Arts, Faculty of
Asian Studies, Department of
DSpace
UBCV
Fung, Brandon Sai Yin
Master of Arts - MA
University of British Columbia
This thesis examines how race is represented in the fictional works of Jin Yong (aka Louis Cha; 1924-2018), one of the most prominent writers of martial arts fiction in the Sinophone world. The study focuses on four of his major novels: Demi-Gods Semi-Devils, The Legend of the Condor Heroes, The Return of the Condor Heroes, and The Heavenly Sword and Dragon Saber. The final edition of Jin Yong’s works, written between 2003 and 2005, are used as they represent the author’s most recent and refined narrative. Set in a fictional universe spanning from the Northern Song to the Yuan dynasty, Jin’s narratives give rise to two broad categories of race: the Han, which is depicted as a singular race, and the non-Han, which comprises diverse groups such as the Jurchen, Khitan, and Mongol. The Han-ruled territory, often referred to as the Central Plain, conveys both a celestial worldview and serves as the primary base of the martial arts world. By applying extensive textual analysis of dialogues, inner monologues, characterization, narrative settings and the narrator’s commentary, this study demonstrates that racial representation in Jin Yong’s fictions is complex, fluid, and inconsistent. The portrayals of characters and racial dynamics vary depending on community positions, personal experiences, and the author’s shifting narrative. While existing scholarship on Jin Yong covers a wide range of themes, the study on race remains limited and is often approached from a singular perspective. Therefore, this thesis sets to examine racial representation in Jin Yong’s fictions by offering a close reading of the selected texts. My aim is to explore the narratives that Jin creates for his characters and stakeholders, and to showcase the multi-faceted racial representation in Jin’s martial arts fictions.
Racial Representation in Jin Yong’s Fictions by Brandon Sai Yin Fung B.A., The University of British Columbia, 2023 A THESIS SUMBITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS in The Faculty of Graduate and Postdoctoral Studies (Asian Studies) THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA (Vancouver) October 2025 © Brandon Sai Yin Fung, 2025 ii The following individuals certify that they have read, and recommend to the Faculty of Graduate and Postdoctoral Studies for acceptance, the thesis entitled: Racial Representation in Jin Yong’s Fictions Submitted by Brandon Sai Yin Fung in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in Asian Studies Examining Committee: Helena Wu, Assistant Professor, Asian Studies, UBC Supervisor Shuk Han Mary Wong, Associate Professor, Department of Chinese, Lingnan University Supervisory Committee Member Xiaowen Xu, Associate Professor of Teaching, Asian Studies, UBC Supervisory Committee Member iii Abstract This thesis examines how race is represented in the fictional works of Jin Yong (aka Louis Cha; 1924-2018), one of the most prominent writers of martial arts fiction in the Sinophone world. The study focuses on four of his major novels: Demi-Gods Semi-Devils, The Legend of the Condor Heroes, The Return of the Condor Heroes, and The Heavenly Sword and Dragon Saber. The final edition of Jin Yong’s works, written between 2003 and 2005, are used as they represent the author’s most recent and refined narrative. Set in a fictional universe spanning from the Northern Song to the Yuan dynasty, Jin’s narratives give rise to two broad categories of race: the Han, which is depicted as a singular race, and the non-Han, which comprises diverse groups such as the Jurchen, Khitan, and Mongol. The Han-ruled territory, often referred to as the Central Plain, conveys both a celestial worldview and serves as the primary base of the martial arts world. By applying extensive textual analysis of dialogues, inner monologues, characterization, narrative settings and the narrator’s commentary, this study demonstrates that racial representation in Jin Yong’s fictions is complex, fluid, and inconsistent. The portrayals of characters and racial dynamics vary depending on community positions, personal experiences, and the author’s shifting narrative. While existing scholarship on Jin Yong covers a wide range of themes, the study on race remains limited and is often approached from a singular perspective. Therefore, this thesis sets to examine racial representation in Jin Yong’s fictions by offering a close reading of the selected texts. My aim is to explore the narratives that Jin creates for his characters and stakeholders, and to showcase the multi-faceted racial representation in Jin’s martial arts fictions. iv Lay Summary This thesis examines how Jin Yong (aka Louis Cha; 1924-2018) portrays race across his four fictional works, and demonstrates that the racial representation in the story world is fluid, complex, and inconsistent. In Jin’s oeuvre, racial narratives and representations are constructed by collective memories, backdrop settings, personal interests, political stances, and grudges. Moreover, racial conflicts are not solely Han versus non-Han, but more as the tensions between ‘us’ and ‘them.’ Overlooking the inconsistency and complexity of racial representation impedes readers from fully perceiving the depth of the fictional works. This thesis fills the gap by offering an extensive discussion of Jin’s racial discourse and laying the groundwork for future studies through case studies, textual analysis, and translated texts. v Preface This thesis is original, unpublished, independent work by the author, Brandon Sai Yin Fung. No Generative Artificial Intelligence tools were used in the research process, development, or writing of the thesis. vi Table of Contents Abstract .............................................................................................................................. iii Lay Summary .................................................................................................................... iv Preface ................................................................................................................................. v Table of Content ................................................................................................................ vi Acknowledgements .......................................................................................................... viii Dedication ........................................................................................................................... ix 1 Introduction .............................................................................................................. 1 Summary of the Four Selected Martial Arts Fictions ................................................ 4 Literature Review of Jin Yong Studies and His Distinctive Method in Racial Representation ........................................................................................................... 11 Racial Representation and the Limit of Jin Yong Studies ......................................... 14 Objective and Methodology ...................................................................................... 17 2 Chapter One: Seeing through the Han Lens: The Concept of Xia, Consensus in the Martial Arts World and Narratives of the Pro-Han Non-Han Characters ............................................................................................................... 21 The Concept of Xia and the Construction of the Martial Arts World ....................... 21 Han Nationalism and the Martial Arts World Consensus ......................................... 29 The Pro-Han Non-Han and Their Perception from the Han Narratives ................... 35 3 Chapter Two: The Representation of Han People, Justice and Shifting Narratives ................................................................................................................ 41 An Unethical National Hero: Reinterpreting Guo Jing ............................................ 41 Redemption from Inheritance: Yang Guo’s Path as a ‘Temporary’ National Hero .. 48 Seclusion: Peace Redeemed by Nationalist Characters ............................................ 53 Han People Who Support or Work for the Non-Han ................................................ 55 4 Chapter Three: The Alleged Non-Han People and The Alleged Han People, A Discourse of ‘Us’ and ‘Them’ ............................................................................. 59 vii Racial Perceptions in the Martial Arts World: A Study of Ding Chunqiu ................ 59 Han-Rooted Dali Duan Family and Their Ethnic Perspectives ................................ 62 A Tragic Non-Han Hero: Xiao Feng’s Racialized Portrayal .................................... 68 The Rescue of Xiao: an Alleged Invasion Initiated by the Han ............................... 76 5 Chapter Four: The Representation of Non-Han Characters, and Jin Yong’s Creation of Fictional Settings ................................................................................ 80 From Majestic to Cowardly: A Shifting Image of the Khitan Emperor ................... 80 The ‘Ambushed’ Liao Official: Peace Advocacy Clashes with Han Hostility ......... 83 The Dual Faces of the Liao Military: Brutal and Humane ....................................... 85 The Jurchen Wanyan Lineage and Their Perspective on Hans and Non-Hans Over Time ................................................................................................................. 86 Mongol Royal Family’s Perspective on the Han ...................................................... 89 Identity Versus Affection: When a Non-Han Falls in Love with a Han ................... 92 Buddhist Monks Serving Non-Han Courts: Buddhism Clashes with Greediness .... 95 Grudges Across Generations: Rivalries Between the Non-Han Groups ................ 100 Narrator’s Racial Representation ........................................................................... 102 6 Conclusion ............................................................................................................. 109 Bibliography ................................................................................................................... 114 viii Acknowledgments I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my thesis supervisor, Dr. Helena Wu, for her guidance and patience throughout this research and my graduate school application process. I am also sincerely grateful to members of my supervisory committee, Dr. Shuk-Han Mary Wong, Dr. Xiaowen Xu, and Dr. Alison Bailey. Special thanks to Dr. Leo Shin, Dr. Christina Yi, and Dr. Shoufu Yin for their insightful feedback and inspiring discussions. I am thankful to the faculty and staff of the Department of Asian Studies at the University of British Columbia for providing supportive environment, particularly to Tina Wong, who has offered tremendous help with registration and administrative work. I am deeply thankful to my girlfriend, Winnie, for her understanding and faith in me. Her companionship has carried me through hardships and nights of researching. I am also grateful to my family for their continuous support. This thesis is written in the loving memory of my grandfather, Dr. Ping Hang Joseph Fung, whose teaching continues to guide me. ix Dedication This thesis is dedicated to the loving memory of my grandfather, Dr. Ping Hang Joseph Fung 1 Introduction This thesis examines the representation of race within the fictional universe, spanning from the imaginary Northern Song to the Yuan era, created by Jin Yong 金庸 (aka Louis Cha 查良鏞; 1924-2018), one of the most influential martial arts novelists in Sinophone culture who started publishing his novels in Hong Kong since the 1950s. Jin’s fictions are set in various historical backdrops and the underground martial arts world he created comprises of two general categories of race, the Han and the non-Han. The Han is often viewed as a singular race, the non-Han category consists of multiple racial groups, such as Jurchens, Mongols, and Khitans. Han-ruled territory is often referred to as the Central Plain 中原, a term that conveys a celestial worldview. In Jin’s universe, the Central Plain is also the primary base of the martial arts world. Scholarly studies on Jin Yong cover a wide range of topics and approach his works through various lenses, including modern politics, history, authorship, and gender. However, there appears to be a consensus within Jin scholarship that race has been an overlooked subject, with limited studies on how Jin portrays race in his fictions. Therefore, the aim of this thesis is to explore the multi-faceted nature of racial representation in Jin’s fictional universe and to argue that his representation is neither singular nor binary, but fluid and complex. Born in the Jejiang region in China, Jin later moved to Hong Kong and started his writing career, and later gained his recognition and popularity. Following a boxing contest between the two martial arts masters Wu Gongyi and Chen Kefu in Macau in 1954, the “New School” martial arts fiction emerged, with Jin and Liang Yusheng playing the role of vanguards.1 The popularity of the match triggered considerable martial arts content in popular literature. Jin first published 1 Hamm, Paper Swordsmen, 3. 2 his fictional work on New Evening Post in 1955, marking the beginning of his martial arts fiction writing career. He later founded Ming Pao in 1959, which would become a major Chinese-language newspaper in Hong Kong. His novels were initially published as newspaper serials; after gaining popularity, Jin revised and compiled them into book form. His fictions were later adapted into television dramas, movies, and video games, reflecting his popularity across the Sinophone world. Beyond his achievements in fictions, he also entered politics, serving as a member of the Hong Kong Basic Law Drafting Committee in 1985, where he contributed to draft Hong Kong’s mini constitution, The Basic Law. As a journalist, Jin also authored many columns related to his involvement in local politics. In my thesis, I focus on four of his works, Demi-Gods Semi-Devils 天龍八部 (hereafter Demi-Gods), which was first published between 1963 and 1966 on Mingpao and Nanyang Siang Pau); The Legend of the Condor Heroes 射雕英雄傳 (hereafter Legend), which was first published between 1957 and 1959 on Hong Kong Commercial Daily; The Return of the Condor Heroes (hereafter Return), first published between 1959 and 1961 on Mingpao; and The Heaven Sword and Dragon Saber 倚天屠龍記 (hereafter Heaven), first published between 1961 and 1963 on Mingpao. The reason for this selection is that these four fictional works are set in a same universe chronologically, and chronicles imaginary happenings based on a historical timeline spanning from the Northern Song Dynasty to the Yuan Dynasty. These four works are plotted in a setting where the ethnic Han and non-Han ethnicities come into contact, and comprise a rich content in ethnic interactions, conflicts, and narratives. Among the various versions available and unavailable, I make use of the last editions of Jin’s fictions published between 2003 and 2005, which are the most refined and reflect the latest narrative of the author. 3 Martial arts novelist Woon Swee Oan, active since the 1970s, describes martial arts fiction as an “adult mythic tale” that constructs an imaginary world that comprises its logical structure, interpersonal relationships and lifestyles.2 This imaginary world is not a utopia, it serves as an escape from reality for readers while also allowing them to observe reality through the symbolic figures in the stories.3 In this martial arts universe, Jin strategically borrowed historical concepts and events and adopted them into fictional context.4 Literature scholar Jing Wendong proposes that Jin consciously employs history as a driving force to structure the novels’ world, develop the plot, and express emotion.5 In Terry Yip’s study on history in Jin’s fictions, he uses a “historical narration” perspective to classify Jin fictions into three categories.6 The first category adheres to the historical flow, where the characters and events are largely based on real history, striking a balance between fiction and reality, all the while interweaving with historical events. The second category is the use of historical setting, where history serves as a framework, within which most characters and events are fictional. The third category is historical fantasy, where the historical setting is vague and employs completely fictional characters.7 My selection of works falls into the second category, where Jin utilizes the historical background of the Northern Song and the Yuan Dynasty and creates fictional characters and events within it. Depending on their experience, collective memories of the communities and positions, various characters develop their distinctive identities and narratives on ethnicities. 2 Cheng, Jin Yong Cong Xianggang Dao Shijie 金庸從香港到世界, 327. 3 Cheng, Jin Yong Cong Xianggang Dao Shijie 金庸 從香港到世界, 327-328. 4 Jin acknowledges the impossibility to solely follow historical text in fiction: “It is impossible verify every wording when creating a fiction with historical background” 撰寫以歷史作背景的小說，不可能這樣一字一語都考證清楚 (Jin, Legend of the Condor Heroes 射雕英雄傳, 1703). 5 Jing, Liumang Shijie De Dansheng: Jinyong Zuopin Zhongde Sichong Shijie 流氓世界的誕生: 金庸作品中的四重世界, 55. 6 Yip, Preface to Jinyong Xiaoshuo Lide Zhongguo Lishu 金庸小說裏的中國歷史, n.p. 7 Yip, Preface to Jinyong Xiaoshuo Lide Zhongguo Lishu 金庸小說裏的中國歷史, n.p. 4 Literature scholar Petrus Liu also notices Jin’s tendency to patch holes in history, such as coincidence of historical events, disappearance of officials, and unexpected failures of armies and leaders.8 Literature scholar Song Weijie uses the concept “emplotment” to discuss Jin’s deliberate adaptation to focus on historical ages that non-Han ethnic groups rule over the Han.9 In other words, Jin gathers historical pieces, including real figures and events to construct a fictional setting where the non-Han regime governs the Han. Summary of the Four Selected Martial Arts Fictions Demi-Gods Semi-Devils It would be helpful to start with a look at the story world created by Jin in the four fictions to be examined in this thesis. This fictional universe’s chronological order begins with Demi-Gods. The story starts with Duan Yu 段譽, a prince of Dali 大理, a kingdom located in Yunan bordering the Han-ruled Northern Song. Duan Yu is immersed in Buddhist teaching, as Dali is a Buddhist kingdom. His journey starts with his adventure in the local Dali martial arts world. Despite being born into a martial arts family, Duan Yu is reluctant to learn martial arts because of his strong desire to practice Buddhism. He struggles to resolve the conflicts between the Dali’s sects and is being held hostage. Fortuitously, Duan Yu learns a couple of martial arts techniques that are unparalleled and travels to Suzhou within the Northern Song territory, where he meets another protagonist, Xiao Feng 蕭峯. The narrative then transitions to Xiao Feng, which sets it apart from Jin’s other works. This is the only work by Jin featuring three male protagonists with distinct backgrounds. Originally named with a Han surname, Qiao Feng 喬峯, 8 Liu, Stateless Subjects: Chinese Martial Arts Literature and Postcolonial History, 109. 9 Song, “Nation-State, Individual Identity, and Historical Memory: Conflicts between Han and Non-Han Peoples in Jin Yong’s Novels,” 124. 5 Xiao Feng eventually reveals his non-Han Khitan Liao identity. He is also known as the “Northern Qiao Feng,” and is praised for his exceptional martial arts skills, as well as being the leader of the Beggar Clan; however, he is betrayed by his fellow clan members and is falsely accused, leading to his denouncement as the clan leader and by the martial arts world of the Central Plain. He is viewed as an enemy by other martial artists in the Central Plain. After revealing his identity as a Khitan, he brings the wounded A Zhu 阿朱 in his adventure and battles with a group of prominent martial artists in the Juxian mansion, during their discussion on how to eliminate Xiao Feng. Xiao Feng is rescued by his father, Xiao Yuanshan 蕭遠山, and Xiao Feng begins his journey to the non-Han Liao empire. He witnesses the brutality of the Song soldiers towards the Khitan civilians and questions the brutality on the Khitans. Xiao is then throned as the King of Southern “yuan”南院大王 by the Liao emperor. On the other hand, Xu Zhu虛竹 inherits Wuya Zi’s 無涯子 martial arts and becomes the leader of the Lingjiu Palace of Tianshan 天山靈鷲宮, after saving Tianshan Tonglao 天山童姥. The three protagonists become sworn brothers and battle in the Shaolin Temple 少林寺. Revealing their identities, the antagonists, such as Murong Bo 慕容博 and Quan Guanqing 全冠清, are exposed after the battle. After Xiao Feng returns to the Liao, he refuses the Liao emperor’s order to lead the invasion on the Song, and the Liao emperor imprisons Xiao Feng. After a series of rescues launched by the martial arts world community, Xiao Feng commits suicide in front of the Yanmen Garrison雁門關, where Xiao’s tragedy originally begins, as a means to bring peace between the Song and the Liao. Legend of the Condor Heroes 6 While Demi-Gods ends with a time in the fictionalized Northern Song, the story world of Legend starts with the Southern Song, an inherited Han regime of the demised Northern Song. Legend begins with a political discussion in a countryside inn. Yang Tiexin 楊鐵心, the father of a major antagonist Yang Kang 楊康, and Guo Xiaotian 郭嘯天, the father of the protagonist Guo Jing郭靖, express their distress over the Jurchen invasion and the failing Song court. There they encounter Qiu Chuji 丘處機, a pro-Han Daoist hermit and a disciple of Wang Chongyang 王重陽, the founder of the Quanzhen Sect 全真教. Shortly after, Guo Xiaotian is killed by the Song forces, due to his association with Qiu and the Jurchen Prince Wanyan Honglie’s 完顏洪烈 obsession with Yang’s wife. Following this tragedy, Guo’s widow flees to the Mongol Plain and raises her son, Guo Jing, there. Guo, who would become the protagonist of this novel, gains recognition under Genghis Khan’s rule and is appointed as Khan’s prince consort. Meanwhile, he learns martial arts under the Seven Eccentrics 江南七怪 before returning to the Central Plain. At this time, the martial arts world is dominated by the “Five Greatest,” 五絕 the most powerful martial masters, each representing a region and its respective martial arts force. Guo encounters the female protagonist Huang Rong黃蓉, the daughter of the “Eastern Heretic” 東邪, one of the “Five Greatest” early in his journey. Alongside their growing relationship, they study martial arts under another of the “Five Greatest,” the “Northern Beggar” 北丐. Being his disciple grants Guo the opportunity to delve deeper into the mystery of his father’s death. Later in the story, Guo returns to the Mongol region, after missing Huang and mourning the death of his masters, the Seven Eccentrics. He employs the martial arts skills and military tactics that he acquired on the Central Plain and aids Genghis Khan in his campaign against 7 Khwarazm. Originally, he plans to use his reward from the Khan to request the retraction of his prince consort title after his leading victory, in order to allow him to marry Huang; however, Guo ultimately sacrifices this opportunity to save the lives of the Khwarazm people. Guo’s eventual refusal to lead the Mongol army in the Song invasion triggers the death of his mother and turns him against the Mongol forces. After that, Guo learns the deeper principle as a martial artist and the value of life from Qiu. He then travels up to the Huashan peak 華山之巔, the site where the old Five Greatest once battled and earned their title, and competes with the remaining Five Greatest masters. The competition earns him recognition as one of the new Five Greatest of the time, and he finally gains Eastern Heretic’s approval to marry Huang. At the end of the story, after defeating the Jurchen, Guo and Huang decide to help protect the Xiangyang Fortress 襄陽城 against the Mongols. Return of the Condor Heroes The story world of Return is set in the Southern Song, more than a decade after the Guo couple dedicated to defending the Xiangyang Fortress. At the time, Mongols are seen as the major threat to the Han people. The protagonist Yang Guo 楊過 is the son of Yang Kang who is a character in Legend: As Yang Tiexin’s son and Guo Jing’s sworn brother, Yang Kang was raised as a Jurchen prince and later killed by Huang Rong and one of the Seven Eccentrics. In Return, Yang Guo is already an orphan as the story begins. Shortly after wandering alone, he is adopted by Guo Jing and Huang Rong, the main protagonists of Legend who become a couple, and grows up alongside their daughter and disciples. 8 Later on, Yang Guo encounters Ouyang Feng 歐陽鋒, one of the Five Greatest and an enemy of the Guo couple, and becomes his adopted son, learning martial arts from him. Following that, Yang uses Ouyang’s martial arts to injure Guo’s disciple after being bullied by them and Guo’s daughter. As a result, Guo sends him to the Quanzhen Sect. There, Yang is further bullied by his master and fellow sect members, leading him to leave the sect and join the Ancient Tomb Sect古墓派, a hidden sect located in the ancient tomb next to Quanzhen. In the Ancient Tomb Sect, Yang meets Xiaolong Nu 小龍女, his master and future wife. He learns high-level martial arts from her and lives alongside Xiaolong Nu, eventually developing a romantic relationship with her. After years in the Ancient Tomb, Yang finally grows into adulthood and leaves. Next, he travels to the Xiangyang Fortress, where the Guo couple is located, and joins their martial arts assembly. At the gathering, Yang and Xiaolong Nu join forces to defeat Jinlun Guoshi金輪國師, the Dharma King of the Mongol regime, protecting the martial arts world from Mongol interference. Despite saving the martial arts world and becoming a hero, Yang and Xiaolong Nu are denounced by the martial arts world and the Guo couple, due to their romantic relationship, which is viewed as incestuous since they were originally master and disciple. After a series of events, Yang and Xiaolong Nu prove righteousness, eventually gaining recognition from martial arts world, though Yang’s left arm is accidentally cut off by Guo’s daughter. In Passionless Valley 絕情谷, after being severely injured, Xiaolong Nu chooses to leave Yang, not wanting him to witness her death. She promises to return in sixteen years, hoping that Yang will not sacrifice his own life. During this time, Yang becomes the Condor Hero 神雕大俠, a well-respected and prominent figure in the martial arts world. 