e s t a t e m e n t s i s w r o u g h t ; p o s i t i v i s m r e f u s e s t o c a l l t h e l a t t e r k n o w l e d g e . One m i g h t w i s h t o q u a l i f y K o l a k o w s k i ' s c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n o f l o g i c a l p o s i t i v i s m as e s s e n t i a l l y f o l l o w i n g a h y p o t h e t i c o -d e d u c t i v e mode o f r e a s o n i n g t o i n c l u d e an i n d u c t i v e - s t a t i s t i c a l mode a n d t h u s t o d e s c r i b e w h a t we m i g h t l a b e l as " g e n e r i c p o s i t i v i s m " ; t h i s w o u l d c o n f o r m i n g e n e r a l t o a n o m o l o g i c a l mode o f t h i n k i n g a n d i s q u i t e c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e o t h e r c l a i m s K o l a k o w s k i i d e n t i f i e d . T h e h y p o t h e t i c o - d e d u c t i v e m o d e l i s i t s e l f an i d e a l - t y p e w h i c h i n p r a c t i c e i s n e a r l y a l w a y s i n f o r m e d by e l e m e n t s o f i n d u c t i v e t h i n k i n g . I n g e n e r a l , t h e p o s i t i v i s t p e r s p e c t i v e a i m s a t d i s c o v e r i n g t h e c a u s e o f e v e n t s . T h r e e c r u c i a l a s p e c t s o f c a u s a t i o n c a n be o u t l i n e d . 1. T h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f e x t e r n a l r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n two d i s c r e t e e v e n t s o r o b j e c t s . 2 . C a u s e m u s t be t e m p o r a l l y p r i o r t o e f f e c t . 3 . T h e r e m u s t be a c o n s t a n t c o n j u n c t i o n b e t w e e n 3 4 . c a u s e a n d e f f e c t . W h i l e t r a d i t i o n a l c r i m i n o l o g i c a l t h e o r y i s o f t e n c l a s s i f i e d as p o s i t i v i s t by i t s r i v a l s , t h e u s e o f t h e t e r m t o i n c l u d e e m e r g e n t h o l i s t i c p e r s p e c t i v e s s u c h as t h o s e d e v e l o p e d b y D u r k h e i m a n d M e r t o n i s a t t h e b e s t m i s l e a d i n g , a t w o r s t i n c o r r e c t . T h e r e a s o n f o r t h e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f h o l i s t i c p e r s p e c t i v e s as p o s i t i v i s t l i e s i n t h e a t t e m p t o f v a r i e t i e s o f s t r u c t u r a l f u n c t i o n a l i s t t h e o r y t o s p e c i f y c a u s a l d e t e r m i n i s t i c r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e t w e e n s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e a n d human a c t i o n i n w h a t i s p e r c e i v e d as c l a s s i c s c i e n t i f i c r e a s o n i n g . B u t a n y h o l i s t i c s t r u c t u r a l i s t o r f u n c t i o n a l i s t a r g u m e n t b r e a c h e s t h e p o s i t i v i s t r u l e o f n o m i n a l i s m ; s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e c a n h a r d l y be c o n s i d e r e d an i n d i v i d u a l c o n c r e t e o b j e c t . F u n c t i o n a l i s m a l s o b r e a k s t h e r u l e o f p h e n o m e n a l i s m ; M e r t o n ' s l a t e n t f u n c t i o n s , f o r e x a m p l e , m o s t d e f i n i t e l y e n t a i l a d i s t i n c t i o n o f e s s e n c e a n d p h e n o m e n a . T h e t h e o r e t i c a l w o r k o f D u r k h e i m a n d M e r t o n i s t h u s b e t t e r c l a s s i f i e d ( a t l e a s t p a r t l y ) as r e a l i s t ( i n t h e s e n s e o u t l i n e d by K e a t a n d U r r y - - 1 9 7 5 , p p . 8 1 - 8 7 - r e f e r r i n g t o D u r k h e i m ) . T r a d i t i o n a l t h e o r y t h u s e m b r a c e s a v a r i e t y o f a p p r o a c h e s . S i m i l a r l y , v e r s t e h e n c r i m i n o l o g y i n c l u d e s a number o f p e r s p e c t i v e s . P e r s p e c t i v e s W i t h i n V e r s t e h e n C r i m i n o l o g y T h e s o c i o l o g y o f d e v i a n c e c a n g e n e r a l l y be d e s c r i b e d as t a k i n g a v e r s t e h e n p o s i t i o n i n i t s a p p r o a c h t o t h e s t u d y o f 3 5 . c r i m e a n d s o c i a l c o n t r o l . I t s t a n d s i n s t a r k c o n t r a d i s t i n c t i o n t o t h e e r k l a r e n t y p e p o s i t i o n o f p o s i t i v i s m w i t h i n c r i m i n o l o g y , a l t h o u g h , as has b e e n s u g g e s t e d , a number o f c r i t i c s o f t r a d i t i o n a l t h e o r y h a v e o f t e n t e n d e d t o make t h e t e r m p o s i t i v i s m e m b r a c e p o s i t i o n s t h a t i t r e a l l y does n o t a d e q u a t e l y d e s c r i b e . N e v e r t h e l e s s t h e s e s t r u c t u r a l p e r s p e c t i v e s do s h a r e a common g r o u n d w i t h p o s i t i v i s m t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t t h e y a r e c o n c e r n e d w i t h d e v e l o p i n g d e t e r m i n i s t i c c a u s a l e x p l a n a t i o n s . A n d i t i s t h e v i s i o n o f c a u s a l d e t e r m i n i sm e m b o d i e d i n t r a d i t i o n a l c r i m i n o l o g i c a l t h e o r y t h a t p r o m p t e d t h e l i k e s o f M a t z a ' s c r i t i q u e o f t h e m o d e l o f man u n d e r p i n n i n g b o t h p o s i t i v i s m a n d s t r u c t u r a l i s m . H i s D e l i n q u e n c y a n d D r i f t ( 1 9 6 4 ) t h u s b e g i n s w i t h a c r i t i q u e o f t h e " p o s i t i v e d e l i n q u e n t " , t h e d e l i n q u e n t o f t r a d i t i o n a l t h e o r y , a n d p r o c e e d s t o r e i n t r o d u c e t h e c l a s s i c a l n o t i o n o f f r e e - w i l l o f f e r i n g a " s o f t " d e t e r m i n i s m a c k n o w l e d g i n g t h a t man i s f r e e t o c h o o s e a l b e i t i n a c o n s t r a i n e d way ( 1 9 6 4 , 1 9 6 9 ) . M a t z a i s d i f f i c u l t t o l o c a t e e x a c t l y w i t h i n t h e s o c i o l o g y o f d e v i a n c e , a l t h o u g h c l e a r l y h i s s y m p a t h y l i e s w i t h i n t e r a c t i o n i s m . S i m i l a r l y o t h e r a u t h o r s c a n o n l y be l o c a t e d g e n e r a l l y i n w h a t I h a v e d e s c r i b e d h e r e as t h e v e r s t e h e n a p p r o a c h . A number o f d i s t i n c t p o s i t i o n s h a v e e m e r g e d - my i n t e n t i o n i s s i m p l y t o p r o v i d e c a p s u l e d e s c r i p t i o n s o f t h e m by r e v i e w i n g t h e m a j o r a r g u m e n t s o f t h e m o s t s i g n i f i c a n t a u t h o r s . T h e s e d e s c r i p t i o n s a r e n e c e s s a r i l y i n a d e q u a t e f o r d e s c r i b i n g t h e r a n g e o f a r g u m e n t s , a n d t e n d t o mask c e r t a i n d i f f e r e n c e s . My p u r p o s e i s s i m p l y t o i n v e s t i g a t e t h e c o m m o n a l i t i e s o f t h e p o s i t i o n s t h a t make t h e m c o m p a t i b l e 3 6 . f o r t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f c r i m i n o l o g i c a l t h e o r y . S y m b o l i c I n t e r a c t i o n i s m r e f e r s t o a p a r t i c u l a r s e t o f o n t o l o g i c a l a s s u m p t i o n s a n d a m e t h o d o l o g y c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e m . M i t c h e l l ( 1 9 7 9 , p p . 1 7 6 - 1 7 7 ) s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e s o c i a l m e t a p h y s i c s o f s y m b o l i c i n t e r a c t i o n i s m r e s t on t h r e e b a s i c p r e m i s e s : 1) t h a t human b e i n g s a c t t o w a r d s o b j e c t s on t h e b a s i s o f m e a n i n g t h a t t h o s e o b j e c t s h a v e f o r t hem ( t h u s i m p l i c i t y d e n y i n g d e t e r m i n i s m t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t m e a n i n g i s r e l a t i v e , n o t a b s o l u t e ) 2) t h a t t h e m e a n i n g s o f s u c h o b j e c t s a r i s e o u t o f s o c i a l i n t e r a c t i o n 3) t h e s e m e a n i n g s a r e m o d i f i e d t h r o u g h an i n t e r p r e t i v e p r o c e s s u s e d by a p e r s o n i n d e a l i n g w i t h t h e o b j e c t s h e / s h e e n c o u n t e r s . G i v e n t h e s e p r e m i s e s , s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e i s v i e w e d as e m e r g i n g f r o m s o c i a l i n t e r a c t i o n , a n d c o n s t a n t l y i n f l u x . M e t h o d o l o g i c a l l y , t h e p e r s p e c t i v e i s " n a t u r a l i s t i c " i n t h e s e n s e t h a t i t s t r e s s e s t h e s t u d y o f i n t e r a c t i o n i n p a r t i c u l a r s o c i a l s i t u a t i o n s r a t h e r t h a n e x p e r i m e n t a l d e s i g n s o r s u r v e y s t u d i e s ( i t s h o u l d be n o t e d h o w e v e r t h a t i t i s n o t n a t u r a l i s t i c i n t h e p h i l o s o p h i c a l s e n s e ) . T h e p e r s p e c t i v e i s p h e n o m e n a l i s t i n t h e s e n s e t h a t i t s m e t h o d o l o g i c a l i n j u n c t i o n s c a l l f o r an a t t i t u d e o f r e s p e c t f o r t h e phenomena u n d e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n - t h e r e s e a r c h e r m u s t g a i n f i r s t - h a n d k n o w l e d g e o f t h e s o c i a l s i t u a t i o n w i t h w h i c h he o r s h e i s c o n c e r n e d , a n d d e p i c t i t as i t i s u n d e r s t o o d by t h o s e who l i v e i n i t ( M i t c h e l l , 1 9 7 9 , p p . 1 7 6 - 1 7 7 ) . S u b s e q u e n t l y t h e r e s e a r c h e r d e s c r i b e s t h e a n a l y t i c e l e m e n t s o f t h e s e t t i n g t h r o u g h t h e o r e t i c a l l y i n f o r m e d o b s e r v a t i o n . I t i s t h e s y m b o l i c 37 . i n t e r a c t i o n i s t f o c u s on l i n g u i s t i c a n d g e s t u r a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n , e s p e c i a l l y t h e r o l e o f l a n g u a g e i n t h e f o r m a t i o n o f m i n d , s e l f , a n d s o c i e t y ( T h e o d o r s o n a n d T h e o d o r s o n , 1979, p . 430) t h a t i s t a k e n up by e t h n o m e t h o d o l o g y . T h e i n t e r a c t i o n i s t p o s i t i o n c a n be t r a c e d t o M e a d ' s s o c i a l b e h a v i o u r i s m , an a t t e m p t t o c o r r e c t t h e c r u d i t i e s o f e a r l y b e h a v i o u r a l p s y c h o l o g y by s h o w i n g t h a t s t i m u l u s a n d r e s p o n s e a r e m e a n i n g f u l o n l y when v i e w e d as p a r t o f a c o m p l e t e c o m m u n i c a t i v e s y s t e m ( D e s m o n d e , p . 5 9 ) . M e a d ' s c o n c e p t i o n o f t h e human s e l f s u g g e s t s t h a t s e l f i s a p r o c e s s r a t h e r t h a n a s t r u c t u r e , c o n s t i t u t e d by w h a t he c a l l e d t h e " I " a n d t h e " m e " ; a c c o r d i n g t o Desmonde (1970, p .60) t h e " I " i s t h e r e s p o n s e o f a p e r s o n t o t h e a t t i t u d e o f o t h e r s ( a r e s p o n s e p a r t l y s h a p e d by a p e r s o n ' s b i o l o g i c a l c o n s t i t u t i o n ) , t h e "me" i s t h e o r g a n i z e d i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e a t t i t u d e s o f o t h e r s t h a t one a s s u m e s o n e s e l f . P e r s o n a l i t y a f f e c t s i n t e r a c t i o n o f t h e I a n d me a n d M e a d ' s f o r m u l a s u g g e s t s t h a t human b e h a v i o u r i s c o n s t a n t l y a d j u s t e d i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e a n t i c i p a t e d r e a c t i o n o f o t h e r p e o p l e . T h e " g e n e r a l i z e d o t h e r " r e p r e s e n t s a p e r s o n ' s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f o t h e r p e o p l e ' s a t t i t u d e s i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o t h e m e . T h u s f o r M e a d , an a c t i s c o n d u c t c o n s t r u c t e d by t h e a c t o r i n s t e a d o f a r e s p o n s e s o l i c i t e d f r o m h e r / h i m ( a s i n c r u d e f o r m s o f b e h a v i o u r i s m ) o r t h e r e s u l t o f some p r e f o r m e d o r g a n i z a t i o n i n h i m / h e r ( B l u m e r , 1970, p . 283), as i n t h e c a s e i n b i o l o g i c a l p o s i t i v i s m . B e c a u s e o f t h e s y m b o l i c n a t u r e o f s o c i a l i n t e r a c t i o n , o b j e c t s h a v e no i n t r i n s i c v a l u e - t h e y a r e human c o n s t r u c t i o n s 38. d e p e n d e n t on t h e o r i e n t a t i o n a n d a c t i o n o f p e o p l e t o w a r d t h e m ( B l u m e r , 1 9 7 0 , p . 2 8 7 ) . A s we s h a l l s e e l a t e r t h i s o b s e r v a t i o n has become c r i t i c a l i n t h e i n t e r a c t i o n i s t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f l e g a l c a t e g o r i e s , a n d i n t h e a m p l i f i c a t i o n o f d e v i a n c e t h e s i s i n h e r e n t i n t h e l a b e l l i n g p e r s p e c t i v e . F o r M e a d n e i t h e r r e s o r t i n g t o e x p l a n a t i o n o f b e h a v i o u r s o l e l y i n t e r m s o f s o c i e t a l f a c t o r s ( s u c h as r o l e s , v a l u e s o r s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e s ) n o r t o p s y c h o l o g i c a l i m p e r a t i v e s ( m o t i v e s , f e e l i n g s a n d a t t i d e s ) i s s u f f i c i e n t . Human b e i n g s r e s p o n d d i r e c t l y t o one a n o t h e r ' s a c t i o n s , a n d t h i s s o c i a l i n t e r a c t i o n becomes a p o s i t i v e s h a p i n g f o r c e ; e s t a b l i s h e d p a t t e r n s o f g r o u p l i f e a r e d e p e n d e n t on t h e r e c u r r i n g a f f i r m a t i v e d e f i n i t i o n s t h a t t a k e p l a c e i n s y m b o l i c i n t e r a c t i o n . T h u s " j o i n t - a c t i o n " becomes t h e m o s t f u n d a m e n t a l b u i l d i n g b l o c k o f s o c i e t y r a t h e r t h a n t h e s t r u c t u r e o f s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s ( a l t h o u g h M e a d d i d r e c o g n i z e t h e i r e f f e c t ) o r p s y c h o l o g i c a l e s s e n c e s ( B l u m e r , 1 9 7 0 , p p . 2 8 6 - 2 8 9 ) . S o c i a l P h e n o m e n o l o g y ( o r p h e n o m e n o l o g y o f t h e n a t u r a l a t t i t u d e ) . A l t h o u g h t h e d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e p h e n o m e n o l o g y o f t h e n a t u r a l a t t i t u d e a n d t r a n s c e n d e n t a l p h e n o m e n o l o g y was d e v e l o p e d by H u s s e r l , much o f h i s w o r k was d e v o t e d t o t h e e l u c i d a t i o n o f t r a n s c e n d e n t a l p h e n o m e n o l o g y . A l f r e d S c h u t z ( 1 9 7 0 ) was t h e f i r s t a u t h o r t o a r t i c u l a t e t h e c o n n e c t i o n s b e t w e e n p h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l p h i l o s o p h y a n d s o c i a l t h e o r y i n a p e r s p e c t i v e d r a w i n g as much f r o m Webe r as f r o m H u s s e r l . S c h u t z a d o p t e d H u s s e r l ' s c o n c e p t i o n o f k n o w l e d g e as 3 9 . r o o t e d w h o l l y i n t h e " l e b e n s w e l t " ( l i f e w o r l d ) i n w h i c h i n d i v i d u a l s s h a r e i n t e r s u b j e c t i v e m e a n i n g . T h e c o n n e c t i o n w i t h Webe r l a y i n S c h u t z ' d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e m e t h o d o f v e r s t e h e n as an a p p r o p r i a t e means o f p e n e t r a t i n g t h e l i f e w o r l d s o f o t h e r p e o p l e , a n d f o r u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e i n t e r s u b j e c t i v e m e a n i n g s t h e y s h a r e d . W e b e r ' s w o r k , b e c a u s e o f i t s c o n c e n t r a t i o n on s u b j e c t i v i t y , r e p r e s e n t e d a b r i d g e b e t w e e n p h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l p h i l o s o p h y a n d s o c i o l o g y , t h e s o c i o l o g i s t i n S c h u t z ' p r o g r a m b e c o m i n g an i n t e r p r e t e r o f human m o t i v a t i o n s ( c f W a g n e r ' s i n t r o d u c t i o n t o S c h u t z , 1 9 7 0 , p p . 1 - 1 1 ) . S c h u t z ' s o c i a l p h e n o m e n o l o g y f o c u s e s on t h e c o g n i t i v e s e t t i n g o f t h e l i f e - w o r l d , a c t i o n i n t h e s o c i a l w o r l d , a n d t h e n a t u r e o f s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s . I n a p h i l o s o p h i c a l s e n s e he s o u g h t t o d e s c r i b e a p h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l f o u n d a t i o n f o r s o c i o l o g y , a n d i n s o d o i n g t o d e m a r c a t e t h e p r o v i n c e o f s o c i o l o g i c a l r e a s o n i n g a n d m e t h o d o l o g y i n t h e w o r l d o f e v e r y d a y l i f e . I t i s i m p o r t a n t t o n o t e i n p a s s i n g t h e s i m i l a r i t y o f S c h u t z ' p r o j e c t a n d t h a t t a k e n up by s y m b o l i c i n t e r a c t i o n i s t s - b o t h f o c u s on mundane e x p e r i e n c e i n t e r m s o f t h e o r d e r a n d m e a n i n g o f t h e w o r l d s o f e v e r y d a y l i f e . S c h u t z ' i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f t h e c o g n i t i v e s e t t i n g o f t h e l i f e w o r l d e x a m i n e d t h e n a t u r a l a t t i t u d e o f t h e s o c i a l a c t o r s , t h e f a c t o r s c i r c u m s c r i b i n g t h e n a t u r a l a t t i t u d e a n d t h e n a t u r e o f t h e s t o c k o f k n o w l e d g e f o r a c t o r s ' m e a n i n g c o n s t r u c t i o n i n an i n t e r s u b j e c t i v e s e t t i n g . M e a d ' s n o t i o n o f " j o i n t a c t i o n " i s s i m i l a r t o S c h u t z ' u s e o f " i n t e r s u b j e c t i v i t y " - b o t h s u g g e s t m e a n i n g i s n o t a b s o l u t e , b u t c r e a t e d t h r o u g h p e o p l e ' s 4 0 . i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h e a c h o t h e r . S c h u t z t h e o r y o f s o c i a l a c t i o n c e n t r e d o n t h e s u b j e c t ' s " i n t e n t i o n s " . I t s h o u l d be n o t e d t h a t t h e m e a n i n g o f " i n t e n t i o n " c a n be c o n f u s i n g i n t h i s c o n t e x t , s i n c e t h e s u b j e c t i s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y a w a r e o f h i s / h e r i n t e n t i o n s . N e v e r t h e l e s s , i n t h e p h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l p r o g r a m c o n s c i o u s n e s s i s a l w a y s c o n s c i o u s n e s s o f s o m e t h i n g , a n d i n t h i s s e n s e c o n s c i o u s n e s s a l w a y s has an " i n t e n t i o n a l o b j e c t " ( S c h u t z , 1 9 7 0 , p p . 1 5 0 - 1 5 2 , 3 1 8 - 3 1 9 ) . N a t u r a l a t t i t u d e p h e n o m e n o l o g y has two i m p e r a t i v e s ; t h e d e s c r i p t i v e i m p e r a t i v e shows w h a t t h e phenomenon i s ( i n a s i m i l a r way t h a t p a r t o f t h e i n t e r a c t i o n i s t p r o g r a m a t t e m p t s t o d e p i c t s o c i a l s i t u a t i o n s as t h e y a r e u n d e r s t o o d by t h o s e who l i v e i n t h e m ) , t h e c o n s t i t u t i v e i m p e r a t i v e shows how i t i s c o n s t i t u t e d ( t h e i n t e r a c t i o n i s t s t h e o r e t i c a l a c c o u n t o f t h e a n a l y t i c e l e m e n t s o f a s o c i a l s i t u a t i o n ) . T h e c e n t r a l s l o g a n o f m o r e r e c e n t p h e n o m e n o l o g i s t s e c h o e d b y s y m b o l i c i n t e r a c t i o n i s t s " b a c k t o t h e t h i n g s t h e m s e l v e s " i s a p l e a t o g e t away f r o m s o c i o l o g i c a l a b s t r a c t i o n s n o t d e r i v e d f r o m s o c i a l r e a l i t y . A s we s h a l l s e e s h o r t l y , i t was t h i s b e l i e f t h a t p r o p e l l e d c r i m i n o l o g i c a l i n t e r e s t i n t h e s e o n t o l o g i c a l a n d e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l p o s i t i o n s as a t t e m p t s w e r e made t o u n d e r s t a n d c r i m e , d e l i n q u e n c y a n d g e n e r a l d e v i a n c y n o t f r o m an " o b j e c t i v e t e c h n i c a l " p o s i t i o n , b u t i n t h e s u b j e c t i v e t e r m s o f d e v i a n t s t h e m s e l v e s . I t r e p r e s e n t e d an e x p e d i t i o n i n t o t h e w o r l d o f e v e r y d a y d e v i a n t r e a l i t y ; t o d e s c r i b e i t , u n d e r s t a n d i t s s t r u c t u r e , a n d r e p r e s e n t i t s r a t i o n a l i t y when u n d e r s t o o d f r o m a d i f f e r e n t p o i n t o f v i e w . T h e p h e n o m e n o l o g y o f S c h u t z 4 1 . s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e s t r u c t u r e s a n d h i d d e n i m p e r a t i v e s o f e v e r y d a y l i f e a r e e s s e n t i a l l y t a k e n - f o r - g r a n t e d , a n d o n l y by d i s t a n c i n g o u r s e l v e s f r o m i t c a n we e v e r b e g i n t o u n d e r s t a n d i t . I n t h i s r e g a r d , t h e s o c i o l o g y o f d e v i a n c e t u r n e d t o t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f t h e t a k e n - f o r - g r a n t e d i m p e r a t i v e s u n d e r l y i n g d e v i a n t r e a l i t i e s a n d a c t i o n s ; o n l y t h r o u g h t h e p e n e t r a t i o n o f t h e t a k e n - f o r - g r a n t e d w o r l d c o u l d i n t e r p r e t i v e u n d e r s t a n d i n g ( a s o p p o s e d t o c a u s a l e x p l a n a t i o n i n i t s d e t e r m i n i s t i c s e n s e ) o f c r i m e a n d d e v i a n c e be c o n s t r u c t e d . S i m i l a r l y e t h n o m e t h o d o l o g i s t s , g u i d e d by s y m b o l i c i n t e r a c t i o n i s m , p h e n o m e n o l o g y a n d c e r t a i n a s p e c t s o f W i t t g e n s t e i n ' s l a n g u a g e p h i l o s o p h y , make t h e t a k e n - f o r - g r a n t e d a s p e c t s o f t h e w o r l d o f e v e r y d a y l i f e t h e i r c e n t r a l i n t e r e s t . E t h n o m e t h o d o l o g y c o n c e n t r a t e s on t h e d e s c r i p t i v e a n d i n t e r p r e t i v e e l e m e n t s o f s o c i a l p h e n o m e n o l o g y . T h u s e t h n o m e t h o d o l o g y c a n be v i e w e d as a b r a n d o f p h e n o m e n o l o g y ( T a y l o r , W a l t o n a n d Y o u n g , 1 9 7 3 , p . 1 9 9 ) a l t h o u g h C o u l t e r a r g u e s t h a t t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p i s n o t c l e a r ( 1 9 7 4 , p . 1 2 3 ) , a n d Baumann ( 1 9 7 3 ) s u g g e s t s t h a t i n a p u r e l y p h i l o s o p h i c a l s e n s e e t h n o m e t h o d o l o g y i s c l o s e r t o i t s p r o f e s s e d a r c h enemy p o s i t i v i s m t h a n i t i s t o H u s s e r l i a n p h e n o m e n o l o g y ( t h e s u g g e s t i o n i s t h a t e t h n o m e t h o d o l o g y i s s i m p l y t r y i n g t o s p e c i f y a d i f f e r e n t s e t o f c o r r e s p o n d e n c e r u l e s b e t w e e n o b s e r v a t i o n a l a n d t h e o r e t i c a l t e r m s t h a n t h o s e s u g g e s t e d by p o s i t i v i s t p h i l o s o p h y ) . L e a v i n g a s i d e f o r t h e moment t h e q u e s t i o n o f t h e p h i l o s o p h i c a l s t a t u s o f e t h n o m e t h o d o l o g y , i t s c o n n e c t i o n w i t h 4 2 . p h e n o m e n o l o g y , d e s p i t e C o u l t e r ' s a r g u m e n t , does seem s u f f i c i e n t l y c l e a r - b o t h G a r f i n k e l (who c o i n e d t h e t e r m ) a n d C i c o u r e l (who i s a s e l f - a c k n o w l e d g e d p r a c t i t i o n e r o f t h e p o s i t i o n ) p a y c o n s i d e r a b l e homage t o S c h u t z . A c c o r d i n g t o G a r f i n k e l : " E t h n o m e t h o d o l o g i c a l s t u d i e s a n a l y s e e v e r y d a y a c t i v i t i e s as m e m b e r s ' m e t h o d s f o r m a k i n g t h o s e same a c t i v i t i e s v i s i b l y r a t i o n a l a n d r e p o r t a b l e f o r a l l p r a c t i c a l p u r p o s e s i . e . ' a c c o u n t a b l e ' as o r g a n i z a t i o n s o f c o m m o n p l a c e e v e r y d a y a c t i v i t i e s . " ( 1 9 6 7 , p . 7 ) L i k e p h e n o m e n o l o g y , e t h n o m e t h o d o l o g y c o n c e n t r a t e s on t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l i t y o f t h e commonsense w o r l d . S p e c i a l a t t e n t i o n i s p a i d t o t h e " i n d e x i c a l i t y " o f l a n g u a g e a n d l a n g u a g e c a t e g o r i e s . L a n g u a g e i n d e x e s t h e t a k e n - f o r - g r a n t e d r u l e s u n d e r l y i n g d a i l y e x i s t e n c e , r u l e s w h i c h c a n n o t be u n c o v e r e d by s i m p l y s t u d y i n g t h e r u l e s o f l a n g u a g e u s a g e . T h e " e t c e t e r a a s s u m p t i o n " r e f e r s t o t h e u n s p o k e n i m p l i c a t i o n s o f l a n g u a g e t h a t a r e t a k e n - f o r - g r a n t e d by i t s u s e r s ; f o r e x a m p l e t h e t e r m " d e l i n q u e n t " c o n t a i n s a p a r t i c u l a r , b u t o n l y i m p l i c i t , s e t o f i m a g e s a b o u t t h e s o c i a l t y p e s who w h o u l d be c o n s i d e r e d d e l i n q u e n t as w e l l as r e f e r r i n g t o s p e c i f i c k i n d s o f b e h a v i o u r . I n g e n e r a l e t h n o m e t h o d o l o g y s u g g e s t s t h a t s o c i a l r e a l i t y i s an o n - g o i n g p r a c t i c a l a c c o m p l i s h m e n t o f t h e c o n c e r t e d a c t i v i t i e s o f e v e r y d a y l i f e . T h e w o r l d o f e v e r d a y l i f e i s a s s u m e d b y i t s i n h a b i t a n t s t o be known i n common s u c h t h a t t h e y t r e a t i t s f e a t u r e s as n a t u r a l o b j e c t i v e f a c t s ; t h e s e a t t i t u d e s e n s u r e t h a t t h e w o r l d o f e v e r y d a y l i f e i s u n q u e s t i o n e d and exempt f r o m s c r u t i n y ( M i t c h e l l , 1 9 7 9 ) . T h e c r i t i c a l and o f t e n 43. p o l e m i c a l t h r u s t o f e t h n o m e t h o d o l o g y l i e s i n t h e s u g g e s t i o n t h a t s o c i o l o g i s t s a r e no d i f f e r e n t f r o m o t h e r s o c i a l a c t o r s i n t h a t t h e y a l s o t a k e t h e mundane s o c i a l w o r l d f o r g r a n t e d , t y p i c a l l y b e i n g m o r e i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e s o c i a l s t r u c t u r a l a r r a n g e m e n t s w h i c h t h e y p r e s u m e a r e " b e h i n d " t h e a p p e a r a n c e s o f mundane s o c i a l r e a l i t y ( M i t c h e l l , 1 9 7 9 ) . S y m b o l i c i n t e r a c t i o n i s m , s o c i a l p h e n o m e n o l o g y a n d e t h n o m e t h o d o l o g y s h a r e i n common t h e r e j e c t i o n o f s t r u c t u r a l l y b a s e d a n a l y s e s w h i c h do n o t s t a r t f r o m t h e c o n v e n t i o n s o f e v e r y d a y l i f e . A l t h o u g h t h e r e a r e d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n t h e t h r e e p e r s p e c t i v e s , t h e y a r e e s s e n t i a l l y c o m p a t i b l e . T h e d i m e n s i o n s o f t h i s c o m p a t i b i l i t y may now be s p e c i f i e d m o r e c o n c r e t e l y . I n t e g r a t i v e E l e m e n t s o f V e r s t e h e n P e r s p e c t i v e s T h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t p h i l o s o p h i c a l u n i t y o f t h e t h r e e p e r s p e c t i v e s i d e n t i f i e d as c o n s t i t u t i n g t h e s o c i o l o g y o f d e v i a n c e i s t h a t r a t h e r t h a n a t t e m p t i n g t o d e v e l o p d e t e r m i n i s t i c c a u s a l e x p l a n a t i o n s t h e y s e e k t o d e v e l o p i n t e r p r e t i v e u n d e r s t a n d i n g . I n t h i s e n d e a v o r t h e v a r i o u s p e r s p e c t i v e s h a v e t h r e e p r i n c i p a l e l e m e n t s i n common. A c c o r d i n g t o A n d r e w T u d o r , t h e y a r e ( 1 9 7 7 , p p . 4 8 2 - 4 8 3 ) : 1. T h e P o s t u l a t e o f I n t e g r i t y o f t h e P h e n o m e n o n : s u g g e s t i n g t h a t t h e r e s e a r c h e r m u s t a d h e r e t o t h e c a t e g o r i c a l s y s t e m s a n d d e s c r i p t i o n s i n h e r e n t i n e v e r y d a y a c c o u n t i n g p r o c e d u r e s . I t i s an a t t e m p t t o r e m a i n t r u e t o t h e s t a t e o f a f f a i r s i n t h e phenomenon u n d e r s t u d y ( t h e s e s t a t e m e n t s a r e u s u a l l y q u i t e e x p l i c i t as i n D o u g l a s , 1 9 6 7 ; C i c o u r e l , 1 9 6 8 ; a n d 4 4 . M a t z a , 1 9 6 9 ) . 2 . T h e p o s t u l a t e o f t h e c e n t r a l i t y o f e v e r y d a y l i f e : t h i s s u g g e s t s t h a t s t u d i e s m u s t b e g i n w i t h t h e phenomena o f e v e r y d a y l i f e , a t r a d i t i o n b e g i n i n g w i t h H u s s e r l i n h i s r e a c t i o n t o E n l i g h t e n m e n t p h i l o s o p h y . D o u g l a s ( 1 9 7 1 ) a s s e r t s t h a t t h i s b e g i n n i n g i s a l s o t h e end o f s t u d y a n d t h a t a n y m o r e a b s t r a c t l e v e l o f a n a l y s i s i s u n w a r r a n t e d . 3 . T h e p o s t u l a t e o f t h e c e n t r a l i t y o f m e a n i n g : w h i c h s p e c i f i e s w h a t c a n be c o u n t e d as e v e r y d a y l i f e . T h e phenomena s t u d i e d by t h e s o c i o l o g i s t a r e d e f i n e d by t h e m e a n i n g s t h a t a c t o r s g i v e t o t h e i r own a n d o t h e r s ' s i t u a t i o n s . T h e S u b s t a n c e o f t h e S o c i o l o g y o f D e v i a n c e W h i l e much o f t h e s o c i o l o g y o f d e v i a n c e has b e e n c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f a t h e o r e t i c a l c r i t i q u e o f t r a d i t i o n a l c r i m i n o l o g y a n d t o o f f e r i n g p r o g r a m m a t i c s t a t e m e n t s d e s i g n e d t o r e o r i e n t t h e e p i s t e m o l o g y and m e t h o d o l o g y o f t h e c r i m i n o l o g i c a l e n t e r p r i s e , a s i g n i f i c a n t b o d y o f e m p i r i c a l r e s e a r c h has f o l l o w e d t h e g u i d e l i n e s e s t a b l i s h e d by M a t z a ( 1 9 6 4 , 1 9 6 9 ) , L e m e r t ( 1 9 5 1 , 1 9 6 7 ) , K i t s u s e a n d C i c o u r e l ( 1 9 6 3 ) a n d o t h e r s i n d e v e l o p i n g an i n t e r p r e t i v e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f c r i m e a n d d e l i n q u e n c y . Two m a i n b o d i e s o f e m p i r i c a l l i t e r a t u r e h a v e d e v e l o p e d , b o t h o f w h i c h g e n e r a l l y f o l l o w an e t h n o g r a p h i c m e t h o d o l o g y e m p h a s i z i n g t h e r e w a r d s o f p a r t i c i p a n t o b s e r v e r s t u d i e s . T h e f i r s t b o d y o f l i t e r a t u r e has s o u g h t t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e n a t u r e o f 4 5 . t h e i n t e r a c t i o n b e t w e e n r u l e - e n f o r c e r s a n d " r u l e - b r e a k e r s " a t t e m p t i n g t o show t h a t i n f o r m a l " r e c i p e " r u l e s i n t e r a c t w i t h f o r m a l l e g a l r u l e s i n t h e p r o c e s s o f l a b e l l i n g p e o p l e as c r i m i n a l o r d e l i n q u e n t ( C i c o u r e l , 1 9 6 7 ; B l a c k , 1 9 7 0 ; B r i a r a n d P i l i a v i n , 1 9 6 4 ; W e r t h m a n and P i l i a v i n , 1 9 6 7 ) . " R e c i p e " r u l e s r e f e r t o t h e t a k e n - f o r - g r a n t e d c o n v e n t i o n s o f t h e w o r l d o f c o m m o n s e n s e . I n some r e c e n t r e s e a r c h s t u d i e s t h e s e a n a l y s e s h a v e b e e n e x t e n d e d t o i n c l u d e o t h e r r e p o r t i n g a g e n t s as w e l l as t h e p o l i c e i n t h e i r i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h " o f f e n d e r s " ( e g . B o t t o m l e y a n d C o l e m a n , 1 9 8 1 ) . E r i c s o n ( 1 9 8 1 , 1 9 8 2 ) , h o w e v e r , r e a s s e r t s e a r l i e r p o s i t i o n s w h i c h s u g g e s t t h a t t h e c o n t e x t o f p o l i c e i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h p o t e n t i a l o f f e n d e r s i s s t i l l t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t t o p r o b e i n d e s c r i b i n g t h e p r o c e s s t h r o u g h w h i c h " o f f e n d e r s " a r e l a b e l l e d c r i m i n a l . B e c a u s e t h i s l i t e r a t u r e ha s v e r y i m p o r t a n t i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f c r i m e r a t e maps a d e t a i l e d r e v i e w i s i n c l u d e d i n t h e d i s c u s s i o n o f p o l i c i n g i n C h a p t e r s 5 a n d 6 . T h e s e c o n d b o d y o f e m p i r i c a l r e s e a r c h f o c u s e s on s o c i a l i n t e r a c t i o n a n d i n f o r m a l r u l e s t r u c t u r e s w i t h i n c r i m i n a l a n d o t h e r d e v i a n t s o c i a l w o r l d s . T h e o b j e c t o f t h i s ( m o s t l y ) p a r t i c i p a n t o b s e r v e r r e s e a r c h h a s b e e n t o e x c a v a t e a n d d e s c r i b e t h e " r e c i p e " r u l e s o f a c t i o n w h i c h p e r t a i n i n t h e s e s o c i a l w o r l d s , s u c h t h a t an o u t s i d e r w o u l d be a b l e t o l e a r n t h e s e r u l e s c o n s c i o u s l y ( a s o p p o s e d t o t h e g e n e r a l l y u n c o n s c i o u s l e a r n i n g p r o c e s s o f t h e s o c i a l a c t o r s t h e m s e l v e s ) a n d be a b l e t o s u c c e s s f u l l y n e g o t i a t e t h e s o c i a l w o r l d s i n q u e s t i o n . T h u s B e c k e r ( 1 9 6 3 ) d e s c r i b e s t h e i n f o r m a l p r o c e s s e s i n v o l v e d w i t h 4 6 . b e c o m i n g a m a r i j u a n a u s e r ; P o l s k y ( 1 9 6 9 ) t h e i n f o r m a l r u l e s o f p o o l r o o m s a n d p o o l h u s t 1 i n g ; R e i s s ( 1 9 6 1 ) t h e s o c i a l i n t e g r a t i o n o f " q u e e r s a n d p e e r s " ; S p r a d l e y ( 1 9 7 0 ) t h e c o n v e n t i o n s o f s k i d -r o w s u b c u l t u r e s ; H u m p h r e y ( 1 9 7 0 ) t h e c o n v e n t i o n s o f h o m o s e x u a l c o n d u c t i n t e a r o o m s ; B o l e s a n d G a r b i n ( 1 9 7 4 ) p a t t e r n s o f s t r i p p e r - c u s t o m e r i n t e r a c t i o n ; G r a y ( 1 9 7 3 ) t h e " t u r n i n g - o u t " o f t e e n a g e p r o s t i t u t e s ; M i l n e r a n d M i l n e r ( 1 9 7 2 ) t h e r u l e s o f t h e s o c i a l w o r l d o f " b l a c k - p l a y e r s " ( p r o s t i t u t e s and p i m p s ) ; a n d P r u s a n d I r i n i ( 1 9 8 0 ) t h e i n t e r a c t i o n o f " H o o k e r s , R o u n d e r s a n d D e s k C l e r k s " . T h i s l i s t i s by no means e x h a u s t i v e i n i t s c o m p r e h e n s i v e n e s s o r i t s s c o p e . N o r m u s t we f o r g e t t h a t t h e a p p r o a c h a n d i t s p r e r o g a t i v e s a r e n o t s o l e l y a p r o d u c t i o n o f t h e 1 9 6 0 ' s and 7 0 ' s ; a n d s i m i l a r e f f o r t s ( u n f o r t u n a t e l y l a r g e l y i g n o r e d i n t h e g e o g r a p h y o f c r i m e ) c h a r a c t e r i s e d t h e C h i c a g o S c h o o l a p p r o a c h w h i c h , b e s i d e s i t s e c o l o g i c a l o r i e n t a t i o n , a t t e m p t e d t o s e e d e v i a n t s o c i a l w o r l d s f r o m t h e d e v i a n t ' s p e r s p e c t i v e : e . g . Shaw i n h i s s t u d y o f t h e " J a c k - r o l l e r " ( 1 9 3 0 ) ; C r e s s e y i n h i s s t u d y o f t h e " T a x i D a n c e H a l l " ( 1 9 3 2 ) ; a n d A n d e r s o n i n h i s s t u d y o f " T h e H o b o " ( 1 9 2 3 ) . T h e u n i f y i n g themes o f t h e s e v a r i o u s s t u d i e s i s c o n t a i n e d i n t h e i r e x p l i c i t a c c e p t a n c e o f t h e p o s t u l a t e s o f t h e i n t e g r i t y o f t h e p h e n o m e n a , t h e c e n t r a l i t y o f e v e r y d a y l i f e , a n d t h e c e n t r a l i t y o f t h e m e a n i n g s o c i a l a c t o r s g i v e t o t h e i r own s i t u a t i o n s . T h e s e p e r s p e c t i v e s l a r g e l y e s c h e w t h e o r e t i c a l c o n c e p t s w h i c h r e l a t e t o o v e r a r c h i n g s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e s and p a y l i t t l e a t t e n t i o n t o t h e way i n w h i c h b r o a d e r s o c i a l 4 7 . r e l a t i o n s h i p s a n d i d e o l o g i e s p r o v i d e t h e c o n t e x t f o r t h e s o c i a l c o n s t r u c t i o n o f m e a n i n g . T h e same c r i t i q u e i s m a d e , e s p e c i a l l y by r a d i c a l t h e o r i s t s , o f t h e b o d y o f l i t e r a t u r e f o c u s i n g on t h e i n t e r a c t i o n o f r u l e - e n f o r c e r s a n d r u l e - b r e a k e r s . W h i l e t h e i r c r i t i c i s m p e r t a i n i n g t o t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f o f f i c i a l s t a t i s t i c s i s t a k e n up i n c h a p t e r f i v e , we now t u r n t o t h e m o r e g e n e r a l a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e c r i t i q u e as a f o u n d a t i o n f o r an u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e r a d i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e a n d i t s b r e a k w i t h t h e s o c i o l o g y o f d e v i a n c e . 48. N o t e s f o r C h a p t e r 2 1. T h e r e v i e w o f t h e o r e t i c a l c r i m i n o l o g y o f f e r e d by P y l e e t a l ( 1 9 7 4 ) , f o r e x a m p l e , d e a l s a l m o s t e x c l u s i v e l y w i t h t h e t r a d i t i o n a l l i t e r a t u r e . T h e s o c i o l o g y o f d e v i a n c e i n t h e f o r m o f i n t e r a c t i o n i s t a n d l a b e l l i n g t h e o r y i s a l m o s t c o m p l e t e l y i g n o r e d i n t h i s d i s c u s s i o n . 2 . I n c o n t r a s t t o H e r b e r t who t e n d s t o c o n f l a t e t h e two p o s i t i o n s ( 1 9 8 2 : 2 4 - 2 5 ) . 3 . T h e m a j o r w o r k s f r o m N o r t h A m e r i c a u s u a l l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e l a b e l l i n g p e r s p e c t i v e ( a s i d e n t i f i e d b y B o x , 1 9 7 1 , C h . 2 ; G i b b o n s , 1 9 7 9 , p . 1 4 9 ; a n d D i t t o n , 1 9 7 9 , p . 6) i n c l u d e : L e m e r t ( 1 9 5 1 , 1 9 6 7 , 1 9 7 4 ) ; E r i c k s o n ( 1 9 6 2 ) ; K i t s u s e ( 1 9 6 2 ) ; G o f f m a n ( 1 9 6 3 ) ; K i t s u s e a n d C i c o u r e l ( 1 9 6 3 ) ; B e c k e r ( 1 9 6 3 , 1 9 6 4 ) ; S u d n o w ( 1 9 6 4 ) ; M a t z a ( 1 9 6 4 , 1 9 6 9 ) ; S c h e f f ( 1 9 6 6 ) ; C i c o u r e l ( 1 9 6 7 ) ; D o u g l a s ( 1 9 7 0 A , 1 9 7 0 B , 1 9 7 1 ) ; S c h u r ( 1 9 7 1 ) ; S c o t t and D o u g l a s ( 1 9 7 2 ) ; a n d R u b i n g t o n a n d W e i n b e r g ( 1 9 7 3 ) ; Some o f t h e s e a a u t h o r s w o u l d p r o b a b l y c h a r a c t e r i z e t h e i r w o r k as i n t e r a c t i o n i s t as o p p o s e d t o f a l l i n g e x p l i c i t y w i t h i n t h e l a b e l l i n g p e r s p e c t i v e . T h e l a b e l l i n g p e r s p e c t i v e i s n e v e r t h e l e s s l a r g e l y i n t e r a c t i o n i s t i n i t s c o n c e p t i o n ( M a t z a , 1 9 6 9 , p . 3 7 ) , e v e n t h o u g h i t s p r a c t i o n e r s e m b r a c e a v a r i e t y o f t h e o r e t i c a l p o s i t i o n s ( D i t t o n , 1 9 7 9 , p . 4 ; E r i c s o n , 1 9 7 5 ) . I n B r i t a i n a b r o a d l y i n t e r a c t i o n i s p o s i t i o n has a l s o d e v e l o p e d . See f o r e x a m p l e , W i l k i n s ( 1 9 6 4 , 1 9 6 5 ) ; B o x ( 1 9 7 1 ) ; C o h e n ( 1 9 7 1 , 1 9 7 3 , 1 9 7 4 ) ; L . T a y l o r ( 1 9 7 1 ) ; R o c k ( 1 9 7 3 , 1 9 7 9 ) ; R o c k a n d M c i n t o s h ( 1 9 7 4 ) ; D i t t o n ( 1 9 7 9 ) ; a n d , w h i l e v i s i t i n g B r i t a i n , E r i c s o n ( 1 9 7 5 ) . T h e B r i t i s h l i t e r a t u r e owes much t o A m e r i c a n a u t h o r s i n i t s d e v e l o p m e n t . 4 . F u l l c i t a t i o n s t o t h i s l i t e r a t u r e a r e g i v e n i n C h a p t e r 3 , f o o t n o t e 6 . 5 . T h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i s s t r u e t u r a l - f u n c t i o n a l i s t t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t i t s u g g e s t s t h a t c r i m i n a l l a w f u n c t i o n s t o p r e s e r v e t h e i n t e r e s t s o f a c a p i t a l i s t r u l i n g - c l a s s . F o r t h i s k i n d o f a r g u m e n t s e e G r e e n b e r g ' s ( 1 9 7 6 ) c r i t i c i s m o f H o f f e r b e r t e t a l . ( 1 9 7 4 ) a n d H o r o w i t z ' ( 1 9 7 7 ) c r i t i c i s m o f S p i t z e r ( 1 9 7 5 ) . T h e t e r m " i n s t r u m e n t a l i s m " i s s o m e t i m e s u s e d t o d e s c r i b e t h i s v i e w o f l a w ( e . g . B e i r n e 1 9 7 9 , 1 9 8 0 ; J a c o b s , 1 9 8 0 ; G r e e n b e r g , 1 9 8 1 ) b u t i t s h o u l d be n o t e d t h a t t h i s u s e d o e s n o t c o n f o r m t o t h e n o r m a l s o c i a l s c i e n t i f i c c o n n o t a t i o n o f t h e t e r m - s e e G r e g o r y ' s ( 1 9 7 8 ) and A g n e w ' s ( 1 9 7 7 ) d i s c u s s i o n o f i n s t r u m e n t a l i s m i n g e o g r a p h y , and K e a t and U r r y ' s ( 1 9 7 5 ) d e s c r i p t i o n o f i n s t r u m e n t a l i s m as a p h i l o s o p h i c a l a p p r o a c h t o s o c i a l s c i e n c e m o r e g e n e r a l l y . 49 . 6 . Some c a u t i o n i s n e c e s s a r y h e r e w i t h t h e d e s i g n a t i o n o f t r a d i t i o n a l c r i m i n o l o g i c a l t h e o r y as p o s i t i v i s t - l a t e r I s u g g e s t t h a t t h e t e r m s h o u l d n o t be a p p l i e d t o c e r t a i n f o r m s o f t r a d i t i o n a l t h e o r y , p a r t i c u l a r l y v a r i e t i e s o f s t r u c t u r a l i s m w h i c h a r e b e t t e r c o n c e p t u a l i z e d as a f o r m o f r e a l i sm. 7 . T h e a r g u m e n t m u s t u l t i m a t e l y be e x t e n d e d t o i n c l u d e o t h e r s o c i a l a l l o c a t i o n p r o c e s s e s - t h e l i t e r a t u r e c o n c e r n i n g t h e g e n e r a l e f f e c t o f p u b l i c h o u s i n g p o l i c y w i l l be c o n s i d e r e d i n C h a p t e r 6 . 8 . T h e s p i r i t i s a n t i - s c i e n t i f i c i n t h e s e n s e t h a t i t a d v o c a t e s w i l l n o t a d h e r e t o a " p o s i t i v i s t " m o d e l o f s c i e n c e . B u t t h i s i s n o t t h e o n l y d e f i n i t i o n o f s c i e n c e , a n d m o r e r e c e n t a r g u m e n t s s u g g e s t t h a t n a t u r a l s c i e n c e may be m o r e l i k e s o c i a l s c i e n c e i n i t s m e t h o d s a n d d e v e l o p m e n t . T h u s a r e a l i s t v i e w o f s c i e n c e r e i n t r o d u c e s a n i n t e g r a t e d s c i e n c e ( K e a t a n d U r r a y , 1 9 7 6 ) by v i r t u e o f r e d e f i n i n g n a t u r a l s c i e n c e as a h e r m e n e u t i c e n t e r p r i s e i n t h e same s e n s e t h a t s o c i a l s c i e n c e i s . W h i l e t h e s o c i o l o g y o f d e v i a n c e a n d i t s e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l c r i t i q u e o f t r a d i t i o n a l c r i m i n o l o g y has l a r g e l y gone u n n o t i c e d i n t h e g e o g r a p h y o f c r i m e ( a l t h o u g h L e y ' s comments on s t r e e t g a n g s - 1 9 7 5 - a r e c l e a r l y made w i t h t h e s e t y p e s o f c r i t i c i s m i n m i n d ) , p a r a l l e l c r i t i c i s m s o f t h e p o s i t i v i s t a n d i n s t r u m e n t a l i s t a p p r o a c h e s t o s o c i a l , u r b a n a n d b e h a v i o u r a l g e o g r a p h y m o r e g e n e r a l l y h a v e r e c e n t l y a p p e a r e d u r g i n g t h e r e i n s t a t e m e n t o f an a p p r o a c h w h i c h r e c o g n i z e s human i n t e n t i o n a l i t y , s u b j e c t i v i t y a n d t h e n a t u r e o f i n t e r s u b j e c t i v i t y : R e l p h ( 1 9 7 0 , 1 9 7 2 , 1 9 7 6 ) ; G u e l k e ( 1 9 7 1 , 1 9 7 4 , 1 9 7 6 ; T u a n ( 1 9 7 1 , 1 9 7 5 , 1 9 7 6 ) ; M e r c e r a n d P o w e l l ( 1 9 7 2 ) ; B u t t i m e r ( 1 9 7 4 , 1 9 7 6 ) ; L e y ( 1 9 7 7 , 1 9 7 8 , 1 9 8 0 , 1 9 8 2 ) ; L e y a n d S a m u e l s , ( 1 9 7 8 ) . A l t h o u g h t h i s l i t e r a t u r e has b e e n c r i t i c i z e d f o r i t s i d e a l i s m , m e n t a l i s m and s u b j e c t i v i s m ( E n t r i k i n 1 9 7 6 ; G r e g o r y 1 9 8 1 ) , s u c h c r i t i c i s m seems m i s p l a c e d when a p p l i e d t o t h e w o r k o f B u t t i m e r a n d L e y w h o s e h u m a n i s m i s c o n t e x t u a l , r e c o g n i z i n g s i t u a t i o n a l c o n s t r a i n t s , t h e b o u n d e d n e s s o f a c t i o n a n d , i n g e n e r a l , t h e l i m i t e d n a t u r e o f human f r e e - w i l l ( L e y , 1 9 8 2 , p . 2 4 9 ) . A s we s h a l l s e e i n c h a p t e r 3 s i m i l a r c r i t i c i s m s h a v e b e e n made o f t h e s o c i o l o g y o f d e v i a n c e i n t e r m s o f i t s l a c k o f c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e a n d i d e o l o g y . A g a i n a b r o a d - b r u s h c r i t i c i s m o f t h i s t y p e c o u l d be m i s p l a c e d - a number o f i n t e r a c t i o n i s t a c c o u n t s c l e a r l y r e c o g n i z e t h e c o n t e x t u a l n a t u r e o f s o c i a l i n t e r a c t i o n as b o t h e n a b l i n g a n d l i m i t i n g ( s e e p a r t i c u l a r l y E r i c s o n 1 9 8 1 , 1 9 8 2 ) a l t h o u g h t h e s e may s t i l l be c r i t i c i z e d f o r n o t a p p r e c i a t i n g t h e f u l l i m p a c t o f w i d e r i d e o l o g i c a l s y s t e m s . T h e c r i t i c i s m i s m o r e j u s t i f i e d when a p p l i e d t o e a r l i e r v e r s i o n s o f t h e s o c i o l o g y o f d e v i a n c e , p a r t i c u l a r l y e t h n o m e t h o d o l o g i c a l a c c o u n t s a n d l a b e l l i n g p e r s p e c t i v e s i n g e n e r a l . 5 0 . C h a p t e r 3 P O W E R - C O N F L I C T AND R A D I C A L THEORY R e a c t i o n s t o V e r s t e h e n C r i m i n o l o g y : P r o b l e m s o f S o c i a l S t r u c t u r e , I d e o l o g y and t h e P o l i t i c s o f T h e o r y I t i s h a r d l y s u r p r i s i n g t h a t g i v e n t h e r i g o r o u s p o l e m i c a l s t a t e m e n t s o f t h e v a r i o u s s o c i o l o g i e s o f d e v i a n c e , some o f t h e r e a c t i o n s t o t hem h a v e b e e n no l e s s e x t r e m e . 1 F o r t h e p u r p o s e s o f t h i s d i s c u s s i o n I s h a l l c o n c e n t r a t e on t h e two m a i n c r i t i c i s m s made by r a d i c a l t h e o r i s t s : 1) t h e a r g u m e n t t h a t v e r s t e h e n p e r s p e c t i v e s d o w n p l a y o r i g n o r e s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e as i n f l u e n c i n g and s h a p i n g t h e p r o c e s s o f i n t e r s u b j e c t i v e o r i n t e r a c t i v e m e a n i n g c o n s t r u c t i o n , a n d 2) t h e s u g g e s t i o n t h a t t h e s o c i o l o g y o f d e v i a n c e i m p l i e s a c o n s e r v a t i v e p o l i t i c . I t i s o v e r t h e s e two i s s u e s t h a t r a d i c a l t h e o r y b r e a k s f r o m t h e v e r s t e h e n p o s i t i o n w h i c h i s s u g g e s t e d as o f f e r i n g an u n w a r r a n t e d r e l a t i v i s m a n d p l u r a l i s m ( e . g . T a y l o r , W a l t o n a n d Y o u n g , 1 9 7 3 , p p . 1 7 2 - 2 0 8 ) . S i m i l a r c r i t i c i s m s h a v e b e e n made o f e a c h o f t h e p e r s p e c t i v e s w i t h i n t h e s o c i o l o g y o f d e v i a n c e a t v a r i o u s t i m e s , and a l t h o u g h some o f t h e s e may be g e n e r a l i z e d , o t h e r s a p p l y o n l y t o p a r t i c u l a r p e r s p e c t i v e s . T h u s t h e c r i t i c i s m s o f t h e m o r e e x t r e m e v e r s i o n s o f t h e l a b e l l i n g p e r s p e c t i v e , w h i c h i m p l y t h a t t o u n d e r s t a n d c r i m e one n e e d o n l y t o u n d e r s t a n d s o c i a l c o n t r o l , c a n n o t be g e n e r a l i z e d t o p h e n o m e n o l o g y a n d e t h n o m e t h o d o l o g y ( w h i c h a r e i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e 5 1 . p a r t p l a y e d by s o c i a l c o n t r o l l e r s i n t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f m e a n i n g ) n o r i n d e e d t o t h e i n t e r a c t i o n i s t p e r s p e c t i v e i n g e n e r a l . I n e s s e n c e , m o s t c r i t i c i s m s o f t h e v e r s t e h e n p o s i t i o n , p a r t i c u l a r l y o f e t h n o m e t h o d o l o g y and p h e n o m e n o l o g y w i t h t h e i r s t r e s s on t h e s o c i o l o g y o f e v e r y d a y l i f e , s u g g e s t t h a t h a v i n g p r o b l e m a t i z e d w h a t t r a d i t i o n a l s o c i o l o g i s t s t a k e f o r g r a n t e d by i d e n t i f y i n g t h e h i d d e n m e a n i n g s a n d s t r u c t u r e s o f e v e r y d a y l i f e i t f a i l s t o l i n k t h e s e t o w i d e r s o c i a l f o r m a t i o n s a n d i d e o l o g i e s ( T a y l o r , W a l t o n and Y o u n g , 1 9 7 3 , p p . 1 7 2 - 2 0 8 ; W e r k e n t i n e t a l , 1 9 7 4 ; M a n d e r s , 1 9 7 5 ; M c N a l l a n d J o h n s o n , 1 9 7 5 ; B i e r n e , 1 9 7 9 ) . I n f a i l i n g t o do so t h e s e p o s i t i o n s , i t i s c h a r g e d , a s sume a c o n s e r v a t i v e p o l i t i c by d e f a u l t . V e r s t e h e n p o s i t i o n s i n g e n e r a l a r e s u g g e s t e d as b e i n g p o l i t i c a l l y c o n s e r v a t i v e t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t t h e y i m p l y p e o p l e a r e f r e e t o d e v e l o p t h e i r own r e a l i t y , o r , i f t h e y do n o t , i t i s b e c a u s e t h e y h a v e n o t o v e r c o m e t h e n o r m a t i v e r e s t r i c t i o n s t h a t a r e m a i n t a i n e d by m u t u a l i l l u s i o n ( M c N a l l and J o h n s o n , 1 9 7 5 ) . W h i l e t h i s a r g u m e n t may be o v e r d r a w n t o some e x t e n t ( t h e e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e c o n v e n t i o n s o f p o l i c e a n d o t h e r s o c i a l c o n t r o l a g e n t s n e c e s s a r i l y i n v o l v e s a u t h o r i t y r e l a t i o n s , and t h e r e b y power a n d s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e ) t h e f u l l i m p l i c a t i o n s o f i d e o l o g i c a l d i s t o r t i o n a n d t h e r o l e o f t h e s t a t e r e m a i n b e y o n d much o f t h e s o c i o l o g y o f d e v i a n c e . M a t z a i s one a u t h o r i n t h i s p e r s p e c t i v e who does c o n s i d e r t h e s t a t e ; b u t , by h i s own a d m i s s i o n , t h i s a n a l y s i s i s d e f i c i e n t ( s e e W e i s , 1 9 7 1 ) . 52 . V e r s t e h e n p o s i t i o n s i n g e n e r a l , l i k e m o s t t r a d i t i o n a l s o c i o l o g i c a l t h e o r i e s o f c r i m e , a r e a h i s t o r i c a l a n d a p o l i t i c a l . I m m e d i a t e l y t h i s g e n e r a l i z a t i o n n e e d s some q u a l i f i c a t i o n f o r a t t e m p t s h a v e b e e n made t o a c c o u n t f o r t h e f a c t t h a t man i s b o r n i n t o a w o r l d w h i c h i s a l r e a d y c o n t e x t e d b y t h e h i s t o r i e s and i n t e r s u b j e c t i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n s o f o t h e r s ( B e n g - H u a t C h u a , 1 9 7 7 ) . T h e o f t e n u s e d c a t c h - a l l t e r m " s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e " , o r w h a t H e r b e r t c a l l s t h e " s o c i a l f o r m a t i o n " , r e l a t e s t o t h e a l l i m p o r t a n t s o c i a l c o n t e x t i n t o w h i c h p e o p l e a r e b o r n . A l t h o u g h s t r u c t u r a l e x p l a n a t i o n s o f t e n do n o t a c c o u n t f o r t h e s u b j e c t i v e h i s t o r y o f h u m a n i t y - - b u t r a t h e r p o s i t s t r u c t u r e s , t h e r e s u l t o f some n a t u r a l l o g i c , t o e x p l a i n human a c t i v i t y - - t h e y a r e d e s i g n e d t o d e s c r i b e t h e e f f e c t o f t h e s o c i a l f o r m a t i o n i n somehow s t r u c t u r i n g t h e i n t e r s u b j e c t i v e p r o c e s s t h r o u g h w h i c h m e a n i n g i s c o n s t r u c t e d , and a t t e m p t t o show how human i n t e n t i o n a l i t y ( a n d s u b s e q u e n t l y m o t i v a t i o n ) i s s u e f r o m t h i s . A n y s p e c i a l i z e d s o c i o l o g y i s a s e t o f p e r s p e c t i v e s w h i c h s y s t e m a t i c a l l y p r e c l u d e t h e a s k i n g o f c e r t a i n q u e s t i o n s . T h e f o r m u l a t i o n o f i d e a s a b o u t c e n t r a l p r o b l e m s d e p e n d s u p o n w h a t i s t a k e n - f o r - g r a n t e d a b o u t t h e r e s t o f t h e w o r l d ( R o c k , 1 9 7 6 , p . 1 4 6 ) . I n r e d r e s s i n g t h e w e a k n e s s e s t h e y i d e n t i f i e d i n s t r u c t u r a l i s m as a f o r m o f e m e r g e n t h o l i s m , p h e n o m e n o l o g i s t s a n d e t h n o - m e t h o d o l o g i s t s t e n d t o t h e o p p o s i t e e x t r e m e ; w h i l e m a c r o - s o c i o l o g y t a k e s as u n p r o b i e m a t i c t h e c o n s t i t u t i v e f e a t u r e s o f t h e s m a l l w o r l d s w h i c h c o l l e c t i v e l y make up t h e s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e , t h e m i c r o - s o c i o l o g i s t t a k e s as u n p r o b i e m a t i c 53. t h e c e n t r a l i n s t i t u t i o n s a n d s t r u c t u r e s t h a t h e l p g i v e f o r m t o t h e s m a l l w o r l d s t h e y e x a m i n e . T h e s e s t r u c t u r e s a r e made i n a c c e s s i b l e b e c a u s e t h e y a r e r e g a r d e d as no m o r e t h a n an o r g a n i z a t i o n a l b a c k g r o u n d t o e n c o u n t e r s b e t w e e n s o c i a l c o n t r o l l e r s a n d d e v i a n t s ; t h e m i c r o v i e w has n o t e n c o m p a s s e d t h e s t r u c t u r a l a r r a n g e m e n t s w h i c h o r g a n i z e t h e c o n t e x t s o f c r i m e d e f i n i n g e n c o u n t e r s s i n c e t h e l a r g e s t d e s c r i b a b l e u n i t i s t h e g r o u p o f l a b e l l i n g a g e n t s who a r e b o u n d t o f a c e - t o - f a c e l i n k s ( R o c k , 1 9 7 6 , p p . 1 5 1 - 1 5 2 ) . O f c o u r s e w h a t t h i s c r i t i c i s m i g n o r e s i s t h a t t h e movement i n t h e o p p o s i t e d i r e c t i o n , f r o m a s t r u c t u r a l a r g u m e n t t o an a c t i o n p e r s p e c t i v e , i s no l e s s p r o b l e m a t i c ( G i d d e n s , 1 9 7 9 ) . T h e v e r s t e h e n p e r s p e c t i v e i n g e n e r a l o f f e r s l i t t l e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f l a w as a c o m p l e x a n d v a r i e g a t e d r u l e - s y s t e m , c o n s t r a i n i n g l a w - m a k e r a n d r u l e d a l i k e : 1 " R a t h e r t h a n c o n v e y a m o d e l o f m o r a l l i f e as d e n s e l y t e x t u r e d a n d i n t r i c a t e , t h e y h a v e c o n s t i t u t e d a k i n d o f s o c i o l o g i c a l f l a t l a n d w h i c h c o n t a i n s no t o p o g r a p h i c a l f e a t u r e s o t h e r t h a n t h e b o u n d a r i e s w h i c h s e p a r a t e d i f f e r e n t r e g i o n s . " ( R o c k , 1 9 7 5 , p . 1 5 1 ) R o c k a r g u e s t h a t " f l a t l a n d " m u s t n e c e s s a r i l y be p l u r a l i s t i n i t s v i s i o n o f t h e m o r a l o r d e r o f s o c i e t y - t h e i d e a o f p e o p l e s u p p o r t i n g s i m u l t a n e o u s v a l u e s , o f n o r m a t i v e s y s t e m s b e i n g c o n t r a d i c t o r y o r i r o n i c , i s r u l e d o u t . T h e l i v e s o f t h e c r i m i n a l s o f f l a t l a n d a r e p r i m a r i l y o r g a n i z e d a r o u n d t h e i r d e v i a n c e , c u t o f f f r o m o r s i m p l y r e a c t i n g t o o t h e r m o r a l s y s t e m s . D e v i a n c e i s t h u s g i v e n a d i s t i n c t n e s s a n d d i s c r e t e n e s s w h i c h j a r s w i t h r e a l i t y - f o r m o s t o f t h e t i m e , 5 4 . d e v i a n t s a r e n o t d e v i a n t a t a l l : "On i n s p e c t i o n , t h e p o l i c e m a n a n d d e l i n q u e n t , p r i s o n o f f i c e r a n d p r i s o n e r , b a i l i f f and d e b t o r , j u d g e a n d d e f e n d e n t , a r e t h e i n h a b i t a n t s o f a w o r l d w h i c h i s m a r k e d by p l u r a l i s m and a b s o l u t i s m , c o n s e n s u s and d i s s e n s u s , c o n f l i c t a n d u n i t y . " ( R o c k , 1 9 7 6 , p . 1 5 8 ) T h e p l u r a l i s m and r e l a t i v i s m o f t h i s s o c i o l o g i c a l f l a t l a n d h a v e l e d T a y l o r , W a l t o n a n d Y o u n g t o a r g u e t h a t N o r t h A m e r i c a n p h e n o m e n o l o g y ( e t h n o m e t h o d o l o g y ) a n d " n a t u r a l i s m " ( M a t z a r e d e f i n e s " n a t u r a l i s m " t o mean p h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l r a t h e r t h a n p o s i t i v i s t p e r s p e c t i v e s ) l e a d t o a p o s i t i o n w h e r e t h e o n l y " t r u e " a c c o u n t o f how t h e d e v i a n t phenomenon came i n t o b e i n g , a n d w h a t i t s " r e a l " n a t u r e i s , c a n be g i v e n by t h e d e v i a n t s t h e m s e l v e s ( 1 9 7 3 , p . 1 7 3 ) . F o r t h e s o c i o l o g y o f d e v i a n c e i n g e n e r a l , r e a s o n s become c a u s e s . B u t T a y l o r e t a l u r g e t h a t a d e v i a n t ' s b e l i e f s may be " f a l s e " i n some s e n s e , e v e n i f r e g a r d e d by h i m / h e r as t r u e ; t h e o v e r a l l d a n g e r i s t o d e n y t h e t h e o r i s t a n y r i g h t t o q u e s t i o n t h e v a l i d i t y o f d e v i a n t b e l i e f s i n h e r / h i s a s s e s s m e n t o f t h e a c t o r ' s s o c i a l s i t u a t i o n . M a t z a , f o r e x a m p l e , o v e r e x t e n d s " t h e h u m a n i s t i c a n t a g o n i s m t o t h e c o r r e c t i o n a l p e r s p e c t i v e a n d s u g g e s t s t h a t t o a p p r e c i a t e t h e d e v i a n t e n t e r p r i s e i s t o d e n y o n e s e l f t h e r i g h t t o d i s a g r e e o r c o n d e m n . " ( T a y l o r , W a l t o n a n d Y o u n g , 1 9 7 3 , p . 1 7 4 ) . M a t z a ' s a c c o u n t s i n D e l i n q u e n c y and D r i f t ( 1 9 6 4 ) a n d B e c o m i n g D e v i a n t ( 1 9 6 9 ) a r e two o f t h e b e s t known and i n f l u e n t i a l c r i t i q u e s o f p o s i t i v i s m i n c r i m i n o l o g y ; and T a y l o r W a l t o n a n d Y o u n g ' s " r a d i c a l " r e a c t i o n t o i t d i s p l a y s w e l l t h e m a i n i s s u e o f c o n t e n t i o n t h a t o s t e n s i b l y l e d c r i t i c a l t h e o r i s t s 5 5 . t o p a r t company f r o m t h e s o c i o l o g y o f d e v i a n c e . M a t z a ' s a c c o u n t , by f o c u s i n g on t h e d e v i a n t o r c r i m i n a l ' s u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e s i t u a t i o n , p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e p a r t p l a y e d by t h e c r i m i n a l l a b e l l i n g p r o c e s s i n c o n s o l i d a t i n g a p e r s o n ' s s e l f - i d e n t i t y as d e v i a n t , f a i l s t o c o n s i d e r c o l l e c t i v e c h o i c e and a c t i o n ; " i n d e a l i n g w i t h t h e ' i n n e r ' m a n , t h e ' o u t e r ' man g o t l o s t . " ( T a y l o r , W a l t o n a n d Y o u n g , p . 1 9 2 ) . D e s p i t e o f f e r i n g w h a t T a y l o r a n d h i s c o l l e a g u e s c o n s i d e r e d an i l l u m i n a t i n g s o c i o l o g y o f m o t i v a t i o n , M a t z a i g n o r e s i t s w i d e r s t r u c t u r a l d e t e r m i n a n t s . I m p o r t a n t l y T a y l o r , W a l t o n a n d Y o u n g n o t e t h a t M a t z a i s n o t u n a w a r e o f t h e s e p r o b l e m s : o f h i s D e l i n q u e n c y a n d D r i f t a n d B e c o m i n g D e v i a n t M a t z a s a y s " e a c h m i s s e d a k e y p o i n t , t h e r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n p r o p e r t y a n d t h e s t a t e . " ( W e i s , 1 9 7 1 ) . I n r e f e r e n c e t o e t h n o m e t h o d o l o g y , T a y l o r , W a l t o n a n d Y o u n g ' s c r i t i c i s m i s o f t h e same g e n r e : e t h n o m e t h o l o g y n e g l e c t s t h e " w i d e r e t i o l o g i c a l i n f l u e n c e s " w h i c h s u g g e s t t h a t s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s a r e n o t s e l f - o r g a n i z i n g i n t e r m s o f t h e i r " c o n s t i t u e n t a c c e n t " . T h e o v e r r i d i n g p r a c t i c a l a i m s a n d g o a l s o f m o s t s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s a r e g i v e n by t h e l a r g e r c o n t e x t o f power a n d i n t e r e s t i n t h e s o c i e t y i n w h i c h t h e y a r e c o n t e x t u a l l y b o u n d . T a y l o r e t a l v i e w e t h n o m e t h o d o l o g y as c r u d e l y e m p i r i c i s t r e c o g n i z i n g a n d s t u d y i n g o n l y one p l a n e o f s o c i a l r e a l i t y , i n d i v i d u a l c o n s c i o u s n e s s : " I n r e j e c t i n g g e n e r a l s t a t e m e n t s a n d c o n c e p t s u n t i l t h e y a r e r e d u c i b l e t o m e m b e r ' s c o n s c i o u s n e s s , t h e y f a l s e l y r e d u c e a l l m e a n i n g t o t h e m e a n i n g s h e l d by i n d i v i d u a l a c t o r s . " ( p . 2 0 6 ) . 3 5 6 . I n r e s p o n s e t o t h i s a r g u m e n t C o u l t e r ( 1 9 7 4 ) s u g g e s t s t h a t T a y l o r , W a l t o n a n d Y o u n g m i s r e a d e t h n o m e t h o d o l o g y a n d p h e n o m e n o l o g y t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t t h e f o c u s o f t h e s e p o s i t i o n s i s n o t on i n d i v i d u a l c o n s c i o u s n e s s b u t on i n t e r s u b j e c t i v i t y . 4 T h i s o b s e r v a t i o n i s s t r i c t l y c o r r e c t s u g g e s t i n g t h a t i t may n o t be i m p o s s i b l e f o r v e r s t e h e n p o s i t i o n s t o come t o g r i p s w i t h s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e . B u t t h i s does n o t a l t e r t h e s a l i e n c e o f T a y l o r , W a l t o n a n d Y o u n g ' s c r i t i c i s m t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t p a r t o f e t h n o m e t h o d o l o g y ' s m a n d a t e i s a p o l e m i c a g a i n s t s t r u c t u r a l s o c i o l o g y , an a r g u m e n t s u g g e s t i n g t h a t a n y r e f e r e n c e t o s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e i s n e c e s s a r i l y c h i m e r i c , a n u n w a r r a n t e d a b s t r a c t i o n . W h i l e i t may be p o s s i b l e t o r e o r g a n i z e v e r s t e h e n p e r s p e c t i v e s t o g i v e a m o r e a d e q u a t e a c c o u n t o f power a n d s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e ( p e r h a p s t h r o u g h a t h e o r y o f r e i f i c a t i o n ) ^ T a y l o r , W a l t o n a n d Y o u n g a r e e s s e n t i a l l y c o r r e c t i n a r g u i n g t h a t t h e s o c i o l o g y o f d e v i a n c e i n g e n e r a l has i g n o r e d power a n d s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e i n i t s b r o a d e s t s e n s e . W h i l e i t has b e e n s u g g e s t e d t h a t i t i s p o s s i b l e t o c r e a t e t h e s e l i n k s ( e . g . B e r g e r a n d L u c k m a n n , 1 9 6 7 ; F r e u n d a n d A b r a h a m s , 1 9 7 6 ; B e n g H u a t C h u a , 1 9 7 7 ) t h e t a s k o f f u l l y e l u c i d a t i n g t hem r e m a i n s an i m p o r t a n t c h a l l e n g e t o v e r s t e h e n s o c i o l o g y and c r i m i n o l o g y . T o d a t e t h i s p r o b l e m o f s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e has r e m a i n e d t h e c o n c e r n o f w h a t i s v a r i o u s l y c a l l e d c o n f l i c t , c r i t i c a l o r r a d i c a l c r i m i n o l o g i s t s . 5 7 . T h e E m e r g e n c e o f P o w e r - C o n f l i c t a n d R a d i c a l P e r s p e c t i v e s W h i l e f u l l y e n d o r s i n g t h e c r i t i q u e o f t r a d i t i o n a l c r i m i n o l o g y t h a t s p a r k e d t h e r i s e o f t h e s o c i o l o g y o f d e v i a n c e , r a d i c a l c r i m i n o l o g i s t s h a v e f o u n d v e r s t e h e n p e r s p e c t i v e s w a n t i n g b e c a u s e o f t h e i r i m p u t e d r e l a t i v i s m and s u b j e c t i v i s m . R a d i c a l c r i m i n o l o g y i s t h u s d o u b l y r e a c t i v e . A t t h i s p o i n t i n t h e d i s c u s s i o n some c o n s i d e r a t i o n w i l l a l s o be g i v e n t o t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f " p o w e r - c o n f l i c t " p e r s p e c t i v e s i n c r i m i n o l o g y w h i c h e m e r g e d d u r i n g t h e same p e r i o d as t h e s o c i o l o g y o f d e v i a n c e , a l b e i t w i t h a much s m a l l e r c o n s t i t u e n c y . I n k e e p i n g w i t h b o t h t h e s o c i o l o g y o f d e v i a n c e a n d r a d i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e s , t h e p o w e r - c o n f l i c t p o s i t i o n d e v e l o p e d i n o p p o s i t i o n t o t r a d i t i o n a l t h e o r y p a r t i c u l a r l y as a c r i t i q u e o f t h e c o n s e n s u s m o d e l o f l a w a n d s o c i e t y s u g g e s t e d as u n d e r l y i n g i t . L i k e r a d i c a l t h e o r y t h e p o w e r - c o n f l i c t p o s i t i o n i s a m a c r o - s o c i o l o g y , b u t t h e two c a n be d i s t i n q u i s h e d i n t e r m s o f t h e i r v i e w o f t h e l o c u s and n a t u r e o f power i n s o c i e t y , a n d t h e i r d i s a g r e e m e n t o v e r t h e n o r m a t i v e n a t u r e o f s o c i a l s c i e n t i f i c t h e o r y and r e s e a r c h . T h e s e d i s t i n c t i o n s a n d d i s a g r e e m e n t s w i l l be c l a r i f i e d i n t h e d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e e m e r g e n c e o f t h e two p o s i t i o n s . W h i l e t h e r e a r e some e a r l y v e r s i o n s o f a r a d i c a l M a r x i s t p e r s p e c t i v e i n t h e c r i m i n o l o g i c a l l i t e r a t u r e ( B o n g e r , 1 9 1 6 ; R u s c h e a n d K i r c h h i e m e r , 1 9 3 9 ) i t was n o t u n t i l t h e 1 9 7 0 ' s t h a t a w i d e s p r e a d i n t e r e s t i n M a r x i s t t h e o r i e s d e v e l o p e d . Some t e n y e a r s e a r l i e r G e o r g e V o i d u t i l i z e d a n o n - M a r x i s t p e r s p e c t i v e i n 58. p a r t s o f h i s T h e o r e t i c a l C r i m i n o l o g y , w h i l e T u r k ' s C r i m i n a l i t y a n d L e g a l O r d e r ( 1 9 6 9 ) i s much m o r e i n f l u e n c e d by Webe r t h a n by M a r x . T h e s e two v o l u m e s w e r e t h e f i r s t i n t h e m o d e r n p h a s e o f c o n f l i c t t h e o r y i n c r i m i n o l o g y , ( a c c o r d i n g t o t h e t e r m i n o l o g y u s e d h e r e t h e y a r e p o w e r - c o n f l i c t p e r s p e c t i v e s ) a n d a l t h o u g h m o r e r e c e n t c o n f l i c t t h e o r i s t s h a v e d e v e l o p e d n o n - M a r x i s t p e r s p e c t i v e s ( e . g . M c D o n a l d , 1 9 7 6 ) m o s t o f t h e s u b s e q u e n t l i t e r a t u r e i n b o t h B r i t a i n and N o r t h A m e r i c a i s w r i t t e n f r o m a M a r x i s t p e r s p e c t i v e . T h e p o w e r - c o n f l i c t p e r s p e c t i v e l o c a t e s c o n f l i c t i n a u t h o r i t y r e l a t i o n s w h i l e t h e M a r x i s t p e r s p e c t i v e l o c a t e s c o n f l i c t i n s o c i a l - c l a s s r e l a t i o n s . 8 A s e c o n d i s s u e t h a t d i v i d e s t h e M a r x i s t f r o m t h e p o w e r - c o n f l i c t p e r s p e c t i v e as i t has d e v e l o p e d r e c e n t l y i s a p o l i t i c a l one - t h e r e j e c t i o n o f M a r x i s u s u a l l y o v e r t h e i s s u e o f t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f t h e s o c i a l s c i e n t i s t ' s o b j e c t i v i t y . F r o m a M a r x i s t s t a n d p o i n t b o t h t h e l a w and n o n - M a r x i s t s o c i a l s c i e n c e a r e d e s c r i b e d as i d e o l o g i e s s u p p o r t i n g c e r t a i n s o c i a l power s t r u c t u r e s , d e s p i t e t h e c l a i m o f many n o n - M a r x i s t r e s e a r c h e r s t h a t s o c i a l s c i e n c e c a n a n d s h o u l d be o b j e c t i v e ( a n d s i m i l a r c l a i m s o f l e g i s l a t o r s , i m p l i c i t l y s u p p o r t e d by some s o c i a l s c i e n t i s t s , t h a t l a w i s i m p a r t i a l ) . W h i l e some n o n - M a r x i s t c o n f l i c t t h e o r i s t s may a g r e e t h a t t h e l a w i s n o t i m p a r t i a l , t h e y n e v e r t h e l e s s m a i n t a i n t h e p o s i t i o n t h a t s o c i a l s c i e n c e c a n be o b j e c t i v e ( e . g . T u r k , 1 9 7 9 ) . F o r t h i s d i s c u s s i o n i t i s a l s o w o r t h d r a w i n g some k i n d o f d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n c r i t i c a l a n d r a d i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e s . T h e e s s e n c e o f a r a d i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e i s t h a t i t i s e x p l i c i t l y 59 . g e a r e d t o s o c i a l i s t o r c o m m u n i s t p o l i t i c s , a n d r e j e c t s p r o g r e s s i v e c h a n g e i n f a v o r o f r e v o l u t i o n a r y c h a n g e s o f s o c i e t y i n t e r m s o f f u n d a m e n t a l power s t r u c t u r e s . T h e d i s t i n c t i o n o f a c r i t i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e l y i n g somewhere b e t w e e n c o n f l i c t a n d r a d i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e s i s w r o u g h t n o t o n l y i n t e r m s o f i t s c r i t i c i s m o f t r a d i t i o n a l c r i m i n o l o g y , b u t a l s o i n i t s t h e o r y o f p r a c t i c e . R a d i c a l t h e o r y s e e k s an o v e r t h r o w o f c a p i t a l i s m t o p r o d u c e a s o c i a l i s t s o c i e t y , w h e r e a s w h a t I w o u l d t e r m a c r i t i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e i s s u s p i c i o u s o f a s o c i a l i s t v i s i o n as b e i n g t o o U t o p i a n , e s p e c i a l l y i n l i g h t o f t h e e x p e r i e n c e s o f " s o c i a l i s t " p r a c t i c e . ^ A l t h o u g h a c r i t i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e may u s e M a r x i a n c o n c e p t s , i t does n o t r e p r e s e n t i t s e l f as M a r x i s t . T h e e m e r g e n c e o f r a d i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e s o c c u r r e d a t r o u g h l y t h e same t i m e i n B r i t a i n a n d N o r t h A m e r i c a . W h i l e t h e s o c i a l c l i m a t e o f t h e 1 9 6 0 ' s s e t t h e c o n t e x t f o r t h e s o c i o l o g y o f d e v i a n c e and e n a b l e d i t s a c a d e m i c i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z a t i o n , t h e s u g g e s t e d f a i l i n g s o f t h e p e r s p e c t i v e p r o v i d e d an a d d i t i o n a l r e a c t i v e s p r i n g b o a r d f o r t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f r a d i c a l t h e o r y ; t h e s o c i o l o g y o f d e v i a n c e i n c o n c e n t r a t i n g on t h e i n t e r a c t i o n b e t w e e n s o c i a l c o n t r o l l e r s a n d t h e c i t i z e n r y n e g l e c t e d t o c o n s i d e r t h e b r o a d e r s o c i a l power s t r u c t u r e s d e t e r m i n i n g who i s t o be c o n t r o l l e d . I t d i d n o t c o n s i d e r t h e e f f e c t o f t h e i d e o l o g i c a l s y s t e m r a t i o n a l i z i n g a n d l e g i t i m a t i n g t h e s o c i a l f o r m a t i o n i n s t r u c t u r i n g s o c i a l i n t e r a c t i o n . R e a l i z i n g t h e s h o r t c o m i n g s o f t h e i n t e r a c t i o n i s t p e r s p e c t i v e , c e r t a i n t h e o r i s t s i n N o r t h A m e r i c a d e v e l o p e d t h r o u g h an i n t e r a c t i o n i s t p h a s e ( e . g . Q u i n n e y , 1 9 7 0 ) t o a c r i t i c a l M a r x i s t p o s i t i o n 6 0 . ( Q u i n n e y , 1 9 7 2 , 1 9 7 4 , 1 9 7 7 ) . O t h e r s a d o p t e d t h e M a r x i s t m a n t l e w i t h o u t a n y s u c h t r a n s i t i o n . T h i s , o f c o u r s e , has p a r a l l e l s i n human g e o g r a p h y a t t h e same t i m e , m o s t n o t a b l y D a v i d H a r v e y ' s t r a n s i t i o n f r o m a l i b e r a l , b e h a v i o u r a l p o s i t i o n a r o u n d 1970 t o a c o m m i t t e d M a r x i s t p o s i t i o n a f e w y e a r s l a t e r ( H a r v e y , 1 9 7 3 ) . I n B r i t a i n , an e s s e n t i a l l y s y m b o l i c i n t e r a c t i o n i s t o r i e n t e d g r o u p o f y o u n g i n t e l l e c t u a l s s p l i t away f r o m m a i n s t r e a m c r i m i n o l o g y t o c o n s t i t u t e t h e N a t i o n a l D e v i a n c y C o n f e r e n c e , o t h e r w i s e known as t h e " Y o r k g r o u p " . T h e y w e r e i n i t i a l l y u n i t e d i n t h e i r c r i t i q u e o f t r a d i t i o n a l t h e o r y . B u t t h e c o m m o n l y f e l t d i s e n c h a n t m e n t w i t h t h i s p o s i t i v i s t p e r s p e c t i v e s o o n g a v e way t o an i n t e r n i c i n e b a t t l e , w i t h some members o f t h e Y o r k g r o u p r e t a i n i n g an i n t e r a c t i o n i s t t y p e p o s i t i o n ( R o c k , L . T a y l o r , e t c . ) , o t h e r s b r a n c h i n g d i r e c t l y o f f i n t o a r a d i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e ( I . T a y l o r , W a l t o n and Y o u n g , 1 9 7 3 , 1 9 7 5 ) , a l t h o u g h i m p o r t a n t l y r e t a i n i n g a p l a c e f o r an i n t e r a c t i o n i s t l e v e l o f a n a l y s i s . 1 * * I s h a l l r e t u r n t o t h i s l a t t e r p o i n t s h o r t l y . F o r t h e moment i t i s s u f f i c i e n t t o n o t e t h a t t h e Y o r k g r o u p has e f f e c t i v e l y d i s b a n d e d . W h i l e i t s members w o u l d p r e s u m a b l y s t i l l s h a r e a number o f o p i n i o n s , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t e r m s o f t h e i r common i n t e r e s t i n s o c i a l c o n t r o l as w e l l as c r i m e , t h e y a r e d i v i d e d o v e r c e r t a i n p o l i t i c a l , o n t o l o g i c a l a n d e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l i s s u e s , a n d i t i s t o t h i s a n d t h e w i d e r p h i l o s o p h i c a l d e b a t e i n w h i c h t h e s e i s s u e s a r e s i t u a t e d t h a t we now t u r n . 6 1 . G e n e r a l T e n e t s o f P o w e r C o n f l i c t a n d R a d i c a l P e r s p e c t i v e s W h i l e t h e s o c i o l o g y o f d e v i a n c e has s o m e t i m e s b e e n c h a r a c t e r i z e d as t h e s o c i o l o g y o f t h e u n d e r d o g b e c a u s e i t a t t e m p t s t o s e e t h r o u g h t h e e y e s o f t h e d e v i a n t , i n a w i d e r s e n s e i t has b e e n s u g g e s t e d as p o l i t i c a l l y c o n s e r v a t i v e - as an a p o l o g y f o r power s t r u c t u r e s . A g a i n t h e r i f t b e t w e e n i n t e r a c t i o n i s t a n d c r i t i c a l t h e o r y i s n o t e v e n a n d d i s c r e t e . D a v i d M a t z a , f o r e x a m p l e , i n h i s c r i t i q u e o f p o s i t i v i s t c r i m i n o l o g y n o t e s t h a t p o s i t i v i s m , by v i r t u e o f i t s a n a l y t i c s e p a r a t i o n o f c r i m e and s o c i a l c o n t r o l , a d o p t s a l a r g e l y c o r r e c t i o n a l i s t p u r p o s e ; i t a t t e m p t s t o do s o m e t h i n g a b o u t c r i m e m a i n l y i n t e r m s o f c o n t r o l l i n g c r i m i n a l s , t h e c o n t r o l r a n g i n g f r o m g e n e t i c e n g i n e e r i n g t o t h e m a n i p u l a t i o n o f s o c i a l i z a t i o n p r o c e s s e s , b u t a l m o s t a l w a y s f o c u s i n g on c h a n g i n g t h e i n d i v i d u a l . C r i t i c a l a n d c o n f l i c t t h e o r i s t s move t h e e m p h a s i s t o t h e s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e . M a t z a ' s ( 1 9 6 9 ) p o s i t i o n r e p r e s e n t s an i n t e r m e d i a t e p h a s e ; r a t h e r t h a n " c o r r e c t " c r i m i n a l s , he u r g e s t h a t we " a p p r e c i a t e " d e v i a n t b e h a v i o u r a n d move t o w a r d s a s o c i e t y w h i c h t o l e r a t e s " d i v e r s i t y " . B u t f r o m a r a d i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e t h i s p r o g r a m a p p e a r s t o be i m p l a u s i b l e b e c a u s e o f i t s f a i l u r e t o a c c o u n t f o r p o w e r . T o t h e r a d i c a l t h e n , t h e move away f r o m c o r r e c t i o n a l c r i m i n o l o g y r e q u i r e s a s p e c i f i c p o l i t i c , a n d M a t z a ' s v i s i o n o f t h e t o l e r a n c e o f d i v e r s i t y i s r e c a s t as t h e t o l e r a n c e o f " s o c i a l i s t d i v e r s i t y " . E x p l i c i t i n t h e p o l i t i c a l t h r u s t o f c r i t i c a l a n d r a d i c a l t h e o r y i s t h e c l a i m t h a t a l l s o c i a l s c i e n c e p o s i t i o n s e n t a i l a 6 2 . p o l i t i c a l m e t a p h y s i c e v e n t h o u g h some may c l a i m t h a t t h e y do n o t . T h e p o s i t i v i s t p o s i t i o n i n s o c i a l s c i e n c e i s a d e l i b e r a t e a t t e m p t a t p u r g i n g m e t a p h y s i c a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s f r o m s c i e n t i f i c d i s c o u r s e ; h e n c e t h e c l a i m t h a t s c i e n c e i s o b j e c t i v e . B u t by a d o p t i n g a c o r r e c t i o n a l i s t p e r s p e c t i v e , t h e p o s i t i v i s t f o r m a t i s n o t p o l i t i c a l l y s i l e n t ; by a c c e p t i n g o f f i c i a l c a t e g o r i e s o f c r i m e i t i n h e r e n t l y e n d o r s e s t h e p o l i t i c a l s t a t u s q u o . I n t h e o r e t i c a l t e r m s , t h e d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n an o b s e r v a t i o n a l a n d a t h e o r e t i c a l l a n g u a g e as w r o u g h t b y p o s i t i v i s m i s c o l l a p s e d by t h e a r g u m e n t t h a t no o b s e r v a t i o n a l t e r m c a n be c o n s i d e r e d d e v o i d o f a t h e o r e t i c a l c o m p o n e n t . 1 1 T o c a l l someone a " p o l i c e m a n " , f o r e x a m p l e , p r e s u p p o s e s s o c i a l d e f i n i t i o n s a b o u t t h e r o l e e x p e c t a t i o n s o f b e i n g a p o l i c e m a n - - e x p e c t a t i o n s w h i c h a r e s o c i a l l y c o n s t r u c t e d a n d t h u s c h a n g e a b l e . S i m i l a r l y , t o c a l l s o m e t h i n g a " c r i m e " p r e s u p p o s e s c e r t a i n t h e o r e t i c a l i s s u e s p e r t a i n i n g t o s y s t e m s o f c l a s s i f i c a t i o n . T h e p o i n t i s t h a t s e n s e d a t a a r e s o c i a l l y o r d e r e d , and i n t h i s r e s p e c t s o c i a l s c i e n c e c a n n o t be s e p a r a t e d f r o m s o c i e t y . I n a m o r e p a r t i c u l a r s e n s e , t r a d i t i o n a l c r i m i n o l o g y i s s u g g e s t e d as p r o d u c i n g t e c h n o c r a t i c k n o w l e d g e . I t c a n n o t be c o n s i d e r e d o b j e c t i v e b e c a u s e o f i t s s o c i a l i m p l i c a t i o n s : t h e m a i n t e n a n c e o f t h e p r e s e n t s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e a n d t h e l o c i o f power w i t h i n i t . I t i s o v e r t h e i s s u e o f o b j e c t i v i t y t h a t p o w e r - c o n f l i c t and r a d i c a l t h e o r y p a r t company - " n o n - p a r t i s a n " c o n f l i c t a n a l y s e s ( T u r k , 1 9 7 9 ) r e v i t a l i z e t h e p o s i t i v i s t d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n o b j e c t a n d s u b j e c t c l a i m i n g t h a t t h e f o r m u l a t i o n o f a 63. c o n f l i c t m o d e l o f s o c i e t y c a n be a c h i e v e d o b j e c t i v e l y w i t h o u t r e s o r t i n g t o a p a r t i s a n p o l i t i c . I n a r e c e n t p a p e r , Thomas B a r n a r d ( 1 9 8 1 ) has o u t l i n e d t h e m a i n d i s t i n c t i o n s b e t w e e n w h a t he c a l l s c o n f l i c t a n d r a d i c a l c r i m i n o l o g y . H i s d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e c o n f l i c t p e r s p e c t i v e c o r r e s p o n d s t o w h a t I h a v e t e r m e d t h e p o w e r - c o n f l i c t p o s i t i o n ( t h e q u a l i f y i n g t e r m i s i m p o r t a n t t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t w i t h o u t i t t h e d e s i g n a t i o n o f c o n f l i c t p o s i t i o n s c o u l d p r e s u m a b l y i n c l u d e c u l t u r e c o n f l i c t - s ee f o o t n o t e 8 i n t h i s c h a p t e r ) a n d i n c l u d e s t h e w o r k o f V o i d ( 1 9 5 8 ) , T u r k ( 1 9 6 9 ) , Q u i n n e y ( 1 9 7 0 ) a n d C h a m b l i s s a n d S e i d m a n ( 1 9 7 1 ) . 1 2 F o l l o w i n g B a r n a r d t h e b a s i c p r i n c i p l e s o f ( p o w e r ) c o n f l i c t c r i m i n o l o g y may be s u m m a r i z e d a s : 1) O n e ' s "web o f l i f e " a f f e c t s o n e ' s v a l u e s a n d i n t e r e s t s . 2) C o m p l e x s o c i e t i e s a r e c o m p o s e d o f g r o u p s w i t h d i s p a r a t e and c o n f l i c t i n g s e t s o f v a l u e s b y v i r t u e o f d i f f e r e n c e s i n l i f e c o n d i t i o n s . 3) T h e b e h a v i o u r o f i n d i v i d u a l s i s c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e i r v a l u e s a n d i n t e r e s t s . 4) B e c a u s e v a l u e s a n d i n t e r e s t s r e m a i n s t a b l e , r e l a t i v e l y s t a b l e b e h a v i o u r p a t t e r n s d e v e l o p . 5) L a w s a r e e n a c t e d i n a p r o c e s s o f c o n f l i c t and c o m p r o m i s e ; e a c h s o c i a l g r o u p t e n d s t o p r o m o t e i t s own v a l u e s a n d i n t e r e s t s . 6 ) I n d i v i d u a l l a w s r e p r e s e n t a c o m b i n a t i o n o f t h e v a l u e s a n d i n t e r e s t s o f many g r o u p s ( r a t h e r t h a n s p e c i f i c v a l u e s a n d 6 4 . i n t e r e s t s of any one group), although law i n general represents i n t e r e s t s of higher s t a t u s groups. 7) The higher the group stat u s of an i n d i v i d u a l , the l e s s l i k e l y the p a t t e r n s of behaviour of that i n d i v i d u a l w i l l v i o l a t e the law. 8 ) The higher the s t a t u s of an i n d i v i d u a l , the more d i f f i c u l t i t i s for law enforcment agencies to process that i n d i v i d u a l ; bureaucrats and law enforcement personnel thus concentrate on lower stat u s groups. 9) Because of the process of law enactment and law enforcement, the o f f i c i a l crime rate of groups w i l l tend to be i n v e r s e l y p r o p o r t i o n a l to t h e i r p o l i t i c a l and economic pos i t i on. In g e n e r a l , Barnard suggests that c o n f l i c t c r i m i n o l o g y does not attempt to e x p l a i n i n d i v i d u a l crimes, but o f f i c i a l crime r a t e s . Once again f o l l o w i n g Barnard, the c e n t r a l claims of r a d i c a l theory can be l i s t e d as: 1) No consensus e x i s t s i n s o c i e t y on b a s i c values and i n t e r e s t s of i n d i v i d u a l s - s o c i e t y i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by c o n f l i c t over these i s s u e s . 2) S o c i e t y i s d i v i d e d i n t o c l a s s e s of values and i n t e r e s t s ; the p r i n c i p a l c o n f l i c t i s seen as that between c a p i t a l i s t and working c l a s s e s . 3) Crime i s d e f i n e d as the a c t i o n that v i o l a t e s b a s i c human r i g h t s . Not only are the lower c l a s s e s the v i c t i m s of predatory s t r e e t crime, but a l s o of " r u l i n g - c l a s s crime" -65. unemployment, p o l l u t i o n and e x p l o i t a t i o n . Law i s b a s i c a l l y viewed as a t o o l of the r u l i n g c l a s s i n c o n f l i c t with the working c l a s s (hence the c o n c e n t r a t i o n of law enforcement agencies on s t r e e t crime in terms of both d e f i n i t i o n and enforcement). 4) Conventional c r i m i n o l o g y by a c c e p t i n g the l e g a l d e f i n i t i o n of crime assumes a t e c h n o c r a t i c r o l e i n the c o n t r o l of the working c l a s s . The r e f o r m i s t impulse of t r a d i t i o n a l c r i m i n o l o g y aimed at making the c r i m i n a l j u s t i c e system more e f f i c i e n t and f a i r i s suggested as r e c o n c i l i n g the working c l a s s to the s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e by imposing c a p i t a l i s t i c p r o d u c t i v e r e l a t i o n s . 5) By r e j e c t i n g l e g a l d e f i n i t i o n s r a d i c a l c r i m i n o l o g y examines a l l behaviour c o n s i d e r e d s o c i a l l y harmful; c o n t r a d i c t i o n s i n the c a p i t a l i s t system are seen as the root cause of crime. 6) The "crime problem" can only be sol v e d by changing the c a p i t a l i s t economic system through establishment of a s o c i a l i s t s t a t e . In t h i s s t a t e "bourgeois law" w i l l not be necessary; there i s no consensus over the issue of whether some form of law i s necessary. 