Education, Faculty of
Educational and Counselling Psychology, and Special Education (ECPS), Department of
DSpace
UBCV
Gómez, Mariel
Doctor of Philosophy - PhD
University of British Columbia
Globally, supervised, direct experiences in teaching provided for pre-service teachers have been increasingly advocated for. The practicum component of teacher education programs has been widely recognized by teachers as the most significant experience of their learning to teach process. Although pre-service teachers, cooperating teachers and university supervisors all play essential roles in the success of field experiences, the work of university supervisors has been the least examined and the meaning of supervision is often elusive in empirical studies and governmental documents addressing the topic. This study uses phenomenographic methods to investigate the work of university supervisors in early childhood teacher education programs (ECTEPs) according to their own conceptions of it. Nineteen university supervisors employed at six Chilean ECTEPs were interviewed twice. Through the analysis of data, four qualitatively different ways of understanding supervision were identified, named: (a) accompaniment of learning; (b) instruction; c) vehicle to promote reflective thinking; and (d) opportunity for awareness expansion and transformation. Each of these categories of description is discussed in relation to the role of the supervisor, the means of supervision and the nature of relationship between supervisor and supervisee. Findings suggest the possibility of a continuum of expanding meaning between these ways of understanding supervision. The significance of the results in relation to the literature is discussed, as well as some implications for university supervisors, ECTEPs, and educational policies on university supervisors’ professional development. Further research is proposed for inquiring into different possible conceptions of supervision and potential connections with actual supervisory practices.
UNIVERSITY SUPERVISORS’ CONCEPTIONS OF SUPERVISION AT EARLY CHILDHOOD TEACHER EDUCATION PROGRAMS IN CHILE by Mariel Gómez B.A., Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, 2002 M.A., The University of British Columbia, 2014 A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY in THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE AND POSTDOCTORAL STUDIES (Human Development, Learning, and Culture) THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA (Vancouver) June 2024 © Mariel Gómez, 2024 ii The following individuals certify that they have read, and recommend to the Faculty of Graduate and Postdoctoral Studies for acceptance, the dissertation entitled: University Supervisors’ Conceptions of Supervision at Early Childhood Teacher Education Programs in Chile submitted by Mariel Gómez in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Human Development, Learning and Culture Examining Committee: Laurie Ford, Associate Professor, Educational and Counselling Psychology and Special Education, UBC Supervisor Barbara Weber, Associate Professor and Chair, Interdisciplinary Studies, UBC Supervisory Committee Member George Belliveau, Professor, Department of Language and Literacy Education, UBC University Examiner Suna Eryigit-Madzwamuse, Associate Professor, Educational and Counselling Psychology and Special Education, UBC University Examiner Christine Massing, Associate Professor, Early Childhood Education, University of Regina External Examiner Additional Supervisory Committee Members: Anthony Clarke, Professor Emeritus, Curriculum and Pedagogy, UBC Supervisory Committee Member iii Abstract Globally, supervised, direct experiences in teaching provided for pre-service teachers have been increasingly advocated for. The practicum component of teacher education programs has been widely recognized by teachers as the most significant experience of their learning to teach process. Although pre-service teachers, cooperating teachers and university supervisors all play essential roles in the success of field experiences, the work of university supervisors has been the least examined and the meaning of supervision is often elusive in empirical studies and governmental documents addressing the topic. This study uses phenomenographic methods to investigate the work of university supervisors in early childhood teacher education programs (ECTEPs) according to their own conceptions of it. Nineteen university supervisors employed at six Chilean ECTEPs were interviewed twice. Through the analysis of data, four qualitatively different ways of understanding supervision were identified, named: (a) accompaniment of learning; (b) instruction; c) vehicle to promote reflective thinking; and (d) opportunity for awareness expansion and transformation. Each of these categories of description is discussed in relation to the role of the supervisor, the means of supervision and the nature of relationship between supervisor and supervisee. Findings suggest the possibility of a continuum of expanding meaning between these ways of understanding supervision. The significance of the results in relation to the literature is discussed, as well as some implications for university supervisors, ECTEPs, and educational policies on university supervisors’ professional development. Further research is proposed for inquiring into different possible conceptions of supervision and potential connections with actual supervisory practices. iv Lay Summary Supervised experiences in teaching, called “clinical experiences” in the field of teacher education, have been identified as crucial to strengthen the preparation of preservice teachers. However, supervision of practicum remains an underutilized resource and the work of university supervisors is still understudied. This study used a phenomenograpic approach—a methodology that offers an interpretive way to explore the varied conceptions of a phenomenon held by members of a group—to examine the qualitatively different ways in which university supervisors employed at ECTEPs conceptualize their work. Four ways of conceiving supervision of preservice teachers during practicum were identified: (a) accompaniment of learning; (b) instruction; c) avenue for promoting reflective thinking; and (d) opportunity for awareness expansion and transformation. Findings from the study are discussed in terms of their significance for the work of university supervisors as well as their implications for how ECTEPs design and enact supervised practicum. v Preface I was entirely responsible for all aspects of the research project, including study design, recruitment of participants, data collection, coding, analysis, and writing the results. I worked under advisement of my research supervisory committee, Dr. Laurie Ford (Supervisor), Dr. Barbara Weber, and Dr. Antony Clarke. Ethics approval for this research was issued by the Behavioural Research Ethics Board (BREB) at the University of British Columbia (certificate number: H18-01685 ). This study was carried out under the BREB title: Supervisors' Conceptions of Supervision of Teacher Candidates in Early Childhood Education Programs in Chile. This title was changed to University Supervisors’ Conceptions of Supervision at Early Childhood Teacher Education Programs in Chile for the final version of the dissertation presented in this document. vi Table of Contents Abstract ......................................................................................................................................... iii Lay Summary ............................................................................................................................... iv Preface .............................................................................................................................................v Table of Contents ......................................................................................................................... vi List of Tables ..................................................................................................................................x List of Figures ............................................................................................................................... xi List of Abbreviations .................................................................................................................. xii Acknowledgements .................................................................................................................... xiii Dedication ................................................................................................................................... xvi Chapter 1: Introduction ................................................................................................................1 1.1 Overview ......................................................................................................................... 1 1.2 Study Rationale ............................................................................................................... 4 1.3 Study Purpose and Research Question ........................................................................... 6 1.4 Definition of Terms ......................................................................................................... 7 1.5 Researcher Positionality .................................................................................................. 8 1.6 Dissertation Organization ............................................................................................... 9 Chapter 2: Literature Review .....................................................................................................11 2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 11 2.2 The Context of the Study: ECE in Chile ....................................................................... 12 2.2.1 Historical trajectory .............................................................................................. 12 2.2.2 The ECE provision system .................................................................................... 13 2.2.3 Enrollment rate and classroom organization ......................................................... 15 2.2.4 Early childhood teachers ....................................................................................... 16 2.2.5 Pending issues ....................................................................................................... 18 2.3 The Practicum in Initial Teacher Education ................................................................. 20 2.4 Signature Pedagogies and Core Practices within Clinically Rich Teacher Education . 25 2.5 Supervision of Preservice Teachers During Practicum ................................................ 27 2.5.1 Defining preservice teacher supervision ............................................................... 28 2.5.2 Supervision styles ................................................................................................. 30 2.5.3 Origin of clinical supervision of teachers ............................................................. 31 2.5.4 Major traditions of clinical supervision ................................................................ 34 2.5.4.1 The original clinical models .............................................................................. 35 2.5.4.2 Humanistic/artistic models ................................................................................ 36 2.5.4.3 Technical/didactic models ................................................................................ 38 2.5.4.4 Developmental model ....................................................................................... 40 2.5.4.5 Reflective model ............................................................................................... 42 2.5.5 A New Framework for Conceptualizing Supervision of Preservice Teachers ..... 45 vii 2.6 The Complex Role of University Supervisors .............................................................. 50 2.7 Persistent Undervaluation of University Supervisors’ Work ........................................ 52 2.8 Chapter Summary ......................................................................................................... 53 Chapter 3: Methodology and Methods ......................................................................................55 3.1 Overview ....................................................................................................................... 55 3.2 Ontological View of Reality and Epistemological Position ......................................... 55 3.3 Phenomenography ......................................................................................................... 57 3.3.1 Aim of phenomenography .................................................................................... 57 3.3.2 Outcome of phenomenography ............................................................................. 60 3.4 Sampling and Recruitment Procedures ......................................................................... 62 3.4.1 Sampling criteria ................................................................................................... 62 3.4.2 University recruitment .......................................................................................... 63 3.4.3 Practicum coordinator recruitment ....................................................................... 64 3.4.4 University supervisor recruitment ......................................................................... 65 3.5 Participants .................................................................................................................... 66 3.6 The Research Setting .................................................................................................... 69 3.7 Research Ethics ............................................................................................................. 70 3.8 Data Collection ............................................................................................................. 71 3.8.1 Interviews .............................................................................................................. 72 3.8.2 University supervisor questionnaire ..................................................................... 76 3.8.3 Practicum coordinator interview ........................................................................... 77 3.8.4 Practicum coordinator questionnaire .................................................................... 79 3.8.5 Institutional documents ......................................................................................... 79 3.9 Ensuring Rigor .............................................................................................................. 80 3.10 Triangulation ................................................................................................................. 82 3.11 Data Analysis ................................................................................................................ 83 3.11.1 Phenomenographic analysis .................................................................................. 83 3.11.2 Commonality and variation in the practice of phenomenographic analysis of interviews .............................................................................................................................. 86 3.11.3 Description of the analysis .................................................................................... 89 3.12 Chapter Summary ......................................................................................................... 95 Chapter 4: Findings Related to Practicum’s Organization in ECTEPs .................................96 4.1 Overview ....................................................................................................................... 96 4.2 The Structure of Practicum ........................................................................................... 97 4.2.1 Characteristics of practicum: progressive, guided and connected with courses ... 97 4.2.2 Theoretical frameworks informing practicum .................................................... 100 4.3 The Figure of the University Supervisor .................................................................... 100 4.3.1 Description of university supervisors’ work ....................................................... 101 4.3.2 Supervisors’ contractual situation ....................................................................... 104 viii 4.4 Collaborative Work with Practicum Sites ................................................................... 105 4.5 Ongoing Professional Development for University Supervisors ................................ 108 4.6 Chapter Summary ....................................................................................................... 111 Chapter 5: Findings Related to University Supervisors’ Conceptions of Supervision ........112 5.1 Overview ..................................................................................................................... 112 5.2 Categories of Description ........................................................................................... 113 5.2.1 Category A: Supervision as accompaniment of learning .................................... 114 5.2.2 Category B: Supervision as instruction ............................................................... 117 5.2.3 Category C: Supervision as a vehicle to promote reflective thinking ............... 122 5.2.4 Category D: Supervision as an opportunity for awareness expansion and transformation ..................................................................................................................... 126 5.3 Relationship between Conceptions of Supervision ..................................................... 131 5.4 Dimensions of Variation ............................................................................................. 133 5.4.1 Role of the university supervisor ........................................................................ 134 5.4.2 Means of supervision .......................................................................................... 138 5.4.3 Nature of the relationship between supervisor and supervisee ........................... 148 5.5 Chapter Summary ....................................................................................................... 155 Chapter 6: Discussion of Findings ............................................................................................156 6.1 Overview ..................................................................................................................... 156 6.2 Looking at Categories of Description as a Continuum ............................................... 157 6.3 Discussion of Results in Relation to Previous Phenomenographic Studies ............... 159 6.4 Discussion of Results in Relation to Extant Literature on Supervision of PSTs ........ 163 6.5 Category D in Relation to a Pedagogical Philosophy Based on an Ethics of an Encounter ................................................................................................................................ 171 6.5.1 Ethics of an encounter as a basis for ECE .......................................................... 172 6.5.2 Attitude of openness ........................................................................................... 174 6.5.3 Listening ............................................................................................................. 176 6.6 Implications of the Present Research .......................................................................... 180 6.7 Limitations .................................................................................................................. 184 6.8 Strengths ..................................................................................................................... 185 6.9 Future Directions ........................................................................................................ 187 6.10 Conclusion .................................................................................................................. 188 References ...................................................................................................................................190 Appendices ..................................................................................................................................211 Appendix A Head of Early Childhood Teacher Education Program Invitation Letter ........... 211 Appendix B Study Summary .................................................................................................. 213 Appendix C Invitation Letter for Practicum Coordinator ....................................................... 219 Appendix D Invitation Letter for University Supervisor ........................................................ 222 Appendix E Reminder Letter for Practicum Coordinator ....................................................... 224 ix Appendix F Reminder Letter for University Supervisor ........................................................ 230 Appendix G Practicum Coordinator Consent Form ................................................................ 234 Appendix H Faculty Supervisor Consent Form ...................................................................... 240 Appendix I University Supervisor Interview Protocol ........................................................... 246 Appendix J Practicum Coordinador Interview Protocol ......................................................... 248 Appendix K University Supervisor Background Questionnaire ............................................. 250 Appendix L Practicum Coordinator Questionnaire ................................................................ 256 x List of Tables Table 1 Chilean ECE Enrollment Rate Compared to OECD Countries ........................................15 Table 2 Models of Practicum Relevant to Teacher Education ......................................................22 Table 3 Tasks and High-Leverage Practices Involved in TC Supervision ....................................46 Table 4 Examples of Pedagogical Routines Involved in TC Supervision .....................................48 Table 5 Demographic Characteristics of the Sample ....................................................................67 Table 6 University Supervisors Interviewed .................................................................................68 Table 7 Practicum Coordinators Interviewed ................................................................................68 Table 8 Suggestions for Conducting Phenomenographic Interviews and How they Were Considered in this Study ............................................................................................................... 74 Table 9 Example of Range of Conceptions of Supervision Within one Participant ...................132 Table 10 Dimensions of Variation Between Categories of Description ......................................133 xi List of Figures Figure 1 Chilean ECE Institutional System ...................................................................................14 Figure 2 University Supervisors Conceptions of Supervision .....................................................113 xii List of Abbreviations EC Early childhood ECE Early childhood education ECT Early childhood teacher ECTE Early childhood teacher education ECTEP Early childhood teacher education program PD Professional development PST Pre-service teacher xiii Acknowledgements The completion of this project was possible thanks to the presence and collaboration of many people I wish to acknowledge: My amazing supervisor, Dr. Laurie Ford, whose dedication, hard work, and sense of humor were sources of motivation and support throughout all my years of graduate studies at UBC. During the countless check-in meetings in her office, she was never in a hurry and we had ample time to talk about a surprisingly wide range of issues—from the specifics and technical details of the research work at hand, to potential avenues for career and personal development. I especially appreciate Dr. Ford’s trust in my work, and her unwavering help and encouragement to explore new lines of inquiry that were organically emerging as my research unfolded. I will always remember Dr. Ford as a generous mentor who patiently and skillfully accompanied me through a long period of self-discovery and growth, after which I feel I am a different person. Dr. Barbara Weber, for providing valuable feedback about my work, particularly during the stages of designing the study and preparing the interview protocols. Her thoughtful questions and comments helped me to think about the study and the research participants in ways I had not considered before, which in turn impacted the quality of the time I spent with them during the data collection phase. I also thank Dr. Weber for sharing beauty with me through the work of thinkers and artists, which were a source of inspiration and fresh air during the solitary dissertation writing process. Dr. Anthony Clarke, whose enthusiasm about the topic I chose for my dissertation was reassuring and influential at the early stage of research proposal development. Moreover, his expertise in teachers’ education and superb ability to provide constructive feedback were crucial while I was reviewing the final draft of the manuscript. I also learned from him through the xiv unique atmosphere of his office in the Scarfe Building, which felt not only as a reflection of his good taste, but also as a pedagogical statement about how the relationship with his students was important. I wish to extend my gratitude to Dr. Marcela Pardo, a colleague, friend, and former boss at the Centre for Advanced Research in Education (CIAE) at the University of Chile. I am in debt to Dr. Pardo for her unparalleled generosity throughout many years of offering me advice, information, orientation, and practical support, as well as for introducing me to many ECE professionals that were critical for both my Master’s and Doctoral research. Without Dr. Pardo’s committed support, I would not have been able to collect all the data gathered for this dissertation. I am also grateful to Marta Edwards, my former boss at The Child’s Psychosocial Development Research Centre in Chile and a caring mentor, who supported my professional development in multiple ways, including her wise advice and strategic help at different stages of my dissertation. Rodrigo Finkelstein, who has been a loyal companion and reliable collaborator through all the efforts, struggles, ups, and downs involved in my doctoral project. I cannot thank him enough for the many hours of practical, intellectual, and emotional support, which made the journey not only feasible but also enjoyable. The true and splendid friends I encountered at UBC, who supported me in mundane and spiritual ways: Magdalena Ugarte, Áurea Vericat, Harini Rajagopal, Fernando Murillo, Romina Tantalean, Patricia Abon, and Nicolás Talloni. The colleagues from the Children, Families, and Communities lab, with whom I shared many academic discussion sessions, and who provided useful feedback and multiple xv opportunities to improve my research project: Matthew Waugh, Dorna Rahimi, Melanie Nelson, Simon Lisaingo, and Negar Khodarahmi. My writing companions Camile Desmarès, Gabriella Maestrini, and Haideh Hashemi for the many hours of Zoom sessions that allowed us to survive the pandemic. It was a true delight to see our connection grow as we discovered each other beyond anything I had initially imagined. My beloved Dharma friends Susan Chapman, Sandy Brooks, John Fox, Zach Finley, and Joachim Sehrbrock, who offered an enriching environment of trust, cheerfulness, and camaraderie outside the academic world. The knowledgeable education scholars in Chile that were generous enough to agree to be interviewed during the exploratory phase preceding the research proposal for the study: Lorena Medina, Kiomi Matsumoto, Selma Simonstein, Claudia Lagos, Cynthia Adlerstein, Helena Montenegro, and Magdalena Müller. The information, experience, and reflections they shared with me were pivotal in helping me make the final decision about the specific focus of the study. The research participants, for sharing their work with me with so much generosity and open heart. Meeting with them was definitely the most interesting and fun part of the entire process. Finally, I am grateful to the National Commission for Scientific and Technological Research (CONICYT) of Chile, for granting the financial support that allowed me to complete a doctoral program at UBC, and to the Centre for Advanced Research in Education (CIAE) at the University of Chile for providing institutional support to undertake the fieldwork for this study. xvi Dedication To my ancestors from Bethlehem and the Navarro Pyrenees. To the present and future children of this earth. May they experience Goodness without delay. 1 Chapter 1: Introduction The psychoanalyst Erik Erikson once observed that if you wish to understand a culture, study its nurseries. There is a similar principle for the understanding of professions: if you wish to understand why professions develop as they do, study their nurseries, in this case, their forms of professional preparation (Shulman, 2005, p. 52). 1.1 Overview Field experiences and especially student teaching are often recognized by preservice teachers (PSTs) as the most powerful and significant component of learning to teach (Jacobs et al., 2017; Wilson et al., 2002). The immersion into actual teaching in the classroom provides student teachers with a variety of opportunities to develop their understanding of the multiple dimensions of teaching such as pedagogy, content matter, students, and social context of schools (Cuenca, 2012). In the past, scholars within the field of teacher education have criticized the insufficient attention given to designing field-based experiences where teacher candidates can learn from and have called for an increased emphasis on clinical teacher education (Ball & Cohen, 1999; Darling-Hammond, 2010). More recently however, across the international teacher education literature, the practicum appears recurrently as a key aspect of initial teacher education programs (White & Forgasz, 2016) and governments around the world have been seeking to transform initial teacher education by increasing the quality of practicum experiences in school settings (Matengu et al., 2021; Montecinos et al., 2015). There is no standard terminology in the discussion of practicums found in research. Instead, researchers have used various terms to describe PSTs’ practicum experiences depending on their emphasis and context. Some of the terms found in the literature to describe the period when PSTs are learning in school settings are: student teaching; teaching practice; professional experience placement, practice teaching; field experience; field work; professional experience; 2 school-based training; internship; teaching round; and clinical practice (Matengu et al., 2021; White & Forgasz, 2016). Likewise, several epithets and metaphors have been used to highlight the relevance of clinical experience in the preparation of PSTs. For instance, Graham (2006) referred to it as an important “rite of passage” in teachers’ career; Darling-Hammond (2006) described the practicum as a “bridge” between theory and practice in the learning of teaching and called clinical preparation “the holy grail” of teacher education. More recently, Fuentealba and Russell (2023) declared practicum experiences as the "centerpiece" of any teacher education program. The growing importance of the practicum is evidenced by the increased time and intensity allotted to this component in teacher education programs, and by the increased number of conference sessions focused on guided or mentored teaching experience for both pre-service and beginning teachers (Cohen et al., 2013) Although clinical experiences have been highlighted as central to teacher education and an essential component PSTs’ learning, creating clinical experiences with quality field supervision is complex. Jacobs et al., (2017) have identified at least three significant challenges to enact what Darling-Hammond (2014) referred as “well-supervised” field experiences, and that educational associations such as the National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education (NCATE) and the American Association of Colleges of Teacher Education (AACTE) have called for (AACTE, 2018; NCATE, 2010). First, field supervision has been historically devalued within teacher education programs. Cuenca (2012) argues that field supervision is often regarded as a “self-evident activity” and consequently poorly resourced by education schools. Second, PST supervision has often been assigned to professionals who, regardless of their performance, may lack a strong supervision knowledge and skill set in supervision and teacher education. According to Bates et al. (2009) it is not rare for field supervision to be relegated to new faculty, 3 adjunct faculty, graduate students, and/or retired teachers. Rodgers and Keil (2007) found that on some occasions the role of the university supervisor is entirely replaced by school-based cooperating teachers. Third, there exists great variance among teacher education programs in relation to supervision and an absence of clear definitions for PST supervision in teacher preparation documents (Burns et al., 2016a). Supervision of preservice teachers takes place during early field experiences or the student teaching phase of teacher preparation. The student teaching experience is considered the space where prospective teachers gain first hand practical knowledge about the work of teaching. During this period, PSTs are usually paired with a cooperating teacher and a university supervisor. While both have essential roles in the preparation of PSTs for the workforce, university supervisors are uniquely positioned in a place where they foster understanding of the intertwined nature of theory and practice in education (Cuenca, 2012). However, despite this unique position, university supervisors’ role and views are more poorly researched than other stakeholders’ roles on teaching practicum. Through a systematic review of teaching practicum studies, Lawson et al. (2015) found that very few studies have been conducted which investigate the perspectives of university-based teachers educators. Instead, most practicum studies are centered around PSTs, the main outcomes normally reflecting PSTs’ problems, needs, perceptions, views and beliefs (Koerner et al., 2016; Lawson et al., 2015; Walkington, 2005). Given this state of affairs, and considering the complex and essential function that university supervisors perform during PSTs’ practicum, researchers in the field of teacher education have pointed out the need for new studies that contribute to understand, illuminate, and make more visible the nature of their work (Burns et al., 2020; Jacobs et al., 2017). 4 1.2 Study Rationale Despite the growing recognition of the importance of clinical experiences on teachers’ preparation, supervision of practicum remains an underutilized resource in teacher education and the work of university supervisors is still understudied (Cuenca et al., 2011). The paucity of studies examining and documenting the work of university supervisors is a reflection of the weak recognition that this key actor has in teacher education (Beck & Kosnik, 2002; Cuenca, 2012; Hirmas & Cortes, 2015; Lawson et al., 2015) In early childhood education—the educational level this study is focused— the domain of practicum and student supervision has been recognized as a key component of early childhood teacher education (ECTE) lacking documented practical and theoretical knowledge (Dayan, 2008). Generally, the practicum supervisory role is not well defined by educational institutions in ECTE, and new supervisors receive insufficient instruction in their duties. Supervising teachers work largely in isolation and because of the lack of guidance received they tend to adopt their own individual methods, based on personal opinions, experiences and intuitions (Dayan, 2008). Most practicum supervisors are former teachers and, as such, their professional background relates to teaching children. However, qualification for work with children as an educator is not necessarily a guarantee of ability to work with adults as a supervisor (Caruso & Fawcett, 2005). Studies have highlighted the input of supervising teachers as essential in the success of practicums, yet this has not been sufficiently considered in the development of teacher education programs (Gibbons et al., 2018). One frequent obstacle compromising the quality of practicum experience in ECE is the expectation that supervision happens naturally (Matengu et al., 2021). Taking supervision for granted is surprising and seems paradoxical given the studies suggesting that to be a supervising teacher requires the development of a specific set of competencies such 5 as: skillfulness in both practice and theory-based teaching; ability to remain critical and reflective of one’s self and institution; and competence in providing feedback that expands the learning and understanding of PST’s (Kupila et al., 2017). While studies on ECTE practicum have been conducted around the world, countries such as the United States and Australia dominate publications in the field, showing that there are dominant and absent contexts in what is known about the subject (Matengu et al., 2021). In Chile, early practicum experiences began to be introduced to teacher education programs in 1997 to address the need of a better articulation between the theoretical content taught at universities and the lived experiences of PSTs in the practice centers they attended (Hirmas & Cortes, 2015). This renewal of teacher education programs was largely made possible by the support of the Program for the Strengthening of Initial Teacher Education (1997-2002) that sought to address criticism of an existent gap between teacher education curriculums and the requirements and challenges faced by novice teachers once in the workforce (Ávalos, 2002, 2014). Even though the number of Chilean studies examining practicum in PSTs’ preparation have steadily increased since 1995, research on practicum remains an area of incipient development in the country (Hirmas & Cortes, 2015), where supervision of practicum has been referred as a pending debt in the initial preparation of teachers (Andreucci, 2013). Moreover, the few studies that have explored supervision in practicum, have been conducted in the primary and secondary educational levels. At the time of this study, no research was identified that explored the state of supervised practicum in early childhood teacher education programs (ECTEPs) and little is known about the experiences and views of practicum supervisors. An aim of this study is to address this research gap by providing empirical data, from the perspective of university 6 supervisors, to expand what is known about PST supervision in the Chilean ECTE context. In particular, the importance of studying how supervision is conceived by university supervisors includes: (a) valuing the perspectives of university supervisors by effectively considering them as a resource to better understand and improve the practicum component of teacher education, and specifically field supervision; (b) gaining insight about of how university supervisors conceptualize their work, which has been reported as a missing piece in research related to PST’s supervised practicum (Jacobs et al., 2017); (c) providing language for describing nuances of PST’s supervision practice by identifying concepts, metaphors, and aims within different conceptions of supervision; and (d) producing empirical data that might inform ECTEPs as they engage in discussion, study, assessment, reformulation or improvement of their own practices and policies around PST supervision. 1.3 Study Purpose and Research Question The purpose of this study was to provide some clarity about how supervision of PSTs is understood by university supervisors, a key yet understudied player in the practicum experiences of early childhood PSTs. Through phenomenograpic inquiry—a methodology that offers a systematic and interpretive approach to explore the varied conceptions of a phenomenon held by members of a group (Marton, 1986)—the study sought to identify and describe the qualitatively different ways in which university supervisors employed at Chilean ECTEPs conceptualize supervision of PSTs during practicum. Thus, taking into account both the literature review on supervised practicum in initial teacher education and previous experience in the field of ECTE, the identified research question that guided this study is as follows: What are university supervisors’ conceptions of supervision of PSTs undertaking their practicum in Chilean ECTE programs? 7 1.4 Definition of Terms Cooperating teachers. Cooperating teachers are school-based teachers that work with pre-service teachers undertaking their practicum. Alternatives names given to cooperating teachers in the literature are: associate teachers, mentors, and advising teachers. In-service teachers. In-service teachers are those teachers already in the workforce. Practicum. Although there are a variety of definitions of practicum in the literature, for the purpose of the present study, practicum refers to the period when student teachers are learning in school settings (clinical contexts) under the guidance of experienced professional colleagues who supervise them in order to support their development as teachers. In this study the term practicum is used as synonym of field experience. Practicum coordinator. Practicum coordinators are university-based professionals in charge of the organization, and sometimes the design, of pre-service teachers’ practicum in teacher education programs. They are responsible for establishing and maintaining partnerships with practicum sites, as well as guiding and overseeing the work of university supervisors. Practicum site. Practicum site is the place where pre-service teachers practice teaching in a real school context. In this study practicum site is used as synonymous to practice center. Pre-service teachers. Pre-service teachers are the people for whom practicum is constructed and through which they gain experience of the practicalities of teaching in schools. In this study the term pre-service teacher (PST) is used as synonymous of teacher candidate (TC). Supervision. Supervision is the action of supporting pre-service teachers’ learning in clinical contexts . 8 University supervisor. A university supervisor is a teacher educator representing a university/college and whose role is to supervise pre-service teachers during their practicum. In this study the term university supervisor is used as synonymous of faculty supervisor. 1.5 Researcher Positionality To describe my positionality, and therefore my lens on the data, I begin by identifying as as a mixed-race (Spanish-Palestinian) woman born in Chile. Professionally, I acknowledge my standpoint primarily as a psychologist, with graduate studies in education and human development. In terms of my relationship to the subject under investigation, I consider myself as an outsider since I am neither an ECT nor a supervisor. However, I am approaching this study as a researcher with over a decade of experience in the field of early childhood education research. Several of the previous research projects I was involved in the past included working with ECT’s and other professionals committed to improve the state of ECE in Chile by means of strengthening ECTs’ preparation. Following that trajectory, my Master’s thesis focused on in-service ECTs’ experience of the avenues of professional development offered to them in state funded ECE. In addition to my previous professional involvement with the field of ECE and ECTs’ education, I also had personal experience as a supervisee while undertaking a full-time one year practicum at a public hospital during the late stage of my undergraduate program in psychology. That experience marked me deeply as I had the fortune to have four excellent supervisors—three at the practicum site (a psychologist, a psychoanalyst, and a psychiatrist) and one at the university—to whom I am grateful until today. I learnt from them many specific skills while also receiving systematic personalized feedback, encouragement and advice. I felt that through their guidance I was able to make the most of the previous five years of coursework in a way that 9 would have not being possible without their presence. I also felt that this experience had a significant positive impact in the first years of my professional path, and therefore I developed a keen awareness of the crucial role of mentors in the preparation of professionals involved in work that promote human development in some capacity. This early experience as a supervisee, no doubt, influenced my interest in investigating supervised practicum many years later for my doctoral dissertation. Besides the past personal and professional experience that brought me to investigate the subject of pre-service ECTs’ supervision, I acknowledge that I approached the research participants in this study already having some knowledge and ideas about supervised practicum at ECTEPs in Chile. I gained this knowledge by undertaking an explorative phase of the study the year before deciding on what the specific focus for the research would be. During the exploratory phase I informally interviewed educational researchers, professors, university supervisors, and practicum coordinators at several universities with the aim to gain enough familiarity with the subject to allow me to identify a meaningful research question. I could have access to all these key actors mostly thanks to my former boss in the Centre for Advance Research in Education (CIAE) at the University of Chile, who generously introduced me and put me into contact with them so they would spend time talking with me about their work. 1.6 Dissertation Organization In Chapter One the subject of pre-service teachers’ supervised practicum is introduced along with a rationale for the study. Purpose, research questions and keys terms used throughout the dissertation are defined. The positionality of the researcher conducting the study is provided to offer context for some decisions and interpretations. Chapter Two begins with a brief description of the state of ECE in Chile, the background for this study. Next, a review of the 10 literature including the place of practicum and associated practises in teachers’ preparation; main supervision models informing the work of university supervisors; and the role and status of university supervisors is presented. In Chapter Three the methodology as well as the ontological and epistemological perspective that guided this study is provided, followed by a description of the sampling procedures, the research participants, the research setting, the data collection methods, and the process of data analysis. Chapter Four presents the findings of the study related to the characteristics of practicum organization in the ECTEPs where participants were employed, providing relevant descriptive information to contextualize findings in the next chapter. Chapter Five presents the categories of description and dimensions of variation—the outcome space—identified through the phenomenographic analysis of university supervisors’ interviews. In Chapter Six the results of the study are discussed in light of previous phenomenographic studies as well as the extant literature on supervision of PSTs. In addition, a reflection connecting the more complex way of understanding supervision identified in the study with a pedagogy based on an ethics of an encounter is provided. Implications of the findings are suggested along with perceived limitations, strengths and possible avenues for future research. The chapter ends with a brief conclusion summarizing the aim, methods and significance of the study. 11 Chapter 2: Literature Review 2.1 Introduction In this chapter, I begin with a discussion of the background and context of this study—Early Childhood Education in Chile—as a foundation to address early childhood teachers’ preparation. A brief description of the state of ECE in Chile is included with the aim of providing context for readers who might not be familiar with the Chilean ECE field in which the present study is situated. The chapter continues with a review of literature on teachers’ supervision relevant to this study. The topic of teacher’s supervision is extensive and contains within it a number of bodies of literature, including for example: supervision of in-service teachers for improving instruction conducted by a variety of teacher educators responsible for the development of teachers; mentoring of novice teachers; mentoring of pre-service teachers performed by cooperating teachers in the school context; and supervision of PSTs conducted by faculty supervisors at the university. Since these bodies of literature are interrelated, I initially reviewed work from all of them to situate the parameters of the present study, but I delved with more depth in the literature on supervised practicum of PSTs conducted by faculty supervisors, which is the focus of the present study. After the discussion of the Chilean Early Childhood Education context, the role of practicum in teachers’ preparation is addressed followed by a brief description of what has been described as core practices in practice-focused teacher education. Subsequently, a review of PSTs’ definition as well as main frameworks for supervision of teachers is provided. While several of the supervision models reviewed in this section have been applied to the learning processes of both in-service and preservice teachers, they are presented here with the aim to provide a background of the theoretical and practical knowledge that have informed the 12 supervisory work between faculty supervisors and PSTs in the university context, specifically. The chapter concludes by discussing the complexity of university supervisors’ role and the reported undervaluation of their work. 2.2 The Context of the Study: ECE in Chile 2.2.1 Historical trajectory In Chile, there is a long standing tradition of attention to ECE that dates back to the 19th century (Peralta, 2011). The first school for young children was founded in 1864 (Silva, 2018) and university-based programs for the preparation of early childhood teachers (ECTs) began in 1944 (Pardo & Woodrow, 2014). The opening of the first school for ECTs marked a significant shift from a conception of the ECT’s role as linked to care to one related to education, transferring the emphasis of ECTs preparation from moral values and religion to a focus on psychology, health, nutrition and arts in ECE settings (Viviani, 2016). The focus of the efforts made by the state on the ECE field have changed over time. Historically and until the military dictatorship in 1973, the focus was to stablish ECE as a separate educational level with its own specific programs, institutions and professionals. After democracy returned in 1990 the main concern for many years was to improve coverage, and currently the focus has moved to quality of ECE (Silva, 2018). In the last two decades, ECE has enjoyed a remarkable political priority that has resulted in unprecedented development of public policy targeting the sector, rise in financial investment, increase of coverage, and the strengthening of its institutional legal basis (Adlerstein & Pardo, 2020; Peralta, 2011; Subsecretaría de Educación Parvularia, 2018). Notably, in 2009 Chile Crece Contigo (Chile Grows with You) was created, a public policy that gives continuity to the early childhood development policies that it advances. This comprehensive child development support 13 system serves children from the time they are first registered with the public health system and accompanies them until they enter the school system. It also provides guarantees to access to technical help, nurseries, kindergartens, and special programs offered to those families in vulnerable situations (World Bank, 2018). Furthermore, other significant governmental initiatives over the last years that have shaped the landscape of ECE include: (a) in 2001, the creation of a National Curriculum for ECE establishing expected learning outcomes for children, which was last updated in 2018; (b) in 2005 the designation of quality standards for ECE providers related to characteristics such as infrastructure, staff qualifications, children to staff ratios, the center’s educational project, etc.; (c) in 2012 the elaboration of national guidelines for teacher education programs describing the knowledge and professional attitudes ECTs are expected to develop during their preparation; (d) in 2015 the establishment of the Undersecretariat of ECE which aims to strengthen and bring coherence to the ECE system; (e) in 2019 the creation of the National Framework for Good Teaching in Early Years, which guides the pedagogical work of in-service ECTs; and (f) in 2022 the construction of the Framework for Good Governance and Leadership in ECE that seeks to orient ECE principals’ pedagogical leadership (Correa & Falabella, 2022; Opazo et al., 2023; Pardo & Adlerstein, 2020; Pardo & Woodrow, 2014; Subsecretaría de Educación Parvularia, 2018). 2.2.2 The ECE provision system Although ECE is not compulsory in Chile, it is legally the first level of the national education system (Subsecretaría de Educación Parvularia, 2018). The provision system for ECE, operating under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Education, is well-stablished and highly 14 complex due to the existence of an array of institutions with a variety of financial, administrative and technical relationships between them (Morales & Cortázar, 2012). The ECE system structure includes a combination of public and private institutions, as well as private institutions funded by the state through a voucher-demand system. The public provision network is comprised by two state-maintained organizations that receive baseline funding— National Board of Nursery Schools (JUNJI) and the INTEGRA Foundation—and subsidized centers managed by municipalities and non-profit organizations that receive funding from JUNJI and INTEGRA based on the number of children enrolled (Barco & Carrasco, 2020). In addition, ECE is offered by public schools and subsidized-private schools (mainly prekindergarten and kindergarten). Only 5% of children attending ECE are enrolled in a private institution while the vast majority attend an institution funded by public resources in some capacity (Subsecretaría de Educación Parvularia, 2022). Figure 1 Chilean ECE Institutional System 15 Note: Adapted with permission from “Informe de Caracterización de la Educación Parvularia” [Characterization of Early Childhood Education Report], by Subsecretaría de Educación Parvularia, 2022, p.5. 2.2.3 Enrollment rate and classroom organization Over the last decades there has been a substantial increasement in the enrollment rate in ECE. Currently, ECE coverage is around 50%, with virtually no difference by sex: 49,25% girls and 50,09 % boys (Subsecretaría de Educación Parvularia, 2022). This means that half of all children eligible to attend ECE are enrolled in some kind of ECE provider, state-funded or private. These data vary with income, with children in the first quintile typically having a lower enrollment rate compared to those in the fifth quintile (Ministerio de Desarrollo Social, 2024). Compared to the mean of OECE (Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development) countries, as of 2021 the percentage of children enrolled in ECE in Chile was lower for children under 4 years old but higher for 5 year old children, as detailed in Table 1 (Centro de Estudios MINEDUC, 2023). Table 1 Chilean ECE Enrollment Rate Compared to OECD Countries Age Chile OCED Countries 2 years old 33% 41% 3 years old 51% 73% 4 years old 79% 88% 5 years old 91% 84% ECE classrooms are organized in six pedagogical levels according to which children are grouped depending on their age: infant nursery (0-1 years old); nursery (1-2 years old); young toddler daycare (2-3 years old); toddler daycare (3-4 years old); pre-kindergarten (4-5 years old); kindergarten (5-6 years old) (Subsecretaría de Educación Parvularia, 2022). Regarding teacher-child ratio—a structural factor in ECE that have been linked to quality—in Chile there 16 are 21 children per one ECT, which is higher than the mean of OECD countries where there are 14 children per one ECT. When considering the entire pedagogical team in charge of children, the Chilean ratio is 9 children per one adult, slightly lower than the 10/1 ratio in the rest of OECD countries (Centro de Estudios MINEDUC, 2023). 2.2.4 Early childhood teachers As of 2021 there were 28,051 ECTs and 56,109 ECT assistants working in ECE classrooms, who represent around 20% and 30% of the pedagogical teams working in ECE centers respectively (Subsecretaría de Educación Parvularia, 2022). Most ECTs (85%) are employed in an ECE institution that is funded by the state—public or subsidized—whereas 15% work in private institutions (Pardo & Adlerstein, 2015). ECTs have been prepared at universities since 1944, when an experimental 2-year program at the University of Chile was created (Pardo & Adlerstein, 2020). Until 2015, early childhood teacher education (ECTE) was offered by both universities and institutes, but today only universities are authorized to impart it (Pardo & Adlerstein, 2015). Early childhood teacher education programs (ECTEPs) correspond to undergraduate preparation, typically 4 years long (8 semesters), and are currently offered by 36 institutions along the country, some of them having more than one program in different campuses (Consejo Nacional de Educación, 2024). Thus, in-service ECTs must hold a Bachelor’s Degree in ECE—which is different to a degree in elementary education— in order to teach 0-5 year-olds. Historically, ECTEPs have shown substantial heterogeneity in their characteristics and quality (Falabella & Rojas, 2008), presenting few common courses in their curriculums (García-Huidobro, 2006). As a way to address this situation, the Ministry of Education developed National Standards for the Guidance of Initial Early Childhood Teacher Education (Centro de 17 Perfeccionamiento, Experimentación e Investigaciones Pedagógicas, 2012) with the aim of guiding institutions in charge of ECTs preparation in the adjustment or reform of their curriculum according to certain parameters related to the knowledge and abilities that graduates are expected to achieve (Pardo & Adlerstein, 2015). However, there is no evidence so far about to what extent or how these guidelines have been utilized by ECTEPs to inform their curriculums. Similar to most parts of the world, including Finland (Koskinen Sandberg, 2021) and the US (Boyd, 2013; Kwon et al., 2022), where enthusiasm for improving ECE quality has not been accompanied by increasing the wages and benefits of the workers, in Chile progress in policies targeting ECE improvement have historically coexisted with ECTs’ low wages compared to other teachers, as well as low status and social recognition (Pardo & Adlerstein, 2020). In addition, ECTs’ voices have been usually excluded from the formation of public policy and ECTs as a group have been reluctant to EC policy discourses based on arguments that reflect an instrumental image of ECE (e.g. early intervention providing high returns on investment, contribution to the increase of female participation in the workforce) instead of the intrinsic value of an holistic education in the first years of life (Pardo & Woodrow, 2014). An important recent development aimed to support and recognize teachers’ careers is the creation of the System for Teacher Professional Development (STPD), to which all ECTs working in publicly funded ECE centers and schools will be gradually incorporated by 2025. Among other things, the STPD regulates entrance to ECTEPs, in-service preparation, and the mentorship of novice teachers (Pardo & Adlerstein, 2020). The System delineates a PD path tiered in five stages, with progression along the path depending on years of service as well as the results of a professional evaluation comprised of a test of pedagogical and disciplinary 18 knowledge and a portfolio. Depending on results obtained, teachers are classified in one of the stages of the professional career, which are linked to increases in wages and preferential access to pedagogical leadership roles at a national level. Also the STPD allows ECTs to preserve their wages and other incentives already earned if they transfer from one provider institution to another. Consequently, compared to past week regulations for ECTs’ career, the STPD represents a huge improvement in terms of status and access to professional incentives. Examining ECTs views on the STPD, Pardo and Adlerstein (2020) found that ECTs view this new System with positive eyes due to the improvements it offers to their working conditions and professional status. However, they also expressed criticism of what they perceived as an “individualistic and counter-ECE pedagogical nature” of the System which the authors suggest can be interpreted as “a rejection of its widely contested neoliberal foundations associated with accountability purposes” (p. 494). 2.2.5 Pending issues Despite unprecedented achievements in the Chilean ECE field over the past decades, to continue improving, there are several identified weaknesses and challenges that need to be addressed in the future. For instance, in relation to coverage, although substantial progress has been made, there is still a need to expand coverage specifically in the nursery, infant and toddler levels of ECE (Adlerstein & Pardo, 2020), as well as in the fifth income quintile of the population where enrollment is lower compared to the first quintile, showing an unequal distribution to ECE access (Barco & Carrasco, 2020). Echoing what has been found in studies of countries of all incomes regarding ECE having a positive impact on early and later human development (Britto et al., 2011), in Chile also there is evidence showing ECE is positively associated with academics gains in the long term 19 (Cortázar, 2015). Moreover, it is known is that the magnitude of the impact on children’s learning and development depends on ECE presenting enough quality (Frede, 1995), both structural quality (including class size, child-adult ratio, teacher qualifications, physical environments), and process quality (including teacher-child interaction and instructional characteristics) (National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD) Early Child Care Research Network, 2006). Areas of concern in Chilean ECE seem to be focused on instructional activities, which are mostly linked with process quality but also with structural quality, especially teacher-child ratio. For instance, studies examining typical Chilean kindergarten classrooms have found that time is predominantly spent on general conversations while little time is spent in language activities involving emergent literacy skills and child-directed language (Strasser et al., 2009; Strasser & Lissi, 2009). Similarly, a study exploring preschool teachers performance through the use of Classroom Assessment Scoring System (CLASS) in its pre-k version found that teachers’ performance reaches medium levels in the CLASS domains of emotional support and classroom organization, and low levels in instructional support (Treviño, 2013). In line with these findings, a recent report on the state of ECE in the country identified as major lines for improvement (a) the need for more presence of ECE teachers in the classroom in order to increase learning opportunities and (b) strengthening the initial preparation and professional development of ECTs (Adlerstein & Pardo, 2020). An important challenge faced by ECTEPs in their efforts to improve ECTs’ initial preparation is that they recruit from the bottom deciles of college applicants. It is common that programs have to dedicate substantial time in leveling up basic school knowledge and competencies in a context where ECTEPs’ curriculums already fall short of enough specialized topics in ECE (Rojas & Falabella, 2010). This difficulty seems unlikely to change until the labor 20 market for ECTs becomes attractive enough to interest students from higher deciles of college applicants. The recent STPD, which will significantly improve ECTs’ historically low wages and precarious working conditions is certainly a movement in the right direction, but its impact in the students attracted to the career have not yet been studied. 