9 As the sixteen-year mark approaches, Yang encounters Guo Xiang 郭襄, Guo’s youngest daughter, who idolizes him and falls in love with him. Soon after, the Heroes’ Assembly 英雄大會 takes place in Victory Fortress 大勝關, where Yang prevents the Mongol invasion and helps the Beggar Clan reclaim its Dog-Beating Staff 打狗棒. Shortly after, he discovers that Xiaolong Nu’s sixteen-year promise was merely a means to prevent him from ending his own life. Under great despair, he jumps off a cliff in Passionless Valley, only to reunite with Xiaolong Nu, who has been living under the cliff for sixteen years. The two then travel to the Xiangyang Fortress, joining Guo Jing’s army to defend the city from the Mongol invasion. After their victory, a verbal competition is held, where Yang and Guo are included as part of the new Five Greatest. By the end of the story, Yang and Xiaolong Nu leave the mundane world behind, choosing to live in the Ancient Tomb for the rest of their lives. Heaven Sword and Dragon Saber Heaven is set in the Yuan Dynasty ruled by the non-Han, where the Song has already fallen to the Mongols, and depicts a martial arts world under Mongol rule. The story takes place decades after the death of Guo Jing and Huang Rong, whose presence has been significant in Legend and Return. The couple left behind a pair of legendary weapons, namely the Heavenly Sword倚天劍 and the Dragon Saber 屠龍刀, which gives the book its title and drives the story in Heaven—as the saying goes: “Whoever wields the Dragon Saber shall command the martial world.” The first chapter of the novel is disconnected from the main storyline, serving as an epilogue to Return. It follows Guo Xiang, the daughter of the Guo couple, travelling to Shaolin Temple and introduces Zhang Sanfeng 張三丰, the future founder of the Wudang Sect 武當派. 10 The story officially begins with Zhang Sanfeng’s disciple, Yu Daiyan 俞岱巖, who is severely injured while pursuing the Dragon Saber. His sect brother, Zhang Cuishan 張翠山, accidentally ends up on Binghuo Dao 冰火島, where he meets Yin Susu 殷素素, the daughter of a Dharma King 法王 of the Ming Sect, and Xie Xun 謝遜, the Golden-Haired Lion King 金毛獅王, another Dharma King of the Ming Sect. The Ming Sect is generally regarded as a “demonic cult” 魔教 by the martial arts world, which causes further trouble for Zhang Cuishan. Zhang later marries Yin Susu, and they have a son, Zhang Wuji 張無忌, the main protagonist of Heaven. Zhang Wuji is adopted by Xie Xun, who teaches him martial arts. After several years, the Zhang family returns to the Central Plain, but both Zhang Cuishan and Yin Susu die while protecting their sworn brother, Xie Xun, as the five “orthodox sects” force them to reveal Xie’s whereabouts. Shortly before his parents’ death, Zhang Wuji is attacked by two Mongol martial artists, who leave him with a permanent internal injury. Despite being one of the most skilled martial artists of the time, Zhang Sanfeng is unable to heal him. Thus, he takes Zhang Wuji to Hu Qingniu胡青牛, a renowned physician from the Ming Sect. Despite Zhang Wuji’s orthodox background, Hu ultimately views him in as his disciple. After Hu’s death, on one occasion, Zhang Wuji heals Kunlun Sect 崑崙派 Master He Taichong’s 何太沖 concubine using Hu’s medical skills. However, He’s wife insists that anyone who saves the concubine must be killed, forcing Zhang to escape. During his escape, Zhang accidentally discovers one of the greatest martial arts techniques of the time. He later travels to the Ming Sect to rescue them from an attack by the six “orthodox sects.” 11 While in the Ming Sect, Zhang accidentally learns their sect’s ultimate martial arts technique and is subsequently appointed sect leader after saving the Ming Sect. He then works to resolve the long-standing conflict between the Ming Sect and the orthodox sects by rescuing captured members of the orthodox sects from Mongol imprisonment. At this point, the narrative shifts from sectarianism to nationalism, as the martial arts world unites to resist Mongol rule. After settling Xie Xun’s conflicts with the martial arts world, Zhang Wuji leads the martial artists in defending against a Mongol attack, as the Mongol army seeks to eliminate the underworld. Since the Ming Sect also serves as an anti-Yuan resistance force, Zhang becomes the military leader of the rebellion. However, as Zhang is not interested in power, he eventually leaves the sect and chooses to live in seclusion with his lovers, outside of the martial arts world. Literature Review of Jin Yong Studies and His Distinctive Method in Racial Representation In my literature review of martial arts fiction studies and Jin Yong studies, I explore how Jin is recognized as a vanguard of “new school” martial arts fiction, how the representation of race is different from the “old school” counterparts, and how he constructs his fictional universe. Literature scholar Paul Foster observes that Jin’s introduction to the genre is “one step toward changing the intellectual and popular bias against the entertainment fiction that many people read and love but do not consider to be ‘literature’.”10 Jin’s methods to represent race and righteousness is distinctive from the traditional martial arts fictions. Influenced by the traditional orthodoxic view, old school martial arts fictions often adopt a simplistic binary distinction between good and evil.11 Chinese literary historian Yan Jiayan further discusses that as Jin’s 10 Foster, “Jin Yong's Linghu Chong Faces off against Lu Xun's Ah Q,” 85. 11 Yan, Jinyong Xiaoshuo Lungao 金庸小說論稿, 54. 12 historical perspective broadens, he increasingly breaks away from the narrow Han-centric viewpoint. Meanwhile, past conflicts, conquests and assimilations among different ethnic groups are viewed as unfortunate chapter in history.12 I notice that in Jin’s latest version of his oeuvre, he introduces new plots and annotation while modifies existing ones to undermine the Han-centrism perspective and advocates equality.13 Nonetheless, Jin’s xia 俠 representation differs drastically from its traditional perception. Literature scholar James Liu observes that the Chinese xia are not required to bear special responsibility towards any religious or social institution;14 and they are indifferent and unemotional towards women.15 Jin, however, introduces a number of xia characters who are loyal to religious sects, such as Zhang Wuji in the Ming Sect, as well as xia who are devoted to social organizations, such as Hong Qigong 洪七公 in the Beggar Clan. This approach demonstrates that Jin constructs a martial arts universe deeply embedded with sects and social organizations, where xia often expresses their righteousness and morality through these mediums. Regarding romantic relationships, all protagonists in the four fictions I discuss are romantically attached to at least one female character. These plots elements contrast sharply with Liu’s observations and the work of old school martial arts novelists. In other words, Jin’s representation in various aspects deviates from both his predecessors and traditional depictions, making his fiction a distinct and groundbreaking development within the genre. It is important to note that some of Jin’s fictions, if not all, contains racial narratives. For instance, Hamm suggests that Legend and Return showcase the peak of heroic nationalism, as 12 Yan, Jinyong Xiaoshuo Lungao 金庸小說論稿, 156. 13 A notable example emerges in the annotation of The Legend of the Condor Heroes, where he argues that we should not view the Jurchens as mere savages. “This perspective may contain elements of racism. Although the Jurchens were initially brutal and barbaric, there must have been individuals that values love and emotions. 這種見解可能有種族歧視的成份，女真族雖初時野蠻暴虐，但其中也必可能有注重情愛之人。” (Jin, The Legend of the Condor Heroes 射雕英雄傳, 1030.) 14 Liu, The Chinese Knight-Errant, 196. 15 Liu, The Chinese Knight-Errant, 197. 13 expressed through the contrast between the heartland and the geo-cultural margin. This contrast suggests a sense of exile. At the same time, they also serve to highlight the merging and growing importance of a simplified and celebratory Chinese cultural identity.16 In Race and Racism in Modern East Asia, the editors notice that without exception, the three great cultures of East Asia showcase a strong sense of ethnocentrism, which further developed into an acute xenophobia.17 In this case, Jin’s imaginary China reveals this discourse. The Han ethnic narratives often display an entrenched resentment towards the non-Han ethnicities, labelling them as “dazi” 韃子 and “manyi” 蠻夷. Vice versa, some non-Han ethnic characters also present xenophobic attitude towards the Han people, labelling them as “nanman”南蠻 (Southern Barbarian) and treat them with intrusive approaches. This ethnic approach exhibits a narrative that not only represent on merely racial topics, but it also penetrates through various aspects. In Foster’s discussion of Jin’s fictional structure, he notices that his works comprise “elements of history and legend, good versus evil, the cycle of revenge and retribution, obligation and loyalty to one’s martial master and brethren, character development and individual martial improvement, a search for the martial book of secrets, the struggle to be Number One in the martial world, and the defense of the Empire against threats from within and without.”18 The ethnic discussion and these elements are often tightly intertwined in Jin’s fictional structure. For instance, in Legend, Ouyang Feng collaborates with the Jurchen to search for Wumu yishu 武穆遺書, a military classic, which assists their preparation to invade the Song. However, Ouyang only wishes to make use of the Jurchen to help acquiring Jiuyin zhenjing 九陰真經 so as to campaign for the leading title in the martial arts world. 16 Hamm, Paper Swordsmen, 79. 17 Kowner, and Demel, Race and Racism in Modern East Asia: Western and Eastern Constructions, 17-18. 18 Foster, “Jin Yong's Linghu Chong Faces off against Lu Xun's Ah Q,” 96. 14 Racial Representation and the Limit of Jin Yong Studies In the essay “The Spectacle of the ‘Other’,” cultural studies scholar Stuart Hall discusses that representation constructs the ideas of difference and identity. He explores the complexity of representation, especially when dealing with differences in terms of race, norms and appearances. Representation can be understood at deeper levels, involving feelings, attitudes and emotions that stimulate the viewer’s fear and anxiety.19 Using stereotypes to explore representation, Hall suggests that stereotypes consist of the simple, memorable, vivid, easily grasped and widely recognized attributes of a person, however they neglect individuality, exaggerate, and simplify character traits. His approach to representation and analysis of stereotyping can further support my examination of the selected scenarios in Jin’s fictional universe. For instance, in Demi-Gods, the Han narrative often exaggerates the cruel stereotype of the Khitan Liao, where they alienate Xiao Feng from the Han-based martial arts world, and view him as an unacceptable individual. Similarly, the edited volume, Race and Racism in Modern East Asia: Western and Eastern Constructions offers a brief introduction to race theories in East Asia. The editors point out the limited focus on East Asian racial studies in academia, and hope to exemplify that “East Asians have been at the core of modern racial constructions and explicit taxonomies since their inception in the eighteenth century, and even earlier.”20 They demonstrate the importance of conducting research on racial representation in the East Asian context, which suggests the complexity of my topic. They argue that in some sense, the ethnic distinction between groups within the Chinese soil alone are often “greater than any regional and—to a certain extent—even 19 Hall, “The Spectacle of the ‘Other,’” 226. 20 Kowner, and Demel, Race and Racism in Modern East Asia: Western and Eastern Constructions, 10. 15 national differences found in certain parts of Europe.”21 However, the editors do not mention Chinese sentiments towards the “barbarians.” This highlights the importance to address the representation of the racial others in the Han point of view in my research. In particular, Sufen Sophia Lai’s chapter “Racial Discourse and Utopian Visions in Nineteenth-Century China” discusses the human tendency to view oneself as the center, and see strangers as cultural others and points out that “the projection of cultural others usually reveals more about the projecting center than about the peripheral others.”22 This notion can help us to view Han-centrism in Jin’s fictional universe with another lens: the projection of Han as the center. Considering racial representation in martial arts fiction, Petrus Liu’s book Stateless Subjects: Chinese Martial Arts Literature and Postcolonial History offers an in-depth study of the topic. Liu argues that a persistent desire to read martial arts narratives as national allegories has prevented us from developing a historical account of precisely what is interesting and complex about martial arts fiction. Liu further discusses the debate of martial arts fiction genre, highlighting its linkage with nationalism. In his discussion on Jin, Liu stresses on Jin’s significance in martial arts literature and politics, as well as his uniqueness in fiction writing. Liu suggests that the panorama of imperial Chinese history, combined with the intellectual landscape of modern politics, form the basis of Jin Yong’s artistic approach. Liu offers extensive research on Demi-Gods, and suggests that the story of race is told as story of racism.23 He wishes to address the fact that contrary to popular conceptions of the genre as an advocacy of violence, Demi-Gods stakes a strong claim on pacifism. By employing Jing Wendong’s observation of Jin rationalizing brutality with nationalism, as well as Liu’s analysis of Demi-Gods, and Jin’s 21 Kowner, and Demel, Race and Racism in Modern East Asia: Western and Eastern Constructions, 36. 22 Lai, “Racial Discourse and Utopian Visions in Nineteenth-Century China,” 327. 23 Liu, Stateless Subjects: Chinese Martial Arts Literature and Postcolonial History, 128. 16 advocacy of pacifism in the story, this phenomenon has somehow demonstrated a sense of inconsistency in Jin’s racial representation. In a discussion of the linkage between history and Jin’s fictional realm, Liu points out that Jin’s interpretation of Islam does not demonstrate its symbolic and political significance. This version of “Islam” diverges from the historical understanding of the religion itself. Instead, it represents the broader social distinctions. This approach deepens the emotional texture of Jin’s early narrative, challenges a simplistic racial narrative, and prevents the story from being a nationalist text. This reflection showcases Jin’s early attempt to hinder nationalism in his fictions, and his history incomparable fictional world. The racial representation of these four fictions, as well as the overall representation in Jin’s fictions, is somewhat overlooked by Jin Yong studies and martial arts fiction studies literature. In his article, Foster mentions Jin’s importance in the construction of the nation and national identity.24 He challenges the notion that views Jin’s fictions as “unreal” literature, backed with Jin’s solid attempt to establish imaginary national characters and the Chinese nation.25 Indeed, there many scholarly works touch on this topic. However, none of the works explains the connection between nationalism and Jin’s racial representation with the help of textual analysis. A vast number of them utilize Jin’s racial representation as a tool or lens to conduct their research. For example, Yip employs Jin’s racial representation as a starting point to view the history background of Jin’s fictional setting.26 Glady Mac’s dissertation “Jin Yong’s Chivalry: Gender and Ethnicity in Wuxia Fiction, Film, and Television” discusses the redefinition of the chivalric figure of Jin Yong through a gender and ethnical lens.27 Yan offers us an in-depth discussion of Jin’s authorship and creative process, in which he reviews Jin’s 24 Foster, “Jin Yong's Linghu Chong Faces off against Lu Xun's Ah Q,” 92. 25 Foster, “Jin Yong's Linghu Chong Faces off against Lu Xun's Ah Q,” 85. 26 Yip, Preface to Jinyong Xiaoshuo Lide Zhongguo Lishu 金庸小說裏的中國歷史. 27 Mac, “Jin Yong’s Chivalry: Gender and Ethnicity in Wuxia Fiction, Film, and Television.” 17 attempts to portray ethnic equality and his modernist ethnic concepts in a pre-modern setting, distinguishing him from the old school martial arts fiction.28 Literature scholar Chen Pingyuan’s seminal book, Qiangu Wenren Xiake Meng: Wuxia Xiaoshuo Leixing Yanjiu 千古文人俠客夢:武俠小說類型研究,explores how new school martial arts fiction adopt ethnic conflicts into fictional plotting with limited mention of Jin’s works.29 Jing suggests that Jin utilizes nationalism to undermine the brutality of Han figures. He further argues that Jin still cannot escape the constraints of the inertia of official historical logic.30 The above scholarly works touch bases on various topics in martial arts fiction, including genre studies, historical background of Jin’s fictional universe, Jin Yong studies, and discussion on nationalism in Jin’s fictions. However, none of these research discuss on how Jin represents race in his fictional realm. Objective and Methodology As shown in the discussion earlier, while the existing scholarship on Jin Yong covers a wide range of topics and discourses, there is no study devoted solely to examine Jin’s method of representing race. The objective of this thesis is to explore Jin Yong’s racial representation in various fictions, as his discourse of race penetrates the story world, in which racial conflicts and narratives are addressed, transformed, and amplified. I contend that Jin’s racial representation in martial arts fictions is often affiliated with the depiction of nationalism. Additionally, there is an inconsistency in Jin’s racial representation, as the notions such as national boundaries, morality 28 Yan, Jinyong Xiaoshuo Lungao 金庸小說論稿. 29 Chen, Qiangu Wenren Xiake Meng: Wuxia Xiaoshuo Leixing Yanjiu 千古文人俠客夢:武俠小說類型研究. 30 Jing, Liumang Shijie De Dansheng: Jinyong Zuopin Zhongde Sichong Shijie流氓世界的誕生: 金庸作品中的四重世界, 59. 18 and ethnics are often obscured. Although Jin’s fictional universe references historical contexts, and the four works I discussed are set in historical backdrops, I propose that this universe operates as an independent, human-made imaginary world. For this reason, this thesis focuses exclusively on examples from Jin’s written works, without relying on historical references. In order to achieve these goals, I employ extensive textual analysis of the narratives and fictional characters from his four works of fiction, which they comprise a coherence imaginary universe.31 The analysis aims to examine the character’s dialogues, inner monologues, and narrative settings, as well as the narrator’s commentary. There are four chapters in my thesis covering narratives and representation of various stake holders. Chapter One will begin with an introduction of the concept xia and delve into the general nationalistic consensus within the martial arts world. I will then study the Shaolin Temple, a Buddhist martial arts sect that holds strong nationalistic stance. I will conclude the chapter with a discussion on how pro-Han non-Han characters are perceived by Han characters. Chapter Two will study the encounters between Han and non-Han groups, analyzing the Han’s dialogue and focalization, and categorizing these interactions based on different portrayals and contexts. In particular, I will examine the characterization of Guo Jing and Yang Guo, two nationalistic hero figures. An intriguing case is presented by the nationalistic figure Guo Jing, whose actions are not always as justice and righteous as he is portrayed. However, his violence is neither condemned nor questioned but is instead sugar-coated with his nationalistic motivations. This chapter will also examine how Jin Yong intertwines nationalism with morality. Subsequently, I will showcase the mundane narration of secluded martial arts masters, such as 31 Xiaofei Tian refers Jin’s fictional world as an “’imagined community’- a China that neither exists in modern society nor has ever existed before- a China, however, that perfectly fits the image of China in the popular imagination.” Tian, “The Ship in a Bottle: The Construction of an Imaginary China in Jin Yong’s Fiction,” 221. 19 Zhang Sanfeng and Huang Yaoshi. I will wrap up the second chapter with my discussion on Han characters who hold different views from the nationalists, suggesting a muti-dimensional racial perspective within the Han sphere. Chapter Three analyses various special cases involving characters with complex identities, whose treatment within the martial arts world and their representation differ significantly. Following is an in-depth discussion of Xiao Feng, which I will analysis the transformation of his mental stages, and explore the construction of his pro-Han stance. The concluding section will focus on a scene from Demi-Gods, where the martial arts world collaborates with the non-Han Dali regime to rescue Xiao Feng on Liao soil. Here, I aim to highlight how Jin once again blurs the boundaries of national identity, as the rescue operation is portrayed as a righteous act while overlooking its nature as an invasion of foreign territory. Chapter Four will explore the racial narratives surrounding non-Han ethnicities. I will focus on their perspectives toward the Han ethnicity. These examples showcase the complexity of non-Han portrayal in Jin narrative, and suggest a multi-faceted racial environment within the fictional universe. The chapter will conclude with an analysis of how the narrator depicts the backgrounds, governance, and cultural practices of various non-Han ethnicities. Despite the fact that the four works of fiction are set in the same universe, character portrayals and racial representations are varied due to different stances, classes and positions in the communities, experiences, and the author’s inconsistent narratives and methods in his portrayal of race. In other words, there is more than one narrative in Jin’s fictions that represents race. Viewing Jin’s fictions with the assumption of a single racial representation would inhibit the readers’ perceptions of the story. It is therefore my goals to delve deeper into the narratives that Jin constructs for his various characters and stakeholders, to provide translation of important 20 texts for further discussion and future studies, and to illustrate the muti-faceted racial representation in Jin’s martial arts fiction. 21 Chapter One Seeing through the Han Lens: The Concept of Xia, Consensus in the Martial Arts World and Narratives of the Pro-Han Non-Han Characters This chapter aims to examine how Han characters perceive race and how their racial worldview is constructed within Jin’s fictional realm. I will first explore the notion of xia, leading to the practice of consensus in the martial arts world created by Jin Yong. After that, I will discuss the nationalistic consensus within Jin’s fictional universe, and how that consensus proves to be inconsistent due to the sectarian conflicts portrayed in Heaven. To prove this point, I will examine how the Shaolin Temple, a Buddhist organization, transforms from a religious institution into a martial arts sect that advocates Han nationalism in the story. This narrative is noteworthy, as it illustrates that anti-non-Han sentiment extends across the entire martial arts world. I will conclude this chapter with a case study of the Han characters’ perception of pro-Han non-Han characters, in order to highlight Jin’s contradictory treatment between Han and non-Han characters. One salient example is that a Han antagonist who, despite being morally corrupted, is still portrayed sympathetically for his nationalistic stance. The Concept of Xia and the Construction of the Martial Arts World The construction of Jin Yong’s fictional world is inseparably tied to the concept of xia. Martial arts fiction, or wuxia xiaoshuo 武俠小說,literally means the fiction of wuxia. Thus, the concept wu 武 (martial arts) and xia 俠 (martial artist) are arguably the most crucial feature of 22 the genre.32 The earliest concept of xia can be traced to “Five Moths” 五蠹, written by Han Feizi 韓非子.33 Han categorizes five groups of people who disrupted the rule of kings during his time as the five moths.34 Among these, one group is the xia, or more specifically, the youxia 游俠. The term you 游 means “wandering” 游蕩, while xia shares the same root as the verb xie 挾, which means “to force” or “to coerce” in that context.35 Together, youxia refers to a group of individuals who wander in the martial art world, taking it upon themselves to uphold justice and fight against injustice.36 Han Feizi stresses that all subjects under the heaven were merely tools for the strength and prosperity of the state. The primary activities of xia are no more than a gang of bandits engaging in murder and crime. The so-called pursuit of vengeance was nothing more than disrupting the rule of law.37 Despite the fact that the ruling class regarded xia as enemies, Han Feizi did acknowledge that xia was widely recognized among the mass.38 The concept of xiayi 俠義 is crucial in exploring the xia’s behaviour. James Liu, in his book about xia, offers us a list of moral codes that are considered as the general mentality of the xia,39 and I notice that these characteristics of xiayi can also be found in Jin’s fictional universe. 32 The term “knight errant” is often linked with xia in multiple scholarly works. However, I propose that xia is a unique notion that developed within the Sinophone community, and is not compatible with the term “chivalry.” As discussed in James Liu’s book, The Chinese Knight-Errant, he contends that the Western knights are the pillars of the feudal system, and the Chinese xia are the destructive force of the Chinese “fengjian” society (Liu, The Chinese Knight-Errant, 196). On the other hand, Liu proposes that terms such as “knight-errant” and “chivalrous” should be read as “what Chinese called knight-errantry,” and “what is considered chivalrous in China” (Liu, Introduction to The Chinese Knight-Errant, xii). However, as a response, Yan argues that there are three types of real “destructive force of the Chinese ‘fengjian’ society,” namely (i) corrupted officials, landlords and dark forces, (ii) peasant’s rebellion, (iii) invasion from barbaric foreign forces (Yan, Jinyong Xiaoshuo Lungao 金庸小說論稿, 7). 33 Chen, Qiangu Wenren Xiake Meng: Wuxia Xiaoshuo Leixing Yanjiu 千古文人俠客夢-武俠小說類型研究, 2. 34 Han, “Wugui”五蠹. 35 Liu, Introduction to The Chinese Knight-Errant, xii. 36 Liu, Introduction to The Chinese Knight-Errant, xii. 37 Tang, “Mojia yiyong fengfen yu renxia wenhua chuantong” 墨家義勇風範與任俠文化傳統, 4. 38 Tang, “Mojia yiyong fengfen yu renxia wenhua chuantong” 墨家義勇風範與任俠文化傳統, 5. 39 The moral code includes: altruism, justice, individual freedom, personal loyalty, courage, truthfulness and mutual faith, honour and fame, and generosity and contempt for wealth (Liu, The Chinese Knight-Errant, 5-6). 23 The code of xiayi constructed a hostile dynamic between the masses and the ruling classes.40 When the lower-class people are oppressed by those in power and left in a state of helpless suffering, the emergence of xia may be a form of rescue and solace. In this sense, xia acts as a social lubricant to restrain state violence and prevent existing social problems from turning into turmoil.41 Likewise, the xia in Jin’s fictions is often portrayed joining force with the peasants to resist the non-Han invasion. In that case, the Han-identifying xia and the non-Han are put in a rivalry relationship. Han ordinary people in this fictional universe are set to encounter both violations from their government and foreign invasion. Despite the xia’s natural tendency to resist the government, they rarely directly go against the government.42 In Jin’s fictional realm, even though they generally admit its failed governance, there is no recorded instance in which ordinary Han people have organized a rebellion against a Han-ruled regime. In this universe, three of the four fictions (Demi-Gods, Legend, and Return) are set in the Song dynasty, which is ruled by Han people, with the exception of Heaven taken place in the Yuan dynasty. Moreover, Jin employs phrases such as “baoguo” 報國 (repay the country), “quchu dazi” 驅除韃子(repel the barbarians), and “weiguo weimin” 為國為民 (for the country and the people)43 to link xia with race and nationalism, suggesting that a xia should remain loyal to the Han race and hostile to the non-Han invader. Mac reveals that, in Legend and Return, loyalty to the Central Plain is the absolute minimum requirement for a Han person to be called xia.44 For instance, an old beggar from the Beggar 40 Yan, Jinyong Xiaoshuo Lungao 金庸小說論稿, 7. 