7) Barnard suggests that r a d i c a l c r i m i n o l o g y takes as i t s p r i n c i p a l task the overthrow of the c a p i t a l i s t s t a t e , although c l e a r l y there i s an equal concern with the e x p l a n a t i o n of both crime and s o c i a l c o n t r o l . While Barnard's d e s c r i p t i o n of r a d i c a l c r i m i n o l o g y captures many of i t s elements, he tends to miss some of i t s 66. t h e o r e t i c a l i m p l i c a t i o n s . T h e s e o m i s s i o n s may r e s u l t f r o m an o v e r - e x t e n s i o n o f t h e d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n t h e r a d i c a l a n d p o w e r - c o n f l i c t p e r s p e c t i v e s - he t e n d s t o make t h e p o s i t i o n s m o r e d i s c r e t e t h a n t h e y r e a l l y a r e . A s n o t e d a b o v e , t h e p r i n c i p a l d i s t i n c t i o n o f t h e two p o s i t i o n s i s o v e r t h e i s s u e o f o b j e c t i v i t y a n d t h e p o l i t i c a l c o m m i t m e n t o f t h e s u p p o s e d l y " s c i e n t i f i c " o b s e r v e r . F o r e x a m p l e B a r n a r d ' s s u g g e s t i o n t h a t c o n f l i c t s o c i o l o g i s t s f o c u s on power g r o u p s ( a f o r m o f p l u r a l i s m ) i s c o n t r a s t e d t o t h e c l a s s a n a l y s i s o f r a d i c a l t h e o r y when i n r e a l i t y t h e a u t h o r s B a r n a r d m e n t i o n s as r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f t h e c o n f l i c t p e r s p e c t i v e f r e q u e n t l y r e f e r t o s o c i a l c l a s s . A number o f a d d i t i o n a l p o i n t s a p p l i c a b l e t o b o t h p o w e r - c o n f l i c t a n d r a d i c a l t h e o r y t h u s g i v e t hem some common g r o u n d . T o b e g i n w i t h b o t h p e r s p e c t i v e s s u g g e s t t h a t c r i m e c a n n o t be f u l l y u n d e r s t o o d o u t s i d e i t s w i d e r s o c i o - h i s t o r i c a l c o n t e x t ; t h e r o l e o f b o t h power and c o n f l i c t m u s t be a c k n o w l e d g e d i n t h e g e n e s i s o f c r i m e ; c r i m e i s t h u s a n o u t c o m e o f f u n d a m e n t a l a s p e c t s o f s o c i a l o r d e r ( n o t n e c e s s a r i l y s o m e t h i n g l o d g e d i n i n d i v i d u a l s ) . B o t h p e r s p e c t i v e s a c k n o w l e d g e t h a t s o c i a l c o n t r o l o r g a n i z a t i o n s may c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e e x p a n s i o n o f c r i m e , e s p e c i a l l y when v e s t e d i n t e r e s t s a r e p l a y e d o u t i n t h e p r o c e s s o f l a w f o r m a t i o n . A n d , m o s t i m p o r t a n t o f a l l f o r t h e p u r p o s e s o f t h e p r e s e n t d i s c u s s i o n , b o t h p o w e r - c o n f l i c t and r a d i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e s - l i k e t h e s o c i o l o g y o f d e v i a n c e - s t r e s s t h e n e e d f o r a s o c i o l o g y o f l a w a n d s o c i a l c o n t r o l i n a n y c r i m i n o l o g i c a l " e x p l a n a t i o n " o r " u n d e r s t a n d i n g " o f c r i m e . B u t i n a g r e e i n g on 6 7 . t h i s m u c h , n o n e o f t h e p e r s p e c t i v e s h a v e m a n a g e d t o r e s o l v e s a t i s f a c t o r i l y t h e s t r u c t u r e - a c t i o n i s s u e , t h e i s s u e w h i c h s e p a r a t e s t h e s o c i o l o g y o f d e v i a n c e f r o m b o t h p o w e r - c o n f l i c t a n d r a d i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e s . T h e S t r u c t u r e / A c t i o n P r o b l e m : A T h e o r e t i c a l F r o n t i e r W h i l e t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f a r a d i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e o f c r i m e a n d s o c i a l c o n t r o l e n d o r s e s t h e i n t e r a c t i o n i s t c r i t i q u e o f p o s i t i v i s t o r t r a d i t i o n a l c r i m i n o l o g y , t h e r a d i c a l i n t e r e s t i n s o c i a l i n e q u a l i t y and t h e p o l i t i c a l i d e o l o g y l e g i t i m a t i n g i t becomes an o v e r t l y p o l i t i c a l e n t e r p r i s e . T h e r a d i c a l p o s i t i o n o s t e n s i b l y r e a s s e r t s v o l i t i o n as a n e c e s s a r y e l e m e n t t o a n y p h i l o s o p h i c a l m o d e l o f h u m a n i t y u n d e r l y i n g s o c i a l t h e o r y , s u g g e s t i n g t h e p o t e n t i a l f o r a l l p e o p l e t o become f r e e and s o v e r e i g n a r t i f i c e r s o f t h e i r own a c t i o n s ( o r a t l e a s t t h i s i s t h e c a s e w i t h T a y l o r , W a l t o n a n d Y o u n g ' s p o s i t i o n i n t h e i r 1973 a n d 1975 v o l u m e s ) . W h i l e t h e v o l i t i o n a l e l e m e n t o f human a c t i v i t y i s i m p l i c i t l y d e n i e d i n t h e p o s i t i v i s t p r o g r a m ( b e c a u s e o f i t s s e a r c h f o r d e t e r m i n a t e c a u s a l p r o c e s s e s ) , r a d i c a l t h e o r i s t s c r i t i c i s e i n t e r a c t i o n i s t s f o r t a k i n g t h e a r g u m e n t t o i t s o p p o s i t e e x t r e m e ; i n l a b e l l i n g t h e o r y , f o r e x a m p l e , c r i m e a n d d e l i n q u e n c y a p p e a r m e r e l y t o a r i s e f r o m t h e s u b j e c t i v e i m p r e s s i o n s o f c r i m e l a b e l l e r s i n t r a n s a c t i o n w i t h " o f f e n d e r s " . I n so d o i n g , a u t h o r s i n t h e r a d i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e s u g g e s t t h a t t h e p r o c e s s o f c r i m i n o g e n e s i s i s d i s l o c a t e d f r o m i t s w i d e r h i s t o r i c a l , s o c i a l - s t r u c t u r a l a n d i d e o l o g i c a l 68. c o n t e x t s ; 1 4 l a b e l l i n g t h e o r y f a i l e d t o p r o b i e m a t i z e t h e w i d e r o r i g i n s a n d c o n t e x t s o f c r i m e d e f i n i t i o n s , a n d t h e i d e o l o g i c a l p u r p o s e s t h e y may s e r v e i n s u p p o r t i n g a c e r t a i n k i n d o f ( c a p i t a l i s t i c ) s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e . S i m i l a r l y , l a b e l l i n g t h e o r y i s s u g g e s t e d as b e i n g o v e r l y c o n c e r n e d w i t h s e c o n d a r y d e v i a t i o n , t h a t w h i c h i s " c a u s e d " by t h e l a b e l l i n g p r o c e s s ( L e m e r t , 1 9 6 7 ) ; by s t r e s s i n g t h e a m p l i f i c a t o r y c o n s e q u e n c e s o f t h e c r i m i n a l l a b e l l i n g p r o c e s s as e x a c e r b a t i n g r a t h e r t h a n s u p p r e s s i n g c r i m i n a l i t y , l i t t l e i s o f f e r e d t o a c c o u n t f o r p r i m a r y d e v i a t i o n ( d e v i a t i o n t h a t o c c u r s p r i o r t o t h e m o b i l i z a t i o n o f t h e c r i m i n a l l a b e l l i n g p r o c e s s ) . L a b e l l i n g t h e o r i s t s , as a r e s u l t , f a i l t o l i n k p r i m a r y d e v i a t i o n t o w i d e r s o c i a l p r o c e s s e s . T h e l a b e l l i n g p e r s p e c t i v e i s t h u s c h a l l e n g e d b y r a d i c a l t h e o r i s t s as i m p l i c i t l y s u p p o r t i n g t h e p o l i t i c a l a n d i d e o l o g i c a l s t a t u s quo o f c a p i t a l i s t s o c i e t y . I n t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e p r e s e n t d i s c u s s i o n I am n o t so much i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e p o l i t i c a l c o n n o t a t i o n s o f t h e s e v a r i o u s p e r s p e c t i v e s as t h e i r t h e o r e t i c a l i m p l i c a t i o n s . T h i s i s n o t t o s u g g e s t t h a t t h e t h e o r e t i c a l and p o l i t i c a l i m p l i c a t i o n s o f s o c i a l t h e o r y c a n be s e p a r a t e d , f o r t o do so w o u l d e n t a i l t h e c l a i m t h a t s o c i a l s c i e n c e i s o r c a n be o b j e c t i v e . T h e v e r y f a c t t h a t a l t e r n a t e o n t o l o g i c a l a n d e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l p o s i t i o n s c o e x i s t w i t h i n s o c i a l s c i e n c e s u g g e s t s t h a t a p e r s o n ' s p a r a d i g m a t i c p e r s u a s i o n s a r e n o t much d i f f e r e n t t h a n r e l i g i o u s b e l i e f s . S i n c e no p r o o f e x i s t s as t o t h e v a l i d i t y o f a n y one o n t o l o g y o v e r a n o t h e r , t h e c r i m i n o l o g i s t ' s c h o i c e o f one o r a n o t h e r w i l l d e p e n d on c e r t a i n b e l i e f s a b o u t s o c i a l 6 9 . o r g a n i z a t i o n a n d human n a t u r e ( e v e n i f t h e s e a r e n o t a r t i c u l a t e d ) . T o t h i s e x t e n t t h e p r a c t i c e o f s o c i a l s c i e n c e a p p e a r s t o be i n h e r e n t l y s u b j e c t i v e , i n t e r s u b j e c t i v e and p o l i t i c a l a n d , i f t h i s a s s e r t i o n i s c o r r e c t , t h e n s o c i a l s c i e n c e , i f i t i s t o be r e f l e x i v e , m u s t p r o b e t h e d i m e n s i o n s o f t h e t a k e n - f o r - g r a n t e d w o r l d ( n . b . L e y , 1 9 7 7 ) . F o r t h e momen t , h o w e v e r , I am c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e c o n c e p t u a l i s s u e s s e p a r a t i n g i n t e r a c t i o n i s t a n d r a d i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e s . M a r x ' i d e a t h a t h u m a n i t y d o e s make i t s own h i s t o r y , b u t n o t i n c o n d i t i o n s o f i t s own c h o o s i n g , seems p a r a m o u n t h e r e . On t h e one h a n d t h e s u g g e s t i o n has b e e n made t h a t a p o s i t i v i s t v i e w o f s o c i e t y d e n i e s t h e power o f human v o l i t i o n , w h i l e i n t e r a c t i o n i s t p o s i t i o n s i n g e n e r a l o v e r e m p h a s i z e i t , a n d o f f e r v e r y l i t t l e i n t h e way o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g how human a c t i v i t y i s h i s t o r i c a l l y a n d i d e o l o g i c a l l y l i m i t e d . W h i l e v e r s t e h e n p e r s p e c t i v e s c a p t u r e t h e p r o c e s s o f i n t e r s u b j e c t i v i t y a n d t h e s o c i a l c o n s t r u c t i o n o f m e a n i n g , t h e y h a v e n o t , as y e t , m a n a g e d t o p e n e t r a t e t h e c o n d i t i o n s w h i c h l i m i t a n d s t r u c t u r e human a c t i o n a n d i n t e r a c t i o n . B y f o c u s i n g on c o n s c i o u s n e s s , v e r s t e h e n m e t h o d s c a n n o t p r o b e s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e s a n d r e l a t i o n s h i p s w h i c h l i e b e y o n d t h e c o n s c i o u s n e s s e s o f t h e p e o p l e i n t h e s o c i a l w o r l d s t h e y i n v e s t i g a t e so i n t i m a t e l y . T h e m a i n p r o b l e m i s t h a t v e r s t e h e n p e r s p e c t i v e s o f f e r no s a t i s f a c t o r y a c c o u n t o f why d i f f e r e n t s o c i a l w o r l d s o r s u b c u l t u r e s s h o u l d e x i s t i n t h e f i r s t p l a c e . R a t h e r t h e y s t u d y t h e i r i n t e r a c t i o n s and c o n f l i c t s a f t e r t h e s o c i a l w o r l d s h a v e f o r m e d . 7 0 . What i s r e q u i r e d h e r e i s a d i a l e c t i c a l v i e w o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e i n d i v i d u a l p e r s o n a n d s o c i e t y i n t h e b r o a d e r s e n s e , r e c o g n i z i n g t h a t a p e r s o n i s an e n s e m b l e o f s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s . T h e i n d i v i d u a l i s b o t h a p a r t f r o m a n d a p a r t o f s o c i e t y . S o c i a l s t r u c t u r e c o n d i t i o n s human a c t i v i t y a t t h e same t i m e as t h a t a c t i v i t y p r o d u c e s ( o r r e c o n s t r u c t s ) s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e . Humans a r e t h u s l i m i t e d by t h e i r h i s t o r i c a l c i r c u m s t a n c e s . H u m a n i t y o n l y f i n d s i t s f u l l p o t e n t i a l i n t h e e v e r p r e s e n t p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t i t c a n t r a n s c e n d i t s h i s t o r i c a l s i t u a t i o n . T h e c r i t i c a l i s s u e t h e o r e t i c a l l y i s t h u s t h e i n t e r f a c e b e t w e e n f r e e d o m a n d c o n s t r a i n t . I n g e n e r a l , s t r u c t u r a l i s t p o s i t i o n s h a v e b e e n o v e r l y c o n c e r n e d w i t h c o n s t r a i n t , v e r s t e h e n p e r s p e c t i v e s w i t h f r e e d o m . T h i s i s , o f c o u r s e , an o v e r s i m p l i f i c a t i o n , b u t w h a t i t s u g g e s t s i s a n e e d f o r a s o c i a l t h e o r y w h i c h s y n t h e s i z e s s t r u c t u r a l a n d v e r s t e h e n p e r s p e c t i v e s . I t i s an o v e r s i m p l i f i c a t i o n t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t t h e v e r s t e h e n p e r s p e c t i v e s a r e c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e c o n s t r a i n t s i m p o s e d on human a c t i v i t y by v i r t u e o f s o c i a l i n t e r a c t i o n . B u t t h i s i s n o t u s u a l l y c o n c e i v e d i n t e r m s o f s o c i a l f o r m a t i o n s . B e r g e r a n d L u c k m a n ' s S o c i a l C o n s t r u c t i o n o f R e a l i t y ( 1 9 6 7 ) a h u m a n i s t p r o j e c t , does a t t e m p t t o c o n c e i v e o f human a c t i v i t y as d i a l e c t i c a l l y r e l a t e d t o s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e , b u t t h e s u c c e s s o f t h e p r o j e c t has b e e n q u e s t i o n e d ( s e e , f o r e x a m p l e , H a m i l t o n , 1 9 7 4 , C h . 9 ) . W h i l e M a r x ' d i a l e c t i c may be s e e n as a s o l u t i o n t o t h e s t r u c t u r e / a c t i o n p r o b l e m , s u b s e q u e n t M a r x i s t s h a v e b e e n d i v i d e d o v e r t h e v e r y same i s s u e . T h u s A l t h u s s e r ' s ( e . g . 1 9 7 0 A , 1 9 7 0 B ) 7 1 . s t r u c t u r a l i s m i s a M a r x i s t f r a m e w o r k i n w h i c h t h e a c t i v i t y o f h u m a n i t y i s r e d u c e d t o t h e c o m p e l l i n g d i c t a t e s o f s t r u c t u r a l l o g i c s ( f o r t h e c o u n t e r p a r t o f t h i s c r i t i c i s m i n g e o g r a p h y s e e D u n c a n a n d L e y ' s - - 1 9 8 2 - - c r i t i q u e o f g e o g r a p h i c M a r x i s m ) . T h o m p s o n ' s h u m a n i s t M a r x i s m ( e . g . 1 9 7 7 , 1 9 7 8 ) i n c o n t r a s t i s a t h e o r e t i c a l s y s t e m i n w h i c h h i s t o r y i s c l e a r l y made by a h u m a n i t y c o n t i n u a l l y s t r u g g l i n g t o o v e r c o m e s o c i a l s t r u c t u r a l a n d i d e o l o g i c a l c o n s t r a i n t s 1 5 ( s e e g e n e r a l l y G r a m s c i , 1 9 7 3 ) . W i t h i n c r i m i n o l o g y m o s t o f t h e r a d i c a l l i t e r a t u r e has m o v e d t o t h e s t r u c t u r a l end o f t h e e q u a t i o n v i e w i n g s o c i e t y as a s t r u g g l e o f c l a s s i n t e r e s t s . M u c h m o d e r n r a d i c a l c r i m i n o l o g y s m a c k s o f a m o d i f i e d s t r u c t u r a l f u n c t i o n a l i s m i n w h i c h t h e l a w i s s e e n as t h e s u p p o r t e r o f c e r t a i n v e s t e d c l a s s i n t e r e s t s r a t h e r t h a n a c o d i f i c a t i o n o f c o n s e n s u a l v a l u e s . B u t i m p o r t a n t l y , T a y l o r , W a l t o n a n d Y o u n g ( 1 9 7 3 ) p r o p o s e a m a n i f e s t o w h i c h c o m b i n e s "man i n s o c i e t y " a n d " s o c i e t y i n man" p e r s p e c t i v e s ( n . b . B e r g e r , 1 9 6 6 , C h s . 4 a n d 5 ) , and H a l l e t a l ( 1 9 7 8 ) , i n t h e i r w o r k on t h e B r i t i s h e x p e r i e n c e o f m u g g i n g , a t t e m p t a n a n a l y s i s w h i c h w o r k s on b o t h s i d e s o f t h e s t r u c t u r e -a c t i o n e q u a t i o n ( t h o u g h n o t w i t h o u t c r e a t i n g c e r t a i n t e n s i o n s i n t h e i r a r g u m e n t - s e e M c M u l l a n a n d R a t n e r , 1 9 8 2 ) . W h i l e none o f t h e s e a t t e m p t s o f r e c o n c i l i n g s t r u c t u r a l a n d v e r s t e h e n p e r s p e c t i v e s has s o l v e d t h e many t h e o r e t i c a l p r o b l e m s i n v o l v e d , I w o u l d h i g h l i g h t t h e a t t e m p t t o do so as t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t c o n c e r n o f c o n t e m p o r a r y s o c i a l s c i e n c e . ( F o r a n o t h e r c o m m e n t a r y a n d a t t e m p t a t t h i s s y n t h e s i s s e e G i d d e n s , 1 9 7 9 ) . 7 2 . I n a c k n o w l e d g i n g t h e n e c e s s i t y t o a d d r e s s t h i s i s s u e , t h e p r a c t i c e a n d d i r e c t i o n o f t h e g e o g r a p h y o f c r i m e a p p e a r s t o be i n n e e d o f c o n s i d e r a b l e r e v i s i o n . T o d a t e g e o g r a p h e r s h a v e s i m p l y n o t c o n s i d e r e d t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s o f a l t e r n a t i v e e p i s t e m o l o g i e s w h i c h a r o s e i n c r i m i n o l o g y t o c h a l l e n g e t h e w i s d o m a n d p l a u s i b i l i t y o f t r a d i t i o n a l t h e o r y . W i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f H e r b e r t ( 1 9 7 6 ) , L e y ( 1 9 7 5 ) a n d L e y a n d C y b r i w s k y , 1 9 7 4 ) , t h e g e o g r a p h y o f c r i m e i s r o o t e d i n a p h i l o s o p h i c a l p o s i t i o n w h i c h s e e k s t o a s c e r t a i n t h e " o b j e c t i v e " c a u s e s o f c r i m e , o r , f a i l i n g t h i s , a t l e a s t t o i s o l a t e v a r i a b l e s by w h i c h c r i m e may be p r e d i c t e d . V e r s t e h e n a n d r a d i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e s v a s t l y e x t e n d t h e c r i m i n o l o g i s t ' s t h e o r e t i c a l c o n c e r n s , h o w e v e r , a n d i n so d o i n g r a i s e a number o f c o m p l e x i s s u e s . T h e s e do n o t s i m p l y c o n c e r n t h e p r o f e s s i o n a l s o c i o l o g i s t o r c r i m i n o l o g i s t , b u t m u s t b e c o m e , a n d a r e b e c o m i n g , t h e d i r e c t p r o v i n c e o f s o c i a l g e o g r a p h y a l s o . B u t t h e y r e m a i n l a r g e l y i g n o r e d i n t h e g e o g r a p h y o f c r i m e . A l t h o u g h t h e e x a c t t h e o r e t i c a l r e s o l u t i o n o f t h e s t r u c t u r e - a c t i o n i s s u e r e m a i n s a m y s t e r y ( t o t h i s a u t h o r a t l e a s t ) , t h e e l e m e n t s o f a " f u l l y s o c i a l " t h e o r y o f c r i m e a n d d e v i a n c e h a v e b e e n l a i d down by T a y l o r , W a l t o n a n d Y o u n g ( 1 9 7 3 ) . W h i l e , T a y l o r , W a l t o n a n d Y o u n g h a v e n o t a c t u a l l y o p e r a t i o n a l i z e d t h i s m o d e l , i t does s u g g e s t t h e l e v e l s o f a n a l y s i s a g e o g r a p h i c s t u d y o f c r i m e s h o u l d i n c o r p o r a t e . W h i l e t h e m o d e l d o e s n o t a c t u a l l y s t i p u l a t e t h e t h e o r e t i c a l i n t e r a c t i o n s o f t h e v a r i o u s e l e m e n t s , i t does o u t l i n e t h e 7 3 . n e c e s s a r y s c o p e a n d f o r m a l r e q u i r e m e n t s o f a f u l l y s o c i a l t h e o r y o f d e v i a n c e ( T a y l o r , W a l t o n a n d Y o u n g , 1 9 7 3 , p p . 2 7 0 -278 ) . 1) T h e W i d e r O r i g i n s o f t h e c r i m i n a l a c t : T h i s r e f e r s t o t h e s t r u c t u r a l o r i g i n s o f t h e c r i m i n a l a c t i n v o l v i n g t h e r e c o g n i t i o n o f t h e " i n t e r m e d i a t e " s t r u c t u r a l q u e s t i o n s t h a t a r e t r a d i t i o n a l l y t h e d o m a i n o f s o c i o l o g i c a l c r i m i n o l o g y : e c o l o g i c a l a r e a s , s u b c u l t u r a l l o c a t i o n e t c . B u t i t w o u l d a l s o go b e y o n d t h e s e i n t e r m e d i a t e q u e s t i o n s t o d e a l w i t h t h e s o c i a l c o n t e x t o f i n e q u a l i t i e s i n p o w e r , w e a l t h , s t a t u s a n d a u t h o r i t y - a p o l i t i c a l e conomy o f c r i m e . F r o m a g e o g r a p h i c p e r s p e c t i v e t h i s w o u l d become a p o l i t i c a l economy o f t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f c r i m e . I n t h e g e o g r a p h y o f c r i m e , P e e t ' s p o s i t i o n ( 1 9 7 5 , 1 9 7 6 ) i s d e v e l o p e d a t t h i s l e v e l o f a n a l y s i s . 2) I m m e d i a t e o r i g i n s o f t h e c r i m i n a l a c t : T h i s c a l l s f o r a s o c i a l p s y c h o l o g y o f c r i m e e x p l a i n i n g t h e d i f f e r e n t w a y s i n w h i c h " s t r u c t u r a l demands a r e i n t e r p r e t e d , r e a c t e d a g a i n s t , o r u s e d by man a t d i f f e r e n t l e v e l s i n t h e s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e , i n s u c h a way t h a t an e s s e n t i a l l y d e v i a n t c h o i c e i s m a d e . " ( T a y l o r , W a l t o n a n d Y o u n g , 1973 p . 2 7 1 ) F r o m a g e o g r a p h i c p e r s p e c t i v e t h i s i n t e r e s t w o u l d t r a n s l a t e i n t o an i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f a r e a l d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n o f s o c i a l g r o u p s as a r e f l e c t i o n o f s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e , a n d as a c o n t e x t f o r a c t i o n . I n t h e g e o g r a p h i c a l l i t e r a t u r e H e r b e r t a n d E v a n s ( 1 9 7 3 ) s t u d y o f d e l i n q u e n c y i n C a r d i f f does b e g i n t o a d d r e s s a s p e c t s o f a r e a l d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n o f a t t i t u d e s and 7 4 . v a l u e s as c o n t e x t s f o r a c t i o n ( s e e a l s o H e r b e r t , 1 9 7 6 , 1 9 7 7 A , 1 9 7 7 B ) . S u b c u l t u r a l a n a l y s e s i n g e n e r a l a t t e m p t t o i s o l a t e t h e i m m e d i a t e o r i g i n s o f t h e c r i m i n a l a c t . 3) T h e A c t u a l A c t : T h e f o r m a l r e q u i r e m e n t a t t h i s l e v e l " i s f o r an e x p l a n a t i o n o f t h e w a y s i n w h i c h t h e a c t u a l a c t s o f men a r e e x p l i c a b l e i n t e r m s o f t h e r a t i o n a l i t y o f c h o i c e o r t h e c o n s t r a i n t s on c h o i c e a t t h e p o i n t o f p r e c i p i t a t i o n i n t o a c t i o n " ( T a y l o r , W a l t o n a n d Y o u n g , 1 9 7 3 , p . 2 7 2 ) . T h e demand h e r e i s f o r an a c c o u n t o f t h e s o c i a l d y n a m i c s s u r r o u n d i n g t h e a c t u a l a c t , a t t e m p t i n g t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n i n d i v i d u a l c h o i c e and a c t i o n s . S e t a g a i n s t t h e b a c k g r o u n d o f 1) a n d 2) i s t h e c r i m i n a l a c t p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g ? i n t r u m e n t a l ? e x p r e s s i v e ? i n d i v i d u a l o r c o l l e c t i v e ? ( p . 1 6 5 ) . One g e o g r a p h i c i m p l i c a t i o n o f t h i s r e q u i r e m e n t w i l l be e l u c i d a t e d i n t h e d i s c u s s i o n o f d i s p l a c e m e n t phenomena i n c h a p t e r s 6 t h r o u g h 9 . B e h a v i o u r a l a p p r o a c h e s t o t h e g e o g r a p h y o f c r i m e a r e c o n s t i t u t e d a t t h i s l e v e l o f a n a l y s i s ( e . g . C a r t e r a n d H i l l , 1 9 7 9 ; and t h e s t u d i e s r e v i e w e d by P h i l l i p s , 1 9 8 0 ; a n d M c l v e r , 1 9 8 1 ) . 4) T h e I m m e d i a t e O r i g i n s o f S o c i a l R e a c t i o n : T h e f o r m a l demand h e r e i s f o r a s o c i a l p s y c h o l o g y o f t h e s o c i a l r e a c t i o n t o c r i m e . T h e s u b s e q u e n t d e f i n i t i o n o f an a c t as c r i m i n a l i s t h e p r o d u c t o f c l o s e p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s . T h e i m p o r t a n t p o i n t i s t h a t a d e g r e e o f c h o i c e i s e x e r c i s e d by t h o s e r e p o r t i n g a n d d e f i n i n g c r i m e s , w h e t h e r i t be t h e p o l i c e , t h e g e n e r a l p u b l i c , b u s i n e s s v i c t i m s , o r o t h e r 7 5 . i n s t i t u t i o n a l a g e n t s s u c h as s c h o o l t e a c h e r s e t c . T h e s o c i a l p s y c h o l o g y o f s o c i a l r e a c t i o n w o u l d t a k e " a c c o u n t o f t h e c o n t i n g e n c i e s a n d t h e c o n d i t i o n s w h i c h a r e c r i t i c a l t o t h e d e c i s i o n t o a c t a g a i n s t t h e d e v i a n t " ( T a y l o r , W a l t o n a n d Y o u n g , 1 9 7 3 , 2 7 2 - 7 3 ) . F r o m a g e o g r a p h i c p o i n t o f v i e w t h e v i t a l q u e s t i o n h e r e becomes w h e t h e r t h e s e c o n t i n g e n c i e s a n d c o n d i t i o n s a r e s p a t i a l l y d i f f e r e n t i a t e d - i f t h e y a r e , t h e m e a n i n g o f a c r i m e r a t e map becomes c r u c i a l l y p r o b l e m a t i c . T h i s q u e s t i o n i s e x p l o r e d i n c h a p t e r 5 . V e r y l i t t l e a t t e n t i o n has b e e n g i v e n t o t h i s e l e m e n t o f a n a l y s i s i n t h e g e o g r a p h y o f c r i m e ( a n e x c e p t i o n i s t h e p a p e r by S h u m s k y a n d S p r i n g e r , 1 9 8 1 . S y m a n s k i ' s ( 1 9 8 1 ) b o o k , a l s o on p r o s t i t u t i o n , s i m i l a r l y e x a m i n e s t h e s o c i a l p s y c h o l o g y o f s o c i a l r e a c t i o n ) . 5) T h e W i d e r O r i g i n s o f t h e S o c i a l R e a c t i o n : d e l v e s i n t o t h e s t r u c t u r e o f s o c i a l c o n t r o l . I t i s e s s e n t i a l l y a " p o l i t i c a l e c o n o m y " o f s o c i a l r e a c t i o n e x a m i n i n g t h e p o l i t i c a l a n d e c o n o m i c i m p e r a t i v e s u n d e r l y i n g t h e a c t u a l c o n f i g u r a t i o n o f l a w a n d i t s d i f f e r e n t i a l e n f o r c e m e n t . F r o m a g e o g r a p h i c v i e w p o i n t t h i s e l e m e n t w o u l d t r a n s l a t e i n t o a s t u d y o f t h e g e o g r a p h i c s t r u c t u r e o f s o c i a l c o n t r o l i n a number o f d i m e n s i o n s . H a v i n g c o n s i d e r e d t h e e f f e c t s o f d i f f e r e n t i a l l a w e n f o r c e m e n t o r p e r s o n n e l d e p l o y m e n t on c e r t a i n k i n d s o f a c t i v i t i e s , t h e a n a l y s i s w o u l d a l s o t a k e i n t o a c c o u n t r e a s o n s f o r t h e s e d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e f i r s t p l a c e . A g a i n v e r y l i t t l e a t t e n t i o n has b e e n g i v e n t o t h i s l e v e l o f a n a l y s i s i n t h e g e o g r a p h y o f c r i m e . H a r r i e s ( 1 9 7 4 ) , H a r r i e s a n d B r u n n ( 1 9 8 0 ) 76 . a n d D a v i d s o n ( 1 9 8 1 ) do d e a l w i t h s p a t i a l v a r i a t i o n s i n t h e j u s t i c e s y s t e m , b u t t h e i r a n a l y s e s r e m a i n a t a d e s c r i p t i v e l e v e l , a n d t h e y do n o t 1 i n k t h i s l e v e l o f a n a l y s i s w i t h t h e o t h e r e l e m e n t s . O t h e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n s m i g h t a l s o be i n c l u d e d h e r e , p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e way p l a c e i t s e l f becomes an i n t e g r a l p a r t o f l e g a l d e f i n i t i o n s ( s e e , f o r e x a m p l e , K r e s s , 1 9 8 0 ) , a n d t h e p r o c e s s t h r o u g h w h i c h c e r t a i n n e i g h b o u r h o o d s become d e f i n e d as " p r o b l e m " c r i m e a r e a s ( a p r o b l e m t o be e n c o u n t e r e d a t t h e 6 t h l e v e l o f a n a l y s i s a l s o ) . 6 ) T h e O u t c o m e o f t h e S o c i a l R e a c t i o n on t h e D e v i a n t ' s f u r t h e r a c t i o n D e s p i t e T a y l o r , W a l t o n a n d Y o u n g ' s r e s e r v a t i o n s a b o u t l a b e l l i n g t h e o r y " i n i t s d i s t i n c t i o n o f p r i m a r y a n d s e c o n d a r y d e v i a t i o n ( b e c a u s e i t s e e s t h e c r i m i n a l ' s c o n s c i o u s n e s s a n d p r o b l e m s o n e - s i d e d l y as a r e s p o n s e t o a p p r e h e n s i o n and l a b e l l i n g ) , t h e y n e v e r t h e l e s s a c k n o w l e d g e t h e n e e d t o i n c o r p o r a t e i n t o a g e n e r a l t h e o r y t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s o f t h e o f f i c i a l r e a c t i o n t o c r i m e . I n g e o g r a p h i c t e r m s t h i s m i g h t t r a n s l a t e i n t o an i n q u i r y i n t o t h e p a r t p l a y e d by s o c i a l r e a c t i o n ( c r i m i n a l l a b e l l i n g o r , as we s h a l l s e e i n C h a p t e r 6 , i n f o r m a l p o l i c e a c t i v i t i e s i n m a i n t a i n i n g p u b l i c o r d e r ) i n t h e f o r m a t i o n o f a r e a b a s e d s u b c u l t u r e s . What B r a n t i n g h a m a n d B r a n t i n g h a m t e r m t h e p r o c e s s o f " e c o l o g i c a l l a b e l l i n g " ( 1 9 8 1 A ) w o u l d be s i m i l a r l y i m p o r t a n t i n t h i s r e s p e c t ; e c o l o g i c a l l a b e l l i n g c o n c e r n s t h e p r o c e s s t h r o u g h w h i c h c e r t a i n a r e a s d e v e l o p 77. r e p u t a t i o n s as l o c i o f c r i m i n a l r e s i d e n c e o r c r i m e c o m m i s s i o n . I n t h e g e o g r a p h i c l i t e r a t u r e , S p r i n g e r ' s ( 1 9 7 4 ) r e s e a r c h i n S e a t t l e , w h i c h , a m o n g s t o t h e r t h i n g s , m e a s u r e s p e r c e i v e d c r i m e d a n g e r , b e g i n s t o a d d r e s s t h i s q u e s t i o n . T h e s e s u g g e s t i o n s s h o u l d n o t be t a k e n as c o m p l e t e b u t as s u b s t a n t i a l l y s u p p l e m e n t i n g t h e g e o g r a p h y o f c r i m e . I n o r d e r t o do t h i s , h o w e v e r , i t does a p p e a r t h a t t h e g e o g r a p h y o f c r i m e r e q u i r e s an a l t e r n a t i v e p h i l o s o p h i c a l b a s i s ; t h e r e a s o n t h a t many o f t h e s e e l e m e n t s o f a n a l y s i s h a v e n o t b e e n f o l l o w e d l i e s i n t h e p h i l o s o p h y o f s o c i a l s c i e n c e u n d e r p i n n i n g t h e g e o g r a p h y o f c r i m e . W h i l e t h i s p h i l o s o p h y has n e v e r b e e n f o r m a l l y a r t i c u l a t e d i n t h e g e o g r a p h i c l i t e r a t u r e on c r i m e , i t seems t o h a v e f i r m l y m o u l d e d t h e c h a r a c t e r o f t h e r e s e a r c h . G e o g r a p h e r s h a v e c o n s i s t e n t l y f o c u s e d on t h e i m m e d i a t e o r i g i n s o f t h e c r i m i n a l a c t ( e l e m e n t 2 ) , o r on t h e s p a t i a l c o n t e x t o f t h e a c t u a l a c t ( e l e m e n t 3 ) . Some f o r a y s h a v e b e e n made i n t o a n a l y s i s o f s o c i a l r e a c t i o n , b u t i n so d o i n g g e o g r a p h e r s h a v e g e n e r a l l y f a i l e d t o p r o b e t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n s o c i a l r e a c t i o n a n d c r i m i n a l i t y . I n f a c t t h e y h a v e g e n e r a l l y f a i l e d t o t a k e i n t o a c c o u n t t h e i n t e r p e n e t r a t i n g n a t u r e o f t h e s e v a r i o u s e l e m e n t s o f a n a l y s i s . T h e q u e s t i o n now b e c o m e s , why? 78 . N o t e s t o C h a p t e r 3 1. F o r g e n e r a l c r i t i q u e s o f t h e s o c i o l o g y o f d e v i a n c e , a n d t h e l a b e l l i n g p e r s p e c t i v e i n p a r t i c u l a r , s e e : B o r d u a ( 1 9 6 7 B ) ; A k e r s ( 1 9 6 8 ) ; G o u l d n e r ( 1 9 6 8 ) ; S t o l l ( 1 9 6 8 ) ; G i b b s ( 1 9 6 9 ) ; S c h u r ( 1 9 6 9 ) ; H a b e r a n d S m i t h ( 1 9 7 1 ) ; M a n k o f f ( 1 9 7 1 ) ; D a v i s ( 1 9 7 2 ) ; L i a z o s ( 1 9 7 2 ) ; W a r r e n a n d J o h n s o n ( 1 9 7 3 ) ; H a g a n ( 1 9 7 4 ) ; N e t t l e r ( 1 9 7 4 , p p . 2 0 2 - 2 1 2 ) ; W e l l f o r d ( 1 9 7 5 ) ; a n d f o r a g e n e r a l e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e p e r s p e c t i v e , G o v e ( 1 9 7 5 ) . 2 . O n c e a g a i n t h i s g e n e r a l i z a t i o n c a n p o r t r a y a m i s l e a d i n g i m p r e s s i o n o f t h e l i t e r a t u r e . M o s t o f t h e c r i t i c i s m s r e v i e w e d h e r e a r e d r a w n f r o m t h e l i t e r a t u r e o f t h e e a r l y a n d m i d - 1 9 7 0 ' s . M o r e r e c e n t i n t e r a c t i o n i s t w o r k ( e . g . E r i c s o n , 1 9 8 1 , 1 9 8 2 ) does a t t e m p t t o be much m o r e c o g n i z a n t o f s t r u c t u r a l f o r c e s , a n d how t h e y s h a p e t h e a c t i v i t i e s o f b o t h c o n t r o l l e r s and c o n t r o l l e d . R o c k , who e n t e r s t h e c r i t i c i s m o f t h e s o c i o l o g y o f d e v i a n c e q u o t e d h e r e , i s , i n f a c t , one o f t h e m a j o r f i g u r e s i n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e i n t e r a c t i o n i s t p o s i t i o n i n B r i t i s h c r i m i n o l o g y . 3 . T h i s c r i t i c i s m r e q u i r e s some q u a l i f i c a t i o n - i n p e n e t r a t i n g a n d e x p o s i n g t h e t a k e n - f o r - g r a n t e d w o r l d r e s e a r c h e r s a r e r e v e a l i n g n o r m a t i v e s t r u c t u r e s . B u t i n t h a t t h e y a r e t a k e n - f o r - g r a n t e d t h e y may n o t h a v e b e e n r e a l i z e d by t h e p e o p l e who f o l l o w t h e m ; t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t f e a t u r e o f i d e o l o g i c a l s y s t e m s i s t h a t t h e y a r e t a k e n - f o r - g r a n t e d by t h e i r c a r r i e r s , a n d s o m e t i m e s e v e n by t h e i r d e s i g n e r s . I d e o l o g y i t s e l f may be an u n i n t e n d e d c o n s e q u e n c e . 4 . T h e r e i s an i n t e r e s t i n g p a r a l l e l i n t h e g e o g r a p h i c l i t e r a t u r e - s e e L e y ' s ( 1 9 8 2 ) r e s p o n s e t o G r e g o r y ' s ( 1 9 8 1 ) m i s g i v i n g s a b o u t h u m a n i s t i c e p i s t e m o l o g i e s i n s o c i a l g e o g r a p h y . L e y s u g g e s t s t h a t s t r u c t u r a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s a r e n o t i n i m i c a l t o a h u m a n i s t i c e p i s t e m o l o g y ( a l s o i n t h i s r e g a r d s e e my f o o t n o t e 8 , C h . 2 ) . P l u m m e r ' s ( 1 9 7 9 ) d e f e n s e o f l a b e l l i n g p e r s p e c t i v e s a g a i n s t t h e r a d i c a l c r i t i q u e , a n d G r e e n b e r g ' s ( 1 9 7 6 ) r e s e r v a t i o n s w i t h r e g a r d t o W e r k e n t i n e t a l ' s c r i t i q u e o f t h e s o c i o l o g y o f d e v i a n c e s i m i l a r l y s u g g e s t t h a t c o n s i d e r a t i o n s o f s t r u c t u r e a r e n o t i n i m i c a l t o a c t i o n p e r s p e c t i v e s . 5 . A t h e o r y o f r e i f i c a t i o n may h e l p t o r e s o l v e t h e s t r u c t u r e / a c t i o n i s s u e . S u c h a t h e o r y w o u l d a t t e m p t t o e x p l a i n t h e p r o c e s s t h r o u g h w h i c h s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e s a n d i d e o l o g y t a k e on " r e a l i t y " a n d i n f l u e n c e a c t i o n as t h e y become an i m p o r t a n t c o m p o n e n t o f t h e t a k e n - f o r - g r a n t e d wo r 1 d . 6 . M u c h o f t h e c r i t i c i s m o f t h e " c o n s e n s u s " b a s i s o f t r a d i t i o n a l c r i m i n o l o g y has t e n d e d t o h e r a l d a c o n f l i c t p o s i t i o n as a new d e v e l o p m e n t . L y n n M c D o n a l d ' s w o r k on t h e S o c i o l o g y o f L a w a n d O r d e r ( 1 9 7 6 ) i s an i m p o r t a n t c o r r e c t i v e o u t l i n i n g t h e l o n g h i s t o r y o f c o n f l i c t 79 . p e r s p e c t i v e s i n c r i m i n o l o g y , s o c i o l o g y a n d p o l i t i c a l s c i e n c e . T h e g e n e r i c c o n f l i c t p e r s p e c t i v e i s n o t new - i t was r e d i s c o v e r e d i n t h e 1 9 6 0 ' s a f t e r a l o n g p e r i o d d u r i n g w h i c h c o n s e n s u s t h e o r i e s p r e d o m i n a t e d . M c D o n a l d a l s o n o t e s a p a p e r by D a h r e n d o r f ( 1 9 6 8 ) , t h a t seems t o h a v e gone a l m o s t u n n o t i c e d i n t h e c r i m i n o l o g i c a l l i t e r a t u r e , f i t t i n g v e r y m u c h i n t o t h e m o u l d o f w h a t I h a v e t e r m e d t h e p o w e r - c o n f l i c t p e r s p e c t i v e . D a h r e n d o r f s p a p e r , f i r s t a p p e a r i n g i n E n g l i s h i n 1 9 6 1 , d e v e l o p e d a c o n f l i c t p e r s p e c t i v e r e v o l v i n g a r o u n d t h e s o c i a l i n e q u a l i t y u n d e r l i n i n g t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f power t o s a n c t i o n b e h a v i o u r . He a l s o e x p l i c i t y r e j e c t s c e n t r a l e l e m e n t s o f M a r x i a n t h e o r y ( M c D o n a l d , 1 9 7 6 , p p . 1 2 1 - 1 2 2 ) . T h e M a r x i a n l i t e r a t u r e f r o m N o r t h A m e r i c a i n c l u d e s : G o r d o n ( 1 9 7 1 , 1 9 7 3 ) ; Q u i n n e y ( 1 9 7 2 , 1 9 7 4 , 1 9 7 7 ) ; G r e e n b e r g a n d S t e n d e r ( 1 9 7 2 ) ; B a l b u s ( 1 9 7 3 ) ; P e a r c e ( 1 9 7 3 , 1 9 7 6 ) ; P i a t t ( 1 9 7 4 ) ; C e n t r e f o r R e s e a r c h on C r i m i n a l J u s t i c e ( 1 9 7 5 ) ; K r i s b e r g ( 1 9 7 5 ) ; S p i t z e r ( 1 9 7 5 ) ; T h e C r i m e a n d S o c i a l J u s t i c e C o l l e c t i v e ( 1 9 7 6 ) ; M i c h a l o w s k i a n d B o h l a n d e r ( 1 9 7 6 ) ; R e i m a n ( 1 9 7 9 ) ; a n d G r e e n b e r g ( 1 9 8 1 ) . C o n t r i b u t i o n s f r o m B r i t a i n i n c l u d e : T a y l o r , W a l t o n a n d Y o u n g ( 1 9 7 3 , 1 9 7 5 ) ; H e y ( 1 9 7 5 ) ; Sumner ( 1 9 7 6 ) ; H e p b u r n ( 1 9 7 7 ) ; T h o m p s o n ( 1 9 7 7 ) ; H a l l e t a l ( 1 9 7 8 ) ; M i l e s and I r v i n ( 1 9 7 9 ) ; N a t i o n a l D e v i a n c y C o n f e r e n c e / C o n f e r e n c e o f S o c i a l i s t E c o n o m i s t s ( 1 9 7 9 ) ; C a r l e n a n d C o l l i s o n ( 1 9 8 0 ) ; a n d T a y l o r ( 1 9 8 1 ) . O t h e r M a r x i a n c r i m i n o l o g i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e s i n c l u d e : W e r k e n t i n , H o f f e r b e r t and B a u r m a n n ( 1 9 7 4 ) ; S c h u m a n n ( 1 9 7 6 ) ; a n d B e i r n e ( 1 9 7 9 , 1 9 8 0 ) . A n o t e on t h e c u l t u r a l - c o n f l i c t p e r s p e c t i v e o f t h e C h i c a g o S c h o o l s h o u l d a l s o h e l p t o a v o i d c o n f u s i o n h e r e . T h e e c o l o g i c a l m o d e l o f s o c i a l g r o u p s and u r b a n f o r m does embody a t y p e o f c o n f l i c t p e r s p e c t i v e , i n t h i s c a s e c o n f l i c t o f d i f f e r e n t c u l t u r a l r e g i m e s t h r o w n t o g e t h e r i n t h e N o r t h A m e r i c a n m e l t i n g p o t . B u t t h e t h e o r y i s a t h e a r t a c o n s e n s u s v i e w : t h e c u l t u r e s t h a t c o l l i d e a r e m o n o l i t h i c f o r m a t i o n s , s o c i a l d i s o r g a n i z a t i o n c h a r a c t e r i z i n g p e r i o d s when c u l t u r e s e c o l o g i c a l l y c o i n c i d e , b u t d i s a p p e a r i n g o n c e c u l t u r a l c o n s e n s u s i s r e - e s t a b l i s h e d ( h e n c e t h e d e l i b e r a t e u s e o f t h e m e l t i n g p o t m e t a p h o r i n my d e s c r i p t i o n ) . I n t h i s m o d e l , c o n f l i c t i s an a b e r r a t i o n , n o t a s y s t e m a t i c a s p e c t o f s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s w i t h i n a p a r t i c u l a r c u l t u r e . I i n t r o d u c e t h i s d i s t i n c t i o n n o t so much t o d e s c r i b e t h e l i t e r a t u r e as t o l o c a t e my own p o s i t i o n i n t h e o n e s d e s c r i b e d . T h i s p o s i t i o n e s c h e w s n e i t h e r s t r u c t u r e n o r a c t i o n p e r s p e c t i v e s a l t h o u g h t h e i r s y n t h e s i s i s s t i l l p r o b i e m a t i c . 8 0 . 10. The issues surrounding the debate have been keenly contested; as w e l l as the two T a y l o r , Walton and Young volumes see B e y l e v e l d e t c . (1973), and Downes and Rock (1979). For a wider c o n s t i t u e n c y i n the debate see P i a t t e t c . (1973). 11. For d i s c u s s i o n of t h i s point i n the geographic l i t e r a t u r e see O l s s o n (1974, 1975) and Gregory (1978); and i n s o c i o l o g y McHugh (1971), andGiddens (1976). 12. Although i t should be noted that both Quinney and Chambliss subsequently moved to a M a r x i s t p o s i t i o n (Quinney, 1972, 1974, 1979; Chambliss, 1975). 13. Most of the c r i t i c i s m of r a d i c a l c r i m i n o l o g y has been v a r i o u s l y d i r e c t e d towards i t s p a r t i s a n p o l i t i c s and i t s s t r u c t u r a l f u n c t i o n a l i s t t h e o r e t i c a l tendencies. See, f o r example: Sykes (1974); C h i r i c o s and Waldo (1975); Turk (1975, 1979); Meier (1976); Hagan and Leon (1977); Akers (1979); Downes (1979); K l o c k a r s (1979); Schichor (1979); Toby (1979) and S t e i n (1980). The a r t i c l e s by Akers (1979), K l o c k a r s (1979, Turk (1979), and Toby (1979) are r e p u b l i s h e d , along with a number of other c r i t i q u e s and r e b u t t a l s of these c r i t i q u e s , i n I n c i a r d i (1980). The volume by Downes and Rock (1979) contains s i x a r t i c l e s o f f e r i n g a v a r i e t y of c r i t i c i s m s of the r a d i c a l per spect i ve. 14. In defending a c t i o n p e r s p e c t i v e s a number of authors f a l l i n g g e n e r a l l y w i t h i n the s o c i o l o g y of deviance p e r s p e c t i v e have simply r e a s s e r t e d the p i t f a l l s of s t r u c t u r a l p e r s p e c t i v e s . For examples see C o u l t e r (1974); Plummer (1979); and Rock (1979). 15. Counterparts of Thompson's humanistic and h i s t o r i c a l approach which d i s c u s s crime and c r i m i n a l i z a t i o n are provided by Hobsbawm (1971, 1972); Hay (1975); and from an e x p l i c i t l y c r i m i n o l o g i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e Pearson (1978). Thompson's Whigs and Hunters (1977) a l s o e x p l i c i t l y deals with law and c r i m i n a l i z a t i o n . 81. C h a p t e r 4 T h e G e o g r a p h y o f C r i m e : A C r i t i q u e E l e m e n t s o f t h e C r i t i q u e T h e g e o g r a p h y o f c r i m e has b e e n f i r m l y c a s t i n t h e m o u l d o f t r a d i t i o n a l c r i m i n o l o g y i n s e v e r a l i m p o r t a n t r e s p e c t s . T o b e g i n w i t h I o u t l i n e f i v e m a i n p r o p o s i t i o n s e m e r g i n g f r o m t h e i n t e r a c t i o n i s t a n d r a d i c a l c r i t i q u e s o f t r a d i t i o n a l c r i m i n o l o g y w h i c h may be a p p l i e d t o t h e g e o g r a p h y o f c r i m e ( a n d , by e x t e n s i o n , t o much o f t h e w o r k done i n r e l a t e d e c o l o g i c a l a n d s p a t i a l p e r s p e c t i v e s d e v e l o p e d i n t h e s o c i o l o g i c a l a n d c r i m i n o l o g i c a l 1 i t e r a t u r e 1 ) . T h e s u b s e q u e n t c r i t i q u e i s o r g a n i z e d a r o u n d t h e s e f i v e t h e m e s : 1. G e o g r a p h i c r e s e a r c h has m a i n l y f o c u s e d on t h e c r i m i n a l o r t h e c r i m e ; v e r y l i t t l e a t t e n t i o n has b e e n g i v e n t o s o c i a l c o n t r o l o r t h e o p e r a t i o n o f t h e c r i m i n a l j u s t i c e s y s t e m on t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o r c o n f i g u r a t i o n o f c r i m e p a t t e r n s . W h e r e a t t e n t i o n has b e e n f o c u s e d on t h e c r i m i n a l j u s t i c e s y s t e m ( e . g . H a r r i e s , 1 9 7 4 ; H a r r i e s a n d B r u n n , 1 9 8 0 ; D a v i d s o n , 1 9 8 1 ) f o r t h e m o s t p a r t t h e e x a m i n a t i o n o f l a w s , l a w e n f o r c e m e n t and j u s t i c e i s a n a l y t i c a l l y s e p a r a t e d f r o m t h e a n a l y s i s o f c r i m e . 2 R e n g e r t ' s w o r k on " c r i m e s p i l l o v e r " i s u n u s u a l t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t , i n p a r t , i t d e a l s w i t h i n t e r j u r i s d i c t i o n a l d i f f e r e n c e s i n l e v e l s o f p o l i c i n g on c r i m e r a t e s . A l s o t h e g e o g r a p h y o f p r o s t i t u t i o n ( S y m a n s k i , 1 9 7 4 , 1 9 8 1 ; S h u m s k y a n d S p r i n g e r , 1 9 8 1 ) 8 2 . has shown t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e c o n t r o l e n v i r o n m e n t i n s h a p i n g p a t t e r n s o f c r i m e . B u t i t i s s i g n i f i c a n t t h a t S h u m s k y and S p r i n g e r i n r e a l i z i n g t h a t l a w a n d l a w e n f o r c e m e n t a r e t h e m a j o r " c a u s e " o f p r o s t i t u t e l o c a t i o n n o t e t h a t " ( g ) e o g r a p h e r s who s t u d y t h e s e phenomena i m p l i c i t l y seem t o h a v e a c c e p t e d w h a t m i g h t l o o s e l y be c a l l e d t h e c l i n i c a l t h e o r y o f d e v i a n c e . T h e y c o n c e n t r a t e on t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f d e v i a n t s t h e m s e l v e s . . . " a s k i n g " w h a t i s t h e r e a b o u t t h e m t h a t l e a d s t hem t o do f o r b i d d e n t h i n g s ? " r a t h e r t h a n on t h e e f f e c t o f t h e s o c i a l r e a c t i o n t o d e v i a n c e ( p . 8 8 ) . I n t h i s c o n t e x t S h u m s k y a n d S p r i n g e r s u g g e s t t h a t g e o g r a p h e r s h a v e m i s s e d t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f l a b e l l i n g p e r s p e c t i v e s i n e x p l a i n i n g p a t t e r n s o f c r i m e . 2) G e o g r a p h e r s h a v e t e n d e d t o f o l l o w t h e c o n s e n s u s m o d e l o f l a w f o r m a t i o n s u g g e s t e d as u n d e r l y i n g t r a d i t i o n a l c r i m i n o l o g i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e s r a t h e r t h a n t h e p l u r a l i s t , p o w e r -c o n f l i c t o r c l a s s c o n f l i c t m o d e l s o f i n t e r a c t i o n i s t , p o w e r -c o n f l i c t a n d r a d i c a l t h e o r y . M u c h o f t h e g e o g r a p h y o f c r i m e i s an " a b s t r a c t e d e m p i r i c i s m " ( M i l l s , 1 9 5 9 ) , a p p r o a c h i n g t h e p r o b l e m o f e x p l a i n i n g c r i m e and c r i m i n a l r e s i d e n c e p a t t e r n s t h r o u g h t h e u s e o f s t a t i s t i c a l m e a s u r e s a s s o c i a t i n g o f f i c i a l p o l i c e d a t a on c r i m e w i t h o t h e r " o b j e c t i v e " s o c i a l i n d i c a t o r s u s u a l l y d r a w n f r o m o f f i c i a l c e n s u s e s . S u c h a p p r o a c h e s c r e a t e a t h e o r e t i c a l f o r e c l o s u r e by s t a r t i n g w i t h t h e " f a c t " o f c r i m e , an a n a l y t i c s t a r t i n g p o i n t w h i c h o n l y makes s e n s e i f i t p r o c e e d s f r o m a c o n s e n s u s m o d e l o f l a w f o r m a t i o n ( i . e . t h a t c r i m i n a l l a w i s a r e f l e c t i o n o f s o c i a l c o n s e n s u s ) . W h i l e a r e a l a n a l y s e s c o u l d be u s e d f o r t h e o r e t i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t s o f e i t h e r 8 3 . c o n s e n s u s o r c o n f l i c t p e r s p e c t i v e s , g e o g r a p h e r s h a v e g e n e r a l l y i n t e r p r e t e d t h e i r f i n d i n g s i n t e r m s o f t r a d i t i o n a l c r i m i n o l o g i c a l t h e o r i e s w h i c h a r e b u i l t on a c o n s e n s u s m o d e l o f s o c i e t y and l a w . 3) G e o g r a p h e r s h a v e a d o p t e d a c o r r e c t i o n a l i s t p u r p o s e i n t h e i r w o r k t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t much o f t h e r e s e a r c h i s c o u c h e d i n t e r m s o f i t s p o l i c y i m p l i c a t i o n s , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n i t s u t i l i t y f o r h e l p i n g t o do s o m e t h i n g a b o u t t h e " c r i m e p r o b l e m " , a p r o b l e m w h i c h i s g e n e r a l l y p e r c e i v e d as " g e t t i n g w o r s e . " T h i s c o r r e c t i o n a l i s t p o l i t i c a l s o i m p l i e s t h a t t h e g e o g r a p h y o f c r i m e i s b a s e d on a c o n s e n s u s m o d e l o f l a w a n d s o c i e t y t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t t h i s a l l i a n c e w i t h t h e f o r c e s o f l a w a n d o r d e r i s n o t s e e n as p r o b l e m a t i c e v e n t h o u g h i t i s a v a l u e j u d g e m e n t . T h e a l l i a n c e i s b a s e d on t h e commonsense n o t i o n t h a t t h e r e i s a s o c i a l c o n s e n s u s as t o w h a t c r i m e i s a n d t h a t i t i s a s o c i a l p r o b l e m . W i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f t h e w o r k by S y m a n s k i ( 1 9 7 4 , 1 9 8 1 ) , H a r r i e s ( 1 9 7 4 ) , H a r r i e s a n d B r u n n ( 1 9 8 1 ) , D a v i d s o n ( 1 9 8 1 , C h . 5) a n d S h u m s k y a n d S p r i n g e r ( 1 9 8 1 ) t h e m e a n i n g o f l a w i s l a r g e l y t a k e n f o r g r a n t e d by g e o g r a p h e r s i n t e r e s t e d i n c r i m e . 4 ) B e c a u s e o f t h e a n a l y t i c s e p a r a t i o n o f c r i m e a n d j u s t i c e , g e o g r a p h e r s h a v e t e n d e d t o h y p o s t a t i z e c r i m e -d i v o r c e d f r o m i t s s o c i a l c o n t e x t ^ ( p a r t i c u l a r l y i t s l e g a l c o n t e x t ) c r i m e i s t r e a t e d as a d i s t i n c t b e h a v i o u r , t h e c r i m i n a l as a d i s t i n c t t y p e o f p e r s o n . 5) W h i l e i t w o u l d n o t be s t r i c t l y c o r r e c t t o c l a s s i f y t h e g e o g r a p h y o f c r i m e as p o s i t i v i s t i c ( t h e t e r m has s u c h a w i d e 8 4 . u s a g e now t h a t t h i s c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n c o u l d be m i s l e a d i n g o r c o n f u s i n g ) , i t d o e s f o l l o w some i m p o r t a n t p o s i t i v i s t i c i m p e r a t i v e s , a n d i n v e r y g e n e r a l t e r m s f i t s i n t o t h e e r k l a r e n as o p p o s e d t o t h e v e r s t e h e n mode o f s o c i a l i n q u i r y . T h e r e i s a l s o a s t r o n g i n s t r u m e n t a l i s t s t r a i n i n t h e g e o g r a p h y o f c r i m e - i t s a u t h o r s h a v e p r e d o m i n a n t l y r e l i e d on q u a n t i t a t i v e t e c h n i q u e s i n an a p p r o a c h w h i c h m i g h t be b e s t d e s c r i b e d as s t a t i s t i c a l i n s t r u m e n t a l i s m . A w o r d o f c a u t i o n i s n e c e s s a r y b e f o r e p r o c e e d i n g w i t h a m o r e d e t a i l e d d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e v a r i o u s e l e m e n t s o f t h e c r i t i q u e . T h e g e o g r a p h y o f c r i m e i s n e i t h e r a c o h e r e n t n o r a c o n s i s t e n t b o d y o f l i t e r a t u r e , a n d t h e c r i t i s m s t o be made h e r e do n o t n e c e s s a r i l y a p p l y u n i f o r m l y . I h a v e a t t e m p t e d t o be c a r e f u l t o i s o l a t e g e o g r a p h i c p e r s p e c t i v e s on c r i m e w h i c h i m p l i c i t l y o r e x p l i c i t l y a d d r e s s one o r m o r e o f t h e p r o b l e m s I h a v e i d e n t i f i e d h e r e . My p u r p o s e i s n o t t o d i s m i s s t h e g e o g r a p h y o f c r i m e as i t has d e v e l o p e d t o d a t e , b u t t o d i s p l a y some o f i t s i n a d e q u a c i e s . A c o r o l l o r a r y o f t h i s e f f o r t i s t o t a k e some o f t h e m o r e r e c e n t a n d i n n o v a t i v e l i t e r a t u r e a n d show how t h e e m e r g i n g themes c a n be u n i f i e d i n t o a p e r s p e c t i v e w h i c h a c k n o w l e d g e s t h e i n t i m a t e r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e t w e e n c r i m e and s o c i a l c o n t r o l . T h e A n a l y t i c S e p a r a t i o n o f C r i m e a n d J u s t i c e One o f t h e m o s t o b v i o u s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e g e o g r a p h y o f c r i m e , when c o m p a r e d t o r e c e n t d e v e l o p m e n t s i n c r i m i n o l o g y , 85. i s i t s a n a l y t i c s e p a r a t i o n o f c r i m e a n d j u s t i c e ; a n d i t i s t h i s same a n a l y t i c s e p a r a t i o n t h a t D a v i d M a t z a , one o f t h e m o s t i n f l u e n t i a l s p o k e s m e n o f t h e s o c i o l o g y o f d e v i a n c e , i d e n t i f i e s as t h e m a i n h a l l m a r k o f wha t he c h a r a c t e r i z e s as " p o s i t i v e c r i m i n o l o g y " ( 1 9 6 4 , C h . 1 ) : " T h e m o s t c e l e b r a t e d a n d t h u s t h e m o s t e x p l i c i t a s s u m p t i o n o f p o s i t i v e c r i m i n o l o g y i s t h e p r i m a c y o f t h e c r i m i n a l a c t o r r a t h e r t h a n t h e c r i m i n a l l a w as t h e m a j o r p o i n t o f d e p a r t u r e i n t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f e t i o l o g i c a l t h e o r i e s . . . t h e l a w a n d i t s a d m i n i s t r a t i o n i s deemed s e c o n d a r y o r i r r e l e v a n t . " ( M a t z a , 1 9 6 4 , p . 3) W h i l e one m i g h t w i s h t o a r g u e t h a t M a t z a ' s u s e o f t h e t e r m " p o s i t i v e " c r e a t e s s o m e t h i n g o f a s t r a w - m a n , b e c a u s e i t t e n d s t o lump t o g e t h e r t h e o r e t i c a l p o s i t i o n s w h i c h a r e n o t c o n s i s t e n t l y p o s i t i v i s t , t h e a n a l y t i c s e p a r a t i o n o f c r i m e a n d c r i m e c o n t r o l i s common t o much t r a d i t i o n a l c r i m i n o l o g i c a l t h e o r y . S i m i l a r l y , w h i l e much o f t h e g e o g r a p h i c l i t e r a t u r e on c r i m e s i m p l y d e s c r i b e s c r i m e p a t t e r n s w i t h o n l y l i m i t e d r e f e r e n c e t o t h e o r i e s o f c a u s a t i o n d e v e l o p e d i n t r a d i t i o n a l c r i m i n o l o g y a n d s o c i o l o g y , t h e d e s c r i p t i o n s p r o d u c e d r a r e l y i n c l u d e c o n s i d e r a t i o n s o f s o c i a l c o n t r o l p r o c e s s e s . T h e r e a r e some s i g n i f i c a n t e x c e p t i o n s , n o t a b l y H e r b e r t ' s p r o g r a m m a t i c s t a t e m e n t c o n s i d e r e d e a r l i e r , a n d H a r r i e s a n d B r u n n ' s G e o g r a p h y o f L a w s a n d J u s t i c e ( 1 9 7 8 ) w h i c h d i r e c t l y c o n s i d e r s a r e a l d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n o f c e r t a i n e l e m e n t s o f t h e c r i m i n a l j u s t i c e s y s t e m . B u t , as we s h a l l s e e l a t e r , e v e n t h i s w o r k does n o t r e p r e s e n t o r a t t e m p t t o u n d e r s t a n d c r i m e i n t e r m s o f s o c i a l c o n t r o l p r o c e s s e s . G e n e r a l l y , g e o g r a p h e r s h a v e c o n f i n e d t h e m s e l v e s t o a n a l y s e s w h i c h m e a s u r e t h e a s s o c i a t i o n o f 8 6 . i n d i c a t o r s o f c r i m e ( o f f i c i a l s t a t i s t i c s ) a n d i n d i c a t o r s o f t h e l o c a l s o c i a l e n v i r o n m e n t . I n t e r m s o f s o c i a l e n v i r o n m e n t g e o g r a p h e r s h a v e e x a m i n e d i n d i c a t o r s w h i c h a r e t h o u g h t t o be r e l a t e d t o c r i m i n o g e n e s i s , e s p e c i a l l y s o c i a l a n d n e i g h b o u r h o o d f a c t o r s w h i c h m i g h t p r e d i s p o s e c e r t a i n i n d i v i d u a l s t o c r i m e ( e . g . L e e a n d E g a n , 1 9 7 2 ; E g a n , 1 9 7 6 ; P y l e , 1 9 7 4 ; C o r s i a n d H a r v e y , 1 9 7 5 ; H e r b e r t , 1 9 7 7 B ; G e o r g e s , 1 9 7 8 ; M u r r a y a n d B o a l , 1 9 7 9 ) . H e r b e r t a n d E v a n s ( 1 9 7 3 ) , H e r b e r t ( 1 9 7 6 ) , and E v a n s ( 1 9 7 7 ) h a v e u s e d a r e a a s s o c i a t i o n a l a n a l y s e s as t h e b a s e f o r m o r e i n t e n s i v e s o c i a l s u r v e y r e s e a r c h , b u t a g a i n t h e y do n o t c o n s i d e r t h e p o s s i b l e e f f e c t s o f s o c i a l c o n t r o l p r o c e s s e s i n a r e a d i f f e r e n c e s i n c r i m e o r d e l i n q u e n c y r a t e s i n t h e s e s t u d i e s . B u t e l s e w h e r e b o t h D a v i d s o n ( 1 9 8 1 ) a n d H e r b e r t ( 1 9 8 2 ) do i n c l u d e r e v i e w s o f t h e w o r k b y Darner ( 1 9 7 4 ) , B a l d w i n , B o t t o m s and W a l k e r ( 1 9 7 6 ) a n d G i l l ( 1 9 7 8 ) on t h e e f f e c t o f b o t h p o l i c i n g a n d h o u s i n g a u t h o r i t y p o l i c y i n t h e g e n e s i s o f p r o b l e m c r i m e a r e a s , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t e r m s o f t h e i r l a b e l l i n g as s u c h by o u t s i d e r s , e s p e c i a l l y by " u r b a n g a t e k e e p e r s " 4 and t h e news m e d i a . T a k i n g an e n t i r e l y d i f f e r e n t a p p r o a c h , K r e s s ( 1 9 8 0 ) 5 shows how l a w i t s e l f i s a n i m p o r t a n t e n v i r o n m e n t a l a t t r i b u t e ; l a w i m p o r t a n t l y c o n d i t i o n s human a c t i v i t y c l a s s i f y i n g s p a c e i n s u c h a way t h a t some a c t i v i t i e s a r e c r i m i n a l o n l y i f t h e y o c c u r i n c e r t a i n p l a c e s . T h e s e same d i s t i n c t i o n s a l s o i n f l u e n c e l a w e n f o r c e m e n t a c t i v i t y s o t h a t c r i m i n a l b e h a v i o u r c a r r i e d o u t i n p r i v a t e i s much m o r e l i k e l y t o go u n n o t i c e d t h a n t h e same a c t i v i t y i n a p u b l i c s p a c e . A l s o C a r t e r and H i l l ( 1 9 7 9 ) c o n s i d e r t h e 8 7 . c r i m i n a l ' s p e r c e p t i o n o f l a w e n f o r c e m e n t a c t i v i t i e s i n t h e i r c h o i c e o f t a r g e t s . B u t w h i l e t h e r e a r e a f ew s t u d i e s l i n k i n g c r i m e w i t h v a r i o u s s o c i a l a l l o c a t i o n p r o c e s s e s and l a w e n f o r c e m e n t p r a c t i c e s , g e o g r a p h e r s h a v e n o t g i v e n s u f f i c i e n t c o n s i d e r a t i o n t o t h e t h e o r e t i c a l i m p l i c a t i o n s o f t h e s e f i n d i n g s , p a r t i c u l a r l y as t h e y p e r t a i n t o t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f c r i m e s t a t i s t i c s . B y a n d l a r g e l a w e n f o r c e m e n t a n d t h e g e n e r a l s t r u c t u r e o f s o c i a l c o n t r o l i s n o t c o n s i d e r e d as i m p o r t a n t l y c o n d i t i o n i n g a n d s h a p i n g human b e h a v i o u r ( w h e t h e r i t ends up b e i n g c a l l e d c r i m i n a l o r n o t ) . T h e e m p h a s i s o f t h e g e o g r a p h y o f c r i m e has b e e n on c r i m e ^r_ j u s t i c e as o p p o s e d t o c r i m e a n d j u s t i c e , a n d v e r y l i t t l e c o n s i d e r a t i o n ha s b e e n g i v e n t o t h e o p e r a t i o n o f t h e c r i m i n a l j u s t i c e s y s t e m p r i o r t o t h e j u d i c i a l s t a g e , a p a r t f r o m a r e a v a r i a t i o n s i n l a w i t s e l f . F o r t h e m o s t p a r t t h e g e o g r a p h y o f j u s t i c e ha s b e e n r e s t r i c t e d t o t h e o u t c o m e s o f t h e j u d i c i a l r e s p o n s e t o , a n d h a n d l i n g o f c r i m i n a l s . T h e t i t l e o f H a r r i e s f i r s t b o o k T h e G e o g r a p h y o f C r i m e a n d J u s t i ce ( 1 9 7 4 ) i s d e c e p t i v e i n t h i s s e n s e ; he f i r s t l y e x a m i n e s v a r i a t i o n s i n t h e i n c i d e n c e o f ( o f f i c i a l l y r e c o r d e d ) c r i m e , a n d s e c o n d l y v a r i a t i o n s i n t h e j u d i c i a l r e s p o n s e t o c r i m e . T h e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f t h e two i s n o t a d e q u a t e l y c o n s i d e r e d , e s p e c i a l l y t h e n o t i o n t h a t c r i m e , o r a t a n y r a t e p a t t e r n s o f c r i m e , may be i n p a r t a r e s p o n s e t o t h e o p e r a t i o n o f t h e c r i m i n a l j u s t i c e s y s t e m . T h i s a r g u m e n t may p e r t a i n n o t o n l y i n a l i t e r a l s e n s e , b u t a l s o i n t h e way t h e s o c i a l s c i e n t i s t ' s p e r c e p t i o n o f c r i m e i s i n f l u e n c e d b y o f f i c i a l s t a t i s t i c s , w h i c h 88. have been suggested as being s o c i a l l y and thus s p a t i a l l y b i a s e d . The "and" i n the t i t l e of the book is thus a c o n j u n c t i v e to d e s c r i b e the volume's contents rather than the t h e o r e t i c a l imperative that i t i m p l i e s . S i m i l a r l y Davidson's (1981, Ch. 5) c o n s i d e r a t i o n of the " d i s t r i b u t i o n of j u s t i c e " does not c o n s i d e r the r o l e " j u s t i c e " may have in c o n d i t i o n i n g crime p a t t e r n s although he i s concerned with such issues as the i n f l u e n c e of crime type and a person's s o c i a l s t a t u s on sentencing v a r i a t i o n ; w h i le crime and the "type" of c r i m i n a l are c o n s i d e r e d to e f f e c t " j u s t i c e " , the reverse p r o p o s i t i o n f i n d s l i t t l e acknowledgement. While i n the work of H a r r i e s (1974), H a r r i e s and Brunn (1978), and Davidson (1981), the s e p a r a t i o n of crime and j u s t i c e i s l a r g e l y i m p l i c i t , other geographers have been e x p l i c i t in t h i s a n a l y t i c dichotomi z a t i o n . D a n i e l Georges i n attempting to " o f f e r a sound scheme for the study of a geography of crime" says i n answer to the q u e s t i o n "what i s the Geography of Crime?": "Simply d e f i n e d , the geography of crime i s the study of the s p a t i a l m a n i f e s t a t i o n of c r i m i n a l a c t s . It i s the study of the s o c i a l and c u l t u r a l o r g a n i z a t i o n of c r i m i n a l behavior from a s p a t i a l p e r s p e c t i v e . I t i s not the study of the s p a t i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n and p e c u l i a r i t i e s of the j u d i c i a l response to c r i m i n a l behavior. Rather the geography of j u s t i c e would examine the g e o g r a p h i c a l , or s p a t i a l , v a r i a t i o n s in the c r i m i n a l j u s t i c e process i . e . the a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of law enforcement, sentencing, judges, j u r i e s and c o r r e c t i o n a l i n s t i t u t i o n s . Such a geographic approach would go beyond the scope of a geography of crime." (1978, p. 2) 89. F r o m t h e p o i n t o f v i e w o f t h e s o c i o l o g y o f d e v i a n c e o r c r i t i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e s t h i s f o r m u l a i s t o o s i m p l i s t i c . I n G e o r g e s ' d e f e n c e i t may be n o t e d t h a t t h e s t u d y o f s o c i a l a n d c u l t u r a l o r g a n i z a t i o n o f c r i m i n a l b e h a v i o u r c o u l d e a s i l y be r e m o d e l l e d t o a c c o u n t f o r t h e p o t e n t i a l e f f e c t o f c r i m e c o n t r o l a c t i v i t i e s o t h e r t h a n t h e " j u d i c i a l r e s p o n s e " ( i . e . r e l a t i n g t o t h e c o u r t s ) . B u t t h e m e a n i n g o f t h e t e r m " j u s t i c e " i s n o t d e f i n e d by G e o r g e s and seems t o i n c l u d e m o r e t h a n t h e c o u r t d i s p o s i t i o n o f o f f e n d e r s ( t h e j u d i c i a l r e s p o n s e ) . T h e g e o g r a p h y o f j u s t i c e i n c l u d e s v i r t u a l l y t h e w h o l e o f t h e c r i m i n a l j u s t i c e p r o c e s s , w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n , p e r h a p s , o f t h e p r o c e s s o f a c t u a l l a w e n f o r c e m e n t a n d t h e p o s s i b l e d i s c r e t i o n a r y p r a c t i c e s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h i t . B u t t h e s u g g e s t i o n made h e r e i s t h a t t h e n e c e s s a r y o r l o g i c a l s e p a r a t i o n o f t h e c r i m i n a l j u s t i c e p r o c e s s f r o m t h e e x p l a n a t i o n o f c r i m e p a t t e r n s may n o t be t h e o r e t i c a l l y j u s t i f i e d . A n o t e o f q u a l i f i c a t i o n i s n e c e s s a r y a t t h i s p o i n t . A s i d e f r o m t h e s t a t e m e n t made by G e o r g e s , t h e s e p a r a t i o n o f c r i m e f r o m t h e " c r i m i n a l j u s t i c e p r o c e s s " has n o t b e e n e x p l i c i t l y made by o t h e r g e o g r a p h e r s . W i t h f ew e x c e p t i o n s ( s u c h as t h e P e e t - H a r r i e s d e b a t e : P e e t , 1 9 7 5 , 1 9 7 6 ; H a r r i e s , 1 9 7 5 , 1 9 7 6 ) , s t u d e n t s o f t h e g e o g r a p h y o f c r i m e h a v e p a i d v e r y l i t t l e a t t e n t i o n t o t h e e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l a n d o n t o l o g i c a l i s s u e s h o t l y d e b a t e d w i t h i n s o c i o l o g y , c r i m i n o l o g y and e l s e w h e r e i n s o c i a l g e o g r a p h y . T h e r e h a v e b e e n f e w f o r a y s i n t o t h e t h e o r e t i c a l a r e n a o f d i s c o u r s e , and a c e r t a i n d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n has b e e n e x p r e s s e d i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e o v e r t h e f a i l u r e o f g e o g r a p h y t o 9 0 . c o n t r i b u t e t o c r i m i n o l o g i c a l t h e o r y ( D u n n , 1 9 8 0 , p . 2 1 ) . I t may b e , t h e n , t h a t G e o r g e s ' a n a l y t i c s e p a r a t i o n o f c r i m e a n d j u s t i c e i s n o t w r o u g h t t h r o u g h a n y t h e o r e t i c a l i m p e r a t i v e , b u t i s m o r e a m a t t e r o f c o n v e n i e n c e . C o n v e n i e n t t h o u g h i t may b e , i t i s t h e a p p r o p r i a t e n e s s o f t h e s t r a t e g y t h a t i s a t i s s u e . 2) T h e C o n s e n s u s M o d e l o f S o c i e t y a n d L a w T h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e s o c i o l o g y o f d e v i a n c e and p o w e r -c o n f l i c t p e r s p e c t i v e s i n c r i m i n o l o g y i s p a r t l y b a s e d u p o n t h e i r v i e w o f t r a d i t i o n a l c r i m i n o l o g i c a l t h e o r y as c o n t a i n i n g a c o n s e n s u s m o d e l o f s o c i e t y , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t e r m s o f i t s r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f c r i m i n a l l a w as i s s u i n g f r o m s o c i a l c o n s e n s u s . T r a d i t i o n a l c r i m i n o l o g y o f f e r e d l i t t l e i n t h e way o f a s o c i o l o g y o f l a w i n i t s u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f c r i m e , a n d v i r t u a l l y no s o c i o l o g y o f t h e e f f e c t s o f t h e c r i m i n a l l a b e l l i n g p r o c e s s . T h e s o c i o l o g y o f d e v i a n c e p r o v i d e d i n s t e a d a p l u r a l i s t m o d e l o f s o c i e t y e l a b o r a t i n g a p a r t i c u l a r s t r a n d o f t r a d i t i o n a l c u l t u r e c o n f l i c t a n d s u b c u l t u r a l t h e o r y w h i c h s u g g e s t e d t h a t i l l e g a l b e h a v i o u r c o u l d n e v e r t h e l e s s be v i e w e d as n o r m c o n f o r m i n g . C r i m i n a l d e v i a n c e c o u l d t h u s be u n d e r s t o o d i n t e r m s o f t h e c l a s h e s o f n o r m a t i v e s y s t e m s , w i t h c r i m i n a l i t y e x p l a i n e d as t h e r e s u l t o f t h e power o f c e r t a i n s o c i a l g r o u p s t o i m p o s e t h e i r n o r m a t i v e s y s t e m s on o t h e r s . P o w e r - c o n f l i c t p e r s p e c t i v e s o f f e r a s i m i l a r p l u r a l i s t m o d e l o f s o c i e t y b u t a r e a r e m o r e c o n c e r n e d w i t h d e v e l o p i n g a 9 1 . s o c i o l o g y o f l a w t h a n o f f e r i n g an i n s i g h t i n t o t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s o f l a b e l l i n g p e o p l e as c r i m i n a l . W h i l e t h e s o c i o l o g y o f d e v i a n c e e x a m i n e d t h e r e s u l t s o f one g r o u p i m p o s i n g i t s n o r m a t i v e s y s t e m on o t h e r s , c o n f l i c t p e r s p e c t i v e s t u r n e d t o u n d e r s t a n d i n g s o u r c e s o f p o w e r , a n d t h e v e s t e d i n t e r e s t s e m b o d i e d i n c r i m i n a l l a w . A s a f o r m o f c o n f l i c t t h e o r y , M a r x i s t p e r s p e c t i v e s h a v e a t t e m p t e d t o s y s t e m a t i z e t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f power a n d v e s t e d i n t e r e s t s by i n t e r p r e t i n g t h e m as c l a s s i n t e r e s t s . T h e s i m i l a r i t y i n t h e t h r e e p e r s p e c t i v e s t h u s l i e s i n t h e i r v i e w o f c r i m i n a l l a w as i s s u i n g f r o m a c o n f l i c t o f b e l i e f s r a t h e r t h a n a s o c i a l c o n s e n s u s . T h e r a t h e r c o m p e l l i n g a r g u m e n t t h a t t h e r e i s a c l e a r s o c i a l c o n s e n s u s o v e r a c o r e g r o u p o f c r i m i n a l l a w s p o s e s p r o b l e m s f o r a n y e x t r e m e c o n f l i c t p o s i t i o n ( a l t h o u g h m o s t c o n f l i c t p o s i t i o n s a c k n o w l e d g e c o n s e n s u s o f o p i n i o n o v e r c e r t a i n l a w s ) . B u t t h i s o b s e r v a t i o n a l o n e i s n o t s u f f i c i e n t t o d e n y t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e s u g g e s t i o n t h a t t h e r e i s d i s s e n s u s o v e r c r i m i n a l l a w s ( p a r t i c u l a r l y d r u g s t a t u t e s , a b o r t i o n s t a t u t e s a n d l a w s p e r t a i n i n g t o s e x u a l m o r a l i t y , o r t h e d e f i n i t i o n o f d e l i n q u e n c y ) . A n u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e c r e a t i o n o f l a w , a n d t h e f o r c e s a n d i n t e r e s t s u n d e r l y i n g i t may be c e n t r a l t o an u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f who becomes l a b e l l e d as c r i m i n a l a n d , by e x t e n s i o n , t o t h e g e o g r a p h y o f c r i m e . T h e a p p e a r a n c e o f c o n s e n s u s o v e r c e r t a i n l a w s may a l s o be i l l u s o r y s i n c e i t i s p o s s i b l e t h a t c o n s e n s u s i s i d e o l o g i c a l l y p r o d u c e d - i n G r a m s c i ' s t e r m s c o n s e n s u s o v e r c e r t a i n k i n d s o f l a w s may r e f l e c t h e g e m o n i c p r o c e s s e s . F o r e x a m p l e , t h e r e i s e v i d e n c e 9 2 . that the formation of c e r t a i n drug laws rather than i s s u i n g from any p u b l i c consensus, a c t u a l l y c r e a t e d i t (Solomon and Madison, 1976-77; Small, 1978; and Green, 1979). It i s i n t h i s sense that c e r t a i n r a d i c a l c r i m i n o l o g i c a l t h e o r i s t s have suggested that a consensus model of s o c i e t y i s a m y s t i f i c a t i o n . While the f u n c t i o n a l i s t r a d i c a l p o s i t i o n that law only serves the i n t e r e s t s of a r u l i n g c l a s s seems to defy the r e a l i t y of the s i t u a t i o n , c r i m i n a l laws are s o c i a l l y c o n s t r u c t e d , and f u n c t i o n to preserve a c e r t a i n v i s i o n of s o c i a l o r d e r . Because t h i s v i s i o n i s not shared by a l l members of s o c i e t y , an understanding of the i n t e n t i o n s , purposes and i n t e r e s t s of law appears necessary to understand those who defy i t . Law, then, cannot be t a k e n - f o r - g r a n t e d as i f i t were sui gener i s - law a l s o r e q u i r e s e x p l a n a t i o n . For other reasons (to be e l a b o r a t e d l a t e r ) the law i n the s t a t u t e s should not be taken for granted as s u p p l y i n g the meaning of law enforcement i n p r a c t i c e , even though i t may c r e a t e the boundaries w i t h i n which a v a r i e t y of i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s develop. The way i n which they develop may be contingent on the i n t e r e s t s embedded i n law or i n the manner of law enforcement, and, as we s h a l l see, a l l these various elements may become important i n understanding crime p a t t e r n s , and shed a rather d i f f e r e n t l i g h t on the process of c r i m i n o g e n e s i s . The meaning of law may be complex, m u l t i - d i m e n s i o n a l and not n e c e s s a r i l y obvious to those people coming under i t s j u r i s d i c t i o n . Where law i s understood, c e r t a i n people or groups may not agree with i t , and even i f they do, they may not 93. f e e l c o m p e l l e d t o a b i d e b y i t . T h i s i n t r i c a t e l y t e x t u r e d r e a c t i o n t o l a w i s o n l y p a r t i a l l y c a p t u r e d by t h e g e o g r a p h y o f j u s t i c e . H a r r i e s a n d B r u n n ' s w o r k , f o r e x a m p l e , d i s c u s s e s v a r i a t i o n s i n l a w i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , b u t e x p l a i n s t h e s e i n t e r m s o f d i f f e r e n t r e g i o n a l p h i l o s o p h i e s w i t h i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s ( 1 9 7 8 , p p . 1 3 - 1 5 ) . W h i l e t h i s d i s c u s s i o n i s a n a l y t i c a l l y s e n s i t i v e t o t h e s o c i a l c o n s t r u c t i o n o f l a w , i t n e v e r t h e l e s s i m p l i e s t h a t l a w i s s u e s f r o m some s o c i a l c o n s e n s u s w h i c h i s r e g i o n a l l y b o u n d e d . I t d o e s n o t c o n s i d e r a c o n f l i c t m o d e l o f l a w i n m o r e g e n e r a l t e r m s a n d i m p l i e s t h a t r e g i o n a l p h i l o s o p h i e s a r e c o n s e n s u a l a n d m o n o l i t h i c , w h i l e o f f e r i n g a p l u r a l i s t m o d e l b e t w e e n r e g i o n s ( c f . D u n c a n ' s , 1980 , c r i t i c i s m s o f m o n o l i t h i c o r s u i g e n e r i s c o n c e p t s o f c u l t u r e i n g e o g r a p h y ) . T h i s f o r m u l a t i o n c r e a t e s a t h e o r e t i c a l t e n s i o n i n t h e i r w o r k , b e c a u s e l a t e r t h e y d i s c u s s v a r i a t i o n s o f l a w s a t l o c a l a n d s t a t e l e v e l s , a n d o f f e r e x a m p l e s o f t h e way d i f f e r e n c e s i n l e g a l s t a t u t e s c a n s t r u c t u r e s o c i a l a c t i v i t y ( p p . 2 2 - 2 5 ) . H e r e H a r r i e s and B r u n n a c k n o w l e d g e t h e d i s p l a c e m e n t e f f e c t s t h a t may be a s s o c i a t e d w i t h f o r m a l l e g a l b o u n d a r i e s , b u t o f f e r no r e a l s o c i o l o g y o f l a w t o e x p l a i n t h e s p a t i a l p a t t e r n s t h e y d e s c r i b e . M o r e i m p o r t a n t l y t h e y t e n d t o m i s s t h e b e h a v i o u r a l s i g n i f i c a n c e o f i n f o r m a l l e g a l p r o c e s s e s a n d b o u n d a r i e s , b u t t o do t h i s w o u l d r e q u i r e a d i f f e r e n t r e s e a r c h m e t h o d o l o g y a n d e p i s t e m o l o g y i n o r d e r t o g a i n a c c e s s t o t h e w o r l d o f e x p e r i e n c e . T o do so r e q u i r e s a s h i f t f r o m an i n s t r u m e n t a l p o s i t i v i s t t o an i n t e r a c t i o n i s t o r 9 4 . phenomenological epistemology seeking to recognize the meaning of law as an intersubject ive construct ion which cannot be simply understood by reading the cr iminal s tatutes . These considerations form the main impetus of the argument against the ana ly t i c separation of crime and the cr iminal jus t i ce system. For , as Harries and Brunn (1980, p. 25) acknowledge when discuss ing the importance of the geography of law: "It affects not only when and where crimes occur, but where the arrest is made and the t r i a l he ld . This applies to those operating at loca l levels or at an inters tate scale ." By adopting a d i f ferent epistemology, such themes become more complete and central to the geography of crime, but unattainable for an analysis which remains f ixed at the phenomenal l e v e l . Harries and Brunn in noting that crime and punishment are par t ly dependent on where a person engages in an a c t i v i t y (as opposed to being so le ly dependent on what the person does), rather than recognizing possible c o n f l i c t s underlying the system instead seek to restore consensus and equal treatment in the face of the law. In ident i fy ing the ev i l s of "spat ia l in jus t i ce" they devote their book to those suf fer ing from i t . What their argument amounts to is a plea that everyone be treated equally by the cr iminal jus t i ce system everywhere in the country, in effect creat ing an enormous consensus c l e a r l y demarcating the cr iminal from the non-cr imina l , and making the sever i ty of react ion to the cr iminal ubiquitous . Laudable though this formula appears at f i r s t , i t does not ac tua l ly take into account the factors that might explain why the cr iminal 95. j u s t i c e s y s t e m i s n o t u n i f o r m i n i t s d e f i n i t i o n o f , a n d r e a c t i o n t o o f f e n d e r s i n t h e f i r s t p l a c e a n d , by e x t e n s i o n , why t h e n o t i o n o f c o n s e n s u s i t s e l f may be c h i m e r i c , a p r a c t i c a l i m p o s s i b i l i t y . T h e i r o b j e c t i v e i s t h e c r e a t i o n o f a f o r m a l j u s t i c e , b u t t h e y do n o t c o n s i d e r t h e w i d e s p r e a d a r g u m e n t i n c r i m i n o l o g y t h a t f o r m a l j u s t i c e d o e s n o t g u a r a n t e e s u b s t a n t i v e j u s t i c e . M o r e p r o b l e m a t i c a l l y t h e p r e r o g a t i v e s a n d d i c t a t e s o f s p a t i a l j u s t i c e a r e f u l l y met i n a F a s c i s t s t a t e as l o n g as i t i s u n i f o r m l y F a s c i s t . I n a s e n s e H a r r i e s a n d B r u n n f o l l o w a c l a s s i c p o s i t i v i s t d i c t u m i n t h i s f o r m u l a s e p a r a t i n g f a c t s ( m e a s u r a b l e d i f f e r e n c e s i n l e g a l s t a t u t e s , s e n t e n c i n g , j u r y s e l e c t i o n , p r o s e c u t o r i a l d i s c r e t i o n a n d t h e l i k e ) f r o m v a l u e s ( t h e m e a n i n g o f s o c i a l j u s t i c e ) . M o s t g e o g r a p h e r s i n t e r e s t e d i n c r i m e f o l l o w t h i s same f o r m u l a i n a t t e m p t i n g t o p r o d u c e o b j e c t i v e d e s c r i p t i o n s o f t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f c r i m e a n d c r i m i n a l s , a n d , i n s o - d o i n g t a k e t h e m e a n i n g and e f f e c t o f l a w f o r g r a n t e d . W h i l e t h i s s t r a t e g y may n o t p r e s e n t p r o b l e m s i n t h e a n a l y s i s o f a c r i m e l i k e m u r d e r , i t c r e a t e s e x t e n s i v e p r o b l e m s w i t h a r a n g e o f o t h e r l e g a l c a t e g o r i e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y d e l i n q u e n c y . T h e p o i n t i s t h a t t h e m e a n i n g o f t h e l a w i s o f t e n c o n t e x t s p e c i f i c . T h i s p r o b l e m e v e n o b t a i n s i n t h o s e c a t e g o r i e s we m i g h t c o m m o n s e n s i c a l l y t h i n k o f as u n p r o b l e m a t i c - was L i e u t e n a n t C a l l e y ' s b e h a v i o u r a t M a i L a i i n V i e t n a m an a c t o f wa r o r t h e c o m m i s s i o n o f m u r d e r ? W i t h t h e c a t e g o r y d e l i n q u e n t t h e m e a n i n g i s much m o r e p r o b l e m a t i c s i n c e i t has b e e n c l a i m e d t h a t t h e a t t r i b u t i o n o f t h e d e l i n q u e n t l a b e l i s s o m e t i m e s m o r e a r e f l e c t i o n o f a 96. p e r s o n ' s s o c i a l s t a t u s o r s e x u a l g e n d e r t h a n h i s / h e r a c t u a l b e h a v i o u r ( W e r t h m a n a n d P i l i a v i n , 1 9 6 7 ; C i c o u r e l , 1 9 6 7 ) . T h e s o c i o l o g y o f d e v i a n c e has c o n s e q u e n t l y f o c u s e d on t h e i d e a o f c r i m e - a s - s t a t u s , r a t h e r t h a n t h e c r i m e - a s - b e h a v i o u r f o r m u l a w h i c h p e r v a d e s t h e g e o g r a p h y o f c r i m e . W i t h i n t h e g e o g r a p h y o f c r i m e l e g a l c a t e g o r i e s a r e h y p o s t a t i z e d . T h e f o c u s on t h e c r i m i n a l r e s t s on t h e a s s u m p t i o n t h a t c r i m i n a l b e h a v i o u r i s b a s i c a l l y d i f f e r e n t f r o m n o n - c r i m i n a l b e h a v i o u r a n d t h a t l a w e f f e c t i v e l y d r a w s a l i n e w h i c h d e s c r i b e s ( r a t h e r t h a n a f f e c t s ) t h i s d i f f e r e n c e . T h e q u e s t i o n b e c o m e s , by w h a t c r i t e r i o n i s t h i s d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n a c h i e v e d ? T h e o n l y a n s w e r w h i c h seems t o f i t i s t h a t t h e c r i t e r i a a r e g i v e n by a m o r a l a n d s o c i a l c o n s e n s u s . A n d t o t h i s e x t e n t t h e c o r r e c t i o n a l a n d p r e v e n t i v e i m p u l s e o f t h e g e o g r a p h y o f c r i m e a p p e a r s c o m m o n s e n s i c a l l y r e a s o n a b l e , l o g i c a l a n d e v e n o b j e c t i v e ! 3 . T h e C o r r e c t i o n and P r e v e n t i o n o f C r i m e ; Some Comments on V a l u e - J u d g e m e n t s and t h e i r T h e o r e t i c a l I m p l i c a t i o n s T h e g e o g r a p h i c i n t e r e s t i n c r i m e d e v e l o p e d a t a t i m e when c o n c e r n was b e i n g shown o v e r t h e s o c i a l r e l e v a n c e o f t h e a n a l y t i c d i r e c t i o n s b e i n g t a k e n i n human g e o g r a p h y ( e . g . H a r v e y , 1 9 7 3 ; B u t t i m e r , 1 9 7 4 ) . A n d w h a t c o u l d be a m o r e s o c i a l l y r e l e v a n t i s s u e t h a n c r i m e ? I n k e e p i n g w i t h t h i s c o n c e r n g e o g r a p h e r s h a v e f r e q u e n t l y s t r e s s e d t h e a p p l i c a b i l i t y o f t h e i r f i n d i n g s f o r i n f o r m i n g c r i m i n a l j u s t i c e p o l i c y a n d 9 7 . h e l p i n g t o p r e v e n t c r i m e . I n . t h i s q u e s t f o r s o c i a l r e l e v a n c e a c e r t a i n r e l a t i v i t y has gone u n n o t i c e d a n d , w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f P e e t ' s ( 1 9 7 5 , 1 9 7 6 ) b r i e f c h a l l e n g e t o t h e " l i b e r a l " g e o g r a p h y o f c r i m e , v e r y l i t t l e a t t e n t i o n ha s b e e n g i v e n t o a l t e r n a t i v e a n s w e r s t o t h e q u e s t i o n , r e l e v a n t t o whom? I n a n s w e r i n g t h i s q u e s t i o n , g e o g r a p h e r s h a v e b e e n f a i r l y u n e q u i v o c a l r e g a r d i n g t h e i r t e c h n o c r a t i c f u n c t i o n . I n C r i m e : A S p a t i a l P e r s p e c t i v e ( 1 9 8 0 ) G e o r g e s - A b e y i e a n d H a r r i e s p r o v i d e t h e l o g i c f o r a c r i m i n a l j u s t i c e p e r s p e c t i v e . T h e b o o k i s d i v i d e d i n t o t h r e e s e c t i o n s , t h e f i r s t two c o n c e r n i n g " p u r e a n a l y s i s " i d e n t i f y i n g t h e p u r p o s e s o f a s p a t i a l p e r s p e c t i v e a n d d e v e l o p i n g e m p i r i c a l a p p r o a c h e s w i t h i n i t . T h e t h i r d s e c t i o n c o n c e r n s a p p l i c a t i o n s o f s p a t i a l p e r s p e c t i v e s w i t h c o n t r i b u t i o n s f r o m c r i m i n a l j u s t i c e p l a n n e r / a n a l y s t s , a p o l i c e d e p a r t m e n t a n a l y s t , a n d a s c h o l a r i n t e r e s t e d i n l a w e n f o r c e m e n t a p p l i c a t i o n s o f s p a t i a l a n a l y t i c a l t e c h n i q u e s . " T h e u n d e r l y i n g a s s u m p t i o n i s t h a t t h e u s e f u l n e s s o f a c a d e m i c a p p r o a c h e s t o a n a l y s i s i s r e d u c e d i f t h e r e i s no t r a n s l a t i o n o f p r i n c i p l e s a n d m e t h o d s i n t o o p e r a t i o n l m o d e s . " ( G e o r g e s - A b e y i e a n d H a r r i e s , 1 9 8 0 , p . 2 4 7 ) I n t e r m s o f t h e a p p l i c a i o n o f t h e i r r e s e a r c h , t h e t e n o r o f t h e a r g u m e n t i s c l e a r ; i n d i s c u s s i n g " g e o g r a p h i c p r e d i c t i o n " H a r r i e s r e f e r s t o m o d e l s u s e f u l f o r c r i m i n a l j u s t i c e p e r s o n n e l , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n g e n e r a t i n g maps o f p r e d i c t e d c r i m e r a t e s . N o t o n l y w o u l d t h e s e a i d l a w e n f o r c e m e n t and p a t r o l p a t t e r n p l a n n i n g , b u t g e n e r a l l y move t h e c r i m i n a l j u s t i c e s y s t e m t o g r e a t e r e f f i c i e n c y ( 1 9 7 4 , p p . 1 2 0 - 1 2 1 ) . 9 8 . E v e n some o f t h e m o r e i n n o v a t i v e s t u d i e s c o n d u c t e d by g e o g r a p h e r s a r e c o n s i s t e n t l y c o r r e c t i o n a l i s t i n t h e i r p u r p o s e . C a r t e r a n d H i l l ( 1 9 7 9 , 1 9 8 0 ) a n d S m i t h a n d P a t t e r s o n ( 1 9 8 0 ) move away f r o m a r e a l a n d e c o l o g i c a l a n a l y s e s t o f o c u s on t h e s u b j e c t i v e d i m e n s i o n s o f c r i m i n a l i t y i n t e r m s o f c r i m i n a l s ' m e n t a l maps a n d i m a g e s o f t h e c i t y . B u t t h i s r e s e a r c h i s n e v e r t h e l e s s c o u c h e d i n t e r m s o f i t s p o l i c y r e l e v a n c e , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t e r m s o f p r e v e n t i n g c r i m e . A t l e a s t p a r t o f t h i s c o r r e c t i o n a l i s t i m p u l s e r e f l e c t s s o u r c e s o f f u n d i n g ; t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t much c r i m i n o l o g i c a l r e s e a r c h i s f u n d e d by t h e s t a t e , t h e i n t e r e s t s o f t h e c r i m i n a l j u s t i c e s y s t e m a r e r e p r o d u c e d i n a c a d e m i c r e s e a r c h . T h u s P y l e ' s S p a t i a l D y n a m i c s o f C r i m e ( 1 9 7 4 ) was d e v i s e d " . . . t o d e v e l o p an i m p r o v e d m e t h o d o f c o l l e c t i o n , h a n d l i n g a n d a n a l y s i s o f c r i m i n a l j u s t i c e d a t a w i t h i n S u m m i t C o u n t y t o t h e end t h a t m o r e e f f e c t i v e l a w e n f o r c e m e n t p l a n n i n g c o u l d be made pos s i b l e . " B u t r e l e v a n t t h o u g h t h e s e p r o g r a m m a t i c c o n s i d e r a t i o n s may be i n t h e s o c i o l o g y o f t h e r e s e a r c h e n t e r p r i s e , a n d t h e s i t u a t i o n a l r e q u i r e m e n t s o f t h e r e s e a r c h e r i n m a k i n g a l i v i n g , t h e c r i m i n a l j u s t i c e o r i e n t a t i o n a d o p t e d by g e o g r a p h e r s has t e n d e d t o l i m i t t h e k i n d o f d e s c r i p t i o n s a n d e x p l a n a t i o n s d e v e l o p e d . B y r e l y i n g on o f f i c i a l s t a t i s t i c s g e o g r a p h e r s h a v e t y p i c a l l y t a k e n t h e c r i m i n a l j u s t i c e s y s t e m ' s own image o f t h e c r i m e p r o b l e m f o r g r a n t e d , a n d c r i t i c i s m o f t h e s y s t e m has b e e n e f f e c t i v e l y d e n i e d - t h e o n l y s u b s t a n t i a l c r i t i c i s m o f t h e s y s t e m has b e e n d i r e c t e d a t i t s i n e f f i c i e n c y i n t e r m s o f 9 9 . d e t e c t i n g a n d p r o c e s s i n g c r i m i n a l s , o r i t s d i f f e r e n t i a l t r e a t m e n t o f o f f e n d e r s a c r o s s p o l i t i c a l - l e g a l s p a c e . T h e r e i s v e r y l i t t l e s e n s e g i v e n i n t h e g e o g r a h i c l i t e r a t u r e t h a t some f o r m s o f c r i m e a r e n o t o n l y " r a t i o n a l " i n t e r m s o f t h e s o c i a l c o n t e x t i n w h i c h t h e y d e v e l o p , b u t m i g h t e v e n be r e a s o n a b l e g i v e n c e r t a i n s o c i a l s t r u c t u r a l i n e q u a l i t i e s . A t t h i s p o i n t one c a n t a k e t h e a r g u m e n t i n two d i r e c t i o n s . T h e f i r s t d i r e c t i o n i s e m o t i v e t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t i t r e s t s on t h e i d e a t h a t s o c i a l s c i e n c e i s n e c e s s a r i l y p o l i t i c a l . F r o m t h i s p e r s p e c t i v e t h e f o l l o w i n g k i n d o f q u e s t i o n i s p o s e d : t o w h a t e x t e n t i s i t r e a s o n a b l e t o a t t e m p t t o make t h e c r i m i n a l j u s t i c e s y s t e m m o r e e f f i c i e n t i n d e t e c t i n g a n d l a b e l l i n g p e o p l e who s t e a l as a r e s u l t o f p h y s i o l o g i c a l n e e d i n a s o c i e t y w h i c h i m p l i c i t l y c o n d o n e s s y s t e m a t i c c o r p o r a t e f r a u d o f t h e g e n e r a l p u b l i c ? T h e n o r m a l k i n d o f r e s p o n s e t o t h i s a r g u m e n t w o u l d s e p a r a t e f a c t s f r o m v a l u e s , s u g g e s t i n g t h a t t h e s o c i a l s c i e n t i s t i s o n l y q u a l i f i e d t o d e a l w i t h o b j e c t i v e f a c t s , a n d i s i n no b e t t e r p o s i t i o n t h a n t h e i n f o r m e d c i t i z e n i n m a k i n g v a l u e - j u d g e m e n t s . A s e c o n d l i n e o f a r g u m e n t i s a l s o p o s s i b l e : i f i t i s a c c e p t e d t h a t s o c i a l s c i e n c e c a n a n d s h o u l d be o b j e c t i v e , t h e r e s e a r c h e r q u a r e s e a r c h e r i n h i s q u e s t f o r o b j e c t i v e k n o w l e d g e o u g h t n o t t o make a n y a l l i a n c e w i t h t h e c r i m i n a l j u s t i c e s y s t e m , f o r t o do so may s e r i o u s l y b i a s t h e a n a l y s i s . T h i s d o e s n o t mean t o s a y t h a t c r i m i n o l o g i c a l r e s e a r c h d o e s n o t h a v e p o l i c y i m p l i c a t i o n s , i t a l m o s t i n e v i t a b l y d o e s . R a t h e r t h a t t h e a d o p t i o n o f a " c r i m i n a l j u s t i c e p e r s p e c t i v e " has i m p o r t a n t 100. i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r t h e o r y c o n s t r u c t i o n , one w h i c h may n o t be w a r r a n t e d by a n y c r i t e r i a o t h e r t h a n t h e v a l u e s o f t h e r e s e a r c h e r . T h e r e a r e no " s c i e n t i f i c " c r i t e r i a f o r p e r s p e c t i v e s w h i c h a r e o s t e n s i b l y " o b j e c t i v e " t o become t e c h n o c r a t i c a l l y a n d p o l i t i c a l l y p a r t i s a n . A s much as t h e c o r r e c t i o n a l p e r s p e c t i v e i s v a l u e - l a d e n , s o a r e t h e s o c i o l o g y o f d e v i a n c e a n d r a d i c a l c o n f l i c t p e r s p e c t i v e s . T h e s o c i o l o g y o f d e v i a n c e has s o m e t i m e s b e e n c a l l e d t h e s o c i o l o g y o f t h e u n d e r d o g f o r ( i n M a t z a ' s t e r m s , 1 9 6 9 , C h a p t e r 2) i t a t t e m p t s t o " a p p r e c i a t e " d e v i a n c e ; t o u n d e r s t a n d i t f r o m t h e d e v i a n t a c t o r ' s p e r s p e c t i v e r a t h e r t h a n t h a t o f t h o s e s e e k i n g t o c o r r e c t d e v i a n t b e h a v i o u r . T h i s a t t e m p t t o a p p r e c i a t e t h e s u b j e c t ' s v i e w p o i n t l e a d s t o a v e r y d i f f e r e n t k i n d o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f d e v i a n t p h e n o m e n a , as s o m e t h i n g c o n s t r u c t e d , t h r o u g h s o c i a l i n t e r a c t i o n , r a t h e r t h a n s o m e t h i n g t o be " e x p l a i n e d " by i n n e r d i s p o s i t i o n s o r e x t e r n a l s o c i a l f o r c e s . F r o m t h e d e v i a n t ' s p o i n t o f v i e w r u l e - b r e a k i n g may be n o r m - c o n f o r m i n g , i n s t r u m e n t a l a n d r a t i o n a l . F r o m t h i s p e r s p e c t i v e t h e i d e a t h a t s o m e t h i n g w h i c h i s r a t i o n a l s h o u l d o r c a n be c o r r e c t e d becomes p r o b l e m a t i c . T h e r a d i c a l t h e o r i s t o f t e n g i v e s t h i s f o r m u l a a p o l i t i c a l edge by s u g g e s t i n g t h a t t h e c r i m i n o l o g i s t become p a r t i s a n i n f a v o u r o f t h e u n d e r d o g as a c l a s s s u b j e c t , r e j e c t i n g c o r r e c t i o n a l i s m o u t r i g h t as a f o r m o f t e c h n o c r a t i c i n t e r v e n t i o n i m p l i c i t l y e n d o r s i n g t h e p o l i t i c a l s t a t u s quo a n d as s u p p o r t i n g a c r i m i n o g e n i c s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e . B o t h p e r s p e c t i v e s s t i l l c o n t a i n p o l i c y i m p l i c a t i o n s , a l t h o u g h t h e y c h a l l e n g e t h e l o g i c 1 0 1 . o f t r a d i t i o n a l f o r m s o f i n t e r v e n t i o n . I t s h o u l d a l s o be n o t e d t h a t c e r t a i n r a d i c a l t h e o r i s t s a l s o o f f e r d e t e r m i n i s t i c e x p l a n a t i o n s ( o f a s t r u c t u r a l f u n c t i o n a l o r e c o n o m i c v a r i e t y ) and t h a t t h e c r i t i q u e o f c o r r e c t i o n a l i s m i t s e l f i s no r e s o l u t i o n t o t h e s t r u c t u r e - a c t i o n d e b a t e . 