CONTENTdm
British North America
British Columbia Historical Books Collection
Religious Tract Society (Great Britain)
"Written to present the history, condition, and prospects of British North America." -- Lowther, B. J., & Laing, M. (1968). A bibliography of British Columbia: Laying the foundations, 1849-1899. Victoria, BC: University of Victoria, p. 27.
viii, 370, 6 pages : advertisements, maps (some folded), tables ; 18 cm
application/pdf
BRITISH NORTH AMERICA: COMPRISING: CANADA, BRITISH CENTRAL NORTH AMERICA, BRITISH COLUMBIA, VANCOUVER'S ISLAND, NOVA SCOTIA AND CAPE BRETON, NEW BRUNSWICK, PRINCE EDWARD'S ISLAND, NEWFOUNDLAND AND LABRADOR. LONDON: THE RELIGIOUS TRACT SOCIETY, 56, Paternoster Row; 65, St. Paul's Chuechyaed ; and 164, Piccadilly. PREFACE. The design of the present volume is to give, in a compendious form, accurate and trustworthy information respecting the history, condition, and prospects of British North America. The writer has resided in more than one of the provinces which compose that vast territory, and he has enjoyed special advantages for making himself acquainted with the progress and present condition of those which he has not visited. Where he has had to rely upon documentary evidence, he has drawn his information from the best available sources; such as the invaluable series of "Blue Books" issued by the Canadian Government, the official records and surveys of the various exploring expeditions organized by the colonial authorities, and the despatches and papers laid before the Houses of Parliament by the Home Government. It is hoped that the readers of the following pages will bear in mind the object of the volume. Those who read merely for amusement may find some of the statistical information dry and tedious, may think some of the details unimportant, some of the incidents trivial; but it should be remembered that a more accurate and precise knowledge of the condition of a country can be communicated by the statement PREFACE. of a few specific facts than by pages of general description. To those who are especially interested in the colonies, either because theix friends have gone thither, or because they purpose to do so themselves, what can be more important than to know something of the soil, climate, physical geography, natural productions, population, and tenure of land in the hew home of themselves or their friends ? "Upon all these points ample information is given. British America is daily growing in value and importance to the mother-country. The progress of Canada in. population and material "prosperity, the opening up to settlement of the fertile regions of the North-west territory, the discovery of gold in British Columbia, the development of the resources of all those colonies, and the construction of a great highway, through them, from the Atlantic to the Pacific, can scarcely fail to exercise an immense influence on the future progress of the British empire. A sketch of the steps by which these colonies have risen to their present position of prosperity and promise, will interest all who are concerned to trace the growth of our national greatness. Those who delight to discern the hand of God in history will find abundant indications of providential guidance in the course of events here narrated. May gratitude for past mercies prompt our countrymen to a deeper sense of duty and responsibility! May Englishmen never "righteousness exalteth a nation, but sin is a reproach to any people." CONTENTS. ijnaoBTTCnoK PAGB . 1 CHiLPTER I. - DISCOTERY OF BRITISH AMERICA. The Norsemen—Join Cabot—Cortereal—French explorations—Jacques Cartier—Erobisher, Gilbert, and other English discoverers—Spanish voyages along the western coast of North America—Captain Cook— Dates of various British settlements in North America . . CHAPTER IT. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY AND NATURAL NORTH AMERICA. HISTORY OP BRITISH Mountain chains—The Rocky Mountains and Sea Alps of California— Alleghanies—Blue Mountains—Water system of British North America—Bivers and their valleys—Extent and boundaries of British North America—Political divisions—Climate—The different seasons, vrith their aspects and occupations—Mineral treaaures—Wild animals —Birds—Fishes 24 CHAPTER HI. ABORIGINAL INHABITANTS OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. Various aboriginal races on the continent—Names of tribes on British territory—Diminution of their numbers from war and other causes- Manners, customs, and personal appearance of the aborigines— Their religious beliefs—Their dwellings, canoes, eto.—Missions among them—Striking address of converted Indian—Eliot—Brainerd . 43 CONTENTS. CHAPTER IT. CANADA. PAGE Its extent and boundaries—Physical geography of the province—Its mountains, lakes, and rivers—Public works of Canada: canals, railroads, and bridges 68 CHAPTER V. HISTORY OF CANADA. Early French settlements—Champlain—La Salle—The grandeur of his enterprises and their failure—Frontier wars—Wars with English colonists—Indian foes and allies—Montcalm—General Wolfe—Battle of Quebec—American War of Independence and War of 1812— Canadian rebellion—Its causes—Subsequent legislation . . .89 CHAPTER VI. TO-WNS, POPULATION, AND EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF CANADA. Chief towns of Canada: Quebec, Montreal, Three Rivers, Sherbrooke, Ottawa, Kingston, Toronto, Hamilton, London—Educational system of Canada—Universities, colleges, and schools—Religious statistics— Population—Influence of Protestantism and Catholicism on the population Ill CHAPTER VLT. OYERNMENT, PRODUCTIONS, .AND CLIMATE OF CANADA. Form of government—Taxation—Natural productions and manufactured articles — Agricultural statistics — Acquisition of land — Mineral wealth—Fisheries—Animals, wild and domestic—Climate—. Occupations and amusements of the Canadians—Advance of civilization 125 CHAPTER VIII. BRITISH CENTRAL NORTH AMERICA. Boundaries—Extent—Physical geography—The Fertile Belt—Early settlers—Various approaches—Water communications . . . 151 CHAPTER IX. CLIMATE AND NATURAL PRODUCTIONS OF BRITISH CENTRAL NORTH AMERICA. Climate—Fertility—Natural productions—Minerals and metals—Flora and Fauna—Agriculture—Illustrative incidents 169 CONTENTS. Vll CHAPTER X. EARLY SETTLEMENT OP BRITISH CENTRAL NORTH AMERICA. PAGB History and present state of the Red Biver or Selkirk settlement— Missionaries in the North-west territory—Early trials and sufferings- Results of their labours—Cases of usefulness—Missionary tour of the Bishop of Rupert's Land 192 CHAPTER .XI. TRAVELLING IN BRITISH CENTRAL NORTH AMERICA. Various modes of travelling—Transit from Canada to British Columbia —Cruise on Lake Winnipeg to Red River—The Great Highway from the Atlantic to the Pacific—Its vast importance—The means proposed for its accomplishment 219 CHAPTER XII. THE PUR TRADE AND THE HUDSON'S BAY COMP.ANY. The fur-bearing animals of British North America—The beaver— The marten—The bear and wolf—The wolvereen—The racoon- Origin of the fur trade—French Fur Company—The Hudson's Bay Company—Bitter rivalry between them—The North-west Company— Deadly feuds between the employes of the two companies—Lord Selkirk—Coalition of the two companies—Termination of the charter 238 CHAPTER XHL BUFF.ALOES AND BUFFALO HUNTING. Value of the buffalo to the Indians—Mode of hunting it—Numbers killed—Buffalo pound—Fondness of the buffalo cow for her calf— Perilous nature of the hunt 259 CHAPTER XTV. BRITISH COLUMBIA. Early history of British Columbia—Boundaries and extent—General aspect of the country—Principal rivers—The gold fields—Agricultural capabilities—Forests of valuable timber—Towns—Chinese settlers— The aboriginal tribes—Missions among them—Extracts from Blue Books respecting the natural productions of the country—Fisheries- Progress from 1859 to 1863 274 VANCOUVER S ISLAND. PAGE History—Physical aspects — Beauty of scenery—Nature of soil— Climate—Natural productions—Price of land—Agriculture—Advantages offered to small farmers—Progress 296 CHAPTER XVI. NOVA SCOTIA AND CAPE BRETON. Eastern provinces of British North America—Nova Scotia.—Its physical geography—Mineral wealth—Cape Breton—Soil and climate—The Magdalen Islands—Sable Island—History of Nova Scotia and Cape Breton—Population—Chief towns: Halifax, Pictou, etc. . . . 312 CHAPTER XVII. NEW BRUNSWICK. Its extent and boundaries—Division into counties—Principal towns— Numerous rivers and lakes—History—Government—Education- Natural productions—Climate and soil—Forests—Fisheries—Minerals —Flora and Fauna—Aborigines—Regulations for sale of land . . 328 CH.APTER XVIH. PRINCE EDWARD'S ISLAND. Favourable situation of Prince Edward's Island—General aspect— Division into counties—History of the colony—Schemes for its colonization—Disposed of by lottery—Government—Fisheries—Climate 339 CHAPTER XIX. NEWFOUNDLAND AND LABRADOR. Extent and general features—Harbours—St. John's—Occupation of inhabitants — Staple commodities — History — Early settlements— Revenue—Aborigines—Cod fishery—Seal catching—Description of Labrador—Population—Government—Value of exports . . . 345 Iitoex 363 BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. INTRODUCTION. I The chief end of man is to glorify God. No incense is so grateful to him as the worship of the beings he has formed. ".AIL nations whom thou hast made shall come and worship before thee, 0 Lord; and shall glorify thy name."* The Lord himself says of man, his noblest work, " I have created him for my glory," and, " whoso offereth praise glorifieth me."f But the barren waste, the uninhabited desert, cannot sing praises to his name. "God created it not in vain, he formed it to be inhabited."! All the works of God show forth his praise, all nature proclaims his glory; but it was given to man alone, " the minister and interpreter of nature," to give utterance to her silent language, and to declare with intelligent voice the glory of God in his works, offering the " sacrifice of praise, the fruit of his lips."§ But man has fallen from his high estate, and by nature knows not God, and glorifies him not as God. ".Multiply, and replenish the earth," was a command twice given to * Psa. lxxrvi. 9. Psa. 1. 23. t Isa- *lv. 18. § Heb. xiii. 15. B 2 BRITISH NORTH .AMERICA. Noah and his children; but as they wandered over the world they forgot God, and served false gods of their own invention. "From the regions over which the heathen Bavage roams, no prayer ascends, lawless violence reigns, God's image is dishonoured. It is only when man's nature is changed by Divine grace, and he is born again in the image of the "second Adam, the Lord from heaven," that he is once more called to be a " priest unto God," to offer spiritual sacrifices acceptable to God through Jesus Christ. Then a new command is given him: "Go ye into all the world, and preach the gospel to every creature." It is a noble and a glorious thing when men go forth from their country on such an errand. Colonization by Christian men, not by sordid and unscrupulous seekers for gain, or degraded outcasts, is one of the noblest undertakings in which a nation, or the individual members of a nation, can engage. This is a fair ideal; but how sadly does it contrast with what has been and what is. Perhaps the nearest approach to it in the world's history was when the Pilgrim Fathers sought on American shores freedom to worship God, and kneeling together when they first landed thanked God for their preservation, and resolved to devote themselves to his service, and to rule their new colony in accordance with his laws. What a striking contrast to this is the history of the Spanish colonies. The history of the conquests of the Spaniards in .America is a melancholy- record of injustice, tyranny, and savage cruelty, bringing in their train desolation, mourning, and woe. The condition of all the settlements planted by European countries under the sway of Home has rNTBODTJCnON. 3 been, and still is, such as to cause philanthropists as well as Christians to regret that these heathen lands were discovered by men calling themselves Christians, but who were a disgrace to that sacred name. Till England became a Protestant nation she acquired no colonies; her first settlements were planted after she had herself received the truth in its purity. And let us rejoice thatr notwithstanding all her faults and shortcomings, notwithstanding all the dark blots that disfigure th& history of her colonies, still Britain may claim the high honour, that wherever she has planted her standard,, wherever her sons have settled, they have carried with them the light of truth. In all the colonies of Britain there are just and equal laws, a mild government,, and true freedom. .Among those who have gone out with a merely selfish object, and the outcasts who have been sent against their will, • there have been ever mingled a band of noble workers, • earnestly labouring to advance the Lord's kingdom, who have carried with them that Bible which has made Britain greaiv to enlighten and civilize the most distant lands. Britain, from her insular position, her commercial and maritime habits, and being, too, the most central kingdom of the habitable world (standing as. it does in the centre of the terrestrial hemisphere), seems specially called to the work of colonization. Can it be a mere accident that she is, too, the most highly favoured of all countries, with the light and life of; Pevelation, the most signally privileged with the ability, the will, and the varied facilities for dispensing the blessings of the gospel among all nations ? Can it be without a reference to the grand designs of J| BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. providence and of grace, that to Britain, so circumstanced and endowed, an empire has been given on which the sun never sets ? Surely it is intended by God that the seed of the word should be sown by Britons in every one of the vast provinces under their rule. They are commissioned to "declare God's glory among the heathen, his marvellous works among all nations." Not solely on her wealth, her armies, or the enterprise of her citizens, does Britain's prosperity depend. Let her mission be forgotten, let God's command be neglected,—and her power, honour, and prosperity will vanish; she will become as one of the once proud nations of old, of whom not a trace remains, except the ruins which serve as a memorial and a warning. Who can tell how much of Britain's greatness is due to the silent working of her Bible, and Missionary, and Tract Societies, all. quietly carrying on the work given to the nation to do? In the following bird's-eye view of our American empire, we shall consider all the British possessions in that part of the globe as united, under one sovereign, by the ties of brotherhood, by identical interests, and by that intimate connection which an easy and constant communication should maintain between them. While it is hoped that all may find instruction and amusement in these pages, we especially wish to point out to intending emigrants the advantages which these colonies offer to those who wish to find a home abroad, and yet desire to retain the name and privileges of Englishmen, to live under British laws, with British rights, among countrymen ^J—-."!1^ & INTRODUCTION. 5 and friends, and, more than all, to enjoy the unfettered exercise of that free Protestant faith, Ion fought for and dearly won by our ancestors. In the following pages they will see how all these blessings may be secured, combined with advantages equal if not superior to those of other regions^ The temporal advantages of colonization are very great, both to the mother-country and to the individual colonist. Nations have neglected this outlet for their superabundant population, and have suffered for their error. A few political economists have laid down rules equally vain and futile to prevent its necessity, but, happily, seldom have- these theories gained the sympathy of Englishmen, and the tide of emigration has still flowed on. -Although Britain is territorially one of the smallest among the nations of Europe, yet, by the constant emigration of her. superabundant population of all classes, she has been free from the violent outbreaks and disorders from which other nations have so fearfully suffered; while happy communities have sprung up all over the globe, speaking her language, professing her pure religion, and enjoying the benefit of her laws. These communities form the best customers for her numerous manufactures, upon which her national prosperity so greatly depends. Settlers in our own colonies must not be considered aliens and strangers, as was once the case. Instead of being severed from or useless to the mother- country, the colonist becomes much more useful than before. The man who, at home, would not have spent two pounds a-year on British manufactures, will, when a thriving settler, purchase goods from BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. this country to the value of fifty or even a hundred pounds during the same period. By thus adding to the wealth of the mother-country, our colonists contribute largely to the internal peace and wonderful prosperity we enjoy. But in order that our colonies and our colonists may prosper, none should emigrate who are by nature or education unfitted for it, or who are ignorant of the country to which they are going, the difficulties which they may have to encounter, and the benefits which they may hope to gain. This work is designed to supply accurate information on those subjects with which it is desirable that intending emigrants should be made acquainted. It is worthy of remark, that the quaint advice -given in an old book. addressed by one of the early colonists of America to his fellow-countrymen, is still as applicable as ever to the colonists of the present day. The passage is quoted as a valuable counsel to emigrants respecting what they ought to expect, and for what they have to prepare. After enumerating the advantages of the colony, and its productiveness, the author continues :*— " I will not again speak of the abundance of fowl, store of venison, and variety of fish, in their seasons, which might encourage many to go in their persons. Only I advise all such beforehand to consider, that as they hear of countries that abound with the good creatures of God, so means must be used for the ■taking of every one in his kind, and therefore not only to content themselves that there is sufficient, but to foresee how they shall be able to obtain the same. * Winslow's " Good Newes from New England." INTRODUCTION. 7 Otherwise, as he that walketh London streets, though he be in the midst of plenty, yet if he want means, is not the better, but hath rather his sorrow increased by the sight of that he wanteth and cannot enjoy it, so also there, if thou want art and other necessaries thereunto belonging, thou mayest see that thou. wantest and thy heart desireth, and yet be never the better for the same Some there be that, thinking altogether of their present wants, the supply of which they enjoy here, and not dreaming of any there, through indiseretion plunge themselves into a deeper sea of misery " I write not these things to dissuade any that shall seriously, upon due examination, set themselves to farther the glory of God, and the honour of our Country, in so worthy an enterprise, but rather to discourage such as with too great lightness undertake such courses; who peradventure strain themselves and their friends for their passage thither, and are no sooner there than, seeing their foolish imagination made void, are at their wits' end, and would give ten times so much for their return, if they could procure it; and out of such discontented passions and humours spare not to lay that imputation upon the country, and others, which themselves deserve. " As, for example, I have heard some complain of others for their large reports of New England, and yet because they must drink water and want many delicates they here enjoyed, could presently return with their mouths full of clamours. And can any be so simple as to conceive that the fountain should stream forth wine or beer, or the woods and rivers 8 BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. be like butchers' shops or fishmongers' stalls; where they might have things taken to their hands ? If thou canst not live without such things, and hast no means to procure the one, and wilt not take pains for the other, nor hast ability to employ others for thee, rest where thou art; for as a proud heart, a dainty tooth, a beggar's purse, and an idle hand be here intolerable, so that person that hath these qualities there, is much more abominable. If, therefore, God hath given thee a heart to undertake such courses, upon such grounds as bear thee out in all difficulties, viz., his glory as a principal, and all other outward good things hut as accessaries, which peradventure thou shalt enjoy, and it may be not, then thou wilt, with true comfort and thankfulness, receive the least of his mercies; whereas, on the contrary, men deprive themselves of much happiness, being senseless of greater blessings, and through prejudice smother up the love and bounty of God; whose name be ever glorified in us, and by us, now and evermore. Amen." CHAPTER I. DISCOVERY OF BRITISH .AMERICA. The Norsemen—John Cabot—Cortereal—French explorations—Jacques Cartier—Frobisher, Gilbert, and other English discoverers—Spanish voyages along the western coast of North America.—Captain Cook- Dates of various British settlements in North America. Nearly five hundred years before Columbus sailed from Palos, the American continent had been discovered by the Scandinavians who settled in Greenland. About the year 1001, Biorn, the master of a vessel trading between Norway and Iceland, was driven out of his course by a storm, and discovered the coast of North America, which he named Yinland. There the Scandinavians attempted to form settlements, but, having quarrelled with the natives, were obliged to abandon the attempt, and confine themselves to their colony in Greenland. Nothing more was known of the widely-extending territories subsequently possessed by Great Britain in America until the year 1497, when John Cabot, under a commission from Henry vii., landed on its shores only four years after Columbus had reached the West Indies, and nearly twelve months before that celebrated navigator had touched at any part of the continent. Erom this early expedition may be dated both the .Arctic explorations and the II BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. maritime greatness of England. King Henry vn. bitterly regretted the unfortunate hesitation that had lost him Columbus, and gladly availed himself of the services of the Venetian navigator, then resident in Bristol. This old man, Giovanni Gabota, or John Cabot, had a reputation for bold and skilful seamanship, second only to Columbus himself. Henry granted to him and his three sons a patent of discovery, dated 5th March, 1496, and commissioned them to search for a North-west passage to the East Indies and Clhina. In June, 1497, the adventurers discovered the coasts of Labrador and Newfoundland. The most authentic account of the expedition was inscribed in Latin, by Sebastian Cabot's directions, on a map of the coasts discovered, of which the following is a translation:— I In the year of our Lord 1497, John Cabot, a Venetian, and his son Sebastian, discovered that country which no one before his time had ventured to approach, on the 24th of June, about five o'clock in the morning. He called the land Terra Primum Visa, because, as I conjecture, this was the place that first met his eyes on looking from the sea. On the contrary, the island that lies opposite the land he called the Island of St. John, as, I suppose, because it was discovered on the festival of St. John. The inhabitants wear beasts' skins and the intestines of animals for clothing, esteeming them as highly as we do our most precious garments. In war, their weapons are the bow and arrows, spears, darts, slings, and wooden clubs. The country is sterile and uncultivated, producing no fruit, from which efrcum- SEBASTIAN CABOT—CORTEREAL. 11 stance it happens that it is crowded with white bears and stags of an unusual height and size. It yields plenty of fish, and these very large, such as seals and Balmon; but especially groat abundance of that kind of fish called, in the vulgar tongue, baccalaos (codfish). In the same island also breed hawks, so black in their colour that they wonderfully resemble ravens; besides which there are partridges and eagles of dark plumage." The name of the first English ship that touched American soil was the Matthewr, of Bristol. The names of two of the crew were Master Thorne, and Hugh Eliot, " a merchant of Bristowe." This is all that is known of the first expedition in search of a North-west channel of communication with India and China. In the following year Sebastian, son of the first discoverer, undertook a more extensive exploratory voyage along the greater part of the eastern coast, from latitude 56° or 58° north, and south as far as Florida. The same eminent seaman took part in another expedition in the year 1517, when it is believed that he penetrated into Hudson's Straits, but his maps and papers have been totally lost. In the year 1500, Caspar Cortcreal having obtained two vessels from the King of Portugal, sailed to the coast of Am erica. Respecting the details of this voyage there remain only detached notices. It is supposed that he reached the American coast on the northern shore of Newfoundland, where he found a bay containing numerous islands, which he called the Golfo Quadrado, conjectured to be the Straits of Belleisle. He then steered north- L 12 BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. wards, and passed along a coast, marked in old maps Corterealis, but now called Labrador. It is. said to have received this name from the character given by Cortereal of the natives, that they were lavradores—very laborious. After a run along the coast, estimated at about seven hundred miles, the approach of the Polar winter compelled Cortereal to return to Lisbon. Proud of his success, he started the next year with two ships to complete his discovery. Only one returned. The second, which had on board the gallant leader of the expedition, disappeared in a storm, and no intelligence could ever be obtained of its fate. When these gloomy tidings reached Portugal, Miguel Cortereal, the younger brother of Gaspar, sailed in search of him, but shared the fate of those whom he had gone to seek. A third brother, Vasco, wished to undertake a search for his lost brothers, but was forbidden by the king, who dreaded a further loss of life. Spain was too much occupied in taking possession of the rich provinces she had acquired in the southern part of America to send many expeditions to the dreary North. Only one voyage is mentioned, which was undertaken by Gomez in the year 1524. He is understood to have touched at Newfoundland; sailed along the coast of New England as far as lat. 40° n., and, after a voyage of ten months, returned home without making any material addition to the information collected by the Cabots. The Erench monarch, Erancis I., caught the enthusiasm for maritime discovery. Anxious to share with Spain and Portugal the rich territories of the new world, he fitted out a squadron of four FRENCH ENTERPRISE—CARTEER. 13 ships, in the year 1524, the command of which he entrusted to Giovanni Verazzano, a Florentine navigator. He discovered Florida, and sailed along the coast of North .America as far as lat. 50° n., giving to the country the name of " La Nowoelle France." Having completed the survey of a line of coast extending for seven hundred leagues, and embracing the whole of the United States, together with a large portion of British America, he returned to France, and laid before the king a plan for establishing a colony. He appears to have met with encouragement from Francis i., and was sent out in command of another expedition. Having landed incautiously on the American coast, he and his party were surrounded and cut to pieces by the savages, and no further expedition was undertaken by France for some time. At length, after an interval of ten years, Jacques Cartier, a native of St. Malo, was commissioned to conduct a voyage to Newfoundland. He left St. Malo with two small vessels on the 20th of April, 1534, and reached Newfoundland on the 20th of May. After having almost circumnavigated Newfoundland, he proceeded up the Gulf of St. Lawrence as far as a spot to which he gave the name of the Bay of Chaleur, on account of the great heat which he there experienced. His description of the country audits inhabitants is interesting. "Taking our way," says he, " along the coast, we came in sight of the savages, who stood on the borders of a lake in the low grounds, where they had lighted their fires, which raised a great smoke. We went towards them, and found that an arm of the sea ran into the lake, into which we 14 BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. pushed with our boats. Upon this the savages approached in one of their little barks, bringing along with them pieces of roasted seals, which they placed upon wooden boards, and afterwards, retired, making signs that this was intended as a present for us. We immediately put two men ashore, with hatchets, knives, garlands for the head, and such like wares. On seeing these articles they appeared much delighted, and crowded to the bank where we were, paddling their barks, and bringing skins and other articles, which they meant to exchange for our merchandise. Their number, including men, women, and children, was upwards of three hundred. Some of the women, who would not venture nearer, stood up to the knees in water, singing and dancing. Others, who had passed over, came to us with great familiarity, rubbing our arms with their hands, which they afterwards lifted up to heaven, singing all the while, and making signs of joy; such at last was their friendliness and security, that they bartered away everything they had, and stood beside us quite naked; for they scrupled not to give us all that was on them, and indeed their whole wardrobe was not much to speak of. It was evident that this people might be, without difficulty, converted to our faith. They migrate from place to place, and subsist themselves by fishing. Their country is warmer than Spain, and as beautiful as can be imagined—level, and covered, even in the smallest spots, with trees, and this although the soil is sandy. It is full also of wild corn, which hath an ear similar to rye. We saw many beautiful meadows full of rich grass, and lakes where there were plenty of salmon. The TREACHERY OF THE FRENCH. 