2.3 The Practicum in Initial Teacher Education Worldwide, initial teacher education has faced increasing criticism for not adequately preparing student teachers for the realities of teaching (Darling-Hammond, 2010). A major concern is that because teacher education programs at universities prioritize theory over practice, there is a disconnect between what student teachers learn during their preparation and what they need to know and do as teachers, which in turn brings about the well-documented challenges that new teachers confront (Grudnoff et al., 2017). Given such concerns, a large amount of education policy internationally has centered on strengthening initial teacher education. Especially the practicum, considered one of the most influential elements in the quality of education, has been in the spotlight of educational reforms globally (Martín-Romera et al., 2022; Montecinos et al., 2015). The practicum is an essential component in the initial training of teachers, as it is the first approach to educational practice that future teachers have. The construct of “practicum” however, is a contested one and highly scrutinized. Historically, different stakeholders have posed and debated questions related to the stage of their education program at which pre-service teachers (PST) should engage in practicum, the type of schools they should attend and for how long, the kind of activities they will do there, and the ways in which their professional learning will be assessed (White & Forgasz, 2016). Although the traditional conceptualization of the teaching practice was framed around the idea that student teachers went into schools to implement their theoretical learning about 21 teaching in a practical way, there is a range of collaborative arrangements between schools and universities—such as internships—that go beyond the traditional conceptualization of a theory/practice dualism (Lawson et al., 2015). Yet what the different collaborative arrangements have in common is a sustained experience in schools as part of PST’s preparation. The practicum in initial teacher education is approached in different ways at different universities. Different models are applied depending on different national, regional, and local contexts. Also, the resources allocated in terms of persons, time, and equipment vary from one institution to another. Curricula differ as well as the procedures for assessing professional practice knowledge. Although the assessment of teacher candidates’ performance is often the responsibility of university based teacher education, sometimes the local supervisor has the final say about PST who might pass or fail (Mattson et al., 2011). Diverse models of practicum emphasize different ideas, aspects and qualities. They have different historical roots and represent different views of the purpose and place of practicum experience in initial teacher education as well as on how professional practice knowledge is best nurtured. For instance, early in the twentieth century, philosopher and educational reformer John Dewey (1904) distinguished between what he called apprentice model and laboratory model. In the apprentice model the main focus is to develop classroom teaching techniques, and therefore, the PST is conceived as an apprentice to a master teacher—the co-operating teacher— whose effective strategies are to be essentially imitated (White & Forgasz, 2016). On the other hand, since in the laboratory model the main focus is on reflection and theory-informed practice, the PST is encouraged to learn about teaching through inquiry based on attentive observation, analysis and interpretation of the events unfolding in the classroom. Thus, in this approach the practicum is conceived as a site of experimentation. Although Dewey did not consider these two 22 models as mutually exclusive, he proposed the laboratory model as the best approach to preparing teachers because of its emphasis on inquiry. Dewey saw the apprentice model to teach as problematic because it reinforced the technical-rational approach to learning where often complex decision-making is reduced to generic, technical tactics (White & Forgasz, 2016). In the book A Practicum Turn in Teacher Education, Mattson et al. (2011) summarized the models of practicum supported by the literature, highlighting their relevance within the context of research projects related to practicum in teacher education. They understood models as certain ways of organizing practicum learning—as opposed to leaving it to chance—that gives shape to the participants’ configuration of roles, responsibilities and division of labor. Table 2 illustrates the models of practicum described by Mattson et al. (2011, p.8-10). Table 2 Models of Practicum Relevant to Teacher Education Name of the model Description of main features The Master-Apprentice model From a historical perspective this has been the way to introduce a novice (preservice teacher) into the profession. The master and his colleagues are expected to know the practice knowledge that is worth knowing and developing because they know the tradition. The Laboratory model The university has established a University Teacher Training School for practicum learning. The idea is that PST should be offered practicum learning in a good educational environment by professional teachers of excellence. The Partnership model Based on agreements between a university and local schools that have been carefully selected. The local schools offer opportunities for practicum learning. Local mentors/supervisors are appointed for pre-service teachers and are expected to offer a good educational environment. The Community development model PSTs during practicum should bring new ideas and methods to schools and teachers in need of improving their pedagogical standard. While contributing to school development, PST learn the profession in relation to the “real” problems they confront. This model is often applied in rural settings. The Integrated model Practiced by universities and communities who have agreed to share responsibility for teacher education where practicum serves as an integrative element. Both local authorities and universities may be in charge of certain aspects of practicum. This model is based on the idea that PST should learn from a variety of schools and teachers that may differ a lot in quality. 23 The Case based model PST in an educational practice inspired by the practical wisdom of medicine, should encounter a large number of authentic cases in order to learn how to identify resemblances and distinctive traits. They should learn how to interpret cases in light of research, theory and experience. The Platform model Symbolized a framework of teacher education that is more flexible and open to PSTs’ individual needs and interests. The model offer opportunities for participation in projects that transcend the traditional practicum periods and provide closer and more versatile links between universities and schools. The Community of practice model Based on the idea that learning is art of a social praxis where participants learn from each other. PSTs are socialized into a culture of inquiry and offered opportunities to participate in different practices. PSTs are provided with experiences, competencies, and the confidence that is likely to make a difference in their prospective professional practice. The Research and Development model Based on agreements between universities and communities about how to collaborate in order to improve relevant research as well as school development. Regardless of the model of practicum adopted by teacher education programs, to serve as a bridge between theory and practice, the practicum requires a well-organized structure since more time in schools in and of itself is not necessarily of benefit to PSTs (White & Forgasz, 2016). In her leading study examining exemplary teacher education programs, Darling-Hammond, (2006) noted that a well-conceived practicum—or what she describes as clinical experiences—within a broader teacher education program have the following key features (p. 305-306): (a) a common, clear vision of good teaching that permeates all course work and clinical experiences, creating a coherent set of learning experiences; (b) well-defined standards of professional practice and performance that are used to guide and evaluate course work and clinical work; (c) a strong core curriculum taught in the context of practice and grounded in knowledge of child and adolescent development and learning, an understanding of social and cultural contexts, curriculum, assessment, and subject matter pedagogy; (d) extended clinical experiences—at least 30 weeks of supervised practicum and student teaching opportunities in each program—that are carefully chosen by faculty jointly engaged in transforming teaching, 24 schooling, and teacher education to support the ideas presented in simultaneous, closely interwoven course work; (e) extensive use of case methods, teacher research, performance assessments, and portfolio evaluation that apply learning to real problems of practice; (f) explicit strategies to help students to confront their own deep-seated beliefs and assumptions about learning and students and to learn about the experiences of people different from themselves; (g) strong relationships, common knowledge, and shared beliefs among school and university-based faculty jointly engaged in transforming teaching, schooling, and teacher education. In a study exploring the state of PSTs’ field experiences within teacher education programs Jacobs et al. (2017) administered a survey to gather descriptive information about field experiences in elementary education programs at a variety of institutions. The findings suggest that teacher education programs surveyed are positioned to respond to calls to reform in clinical experiences in areas of enacting multiple field experiences as well as conceptualizing field supervision beyond observation and feedback. Regarding the number of field experiences provided to PTSs, the majority of respondents reported four or more. Nearly all respondents reported that field placements took place in some type of formal partnership with districts, schools, or teachers. In terms of who is supervising, the survey showed that the most prevalent type of supervisor was tenured faculty supervisor followed closely by retired PK-12 adjunct faculty. There were very low numbers of graduate students serving as supervisors. Results suggested greater resource allocation in terms of lower student-to supervisor ratios for student teaching (late field experiences) than to field experience earlier in the program. In relation to outcomes of supervision, within specific areas of professional growth that university supervisors strive to promote, the highest percentage of respondents strongly agreed that an outcome of supervision is promoting critical reflection and the development of adaptive expertise. Teacher 25 inquiry was not considered as an outcome of supervision by a high percentage of respondents, and supervisor’s knowledge of teacher inquiry was also rated as low. This is a surprising finding given that teacher inquiry has been described in the teacher education literature as a signature pedagogy within clinically-rich teacher education (Yendol-Hoppey & Franco, 2014). In relation to the mechanisms for supervisors’ professional development available at their institutions, respondents reported meetings, seminars and workshops as the most popular. From their responses however, the differences between these types of mechanisms was not clear (Jacobs et al., 2017). 2.4 Signature Pedagogies and Core Practices within Clinically Rich Teacher Education What is taught to teacher candidates in teacher education programs has long been subject to debate despite numerous efforts to articulate a shared vision of the knowledge, dispositions, and skills that are needed for an individual to begin to teach (Zeichner, 2012). Given the tremendous variability often present in teacher education, Shulman (2005) advocated for the need of determining what he called signature pedagogies, that is, professional routines that are pervasive within the profession’s curriculum and consistent across courses, programs and institutions. Using Shulman’s term and defining it as “systematic and intentionally designed teaching routines that facilitate pre-service teacher learning within clinically rich contexts” (p. 20), Yendol-Hoppey and Franco (2014) conducted a review of 79 articles published in School-University Partnerships to search for signature pedagogy practices within teacher education schools. As a result of the review they identified the following signature pedagogies within the context of teacher education schools: inquiry, focused observation, mentoring and coaching, co-teaching, reflection on teaching (through reflection tools such as portfolios, lesson reflections, 26 video analysis, and journal writing), and integrated coursework and fieldwork. Although these routines are not exhaustive and further research is needed to fully understand their functioning, Yendol-Hoppey and Franco suggest that they might ensure that beginning teachers are exposed to a core set of practices that teacher education experts agree are beneficial, regardless of the teacher education program in which they are prepared. Practiced-based, practiced-focused, or practice-centered teacher education are some of the names given to a growing movement in teacher education that, even though more visible in the last two decades, is part of a long-standing tradition with earlier studies on the topic dating back to 1920’s (Zeichner, 2012). The idea of creating a common core of teaching practices (e.g., leading discussions, posing problems) that are taught to new teachers has been developed most notably by Grossman (2011) whose model of representing, decomposing, approximating and deliberately teaching individual teaching practices characterizes much of the current practice-based work in teacher education. Core practices—also called high leverage practices—are defined as identifiable components of teaching that teachers enact to support learning. These components include instructional strategies and the subcomponents of routines and moves. Core practices can include both general and content-specific practices. In the book Teaching Core Practices in Teacher Education the author emphasizes the need to develop language around practices and have plenty of opportunities to “unpack” practice. One important means for making core practices visible and accessible is the use of representations of practice, by presenting meaningful videos, transcripts, lesson plans, and modeling followed with a discussion of the affordances of each and the aspects of practice that they help to make visible. In addition, teacher candidates need to be able to try on the various strategies and teacher moves through approximations of practice. Emphasis is also placed on the importance of debriefing 27 opportunities, which allows for a continued discussion about the specific teacher moves being studied (Grossman, 2018). Although identifying core practices of good teaching and making the teaching of those core practices a central focus in teacher preparation programs has been valued within the field, it has also raised some concern related to the danger of narrowing the role of teachers to that of technicians who are able to implement a particular set of teaching strategies while ignoring the need to ground teachers’ technical competence in an understanding of the historical, cultural, political, economic, and social contexts in which their work is embedded (Zeichner, 2012). 2.5 Supervision of Preservice Teachers During Practicum In their book A license to teach: Raising standards for teaching Darling-Hammond et al. (1999) discuss the kinds of knowledge and trainings that matter in teacher education, stating that there are three essential elements that play an important role in the development of teachers’ skills and abilities: (a) subject-matter courses, (b) education courses (knowledge about how to teach particular subjects), and (c) guided clinical experience. The “clinical learning” that results from high-quality and intensive supervision has been recognized as vital to student teachers success and, conversely, to problems when such support is absent (Darling-Hammond, 2006). The importance of guidance in learning to teach has been confirmed by studies showing that induction support for entering teachers improved the quality of their teaching and helped them to move more quickly from concerns about discipline and basic classroom management to concerns about instruction and student progress (Odell, 1986). More recently, the literature on teacher education has also highlighted the important role of supervision in attending to teachers emotional well-being at a time of high stakes accountability climate exacerbated by the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic (Glickman & Burns, 2021). 28 2.5.1 Defining preservice teacher supervision It is generally understood that the ultimate goal of preservice teacher (PST) supervision is the professional growth and development of the PST (Burns et al., 2016a; Nolan & Hoover, 2010). However, within the literature on teacher education, the function and definition of PST supervision have not always been clearly identified. After a comprehensive review of empirical literature, Burns et al. (2016a; 2016b) found lack of common nomenclature of supervision, based on presumed definitions. For instance, they realize that PST supervision is not specifically defined in many important teacher education documents developed in the United States. They argued that the absence of clear definitions for PST supervision shows that the field of teacher education may be assuming a common understanding of the term. In the literature on instructional supervision, it is possible to find efforts to differentiate supervision and evaluation to avoid the risk of conflating the two in practice. Nolan and Hoover (2010) proposed that the most fundamental difference is that the purpose of supervision is to foster teacher learning for student achievement, while the purpose of evaluation is to ensure minimal competence for teacher practice. However, these differences are not so clear cut in practice, especially in PST supervision where the PST supervisor is often expected to perform both functions: supervising and evaluating. In this regard, Burns et al. (2016a) contended that supervision should be understood and practiced not as evaluation but as a learning function. They defined PST supervision as “the enactment of multiple tasks and practices aimed at supporting PST’s learning in clinical contexts” (p. 420), predicting that without a clear definition, PST supervision would most likely continue to be conceptualized narrowly as merely a technical practice. 29 Burns et al. (2016b) conducted a comprehensive qualitative meta-analysis with the purpose to generate new knowledge about PST supervision within field experiences at a time of increased emphasis on clinical experiences through school-university collaboration. The study used the findings from 69 studies published between 2001 and 2013 in the field of PST supervision as data to address the following question: What can we learn about PST field supervision since the publication of the National Council for Accreditation of teacher Education (NCATE) Professional Development Schools Standards? The results of the meta-analysis found the main themes of PST supervision literature to be focused on: (a) tasks and practices of PST supervision, (b) approaches, tools and outcomes related to observation and feedback, (c) how technology has enhanced and disrupted supervision, (d) approaches to supervisor professional development, and (e) critical knowledge and skills needed to foster relationships in PST supervision. Through a sub-meta-analysis with a subset of 32 articles, Burns et al. (2016b) identified tasks and practices of PST supervisors. Tasks were defined as “critical areas required to create the clinical contexts for PST learning needs” and practices were defined as “the pedagogical strategies supervisors used to actualize task” (p. 60). The five tasks included: targeted assistance; individual support; collaboration and community; curriculum support; and research for innovation. Even though these five tasks were identified, the majority (84%) of the empirical literature reviewed by the authors focused on practices under the tasks of targeted assistance. Despite the emphasis on the task of targeted assistance, however, the existence of multiple tasks suggested a more expansive and complex conception of field supervision found in the empirical literature compared to the past (Jacobs, et al., 2017). 30 2.5.2 Supervision styles In the context of an action research study aimed to influence teacher educators to change their mentoring (supervising) practices, Harrison et al. (2005) developed a framework of mentoring styles as a tool to analyze data from transcripts of conversations between supervisors and novice teachers. The framework, identifies a sequence of five mentoring (supervision) styles that might signify a progression in mentoring a new teacher from a position of dependency towards autonomy. The supervisory styles proposed by Harrison et al. (2005) include: (a) telling, where the supervisor is the expert offering tips, opinions and judgments as well as suggesting areas of improvement; (b) active coaching, characterized by the supervisor making systematic interventions in the PSTs’ reflections on practice; (c) guiding, where the supervisor acts as a “critical friend” and focuses on pupil’s learning rather than teaching performance; (d) inquiry, which assumes both the supervisor and PST operate together through co-inquiry to investigate the causes or possible solutions and to look for new situations in which to test the ideas; and (e) reflecting, where the supervisor probes, and questions while allowing the PST to do the reflection on the conditions and contributing factors of an experience. Although this framework refers to the supervision of novice teachers, it can and has been applied to study the supervision of PSTs (Soslau, 2012). Field-base clinical experiences are fertile learning environments with the potential of helping PSTs to develop adaptative teaching expertise, a critical component of quality teaching linked to the ability to systematically and strategically adjusting decision making before, during, and after teaching episodes, based on self-assessment (Soslau, 2012). This ability allows teachers to strategically move away from planned curriculum components to better support the contextual needs of their pupils and recognize the need to refine, change and try out different decisions 31 while paying close attention to the impact on their pupils. Soslau (2012) studied supervisory conferences to identify conditions under which opportunities to learn how to develop adaptive teaching expertise flourish. The results of the study suggested that that university-based supervisors should employ specific supervision styles and discourse types during post-lesson observation conferences to help student teachers develop adaptive competencies such as justifying decision making, balancing experimentation and risk to pupils, and deliberately use contextual and pupil cues to make adjustments to their instructional decisions. Telling as a supervisory style, for instance, is unlikely to promote the critical discourse aimed at developing adaptive expertise, since this supervisory style does not include the use of justificatory or critical discourse. 2.5.3 Origin of clinical supervision of teachers Clinical supervision was invented by Morris Cogan at Harvard University in the mid 1950s. At that time, Cogan and colleges were coordinating Harvard’s Master of Arts in teaching program, which prepared liberal arts students for careers as teachers. A central feature of this program was a closely supervised student teaching experience. However, both the students who enrolled in the Master of Arts program and their university supervisors, recognized that internship was not providing a satisfactory induction into the role of teacher. In response to this need for a more meaningful and productive student teaching experience, Cogan developed the concept and techniques that came to be known as clinical supervision (Pajak, 2000). The practice of planning, observing a lesson, and then meeting with the teacher afterward in a conference to discuss strengths and weakness was certainly not new in the 1950s. Indeed, the sequence of a pre-teaching conference, a classroom visit, and a follow-up conference was suggested as a means of encouraging self-analysis by teachers as early as 1925 (Pajak, 2000). 32 However, it was Morris Cogan—and later his student Robert Goldhammer—who elaborated extensively on this three-step procedure. Cogan viewed clinical supervision as a vehicle for developing professionally responsible teachers who were capable of analyzing their own performance, who were open to change and assistance form others, and who were, above all, self-directing (Cogan, 1973). The word “clinical” in clinical supervision was selected by Cogan to draw attention to the emphasis placed on classrooms observation, analysis of in-class events, and the focus on the teachers’ and students’ in-class behavior. In this sense, clinical supervision is different from general supervision, which subsumes operations that take place principally outside the classroom, such as writing and revision of curriculums, the preparation of units and material of instructions, the development of processes and instruments for reporting to parents, etc. In contrast, clinical supervision is focused upon the improvement of the teacher’s classroom instruction. The principal data of clinical supervision are classrooms events: what the teacher and students do in the classroom during the teaching-learning processes. Clinical supervision may therefore be defined as “the rationale and practice designed to improve the teachers’ classroom performance” (Cogan, 1973, p. 9). The precise explanation of what “clinical” entails in supervision is necessary, since the term has caused and still seems to cause a substantial amount of resistance among professionals that associate it with connotations of pathology, clinical medicine, or clinical psychology. Cogan insisted in the use of the word clinical because he thought that this word describes accurately the heart essence of the practice of clinical supervision. Regarding to the resistance he faced, he commented: Several colleagues at Harvard objected forcefully to the writer’s use of the word… The author countered by citing Webster’s Third New International Dictionary to the effect 33 that clinical also means “of, relating to, or conducted in as if in a clinic” and “involving or depending on direct observation”. The reference to dependence on direct observation seemed to catch exactly one of the distinguishing characteristics of clinical supervision. The dictionary further supports arguments for the appropriateness of clinical by referring to “the presentation, analysis, and treatment of actual cases and concrete problems in some especial field” (Cogan, 1973, p. 8). The emphasis in the in-situ character of the practice of clinical supervision was also explained by Goldhammer—a student and subsequent colleague of Cogan—in an attempt to clarify the conceptualization of the term “clinical”. Goldhammer (1969) conceived the face-to-face relationships between supervisors and teachers as fundamental to clinical supervision. In a similar fashion than Cogan, he distinguished clinical supervision, which is intended to imply up close supervision from other forms of supervision that are conducted from distance. Thus, the term clinical supervision denotes supervision of actual professional practice, of actual professional behavior. What the teacher does is central in clinical supervision, of which one hallmark is that the supervisor is an observer in the classroom and that the observational data they collect represent the principal foci of subsequent analysis. Goldhammer (1969) comment that a condition of intimacy is implied by this description, which is yet another reason why the term “clinical” is appropriate: “given close observation, detailed observational data, face-to-face interaction between supervisor and teacher, and an intensity of focus that binds the two together in an intimate professional relationship, the meaning of ‘clinical’ is pretty well filled out” (p. 54). Clinical supervision of instruction has manifested in a variety of forms since its origination at Harvard University in the mid- 1950s as a way to improve the induction of beginning teachers by offering practical support in the form of observation-based feedback and 34 problem-solving skills. Since then, research on the effect of clinical supervision has revealed that clinical supervision has positive effects on teachers and students (Bates et al., 2011; 2009). Specifically, clinical supervision has been found to improve: teachers’ ability to reflect on their instruction and engage in abstract thinking; teachers’ perception on the control they have on what they do; collegiality, openness and communication between teachers, supervisors and principals; reduction of teacher anxiety and burnout; retention of teachers in the profession; teachers’ sense of autonomy, personal efficacy and self-growth; teachers attitudes towards the supervisory process; and students’ achievements and attitudes (Acheson & Gall, 2003; Field, 2002). Not surprisingly, these outcomes were affected by the quality of clinical supervision provided for teachers. Researchers generally have found better outcomes when supervisors have been trained in some tradition of clinical supervision or when clinical supervision has been used over an extensive period of time (Darling-Hammond et al., 1999; Darling-Hammond, 2014). 2.5.4 Major traditions of clinical supervision There are several versions of clinical supervision that differ substantially in terms of philosophical underpinnings, pedagogical emphasis, and conceptions of teaching and learning. The adoption of a particular approach, therefore, should be done considering the particular philosophical beliefs and schools settings of the supervisor and his students. Edward Pajak (2000) describes four families of supervision, along with their associated supervisory practices, found in general education: the original clinical supervision models, the humanistic/artistic model, the technical/didactic model, and the developmental/reflective models. To develop individual supervisory approaches that contribute to the goal of providing all students with high-quality education, supervisors working with teachers at different stages of their careers should utilize ideas and methods from different models, not at random, but connected with the 35 accomplishment of a coherent and defensible set of educational purposes in a particular context (Zeichner, 2000). 2.5.4.1 The original clinical models The original models of clinical supervision were very eclectic in their view, reflecting what might look today as a mix of different traditions such as empiricism, phenomenology, behaviorism, and developmentalism with technique (Pajak, 2000). The conceptual view inherent in these original models, was built on contemporary psychological theory, and the diversity of philosophical viewpoints represented in them provided the seeds for many subsequent variations on the clinical supervision theme in later years. These original models of clinical supervision generally emphasized the importance of positive collegial relationships—a term coined by Cogan—between supervisors and teachers in promoting teacher growth and in facilitating the collaborative discovery of meaning in classroom events. The models of both Goldhammer (1969) and Cogan (1973) proposed that one of the main objectives of clinical supervision is to support teachers in developing a unique and personal style, practicing self-awareness, critical analysis of their own behavior and increasing autonomy. These models are decisively democratic insofar they clearly state the need that supervisors and teachers co-create, negotiate and discuss together the focus of the clinical cycle they will work on. The source of data that becomes the focus of jointed work of supervisors and teachers are verbatim transcripts of words and classroom behavior, audio, and video recordings. Goldhammer’s framework involves a five-step process: (a) a pre-observation conference, (b) the observation, (c) the analysis and strategy, (d) the supervision conference, (e) the post-conference analysis (Goldhammer et al., 1980). Cogan’s clinical supervision process is similar but it involves more steps—although he stated that certain phases may be altered or omitted 36 depending on the development of working relationship between supervisor and teacher—and does not include the post-conference analysis that the supervisor does on his own proposed by Goldhammer. Cogan’s seven-step process includes: (a) establishing the teacher-supervisor relationship, (b) planning with the teacher, (c) planning the structure of the observation, (d) observing the instruction, (e) analyzing the teaching and learning process, (f) planning the structure of the conference, (g) the conference, (h) renewed planning (Cogan, 1973). Thus, in the original clinical models, prior to the classroom observation of the student’s performance, the supervisor and students meet for a pre-observation conference to discuss a proposed teaching activity. For example, the students present the supervisor with a lesson plan and share information and ideas for identifying opportunities to support the child’s goal to perform certain role in make-believe play. During the observation, the supervisor visits the classroom in an unobstructive way and records observations of the student’s ability to support the child in accurately performing the chosen role. Following the observation, analysis can be done collaboratively or independently by teacher and supervisor, with focus on lessons outcomes, critical incidents, and salient patters of students and teacher behavior. This analysis can be done during the supervision conference or previous to it, but in any case, it is during the supervision conference when the supervisor provides feedback, calling attention especially to patterns of behavior that demonstrate the teacher’s strength, with the intention of building upon them and supporting the teacher in their own personal teaching style (Acheson & Gall, 2003). 2.5.4.2 Humanistic/artistic models The humanistic/artistic models contrast somehow with the empirical orientation and emphasis on procedure that are evident in the original models of clinical supervision. Blumberg (1980) speaks directly to this point, with a view that comes close to existentialism. He claims 37 that the interpersonal relationships between teachers and supervisors is of primary importance in supervision, not the fidelity with which supervisors follow a series of predetermined phases or stages. Eisner (1982) argued for the artistic nature of supervision and urged practitioners to move beyond the technical components. He thought that the application of empirical procedures in supervision threatens to displace the vital elements of intuition, artistry, and idiosyncrasy from both teaching and supervision. Supervisors, according to Eisner, should function as connoisseurs and critics who help teachers understand the artistry of their teaching through rich descriptions and intuitive, aesthetic interpretations of classrooms experiences. According to Blumberg (1980), the nature and quality of human relationships that develop between supervisors and teachers as they work together is the most important element in supervision. He points out that the consensus among a majority of teachers is that supervision is ritualistic and generally a waste of time. Supervisors are generally viewed by these teachers as uncaring, uninvolved, or domineering. Supervisors in turn, may view such teachers as secretive and overly defensive. The causes of such cynicism are multiple and seem to arise largely from the organizational environment in which supervision is conducted. Given this situation, Blumberg proposes that supervisors should concentrate more on issues of process and interpersonal relations than on structure or technique because supervisors work more effectively with teachers when they overcome sources of conflict, mistrust, and misunderstandings that are inherent in schools as organizations. Thus, Blumberg is more interested in helping supervisors to understand the effect of their behavior on others, along with the types of relationships with teachers that their behavior may bring about. Blumberg (1980) avoids presenting a series of stages or phases as recommendations for how supervisors should work with teachers. He considers such devices to be artificial, 38 mechanistic and rationalistic. He believes that what truly matters in supervision and what is most likely to make a difference with teachers is the manner in which the supervisors think about supervision and understand human relations. A more humane and organic understanding and practice of supervision may be possible by examining the relationships among various sources of information. Blumberg believes that a supervisor needs data about (a) oneself, (b) the teacher, (c) the teacher’s behavior, and (d) the students’ behavior. Thus, he proposes a reconceptualization of supervision in terms of interpersonal intervention. He says that the outcomes of supervision should go beyond improving instruction to include the personal and professional development of both teachers and supervisors. Eisner (1982) claims that supervisors who use the artistic approach do not simply note the presence and count the number of behavioral events that they observe in a classroom. They pay closer attention to the expressive nature of classroom behaviors, and the meaning that events have for teachers and students who experience them. The unique contributions of an individual teacher to the educational development of students can be fully appreciated only when the meaning attached to behavioral events is seriously considered. During classroom observation, supervisors who follow Eisner’s model, use richly descriptive language to record the classroom context and the events that occur in an effort to capture the expressive and subtle qualities of the experience as fully as possible. An eloquent description is important in order to communicate what was seen and heard in a way that preserves the complexity of classroom reality and enables the teacher and others to view it from a different perspective (Pajak, 2000). 2.5.4.3 Technical/didactic models The technical/didactic models came to the scene in the 1980s and offered a structured and systematic approach to supervision, emphasizing the mastery of discrete techniques and the 39 achievement of organizational goals. Philosophically, they stand in opposition to the humanistic/artistic approaches that preceded them. The technical supervision strategy is similar in operation to the work of the original clinical supervision models in that it follows a process of conducting a planning conference (which is shorter than in the original clinical models), quietly observing performance (collecting both qualitative and quantitative data), and following up with a feedback conference. The technical/didactical models however, accentuate the step-by-step procedures introduced in the original clinical models. Acheson & Gall (2003) for example, subdivide the three-stage clinical sequence—planning, observation, and conferencing—into 32 distinct supervisory techniques. According to Pajak (2000), the technical and didactic models emphasize techniques and employ classroom observation as a source of feedback to reinforce one or mode predetermined models of teaching to which teachers are encouraged to conform. The focus on effective teaching is central to the models labeled technical/didactical because the underlying view is that there is a knowledge base about effective teaching that can be used to guide the supervisory process. In Acheson & Gall (2003) words: At appropriate points the supervisor can make a teacher aware of effective techniques that the teacher might consider incorporating into his or her teaching repertoire. We do not assume that every classroom is unique and therefore the teacher must discover on his or her own a set of instructional principles for that situation (p. 13). Thus, for supporters of the technical/didactic models of supervision, the main advantage of their approach is that it involves practical relevance, by offering to supervisors a broad array of observation techniques (that generate both quantitative and qualitative data) and conferencing techniques that might help them to advance the professional development of teachers. 40 2.5.4.4 Developmental model A major assumption of developmental supervision is that there is no single best method of improving the performance and facilitating the professional growth of supervisees. By assessing the developmental characteristics of teachers, supervisors can select and use an approach that best matches the individual with whom they are working and the specific problem or concern at hand (Glickman et al., 2017). This diagnosis takes into account teachers’ cognitive abilities, their level of professional development, and their stage in life. Basic to this view of supervision is the ability to “read” teachers to determine which strategies to use with them and to shift from one supervisory approach to another. The overall goal of developmental supervision though, is always the promotion of teachers’ capacities for decision making and abstract thinking (Caruso & Fawcett, 2005). The intended role of the supervisor is to help teachers to think at more abstract levels when they face a novel or unfamiliar experience (Pajak, 2000). The process of developmental supervision suggested by Glickman et al. (2001) is similar to the original clinical models of Cogan (1973) and Goldhammer (1969). It includes a preconference; observation; analysis, interpretation and strategy (by the supervisor); post conference; and critique (of the clinical cycle itself). According to Glickman et al. (2001), the ultimate aim of the supervisor should be reflective, autonomous teachers facilitated by nondirective supervision. However, the fact that many teachers are functioning at developmental levels or in situations in which self-direction is not feasible means that the supervisor must change their approach according to teachers’ learning needs. Developmental supervision recognizes that humans can learn through self-exploration, collaboration, and conditioning. Related to these modes of learning, Glickman et al. (2001) suggested three orientations to supervision: nondirective, collaborative, and directive. They recommend that supervisors 41 determine the strategy to use with teachers by assessing their levels of development and expertise, and their commitment to solving the problem at hand. This can be accomplished by observing teachers up close and by engaging in dialogue with them. When doing so, the supervisor should avoid viewing teacher development as a linear irreversible succession of stages. Instead, they should take a more comprehensive conceptualization that includes the influence of context and multiple domains of intellect (Field, 2002). For instance, highly successful teachers may regress to a concrete and imitative operational level when faced with having to teach a new subject area in which they have little expertise or a grade level they have never taught before. As well, teachers’ levels of commitment may vary depending on the subject area or grade level they teach. A nondirective supervisory orientation is most effective with expert teachers who accept full responsibility for solving the problem. Decisions are in teachers’ hands as they have high levels of development, expertise and commitment. They can examine a problem from multiple perspectives, generate solutions to it, and follow through on implementing a plan of action. The supervisor’s role in this case is to help teachers think through their actions by listening, paraphrasing, and asking clarifying questions. A collaborative orientation is appropriate when teachers are operating at moderate developmental models. Supervisors and teachers share the responsibility for solving the problem they are facing. Both are equally committed to finding a solution and have similar levels of expertise. They operate on a level of parity. In contrast, in a directive orientation, the decision-making shifts to the supervisor as the teacher is at a low level of development or is not very interested in solving the problem. Glickman et al. (2001) make a further distinction between directive control and directive informational strategies. Directive control supervisory approach is used when supervisors are committed to resolving an issue and 42 carrying out the resolution, but teachers are not so inclined or may not understand its importance. In this case the decision-making rests with the supervisor, who determines solutions and sets expectations and timelines. Directive informational approach is used with teachers who want to do well, but who do not have the skills, experience, or knowledge of an issue. In this case the role of the supervisors is to take responsibility by identifying alternative solutions to a problem and laying out the necessary structure and support for the teachers, for example by modeling techniques and offering ongoing feedback (Caruso & Fawcett, 2005; Glickman et al., 2001). After analyzing the research on teachers’ preferences for supervisory approach, Glickman et al. (2001) conclude that: (a) experienced teachers vary in their preferences between nondirective and collaborative, although the latter is preferred by the majority of teachers; (b) directive forms of supervision are preferred by only a small minority of experienced teachers; and (c) student and beginning teachers initially prefer a directive informational approach or collaborative approach of supervision. However, Glickman et al. (2001) warn that this research must be interpreted with caution, since it is likely that the approach some teachers say they prefer might not be the most beneficial for them in a particular situation. Thus, proponents of developmental supervision stress the need that supervisors have the skills to conduct all three approaches to supervision, since teachers require different interventions at different stages in their development. 2.5.4.5 Reflective model Reflective practice includes a collection of models of teaching and supervision that evoke Goldhammer’s writings over the meaninglessness and irrelevance of much of what students experience in schools. Therefore, reflective supervision aims to “problematize” teaching by consciously challenging taken-for-granted assumptions, beliefs, theories and practices. 43 Supervisors and teachers should deliberately and actively address moral and ethics issues relating to the nature of professional knowledge, social reconstruction, historical embeddedness, political justice and cultural responsiveness (Pajak, 2000). Reflective models of supervision differ among themselves, but generally they include a pre-observation conference, an observation phase, data analysis, and feedback conference. The post-observation analysis is usually omitted as a distinct phase, but the reflective approaches emphasize ongoing introspection by the teacher and the supervisor. According to Schön, practice that can be called reflective is, by nature, rooted in action and the immediacy of the situation the person is involved in. From his point of view, an approach to solving problems that only consider predetermined techniques that are supposed to be applied in a general fashion, regardless of the context, is not very powerful when a practitioner is faced with non-routine problems. For this reason, Schön suggested that reflective practitioners adopt a problem setting approach instead of a technical problem solving approach (Clarke, 1995). Thus, Schön’s approach to reflective practice contest the purely technical approach to teacher education where student teachers are conceived as passive recipients of knowledge and have little agency on their own development. In contrast, Schön sees student teachers as responsible and capable of guiding and shaping their own work, as they engage in a sort of “conversation” or dialogue with their setting in which “they come to new understandings of situations and new possibilities for action through a spiraling process of framing and reframing” (Clarke, 1995, p. 245). Reflective teaching involves reflection-in action or reflecting on a phenomenon and on the ways one spontaneously thinks and acts. Thus, reflection occurs at the same time that one is teaching and serves as a guide to further action. Reflection-in-action requires thinking on your 44 feet or thinking about what one is doing while doing it (Schön, 1983). However, Garman (1986) argues that, in some cases, a process of reflection using remote memories and images, as well as memory from recent events, can be very useful. Garman distinguishes the reflection process that is done on an immediate situation—reflection on action—from the reflection that relies on memory—reflection through recollection—, indicating that both are important for examining practice (although one may be more appropriate than the other in particular situation). Reflection on action is a procedure for studying events at hand to develop elucidation for useful practice, whereas reflection through recollection uses as data remote incidents for which one does not have available stable records (often written). According to Garman (1986), reflection can be considered a formal way to generate knowledge, which is a critical element of teachers’ professional empowerment and professional identity. The role of the supervisor is to provide the teacher with collaborative help that encourages them to become the primary knowledge generator. A reflective supervisor tries to help, exhort, and provoke the teacher into reflecting on events in the classroom. The teacher’s reflection is supported by the supervisor’s own reflection-in-action on the process of supervision. In this way, the supervisor models reflection by verbalizing what they see, how it is interpreted, possible ways in which it could be tested, and eventual actions might follow from that interpretation (Pajak, 2000). In order to help teachers develop the capacity for reflective teaching, a supervisor should assume the stance of a coach, particularly paying attention to three levels of interaction: between the student and a phenomenon (e.g. a concept); between the teacher and the students, and between the supervisor and the teacher. The supervisor task entails to directly observe and record a very detailed description of what he observes in the classrooms, trying to respond to questions relevant to these levels of interaction (Pajak, 2000). 45 2.5.5 A New Framework for Conceptualizing Supervision of Preservice Teachers Although a variety of frameworks have emerged over decades to orient teachers’ supervision, new conceptualization of supervision have gained interest as PSTs spend more time in clinical placements. Notably, Burns and Yendol-Hoppey (2015) built upon Glickman et al. (2017) developmental supervision to conceptualize supervision as teaching and develop a framework for understanding it. Building on their own work, Burns et al. (2020) engaged in a qualitative meta synthesis that expanded over six years to create a framework for guiding and informing field supervision while paying attention to purpose, context, population and developmental level. They saw the need to create such a framework because, despite the field of supervision had produce some approaches for teacher supervision, they were not specific for PST supervision since most of them also addressed in-service teacher supervision. Burns et al. (2020) argue that a comprehensive framework for PST supervision would assist communication by creating a common language and a structure that facilitates understanding the complexity of the clinical aspects of teacher education. To create the framework, they used concepts within the teacher education and supervision literature, as well as from psychology. Using the findings of empirical studies from 2001 through 2017 as data, they conducted a comprehensive meta synthesis with the aim of articulating a framework to illustrate the scope and nature of teacher candidate supervision in a period marked by increased emphasis in clinical preparation. The framework proposed by Burns et al. (2020) is composed by two supervision tasks and eight high-leverage supervision practices. PST supervision task is defined as “an area that needs to be understood and developed in order to create a clinical context that facilitates teacher candidate learning” (p. 222). The first supervision task—collaboration and community—refers to establishing and maintaining relationships in order to cultivate the learning environment. The 46 second supervision task—curricular and instructional support—is related to meeting the demands of learning to teach in clinical contexts through practices that provide specific instructional support. To actualize these two equally important tasks, the authors identified eight high-leverage practices (see Table 3). Table 3 Tasks and High-Leverage Practices Involved in TC Supervision Task 1: Collaboration and community High-leverage practices of task 1 Definition ¨ Creating a culture of collegiality ¨ Developing interpersonal familiarity ¨ Developing quality placements ¨ Helping educators cope with stress Pedagogical routines that create the conditions for a trusting environment where all voices are honored and respected Pedagogical routines that allow TCs, school-based teacher educators, and university-based teacher educators to get to know one another Pedagogical routines that formalize structures and processes to create, sustain, and renew schools as a clinical context for the growth and development of the TC Pedagogical routines that support educators’ socio-emotional needs in the clinical context Task 2: Curricular and instructional support High-leverage practices of task 2 Definition ¨ Fostering reflective thinking ¨ Fostering theory and practice connections ¨ Providing focused instructional feedback ¨ Strengthening curriculum planning Pedagogical routines that promote reflection on the impact of the educator’s actions as well as the larger historical, sociocultural, and political context Pedagogical routines that help educators move away from isolated theoretical and practical learning Pedagogical routines that prepare for and provide targeted feedback on teaching practices Pedagogical routines that develop understanding of instructional planning 47 Note: Adapted with permission from “A framework for naming the scope and nature of teacher candidate supervision in clinically-based teacher preparation: Tasks, high-leverage practices, and pedagogical routines of practice”, by R. Burns, J. Jacobs, D. Yendol- Hoppey, 2020, Teacher Educator, 55(2), p.221-223. To characterize high-leverage practices, Burns et al., (2020, 2016a) drew from previous work by Grossman et al. (2009) where these authors identified six characteristics of high-leverage teaching practices in terms of what PSTs should begin to enact during their teacher education programs (p. 277). These characteristics are: ¨ Practices that occur with high frequency in teaching; ¨ Practices that novices can enact in classrooms across different curricula or instructional approaches; ¨ Practices that novices can actually begin to master; ¨ Practices that allow novices to learn more about students and about teaching; ¨ Practices that preserve the integrity and complexity of teaching; and ¨ Practices that are research-based and have the potential to improve student achievement. Examples of high-leverage practices might include leading a guided-reading lesson in elementary reading, reading aloud to children, or engaging students in choral counting in mathematics. Burns et al. (2020) used the framework proposed by Grossman et al. (2009) to conceptualize high-leverage practices of supervisors when engaging in actualizing supervision tasks. Thus, they suggest that high -leverage practices in supervision have the following characteristics: (1) occur with high frequency in the clinical context, (2), can be enacted by supervisors across different clinical contexts, (3) can be learned and mastered, (4) are research-based, and (5) improve TC learning. 48 In addition to supervision tasks and high-leverage supervision practices, the framework created by Burns et al.(2020) includes eighty four pedagogical routines of supervisory practice. Pedagogical routines of practice are defined as “concrete and intentionally designed activities used to actualized high-leverage TC supervision practices and tasks to foster TC learning” (p. 224). Each of the eight high-leverage practices is connected with several pedagogical routines although some high-leverage practices contain more pedagogical routines than others, being “fostering reflective thinking” the practice associated with more routines (22) and “strengthening curriculum planning” the practice connected with less routines (2). Given the usefulness of pedagogical routines identified by Burns et al. (2020) to provide a map of well-defined actions enacted in supervisory practice, an excerpt of them is presented in Table 4. The authors highlighted the importance of supervisors enacting pedagogical routines pertaining to the two tasks (collaboration and community and curricular and instructional support), in a balanced fashion. The framework as a whole is not indented to be a fixed formula, but rather a useful conceptual tool with the potential to developing practice by providing language for describing nuances of TC supervision. More specifically, Burn et al., (2020) argue that the framework can contribute to the field of teacher education by helping supervisors in becoming more conscious of their work and, at the same time, more skilled and technically competent as they target specific aspects of supervisory practice. Table 4 Examples of Pedagogical Routines Involved in TC Supervision High leverage practice 1: Creating a culture of collegiality ¨ Attend professional development experiences (e.g. workshops, trainings, conferences) together (i.e. TCs, school-based teacher educators, university-based teacher educators) ¨ Coach TCs in learning how to use professional language in conversations and other forms of communication ¨ Engage in collaborative research projects with school-based teacher educators and TCs ¨ Position oneself as a learner and colleague by listening first, letting others talk, and recognizing assets in others 49 ¨ Visit schools and classrooms weekly (not just a one-time visit) to communicate, check progress, ask questions, co-plan lessons, and strengthen relationships with school-based teacher educators to involve everyone in the TCs’ growth and development High leverage practice 2: Developing interpersonal familiarity ¨ Ask TCs about their experiences to become aware of their biographies and needs as an adult learner ¨ Recognize and embrace vulnerability and humility by sharing beliefs, stories of practice, and information about oneself as the university-based teacher educator High leverage practice 3: Developing quality placements ¨ Cluster TCs at one school site as opposed to multiple sites to allow greater depth of work and sustained time to understand school and classroom contexts ¨ Create a handbook to clarify roles, processes, and procedures as well as provide resources ¨ Hold timely and regular partnership meetings that include brainstorming, goal setting, and building consensus ¨ Negotiate roles and responsibilities to collaboratively define observable, measurable, and achievable expectations for TC, school-based teacher educator, and university-based teacher educator ¨ Provide accessible ongoing professional development (e.g. graduate coursework, workshops, literature) on clinical practice for school-based teacher educators High leverage practice 4: Helping educators cope with stress ¨ Deliberately highlight the resourceful aspects of a problematic situation ¨ Facilitate conversations about assignments, expectations, and university requirements (e.g. scope and sequence) with TCs and school-based teacher educators ¨ Use humor in conversations High leverage practice 5: Fostering reflective thinking ¨ Allow TCs to grapple with decisions ¨ Ask different types of questions (e.g. open-ended, probing, clarifying) ¨ Ask TCs questions to explore reasons why lessons were successful as well as consequences arising from struggles ¨ Identify and reflect upon mismatch between beliefs and practice ¨ Keep (i.e. TCs, teacher educators) a reflective journal (e.g. online discussion boards, blogs, paper-and-pencil books) of thoughts, feelings, questions, and beliefs in relation to self, practice, and society that are accessible to everyone ¨ Have TCs take an active role in their growth by self-assessing, leading reflective conversations, setting performance targets, and developing action plan ¨ Have regular and ongoing reflective conversations about specific issues of practice to challenge TC thinking while attending to TC emotional needs ¨ Model reflection by offering alternative interpretations and perspectives ¨ Use video as a catalyst for conversation and reflection (e.g. have TCs select video clips of teaching for discussion, watch video clips together, ask TC to explain reasoning) High leverage practice 6: Fostering theory and practice connections ¨ Ask questions that help TCs name and reflect on content related components of lesson ¨ Model teaching by teaching children to connect course concepts with classroom experiences ¨ Use tools (e.g. organizers, lesson reflection guide, field guide) to focus TCs on content High leverage practice 7: Providing focused instructional feedback ¨ Contextualize feedback based on the biography of the TC ¨ Focus on one or two areas of growth when giving feedback 50 ¨ Focus on assisting (i.e. supervision) rather than assessing (i.e. evaluation) in order to distinguish between the functions of supervision and evaluation (e.g. announced and scheduled observations that will be evaluated) ¨ Give concrete examples as suggestions for improvement High leverage practice 8: Strengthening curriculum planning ¨ Connect TCs to resources through a shared space (e.g. chat rooms, discussion boards) to strengthen conversations about instructional planning ¨ Use a template for lesson planning Note: Adapted with permission from “A framework for naming the scope and nature of teacher candidate supervision in clinically-based teacher preparation: Tasks, high-leverage practices, and pedagogical routines of practice”, by R. Burns, J. Jacobs, D. Yendol- Hoppey, 2020, Teacher Educator, 55(2), p.225-227. 