4 . T h e H y p o s t a t i z a t i o n o f C r i m e . B y t r e a t i n g c r i m e s t a t i s t i c s as o b s e r v a t i o n a l c a t e g o r i e s f o r o p e r a t i o n a l p u r p o s e s , g e o g r a p h e r s h a v e i m p l i c i t l y t r e a t e d c r i m e as a d i s c r e t e p h e n o m e n o n , a s e p a r a t e a n d e a s i l y d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e b e h a v i o u r a l e n t i t y . W i t h t h e a b s t r a c t e m p i r i c i s t m e t h o d o f e c o l o g i c a l a n a l y s i s t h e c r i m i n a l a c t i s w r e n c h e d f r o m i t s s o c i a l c o n t e x t . W h i l e m i c r o s t u d i e s o f t h e j o u r n e y t o c r i m e a n d o t h e r e l e m e n t s o f s p a t i a l c r i m i n a l b e h a v i o u r h a v e b e e n h a i l e d as p r o v i d i n g a b e t t e r i n t e g r a t i o n o f " b e h a v i o u r a l " a n d e c o l o g i c a l a p p r o a c h e s ( C a r t e r a n d H i l l , 1 9 7 9 ) b o t h a p p r o a c h e s , as w i l l be shown s h o r t l y , i n v o l v e t h e same g e n e r a l p h i l o s o p h i c a l p o s i t i o n . T h i s i s n o t t o s u g g e s t t h a t t h e move away f r o m e c o l o g i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e s i s n o t u s e f u l - i t does a l l o w a number o f e n t i r e l y d i f f e r e n t t y p e s o f q u e s t i o n a b o u t s p a t i a l c r i m i n a l b e h a v i o u r t o be a s k e d . B u t t h e a p p r o a c h i s s t i l l r e s t r i c t e d t o p o s i n g q u e s t i o n s w i t h i n t h e f r a m e w o r k o f a q u a n t i t a t i v e m e t h o d o l o g y . T h e r e s u l t a n t n e e d f o r t h e u s e o f o p e r a t i o n a l d e f i n i t i o n s has t h e e f f e c t o f a b s t r a c t i n g c r i m e f r o m i t s s o c i a l c o n t e x t . A n e x a m p l e o f t h i s t e n d e n c y i s t h e l i t e r a t u r e on t h e " j o u r n e y t o c r i m e . " 1 0 2 . M e a s u r e s o f t h e j o u r n e y t o c r i m e s p e a k , i n a v e r y g e n e r a l w a y , a b o u t d i f f e r e n t d e g r e e s o f m o b i l i t y o f v a r i o u s a d j u d i c a t e d o f f e n d e r s . B u t b e c a u s e o f t h e way t h i s j o u r n e y i s a b s t r a c t l y c o n c e i v e d , c r i m i n a l t r a v e l p a t t e r n s a r e e f f e c t i v e l y t o r n f r o m t h e i r s o c i a l c o n t e x t ; b e c a u s e o f t h e o p e r a t i o n a l m e a s u r i n g r o d u s e d , t h e j o u r n e y t o c r i m e i s c o n c e p t u a l i z e d as b e i n g a d i s c r e t e e v e n t . One has t h e i m p r e s s i o n o f a c r i m i n a l m a k i n g s p o r a d i c s i n g l e p u r p o s e f o r a y s f r o m h i s o r h e r home b a s e w i t h t h e e x p l i c i t p u r p o s e o f c o m m i t t i n g c r i m e s . T h e i d e a t h a t t h e j o u r n e y t o c r i m e may be p a r t o f a m u l t i - p u r p o s e t r i p , a n d t h e c o m m i s s i o n o f c r i m e may be i n c i d e n t a l t o some o t h e r p u r p o s e ( p e r h a p s a m a t t e r o f b e i n g p r e s e n t e d t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o do s o ) seems t o e v a d e t h e c o n c e p t u a l t o o l s o f t h i s l i t e r a t u r e . C o n s e q u e n t l y t h e "mean t r a v e l d i s t a n c e s " m e n t i o n e d by P h i l l i p s ( 1 9 8 0 , p p . 1 6 8 - 1 6 9 ) i n h i s r e v i e w o f t h e j o u r n e y t o c r i m e l i t e r a t u r e a r e a c t u a l l y t h e mean d i s t a n c e s b e t w e e n o f f e n d e r r e s i d e n c e s a n d p l a c e s o f c r i m e c o m m i s s i o n ; t o c a l l t h e m " t r a v e l d i s t a n c e s " i s s t r i c t l y a m i s n o m e r . T h e p r o b l e m i s c r e a t e d by c o n v e r t i n g d a t a f r o m o f f i c i a l c r i m e r e p o r t s i n t o l i t e r a l d e s c r i p t i o n s o f r e a l i t y i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e h i d d e n m a n d a t e s o f an i n s t r u m e n t a l i s t m e t h o d . T h e " j o u r n e y t o c r i m e " has t o be i n t e r p r e t e d i n i t s s o c i a l c o n t e x t , as d o , f o r e x a m p l e , B r a n t i n g h a m a n d B r a n t i n g h a m i n t h e i r " N o t e s on t h e G e o m e t r y o f C r i m e " c a u t i o n i n g " ( o ) n e o f t h e s t r i k i n g t h i n g s a b o u t c r i m i n a l s , o f t e n f o r g o t t e n , i s t h a t m o s t o f t hem b e h a v e as o r d i n a r y p e o p l e m o s t o f t h e t i m e " ( 1 9 8 1 B , p . 3 5 ) . I t may t h u s be a m i s t a k e t o f o c u s s i m p l y on 1 0 3 . t h e c r i m i n a l a c t i v i t i e s o f " c r i m i n a l s " i n o r d e r t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e i r s p a t i a l b e h a v i o u r ( a n e x a m p l e i s g i v e n i n C h a p t e r 9 when d i s c u s s i n g c h a n g e s o f p a t t e r n s o f b u r g l a r y i n r e s p o n s e t o c r i m e p r e v e n t i o n p r o g r a m s ; i t may be t h e n o n - c r i m i n a l a c t i v i t i e s o f t h e b u r g l a r p o p u l a t i o n t h a t has t o be c o n s i d e r e d i n o r d e r t o e x p l a i n c h a n g e s i n p a t t e r n s o f b u r g l a r y ) . A t t h i s j u n c t u r e i t i s i m p o r t a n t t o p o i n t o u t t h a t t h e s e o b s e r v a t i o n s a r e n o t m e a n t t o m i n i m i z e t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e b e h a v i o u r a l a p p r o a c h f o c u s i n g on c r i m i n a l m o b i l i t y . T h i s i s an i m p o r t a n t r e s e a r c h d i r e c t i o n , p a r t i c u l a r l y t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t i f c r i m e c o n t r o l a c t i v i t i e s do i n f l u e n c e p a t t e r n s o f c r i m e , i t i s b e c a u s e m o b i l i t y i s a v i a b l e a d a p t i v e s t r a t e g y f o r o f f e n d e r s . I n s t e a d t h e s e comments a r e made t o i l l u s t r a t e t h e s h o r t c o m i n g s o f an a b s t r a c t e m p i r i c i s m c a r r i e d o v e r f r o m t h e e c o l o g y o f c r i m e i n t o t h e newer b e h a v i o u r a l p e r s p e c t i v e s . T h e p r o b l e m w i t h b o t h p e r s p e c t i v e s i s t h a t c r i m e a n d c r i m i n a l s a r e t r e a t e d as b e i n g s o m e t h i n g d i s t i n c t f r o m n o n - c r i m e a n d n o n -c r i m i n a l s . When c r i m e i s h y p o s t a t i z e d , t h e d o o r i s o p e n f o r m y t h o l o g y a n d p o p u l a r m e d i a c o n c e p t i o n s o f c r i m i n a l i t y t o s u b t l y i n f l u e n c e s o c i a l t h e o r y . I n t h i s l i g h t , c o n s i d e r t h e s e e m i n g l y i n n o c e n t s t a t e m e n t by S m i t h a n d P a t t e r s o n ( 1 9 8 1 ) t h a t " p o l i c e m e n a n d c r i m i n a l s h a v e c h o s e n an a c t i o n - p a c k e d l i f e s t y l e . " T h e v i e w o f " c r i m i n a l l i f e s t y l e " t h a t S m i t h a n d P a t t e r s o n seem t o h o l d i s m o r e i n f l u e n c e d b y t e l e v i s i o n t h a n i t i s by s y s t e m a t i c r e s e a r c h . I t p o r t r a y s c r i m i n a l l i f e s t y l e as s o m e t h i n g p a r t i c u l a r l y d i s t i n c t i v e t o t h e p o i n t t h a t i t c a n be 1 0 4 . c o n s i d e r e d a l i f e s t y l e i n t h e f i r s t p l a c e . My p o i n t i s n o t t o s u g g e s t t h a t c e r t a i n l i f e s t y l e s a r e n o t b u i l t a r o u n d c r i m i n a l a c t i v i t y , b u t t h a t much c r i m e i s o f an i n c i d e n t a l n a t u r e . T h e s u g g e s t i o n t h a t c r i m i n a l s h a v e c h o s e n an " a c t i o n - p a c k e d " l i f e s t y l e i s t o m i s s t h e l a r g e l y mundane n a t u r e o f t h e l i v e s o f m o s t c r i m i n a l s * T h e s t a t e m e n t s i m i l a r l y b e l i e s t h e a c t u a l n a t u r e o f t h e w o r k i n g l i f e o f t h e a v e r a g e p o l i c e m a n . A c a r e f u l r e a d i n g o f o b s e r v e r r e s e a r c h on p o l i c e p r a c t i c e s ( R u b i n s t e i n , 1 9 7 3 ; M a n n i n g , 1 9 7 7 ; E r i c s o n , 1 9 8 1 , 1 9 8 2 ) s u g g e s t s t h a t o n l y a s m a l l p e r c e n t a g e o f t h e i r t i m e i s s p e n t a c t u a l l y d e a l i n g w i t h c r i m i n a l s . E r i c s o n , f o r e x a m p l e , s u g g e s t s t h a t w h i l e p a t r o l p o l i c e may s p e n d much o f t h e i r t i m e a n t i c i p a t i n g t r o u b l e , n o t much t r o u b l e i s f o r t h c o m i n g ; o n l y 5% o f t h e p a t r o l o f f i c e r ' s t i m e i s s p e n t i n a c t i v i t y w h i c h l e a d s t o t h e l a y i n g o f c r i m i n a l c h a r g e s . I n f a c t p a p e r w o r k c o n s u m e s a g r e a t e r p e r c e n t a g e o f t i m e . S i m i l a r l y E r i c s o n ' s s t u d y o f d e t e c t i v e w o r k ( 1 9 8 1 ) shows m o s t o f i t t o be " r o u t i n e " r a t h e r t h a n " a c t i o n - p a c k e d " . 5 . T h e P h i l o s o p h i c B a s e s o f t h e G e o g r a p h y o f C r i m e : T h e D e f i c i e n c i e s o f I n s t r u m e n t a l i s m a n d P o s i t i v i s m H a v i n g e s t a b l i s h e d t h e c o m p a t i b i l i t y b e t w e e n t h e g e o g r a p h y o f c r i m e a n d t r a d i t i o n a l c r i m i n o l o g y , t h e d i s c u s s i o n t o t h i s p o i n t has a t t e m p t e d t o show how e l e m e n t s o f t h e c r i t i q u e o f t r a d i t i o n a l c r i m i n o l o g y e m e r g i n g s i n c e 1950 a r e p e r t i n e n t t o t h e g e o g r a p h y o f c r i m e . W h i l e t h e g e o g r a p h i c l i t e r a t u r e d o e s c o n t a i n t h e s e e d s o f t h e a r g u m e n t s by w h i c h one m i g h t d e v e l o p 1 0 5 . t h e s o c i o l o g y o f d e v i a n c e a n d c r i t i c a l t h e o r y i n g e o g r a p h i c p e r s p e c t i v e s , i t i s s i g n i f i c a n t t h a t t h e p o t e n t i a l o f t h e s e themes has n o t b e e n e x p l o i t e d i n a n y s y s t e m a t i c w a y . Why n o t ? A p a r t f r o m some w i d e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n s a b o u t t h e s o c i o l o g y o f g e o g r a p h y a n d t h e s i t u a t i o n a l c o n t e x t i n w h i c h r e s e a r c h i s u n d e r t a k e n , t h e g e o g r a p h y o f c r i m e has f o l l o w e d a number o f p h i l o s o p h i c a l m a n d a t e s . B e c a u s e v e r y l i t t l e a t t e n t i o n has b e e n p a i d t o t h e p h i l o s o p h y o f s o c i a l s c i e n c e g u i d i n g t h e g e o g r a p h y o f c r i m e , i t has t o be u n e a r t h e d - e x t r a p o l a t e d f r o m t h e p r o g r a m m a t i c s t a t e m e n t s a n d m e t h o d o l o g i c a l g u i d e l i n e s l a i d down i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e a n d s h a p i n g r e s e a r c h . I n v e r y g e n e r a l t e r m s t h e g e o g r a p h y o f c r i m e i s v a r i o u s l y i n s t r u m e n t a l i s t o r p o s i t i v i s t . ( F o r s i m i l a r c r i t i c i s m s o f i n s t r u m e n t a l i s m i n s p a t i a l a n a l y s i s i n g e o g r a p h y m o r e g e n e r a l l y s e e A g n e w , 1 9 7 7 , a n d G r e g o r y , 1 9 7 8 . G r e g o r y a l s o i n c l u d e s an e x t e n s i v e c r i t i q u e o f p o s i t i v i s m . S e e a l s o K i n g , 1 9 7 6 . ) T h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e s e two t e r m s i s n o t w i t h o u t some d i f f i c u l t y f o r t h e y a r e u s e d i n d i f f e r e n t w a y s i n d i f f e r e n t l i t e r a t u r e s a n d s h o u l d n o t be c o n f l a t e d . T h e i r e x a c t u s e t h e r e f o r e r e q u i r e s c a r e f u l s p e c i f i c a t i o n . K e a t and U r r y ( 1 9 7 5 , p . 63 ) d i s t i n g u i s h two m a i n s e n s e s g i v e n t o t h e t e r m i n s t r u m e n t a l i s m ; f i r s t l y , t h e t e r m may r e f e r t o a g e n e r a l p h i l o s o p h y o f s c i e n t i f i c i n q u i r y a i m i n g t o p r o v i d e p r e d i c t i v e a n d m a n i p u l a t i v e power o v e r t h e p h y s i c a l e n v i r o n m e n t ( p r e s u m a b l y t h i s p h i l o s o p h y c o u l d a l s o a p p l y t o s o c i a l s c i e n c e a n d i n c l u d e t h e s o c i a l e n v i r o n m e n t ) ; a n d s e c o n d l y , t h e t e r m may d e n o t e a v i e w a b o u t t h e l o g i c a l s t a t u s o f s c i e n t i f i c t h e o r i e s 106 . as c o m p u t a t i o n a l d e v i c e s w h i c h g e n e r a t e t e s t a b l e p r e d i c t i o n s . R u n e s t r e a t s i n s t r u m e n t a l i s m as a f o r m o f p r a g m a t i s m , n o t i n g t h a t p r a g m a t i s m i s o f t e n c o n f l a t e d w i t h e m p i r i c i s m ( 1 9 7 7 , p . 2 4 6 ) . I n s t r u m e n t a l i s m s p e c i f i c a l l y i s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e p h i l o s o p h y o f D e w e y , w h i c h R u n e s s u g g e s t s i s s c a r c e l y d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e f r o m e x p e r i m e n t a l i s m o r o p e r a t i o n a l i s m ( p . 1 4 7 ) ; e x p e r i m e n t a l i s m t r e a t s l a w s as p r e d i c t i o n s o f f u t u r e o c c u r r e n c e s p r o v i d e d c e r t a i n c o n d i t i o n s p e r t a i n , w h i l e o p e r a t i o n a l i s m t r e a t s s c i e n t i f i c p r o p o s i t i o n s as p r e d i c t i o n s ( R u n e s , p . 2 4 7 ) . A s a p h i l o s o p h y o f s c i e n c e , o p e r a t i o n a l i s m h o l d s t h a t s c i e n t i f i c c o n c e p t s a n d r e s e a r c h p r o c e d u r e s a r e i i n s e p a r a b l e a n d t h a t t h e means o f m e a s u r i n g t h e c o n c e p t c o n s t i t u t e t h e d e f i n i t i o n o f t h e c o n c e p t ( T h e o d o r s o n a n d T h e o d o r s o n , p . 2 8 4 ) . T h i s d i s c u s s i o n w i l l s u b s e q u e n t l y p o i n t t o t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s o f t h e o p e r a t i o n a l i s t p o s i t i o n i n t h e g e o g r a p h y o f c r i m e w h i c h t e n d s t o t r e a t o f f i c i a l s t a t i s t i c s ( t h e way o f m e a s u r i n g c r i m e ) as c o n s t i t u t i n g t h e d e f i n i t i o n o f c r i m e . T h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n o p e r a t i o n a l i s m a n d i n s t r u m e n t a l i s m i s t h a t t h e l a t t e r t a k e s a m o r e m o d e r a t e p o s i t i o n by s u g g e s t i n g t h a t t h e d e f i n i t i o n o f a c o n c e p t i n c l u d e s m o r e t h a n s i m p l y t h e means o f m e a s u r i n g i t , w h i l e o p e r a t i o n a l i s m h o l d s t h a t c o n c e p t s a r e d e f i n e d s o l e l y i n t e r m s o f t h e p r o c e d u r e s u s e d t o t e s t t h e m t h u s l i m i t i n g a c o n c e p t u a l l e v e l o f a n a l y s i s ( T h e o d o r s o n a n d T h e o d o r s o n , 1 9 7 7 , p . 2 0 9 ) . A l t h o u g h e m p i r i c a l g e o g r a p h i c r e s e a r c h has a c t u a l l y f o l l o w e d an o p e r a t i o n a l i s t m o d e l , g e o g r a p h e r s h a v e f r e q u e n t l y m e n t i o n e d t h e t e c h n i c a l p r o b l e m s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e m e a n i n g o f o f f i c i a l 107 . s t a t i s t i c s ; the i n s t r u m e n t a l i s t l a b e l i s t h e r e f o r e more a p p r o p r i a t e even though geographers have proceeded as i f the mention of the problems i n v o l v e d with i n t e r p r e t i n g o f f i c i a l s t a t i s t i c s negated them. In sum, the resea r c h p r a c t i c e of the geography of crime has followed an o p e r a t i o n a l i s t mode while the programmatic statements g u i d i n g r e s e a r c h have been i n s t r u m e n t a l i s t . The d e s i g n a t i o n of the form of in s t r u m e n t a l i s m u n d e r l y i n g the geography of crime as p o s i t i v i s t presents a number of problems, not the l e a s t of these being the exact meaning of the term p o s i t i v i s m . Rather than r e p r e s e n t i n g a s p e c i f i c p h i l osophy of s o c i a l s c i e n c e , the term has been used to denote a number of such p h i l o s o p h i e s which f i n d a common ground i n t h e i r " s c i e n t i f i c " approach to e x p l a n a t i o n . Used i n t h i s sense p o s i t i v i s m corresponds to the e r k l a r e n p o s i t i o n i n German s o c i a l philosophy d i s c u s s e d i n Chapter 2, and i t is t h i s meaning of- the term that i s intended here. S i m i l a r l y the c r i t i q u e s of t r a d i t i o n a l c r i m i n o l o g y as a p o s i t i v i s t e n t e r p r i s e developed i n the s o c i o l o g y of deviance and r a d i c a l c r i m i n o l o g y have used the term p o s i t i v i s m in t h i s c a t c h - a l l f a s h i o n . G e n e r a l l y the term suggests a p e r s p e c t i v e geared to the fo r m u l a t i o n of d e t e r m i n i s t i c causal laws of human a c t i v i t y . A d i s t i n c t i o n i s wrought between o b s e r v a t i o n a l terms ( e m p i r i c a l phenomena), and the t h e o r e t i c a l language used to d e s c r i b e the r e l a t i o n s h i p s between phenomena. Given the e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l imperatives of i t s e m p i r i c i s t ontology, f a c t s and values can be separated i n a system which p o r t r a y s the s c i e n t i s t ' s 108 . o b s e r v a t i o n s as v a l u e - n e u t r a l . S c i e n c e i s c a s t as an o b j e c t i v e e n t e r p r i s e . W h i l e t h e s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s d e s c r i b e p o s i t i v i s m as a g e n r e , some v e r y d i f f e r e n t p e r s p e c t i v e s come u n d e r i t s u m b r e l l a r a n g i n g f r o m t h e s o c i o l o g i c a l p o s i t i v i s m o f C o m t e ( c f . G r e g o r y , 1 9 7 8 ) t h e b i o l o g i c a l p o s i t i v i s m o f L o m b r o s o a n d F e r r e r o ( 1 8 9 5 ) , t h e b e h a v i o u r i s m o f B . F . S k i n n e r ( 1 9 7 1 ) t h e l o g i c a l p o s i t i v i s m o f t h e V i e n n a C i r i c l e ( K o l a k o w s k i , 1 9 7 2 ) t o t h e n e o p o s i t i v i s m o f L a i r d A d d i s ( 1 9 7 5 ) w i t h i t s u n u s u a l a t t e m p t t o a d d r e s s t h p r o b l e m o f human f r e e - w i l l f r o m a p s y c h o l o g i c a l l y r e d u c t i o n i s t p e r s p e c t i v e . I t i s t h e p r o b l e m o f f r e e - w i l l a n d t h e s t a t u s o f m e t a p h y s i c a l d i s c o u r s e t h a t h a v e p r o v i d e d t h e m a i n s t u m b l i n g b l o c k s f o r p o s i t i v i s m , a n d t h e m a i n i m p e t u s f o r t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f v e r s t e h e n p e r s p e c t i v e s . T h e m a i n r e a s o n f o r t h e d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n w i t h p o s i t i v i s m i s i t s m o d e l o f ( w o ) m a n , a n d m o s t o t h e r c r i t i c i s m s i n one way o r a n o t h e r f l o w f r o m t h i s ( s e e g e n e r a l l y H o l l i s , 1 9 7 7 ) ; i f human a c t i v i t y c o n f o r m s t o d e t e r m i n i s t i c l a w s humans c a n n o t h a v e t h e f r e e d o m t o c h o o s e - humans h a v e no f r e e - w i l l . I t i s t h e c o u n t e r - i n t u i t i v e n a t u r e o f t h i s m o d e l w h i c h has l e d t o t h e g r e a t d e b a t e s o v e r t h e p h i l o s p h i c a l s t a t u s o f s o c i a l s c i e n c e . F o r , as H o l l i s so a b l y d e m o n s t r a t e s , e v e r y s o c i a l t h e o r y n e e d s a m e t a p h y s i c i n w h i c h a " m o d e l o f man" a n d a m e t h o d o f s c i e n c e c o m p l e m e n t e a c h o t h e r ( 1 9 7 7 , p . 3 ) . I f t h e " m o d e l o f man" c o m p l e m e n t i n g a m e t h o d o f s c i e n c e i s p a l p a b l y d e f i c i e n t , t h e m e t h o d o f s c i e n c e i t s e l f i s t h r o w n i n t o s e v e r e d o u b t . I t i s t h i s d o u b t t h a t l e d t o t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e s o c i o l o g y o f 109 . d e v i a n c e t h r o u g h i t s m i s g i v i n g s w i t h t h e m o d e l o f " c r i m i n a l man" c o n s t r u c t e d i n t r a d i t i o n a l c r i m i n o l o g y . T h i s same s e e d o f d o u b t d o e s n o t a p p e a r t o h a v e g e r m i n a t e d i n t h e g e o g r a p h y o f c r i m e , w h e r e t h e p r o b l e m o f f r e e - w i l l has b e e n a v o i d e d t h r o u g h an i n s t r u m e n t a l i s t a p p r o a c h w h i c h s e e k s p r e d i c t i v e s t a t e m e n t s and a t t e m p t s t o d e v e l o p p r o b a b a l i s t i c r a t h e r t h a n c a u s a l l a w s . W h i l e i n s t r u m e n t a l i s m and p o s i t i v i sm may be c o n s i d e r e d as d i s t i n c t p e r s p e c t i v e s , t h e s i m i l a r i t i e s b e t w e e n t h e two a r e c l e a r e n o u g h . F o l l o w i n g t h e d i s c u s s i o n o f K e a t a n d U r r y ( 1 9 7 5 , p p . 6 3 - 6 5 ) , p o s i t i v i s m a i m s a t p r o v i d i n g e x p l a n a t o r y a n d p r e d i c t i v e k n o w l e d g e w h i l e t h e i n s t r u m e n t a l i s t p e r s p e c t i v e v i e w s t h e o r i e s as d e v i c e s s i m p l y f o r g e n e r a t i n g u s e f u l p r e d i c t i o n s . I n p r a c t i c e , h o w e v e r , t h e two a p p r a o c h e s t e n d t o g e n e r a t e t h e same k i n d o f s c i e n t i f i c a c t i v i t y , a n d i t becomes e a s y t o c o n f l a t e t h e m ( G r e g o r y , 1 9 7 8 ) . S i m i l a r l y , K e a t a n d U r r y s u g g e s t t h a t p o s i t i v i s m a n d i n s t r u m e n t a l i s m b o t h r e c o g n i z e a d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e o r e t i c a l a n d o b s e r v a t i o n a l s t a t e m e n t s . T h e p o s i t i o n s d i f f e r t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t p o s i t i v i s t s a r e c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e c o r r e s p o n d e n c e r u l e s l i n k i n g t h e o r e t i c a l a n d o b s e r v a t i o n a l t e r m s ( i n o r d e r t o be a b l e t o a s s i g n a t r u t h - v a l u e t o t h e o r e t i c a l t e r m s ) w h i l e i n s t r u m e n t a l i s t s may n o t be w o r r i e d t h a t t h e o r e t i c a l t e r m s a r e p r o p e r l y s c i e n t i f i c - i n s t e a d t h e y a r e s h o r t h a n d s t a t e m e n t s a b o u t o b s e r v a b l e s ; t h e i r c r i t e r i a o f s c i e n c e a r e p u r e l y p r a g m a t i c o n e s . M o s t i m p o r t a n t l y o f a l l i n s t r u m e n t a l i s m a n d p o s i t i v i s m r e j e c t a n y p o s i t i o n w h i c h s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e o r e t i c a l t e r m s a r e t o be i n t e r p r e t e d as r e f e r r i n g t o a c t u a l l y e x i s t e n t , 1 1 0 . e v e n i f u n o b s e r v a b l e e n t i t i e s . I t i s f o r t h e s e r e a s o n s K e a t a n d U r r y s u g g e s t t h a t i n s t r u m e n t a l and p o s i t i v i s t p o s i t i o n s h a v e b e e n so c l o s e l y i n t e r t w i n e d i n c e r t a i n w r i t e r s ( 1 9 7 5 , p . 6 5 ) . G r e g o r y ( 1 9 7 8 , p . 4 2 ) i n c l u d e s g e o g r a p h e r s as b e i n g among t h o s e f o r whom p o s i t i v i s m a n d i n s t r u m e n t a l i s m h a v e become v i r t u a l l y i n d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e ( s e e a l s o O l s s o n , 1 9 7 2 , f o r a d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e s e i s s u e s ) . W h i l e t h e s e p o s i t i o n s seem c l o s e l y i n t e r t w i n e d i n much o f t h e g e o g r a p h y o f c r i m e , t h i s may n o t be a c o n s c i o u s a n d d e l i b e r a t e c h o i c e on t h e p a r t o f i t s a d h e r e n t s . R a t h e r , i t s e e m s , t h e p h i l o s o p h y o f s o c i a l s c i e n c e g u i d i n g much g e o g r a p h i c r e s e a r c h t a k e s a m o r p h o u s f o r m i n t h e w o r l d v i e w s a n d b a c k g r o u n d a s s u m p t i o n s o f i t s a u t h o r s . Why t h i s s h o u l d be so i s an i m p o r t a n t a n d w o r t h w h i l e q u e s t i o n i n t h e s o c i o l o g y o f k n o w l e d g e , b u t i t r e m a i n s b e y o n d t h e s c o p e o f t h e p r e s e n t d i s c u s s i o n w h i c h s e r v e s t o o u t l i n e t h e p h i l o s o p h i c a l a s s u m p t i o n s g u i d i n g t h e g e o g r a p h y o f c r i m e , a n d t h e p r o b l e m s t h a t a r e r a i s e d b y c r e a t i n g a r e s e a r c h f i e l d l i m i t e d by t h e m . I n s t r u m e n t a l a n d P o s i t i v e I n f l u e n c e s on t h e G e o g r a p h y o f C r ime H a v i n g d e s c r i b e d t h e i m p e r a t i v e moods o f p o s i t i v i s m a n d i n s t r u m e n t a l i s m , t h e t a s k r e m a i n s t o f i r m l y l o c a t e t h e g e o g r a p h y o f c r i m e w i t h i n t h e s e p e r s p e c t i v e s . T h e d i s c u s s i o n d e v e l o p s a r o u n d a number o f t h e m e s : 1 1 1 . 1) Most rese a r c h has d e a l t with observable (and q u a n t i f i a b l e ) e n t i t i e s i n a form of s t a t i s t i c a l empiricism. 2) A d i s t i n c t i o n i s made between o b s e r v a t i o n a l d i s c o u r s e ( d e s c r i p t i o n of p a t t e r n s ) and t h e o r e t i c a l d i s c o u r s e ( e x p l a n a t i o n or p r e d i c t i o n of p a t t e r n s ) . 3) O b s e r v a t i o n a l c a t e g o r i e s in the form of crime s t a t i s t i c s conform to d i s c r e t e behaviour types. 4) A number of authors see p r e d i c t i o n as the primary goal of c r i m i n o l o g i c a l r e s e a r c h . Because these themes are i n t e r c o n n e c t e d a general d i s c u s s i o n of them f o l l o w s . For the most part the geography of crime has been based on the a n a l y s i s of o f f i c i a l crime s t a t i s t i c s . Crime c a t e g o r i e s are t r e a t e d as o b s e r v a t i o n a l terms, and although geographers have taken pains to point out the instrumental or t e c h n i c a l problems a s s o c i a t e d with i n t e r p r e t i n g o f f i c i a l s t a t i s t i c s , very l i t t l e c o n s i d e r a t i o n has been given to the argument that the problems i n v o l v e d with t h e i r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n are theoret i c a l . The suggestion made here i s that the p o s i t i v i s t d i s t i n c t i o n of o b s e r v a t i o n a l and t h e o r e t i c a l languages i s h i g h l y probiemat i c. Since t h i s a s s e r t i o n as a p p l i e d to o f f i c i a l s t a t i s t i c s forms the subject of the next chapter (because i t i s i n t r i n s i c to any c r i m i n o l o g i c a l a n a l y s i s ) the important point for the moment i s that i n geog r a p h i c a l a n a l y s i s the meaning of crime c a t e g o r i e s i s taken as unproblematic (except i n c e r t a i n t e c h n i c a l senses - and these u s u a l l y r e f e r to the meaning of crime r a t e s rather than c r i m e s ) . A l t e r n a t i v e t h e o r e t i c a l 112. p e r s p e c t i v e s s u g g e s t t h a t c r i m e s t a t i s t i c s a r e o b j e c t s o f s t u d y i n t h e i r own r i g h t , a n d o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f how t h e y a r e c o n s t i t u t e d i m p o r t a n t l y i n f l u e n c e s b o t h o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g a n d e x p l a n a t i o n o f c r i m e . T h e p r o b l e m t h i s r a i s e s i s t h a t t o r e f e r t o maps o f c r i m e r a t e s as d e s c r i p t i o n s o f t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f c r i m i n a l o r d e l i n q u e n t b e h a v i o u r m i s s e s a number o f t h e o r e t i c a l a s s u m p t i o n s a b o u t wha t c r i m e a n d o f f i c i a l c r i m e s t a t i s t i c s m e a n . I t i s t h i s i m p l i c i t a s s u m p t i o n a b o u t w h a t o f f i c i a l s t a t i s t i c s mean t h a t l e a d s t o t h e s u b s e q u e n t a n a l y t i c t a c t i c o f a t t e m p t i n g t o e c o l o g i c a l l y " e x p l a i n " c r i m e by v a r i o u s s o c i o -e c o n o m i c c e n s u s v a r i a b l e s and o t h e r i n d i c a t o r s . What i s t a k e n as a d e s c r i p t i o n i n f a c t c o n t a i n s t h e t h e o r e t i c a l p r e m i s e t h a t c r i m e r a t e s i n d e x c r i m i n a l a c t i v i t i e s r a t h e r t h a n c r i m e c o n t r o l a c t i v i t i e s , f o r t h e s u b s e q u e n t a n a l y t i c t e c h n i q u e s u s e d c o u l d n o t r e a l l y be b r o u g h t t o b e a r on t h e l a t t e r p o s s i b i l i t y ! A n d y e t a s u b s t a n t i a l 1 i t e r a t u r e w i t h i n c r i m i n o l o g y i s d e v o t e d t o t h i s v e r y p o s s i b i l i t y , some o f w h i c h a r g u e s t h a t c r i m e r a t e s a r e i n d e p e n d e n t r a t h e r t h a n d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e s . I n a t y p i c a l i n s t r u m e n t a l i s t a p p r o a c h g e o g r a p h e r s h a v e t e n d e d t o make p r e d i c t i o n r a t h e r t h a n e x p l a n a t i o n t h e o b j e c t o f s c i e n t i f i c i n q u i r y . H a r r i e s ( 1 9 7 4 , p p . 1 1 5 - 1 2 1 ) , f o r e x a m p l e , p r o p o s e s t h r e e e l e m e n t s t o a g e o g r a p h i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e ; g e o g r a p h i c d e s c r i p t i o n , g e o g r a p h i c a n a l y s i s a n d g e o g r a p h i c p r e d i c t i o n . T h e d e s c r i p t i v e e l e m e n t r e f e r s l a r g e l y t o m a p p i n g t e c h n i q u e s w h i c h p u r p o r t t o d i s p l a y ( i n c l a s s i c p o s i t i v i s t f a s h i o n ) t h e s p a t i a l d i s t r i b u t i o n s o f o b s e r v a t i o n a l c a t e g o r i e s - r e c o r d e d c r i m e s . T h e d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n d e s c r i p t i o n a n d 1 1 3 . a n a l y s i s f o r H a r r i e s i s t h a t t h e f o r m e r i s e s s e n t i a l l y a p r o c e s s o f o r d e r i n g f a c t s " . . . m a k i n g t h e c h a o s o f r e a l i t y t o some e x t e n t c o m p r e h e n s i b l e . . . " , w h i l e t h e l a t t e r " . . . i n v o l v e s t e s t i n g a h y p o t h e s i s a n d t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f b a s e s f o r p r e d i c t i o n . " W h i l e H a r r i e s a c k n o w l e d g e s t h e r o l e o f g e o g r a p h i c a n a l y s i s i n d e v e l o p i n g c a u s a l t h e o r y , i n t y p i c a l i n s t r u m e n t a l i s t f a s h i o n he i s m o s t c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e p r a g m a t i c p o t e n t i a l o f a n a l y t i c a p p r o a c h e s w h i c h p r o m i s e p r e d i c t i v e c a p a c i t i e s : " P r e d i c t i o n , d e p e n d i n g on t h e l e v e l o f i t s r e l i a b i l t y , may be t h e m o s t v a l u a b l e e n d p r o d u c t o f a n y s o c i a l s c i e n c e i n v e s t i g a t i o n . E v e n some s u c c e s s i n p r e d i c t i o n i s o f t e n w o r t h w h i l e , s i n c e i t c r e a t e s an a w a r e n e s s o f t e n d e n c i e s w i t h i n a s y s t e m , w i t h o u t n e c e s s a r i l y s p e c i f y i n g e i t h e r t h e p a r a m e t e r s o f t h o s e t e n d e n c i e s o r u n d e r l y i n g c a u s e s . " ( 1 9 7 4 , p . 1 2 0 ) W h i l e H a r r i e s does n o t d i s m i s s t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f d e v e l o p i n g c a u s a l t h e o r i e s f r o m g e o g r a p h i c a n a l y s i s , t h e g e o g r a p h i c l i t e r a t u r e , as n o t e d e a r l i e r , has r e c e n t l y b e e n a c c u s e d o f r e m a i n i n g r e l a t i v e l y l i m i t e d i n i t s r o l e o f a d v a n c i n g c r i m i n o l o g i c a l t h e o r y . T h i s p r o b l e m D u n n a t t r i b u t e s t o t h e d i f f i c u l t y o f i n f e r r i n g e x p l a n a t i o n s f r o m a r e a l o b s e r v a t i o n s ( 1 9 8 0 , p . 2 0 ) . I n a s e n s e D u n n ' s o b s e r v a t i o n i s c o r r e c t , b u t i t begs t h e q u e s t i o n as t o why t h i s p r o b l e m s h o u l d e x i s t . T h e e c o l o g i c a l f a l l a c y ( t h e p r o b l e m o f m a k i n g i n f e r e n c e s a b o u t i n d i v i d u a l s f r o m a g g r e g a t e d a t a - R o b i n s o n , 1 9 6 0 ) i s c e r t a i n l y p a r t o f t h e p r o b l e m a n d a r e a a n a l y s e s a l m o s t demand an i n s t r u m e n t a l i s t a p p r o a c h . T h e i n v o c a t i o n o f p r o b a b i l i s t i c s t a t e m e n t s r a t h e r t h a n c a u s a l s t a t e m e n t s i s one 1 1 4 . way o f s u r m o u n t i n g t h e e c o l o g i c a l f a l l a c y . B u t w h a t t h i s t a c t i c c a n n o t g e t a r o u n d i s t h e g e o g r a p h i c i n f e r e n c e p r o b l e m ( O l s s o n , 1 9 7 4 ) w h e r e b y a number o f d i f f e r e n t a r e a p r o c e s s e s may p r o d u c e t h e same a r e a e f f e c t s . T h e p r o b l e m o f g e o g r a p h i c i n f e r e n c e i s a c o m p o n e n t o f t h e m o r e g e n e r a l p r o b l e m o f e q u i f i n a l i t y w h i c h i n d i c a t e s t h a t p r e d i c t i o n a n d e x p l a n a t i o n c a n n o t be s y n o n y m o u s . T h e s e a r c h f o r p r e d i c t i o n , a n d t h e m e t h o d o l o g y u s e d t o a c h i e v e i t ha s b e e n an i m p o r t a n t e l e m e n t i n r e t a r d i n g c r i m i n o l o g i c a l t h e o r y d e v e l o p m e n t i n g e o g r a p h y . T h e r e s e a r c h s t r a t e g y o f t h e g e o g r a p h y o f c r i m e has l a r g e l y b e e n l i m i t e d t o t h e a v a i l a b l e t e c h n i c a l i n s t r u m e n t s o f q u a n t i t a t i v e t e c h n i q u e s . I n k e e p i n g w i t h an i n s t r u m e n t a l i s t p h i l o s o p h y , t h e r a t i o n a l e u s u a l l y g i v e n t o j u s t i f y t h i s s t r a t e g y i s on p r a g m a t i c g r o u n d s : t h e r e s e a r c h f u n d i n g n e e d e d t o p r o v i d e a l t e r n a t i v e m e a s u r e s t o o f f i c i a l c r i m e s t a t i s t i c s a n d c e n s u s m e a s u r e s a r e i n d e e d p r o h i b i t i v e . B u t t h e t e n d e n c y t o make o f f i c i a l s t a t i s t i c s i n one way o r a n o t h e r t h e s i n e q u a non o f t h e g e o g r a p h y o f c r i m e r u l e s o u t many o t h e r s o u r c e s o f i n f o r m a t i o n w h i c h m i g h t be h e l p f u l i n d e v e l o p i n g t h e o r y a b o u t s p a t i a l a s p e c t s o f c r i m e . P a r t i c i p a n t o b s e r v e r a n d o b s e r v e r s t u d i e s h a v e a l o n g t r a d i t i o n i n c r i m i n o l o g y b e g i n n i n g w i t h t h e C h i c a g o S c h o o l , a n d i n w i d e r s o c i a l r e s e a r c h c a n be t r a c e d b a c k t o M a y h e w ' s s t u d i e s ( 1 8 6 2 ) . U n f o r t u n a t e l y m o s t r e c e n t s t u d i e s o f t h i s t y p e h a v e f o c u s e d on m o r a l i t y c r i m e s - e . g . P o l s k y ( 1 9 6 9 ) , M i l n e r a n d M i l n e r ( 1 9 7 2 ) , H u m p h r e y ( 1 9 7 5 ) , a n d P r u s a n d I r i n i ( 1 9 8 0 ) . P o l s k y ' s comments a b o u t t h e p r o b l e m s i n v o l v e d w i t h p a r t i c i p a n t o b s e r v a t i o n a r e p a r t i c u l a r l y p e r t i n e n t f o r 1 1 5 . t h e y do t e n d t o c o r r o b o r a t e t h e a p p a r e n t m i s g i v i n g s g e o g r a p h e r s s h a r e o v e r t h e d i f f i c u l t y o f t h i s k i n d o f r e s e a r c h . B u t t o a r g u e t h a t s o m e t h i n g i s d i f f i c u l t does n o t mean t o s a y t h a t i t i s i m p o s s i b l e o r c o m p a r a b l y l e s s w o r t h w h i l e t h a n t h e u s u a l k i n d o f a s s o c i a t i o n a l a n a l y s e s e m e r g i n g f r o m e c o l o g i c a l a p p r o a c h e s . W h i l e t h i s may be t r u e i t i s n o t e w o r t h y t h a t c r i m i n o l o g i s t s and s o c i o l o g i s t s h a v e n o t m a n a g e d t o p e n e t r a t e t h e w o r l d s o f b u r g l a r s , r o b b e r s a n d r a p i s t s , e x c e p t w h e r e t h e s e a r e e x p r e s s i o n s o f d i s t i n c t j u v e n i l e g r o u p s ( t h u s C a r t e r a n d H i l l ' s i n t e r v i e w s w i t h f e l o n s , 1 9 7 9 , m a r k an i m p o r t a n t and i n n o v a t i v e b r e a k w i t h t h e e c o l o g i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e ) . B u t i n t h a t j u v e n i l e s may c o n t r i b u t e t h e g r e a t e r p r o p o r t i o n o f t h e b u r g l a r y , a n d a s i g n i f i c a n t p r o p o r t i o n o f t h e r o b b e r y o f f e n c e s ( i n t e r m s o f r e p o r t e d c r i m e s ) , t h e s u g g e s t i o n t h a t p a r t i c p a n t o b s e r v e r s h a v e o n l y b e e n c o n c e r n e d w i t h " f r i n g e " o r " e x o t i c " c r i m e s seems l e s s c o m p e l l i n g . A f u r t h e r i m p o r t a n t p o i n t g i v e n t h e e m p h a s i s o f t h i s s t u d y i s t h a t p a r t i c i p a n t o b s e r v a t i o n s t u d i e s o f c r i m e c o n t r o l a g e n t s may a l s o become c e n t r a l t o o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f c r i m e . T h u s E r i c s o n ' s w o r k ( 1 9 8 1 , 1 9 8 2 ) , as we s h a l l s e e i n C h a p t e r 6 , o f f e r s a v e r y d i f f e r e n t k i n d o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f c r i m e r a t e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e p r o b l e m o f t h e " d a r k f i g u r e o f c r i m e " i n an a n a l y s i s w h i c h i s i n a c c e s s i b l e t o t h e t e c h n i c a l p r o t o c o l s o f s o c i a l e c o l o g y a n d o t h e r t y p e s o f a r e a l a n a l y s i s . G i l l ' s ( 1 9 7 7 ) p a r t i c i p a n t o b s e r v a t i o n s t u d y o f y o u t h s i n L i v e r p o o l s u g g e s t s how t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n a n d f o r m a t i o n o f c r i m i n a l a r e a s ( s o - c a l l e d ) may become a s e l f - f u l f i l l i n g p r o p h e c y i n c e r t a i n 1 1 6 . cases, as crime c o n t r o l a c t i v i t i e s themselves c o n t r i b u t e to the c r e a t i o n of crime and exacerbate c r i m i n a l a c t i v i t y . The p e r s i s t e n c e of the i n s t r u m e n t a l i s t d i r e c t i o n of the geography of crime i s a l l the more s u r p r i s i n g given i t s i n t e l l e c t u a l h e r i t a g e . While many geographers have observed that c r i m i n o l o g y i t s e l f p a r t l y developed through a m a n i f e s t l y geographic approach ( i n the s t u d i e s of Guerry, 1833; Q u e t e l e t , 1842; Rawstron, 1839, 1843; and, to some extent, Mayhew, 1862; and Booth, 1903) the Chicago School of s o c i o l o g i c a l c r i m i n o l o g y i s p a i d the g r e a t e s t homage as the p r i n c i p a l mentor of the geography of crime (e.g. George, 1978, p. 3). As much as Chicago School s o c i o l o g y has had c o n s i d e r a b l e i n f l u e n c e i n cr i m i n o l o g y (see Matza, 1969), i t i s the area analyses of C l i f f o r d Shaw and Henry McKay that give the main impetus to the geography of crime. It i s t h e i r area a n a l y t i c method that geographers have fo l l o w e d , u s u a l l y disavowing the t h e o r e t i c a l framework from which i t issues (although s u r p r i s i n g l y , Georges, 1975, pp. 11-15, r e v i v e s the t h e o r e t i c a l concepts of human ecology as a s u i t a b l e framework f o r "a s p a t i a l and e c o l o g i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e " ). The p e r s i s t e n c e of the i n s t r u m e n t a l i s t modus operandi i n geography i s s u r p i s i n g to the extent that the Chicago School, as mentioned e a r l i e r , was as much i n t e r e s t e d i n understanding delinquency as i t was i n e x p l a i n i n g i t (and only, i t appears, t a n g e n t i a l l y i n p r e d i c t i n g i t ) . Geographers i n t e r e s t e d i n crime (with the exce p t i o n of Ley, 1975) have not attempted to develop the kind of methods used by Shaw i n the J a c k r o l 1 e r 117. ( 1 9 3 0 ) o r by T h r a s h e r i n T h e G a n g , ( 1 9 3 6 ) . I n t h i s s e n s e t h e C h i c a g o S c h o o l p e r s p e c t i v e c o n t a i n e d e l e m e n t s o f b o t h e r k l a r e n a n d v e r s t e h e n p e r s p e c t i v e s , t r e a t i n g d e l i n q u e n t s as b o t h s u b j e c t s a n d o b j e c t s . P a r k a n d B u r g e s s w e r e as much i n f l u e n c e d by t h e i n t e r a c t i o n i s t t r a d i t i o n as t h e y w e r e by b i o l o g i c a l s c i e n c e a n d t h e f l a v o u r o f s c i e n t i s m c o n t a i n e d i n i t . Y e t t h i s i n t e r a c t i o n i s t e l e m e n t ( i . e . t h e a t t e m p t t o i n t e r p r e t i n t e r s u b j e c t i v e l y t h e phenomenon u n d e r s t u d y , as o p p o s e d t o e x p l a i n i n g t h e c a u s e f o r i t w i t h o u t c o n s i d e r i n g i t s m e a n i n g ) ha s b e e n f i l t e r e d o u t i n t h e i m p o r t a t i o n o f C h i c a g o s o c i o l o g y i n t o g e o g r a p h y - i n s t e a d i t i s t o t h e c o r r e c t i o n a l i s t , l a w as c o n s e n s u s , and a r e a - a s s o c i a t i o n a l a n a l y s i s themes o f t h e C h i c a g o a n s t h a t t h e g e o g r a p h y o f c r i m e has t u r n e d . B e c a u s e D a n i e l G e o r g e s e p i t o m i z e s t h i s a p p r o a c h i n T h e G e o g r a p h y o f C r i m e a n d V i o l e n c e , a n d has a t t e m p t e d t o l a y t h e " g e n e r a l g r o u n d r u l e s " f o r t h e g e o g r a p h y o f c r i m e , i t i s w o r t h l o o k i n g i n some d e t a i l a t h i s v i s i o n o f t h e m e t h o d s and p u r p o s e s o f s u c h an e n t e r p r i s e . " T h e G e o g r a p h y o f C r i m e a n d V i o l e n c e " : A n U n w a r r a n t e d T h e o r e t i c a l F o r e c l o s u r e . T h e a p p r o a c h t a k e n b y D a n i e l G e o r g e s i n h i s G e o g r a p h y o f C r i m e a n d V i o l e n c e seems t o c h a r a c t e r i z e much o f t h e r e s e a r c h c o n d u c t e d i n t h e s u b d i s c i p l i n e . A s a n i n f l u e n t i a l p u b l i c a t i o n o f t h e A s s o c i a t i o n o f A m e r i c a n G e o g r a p h e r s , i t i s o r i e n t e d t o w a r d b o t h i n t r o d u c t o r y a n d a d v a n c e d s t u d e n t s , a n d e f f e c t i v e l y 1 1 8 . l o c a t e s t h e g e o g r a p h y o f c r i m e i n a p a r t i c u l a r l y r i g i d t h e o r e t i c a l , p h i l o s o p h i c a l a n d m e t h o d o l o g i c a l g r i d . A s w e l l as a d v o c a t i n g t h e a n a l y t i c s e p a r a t i o n o f c r i m e a n d j u s t i c e ( p . 2 ) , t h e p a p e r i s u n a v o w e d l y c o r r e c t i o n a l i s t ( p . 20 ) a n d c o n t a i n s an i m p l i c i t c o n s e n s u s m o d e l o f l a w f o r m a t i o n . T h e " g r o u n d r u l e s " i t l a y s down a r e a m i x t u r e o f o p e r a t i o n a l i s m , i n s t r u m e n t a l i s m a n d p o s i t i v i s m , a n d t h e d e s c r i p t i o n o f t hem e f f e c t i v e l y p r o h i b i t s o t h e r k i n d s o f p h i l o s o p h i c a l a p p r o a c h . I n s h o r t t h e g r o u n d r u l e s c o n t a i n a n u n f o r t u n a t e a n d u n w a r r a n t e d t h e o r e t i c a l f o r e c l o s u r e . I n l a y i n g o u t t h e g r o u n d r u l e s f o r t h e g e o g r a p h y o f c r i m e G e o r g e s o p e n s w i t h a s t a t e m e n t so h e a v i l y l o a d e d w i t h p h i l o s o p h i c a l p r e s c r i p t i o n s t h a t i t s s i m p l i c i t y i s d e c e p t i v e ( p . 1 8 ) ; " o n c e a d a t a s o u r c e has b e e n i d e n t i f i e d . . . " . One m i g h t a d v o c a t e as t h e i n i t i a l s t a g e o f a n y f o r m o f s c i e n t i f i c r e s e a r c h t h e a s k i n g o f a w o r t h w h i l e q u e s t i o n , o r i n m o r e r e s t r i c t e d p o s i t i v i s t t e r m s o f c o n s t r u c t i n g a t e s t a b l e h y p o t h e s i s . P r e s u m a b l y i n t h i s v e r s i o n o f t h e g e o g r a p h y o f c r i m e t h e t h e o r e t i c a l q u e s t i o n s emerge f r o m t h e d a t a , b u t t h e r e i s no g u a r a n t e e g i v e n t h e n a t u r e o f c r i m e d a t a s o u r c e s m e n t i o n e d ( p p . 1 7 - 1 8 ) t h a t s u c h q u e s t i o n s w i l l be o t h e r t h a n t r i v i a l , a t l e a s t i n t e r m s o f t h e o r y . T h e d a t a s o u r c e s G e o r g e s i d e n t i f i e s a r e s i g n i f i c a n t . He m e n t i o n s t h e U n i f o r m C r ime R e p o r t s , L a w E n f o r c e m e n t a n d A s s i s t a n c e A d m i n i s t r a t i o n s t u d i e s on v i c t i m i z a t i o n , t h e N a t i o n a l O p i n i o n R e s e a r c h C e n t e r S u r v e y s , p u b l i c a t i o n s o f t h e O f f i c e o f V i t a l S t a t i s t i c s , t h e P u b l i c H e a l t h S e r v i c e s S t a t i s t i c a l A b s t r a c t s , v a r i o u s s t a t e r e p o r t i n g 119 . a g e n c i e s , l o c a l a g e n c i e s s u c h as h o s p i t a l s , D i s t r i c t A t t o r n e y s o f f i c e s a n d p o l i c e d e p a r t m e n t s a n d a l s o d a t a p r o v i d e d by c e r t a i n p r i v a t e o r g a n i z a t i o n s - - t h e A m e r i c a n B a n k e r s A s s o c i a t i o n , t h e N a t i o n a l B o a r d o f F i r e U n d e r w r i t e r s a n d t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l A s s o c i a t i o n o f A r s o n I n v e s t i g a t o r s . N o w h e r e i s t h e r e a n y r e a l m e c h a n i s m f o r p r o b i n g a n y t h i n g b u t s t r e e t c r i m e . N o r i s t h e r e a n y way o f c o n s i d e r i n g d a t a f r o m i n f o r m a l s o u r c e s o r f r o m p a r t i c i p a n t o b s e r v a t i o n . T h e i d e a o f c r e a t i n g o n e ' s own d a t a by i n t e r v i e w i n g c o n v i c t s d u r i n g t h e i r i n c a r c e r a t i o n o r a f t e r t h e i r r e l e a s e , a s t r a t e g y u s e d by C a r t e r a n d H i l l ( 1 9 7 9 ) , i s s i m i l a r l y r u l e d o u t . T h e s e s o u r c e s seem t o be i m p l i c i t y d i s m i s s e d as u n r e a l , u n s c i e n t i f i c , o r u n a t t a i n a b l e . G e o r g e s ' c h o i c e o f d a t a s o u r c e s i n s t a n t l y r e d u c e s t h e r e s e a r c h p r o g r a m t o a f o r m o f r o u t i n i z e d s t a t i s t i c a l i n s t r u m e n t a l i s m . D e s i g n e d t h i s w a y , t h e g e o g r a p h y o f c r i m e i s r e s t r i c t e d , as G e o r g e s n o t e s , t o a s s o c i a t i o n a l a n a l y s e s o f f a i r l y l a r g e -s c a l e g e o g r a p h i c u n i t s . T h e g r o u n d r u l e s f l o w i n g f r o m t h i s s t r a t e g y a r e a l m o s t p u r e l y i n s t r u m e n t a l a n d s e r i o u s l y l i m i t i n g . T h e f i r s t g r o u n d r u l e s u g g e s t s t h a t " t h e s u b j e c t t o be s t u d i e d i s e x p r e s s e d i n s p a t i a l f o r m o r c a n be a n a l y s e d f r o m a s p a t i a l p e r s p e c t i v e . " P r e s u m a b l y by " s u b j e c t " G e o r g e s means " d a t a " , f o r c r i m i n a l b e h a v i o u r i s n e c e s s a r i l y s p a t i a l , a n d , l i k e a l m o s t a n y o t h e r s o c i a l p h e n o m e n o n c a n be a n a l y z e d f r o m a s p a t i a l p e r s p e c t i v e . B u t as a l r e a d y n o t e d , s p a t i a l a n a l y s i s as an e x c l u s i v e m e t h o d o l o g y b e a r s l i m i t e d f r u i t . 1 2 0 . The second ground r u l e concerns various kinds of mapping techniques and once again the data sources appear to c o n t r o l the kind of re s e a r c h s t r a t e g y one may adopt. The dot, r a t e , r a d i a l and zone maps Georges mentions co n s p i c u o u s l y a l l deal with d i s t r i b u t i o n s of crimes, c r i m i n a l s or other s o c i a l i n d i c a t o r s at f i x e d p o i n t s in time. Nowhere in the d e s c r i p t i o n of these maps i s there any way of p e n e t r a t i n g s p a t i a l processes s i n c e they a l l p e r t a i n to f i x e d s p a t i a l pat t e r n s • Moreover, there are few ways of p e n e t r a t i n g the issue made c e n t r a l in t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n , the r e l a t i o n s h i p of crime and crime c o n t r o l . The t h i r d ground r u l e concerns the d i s t i n c t i o n between crime and v i o l e n c e . Georges makes t h i s point because not a l l acts of v i o l e n c e represent v i o l a t i o n s of law. Quite why Georges should draw t h i s d i s t i n c t i o n ( i t has no r e a l b e a r i n g on the a n a l y s i s ) when he omits other s i m i l a r c o n s i d e r a t i o n s i s uncle a r ; e x p r o p r i a t i o n i s not t h e f t , N a t i o n a l and P r o v i n c i a l l o t t e r i e s are not numbers r a c k e t s , and many corporate i n f r a c t i o n s are o f t e n d e a l t with under c i v i l rather than c r i m i n a l law. The f o u r t h and f i f t h ground r u l e s r e l a t e to the sharpening and r e f i n i n g of the instrumental techniques l a i d out e a r l i e r . The f o u r t h r u l e advocates the choice of the s m a l l e s t s p a t i a l s c a l e p o s s i b l e w h i l e the f i f t h recommends the use of suspect rather than a r r e s t data. Here Georges comes c l o s e to breaking out of a s t a t i s t i c a l i n s t r u m e n t a l i s t framework, i n that h i s reason f o r us i n g suspect data r e l a t e s to the way a r r e s t data may be bia s e d by such f a c t o r s as economic and s o c i a l c l a s s , 121. r a c e and e t h n i c i t y , a n d , by e x t e n s i o n , how t h e s e b i a s e s may s e r i o u s l y d i s t o r t c r i m e r a t e m a p s . B u t h a v i n g n o t e d t h i s p r o b l e m , as many g e o g r a p h e r s d o , G e o r g e s does n o t o f f e r a n y r e s o l u t i o n ; w h i l e s u s p e c t d a t a may p r o v i d e m o r e h e a d s t o c o u n t , G e o r g e s does n o t p r o v i d e a n y t h e o r e t i c a l o r e m p i r i c a l j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r t h e i r b e i n g l e s s b i a s e d t h a n a r r e s t d a t a . T o do so w o u l d be t o l e a v e t h e i n s t r u m e n t a l i s t e p i s t e m o l o g y w h i c h s t r u c t u r e s a n d l i m i t s t h e i n q u i r y . I n t o t o t h e i n s t r u m e n t a l i s t p r o g r a m G e o r g e s l a y s o u t f o r e c l o s e s t h e p o s s i b l e u s e o f a v a r i e t y o f o t h e r m e t h o d o l o g i e s f o u n d e d on a l t e r n a t i v e e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l p o s i t i o n s . T h e r e s e a r c h m a n i f e s t o l i m i t s t h e k i n d o f q u e s t i o n s t o be a s k e d i n a g e o g r a p h i c p e r s p e c t i v e o f c r i m e a n d , as a r e s u l t , t h e k i n d o f e x p l a n a t i o n s p o s s i b l e . T h e p o t e n t i a l c o n n e c t i o n s o f c r i m e a n d c r i m e c o n t r o l a r e r e n d e r e d l a r g e l y i n a c c e s s i b l e i n t h i s a p p r o a c h w h i c h , by i t s c h o i c e o f d a t a s o u r c e s , i s r e s t r i c t e d t o o f f i c i a l i m a g e s o f c r i m i n a l s ( o r s u s p e c t s ) a n d t h e o f f i c i a l i n c i d e n c e o f c r i m e . A p r i m a f a c i e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f o f f i c i a l s t a t i s t i c s i s u s e d b e c a u s e o f t h e o p e r a t i o n a l d e f i n i t i o n o f c r i m e as t h e o f f i c i a l l y r e c o r d e d s e g m e n t o f i t . I f , h o w e v e r , o f f i c i a l s t a t i s t i c s a r e somehow s p a t i a l l y b i a s e d as a r e s u l t o f c o n t r o l a c t i v i t i e s , a n d a number o f c r i m i n o l o g i s t s h a v e i m p l i e d t h a t t h e y a r e , j u s t w h a t i s i t t h a t a r e a a s s o c i a t i o n a l a n a l y s e s m e a s u r e ? Do c r i m e r a t e s p r o v i d e an u n b i a s e d s a m p l e o f t h e r e a l amount o f c r i m e ( c a n we e v e r a s k t h e q u e s t i o n w h e t h e r t h e r e i s a " r e a l " amount o f c r i m e ) ? O r do t h e s e r a t e s r e f l e c t t h e a c t i v i t i e s o f c r i m e c o n t r o l l e r s ? O r b o t h ? T h e s e q u e s t i o n s 122. c a n n o t be a n s w e r e d w i t h o u t t r e a t i n g o f f i c i a l c r i m e s t a t i s t i c s as an o b j e c t o f s t u d y i n t h e i r own r i g h t . S i n c e g e o g r a p h e r s h a v e p a i d l i t t l e a t t e n t i o n t o t h e s e i s s u e s t h e y become t h e s u b j e c t o f t h e n e x t c h a p t e r . I n m o r e g e n e r a l t e r m s t h e d i s c u s s i o n o f o f f i c i a l s t a t i s t i c s m a r k s a c h a n g e o f e m p h a s i s i n t h e t e x t . T h e k e y p o i n t e m e r g i n g f r o m t h e c r i t i q u e o f t h e g e o g r a p h y o f c r i m e c o n c e r n s t h e t h e o r e t i c a l a n d m e t h o d o l o g i c a l p r o b l e m s c r e a t e d by t h e a b s t r a c t i o n o f c r i m e f r o m t h e s o c i o - l e g a l c o n t e x t i n w h i c h i t o c c u r s . T h e t a s k now becomes one o f s p e c i f y i n g t h e t y p e s o f r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n c r i m e a n d c o n t r o l t h a t n e e d t o be t a k e n i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n i n t h e s p a t i a l a n a l y s i s o f c r i m e . I n C h a p t e r 5 t h e d i s c u s s i o n o f o f f i c i a l s t a t i s t i c s a d d r e s s e s t h e e f f e c t o f t h e " c o n t r o l e n v i r o n m e n t " i n s p e c i f y i n g who t h e c r i m i n a l s a r e . I n C h a p t e r s 6 t h r o u g h 9 t h e f o c u s o f t h e d i s c u s s i o n c h a n g e s t o t h e e f f e c t s o f t h e " c o n t r o l e n v i r o n m e n t " on p a t t e r n s o f c r i m e a n d c r i m i n a l r e s i d e n c e . N e e d l e s s t o s a y t h e two d i s c u s s i o n s a r e i n t i m a t e l y r e l a t e d t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f c r i m e a n d c r i m i n a l r e s i d e n c e p a t t e r n s d e p e n d s on o u r c o n c e p t i o n o f who t h e c r i m i n a l s a r e . 1 2 3 . Notes to Chapter 4 1. Beginning with Shaw and McKay's work (Shaw et a l , 1929; Shaw and McKay, 1931, 1942) and c o n t i n u i n g i n what i s now a long t r a d i t i o n of a r e a l s t u d i e s of crime e.g.: Cohen (1941); Hayner (1946); Shannon (1954-55); Schmid (1960); S t o t t (I960); S c h e u s s l e r (1961-62); Mays (1963, 1968); Boggs (1966); Sterne (1967); Wilks (1967); S l a t i n (1968); Amir (1971); Voss and Petersen (1971); Schmid and Schmid (1972). T h i s l i s t i s by f a r from being complete. For reviews ( i n c l u d i n g work of geographers) see Baldwin (1975); Herbert (1976, 1977A, 1982); and Davidson (1981). 2. The c r i t i c i s m should not be overextended at t h i s p o i n t . The suggestion i s that many geographers have not s y s t e m a t i c a l l y examined the t h e o r e t i c a l and e m p i r i c a l i m p l i c a t i o n s of the r e l a t i o n s h i p s between crime and j u s t i c e . T h i s i s not to say that c e r t a i n geographers have not recognized the potent i a l importance of the l i n k s . H a r r i e s , for example, suggests that the e f f e c t s of the c o n t r o l environment should not be overlooked (1980, pp. 63-64, 116). And, c o n t r a r y to my e a r l i e r suggestion that he never c o n s i d e r s these r e l a t i o n s h i p s i n h i s 1974 volume (Lowman, 1982, p. 307), a p a s s i n g r e f e r e n c e to the r e l a t i o n s h i p s i s made on pages 115-116. 3. Again there are some exceptions to t h i s - Ley's work on gangs (1975) and h i s paper co-authored with Cybriwsky (1974) are c o n t e x t u a l analyses of crime and delinquency. The s t r i p p e d cars paper (Ley and Cybriwsky, 1974) i s p a r t i c u l a r l y u s e f u l f o r showing the shortcomings of an e c o l o g i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e . In t h i s case an e c o l o g i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e would not be able to d i s c o v e r the m i c r o - l e v e l s p a t i a l p a t t e r n s i d e n t i f i e d by Ley and Cybriwsky. 4. T h i s "managerial" theme has a l s o been taken up by other s o c i a l geographers; see, f o r example, Gray (1976); W i l l i a m s (1979); and f o r a general review Robson (1979). 5. While Kress does not appear to be a geographer by t r a i n i n g , the paper appears i n a volume e d i t e d by the geographers Georges-Abeyie and H a r r i e s . 6. S u r p r i s i n g because there appears to have been a c o n s i d e r a b l e demise of e c o l o g i c a l theory i n s o c i a l s c i e n c e beginning with the c r i t i q u e of A l i h a n (19 38). Apart from t h e i r use of the term "delinquency areas" i t i s debatable whether Shaw and McKay made much use of e c o l o g i c a l concepts. In more general terms the Chicago s o c i o l o g i s t s o f f e r e d a number of d i f f e r e n t e x planations f o r the o r i g i n of n a t u r a l areas ( M o r r i s , 1957, pp. 9-10). Georges a l s o misses the i m p l i c a t i o n s of Robison's (1937) c r i t i q u e of Shaw and McKay which suggests that delinquency i s unmeasurable. 124. C h a p t e r 5 C r i m i n o l o g i c a l P e r s p e c t i v e s I n A c t i o n : I n t e r p r e t i n g O f f i c i a l S t a t i s t i c s T h e d i s c u s s i o n t o t h i s p o i n t has b e e n c o u c h e d i n g e n e r a l t h e o r e t i c a l and p h i l o s o p h i c a l t e r m s i d e n t i f y i n g t h r e e m a i n p e r s p e c t i v e s i n s o c i o l o g i c a l c r i m i n o l o g y . I t has shown how g e o g r a p h i c r e s e a r c h on c r i m e a n d j u s t i c e m o s t l y b u i l d s on t h e p r e m i s e s a n d p r i n c i p l e s o f w h a t has v a r i o u s l y b e e n t e r m e d t r a d i t i o n a l o r p o s i t i v i s t c r i m i n o l o g y . T h e i m p l i c a t i o n s o f t h e k i n d s o f k n o w l e d g e g e n e r a t e d by i n t e r a c t i o n i s t a n d c r i t i c a l a p p r o a c h e s r e m a i n l a r g e l y u n d e v e l o p e d by g e o g r a p h e r s s t u d y i n g c r i m e . W h i l e i n t e r a c t i o n i s t a n d c r i t i c a l a p p r o a c h e s a r e d i v i d e d o v e r a number o f f u n d a m e n t a l l y i m p o r t a n t i s s u e s , t h e y f i n d common g r o u n d i n r e c o m m e n d i n g an a p p r o a c h t o c r i m e w h i c h i s c o u c h e d w i t h i n a m o r e g e n e r a l s o c i o l o g y o f l a w a n d s o c i a l c o n t r o l . T h e y a r e u n i t e d a g a i n s t t h e t r a d i t i o n a l p e r s p e c t i v e w h i c h , by f o c u s i n g a l m o s t e x c l u s i v e l y on c r i m e o r t h e c r i m i n a l , i m p l i c i t l y d e n i e s t h e a n a l y t i c i m p o r t a n c e o f an i n q u i r y i n t o l a w and l a w e n f o r c e m e n t p r a c t i c e s . T h e m a i n t h r u s t o f t h e c r i t i q u e o f t h e g e o g r a p h y o f c r i m e c o n c e r n e d t h i s same t e n d e n c y t o s e p a r a t e c r i m e and j u s t i c e a n a l y t i c a l l y . H a v i n g d e s c r i b e d some o f t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s o f i n t e r a c t i o n i s t and c r i t i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e s f o r t h e g e o g r a p h y o f c r i m e , t h e t a s k o f i l l u s t r a t i n g t h e m i n c o n c r e t e a n a l y s e s 1 2 5 . r e m a i n s . B e c a u s e t h i s i s an e s s e n t i a l l y e n c y c l o p a e d i c t a s k my p u r p o s e i s t o d e s c r i b e two m a i n d i m e n s i o n s o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n c r i m e a n d c o n t r o l . T h e f i r s t o f t h e s e e x a m i n e s t h e i m p a c t o f c o n t r o l on who t h e c r i m i n a l s a r e . T h e s e c o n d f o c u s e s on w h e r e t h e c r i m i n a l s a r e o r w h e r e c r i m e i n c i d e n t s o c c u r . T h e d i s c u s s i o n b e g i n s w i t h t h e p r o b l e m o f who t h e c r i m i n a l s a r e by e x a m i n i n g c o n f l i c t i n g i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f o f f i c i a l c r i m e s t a t i s t i c s . T h e d i s c u s s i o n f o c u s e s on i n t e r a c t i o n i s t a n d c r i t i c a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f o f f i c i a l c r i m e s t a t i s t i c s a n d t h e i r c h a l l e n g e t o t h e p r i m a f a c i e r e a d i n g c h a r a c t e r i z i n g t r a d i t i o n a l c r i m i n o l o g y and much o f t h e g e o g r a p h y o f c r i m e . T h e a r g u m e n t d e v e l o p e d i n t h e s o c i o l o g y o f d e v i a n c e s u g g e s t s t h a t a s t u d y o f p o l i c e a c t i v i t y i s e s s e n t i a l t o an u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e m e a n i n g o f o f f i c i a l s t a t i s t i c s , p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e way t h e y may be b i a s e d by p o l i c e d i s c r e t i o n a r y p r a c t i c e s . T h e s e c o n d a r g u m e n t a d v a n c e d , m o s t l y by c r i t i c a l t h e o r i s t s ( a l t h o u g h i t s h o u l d be n o t e d t h a t t h e two a r g u m e n t s a r e l a r g e l y c o m p a t i b l e ) , c o n c e r n s t h e w i d e r i d e o l o g i c a l s y s t e m i n w h i c h c r i m e s a r e d e f i n e d a n d s t a t i s t i c s p r o d u c e d . I n c a p s u l e f o r m , t h i s a r g u m e n t s u g g e s t s t h a t b e c a u s e l a w e n f o r c e m e n t e f f o r t s a r e d i r e c t e d m o s t l y a t " s t r e e t c r i m e " , a n d n o t a t w h i t e - c o l l a r , c o r p o r a t e o r o t h e r u p p e r s o c i a l e c h e l o n c r i m e s , o f f i c i a l s t a t i s t i c s d i s t o r t t h e r e a l s o c i a l d i s t r i b u t i o n o f c r i m i n a l s and o t h e r r u l e - b r e a k e r s . T h e s e a r g u m e n t s a r e c e n t r a l t o t h e g e o g r a p h y o f c r i m e , b e c a u s e t h e y s u g g e s t t h a t o f f i c i a l c r i m e s t a t i s t i c s a r e s p a t i a l l y b i a s e d t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t t h e y a r e s o c i a l l y b i a s e d . 126 . T h e d i s c u s s i o n i n C h a p t e r 5 t h u s s e r v e s t h r e e p u r p o s e s . F i r s t l y , i t a t t e m p t s t o make s e n s e o f c r i m e s t a t i s t i c s by r e v i e w i n g t h e v a r i o u s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f t h e i r m e a n i n g . S e c o n d l y , i n s o - d o i n g , i t i l l u s t r a t e s i n m o r e c o n c r e t e t e r m s t h e t h e o r e t i c a l i s s u e s t h a t s e p a r a t e t r a d i t i o n a l , i n t e r a c t i o n i s t and c r i t i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e s w i t h i n c r i m i n o l o g y . A n d t h i r d l y , i t s e r v e s t o i l l u s t r a t e t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s o f v a r i o u s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f o f f i c i a l s t a t i s t i c s f o r t h e g e o g r a p h y o f c r i m e . G e o g r a p h y a n d T r a d i t i o n a l C r i m i n o l o g y - P r i m a F a c i e I n t e r p r e t a t i o n s . I n k e e p i n g w i t h t h e i r i n s t r u m e n t a l - p o s i t i v i s t p h i l o s o p h y o f s o c i a l s c i e n c e g e o g r a p h e r s h a v e c o n s i s t e n t l y o p t e d f o r a p r i m a f a c i e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f o f f i c i a l s t a t i s t i c s a s s u m i n g t h a t c r i m e c a t e g o r i e s c o r r e s p o n d t o d i s c r e t e b e h a v i o u r t y p e s . C o n s t r u e d i n t h i s e m p i r i c a l l y p r a g m a t i c way p r o b l e m s o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o c c u r b e c a u s e j u r i s d i c t i o n a l p r o c e d u r e s s o m e t i m e s d i s t o r t t h e a c c u r a c y o f d a t a f o r i n d e x p u r p o s e s . B e c a u s e r e p o r t i n g s y s t e m s a r e o f t e n i m p e r f e c t l y d e v e l o p e d a n d s u b j e c t t o c h a n g e , c o m p a r a t i v e a n a l y s e s a r e d i f f i c u l t . I n t h i s v e r s i o n o f b i a s , c r i m e r a t e s a r e p r o b l e m a t i c i n t e r m s o f t h e i m p e r f e c t i o n o f t h e t e c h n i c a l s y s t e m s g e n e r a t i n g t h e m . B u t a n a l y s e s a r e n o t so p r o b l e m a t i c as t h e y m i g h t be w e r e i t n o t f o r a c o n v e n i e n t t a c t i c - r e s e a r c h r e p o r t s t y p i c a l l y b e g i n w i t h a w a r n i n g a b o u t t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h i n t e r p r e t i n g 127 . c r i m e s t a t i s t i c s , b u t t h e n p r o c e e d u n a b a s h e d l y as i f t h e s t a t e m e n t o f t h e p r o b l e m s r e s o l v e d t h e m ( e . g . H a r r i e s , 1 9 7 4 ; P y l e , 1 9 7 4 ; G e o r g e s , 1 9 7 8 ) . W h i l e t h i s s t r a t e g y may be c o n v e n i e n t i t i s r a t h e r u n s a t i s f a c t o r y - t h e r e s u l t s a r e s e v e r e l y c o m p r o m i s e d i f t h e s o u c e o f b i a s i n t h e o f f i c i a l s t a t i s t i c s i s u n e v e n ( i . e . s o c i a l l y a n d s p a t i a l l y d i f f e r e n t i a t e d ) . F o r J _ f o f f i c i a l c r i m e s t a t i s t i c s a r e s p a t i a l l y b i a s e d , c r i m e p a t t e r n s , a r e a a s s o c i a t i o n a l a n a l y s e s a n d a l l t h e r e s e a r c h s t r a t e g i e s a n d t h e o r e t i c a l c o n c e p t s e m e r g i n g f r o m t h e m a r e s e v e r e l y j e o p a r d i s e d . T a k e n f r o m a d i f f e r e n t e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e , t h i s a p p e a r s t o be t h e c a s e i n f o r m u l a t i o n s w h i c h s u g g e s t t h a t o f f i c i a l s t a t i s t i c s may n o t be c o u n t e d as e v i d e n c e o f " r e a l " c r i m e - r a t e s , b u t m u s t r a t h e r be t r e a t e d s i m p l y as e v i d e n c e o f c o n t r o l r a t e s ( e . g . D i t t o n , 1 9 7 9 ) . A l t e r n a t i v e P e r s p e c t i v e s T h e p r o b l e m a t i c s t a t u s o f t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e n e s s o f c r i m e s t a t i s t i c s has b e e n e x p r e s s e d t h r o u g h o u t t h e h i s t o r y o f t h e i r u s e ( f o r d i s c u s s i o n s e e B o t t o m l e y a n d C o l e m a n , 1 9 8 1 , C h a p t e r 1 ) . A s l o n g ago as 1842 Q u e t e l e t c o n v e y e d t h e same d o u b t t h a t has s u b s e q u e n t l y p l a g u e d c r i m i n o l o g y - t h e m e a s u r e m e n t a c c u r a c y o f o f f i c i a l c r i m e s t a t i s t i c s l e a v e s a l l a n a l y s e s b a s e d on t h e m s u s p e c t . B u t l a c k i n g d a t a t o t h e c o n t r a r y , c r i m e a n a l y s t s h a v e m o s t l y p r o c e e d e d as i f o f f i c i a l c r i m e s t a t i s t i c s w e r e r e l i a b l e a n d a c c u r a t e ( B r a n t i n g h a m a n d B r a n t i n g h a m , 1 9 8 1 A , p . 23) a n d 1 2 8 . g e o g r a p h e r s h a v e b e e n no e x c e p t i o n i n t h i s r e s p e c t . I n t h e 1 9 5 0 ' s and 6 0 ' s , h o w e v e r , d a t a b e g a n t o a p p e a r w h i c h seemed t o c o r r o b o r a t e t h e w o r s t f e a r s a b o u t t h e r e l i a b i l i t y o f s t a t i s t i c s . On t h e one h a n d v i c t i m i z a t i o n s u r v e y s g a v e some i n d i c a t i o n o f t h e d e f i c i e n c y o f o f f i c i a l s t a t i s t i c s as an i n v e n t o r y o f t h e r e a l c r i m e r a t e , w h i l e on t h e o t h e r h a n d s e l f - r e p o r t s t u d i e s i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e h i g h e r p r o b a b i l i t y s u g g e s t e d by o f f i c i a l s t a t i s t i c s o f d e l i n q u e n t b e h a v i o u r o c c u r r i n g among l o w e r s o c i o - e c o n o m i c g r o u p s may t e l l us much m o r e a b o u t t h e c r i m i n a l l a b e l l i n g p r o c e s s t h a n i t d o e s a b o u t t h e c r i m i n a l p r o p e n s i t i e s o f a d o l e s c e n t s f r o m d i f f e r e n t s o c i a l s t r a t a . V i c t i m i z a t i o n s u r v e y s p r o l i f e r a t e d a f t e r t h e U . S . P r e s i d e n t ' s C o m m i s s i o n on L a w E n f o r c e m e n t a n d t h e A d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f J u s t i c e i n t h e m i d - 1 9 6 0 ' s and w e r e c o n d u c t e d n o t o n l y i n t h e U . S . b u t i n C a n a d a , S c a n d i n a v i a , E n g l a n d , S w i t z e r l a n d , G e r m a n y , I n d i a a n d T a s m a n i a ( B o x , 1 9 8 1 , p . 6 2 ) . T h e p u r p o s e o f v i c t i m i z a t i o n s u r v e y s has b e e n t o e l i c i t f r o m r e s p o n d e n t s i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t w h e t h e r t h e y h a d b e e n v i c t i m s o f c r i m e a n d w h e t h e r t h e y h a d r e p o r t e d t h e o f f e n c e t o t h e p o l i c e . W h i l e g o o d a r g u m e n t s s u g g e s t t h a t v i c t i m i z a t i o n s u r v e y s a l s o u n d e r - r e p o r t c r i m e ( B o x , 1 9 8 1 , p . 62 ) t h e y h a v e u n i f o r m l y u n c o v e r e d a much g r e a t e r amount o f c r i m e t h a n o f f i c i a l c r i m e s t a t i s t i c s - i n C h i c a g o , one o f t h e f i r s t v i c t i m i z a t i o n s u r v e y s e s t i m a t e d t h a t o f f i c i a l p o l i c e r e c o r d s c o v e r o n l y one q u a r t e r o f t h e t o t a l v o l u m e o f s e r i ous c r i m e ( B o x , 1 9 8 1 , p p . 6 1 - 6 1 ; s e e g e n e r a l l y S k o g a n , 1 9 7 6 ) . S p a r k s 1 2 9 . ( 1 9 7 6 ) e s t i m a t e s f r o m a v i c t i m s u r v e y c o n d u c t e d i n t h r e e L o n d o n b o r o u g h s t h a t o n l y one i n e l e v e n c r i m e s ( a l l t y p e s ) i s r e p o r t e d t o t h e p o l i c e . What v i c t i m i z a t i o n d a t a do n o t t e l l us i s w h e t h e r r a t e s o f r e p o r t i n g v a r y a c r o s s s p a c e ; t h i s does n o t mean t h a t t h e y c a n n o t be u s e d t o a d d r e s s t h i s p r o b l e m , r a t h e r t h a t t h e y h a v e n o t b e e n d e s i g n e d t o ( m a i n l y b e c a u s e o f t h e e x p e n s e i n v o l v e d ) . T h e p r o b l e m r e m a i n s t h a t e v e n t h o u g h v i c t i m i z a t i o n s u r v e y s t e n d t o c o n f i r m t h e e n o r m o u s m a g n i t u d e o f t h e " d a r k f i g u r e " o f c r i m e , o f f i c i a l s t a t i s t i c s may s t i l l n e v e r t h e l e s s r e p r e s e n t a s p a t i a l l y u n b i a s e d s a m p l e o f t h e s t a t i s t i c a l u n i v e r s e . I n c o n t r a s t , s e l f - r e p o r t s t u d i e s may be i n t e r p r e t e d as s u g g e s t i n g t h a t o f f i c i a l c r i m e s t a t i s t i c s a r e s p a t i a l l y b i a s e d t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t t h e y o v e r - r e p r e s e n t l o w e r c l a s s p e r s o n s , b u t t h e r e s u l t s o f d i f f e r e n t s t u d i e s a r e a c t u a l l y c o n t r a d i c t o r y on t h i s s c o r e . Some o f t h e e a r l i e r s t u d i e s ( S h o r t and N y e , 1 9 5 7 , G o l d , 1 9 6 6 ) a r g u e d t h a t t h e c l a s s d i f f e r e n c e s s u g g e s t e d by o f f i c i a l s t a t i s t i c s w e r e n o t r e p r o d u c e d i n s e l f - r e p o r t s t u d i e s d e s i g n e d t o m e a s u r e t h e i n c i d e n c e o f d e l i n q u e n c y a d m i t t e d by r e s p o n d e n t s . 1 B u t S h o r t a n d N y e ' s s t u d y d i d c o n f i r m c e r t a i n f i n d i n g s p r e d i c a t e d by o f f i c i a l s t a t i s t i c s ; m a l e s d i d c o m m i t m o r e d e l i n q u e n t a c t s t h a n f e m a l e s i n a l m o s t e v e r y d e l i n q u e n c y c a t e g o r y ( 1 9 5 7 , p . 2 1 0 ) . G o l d s u g g e s t s t h a t o f f i c i a l r e c o r d s e x a g g e r a t e d i f f e r e n c e s i n d e l i n q u e n c y . " A b o u t f i v e t i m e s m o r e l o w e s t t h a n h i g h e s t s t a t u s b o y s a p p e a r i n t h e o f f i c i a l r e c o r d s ; i f r e c o r d s w e r e c o m p l e t e a n d u n s e l e c t i v e we e s t i m a t e t h a t t h e r a t i o w o u l d be c l o s e r t o 1 . 5 : 1 . " ( 1 9 6 6 , p . 44 ) 1 3 0 . Subsequent s e l f - r e p o r t s t u d i e s of delinquency ( s e l f - r e p o r t s t u d i e s have r a r e l y been a p p l i e d to a d u l t s ) have proven e q u i v o c a l i n t h e i r f i n d i n g s . Box (1981, pp. 65-84) o f f e r s an exte n s i v e review of f o r t y s e l f - r e p o r t s t u d i e s . Of these he suggests that 24 d i s c o v e r no d i f f e r e n c e i n l e v e l s of delinquency between middle c l a s s and lower c l a s s youths while 16 argue that lower c l a s s adolescents are more delinquent than t h e i r middle c l a s s peers (p. 76). Such s t u d i e s are a l s o open to a range of c r i t i c i s m s , three of which Box e x t e n s i v e l y reviews (pp. 65-75): the v a l i d i t y of s e l f - r e p o r t measures in terms of the honesty of responses; the relevance and c o m p a r a b i l i t y of items used i n s e l f - r e p o r t s t u d i e s as i n d i c e s of delinquency as compared with behaviour o f f i c i a l l y designated as delinquent (many of the s t u d i e s seek responses for behaviour which would not u s u a l l y be c l a s s i f i e d as delinquent in a l e g a l sense); and the r e p r e s e n t a t i v e n e s s of samples of j u v e n i l e s r e p o r t i n g - the w i l l i n g n e s s of a j u v e n i l e to respond to s e l f -r e p o rt delinquency surveys may r e f l e c t h i s / h e r involvement i n d e l i nquency. Box' o v e r a l l assessment of the f i n d i n g s of s e l f - r e p o r t s t u d i e s leads him to conclude t h a t : " o f f i c i a l s t a t i s t i c s showing more delinquency amongst lower c l a s s adolescents are not supported by evidence r e v e a l e d from s e l f -r e p o r t e d delinquency s t u d i e s , and s i n c e the l a t t e r are more reasonably v a l i d than the former we should be very s k e p t i c a l of those who continue to argue that delinquency i s l o c a t e d at the bottom of the s t r a t i f i c a t i o n sys tern." (1981, p. 80) 131. Other authors reviewing a range of s e l f - r e p o r t s t u d i e s concur w i t h Box's c o n c l u s i o n ; f o r T i t t l e , V i l l e m e z and Smith (1978) the impression of the d i s t r i b u t i o n of delinquency contained i n o f f i c i a l s t a t i s t i c s does not represent i t s r e a l s o c i a l d i s t r i b u t i o n . If t h i s i s the case a delinquency r a t e map has to be viewed with a great deal of s c e p t i c i s m . But the co n c l u s i o n s of Box, and T i t t l e , V i l l e m e z and Smith do not mark a consensus i n the l i t e r a t u r e . C l e l l a n d and C a r t e r (1980) reassess the evidence and conclude that the a n a l y s i s of T i t t l e and h i s c o l l e a g u e s i s f a u l t y . In a recent s e l f - r e p o r t i n v e s t i g a t i o n , E l l i o t and Ageton (1980) c r i t i c i z e a number of other s t u d i e s for t h e i r i n c l u s i o n of mostly t r i v i a l and non-s e r i o u s types of behaviour as i n d i c e s of delinquency. E l l i o t and Ageton developed a s e l f - r e p o r t s c a l e with 47 items r e f l e c t i n g "more s e r i o u s o f f e n c e s " . They conclude: " c l a s s d i f f e r e n c e s i n t o t a l o f f e n c e s are s i g n i f i c a n t and, while they are not l a r g e , they are i n the t r a d i t i o n a l l y expected d i r e c t i o n , with lower c l a s s youth r e p o r t i n g higher f r e q u e n c i e s . " (1980, p. 103) While Box is aware of the problem of the o v e r l o a d i n g of some s e l f - r e p o r t s t u d i e s with t r i v i a l " o f f e n c e s " , he c i t e s other s t u d i e s which i n d i c a t e no c l a s s d i f f e r e n c e s in the more s e r i o u s o f f e n c e s . N e v e r t h e l e s s , E l l i o t and Ageton's f i n d i n g s cannot simply be dismissed and serve to temper Box's c o n c l u s i o n ; they show that lower c l a s s adolescents are l i k e l y to engage more f r e q u e n t l y in delinquent a c t s , and in the more s e r i o u s k i n d s . But, l i k e Gold, they suggest that the d i f f e r e n c e s are not n e a r l y as great as the ones suggested by 132. t h e o f f i c i a l s t a t i s t i c s . T h i s c o n c l u s i o n has s i g n i f i c a n t i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f maps d e p i c t i n g d e l i n q u e n c y r a t e s a n d , by e x t e n s i o n , t o a d u l t c r i m e ( m o s t a d u l t c r i m i n a l s b e g i n t h e i r r u l e - b r e a k i n g a c t i v i t i e s as j u v e n i l e s ) . What t h i s c o n c l u s i o n means f o r t h e g e o g r a p h y o f c r i m e i s t h a t t h e p r o c e s s o f p r o d u c i n g c r i m e a n d d e l i n q u e n c y r a t e s m u s t become a n o b j e c t o f i n q u i r y i n i t s own r i g h t . I m a g i n e , f o r e x a m p l e , t h e c h a n g e s t o t h e a n a l y s i s o f f e r e d by E v a n s ( 1 9 8 0 ) w e r e he t o h a v e g i v e n c r e d e n c e t o t h e s e a l t e r n a t i v e v i e w s o f t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f d e l i n q u e n c y . T h e q u e s t i o n now b e c o m e s , w h a t f a c t o r e x p l a i n s t h e d i s c r e p a n c y b e t w e e n s e l f - r e p o r t s t u d i e s a n d o f f i c i a l s t a t i s t i c s . I f t h e o f f i c i a l s t a t i s t i c s i n d e l i n q u e n c y a r e b i a s e d , w h a t p r o d u c e s t h e d i s t o r t i o n ? F o r w h i c h c a t e g o r i e s o f d e l i n q u e n c y does t h i s d i s t o r t i o n a p p l y ? A n d i f t h i s d i s t o r t i o n o c c u r s i n t h e c a s e o f d e l i n q u e n c y , c a n i t be g e n e r a l i z e d t o a d u l t c r i m e ? T h u s t h e p r o b l e m i n g e n e r a l c o n c e r n s w h i c h c r i m e and d e l i n q u e n c y c a t e g o r i e s a r e b i a s e d , how a r e t h e y b i a s e d , a n d t o w h a t d e g r e e ? T h e s e become t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t p r o b l e m s t o a d d r e s s when s o r t i n g o u t t h e s p a t i a l i m p l i c a t i o n s o f c o m p e t i n g i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f o f f i c i a l s t a t i s t i c s . W h i l e t h e p r o b l e m o f m e a s u r e m e n t a c c u r a c y f o r m s one o f t h e m a j o r themes o f " e n v i r o n m e n t a l " c r i m i n o l o g y ( B r a n t i n g h a m a n d B r a n t i n g h a m , 1 9 8 1 A , p . 2 3 , r e f e r r i n g p a r t i c u l a r l y t o t h e w o r k o f M a w b y , 1 9 7 9 , 1 9 8 1 ) g e o g r a p h e r s h a v e l a r g e l y a v o i d e d t h e p r o b l e m i n t h e i r r e s e a r c h , a n d w h e r e b i a s has b e e n d i s c u s s e d i t i s m a i n l y i n t e r m s o f wha t I s h a l l r e f e r t o as i t s 1 3 3 . " i n s t r u m e n t a l " a n d q u a n t i t a t i ve a s p e c t s ; i . e . t h a t p r o b l e m s o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n a r i s e f r o m t h e i n a c c u r a c y o f c r i m e s t a t i s t i c s as a r e s u l t o f s u c h p r o b l e m s as d i f f e r e n c e s i n i n t e r j u r i s d i c t i o n a l r e c o r d i n g p r a c t i c e s . A n a l t e r n a t i v e v i e w s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e i n a c c u r a c i e s o f c r i m e s t a t i s t i c s a r e p r o d u c e d by a q u a l i t a t i ve b i a s t h r o u g h w h i c h c o n t r o l p e r s o n n e l s e l e c t c e r t a i n k i n d s o f i n d i v i d u a l s ( a c c o r d i n g t o a g e , r a c e , s e x , a n d s o c i a l s t a t u s ) as e l i g i b l e f o r c r i m i n a l l a b e l l i n g . ^ I n t h i s c a s e t h e b i a s o f o f f i c i a l s t a t i s t i c s i s i n t e r p r e t e d as b e i n g a r e f l e c t i o n o f t h e a c t i v i t i e s o f c o n t r o l p e r s o n n e l . T h e r e a l i z a t i o n t h a t o f f i c i a l c r i m e s t a t i s t i c s a r e n o t s i m p l y p r o b l e m a t i c i n t e r m s o f t h e i r u n d e r - r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f c r i m e , b u t a l s o i n t e r m s o f t h e d e g r e e o f t h e i r u n d e r - r e p r e s e n t a t i o n , l e d t o t h e a r g u m e n t t h a t t h e p r o b l e m o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i s n o t s i m p l y a t e c h n i c a l one - i t i s a t h e o r e t i c a l p r o b l e m . T h e i m p l i c a t i o n s o f t h i s c h a l l e n g e t o t h e i n s t r u m e n t a l i s t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n w e r e d e v e l o p e d i n t o a r a n g e o f p o s i t i o n s . A t one end i s t h e p o s i t i o n t h a t c e r t a i n k i n d s o f c r i m e r a t e a r e m o r e a r e f l e c t i o n o f c o n t r o l a c t i v i t i e s t h a n t h e r e a l d i s t r i b u t i o n o f a d i s t i n c t b e h a v i o u r t y p e , t o one w h i c h s u g g e s t s t h a t a l l o f f i c i a l c r i m e s t a t i s t i c s s h o u l d be r e a d o n l y as c o n t r o l r a t e s a n d h a v e l i t t l e o r no b e a r i n g on t h e " r e a l " amount o f " c r i m e " . T h e r e a r e t h r e e m a i n r e a d i n g s o f c r i m e s t a t i s t i c s e m e r g i n g f r o m t h e g e n e r a l d e b a t e . 1) A n " i n s t r u m e n t a l i s t " ( o r p r i m a f a c i e ) r e a d i n g s u g g e s t i n g t h a t t h e i n a c c u r a c y o f c r i m e s t a t i s t i c s i s t e c h n i c a l - t h e y a r e t h u s n o t s p a t i a l l y b i a s e d e x c e p t by v i r t u e o f d i f f e r e n c e s i n r e c o r d i n g p r a c t i c e s . O p e r a t i o n a l l y , c r i m e 1 3 4 . s t a t i s t i c s are assumed to be u n i f o r m l y incomplete, and the process of t h e i r c o n s t r u c t i o n not worthy of much s c r u t i n y . T h i s i s the p o s i t i o n taken i n p o s i t i v i s t c r i m i n o l o g y g e n e r a l l y . 2) An " i n t e r a c t i o n i s t " reading which suggests that t e c h n i c a l and q u a l i t a t i v e aspects of bias can only be understood i n the i n t e r a c t i o n a l s e t t i n g in which crime s t a t i s t i c s are produced. Depending on that s e t t i n g , and i t s c o n s t i t u t i v e elements, crime s t a t i s t i c s may or may not be s p a t i a l l y b i a s e d ; the issue can only be r e s o l v e d by examining the context i n which they are s o c i a l l y c o n s t r u c t e d . The important i m p l i c a t i o n i s that the meaning of s t a t i s t i c s may not be simply t a k e n - f o r - g r a n t e d by the researcher; they become an object of study i n t h e i r own r i g h t . 3) A " c o n t r o l o g i c a l " reading of the s t a t i s t i c s which suggests that they are a product of i n s t i t u t i o n a l imperatives and a c t i v i t i e s and can only be understood as such ( D i t t o n , 1979, pp. 18-19). The i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of bias becomes moot in t h i s p e r s p e c t i v e which views crime rates not as a r e f l e c t i o n of s o c i a l behaviour, but as a product of the i n s t i t u t i o n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n of that behaviour. By i m p l i c a t i o n , however, the focus of a s p a t i a l p e r s p e c t i v e would s h i f t from crime to the i n s t i t u t i o n a l processes of crime c o n t r o l i n order to understand crime r a t e s . These d i s t i n c t i o n s are s l i g h t l y d i f f e r e n t from the u s u a l l y dichotomous terminology used i n the c r i m i n o l o g i c a l l i t e r a t u r e to d i s t i n g u i s h the major i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s of o f f i c i a l crime r a t e s : 135. " T h e c o n t e n d i n g a r g u m e n t s w e r e f u n d a m e n t a l l y b e t w e e n w h a t we c a n l o o s e l y t e r m ' r e a l i s t ' a s o p p o s e d t o ' i n s t i t u t i o n a l i s t ' e m p h a s e s . T h e f o r m e r e m p h a s i z e d t h e v i r t u e s o f c o m p l e t e n e s s w i t h w h i c h d a t a r e p r e s e n t e d t h e ' r e a l c r i m e t h a t t a k e s p l a c e ' . T h e i n s t i t u t i o n a l i s t p e r s p e c t i v e e m p h a s i z e d t h a t c r i m e c o u l d h a v e v a l i d m e a n i n g o n l y i n t e r m s o f o r g a n i z e d , l e g i t i m a t e s o c i a l r e s p o n s e s t o i t . " ( B i d e r m a n a n d R e i s s , 1 9 6 7 , p . 