15 savages called a hatchet, cochi, and a knife, hacon."* Cartier carried off two natives, and took them with him to France, where he arrived on the 5th of September, 1534. In the following year he was sent out with three ships. During this voyage ho sailed up the St. Lawrence as far as the Indian village Stadaconna, situated where Quebec now stands. Then, embarking in three boats, he sailed onwards to a place of which he had heard the natives speak, called Hochelaga, which they said was the principal town in the country. He found it to consist of about fifty bark-covered huts, fortified with ramparts of wood, and situated at the foot of a high hill, to which, from the beautiful prospect it commanded, he gave the name of Mont-JJoyal, now Montreal. The Indian word JTanata, signifying a collection of huts, was mistaken by the French for the name of the country, which was therefore called Canada. Cartier and his party had been kindly received and well treated by the natives, but they repaid this kindness by an act of treacherous ingratitude, which was the cause of much bloodshed both among the natives and the European settlers. They seized the chief of Stadaconna, Donnaconna by name, by whom they had been hospitably entertained, with two of his chiefs and eight of his people, for the purpose of exhibiting them in France, leaving his subjects inconsolable for his loss. After a prosperous voyage, Cartier arrived in France on the 6th of July, 1536. The unfortunate Indians, oppressed by the air of civilized life, speedily sank and died. These were among the first victims * Ramusio, vol. hi. p. 438. 16 BRITISH NORTH .AMERICA. of French cruelty, but the wicked example was only too readily followed; and the treachery practised towards them excited a deadly hostility among the Indian tribes, who soon learned to look upon the white strangers as enemies whom they were bound to destroy, thus bringing on themselves a war of extermination. Indeed, from north to south, with the exception of those formed by the Pilgrim Fathers, the European settlements were founded in bloodshed and wrong. Cartier again returned to Canada in 1541, acting as lieutenant to the Sieur de Roberval, who was appointed by Francis i. as viceroy in Canada, Hochelaga, etc. The French built a fort near the present site of Quebec, which they named Charlesbourg, being the first European settlement formed in that part of America. But the undertaking was unsuccessful. The Indians, justly incensed at the breach of faith which lost them their chief, opposed the French in every way, both by conspiracies and by open hostility. Jealousies arose between Cartier and Poberval, and, ruined in health and fortune, Cartier returned to France, where he soon after died. Poberval was recalled by Francis i., and nearly a century passed away before the French were firmly established in Canada. The spirit of research slumbered for a time in England. Sebastian Cabot, disgusted with the indifference of Henry vm., resolved to transfer his services to Spain, but returned to England after the accession of the young king Edward vr., who ap- ENGLISH DISCOVERERS. 17 pointed him grand pilot of England. But the revived zeal for discovery during that reign, turned eastward, producing i the voyages of Sir Hugh Willoughby and others, whose discoveries are foreign to our present subject. The attempts to discover the North-west passage recommenced in the reign of Elizabeth. In 1576, Sir Martin Frobisher was sent on a voyage of discovery by the queen. He discovered the straits bearing: his name. He is more celebrated for his bravery and perseverance as a commander than for his skill as a navigator. Queen Elizabeth granted to Sir Humphrey Gilbert (half brother to Sir Walter "Raleigh) letters-patent for discovery in the West. On the 11th of June, 1583, he sailed from Plymouth with five ships, arrived off Newfoundland on the 11th of July, and soon after proceeded to take formal possession of the island for the Queen of England. .After visiting the shores of Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and Newfoundland, his squadron was overtaken by a severe gale. The admiral was on board a small ship called the Squirrel, in which he sailed that he might better examine the harbours and coasts along which he passed. The crew of the larger ship, who revered him as a father, in vain entreated him to quit the Squirrel. His reply was, "Courage, lads, we are as near heaven at sea as on shore." The setting sun shone on the noble old man as he sat on the deck of his wave-tossed bark. A book was before him, from which he seemed to be reading to his crew. Who can doubt that it was the book of books—God's holy word—his precious gift to man to teach him the way of eternal life! o . •>ri*p" 18 BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. Such was the last glimpse of the brave Sir Humphrey Gilbert, as darkness closed around the vessels. That night the tempest increased. The crew on the deck of the larger ship uttered a loud cry, for suddenly the light on board their beloved admiral's vessel was extinguished. He and his companions had gone down in that stormy ocean, awaiting the time when "the sea shall give up the dead that are in it." The other ship returned alone to Falmouth, with many saddened hearts on board. Notwithstanding this sad catastrophe, and the ill success that had hitherto attended the attempts of the English, a belief in the possibility of the Northwest passage, and a determination to find it, had taken strong hold of the national mind. Undeterred by failure or by suffering, expedition after expedition went out, carrying band after band of heroes, ready to struggle and endure in the hardest of all conflicts with frost, and snow, and ice. It would lead us too far from the special objects of this book to describe, or even to name, the many brave commanders who followed each other from Sir Humphrey Gilbert, Davis, "Knight, Hudson, down to Parry, Ross, Franklin, and, last of all, Sir Leopold McClintock, the commander of the gallant little Fox, which brought the tidings that the passage was found and the work done, by brave men, many of whom had laid down their lives in doing it. Why should we attempt to name them when every bay, channel, and island, commemorates their names ? An interesting account of all the expeditions will be found in a companion volume, to which we refer our readers.* * " .Arotio Discovery and Adventure," published by the Religious Tract Society. (■BBI RESULTS OF .ARCTIC EXPLORATIONS. 19 Though it has been found that the long-sought channel is useless for any practical purpose, yet the efforts to find it have not been wasted; in searching for it, men have discovered many valuable things for which they were not seeking. Britain has formed in this school some of her greatest naval commanders—has reared a race of hardy seamen that have made her the mistress of the ocean—has opened up new channels for the whale fishery— has made valuable scientific discoveries—has fixed the limits of the western continent, and explored the seas and islands which range along the remotest shores. Most of our early navigators have been Godfearing men—not ashamed of their religion—bold, uncompromising, and resolute; as a Christian naval officer of the present day, addressing his younger brothers in arms, observes—"They fought and conquered, and wrought deeds of daring beyond belief, with ' the praises of God in their mouths, and a two- edged sword in their hands.' We their descendants are reaping the magnificent harvest of their great heroism. Wherever we find them they are still the same; in the courts of Japan or of China, fighting Spaniards in the Pacific, or prisoners among the Mgerines, founding colonies which by-and-by were to grow into enormous transatlantic republics, or exploring in crazy pinnaces the fierce latitudes of the Polar seas, they were the same indomitable Godfearing men, whose life was one great liturgy." * No colonies, can be founded by Britain amidst the northern ice, yet these desolate lands should not be * "Seamanship, and its Associated Duties in the Royal Navy," by Lieutenant A H. Abton, R.N. 20 BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. regarded as the least glorious part of her mighty empire, for there is not an ice-bound channel or snow-covered island in all these dreary regions, the very name of which does not record some heroic story of patient effort and cheerful submission, fitted to teach the youth of Britain in every future age how to labour and how to endure. We have seen how, whilst searching for a shorter passage to India, the eastern coasts of North America were discovered. It remains for us only briefly to describe the discovery of the far-off western shores of that part of the continent claimed as the heritage of Englishmen, before commencing a sketch of the geography of those vast regions. The glad eyes of Vasco Nunez de Balboa, after he had crossed the isthmus of Panama from the east, were the first to rest on the shining waters of the Pacific. Balboa, a Castilian navigator, was one of the numerous adventurers who flocked to America soon after its discovery by Columbus. He heard from the Indians of "a mighty sea," on the other side of the mountains, into which flowed streams abounding in gold. Starting with his men, September 1, 1513, from the village of Darien, he soon after reached the mountain from which he was informed by the Indian guides that he could see the great sea. Resolving to be the first European who should behold this new ocean, he forbade his men to move from their places until he called them. Then, ascending to the height which the Indian had pointed out, he beheld the Pacific glittering in the morning sun. He now summoned his little troop 1W9HMPI INTERCOURSE WITH THE NATIVES. 21 to ascend and view the noble prospect. "Behold," said he, " the rich reward of all our toil." The Spaniards sailed along the western coasts of North America and discovered California, but it was not till 1592 that Juan de Fuca, sailing northward, reached the coasts of Vancouver's Island and British Columbia, giving his name to the straits which separate that island from Washington Territory. In 1776, Captain James Cook, who had been long known as a skilful navigator, was selected by the Admiralty to discover a communication by a northerly course-between the Pacific and Atlantic oceans, reversing the plans of former expeditions, and endeavouring to sail from the Pacific into the Atlantic, instead of from the Atlantic into the Pacific. .After many important discoveries, including that of the Sandwich Islands, Captain Cook came in sight of the American continent at the coast of New Albion. Owing to unfavourable winds which forced his ships to the south, he first anchored in Nootka Sound on the west side of that large island to which Captain Vancouver afterwards gave his name. Here he carried on a friendly intercourse with the natives, who brought large quantities of furs of every description for the purpose of trade. .As they had iron implements and other articles manufactured by Europeans, it was evident that they must have had some communication with civilized men. " The natives," Bays Cook, "were docile, courteous, and good-natured; but quick in resenting what they looked upon as an injury, and, like most other passionate people, as soon forgetting it. Their stature was rather below the common size of BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. Europeans; and although at first, owing to the paint and grease which covered their skins, it was believed that they were of a copper complexion, it was afterwards discovered that they were in reality a white people. They were well armed with pikes some headed with bone, and many with iron; besides which they carried bows, slings, knives, and a short club, like the patow of the New Zealanders; their arrows were barbed at the point, and the inner end feathered." From Nootka Sound Captain Cook sailed northwards and explored the coast to Icy Cape. The shores were afterwards more minutely examined by Meares, Vancouver, and Kotzebue. In 1792, Captain Vancouver entered the Straits of Juan de Fuca, and sailed up the Gulf of Georgia on the coast of the province now known as British Columbia. The explorations in the interior will be related in the history of the provinces to which they belong. Although the special intention of this volume is to treat of the colonies in North America at present belonging to Britain, the history of their first settlement would be incomplete without a brief reference to those colonies originally settled from England, but now independent. In 1583, Sir Walter Raleigh obtained by letters- patent a large tract of country which he named Virginia, in honour of his sovereign; and in 1584 the first English settlers were sent out by Raleigh to North Carolina, but on the arrival of Sir Francis Drake, in 1586, they quitted the settlement, in his vessel. Various other attempts were made to ENGLISH SETTLEMENT OF NORTH .AMERICA. 23 establish settlements, but they were all unsuccessful, and at the commencement of the seventeenth century there were no English colonies in any part of the continent of America. During the seventeenth century, the settlements planted on the coast of North America were, in chronological order, as follows:—Virginia, A. d. 1607; New York, which was contended for and alternately occupied by the English and Dutch, from 1614 to 1674; Massachusetts, 1620; New Hampshire, 1623; New Jersey, 1624; Delaware, 1627; Maine, 1630; Maryland, 1633; Connecticut, 1635; Rhode Island, 1636; North Carolina, 1650; South Carolina, 1670; Pennsylvania, 1682; and Georgia, 1733.* The present possessions of England in North America have been settled or acquired as follows :— Nova Scotia, 1621; Newfoundland, 1623; Hudson's Bay territories, 1670; Canada (conquered from the "French), 1759; Prince Edward Island, 1771; New Brunswick, 1784; Vancouver's Island, 1848. \ Britain may well be content with the magnificent territory she possesses in North America. Her enterprising sons have there a fine field for their activity, and it should be their earnest endeavour to develop the varied resources with which our Almighty and loving Creator has so richly endowed this favoured land. * Maryland received its name in honour of Henrietta Maria, Queen of Charles I.; the Carolinas in honour of Charles. Pennsylvania took its name from its illustrious founder William Penn, and Georgia from, George II., under whom it was settled by General Oglethorpe. t " The British Colonies," by R. Montgomery Martin. CHAPTER II. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY AND NATURAL HISTORY OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. Mountain chains—The Rocky Mountains and Sea Alps of California— Alleghanies—Blue Mountains—Water system of British North America —Rivers and their valleys—Extent and boundaries of British North America—Political divisions—Climate—The different seasons, with their aspects and occupations—Mineral treasures—Wild animals—Birds— Fishes. ■ North America is divided longitudinally by two principal ranges of mountains, near each other in the south, and gradually diverging as they approach the north, keeping a certain parallelism to the coasts of the two great oceans. The table-land of Mexico, and the Rocky Mountains, run along the western side of the continent, but at a sufficient distance to admit of another system of mountains between them and the Pacific, while the Alleghanies stretch along the coast of the Atlantic. The Rocky Mountains run 1,800 miles in two parallel chains from the Anahuac Mountains in lat. 40° n., to the mouth of the Mackenzie River in the Arctic Ocean, sometimes united by a transverse ridge. The mountains nearer the west coast consist of two chains, one of which, beginning in Mexico, skirts the Gulf of California on the east, and maintains rather an inland course till north of the river- P! MOUNTAINS AND RIVERS. 25 Oregon, where it forms the Sea Alps of the coast; and then, increasing in breadth as it passes through Russian .America, ends at Nootka Sound. The other chain, known as the-Sea Alps of California, begins at the extremity of the peninsula, and running northward with increasing height, close to the Pacific, passes through Vancouver's Island, and after joining the Alps of the north-west coast, terminates at Mount Elias, which is 17,860 feet in height. A range of very high snowy mountains goes directly across both these coast chains, and unites them to the Rocky Mountains. Between these mountains on the west and the .Alleghany range on the east, lies the great central plain of North America, stretching between the Gulf of Mexico and the Arctic Ocean, and including the valleys of the Mississippi, St. Lawrence, Nelson, Churchill, and most ,of those of the Missouri, Mackenzie, and Coppermine rivers. It has an area of 3,245,000 miles, is about 5,000 miles in length, and has few elevations beyond a low table-land which crosses it at the line of the Canadian lakes and the sources of the Mississippi, which is nowhere above 1,500 feet high, and rarely more than 700, but forms the water-shed between the streams that go to the .Arctic Ocean and those that flow to the Mississippi. On the east, the Alleghany, or Appalachian Mountains, separate the great central plain from that which lies along the Atlantic Ocean. They stretch from the Carolinas to the Gulf of St. Lawrence; parallel to the Atlantic, and at no great distance from it, their base being a strip of table-land from T,000 to 3,000 feet high. BRITISH NORTH .AMERICA. This high land is traversed through 1,000 miles between .Alabama and Vermont, by from three to five parallel ridges of low mountains, separated by fertile longitudinal valleys. To the south they maintain a distance of 200 miles from the Atlantic, but approach close to the coast in the south-eastern part of the State of New York, from whence their general course is northerly to the river St. Lawrence. But the Blue Mountains, which form the most easterly ridge, are continued in the double range of the Green Mountains to Gaspe Point in the Gulf of St. Lawrence. They intersect the Canadas, Maine, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia with branches as high as the mean elevation of the principal chain, and extend even to the dreary regions of Baffin's Bay. The chief Canadian branches are parallel to the river St. Lawrence. One goes n.e. from Quebec; and the Mealy Mountains, which are of much greater length, extend from Ottawa River to Sandwich Bay, and though low, are always covered with snow. Little is known of the high lands within the Arctic circle, except that they probably extend from s.e. to n.w.* But the most remarkable feature of the North American continent, and especially of that portion belonging to Great Britain, is the concatenation or chain-like combination of lakes and rivers, by which a direct, or almost direct, water communication can be maintained between the Atlantic on the east and the Pacific on the west, and from Hudson's Bay on the north to the Gulf of Mexico on the south. As the waters flow for the greater part of the distance * " Physical Geography," by Mrs. Somerville. WATER COMMUNICATION. 27 from west to east in the first-named instance, it is literally true that a canoe may be launched at Victoria, Vancouver's Island, and, with short distances of land carriage, may in the course of a summer find her way down the St. Lawrence to Quebec. To impress this important feature more firmly on the minds of our readers, we may liken these mighty watercourses, in the shape they assume, to a cross composed of two rather straggling and irregular branches of a tree. The upright stem, running from north to south, is formed by Hudson's Bay and the streams which unite it with Lake Huron, Lake Michigan, and the Mississippi, with its foot planted in the Gulf of Mexico. It will be seen that Lake Huron and Lake Michigan unite, and that tha distance between the southern end of Lake Michigan and the navigable waters of the Mississippi is comparatively short. The transverse part of our cross is formed by the Frazer on the west, the Saskatchewan flowing into Lake Winnipeg, by that important lake and the streams and lakes which unite it to Lake Superior, while the eastern portion of the horizontal bough consists of Lake Huron and Lakes St. Clair, Erie, and Ontario, out of which the St. Lawrence flows. This imaginary cross represents, however, but a portion of the intricate ramification of streams and lakes, whose internal communications are aided by deep canals and some thousand miles of railway, which afford easy access to all parts of the British North American provinces. Our cross will serve another very important purpose. It marks the direction of three great and fertile vallevs which exist in the North American continent, and which have materially determined the direction which colonization should take. We name them in the order that they have become known. The first is the valley of the St. Lawrence, discovered by Cartier, Champlain, and others, which forms the eastern part of the cross; the second is the valley of the Mississippi, discovered by La Salle, though not really colonized till some generations later, when the Alleghany Mountains were crossed by the people of the United States; the third valley, destined hereafter to prove not the least important, is that of the Saskatchewan and the basin of Lake Winnipeg, commencing at the Rocky Mountains and extending east to within 300 miles of Lake Superior, in the neighbourhood of which the extremities of all the three valleys may be said almost to unite. .An important stream—the Red River—rises in the territories of the United States, and, running northwards, falls into Lake Winnipeg in British North .America. By its means an easy communication exists between the valleys of the Mississippi and Saskatchewan. At the extreme western point of Lake Superior will be found the Kaministiquia River, flowing from Dog Lake. From the height of land on the west of this lake a series of rivers and lakes empty themselves into Lake Winnipeg, which in like manner unite, by water communication, the valley of the St. Lawrence with that of the Saskatchewan. With the Saskatchewan should be associated the names of Hind, Hector, and Palliser, for having explored and made known the great capabilities and resources of that fertile region, sc long declared by the fur-hunters to be a desert k_ 3RITISH AMERICAN POSSESSIONS. waste, incapable of supporting a community of civilized men, except on the banks of the Red River; whereas by the computation of Professor Hind, no mean authority, it may maintain nineteen millions of inhabitants. Before speaking particularly of the British dominions, it was necessary first to consider the general system of mountains, lakes, and rivers in -North America, which, in truth, form one system throughout that vast continent. The British possessions alone comprise an area of four millions of square miles. The extreme length from the Atlantic to the Pacific is 3,000 miles, and from north to south 2,000 miles—a territory larger than the whole of Europe—over which the Sovereign •of Britain holds supreme sway. On the north, east, and west, this great territory is bounded only by the ocean; except that on the north-west, a line extending from the Polar Sea down the 140° of longitude, and then along the coast of the North Pacific to the 130° of longitude, separates it from the Russian territory. On the south, beginning at the shores of the Pacific, it is separated from the American States by an irregular line, running along the 49th parallel of latitude, till it reaches the Lake of the Woods, when it bends slightly to the south, along the south shore of Rainy Lake and river, then along Pigeon River to Lake Superior, thence across that lake to the St. Mary River, down Lake Huron to the river and lake of St. Clair, and the Detroit River, through Lake Erie down the Niagara River, across Lake Ontario down the St. Lawrence until near Montreal, where that stream is BRITISH NORTH .AMERICA. intersected by the parallel of 45° of latitude, thence along that parallel as far east as the meridian of 71°, and afterwards bending north at some distance from the river (embracing the eastern townships of Canada), till it meets the St. John's River, and then once more bending south down part of that stream and the St. Croix River, it terminates in the Bay of Fundy, separating the State of Maine from New Brunswick. On the east we find the island of Newfoundland, and on the west that of Vancouver, with other smaller islands, which will be afterwards described. British North America is divided into seven separate provinces under their respective governments, viz.:—the Canadas, eastern and western, or Lower and Upper; British Columbia; Vancouver's Island ; Nova Scotia, with Cape Breton added as a county; New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island, and Newfoundland, with the adjacent shores of Labrador. To these, the eighth and largest portion must be added, for the present called Central British North America, but previously known as the Hudson Bay Company's territory, and often improperly denominated Rupert's Land. It has been calculated that the whole territory belonging to Britain is capable of supporting upwards of forty millions of inhabitants, of which Central British America might of itself maintain nineteen millions, leaving eighteen millions for Canada, and three or four rnilHons for the smaller provinces. -As this is upwards of ten times its present population, this country will offer for years to come a magnificent field for colonization, for the employment of British capital, and for the CLIMATE OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. 31 exercise of that energy and enterprise for which the British race is so justly renowned. Considering the immense extent of this region a wonderful uniformity of climate prevails, the western part, however, being much more temperate than the eastern, even at a higher degree of latitude. For example, the southern end of Vancouver's Island enjoys a climate superior to that of the peninsula of Western Canada, although some degrees -farther north. Yet for English constitutions, and even for those who are delicate, it may be asserted that there exists no climate more suitable than that of the peninsula of Western Canada. Of course, the dimate of the southern districts is much superior to the northern, yet it should be understood that throughout the whole of British North America extreme cold is sometimes experienced, so that the ground is covered, during the winter, for two, three, and occasionally for four months, with several feet of snow. But on account of the serenity of the atmosphere, and the absence of fogs, it is easy to guard against the cold, while the snow is looked upon as a blessing, as it enriches the ground and keeps it warm, Villa vermin, and, when beaten down, allows timber and heavy articles to be conveyed over it on sleighs, which could not otherwise be moved where no regular roads exist. Although the winter is longer than that of Europe, it passes away with rapidity; the heat then becomes considerable, and all cereals and fruits come quickly to perfection. Winter is no drawback to the enjoyment of life in the colonies we are describing. There is ample occu- pation out of doors, while the longer evenings at that period afford time for the cultivation of the mind, for the study, as well as for the simple reading of God's holy word, and for the performance of various manual tasks which the settler should be able to undertake. The inhabitants of the towns have also numerous out-door amusements during winter— sleigh-driving, skating, boat-sailing on the ice, toboggining,* fishing; while the hardy sportsman finds ample occupation in hunting. So serene is the atmosphere in the forest, that, when the thermometer is at the lowest, the lumberer will work with no other covering on his shoulders than his flannel vest.f In summer, though the heat for a short time is excessive, the air is so pure and dry that it is not felt to be oppressive; and as bathing in the purest and coolest water can always be obtained, that season has its peculiar delights. The least agreeable time is in spring, when the snow begins to melt, and mud prevails in the best paved streets; but the increasing warmth, and the anticipation of the coming summer, causes the inconvenience to be overlooked; the hot sun and wind soon dry up the mud, and all- nature rejoices in emancipation from the thraldom o£ winter. The soil, fertilized and kept warm by the snow, speedily assumes its vernal beauty, and even before the mantle of white has disappeared the grass springs up with a rapidity truly surprising, * Toboggins are oblong pieces of wood, on which people amuse themselves by sliding down the sides of a hill covered with ice. t The author once, on asking a man how he withstood the intense cold of a North American winter, received the reply:—"Well, sir, there's snow and there's ice enough, no doubt of that; but to my mind somehow the cold gets all friz up'* (frozen up). THE INDIAN SUMMER. 