41 Yan, Jinyong Xiaoshuo Lungao 金庸小說論稿, 7. 42 In my selection of works, there are three out of four fictions that take place during the Song dynasty, which is governed by the ethnic Han. 43 In Chen Pingyuan’s discussion of the term, “For the country and the people, it is the highest idea of xia”為國為民，俠之大者, he argues that only by understanding this concept can a “xia” truly rise above mere recklessness (Chen, Qiangu Wenren Xiake Meng: Wuxia Xiaoshuo Leixing Yanjiu 千古文人俠客夢:武俠小說類型研究, 173). 44 Mac, Jin Yong’s Chivalry: Gender and Ethnicity in Wuxia Fiction, Film and Television, 73. 24 Clan quotes from Hong Qigong that the clan members shall defend the country at all costs despite the incompetent governance.45 Hong Qigong is recognized as the “Northern Beggar” of the Five Greatest, and the Beggar Clan is considered as the largest and most influential clan in Legend and Return. It is shown that the Beggar Clan is often portrayed as a loyal servant to the Han nation. Likewise, the following statement reveals a perception of prioritizing nationalism over addressing the government’s corruption. The court is in chaos, and corrupt officials hold powers. It is impossible to expect those useless bureaucrats to protect the country and the people. We must keep the desire to sacrifice ourselves for the country. Chief Hong ordered me to encourage us always to remember loyalty and righteousness. (my translation) 朝廷政事紊亂，奸臣當道，要那些臭官兒們來保國護民，那是辦不到的。眼下外患入心，人人都要存着個捐軀報國之心，洪老幫主命我勉勵眾位好兄弟，要牢記住忠義二字。46 I notice that Jin interprets xia’s anti-government sentiments by intertwining them with nationalism, causing xia to prioritize defending non-Han invasion over battling governmental misrule, portraying foreign invasion as the sole reason for the peasants’ and nation’s misfortune. The below passage, quoted from a conversation between Guo Jing and Kublakhan, presented in Return, reinforces this hypothesis: Indeed, the Chunyou Emperor is an incompetent and immoral ruler, and Prime Minister Jia Sidao is nothing but a corrupted minister… Even 45 Jin, The Return of the Condor Heroes 神雕俠侶, 486. 46 Jin, The Return of the Condor Heroes 神雕俠侶, 486. 25 though I am unworthy, how could I even serve a foolish emperor and a corrupt minister? It is only because of my fury at the Mongol’s brutality. They invade our land and slaughter us. I am willing to spill my blood for the million people on our divine land. (my translation) 不錯，淳佑皇帝乃無道昏君，宰相賈似道是個大大的奸臣。。。郭某縱然不肖，豈能為昏君奸臣所用？只是心憤蒙古殘暴，侵我疆土，殺我同胞，郭某滿腔熱血，是要為我神州千萬老百姓而灑。47 In this conversation with Kublakhan, Guo concedes and refers to the emperor and the prime minister as corrupt, useless and immoral. Yet he argues that he is willing to sacrifice his life to his people because of the Mongol brutal invasion. It is suggested that Guo’s intention to protect the Xiangyang Fortress is driven not by loyalty to the government but by his commitment to the people and land. However, it also downplays the harm inflicted by the Song court on its own people, as Guo has never shown any intention to oppose it throughout his life. Despite overlooking the Song’s failed governance for the most part, there are still some actions and dialogues that suggest their resentment towards the Song court, but they are mostly limited to assassinating local officials, stealing from the palace and verbal assaults. In a conversation between Guo Xiaotian, Yang Tiexin, and Qu Lingfeng 曲靈風,48 who represent the grassroots, they demonstrate a disdainful attitude towards the Song court regarding its diplomatic and governing approaches. Qu Lingfeng recalled how he stole valuable goods, such as 47 Jin, The Return of the Condor Heroes 神雕俠侶, 898. 48 Guo Xiaotian is the father of Guo Jing, and is the sworn brother of Yang Tiexin, the father of Yang Kang. Qu Lingfeng is in disguise as Qu San at the time. He is the disciple of Huang Yaoshi 黃藥師. Huang is recognized as the “Eastern Heretic” of the “Five Greatest.” 26 accessories and paintings, from the Song emperor’s palace multiple times in an unapologetically manner, demonstrating a Han nationalist’s disrespectful toward the Song emperor. Qu Lingfeng said, “I stole these goods from the Linan palace. The emperor brings suffering upon the people, so taking some gold and silver he has extorted from them can hardly be considered stolen goods.” (my translation) 這些物事，是我從臨安皇宮中盜來的。皇帝害苦了百姓，拿他一些從百姓身上搜刮來的金銀，算不得是賊贓。49 Since his master Huang Yaoshi is obsessed with artworks and decorations, Qu plans to seize these goods from the palace and present them as gifts to Huang in order to earn his forgiveness. This scene is set to undermine the credibility of the emperor’s rule, showing that the emperor is no longer being respected and has lost his people’s favour. Multiple textual examples can further reinforce the perception of the Song emperors losing their credibility.50 These storylines draw a boundary between nationalism and patriotism; they suggest that xia are not the loyalists of the 49 Jin, The Legend of the Condor Heroes 射雕英雄傳, 14. 50 There are a number of examples across the four fictions. For example, in Legend, Guo resents the Song’s gutlessness while expressing his loyalty to the nation. The corresponding passage from the novel is: “Our Song people and army outnumber the Mongols by tens of times. Why should we fear their troops if we can unite? The tragedy is our cowardly and incompetent government that oppress our people and ruin the nation. Even the righteous army is suffering from internal conflicts while facing powerful enemies” 咱們大宋軍民比蒙古人多上數十倍，若能萬眾一心，又何懼蒙古兵精？恨只恨官家膽小昏庸、虐民誤國，忠義軍又有內亂，大敵當前，卻還在自相殘殺 (The Legend of the Condor Heroes 射雕英雄傳, 1631). In Return, Jin focalizes from a Sichuan inn customer and portrays the rage among the ordinary. The corresponding passage from the novel is: “There are indeed brave officials anywhere. However, the court fails to distinguish between the loyalty and treachery. Corrupt ministers often enjoy wealth and power, while loyal officials meet unjust death” 其實守城的好官勇將各地都有，就只朝廷忠奸不分，往往奸臣享盡榮華富貴，忠臣卻含冤而死 (The Return of the Condor Heroes 神雕俠侶, 1395). In Heaven, dozens of years after the fall of the Song, Zhang Cuishan still discusses the reasons behind its collapse with Xie Xun, emphasizing failed governance as the root cause. This conversation further highlights the Han people’s resentment towards the Song government while also lamenting the suffering the nation has to endure. The corresponding passage from the novel is: “The Song emperors appointed treacherous officials, purged loyal subjects, and dismissed renowned generals, allowing the Han soil to fall into the hands of barbarians. The sowed the seeds of evils and reaped the consequences” 南宋諸帝任用奸佞，殺害忠良，罷斥名將，至於大好河山輪於異族之手，種了惡恩，致收惡果 (The Heaven Sword and Dragon Saber 倚天屠龍記, 202). 27 emperor but the nation. In Jin’s fictional realm, nationalism is the loyalty to the Han nation, ethnic and Han-dominated territory, while patriotism indicates the loyalty to political regimes, courts and emperors. In history, the youxia (wandering martial artist) in the Song Dynasty reportedly joined forces with the resistance against the Mongol Yuan, Jurchen Jin and outlaws.51 Due to the youxia mentality, such as loyalty,52 protecting one’s homeland, and thriving for official positions, the existence of youxia was accepted by the court and the masses most of the time.53 Although martial arts fiction shall of course not be read as a historical record, the xia in Jin’s fictions carries the above characteristics and maintains a paradoxical relationship with the government. Likewise, the Han xia often utilize “national grudges” or “ethnic vengeance” as a driving force to steer nationalistic activities, as will be revealed in the examples discussed in this chapter. Differing from historical texts, the Han xia in Jin’s world rarely pursue official careers.54 Therefore, in Jin’s martial arts world, the interaction between the court and the xia is limited and the xia maintains a distance from mundane politics. The martial arts world in Jin’s fictional universe is often referred to as the “jianghu”江湖. Cultural studies scholar Helena Wu suggests that “the jianghu imagery might be best known as a space that offers an escape from the influence of the authorities at times, but is—for most of the time—governed by its own set of rules and values.”55 Concisely, this world performs as xia’s 51 Cai, “Luelun Songdai De Youxia” 略論宋代的游俠, 217. 52 I notice that scholarly work on xia often emphasizes loyalty without specifying loyalty to whom, while some scholars suggest that xia stand in opposition to government. I therefore argue that xia are not necessarily loyal to Han dominated regimes. 53 Cai, “Luelun Songdai De Youxia” 略論宋代的游俠, 221. 54 Chen, Qiangu Wenren Xiake Meng: Wuxia Xiaoshuo Leixing Yanjiu 千古文人俠客夢: 武俠小說類型研究, 173. 55 Wu, “Wording the Jianghu: Loyalists, Revolutionists, and Secret Societies in Late Qing and Early Republican China,” 2. 28 hidden realm that coexists with the outside world while operating independently with its own sets of moral codes. There is no clear definition for ethnicities in Jin Yong’s oeuvre. Mac claims that Jin “does not provide a concise definition of what a Han Chinese person is like, but it is clear that he determines ethnicity through one’s bloodline.”56 Bloodline in Jin’s fictional world serves a key driving force, shaping the destiny of the characters. In the case of Yang Kang and Yang Guo, Yang Guo must bear the weight of his biological father Yang Kang’s dishonoured name and seek redemption. However, the case of the Duan family’s lineage from a non-Han ethnic group, Xianbei, is entirely different. Unlike Yang, the Duan family, especially Duan Yu, is never marginalized and looked down upon by the Han, although Duan Yu’s father, Duan Yanqing, also holds a notoriety as the head of the “Four Evildoers.” In fact, the Duan family enjoys a positive reputation and is well respected in the martial arts community. Moreover, the Duan family enjoys privilege conferred by their social class as the royal clan of a pro-Han non-Han regime. Their royal status in some way amplifies their prestige and influence within the martial arts world, as a sect that both represents government authority and belongs to the underworld. This contrast highlights an inconsistency in Jin’s racial representation: whereas non-Han groups are often portrayed negatively, a handful of non-Han characters are depicted positively. As for the Han, Jin seems to assume that Han itself is a universal, self-explanatory and unchanged term.57 In other sense, “Han” is a vague term in the fictional universe. Mac observes that Jin invests more effort in shaping the non-Han characters to distinguish between Han and non-Han.58 Jin adopted a modern imagined Han national identity, which consist of an assumption 56 Mac, Jin Yong’s Chivalry: Gender and Ethnicity in Wuxia Fiction, Film and Television, 72. 57 Mac, Jin Yong’s Chivalry: Gender and Ethnicity in Wuxia Fiction, Film, and Television, 70. 58 Mac, Jin Yong’s Chivalry: Gender and Ethnicity in Wuxia Fiction, Film, and Television, 70. 29 that the Han (in modern day not only exclusive to Han-Chinese) as a weak victim due to constant foreign invasion.59 This reminds us of the “uplift the Han and disdain the barbarians” 尊夏貶夷 approach in martial arts fiction, which exhibits traits of the anti-Qing revolutionary wave and Confucianism.60 Considering the martial arts fiction in the theme of “uprising against the Qing and restoring the Ming” 反清復明 that were written in the Republican era, these authors stand in the position of the Han to oppose the Manchurian rules. They portray the Han as justice and the “Dazi” 韃子 emperor as evil.61 Yan proposes that these simplistic binary way of thinking profoundly affected the development of the martial arts genre. Except for Demi-Gods where an equality among ethnic groups seems to be promoted, Jin’s other works demonstrate an inconsistency in racial representation which direct to sporadic unfavourable approaches towards the non-Han communities. “Dazi,” a derogatory term, is frequently adopted in Jin’s fictions to all non-Han races; likewise, Jin simplifies the diversity in the Han ethnicity and merges them into a narrow culture. As Sufen Sophia Lai discusses, it is a human tendency to self-locate oneself at the center and marginalize strangers as cultural others.62 By reducing complexity over ethnicity, Jin constructs an oppositional narrative between the Han and the Non-Han to justify his portrayal of the non-Han as threats.63 Han Nationalism and the Martial Arts World Consensus The martial arts world in Jin’s fictional realm does not only function as a dedicated sub-realm for martial artists but also as a pro-Han community. Nationalism is the consensus— 59 Mac, Jin Yong’s Chivalry: Gender and Ethnicity in Wuxia Fiction, Film, and Television, 71. 60 Yan, Jinyong Xiaoshuo Lungao 金庸小說論稿, 54. 61 Yan, Jinyong Xiaoshuo Lungao 金庸小說論稿, 54. 62 Lai, “Racial Discourse and Utopian Visions in Nineteenth-Century China,” 327. 63 Mac, Jin Yong’s Chivarly: Gender and Ethnicity in Wuxia Fiction, Film, and Television, 71. 30 widely recognized and pursued—I discovered in the Han-dominated martial arts world created by Jin. There are indeed various ways to express nationalism in the Han martial arts world, with different agendas. However, they all share the same ultimate goal: to expel the “barbarians” (non-Han in the Han perspective) and restore or uphold a Han-dominated regime. The below scenarios showcase the Han nationalistic consensus in the fictional world. Our clan serves our country with loyalty and righteousness, hostile against the Jurchens for generations. The gift sent by the Jurchens must not be accepted, and retreated beyond the Yangtze River is absolutely not negotiable. (my translation) 我幫忠義報國，世世與金人為仇，金人送的禮物決不能收，撤過長江，更加萬萬不可。64 The crowd hears about the war with the Khitans, and everyone cannot help but feel their blood boil with excitement, yet at the same time, they can feel the fear. (my translation) 眾人聽到和契丹打仗，都忍不住熱血如沸，又不禁慄慄危懼65 These two circumstances are quoted from The Legend and Demi-Gods, respectively. Although they are set in two different eras, they share a similar point: both quotes describe the reaction of the Beggar Clan, demonstrating their determination to expel the non-Han and integrity of being a loyal Han subject. They refuse to cooperate with or submit to the non-Han invaders. Even though they are set in different eras and circumstances—the former facing the Jurchens during the Southern Song and the latter confronting the Khitans during the Northern Song—these 64 Jin, The Legend of the Condor Heroes 射雕英雄傳, 1140. 65 Jin, Demi-Gods Semi-Devils 天龍八部, 674. 31 quotations suggest that the Beggar Clan members actively engage in ethnic agendas and consistently display a consensus that is equally hostile to and resistant to the outsiders, in their case, the non-Han. An interesting aspect I notice when comparing the two texts is that the former quotation, which takes place decades after the latter, claims that the Jurchens have been their enemies for generations without mentioning the Khitans.66 Another notable example can be found in Heaven, in form of a conversation between Zhang Cuishan and Xie Xun on Binghuo Dao, where the fall of Song is discussed. They attribute Song’s downfall to the failed and corrupted Song government, the Jurchen invasion, and the Mongol invasion. Yet, the Khitan is once again excluded from their conversation. This scenario can be perceived as a historical/cultural amnesia, suggesting that there is no perpetual enemy to the Han people as hostility seem to fade over time. There is no single ethnic group that the Han xia are permanently hostile to, and this ultimately results in an endless struggle between the Han and the non-Han. In the two aforementioned scenarios involving the Beggar Clan, the clan is recognized as an orthodox sect 名門正派, which is also one of those that are the most prominent in Jin’s fictional world. Owing to this configuration, their stance usually represents the majority in the martial arts world. Orthodox sects in Jin’s fictional universe emphasize moral codes such as loyalty, righteousness, and nationalism, in which their creeds represent the general principle of the martial arts community. The only exception appears in the first half of Heaven, where the concept of an orthodox sect overrides nationalism. The orthodox sects desire to fight for the leadership of the martial arts world and to eliminate the demonic cult has given priority over nationalism, in this case by seeking to expel the Mongols. The conflicts between the Han and the 66 Jurchens are the major non-Han enemies in Legend, and Khitans are the major non-Han enemies in Demi-Gods. 32 Mongols are limited, and the martial arts world shift their priority from expelling the non-Han regime to striving to be the orthodoxical leader of the martial arts world. Other than competing for the position of the leader of the martial arts world, the orthodox sects also resent and oppose what they view as a demonic cult, such as the Ming Sect which is originated in Persia and is comprised of members from various race. Since its practices differ from the Central Plain martial arts world, the orthodox sects label the Ming Sect as a demonic cult, despite its active resistance against the Mongol rule. In the middle of the story, Zhang Wuji resolves the misunderstanding and long-existing grudges between the Ming Sect and the orthodox sects. Since then, the orthodox sects no longer regard the Ming Sect as a demonic cult, but instead recognize it as an ally. I hypothesize that in the first half of the story, the Ming Sect temporarily replaces the non-Han ethnic groups as the primary enemy of the martial arts world. This shift demonstrates an inconsistency in racial narratives within the martial arts world consensus. In contrast, the other three fictions, set in earlier time periods, depict that the martial arts world primarily advocates Han-centrism over sectarian rivalries. The narrative transforms drastically after the protagonist Zhang Wuji’s intervention, then the martial arts world consensus realigns with the other three fictions, refocusing on expelling and resisting the non-Han invaders. This change serves as an example of how the martial arts world consensus is not purely driven by ideals of justice but instead a complex combination of greediness, idealism and nationalism. The six major sects of the Central Plain were originally enemies of the Ming Sect. However, sect leader Zhang repaid grudges with kindness and save us instead. Our previous hostility is naturally wiped away. From now on, let us unite and expel the barbarians. (my translation) 33 中原六大派原先與明教為敵，但張教主以德報怨，反而出手相救，雙方仇嫌，自是一筆勾銷，今後大夥兒同心協力，驅除胡虜。67 The above statement is declared by Kongzhi 空智, an established figure in the martial arts world and the head monk of the Shaolin Temple. The Shaolin Temple is always regarded as the orthodoxy of the martial arts world. Despite being an entity where Buddhism comes across with martial arts, in the fictional realm, members of the Temple often reveal their mundane and human side. Thus, the Shaolin Temple functions more as a martial arts sect than a religious organization. It plays a significant role in the martial arts world and demonstrates a strong sense of sectarianism in Heaven and nationalism in both Heaven and Demi-Gods. Kongzhi’s statement not only suggests that the Shaolin Temple is involved in the battle with the Ming Sect but also highlights the temple’s nationalistic stance, which contrasts the traditional ideals and spiritual detachment associated with Buddhist monks. The Shaolin Temple serves as a prime example of how Jin prioritizes national grudges over the depiction of Buddhist monks’ detachment from worldly affairs. In the final chapter of Demi-Gods, Xiao Feng urges the Khitan emperor to withdraw from invading the Song and eventually regains his reputation in the martial arts world: Xiao Feng said, “I would like to ask my honoured father: if the Khitan soldiers attack the temple, how will he respond?” Xuandu replied, “He will naturally fight the enemy and defend the temple. There is no doubt in that.” Xiao Feng said, “Yet my father is a Khitan. How can we ask him to kill his own people for the sake of Han?” Xuandu thought carefully and 67 Jin, The Heaven Sword and Dragon Saber 倚天屠龍記, 1136. 34 said, “To abandon the evil and embrace the righteousness, he is admirable and honourable!” (my translation) 蕭峯道：「我想請問他老人家：倘若遼兵前來攻打少林寺，他卻怎生處置？」玄渡道：「那自是奮起殺敵，護寺護法，更有何疑？」蕭峯道：「然而我爹爹是契丹人，如何要他為了漢人，去殺契丹人？」玄渡沉吟道：「棄暗投明，可敬可佩！」68 This conversation takes place after the rescue of Xiao from the Khitan garrison. Head Monk Xuandu 玄渡 of the Shaolin Temple refers to the Khitans as evil and presumes that the Han represent righteousness. These two dialogues reveal that figures from the Shaolin Temple actively express their nationalistic views and support operations against the non-Han. Moreover, Xuandu’s ethnic opinion remains nationalistic after Xiao attempts to mediate the Song-Liao war. Thus, I propose that Xuandu’s decision to join the rescue is not on account of Xiao’s heroism and xiayi but merely a nationalistic approach. Anti-non-Han resistance is not limited to specific sects/organizations such as the Beggar Clan and the Shaolin Temple, as have been mentioned, but the sentiment extends across the entire martial arts world. The following narrator’s framing is another example that depicts the martial arts world’s vindictiveness towards the Mongols after nearly a hundred years of the fallen Song: At that time, the Song court has been demolished for nearly a hundred years, yet the ordinary heroes still regard the Mongol officials and soldiers as barbarians and refuse to submit to them. Upon hearing the 68 Jin, Demi-Gods Semi-Devils 天龍八部, 2177. 35 Mongol army approaching, their blood boils with excitement, and everyone is eager to participate in the resistance. (my translation) 其時宋室淪亡須以將近百年，但草莽英豪，始終將蒙古官兵視作夷狄，不肯服其管束。這是聽說蒙古兵殺到，各人熱血沸騰，盡皆奮身欲起。69 I observe that Jin incorporates multiple war scenes featuring Han martial artists to underscore racial conflicts across the four fictions. The above scene is an example of martial arts world cooperating with an anti-non-Han resistance force. These battle contexts serve as a means for Jin to connect xia with the socio-political landscape. Within this framework, xia are no longer mere martial artists but also political figures and/ or warriors who protect their homeland. This coincides with the observation that new school martial arts novelists favour using ethnic conflicts to intertwine with personal factors as the main storyline for their novels while emphasizing ethnicities to elevate the social significance of the xia’s use of force.70 As a representative new school martial arts novelist, Jin, likewise, tends to integrate xia into warfare and reinforce the historical setting of his fictional world, by establishing a backdrop in which the influence of xia extends beyond the realm of mere martial arts world and into broader socio-political conflicts. The Pro-Han Non-Han and Their Perception from the Han Narratives To conclude this chapter, I will bring in the example of Xiao Feng and Zhao Min 趙敏 to point out the infliction of racial bias on the non-Han xia by the Han people. I contend that this is 69 Jin, The Heaven Sword and Dragon Saber 倚天屠龍記, 1645. 70 Chen, Qiangu Wenren Xiake Meng: Wuxia Xiaoshuo Leixing Yanjiu 千古文人俠客夢:武俠小說類型研究, 173. 36 contradicted by the sympathy projected by Jin on a Han antagonist who is morally corrupted but exhibits nationalistic sentiment. Despite their moral characteristics, non-Han martial artists are sometimes presumed to be enemies by the Han people. Xiao Feng is a prime example of this bias. He is initially portrayed as an esteemed heroic xia who upholds Han nationalism and righteousness. Before revealing his ethnicity, Xiao once refers the Khitans as “Liao Dog” 遼狗71 during his daily conversation, showcasing his deeply rooted Han nationalism. However, as a Han-raised Khitan, Xiao struggles in an identity crisis after revealing his ethnicity despite fully adopting Han rituals and even nationalism. Xiao is the only protagonist in this fictional realm who suffers from an identity crisis. He is also the direct victim who bears the consequences of his father’s actions and bloodline. The following dialogue expresses Xiao’s disdain towards the accusations he faces: Just because I am a Khitan, any crime can be accused against me, regardless of whether I have committed such acts. Turning the white into black like that, this so-called “righteousness” is utterly unbelievable and nonsense. (my translation) 只因我是契丹人，什麼罪名都可加在我頭上，不管我有沒有犯了這些罪行，如此顛倒黑白，這「大義」當真狗屁之極。72 Xiao is raised by a Han farmer couple and is mentored and enlightened by a well-respected Shaolin monk. He is raised in a Han cultural setting, and inherits prestigious martials arts background from his mentor. His sense of righteousness eventually earns him a role as the Beggar Clan leader. Such a well-regarded figure is ultimately denounced by the martial arts 71 Jin, Demi-Gods Semi-Devils 天龍八部, 674. 72 Jin, Demi-Gods Semi-Devils 天龍八部, 1066. 37 world merely due to his later-revealed Khitan heritage and unproven accusations. Xiao’s case aligns seamlessly with Mac’s discussion, as Mac points out that “culture and education absolutely cannot change one’s ethnicity, and it does not matter whether the individual was aware of his ‘true’ ethnicity all along.”73 More specifically, one’s ethnic identity is defined through one’s father, as Mac observes that “the fathers of Jin Yong’s heroes are almost always deceased when the story begins or die soon afterwards, but their influence is always present because they determine the sons’ ethnicity.”74 His father is considered dead throughout most of the story and yet continues to create scenarios that lead to Xiao being labelled as a disgrace in the martial arts community. Born with the Khitan ethnicity inherited from his father, Xiao’s pro-Han attitude and sinicized background are commonly neglected. For this reason, he is denounced by the martial arts community that claims to adhere to the so-called righteousness. Nonetheless, Xiao’s situation is more complex than just his heritage. For instance, a letter written by Monk Xuanci玄慈75 of the Shaolin Temple was said to embody the force of racism, functioning as a medium to represent the Beggar Clan’s situation and the Han war against barbarism as a permanent crisis, where invisible enemies justify a pre-emptive war.76 By applying the same logic, Xiao’s identity crisis can be viewed as a side effect of a pre-emptive war and a conspiracy. This humanmade tragedy is caused by two stakeholders: the aggressive nationalistic Han martial artists who wish to pre-empt the attack on the Khitans before it happens and the royal Tuoba Xianbei family who hope to trigger the Han-Liao conflict in order to exploit the chaos and restore Dayan 大燕. 73 Mac, Jin Yong’s Chivalry: Gender and Ethnicity in Wuxia Fiction, Film, and Television, 72. 74 Mac, Jin Yong’s Chivalry: Gender and Ethnicity in Wuxia Fiction, Film, and Television, 72. 75 In Demi-Gods, Shaolin Temple leader Xuanci disguises as the “leading brother” 帶頭大哥 who leads the raid against Xiao Feng’s parents. 76 Liu, Stateless Subjects: Chinese Martial Arts Literature and Postcolonial History, 128. 