2.6 The Complex Role of University Supervisors Although many educators responsible for the professional development of teachers such as method instructors, cooperating teachers, school administrators can make use of clinical supervision techniques (Acheson & Gall, 2003), the role of the university supervisor is unique as the liaison between the university and school district partners overseeing the practicum experience. Bates et al. (2011) described university supervisors as holding one of the most essential and valuable roles in PST clinical education because they can use their knowledge to provide a powerful learning experience for teacher candidates and cooperating teachers. Because of their position between the university and school district university supervisors are often the primary contact for educational reform implementation in clinical experiences. Moreover, Bates et al. (2009) noted the advantage university supervisors have to serve as potential role models and sounding boards for integrating university theory into classroom teaching practices. The work of university supervisors is considered a highly complex professional function that requires a variety of pedagogical skills (Burns & Badiali, 2016). In addition, if their work is situated within the context of school-university partnerships, they must build relationships with a variety of stakeholders. This includes the need for spending a substantial amount of time 51 working in schools and the ability to build trust through maintain open and frequent communication (Jacobs et al., 2017). As a representative of the teacher education program in the school, the university supervisor is the responsible for establishing coherence between the understandings developed in the field and the teacher education program’s vision, consistency that has been considered as a requirement for powerful student teaching experience (Grossman et al., 2009; Grossman & McDonald, 2008; Hammerness, 2006). To connect the situations in practice with understanding developed in the program, the university supervisor must perform deliberate pedagogical efforts made not only based on the particular and situational inferences made from classroom observation, but also taking into account the programs and the PSTs’ goals. However, as Cuenca (2012) points out this is an exceedingly complex undertaking. Adding to the complexity of university supervisor’ work, they are often responsible for communicating to cooperating teachers the expectations and goals of a teacher education program, as well as maintaining good relationships with placement sites, managing conflict and/or smoothing over troubled relationships between student teachers and cooperating teachers should they arise (Cuenca, 2012). Although research on clinical field experiences in teacher education has addressed the work of university supervisor, the preparation for this critical role remain underexplored and recent research has stressed the need to understand effective supervisory methods (Donovan & Cannon, 2018; Jacobs et al., 2017). Teacher candidates perceive university supervisors as critical mentors who manage the clinical teaching experience, serve as confidants, and provide feedback on performance evaluations (Fayne, 2007). Although teacher candidates recognize supervisors’ essential role to learning to teach, they have pointed out the problematic nature and ineffective support from a lack of supervisory expertise in practice (Hastings, 2004, 2008). In a multiple 52 case study exploring opportunities to develop adaptive teaching expertise during supervisory conferences conducted by Soslau (2012), participants stated that university supervisors should remain current with field-based practices in the modern classroom and have a relationship with and understanding of their communities and schools. 2.7 Persistent Undervaluation of University Supervisors’ Work Given the importance of field supervision in the learning of pre-service teachers and the complexity of supervisory work, it would seem logical that the supervision of student teachers warrants special attention and support within teacher education programs. Unfortunately, however, this has not been the case. Many teacher education institutions ignore the complexity of the work of supervising student teachers and those who conduct the work of supervisors are often treated as second-class citizens in both subtle and no so subtle ways (Cuenca, 2012; Zeichner, 2005). Despite the relevance attributed to field experiences in teacher preparation by PST themselves, the devaluation of supervision within clinical experiences and teacher preparation has been common in schools and colleges of education (Beck & Kosnik, 2002). The low regard for the clinical component of learning to teach has been found particularly evident in larger teacher education programs (Burns et al., 2016a). Notwithstanding studies suggesting that university supervisors are critical in linking programs goals to PST classroom practice (Lee, 2011) and play a key role in PST supervision (Bates et al., 2011), there has been controversy in the field of teacher education regarding why supervision is important and who should be supervising. As a result of the lack of value assigned to the supervision of prospective teachers, supervision in teacher education programs has often been delegated to new faculty, graduate students, adjunct faculty, and/or retired teachers, who might not have a strong supervision 53 knowledge base and skill set in supervision and teacher education (Burns et al., 2016; Jacobs et al., 2017; Zeichner, 2005). Cuenca (2012) suggests that the undervaluation of university supervisors’ work within teacher education is in part due to the inverse relationship in higher education between status and proximity to the field. It is common that direct involvement with schools is not considered as valuable as research, publication, and teaching campus-based courses. Generally, the entire enterprise of teacher education is not taken very seriously in universities (Zeichner, 2006) and as Darling-Hammond (2010) has pointed out, colleges of education are often seen as “cash cows” offering little else to the prestige of institutions. Some consequences of the low regard assigned to teacher education in general and university supervisors in particular, are that they are typically underpaid compared to other faculty, their work is not well supported and they often have a limited voice within institutions (Cuenca, 2012). 2.8 Chapter Summary In this chapter, I began by providing context for the results of this study through a review of the state of ECE in Chile, describing its historical trajectory, the structure of the ECE provision system, the professional situation of ECTs, and the pending issues in the ECE field identified by extant research. Next, a review of supervision of PSTs was provided, including its origins, the major traditions that have informed supervision of PSTs, and the main tasks and practices involved in it. Various definitions, approaches to practicum and supervision, as well as styles of supervision were discussed. Because the question guiding this study is about university supervisors’ understanding and experiences of supervision, this chapter concluded with a review of the complexity of supervisors’ role. In the next chapter, an overview of the epistemological 54 stance I took as part of the phenomenography process is provided, followed by a discussion of the methodology and the methods deployed in this study. 55 Chapter 3: Methodology and Methods 3.1 Overview In this chapter I present phenomenography, the methodology I used to answer the research question about university supervisors’ conceptions of supervision. Next, I describe the procedures followed to select the sample and recruit participants as well as the data collection methods, including ethical considerations used in this study. The chapter concludes with a description of the procedures involved in analyzing phenomenographic interviews and a detailed report of the actual steps taken to analyze the data. 3.2 Ontological View of Reality and Epistemological Position Ontology refers to beliefs regarding reality, or what kinds of things make up the world (Glesne, 2011). In the context of qualitative research, ontology addresses this important question: What exists in the human world that we can acquire knowledge about? (Moon & Blackman, 2014). Thus, ontology helps researchers recognize how certain they can be about the nature of objects they are researching, and therefore what truth claims can be made about reality. Naïve Realism on one end of the spectrum of ontological positions, postulates the existence of a single reality, a real world independent of human experience, that can be understood and experienced as truth (Moses & Knutsen, 2012). In contrast, in the opposite end of the spectrum, relativism assumes that reality exists in the mind of individuals and therefore there is no reality beyond subjects. In this study I adopt a bounded relativist position, considering knowledge as a subjective view of reality but susceptible to be shared in space and time by groups of people within boundaries (Moon & Blackman, 2014). In this regard, the conceptions of supervision identified in this study represent multiple mental constructions of reality coexisting within the group of university supervisors interviewed. 56 Epistemology is the branch of philosophy concerned with the study of the nature of knowledge (Glesne, 2011). It focuses on “what constitutes a knowledge claim; how knowledge can be produced or acquired; and how the extent of its applicability can be determined” (Moon & Blackman, 2014, p. 1171). This study works within an interpretivist epistemology, which assumes that interpretations of reality are culturally derived and historically situated (Glesne, 2011). Interpretivism arose as a contradistinction to positivism’s attempts to understand and explain human social reality. Positivism assumes that reality exists independent, or outside of the individual mind; meaning exists within objects, independent of the subject and therefore a direct understanding of the world is possible. Instead, interpretivism argues that knowledge of the world is not found, but made and re-made by the light of our own mediated experiences (Lincoln et al., 2018; Schwandt, 2000). In that sense, knowledge is deeply contextual, filtered by our relationships with the world, by the languages we speak, and by the social, cultural, and historically situated environments we inhabit (Crotty, 1998; Lincoln et al., 2018). Thus, the process by which people assign meaning to the world implies that knowledge and meaning are always partial, conditional, and perspectival instead of complete, timeless or universal. In the view of interpretivism we are all born into a world of meaning that is always interpreted through mind (Schwandt, 2000), therefore what becomes of importance is to know how people interpret and make meaning of some object, action, perception, event, etc. These constructed realities are viewed as existing not only in the individuals’ minds, but also as social constructions because “individualistic perspectives interact with language and thought of the wider society” (Glesne, 2011, p. 8). In the case of this study, I used phenomenography as a methodology to gain knowledge about the perspectives on supervision of several university supervisors in ECTEPs, with the aim to identify patterns of thought within that group. 57 3.3 Phenomenography The research question developed for this study asks: What are university supervisors’ conceptions of supervision of early childhood pre-service teachers? To answer this question, I chose phenomenography as the methodology that would better support the identification of potential answers. Phenomenography is a systematic and interpretive approach to exploring the qualitatively differing ways phenomena are conceptualized. It was developed in the early 1970’s by a research group in the Department of Education at the University of Gothenburg in Sweden, led by the educational psychologist Ference Marton. Phenomenography adopts a second order perspective, meaning that attention is focused on the perceptions of others. For example, in educational contexts phenomenographers typically seek to describe “the world as the learner experience it” (Richardson, 1999, p.57). The difference between a second order perspective and a first order perspective is that in the later the researcher is oriented towards the world and makes statements about it, whereas in the former, the researcher focuses on making statements about people’s ideas about the world, or their experience of it (Marton, 1981). 3.3.1 Aim of phenomenography Traditionally, the object of study of phenomenographic research has been described as variation in human meaning, understanding, conceptions (Marton, 1981) or, more recently, awareness or ways of experiencing a particular phenomenon (Marton & Booth, 1997). The unit of phenomenographic research is a way of experiencing something, and the object of the research is the variation in ways of experiencing phenomena. Thus, at the root of phenomenography lies an interest in describing the phenomena in the world as others see them, and in revealing and describing the variation therein, especially in an educational context. The underlying belief of this interest is that in order to make sense of how people handle problems, 58 situations, and the world, it is necessary to understand the way they experience the problems, the situations, and the world in relation to which they are acting. A capability for acting in a certain way reflects a capability for experiencing something in a certain way. Although the latter does not cause the former, they are intertwined, since it is not possible to act other than in relation to the world as the person experiences it (Marton & Booth, 1997). In phenomenography individuals are seen as the bearers of different ways of experiencing a phenomenon, and the bearers of fragments of different ways of experiencing a phenomenon. The term “way of experiencing” connotes an internal relationship between the experiencer and the experienced, which means that neither the experiencer nor the experienced would be identically the same without the relationship between them. In this light, Marton & Booth (1997) point out that describing ways of experiencing is completely different than describing mental representations, short-or long-term memory and other phenomena related with the conceptual apparatus as understood by cognitivists, which implies that thoughts and conceptions are things that go on or are located in one’s head, things that are hidden or inferred. In phenomenographic studies, the term “way of experiencing” is often used as a synonym of terms such as “conceptions,” “ways of understanding,” “ways of comprehending,” and “conceptualizations”. According to Marton and Booth (1997), these terms should be interpreted in the experiential sense as opposed to the psychological, cognitivist sense. They define “a way of experiencing something” as follows: A way of experiencing something as something is experiencing a meaning that is dialectically intertwined with a structure. “A way of experiencing something” is a way of discerning something from, and relating it to, a context. The meaning of something for 59 someone at a particular point in time corresponds to the pattern of parts or aspects that are discerned and are simultaneously objects of focal awareness (p. 112). The variation between different ways of experiencing something derives from the fact that different aspects or different parts of the whole may or may not be discerned and be objects of focal awareness simultaneously. Generally, not all relevant aspects of a phenomenon and of the situation in which it is embedded are discerned and present simultaneously in focal awareness. Instead, some of them might be separated, isolated or ignored, and therefore not discerned and held as the object of focal awareness. Therefore, a key idea in phenomenography is that certain ways of experiencing something are more complex or fuller than others, as they spring from the simultaneous awareness of more parts or more aspects of the whole (Marton & Booth, 1997). Phenomenography is interested in the variation and change in capabilities of experiencing particular phenomena in the world in certain ways. These capabilities can, as a rule, be hierarchically ordered. Some capabilities can, from a point of view adopted in each case, be seen as more advanced, more complex, or more powerful than other capabilities. The differences between these capabilities are considered by phenomenography educationally critical differences and changes between them are considered to be the most important kind of learning (Marton & Booth, 1997). Thus, the point in exploring how people understand or make sense of phenomena in the world around them is not simply to create a listing of one conception after another. Since the underlying assumption of phenomenography is that some aspects are more basic and more or less fundamental than others, identifying different conceptions can help us to perceive different layers of the world and move from one way to experience or conceptualize something to a more sophisticated one (Marton, 1981). Thus, in the phenomenographic research tradition, the 60 structure of research finding is often—although not necessarily—described in terms of an inclusive or nested hierarchy. The categories that are higher in a hierarchy include one or more of the following characteristics: more aspects of the phenomenon under study, more or better described links between the aspects, and deeper conceptualization of one singular aspect (Paakkari et al., 2011). From a phenomenographic point of view, when people are asked about their experiences or conceptions of various phenomena, what we find is not as many understandings of those phenomena as people are. Instead, it is possible to identify a limited number of qualitatively different ways in which the phenomena are comprehended. The task of the phenomenographer is therefore to identify variations in perceptions present in their data and find meaning in their similarities, differences, and interrelations. This entails building both categories of description and an outcome space (Åkerlind, 2012; Marton & Booth, 1997; Säljö, 1997). 3.3.2 Outcome of phenomenography In phenomenography, outcomes are represented analytically as a number of qualitatively different meanings or ways of experiencing the phenomenon—called categories of description—but also including the structural relationships linking these different ways of experiencing. These relationships represent the structure of the outcome space, in terms of providing an elucidation of relations between different ways of experiencing the one phenomenon. The way in which the outcome space is structured reflects a core premise of phenomenography: the assumption that different categories of description or ways of experiencing a phenomenon are logically related to one another (Akerlind, 2012). 61 The phenomenographer’s task is to build a sufficiently diverse pool of meanings to allow for differences and similarities to emerge within the whole data set. Outcome spaces most commonly take the form of hierarchically inclusive relationships, however branching structures and linear relationships are also possible (Akerlind, 2012). Dahlin (2007) has also described the end products of phenomenographic research as maps and as idealizations, in the sense that these are ultimately simplified representations, designed to help make sense of complex phenomena. Consequently, the researcher aims to constitute not just a set of different meanings, but a logically inclusive structure relating the different meanings. The outcome space, representing a structured set of categories of description constituted by the researcher to represent different ways of experiencing a phenomenon, provides a way of looking at collective human experience of phenomena holistically, despite the fact that the same phenomena may be perceived differently by different people and under different circumstances. Ideally, the outcomes represent a description of the full range of possible ways of experiencing the phenomenon in question, at a particular point in time, for the population represented by the sample group collectively (Akerlind, 2012). Therefore, while it is true that through the phenomenographic enterprise it is difficult or even impossible to draw from the data the ways in which individual subjects experience a phenomenon, the ways in which idealized individuals do so can be abstracted owing to the overlap of the material seen at the collective level. Thus, the categories of description derived from the data have a strength that they could not have if individuals were studied (Marton & Booth, 1997). 62 3.4 Sampling and Recruitment Procedures In phenomenographic research, some parameters have been suggested regarding the number of participants to be included and the selection criteria. In terms of selection, Marton & Booth (1997) state that, since our interest is on experiences of phenomena, people included in the sample need to have had the experiences the researcher is interested in. In addition, as we are aiming for variation in experiences, the sample should ensure variation (Bowden & Green, 2005). Hence, the researcher’s job is to recruit people who have the experience they want to investigate while also ensuring that participants represent a variety of experiences. Regarding the number of participants, Trigwell (2000) recommends samples between fifteen and twenty. At the lower end, fifteen is considered the minimum number for ensuring the chance of identifying variation. At the upper end, the limiting factor is the volume of data produced and its manageability. Thus, conducting fifteen to twenty interviews would allow reasonable data management, while at the same time enabling the obtention of variation in experiences. 3.4.1 Sampling criteria In this study, the focus was to explore university supervisors’ conceptions of supervision during practicum. Therefore, a purposive sample of teacher educators who have had the experience of supervising teacher candidates’ practicum was chosen as the most suitable. To be invited to participate in the study, university supervisors had to have at least one year of supervision experience to ensure they were familiar enough with the job. With the purpose of maximizing the variation in the experiences of participants, the criteria used for their inclusion was that university supervisors, as a group, had to fulfill the following requirements: 1) To be employed at ECTEPs with different curriculums. 63 2) To be employed at universities with different characteristics in terms of, size, location, and type (e.g. state-owned or private, “traditional” or “non-traditional”). 3) To have different levels of expertise in terms of years of experience conducting supervision. 4) To have different levels of involvement in other academic roles (i.e., some dedicated exclusively to supervision, while others simultaneously holding other roles such as faculty member, program director, etc.) To increase the chance of university supervisors’ participation, the ECTEPs to be included in the study had to be large enough to have at least 30 students per each cohort. Anticipating it was likely that not all university supervisors invited would agree to participate in the study, selecting programs that were not too small would ensure they had a larger number of university supervisors employed at the time of the study. In addition, larger programs would increase the possibility that they had a formal practicum coordinator position, which would also facilitate access to participants. I further limited the group of potential institutions to be approached by confining the sample only to the Metropolitan Region of Santiago due to the budget available for this doctoral research project. 3.4.2 University recruitment The first step towards participants’ recruitment was to build a list of existing ECTEPs in universities located in the Santiago Metropolitan Region. For that purpose, I conducted a search in the undergraduate academic programs database maintained by the National Council for Education, a government agency responsible for guiding institutions in charge of educational policies (Consejo Nacional de Educación, 2024). I found 17 ECTEPs functioning in the Santiago Metropolitan Region. The programs varied in size, with a capacity to enroll between 10 and 90 64 students per cohort. I reduced the list to the 14 programs with at least 30 students per cohort. Of those, I selected a tentative list of eight programs to approach first, based on their diversified location. The ideal target was that the programs to be finally included in the sample were located in different municipalities, as much as possible. At each of the eight selected universities, I contacted the head of the ECTEP, first via email with an introductory invitation letter (see Appendix A) and a summary of the study attached for their review (see Appendix B). In approaching five of these universities, I was supported by my former boss at the Center for Advanced Research in Education (CIAE) at the University of Chile, who had professional relationships with the head of the programs and wrote to them in advance to let them know that I would be contacting them. Six of the eight head of programs contacted replied favorably to the invitation. After their initial response by email, I called them to make a more personal contact and clarify any questions about what the agreement to participate in the study would require from the institution. I asked the head of the ECTEPs to inform practicum coordinators about the study and ask their permission for me to contact them. 3.4.3 Practicum coordinator recruitment Once approval to continue further with recruitment was granted by the head of ECTEPs, I contacted practicum coordinators. First, I submitted an invitation letter via email, describing the study and what would be required from them if they chose to participate (see Appendix C) along with a copy of the consent form they would be eventually required to sign in person (see Appendix G). Three practicum coordinators replied favorably within a few days. To the remaining three, I sent a reminder letter after a week (see Appendix E), to which they all replied favorably within a period of 10 days. Four practicum coordinators offered a date and time to meet for the first interview when they replied the email, while two of them preferred that I 65 contacted them by phone to set a time. While scheduling the face-to-face interviews with practicum coordinators, I asked them to meanwhile inform the university supervisors under their guidance about the possibility to participate in the study and have their approval for me to approach them next with a formal invitation. This request was doable in a relatively short time for practicum coordinators since in most universities they meet with their university supervisors’ team at least once a week. 3.4.4 University supervisor recruitment With the approval and support of practicum coordinators at each university, I submitted an invitation letter (see Appendix D) via email to the eligible university supervisors employed at each ECTEP. The letter explained in detail what the agreement to participate in the study would involve for them: (a) to participate in an in person, one-on-one interview exploring their experiences and understanding of supervision; (b) to participate, most likely, in a second interview to further explore the content discussed in the first one; and (c) to respond a brief questionnaire about the characteristics of their work as supervisors. Attached to the invitation letter, university supervisors also received the consent form that they would be eventually required to sign in person (see Appendix H). In the invitation letter, I provided the option to contact me either by email or by phone if they were interested in participating of the study. In total, from the 29 university supervisors who were invited to participate in the study, 18 replied to the email within a few days and three responded after I sent them a reminder (see Appendix F). From those 21 who replied, two of them excused themselves from participating due to schedule incompatibilities and work overload. A total of 19 university supervisors said that they were willing to participate in the study. The group of university supervisors obtained as a result of the recruitment process fulfilled the sample criteria as well as the recommended 66 number to conduct a phenomenographic study, therefore I did not continue to search for participants at other universities. I contacted each of the 19 university supervisors that agreed to participate in the study either by phone or email according to their preference and scheduled a time and date for the first interview. 3.5 Participants To answer the study’s research question, a total of 38 semi-structured interviews were conducted with 19 university supervisors in six universities, each of them located in a different municipality in the Santiago Metropolitan Region. Two of the universities were considered “traditional”, a name given to the thirty universities (both state-owned and private) belonging to the Council of Rectors of Chilean Universities (CRUCH) that can receive direct funding from the state due to their public role. The age range of university supervisors interviewed was 30 years; the youngest being 31 years old, and the oldest 61 years old. The least experienced university supervisors had two years of experience conducting practicum supervision, while the most senior had 27 years of experience. All the interviewees were women, which was expected due to the historical feminization of the teacher profession in the country, especially in the early years (Centro de Estudios MINEDUC, 2014; Pardo & Adlerstein, 2015b). Most university supervisors held a master’s degree in education or a related discipline while four held a Ph.D. in education. The majority of university supervisors worked also in other academic positions at the university such as teaching in various capacities or coordinating different types of activities. Also, almost half of them worked simultaneously for other educational institutions, either as practicum supervisors or in another role. In addition to university supervisors, the practicum coordinator at each university approached was also interviewed. In their case, the purpose of the interview was to collect 67 information about the characteristics of the supervision process according to the curriculum of their ECTEPs. Also, as practicums coordinators were the gatekeepers to get permission to access university supervisors for this study, the interview with them was critical to build the necessary trust that would allow me to proceed further. All practicum coordinators were women, ranging in age between 31 and 57 years. One of them held a Ph.D. in education and the rest had a master’s degree in education or a related discipline. The most senior practicum coordinator had seven years of experience in the position, while the least experienced had performed the role for two years. Table 5 provides an overview of the aggregated demographic characteristics of the sample. Table 5 Demographic Characteristics of the Sample University Supervisors Practicum Coordinators Variable N Variable N Age Age 30-40 years 3 30-40 years 1 41-50 years 9 41-50 years 3 51-60 years 6 51-60 years 2 61-70 years 1 Highest academic degree Highest academic degree Bachelor’s degree 2 Master’s degree 5 Master’s degree 13 Ph.D. 1 Ph.D. 4 Years of supervision experience Years of coordination experience <5 6 0-3 3 5-10 9 4-5 2 11-20 3 >5 1 >20 1 Years of experience as ECT <5 2 5-10 13 11-20 3 >20 1 University type Public (traditional) 4 68 Private (traditional) 4 Private (non-traditional) 11 To provide a more personalised introduction to the participants in this study, Table 6 and Table 7 present a list with pseudonyms assigned by me to university supervisors and practicum coordinators respectively, along with background information for each of them. Table 6 University Supervisors Interviewed Participant’s Pseudonym Age Years of Experience in the Role Academic degree Pilar 47 4 Master’s Stella 56 18 Ph.D. Elia 51 3 Bachelor’s Ivanna 49 3 Master’s Francisca 45 7 Master’s Eva 51 20 Master’s Roxana 61 27 Ph.D. Magali 58 10 Master’s Gabriela 55 6 Master’s Paola 50 6 Master’s Gloria 50 17 Master’s Celeste 45 8 Master’s Paloma 41 6 Master’s Ursula 39 2 Master’s Victoria 36 2 Master’s Lucia 59 8 Ph.D. Alicia 32 4 Master’s Luz 41 5 Ph.D. Sole 46 7 Master’s Table 7 Practicum Coordinators Interviewed Participant’s Pseudonym Age Years of Experience in the Role Academic degree Antonia 31 4 Master’s Eva 51 5 Master’s Ariana 48 2 Master’s Ofelia 49 7 Ph.D. Sandra 57 3 Master’s 69 Liliana 41 2 Master’s 3.6 The Research Setting The research settings for this study were six universities located in Santiago, Chile’s capital, in the Metropolitan Region, which is one of the country’s 16 first-order administrative divisions. Located between the Andes mountain and the Chilean coast range, the Metropolitan Region of Santiago is the country’s only landlocked region and the most densely populated. Currently, there are 35 universities in Santiago, although not all of them offer an ECTEP. Of those, four are owned by the state and 31 are private. Universities funded before 1981—25 nationwide—are known as “traditional universities”, of which five are located in Santiago (Ministerio de Educación, 2024). The six universities from which participants were recruited for this study include both state-owned and private universities as well as traditional and non-traditional universities. Each of the six universities in the sample is located in a different municipality of Santiago, some of them with substantial differences regarding population, socioeconomic status, and connectivity. The universities in the sample vary also in terms of size, source and amount of funding, as well as the requirements for students’ entry to the ECTEP. The ECTEPs where university supervisors were employed had different curriculums, but they shared a strong and explicit emphasis on the practicum component of teachers’ education. All of them had stablished a phased practicum in which students begin having practicum experiences in their first years, gradually increasing the complexity and intensity of practicum as they advance in their program. The average duration of the ECTEPs included in the sample was 9.3 semesters, the two shortest ones lasting eight semesters and the rest 10 semesters. 70 3.7 Research Ethics Before collecting data, an application to conduct this study was submitted and approved by the University of British Columbia’s Behavioural Research and Ethics Board (BREB). After approval, the following steps were taken to ensure the study met the requirements mandated by BREB. First, in terms of informed consent, participants were informed of the goals, characteristics, scope and implications of the study. Upon first contacting them by email, they received an electronic copy of both the invitation letter that described the study and what would be required from them as well as the consent form, for their reference. In this way, they were able to decide whether they wanted to participate. To those who chose to be part of the study, a hard copy of the invitation letter and consent form was provided in person before starting the first interview. They were required to sign the consent form after reading both documents and received clarification when this was requested. Through the documents and verbally, I made clear to participants that they were free to end their involvement with the study at any point and without giving any explanation, but simply by contacting me either by phone or email. Secondly, in relation to privacy and confidentiality, all participants’ identities remained strictly confidential. Participants were assigned code numbers and all ensuing materials were identified by code. The digital research files, including transcripts, data from the questionnaires, and the interviews were stored securely. Hard copies of the questionnaires were not released to anyone outside the study, were accessed only by me and were kept in a locked filing cabinet at my office at the Center for Advance Research in Education (CIAE), which was my working place during the fieldwork. Interviewees have not been personally identified in this thesis. Pseudonyms (selected by me) have been used to include illustrative quotations coming from 71 different interview transcripts. Also, care has been taken in not providing details in any section of this thesis that may lead to the identification of any interviewee. Lastly, considering the criteria of avoiding harm, I ensured the study did not inflict mental, emotional, or physical forms of injury on participants. Data requested from them in both the interview and the questionaries were not of an especially sensitive nature and participants were reminded that they were under no obligation to respond. Also, for the comfort of participants as well as to further ensure privacy, with the help of practicum coordinators at each university I arranged in advance the booking of a private office or a meeting room that was reserved exclusively for the interviews. 3.8 Data Collection Two types of data were collected in this study: (a) data to answer the research question, and (b) data to better understand the characteristics of supervised practicum in the ECTEPs where the study was conducted. To answer the research question, phenomenographic interviews were employed with the objective of making university supervisors bring forth their awareness of the phenomenon under investigation—supervision. In addition to that, I also collected data concerning university supervisors’ demographic characteristics as well as institutional characteristics of supervised practicum in each of the EC teacher education programs where participants were recruited. This type of data provided relevant background information that facilitated and contextualized the analysis of university supervisors’ conceptions of supervision. Four methods of data collection were employed for this purpose: an interview with practicum coordinators at each university, a questionnaire to be completed by practicum coordinators, a questionnaire to be completed by university supervisors, and review of institutional documents related to supervised practicum, when available. 72 3.8.1 Interviews Interviews were selected as the primary method of data collection to answer the research question of this study. Although there are different sources of information through which it is possible to gain understanding of how people conceive of various aspects of their world, semi-structured interviews are the most common data collection method for phenomenography (Bowden, 2000; Marton, 1986). The aim of conducting phenomenographic interviews is to encourage participants to reveal their ways of understanding a particular phenomenon by reflecting on their experiences (Åkerlind, 2005). The role of the interviewer is to make the interviewees aware of their own awareness of the phenomenon under investigation (Marton & Booth, 1997). Researchers who have specialized in phenomenography have suggested some practical recommendations regarding how to conduct interviews that will help the interviewer to fulfill their purpose. The first recommendation is to set questions related to the phenomenon of interest. Phenomenographic interviews are semi-structured, with the interviewer clearly setting the interview topic by using a number of set questions designed to elicit interviewee’s experiences about the phenomenon under consideration (Marton & Both, 1997). Examples of two common types of questions are (a) What is meant by X? and (b) problem questions in the field under study. Both types of questions have been used in phenomenograpic research with good results (Åkerlind, 2005; Bowden, 2000). The second recommendation is to maintain flexibility during the flow of the interview. Even though the researcher has a set of questions, they should also be open enough to allow the unique course that different interviews may take. In this sense, having too many predetermined questions or details defined in advance can be a hindrance. Marton (1986) suggests using 73 questions that are as open-ended as possible, allowing interviewees to choose the dimensions of the question they want to answer. The dimensions chosen are important because they reflect the elements interviewees are focally aware of in relation to the phenomenon under study. The third recommendation is to use unstructured follow up questions. Employing follow up probing questions allows to further investigate interviewee’s responses to questions (Åkerling et al., 2005). Follow up question typically take the form of, “Could you tell me a bit more about that?’, “Can you give me an example?”. The suggestion is to continue questioning and prompting until a sense of the interviewee’s underlying understanding towards the phenomenon being discussed is generated. The significance of follow up probing has been stressed by Åkerlind (2005) and Prosser (2000) because, in their experience, follow up questions are often more important in eliciting the undelaying meanings than pre-determined questions. However, Trigwell (2000) advises being careful about constantly probing interviewee’s answers because it may elicit suspicion, making the interviewees feel they are not giving the answers expected or desired by the interviewer. Therefore, while follow-up probing is a critical component of the phenomenographic interview, it should not be done to the point that disturb the flow of communication between interviewer and interviewee. The fourth recommendation is to avoid introducing ideas not previously mentioned by the interviewee. Åkerlind (2005) highlights the importance of the researcher putting their own understanding of the phenomenon aside as much as possible. This means that having brought up the phenomenon to be discussed, the interviewer takes a non-leading role, avoiding prompts that could lead the interviewee in any particular direction. The goal throughout the interview is to provide opportunities for the interviewees to reveal their current experience of the phenomenon as fully as possible, being careful of not bringing to the conversation meanings that are not the 74 interviewees’. The interviewer should be aware of which comments require further exploration but avoiding categorization and classification during the interview by maintaining an open disposition that is constantly focused on what is the meaning of the phenomenon for the interviewee. Table 6 summarizes how I followed these recommendations while conducting the study. Table 8 Suggestions for Conducting Phenomenographic Interviews and How they Were Considered in this Study Suggestions How they were considered Questions related to the phenomenon being studied (Åkerlind, 2005; Marton & Booth, 1997) Questions in the interview protocol focused on the meaning and description of supervision for university supervisors supervising practicum in ECTEPs. Allowing flexibility (Marton, 1986) Even though structured questions were developed and included in the interview protocol, space was allowed to follow the natural conversation developed during the interviews. This meant that every interview did not follow exactly the same structure, but explored the issues brought up by the interviewees. However, I was mindful of redirecting the interviewee to the topics I wanted to explore when the conversation was leading to themes completely different than the focus of the study. Also, I tried to cover all of the elements the interview protocol intended to cover, although not necessarily in the same order. Use follow-up probe questions (Åkerling, 2005; Prosser, 2000) I used a number of unstructured follow up questions to further explore interviewees’ responses to questions and trigger reflection. For example, I used questions such as “can you describe what that means to you?”, “could you explain a bit more?”, “so you seem to be saying…” when I did not fully understand the intentions underlying something the interviewee had said. I also sought clarification of meaning by asking interviewees to compare or integrate previous statements with what they had recently said (e.g., “How does this fit in with…, that you mentioned earlier?”). Avoid introducing new ideas not mentioned by the During the interviews I did the effort to the best of my ability to maintain the focus on trying to understand the meaning of 75 interviewees (Åkerling, 2005; Trigwell, 2000) supervision for the interviewees, continuously asking myself questions such as “What do they mean by that?”, “How is this connected with what they said earlier?”. Also, in the follow up questions I tried to include a word or phrase used previously by the interviewee that seemed meaningful to them. The interview protocol used in this study was designed with the purpose of triggering responses in interviewees in such a way that would lead them to communicate their awareness regarding the meaning and experience of their supervisory work. While being developed, the interview protocol was reviewed by three educational researchers in the field of teacher education. The final version included their comments and feedback on previous drafts. The following are some of the questions included in the interview protocol (see Appendix I for the complete protocol): 1. What does supervision mean to you? What is “to supervise”? 2. How do you know when you are performing your role as supervisor well? 3. Does supervision change depending on who you work with? What remains the same? What needs readjustments? 4. Tell me an analogy or a metaphor you would use to describe the supervisory process. With the purpose of maximizing the chance that interviewees would bring a variety of aspects of the phenomenon of supervision to their focal awareness, I interviewed each of them twice. Interviews took place over a period of over four months, between late September 2018 and late January 2019. The length of the interviews ranged from 46 to 118 minutes with an average of around 95 minutes. The participants were interviewed in what they considered to be their “natural setting”—their own offices, meeting rooms, or classrooms within the university. The support of practicum coordinators in each university was instrumental in securing quiet and 76 private spaces for conducting the interviews in the case of university supervisors who did not have a personal office assigned. After the first interview was completed, participants and I scheduled a second interview for a date and time they chose. I requested each participant to further consider what supervision meant to them during the time remaining for the second interview. I asked them to pick a date at least two weeks apart from the first interview if possible, with the aim of allowing some time to process the content discussed in the first interview and engage in further reflection. The shortest length of time that elapsed between the first and second interview was 13 days, and the maximum was 40 days. This proved to be a useful consideration since most participants commented that they had been reflecting or had recalled part of our conversation between interviews. Apparently, the time between interviews allowed them to elaborate, reconsider, or complement what they had shared in the first interview. At the beginning of the first interview, the consent form was reviewed, and participants signed a copy that I collected while keeping another for their own records. With participants approval, each interview was audio recorded using two separate digital voice recorders to secure that a quality recording was obtained. I listened to each first interview before conducting the second one to ensure I could cover all the questions included in the interview protocol by the end of the second interview. However, I did not begin transcribing the interviews until after I fully completed the data collection phase of the study. All interviews were conducted and analyzed in Spanish, while selected quotes were translated into English to present the results of the study. 3.8.2 University supervisor questionnaire A questionnaire to collect data about university supervisors’ trajectory and current characteristics of their job was developed. The questionnaire included questions regarding 77 demographic information (e.g., gender, teaching and supervision experience, academic degree, academic roles) and a question about preferences for alternative concepts used to describe their work as supervisors. University supervisors were informed in the invitation letter to participate in the study that the completion of a brief questionnaire would be requested from them. They were asked to respond the questionnaire at the end of the first interview. The following are examples of the questions included in the questionnaire (see Appendix K for complete protocol): 1) How many years have you worked as a supervisor? 2) How many years have you worked as a teacher (if any)? 3) Do you hold any other position at this program apart from supervisor? If yes, what other position do you have? 3.8.3 Practicum coordinator interview Practicum coordinators play a critical role in ECTEPs. Although the specific scope of their duties varies from one institution to another, they generally organize, lead and oversee the work of university supervisors. Practicum coordinators are also instrumental in creating and maintaining agreements with practicum sites, thus serving as a bridge between the university and the preschools where PSTs undertake their practicum. It is important to note that not all universities have the official position of practicum coordinator in their ECTEPs, which was a criterion to select the sample in this study. ECTEPs that have the practicum coordinator position tend to assign a much more prominent role to the practicum component of teachers’ preparation. In this study, practicum coordinators were pivotal to understand the institutional view and implementation of practicum supervision as well as to gain access to participants and institutional documents. After contacting the head of programs at each university and obtaining their permission to conduct the study in their institutions, practicum coordinators were the first 78 participants I contacted and then met in person. In the initial invitation letter to participate in the study, practicum coordinators were informed that participation in the study would involve a one-on-one interview with the researcher in addition to their collaboration in the process of inviting university supervisors to participate. The purpose of the interview was to obtain information about the characteristics of the practicum component of teacher’ preparation in their programs, as well as the characteristics and implementation of supervision during practicum. A semi-structured interview protocol was designed to inquire about the way in which ECTEPs structured and implemented practicum and supervision, as well as to gain understanding on the specific tasks that practicum coordinators and university supervisors are expected to perform according to the structure of their programs. The following are examples of the questions included in the interview protocol (see Appendix J for complete protocol): 1. What kind of activities does the practicum entail? 2. Tell me about what your work as a practicum coordinator involves. 3. What is the role of supervision during the practicum of teacher candidates? 4. Please describe the job supervisors do with teacher candidates. What does the supervisory process entail? Practicum coordinators were interviewed once with the exception of one that was interviewed twice. The reason for a second interview in this case was that the ECTEP where this practicum coordinator worked had developed a fairly complex practicum model over the last years and it was not possible to cover all the details of its structure during one interview. Interviews were conducted over four months between September 2018 and January 2019 and lasted from 55 to 95 minutes, with an average of 72 minutes. Four of the six practicum coordinators had a private office of their own where the interview took place. In the case of the 79 two practicum coordinators who shared office space with other colleagues, they help me to book a private and quiet meeting room at their university to interview them. At the beginning of each interview, the consent form was reviewed with practicum coordinators. They were asked to sign a copy that I collected and kept another for their own records. Interviews were audio recorded using two separate digital voice recorders to ensure that a quality recording was obtained. All of the interviews were fully transcribed by myself after data collection was completed. 3.8.4 Practicum coordinator questionnaire At the beginning of the face-to-face interview, practicum coordinators completed a brief questionnaire about practicum supervision in their programs. The purpose of this questionnaire was to complement the information obtained through the interview. The questions included demographic information about practicum coordinators such as gender, years of experience in their role, and academic degree, as well as and some specific information that could be conveyed in short answers such as number of supervisors under their lead and number of hours spent by teacher candidates and supervisors in practicum sites. The following are examples of questions included in the questionnaire (see Appendix L for complete questionnaire): 1. How many practicum supervisors work in your program? 2. How many practicum sites do teacher candidates typically engage with during their program? 3. Is there any specific theory, model or type of supervision adopted or encouraged by the program where you currently work? If yes, please specify. 3.8.5 Institutional documents The ECTEPs involved in this study were diverse in terms of the degree of written systematization of the practicum component in their curriculum. Some institutions had developed 80 fairly robust practicum systems described in elaborated documents while others had only brief documents describing how practicum was approached, or none in the case of one program. During the interview with practicum coordinators, I asked them whether such material was available and if it was possible for them to share it with me. Four of the six practicum coordinators provided documents related to the practicum and supervision process in their programs. The documents gathered included: 1. Practicum model developed by the institution. 2. Practicum manual for the early childhood teacher education program. 3. University supervisor profile description. 4. Role description for practicum coordinators, university supervisors and cooperating teachers. These documents offered an additional source of information regarding institutional approach to practicum, besides the data obtained through the questionnaires and interviews with practicum coordinators and university supervisors. The review of the information provided in the institutional documents was useful in building a characterization of the ECTEPs that were part of the sample, providing context for the findings. 3.9 Ensuring Rigor Rigor in qualitative research is connected with the trustworthiness of the practices and procedures employed to collect and analyze the data (Davies & Dodd, 2002). Whereas a positivist theory rests on the criteria of objectivity, reliability, and validity for judging the trustworthiness of findings, an interpretivist theory calls for credibility, authenticity, and comprehensiveness as markers of trustworthy research (Guba & Lincoln, 1989). 81 The ability of the researcher to demonstrate that their interpretation of what is happening is grounded in data—observations, interviews, written documents—rather than simply personal opinion, is what constitutes credibility. In this study this was accomplished by conducting the analysis following the guidelines recommended in phenomenographic research, particularly the emphasis on the iterative process by which interpretations are assiduously checked against the transcript data set at each stage of the analysis process (Åkerling et al., 2005). As well, citations of the interviews transcripts as illustrations as the various ways university supervisors conceptualized supervision are included in the results. Details are also provided about the interview data collection process and their analysis so that readers may form an opinion of the approaches and processes chosen. Consistent with Marton and Booth (1997), the quality of the phenomenographic data was addressed by ensuring that the final categories were distinct, logically related and parsimonious, meaning that the important variations were represented by as few categories as possible. Authenticity refers to the researchers’ ability to elicit participants’ opinions, interpretations and values, which requires to make participants at ease. This was addressed by adjusting pace, rhythm, and the style of talk relative to those of the participants, and by focusing the conversation on their ideas and experiences. Flexibility in the interview guide allowed each conversation to be unique and able to flow in accordance with the participants’ contributions to the dialogue. In addition, to promote trust in the study—and therefore increasing the chances of participants being willing to share their thoughts—considerable care was put into developing clear and informative invitation letters and consent forms to ensure participants felt confident from the beginning about the study and the implication of their participation on it. Another factor 82 that probably contributed to making participants feel at ease with the process was the interviews happening at their natural setting. The comprehensiveness of a qualitative study is related to the researcher showing that they have not based an interpretation or conclusion on any single piece of data. In this study, following Marton and Booth (1997) recommendations for phenomenographic analysis, the conceptions of supervision generated through the process of data analysis were derived from a set of transcripts, where extracts from individual interview transcripts were iteratively inspected in contrast with the pull of interviews. Attention was made to include a variety of ECTEPs in order to maximize the variation in the experiences of participants regarding supervision. 3.10 Triangulation Triangulation was employed in this study as a way to facilitate access to the richness and complexity of the phenomenon being studied. Traditionally, triangulation as a practice in qualitative research has been implemented with the assumption that if two or more sources of data, theoretical frameworks, types of data, or researches converge on the same conclusion, then the conclusion is more credible (Denzin, 1978). This conceptualization of triangulation is aligned with a realist paradigm that assumes that there is a single reality that can be known (Tracy, 2010). For the purpose of this study, which is aligned with an interpretivist epistemology, I adopted Mathison’s (1988) conception of triangulation, which does not seek a single valid conclusion nor does look for convergence of evidence. According to Mathison, triangulation is not a technological solution that results in a single claim because bias has been cancelled out, but instead, it is a technique that offers more and better evidence of phenomena, allowing researchers to construct meaningful propositions about the social world. Considering this definition, this 83 study included two strategies for triangulation: data triangulation and methodological triangulation. Data triangulation was achieved by employing different sources of data such as: 1. Variety of people: Nineteen university supervisors with a wide range of supervision experience and six practicum coordinators participated in this study. 2. Variety of sites: Participants at this study were recruited at six ECTEPs different between them in term of their trajectory, curriculum, location and characteristics of their students’ educational and socioeconomic background. 3. Variety of time: All university supervisors participating in this study were interviewed twice. Also, since in each program I interviewed a few supervisors as well as the practicum coordinator, I visited each of the six universities several times, having the opportunity to become familiar with the environment in which participants worked when they were not supervising teacher candidates at practicum sites. Methodological triangulation was achieved by including different methods to collect data such as in-depth interviews, questionnaires and institutional documents related to supervised practicum in ECTEPs. 