33 flowers burst forth into bloom, and the fruits of early summer quickly ripen and obtain a size and flavour rarely equalled in European climates. But even were the spring and summer less pleasant than they really are, ample amends would be made by the temperature which is enjoyed when autumn with its gorgeous tints has commenced. This season is peculiar to North America, and is known as the Indian summer. No words can adequately describe the elasticity, the purity of the atmosphere, the exhilaration it produces, and its almost intoxicating effects. A slight gauze-like haze hangs over the landscape, the air is genially warm, at the same time that one feels as if it were impossible to become fatigued by any amount of exercise. This weather sometimes lasts for a month, or even longer, and rarely a year passes without at least a week of it; to be thoroughly understood, however, it must be experienced, and the enjoyment of it will alone repay the cost of a voyage across the Atlantic. At this season, too, the face of nature assumes a new aspect. The green which clothes the forest in summer gives way to the most gorgeous colours, the maple assumes the brightest red and yellow of many shades, the oak a bright copper, the beech a delicate colouring of the purest gold or amber. While some trees assume various colours, the beech takes but one, the most beautiful imaginable. A beech grove at that time presents a lovely scene. The ground is already sprinkled with golden leaves, while above still flutters gently in the breeze a canopy of the same elegant texture, through which the sun's bright rays BRITISH NORTH .AMERICA. find their way, shedding a joyous light through this most fairy-like of Nature's halls. The first rude blast of winter, however, strips every branch and spray, and, as if by the rod of a magician, the whole scene is changed, not to return till the following year. Winter, too, presents objects of beauty unsurpassed in any other part of the globe. When snow has fallen and a partial thaw has taken place, every bough and twig becomes coated with ice, and as the lighter branches wave to and fro in the breeze while the sun shines on them, they appear as if hung with innumerable gems. We cannot resist here giving the description of a scene witnessed by Professor Hitchcock, surpassing in wondrous beauty those of the same character ordinarily to be observed. He calls it " The Coronation of Winter" " The leafless branches and twigs of every tree, of every shrub, and even of every spire of grass that rose above the surface of the snow, were encased in a thick and beautiful hyaline coat, as transparent as the purest water. Along the branches the ice swelled into tubercular masses, terminating in a knob, so as to resemble strings of gigantic glass beads. Lovely was the effect produced, as the sun- broke through the clouds, on these countless natural gems, thus prepared to refract and reflect his light with more than his original brightness. "Each shrub had the aspect of a superb chandelier, and how still more magnificent did a whole forest appear, with the rays of the sun darting through and lighting up ten thousand radiant points of a diamond hue and intense brilliancy! These gems could be seen at the distance of forty or fifty rods, " THE CORONATION OF WINTER." 35 and when beyond that distance, the forest had the aspect and the richness of embossed silver. The next day the sparkling brilliants were not, as before, of colourless light. Here and there appeared gems of the prismatic colours, now one of splendid sapphire blue, next one of amethystine purple, here one of intense topaz yellow, then a sea-green beryl changing by the slightest alteration of position into a rich emerald green, and then one of deep red. As the sun approached the meridian, the number and splendour of these coloured gems increased, so that on a single tree hundreds of them miffht be seen; and sometimes so large was their size and intense their colour, that at a distance of fifty rods they seemed equal to Sirius, nay, to the morning star.; and of hues the most delicate and rich that can be conceived, exactly intitating, so far as I could judge, the natural gems, and not partaking at all of those less delicate and gaudy tints by which a practised eye can distinguish genuine from supposititious precious stones. And by moving the eye a few inches, we could see these different colours pass into one another, and thus witness the rich intermediate shades. Two days afterwards there was a storm of fine rain and snow, and the beautiful transparency of the icy coat was changed into the aspect of ground-glass. This gave to the trees a new and more delicate appearance. They resembled enchased work, formed of pure unbur- nished silver, and had the sun shone on them, they must have been intensely beautiful. "Another day the snow was scattered from the boughs, and as the sun approached the meridian, HI BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. one had only to receive his rays at a certain angle, refracted through the crystal covering of a tree, in order to witness gems more splendid than art ever prepared. Four-fifths of them were diamonds ; but the sapphires were numerous; the topaz and the beryl not unfrequent; and occasionally the chrysolite and the hyacinth shone with intense brilliancy. There was wind also on that day; and as the branches waved to and fro, these various gems appeared and vanished, and re-appeared in endless variety, chaining the eye to the spot, until the overpowered optic nerve shrunk from its office. I But the rich vision did not cease through all that cloudless night, nor did it terminate when the sun went down. For then the full-orbed moon arose, and gave another most bewitching aspect to the scene. During the day, the light had often been most painfully intense. But the softness of moonlight permitted the eye to gaze and gaze untired, and yet the splendour seemed hardly less than during the day. Most of the bright points were of a mild topaz yellow, and when seen against the heavens they could be hardly -distinguished from the stars ; or when seen in the forest, especially as one passed rapidly along, it seemed as if countless fire-flies were moving among the branches. Yet occasionally I saw other colours of the spectrum, especially the bluish-green of the beryl. Through that live-long night did these indescribable glories meet the eye of the observer."* From our own experience, we believe that few parts of the world present more attractions to the * "The Phenomena of the Four Seasons," by Professor Hitchcock. AGRICULTUR.AL RESOURCES. 37 young and healthy than does British North America; for even the winter, which those in England are accustomed to look upon as the most dull and dreary season of the year, is there as bright and full of interest as the joyous spring, the glowing summer, and the unspeakably delicious autumn. The natural resources of the country are of themselves very great. The virgin soil at once makes an ample return to the labours of the husbandman, and the extensive ramification of streams and lakes, covering the face of the country and affording water communication to the most remote districts, enables farm produce to be carried to market at a small expense. The farmer, as we have already said, finds the snow a great advantage for moving all heavy articles ; sleighs take the place of wheeled vehicles, to the infinite satisfaction of the horses which have to draw them, as is evident by the brisk way in which they trot over the hard-beaten sheet of glittering white to the tinkle of their merry-sounding bells. To the lumberer, as well as the farmer, the snow affords facilities for moving the stems of the giant trees, which form so large a proportion of the trade of a country, the surface of which has been almost entirely covered by vast forests, even now yielding but slowly to the persevering axe of the hardy backwoodsman. The lumberer proceeds often many hundred miles from the settled districts to prepare the timber for being conveyed to a port for shipment. In no southern climate, and in no country destitute of numerous streams such as those of North America, BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. could this be accomplished with the ease that it is there. The lumberer waits till the snow covers the ground; he then beats a broad road over it from the trees to be felled to the nearest stream. Trunk after trunk is dragged alone; this road to the frozen surface of the stream, where they are lashed together till the return of spring. When the ice melts, they float easily down towards the ocean, watched and guided by the skilful hand of the workman. Cataracts and rapids are passed by a contrivance called a slide, which is a large trough on one side of the cataract, through which only sufficient water is allowed to run to float the timber, which reaches the lower water without damage. The mineral resources of British North America are rich beyond computation. The gold-fields of British Columbia are now attracting a large population, not only of gold-diggers, but of farmers and traders to supply their wants. Gold in considerable quantities is also found in Nova Scotia, and there is a probability that it exists in the Hudson's Bay territory. There are also silver mines in British Columbia. The northern shores of Lakes Huron and Superior abound in copper and iron. From the Bruce mines' on Lake Huron ship-loads of the richest copper have for some time past been annually sent to England. Large coal-fields exist in Nova Scotia on the east, and in Vancouver's Island on the west, both now actively worked. Coal is also found in the central district, which is less abundantly supplied with wood, and both coal and lignite are found on the banks of the Saskatchewan, the Athabasca, and the Assinni- boine. In the centre of the country, at a distance of NATURAL HISTORY. 39 nearly 2,000 miles from the Atlantic, and 1,000 from the Pacific, where sea-salt cannot be easily procured, salt springs exist, from which already a large supply of salt is annually produced. Wild animals abound in many districts of British America. In Central British America tens of thousands of buffaloes are recklessly slaughtered by the Indians and hunters, and are left lying on the ground for want of a market for their flesh. Some are killed for their tongues alone, others merely for their skins, or robes, as they are called by the fur- traders. The fur trade of British America is very important. It has exercised a great influence on the destinies of the country. Arctic America possesses most of the valuable fur-bearing animals that are found in Siberia. The barren grounds are inhabited by the Arctic fox, the polar hare, and by the brown and the white bear, a formidable animal, which often lives on the snow-fields and amongst the mountains of ice. The greater num.- ber of the fur-bearing quadrupeds five in the northern forests, as the black bear, racoon, badger, ermine, and four or five other members of the weasel tribe, the red fox, the polar and brown lynx, the beaver, the musquash or musk-rat, of which half a million are killed annually, and the moose-deer, whose northern range ends where the aspen and willows cease to grow. The grizzly bear, the largest and most ferocious of its kind, inhabits the range of the Rocky Mountains. The prairie-wolf, the grey fox, the Virginian hare, live in the prairies; the wapiti, a large stag, inhabits those on both sides u BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. of the Rocky Mountains; and the prongbuck, an antelope fleeter than the horse, roams throughout the western part of the continent, and migrates in winter to California and Mexico. There are thirteen species of the ruminating genuB in North America, including the bison, the musk-ox of the .Arctic regions, the big-horned sheep, and the goat of the Rocky Mountains. There are squirrels, beavers, and opossums, in the woods; the grey squirrel is found in thousands. There are about five hundred species of birds in North America, of which about one hundred are also found in Europe, the greater number of which are aquatic. Our poultry yards are indebted to North America for the domestic turkey, which there ranges wild in its native woods and attains a great size. The finch species are very numerous, and there are not fewer than sixteen varieties of woodpeckers, as indeed might be expected in a country covered with forests. Of pigeons there are eight species, but individually they are innumerable, especially the Columha Migratoria, which passes over Canada and the Northern States in myriads, for successive days, twice in the year. There are no partridges,- properly speaking, but the ortyx, a closely allied genus, represents them; and of thirteen American species of grouse, only one probably is European, a family which exists in every country under different forms. The vast expanse of water and marshy ground makes North America the home of innumerable water-fowl and waders. Most of the waders and graminivorous birds are migratory; in winter they find no food north of the great lakes, where the NATURAL HISTORY. 41 ground is frozen upwards of six months in the year. Many, as storks and cranes, pass the winter in California; wild geese cover acres of ground near the sea, and when they take wing, their clang is heard from afar. Even gulls and other northern sea-birds come south to the coasts of California. It may be said generally that, with regard to the web-footed tribe, North America possesses specimens of all the genera of the old world, and many peculiarly its own.* The fisheries of British America are very valuable. The cod-fish is identical with that of the British Isles. The principal cod-fisheries are on the coast of Newfoundland. Salmon, also identical with those of the British Isles, abound in the rivers communicating with the sea. In the lakes there is a thick sealed fish, bearing some analogy to those of the early geological eras; there are five species of perch in the North American waters, one of which is the same as that of Europe; pike are also found. The numerous lakes and rivers abound in innumerable other species of fish, which have long supported large communities of Indians. There are three hundred and thirty-two genera of plants peculiar to North America. About one hundred and sixty varieties of trees yield excellent timber. These will be described more particularly in our account of the separate provinces. The maple affords a supply of sugar sufficient for the wants of the rural population, and is also used by the inhabitants of the towns. Cereals of all kinds may be easily cultivated, and fruits are abundant. There are seven * Mrs. Somerville's "Physical Geography." BRITISH NORTH .AMERICA. species of wild grapes; nuts", mulberries, raspberries, and strawberries, grow freely. Melons, and many other productions of the garden which will not ripen out of doors in England, are here sown for consumption without artificial forcing; while tobacco, hops, and flax, are cultivated with ease. The wise and munificent designs of the great Creator in preparing this world for the habitation of man are nowhere more clearly seen than in the magnificent country we have been describing—whether we regard its mineral wealth, its water communications, its abundant fuel, its metals, its wood, stone, and clay for building, its rich pastures for cattle, and fertile lands for the production of cereals, the game of its woods and the fish of its rivers, or its climate, conducive both to health and happiness. Our Heavenly Father has laid great responsibilities on Britain by giving this rich country into her hands. Let us pray that the best use may be made of his abundant gifts. CHAPTER III. ABORIGINAL INHABITANTS OF BRITISH NORTH 4AMERIOA. Various aboriginal races on the continent—Names of tribes on British territory—Diminution of their numbers from war and other causes— Manners, customs, and personal appearance of the aborigines—Their religious beliefs—Their dwellings, canoes, etc.—-Missions among them— Striking address of converted Indian—Eliot—Brainerd. The aboriginal inhabitants of North America must be considered as divided into families markedly different from each other, as, for instance, the Esquimaux, the Red Indians, and the Indians of Central .America. These families are subdivided into nations or tribes. In some instances these nations speak different dialects, in others the dialect is nearly alike. Sometimes they are closely allied to each other, and even become intermixed; others are separated by the bitterest hatred, and carry on almost constant war. The aborigines of North America consist chiefly of the following:—I. The Esquimaux, found on the northern shores of Hudson's Bay and the Polar Sea, who are undoubtedly of the Mongol race. U. The Algonquins, found at the mouth of the St. Lawrence, and occupying the territory between it and Hudson's Bay. To this family belonged the Ojib- beways, Crees, Shawnees, Lenni-lenaps, Delawares, BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. Ottawas, etc. HI. West of the Algonquins are the Iroquois, inhabiting the country to the south of the St. Lawrence and about the great lakes. They are or were divided into five principal nations, Mohawks, Oneidas, Onondagoes, Cayugas, and Senecas, united together in the closest alliance. The Hurons were a numerous people, dwelling between the Algonquin frontier and the borders of the great lake bearing their name. IV. The Chippeways filled up the great space, chiefly of wooded and lake country, from Lake Superior and the Rocky Mountains, its southern boundary being the north side of the Saskatchewan. The Hare Indians, Dog-ribs, Beaver Indians, and Crees, belong to the Chippeway family. V. The family of the Dalcotahs occupy the prairie country south of Saskatchewan, and a large portion of the great American desert beyond the boundary line. But few of their tribes are to be found in the British territory. -Among them are numbered Blackfeet, Assinniboines, Sioux, etc. Of these, the Sioux are the most powerful, and are hereditary. enemies of the Ojibbeway and Crees. These various nations have, by degrees, been much broken up and intermixed, in consequence of the devastating wars carried on both amongst themselves and against the white settlers. Since the formation of the North American republic a constant state of war has been kept up along the border; and nation after nation has been dispossessed of its lands and driven west. The most glaring example of this was the treatment received by the Seminoles of Florida, under their gallant leader Oceola. Of these crimes the people of Canada have been free, ABORIGINAL INHABITANTS. 45 and several bands of the defeated tribes have taken refuge in that province, and have had lands reserved for them. The descendants of the Hurons inhabit the village of La Jeune Lorette, near Quebec. The remnant of the Iroquois have a reserve of land on the Grand River in the peninsula of Upper Canada. Some of the Indian tribes have become Christians, and live in huts and cottages in various parts of Canada, especially in the Red River settlement, in New Brunswick, and in Nova Scotia. But even of these a small portion only follow agricultural pursuits, the rest obtaining a Hvelihood by hunting and fishing, and manufacturing articles for sale. A few Christian Indians are also to be found round the missionary stations in Central British America and Vancouver's Island. Some have been so intermixed with the whites that they can scarcely be looked on as Indians; while others, though still retaining the pure Indian blood, have become civilized. Many are eloquent preachers of the Gospel, belonging to various denominations. Some of them are ordained ministers of the Church of England. The still savage Indians are chiefly those known as Prairie Indians and Wood Indians. The Prairie Indians hunt the buffalo and other large game—on the flesh of which they feed—while their tents, clothes, beds, and sleighs, are made of the skins of these animals. The Wood Indians live on fish and smaller game, and on wild rice and Indian corn, which they cultivate. Their habitations are tents, called wigwams, covered with the bark of the birch tree. The Wood Indians are generally much less warlike than the Prairie Indians, who are good 46 BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. horsemen, and keep large herds of these animals. Some of the Wood Indians also keep horses, but do not understand their management as well as the people of the prairies. Very exaggerated ideas of the heroic qualities of the North American Indians have been entertained in consequence of the poetical descriptions of various novelists, who drew their pictures from their own vivid imaginations rather than from the life. Indi- viduals of many tribes have been faithful to their engagements; brave, sometimes hospitable and generous, and capable of enduring great fatigue and pain without complaint: but the great mass, while heathens, have exhibited all the vices of savages. They have, as a rule, been bloodthirsty, treacherous, deceitful, and cruel in the extreme; and even the bravest delight in taking an unsuspecting enemy by surprise, rather than in attacking him openly. There is now, probably, not one-tenth of the number of Indians which existed when the country was first settled by the whites. Of surviving tribes those settled near the civilized districts have still further degenerated, having lost ex en the few good qualities possessed by their savage ancestors. Their decrease is owing to various causes. From time immemorial they had been in a state of warfare, but owing to their imperfect weapons, their wars were not very sanguinary, till the whites put firearms into the hands of some of the tribes, who immediately made use of them to exterminate their hereditary enemies. The French and English, and afterwards the English and the United States, employed the Indians in their battles, and then white and red men were arrayed CAUSES OF DIMINUTION. 47 against each other to the ultimate destruction of the latter. Small-pox and other diseases were introduced by the whites, and in frequent instances the entire inhabitants of a village have been carried off by their ravages. Brandy and rum, the terrible yet fascinating fire-water, have destroyed thousands upon thousands of this hapless race. They know well its baneful effects, yet, when presented to them, cannot resist it. The French introduced the system, and even nobles and gentlemen did not disdain to import brandy to exchange with the Indians for furs. At one time, indeed, it appears that the greater part of the furs sent from Canada by the French was paid for in brandy alone. The same nefarious system was carried on by the factors of the various fur companies. Orders have been sent out from England to prohibit it, but have not been enforced. The excuse offered by the officers of the Hudson's Bay Company is, that rival traders have appeared, who tempt the Indians to trade with them by the offer of ardent spirits. To compete with these interlopers, they bartered spirits for furs, bestowed them as bribes, and sold them on credit, to get the hunters in their debt. Thus, in addition to the causes before mentioned, the drinking of spirits, the hard and dangerous life of a hunter, which brings on disease and often proves fatal, and the scarcity of food consequent on the neglect of agriculture, the numbers of the Indians have been rapidly diminishing. When hunting they are removed from missionary influences, and when visiting the trading posts intoxication indisposes them to listen to the truths of the spel. BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. However respectable and humane the members of the Company may have been individually, the system has been destructive to the Indian race, and has prevented their settling down as agriculturists and becoming Christianized. It is to be hoped that the Company, as now re-constituted, will act upon a wiser plan. The appearance of the Indians generally is not prepossessing, as their features are coarse and heavy. The nose is long and aquiline, the mouth large, and the lips particularly thick. The cheek bones are high, the skull small, with high apex, the back part of the head flat, and the brow receding. The eyes are deep set, very black, and restless, as if from a constant habit of looking around them while travelling through the wilds. The hair is black, coarse, lank, and long, hanging in straight matted locks over their shoulders, occasionally ornamented with feathers, beads, or pieces of metal. The beard is very scanty. The complexion is dark brown, scarcely to be called red; the voice is very deep and thick, somewhat like that of the negro. The Indians are generally of middle height—the average about five feet five inches; their frames are symmetrical and well-knit, and deformed- people are rarely to be met with among them. In their ordinary mood they are far from sedate, being merry fellows, and fond of practical jokes. When dressed in war-paint and feathers their appearance is picturesque though barbarous. It is probably from the profuse use of red ochre in their personal decorations that they have attained the name of Red men. They are capable of a considerable amount of mental cultivation, at the same time that they are INTELLECTUAL CAPACITY. 49 slow to acquire knowledge, averse to application, and restive under restraint. Few of the aborigines, even when civilized and wishing to improve their minds, can endure any lengthened application to study. The vital energies of several who have made the attempt at the Red River College have wasted away without being apparently attacked by any known disease. At the same time, this fact does not show that they are incapable of a considerable degree of civilization. On the contrary, when they have been properly managed, not only individuals, but communities, have completely abandoned the habits of savage life, and have become industrious and useful members of civilized society. Since, then, it is evident that they are capable both of being civilized and Christianized, how great is the responsibility to care for, and to instruct so many immortal souls. How great the sin of those who, from greed of gain, have sent these ignorant heathen into early graves by the accursed fire-water with which they have supplied them. The religion, habits, and customs of the wild Indian, have remained unchanged from time immemorial. His religion consists in a belief in the existence of Manitou, a great spirit, the maker of all things; in happy hunting grounds as a future place of abode for the brave; in good and evil spirits, and in the power of sorcerers and charms. Their vindictiveness is extreme, and no descriptions can exceed the horrible cruelties they practise on the prisoners taken in war. Their women are treated as slaves and drudges, and are compelled to toil from youth to old age without thanks, and often with' E BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. blows and cruel ill-usage from their lords and masters. They consider the taking an enemy by surprise the great art of war. Not only warriors, but old men, women, and children, when a village is captured, are ruthlessly slaughtered, when they cannot with ease be carried off as prisoners. Often, when those capable of flight have escaped, the miserable remnant—some infirm old men and women—are killed, and the warriors, on their return, dance the war-dance round their scalps, and make as much rejoicing as if they had won a great victory. The dwellings of the Indians are constructed of deer-skins, bark, or the branches of trees. The shape, according to the owner's fancy, resembles a tub, a cone, or a cart-shed, the mixture of which gives to the village a confused appearance. These huts are but temporary dwellings, and are quickly built when they reach the spot where they wish to stop. A few poles, meeting at the top, are in half an hour covered with deer-skins, or with rolls of birch bark, previously prepared. An opening is left at the top for the egress of the smoke, and a small opening at one side for a doorway, which is covered with an old blanket or a piece of skin. A few pine branches spread on the floor serve both for carpet and mattress, and on these they sleep as soundly as if on beds of down. The Indian canoe is a light and useful little boat, adapted with great skill for travelling across a wild country, as few streams are too shallow to float it, and it may be carried with ease from one river to another. It is usually formed of the bark of a single tree, strengthened with ribs of tough wood. In this EARLY MISSIONS. 