38 The Khitan warriors mentioned in the text below are Xiao’s bodyguards, who travel to the Central Plain without intending to jeopardize the Han but solely to protect Xiao. However, Xiao’s bloodline, as well as the Khitan warriors’ ethnic identity, functions as a presumptive guilt for them in the narrative. This discriminatory view on them is inherited through ancestry. Xiao’s case, along with the martial arts world’s aggression towards the Khitan warriors, suggest that in the story, the Han will never reconcile with the Khitans, regardless of their peaceful intention. The martial arts world is unlikely ever to view them as individuals but as a collective group of savages. The scene below displays the hostile actions committed by the Han martial artists against the Khitan warriors: Instantly, hundreds of people draw their weapons, and some are already preparing to charge and attack the eighteen Khitan warriors. (my translation) 霎時間千百人乒乒乓乓的拔出兵刃，更有人便要向一十八名契丹武士攻殺過去。77 Nevertheless, Xiao and the Khitan warriors are not the only victims of the racially biased righteousness. In the latter half of Heaven, Zhao Min decides to follow Zhang Wuji and abandon her title as a Mongol princess; she is perceived in two contrasting ways by the Ming Sect members, a sect that comprises both Han and non-Han. In one scene, Yang Xiao 楊逍suggests that even if she looks like a Han woman, her Mongol heritage still sets her apart, viewing her with discrimination. His comment displays a false association between being ethnically Mongol by bloodline and being barbaric by nature. It demonstrates a racial misrepresentation that leads to discrimination: 77 Jin, Demi-God Semi-Devils 天龍八部, 1846. 39 This lady Zhao’s appearance and features are exactly like a Han beauty, but the moment she acts, the fierce nature of a barbaric woman immediately emerges. (my translation) 這趙姑娘的容貌模樣，活脫是個漢人美女，可是只需一瞧她行事，那番邦女子的兇猛野性，立時便顯露出來。78 However, after she officially cuts ties with the Mongol royal house, she is entirely accepted or even praised by the Ming Sect members. Regardless of how she is viewed, Zhao’s stance remains unchanged, and she is still in love with Zhang and remains certain of following him. The focalization from the Ming Sect members illustrates the firmness of Zhao’s desire: No one would have expected that Zhao Min, a Mongol woman, would love and hate so straightforwardly, without any hesitation. This is entirely different from the women of the Central Plain, who are deeply influenced by Confucian etiquette. (my translation) 誰也沒想到趙敏是蒙古女子，要愛便愛，要恨便恨，並不扭怩作態，本和中土深受禮教陶冶的女子大異。79 On the contrary, in Jin’s martial arts realm, there exists a unique category of morally corrupt antagonists who pose a threat to the martial arts world yet remain faithful to their Han-centrism belief. The “gentleman” He Taichong from the below passage falls into this category. As the leader of the Kunlun Sect, he is depicted as both frivolous and self-serving, showing cowardice when confronted by his wife despite his status as a leader of an orthodox sect. However, He’s character is more complex than this. He refuses to surrender, remaining silent 78 Jin, The Heaven Sword and Dragon Saber 倚天屠龍記, 1080. 79 Jin, The Heaven Sword and Dragon Saber 倚天屠龍記, 1217. 40 even when a Mongol martial artist chops off his fingers. Jin borrows Zhang Wuji’s focalization to frame this moment, suggesting that even antagonists can uphold their commitment to Han loyalty. This gentleman He may not be a man of honour, but when he faces critical scenarios, he shows decisiveness as the leader of a sect. (my translation) 這何先生說不是什麼正人君子，但大關頭上卻把持肯定，不失為一派掌門的氣概。80 This example further suggests that the moral value and consensus in Jin’s martial arts world are fluid and inconsistent. On the one hand, non-Han characters such as Xiao Feng and Zhao Min are subjected to accusations based solely on their ethnicity, with no regard for their moral values and pro-Han stance. On the other hand, a morally corrupted Han character like He Taichong is still seen as a decisive leader simply because of his nationalist desire. On the outset, there seems to be a consensus in the Han-dominated martial arts world created by Jin. In a closer look, the Han-centric worldview produces uneven and unequal viewpoints where personal interests, sectarianism and political involvement are justified by nationalism, moral codes, and righteousness. 80 Jin, The Heaven Sword and Dragon Saber 倚天屠龍記, 1060. 41 Chapter Two The Representation of Han People, Justice and Shifting Narratives This chapter examines how race is represented from the Han characters’ perspective, and explores how Jin adjusts his narratives and plots to accommodate his racial representation of the Han characters. I begin this chapter with a close examination of Guo Jing, an ideal xia portrayed in the fictional world of Demi-Gods, Legend, Return, and Heaven. Then, I observe his unethical behaviour and values, such as disloyal to brotherhood and abuse his martial arts power to the weakness, which are all sugar-coated with nationalism in the narrative. Following is my discussion on Yang Guo’s self-redemption, who has inherited infamy from his father, Yang Kang. Yet, Yang Guo gains himself the title of “Condor Hero” with his transforming nationalistic action and mindset. I further argue that his nationalism is permanent, and that it becomes his ticket to fully withdraw from worldly affairs. Following this, I turn to the theme of seclusion, particularly focusing on Huang Yaoshi, Zhang Sanfeng, and Yideng. Unlike Yang Guo and Zhang Wuji, who are able to enter full seclusion by the end of the narratives, these so-called secluded masters are not as secluded as they portrayed. They often return to the mundane world, especially during moments of national crisis. After delving into how the Han martial arts figures deal with non-Han and racial affairs, I conclude this chapter by examining Han people who serve or support non-Han regimes, arguing that their portrayals offer complexity to Jin’s racial representation. Ultimately, I suggest that racial representation in Jin’s fictional universe is never binary, but instead fluid and inconsistent. An Unethical National Hero: Reinterpreting Guo Jing 42 As examined in the last chapter, in Jin’s discourse on the representation of xiayi, various characters uphold a strong sense of Han-centrism while advocating for xia’s moral codes. Examples include Qiu Chuji, Guo Xiaotian, Yang Tiexin, and Guo Jing. Among these figures, Guo Jing is the most prominent one in the fictional realm, receiving the most extensive depiction in Legend. In his later year, after establishing himself as an esteemed martial artist in Return, he is recognized as the embodiment of “the great xia who serves the nation and its people” 俠之大者, 為國為民.81 Thus, Guo is a classic example of someone who serves as an ideal role model in discussing xiayi. Guo’s qualities align with Foster’s discussion on Jin’s portrayal of a positive national character. Jin’s portrayal of a positive national character is rooted in traditional Confucian values and virtues, including loyalty, filial piety, benevolence, and justice.82 Raised on the Mongolian steppe, we can trace Guo’s initial display of heroism to his childhood. In the discussion of Guo Jing, Mac points out that xia (which she termed “chivalry”) can be demonstrated and developed outside the Chinese border.83 Guo’s xiayi characteristics are more or less shaped during his time on the Mongol steppe, influenced by Mongol heroism and his masters, the Seven Eccentrics. In terms of Guo’s “Chineseness,” Mac suggests that the presence of his mother, Li Ping 李萍, is the key factor, as she shapes Guo’s worldview regardless of their whereabouts.84 Hearing his ambitions and broad-minded words, Guo Jing feels a more profound admiration for Tiemujin (Genghis Khan). (my translation) 81 Jin, The Return of the Condor Heroes 神雕俠侶, 866; Chen Mo proposes that the notion of “great xia” is the most notable point of similarity across the Condor Trilogy. The Condor Trilogy comprises of Legend, Return and Heaven. (Chen Mo, Chenmo Pingshuo Jinyong陳墨評說金庸, 207). 82 Foster, “Jin Yong's Linghu Chong Faces off against Lu Xun's Ah Q,” 94. 83 Mac, Jin Yong’s Chivalry: Gender and Ethnicity in Wuxia Fiction, Film, and Television, 104. 84 Mac, Jin Yong’s Chivalry: Gender and Ethnicity in Wuxia Fiction, Film, and Television, 78. 43 郭靖聽着這番抱負遠大、胸懷廣闊的說話，對鐵木真更加五體投地的崇敬。85 Guo’s reverence for Genghis Khan is purely out of admiration for a hero. He does not initially view Genghis Khan through the lens of ethnic distinction. His early years in Mongol do not indicate his later resentment towards the Mongols or his nationalism. On the Mongol Plain, he is raised among Mongols and intermittently participates in Mongol-led military affairs. Subsequent to his initial adventure in the Central Plain, he returns to the Mongol region, equipped with his newly acquired martial arts skills, experience from the Han region and a Han-centric nationalistic perspective. Jin strategically positions the Jurchen as the Mongol’s primary enemy when Guo returns to the Mongol region to rationalize Guo’s participation in the Mongol military campaign and ensure it does not conflict with his growing Han-centrism worldview. Guo’s involvement in Genghis Khan’s conquests is justified as an act of avenging his racial origin, the Song Empire and family’s grievances and framed as a way to repay Genghis Khan’s care for his mother and childhood, as well as his recognition and mentorship. The true identity crisis would only arise if Genghis Khan were to order Guo to assist in the invasion of the Song before invading the Jurchens. This would place Guo in a moral dilemma, where his loyalty to the Han would directly clash with his deep gratitude for Genghis Khan’s kindness and guidance. The following focalization from Guo creates an opportunity for him to repay Genghis Khan without conflicting with his Han nationalism: Guo Jing has already decided to return to the South the next day. Upon encountering this situation, he will not ignore avenging his father’s murder. At the same time, he recalls the kindness and recognition from 85 Jin, The Legend of the Condor Heroes 射雕英雄傳, 251. 44 the Khan, making this a perfect opportunity to repay his gratitude. (my translation) 郭靖本已決定次日南歸，忽然遇上此事，殺父之仇如何不報，又想起自己母子受大汗厚遇，正好為他出力，以報恩德86 On the final day of his life, Genghis Khan enlightens Guo, acknowledging that Guo will never become a Mongol and deciding not to force him to lead the invasion against the Song. You are ultimately a Han and can never truly become a Mongol. This is something that no one can change, no matter how hard they try. I have recently realized this. Though we are Mongols and Hans, we must always remain on good terms, like a family at the very end. (my translation) 你終究是漢人，變不成蒙古人。那是誰都沒法子的，勉強不來，這一節我近來也想通了。咱們雖是蒙古人漢人，但一直到死，始終要和好，像一家人一樣。87 This is a newly added scene, exclusively to the latest version finalized by Jin Yong in 2003. From a commonsensical point of view, the conversation can only take place during Genghis Khan’s final appearance. If Genghis Khan reaches this realization early, he would have withdrawn his invasions, which does not align with the historical flow. Yet, Genghis Khan’s final realization serves as an act to immediately resolve Guo’s potential identity crisis. His final teaching justifies Guo’s identity transformation from non-Han to Han, transforming him into an ideal xia figure in the later stages. Unlike Xiao Feng, whose struggle with identity is deeply rooted in his non-Han bloodline, as have been discussed in Chapter One, Guo’s crisis and pro- 86 Jin, The Legend of the Condor Heroes 射雕英雄傳, 1479. 87 Jin, The Legend of the Condor Heroes 射雕英雄傳, 1638. 45 Mongol acts are never condemned or rejected by the martial arts world. His firmly grounded Han identity derived from his experiences in the martial arts world and the teachings of his mother, his masters, and Daoist Qiu. Compared to Xiao’s turmoil, Guo’s identity crisis is merely a brief spark. In Return, Guo is portrayed as an established xia who has been safeguarding the Xiangyang Fortress for the past decades. After Yang Guo makes his debut in the martial arts world, Guo lectures him, a teenager who struggles with an identity crisis inherited from his father at the time. Guo stresses that “for the country and the people, it is the highest idea of xia” is the fundamental moral principle of a xia and hopes Yang will abide by it. Guo says, The “jianghu” honours me as the “Great Xia Guo” because I am dedicated to my nation and people, risking my life to defend Xiangyang. However, my ability is limited, and I am unable to save people from suffering. I am unworthy to be called the “Great Xia.” You are ten times smarter than me, and your future achievements will definitely surpass me. I only hope that you remember this phrase: “For the country and people, it is the highest idea of xia.” Someday you will be known throughout the land and become the true xia who is admired by everyone. (my translation) 江湖上所以尊稱我一聲「郭大俠」，實因敬我為國為民、奮不顧身的助守襄陽。而我才力有限，不能為民解困，實在愧當「大俠」兩字。你聰明智慧過我十倍，將來成就定然遠勝於我，這是不消說 46 的。只盼你心頭牢牢記着「為國為民，俠之大者」這八個字，日後名揚天下，成為受萬民景仰的真正大俠。88 Regardless of Guo’s image as a moral figure, there are a handful of evidence suggesting that Guo is not as perfect as portrayed, for having engaged in some ethically borderline actions. In Return, after learning that his sworn brother, Tuolei 托雷, is leading a military campaign against the Song, Guo attempts to assassinate Tuolei for his nation. Assassinating or attempting to kill one’s sworn brother is undeniably an unrighteous act, especially within a Confucian society and the martial arts world community, not to mention that brotherhood and loyalty are fundamental moral codes in martial arts world. Moreover, Tuolei is unlike Yang Kang, who was forced to become Guo’s sworn brother. Tuolei grew up alongside Guo, and the two have faced hardships together and formed a life-and-death bond from a young age. In addition to their connection since childhood, Tuolei later helps Guo escape Mongol pursuit after Guo refuses to assist Genghis Khan’s invasion of the Song. However, since Guo’s attempt to kill Tuolei derives from his Han nationalism, neither the martial arts community nor Jin’s narrative questions or condemns his actions; ironically, in this martial arts world that valourizes morality, a person who attempts to betray his brother can still be recognized as the Great Xia. I suggest that, in order for Guo to fully align the idea of xia, Jin intentionally shifts the plot. He portrays Genghis Khan as severely ill during the beginning of the campaign, forcing Tuolei to return to the Mongol Plain with Guo. This adjustment transforms Guo’s assassination attempt into an undeveloped thought or hypothetical plan, preventing him from actually executing it and maintaining his righteous image. 88 Jin, The Return of the Condor Heroes 神雕俠侶, 866. 47 Besides adjusting the plot to justify Guo’s unethical actions, Jin also attempts to downplay Guo’s exploitation of his martial arts skills. Chen suggests that martial arts fictions are by nature inevitable to emphasize martial arts, yet they do not wish to turn into mere “manuals” of violence. Thus, the strategy of jiewu xiexia (borrowing martial arts to portray xia) 借武寫俠 describes how martial arts fiction authors in general try to legitimize, rationalize, or even sanctify the martial elements within the genre by using martial arts to portray xia.89 The following scene aligns with Chen’s observation, as Jin rationalizes Guo’s violence with nationalism and downplays his exploitation of martial arts skills against the ordinaries: The two smash wine jars and cooking wok to pieces as they are excited. In the end, Guo Jing uses his Eighteen Dragon Palms to shatter the central pillar of the inn. The roof collapses, and the entire inn turns into ashes. The two burst into laughter, grabbed each other hands and headed North. The witnesses do not dare to chase after the two as they have no clue who these crazy teenagers are. (my translation) 兩人打得興起，將酒缸鍋鑊，盡皆搗爛，最後郭靖使出降龍十八掌手段，奮力幾下推震，打斷了店中大柱，屋頂塌將下來，一座酒家霎時化為斷木殘垣。兩人哈哈大笑，攜手向北。眾人不知兩個少年是何方來的瘋子，那敢追趕？90 This scenario takes place when Guo and Huang Rong arrive at a rural inn. They overhear the inn’s workers and customers showing indifference towards patriotism, choosing to immerse in poetry and entertainment. Frustrated by that, they express their anger, arguing that Han people 89 Chen, Qiangu Wenren Xiake Meng: Wuxia Xiaoshuo Leixing Yanjiu 千古文人俠客夢: 武俠小說類型研究, 156. 90 Jin, The Legend of The Condor Heroes 射雕英雄傳, 969. 48 should be loyal to their country and concern for the nation’s well-being instead of fixating on leisure. In response, they unload their frustration and teach them a lesson with the help of martial arts. The majority of the discussion of Guo often centred on his righteousness and nationalism. Despite Jin’s effort to add a new section in Legend in the latest and final edition, which includes a conversation between Guo and Daoist Qiu discussing the proper usage of martial arts and the concept of xia, there is still evidence in the story suggesting that Guo exploits his martial arts and engages in unrighteous acts. This indicates that, since Guo’s motivations are rooted in his Han nationalism, along with Jin’s alternation of the plot, Guo’s unrighteous behaviour and his mistreatment of those who do not know martial arts are often downplayed and overlooked. Redemption from Inheritance: Yang Guo’s Path as a ‘Temporary’ National Hero Yang Guo, the protagonist of Return, suffers from a crisis he inherited through his bloodline. Yang’s father, Yang Kang, is portrayed as a traitor to the nation, who betrayed his ethnicity for wealth and power, and assisted in the invasion of the Song. Ultimately, he is indirectly killed by Huang Rong and one of Guo’s masters, Nan Xiren 南希仁. In the story world created by Jin, Yang is destined to bear his father’s sin, and his storyline in Return can be viewed as a journey of self-redemption. Contrasting with all other protagonists from the four fictions selected for analysis in this thesis, Yang wanders among the ordinary and the poor since childhood, without the care of his parents. He witnesses the Song bureaucracy’s corruption, making it difficult for him to feel attached to the nation. Unlike other protagonists raised isolated from government affairs, he has 49 to struggle for survival. This leaves him limited opportunity to develop loyalty to the nation and to be taught about the code of xiayi. Since childhood, he wandered in jianghu, suffering from the corrupted officials and bureaucrats. He believed that while the Mongols are ruthless, the Song officials are immoral, and he does not have to fight for them. (my translation) 他自幼流落江湖，深受小官小吏之苦，覺得蒙古人固然兇殘，宋朝君臣也未必就是好人，犯不着為他們出力。91 However, as the plot progresses, Yang’s point of view changes through his focalization. Yang’s anti-Mongol sentiments first appear when he witnesses the brutality of the Mongol soldier. After this incident quoted below, I notice a gradual transition in Yang’s stance from apolitical to an anti-Mongol nationalism. The leading man holds a long spear, with the spearhead skewering a two to three years old infant. He laughs like a maniac and comes forward. The infant is not yet dead and cries weakly. (my translation) 當先一人手持長矛，矛頭上挑着過兩三歲大的嬰孩，哈哈大笑的奔來。那嬰兒尚未死絕，兀自發出微微哭聲。92 Since then, Yang begins to judge his earlier apolitical stance, evaluating his participation in the Mongol’s penetration of the martial arts world. Yang’s case is a perfect example that aligns with Chen’s discussion on the characteristics of the martial arts fiction genre. Chen notes that xia are unlike nationalistic armies that are tasked to expel the non-Han invasions in history; the 91 Jin, The Return of The Condor Heroes 神雕俠侶, 664. 92 Jin, The Return of The Condor Heroes 神雕俠侶, 668. 50 characteristics of martial arts fiction genre decide that the primary focus must be on personal grudges.93 Driven by the grudge over his father’s death, Yang’s hostility towards Guo is greater than towards the Mongol. In several instances, Yang attempts to assassinate Guo in revenge for his father. However, in the following quotation, Jin also depicts Yang’s internal struggle, portraying his conflict between seeking retribution for his father’s death and his sense of nationalism. Killing Guo Jing now is an easy work to do. Yet if he dies, the Xiangyang Fortress will be destined to lose. Thousands of infants in this city will be slaughtered by the Mongol soldiers. If I take revenge for my personal grudge, countless innocent people will perish. Forget it; why should I care about the people of the Xiangyang Fortress and the fate of Song? When I suffered, who genuinely cared about me except Xiaolong Nu? People have never loved me, so why should I love them in return? (my translation) 我此刻刺殺郭靖，原是一舉手之事。但他一死，襄陽難守，這城中成千成萬嬰兒，豈非盡讓蒙古兵卒殘殺為樂？我為了報一己之仇，卻害了無數百姓性命，豈非大大不該？罷了，罷了，管他什麼襄陽城百姓，什麼大宋江山，我受苦之時，除了姑姑之外，有誰真心憐我？世人從不愛我，我又何必去愛世人？94 Regardless of Yang’s emerging anti-Mongol sentiment, his personal grudge against Guo and experience with society still hold him back from fully transforming into a nationalistic figure. 93 Chen, Qiangu Wenren Xiake Meng: Wuxia Xiaoshuo Leixing Yanjiu 千古文人俠客夢: 武俠小說類型研究, 174. 94 Jin, The Return of the Condor Heroes 神雕俠侶, 867. 51 Nonetheless, within Yang’s focalization, his relationship with Xiaolong Nu is valued more than the well-being of the Han nation. Mac argues that Yang Kang and Yang Guo are selfish individuals, in contrast to Guo. However, Yang Guo’s selfishness is not about the nation but solely limited to his desire to stay with Xiaolong Nu.95 The final stage of Yang’s narrative transition takes place in the Xiangyang Fortress. When the safety of the fortress is endangered, Yang witnesses the determination of the Guo couple to resist the Mongol invasion and begins to reflect on his selfishness. This moment of self-reflection shown below fully transforms him into an anti-Mongol nationalistic figure, leading him to cut all ties with the Mongol court and ultimately call off his plan to assassinate Guo. Seeing the Guo couple’s deep love for each other, they still prioritize the nation above everything. All this time, he has been obsessed with his love for Xiaolong Nu, but when has he ever think about the nation’s affairs? When has he ever think about the suffering of the people? In comparison, he felt utterly ashamed. (my translation) 眼見他夫婦倆互相情深意重，然而臨到危難之際，處處以國為先，自己卻念念不忘復仇私怨、念念不忘與小龍女兩人的情愛，幾時有一分想到國家大事？有一分想到天下百姓的疾苦，相形之下，真是卑下極了。96 Despite reflecting on his selfishness, Mac argues that Yang’s “chivalric” and “patriotic” actions are temporary pastimes to fill the emotional void after Xiaolong Nu left him.97 The sixteen years of Xiaolong Nu’s absence give Yang the perfect opportunity and timing to 95 Mac, Jin Yong’s Chivalry: Gender and Ethnicity in Wuxia Fiction, Film, and Television, 102. 96 Jin, The Return of the Condor Heroes 神雕俠侶, 929. 97 Mac, Jin Yong’s Chivalry: Gender and Ethnicity in Wuxia Fiction, Film, and Television, 101. 52 showcase his “chivalry” and patriotism, and eventually establish his name as the “Condor Hero.” Similarly, Hamm suggests that Yang’s engagements in public duty are not out of heroism and obligation. Instead, his community services win him the renown to retreat from the martial arts world with Xiaolong Nu.98 Once he reunites with Xiaolong Nu, he returns to the Xiangyang Fortress to save Guo Xiang from the Mongol’s hostage. This can be viewed as his final act in the mundane world. Subsequent to this task, he retreats into seclusion, permanently isolating himself from the martial arts world. Similar to Zhang Wuji’s ultimate retreat, Yang’s decision to withdraw from the martial arts world with Xiaolong Nu symbolizes his departure from the mundane world and entering a secluded mental state. Yang’s struggles between personal desire and patriotism are similar to Zhang’s but different from Guo’s. Yang’s and Zhang’s struggles are leaning more towards the erotic, while Guo’s prioritizes patriotism over the erotic. Yang’s case is particularly special in that his bonding with Xiaolong Nu is fated to lead to a more erotic approach. In Paper Swordsmen, Hamm discusses that eroticism and patriotism are developed from the individual’s relationship with others.99 Yang’s nationalistic perspective is not constructed by the most important person in his life, Xiaolong Nu, as she is solely apolitical. Yet, she plays a crucial role in shaping Yang’s romantic and emotional world, making it understandable that he prioritizes love over nationalism. In contrast, Zhang’s character and values are influenced by multiple stakeholders, including his romantic partners and parents, resulting in a more equal balance between eroticism and patriotism. Guo, portrayed as the ideal xia, has an identity constructed by several nationalistic figures, such as his eight masters, his mother, Daoist Qiu, his wife, and his 98 Hamm, Paper Swordsmen: Jin Yong and the Modern Chinese Martial Arts Novel, 113. 99 Hamm, Paper Swordsmen: Jin Yong and the Modern Chinese Martial Arts Novel, 112. 53 father-in-law. Therefore, Guo’s nationalism is the strongest among the three protagonists in the Condor Trilogy, making him also the only protagonist who does not have a secluded ending. Seclusion: Peace Redeemed by Nationalist Characters Across the four fictions, the presence of xia in the martial arts world that is secluded from government rule plays significant roles in shaping the racial narratives. A few characters are depicted as reclusive masters, such as Huang Yaoshi, Zhang Sanfeng and Yideng. These figures are highly respected within the martial arts world yet rarely involve themselves in worldly affairs. I propose that these figures are not as secluded as they are often portrayed. Unlike Yang Guo and Zhang Wuji, who choose to withdraw from the mundane world entirely as the main story comes to an end, these characters only remain partially secluded, as I suggest. The plot setting dictates that their seclusion is periodic and seasonal, requiring them to re-enter the mundane world at certain points, especially during chaos and national crises. This scene is a prime example of how the partially secluded martial arts figures, such as Huang Yaoshi and Yideng, re-enter the mundane world in order to protect the Xiangyang Fortress. Huang Yaoshi, Yideng and Zhou Botong are originally secluded from worldly affairs, and recognized as reclusive masters. However, the fate of Xiangyang is significant. It is a decisive battle for the sovereignty of Xiangyang. They have no choice but to take action. (my translation) 黃藥師、一燈、周伯通等輩，本來都是超然物外、不理世事的高士，但襄陽存亡關係重大，或漢或胡，在此一戰，不由得他們袖手不顧。100 100 Jin, The Return of the Condor Heroes 神雕俠侶, 1562. 54 These reclusive masters often hold unique principles. For instance, Huang Yaoshi is known to disregard Confucian norms and rituals and is viewed as a heretic master in the martial arts world. Nonetheless, in an argument with Ouyang Feng, Huang’s heretic identity was challenged, and was judged on the basis that his honour for scholars has been contradicted. Ouyang also accused Huang of being restricted by rituals. In response, Huang emphasizes that Confucian values are the fundamental virtues, not rituals. Huang Yaoshi firmly stated, “Loyalty, filial piety, benevolence and righteousness are the fundamental virtues; they are mere rituals.” (my translation) 黃藥師凜然道：「忠孝仁義乃大節所在，並非禮法！」101 Huang’s statement is a classic instance of Jin’s double portrayal when depicting reclusive figures. Jin intends to represent certain masters as detached from worldly affairs, portraying them as hidden and uninvolved in mundane matters. However, as the plot progresses and with more narrative focus on these characters, he inevitably incorporates them with worldly elements, making them more humanized and less mysterious. In the case of Huang, even if he is known as the Eastern Heretic, he still bonds with nationalism and Confucian values such as loyalty and filial piety. Another prime example is Zhang Sanfeng, the founder of the Wudang Sect. As a Daoist and a reclusive master, he is initially portrayed as a religious figure distanced from worldly affairs. However, his mundane characteristics, such as sectarianism and nationalism, are inevitably exposed. When he rescues Chang Yuchun 常遇春, a member of the Ming Sect, he firmly states that his decision is purely driven by his righteousness and he is unaware of Chang’s 101 Jin, The Legend of the Condor Heroes 射雕英雄傳, 1414. 