2) W h i l e t h e d i s t i n c t i o n made by B i d e r m a n a n d R e i s s n i c e l y c a p t u r e s t h e e s s e n t i a l a s p e c t s o f t h e c h a l l e n g e t o a p r ima f a c i e r e a d i n g o f o f f i c i a l s t a t i s t i c s ( t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n d o m i n a t i n g t h e f i r s t h u n d r e d y e a r s o f c r i m i n o l o g y ) , s u c h a s i m p l e d i s t i n c t i o n t e n d s t o g l o s s o v e r a c e r t a i n a m b i v a l e n c e i n t h e i n s t i t u t i o n a l i s t p o s i t i o n a n d t o u s e a v e r y m i s l e a d i n g t e r m i n o l o g y * * ; f o r t h i s r e a s o n I h a v e d i s t i n g u i s h e d t h e c o n t r o l o g i c a l p o s i t i o n o u t l i n e d by D i t t o n f r o m a m o r e g e n e r a l l y s y m b o l i c i n t e r a c t i o n i s t p o s i t i o n as t o g e t h e r c o n s t i t u t i n g t h e " i n s t i t u t i o n a l i s t " p o s i t i o n . T h e two p o s i t i o n s a r e d i s t i n g u i s h e d i n t h e i r v i e w s o f t h e u t i l i t y o f o f f i c i a l s t a t i s t i c s as i n d i c e s o f " r e a l " s o c i a l b e h a v i o u r , t h e c o n t r o l o l o g i c a l p o s i t i o n a s s e r t i n g t h a t c r i m e r a t e s a r e i n d e p e n d e n t o f " c r i m i n a l " b e h a v i o u r , w h i l e t h e i n t e r a c t i o n i s t p o s i t i o n r e c o g n i z e s t h e p o s s i b l e i n d e p e n d e n c e o r i n t e r d e p e n d e n c e o f c r i m e r a t e s a n d c o n t r o l r a t e s . W h i l e t h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e s e p o s i t i o n s has n o t b e e n f o r m a l i z e d i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e , i t c a n be j u s t i f i e d t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t i t i s p o s s i b l e t o show f l u c t u a t i o n s i n c r i m e r a t e s ( e s p e c i a l l y p r o p e r t y c r i m e s w i t h a s y s t e m a t i c s e a s o n a l v a r i a t i o n ) w h i c h m u s t be r e a d as t h e i n t e r a c t i on o f i n s t i t u t i o n a l l y o r g a n i z e d r e c o r d i n g b e h a v i o u r w i t h a c t u a l c h a n g e s o f c r i m i n a l 1 3 6 . b e h a v i o u r . T h o s e a u t h o r s a l l e g e d b y D i t t o n ( 1 9 7 9 ) a n d B o t t o m l e y a n d C o l e m a n ( 1 9 7 6 ) t o h a v e m i s r e a d t h e i n s t i t u t i o n a l i s t p o s i t i o n ( b y v i r t u e o f c a r r y i n g o v e r a c o n c e p t o f s t a t i s t i c a l b i a s f r o m t h e i n s t r u m e n t a l - p o s i t i v i s t p e r s p e c t i v e ) 4 may be i n c o r p o r a t e d u n d e r t h e i n t e r a c t i o n i s t t i t l e . T h e c o n f u s i o n a p p e a r s t o a r i s e o v e r t h e c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n o f t y p e s o f b i a s t h a t may a f f e c t o f f i c i a l c r i m e s t a t i s t i c s . F o r t h e p u r p o s e s o f t h i s d i s c u s s i o n two g e n e r a l t y p e s o f b i a s may be d i s t i n g u i s h e d . " I n s t r u m e n t a l b i a s " r e f e r s t o t h e t e c h n i c a l s o u r c e s o f b i a s f l o w i n g f r o m d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e way i n f o r m a t i o n i s r e c o r d e d and p r o c e s s e d . " E s s e n t i a l b i a s " r e f e r s t o t h e s y s t e m a t i c e f f e c t s o f s o c i a l l y d i f f e r e n t i a t e d s t r u c t u r e s o f m e a n i n g on t h e s i g n i f i c a t i o n o f b e h a v i o u r as d e l i n q u e n t , c r i m i n a l o r d e v i a n t . T h e c r u c i a l d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e two i s t h i s - w h i l e e s s e n t i a l b i a s a r i s e s f r o m t h e way b e h a v i o u r i s i n t e r p r e t e d as b e i n g d e l i n q u e n t o r c r i m i n a l , i n s t r u m e n t a l b i a s a r i s e s f r o m t h e way t h a t t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n i s s u b s e q u e n t l y r e c o r d e d . Two s u b c a t e g o r i e s o f e s s e n t i a l b i a s c a n be d i s t i n g u i s h e d a l t h o u g h t h e y a r e c l e a r l y i n t e r r e l a t e d : " o r g a n i z a t i o n a l b i a s " r e f l e c t s t h e i n s t i t u t i o n a l a n d o r g a n i z a t i o n a l i m p e r a t i v e s o f p e o p l e who p r o d u c e c r i m e s t a t i s t i c s - m o s t i m p o r t a n t l y t h e p o l i c e - i n t e r m s o f b o t h f o r m a l l e g a l a n d a d m i n i s t r a t i v e r e q u i r e m e n t s , a n d t h e i n f o r m a l c o n t e x t o f p o l i c e o c c u p a t i o n a l c u l t u r e . " D i s c r e t i o n a r y b i a s " has u s u a l l y r e f e r r e d t o t h e i m p a c t o f p o l i c e d i s c r e t i o n a r y power on t h e c o n f i g u r a t i o n o f 1 3 7 . c r i m e s t a t i s t i c s ; t h e c o n c e p t s h o u l d be e x t e n d e d t o i n c l u d e t h e d i s c r e t i o n a r y a c t i v i t y o f o t h e r c r i m e r e p o r t i n g a g e n t s i n c l u d i n g t h e g e n e r a l p u b l i c , b u t p a r t i c u l a r l y o t h e r u r b a n " g a t e k e e p e r s " s u c h as s t o r e d e t e c t i v e s and s c h o o l p e r s o n n e l . T h e s e v a r i o u s f o r m s o f b i a s m u s t be s e e n as i n t e r a c t i v e i n t h e p r o c e s s o f c o n s t r u c t i n g c r i m e s t a t i s t i c s . T h e c o n c e p t u a l l e s s o n t o be l e a r n e d t h r o u g h an u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f d i s c r e t i o n a r y and o r g a n i z a t i o n a l b i a s i s t h a t t h e e x p l a n a t i o n o f who i s c a u g h t a n d who i s p r o s e c u t e d may become as i m p o r t a n t i n t h e e x p l a n a t i o n o f c r i m e as t h e c o n d i t i o n s o r c i r c u m s t a n c e s g e n e r a t i n g c e r t a i n k i n d s o f b e h a v i o u r . C r i m e a n d d e l i n q u e n c y a r e n o t n e c e s s a r i l y d i s c r e t e b e h a v i o u r s w i t h a c l e a r m e a n i n g ; t h e l a w i n t h e b o o k s i s p a r t l y g i v e n m e a n i n g t h r o u g h s o c i a l i n t e r a c t i o n e v e n t h o u g h i t i m p o r t a n t l y s h a p e s t h a t i n t e r a c t i o n . I n o r d e r t o o v e r c o m e t h e i n s t r u m e n t a l b i a s e s o f o f f i c i a l s t a t i s t i c s a n d t h e i n f e r e n t i a l p r o b l e m s o f a r e a l a g g r e g a t e d a t a , a number o f s t u d i e s h a v e a t t e m p t e d t o u s e o f f i c i a l m e a s u r e s o f c r i m e r e s i d e n c e t o i d e n t i f y a r e a s f o r m o r e i n t e n s i v e r e s e a r c h ( i n g e o g r a p h y , H e r b e r t a n d E v a n s , 1 9 7 3 ; a n d i n c r i m i n o l o g y , M o r r i s , 1 9 5 8 ; B a l d w i n , B o t t o m s a n d W a l k e r , 1 9 7 6 ) . W h i l e t h i s s t r a t e g y may h e l p o v e r c o m e c e r t a i n a s p e c t s o f t h e i n s t r u m e n t a l b i a s o f o f f i c i a l s t a t i s t i c s a n d a l l a y t h e p r o b l e m s o f t h e e c o l o g i c a l f a l l a c y , i t does n o t n e c e s s a r i l y a c c o u n t f o r e s s e n t i a l b i a s ( a l t h o u g h t h e f o l l o w up s t u d y t o B a l d w i n , B o t t o m s a n d W a l k e r c o n d u c t e d by Mawby - 1979 - does a t t e m p t t o a d d r e s s t h e p r o b l e m o f e s s e n t i a l b i a s , b u t 1 3 8 . n o t , as i t t u r n s o u t , d e f i n i t i v e l y ) . T h u s when Shaw a n d M c K a y ( 1 9 3 1 , 1 9 4 2 ) u s e d o f f i c i a l s t a t i s t i c s t o i d e n t i f y d e l i n q u e n c y a r e a s f o r a m o r e i n t e n s i v e a n a l y s i s o f t h e c a u s e s o f d e l i n q u e n c y , t h e e t i o l o g y t h e y p r o v i d e d f a i l e d t o t a k e i n t o a c c o u n t t h e d e l i n q u e n t b e h a v i o u r w h i c h s e l f - r e p o r t s t u d i e s m i g h t h a v e i d e n t i f i e d i n o t h e r t y p e s o f a r e a . T h e l i t e r a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f d e l i n q u e n c y r e p o r t s t h u s i m p o r t a n t l y s h a p e d t h e t h e o r e t i c a l f o r m u l a e m e r g i n g f r o m i t , and may be p a r t l y r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e c i r c u l a r a r g u m e n t c o n t a i n e d w i t h i n i t ; w h i l e s o c i a l d i s o r g a n i z a t i o n i s o f f e r e d as t h e p r i n c i p a l e x p l a n a t i o n o f d e l i n q u e n c y , d e l i n q u e n c y r a t e s t h e m s e l v e s a r e u s e d as t h e p r i n c i p a l i n d i c a t o r o f s o c i a l d i s o r g a n i z a t i o n . T h e N a t u r e o f t h e C h a l l e n g e t o I n s t r u m e n t a l i s t I n t e r p r e t a t i o n s : " D i s c r e t i o n a r y B i a s " a n d t h e " I n s t i t u t i o n a l i s t " P o s i t i o n . T h e e s s e n t i a l i s t c r i t i q u e o f o f f i c i a l s t a t i s t i c s d a t e s b a c k ( a t l e a s t ) t o S h i r l e y R o b i s o n ' s C a n D e l i n q u e n c y B e M e a s u r e d ? ( 1 9 3 7 ) , a c r i t i q u e o f Shaw and M c K a y ' s e c o l o g i c a l s t u d i e s o f d e l i n q u e n c y . T h e d a t a p r e s e n t e d i n t h i s s t u d y " d e f i n i t e l y i n d i c a t e t h a t f o r t h e f i e l d o f d e l i n q u e n c y i n d e x -m a k i n g i s a t p r e s e n t n o t f e a s i b l e . " ( R o b i s o n , 1 9 3 7 , p . 2 0 9 ) . T h i s c o n c l u s i o n f o l l o w s f r o m h e r o b s e r v a t i o n t h a t " d e l i n q u e n c y a n d n o n - d e l i n q u e n c y a r e n o t m u t u a l l y e x c l u s i v e . T h e l a b e l d e l i n q u e n t d e p e n d s on many s u b j e c t i v e f a c t o r s i n t h e o b s e r v e r a n d t h e o b s e r v e d . " ( R o b i s o n , 1 9 3 7 , p . 1 9 5 ) . A l t h o u g h t h i s s t a t e m e n t seems t o h a v e become a u b i q u i t o u s s o c i o l o g i c a l 139 . a x i o m , i t s s u b s e q u e n t a d h e r e n t s do n o t a l w a y s r e c o g n i z e i t s p e d i g r e e . N o r d i d i t s o r i g i n a l s t a t e m e n t b y R o b i s o n s t e m t h e t i d e o f s t u d i e s b a s e d on o f f i c i a l c r i m e r a t e s . T h e i n s t i t u t i o n a l i s t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f o f f i c i a l s t a t i s t i c s d i d n o t r e a l l y m a t u r e u n t i l t h e a p p e a r a n c e o f s e l f - r e p o r t d e l i n q u e n c y s t u d i e s i n t h e 1 9 5 0 ' s a n d r e s e a r c h on p o l i c e b e h a v i o u r i n t h e 1 9 6 0 ' s . A s we h a v e s e e n , w h i l e v i c t i m i z a t i o n s u r v e y s c o n f i r m t h e l a r g e amount o f u n r e p o r t e d c r i m e , m o s t s e l f - r e p o r t f i n d i n g s s u g g e s t t h a t o f f i c i a l s t a t i s t i c s a t l e a s t d i s t o r t t h e r e a l d i s t r i b u t i o n o f c r i m e so t h a t t h e r e i s e i t h e r l i t t l e d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e c r i m e a n d d e l i n q u e n c y r a t e s o f d i f f e r e n t s o c i a l c l a s s e s , o r t h a t o f f i c i a l s t a t i s t i c s g r e a t l y e x a g g e r a t e t h e d i f f e r e n c e s . I f s o c i a l c l a s s i s a r e a l l y d i f f e r e n t i a t e d , t h e s e f i n d i n g s s u g g e s t t h a t o f f i c i a l s t a t i s t i c s may o v e r - r e p r e s e n t c r i m e i n some a r e a s a n d u n d e r - r e p r e s e n t i t i n o t h e r s . T h e q u e s t i o n becomes one o f e x p l a i n i n g t h e p r o c e s s e s u n d e r l y i n g t h i s d i s t o r t i o n . One s u c h e x p l a n a t i o n c o n c e r n s t h e e f f e c t o f p o l i c e b e h a v i o u r on t h e c o n f i g u r a t i o n o f c r i m e a n d d e l i n q u e n c y . T h e i n i t i a l d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h i s a r g u m e n t a p p e a r e d i n s t u d i e s o f p o l i c e e n c o u n t e r s w i t h j u v e n i l e s w h i c h s u g g e s t e d t h a t s o c i a l s t a t u s was as i m p o r t a n t a c r i t e r i o n as b e h a v i o u r i n t h e p o l i c e d e c i s i o n t o a r r e s t a n d s i g n i f y a j u v e n i l e as d e l i n q u e n t ( e . g . W e r t h m a n and P i l i a v i n , 1 9 6 4 ) . T h e t h e o r e t i c a l i m p l i c a t i o n s o f f i n d i n g s l i k e t h e s e w e r e d e v e l o p e d b y K i t s u s e a n d C i c o u r e l who w a r n a g a i n s t v i e w i n g b i a s i n o f f i c i a l s t a t i s t i c s s i m p l y as a t e c h n i c a l o r i n s t r u m e n t a l 1 4 0 . p r o b l e m . R a t h e r , t h e y a s s e r t , t h e p r o b l e m c o n c e r n s d i f f e r e n t i a l s i n t h e d e f i n i t i o n o f d e v i a n t b e h a v i o u r ( 1 9 6 3 , p . 1 3 4 ) . C u r r e n t g e o g r a p h i c t h e o r y s o u n d s v e r y much l i k e t h e t h e o r y f o r m i n g t h e t a r g e t o f t h e i r a t t a c k - - t r a d i t i o n a l d e v i a n c y i n q u i r y t r e a t e d r a t e s o f c r i m e a n d d e l i n q u e n c y as i n d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e s . I n c o n t r a s t , K i t s u s e and C i c o u r e l t r e a t r a t e s o f d e v i a n t b e h a v i o u r as d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e s : " t h e t h e o r e t i c a l c o n c e p t i o n w h i c h g u i d e s us i s t h a t t h e r a t e s o f d e v i a n t b e h a v i o u r a r e p r o d u c e d by t h e a c t i o n s t a k e n by p e r s o n s i n t h e s o c i a l s y s t e m w h i c h d e f i n e , c l a s s i f y a n d r e c o r d c e r t a i n b e h a v i o u r s as d e v i a n t . " ( 1 9 6 3 , p . 1 3 5 ) S i m i l a r l y D o n a l d B l a c k ( 1 9 7 0 ) makes r a t e s o f c r i m i n a l b e h a v i o u r an end r a t h e r t h a n a means o f s t u d y , a d v o c a t i n g a p o s i t i o n wh i c h : " . . . t r e a t s t h e c r i m e r a t e as i t s e l f a s o c i a l f a c t , an e m p i r i c a l phenomenon w i t h i t s own e x i s t e n t i a l i n t e g r i t y . . . f r o m t h i s s t a n d p o i n t c r i m e s t a t i s t i c s a r e n o t e v a l u a t e d as i n a c c u r a t e o r u n r e l i a b l e . T h e y a r e an a s p e c t o f s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n a n d c a n n o t , s o c i o l o g i c a l l y , be w r o n g . " F r o m t h e s e p e r s p e c t i v e s t h e c o n c e r n s o f t h e d e v i a n c y t h e o r i s t i n c l u d e n o t o n l y how d i f f e r e n t f o r m s o f b e h a v i o u r come t o t h e a t t e n t i o n o f t h e c r i m i n a l j u s t i c e s y s t e m , b u t a l s o ( a n d s o m e t i m e s o n l y ) how i n d i v i d u a l s m a n i f e s t i n g s u c h b e h a v i o u r s a r e o r g a n i z a t i o n a l l y p r o c e s s e d t o p r o d u c e r a t e s o f c r i m e . S i n c e t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f t h e s e a r g u m e n t s has l e d t o c o n s i d e r a b l e d e b a t e i n c r i m i n o l o g i c a l a n d s o c i o l o g i c a l c i r c l e s , t h e d i s c u s s i o n t u r n s t o two o f t h e m o s t c o n t r o v e r s i a l c h a l l e n g e s t o t h e i n s t r u m e n t a l i s t r e a d i n g o f t h e s t a t i s t i c s -M a t z a ' s w o r k on " m e t h o d i c a l s u s p i c i o n " , a n d C i c o u r e l ' s on t h e 1 4 1 . ethnomethodological study of delinquency s t a t i s t i c s . These provide anchors for an a n a l y s i s of the debate they were to subsequently evoke. The Ethnomethodological C r i t i q u e In The S o c i a l O r g a n i z a t i o n of J u v e n i l e J u s t i c e (1968, 1976) C i c o u r e l f o l l o w s an ethnomethodological program to que s t i o n the s c i e n t i f i c " f a c t " of delinquency. In C i c o u r e l ' s language: "Ethnomethodological s t u d i e s analyse everyday a c t i v i t i e s as members' methods for making those same a c t i v i t i e s v i s i b l y r a t i o n a l and r e p o r t a b l e for a l l p r a c t i c a l purposes i e . 'accountable' as o r g a n i z a t i o n s of commonplace everyday a c t i v i t i e s . " (1968, p. 7) He r e p l a c e s the usual s o c i o l o g i c a l complaint about "bad" s t a t i s t i c s and d i s t o r t e d b u r e a u c r a t i c record-keeping by making the procedures producing "bad data" an object of study. C i c o u r e l ' s study purports to show how the "problem of delinquency" i s generated by the everyday a c t i v i t i e s of p r o f e s s i o n a l s and laymen i n contact with j u v e n i l e s . The decision-making a c t i v i t i e s that produce the s o c i a l problem c a l l e d delinquency are important because they h i g h l i g h t fundamental processes of how s o c i a l order i s p o s s i b l e (1968, p. v i i ) . Thus the study of de l i n q u e n t s t e l l s us as much about the a r t i c u l a t i o n of notions of l e g a l i t y and j u s t i c e as i t does about adolescent behaviour. Furthermore 142. "the i n t e r a c t i o n of l e g a l and non-legal r u l e s i m p l i e s that what is considered deviant by some members of the community ( i n c l u d i n g the p o l i c e ) i s not always obvious to the suspect or h i s s upporters, and that what ends up being c a l l e d j u s t i c e i s n e g o t i a b l e w i t h i n the boundary c o n d i t i o n s of e s t a b l i s h e d organi zat i ons." ( C i c o u r e l , 1968, p. 22) C i c o u r e l d i r e c t s h i s a t t e n t i o n to " t h e o r i e s of delinquency employed by p o l i c e , court and p r o b a t i o n o f f i c e r s when d e c i d i n g the e x i s t e n c e of delinquency." It i s a study of the "background e x p e c t a n c i e s " of the o f f i c i a l s who channel j u v e n i l e s in and out of the j u s t i c e system. C r i m i n o l o g i c a l theory, C i c o u r e l suggests, has followed common sense d e f i n i t i o n s of delinquency and crime i n g e n e r a l , and has only questioned o f f i c i a l s t a t i s t i c s to the extent that they may g r o s s l y underestimate crime. The explanatory power of t r a d i t i o n a l delinquency theory i s thus contained i n i t s neatness i n p r o v i d i n g r e t r o s p e c t i v e accounts which f i t both popular conceptions about how j u v e n i l e s become d e l i n q u e n t , and how o f f i c i a l delinquency rates are d i s t r i b u t e d (1968, p. 26-27). A c c o r d i n g to C i c o u r e l , an adequate d e s c r i p t i o n d e p i c t i n g how persons come to be d e f i n e d and processed as delinquent i s rather d i f f e r e n t : The data for demonstrating the cogency of the s o c i o l o g i s t s ' program c o n s i s t s of h i s and members' d e s c r i p t i o n s of observed events, an account of the environment of o b j e c t s attended, and the p r o g r e s s i v e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s that can be a f f e c t e d by i n i t i a l encounters between suspects and v i c t i m s , suspects and the p o l i c e , the w r i t i n g of an o f f i c i a l r eport based on i n t e r r o g a t i o n and o b s e r v a t i o n , subsequent p r o b a t i o n i n t e r v i e w s and r e p o r t s , court performances and the l i k e . The a n a l y s i s of o r a l and w r i t t e n m a t e r i a l presupposes a 143. s e l d o m m e n t i o n e d c o n t e x t u a l r e l e v a n c e b a s e d on l i n g u i s t i c and p r a c t i c a l r e a s o n i n g p r i n c i p l e s as t h e y a r e u s e d i n d i f f e r e n t s o c i a l g r o u p i n g s . ( 1 9 6 8 , p . 27) O r a l a n d w r i t t e n r e p o r t s p r e p a r e d by o f f i c i a l p e r s o n n e l c o n t i n u a l l y s i m p l i f y o r " r o u n d " , a b s t r a c t , a n d r e i n t e r p r e t t h e o r i g i n a l a c t so t h a t i t f i t s t h e k i n d o f l o g i c u s e d by o f f i c i a l s a c c u s t o m e d t o s t a n d a r d i z e d r e c i p e s f o r e x p l a i n i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e t w e e n l e g a l r u l e s a n d s o c i a l c o n d u c t ( 1 9 6 8 , p . 2 8 ) . T h e m a j o r t h r u s t o f C i c o u r e l ' s a r g u m e n t i s t h a t l e g a l c a t e g o r i e s ( s u c h as " d e l i n q u e n t " ) do n o t c o r r e s p o n d t o t h e p o s i t i v i s t i c t y p e s y s t e m w h e r e t h e c a t e g o r y r e p r e s e n t s some a c t u a l o b j e c t . R a t h e r , he a r g u e s , t h e s e c a t e g o r i e s a r e g i v e n m e a n i n g t h r o u g h s o c i a l i n t e r a c t i o n . C i c o u r e l d e m o n s t r a t e s t h a t t h e j u v e n i l e j u s t i c e s y s t e m s e l e c t i v e l y a s s e m b l e s j u v e n i l e s i n t h e p r o c e s s o f t h e i r b e i n g l a b e l l e d d e l i n q u e n t : 0 " P e r s o n s i n v o l v e d i n d e c i d i n g m a t t e r s o f l e g a l i t y and j u s t i c e c a r r y w i t h t hem a s t o c k o f k n o w l e d g e a b o u t s o c i a l t y p e s t h e y e n c o u n t e r i n d i f f e r e n t s i t u a t i o n s i n t h e c o m m u n i t y , a n d t h e i r s o c i a l a c t i o n s r e f l e c t c o n c e p t i o n s o f w h a t i s n o r m a l , s t r a n g e , a c c e p t a b l e , s a f e , l i k e l y , u s u a l e t c . " ( 1 9 6 8 , p . 4 5 ) P a r t o f C i c o u r e l ' s e m p i r i c a l r e s e a r c h a t t e m p t s t o e x a m i n e t h e e x t e n t t o w h i c h o f f i c i a l r e c o r d s r e v e a l e d o r d i d n o t r e v e a l t h e i n c i d e n c e a n d f o r m o f m i d d l e / u p p e r c l a s s d e l i n q u e n c y as c o m p a r e d w i t h l o w e r - i n c o m e g r o u p s . I n t h e s t u d y o f a m i d d l e -c l a s s C h i c a g o s u b u r b he f o u n d a f a i r l y h i g h i n c i d e n c e o f d e l i n q u e n c y , much h i g h e r t h a n s u g g e s t e d by t h e o f f i c i a l s t a t i s t i c s ( 1 9 6 8 , p p . 3 2 - 3 3 ) . I n t h e c o m p a r i s o n o f two 1 4 4 . u n i d e n t i f i e d c i t i e s he a l s o notes the i n f l u e n c e of p o l i c e o r g a n i z a t i o n a l procedures on d i f f e r e n c e s in the o v e r a l l rates of deviance i n the two c i t i e s , and i n the same c i t y at d i f f e r e n t times. C i c o u r e l uses these e m p i r i c a l f i n d i n g s to i n d i c a t e the " i n d e x i c a l " nature of the l a b e l delinquent and to show how rates of delinquency are o f f i c i a l l y produced; each instance of invo k i n g the l a b e l r e q u i r e s d e c i s i o n s which transform a trun c a t e d b e h a v i o u r a l d e s c r i p t i o n of "what happened" i n a p a r t i c u l a r i n c i d e n t i n t o some precoded but almost never unidimensional category that enables p o l i c e to invoke l e g a l language. T h i s i n v o c a t i o n i s o f t e n more a r e f l e c t i o n of a j u v e n i l e ' s s t a t u s or demeanor than h i s / h e r behaviour. The c o n s t r u c t i o n of o f f i c i a l s t a t i s t i c s may consequently be seen to employ improvised or ad hoc procedures f o r o b t a i n i n g , l a b e l l i n g and p r e s e n t i n g t h e i r i n f o r m a t i o n . Such procedures produce t e c h n i c a l e r r o r s that may be c o n t r o l l e d . But more p r o b l e m a t i c a l l y these procedures are i n t e g r a l procedures for a r r i v i n g at and i n t e r p r e t i n g the end product, and cannot, i n C i c o u r e l ' s view, be c o r r e c t e d by s t a t i s t i c a l estimates of e r r o r . As C i c o u r e l sees i t , the task posed the researcher i s to examine the s o c i a l l y organized ways in which j u v e n i l e a c t i v i t i e s are t r a n s l a t e d i n t o types of delinquency, an a n a l y s i s which produces a very d i f f e r e n t p i c t u r e to the one provided by an instrumental or p o s i t i v i s t i c type a n a l y s i s of p o l i c e s t a t i s t i c s . What the l a t t e r does not recognize i s that 145. a l l l e g a l c a t e g o r i e s a n d p r o c e d u r e s a r e b a r g a i n e d o r n e g o t i a t e d . I f t h e r e s e a r c h e r i g n o r e s t h e s o c i a l l y c o n s t r u c t e d e l e m e n t o f c r i m e s t a t i s t i c s he i m p o s e s a s y s t e m o f m e a s u r e m e n t by f i a t , t r e a t i n g o f f i c i a l r e p o r t s as a l i t e r a l d e p i c t i o n o f " w h a t h a p p e n e d " . T h e i m p l i c a t i o n s o f e t h n o m e t h o d o l o g i c a l r e s e a r c h f o r t h e g e o g r a p h y o f c r i m e a r e f a r - r e a c h i n g as t h e e m p h a s i s s h i f t s f r o m p u t a t i v e l y c r i m i n o g e n i c s o c i a l e n v i r o n m e n t s t o s o c i a l c o n t r o l a c t i v i t i e s , o r p e r h a p s m o r e c o r r e c t l y s o c i a l c o n t r o l becomes p a r t o f t h e s o c i a l env i r o n m e n t : " M y o b s e r v a t i o n s s u g g e s t p o l i c e a n d p r o b a t i o n p e r s p e c t i v e s f o l l o w c o m m u n i t y t y p i f i c a t i o n s i n o r g a n i z i n g t h e c i t y i n t o a r e a s w h e r e t h e y e x p e c t t o r e c e i v e t h e m o s t d i f f i c u l t y f r o m d e v i a n t o r d i f f i c u l t e l e m e n t s t o a r e a s w h e r e l i t t l e t r o u b l e i s e x p e c t e d a n d w h e r e m o r e c a r e s h o u l d be t a k e n d e a l i n g w i t h t h e p o p u l a c e b e c a u s e o f s o c i o - e c o n o m i c a n d p o l i t i c a l i n f l u e n c e . T h e p a r t i t i o n o f t h e c i t y i n t o a r e a s o f m o r e o r l e s s a n t i c i p a t e d c r i m e p r o v i d e s b o t h p o l i c e a n d p r o b a t i o n o f f i c e r s w i t h a d d i t i o n a l t y p i f i c a t i o n s a b o u t w h a t t o e x p e c t when p a t r o l l i n g o r m a k i n g c a l l s i n t h e a r e a s . T h u s t h e o f f i c e r ' s p r e c o n s t i t u t e d t y p i f i c a t i o n s a n d s t o c k o f k n o w l e d g e a t h a n d l e a d s h i m t o p r e j u d g e much o f w h a t he e n c o u n t e r s , w h i c h an i n d e p e n d e n t o b s e r v e r does n o t a l w a y s ' s e e ' . T h u s p a r t i c u l a r e c o l o g i c a l s e t t i n g s , p o p u l a t e d by p e r s o n s w i t h ' k n o w n ' s t y l e s o f d r e s s a n d p h y s i c a l a p p e a r a n c e , p r o v i d e t h e o f f i c e r w i t h q u i c k i n f e r e n c e s a b o u t ' w h a t i s g o i n g o n ' a l t h o u g h n o t b a s e d on f a c t u a l - t y p e m a t e r i a l he m u s t d e s c r i b e s o o n e r o r l a t e r i n o r a l o r w r i t t e n f o r m . " 5 ( C i c o u r e l , 1 9 7 6 , p . 6 7 ) T h i s i n t e r p r e t a i o n o f b i a s has p r o f o u n d i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r t h e e x p l a n a t i o n o f a d e l i n q u e n c y d e c i s i o n t o p r o c e s s j u v e n i l e s i s s t a t u s , t h e r a t e map may be b e s t r a t e m a p . B e c a u s e t h e o f t e n b a s e d on t h e i r s o c i a l i n t e r p r e t e d as t h e p r o d u c t o f 1 4 6 . a s e l f - f u l f i l l i n g p r o p h e c y r e f l e c t i n g t h e b e l i e f s o f s o c i a l c o n t r o l p e r s o n n e l as t o w h e r e s o c i e t y ' s d e l i n q u e n t p o p u l a t i o n s a r e l o c a t e d . I n t h i s s e n s e i t may be t h o u g h t o f as a m e n t a l m a p , an i n t e r p r e t a t i on o f b e h a v i o u r r a t h e r t h a n a d e s c r i p t i on o f i t . L i m i t a t i o n s o f t h e E t h n o m e t h o d o l o g i c a l C r i t i q u e C i c o u r e l ' s s t u d y shows t h a t d e l i n q u e n c y i s n o t a d i s c r e t e b e h a v i o u r . B u t i s t h i s t h e c a s e w i t h a l l c r i m e c a t e g o r i e s ? T h e c e n t r a l p r o b l e m t h a t t h e c r i t i q u e r a i s e s c o n c e r n s t h e m e a n i n g o f l a w , t h e n e g l e c t e d p a r t o f t h e e q u a t i o n i n t h e g e o g r a p h e r ' s a p p r o a c h t o c r i m e . F o l l o w i n g an e t h n o m e t h o d o l o g i c a l p r o g r a m C i c o u r e l shows how t h e common s e n s e r u l e s o f e v e r y d a y - 1 i f e d i c t a t e t h e i n t e r a c t i o n b e t w e e n p o l i c e a n d p u b l i c i n d e c i d i n g who t h e d e l i n q u e n t s a r e . B u t s u c h a v i e w i g n o r e s t h e way m o r e w i d e l y p e r v a s i v e i d e o l o g i c a l b e l i e f s m o u l d t h i s p r o c e s s . I n d e e d , e t h n o m e t h o d o l o g y has b e e n c r i t i c i z e d i n g e n e r a l f o r f a i l i n g t o i n c o r p o r a t e an u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f i d e o l o g y ( e g . F r e u n d and A b r a m s , 1 9 7 6 ; B e n g -H u a t C h u a , 1 9 7 7 ) . E t h n o m e t h o d o l o g y l e a v e s t h e i m p r e s s i o n t h a t m e a n i n g i s c o n s t r u c t e d s o l e l y t h r o u g h t h e p r o c e s s o f i m m e d i a t e s o c i a l i n t e r a c t i o n , a n d has t h u s b e e n s u g g e s t e d as o f f e r i n g an u n w a r r a n t e d a n d h i g h l y r e l a t i v e p i u r a l i s m w i t h an i n a d e q u a t e g r a s p o f t h e r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n k n o w l e d g e and s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e ( e g . T a y l o r , W a l t o n a n d Y o u n g , 1 9 7 3 , p p . 1 9 3 - 2 0 8 ) . Y o u n g t a k e s 1 4 7 . t h e p o s i t i o n t h a t i t i s o n l y i n t y p i c a l s i t u a t i o n s t h a t t h e i d i o s y n c r a t i c v a l u e s and i d e o l o g i e s o f p a r t i c u l a r s o c i a l c o n t r o l a g e n c i e s a s sume p a r a m o u n t i m p o r t a n c e ( 1 9 7 5 , p . 8 7 ) . T h u s h o w e v e r d u b i o u s t h e p o s i t i v i s t i c a c c e p t a n c e o f t h e c r i m i n a l s t a t i s t i c s , t h e i r w h o l e s a l e r e j e c t i o n w o u l d be e q u a l l y c a v a l i e r . T h e s o c i a l a c t o r s f a c e d w i t h t h e t a s k o f a s s i g n i n g c r i m i n a l l a b e l s may o f t e n h a v e a v e r y c l e a r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e k i n d o f a c t i v i t y a p a r t i c u l a r l a w p r o s c r i b e s , as w o u l d be t h e c a s e w i t h m u r d e r o r s e r i o u s a s s a u l t . B a r r y H i n d e s s h i g h l i g h t s t h e u n s t a t e d p r o b l e m o f " c l a s s i f i c a t i o n by f i a t " t h i s w a y : " W i t h r e s p e c t t o w h i c h c a t e g o r i e s do t h e s e d i f f i c u l t i e s a r i s e ? What p r o p o r t i o n o f c a s e s m u s t be d e c i d e d i n t h i s f a s h i o n : 0 . 0 1 p e r c e n t , 5 p e r c e n t , 95 p e r c e n t ? I f i t i s t h e l a s t t h e n t h e f i n a l t a b u l a t i o n i s o b v i o u s l y w o r t h l e s s ; i f t h e f i r s t , t h e n c l a s s i f i c a t i o n by f i a t may be i g n o r e d as a s o u r c e o f e r r o r i n t h e t a b l u l a t i o n i n q u e s t i o n . " ( 1 9 7 3 , p . 1 8 ) . T h e r e s u l t o f t h i s n e g l e c t i s t h a t e t h n o m e t h o d o l o g y has d e m o n s t r a t e d o n l y t h e i n c o m p l e t e n e s s o f a n y s e t o f c a t e g o r i e s a n d i n s t r u c t i o n s . H i n d e s s s u g g e s t s t h a t a p o s i t i v i s t i c c r i t i q u e o f o f f i c i a l s t a t i s t i c s c o u l d be d e v e l o p e d w h i c h w o u l d be p e r f e c t l y c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e c l a i m s o f e t h n o m e t h o d o l o g y . I n f a c t t h e e t h n o m e t h o d o l o g i c a l p r o g r a m i s h i g h l y p o s i t i v i s t i c , H i n d e s s s u g g e s t s , d i r e c t e d a t t h e a b s e n c e o f a s e t o f c o r r e s p o n d e n c e r u l e s l i n k i n g l e g a l c a t e g o r i e s a n d a c t u a l phenomena ( A n d r e w T u d o r , 1 9 7 6 , makes a s i m i l a r p o i n t ) . B u t i n n o t i n g t h e s i m i l a r i t y o f p o s i t i v i s m and e t h n o m e t h o d o l o g y , H i n d e s s t e n d s t o m i n i m i z e t h e i r d i f f e r e n c e s . T h i s may r e f l e c t 148 . h i s d e s i r e t o o f f e r an a l t e r n a t i v e r a t i o n a l i s t m o d e l i n w h i c h he s e e s t h e p r o b l e m o f c l a s s i f i c a t i o n by f i a t as o n l y i n v o l v i n g w h a t he c a l l s " a l i e n " o r a m b i g u o u s c a t e g o r i e s , t h o s e i n w h i c h " t e c h n i c a l " a n d " c o n c e p t u a l " i n s t r u m e n t s do n o t f i t t o g e t h e r ; t o t h i s e x t e n t t h e p r o b l e m o f w h a t t h e s t a t i s t i c s mean i s an i n s t r u m e n t a l p r o b l e m n o t an e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l o n e . B u t i n m a k i n g t h i s a r g u m e n t , H i n d e s s n e v e r t h e l e s s s u g g e s t s t h a t o f f i c i a l c a t e g o r i e s c a n n o t be t a k e n - f o r - g r a n t e d by t h e r e s e a r c h e r , a n d i n s o - d o i n g p a r a d o x i c a l l y e v o k e s c e r t a i n e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l i s s u e s - a p r i m a f a c i e r e a d i n g o f t h e s t a t i s t i c s has g e n e r a l l y l e d t o a f o c u s on t h e c r i m i n a l r a t h e r t h a n t h e l a w w i t h o b v i o u s a n d i m p o r t a n t c o n s e q u e n c e s f o r t h e t y p e o f e x p l a n a t i o n o f f e r e d . T h u s t h e p r o b l e m i s , a t l e a s t i n p a r t , e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l ( t h e m e t h o d o f i n q u i r y s t r u c t u r e s t h e t y p e o f e x p l a n a t i o n p o s s i b l e ) . T h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n p o s i t i v i s m a n d e t h n o m e t h o d o l o g y t h a t H i n d e s s l a r g e l y m i n i m i z e s i s t h e l a t t e r ' s f o c u s on m e a n i n g , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t e r s u b j e c t i v e m e a n i n g . T h e i m p o r t a n t p o i n t i s t h a t i n t h e e t h n o m e t h o d o l o g i c a l a p p r o a c h t h e m e a n i n g o f l e g a l c a t e g o r i e s i s s o c i a l l y n e g o t i a t e d . I n t h e i n s t r u m e n t a l p o s i t i v i s t p r o g r a m , t h e m e a n i n g o f l e g a l c a t e g o r i e s i s p r e g i v e n . A g a i n a k e y i n s i g h t i s t h a t c r i m e i s n o t a l l o f a p i e c e - c r i m e i s n o t a m o n o l i t h i c b e h a v i o u r a l c a t e g o r y . ( I n d e e d , i t w o u l d be a m i s t a k e t o s e e a s i n g l e c r i m e c a t e g o r y as b e i n g n e c e s s a r i l y d i s c r e t e ) . F o r some c r i m e c a t e g o r i e s t h e p r o b l e m o f c l a s s i f i c a t i o n by f i a t i s p a r a m o u n t . I n H i n d e s s ' s e n s e t h e c a t e g o r y " d e l i n q u e n t " i s m o r e a l i e n t h a n t h e c a t e g o r y " m u r d e r " ( a l t h o u g h e v e n t h e 149 . c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f t h e t a k i n g o f a human l i f e may be d e p e n d e n t on t h e s o c i a l c o n t e x t i n w h i c h i t o c c u r s ) . F u r t h e r E l e m e n t s o f t h e I n s t i t u t i o n a l i s t C r i t i q u e ; M e t h o d i c a l a n d I n c i d e n t a l S u s p i c i o n D a v i d M a t z a ( 1 9 6 9 ) , i n d i s c u s s i n g t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s o f t h e s t a t i s t i c a l b i a s o f o f f i c i a l c r i m e r e p o r t s , l a y s a f o u n d a t i o n f o r t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f a n i d e o l o g i c a l e l e m e n t o f b i a s . He s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e m a j o r s o u r c e o f s y s t e m a t i c b i a s a r i s e s f r o m t h e m e t h o d o f s u s p i c i o n r o u t i n e l y u t i l i z e d b y t h e p o l i c e when i n v e s t i g a t i n g c r i m e s ( 1 9 6 9 , p p . 1 8 0 - 1 9 5 ) . H o w e v e r i m p o r t a n t t h e p r o m i s e o f p r o t e c t i o n b y c i v i l r i g h t s , t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t way i n w h i c h a c i t i z e n ' s r i g h t s a r e p r o t e c t e d i s t h e e x p e c t a t i o n t h a t u n d e r o r d i n a r y c i r c u m s t a n c e s he o r she w i l l r e m a i n a b o v e p o l i c e s u s p i c i o n ( 1 9 6 9 , p . 1 8 2 ) . T o f a l l u n d e r s u s p i c i o n , m o s t members o f s o c i e t y w o u l d h a v e t o go o u t o f t h e i r w a y . B u t , c o n s p i c u o u s l y , t h i s i s n o t t h e c a s e f o r c e r t a i n g r o u p s . T o i l l u s t r a t e t h i s a s s e r t i o n , M a t z a d r a w s a d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n " i n c i d e n t a l " ' a n d " m e t h o d i c a l " s u s p i c i o n . M o s t p e o p l e a r e s u b j e c t t o p o l i c e a t t e n t i o n o n l y u n d e r s p e c i a l c i r c u m s t a n c e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y t r a f f i c o f f e n c e s . I n t h e s e c a s e s t h e m e t h o d o f s u s p i c i o n i s i n c i d e n t a l . I t i s s u s p i c i o n t h a t f l o w s f r o m an i n c i d e n t o f a c i t i z e n ' s a p p a r e n t d e r e l i c t i o n o f l e g a l d u t y ( 1 9 6 9 , p p . 1 8 3 - 1 8 4 ) . B u t t h i s i s n o t t h e u s u a l m e t h o d o f s u s p i c i o n u s e d by p o l i c e i n t h e i r r o u t i n e c r i m i n a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n s . " M e t h o d i c s u s p i c i o n " , M a t z a c l a i m s , i s t h e 1 5 0 . c u s t o m a r y m o d e , t h a t w h i c h l e a d s t o t h e m o s t p r o f o u n d s o u r c e o f s y s t e m a t i c b i a s i n t h e o f f i c i a l s t a t i s t i c s . T h i s m e t h o d o f s u s p i c i o n e m p l o y s p o l i c e k n o w l e d g e o f known c r i m i n a l s t o e x p e d i t e t h e i r a p p r e h e n s i o n a n d t h e s u b s e q u e n t c l e a r i n g o f c i t i z e n ' s c o m p l a i n t s . R a t h e r t h a n a s p e c i f i c i n c i d e n t e v o k i n g i t , s u s p i c i o n a r i s e s f r o m b e i n g " k n o w n t o t h e p o l i c e " , " k n o w n " i n t h e s e n s e t h a t a p a r t i c u l a r i d e n t i t y o r r e s e m b l a n c e p r o d u c e s a t t e n t i o n . M a t z a t e r m s t h i s " b u r e a u c r a t i c s u s p i c i o n " b e c a u s e i t a r i s e s f r o m t h e p o l i c e n e e d t o a c c o u n t ( b o t h t o h i g h e r o f f i c i a l d o m a n d t h e p u b l i c ) f o r t h e i r a c t i v i t y . T h e m e t h o d i s " o u t g o i n g " i n t h a t i t s e e k s a r e g u l a r s u s p e c t i n t h e hope t h a t a n y one o r a w h o l e s e r i e s o f u n c l e a r e d o f f e n c e s c a n be s e t t l e d . T h e m e t h o d i s common, M a t z a s u g g e s t s , i n b u r g l a r y a n d l a r c e n y i n v e s t i g a t i o n s i n an a t t e m p t t o c l e a r i n c i d e n t s r e p o r t e d t o t h e p o l i c e , o r i n d r u g s and o t h e r v i c e a r e a s i n t h e f o r m o f s t o p a n d s e a r c h t a c t i c s , b u t o n l y t h e s t o p p i n g a n d s e a r c h i n g o f p e o p l e who " l o o k " s u s p i c i o u s . I n t h i s s e n s e t h e m e t h o d o f s u s p i c i o n c o n t i n u o u s l y s u s t a i n s c r i m i n a l a n d d e l i n q u e n t i d e n t i t y . C o n t r o l o l o g y : F r o m C r i m e R a t e s t o C o n t r o l R a t e s K i t s u s e a n d C i c o u r e l b r o k e t h r o u g h a n i m p o r t a n t t h e o r e t i c a l b a r r i e r by s u g g e s t i n g t h a t o f f i c i a l s t a t i s t i c s be t r e a t e d as i n d e p e n d e n t r a t h e r t h a n as d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e s . B u t i s t h e i r f o c u s on t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f c r i m e s t a t i s t i c s r e a l l y mean t t o s u g g e s t t h a t c r i m e r a t e s b e a r no r e l a t i o n s h i p t o 1 5 1 . a c t u a l c r i m i n a l behaviour? I think not, but one p o s i t i o n advocated r e c e n t l y (based on a combination of the l a b e l l i n g p e r s p e c t i v e on crime and the i n s t i t u t i o n a l i s t p e r s p e c t i v e on crime s t a t i s t i c s ) argues that o f f i c i a l crime rates should never be i n t e r p r e t e d as indexing the r e a l d i s t r i b u t i o n of c r i m i n a l behaviour. In a recent monograph D i t t o n (1979) sets out to provide an i n t e g r a t e d t h e o r e t i c a l base for a reformulated l a b e l l i n g approach. D i t t o n ' s argument i s based on the statement made by Lemert that : "Older s o c i o l o g y . . . t e n d e d to r e s t h e a v i l y upon the idea that deviance leads to s o c i a l c o n t r o l . I have come to b e l i e v e the reverse id e a , i . e . , s o c i a l c o n t r o l leads to deviance, i s e q u a l l y tenable, and the p o t e n t i a l l y r i c h e r premise for s t u d y i n g deviance i n modern so c i ety." D i t t o n makes t h i s " p o t e n t i a l l y r i c h e r premise" the r a i s o n d'etre of c r i m i n o l o g y . A c c o r d i n g l y the neologism " c o n t r o l o l o g y " i s advanced to r e p l a c e c r i m i n o l o g y s t y l i s t i c a l l y and a n a l y t i c a l l y . While Lemert viewed the argument that c o n t r o l leads to deviance as " e q u a l l y tenable" as the reverse p r o p o s i t i o n , D i t t o n t r e a t s i t as the only tenable p o s i t i o n , at l e a s t i n terms of p r o v i d i n g an adequate base for a f u l l y f l e d g e d l a b e l l i n g theory (1979, p. 9). S i m i l a r l y while W i l k i n s ' (1964) model of deviance a m p l i f i c a t i o n i s based on Maruyama's (1960, 1963) c y b e r n e t i c p r i n c i p l e s of mutual c a u s a l i t y , D i t t o n ' s m o d i f i c a t i o n of i t t r e a t s c o n t r o l as o p e r a t i n g independently of crime, and of crime as being dependent on c o n t r o l . T h i s s t i p u l a t i o n has important 152. c o n s e q u e n c e s f o r t h e " c o n t r o l o l o g i s t ' s " i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f o f f i c i a l c r i m e r a t e s . F r o m D i t t o n ' s p e r s p e c t i v e t h e i d e a o f a " d a r k f i g u r e " o f c r i m e becomes a t h e o r e t i c a l n o n s e n s e as t h e c o n c e p t u a l s t a t u s o f o f f i c i a l s t a t i s t i c s becomes c e n t r a l t o h i s v e r s i o n o f l a b e l l i n g t h e o r y . D i t t o n c l a i m s t h a t he a c c e p t s t h e e p i s t e m o l o g y l a i d o u t by C i c o u r e l ( 1 9 6 7 ) , b u t , f o l l o w i n g B o t t o m l e y and C o l e m a n ( 1 9 7 6 ) , he a r g u e s t h a t m o s t o f t h e p r o p o n e n t s o f t h e l a b e l l i n g p e r s p e c t i v e h a v e f o l l o w e d w h a t I h a v e t e r m e d an " i n s t r u m e n t a l i s t " ^ r a t h e r t h a n an " i n t e r a c t i o n i s t " i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f o f f i c i a l s t a t i s t i c s . D i t t o n a r g u e s t h a t l a b e l l i n g t h e o r i s t s , r a t h e r t h a n f o l l o w C i c o u r e l ' s e p i s t e m o l o g y , h a v e u n w i t t i n g l y r e p r o d u c e d t h e same image o f b i a s as t h a t i d e n t i f i e d b y t r a d i t i o n a l t h e o r i s t s ; t h e y h a v e g i v e n s i m i l a r c r e d e n c e t o a c o n c e p t i o n o f a " d a r k f i g u r e o f c r i m e " . W h i l e t h e i n s t r u m e n t a l i s t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s u g g e s t s t h e s t a t i s t i c s a r e i n a d e q u a t e , l a b e l l i n g t h e o r i s t s a d d e d t h e a r g u m e n t t h a t i n a d e q u a c i e s w e r e c l a s s b i a s e d . " T h i s may h a v e seemed l i k e a c r i t i c a l p o s i t i o n ; i t i s i n f a c t a n e s t a b l i s h m e n t one -a n d m o r e t h a n t h a t , a c o n v e n t i o n a l l y p o s i t i v i s t o n e . I t may h a v e seemed e x p e d i e n t t o a c c e p t t h a t t h e r e e x i s t s a ' d a r k f i g u r e ' o f c r i m e . . . b u t t h a t a c c e p t a n c e i m p l i e d an i n e v i t a b l y c o n v e n t i o n a l e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l c o n c e p t i o n o f t h e p r o b l e m . " ( 1 9 7 9 , p . 1 9 ) I n i t s p l a c e D i t t o n r e g i s t e r s w h a t he c a l l s a " q u a l i f i e d " t h e o r e t i c a l " a t h e i s m " s u g g e s t i n g t h a t t h e " d a r k f i g u r e " i s n o t m e r e l y u n k n o w a b l e , b u t n o n e x i s t e n t ; " . . . t h e a t h e i s t p o s i t i o n h o l d s t h a t e v e r y t h i n g c a n be known a b o u t ' c r i m e ' f r o m o f f i c i a l 1 5 3 . s t a t i s t i c a l c o l l a t i o n s o f t h e c o n s t i t u t i v e r e a c t i o n s t o a n d o f i t . " ( p . 2 3 ) T h i s " j u r i s t i c " v i e w h o l d s t h a t a g i v e n c r i m e i s n o t v a l i d l y known t o h a v e t a k e n p l a c e u n t i l a c o u r t f i n d s someone g u i l t y o f t h a t o f f e n c e ( B i d e r m a n a n d R e i s s , 1 9 6 7 , p . 2 ) ; " ' c r i m i n a l a c t i v i t y ' i s t h e a c t i v i t y o f c a l l i n g a c t i v i t i e s c r i m e s . " ( D i t t o n , 1 9 7 9 , p . 23 ) F o l l o w i n g K i t s u s e a n d C i c o u r e l ' s ( 1 9 6 3 , p p . 2 4 7 - 8 ) r e c o m m e n d a t i o n t h a t o f f i c i a l s t a t i s t i c s c a n o n l y be u s e d t o a n a l y z e t h o s e t h a t t h e y w e r e c o l l e c t e d b_y_ n o t t h o s e t h e y w e r e c o l l e c t e d o_f_ D i t t o n a r g u e s : " . . . t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f s t a t i s t i c s i s s u c h t h a t no a c c e p t a b l e d e d u c t i o n s c a n be made a b o u t t h e ' m o t i v e s ' o r ' i n t e n t i o n s ' o f t h e a c c u s e d f r o m t h e m . . . ( T ) h e c e n t r a l i m p l i c a t i o n o f t h e s e c o n c e p t u a l o b s e r v a t i o n s i s t h a t v a r i a t i o n s i n t h e o f f i c i a l c r i m e - r a t e s a r e a l l o w a b l e as e v i d e n c e o f c o n t r o l - w a v e s : b u t n e v e r o f c r i m e - w a v e s . " ( 1 9 7 9 , p . 24 ) F r o m t h i s p e r s p e c t i v e c r i m e i s n o t an a c t i v i t y e n g a g e d i n by an o f f e n d e r b u t one f o r m u l a t e d i n c o u r t by o t h e r s . A t t h i s j u n c t u r e a number o f o b s e r v a t i o n s c o n c e r n i n g D i t t o n ' s f o r m u l a a r e w a r r a n t e d s i n c e t h e y s e r v e t o c l a r i f y a n a l t e r n a t i v e t h e o r e t i c a l p o s i t i o n w h i c h n o n e t h l e s s p r e s c r i b e s t h e a n a l y t i c l i a i s o n o f c r i m e a n d j u s t i c e . S u c h a p o s i t i o n i s p r e d i c a t e d on a f u n d a m e n t a l r e j e c t i o n o f c o n t r o l o l o g y i n t h i s c r u c i a l s e n s e ; v a r i a t i o n s i n t h e o f f i c i a l c r i m e - r a t e s may be a l l o w a b l e as e v i d e n c e o f c o n t r o l w a v e s a n d / o r c r i m e w a v e s . T h e i m p o r t a n t p o i n t i s t h a t t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s o f o f f i c i a l s t a t i s t i c s s h o u l d n o t be t a k e n f o r g r a n t e d - s o m e t i m e s c o n t r o l may be a r e s p o n s e t o c r i m e , a t o t h e r t i m e s c r i m e may be p r o d u c e d by c o n t r o l . S o m e t i m e s a c h a n g e o f s o c i a l a c t i v i t y w i l l be 1 5 4 . r e g i s t e r e d i n i n c r e a s e d c r i m e r a t e s ( s u c h as t h e w i d e s p r e a d a d o p t i o n o f s o f t d r u g s by A m e r i c a n c o l l e g e s t u d e n t s i n t h e 1 9 6 0 ' s ) , s o m e t i m e s l a w e n f o r c e m e n t a c t i v i t y w i l l c r e a t e t h e a p p e a r a n c e o f a c h a n g e o f s o c i a l a c t i v i t y when t h e r e i s l i t t l e - - as i s s u g g e s t e d o f t h e A m e r i c a n m a r i j u a n a p a n i c c r e a t e d by H a r r y A n s l i n g e r a n d t h e B u r e a u o f D a n g e r o u s D r u g s i n t h e 1 9 3 0 ' s ( S c h o f i e l d , 1 9 7 1 , p p . 4 5 - 4 7 ) . T o c o m p l i c a t e t h e w h o l e m a t t e r f u r t h e r , s o m e t i m e s when t h e r e i s an a c t u a l c h a n g e o f s o c i a l a c t i v i t y , l a w e n f o r c e m e n t a c t i v i t y may c r e a t e a d i s t o r t e d p i c t u r e o f t h a t c h a n g e . I n t e r m s o f t h e c r e a t i o n a n d d i s t o r t i o n o f c r i m e r a t e s b y t h e c o n t r o l p r o c e s s , D i t t o n l i s t s f o u r t y p e s o f c h a n g e : " c o n s t r u c t e d r i s e s " s t e m f r o m l e g i s l a t i v e o r j u d i c i a l m o r a l e n t e r p r i s e i n c r e a t i n g l a w ; " f a n t a s y r i s e s . . . o c c u r when a g r e a t e r d e g r e e o f a t t e n t i o n i s g i v e n t o t h e d e v i a n t a u d i e n c e " ; " b o o k - k e e p i n g r i s e s " ( o r " p a p e r c r i m e - w a v e s " ) a r e a p r o d u c t o f c h a n g e s i n t h e c o m p i l a t i o n a n d c o l l a t i o n o f s t a t i s t i c s ; " r e p o r t i n g r i s e s " a r e p r o d u c e d b y mass m e d i a c o v e r a g e . W h i l e D i t t o n c h a s t i z e s B o x ( 1 9 7 1 ) a n d o t h e r s f o r t h e i r i n c o n s i s t e n c y i n u s i n g w h a t he s e e s as a p o s i t i v i s t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e b i a s i n o f f i c i a l s t a t i s t i c s , h i s " j u r i s t i c " f o r m u l a s i m p l y d i s a g r e e s w i t h t h e n a t u r e o f t h e c o r r e s p o n d e n c e r u l e s l i n k i n g t h e o r e t i c a l c o n c e p t s t o c r i m e c a t e g o r i e s a n d i n t h i s p a r t i c u l a r s e n s e i s no l e s s p o s i t i v i s t . T h e b o o k - k e e p i n g c h a n g e s o f c o n t r o l r a t e s D i t t o n r e f e r s t o a r e p r e c i s e l y t h o s e t a k e n i n t o a c c o u n t by an i n s t r u m e n t a l r e a d i n g o f b i a s - a c c o r d i n g t o h i s own t e r m s 1 5 5 . D i t t o n s h o u l d s t a n d a c c u s e d o f t h e same t y p e o f e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l o f f e n c e s he a t t r i b u t e s t o B o x ! B u t D i t t o n w o u l d p r e s u m a b l y r e j e c t t h e d i s t i n c t i o n o f i n s t r u m e n t a l a n d e s s e n t i a l b i a s made h e r e as n o t t h e o r e t i c a l l y v i a b l e t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t o f f i c i a l s t a t i s t i c s m e a s u r e c o n t r o l a n d t h e y m e a s u r e i t e x a c t l y . I t i s f o r t h i s r e a s o n t h a t D i t t o n s u g g e s t s t h a t l a b e l l i n g t h e o r i s t s h a v e n o t made an e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l b r e a k w i t h p o s i t i v i s m e v e n t h o u g h t h e y p o i n t e d t o t h e c o n t e x t u a l s o u r c e s o f b i a s ( s u c h as s o c i a l c l a s s ) as r e m a i n i n g b e y o n d an i n s t r u m e n t a l r e a d i n g . A n d y e t t h e d i s t i n c t i o n o f i n s t r u m e n t a l a n d e s s e n t i a l b i a s ( w h i c h D i t t o n d o e s n o t r e c o g n i z e ) does s u g g e s t an e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e l a b e l l i n g p e r s p e c t i v e , f o r m u l a t e d i n t e r m s o f s y m b o l i c i n t e r a c t i o n i s m , a n d an i n s t r u m e n t a l p o s i t i v i s t a p p r o a c h . I n d e e d t h e r e f o r m u l a t i o n o f l a b e l l i n g t h e o r y D i t t o n a r g u e s as n e c e s s a r y may h a v e a l r e a d y o c c u r r e d i n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f a g e n e r a l i n t e r a c t i o n i s t c r i m i n o l o g y . D i t t o n ' s c o n t r o l o l o g y has a f u r t h e r p o s i t i v i s t t r a i t i n i t s n o m i n a l i s t i c c l a i m t h a t c r i m e r a t e s do n o t r e f l e c t ( c r i m i n a l ) b e h a v i o u r ; r a t h e r c r i m e r a t e s r e f l e c t t h e a c t i v i t i e s o f t h o s e t h a t p r o d u c e t h e m . W h i l e n o t w i s h i n g t o d e n y t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f t h e l a t t e r s t a t e m e n t , i n wha t way i s i t u s e f u l t o s a y t h a t c r i m e i s n o t a n a c t i v i t y e n g a g e d i n b y a n o f f e n d e r b u t one f o r m u l a t e d i n a c o u r t by o t h e r s ? I f t h i s i s t r u e one w o n d e r s why a s m u g g l e r b o t h e r s t o c o n c e a l h i s w a r e s a l t h o u g h D i t t o n w o u l d p r e s u m a b l y a r g u e t h a t i t i s t o p r e v e n t a c r i m e o c c u r r i n g i n t h e c o n t r o l o l o g i c a l s e n s e . B u t w i t h o u t t h e l a w t h e p r o f i t f r o m t h e s m u g g l e r s e n t e r p r i s e w o u l d d i s a p p e a r ; i n 1 5 6 . t h i s s e n s e l a w d o e s l e a d t o c r i m e , b u t , p h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l l y , c r i m e c a n be " a n a c t i v i t y e n g a g e d i n by an o f f e n d e r " , c o n t r a r y t o D i t t o n ' s a r g u m e n t ( 1 9 7 9 , p . 2 3 ) , and t h e r e c a n be a r e a l q u a n t i t a t i v e r a t e o f t h i s t y p e o f c r i m e i n l e g a l i s t i c t e r m s . W h i l e D i t t o n does n o t a c t u a l l y d e n y t h i s k i n d o f a r g u m e n t , he s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e q u a n t i t y i s u n k n o w a b l e i n p r a c t i c e . B u t i n r e j e c t i n g t h e i n s t r u m e n t a l i s t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f c r i m e r a t e s as c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o some r e a l amount o f c r i m e , he c h a n g e s t h e f o r m u l a t o s u g g e s t t h a t c o n t r o l r a t e s m e a s u r e r e a l a m o u n t s o f c o n t r o l . B u t t h e y o n l y do so i n t h e same s e n s e t h a t c r i m e r a t e s r e f l e c t t h e r e a l amount o f c r i m e and D i t t o n o f f e r s no g o o d t h e o r e t i c a l r e a s o n f o r c h o o s i n g t h e one r e a d i n g o v e r t h e o t h e r . M o s t p r o b l e m a t i c i n t h i s f o r m u l a i s t h e i m p l i c a t i o n t h a t p o l i c e c o n t r o l o f t h e c i t i z e n r y i s o n l y a c h i e v e d t h r o u g h t h e u s e o f c r i m i n a l s a n c t i o n s - t h e r e i s no s e n s e o f E r i c s o n ' s ( 1 9 8 1 ) s u g g e s t i o n t h a t t h e u s e o f c r i m i n a l p r o c e d u r e may o f t e n be t h e l a s t r e s o r t o f a p o l i c e m a n ' s e f f o r t t o r e s t o r e " l a w a n d o r d e r " . ( M o r e o f t h i s v e r y i m p o r t a n t p o i n t l a t e r ) . T h e i m p l i c a t i o n o f t h i s i s t h a t w h i l e m e a s u r e m e n t o f c r i m e i s i m p o r t a n t , t h e d e l i m i t a t i o n o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n o f o f f e n d e r s may o n l y be t h e f i r s t s t e p i n d e v e l o p i n g e x p l a n a t i o n s o r u n d e r s t a n d i n g s o f t h e i r b e h a v i o u r ; e v e n i f one w e r e p r i v y t o a " r e a l " f i g u r e f o r c r i m e , t h e e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l o b j e c t i o n t o p o s i t i v i s m r a i s e d by t h e s o c i o l o g y o f d e v i a n c e e x t e n d s b e y o n d t h e p r o b l e m o f t h e b i a s o f c r i m e r a t e s . F o r some o f t h e r e a s o n s D i t t o n o u t l i n e s , t h e r e a l amount o f c r i m e , o r a t l e a s t i t s c o n f i g u r a t i o n , may s t i l l be i m p o r t a n t l y r e l a t e d t o t h e 1 5 7 . s o c i a l c o n t r o l process. In Chapters 7 through 9 my purpose i s to provide examples of j u s t such a p r o p o s i t i o n . These arguments about the l i m i t a t i o n s of c o n t r o l o l o g y should not be taken as d i m i n i s h i n g the importance of D i t t o n ' s d e s c r i p t i o n of the e f f e c t s of c o n t r o l processes on the meaning and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of s t a t i s t i c s s i n c e the r e a l amount of crime does remain, to a l l i n t e n t s and purposes, unknown. But i n l i e u of any technique for measuring the "dark f i g u r e " even i f one assumes that such an amount could be agreed upon (and D i t t o n gives good reasons to suggest that i t could not) h i s suggested focus on c o n t r o l seems to r a i s e s i m i l a r kinds of problems to those i t o s t e n s i b l y r e s o l v e s ; c o n s i d e r , for example, the issue of b i a s i n c o n t r o l rates and the "dark f i g u r e of c o n t r o l " c r e a t e d by p o l i c e c o r r u p t i o n and p o l i t i c a l i n f l u e n c e . Most problematic of a l l , D i t t o n ' s e m p i r i c a l examples designed to advance the m e r i t s of the c o n t r o l o l o g i c a l p o s i t i o n r e f e r to the c o n t r o l of p e t t y p i l f e r a g e from a bakery. One wonders in what sense a p a r a l l e l can be drawn between the c o n t r o l personnel of the bakery (mostly the bakery management and only i n f r e q u e n t l y s e c u r i t y p e r s o n n e l ) , who perform many . other o c c u p a t i o n a l f u n c t i o n s as w e l l as c o n t r o l , and the p o l i c e whose pr imary o c c u p a t i o n a l task is c o n t r o l (even i f the way they e x e r c i s e c o n t r o l i s not always evidenced by t h e i r c r i m i n a l i z a t i o n of o f f e n d e r s ) . A d d i t i o n a l l y , much p o l i c e work i s generated by c a l l s f o r a c t i o n from the p u b l i c ( i t i s i n t h i s sense r e a c t i v e to c i t i z e n c a l l s rather than p r o a c t i v e l y generated by the p o l i c e ) . In 158. D i t t o n ' s b a k e r y , h o w e v e r , t h e one e m p l o y e e r e p o r t t o t h e management a b o u t i l l e g a l a c t i v i t y was i g n o r e d , a n d t h e " e x p l a n a t i o n " o f t h e " c o n t r o l w a v e " a g a i n s t p i l f e r i n g i s l o c a t e d e l s e w h e r e . T h e q u e s t i o n becomes how much t h e c o n t r o l p r a c t i c e s i n t h e b a k e r y c a n be g e n e r a l i z e d t o t h e p o l i c e . D i t t o n d o e s a d d r e s s t h i s d i f f e r e n c e , b u t o n l y t o e x p l a i n i t a w a y . What he t e r m s " f a n t a s y " r i s e s i n c r i m e r a t e s - i . e . when m o r e c r i m e s o r i g i n a l l y c o m m i t t e d a r e d i s c o v e r e d - a r e s u g g e s t e d as a r i s i n g when c e r t a i n k i n d s o f c r i m e a r e b r o u g h t t o p u b l i c a t t e n t i o n by c o n t r o l a u t h o r i t i e s a n d o t h e r " m o r a l e n t r e p r e n e u r s " . B u t d i f f e r e n c e s i n p u b l i c r e p o r t i n g a r e c o m p l e t e l y and c o n v e n i e n t l y i g n o r e d w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f a p a s s i n g r e f e r e n c e as t o how p o l i c e c o m m u n i t y p u b l i c r e l a t i o n s c a m p a i g n s may i n c r e a s e p u b l i c r e p o r t i n g ( p . 1 3 ) ; o t h e r w i s e d i f f e r e n t i a l r a t e s o f p u b l i c r e p o r t i n g a r e g l o s s e d o v e r as a n i d e o l o g i c a l c o n s t r u c t i o n . D i t t o n ' s a r g u m e n t i s i m p o r t a n t e v e n t h o u g h o v e r e x t e n d e d a n d i n C h a p t e r 9 t h e d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f " N e i g h b o u r h o o d W a t c h " t a r g e t h a r d e n i n g p r o g r a m s does d o c u m e n t w h a t may be i n t e r p r e t e d as a " f a n t a s y " r i s e i n b u r g l a r y r a t e s . B u t t h e same s t u d y a l s o p r o v i d e s e v i d e n c e w h i c h s u g g e s t s t h a t o t h e r r i s e s a n d f a l l s i n b u r g l a r y r a t e s r e f l e c t c h a n g e s i n b u r g l a r b e h a v i o u r . F o r t h e m o s t p a r t b u r g l a r i e s a r e r e p o r t e d t o t h e p o l i c e by t h e p u b l i c ; o n l y v e r y o c c a s i o n a l l y do t h e p o l i c e c a p t u r e a b u r g l a r i n t h e a c t . I n my s t u d y a r e a r a t e s o f b u r g l a r y f l u c t u a t e t h r o u g h o u t t h e y e a r , b u t n o t r a n d o m l y , and v a r i o u s 159 . s t a t i s t i c a l techniques c o n f i r m seasonal c y c l e s which are r e a d i l y apparent to the eye when the rates are graphed. In Greater Vancouver there are approximately twice as many b u r g l a r i e s i n the winter months as in the summer. Strong seasonal c y c l e s i n crime r a t e s have a l s o been documented by other r e s e a r c h e r s ( H e l l e r and Markland, 1970; McPheters and Stronge, 1973, 1974A, 1974B). What these c y c l e s suggest i s d i f f e r e n c e s i n s o c i a l behaviour as a consequence of some f a c t o r other than c o n t r o l . T h i s i s not to argue f o r a prima f a c i e r e a d i n g of c r i m e - r a t e s , but i t i s meant to suggest that a focus on c o n t r o l only may be m i s l e a d i n g (or absurd) for i t turns one of D i t t o n ' s main arguments i n t o a non-sequitur: " . . . i t i s impossible to re-read e x i s t i n g data to evidence a r e a l c r i m e - r i s e once any credence i s attached to other types of i n t e r p r e t a t i o n ( i . e . c o n s t r u c t e d , f a n t a s y , book-keeping and r e p o r t i n g changes) which can be attached to cr i m e - r a t e movement." (p. 12) In d i s c u s s i n g the s o c i o l o g y of deviance my main o b j e c t i v e has been to i l l u s t r a t e the l i m i t a t i o n s of a prima f a c i e reading of c r i m e - r a t e s , and to l a y the foundation for a geographic study of crime i n the context of an understanding of c o n t r o l ; the meaning of o f f i c i a l s t a t i s t i c s should not be taken as pre g i v e n . But i t has not meant to suggest that the context of c o n t r o l should r e p l a c e the focus on crime, f o r i t i s not impos s i b l e to re-read o f f i c i a l s t a t i s t i c s as evidence of r e a l c r i m e - r a t e s even when credence i s given to some of the other types of i n t e r p r e t a t i o n that D i t t o n o f f e r s . The c l a i m that t h i s i s impossible can only be made by a v o i d i n g the t h e o r e t i c a l 160. i m p l i c a t i o n s o f t h e much g r e a t e r i m p o r t a n c e o f " r e a c t i v e " as o p p o s e d t o " p r o a c t i v e " p o l i c i n g . B y l a r g e l y i g n o r i n g t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s o f t h e r e a c t i v e -p r o a c t i v e d i s t i n c t i o n D i t t o n e f f e c t s a t h e o r e t i c a l f o r e c l o s u r e b y r e j e c t i n g t h e i d e a t h a t a t l e a s t some o f t h e t i m e c r i m e -r a t e s r e f l e c t c h a n g e s i n a c t u a l l a w - b r e a k i n g b e h a v i o u r . E l s e w h e r e , as we s h a l l now s e e , a t t e n t i o n t o t h i s d i s t i n c t i o n has l e d o t h e r r e s e a r c h e r s t o r e - e s t a b l i s h a c o u n t e r c l a i m f o r t h e f i d e l i t y o f o f f i c i a l s t a t i s t i c s , q u e s t i o n i n g t h e e x t e n t t o w h i c h t h e i r c o n f i g u r a t i o n i s i n f l u e n c e d by p o l i c e a c t i v i t y . P r o a c t i v e and R e a c t i v e P o l i c e w o r k : P r o b l e m s W i t h T h e G e n e r a l i z a t i o n o f D i s c r e t i o n a r y B i a s T h e A m e r i c a n s t u d i e s a p p e a r i n g i n t h e 1 9 6 0 ' s s t r e s s i n g t h e e f f e c t s o f o p e r a t i o n a l s t e r e o t y p e s and t h e w o r k i n g p h i l o s o p h i e s o f p o l i c e o f f i c e r s s i g n i f i c a n t l y c h a n g e d t h e image o f b i a s i n h e r e n t i n c r i m e s t a t i s t i c s . B u t as v a r i o u s a u t h o r s h a v e p o i n t e d o u t m o s t o f t h e e a r l y e v i d e n c e on p o l i c e d i s c r e t i o n a r y b i a s came f r o m s t u d i e s o f p r o a c t i v e p o l i c e w o r k , w h e r e i n t e r a c t i o n s w i t h " o f f e n d e r s " a r e i n i t i a t e d by t h e p o l i c e ( B o t t o m l e y a n d C o l e m a n , 1 9 8 1 , p p . 5 3 - 5 4 ) . T h e s t u d i e s o f B r i a r a n d P i l i a v i n ( 1 9 6 4 ) , S k o l n i c k ( 1 9 6 6 ) , a n d W e r t h m a n a n d P i l i a v i n ( 1 9 6 7 ) i n v o l v e d p o l i c e i n t e r a c t i o n s w i t h j u v e n i l e s o r e n f o r c e m e n t o f l e g i s l a t i o n c o n c e r n i n g v i c e a n d n a r c o t i c s , a r e a s w h i c h r e f l e c t t h e max imum e x t e n t o f p o l i c e d i s c r e t i o n a r y p r a c t i c e s . B u t as R e i s s a n d B o r d u a ( 1 9 6 7 ) p o i n t e d o u t when 1 6 1 . t h e y d r e w t h e d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n p r o a c t i v e and r e a c t i v e l a w e n f o r c e m e n t m o d e s , t h e g r e a t e s t p r o p o r t i o n o f p o l i c e w o r k i s r e a c t i v e t o c i t i z e n c o m p l a i n t s , e s p e c i a l l y t h a t d e a l i n g w i t h i n d i c t a b l e c r i m e s . T h e c o n t r i b u t i o n o f r e a c t i v e p o l i c i n g i s v a r i o u s l y g i v e n as 73% a n d 83% i n two d i f f e r e n t j u r i s d i c t i o n s s t u d i e d by M c C a b e a n d S u t c l i f f e ( 1 9 7 5 ) ; 80% ( M a w b y , 1 9 7 9 ) ; a n d 70% ( B o t t o m l e y a n d C o l e m a n , 1 9 8 1 ) . B o t t o m l e y a n d C o l e m a n a r g u e t h a t o b s e r v a t i o n s o f p o l i c e d i s c r e t i o n i n p r o a c t i v e s i t u a t i o n s w e r e u n c r i t i c a l l y g e n e r a l i z e d t o t h e r e s t o f p o l i c e w o r k : " I n t h e m a j o r i t y o f r e p o r t e d c r i m e s , t h e r e f o r e , we n e e d t o e x a m i n e t h e r o l e o f o t h e r p a r t i e s i n v o l v e d b e f o r e b e i n g a b l e t o d e s c r i b e t h e k i n d o f b i a s l i k e l y t o be f o u n d . " ( 1 9 8 1 , p . 54) T h e i r o b s e r v a t i o n r e c o n f i r m s t h e s u g g e s t i o n made e a r l i e r t h a t v i c t i m i z a t i o n s u r v e y s m u s t be d e s i g n e d t o e s t a b l i s h w h e t h e r c r i m e r e p o r t i n g r a t e s v a r y s o c i a l l y a n d s p a t i a l l y . L i k e Mawby ( 1 9 7 9 , p p . 1 8 - 2 2 ) , B o t t o m l e y a n d C o l e m a n s u g g e s t t h a t M a t z a ' s s p e c u l a t i ons a b o u t t h e b i a s p r o d u c e d by t h e p r e p o n d e r a n c e o f m e t h o d i c a l o v e r i n c i d e n t a l s u s p i c i o n c o n f l a t e s m e t h o d s o f s u s p i c i o n w i t h m e t h o d s o f d e t e c t i o n a n d d o w n p l a y s t h e r o l e o f t h e p u b l i c i n r e p o r t i n g c r i m e . " T h e r e seems l i t t l e d o u b t t h a t m e t h o d i c a l s u s p i c i o n p e r v a d e s t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f c r i m e by t h e p o l i c e a n d i t c e r t a i n l y p e r v a d e s t h e d o c u m e n t s we h a v e e x a m i n e d . . . T h e p r o b l e m i s t h a t M a t z a g l i d e s r a t h e r t o o s m o o t h l y f r o m h i s d i s c u s s i o n o f t y p e s o f s u s p i c i o n i n t o a d i s c u s s i o n o f m e t h o d s o f d e t e c t i o n . " ( 1 9 8 1 , p . 114) I m p o r t a n t l y M a t z a m i s s e s t h e l a r g e c o m p o n e n t o f c a s e s i n w h i c h t h e p o l i c e a r e p r o v i d e d w i t h a s u s p e c t so t h a t t h e m e t h o d 1 6 2 . of p o l i c e s u s p i c i o n i s i r r e l e v a n t . Bottomley and Coleman point out that in no more than 4 out of 10 cases in t h e i r sample was there any r e a l p o s s i b i l i t y of the various kinds of p o l i c e i n i t i a t i v e being r e s p o n s i b l e f o r the i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of suspects (1981, p. 117) They extend t h i s c r i t i c i s m to Sacks' d i s c u s s i o n of " i n c o n g r u i t y procedures" (1972, pp. 281-186) whereby p o l i c e devote sys t e m a t i c a t t e n t i o n to i n d i v i d u a l s who "look out of p l a c e " i n p a r t i c u l a r e c o l o g i c a l s e t t i n g s : the black i n a white neighbourhood, the j u v e n i l e on the s t r e e t l a t e at n i g h t , the woman sta n d i n g f o r long periods on a s t r e e t corner e t c . While Bottomley and Coleman do not q u e s t i o n the use of the i n c o n g r u i t y procedure, they do q u e s t i o n i t s importance in g e n e r a t i n g a r r e s t s t a t i s t i c s . They conclude that Sacks' s p e c u l a t i o n s are g r a t u i t o u s i n l i e u of a c o n s i d e r a t i o n of the p r o p o r t i o n of a r r e s t s t a t i s t i c s generated i n t h i s way (Bottomley and Coleman, 1981, p. 104). S i g n i f i c a n t l y Sacks' examples - p r o s t i t u t i o n , gambling and numbers r a c k e t s , drugs and drunkenness - are a l l p o l i c e d p r o a c t i v e l y . These examples once again miss the s i g n i f i c a n c e of p u b l i c r e p o r t i n g and i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of suspects. Greenwood and h i s a s s o c i a t e s (1977) make a s i m i l a r k i n d of point of Werthman and P i l i a v i n ' s (1967) d i s c u s s i o n of policework with j u v e n i l e s . While i t may w e l l be the case that o f f i c e r s i n t e r a c t i n g with j u v e n i l e s i n the San F r a n c i s c o Bay area proceed by what Matza was l a t e r to term methodical s u s p i c i o n , i t i s dangerous to g e n e r a l i z e from t h i s to other crime work, for to do so s e r i o u s l y n e g l e c t s the importance of 163. i n f o r m a t i o n from r e p o r t i n g groups other than the p o l i c e i n gen e r a t i n g s u s p e c t s . The quesion now becomes what i m p l i c a t i o n s these q u a l i f i c a t i o n s to Matza's s p e c u l a t i v e formula have f o r the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of crime r a t e maps? In h i s Pol i c i n g the C i ty (1979) and " P o l i c e P r a c t i c e s and Crime Rates" (1981) Mawby t a c k l e s head on the e f f e c t of p o l i c e p r a c t i c e s on the geographic d i s t r i b u t i o n of crime. In t h i s sense h i s work i s unusual for the m a j o r i t y of s t u d i e s of p o l i c e d i s c r e t i o n have d e a l t with s o c i a l space mostly i n terms of age, race and c l a s s . Although these s t u d i e s have important s p a t i a l i m p l i c a t i o n s to the extent that s o c i a l space i s expressed g e o g r a p h i c a l l y , they have not been designed to t e s t the s p a t i a l i m p l i c a t i o n s of the p o l i c e bias of o f f i c i a l s t a t i s t i c s . And yet the s p a t i a l i m p l i c a t i o n s of such s t u d i e s are c l e a r enough as the above d i s c u s s i o n should i n d i c a t e , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n terms of what Sacks has c a l l e d the " i n c o n g r u i t y procedure" (1972, pp. 281-286). The d i s c u s s i o n s of Matza and C i c o u r e l a l s o suggest that p o l i c e act towards c i t i z e n s d i f f e r e n t l y i n d i f f e r e n t e c o l o g i c a l s e t t i n g s , thus im p o r t a n t l y i n f l u e n c i n g the geographical p a t t e r n of crime r a t e s . In answering the qu e s t i o n as to how much crime rates r e f l e c t d i f f e r e n t law enforcement p r a c t i c e s , Mawby o f f e r s an unequivocal c o n c l u s i o n : "I a n t i c i p a t e d that such an e x e r c i s e would r e v e a l that area d i f f e r e n c e s i n offence and offender rates were to a la r g e extent due to d i f f e r e n t p o l i c i n g s t y l e s , and the d i f f e r e n t i a l involvement of the p o l i c e , i n c o n t r a s t i n g areas of the c i t y . . . I n f a c t I found no such t h i n g . An area a n a l y s i s of p o l i c i n g p a t t e r n s r e v e a l e d that there was 164. l i t t l e or no evidence that d i f f e r e n t i a l p o l i c i n g a f f e c t e d the r e l a t i v e offender r a t e s of c o n t r a s t i n g r e s i d e n t i a l areas. S i m i l a r l y , although there was some suggestion that o f f e n c e rates may have been a f f e c t e d by the extent of p o l i c e presence, the d i s t i n c t i o n s found were between r e s i d e n t i a l and other areas, rather than between d i f f e r e n t types of r e s i d e n t i a l area. Mawby (1979) draws t h i s c o n c l u s i o n from an a n a l y s i s examining four elements of the c r i m i n a l l a b e l l i n g process: the d i s c o v e r y and r e p o r t i n g of crime, the d e t e c t i o n process, p o l i c e r e c o r d i n g p r a c t i c e s , and the ha n d l i n g of i d e n t i f i e d o f f e n d e r s . Furthermore, as w e l l as c o n s i d e r i n g a r e a l d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n i n terms of o f f i c i a l s t a t i s t i c s on i n d i c t a b l e crimes, other measures of deviance were in c l u d e d i n the S h e f f i e l d study to see how w e l l they reproduced a r e a l d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n s appearing i n o f f i c i a l p o l i c e s t a t i s t i c s . As w e l l as i n c l u d i n g from the p o l i c e f i l e s measures of n o n i n d i c t a b l e crime ( e x c l u d i n g t r a f f i c o f f e n c e s ) , Mawby cons i d e r e d crimes handled by agencies other than the p o l i c e , n o t a b l y the Post O f f i c e , which kept records of t e l e v i s i o n l i c e n s e evasion and telephone kiosk vandalism (1981, p. 140). He a l s o developed a l t e r n a t i v e data c o l l e c t i o n methods i n c l u d i n g a s e l f - r e p o r t study. S i g n i f i c a n t l y the s e l f - r e p o r t study covered only 3 of 9 sample areas, but more of t h i s l a t e r . From hi s analyses Mawby concluded that "area d i f f e r e n c e s are evident no matter what s t a t i s t i c s are used, which implies that the s t a t i s t i c s cannot be dism i s s e d as an a r t i f a c t of p o l i c e s t r a t e g i e s . " 165 . I n g e n e r a l , Mawby o f f e r s a v e r y d i f f e r e n t k i n d o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e a r e a l e f f e c t s o f p o l i c e p r a c t i c e on c r i m e r a t e s t h a n t h a t i m p l i e d by i n t e r a c t i o n i s t and c o n t r o l o l o g i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e s , and he r e j e c t s t h e a m p l i f i c a t i o n o f d e v i a n c e h y p o t h e s i s : " . . . t h e m o s t s t r i k i n g c o n c l u s i o n . . . i s t h a t t h e r o l e o f t h e p o l i c e i n t h e d i s c o v e r y o f c r i m e i n t h e s e r e s i d e n t i a l a r e a s i s m i n i m a l , and t h a t v a r i a t i o n b e t w e e n a r e a s does n o t f i t t h e a m p l i f i c a t i o n h y p o t h e s i s . . . " ( p . 9 8 ) " 1 1 . . . a p p e a r s t h a t w h e t h e r we c o n s i d e r o f f e n c e o r o f f e n d e r d a t a , a l l r e p o r t e d o f f e n c e s , a l l d e t e c t e d o f f e n c e s , o r o n l y p o l i c e d e t e c t i o n s , t h e r e i s no e v i d e n c e t o s u g g e s t ( l e t a l o n e d e m o n s t r a t e ) t h a t p o l i c e i n v o l v e m e n t i n a n y way c r e a t e s d i f f e r e n c e s i n c r i m e r a t e s b e t w e e n d i f f e r e n t r e s i d e n t i a l a r e a s . " ( 1 9 7 9 , p . 1 2 5 ) T h i s i s an e n o r m o u s l y i m p o r t a n t f i n d i n g , i f i t i s c o r r e c t , i n t h a t i t r e a s s e r t s t h e c r e d i b i l i t y o f a p r i m a f a c i e i n t e r p r e t a i o n o f c r i m e s t a t i s t i c s . I t a l s o s e r v e s t o d i s c r e d i t t h e a m p l i f i c a t i o n o f d e v i a n c e h y p o t h e s i s a t t h e c o r e o f l a b e l l i n g t h e o r y . C l o s e r s c r u t i n y o f M a w b y ' s w o r k , h o w e v e r , s u g g e s t s t h a t h i s c o n c l u s i o n s a r e much t o o h a s t y ; f i r s t l y , he d o e s g i v e e v i d e n c e o f a p o l i c e i m p a c t on c r i m e r a t e s . S e c o n d l y , h i s m e t h o d o l o g y i s n o t a p p r o p r i a t e f o r an a s s e s s m e n t o f t h e l a b e l l i n g h y p o t h e s i s , p a r t i c u l a r l y t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t he m i s s e s t h e p o t e n t i a l i m p o r t a n c e o f i n f o r m a l l a b e l l i n g p r o c e s s e s ; w h i l e p o l i c e d i s c r e t i o n a r y p r a c t i c e s and u s e o f i n c o n g r u i t y p r o c e d u r e s may n o t be i m p o r t a n t i n i d e n t i f y i n g c r i m i n a l s , t h e y may p l a y an i m p o r t a n t p a r t i n d e f i n i n g c e r t a i n s o c i a l g r o u p s as " d e v i a n t " by h e l p i n g t o r e p r o d u c e t h a t 166 . i d e n t i t y . I n o t h e r w o r d s a n e x a m i n a t i o n o f p o l i c e d e t e c t i o n p r a c t i c e s i n p r o d u c i n g s u s p e c t s d o e s n o t p r o v i d e a f u l l m e a s u r e o f t h e p o l i c e i m p a c t on c r i m e r a t e s . B e c a u s e o f t h e a p p a r e n t c e r t a i n t y o f M a w b y ' s c o n c l u s i o n s , t h e s e two o b j e c t i o n s t o t hem a r e w o r t h d e v e l o p i n g i n some d e t a i l . T o b e g i n w i t h M a w b y ' s own d a t a do n o t r e j e c t t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t p r o a c t i v e p o l i c i n g i m p o r t a n t l y i n f l u e n c e s t h e c o n f i g u r a t i o n o f c r i m e r a t e s . He o f f e r s a v a r i e t y o f e x a m p l e s o f a p o l i c e i m p a c t , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t e r m s o f " v i c t i m l e s s " c r i m e . F o r e x a m p l e , t h e amount o f r e c o r d e d d r u g u s e i s d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d t o e x t e n t a n d t y p e s o f p o l i c e a c t i v i t y ( 1 9 7 9 , p . 1 6 0 ) a n d e v i d e n c e i s g i v e n f o r a r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n e n f o r c e m e n t a n d o f f e n c e r a t e s f o r u n d e r - a g e d r i n k i n g , a n d a l s o o f a s e x u a l b i a s ( 1 9 7 9 , p p . 1 3 5 - 1 3 6 ) . P o l i c e i n v o l v e m e n t i n r a t e s o f f a m i l y v i o l e n c e i s s i m i l a r l y i m p o r t a n t . T h e r e was a c l e a r a n d s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e p r o p o r t i o n o f o f f e n c e s c l e a r e d b y " t i c ' s " ( o f f e n c e s " t a k e n -i n t o - c o n s i d e r a t i o n " ) i n d i f f e r e n t o f f e n d e r r a t e a r e a s , w i t h a h i g h e r r a t e o f t h i s t y p e o f " i n d i r e c t c l e a r i n g " o f o f f e n c e s i n t h e h i g h r a t e a r e a s . B u t t h e r e was o n l y a s l i g h t i n d i c a t i o n t h a t o f f e n d e r s f r o m h i g h r a t e a r e a s e a c h c o m m i t t e d a g r e a t e r number o f o f f e n c e s t h a n t h o s e f r o m l o w r a t e a r e a s ( p p . 1 0 9 -1 1 0 ) . I t t h u s a p p e a r e d t o Mawby t h a t t h e p o l i c e w e r e m o r e l i k e l y t o a t t e m p t t o " c l e a r t h e i r b o o k s " when t h e y f a c e d o f f e n d e r s f r o m " d i s r e p u t a b l e " a r e a s . A l s o o f f e n c e s c l e a r e d by " t i c s " c o n s t i t u t e a f a i r l y i m p o r t a n t p r o p o r t i o n o f t h e t o t a l c l e a r a n c e r a t e . I n t h i s way t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n o f t h e h i g h r a t e 1 6 7 . areas to the total proportion of cleared offences may be greatly exaggerated; 40% of the cleared crimes in Mawby's sample were accounted for by charges taken-into-consideration (1979, p. 109), while 28% of Bottomley and Coleman's sample could be accounted for in the same way (1981, p. 139). As Bottomley and Coleman put i t : "There seems to us to be some reason to regard many of these as the result of the application of methodical suspicion...there seems l i t t l e doubt that such methods have a c r i t i c a l impact on clear-up rates, and, more important, may serve to bloat the records of established offenders." But Mawby does not seem to include "in d i r e c t clearing" as a form of methodical suspicion thus allowing him to dispose of Matza's arguments perhaps too e a s i l y . These findings do show that indirect clearing may contribute to the d e f i n i t i o n of a criminal underclass. While the S h e f f i e l d study is largely confined to re s i d e n t i a l areas, Mawby does suggest that police p r o a c t i v i t y may be more common in the c i t y centre and commercial and in d u s t r i a l areas (1981, p. 145); " . . . o f f i c i a l offence rates in these areas may be magnified somewhat by the greater proportion of crimes there which are discovered d i r e c t l y by the police." (1981, p. 145) The term magnified is the important one here, for i t represents what seems to be a much more r e a l i s t i c understanding of the potential effects of police practice; while crime rates are not t o t a l l y an artefact of police d i s c r e t i o n they may par11y be, the extent of this bias 168. depending upon the kind of crime and the type of area i t i s committed i n . In combination these o b s e r v a t i o n s serve to q u a l i f y Mawby's i m p l i c i t r e a f f i r m a t i o n of a prima f a c i e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of crime r a t e s . They can a l s o be extended to q u e s t i o n h i s r e j e c t i o n of the a m p l i f i c a t i o n of deviance h y p o t h e s i s . Mawby tends to c o n f l a t e arguments about the e f f e c t s of p o l i c e d i s c r e t i o n with arguments about the a m p l i f i c a t i o n of deviance a s s o c i a t e d with the c r i m i n a l l a b e l l i n g p rocess. For a number of reasons, however, h i s methodology i s not a p p r o p r i a t e for a s s e s s i n g the a m p l i f i c a t i o n h y p o t h e s i s : 1) Mawby never c o n s i d e r s the p o s s i b i l i t y that the e f f e c t of p o l i c i n g on r e s i d e n t i a l crime rates occurred before the point i n time that h i s study was conducted. The a m p l i f i c a t i o n of deviance l i t e r a t u r e suggests that the c r i m i n a l l a b e l l i n g process can act as an ongoing and s e l f - f u l f i l l i n g prophecy. To study p a t t e r n s of crime i n c i d e n c e and c r i m i n a l residence i n S h e f f i e l d at one point i n time may only provide a p a r t i a l answer to the e f f e c t of p o l i c i n g . Remember that the a m p l i f i c a t i o n hypothesis p o s i t s an a c t u a l increase i n crime as a response to the m o b i l i z a t i o n of the c r i m i n a l l a b e l l i n g p r ocess. It may be that d i f f e r e n t i a l p o l i c i n g was r e s p o n s i b l e for a m p l i f i c a t i o n of crime i n the high crime r a t e r e s i d e n t i a l areas, and that what Mawby i s d e s c r i b i n g now i s the r e s u l t of t h i s p rocess. The e f f e c t of p o l i c i n g on the p a t t e r n of crime i n c i d e n c e or offender r e s i d e n c e may have occurred during the p e r i o d of development of c e r t a i n r e s i d e n t i a l areas or at some 169 . time more r e c e n t l y . The point of invoking a s e l f - f u l f i l l i n g prophecy i s that at some time high rates i n c e r t a i n areas may r e f l e c t p o l i c i n g , and then become r e a l through the a m p l i f i c a t i o n p rocess . Mawby f a i l s to consider t h i s p o s s i b i l i t y by v i r t u e of d i s l o c a t i n g the p a t t e r n of crime from i t s h i s t o r i c a l context. Having r e a l i z e d t h i s , one i s l e f t w ith an a m p l i f i c a t i o n hypothesis that i s q u i t e c o n s i s t e n t with Mawby's f i n d i n g s . 2. Mawby concentrates on nine " c o n t r a s t i n g r e s i d e n t i a l areas" in S h e f f i e l d . But j u s t how " c o n t r a s t i n g " are these? I t turns out that eight can be c l a s s i f i e d as "working c l a s s " (p. 186). While these were s p e c i f i c a l l y chosen because of t h e i r v a r i a t i o n i n crime r a t e , the d i f f e r e n c e s between areas c o n t a i n i n g d i f f e r e n t s o c i a l c l a s s e s i s l a r g e l y ignored. C e r t a i n l y one area i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d as c o n t a i n i n g a higher s o c i a l c l a s s , but on what grounds could one consider t h i s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e ? We are l e f t with the p o s s i b i l i t y that the r o l e of the p o l i c e i n d i s t i n g u i s h i n g between rates i n working c l a s s areas i s minimal, but may be s i g n i f i c a n t i f we compared areas of d i f f e r e n t s o c i a l c l a s s . While Mawby does acknowledge t h i s problem, i t does not a l t e r h i s c o n c l u s i o n s . T h i s i s cu r i o u s because many l a b e l l i n g t h e o r i s t s suggest that s o c i a l c l a s s i s one of the most poignant i n d i c a t o r s of the d i f f e r e n t i a l o p e r a t i o n of p o l i c e d i s c r e t i o n . Mawby does not r e a l l y provide a way of t e s t i n g t h i s h y p o t h e s i s . 3. In the American s t u d i e s that Mawby uses as a r e a c t i v e s p ringboard f o r h i s own f i n d i n g s , race i s one of the most 170. i m p o r t a n t v a r i a b l e s i n h y p o t h e t i c a l s t a t e m e n t s a b o u t t h e o p e r a t i o n o f p o l i c e d i s c r e t i o n . One w o n d e r s how r e p r e s e n t a t i v e a c i t y S h e f f i e l d i s , p a r t i c u l a r l y M a w b y ' s n i n e a r e a s w h i c h do n o t seem t o c o n t a i n much o f a r a c i a l m i x . Mawby t h u s p r o v i d e s no means o f t e s t i n g h y p o t h e s e s a b o u t t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n r a c e a n d t h e o p e r a t i o n o f p o l i c e d i s c r e t i o n . T h i s l i m i t a t i o n does n o t seem t o t e m p e r h i s c o n c l u s i o n s . 