51 frail bark, which measures from twelve to forty feet long, and from two to four feet broad, a whole Indian family, from eight to ten in number, will travel for hundreds of miles. Considerable efforts have been made by various denominations of Christians to offer the truths of the gospel to these wild children of the desert. The early settlers in Canada, being French Roman- ists, sent many priests among them, who in some places ameliorated their temporal condition, and taught them some of the habits of civilized life, but they could not benefit their souls, because, in this case, it was the blind leading the blind, and they did but substitute the worship of idols under Christian names for the superstitions that had previously prevailed. They have still several missionary stations in Canada, several churches, houses for the missionaries, and establishments for Sisters of Charity. They have made many nominal converts, but the difference between their labours and those of the Protestant missionaries is, that their so-called converts, being taught only forms and not truths, require constant supervision to keep them from falling back into barbarism, while those who are brought to a knowledge of the truth as it is in Jesus,-by the missionaries who preach to them the pure gospel, have their minds enlightened, and, with few exceptions, if once admitted into the Christian church, hold fast the faith to the end. The difference between the various preachers who went among them was thus defined by a converted Indian, who himself became a missionary to his heathen brethren:— "Mi i 52 BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. " Brethren, I have been a heathen, and have grown old amongst them ; therefore I know very well how it is with the heathen, and how they think. A preacher once came to us, desiring to instruct us, and began by proving to us that there was a God; but we said to him, j Well, and dost thou think we are ignorant of that? Now go back again to the place from whence thou earnest.' "Then, again, another preacher came, and began to instruct us, saying, I You must not steal, nor drink too much, nor lie, nor lead wicked lives.' We answered him, ' Fool that thou art, dost thou think we do not know that ? Go and learn it first thyself, and teach the people to whom thou belongest not to do these things; for who are greater drunkard's, or thieves, or bars, than thine own people?' Thus we sent him away also. " Some time after this, Christian Henry, one of the brethren, came to me into my hut, and sat down by me. The words of his discourse to me were nearly these : ' I come to thee in the name of the Lord of heaven and earth. He sends me to acquaint thee, that he would gladly save thee, and make thee happy, and deliver thee from the miserable state in which thou best at present. To this end he became a man, gave his life a ransom for man, and he shed his blood for man. All that believe in the name of this Jesus obtain the forgiveness of sin. To all those that receive him by faith he gives power to become the sons of God. The Holy Spirit dwelleth in their hearts, and they are made free, through the blood of Christ, from the slavery and dominion of sin. And though thou art the chief of sinners, yet if thou mmmmmmjmmmmmmmmm* ggmmm* 53 prayest to the Father in his name, and believest in him as a sacrifice for thy sins, thou shalt be heard and saved, and he will give thee a crown of life, and thou shalt live with him in heaven for ever.' " When he had finished his discourse, he lay down upon a board in my hut, fatigued by his journey, and fell into a sound sleep. I thought within myseli, 'What manner of man is this? There he lies and sleeps so sweetly. I might kill him, and throw him into the forest, and who would regard it ? but he is unconcerned. This cannot be a bad man; he fears no evil—not even from us, who are so savage; but sleeps comfortably, and places his life in our hands.' " John Eliot, who by common consent has received the honourable name of the " Apostle of the Indians," was the morning star of Christian missions among them. His sympathy for the red men was so powerfully awakened that nothing could daunt the indefatigable perseverance with which he devoted himself to their cause. By almost miraculous industry he learned their language, reduced it to method, published a grammar of it, and spoke it so eloquently that it was no unusual thing when he was preaching to see the stern Indian chief bend his head and weep. As to the matter of his preaching, he himself gives the following account:— "When prayer was ended, it was an affecting and yet glorious spectacle to see a company of perishing and forlorn outcasts diligently attending to the blessed word of salvation then delivered, and professing that they understood all that was then taught them in their own tongue. For about an hour and a quarter the sermon continued, wherein one of our BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. company (meaning himself) ran through all the mat- of religion, beginning first with a repetition of the Ten Commandments, and a brief exphcation of them; then showing the curse and dreadful wrath of God against all those who break them, or any one of them, or the least tittle of them; and so applying the whole unto the condition of the Indians present with much affection. He then preached Jesus Christ to them as the only means of recovery from sin and wrath and eternal death. He explained to them who Christ was, and whither he was gone, and how he will one day come again to judge the world. He spake to them also (observing his own method, as he saw most fit, to edify them) concerning the creation and the fall of man, the greatness of God, the joys of heaven, and the horrors of hell; and urging them to repentance for several sins wherein they live. On many things of the like nature he discoursed, not meddling with matters more difficult until they had tasted more plain and familiar truths." " Civilization soon followed in the footsteps of Christianity. Places in the forest were cleared, roads formed, villages built; and thousands of the wandering tribes, reclaimed from their roving habits, settled- down to the practices of a peaceful industry. Women were taught to spin, men instructed in husbandry and in the more simple mechanical arts, and spots that had once resounded with the war-whoop, or with the wild cries of the dance of death, echoed the hum of a virtuous and happy population." * Fourteen villages, many of them reared entirely at Eliot's own expense, rose in the Indian wilderness. For fifty * Great Missionaries," by the Rev. A. Thomson, D.D. DAVID BRAINERD. 55 years he toiled for the Indians, and although the tribes for whom he laboured are now extinct, the name of this first "Apostle of the Indians" should not be forgotten in any account of the aborigines. The next great labourer among the red men was David Brainerd, who devoted his life to their service, and endured the severest hardships to bring these heathens to a knowledge of Christ. The following is his own account of his preaching:— " There was indeed little room for any discourses but those that respected the essentials of religion; while there were so many inquiring daily how they should escape the wrath to come, and arrive at the enjoyment of eternal blessedness. And after I had led them into a view of their total depravity, and opened to them the glorious remedy provided in Christ for perishing sinners, there was no vice unreformed, no external duty neglected. The reformation was general, and all springing from the external influence of Divine truths upon their hearts; not because they had heard these vices particularly exposed, and repeatedly spoken against. I do not mean to deny the admirableness of moral duties, which were strictly enforced and obeyed; but only that their eager obedience was not from any rational view of the beauty of morality, but from the internal influence of mercy on the soul." Modern missions to the Indians will be spoken of in detail in a subsequent chapter. For the present it will suffice to state that many sections of the Christian church are engaged in carrying forward the work thus commenced by Eliot, Brainerd, and their associates. The Church of England has mission BRITISH NORTH .AMERICA. stations amongst the Indians on the Red River, in British Columbia, in Canada, and on the bleak icebound shores of Hudson's Bay, and reckons twenty thousand Indians converted to Christianity by its means. The Wesleyan Missionary Society has likewise been very active, and has agents both in Canada and Central British America, who are labouring with much success. The American Board of Missions were the pioneers of missionary enterprise among the aborigines across the Rocky Mountains. Some of their agents were murdered by the Indians, who believed that an outbreak of small-pox had been produced by their incantations; others have been very useful and much blessed in their arduous labours. The Moravians have missions both amongst North .Americans and the inhabitants of Labrador, which are admirably conducted, and have been most successful in bringing souls to Christ. These facts are encouraging, and in the strength of the Lord, with earnest prayer, let Christians go forward. There are still tens of thousands of the Indians of North America to be evangelized. While instilling the cheering truths of Christianity into their dark minds, let us instruct and interest them, and give them incentives to industry and exertion: let them be induced to settle, and cultivate the ground, and let artisans be employed to teach them the arts of civilized life. Such, through God's grace and the aid of his Holy Spirit, are the means which have produced the most glorious fruits among the once savage and degraded islanders of the Pacific, where such men as Williams, Ellis, Hunt, Lyth, and a host of others, have laboured. Let men ii NECESSITY OF CHRISTLAN MISSIONS. 57 be found fitted for the work, as they were; let their numbers be increased, and a blessing be prayerfully sought upon their labours, and communities of Christian Indians will be found stretching from Lake Superior to the Rocky Mountains, thriving and happy, and increasing in number. God grant this our prayer. But while we pray let us labour. We must remember that it is work and work to be done NOW. Not a day—scarcely an hour—passes, but some Indian, a subject of our Queen, falls, shot down by the arrow or bullet of a foe, killed by fire-water, or cut off by disease. It is a problem whether this decrease can be arrested. It is the opinion of Professor Hind and other competent judges, in which the writer joins, that it can. One thing is certain, that every year numbers are passing away in heathen ignorance' or are becoming instructed in the false faith and superstitious observances of Rome; and that Protestant Christians have it in their power to offer to them the gospel of Christ, and thereby to save many souls alive. <,m CHAPTER IV. CANADA. Its extent and boundaries—Physical geography of the province—Its mountains, lakes, and rivers—Public works of Canada, canals, railroads, and bridges. Having taken a general view of the British provinces of North America, let us now more minutely examine each in turn. Canada, as being unquestionably the most important, claims our first attention. It is the largest province of Great Britain, its area being 340,000 square miles. .An idea of its extent may be obtained when it is known that it is nearly three times as large as Great Britain and Ireland, one-third larger than France, and more than three times as large as Prussia. The already settled portion covers 40,000 square miles, inhabited by three millions of people. This portion is nearly twice as large as Denmark, three times as large as Switzerland, a third greater than Scotland, and more than a third the size of Prussia. It will be seen by this estimate that not one-eighth part is as yet settled. Of the seven- eighths remaining, although much is unfit for cultivation, a large amount of land is not inferior to what n» iuhhii him 31 t>*" **Vt J-fASf * If? -si GENERAL FEATURES. 59 is already occupied; and it is calculated therefore that Canada is capable of supporting a population of eighteen millions, thus allowing an increase of fifteen millions over the three millions who now occupy it. Canada may be said roughly to be bounded on the east by part of Labrador, the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and the Atlantic"; on the north by Labrador and the territory bordering on Hudson's Bay; on the west by the territories of Central British America, containing Lake Winnipeg and the rivers flowing into it; and on the south by Lakes Superior, Huron, Erie, and Ontario, by the United States territory, and by New Brunswick. Canada, in a general view, consists of a very extensive plain, situated between two ranges of high land; one on the north, separating it from the Hudson's Bay territory, another on the south, dividing it from New Brunswick and the United States. The grounds which stretch along the bor- ders of the St. Lawrence and the lakes, are esteemed the most valuable portion of it. These highlands do not aspire to an .Alpine character; but Canada can boast of much magnificent scenery, although she has no very grand ranges of mountains. The most lofty are those seen on either hand at the entrance of the St. Lawrence. Those on the south side, known as the .Alleghanies, rise abruptly out of the Gulf of St. Lawrence, between the Bay of Chaleur and Cape Gaspe, where they follow the course of the river, covered almost to their summits with forests, till nearly opposite Quebec, when they turn due south into the United States. They rise ~~*f, 60 BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. from between 3,000 and 4,000 feet above the level of the sea. On the north side the whole country is of a more mountainous and broken character. Sometimes the ranges approach close to the river, the precipices rising as it were out of it; at other times they recede, leaving intervening level spaces, always carefully cultivated. Oftentimes terraces and platforms appear, on which, in a sheltered nook, the hardy inhabitant has pitched his cottage, surrounded by his garden and fields. Now some mountain stream or swift-flowing river has worked out for itself a course through them; now they sweep round as they approach Quebec, and disappear in the distance, running far inland to the west, after presenting some of the most superb mountain and river scenery to be found in any part of North America. The views, as the voyager ascends the St. Lawrence and approaches Quebec, are of exceeding beauty, varied by the passing clouds and the different effects' of light and shade as the sun changes his position. Precipices, waterfalls, lofty rugged crags or rounded hills, covered with forest trees, deep valleys running up among the mountains, of which range beyond range are seen growing more and. more blue and indistinct in the distance, with cultivated patches and white-washed cottages, and here and there a church tower and the house of the cure, are some of the many features of the scenery. The river Saguenay presents probably some of the finest views of this description to be found in Canada. Let us imagine an extensive country of RIVER SAGUENAY. 61 rocky and thinly-clad mountains, suddenly separated by some convulsion of nature so as to form a profound chasm, varying from one to two miles in width, and then suppose this chasm suddenly half filled with water, and we shall have a tolerably accurate idea of the Saguenay. The shores of the river are composed chiefly of granite, and every bend presents an imposing bluff, the majority of which are 800, and many of them upwards of 1,500 feet high. These towering bulwarks frequently seem to bend over to reflect their own savage features in the stream. It is asserted that the Saguenay is 1,000 feet deep, but that statement is doubted. Dr. Adamson, describing it, says "its startling and picturesque features cannot be beheld without awakening in the heart sensations of wonder, fear, and reverence. The immense mountains which overhang this fathomless river, whose solemn gloom has only lately been cheered by the industry or presence of man, are of stupendous and matchless grandeur. The peaks of some of them rise above it, not only upright as a wall, but even overhanging, to the height of 2,000 feet, while their bases sink beneath the dark waters—the deepest river in the world—into all but unfathomable depths." Since the above was written ten thousand colonists have found their way up this magnificent high-road to the settlements in the county of Chicoutimi, on either side of its banks higher up, as well as on the shore of Lake St. John, out of which it runs. An excursion to this river is one of the most interesting to be made from Quebec. 62 BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. One of the most beautiful natural features in this part of the province, are the Falls of Montmorenci, a little below Quebec. After passing amid wooded banks along the highly elevated ground to the north, the river falls over a perpendicular precipice 220 feet in height, into a deep pool near the St. Lawrence. In the winter the spray which unceasingly rises from this pool is blown' a little on one side, and forms a high conical hill of ice. To this picturesque spot picnics are made from Quebec, and steps having been cut in the hill, pleasure-seekers amuse themselves by shding down the northern side on toboggins. Quebec itself, climbing up an almost precipitous cliff, with its proud fortress on the summit, is a highly picturesque object. Below it is the richly cultivated island of Orleans, and opposite it the varied outlines of Point Seur, with cliffs on either hand, and hills stretching away to the south. In the eastern townships of the province there is sufficient hilly country to vary the scenery, but on the north the only important elevation is the mountain in the centre of the island of Montreal, under which the city of Montreal is built. In the Upper Province there are no mountains near the inhabited parts, but they are found to the north of Lakes Huron and Superior, and as the western end of the latter is reached they increase in elevation, presenting some coast scenery of picturesque grandeur equal to that found at the eastern end of the province; Thunder Bay especially is a highly picturesque and romantic spot. Its greatest length in a northeasterly direction is 32 miles, and its breadth from LA CLOCHE MOUNTAINS. 63 Thunder Cape to the mouth of the Kaministiquia, upon which Fort William is situated, is about 14 miles. The main entrance to this bay is between the imposing headlands of Thunder Cape, 1,350 feet above the lake level, and Pie Island, five miles southwest of the Cape, with an altitude of 850 feet. Five miles from Fort William the river approaches the base of the elevated but broken table-land to which M'Kay's Mountain, with an elevation of 1,000 feet above the level of the lake, forms an imposing and abrupt termination. A range of mountains, 1,000 feet in height, runs for a considerable distance parallel with the north shore of Lake Huron. Between this range and the settlements on the shores of the lake, the Great Intercolonial Railway has been laid out. On the extreme north-west point of the Georgian Bay, as a large part of Lake Huron is called, are situated the La Cloche Mountains, upwards of .400 feet in height, between Great La Cloche Lake and Lake Huron. The dazzling whiteness of the quartz rock of these mountains, their sharp, broken, and irregular outline, and their rugged and precipitous sides, dotted here and there with groves of trees, whether seen in combination with the waters of Lake Huron, or those of the other lakes, render the scenery around La Cloche singularly picturesque and beautiful. At the base of these ranges, particularly on the south side, the land is of good quality, yielding a stout growth of pine, hemlock, beech, maple, oak, elm, and ash. On the British shore of Lake Superior, Gros Cap, seen from Sault St. Marie, is the most remarkable headland, but there are several other 64 BRITISH NORTH .AMERICA. bold promontories many hundred feet in height to the westward of it. Although from the above descriptions it will be seen that Canada is not a mountainous country, it is very far from being a flat or unpicturesque one. It is beautifully diversified throughout by bills and valleys, by cliffs, rocks, and broken ground, by innumerable streams, often finding their way between high banks and falling over ledges of rock, forming rapids and romantic waterfalls, by lakes and ponds as numerous as the streams, and by its superb forests, of which portions remain even in the early settled districts. The agricultural colonist, who cares little for beauty, and looks only at a country with an eye to its adaptability for settlement, will find no lack of land suited to his purpose, and which, by the persevering use of the axe, he may render as treeless and bare as Salisbury Plains, as has been done in some instances; although he may live to repent that he did not retain some sheltering belts of forest as a protection from snow-drifts, and to supply him with timber for building, for fencing, and for firewood. The most remarkable features in Canada are her lakes and rivers. A curved line traversing their centre would measure about 1,500 miles. Nepigon, or Nee Bing, on Thunder Bay, Lake Superior, is 2,000 miles from the sea, by the route a vessel must at present pursue. Thus it may be said to have 2,000 miles of inland navigation from one end to the other, (without reckoning the Saguenay, the Ottawa, and the other affluents of the St. Lawrence, and rivers flowing into the great lakes,) with a water IAKE SUPERIOR. 65 frontage reckoned by thousands—it might be said tens of thousands of miles. Other countries may equal it in rivers and forests, but none have lakes to be compared to those of Canada. The most western and largest is Superior, called by the Indians Keetcheegahmi, as also Mis- sisawgaieyon. It is 541 miles in length, 140 in breadth, and 1,225 in circumference. Its surface is elevated 627 feet above the level of the sea, and the parts which have been fathomed are 1,000 feet in depth, but the centre is reported unfathomable. A large portion of its southern and western shores belongs to the United States, whose people have displayed their usual energy in the number of towns and- settlements springing up, and the mines worked on them; while already many hundred vessels under the starry banner navigate their waters, some of which have carried cargoes direct to England. The Americans have also constructed a broad and deep canal, uniting the waters of lakes Superior and Huron, the communication having before been impassable except for canoes, in consequence of the Rapids of St. Mary existing at the spot where the waters of the upper lake fall into the lower. The Canadian shore is more extensive than that of the United States, and is about 1,200 miles in length, abounding in mineral wealth, with bays and inlets to form ports, and with no lack of fertile land on which settlements may be formed. Two Canadian settlements have lately been established on Lake Superior, one at its eastern end, called St. Mary, the other at the north-western end, already spoken of as Nepigon. St. Mary's is a free port, F BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. and the neighbouring country having been laid out in free lots, it will undoubtedly soon become a thriving place, having the advantages of the lake navigation, the finest of fish in immense quantities, to be had for the catching, and being on the great highway between the Atlantic and Pacific. A settlement has also been laid out on the Goulais River, falling into Goulais Bay; the townships round which bear the warlike names of Kars, Fenwick, and Pennefather. The whole district is known as Algoma. There are several islands in Lake Superior. The largest, Isle Royale, belonging to the Americans, is 45 miles long by seven or eight broad. Isle St. Ignace, at the entrance of Nepigon Bay and Michi- picoten Island, off Michipicoten Harbour, are large islands possessing mineral riches, both belonging to Canada. The lake is subject to storms of great violence, destructive not only to boats but to large vessels. In a gale on these inland seas the water breaks into huge waves, shorter and more dangerous than those of the ocean. Stout vessels are therefore required for their navigation. The first large vessel which ever navigated them, built by La Salle, was probably thus lost.* The outlet of Lake Superior is through a narrow channel with a rocky bed, over which the hurrying waters foam and leap furiously into the St.. Mary River—hence the name of the Sault St. Marie, the leap or rapids of St. Marie. The Americans have constructed a ship-canal on the south side of the rapids, through which an immense amount of merchandize passes, and the Canadians cannot but look with 1 See page 93. T.ATTT! HURON. 67 regret on a work which ought to have been formed on their side, and from which they would have so largely benefited. It is the only United States canal through which vessels have to pass from the mouth of the St. Lawrence into Lake Superior. The large island of St. Joseph, belonging to Canada, at the mouth of the St. Mary River, has been laid out for settlement. Next to Lake Superior is Lake Huron, which is 1,100 miles in circumference, about 250 long, and from 190 to 220 broad. On its eastern side is the wide expanse known as the Georgian Bay,, almost separated from the main part of the lake by the-long peninsula of Bruce county, and the east end of the Great Manitoulin. The average depth is 860 feet, and its level above the sea is 594 feet. Its western shore alone forms part of the United States; it is surrounded on every other side by Canadian territory. Its northern part is full of islands, many of great size. One of them only, Drummond's Island, belongs tothe United States. St. Joseph's Island, at its western end, has been already mentioned.. East of Drummond's Island is Cockburn's Island, with a narrow channel on either side of it; and east again is the Grand Manitoulin, 75 miles long and,, in some parts, 25 broad, but it has so many deep indentations, inlets and bays, that it is in many places but a few miles across. This island is of considerable height, is covered with fine trees, and has several large lakes, some of which are curiously elevated above the level of Lake Huron. Manitou Lake„ for instance, has an area of 41-J- square miles, and is-155 feet above that of the water surrounding the island. Lake Kaga- wong has an area of 12 square miles, and its waters 68 BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. fall 150 feet, and Lake Mindemoya, with an area of 11 square miles, falls 100 feet into the lake outside. No streams of importance flow into these lakes; but those which flow out of them are of considerable size, proving that the lakes are fed from distant and higher levels. These rivers will doubtless prove of great value for turning mills, as the island has been surveyed, and is now opened up for settlement, except the east end, which is an Indian reserve. There are numberless other islands and islets, many richly wooded, and presenting scenes of the greatest beauty. The Grand Manitoulin alone is estimated to contain 221,330 acres of land fit for agricultural purposes, and by allotting 100 acres to each head of a family, is capable of supporting a population of between 10,000 and 11,000. There are several good harbours. One of the most sheltered is that of Little Current, where a flourishing settlement has been formed by the enterprise of an Indian, George by name, educated at Manitouaning, and commenced about ten years ago. The soil is very fertile, as is proved by the abundant crops of Indian corn and potatoes raised by the Indians, not only for their own consumption, but for the supply of the people at the Bruce Mines.