3.11 Data Analysis 3.11.1 Phenomenographic analysis Phenomenograpic analysis seeks to characterize the conceptions which can be identified in the descriptions of a particular phenomenon (Marton, 1981). Data interpretations are made on a collective, not an individual interview basis. The aim is not to capture any particular individual’s understanding, but rather to capture the range of understandings across a particular group (Åkerling et al., 2005). In order to categorize people’s descriptions of phenomena, phenomenographers undertake a dialectical analysis in which meanings are developed in the 84 process of bringing individuals’ quotes together and comparing them. Similarities and differences between individuals’ statements are compared and then relegated to qualitatively different categories (Marton 1981). The categories of description are content specific and formulated in such a way that they characterize the specific content of the conception as well as possible. Each category represents a unique way of understanding the phenomenon in focus, and categories grouped together form a system of categories (Eklund-Myrskog, 1998). The set of conceptions identified through phenomenographic investigation are seen as relatively stable in a certain population in a certain context, even if individuals move from one category to another on different occasions (Marton, 1981). Phenomenographic interviews are typically audio taped and transcribed verbatim, making the transcripts the focus of the analysis. Since phenomenographic researchers aspire to explore the range of meanings within a particular group, as a group, not the range of meanings for each individual within the group, no one interview transcript—an expression of meaning—can be understood in isolation from the others (Åkerlind, 2012). Individual interview transcripts are interpreted within the context of the group of transcripts or meanings as a whole, in terms of similarities to and differences from other transcripts or meanings. The analysis goes across and between all of the interview transcripts so that the categories of description that result reflect not individual meanings or conceptions, but rather conceptions from a pool of meanings. Thus, the interpretation is based on the interviews as a holistic group, not as a series of individual interviews (Åkerling et al., 2005). The material from the interview transcripts forms a pool of meaning (Marton & Booth, 1997), within which are to be identified the ways in which the phenomenon of interest is understood by—what it means to—not only the actual research subjects but also the group from 85 which they are a theoretical sample (Booth, 1992). The researcher must immerse themselves in the material, adopting an open attitude at first, then progressively becoming more focused. This is achieved by reading the transcript many times and applying the principle of focusing on one aspect of the subject under study and seeking its dimensions of variation while holding other aspects frozen (Wood, 2000). The pool of meaning contains two sorts of material: that pertaining to individuals and that pertaining to the collective. It is the same material, but it can be viewed from two different perspectives to provide different contexts for isolated statements and expressions relevant to aspects of the object of research. The task of the researcher is to adopt a perspective within which they are maximally open to variation and try to understand what might turn out to be relevant to depicting differences in the structure of the pool of meaning that the set of transcripts represent. The analysis starts by searching for extracts from the data that might be pertinent to the object of research and inspecting them alternately against the two contexts: the context of other extracts drawn from all interviews, and the context of the individual interview (Åkerlind, 2012). In the words of Marton and Booth (1997): One particular aspect of the phenomenon can be selected and inspected across all of the subjects, and then another aspect, that to be followed, maybe, by the study of whole interviews to see where these two aspects lie in the pool relative to the other aspects and the background (p. 133). Through this process repeated, distinctly different ways of characterizing the phenomenon of interest begin to be identified, and these emerging categories of description must be checked to see if they fit all the material. Eventually, a satisfactory set of ways in which participants understand the phenomenon being investigated is established, until fewer, simpler or 86 more rigorous categories are not found. Thus, the intention of categorizing the data is to reduce it to a more limited form while still retaining the essence and salience of all the data (Wood, 2000). The set of categories or meanings that result from the analysis, as well as the structural relationship between these categories, conform the outcome space in phenomenographic research (Bowden & Walsh, 2000). 3.11.2 Commonality and variation in the practice of phenomenographic analysis of interviews In the practice of phenomenographic analysis of interviews, there is some commonality and some variation (Åkerling et al., 2005). Typically, researchers conducting phenomenography agree on the need to maintain an open mind throughout the analysis. The set of categories or meanings that result from the analysis are not determined in advance, but are discerned from the entire set of transcripts, in relationship with the researcher. The researcher seeks a multi- faceted understanding of the domain of the phenomenon of interest holding an open attitude towards it (Wood, 2000). To maintain an open attitude during the analysis implies minimizing any predetermined views or too rapid foreclosure in views about the nature of the categories of description. In the early stages, reading through transcripts is characterized by a high degree of openness to possible meanings, with subsequent readings becoming more focused on particular aspects or criteria, but still within a framework of openness to new interpretations. Of course, in some cases there will be research conducted previously in relation to the phenomenon of interest. Researchers need to be aware of this and be open to the possibility of constituting new categories or further clarifying existing ones (Prosser, 2000). 87 Another aspect of the analysis on which seems to be ample agreement among researchers using phenomenography, is the markedly iterative and comparative nature of the process. This implies that the analysis is conducted with emphasis on continuous sorting and rearrangement of data. The analysis usually starts with a search for meaning, or variation in meaning, across interview transcripts, and is later complemented by a search for structural relationships between meanings (Åkerlind, 2012). Transcripts or selected quotes are grouped and regrouped according to perceived similarities and differences along varying criteria, leading to the establishment of provisional categories. These categories are tested against the data, adjusted, retested, and adjusted again. Thus, the whole process of arriving to the categories implies repeated differentiation, abstraction, reduction and comparison of meaning (Svensson, 1997). Eventually, there is a decreasing rate of change and the system of meaning is stabilized (Marton, 1981). In addition to commonalities in phenomenographic analysis, there are also key areas of variation in practice. This variation is related to issues such as when the analysis should begin, the amount of each transcript considered, the emphasis placed on collaboration, and ways of managing the data (Åkerlind, 2012; Åkerling et al., 2005). Regarding the appropriate timing to begin the analysis, one approach is that analysis should not begin until the interview transcripts are ready for reading as a whole. This is based on the need to keep the nature of the interview constant throughout all interviews. Another approach is to consider the practical value of analyzing a preliminary subset of interview transcripts before analyzing the whole since this provides a means of making the often large amount of data collected more manageable. Åkerlind et al., (2005) suggest that a combination of these two approaches is also very effective. That is, to conduct all of the interviews before any analysis has begun, but then to undertake a preliminary analysis of a subset of the transcripts, to finally do an analysis of all the transcripts. 88 In terms of the amount of each transcript to be considered for the analysis, one common practice is to consider the whole transcript or large chunks of each transcript related to a particular issue. The argument in favor of this approach is that the larger interview context is needed to help the researcher faithfully interpret the meaning of particular comments in the transcript (Åkerlind, 2012). An alternative approach is to consider the selection of smaller experts or quotes seen as representing particular meanings, although these are still initially interpreted within the larger interview context. In this approach, the smaller chunks are separated from the transcript and combined for analysis in one decontextualized pool of meaning (Marton, 1981, 1986). The argument in favor of this practice is that greater decontextualization facilitates the phenomenographic focus on collective meanings, and away from individual meanings (Åkerlind et al., 2005). In relation to the emphasis placed on collaboration during the constitution of the outcome space, some authors argue the importance of bringing in additional researchers during the analysis to encourage awareness of different perspectives (Bowden, 2005; Trigwell, 2000). However, Åkerlind et al., (2005) point out that any outcome space is inevitably partial with respect to the hypothetical complete range of ways of experiencing a phenomenon. Therefore, the contrast between different phenomenographic approaches should not be considered in terms of right or wrong outcome spaces, but more or less complete ones. In this sense, “an individual researcher can, at the least, make a substantial contribution to our understanding of a phenomenon, even if group research might have taken that understanding further” (Åkerlind, 2012, p. 121). There have also been different approaches on how to manage appropriately the large amount of data phenomenographic studies can yield. Although the aim is to consider the 89 interview data as a set, it is obviously not feasible to hold in one’s mind all possible aspects of the interview transcripts at one time. To address this, different researches have applied different strategies. For instance, some start the analysis with a subset of transcripts and then move on to incorporating the full set for analysis and/or remove components of the transcripts perceived as irrelevant, redundant or unhelpful, (Trigwell, 2000; Prosser, 2000; Åkerlind 2012). Furthermore, to approach the data through manageable components without reducing its integrity, researchers typically use the method of focusing on an iterative process involving looking at the data from different perspectives at different times. Bowden and Walsh (2000) have identified different focal points taken by different researchers in analyzing the transcripts, including placing the focus on: (a) the ‘how’ or ‘what’ aspects of the phenomenon; (b) similarities and differences within and between categories and transcripts associated with particular categories; (c) trying to resolve possible inconsistencies or disagreements between researchers working on a particular project: (d) borderline transcripts and on those containing elements which do not fit in the proposed categories of description; and (e) implications of changes in one category for all the categories of description. 3.11.3 Description of the analysis Data analysis employed procedures proposed by phenomenographic authors cited in the previous sections and was conducted using NVivo software. Following Åkerlind (2005), the approach to analysis I undertook involved a continual process of fluctuating between a focus on parts and wholes, both of each transcript individually and the total set of transcripts. Over time, I attempted to integrate the outcome of these two foci. From the beginning of the analysis, I followed Bowden’s (2000) suggestion of keeping in the back of one’s mind the following 90 guiding question: What does this tell me about the way this participant understand the phenomenon under investigation? The analysis of the data spanned several months of an iterative process of listening to interviews, transcribing interviews, making notes, developing analytical tools such as diagrams and tables, extracting and “decontextualizing” participants’ statements about supervision to then “recontextualizing” them by grouping, un-grouping, and re-grouping the statements in different configurations and considering these against the context of both individual transcripts and the whole set of transcripts. From this analysis, an initial set of categories of description was developed. These emerging ways of understanding supervision were tested and re-tested against the data, undergoing modifications through constant comparison until they were refined to the point no new insights were being generated. Finally, the system of categories was stabilized to four qualitatively different ways of conceiving supervision which were further detailed by three dimensions of variation. Together, these conformed the outcome space of the study. A description of the steps of the analysis of data is as follows: 1. The first step occurred implicitly while data was being collected. During the process of conducting the interviews it was frequently necessary to verify a participant’s view on what they were expressing. For example, “can you tell me more about what this means to you?” So that the flow of the conversation was not interrupted, notes were taken during the interviews as a memory aid to ask further questions on a topic. 2. The second step began once all the data was collected and involved the transcription of each interview. Since each university supervisor was interviewed twice, I merged the separated transcripts into one for each participant. 91 3. The third step involved becoming familiar with the interviews. In order to achieve this, I initially read the entire set of 19 transcripts as a whole. I had an advantage as it was not my first encounter with the transcripts since I had transcribed the totality of the interviews, which provided me with a good understanding of their content. In this early reading, I simply read with a sense of openness towards what the set of transcripts might contain. 4. The fourth step involved a more focused reading of the set of transcripts, concentrating on the content related to the phenomenon of interest, and marking passages that addressed totally unrelated phenomena, to reduce future reading time. 5. The fifth step involved a third reading of the set of transcripts, making notes on each transcript, summarizing key issues and themes that I began to identified based on a preliminary sense of the whole set. Instead of annotating on the transcripts themselves, I chose to write the notes on a separate document in order to create an independent record that assisted me in making the amount of data in the transcript set more manageable. I collected about half a page of these notes for each participant and used it as a set to go through them in an attempt to make sense of the range of comments. This represented an interim stage of the analysis in which I alternated between reading the transcripts as a set and reading my notes on the transcripts as a set, focusing on similarities and differences running through them. 6. In the sixth step I returned to reading the transcripts only, without the use of notes. At this stage I made a decision related to the volume of transcripts to be employed in further analysis. I opted for working with the entire set of interviews because 19 interviews seemed a reasonable number to work with, which was similar to the number 17 reported 92 as manageable by Åkerlind (2005). In addition, my involvement with the transcription process allowed me enough familiarization with the data, which was a good base to work with the entire set. I undertook an iterative analysis of the transcripts to identify the range of ideas that could be considered as meaningful. This begun with the identification of patterns (potential ways of understanding) in the data by gathering together “units of meaning” that were considered significant. This was achieved by reducing the data by segmenting it and reassembling it. For example, statements relating to the meaning, nature, dynamics and procedures of supervision were highlighted in the original transcripts and then preliminarily collated. 7. Step seven involved a lengthy process of regular re-reading the transcripts, focusing on finding sources of agreement and variation within and between transcripts. During this process, I alternated between searching for similarities and differences in the overall meaning conveyed by the transcripts, and comparing specific patterns identified in a groups of transcripts. In doing this, I was back and forth reading the transcripts per se and my notes on the transcripts. I interrogated the data keeping some key questions in mind while reading the transcripts. For example: (a) What this tells me about how this supervisor views supervision?; (b) What this tells me about how this supervisor understands supervision?; (c) What this tells me about what is the experience this supervisor have of supervision?; (d) Which aspects of supervision are highlighted by this supervisor?; (e) Which aspects of supervision this supervisor expresses awareness of? Once patterns had been identified across all the transcripts, initial “clusters” of the patterns were made, along with an assessment of what the clusters of patterns appeared to be concerned with and they eventual configuration as a category of description. At the 93 same time, I was looking for tentative dimensions of variation that could be systematically grouped into themes running through the transcripts. While conducting this work, I took special care to keep an open attitude when approaching the data, trying not to impose categories on it (Marton,1986; Prosser 200) but searching for common aspects in the transcripts that could eventually form emergent categories of description. I was aware I had some pre-conceived notions about supervision. Even though I could not find phenomenographic studies presenting categories of description for practicum supervision when reviewing the literature, I was familiar with phenomenographic studies focusing on similar topics such as approaches to teaching and learning. In addition, I had previous experience interviewing university supervisors as well as practicum coordinators and teacher candidates because I conducted an initial exploration of the field previous to define the focus of my study. Thus, I needed to take my previous knowledge into consideration while at the same time keep an open mind in ordered to develop my own categories of description. 8. The eighth step involved the creation of analytical tools to continue the iterative process of continuous re-clustering and reduction of the data in order to identify potential ways of understanding supervision across the data as a whole. This step began shortly after step seven and then run parallel to it. I developed an Excel table with tentative categories of description and dimensions of variation. I completed the table with what appeared to be relevant content in each box (e.g. one preliminary category in intersection with each preliminary dimension of variation ). I went back and forth completing and modifying the table while reviewing my notes and the transcripts, re-arranging the table multiple times. I also began to assign temporary labels to each category, keeping a list of possible names 94 that grew over time as my perspective of the potential conceptions became increasingly integrated and clear. This Excel table became instrumental in making sense of the data in a way that would support the organization of the findings. In addition to the table, I also developed multiple diagrams that provided a more concise and flexible manner to visualize the data. The drawing of these diagrams was often messy and non-self-explanatory, but they were very useful as a mind tool to aid my thinking on the data and come up with an initial list of categories of description. Then, the Excel table was particularly useful to reduce the initial set of categories of description by realizing, while completing it, that some of the categories represented the same content under a different heading. In trying to detect what where the essential elements that would distinguish one category of description from another in the preliminary set of them, I repeatedly tried to answer questions such as: (a) What is the focus of this category?; (b) How is conception X different to conception Z?; (c) Does this difference also imply one is embedded/subsumed in the other?; (d) What is unique to this category?; (e) How category X compares to category Z in terms of complexity? 9. The ninth step focused on determining with a greater level of precision what the ways of understanding supervision included, and assigning final labels to categories. Each category was contrasted against each of the transcripts in order to achieve a sense of them in relation to the whole, and to verify similarity and variation across the data set. Constituting the categories so that they were logically related and true to data was a difficult task. The whole process was time-consuming and intellectually challenging. It required to maintain an open mind and be willing to adjust my thinking about the data in 95 light of the iterative review of the transcripts and repetitive adjustment of the analytical tools developed to aid the process. To summarize, in attempting to understand the transcripts, I was working on several different fronts at once: reading the transcripts; reading my notes; working with individual transcripts and with temporary groups of transcripts; asking myself what was similar and what was different between transcripts; focusing on suitable labels that could capture the essence of different ways of understanding supervision that I was beginning to identify; and looking for dimensions or themes that would provide the basic structure or structural relationships between the different tentative conceptions of supervision. 3.12 Chapter Summary In this chapter, the phenomenographic approach I adopted for this study, the procedures followed for recruiting participants and collecting data, a description of research participants and the research setting, as well as the ethical considerations I had while carrying out this study were detailed. A description of the methods employed across participants and how rigor was met, in addition to a detailed description of steps taken during the analysis of the transcripts was provided. In the next chapter, the findings that resulted from the analysis are presented. 96 Chapter 4: Findings Related to Practicum’s Organization in ECTEPs 4.1 Overview This chapter provides background information regarding the characteristics of practicum in the ECTEPs where supervisors participating in the study belonged. A description of the ways in which practicum is organized is presented, including relevant information about practicum models developed by the programs; the nature and expectations of supervisors’ role; characteristics of practicum sites and the relationship universities establish with them; as well as avenues for professional development offered by programs to support the work of university supervisors. The information presented here is based on content from the semi- structured interviews with practicum coordinators carried out at each of the six ECTEPs included in the study, the questionaries completed by them, as well as some institutional practicum related documents gathered during the data collection process. In presenting the findings in this chapter, as well as in next chapter, quotations from the transcripts are employed for illustrative purposes. Brackets are used when required within the quotations to make clearer the context in which the statement was made. Ellipses indicate pauses or hesitations in what interviewees were saying. Each interviewee was assigned a pseudonym by me which is present next to the quote in order to identify who made the comment or statement. This is to identify quotations coming from different transcripts while at the same time ensuring interviewees’ confidentiality. Quotations from interviewees are presented in their original language (Spanish) followed by a translation into English below each of them. The generic third-person singular pronoun “they” was used every time the gender of a person referred was unknown. An exception to this were the quotations from participants, which were translated verbatim. 97 4.2 The Structure of Practicum The ECTEPs that participated in the study have each a unique way to approach and organize practicum, with different theoretical emphases, internal policies, and strategies of implementation. Some have robust documents describing their practicum model—sometimes inserted in a broader institutional model that guides practicum for all education programs at the university —and others have shorter, simpler documents or are still in the process of developing them. A common element in the programs included in the study is their regard of practicum as the focal point of the formative experiences offered by their curriculums. The practicum is considered as the space in which teacher candidates experience and gradually understand their professional role, integrating the pedagogic and disciplinary elements embodied in the competencies their programs aim to develop. In all ECTEPs included in this study exists the view that the process of learning to be a teacher is one based on experience. Therefore the practicum is regarded as a privileged space to obtain professional experiences that, when properly mediated, elicit the development of pedagogical competence. Moreover, it is considered that it is in the space of practicum, in continuous connection with the educative system, where teacher candidates can gradually build their teacher identity. 4.2.1 Characteristics of practicum: progressive, guided and connected with courses The six ECTEPs of this study provide to PSTs a gradual approach to experiences of direct teaching. This is accomplished through successive levels of practicum that begin early in the program and are articulated with courses in such a way that teacher candidates have the opportunity to integrate theory and practice. The progressive nature of practicum within programs is described by one practicum coordinator as follows: 98 El trabajo que intentamos desarrollar en torno a la malla de la línea de formación práctica es que las estudiantes vayan teniendo un conocimiento del quehacer profesional progresivo, y es por eso que se llaman progresivas, porque van de menor a mayor complejidad. Son progresivas porque empiezan las estudiantes a conocer el campo de trabajo de manera episódica a permanente. Porque comienzan a trabajar en los niveles más pequeños para después subir a los más grandes [de edad de los niños]. Son progresivas porque van desarrollando los procesos de reflexión de la práctica, desde la mera observación, desde aprender a observar hasta después hacer un proceso de reflexión-acción que culmina en su práctica profesional a través de una investigación reflexión-acción. (Eva) [The work that we intend to develop in relation to the practicum curriculum is that students have a progressive knowledge of the professional activity, and that is why they [the practicums] are called progressive, because they go from less to more complexity. They are progressive because the students begin to know the field of work from an episodic to a permanent manner. Because they begin to work in the lower levels to later rise to upper levels [of children’s age]. They are progressive because they develop the reflection processes of practicum from the mere observation, from learning to observe, to later engage in a process of reflection-action that culminates in their professional practicum through a reflection-action research.] The specific characteristics of the successive levels of practicum varies from program to program, as well as the strategies used to articulate practicum with coursework throughout the program. Usually, practicum levels have a focus on a specific content or theme that is emphasized in the curriculum during a semester or a year. The quotes below provide examples of focuses in two programs: En el primer semestre todas las asignaturas y la línea de practica están focalizadas en que las estudiantes tengan experiencia, con niños de sala cuna y nivel medio menor. En segundo año se focalizan en nivel medio mayor y transición. Además, el segundo año nosotros incorporamos el sello basado en la diversidad, por lo tanto, debemos tener contacto con espacios de diferentes modalidades curriculares. Entonces captamos jardines infantiles con modalidades alternativas como Montessori, currículo ecológico, currículo intercultural... (Ofelia) [In the first semester all the courses and the practicum line focus on students gaining experience with children in nursery level [85 days to 2 years] and lower medium level [2 and 3 years]. In the second year they focus on upper medium level [3 and 4 years] and transition level [4 and 5 years]. In addition, in the second year we include the diversity- based seal and therefore we need to have contact with different modalities of curriculums. 99 So, we recruit early childhood centers with alternatives modalities such as Montessori, ecological curriculum, intercultural curriculum…] La práctica uno tiene un foco en conocer el rol de educadora, como cosas de gestión, de organización de aula, de revisar desde el Marco de la Buena Enseñanza, ese tipo de cosas. La práctica dos tiene un foco más en nivel de sala cuna por lo tanto los contenidos van a ser en función de estrategias metodológicas propias para ese nivel. En la práctica tres los tres grandes pilares son el cuento, el juego y los afectos. La cuatro tiene un foco en familia y comunidad entonces el contenido tiene que ver con cómo integrar a la familia, cómo abordar quizás o una reunión de apoderados, una entrevista en distintas instancias, cómo les informo, cómo los hago participe. (Antonia) [The first practicum focus on getting familiar with the role of the educator, things like logistics, the classroom organization, to review the Framework for Good Teaching, that kind of things. The second practicum is more focused in the nursery level [85 days to 2 years], therefore the contents are related to methodological strategies appropriate for that level. In the third practicum the three big pillars are the tales, play and the emotions. The fourth is focused on family and community so the content is related to how to integrate the family, how to conduct perhaps a meeting with parents, an interview in different instances, how to inform them, how to make them participate.] While there is agreement among programs in relation to start practicum experiences early on, there is a slight difference in the moment in which programs introduce practicum: some start right away with the first introductory level of practicum, some begin during the second semester or the second year. One of the practicum coordinators explained that in their program the practicum does not begin until the second half of the second year in order to provide three propaedeutic practicum courses on the first year that are meant to set the foundation for later progressive practicums. La lógica de la formación práctica es que tu no mandas a las estudiantes a operar si es que no saben tomar el escarpelo o el bisturí. En este caso es lo mismo, no mandas a las estudiantes a observar en el primer semestre porque no tienen nada con qué analizar esa observación. En el primero y segundo año ellas tienen estas asignaturas que son niveladoras, ahí ven matemáticas, historia, lenguaje, ¿te fijas? Entonces no mandamos a las estudiantes a trabajar como educadoras colaborativas o bien de responsabilidad directa si es que no pasan por estos talleres que las preparan para eso. Una vez que pasan por estos talleres, el segundo semestre del segundo año, entran al campo. (Sandra) 100 [The logic of practicum training is that you do not send students to do surgery if they do not know how to handle the scalpel or the lancet. In this case it is the same, you don’t send the students to observe in the first semester because they don’t have anything with which to analyze that observation. In the first and second year they have leveling courses where they learn mathematics, history, language, do you see? So, we don’t send the students to work as cooperating educators or else with direct responsibility if they don’t undertake the workshops that prepare them for that. Once they have completed the workshops, they enter the field in the second semester of the second year.] 4.2.2 Theoretical frameworks informing practicum The practicum models of the ECTEPs included in this study are informed by a variety of educational theories, although the extent to which these theories are articulated in institutional documents differ substantially. Some programs developed a comprehensive handbook about their practicum model where the theoretical foundations are explicitly stated, while others provided less elaborated documents with no mention of theoretical orientation. However, all practicum coordinators stated that the work done by supervisors in their programs has been guided by a practicum model informed by one or more educational theories or approaches. Some examples of the theoretical referents mentioned by practicum coordinators and/or mentioned in institutional documents were: Dewey’s’ theory of learning through action; the sociocritical paradigm; Schön’s reflective practice; and the core set of practices proposed by Grossman et al. (2009) as an organizing principle for teachers’ education. 4.3 The Figure of the University Supervisor During the interviews, supervisors of practicum—identified as “university supervisors” in this study—were often referred to with different labels by participants such as “tutor” or “mentor”. However, all programs used the term “practicum supervisor” in their official documents. Most programs have a written document specifying their practicum supervisor’s profile. Although this profile varies among programs both in content and extension, there are 101 some common expectations from supervisors’ work such as: alignment with the practicum model adopted by the program; knowing the graduate profile of the program and promoting competencies and professional attitudes according to it; having a welcoming and respectful attitude towards students that allows effective communication; collecting relevant evidence regarding PSTs’ performance to provide precise feedback; and maintaining frequent and fluid communication with professional teams at practicum centers in order to coordinate actions to better support PSTs. 4.3.1 Description of university supervisors’ work The main tasks involved in university supervisors’ work are visiting PSTs’ at practicum sites, providing timely feedback and leading practicum workshops. The frequency of on-site observation of PSTs’ that supervisors carry out differs among programs. For instance, in the late practicum experiences (professional practicum), the frequency of visits ranges from once a week on the upper end to a minimum of twice per semester in the lower end. During visits, the supervisor observes the PST in the classroom and collects evidence in the form of notes, drawings, pictures, voice recording or film. In some programs, the supervisor’s visit to practicum sites includes the lapse of an entire morning so they can observe a wide range of activities. Depending on the rules of practicum sites and the practicum model of the university, some supervisors provide a brief feedback after the on-site observation, as an overview of a longer session to be scheduled later on. Most programs prefer the full feedback sessions to happen at the university, whether later on the same day of the observation or in the next following days, but never later than a week after the on-site observation. The length of one-on-one feedback sessions differ according to the program, the teaching situation observed, and the 102 PST’s need. However, they usually last for approximately one hour, especially at the later practicum levels. La tutora va a verla a los jardines infantiles, está toda la mañana con ellas, por lo que implica verlas en diferentes momentos: en el saludo, la colación, con los hábitos higiénicos, etc., y posterior a ello, la tutora cita a la estudiante en la universidad. Por ejemplo, en la práctica de segundo año, es el viernes el día que se va a supervisar, entonces la tutora la va observar y después vienen las estudiantes en la tarde al taller de práctica, y luego de ese taller viene la retroalimentación de las alumnas a las que fue a observar ese día en la mañana. (Ofelia) [The tutor goes to visit them [PSTs] to the early childhood centers, stays with them all morning because of what is involved in seeing them in different moments: in the greeting, the snack time, the hygienic habits, etc., and after that the tutor calls the student for a meeting at the university. For example, in the second-year practicum the day for supervision is Friday, so the tutor goes to observe and then the students come in the afternoon to the practicum workshop, and after the workshop the feedback to the students that they went to observe that day takes place.] Regardless of how many times supervisors are required by different programs to visit PSTs at practicum sites, all programs offer weekly “practicum workshops”, which are complementary to the visits and provide continuity to the communication between supervisor and supervisees. Practicum workshops are in-person courses dedicated exclusively to the practicum experience. They are an important space for PSTs to process what they are experiencing in the practicum sites in a more sheltered fashion. These workshops— lasting approximately an hour and half— usually have a focus on a specific content depending on the level of practicum. Also, they are aligned with the themes and objectives of concurrent courses in the program, thus providing a valuable opportunity to connect theory and practice. Tenemos talleres semanales, cada una de las prácticas, que tienen un componente teórico y otro práctico. Ese taller implica un análisis constante de referentes de buenas prácticas: analizan [estudiantes] videos, hacen planificaciones, y practican en contextos simulados antes de ir a intervenir al contexto real. Entonces la idea es que en este taller obviamente tenga el sustento teórico de lo que se está viendo de acuerdo con el objetivo de cada una de las prácticas y donde las alumnas tienen la oportunidad de hacer un análisis crítico, bien reflexivo, basando en evidencias, que traen desde su experiencia de 103 práctica, que pueden ser buenos modelos o no. Ahí tienen la oportunidad de simular, retroalimentarse también entre ellas, que creo que es como el gran plus. Entonces, van luego a hacer una intervención de una experiencia que planificaron, ya la probaron, y ya está corregida, retroalimentada por la supervisora. La simularon en clases, tuvieron la oportunidad de volver a ajustarla, entonces ya hay un trabajo adelantado ese sentido. (Antonia) [We have the weekly workshops, each one of the practicums, with both a theoretical and practical component. That workshop involves a constant analysis of good practices’ referents: they [students] analyse videos, carry out planning, and practice in simulated contexts before going to intervene into the real context. So, the idea is that the workshop obviously has the theoretical basis of what is being studied according to the objectives of each practicum and where the student has the opportunity to perform a critical analysis, fairly reflexive, based on evidence, that brings from their experience of practicum, which can be good models or not. There they have the opportunity to simulate, provide and receive feedback between them, which is the big plus, I believe. So, later on they do an intervention of an experience that they already planned, tested, and that has been reviewed and corrected by the supervisor. They simulated the experience in the classroom and had the opportunity to adjust it, so there is a work advanced in that sense.] Practicum workshops happen at the university and are commonly lead by university supervisors, although sometimes other faculty members can teach them as well. In those cases, sometimes university supervisors are invited for few selected sessions. The number of students in practicum workshops are usually less than in regular courses, however, depending on the program they can go from 8 to 20 students. In some programs, the number of students in a workshop is not necessarily the same as the number of students assigned to a supervisor, especially in the professional practicum where supervisors can be assigned as few as 4 PSTs. University supervisors are responsible for evaluating PSTs’ performance during practicum. For that purpose, each program has developed its own rubric, which is reviewed on an ongoing basis. In the evaluation, input from cooperating teachers at the practicum site is considered in all programs, but in different ways. In some programs cooperating teachers have their own rubric and they give a mark based on it, which makes up a percentage—usually a fraction—of the mark given by the supervisor. In other programs, the supervisor collects 104 qualitative feedback from the cooperating teacher regarding teacher candidates’ performance, however, the final mark depends mainly on them. 4.3.2 Supervisors’ contractual situation The selection and hiring of practicum supervisors are usually the responsibility of practicum coordinators or the program director. Sometimes it is a collaborative task of both. One of the essential requirements for supervisors to be hired in the ECTEPs is to have at least a few years of previous experience as a teacher in the classroom. Some programs also require years of experience as a supervisor. In most programs, having a master’s degree is an asset to be hired as a practicum supervisor. Only two out of the six ECTEPs had all university supervisors employed in a full-time regime. The rest of the programs had the majority of their university supervisors on a part time contract, phenomenon that some practicum coordinators dubbed—often disapprovingly—as “taxi teachers”. Practicum coordinators identified a number of problems with this contractual model: first, it made it challenging to integrate part time university supervisors to the group of full time faculty members, which is essential for the articulation of courses with practicum; second, part time supervisors spend limited time at the university, which made them less available to student teachers seeking them in person; and third, the part time status of university supervisors usually meant more time was needed for them to fully learn and familiarize themselves with the vision, orientation and policies of the program. Most university supervisors working part time at the programs in this study were also working under the same status at other universities. University supervisors from all programs except from one, are evaluated by PSTs every term through the faculty evaluation questionnaire. This is part of the evaluation policy in the 105 faculties where ECTEPs are inserted. The results of this evaluation is reviewed by practicum coordinators and usually used as an input to evaluate university supervisors’ performance. 4.4 Collaborative Work with Practicum Sites A common element among ECTEPs is their intent and effort to provide PSTs with practicum experiences in a variety of educational contexts. Although most practicum sites are traditional early childhood educational centers or schools, in some programs PSTs also have the opportunity to complete part of their practicum experiences in institutions such as hospitals, museums, and public libraries. Moreover, since private and state funded institutions tend to target families of different socioeconomic status, ECTEPs require attending to both private and public institutions as part of their practicum policies. This is commonly achieved by implementing a predetermined set of diverse practicum sites as a requirement for PSTs, or, as one of the programs arranges it, by selecting practicum sites according to what is perceived as the most beneficial experience for each teacher candidate. For example: Si la estudiante egresó de un colegio particular, se va a ir a un colegio público. Y si la estudiante viene de un colegio estatal, público, se va a hacer su práctica uno a un organismo privado. Porque también dentro de la carrera, se pide que la estudiante conozca las distintas realidades… entonces, nos aseguramos que en las cinco prácticas conozcan estamento privado y estamento público. (Liliana) [If the student graduated from a private school, they will go to a public school [for practicum]. And if the student comes from a state-funded school, public, they will undertake their practicum in a private institution. Because in the program it is required that the student knows different realities… therefore, we make sure that through the five practicums they know both private and public strata.] The practicum sites PSTs attend are selected by each ECTEP in accordance with to their own criteria. Some ECTEPs prioritize establishing agreements with practicum centers of excellence where students can observe and learn from exemplary educational practices. Other programs emphasise variety in terms of centers’ teaching philosophies and educational 106 approaches so PSTs can be exposed to the wider range possible of educational contexts. In general, the selection of practicum sites was reported by practicum coordinators as paramount, usually a task undertaken by them in conjunction with or with the support of the program’s head. Likewise, developing and maintaining agreements and strong partnerships with practicum sites is also an essential duty of practicum coordinators. Most of the programs participating in this study have well stablished agreements with practicum sites, at least with some of them, that were built over a long period of time. El convenio con los centros es fundamental. Una buena experiencia de práctica no se puede hacer en general cuando las instituciones no tienen compromisos de reciprocidad, porque todo quedaría al arbitrio de las voluntades individuales. ¿Cómo vas a hacer, por ejemplo, que vengan tus educadoras guía a algún taller si no tienen convenio? Primero no tienen ninguna condición contractual que las obligue, segundo lo más probable es que no tengan tiempo para eso o que no las dejen salir, o que esté fuera de su horario. El convenio permite que estas cosas se hagan en el horario de las colegas. (Sandra) [The agreement with practicum sites is essential. In general, a good practicum experience cannot be achieved when the institutions don’t have agreements of reciprocity, because everything would be left to the will of individuals. How are you going to enforce attendance to a workshop by cooperating teachers if there is no agreement? First, they do not have any contractual condition that mandates it, second, they most likely won’t have time or permission for that, or it is going to be out of their working hours. The agreement allows all these things to happen during their work schedule.] In addition to building and maintaining agreements, practicum coordinators fulfill several other important functions relevant to the alliances with practicum sites such as: introducing new university supervisors to practicum sites; maintaining regular communication with cooperating teachers and centers’ directors while learning from their views about the practicum experiences PSTs are having; and following up on any needs or challenges that might arise during the academic year in relation to the presence of supervisors and PSTs in the site. The decision of which practicum sites are assigned to each PST is usually the responsibility of practicum coordinators also, however the opinions and views of university 107 supervisors are always considered since they have the closest relationship with both PSTs and practicum sites. PSTs have some freedom in choosing practicum sites but only regarding to children’s age, not to the type of site. For instance, once PSTs have had practicum experiences with children of all ages, they can choose to continue with a specific age group in subsequent practicums, but the type of site (e.g., institutional dependency, teaching approach) is assigned to them in accordance with the requirements of the program. Practicum coordinators reported different ways of organizing collaborative work between ECTEPs and practicum sites. For instance, most programs organize regular events (one to three times per year) with a variety of formats in terms of length and logistics, where faculty from both the ECTEPs and practicum sites can get together to review and plan their joint work. During these working sessions—usually planned and lead by practicum coordinators—university supervisors, cooperating teachers, and practicum coordinators, have the opportunity to: (a) assess their collaborative work, (b) revisit or deepen their knowledge about the theoretical foundations of the programs’ practicum model, and (c) review an eventually modify their common agreement on strategies to support PSTs. It is common practice to have special guests invited to these events to lead workshops on certain topics relevant to practicum, or to present material that might be of special interest to teachers and supervisors in order to improve their work. In this sense, these instances are considered a form of professional development that support and advances the work of professionals directly involved in supporting PSTs’ practicum experiences, while simultaneously strengthening the partnerships between ECTEPs and practicum sites. Organizamos jornadas de capacitación, el próximo martes por ejemplo tenemos una jornada seguramente con todas nuestras supervisoras y educadoras guía para mejorar los procesos de retroalimentación en la supervisión. Lo viene a dar un especialista en trabajos tríadicos y retroalimentación. (Ariana) 108 [We organize continuous education sessions, next Tuesday for example we have a day most likely with all our supervisors and cooperating teachers in order to improve the feedback processes during practicum. It will be conducted by a specialist on triadic work and feedback.] Unlike practicum sites in other professions, education practicum sites do not receive monetary compensation from teacher education programs. According to practicum coordinators, the programs included in this study devised their own ways to reciprocate practicum sites for their valuable contribution. For example, one program that belongs to a large university offered a significant discount to members of practicum sites should they be interested in pursuing one of their many post graduate programs. Other ways of reciprocity included provision of coaching in areas of expertise, invitation to talks and formal recognition of cooperating teachers’ work through special ceremonies. Las educadoras guía no tienen una remuneración, pero tienen otros reconocimientos. Por ejemplo, nosotros hacemos ceremonias de distinción, les regalamos un diploma, les damos un presente…. O, si ellas tienen necesidades especificas en sus jardines infantiles, por ejemplo, de que quieren armar un huerto, qué se yo… y necesitan agrónomos o gente que les pueda dar orientación, nosotros gracias al convenio, podemos buscar a un estudiante de agronomía que vaya a centro… ¿Te fijas? Entonces de alguna manera, el convenio tiene unos principios de reciprocidad y colaboración que permite desarrollar una formación práctica que tiene condiciones muy ventajosas. (Eva) [Cooperating teachers do not receive any payment, but they are acknowledged in other ways. For example, we organize recognition ceremonies, we award them a diploma, we give them a gift… Or, if they have particular needs in their centers, for example, they want to develop an orchard, I don’t know… and need agronomists or people that can orient them, we, thanks to the agreement can reach out for an agronomy student that can help them at the centers… Do you see? So, in some way the agreement has principles of reciprocity and mutual collaboration that enables us to develop a practicum under very advantageous conditions.] 4.5 Ongoing Professional Development for University Supervisors The practicum models of all the ECTEPs participating in this study included a number of avenues for the ongoing professional development (PD) of university supervisors. 109 First, once university supervisors are hired by the ECTEPs, they receive a professional induction to learn the practicum model adopted by the program and the specific supervision competences emphasised by it. Depending on the program, inductions vary in their level of depth and scope of material covered. The most sophisticated forms of induction are offered by those ECTEPs belonging to a university that has a practicum model adopted transversally by all programs under the Faculty of Education and that has the position of a “practicum director” who oversees the practicum of the entire faculty in addition to the practicum coordinators of each educational level (early childhood, primary and secondary education). Second, the most common form of PD offered to university supervisors are the “practicum coordination meetings” which are regular meetings led by practicum coordinators and attended by all university supervisors overseeing practicum in a given term. The frequency with which coordination meetings are held vary from three times per term to once a week, depending on the program. However, in any case practicum coordinators have individual contact with university supervisors on a weekly basis. In the universities that have a practicum director position in addition to the practicum coordinators of each educational level, the practicum director also attends the practicum coordination meetings, along with the university supervisors of all educational levels. However, in these cases, ECTEPs arrange additional meetings in order to have opportunities for collective work that are exclusive to university supervisors of that educational level. El primer lunes de cada mes nos juntamos todo el equipo de práctica de la facultad, que lo conforman las supervisoras de las tres carreras [educación inicial, educación básica, educación media], la directora de formación práctica y las coordinadoras de cada carrera. La reunión se planifica con distintos objetivos: por un lado, alinear ciertos criterios y por otro, también estar formándonos constantemente. Aparte de eso también hay reuniones semanales de cada nivel, donde yo estoy a cargo de educación inicial. (Antonia) 110 [The first Monday of each month the whole practicum team of the faculty meets, composed by the supervisors of all three programs [early childhood, primary and secondary education], the practicum director and the practicum coordinator of each program. The meeting is planned with different objectives: on the one hand to align certain criteria and on the other hand to engage in continuous education. In addition to that, each [educational] level has weekly meetings, where I am in charge of early childhood.] The aim of these meetings is to have a regular instance to jointly review the practices and adopted guidelines for practicum supervision, as well as to discuss as a team and resolve certain situations that might arise regarding practicum sites and/or PSTs which require collective analysis and decision making. In addition, coordination meetings are also the space for practicum teams to learn new skills or deepen the knowledge of a specific topic, such as effective feedback in supervision, use of evaluative and pedagogic tools, etc. Nos hemos ido formando en retroalimentación efectiva que ha sido uno de los temas que hemos trabajado este año intensamente. También hemos hecho el trabajo de revisar los instrumentos evaluativos, y también los apoyos pedagógico que utilizan en los talleres de práctica, para mejorar su elaboración, para hacerlos más explícitos, mas específicos, de modo que ellas [supervisoras] puedan explicar lo que piden con mayor claridad a las estudiantes. (Liliana) [We have been training in effective feedback, which have been one of the topics we have worked on intensively this year. We have also done the work of reviewing the evaluative instruments, as well as the pedagogical support instruments that are used in the practicum workshops, to make them more explicit, more specific, so they [supervisors] are able to explain what they are asking for to students with more clarity.] Lastly, apart from coordination meetings most programs offer instances of PD to university supervisors in the form of talks, seminars or continuous education courses revolving around specific topics linked to practicum. Some of these PD opportunities are organized by and held at the universities where university supervisors work, while others are external. It is also common practice among ECTEPs to promote the participation of university supervisors in university diplomas by subsidizing a percentage of its fees. 111 4.6 Chapter Summary This chapter presented a description of how practicum is organized in the ECTEPs in which participants of this study were employed. The chapter included data regarding the structure of practicum; the role and contractual situation of university supervisors; characteristics of collaborative arrangements with practicum sites; and professional development opportunities available to university supervisors. This information provides context to better understand university supervisors’ conceptions of supervision identified in this study, which are presented in the next chapter. 112 Chapter 5: Findings Related to University Supervisors’ Conceptions of Supervision 5.1 Overview This chapter presents the conceptions of supervision identified through the phenomenographic analysis of the interview transcripts of the 19 practicum supervisors that participated in the study. Data for this analysis came from questions in a semi-structured interview protocol such as : What does supervision mean to you?, What is to supervise? (see Appendix I for complete interview protocol). As well, the data also came from unstructured follow-up questions used to explore the initial answers in more depth, for instance: Could you explain that a bit further?, or Why is that important to you? These questions were often more important in provoking underlying meaning than the predetermined questions. However, the aim of all questions was to offer opportunities for university supervisors to reveal their current understanding of supervision as completely as possible without me introducing aspects not mentioned by them. Findings from the analysis are organized in two sections. First, four interrelated categories of description, exhibiting qualitative different ways in which supervision is understood by university supervisors, are presented and described. The analysis shows that supervision is conceived as a) an accompaniment of learning; b) instruction; c) a vehicle to promote reflective thinking d) an opportunity for awareness expansion and transformation . Second, three key themes or dimensions of variation, are presented to describe relationships between conceptions of supervision: a) role of the supervisor; b) means of supervision, and c) nature of the relationship between supervisor and supervisee. The set of categories of description and dimensions of variation form what phenomenographers refer to as the outcome space and 113 conveys the structure of awareness that the group of university supervisors participating in the study has regarding supervision. Each category is described in the next section, with key aspects of the categories illustrated through verbatim quotations from the transcripts. Although it is impossible for any quotation to illustrate all aspects of the category described, they are presented with the intention of offering a more concrete sense of the nature of the category than would be possible with an abstract description only. As in the previous chapter, quotations from interviewees are presented in their original language (Spanish) followed by a translation into English below each of them. The generic third-person singular pronoun “they” was used every time the gender of a person referred was unknown. An exception to this were the quotations from participants, which were translated verbatim. 