55 identity beforehand. Saving Chang is entirely against his original intent.102 During Zhao Min’s invasion of the Wudang Sect, Zhang emphasizes that despite his secluded Daoist identity, his anti-Mongol sentiment is deeply embedded. He has always hated the Mongol brutality and their harm to the ordinary people. Now, heroes across the land gather to expel the barbarians and reclaim our homeland. Every descendant of the Huang emperor should desire to expel the Dazi, which is the current trend. Although I am a recluse Daoist, I still understand true righteousness. (my translation) 他生平最恨蒙元人殘暴，多害百姓，方今天下羣雄並起，正為了驅除胡虜，還我河山。凡我黃帝子孫，無不存著個驅除韃子之心，這才是大勢所趨。老道雖是方外之人，卻也知大義所在。103 These portrayals contradict their original characterizations as recluses and demonstrate how racial representation in Jin’s fictions can override plots and character settings, sometimes leading to characters acting inconsistently with their original attributes. Since Zhang’s role receives far less narrative focus than Huang’s, I suggest that he can still retain his seclusion to a large extent. However, his distance from worldly affairs still differs from Yang Guo and Zhang Wuji, as both retreat entirely at the end of their stories, leaving them no opportunity for further depiction. In other words, the gaps in their endings preserve their image as real retreats; the more extensive characterizations and plot involvement, the less secluded for reclusive figures. Han People Who Support or Work for the Non-Han 102 Jin, The Heaven Sword and Dragon Saber 倚天屠龍記, 423. 103 Jin, The Heaven Sword and Dragon Saber 倚天屠龍記, 993. 56 Racial representation in Jin’s fictional world is never a dichotomy relationship. I suggest that the majority of the Han characters either carry anti-non-Han sentiments or are apolitical. Nevertheless, there are some rare cases in which a Han supports or works for a non-Han ethnicity. The majority of these cases unfold in Heaven, where Jin portrays a group of Han civilians who seem to “forget” the fall of their homeland and choose to live in what he termed as shameful submission. The people living in the outland provinces hate the Mongol officials and soldiers sincerely, yet the residents of the capital do not feel ashamed to live as a nationless subject. It must be because of witnessing the power and authority of the Mongol court for decades. They have seemingly forgotten that they are the conquered people. (my translation) 外省百姓對蒙古官兵無不恨之切骨，京師人士卻生為亡國奴而不知恥，想是數十年來日日見到蒙古朝廷的威風，竟忘了自己是亡國之身了。104 Furthermore, the narratives in Heaven suggest that residents in the capital are not only assimilated by the Mongols, but some of them have even become supporters of the regime. I propose that these depictions enrich Jin’s racial representation, especially in showcasing the varying perspectives of the Han toward the non-Han. In addition, they can construct a worldview highlighting the urgency for the Han to reclaim their homeland as the people in the capital begin to lose their Han identity. The Ming Sect rebels in the South. Today, during the worship of Lord Guan, his eyes flash fiercely; the rebels must be crushed. (my translation) 104 Jin, The Heaven Sword and Dragon Saber 倚天屠龍記, 1399. 57 南方明教造反，今日關帝菩薩遊行時眼中大放殺氣，反賊定能撲滅105 This is an example from a dialogue from an alleged Han civilian commenting on the Ming Sect uprising, referring to the Han loyalists as rebels and expressing hope that the Mongol army will crush them. This scene is presented as what is heard by Zhang Wuji. Since Zhang cannot speak or understand any form of Mongolian, or non-Han, languages, what he hears must be spoken by a Han-speaking character, who is most likely a Han person as well.106 Another example unfolds when Zhang Sanfeng carries Zhang Wuji to save Chang Yuchun. They encounter a Han translator working for the Mongols, who scolds them for disrespecting the Mongol official. That Han translator shouted angrily, “You savage barbarian, don’t you know the rule? You need to knee down before the official!” (my translation) 那漢人通譯罵道：「賊蠻子，不懂規矩，見了大人還不趕快叩頭？」107 The above examples suggest a discourse where Jin’s representation on Han people is inconsistent. The presence of the pro-non-Han Han characters reveals a broader and more flexible racial perspective among the ordinary people, in contrast to the nationalistic consensus within the martial arts world. 105 Jin, The Heaven Sword and Dragon Saber 倚天屠龍記, 1406. 106 The corresponding passage from the novel is: “After Zhang Wuji left the inn, he headed West. Along the way he hears many commoners chatting, all talking about the lively extravagance of today’s imperial procession. Someone says “The Ming Sect rebels in the South. Today, during the worship of Lord Guan, his eyes flash fiercely; the rebels must be crushed” 張無忌出店後向西行去，一路上聽到眾百姓紛紛談論，說的都是今日遊皇城的熱鬧豪闊。有人道：「南方明教造反，今日關帝菩薩遊行時眼中大放殺氣，反賊定能撲滅 」(Jin, The Heaven Sword and Dragon Saber 倚天屠龍記, 1406). 107 Jin, The Heaven Sword and Dragon Saber 倚天屠龍記, 444. 58 All in all, this chapter comprises a close examination of Guo Jing, an exploration of Yang Guo’s emotional transitions and temporary nationalism, a discussion of the partially secluded masters, and an analysis of several pro-non-Han Han characters. I illustrated the flexibility in Jin’s treatment of Han characters. In that regard, the unethical behaviour of some Han characters like Guo can be justified through plot adjustments, and the narratives are at times altered to favour the pro-Han position, such as by reverting secluded masters’ decision to leave worldly affairs behind and making them oppose non-Han forces. As a result, Jin ultimately demonstrates a preference for Han characters. In other words, in Jin’s fictional world, Han individuals enjoy a more favourable treatment. In the next two chapters, I will examine how non-Han characters, such as Xiao Feng, are unequally represented in the story world. 59 Chapter Three The Alleged Non-Han People and The Alleged Han People, A Discourse of ‘Us’ and ‘Them’ Ethnicity in Jin’s oeuvre is a complex discourse. It comprises various stakeholders, voices, stances and interests. This chapter will discuss the identity discourse of several alleged non-Han characters. I will begin with two special case studies: Ding Chunqiu 丁春秋 and Dali Duan family, both of which represent cases where identities are either being judged or diffused. This will be followed by an in-depth discussion on Xiao Feng, examining how his identity is constructed and self-reflected. This chapter will conclude with a final case study on the rescue of Xiao, in which the Han martial arts community unite to save him from the Liao’s capacity. The operation raises a question: if the Han forces, with the involvement of the Dali royal court, directly confront the Liao military, breaching their garrison, and even threaten the Liao emperor, can this be considered an invasion? If so, it reverses the familiar narrative, and it is the Han who invade the Liao, rather than the Liao invading the Song. This raises a deeper issue: how does the narrative justify such an aggressive act with its nationalistic tone? Racial Perceptions in the Martial Arts World: A Study of Ding Chunqiu The first special case study focuses on Ding Chunqiu, a prime example that demonstrates how a Han martial arts figure is perceived as a non-Han due to his moral value. Ding is the leader of the Xingxiu Sect星宿派, which is based in Xingxiu Sea 星宿海, and located in the Western Region 西域. In his conversation with the Shaolin abbot Xuanci, the Xingxiu Sect is referred to as an exotic sect. It holds no position in the competition for leadership within the 60 martial arts community.108 The Shaolin Temple is regarded as an orthodox sect, and its views are aligned with the broader martial arts world consensus, as have been discussed in Chapter One. Xingxiu Sect is portrayed as demonic and unethical and is marginalized within the martial art community. In response, Ding firmly emphasizes that he is a Han and is originally from Shandong. He further points out that Confucius is his fellow townsman, arguing that if he is labelled a barbarian, the highly worshipped Han figure Confucius must also be considered one. Though the Xingxiu Sect resides in the Western Region, that is only where I temporarily choose to live in seclusion. You refer to the Xingxiu Sect as a barbaric sect; then, Confucius himself would also be a barbarian. This is funny and ridiculous! If we talk about foreign origins, Shaolin’s martial arts come from Bodhidharma of Tianzhu, and even Buddhism is a foreign religion. If so, I would say that the Shaolin Sect is truly barbaric. (my translation) 星宿派雖居住西域，那只不過是老夫暫時隱居之地。你說星宿派是番邦門派，那麼孔夫子也是番邦人士了，可笑啊可笑！說到西域番邦，少林武功源於天竺達摩祖師，連佛教也是西域番邦之物，我看少林派才是西域的門派呢！109 Xuanci’s response is ultimately no response, as well as that of the martial arts community members on the scene.110 Jin uses only a short line to indicate they struggle to argue back. This 108 Following is the direct quote: “Xingxiu Sect is from the Western Region and is not part of our Great Song’s “wulin” community. Whether our Great Song appoints a wulin chief has nothing to do with the Xingxiu Sect” 星宿派乃西域門派，非我大宋武林同道。我大宋立不立武林盟主，可跟星宿派無涉。(Jin, Demi-Gods Semi-Devils 天龍八部, 1756). 109 Jin, Demi-Gods Semi-Devils 天龍八部, 1756. 110 The original quote is: “Xuanci and the fellow heroes find it difficult to argue it back” 玄慈和群雄都感不易抗辯 (Jin, Demi-Gods Semi-Devils 天龍八部, 1756). 61 silence serves two narrative functions. It acknowledges the ethnic bias and nationalistic viewpoint, grounded in the Han way of righteousness, that shape the worldview of the Han-dominated martial arts community. The silence prevents the argument from escalating and potential interference with the upcoming battle in the Shaolin Temple. Ding and his disciples are morally corrupted and are depicted in multiple instances throughout the story. In his earlier years, Ding assassinates his master, Wuya Zi, while Ding’s disciples such as Azi 阿紫 and Zhaixing Zi 摘星子 are portrayed as cruel and unethical. The Xingxiu Sect selects its leading disciple through life-or-death combat, without any mercy among sect brothers and sisters. The sect members are known for being disloyal, petty and self-interested, who often turn each other back during danger. Instead of condemning the Xingxiu Sect’s immoral behaviour, Xuanci attacks its geographic and ethnic origins, stating that it is located in the Western Region and does not belong to the Central Plain’s martial arts world. This reveals a narrative message that, although the immoral practice of the Xingxiu Sect is widely known, Xuanci’s actual line of attack is based on ethnicity and geographic exclusion. His argument draws a line between “us” and “them,” using nationalism as a convenient way to exclude Ding from the self-claimed ‘righteous’ Han-dominated martial arts world that advocates ethical standards. Ironically, Ding is indeed a Han by ethnicity and shares the same regional origin as Confucius. Although a renowned leader in the martial arts world judges Ding on the basis of origin, these accusations and moral standards cannot change Ding’s bloodline. His clear and logical response showcases the martial arts community’s intention to marginalize and refuse to recognize him as part of the community.111 In 111 Simon Shen comments Ding’s response as “logical,” and that it transcends the difference between the Central Plain and the foreign regions, revealing a broad sense view on ethnicity (Huang, “Interview with Simon Shen” 專訪沈旭暉, 86). 62 this setting, Ding is treated not only as a villain but also as an ideological and cultural outsider. Whilst Ding, an ethnical Han, is viewed as a cultural outsider, Duan family, despite ruling a non-Han regime, is conversely accepted as a Han cultural insider by the Han martial arts community. This contrast reveals a narrative where identity is not solely determined by ethnicity but constructed through complex factors such as cultural affiliation and social perception. Han-Rooted Dali Duan Family and Their Ethnic Perspectives In this session, I will discuss how Duan family is represented and their views on ethnicities. Duan family is the royal ruling family of the Dali Kingdom. Located in the South, the Dali Kingdom is portrayed as peaceful and does not pose a threat to its neighbouring states.112 They are Tuoba Xianbei people who originated from the Northern Central Plain, intermarried with the Han, sinitized and identified themselves as Han.113 The representation of Duan family shifts across Jin’s works. In Demi-Gods, Jin devotes more attention to depicting Dali’s governance, presenting Duan family as a benevolent ruling family. In contrast, the Condor Trilogy does not invest much effort in framing Dali’s governance and Duan family. Instead, Jin solely focuses on characterizing Yideng114 and his disciples, and portrays them as parts of the Central Plain martial arts community. 112 Jin focalizes through Gongye Qian’s 公冶乾 to highlight Dali’s peaceful diplomatic approach. The corresponding passage from the novel is: “In the current political landscape, Liao, Song, Tibet, Xixia, and Dali rule the land. Except for Dali, which is located in the South, and uninvolved in conflicts, the remaining four are ambitious to conquer and unify the world” 當今之勢，大遼、大宋、吐蕃、西夏、大理五國並治，除了大理一國辟處南疆，與世無爭之外，其餘四國，都有混一宇內、吞併天下之志 (Jin, Demi-Gods Semi-Devils 天龍八部, 1726). 113 The corresponding passage from the novel is: “Dali Duan family originates from Liaozhou. After founding the kingdom of Dali, their Tuoba Xianbei ancestors had intermarriages with Han people and had become sinicized. Over time, they are no different from the Han. They identify themselves as Han people and spread Chinese culture throughout the Southern frontier” 大理段氏本係涼州武威郡人，在大理得國稱帝，其先世雖為鮮卑拓跋人士，但久與漢人通婚，受中華教化，以與漢人無異，也早自認為是漢人，中華教化文物廣播南疆。508 (Jin, The Return of the Condor Heroes 神雕俠侶, 508). 114 Yideng Dashi is one of the “Five Greatest,” and is also known as the Southern Emperor南帝 in the Condor Trilogy. He is the descendent of Duan family, and the second last emperor of the Dali Kingdom. 63 The following passage displays the prosperity of Dali and reflects Emperor Baoding’s 保定帝 wish for the well-being of his people. On the way, he [Emperor Baoding] sees the people clapping and singing, with teenagers dancing and singing together. The Dali Kingdom is ethnically diversified, and at the time, people from the Central Plain viewed it as a barbarian land. Its customs and etiquette differ significantly from those of the Central Plain. On the street, young men and women hold hands and walk, flirting and laughing openly, and no one views it as unusual. (my translation) 一路見眾百姓拍手謳歌，青年男女，載歌載舞。大理國種族繁多，當時中原人士視大理國為蠻夷之地，禮儀與中土頗不相同，大街上青年男女攜手同行，調情嬉笑，旁若無人，誰也不以為異。115 This scene suggests that Duan family rules the state well, demonstrating their righteousness and non-Han cultural distinctiveness. Their peaceful diplomatic approach also grants the people a relatively war-free environment. I propose that this is the only case in this fictional realm where a non-Han state is depicted with a consistently positive portrayal of its ruling class. In the later part of Demi-Gods, Emperor Baoding passes his throne to Duan Yu, lecturing him that a ruler shall always uphold benevolence.116 Since the Duan family rules Dali, the credit for benevolent governance naturally goes to the Han-rooted family. It begs a question: Is Jin subtly suggesting that only Han people can rule with benevolence and righteousness? 115 Jin, Demi-Gods Semi-Devils 天龍八部, 328. 116 Jin, Demi-Gods Semi-Devils 天龍八部, 2098. 64 In Demi-Gods, various backdrops suggest that Duan family highly embrace the Central Plain culture. Through Duan Yu’s lens, we have a glimpse at the family’s education and admiration for Confucian and Buddhist values.117 These instances suggest that the moral construction of Duan family members is shaped by Han-imported ideologies emphasizing benevolence and righteousness. This setting helps construct the image of Dali rulers as benevolent leaders, 118 distinguishing them from other non-Central Plain regimes in Jin’s narrative. History scholar Lin Hang suggests that in the historical context, the uncivilized world could be accepted and treated as equals by the civilized Chinese centre on the condition that they adopt Chinese customs and are sinicized.119 Lin ’s argument aligns with Dali’s case, a neighbouring state of the Song that highly embraces Han culture, Dali is never considered a threat by either the Song court and the martial arts world, as depicted by Jin. Moreover, Duan family members and Dali officials are highly recognized in the Central Plain martial arts world. The leader of Duan family, Emperor Baoding, is referred to as “Tiannan Duanjia Jiangmenren Duan Laoshi” 天南段家掌門人段老師 (Master Duan, The Head of Southern Heaven Duan family) in the martial arts world setting.120 Therefore, unlike the non-Han martial artists I will examine later, Duan family members are not considered outsiders.121 117 The corresponding passage from the novel is: “Duan Yu said, ‘Since I was young, I have been educated in Buddhism. My father hired teacher to teach me the Four Books and the Five Classics, poetry, and prose; and also hired a Buddhist monk to teach me Buddhist classics.’” 段譽道：「我從小受了佛戒。爹爹請了一位老師教我唸四書五經、詩詞歌賦，請了一位高僧教我唸佛經。」(Jin, Demi-Gods Semi-Devils 天龍八部, 31). 118 The corresponding passage from the novel is: “Emperor Baoding wishes in his heart, ‘I wish my people of Dali can live in such joy for generations’” 保定帝心下暗祝：「但願我大理眾百姓世世代代，皆能如此歡樂。」(Jin, Demi-Gods Semi-Devils 天龍八部, 328). 119 Lin, “Political Reality and Cultural Superiority: Song China’s Attitude Toward the Khitan Liao,” 388. 120 Jin, Demi-Gods Semi-Devils 天龍八部, 348. 121 Except Duan Yanqing段延慶, the biological father of Duan Yu, who is portrayed as the leader of the “Four Crooks.” 65 Despite the extensive Han impact on Dali, Jin intentionally inserts depictions in Demi-Gods that distinguish Dali from the Song, constructing what Hamm describes as an “exotic” setting for Dali. Hamm argues that foreigners, such as the Mongols, are often portrayed as barbarian heroes who are bloodthirsty, exotic but admirable in their bravery, loyalty, frankness and largesse.122 Dali’s exotic settings, combined with its Han culture adaptations, construct a partial foreign regime that diversifies the cultural landscape of the fictional world and provides a default ally of the Han people against other non-Han racial groups. According to Weijie Song’s statement that Han people are always inclined to see non-Han people identify Han culture as their spiritual home,123 creating an exotic state that embraces the Han culture not only captures the reader’s attention but subtly shapes the story’s racial narratives. It suggests that foreign states are not necessarily enemies or entirely “other.” In other words, as long as they are sinitized, they can be respected and no longer viewed as outsiders: Dali is a small Southern frontier kingdom. Within its multi-ethnical population, the Baiyi people are the most numerous, and the Princess Dao Baifeng, wife of King Zhennan, is herself a Baiyi. The Central Plain culture has not deeply influenced the people of Dali, and their court rituals and customs are far more casual than those of the Song. Emperor Baoding is known for his kindness. As long as he is not in a court setting, he generally dislikes rigid etiquette. (my translation) 大理是南鄙小邦，國中百族雜處，擺夷人數最多，鎮南王妃刀白風便是擺夷人。國人受中原教化未深，諸般朝儀禮法，本就遠較大宋 122 Hamm, Paper Swordsmen, 84. 123 Song, “Nation-State, Individual Identity, and Historical Memory: Conflicts between Han and Non-Han Peoples in Jin Yong’s Novels,” 141. 66 寬簡。保定帝更為仁慈和，只消不是在朝廷廟堂之間，一向不喜拘禮124 The Duan family in Demi-Gods does hold a similar but slightly different attitude towards non-Han figures compared to the Condor Trilogy. For instance, the below passage shows the initial encounter between Duan Yu and Xiao Feng, where Duan acknowledges Xiao’s heroism and refers to him as a tragic and impassioned person from the North, the kind of hero that Jiangnan (a region in Southern China) and Dali would never produce. Duan Yu silently cheered in his heart: “What a man! He must be a tragic and impassioned hero from the Northern countries [a non-Han region located North of the Song]. There would be no such figure in Jiangnan and Dali. (my translation) 段譽心底暗暗喝了聲采：「好一條大漢！這定是燕趙北國的悲歌慷慨之士。不論江南或大理，都不會有這等人物。」125 In addition, there is evidence in Demi-Gods that suggests a biased ethnical perspective from Duan family members. In an encounter between Duan Yu and a group of Xixia 西夏 soldiers, he refers to them as “Dazi”韃子126, a derisive term for barbarians. Despite the Dali Kingdom being represented as peaceful, it expresses hostility toward other ethnic groups. While they engage with key events, their ethnic perspective remains biased and particularly pro-Han. For instance, Duan Yu leads his subordinates in a military operation on the Khitan Liao’s soil.127 Although Dali maintains a pro-Song stance and Duan family aligns culturally with the Central Plain, there is no 124 Jin, Demi-Gods Semi-Devils 天龍八部, 306. 125 Jin, Demi-Gods Semi-Devils 天龍八部, 592. 126 Jin, Demi-Gods Semi-Devils 天龍八部, 724. 127 I will further discuss this event later in this chapter. 67 indication that the state compromises or surrenders its sovereignty. Dali’s identity remains solid, firmly upheld by Duan family. In contrast, a different picture is revealed in Return. The former minister of Dali, disciple of Yideng Dashi, Zhu Ziliu 朱子柳, is a member of the Central Plain martial art community who challenges the Mongol Dharma King, Jinlun Guoshi, at the Xiangyang Fortress. Throughout the fight, he inscribes “you are barbarian” 爾乃蠻夷128 on Huo Dou’s 霍都129 fan, a clear ethnic insult that looks down on him as a barbarian. In his argument with the Mongolian warriors, he declares, “our Zhonghua is a state of propriety” 我中華乃禮儀之邦,130 identifying himself with Han cultural superiority. While the narrative about the Duan family and Dali is limited in the Condor Trilogy, this particular scene of the Dali high official stands out with a sharp display of Han-centrism. Evidence suggests that the Dali identity in Return has drastically declined, and Zhu is allegedly self-identified as a Song subject. Rather than viewing himself as a Dali representative, he sees himself as a member of the Han martial arts world, who disdains non-Han ethnic groups. Paradoxically, Dali comprises multiple ethnic groups, and the non-Han Baiyi people comprise most of the population. Following this logic, Zhu’s Han-centric worldview and identity would potentially lead to his disdain for the people of Dali and the former non-Han royal family members. Given that Duan Yu’s mother, Princess Dao Baifeng, is a Baiyi person, Zhu’s discourse might categorize her as a barbarian. This raises an ironic implication that even Duan Yu, Zhu’s predecessor and his master, Yideng, might be seen as “half barbarian” and descendants of barbarians under his Han-centric lens. I contend that Yideng and his disciples, such as Zhu, represent the last generation and presence of the Dali Kingdom; their active engagements in the 128 Jin, The Return of the Condor Heroes 神雕俠侶, 516. 129 Huo Dou is a Mongolian prince and the disciple of Jinlun Guoshi. 130 Jin, The Return of the Condor Heroes 神雕俠侶, 507. 68 Han-Mongol conflicts symbolize the disappearance of the Dali identity. Later in Heaven, the Duan family vanishes from the text, and the only Dali descendants left are entirely sinitized.131 When studying the racial perspectives and representation of Dali’s characters, it is clear that they generally maintain a positive and cooperative relationship with the Central Plain martial arts community. The Duan family adopts Han-imported ideologies and schools of thought to educate their successors, reflecting their governance approach. This is a rare case in Jin’s narrative where a non-Central Plain state is portrayed as being ruled with benevolence. I also notice a shift in how the Dali identity is undermined, as Zhu in Return appears to self-identify as a Han, displaying a more Han-centric and pro-Han stance than his predecessors, and eventually undermines the existence of the Dali. A Tragic non-Han Hero: Xiao Feng’s Racialized Portrayal In Chapter Two, I discussed how Xiao Feng is perceived by the Han martial arts community, and suffers from unfair treatments and presumptions. In the following, I will delve into Xiao’s internal struggles, to examine how he views the Han and the non-Han as a Han-raised Khitan person. This section focuses on Xiao’s identity crisis and emotional struggle, offering a distinct non-Han perspective on the Han that depart from the common hostility by other non-Han characters, and introduce complexity into the discourse of non-Han representation. Demi-Gods itself is a divergence in this fictional universe. The fiction transcends the orthodox and parochial Han nationalist perspective and reaches a cosmopolitan vision, a significant step forward from Legend.132 Ultimately, the suffering of all racial groups and the enemies they face share a 131 Dali descendants, such as Wu Qingying 武青嬰, Zhu Jiuzhen 朱九真, and Zhu Changling 朱長齡 in Heaven are no longer identified as Dali people but regular figures in the Han martial arts world. 132 Chen, Chen Mo Pingshuo Jinyong 陳墨評說金庸, 308. 69 common root, which is hegemonism and the wars that it brings. As such, Demi-Gods is also a work centred on cosmopolitan and pacifism.133 I suggest that Jin utilizes Xiao as a medium for such themes.134 Jin focalizes Xiao’s trajectory and perspectives to highlight the importance of peace,135 while depicting a vision of universal harmony beyond racial boundaries, broadening the ideological scope of his fictional world. Xiao is considered a Great xia in terms of his hero tragic destiny and unfortunate life.136 Xiao’s trajectory ends with his silent suicide. In contrast to earlier parts of the novel, where Xiao’s inner monologue and emotional struggles are vocal and extensively portrayed, there is no depiction, dialogue, or inner monologue before he decides to take his own life. Instead, Jin portrays the crowd of martial artists in shock as the witness to Xiao’s death who stabbed himself on the chest by an arrow. Xiao’s suicide marks the end of his inner conflicts and identity crisis, performing his identity in a way that only death can ultimately resolve it. Chen Pingyuan interprets Xiao’s death as a form of tragic power, which breaks through rigid racial boundaries, as Jin mobilizes individual human experience to observe and critique racial conflicts.137 He is the first and the only non-Han protagonist in Jin’s entire fictional collection and the only protagonist, a xia, who experiences an ethnic identity crisis. The ethnic complexity of the three protagonists, namely Xiao Feng, Duan Yu, and Xu Zhu,138 offers a solid groundwork for Jin to create his first and allegedly the only fiction that attempts to advocate ethnic equality in racial representation. 133 Chen, Chen Mo Pingshuo Jinyong 陳墨評說金庸, 309. 134 Chen Mo and Petrus Liu both suggest that Demi-Gods promotes internationalism and pacifism. 135 Petrus Liu suggests that Xiao serves as an example demonstrating that Jin’s novels stake a strong claim of pacifism (Liu, Stateless Subjects: Chinese Martial Arts Literature and Postcolonial History, 138). 136 Chen, Chen Mo Pingshuo Jinyong 陳墨評說金庸, 208. 137 Chen, Qiangu Wenren Xiake Meng: Wuxia Xiaoshuo Leixing Yanjiu 千古文人俠客夢: 武俠小說類型研究, 174. 138 Xu Zhu虛竹 is ethnically Han, leader of a foreign sect and the prince consort of the Xixia 西夏 empire. 