* Besides the St. Mary settlement in the Algoma district, there are at equal distances five settlements formed along the north shore of Lake Huron, through * The author carried away a head of Indian corn from one of these islands, given him by an old Indian woman. He sowed it seven years afterwards in his garden in Dorsetshire, when it grew up, some of the stalks producing two and three heads each. He visited Little Current soon after George commenced the settlement, and had much interesting conversation with him. Its nourishing condition proves of what the Indians are capable. LAKE ERIE. 69 which the great highway will run from the Ottawa towards Central British America. The southern shores of the Georgian Bay, and also the east shore of Lake Huron, have already many flourishing settlements. At the southern end of the lake, the river St. Clair connects it, by a channel 26 miles in length, with a lake of the same name. Lake St. Clair is about 100 miles in circumference, and is generally shoal, with low shores, but thickly wooded. It again is united to Lake Erie by the Detroit River, at the head of which the American town of Detroit is situated. Lake Erie is about 280 miles in length by 63 in breadth, and 700 in circumference. It is 565 feet above the level of the sea, and its average depth is 250 feet,— considerably less than that of the other large lakes. The waters of Lake Erie wash the southern shore of the peninsula of Canada, undoubtedly the most fertile part of the province. The whole of the southern shore belongs to the United States. It is connected with the Hudson River by the Erie Canal, 363 miles in length; and with Lake Ontario by the celebrated Welland Canal, which commences at Port Colborne, on Lake Erie, and enters Lake Ontario at Port Dalhousie. Its feeder is the Grand River, and the canal itself is 26 miles in length. Its locks, superbly constructed of hewn stone, are 150 feet long by 26^ feet wide, and 10 feet deep, and its cost not less than £1,300,000. Several other canals branch off from Lake Erie to connect it with other rivers in the United States. It appeared not improbable that the waters of the Red River of Central British America might have been united by canals with those of the 70 BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. Mississippi, and that river with Lake Erie, so as to form a perfect chain of canals and rivers, joining all three, thus opening a communication between the Red River and the St. Lawrence. This project was thought of before railroads came into existence. The union will, some day, take place by means of railroads, which are infinitely superior for a region whose waters remain ice-bound for a third of the year. Lake Erie is the centre of a wonderful net-work of inland navigation, which, now aided by railways and steam-vessels, enables the traveller without delay, and at great speed, to proceed in every direction at a comparatively trifling cost. At its north-east end the waters of Lake Erie rush through the Niagara River, which has the American towns of Buffalo at its commencement on the east, and Fort Erie on the west, or Canadian side. The waters of the river are divided by the large island known as Goat Island, and hurrying on in a succession of foaming rapids, one portion takes a course round it, and then, leaping over a cliff 162 feet in height, forms what are called the American Falls; the larger part keeping a direct course, with a far greater width and body of water, forms the far-famed Horseshoe Fall, which is about l,9t)0 feet across, and has a fall of 158 feet. The waters, again united in a boiling cauldron, rush on between high and picturesque cliffs for five miles, till a sudden bend gives them a circular movement called the whirlpool, in which the largest trees are sometimes whirled round and round for days before they can make their escape by the outlet beyond. The scenery of the lower part of the Niagara River is very romantic. LAKE ONTARIO. 71 Tne northern, western, and part of the southern shores of Lake Ontario are Canadian, and were the first settled portions of the Upper Province. It is 130 miles in length by 80 in width, with a circumference of 500 miles. Its average depth is 500 feet, and its elevation above the sea 564 feet, showing that the fall of the Niagara River is altogether not less than 330 feet. The St. Lawrence River commences, at its eastern end, near where the town of Kingston is built. It is proposed to unite Lake Ontario with the Georgian Bay of Lake Huron, by a canal wide and deep enough to allow the passage of the largest vessels, and at the same time to increase the size of the St. Lawrence canals, so as to allow ships of the greatest burden to ascend to Lake Superior by a far shorter route than any yet in use. This plan is supported by the inhabitants of Toronto, whose interests it would greatly advance. There is another project of still greater magnitude, supported by the people of Montreal, which is to open up a direct water communication from the Georgian Bay, by way of French River, Lake Nipissing, and the Ottawa. The map will show the chain of lakes and rivers which make this scheme practical. From the rapidly increasing productions of the far west—corn, ' timber, hides, minerals—there can be no doubt that both schemes would repay the capital expended. From Lake Ontario the St. Lawrence flows on in a north-easterly course towards the Atlantic, several times expanding into lake-like sheets of water, of which the chief are the Lake of the Thousand Islands, between Kingston and Montreal, so called from being filled with innumerable rocky and wooded islets [ f" 72 BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. and Lake St. Peter, between Montreal and Quebec. The rapids, where the water rushes with great force over rocky beds, in some places with a considerable fall, would quite impede navigation, were it not for the canals by which the obstructions have been evaded. There are still many other important lakes to be mentioned. Lake Simcoe, which lies to the northwest of Ontario, and east of Lake Huron, is united to the latter by the Severn River, and is one of the most important from the fertility of the surrounding country. It has easy communication with Toronto by a railway, the first opened in Upper Canada, and its shores are surrounded by flourishing settlements. Forming its northern end is the beautiful' little Lake of Conchachine. Lake Simcoe is about 50 miles long, 30 broad, 130 in circumference, and 710 feet above the level of the sea, being thus higher than Lake Huron, into which it falls. Its elevated position gives it a dehghtfully cool temperature in summer, and makes its shores a favourite resort of the inhabitants of Toronto at that season. To the north of it, again, are two smaller lakes, Muskoka and Rosseau, the shores of which are being opened up for settlement. Still further north is Lake Nipissing, about the same size as Lake Simcoe. It is connected by French River with the Georgian Bay on the west, and almost united to the Ottawa River on the east by three small lakes and the Mattawan River. About 50 miles from it on the west is White Fish Lake, joined by White Fish River to Lake Huron. A township has been laid out at the mouth of the river, and the high road will pass close to the shores of the lake. LAKE GEORGE—DOG LAKE—RICE LAKE. 73 Lake George, or Georgian Bay, is merely an extension of Lake Huron to the north of St. Joseph's Island. The township of Macdonald is laid out on its shores. The proposed road to the north of Lake Superior passes the shores of numerous small lakes till it crosses Nepigon River, which runs out of Lake Nepigon into Lake Superior Lake Nepigon is about 150 miles in length, and 60 in width, but its shores have not yet been carefully surveyed. The north-western lake of Canada is Dog Lake, which is fed by Dog River, rising in the height of land which separates the province of Canada proper from the territory of Central British America. The distance from Thunder Bay to Dog Lake is 28 miles, and across the lake to the head of the navigation of Dog River is 35 miles; and giving three miles more to reach its source, we arrive at the extreme western boundary of Canada, and the spot where the St. Lawrence may truly be said to rise. The waters of Dog Lake flow into Lake Superior through the Kaministiquia River, which is navigable for 10 miles from its mouth for large vessels, and the whole distance, with certain portages, for large canoes. The only other lake in Upper Canada which we need mention is Rice Lake, to the north of Lake Ontario, between the counties of Peterborough, Durham, and Northumberland. The town of Peterborough is situated on the River Otonabee, which flows into it. Rice Lake is about 24 miles long, and from three to five wide, and 599 feet above the level of the sea. It is distant only nine miles from Port Hope, and the rise therefore is very rapid—indeed, the ground immediately over- 74 BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. looking the lake is 900 feet above Lake Ontario. In the neighbourhood of this lake are some of the best cultivated farms in the province, and as there are four fines of railway running through the district, its prosperity is rapidly increasing. Further to the north are many other narrow lakes, but of considerable length, affording easy means of communication between often far distant parts of the district. The chief lake in the Lower Province is Lake St. John, communicating with the St. Lawrence by the magnificent Saguenay, navigable the whole distance. The lake has many large rivers falling into it, and its southern shores are extremely fertile. It is nearly circular, about 50 miles in diameter, and 150 in circumference. The rapid increase of the population on its shores shows the advantages it possesses. Little more than twelve years ago the first tree was cut, the first log-hut erected; the population of this so-called hyperborean region is now in excess of ten thousand. The rivers of Canada next claim our attention. The. St. Lawrence is not only the chief river, but without it, probably to the present day, the roaming Indian would be the chief occupant of the territory. It is its main artery—the chief physical cause of its prosperity. Regarding the lakes as mere expansions of the main river passing through them, the St. Lawrence has a course of upwards of 2,000 miles, the entire length of which is now made navigable from the sea up to within a few miles of Dog Lake. All the other rivers of Canada flow into the St Lawrence, which is navigable up to Montreal RIVERS OF CANADA. 75' without the aid of a canal—a fact which accounts for the great progress of that city, now the most populous in the province, containing 110,000 inhabitants. In 1831 it contained only 27,000. A suspension-bridge, perhaps the finest in the world, over which the Grand Trunk Railway passes, crosses the St. Lawrence at Montreal, while near it the Ottawa, a river of great length, uniting with the St. Lawrence, is spanned by another fine bridge, by which the Grand Trunk passes from east to west. The Ottawa River, like the St. Lawrence, consists of wide expanses or lakes, which, at their lower ends, frequently form rapids of greater or less extent. It has about twenty first-class tributaries, besides a still larger number of lesser streams flowing into it. Each of these rivers and streams has innumerable branches and smaller confluents. Its course is about 600 miles, and its longest branches about half that length. Unlike other rivers, its higher portions are wider than those below. Two hundred miles above its mouth it contains an island 20 miles long, and from 5 to 10 broad; 50 miles higher up is another of almost the same dimensions. Above this portion it passes for about 25 miles at the base of a chain of mountains, with a breadth exceeding a mile, and a depth of over 100 fathoms. At its mouth the Ottawa forms the island on which Montreal stands. Just above it are the rapids of St. Anne, celebrated by the poet Moore in his "Canadian Boat Song." Here is a short canal, and higher up are the rapids of the Longue Soutte, requiring for transit three distinct canals. Hence the navigation is clear ti) Ottawa, formerly m BRITISH NORTH .AMERICA. Bytown, destined to be the capital of the province. It is one of the most beautifully situated cities in the world, on the summit of a lofty cliff, with the Ottawa River, here of great width, sweeping by at its base. On the opposite side is an interminable extent of forests, through which numerous streams meander towards the great artery. On one side of the city the Rideau Canal, which communicates with Lake Ontario at Kingston, descends, by a series of locks, down the steep cliff to the Ottawa; and on the other, the Rideau River falls over the cliff in a picturesque cataract of 100 feet in height. A short distance above the city are the Chaudiere Falls, which run like a wall of foam directly across the river. As this is the great highway of the timber trade, slides have been constructed on either side, by which the huge logs are conveyed from the upper to the lower level. A fine suspension-bridge here spans the river leading from Upper to Lower Canada. As usual, the water, before reaching the falls, rushes rapidly over a rocky bed for some distance; and great caution is necessary to prevent the rafts of timber getting within its influence. On a visit to this spot, an old voyageur described to the author a scene of which he was a witness. He had conducted a large raft down some hundred miles from near the source of one of the many tributaries of the Ottawa, when, in company with another raft, he approached the Chaudiere Falls. His raft was manned chiefly by Canadians—steady fellows, who, if uncouth, and regardless of any laws save those of their own forming, yet abstain from drink till they have brought their raft safe into dock. The other " OVER THE F.ALLS." 77 raft, however, had several men on board, who could not be induced to abstain from liquor when it was witiiin their reach. The old voyageur had brought his raft to the shore, where, having been taken to pieces, it was being sent down the slide, while he walked on and was crossing the suspension-bridge, when his attention was attracted by the proceedings of the people on the other raft. By some carelessness, a portion, on which were four men, had got adrift from the remainder, and, to his horror, he saw it hurried on towards the fiercest part of the rapids. It was evident that, in a few moments, it must be dashed to pieces, and it seemed that the fate of the four unfortunates on it was sealed. On came the raft hurrying amid the foaming rapids; fiercely it dashed against the rocks, and separated into as many frag- ments as there were timbers, each of which came whirling on towards the falls. Three of the poor wretches disappeared amidst the tumultuous waves, but a fourth clung to the end of a piece of timber with the grasp of despair. The huge log reached nearly to the edge of the cataract—still he retained his hold; yet, in all human probability, another moment would be his last. Just then the current turned the log, so that the opposite end to that to which he clung pointed directly to the fall. On it went, with still greater velocity, and then, balancing for an instant on the brink of the foaming precipice, the end to which he held started up high into the air, and he was projected, as from a catapult, over the falls into the clear water beyond the cauldron. No one even then expected to see him again, but, uninjured, he rose ■to the surface, and striking out boldly, either gained 78 BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. the shore, or was picked up by one of the many canoes which instantly put off to his assistance, he being probably the first man who ever came over those falls and lived. A railway now runs far above these falls, and a large portion of the timber which used to come over them is conveyed by it to the Grand Trunk, and so on to Montreal or Quebec for shipment. Between Carillon and Grenville also there is a railway, by which the rapids and the tedious passage by canals are avoided. On the two expanses above Ottawa, steamers have long been plying, and numerous townships have been settled on their banks. The water-shed of the Ottawa extends over rather more than 1,000 miles. Its length is 780 miles, or 50 less than the Rhine. By one of its many tributaries it communicates directly, through Grand Lake, with Moose Fort on Hudson's Bay. The chief interest to the settler ceases, however, when he reaches the mouth of the Mattawan River, which flows from the height of land between it and Lake Nipissing. Mattawan River is navigable for canoes for about 40 miles, with a fall of 120 feet. Hence a portage of three-quarters of a mile transfers them to the chain of lakes and rivers, the waters of which flow into Lake Nipissing. Next to the St. Lawrence the Ottawa is the most important river in British North America, both on account of its width and depth, the length of its own course and that of its numerous tributaries, and the great extent of fertile country which, by its means, is opened up. A large number of flourishing settlements are springing up along its banks, roads are being constructed to facilitate commtinication with •MPMtP RIVER SAGUENAY. 79 other districts, and steamers ply along its waters. Some of these are as large and fitted up as luxuriously as the river-steamers of the United States, but the rapids and falls greatly interfere with its navigation, as frequent portages are necessary. The third river of Canada is the Saguenay, which empties itself into the St. Lawrence, on the north side, about 140' miles below Quebec. It takes its rise in Lake St. John, and runs for 120 miles in a south-easterly direction. A considerable number of rivers flowing from the wild and hitherto unprofitable region of Northern Canada, fall into Lake St. John, many of which are navigable; one of them is so for 100 miles. Near the mouth of the Saguenay is the village and harbour of Tadoussac, whence the distance to the settlement of (""Mcoutimi is about 70 miles, a short way above which the river ceases to be navigable, as here commences a series of rapids which extend to Lake St. John. Though so far to the north the climate is scarcely as severe as that of Quebec, while on the shores of Lake St. John it is considerably milder. The great drawback to the settlements in the Saguenay district has hitherto been that the only communication existing with Quebec has been by water. The Canadian Government is, however, forming direct land communications for winter traffic, 100 miles in length, between the Lake St. John settlements and Quebec, the conductors of which report favourably of the general fertility of the soil, and of the progress made by the settlers, who, as its various sections are opened up, locate themselves along it. The fourth river of Canada is the St. Maurice, or 80 BRITISH NORTH .AMERICA. Three Rivers. Its source is Lake Oskelanaio; its length is fully 150 miles in a direct line, along which it drains a district from 20 to 100 miles in width, equivalent to 8,400 square miles. A large amount of lumber is cut on the upper banks of the St. Maurice and its tributaries, and brought down to the St. Lawrence, a considerable portion of which is conveyed into the United States through the Richelieu River and Canal, and commands a high price. The Falls of the Shawenegan, some distance above the town of Trois Rivieres, are well worth a visit. The river Shawenegan falls intotheSt.Mauri.ee over a cliff 200 feet in height. A rich iron mine exists near the banks of the river above the town. The ore is abundant, and said to be equal to the best Swedish. A large foundry has been established here, at which implements and machinery of all kinds are manufactured. The banks are generally high, and covered with groups of majestic trees. At Wemontichinique it is divided into three branches: that to the west passes through 25 lakes or more, of various sizes, some being 40 fathoms deep. By its upper waters, through the river Sax Lievres, the Ottawa may be reached on one hand, and, with certain portages, Lake St. John on the other. A road, about 75 miles in length, has been surveyed between Lake St. John and the St. Maurice, a little below the junction with it of the Bostonnais. But the rivers of Canada are almost innumerable: only a few of the most important have been or can be mentioned. In addition to those named and described, are many of great extent, which, however, are as yet seldom visited except by the Indian, the RIVER ST. MAURICE. 81 voyageur, or the trapper. As colonization extends, these will, each in turn, rise into notice and importance ; the farmer will take the place of the wild denizens of the wood, and the pioneer of civilization will drive out the industrious beaver, who for ages has constructed his dam across streams which will then be busy with the commerce of a continent. Many of these streams run through districts of extraordinary fertility, or which are rich in mineral treasures. Others connect distant regions with each other by water-ways of inoalculable value from the facilities they afford for the interchange of commodities, or the conveyance of the produce of inland districts to the sea. The number and importance of these lakes and rivers may be more readily learned by a study of the map than by a tedious enumeration of them here. In addition to the means of intercommunication afforded by the lakes and rivers of Canada, immense energy has been displayed, and large sums expended, in the construction of canals and railways. These are upon a scale of magnitude which would be remarkable even in Europe. It may well excite our surprise and admiration that a recently settled and sparsely peopled colony like Canada should have entered upon such works as these. The following brief summary is taken from the " Encyclopaedia Britanniea."* " The public works of Canada have already attained some degree of celebrity both in America and England. ' There is no country,' observes Mr. I. D. Andrews, in his report to the United States * So rapid is ihe progress of CannHa that the statistics of one year full very far short of the troth in the next. The works spoken of aa in progress or in contemplation, in the following summary, are now completed, and others of equal m»gailude are in process of construction. O BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. senate, ' which possesses canals of the magnitude and importance of those in Canada.' The Erie Canal, which is the rival American water route for carrying the produce of the great western wheat-growing countries to the Atlantic sea-board, is capable only of transporting barges of 75 tons burden; whereas the canals of Canada are on a scale to allow of oceangoing vessels of from 350 to 500 tons, and carrying 4,000 barrels of flour, to proceed through them, and thus accomplish an inland navigation into the heart of the continent for a distance of 1,587 miles from tide-water at Quebec. "The public productive works of Canada, consisting of canals, lighthouses, etc., yielded a net revenue in 1851 of £58,738. The work yielding the largest amount of revenue was the Welland Canal, extending from the head of Lake Ontario to the foot of Lake Erie, thus overcoming the interruption to navigation caused by the Falls of Niagara. The length of the main trunk of this canal is 28 miles, and of a feeder branch from the Grand River to the main trunk, 21 miles. Its width at bottom is 35 feet, at top 71 feet, and the depth is 10 feet. The dimensions of the locks are from 150 to 200 feet in- length, the width from 26£ to 45 feet, and the depth on meter 9^- feet. The amount of lockage is 346 feet, and the number of locks 27. This canal is also important as affording an unlimited supply of water power to numbers of mills and factories on its banks. The St. Lawrence canals, connecting Lake Ontario with the River St. Lawrence at Montreal, extend in all to 40£ miles, having 27 locks, and an amount of lockage of 204|- feet. The whole of these have the CANALS AND RAILWAYS. 83 dimensions of their locks as large as those of the Welland Canal, and have all 9 feet of water in these locks. The Lachine Canal, cutting through the island of Montreal is 8 miles in length and 10 feet deep. It is now in contemplation to construct another important canal, connecting Lake Champlain with the St. Lawrence, and thus afford a more desirable route for the trade between the Hudson River and Canada and the western States. " The gigantic railway enterprises now in progress in Canada are intended to embrace a railway system traversing nearly the entire length of the province from east to west, with branch feeders running into the main trunk line, and carrying off traffic to the leading American cities and Atlantic sea-board. "Besides the government aid to this complete railway system through Canada, these undertakings are understood to receive substantial support from United States interests, the great western country, as well as the north-eastern states of the Union, being directly interested in the success of these Canadian lines; more expeditious routes between the agricultural districts of the west and their centres of trade being opened up by them. One of the most valuable features of these railways to Canada will be their affording the province increased facilities of trade during winter, and uninterrupted communication with ocean traffic when inland navigation is closed. " The most important fine of this comprehensive railway system is the Grand Trunk Railway. The entire length of this line, when completed, will be 1,112 miles. Its eastern terminus is at Trois BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. Pistoles, in Lower Canada. Thence upwards it proceeds along the south shore of the St. Lawrence, passing opposite to Quebec, and continuing thus westward, reaches Montreal. Before reaching Montreal, the fine effects a junction at Richmond, in the Eastern Townships, with a line of railway to Portland, on the Atlantic, in the state of Maine.