5.2 Categories of Description Figure 2 provides an image that captures at a glance the four categories of description identified in this study presented in this section. Figure 2 University Supervisors Conceptions of Supervision 114 5.2.1 Category A: Supervision as accompaniment of learning In this conception, supervision is understood as a process of accompaniment to PSTs during their practicum. Emphasis is placed in making the PSTs feel safe and supported in a time of transition when they most likely will witness and experience situations that are new to them and often challenging. Practicum is considered to be an inflection point in the education of PSTs where the presence of the supervisor can be a catalyst to process the experience in a way that facilitates learning. Tiene que ver con empezar a acompañar el comienzo del camino profesional de la estudiante… me gusta la palabra ‘guía’, uno es una persona con experiencia que puede ayudarla a entrar en el mundo laboral, para que las chiquillas no se asombren ni se espanten por muchas cosas que van a vivir ahí. Uno quiere ayudarlas a que sus procesos sean acompañados, para que puedan integrar la experiencia y aprender al máximo de ella. (Pilar) [It has to do with accompanying the beginning of the professional career of a student... I like the word ‘guide’, one is a person with experience that can help her to enter the labour world, so the girls will not be astonished or scared away with a lot of things that they will experience there. One wants to help them to live their processes accompanied, so they can integrate their experience and learn as much as they can from it.] 115 Yo insisto que cuando el estudiante va a los centros de práctica se produce un quiebre, se produce una tensión, una demanda, un desafío para nuestras estudiantes. Se les aparece un mundo, una realidad que tiene muchas más aristas de las que han visto durante su periodo de formación en la universidad. (Magali) [I insist that when the student goes to the practice center a breakdown takes place, a tension happens, a demand, a challenge for our students. A universe appears to them, a reality with many more shades than what they have seen during their formation period at the university.] Apart from literal physical presence in practicum sites, accompanying PSTs’ during practicum involves guidance and support in the development and enactment of a variety of skills that are necessary in the educational context, including “transversal skills”. Yo miro la supervisión de las estudiantes más con un acompañamiento que está ligado a acciones de apoyo. Esto tiene varias aristas, es preocuparnos de aquellos aspectos que son más administrativos, de cumplimientos: si la estudiante asiste, si es puntual, cumple con las directrices de la institución, etc… ese tipo de cosas que tiene que ver con aspectos vinculados fuertemente a competencias más transversales, más genéricas. Junto con eso, todo el apoyo que es parte de lo más disciplinar y pedagógico. (Paola) [I consider the students’ supervision more like an accompanying that is linked to actions of support. This has many sides, it is about being concerned of those aspects that are administrative related, that you have to comply with: if the student attends, if she is on time, if she follows the institution’s directions, etc… these type of things that have to do with issues strongly related to transversal skills, generic ones. In addition, all the support that is related to the disciplinary and pedagogic aspects.] The supervisor adopts a collaborative strategy with the intention of accompanying the PST as they test their abilities and incipient teacher identity in a new context. There is a supportive, partnership-like relationship that seeks to promote the strengths and qualities of the PST: “ no se trata de una supervisora que controle, sino de una persona que vive el proceso contigo… uno es un tutor, un partner que logra ver las mejores fortalezas y potenciarlas”. (Ursula). [It is not about a supervisor that controls, but a person that lives the process with you… one is a tutor, a partner that is able to see the best strengths and maximize them]. An emphasis is 116 placed on a friendly attitude held by the supervisor that denotes availability. This is reflected in expressions such as “friendly witness”, “to be there for her”, and “attitude of warmth”. Furthermore, supervision is discussed as an horizontal endeavour where, even though the supervisor has more accumulated experience and resources than the supervisee, is not “above” them. Thus accompaniment implies a way to jointly work to examine situations, face challenges, and find solutions. Si la estudiante tiene un problema, o no sabe bien como enfrentarse a una situación, yo la tengo que guiar y acompañar para que podamos juntas llegar a la solución de ese problema. Y este juntas no quiere decir que yo no crea que ella es capaz de hacerle frente. La forma en que lo veo es que está en un proceso de formación en que todavía hay cosas que no conoce, que esta recién conociendo un centro de práctica, la institución desde adentro. Y yo desde mi experiencia, tengo ciertas herramientas que me permiten orientarla en la dirección de encontrar buenas maneras de solucionar el problema. (Victoria) [If the student has a problem, or doesn’t know how to properly face a given situation, I have to guide and accompany her so we can, together, arrive to a solution of that problem. And this togetherness does not mean that I believe that she is not able to face it. The way I understand this, is that she is in a formative process in which there are many things that she does not know, that she is just getting familiar with a practicum site, with the institution from within. And I, from my own experience, have some tools that allow me to guide her in the direction to find good ways to solve the problem.] The way in which supervisors talked about supervision reflected that to supervise is also closely related to help the PST to regulate the variety of emotions elicited by the experience of practicum, which seems to inevitably imply a high degree of exposure and vulnerability. University supervisors stated that an important part of their attention, time and energy while interacting with their supervisees is invested in assisting them to, in their words, “contain”, “integrate”, “process”, “regulate”, “manage” and “express” their emotions. The following statement illustrates how a supervisor describes this aspect of their work: O sea, no es solo teórico, no es sólo lo disciplinar o lo pedagógico, sino que también es un momento en que las estudiantes te demandan apoyo y contención en lo afectivo… 117 tiene que ver con esta tensión que se produce cuando van a la práctica, salen de su estado de confort que es la universidad, que es la facultad tan chiquita, amigable, muy cercana… y salen a este otro espacio, lejano, vulnerable… cuarenta niños, etc. Entonces claramente eso las tensiona y las pone en ciertos casos en situaciones de vulnerabilidad, en donde te empiezan a exigir una especie de afecto, una contención más afectiva, porque empiezan a aparecer miedos, situaciones X… (Luz). [I mean, it is not just theoretical, it is not just the disciplinary, or the pedagogical, but also a moment in which students demand support and emotional containment… it has to do with the tension produced when they go to practicum, they get out of their of the comfort zone that is the university, that is the small Faculty, friendly, so close… and they go to this other space, distant, vulnerable… forty kids, etc.. Therefore, clearly, this stresses them out and, in some cases, puts them in situations of vulnerability, where they begin to demand a kind of affection, an emotional containment, because fears begin to arise, x situations…] Even though helping PSTs to process and contain emotions elicited during their practicum was discussed as seemingly inevitable, supervisors also expressed the needs for boundaries to this particular aspect of their role. Te lo voy a poner desde un ejemplo. Hace poco tiempo atrás, una estudiante, me dijo muy enojada ‘es que si yo no hago catarsis con usted, entonces, ¿con quién voy a hacer catarsis?’ Eso fue un llamado de atención para mí , porque yo no espero que las estudiantes hagan catarsis conmigo, creo que es algo que me excede, es algo que está más allá de mis competencias y creo que es una confusión en términos del espacio de supervisión, porque yo no soy terapeuta. (Gabriela) [I will explain it to you based on an example. Some time ago, an upset student told me, ‘if I do not experience catharsis with you, then, with whom will I experience catharsis with?’ That was a wake-up call for me, because I do not expect students to do catharsis with me, I think it is something that exceeds me, something beyond my skills and I believe it is a confusion in terms of the supervision space, because I am not a counsellor.] 5.2.2 Category B: Supervision as instruction In this second category, supervision is seen primarily as providing instruction related to education in the early years. As in the first category, there is an aim of supporting the PST to be successful on their practicum experience. But in contrast to category A, supervision is understood here as a formative process aimed to assist the PST to acquire the knowledge and 118 tools that are essential to the discipline in a practicum context. Therefore, there is a focus on the provision of information. Para mi significa entregar conocimiento y experiencias, no solo conocimiento como contenido, sino también practico desde la experiencia. Es un proceso formativo de constante retroalimentación, señalar fortalezas y debilidades, y entregar conocimiento desde la experiencia que uno tiene. (Úrsula) [For me, it means to give knowledge and experiences, not only knowledge as content, but also practical knowledge from experience. It is a formative process of constant feedback, pointing out strengths and weaknesses, and giving knowledge based on one’s experience.] (…) hay también una tensión entre mi propósito y el propósito que ella tiene. Yo quiero que ella aprenda ciertas cosas y que mejore otras… yo te diría que antes yo iba solo a acompañamiento y ahora he evolucionado a darle más herramientas concretas, a entregarle, para que ella pueda avanzar. (Stella) [(…) there is also a tension between my purpose and her purpose. I want her to learn certain things and to improve others… I would tell you that before I was going only to provide accompaniment and now I have evolved to providing more concrete tools, to give something to her, so she can make progress.] Underlying this conception of supervision it is a view that becoming an EC teacher is a skill learnt through the emulation of experts but adapted by the individual PST. The main goal of such teaching is to enable PSTs to teach effectively by correctly learning and putting into practice a variety of teaching strategies. In this way, the supervisor in this category is conceived as an expert whose expertise must be put into the service of PSTs’ learning through direct teaching and knowledge transmission. For example, this is how one supervisor describes how they try to help PSTs concretely during supervisory conference: La idea es que con la experiencia que uno tiene pueda ayudarlas a través de la entrega de conocimientos que aporten a la reflexión sobre su práctica. Generalmente partimos por una conversación sobre lo que se hizo y una simulación de cómo mejorar eso que ya se hizo. Normalmente sigo mi pauta, que tiene evidencias de fotos, entonces le voy mostrando por ejemplo: ‘mira, por ejemplo en la letra A hiciste un circulo y después le hiciste la unión a la siguiente letra. ¿Como cómo es a letra A cuando estás modelando?’ 119 Ya, me la hace. ‘¿Qué pasa cuando la modelas mal?’ Ya, la hace de nuevo. Vamos conversando de lo que se hizo pero todo esto con evidencia; grabaciones o fotos. (Pilar) [The point is that with the experience one has, one can help them by providing knowledge that contributes to the reflection about their practice. In general, we begin with a conversation about what was done, and a simulation about how to improve what was done. Usually, I follow my guideline, that has evidence in photos, so I show them, for example: ‘look, for example with the letter A you made a circle and then joined it to the next letter. How is the letter A when you are modelling?’ OK, she does it. ‘What happens when you model it wrong?’ OK, she does it again. We talk about what was done, but all this with evidence; recordings or photos.] Similarly, another participant highlights the value of her experience as a unique contribution offered to supervisees with the following statement: Creo que mi experiencia también de sala, de yo haber sido educadora es mucho más valiosa que la de hacer clases. La de hacer clases, yo creo que la puede hacer un sinfín de personas. Pero el haber estado en sala, estando tanto tiempo con niños e interactuando con ellos, enseñándoles, cometiendo errores con ellos, es lo que hace muy valioso este traspaso de información o de experiencia. (Soledad) [I believe that my experience in the classroom also, of having been an educator, is much more valuable than lecturing. I believe that countless people can do lecturing. But having been in the classroom with children for so long, interacting with them, teaching them, making mistakes, is what makes this transference of information or experience so valuable.] Thus, in this conception of supervision, the supervisor adopts a more directive role than in the first one. Her responsibility is to orient and guide, not only with general guidelines but with specific instructions related to teaching young children. Like a shepherd, the supervisor strives to help PSTs to navigate the harshness of practicum sites’ realities by actively and deliberately equipping them with the foundational knowledge and proven strategies of the field that lay the ground for a successful teaching experience. Se trata de orientar y guiar los procesos de aprendizaje que van teniendo las futuras educadoras de párvulo ¿ya? Acompañarlas en esta constante apropiación del conocimiento y además de la bajada a la práctica. Esto obviamente implica dar indicaciones, orientaciones prácticas de cómo implementar experiencias de aprendizaje adecuadas para cada uno de los niños o niveles en que ellas van a estar 120 haciendo en su práctica. Es más bien desde la experiencia, conectada por supuesto con el conocimiento, pero más bien de la experiencia que uno vivió. Yo sigo creyendo que si estoy educando a alguien, debo darle herramientas. (Roxana) [It is about orienting and guiding the learning processes that future early childhood educators are having. OK? To accompany them in this constant appropriation of knowledge, in addition to bringing that down to the practice. Obviously, this implies to give instructions, practical guidelines on how to implement learning experiences adequate for each children or each level [of age] in which they will be completing their practicum. It is more from the experience, connected of course with the knowledge, but from the experience lived by oneself. I still believe that if I am educating someone, I have to provide her with tools.] Es súper importante para mi que ellas entiendan lo que yo espero de ellas, que entiendan cómo pueden mejorar, qué cosas yo visualizo que a futuro pueden funcionar mejor. Entonces, yo les doy indicaciones para ayudarlas a que puedan hacer su pasantía de forma exitosa. Yo siento que en gran parte yo soy responsable de lo que mis estudiantes son capaces de hacer.(Elia) [It is very important to me that they understand what I expect from them, how they can improve, the things that I see can function better in the future. So I give them instructions to help them to have a successful practicum. I believe that to a great extent I am responsible of what my students are able to do.] Participants’ accounts seem to show that central to this category are structural elements of the supervision that provide validity, consistency or rigor to the process. For example, tools for classroom observation, collection of evidence, rubrics and strategies for feedback are highlighted in this category. (…) y lo otro que me sirve mucho es la evidencia, y eso lo aprendí aquí, o sea yo no puedo decirle que fue gritona si no muestro que está gritando. Yo creo que la evidencia, el orden la pauta, la preparación... que eso también le hace sentir al otro que ‘ella se preparó por mí’, yo creo que ahí también te validan. (Pilar) [(…) another thing that helps me a lot is the evidence, and I learned that here, I mean I cannot tell her she was yelling if I do not show that she was actually yelling. I believe that the evidence, the order of the observation form, the preparation… that this also makes the other to feel ‘she got prepared for me’, I believe that you also get validated because of that.] Antes yo me armaba mi pauta de observación y ahora ya hay algo más estructurado, hay una metodología que incluye esta pauta, que incluye también un formato de feedback. 121 Además, lo que uno le pidió en la retroalimentación en general se sustenta mucho en la rubrica que tú le entregaste. Lo veo necesario, en ese sentido me gusta, me he dado cuenta de que les ayuda a mejorar en cuanto a gestión y en cuanto como a conocimientos más disciplinares. (Paloma) [In the past I used to create my own observation form and now there is something more structured, there is a methodology that includes this form, and that also includes a format for the feedback. In addition, what you request to them during the feedback is very much based in the rubric that you gave them. I regard it as necessary, in that sense I like it, I have realized that it helps them to improve in respect to management as well as disciplinary knowledge.] The supervisor observes and then assesses PST’s performance during visits with the primary aim of identifying room for improvement. Thus, correcting mistakes and showing pathways for improvement of teaching performance is considered an essential practice to promote PST’s confidence. Observar, acompañar, guiar, corregir… identificar el error con la alumna antes de corregir. Tiene que ver con un rol que es un proceso, un rol que da luces, y que por ello entrega calma, un rol que da seguridad, que da confianza. (Ivanna) [To observe, accompany, guide, rectify… identifying the mistake with the student before rectifying it. It has to do with a role that is a process, a role that sheds light and that, because of that, provides calm, a role that provides security, that provides confidence.] Supervision in this category is also seen as an important period within student teachers’ education to ensure the development of the competencies expected at graduation by the teacher education programs, as well as the standards defined by the country regarding in-service early childhood educators’ job. Las prácticas tienen definido un procedimiento. Hay protocolos, hay acciones que son parte de la institución, que son parte de la carrera. Y esas claramente yo las voy a enunciar cada vez que yo vea situaciones que salen de ese encuadre. Además, las alumnas en su práctica profesional, para mí, deberían tener todas las competencias necesarias, cumplir con lo que el sistema educativo dice que un profesor inicial tiene que tener. (Roxana) [Practicums have a defined a procedure. There are protocols, there are actions that are part of the institution, that are part of the program. And I will, clearly, point them out 122 every time I see situations that get off that frame. Also, the students in their professional practicum, to me, they should have all the necessary skills, comply with what the educational system considers an early childhood educator should have.] Yo le muestro el marco regulador, porque las políticas públicas tienen una línea y eso es súper importante. Nosotros no vamos a formar educadoras conductistas o unas academicistas cuando toda la política pública va hacia el otro extremo. Pero dentro de eso hay un abanico enorme de cosas, de posibilidades que hay que hacer. Entonces, no es que se trate de que es una mala educadora por haberse ido por ahí. No, pero si es importante que tenga claro ‘esto es lo que espera la sociedad chilena sobre una educadora de párvulo’, a través del perfil de egreso y de las políticas públicas. (Celeste) [I introduce the national regulatory frame to her, because public policies follow a pattern and that is super important. We are not going to form behaviourist educators or academicians when all public policies move in the opposite direction. But within that, there is huge spectrum of things, of possibilities to be done. So, it is not about she being a bad educator because of following a particular path. No, but it is important that she is clear about ‘this is what the Chilean society expects from an early childhood educator’, based on the graduate profile and public policies.] 5.2.3 Category C: Supervision as a vehicle to promote reflective thinking This third category represents a significant shift in the understanding of supervision. The focus moves from providing instruction to enabling students’ individual growth as teachers through the development and deepening of independent thinking and understanding. As in category B, here the acquisition of knowledge and mastery of teaching strategies is also sought. In this category however, in addition to adequately “equip” the PST, what is emphasized is that they develop and gain confidence in their own reflective thinking regarding the practice of teaching, thus increasing their professional autonomy. Ir empoderando al otro es lo que tratamos de hacer desde el primer año, que a medida que vayan aprendiendo e integrando los elementos básicos del currículo vayan luego desarrollando la capacidad de pensar por si mismas y tomando decisiones de acuerdo a su propio juicio… es decir, ir avanzando hacia cierto apoderamiento en la sala, porque eso es súper importante. Tu te das cuenta cuando una estudiante se cree lo que esta haciendo y asume el rol porque su actuar deriva de lo que procesó ella misma: lo que reflexionó, evaluó, sopesó, las variables que relacionó… en fin toda la actividad cognitiva interna que finalmente la lleva a tomar una decisión y no otra cuando está en sala. (Gloria) 123 [To go about empowering the other is what we try to do from the first year, that as they learn and integrate the basic elements of the curriculum, then develop the capacity of thinking by themselves and take decisions in accordance with their own criteria… that is, to advance towards a certain command of the classroom, because that is very important. You can tell when a student believes in what she is doing and embodies the role, because her conduct comes from what she herself processed: what she reflected, evaluated, pondered, the variables that she connected… anyway all the cognitive activity that finally lead her to make one decision and not another in the classroom.] Supervision in this category is understood in a way that goes beyond providing instruction to promote a process of inquiry and reflection that occurs in the context of a close relationship between supervisor and supervisee, which is qualitatively different from the transmission of knowledge from supervisor to supervisee that takes place in category B. Antes que nada considero que tiene que haber una comunicación afectiva y efectiva. Una capacidad de comunicar con empatía y de manera clara… ser hábil con la retórica para poder guiarla a que reflexione, para que tome conciencia de sus propias creencias y el significado que le da a ciertos conceptos o situaciones y desde allí evalúe... el desafío de una como supervisora es ver cómo la hago pensar. (Gabriela) [First of all I think that an effective and affective communication has to be there. A capacity for communicating with empathy and clarity… to be skillful with the rhetoric in order to be able to guide her to reflect, to be conscious of her own beliefs and the meaning that she assigns to certain concepts or situations, and from there make an evaluation… the challenge one’s have as a supervisor is to figure it out how to make her think.] The support provided by the supervisor to the supervisee in this category is less directive and more dialogic than in category B. It is conceived as an orientation or guide towards skillful teaching performance that is not prescriptive in nature. Instead, it is expected that the supervisee will play an active role in looking at their experience to make meaning of it, reflecting, and deciding upon it in conjunction with the supervisor. Uno es una guía, alguien que le muestra el camino, alguien que orienta el proceso, el foco… alguien que está interesado en las decisiones, pero sin ser quien transmite esas decisiones, sino que ayuda a que ella misma las vaya encontrando. (Eva) 124 [One is a guide, someone that shows the path, someone who guides the process, the focus… someone who is interested in the decisions, but without being the one who transmits those decisions, instead one who helps her to find them.] No es tan fácil, pero se trata de que encuentre lo que yo quiero que ella encuentre sin que yo le diga lo que quiero que encuentre. Hacer preguntas de tal forma que el otro encuentre las propias respuestas, sin que uno tenga que dársela. Una mediación tal, que el otro descubra su fortalezas, sus debilidades, que indique el camino para que el otro llegue por sí mismo a las respuestas. Porque es mucho más fácil desde la supervisora, decirle: ‘tú, a, b, c, d, e, f’. Pero dónde la hago pensar, dónde voy a tener el impacto, si no en hacer preguntas claves para que ella note ella misma. (Stella) [It is not that easy, but it is about her finding what I want her to find, without telling her what I want her to find. Formulate questions in such a way that the other finds the answers herself, without one having to provide them. A type of mediation that allows the other to discover her strengths, her weaknesses, that shows the path for the other to arrive to the answers by herself. Because it is much more easy as a supervisor to tell them: ‘you, a, b, c, d, e, f’. But how am I going to make her think, where am I going to have an impact, if not by formulating key questions for her to notice by herself.] Underlying this conception of supervision is the perception that agency and autonomy are essential competencies to be acquired by PSTs before formally beginning their professional career. Therefore the supervisor seeks to orient the PST to develop their ability to find answers by themselves through directing attention to their thinking and ways to make decisions. Engaging PSTs in the exercise of making their thinking conscious, enables them to identify the elements that influence their decisions and actions within the classroom. Therefore, the supervisor acts as a mediator that helps to visualize thinking and clarify meaning. … andamiar, en el sentido de elicitar el pensamiento sobre aquellas decisiones que tomó una estudiante, ¿Cuáles son los elementos previos que la llevaron a tomar esa decisión? Uno va acompañando en hacer visible aquellos procesos de pensamiento, aquellos procesos de toma de decisiones de un estudiante. (Alicia) [… scaffolding, in the sense of eliciting the thinking about those decisions that a student made. What are the previous elements that drove her to make that decision? One accompanies in making visible those thought processes, the processes of a student’s decision making.] 125 Y en esa conversación que se va dando una de las técnicas que yo uso es la contra pregunta, que sirve para aclarar, categorizar… hacer más claro el significado de ciertas cosas que platean. Por ejemplo, ¿Qué me está queriendo decir con que ‘la educadora es mala.’? ¿Qué tengo que entender por eso? O si me dice ‘la educadora no me quiere’, ver que significa eso. O sea, a mí también hay mucha gente no me quiere, pero ¿qué significa esto para ella en este contexto? Entonces, ir focalizando, ¿me entiendes? (Paola) [And in that conversation that unfolds, one of the techniques I use is the counter question, that is useful to clarify, classify… make more clear the meaning of certain things that they state. For example, What is she trying to tell me when saying ‘the cooperating teacher is bad’? What do I have to understand by that? Or if she says ‘the cooperating teacher does not like me’, to indagate what that means. I mean, there are a lot of people who do not like me, but what that does mean for her in this context? Therefore, go about focalizing. Do you understand me?] In this way of understanding supervision, mistakes are welcomed and considered not only an invitation for assessment and subsequent correction but as an opportunity to foster PSTs’ reflection on their thoughts and actions. El error, el no saber, es algo útil… yo siempre les digo: ‘eso le va a permitir que usted reflexione sobre todos los factores que fueron afectando esta situación.’. Es decir, el error no tomarlo sólo como un error, sino tomarlo como la posibilidad de reinventarse frente a esa situación que no resultó. No verlo como algo que merece un castigo, porque la finalidad del proceso de práctica, no es solo sacar una nota, ¡no!, va más allá. (Francisca) [The mistake, not knowing, is something useful… I always tell them: ‘that is going to allow you to reflect over all those factors that impacted this situation.’ That is, the mistake, not to regard it only as a mistake, but to consider it like a chance of reinventing oneself in front of a situation that didn’t work. Not to see it as something that deserves a punishment, because the purpose of the practicum process is not only to get a grade. No!, it goes beyond that.] A dónde queremos llegar fundamentalmente es que ellas primero se atrevan a implementar, le pierdan el susto a equivocarse, confíen en nosotras para acompañarlas… entonces, tenemos que hacer que ellas se den permiso a equivocarse. (Lucia) [Where we do fundamentally want to arrive is for them to, first, dare to implement, lose the fear of making mistakes, trust us in accompanying them… therefore, we have to make them to allow themselves to be wrong.] 126 Participants’ accounts suggested the belief that supervision is a privileged opportunity for the PSTs to learn to integrate theory and practice. Thus, in this category, there is a strong emphasis on helping PSTs to feel competent and empowered by means of a growing understanding of theoretical and practical knowledge, as well as their interconnection. Consequently, it is expected that PSTs reflect upon their own practice in dialogue with the theoretical knowledge previously accumulated through coursework, and that are capable to make explicit connections. La supervisora da la oportunidad a que la estudiante pueda hacer uso de manera integrada de todos sus conocimientos previos, por ejemplo de lenguaje, de arte, etc. Por lo tanto la reflexión siempre tiene que partir de un conocimiento, no es algo que te nazca de la nada. A lo mejor eso se puede esperar de una persona que no tiene ciertos conocimientos… pero la estudiante lleva una formación y eso se tiene que notar. (Roxana) [The supervisor provides the opportunity for the student to make use of all her previous knowledge in an integrated way, for example of language, art, etc. Therefore, reflection always should begin from knowledge, it is not something that springs from you out of nothing. Maybe that can be expected of a person who lacks certain knowledge, but the student has an academic background and that has to show.] 5.2.4 Category D: Supervision as an opportunity for awareness expansion and transformation This final category is the most complex of the four. As in category C, it includes an understanding of supervision as a way to promote reflective thinking. What makes this conception qualitatively different is an additional recognition of supervision as a medium for awareness expansion and self-discovery that can be transformative. Es clave cuando uno se da cuenta de que la alumna se mira a sí misma además de lo que ocurre en la sala. Si se logra percibir y describir... hay un proceso de hacerse cargo de ella misma que necesariamente pasa por ser consiente de sí primero. (Eva) 127 [It is key when one realizes that the student looks to herself in addition to what is going on in the classroom. That she is able to perceive and describe herself… there is a process of taking charge of herself that necessarily involves to be conscious of herself first.] Yo creo que la supervisión tiene una naturaleza… no sé si afectiva, pero una naturaleza que es como el currículo oculto, que no tiene que ver… bueno, si tiene que ver con contenido, pero tiene que ver más en lo profundo con un despertar, con un descubrir y descubrirse como educadora por parte de la estudiante. (Francisca) [I believe that the nature of supervision is… I do not know if affective, but it has a nature that is like the hidden curriculum, that is not related with… well, it is related with content, but more deeply it has to do with an awakening, with discovering, and a self- discovering as an educator.] This conception is characterized by a view of supervision which focuses on creating the conditions to generate change in the PSTs’ capacity to perceive themselves and the teaching activity they are engaged in, by enabling them to develop sensitivity to and perceptiveness of their inner self—thoughts, emotions, attitudes—and the ways it interacts with their teaching activity. (…) el esfuerzo de uno está puesto en provocar, gatillar y acompañar procesos de cambio… para usar la palabra ‘evolución’, cómo evolucionan las estudiantes, sus decisiones… cómo progresan, cómo avanzan en la forma en que se estructura su pensar, y en la capacidad de poder verse, de traer a la conciencia su pensar pero también sus actitudes personales, su forma de ser, y darse cuenta de cómo eso influye en su quehacer. (Alicia) [(…) one’s effort is put in provoking, triggering, accompanying change processes… to use the word ‘evolution’, how students evolve, their decisions… how they progress, how they move forward in the way their thinking is structured, and in the capacity to be able to look to themselves, to bring to consciousness their thinking but also their personal attitudes, their way of being, and realize how that influences what they do.] Underlying this conception it is the perception that, in addition to being a process of learning relevant content, becoming a teacher is a process in which the PST has to build her own “pedagogical knowledge” aligned with their personal interest, aptitudes and inclinations. (…) tiene que ver con construcción personal del saber pedagógico, además de incorporar elementos de competencia: gestionar, evaluar, diagnosticar. Ellas trabajan a 128 través de un portafolio donde ponen sus planificaciones, sus registros, análisis. Cuando tu abres el portafolio ves que una estudiante le da cierto énfasis, por ejemplo, a lo cognitivo, otras más a las estrategias… entonces, cada una, desde lo propio… por eso vamos respetando lo que ellas consideran importante en la creación de ese saber. También ayudándolas para focalizarlas en la competencia final de la asignatura misma. Es interesante ver lo de los portafolios. (Gloria) [(…) it has to do with personal building of pedagogical knowledge, in addition to include competence elements: management, evaluation, diagnosis. They work using a portfolio where they keep their planning, registers, analyses. When you open a portfolio, you see that the one student gives certain emphasis, for example, to the cognitive aspect, others more to the strategies… so, each of them, [acts] from what is their own… that is why we respect what they consider important in the creation of that knowledge. It is interesting to see the portfolios.] A core element of this conception of supervision is the attention given to “making the invisible visible”. This takes a twofold form. On the one hand, it is about pointing out to the supervisee certain “blind spots” so they can expand the scope of their attention to integrate more elements that occur simultaneously on a given teaching situation. Cuando uno las va a ver, lo importante es identificar qué punto no se está haciendo visible para ella en ese contexto… a veces están paradas solo desde la emoción, otras veces están en una mirada más técnica, o en el hacer. En ese contexto supervisar tiene que ver con hacer ver al otro aquellos elementos que están sobre… que son invisibles a sus ojos. (Gabriela) [When one goes to visit them, what is important is to identify what point is not visible to her in that context… sometimes their stance is only from the emotion, at other times they hold a more technical view, or they are in the doing. In that context to supervise has to do with making visible to the other those elements that are above… that are not visible to her eyes.] Another manifestation of “making the invisible visible” involves identifying certain characteristics or dimensions of the PST that seems to be in the shadow and bringing them to the forefront of both the supervisors’ and the supervisee’s vision. This requires from the supervisor a sophisticated quality of attention, a deep kind of listening. Cuando hablamos del escuchar, estamos hablando de hacer visible al otro, desde esa mirada, no sólo de escuchar, del hacerlo persona frente a ti. Si la estudiante está ahí, 129 la debemos mirar desde sus necesidades, desde su naturaleza, de su forma de concebir el mundo, desde esta necesidad que tiene de proyectar la vida de una manera determinada. (Gloria) [When we talk about listening, we are talking about making the other visible, it is from that point of view, not only to listen, but to make the other a person to your eyes. If the student is there, we must look at her from her needs, from her nature, from her way to conceive the world, from the need she has to project life in a particular way.] In category D, the supervisory process is perceived in a way that seems to imply a quality of nakedness that infuses the relationship between supervisor and supervisee with a distinctive closeness that warranted the use of words such as “intimacy” and “poetic” by participants, as illustrated in these statements: Como yo siento, yo veo la supervisión como un momento de intimidad con las alumnas y que eso tiene un valor súper grande… esa intimidad tiene que ver con que uno las observa en un momento de vulnerabilidad, en que están expuestas, en que se caen muchas caretas… y tiene que ver también con que se crea un espacio en que se puede hablar francamente. Ahora no sé si hablar de intimidad... a lo mejor se va a interpretar mal… pero en el fondo es eso. (Elia) [The way I feel, I see supervision as a moment of intimacy with the students, and that has a tremendous value… that intimacy has to do with the fact that one observes them in a moment of vulnerability, in which they are exposed, when many of their masks fall off… and it also has to do with the fact that a space is created in which it is possible to talk with sincerity. Now, I do not know if to talk about intimacy… maybe it is going to be misconstrued… but in the end that is what it is.] El proceso de acompañar requiere tanta armonía porque es muy sutil… cómo escuchar esa sutileza en un pequeño tiempo de una mañana. Al ir a observar a la estudiante, cómo captar esa sutileza… de la presencia de ellas, de la relación que tienen con el entorno, los tiempos y ritmos que establecen. Requiere una escucha. Creo que realmente es un acto muy poético el ir a observar al otro. (Alicia) [The process of accompaniment requires so much harmony because it is very subtle… How to listen that subtlety in a brief moment of the morning? When going to observe the student, how to grasp that subtlety?... their presence, the relationship they have with the environment, the timings and rhythms they set. It requires listening. I believe that to observe the other is truly a very poetic act. ] 130 The supervisor is understood to have responsibility for establishing the space and atmosphere in which PSTs can increase the ability to see themselves, that is, to become more aware of their own behavior, thoughts, emotions, and tendencies in the context of practicum, and thus beginning to discover their personal style of being a teacher. Yo creo la supervisora ayuda a la estudiante a descubrirse como educadora en esto que estamos diciendo, en esto personal. También actúa como guía, mediadora de lo conceptual, de los saberes más duros; con el tipo de planificación, principios pedagógicos… entonces, yo creo que hay esas dos partes, porque también es descubrirse ellas, insisto en eso. (Gloria) [I believe that the supervisor helps the student to discover herself in this that we are talking about, in the personal. She also acts as a guide, a mediator of the conceptual, of the more hard knowledge; the type of planning, pedagogic principles… so I believe there are those two parts, because it is also about their self-discovery, I insist in that.] The construction of a positive relationship between supervisor and supervisee is perceived as essential. Through it the supervisor makes themselves available through a close but open and nonjudgmental attitude, while the supervisee receives attention, space for exploration, and personalized guidance from the supervisor. The supervisor promotes self-awareness and seeks to challenge PSTs assumptions about professional practice and personal qualities. Through this relationship supervisors enable PSTs to develop certain personal characteristics perceived as relevant to become a teacher. Highlighted among them are: the ability to systematically observe oneself, an increased ability to notice their students and the particularities of the relationship stablished with them, as well as the capacity to change and remain changeable. Nosotros buscamos que la estudiante desarrolle su capacidad de observarse, para poder ir haciendo ajustes a su filosofía educativa y su práctica con los niños. Nosotros la acompañamos en ese proceso para que aprenda a hacerlo, pero la idea es ella sea protagonista en gestar esa habilidad, y que egrese con esa capacidad de ver, evaluar, y cambiar instalada… porque la va a necesitar en su futura carrera profesional. (Lucía) [Our aim is that the student develops her capacity of self-observation in order to be able to make adjustments to her teaching philosophy and her practice with children as she 131 moves on. We accompany her in this process so she can learn to do it, but the idea is for her to be a protagonist in gestating that ability, and that she graduates with that capacity of seeing, evaluating, and changing already installed… because she will need it in her future professional career.] This last category incorporates but also transcend essential elements of the previous categories such as the aim to provide PSTs with needed knowledge to successfully perform their teaching tasks, which provides a sense of professional competence; as well as the goal of developing reflective thinking, which allows increasing levels of autonomy and self-determination. Beyond these elements, category D uniquely acknowledges supervision as a process in which PSTs are invited to develop the ability to become and remain perceptive and observant of both the inner and outer world. This involves a more expansive, creative, intimate, and, to some extent, uncertain process of growth than in the previous categories. 5.3 Relationship between Conceptions of Supervision A continuum of expanding meaning between conceptions is proposed. Opportunity for awareness expansion and transformation is seen as the most sophisticated way supervisors understood supervision, while accompaniment of learning the least. Category D is suggested as the more comprehensive category in the continuum because it represents the more inclusive and complex understanding of what supervision is. In other words, category D is the most complete way of experiencing or understanding supervision because it implies and awareness of more aspects of supervision, simultaneously covering accompaniment of PSTs’ learning processes, instruction, promotion of reflective thinking and generation of opportunities for the development of awareness. No transcript corresponded precisely with any one category of description. The meaning of supervision varied between participants as well as within participants. However, since 132 categories of description were constituted from an analysis of all the transcripts, as a group, the range of variation within participants is encompassed by the range across individuals. Table 9 presents an example of one participant that expressed the whole spectrum of views about supervision. Table 9 Example of Range of Conceptions of Supervision Within one Participant Category Conception of supervision (Stella) A: Accompaniment of learning Acompañar a las futuras educadoras en su formación inicial… principalmente acompañarlas, poniendo al servicio de su práctica lo que yo sé y lo que he vivido en mi formación y en mi recorrido. Significa estar con… [To accompany the future educators in their initial education… mainly to accompany them, putting at the service of her practicum what I know and have lived in my training and trajectory. It means to be with…] B: Instruction Significa observar su desempeño y la mirada que tiene de su práctica, y luego entregar insumos, ya sean focos, estrategias o relevar evidencias, para que ella pueda mejorar lo que hace a la luz de lo que sabemos que debería hacer. También puede ser desde una entrega de conocimientos… [It means to observe her performance and the way she views her practicum, and then to give supplies, whether focuses, strategies, or to call attention to evidences, so that she can improve what she does in light of what we know she should do. It can also be from a giving of knowledge…] C: Vehicle to promote reflective thinking (…) ayudar a la supervisada a poder reflexionar sobre su práctica… Y ojo que reflexionar no es mirarse el ombligo… no es el análisis de lo que ella hace… porque es necesario incorporar en el análisis el referente teórico, el conocimiento construido que ya hay sobre el tema en cuestión. [(…) to help the supervisee to be able to reflect upon her practice… And, make no mistake, to reflect is not navel gazing… it is not the analysis of what she does… because 133 it is necessary to incorporate in the analysis the theoretical referent, the constructed knowledge that already exists about the topic at hand.] D: Opportunity for awareness expansion and transformation Es entablar una relación de empatía exigente en donde es posible pensar en conjunto… una relación en que la estudiante crece en distintas áreas: crece en conocimiento, crece en habilidades, crece en la puesta en práctica de estrategias, crece como persona… es una experiencia que debiese ser transformadora. [It is to enter into a relationship of demanding empathy, where it is possible to think together… a relationship in which the student grows in different areas: grows in knowledge, grows in abilities, grows in putting strategies into practice, grows as a person… it is an experience that should be transformative.] 5.4 Dimensions of Variation To gain further insight into the nature of supervisors’ conceptions of supervision, three dimensions of variation are presented here: the role of the supervisor, the means of supervision, and the nature of the relationship between supervisor and supervisee. Each dimension was explored by identifying the main features characterising supervisors’ conceptions and relationships between these features. Table 10 presents a summary of dimensions of variation relating categories of description (conceptions). Table 10 Dimensions of Variation Between Categories of Description Accompaniment of learning Instruction Vehicle to promote reflective thinking Opportunity for awareness expansion and transformation Role of the supervisor Companion Provider of instruction and modelling Mediator of reflection Promoter of insight and awareness 134 Facilitator of transformation Means of supervision General support and guidance Emotional containment Transmission of knowledge Direct instructions Specific feedback Dialogue Inquiry Use of questions as a device to develop thinking Deep listening High quality attention Examination of personal qualities and biography Nature of relationship between supervisor and supervisee Colleague-like Non hierarchy is emphasized Expert and novice Supervisor as a giver and supervisee as a receiver Characterized by closeness and a sense of trust. Characterized by openness, intimacy (seen the other) and receptivity to uncertainty. 5.4.1 Role of the university supervisor The variation in this dimension represents an expanding focus from the supervisor as a learning companion to an enabler of awareness expansion and transformation. In category A, the role of the supervisor is seen as a more experienced colleague that is responsible for accompanying the PST during practicum both literally in the classroom, as well as psychologically and emotionally. Thus the supervisor is a cooperator, a collaborator that puts her knowledge and skills at the service of the teacher candidate to aid her cope with new situations in a way that allows confidence as an educator to grow. El acompañar requiere cercanía con la estudiante. Para mí es ir a sentarme con ellas en la sala, ver lo que está haciendo, ir conversando con ellas dentro del mismo proceso… estar ahí, estar cerca en la instancia en la que yo la observo... cuando yo llego no me pongo a tomar nota, sino que veo en que puedo ayudar, si yo puedo servir en algo a mi 135 estudiante, sea en ese minuto una ayuda dentro de la sala, o después cuando estamos solas las dos, pero uno trata de poder acompañar. (Úrsula) [Accompaniment requires closeness with the student. To me, it is to go and sit with them in the classroom, to see what they are doing, to talk with them within the process itself… to be there, to be near at the time in which I observe her… when I arrive I do not start to take notes, but instead I see what I can help with, if I can be of service to my student, either in that minute in the classroom or later when we are alone, but I try to be able to accompany.] In category B, the role of the supervisor expands to an instructor and information source. Emphasis is given to the expertise of the supervisor and her duty to transmit it to the PST. The supervisor is considered to be a giver, a resource that provides input, supplies, and instruction. Similarly to category A, the supervisor is seen as a more experienced practicum companion to the PST, but in category B the accompaniment of the process involves deliberately “equipping” them with concrete tools and information in an effective manner. Uno se da cuenta de que lo esta haciendo bien cuando uno llega y las chiquillas se alegran… eso me habla de que la supervisión es un recurso valido para ellas, en donde hay una relación pero también es una supervisión con contenido, uno lo ve en su actitud, como si te estuvieran diciendo ‘deme mas información’. (Gabriela) [One realises one is doing well when one arrives and the girls cheer up… that tells me that the supervision is a valid resource for them, where there is a relationship but also a supervision with content, one sees it in their attitude, as if they were saying ‘give me more information.] Category C represents a significant shift in how supervisors conceive their role. They move from being a provider and resource to promote independent thinking and deepening of understanding. In this sense supervisors are seen as guides that provoke PSTs’ growth by developing their ability to inquire. As one participant put it, a distinctive feature of their role in relationship to their supervisees is to “invitarlas a pensar y fabricar sus propias preguntas” (Celeste) [invite them to think and craft their own questions]. Connected with the ability to 136 inquire is the capacity to make pedagogical decisions derived from their own critical reflection, which supervisors strive to promote in their students. Yo la invito a que busquen sus propias soluciones… porque yo no quiero que ellas hagan lo que yo quiero, sino que hagan lo que es relevante y beneficioso para el niño considerando el contexto y también su propia individualidad como educadora. Yo creo que un buen elemento que a mí me permite decir efectivamente que vamos por buen camino es cuando se está produciendo una reflexión, es cuando el estudiante logra fundamentar sus acciones y sus decisiones. (Eva) [I invite them to search their own solutions… because I do not want them to do what I want, but rather to do what is relevant and beneficial to the child, considering the context and also their own individuality as educator. I believe that a good element that allows me to tell we are going on the right direction is when reflection is happening, when the student is able to substantiate her actions and decisions.] Finally, in category D, the role of the supervisor advances to a catalyst for awareness expansion and transformation. As in category C, in category D the supervisor continue to be perceived as a human mediator that assists the PST in the process of reaching deeper levels of understanding and reflection. Category D however, represents a perception of the role of the supervisor that adds a more sophisticated dimension to it. The supervisor is a “seer” and an enabler of “seeing”: “Supervisar es ver y hacer ver al otro aquellos elementos que están sobre… aquellos elementos que son invisibles a sus ojos.” (Alicia) [To supervise is to see and to make the other see those elements that are above… those elements that are invisible to their eyes]. What is emphasized is the ability of the supervisor to be receptive enough to notice, listen, and perceive the supervisee in a way that allows to reveal or to make visible what was not previously visible, thus providing the opportunity for the supervisee to see more of themselves. Al observarlas interactuar con los niños en los centros de práctica uno ve que las alumnas traen ciertas ideas preestablecidas respecto de cómo educar y como relacionarse con los niños. Esto viene de su propia infancia y la educación que ellas mismas recibieron… por eso mismo a veces no son cosas fáciles de mirar, pero es crucial 137 visibilizar todo eso para que la estudiante pueda crecer, para que pueda adoptar nuevas miradas. (Lucía) [When observing them to interact with children in the practicum centers one sees that students bring certain preestablished ideas about how to educate and how to relate to children. This comes from their own childhood and the education that they themselves received… that is why sometimes those things are not easy to look at, but it is crucial to make more visible all that so that the student can grow, so she can adopt new views.] The “seeing” in which the supervisor engages implies shedding light into and bringing to awareness beliefs and attitudes that PSTs are not yet able to perceive by themselves. Moreover, the act of seeing also means “to have vision”, in the sense of being able to perceive the unique potential and incipient teaching identity of the PST. Sustaining that vision, the supervisor’s role is to help the teacher candidate to “be born” as a professional. In this sense, supervision is seen as a process of discovery of the other (her inclinations, ways of relating, talents, potential, etc.) which implies relating to the personal and biographical dimension of the teacher candidate in addition to the focus on teaching performance. Es importante tener una actitud de escucha y apertura para poder llegar a ver elementos que te permitan conocer, comprender, a las estudiante que tenemos en frente. Uno debiera saber a quién tiene en frente y para eso es necesario interesarse por las características de esta persona; su forma de ver el mundo, sus circunstancias, su psicología… si uno le presta atención entonces, en algunos momentos, empiezan a aparecer estas individualidades. (Paola) [It is important to have an attitude of listening and openness to be able to see elements that allow you to know, to understand the student we have in front of us. One should know who is the person you have in front and for that it is necessary to show interest for this person’s characteristics: her way of seeing the world, her circumstances, her psychology… if one pays attention, then, in some moments, the individualities begin to appear.] Developing interest in PSTs’ individuality, the supervisor aspires to help them to grow and flourish according with their potential, something that is not necessarily fulfilled once the competencies required by the program has been reached. 138 Ver a la estudiante en su completitud va más allá de monitorear su habilidad pedagógica en relación a lo que el programa espera que desarrolle. Cuando uno las va conociendo se da cuenta por ejemplo que hay metas que son muy simples en relación a lo que ella puede alcanzar. Uno tiene que acompañarlas en ese desafío, verlas como un ser complejo con muchas más capacidades, muchas más de las que te pide la universidad, porque la universidad te pide un nivel mínimo para ser egresada, pero como ser humano tenemos muchas más capacidades y esas capacidades humanas hay que verlas. (Alicia) [To see the student in her wholeness goes beyond monitoring her pedagogic ability according to what the program expects her to develop. When one gets to know them, one realizes for example that there are certain goals that are too simple compared to what they are able to reach. One has to accompany them in that challenge, to see them as a complex being with much more capabilities, much more than the university requires, because the university requires a minimum level for graduation, but as a human being we have much more capabilities, and those human capabilities must be addressed.] 5.4.2 Means of supervision This second theme or dimension represents the expansion of the focus from colleague-like friendship and general support during practicum tasks in category A, to creating a relationship in which awareness and self-discovery can be developed in category D. In category A, the means of supervision are perceived as general support to the teacher candidates in all the activities involved in practicum. This support sometimes take the form of direct help in the classroom, but more often manifests as guidance in the application and development of what participants referred as “transversal competencies” (e.g. providing advice regarding how educators are supposed to behave in terms of attendance, dress code, effective communication with colleagues) as well as disciplinary and pedagogic competencies (e.g. reviewing planning or providing advice for time management and organization). Feedback in this category is oriented toward assisting the teacher candidate with whatever may be needed to adapt to her new role and context, and coping with challenges in a way that feels supported from the university program. 139 (…) desde la parte logística a revisar planificaciones... también la presentación, yo soy súper jodida con la presentación personal y también desde la parte de dar todos los lineamientos de la ética y moral: qué tiene que hacer una educadora y que no. (Paloma) [(…) from the logistics to reviewing the planning… also professional dress code, I am very strict with professional dress code and also with what has to do with giving all the guidelines around ethics and morality: what an educator has to do and what not.] Providing encouragement and emotional containment when needed are also important means of supervision in this category. For instance, supervisors may help the PST to regulate emotions that often arise during practicum such as anxiety, fear, stress, sense of incompetence. Several participants reported that sometimes it is not uncommon for a substantial part of the supervisory conference be dedicated to “calm”, “center” or help the PST to “digest” certain experience or an emotion triggered by it. Las estudiantes saben que una esta aquí para lo que necesiten y eso es fundamental, porque es la sensación de que alguien me escucha, me atiende, que esta presente de manera física… porque virtual siempre se puede, pero los estudiantes cuando están en la práctica profesional están en un momento emocional muy difícil en que casi siempre surgen ansiedades o miedos, por lo tanto necesitan que alguien las acompañe, que las aconsejen, que las ayuden a digerir ciertas emociones. (Celeste) [Students know that one is here for whatever they need and that is essential, because it is the feeling that ‘somebody listens to me, attends to me’, that is physically present… because it can always be done virtually, but when students are in professional practicum go through a period that is emotionally very hard, in which almost always anxiety or fears arise, therefore they need someone that accompanies them, advise them, that helps them to digest certain emotions.] In category B, the means deployed by the supervisor are less characterized by colleague- like accompaniment and emotional support than by modeling and instruction. Thus the focus expands to specific feedback—sometimes immediate—on teaching performance with the aim of identifying teaching behaviors that could be improved in subsequent lessons or to provide the PST with different alternatives on how to conduct a teaching situation. The supervisor provides direct instruction pertaining theoretical and practical knowledge related to teaching. 140 En sala cuna, con los más chiquitos por ejemplo yo voy y modelo, o le voy diciendo a la alumna: ‘fíjate en lo que estás diciendo…¿viste? vino esta otra guagua a ver, gateando, vino a ver lo que estás haciendo. Está probando: ensayo y error’, o si no le digo: ‘mira fíjate, los puntos de apoyo que la guagua tiene. Ahora esta otra guagua, necesita girar un poquitito. Entonces cómo lo puedes hacer’… O, ‘estos que están empezando a caminar, es bueno que tu le ofrezcas objetos con ruedas, porque de esa manera, van a ir tras el objeto.’ (Lucía) [In the nursery room, with the little ones for example, I go and model, or I say to the student: ‘pay attention to what you are saying… See? This other baby here came to see, crawling, she came to see what you are doing. She is testing: trial and error.’ Or, if not, I say: ‘look, notice the support points the baby has. Now, this other baby needs to turn a bit. So, how could you do it?’… or, ‘for those ones that are starting to walk, it is good if you can offer them objects with wheels, because in that way they will chase them.’] During the supervisory conference, feedback is viewed as an essential component, which supervisors prepare carefully. The emphasis on providing specific feedback to correct mistakes and improve performance make supervisors place great value in the use of evidence (e.g. pictures, videos, voice recording, notes) as a resource that enhances learning. Ahora nos ayudamos con distintas herramientas, como por ejemplo imágenes… o filmamos alguna situación para que ella pueda verse… para poder ir mostrándole ciertas interacciones que la alumna tiene que ver y que a lo mejor no ve, para que adquiera mayor precisión. Entonces uno puede decirle por ejemplo: ‘fíjate en esta situación que pasa aquí.’ (Pilar) [Now we use different tools to support ourselves, for example images… or we film a situation so she can watch herself… in order to show the student certain interactions that she has to see and maybe do not see, so she can acquire more precision. Then, for instance, one can tell her: ‘look at this situation that is happening here.’] In category C, the means of supervision are seen predominantly as dialogue and the use of questions as a device to explore and develop reflective thinking. This represents a significant shift from category B where the provision of instruction had a central place. In category C the supervisor uses the supervisory conference as an occasion to provoke reflection and critically analyze action. The conference with the student usually takes the form of a conversation that 141 allows the PST to reflect on her practice (e.g. her considerations in using an activity or the way the activity was implemented). La reflexión pedagógica es una habilidad que tiene mucho de cognitivo, no es solo intuitivo… porque la profesionalización es justamente eso, es llevar lo intuitivo al conocimiento. En la supervisión uno trata de entablar una relación que permita la reflexión, en donde puedan desarrollar el discernimiento, el juicio… como ejercicio uno está permanentemente interesada en saber por qué hicieron lo que hicieron, uno les pregunta, y entonces esa pregunta va desarrollando en ellas la capacidad de fundamentar sus decisiones pedagógicas, y también argumentar basándose en la teoría. (Stella) [Pedagogic reflection is an ability that has much of cognitive, not only intuitive… because the professionalization is exactly that, it is taking the intuitive toward knowledge. In supervision one tries to stablish a relationship that allows reflection, where they can develop discernment, judgement… as an exercise, one is permanently interested in knowing why they did what they did, one askes them, and that question develops in them the capacity of substantiating their pedagogical decisions, and also to substantiate based on theory.] When giving feedback, the supervisor promotes deeper reflection through questioning (both in an open ended and specific fashion), counter- asking, clarifying meaning, confronting the PST with what appears to be contradictions or incongruences (within thought or between action and thought), and offering interpretations. Using these tools the supervisor aims to mobilize the PST beyond the concern about “correct or incorrect” dichotomy in performance to the effort of building an inquiring approach that is perhaps less definite but leaves the PST feeling more confident to cope with the complexity present in teaching. Para mí como supervisora mediar la reflexión significa saber hacer preguntas, saber manejar el timing, el tono y el contenido de las preguntas para propiciar que la estudiante piense, reflexione… también implica señalar contradicciones, no con un animo enjuiciador, sino indagatorio. Darse cuenta por ejemplo que uno sostiene x teoría o filosofía de aprendizaje pero que a la vez el actuar en la sala no lo refleja o va definitivamente en sentido opuesto… ver esas contradicciones ayuda mucho a aumentar la compresión del propio quehacer y por ende a sentirse más segura de donde poner los esfuerzos (Francisca) 142 [For me as a supervisor to mediate reflection means to know how to raise questions, how to manage the timing, the tone and the content of questions in order to prompt the student to think, to reflect… it also implies to point out contradictions, not in a judgemental way but rather in and exploratory way. To realize for instance that one ascribes to X theory or philosophy but at the same time that is not apparent in one’s behaviour in the classroom, or it goes in the opposite direction altogether… to see those contradictions helps very much to increase the understanding of one’s work and therefore [helps] to feel more confident in relation to where to put the efforts.] En las sesiones que tenemos después de la observación en sala, partimos conversando acerca de cómo fue su experiencia en general. De ahí vamos profundizando en ciertos aspectos que ella traiga a colación o que a mí me parezcan significativos… estamos las dos tratando de profundizar, de comprender más y mejor. Yo voy chequeando con ellas, siempre preguntando, aclarando el significado de lo que dicen : ‘¿Qué quieres decir con esta palabra?’, o ‘¿qué quieres decir con ese gesto?’