4 . M a w b y , l i k e many o f t h e o t h e r c o m m e n t a t o r s on t h e e f f e c t s o f p o l i c e d i s c r e t i o n , c o n c e n t r a t e s on t h e i m p a c t o f p o l i c e p r a c t i c e s on t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f o f f e n d e r s . W h i l e t h i s i n i t s e l f i s an i m p o r t a n t i s s u e d e m o n s t r a t i n g t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f r e p o r t i n g g r o u p s o t h e r t h a n t h e p o l i c e , m u c h o f t h e s o c i a l i m p a c t o f p o l i c e w o r k i s i g n o r e d i n a n a l y s e s w h i c h f o c u s m a i n l y o r e x c l u s i v e l y on c r i m e r e p o r t s . W h i l e Mawby does c o n s i d e r o t h e r e v i d e n c e b e s i d e s p o l i c e - r e p o r t s , h i s a n a l y s i s o f t h e p o l i c e i s l a r g e l y c o n f i n e d t o t h e i r c r i m e p r o d u c i n g a c t i v i t y . A s i t t u r n s o u t o b s e r v a t i o n a l a n a l y s e s o f p o l i c e w o r k show t h a t v e r y l i t t l e p o l i c e t i m e i s s p e n t p r o c e s s i n g c r i m i n a l s o r c r i m i n a l e v e n t s . M o r e t i m e i s s p e n t i n w h a t E r i c s o n ( 1 9 8 1 ) r e f e r s t o as " o r d e r i n g t h e s t r e e t s " , an o r d e r i n g d i r e c t e d m o s t l y a t c e r t a i n " t y p e s " o f p e o p l e , o r p e o p l e who seem " o u t o f p l a c e . " E v e n i f t h e p r o c e s s o f m e t h o d i c a l s u s p i c i o n does n o t p r o d u c e many a d j u d i c a t e d o f f e n d e r s , i t may p l a y an i m p o r t a n t p a r t i n t h e d e f i n i t i o n o f s u b c u l t u r a l g r o u p s , p a r t i c u l a r l y t h o s e w h o s e s e l f - i d e n t i t y i s r e i n f o r c e d by e n g a g e m e n t i n i l l e g a l a c t i v i t y . What Mawby does n o t c o n s i d e r i n h i s r e j e c t i o n o f t h e a m p l i f i c a t i o n h y p o t h e s i s i s t h e 1 7 1 . i n d i r e c t e f f e c t of p o l i c e p r a c t i c e s i n producing deviant i d e n t i t y ; Mawby has not progressed as f a r as i t might seem i n a s s e s s i n g the e f f e c t of p o l i c e d i s c r e t i o n i n some of i t s more important dimensions. T h i s s u b j e c t w i l l be taken up i n Chapter 6. For the moment i t i s s u f f i c i e n t to note that Mawby's work does serve as a u s e f u l c o r r e c t i v e at one l e v e l : "The f i n d i n g that area d i f f e r e n c e s in one study cannot be 'explained away' suggests that d i f f e r e n c e s elsewhere should be considered on a m u l t i - d i m e n s i o n a l l e v e l rather than being s c e p t i c a l l y w r i t t e n o f f as due to p o l i c i n g p r a c t i c e s . " (p. 183) For the reasons o u t l i n e d above, the e f f e c t of p o l i c i n g p r a c t i c e s should not be s c e p t i c a l l y w r i t t e n o f f e i t h e r . The point emerging from the c r i t i q u e of Mawby's study i s that there are a number of l e v e l s of a n a l y s i s which must be taken i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n i n a s s e s s i n g the impact of the c o n t r o l system on both crime p a t t e r n s and o f f i c i a l crime s t a t i s t i c s . The tendency has been to a b s t r a c t crime r e p o r t s from the wider context of p o l i c i n g i n the attempt to assess the impact of p o l i c e d i s c r e t i o n on both crime a m p l i f i c a t i o n processes and on the c o n f i g u r a t i o n of o f f i c i a l s t a t i s t i c s . While c o n s i d e r a t i o n of r e p o r t i n g agents other than the p o l i c e i s e s s e n t i a l to the problem of whether crime s t a t i s t i c s represent crime rates or c o n t r o l r a t e s , i t i s n e v e r t h e l e s s e s s e n t i a l to recognize the power of the p o l i c e i n moulding the " d e f i n i t i o n s of the s i t u a t i o n " of other r e p o r t i n g agents. A d i s c u s s i o n of the conceptual d i f f i c u l t i e s a s s o c i a t e d with the d e f i n i t i o n of p o l i c e a c t i v i t y as e i t h e r r e a c t i v e or p r o a c t i v e serves to 172. d e m o n s t r a t e t h e p o t e n t i a l i m p o r t a n c e o f t h i s l i n e o f t h i n k i n g . C o n c e p t u a l P r o b l e m s w i t h t h e P r o a c t i v e / R e a c t i v e D i c h o t o m y T h e two e m p i r i c a l v i g n e t t e s d e s c r i b e d l a t e r i n t h i s m o n o g r a p h e x a m i n e p r o s t i t u t i o n a n d b r e a k i n g and e n t e r i n g , two c r i m e t y p e s w h i c h a t f i r s t do n o t a p p e a r u n d u l y d i f f i c u l t t o l o c a t e i n t h e p r o a c t i v e - r e a c t i v e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f p o l i c e w o r k . A s I s h a l l s u b s e q u e n t l y i l l u s t r a t e , h o w e v e r , t h e i r c l a s s i f i c a t i o n i n t h i s m a n n e r p r o v e d t o be a n y t h i n g b u t s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d . T h e d i f f i c u l t y w i t h t h e p r o a c t i v e - r e a c t i v e d i s t i n c t i o n i s t h a t i t t e n d s t o a b s t r a c t b o t h p o l i c e w o r k and t h e r e p o r t i n g o f c r i m e f r o m i t s s i t u a t i o n a l c o n t e x t . T h e p r o b l e m i s t h a t w h a t h a s b e e n t r a d i t i o n a l l y c l a s s i f i e d as p r o a c t i v e p o l i c e w o r k o f t e n has r e a c t i v e e l e m e n t s , w h i l e w h a t has b e e n t r a d i t i o n a l l y c l a s s i f i e d as r e a c t i v e p o l i c e w o r k ha s p r o a c t i v e e l e m e n t s . I f , f o r e x a m p l e , we i n c l u d e c h a r g e s t a k e n i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n as a f o r m o f m e t h o d i c a l s u s p i c i o n ( a s do B o t t o m l e y and C o l e m a n ) , a n d g i v e n M a w b y ' s o b s e r v a t i o n t h a t p o l i c e seem m o r e l i k e l y t o c l e a r t h e i r b o o k s when f a c e d w i t h o f f e n d e r s f r o m " d i s r e p u t a b l e " a r e a s , t h e r e i s a s e n s e o f p r o a c t i v i t y i n v o l v e d w i t h i n d i r e c t c l e a r i n g . S i m i l a r l y , as B o t t o m l e y a n d C o l e m a n n o t e , p o l i c e may a d o p t a p r o a c t i v e mode o f i n v e s t i g a t i n g c r i m e s r e p o r t e d by t h e p u b l i c ( i . e . r e p o r t s t o w h i c h t h e p o l i c e a r e e s s e n t i a l l y " r e a c t i n g " ) . I n a d d i t i o n t o a l l o f t h i s , p o l i c e h a v e t o i n t e r p r e t c i t i z e n r e p o r t s , a n d so c a n i m p o r t a n t l y m o u l d w h a t 173. comes to be c a l l e d crime. The p o l i c e , then, may have a s i g n i f i c a n t impact i n i n f l u e n c i n g what are o s t e n s i b l y r e a c t i v e crime r e p o r t s . To begin with, the communication bureau or eq u i v a l e n t may not d i s p a t c h a s u b s t a n t i a l number of c a l l s ( E r i c s o n , 1982, p. 100). More imp o r t a n t l y , p a t r o l o f f i c e r s do not r o u t i n e l y accept c i t i z e n s ' d e f i n i t i o n s of s i t u a t i o n s as c r i m i n a l - they are not simply r e a c t i v e . Rather they t r a n s l a t e these requests w i t h i n the framework of p o l i c e o r g a n i z a t i o n , employing r e c i p e r u l e s , l e g a l r u l e s and/or community r u l e s to decide whether the matter could or should be transformed i n t o p o l i c e " p r o p e r t y " . Consequently many complaints are not o f f i c i a l l y logged, many c a l l s for s e r v i c e are not disp a t c h e d , many disp a t c h e s do not r e s u l t i n an o f f i c i a l r e p o r t , many rep o r t s do not recommend f u r t h e r a c t i o n or c r i m i n a l d e s i g n a t i o n , and r e g a r d l e s s of d e s i g n a t i o n , many re p o r t s are f i l e d without f u r t h e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n ( E r i c s o n , 1982, p. 101). The p o l i c e i n d e a l i n g with suspects, e s p e c i a l l y a f t e r p r o a c t i v e stops on s u s p i c i o n , base t h e i r d e c i s i o n s on the status claims of the suspects i n the matter under d i s p u t e ; "As an organised f o r c e , the p o l i c e have the power to 'make' p a r t i c u l a r d e f i n i t i o n s of c i t i z e n s t r o u b l e s - and to make them s t i c k . " ( E r i c s o n , 1982, p. 136). It i s i n these senses that E r i c s o n suggests that the p o l i c e "make" crime. The patrolman i s not an automaton who u n r e f l e x i v e l y f o l l o w s c i t i z e n ' s requests for a c t i o n a c c o r d i n g to some p r e - e s t a b l i s h e d c r i t e r i a : " P a t r o l o f f i c e r s may d e f l e c t complaints so that o f f i c i a l r e p o r t i n g i s not r e q u i r e d , 174. r e p o r t i n a way t h a t j u s t i f i e s t h e i r d e c i s i o n n o t t o i n i t i a t e a c r i m i n a l o c c u r r e n c e , o r r e p o r t i n a way t h a t j u s t i f i e s t h e p a r t i c u l a r ' c r i m i n a l ' i n t e r p r e t a t i o n t h e y g i v e t o an o c c u r r e n c e . . . We l o o k a t t h e p a t r o l o f f i c e r mak i n g h i s j u d g e m e n t s w i t h i n t h e c o m p l e x i t i e s o f t h e e n c o u n t e r . He t a k e s i n t o a c c o u n t who t h e c i t i z e n s a r e , t h e i r c l a i m s w i t h i n t h e c o n t e x t i n w h i c h t h e y a r e m a d e , e x p e c t a t i o n s w i t h i n t h e p o l i c e o r g a n i z a t i o n , and t h e r e s o u r c e s ( l e g a l a n d o t h e r w i s e ) a v a i l a b l e t o r e p r o d u c e o r d e r . " ( 1 9 8 2 , p . 1 0 1 ) E r i c s o n o f f e r s a v e r y d i f f e r e n t k i n d o f image o f p o l i c i n g t h a n i s c o n t a i n e d i n M a w b y ' s , o r i n B o t t o m l e y a n d C o l e m a n ' s w o r k , w h i c h s i g n i f i c a n t l y , a r e n o t b a s e d on e x t e n s i v e o b s e r v a t i o n o f t h e p o l i c e b u t m a i n l y on s c r u t i n y o f p o l i c e r e c o r d s . E r i c s o n shows i n c o n t r a s t t o Mawby " t h a t f r o m f i r s t c o n t a c t t o u l t i m a t e d i s p o s i t i o n o f a c a s e , t h e p o l i c e h a v e c o n s i d e r a b l e power t o d e f i n e w h a t i s ' o u t o f o r d e r ' a n d t o r e p r o d u c e t h e i r o r g a n i z a t i o n a l l y f i l t e r e d s e n s e o f ' o r d e r ' . " ( 1 9 8 2 , p . 1 3 7 ) . T h e p r o a c t i v e / r e a c t i v e d i c h o t o m y t e n d s t o t r e a t t h e a c t i v i t y o f t h e p o l i c e m e c h a n i s t i c a l l y , a n d i n s o - d o i n g g i v e s s u p p o r t t o an i n s t r u m e n t a l i s t r e a d i n g o f t h e s t a t i s t i c s . B u t w h a t t h i s v i e w f a i l s t o do i s s e e t h e i n t e r c o n n e c t i o n a n d a m b i g u i t i e s o f r e a c t i v e a n d p r o a c t i v e modes o f p o l i c i n g . I n t h e c a s e o f t h e p r o s t i t u t i o n s t u d y r e p o r t e d b e l o w , w h a t a p p e a r s t o be t h e c l a s s i c p r o a c t i v e p o l i c e e n f o r c e m e n t o f p r o s t i t u t i o n l a w s i s r e a c t i v e t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t w a v e s o f p o l i c e i n t e r e s t i n p r o s t i t u t i o n may be a r e f l e c t i o n o f c a m p a i g n s by p u b l i c p r e s s u r e g r o u p s t o " c l e a n up t h e s t r e e t s " , o r a r e s p o n s e t o l o c a l p o l i t i c i a n s who a d o p t a l a w and o r d e r 1 7 5 . p l a t f o r m and thus encourage p o l i c e p r o a c t i v i t y to make i t appear as i f something i s being done about the "crime problem". Examples of p u b l i c p r essure group a c t i v i t y are d i s c u s s e d i n Chapter 8 examining the displacement of p r o s t i t u t i o n as a response to law enforcement a c t i v i t i e s , although in t h i s case two phases of p r o a c t i v i t y are d e s c r i b e d , only one of which i s " r e a c t i v e " i n t h i s sense. What Walter Reckless d e s c r i b e d as the " v i c e s i t u a t i o n c y c l e " begins with an a l a r m i s t account exposing problematic s o c i a l c o n d i t i o n s by a newspaper agency or governmental i n v e s t i g a t i o n which "law and order" o r g a n i z a t i o n s respond to with various enforcment campaigns (1933, Ch. 9). In t h i s way p u b l i c consciousness of c e r t a i n s o c i a l problems i s promoted, and the very d e f i n i t i o n of s o c i a l problems may r e f l e c t the s o c i a l r e a c t i o n rather than any change in o b j e c t i v e c o n d i t i o n s (what D i t t o n would c a l l a " r e p o r t i n g " r i s e ) . S i m i l a r l y the l e v e l of p u b l i c crime r e p o r t i n g may r e f l e c t enforcement or crime p r e v e n t i o n p o l i c i e s ( D i t t o n ' s " f a n t a s y r i s e " ) . In the case of b u r g l a r y , a crime c u s t o m a r i l y thought of as being r e a c t i v e l y processed by the p o l i c e , p r o a c t i v i t y i n the form of p r e v e n t a t i v e target hardening programs may not only a f f e c t the a c t u a l i n c i d e n c e of crime, but the l e v e l of crime r e p o r t i n g by c i t i z e n s a l s o . An example of such an i n f l u e n c e i s given i n Chapter 9. Once again, these o b s e r v a t i o n s s t r e s s the need for a p r o c e s s u a l , i n t e r a c t i o n a l and h i s t o r i c a l understanding of the p r o d u c t i o n of crime r a t e s , one which puts crime and the r e p o r t i n g of c r i m i n a l i n c i d e n t s i n a wider s o c i a l context. 176 . S i m i l a r l y t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e p o l i c e i m p a c t on c r i m e r a t e s s h o u l d be c o n c e p t u a l i z e d t o c o n s i d e r t h e p o l i c e r o l e i n t h e a m p l i f i c a t i o n o f c r i m e . T h i s i n v o l v e s a much b r o a d e r c o n c e p t u a l f r a m e w o r k c o n s i d e r i n g m o r e t h a n j u s t t h e p o l i c e r o l e i n p r o d u c i n g o f f i c i a l s t a t i s t i c s . U l t i m a t e l y t h i s s h o u l d c o n s i d e r t h e a c t i v i t y o f a w i d e r a n g e o f s o c i a l c o n t r o l a g e n t s a n d u r b a n " g a t e k e e p e r s " , a theme a l r e a d y d e v e l o p e d by A r m s t r o n g a n d W i l s o n ( 1 9 7 3 ) , Darner ( 1 9 7 4 ) , B a l d w i n , B o t t o m s a n d W a l k e r ( 1 9 7 6 ) , a n d G i l l ( 1 9 7 8 ) i n t h e i r w o r k on h o u s i n g p o l i c y a n d t h e g e n e s i s o f c r i m i n a l a r e a s . A t t e n t i o n m u s t a l s o be t u r n e d t o t h e s o c i a l s t r u c t u r a l c o n t e x t i n w h i c h t h e s e u r b a n g a t e k e e p e r s o p e r a t e ( i n c l u d i n g t h e p o l i c e ) , a l e v e l o f a n a l y s i s n o t w e l l - d e v e l o p e d i n t h e i n t e r a c t i o n i s t l i t e r a t u r e on o f f i c i a l s t a t i s t i c s a n d i n t h e s o c i o l o g y o f d e v i a n c e g e n e r a l l y . I t i s i n t h i s r e s p e c t t h a t c r i t i c a l t h e o r i s t s , w h i l e a c c e p t i n g t h e o b j e c t i o n s t o a p r i m a f a c i e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f c r i m e s t a t i s t i c s , e n t e r c e r t a i n q u a l i f i c a t i o n s t o an i n t e r a c t i o n i s t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . A r e v i e w o f t h e c r i t i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e on s t a t i s t i c s s e r v e s n o t o n l y t o i n t r o d u c e some b r o a d e r a r g u m e n t s a b o u t t h e way t h a t o f f i c i a l c r i m e r e p o r t s m o u l d b o t h s c i e n t i f i c a n d p u b l i c i m a g e s o f c r i m e , b u t a l s o s e r v e s t o e x e m p l i f y t h e d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n t h e s o c i o l o g y o f d e v i a n c e a n d c r i t i c a l t h e o r y i n t e r m s o f t h e l e v e l o f a n a l y s i s a t w h i c h t h e y w o r k . 1 7 7 . C r i t i c a l Theory and the I n t e r p r e t a t i o n of O f f i c i a l S t a t i s t i c s : A Return to the Problem of S t r u c t u r e and Ideology The major argument of an i n t e r a c t i o n i s t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n suggests that o f f i c i a l crime s t a t i s t i c s do not n e c e s s a r i l y represent the " r e a l " d i s t r i b u t i o n of crime and delinquency, rather they depend c r u c i a l l y on the o p e r a t i o n of s o c i a l c o n t r o l o r g a n i z a t i o n s i n d e a l i n g with such a c t i o n s . The c r i t i q u e shows that o f f i c i a l s t a t i s t i c s are s o c i a l c o n s t r u c t i o n s and that a d m i n i n s t r a t i v e g u i d e l i n e s and conceptual c a t e g o r i e s used to produce and process crime and delinquency s t a t i s t i c s are by no means unambiguous or d e f i n i t i v e . But does t h i s view i n c o r p o r a t e a l l the a n a l y t i c elements necessary to understand the c o n f i g u r a t i o n of o f f i c i a l s t a t i s t i c s ? In a paper e n t i t l e d "The C r i t i q u e of O f f i c i a l S t a t i s t i c s " , M i l e s and I r v i n e (1979) suggest that i t does not. In t h e i r view the i n s t r u m e n t a l i s t reading of s t a t i s t i c s as o b j e c t i v e f a c t s has been r e p l a c e d by a p e r s p e c t i v e t r e a t i n g them s o l e l y as s u b j e c t i v e judgements r e f l e c t i n g i n d i v i d u a l and o r g a n i z a t i o n a l d e c i s i o n s . In the i n t e r a c t i o n i s t p o s i t i o n s o c i e t y i s cast as an environment in which i n d i v i d u a l s are f r e e to c r e a t e t h e i r own r e a l i t i e s and p r a c t i c e s - they have r e p l c e d a view of crime s t a t i s t i c s as a " n e u t r a l snapshot" with one which t r e a t s them as a patchwork aggregation of the " i m p r e s s i o n i s t i c sketches of i n d i v i d u a l s . " (p. 117) T h i s i s not to suggest, a c c o r d i n g to M i l e s and I r v i n e , that no c o n s i d e r a t i o n has been made of s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e and 178 . ideology i n the i n s t i t u t i o n a l i s t p o s i t i o n . They note that C i c o u r e l r e f e r s to o r g a n i z a t i o n a l processes i n shaping s t a t i s t i c s , and these c e r t a i n l y provide a l i n k to wider s o c i a l i d e o l o g i e s (p. 118). E r i c s o n ' s (1981, 1982) d i s c u s s i o n of the o r g a n i z a t i o n a l and s o c i e t a l contexts of policework ( p u b l i s h e d a f t e r the M i l e s and Irwin paper) s i m i l a r l y provides these l i n k s . But even i n these formulae, c e r t a i n f e a t u r e s of the pr o d u c t i o n process of the s t a t i s t i c s are taken as unprobiematic - the "common-sense" notions of policeman, and t h e i r " r e c i p e -r u l e s " of a c t i o n are not l i n k e d to more general s o c i a l and economic o r g a n i z a t i o n . Nor do these accounts consider the way c e r t a i n kinds of p o l i c e o r g a n i z a t i o n developed i n the f i r s t p i ace (p. 118 ). The i n t e r a c t i o n i s t s (Miles and I r v i n e use the term "phenomenologists") o f f e r a p l u r a l i s t model of s o c i e t y which does not probe the s t r u c t u r e of i n d i v i d u a l s u b j e c t i v e experience i n terms of wider systems of meaning as they are i n f l u e n c e d by s o c i a l c l a s s , power, or e t h n i c i t y . The s t a t e i n s t i t u t i o n s which produce s t a t i s t i c s are taken - f o r - g r a n t e d i n the i n t e r a c t i o n i s t program rather than being viewed a l s o as s o c i a l products which h i s t o r i c a l l y u n f o l d : "The s t r u c t u r e s and s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s of these i n s t i t u t i o n s , and the formal c a t e g o r i e s of s t a t i s t i c s they produce, are j u s t as much a product of human i n t e r e s t s and c o n f l i c t s as are the d i f f e r e n t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s of these formal c a t e g o r i e s by t h e i r o f f i c i a l s . O f f i c i a l s t a t i s t i c s are, t h e r e f o r e , not j u s t a s o c i a l product but a par t i c u l a r product whose form and content are s t r u c t u r e d by much more than i n d i v i d u a l and o r g a n i z a t i o n a l p r a c t i c e s . " (p. 119) 179 . T h e p o i n t o f t h e i r a r g u m e n t i s t h a t t h e s t a t e i s n o t a t e c h n i c a l a n d n e u t r a l a r b i t e r o f s t a t i s t i c s , b u t i s s e l e c t i v e i n i t s s e l e c t i o n o f s t a t i s t i c s f o r p u b l i c a t i o n . A c r i t i c a l a n a l y s i s o f t h e s t a t e i s t h u s n e e d e d t o u n d e r s t a n d how i t s e c o n o m i c and p o l i t i c a l f u n c t i o n s a r e embedded i n t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f o f f i c i a l s t a t i s t i c s ( p p . 1 2 4 - 1 2 6 ) : " B e h i n d t h e v e i l o f n e u t r a l i t y , o f f i c i a l s t a t i s t i c s t h u s f o r m p a r t o f t h e p r o c e s s o f m a i n t a i n i n g a n d r e p r o d u c i n g t h e d o m i n a n t i d e o l o g i e s o f c a p i t a l i s t s o c i e t y . " ( p . 1 2 6 ) I n a d d i t i o n t o t h i s , t h e l e g i s l a t i v e i s h i g h l y s e l e c t i v e i n t h e t y p e o f r u l e - i n f r a c t i o n s t h a t a r e d e f i n e d as c r i m i n a l . I n t h e c r i t i c a l and r a d i c a l l i t e r a t u r e t h e m o s t w e l l d e v e l o p e d a t t e m p t t o d e m y s t i f y t h e " v e i l o f n e u t r a l i t y " v e n e e r i n g o f f i c i a l s t a t i s t i c s has o c c u r r e d i n w h a t T a y l o r , W a l t o n a n d Y o u n g ( 1 9 7 5 ) t e r m " e x p o s e c r i m i n o l o g y " ; t h e p r a c t i c e o f u n c o v e r i n g a n d s h o w i n g t h e u n e x p e c t e d e x t e n t o f u p p e r w o r l d c r i m i n a l i t y e s p e c i a l l y i n t e r m s o f c o r p o r a t i o n a n d g o v e r n m e n t c r i m i n a l i t y . T a y l o r , W a l t o n a n d Y o u n g s u g g e s t t h a t no m a t t e r how u s e f u l s u c h c r i m i n o l o g y may be i n " d e m a s k i n g t h e c r i m e - f r e e f a c a d e o f t h e r u l i n g c l a s s " , t h e u n d e r l y i n g p r e m i s e o f s u c h w o r k i s e s s e n t i a l l y a m o r a l a p p e a l ( p p . 2 9 - 3 3 ) . W h i l e t h e i r s t a t e m e n t i s somewhat c o n t r a d i c t o r y - - t h e i r own w o r k i s p a r t l y b a s e d on t h e m o r a l a p p e a l o f s o c i a l i s m - o t h e r c r i t i c a l t h e o r i s t s h a v e g i v e n e x p o s e c r i m i n o l o y a t h e o r e t i c a l d i m e n s i o n by p o i n t i n g t o t h e p o l i t i c a l a d v a n t a g e s o f d i s t i n g u i s h i n g " s u i t e " c r i m e f r o m " s t r e e t " c r i m e ( e . g . G o f f a n d R e a s o n s , 1 9 7 8 ) T h e m a i n p u r p o s e o f t h e c r i t i q u e i s t o e x p o s e a s u g g e s t e d 1 8 0 . double-standard i n law and to expose the ideology that allows such standards to c o e x i s t . T h i s ideology i s p a r t l y rooted i n p o l i t i c a l economy, but i t may have other dimensions as w e l l . In terms of our understanding of o f f i c i a l s t a t i s t i c s , what i s important here i s that they r a r e l y s y s t e m a t i c a l l y c o n t a i n d e t a i l s about anything other than " s t r e e t " crime. Crime e f f e c t i v e l y becomes " s t r e e t " crime, both by o m i t t i n g any c o n s i d e r a t i o n of i n f r a c t i o n s of other types of c r i m i n a l law, or by d e f i n i n g them out of the p i c t u r e by removing them from the purview of c r i m i n a l law to c i v i l law i n s t e a d (see, for example, Pearce, 1973, 1975, and Goff and Reasons, 1978). The d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n of w h i t e - c o l l a r and s t r e e t - c r i m e thus p a r t l y f u l f i l l s the i d e o l o g i c a l f u n c t i o n of making the crime problem the " s t r e e t " crime problem. Geographers u n w i t t i n g l y reproduce t h i s n eglect of upper l e v e l crime and i t s harmful consequence by c o n c e n t r a t i n g on o f f i c i a l s t a t i s t i c a l sources. If geographers were to produce a map of general crime which i n c l u d e d w h i t e - c o l l a r and corporate o f f e n c e s , they might f i n d that the c l a s s i c c e n t r e - c i t y - s u b u r b crime residence g r a d i e n t would be g r e a t l y q u a l i f i e d or even reversed i f c o n c e n t r a t i n g on " s u i t e " o f fences only. One wonders what geographers and s o c i a l e c o l o g i s t s might make of pockets of c o n c e n t r a t i o n of these upper-echelon o f f e n d e r s which might give a whole new meaning to the idea of " c r i m i n a l areas". O f f i c i a l S t a t i s t i c s and the Geography of Crime In t h i s review I have attempted to e s t a b l i s h the relevance 181. o f i n t e r a c t i o n i s t a n d c r i t i c a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f o f f i c i a l c r i m e s t a t i s t i c s f o r t h e g e o g r a p h y o f c r i m e . I n so d o i n g I h a v e a l s o t r i e d t o i l l u s t r a t e i n c o n c r e t e t e r m s t h e k i n d s o f i s s u e s d i s t i n g u i s h i n g i n t e r a c t i o n i s t a n d c r i t i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e s d i s c u s s e d i n C h a p t e r s 2 a n d 3 . W h i l e i n t e r a c t i o n i s t s f o c u s on t h e i n t e r a c t i o n b e t w e e n c o n t r o l p e r s o n n e l and c i t i z e n s ( p a r t i c u l a r l y c i t i z e n s p e r c e i v e d as t h r e a t e n i n g p u b l i c o r d e r ) as t h e c r u c i a l e l e m e n t i n t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f o f f i c i a l s t a t i s t i c s , c r i t i c a l t h e o r i s t s h a v e d e m o n s t r a t e d t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e s e i n t e r a c t i o n s i n t e r m s o f t h e w i d e r s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l c o n t e x t i n w h i c h d e f i n i t i o n s o f c r i m e u n f o l d . T h e c r i t i c a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e a b i l i t y o f c o n t r o l p e r s o n n e l t o c o n s t r u c t t h e m e a n i n g o f c r i m e i s i t s e l f c i r c u m s c r i b e d by t h e s t r u c t u r e o f m e a n i n g c o n t a i n e d i n c r i m i n a l l e g i s l a t i o n a n d w i d e r p o l i t i c a l i d e o l o g y . I n t h e c a s e o f c e r t a i n c r i m i n a l s t a t i s t i c s t h e i m p a c t o f c o n t r o l p e r s o n n e l p e r se may be m i n i m a l . T h e q u e s t i o n i s w h i c h c a t e g o r i e s ? T h e t y p i c a l a n s w e r has b e e n t h a t c r i m e s w h i c h f o r t h e m o s t p a r t a r e • r e p o r t e d t o t h e p o l i c e by t h e p u b l i c a r e t h o s e l e a s t i n f l u e n c e d by c o n t r o l p e r s o n n e l , a n d t h u s t h e m o s t r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f a c t u a l o f f e n d e r b e h a v i o u r . B u t e v i d e n c e p r e s e n t e d i n C h a p t e r 9 s u g g e s t s t h a t e v e n i n t h e c a s e o f b u r g l a r y , a c r i m e g e n e r a l l y r e p o r t e d t o t h e p o l i c e by t h e p u b l i c , p u b l i c r e p o r t i n g r a t e s may t h e m s e l v e s be i n f l u e n c e d by c o n t r o l a c t i v i t y . T h e r e i s t h u s no s i m p l e a n s w e r t o t h e q u e s t i o n . W h a t , t h e n , a r e t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s o f t h e s e a r g u m e n t s f o r t h e g e o g r a p h y o f c r i m e ? T h e a n s w e r , i n a n u t s h e l l , i s t h a t a 1 8 2 . p r i m a f a c i e r e a d i n g o f c r i m e s t a t i s t i c s c a n n o t be a s s u m e d a p r i o r i . T h e s u g g e s t i o n t h a t some s t a t i s t i c s may r e f l e c t a c t u a l r a t e s o f c r i m i n a l b e h a v i o u r i s no w a r r a n t t o p r o c e e d b y t h e a s s u m p t i o n t h a t t h e y a l l d o . I h a v e a l w a y s b e e n b a f f l e d by d i s c l a i m e r s i n t h e g e o g r a p h y o f c r i m e w h i c h s u g g e s t t h a t r e s e a r c h r e s u l t s s h o u l d be i n t e r p r e t e d w i t h c a u t i o n . What d o e s t h i s c a u t i o n c o n s i s t o f ? W h e r e c r i m e s t a t i s t i c s a r e i n t e r p r e t e d as " r e a l " i n d i c e s o f " c r i m i n a l " b e h a v i o u r , g o o d r e a s o n s s h o u l d be p r e s e n t e d ( p r e f e r a b l y e m p i r i c a l f i n d i n g s ) f o r t h e i r t r e a t m e n t as s u c h . O n l y i f t h i s i s done c a n t h e r e a d e r u n d e r s t a n d e x a c t l y w h a t k i n d o f c a u t i o n s h o u l d be e x e r c i s e d i n i n t e r p r e t i n g r e s e a r c h r e s u l t s . T h e s e a r g u m e n t s s h o u l d n o t be m i s r e a d as s u g g e s t i n g t h a t o f f i c i a l s t a t i s t i c s s h o u l d n o t be u s e d a t a l l . I n d e e d i n C h a p t e r s 8 a n d 9 I u s e o f f i c i a l b u r g l a r y a n d p r o s t i t u t i o n s t a t i s t i c s when e x a m i n g t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n p a r t i c u l a r c o n t r o l p r a c t i c e s a n d c r i m e p a t t e r n s . I n t h e s e a n a l y s e s c a r e f u l a t t e n t i o n i s g i v e n t o t h e i s s u e o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s u g g e s t i n g t h a t p r o s t i t u t i o n s t a t i s t i c s m a i n l y i n d e x c o n t r o l a c t i v i t y w h i l e b u r g l a r y s t a t i s t i c s r e f l e c t b o t h c h a n g e s i n o f f e n d e r a c t i v i t y a n d c o n t r o l a c t i v i t y . What t h i s s u g g e s t s i s t h a t g e o g r a p h e r s m i g h t u s e f u l l y b e g i n t o t r e a t o f f i c i a l s t a t i s t i c s as o b j e c t s o f s t u d y i n t h e i r own r i g h t . One f r u i t f u l a v e n u e o f i n q u i r y r e l a t e s t o t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f v i c t i m i z a t i o n s u r v e y s w i t h a s p a t i a l l y d i f f e r e n t i a t e d d a t a b a s e t o c o m p a r e t o o f f i c i a l c r i m e r a t e s i n o r d e r t o a s s e s s t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t r e p o r t i n g r a t e s v a r y among d i f f e r e n t s o c i a l 1 8 3 . groups. The v i c t i m i z a t i o n surveys developed to date do not allow the assessment of s m a l l - s c a l e s p a t i a l v a r i a t i o n s in r e p o r t i n g r a t e s . Mawby's study i s notable to the extent that i t does attempt to answer questions about the e f f e c t of p o l i c i n g p r a c t i c e s on the c o n f i g u r a t i o n of crime p a t t e r n s . But while hi s f i n d i n g s are p r o v o c a t i v e , they are l i m i t e d . Studies are needed r e p l i c a t i n g Mawby's purpose, but which are able to t e s t for the e f f e c t s of race and c l a s s . In a d d i t i o n , something more is needed in terms of c o n c e p t u a l i z i n g the r e l a t i o n s h i p between c o n t r o l p r a c t i c e s and pa t t e r n s of crime. Mawby's type of a n a l y s i s f o c u s i n g on the most immediate r e l a t i o n s h i p between crime and c o n t r o l - e s s e n t i a l l y an examination of d i s c r e t i o n a r y p o l i c e p r a c t i c e i n the p r o d u c t i o n of crime rates - may not capture some of the more s u b t l e aspects of the r e l a t i o n s h i p , p a r t i c u l a r l y to the extent that much p o l i c e d i s c r e t i o n a r y p r a c t i c e has l i t t l e to do with c r i m i n a l i t y i t s e l f . I n c o n g r u i t y procedures and methodic modes of s u s p i c i o n may have an e f f e c t on the s p a t i a l c o n f i g u r a t i o n of crime that an a n a l y s i s of p o l i c e r e p o r t s of c r i m i n a l i n c i d e n t s i s unable to assess. Thus while the i m p l i c a t i o n s of d i s c r e t i o n a r y b i a s are f a i r l y obvious, the consequences of s t e r o t y p i n g procedures f o r shaping p a t t e r n s of crime are l e s s immediate. The impact of s t e r e o t y p i n g may become p a r t i c u l a r l y d i f f i c u l t to t r a c e by instrumental s t a t i s t i c a l methods once we acknowledge the p o t e n t i a l e f f e c t of informal p o l i c e p r a c t i c e s and o r g a n i z a t i o n a l d e c i s i o n s as contexts for s o c i a l a c t i o n and 184. perhaps as "crime producing", rather than by simply f o c u s i n g a t t e n t i o n on that small part of p o l i c e a c t i v i t y which i n v o l v e s the p r o c e s s i n g of c r i m i n a l charges. T h i s argument i s developed in the f i r s t part of Chapter 6 i n a d i s c u s s i o n of " e c o l o g i c a l l a b e l l i n g " . In the second part of Chapter 6 the d i s c u s s i o n turns to a c o n s i d e r a t i o n of the e f f e c t s of d i f f e r e n t i a l l e v e l s of p o l i c i n g , both between l e g a l j u r i s d i c t i o n s and w i t h i n them, on offender a c t i v i t y . The d i s c u s s i o n of i n t r a j u r i s d i c t i o n a l d i f f e r e n c e s in p o l i c i n g , p a r t i c u l a r l y in terms of p a t r o l a l l o c a t i o n , i s important to the extent that i t is a l o g i c a l c o r o l l a r y of the d i s c u s s i o n of the e f f e c t s of p o l i c e d i s c r e t i o n and s t e r o t y p i n g ; these e f f e c t s w i l l be g r e a t e s t in the areas to which p o l i c e are a l l o c a t e d most. In combination the m a t e r i a l presented in Chapter 6 marks a major s h i f t of emphasis in the o v e r a l l argument as a t r a n s i t i o n i s made from c o n s i d e r a t i o n of how c o n t r o l a c t i v i t y at a v a r i e t y of l e v e l s shapes images of crime and c r i m i n a l s to a c o n s i d e r a t i o n of the way that c o n t r o l a c t i v i t y shapes patt e r n s of offender behaviour. The emphasis thus changes from a c o n s i d e r a t i o n of the e f f e c t of the c o n t r o l environment on who the c r i m i n a l s are to i t s e f f e c t on what offenders do. My p r i n c i p a l concern i s to demonstrate the e f f e c t of c o n t r o l a c t i v i t i e s on p a t t e r n s of crime (and, in some cases, c r i m i n a l r e s i d e n c e ) and to introduce the concept of displacement as one u s e f u l u n i f y i n g theme for an i n t e g r a t e d geography of crime and c o n t r o l . 185. N o t e s t o C h a p t e r 5 1 . A g o o d i n d i c a t i o n o f t h e p r o b l e m o f i n t e r p r e t i n g s e l f -r e p o r t s t u d i e s comes w i t h t h e r e a l i z a t i o n t h a t t h e f i n d i n g s p u b l i s h e d by S h o r t a n d N y e ( 1 9 5 7 ) a r e c o n t r a d i c t e d by t h e i r own r e s e a r c h r e s u l t s a p p e a r i n g one y e a r l a t e r ( 1 9 5 8 ) . Downes ( 1 9 6 6 ) a r g u e s t h a t t h e l a t e r f i n d i n g s c o n f i r m t h e c l a s s d i s t r i b u t i o n o f d e l i n q u e n c y c o n t a i n e d i n t h e o f f i c i a l s t a t i s t i c s . 2 . I n h i s m o n o g r a p h on t h e " E c o l o g y o f C r i m e a n d V i o l e n c e " ( 1 9 7 8 ) G e o r g e s does m e n t i o n t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t c r i m e s t a t i s t i c s may be b i a s e d by r a c e and s o c i a l s t a t u s b u t n o w h e r e i s a n y m e t h o d o l o g i c a l a l l o w a n c e made f o r t h e way t h e s e b i a s e s may d i s t o r t h i s a n a l y s i s . 3 . B i d e r m a n a n d R e i s s u n f o r t u n a t e l y t e r m t h e p r i m a f a c i e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f c r i m e s t a t i s t i c s as " r e a l i s t " w h i l e I t e r m i t " i n s t r u m e n t a l i s t " . T h e " r e a l i s t " p o s i t i o n i s a c t u a l l y p o s i t i v i s t i c i n i t s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f c r i m e s t a t i s t i c s , n o t " r e a l i s t " i n t e r m s o f t h e w i d e r l i t e r a t u r e on t h e p h i l o s o p h y o f s o c i a l s c i e n c e ( s e e p a r t i c u l a r l y K e a t a n d U r r y , 1976 ) . 4 . I n a d o p t i n g an i n s t i t u t i o n a l i s t p e r s p e c t i v e w h i c h t r e a t s o f f i c i a l s t a t i s t i c s as o b j e c t s o f s t u d y i n t h e i r own r i g h t , B o t t o m l e y a n d C o l e m a n ( 1 9 7 6 , p p . 3 4 - 3 5 ) s u g g e s t t h a t somewhat p a r a d o x i c a l l y many s c h o l a r s h a v e n o t f o l l o w e d t h e p e r s p e c t i v e t h r o u g h t o i t s l o g i c a l o r s o c i o l o g i c a l c o n c l u s i o n ; t h e i n s t i t u t i o n a l i s t c o n c e n t r a t i o n on a s p e c t s o f p o l i c e b i a s , s e l e c t i v i t y a n d d i s c r i m i n a t o r y p r a c t i c e i s s u g g e s t e d as n o t b e i n g f a r r e m o v e d f r o m t r a d i t i o n a l c o n c e r n s . 5 . I n t h i s p a r t i c u l a r s t a t e m e n t one c a n c l e a r l y s e e t h a t d i s c r e t i o n a r y b i a s ( a s I h a v e d e f i n e d i t ) i s p a r t l y c o n s t i t u t i v e o f o r g a n i z a t i o n a l b i a s . 6 . F o l l o w i n g B i d e r m a n a n d R e i s s ( 1 9 6 7 ) t h e s e a u t h o r s u s e t h e t e r m " r e a l i s t " h e r e ; s e e f o o t n o t e 3 ( a b o v e ) f o r a d i s c u s s i o n o f p r o b l e m s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h i s d e s i g n a t i o n . 186 . C h a p t e r 6 S o c i a l C o n t r o l a n d t h e S t r u c t u r e o f S o c i a l L i f e : C r i m e C o n t r o l as a C o n t e x t f o r B e h a v i o u r T o t h i s p o i n t t h e d i s c u s s i o n has f o c u s e d on p r o b l e m s i n v o l v e d w i t h t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f o f f i c i a l s t a t i s t i c s a n d , by e x t e n s i o n , o f c r i m e r a t e m a p s . I n e x a m i n i n g i n t e r a c t i o n i s t a n d c r i t i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e s i n c r i m i n o l o g y , t h e m a i n i m p l i c a t i o n f o r g e o g r a p h i c s t u d i e s o f c r i m e i s t h a t r a t h e r t h a n r e s t r i c t i n g a n a l y s e s t o t h e c r i m e o r t h e c r i m i n a l , c o n s i d e r a t i o n m u s t be e x t e n d e d t o i n c l u d e c o n t r o l p r o c e s s e s i n a u n i f i e d f r a m e w o r k . I n t e r a c t i o n i s t p e r s p e c t i v e s s u g g e s t t h a t e v e n a t t h e m o s t b a s i c c o n c e p t u a l l e v e l an a n a l y s i s o f c o n t r o l p r o c e s s e s f u n d a m e n t a l l y i n f l u e n c e s o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f o f f i c i a l s t a t i s t i c s , and a l l e x p l a n a t i o n s t h a t f l o w f r o m t h e i r u s e . C o n s i d e r a t i o n o f c r i m e c o n t r o l p r a c t i c e s a l s o t u r n o u r a t t e n t i o n t o s o c i a l a l l o c a t i o n p r o c e s s e s . C r i t i c a l t h e o r i s t s h a v e s u g g e s t e d t h a t i d e o l o g i c a l b i a s e s u n d e r l i e t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f s t a t i s t i c s as m o s t p o l i c e e f f o r t s a r e d i r e c t e d t o w a r d s " s t r e e t " c r i m e r a t h e r t h a n " s u i t e " c r i m e t h e r e b y e f f e c t i v e l y l o c a t i n g t h e " c r i m e p r o b l e m " i n s o c i e t y ' s l o w e r s t r a t a ; i n d e e d c r i m e c o n t r o l p e r s o n n e l may be a l l o c a t e d i n s u c h a way t h a t t h e " l o w e r c l a s s " c r i m e p r o b l e m becomes t h e c r i m e p r o b l e m i n a s e l f - f u l f i l l i n g p r o c e s s . B e c a u s e c r i m e s t a t i s t i c s a r e s o c i a l l y c o n s t r u c t e d , t h e p r o c e s s o f t h e i r c o n s t r u c t i o n c a n be v i t a l t o an u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f " c r i m i n a l i t y " b e c a u s e i t i s i n s t r u m e n t a l i n 187. moulding the r e s e a r c h e r ' s "image" of crime in terms of what i s to be e x p l a i n e d . The d i s c u s s i o n now changes emphasis by t u r n i n g to the i n f l u e n c e of crime c o n t r o l and c o n t r o l a l l o c a t i o n p o l i c i e s on a c t u a l behaviour. Rather than simply being r e a c t i v e to and dependent upon the i n c i d e n c e of c r i m i n a l behaviour, l e g a l i n s t i t u t i o n s and law enforcement p r a c t i c e s form a context for behaviour. The simple l e g a l d i s t i n c t i o n of p u b l i c and p r i v a t e p l a c e s , for example, forms an important context for s o c i a l conduct and may be the most important c r i t e r i o n i n the d e f i n i t i o n of c e r t a i n acts as c r i m i n a l . Both l e g a l d e f i n i t i o n s and law enforcement p r a c t i c e s thus s t r u c t u r e s o c i a l a c t i v i t y , and t h e i r e f f e c t i n t h i s respect must a l s o be taken i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n i n understanding p a t t e r n s of both c r i m i n a l and r e l a t e d behaviour. Looked at i n a s l i g h t l y d i f f e r e n t way, l e g a l s t a t u t e s and law enforcement p r a c t i c e s must be i n c l u d e d as elements of the " s o c i a l environment" in environmental and e c o l o g i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e s . Two themes are developed in t h i s chapter concerning the i n f l u e n c e of the a l l o c a t i o n of c o n t r o l personnel on crime r a t e s . The f i r s t theme develops out of the l i t e r a t u r e on the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of o f f i c i a l s t a t i s t i c s by c o n s i d e r i n g the way informal p o l i c e p r a c t i c e provides part of the context in which the i d e n t i t i e s of c e r t a i n s o c i a l groups may be shaped as being " o u t s i d e " the law. The d i s c u s s i o n at t h i s point shows how the c o n f i g u r a t i o n of crime may not only be i n f l u e n c e d di r e c t l y by law enforcement e f f o r t s , but a l s o how i t may be i n f l u e n c e d 1 8 8 . i n d i r e c t l y by informal p o l i c e p r a c t i c e s . The d i s c u s s i o n of informal p o l i c e p r a c t i c e s a l s o attempts to o u t l i n e the theoret i c a l l i n k s between the l i t e r a t u r e on o f f i c i a l s t a t i s t i c s and concepts of " e c o l o g i c a l l a b e l l i n g " as a crime a m p l i f y i n g process. E c o l o g i c a l l a b e l l i n g r e f e r s to the process through which c e r t a i n areas develop r e p u t a t i o n s for high rates of crime and other s o c i a l problem behaviours, and how s o c i a l p o l i c y and a l l o c a t i o n p r a c t i c e s not only respond to, but a l s o help develop these r e p u t a t i o n s (the term e c o l o g i c a l l a b e l l i n g was f i r s t used by Brantingham and Brantingham, 1981A, p. 26). The second theme concerning the d i r e c t e f f e c t of p o l i c e a l l o c a t i o n procedures, examines the i n f l u e n c e of p o l i c e p a t r o l d i s t r i b u t i o n on c r i m i n a l a c t i v i t y p a t t e r n s . Some a t t e n t i o n w i l l a l s o be given to the l i t e r a t u r e on "crime s p i l l o v e r " which attempts to examine the e f f e c t of the i n t e n s i t y of p o l i c i n g in one j u r i s d i c t i o n (as measured by expenditure on p o l i c e or i n terms of p o l i c e manpower) on crime rates i n adjacent j ur i sdi ct ions. These d i s c u s s i o n s i n combination set the stage f o r the i n t r o d u c t i o n of the displacement concept as one type of o r g a n i z i n g theme around which an i n t e g r a t e d geographic a n a l y s i s of crime and j u s t i c e may proceed. 189. P o l i c e P r a c t i c e s and Informal Influ e n c e s on Crime Rates; P o l i c i n g as a Context For S o c i a l A c t i o n and the Problem of Crime A m p l i f i c a t i o n I suggested e a r l i e r that Mawby (1979) tends to c o n f l a t e r e s e a r c h on d i s c r e t i o n a r y bias and the deviance a m p l i f i c a t i o n l i t e r a t u r e . But t h i s i s not to suggest that p o l i c e p r a c t i c e s and deviance a m p l i f i c a t i o n processes are u n r e l a t e d - the issue i s how they are r e l a t e d . What g e n e r a l l y seems to be missed in the d i s c u s s i o n of p o l i c e d i s c r e t i o n and the r e l a t e d d i s c u s s i o n of the a m p l i f i c a t i o n of deviance i s the importance of "non-crime" encounters between the p u b l i c and the p o l i c e . The l i t e r a t u r e to date has focussed almost e x c l u s i v e l y on p o l i c e encounters with members of the p u b l i c who are e v e n t u a l l y processed through the c r i m i n a l j u s t i c e system. Thus while Black and R e i s s suggest that 72% of the p o l i c e encounters with j u v e n i l e s were c i t i z e n i n i t i a t e d (p. 66) elsewhere they suggest that " ( p ) o l i c e c o n t r o l of j u v e n i l e s f o l l o w s an i n f o r m a l - p r o c e s s i n g or harassment model rather than a f o r m a l - p r o c e s s i n g model of c o n t r o l " , (p. 74) It may be that informal i n t e r a c t i o n s between p o l i c e and v a r i o u s s o c i a l groups are j u s t as important as the formal c r i m i n a l l a b e l l i n g process in the c r e a t i o n of c r i m i n a l i d e n t i t y and subgroups. Thus c r i m i n a l or delinquent behaviour may be importantly a m p l i f i e d by p o l i c e a c t i v i t y which s y s t e m a t i c a l l y focuses on c e r t a i n s o c i a l groups, even though i t i n f r e q u e n t l y leads to c r i m i n a l charges. Should such an 190. a m p l i f i c a t o r y process occur, the subsequent c r i m i n a l a c t i v i t y that i t engenders would be r e a c t i v e l y r e p o r t e d . O f f i c i a l crime s t a t i s t i c s , then, may not only be b i a s e d by p o l i c e a c t i v i t y i n the most obvious and d i r e c t sense - the l i n k may be l e s s i n terms of the very small p r o p o r t i o n of time p o l i c e spend in i n t e r a c t i o n s which end up in a r r e s t ( E r i c s o n estimates t h i s as occupying only 5% of a patrolman's time) than i t i s i n terms of t h e i r more general (symbolic) s o c i a l c o n t r o l p r a c t i c e . Thus while c e r t a i n arguments about the importance of p o l i c e d i s c r e t i o n i n b i a s i n g crime rates may be c r i t i c i z e d for g e n e r a l i z i n g p o l i c e p r o a c t i v i t y to the r e a c t i v e arena, the i n s t i t u t i o n a l i s t view r e q u i r e s s i m i l a r q u a l i f i c a t i o n . While the e a r l y r e s e a r c h on b i a s i s incomplete because i t i s r e s t r i c t e d to p o l i c e encounters with ( p r o a c t i v e l y generated) suspects (Black, 1970, p. 744), subsequent s t u d i e s s t r e s s i n g the e s s e n t i a l l y r e a c t i v e nature of p o l i c e work may be e q u a l l y remiss by c o n s i s t e n t l y f o c u s i n g on the c r i m i n a l event; the problem is to see only those encounters which r e s u l t i n a c r i m i n a l charge as important in the d i s c r e t i o n - a m p l i f i c a t i o n process. V a r i o u s s t u d i e s of p o l i c e p a t r o l c o n f i r m the r e l a t i v e infrequence with which p o l i c e contacts with c i t i z e n s lead to c r i m i n a l charges. In Chicago, R e i s s estimates that l e s s than 1% of the time spent in p r e v e n t a t i v e p a t r o l was occupied in i n t e r a c t i o n s with c i t i z e n s which r e s u l t e d in the l a y i n g of formal c r i m i n a l charges (1971, p. 96), while McCabe and S u t c l i f f e suggest that only 6% of p o l i c e time i s spent on 191. i n c i d e n t s that are f i n a l l y d e f i n e d as c r i m i n a l or a breach of p u b l i c order (1978, p. 9). E r i c s o n c i t e s a number of ethnographic s t u d i e s of the p o l i c e which s i m i l a r l y suggest that most p o l i c e contact with i n d i v i d u a l s does not i n v o l v e matters subsequently d e f i n e d as c r i m i n a l (Cumming et a l , 1970; Punch and N a y l o r , 1973; C a i n , 1973; Payne, 1973; Punch, 1975. For a review of f i e l d s t u d i e s of p o l i c e see Van Maanen, 1978). While c r i m i n a l i z a t i o n r e p r e s e n t s the formal l a b e l l i n g process, the general c o n t r o l of "problem groups" and "bad people" f a c i l i t a t e d by a number of informal mechanisms may a l s o be c o n t r i b u t o r y to the deviance a m p l i f i c a t i o n process. E r i c s o n (1982, p. 14) d e s c r i b e s the c r i m i n a l law from the point of view of the p o l i c e as a r e s i d u a l resource, f r e q u e n t l y something m o b i l i z e d as a l a s t r e s o r t i n the process of m a i n t a i n i n g order. And importantly, E r i c s o n ' s s t u d i e s are of general uniform p a t r o l work (1982) and general d e t e c t i v e work (1981) rat h e r than j u s t the p r o a c t i v e v a r i e t y , although t h i s comment a p p l i e s more to uniform p a t r o l o f f i c e r s than i t does general d e t e c t i v e s . F o l l o w i n g B i t t n e r (1970), C h a t t e r t o n (1976), and Manning (1977), E r i c s o n suggests that c r i m i n a l law enforcement i s not the goal of policework, but a t o o l used by the p a t r o l o f f i c e r to order the p o p u l a t i o n ; "...many encounters i n v o l v e not a q u e s t i o n of 'crime' and 'non-crime', but whether the p o l i c e o f f i c e r f i n d s i t necessary to use the c r i m i n a l law to handle t r o u b l e . " (1982, p. 38) The p a t r o l o f f i c e r ' s concern with law i s thus as an a l l purpose c o n t r o l device - the broader the a p p l i c a b i l i t y , the b e t t e r the law ( B i t t n e r , 1970, p. 108; 192. E r i c s o n , 1982, p. 14). "In ha n d l i n g troublesome s i t u a t i o n s , any law w i l l do. The f a c t that the person can be charged with something i s u s u a l l y s u f f i c i e n t for the o f f i c e r ' s purposes. H i s l e g a l resources are ample, but h i s r e s o u r c e f u l n e s s i s more important." ( E r i c s o n , 1982, p. 171). Importantly then, and Mawby recognizes as much (1981, p. 45), the p r o a c t i v e p o l i c i n g model may represent the i d e a l model of policework. While i t may not be p a r t i c u l a r l y important i n ge n e r a t i n g suspects and accused persons, forms of methodical s u s p i c i o n and other elements of p r o a c t i v e p o l i c i n g may be v i t a l i n o r d e r i n g the p o p u l a t i o n (an o r d e r i n g which i s achieved by c r i m i n a l l a b e l l i n g only in the l a s t r e s o r t or i n more extreme or e a s i l y d e f i n e d i n c i d e n t s ) . T h i s remark i s not intended to minimize the symbolic importance of c r i m i n a l l a b e l l i n g and i t s a c t u a l consequences, but to suggest that there i s much more to p o l i c i n g than the p r o c e s s i n g of c r i m i n a l s . The p o l i c e impact on the c o n f i g u r a t i o n of crime i s much more complicated than d i r e c t measures of p o l i c e d i s c r e t i o n a r y p r a c t i c e i n d i c a t e . T h i s point becomes much c l e a r e r i n s t u d i e s l i k e those of E r i c s o n which examine p o l i c i n g i n g e n e r a l , rather than simply that small p r o p o r t i o n of p o l i c e a c t i v i t y which ends up i n crime r e p o r t s . But even in Bottomley and Coleman's study, which i s l a r g e l y r e s t r i c t e d to crime i n c i d e n t s , evidence i s given sugg e s t i n g that the p o l i c e make wide use of methodical s u s p i c i o n and other p r o a c t i v e p r a c t i c e s . They note, for example, that " i t was apparent that p o l i c e d i d use v i s i b l e on-t h e - s t r e e t s groups as a category of l i k e l y i n d i v i d u a l s " (1981, 193. p. I l l ) although such methodical s u s p i c i o n may not be p a r t i c u l a r l y important i n the ( d i r e c t ) p r o d u c t i o n of crime r a t e s . They a l s o give evidence that " i n c o n g r u i t y procedures" play an important r o l e in p o l i c e work even though such t a c t i c s r a r e l y lead to the i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of an offender (1981, p. I l l , 1 17). 1 Mawby (1979) s i m i l a r l y notes that i t is d o u b t f u l whether such p r a c t i c e s have a s t a n d a r d i z e d impact on the records of i ndi c t a b l e crime. In d i s c u s s i n g B r i t a i n s "Sus" law (an a l l purpose law e n a b l i n g p o l i c e to q u e s t i o n almost anyone on the s t r e e t who looks s u s p i c i o u s ) Bottomley and Coleman note that c e r t a i n groups are more l i k e l y than others to come under p o l i c e s u s p i c i o n - j u v e n i l e s , males rather than females, and blacks rather than whites. Yet d e s p i t e these apparent d i s c r e t i o n a r y b i a s e s they note: "we would m a i n t a i n that because of the nature, d i s c o v e r y and d e t e c t i o n of those offences which make up the s t a t i s t i c s of crime, i t would be q u i t e p o s s i b l e for black youths to be r e g u l a r l y s c r u t i n i z e d , i n t e r r o g a t e d , searched and even a r r e s t e d 'on s u s p i c i o n ' , without t h i s having any marked impact on the recorded s t a t i s t i c s of i n d i c t a b l e crime of the r e l e v a n t group." Or, at l e a s t , the e f f e c t on recorded s t a t i s t i c s may not be in the d i r e c t sense that Bottomley and Coleman's research i s designed to assess. But the i n d i r e c t e f f e c t of such procedures as contexts f o r shaping the self-images of "problem" persons may accentuate the l i k e l i h o o d of t h e i r committing i n d i c t a b l e crimes which are subsequently reported to the p o l i c e by the p u b l i c. 194. Thus i t i s one t h i n g to examine samples of crime r e p o r t s as do McCabe and S u t c l i f f e (1978), Mawby (1979, 1981) and Bottomley and Coleman (1981) i n order to assess the importance of c e r t a i n groups in r e p o r t i n g and d e t e c t i n g crime, but q u i t e another to e x t r a p o l a t e these f i n d i n g s to the a m p l i f i c a t i o n of deviance hypothesis as does Mawby. From a geographical p o i n t of view, an examination of the r o l e of p o l i c e d i s c r e t i o n i n the r e p o r t i n g and d e t e c t i o n of crime does not t e l l us a l l we need to know about the p o l i c e impact on the geography of crime rates - as a l r e a d y noted, i t ignores the informal impact of p o l i c e a c t i v i t y i n shaping s o c i a l groups and s u b c u l t u r e s . In Luke S t r e e t (1977) G i l l o f f e r s a l u c i d d e s c r i p t i o n of j u s t such a process o c c u r r i n g i n one of L i v e r p o o l ' s "problem" nei ghbourhoods. G i l l s t a t e s that the o r i g i n a l i n t e n t i o n of the research c u l m i n a t i n g i n the p u b l i c a t i o n of Luke S t r e e t was simply to understand the l i f e s t y l e of a group of boys who r e g u l a r l y came in t o contact with the p o l i c e and c o u r t s . But in t h i s attempt G i l l found himsel f n e c e s s a r i l y drawn i n t o issues of housing p o l i c y , p o l i c i n g , and urban s t e r e o t y p i n g in understanding the pro d u c t i o n of behaviour that i s subsequently o f f i c i a l l y r e g i s t e r e d as deviant; "This book i s t h e r e f o r e as much, i f not more, about how the policy-makers react to deviant m i n o r i t i e s as i t i s about how members of those m i n o r i t i e s react to the wider world" (1977, p r e f a c e ) . G i l l ' s study s i g n i f i c a n t l y breaks ground with much work on delinquency in the post-war p e r i o d which views such a c t i v i t y as 195. a s u b c u l t u r a l response to w o r k i n g - c l a s s l i f e . T h i s emphasis in G i l l ' s o p i n i o n , has d i s t r a c t e d a t t e n t i o n from other f a c t o r s i n the o r g a n i z a t i o n of modern urban l i f e which are p r o d u c t i v e of delinquent behaviour, and along with a number of other s t u d i e s (Darner, 1974; Baldwin, Bottoms and Walker, 1976), G i l l ' s a n a l y s i s attempts to s p e c i f y these. Given the i n t e r e s t s of the present d i s c u s s i o n i n o u t l i n i n g the geographic consequences of the informal a m p l i f i c a t o r y consequences of p o l i c e p r a c t i c e s , G i l l ' s a n a l y s i s i s s i g n i f i c a n t i n the way i t d e s c r i b e s the formation of urban s u b c u l t u r e s . As noted e a r l i e r , t h i s process i s u s u a l l y d e s c r i b e d i n s o c i a l s t r u c t u r a l terms suggesting that delinquent s u b c u l t u r e s are a product of the values provided through working c l a s s l i f e i n t e r a c t i n g with the values of wider s o c i e t y . While G i l l would presumably acknowledge that such a process may provide part of the context f o r the emergence of i d e n t i f i a b l e s u b c u l t u r a l groups, a number of other c o n s i d e r a t i o n s a l s o need to be introduced i n t o the a n a l y s i s . In understanding the c r e a t i o n of Luke S t r e e t as a delinquent area he combines three s o c i o l o g i c a l approaches: the e c o l o g i c a l , the s u b c u l t u r a l and the s o c i a l r e a c t i o n p e r s p e c t i v e s , with the processess which each d e s c r i b e s being viewed as i n t e r a c t i n g and cumulative (1977, p.2). In terms of the e c o l o g i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e , G i l l focuses on the p o l i c i e s surrounding the u t i l i z a t i o n and a l l o c a t i o n of p u b l i c housing, the t y p i c a l tenure-type of s o - c a l l e d "problem" areas. In t h i s a n a l y s i s he shows how c e r t a i n "types" 196 . of people are a l l o c a t e d to c e r t a i n "types" of housing, a f i l t e r i n g process which throws together . i n d i v i d u a l s with p a r t i c u l a r s o c i a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . 3 In terms of the s u b c u l t u r a l p e r s p e c t i v e h i s a n a l y s i s d e s c r i b e s the b e h a v i o u r a l and a t t i t u d i n a l accommodations of people f o r c e d through t h i s f i l t e r i n g process to l i v e i n low grade housing. F i n a l l y , G i l l shows how v a r i o u s c o n t r o l l e r s , a d m i n i s t r a t o r s and h e l p e r s deal with the areas so produced and i n so doing exacerbate t h e i r d i f f i c u l t i e s - the process of " e c o l o g i c a l l a b e l l i n g " . The a n a l y s i s shows how a c t u a l behaviour in these areas i n t e r a c t s with p e r c e p t i o n of that behaviour i n a c l a s s i c deviancy a m p l i f i c a t i o n s p i r a l . While G i l l does not a t t r i b u t e the geographic e f f e c t of a l l t h i s - the c r e a t i o n of delinquency areas - to p o l i c e p r a c t i c e , what he does do is show how that p r a c t i c e , i n tandem with other f a c t o r s , helps to produce the geographic p a t t e r n of delinquency r e s i d e n c e . In p a s s i n g i t i s a l s o a p p r o p r i a t e to note that area c o r r e l a t i o n a l analyses of delinquency residence p a t t e r n s cast in the instrumental p o s i t i v i s t mould cannot hope to develop the kind of a n a l y s i s o f f e r e d by G i l l , for the very concepts and measures u t i l i z e d by the t r a d i t i o n a l e c o l o g i c a l approach c r e a t e a t h e o r e t i c a l f o r e c l o s u r e by l i m i t i n g the types of questions that such analyses can be expected to answer. To understand these processes, not only do we need d i f f e r e n t kinds of data, but a t o t a l l y d i f f e r e n t form of epistemology and ontology t r a n s c e n d i n g a phenomenal l e v e l of a n a l y s i s . 197. In terms of p o l i c e p r a c t i c e G i l l shows how stereotypes of a neighbourhood not only r e f l e c t the i n c i d e n c e of o f f i c i a l behaviour but a l s o become part of the product i on of such behaviour as they i n f l u e n c e p o l i c e deployment and a c t i v i t y (p.62). G i l l d e s c r i b e s the main a c t i v i t y of Luke S t r e e t youths, given the lack of any r e c r e a t i o n a l f a c i l i t i e s in the area, as "hanging out". Most of t h e i r contact with the p o l i c e came on the s t r e e t because of the l a r g e l y u n s t r u c t u r e d and p u b l i c l i v e s of the u s u a l l y unemployed area youth (p. 124). The r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of e x t e r n a l a u t h o r i t y were p a r t i c u l a r l y s e n s i t i v e to these youths' s t r e e t behaviour, and p a t r o l l e d i t with v a r y i n g i n t e n s i t y , although a p p a r e n t l y f a i r l y c o n s t a n t l y . What G i l l shows i s that the e f f e c t of t h i s s y stematic a t t e n t i o n was of key s i g n i f i c a n c e in shaping the a t t i t u d e s of area youths even though i t appears that only a m i n o r i t y of the i n t e r a c t i o n s would be subsequently recorded as c r i m i n a l . The i n t e r a c t i o n s represent the general p o l i c e attempt to m a i n t a i n order, and to t h i s extent the law appears to have been a r e s i d u a l resource in the sense that E r i c s o n and B i t t n e r d e s c r i b e i t , although i n Luke S t r e e t one which might be used much more f r e q u e n t l y than elsewhere. In t h i s respect G i l l i s c r i t i c a l of previous observer s t u d i e s which concentrate on deviant i n c i d e n t s i n order to i l l u s t r a t e the general nature of s u b c u l t u r a l a t t i t u d e s , rather than a n a l y z i n g them as important elements of on-going l i f e which im p o r t a n t l y a f f e c t and change human pe r c e p t i o n s (p. 125); most d e s c r i p t i o n s of delinquent l i f e miss i t s predominantly r o u t i n e and mundane nature. What 198. to G i l l i s important about p o l i c e / j u v e n i l e i n t e r a c t i o n s i s that they i l l u s t r a t e the u n f o l d i n g s o c i a l l y c o n s t r u c t e d nature of delinquency. Rather than r e p r e s e n t i n g the usual course of events these o c c a s i o n a l and sometimes dramatic i n c i d e n t s between youths and p o l i c e were a t y p i c a l , but instrumental i n shaping the a t t i t u d e s of both. The a t t i t u d e s of d e l i n q u e n t s were thus ( p a r t l y ) formed through t h e i r formal and informal i n t e r a c t i o n s with the p o l i c e (formal in the sense that the i n t e r a c t i o n l e d to a c r i m i n a l l a b e l ) . Systematic p o l i c e s u r v e i l l a n c e and " o r d e r i n g " of the youths became instrumental i n the f o r m u l a t i o n or the reformulat i on of the youth's s e l f - i d e n t i t i e s . T h i s i d e n t i t y was r e i n f o r c e d by the youth's sense of i n j u s t i c e c h a r a c t e r i z i n g t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p s with the p o l i c e ; they suggested that the p o l i c e i n i t i a t e d most of the encounters (although the p o l i c e , of course, would suggest that i t was i n i t i a t e d by the youths' presence on the s t r e e t - i n a sense a form of " i n c o n g r u i t y procedure"). Thus very short i n c i d e n t s which might only take a minute to complete could have severe consequences f o r those i n v o l v e d , and could play a major part in s t r u c t u r i n g the f u t u r e conceptions of the p o s i t i o n i n which the youths found themselves, e s p e c i a l l y because they stood out so c l e a r l y a g a i n s t the mundane backdrops of the youths day-to-day r o u t i n e s (pp. 125-126). These i n c i d e n t s were a l s o the t o p i c of much c o n v e r s a t i o n among the youths. T h e i r h o s t i l e contact with a u t h o r i t i e s thus may be s a i d to be l a t e n t i n the s i tuat i on rather than i n the i n d i v i d u a l (pp. 139-140). The p o l i c e 199 . r e a c t i o n c o n s i s t e n t l y r e i n f o r c e d t h e y o u t h s ' s e l f - i d e n t i t y as b e i n g o u t s i d e t h e l a w ( o n e o f t h e f e w i d e n t i t i e s , G i l l p o i n t s o u t , l e f t o p e n t o t hem - i n t h i s d e p r i v e d e n v i r o n m e n t j u v e n i l e s e n j o y f e w o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r e x c i t e m e n t ) . H o s t i l i t y t o t h e p o l i c e i s one o f t h e f e w w a y s j u v e n i l e s c a n w r e n c h some g l o r y f r o m t h e i r c i r c u m s t a n c e s - t h e r e i s a s o c i a l i n c e n t i v e t o b e i n g b a d ) . D u r i n g t h e f ew s e c o n d s t h a t a p u b l i c i n c i d e n t m i g h t l a s t , b o t h b o y s a n d p o l i c e w e r e v i c t i m s o f w i d e r s t e r e o t y p e s , p r o c e s s e s a n d b e l i e f s ( p . 1 4 3 ) . A l t h o u g h t h e i n c i d e n t s w e r e b r i e f , t h e y n e v e r t h e l e s s h a d p r o f o u n d i m p a c t on s u b s e q u e n t s o c i a l i n t e r a c t i o n , b o t h b e t w e e n t h e y o u t h s , a n d b e t w e e n t h e y o u t h s a n d t h e p o l i c e . I n t h e same s e n s e t h a t t h e d e l i n q u e n t i d e n t i t y u n f o l d s , G i l l shows how a r e a i d e n t i t y e m e r g e s . I n an a n a l y s i s o f e v e n t s on " G u y F a w k e s " n i g h t , he shows how t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h i s t r a d i t i o n a l and c e r e m o n i a l n i g h t o f c o n f l i c t b e t w e e n p o l i c e a n d y o u t h s r e i n f o r c e d t h e " o u t l a w " i d e n t i t y o f t h e y o u t h s , a n d t h e i d e n t i t y o f t h e a r e a as d i s r e p u t a b l e ( p p . 1 4 6 - 1 5 8 ) . What t h e n e w s p a p e r s d e s c r i b e d f r o m an " o u t s i d e " p e r s p e c t i v e as s p o n t a n e o u s r i o t s , G i l l on t h e " i n s i d e " i n t e r p r e t s q u i t e d i f f e r e n t l y - t h e c o n f l i c t s w e r e a n t i c i p a t e d by b o t h l o c a l r e s i d e n t s a n d t h e p o l i c e . T h e c o n f l i c t was b e t w e e n t h e n e i g h b o u r h o o d a n d t h e o u t s i d e w o r l d h i g h l i g h t i n g themes o f g r o u p i d e n t i t y a n d t e r r i t o r i a l i t y ( p . 1 5 3 ) . T h e n e w s p a p e r a c c o u n t s s i m p l y s e r v e d t o e m p h a s i z e t h e " p r o b l e m " s t a t u s o f t h e C r o s s l e y n e i g h b o u r h o o d i n w h i c h L u k e S t r e e t l i e s . 2 0 0 . In general G i l l ' s Luke S t r e e t shows how " a n t i - s o c i a l " a t t i t u d e s are p a r t l y c o n s t r u c t e d i n the i n t e r a c t i o n between youths and p o l i c e . It shows how t h i s i n t e r a c t i o n i n the case of C r o s s l e y must be understood against the backdrop of housing a l l o c a t i o n p o l i c y , and i n the context of wider s o c i a l s t r u c t u r a l i s s u e s : "We can only understand the p o s i t i o n of the boys i f we go back f o r t y years to the d e c i s i o n of the l o c a l planners to cr e a t e a d i s p r o p o r t i o n a t e number of la r g e houses and f l a t s i n that part of the west end of C r o s s l e y . " (p. 185) What i s p a r t i c u l a r l y important in the context of the present d i s c u s s i o n i s that the Luke S t r e e t youths p o s i t i o n v i s -a - v i s agents of s o c i a l c o n t r o l became one of the c e n t r a l elements of t h e i r s e l f - i d e n t i t y (p. 18 6 ) . 4 While t h i s p a r t l y r e f l e c t s the p o l i c e i n t e r a c t i o n with youths that subsequently led to the p r o c e s s i n g of an i n c i d e n t as c r i m i n a l , what G i l l shows i s the importance of non-crime i n t e r a c t i o n s i n the formation of delinquent i d e n t i t i e s . To what extent may these o b s e r v a t i o n s be e x t r a p o l a t e d to other s o c i a l s i t u a t i o n s and contexts? A pparently Mawby b e l i e v e s that they can not, for he suggests that there i s no evidence that the Luke S t r e e t p a t t e r n a p p l i e s to high crime rate areas i n general rather than extremely n o t o r i o u s e s t a t e s (1979, pp. 30-31). But Mawby never r e a l l y gives adequate c o n s i d e r a t i o n to the e f f e c t s of non-crime i n c i d e n t s in general i n d e f i n i n g " n o t o r i o u s " s o c i a l groups, e f f e c t s which may be f u r t h e r obscured i f these groups are not s p a t i a l l y d i s t i n c t . 201. Examination of a d i f f e r e n t kind of r e s e a r c h l i t e r a t u r e suggests that these processes may not be r e s t r i c t e d to these extremely notor i o u s e s t a t e s . T h i s l i t e r a t u r e examines p o l i c e a c t i v i t y g e n e r a l l y rather than being r e s t r i c t e d to i t s "crime-producing" a c t i v i t y . In an a n a l y s i s of Canadian p o l i c e p a t r o l a c t i v i t y E r i c s o n (1982) o f f e r s a rather d i f f e r e n t p i c t u r e of p o l i c e p r a c t i c e s than that given by research r e s t r i c t e d to the a n a l y s i s of crime r e p o r t s . While the l a t t e r leave the reader with the impression of the p o l i c e as a l a r g e l y r e a c t i v e agency ( h o l d i n g a s i d e the problems of the r e a c t i v e / p r o a c t i v e dichotomy mentioned above) and of crime r e p o r t s as r e l a t i v e l y f r e e of p o l i c e d i s c r e t i o n a r y b i a s , E r i c s o n ' s i n t e r a c t i o n i s t a n a l y s i s produces a d i f f e r e n t understanding of the p o l i c e r o l e i n m a i n t a i n i n g s o c i a l order and i n "making" crime r a t e s , one which i s as much i n t e r e s t e d i n non-crime i n c i d e n t s as i t i s with the c r i m i n a l event. E r i c s o n d e s c r i b e s the p o l i c e as the most v i s i b l e f r o n t l i n e agents for o r d e r i n g the p o p u l a t i o n . He f o l l o w s Foucault (1977) in r e g a r d i n g them as the extreme end of a " c a r c e r a l continuum", - r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of an ever present model of j u d i c i a l l e g a l ideology. General p o l i c e p a t r o l work creates a f i x e d presence i n the community a l l o w i n g the systematic s u r v e i l l a n c e of p u b l i c , and o c c a s i o n a l l y , p r i v a t e l i f e ; "they p a t r o l with a s u s p i c i o u s eye f o r the wrong people in the wrong places at the wrong times, reproducing a ' s o c i a l p e n a l t y of time and p l a c e ' " 5 ( E r i c s o n , 1982 , p.8). 202 . Far from being unsystematic and a r b i t r a r y , E r i c s o n suggests that the focus of p o l i c e work i s based on e s t a b l i s h e d r u l e s and produces r e g u l a r r e s u l t s , and i n t h i s respect mentions the systematic nature of p o l i c e stop and search procedures which s y s t e m a t i c a l l y focus on c e r t a i n s o c i a l types. H i s a n a l y s i s i s designed to show what these r u l e s are, at what l e v e l they operate, the contexts i n which they evolve, and t h e i r formal and informal nature. Thus while l e g a l r u l e s c r e a t e a c e r t a i n k i nd of context w i t h i n which p o l i c e work takes p l a c e , t h i s context has many other dimensions and t e x t u r e s , not the l e a s t of which i s the organi zat i onal context of p o l i c i n g , and the t r a n s l a t i o n of l e g a l r u l e s i n t o p r a c t i c e w i t h i n i t . In hi s d i s c u s s i o n E r i c s o n shows how l e g a l r u l e s are e n a b l i n g for the policeman in h i s / h e r d a i l y reproduct i on of s o c i a l order, r u l e s which, as noted e a r l i e r , may o f t e n be used only as a f i n a l r e s o r t . These o b s e r v a t i o n s , remember, are based upon d i r e c t o b s e r v a t i o n of p o l i c e p a t r o l a c t i v i t y with the understanding that p o l i c e p r o a c t i v i t y i s not p a r t i c u l a r l y important in producing suspects or i n d e t e c t i n g o f f e n d e r s (1982, pp. 52-58)! But p o l i c e p r o a c t i v i t y does appear important in the p o l i c e o f f i c e r ' s attempt to ma i n t a i n or " r e c o n s t r u c t " s o c i a l order, an endeavour i n which the l a y i n g of c r i m i n a l charges may only play a secondary p a r t . P r o a c t i v e p o l i c i n g i s d i r e c t e d at lower s t a t u s c i t i z e n s i n general - those who present the g r e a t e s t (perceived) problems of p u b l i c order (1982, p. 18) and in t h i s " o r d e r i n g " of the p o p u l a t i o n the use of the c r i m i n a l s a n c t i o n i s o f t e n 203 . unnecessary. The mandate of the p a t r o l o f f i c e r thus l i e s i n m a i n t a i n i n g the boundaries of deviant enclaves and keeping the s t r e e t s c l e a r (or at l e a s t c e r t a i n s t r e e t s ) of those who are at the most " o f f e n s i v e rather than o f f e n d e r s " . P a r t i c u l a r l y i n r o u t i n e t r a f f i c stops (sometimes on p r e t e x t fo r other crime r e l a t e d i n q u i r i e s ) E r i c s o n d e s c r i b e s the process by which the p o l i c e "reproduce order" through s e l e c t i v e use of the law, but in a p r o a c t i v e sense which may c o n t r i b u t e l i t t l e to the a c t u a l c r i m i n a l s t a t i s t i c s . One must consider what the e f f e c t s of these r o u t i n e and systematic p o l i c e procedures are i n d e f i n i n g s o c i a l group statu s and p e r c e p t i o n s of the law. These o b s e r v a t i o n s of r o u t i n e p o l i c e work lead E r i c s o n to suggest that much too great an emphasis has been given to the r e a c t i v e r o l e of the p o l i c e making t h e i r a c t i v i t i e s seem more l i k e that of automatons rather than people who enact t h e i r environments as w e l l as react to them: "...we must a l s o consider the i n t e r n a l dynamics of the p o l i c e o r g a n i z a t i o n and the l e g a l o r g a n i z a t i o n w i t h i n which the p o l i c e operate. There are major l i m i t a t i o n s i n s t u d i e s which concentrate on c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the community. These s t u d i e s , f o l l o w i n g the work of R e i s s and B l a c k , tend to overemphasize the r e a c t i v e r o l e of the p o l i c e and t h e i r dependence on the p u b l i c . R e i s s and B l a c k ' s f i n d i n g s on r e a c t i v e p o l i c i n g probably r e f l e c t t h e i r sampling methods... and t h e i r model i s g e n e r a l l y one of 'stimulus-response'. Many encounters, however, are long l a s t i n g and complex, with both sides t r y i n g to coerce, manipulate, and/or n e g o t i a t e an outcome that serves p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t s " . (1982, pp. 19-20) 6 204. Manning (1979, pp. 24-26) s i m i l a r l y suggests that the s i g n i f i c a n c e of c a l l s for s e r v i c e has been exaggerated in previous r e s e a r c h . A f u r t h e r c r i t i c i s m of the r e a c t i v e / p r o a c t i v e dichotomy emerges from these o b s e r v a t i o n s , for t h i s simple d i s t i n c t i o n does not acknowledge the p o l i c e o f f i c e r ' s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of a c i t i z e n ' s complaint, or the i n t e r a c t i o n a l i n f l u e n c e of the p o l i c e o f f i c e r ' s behaviour in moulding the c i t i zen's i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of the i n c i d e n t which caused him/her to c a l l the p o l i c e i n the f i r s t p l a c e ; the meaning of what i s c o n s i d e r e d a r e a c t i v e crime report may have a l r e a d y been s t r o n g l y i n f l u e n c e d by the p o l i c e . The c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n of p o l i c e d i s c r e t i o n thus r e c e i v e s c o n s i d e r a b l e m o d i f i c a t i o n i n E r i c s o n ' s account, i l l u s t r a t i n g how a number of normative systems i n t e r a c t to form the context of p o l i c e behaviour. Because of the f i n d i n g that many p o l i c e d e c i s i o n s are only p a r t l y r e l a t e d to c r i m i n a l law (because they spend very l i t t l e time engaged in c r i m i n a l law enforcement; "Most of t h e i r time i s spent w a i t i n g or l o o k i n g for t r o u b l e " 1982, p.23), the r u l e s of p o l i c e conduct in these non-criminal i n t e r a c t i o n s become paramount. These are the " r e c i p e " r u l e s of p o l i c e p r a c t i c e - the r u l e s of a c t i o n learned on the job in the context of the p o l i c e o c c u p a t i o n a l order. Even in i n c i d e n t s which become d e f i n e d as crimes these r e c i p e r u l e s , i n t e r a c t i n g with formal l e g a l r u l e s , p o l i c e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e r u l e s and the community context in which p o l i c i n g occurs, play t h e i r part i n the outcomes of p o l i c e - c i t i z e n i n t e r a c t i o n s . 205 . Legal r u l e s and p o l i c e o r g a n i z a t i o n a l r u l e s only produce general g u i d e l i n e s by which the l i n e o f f i c e r acts ( E r i c s o n , 1982, p. 24), with r e c i p e r u l e s f o r a c t i o n h e l p i n g to f i l l i n the d e t a i l s over such matters as: when to stop on s u s p i c i o n and in what circumstances; when " o f f i c i a l paper" i s necessary as opposed to notebook r e c o r d i n g or nothing at a l l ; how to prepare " o f f i c i a l paper"; when and how to charge; how to deal with lawyers and Crown a t t o r n e y s , e t c . (1981, p. 25). "Many of the r e c i p e r u l e s are known only among the l i n e o f f i c e r s . The r u l e s of the 'law in a c t i o n ' are f u l l y known and thus p r e d i c t a b l e only to them, and not to p o l i c e a d m i n i s t r a t o r s , other c r i m i n a l c o n t r o l agents, and the p u b l i c . P a t r o l o f f i c e r s c o n t r o l the c r e a t i o n of these r u l e s , t h e i r use, and knowledge about them i n ways that fundamentally secure t h e i r power w i t h i n the o r g a n i z a t i o n a l 'order of t h i n g s ' . " (1982, p. 26) These r e c i p e r u l e s , i n p a r t , r e f l e c t a policeman's worldview of s o c i a l order, and assumptions about s o c i a l types. P a t r o l o f f i c e r s , E r i c s o n suggests, type community groups and members a c c o r d i n g to two b a s i c c r i t e r i a , t h e i r " p o l i t i c a l " and " m i n o r i t y " c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . Both r e f l e c t a group or person's support or o p p o s i t i o n to the p o l i c e . The p o l i t i c a l dimension of t h i s s t e r e o t y p i n g s e p a r a t i n g those that support the p o l i c e ( c o n s e r v a t i v e s ) from those that do not ( l i b e r a l do-gooders) i s not s p e c i f i c to any p a r t i c u l a r s o c i a l group. But, n o t i n g a general tendency for the p o l i c e to assume a "middle c l a s s view" of the world, the " m i n o r i t y " dimension of the t y p i n g i s s p e c i f i c . E r i c s o n notes a general p o l i c e d e r i s i o n of c e r t a i n e t h n i c and r a c i a l m i n o r i t i e s as w e l l as 206 . c i t i z e n s at the bottom end of s o c i e t y ' s "scheme of t h i n g s " -those who do not appear to be seeking upward s o c i a l m o b i l i t y i n a way that would i n d i c a t e t h e i r i d e n t i f i c a t i o n with the values of m i d d l e - c l a s s r e s p e c t a b i l i t y (1982, p. 66). The important point here i s that s t e r e o t y p i n g procedures are l i k e l y to produce sys t e m a t i c a t t e n t i o n to c e r t a i n s o c i a l groups. T h i s s t e r e o t y p i n g system i s c o n s i s t e n t with the kind of o b s e r v a t i o n s made by Matza and other American r e s e a r c h e r s . But w h i l e at f i r s t s i g h t they may only m i n i m a l l y i n f l u e n c e the bias of p o l i c e s t a t i s t i c s , they may be importantly c o n s e q u e n t i a l i n the d e f i n i t i o n of groups w i t h i n the s o c i a l order and i n the p r o d u c t i o n of the crime that the s t a t i s t i c s measure. Thus t r a f f i c checks, which are not c o n s i d e r e d i n s t u d i e s f o c u s i n g e x c l u s i v e l y on crime i n c i d e n t s , are important a c t i o n s w i t h i n the p u b l i c order mandate of p a t r o l p o l i c i n g even i f they do not end up on the r e c o r d . These stops are mostly p r o a c t i v e , and o f t e n i n v o l v e d e t e n t i o n of c i t i z e n s f o r extensive i n v e s t i g a t i v e checks. S i x t y - f i v e percent of a l l c i t i z e n contacts with p o l i c e observed by E r i c s o n and h i s team of r e s e a r c h e r s came as a r e s u l t of t r a f f i c checks, a v i t a l part of o r d e r i n g the s t r e e t s . While these non-crime i n t e r a c t i o n s may be important in informal group l a b e l l i n g and i d e n t i t y they may not have an e c o l o g i c a l foundation apart from the " i n c o n g r u i t y procedure", the appearance of being s o c i a l l y , and sometimes s p a t i a l l y , "out of p l a c e " . There i s a l s o the q u e s t i o n of the c o m p a t i b i l i t y of Canadian, American and B r i t i s h r e s e a r c h i n t o p o l i c e 207 . p r a c t i c e s . Mawby uses B r i t i s h , and E r i c s o n Canadian evidence, to evaluate American theory and e m p i r i c a l r e s e a r c h . My own experience - which may not be r e p r e s e n t a t i v e - suggests that B r i t i s h p o l i c e do not use t r a f f i c stops as e x t e n s i v e l y as Canadian and American p o l i c e . Mawby's work i n S h e f f i e l d i s problematic because i t does not t e s t the two most important dimensions of p o l i c e d i s c r e t i o n mentioned i n American s t u d i e s -race and c l a s s . N e v e r t h e l e s s when taken together the s t u d i e s of E r i c s o n and G i l l do suggest that there i s much more to the qu e s t i o n of the p o l i c e i n f l u e n c e on crime-rates than the l i t e r a t u r e s t r e s s i n g the importance of p u b l i c r e p o r t i n g i n d i c a t e s . For E r i c s o n , the p o l i c e are not simply r e a c t i n g to c i t i z e n s ' c a l l s for s e r v i c e , but have great i n t e r p r e t a t i v e l a t i t u d e w i t h i n the context of those c a l l s : "In o r d e r i n g t h e i r l i v e s , and the l i v e s of oth e r s , they can choose to ignore p o s s i b l e c r i m i n a l law v i o l a t i o n s , charge some persons and not ot h e r s , charge for p a r t i c u l a r things and not o t h e r s , and produce some f a c t s w h ile i g n o r i n g o t h e r s . These d e c i s i o n s fundamentally a f f e c t what becomes o f f i c i a l l y known as p o l i c e b u s i n e s s . " P o l i c e d i s c r e t i o n as understood by E r i c s o n i n the context of o r g a n i z a t i o n a l p r e r o g a t i v e s , may serve to d e f i n e "problem" groups i n a more general sense than i s the case with G i l l ' s a n a l y s i s of e c o l o g i c a l l a b e l l i n g processes. G i l l ' s a n a l y s i s shows how the development of area based s u b c u l t u r e s r e f l e c t s o c i a l p o l i c y and a l l o c a t i o n procedures and how crime c o n t r o l a c t i v i t i e s serve to am p l i f y crime. E r i c s o n ' s a n a l y s i s shows how p o l i c e p r a c t i c e s may have a more general e f f e c t i n d e f i n i n g 208 . c e r t a i n types of people as p r o b l e m a t i c , and the i n d i r e c t e f f e c t t h i s may have on the c o n f i g u r a t i o n of o f f i c i a l crime s t a t i s t i c s i f such s t e r e o t y p i n g procedures s i m i l a r l y serve to amplify cr ime. To t h i s p o i n t the argument over the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of crime s t a t i s t i c s has almost come f u l l c i r c l e . In chapter 5 the d i s c u s s i o n began with the c l a i m made by authors i n the s o c i o l o g y of deviance l i t e r a t u r e that p o l i c e d i s c r e t i o n was r e s p o n s i b l e f o r the c o n f i g u r a t i o n of crime r a t e s . Subsequently a number of authors have pointed out that p o l i c e d i s c r e t i o n i s only s i g n i f i c a n t in p r o a c t i v e i n v e s t i g a t i o n s , and that because most i n v e s t i g a t i o n s are r e a c t i v e l y generated, the e f f e c t of p o l i c e d i s c r e t i o n on crime s t a t i s t i c s i s minimal. I have suggested that both p o s i t i o n s do not s u f f i c i e n t l y consider the impact of d i s c r e t i o n a r y p r a c t i c e s i n the " o r d e r i n g " mandate of p o l i c e work, and that p o l i c e a c t i v i t y may i n d i r e c t l y "produce" c r i m i n a l i t y which i s subsequently rep o r t e d by the p u b l i c . We have thus returned to the idea that p o l i c e a c t i v i t y does i n f l u e n c e crime r a t e s . What t h i s means i s that the problem of i n t e r p r e t i n g o f f i c i a l s t a t i s t i c s and p o l i c e impact on crime rates i s not simply a matter of whether i t i s the p u b l i c or the p o l i c e who report a crime. The r e l a t i o n s h i p between crime and c o n t r o l i s much more s u b t l e , e s p e c i a l l y i n terms of a s s e s s i n g the impact of c o n t r o l p r a c t i c e s on crime p a t t e r n s . So f a r the argument has developed round the p r o p o s i t i o n that informal p o l i c e a c t i v i t y may help to d e f i n e s u b c u l t u r a l groups, and suggested how, through the process of e c o l o g i c a l 209 . l a b e l l i n g , c e r t a i n of these s u b c u l t u r e s are area-based. To t h i s p o i n t the d i s c u s s i o n of p o l i c e d i s c r e t i o n has focused on the decision-making of the p o l i c e l i n e o f f i c e r . The d i s c u s s i o n proceeds by c o n s i d e r i n g a second dimension of the e f f e c t of c o n t r o l p r a c t i c e s i n moulding a c t u a l p a t t e r n s of c r i m i n a l behaviour. T h i s concerns p o l i c e decision-making at an a d m i n i s t r a t i v e l e v e l , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n terms of how and where to deploy p o l i c e p a t r o l s . We have a l r e a d y seen i n G i l l ' s a n a l y s i s how p o l i c e o f f i c i a l s responded to " t r o u b l e " in C r o s s l e y by a s s i g n i n g e x t r a manpower to the area. But the argument that t h i s t a c t i c may have a m p l i f i e d problems i n C r o s s l e y i s not to suggest that p o l i c e p r a c t i c e s always amplify crime. In other s i t u a t i o n s p o l i c e p r a c t i c e s and manpower a l l o c a t i o n procedures may deter or suppress crime, or they may change the p a t t e r n of i t s i n c i d e n c e . To t h i s extent a geography of p o l i c i n g may sometimes be necessary for the e x p l a n a t i o n of crime p a t t e r n s . In e x p l o r i n g t h i s p o s s i b i l i t y the d i s c u s s i o n i s d i v i d e d i n t o two p a r t s : the f i r s t part c o n s i d e r s the e f f e c t of i n t r a j u r i s d i c t i o n a l d i f f e r e n c e s of p o l i c e p a t r o l deployment on crime rates and p a t t e r n s ; the second part c o n s i d e r s the e f f e c t s of i n t e r j u r i s d i c t i o n a l d i f f e r e n c e s i n l e v e l s of p o l i c i n g on crime r a t e s and p a t t e r n s . 