* "At Montreal, one of the most stupendous structures of modern times will carry the railway across the river St. Lawrence, which is here two miles in width. The gigantic undertaking is now in course of construction, under the superintendence of Mr. Robert Stephenson, whose name is associated with the well- known Britannia Tubular Bridge.f The Victoria Tubular Bridge of Canada will, however, far surpass Mr. Stephenson's earlier work. The total span of the arches will be 6,168 feet, besides piers on either side, running into the river, each about half a mile long. The span of the centre arch is 360 feet. The number of arches is 25, and, with the exception of the centre one, each has a span of 242 feet. The tube, which is of iron, is 25 feet high, and 18 feet wide. The other parts of the work, including the half mile of piers on either side, are wholly of solid masonry. The height from the water level of the river to the' floor of the iron tube, will be 60 feet. In order to impart some idea of the strength of this stupendous work, it may be mentioned that each buttress is calculated to resist the pressure of 70,000 *The Canadian Government, in their manual for the use of emigrants, describe this line, now complete, "as being 1,090 miles in length—the longest railway in the world." t It was opened by the Prince of Wales on his visit to Canada in the summer of 1860. ■sbbwww" GRAND TRUNK LINE. 85 tons of ice. The estimated cost of the Victoria tubular bridge is stated to be £1,400,000. I From Montreal the Grand Trunk fine follows the north bank of the St. Lawrence, touching the towns of Cornwall, Prescott, and Brockville, to the city of Kingston on Lake Ontario. " A branch fine of 55 miles, connected with this part of the main trunk, runs from Bytown to Prescott, opposite to the American port of Ogdensburgh, where an important connection will be here formed with United States fines of railway. Another fine of about 80 miles will also be constructed in connection with this section of the Grand Trunk from Montreal to Kingston. This is one from Bytown to Montreal, following the course of the Ottawa, and joining the Grand Trunk at Vaudreuil, close to the Ottawa, and to the junction of that river with the St. Lawrence. " The Grand Trunk line, proceeding westward from Kingston, skirts the shores of Lake Ontario, passing the Bay of Quinte, through the towns of Belleville, Cobourg, and Port Hope to Toronto, the capital of Upper Canada. The length of this section of the fine, from Kingston to Toronto, is about 200 miles ; the length of the line from Montreal to Toronto being 380 miles. IA branch of this section of the Grand Trunk from Kingston to Toronto, extending to 30 miles from Cobourg to the town of Peterborough, on the River Otanabee, will be opened in October, 1855. Another line is also contemplated from Belleville to Peterborough. The most important line branching from this main section of the Grand Trunk, 45 miles of which are already open, is that from Toronto 86 BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. northward, passing Lake Simcoe, and thence continuing to the great Georgian Bay on Lake Huron. From Toronto the Grand Trunk Railway proceeds directly westward through the fertile peninsula of Upper Canada, passing the towns of Guelph and Stratford, and terminating at the flourishing town of Sarnia, at the head of the River St. Clair and southeastern extremity of Lake Huron. The entire length of the Grand Trunk line, which is now being pushed towards completion, namely that from St. Thomas, 40 miles below Quebec, to Guelph in Upper Canada, will be opened in September, 1856. The remaining portions of the system will not be so actively proceeded with. The direct distance from Trois Pistoles to Sarnia is 850 miles. "At Toronto another important railway system commences, known as the Great Western. This railway commences from a joint station at Toronto in connection with the Grand Trunk Railway, and skirts the head of Lake Ontario to Hamilton, a distance of 45 miles. It thence proceeds westward through the heart of the settled parts of the great peninsula, situated between the lakes Ontario, Erie, and Huron, passing through Brandford, London, and Chatham, and terminates at Windsor, on the River Detroit, directly opposite to the American city of Detroit, in the state of Michigan. At this point an important connection takes place with United States railways. " The Great Western line, besides its terminus at Hamilton, diverges to the Falls' of Niagara. The Great Western Railway is now open from Windsor to Hamilton and Niagara Falls, a distance of 220 miles. -J GREAT WESTERN LINE. 87 That portion of it from Hamilton to Toronto, 45 miles in length, will be opened this year, 1854. " We have now (returning to Lower Canada) to mention the St. Lawrence and Champlain Railway, which connects the south bank of the St. Lawrence, opposite to Montreal, with the head of Lake Champ- lain at Rouse's Point, a distance of 45 miles. At Rouse's Point thin railway connects with the system of railways to Albany, Boston, New York, and other parts of the United States. The Plattsburg Railway commences at Caughnawaga, on the south shore of the St. Lawrence, opposite to Lachine, and runs to the town of Plattsburg, on Lake Champlain, a distance of 28 miles. The Montreal and Laohine Railway, a short line of 9 miles, connects the city of Montreal with the upper part of the island at the village of Lachine. This railway, as also a portion of the St. Lawrence and Champlain line, have been in active operation for several years." The above description will show how complete were the means of locomotion throughout the country even ten years ago, and how admirably it is adapted to become the abode of civilized man. Postal communication also is everywhere perfect. The most distant hamlet has its post-office, and the number of post- offices in Canada is now upwards of 2,000, every month adding to their numbers as new settlements are opened up. A letter may be sent from one end of the province to the other for threepence currency, or twopence halfpenny sterling, which, considering the distance, and the greater expense of transport, is as low a charge as the penny postage of England. The electric telegraph passes through every town, and BRITISH NORTH AMERICA almost every village in the province—there being 4,046 miles in operation—with remarkably low charges. The arrival, therefore, of a vessel at Quebec may be known almost at the same moment in every town and village in both the upper and lower parts of the province. It will have been observed throughout the preceding sketch that the names of towns and districts in Lower Canada are almost exclusively French, whilst in the Upper Province English and Indian names predominate. This difference indicates the different nationality of the colonists. In Lower Canada the inhabitants are for the most French, both by origin, speech, and mode of fife. In Upper Canada they are as uniformly Scotch or English. The history of the colony accounts for this difference. Of this history a brief sketch will be found in the next chapter. CHAPTER V. HISTORY OE CANADA. Early French settlements—Champlain—La Salle—The grandeur of his enterprises and their failure—Frontier wars—Wars with English colonists —Indian foes and allies—Montoalm—General Wolfe—Battle of Quebec —American War of Independence and war of 1812—Canadian rebellion —Its causes—Subsequent legislation. We have already narrated the history of the discovery of Canada, and its exploration by Cartier, Roberval, etc., with the unfortunate history of the latter expedition. The distracted state of France during many years, occasioned by religious wars, withdrew the attention of the government from schemes of transatlantic colonization. The merchants, however, of the great commercial towns had opened communications, and established posts for the prosecution of the fur trade. That of Canada was Garried on chiefly at Tadoussac, near the mouth of the river Saguenay. In the reign of Henry rv. the attention of the French was again directed to America. The king sent out the Marquis de la Roche to form a settlement with a number of convicts, whom he landed on Sable Island, a barren spot near the coast of Nova Scotia. This colony was unsuccessful. In 1599, Henry rv. granted a monopoly of the BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. fur trade on the St. Lawrence to Messrs. Chauvin and Pontgrave, and on the death of Chauvin, a further grant was given to the Sieur de Monts. In 1603, De Monts fitted out an armament under Pontgrave and an enterprising native officer named Samuel de Champlain. They sailed up the St. Lawrence as far as Sault St. Louis, and established frading posts at different places. Champlain penetrated farther into the country than any of his predecessors. In 1608, he established a settlement on a hill richly clothed with vines and walnut trees. This is now Quebec. Champlain spent the winter there, and sowed grain, for which he found the soil well adapted. As soon as the season admitted, he continued his voyage up the river. Twenty-five leagues above Quebec he met a band of Indians belonging chiefly to the nation of the Algonquins. He most improperly engaged in an expedition undertaken by these Indians against the Iroquois, another large tribe. He set out with his new allies to the interior of the country, and on this expedition discovered Lake Champlain, now called by his name. In a subsequent expedition, in 1615, he accompanied his Indian allies in a long journey up the Ottawa; then, sometimes carrying the canoes overland, sometimes launching them on the lakes or rivers, they continued their march till they came to Lake Nipissing, north of Lake Huron. The country through which he passed is described as in many places broken and rocky, though not mountainous, and completely uncultivated ; yet there was a profusion of berries and delicate small fruits, which the natives preserved for winter use. The Nipissings, about 700 or 800 in SAMUEL DE CHAMPLAIN. 91 number, who inhabited the shores of this lake, received the party well. After remaining two days, they made their way by land and water to the coast of the great lake Attigouantan, which appeared a complete fresh-water sea, 300 leagues in length by 50 in breadth. This was evidently the northern part of Lake Huron, which seems to be separated into a distinct body of water by the continuous chain of islands which extend parallel to the shore. After quitting Lake Huron, they struck into the interior, and attacked the fort of the Iroquois. Champlain was wounded in the fight, and endured much suffering before again reaching the European settlement. After a visit to France, he again set sail in 1620, with a new band of colonists. He found the colony in an unsatisfactory state. The French having taken part in the wars between the Algonquins and the Iroquois, and having supplied the Indians with firearms, a destructive contest had been carried on, and the colonists had suffered. To add to their discomforts, war broke out with the English settlers, Quebec was surrendered to Sir David Kirk, and Champlain proceeded to London for the purpose of corfferring with the French ambassador there. The differences between the two nations were now in a frain of adjustment; but a large party in the French government set too little value on the settlement to think its restoration worth insisting upon. Champlain strongly deprecated this view of the subject; his counsels at length prevailed at the court of Louis xm.; and when the English found the matter seriously pressed, they yielded without much difficulty. The final treaty, however, was not signed till the 29th March, BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. 1632. Charles i. refinquished to Louis xni. the right which England had always claimed, by reason of the discovery of Cabot, to this portion of America; upon which Canada, Acadia (Nova Scotia), and Isle Royale (Cape Breton), were re-occupied by the French. To the French is due the discovery of the Mississippi, called by the natives Mechasipi. Hearing of a great river, they despatched Marquette, a priest, and Jolyet, a merchant of Quebec, who, with only six followers, sailed in two birch-bark canoes through the lakes, down Lake Michigan, till they landed at Chicago, at its southern extremity, and thence proceeded south till they reached the mighty stream. Their description of the country fired the imagination of the Sieur- do Salle, a young man of family and fortune, with the hope, one day to be realized, of effecting a passage to China and Japan through the unexplored regions of the west of Canada. Returning to France to obtain aid, he associated with himself the Chevalier de Tonti, an officer who had lost an arm in the Sicilian wars, and the celebrated Father Hennessin, who wrote a graphic account of the expedition. It was judged necessary to build a vessel above the Falls of Niagara, and to the spot which had been selected, all stores, arms, and material of every description had to be conveyed. The keel of this the first vessel of any size built to navigate those inland seas was laid on the 26th of January, 1679. On the 7th of August, the priests chanting the Te Deum, they set sail on the waters of Lake Erie, and passing through the Detroit River SIEUR DE SALLE. 93 and Lake St. Clair, entered Lake Huron on the 23rd. Here, exposed to a violent tempest, their vessel was nearly lost, and the hearts of the explorers completely failed them; but instead of seeking for strength and courage from the God who alone could give it, the pilot, while La Salle. and the rest Were on their knees preparing for death, cursed and swore at having been brought to perish in a vile lake, and to lose the glory he had acquired by the navigation of the high seas. The storm abated, and the party, refreshed, sailed through the Straits of Mackinack till they reached Green Bay in Lake Michigan. Hence La Salle sent back the vessel richly laden with furs, under charge of the pilot. She probably foundered in the lake, as she was never again heard of. La Salle, with heroic perseverance, and braving innumerable dangers, continued his voyage in canoes, and succeeded in embarking on the Mississippi, down. which he proceeded to its very mouth, and then returned to Quebec, after an absence of two years. Once more going back to France, La Salle obtained command of an expedition to found a settlement at the mouth of the Mississippi. Not aware of its longitude, he sailed 200 miles beyond it, when his men becoming discontented, murdered him and a nephew, his second in command. His discovery, however, led to the establishment of New Orleans, and suggested to the French the design of completely surrounding the English settlements, by means of forts, up the Mississippi, and along the lakes, so as to have them in their power whenever another war should occur. Had La Salle persevered in his original design, he might have discovered Lake 94 BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. Winnipeg, ascended the Saskatchewan, and crossing the Rocky Mountains, have reached the shores of the Pacific, and opened up that communication with China which it had entered into his ardent imagination to establish. As it was, his first scheme was ridiculed by the fur-trading population of those days as impracticable, and the name of Lachine was given to a village to the west of Montreal, established by some returned explorers, as if that were the farthest point where they could find rest for their feet to the west.* And in truth, justice has not even yet been done to the judgment and far-seeing powers of La Salle, when he formed his magnificent project of making La Nouvelle France, embracing as it did the far distant west, watered by the Winnipeg, the Assinniboine, the Red River, and the Saskatchewan, the great highway between the Atlantic and the Pacific. What hardihood and courage were required to penetrate into territories inhabited by fierce tribes, whose temper and customs were unknown, but who would, at a slight offence, have been aroused into fierce hostility! The village of Lachine is the only memorial which: remains of the mighty project of that noble mind— the name bestowed probably rather in ridicule than as i a compliment to the gallant explorer. Had La Salle, instead of turning south, continued his course westward, as he had intended, the shores of Lake Huron, and Lake Superior, and Lake Winnipeg, the banks of many other lakes and rivers, and of the mighty Saskatchewan, and the rich terri-. tory to the south of it, and of the gold-bearing * La Chine, as it was originally spelt, means China. HUDSON S BAY COMPANY. 95- Fraser, might even now have been covered with flourishing towns, villages, and settlements, which would have made the work of forming a railway across the continent one of comparatively easy accomplishment. The true North-west passage would have been opened up, and it would have been ascertained that none by water existed, except in too northern a latitude to make it available for any useful purpose. Other enterprizing Frenchmen, some influenced by the love of adventure, some by missionary zeal, and others by the desire to extend the fur trade, pushed westward in the course which has been indicated, occupying the territory to the very base of the Rocky Mountains, which they claimed as belonging to La Nouvelle France, or rather to Canada. They established amicable relations with the natives, erected forts, round which settlements were formed, and advanced civilization to an extent from which it afterwards greatly retrograded. While the French colonists were extending their discoveries and pushing the fur trade in one direction, their rivals, the English, were establishing themselves on the bleak shores of Hudson's Bay in the far north and north-west. They wisely employed every means by which the alliance and good feeling of the Iroquois Indians could be secured, in order to draw the trade away from the French settlements. To a considerable extent, the Hudson's Bay Company's traders succeeded in their project, in consequence of the injudicious and restrictive laws by which the French were bound. This induced the French to make war on the Iroquois, many of whom, including 96 BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. several chiefs, were treacherously seized and sent in chains to man the galleys in France, where, ill able to brook captivity, they soon perished. The Marquis de Denonville, the governor who perpetrated this atrocious act, was, in the following year, so hard pressed by an army of Iroquois, who pursued him from Niagara almost to the very gates of Montreal, that he was compelled to agree to the proposals they offered him, among which was the restoration of the captive chiefs, and all other prisoners. The stipulations of this treaty were in part fubilled by the Count de Frontenac, who landed at Montreal in 1689, with the survivors of the captured chiefs. The Indians of those days were very different to the remnant now to be found in any part of North America. They counted their warriors by thousands, and were formidable opponents. It would be impossible here to give anything like a clear account of the conflicts which took place between them on the one side, and the French and those tribes which had become allies of the French on the other. The French settlers had thus English enemies on the north-west in the Hudson's Bay traders, and the Indians under their influence, they had foes in the inhabitants of the New England provinces, and the Indians in alliance with them, and the settlements below Quebec were especially open to an attack by sea. The most formidable attack was that on Quebec, made by a fleet and army, fitted out at Boston, under Sir W. Phipps. By the bravery of De Frontenac it was successfully repulsed and compelled to return. COMPANY OF A HUNDRED PARTNERS. The French governor purposed to retaliate, and was fitting out an expedition to attack New York, in 1697, when the news of the treaty of Ryswick arrived. War, however, again broke out between the two rival powers in 1702. In truth, as will be seen, the colonists of these two civilized nations, instead of devoting their time to the cultivation of the ground, and to the development of the vast resources of the territory, were engaged in each other's destruction, and in encouraging the natives in those dreadful acts of barbarity for which they are only too notorious. There was, however, another cause which prevented the progress of the settlement and the establishment of that enlightened policy by which alone it could succeed. To point it out wo have to go somewhat back in our history- Many of the first settlers were Huguenots. Men of every class, from nobles of the highest rank down to humble labourers, fled to Canada to escape from persecution and secure the priceless privilege of liberty to worship God. This, of course, was exceedingly distasteful to the dominant party in France, and by the influence of the Jesuits a large number of priests, monks, and nuns were sent over to enforce the Roman Catholic faith. A powerful association was formed, called the "Company of a Hundred Partners," the primary object of which was set forth to be " the conversion of the Indians to the Catholic faith, an extension of the fur trado and of commerce generally, and the discovery of a route to the Pacific Ocean and to China through the great rivers and lakes of New France." Protestants and other heretics, as well as Jews, were entirely ex- H 98 BRITISH NORTH .AMERICA. eluded from the colony, and a Jesuit corps was to be supported by the Company. As may be supposed, the colony languished under a system so pernicious. Its evil results are indeed to be found among the French population to the present day. It is interesting to observe that the New England colonists, faithful to their character, sent an envoy to Canada with proposals to establish a lasting peace between the colonies, not to be disturbed even although the mother-countries should be at war. The offer was accepted on condition that the English would join the French in destroying the Iroquois. To this condition the New Englanders firmly refused to consent, and the negotiations were broken off. Soon after this jealousies between the two colonies again sprang up, and, instead of peace, a state of warfare commenced which continued for many years, the Indian tribes engaging fiercely, some on one side, some on the other. By the treaty of Utrecht, signed on the 30th of March, 1713, peace was restored between France and England. France retained Canada, but resigned Acadia (Nova Scotia) and Newfoundland. The population of the colony at that date amounted to 25,000, of whom 5,000 were said to be capable of bearing arms, though this is probably an exaggeration. Commerce and agriculture were much neglected, the fur trade (ever the greatest bane to true colonization) and military expeditions better suiting I the taste of the colonists. Thus, although Quebec contained 7,000 inhabitants, a large number of whom prided themselves on their rank and fashion, great poverty and absolute distress prevailed in the FRENCH DIVISION OF CANADA. 99 city. The settled portions of Canada above and below Quebec had been divided among about one hundred persons of distinction, these portions being called Seigniories. These were again divided into sections of 100 to 800 acres, and let to persons who brought them, by degrees, under cultivation, but, by the French laws of inheritance, being divided and subdivided among children, the whole of the first settled part of the province was cut up into small farms, which now with difficulty support their proprietors. The Seigniories themselves have become also so much divided that the heir of the original proprietor retains little more than an empty title. Above Quebec was the settlement of Trois Rivieres, not containing more than 800 inhabitants, mostly engaged in trade. Montreal was somewhat larger. Being surrounded by friendly Indians, it suffered little from the ravages of war, and from its commanding position it was already monopolising most of the trade of the country. Above Montreal not a settlement was to be found, although a series of wretched forts had been constructed which could scarcely hold their own against the attacks of hostile Indians. The most western stood at the point where Lakes Huron and Michigan unite. It was called Fort MicluTlimakinac. Its capture by the treachery of the Indians of the Five Nations forms a romantic but bloody episode in the history of the colony. The numerous priests and monks of various orders in Canada, although they might have assisted in the civilization of the Indians, kept the settlers in a state of superstitious ignorance, and contributed to retard the progress of the colony. The poliqy of ■,!■' ■ BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. France, too, was to make it a military rather than ah agricultural settlement, and, consequently, in material prosperity the settlers found themselves far outstripped by their British neighbours. By the year 1756, when the Marquis de Montcalm arrived in Canada with a considerable army, the colony of Massachusetts alone could muster 40,000 men, that of Connecticut 27,000, and other settlements proportionate numbers, to oppose him. At first the Canadians gained some successes, but in the year 1759, a British fleet sailing up the St. Lawrence, landed the army of the brave General Wolfe under the Heights of Abraham; the plains were gained, the two leaders fell at the moment that victory declared for the British, and Quebec was their reward. The history of this battle, so glorious to British arms and so important in its results, is well told by Montgomery Martin:— "The Marquis de Montcalm made vigorous preparations for the defence of Quebec; his armed force consisted of about 13,000 men, of whom six battalions were regulars and the remainder well disciplined Canadian troops, with some cavalry and Indians; his army was ranged from the River St. Lawrence to the Falls of Montmorenci, ready to oppose the landing of the British. He possessed also a few vessels of war and some fire-ships, with which an attempt was made to destroy the English fleet, but they were caught by grappling irons, and towed safely past. The strength of De Montcalm's defences was proved by the unsuccessful attempt made by Brigadier-general Monckton, who occupied Point Levi, opposite Quebec, to bombard the capital; CAPTURE OF QUEBEC. 101 and, again, by the failure of the attack of the 31st of July, headed by Wolfe, on the entrenchments at Montmorenci, in which the assailants were repulsed with a loss of 182 killed and 650 wounded, including 11 officers killed and 46 wounded. The boats, it is said, in which the British landed were accidentally delayed, the grenadiers rushed forward too eagerly, and the French, strongly posted, and aided by many Indian riflemen, poured on them a destructive fire, wnicn cc mipelled their retreat. "Wolfe keenly felt this disappointment, and expressed, in his despatches home, his doubt of being able to reduce Quebec during that campaign, as the fleet, his strongest arm, was ineffective against the rocky wall on which the citadel stood, and the positions of the French were, moreover, guarded by troops more numerous than his own. As soon as he had partially recovered from a violent fever, caused by grief and anxiety acting on a feeble frame, he called a council of war, in which it was agreed to act on the bold suggestion proposed by General Town- send, of attempting to gain the Heights of Abraham, which commanded the weakest point of the city. Wolfe accordingly commenced operations, and conducted them with an address, secrecy, and presence of mind rarely equalled. He deceived the French by still appearing to direct his whole attention to the Montmorenci entrenchments, and at nightfall on the 12th of September, 1759, the troops, consisting of the 15th, 22nd, 28th, 35th, 40th, 43rd, 45th, 17th, 48th, 58th, 60th (2nd and 3rd battalions), and 78th regiments, with a corps of rangers, embarked in two divisions; the boats dropped silently down the river, 102 BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. and the troops landed in safety at the place now called Wolfe's Cove. I Here a new difficulty presented itself—the ascent was so precipitous that Wolfe is said to have doubted its being practicable; but the soldiers, ledbyFrazer's Highlanders, and aided by the branches of shrubs and roots of trees growing among the rocks, succeeded in reaching the summit, where they were speedily drawn up in regular order. De Montcalm, maddened by finding his vigilance had failed in guarding this important pass, lost his usual prudence, and seeing that his opponent had gained so much by hazarding all, he, with an infatuation for which only strongly excited feeling can account, resolved upon meeting the British in battle array on the plains of | Abraham, without even waiting the return of 2,000 ■ men despatched by him as a corps of observation i under De Bougainville, to Cape Rouge, nine miles.; above Quebec. The French sallied forth from their almost impregnable fortress without field artillery, I and with a heat and precipitation which, under the circumstances, strangely contrasted with the coolness and precision of the British. The eagle eye of Wolfe took in at a glance all the details of his position. He knew that for him retreat was next to impossible ; yet while directing his main attention to the steady advance of his right division, he skilfully covered his flanks, and endeavoured to preserve their communication with the shore. Both armies may be said to have been without artillery, the French having only two guns, and the English a fight cannon, which the soldiers had dragged up the heights with ropes; the sabre and the bayonet CAPTURE OF QUEBEC. 108 accordingly decided the day, and never was the nervous strength of the British arm more manifestly displayed. The agile Scotch Highlanders powerfully wielded their stout claymores, and filled the place of cavalry, while the steady fire of the English fusileers compensated, in some degree, the absence of artillery. "On the part of the French 1,500 light infantry, and some Indian riflemen, advanced first, and began a desultory fire; but the British reserved their shot for the main body, and opened no general fire in return until their opponents were within forty yards. They then discharged a deadly volley, which Wolfe followed up by charging with the bayonet, at the head of the grenadiers of the 22nd, 40th, and 50th regiments, who had acquired the honourable title of Louisburg grenadiers. Although wounded by a ball in the wrist, and another in the groin, and Buffering from fever and dysentery, he still pressed on against the French, who fought with fury, heightened by the fanaticism excited in them by the priests against the English heretics. The heroism of De Montcalm was as conspicuous as that of his illustrious opponent; both headed their men—both rushed with eagerness wherever the battle raged most fiercely, and often by their personal prowess and example changed the fortune of the moment—both acutely sensible of the responsibility of their respective positions, and stimulated by the enthusiasm which only those who have mixed in the heady current of battle can conceive— though repeatedly wounded still pressed on at the head of their men, till, almost at the same moment, both of these gallant commanders received their 104 BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. death wound. A ball entered the breast of Wolfe, who, faint with the loss of blood, reeled, and leant against the shoulder of one of his officers, whispering, j Support me! let not my brave soldiers see me drop.' He was carried to some distance in the rear; his eyes were waxing dim, and the fife-blood: ebbing fast from his strong, and generous heart, when the cry of ' They run! they run!' rent the air, and seemed to stay for a moment his fleeting spirit. 