... esta dinámica también las ayuda a profundizar el hacer sentido de su experiencia… o a veces les sugiero interpretaciones de por qué yo creo que hicieron esto o lo otro, para ver que me dicen, como una especie de aliciente a seguir explorando. (Gabriela) [In the sessions we have after the classroom observation, we start talking about how was their experience in general. From there we go deepening in certain aspects that they bring up or that I find significative… we both try to deepen, to understand more and better. I check with them, always asking, clarifying the meaning of what they say: ‘What do you mean by that word?’, or, ‘What does that gesture mean?’... that dynamic is helpful for them to make meaning of their experience… or sometimes I suggest to them interpretations of why I think they did this or that, to see how they respond, like a sort of incentive to continue exploring.] In category C, mistakes are seen not only as events that call for correction or immediate advice, but they are seen primarily as opportunities to provoke reflection and expand the repertoire of possible approaches to a teaching situation. Similarly, graded activities and assignments that are part of practicum are used by the supervisor as an opportunity to further reflection. El equivocarse es parte valiosa del proceso porque da pie para que uno como supervisora explore a fondo lo que sucedió y lo aproveche como material educativo que deja un aprendizaje. Yo normalmente dejo que ellas se explayen y les voy haciendo preguntas simples que ayuden a ver la situación y a ir pensando… ‘¿qué crees tú que paso ahí?’, ‘¿Qué otro camino podrías haber tomado?’ En mi experiencia, las alumnas tienen bastante claridad, pero lo que necesitan es poder articularse, hilar las ideas, y es eso en lo que uno las va ayudando. (Francisca) 143 [To commit mistakes is a valuable part of the process because it gives room for the supervisor to fully explore what happened and take advantage of it as educative material that grants learning. I usually allow them to speak at length while I raise simple questions that help to look at the situation and think… ‘what do you think happened?, ‘What other alternatives did you have?’ In my experience, the students have considerable clarity, but what they need is to be able to articulate, to connect ideas, and that is what one helps them with.] Since in category C the importance of establishing theory to practice connections is highlighted, the means used by the supervisor such as questioning or confronting are often oriented to make PSTs to contrast their experience and analysis of reality with theoretical references. La reinterpretación que hace la alumna de la teoría a la luz de la realidad de su experiencia es un componente clave en la práctica… pero yo he observado que a pesar de que se habla mucho de esto, no siempre se entiende a fondo. Es común que las estudiantes tengan la concepción de la reflexión como algo desvinculado de la teoría, una reflexión puramente sobre la experiencia; lo que paso, lo que sintió… o si lo integran es como si estuviera pegado con cola fría. Por ejemplo, si el foco es la evaluación: ‘evaluación… San Google, a ver quién dijo algo sobre evaluación que calce’, y entonces como que pegan el referente teórico. No hay un real cuestionamiento o dialogo sobre lo que se sabe del tema que se está analizando y lo que se está observando o experienciando. Yo al menos trato de que este cuestionamiento exista… a veces soy bien catete con mis preguntas o comentarios para llamar la atención sobre este punto. (Stella) [The reinterpretation that the student does of the theory in light of the reality of her experience is an essential component of practicum… but I have observed that, despite this being very much discussed, it is not always is understood in the end. It is common that the students conceive reflection as something disconnected from theory, merely a reflection about the experience; what happened, what she felt…. Or if they integrate it, it is as if pasted with glue. For instance, if the topic at hand is evaluation, they go: ‘evaluation… “Saint Google”, let’s see who said something about evaluation that fits here’, and then it is as if they paste the theoretical referent. There is no a real inquiry or dialogue about what is already known about the topic being analyzed and what is being observed or experienced. I, at least, try to make that inquiry happen… sometimes I am very insistent with my questions or comments to call attention on this point.] Lastly, in Category D the focus of the means used by the supervisor expands to “deep listening”—also referred by participants as “attentive listening”—as a distinctive characteristic 144 of the supervisory process. In addition, some means of supervision such as dialogue and the use of questions are similar to category C, although sometimes utilized slightly differently or with a different purpose. For instance, as in category C, in category D the supervisor relies on dialogue as a means to stablish a close relationship with PSTs that allows exploration of thought and action. In category D however, there is further emphasis on an open and “inviting” attitude by the supervisor. As well, the aim of the dialogue goes beyond the provocation of reflection to include self-discovery and transformation. En las sesiones de supervisión se trata de entablar un diálogo marcado por apertura, flexibilidad, acogida… generar un espacio propicio, convocante para el autodescubrimiento… uno se convierte como en un espejo, no en el sentido de que el otro se vea en ti, sino en el sentido de ser una presencia que le permita al otro mirarse a sí mismo. Uno actúa como una invitación constante hacia lo que está ocurriendo adentro… por eso tiene el potencial de ser transformador. (Eva) [Supervisory sessions are about establishing a dialogue marked by openness, flexibility, welcoming… to create a propitious space, that is inviting to self-discovering… one [supervisor] is transformed into a mirror, not in the sense that the other see herself in you, but in the sense of being a presence that allows the other to look at herself. One acts like a constant invitation to what is transpiring inside… that is why it has the potential to be transformative.] Thus, in category D, the supervisor promotes inquiry in PSTs in order to develop reflective thinking and improve teaching practice, but also with the aim of producing personal growth and transformation. The feedback provided in the supervisory conference is highly individualized, as the supervisor strives to assist the PST in the process of discovering their own unique style as a teacher. For this reason, in category D the supervisor sees familiarization with (at least some) biographical aspects of the PST as part of the process. Probing questions are intended primarily as a device to bring about insight and self-knowledge. Parte de lo que uno va haciendo con ellas es ir mediando, a través de un dialogo productivo, el movimiento hacia la zona de desarrollo próximo, donde van apropiándose de mayor capacidad de análisis, de reflexión, y todo eso que tiene que ver con el 145 pensamiento critico que hoy esta en casi todos los programas. Pero también esta el otro lado mas de crecimiento personal, que yo lo veo ligado, un poco inseparable de lo profesional. Tiene que ver con que se vayan puliendo, vayan madurando a través del autoconocimiento, porque la práctica te da mucho material para eso… aparece la dimensión personal con mucha fuerza, por eso es mejor orientar conscientemente parte de la indagación hacia allá, en vez de ignorarlo y desaprovechar el potencial que tiene (Celeste) [Part of what one is doing with them is to mediate, through a productive dialogue, the movement towards the zone of proximal development where they gain more capacity to analyze, to reflect and all that which has to do with critical thinking and that today is included in almost all [teaching] programs. But also there is this other side about personal growth, that I see as connected, a bit inseparable from the professional side. It is related to their polishing and maturation through self-knowledge, because the practicum gives you much material to do that… the personal dimension rises strongly, that is why it is better to purposely orient part of the inquiry in that direction, instead of ignoring it and waste its potential.] Another important distinction with category C is that in category D the supervisor themselves engages in inquiry and self- examination, seen them as tools for their own personal and professional development and an intrinsic aspect of the supervisor process. Thus, the supervisor exhort PSTs’ reflective thought upon the internal and external phenomena, while also undertaking a transformative process through examination of the interconnection between their own internal and external activity. No solo la estudiante va creciendo sino que uno también, junto con ella. Yo pienso que si uno no va experimentando una transformación en el proceso, es más difícil ser un agente que propicie auto examinación e insight. En el proceso de ir intencionado para la estudiante un acrecentamiento de conciencia cada vez mayor sobre su actuar, los niños que tiene a cargo, sobre lo que le va pasando por dentro, uno como supervisora también va siendo más consiente de su propio desempeño y los procesos internos que están detrás… me refiero a las creencias, los juicios automáticos, las emociones que de repente aparecen de súbito y que influyen en como uno se relaciona… ese tipo de cosas, cosas invisibles que finalmente crean realidad. (Gabriela) [Not only the student grows but also one grows alongside with her. I think that if one does not undergoe a transformation in the process it is more difficult to be an agent that promotes self-examination and insight. In the process of setting the intention for the student to acquire growing consciousness over her actions, the children she is in charge of, about what is happening with her within, one as a supervisor also becomes more 146 conscious of one’s own performance and the inner processes that are behind… I mean the beliefs, the automatic judgments, the emotions that appear suddenly and that affect one’s relationships… that kind of things, invisible things that finally create reality.] Similar to category C, through reflection the supervisor tries to help the PST to make meaning of their experience during the post observation conference but, in addition to that, in category D the supervisor also intends to promote the first experiences of reflection in action. This means guiding the PST to be able to expand the awareness of their actions and thoughts during the teaching experience. This is recognized as an advanced skill that probably surpasses the ability of PSTs in their current stage of professional development, but it is nonetheless an ability that the supervisor wishes to help to establish, even if it is in a rudimentary form. Una cosa es reflexionar en retrospectiva, eso los estudiantes lo logran bastante bien: ‘en ese momento, pensé tal cosa, o no pensé nada’, se dan cuenta que en el momento tuvieron una respuesta acertada o no. Pero es diferente llamar a un estudiante a que se de cuenta sobre la marcha… De hecho, cuando vino Tom Russell, quien se alinea con el modelo de Schön, nos hizo ver que la reflexión sobre la acción era un proceso, una habilidad que requiere de experiencia. El estudiante en práctica final, lo consigue, pero lo que consigue en un primer nivel. Es capaz de poder decir ‘¿Qué pienso?, ¿Qué siento’, punto. Pero eso ya es un primer paso fundamental sobre el cual la habilidad puede seguir desarrollándose después. (Eva) [One thing is to reflect in retrospective, that can be done by the students quite well: ‘in that moment, I thought such thing, or I did not think anything’, they realize whether or not in the moment they had an adequate response. But it is something different to call a student to realize it on the spot… In fact, when Tom Russell came, who is aligned with Schön’s model, he pointed out to us that reflection in action is a process, an ability that requires experience. The student in the professional practicum can achieve it, but only in a preliminary level. She is capable of saying; ‘What do I think?, What do I feel?’, that is it. But that is an essential first step from which the ability can continue to develop later.] The ability of listening deeply, which is unique to category D, involves a particular disposition of openness and suspension of judgement by the supervisor: “El acto de escuchar es un acto de estar abierto ante lo que pasa con el otro, tratar de ver al otro sin prejuicios.” (Alicia). [The act of listening is an act of being open to what happens with the other, trying to see 147 the other without prejudices]; “(…) es la capacidad de sentir al otro.” (Gloria) [It is the capacity to feel the other]. It is about holding an attitude that demands more than listening to the PST in a conventional way since it requires an engaged quality of attention that is palpable:“La escucha activa es como que la alumna pueda percibir que estoy con todos mis sentidos escuchando lo que ella está diciendo.” (Stella). [Active listening is like the student being able to perceive that I am listening to what she is saying with all my senses]. Thus, deep listening, as described by participants, involves more than one sense faculty. As such, it is a kind of listening done with the whole body in a way that is attentive and kind. Notably, it was even equated to being “just” by one participant, as she quoted Chilean biologist and philosopher Humberto Maturana: “(…) yo creo que una tutora, debe ser, insisto, lo suficientemente acogedora como para poder escuchar al otro… la escucha corporal, atenta, amorosa, como dice Maturana, es una manera también de ser justa.” (Gloria) [I believe that a tutor must be, I insist, welcoming enough to be able to listen to the other… listening with the body, attentively, affectionally, as Maturana says, is also a way to be just]. Participants associated deep listening with “seeing” the other, in a metaphorical way, meaning perceiving the other multidimensionally: “(…) es abrirse a la posibilidad de ver a cada una en lo que son en su esencia, además de todo lo otro que tiene que ver con el rol, el desempeño, etc.” (Lucia) [It is opening oneself to the possibility to see each of them for what they are in their essence, on top of all the rest that has to do with the role, the performance, etc.], or the willingness to see the other more completely. (…) la práctica es un momento en que al persona se muestra entera, en esa experiencia aparece el ser completo… si uno está dispuesto a ver van apareciendo los distintos mundos de la alumna: su rol como educadora, su mundo psicológico, su mundo social… y no es que uno se va a convertir en su terapeuta, pero escuchar en este caso significa ver, tener esa sensibilidad. (Stella) 148 [(…) the practicum is a moment in which the person shows the whole of herself, in that experience the complete being appears… if one is willing to see, the different worlds of the student begin to surface: her role as an educator, her psychological world, her social world… and it is not about transforming oneself into her therapist, but listening in this case means to see, to have that kind of sensibility.] 5.4.3 Nature of the relationship between supervisor and supervisee This third dimension of variation shows an expanding focus from viewing the relationship between supervisor and supervisee as colleague-like partnership, in category A, to a relationship conceived as a transformative encounter in category D. In category A, the relationship between supervisor and supervisee is understood as an academic friendship where the primary role of the supervisor is to offer company in the process of practicum so the PST can go through it feeling supported and encouraged. The supervisor provides support in the form of observations, comments, and general guidelines as they see the need, but their role is not understood as directive. What is expected from the supervisor is a disposition of availability toward the PST, providing wide and general support that facilitates a successful adaptation in the transition from the university context to the practicum sites. De hecho, a mí me molesta cuando me dicen supervisora, porque para mí es un poco guía… pero también no es tanto guía porque tampoco soy la mentora, la que sabe todo… ¡no!, yo trato de acompañarlas y cuando considero que las cosas están medias déficit les brindo un poco de ayuda, les hago recordatorios de la materia anterior… es como un acompañamiento más que una supervisión… no es ‘formar’ porque las herramientas ellas las tienen y las cosas las hacen, pero a lo mejor les falta un poquito como el ‘click.’ (Magali) [In fact, it bothers me when they call me supervisor, because for me is a bit like a guide… but also it is not so much a guide because I am not a mentor either, the one who knows everything… no!, I try to accompany them and when I consider that things are a bit deficient I provide a bit of help to them, I remind them of previous courses’ content… it is like an accompaniment rather than a supervision… it is not ‘to form’ [them] because they have the tools and they do the things, but maybe they are missing a bit of a ‘click’.] 149 Horizontality of the relationship is highlighted in this category. One metaphor given by a participant to exemplify it is the Chinese Ying and Yang symbol, where the two sides are different but equal, in the sense that they coexist in partnership and none of them has ascendancy over the other. Estaba pensando en la figura del Yin y el Yang… hay una dualidad, estos dos roles que tiene que funcionar de manera conjunta, ir navegando el proceso de la práctica en conjunto. Obviamente yo soy la supervisora y tengo tareas asignadas que quizás conllevan una responsabilidad mayor, no desconozco absolutamente anda de eso… pero hay un ir al lado de la estudiante, como formar un equipo, una unidad de alguna manera… en donde uno se siente más como su compañera o colega que como alguien que esta por sobre. (Paola) [I was thinking on the Yin and Yang figure… there is a duality, those two roles that have to function in a conjunct fashion, navigating together the process of the practicum. Obviously I am the supervisor and have tasks assigned that perhaps involve a greater responsibility, I do not ignore absolutely anything of that… but there is a [quality of] going next to the student, like forming a team, a unity somehow… in which one feels more like her partner or colleague than somebody that is above her.] In category B the focus moves to an understanding of the relationship between supervisor and supervisee as one in which the transmission of knowledge is essential and therefore it resembles the relationship between mentor and apprentice. Unlike than category A, in category B the relationship is seen as naturally asymmetrical, where the supervisor is considered an expert in the field and the supervisee a novice or inexperienced teacher who needs guidance to become familiar with the job. Hay una razón por la cual las supervisoras de práctica tienen que haber trabajado en sala por varios años… es porque el conocimiento que te da la experiencia no se puede reemplazar, y es desde ese conocimiento que uno puede enseñarle a la alumna en práctica, y ayudarla a que desarrolle las competencias necesarias. El rol de la supervisada es, ojalá, recibir la información, ver si tiene congruencia o diferencias con lo que está planteando la supervisora, y llevarla a la implementación en su sala y ver cómo funcionan estas sugerencias o impresiones que le pueda entregar la supervisora. (Ivanna) 150 [There is a reason why practicum supervisors must have worked in the classroom for several years… it is because the knowledge that the experience gives you cannot be replaced, and it is from that knowledge that one can teach the student in practicum, and help her to develop all the necessary competencies. The role of the supervisee is, hopefully, to receive the information, to see whether she agrees with it or has discrepancies with what the supervisor is bringing up, and take it to implementation in her classroom and see how the suggestions or comments that the supervisor gives her work.] The figure of the supervisor is perceived unequivocally as a “giver”—of knowledge, practical directions, corrections, modeling—while the supervisee is in the role of the receiver. The supervisor’s intention is to mobilise the PST to a different level of performance, which is not necessary the case in category A where the supervisor’s primary role is that of fellowship, and therefore is not conceived as someone that intervenes or directs much. One metaphor provided by participants that encapsulates how the relationship between supervisor and supervisee is understood in category B is that of a “guiding stick”: Se me viene la imagen de los árboles cuando se les amarra el tronco a un palito, que representa en el fondo una persona. Yo, en ese palito… no me veo solo a mí, veo a todo el conjunto de tutoras educando ese árbol... en el fondo muestran un camino, que es un camino hacia la luz. Estoy pensando en las plantas hacia la luz… así como la luz del conocimiento, de la experiencia... el tutor va al lado, guiando... permite que el tronco tierno no se enchueque. (Soledad) [The image that comes to mind is the trees, when their trunk has been tied to a stick, which represents a person. In that stick I do not see only myself, I see all the tutors that educate that tree…basically they show a path, which is a path toward light. I am thinking on the plants toward light… like the light of knowledge, of experience… the tutor goes at the side, guiding… she prevents the tender trunk from getting crooked.] In category C the focus shifts to an understanding of the relationship where the supervisor is perceived as a mediator of reflective thinking. For this to occur, the relationship has to be close, permeated with a climate of trust and partnership. In this category, the asymmetry between supervisor and supervisee is acknowledged in the sense that the supervisor is seen as a more experienced colleague expected to lead the PST in the development of reflection and deepening 151 of understanding. However, the supervisor is primarily perceived as a mediator and not as a giver. As such, even though providing instruction and guidelines might be part of what they do, above all they strive to create a relationship with the supervisee that allows both to engage in productive dialogue and inquiry. Without building a relationship based on trust this is not possible. Ya, ahí para mi tiene que ser una relación que permita la reflexión… es decir, cercana pero no tan cercana. Exigente pero amena… o sea, en el fondo, un clima que te permita reflexionar, que permita que la alumna reflexione… entonces si soy muy autoritaria, tan exigente que no hay espacio para el diálogo, no va a poder reflexionar. O si soy tan amiguis que vamos a ocupar el escaso tiempo de la sesión en hablar de cualquier cosa, tampoco me sirve. Tiene que entablarse una relación cálida donde la alumna confía en ti y esta relajada, no se siente enjuiciada, al mismo tiempo que siente que tu efectivamente la puedes ayudar. (Stella) [Ok, to me it has to be a relationship that allows reflection… that is, close but not too close. Demanding but gentle… basically, a climate that allows you to reflect, that allows the student to reflect… so if I am so authoritarian, so demanding that there is no space for dialogue, she will not be able to reflect. Or if I am too much of a friend that we will use the scarce time we have in the session to talk about anything, it is not useful either. There has to be a warm relationship where the student trust you and is relaxed, where she does not feel judged, at the same time that really feels that you can help her.] A metaphor used by one participant that illustrates how the nature of the relationship is conceived in category C is that of the supervisor being a “bridge” that can be used by the supervisee to reach her next level of development in a particular competence. Por ejemplo, a veces filmo alguna situación específica para que ella pueda verse. Me acuerdo que una vez una estudiante me dijo: ‘profe, me gusta que me filme porque cuando estoy haciendo la experiencia la veo desde aquí. Cuando usted me filma, la veo desde el frente y puedo ver más claramente lo que están viendo niños, no de lo que estoy viendo yo.’ En los procesos de enseñanza uno constantemente está mirando al niño y mirándose desde el niño, para poder ajustar la experiencia que tu estás haciendo. Entonces, el supervisor de alguna manera va adelantándose a eso que tiene que estar instalado como ejercicio… y se vuelve como un alargue, o un puente, una conexión con lo que Vygotsky señalaría como la zona de desarrollo próximo. Tu le vas enseñando la zona de desarrollo próximo. ¿Te fijas? (Lucía) 152 [For example, sometimes I film a specific situation so that she can watch herself. I remember once a student told me: ‘prof., I like that you film me because when I am doing the experience I see it from here. When you film me, I see it from the opposite side and can see more clearly what the children are seeing, not what I am seeing.’ In the teaching processes one is constantly looking at children and looking at oneself from the children’s standpoint, to adjust the experience one is leading. Therefore, the supervisor somehow anticipates what is supposed to get stablished as a practice… and she becomes like an extension, or a bridge, a connection with what Vygotsky would name the zone of proximal development. Do you see?] In category D the view of the nature of the relationship expands even further to include a dimension of self-discovery and eventual transformation for both the supervisor and the supervisee. In this relationship the supervisor invites the PST to develop a perdurable ability to be vigilant, paying attention to what is happening outside (environment, actions, interaction with children and colleagues, etc.) as well as “inside” (thoughts emotions) —that is, in their own psychological world—simultaneously. Es una relación académica, pero académica y personal… tiene una dimensión personal. Es una relación de acompañamiento investigativo, en la cual uno invita a la estudiante a descubrirse como educadora… uno provee el espacio, el lugar, por así decir, para que ella desarrolle la capacidad de dirigir su atención hacia afuera y hacia adentro al mismo tiempo. La idea es que logre esa habilidad y quede instalada dentro de ella, para que sea una educadora despierta, atenta a lo que pasa fuera y dentro de sí, constantemente ojalá, no solo cuando hay que sentarse a reflexionar en lo que ya pasó. (Gloria) [It is an academic relationship, but academic and personal… it has a personal dimension. It is a relationship of investigative accompanying, in which one invites the student to discover herself as an educator… one provides the space, the place so to speak, for her to develop the capacity of directing her attention towards the outside and the inside at the same time. The idea is that she attains that ability which remains installed within her, so she can a an awake educator, attentive to what is going on outside and insider herself, all the time ideally, not only when it is time to sit down to reflect on what already happened.] The deep listening in which the supervisor engages is marked by an interest to know the other and understand how they think and feel: “creo que una buena supervisora es aquella que va poniéndose en los zapatos de sus alumnos para ir entendiendo y mirándose desde los 153 estudiantes.” (Lucía) [I believe a good supervisor is the one that puts herself in the shoes of the student so she can gain understanding and look at herself from the point of view of the students]. This implies that the supervisor does not leave aside the possibility to relate to the personal dimension of the PST, but rather welcomes it as a way to better understand the PST and their learning process during practicum as well taking it as an opportunity to invite the supervisee to gain valuable insight from biographical experiences. Yo creo que tiene un componente emocional muy fuerte en términos de que para generar esa confianza y que el otro quiera aprender… aprender algo que además va a tocar su sistema de creencias… por ejemplo, yo trabajo con las estudiantes que van a trabajar con los más chiquititos, a sala cuna menor, y ahí uno ve una serie de creencias y preconcepciones vinculadas a la propia crianza. Y que además están bastante escondidas porque los adultos tenemos memoria de nuestra escolaridad o desde primero básico, o desde kínder hacia adelante. Lo otro está de alguna manera subsumido en un mundo de crianza... entonces, de repente escuchas o ves gestos que tienen que ver con la casa y con las historias de ellas… y tienes que hablar de ese tema con ellas… seria un desperdicio pedagógico no hacerlo. (Gabriela) [I believe it has a very strong emotional component [the practicum] in the sense that to generate trust and cause desire to learn in the other… to learn something that will touch her belief system… for example, I work with the students that go to work with the youngest, to the nursery, and there one sees a series of beliefs and preconceptions linked to their own upbringing. And, besides, they [believes and preconceptions] are quite hidden because we adults have memories of our school years or from first grade, or from kindergarten onwards. The rest is sort of subsumed in a world of the upbringing… so, all of a sudden you hear or see gestures that are linked to their home and history… and you have to talk about that with them… it would be a pedagogical waste not do it.] In the process of encouraging supervisees to become more aware, the supervisor acts, in a way, as a mirror. But at the same time, she also sees aspects of herself reflected in the supervisee: “(…) cada una de las estudiantes te refleja algo tuyo que ames o que no ames.” (Francisca) [Each of the students reflects back something of yourself that you love or you do not love]. Therefore both the supervisor and the supervisee have the opportunity to grow in awareness and be affected by what they discover. 154 Due to the emphasis on making the invisible visible, in category D, the nature of the relationship between supervisor and supervisee has the greatest potential to have moments of discomfort, as sometimes happens when bringing up and exploring difficult questions that could involve personal matters. However, it is also in this category where the relationship reaches its most creative expression because the constant invitation to awareness expansion, even though sometimes difficult or uncomfortable, has the potential to be personally transformative. Yo creo que hay que atreverse a involucrarse afectivamente con ellas. No te digo que terminemos siendo súper amigas y todo, nunca he terminado siendo súper amiga, siempre las relaciones son cordiales pero no de amistad. Pero siento que debe generarse un vínculo… entonces ahí uno tiene que estar permeable a dejarse tocar, a dejarse asombrar, para que fluyan cosas, porque si no… porque hay procesos de ellas súper potentes, de darse cuenta de su pensamiento y que no les guste lo que ven por ejemplo. Entonces como que desvincularte de eso y solo quedarte con lo técnico pedagógico, lo encuentro frio, como que no llega a ser transformador. Es como el recuerdo que uno tiene quizás de alguna profe del colegio, que efectivamente tú la recuerdas porque ella te habló algo más allá del contenido, porque te miro, porque entró en el ámbito personal, te agarró por otro ángulo. (Luz) [I believe one has to dare to get emotionally involved with them. I do not say to end up being super friend and all, I have never ended up being super friend, the relationships are always of cordiality but not of friendship. But I feel that a connection must be generated… so there, one has to be permeable to allow oneself to be touched, to let oneself to be awed, so things can flow, because otherwise… because they engage in processes that are very potent, as for example becoming aware of how they think and not liking what they see. So to disregard that and to consider only the technical pedagogical, I find it cold, like it does not get to be transformative. It is like the memory that perhaps one has of a teacher from school that you indeed remember because she talked to you something beyond the content, because she looked at you, because she entered in the personal realm, she reached you from another angle.] A metaphor that was used by one participant to convey the exploratory nature of the relationship between supervisor and supervisee as understood in category D, is that of an improvisation theatre show, where there is a general script but the actors have the freedom to explore and manifest the different possibilities of their characters on the spot. 155 La otra metáfora que me surge es como estos directores de teatro que dirigen obras que son de creación colectiva, que se van desarrollando en el hacer… obras improvisadas, en donde el director tiene la posibilidad de mirar desde fuera, teniendo el guion de lo que debe pasar pero maravillándose de lo que los actores y actrices en el escenario están creando… yo soy el observador y miro el escenario, no estoy en el escenario… y teniendo el guion yo sé quizás que los protagonistas se van a casar, pero como llegan a eso…¡es una sorpresa para mí! (Gloria) [The other metaphor that comes to mind is those theater directors that direct shows that are a collective creation, that develop in the doing… improvisation shows, where the director has the possibility to look from outside, having the script of what is supposed to happen but being amazed by what the actors on the stage are creating… I am the observer and look at the stage, I am not on the stage… and having the script I perhaps know that the protagonists are going to get married, but how they arrive to that… it is a surprise to me!] 5.5 Chapter Summary This chapter presented the findings obtained from a phenomenographic investigation of the variation in the meaning of supervision existing among university supervisors at a collective level. Through the analysis of the interview transcripts as a whole, four categories of description representing conceptions of supervision were constituted. It was proposed that university supervisors participating in this study see supervision as: a) Accompaniment of learning b) Instruction c) Device for developing thinking and understanding d) Opportunity for awareness expansion and transformation Three key aspects or topics of each conception of supervision called “dimensions of variation” were described using extracts from data as exemplification: 1) Role of the supervisor 2) Means of supervision 3) Nature of relationship between supervisor and supervisee 156 Chapter 6: Discussion of Findings 6.1 Overview Employing a phenomenographic approach, in this study I sought to scrutinize the practice of university supervisors overseeing PSTs’ practicum in six Chilean ECTEPs according to their own perspective on it. Through the analysis four categories of description, ranging from supervision as accompaniment of learning to supervision as an opportunity for awareness expansion and transformation were identified. To provide a more accurate picture of what supervision meant for participants, categories of description were examined in relation to three key themes or dimensions of variation: the role of the supervisor, means of supervision, and nature of the relationship between supervisor and supervisee. This chapter begins by framing the categories of description that characterized the conceptions of supervision as a continuum of awareness of different aspects of supervision. Next, a review of the findings in light of previous phenomenographic studies examining conceptions of teaching in education is presented. Following this I examine the different ways of conceptualizing supervision identified in study in relation to the extant literature on supervision of PSTs. Then, I propose and discuss a connection between characteristics of category D and key principles inherent to a pedagogy based on an ethics of an encounter. Implications for university supervisors’ practice, ECTEPs’ endeavours, and educational policies on university supervisors’ professional development are discussed. Limitations and strengths are highlighted, concluding with suggestions of possible avenues for future research on supervision of PSTs during practicum. 157 6.2 Looking at Categories of Description as a Continuum The results of this study suggest the existence of a continuum of awareness of supervision that increases in complexity progressing from accompaniment of learning (category A) to opportunity for awareness expansion and transformation (category D). Broader categories contain features of previous categories but expand meaning beyond those described in less sophisticated categories. In contrast, narrower categories do not include higher level ones. As they are less complex and less inclusive, they represent awareness of fewer elements included in the phenomenon of supervision. Importantly, conceptions are not seen as individual qualities, but rather are considered as categories of description that can be useful in facilitating the grasp of the practice of supervised practicum in the context of ECTEPs. Neither are individuals considered to be stuck in one category—as they can move from one category to another on different occasions—nor categories themselves are considered fixed or unrelated. Instead, the set of conceptual categories can be seen as a kind of collective intellect, or as a map in ongoing development, displaying related ways of understanding supervision interacting in an order of inclusiveness. Thus, the point of the outcome space in this study is not to create a list of consecutive conceptions of supervision against which to classify individuals, but to draw from the collective experience of supervisors to develop a conceptual tool that helps to better understand the practice of supervision by pinpointing different layers or aspects of it as a phenomenon. Category D represents the more complex and inclusive view. It conceives supervision primarily as a transformative experience through the expansion of awareness, but it also sees it as a means for developing reflective thinking. In addition, to some extent, category D also includes supervision as transmission of knowledge and directions, as well as a more general colleague-158 like accompaniment to the PST during practicum. Thus, when a supervisor holds this conception will perceive supervision as an activity that includes a multilevel purpose: to accompany the supervisee during practicum, to provide instruction, to help develop thinking and understanding, and to expand awareness and produce transformation. Supervisors holding a conception of supervision as vehicle to promote reflective thinking (category C) at a particular point in time will have an awareness of supervision as a mediation of reflection, in addition to transmitting knowledge and directions to the supervisee, while also accompanying their learning in broader ways as they navigates practicum. However, they will not conceive supervision as an opportunity for transformative self-knowledge through the development of awareness. In this way, this category may be seen as less inclusive than category D. When a supervisor sees supervision as instruction (category B), they will be aware of supervision as accompanying the supervisee’s process during practicum as well as transmitting knowledge and directions. However, they will not be aware of supervision as developing supervisee’s reflective thinking and understanding. Thus, it will be an even less complex and less inclusive category. Finally, category A constitutes the most limited conception of supervision. Supervisors approaching supervision in this way would see it as a general accompaniment of teacher candidates during practicum, but would not necessarily consider supervision as imparting knowledge and directions, or as a device for developing supervisee’s reflective thinking, or as an opportunity for awareness expansion and transformation. 159 6.3 Discussion of Results in Relation to Previous Phenomenographic Studies The four ways of understanding supervision identified in this study are related in a continuum of inclusiveness, similar to those found in other phenomenographic studies in education. In particular, previous studies using phenomenography to examine conceptions of teaching and learning held by teachers and/or teacher educators have found a continuum of increasing differentiation of understanding that progresses from less to more awareness of key aspects of teaching and learning (Beutel, 2010; Duarte, 2007; González, 2012; Markauskaite & Wardak, 2015; Montenegro, 2020; Paakkari et al., 2011; Prosser et al., 1994). In this study, ways of understanding supervision ranging from a focus on accompaniment and instruction to a focus on the development of reflective thinking and awareness in PSTs were identified. This is mostly in line with a general pattern found by previous studies examining conceptions of teaching which have revealed a broad distinction between a primary focus of teaching on transmission of information and on development of understanding among students (Åkerlind, 2010; Prosser et al., 1994; Zou et al., 2022). Although results from studies exploring teacher and/or teacher educators’ conceptions of teaching are not entirely comparable with the findings of this study which focuses specifically on supervised practicum, some parallels can be made regarding significant commonalities that emerged in themes running across the conceptions of teaching and supervision respectively. In a study examining student teachers’ understanding of teaching as they progressed in a one-year initial teacher education programme, Wood (2000) found the conceptions of teaching forming a hierarchy of levels of understanding spanning from seen teaching as imparting knowledge to students to teaching as preparing students to be reflective, that is, thinking about their own thinking about content, as in metacognition. Similarly, an Australian study using 160 phenomenographic methods to explore the nature of pedagogic teacher-student interactions found a range of conceptions of pedagogic interactions held by teachers: information providing; instructing; facilitating, guided participation; and mentoring (Beutel, 2010). Within this range, the less complex categories are focused on knowledge delivery and direct instruction in the acquisition and application of skills as essential pedagogic strategies. In the more complex categories, the focus shifts to an emphasis on providing students with opportunities to initiate learning, deepening the quality of learning through reflection, and the development of close partnerships between teacher and students. In “mentorship”, the most complex category identified in the study, teachers perceive themselves as significant others in the lives of students and sharing some aspects of their lives with them—even if this leads to a sense of vulnerability—is perceived as an essential part of embodying their passion for teaching and learning with students. In this conception of pedagogic interactions, teacher-students partnerships are viewed as long-term relationships extending beyond the classroom and beyond the years of schooling (Beutel, 2010). More specific to teacher educators, an English study exploring teacher educators’ understanding of learning to teach, suggested a vertical relationship among the four ways of understanding learning to teach identified: cascading expertise; enabling students individual growth as a teacher; developing student teaching; and student as teacher and learner (Taylor, 2008). These different theoretical awareness of learning to teach progress from “simplistic” to “complicated”. The first level of understanding to teach, “cascading expertise”, was deemed the most limited as it focuses on student teachers acquiring information and practical knowledge, while “student as teacher and learner” was considered the most sophisticated as it implies a view 161 of learning to teach as enabling student teachers to think critically and originally, being active in the process. The results of the aforementioned studies resemble to a certain extent those found in the present study on university supervisors’ conceptions on supervision, where, as categories increased in complexity, more emphasis was placed in PSTs not only gaining relevant knowledge during supervision but also moving towards increasing levels of independence and depth in their thinking. Especially, the focus on developing critical and original thinking as well as the ability to make connections between theory and personal practice identified in higher conceptions of teaching is very similar to the focus present in category C in this study (supervision as a vehicle to promote reflective thinking). One subtle but significant difference however, seems to appear at the level of category D (supervision as an opportunity for awareness expansion and transformation) in which supervision is conceived as enabling PSTs to develop not only the ability to examine thinking about practice and ideas, but also the ability to be aware of personal qualities, experience, and practice, ideally in the moment they arise as an object of their consciousnesses. In category C the supervisor seeks to promote reflective thinking in the supervisee by, for example, challenging PSTs’ thinking through different types of questions, asking PSTs to think aloud about practice and pedagogical decision-making, and requesting PSTs to explore the reasons why they were successful or failed to meet their pedagogical goals. In category D the supervisor goes a step further in their intention, striving to eventually enable PSTs to build the capacity to “look at themselves” while they are engaged in pedagogical practice. This ability is expected to grow as PSTs advance in their career, and although it might work in conjunction with critical analysis or reflective thinking, it requires from the PST a different kind of involvement with practice, which according to supervisors holding this view, 162 needs to be purposely targeted in PST’s preparation. The ability to “look at oneself” described by supervisors seems more akin to what Russell (2018) referred to as reflective practice—a term originally coined by Schön, (1983)—to differentiate it from critical reflection in that “is not a daily or continuous process, nor does it occur on demand” (p.13). Instead, reflective practice occurs when “unexpected and unpredictable moments of surprise and uncertainty that demand our attention and invite us to reframe our implicit assumptions about practice in search of new, more promising course of action” (p.13). Thus, the ways of understanding supervision identified in this study encompass a subtler element apparently not present in the more complex conceptions of teaching found previously in phenomenographic studies. Another difference is that, there appears to be no parallel in previous studies to category A, the least complex conception of supervision identified in this study (supervision as accompaniment of learning). The provision or transmission of knowledge and information seems to be the simplest conception of teaching found by phenomenographic studies scrutinizing teaching, which in the present study would be closer to category B (supervision as instruction). A possible explanation for this is that, unlike teaching in the classroom, supervision of PSTs involves working in the field. This unique characteristic of supervised practicum makes university supervisors a special kind of teacher educators who have to support PSTs in two very different contexts: the university and practicum sites. Due to the demanding nature of fieldwork and the great impact it has in PSTs, the informed and seasoned company of the university supervisor is indeed an essential element to support PSTs in successfully navigating an entirely new and often challenging experience. This might be a reason why category A appeared in the present study while not in previous ones that focused on teaching more broadly. 163 6.4 Discussion of Results in Relation to Extant Literature on Supervision of PSTs Helping PSTs to become good teachers appears a common goal shared among the entire range of conceptions of supervision identified in this study. However, what does it mean to be a good teacher seems to vary in different conceptions, at least in terms of what personal qualities and pedagogical methods are emphasized. This is similar to what occurs with different models of supervision described in the literature that concur on ultimately pursuing teachers’ improvement of their teaching, although the avenues proposed to reach such destination vary on both form and substance. Although no way of understanding supervision reported in this study can be equated or correlates completely with any model of supervision, some conceptions resonate more with certain models, or include more of the aspects highlighted by them. Supervision as accompaniment of learning (category A) representing the simpler way of understanding supervision found in this study seems to be also the least specific in terms of what is envisioned as good teaching, beyond teachers becoming adjusted and confident in practicum sites. The emphasis given to facilitating the transition from the university context to schools by physically and emotionally “being with” the supervisee in this conception appears to be embedded in more specific expectations of PSTs’ performance in the rest of the conceptions. Perhaps the concerns that appear in category A regarding getting PST’s to be well integrated in their practicum sites in order to ensure a good professional learning process are best articulated in the supervision framework developed by Burns et al. (2020). In particular, the “collaboration and community” supervision task identified by Burns and collaborators—which includes practices such developing interpersonal familiarity and helping educators cope with stress—resonates with the focus on successful adjustment to practicum in category A. However, the 164 equally important supervision task of “curricular and instructional support” proposed by Burns et al. (2020) as an integral part of the supervisors’ work seems to be missing in category A. Different from category A, in supervision as instruction (category B) expectations regarding PSTs’ learning and performance become higher and the role of both supervisor and supervisee more specific. The underlying assumption seems to be that, in order to become good teachers, PSTs need to master a predetermined corpus of knowledge. Becoming competent in the basic skills needed to teach young children is seen as central objective for PST’s to achieve, and therefore much of the observation and feedback done by the supervisor is oriented towards teaching and helping the PST to perfect those skills. This is aligned with the view of the technical/didactical model of clinical supervision, which focus primarily on the knowledge base about effective teaching because it is believed that such a thing actually exits and can be used to guide the supervisory process—as opposed to assuming that teachers must discover their own set of instructional principles due to the uniqueness of every classroom (Acheson & Gall, 2003). Consequently, the technical/didactical model offers a wide and well-delineated array of observation and conference techniques that have practical value, reinforcing certain behaviors or predetermined models of teaching considered to be effective (Pajak, 2000). In this sense, although the individuality of teachers is not denied, what is highlighted in the technical/didactic model is the commonalities among them and their instructional conditions. This feature also appears clearly in category B, where attention to the individual characteristics of the supervisee as a learner does not seem to be emphasized. Instead, supervisors’ main concerns are to effectively transmit knowledge relevant to learning to teach and to provide instructional feedback, ideally with objective observational data. 165 In supervision as a vehicle to promote reflective thinking (category C), good teaching is connected with PSTs’ capacity to rely on their own ability to think reflectively to guide their actions and decisions in pedagogic practice. Therefore, the task of the supervisor that is emphasized is the formation of a close, collaborative, and inquiry oriented relationship with the supervisee that is less focused on transmission of teaching skills and knowledge than in mediating the development of an inquisitive mind in relation to the practice of teaching. In this regard, category C resonates with developmental and reflective models of supervision that call for supervisors to encourage reflection and introspection among teachers in order to foster professional growth (Pajak, 2000). In particular, the importance given in category C to PST’s problematizing their teaching practices as well as the context in which they occur, echoes the reflective approach espoused by Zeichner & Liston (1987) to teach student teachers to teach, which stresses the involvement in constant scrutiny of their rationale and consequences of personal beliefs and knowledge as applied to practice. Reflective teaching is based on reflective action, which involves the ability to examine action and beliefs. This requires and active engagement that is absent in routine action, which is triggered by factors such as habit, tradition, circumstance or authority (Grant & Zeichner 1984). Similar to what was found in category C, in the reflective model of supervision, although the development of technical skills is not denied or ignored, it is subsumed within the broader context of reflective action, not considered and end on itself. The main concern of the supervisor is to encourage the supervisee to be the primary generator of knowledge, which echoes Schön (1983) emphasis on “reflective teaching” involving helping students to discover and build on knowledge they already possess but often cannot express, and helping them to integrate their existing knowledge with the knowledge of the school. Another important element in category C 166 that is consistent with the view of the reflective models is the emphasis on using dialogue to help PSTs to analyze and make sense of their teaching experience during practicum. For instance, according to Garman (1986) one of the essential elements of reflection on action— which contrary to reflection on recollection is appropriate for studying immediate events on the present—is the engagement in analysis and interpretation. This is done mainly through dialogue, where the supervisor plays an important role in assisting the teacher in interpreting the data, especially looking for patterns and suggesting ways of making the data meaningful. The differences between supervision as a vehicle to promote reflective thinking (category C) and supervision as an opportunity for awareness expansion and transformation (category D) are more subtle than the differences observed between category B and C, where the underlying assumptions about teaching and learning seem to come from different paradigms altogether. Instead, category D shares with categoryC a view of supervision as fundamentally a reflexive process which moves away from a delivery system approach to improving teaching by instead thinking about supervision as a means of empowerment by which teachers gain control over their own teaching (Smyth, 1984). Similar to category C, category D also emphasizes a critical reassessment of taken for granted values, theories, and believes, and their connection with the contexts in which teaching occurs. From this perspective, they are both in line with the reflective model of supervision as well as with Goldhmmer’s and Cogan’s original vision for clinical supervision as a collaborative action that can liberate teachers from the assumptions they take for granted about practice (Pajak, 2000). However, in category D the supervisor seeks to strengthen the capacity of PSTs’ self-examination even further. Not only are PSTs encouraged to scrutinize their own practice and underlying assumptions but they are also expected to develop a sustained capacity of awareness of personal qualities and tendencies by studying their psychological 167 qualities in the present and gaining insight from past personal experiences. The exploration of biographical elements that come to light during practicum is encouraged and regarded as an important means to both personal and professional growth. This resonates with the belief that teachers can better understand and challenge their own practices, and eventually transform them, by discovering and reconstructing personal histories sustained by some proponents of the reflective model of supervision. For instance, Smyth (1984) and Garman (1986) agreed in the utility of unraveling one’s personal history to understand why one is the teacher one turned out to be. This is considered an aspect of reflection that requires confronting oneself by examining the origin and outcomes of the values, content and demeanor that is set in motion when one teaches. Moreover, in category D the supervisor is also expected to engage in a process of self-knowledge by deepening understanding of themselves and their practice. More than in the rest of the ways of understanding supervision, in category D supervisors themselves are considered to be in a process of growth and self-exploration that is seen as an intrinsic part of the unfolding supervisory process. Thus the elements of self-discovery and “making the invisible visible” that characterize category D in relation to PSTs’ learning to teach, also apply to supervisors in their own role. The awareness of this aspect of supervising PSTs is aligned with evidence from self-studies on supervision practices showing that supervisors benefit in engaging in critically examining their own practices, experiencing gains in their effectiveness in supervising teacher candidates’ learning as well as in their own growth and development (Burns & Badiali, 2016). There is also evidence gathered through self-studies, suggesting that exploring and gaining insight into their own histories, helps supervisors to gain a window into how their past experiences influenced their views about supervision (Jacobs et al., 2019). 168 The notion of good teaching underlying category D corresponds with an image of a teacher who is interested and resourceful in exploring their internal and external environment or “landscape”, and by paying attention to both, finding solutions by themselves in a given teaching situation. Therefore in category D the emphasis in building a sense of empowerment and self-confidence based on gaining self-direction seems to be the strongest. Accordingly, the role played by the supervisor is the most non-directing among all conceptions of supervision identified in this study, and the supervisor commitment to teacher’s self-direction is considered to ultimately lead to teacher-driven teaching improvement. The pattern of the supervisor helping the teacher to come to thier own conclusions is characteristic of a nondirective approach to supervision, one among four approaches described in the developmental model of teachers’ supervision proposed by Glickman et al. (2017), the other three being: directed control, directed informational, and collaborative approach. Glickman and colleagues observed that a typical pattern of supervisory interpersonal communication used in a nondirective conference begins with listening and ends with asking the teacher to present their decision regarding to a course of action to be taken. During the conference, the supervisor also engages in nondirective behaviors such as reflecting (verbalizing their way of understanding what the teacher is expressing), clarifying, and encouraging teachers to describe situations or feelings, but the conference always starts by first listening and concludes with a teacher decision free of influence. Using this approach, the teacher should reach a stage of trust and self-confidence that will enable them to consider alternatives and generate an improvement for teaching (Glickman et al., 2017). Likewise, in category D, supervision is understood as an opportunity for the PST to increase awareness and, based on it, initiate action—internal or external—according with their own criteria. Through expanding awareness of both 169 different aspects of self as well as different elements present in the teaching context, PSTs generate knowledge by assessing the situation, identifying problems or challenges and finding possible solutions. Thus the role of the supervisor is the least directive in this category, and consists in providing what could be called an “atmosphere of attentiveness” that supports the PST in directing their attention to their psychological (inner dimension) and behavioral activity (outer dimension) simultaneously. The supervisor was in fact described by participants as someone who “sees” and in doing so allows the PSTs also to see or become aware of patterns, personal qualities, thoughts, emotions, etc. The metaphor of a mirror was used to describe the way in which the supervisor can support the PSTs in their efforts to gain knowledge and self-knowledge that can positively impact them personally (i.e. help their being), as well as their teaching practice. Perhaps because of the close nature of the relationship between supervisor and supervisee assumed in category D and the open style of communication held by the supervisor, they both seem more exposed and thereby susceptible to transformation compared to other categories. Although the less directive style of communication established by the supervisor in category D could be considered as seemingly lacking rigor, it appears indeed to be highly demanding, and often uncomfortable, as it centers on working with what is personal. Thus, a nondirective style of communication by the supervisor does not seem to imply less involvement on the learning process of the PST but rather the contrary, it calls for a closer, careful and attentive attitude from their part. As Glickman et al. (2017) pointed out, the nondirective approach to supervision does not means laissez faire supervision, where supervisors abdicate of their responsibility of assisting teachers to improve their teaching practice. However, it is worth noting that, in the developmental model of supervision developed by Glickman and colleagues, he recommended to 170 take a nondirective approach only with those teachers who are operating at high levels of abstraction, motivation and expertise, leaving the use of any of the other three approaches for teachers not yet ready to assume full decision making-responsibility. The nondirective style of interpersonal communication adopted by the supervisor in category D also resonates with Waite’s dialogic supervision, which Pajak (2000) categorizes under the tradition of reflective models of supervision. Drawing from postmodern views, Waite (2005) stressed the central importance of improving human interactions between teachers and supervisors. He believed supervisors tend to exercise inordinate control over the direction of conferences, often squeezing out teacher’s agendas and concerns. Instead, he proposed a dialogic form of supervision that is mutually supportive and based on a strong nonjudgmental interpersonal communication, even if that implies to pay less attention to data collection and analysis during the supervision cycle. Self-knowledge gained through self-work is deemed important for both teachers and supervisors in this approach where beliefs, behavior and decisions are always open to examination and reconsideration. Waite applies to the supervision context the idea that one cannot see the whole of oneself without the help of the Other, thus by entering a dialogic relationship, the supervisors provide the teacher with the dynamic for self-refection, helping them to begin to perceive the whole of themselves. At the same time, Waite (2005) stresses the cognitive and personal development undergone by supervisors themselves and highlights the importance of the supervisor remaining true to themselves and the teacher with whom they work by being vigilant about the aspects of their development (e.g. thoughts, phrases) that are inadvertently taken from others and that actually run counter to what the supervisor believes deep inside. The view of supervision as a space where supervisor and supervisee come to “know themselves and to be themselves” (Waite & Waite, 2012) 171 encapsulates one of the core qualities of supervision represented by category D, where participants expressed the centrality of allowing PSTs to embark in an exercise of self- discovery supported by the supervisor’s careful maintenance of a space characterized by nonjudgmental attitude, deep listening, and openness to uncertainty. 