70 In my view, Xiao’s identity crisis can be categorized into five stages: (i) Han-centric martial arts figure, (ii) self-judgment of identity, (iii) recognition of racial equality, (iv) acceptance of his heritage and (v) advocacy for peace and racial equality. Jin utilizes Xiao’s inner monologues, conversations, experiences and emotional struggles to portray his identity crisis. In the first stage, Xiao starts as the leader of the beggar clan and plays a role as a well-respected Han martial arts figure who carries a strong anti-non-Han sentiment. The below passage shows that he is involved in killing Khitan Liao’s military officials and martial arts figures without regret or mercy—these instances significantly contribute to his high recognition within the martial arts world: When I was the leader of the beggar clan, whether doing it myself or sending others, I killed many Liao military officials and martial arts figures without the slightest sense of guilt. I only felt that they deserved to be killed, and it was the right thing to kill them. (my translation) 我在丐幫當幫主之時，或親自出馬，或派人動手，殺過不少遼國的大將武人，何嘗有絲毫含疚之心，只覺這些人該殺，殺得好。139 A letter from the Xuanci140 reveals Xiao’s Khitan identity, stating that he is the son of a Khitan Liao’s official, Xiao Yuanshan 蕭遠山, whom the Xuanci and a group of Han martial arts figures allegedly killed. His stark realization of his Khitan identity occurs in Juxianzhuang 聚賢莊, where he battles against his former Beggar Clan subordinates, old friends and partners from the Han martial arts world, and those who once admired him. During the conflict, he realizes the 139 Jin, Demi-Gods Semi-Devils 天龍八部, 919. 140 Xuanci leads a group of Han martial artists to ambush Xiao Feng’s father, Xiao Yuanshan 蕭遠山, along with his family. After the attack, Xiao Feng is taken to the Central Plains and adopted by a Han couple. Xuanci also leaves a letter with the Beggar Clan, indicating Xiao Feng’s family background and ethnicity. 71 brutality of his actions, fighting against his friends and even killing some of them without mercy. Jin depicts Xiao’s inner emotions and actions as his “barbaric” instincts breaking out during the fight, turning him into a savage beast.141 This moment marks the beginning of the second stage: his self-judgement, symbolically reflected by the wolf tattoo on his chest, which represents both his Khitan heritage and wolf-like traits traditionally bound with the Khitan people. According to Mac, Xiao’s wolf tattoo is Jin’s portrayal of the Khitans.142 As “wolf is a revered animal in the Turkish and Mongol cultures,”143 the tattoo on the Khitan people resembles the Chinese proverb of wolf’s heart and dog’s lungs, langxin goufei 狼心狗肺, which means cold-bloodedness or ungratefulness.144 The abovementioned battle and Xiao’s past hostility towards the Khitans reveal his brutality and violence. Despite the inconsistency in Xiao’s representation, the majority of his depictions remain positive and moral, often displaying his internal struggles. After calming down from the battle, Xiao questions his Khitan instincts, viewing them negatively, as he still associates Khitans with brutality and invaders at the time. Focalizing on his inner monologue, he blames his Khitan bloodline as the sole reason for his brutality.145 Nonetheless, in his later conversation with A Zhu, he describes himself as a mongrel and is upset because he fears that A Zhu will despise him. A Zhu, you treat me so well, do you not despise me for being a lowly Khitan mongrel? (my translation) 141The corresponding passage from the novel is: “During the fierce fight, his barbaric instincts breaks out, turning him into a savage beast” 惡鬥之下，蠻性發作，徒然間猶似變成了一頭猛獸 (Jin, Demi-Gods Semi-Devils 天龍八部, 853-854). 142 Mac, “Jin Yong’s Chivalry: Gender and Ethnicity in Wuxia Fiction, Film, and Television,” 115. 143 Mac, “Jin Yong’s Chivalry: Gender and Ethnicity in Wuxia Fiction, Film, and Television,” 115. 144 Mac, “Jin Yong’s Chivalry: Gender and Ethnicity in Wuxia Fiction, Film, and Television,” 115-116. 145 The corresponding passage from the novel is: “Was my brutalness truly because of my Khitan bloodline?” 我這麼下手不容情，當真由於是契丹種的緣故麼？ (Jin, Demi-Gods Semi-Devils 天龍八部, 812). 72 阿朱，你對我這麼好，不以我是契丹賤種而嫌棄我麼？146 This marks Xiao’s strongest self-judgment and denial of his Khitan bloodline. At that time, he has still not yet witnessed the true nature of the Khitan people nor been accepted by the Khitan community, as he remains in the Central Plain without knowing any Khitan individuals. In other words, he is denounced by the Han martial arts world, where he spent his entire life in, and has not yet returned to his homeland. As a wanderer at the time, his only companion is A Zhu, his only love for life, who once strongly expressed her hatred toward the Khitan.147 Due to these circumstances, Xiao’s identity crisis and self-judgment reach the peak, and he has already lost his confidence. These hardships sharply contrast with his past glory and construct the preliminary transition of a tragic hero’s deed. Xiao’s internal struggles ease when he travels to the Song border, where he witnesses a savage killing scene of the Khitan civilians by the Song soldiers. Unlike the previous portrayal, which often suggests a narrative in which the Khitans are depicted as savage invaders and antagonists. In contrast, the Song soldiers demonstrate brutality, indicating no difference between the Song and the Liao forces. I have always believed that the Khitans are cruel and brutal, torturing the Han. But today, I saw that the Song soldiers slaughtered the old, weak women and children from the Khitan. A Zhu, I am a Khitan. From now on, I will no longer regard being a Khitan as a shame, nor take pride in the Song. (my translation) 146 Jin, Demi-Gods Semi-Devils 天龍八部, 923. 147 A Zhu once refused to admit Xiao’s Khitan identity, as she believes that the Khitans are not comparable to such a moral figure like Xiao. The corresponding passage from the novel is: “Khitans are as brutal as tigers and wolves; you are different from them like heaven to earth. How to compare you with them?” 契丹人殘酷如虎狼一般，跟你是天上地下，如何能比？(Jin, Demi-Gods Semi-Devils 天龍八部, 813). 73 我一向只道契丹人兇惡殘暴，虐待漢人，但今日親眼見到大宋官兵殘殺契丹的老弱婦孺，阿朱，我是契丹人，從今而後，不在意契丹人為恥，也不以大宋為榮。148 This focalization from Xiao marks the beginning of the third stage, and it breaks Xiao’s racial presumptions, shifting him from a loyal and proud Han upholder to a more neutral position. It is an intense and symbolic scene, marking the first instance that triggers Xiao’s later advocacy of pacifism and racial equality. The use of violence is bilateral along the Song-Liao border. After Xiao witnesses the brutality of the Song soldiers, he enters the North and is involved in several events, eventually crowned as the Southern Court King by the Liao emperor, Yelu Hongji 耶律洪基 and becoming his sworn brother. Within the Liao empire, Xiao gains recognition and is respected by the Khitans. He enters and fully adapts to a new environment, his true homeland. During his appointment as Southern Court King, he witnesses a brutal practice called da cao gu 打草穀, where Khitan soldiers capture Song civilians from the border and supply them to the Khitan elite class for hunting. Xiao notices the tragic expressions of the Song civilians and recalls his memories from the Song-Liao border, suggesting that the suffering of the people from both states is no different. When Xiao Feng was outside the Yanmen Fortress, he witnessed the Song soldiers capturing Khitan civilians. This time, he once again sees the Khitan soldiers capturing Song civilians; the tragic expressions on their faces are no different from one another. 148 Jin, Demi-Gods Semi-Devils 天龍八部, 884. 74 當日蕭峯在雁門關外，曾見到大宋官兵俘虜契丹子民，這次又見到契丹官兵俘虜大宋子民，被俘者的悽慘神情，一般無異。149 This scene highlights the fact that the brutality of soldiers from both sides and the suffering endured by people of both races are the same. It is not a depiction of racial conflict or racial grudges. Instead, it is a portrayal of a power dynamic, where the strong abuse the weak and use racial identity to rationalize their brutality. I also suggest that Xiao evolves into a peacemaker after the battle of Juxianzhuang and the border incidents. He does not kill anyone afterwards and even uses his force to stop hatred, conflicts and potential wars. Xiao’s journey in the North offers him opportunities to interact with the non-Han figures. Jin focalizes Xiao’s views to depict the local culture and practices of the Jurchens and Khitans, displaying a plotline where Xiao becomes a part of their communities. The sense of belonging shown in the narrative gives Xiao an opportunity for rebirth, eventually allowing him to view the non-Han with an equal and unbiased perspective. For instance, when Xiao is involved in a rebellion,150 he refers to Liao as “our Great Liao” and praises the Liao emperors’ ability to govern the military.151 Xiao enters the fourth stage through this focalization, which also marks his transformation into someone who self-identifies as Khitan through his recognition of the state’s positive aspects, ultimately leading him to the final stage of becoming an advocate of pacifism and equality. 149 Jin, Demi-Gods Semi-Devils 天龍八部, 1196. 150 The Liao emperor Yelu Hongji is surrounded and attacked by the rebel forces, led by the Southern Court King. Xiao captures the Southern Court King and pacifies the rebellion. In return, he is rewarded by being crowned the Southern Court King, replacing the previous holder. 151 The corresponding passage from the novel is: “Our Great Liao has stood for nearly two hundred years, its power shakes the world. Although we are now experiencing a rebellion, there is no chaos, which shows that the emperors of Liao throughout the generations have governed the military greatly” 我大遼立國垂二百年，國威震於天下，此刻雖有內亂，卻無紛擾，可見歴世遼主統軍有方(Jin, Demi-Gods Semi-Devils 天龍八部, 1166). 75 At his final stage of identity crisis, Xiao attempts to persuade Yelu to pause the invasion of Song, and is imprisoned by the Liao emperor. After learning of this incident, his sworn brothers, and a group of Han martial arts figures travel to Liao to rescue him. After escaping captivity, in his conversation with Xuandu, the Shaolin Temple head monk, and his sworn brother Duan Yu, he sings a Xiongnu 匈奴 (an ancient non-Han ethnic group that historically conflicted with the Han) folksong that expresses his sorrowful and desolate sentiments. Xiao Feng says, “When I was here, I often heard my tribesmen sing a song.” He raises his voice and sings: “The fall of my Qilian Mountain makes my livestock unable to flourish. The fall of my Yanzhi Mountain makes our women colourless.” His voice is powerful, the sound echoes far distances, yet the song is filled with sorrow and desolation. (my translation) 蕭峯道：「我在此地之時，常聽族人唱一首歌。」當即高聲而唱：「亡我祈連山，使我六畜不蕃息。亡我焉支山，使我婦女無顏色。」他中氣充沛，歌聲遠遠傳了出去，但歌中充滿了哀傷淒涼之意。152 In Liu’s discussion of this scene, he suggests that since the Xiongnu and the Khitan are commonly regarded as “barbarians” on the peripheries by Chinese sources, Jin’s usage of a Xiongnu folksong to represent Khitan’s difficulty is an act of cross-identification; Xiao’s speech and poetic exchange reflect a mix of good and evil on both sides and suggest the need to reflect and empathy between the self and the other.153 The scene is seen from the lens of Khitans, 152 Jin, Demi-Gods Semi-Devils 天龍八部, 2178. 153 Liu, Stateless Subjects: Chinese Martial Arts Literature and Postcolonial History, 137. 76 questioning the rigid boundaries between races. It has a strong sense of pacifism and equality that aligns with Xiao’s principle. This singing, which takes place near the end of his life, reveals Xiao’s most profound concern about racial conflict and his hope to uphold peace between the two states. Using song as a medium becomes one of the clearest examples of his final identity crisis stage, where he advocates for peace and racial equality, serving as a more vocal expression of his internal struggle. The Rescue of Xiao: an Alleged Invasion Initiated by the Han As the final section of this chapter, I will examine a debatable case where the narration contradicts the plot. Near the end of Demi-Gods, Xiao Feng is taken hostage by the Liao emperor due to his refusal to lead the Song invasion and attempt to stop it. After learning about this, the Central Plain martial arts community abandons their earlier assumption of Xiao as a non-Han traitor and rescues him from the Liao territory. This rescue team involves Duan Yu, the Dali Kingdom emperor, and his subordinates. There are two debatable dimensions in this event: the notion of loyalty and the legitimacy of the rescue. Both unintentionally contradict the narrative, in which the rescue is portrayed as an act of peacekeeping and justice. Xiao’s loyalty to his mother nation, Liao, and his official appointment are disputable, complicated by his refusal to follow the order to invade the Song. On one hand, as a Liao subject, a Khitan, and the sworn brother of the Liao emperor, it is his duty and responsibility to obey the command. On the other hand, as a former member of the Han martial arts community with ties to the Han and as an advocator of peace, he is expected to reject the command, as the narrative suggests. However, this event is morally ambiguous. Xiao’s decision to stop the war and reject the command is not entirely moral, depending on the positioning taken, as Xiao in the 77 following think process acknowledges the “disloyal” nature of his action and shows his internal conflict by refraining from directly killing Liao soldiers, believing such an act will mean turning against the Liao. Fleeing from Nanjing is leaving the country to seek refuge. At most, others would have called me “disloyal.” Yet turning against and attacking Liao will make me an actual criminal. (my translation) 逃出南京，那是去國避難，旁人不過說一聲「蕭峯不忠」，可是反戈攻遼，卻變成了極大的罪人了。154 This restraint also gives rise to another debatable dimension of the event. The rescue, which is triggered by Xiao’s refusal, can be viewed as an attack on the Liao. Even though the narrative emphasizes Xiao’s advocacy of peace and morality, the rescue ultimately symbolizes Xiao’s disloyalty to the Liao regime. Furthermore, since Duan Yu has been involved in this rescue, it is possible that this action can be interpreted as a declaration of war from the Dali Kingdom against Liao, as Duan himself is the emperor of Dali and the ultimate representative of the state. His participation may escalate the operation into a full-scale conflict between the three states, no longer limited to a civilian rescue of a martial arts figure. In addition, it exposes another narrative gap. Although the Liao emperor intends to attack the Song, he and his troops never actually set foot on Song soil. In contrast, the Han martial artists, along with the Dali emperor, enter the Liao capital, kill Liao soldiers, and take the emperor hostage. This suggests an overlooked perspective that the Han and the pro-Han Dali act as invaders and aggressors, not the Liao. This directly contradicts the narrative’s framing of Liao as the threatening and aggressive force. 154 Jin, Demi-Gods Semi-Devils 天龍八部, 2161. 78 In addition, there is a logical inconsistency in this event. Xiao shares sworn brother relationship with Duan. When they later meet Xu Zhu, Xu is automatically included as the third in the fraternal bond, as Duan and Xu are sworn brothers. As Xiao also swears loyalty to the Liao emperor after leaving the Song, following this logic, the Liao emperor should also be included among the sworn brothers. Yet, he is not regarded as such, and Xiao does not introduce the Liao emperor to Duan and Xu and vice versa. Considering Duan’s status as the emperor of Dali, a sworn brotherhood between Duan and Yelu would have altered the political dynamics between Dali and Liao. This raises important possibilities: it may reflect Jin’s intentional restraint, avoiding excessive historical alternation; it may use to preserve Xiao’s narrative trajectory toward tragedy; or it may suggest a hidden message that Xiao, despite his obligation to serve the Liao, remains a Han subject at heart and could not fully accept Yelu as his true brother. Despite gaining recognition and respect on the Khitan soil, Xiao’s love for the Han community and people runs deeper than his longing for the Khitan. The following monologue from Xiao further supports this hypothesis and shows that Xiao is aware of his attachment to the Han which is stronger than that to the Liao. Although he is a Khitan, he was raised in the Central Plain, and in his heart, his love for the Song runs deep, while his feelings for Liao are shallow. If the beggar clan allow him to remain as an unranked disciple, he will feel more peace of mind than being the Southern Court King. (my translation) 79 他雖是契丹人，但自幼在中原長大，內心實是愛大宋極深而愛遼國甚淺，如丐幫讓他做一個無職份、無名分的光袋弟子，只怕比之在遼國做什麼南院大王更為心安理得。155 This brings us back to an earlier question: can we genuinely say that Xiao remains loyal to his mother nation, Liao? Jin’s portrayal here reveals an inconsistency in how he handles ethnicity and identity in his narrative. On one hand, Jin invests significant effort in depicting how the Han martial arts world misunderstands and attacks Xiao, showing Xiao’s transformation from a Han-centred loyalist to facing an identity crisis, then identifies as Khitan, and ultimately becomes an advocate of peace. On the other hand, even after the Khitan community accepts him, Xiao never fully treats the land as home, nor truly regards the Liao emperor as his sworn brother. Therefore, I argue that Xiao is not an ideal xia figure. His deep-rooted Han-centrism creates his imperfection. He arguably betrays his brotherhood, fails to fulfill his responsibilities as a Liao official, and even allegedly ‘invites’ a possible invasion of Liao, led by his other sworn brothers and former allies in the Han martial arts world. 155 Jin, Demi-Gods Semi-Devils 天龍八部, 1189. 80 Chapter Four The Representation of Non-Han Characters, and Jin Yong’s Creation of Fictional Settings In this chapter, I will review various non-Han characters, focusing on their racial representations and how they view ethnicities. My non-Han character studies include court officials, emperor, royal family members and their descendants, military officers, and Dharma Kings. Jin makes effort in aligning history with the story flow in his creation of the martial arts world. Multiple historical characters interact with fictional characters. These individuals, especially non-Han ones, often hold official positions in their respective regimes. Several express their views and reveal their biases toward Han and non-Han groups. This chapter will discuss narratives depicting three racial groups, namely Khitans, Jurchens and Mongols, in Jin’s fictional realm. To wrap up the chapter, I will reflect on the narrator’s notes and background portrayal. These annotations and background depictions not only reflect Jin’s perspective on ethnicity during his creative process but also play a crucial role in shaping Jin’s narrative of ethnicity within his fictional world. From Majestic to Cowardly: A Shifting Image of the Khitan Emperor There are two streams of Khitan figures in Jin’s universe: those from the Liao empire during the Northern Song era, as portrayed in Demi-Gods, and two Khitan descendants, Yelu Qi耶律齊 and Yelu Chucai耶律楚材, who are featured in Return during the Southern Song period after the fall of the Liao empire. In the following, I will first focus on the Khitans who take up the role of the emperor, officials and soldiers in Demi-Gods, to examine their views on warfare, conquest, and racial matters. Later in this chapter, I will explore how Yelu Qi, belonging to the second stream, holds a grudge against another non-Han group, the Jurchens. 81 The Liao emperor, Yelu Hongji, who belongs to the first stream of Khitan figures, is depicted in binary terms throughout the Demi-Gods. He first appears as a majestic, courageous, and lion-hearted emperor. He is unshaken even when held hostage by Xiao Feng, an external ally to the Jurchens who helps the Jurchens to defend against the attack from the Khitan. Yelu shows no fear when Xiao approaches to attack him.156 Ironically, in a later scene, before Xiao committed suicide, Yelu is once again held hostage by Xiao the second time, who uses him as a bargaining chip to pause the invasion of Song. In contrast to his earlier portrayal, Yelu is then depicted as fearful and cowardly.157 These two hostage scenes with Xiao mark the beginning and the end of their relationship, from the establishment of their sworn brotherhood to the end of Xiao’s life. Yelu’s perspective of the Han is overall negative and filled with racial arrogance. He tends to describe the Han as the “Southern people”南人, the “Han people,” and the “Southern barbarian” 南蠻. In a casual conversation with Xiao, Yelu suggests that Southern people are generally greedy and that many are shameless and despicable.158 As a result, he often uses wealth to buy off Han individuals in order to penetrate the Song. His ambition to conquer the Song is, by evidence, firm. He states that his Khitan predecessors had made several failed attempts to 156 The corresponding passage from the novel is: “That person in the red robe has a full beard and looks majestic. Despite Xiao Feng is charging toward him, he remains completely calm and unshaken” 那紅袍人滿腮虬髯，純情威武，見蕭峯攻來，竟毫不慌張 (Jin, Demi-Gods Semi-Devils 天龍八部, 1145). 157 The corresponding passage from the novel is: “Yelu Hongji begins walking at a slow pace, but he cannot help moving faster and faster. His legs get weak, almost making him falls. His hands are shaking and sweat stream down from his forehead. By the time the guards rush to meet him, they jump off their horse and lead one to him. Yelu’s entire body is shakened. He places his left foot in the stirrup, but he cannot mount the saddle. The two guards support his lower back and hips, lifting him up with force, then Yelu finally able to get onto the horse” 耶律洪基初時腳步尚緩，但禁不住越走越快，只覺雙腿無力，幾欲跌倒，雙手發顫，額頭汗水更涔涔而下。待得侍衛馳到身前，滾鞍下馬而將座騎牽到他身前，耶律洪基已全身發軟，左腳踏上腳鐙，卻翻不上鞍去。兩名侍衛扶住他後腰和臀部，用力托舉，耶律洪基這才上了馬 (Jin, Demi-Gods Semi-Devils 天龍八部, 2188). 158 The corresponding passage from the novel is: “The Southern people are greedy, many among them are shameless and despicable” 南人貪財，卑鄙無恥之徒不少 (Jin, Demi-Gods Semi-Devils 天龍八部, 1193). 82 conquer the Southern dynasty. He hopes Xiao will assist him in this military event, believing it would be a glorious achievement for their name to be recorded in history.159 Although there is no clear explanation on why Yelu holds such deep resentment toward the Han, his speech reveals a consistent hostility. He refers to the Han as “Southern barbarians” but calls their territory a “splendid land of mountains and rivers,” a land that he wishes to rule over.160 At one point, he even laughs and teases that the world will be peaceful if all Han people are killed.161 His disdain toward the Han ultimately overrides his brotherhood with Xiao. When Xiao opposes the invasion of the Song, Yelu becomes frustrated, believing that Xiao, who was raised by the “Southern barbarians,” is, to a large extent, a “Southern barbarian” himself. As a result, he imprisons Xiao.162 In contrast, Yelu’s attitude toward the Jurchen is far more restrained. He does refer to them by the phrase Jurchen barbarian 女真蠻子,163 and leads minor military operations against them. Yet he never initiates a large-scale invasion in the story, nor expresses his hatred toward the Jurchens. 159 The corresponding line in the original novel is: “Our Khitan predecessors had made several failed attempts to conquer the Southern dynasty. Today I am about to achieve it, with the appointment from the heaven. My good brother, one day our name will be recorded in history. What a glorious accomplishment?” 我契丹列祖列宗要將南朝收列版圖，好幾次都功敗垂成，今日天命攸歸，大功要成於我手。好兄弟，他日我與你君臣名垂青史，那是何等的美事？(Jin, Demi-Gods Semi-Devils 天龍八部, 2127). 160 Jin, Demi-Gods Semi-Devils 天龍八部, 2123. 161 The corresponding passage from the novel is: “Yelu Hongji laughs and says: ‘There are too many Han people, and they have to be all killed in order to regain the peace for the world. They choose to reincarnate as a Han is a sin.’ 耶律洪基笑道：「漢人太多，總得殺光了，天下方得太平。他們投錯胎去做漢人，便是罪過。」(Jin, Demi-Gods Semi-Devils 天龍八部, 2120). 162 The corresponding passage from the novel is: “Oh right, although he is a Khitan, he was raised by the Southern barbarians. He is more than half one of them. The Song is a motherland to him. So, when I mentioned invading the Southern barbarians, he tried everything to stop me. From this, it is clear that even if I force him to lead the campaign, he will not give it his full effort” 是了，他雖是遼人，但只幼為南蠻撫養長大，可說一大半是南蠻子。大宋於他乃父母之邦，聽我說要發兵去伐南蠻，他便竭力勸阻。以此看來，縱然我勉強他統兵南征，只怕他也不肯盡力 (Jin, Demi-Gods Semi-Devils 天龍八部, 2128). 163 Jin, Demi-Gods Semi-Devils 天龍八部, 1144. 83 I notice that there is a lack of transition in Yelu’s shift from a majestic, heroic ruler to a pitiful, cowardly antagonist. The stark change occurs only when he decides to invade the Song. Before that, he is still portrayed as Xiao’s sworn brother, offering Xiao a new sense of belonging. This raises the possibility that, in Jin’s fictional realm, no virtuous figure initiates the invasion of the Han territory. Even a seemingly heroic and righteous character like Yelu is instantly transformed into a villain the moment he decides to conquer the Song. In other words, invading Han land becomes a kind of Pandora’s box that unleashes the darkest aspect of human nature. The ‘Ambushed’ Liao Official: Peace Advocacy Clashes with Han Hostility Before Xiao Yuanshan, Xiao Feng’s father, was ambushed by a group of Han martial artists and disappeared, he served as a high-ranking official in the Liao court, and is related by lineage to Empress Xiao 蕭太后. In his early years, he was an advocate of pacifism. Jin focalizes Xiao Feng’s inner dialogue to introduce this background,164 suggesting Xiao Yuanshan’s effort to promote peace between the Song and Liao. Xiao Yuanshan’s narratives shift dramatically after the ambush, when he loses both his wife and son to Han loyalists. Unlike Yelu, Xiao Yuanshan has a valid and established reason to become a radical avenger and hides in the Shaolin Temple to seek revenge against the Han martial arts world. In the battle of the Shaolin Temple, Xiao Yuanshan persuades his son to join him in revenge, and believes it is justified to massacre those involved in the ambush. Xiao Yuanshan says, “You are my biological son. Supposedly, we were united as a family. How joyful that would have been. But these Southern 164 The corresponding passage from the novel is: “My father made tremendous efforts to promote peace between the Song and Liao, and his contribution to both states far surpass mine” 我爹爹卻致力於兩國休兵和好，有恩惠於兩國，功德勝予我十倍 (Jin, Demi-Gods Semi-Devils 天龍八部, 919). 84 martial arts figures treat us Khitan as worse than pigs and dogs. They slaughtered us without hesitation and stole my child, handing him over to someone else to raise as their own. (my translation) 蕭遠山道：「你是我的親身孩兒，本來我父子夫婦一家團聚，何等快樂？可是這些南朝武人將我契丹人看作豬狗不如，動不動便橫加殺戮，將我孩兒搶了，去交給別人，當作他的孩兒。」165 Xiao Yuanshan ultimately finds his internal peace in Buddhism, stays in the Shaolin Temple, and never returns to the Khitan soil. His transformation from an angry widower to an enlightened believer is stark and sudden. Xiao Yuanshan’s case exemplifies the pacifism advocated in Demi-Gods, where personal and familial grudges can be dissolved through religious influence and moral transformation. His anti-Han sentiment is portrayed as solely caused by the ambush led by Han loyalists. However, this power dynamic is deeply unequal. When the Han commit acts of violence or injustice against non-Han characters, those non-Han figures are often expected to let go of their hatred suddenly. For instance, no matter how deeply he is discriminated against and denounced by the Han, Xiao Feng somehow never develops hatred toward them, nor does he seek revenge. The suffering of non-Han characters disappears within moments if not instantly. In contrast, in Jin’s world, when a non-Han group commits violence against the Han, the Han never forgive. Their hatred is not only preserved but elevated to the level of racial resentment, and cannot be resolved through religious forces. The only moment when a group of Han martial arts figures collectively resolve hatred occurs in Heaven, when the protagonist, Zhang Wuji saves them from a Mongol hostage and leads an anti-Mongol uprising. This 165 Jin, Demi-Gods Semi-Devils 天龍八部, 1820-1821. 