'Who run?' he eagerly inquired. 'The French,' was the reply. 'Then,' said the general, ' pray, do one of you run to Colonel Barton, and tell him to march Webb's regiment with all speed down to Charles River, to cut off the retreat of the fugitives. Now, God be praised! I shall die happy.' The patriotic soldier then closed his eyes, and expired. The gallant Montcalm also perished, rejoicing in his last moments that he should not live to witness the surrender of Quebec; and both the conquerors and the conquered joined in deploring the loss of their brave and beloved commanders." It was not, however, till 1760 that Montreal was captured by General Amherst, and that the whole of Canada became a British province. In reality the conquest of Canada was a happy circumstance for the French colonists. They retained their laws and institutions, and the. free exercise of their religion; the whole of their ecclesiastical property was secured to the priests and monastic orders; the French language was still to be employed in all public matters and legal documents; they exchanged a condition of anarchy for one of order and tranquillity, and instead of the PROSPERITY UNDER ENGLISH RULE. 105 increasing extortion to which they had been subject they now enjoyed mild and equal laws. Freed from constant military service, the colonists were able to turn their energies towards the cultivation of the land, thereby greatly increasing their own wealth and the prosperity of the country at large. This was also much advanced by the Anglo-Saxon element, which soon began to be introduced among them. How fully they appreciated these advantages they showed when, on the outbreak of the .American War of Independence, they refused to join the Republicans, and fighting bravely on the side of the British rulers, drove back the invaders of their province. At the time of the conquest the population amounted to 65,000 souls, very much less than the present population of the city of Montreal alone. The part of Canada first settled was known as the Province of Quebec from 1763 up to 1791, when, in consequence of the settlement of the northern and western shores of Lake Ontario by Englishmen and loyalists from the revolted provinces, it was divided into the two provinces of Upper and Lower Canada, the Upper being under a lieutenant-governor. The chief event during the War of Independence connected with Canada was the combined attack in mid-winter on the province by Generals Montgomery and Arnold. The first succeeded in capturing Montreal, and the latter had got within twenty-one miles of Quebec, when, by a masterly movement, General Carleton, who had been engaged before Montreal, evading Arnold, threw himself into the former city. After a short siege, an attempt was made on the night of the 31st of December to carry BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. the city by assault, during the raging of a fearful snow storm. The assailants approached in silence, hoping to take the city by surprise, but were discovered and driven back with a tremendous fire of artillery and musketry, Montgomery and many officers and men being among the slain. When the morning dawned, not a trace of the attacking army could be seen, the survivors had retreated, and the dead lay shrouded beneath the sheet of snow which thickly covered the ground. From this period (1776) to the outbreak of the second American war in 1812, the population of the province steadily increased, as did its general prosperity. At this time settlements extended not only round Lake Ontario but along the course of the Niagara River and the coasts of Lake Erie, as well as in the interior of the peninsula of Upper Canada. On the declaration of war between England and the United States, two brave and judicious men were found at the head of affairs, Sir George Prevost as governor, and General Brock as lieutenant-governor of Upper Canada. So excellent was the spirit infused into the inhabitants by General Brock that he was able to attack the American General Hull and to compel him and his army to surrender prisoners of war. This success infused great confidence into the hearts of the colonists, and undoubtedly contributed much to the happy termination of the contest in favour of British interests. The inhabitants of the Lower Province with the greatest alacrity took up arms, and were quickly in a position to resist any attempt at invasion the enemy were likely to make. On the lakes the Americans gained the superiority W.AR WITH UNITED STATES. 107 by the ease with which they were able to construct and launch vessels. With a quickly extemporised fleet, Commodore Perry captured the entire British force on Lake Erie. General Proctor soon afterwards also lost the greater portion of the small army under him. This disaster was, however, compensated for by the gallant repulse, by Colonel de Salaberry, of a hostile force under General Hampton in Lower Canada. The last attempt against the Lower Province was by a force of 3,000 men under General Wilkinson, which was repulsed by a mere handful of British regulars. In the Upper Province the chief scene of the war was along the Niagara frontier. It was here, whilst resisting the advance of the enemy at Queenstown, that the gallant Brock fell. Burlington Heights, above the town of Hamilton, were the scene of some severe fighting. It was near there that Colonel Harvey, with only 704 bayonets, entered the camp of the enemy, 3,000 strong, during the night, killing and wounding many, and carrying off two generals and 120 prisoners. The arrival of Sir James Yeo, with a number of naval officers and men, in the Upper Province, gave the superiority on the lakes to the British, and, happily, on the 24th of December, 1814, a treaty of peace between Great Britain and the United States was signed at Ghent. On the 9th of March it was made known at Quebec by Sir George Prevost. Left to enjoy the advantages of peace, the colonists made even greater progress than before the war. As early as 1809 the first steam-boat—the Accommodation —was launched on the St. Lawrence; the second— the Swiftsure—made her first trip during the war in BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. 1813. Her length on deck was 140 feet, and her beam 24 feet. Two other boats were started in 1816, and in 1818 one commenced running between Buffalo on Lake Erie to Michillimackinac on Lake Huron. The Duke of Richmond arrived out as governor in 1818, and on the following year, unhappily, was deprived of life by the bite of a mad dog while on a tour through the Upper Province. The celebrated Rideau Canal, between Kingston and Ottawa, was, in 1819, begun by the British government, under the superintendence of Colonel By, of the Engineers, for the purpose of connecting the Ottawa River with the lakes. The town, built at the northern end, was then called Bytown, in honour of the founder, but has recently been changed to Ottawa. Prosperous as was the colony, there were, it appears, certain causes of discontent. These were greatly exaggerated by factious persons, who, for the sake of getting power into their own hands, proposed to make the province independent of the mother-country. Finding that their demands were not likely to be attended to, they, in 1837, induced many of the misguided peasantry to take up arms. In the Lower Province a large body of insurgents were defeated by a party of soldiers under Colonel Gare, when three hundred of the former were killed, and their leaders escaped into the United States. In the Upper Province the inhabitants put to flight a rebel force, who offered but slight resistance. It was. at this period that the steamer Caroline, after conveying a body of American sympathizers across the Niagara River, was burnt by a party of JEALOUSIES OF THE SETTLERS. 109 British militia, and allowed to drift over the Falls, a man named Durfee being killed in the affray. In the year 1841, a settler—McLeod by name—in the most unjustifiable manner was seized in the State of New York, and thrown into prison, accused of being the murderer of Durfee. For many months it was doubtful whether he would not be found guilty and executed, in which event England must have declared war against the United States. Happily, he was able to prove an alihi, not having even been present at the destruction of the Caroline, and he was liberated. Lord Durham was sent out in 1839, for the purpose of adjusting the affairs of the province, and the insurgent party had no reason to complain of any want of leniency on the part of the government. All real grievances were effectually remedied, and since that time not a single cause of complaint has been discovered. Lord Durham recommended the amalgamation of the two provinces, which was effected in 1839 by Mr. Poulett Thompson, who succeeded Lord Durham as governor-general. He sent home a very unfavourable report of the state of feeling in the colony. All political and patriotic feeling seemed merged in hostilities of race, language, and religion. Mutual jealousies and aversions raged between the French and English settlers. Every public question, every appointment, was regarded with favour or hostility just as it was considered to be a French or English proposition. Mr. Montgomery Martin quotes a despatch from the governor-general, in which he says, "No man looks to a practical measure of improvement. Talk to 110 BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. any one of education, or public works, or better laws—you might as well talk so much Greek to him. They have only one feeling—a hatred of race. The French hate the English, and the English hate the French. Every question resolves itself into that, and that alone." The efforts of successive governors have been directed to eradicate this baneful state of mutual alienation, and to amalgamate the people into one homogeneous whole. These efforts have been, to a great extent, successful. Pre-eminently serviceable in promoting this most desirable issue was the wise, temperate, conciliatory, yet firm policy pursued by Lord Elgin. A certain amount of rivalry still exists, and the embers of hostility between the two great races are even yet smouldering beneath the ashes. But year by year these feelings are dying. A generous competition—which shall do most to promote the interests of their common country—is taking the place of the former hostility and aversion. The result is, that in no former period of its history has Canada made such rapid strides, or enjoyed such great prosperity. By the blessing of God this progress will yet continue, and that vast territory become the home of multitudes of happy, peaceful, and prosperous settlers. •m CHAPTER VI. TOWNS, POPULATION, AND EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF CANADA. Chief towns of Canada: Quebec, Montreal, Three Rivers, Sherbrooke, Ottawa, Kingston, Toronto, Hamilton, London—Educational system of Canada—Universities, colleges, and schools—Religious statistics—Population—Influence of Protestantism and Catholicism on the population. Having described the physical aspects of Canada, and narrated the history of its discovery and exploration, we now come to the towns and cities which have sprung up with such wonderful rapidity, and thriven with such marked prosperity, on the shores of its lakes and rivers. It would be impossible to describe in detail the numerous townships which have come into existence in districts which, a few years ago, were primeval wilderness, overgrown with forest, and visited only by the lumberer or the trapper. We must, therefore, confine ourselves to such as from their size or history possess some importance. Taking the St. Lawrence as our guide, and following the course of that mighty stream, to which Canada owes so large a part of her prosperity, we find on or near its banks the following important towns and cities:—Quebec, Montreal, Three Rivers, Toronto, Ottawa, Kingston, Hamilton, and London. Quebec, the first reached on ascending the St. Lawrence, is finely situated on its northern bank. 112 BRITISH NORTH .AMERICA. It rises from the water's edge up a steep hill, with its frowning fortress on the summit, and on the left are the far-famed Heights of Abraham, where "Wolfe fell while winning this province for England. Quebec can hardly be called a well-built city, for, though there are some fine buildings, the streets are very irregular. For many years it was the undisputed capital of the province, and is still the seat of Government. It is divided into the upper and lower town, with streets winding up from the one to the other. Picturesque as it is when seen from the water, or from the opposite shore, the view from the city itself—especially from the citadel, the public gardens, or the platform—is still more beautiful. On the right are the cliffs under the Heights of Abraham, the tree-clothed shores which front them, and the majestic river flowing down from far-off lakes, and fed by countless streams. Below is the bay and harbour, covered with shipping, and capable of holding the largest fleet ever collected. On the opposite shore are the romantic cliffs of Point Levi; on the left the fertile Isle of Orleans, covered with hamlets, and the winding River St. Charles, with numerous heights and points of land, some with villages perched on them, and others still thickly covered with wood; while in the far-off east and north-east rise rang© beyond range of dark and frowning mountains, beginning at Cape Torment, and extending in a semicircle towards the west to the Bonhomme Mountains—a wild region, across which civilization has only of late begun to force its way. Quebec has numerous churches, convents, hospitals, a government-house (more than once burnt down), public libraries, colleges, and other public buildings.. QUEBEC—MONTREAL. 113 Many mercantile houses have their head-quarters here. It is the chief mart of the timber trade, and ships of very considerable burden are built in its yards at the mouth of the River St. Charles. The population of Quebec, like all the cities of Canada, has greatly increased within the last ten years. In 1851, including the troops usually in garrison, it was 40,000 : in 1861 it was 51,109, and is probably by this time 65,000. Montreal is the next city the traveller meets with on ascending the St. Lawrence, 180- miles above Quebec, on the northern shore, or rather on the island of Montreal, formed by the junction of the Ottawa with the St. Lawrence. It stands at the foot of a high hill (Mont Real), which gives its name to the city. It has some remarkably fine buildings of stone, and is far larger and more populous than Quebec. In 1851 it contained rather over 50,000 souls, including troops : it is said now to contain 110,000, so that in about twelve years it has doubled its population. This is mainly owing to its position, as being at the commencement of the ocean navigation of the St. Lawrence. The census of 1861 gave to Montreal a population of 90,323. Montreal is the great commercial city of Canada, as it enjoys the trade of the Ottawa, of the Upper St. Lawrence, and of the lake systems of the United States and Canada. Railways also lead from it in every direction. Montreal contains institutions of every description, some under charge of Roman Catholics, others of Protestants; banks, hospitals, libraries, colleges, and public schools, a mechanics' institute, a natural history society, societies for the relief of i 114 BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. distress in almost every form, and companies for the management of business of every description. About midway between Montreal and Quebec are the towns of ThreeRivers and Sherbrooke. The former of these is one of the most ancient in Canada, though it only contains about 6,000 inhabitants. It stands on the western .bank of the St. Lawrence. Sherbrooke is remarkable for its rapid rise. In 1851 it only numbered 1,000 inhabitants; in 1861 its population was nearly 6,000—a sixfold increase in ten years. This very rapid growth may perhaps be explained by the fact that, though in the heart of the Roman Catholic district, more than half its inhabitants are Protestants. The greater activity and energy of the Protestants over the Romanists is as distinctly marked in Canada as elsewhere. The law courts of their respective districts are held in Three Rivers and Sherbrooke. In the Upper Province there are five principal cities: Ottawa (till lately called Bytown), Kingston, Toronto (once called York), Hamilton, and London. Ottawa, as the nearest to the Lower Province, shall first be mentioned. Its superb position, standing high up on a lofty promontory, overlooking its majestic river, has already been adverted to. It is intended to be the future capital of the province, and, with that object in view, some handsome government buildings are in course of erection. In 1851 it had a population of 8,000. At the last census, in 1861, it numbered about 15,000, its population having nearly doubled in ten years. It is the chief seat of the timber or lumber trade, as it is called, and there are upwards of seventy firms engaged in cutting OTTAWA—EINGSTON. 115 timber on the banks of the Ottawa and its tributaries, and in transporting it to Quebec. Of the population, a very large proportion are lumberers— French Canadians or Irish—which accounts for the large number of Roman Catholics. Ottawa is connected by its river with Montreal, by rail with the St. Lawrence, and other important districts, and with Kingston and the lakes by canal. A fine suspension- bridge crossing the river connects it with the towns and villages on the opposite bank in Lower Canada. It is divided into the upper and lower towns, of which the former is the most striking. From the number of French caliche drivers, Canadian voy- ageurs or lumbermen, and Roman Catholic priests, it has a less English look than the other towns of the Upper Province. From its situation, Ottawa is one of the most healthy cities in America, though some- what bleak in winter. Continuing to ascend the St. Lawrence, Kingston is the next city in the Upper Province which is reached. It is within sight of the point whence the St. Lawrence leaves Lake Ontario on its course to the ocean, and is situated on gently rising ground, overlooking the harbour, with numerous islets in front; the shores of the United States are seen in the distance, and on the right is the commencement of a channel between Amherst Island, Prince Edward Island, and the mainland, affording some of the most beautiful wood and water scenery to be found in the province. The Indian name for the village which occupied its site was Cataraqui, and though the French formed a settlement on the spot and built a fort, that of Frontenac, it was not till it became the chief military BRITISH NORTH .AMERICA. and naval dep6t of the province that it rose into importance. It contains numerous public buildings, hospitals, colleges, and banks; a good grammar school, a mechanics' institute, and has four or five newspapers. It is 200 miles from Montreal, and 177 from Toronto, across Lake Ontario; but railways have now made travellers reckon distance by time rather than mileage. In 1851 it numbered 13,000 inhabitants; in 1861 it was only 14,000, showing a smaller increase in ten years than any other city of the province. Toronto, near the western end of Lake Ontario, is the most flourishing city of the Upper Province. It is beautifully situated, partly on level ground and partly on a gently rising hill, and has a fine natural harbour, formed by a narrow strip of land, directly in front of it. Its streets are well laid out, and its stores and shops are remarkably handsome. No city in Canada possesses so many advantages for a residence. Those of an educational kind are especially great. It has two Universities, Upper Canada College, Knox's College, County of York Grammar School, the Provincial Normal School, and Model School, besides many public and private schools, both for boys and girls. Toronto is a thoroughly English town in the manners, customs, and feeling of its inhabitants, and it enjoys most the conveniences of fife to be found in any of the larger cities of the old country. The long fist of societies, associations, companies, manufactories, steam-boats, sailing vessels, water-works, gas-works, hospitals, barracks, etc., belonging to Toronto, would prove this, while railways branch off from it in every, direction. In HAMILTON—LONDON. 117 1851 it had 30,000 inhabitants; in 1861, nearly 50,000. Hamilton is 45 miles south-west of Toronto, beautifully situated on the shore of Burlington Bay, an inlet of Lake Ontario. A narrow strip of land running across the mouth of the bay, makes the harbour completely land-locked. Hamilton is spread out on an extensive plain, backed by a range of hills, or rather a plateau, called the Mountain, on the edge of which are situated a number of picturesque mansions and villas, belonging to the leading merchants of the city. Li the valley in which the plain terminates on the west, stands the residence of the late well-known Sir Allan M'Nab. As affording all the conveniences of life, Hamilton is not inferior to Toronto. It has well laid-out broad streets, wide squares, good shops, and many handsome edifices. In 1851 it had about 11,000 inhabitants; in .1861 upwards of 19,000, of whom by far the larger number are Protestants. Railways and steam-boats make access to it easy; and as it stands in one of the richest agricultural districts of Upper Canada, it will probably continue to increase. London, situated on the river Thames, 75 miles west of Hamilton, in the richest agricultural district of Canada, has risen with great rapidity. Its settlement began in 1827, and it increased so fast that in 1834 a fresh survey was required; and though it has several times been burnt down, it has risen afresh from its ashes. In 1851 it had 6,000 inhabitants; in 1861, 12,000. By railway the traveller is conveyed in a short time to the shores of Lakes Huron, Ontario, Erie, Simcoe, St. Clair, or the Georgian BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. Bay. It possesses a great number of fine buildings, its streets are well laid out, its shops good, and it is altogether a pleasant residence. Besides the cities which have been mentioned, there are numerous large towns in the Upper Province which are rapidly increasing in size, such as Gait, Brantford, Guelph, Paris, Brockville, Perth, Cobourg, Port Hope, Peterborough, Goderich, and many others. So rapidly does the population of many districts increase, that what are to-day mere hamlets may in a very few years become towns and cities. Few countries in the world possess greater educational advantages than Canada. It has numerous colleges for advanced students, and schools open to all, either entirely free or at a small charge, for the great mass of the people. Of the former class there are in Toronto, the University of Toronto, University College, Upper Canada College, Knox College, Congregational College of British North America, St. Michael's College, and Trinity College; in Kingston, Regiopofis College, and Queen's College; in Cobourg, Yietoria College ; in Lennoxville, Bishop's College; in Montreal, MoGill College; in Ottawa, a college and ecclesiastical seminary for training Roman Catholic priests. This list is far from exhaustive. Many more might be mentioned. These, however, will suffice to show how great are the facilities afforded for the acquisition of a thorough classical education. In addition to these universities and colleges, which are designed for the more advanced students, PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 119 there are a large number of schools of various kinds and grades, wholly or in part supported by the Government, and which are under the general control of the Council of Education. They are open to all classes in the community, and are conducted without any regard to denominational and sectarian distinctions. These public schools may be divided into the following classes:— 1. The model or normal schools, for the training of teachers. These are efficient and well-conducted. But as they possess little interest for readers on this side the Atlantic, they need not receive further notice here. 2. The grammar schools, which form an intermediate fink between the common schools and the universities. These are under the superintendence and management of a board of trustees appointed by the council of each county. The school is located in the county town, and, where the population is sufficiently numerous to render additional schools desirable, others are instituted in different towns throughout the district. Each school receives a minimum sum of 400 dollars per annum from the Government. Pupils attending these schools are prepared for the universities at a very small expense. 3. The common schools. By means of these admirable institutions a good and sufficient education is provided for every child in the colony. For this purpose each township is divided into sections of a suitable extent for one school. In each of these sections trustees are appointed to superintend the management of the school, to determine the scale and mode of payment, to provide for the appointment of 'Ml,!*" 120 BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. teachers, the erection of a school-house, and all other requisites. From the admirable manner in which this system works it is probable that, in proportion to the population, no part of the world has more numerous or efficient schools than Upper Canada. The following table will show the state and progress of education in the province from 1849 to 1852 :— -1849. 1850. 1851. 1852. 253,364 7 2 40 2,871 157 809,493 259,258 7 2 57 3,059 224 950,551 258,607 8 2 70 3,001 159 953,239 262,755 8 2 98 3,010 167 Population between the ages of Normal and Model Schools Total Educational Institutions 3,077 3,349 3,240 3,285 733 400 1,120 138,465 3,648 684 376 2,070 151,891 4,663 632 380 2,550 170,254 3,948 751 545 2,894 179,587 5,133 Students in Normal Schools ... Students in Grammar Schools Students in Common Schools... Students in Private Schools ... Total sums expended for edu- 144,366 169,684 177,764 188,910 £88,478 £102,725 £154,218 £176,074 . The census returns of 1861 show that the work of education is still progressing. In that year the number of common schools in Upper Canada had risen to 4,019, with 329,918 scholars. The total number of educational institutions was returned as 4,559, attended by about 345,000 pupils and scholars. In Lower Canada the schools are much less numerous. This is to be partly accounted for by the comparative indifference of the Soman Catholic population RELIGIOUS STATISTICS. 121 to the advantages of education—an indifference encouraged by the priesthood—and partly from the aversion of the French Canadians to taxation. It is satisfactory to And, however, that even in Lower Canada the advantages of education are erowinerly appreciated, and the number of schools is. rapidly increasing. In addition to these numerous schools and colleges, there are special schools for the study of science, art, and medicine, and in most of the towns and cities are to be found museums, public libraries, and literary and mechanics' institutions. The religious statistics of Canada are, as might be expected, less full and exact than those of education. The following list of the principal denominations is taken from the census of 1861:— Denomination. Upper Canada. Lower Canada. Church of England 311,665 253,141 903,384 841,672 61,5.-,9 2-4,299 fl,357 13,819 27,780 63,322 043.734 48,607 80,688 7,781 4,927 488 7,919 Methodist* In addition to these there are several small congregations of which no exact statistics can be procured. The Protestant element, as this table shows, preponderates greatly in the Upper Province. Of the 1,396,091 inhabitants only 258,141 are Eoman Catholics. In the Lower Province, however, of the 1.110,664 inhabitants, 942,724 are Eoman Catholics, BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. against 167,940 Protestants. Thus in the Lower Province there are nearly six times as many Eoman Catholics as Protestants. The following comparative table of the population of Upper and Lower Canada, will show how great of late years has been the increase of the former:— Iiowex Canada, 1831 611,920 Upper Canada, 1832 261,060 Excess of Lower Canada. 250,860 Lower Canada, 1841 690,782 Upper Canada, 1842 486,055 Excess of Lower Canada. 204,727 Upper Canada, 1851 952,004 Lower Canada, 1851 890,261 Excess of Upper Canada. 61,743 Upper Canada, 1861 1,396,091 Lower Canada, 1861 1,110,664 Excess of Upper Canada 285,427 Thus we see that, though Lower Canada has gone on increasing, Upper Canada has not only caught it up, but has advanced rapidly beyond it. Upper Canada has more than five times the population it had then; Lower Canada is little more than doubled. A large number of Irish Eoman Catholics very naturally remain in the Lower Province among their co-religionists, while in the Upper Province the larger number of the Eoman Catholics are Irish. In the Upper Province there are settled about 23,000 Germans and Dutch, and upwards of 50,000 persons born in the United States, or who have resided there— a number very rapidly increasing. Of these upwards of 10,000 are negroes or coloured persons, many of whom have escaped from slavery. They are generally remarkable for their intelligence and industry, and make good domestic servants. In the Lower Province there are 13,000 persons who have come from the States, but there are few coloured persons among them. POPULATION—THE PRESS. 