6.5 Category D in Relation to a Pedagogical Philosophy Based on an Ethics of an Encounter Supervision as an opportunity for awareness expansion and transformation, the most complete way of understanding supervision found in this study, is not only qualitatively different to other conceptions—as is supposed to be in a phenomenographic study—but it also seems to be distinctive in its inclusion of a more philosophical character, which I believe is reflected in the language and analogies chosen by participants to describe the meaning of supervision. As discussed in the previous section, many elements in the understanding of supervision in category D were reminiscent of ideas and concepts present in previous work about supervision. However, as I delved more deeply in the data analysis process, it became more and more apparent to me that the relationship between supervisor and supervisee in category D also resembled strongly the concept of “encounter” present in the ECE literature that draws from the work of French Philosopher Emmanuel Levinas to reframe the place of ECE as a locus for an ethics of an encounter as oppose to a locus for technical practice. I became inspired to include an additional section examining the findings of the study in light of these ideas. The decision to do it was somehow surprising even to me, since my initial intention was to discuss the findings in relation to previous work on teachers’ preparation. I was also hesitant to include a section that could appear as unconnected with the previous ones. However, upon reflection, I realized that my hesitation was more due to the unexpected nature of the turn in the discussion of findings 172 than the lack of a possible connection with a pedagogy based on an ethics of an encounter, which has indeed been an important contribution to the field of ECE. Thus, I finally decided to write this section because I felt Levinas’ notion of an encounter captures in a very unique way the most subtle aspects that universities supervisors where trying to convey regarding their understanding of supervision. Specifically, I propose that there is a strong resemblance between category D and the principles and ideas constituting an ECE pedagogy based on an ethics of an encounter as it has been discussed by author Gunilla Dahlberg, chiefly in the book Ethics and politics in early childhood education (Dahlberg & Moss, 2005) and the article A pedagogy of hospitality built on listening: an ethical and political perspective on early childhood education (Dahlberg, 2006). To provide context, I begin the section with a brief description of the meaning of an ethics of an encounter, to then delve into two central elements of category D—an attitude of openness and listening—in light of Levinas’ work on ethics. 6.5.1 Ethics of an encounter as a basis for ECE Dahlberg and Moss (2008, 2005) argue that ECE institutions are mostly conceived as a locus for instrumental and technical practices, a view that is the product of a modern paradigm. According to this view ECE institutions are understood as business competing in the market “seeking the best methods and procedures for delivering predetermined outcomes, a stable, defined and transmittable body of knowledge, but also implicitly a particular subject—today the flexible, autonomous and entrepreneurial child” (Dahlberg, 2006, p.7). Understanding ECE institutions based on an instrumental rationality has an impact in both the discourses employed to talk about children—often portrayed as immature and incomplete—as well as the view of the teacher who is seen as someone with a voice of authority derived from unquestionable knowledge. Also part of this way of approaching ECE is what Dahlberg and Moss (2008) call 173 “the discourse of quality” to refer to a search for achievement and evaluation of expert-defined specifications that is deeply rooted in the epistemology of logical positivism where order and certainty grounded in objectivity and quantification are chosen over seeking understanding and meaning making through personal judgment, with the unavoidable uncertainty it entails. Dahlberg, (2006) claims that the fundamental problem with these basic assumptions in ECE is that they make the Other into the Same, thus hindering the possibility of otherness. To counteract this vision, Dahlberg and Moss (2005) draw from Levinas’ ethics to propose a “pedagogy as a locus of an ethics of an encounter” as an alternative rationality to understand ECE, different from the principles of the universalistic ethics of the Enlightenment that assume an autonomous and stable moral subject with a clear cut separation between mind and body, passion and reason. At the heart of Levinas’ thought is the relationship with the Other and how to respond to alterity. He bases his ethics on the absolute alterity and the unknowability of the other (Dahlberg, 2006). For him, the Other is an Other whom cannot be represented or classified into a category because if placed into prefabricated categories the other is made as the same, assimilated into totality. Levinas claims that the human condition, intrinsically a social condition where we live together with and in interaction with other persons, has within it something that is irreducible Other. Reflecting on the deepest structure of human social existence, Levinas arrives at the conclusion that “ethics is first philosophy”. This statement means that the most fundamental realities, those things that ground everything else, the foundation of human existence, is ethics (Morgan, 2011). In other words, that we are fundamentally ethical beings. Saying that ethics is first also means that it is “primary”, not grounded in anything that is more primary than it. Levinas (1969) says that what constitutes the ethical is prior to the self, it precedes it in the sense of being more fundamental than it. The ethical comes from the encounter with what Levinas calls 174 “the face” of the Other, whose status is more fundamental than the self (also called “totality” by Levinas). Thus, the starting point of the status of ethics is a relationship between two utterly particular persons who face one another. That is, the face is not part of the self, nor an object of it, but “a crack on its walls”, and interruption of its functioning and cohesiveness. Because it is basic and original, the face of the other is always already present in ordinary life, but it is pre-conceptual and it cannot be grasped by conceptual mind: “The face is present in its refusal to be contained. In this sense, it cannot be comprehended, that is, encompassed” (Levinas, 1969, p 194). Since the face cannot be comprehended, to access it, to come into contact with it, what seems to be needed is a state of mind that is receptive and open where the self is “decentered” (Ruitenberg, 2015) in order to become a “host”. Such a state looks like an invitation, a welcoming to the Other. 6.5.2 Attitude of openness According to Dahlberg (2006) Levinas’ ethical thinking leads to an understanding of ethics as a relational activity (an ethics of an encounter) that challenges the “autonomous and rational subject” of the Enlightenment who, in the quest to master and make the world comprehensible attempts to “know” the other, reducing the unknown to the known in the process. She says: Levinas uses here the metaphor grasp: to retain his or her freedom, the knowing subject with claims to mastery ‘grasps’ the Other, assimilates or negates, by means of concepts, categories and classifications. Grasping expresses a sort of violence by reducing the particularity of the Other into the totalizing system of the knowing subject (p. 14). In contrast, in the face-to-face encounter proposed by Levinas, the Other remains Other, respected in their alterity and welcomed instead of grasped. This disposition towards the 175 difference of the other seems to be present in the attitude of the supervisor in conception D, where a nondirective approach to supervision is clearer. The emphasis on the supervisor providing “space” for the PST’s to delve in self-knowledge while acting like a “mirror”, evokes the quality of attention given to the Other in Levinas’ description of the face-to-face encounter. Certainly, the interest and attention towards the person of the supervisee present in category D cannot be interpreted as coinciding exactly with what Levinas calls the encounter with the face of the Other since his understanding of it transcends the person as a personality, reaching a primordial level in the human condition that is even “beyond ontology” (Morgan, 2011). Although the face-to-face encounter is a concrete reality, an event that occurs where the face of the other is a particular revelation of a particular person, it also has a transcendental dimension to it. What Levinas calls “the face” of the other person is not the appearance of that person, it is not a collection of features given to visual perception. Instead, the status of the face is uncompromised or unconditioned, that is, independent and underived, whereas all else derives from it. There is a sense that nothing related to human existence is prior to the face of the other person. Paradoxically however, the face derives from no other source. In the case of the supervisors holding awareness of category D there is an intention to connect with the other as somebody with certain personal characteristics and a biography that is relevant to the relationship. However, the distinctive attitude of openness and welcoming reported by supervisors holding this view resonates strongly with the sensitivity and responsiveness present in the relationship with the Other in Levinas’ thought, at least enough to be considered as a starting point or a basis for creating what Dahlberg (2006) calls “a pedagogy of welcoming and hospitality”. This is suggested in the way supervisors described supervision and its facets, for instance: “supervisory sessions are about establishing a dialogue marked by 176 openness, flexibility, welcoming… to create a propitious space, that is inviting to self-discovering…” (Eva), or “… it is opening oneself to the possibility to see each of them for what they are in their essence” (Stella). Moreover, the welcoming of the unknown as part of the supervisory process is also an element in category D that resonates with the view of a pedagogy based on ethics of an encounter in which there is room for uncertainty (Dalberg, 2006) and the mystery and ambiguity intrinsic to life (Todd, 2015). The metaphor offered by one supervisor about supervision being like an improvisation theater show is illustrative of the place the unexpected occupies in this way of conceiving supervision. 6.5.3 Listening Dahlberg (2006) contrasts a pedagogy related to ethics of an encounter with modernist ideas of education as the transmission of knowledge that creates autonomous subjects that, through knowledge, are freed from the obligation to others, including “the obligation to listen”. Instead, listening to the voice of the Other occupies a central place in a pedagogy of hospitality and welcoming. It means to leave room for difference and the singularity of the Other in the relationship, that is, not attempting to “grasp” the other but instead granting “infinite attention to the other”. To listen means being open to the Other. Recognizing the Other as different and trying to listen to the Other from his or her own position and experience… good listening distinguishes dialogue between human beings from monologue, which seeks to transmit a body of knowledge and through so doing make the Other into the Same (Dahlberg & Moss, 2005, p.100). Deep listening or “attentive listening” appears as a distinctive means of supervision in category D and the meaning assigned to it by supervisors seems to be very close to the way 177 Dahlberg (2006) describes listening inscribed in a pedagogy of an ethics of an encounter. For instance, curiosity and a disposition to enter into a relationship abstaining from preconceived ideas was deemed as important by supervisors in this conception: “The act of listening is an act of being open to what happens with the other, trying to see the other without prejudices” (Alicia). Listening was also associated with “seeing” the other, metaphorically speaking, which was also an element mentioned by several participants. Likewise, of all categories, category D is the one where the singularity of the supervisee is most highlighted. There is an intention and interest in exploring who is the person in front, as if whom the supervisor is taking with was essential: “It is important to have an attitude of listening and openness to be able to see elements that allow you to know, to understand the student we have in front of us…” (Paola). This curiosity and interest in the supervisee resonates with the idea of commitment to radical dialogue mentioned by Dahlberg (2006) as a central characteristic of a “pedagogy of listening”, where the goal is not give children more knowledge but instead to enter a space where both teacher and child try to construct meaning together by engaging in active listening. The dialogic relationship that is respectful of the Other instead of trying to “grasp” appears to be well represented by the inviting but noninterfering attitude of the supervisor in category D: … one [supervisor] is transformed into a mirror, not in the sense that the other see herself in you, but in the sense of being a presence that allows the other to look at herself. One acts like a constant invitation to what is transpiring inside… that is why it has the potential to be transformative. (Eva) The term “pedagogy of listening” used by Dahlberg & Moss (2005) to discuss an approach to pedagogy that is inscribed with the ethics of an encounter is a term that comes from Reggio Emilia, an ECE approach developed in the Italian city of the same name. In Reggio 178 Emilia listening is understood to be a complex and multifaceted concept. Listening is an active relationship that is dialogic and interpretive, involving many forms of communication. It is both saturated and mediated by values and emotions. Carlina Rinaldi, a world-known pedagogista and former pedagogical director of the municipal preschools in Reggio Emilia, describes listening as follows: Listening is emotion, it is generated by and stimulates emotions, including curiosity, desire, doubt, interest… Listening is not easy. It requires deep awareness, and at the same time a suspension of our judgements, and above all our prejudices: it requires openness to change. It demands that we have clearly in mind the value of the unknown and that we are able to overcome the sense of emptiness and precariousness that we experience whenever our certainties are questioned (Rinaldi 2001 as cited in Dahlberg & Moss, 2005, p. 99-100). The way Rinaldi presents listening captures the complexity, depth and challenge of it. Different from an understanding of listening as a transmission of a message “from mouth to ear”, she perceives it as requiring sensitivity, an openness from the listener, a willingness to step out of the known territory of the pre-defined truths. The link between listening and emotion made by Rinaldi can be identified in category D: “it is the capacity to feel the other” (Gloria), as well as the elements of curiosity, interest, and engrossed attention towards the other: “active listening is like the student being able to perceive that I am listening to what she is saying with all my senses” (Stella). This way to conceive listening, as a gesture that requires active receptivity, awareness and openness to uncertainty, is aligned with Levinas’ notion of the face-to-face encounter, in which the Other seems to be simultaneously and invitation and a reminder of the infinite dimension of existence which cannot be reduced to the known, or the same. In the 179 supervisory process, the welcoming of the supervisee through the gift of attention and the upholding of a nonjudgmental attitude was linked by one participant to being “just”: “I believe that a tutor must be, I insist, welcoming enough to be able to listen to the other… listening with the body, attentively, affectionally, as Maturana says, is also a way to be just” (Gloria). The notion of “being just” towards the other (the supervisee in this case) evokes Levinas’ concept of responsibility. For him, responsibility is the passage from concern for oneself to concern for other; a movement from “self-interestedness” to “dis-interestedness” where attention and interest have been directed towards the other. From this perspective dialogue is an activity of communion that is possible through making room for others. As Levinas (1969) says, “conversation is not a pathetic confrontation of two beings absenting themselves from the things and from the others” (p. 76). On the contrary, genuine conversation—one that respects and responds to the presence of the Other—seems to imply the opposite movement: it requires “exiting from oneself” instead of “insisting on the self”. It is precisely this “decentering” of the subject (Ruitenberg, 2015) or “displacement” of the self (Todd, 2015), which has been described as an essential characteristic of a pedagogy of welcoming and hospitality based on listening (Dahlberg, 2006), what resonates deeply with the understanding of the role of the supervisor in category D. Although it cannot be inferred from the data that supervisors included in their ways of understanding supervision a relation to the transcendental (ungraspable) dimension of the PSTs, the emphasis on an open disposition and awareness of the multifaceted presence of the supervisee as well as the supervisors’, points clearly in the direction of an approach to supervision that moves away from an instrumental and technical view and towards a way of conceiving supervision more aligned with the underlying principles of an ethics of an encounter. 180 6.6 Implications of the Present Research In Chile, insufficient teacher preservice preparation has been identified as one of the main causes of unsatisfactory ECE in the country and concern has been expressed regarding the gap between the preparation of ECTs and the challenges they must face once in the workforce (García-Huidobro, 2006). This study provides insight into the practice of supervision of PSTs’ during their practicum, a well-recognized central component of learning to teach (Darling-Hammond, 2014; White & Forgasz, 2016). Through a phenomenograhic approach, supervision is examined as a phenomenon experienced and understood in qualitatively distinct ways, bringing to the forefront the absent perspective of university supervisors in Chilean ECTEPs. By doing so, the study addresses a recognized need for national research about ECTs’ preparation to teach (Pardo & Adlerstein, 2015) that can inform both practice and polices related to the education of future ECTs. An implication of this study worth noting is related to consequences for PSTs’ learning process. Previous phenomenographic studies of university teachers’ conceptions of teaching have shown conceptions to be related to their students’ approaches to learning and, thus, to student learning outcomes (Åkerlind, 2010; Taylor, 2008). A similar phenomenon could be the case with conceptions of supervision held by university supervisors. For instance, it is plausible that those university supervisors holding a more complex understanding of supervision—i.e. showing awareness of more aspects of it—may take a deeper approach to supervision, and therefore, their supervisees will also approach learning to teach in a richer way, possibly becoming aware of more aspects of learning to teach, which in turn may impact the supervisee’s pupils approach to learning. 181 The categories of description and dimensions of variation that represent the outcome space of this study can help university supervisors to become more conscious of their work. Becoming aware of the variations in ways of conceptualizing supervision, supervisors may ponder the differences between their current way of understanding and the more complex ways of understanding that they may be moving towards. Although the findings of this study correspond to supervisors employed at six ECTEPs, results can serve as a starting point for examining how supervision of PSTs is understood by university supervisors working with primary and secondary teacher candidates. This makes a significant contribution to the field of teacher education in the country given the increased recognition and attention to the role of practicum in PSTs preparation (Hirmas & Cortes, 2015) as well as the call for studies that can help to better understand how practicum works in the field and shed light into best ways of igniting change and innovation (Boerr, 2021). Burns et al. (2020) stated as a rationale to their framework for naming the scope and nature of teacher candidate supervision that identifying tasks, practices, and pedagogical routines performed by supervisors provides language for describing the nuances of PST’s supervision practice. In a similar fashion identifying different ways of understanding supervision may contribute to the demystification of the complexity of PST’s supervision, which can assist university supervisors in the performance and assessment of their work. Furthermore, the attention given to the conceptualization of supervision in this study has the potential to serve not only the learning of individuals but also the collective learning of ECTEPs as they scrutinize, and redefine if needed, the role and the variety of tasks expected to be performed by university supervisors and PSTs during practicum. 182 Regarding professional development of PSTs, different ways of understanding supervision seems to offer different possibilities for growth. The most apparent distinction seem to be that the less complex conceptions of supervision offer PSTs possibilities to grow as teachers, while most complex conceptions of supervision enable individual growth as teachers and as learners. For instance, in category A PSTs develop their professional competence by, with the accompaniment of the supervisor, being exposed to navigating the complexities of becoming adjusted and integrated to the practicum site so it can indeed serve them as a training ground. In category B, PSTs are encouraged to grow as teachers by gradually mastering knowledge and skills relating to ECE that is taught by the supervisor, who is perceived as an expert in the field. In contrast, from the perspective of category C and D, PSTs have the possibility to grow not only as teachers but also as learners since the focus of the supervisory process shifts from the acquisition of knowledge and expertise towards a concern with the student teacher’s learning in a more holistic way. PST’s are viewed as increasingly independent teacher-learners and are encouraged to be active in the process of their own learning by deepening their capacity to think critically, analyze, and come up with their own rationales for making pedagogical decisions. Especially in category D, PSTs have the opportunity to grow as learners through cultivating an attitude and discipline of self-reflection which involves becoming familiar with their psychological qualities as well as aspects of their own biography that influence their teaching practice. In category D PSTs are also indirectly invited to become lifelong learners by establishing a relationship with university supervisors who consider themselves as learners, seen their own self-examination and self-growth as an important aspect of the supervisory process. 183 Finally, the variation in understanding supervision of PST’s also has implications for policy and policymakers. This study could inform new educational policies aimed to strengthen supervised practicum of PSTs by providing empirical knowledge on the views of university supervisors, a key player in the practicum triad—cooperating teachers, student teachers, and university supervisors—that has been reported as understudied (Lawson et al., 2015). The contribution of empirical data in the area of teacher education is of particular relevance in the ECE field, where efforts to systematize information on the state of policies targeting ECE teachers’ initial education and professional development have revealed a paucity of data that could inform evidence-based public policy (Pardo & Adlerstein, 2015). In addition, results from this study may be of benefit for the eventual creation of new educational policies requiring the development of formal supervision preparation for those who are in charge of supervising PST’s practicum. Although such requirements do not currently exist, there is a precedent in the country regarding the development of specialized preparation for qualified teacher educators to become mentors of beginning teachers. This initiative began in 2007 when the Ministry of Education stablished a specific policy to support the professional induction of beginning teachers (Boerr, 2021). The team of experts designing the policy estimated that the best avenue to implement it was to prepare qualified teachers as specialized mentors because: It is about a function of high complexity and specificity that requires from those who perform it, in addition to an outstanding experience as classroom teachers, the mastery of specific competencies to be able to understand the needs of beginning teachers, and to effectively support the attainment of their professional identity (p.16). Since the experiences implemented so far in mentoring of beginning teachers have been highly valued by both players, and considering the increasing attention given to the practicum 184 component of initial teacher education in all educative levels (Jacobs et al., 2017; Matengu et al., 2021; Montecinos et al., 2015) it is possible that in the next years calls for adding accreditation requirements to guarantee that university supervisors of practicum are formally prepared might emerge. In that scenario, results from the present study could provide a valuable input for those in charge of designing a specialized education program for supervisors, helping to materialize a recommendation that has already been made by studies examining supervision of PST’s in ECE (Kupila et al., 2017). 6.7 Limitations Although this study contributed to better understand supervision of PST’s in ECE by providing an in-depth examination of university supervisors’ conception of supervision from a phenomenographic perspective, a discussion of the limitations is warranted. One limitation of this study is that, while focusing on university supervisors understanding of supervision, it did not include direct observations of the interaction between supervisors and supervisees in practicum sites or at the university. Although the identification of a range of meanings that supervision holds for university supervisors has value on itself, contrasting it with supervisory conferences for example, could have provided insight into how conceptions are reflected in practice and the ways they are embodied in the relationship between supervisors and supervisees. Another limitation of this study is that, due to budget constraints for the data collection phase, it was not possible to recruit participants from regions outside Chile’s capital, which is socially, economically and geographically dissimilar to the rest of the country. Therefore, it is uncertain if the set of categories conforming the outcome space in this study would remain stable in other regions, especially in the more extreme territories of the country, which given the Chile’s unusual long shape, are culturally very different to the capital. However, 185 the results of this study shed light into university supervisor’s understanding of their work that, even if centralized, can be a starting point for further work that includes university supervisors working at ECTEPs in different areas. A further limitation in the design of this study is the fact that the exploration of the meaning of supervision was taken as whole, and as such it did not incorporate an a priori distinction between different types of supervision in relation to stage in the program they occurred. Future studies could subdivide supervision according to the type of practicum (e.g. early, intermediate, or late), studying one specifically, or all of them with a focus on finding differences between them. 6.8 Strengths While studies focusing on field experiences in teachers’ education favor the perspective of PSTs (Jacobs et al., 2017), this study brought light into the variation of understanding supervision by university supervisors, thus contributing to the empirical knowledge of supervised practicum from a viewpoint that have been less common or entirely missing in the literature, although not less important. The research sample included a wide range of variation regarding age and experience of university supervisors. Also, although all universities where participants were employed are located in Santiago, each of them is situated in a different municipality with different characteristics in terms of history, affluence, and population. In addition, the universities were diverse in terms of their type, including private and state-funded, with long traditions and relatively new, very large and relatively small, research-based and teaching-based. The diverse characteristics of the universities helped to maximize the variation in the experiences of participants, thus providing robustness to the findings. Moreover, participants were interviewed 186 twice, which allowed time for them to reflect on the topic between interviews. It also granted me as the interviewer with the opportunity to review the data after the first interview in order to redirect participants attention to unaddressed issues or delving deeper into some ideas relevant to the identification of distinct conceptions during the second interviews. An additional strength of this study was the inclusion of a questionnaire and interviews with practicum coordinators at each university. Although these were not the source of the data for the phenomenographic outcome space, it contributed a substantial amount of meaningful and instructive information about the structure and dynamics of practicum within the ECTEPs in which university supervisors functioned, thus providing a rich context from which to approach the content communicated by participants in the interviews. An unintended strength of this study is that it appears to have provided a very valuable opportunity to participants to reflect on the nature of their work. A substantial number of both university supervisor and practicum coordinators interviewed expressed their appreciation for being granted a space allocated exclusively to share their ideas and experiences about their practice, as if the attention given to the specificities of their work through the interviews was not something they were used too. Being the recipient of participants’ gratitude and sometimes comments of surprise due to insights they had during the interviews was rewarding, but also a confirmation of the reported lack of recognition university supervisors receive in the teacher education field (Cuenca, 2012). Lastly, this study seems to be the first focusing on supervised practicum of PSTs in Chilean ECTEPs in general, and specifically in university supervisors’ perspectives. It is also the first one in employing a phenomenographic methodology in the field of ECE. Consequently, 187 findings from the study provide a significant contribution to fill the gap in the field of EC teacher education research, and especially, in the practicum component of it. 6.9 Future Directions Since this is a small scale exploratory study on an issue not previously addressed in ECE research, definite conclusions from findings cannot be drawn, suggesting the need for further research in a number of areas. One area for future exploration is to examine whether the four ways of understanding supervision will remain if further work is conducted. Therefore, future studies could focus on whether the findings on this study follow through in other contexts such ECTEPs situated in different regions of the country, or in ECTEPs in universities with less funding. Also, future studies may choose to include more than one researcher conducting the study and analyzing the data to minimize the possibility that findings might emerge differently. Another possible line of research may be to examine how each way of understanding supervision identified in this study is enacted. The present study was limited to university supervisors’ perceptions, without trying to stablish a connection between what participants say and what they do. However, it would be valuable to explore whether there is a relationship between supervisors’ thought and action, especially in light of previous phenomenographic studies suggesting university teachers with more sophisticated conceptions of teaching are more likely to be more effective teachers (Taylor, 2008). Does the way supervision is understood by university supervisors impact on how they go about the supervisory process? This question could be explored by contrasting supervisors’ views with direct observations of supervisory conferences and interactions between supervisors and supervisees in practicum sites. A further interesting area of exploration related to supervisors’ thought and action relationship could be contrasting supervisors ways of understanding supervision with the amount 188 of time allocated to different activities within the supervisory process. To this end, the “framework” for PSTs’ supervision proposed by Burns et al. (2020) depicted in Table 3 could prove very useful. For example, the two main tasks of supervision—"collaboration and community” and “curricular and instructional support”—could be used as broad categories to guide observation of supervisors’ work. Or, alternatively, one or more of the “high-leverage practices” of the framework could be considered for the same purpose (e.g. creating a culture of collegiality, developing interpersonal familiarity, providing focused instructional feedback, fostering theory to practice connections), along with the many and very specific “routines” included in the framework as part of each high-leverage practice. Finally, this study did not look for causal links between supervisors’ understanding and supervisee’s learning. A further study could focus on whether such causal relationship exists by, for example, contrasting supervisors’ conceptions with PST’s learning outcomes, PST’s marks, or input from cooperating teachers in practicum sites. 6.10 Conclusion As part of the worldwide concern about the improvement of teaching and learning in teacher education (Darling-Hammond, 2017) the practicum component of learning to teach has been considered as critical (White & Forgasz, 2016). University-based supervisors of practicum have a paramount position in the preparation of teachers as they are uniquely situated between the academic and school contexts. However, although several frameworks for supervision of teachers have been developed, supervision is often considered a “self- evident” activity in teacher education programs (Cuenca, 2012) and definitions of supervision are difficult to find in governmental educative documents calling for reforms to teacher education (Jacobs et al., 2017). 189 Moreover, so far research on field supervision of PSTs in the Chilean context has been scarce in primary and secondary education (Hirmas & Cortes, 2015), an nonexistent in the ECE field. This study used a phenomenographic approach to examine early childhood PST’s supervised practicum from the point of view of university supervisors. Using semi-structured interview data, the study explored and identified a range of four qualitatively different ways in which university supervisors conceive supervision. This range is proposed to be forming a continuum of expanding meaning encompassing different levels of completeness in understanding that goes from accompaniment of learning to opportunity for awareness expansion and transformation. The findings are significant as they make more visible the complexity and nuances involved in supervision practice and the variety of ways in which it is possible to think about it, thus showing that it is indeed a multidimensional activity far from self-explanatory or susceptible of being taken for granted. It is suggested that results from this study—presented as an outcome space with categories of description and dimensions of variation—might be of benefit at least at three levels: to university supervisors as they examine their own supervisory practice by becoming aware of ways of conceptualizing supervision different from theirs, to ECTEPs for the revision and possible modification of their practicum design, and for policy makers addressing teacher educators’ specialized education to fulfill mentoring and supervising functions. The results of the study contribute to fill the gap in Chilean supervised practicum of PSTs in general but are even more meaningful in the field of ECE where this appears to be the first study addressing the issue. Some new areas of research that could develop and complement the work undertaken in this particular study are identified. 190 References Acheson, K. A., & Gall, M. D. (2003). Techniques in the clinical supervision of teachers (5th ed). 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Journal of Teacher Education, 74(2), 178–180. 210 https://doi.org/10.1177/00224871231160401 Zeichner, K., & Liston, D. (1987). Teaching student teachers to reflect. Harvard Educational Review, 57(1), 23–49. https://doi.org/10.17763/haer.57.1.j18v7162275t1w3w Zou, T. X. P., Harfitt, G., Carless, D., & Chiu, C. S. T. (2022). Conceptions of excellent teaching: a phenomenographic study of winners of awards for teaching excellence. Higher Education Research and Development, 41(2), 577–592. https://doi.org/10.1080/07294360.2020.1842337 211 Appendices Appendix A Head of Early Childhood Teacher Education Program Invitation Letter Dear (name of Head of Early Childhood Teacher Education Program), We are writing to request your approval to conduct a study in the Early Childhood Education Program you chair. The study is entitled Supervisors' Conceptions of Supervision of Teacher Candidates in Early Childhood Teacher Education Programs in Chile and corresponds to a doctoral dissertation research conducted by one of our PhD students, Mariel Gomez, as part of a PhD degree in Human Development and Learning. Briefly, the research is being conducted with practicum coordinators and university supervisors employed at Early Childhood Teacher Education Programs in Chilean universities and explores the conceptions of supervision held by university supervisors. A fuller description/summary of the study is attached for your review, along with the following documents: • Invitation letter for practicum coordinator • Consent form for practicum coordinator • Invitation letter for university supervisors • Consent form for university supervisors If you would like to learn more about the study or have any further questions, please feel free to contact Mariel Gomez by email or telephone (listed below). If we have not heard from you by (date of following up 7 days later), we will phone you to learn about your decision regarding authorizing us to conduct the study in the program you chair. Thank you in advance for taking the time to consider this invitation. We hope to hear from you soon! Laurie Ford, PhD Mariel Gomez Associate Professor PhD Candidate Principal Investigator Co-Investigator Phone: (xxx) xxx-xxxx Phone: xxxxxxxx (Chile) xxxxx.xxxx@xxx.xxx (xxx) xxx-xxxx(Canada) xxxxxxxx@xxxx.xxx.xx 212 Carta de Invitación para la Directora del Programa de Pedagogía en Educación Inicial Estimada (nombre de jefa de carrera) Estamos escribiéndole para solicitar su autorización para conducir un estudio en el program de Pedagogia en Educaion Parvularia que usted lidera. El estudio se titula Concepciones sobre Supervisión de las Supervisores de Práctica en Carreras de Pedagogía de Educación Parvularia en Chile y corresponde a una investigacion doctoral de una de nuestras canidadtas a doctora, mariel Gomez, que forma parte de su grado de doctora en Desarrollo Humano y Aprendizaje. En breve, el estudio explora las concepciones sobre supervision que sostienene las supervisoras de parcatica. El estudio se llevara a cabo con coordinadoras de práctica y supervisoras de práctica que trabajan en programas de educauion inicial en universidades chilenas. Una descripción completa/resumen del estudio se adjunta para su revisión, además de los siguientes documentos: • Carta de contacto inicial para coordinadora de práctica. • Formulario de consentimiento para la coordinadora de práctica. • Carta de contacto inicial para las supervisoras de práctica. • Formulario de consentimiento para las supervisoras de práctica. Ante cualquier pregunta o si desea más información sobre este estudio, por favor contáctenos por email o teléfono (indicados a continuación). Si no tenemos respuesta de su parte para el día (fecha de seguimiento 7 días mas tarde), la llamaremos para confirmar su decisión respecto de autorizarnos a realizar el estudio en el programa que dirige. Gracias de antemano por tomarse el tiempo de considerar esta invitación. ¡Esperamos saber de usted pronto! Laurie Ford, PhD Mariel Gomez Associate Professor PhD Candidate Principal Investigator Co-Investigator Phone: (xxx) xxx-xxxx Phone: xxxxxxxx (Chile) xxxxx.xxxx@xxx.xxx (xxx) xxx-xxxx(Canada) xxxxxxxx@xxxx.xxx.xx 213 Appendix B Study Summary Study Summary Supervisors' Conceptions of Supervision of Teacher Candidates in Early Childhood Teacher Education Programs in Chile Principal Investigator: Laurie Ford, PhD, Department of Educational & Counselling Psychology and Special Education, Faculty of Education, University of British Columbia Email: xxxxx.xxxx@xxx.xx Phone: xxx-xxx-xxxx Co-Investigator: Mariel Gomez, PhD candidate, Department of Educational & Counselling Psychology and Special Education Faculty of Education, University of British Columbia Email: xxxxxxxx@xxxx.xxx.xxx Phone: xxxxxxxx (Chile) / (xxx) xxx-xxxx (Canada) What is the study about? This study seeks to gain insight into the phenomenon of supervision in Chilean early childhood (EC) teacher education programs by identifying the different ways in which clinical supervision of EC teacher candidates is experienced and understood by faculty supervisors. Within the landscape of teacher development, a critical part of the terrain is clinical experience, which refers to supervised, direct experiences in teaching provided for pre-service teachers. Clinical experiences have been identified as crucial to strengthen teacher education because they offer students an essential bridge between the conceptual tools gained in a university classroom and the realities that occur in the social and physical context of schools. Despite the growing recognition of the importance of clinical experiences on teachers’ preparation, supervision of practicum remains an underutilized resource in teacher education and the work of university supervisors is still understudied. The paucity of studies examining and documenting the work of university supervisors is a reflection of the weak visibility that this key actor has in teachers’ education. In Chile, the few studies that have explored clinical supervision in practicum, have been conducted without inclusion of early childhood education (ECE). Therefore, the need for research that can take a close look at current practices and experiences on clinical supervision is even more imperative in the ECE sector, where little is known about supervised practicum of 214 teacher candidates. This study aims to address a recognized need for national research about EC teachers’ preparation, by bringing to the forefront the unheard voices of university supervisors. What are the research questions? The following research question will guide the study: What are university supervisors’ conceptions of supervision of teacher education candidates? Who do we hope will take part in the study? We are looking for 12 (minimum) to 16 (ideal) university supervisors employed at EC teacher education programs, and the practicum coordinators employed at the teacher education programs where participant supervisors work. What are the study methods and procedures? We want to conduct the study at ideally four universities offering the program of pedagogy in early childhood education in Santiago Metropolitan Region. At each university, the practicum coordinator and up to four university supervisors will be asked to participate in one-on-one interviews. The interviews with university supervisors will explore participants’ conceptions of clinical supervision during teacher candidates’ practicum. If university supervisors agree, there will be a follow up interview to expand upon or clarify information shared in the first interview. The purpose of the interviews with practicum coordinators is to gather data about the characteristics of supervision in the programs where supervisors work, in an effort to contextualize and better understand supervisors’ conceptions of supervision. Practicum coordinators will be interviewed once and, during the interview, will be asked to complete a brief (5-10min) questionnaire about practicum supervision in their programs. All interviews will take about an hour to complete and will be conducted at participants’ workplace on dates and times that work best for them. With participants’ permission, the interviews will be audio-recorded and transcribed. Participants’ identity will remain confidential, but excerpts and/or direct quotes from the interview(s) may be used anonymously in the results chapter of Ms. Gomez thesis. How will we recruit the participants? A letter of initial contact along with a copy of consent form (for both practicum coordinators and university supervisors) will be sent by email to practicum coordinators. Practicum coordinators who indicate they would like to take part in the study, will be asked to inform university supervisors in their teams about the study and request their permission to be contacted. With the approval of university supervisors to be contacted, the researcher will send to them a letter of initial contact along with a copy of consent form. In the letter of initial contact, an option will be provided to contact the researcher either by email or by phone, if they are interested in participating in the study. At each university, the first four university supervisors to manifest interest in participating in the study will be selected as research participants. The day of the 215 interviews, a hard copy of the consent form will be reviewed again with participants before the interview begins and signed on site. What about our confidentiality? Consistent with UBC research standards and Canadian ethical standards for research, data will be collected, managed, stored, and used in a manner that does not identified the people who take part in our study. All interview transcripts will be coded using identification numbers instead of names. All of the information we gather will be kept in a secure place. Can we receive a copy of the findings? If anyone who takes part in the project would like a copy of the results once the study is completed, we are very happy to send a copy. Who do I contact if I have any questions? If you want to know anything else about the study, please contact the co-investigator at the email or phone listed above. Thank You Laurie and Mariel 216 Resumen del Estudio Concepciones sobre Supervisión de las Supervisores de Práctica en Carreras de Pedagogía de Educación Parvularia en Chile Investigadora Principal: Laurie Ford, PhD, Departamento de Psicología Educacional y Educación Especial Facultad de Educación, Universidad de British Columbia Email: xxxxxxx.xxxx@xxx.xx Teléfono: xxx-xxx-xxxx Co-Investigadora: Mariel Gomez, candidata a doctora, Departamento de Psicología Educacional y Educación Especial Facultad de Educación, Universidad de British Columbia Email: xxxxxxxx@xxxx.xxx.xx Teléfono: xxxxxxxx (Chile) / (xxx) xxx-xxxx (Canadá) ¿De qué se trata este estudio? Este estudio busca ganar entendimiento sobre el fenómeno de supervisión en la educación inicial de educadoras de párvulo en Chile a través de identificar las distintas maneras en que la supervisión clínica de educadoras de párvulo en formación es experimentada y comprendida por las supervisoras de práctica. Un área critica dentro del ámbito de la formación de profesores la experiencia clínica, la cual se refiere a experiencias de enseñanza directas y supervisadas que se ofrecen a los profesores en formación. Las experiencias clínicas han sido identificadas como cruciales para fortalecer la formación docente debido a que estas ofrecen a los estudiantes un puente esencial entre las herramientas conceptuales adquiridas en las clases de la universidad y las realidades que ocurren en los contextos físicos y sociales de las escuelas. A pesar del creciente reconocimiento sobre la importancia de las experiencias clínicas en la formación de profesores, la supervisión de práctica continúa siendo un recurso inutilizado y el trabajo de los supervisores de práctica ha sido poco estudiado. La escasez de estudios que examinen y documenten el trabajo del supervisor de prácticas refleja la débil visibilidad que este crucial actor tiene en la formación de profesores. En Chile, los pocos estudios que han explorado la supervisión de prácticas han sido conducidos sin incluir el nivel de la educación parvularia. Por lo tanto, la necesidad de investigación que pueda mirar de cerca las prácticas y experiencias actuales en la supervisión de prácticas profesionales es aun mas imperativa en el nivel de educación inicial, donde se conoce poco sobre 217 la supervisión de práctica de educadoras en formación. Este estudio pretende responder a la reconocida necesidad de investigación nacional acerca de la formación de educadoras de párvulo, trayendo a un primer plano las voces de las supervisoras de práctica. ¿Cuáles es la pregunta de investigación? La siguiente pregunta de investigación guiara el estudio: ¿Cuáles son las concepciones sobre supervisión clínica que sostienen las supervisoras de práctica de las educadoras de párvulo en formación? ¿Quienes esperamos que participen en este estudio? Esperamos que participen del estudio 12 (mínimo) a 16 (ideal) supervisoras de práctica, y las coordinadoras de práctica que se encuentren actualmente trabajando en carreras de pedagogía en educación parvularia. ¿Cuáles son los métodos y procedimientos del estudio? Esperamos conducir el estudio en idealmente cuatro universidades que ofrezcan la carrera de pedagogía en educación parvularia en la Región Metropolitana. En cada universidad, se invitará a la coordinadora de práctica y hasta cuatro supervisoras de práctica a participar en entrevistas cara a cara. Las entrevistas con las supervisoras de práctica exploraran las concepciones de las participantes sobre la supervisión clínica durante la formación práctica de educadoras de párvulo. Si las supervisoras están de acuerdo, se realizará una segunda entrevista de seguimiento para expandir o clarificar información compartida durante la primera entrevista. El propósito de la entrevista con las coordinadoras de práctica es recolectar datos sobre las características de la práctica supervisada en los programas de pedagogía de educación parvularia donde trabajan, en un esfuerzo por contextualizar y comprender mejor las concepciones sobre supervisión que sostienen las supervisoras. Las coordinadoras de práctica serán entrevistadas una vez y, durante la entrevista, se les pedirá que completen un breve (5-10 min) cuestionario sobre la supervisión de prácticas en sus programas. Todas las entrevistas tendrán una duración de aproximadamente una hora y se llevarán a cabo en el lugar de trabajo de las participantes en la fecha y la hora que funcione mejor para ellas. Con el permiso de las participantes, las entrevistas serán grabadas y transcritas. La identidad de las participantes permanecerá confidencial, pero es posible que extractos o citas directas de las entrevistas sean usadas sin revelar la identidad de las participantes en el capitulo de resultados de la tesis doctoral de Mariel Gómez. ¿Como se reclutarán a las participantes? Cartas de contacto inicial junto con copias de consentimiento informado dirigido a coordinadoras y supervisoras de práctica serán envidas vía email a las coordinadoras de práctica. A las coordinadoras de práctica que expresen interés en participar del estudio se les pedirá informar a 218 las supervisoras de práctica en sus equipos sobre el estudio y pedir su permiso para ser contactadas. Con la aprobación de las coordinadoras de práctica de ser contactadas, la investigadora les hará llegar una carta de contacto inicial junto con una copia de consentimiento informado. En la carta de contacto inicial se proveerá la opción de contactar a la investigadora vía email o teléfono, si es que están interesadas en participar del estudio. En cada universidad, las cuatro primeras supervisoras de práctica en manifestar interés en participar del estudio serán seleccionadas como participantes. El día de las entrevistas, una copia impresa del consentimiento informado será revisada con las participantes antes del comienzo de la entrevista y será firmada in situ. Acerca de la confidencialidad En acorde a los estándares de investigación de la Universidad de British Columbia y los estándares éticos para la investigación que establece Canadá, los datos serán recolectados, administrados, almacenados, y utilizados de manera en que los participantes no sean identificados individualmente. La codificación de datos se realizará usando identificación numérica para las participantes en vez de nombres y los datos se almacenarán en un lugar seguro. Acceso a los resultados Una vez que el estudio haya finalizado, estaremos muy contentas de enviar una copia de los resultados a cualquier participante que así́ lo desee. ¿A quién contactar ante cualquier pregunta? Si usted desea saber más sobre este estudio por favor contacte a la co-investigadora al email o teléfono indicado al comienzo de este documento. ¡Gracias! Laurie y Mariel 219 Appendix C Invitation Letter for Practicum Coordinator Supervisors' Conceptions of Supervision of Teacher Candidates in Early Childhood Teacher Education Programs in Chile Invitation Letter for Practicum Coordinators Principal Investigator: Laurie Ford, PhD, Department of Educational & Counselling Psychology and Special Education, Faculty of Education, University of British Columbia Email: xxxxxx.xxxx@xxx.xx Phone: xxx-xxx-xxxx Co-Investigator: Mariel Gomez, PhD candidate, Department of Educational & Counselling Psychology and Special Education Faculty of Education, University of British Columbia Email: xxxxxxxx@xxxx.xxx.xx Phone: xxxxxxxx (Chile) / (xxx) xxx-xxxx (Canada) Dear ____________ (insert name of practicum coordinator) Your name has been given to us by_______ (name of Head of ECE Program). We are writing to invite you to be part of a research study investigating the conceptions of supervision held by faculty supervisors of early childhood teacher candidates. Your contribution is very important to our understanding of how supervision is conceived and practiced during teacher candidates’ practicum in Chile. This letter is intended to introduce you to the study and to describe what it means to take part. What is the study about? The purpose of this study is to gain insight into the phenomenon of supervision in Chilean early childhood (EC) teacher education programs by identifying the different ways in which clinical supervision of EC teacher candidates is experienced and understood by university supervisors. Clinical experiences have been identified as crucial to strengthen teacher education because they offer students an essential bridge between the conceptual tools gained in a university classroom and the realities that occur in the social and physical context of schools. However, despite the growing recognition of the importance of clinical experiences on teachers’ preparation, 220 supervision of practicum remains an underutilized resource in teacher education and the work of university supervisors is still understudied. The paucity of studies examining and documenting the work of university supervisors is a reflection of the weak visibility that this key actor has in teachers’ education. In Chile, the few studies that have explored clinical supervision in practicum, have been conducted without inclusion of early childhood education (ECE). Therefore, the need for research that can take a close look at current practices and experiences on clinical supervision is even more imperative in the ECE sector, where little is known about supervised practicum of teacher candidates. This study aims to address a recognized need for national research about EC teachers, by bringing to the forefront the unheard voices of university supervisors. It is anticipated that the results of this study will help us to better understand how supervision of practicum is conceptualized and practiced in the context of early childhood teachers’ pre-service education. What is involved if you take part in the study? The research study involves one-to-one interviews with the practicum coordinator and university supervisors employed at each of the EC teacher education programs that will be part of the study. The interviews with university supervisors will explore participants’ conceptions of clinical supervision during teacher candidates’ practicum. If university supervisors agree, there will be a follow up interview to expand upon or clarify information shared in the first interview. The interview with the practicum coordinator will explore the characteristics of supervised practicum in the programs they work for, in an effort to contextualize and better understand supervisors’ conceptions of supervision. All interviews will take about an hour to complete and will be conducted at participants’ workplace on dates and times that work best for them. With participants’ permission, the interviews will be audio-recorded and transcribed. Participants’ identity will remain confidential, but excerpts and/or direct quotes from the interview(s) may be used in the results chapter of Ms. Gomez’s thesis without sharing any identifying information. If you would like, a summary of the results will be sent to you once the study is completed. What will you be asked to do? If you agree to take part in our study, you will be asked: • to participate in a one-on-one interview that will explore the characteristics of supervised practicum in the program you are a practicum coordinator. 221 • to complete a brief (5-10min) questionnaire at the beginning of the one-on-one interview. The questionnaire’s questions are about the characteristics of supervised practicum in the program you are a practicum coordinator. • to inform university supervisors in your team about the study and to request their permission to be contacted by the co-researcher of this study. Your participation in this research project is entirely voluntary and you may refuse to participate or withdraw from the project and/or interview at any time. For more details, please review the attached consent form that you will eventually be asked to sign the day of the interview. If you are willing to participate, please reply to this email or contact Mariel Gomez by the phone number or email listed at the beginning of this letter. If we have not heard from you in the next 7 days, we will send you an email reminder encouraging you to respond to our request. If you have any questions or would like more information about this project, please contact Mariel Gomez by email or telephone (listed above). We hope to hear from you! 222 Appendix D Invitation Letter for University Supervisor Supervisors' Conceptions of Supervision of Teacher Candidates in Early Childhood Teacher Education Programs in Chile. Invitation Letter for University Supervisors Principal Investigator: Laurie Ford, PhD, Department of Educational & Counselling Psychology and Special Education, Faculty of Education, University of British Columbia Email: xxxxxx.xxxx@xxx.xx Phone: xxx-xxx-xxxx Co-Investigator: Mariel Gomez, PhD candidate, Department of Educational & Counselling Psychology and Special Education Faculty of Education, University of British Columbia Email: xxxxxxxx@xxxx.xxx.xx Phone: xxxxxxxx (Chile) / (xxx) xxx-xxxx (Canada) Dear ____________ (insert name) Your name has been given to us by_______ (name of practicum coordinator). We are writing to invite you to be part of a research study investigating the conceptions of supervision held by faculty supervisors of early childhood teacher candidates. Your contribution is very important to our understanding of how supervision is conceived and practiced during teacher candidates’ practicum in Chile. This letter is intended to introduce you to the study and to describe what it means to take part. What is the study about? The purpose of this study is to gain insight into the phenomenon of supervision in Chilean early childhood (EC) teacher education programs by identifying the different ways in which clinical supervision of EC teacher candidates is experienced and understood by university supervisors. Clinical experiences have been identified as crucial to strengthen teacher education because they offer students an essential bridge between the conceptual tools gained in a university classroom and the realities that occur in the social and physical context of schools. However, despite the growing recognition of the importance of clinical experiences on teachers’ preparation, supervision of practicum remains an underutilized resource in teacher education and the work of university supervisors is still understudied. The paucity of studies examining and documenting the work of university supervisors is a reflection of the weak visibility that this key actor has in teachers’ education. 