2 1 0 . P o l i c e P a t r o l and Crime Rate P a t t e r n s 1. I n t r a j u r i s d i c t i o n a l E f f e c t s H a r r i e s notes that the r e l a t i o n s h i p between i n t e n s i t y of law enforcement and l e v e l s of crime has a t t r a c t e d a f a i r l y s u b s t a n t i a l l i t e r a t u r e (1980, .p. 63) but the l i t e r a t u r e he c i t e s deals l a r g e l y with the impact of uniform p a t r o l deployment on crime r a t e s , and thus g e n e r a l l y on p a t r o l s t r a t e g y rather than on the nature of d i s c r e t i o n a r y b i a s : Press (1971) ; Swimmer (1974) ; T i t t l e and Rowe (1974); W e l l f o r d (1974); and Pogue (1975) , on the r e l a t i o n between p a t r o l i n t e n s i t y and crime r a t e s ; and Larson (1972); E l l i o t (1973); Sweeney and E l l i n g s w o r t h (1973); and Chaiken (1975) , on the " o p e r a t i o n a l environment" of law enforcement. An examination of t h i s p o l i c e s c i e n c e l i t e r a t u r e shows that l i t t l e consensus of o p i n i o n has been reached concerning the e f f e c t of p a t r o l deployment on crime r a t e s . A comparison of the f i n d i n g s of two d i f f e r e n t s t u d i e s of changes i n p a t r o l deployment w i l l serve to suggest that no d e f i n i t i v e statements about these r e l a t i o n s h i p s can be warranted without f u r t h e r c a r e f u l e m p i r i c a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n . P o l i c e p a t r o l s t r a t e g i e s have been based on two unproven but w i d e l y accepted hypotheses a c c o r d i n g to the P o l i c e Foundation study (1977) . F i r s t , that v i s i b l e p o l i c e presence prevents crime by d e t e r r i n g p o t e n t i a l o f f e n d e r s ; and second, that the p u b l i c ' s fear of crime i s diminished by such p o l i c e 211. presence. The fear of crime has been an emerging theme in the c r i m i n o l o g i c a l l i t e r a t u r e r e c e n t l y . S p r i n g e r ' s work (1974), i s unusual to the extent that he u t i l i z e s a g eographical p e r s p e c t i v e to throw l i g h t on t h i s problem. A l s o Ley's, (1974) " s t r e s s topography" map of Monroe, a P h i l a d e l p h i a neighbourhood, i s generated from a q u e s t i o n n a i r e mainly designed to measure p e r c e i v e d crime danger. Between October 1st, 1972 and September 30th, 1973, the Kansas C i t y P o l i c e Department conducted an experiment to measure the impact of r o u t i n e p r e v e n t a t i v e p a t r o l on the i n c i d e n c e of crime and the p u b l i c fear of crime. The experimenters concluded that " t r a d i t i o n a l r o u t i n e p r e v e n t a t i v e p a t r o l had no s i g n i f i c a n t impact on e i t h e r the l e v e l of crime or the p u b l i c ' s f e e l i n g of s e c u r i t y . " In the experiment three types of p a t r o l areas were designated. In one, the r e a c t i v e type, there was no r o u t i n e p r e v e n t a t i v e p a t r o l - o f f i c e r s only entered one of these areas i n response to a c i t i z e n c a l l for a s s i s t a n c e . In the second, the p r o a c t i v e type, p o l i c e v i s i b i l i t y was i n c r e a s e d by two to three times i t s usual l e v e l . In the t h i r d type of area the usual p a t r o l was maintained. In summarizing the f i n d i n g s t h i r t e e n p o i n t s were made suggesti n g that no s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s could be found between the areas i n terms of such measures as a v i c t i m i z a t i o n study of the areas, departmental crime r e p o r t i n g , a r r e s t p a t t e r n s , community a t t i t u d e s to the p o l i c e , p r o t e c t i v e 212. s e c u r i t y measures taken by the p u b l i c , t r a f f i c a c c i d e n t s , and p o l i c e response times in answering c a l l s for s e r v i c e . Let us compare these f i n d i n g s to those of a New York experiment conducted some twenty years e a r l i e r . "Operation 25" had among i t s v a r i o u s goals the p u r e l y experimental purpose of determining what would c o n s t i t u t e adequate p o l i c i n g i n a busy New York p r e c i n c t ( F i c k l i n , 1970). The experiment began on September 1st and concluded on December 31st, 1954. It was an example of what has been termed s a t u r a t i o n p a t r o l , but a l s o i n c l u d e d establishment of a s p e c i a l J u v e n i l e A i d Bureau, a s p e c i a l N a r c o t i c s Squad, i n c r e a s e s i n the r e g u l a r p r e c i n c t d e t e c t i v e squad and in t r a f f i c and emergency s e r v i c e p e r s o n n e l . The p r e c i n c t chosen was d e s c r i b e d as a "crime-r i d d e n urban area" (p. 342) c o n t a i n i n g a mixed p o p u l a t i o n of more than 120,000 persons of whom roughly two t h i r d s were non-white. P r i o r to the experiment the uniformed f o r c e i n c l u d e d 188 patrolmen. By importing p r o b a t i o n a r y patrolmen d i r e c t l y upon gra d u a t i o n from the P o l i c e Academy, t h i s number was i n c r e a s e d to 440. In p l a c e of f i f t e e n sergeants for s u p e r v i s i o n of p a t r o l there were t h i r t y - t h r e e , f i v e c a p t a i n s in place of one, and an a d d i t i o n a l Deputy Inspector assigned to s u p e r v i s e the o p e r a t i o n . Instead of 27 men being turned out f o r one tour of foot and r a d i o p a t r o l duty, the experimental f o r c e numbered 99. The p r e c i n c t ' s d e t e c t i v e squad was a l s o strengthened by the a d d i t i o n of two sergeants, eleven d e t e c t i v e s , and eight patrolmen to the e x i s t i n g t h i r t y - t h r e e man u n i t . Besides 213. c r e a t i o n of a N a r c o t i c s Squad, a f u r t h e r t a s k - f o r c e was c o n s t i t u t e d to i n v e s t i g a t e v i c e , gambling and l i q u o r - l a w v i o l a t i o n s ( F i c k l i n , 1970, pp. 343-346). R e s u l t s of the experiment were claimed as dramatic. During the experiment only 488 f e l o n i e s were reported compared to 1102 for the same four month p e r i o d a year e a r l i e r , a decrease of 55.6 percent. Importantly, i n New York as a whole, there was only a 4.7% d e c l i n e i n the same p e r i o d . The number of misdemeanors a c t u a l l y rose, but the authors hide t h i s f a c t by s u g g e s t i n g that the t o t a l number of crime complaints, both f e l o n i e s and misdemeanors, d e c l i n e d by 27.5%, or from 1757 to 1273. T h i s s t a t i s t i c a l p l oy helps to mask an increase by averaging i t away; misdemeanor complaints rose from 655 to 749. And the important i m p l i c a t i o n t h i s has for our d i s c u s s i o n of crime rates i s that t h i s i n c r e a s e may represent a b e t t e r apprehension rate rather than a change in s o c i a l behaviour. T h i s c e r t a i n l y was the case with the i n c i d e n c e of d i s o r d e r l y conduct, dangerous weapons, and n a r c o t i c o f f e n c e s , those which are almost always recorded as the r e s u l t of p o l i c e i n s t i g a t e d a c t i o n . S i m i l a r l y j u v e n i l e r e f e r r a l s i n creased d r a m a t i c a l l y from 135 in the e q u i v a l e n t four month p e r i o d i n 1953 to 372 d u r i n g the experimental p e r i o d . Summonses for t r a f f i c o f f ences a l s o showed an o v e r a l l i n c r e a s e ( F i c k l i n , pp. 344-348). In n o t i n g the impact of O p e r a t i o n 25 i n reducing c e r t a i n crime l e v e l s Lohn F i c k l i n concludes O p e r a t i o n 25 was, i n essence, a p r a c t i c a l t e s t of p o l i c e theory, the theory being that an adequate p o l i c e f o r c e p r o p e r l y s u p e r v i s e d can e f f e c t i v e l y reduce crime and m a i n t a i n law and 214. order, peace, and s e c u r i t y i n an area of any k i n d . The experiment...was an u n q u a l i f i e d success. (1970, p. 351) Compare t h i s statement to that made by The P o l i c e Foundation, from an a p p a r e n t l y impressive l i s t of the n o n - e f f e c t s of p a t r o l d i f f e r e n t i a l s . The Kansas C i t y experimenters were moved to making some extravagant c l a i m s : The experiment (showed) that r o u t i n e p r e v e n t a t i v e p a t r o l i n marked p o l i c e cars has l i t t l e value in p r e v e n t i n g crime or i n making c i t i z e n s f e e l safe...The r e s u l t s of the p r e v e n t a t i v e p a t r o l experiment...repudiated a t r a d i t i o n p r e v a i l i n g i n p o l i c e work for almost 150 years...(making i t ) necessary to develop v i a b l e a l t e r n a t i v e s to the obsolescent concept of p r e v e n t a t i v e p a t r o l . (1977, pp. 118-119) U n f o r t u n a t e l y the experiments are not s t r i c t l y comparable to the extent that the Kansas C i t y study only concerned p r e v e n t a t i v e uniform p a t r o l . But t h i s d i f f e r e n c e i s not s u f f i c i e n t to e x p l a i n t h e i r d i a m e t r i c a l l y opposed f i n d i n g s . A l s o , the Kansas C i t y study i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a s e r i o u s m e t h o d o l o g i c a l flaw, one which makes i t s f i n d i n g s problematic; in the process of a s s e s s i n g the e f f e c t s of changing p a t r o l d e n s i t i e s , no members of the p u b l i c were asked i f they p e r c e i v e d these changes in p o l i c e a l l o c a t i o n . If they d i d not, i t i s h a r d l y s u r p r i s i n g that crime rates d i d not r e f l e c t experimental changes in p a t r o l d e n s i t y . The issue i s complicated by the p o s s i b i l i t y of a t i m e - l a g between p a t r o l d e n s i t y change, p e r c e p t i o n of that change, and i t s subsequent impact on c r i m i n a l a c t i v i t y . The problem i s that i f something is not p e r c e i v e d as r e a l , i t may not to be r e a l i n i t s 215. consequences. In a d d i t i o n some of the p a t r o l / n o p a t r o l areas were so small that change in p a t r o l a l l o c a t i o n would not be n o t i c e a b l e . S ince p o l i c e responded to c a l l s f o r serve in the no p a t r o l areas, in marked c a r s , no area was a c t u a l l y without v i s i b l e p a t r o l . On top of a l l of t h i s one has to i n c o r p o r a t e the v a r i o u s arguments d e s c r i b e d in chapter 5 concerning the impact of d i s c r e t i o n a r y b i a s - the e f f e c t of p o l i c e bias i s n e c e s s a r i l y r e l a t e d to p o l i c e p a t r o l i n t e n s i t y . The New York C i t y study a c t u a l l y provides evidence demonstrating t h i s rather obvious r e l a t i o n s h i p d e s p i t e the r e s e a r c h e r s ' attempts to s e l e c t evidence which showed that crime decreases as p o l i c e d e n s i t y i n c r e a s e s . And where the authors d i d show that c r i m i n a l a c t i v i t y decreased, the p o s s i b i l i t y that i t was simply d i s p l a c e d to another area was not e n t e r t a i n e d . With the e x c e p t i o n of the recent work on crime " s p i l l o v e r " (Hakim and Rengert, 1981), geographers have tended to g l o s s over the general c o n f u s i o n i s s u i n g from such s t u d i e s by a v o i d i n g any systematic c o n s i d e r a t i o n of p o l i c e p a t r o l deployment on l e v e l s of crime. The general assumption a p p a r e n t l y g u i d i n g the geography of crime i s that p a t t e r n s of p a t r o l deployment have l i t t l e e f f e c t . C a r t e r and H i l l , for example, suggest that t h e i r f i n d i n g s i n C r i m i n a l s ' Images of Urban Areas (1979) are c o n s i s t e n t with the p o s i t i o n emerging from the Kansas C i t y study that d i f f e r e n t methods of employing p o l i c e p a t r o l f o r c e s r e s u l t e d i n no s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s i n subsequent crime l e v e l s ( P o l i c e Foundation, 1977). While t h i s c o n c l u s i o n i s " v e r y convenient for the 216. i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of crime r a t e maps, the evidence f o r the c o n f i r m a t i o n of the Kansas C i t y f i n d i n g s i s rather s l i m . C a r t e r and H i l l i n comparing p e r c e p t i o n s of " c r i m i n a l s " and " n o n - c r i m i n a l s " note that both groups a s s o c i a t e d " s t r o n g p o l i c e p r o t e c t i o n " with "low crime i n c i d e n c e " , but that " c r i m i n a l s " do not a s s o c i a t e "hard marks" ( i . e . d i f f i c u l t t a r g e t s ) as s t r o n g l y as n o n - c r i m i n a l s with " s t r o n g p o l i c e p r o t e c t i o n " . In that they do not, i t appears that some c r i m i n a l s are not very concerned about l e v e l s of p o l i c i n g i n t h e i r choice of t a r g e t s , and i n turn, that l e v e l s of p o l i c i n g presumably do not i n f l u e n c e l e v e l s of crime. But i f t h i s i s so, why would C a r t e r and H i l l ' s c r i m i n a l s a s s o c i a t e low cri m e - r a t e s with strong p o l i c e p r o t e c t i o n ? And appa r e n t l y c r i m i n a l s do a s s o c i a t e hard marks with st r o n g p o l i c e p r o t e c t i o n , j u s t not as s t r o n g l y as non-c r i m i n a l s . Taken i n t h i s l i g h t , C a r t e r and H i l l ' s f i n d i n g s seem to be c o n s i s t e n t with the f i n d i n g s of Opera t i o n 25! One u s e f u l i n s i g h t for the geography of crime to emerge from these c o n t r a d i c t o r y f i n d i n g s i s that the importance of p a t r o l and enforcment s t r a t e g i e s i n the c o n f i g u r a t i o n of crime rates cannot be dismissed. A f i n a l anecdote serves to s t r e s s the p o t e n t i a l importance of enforcement d i f f e r e n t i a l s . Donald Rumbelow, i n I Spy Blue (1971), i l l u s t r a t e s some of the consequences of the piecemeal implementation of p o l i c e patrol.** He suggests young thieves went to great lengths to avoid n i n e t e e n t h century London's C i t y Day P o l i c e , formerly the C i t y P a t r o l , founded i n 1784. The movement of young thieves from Whitechapel to Al d g a t e occurred 217. at 8 o'clock when the Day P o l i c e went o f f duty. But the establishment of p a t r o l s was piecemeal. The S o l i c i t o r - G e n e r a l of that time noted the success of c e r t a i n p a t r o l s when he introduced to Parliament the London and Westminster P o l i c e B i l l . He proposed a s i m i l a r plan; "but to extend g e n e r a l l y to every part of the town, and i t s environs; f o r i f i t were to be c o n f i n e d to the heart of the c i t y , i t would d r i v e the robbers to the o u t - s k i r t s , and i f i t were only to be a p p l i e d in the o u t - s k i r t s , i t would b r i n g them a l l to the c e n t r e . " (1971, p. 104) Rumbelow o f f e r s an example of t h i s e f f e c t c r e a t e d by the s t r u c t u r e of the j u r i s d i c t i o n a l boundaries of the v a r i o u s p a t r o l s . The formation of the New P o l i c e o u t s i d e the C i t y of London may have caused an i n c r e a s e of c r i m i n a l a c t i v i t y w i t h i n the c i t y . A c i t y watchman of that time suggested that an i n c r e a s e of "bad c h a r a c t e r s " had occurred on h i s beat. Moreover "when there was a q u a r r e l among them the other n i g h t , a policeman came up and drove them through the Bar, s a y i n g , 'Ye shant stand here; go i n t o the C i t y with you rows!' S i r Peter L a u r i e s a i d that he had heard that a p o l i c e m a g i s t r a t e had d i r e c t e d the policeman to d r i v e a l l bad c h a r a c t e r s i n t o the C i t y . If there was any t r u t h in t h i s , i t was an imprudent -an improper o b s e r v a t i o n . He d e s i r e d the watchman present to d r i v e a l l the bad c h a r a c t e r s out of the C i t y i n s t e a d of apprehending them in f u t u r e . 'We can play at t e n n i s - b a l l , ' s a i d the Alderman in an under tone." (Quoted in Rumbelow, 1971, p. 114) While t h i s example serves to i l l u s t r a t e the p o t e n t i a l e f f e c t of p a t r o l deployment on p a t t e r n s of c r i m i n a l a c t i v i t y , i t a l s o r a i s e s the next t o p i c of concern, the e f f e c t of 218 . i n t e r j u r i s d i c t i o n a l d i f f e r e n c e s i n l e v e l s o f p o l i c i n g on c r i m e p a t t e r n s . I n t h e c a s e o f t h e New P o l i c e , j u r i s d i c t i o n a l d i f f e r e n c e s w e r e r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e p i e c e m e a l i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f p a t r o l s w i t h t h e r e s u l t t h a t a d a p t a t i o n s o f c r i m i n a l a c t i v i t y a p p e a r s t o h a v e r e l o c a t e d i t t o a r e a s a n d t i m e s when p o l i c e p a t r o l s w e r e a b s e n t . T h e q u e s t i o n now becomes w h e t h e r c r i m i n a l b e h a v i o u r a d a p t s t o l e s s o b v i o u s i n t e r j u r i s d i c t i o n a l d i f f e r e n c e s i n p o l i c i n g , a p r o b l e m t a k e n up b y t h e r e c e n t r e s e a r c h on w h a t has b e e n t e r m e d " c r i m e s p i l l o v e r " . I n t e r j u r i s d i c t i o n a l E f f e c t s : P o l i c i n g a n d C r i m e S p i l l o v e r T h e t e r m " c r i m e s p i l l o v e r " ha s b e e n u s e d i n g e n e r a l t o d e s c r i b e i n t e r j u r i s d i c t i o n a l " e x t e r n a l i t i e s " w i t h r e f e r e n c e t o t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f l e v e l s o f p o l i c i n g o r t o d i f f e r e n t i a l s i n t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f c r i m i n a l o p p o r t u n i t i e s ( H a k i m a n d R e n g e r t , 1 9 8 1 , p . 1 4 ) . F o r t h e m o s t p a r t t h e l i t e r a t u r e ha s c o n c e n t r a t e d on t h e s p i l l o v e r o f c r i m i n a l a c t i v i t y i n r e s p o n s e t o " m e c h a n i c a l " l a w e n f o r c e m e n t o r c r i m e p r e v e n t i o n p r o g r a m s ( m e c h a n i c a l i n t h e s e n s e t h a t t h e y a r e d i r e c t e d t o w a r d s r e d u c i n g c r i m i n a l o p p o r t u n i t i e s o r i n c r e a s i n g t h e r i s k t o t h e o f f e n d e r ) , o r t o t h e way i n w h i c h c r i m e r a t e s a r e s t a t i s t i c a l l y r e l a t e d t o i n t e r c o m m u n i t y d i f f e r e n c e s i n p o l i c i n g , f o r i t i s s u g g e s t e d t h a t i n c r e a s e s i n l o c a l manpower may i n c r e a s e t h e c r i m e r a t e i n n e i g h b o u r i n g j u r i s d i c t i o n s . I n t e r c o m m u n i t y d i f f e r e n c e s i n p o l i c i n g a r e m e a s u r e d e i t h e r i n t e r m s o f 2 1 9 . e x p e n d i t u r e s on p o l i c e ( M e h a y , 1 9 7 7 ; H a k i m e t a l , 1 9 7 9 ) o r a r r e s t r a t e s ( F a b r i k a n t , 1 9 7 9 ) . W h i l e t h e s p i l l o v e r l i t e r a t u r e i s c l o s e l y r e l a t e d t o a t t e m p t s a t a s s e s s i n g t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f p a t r o l s t r a t e g i e s , i t i s p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t e r e s t i n g b e c a u s e i t a t t e m p t s t o a s s e s s t h e e f f e c t o f p o l i c i n g on c h a n g e s i n p a t t e r n s o f c r i m i n a l a c t i v i t y . T h e p o l i c e p a t r o l l i t e r a t u r e i s l e s s u s e f u l i n t h i s r e s p e c t , f o r e v a l u a t i o n s o f p a t r o l s t r a t e g i e s h a v e g e n e r a l l y i g n o r e d t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t i n a c h i e v i n g t h e r e d u c t i o n o f c r i m e r a t e s i n one a r e a , c r i m e s may s i m p l y be d i s p l a c e d t o o t h e r a r e a s ( M c l v e r , 1 9 8 1 , p . 3 2 ) . S u c h d i s p l a c e m e n t has b e e n t e r m e d a f o r m o f s p i l l o v e r by H a k i m a n d R e n g e r t ( 1 9 8 1 ) , b u t m o s t o f t h e s p i l l o v e r l i t e r a t u r e ( i n c l u d i n g t h e p a p e r s i n t h e v o l u m e e d i t e d by H a k i m a n d R e n g e r t , 1 9 8 1 ) e x a m i n e s t h e e f f e c t o f p o l i c e a c t i v i t y m o r e g e n e r a l l y r a t h e r t h a n f o c u s i n g on p a r t i c u l a r p a t r o l s t r a t e g i e s . A n d i t d o e s so i n o r d e r t o e v a l u a t e t h e s p a t i a l c o n s e q u e n c e s o f p o l i c e a c t i v i t y . 9 T h e b a l a n c e o f t h e e v i d e n c e s u g g e s t s t h a t i n t e r j u r i s d i c t i o n a l v a r i a t i o n s i n l e v e l s o f p o l i c i n g do i n f l u e n c e c r i m e r a t e s ( f o r d i s c u s s i o n see M c l v e r , 1 9 8 1 ) . M e h a y ( 1 9 7 7 ) s u g g e s t s t h a t c r i m e r a t e s a r e r e l a t e d t o i n t e r c o m m u n i t y d i f f e r e n c e s i n p o l i c e m a n p o w e r ; i n c r e a s e s i n l o c a l manpower i n c r e a s e t h e p r o p e r t y c r i m e r a t e ( b u t n o t t h e v i o l e n t c r i m e r a t e ) i n n e i g h b o u r i n g j u r i s d i c t i o n s . D e u t s c h e t a l ( 1 9 7 9 ) a r g u e t h a t p o l i c e a c t i v i t y l e v e l s d i s p l a c e c r i m e f r o m t h e s u b u r b s t o t h e c e n t r a l c i t y o f A t l a n t a . F a b r i k a n t ( 1 9 7 9 ) , f r o m an a n a l y s i s o f p o l i c e r e c o r d s o f j u v e n i l e o f f e n d e r s , f o u n d t h a t 220 . di f ferent arrest rates c l e a r l y affect the locat ion of juveni le robberies . Hakim et al give evidence of a s p i l l o v e r of auto theft and r e s i d e n t i a l burglary in an i n t e r j u r i s d i c t i o n a l analysis of po l i ce e f forts (as measured by pol ice expenditures per capita) and crime rates . But in contrast to this l i s t of f indings McPheters and Stronge (1981), in a study of s p i l l o v e r in the Boston metropol i tan area, conclude that the influence of neighbouring enforcement a c t i v i t y on loca l crime may be n e g l i g i b l e (Mclver, 1981). Although the methodological approach of these studies is l imi ted to the extent that they general ly use cross - sec t iona l as opposed to t ime-series data (Mehay, 1981, p. 79) the weight of the evidence suggests that control a c t i v i t i e s do play a part in s t ruc tur ing patterns of cr iminal a c t i v i t y . S i m i l a r l y the discuss ion of eco log ica l l a b e l l i n g , of general po l ice d i scre t ionary pract ices in ordering the s tree ts , and the possible displacement of cr iminal a c t i v i t y associated with po l ice patro l deployment has suggested that control a c t i v i t e s do help to shape the spa t ia l expression of i l l e g a l behaviour. The concept of displacement is p a r t i c u l a r l y in teres t ing in the context of the present discuss ion because i t meets the theore t i ca l requirements for an integrated geographic analysis of crime and c o n t r o l . The empirical s ign i f i cance of displacement phenomena has been c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y associated with crime prevention s tra teg ies , p a r t i c u l a r l y as a consequence of environmental design programs. In keeping with this general approach, Hakim and Rengert r e s t r i c t the term displacement to 221. crime s p i l l o v e r a s s o c i a t e d with p r e v e n t i o n programs (1981, Ch. 1). In Chapter 7, I suggest that the displacement concept can be extended to cover a much wider range of e f f e c t s , and g e n e r a l l y serve as one e f f e c t i v e u n i f y i n g theme f o r an i n t e g r a t e d geography of crime and c o n t r o l . The subsequent d i s c u s s i o n , and the research v i g n e t t e s presented in chapters eig h t and nine, serve to demonstrate the e m p i r i c a l and t h e o r e t i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e of displacement phenomena. 222 . N o t e s t o C h a p t e r 6 1. S e e R u b i n g t o n ' s C i t y P o l i c e ( 1 9 7 3 ) f o r p l e n t i f u l e v i d e n c e o f p o l i c e u s e o f i n c o n g r u i t y p r o c e d u r e s . 2 . P o l i c e h a r a s s m e n t o f b l a c k y o u t h s i s an a b i d i n g c o m p l a i n t o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s ' b l a c k p o p u l a t i o n - s e e , f o r e x a m p l e , L e y ( 1 9 7 4 ) who d e v e l o p s a " s t r e s s i n d e x " f o r M o n r o e , an i n n e r c i t y P h i l a d e l p h i a n e i g h b o u r h o o d . T h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e on w h i c h t h e s t r e s s i n d e x i s b a s e d i n c l u d e s a q u e s t i o n on p o l i c e h a r a s s m e n t . 3 . I n t h e g e o g r a p h i c l i t e r a t u r e G r a y ' s ( 1 9 7 6 ) s t u d y o f p u b l i c h o u s i n g a l l o c a t i o n p r o c e d u r e s i n t e r m s o f t h e l a b e l l i n g o f p e o p l e and e s t a t e s i s r e l e v a n t h e r e . 4 . I n a p e r s o n a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n r e f e r i n g t o h i s i n n e r c i t y n e i g h b o u r h o o d s t u d y o f M o n r o e , D a v i d L e y has n o t e d t h a t t h e l o c a l P h i l a d e l p h i a news m e d i a r e f r a i n f r o m r e p o r t i n g t h e names o f g a n g s i n t h e i r c r i m e s t o r i e s p r e c i s e l y b e c a u s e g a n g s a n d g a n g members a c h i e v e s t a t u s by m a k i n g t h e n e w s . S o m e t i m e s g a n g a c t i v i t i e s may become so p r o b l e m a t i c t h a t an i n d i v i d u a l c a s e - w o r k e r i s a s s i g n e d t o a p a r t i c u l a r g a n g m e m b e r s h i p . I r o n i c a l l y t h i s r e s p o n s e t o t h e p r o b l e m b e h a v i o u r o f t h e g a n g a c t u a l l y e n h a n c e s t h e i r s t a t u s ( f r o m t h e i r p o i n t o f v i e w ) . 5 . T h e q u o t a t i o n i s t a k e n f r o m F o u c a u l t ( 1 9 7 7 ) . 6 . F o r a g e n e r a l d i s c u s s i o n o f t h i s theme s e e c h a p t e r s 2 a n d 4 i n R e p r o d u c i n g O r d e r ( 1 9 8 2 ) . 7 . P r e s s ( 1 9 7 1 ) , t h e P o l i c e F o u n d a t i o n ( 1 9 7 4 ) , C h a i k e n e t a l ( 1 9 7 4 ) a n d t h e H a r t f o r d I n s t i t u t e o f C r i m i n a l a n d S o c i a l J u s t i c e ( 1 9 7 9 ) a l l r e p o r t t h e p o s s i b l e d i s p l a c e m e n t o f c r i m i n a l a c t i v i t y , b u t none o f f e r s u n q u a l i f i e d e v i d e n c e o f s u c h e f f e c t s ( M c l v e r , 1 9 8 1 , p . 3 2 ) . I n c o n t r a s t Dahmann ( 1 9 7 5 ) a n d S c h n e l l e e t a l ( 1 9 7 5 , 1 9 7 7 ) r e p o r t no d i s p l a c e m e n t o f c r i m i n a l a c t s a f t e r p o l i c e manpower l e v e l s w e r e a l t e r e d . 8 . My t h a n k s t o D r . P a u l B r a n t i n g h a m f o r b r i n g i n g t h i s e x a m p l e t o my a t t e n t i o n . 9 . M o s t o f t h e l i t e r a t u r e i s w r i t t e n by e c o n o m i s t s ; e i g h t o f t h e e l e v e n a u t h o r s c o n t r i b u t i n g t o t h e H a k i m a n d R e n g e r t v o l u m e ( 1 9 8 1 ) a r e e c o n o m i s t s . B u t R e n g e r t i s a g e o g r a p h e r , a n d one who a c k n o w l e d g e s t h e a n a l y t i c l i n k b e t w e e n c r i m e a n d c o n t r o l . 223 . Chapter 7 Crime P r e v e n t i o n , Crime C o n t r o l and Displacement Phenomena; Towards an Inte g r a t e d Geography of Crime and J u s t i c e . The Displacement Concept The concept of displacement of phenomena was f i r s t i n t r oduced to c r i m i n o l o g y i n connection with mechanical crime c o n t r o l s t r a t e g i e s . Thomas Reppetto (1976) o f f e r e d the f i r s t s y s tematic d i s c u s s i o n of displacement by examining the argument that crime p r e v e n t i o n or enforcement programs which s t r e s s o p p o r t u n i t y r e d u c t i o n or in c r e a s e d r i s k to o f f e n d e r s are without value because they merely d i s p l a c e crime by s h i f t i n g i t s i n c i d e n c e to other times, forms or l o c a l e s . Given the cost of such programs, p a r t i c u l a r l y i n terms of broad environmental design s t r a t e g i e s as envisaged by Angel (1968), J e f f e r y (1971), and Newman (1972), they are l i k e l y to be piecemeal i n t h e i r development, and l e s s than comprehensive i n t h e i r geographic extent. While p r e v e n t a t i v e or enforcement programs may serve to suppress crime i n the areas i n which they are implemented, i t may be simply at the p r i c e of i n c r e a s i n g crime rates in other area. Reppetto i d e n t i f i e d f i v e modes of displacement p o t e n t i a l l y a s s o c i a t e d with " t a r g e t hardening" or " r i s k i n c r e a s i n g " crime p r e v e n t i o n programs: s p a t i a l (the l i t e r a l form of displacement from area to ar e a ) ; temporal (change of c h a r a c t e r i s t i c time of crime p r e v e n t i o n ) ; t a c t i c a l (change of modus operandi rather than t a r g e t ) ; and target displacement (a s h i f t to another target w i t h i n the same ar e a ) ; or a combination of these four 224. d i s p l a c e m e n t t y p e s ( 1 9 7 6 , p p . 1 6 8 - 1 6 9 ) . R e p p e t t o s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e u l t i m a t e v a l u e o f m e c h a n i c a l c r i m e p r e v e n t i o n p r o g r a m s a p p e a r s c r i t i c a l l y d e p e n d e n t on t h e i r c a p a c i t y t o a v o i d l a r g e -s c a l e d i s p l a c e m e n t e f f e c t s . B u t h i s c o n c l u s i o n i n t h i s r e s p e c t i s e q u i v o c a l . A t one p o i n t he a s s e r t s t h a t t h e r e a r e d e f i n i t e l i m i t s t o v a r i o u s d i s p l a c e m e n t p o s s i b i l i t i e s , e s p e c i a l l y i n t e r m s o f t h o s e c r i m e s w h i c h a r e s o o p p o r t u n i s t i c t h a t t h e i r p r e v e n t i o n i n one c i r c u m s t a n c e i s u n l i k e l y t o l e a d t o t h e i r o c c u r r e n c e i n a n o t h e r ( 1 9 7 6 , p . 1 6 6 ) . E l s e w h e r e he c i t e s a s t u d y o f s a t u r a t i o n p o l i c i n g i n New Y o r k C i t y ( P r e s s , 1 9 7 1 ) n o t i n g t h a t b u r g l a r y r a t e s s h o w e d no c h a n g e i n e i t h e r t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l o r b o u n d a r y a r e a s , b u t t h a t as r o b b e r y r a t e s d e c l i n e d i n t h e " s a t u r a t e d " p r e c i n c t , t h e y i n c r e a s e d i n a d j a c e n t a r e a s ( R e p p e t t o , 1 9 7 6 , p . 1 7 5 ) . U n f o r t u n a t e l y R e p p e t t o o f f e r s l i t t l e e m p i r i c a l e v i d e n c e t o t h r o w l i g h t u p o n t h e p r o b l e m . W h i l e i n g e n e r a l t h e r e a r e f ew s t u d i e s o f d i s p l a c e m e n t e f f e c t s as s u c h , a number o f o t h e r a u t h o r s h a v e r e c e n t l y s u g g e s t e d t h e i r s i g n i f i c a n c e ( W i n c h e s t e r , 1 9 7 8 , p . 1 1 8 ; M a y h e w e t a l , 1 9 7 6 , p p . 5 - 6 ; H a r r i e s , 1 9 8 0 , p p . 1 0 0 - 1 0 1 ) . G a b o r ( 1 9 7 8 ) has d e s c r i b e d s e v e r a l s t u d i e s w h i c h e x a m i n e d i s p l a c e m e n t , b u t l a m e n t s t h a t none o f t h e i r a u t h o r s a c t u a l l y s p e c i f y t h e c r i t e r i a by w h i c h t h e e f f e c t c a n be i d e n t i f i e d . I m p o r t a n t l y t h e s t u d i e s he c i t e s o n l y c o n s i d e r d i s p l a c e m e n t as a r e s u l t o f p r e v e n t a t i v e d e s i g n s t r a t e g i e s o r l e v e l s o f p o l i c e s u r v e i l l a n c e ( P r e s s , 1 9 7 1 ; C h a i k e n , L a w l e s s a n d S t e p h e n s o n , 1 9 7 4 ; L a t e e f , 1 9 7 4 ; T y r p a k , 1 9 7 5 ; W a l d t , 1 9 7 5 ) . T o d a t e , 225 . d i s p l a c e m e n t phenomena h a v e o n l y b e e n c o n s i d e r e d as t h e y p e r t a i n t o " m e c h a n i c a l " c r i m e p r e v e n t i o n a n d l a w e n f o r c e m e n t s t r a t e g i e s . My c o n t e n t i o n i s t h a t d i s p l a c e m e n t phenomena may be a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a w i d e r r a n g e o f c r i m i n a l j u s t i c e s t r a t e g i e s a n d o t h e r v a r i e t i e s o f s o c i a l c o n t r o l p o l i c i e s . A n e x a m i n a t i o n o f v a r i o u s t y p e s o f d i s p l a c e m e n t e f f e c t s i n a v a r i e t y o f h i s t o r i c a l a n d c o n t e m p o r a r y s o c i a l s i t u a t i o n s s e r v e s t o i l l u s t r a t e t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f c o n t r o l p o l i c i e s i n p r o v i d i n g c o n t e x t s w h i c h s h a p e s o c i a l a c t i v i t y . T h e s e a r c h f o r d i s p l a c e m e n t e f f e c t s t h u s p r o v i d e s a g u i d i n g theme f o r d e v e l o p i n g a c r i t i c a l g e o g r a p h i c a p p r a i s a l o f t h e e f f e c t s o f s o c i a l c o n t r o l p o l i c y , p a r t i c u l a r l y f o r e x a m i n i n g t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n l a w , l a w e n f o r c m e n t and ( c r i m i n a l ) b e h a v i o u r . I n a t t e m p t i n g t o d e s c r i b e t h e e f f e c t s o f s o c i a l c o n t r o l p r o c e s s e s o n a c t u a l b e h a v i o u r , d i s p l a c e m e n t s e r v e s a s an o r g a n i z i n g c o n c e p t a r o u n d w h i c h some o f t h e s e r e l a t i o n s h i p s may be s y s t e m a t i z e d . T h e s u b s e q u e n t d i s c u s s i o n w i l l t h e r e f o r e n o t be r e s t r i c t e d t o m e c h a n i c a l c r i m i n a l j u s t i c e s t r a t e g i e s . F o r t h e p u r p o s e s o f t h i s d i s c u s s i o n d i s p l a c e m e n t r e f e r s t o c h a n g e s i n p a t t e r n s o f ( c r i m i n a l ) b e h a v i o u r i n r e s p o n s e t o s o c i a l c o n t r o l p r a c t i c e s . T h e p u r p o s e o f my d i s c u s s i o n i n t h i s a n d t h e two c h a p t e r s t h a t f o l l o w i s t o d e m o n s t r a t e t h e b r o a d a p p l i c a b i l i t y o f t h e c o n c e p t a p p l i e d i n t h i s way t o a v a r i e t y o f c r i m i n a l j u s t i c e s t r a t e g i e s . I n t h i s c h a p t e r a number o f e x a m p l e s o f s u c h e f f e c t s a r e r e v i e w e d i n c l u d i n g t y p o l o g i c a l a n d t e m p o r a l d i s p l a c e m e n t s as w e l l as p u r e l y s p a t i a l e f f e c t s . 226 . T h e t h r e e cameos p r e s e n t e d i n t h e s e c o n d p a r t o f t h e d i s c u s s i o n f o c u s on s p a t i a l d i s p l a c e m e n t p h e n o m e n a . T h e f i r s t e x a m i n e s t h e s p a t i a l i m p a c t o f e n v i r o n m e n t a l d e s i g n p r o g r a m s i n n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y L o n d o n ; t h e s e c o n d e x a m i n e s t h e m i g r a t i o n a l c o n s e q u e n c e s o f n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y P o o r L a w p o l i c y i n E n g l a n d , w h i l e t h e t h i r d d i s c u s s e s a number o f d i f f e r e n t d e s c r i p t i o n s o f t h e i m p a c t o f l a w c h a n g e a n d l a w e n f o r c e m e n t c h a n g e s on p a t t e r n s o f p r o s t i t u t i o n . I n C h a p t e r s e i g h t a n d n i n e two f u r t h e r s t u d i e s o f d i s p l a c e m e n t a r e p r e s e n t e d . T h e f i r s t , d e s c r i b e d i n C h a p t e r 8, b u i l d s on t h e r e v i e w o f s t u d i e s o f p r o s t i t u t i o n by s h o w i n g how p a t t e r n s o f s t r e e t p r o s t i t u t i o n i n V a n c o u v e r , B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , c h a n g e d as a r e s u l t o f b o t h c h a n g e s i n l a w i n t e r p r e t a t i o n a n d l a w e n f o r c e m e n t . T h e s e c o n d e x a m p l e , p r e s e n t e d i n C h a p t e r n i n e , e x a m i n e s t h e e f f e c t s o f t h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f " N e i g h b o u r h o o d W a t c h " b u r g l a r y p r e v e n t i o n p r o g r a m s i n B u r n a b y a n d V a n c o u v e r , d e m o n s t r a t i n g t h e k i n d o f d i s p l a c e m e n t e f f e c t s R e p p e t t o s u g g e s t s as a c c o m p a n y i n g " m e c h a n i c a l " c r i m e p r e v e n t i o n s t r a t e g i e s . I n c o m b i n a t i o n t h e v a r i o u s e x a m p l e s r e v i e w e d h e r e t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e two r e s e a r c h v i g n e t t e s p r e s e n t e d , d e m o n s t r a t e how t h e d i s p l a c e m e n t c o n c e p t c a n be e x t e n d e d t o i n c l u d e a w i d e r r a n g e o f c r i m e c o n t r o l a c t i v i t i e s ( a n d , i n t h e c a s e o f p o o r l a w , t o r e l a t e d c o n t r o l a c t i v i t i e s a l s o ) . T h e r e s e a r c h v i g n e t t e s p r e s e n t e d i n C h a p t e r s e i g h t a n d n i n e a l s o s e r v e t o e m p h a s i z e some o f t h e p r o b l e m s i n v o l v e d w i t h t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f o f f i c i a l s t a t i s t i c s f o r t h e s p a t i a l a n a l y s i s o f c r i m e d i s c u s s e d i n C h a p t e r 5. 227 . W h i l e m o s t o f t h e e x a m p l e s o f d i s p l a c e m e n t d e s c r i b e d r e p r e s e n t t h e u n i n t e n d e d c o n s e q u e n c e s o f v a r i o u s c r i m e a n d s o c i a l c o n t r o l p o l i c i e s 1 , we m u s t n o t f o r g e t t h a t c e r t a i n t y p e s o f p o l i c y may d e l i b e r a t e l y a t t e m p t t o r e l o c a t e u n w a n t e d a c t i v i t i e s as was t h e c a s e w i t h S i r P e t e r L a u r i e ' s i n f o r m a l " t e n n i s - b a l l " p o l i c y r e f e r r e d t o i n C h a p t e r 6 . T h e d i s t i n c t i o n o f i n t e n d e d and u n i n t e n d e d d i s p l a c e m e n t e f f e c t s i s c o m p l i c a t e d by t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t o t h e r p u r p o s e s may u n d e r l i e t h e s t a t e d i n t e n t i o n s o f v a r i o u s l a w s o r l a w e n f o r c e m e n t p o l i c i e s ; t h e c o v e r t i n t e n t i o n s o f c e r t a i n p o l i c i e s may r e f l e c t t h e d e s i r e s i m p l y t o d i s p l a c e c e r t a i n b e h a v i o u r s i n l i e u o f t h e i r p r e v e n t i o n o r s u p p r e s s i o n . O f c o u r s e , a n y a s s e r t i o n t o t h i s e x t e n t w o u l d be e n o r m o u s l y d i f f i c u l t t o p r o v e . W i t h t h e s e v a r i o u s c o n s i d e r a t i o n s i n m i n d , a t e n t a t i v e scheme c a n be d e v e l o p e d t o d e s c r i b e t h e p o t e n t i a l d i s p l a c e m e n t e f f e c t s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a v a r i e t y o f c r i m e c o n t r o l s t r a t e g i e s ( T a b l e 1 a n d 1 A ) . T h e scheme d i s t i n g u i s h e s i n t e n t i o n a l a n d u n i n t e n t i o n a l f o r m s o f t h r e e t y p e s o f d i s p l a c e m e n t ; t h e t y p o l o g i c a l , s p a t i a l , and t e m p o r a l f o r m s i d e n t i f i e d by R e p p e t t o ( 1 9 7 6 ) . Two m a i n t y p e s o f c r i m i n a l j u s t i c e s t r a t e g y a r e i d e n t i f i e d , a l t h o u g h t h e s e a r e b e t t e r t h o u g h t o f as e l e m e n t s o f an i n t e g r a t e d s y s t e m w h i c h i t s e l f i s l i n k e d t o o t h e r i n s t i t u t i o n a l s t r u c t u r e s . T h e f i r s t t y p e ( T a b l e 1) f a l l i n g u n d e r t h e t i t l e " s o c i a l e n g i n e e r i n g " has two c o m p o n e n t s ; ( a ) g e n e r a l p r o g r a m s a i m e d a t t h e p e r c e i v e d s o c i a l c a u s e s o f c r i m e ( t h e p r e v e n t a t i v e c o m p o n e n t ) a n d ( b ) p r o g r a m s a i m e d a t " r e h a b i l i t a t i n g " o f f e n d e r s e i t h e r i n t h e c o m m u n i t y o r i n 228 . Table 1 POTENTIAL DISPLACEMENT EFFECTS ASSOCIATED WITH "SOCIAL ENGINEERING" STRATEGIES. D I S P L A C E M E N T TYPES Cr i m i n a l Justice Strategy Rationale Examples Intentional Consequences Unintentional Consequences Typo - Typo -Log i c a l Spatial Temporal Lo g i c a l Spatial Temporal C O R R E C T I O N A L Individual Post-Hoc Treatment of identified offenders in institutional or community settings Rehabilitation oriented imprisonment, community corrections, probation, parole. "Corraling" displace-ment from society Temporary elimin-ation Discovery of new modus operandi and/or criminal contacts (prison) A cent-ripetal effect r e f l e c t -ing different sentencing practice C r ime amplif-i c a t i o n syndrome PREVENTATIVE Reduction of criminal intention through social programs or institutional change General programs aimed at the perceived social causes of of crime; unemployment, education family services psychiatric counselling e t c A centr i -petal effect created by attractive programs T a b l e 1A POTENTIAL DISPLACEMENT EFFECTS ASSOCIATED WITH "MECHANICAL" STRATEGIES. ~ ~ DISPLACEMENT TYPES C r i m i n a l j u s t i c e R a t i o n a l e E x a m p l e s I n t e n t i o n a l U n i n t e n t i o n a l S t r a t e g y C o n s e q u e n c e s C o n s e q u e n c e s S U PPRESSIVE Reduc t i on o f c r i m i n a l o p p o r t u n i t y by i n c r e a s i n g r i s k o f d e t e c t i on P o l i c e p a t r o l s t r a t e g i e s s p e c i a l p o l i ce t a s k f o r c e s , t e c h n o 1 o g i ca 1 i n n o v a t i o n s , e t c . T y p o - Typo -L o g i c a l S p a t i a l T e m p o r a l L o g i c a l S p a t i a l T e m p o r a l D i s p l a c e -men t f r o m j u r i s -d i c t i o n ( c o v e r t ?) o r a r e a Change t o o t h e r c r i m i n a l en t er -p r i z e C r i m e C r i m e d i s p l a c e d d i s p l a c e d t o o t h e r t o o t h e r a r e a s t imes PREVENTAT IVE R e d u c t i o n of c r i m i n a l o p p o r t un i t y t h r o u g h env i r o n m e n t a 1 des i gn E n v i r o n m e n t a l d e s i g n , t a r g e t h a r d e n i n g s t r a t e g i e s e t c . D i s p l a c e -ment f r o m j u r i s -d i c t i o n ( c o v e r t ? ) o r a r e a Change to o t h e r c r i m i n a l e n t e r -pr i z e , c h a nge of M.O. C r i m e C r i m e d i s p l a c e d d i s p l a c e d t o o t h e r t o o t h e r a r e a s t i m e s ( o r s e a s o n s ? ) P U N I T I V E Reduc t i on o f c r i m i n a l i n t e n t i on t h r o u g h d e t e r r e n c e s t r a t eg i es I n c a r c e r a t i o n T e m p o r a r y D i s c o v e r y e 1 i m i n - of new a t i o n M.O. a n d / o r c r i m i n a l c o n t a c t s C r ime d i s p l a c e d t o o t h e r t imes G e o g r a p h i c T r a n s p o r t a t i o n D i s p l a c e - C r i m e e l i m i n a t i o n d e p o r t a t i o n ment d i s p l a c e -0 f f r o m t o o t h e r o f f e n d e r j u r i s - a r e a s E L I M l NATIVE or d i c t i o n l i t e r a l D e a t h s e n t e n c e e l i m i n a t i o n n a t u r a l l i f e i m p r i sonment i n s t i t u t i o n a l s e t t i n g s - t h e " c o r r e c t i o n a l / s u p p r e s s i v e " c o m p o n e n t . T h e s e c o n d t y p e ( T a b l e 1A) r e f e r r e d t o as " m e c h a n i c a l s t r a t e g i e s " , i s c o m p r i s e d o f f o u r c o m p o n e n t s ; ( a ) " S u p p r e s s i v e " - l a w e n f o r c e m e n t s t r a t e g i e s a i m e d a t i n c r e a s i n g t h e r i s k o f d e t e c t i o n t o o f f e n d e r s ; ( b ) " P r e v e n t a t i v e " -t a r g e t h a r d e n i n g a n d e n v i r o n m e n t a l d e s i g n p r o g r a m s d e s i g n e d t o r e d u c e o p p o r t u n i t i e s t o c o m m i t c r i m e ; ( c ) " P u n i t i v e " - p o l i c i e s a i m e d a t d e t e r r i n g t h e p o t e n t i a l o f f e n d e r by p u n i s h m e n t o f t h e a d j u d i c a t e d o f f e n d e r ; ( d ) " E l i m i n a t i v e " - p o l i c i e s a i m e d a t t h e g e o g r a p h i c e l i m i n a t i o n o f t h e o f f e n d e r . A t t h i s j u n c t u r e i t i s w o r t h s t r e s s i n g t h e p o i n t t h a t t h e s e v a r i o u s c o m p o n e n t s o f t h e two m a j o r t y p e s o f s t r a t e g y i d e n t i f i e d a r e n o t m u t u a l l y e x c l u s i v e , b u t a r e o f t e n c o m b i n e d . M e c h a n i c a l p r e v e n t a t i v e p r o g r a m s may be i n t e r w o v e n w i t h m e c h a n i c a l s u p p r e s s i v e s t r a t e g i e s - t h e N e i g h b o u r h o o d W a t c h p r o g r a m e x a m i n e d i n C h a p t e r 9 n o t o n l y a i m s a t h a r d e n i n g t a r g e t s , b u t a l s o a t i n c r e a s i n g t h e r i s k t o o f f e n d e r s by m a r k i n g v a l u a b l e h o u s e h o l d i t e m s t h e r e b y f a c i l i t a t i n g t h e e a s i e r i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f s t o l e n g o o d s . I m p r i s o n m e n t may be s e e n b o t h as a s o c i a l e n g i n e e r i n g s t r a t e g y a i m e d a t r e h a b i l i t a t i n g o f f e n d e r s , a n d as a m e c h a n i c a l p u n i t i v e s t r a t e g y a i m e d a t p u n i s h i n g t h e m ; a t d i f f e r e n t t i m e s t h e r e l a t i v e i m p o r t a n c e o f e i t h e r o f t h e s e c o m p o n e n t s may be s t r e s s e d . A n a t t e m p t has a l s o b e e n made t o d i s t i n g u i s h i n t e n t i o n a l a n d u n i n t e n t i o n a l d i s p l a c e m e n t e f f e c t s a c k n o w l e d g i n g t h a t some p r o g r a m s o s t e n s i b l y d e s i g n e d t o s u p p r e s s c r i m e may i n f a c t be d e s i g n e d c o v e r t l y t o d i s p l a c e i t . 2 3 1 . Temporal Displacement: An Example Although the p o s s i b i l i t y of temporal displacement has r e c e i v e d l i t t l e a t t e n t i o n i n the c r i m i n o l o g i c a l l i t e r a t u r e , one example has been d e s c r i b e d by Hunt and Weiner (1977) in t h e i r assessment of the impact of a j u v e n i l e "curfew". A curfew i s a p o l i c e enforced ordinance which r e s t r i c t s o p p o r t u n i t y f o r crime by i n h i b i t i n g movement of a l l j u v e n i l e s o u t s i d e t h e i r parents custody a f t e r a s p e c i f i c evening hour (Hunt and Weiner, 1977, p. 407). A curfew of t h i s type was implemented i n D e t r o i t d u r i n g the summer of 1976 as a r e a c t i o n to " u n u s u a l l y high c r i m i n a l a c t i v i t y by j u v e n i l e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y by growing youth gangs" (p. 407). A curfew was imposed between 10 p.m. and 6 a.m.. Hunt and Weiner examined the p r o f i l e of j u v e n i l e crime a c t i v i t y f o r the month of August, 1976, the most i n t e n s i v e p e r i o d of p u b l i c i t y and p o l i c e enforcement of the curfew. For comparative purposes the researchers computed the d a i l y j u v e n i l e crime p r o f i l e d u r i n g the month of August by averaging the data for 1971, 1973, 1974 and 1975. They provide an aggregate p r o f i l e f o r Part 1 offences (homicide, robbery, rape, a s s a u l t , b u r g l a r y , l a r c e n y and auto t h e f t ) and two i n d i v i d u a l measures, one for robbery, the other f o r b u r g l a r y . The robbery and b u r g l a r y p r o f i l e s are reproduced i n F i g u r e 1. The s o l i d l i n e represents the average p r o f i l e , the dotted l i n e the i n c i d e n c e of crime d u r i n g the curfew p e r i o d . Hunt and Weiner conclude that although crime l e v e l s abated during the curfew p e r i o d , the o v e r a l l r a t e of crime through the day d i d 232 . Figure 1. Temporal Displacement of Juvenile Offences* DISTRIBUTION OF ROBBERY 233. n o t c h a n g e ; t h e c r i m i n a l a c t i v i t y p r e v i o u s l y o c c u r r i n g i n wha t became t h e c u r f e w p e r i o d was s i m p l y d i s p l a c e d , p a r t i c u l a r l y t o t h e p e r i o d b e t w e e n two a n d f o u r o ' c l o c k i n t h e a f t e r n o o n . T h i s e f f e c t o b t a i n e d f o r b o t h r o b b e r y and b u r g l a r y a n d f o r t h e a g g r e g a t e m e a s u r e o f p a r t one o f f e n c e s . T h e a u t h o r s t h u s n o t e t h a t w h i l e t h e c u r f e w a p p e a r e d t o be s u c c e s s f u l , t h e d i s p l a c e m e n t o f c r i m i n a l a c t i v i t y was t h e u n i n t e n d e d c o n s e q u e n c e . b T y p o l o g i c a l D i s p l a c e m e n t : Two E x a m p l e s A g a i n , a l t h o u g h t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f t y p o l o g i c a l d i s p l a c e m e n t has r e c e i v e d l i t t l e a t t e n t i o n i n t h e c r i m i n o l o g i c a l l i t e r a t u r e , two e x a m p l e s h a v e b e e n d e s c r i b e d . G o o b e r m a n i n h i s s t u d y o f " O p e r a t i o n I n t e r c e p t " ( 1 9 7 4 ) , i n d i c a t e s how a p e r i o d o f i n t e n s e s u r v e i l l a n c e a t t h e U . S . -M e x i c a n b o r d e r d e s i g n e d t o s t o p t h e f l o w o f m a r i j u a n a i n t o t h e U . S . d i d h a v e t h i s e f f e c t . D e s c r i b e d by U . S . B u r e a u o f C u s t o m s o f f i c i a l s as " a n u n p r e c e d e n t e d h i s t o r i c e f f o r t " t h e y u r g e d t h a t O p e r a t i o n I n t e r c e p t " p r o v e d f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e we c o u l d e f f e c t i v e l y i n t e r d i c t t h e f l o w o f m a r i j u a n a i n t o t h e U . S . " ( G o o b e r m a n , p . 1 ) . B y c u r t a i l i n g s u p p l y , i t was h o p e d t h a t t h e d i f f i c u l t y o f o b t a i n i n g m a r i j u a n a c o u p l e d w i t h i t s h i g h e r p r i c e w o u l d l e a d t o an o v e r a l l r e d u c t i o n o f i l l e g a l d r u g u s e i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . T h e A t t o r n e y G e n e r a l a t t h a t t i m e , R i c h a r d K l e i n d i e n s t , was r e p o r t e d as s a y i n g t h a t t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n w o u l d l i k e t o make m a r i j u a n a s m o k i n g as 234. e x p e n s i v e as h e r o i n , f o r f ew y o u t h s w o u l d e x p e r i m e n t w i t h i t a t t h a t p r i c e ( G o o b e r m a n , p . 4 ) . T h e y o u t h s K l e i n d i e n s t h a d i n m i n d w e r e t h o s e f o r m i n g t h e campus a n d m i d d l e - A m e r i c a n y o u t h d r u g - c u l t u r e . What t h e O p e r a t i o n I n t e r c e p t p o l i c y d i d n o t r e c o g n i z e was t h e d i v e r s i t y o f m a r i j u a n a u s i n g g r o u p s , t h e d e g r e e s t o w h i c h s h o r t a g e s e f f e c t t h e m , a n d t h e d i f f e r e n c e s i n a v a i l a b i l i t y o f s u b s t i t u t e i l l e g a l d r u g s t o t h e m ; t h e u n i n t e n d e d c o n s e q u e n c e o f t h e e n f o r c e m e n t c o m p a i g n was t h a t t h e u s e r s o f m a r i j u a n a e x p e r i m e n t e d w i t h o t h e r d r u g s . I n R e p p e t t o ' s s e n s e , a t y p o l o g i c a l d i s p l a c e m e n t o c c u r r e d , b u t i t o c c u r r e d d i f f e r e n t i a l l y - i n New Y o r k , w h i t e u s e r s l a r g e l y t u r n e d t o h a s h i s h , a m p h e t a m i n e s a n d c e r t a i n h a l l u c i n o g e n s w h i l e g h e t t o - u s e r s t u r n e d t o h e r o i n . F o r t h e g h e t t o - u s e r s , t h e c o n t r o l o f m a r i j u a n a s u p p l y ( a p h y s i c a l l y n o n - a d d i c t i v e d r u g ) l e d t o t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f a m o r e i n t r a c t a b l e p r o b l e m i n t h e u s e o f an a d d i c t i v e d r u g . G o o b e r m a n i n t e r v i e w e d a number o f a d d i c t s who s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e y f i r s t u s e d h e r o i n d u r i n g t h e m a r i j u a n a s h o r t a g e f o l l o w i n g O p e r a t i o n I n t e r c e p t . I n a n o t h e r s t u d y L e t k e m a n ( 1 9 7 4 , p . 89 ) s u g g e s t s t h a t a f o r m o f t y p o l o g i c a l d i s p l a c e m e n t has r e s u l t e d f r o m t h e i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n o f a l a r m s y s t e m u s a g e a n d t a r g e t h a r d e n i n g s t r a t e g i e s a d o p t e d by b u s i n e s s e s t a b l i s h m e n t s . H i s i n f o r m a n t s ( C a n a d i a n P e n i t e n t i a r y i n m a t e s ) a r g u e d t h a t t h e i n c r e a s e d d i f f i c u l t y o f b u r g l a r i z i n g b a n k s l e d t o a r i s e i n t h e number o f b a n k r o b b e r i e s a n d , f u r t h e r , t h a t t h e g e n e r a l w i d e s p r e a d u s e o f a l a r m s ha s m e a n t t h a t t h e b u r g l a r y o f b u s i n e s s e s t a b l i s h m e n t s i n g e n e r a l has g i v e n way t o a r m e d r o b b e r y . R o b b e r y i n t h i s 235 . case becomes the unintended consequence of target hardening programs. McDonald (1976), i n a study of armed robbery, o f f e r s a r e l a t e d argument to e x p l a i n the p r o l i f e r a t i o n of bank robb e r i e s i n the U.S.A. i n the e a r l y 1970's. The main reason for t h i s i n c r e a s e may have been the c o i n c i d e n t a l p r o l i f e r a t i o n of suburban branch banks which were t y p i c a l l y provided with only minimal s e c u r i t y systems (McDonald, 1975, p. 329; a l s o C o n k l i n , 1972, p.40). The v e r i f i c a t i o n of these arguments i s , of course, l i k e l y to be the subject of debate f o r some time to come. Geogr a p h i c a l Displacement: Three Cameos W h i l s t the p o s s i b i l i t y of displacement e f f e c t s has been r a i s e d as a p o t e n t i a l l y c r i t i c a l o b s t a c l e to the implementation of environmental design crime p r e v e n t i o n programs, there i s not much evidence a v a i l a b l e to demonstrate the s p a t i a l impact of other crime c o n t r o l and r e l a t e d s t r a t e g i e s . But there are some i n d i c a t i o n s . Three cameos are presented to demonstrate the manner i n which c e r t a i n behaviour p a t t e r n s represent adaptations to or are m o d i f i e d by s o c i a l c o n t r o l p o l i c i e s and i n s t i t u t i o n a l a c t i v i t i e s , and how law and law enforcement p r a c t i c e s p rovide important contexts f o r behaviour. Most c r i m i n o l o g i c a l l i t e r a t u r e concerned with the e f f e c t s of c r i m i n a l law has, however, focused on i t s c a p a c i t y i n d e t e r r i n g crime, or on the unintended consequences of c r i m i n a l l a b e l l i n g in a m p l i f y i n g crime by producing "secondary d e v i a t i o n " . 236 . P e r h a p s one r e a s o n f o r t h e c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n o f t h i s d e t e r r e n c e - a m p l i f i c a t i o n c o n t i n u u m i s t h e d i s c i p l i n a r y c o n c e n t r a t i o n on c r i m i n a l a c t s o r a c t i v i t i e s o f c r i m i n a l s . S u c h a v i e w seems t o m i s s t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s o f a v a r i e t y o f m a r g i n a l a n d n o n - c r i m i n a l a c t i v i t i e s w h i c h n e v e r t h e l e s s r e f l e c t t h e way l a w s t r u c t u r e s s o c i a l l i f e , a n d t h e way c r i m i n a l a c t i v i t y may a d a p t a n d r e s p o n d t o e n f o r c e m e n t e f f o r t s . My c o n c e r n i s t h u s t o e x a m i n e how s o c i a l a c t i v i t y i s a d a p t i v e t o o r m o d i f i e d by l a w a n d l a w e n f o r c e m e n t p r a c t i c e s . W h i l e s u c h a c o n c e r n i n c l u d e s d e t e r r e n c e a n d d e v i a n c e a m p l i f i c a t i o n , i t a l s o i n c l u d e s b e h a v i o u r m o u l d e d i n s u c h a way t h a t i t i s a m b i g u o u s i n t e r m s o f t h e l a w , b e h a v i o u r m o u l d e d t o p r o t e c t an i n d i v i d u a l f r o m t h e s c r u t i n y o f t h e l a w , and b e h a v i o u r d e s i g n e d t o i n f l u e n c e t h e c r e a t i o n o f l a w o r t h e f o c u s o f l a w e n f o r c e m e n t . I n t h e s e a r c h f o r e m p i r i c a l p r e c e d e n t s , I h a v e c o n s e q u e n t l y n o t s i m p l y f o c u s e d on c r i m i n a l a c t i v i t y , b u t a l s o on b e h a v i o u r t h a t m i g h t be s a i d t o t a k e p l a c e i n t h a t g r e y z o n e a t t h e " e d g e o f t h e l a w " . T h e t h r e e v i g n e t t e s s e l e c t e d f r o m s e c o n d a r y s o u r c e s p r e s e n t e d b e l o w d e s c r i b e n o t o n l y t h e d i s p l a c e m e n t e f f e c t s a s s o c i a t e d d i r e c t l y w i t h c r i m i n a l j u s t i c e p o l i c y , b u t a l s o t h e s p a t i a l i m p a c t o f r e l a t e d p o l i c i e s d e s i g n e d t o c o n t r o l and c o n t a i n ( o r s o m e t i m e s d i s p e r s e ) w h a t a r e p e r c e i v e d as " p r o b l e m " ( i . e . p o t e n t i a l l y c r i m i n a l ) s o c i a l g r o u p s . Two o f t h e v i g n e t t e s d e s c r i b e c o n s e q u e n c e s o f n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y B r i t i s h s o c i a l p o l i c i e s d e s i g n e d t o c o n t r o l t h e " d a n g e r o u s c l a s s e s " . T h e t h i r d e x a m i n e s t h e s p a t i a l i m p a c t o f s p e c i f i c l a w 237 . e n f o r c e m e n t p o l i c i e s a i m e d a t s u p p r e s s i n g v i c e , p a r t i c u l a r l y p r o s t i t u t i o n , i n e a r l y t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y N o r t h A m e r i c a . A . E n v i r o n m e n t a l D e s i g n as S o c i a l E n g i n e e r i n g ; A N i n e t e e n t h C e n t u r y A l l e g o r y ? C r i m e p r e v e n t i o n t h r o u g h e n v i r o n m e n t a l d e s i g n has b e e n h a i l e d by i t s p r a c t i t i o n e r s as a p r o d u c t o f t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y ; i t s p e d i g r e e i s u s u a l l y t r a c e d b a c k t h r o u g h Newman ( 1 9 7 2 ) a n d J e f f e r y ( 1 9 7 1 ) t o J a n e J a c o b s ( 1 9 6 1 ) . B u t e n v i r o n m e n t a l d e s i g n i s , i n a s e n s e , a c h i l d o f t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y ( i f n o t e a r l i e r ) r e - d r e s s e d f o r t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y c o n s u m p t i o n . W h i l e t h e e x a m p l e c i t e d h e r e may r e p r e s e n t m o r e o f a p a r o d y t h a n an a l l e g o r y , i t does s u g g e s t t h a t a c r u d e e n v i r o n m e n t a l i s m does l i t t l e t o c h a n g e a n y t h i n g b u t t h e s u r f a c e a p p e a r a n c e o f s o c i a l p r o b l e m s . W h i l e some t y p e s o f c r i m e may be s u p p r e s s e d by r e s t r i c t i n g o p p o r t u n i t y , c r i m e i t s e l f may o n l y be t h e e p i p h e n o m e n a l e x p r e s s i o n o f some d e e p e r s o c i a l m a l a i s e . T o t h i s e x t e n t n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y p r o g r a m s o f s t r e e t d e v e l o p m e n t d e l i b e r a t e l y r o u t e d t h r o u g h L o n d o n ' s " r o o k e r i e s " n o t o n l y e n h a n c e d t r a n s p o r t a t i o n f a c i l i t i e s b u t a l s o o f f e r e d t h e a n c i l l i a r y b e n e f i t o f s l u m c l e a r a n c e . B u t as a r e s u l t s l u m p r o b l e m s , p a r t i c u l a r l y c r i m e , r a t h e r t h a n b e i n g a l l e v i a t e d w e r e s i m p l y d i s p l a c e d . A c c o r d i n g t o H . J . D y o s ( 1 9 5 7 ) 3 , t h e C o m m i s s i o n e r o f S e w e r s f o r F i n s b u r y w r o t e t o t h e P r i v y C o u n c i l i n 1835 t o s a y t h a t an e x t e n s i o n o f F a r r i n g d o n S t r e e t w o u l d n o t o n l y c r e a t e a 238 . communication l i n k between north and south London, but a l s o that such an improvement was " f a r more important as r e l a t i n g to the h e a l t h of that part of the c a p i t a l through which i t would be made, by the removal of a d e s c r i p t i o n of b u i l d i n g s that have long been a hotbed of d i s e a s e , misery and crime." Dyos gives evidence that o f f i c i a l s i n Westminster shared such views over the proposed development of New Oxford S t r e e t through S t . G i l e s and t h i s general a t t i t u d e was epitomized by the S e l e c t Committee on M e t r o p o l i t a n Improvements of 1838. In t h e i r second r e p o r t , the Committee d i d not " c o n f i n e themselves to the s i n g l e purpose of o b t a i n i n g i n c r e a s e d f a c i l i t i e s of communication" but suggested that "other p u b l i c b e n e f i t s might i n some cases be d e r i v e d s i m u l t a n e o u s l y with that p r i n c i p a l o b j e c t " , in p a r t i c u l a r the p a r t i a l c l e a r a n c e of the S t . G i l e s ' "rookery" by means of an exte n s i o n of Oxford S t r e e t (Dyos, 1957, p. 262). S t r e e t improvements were thus seen as i n c l u d i n g p o s i t i v e s o c i a l e f f e c t s , improving p u b l i c h e a l t h and morals. Dyos suggests that the l i n e s taken by new s t r e e t s were g e n e r a l l y determined by t h e i r e f f e c t i v e n e s s i n c l e a r i n g as many slum dwellings as p o s s i b l e . S t r e e t improvement duri n g these years was seen as the only e f f e c t i v e l a r g e s c a l e method of r e c t i f y i n g some of the worst f e a t u r e s of urban growth. But such a naive e x p e c t a t i o n c o n s p i c u o u s l y f a i l e d to o b l i t e r a t e slums "which were g e n e r a l l y merely d i s p l a c e d , o f t e n i n aggravated forms, to other l o c a l i t i e s . " (Dyos,1957, p. 264). Henry Mayhew, a nine t e e n t h century commentator, lends support to Dyos' hypothesis that s t r e e t developments d i s p l a c e d 239 . t h e c o n d i t i o n s t h e y w e r e r o u t e d t o a l l e v i a t e . M a y h e w n o t e d : A b o u t t w e n t y y e a r s ago a number o f n a r r o w s t r e e t s , t h i c k l y p o p u l a t e d w i t h t h i e v e s , p r o s t i t u t e s , a n d b e g g a r s w e r e r e m o v e d when New C o m m e r c i a l S t r e e t was f o r m e d . ( 1 8 5 2 , V o l . 4 , p . 3 1 3 ) He a c k n o w l e d g e d t h e v a l u e o f t h i s d e v e l o p m e n t as " l e a v i n g a w i d e s p a c e i n t h e m i d s t o f a d e n s e l y p o p u l a t e d n e i g h b o u r h o o d , w h i c h i s f a v o u r a b l e t o i t s s a n i t a r y c o n d i t i o n , a n d m i g h t j u s t l y be c o n s i d e r e d one o f t h e l u n g s o f t h e m e t r o p o l i s . " One t h u s c a n n o t d e n y t h e i m p a c t o f u r b a n r e d e v e l o p m e n t as a m e l i o r a t i n g p h y s i c a l l i v i n g c o n d i t i o n s , b u t , a c c o r d i n g t o M a y h e w , t h i s d i d n o t e f f e c t i v e l y c h a n g e t h e l o t o f t h e d i s p l a c e d p o p u l a t i o n . T h e r o o k e r y i n S p i t a l f i e l d s we p r o p o s e d t o v i s i t i s c o m p r i s e d w i t h i n a s p a c e o f a b o u t 400 s q u a r e y a r d s . . . a n d c o n t a i n s 800 t h i e v e s , v a g a b o n d s , b e g g a r s , a n d p r o s t i t u t e s , a l a r g e p r o p o r t i o n o f whom may be t r a c e d t o t h e o l d c r i m i n a l i n h a b i t a n t s o f t h e now e x t i n c t E s s e x S t r e e t a n d O l d R o s e L a n e . ( 1 8 6 2 , V o l . 4 , p . 3 1 3 ) A c c o r d i n g t o M a y h e w , some 1 5 0 , 0 0 0 p e r s o n s o f " b a d c h a r a c t e r " i n h a b i t e d E n g l a n d and W a l e s i n 1848 a n d c o n s t i t u t e d w h a t w e r e r e f e r r e d t o a t t h a t t i m e as t h e " c r i m i n a l " c l a s s e s ( 1 8 6 2 , V o l . 3 , p . 3 7 7 ) . I n 1857 t h e r e w e r e some 8 , 6 0 0 p r o s t i t u t e s known t o t h e p o l i c e i n L o n d o n , b u t b e c a u s e o f t h e i n a d e q u a c y o f p o l i c e s t a t i s t i c s , he g i v e s c r e d e n c e t o e s t i m a t e s t h a t t h e r e w e r e 8 0 , 0 0 0 p r o s t i t u t e s i n t h e m e t r o p o l i s a t t h i s t i m e ( p . 2 2 5 ) . W h i l e n o t f o r now d w e l l i n g u p o n t h e r e a s o n s f o r t h i s l a r g e s u r p l u s p o p u l a t i o n , i t i s h a r d l y s u r p r i s i n g t h a t u r b a n c o s m e t i c s u r g e r y f a i l e d t o i m p r o v e t h e i r l o t . What i s p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t e r e s t i n g , g i v e n t h e themes o f t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n , i s t h e e f f e c t t h e s y s t e m o f s o c i a l c o n t r o l h a d on 2 4 0 . the movement of t h i s p o p u l a t i o n and the d i s c r e p a n c y between the goal of the p o l i c y and i t s a c t u a l e f f e c t . T h i s becomes the t o p i c of the second v i g n e t t e . B. S o c i a l C o n t r o l and M i g r a t i o n : The S p a t i a l E f f e c t of Poor Law P o l i c y in Nineteenth Century England. Of the 16 m i l l i o n people i n England and Wales in 1841 Mayhew suggests that 12% (2 m i l l i o n ) l i v e d by pauperism, mendicancy or crime. As noted above, Mayhew suggests that 150,000 of these c o n s t i t u t e d the " c r i m i n a l c l a s s e s " ( e x c l u d i n g paupers and mendicants). While we may q u e s t i o n t h i s r i g i d c l a s s i f i c a t i o n (many beggars may a l s o have been t h i e v e s ) , and the r e l i a b i l i t y of the s t a t i s t i c s used, there d i d appear to be a huge unemployed underclass i n B r i t a i n at t h i s time. S i g n i f i c a n t l y , many of t h i s group were j u v e n i l e s (1862, V o l . 3, p. 393). In Mayhew's o p i n i o n , j u v e n i l e vagrancy acted as one of the main s u p p l i e r s of the c r i m i n a l c l a s s and c o n s t i t u t e d one of the most dangerous elements of s o c i e t y : That vagrancy i s the nursery of crime, and that the h a b i t u a l tramps are f i r s t the beggars, then the t h i e v e s , and, f i n a l l y , the c o n v i c t s of the country, the evidence of a l l p a r t i e s goes to prove. (1862, V o l . 3, p. 398) T h i s was the c u l m i n a t i o n of a massive p e r i o d of s o c i a l readjustment which made vagrancy even more pr e v a l e n t i n Great B r i t a i n than i n c e r t a i n e a r l i e r p e r i o d s . The m o b i l i t y of the working c l a s s e s and t h e i r feudal predecessors had been 241. c o n t r o l l e d by the Poor Laws s i n c e the t h i r t e e n t h century. The i n c r e a s i n g m o b i l i t y of the working c l a s s e s i n the l a t e e i g h t e e n t h and nine t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s l e d to the establishment of "casual wards", the f r e e h o s t e l r i e s of the unemployed work people. But vagrancy, for Mayhew, expressed a t e l l i n g c o n t r a d i c t i o n . On the one hand the h o s t e l r i e s were necessary to provide food and s h e l t e r for unemployed workers: The mere f a c t of a man's seeking work i n d i f f e r e n t p a r t s of the country may be taken as evidence that he i s in d i s p o s e d to l i v e on the c h a r i t y or labour of othe r s ; and t h i s f e e l i n g should be encouraged i n every r a t i o n a l manner. (1952, V o l . 3, p. 368). But on the other hand i t was h i s o p i n i o n that "the establishment of these g r a t u i t o u s h o t e l s has c a l l e d i n t o e x i s t e n c e a l a r g e c l a s s of wayfarers, for whom they were never contemplated". (1862, V o l . 3, p. 368); such places encouraged e r r a t i c s p i r i t s and compounded what Mayhew thought was the prime cause of vagabondage, the lack of i n c u l c a t i o n of a habit of i n d u s t r y . Mayhew i d e n t i f i e d three c l a s s e s of vagrant of which the smal l e s t was considered to be those t e m p o r a r i l y out of work. A second c l a s s was c o n s t i t u t e d by the I r i s h as a r e s u l t of the potato famine, but t h i s was not as c r i m i n a l l y i n c l i n e d as the remaining c l a s s , the " h a b i t u a l i z e d vagrants", those for whom vagrancy had become a way of l i f e . Whether Mayhew i s c o r r e c t as to the d e c i s i v e r o l e of the casual wards i n ge n e r a t i n g vagrancy i s open to co n j e c t u r e (Jones, 1972, for example, o f f e r s a very d i f f e r e n t type of 242. e x p l a n a t i o n f o r c o n d i t i o n s i n nin e t e e n t h century England). But one does experience a sense of deja vu reading Mayhew's account which adumbrates many elements of more recent s o c i o l o g i c a l theory and contemporary popular o p i n i o n ; lack of s o c i a l i z a t i o n has been a c o n s i s t e n t f e a t u r e i n s o c i o l o g i c a l accounts of deviance, and the "welfare bum" i s s t i l l subject to the wrath of the American hardhat. In suggesting "bad companions" as one of the main causes of vagrancy (1862, V o l . 3, p. 378), he o f f e r s a h i n t of the l a t e r development of d i f f e r e n t i a l a s s o c i a t i o n and s u b c u l t u r a l theory. Although not us i n g the concept, Mayhew suggested that the i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n of vagrancy was the u n a n t i c i p a t e d consequence of the casual ward program. He a l s o i l l u s t r a t e d the way that the o r g a n i z a t i o n and f u n c t i o n i n g of these wards moulded pa t t e r n s of seasonal m i g r a t i o n . Again t h i s p a t t e r n e f f e c t can be i n t e r p r e t e d as an unintended consequence of the poor r e l i e f system. What Mayhew's d e s c r i p t i o n d e f t l y i l l u s t r a t e s i s the way i n which p a t t e r n s of vagrancy must be understood i n the context of the poor r e l i e f system. Mayhew was p a r t i c u l a r l y s t r u c k by the unequal s p a t i a l and temporal d i s t r i b u t i o n of vagrants throughout the Poor Law Unions of England and Wales. To e x p l a i n t h i s d i s t r i b u t i o n Mayhew presented and attempted to c o r r o b o r a t e the o p i n i o n of an experienced vagrant. A c c o r d i n g to t h i s informant, the vagrants moved to London i n la r g e bodies at the end of December when the winter refuges opened up. The re g u l a r vagrants l e f t London du r i n g A p r i l and e a r l y May. Mayhew's informant suggested that 243. the movement of the vagrants was e x p l i c i t l y connected to Casual R e l i e f p o l i c y : A very lar g e p o r t i o n of the wandering beggars and thieves would remain i n town i f they were allowed to remain longer i n t h e i r n i g h t l y haunts; but a f t e r the c l o s i n g of the refuges, the system of not p e r m i t t i n g them more than one night i n the same union f o r c e s them to be c o n t i n u a l l y on the move: so they set o f f immediately they have made themselves known at a l l the workhouses. The boys w i l l mostly go in small gangs of two or three. Before they s t a r t , they g e n e r a l l y p i c k up from some other band whom they meet in the London wards the kind of treatment and r e l i e f they w i l l r e c e i v e at the country unions, and they r e g u l a t e t h e i r journey a c c o r d i n g l y ; and they w i l l very o f t e n go one or two days march out of t h e i r way, i n order to a v o i d some union that has a bad c h a r a c t e r among them, or to get to some other union where the accommodation i s good, and the work r e q u i r e d of them very s l i g h t . (1862, V o l . 3, p. 400) A r e c o g n i z a b l e c i r c u i t developed with young vagrants t r a v e l l i n g through Essex and S u f f o l k northwards to Leeds. The M e n d i c i t y Asylum in Leeds was p a r t i c u l a r l y popular because a f t e r p r o v i d i n g a n i g h t ' s l o d g i n g s , boys might be given threepence, fourpence or even sixpence a c c o r d i n g to the apparent worthiness of the a p p l i c a n t . From Leeds they t r a v e l l e d i n d i f f e r e n t d i r e c t i o n s , some through Durham and Northumberland, others to Manchester where a Quaker s o c i e t y f u r n i s h e d s i m i l a r treatment to that r e c e i v e d in Leeds. Those t r a v e l l i n g North r a r e l y entered S c o t l a n d s i n c e the vagrants f a r e d very p o o r l y beyond Berwick r e c e i v i n g l i t t l e more than b a r l e y cake. From Northumberland they t r a v e l l e d through Cumberland, Westmoreland and L a n c a s h i r e , then branching o f f i n t o C h e s h i r e and North Wales or S t a f f o r d s h i r e and D e r b y s h i r e , 244. and then south to Birmingham, a favoured meeting p l a c e . In B i rmi ngham: they make a point of t e a r i n g up t h e i r c l o t h e s , because for t h i s o f f e n c e they are committed to Warwick Gaol f o r a month, and have a s h i l l i n g on being discharged from the p r i s o n . It i s not the d i e t of Warwick Gaol that induces them to do t h i s , but the s h i l l i n g . F r e q u e n t l y they tear up t h e i r c l o t h e s i n order to get a f r e s h supply. The r a t i o n a l e for t h i s behaviour allows us to f u l l y a p p r e c i a t e the extreme poverty of the youths i n q u e s t i o n : From c o n t i n u a l l y s l e e p i n g i n t h e i r c l o t h e s , and never washing t h e i r bodies or changing t h e i r s h i r t s . . . they (the c l o t h e s ) get to swarm with vermin, to such an extent that they cannot bear them upon t h e i r bodies...I have seen the l i c e on t h e i r c l o t h e s in the sunshine, as t h i c k as b l i g h t on the leaves of t r e e s . When t h e i r garments, from t h i s cause, get very uncomfortable to them, they w i l l tear them up, for the purpose of f o r c i n g the p a r i s h o f f i c e r s to give them some f r e s h ones. (1862, V o l . 3, p. 401) From Birmingham they t r a v e l l e d back through Northampton and H e r t f o r d to London. By t h i s time the London refuges would be again opening for the w i n t e r , or i f the boys were e a r l y they would be f o r g o t t e n i n the surrounding unions and r e c e i v e b e n e f i t there. A smaller Autumn c i r c u i t a l s o e x i s t e d through Sussex, Hampshire and W i l t s h i r e . The timing of t h i s m i g r a t i o n c o i n c i d e d with the hop p i c k i n g season " I t is not hard work, and there are a great many loose g i r l s to be found there." (1862, V o l . 3, p. 401). The movements of the I r i s h vagrants conformed to a d i f f e r e n t p a t t e r n - they were mostly to be found on the roads from L i v e r p o o l and B r i s t o l to London. By the end of June "the 245 . roads must be l i t e r a l l y covered with the I r i s h f a m i l i e s tramping to London." The I r i s h tramps, i t was suggested by Mayhew's informant, l i v e d s o l e l y by begging. In c o n t r a s t the E n g l i s h tramps l i v e d by a mixture of begging and s t e a l i n g . For these contemporary commentators the poor r e l i e f system came to exacerbate the very c o n d i t i o n i t was designed to r e l i e v e . Here Mayhew's informant was unequivocal: As the refuges are managed at present, I consider they do more harm than good. If there were no such p l a c e s i n London in the w i n t e r , of course I, and such as are l i k e me, would have been d r i v e n to f i n d s h e l t e r at our p a r i s h e s ; whereas the f a c i l i t i e s they a f f o r d for o b t a i n i n g a n i g h t ' s s h e l t e r - to the vagabond as w e l l as to the d e s t i t u t e - are such that a l a r g e number of the most depraved and i d l e c l a s s e s are a t t r a c t e d to London by them. (1862, V o l . 3, pp.399-400) I have known many an honest, i n d u s t r i o u s , working man, however, made a r e g u l a r beggar and vagrant by continued use of the casual wards. They are d r i v e n there f i r s t by n e c e s s i t y , and then they l e a r n that they can l i v e i n such places throughout the year without working for t h e i r l i v e l i h o o d . (1862, V o l . 3, p. 400) In many senses Mayhew's e t i o l o g i c a l account i s g r o s s l y inadequate. With the advantage of h i n d s i g h t we might conclude that the e x i s t e n c e of the casual wards of the workhouse was not the only, or even the main f a c t o r i n v o l v e d with the p r o l i f e r a t i o n of vagrancy. But i t seems reasonable to conclude with Mayhew that the r e l i e f system was important i n c r e a t i n g and m a i n t a i n i n g a c e r t a i n m i g r a t o r y l i f e s t y l e . To do away with the workhouses would not have done away with the circumstances that made such a l i f e s t y l e more a 246 . r e f l e c t i o n of n e c e s s i t y than of v o l i t i o n . Who, a f t e r a l l , would have chosen the workhouse given Mayhew's d e s c r i p t i o n s of i t , i f t h e i r freedom of choice was anything but enormously cur ta i1ed? No one can imagine, but those who have gone through i t , the horror of a casual ward of a union; what with the f i l t h , the vermin, the stench, the heat, and the noise of the p l a c e , i t i s i n t o l e r a b l e . (1862, V o l . 3, p. 402) Of the Asylum f o r the Houseless Poor of London - opened only i n the winter and o f f e r i n g only bread, water and warm s h e l t e r -Mayhew wrote: It i s impossible to mistake the Asylum i f you go there in the dark, j u s t as the bump i n the wire cage over the entrance door i s being l i g h t e d . T h i s i s the hour for opening; and ranged along the kerb i s a kind of ragged regiment, drawn up four deep, and s t r e t c h i n g far up and down the narrow lane, u n t i l the crowd i s l i k e a hedge to the roadway...There they stand s h i v e r i n g i n the snow, with t h e i r t h i n , cobwebby garments hanging i n t a t t e r s about them. Many are without s h i r t s . . . A few are without shoes; and they keep one foot only to the ground, while the bare f l e s h that has had to tramp through the snow i s blue and l i v i d - l o o k i n g as h a l f cooked meat...The only sounds heard are the s q u e a l i n g of the beggar i n f a n t s , or the wrangling of the vagrant boys for the f r o n t ranks, together with a continued s u c c e s s i o n of hoarse coughs, that seem to answer each other l i k e the b l e a t i n g of a f l o c k of sheep. (1862, V o l . 3, p. 428) And w h i l e seeming to pass harsh judgement on vagrants, Mayhew was even harsher on those who might have seen themselves as a r c h i t e c t s of t h e i r own good f o r t u n e : "...get down from your moral s t i l t s , and confess i t ho n e s t l y to y o u r s e l f , that you are what you are by that i n s c r u t a b l e grace which decreed your b i r t h p l a c e to be a mansion or a 247 . cottage rather than a "padding-ken", or which granted you b r a i n s and s t r e n g t h , i n s t e a d of sending you i n t o the world, l i k e many of these, a c r i p p l e or an i d i o t . " (1862, V o l . 3, p. 429) Mayhew was c l e a r l y not unaware of s t r u c t u r a l i n e q u a l i t i e s in s o c i e t y and keenly aware of the p o s s i b l e r e l a t i o n s h i p s between s o c i a l r e l i e f p o l i c y (as a form of s o c i a l c o n t r o l ) and s o c i a l behaviour. C. V i c e Crusades and the D i s p e r s a l of Segregated Areas In c o n t r a s t to much of the l i t e r a t u r e on the geography of crime, geographers i n t e r e s t e d i n p r o s t i t u t i o n have been more keenly aware of the impact of c r i m i n a l l e g i s l a t i o n and v a r i a t i o n s i n law enforcement p r o t o c o l on p a t t e r n s of " v i c e " (Symanski, 1974, 1981; Shumsky and S p r i n g e r , 1981). In a d d i t i o n , a number of r e s e a r c h e r s in other f i e l d s have n o t i c e d the importance of law enforcement d i f f e r e n t i a l s i n p a t t e r n s of p r o s t i t u t i o n ( Reckless, 1933) and the importance of s p a t i a l m o b i l i t y as an adaptive s t r a t e g y e n a b l i n g p r o s t i t u t e s to continue t h e i r trade d e s p i t e the e f f o r t s of law enforcement personnel (James, 1975). A review of t h i s l i t e r a t u r e i s p a r t i c u l a r l y u s e f u l i n terms of the present d i s c u s s i o n not only because i t serves to set the stage f o r the e m p i r i c a l v i g n e t t e to be presented in the next chapter on p a t t e r n s of p r o s t i t u t i o n in Vancouver, but a l s o because o b s e r v a t i o n s of changes in p a t t e r n s of p r o s t i t u t i o n i n other c i t i e s at other times has prompted two students of the geography of crime to observe that 248 . ( i n the case of p r o s t i t u t i o n anyway) "law and p a t t e r n s of law enforcement... determine s p a t i a l d i s t r i b u t i o n more than any other f a c t o r . " (Shumsky and S p r i n g e r , 1981, p. 88). I do not propose to o f f e r an exhaustive review of the l i t e r a t u r e on p a t t e r n s of p r o s t i t u t i o n but i n s t e a d to r e i n t e r p r e t some p a r t i c u l a r l y p e r t i n e n t examples in terms of the displacement theme developed here. And given the o b s e r v a t i o n i n Chapter 4 that geographers have tended to be rather too s e l e c t i v e i n t h e i r adaption of the e c o l o g i c a l aspects of the work of the Chicago School s o c i o l o g i s t s , the d i s c u s s i o n begins with a review of Walter R e c k l e s s ' o b s e r v a t i o n s about the impact of law enforcement on p a t t e r n s of p r o s t i t u t i o n in Chicago d u r i n g the f i r s t quarter of the twentieth century. Walter R e c k l e s s ' V i c e i n Chicago (1933) o u t l i n e s a c l a s s i c example of displacement f o l l o w i n g the a c t i v i t i e s of the Chicago V i c e Commission and the c l o s u r e of the segregated " r e d - l i g h t " d i s t r i c t i n 1912 ( f o r f u r t h e r d i s c u s s i o n see H a l l e r , 1970). T h i s was the era of the great crusades against v i c e , and Chicago was the f i r s t of a number of American c i t i e s to c l o s e i t s segregated area. R e c k l e s s ' study examines the general e f f e c t s of twenty years of suppression on commercialized v i c e . Of the v a r i o u s questions he set out to answer, h i s concern with documenting the r e l o c a t i o n of p r o s t i t u t i o n as opposed to i t s a c t u a l s uppression i s of p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t her e. Reckless notes that up u n t i l 1912 p r o s t i t u t i o n was never a c t u a l l y l e g a l , but was permitted to e x i s t by p u b l i c o f f i c i a l s 249 . a n d p o l i c e who w e r e p r a c t i c a l l y u n a n i m o u s l y i n f a v o u r o f t h e i n f o r m a l s e g r e g a t i o n o r t o l e r a t i o n o f c o m m e r c i a l s e x ( 1 9 3 3 , p . 5 ) . " A m e r i c a n p o l i c e , c a l l e d u p o n t o e n f o r c e l a w s made by one p a r t o f t h e c o m m u n i t y f o r t h e b e n e f i t o f a n o t h e r h a v e b e e n , l i k e w i n d m i l l s , o n l y a c t i v e when t h e w i n d was b l o w i n g . " ( 1 9 3 3 , p . 2 3 5 ) . One s u c h w i n d was p r o v i d e d b y a s e r i e s o f a n t i - v i c e c r u s a d e s w h i c h l e d t o t h e a b a n d o n m e n t o f t h e s y s t e m o f t o l e r a t i o n . T h i s was n o t a c l e a r - c u t c h a n g e o f p h i l o s o p h y , r a t h e r a s e r i e s o f o p e n i n g s a n d c l o s i n g s o f t h e d i s t r i c t , w i t h p r o g r e s s i v e l y m o r e i n t e n s i v e a t t e m p t s t o u s e f o r m a l s a n c t i o n s a g a i n s t p r o s t i t u t e s a n d v i c e r e s o r t o w n e r s . B u t d e s p i t e t h e p u b l i c f u r o r e e x c i t e d b y a f e d e r a t i o n o f m o r a l f o r c e s , R e c k l e s s n o t e s t h a t t h e r e was v e r y l i t t l e p u b l i c r e f l e c t i o n on t h e t a c t i c s u s e d i n v i c e s u p p r e s s i o n o r u p o n t h e i r r e s u l t s ( 1 9 3 3 , p . 8 ) . A s t o t h e d e t e r r e n t e f f e c t s o f t h e l a w e n f o r c e m e n t c a m p a i g n , R e c k l e s s i s u n e q u i v o c a l " V i c e c o n t i n u e d i n A m e r i c a a f t e r t h e b r e a k i n g up o f t h e s e g r e g a t e d v i c e a r e a s , b u t due t o t h e c h a n g e i n l a w e n f o r c e m e n t p o l i c y , t h e c h a r a c t e r o f t h e commerce i n women c h a n g e d . T h e p r o b l e m has a s s u m e d a new f o r m ; i t has n o t c e a s e d t o e x i s t . " I n s t e a d , as a r e a c t i o n t o l a w e n f o r c e m e n t p o l i c i e s , t h e v i c e a r e a d i s p e r s e d . T h e d i s p e r s i o n a p p e a r s t o h a v e b e e n a f f e c t e d by r e s o r t o w n e r s t o make t h e p r o c e s s o f l a w e n f o r c e m e n t much m o r e d i f f i c u l t ; a d d i t i o n a l l y R e c k l e s s n o t e s t h a t t h e p r o s t i t u t i o n r e s o r t s t o o k on an e p h e m e r a l c h a r a c t e r , r e m a i n i n g o p e n f o r an a v e r a g e o f a b o u t s i x m o n t h s i n a n y one l o c a t i o n ( 1 9 3 3 , p . 1 8 ) . 2 5 0 . T h e p e r i o d o f a c t i v e v i c e s u p p r e s s i o n a p p e a r s t o h a v e p r e c i p i t a t e d a n u m b e r o f o t h e r c h a n g e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n l o o s e n i n g t h e g r i p o r g a n i z e d c r i m e h a d t r a d i t i o n a l l y h e l d on p r o s t i t u t i o n . W h i l e d i s p e r s a l o f t h e l o c a t i o n s o f p r o s t i t u t i o n f a c i l i t a t e d e s c a p e f r o m l a w e n f o r c e m e n t a c t i v i t i e s , i r o n i c a l l y i t m u s t h a v e made i t c o n s i d e r a b l y m o r e d i f f i c u l t f o r o r g a n i z e d c r i m e t o r e t a i n c o n t r o l o f p r o s t i t u t i o n . T h u s t h e r e a p p e a r s t o h a v e b e e n a r i s e o f a new u n r e g i m e n t e d c l a s s o f p r o f e s s i o n a l , s e m i - p r o f e s s i o n a l and a m a t e u r p r o s t i t u t e s w o r k i n g on an i n d e p e n d e n t and c l a n d e s t i n e b a s i s ( 1 9 3 3 , p . 1 3 7 ) . Y e t v i c e a c t i v i t y , f a r f r o m d y i n g o u t i n t h e r e d - l i g h t d i s t r i c t , p e r s i s t e d , a l b e i t i n r e s t r i c t e d f o r m as o r g a n i z e d c r i m e d e v e l o p e d p o l i t i c a l i n f l u e n c e a n d t h e r e b y c o n s o l i d a t e d p o l i c e s u p p o r t a n d g r a f t . T h i s i s n o t t o s a y t h a t t h e s u p p r e s s i o n e r a s p a w n e d o r g a n i z e d c r i m e . R a t h e r t h a t " i f c o m m e r c i a l i z e d v i c e d i d n o t d i s a p p e a r w i t h t h e p a s s i n g o f t h e s e g r e g a t e d d i s t r i c t , i t i s a l s o t r u e t h a t t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s o f d e a l i n g w i t h v i c e , now t h a t i t was o r g a n i z e d , e n t r e n c h e d , and p r o t e c t e d , w e r e g r e a t l y i n c r e a s e d . " T h e v e r y a t t e m p t a t i n t e n s i f y i n g l a w e n f o r c e m e n t s eemed t o make t h e p r o b l e m s o f e n f o r c e m e n t m o r e i n t r a c t a b l e ! R e c k l e s s a l s o d o c u m e n t s an i n c r e a s e i n N e g r o p r o s t i t u t i o n , a n d w h i l e t h i s i m p o r t a n t l y r e f l e c t s d i f f e r e n t i a l ( r a c i s t ) l a w e n f o r c e m e n t p a t t e r n s ( p p . 1 3 - 1 5 ) he a l s o m e n t i o n s t h e e f f e c t o f t h e e n o r m o u s m i g r a t i o n o f b l a c k s t o t h e n o r t h e r n m e t r o p o l i t a n c e n t r e s i n s w e l l i n g t h e p r o s t i t u t e r a n k s . T h u s p a t t e r n c h a n g e s p r o d u c e d by o t h e r f a c t o r s c o m p l i c a t e t h e p a t t e r n o f d i s p l a c e m e n t i n i t i a t e d by t h e s u p p r e s s i o n m o v e m e n t . A l s o t h e 2 5 1 . d i s p e r s a l of the r e d - l i g h t d i s t r i c t d i d not produce the displacement of r e s o r t s and p r o s t i t u t e s i n t o r e s p e c t a b l e neighbourhoods as the s e g r e g a t i o n i s t s p r e d i c t e d (pp. 10-12, 231-233). T h i s may have l e d Reckless to a c o n c l u s i o n that i n one important respect seems i n c o n s i s t e n t with the remainder of h i s a n a l y s i s . "My impression i s that the changes in the problem of commercialized v i c e i n Chicago i n l a r g e part have been due to modern urban trends and to u n d e r l y i n g causes of modern c i t y growth, and only i n small part to law enforcement d r i v e s . At no time in the twenty years of attempted v i c e s uppression i n Chicago have the f o r c e s of p u b l i c suppression been constant, uniform, or at a maximum." (p. v i i i ) But even i f suppression attempts were not uniform, the evidence provided by Reckless i s that law enforcment e f f o r t s d i d have a c o n s i d e r a b l e impact, p a r t i c u l a r l y in terms of d i s p l a c i n g v i c e from the segregated area. He confirms t h i s by arguing that general urban trends and law enforcement c a r r i e d equal weight in b r i n g i n g about the d e c e n t r a l i z a t i o n of p r o s t i t u t i o n ( 1933, p. 30). While evidence i s given that some r e s o r t s were l o c a t e d o u t s i d e the segregated area before 1910 (1933, p. 140) these were a p p a r e n t l y anomalous o u t l i e r s -elsewhere he suggests that there was an almost complete c o n c e n t r a t i o n of r e s o r t s i n the downtown area at that time (1933, p. v i i ) . The i n f l u x of b lacks a f t e r 1910 complicates the p a t t e r n of displacement to some extent, for they would have presumably l o c a t e d away from the segregated area and the p o l i c e problems i t might b r i n g . T h i s i s not to suggest that black and white p r o s t i t u t e s were segregated - p r i o r to 1910 Reckless 252 . notes that black women d i d p l y t h e i r trade in the segregated d i s t r i c t (1933, p. 25). In g e n e r a l , w h i l e R e c k l e s s ' study does i l l u s t r a t e the importance of law enforcement p r a c t i c e s i n h e l p i n g to i n i t i a t e changes i n s o c i a l a c t i v i t y p a t t e r n s , i t a l s o i l l u s t r a t e s the complexity of the problem of making causal i n f e r e n c e s about displacement phenomena. I f , however, we add to these f i n d i n g s the weight of other s t u d i e s of law enforcement and p r o s t i t u t i o n p a t t e r n s , the causal r e l a t i o n s h i p s appear to be v i r t u a l l y i n d i s p u t a b l e . S i g n i f i c a n t l y , some of t h i s other research has been c o n t r i b u t e d by geographers. In a study of San F r a n c i s c o ' s zones of p r o s t i t u t i o n between 1880 and 1934, Shumsky and S p r i n g e r 4 i d e n t i f y three major changes i n patte r n s of p r o s t i t u t i o n , a l l of which seem e x p l i c a b l e p r i m a r i l y i n terms of the c o n t r o l environment. Some of these changes occurred at a very l o c a l i z e d l e v e l i n v o l v i n g s u b t l e changes i n the segregated area. But most importantly the a n a l y s i s shows that d u r i n g the v i c e crusades of the e a r l y twentieth century, the campaign ag a i n s t p r o s t i t u t i o n e f f e c t i v e l y d i s p e r s e d the r e d - l i g h t d i s t r i c t . Although Shumsky and Spri n g e r do not r e f e r to R e c k l e s s ' study, t h e i r r e s u l t s suggest that the e f f e c t s of the v i c e crusade i n San F r a n c i s c o were almost i d e n t i c a l to the experience i n Chicago (the one main e x c e p t i o n appears to be that the r e d - l i g h t d i s t r i c t i n San F r a n c i s c o was almost e n t i r e l y broken up whereas i n Chicago i t was only p a r t l y d i s p e r s e d ) . 