85 forgiveness happens within a Han-to-Han dynamic, dissolving sectarianism to unify against a non-Han enemy. The Xiao father and son’s storyline may unintentionally suggest a narrative pattern that non-Han characters, regardless of justice, have no right to maintain resentment or seek revenge against the Han. Their pain must be moralized, forgiven and erased, while the Han suffering is remembered, avenged, and nationalized. The Dual Faces of the Liao Military: Brutal and Humane In Jin’s narrative, the Liao military functions as a tool of state aggression. As a collective, the army serves the Liao regime in invasion, showing no restraint in expressing their hatred toward the Han. The representation of the Liao military forces is dualistic: While the Han sees them as savages who often brutally kill and capture civilians at the Song-Liao border, in other scenarios they are depicted as humane, expressing both fear of death and a desire to end war, which contrasts with their violent image. In a dialogue between a Liao military officer and Xiao Feng, the officer reports to Xiao that his unit has captured a group of Han women, adding that the former Southern Court King used to enjoy using Han hostages as moving targets for hunting. He then offers to catch more “Song pigs” for Xiao’s entertainment.166 In another scene, after Xiao forces Yelu to halt the war, the Liao soldiers express their joy openly in front of their emperor. 166 The corresponding passage from the novel is: “There are not many wild beasts here. Your majesty, would you like want to take these Song pigs as moving target? The former Southern Court King loves this game. Unfortunately, all of our captures are women today, they cannot run fast. Next time we will catch some stronger Song pigs” 這兒野獸不多，大王要拿這些宋豬當活靶嗎？從前楚王就喜歡這一套。只可惜我們今日抓的都是娘們，逃不快。下次給大王多抓些精壯的宋豬來 (Jin, Demi-Gods Semi-Devils 天龍八部, 1199). 86 The soldiers, thinking that they can immediately withdraw from the war and return home to meet their families, free from the hardship of distant campaigns and the risk of dying in a foreign land, are overjoyed. (my translation) 眾士卒想到即刻便可以班師，回家與父母妻兒團聚，既無萬里征戰之苦，又無葬身異域之險，自皆大喜過望。167 This scene contrasts with the usual depiction of the Khitans and displays their humane side. It suggests a possibility of depicting individuals as human, regardless of their race. They have families, they live ordinary lives, and they fear death, even if they are portrayed as part of a fearless military force. This discloses a pacifist stance momentarily, demonstrating that civilians, and even the bravest soldiers, hold fear toward war. It is those in power who desire conquest, neglecting the value of lives. The Jurchen Wanyan Lineage and Their Perspective on Hans and Non-Hans Over Time Introducing the narrative of another non-Han group, the Jurchens make their debut in Demi-Gods. The Jurchens are depicted as Xiao Feng’s first ally when he leaves the Song, and they do not pose any threat to their neighbouring states, including the Song. At the time, the Jurchens are portrayed as a nomadic clan led by Wanyan Aguda 完顏阿骨打, living by hunting and valuing heroism. The Khitans frequently attack them, whom Aguda sees as the Jurchen’s primary enemy. His racial perspective primarily focuses on the Khitan. He refers to the Khitan as “dogs” and “treacherous,” and calls Yelu a “bastard-born emperor 狗娘養的皇帝.” 168 This deep 167 Jin, Demi-Gods Semi-Devils 天龍八部, 2188. 168 Jin, Demi-Gods Semi-Devils 天龍八部, 2165. 87 disdain is rooted in their ongoing conflicts, as the Jurchens view the Khitan as their primary threat. There is only one instance in which Aguda mentions the Han, which occurs during the scene where he joins forces with a group of Han martial arts figures to rescue Xiao Feng. After the successful rescue, her refers to the Han as “Southern barbarians from the Central Plain 中原南蠻,” stating that most of them are probably not good people, and he would rather not meet them. 169 Despite these comments, Wanyan Aguda’s portrayals remain positive and unthreatening. He is framed as a bold and heroic clan chief rather than an invader, as he has conflict with the Khitan but not the Song. Since the Jurchens are not yet a threat to the Han world in the story’s timeline, they are not racialized enemies, unlike the Jurchens. Nevertheless, Aguda’s descendant, Wanyan Honglie 完顏洪烈, in Legend, is portrayed very differently. He becomes the representative of the Jurchen-led invasion of the Song. By this time, the Liao has already demised, and the Jurchens have established the Jin Empire, which now poses a direct threat to the Central Plain and is widely regarded by the Han as a foreign invader. Despite this role, Wanyan Honglie’s racial perspective is far less aggressive than that of other non-Han figures in the narrative. He views the Han people with respect and without prejudice. For instance, during his travels in Jiangnan, he is impressed by the brilliant minds and skills among ordinary people and acknowledges that there are talents among the Han. In his view, the corrupted regime fails to recognize and make good use of the talent. The following monologue demonstrates Honglie’s admiration for Han martial artists. 169 Jin, Demi-Gods Semi-Devils 天龍八部, 2167. 88 He thinks to himself: the Southern regime is rotten. How can they disregard such a brilliant talent and leave him unseen. Why not use the worthy man well, even if he comes from another land? 心想南人朝政腐敗，如此奇士棄而不用，遺諸草野，何不楚材晉用？170 In addition, Wanyan Honglie’s respect toward the Han is reflected in his dialogue while attempting to steal the Wumu yishu from the Han-General Yue Fei’s 岳飛 tomb, in order for the Jurchen army to learn the military tactics recorded in the book. He orders his subordinates not to touch the tomb, stating that although Yue was an enemy of the Jin, he still deeply admires him. 171 This moment suggests that stealing the Wumu yishu is not motivated by personal interest, but rather part of Wanyan Honglie’s duty as a Jurchen subject to aid the invasion of the Song. Yet even within this setting, he acknowledges Yue’s greatness, which highlights Wanyan Honglie’s self-discipline and personal charisma. This portrayal contrasts with his narrative role as Guo Jing’s sworn enemy and the general depiction of the Jurchens as savage and brutal throughout the novel. This inconsistency can be interpreted not as an intentional setting by Jin to depict Wanyan Honglie as a virtuous character but as a narrative strategy that focalizes Honglie’s admiration to glorify the Han nationalist hero Yue Fei. Through Wanyan Honglie’s perspective, the novel promotes the superiority and talent of Han martial artists, even in the eyes of the non-Hans. 170 Jin, The Legend of the Condor Heroes 射雕英雄傳, 58. 171 The corresponding passage from the novel is: “Although Yue Fei is an enemy of the Jin, he is loyal and majestic. He is admired by everyone, we must not touch his tomb” 那岳飛雖是大金讎寇，但他精忠神武，天下人人相欽，咱們也不能動他墳墓 (Jin, The Legend of the Condor Heroes 射雕英雄傳, 356). 89 Mongol Royal Family’s Perspective on the Han The Mongols make their first appearance in Legend as a tribal force situated on the Mongol Plain. The depiction of Mongol characters, particularly members of the royal family, drastically shifts from being Guo Jing’s companions to invaders of the Han territory within the story. The Mongolian Plain are portrayed as Guo Jing’s first home, a place that raises him and recognizes him as a royal family member. Through his participation in multiple campaigns and events, Guo earns an elite status among the Mongol and even becomes a sworn brother to Genghis Khan’s son, Tuolei. Similar to the case of Yelu, the portrayal of the Mongol transitions from positive, as Guo’s friends and mentors, to negative, as a foreign invader threatening Guo’s motherland. In examining the dialogues among the Mongol royal family, it becomes clear that most of them view the Han unfavourably. The only exceptions are Guo and his mother, who are treated with respect. There is one interesting moment in which Genghis Khan’s son, Ogede 窩闊台, refers to Guo as a Southern barbarian traitor 賊南蠻 and assumes that he is not a good individual,172 as he turns his back on the Khan. This is the only instance in which anti-Han sentiment is explicitly expressed by a member of the Mongol royal class. However, I argue that Ogedei’s suspicion is not entirely unreasonable but partially valid. In the latter part of Legend and its sequel, Return, Guo dedicates the rest of his life to resisting Mongol invasions. In other words, Guo ultimately turns his back on the Mongol. 172 The corresponding passage from the novel is: “I knew that the Southern barbarian traitor is not a good person” 我早知賊南蠻不是好人 (Jin, The Legend of the Condor Heroes射雕英雄傳, 1489). 90 Regardless of their rivalry, Tuolei has never truly viewed Guo as his enemy. Instead, when Guo returns to the Central Plain for the first time, he kindly reminds Guo that the Han often do not keep their word and wishes Guo to be mindful of that.173 Nonetheless, after the Khan has decided to launch a campaign against the Song, in the conversation shown below, Tuolei persuades Guo to lead the operation, claiming it is a unique opportunity to save the Han people from the corrupt Song regime. Anda, you were raised in Mongolia since childhood. You are no different from a Mongol. The corrupt Zhao-Song officials conspires with the Jurchens and caused your father’s death, forcing your mother to flee. If it was not my father taking care of your family, would you even be alive today? You must not become the one who causes your mother’s death. I hope you can change your mind and obey the Khan’s command. If you do, we can treat the Song people well and let the Southern people live well. (my translation) 安答，你自小生長蒙古，就跟蒙古人一般無異。趙宋貪官勾結金人，害死你父親，逼得你母親無家可歸，若非父王收留，煙有今日？你不能做個害死母親之人。盼你回心轉意，遵奉大汗令旨，以後反可善待宋人，讓南朝百姓過太平日子。174 Regardless of Tuolei’s pro-Mongol stance, his advice to Guo is logically sound. As discussed in Chapter One, the backdrop of Legend, the corrupt Song regime, is one of the root causes of the 173 The corresponding passage from the novel is: “Anda, be careful. Southerners often do not keep their words. Be mindful and do not fall into traps” 安答，南人說了話常常不算數的，你可得小心，別上了當 (Jin, The Legend of the Condor Heroes 射雕英雄傳, 262). 174 Jin, The Legend of the Condor Heroes 射雕英雄傳, 1562. 91 people’s suffering. Xia, as a social group, are traditionally portrayed as a voice that responds to misgovernance. However, in this fictional realm, xia prioritize resisting the non-Han invasions over domestic political failure. Tuolei’s claim regarding the corrupt Song officials and the death of Guo’s father is, in fact, narratively accurate. From a strategic point of view, Guo aiding the Mongol invasion to overthrow the Song can be interpreted as a logical path to improve the livelihood of the Han people. Given that Guo is constantly portrayed as a moral figure who regulates his subordinates and soldiers in discipline, under his rule, this invasion can potentially bring minimal harm to the population. Tuolei’s speech is aligned with his son Kubla Khan’s 忽必烈 claim during the siege at the Xiangyang Fortress. In Kubla Khan’s conversation with Guo, Kubla Khan states that the Song regime is unvirtuous and corrupt, which has caused the suffering of its people.175 As discussed in Chapter One, Guo firmly responds by stating that he prioritizes resisting foreign invasion over responding to domestic chaos and values loyalty above all. The dialogues from Tuolei and Kublai Khan are indeed biased but narratively accurate, as they offer feasible suggestions to Guo. In Chapter Three, I also explored how the Han xia perceive their government as corrupt and failed. These speeches confirm that the corruption and misgovernance of the Song court are widely recognized, even by non-Han figures. However, since Jin does not alter historical references in his oeuvre to such an extent, Guo could never realistically accept the Mongol offer. Instead, he stresses the principle of loyalty and prioritization to reject this potentially effective but somewhat unorthodox path to save the Han people. 175 The corresponding passage from the novel is: “Uncle Guo, the Zhao-Song regime is corrupt; its emperor is foolish, the people suffer, traitors hold power, and the loyal are punished. Am I wrong with that?” 郭叔父，趙宋無道，君昏民困，奸佞當朝，忠良含冤，我這話可不錯吧 (Jin, The Legend of the Condor Heroes 射雕英雄傳, 898). 92 To conclude this section, I draw on a brief moment of an internal monologue from Mongke Khan 蒙哥汗, the Mongol ruler in Return. He is amazed by the battle performance of the Han martial arts figures, noting that they are more skillful than the elite Mongol troops.176 I argue that this line should not be read as a genuine admiration of the Han martial artists, as there is limited evidence in Legend and Heaven that the Mongol ever truly admire the martial art skills of the Han, with Zhao Min being the only exception, whom I will discuss in the next section. Instead, this plot design is better understood as a narrative device that focalizes Mongke Khan’s perspective to highlight the strength of the Han martial arts figures, and to express regret that the Song court failed to utilize these talents correctly. Ultimately, I argue that this monologue subtly reflects Han-centrism in the story’s narrative, portraying the Han as embodying courage and military strength, a representation focalized through and endorsed by a Mongol royal. Identity Versus Affection: When a Non-Han Falls in Love with a Han In Chapter Two, I discuss how Zhao Min is treated by the Han martial arts world and viewed with discrimination. From a non-Han angle, this section will examine how Zhao Min perceives the Han, offering insights into the complexity of Jin’s racial representation through the eyes of a non-Han character. Zhao Min, whose original name is Minmin Temur 敏敏特穆爾, is a member of the Mongol royal family, and is also known by her royal title, Princess Shaomin 紹敏郡主. She is the daughter of King Ruyang 汝陽王 of the Mongol Yuan Empire. Her father, acting on behalf of the Yuan court, is responsible for suppressing the Han uprising. Minmin Temur 176 The corresponding passage from the novel is: “They always said the Southern barbarians are coward and useless, but in fact, they are not much weaker than our elite Mongol soldiers” 往常都說南蠻懦怯無用，其實絲毫不弱於我們蒙古精兵呢！(Jin, The Legend of the Condor Heroes 射雕英雄傳, 1658). 93 adopts “Zhao Min” as her Sinitic name by taking the first character of her Mongol name and sinicizing it. Zhao Min is portrayed as a martial arts enthusiast who actively assists her father’s mission. She is assigned to penetrate the Han martial arts world, with the assistance of a group of pro-Mongol martial arts figures. In the early part of Heaven, she gathers these martial artists as her subordinates and attempts to stir up conflict within the Han martial arts community. Despite being a member of the Mongol royal family and directly involved in suppressing the Han martial arts community by creating massive chaos and turmoil, Zhao’s early portrayal suggests that her pro-Mongol stance is not as firm as the Han perceive her to be. The novel’s later depiction of her, especially after she falls in love with the protagonist Zhang Wuji, further reveals that she is not a stereotypical non-Han oppressor but an emotionally driven young woman who is motivated by personal interests rather than political obligation. In her initial appearance, Zhao leads a group of eight skilled archers, portrayed as elite sharpshooters who serve as her bodyguards. She commands them to kill a group of Mongol soldiers who are torturing Han civilians.177 This action demonstrates her justice sensitivity and distinguishes her from existing one-sided portrayals of Mongol officials/soldiers in Heaven. After falling in love with Zhang Wuji, Zhao becomes fully committed to the relationship, neglecting her lineage, family loyalty and status as a Mongol princess. Who cares about being a Mongol or Han. I do not care at all. If you are a Han, I am a Han. If you are a Mongol, I am Mongol. You only care about military affairs, racial boundaries, the nation’s rise and fall, and power 177 Jin, The Heaven Sword and Dragon Saber 倚天屠龍記, 946. 94 and prestige. But Wuji, I only have you in my heart. Whether you are a good man or not, it makes no difference to me. (my translation) 管他什麼蒙古人漢人，我才不在乎呢。你是漢人，我也是漢人。你是蒙古人，我也是蒙古人。你心中上的盡是什麼軍國大事、華夷之分，什麼興亡盛衰、權勢威名。無忌哥哥，我心中上的，可就只一個你。你是好人也罷，壞蛋也罷，對我都完全一樣。178 This statement by Zhao clearly illustrates her devotion and emotional attachment to Zhang to an extent that she disregards racial and political distinctions. Apart from this, some additional scenes show Zhao’s discomfort with her Mongol identity after falling in love.179 She eventually gives up her royal title and follows Zhang to the Ming Sect, and ultimately enters seclusion with Zhang. Zhao’s behaviour and state of mind reflect her prioritization of love over family heritage and obligation. The construction of Zhao as an absolute subjugation is an “imaginary cure for national traumatic experience.”180 Zhao plays the role of a Mongol royal representative who voluntarily submits to a Han national heroic deed. This plot setting stimulates the nationalistic emotion and legitimacy of the anti-Yuan uprising. Despite Zhao abandons her royal title and joins the anti-Mongol Ming Sect, she is not directly involved in the downfall of her nation. After she chooses to follow Zhang, the leader of the Ming sect and the rebellion, Zhang shortly abdicates his leadership and secludes himself 178 Jin, The Heaven Sword and Dragon Saber 倚天屠龍記, 1329. 179 The corresponding passage from the novel is: “Zhao once claimed in sorrow, ‘I only regret being born into the Mongol royal family and becoming your enemy…’” 趙敏黯然道：「只恨，只恨我身在蒙古王家，做了你的對頭…..」(Jin, The Heaven Sword and Dragon Saber 倚天屠龍記, 1407). 180 Song, “Nation-State, Individual Identity, and Historical Memory: Conflicts between Han and Non-Han Peoples in Jin Yong’s Novels,” 133. 95 from worldly affairs after Zhao denounced her royal title. In other words, Zhao never actively participated in the Ming Sect’s campaigns to overthrow the Yuan dynasty. Zhao cannot be fully labelled a traitor to the Mongol.181 However, her indifference to rebellion is not due to her loyalty to her lineage. Instead, this is a narrative design from Jin that steps Zhang away from politics. As Zhang is the chief of Zhu Yuanzhang 朱元璋, the later founder of the Ming dynasty, keeping Zhang in Zhu’s circle will substantially alter history in this fictional world. Thus, Zhao’s absence from political betrayal reflects Jin’s intention to maintain historical fidelity rather than her moral ambiguity. In his discussion on the relationship between Zhao and Zhang, Chen Mo suggests that Zhang does not view Zhao through the lens of her race or background; instead, he simply falls in love with Zhao as a person, contrary to the enmity between Mongol and Han.182 Zhang’s disregard for racial boundaries and Zhao’s prioritization of love over family heritage ultimately nurtured this relationship. Their eventual withdrawal from worldly affairs aligns with their personalities. They are both indifferent to power and conflict. This ending suggests a rare narrative possibility that even a non-Han character like Zhao can enter seclusion and enjoy a happy ending, provided she is willing to give up her prestige and non-Han royal identity; in contrast to her brother, who dies on the battlefield, and her Mongol relatives, whose empire is ultimately overthrown by the Han. Buddhist Monks Serving Non-Han Courts: Buddhism Clashes with Greediness 181 Writer Dong Qianli suggests that Zhao Min is a traitor of Mongol, due to her royal title (Dong, “‘Jinpai’ Qingyi Huadan” 「金派」青衣花旦, 21). 182 Chen, Chen Mo Pingshuo Jinyong 陳墨評說金庸, 231. 96 In Chapter One, I discuss the racial perspective and sectarianism of the Han Buddhist monks from the Shaolin Temple. Nonetheless, Jin also invests effort in developing the story of non-Han Buddhist monks in this fictional realm, who often serve non-Han courts as Dharma Kings. In this section, I will focus on two non-Han Dharma Kings, Jiu Mozhi鳩摩智 and Jinlun Guoshi. Since both characters are coincidentally portrayed as villains, it is inevitable for readers to associate a villain image with Dharma in Jin’s fictional world. In an annotation in Return, Jin acknowledges this potential misreading and notes that depicting Dharma as antagonists in the story is not an intended discrimination.183 The debut of Jiu Mozhi is filled with mystery, constructing a martial arts master and secluded Buddhist monk image of him. In the initial plot setting, he is the Dharma King of the Tibet Kingdom, a prolific and politically influential figure in the Tibet court. Regarding his Buddhist teaching, he is a well-known master with great wisdom and profound knowledge. The below passage is a focalization of Emperor Baoding on Jiu, which is a great example of Jiu’s initial portrayal as a profound Buddhist master. Emperor Baoding had known that the King of Great Wheel, Jiu Mozhi, is a Dharma King of the Tibet Kingdom. He heard of his great wisdom and mastery of Buddhist teachings. Every five years. Jiu Mozhi would hold a Dharma assembly, where prolific monks and scholars from all over the Western Region would gather at the Dalun Temple of the Great Snowy Mountain. They will discuss Buddhist scripts and teachings. After hearing Jiu’s lectures, they all leave in amazement. (my translation) 183 Jin, The Return of The Condor Heroes 神雕俠侶, 559. 97 保定帝素知大輪明王鳩摩智是吐蕃國的護國法王，但只聽說他具大智慧，精通佛法，每隔五年，開壇講經說法，西域天竺各地的高僧大德，雲集大雪山大輪寺，執經問難，研討內典，聞法既畢，無不歡喜讚嘆而去。184 In contrast to Jiu’s noble and virtuous introduction, his later portrayals focus more on the mundane and hostile dimension of him. Jiu’s gradual break from his debut image starts with his anger, obsession with power, and attachment to status.185 Aside from these attributes that initially begin to break Jiu’s early portrayal, he increasingly shows more mundane traits as the story progresses. For instance, in his conversation with Murong Bo 慕容博, the perpetrator of the Yanmen Fortress incident, he states his disdain towards other races.186 In addition to his biased racial perspective, Jin also contrasts Jiu’s inner thoughts during moments of danger to highlight the gap between his behaviour and his expected image as a profound Buddhist figure. Jin borrows lines from The Heart Sutra, edits the scripture, and reverses its meaning to emphasize Jiu’s mundane mindset, which directly contrasts with the Buddhist teachings in which he is an expert.187 After the Heart Sutra reference, Jin portrays Jiu 184 Jin, Demi-Gods Semi-Devils 天龍八部, 410. 185 The corresponding passage from the novel is: “Jiu Mozhi gets irritated when hearing this, and his expression darkened slightly. As the Dharma King of Tibet, his status is prestige. Not only that he is deeply respected by the Tibetan ruler, but even when he visits the imperial courts of the Song, Dali, Liao, and Xixia, he is always treated as honoured guest by their ruler” 鳩摩智聽了，心頭有氣，臉色微微一沉。他是吐蕃國的護國法王，身份何等尊崇？別說在吐蕃國大受國主禮敬，即是來到大宋、大理、遼國、西夏的朝廷之中，各國君主也必待以貴賓之禮 (Jin, Demi-Gods Semi-Devils 天龍八部, 461). 186 The corresponding passage from the novel is: “Jiu Mozhi said, ‘Mr. Murong, there is a good common saying; people who are not our race will always think differently.’ 鳩摩智道：「慕容先生，常言道得好：非我族類，其心必異。」 (Jin, Demi-Gods Semi-Devils 天龍八部, 1858). 187 Jin borrows and modifies lines from Heart Sutra to highlight Jiu’s mundane side, creating a sharp contrast with his image as a secluded Buddhist master. Unfortunately, I am unable to translate the original text. The corresponding passage from the novel is: 佛家觀此身猶似臭皮囊，色無常，無常是苦，此身非我，須當厭離，這些最根本的佛學道理，鳩摩智登壇說法之時，自然妙慧明辨，說來頭頭是道，聽者無不歡喜讚嘆。但此刻身入枯井，頂壓巨石，口含爛泥，與法壇上檀香高燒、舌燦蓮花的情景畢竟大不相同，什麼涅磐後的常樂我靜、自在 98 as having reached enlightenment, as Duan Yu absorbs his martial arts power entirely. However, Jin does not elaborate on how Jiu’s inner thoughts have changed. The only depiction left of him is his relatively peaceful ending. He returns to the Tibet Kingdom and devotes himself solely to Buddhist practice. This following passage shows Jiu’s enlightenment and his later stage of life. Through this, Jiumozhi is enlightened and ultimately becomes a true eminent monk. From then on, he devotes himself to widely translating Buddhist scriptures into Tibetan and promotes the Dharma, saving numerous souls. (my translation) 這一來，鳩摩智大徹大悟，終於真正成了一代高僧，此後廣譯天竺佛家經論而為藏文，弘揚佛法，度人無數。188 Jinlun Guoshi is the Dharma King of the Mongol Yuan Empire, another example of a monk who enters politics and serves a non-Han regime. Compared to Jiu, the portrayal of Jinlun’s Buddhist teaching is somewhat limited. Instead, he is depicted as a martial artist pursuing political power. His first major conflict with the Han martial arts world takes place at the Xiangyang Fortress, where he competes for the position of the chief of the martial arts community. He ultimately loses to the Han representatives, Yang Guo and Xiaolong Nu. Jinlun then declares, “Central Plain barbarians rely on tricks and outnumber us. They are not true heroes.”189 This line reveals his racial perspectives, which he views the Han as shameless and inferior, labelling them as “barbarians” and denying their heroic deeds because they win by outnumbering the Mongol. This reflects his racial presumption and ambition to take control of 無外，盡數拋到了受想行識之外，但覺五蘊皆實，心有掛礙，生大恐怖，不得渡此泥井之苦厄矣 (Jin, Demi-Gods Semi-Devils 天龍八部, 1961). 188 Jin, Demi-Gods Semi-Devils 天龍八部, 1988. 189 The original line in Chinese is: 中原蠻子詭計多端，以多為勝，不是英雄好漢 (Jin, The Return of The Condor Heroes 神雕俠侶, 558). 99 the Han martial arts world on behalf of the Mongol regime and himself. Jinlun is deeply involved in Mongol politics and military campaigns. He works under the Mongol rulers, the Khans, to help penetrate and dominate the Han martial arts world and participates in the siege of the Xiangyang Fortress, a major Song stronghold. During this campaign, he discovers Guo Jing’s daughter, Guo Xiang, and admires her potential, eventually wishing to take her as his disciple. However, he is forced to use Guo Xiang as a hostage to threaten Guo Jing to surrender the fortress under the Khan’s order. Jin portrays Jinlun’s inner thoughts during the siege as morally conflicted. While he uses Guo Xiang as bait and sets fire to force Guo Jing to surrender, he struggles internally, hoping that Guo Jing will surrender for the sake of his daughter’s safety. However, Guo Jing is entirely devoted to defending Han people; he refuses to submit to the Mongol and declares that he is willing to sacrifice his daughter to protect the Xiangyang Fortress. In the end, Jinlun meets his end during his moment of sudden compassion, when he sacrifices himself to save Guo Xiang. Jinlun Guoshi suddenly feels compassion. He jumped up, swung his iron wheel to cut the ropes tying Guo Xiang, and picked her up. (my translation) 金輪國師慈念忽生，猛地躍起，鐵輪劃過，割斷了捆綁郭襄的繩索，將她身子抱起。190 The above quote shows Jinlun’s final enlightenment, which starkly contrasts with Guo Jing’s nationalism. As Guo Xiang’s father, Guo Jing refuses to place his daughter above the nation and is willing to sacrifice her. However, Jinlun, viewed as an antagonist from Guo Xiang’s perspective, has no blood ties or relationship to her, but chooses to sacrifice his life to save her. 190 Jin, The Return of the Condor Heroes 神雕俠侶, 1689. 