223 In Chile, the few studies that have explored clinical supervision in practicum, have been conducted without inclusion of early childhood education (ECE). Therefore, the need for research that can take a close look at current practices and experiences on clinical supervision is even more imperative in the ECE sector, where little is known about supervised practicum of teacher candidates. This study aims to address a recognized need for national research about EC teachers, by bringing to the forefront the unheard voices of university supervisors. It is anticipated that the results of this study will help us better understand how supervision of practicum is conceptualized and practiced in the context of early childhood teachers’ pre-service education. What will you be asked to do? If you agree to take part in our study, you will be asked to participate in a one-on-one interview about the ways in which you experience and understand the supervision work you do with teacher candidates. Based on mutual agreement, there will be a follow up interview to expand upon or clarify information from the first interview. The interviews will take about an hour to complete and will be conducted at your workplace on dates and at times agreed upon you and the researcher. If you agree, the interview(s) will be audio-recorded and transcribed. Your identity will remain confidential, but excerpts and/or direct quotes from the interview(s) may be used in the results chapter of Ms. Gómez thesis without sharing any identifying information. If you would like, a summary of the results will be sent to you once the study is completed. Your participation in this research project is entirely voluntary and you may refuse to participate or withdraw from the project and/or interview at any time. For more details, please review the attached consent form. To be eligible to participate in the study, university supervisors need to have been working as such for at least one year (at any place) and worked at the university selected to be part of this study for a period of at least 6 months. If you are eligible and willing to participate, please reply to this email or contact Mariel Gomez by the phone number or email listed at the beginning of this letter. If we have not heard from you in the next 7 days, we will send you an email reminder encouraging you to respond to our request. If you have any questions or would like more information about this project, please contact Mariel Gomez by email or telephone (listed above). We hope to hear from you! 224 Appendix E Reminder Letter for Practicum Coordinator Supervisors' Conceptions of Supervision of Teacher Candidates in Early Childhood Teacher Education Programs in Chile. Reminder Letter for Practicum Coordinators Principal Investigator: Laurie Ford, PhD, Department of Educational & Counselling Psychology and Special Education, Faculty of Education, University of British Columbia Email: xxxxxx.xxxx@xxx.xx Phone: xxx-xxx-xxxx Co-Investigator: Mariel Gomez, PhD candidate, Department of Educational & Counselling Psychology and Special Education Faculty of Education, University of British Columbia Email: xxxxxxxx@xxxx.xxx.xx Phone: xxxxxxxx (Chile) / (xxx) xxx-xxxx (Canada) Dear ____________ (insert name of practicum coordinator) This is a reminder letter to make sure you received our invitation to be part on a research study investigating the conceptions of supervision held by faculty supervisors of early childhood teacher candidates. What is the study about? The purpose of this study is to gain insight into the phenomenon of supervision in Chilean early childhood (EC) teacher education programs by identifying the different ways in which clinical supervision of EC teacher candidates is experienced and understood by university supervisors. Clinical experiences have been identified as crucial to strengthen teacher education because they offer students an essential bridge between the conceptual tools gained in a university classroom and the realities that occur in the social and physical context of schools. However, despite the growing recognition of the importance of clinical experiences on teachers’ preparation, supervision of practicum remains an underutilized resource in teacher education and the work of university supervisors is still understudied. The paucity of studies examining and documenting the work of university supervisors is a reflection of the weak visibility that this key actor has in teachers’ education. 225 In Chile, the few studies that have explored clinical supervision in practicum, have been conducted without inclusion of early childhood education (ECE). Therefore, the need for research that can take a close look at current practices and experiences on clinical supervision is even more imperative in the ECE sector, where little is known about supervised practicum of teacher candidates. This study aims to address a recognized need for national research about EC teachers, by bringing to the forefront the unheard voices of university supervisors. It is anticipated that the results of this study will help us to better understand how supervision of practicum is conceptualized and practiced in the context of early childhood teachers’ pre-service education. What is involved if you take part in the study? The research study involves one-to-one interviews with the practicum coordinator and university supervisors employed at each of the EC teacher education programs that will be part of the study. The interviews with university supervisors will explore participants’ conceptions of clinical supervision during teacher candidates’ practicum. If university supervisors agree, there will be a follow up interview to expand upon or clarify information shared in the first interview. The interview with the practicum coordinator will explore the characteristics of supervised practicum in the programs they work for, in an effort to contextualize and better understand supervisors’ conceptions of supervision. All interviews will take about an hour to complete and will be conducted at participants’ workplace on dates and times that work best for them. With participants’ permission, the interviews will be audio-recorded and transcribed. Participants’ identity will remain confidential, but excerpts and/or direct quotes from the interview(s) may be used in the results chapter of Ms. Gomez’s thesis without sharing any identifying information. If you would like, a summary of the results will be sent to you once the study is completed. What will you be asked to do? If you agree to take part in our study, you will be asked: • to participate in a one-on-one interview that will explore the characteristics of supervised practicum in the program you are a practicum coordinator. • to complete a brief (5-10min) questionnaire at the beginning of the one-on-one interview. The questionnaire’s questions are about the characteristics of supervised practicum in the program you are a practicum coordinator. • to inform university supervisors in your team about the study and to request their permission to be contacted by the co-researcher of this study. 226 Your participation in this research project is entirely voluntary and you may refuse to participate or withdraw from the project and/or interview at any time. For more details, please review the attached consent form that you will eventually be asked to sign the day of the interview. If you are willing to participate, please reply to this email or contact Mariel Gomez by the phone number or email listed at the beginning of this letter. If we have not heard from you in the next 7 days, we will send you an email reminder encouraging you to respond to our request. If you have any questions or would like more information about this project, please contact Mariel Gomez by email or telephone (listed above). We hope to hear from you! 227 Concepciones sobre Supervisión de los Supervisores de Práctica en Carreras de Pedagogía de Educación Parvularia en Chile Carta Recordatorio para Coordinadora de Práctica Investigadora Principal: Laurie Ford, PhD, Departamento de Psicología Educacional y Educación Especial Facultad de Educación, Universidad de British Columbia Email: xxxxxx.xxxx@xxx.xx Phone: xxx-xxx-xxxx Co-Investigadora: Mariel Gomez, candidata a doctora, Departamento de Psicología Educacional y Educación Especial Facultad de Educación, Universidad de British Columbia Email: xxxxxxxx@xxxx.xxx.xx Phone: xxxxxxxx (Chile) / (xxx) xxx-xxxx (Canada) Estimada _____ (insertar nombre), Esta es una carta de recordatorio para confirmar que usted recibió nuestra invitación a participar en un estudio que investiga las concepciones de supervisión sostenidas por las supervisoras de práctica de las educadoras de párvulo en formación. ¿De qué se trata este estudio? Este estudio busca ganar entendimiento sobre el fenómeno de supervisión en la educación inicial de educadoras de párvulo en Chile a través de identificar las distintas maneras en que la supervisión clínica de educadoras de párvulo en formación es experimentada y comprendida por las supervisoras de práctica. Un área critica dentro del ámbito de la formación de profesores la experiencia clínica, la cual se refiere a experiencias de enseñanza directas y supervisadas que se ofrecen a los profesores en formación. Las experiencias clínicas han sido identificadas como cruciales para fortalecer la formación docente debido a que estas ofrecen a los estudiantes un puente esencial entre las herramientas conceptuales adquiridas en las clases de la universidad y las realidades que ocurren en los contextos físicos y sociales de las escuelas. 228 A pesar del creciente reconocimiento sobre la importancia de las experiencias clínicas en la formación de profesores, la supervisión de práctica continúa siendo un recurso inutilizado y el trabajo de los supervisores de práctica ha sido poco estudiado. La escasez de estudios que examinen y documenten el trabajo del supervisor de prácticas refleja la débil visibilidad que este crucial actor tiene en la formación de profesores. En Chile, los pocos estudios que han explorado la supervisión de prácticas, han sido conducidos sin incluir el nivel de la educación parvularia. Por lo tanto, la necesidad de investigación que pueda mirar de cerca las prácticas y experiencias actuales en la supervisión de prácticas profesionales es aun mas imperativa en el nivel de educación inicial, donde se conoce poco sobre la supervisión de práctica de educadoras en formación. Este estudio pretende responder a la reconocida necesidad de investigación nacional acerca de la formación de educadoras de párvulo, trayendo a un primer plano las voces de las supervisoras de práctica. ¿Que implica la participación en este estudio? El estudio implica entrevistas cara a cara con la coordinadora de práctica y cuatro supervisoras de práctica en cada carrera de pedagogía en educación parvularia que formara parte de la muestra. Las entrevistas con las supervisoras de práctica exploraran las concepciones de las participantes sobre la supervisión clínica y el rol de las supervisoras en la formación práctica de educadoras de párvulo. Si las supervisoras están de acuerdo, puede que se realice una segunda entrevista para expandir o clarificar la información compartida en la primera entrevista. La entrevista con la coordinadora de práctica explorara las características de la práctica supervisada de sus programas, en un esfuerzo por contextualizar y comprender mejor las concepciones sobre supervisión de las supervisoras. Todas las entrevistas tendrán una duración de aproximadamente una hora y se llevarán a cabo en el lugar de trabajo de las participantes en la fecha y la hora que funcione mejor para ellas. Con el permiso de las participantes, las entrevistas serán grabadas y transcritas. La identidad de las participantes permanecerá confidencial, pero es posible que extractos o citas directas de las entrevistas sean usadas sin revelar la identidad de las participantes en el capitulo de resultados de la tesis doctoral de Mariel Gómez. ¿Qué se le solicitará? Si usted accede a participar en este estudio se le solicitará: • Participar en una entrevista cara a cara sobre las características de la supervisión de práctica en el programa en que se desempeña como coordinadora de práctica. • Antes de comenzar la entrevista, completar un breve (5min) cuestionario sobre las características de la supervisión de práctica en el programa en que se desempeña como coordinadora de práctica 229 • Informar a las supervisoras de práctica de su equipo de trabajo sobre la existencia de este estudio y pedir su permiso para ser contactadas por la co-investigadora. Su participación en este proyecto de investigación es enteramente voluntaria y usted puede rehusar participar o retirarse del proyecto o de las entrevistas en cualquier momento. Para más detalles, por favor revise el formulario de consentimiento adjunto. Si desea saber más sobre este estudio o está interesada en participar, por favor responda a este email o contacte a Mariel Gómez al teléfono indicado al comienzo de esta carta. Si no obtuviéramos respuesta suya en los próximos siete días, le enviaremos un email de recordatorio alentándola a responder a nuestra invitación. Si tiene preguntas o desea más información sobre este proyecto, por favor contacte a Mariel Gómez vía email o teléfono (indicado al comienzo de la carta). 230 Appendix F Reminder Letter for University Supervisor Supervisors' Conceptions of Supervision of Teacher Candidates in Early Childhood Teacher Education Programs in Chile. Reminder Letter for University Supervisors Principal Investigator: Laurie Ford, PhD, Department of Educational & Counselling Psychology and Special Education, Faculty of Education, University of British Columbia Email: xxxxxx.xxxx@xxx.xx Phone: xxx-xxx-xxxx Co-Investigator: Mariel Gomez, PhD candidate, Department of Educational & Counselling Psychology and Special Education Faculty of Education, University of British Columbia Email: xxxxxxxx@xxxx.xxx.xx Phone: xxxxxxxx (Chile) / (xxx) xxx-xxxx (Canada) Dear ____________ (insert name) This is a reminder letter to make sure you received our invitation to be part on a research study investigating the conceptions of supervision held by faculty supervisors of early childhood teacher candidates. What is the study about? The purpose of this study is to gain insight into the phenomenon of supervision in Chilean early childhood (EC) teacher education programs by identifying the different ways in which clinical supervision of EC teacher candidates is experienced and understood by university supervisors. Clinical experiences have been identified as crucial to strengthen teacher education because they offer students an essential bridge between the conceptual tools gained in a university classroom and the realities that occur in the social and physical context of schools. However, despite the growing recognition of the importance of clinical experiences on teachers’ preparation, supervision of practicum remains an underutilized resource in teacher education and the work of university supervisors is still understudied. The paucity of studies examining and documenting the work of university supervisors is a reflection of the weak visibility that this key actor has in teachers’ education. 231 In Chile, the few studies that have explored clinical supervision in practicum, have been conducted without inclusion of early childhood education (ECE). Therefore, the need for research that can take a close look at current practices and experiences on clinical supervision is even more imperative in the ECE sector, where little is known about supervised practicum of teacher candidates. This study aims to address a recognized need for national research about EC teachers, by bringing to the forefront the unheard voices of university supervisors. It is anticipated that the results of this study will help us better understand how supervision of practicum is conceptualized and practiced in the context of early childhood teachers’ pre-service education. What will you be asked to do? If you agree to take part in our study, you will be asked to participate in a one-on-one interview about the ways in which you experience and understand the supervision work you do with teacher candidates. Based on mutual agreement, there will be a follow up interview to expand upon or clarify information from the first interview. The interviews will take about an hour to complete and will be conducted at your workplace on dates and at times agreed upon you and the researcher. If you agree, the interview(s) will be audio-recorded and transcribed. Your identity will remain confidential, but excerpts and/or direct quotes from the interview(s) may be used in the results chapter of Ms. Gómez thesis without sharing any identifying information. If you would like, a summary of the results will be sent to you once the study is completed. Your participation in this research project is entirely voluntary and you may refuse to participate or withdraw from the project and/or interview at any time. For more details, please review the attached consent form. To be eligible to participate in the study, university supervisors need to have been working as such for at least one year (at any place) and worked at the university selected to be part of this study for a period of at least 6 months. If you are eligible and willing to participate, please reply to this email or contact Mariel Gomez by the phone number or email listed at the beginning of this letter. If we have not heard from you in the next 7 days, we will send you an email reminder encouraging you to respond to our request. If you have any questions or would like more information about this project, please contact Mariel Gomez by email or telephone (listed above). We hope to hear from you! 232 Concepciones sobre Supervisión de los Supervisores de Práctica en Carreras de Pedagogía de Educación Parvularia en Chile Carta de Recordatorio para Supervisora de Práctica Investigadora Principal: Laurie Ford, PhD, Departamento de Psicología Educacional y Educación Especial Facultad de Educación, Universidad de British Columbia Email: xxxxxx.xxxx@xxx.xx Phone: xxx-xxx-xxxx Co-Investigadora: Mariel Gomez, candidata a doctora, Departamento de Psicología Educacional y Educación Especial Facultad de Educación, Universidad de British Columbia Email: xxxxxxxx@xxxx.xxx.xx Phone: xxxxxxxx (Chile) / (xxx) xxx-xxxx (Canada) Estimada _____ (insertar nombre), Esta es una carta de recordatorio para confirmar que usted recibió nuestra invitación a participar en un estudio que investiga las concepciones de supervisión sostenidas por las supervisoras de práctica de las educadoras de párvulo en formación. ¿De qué se trata este estudio? El propósito de este estudio es ganar entendimiento sobre el fenómeno de supervisión en la educación inicial de educadoras de párvulo en Chile a través de identificar las distintas maneras en que la supervisión clínica de educadoras de párvulo en formación es experimentada y comprendida por las supervisoras de práctica. Las experiencias clínicas han sido identificadas como cruciales para fortalecer la formación docente debido a que estas ofrecen a los estudiantes un puente esencial entre las herramientas conceptuales adquiridas en las clases de la universidad y las realidades que ocurren en los contextos físicos y sociales de las escuelas. Sin embargo, a pesar del creciente reconocimiento sobre la importancia de las experiencias clínicas en la formación de profesores, la supervisión de práctica continúa siendo un recurso inutilizado y el trabajo de los supervisores de práctica ha sido poco estudiado. La escasez de estudios que examinen y documenten el trabajo del supervisor de prácticas refleja la débil visibilidad que este crucial actor tiene en la formación de profesores. 233 En Chile, los pocos estudios que han explorado la supervisión de prácticas, han sido conducidos sin incluir el nivel de la educación parvularia. Por lo tanto, la necesidad de investigación que pueda mirar de cerca las prácticas y experiencias actuales en la supervisión de prácticas profesionales es aun mas imperativa en el nivel de educación inicial, donde se conoce poco sobre la supervisión de práctica de educadoras en formación. Este estudio pretende responder a la reconocida necesidad de investigación nacional acerca de la formación de educadoras de párvulo, trayendo a un primer plano las voces de las supervisoras de práctica. Se espera que los resultados de este estudio contribuyan a un mayor entendimiento sobre las formas en que la supervisión de práctica es conceptualizada e implementada en el contexto de la formación inicial de educadoras de párvulo en Chile. ¿Qué se le solicitará? Si decide participar en el estudio, se le pedirá participar en una entrevista cara a cara acerca de las formas en que experimenta y conceptualiza el trabajo de supervisión que lleva a cabo con las educadoras de párvulo en formación. Bajo en mutuo acuerdo, puede que se realice una segunda entrevista para expandir o clarificar la información compartida en la primera entrevista. Las entrevistas tendrán una duración de aproximadamente una hora y se llevarán a cabo en el lugar de trabajo de las participantes en fecha y hora acordada entre usted y la co-investigadora. Con su permiso, las entrevistas serán grabadas y transcritas. Su identidad permanecerá confidencial, pero es posible que extractos o citas directas de las entrevistas sean usadas sin revelar la identidad de las participantes en el capitulo de resultados de la tesis doctoral de Mariel Gómez. Su participación en este proyecto de investigación es enteramente voluntaria y usted puede rehusar participar o retirarse del proyecto o de las entrevistas en cualquier momento. Para más detalles, por favor revise el formulario de consentimiento adjunto. Si desea saber más sobre este estudio o está interesada en participar, por favor responda a este email o contacte a Mariel Gómez al teléfono indicado al comienzo de esta carta. Si no obtuviéramos respuesta suya en los próximos siete días, le enviaremos un email de recordatorio alentándola a responder a nuestra invitación. Si tiene preguntas o desea más información sobre este proyecto, por favor contacte a Mariel Gómez vía email o teléfono (indicado al comienzo de la carta). 234 Appendix G Practicum Coordinator Consent Form Supervisors' Conceptions of Supervision of Teacher Candidates in Early Childhood Teacher Education Programs in Chile. Practicum Coordinator Consent Principal Investigator: Laurie Ford, PhD, Department of Educational & Counselling Psychology and Special Education, Faculty of Education, University of British Columbia Email: xxxxx.xxxx@xxx.xx Phone: xxx-xxx-xxxx Co-Investigator: Mariel Gomez, PhD candidate, Department of Educational & Counselling Psychology and Special Education Faculty of Education, University of British Columbia Email: xxxxxxxx@xxxx.xxx.xx Phone: xxxxxxxx (Chile) / (xxx) xxx-xxxx (Canada) Dear Practicum Coordinator, Please read the following letter carefully. This is a request for you to take part in the study we are doing with practicum coordinators and faculty supervisors at several universities. This project is a part of a doctoral degree in Human Development and Learning at the University of British Columbia for Ms. Gomez. If after reading the letter, you would like to take part in the study, please sign one copy and give to the interviewer at the interview session. Keep the other copy for your own records. Purpose: The purpose of this study is to gain insight into the phenomenon of supervision in Chilean early childhood (EC) teacher education programs by identifying the different ways in which clinical supervision of EC teacher candidates is experienced and understood by university supervisors. Clinical experiences have been identified as crucial to strengthen teacher education because they offer students an essential bridge between the conceptual tools gained in a university classroom and the realities that occur in the social and physical context of schools. However, despite the growing recognition of the importance of clinical experiences on teachers’ preparation, supervision of practicum remains an underutilized resource in teacher education and the work of university supervisors is still understudied. This study aims to address this research gap by examining the supervision of EC teacher candidates from the point of view of university supervisors. 235 Taking Part in our Study Means: 1. If you agree to take part in our study, you will participate in a one-on-one interview about the characteristics of supervised practicum in the program you work for. 2. The interview will take place at your workplace at a date and time that works for both you and the researcher. The interview will take approximately 50 to 90 minutes. 3. If you agree to take part in the study, we will ask you to answer a brief (5 minutes) background questionnaire at the beginning of the interview. 4. The researcher will take notes and the conversation will be audio recorded if you give your consent to do so. The audio recording will be transcribed by the researcher after the interview. 5. The information gathered during the interview(s), including the interview notes and transcripts, will be used as data in Ms. Gomez’s thesis. Your identity will remain confidential, but excerpts and/or direct quotes from the interview(s) may be used anonymously in the text of the thesis’s results chapter. 6. Only the Principal Investigator (Dr. Laurie Ford) and the co-investigator (Mariel Gomez) will have access to the information gathered through the interview(s). No individual information will be reported and no participant identified by name in any reports about the study. The information collected will be stored in a locked filing cabinet and any electronic files will be password protected and encrypted at the university office of the researchers. The only people who will have access to the information you give us are the researchers working on this study. 7. Given the nature of the research and questions posed during the interview, it is not expected that you will experience significant discomfort during the process or risks as a result of your participation. Nonetheless, you have the right to withdraw from the interview at any time. 8. In addition to participating in a one-on-one interview, as the practicum coordinator you will be required to let the university supervisors in your team know about the study and ask their permission to be contacted by the researcher. 9. Once the results of the project are available, we will contact you to ask you if you would like to receive a summary of the findings. 236 Contact for information about the study: • If you have any questions or desire further information about this project you may contact Dr. Laurie Ford or Mariel Gomez at the email or phone number at the top of this page. Contact for concerns about the rights of research participants: • If you have any concerns about your rights as a research participant and/or your experiences while participating in this study, contact the Research Participant Complaint Line in the UBC Office of Research Ethics at 604-822-8598 or if long distance e-mail RSIL@ors.ubc.ca or call toll free 1-877-822-8598. Consent to participate in this Research Project Your participation in this research project is entirely voluntary and you may refuse to participate or withdraw from the study at any time. Your signature below indicates that you consent to participate in this research project. When you sign below it also means that you have received a copy of this consent form (pages 1, 2 & 3) for your own records. Please check all that apply: ____ Yes, I consent to participate in this study and allow university supervisors in my team to participate in this study if they provide consent. IF YES: ____ Yes, I give my consent for the interview to be audio-recorded. ____ No, I do give my consent for the interview to be audio-recorded. ________________________________ Your Name (Please Print) ____________________________________________________________ Your Signature Date 237 Concepciones sobre Supervisión de los Supervisores de Práctica en Carreras de Pedagogía de Educación Parvularia en Chile Consentimiento Coordinadora de Práctica Investigadora Principal: Laurie Ford, PhD, Department of Educational & Counselling Psychology and Special Education, Faculty of Education, University of British Columbia Email: xxxxx.xxxx@xxx.xx Phone: xxx-xxx-xxxx Co-Investigadora: Mariel Gomez, PhD candidate, Department of Educational & Counselling Psychology and Special Education Faculty of Education, University of British Columbia Email: xxxxxxxx@xxxx.xxx.xx Phone: xxxxxxxx (Chile) / (xxx) xxx-xxxx (Canada) Estimada Coordinadora de Práctica, Por favor lea esta carta cuidadosamente. Esta carta es una solicitud de su permiso para formar parte el estudio que estamos realizando con coordinadoras y supervisoras de práctica en varias universidades. Este proyecto forma parte del programa doctoral en Desarrollo Humano y Aprendizaje en la Universidad de British Columbia que Mariel Gomez se encuentra cursando. Si después de leer la carta, decide participar en el estudio, por favor firme una copia y entréguela a la entrevistadora al inicio de la entrevista. Guarde la otra copia para su registro personal. Propósito: El propósito de este estudio es ganar entendimiento sobre el fenómeno de supervisión en la educación inicial de educadoras de párvulo en Chile a través de identificar las distintas maneras en que la supervisión clínica de educadoras de párvulo en formación es experimentada y comprendida por las supervisoras de práctica. Las experiencias clínicas han sido identificadas como cruciales para fortalecer la formación docente debido a que estas ofrecen a los estudiantes un puente esencial entre las herramientas conceptuales adquiridas en las clases de la universidad y las realidades que ocurren en los contextos físicos y sociales de las escuelas. Sin embargo, a pesar del creciente reconocimiento sobre la importancia de las experiencias clínicas en la formación de profesores, la supervisión de práctica continúa siendo un recurso inutilizado y el trabajo de los supervisores de práctica ha sido poco estudiado. El presente estudio busca examinar la supervisión de educadoras de párvulo en formación desde la perspectiva de las supervisoras de práctica. 238 Ser parte de este estudio implica: 1. Si accede a formar parte de este estudio, usted participará en una entrevista cara a cara sobre las características de la práctica supervisada en su programa. 2. La entrevista se realizará en su lugar de trabajo en fecha y hora mutuamente acordada con la co-investigadora. La entrevista tendrá una duración de entre 50 y 90 minutos. 3. Si accede a formar parte de este estudio, se le pedirá responder un cuestionario breve (5 minutos) antes de comenzar la entrevista. 4. La co-investigadora tomará notas y la conversación será grabada si usted entrega su consentimiento al final de este formulario. La grabación será transcrita por la co-investigadora a continuación de la entrevista. 5. La información recabada durante la entrevista(s), incluyendo las notas y las transcripciones, será usada como datos en la tesis de la Sra. Gómez. Su identidad se mantendrá confidencial, sin embargo extractos o citas directas de la(s) entrevista(s) puede que sean usadas en forma anónima en el texto del capítulo correspondiente a los resultados. 6. Sólo la investigadors principal (Dra. Laurie Ford) y la co-investigadora (Mariel Gómez) tendrán acceso a la información recabada durante la entrevista. Ninguna informacion ni identidad de las participantes sera reportada en reporte alguno sobre este estudio. La informacion recolectada serán guardadas en un cabinete asegurado y todo documento electronico sera encriptado y protegido con clave en la oficina de las investigadoras. Computadores protegidos con clave y respaldadas en un estante con llave en la oficina de la Dra. Ford. Las unicas personas que tendran acceso a la informacion que nos brindas son las investigadoras a cargo de este estudio. 7. Dada la naturaleza de la investigación y el tipo de preguntas formuladas durante la entrevista, no se espera que usted experimente riesgo alguno o incomodidad como resultado de su participación. Sin embargo, usted tiene el derecho de retirarse de la entrevista en cualquier momento. 8. Además de participar en una entrevista cara a cara, como coordinadora de práctica se le pedirá que informe sobre este estudio a las supervisoras de práctica en su equipo, solicitándoles su consentimiento para ser contactadas por la co-investigadora. 239 9. Una vez que los resultados del estudio estén disponibles, te contactaremos para consultarte si deseas recibir un resumen de los resultados. Contacto para más información sobre este estudio: • Si usted tiene alguna pregunta o desea más información sobre este proyecto, puede contactar a Dr. Laurie Ford o Mariel Gómez por email o teléfono indicado comienzo de esta carta. Contacto para dudas sobre los derechos de los participantes de la investigación: • Si usted tiene alguna preocupación sobre el trato que se la da o sobre sus derechos como participante de la investigación, puede llamar gratuitamente a la Línea Informativa para Sujetos de Investigación en la Oficina de Servicios de Investigación de la Universidad de British Columbia al 1-877-822-8598 o enviar un email a RSIL@ors.ubc.ca. Consentimiento: Su participación en este proyecto de investigación es enteramente voluntaria y usted puede rehusar participar o retirarse del proyecto en cualquier momento. Su firma más abajo indica que usted accede a participar en este proyecto de investigación. El firmar significa también que usted ha recibido una copia de este formulario de consentimiento (páginas 1, 2 y 3) para su registro personal. Por favor marque según corresponda: ____ Sí, deseo participar en este estudio y autorizo a las supervisoras de práctica de mi equipo a participar en este estudio si ellas lo desean. SI MARCÓ “SI” ARRIBA ____ Sí, autorizo que la entrevista sea grabada. ____ No, no autorizo que la entrevista sea grabada. ________________________________ Nombre (letra imprenta) ________________________________________________________________________ Firma Fecha 240 Appendix H Faculty Supervisor Consent Form Supervisors' Conceptions of Supervision of Teacher Candidates in Early Childhood Teacher Education Programs in Chile. Faculty Supervisor Consent Principal Investigator: Laurie Ford, PhD, Department of Educational & Counselling Psychology and Special Education, Faculty of Education, University of British Columbia Email: xxxxx.xxxx@xxx.xx Phone: xxx-xxx-xxxx Co-Investigator: Mariel Gomez, PhD candidate, Department of Educational & Counselling Psychology and Special Education Faculty of Education, University of British Columbia Email: xxxxxxxx@xxxx.xxx.xx Phone: xxxxxxxx (Chile) / (xxx) xxx-xxxx (Canada) Dear Faculty Supervisor, Please read the following letter carefully. This is a request for you to take part in the study we are doing with practicum coordinators and faculty supervisors at several universities. This project is a part of a doctoral degree in Human Development and Learning at the University of British Columbia for Ms. Gomez. If after reading the letter, you would like to take part in the study, please sign one copy and give to the interviewer at the interview session. Keep the other copy for your own records. Purpose: The purpose of this study is to gain insight into the phenomenon of supervision in Chilean early childhood (EC) teacher education programs by identifying the different ways in which clinical supervision of EC teacher candidates is experienced and understood by faculty supervisors. Clinical experiences have been identified as crucial to strengthen teacher education because they offer students an essential bridge between the conceptual tools gained in a university classroom and the realities that occur in the social and physical context of schools. However, despite the growing recognition of the importance of clinical experiences on teachers’ preparation, supervision of practicum remains an underutilized resource in teacher education and the work of faculty supervisors is still understudied. This study aims to address this research gap by examining the supervision of EC teacher candidates from the point of view of faculty supervisors. 241 Taking Part in our Study Means: 1. If you agree to take part in our study, you will participate in a one-on-one interview about your experience and understanding of supervision during practicum. 2. The interview will take place at your workplace at a date and time that works for both you and the researcher. 3. If you agree to take part in the study, we will ask you to answer a brief (5 minutes) background questionnaire following the interview. 4. The interview will take approximately 50 to 90 minutes. We might ask if you would like to take part in a follow up interview. If so, we will decide that at the end of the first interview. 5. The researcher will take notes and the conversation will be audio recorded if you give your consent to do so. The audio recording will be transcribed by the researcher after the interview. 6. The information gathered during the interview(s), including the interview notes and transcripts, will be used as data in Ms. Gomez’s thesis. Your identity will remain confidential, but excerpts and/or direct quotes from the interview(s) may be used anonymously in the text of the thesis’s results chapter. 7. Only the Principal Investigator (Dr. Laurie Ford) and the co-investigator (Mariel Gomez) will have access to the information gathered through the interview(s). No individual information will be reported and no participant identified by name in any reports about the study. The information collected will be stored in a locked filing cabinet and any electronic files will be password protected and encrypted at the university office of the researchers. The only people who will have access to the information you give us are the researchers working on this study. 8. Given the nature of the research and questions posed during the interview, it is not expected that you will experience significant discomfort during the process or risks as a result of your participation. Nonetheless, you have the right to withdraw from the interview at any time. 242 9. Once the results of the project are available, we will contact you to ask you if you would like to receive a summary of the findings. Contact for information about the study: • If you have any questions or desire further information about this project you may contact Dr. Laurie Ford or Mariel Gomez at the email or phone number at the top of this page. Contact for concerns about the rights of research participants: • If you have any concerns about your rights as a research participant and/or your experiences while participating in this study, contact the Research Participant Complaint Line in the UBC Office of Research Ethics at 604-822-8598 or if long distance e-mail RSIL@ors.ubc.ca or call toll free 1-877-822-8598. Consent to participate in this Research Project Your participation in this research project is entirely voluntary and you may refuse to participate or withdraw from the study at any time. Your signature below indicates that you consent to participate in this research project. When you sign below it also means that you have received a copy of this consent form (pages 1, 2 & 3) for your own records. Please check all that apply: ____ Yes, I consent to participate in this study. IF YES: ____ Yes, I give my consent for the interview to be audio-recorded. ____ No, I do give my consent for the interview to be audio-recorded. ________________________________ Your Name (Please Print) ____________________________________________________________ Your Signature Date 243 Concepciones sobre Supervisión de los Supervisores de Práctica en Carreras de Pedagogía de Educación Parvularia en Chile Consentimiento Supervisora de Práctica Investigadora Principal: Laurie Ford, PhD, Departamento de Psicología Educacional y Educación Especial Facultad de Educación, Universidad de British Columbia Email: xxxxxx.xxxx@xxx.xx Teléfono: xxx-xxx-xxxx Co-Investigadora: Mariel Gomez, candidata a doctora, Departamento de Psicología Educacional y Educación Especial Facultad de Educación, Universidad de British Columbia Email: xxxxxxxx@xxxx.xxx.xx Teléfono: xxxxxxxx (Chile) / (xxx) xxx-xxxx (Canadá) Estimada Supervisora de Práctica, Por favor lea esta carta cuidadosamente. Esta carta es una solicitud de su permiso para formar parte el estudio que estamos realizando con coordinadoras y supervisoras de práctica en varias universidades. Este proyecto forma parte del programa doctoral en Desarrollo Humano y Aprendizaje en la Universidad de British Columbia que Mariel Gomez se encuentra cursando. Si después de leer la carta, decide participar en el estudio, por favor firme una copia y entréguela a la entrevistadora al inicio de la entrevista. Guarde la otra copia para su registro personal. Propósito: El propósito de este estudio es ganar entendimiento sobre el fenómeno de supervisión en la educación inicial de educadoras de párvulo en Chile a través de identificar las distintas maneras en que la supervisión clínica de educadoras de párvulo en formación es experimentada y comprendida por las supervisoras de práctica. Las experiencias clínicas han sido identificadas como cruciales para fortalecer la formación docente debido a que estas ofrecen a los estudiantes un puente esencial entre las herramientas conceptuales adquiridas en las clases de la universidad y las realidades que ocurren en los contextos físicos y sociales de las escuelas. Sin embargo, a pesar del creciente reconocimiento sobre la importancia de las experiencias clínicas en la formación de profesores, la supervisión de práctica continúa siendo un recurso inutilizado y el trabajo de los supervisores de práctica ha sido poco estudiado. El presente estudio busca examinar la supervisión de educadoras de párvulo en formación desde la perspectiva de las supervisoras de práctica. 244 Ser parte de este estudio implica: 1. Si accede a formar parte de este estudio, usted participará en una entrevista cara a cara sobre su experiencia y concepciones sobre supervisión de práctica. 2. La entrevista se realizará en su lugar de trabajo en fecha y hora mutuamente acordada con la co-investigadora. 3. Si accede a formar parte de este estudio, se le pedirá responder un cuestionario breve (5 minutos) al final de la entrevista. 4. La entrevista tendrá una duración de entre 50 y 90 minutos. Es probable que se le pregunte si quisiera participar en una segunda entrevista de seguimiento. Esto se decidirá de mutuo acuerdo al final de la primera entrevista. 5. La co-investigadora tomará notas y la conversación será grabada si usted entrega su consentimiento al final de este formulario. La grabación será transcrita por la co-investigadora a continuación de la entrevista. 6. La información recabada durante la entrevista(s), incluyendo las notas y las transcripciones, será usada como datos en la tesis de la Sra. Mariel Gómez. Su identidad se mantendrá confidencial, sin embargo extractos o citas directas de la(s) entrevista(s) puede que sean usadas en forma anónima en el texto del capítulo correspondiente a los resultados. 7. Sólo la investigadors principal (Dra. Laurie Ford) y la co-investigadora (Mariel Gómez) tendrán acceso a la información recabada durante la entrevista. Ninguna informacion ni identidad de las participantes sera reportada en reporte alguno sobre este estudio. La informacion recolectada serán guardadas en un cabinete asegurado y todo documento electronico sera encriptado y protegido con clave en la oficina de las investigadoras. Las unicas personas que tendran acceso a la informacion que nos brindas son las investigadoras a cargo de este estudio. 8. Dada la naturaleza de la investigación y el tipo de preguntas formuladas durante la entrevista, no se espera que usted experimente riesgo alguno o incomodidad como resultado de su participación. Sin embargo, usted tiene el derecho de retirarse de la entrevista en cualquier momento. 245 9. Una vez que los resultados del estudio estén disponibles, te contactaremos para consultarte si deseas recibir un resumen de los resultados. Contacto para más información sobre este estudio: • Si usted tiene alguna pregunta o desea más información sobre este proyecto, puede contactar a Dr. Laurie Ford o Mariel Gómez por email o teléfono indicado comienzo de esta carta. Contacto para dudas sobre los derechos de los participantes de la investigación: • Si usted tiene alguna preocupación sobre el trato que se la da o sobre sus derechos como participante de la investigación, puede llamar gratuitamente a la Línea Informativa para Sujetos de Investigación en la Oficina de Servicios de Investigación de la Universidad de British Columbia al 1-877-822-8598 o enviar un email a RSIL@ors.ubc.ca. Consentimiento: Su participación en este proyecto de investigación es enteramente voluntaria y usted puede rehusar participar o retirarse del proyecto en cualquier momento. Su firma más abajo indica que usted accede a participar en este proyecto de investigación. El firmar significa también que usted ha recibido una copia de este formulario de consentimiento (páginas 1, 2 y 3) para su registro personal. Por favor marque según corresponda: ____ Sí, deseo participar en este estudio. SI MARCÓ “SI” ARRIBA ____ Sí, autorizo que la entrevista sea grabada. ____ No, no autorizo que la entrevista sea grabada. _______________________________ Nombre (letra imprenta) ________________________________________________________________________ Firma Fecha 246 Appendix I University Supervisor Interview Protocol 1. What does supervision mean to you? What is “to supervise”? 2. Does supervision change depending on who you work with? What remains the same? What needs readjustments? 3. How would you describe your role as a supervisor? How is it different from the role of supervisee? 4. How would you describe the nature of the relationship between supervisor and supervisee? 5. How do you know when you are performing your role as supervisor well? 6. Tell me about a time in your work with students when you experienced of supervision was fruitful (an episode or anecdote that is a good example of a substantial and meaningful supervisory process) 7. Tell me about a time in your work with students when the process of supervision did not fulfill its purpose. 8. Tell me an analogy or a metaphor you would use to describe the supervisory process. 9. Has your view about supervision changed over time? In which ways? 10. What kind of knowledge or experiences would you identify as the main sources influencing your practice as a supervisor? 247 Protocolo de Entrevista Supervisora de Práctica 1. ¿Que significa “supervisión”? ¿Que es “supervisar”? 2. ¿Cambia la supervisión dependiendo de a quien supervisas? ¿Que se mantiene igual? ¿Que cambia y necesita ajustes? 3. ¿Cómo describirías tu rol como supervisora? ¿De que manera es diferente del rol de supervisada/do? 4. ¿Cómo describirías la naturaleza de la relación entre supervisora y supervisada? 5. ¿Cómo sabes cuando estas realizando bien tu rol como supervisora? 6. Cuéntame acerca de alguna vez en que tu experiencia de supervisión fue fructífera (un episodio o una anécdota que es u buen ejemplo de un proceso de supervisión fructífero y sustantivo). 7. Cuéntame acerca de alguna vez en que el proceso de supervisión no fue fructífero, no cumplió su propósito. 8. Dime una analogía o metáfora que usarías para describir el proceso de supervisión. 9. ¿Ha cambiado tu visión (entendimiento) acerca de la supervisión con el tiempo? ¿De que manera? 10. ¿Qué clase de conocimiento o experiencias identificarías como fuentes principales influenciando tu práctica como supervisora? 248 Appendix J Practicum Coordinador Interview Protocol 1) How is practicum defined at this program? 2) What kind of activities does the practicum entail? 3) Tell me about what your work as a practicum coordinator involves 4) What is the role of supervision during the practicum of teacher candidates? 5) What is expected from supervisors? 6) Please describe the job supervisors do with teacher candidates. What does the supervisory process entail? 7) What are the requirements to be employed as a supervisor in this program? 8) Who is responsible for selecting supervisors employed at this program? 9) What kind of support (if any) do supervisors receive—during regular working hours—from the program to do their job (e.g., ongoing professional development, learning communities’ meetings)? 10) Is supervisors’ work evaluated? ___Yes ___No If yes, how is it evaluated and who is responsible for doing so? 11) In your opinion, what are the major challenges of being a supervisor? 12) In your opinion, what are the main satisfactions of being a supervisor? 13) What are the main strengths of supervision of teacher candidates as currently practiced? 14) What are the main limitations of supervision of teacher candidates as currently practiced? 15) Imagine you have unlimited resources to invest in the teacher education program. Is there anything that you would change regarding supervision of teacher candidates? 249 Protocolo de Entrevista Coordinadora de Práctica 1) ¿Como se define la práctica en este programa? 2) ¿Qué clase de actividades involucra la práctica? 3) Cuéntame acerca de lo que involucra tu trabajo como coordinadora de práctica. 4) ¿Cual es el rol de la supervisión durante la práctica profesional de las educadoras en formación? 5) ¿Cuales son las expectativas del trabajo de las supervisoras de práctica? 6) Por favor describe el trabajo que las supervisoras de práctica realizan con las educadoras en formación. ¿Que involucra el proceso de supervisión? 7) ¿Cuales son los requisitos para ser contratada como supervisora de práctica en este programa? 8) ¿Quién es responsable de seleccionar las supervisoras que entran a trabajar al programa? 9) ¿Que clase de apoyo (si aplica) reciben las supervisoras—durante horario laboral—para realizar su trabajo (ej. desarrollo profesional continuo, comunidades de aprendizaje)? 10) ¿Existe evaluación del trabajo de las supervisoras de práctica? ___Si ___No Si existe evaluación, ¿como se evalúa y quien es responsable de hacerlo? 11) Según su visión, ¿Cuales son los mayores desafíos que enfrentan las supervisoras? 12) Según su visión, ¿Cuales son las principales satisfacciones que tienen las supervisoras? 13) ¿Cuáles te parece que son las principales fortalezas de la supervisión de educadoras en formación que se implementa actualmente? 14) ¿Cuáles te parece que son las principales limitaciones de la supervisión de educadoras en formación que se implementa actualmente? 15) Imagina que cuentas con recursos ilimitados para invertir en este programa de formación de educadoras de párvulo. ¿Qué cosas (si alguna) cambiarias respecto de la supervisión de prácticas? 250 Appendix K University Supervisor Background Questionnaire Dear Colleague, We appreciate your taking a moment to complete this questionnaire. Its purpose is to gather background information about your work. The information collected will add to a body of data gathered from other supervisors at this and other institutions, and together will help to better understand the nature of supervisors’ work. The responses will also complement the interview component of our study. Your identity will remain confidential, but the answers will be used anonymously in the aggregated final report of the study. Please write your age: ________________________ Please circle your gender Female Male Other What is your highest educational degree? __ Bachelor degree __ Master degree __ Doctoral degree How many years have you worked as a supervisor (counting all institution you have worked for)? ……………………………………………………………………………………………. How many years have you worked as a supervisor at this institution? ……………………………………………………………………………………………. Is there any specific theory or model that you are currently using to inform your practice as a supervisor? ___Yes ___No If Yes, please name it or briefly describe it. ……………………………………………………………………………………………… 251 How many years have you worked as a teacher in the classroom (if any)? ……………………………………………………………………………………………… Do you hold any other position at this program apart from supervisor? ___Yes ___No If yes, what other position do you have in this program? ……………………………………………………………………………………………… Do you work as a supervisor or in other capacity at other institutions? ___Yes ___No If yes, please specify your role at other institutions ……………………………………………………………………………………………… How many teacher candidates have you supervised in total in your career as supervisor? ……………………………………………………………………………………………… How many teacher candidates do you currently supervise at this institution? ……………………………………………………………………………………………… How many teacher candidates do you currently supervise in total (at this and other institutions)? ……………………………………………………………………………………………… The term supervisor is commonly used to name the professionals that guide teacher candidates during their practicum, but other terms are also used to refer to their role. Using the scale below grade each term. ___Supervisor 252 ___Mentor ___Tutor ___Guide ___Colleague ___Other (Specify _________________________) Use this scale to grade each term: 1: Term is inadequate or erroneous, it does not capture the meaning of the role. 2: Term is adequate but could be better. 3: This is a good term; it captures the meaning of the role well. 4: This is an excellent term for the role. 253 Cuestionario para Supervisora de Práctica Estimada Colega, Apreciamos que tome un momento para completar este cuestionario. El propósito de este es recolectar información contextual acerca de su trabajo y las características de la práctica supervisada en su programa. La información recolectada se sumará a un cuerpo de datos recolectados en otros programas de formación de educadoras de párvulos. En conjunto, estos datos ayudaran a sistematizar el conocimiento de actuales prácticas de supervisión en la formación inicial de las educadoras de párvulo. Su identidad permanecerá confidencial, pero las respuestas serán usadas anónimamente en un reporte final agregado del estudio. Por favor escriba su edad: ________________ Por favor encierre en un círculo su género: Femenino Masculino Otro ¿Cuál es su grado académico mas alto? __ Licenciatura __ Máster __ Doctorado ¿Cuántos anos ha trabajo como supervisora de práctica (contando todas las instituciones en las que ha trabajado)? ……………………………………………………………………………………………. ¿Cuántos anos ha trabajado como supervisora en esta institución? ……………………………………………………………………………………………. ¿Hay alguna teoría, modelo o tipo de supervisión adoptado por su programa? ___Si ___No Si hay, por favor nómbrela o descríbala: ……………………………………………………………………………………………… 254 ¿Cuantos anos ha trabajado (si es que aplica a su caso) como profesora en la sala de clases? ……………………………………………………………………………………………… ¿Tiene algún otro cargo en este programa aparte de supervisora de práctica? ___Si ___No Si tiene otro cargo, ¿cuál es este? ……………………………………………………………………………………………… ¿Trabaja como supervisor o en otro rol en alguna otra institución? ___Si ___No Si respondió afirmativamente, por favor especifique otros cargos o roles que cumple en otras instituciones: ……………………………………………………………………………………………… ¿Cuantas educadoras en formación ha supervisado en total durante su trayectoria como supervisora? ……………………………………………………………………………………………… ¿Cuantas educadoras en formación supervisa actualmente en esta institución? ……………………………………………………………………………………………… ¿Cuantas educadoras en formación supervisa actualmente en total (en esta y otras instituciones) ……………………………………………………………………………………………… El término “supervisora” es comúnmente usado para referirse a las profesionales que guían a las profesoras/es en formación durante su práctica, pero otros términos también han sido usados para referirse a este rol. Por favor evalúe cada uno de los siguientes términos usando la escala sugerida mas abajo: ___ Supervisor/a 255 ___ Mentor/a ___ Tutor/a ___ Guía ___ Colega ___ Otro. (Especifique_________________) Use esta escala para evaluar cada término: 1: Término inadecuado o erróneo, no captura bien el significado del rol 2: Término adecuado, pero podría ser mejor. 3: Buen término, captura bien el significado del rol 4: Excelente término 256 Appendix L Practicum Coordinator Questionnaire Dear Colleague, We appreciate your taking a moment to complete this questionnaire. Its purpose is to gather background information about your work and the characteristics of supervised practiced at your teacher education program. The information collected will add to a body of data gathered in other teacher education programs, and together, will help to systematize knowledge of current practices of supervised practicum in pre-service early childhood teachers’ education. Your identity will remain confidential, but the answers will be used anonymously in the aggregated final report of the study. 1) Please write your age: ________________________ 2) Please circle your gender Female Male Other 3) What is your highest educational degree? __ Bachelor degree __ Master degree __ Doctoral degree 4) How many years have you worked in your current position? ……………………………………………………………………………………………… 5) How many practicum supervisors currently work in your program? ……………………………………………………………………………………………… 6) How many hours per month do practicum supervisors typically invest in supervising one student (including all supervision related activities: meeting the student at the university, visiting practicum sites, providing feedback, etc.)? ……………………………………………………………………………………………… 7) How often do practicum supervisors observe students at their practicum site? 257 ……………………………………………………………………………………………… 8) Is there any specific theory, model or type of supervision adopted/encouraged by the program where you currently work? ___Yes ___No If yes, please specify. ……………………………………………………………………………………………… 9) Who chooses the practicum sites assigned to teacher candidates? (mark all that apply) ___Teacher candidates ___Head of program ___Practicum coordinator ___Other. Please specify……………………………………. 10) Who chooses the supervisors assigned to teacher candidates? (mark all that apply) ___Teacher candidates ___Head of program ___Practicum coordinator ___Other. Please specify……………………………………. 11) How many practicum sites do teacher candidates typically engage with during their program? ……………………………………………………………………………………………. 12) How many months does the professional practicum last? ……………………………………………………………………………………………. 13) How many hours per week are teacher candidates required to be at practicum sites during their professional practicum? ……………………………………………………………………………………………. 14) How many times per month do teacher candidates meet with their supervisors during their professional practicum? 258 Cuestionario Coordinadora de Práctica Estimada Colega, Apreciamos que tome un momento para completar este cuestionario. Su propósito es recolectar información contextual cerca de su trabajo y las características de la práctica supervisada en su programa. La información recolectada se sumará a un cuerpo de datos recolectados a otros programas de formación de educadoras de párvulos. En conjunto, estos datos ayudaran a sistematizar el conocimiento de actuales prácticas de supervisión en la formación inicial de las educadoras de párvulo. Su identidad permanecerá confidencial, pero las respuestas serán usadas anónimamente in un reporte final agregado del estudio. 1) Por favor escribe tu edad: _________________ 2) Por favor encierra en un circulo tu genero: Female Male Other 3) ¿Cuál es su grado académico mas alto? __ Licenciatura __ Master __ Doctorado 4) ¿Cuantos años ha trabajado como coordinadora de práctica? ……………………………………………………………………………………………… 5) ¿Cuantas supervisoras de práctica trabajan actualmente en tu programa? ……………………………………………………………………………………………… 6) ¿Cuantas horas al mes invierten usualmente las supervisoras de práctica en supervisar una/un estudiante (incluyendo todas las actividades ligadas a la supervisión tales como reunirse con la/el estudiante en la universidad, visitar centros de práctica, proveer retroalimentación, etc.? ……………………………………………………………………………………………… 259 7) ¿Cuan frecuentemente una estudiante en práctica es visitada por su supervisora en el centro de práctica? ……………………………………………………………………………………………… 8) ¿Hay alguna teoría, modelo o tipo de supervisión adoptado por tu programa? ___Si ___No Si hay, por favor especifique: ……………………………………………………………………………………………… 9) ¿Quien elige los centros de práctica asignados a las educadoras en formación? (marque todas las alternativas que apliquen) ___ Las educadoras en formación ___ La jefa de carrera ___ La coordinadora de práctica ___ Otro. Por favor especifique ……………………………………. 10) ¿Quien elige las supervisoras asignadas a las educadoras en formación? (marque todas las alternativas que apliquen) ___ Las educadoras en formación ___ La jefa de carrera ___ La coordinadora de práctica ___ Otro. Por favor especifique ……………………………………. 11) ¿En cuantos centros de práctica aproximadamente participan las educadoras en formación durante su programa? ……………………………………………………………………………………………. 12) ¿Cuantos meses dura la práctica profesional de las educadoras en formación? ……………………………………………………………………………………………. 260 13) ¿Cuantas horas a la semana se les requiere estar a las educadoras en los centros de práctica durante su práctica profesional? ……………………………………………………………………………………………. 14) ¿Cuántas veces al mes se reúnen las educadoras en formación con sus supervisoras de práctica durante la práctica profesional? …………………………………………………………………………………………….
Thesis/Dissertation
eng
Human Development, Learning, and Culture
Vancouver : University of British Columbia Library
Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International
Graduate
Ford, Laurie
University supervisors’ conceptions of supervision at early childhood teacher education programs in Chile
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