253 . F u r t h e r support for the importance of the impact of law and law enforcement on p r o s t i t u t i o n p a t t e r n s comes from the work of Symanski (1974, 1981). In h i s f i r s t study of p r o s t i t u t i o n , Symanski demonstrates that "the l o c a t i o n of b r o t h e l s and the a c t i v i t y spaces of p r o s t i t u t e s cannot be understood apart from l e g a l , q u a s i - l e g a l , and brothel-owner r e g u l a t i o n s " . In h i s book, The Immoral Landscape (1981), he reviews a whole s e r i e s of examples of how patterns of p r o s t i t u t i o n i n a v a r i e t y of n a t i o n a l contexts are importantly shaped and reshaped by c o n t r o l measures (see e s p e c i a l l y chapters 11 and 12). L i k e James (1975), Symanski shows that m o b i l i t y i t s e l f i s the most important adaptive s t r a t e g y a v a i l a b l e to the p r o s t i t u t e i n circumventing the problems posed by v a r i o u s laws and both formal and informal law enforcement s t r a t e g i e s . With these o b s e r v a t i o n s i n mind the stage i s set f o r an examination of pat t e r n s of p r o s t i t u t i o n i n Vancouver. My purpose in t h i s a n a l y s i s i s not simply to show the e m p i r i c a l importance of a c o n s i d e r a t i o n of the c o n t r o l environment i n understanding crime p a t t e r n s , but i n so-doing to demonstrate the importance of the t h e o r e t i c a l i m p l i c a t i o n s of t h i s change of focus as d i s c u s s e d i n chapters 1-6. 254 . Notes to Chapter 7 1. Through the o b s e r v a t i o n of unintended consequences a number of l i n k s with the wider c r i m i n o l g i c a l and s o c i o l o g i c a l l i t e r a t u r e can a l s o be forged at t h i s p o i n t . Henshel (1976) d i s c u s s e s l a b e l l i n g theory in terms of the a m p l i f i c a t i o n of deviance as an unintended consequence of the e f f o r t to suppress crime. A wide-ranging l i t e r a t u r e has suggested that drug law serves to increase crime by a r t i f i c i a l l y r a i s i n g black market p r i c e s thereby c r e a t i n g p r o f e s s i o n a l c r i m i n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s to reap the harvest produced by c o n d i t i o n s of f a l s e s c a r c i t y (e.g. Lindesmith, 1965; Chambliss, 1977). A f u r t h e r c r i m i n o g e n i c s u b c u l t u r e of a d d i c t i v e drug users develops r e l y i n g on i l l e g a l l y d e r i v e d wealth to supply the funds necessary f o r m a i n t a i n i n g a drug h a b i t . Thus drug laws, designed to deter crime, may a c t u a l l y i n c r e a s e i t . Robert Merton (1936) noted that i n some of i t s numerous forms the problem of the unintended consequences of purposive s o c i a l a c t i o n has been t r e a t e d by v i r t u a l l y every s u b s t a n t i a l c o n t r i b u t o r to the long h i s t o r y of s o c i a l thought, but never i n any s y s t e m a t i c way. Merton was the f i r s t to e x p l i c i t y do so. A program of s t r u c t u r a l -f u n c t i o n a l s o c i o l o g y emerged from t h i s e a r l y i n s i g h t e x p l a i n i n g unintended consequences i n terms of the " l a t e n t " f u n c t i o n s of s o c i a l i n s t i t u t i o n s and v a r i o u s s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s . 2. Most d i s c u s s i o n s of displacement imply that the amount of crime d i s p l a c e d w i l l be l e s s than the magnitude of crime prevented. In the case of the displacement of b u r g l a r y d i s c u s s e d by Hunt and Weiner i t i s p o s s i b l e that the o v e r a l l b u r g l a r y rate i n c r e a s e s as a r e s u l t of displacement. T h i s a m p l i f i c a t o r y e f f e c t might occur i f b u r g l a r i e s were d i s p l a c e d to a time p e r i o d when the o p p o r t u n i t i e s to commit b u r g l a r y were more p l e n t i f u l . 3. My thanks to Dr. Paul Brantingham for b r i n g i n g t h i s example to my a t t e n t i o n . 4. Shumsky i s a h i s t o r i a n , S p r i n g e r a geographer. 255 . Chapter 8 P r o a c t i v e Law Enforcement and Displacement; The Problem of S t r e e t P r o s t i t u t i o n i n Vancouver 1975 - 1979. A Changing Legal M i l i e u On Saturday, March 11, 1978, a he a d l i n e i n a Vancouver newspaper exclaimed, "Hookers out i n f o r c e with new l e g a l immunity." A few days l a t e r another a r t i c l e appeared c l a i m i n g , "Now hookers can smile at d e t e c t i v e s they f e a r e d . " "Vancouver i s r i g h t now the most open c i t y f o r hookers i n North America...'Shei1 a' i s a 21 year o l d red-head. T a l l , a t t r a c t i v e , neat, she dresses l i k e a m i l l i o n d o l l a r s . She p l i e s her trade - openly - on the corner of G e o r g i a and Hornby f i v e or s i x nights a week. And she plans to do i t f o r a long time to come. As c i t i e s go, she says Vancouver i s one of the best places on the c o n t i n e n t for working g i r l s . 'Vancouver's a playground.'...the p o l i c e vice-squad estimates there are 650 female p r o s t i t u t e s , and 200 male ones i n the Greater Vancouver area now. That f i g u r e w i l l climb to 1500 i n the next few months. And many of them w i l l be from the re s t of Canada and the U.S., drawn here by the c i t y ' s reputat i on... Hookers are going to go where they get the fewest h a s s l e s so, of course, they are going to come here. They know they've got no f e a r s of r e p e r c u s s i o n at a l l i n Vancouver." (Vancouver Sun, 11th March, 1978) Two months p r i o r to the p u b l i c a t i o n of t h i s a r t i c l e , a s p e c i a l p o l i c e task f o r c e had some hundred p r o s t i t u t i o n cases 256 . a w a i t i n g l i t i g a t i o n . At that time, the s t r e e t s were by no means safe fo r the p r o s t i t u t e p l y i n g her trade, as a concerted e f f o r t was made to c l e a n up Vancouver's s t r e e t s . The uninformed observer might be tempted to conclude that sometime in the i n t e r v e n i n g p e r i o d p r o s t i t u t i o n must have been l e g a l i z e d in Vancouver. But i n f a c t p r o s t i t u t i o n was l e g a l throughout t h i s p e r i o d . Instead a s e r i e s of i n t e r a c t i o n s occurred between the p o l i c e , courts and p r o s t i t u t e s which had the e f f e c t of t r a n s f o r m i n g the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of p r o s t i t u t i o n law. The e f f e c t s of t h i s change i n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n has been to turn what was a h i g h l y p r o h i b i t i v e l e g a l m i l i e u i n t o one which i s h i g h l y conducive to the p r a c t i c e of s t r e e t p r o s t i t u t i o n . But, as we s h a l l see, the change in i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of s t r e e t p r o s t i t u t i o n o f f e n c e s was i t s e l f occasioned by the impact of c e r t a i n law enforcement d e c i s i o n s . In a two year p e r i o d i n Vancouver new areas of s t r e e t p r o s t i t u t i o n developed and t h e i r v i s i b i l i t y i n c r e a s e d . These s p a t i a l s h i f t s rather than being occasioned by some change in the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of p r o s t i t u t e s r e f l e c t i n s t e a d the v a r i a b i l i t y of law enforcement p r a c t i c e s , court d e c i s i o n s , and m o d i f i c a t i o n s of the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of law. In t h i s case, then, the c a t a l y s t s of changes in p a t t e r n s of s t r e e t p r o s t i t u t i o n i n Vancouver can be i d e n t i f i e d l a r g e l y in terms of the c o n t r o l response to p r o s t i t u t i o n with l i t t l e c o n s i d e r a t i o n of the c o n d i t i o n s i n v o l v e d with a person's becoming e i t h e r a p r o s t i t u t e or a c l i e n t (n.b. Shumsky and S p r i n g e r , 1981, p. 88) . 2 5 7 . I n a d d i t i o n , t h e o f f i c i a l s t a t i s t i c s p e r t a i n i n g t o s t r e e t p r o s t i t u t i o n a r e h i g h l y a m b i g u o u s . A n e x a m i n a t i o n o f p o l i c e s t a t i s t i c s f o r V a n c o u v e r l e a v e s one w i t h t h e i m p r e s s i o n t h a t s t r e e t s o l i c i t a t i o n o f f e n c e s d e c l i n e d i n t h e p e r i o d 1975 - 1978 ( F i g . 3 , p . 2 8 2 ) W h i l e t h i s i s i n d e e d t r u e , t h e i m p l i c a t i o n t h a t s t r e e t p r o s t i t u t i o n d e c l i n e d i s e r r o n e o u s - b o t h n e w s p a p e r a c c o u n t s , a n d s o c i a l w o r k e r s , p r o s t i t u t e s a n d p o l i c e o f f i c e r s i n t e r v i e w e d i n f o r m a l l y a l l s u g g e s t t h a t s t r e e t p r o s t i t u t i o n i n c r e a s e d d r a m a t i c a l l y i n t h e same p e r i o d . Wha t t h e a n a l y s i s r e v e a l s i s t h a t t h e b e h a v i o u r o f p r o s t i t u t e s was i n t i m a t e l y t i e d t o t h e m e a n i n g o f l a w , c o u r t d e c i s i o n s , a n d t h e b e h a v i o u r o f l a w e n f o r c e r s , a l t h o u g h n o t i n a way n e c e s s a r i l y c o n s o n a n t w i t h t h e i n t e n t i o n s o f l a w e n f o r c e m e n t e f f o r t s . T h e s t u d y h i g h l i g h t s how c o n t r a d i c t i o n s i n t h e m e a n i n g a n d p u r p o s e o f p r o s t i t u t i o n l a w c r e a t e a p r o b l e m a t i c l e g a l m i l i e u i n w h i c h t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s o f c e r t a i n k i n d s o f e n f o r c e m e n t p o l i c y a r e i n d i r e c t o p p o s i t i o n t o t h e i r i n t e n d e d p u r p o s e s . F o l l o w i n g t h e a r g u m e n t d e v e l o p e d i n c h a p t e r f i v e , t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e m e a n i n g o f o f f i c i a l s t a t i s t i c s t h e i n s t i t u t i o n a l i s t p e r s p e c t i v e d r a w s a t t e n t i o n t o b o t h t h e l e g a l a n d o c c u p a t i o n a l m i l i e u i n w h i c h t h e p o l i c e o p e r a t e ; w h a t I now p r o p o s e t o show i s t h a t t h e s e same c o n c e r n s c a n be c e n t r a l t o an u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f ( c r i m i n a l ) a c t i v i t y p a t t e r n c h a n g e s , f o r i t i s o n l y i n t h e l i g h t o f t h e s e b a c k g r o u n d c o n t e x t s t h a t p r o s t i t u t e b e h a v i o u r c a n be u n d e r s t o o d i n t h i s p a r t i c u l a r c a s e . T h e d i s c u s s i o n f i r s t e x a m i n e s t h e p u r p o s e o f 258 . p r o s t i t u t i o n s t a t u t e s , a n d t h e n t h e o c c u p a t i o n a l c o n t e x t o f p o l i c i n g t o l a y a f o u n d a t i o n f o r t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f c h a n g e s i n p a t t e r n s o f s t r e e t p r o s t i t u t i o n i n V a n c o u v e r . P r o s t i t u t i o n S t a t u t e s - I d e o l o g y as L a w A l t h o u g h i n C a n a d a t h e a c t o f p r o s t i t u t i o n i s l e g a l , s e v e r a l c l a u s e s o f t h e C a n a d i a n C r i m i n a l C o d e s p e c i f y p r o s t i t u t i o n r e l a t e d o f f e n c e s . S e c t i o n s 193 a n d 194 r e l a t e t o t h e k e e p i n g a n d p a t r o n i z i n g o f a common bawdy h o u s e , w h i l s t s e c t i o n 195 d e a l s w i t h s o l i c i t i n g and p r o c u r i n g . I t i s t h e i d e o l o g y o f t h e l a t t e r w h i c h i s i m p o r t a n t a n d i n t h i s c a s e v i t a l t o u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e u n f o l d i n g c o n s e q u e n c e s o f p r o s t i t u t i o n l a w e n f o r c e m e n t . O f s o l i c i t i n g , t h e c o d e s a y s : " E v e r y p e r s o n who s o l i c i t s a n y p e r s o n i n a p u b l i c p l a c e f o r t h e p u r p o s e o f p r o s t i t u t i o n i s g u i l t y o f an o f f e n c e p u n i s h a b l e on summary c o n v i c t i o n . " ( M a r t i n s A n n u a l C r i m i n a l C o d e 1 9 7 7 , p p . 1 7 6 - 1 7 9 ) . T h i s s o l i c i t i n g l a w i s o v e r t l y s e x i s t , t h e c o m m e n t a r y i n t h e 1977 c o d e c o n t i n u i n g : " S i n c e p r o s t i t u t i o n c a n o n l y be c a r r i e d o n by a f ema1e a p e r s o n i m p e r s o n a t i n g a f e m a l e h a v i n g e n g a g e d u p o n a r r a n g e m e n t i n b r i n g i n g a b o u t s e x u a l g r a t i f i c a t i o n t o a n o t h e r m a l e c a n n o t be c o n v i c t e d o f s o l i c i t i n g f o r t h e p u r p o s e o f p r o s t i t u t i o n ( e m p h a s i s a d d e d ) . B e s i d e s b e i n g exempt f r o m t h e s o l i c i t i n g l a w as a p r o s t i t u t e , m a l e p a t r o n s a r e a l s o exempt f r o m p r o s e c u t i o n i n a h e t e r o s e x u a l c o n t r a c t . T h e u n d e r l y i n g r a t i o n a l e o f t h i s l a w demands c l o s e a t t e n t i o n . W h y , i f p r o s t i t u t i o n i s l e g a l , s h o u l d i t s p u b l i c 259 . p r e p a r a t i o n be i l l e g a l , a n d why s h o u l d men be e x o n e r a t e d f r o m a l l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y ? T h e W o l f e n d e n C o m m i s s i o n R e p o r t ( 1 9 6 3 ) , w h i c h i n p a r t d e a l t w i t h p r o s t i t u t i o n , i s i n s t r u c t i v e h e r e . 1 T h e C o m m i s s i o n a r g u e d t h a t i t i s n o t t h e d u t y o f t h e l a w t o c o n c e r n i t s e l f w i t h i m m o r a l i t y as s u c h ; t h e l a w s h o u l d be c o n f i n e d t o t h o s e a c t i v i t i e s w h i c h o f f e n d a g a i n s t p u b l i c o r d e r a n d d e c e n c y , o r e x p o s e t h e o r d i n a r y c i t i z e n t o w h a t i s o f f e n s i v e o r i n j u r i o u s ( p . 1 4 3 ) . F r o m t h e p o i n t o f v i e w o f t h e l a w , a p e r s o n ' s b o d y i s p r i v a t e p r o p e r t y , t h e i n d i v i d u a l e n j o y i n g c o m p l e t e c o n t r o l o f i t ' s u s e . ( H e n c e i t i s n o t an o f f e n s e t o u s e d r u g s , o n l y t o p o s s e s s t h e m . ) I t i s o n l y when t h e u s e o f o n e ' s b o d y a f f e c t s p u b l i c o r d e r a n d d e c e n c y t h a t i t comes u n d e r t h e p u r v i e w o f c r i m i n a l l a w . S o l i c i t i n g i n p u b l i c f o r t h e p u r p o s e o f p r o s t i t u t i o n i s t h u s deemed t o be a p u b l i c n u i s a n c e . S o l i c i t i n g i n a p r i v a t e p l a c e i s l e g a l , as i s a s e x f o r money t r a n s a c t i o n . S i n c e many o t h e r f o r m s o f p u b l i c s o l i c i t i n g a r e l e g a l ( e . g . , c o l l e c t i n g f o r c h a r i t i e s o r r e c r u i t i n g f o r v a r i o u s r e l i g i o u s a n d p o l i t i c a l i n s t i t u t i o n s ) , i t i s r e a s o n a b l e t o c o n c l u d e t h a t i t i s o n l y t h e a d j u d g e d i m m o r a l i t y o f p r o s t i t u t i o n t h a t makes p u b l i c s o l i c i t i n g f o r t h a t p u r p o s e i l l e g a l . T o t h i s e x t e n t , d e s p i t e t h e a s s e r t i o n t h a t t h e l a w does n o t d e a l w i t h i m m o r a l i t y as s u c h , a p l a u s i b l e a r g u m e n t c a n be made t h a t s o l i c i t a t i o n l a w s r e p r e s e n t a c o d i f i c a t i o n o f m o r a l s t a n d a r d s . T h e m o r a l i t y e n s h r i n e d i n p r o s t i t u t i o n l a w , h o w e v e r , r u n s much d e e p e r . T h e W o l f e n d e n C o m m i s s i o n t o o k g r e a t p a i n s t o 260 . s t r e s s that i f the in t e n t of the law i s to punish p r o s t i t u t i o n per se on the grounds that i t i s immoral conduct, then i t would be r i g h t to provide f o r punishment of the men in v o l v e d i n the purchase, as w e l l as the women p r o v i d i n g the goods. What are we to make of t h i s argument? The r e l a t i o n s h i p between p r o s t i t u t e and c l i e n t i s r e c i p r o c a l - each needs the other i n order f o r the act of p r o s t i t u t i o n to take p l a c e . Without the customer, there i s no p r o s t i t u t e ; men are thus j u s t as r e s p o n s i b l e f o r the s o l i c i t i n g that occurs i n p u b l i c places as are the women who o f f e r t h e i r s e r v i c e s . On t h i s score, the Wolfenden Report appears to be l i t t l e more than an a p o l o g e t i c . The p r o s t i t u t e , the report says, parades h e r s e l f h a b i t u a l l y and openly (1963, p. 143). Her continued presence thus a f f r o n t s the sense of decency of the o r d i n a r y c i t i z e n more so than the presence of p r o s p e c t i v e customers. T h i s does not deny that male customers offend p u b l i c decency by approaching women who are not p r o s t i t u t e s , or by p u b l i c l y s e c u r i n g sex f o r money. As there i s no d i f f e r e n c e between the behaviours of p r o s t i t u t e and c l i e n t , i t i s d i f f i c u l t to j u s t i f y l e g a l d i s c r i m i n a t i o n a gainst the one or the other. But, as noted i n chapter f i v e , p o l i c e d i s c r e t i o n a r y bias can operate i n such a way that s t a t u s can become a b e t t e r p r e d i c t o r of the a t t r i b u t i o n of the c r i m i n a l l a b e l than behaviour. So i t i s with the p r o s t i t u t e and c l i e n t - there i s a c o n s i d e r a b l e d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e i r s t a t u s . But i n the case of p r o s t i t u t i o n t h i s i s not s o l e l y a matter of p o l i c e d i s c r e t i o n , i t i s the 261. u n d e r l y i n g ideology of the law i t s e l f . As Abraham F l e x n e r suggests: The p r o f e s s i o n a l p r o s t i t u t e , being a s o c i a l o u t c a s t , may be p e r i o d i c a l l y punished without d i s t u r b i n g the usual course of s o c i e t y ; no one misses her while she i s s e r v i n g out her turn -no one, at l e a s t , about whom s o c i e t y has any concern. The man, however, i s something more than partner i n an immoral a c t ; he discharges important s o c i a l and business r e l a t i o n s , i s as fa t h e r or brother r e s p o n s i b l e f o r the maintenance of oth e r s , has commercial or i n d u s t r i a l d u t i e s to meet. He cannot be imprisoned without deranging s o c i e t y . (Quoted i n Davi s , 1966) A double moral standard a t t r i b u t i n g d i f f e r e n t s t a t u s e s to men and women has become enshrined i n law.^ The que s t i o n now becomes, what i s i t about the nature of human s o c i e t y that causes i t to give r i s e to, and ma i n t a i n an i n s t i t u t i o n which i t simul t a n e o u s l y condemns. In answering t h i s q u e s t i o n , Freda A d l e r argues: Given the sexual freedom men have reserved f o r themselves, and the code of p r e m a r i t a l c h a s t i t y and p o s t - m a r i t a l f i d e l i t y they have imposed on women, p r o s t i t u t i o n i s the only mechanism which would permit the coe x i s t e n c e of these two mutu a l l y e x c l u s i v e and c o n t r a d i c t o r y i d e a l s . Without p r o s t i t u t i o n t h e i r foundations i n fantasy would be exposed, and they would f a l l of t h e i r own weight. (1975, p.57) A d l e r quotes the ni n e t e e n t h century m o r a l i s t W i l l i a m Lecky's o b s e r v a t i o n that the p r o s t i t u t e i s u l t i m a t e l y the most e f f i c i e n t guardian of v i r t u e : He (Lecky) contended that but f o r the s o c i a l f u n c t i o n she performs, the s t a b i l i t y of the fa m i l y , and the p r e s e r v a t i o n of the very s o c i a l i n s t i t u t i o n s dependent on abstinence would be i n jeopardy. ( A d l e r , 1975, p. 57) 262. S o c i e t y a t o n c e s u p p o r t s a n d d e n i g r a t e s p r o s t i t u t i o n t r e a t i n g i t w i t h a m i x t u r e o f p i t y , s c o r n , p e r s e c u t i o n a n d f a s c i n a t i o n ( D a v i s , 1 9 6 6 , p . 2 6 2 ) . T h i s same c o n f u s i o n seems t o a p p l y t o p r o s t i t u t i o n l a w w h i c h i n C a n a d a does n o t a c t u a l l y p r o h i b i t t h e a c t o f p r o s t i t u t i o n , b u t d o e s p r e v e n t a p e r s o n f r o m m a k i n g a l i v i n g by i t . W h a t e v e r t h e r o o t c a u s e s o f p r o s t i t u t i o n , i t i s a b e h a v i o u r w h i c h has p r o v e n h i g h l y r e s i s t e n t t o r e p r e s s i v e m e a s u r e s ( R e c k l e s s , 1 9 3 3 ; S h u m s k y a n d S p r i n g e r , 1 9 8 1 ; S y m a n s k i , 1 9 8 1 ) . B e c a u s e o f t h e g r e a t d i f f i c u l t y t h e c o u r t s and p o l i c e h a v e e x p e r i e n c e d i n c h a l l e n g i n g p r o s t i t u t i o n , a p r o p h y l a c t i c m e n t a l i t y now p r e v a i l s . T h e l e g a l s t r a t e g y a d o p t e d i n C a n a d a i s a i m e d a t c o n t r o l l i n g t h e p u b l i c e x p r e s s i o n o f p r o s t i t u t i o n and i t s u n c h e c k e d e x p a n s i o n . 4 B e c a u s e p a r a d o x i c a l s o c i a l a t t i t u d e s a r e r e f l e c t e d i n t h e c r i m i n a l l a w , t h e a c t o f p r o s t i t u t i o n b e i n g l e g a l , t h e p r o b l e m o f i t s r e g u l a t i o n i s t a c k l e d t a n g e n t i a l l y . L a w s p e r t a i n i n g t o " p u b l i c s o l i c i t i n g " a n d " l i v i n g o f f t h e a v a i l s " a r e d i f f i c u l t t o e n f o r c e , h o w e v e r , b e c a u s e t h e y d e a l w i t h a c t i v i t i e s i n w h i c h t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s a r e c o n s e n t i n g . T h e p o l i c e i n e n f o r c i n g p r o s t i t u t i o n l a w m u s t c o n s e q u e n t l y r e l y a l m o s t e x c l u s i v e l y on p r o a c t i v e i n v e s t i g a t i o n s . T h e c h a r a c t e r o f t h e s e i n v e s t i g a t i o n s i n t h e c o n t e x t o f p o l i c e o c c u p a t i o n a l c u l t u r e a l s o m e r i t s some c o n s i d e r a t i o n . B e a r i n g i n m i n d R e c k l e s s ' w o r k w h i c h i n d i c a t e s t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f p u b l i c p r e s s u r e g r o u p a c t i v i t y on l a w e n f o r c e m e n t p r a c t i c e s , t h e l o c a l p o l i t i c a l c o n t e x t a g a i n s t 263 . w h i c h p o l i c e e n f o r c e m e n t p r a c t i c e s u n f o l d m u s t a l s o be b r o u g h t i n t o t h e a n a l y s i s . P o l i c e C u l t u r e , t h e P o l i t i c s o f P o l i c e A d m i n i s t r a t i o n a n d t h e T r a n s l a t i o n o f L a w i n t h e B o o k s t o L a w i n t h e S t r e e t s B y t r a c i n g t h e g e n e s i s a n d t h e m e a n i n g o f p r o s t i t u t i o n l a w s , we i d e n t i f y t h e l e g a l p a r a m e t e r s w i t h i n w h i c h p e o p l e a c t , a n d by w h i c h t h e y o r g a n i z e t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h e a c h o t h e r . I n t h i s c a s e t h e l a w i s t h e m a j o r c o m p o n e n t o f t h e u r b a n s o c i a l e n v i r o n m e n t m o u l d i n g r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n p o l i c e a n d p r o s t i t u t e s . B u t g o v e r n m e n t i s by p e o p l e , n o t l a w , w i t h t h e r e s u l t t h a t t h e l a w c a n o n l y be u n d e r s t o o d as i t i s a d m i n i s t e r e d . B y e x t e n s i o n , c r i m i n a l i t y c a n o n l y be f u l l y u n d e r s t o o d i n l i g h t o f t h e v a r y i n g i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s a n d a d m i n i s t r a t i o n s o f l a w . G i v e n t h e r e g u l a t o r y f u n c t i o n o f t h e C a n a d i a n p r o s t i t u t i o n l a w , t h e v i s i b i l i t y o f t h e s t r e e t w a l k e r ha s become t h e m a i n c r i t e r i o n f o r p o l i c e a c t i o n , and o f t e n o n l y i n r e s p o n s e t o t h e c a m p a i g n s o f p o l i t i c a l p r e s s u r e g r o u p s . E v e n when p r o s t i t u t i o n i s v i s i b l e , a c t i o n i s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y t a k e n s i n c e c h a r g e s a g a i n s t p r o s t i t u t e s may be t r a d e d - o f f f o r i n f o r m a t i o n r e l a t i n g t o o t h e r a r e a s o f c r i m i n a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n ; b y b a r t e r i n g i n f o r m a t i o n t h e p r o s t i t u t e i s o f t e n a b l e t o a v o i d a r r e s t ( A d l e r , 1 9 7 5 , C h . 3 ) . T h u s i n some r e s p e c t s , i t i s t o t h e a d v a n t a g e o f t h e p o l i c e t o h a v e p r o s t i t u t i o n l a w s , b u t n o t t o e n f o r c e t h e m ; t h e o r e t i c a l l y , a c o n t r a d i c t i o n i n t e r m s . I n t h i s 2 6 4 . s e n s e p r o s t i t u t i o n l a w i s an a l l p u r p o s e d e v i c e i n t h e s e n s e t h a t B i t t n e r ( 1 9 7 0 ) and E r i c s o n ( 1 9 8 2 ) c o n v e y ( a s d i s c u s s e d i n C h a p t e r 5) - p r o s t i t u t i o n l a w becomes an i n s t r u m e n t f o r " o r d e r i n g t h e s t r e e t s " . I n t h i s way l e g a l r u l e s a r e s h a p e d t h r o u g h t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e p o l i c e o r g a n i z a t i o n a n d i t s f u n c t i o n i n p r a c t i c e . I t i s t h e t e n s i o n s p r o d u c e d by t h i s m e t a m o r p h a s i s o f l e g a l s t a t u t e s i n t o p r a c t i c a l i n s t r u m e n t s t h a t l e a d s J . H . S k o l n i c k t o p o n d e r w h a t he c o n s i d e r s t h e f u n d a m e n t a l d i l e m m a o f p o l i c e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . A r e t h e p o l i c e , he a s k s , p r i n c i p a l l y an a g e n c y o f s o c i a l c o n t r o l , w i t h t h e i r c h i e f v a l u e t h e e f f i c i e n t e n f o r c e m e n t o f t h e p r o h i b i t i v e norms o f s u b s t a n t i v e c r i m i n a l l a w ? O r a r e t h e p o l i c e t o be an i n s t i t u t i o n f a l l i n g u n d e r t h e hegemony o f t h e l e g a l s y s t e m , w i t h a b a s i c c o m m i t m e n t t o t h e r u l e o f l a w , e v e n i f t h i s o b l i g a t i o n may r e s u l t i n a r e d u c t i o n o f s o c i a l o r d e r ? ( S k o l n i c k , 1 9 7 5 , p . 1) I n f a c t , t h e p o l i c e f u n c t i o n i n b o t h t h e s e c a p a c i t i e s i n d i f f e r e n t c o n t e x t s a n d a t d i f f e r e n t l e v e l s , b u t t h e y a r e p r i m a r i l y an a g e n c y o f s o c i a l c o n t r o l ( E r i c s o n , 1 9 8 2 ) . S i n c e p o l i c e a c t i v i t y i s n o t s o l e l y g e a r e d t o t h e s p e c i f i c a t i o n o f l a w t h e n , by d e f i n i t i o n , t h e i r a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f l a w i s s o m e t i m e s a r b i t r a r y . T h e q u e s t i o n becomes w h a t s o c i a l o r d e r , o r w h o s e v i s i o n o f i t a r e t h e y m a i n t a i n i n g ? I t i s c l e a r t h a t p o l i c e o p e r a t i o n s a r e n o t s o l e l y s h a p e d b y t h e d i c t a t e s o f l a w . T h e y a r e a l s o p a r t l y s h a p e d b y v a r i o u s p o l i t i c a l p r e s s u r e s , a n d by t h e p o l i c e o c c u p a t i o n a l c u l t u r e . On t o p o f a l l t h e s e i n f l u e n c e s , s o c i a l o p i n i o n may be d i v i d e d a b o u t , o r c o n t r a r y t o t h e p u r p o s e s o f l a w . 265 . S k o l n i c k argues that the goals of democratic s o c i e t y can sometimes undermine the c a p a c i t y of the p o l i c e to respond to the law (1975, p. 6). The recent movement towards e q u a l i z i n g the s t a t u s of women in western s o c i e t i e s g e n e r a l l y may have provided a context i n which ch a l l e n g e s to the i n h e r e n t l y s e x u a l l y b i a s e d p r o s t i t u t i o n law could be r e c e i v e d f a v o u r a b l y in the c r i m i n a l c o u r t s . Any p o l i c e campaign against p r o s t i t u t i o n , e s p e c i a l l y i f given e x t e n s i v e press coverage, might provide an o c c a s i o n for j u s t such a ch a l l e n g e and may p a r t l y e x p l a i n some of the Appeal Court r u l i n g s to be d e s c r i b e d s h o r t l y which made p r o s e c u t i o n of s t r e e t p r o s t i t u t e s i n Vancouver almost impossible as the s i t u a t i o n stood i n 1978. The i n f l u e n c e of the women's movement a s i d e , p u b l i c sentiments about p r o s t i t u t i o n are c l e a r l y e q u i v o c a l , and t h i s together with the f a c t that i t i s an a c t i v i t y engaged i n by consenting a d u l t s ( a s i d e from the problem of j u v e n i l e p r o s t i t u t i o n ) implies that the r o u t i n e enforcement of p r o s t i t u t i o n law i s fraught with d i f f i c u l t y . Freda A d l e r ' s comments about p r o s t i t u t i o n law i n p r a c t i c e apply w e l l to the Canadian experience: The l e g a l apparatus a s s o c i a t e d with the a r r e s t , p r o s e c u t i o n and sentencing of p r o s t i t u t e s i s a morass of c o n t r a d i c t i o n s w i t h i n c o n t r a d i c t i o n s . It i s a Gordian knot of procedural ruses and subterfuges c o n t r i v e d to harmonize that which a u t h o r i t i e s do not wish to c a r r y out with that which they cannot a f f o r d to ignore. The r e s u l t i s o f t e n a ceremonial r i t u a l dance performed by the p o l i c e and c o u r t s , each s t e p p i n g to the mandatory measures of the law but im p r o v i s i n g s u f f i c i e n t l y to express t h e i r concepts of j u s t i c e . (1975, p. 221) 266 . In that the premises and design of c r i m i n a l law are o f t e n i m p r a c t i c a l f o r enforcement purposes, the p o l i c e tend to i d e n t i f y with a g u i d i n g concept of s o c i a l order. T h i s i s not to deny that they p e r c e i v e law and s o c i a l order as one and the same, but that they are f r e q u e n t l y f o r c e d to make a r b i t r a r y a d m i n i s t r a t i v e and enforcement d e c i s i o n s . What processes shape these d e c i s i o n s and which groups b e n e f i t from va r i o u s enforcement p o l i c i e s ? To answer these questions with r e f e r e n c e to p r o s t i t u t i o n , some general o b s e r v a t i o n s about p o l i c e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e decision-making are r e q u i r e d . The c a j o l i n g of v a r i o u s pressure groups c r e a t e s a v o l a t i l e m i l i e u i n which the p o l i c e operate. Groups with c o n f l i c t i n g i n t e r e s t s may each hold potent i a l power to i n f l u e n c e the p o l i c e . A c i t y c o u n c i l i s not n e c e s s a r i l y a m o n o l i t h i c i n t e r e s t group, d i f f e r e n t members r e p r e s e n t i n g d i f f e r e n t i n t e r e s t s , a l l with p o t e n t i a l power to cut back p o l i c e budgets. P o l i c e are c o n s i s t e n t l y e x p l o i t e d by competing p o l i t i c i a n s and o r g a n i z a t i o n s ; many p o l i t i c i a n s pursuing the " s a f e - s t r e e t s " vote plac e i m p r a c t i c a l demands upon the p o l i c e ( S i k e s , 1975, p. 123). Many p o l i c e departments are g r e a t l y i n f l u e n c e d by monied i n t e r e s t s and r i g h t wing groups ( S i k e s , 1975, p. 123) and are themselves c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y r i g h t wing in t h e i r a t t i t u d e s . L i t t l e wonder then that i t has been suggested that r i c h neighbourhoods c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y have the f a s t e s t p o l i c e response times ( S i k e s , 1975, p. 124). Furthermore, the a c t i o n s of the p o l i c e department make he a d l i n e news - p o l i c e a d m i n i s t r a t o r s are thus always s e n s i t i v e 267 . to, and sometimes preoccupied with, p u b l i c r e l a t i o n s (H. K. Becker, 1970, p. 33). P u b l i c r e l a t i o n s p r a c t i c e s o f t e n amount to l i t t l e more than an attempt to show that a d m i n i s t r a t i v e d e c i s i o n s are a p o l i t i c a l . B r i s t o w and Gabard suggest that the i n t e r e s t s of p o l i t i c a l pressure groups, e s p e c i a l l y merchants, are o f t e n more important than the issue of p u b l i c r e l a t i o n s simply because these groups are heeded more by c i t y c o u n c i l s . But then, as one p o l i c e c h i e f they c i t e m a i n t a i n s , " i f press r e l a t i o n s are good, p u b l i c r e l a t i o n s are good" and the p u b l i c always o u t l a s t s the c o u n c i l ( Bristow and Gabard, 1961, p. 62). Thus many competing groups, each wishing to impress i t s own v i s i o n of s o c i a l order, complicate the business of p o l i c e management. Not the l e a s t of these v i s i o n s are the d e s i r e s and values espoused by the p o l i c e themselves. If p o l i c i e s are not popular w i t h i n the p o l i c e department, t h e i r implementation may of t e n be subject to the "poor memories" of o f f i c e r s ( Bristow and Gabard, 1961, p. 58). I t i s p o l i c e o f f i c e r s who convey t h e i r v i s i o n of the s o c i a l r e a l i t y of c i t y s t r e e t s to s u p e r i o r s who make the p o l i c y d e c i s i o n s . In the case of p r o s t i t u t i o n , c e r t a i n values t y p i c a l of p o l i c e c u l t u r e can be instrumental i n shaping a d m i n i s t r a t i v e p o l i c y . V i c e i n v e s t i g a t i o n (drugs, gambling, pornography and p r o s t i t u t i o n ) i s among the most p r e s t i g i o u s areas of p o l i c e work because i t J_s p r o a c t i v e ( S k o l n i c k , 1975, p. 102). It i s p r o a c t i v e p o l i c e i n v e s t i g a t i o n that preoccupies books and movies, and i s o f t e n given high p r o f i l e by the news media. Compared with other forms of police-work, v i c e c o n t r o l i s o f t e n 268 . i n t e r e s t i n g , demanding and allows an o u t l e t f o r r e a l i n g e n u i t y and problem s o l v i n g i n the d e t e c t i o n a l sense. The informer i s the i n d i s p e n s a b l e foundation of much p r o a c t i v e work, but not n e c e s s a r i l y i n p r o s t i t u t i o n law enforcement. In p r a c t i c e i t i s d i f f i c u l t f o r the p o l i c e to prove s o l i c i t a t i o n charges because the c l i e n t s of p r o s t i t u t e s are g e n e r a l l y h e s i t a n t to appear in c o u r t . Thus p r o a c t i v e i n v e s t i g a t i o n i s the usual means of apprehending p r o s t i t u t e s or other people a s s o c i a t e d with the trade who might be " l i v i n g o f f the a v a i l s of p r o s t i t u t i o n " . The p o l i c e d i s g u i s e themselves as p o t e n t i a l c l i e n t s , and a r r e s t the p r o s t i t u t e for p u b l i c s o l i c i t i n g once the deal has been e s t a b l i s h e d . T h i s i s a d i f f i c u l t task s i n c e the o f f i c e r must not express the f i r s t i n t e r e s t i n a t r a n s a c t i o n . The p r a c t i c e a l s o r e q u i r e s frequent personnel turnovers - undercover o f f i c e r s soon become known to the p r o s t i t u t e s . Moreover, in court c o n v i c t i o n s are d i f f i c u l t to o b t a i n because of v a r y i n g i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s of what c o n s t i t u t e s a p u b l i c p l a c e , and what c o n s t i t u t e s s o l i c i t i n g . T h i s method of i n v e s t i g a t i o n , however, only snares i n d i v i d u a l p r o s t i t u t e s - i t does not d i s r u p t the o r g a n i z a t i o n s that may back them. I n v e s t i g a t i o n s a g a i n s t these o r g a n i z a t i o n s r e q u i r e l a r g e - s c a l e and w e l l - c o o r d i n a t e d team p o l i c e e f f o r t s . By v i r t u e of t h e i r s c a l e , s o p h i s t i c a t i o n of techniques, the need for g u i l e i n g a i n i n g i n f o r m a t i o n and the d e t e c t i o n a l appeal a l l these engender, l a r g e - s c a l e i n v e s t i g a t i o n s against c r i m i n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s are regarded by p o l i c e as one of the most p r e s t i g i o u s forms of p o l i c e work. It was one such l a r g e - s c a l e 269 . i n v e s t i g a t i o n that seems to represent the " e f f i c i e n t " cause of changes i n the geography of s t r e e t p r o s t i t u t i o n i n Vancouver. Keeping i n mind the meaning and purpose of p r o s t i t u t i o n law and the f a c t o r s impinging on the enforcement of that law, the d i s c u s s i o n turns to a c o n s i d e r a t i o n of the circumstances which l e d to the conspicuous expansion of s t r e e t p r o s t i t u t i o n i n Vancouver. The n a r r a t i v e begins with the c l o s i n g of a w e l l known Vancouver cabaret c l u b i n 1975 as the r e s u l t of a sup p r e s s i v e crime c o n t r o l s t r a t e g y (see Tab l e 1A) and proceeds to d e s c r i b e the a c t i v i t y displacement that t h i s c l o s u r e seems to have occasioned. S t r e e t P r o s t i t u t i o n i n Vancouver: A Nar rat i ve Few people o u t s i d e c i t y c o u n c i l or p o l i c e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e echelons know why the i n v e s t i g a t i o n of a notor i o u s cabaret club in downtown Vancouver was i n i t i a t e d at the p a r t i c u l a r time that i t was. The news media o f f e r e d l i t t l e more than innuendo on t h i s score, a number of a r t i c l e s suggesting that Monique Layton's report to the p o l i c e on p r o s t i t u t i o n i n Vancouver was instrumental (e.g. Vancouver Sun, 26th September, 1976). Layton, a U n i v e r s i t y of B r i t i s h Columbia a n t h r o p o l o g i s t , named two carabaret clubs as centres of the p r o s t i t u t i o n business (1975). Though the report was not made p u b l i c u n t i l September 1975, i t s contents were l i k e l y known to the p o l i c e b e f o r e that time. But t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n c o u l d h a r d l y have been new; the p o l i c e knowledge of the c i t y scene i s e x t e n s i v e , even 270 . i f i t may be b i a s e d . What i s c e r t a i n i s that one of the cabaret clubs f l o u r i s h e d for twenty-five years before the p o l i c e attempted to c l o s e i t (the second club burned down before any p o l i c e i n v e s t i g a t i o n was i n i t i a t e d ) . Although Layton's report may not have provided new in f o r m a t i o n , i t d i d f o r m a l i z e common knowledge. The power of the p r i n t e d word may have made i t much more d i f f i c u l t f o r the p o l i c e to ignore the s o c i a l r e a l i t y of the cabaret c l u b s , and the p o s s i b i l i t y that t h e i r owners were l i v i n g o f f the a v a i l s of p r o s t i t u t i o n . It was a l s o suggested that the contents of Layton's report were made p u b l i c by the Vancouver press, thus making i t even more d i f f i c u l t f o r the p o l i c e to ignore club a c t i v i t i e s . T h i s a s s e r t i o n was l a t e r denied by a spokesman f o r the press (Vancouver Sun, September 7th, 1976) who suggested that although Layton's report was covered, none of i t s s u b s t a n t i v e contents were d i s c l o s e d . One of the club owners o f f e r e d an e n t i r e l y d i f f e r e n t s c e n a r i o . He suggested that a personal feud with a vice-squad d e t e c t i v e l e d to the d e t e c t i v e u r g i n g the then new p o l i c e - c h i e f to i n s t i g a t e an undercover o p e r a t i o n a g a i n s t h i s club (Vancouver Sun, December 22nd, 1977). Per s o n a l feud or not, t h i s argument i s p l a u s i b l e i n a d i f f e r e n t sense. Assuming that p r o a c t i v e i n v e s t i g a t i o n i s the most p r e s t i g i o u s category of p o l i c e work, what b e t t e r o p p o r t u n i t y to mount a l a r g e - s c a l e undercover operation? It r e q u i r e d a l a r g e team of s k i l l e d i n v e s t i g a t o r s using the most up-to-date s u r v e i l l a n c e techniques and equipment i n an 271. environment which most people frequented p u r e l y for entertainment. The defence, i n the subsequent t r i a l of the owners of one of the c l u b s , f r e q u e n t l y a l l u d e d to the l a v i s h conduct of the p o l i c e i n the course of t h e i r undercover o p e r a t i o n which l a s t e d from May u n t i l December 1975 (Vancouver Sun, A p r i l 23rd, 1977). The defence innuendo was that the p o l i c e made as much mileage out of the i n v e s t i g a t i o n as they c o u l d . S i n c e the o p e r a t i o n was estimated to have cost one m i l l i o n d o l l a r s (Vancouver Sun, A p r i l 23rd, 1977), i t i s reasonable to conclude that there may have been some substance to t h i s a l l e g a t i o n . Defence a t t o r n e y s c h a r a c t e r i z e d undercover d e t e c t i v e s as "King Farouks" c o n s t a n t l y " f l a s h i n g l a r g e money r o l l s " and g e n e r a l l y e n j o y i n g a "champagne l i f e - s t y l e " (Vancouver Sun, October 19th, 1976). The l i q u i d d i e t of brown-cows and golden C a d i l l a c s was supplemented by the v i v a c i o u s atmosphere of the cl u b : "I pretended to be e x c i t e d " , s a i d one of the d e t e c t i v e s l a t e r of an i n c i d e n t at the club d u r i n g which a p r o s t i t u t e s t r i p p e d for him. He a r r e s t e d her and another woman as they l e f t the cl u b (Province, September 29th, 1976). On December 22nd, 1975, the three owners of the cabaret and three employees were charged with l i v i n g o f f the a v a i l s of p r o s t i t u t i o n and " c o n s p i r i n g to produce a p u b l i c m i s c h i e f and thereby corrupt p u b l i c morals" (Vancouver Sun, A p r i l 23rd, 1977). The adamant a t t i t u d e of both the p o l i c e and the Crown i s demonstrated by the Court's d i s m i s s a l of the l a t t e r count which does not even appear i n the Canadian C r i m i n a l Code. 272. The t r i a l , which began i n September, 1976, l a s t e d f o r over s i x months, and a l l but one of the defendants were c o n v i c t e d of l i v i n g o f f the a v a i l s of p r o s t i t u t i o n (Vancouver Sun, May 11th, 1977). The essence of the Crown's case was that both c l u b owners and employees p r o f i t e d from earnings made through p r o s t i t u t i o n . The cabaret charged a $2.95 admission fee, and then, the Crown argued, the p r o s t i t u t e had to t i p the m a i t r e d' and doorman $2.00 each, and pay $2.00 or $3.00 f o r a t a b l e . If the p r o s t i t u t e l e f t w ith a " t r i c k " , she had to pay again the $2.95 door charge for re-admission to the cabaret. She might thus pay the cover-charge three or four times a n i g h t . The club's annual door revenue of $185,000 a t t e s t s to the high r a t e of turnover and p r o f i t a b i l i t y of the club's patrons. In a d d i t i o n , the cl u b would provide c r e d i t card h o l d i n g customers with cash at a 20% i n t e r e s t r a t e to purchase the sexual favours of a p r o s t i t u t e (Vancouver Sun, A p r i l 23rd, 1977). One undercover p o l i c e o f f i c e r borrowed cash i n t h i s way, s t a t i n g as he d i d so that i t was f o r the purpose of paying a p r o s t i t u t e . He was given i t without h e s i t a t i o n (Vancouver Sun, November 30th, 1976). F o r t y - f i v e witnesses t e s t i f i e d i n the course of the t r i a l , i n c l u d i n g three p r o s t i t u t e s who frequented the c l u b . Here we see e x e m p l i f i e d the p o s i t i o n of the p r o s t i t u t e in v i c e - r e l a t e d i n v e s t i g a t i o n s ; the defence suggested that the only reason one of the women t e s t i f i e d was because the p o l i c e had arranged to drop a h e r o i n charge against her. They f u r t h e r suggested that she had f a b r i c a t e d evidence i n her testimony to f a c i l i t a t e t h i s 273. b a r g a i n . In summation, the Judge s t a t e d he was s a t i s f i e d that t h i s was not the case (Vancouver Sun, A p r i l 23rd, 1977). The two brothers owning the c l u b were each f i n e d $50,000 and sentenced to s i x t y days i n j a i l . The doorman was f i n e d $7,000 and awarded the same j a i l term, w h i l s t the two remaining employees were each f i n e d $1,500 and awarded the token sentence of one day i n j a i l . A l l f i v e launched immediate appeals ag a i n s t the c o n v i c t i o n s . The cabaret charges had been l a i d i n December 1975. D e s p i t e the Canadian p r i n c i p l e of law that s t a t e s a defendant i s to be c o n s i d e r e d innocent u n t i l proven g u i l t y , the c l u b ' s l i q u o r l i c e n c e was suspended by p r o v i n c i a l a u t h o r i t i e s on January 1st, 1976. S i m i l a r a c t i o n s may have been i n i t i a t e d by the p o l i c e a g a i n s t the second cabaret c l u b mentioned i n Layton's report but i t was destroyed by f i r e before any a c t i o n was taken. The owner was charged with arson but was not c o n v i c t e d . The average n i g h t l y p r o s t i t u t e p o p u l a t i o n of each of these cabarets was estimated at between f i f t y and one hundred (Vancouver Sun, A p r i l 23rd, 1977). The essence of the Canadian p r o s t i t u t i o n s t a t u t e s i s r e g u l a t o r y : to keep the p r o s t i t u t e out of p u b l i c mind and s i g h t . The e f f e c t of the cabaret a c t i o n , however, achieved j u s t the reverse; the p r o s t i t u t e s could no longer enjoy the p r o t e c t e d s o l i c i t i n g havens provided by the cabaret c l u b s . T h e i r use of these clubs may have represented an a d a p t a t i o n to the l e g a l s t a t u t e which p r o h i b i t s p u b l i c s o l i c i t a t i o n f o r the purpose of p r o s t i t u t i o n . But i t appears that although c e r t a i n p r o s t i t u t e s were prepared to adapt to the 274. law i n order to circumvent i t , the law was i n s u f f i c i e n t to deter these same women when t h e i r adaptive s t r a t e g y was rendered u s e l e s s . It may be that the women chose to work the clubs and not the s t r e e t s f o r d i f f e r e n t reasons. But, whatever the reasons, the e f f e c t was the same once the two clubs were c l o s e d - the p r o s t i t u t e s were d i s p l a c e d onto the s t r e e t s , i n t e n s i f y i n g the very a c t i v i t y the law i s designed to c o n t r o l . By the time the t r i a l of the cabaret club owners and employees was drawing towards a c l o s e i n September 1976, the press was g i v i n g i n c r e a s i n g coverage to the development of a new " s o c i a l problem" i n Vancouver - the inundation of c e r t a i n s t r e e t s by " l a d i e s of the n i g h t " (Vancouver Sun, September 24th, 1976). While there were e s t a b l i s h e d areas of s t r e e t p r o s t i t u t i o n i n Vancouver's " t r a n s i t i o n a l areas", two new l o c a t i o n s developed i n downtown Vancouver's most h e a v i l y t r a f f i c k e d s t r e e t s . Informal i n t e r v i e w s with v a r i o u s p o l i c e p e r s o n n e l , s o c i a l workers and a l i m i t e d number of p r o s t i t u t e s confirmed that one of the areas had h i t h e r t o never been c h a r a c t e r i z e d as an area of s t r e e t p r o s t i t u t i o n (Davie S t r e e t ) , w h i l e i n the other (the Georgia-Hornby i n t e r s e c t i o n ) , s t r e e t p r o s t i t u t i o n was infr e q u e n t and l i m i t e d . A f t e r the c l o s u r e of the two cabaret clubs both of these areas became conspicuous and l o c a l l y renowned as c o n t a i n i n g not only the most, but a l s o the most expensive p r o s t i t u t e s . ^ By the summer of 1976, l o c a l r e s i d e n t and business groups began to apply pressure to the C i t y C o u n c i l and the P o l i c e , l o b b y i n g f o r a "clean-up-the s t r e e t s " campaign (a lobbying 275 . w h i c h was c o n s p i c u o u s l y a b s e n t when s t r e e t p r o s t i t u t i o n was c o n f i n e d t o t h e l e s s s a l u b r i o u s a r e a s o f t h e d o w n t o w n c o r e ) . A w e l l - k n o w n a p a r t m e n t owner i n t h e a r e a n e w l y i n v a d e d by d i s p l a c e d p r o s t i t u t e s , f o r e x a m p l e , made s u b m i s s i o n s t o t h e B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a P o l i c e C o m m i s s i o n u r g i n g t h a t s o m e t h i n g be done a b o u t t h e l a r g e n u m b e r s o f p r o s t i t u t e s on D a v i e S t r e e t , t h e m a i n W e s t E n d t h o r o u g h f a r e ( V a n c o u v e r S u n , S e p t e m b e r 2 4 t h , 1 9 7 6 ) . T h e p r o b l e m a p p e a r s t o h a v e i n t e n s i f i e d as t h e a r e a was g r a d u a l l y t a k e n o v e r by j u v e n i l e p r o s t i t u t e s a n d t r a n s v e s t i t e s . T h e p r o b l e m o f s t r e e t p r o s t i t u t i o n o u t l a s t e d t h e c a b a r e t c l u b t r i a l . I n S e p t e m b e r 1977 t h e V a n c o u v e r P o l i c e p u b l i s h e d a r e p o r t o n " S t r e e t P r o s t i t u t i o n i n t h e W e s t E n d o f V a n c o u v e r " . F i g u r e 2 i d e n t i f i e s t h e f i v e m a i n a r e a s o f s t r e e t p r o s t i t u t i o n m e n t i o n e d b y C o r p o r a l G . A . F o r b e s , t h e a u t h o r o f t h e r e p o r t . T h e y a r e l a r g e l y c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e o t h e r s o u r c e s c o n s u l t e d as t o t h e e x t e n t a n d l o c a t i o n o f s t r e e t p r o s t i t u t i o n i n V a n c o u v e r b e t w e e n 1976 a n d 1 9 7 9 : 1. T h e 1000 - 1100 b l o c k on G r a n v i l l e 2 . T h e H a s t i n g s - C o l u m b i a A r e a 3 . T h e K e e f e r - G o r e - G e o r g i a A r e a 4 . T h e D a v i e S t r e e t S t r i p 5 . T h e G e o r g i a - H o r n b y I n t e r s e c t i o n T h e f i r s t t h r e e a r e a s r e p r e s e n t t h e t r a d i t i o n a l l o c i o f s t r e e t p r o s t i t u t i o n b e f o r e t h e c l o s i n g o f t h e c a b a r e t c l u b s . T h e f o u r t h a r e a d e v e l o p e d o n l y a f t e r t h e c l o s u r e o f t h e c l u b s , w h i l e t h e f i f t h e x p a n d e d e n o r m o u s l y a f t e r t h a t t i m e . B y 1979 t h e two new a r e a s h a d a l m o s t e c l i p s e d t h e o t h e r t h r e e a r e a s i n t e r m s o f t h e i r i m p o r t a n c e . F o r b e s a l s o e s t a b l i s h e d a h i e r a r c h y o f p r i c e a n d " q u a l i t y " ( w h i c h m o s t c a b d r i v e r s w o u l d h a v e 276 . Figure 2. Areas of Street Pros t i t u t i o n in Vancouver Note: the two cabaret clubs mentioned in the narrative were located between areas 1,4 and 5. (For notation see p. 276) 277. confirmed at t h i s time) with the G r a n v i l l e , H a stings and Keefer areas forming the lowest t i e r . Forbes estimated that about 100 p r o s t i t u t e s worked these three areas, mostly h e r o i n a d d i c t s ch a r g i n g about $30 a " t r i c k " . The Davie S t r i p formed the intermediate rank with about 80 p r o s t i t u t e s charging between $40 and $80 per " t r i c k " . The Georgia-Hornby n i g h t c l u b area was e s t a b l i s h e d as the top echelon with some 200 p r o f e s s i o n a l s c h a r g i n g between $50 and $100. An a d d i t i o n a l 280 women were estimated to be working i n o f f - s t r e e t p r o s t i t u t i o n - body rub p a r l o r s and the l i k e . An i n v e r s e r e l a t i o n between p r i c e and he r o i n use was suggested by Forbes, the problem being most t y p i c a l of the p r o s t i t u t e s ranked lowest. He a l s o estimated that about 200 males p r o v i d i n g sex f o r money^ worked i n Vancouver; of 80 checked on Davie, 61 were j u v e n i l e s (Forbes, 1977 ). One of the f i r s t attempts made by the p o l i c e to a l l e v i a t e the problem which t h e i r own law enforcement e f f o r t s had app a r e n t l y u n w i t t i n g l y caused, was to take the precedent-s e t t i n g step of charg i n g the c l i e n t s of p r o s t i t u t e s with s o l i c i t i n g i n p u b l i c f o r the purpose of p r o s t i t u t i o n , as w e l l as the p r o s t i t u t e s themselves. One man made l e g a l h i s t o r y i n October 1976 by p l e a d i n g g u i l t y to s o l i c i t i n g an undercover policewoman, the f i r s t c o n v i c t i o n of i t s kind to be r e g i s t e r e d in Canada (Vancouver Sun, September 2nd, 1976). The p o l i c e , however, were not so s u c c e s s f u l with the second man they charged, the judge c l a i m i n g that a man could not s o l i c i t s i n c e Q he had nothing to s e l l . The r e s u l t of t h i s d e c i s i o n was the 278 . p e r p e t u a t i o n of the inherent sex bias of Canadian p r o s t i t u t i o n 1 aw. Between January 1st and J u l y 31st, 1977, 226 v i c e - r e l a t e d charges were l a i d . A c c o r d i n g to Forbes, 146 of these were processed by the time of the r e p o r t ' s w r i t i n g , b r i n g i n g 72 c o n v i c t i o n s . The i n e f f i c i e n c y of these proceedings in reducing the l e v e l of s t r e e t p r o s t i t u t i o n r e s u l t e d i n the c r e a t i o n of a s p e c i a l t a s k - f o r c e on p r o s t i t u t i o n i n 1977. L o c a l media suggested that the t a s k - f o r c e was a d i r e c t response to p o l i t i c a l pressures a p p l i e d by h o t e l i e r s and l o c a l merchants on Davie and G r a n v i l l e s t r e e t s that s t r e e t p r o s t i t u t i o n had become too v i s i b l e f o l l o w i n g the cabaret t r i a l ; the c l o s u r e of the cabaret was h e l d as being d i r e c t l y r e s p o n s i b l e fo r the i n c r e a s e d l e v e l of s t r e e t p r o s t i t u t i o n . T a s k - f o r c e a c t i v i t i e s began in September 1977 and continued u n t i l February 1978 when the main i n v e s t i g a t i v e s t r a t e g y was rendered i n o p e r a t i v e by a precedent s e t t i n g court d e c i s i o n which r u l e d that the i n t e r i o r of a car was a p r i v a t e , not a p u b l i c p l a c e . The t a s k - f o r c e s t r a t e g y i n v o l v e d a h i r e d or second-hand car set up with a tape recorder and camera i n the r e a r . A p o l i c e - o f f i c e r would use t h i s car to c r u i s e the s t r e e t s l o o k i n g for a l i k e l y pick-up (an a c t i v i t y the p o l i c e termed " t r o l l i n g " ) . Having made a " c a t c h " , the o f f i c e r would t r y to s o l i c i t from the p r o s t i t u t e c e r t a i n key words and phrases, such as the o f f e r and p r i c e of a t r i c k . From t h i s modus operandi i t i s d i f f i c u l t to i n t e r p r e t j u s t who i s doing 279 . the s o l i c i t i n g , and would almost c e r t a i n l y , i f f a l l i n g under the j u r i s d i c t i o n of American law, represent entrapment. During the s i x month p e r i o d approximately 240 s t r e e t s o l i c i t i n g charges were l a i d . In the s i x months p r i o r to the i n c e p t i o n of the t a s k - f o r c e 56 s t r e e t s o l i c i t i n g charges were l a i d . In a ten week p e r i o d r e p r e s e n t i n g the z e n i t h of task-f o r c e a c t i v i t i e s , 140 p r o s t i t u t e s were a r r e s t e d . Of these, 51 were r e p e a t e r s , and 74 were on w e l f a r e . ^ (The c o l l e c t i n g of w e l f a r e may represent a s t r a t e g y designed to avoid the p o s s i b i l i t y of being charged with l i v i n g o f f the a v a i l s of p r o s t i t u t i o n . ) One commentator noted the expense to the taxpayer of w e l f a r e r e c i p i e n t s who a l r e a d y had an income. T h i s f i n a n c i a l l o s s , however, was nothing compared to the cost of the cabaret i n v e s t i g a t i o n , the t a s k - f o r c e , and the l e g a l proceedings they engendered. For, u l t i m a t e l y , the Appeal Courts overturned a l l the cabaret c o n v i c t i o n s , and issued two d e c i s i o n s which e f f e c t i v e l y made i t impossible f o r p o l i c e to charge s t r e e t p r o s t i t u t e s with s o l i c i t a t i o n o f f e n c e s . In December 1977, i n o v e r t u r n i n g the cabaret c o n v i c t i o n s , the judge argued that the Crown had simply not proven t h e i r case. He reasoned the evidence was that the management gave no s p e c i a l or p r e f e r e n t i a l treatment to p r o s t i t u t e s who frequented the c l u b . For example, the Crown d i d not e s t a b l i s h that any male l e a v i n g the c l u b would not have to pay the door admission p r i c e i f he returned l a t e r the same evening. No p r o s t i t u t e r e c e i v e d payment from the management, and i t was not e s t a b l i s h e d that the c l u b only l e n t money for the purpose of 280 . p r o s t i t u t i o n . T h u s , t o a l l i n t e n t s and p u r p o s e s , t h e two m i l l i o n d o l l a r s s p e n t on t h e c a b a r e t u n d e r c o v e r o p e r a t i o n a n d c o u r t c a s e was a w a s t e o f m o n e y . 1 ( * B u t , much w o r s e , i t was a h i g h p r i c e t o p a y f o r t h e c r e a t i o n o f a much m o r e s e v e r e p r o b l e m , i n t e r m s o f t h e l a w , t h e a m p l i f i c a t i o n o f s t r e e t p r o s t i t u t e a c t i v i t y . T h e C r o w n u n s u c c e s s f u l l y a p p e a l e d t h e o v e r t u r n i n g o f t h e c a b a r e t c o n v i c t i o n s . T h e t a s k - f o r c e on p r o s t i t u t i o n a l s o f o u n d e r e d i n a p p e l l a t e c o u r t . 1 1 A l o c a l p r o s t i t u t e a p p e a l e d h e r s o l i c i t a t i o n c o n v i c t i o n on t h e g r o u n d s t h a t t h e i n t e r i o r o f a c a r was n o t a p u b l i c p l a c e . A l s o r a i s e d was t h e q u e s t i o n o f who was s o l i c i t i n g whom? F o r t h e o f f i c e r t o manage t o i n d u c e t h e p r o s t i t u t e i n t o h i s c a r i n t h e f i r s t p l a c e , he m u s t h a v e g i v e n h e r some e n c o u r a g e m e n t . T h e a p p e a l was u p h e l d , a n d , as a r e s u l t , 100 c h a r g e s o f s o l i c i t i n g made by t h e t a s k - f o r c e p r i o r t o t h i s t i m e h a d t o be d r o p p e d . I n a d d i t i o n , t h e t e r m s o l i c i t a t i o n was r e i n t e r p r e t e d - a woman m u s t do m o r e t h a n o f f e r s e x u a l s e r v i c e a n d q u o t e a p r i c e ; s h e m u s t h a r a s s t h e c l i e n t by n o t a c c e p t i n g " n o " f o r an a n s w e r ( V a n c o u v e r S u n , F e b r u a r y 7 t h , 1 9 7 8 ) . T h u s n o t o n l y w e r e c a r s r u l e d o u t - o f -b o u n d s f o r e n f o r c e m e n t p u r p o s e s , b u t a l s o t h e a l t e r n a t i v e s t r a t e g y o f t r a v e l l i n g on f o o t s i n c e f e w p r o s t i t u t e s w o u l d r e a c h t h e p o i n t o f h a r a s s m e n t i n t h e i r a p p r o a c h e s t o m e n . W i t h t h e s e d e c i s i o n s t h e l e g a l e n v i r o n m e n t i n V a n c o u v e r became h i g h l y c o n d u c i v e t o t h e p r a c t i c e o f s t r e e t p r o s t i t u t i o n . T h e p u r p o s e o f t h e p r o s t i t u t i o n l a w - t o h i d e and c o n t a i n p r o s t i t u t i o n - a p p e a r s t o h a v e b e e n t h w a r t e d . T h e p r o c e s s 2 8 1 . began with the simple displacement of prost i tutes from their protected s o l i c i t i n g havens, the cabaret c lubs . Figure 3 shows the number of street s o l i c i t i n g charges l a i d in the period 1974-1978. The diagram is annotated to indicate the p ivota l elements of Vancouver's unfolding p r o s t i t u t i o n s tory . The year 1974 is used as a cut -of f point simply because a change of po l i ce recording pract ices made i t impossible to obtain month by month totals for e a r l i e r periods . The annual tota ls from 1973 onwards have been reconstructed; in 1973 there were 800 s o l i c i t i n g charges compared to 624 in 1974, 310 in 1975, 123 in 1976, 320 in 1977 1 o and 68 in 1978. A puzzle occurs because street p r o s t i t u t i o n , according to o f f i c i a l s t a t i s t i c s , was a much greater problem in 1973 and 1974 than at any time since - inc luding the period in 1976 and 1977 when Vancouver's news media were descr ibing i t as a "new" soc ia l problem. Did the media manufacture this "problem?" In their P o l i c i n g the C r i s i s , H a l l et a l . discuss a var ie ty of senses in which the news media can be seen to manufacture crime waves (1978, pp. 67-69, 223). Without going into the de ta i l s of their a n a l y s i s , i t s implicat ions are important in the context of this study. At the simplest l e v e l , the newsperson's sense of newsworthiness structures what is considered news -p r o s t i t u t i o n was considerably newsworthy in the period under scrut iny here, but i t s news value may not ac tua l ly re f l ec t changes in the streets so much as changes in various images of the s t ree t s . In this sense the media serves to orchestrate 282 . Figure 3. S o l i c i t i n g Charges in Vancouver 1974 - 1978 283. p u b l i c o p i n i o n , and can be instrumental in c r e a t i n g the image of a crime wave. C e r t a i n l y the Vancouver media o r c h e s t r a t e d p u b l i c o p i n i o n by being h i g h l y c r i t i c a l of p o l i c e enforcement e f f o r t s , but a l l the evidence suggests that the media's coverage of the "new" problem in Vancouver was a response to the a c t u a l spread of s t r e e t p r o s t i t u t i o n . In r e a l i t y , the problem of s t r e e t p r o s t i t u t i o n was new only i n c e r t a i n areas -n o t a b l y the Georgia-Hornby i n t e r s e c t i o n and the Davie s t r i p . Vancouver's p r o s t i t u t e s proved themselves able l o c a t i o n a l decision-makers in t h e i r m i g r a t i o n to the s t r e e t s choosing areas of heavy p e d e s t r i a n t r a f f i c , as the Davie S t r e e t s t r i p i s the main thoroughfare of the most populous square m i l e i n Canada, the West End apartment block area of Vancouver. The G e o rgia and Hornby i n t e r s e c t i o n i s one block from the c i t y ' s peak-value i n t e r s e c t i o n , but a b e t t e r l o c a t i o n because of the c o n c e n t r a t i o n of n i g h t c l u b s on Hornby. The l a r g e number of s t r e e t s o l i c i t a t i o n charges l a i d by the p o l i c e i n 1973 and 1974 may have something to do with heroin-use p a t t e r n s . Rather than r e p r e s e n t i n g a response to the d i c t a t e s of p r o s t i t u t i o n law, these e a r l i e r enforcement l e v e l s may represent p o l i c e attempts to r e g u l a t e the h e r o i n t r a f f i c . Although more i n f o r m a t i o n i s needed to s u b s t a n t i a t e t h i s h y p o t h e s i s , there are i n d i c a t i o n s of i t s p l a u s i b i l i t y . And again they suggest the need for an understanding of law enforcement p r a c t i c e s i n the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of crime s t a t i s t i c s and p a t t e r n s . 284. Layton's report on p r o s t i t u t i o n i n Vancouver i n 1975 suggests that at that time many s t r e e t p r o s t i t u t e s were a d d i c t s . Her study of p r o s t i t u t e s i m p l i e d an almost i n e v i t a b l e convergence of p r o s t i t u t i o n and drug a d d i c t i o n . It appears that i n Vancouver t h i s convergence i s no longer i n e v i t a b l e , s i n c e p o l i c e r e p o r t s d i s t i n g u i s h p r o s t i t u t i o n areas a c c o r d i n g to heroin-use p a t t e r n s . The two new s t r e e t p r o s t i t u t i o n areas are occupied by women who do not d i s p l a y much of a penchant f o r h e r o i n (as the Forbes report suggested). The e a r l i e r c l o s e a s s o c i a t i o n of s t r e e t p r o s t i t u t i o n and heroin-use may have meant that enforcement of s t r e e t - p r o s t i t u t i o n laws served both to i d e n t i f y female a d d i c t s and c r e a t e a pool of p o t e n t i a l informers in the process of d i s c o v e r i n g h e r o i n - t r a f f i c k e r s . The r e d u c t i o n i n the number of s t r e e t - s o l i c i t i n g charges i n the p e r i o d 1973-1976 may i n d i c a t e a d e c r e a s i n g i n c i d e n c e of s t r e e t p r o s t i t u t i o n as a r e f l e c t i o n of d e c l i n i n g h e r o i n use. The d e c l i n e of both h e r o i n q u a l i t y and use i n Vancouver, however, rather than suggesting a r e d u c t i o n of the number of p r o s t i t u t e s , may r e f l e c t a d e c l i n e i n p o l i c e i n t e r e s t i n e n f o r c i n g s o l i c i t i n g laws - I simply do not have s u f f i c i e n t l y r e l i a b l e data to co n f i r m e i t h e r hypothesis. 1** Whichever i s the case, i t would not seem to a l t e r the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of changes of s t r e e t p r o s t i t u t i o n p a t t e r n s as a form of displacement e f f e c t . In s h o r t , the e f f e c t of the c l o s u r e of the two cabaret clubs was that the p r o s t i t u t e s - whose a c t i v i t i e s i n the clubs were consonant with the d i c t a t e s of the law - simply moved onto 285 . the ( p u b l i c ) s t r e e t s , a p p a r e n t l y undeterred by s o l i c i t i n g laws which they could no longer circumvent. Law enforcement e f f o r t s designed to curb t h i s d e r i v a t i v e problem were rendered almost t o t a l l y i n e f f e c t i v e as landmark court d e c i s i o n s d e f i n e d and r e d e f i n e d the meaning of both " s o l i c i t a t i o n " and " p u b l i c p l a c e " . Thus not only d i d the areas of s t r e e t p r o s t i t u t i o n i n Vancouver spread, but, as p r o s t i t u t e s migrated i n t o the c i t y to take advantage of the i n c r e a s i n g l y p e r m i s s i v e l e g a l environment, the number and d e n s i t y of p r o s t i t u t e s i n c r e a s e d , d u r i n g the p e r i o d that the o f f i c i a l s t a t i s t i c s on s t r e e t p r o s t i t u t i o n r e g i s t e r e d a dramatic d e c l i n e . 286 . Notes to Chapter 8 1. Although the Wolfenden Commission i s an E n g l i s h r e p o r t , i t serves to demonstrate the b a s i c philosophy of the Canadian law to the extent that Canadian law i s based on E n g l i s h 1 aw. 2. For d i s c u s s i o n of these a t t i t u d e s , and t h e i r r e l a t i o n s to women's crime, see A d l e r (1975), Simon (1975), Smart (1976), and Deming (1977). 3. T h i s q u e s t i o n i s r a i s e d by Davis (1966, p. 203) but I have cast i t i n a d i f f e r e n t context. 4. For a d i s c u s s i o n of t h i s philosophy see Layton (1975). 5. For a n a l y s i s of p o l i c e " c u l t u r e " see N e i d e r h o f f e r (1967), R u b i n s t e i n (1973), Koenig (1975), Manning (1977) and E r i c s o n (1981, 1982). 6. Although i t has not been p o s s i b l e to o b t a i n completely r e l i a b l e q u a n t i t a t i v e estimates of the changes, a research study of p r o s t i t u t e s i n the Georgia-Hornby area (the one i n f r e q u e n t l y used by p r o s t i t u t e s p r i o r to 1976) shows that in the summer of 1978, 37 p r o s t i t u t e s worked t h i s one s t r e e t i n t e r s e c t i o n alone. T h i s number was t a b u l a t e d by Mr. Dale Sands from an unpublished time-lapse photographic study of the m i c r o s p a t i a l movement of p r o s t i t u t e s . He p o i n t s out that many more p r o s t i t u t e s worked along Georgia S t r e e t out of the range of h i s camera and were thus never recorded because the women have f a i r l y w e l l - d e f i n e d t e r r i t o r i e s . 7. By d e f i n i t i o n a male cannot be a p r o s t i t u t e . 8. T h i s f i n d i n g i s p e c u l i a r to the extent that n e i t h e r l e g a l nor l e x i c a l d e f i n i t i o n s of s o l i c i t a t i o n depend on the s a l e of anything! 9. T h i s i n f o r m a t i o n was given by C.B.U.T. T.V. in the program " P a c i f i c Report" a i r e d on January 2nd 1978. 10. In some cases, the investment of money i n p a r t i c u l a r p o l i c e o p e r a t i o n s becomes a s e l f - f u l f i l l i n g syndrome - i f the money i s spent i t must be j u s t i f i e d by the l a y i n g of charges. In J u l y 1977, one of the cabaret owners was c o n v i c t e d of t r y i n g to b r i b e a l i q u o r board o f f i c i a l i n an attempt to r e t r i e v e the cabaret's l i q u o r l i c e n c e (Vancouver Sun, J u l y 6th, 1977). In March 1978 t h i s c o n v i c t i o n was a l s o overturned by the Appeal C o u r t . The cabaret owner was charged with o f f e r i n g a b r i b e i n v o l v i n g two b o t t l e s of l i q u o r and a cake, and sentenced to 30 months in p r i s o n . 287 . As J u s t i c e E. E. Hinkson s a i d i n summary, the g i f t s made simply " d i d not bear the corrupt complexion" (Vancouver Sun, March 25th, 1978). 11. The a n a l y s i s i s somewhat incomplete at t h i s p o i n t . As important here as the context of p o l i c e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n i s the context of a c t i o n i n the c r i m i n a l court system. With the e x c e p t i o n of the d e c i s i o n r e g a r d i n g the p r o s e c u t i o n of the p r o s t i t u t e ' s patron, a l l County Court d e c i s i o n s i n Vancouver, upheld the Crown's, and consequently the p o l i c e ' , p o s i t i o n . At the Appeal Court l e v e l , however, every d e c i s i o n was rev e r s e d . R e g r e t t a b l y , because of the d i f f i c u l t y of o b t a i n i n g i n f o r m a t i o n about behind-the-scenes d e c i s i o n s ( o f t e n so i n f l u e n t i a l i n court cases) no attempt i s made here to analyze the courtroom as an arena of s o c i a l act i on. 12. There i s a s l i g h t margin of e r r o r i n the s t a t i s t i c s r e p o r t e d here - p o l i c e r e c o r d i n g p r a c t i c e s group s o l i c i t i n g o f f e n c e s with charges for " l i v i n g o f f the a v a i l s of p r o s t i t u t i o n " . Very few of the l a t t e r k i n d of charge are l a i d , however, with the number r a r e l y exceeding two or three i n any given month. 13. A general impression has formed i n Vancouver that d u r i n g the p e r i o d 1975-1979 the importance of he r o i n has d e c l i n e d . P r i o r to that time Vancouver was considered to have the l a r g e s t h e r o i n - u s i n g p o p u l a t i o n i n Canada with an estimated 10,000 a d d i c t s . Now both p o l i c e sources and resea r c h e r s at Vancouver's Drug and A l c o h o l Abuse U n i t suggest that t h i s number has decreased c o n s i d e r a b l y . 288 . Chapter 9 Target Hardening Crime P r e v e n t i o n and the Problem of Displacement Phenomena To t h i s point the d i s c u s s i o n of displacement phenomena has served to i l l u s t r a t e the broad a p p l i c a b i l i t y of the concept for o r g a n i z i n g an i n v e s t i g a t i o n of the impact of c o n t r o l p r a c t i c e s on p a t t e r n s of crime. In the f i n a l a n a l y s i s to be presented we r e t u r n to the problem of displacement phenomena a s s o c i a t e d with crime p r e v e n t i o n programs, the f i r s t type of crime c o n t r o l s t r a t e g i e s s p e c u l a t i v e l y i d e n t i f i e d as ge n e r a t i n g displacement e f f e c t s . Although t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n has suggested a much wider a p p l i c a t i o n of the displacement concept, i t seems a p p r o p r i a t e to i n c l u d e an a n a l y s i s which d i r e c t l y addresses the problem i n terms of the e f f e c t s of ta r g e t hardening s t r a t e g i e s because the l i t e r a t u r e mostly remains at the s p e c u l a t i v e l e v e l (Reppetto, 1976; Mayhew et a l , 1976; Winchester, 1978; Davidson, 1981). The study presented here examines the impact of B r i t i s h Columbia's "Neighbourhood Watch" b u r g l a r y p r e v e n t i o n program. In general the program aims at reducing b u r g l a r y o p p o r t u n i t i e s and i n c r e a s i n g r i s k of d e t e c t i o n through "Operation I d e n t i f i c a t i o n " , the engraving of a l l v a l u a b l e household goods with an i d e n t i t y number. It should be noted that the c r i t e r i a for s e l e c t i n g t h i s e m p i r i c a l v i g n e t t e d i f f e r from the c r i t e r i a used to s e l e c t the other examples presented i n the d i s s e r t a t i o n . The examples 289 . c u l l e d from secondary sources were introduced because they demonstrate the r e l a t i o n s h i p between c o n t r o l p r a c t i c e s and c r i m i n a l a c t i v i t y p a t t e r n s . The v i g n e t t e on s t r e e t p r o s t i t u t i o n s i m i l a r l y demonstrates the way that c e r t a i n s p a t i a l behaviour p a t t e r n s are d i a l e c t i c a l l y bound to law enforcment p r a c t i c e s and law changes. For the s t r e e t p r o s t i t u t e , movement is an adaptive s t r a t e g y (James, 1975; Symanski, 1981, Ch. 11) and was s i m i l a r l y for the vagrants Mayhew d e s c r i b e d . In one case i t was the p a t t e r n of behaviour, in the other, a change of p a t t e r n which demanded e x p l a n a t i o n and i n i t i a t e d the a n a l y s i s . In c o n t r a s t the study of Neighbourhood Watch begins with the c o n t r o l p r a c t i c e in order to assess i t s subsequent e f f e c t on offender a c t i v i t y p a t t e r n s . In terms of the present study a problem thus a r i s e s which makes t h i s a n a l y s i s somewhat d i f f e r e n t from the other examples I have d e s c r i b e d : only i f Neighbourhood Watch ( p a r t i c u l a r l y through i t s sub-component Oper a t i o n I d e n t i f i c a t i o n ) i s e f f e c t i v e i n p r e v e n t i n g b u r g l a r y w i l l the a n a l y s i s be l i k e l y to i d e n t i f y changes in p a t t e r n s of b u r g l a r y . If the program is u n s u c c e s s f u l i n terms of i t s own r a i s o n d ' e t r e - i f i t does not prevent b u r g l a r y to some extent in the areas i n which i t i s implemented - there w i l l be no a c t i v i t y displacement. But i f i t is s u c c e s s f u l to some extent, the q u e s t i o n becomes, do b u r g l a r s adjust t h e i r a c t i v i t y to circumvent the problems Neighbourhood Watch presents them or are there some u n s p e c i f i e d i n t e r v e n i n g v a r i a b l e s ? 290 . T h i s q u e s t i o n i s important for two reasons: a) B u r g l a r y i s o f t e n c o n c e p t u a l i z e d as a h i g h l y o p p o r t u n i s t i c crime, p a r t i c u l a r l y for the j u v e n i l e o f f e n d e r s who c o n s t i t u t e the g r e a t e r p r o p o r t i o n of known b u r g l a r s (eg. Reppetto, 1976). If Neighbourhood Watch does d i s p l a c e b u r g l a r y in any way (except the t y p o l o g i c a l sense) the o f f e n c e might not be o p p o r t u n i s t i c i n the sense that much of the l i t e r a t u r e conveys. V a r i o u s types of displacement, i f they do occur, represent adaptive b u r g l a r behaviour and thus a greater degree of i n t e n t i o n a l i t y i n the o f f e n c e than i s sometimes supposed. b) R e s i d e n t i a l b u r g l a r y is u s u a l l y an o f f e n c e reported to the p o l i c e by the p u b l i c . Although there is a p r o a c t i v e element in Neighbourhood Watch to the extent that i t i s a program i n i t i a t e d by the p o l i c e , i t i s not the p o l i c e who d i s c o v e r the crime in the same way that they d i s c o v e r s t r e e t p r o s t i t u t i o n o f f e n c e s . While crime s t a t i s t i c s of p r o a c t i v e l y p o l i c e d o ffences may be more a r e f l e c t i o n of p o l i c e a c t i v i t y than the a c t u a l i n c i d e n c e of c r i m i n a l behaviour, the a n a l y s i s of Neighbourhood Watch portends to show that the r e l a t i o n s h i p between c o n t r o l and crime p r a c t i c e s i s not r e s t r i c t e d to o f f e n c e s which are f o r the most part recorded as a r e s u l t of p r o a c t i v e p o l i c i n g (the more general d i f f i c u l t i e s of the p r o a c t i v e / r e a c t i v e dichotomy not w i t h s t a n d i n g ) . Because the a n a l y s i s i s designed to t e s t the impact of Neighbourhood Watch on b u r g l a r a c t i v i t y p a t t e r n s ( i n s t e a d of being d i r e c t e d toward the e x p l a n a t i o n of an a l r e a d y e s t a b l i s h e d p a t t e r n change) the problem of causal i n f e r e n c e becomes 291. p a r t i c u l a r l y complicated. If O p e r a t i o n I d e n t i f i c a t i o n i s s u c c e s s f u l i n reducing b u r g l a r y in the homes in which i t i s implemented a number of d i f f e r e n t types of displacement may occur; there may be a change i n types of crime commission, time of crime commission or the place of crime commission. Or the program may simply prevent b u r g l a r y i n the areas or homes i n which i t i s implemented without any other attendant change i n bu r g l a r behaviour. The evidence presented, however, w i l l suggest that of the var i o u s outcomes, the l a s t of the above i s |the l e a s t l i k e l y - some b u r g l a r s do adapt t h e i r behaviour to circumvent the problems that O p e r a t i o n I d e n t i f i c a t i o n c r e a t e s for them, at l e a s t , that i s , when i t cr e a t e s any problems for them at a l l . Evidence w i l l be o f f e r e d to suggest that the Neighbourhood Watch program i n general has prevented b u r g l a r y , but that t h i s e f f e c t i s s h o r t - l i v e d , and at the cost of crime displacement. Geographic displacement appears to occur i n the i n i t i a l phases of a program's implementation; i . e . when i t s geographic extent i s n e c e s s a r i l y piecemeal. As the program i s implemented more e x t e n s i v e l y displacement e f f e c t s appear to occur at the smal l e s t s p a t i a l s c a l e as some b u r g l a r s s e l e c t t a r g e t s not p r o t e c t e d by O p e r a t i o n I d e n t i f i c a t i o n - a ta r g e t displacement. Other b u r g l a r s do not appear to be a f f e c t e d by the program i n t h e i r choice of t a r g e t s and enter homes p r o t e c t e d by i t . Some of these b u r g l a r s may simply r e f r a i n from s t e a l i n g marked items. 292 . Because the adaptations of o f f e n d e r s to Neighbourhood Watch and O p e r a t i o n I d e n t i f i c a t i o n may produce area displacement, t a r g e t displacement, or some n o n - s p a t i a l adjustment, the combination of d i f f e r e n t types of displacement may be important in t h e i r aggregate e f f e c t , but so small i n d i v i d u a l l y that they are d i f f i c u l t to recognize and d i s t i n g u i s h from the ap p a r e n t l y random f l u c t u a t i o n s that c h a r a c t e r i z e b u r g l a r y time s e r i e s data. Yet with a l l these q u a l i f i c a t i o n s taken i n t o account, i t does appear from the evidence a v a i l a b l e in the m u n i c i p a l i t i e s of Burnaby and Vancouver that Neighbourhood Watch and Opera t i o n I d e n t i f i c a t i o n do oc c a s i o n changes i n bu r g l a r behaviour. Evidence w i l l be presented to suggest that target displacement occurs as b u r g l a r s s e l e c t homes not p r o t e c t e d by O p e r a t i o n I d e n t i f i c a t i o n and that neighbourhood displacement occurs when h i g h l y l o c a l i z e d Neighbourhood Watch programs are i n t e n s i v e l y implemented. But a l l of these are f a i r l y s h ort-term e f f e c t s to the extent that a kind of temporal displacement occurs -O p e r a t i o n I d e n t i f i c a t i o n appears to become i n e f f e c t i v e , probably because the marking of household items does not g r e a t l y i n c r e a s e the r i s k to o f f e n d e r s over the long term because i t i s d i f f i c u l t to tra c e the owners of s t o l e n goods even when the goods are marked with an en g r a v e r . 1 There i s no c e n t r a l p o l i c e i n f o r m a t i o n system r e c o r d i n g the owners of marked items. Because of the type of data a v a i l a b l e i t must be recognized that the evidence for these e f f e c t s i s v a r i a b l e and in no sense i s i t c o n c l u s i v e - i t i s , however, both suggestive 293. and cumulative. "Neighbourhood Watch" in B r i t i s h Columbia In 1976 Neighbourhood Watch, the f i r s t crime p r e v e n t i o n through environmental design program to be implemented i n the Canadian p r o v i n c e of B r i t i s h Columbia, was introduced on an experimental b a s i s in Burnaby, the urban m u n i c i p a l i t y immediately east of the c i t y of Vancouver. F o l l o w i n g the i n i t i a t i v e of the Burnaby R.C.M.P. detachment in l i a i s o n with the B r i t i s h Columbia P o l i c e Commission most of the other p r o v i n c i a l p o l i c e f o r c e s , at the behest of the P o l i c e Commission, soon followed s u i t (Robinson, 1977). The Vancouver C i t y P o l i c e Department was one of the f i r s t to do so f o l l o w i n g the success reported by the personnel r e s p o n s i b l e f o r the p i l o t p r o j e c t i n Burnaby. Because of t h i s success, the Burnaby p r o j e c t was extended to cover the remainder of the m u n i c i p a l i t y . My a n a l y s i s w i l l concentrate on the Burnaby and Vancouver programs, although the emphasis on each w i l l not be q u i t e the same. The examination of the Burnaby program i s designed to show the o b j e c t i v e s of Neighbourhood Watch. But because of d i f f e r e n c e s i n the way the Vancouver P o l i c e Department records r e p o r t s of b u r g l a r i e s compared to the Burnaby Department, much of the e m p i r i c a l a n a l y s i s w i l l focus on the impact of Neighbourhood Watch in Vancouver - the method of r e c o r d i n g o f f e n c e s t a t i s t i c s i n Burnaby is not s u f f i c i e n t l y d e t a i l e d f o r 294. the purpose of a s c e r t a i n i n g small s c a l e displacement e f f e c t s . C o n v e r s e l y the method of r e c o r d i n g b u r g l a r y s t a t i s t i c s by the Vancouver P o l i c e Department allows f o r the c o l l a t i o n of very d e t a i l e d s t a t i s t i c s aggregated to u n i t s e q u i v a l e n t to two c i t y b l o c k s . But u n l i k e the Burnaby p r o j e c t , very l i t t l e i n f o r m a t i o n about the implementation plan for Neighbourhood Watch i s a v a i l a b l e for Vancouver. Compared to Burnaby the program in Vancouver appears to have been implemented i n a rather haphazard f a s h i o n ; i t has proved impossible to tr a c e the phases of the implementation and the c o o r d i n a t i o n of the personnel r e s p o n s i b l e f o r i t . What evidence i s a v a i l a b l e has been c o l l a t e d by one of the o f f i c e r s r e s p o n s i b l e for the f i r s t phase of the program i n part of Vancouver's West End, a predominantly high r i s e r e s i d e n t i a l area adjacent to the c e n t r a l business d i s t r i c t . Because of a program funding problem i t s implementation in t h i s area was completed some s i x months before being extended to surrounding l o c a l e s . The a n a l y s i s of Neighbourhood Watch i n Vancouver thus focuses on t h i s small t e s t area i n an attempt to assess the impact of the s t r a t e g y and c e r t a i n types of displacement e f f e c t that may be a s s o c i a t e d with i t . Given the i n f o r m a t i o n a v a i l a b l e , the Burnaby program w i l l i d e n t i f y the i n t e n t i o n of Neighbourhood Watch, and the r a t i o n a l e for i t s implementation i n B r i t i s h Columbia i n the f i r s t p l a c e . To the extent that both Burnaby and Vancouver programs were c o o r d i n a t e d by the B r i t i s h Columbia P o l i c e Commission the r a t i o n a l e u n d e r l y i n g the Burnaby program can be 295 . g e n e r a l i z e d to d e s c r i b e the Vancouver p r o j e c t . Some of the f i n d i n g s of the Burnaby P o l i c e ' assessment of t h e i r general program w i l l a l s o be d i s c u s s e d i n order to assess i t s crime p r e v e n t i o n e f f e c t i v e n e s s , i n d i c a t i o n s of target displacement, and to act as a backdrop for the a n a l y s i s of the e f f e c t i v e n e s s of the Vancouver West End p r o j e c t . U n f o r t u n a t e l y the p o l i c e assessment of the t e s t p r o j e c t i n Burnaby does not address the problem of displacement; rather the study focuses e x c l u s i v e l y on the d e t e r r e n t e f f e c t of the program as compared to a " c o n t r o l " area of the same s i z e and roughly s i m i l a r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s in terms of i t s r e s i d e n t i a l composition. The areas are not contiguous with the r e s u l t that i t i s almost impossible to d i s c e r n geographic displacement e f f e c t s that might be a s s o c i a t e d with the experimental program ( s u f f i c i e n t l y d e t a i l e d data are simply not a v a i l a b l e from the Burnaby p o l i c e for an a n a l y s i s of t h i s k i n d ) . The a n a l y s i s thus turns to an examination of the e f f e c t s of the Neighbourhood Watch program i n t e n s i v e l y implemented in the West End of Vancouver, for which d e t a i l e d geo-coded p o l i c e data are a v a i l a b l e , to see i f a r e a l displacements oc c u r r e d . Because no i n f o r m a t i o n concerning the p a t t e r n of the implementation of the Vancouver program in general i s a v a i l a b l e , the a n a l y s i s is r e s t r i c t e d to the West End p r o j e c t . 296 . "Neighbourhood Watch"; the R a t i o n a l e . As noted e a r l i e r , "Neighbourhood Watch" (with i t s sub-component "Operation I d e n t i f i c a t i o n " ) i s a " t a r g e t hardening" s t r a t e g y aimed at both reducing the o p p o r t u n i t y f o r b u r g l a r y and i n c r e a s i n g the r i s k to the would-be breaking and e n t e r i n g offender (the terms " b u r g l a r y " and "breaking and e n t e r i n g " are used in t e r c h a n g e a b l y h e r e ) . A c c o r d i n g to the booklet d e s c r i b i n g Neighbourhood Watch to the p u b l i c , the program c o n s i s t s of three elements. "1. Neighbourhood Watch - a program of co-o p e r a t i o n among f a m i l i e s i n your area to make your e n t i r e neighbourhood more secure 2. P r o p e r t y I d e n t i f i c a t i o n - a method of safeguarding your v a l u a b l e property with non-removable i d e n t i f i c a t i o n (Operation I dent i f i cat ion) 3. Home s e c u r i t y - a program to p r o t e c t your home and f a m i l y through upgrading of the home i t s e l f , and t i p s on personal s e c u r i t y w i t h i n the home." ( B r i t i s h Columbia P o l i c e Commission, p. 1) The program aims at developing a " c o - o p e r a t i v e community e f f o r t " between the p o l i c e and members of the p u b l i c to reduce crime "at the grass r o o t s " l e v e l . As w e l l as " t a r g e t hardening" s t r a t e g i e s , the program i s based on the idea that the p o l i c e cannot reduce crime without the a c t i v e involvement of the p u b l i c ; to t h i s end the booklet s t r e s s e s the concept of community c o o p e r a t i o n : "Neighbourhood Watch i s a program of mutual a s s i s t a n c e among neighbours...Get to know your neighbours. Introduce them to the concept of Neighbourhood Watch. Get i n v o l v e d . A neighbourhood where people are a l e r t to the 297 . p o t e n t i a l of crime and w i l l i n g to look out for one another's i n t e r e s t s i s a neighbourhood where crimes are l e a s t l i k e l y to occur...Good neighbours working together through Neighbourhood Watch can prevent crimes i n t h e i r area the most e f f e c t i v e way - before i t s t a r t s . " ( B r i t i s h Columbia P o l i c e Commission, p. 1) The philosophy of the program c l e a r l y d e r i v e s from the approach f i r s t a r t i c u l a t e d by Jane Jacobs (1961). In terms of target hardening, "Operation I d e n t i f i c a t i o n " aims at d i s c o u r a g i n g the b u r g l a r before he/she enters a home. The i n f o r m a t i o n booklet d e s c r i b e s three b a s i c steps i n the t a r g e t hardening process: "1. E l e c t r i c engraving p e n c i l s are a v a i l a b l e at your l o c a l p o l i c e agency f r e e of charge. Borrow one of these engravers for a day or two and simply engrave your s o c i a l insurance number on a l l items of value in or about your home. These markings cannot be removed, and i f the item i s s t o l e n i t can e a s i l y be t r a c e d . But, what i s more important, b u r g l a r s h e s i t a t e to s t e a l e a s i l y t r a c e a b l e goods, and proper i d e n t i f i c a t i o n may w e l l discourage the t h e f t before i t takes p l a c e . 