100 In doing so, he turns his back on his ruler, the Mongol Khan, and prioritizes Guo Xiang’s life over his duty. The narrative gap has not been discussed in any Jin Yong scholarship, nor has it been mentioned by Jin himself. Jinlun’s death reveals an unspoken truth that the so-called villain displays the core xia virtue of sacrificing oneself for others. At the same time, the “heroic xia” figure, Guo Jing, chooses to sacrifice his daughter and decides her fate in the name of loyalty. The endings of the two non-Han monks share a similarity. They are both ultimately reformed and have gained righteousness by dedicating themselves to religious promotion or saving others. However, their outcomes are very different. Jiu acquires internal peace and true enlightenment, while Jinlun is killed while saving Guo. In comparing the two non-Han monks, a narrative emerges where evil can exist even among those soaked in Buddhist practice. Yet ultimately, they can transform into good souls, exiting mundane politics and the pursuit of martial arts by withdrawing from aiding non-Han states. Grudges Across Generations: Rivalries Between the Non-Han Groups Ethnic conflicts in Jin’s fictional realm are not limited to tensions between the Han and the non-Han, but also occur within non-Han groups. The following incident serves as a key example to highlight the complexity of Jin’s approach to racial representation. It takes place in Return, after the fall of Liao and Jin. The two figures involved are Yelu Chucai, the clan leader and the descendant of the Khitan Liao family, and Wanyan Ping 完顏萍, a descendant of the Jurchen Jin. They both came from non-Han royal families that once invaded Han soil. Yelu serves as the minister for the Mongol court, while Wanyan wanders among the ordinary to seek revenge. As the Mongol ally with the Song to crush the Jin, the Wanyan clan suffers significant losses, and many family members are killed in the warfare. The dialogue between Wanyan and 101 Yelu occurs during Wanyan’s failed attempt to assassinate him. Wanyan accuses Yelu involvement of in the Mongol-Jurchen warfare, which led to the death of Wanyan’s parents, and expresses Wanyan’s sorrow at her inability to take revenge.191 In the following passage, Yelu responds by recapping the historical and familial grudges between the Yelu and Wanyan clans. These grudges also reflect the broader conflict between the two non-Han racial groups. My surname, Yelu, is the royal surname of the Great Liao. Your Jin Empire destroyed the Great Liao. I am the descendant of the Yelu clan of the Great Liao, and most of my ancestors were killed by your Wanyan clan. I was devoted to taking revenge from a young age, so I assisted the Mongol Khan in destroying your Jin Empire. An eye for an eye, and when will it end? As he speaks the final two lines, he looks up towards the window, thinking of the fight over power between the imperial families, which causes thousands of cities and homes to turn into dust, corpses piled like mountains, and rivers to flow with blood. (my translation) 我姓耶律的是大遼國國姓，大遼國是給你金國滅了的。我是大遼國耶律氏的子孫，給你完顏氏殺戮得沒剩下幾個。我少時立志復仇，這才輔助蒙古大汗滅你金國。唉，冤冤相報，何年何月方了啊？說到最後這兩句話時，抬頭望向窗外，想到只為了幾家人爭為帝王，以致千城民居盡成廢墟，萬里之間屍積為山，血流成河。192 191 The corresponding passage from the novel is: “Yelu Chucai, you helped the Mongol and caused the death of my parents. I will never be able to take revenge on you in this life” 耶律楚材，你幫着蒙古人，害死我爹爹媽媽，今生我不能找你報仇了 (Jin, The Return of the Condor Heroes神雕俠侶, 383). 192 Jin, The Return of the Condor Heroes 神雕俠侶, 383-384. 102 This scenario suggests a different narrative, where generational and national grudges occur in non-Han spheres. In other words, these grudges are not exclusively applied to one dimension, the Han versus the non-Han. This is a prime example of the multi-faceted racial tensions in this fictional universe. Grudges and narratives are transformable, and racial groups are not always portrayed in the same way. For instance, comparing Yelu Chucai and Yelu Hongji, Yelu Chucai represents a calm and relatively peaceful image, while Yelu Hongji displays an ambitious and aggressive side. As royal descendants who are no longer in power, and most likely never experienced the former glory of their ancestors, Yelu Chucai and Wanyan Ping do not act as non-Han aggressors with political ambition. Moreover, they pose no threat to the Han people, and this event remains merely a non-Han versus non-Han clash. Since narratives are transformative, the descendants of non-Han invaders, such as Wanyan Ping and Yelu Chucai’s son, Yelu Qi耶律齊, eventually become members of Guo Jing’s family and assist him in defending the Xiangyang Fortress. While this has not been discussed by Jin or scholars in the field, the narrative structure firmly suggests that time and plot progression can soften national grudges. Guo Jing unintentionally overlooks their racial origins and accepts them as family. Furthermore, Yelu Qi later becomes the leader of the Beggar Clan, a sect famous for its Han nationalistic stance. Moreso, there is no indication in the text that Yelu’s leadership is ever questioned due to his race. Narrator’s Racial Representation Besides the use of dialogues between characters, Jin utilizes non-character narrator’s omniscient viewpoints to portray lives under non-Han rules or influences on Han soil. I discovered that the majority of these representations consist of negative messages towards non- 103 Han ethnicities from the Han-dominant perspective. In some exceptional cases, Jin portrays prosperity and positive images of non-Han governances and racial traits. However, all of these portrayals take place outside the Chinese border. These misgovernance and savage-like depictions of foreigners on the Han soil strengthened an anti-non-Han narrative that justifies the nationalistic uprising against the non-Hans. Jin’s use of an omniscient narrator and background portrayals enrich the audience’s emotional engagement with the story’s racial narrative, an approach, according to literature scholar Song Weijie, allows storytelling and the storyteller to work together to blend the audience’s historical memory with present experience and bring it to a higher emotional level.193 Jin’s background portrayal is inconsistent and fluctuating. The portrayals of the non-Han groups are transformable to the extent that they shift with the story’s progression. For instance, the initial introduction of the Mongol in Legend displays them as hospitable and generous, as they help Guo Jing and his mother during their escape and offer them shelter.194 In depicting Guo’s childhood, the narrator also puts effort into highlighting the courage and dignity of the Mongol, even the children are portrayed as proud and unwilling to submit to the power and wealth of the Jurchens.195 In Genghis Khan’s initial attempt to invade the Song, he demonstrates respect toward Han intellectuals and religious figures by writing a letter to invite Daoist Qiu to advise. This event reveals a humble side of the Khan’s attitude toward the Han. Although the 193 Song, “Nation-State, Individual Identity, and Historical Memory: Conflicts between Han and Non-Han Peoples in Jin Yong’s Novels,” 145. 194 The corresponding passage from the novel is: “Those two people are Mongol herders. Although they do not understand her language, Mongols are naturally hospitable and generous to the poor and helpless. Upon seeing their pitiful condition, they invite them into their yurt, offer her a full meal, and let her sleep well” 那兩人是蒙古牧民，雖不懂她言語，但蒙古人生性好客，憐貧卹孤，見她母子可憐，就邀她到蒙古包去飽餐了一頓，好好睡了一覺。(Jin, The Legend of The Condor Heroes 射雕英雄傳, 110). 195 The corresponding passage from the novel is: “These children are kids of the Mongol soldiers. Although they are still young, each of them carries pride. None of them pays attention to the gold coins that are thrown to them” 這群小孩都是蒙古兵將的兒女，年紀雖小，卻個個自尊，對擲來的金幣沒人加以理睬 (Jin, The Legend of The Condor Heroes 射雕英雄傳, 128). 104 meeting between Genghis Khan and Qiu does not result in an agreement, the Khan still respects Qiu’s virtue and refrains from completely going against his advice.196 Jin’s framing shows the Khan’s approach is led by respect and sincerity. He even emphasizes the Khan’s sincere intent more than once.197 This portrayal contrasts starkly with later depictions of Mongol brutality and their anti-Han behaviours. In Legend, a depiction of the Mongols’ traits and behaviours reflects an inconsistency in the narrator’s view on the racial group. Jin depicts the Mongols as brutal as the Jurchens during their initial invasion of the Song, under Genghis Khan’s reign.198 This setting is contradictory to the earlier plot, where the Khan spares lives during his invasion due to his respect for Qiu. Nonetheless, the depiction of the Mongols in Heaven is brutal, primarily, if not entirely. For instance, in the following passage from Heaven, Jin describes how the Mongols, fearing that the people of the fallen Song capital Linan might initiate restoration, brutally suppress the Han population and turn the city into an empty capital. Ultimately, the shift in portrayal demonstrates that Jin’s representation of racial group is not fixed, and adjusts according to the flow of the story. 196 The corresponding passage from the novel is: “Although Genghis Khan and Qiu Chuji do not come to an agreement, he recognizes his virtue and does not wish to completely go against his will. As a result, during wartime, countless civilians survived solely because of Qiu’s words” 成吉思汗需和他話不投機，但知他是有道之士，也不便過拂其意，因此戰亂之中，百姓憑丘處機一言而存活的不計其數 (Jin, The Legend of The Condor Heroes射雕英雄傳, 1555). 197 There are two depictions of Genghis Khan’s sincerity in the composition of the invitation. The first corresponding passage from the novel is: “The scribe does not know how to write in Chinese, so he immediately finds a Han who is fluent in Chinese and asks him to draft a respectful and polite edict to invite Qiu Chuji” 那書記不會寫中華文字，當即去找了一個熟嫻漢文的漢人來，要他寫一通謙恭有禮、敦請丘處機的詔書 (Jin, The Legend of The Condor Heroes 射雕英雄傳, 1482). The second corresponding passage from the novel is: “The Khan rewards the scholar with five liang of gold and also asks Guo Jing to write a letter to sincerely invite Qiu Chuji to come” 賞了那文士五兩黃金，又命郭靖親筆寫了一信，務懇丘處機就道 (Jin, The Legend of The Condor Heroes 射雕英雄傳, 1483). 198 The corresponding passage from the novel is: “That group of Mongol soldiers are as brutal as the Jurchens, they burn, kill, and loot, bringing suffering to the people” 那支蒙古將士與金人一般殘虐，以暴易暴，燒殺擄掠，也害得眾百姓苦不堪言 (Jin, The Legend of The Condor Heroes射雕英雄傳, 1574). 105 At the time, the Song court had fallen, and Linan had already fallen into Mongol control. Because Linan was the Southern Song’s capital, the Mongols fear the people’s longing for the old dynasty and order heavy troops to suppress them. In order to establish dominance, the Mongol soldiers act more brutally than elsewhere. As a result, the city has become emptier, and most residents have relocated. The former prosperity of Linan and scenes in the streets filled with music no longer exist. (my translation) 此時宋室淪亡，臨安府已陷入蒙古人之手。蒙古人因臨安是南宋京城，深恐人心思舊，民戀故君，特駐重兵鎮壓。蒙古兵為了立威，比在他處更加殘暴，因此城中十室九空，居民泰半遷移到了別處。百年前臨安城中戶戶垂楊、處處笙歌的盛況，早已不可復睹。199 Another example of harsh living condition under Mongol rule occurs in Jiangnan, a region once known for its prosperity in Legend. In Heaven, Jin describes it as a land of starvation and death, where the masses die from hunger and the region is covered with corpses, depicting a scenario of extreme misgovernance and poverty.200 In addition to the narrator’s description of local conditions and social atmosphere, the Mongol brutality weighs significantly in the narrative. For instance, in Heaven, the narrator depicts scenes where Mongol soldiers behead Han civilians without reason.201 Similarly, after the 199 Jin, The Heaven Sword and Dragon Saber 倚天屠龍記, 137. 200 The corresponding passage from the novel is: “Once wealthy and prosperous, the coastal region of Jianghuai is now filled with the starving dead. The people’s suffering has reached an extreme” 江淮沿海本為殷實富庶之區，眼前卻餓殍遍野，生民之困，已到極處。(Jin, The Heaven Sword and Dragon Saber倚天屠龍記, 1045). 201 The corresponding passage from the novel is: “They look back and see that the Mongol soldiers beheaded a dozen of civilians. Their corpses lay across the ground” 兩人回過頭來，但見給元兵拉在一旁的十多名百姓已個個身首異處，屍橫就地。(Jin, The Heaven Sword and Dragon Saber 倚天屠龍記, 444). 106 Mongol invasion, it is described from the non-character narrator’s perspective that Han people are treated worse than animals, and are even publicly humiliated and abused.202 Jin uses these portrayals of Mongol brutality and the impacts on civilians’ livelihood to emphasize the urgency for the Han to overthrow the Mongol regime. It also highlights an inconsistency in the narrator’s racial representation. The Khan’s earlier mercy is never mentioned again, and the Mongols’ previous traits of hospitality and generosity disappear entirely in the narrative. Despite the failed governance of the non-Han on the Han soil, Jin devotes considerable efforts to depicting the power and prosperity of non-Han regimes. The Jurchen Jin, known for its brutality, and even destroyed by the Mongols later in Heaven, its capital is described as one of the most prosperous cities under heaven.203 In Demi-Gods, Liao is referred to as the most powerful state under heaven, far stronger than the Song.204 In the same story world, the Xixia, a relatively peaceful, non-invasive non-Han regime, is portrayed as militarily and economically powerful.205 These representations of non-Han regimes exhibit a narrative where they often 202 The corresponding passage from the novel is: “The Mongols have invaded China for nearly a century. They always treated the Han as worse than animals, but such publicly humiliate and sexual insult the Han are still rarely seen” 蒙古人入侵中國，將近百年，素來把漢人當作牲口也還不如，但這般在光天化日之下大肆淫虐欺辱，卻也極為少見 (Jin, The Heaven Sword and Dragon Saber 倚天屠龍記, 945). 203 The corresponding passage from the novel is: “This is the capital of the Great Jin, formerly known as Yanjing, and has also been the Southern Capital of the earlier Liao dynasty. It is considered one of the most prosperous cities under heaven, even more than Bianliang, the former capital of the Song, or Linan, its current capital” 這是大金國的京城，以前要作燕京，是先前遼國的南京，乃當時天下形勝繁華之地，即便宋朝舊京汴梁、新都臨安，也有所不及 (Jin, The Legend of The Condor Heroes 射雕英雄傳, 283). 204 The corresponding passage from the novel is: “At that time, the Liao dynasty is the most powerful state under heaven. It is far stronger than the Song and its territory is twice as large” 其時遼國是天下第一大國，比大宋強盛得多，疆域也較大宋大了一倍 (Jin, Demi-Gods Semi-Devils天龍八部, 1191). 205 The corresponding passage from the novel is: “At that time, the Western Xia is flourishing, ruling over twenty two prefectures. South of the Yellow River, it controls Lingzhou, Hongzhou, Yinzhou, and Xiazhou. West of the river, it controls Xingzhou, Liangzhou, Ganzhou, and Suzhou, which today belong to Gansu and Ningxia. With the benefits of Yellow River, the land is rich in harvest. As ‘The Yellow River brings a hundred harm but one benefit,’ Western Xia occupies the beneficial region. Its army is strong, and horses are sturdy, it commands five hundred thousand armored troops” 其時西夏國勢方張，擁有二十二州。黃河之南有靈洲、洪州、銀洲、夏州諸洲，河西有興州、涼州、甘洲、肅州諸洲，即今甘肅、寧夏一帶。其地有黃河灌溉之利，五穀豐饒，所謂「黃河百害，惟利一套」，西夏國所佔的正是河套之地。兵強馬壯，控甲五十萬 (Jin, Demi-Gods Semi-Devils 天龍八部, 1931). 107 govern their states effectively, with a strong focus on the military. However, when these regimes rule over or occupy Han territory, they are portrayed as brutal and poorly governed. This narrative setting suggests that non-Han regimes can rule well, yet they treat the Han as ‘them,’ by governing as invaders, with an aim to seize power and extract resources, and to suppress resistance, rather than sincerely trying to rule the land with care. Apart from storytelling and setting the background of his fictional realm, Jin also attempts to express his idea on topics such as nation and virtue. In the epilogue of Return, Jin suggests that the notion of patriotism and national borders will disappear and demonstrates his advocacy of equality and virtues.206 This statement, combines with Jin’s narrator representation of the non-Hans, offers a broader picture of how Jin views nation and race in his fictions. As a whole, this chapter examines cases across various non-Han ethnic groups and characters. Jin’s representation of the non-Han is multifaceted, as he portrays them through different lenses and within shifting power dynamics. These relations are not limited to a simple opposition between Han and non-Han; there are also instances of conflicts among non-Han groups. His representations of the non-Han are fluid, transformable and inconsistent, without a single fixed narrative. Therefore, in Jin’s oeuvre, non-Han figures serve an independent discourse, with each group and characters uniquely portrayed; even characters within the same ethnic group may 206 The corresponding passage from the novel is: “Guo Jing says, ‘To serve the country and the people, this is the highest level of xia.’ This statement still holds positive significance today. However, I firmly believe that in the future, national borders will disappear, and by then, concepts like ‘patriotism’ and ‘treason’ will no longer carry much weight. Yet, the bonds between parents and children, siblings, the purity of friendship, love, justice, kindness, the courage to help others, and the will to contribute society; these emotions and virtues, I believe, will continue to be admired for a long time. These are not political theory, economic system, social reform, or religious belief can replace” 郭靖說：「為國為民，俠之大者。」這句話在今日仍有重大的積極意義，但我深信將來國家的界限會消滅，那時候「愛國」、「叛國」等等觀念就沒有多大意義了。然而父母子女兄弟間的親情、純真的友誼、愛情、正義感、人善、勇於助人、為社會犧牲等等感情與品德，相信今後還是長期的為人們所讚美，這似乎不是任何政治理論、經濟制度、社會改革、宗教信仰等所能替代的 (Jin, The Heaven Sword and Dragon Saber 倚天屠龍記, 1750). 108 adopt different ethnic approaches. Although Jin devotes less emphasis to represent non-Han, non-Han groups still contribute to shape a fuller version of racial representation. 109 Conclusion By conducting close reading and textual analysis, in this thesis I discussed how Jin Yong represents race in his fictional universe through examinations on characters’ dialogues, inner monologues, narrative settings, and the narrator’s commentary. In Chapter One, I began by introducing the notion of xia and the moral code of xiayi, suggesting xiayi as the moral principle of xia, as well as xia’s involvement in national affairs. I discussed the power dynamics between xia, the ruling regime, and the ordinary people, highlighting a pattern in Jin’s fictional realm where xia align with the masses in resisting non-Han forces. This alliance not only reinforces a shared hostility to the non-Han threats but also overlooks the abuse of authority from the governing class to the ordinary people, as xia are naturally inclined to stand with the people against authoritarian rule. Despite xia being nationalistic figures, their sentiments towards the Han-dominated regime are complex. They do not support the ruling class and often disrupt the rule, nonetheless they are willing to sacrifice themselves into fights to repel the non-Han regime and defend their homeland against invasions. This suggests that they are loyal to the Han nation and its people, not the court. I then mentioned the concept of jianghu, an underground realm that coexist with the external world, governed by its own moral codes and values. In Jin’s fictional universe, the martial arts world extends beyond a mere jianghu, and it also functions as a pro-Han community. I identified a pro-Han consensus within this sphere, where the martial artists share a common goal of expelling the non-Han and restoring/upholding a Han dominated regime. I utilized a conversation in Heaven between Xie Xun and Zhang Cuishan, and observed their neglections of the historical tension between the Song and the Khitan. This instance subtly showcases that the Han’s hostility toward non-Han groups is not permanent, and the tension will fade away over time. I then examined the theme of sectarianism in Heaven, which marks an 110 exception within Jin’s fictional universe, as the first half of the story shifts its focus from ethnic conflicts to sectarianism. In other words, the orthodox sects, which represent the dominant voice within the martial arts world, are more prone to attack the Ming Sect and fight over the title of the leader of the martial arts world than in resisting non-Han ruling regime, the Mongol Yuan. This shows that the martial arts world consensus is, to some extent, inconsistent and fluid. It can easily shift between nationalism and sectarianism, depending on circumstances. It also suggests that their shared goals are not purely driven by justice, but shaped by a mixture of greed, idealism and nationalism. Chapter Two began with my discussion on Guo Jing’s identity crisis. Guo’s Mongol identity is temporary, and his Mongol root is never criticized by the martial arts world. Jin’s plot modification ensures the portrayal of Guo as an ideal Han-centric xia, despite his unrighteous acts and identity crisis. In terms of Yang Guo, his storyline is a journey of self-redemption. Yang originally inherits the infamy of his father, and as the story progresses, his nationalistic development gradually reshapes his identity. He eventually becomes the Condor Hero and chooses to retreat from worldly affairs. His nationalistic act grants him the right to withdraw from the mundane world with an honourable reputation, without bearing his father’s disgrace. Following this, in my discussion of the portrayal of the secluded martial arts masters, I argued that secluded masters fall into two categories. The first type consists of fully secluded master, such as Yang Guo and Zhang Wuji. Their retreat take place at the end of their storylines, leaving them no opportunity to re-enter the mundane world. The second type includes figures like Huang Yaoshi and Zhang Sanfeng, who are partially secluded. They are portrayed as reclusive masters yet still participating in worldly affairs and expressing patriotism. These cases suggest that nationalism can sometimes override characters’ original attributes and plot settings. This chapter 111 concluded with a brief discussion of Heaven, focusing on Han individuals, especially those residing in the capital are assimilated by the Mongols. This depiction highlights the complexity of Jin’s racial representation from the Han perspective while also emphasizing the urgency for the Han to reclaim their homeland. Chapter Three started with a case study of Ding Chunqiu, a morally corrupted Han martial artist who is viewed as a non-Han by the martial arts world. I then delved into the case of the Duan family of the Dali Kingdom, examining their pro-Han actions and practices. I argued that their prolific recognition within the martial arts world is a result of the Duan family’s pro-Han approaches. I observed a transformation in how the Duan family and their disciples are perceived, from being seen as an exotic ally of the Han people to being fully incorporated as Han subjects. Following this, I turned to a case study of Xiao Feng, a tragic hero whose portrayal is deeply racialized. Unlike Chapter One, this section focuses on Xiao’s emotional struggle and identity crisis, viewing ethnicity through his lens. I suggested a transformation in Xiao’s mental state: from a Han centric martial artist to ultimately an advocate of peace and racial equality. This chapter concludes with an analysis of a military event at the very end of Demi-Gods, where the Duan family join forces with the martial arts world to rescue Xiao Feng from Khitan captivity. Notably, this operation takes place on Khitan soil. Through this event, I question the legitimacy of the rescue and argue that it is ultimately an invasion of the Liao Empire. This interpretation directly challenges the narrative’s framing of the Liao as the sole aggressor in the Song-Liao power dynamic. Furthermore, the event raises questions about Xiao’s moral standing. I suggested that he is not an ideal xia figure. His deeply-rooted Han-centrism invites an invasion of his homeland and becomes a betrayal of both his sworn brother and ruler, Yelu Hongji. 112 I began Chapter Four with discussion on various groups of non-Han characters, including court officials, Emperor Yelu Hongji of the Khitan Liao Empire, royal family members and their descendants, military officers, and two Dharma Kings. In the section on Yelu Hongji, I observed a shift in the portrayal of his courage and ambition. He is first introduced with a lion-hearted image, depicted as a bold and heroic emperor. However, once he decides to invade the Song regime, he is immediately reverse to an antagonist. The narrative suggests that he loses is courage when confronted by Xiao Feng, his sworn brother, contrasted with his initial representation. Xiao Yuanshan’s tragic experience further reveals how non-Han characters are treated with unfair emotional power dynamics. Despite having deep hatred and a strong desire to revenge against the Han, Xiao Yuanshan suddenly abandons his pursuit of avenging and forgives the crimes committed by Han martial artists after gaining Buddhist enlightenment. This implies a broader narrative pattern that, non-Han characters, regardless of the justice behind their grievances, are not permitted to maintain resentment toward the Han. Their pain must be forgiven and erased, whereas Han suffering is remembered, avenged, and nationalized. My discussion of the Liao military, members of the Wanyan lineage, and the Mongol royal family further illustrates Jin’s complex and inconsistent approach to racial representation. Hostility toward “the other” shifts depending on narrative needs. Ultimately, non-Han characters are not simply framed as nationalistic villains, but as human with fear, ambition, grievance and greed. In the case of the Mongol prince, Tuolei, I further highlighted how Jin manipulates plot developments to avoid disrupting the historical backdrop of the fiction. In doing so, the narrative carefully protects the moral consistency of Han nationalism. I conclude the chapter with a brief discussion on the narrator’s background portrayal and annotations to racial matters. The narrator’s backdrop is fluid and inconsistent, and it transforms along with the story flow. For 113 instance, the representation of Mongols in the Condor Trilogy shifts from hospitable and generous to brutal. I further discovered that non-Han governance on the Han soil is often unethical and failed. This backdrop showcases that the non-Han view the Han as ‘them,’ and are unwilling to govern the Han people with empathy and benevolence. Racial representation in this fictional realm, across the imaginary Northern Song to the Yuan era, is complex, inconsistent, and fluid. This thesis closely examines Jin’s portrayal of race across different scenarios, using race as a construct to reveal the power dynamics between ‘us’ and ‘them.’ In certain cases, Jin deliberately twisted plot constructions, in order to portray nationalistic figures, such as the preservation of the heroic image of a couple of Han characters. I discover that there are multiple racial narratives and representations, and are transformatively shaped by collective memories, backdrop settings, personal interests, political stances, and grudges. Ultimately, racial conflicts in Jin’s oeuvre are not entirely shaped by the Han versus non-Han, or non-Han versus non-Han paradigm, but rather tensions between ‘us’ and ‘them.’ Scholarship on Jin has covered a wide range of subject matter, including history, authorship, gender, and romantic plots, many of which briefly mention race, and view race with a singular perspective. 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Thesis/Dissertation
eng
Asian Studies
Vancouver : University of British Columbia Library
Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International
Graduate
Wu, Helena
Racial representation in Jin Yong’s fictions
Text