2. H i g h l y v i s i b l e tamper-proof decals are a l s o a v a i l a b l e through your l o c a l p o l i c e . A p p l i e d to your v a l u a b l e items, these decals w i l l f u r t h e r discourage t h e f t by warning b u r g l a r s that the item has been p r o p e r l y i d e n t i f i e d and w i l l be e a s i l y t r a c e d i f s t o l e n . It w i l l a l s o a l e r t p o l i c e that the item has been engraved. 3. Larger decals for use on windows or e x t e r i o r doors of your home are a l s o a v a i l a b l e from your l o c a l p o l i c e . They serve to discourage break-ins by warning would-be b u r g l a r s that the contents of your home have been p r o p e r l y i d e n t i f i e d and w i l l be e a s i l y t r a c e d i f s t o l e n . " ( B r i t i s h Columbia P o l i c e Commission, p. 2) The purpose of t h i s t a rget hardening i s to upgrade a r e s i d e n c e to a point of "minimum s e c u r i t y " that would 298. discourage most b u r g l a r s from breaking i n . The i n f o r m a t i o n booklet notes that " i t i s i m p r a c t i c a l and v i r t u a l l y impossible to make your home completely b u r g l a r - p r o o f " but that most b u r g l a r i e s are r e l a t i v e l y u n s o p h i s t i c a t e d "crimes of o p p o r t u n i t y . " The p o i n t of minimum s e c u r i t y i s that where d e s t r u c t i v e f o r c e must be a p p l i e d to gain access to a r e s i d e n c e . On the s t r e n g t h of the apparent e f f e c t i v e n e s s of s e v e r a l h i g h l y l o c a l i z e d experimental programs the i n f o r m a t i o n booklet suggests that "Neighbourhood Watch...wi11, with your c o o p e r a t i o n , d r a s t i c a l l y reduce the i n c i d e n c e of b u r g l a r y i n your area." Should t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n booklet be c o r r e c t about the o p p o r t u n i s t i c nature of b u r g l a r y ( i t p o i n t s out that most b u r g l a r s are under seventeen years of age d e s p i t e the f a c t that the only i l l u s t r a t i o n s of b u r g l a r s are c a r i c a t u r e s of a masked ad u l t " p r o f e s s i o n a l " ) then not only should Neighbourhood Watch take the o p p o r t u n i t y out of the crime and reduce the number of b u r g l a r i e s , but i t should a l s o be u n l i k e l y to r e s u l t i n any form of displacement. While the experience of these s m a l l -s c a l e i n t e n s i v e programs suggests that they reduce b u r g l a r y d r a s t i c a l l y , the displacement e f f e c t s a s s o c i a t e d with them have s c a r c e l y been researched, p a r t i c u l a r l y when the programs are extended to cover e n t i r e m u n i c i p a l i t i e s such as Burnaby and Vancouver. 299 . The Burnaby E x p e r i e n c e : Evidence f o r the De t e r r e n t E f f e c t of Small S c a l e Programs Towards the end of 1975 the Burnaby R.C.M.P. s t u d i e d the e f f e c t i v e n e s s of a number of crime p r e v e n t i o n programs to see which might be u s e f u l l y implemented i n t h e i r j u r i s d i c t i o n . The choice of Neighbourhood Watch was based on the success of s i m i l a r s t r a t e g i e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y the ones in Monterey, C a l i f o r n i a , and Revelstoke, O n t a r i o . In Monterey, 5,500 homes were l a b e l l e d and approximately the same number l e f t untouched. In the twelve years s i n c e the implementation of the program, 2,500 break-ins occurred i n the unprotected homes while there were only 29 b u r g l a r i e s of p r o t e c t e d residences (Time Magazine, January 26th, 1976). The a s t o n i s h i n g l y d i s p r o p o r t i o n a t e magnitude of these f i g u r e s suggests that a displacement e f f e c t may be a s s o c i a t e d with the program, but without i n f o r m a t i o n p e r t a i n i n g to the b u r g l a r y rates p r i o r to i t s implementation t h i s must be a h i g h l y s p e c u l a t i v e observat ion. The Revelstoke program was conducted on a much smaller s c a l e than i t s Monterey e q u i v a l e n t . The Ottawa p o l i c e marked a l l v a l u a b l e s i n the 135 homes i n Revelstoke and placed l a r g e signs at the entrances to the community i n d i c a t i n g that the area was p r o t e c t e d by "Operation I d e n t i f i c a t i o n " . Homes were marked with s t i c k e r s to i n d i c a t e t h e i r p a r t i c i p a t i o n and ext e n s i v e news media coverage was given. While the p o l i c e expected the program to decrease b u r g l a r i e s by 25%, not 300 . one of the homes p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n the program was burgled i n i t s f i r s t e ighteen months of o p e r a t i o n (Burnaby R.C.M.P. p . 2 ) z By v i r t u r e of these f i n d i n g s , and other r e p o r t s of the success of s i m i l a r programs, the R.C.M.P. decided to implement a p i l o t p r o j e c t i n Burnaby i n order to a s c e r t a i n i t s e f f e c t i v e n e s s i n a d i f f e r e n t m u n i c i p a l s e t t i n g . F o l l o w i n g the general f a i l u r e of other programs which had r e l i e d on l i t e r a t u r e m a i l e d to r e s i d e n t s r e q u e s t i n g t h e i r p a r t i c i p a t i o n , Neighbourhood Watch was chosen because i t in v o l v e d a d i r e c t contact between p o l i c e or volunteer workers with every household i n the p i l o t p r o j e c t area, and subsequently with as many households in the remainder of the m u n i c i p a l i t y that could be p h y s i c a l l y contacted (an attempt was subsequently made to contact them a l l ) . The p o l i c e b e l i e v e d that such an approach could e f f e c t i v e l y overcome the main problem of t h e i r l e s s i n t e n s i v e "Stop T h i e f " program that preceded Neighbourhood Watch - namely, p u b l i c apathy. To encourage p u b l i c involvement i t appeared to the p r o j e c t o r g a n i z e r s that in the implementation of any program the p o l i c e must d i s p l a y p o s i t i v e crime p r e v e n t i o n a c t i v i t y and must i n i t i a t e p u b l i c response. To t h i s end O p e r a t i o n I d e n t i f i c a t i o n appeared to be the s o l u t i o n on three grounds: "a) The program i s p o l i c e - o r i e n t e d and can be e a s i l y c o n t r o l l e d . b) Marking i s permanent - apathy cannot erase i t . c) The program can be e a s i l y e v aluated." (Burnaby R.C.M.P. p. 3) 301. U n f o r t u n a t e l y , the problem of displacement was never considered i n the e v a l u a t i o n of the p i l o t p r o j e c t and, as i t turns out, an e v a l u a t i o n i n these terms i s anything but easy. Indeed, rather than u s i n g the p i l o t p r o j e c t to t e s t the e f f e c t i v e n e s s of the program, plans were made before the p i l o t p r o j e c t began to extend the program to the remainder of the r e s i d e n c e s i n Burnaby. Had the p i l o t p r o j e c t proved u n s u c c e s s f u l the p o l i c e could have presumably aborted the program elsewhere. As i t turned out the p i l o t p r o j e c t appeared to provide dramatic r e s u l t s i n terms of i t s d e t e r r e n t c a p a c i t y . The t e s t area was l o c a t e d i n a "high-crime" area and contained approximately 800 r e s i d e n c e s . Between January 7th and 31st, 1976, 95% of the homes i n the area were v i s i t e d by 47 teams made up of r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of the R.C.M.P. (both a u x i l i a r y and r e g u l a r members) and members of the l o c a l Rotary C l u b . The Burnaby p o l i c e e v a l u a t i o n of the t e s t area o p e r a t i o n over a three month p e r i o d claimed a 79% r e d u c t i o n i n b r e a k - i n s . (Burnaby R.C.M.P., p. 8). Almost immediately a f t e r the completion of O p e r a t i o n I d e n t i f i c a t i o n i n the t e s t area the program was extended to the r e s t of Burnaby. For o r g a n i z a t i o n a l purposes the m u n i c i p a l i t y was d i v i d e d i n t o three "areas", and each of these subdivided i n t o " d i s t r i c t s " of approximately 200 homes. The d i s t r i c t s were f u r t h e r s u b d i v i d e d i n t o " u n i t s " of about 10 homes, with a community volunteer r e s p o n s i b l e for the implementation of the program in each u n i t . Three thousand vol u n t e e r s attended t r a i n i n g s e s s i o n s held at Simon F r a s e r U n i v e r s i t y run by the 302. O p e r a t i o n I d e n t i f i c a t i o n s t a f f . V o l u n t e e r s worked t h e i r immediate neighbourhoods only, and loaned an engraver to each household, s u p p l i e d the r e s i d e n t with a copy of an O p e r a t i o n I d e n t i f i c a t i o n booklet and small decals to apply to marked p r o p e r t y . The l a r g e house decals were handed out a f t e r the volunteer had checked that household v a l u a b l e s had been engraved (Burnaby R.C.M.P., pp. 10-12). By e a r l y September 1976 some 30,000 of the estimated 48,500 res i d e n c e s in Burnaby had been completed. Most of those r e s i d e n c e s not completed were l o w - r i s e and h i g h - r i s e apartment u n i t s which c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y have lower breaking and e n t e r i n g r a t e s than s i n g l e f a m i l y or two f a m i l y d w e l l i n g s . E f f e c t s of the General M u n i c i p a l Programs During the 1970's in the U n i t e d S t a t e s hundreds of m i l l i o n s of d o l l a r s were spent on crime p r e v e n t i o n programs l i k e Neighbourhood Watch and O p e r a t i o n I d e n t i f i c a t i o n . The i n i t i a l e l a t i o n over t h e i r apparent success has given way to a widespread s k e p t i c i s m : "...the f a c t i s that most s e c u r i t y surveys and target hardening programs, are so undermanned or d i s o r g a n i z e d that they make h a r d l y any impact. The L.E.A.A. survey of 206 such programs found that i n only one of f i v e such programs d i d p o l i c e contact more than 10 percent of the households in t h e i r j ur i s d i ct i ons." ( K r a j i c k , 1979, p. 10) "A l a r g e part of the problem i s that p o l i c e agencies around the country have adopted a standard b a t t e r y of crime p r e v e n t i o n programs h a l f - h e a r t e d l y , or as part of a general p u b l i c 303 . r e l a t i o n s and p u b l i c education e f f o r t whose r e s u l t s w i l l never be r e f l e c t e d i n any crime s t a t i s t i c s . " ( K r a j i c k , 1979, p. 7) T h i s wholesale indictment of crime p r e v e n t i o n programs suggests that when p o o r l y implemented they have very l i t t l e e f f e c t . But evidence presented below shows that the Burnaby and Vancouver Neighbourhood Watch programs, p a r t i c u l a r l y the s m a l l - s c a l e p i l o t p r o j e c t s , were more c a r e f u l l y implemented than t h e i r American c o u n t e r p a r t s to the extent that program personnel contacted a much grea t e r p r o p o r t i o n of households. The argument w i l l n e v e r t h e l e s s be advanced that because of d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e i r implementation, the Burnaby program was more e f f e c t i v e than the Vancouver program i n general (with the exce p t i o n of the Vancouver West End P i l o t P r o j e c t ) . F i g u r e 4 shows the number of reported r e s i d e n t i a l b u r g l a r i e s f o r the Burnaby m u n i c i p a l i t y as a whole. Neighbourhood Watch began i n 1976 when there was a t o t a l of 1217 b u r g l a r i e s , while i n 1977 there were 1002. In 1978 the o v e r a l l number returns to 1217. In 1979 a r e c o r d i n g change appears to take p l a c e ; the number of r e s i d e n t i a l b u r g l a r i e s f a l l s to 453, but, s i g n i f i c a n t l y , the number r e g i s t e r e d in the "other breaking and e n t e r i n g " category r i s e s from 165 i n 1978 to 1125 i n 1979 and t h e i r r e l a t i v e p r o p o r t i o n of the t o t a l number remains e q u i v a l e n t through 1981."* 304. Figure 4. BURNABY RESIDENTIAL B & Es 1974 — 1981 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 The changes of r e p o r t e d r e s i d e n t i a l b u r g l a r y rates between 1974 and 1978 f o r s i x month periods are shown below: 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 Jan.-June 430 573 633 518 567 July-Dec. 588 782 692 486 650 The f i r s t s i x month p e r i o d i n 1974 represents the f i r s t use of the c u r r e n t crime r e c o r d i n g system and shows the lowest r a t e of any of the time segments represented h e r e . 4 The highest segment rate is the l a t t e r part of 1975. In the l a t t e r part of 1976, the f i r s t s i x month p e r i o d of the widespread implementation of Neighbourhood Watch in Burnaby, we see the second highest r a t e i n the s e r i e s . In 1977, the f i r s t f u l l year of the program i n o p e r a t i o n , the rates were the lowest i n the f i v e year p e r i o d apart from the f i r s t s i x month segment. In the l a t t e r part of 1978 the r a t e climbs again to be the t h i r d highest l e v e l in the s e r i e s . The trend of t h i s s e r i e s appears to suggest an a t t e n u a t i o n of the b u r g l a r y r a t e f o l l o w i n g the f i r s t e x t e n s i v e implementation of Neighbourhood Watch by the end of 1976. P a r t i c u l a r l y n o t i c e a b l e i s the f l a t t e n i n g of the winter peak i n 1977-78. But i n November 1978 we f i n d the highest s i n g l e month r a t e at any time s i n c e the s t a r t of the s e r i e s . It i s tempting to conclude from the changes in rates that Neighbourhood Watch was s u c c e s s f u l f o r a p e r i o d of about 18 months u n t i l the end of 1978. Then what appears to be a change in the d e f i n i t i o n of " r e s i d e n t i a l " and "other" breaking and e n t e r i n g s makes i n t e r p r e t a t i o n d i f f i c u l t . 306 . F i g u r e 5 i l l u s t r a t e s r e s i d e n t i a l b u r g l a r y rates i n Vancouver between 1974 and 1981. Neighbourhood Watch began i n Vancouver i n 1976, but was not comprehensively implemented i n the way that i t was i n Burnaby d u r i n g t h i s same year. Some areas i n Vancouver were not canvassed u n t i l 1977 or even l a t e r . (In both m u n i c i p a l i t i e s the programs have been a v a i l a b l e on a c o n t i n u i n g b a s i s - i f a c i t i z e n approaches the p o l i c e department engraving pens are made a v a i l a b l e . But the implementation of the program was most e f f e c t i v e and ext e n s i v e when c i t i z e n groups, and sometimes p o l i c e o f f i c e r s , a c t i v e l y canvassed an area as was g e n e r a l l y the case i n Burnaby.) The Vancouver b u r g l a r y time s e r i e s data are very d i f f i c u l t to i n t e r p r e t with regard to the impact of Neighbourhood Watch. To begin with, every year w i t n e s s i n g a drop i n the b u r g l a r y r a t e (1975, 1977, 1979) i s fo l l o w e d by one wit h an in c r e a s e i n the r a t e - and v i c e versa - with the exce p t i o n of 1981. Neighbourhood Watch began i n 1976, and a c t i v e canvassing continued through 1977 i n t o 1978. There i s a r e d u c t i o n i n the o v e r a l l b u r g l a r y r a t e i n 1977, but i n 1978 the r a t e r i s e s to be the highest i n the f i r s t f i v e year p e r i o d f o r which data are a v a i l a b l e . As i n Burnaby the drop i n 1977 i s produced by the " f l a t t e n i n g " of the winter season r a t e "peak". But t h i s r a t e r e d u c t i o n occurs before the completion of a widespread implementation of Neighbourhood Watch i n Vancouver. By the end of 1976 the program i n Burnaby was two-thirds complete. While i t i s impossible to gauge the exact f i g u r e i n Vancouver, i t was nothing l i k e t h i s e x tensive (the implementation of the program 307 . F i g u r e 5. VANCOUVER RESIDENTIAL B & E's 1974-1981 700 \-w UJ oo 600 p 500 LU Q co 400 £ 300 DC o w 200 100 6020 5749 6290 5991 6680 5566 6918 8037 " Res. B & E ' s Annual Total 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 i n the t e s t area of Vancouver's West End d i d not occur u n t i l the summer of 1977). From the trend of the Vancouver s t a t i s t i c s , no c l e a r p a t t e r n emerges as to the d e t e r r e n t e f f e c t i v e n e s s of the program - the r a t e d i d go down in 1977 s l i g h t l y , but then i t was lower s t i l l i n both 1975 and 1979. Two c o m p l i c a t i o n s should be born in mind when attempting to i n t e r p r e t the meaning of these time s e r i e s data. The f i r s t concerns the p o t e n t i a l e f f e c t that a program l i k e Neighbourhood Watch has on the repor t i ng of b u r g l a r y as opposed to i t s a c t u a l e f f e c t on b u r g l a r behaviour. Evidence presented from a v i c t i m i z a t i o n survey conducted d u r i n g the implementation of a b u r g l a r y p r e v e n t i o n program in P o r t l a n d , Oregon, suggested that the percentage of b u r g l a r i e s r e p o r t e d to the p o l i c e i n c r e a s e d d u r i n g the p e r i o d the program was implemented (Schneider, 1976). In D i t t o n ' s terms (1979), the implementation of O p e r a t i o n I d e n t i f i c a t i o n produced a " f a n t a s y - r i s e " i n crime r a t e s . Because v i c t i m i z a t i o n surveys suggest that only a f r a c t i o n of the a c t u a l number of b u r g l a r i e s are r e p o r t e d to the p o l i c e -the number i s u s u a l l y estimated at between o n e - t h i r d and one-half (Skogan, 1976) - the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of the Vancouver and Burnaby b u r g l a r y time s e r i e s p r o f i l e s i s complicated by the p o s s i b i l i t y that increased r e p o r t i n g rates hide a c t u a l r e d u c t i o n s i n the amount of b u r g l a r y . We s h a l l r e t u r n to t h i s problem in the d i s c u s s i o n of area displacement e f f e c t s presented below. The second c o m p l i c a t i o n a r i s e s from d i f f e r e n c e s i n the Vancouver and Burnaby programs. In general terms the Burnaby 309 . program appears to have been b e t t e r organized than the one i n Vancouver. An e v a l u a t i o n of the e f f e c t i v e n e s s of the f i r s t year of the program i n Burnaby was conducted by the l o c a l p o l i c e whereas very l i t t l e in the way of e v a l u a t i o n of t h e i r own program was conducted by the Vancouver p o l i c e . Two pieces of evidence are a v a i l a b l e which r e f l e c t the d i f f e r i n g degrees of success of the two programs. The f i r s t i s i n terms of t h e i r apparent e f f e c t i n i n c r e a s i n g r i s k to o f f e n d e r s . An examination of changes i n c l e a r a n c e rates tends to demonstrate the d i f f e r e n t e f f e c t i v e n e s s of the two muni c i p a l programs: Table 2 Percentage of B u r g l a r i e s C l e a r e d i n Vancouver and Burnaby P o l i c e J u r i s d i c t i o n s Vancouver % c l e a r e d Burnaby % c l e a r e d 1974 12.9 18.5 1975 11.5 11.2 1976 12.8 16.8 1977 13.3 35.9 1978 11.1 36 .8 1979 11.81 36.6 1980 10.5 21. 3 1981 8.7 17.0 • r e p o r t s unfounded or c l e a r e d by charge In Burnaby f o l l o w i n g the i n t r o d u c t i o n of Neighbourhood Watch i n 1976, c l e a r a n c e rates approximately doubled for a 310. three year p e r i o d and then dropped again i n 1980 and 1981 to the l e v e l o b t a i n i n g before the i n t r o d u c t i o n of the program. In Vancouver no p a r t i c u l a r l y s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e i n clearance r a t e s appears to have o c c u r r e d . The d i f f e r e n c e s may r e f l e c t the v a r y i n g success of the two programs. A second i n d i c a t i o n of t h e i r v a r y i n g success would be i n terms of the percentage of households adopting the program -the more households adopting the program, the l e s s the p o s s i b i l i t y of geographic or t a r g e t displacement o c c u r r i n g . A v i c t i m i z a t i o n survey conducted by Simon F r a s e r U n i v e r s i t y ' s C r i m i n o l o g y Research Centre i n 1979 i n c l u d e d a q u e s t i o n on the respondent household's p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n Neighbourhood Watch. Estimates based on the survey sample suggest that 43.2% of the t o t a l number of households i n Vancouver p a r t i c i p a t e d i n Neighbourhood Watch, 63.3% i n Burnaby. If the Burnaby program i s more e f f e c t i v e than i t s Vancouver counterpart by v i r t u e of greater p a r t i c i p a t i o n , then the Burnaby program i s more l i k e l y to be s u c c e s s f u l i n p r e v e n t i n g b u r g l a r y . T h i s greater degree of success may be apparent i n the b u r g l a r y rates for Burnaby which appear to show a r e d u c t i o n i n 1977 and 1978 f o l l o w i n g the i n t r o d u c t i o n of Neighbourhood Watch. Whatever success the Vancouver program had, evidence f o r i t may be l o s t i n f l u c t u a t i o n s i n the b u r g l a r y r a t e which occur for e n t i r e l y d i f f e r e n t reasons, p a r t i c u l a r l y i f the smaller percentage of households adopting the program i n Vancouver cr e a t e d the gr e a t e r l i k e l i h o o d of target or geographic displacement. In e i t h e r case, the displacement of b u r g l a r y to unprotected homes 311. w i l l obscure the d e t e r r e n t e f f e c t of the program in homes p r o t e c t e d by i t . For the moment, i t i s s u f f i c i e n t to note that the p o t e n t i a l e f f e c t of displacement combined with r e p o r t i n g changes brought about by the program make i t very d i f f i c u l t to assess the d e t e r r e n t e f f e c t i v e n e s s of Neighbourhood Watch from the m u n i c i p a l i t y l e v e l data. It i s n e v e r t h e l e s s tempting to conclude from the Burnaby data that the program had some de t e r r e n t e f f e c t and the evidence for the d e t e r r e n t c a p a c i t y of small s c a l e programs such as the one in Monterey appears to be unequivocal. What of the evidence for displacement? We begin with evidence f o r t a r g e t displacement in Burnaby and then proceed to the problem of geographic displacement as the r e s u l t of the West End p i l o t p r o j e c t i n Vancouver. Evidence f o r displacement (1) Burnaby and the Evidence f o r Target Displacement The Burnaby R.C.M.P.'s e v a l u a t i o n of the f i r s t year of the Burnaby-wide program ( J u l y 1976 - June 1977) in c l u d e s a d e t a i l e d d e s c r i p t i o n of the numbers of break-ins to residences p r o t e c t e d by O p e r a t i o n I d e n t i f i c a t i o n as compared to the number in unprotected r e s i d e n c e s . U n f o r t u n a t e l y i n o n l y 59% of the cases through t h i s one year p e r i o d could i t be a s c e r t a i n e d from the o r i g i n a l crime report form whether a residence was p r o t e c t e d by O p e r a t i o n I d e n t i f i c a t i o n or not. Of the 665 break-ins for which i n f o r m a t i o n could be a s c e r t a i n e d , 329 312. occurred in p r o t e c t e d residences and 336 i n unprotected residences (Burnaby R.C.M.P., 1978 appendix 1.). For the month of June 1977 a survey of the r e s i d e n t i a l b u r g l a r y crime r e p o r t s which d i d not inc l u d e i n f o r m a t i o n about Ope r a t i o n I d e n t i f i c a t i o n was conducted by v i s i t i n g the v i c t i m i z e d household to check for s t i c k e r s . The survey showed that 67% of these residences were not p r o t e c t e d by the program. While i t is impossible to a t t a i n an exact f i g u r e for the number of residences p r o t e c t e d by the program i n Burnaby, we do know that 30,000 of the 48,500 r e s i d e n t i a l u n i t s were contacted by program s t a f f by September 1976 (Burnaby R.C.M.P. 1978). Most of the residences not contacted were apartment b u i l d i n g s which t y p i c a l l y experience a lower b u r g l a r y r a t e than s i n g l e and two fa m i l y homes (apartments are more d i f f i c u l t to b u r g l a r i z e ) . If the f i g u r e for the "unknown" re p o r t s for June i s i n d i c a t i v e of the p r o p o r t i o n for the r e s t of the twelve month p e r i o d , a f u r t h e r 313 break-ins occurred i n unmarked r e s i d e n c e s . The cumulative t o t a l s would then read 483 break-ins to Opera t i o n I d e n t i f i c a t i o n p r o t e c t e d r e s i d e n c e s , as compared to 649 to unprotected r e s i d e n c e s . It should be r e i t e r a t e d , these f i g u r e s are based on a g e n e r a l i z a t i o n of the June 1977 r a t i o of marked to unmarked p r o p e r t i e s which were not recorded as such on the crime r e p o r t s - there i s no way of knowing whether such a g e n e r a l i z a t i o n i s r e l i a b l e . Nor i s there anyway of e s t a b l i s h i n g the r a t i o of r e s i d e n t i a l b u r g l a r i e s in apartment b u i l d i n g u n i t s as compared to s i n g l e and two f a m i l y d w e l l i n g u n i t s . The very f a c t that 313. not much of an attempt was made to implement O p e r a t i o n I d e n t i f i c a t i o n i n apartment b u i l d i n g s i s an i n d i c a t i o n of t h e i r c omparatively lower b r e a k - i n r a t e i n ge n e r a l , and c o n f i r m a t i o n that o p p o r t u n i t y does have something to do with the b u r g l a r ' s choice of t a r g e t . In a d d i t i o n to the aforementioned problems, i t i s impossible to t e l l how many of the 30,000 r e s i d e n t i a l u n i t s contacted by the O p e r a t i o n I d e n t i f i c a t i o n personnel a c t u a l l y responded by adopting the program, although the program e v a l u a t i o n r eport conveys the impression that a larg e m a j o r i t y d i d . If t h i s i s the case, and i f we assume a 70% adoption r a t e , by September of 1976 the greater p r o p o r t i o n of s i n g l e and two f a m i l y d w e l l i n g s i n Burnaby had adopted the program (the v i c t i m i z a t i o n survey data r e p o r t e d above suggest that 63% of the t o t a l households i n Burnaby had adopted the program i n 1978 - by t h i s time there were s t i l l households i n Burnaby never contacted by program pe r s o n n e l . The Simon F r a s e r C r i m i n o l o g y Research Centre V i c t i m i z a t i o n Survey showed that i n 1979 76% of s i n g l e f a m i l y houses had adopted the program, but only 44% of the apartments). I f a l l of these assumptions are c o r r e c t one i s l e f t with the c o n c l u s i o n that while a greater p r o p o r t i o n of s i n g l e and two f a m i l y d w e l l i n g s had adopted the program, by f a r the g r e a t e s t number of break-ins o c c u r r e d i n those u n i t s which had not adopted the program. Had the r a t e of b u r g l a r y for p r o t e c t e d residences been e q u i v a l e n t to the r a t e f o r unprotected r e s i d e n c e s , there would have been 1052 break-ins to p r o t e c t e d r e s i d e n c e s , and 1701 b u r g l a r i e s i n Burnaby as a whole 314. between June 1976 and J u l y 1977. T h i s l a t t e r f i g u r e i s s i g n i f i c a n t l y higher than the b u r g l a r y rate i n Burnaby for any 12 month p e r i o d for which data are a v a i l a b l e . Had the rate i n unprotected r e s i d e n c e s been the same as the rate i n the p r o t e c t e d r e s i d e n c e s , there would have been 781 b u r g l a r i e s i n Burnaby, a rate lower than at any time between 1974 and 1978. There were in f a c t 1122 b u r g l a r i e s r e p o r t e d i n Burnaby between J u l y 1976 and June 1977. These h y p o t h e t i c a l f i g u r e s , together with the d i f f e r e n t r ates of v i c t i m i z a t i o n of unprotected and p r o t e c t e d r e s i d e n c e s , suggest that O p e r a t i o n I d e n t i f i c a t i o n does prevent b u r g l a r i e s , but at the expense of a greater v i c t i m i z a t i o n of unprotected residences - a target displacement o c c u r s . From the geographic p o i n t of view what t h i s means i s that t a r g e t displacement of the s o r t d e s c r i b e d here may occur i n s t e a d of or together with geographic displacement (depending upon the percentage of r e s i d e n t i a l u n i t s which adopt the program in the f i r s t p l a c e , and the geographic extent of the program's coverage). The geographic displacement might thus be between neighbourhoods or w i t h i n them. From the evidence presented to t h i s p o i n t , a p l a u s i b l e argument can be made suggesting that target displacement was a s s o c i a t e d with the Burnaby program once i t had been f u l l y implemented. While the p i l o t p r o j e c t was claimed as being h i g h l y s u c c e s s f u l i n reducing crime no means of a s s e s s i n g i t s e f f e c t i n d i s p l a c i n g b u r g l a r y to other areas was i n c l u d e d . T h i s e f f e c t would presumably be most i n t e n s i v e in the v i c i n i t y 315. immediately adjacent to the t e s t area, but i n l i e u of more d e t a i l e d s t a t i s t i c s t h i s hypothesis simply cannot be t e s t e d . But the s t a t i s t i c s f o r such a t e s t are a v a i l a b l e i n Vancouver. (2) The West End Program i n Vancouver: Evidence for A r e a l Di splacement Neighbourhood Watch was introduced to Vancouver's West End r e s i d e n t i a l d i s t r i c t l a t e i n 1976. The program was f i r s t a d v e r t i s e d i n a s e r i e s of neighbourhood meetings at l o c a l community centres and at gatherings of the West End Ratepayers A s s o c i a t i o n i n January, February and March 1977. Two p o l i c e c o n s t a b l e s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r implementing the program a l s o c o ntacted apartment owners and other l o c a l groups i n the hope that they would cooperate. From May to August 1977, s i x students were h i r e d to help introduce the program on a door to door b a s i s . Canvassing began i n the E n g l i s h Bay area of the West End, and by the end of the summer the team hoped to complete the area between Denman, B u r r a r d , Davie and the E n g l i s h Bay s h o r e l i n e (see F i g u r e 6, p. 319). By September 1st, 1976, 80% of the households i n the area had been co n t a c t e d . In September the program s u f f e r e d a temporary setback when funding for i t was suspended by c i t y c o u n c i l . The door to door campaign was d i s c o n t i n u e d , and r e s i d e n t s who wanted to enter the program had to do so of t h e i r own i n i t i a t i v e by borrowing marking pens from the l o c a l l i b r a r y . 316 . The i n t e r r u p t i o n of funds in t h i s way has c r e a t e d a f o r t u n a t e circumstance for examining the s p a t i a l impact of Neighbourhood Watch in Vancouver to the extent that an area where O p e r a t i o n I d e n t i f i c a t i o n was s y s t e m a t i c a l l y implemented by a system of door to door canvassing i s juxtaposed to an area where the program worked on a p u r e l y v o l u n t a r y b a s i s as noted e a r l i e r ; a survey of s i m i l a r programs in the U n i t e d S t a t e s suggests that many more households adopt such programs when p o l i c e or t h e i r r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s d i r e c t l y contact householders as opposed to implementing them on a p u r e l y v o l u n t a r y b a s i s -only ten of s i x t y - f i v e p r o j e c t s surveyed by the U n i t e d S t a t e s Law Enforcement A s s i s t a n c e Agency had managed to e n r o l l more than 10% of the households in t h e i r j u r i s d i c t i o n s i n t o Neighbourhood Watch or e q u i v a l e n t programs, the c i t i z e n contact programs being most e f f e c t i v e ( K r a j i c k , 1979, p. 13). In order to assess the impact of O p e r a t i o n I d e n t i f i c a t i o n , we must a s c e r t a i n the d e t e r r e n t e f f e c t s of the Neighbourhood Watch program in the t e s t area. As noted above small s c a l e i n t e n s i v e programs have been shown to be s u c c e s s f u l elsewhere as was the case with the Monterey program (Time Magazine, January 26, 1976) and the r e s u l t s claimed f o r the f i r s t three months of the Burnaby p i l o t p r o j e c t i n d i c a t e a 79% r e d u c t i o n i n b u r g l a r y . A l s o the a v a i l a b l e evidence from Burnaby suggests that O p e r a t i o n I d e n t i f i c a t i o n p r o t e c t e d homes are not b u r g l a r i z e d at the same r a t e as unprotected homes. Although I have not been able to conduct i n t e r v i e w s with b u r g l a r y o f f e n d e r s , Michael Robinson (1978) interviewed c o n v i c t e d 317 . b u r g l a r s i n Vancouver and Richmond (another m u n i c i p a l i t y in the g r e a t e r Vancouver a r e a ) . Four of the eight o f f e n d e r s he t a l k e d to i n d i c a t e d that they avoided premises p r o t e c t e d by O p e r a t i o n I d e n t i f i c a t i o n . While i t i s d i f f i c u l t from the o v e r a l l b u r g l a r y r a t e in Vancouver to e s t a b l i s h the d e t e r r e n t e f f e c t i v e n e s s of the general program, the method of i t s implementation i n the t e s t area i s one which elsewhere has had a c o n s i d e r a b l e measure of success in r e c r u i t i n g r e s i d e n t s , and thus i n i t s general p o t e n t i a l for d e t e r r i n g would-be b u r g l a r s . With these c o n s i d e r a t i o n s in mind i t seems reasonable to argue that what appears to be target displacement as a r e s u l t of the general Burnaby program may t r a n s l a t e i n t o an a r e a l displacement i n the case of g e o g r a p h i c a l l y r e s t r i c t e d p i l o t p r o j e c t s . The Neighbourhood Watch P i l o t P r o j e c t Area i s shown in F i g u r e 6. In s e a r c h i n g for displacement e f f e c t s , b u r g l a r y rates in three areas adjacent to the p r o j e c t area were examined (West End West, West End North, and West End E a s t ) . While the Vancouver P o l i c e s t a t i s t i c s enable the r e c o n s t r u c t i o n of b u r g l a r y r a t e s for small areas such as these, the records c o n t a i n no i n f o r m a t i o n about which v i c t i m s were p r o t e c t e d by Neighbourhood Watch. U n f o r t u n a t e l y , t h e r e f o r e , no assessment of t a r g e t displacement w i t h i n the p r o j e c t area can be made. The a n a l y s i s proceeds on the assumption that while target displacement could occur i n the t e s t area (not a l l the r e s i d e n c e s contacted would have adopted O p e r a t i o n I d e n t i f i c a t i o n ) , i t would in t h i s case be more l i k e l y to occur 318. GO I— 1 <J3 6. V A N C O U V E R W E S T E N D N E I G H B O U R H O O D W A T C H P R O J E C T A R E A A N D D I S P L A C E M E N T S T U D Y A R E A S WEST END WEST WEST END EAST NEIGHBOURHOOD WATCH PROJECT A R E A (WEST END SOUTH) Surrey g e o g r a p h i c a l l y - a search for unprotected t a r g e t s would make some b u r g l a r s concentrate on unprotected areas, e s p e c i a l l y i n the West End of Vancouver where the p r o j e c t area i s l o c a t e d wi t h i n a d i s t i n c t neighbourhood. The b u r g l a r y rates for the four areas d e p i c t e d i n F i g u r e 6 are shown in t a b l e 3. In the p r o j e c t area the average number of b u r g l a r i e s per month durin g the 24 month p e r i o d p r i o r to the implementation of Neighbourhood Watch (January 1975 to December 1976) was 10.6. During the f i r s t twelve months of Neighbourhood Watch (1977) the monthly average d e c l i n e d by some 20% to 8.0. T h i s rate r e d u c t i o n may be i n d i c a t i v e of a d e t e r r e n t e f f e c t of the program, e s p e c i a l l y i f r e p o r t i n g rates i n c r e a s e as a r e s u l t of i t s implementation. The rate d u r i n g the f i r s t s i x months of 1977 was p a r t i c u l a r l y low, however, ( j u s t over two b u r g l a r i e s per month) while the rate from J u l y through December was much hig h e r . Again increased r e p o r t i n g may be r e s p o n s i b l e for part of the change. In 1978, the rate increases to 15.75 b u r g l a r i e s per month, a rate much higher than the pre-program l e v e l . But by t h i s time the d i s t i n c t i o n between l e v e l s of adoption of Opera t i o n I d e n t i f i c a t i o n i n the p r o j e c t area and surrounding areas would have been s i g n i f i c a n t l y reduced - i t is noteworthy that the rate i n the surrounding areas a l s o i n c r e a s e d to a point where i t was higher than l e v e l s i n 1975 and 1976. Once again, t h i s i n c r e a s e may r e f l e c t changes in b u r g l a r y r e p o r t i n g , but such an e x p l a n a t i o n would not seem to e x p l a i n the magnitude of rate i n c r e a s e s . From her assessment of Op e r a t i o n I d e n t i f i c a t i o n i n 320 . T a b l e 3 Number o f r e p o r t e d b u r g l a r i e s i n t h e West End o f V a n c o u v e r We s t E n d N o r t h F M A M J O N D 1975 22 16 21 12 25 20 23 18 15 15 25 32 1976 38 25 27 37 20 28 28 29 39 16 21 15 1977 12 15 20 13 22 32 32 29 38 43 38 39 1978 51 35 36 33 36 27 42 34 40 38 43 24 1979 36 32 24 23 26 34 25 24 19 20 29 23 242 x= 20 323 x=27 333 x=27.75 436 x=36.3 315 x=26.25 1980 1 32 34 30 29 28 31 40 28 32 25 39 349 x=29 s c o r e s t a n d a r d i z e d a g a i ns t a b a s e o f 100 i n 1975 100 133 138 180 131 144 W e s t E n d S o u t h ( P r o j e c t A r e a ) J F M A M J J A S O N 0 1975 16 7 9 5 7 4 14 11 4 9 12 12 109 x=9.0 100 1976 21 8 11 11 7 27 25 7 7 10 4 7 145 x=12 133 1977 4 8 4 1 1 8 10 10 11 8 18 14 97 x=8 89 1978 16 11 14 19 13 6 20 16 17 34 12 10 189 x=15.75 173 1979 19 15 8 6 15 7 13 7 9 20 11 22 144 x=12 132 1980 2 15 15 19 22 9 31 12 19 14 14 16 188 x=15.7 172 321. T a b l e 3A Number o f r e p o r t e d b u r g l a r i e s i n t h e W e s t E n d o f V a n c o u v e r W e s t E n d W e s t J F M A M J J A S 0 N D 1975 1 3 1 0 5 3 3 2 0 0 4 0 22 1976 0 0 0 1 1 1 2 3 3 3 0 0 14 1977 0 1 1 1 2 2 0 3 2 0 1 1 14 1978 1 0 1 4 5 0 1 1 0 3 1 0 17 1979 1 0 3 2 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 11 W e s t E n d E a s t J F M A M J J A S 0 N D 1975 0 3 7 6 7 3 8 6 10 6 8 15 79 x=6 .6 1976 20 13 12 7 8 7 7 7 13 2 2 4 102 x=8 . 5 1977 4 5 7 4 7 9 8 13 10 7 8 7 89 x=7 . 4 1978 22 18 20 19 16 9 6 16 26 14 10 6 182 x = 1 5 . 0 1979 10 10 3 4 6 10 4 3 3 7 7 6 73 x=6 . 0 3 22 , P o r t l a n d , Schneider notes that each increase i n r e p o r t i n g (as measured by a v i c t i m i z a t i o n survey) was accompanied by an in c r e a s e i n the rate of o f f i c i a l b u r g l a r y (1976, p. 138). But the i n c r e a s e in r e p o r t i n g which she a t t r i b u t e s to the i n t r o d u c t i o n of O p e r a t i o n I d e n t i f i c a t i o n , i f i t can be e x t r a p o l a t e d to the Vancouver s i t u a t i o n , would not be s u f f i c i e n t to e x p l a i n the rate changes o c c u r r i n g i n the West End - Schneider shows a 20% d i f f e r e n c e i n r e p o r t i n g rates while the r a t e in the p r o j e c t area i n 1978 i s double the rate i t was in 1976, the year immediately p r i o r to the i n t r o d u c t i o n of the program. But i n the r e s i d e n t i a l area Schneider s t u d i e d , only 17% of the households had adopted O p e r a t i o n I d e n t i f i c a t i o n - i n the West End p r o j e c t area the r a t e of adoption was much higher. The Simon F r a s e r U n i v e r s i t y C r i m i n o l o g y Research Centre V i c t i m i z a t i o n Study estimates that 43.2% of households in Vancouver adopted the program - in the p r o j e c t area the percentage i s l i k e l y to be higher because of the systematic method of team canvassing used. In the West End there were three follow-up v i s i t s i f the f i r s t one was made when no-one was at home. For most of the p r o j e c t area, every residence was v i s i t e d (the 20% not v i s i t e d were in a small four block area i n the south east corner of the p r o j e c t area - the number of b u r g l a r i e s i n such a small area i s so low that a meaningful a n a l y s i s of displacement i n t h i s area could not be made). There was, then, l i k e l y to be a much higher rate of adoption of the program i n the West End t e s t area than elsewhere i n Vancouver, some of which was not canvassed s y s t e m a t i c a l l y or 323 . not canvassed at a l l . The r a t e increase in the p r o j e c t area in the l a t t e r part of 1977 and the general increase i n the West End i n 1978 (as more homes in West End North adopted the program), may be at l e a s t p a r t l y a t t r i b u t a b l e to r e p o r t i n g changes, e s p e c i a l l y in l i g h t of Schneider's evidence that i t i s adopters of O p e r a t i o n I d e n t i f i c a t i o n who are r e s p o n s i b l e for i n c r e a s e d r e p o r t i n g (1976); adopters of the program repo r t e d 80% of b u r g l a r i e s , non-adopters 65%. 5 A l t e r n a t i v e l y , the r a t e s may have changed for e n t i r e l y d i f f e r e n t reasons. If b u r g l a r y rates were i n c r e a s i n g i n the West End, the i n t r o d u c t i o n of O p e r a t i o n I d e n t i f i c a t i o n could simply slow the ra t e of i n c r e a s e . In t h i s case the program would have a d e t e r r e n t e f f e c t , but one hidden by the simple comparison of d i f f e r e n t rates at d i f f e r e n t times. From the a v a i l a b l e data t h i s p o s s i b i l i t y i s d i f f i c u l t to account f o r . The p o i n t i s that the d e t e r r e n t e f f e c t of the program cannot simply be measured by comparing rates d u r i n g the program with r a t e s before the i n t r o d u c t i o n of the program - random f l u c t u a t i o n s and seasonal v a r i a t i o n s make the process of e x t r a p o l a t i n g rates d i f f i c u l t . The o v e r a l l r a t e in the p r o j e c t area i s n e v e r t h e l e s s lower in 1977 than in the preceding two year p e r i o d or t h e r e a f t e r . T h i s i s not, however, the case in West End North. A comparison of the rates i n the two areas tends to c o n f i r m the c o n c l u s i o n that O p e r a t i o n I d e n t i f i c a t i o n reduced b u r g l a r i e s i n the p r o j e c t area, but only at the expense of an i n c r e a s e i n West End North in the l a t t e r part of 1977 (Table 3 and F i g u r e 7). When the rates are s t a n d a r d i z e d 324. Figure 7, Residential Breaking and Entering in Vancouver's West End: A comparison of Rates in the Neighborhood Watch Project Area and West End North CO ro cn West End North - Project Area Beginning of Neighborhood ' Watch 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 against a base of 100 in 1975 (Table 3) what becomes s t r i k i n g i s the s i m i l a r i t y of rates i n West End North and the P r o j e c t Area i n 1976, 1978 and 1979, but the anomaly between the two i n 1977, the year the t e s t p r o j e c t was introduced. In attempting to i d e n t i f y displacement e f f e c t s I have focused on rate changes in the three areas immediately adjacent to the E n g l i s h Bay P r o j e c t Area (see F i g u r e 6). A short d e s c r i p t i o n of each of these areas i s warranted. The area to the northwest of E n g l i s h Bay is l a r g e l y comprised of high r i s e apartments. It has c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y had a very low b u r g l a r y r a t e averaging approximately 1.5 break-ins per month (Table 3). It i s p h y s i c a l l y separated from the main part of the Neighbourhood Watch p r o j e c t area except at the south end of Denman S t r e e t . During 1977 the b u r g l a r y rate remained the same as the year b e f o r e . It seems reasonable to conclude that no displacement of b u r g l a r y i n t o t h i s area o c c u r r e d . The area to the east of the p r o j e c t neighbourhood c o n s i s t s of a mixture of low r i s e apartments, duplexes and s i n g l e f a m i l y d w e l l i n g s , but f o r the most part i s a commercial area. Many of the r e s i d e n t i a l b u r g l a r i e s o c c u r r i n g in t h i s area may be from the rooms of the numerous h o t e l s but, u n f o r t u n a t e l y no s t a t i s t i c s are a v a i l a b l e to show e x a c t l y how many of the b u r g l a r i e s i n t h i s area are of t h i s type. For the two years p r i o r to 1977 the monthly average was 7.6 while i n 1977 i t was 7.4. In 1978 i t rose to 15.0, but by t h i s time the area could have been expected to c o n t a i n more adopters of Neighbourhood 326 . Watch. T h i s abrupt increase occurs at the same time as the sharp i n c r e a s e i n rates in the program area. In terms of displacement one might not expect to see much of an e f f e c t in t h i s area for two reasons: f i r s t , the area as d e f i n e d only borders the program neighbourhood for a d i s t a n c e of four blocks and two of these were not canvassed by the program personnel; second, where the two areas do border each other, they are separated by the North End of the B u r r a r d S t r e e t b r i d g e , and t h i s forms a n a t u r a l boundary to the West End area. Not only i s t h i s a p h y s i c a l boundary, but may a l s o form a boundary to s o c i a l group a c t i v i t y spaces - the schools i n the West End area l i e to the north of the p r o j e c t area, and s i n c e most b u r g l a r s are j u v e n i l e s (over 80% of the known b u r g l a r y o f f e n d e r s in Vancouver between 1978 and 1981 were j u v e n i l e s ) , t h e i r a l r e a d y developed a c t i v i t y spaces may determine the d i r e c t i o n of any displacement of t a r g e t s as a r e s u l t of Neighbourhood Watch ( i n t h i s respect see Brantingham and Brantingham, 1981B,). T h i s leaves us with the area immediately adjacent to the p r o j e c t area to the n o r t h . For the purposes of t h i s a n a l y s i s data have been c o l l e c t e d for the area s i x blocks to the north of the p r o j e c t neighbourhood - a number of s t u d i e s of b u r g l a r s have suggested that most b u r g l a r i e s occur r e l a t i v e l y c l o s e to the o f f e n d e r ' s home, u s u a l l y w i t h i n one m i l e of i t ( f o r a review, see P h i l i p s , 1980; Davidson, 1981; Herbert, 1982). The area d e s c r i b e d as West End north should thus be l a r g e enough for any area displacement to be r e c o g n i z a b l e . West End north is separated from the p r o j e c t area by Davie S t r e e t , the main 327 . West End thoroughfare p r o v i d i n g access to both areas. Davie S t r e e t i s a commercial s t r i p , and a f o c a l point of a c t i v i t y for both West End north and the p r o j e c t area. The two areas are thus very much one neighbourhood with a s i m i l a r mix of high r i s e apartments and houses; the two schools s e r v i c i n g the p r o j e c t area are both north of Davie S t r e e t . If Neighbourhood Watch d i d indeed d i s p l a c e b u r g l a r y , then i t i s to the area north of Davie S t r e e t that the e f f e c t would be most l i k e l y to be n o t i c e d . While the evidence i s not e x a c t l y unequivocal, a displacment of b u r g l a r y does appear to have occu r r e d . In the 24 month p e r i o d p r i o r to the implementation of Neighbourhood Watch in West End South, the average monthly b u r g l a r y rate i n West End North was 23.5. During 1977 the r a t e rose to 27.5. But one must be c a r e f u l here, the monthly rate for West End North i n the twelve months p r i o r to the development of the program in West End South was 27.0. During 1976 and 1977 the rate d i d not appear to change much. Not, that i s , i f we consider the average monthly rate for the whole of 1977. The p i c t u r e changes c o n s i d e r a b l y i f we examine the month by month changes of rates i n West End North as the team of two policemen and s i x students g r a d u a l l y canvassed the area to the south from May 1977 onwards. P r i o r to t h i s time there was an average of 15.5 b u r g l a r i e s per month in West End North. But from May onwards the number increases s u b s t a n t i a l l y to 36.5 b u r g l a r i e s per month - a r a t e much higher than in any s i x month p e r i o d i n the previous t h i r t y months for which records are a v a i l a b l e . As the Neighbourhood Watch program in 328 . West End South was implemented through the summer months, r e s i d e n t i a l b u r g l a r i e s appear to have been d i s p l a c e d northwards. In 1978 , when Neighbourhood Watch canvassing was extended i n t o West End North, the b u r g l a r y r a t e may be i n f l a t e d by r e p o r t i n g changes, e s p e c i a l l y i f most of the inc r e a s e i n r e p o r t i n g i s a t t r i b u t a b l e to adopters of the program as Schneider suggests. A v i c t i m i z a t i o n survey would be needed to te s t t h i s h y p o t h e s i s . But whatever the case, the highest rates in West End North f o r the s i x year p e r i o d shown i n F i g u r e 7 occur i n the s i x month p e r i o d immediately f o l l o w i n g the implementation of the t e s t program i n the p r o j e c t area. As w e l l as t h i s evidence f o r geographical displacement of b u r g l a r y o f f e n c e s , anecdotal evidence suggests that a d i f f e r e n t form of displacement occurred w i t h i n the p r o j e c t area. The p o l i c e o f f i c e r s r e s p o n s i b l e for the program noted that a f t e r the i n t e n s i v e summer campaign a change had occur r e d . While a number of homes p r o t e c t e d by Neighbourhood Watch had been broken i n t o , no marked items had been taken - i n s t e a d the b u r g l a r s removed cash and j e w e l l r y (West End C o u r i e r , September 15, 1977). U n f o r t u n a t e l y , i t has not been p o s s i b l e to gain access to the o r i g i n a l crime r e p o r t s where t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n i s recorded and so i t i s not p o s s i b l e to e s t a b l i s h i f t h i s kind of change d i d i n f a c t occur. I m p l i c a t i o n s of the A n a l y s i s Neighbourhood Watch does seem to be e f f e c t i v e in reducing 329 . r e p o r t e d b u r g l a r y , p a r t i c u l a r l y when implemented i n t e n s i v e l y i n small areas, a f i n d i n g confirmed by the experience i n Monterey, C a l i f o r n i a . Where the plan i s implemented at a wider s c a l e , evidence from the Burnaby R.C.M.P. (1977) and the Schneider study (1976) suggest that O p e r a t i o n I d e n t i f i c a t i o n reduces the rate of b u r g l a r y for those adopting the program, but evidence i n Burnaby suggests that the p r e v e n t a t i v e e f f e c t i s minimized by t a r g e t displacement. In the case of a smaller s c a l e program, t a r g e t displacement appears to assume a geographic dimension as some b u r g l a r s concentrate on unprotected areas as a way of c o n c e n t r a t i n g on unprotected homes. While i t should be noted that the evidence does not allow for strong c o n c l u s i o n s i n t h i s r e s p e c t , i t i s c o n s i s t e n t with the Burnaby f i n d i n g s to the extent that t a r g e t displacement appears to have assumed a r e c o g n i z a b l e a r e a l form. Other b u r g l a r s may simply adapt t h e i r behaviour by r e f r a i n i n g from t a k i n g marked items, others are not d e t e r r e d at a l l . Whatever d e t e r r e n t e f f e c t the program has i s probably s h o r t - l i v e d . In Vancouver the program d i d not seem to a f f e c t the c l e a r a n c e rate for b u r g l a r y o f f e n c e s , w hile in Burnaby the e f f e c t was temporary. In keeping with t h i s f i n d i n g the Burnaby program seemed to have a more n o t i c e a b l e e f f e c t i n reducing the o v e r a l l b u r g l a r y r a t e , d e s p i t e the evidence for target displacement, than d i d the program in Vancouver. Because the Burnaby program was e x t e n s i v e l y implemented in an eight month p e r i o d i t s e f f e c t i n s u p p r e s s i n g the o v e r a l l r a t e of b u r g l a r y would be more n o t i c e a b l e than i n Vancouver, where i t took two years to 330 . implement the program - Vancouver i s a much bigger m u n i c i p a l i t y in terms of both area and p o p u l a t i o n . The evidence for both target and geographic displacement suggests that the o p p o r t u n i s t i c aspect of b u r g l a r y may be a l i t t l e d i f f e r e n t from the way i t i s o f t e n c o n c e p t u a l i z e d . The suggestion that b u r g l a r y i s a h i g h l y " o p p o r t u n i s t i c o f f e n c e " p o r t r a y s the b u r g l a r , p a r t i c u l a r l y the j u v e n i l e b u r g l a r , as ta k i n g advantage of o p p o r t u n i t i e s that are happened upon " i n the spur of the moment" (eg. Hakim and Rengert, 1981, p. 12). The usual s p e c u l a t i o n has been that i f p o l i c e p r e v e n t i o n p r a c t i c e s do d i s p l a c e b u r g l a r y , i t w i l l be the a c t i v i t y of ol d e r b u r g l a r s that i s d i s p l a c e d . T h i s view may misconceive the nature of j u v e n i l e b u r g l a r y . O b v i o u s l y c e r t a i n kinds of target hardening w i l l i n f l u e n c e t a r g e t s chosen. But op p o r t u n i t y i s r e l a t i v e . J u v e n i l e s may w e l l intend to commit a b u r g l a r y and choose the e a s i e s t o p p o r t u n i t y a v a i l a b l e . But to remove c e r t a i n o p p o r t u n i t i e s may only change the nature of the way o p p o r t u n i t i e s are p e r c e i v e d by those w i s h i n g to e x p l o i t them - o p p o r t u n i t y may be a l l important in the choice of t a r g e t , but much l e s s so in the d e c i s i o n that there i s going to be a ta r g e t i n the f i r s t p l a c e . The p o t e n t i a l of target hardening for d i s p l a c i n g b u r g l a r y i s thus probably greater than has g e n e r a l l y been thought. Target displacement appears to be the most l i k e l y adaptive s t r a t e g y , although a form of t y p o l o g i c a l displacement may a l s o occur i f b u r g l a r s r e f r a i n from t a k i n g engraved items c o n c e n t r a t i n g i n s t e a d on c l o t h e s , money and j e w e l l r y . In the case of small s c a l e i n t e n s i v e l y 331. implemented programs, target displacement may assume a more re c o g n i z a b l e a r e a l form. I s h a l l r e t u r n to the more general i m p l i c a t i o n s of the a n a l y s i s i n the c o n c l u s i o n to the d i s s e r t a t i o n . 332 . Notes to Chapter 9 1. The Department of Manpower and Immigration, however, i s not allowed to supply s o c i a l insurance numbers to the p o l i c e . As a r e s u l t the use of these numbers does not a l l o w the p o l i c e to t r a c e the owners of a l l s t o l e n goods even when they are engraved. 2. The Revelstoke community was d e s c r i b e d as a "high-crime-r a t e area" e x p e r i e n c i n g 17 b u r g l a r i e s i n the year p r i o r to implementation of O p e r a t i o n I d e n t i f i c a t i o n . The f i n d i n g i s suspect to the extent that a l l these b u r g l a r i e s could be h y p o t h e t i c a l l y a t t r i b u t e d to one person who might simply have moved out of the area for reasons u n r e l a t e d to any crime p r e v e n t i o n scheme. 3. Whether t h i s i s a r e p o r t i n g change i s , of course, an e m p i r i c a l q u e s t i o n s t i l l to be r e s o l v e d . 4. Because of the change in r e c o r d i n g p r a c t i c e the f i r s t records ( p a r t i c u l a r l y of the f i r s t month) may not be r e l i a b l e . Some of the r e p o r t s for e a r l y 1974 may have been f i l e d for December 1973. 5. Both these r e p o r t i n g rates are higher than those found i n other v i c t i m i z a t i o n surveys (see g e n e r a l l y Skogan, 1976). The f i n d i n g does r a i s e the p o s s i b i l i t y that r e p o r t i n g rates vary g e o g r a p h i c a l l y . 333 . Chapter 10 C o n c l u s i o n s : Towards an Integrated Geography of Crime and C o n t r o l In i n t r o d u c i n g verstehen and c r i t i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e s to the geography of crime, two major i n t e r a c t i n g themes have emerged. The f i r s t concerns the conceptual and t h e o r e t i c a l problems a s s o c i a t e d with the p o s i t i v i s t i c and i n s t r u m e n t a l i s t p h i l o s o p h i c a l underpinnings of geographic p e r s p e c t i v e s . The second concerns the problems a s s o c i a t e d with the a n a l y t i c s e p a r a t i o n of crime and j u s t i c e that such a p h i l o s o p h i c a l o r i e n t a t i o n e n t a i l s . The p r i n c i p a l i m p l i c a t i o n of verstehen and c r i t i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e s for the geography of crime i s the need to understand crime i n the context of s o c i a l c o n t r o l (and u l t i m a t e l y i n terms of wider s o c i a l a l l o c a t i o n p r o c e s s e s ) . The t h e o r e t i c a l and e m p i r i c a l l i n k s between crime and c o n t r o l are developed at three conceptual l e v e l s . 1) Crime s t a t i s t i c s and images of crime 2) Crime c o n t r o l a c t i v i t y and the genesis of su b c u l t u r e s 3) Crime c o n t r o l and the c o n f i g u r a t i o n of " o f f e n d e r " behaviour p a t t e r n s as systematized through the concept of displacement. In d e v eloping the conceptual and e m p i r i c a l l i n k s between crime and s o c i a l c o n t r o l I have attempted to move beyond the " a b s t r a c t e d empiricism" c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of much of the geography of crime and other s p a t i a l p e r s p e c t i v e s developed in s o c i o l o g y 334 . and c r i m i n o l o g y , to an a n a l y s i s of crime i n i t s s o c i o - l e g a l context. I m p l i c i t i n the advocacy of such an a n a l y s i s is the argument that geographers must consider the i m p l i c a t i o n s of i n t e r a c t i o n i s t and c r i t i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e s i n developing a u n i f i e d geography of crime and j u s t i c e i n order to understand the i n f l u e n c e of s o c i a l c o n t r o l p r a c t i c e s on the geography of cr ime. In the d i s c u s s i o n of i n t e r a c t i o n i s t and c r i t i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e s I have not managed to r e s o l v e the t h e o r e t i c a l t ensions which separate s t r u c t u r e and a c t i o n p e r s p e c t i v e s . But what I have t r i e d to do i s show that both p e r s p e c t i v e s must be used i n the development of s o c i a l theory i n g e n e r a l , and c r i m i n o l o g i c a l theory i n p a r t i c u l a r (be i t from a geographic p e r s p e c t i v e or o t h e r w i s e ) . Rather than o f f e r i n g a s o l u t i o n to the s t r u c t u r e a c t i o n problem, T a y l o r , Walton and Young's (1973) model for a f u l l y s o c i a l theory of deviance has been introduced as a g u i d e l i n e f o r s p e c i f y i n g the a n a l y t i c elements necessary for a geographic p e r s p e c t i v e on crime in i t s s o c i o - l e g a l context. I have t r i e d to show how t h i s s o c i o - l e g a l context i s important both in shaping our images of who the c r i m i n a l s are and where c r i m i n a l a c t i v i t y o ccurs. In d i s c u s s i n g images of crime I have shown how c e r t a i n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s of o f f i c i a l s t a t i s t i c s make the understanding of crime r a t e maps (or maps of offender residence) problematic, p a r t i c u l a r l y i f o f f i c i a l s t a t i s t i c s are more a r e f l e c t i o n of c o n t r o l a c t i v i t i e s than the a c t u a l incidence of c r i m i n a l behaviour. Evidence presented suggests that o f f i c i a l crime 335. s t a t i s t i c s may sometimes d e p i c t the " r e a l " i n c i d e n c e of crime f a i r l y a c c u r a t e l y , but at other times they more a c c u r a t e l y p o r t r a y c o n t r o l a c t i v i t y . In a general sense o f f i c i a l s t a t i s t i c s may be b i a s e d i n two ways. The f i r s t type of bi a s i s produced through the s e l e c t i v e i n t e r a c t i o n of c o n t r o l personnel with o f f e n d e r s . The second form of bias occurs at an i d e o l o g i c a l ( i . e . s t r u c t u r a l ) l e v e l i n terms of the s e p a r a t i o n of " s t r e e t " crime o f f e n c e s from " w h i t e - c o l l a r " and corporate o f f e n c e s ; because of the d i f f e r e n t i a l l e v e l s of enforcement of "lower c l a s s " and "upper c l a s s " o f f e n c e s , the "crime problem" becomes the " s t r e e t " crime problem. T h i s d i s t o r t e d image of crime i s entrenched by the s e l e c t i v e p u b l i c a t i o n of crime s t a t i s t i c s which g e n e r a l l y only i n c l u d e the "lower c l a s s " o f f e n c e s . Because the c r i m i n o l o g i c a l l i t e r a t u r e i s e q u i v o c a l over the problem of how crime s t a t i s t i c s should be i n t e r p r e t e d , the main i m p l i c a t i o n of the d i s c u s s i o n i n Chapter 5 i s that i t i s unwise to proceed with a prima f a c i e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n unless very good reasons can be presented for doing so - because the crime s t a t i s t i c s so c e n t r a l to the geographer's r e s e a r c h manifesto may be s p a t i a l l y b i a s e d , they must become an object of study i n t h e i r own r i g h t i n the s p a t i a l a n a l y s i s of crime. The d i s c u s s i o n of the impact of c o n t r o l a c t i v i t y i n "producing" crime i s extended i n Chapter 6 to an examination of the impact of informal p o l i c e p r a c t i c e s on the genesis of s u b c u l t u r a l groups ( i . e . those p o l i c e i n t e r a c t i o n s with members of the p u b l i c which do not r e s u l t i n the d e f i n i t i o n of a crime 336 . or, as E r i c s o n , 1982, phrases i t , with persons considered "more o f f e n s i v e than o f f e n d i n g " as the p o l i c e c a r r y out t h e i r mandate to "reproduce o r d e r " ) . The d i s c u s s i o n of o b s e r v a t i o n a l s t u d i e s of p o l i c i n g ( E r i c s o n , 1981; 1982) and of G i l l ' s study of Luke S t r e e t (1978) shows how p o l i c e a c t i v i t y i t s e l f can c o n t r i b u t e to the development of s t e r e o t y p e s of c e r t a i n s o c i a l groups as being o u t s i d e the law, and how, through symbolic i n t e r a c t i o n , t h i s i d e n t i t y can become the s e 1 f - i d e n t i t y of the group in q u e s t i o n . G i l l ' s a n a l y s i s i s p a r t i c u l a r l y important for showing how s o c i a l c o n t r o l i n t e r a c t s with other s o c i a l a l l o c a t i o n p r a c t i c e s ( i n t h i s case p u b l i c housing p o l i c i e s ) to produce the s o c i a l context in which s u b c u l t u r e s u n f o l d . S o c i a l a l l o c a t i o n p r a c t i c e s form part of the s t r u c t u r a l context in which the stereotypes of c e r t a i n groups as "problem" groups emerge. While i n t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n much of the d i s c u s s i o n has concentrated on the l e g a l and c r i m i n a l j u s t i c e m i l i e u , t h i s focus i s not meant to suggest that the " l e g a l environment" i s the only l e v e l of a n a l y s i s to be developed in what Herbert (1977, 1979, 1982) r e f e r s to as an understanding of the "antecedents" of crime p a t t e r n s . The a n a l y s i s must be l i n k e d to a much broader study of s o c i a l a l l o c a t i o n and c o n t r o l p r a c t i c e s i n g e n e r a l . The argument developed in t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n i s thus simply an i n t r o d u c t i o n to a much more general p r o j e c t - a c r i t i c a l geographic p e r s p e c t i v e on crime and c o n t r o l . Having d i s c u s s e d the e f f e c t s of the c o n t r o l environment on images of crime and the p r o d u c t i o n and i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of 337 . " p r o b l e m " g r o u p s , t h e e m p h a s i s o f t h e a n a l y s i s c h a n g e s t o an e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e i n f l u e n c e o f c o n t r o l p r a c t i c e s on s p a t i a l p a t t e r n s o f " o f f e n d e r " a n d " p r o b l e m g r o u p " b e h a v i o u r . P u t a s l i g h t l y d i f f e r e n t w a y , t h e c h a n g e o f e m p h a s i s m a r k s a t r a n s i t i o n f r o m a c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f t h e i n t e r n a l r e l a t i o n s o f c r i m e a n d c o n t r o l , t o a c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f t h e i r s p a t i a l m a n i f e s t a t i o n s . A n a l y s i s o f t h e i n f l u e n c e o f c o n t r o l p r a c t i c e s on p a t t e r n s o f c r i m i n a l b e h a v i o u r has b e e n s y s t e m a t i z e d t h r o u g h t h e c o n c e p t o f d i s p l a c e m e n t , one w h i c h m e e t s b o t h t h e o r e t i c a l a n d e m p i r i c a l r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r a g e o g r a p h i c p e r s p e c t i v e on c r i m e i n i t s s o c i o - l e g a l c o n t e x t . D i s p l a c e m e n t phenomena a r e d e f i n e d as c h a n g e s o f s o c i a l a c t i v i t y i n d i r e c t r e s p o n s e t o s o c i a l c o n t r o l p r a c t i c e s . I n g e n e r a t i n g e x p l a n a t i o n s o f c r i m e d i s t r i b u t i o n s g e o g r a p h e r s h a v e g e n e r a l l y f o c u s e d on t h e c r i m e o r t h e c r i m i n a l . T h e d i s c u s s i o n o f d i s p l a c e m e n t phenomena s e r v e s t o i n t r o d u c e a p r o c e s s u a l a n a l y s i s t o show how o f f e n d e r s r e a c t t o c r i m e c o n t r o l a n d p r e v e n t i o n s t r a t e g i e s . T h e v a r i o u s e x a m p l e s o f d i s p l a c e m e n t c u l l e d f r o m s e c o n d a r y s o u r c e s a r e i n t r o d u c e d t o e s t a b l i s h t h e e m p i r i c a l i m p o r t a n c e a n d p h e n o m e n a l d i m e n s i o n s o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n c r i m e c o n t r o l a n d a c t u a l o f f e n d e r b e h a v i o u r . A l t h o u g h i n m o s t c a s e s t h e c h a n g e o f o f f e n d e r o r " p r o b l e m " g r o u p b e h a v i o u r d e s c r i b e d r e p r e s e n t s t h e u n i n t e n d e d c o n s e q u e n c e s o f s o c i a l c o n t r o l s t r a t e g i e s , t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e u s e o f s p a c e as a means o f s o c i a l c o n t r o l m u s t a l s o be i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o a c o m p r e h e n s i v e a n a l y s i s o f t h e c o n t r o l m i l i e u . N o r i s t h e d i s c u s s i o n l i m i t e d 338 . to changes i n s p a t i a l behaviour; because s p a t i a l displacement represents only one form of the of f e n d e r s response to law enforcement or crime p r e v e n t i o n e f f o r t s , any attempt to assess the s p a t i a l consequences of c o n t r o l e f f o r t s must a l s o consider other types of offender a d a p t a t i o n ( i n c l u d i n g the a c t u a l d e t e r r e n t e f f e c t i v e n e s s of v a r i o u s c o n t r o l e f f o r t s ) . Movement i s only one of a number of adap t i v e s t r a t e g i e s a v a i l a b l e to the offender (or the " o f f e n s i v e " ) . The e m p i r i c a l v i g n e t t e s presented i n Chapters 8 and 9 represent an attempt to i n i t i a t e a u n i f i e d geography of crime and c o n t r o l organized around the displacement theme developed in Chapter 7. These analyses attempt to f u l f i l l s e v e r a l t h e o r e t i c a l and e m p i r i c a l o b j e c t i v e s emerging from the c r i t i q u e of the geography of crime which are best o u t l i n e d in a general d i s c u s s i o n of the f i n d i n g s and i m p l i c a t i o n s of the two s t u d i e s . The study of changes of s t r e e t p r o s t i t u t i o n in Vancouver i n d i c a t e s how the displacement of p r o s t i t u t e s was occasioned by an enforcement s t r a t e g y not a c t u a l l y d i r e c t e d at them or the problem of s o l i c i t a t i o n i t s e l f . Previous l i t e r a t u r e on crime displacement (Mayhew et a l , 1976; Reppetto, 1976; Winchester, 1978; Gabor, 1979) has s p e c u l a t i v e l y d e a l t with the e f f e c t s of enforcement s t r a t e g i e s or crime p r e v e n t i o n campaigns on the a c t i v i t i e s they are aimed at c o n t r o l l i n g . While the p o l i c e i n v e s t i g a t i o n of the Vancouver cabaret club represents a "mechanical" crime s t r a t e g y (as d e f i n e d in Chapter 7 f o l l o w i n g Reppetto, 1976), i t s e f f e c t in terms of the i n t e n t i o n s of the i n v e s t i g a t i o n were anything but mechanical, and a more 339 . i n t r a c t a b l e type of law enforcement problem was c r e a t e d i n s t e a d . The enforcement s t r a t e g y produced an a c t i v i t y p a t t e r n change, the displacement i t s e l f o c c a s i o n i n g the very d e f i n i t i o n of subsequent a c t i v i t y as i l l e g a l and, by e xtension, the nature of a new law enforcement problem. What the Vancouver p r o s t i t u t i o n example shows is that the s p a t i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s between c o n t r o l a c t i v i t i e s and p a t t e r n s of offender behaviour are not n e c e s s a r i l y as d i r e c t as the r e l a t i o n s h i p s i d e n t i f i e d in the sparse l i t e r a t u r e on displacement r e s t r i c t e d as i t i s to target hardening crime p r e v e n t i o n programs and the a l l o c a t i o n of p a t r o l p o l i c e . But the a n a l y s i s attempts to do much more than t h i s . It a l s o shows how the c o n f i g u r a t i o n of the crime that was "produced" in the i n t e r a c t i o n of the c o n t r o l l e r s and the c o n t r o l l e d (and between d i f f e r e n t o r g a n i z a t i o n s of c o n t r o l l e r s - the c o u r t s , the p o l i c e and u l t i m a t e l y v a r i o u s l e v e l s of the l e g i s l a t u r e ) must i t s e l f be understood in the wider i d e o l o g i c a l context of the law and v i s i o n s of s o c i a l order. In the enforcement of s o l i c i t a t i o n laws, the p r o s t i t u t e s became the object of c o n t r o l , not the patrons, as a court d e c i s i o n that a p r o s t i t u t e ' s c l i e n t could not " s o l i c i t " r e a f f i r m e d both the sexism of the s o l i c i t i n g law, and what had been ta k e n - f o r -granted images of "who the o f f e n d e r s are". T h i s a n a l y s i s could not be achieved without making the c o n s t r u c t i o n of o f f i c i a l s t a t i s t i c s an object of s c r u t i n y . In t h i s case the o f f i c i a l s t a t i s t i c s on s t r e e t p r o s t i t u t i o n represent a c o n t r o l r a t e , and an i n t e r a c t i o n i s t a n a l y s i s i s 340 . r e q u i r e d to understand t h e i r meaning. In a d d i t i o n , an examination of the s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s embedded in the law - the s t r u c t u r a l context in which s o c i a l i n t e r a c t i o n s take place - i s necessary to understand "who the c r i m i n a l s are": in t h i s case women rather than men d e s p i t e the f a c t that both are i n v o l v e d in p u b l i c s o l i c i t a t i o n . In p a s s i n g i t is a l s o worth n o t i n g the way that the t a c t i c s used by c o n t r o l l e r s to reproduce p u b l i c order have been d e l i b e r a t e l y aimed at d i s p l a c i n g the p r o s t i t u t e s back i n t o the clubs - to r e - p l a c e them. Since the court d e c i s i o n s d e f i n i n g the i n t e r i o r of a car as a p r i v a t e p l a c e and s o l i c i t a t i o n as a p e r s i s t e n t or h a r a s s i n g behaviour, the l e g a l t o o l s a v a i l a b l e to the p o l i c e have made the r e - c r e a t i o n of order extremely p r o b l e m a t i c . Because of changes in the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of s o l i c i t i n g laws, place i t s e l f i s no longer the c r i t i c a l v a r i a b l e i n d i s t i n g u i s h i n g the c r i m i n a l i t y of a behaviour even though the i l l e g a l i t y of s o l i c i t a t i o n i s s t i l l u l t i m a t e l y dependent upon the place in which i t occurs. In the d i s c u s s i o n of s t r e e t p r o s t i t u t i o n the a n a l y s i s begins with a p a t t e r n change, and then attempts to e x p l a i n the reasons for the change and i t s subsequent consequences for the i n t e r a c t i o n of crime c o n t r o l personnel and " o f f e n d e r s " . In the second v i g n e t t e the s t r a t e g y i s q u i t e d i f f e r e n t . In the study of b u r g l a r y in two m u n i c i p a l i t i e s i n B r i t i s h Columbia, one based upon o f f i c i a l s t a t i s t i c s , the a n a l y s i s begins with a c o n t r o l s t r a t e g y and then attempts to assess i t s consequences. A f u r t h e r comment on the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of these 3 4 1 . s t a t i s t i c s seems warranted i n order to re-emphasize the importance of the suggestion that o f f i c i a l s t a t i s t i c s are forged through an i n t e r a c t i o n of crime and c o n t r o l . Because the enforcement of s t r e e t s o l i c i t i n g o f f ences i s u s u a l l y p r o a c t i v e most researchers would probably not f i n d i t too d i f f i c u l t to accept the idea t h a t , at l e a s t i n some cases, the o f f i c i a l s t a t i s t i c s p e r t a i n i n g to t h i s p a r t i c u l r offence r e f l e c t c o n t r o l a c t i v i t i e s as much as crime. But what i s the most s a t i s f a c t o r y i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i n the case of b u r g l a r y which is r e a c t i v e l y p o l i c e d ? The a n a l y s i s presented i n Chapter 9 suggests that the answer i s not as simple as one might i n i t i a l l y t h i n k . Evidence in t r o d u c e d from another study of O p e r a t i o n I d e n t i f i c a t i o n (Schneider, 1976) shows that such programs may have a s i g n i f i c a n t e f f e c t on r e p o r t i n g r a t e s . In t h i s way c o n t r o l p r a c t i c e s once again i n f l u e n c e crime r a t e s . T h i s makes the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of changes of m u n i c i p a l i t y l e v e l b u r g l a r y rates p a r t i c u l a r l y d i f f i c u l t . While the marked seasonal r e g u l a r i t y of b u r g l a r y time s e r i e s data suggest changes i n the a c t u a l i n c i d e n c e of b u r g l a r y rather than c o n t r o l a c t i v i t i e s (unless f o r some reason r e p o r t i n g rates are c o n s i d e r a b l y higher i n the winter months) the s p a t i a l v a r i a t i o n of r e p o r t i n g n e v e r t h e l e s s remains an open q u e s t i o n . At the neighbourhood l e v e l the a n a l y s i s might proceed w i t h the assumption that r e p o r t i n g r a t e s are uniform, but i n the case of t h i s a n a l y s i s the i n t r o d u c t i o n of O p e r a t i o n I d e n t i f i c a t i o n complicates the p i c t u r e because of i t s e f f e c t on r e p o r t i n g . A l l of these c o n s i d e r a t i o n s have to be taken i n t o account i n 342. attempting to determine the e f f e c t of O p e r a t i o n I d e n t i f i c a t i o n on b u r g l a r a c t i v i t y . But even with a l l these f a c t o r s taken i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n the evidence appears to suggest that offender behaviour does adjust to c o n t r o l a c t i v i t i e s , in t h i s case at the most intimate of s p a t i a l s c a l e s , the choice of t a r g e t . At t h i s point the a n a l y s i s of b u r g l a r y i s incomplete - i n a sense i t has only j u s t begun. Because very l i t t l e r e search i n t o displacement e f f e c t s has been conducted, and because the displacement concept has proved i n f o r m a t i v e i n i n s t i g a t i n g an a n a l y s i s of crime and j u s t i c e , the b u r g l a r y a n a l y s i s i s important to the extent that i t appears to c o n f i r m s p e c u l a t i o n s about displacement phenomena a s s o c i a t e d with "mechanical" c r i m i n a l j u s t i c e s t r a t e g i e s . But the a n a l y s i s has remained at the phenomenal l e v e l i n an attempt to a s c e r t a i n whether displacement does in f a c t occur. Having o f f e r e d evidence to suggest that displacement of b u r g l a r y a c t i v i t y does occur i n response to p r e v e n t i o n programs, the q u e s t i o n becomes, what i m p l i c a t i o n s t h i s has f o r a more general understanding of the nature of burglary? Because p r o s t i t u t i o n i s work, a way of l i f e and a general means of s u b s i s t e n c e , i t i s not s u r p r i s i n g that p r o s t i t u t e behaviour r e a c t s and adapts to law enforcement e f f o r t s . Indeed, p r o s t i t u t e behaviour i s i n t i m a t e l y bound to c o n t r o l a c t i v i t y (Reckless, 1933; Symanski, 1974, 1981; James, 1975; Shumsky and S p r i n g e r , 1981). But b u r g l a r y , p a r t i c u l a r l y j u v e n i l e b u r g l a r y , may be more a matter of " s t y l e " than l i f e s t y l e ; i t i s not "work" in the same sense that p r o s t i t u t i o n 343. i s , and presumably c o n s t i t u t e s only a small p o r t i o n of the o f f e n d e r ' s time-budget. N e v e r t h e l e s s the suggestion that b u r g l a r i e s are d i s p l a c e d by O p e r a t i o n I d e n t i f i c a t i o n implies that the b u r g l a r ' s a c t i v i t y i s not o p p o r t u n i s t i c i n the sense that i s o f t e n conveyed in the l i t e r a t u r e . While the choice of target does appear to r e f l e c t r e l at i ve o p p o r t u n i t y , the choice that there i s going to be a target i n the f i r s t place i s l e s s a f f e c t e d by target o p p o r t u n i t y s t r u c t u r e . From a c o r r e c t i o n a l i s t standpoint, one might argue that a more comprehensive implementation of Neighbourhood Watch might reduce b u r g l a r y , but i n the long run the program does not appear to be p a r t i c u l a r l y s u c c e s s f u l anyway. In a d d i t i o n , a more e f f i c i e n t program may c r e a t e a t y p o l o g i c l displacement to a d i f f e r e n t type of offender a c t i v i t y . Such s p e c u l a t i o n could only be r e s o l v e d by moving beyond a phenomenal a n a l y s i s to c o n s i d e r the meaning of b u r g l a r y to the o f f e n d e r . It i s i n t h i s sense that the a n a l y s i s is incomplete. Incomplete though i t might be, i t does show that phenomenal and i n t e r a c t i o n i s t analyses are not i n i m i c a l to each other - indeed they can be used to inform each other. Questions r a i s e d at the phenomenal l e v e l of a n a l y s i s can o f t e n only be r e s o l v e d by s h i f t i n g to an i n t e r a c t i o n i s t l e v e l . Because my purpose in the a n a l y s i s of b u r g l a r y has been to show that a supposedly o p p o r t u n i s t i c crime i s n e v e r t h e l e s s s e n s i t i v e to c o n t r o l e f f o r t s I have not attempted to extend i t to a general d i s c u s s i o n of b u r g l a r m o t i v a t i o n except to suggest that the b u r g l a r ' s motives, p a r t i c u l a r l y the j u v e n i l e ' s , are not w e l l understood beyond the 344. o b v i o u s m a t e r i a l i n t e r e s t s i n v o l v e d . S u c h an u n d e r s t a n d i n g w i l l u l t i m a t e l y be v i t a l t o an a n a l y s i s o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n c r i m e c o n t r o l a n d t h e i n c i d e n c e o f b u r g l a r y . Some F i n a l O b s e r v a t i o n s T h r o u g h o u t t h e t e x t I h a v e t r i e d t o s u g g e s t p r o f i t a b l e r e s e a r c h d i r e c t i o n s and t h e o r e t i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t s i n a g e n e r a l a t t e m p t t o p h i l o s o p h i c a l l y and e m p i r i c a l l y r e o r i e n t t h e g e o g r a p h y o f c r i m e . I h a v e s u g g e s t e d t h a t g e o g r a p h e r s s h o u l d p a y much m o r e a t t e n t i o n t o t h e p r o b l e m o f i n t e r p r e t i n g o f f i c i a l s t a t i s t i c s , a n d d e v e l o p t o a g r e a t e r d e g r e e i n t e r a c t i o n i s t and c r i t i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e s on t h e r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n c r i m e a n d j u s t i c e . I h a v e a t t e m p t e d t o s p e c i f y t h e s e r e l a t i o n s h i p s a t a v a r i e t y o f p h i l o s o p h i c a l a n d c o n c e p t u a l l e v e l s , a n d t o d e m o n s t r a t e t h e i r e m p i r i c a l i m p o r t a n c e a t a number o f d i f f e r e n t s c a l e s o f a n a l y s i s - f r o m t h e s e a s o n a l m i g r a t i o n o f n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y v a g r a n t s a r o u n d E n g l a n d i n r e s p o n s e t o P o o r L a w P o l i c y , t o t h e a d j u s t m e n t o f t a r g e t s e l e c t i o n by b u r g l a r s w i t h i n a n e i g h b o u r h o o d as a r e s p o n s e t o O p e r a t i o n I d e n t i f i c a t i o n . I n e a c h o f t h e e m p i r i c a l e x a m p l e s I h a v e p r e s e n t e d , t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n c r i m e a n d c o n t r o l has b e e n c o n c e p t u a l i z e d i n t e r m s o f t h e o f f e n d e r ' s r e s p o n s e t o c o n t r o l p r a c t i c e s . I n t h e d i s c u s s i o n o f o f f i c i a l s t a t i s t i c s and e c o l o g i c a l l a b e l l i n g I h a v e s u g g e s t e d t h a t c o n t r o l d e f i n i t i o n s a n d p r a c t i c e s i n f l u e n c e s c i e n t i f i c i m a g e s o f who t h e c r i m i n a l s a r e i n a v a r i e t y o f w a y s . I t s h o u l d be n o t e d t h a t t h e p e r s p e c t i v e s 345 . employed are not n e c e s s a r i l y a p p r o p r i a t e i n every s i t u a t i o n . In the case of homicide, the o f f i c i a l s t a t i s t i c s are l e s s e q u i v o c a l and the e f f e c t s of s t e r e o t y p i n g and the d i s c r e t i o n of c o n t r o l personnel are l e s s s i g n i f i c a n t than would be the case with j u v e n i l e delinquency, p u b l i c order and m o r a l i t y offences where the importance of the c o n t r o l environment seems paramount. But even i n the case of the many property crimes d i s c o v e r e d by the p u b l i c or c o n t r o l personnel other than the p o l i c e the i n f l u e n c e of c o n t r o l c u l t u r e i n t e r a c t i n g with broader s t r u c t u r e s of meaning can be c r u c i a l to an understanding of the c o n s t r u c t i o n of o f f i c i a l s t a t i s t i c s (eg. Cameron's, 1969, study of bias in the s e l e c t i o n of s h o p l i f t e r s by s t o r e d e t e c t i v e s ; and Schneider's, 1976, study of b u r g l a r y r e p o r t i n g b e h a v i o u r ) . The d i s c u s s i o n of displacement and the examples presented are s i m i l a r l y not meant to suggest that p a t t e r n s of crime are e x p l i c a b l e only i n terms of the c o n t r o l environment. Other s o c i a l a l l o c a t i o n systems, d i s t r i b u t i v e networks and c u l t u r a l d i f f e r e n t i a l s p l ay a v i t a l part in the s o c i a l geography of the c i t y and d i f f e r e n t i a l rates of crime. The present study i s , however, mainly r e s t r i c t e d to a d i s c u s s i o n of the r e l a t i o n s h i p between crime and c o n t r o l . As such, the displacement theme i s presented as one u s e f u l way of c o n c e p t u a l i z i n g the r e l a t i o n s h i p s between crime and c o n t r o l but not the only one; i t i s not a paradigm or an i n t e g r a t e d theory, but a perspect i ve. 346 . In c l o s i n g , one f u r t h e r element of the r e l a t i o n s h i p between crime and c o n t r o l not mentioned in t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n r e q u i r e s comment. What I have not attempted to do i n any s ystematic way i s show how c o n t r o l a c t i v i t y i t s e l f may be shaped by the s o c i a l groups that are to be c o n t r o l l e d . In the case of the s o - c a l l e d " s t r e e t crimes", the a b i l i t y of o f f e n d e r s to i n f l u e n c e l e g i s l a t i o n i s probably minimal (except in the case of organized c r i m e ) , and t h e i r a b i l i t y to i n f l u e n c e law enforcement p r a c t i c e (other than through p o l i c e g r a f t ) not much g r e a t e r . But the p i c t u r e may change d r a m a t i c a l l y i f we c o n s i d e r the l e g i s l a t i o n and enforcement of both c i v i l and c r i m i n a l laws against " w h i t e - c o l l a r " and corporate o f f e n d e r s -the geography of crime i s a c t u a l l y the geography of s t r e e t crime, an emphasis for which there i s no t h e o r e t i c a l warrant. Of p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t to the geography of crime as I see i t i s not only the adaptations that powerful groups make to the l e g a l environment, but a l s o the i n f l u e n c e they may e x e r c i s e on s p a t i a l v a r i a t i o n s in the d e f i n i t i o n of what is l e g a l and what is c r i m i n a l ; s t a t u t e s such as environmental p o l l u t i o n law, tax law, and other areas of l e g i s l a t i o n where the i n f l u e n c e s have yet to be i d e n t i f i e d . What i n f l u e n c e do i n d u s t r i a l i n t e r e s t s have on the geography of t o x i c waste d i s p o s a l , or on the l e v e l of p o l l u t a n t s r o u t i n e l y d i s charged as a r e s u l t of general i n d u s t r i a l a c t i v i t y ? In what ways do c o r p o r a t i o n s adjust t h e i r a c t i v i t i e s s p a t i a l l y so as to prevent a c t i v i t y from being d e f i n e d as i l l e g a l ? And what input do c o r p o r a t i o n s and white-c o l l a r i n t e r e s t s have to the c o n f i g u r a t i o n of n a t i o n a l and 347. regional dif ferences in law in the f i r s t place? Of course geographers interested in i n d u s t r i a l locat ion have developed analyses sens i t ive to regional var iat ions in publ ic po l i cy (and thus legal s ta tutes ) , but what I have in mind here is an analys is which probes the way whi te -co l lar and corporate interests are negotiated into l e g i s l a t i o n in such a way that the legal environment becomes an enabler rather than a constrainer of a c t i v i t y . 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Thesis/Dissertation
eng
Geography
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Geography, crime and social control
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