123 In Montreal there were, two years ago, 43,000 French Canadians, 14,000 Irish, 22,000 Canadians not French, and 7,000 English and Scotch. In Toronto there were of French origin 430, Irish 12,400, Canadians not French 18,700, English and Scotch 10,000, and States 2,000, a large proportion of whom were negroes. These figures will show more clearly than any description the difference in the composition of the population of the two provinces, except in Ottawa, where the lumberers turn the scale in favour of the French Canadians. The Indian population should not be overlooked. They number from 15,000 to 16,000 in the two provinces. They have slightly increased in numbers for the last twenty years; many have settled down in villages, and are Christians. Of these a few have completely amalgamated with the whites by intermarriages, and scarcely deserve the name of Indians. In 1863 there were thirty common schools in Upper Canada provided for the education of this portion of the population, with two industrial schools, one situated at Alnwick, the other at Mount Elgin. There were also eight Indian schools in Lower Canada. The press, that powerful agency in the education and training of a people, must not be overlooked. In Canada it is as perfectly unfettered as in England. In each of the cities there are several newspapers, and every town possesses one or more, though a large portion of the sheet is occupied by advertisements, which are of far more importance to settlers than general news. A number of scientific and literary periodicals, besides other works, got up in a most creditable way, are published in the province, while in the year 1861 books to the value of 530,233 dollars were imported into the province—more than double the value of books imported in 1850. There are 2,876 public libraries, containing 767,644 volumes. Of these, in Upper Canada alone, 1,875 are Sunday- school libraries, containing 288,664 volumes. In a country possessing the vast productive capabilities of Canada, the advancement of agricultural knowledge is most important, especially where there are difficulties of climate to contend with and to be overcome. Efforts are being made to form agricultural societies, with proper superintendents, model farms,' museums, and lectures on agriculture, at the colleges of Lower Canada. At the Eoman Catholic Colleges of St. Anne, St. Therese, and Eimouski, they already exist. In Upper Canada agricultural societies have for some time flourished, and the result is apparent in the improved style of cultivation. At Toronto, the Board of Agriculture of Upper Canada, during six weeks of the winter, gives a gratuitous course of lectures, which are attended by those farmers who are desirous of studying the theory and improving the practice of agriculture. Three lectures are given daily by professors of agriculture, of the veterinary art, and of natural philosophy. In the Upper Canada and McGill Universities, as also in the normal schools of both sections of the province, and elsewhere, courses of agriculture have been commenced, which are yielding excellent results. CHAPTEE VII. GOVERNMENT, PRODUCTIONS, .AND CLIMATE OF CANADA. Form of government—Taxation—Natural productions and manufactured articles—Agricultural statistics—Acquisition of land—Mineral wealth- Fisheries—Animals, wild and domestic — Climate — Occupations and amusements of the Canadians—Advance of civilization. Although Canada is a province of Great Britain, and its governor is appointed by the Crown, yet the Canadians have the entire-management of their own affairs. Prior to the year 1840, it was divided into two provinces, known as Upper and Lower Canada, possessing separate legislative bodies for the local government of each. In 1840 they were united, but, for many purposes, the old territorial divisions still exist. The governor is the representative of the Crown. He nominates an executive council, who are his responsible advisers. There are two legislative bodies, called the House of Assembly and the Legislative Council, the members of which are elected by the people. The system of government is in imitation of, and as similar as possible to, that which exists in Great Britain. Public offices and seats in the legislature are open to any candidate who is a British subject, holding a certain limited amount of property. The elective franchise is nearly universal. Every man paying an annual rental of 126 BRITISH NORTH .AMERICA. thirty dollars in the cities and towns, and twenty dollars in the rural districts, is entitled to vote. .Aliens and foreigners can acquire and hold lands; and, when naturalized, which takes place under very easy conditions, they enjoy the full privileges of natural-born British subjects in electoral and all other matters. In Upper Canada the laws of England prevail, subject to such alterations as have been made by the local parliament. In the Lower Province, those of France, as they were at the Conquest, remain in operation, subject also to alterations effected by the provincial legislature. In criminal cases, the laws of England prevail in both provinces. The municipal system of Canada works admirably. Upper Canada is divided into counties, sixty in number. The counties are sub-divided into townships, each of which is about 10 miles square. The inhabitants of a township elect annually five councillors; the councillors elect out of this number a presiding officer, who is designated the township reeve; the reeves and the deputy-reeves of the different townr ■ ships form the county council; this council elect their presiding officer, who is styled the warden. In each county there is a judge, a sheriff, one or more coroners, a clerk of the peace, a clerk of the county court, a registrar, and justices of the peace, which officers are appointed by the governor in council. The county councils are charged with the construction and repairs of jails, court-houses, roads, bridges, houses of correction, and grammar schools. They are empowered to grant moneys by loan to public works tending to the improvement of the ■PH5WBBWSWWWBBMH MXTNICLPAL STSTEM. 127 country, and to levy taxes for the redemption of debts incurred. Villages not having a population over 1,000 are governed by a board of police, and are styled police villages. When they possess above 1,000 inhabitants they become incorporated villages, and are governed by a council of five, whose reeve is a member of the county council ex officio. As soon as a village acquires a population of above 3,000, it is raised into a town, governed by a mayor and town-council, and is represented in the county council. The general revenue of the province is derived from customs, government land sales, income from public works, and various minor sources. "What is properly government or provincial taxation scarcely reaches the Canadian in a direct manner; and if he chooses to linirt. his waiits to the simple necessaries of life, indirect taxation will only reach him in the articles of tea and coffee, which cost even less than they do in England. The only taxes he is called on to pay he has the opportunity of voting for or against. Such taxes are for school purposes, road making, and bridge building, in the township in which he lives, and by which he benefits to a degree often one hundredfold greater than the amount of money or labour he is required to contribute. In 1862 the value of the exports from Canada was 33,596,125 dollars, the imports 48,600,633 dollars; the duty on which amounted to 4,652,748 dollars.* The productions of Canada may be classified under * In 1861 the value of the exports was 36,614,195 dollars; the imports, 43,054,386 dollars. 128 BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. the following heads:—Mines, Fisheries, Forests, Animals and their Products, Agricultural Produce, Manufactures, and Ships built. The total values of the articles exported under each of these heads during the year 1862, are thus returned by the Government:— Mines.—Copper, copper ore, iron ore, pig and scrap iron, mineral or earth oil, stone: 702,906 dollars. Fisheries.—Dried, smoked, pickled, and fresh fish; oil; furs and skins, the produce of creatures living in the seas: 703,896 dollars. Forests.—Ashes, pot and pearl; timber — ash, birch, elm, maple, oak, white pine, red pine, tamarack, walnut, banwood, butter-nut, and hickory, staves, masts, &c.: 9,482,897 dollars. Animals and their Products.—Horses, horned cattle, swine, sheep, poultry, beef, bacon, bear's grease (only 730 dollars worth), furs, honey, tallow, wool (value of wool 724,830 dollars): 3,923,590 dollars. Agricultural Produce.—Barley, flax, flour, green fruit, hops, hay, Indian corn, maple sugar, tobacco,- vegetables, wheat, etc. : 15,041,002 dollars. Manufactures.—"Woollen fabrics, rags, cottons, linen, furs, leathers, wood and India-rubber articles, carriages, machinery, musical instruments, books, boxes, glass, plaster, Indian bark-work, vinegar, biscuits, sugar, tallow, soap, candles, ale, beer, cider,- whisky, and other spirits: 415,327 dollars. Ships built at Quebec, 988,428 dollars. ' These articles by no means show the whole of the productions and manufactures of Canada. The J agricultural productions. 129 greater portion of the articles for domestic use, and agricultural instruments, are manufactured in the country—stoves, kitchen utensils, furniture, leather, and other articles may be named. Statistics are ugly looking things on paper, and yet they show the capabilities of a country in a dear matter-of-fact way, satisfactory to the intending settler. We therefore give the estimated produce of the harvest of 1862 in Upper Canada, observing that it is considerably lower than the actual produce of the two preceding years. We also give the average number of bushels per acre, and number of acres under cultivation :— Crop. No. of acres. Bushels per acre. Produce. Fall wheat 456,465 16 7,303,440 Spring wheat 999,218 13 12,989,834 Barley 124,867 20 2,497,740 Rje 73,394 13 960,622 Peas 483,623 16 7,737,968 Oats 712,258 224 16,026,692 Buckwheat... 78,293 16 1,262,638 Indian corn 83,913 25 2,097,825 Potatoes , 144,129 100 14,412,900 Turnips 77,079 250 18,268,760 Carrots 6,669 300 2,000,700 Mangel-wurzel 1,699 300 499,700 Beans ... 2,679 16 41,264 Clover and eras. seeds, 67,999 bushels altogether. Bay, 904,93<i acres, producing from f to 1 ton per acre = 678,902 tons. Flax and hemp, 6,000 acres, producing 2501bs. per acre = L,500,000 tons. This again gives a very inadequate idea of what the land produces, and a very low average has been given. In many districts the produce would be far greater, per acre. In ar report made to the Minister of Agriculture and Statistics of Canada, the following is stated to be an average crop on moderately good land in Upper K 130 BRITISH NORTH 4IMERICA. Canada:—Fall and spring wheat, from 20 to 25 bushels per acre; barley, 25 to 30 bushels; oats, 35 to 45 bushels; peas, 20 to 25 bushels; hay, 1 to 1£ tons; potatoes, 120 to 150 bushels; turnips, carots, and mangel-wurzel, 400 to 600 bushels. The average of the year 1860 was:—Fall wheat, 17$ bushels per acre; spring wheat, I7|-g-; barley, 23ff-; rye, 13 bushels 49 lbs.; peas and beans, 20 bushels 50 lbs.; oats, 31^; Indian corn, 28^; potatoes, 111-ff-; hay, 1 ton per acre. This is the average on the good, indifferent,-and bad land taken together in the far north, as well as in the fertile peninsula of Upper Canada. Tobacco is cultivated for home consumption, and all sorts of vegetables abound, and are brought to great perfection. Plums, apples, and pears are found in endless variety. Whole orchards of peach- trees, bearing a delicious fruit, are to be seen. Melons of all sorts are produced of the finest flavour, and even in Lower Canada wine of a fair quality has been made from grapes grown in the open air. Wine is even made from the wild grape. The cultivation of flax and hemp has of late greatly engaged public attention. The Government has caused public lectures to be given on the importance and advantage of cultivating plants producing textile fibre, and have imported from Europe a quantity of the best seed. Besides this, extensive factories are in the course of construction for the manufacture of flax; new machinery for its working has been imported, and machines from these models are being manufactured in the province. In no other country is the cultivation of flax and hemp more _J AGRICULTURAL IMPROVEMENT. 131 easy and more profitable, and there is nothing to prevent Canada from becoming the great source for the supply of the English markets. As the price lowers, the demand will increase, and for many purposes linen may yet be found to supersede cotton. About ten years only have passed since the institution in Canada of Provincial Agricultural Exhibitions : the results are most satisfactory as regards instruments, crops, and especially cattle. Many Canadian breeders of cattle go to the United States, and carry off the highest prizes from their rivals. There are in every parish and township some farmers of superior intelligence who set the example of a good system and improved agriculture, thus spreading important information through their immediate neighbourhood. The traveller through Canada, a few years back, who left the great highway of the St. Lawrence, had only the birch-bark canoe, the rough waggon, or the sleigh, on which to depend for locomotion: now he will not only find himself whirled alone: over a railwav in almost any direction, with steamers and good roads at its terniination, but he will find well cultivated farms, which, if wanting the neatness and finish that an abundant supply of labour can give, will yet show him stock and produce, with machines of all sorts, which may vie with those of well deserved repute in the old country. Day after day the Canadian farmer is saying to the labourer at home, " Come and help me for two years or so; you shall have abundant food and good wages, and then you may go, take possession of a hundred of the millions of acres, unfertile because unworked, and soon you may have a farm like this, and you and your children may be independent as I am." BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. To the intending emigrant few questions are more important than the terms on which he may procure land. Farms, more or less improved, can be rented in all parts of the province; land of every description in any quantity can be bought, if still rough, on very moderate terms. The Government also makes free grants, for the sake of peopling the districts where roads are opened up into new territories. One hundred acres are given to each actual settler. The conditions of location are, that the settler be eighteen years of age; that he take possession of the land allotted to him within six months; that he build a log-house, 16 feet by 20 ; that he reside on the lot, and clear and cultivate ten acres of land in the course of four years.* He has also to keep in order the piece of road which passes close to his section. To obtain the free grant he has simply to make application to the local crown land agent, who will furnish "him with full information as to what lands are to be granted, or are open for sale. On landing in the province the Government emigration agents will direct him how to proceed. On taking a section of wild land the settler finds everything to do, and should have several summer months before him. The cost of clearing wild lands is from 12 to 14 dollars per acre, but this the settler should do, as far as possible, by his own labour. Members of the same family ha-ving land may, however, reside together on one of their lots, thereby exempting them from building a residence on each location. ■«MS?^^^™" SALE OF CROWN LANDS. 133 The only charge on land is a tax, which seldom exceeds Id. per acre, and is applied to local improvements alone, in which the settler has a direct interest. To take a free grant lot, a settler, with a wife and three or four young children, should have from £40 to £50, which will be sufficient to support them for eighteen months, build a hut, and stock the farm. Besides making free grants, the Government has lands on sale in the more desirable localities, varying from 20 cents, or lOd. sterling, to one dollar, or 4s. 2d., per acre. The sales are made either for cash, or on time, when a higher price is charged. Measures have been taken to prevent land speculators from purchasing blocks of land, and retailing them at a high price, or keeping them unsettled, to the detriment of the more distant settlers outside them, till by these means their value is raised. Crown lands in Upper Canada are sold for cash at 70 cents=2s. lid. per acre, and when sold on time, at one dollar=4s. 2d. per acre: in that case one-fifth is to be paid at the time of sale, and the.re- maining four-fifths in four equal annual instalments, with interest at six per cent, on the purchase-money unpaid. On the north shore of Lake Huron, and Fort William on Lake Superior, in the Nepigon, and other settlements, lands are sold on time at 20 cents per acre. All crown lands in the newly surveyed territory are subject to settlement duties similar to those of free grants. Lands are also sold in blocks, varying from 40,000 to 60,000 acres, at about 2s. in Upper, and lOd. in Lower Canada, on condition that the purchaser cause the block to be BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. surveyed into lots of 100 to 200 acres each, according to a plan and in a manner approved of by Government, and that one-third of the block be settled within two years and a half from the time of sale, one- third more within seven years, and the residue within ten years, unless the last portion is unfit for cultivation. Settlers must have resided on their lots for two years continuously, and have cleared and cultivated ten acres of every 100 acres occupied by them, before they can obtain absolute titles. All these regulations, it will be seen, are for the benefit of the honest, hardworking settler. However fertile land may be, without roads it is of - little value, and a continuous fine of settlements is necessary to keep open even winter roads. Hence the wisdom of the plan pursued by the Canadian Government is apparent. It is calculated that Canada can support a population of eighteen millions; as yet, however, it has only reached three millions. It is therefore very clearly the duty and interest of the Government to offer every encouragement to emigrants I to come to the country, and, when they have arrivedI and settled, to treat them in that careful and liberal way which will induce them to persuade more of their countrymen to come over. On this account, Government officers are appointed to receive emigrants on their arrival, to assist them in every way, to give them all the information they require, and to forward them in the direction in which they wish to go. On the occasion also of a body of emigrants going to settle together, an officer accompanies them, to assist them in selecting their land, and' locating themselves. Emigrants are often suspicious, when they find them- MINERAL RESOURCES. 13,' selves thus assisted, that the Government has some ulterior object, and that they may be bound down in some objectionable way, and it is therefore most important that those who contemplate emigrating should have the real motive of the Government clearly explained to them. No part of the internal resources of Canada have been so little developed as her mines. Several valuable copper mines have of late years been discovered, and are now worked in the eastern townships. Those of Haskett Hill, Belvidere, and Black Biver, in the townships of Acton and Ascot, are best known. But it is to the northern shores of Lakes Huron and Superior that explorers and capitalists are turning their eyes, where the Bruce and other mines have already been for some time worked. On the shore of Thunder Bay a new copper mine has lately been .opened, and is being successfully worked. The Government offers the most advantageous terms to capitalists willing to explore and work mines. A fee formerly charged is abolished; mining tracts of not more than 400 acres are sold at a dollar an acre, and a royalty of 2$ per cent, only is charged on the value of the ore prepared for market. Iron, copper, zinc, lead, nickel, silver, and gold, are found. Numerous non-metallic minerals are plentiful—magnesia, lithographic stone, gypsum, sandstone, millstone, grindstone, and whetstone. Building materials of all kinds are abundant—beautiful marbles, granite, sandstones, slates, clays, and flag-stones. So, too, are combustibles—peat, asphaltum, and petroleum, or rock oil, of which during the last few years nume- BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. rous springs have been discovered, from which large quantities of oil have been taken. The fisheries of Canada are very valuable. Lower Canada possesses on the Eiver and Gulf of St. Lawrence an extent of coast of 1,000 miles, where the cod, herring, mackerel, salmon, and other fisheries, are carried on. Whale fishing is carried on by vessels fitted out at the port of Gaspe\ An average season for whale oil has produced about 27,000 dollars. The future settler may desire to learn something of the fish he is likely to catch for his own food. These are, in the first place, whitefisfi, salmon, trout, and herrings, in Lakes Huron, Ontario, and Superior; indeed, it may be said that they are found in all the larger lakes. The herring is likewise found in some of the smaller lakes. Then there is the superb sturgeon (but that is more rare); the maskinouge, pike, pickerel, sucker (white and black), black bass, rock bass, sunfisfi, perch, and several smaller kinds of fish swarm in all the smaller lakes and rivers. The salmon from the ocean ascends to the head of Lake Ontario, 1,200 miles from the Atlantic, but even he cannot leap the Falls of Niagara. It is a question whether the salmon would not live entirely in Huron and Superior if once transported to those waters, or if facilities were given them to ascend the canals. Of all the fish, the whitefish ranks first; the herring, too, is excellent; large quantities are salted for exportation. They are caught with the usual seine and drag-nets, and by the Indians with spears and also with scoop-nets. The Indian goes out at FARM STOCK. 137 night in his canoe, with a fight in the bow, and the fisfi, attracted by the light, comes to the surface : the Indian's sharp eye detects the fish, and the barbed spear is fixed in a moment in its body. The scoop- net is used by the Indians on the rapids, especially those of St. Mary, in the pools of which the whitefish rests on his upward course. One Indian sits in the stern, steering the canoe, and keeping it over the pool; another, with a long pole, moves it on till he sees a fish, when, seizing his scoop-net, which is like a landing-net with a long handle, he literally scoops it up, and transfers it to the bottom of his canoe. The angler will find abundant opportunities of exercising his skill in Canada; indeed, no country can afford finer salmon fishing. It has became necessary to protect the salmon fisheries by legal enactments, greatly, however, to the advantage of the true sportsman. Amongst the five-stock of the farm, horses, horned cattle, and sheep, thrive as well in Canada as in any part of Europe. Although sheep are not kept in such large flocks as in Australia, yet they are very numerous. As a proof of it, fourteen years ago (1850), although there was an influx of 40,000 immigrants to Upper Canada, 14,000 sheep were exported from the Upper Province, being the surplus stock over and above the number consumed as food, and the flocks on the farms. In the same year wool to the value of £14,000 was exported, that again being over and above what was manufactured in the country. Oxen are much used for draught, and they are invaluable for ploughing among stumps in newly cleared land, and for hauling timber where horses would quickly 138 BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. injure themselves. Cattle, however, require great care in winter, whilst horses are equally serviceable in winter and summer. From the small cost of feeding poultry, they are sold at a far lower price than in England; turkeys are very numerous, productive, and hardy, and when full grown can bear the cold well. Of wild animals there are a great variety, but they retire as colonization advances, and the larger kinds are rarely to be met with near the settlements. The moose is the largest of the deer tribe, exceeding the height of the largest horse ; it has a huge downcast head, thick upper lip, and large protruding fiorns. The caribou-deer is rather smaller, and very swift. There are a great variety of deer of all sizes; many are found within the boundaries of the settled districts, and the hunter has little difficulty in supplying himself with venison. The following extract from the journal of the author will give a fair idea of the sport they afford :—" Quebec : Dined with the mess of the Eegt. The colonel and some of his officers had just come back from an excursion northward to shoot the caribou, the North American reindeer, something like the fallow-deer, but stouter, built, and less graceful. The moose-deer is the largest, but, at the same time, the ugliest of the deer tribe. A moose will escape after a ball has been shot right through him. They are ugly customers to encounter; their countenances have a most vicious expression, and they look more like the hobgoblin deer of the Hartz Mountains than denizens of the matter-of-fact, spirit-shunned forests of North WILD -ANIMALS. 139 America. My friends went 60 miles down the river by sleighs, and then 30 miles inland on snow- shoes. They camped out eight days, sleeping at night wrapped up in buffalo-robes, with their feet to a blazing fire, and so far from complaining of the cold, they very much enjoyed this style of fife. They killed five caribous, the haunches of which they brought home on a toboggin, towed astern one of their sleighs." This was in December, and in the very coldest part of Lower Canada. Wolves and wolverenes are found in the northern districts, but they are fast being exterminated. Foxes are numerous. Black bears in unsettled districts are common, but they never attack men, though they will carry off sheep and pigs. They are very fond of honey, and will five on nuts and roots. Hares are numerous, and turn white in winter, but rabbits are not known. The racoon is like a fox, with the head of a dog, and a round bushy tail; the hind legs are shorter than the fore, and both are armed with sharp claws. They live in trees, and can leap from branch to branch with great agifitv- The fur is even more valued than that of the beaver. The following list contains most of the animals found in Canada not already named:—Black, red, and grey squirrel; wapity, or American elk; black and grey wolf, lynx, otter, beaver, musk rat, ground hog, wood- chuck or marmot, flying squirrel, skunk, deer-mouse or jerboa, sheew, martin, mink, fisher, a species of ermine, porcupine or hedgehog. Many of these animals are eatable, and their skins are more or less valuable. Bears and wolves are becoming rare near the settlements. The buffalo, or, properly speaking, 140 BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. the bison, should not be ranked as a Canadian animal. The birds of Canada are very numerous; many of them are migratory. Ducks of all sorts abound, and sometimes flocks of pigeons fly in countless myriads . over the country, and are shot by thousands. Wild turkeys and wild geese are found also in great numbers. There are many varieties of woodpeckers; the ruby-throated humming-bird is seen, with several other species, sporting among the flower-beds in summer. The flora of Canada is too extensive and varied to describe within the limits of tfiis volume. There is no lack of flowers of beautiful hue and superb size; while of trees it is only necessary to say that every description required by man for use or ornament is to be found in the province. Most erroneous notions are entertained in England respecting the climate of Canada. The summer is warm, and sometimes very hot, but it is dry, healthy, and very pleasant. The winters vary exceedingly, and there is a considerable difference between the cold of the Upper and Lower Province, the Upper being much the least severe; though the winter is sometimes quite open till after Christmas in the Lower Province. Such was the case in 1862-3, and the author has experienced a thaw in January at Quebec. In his journal, at the end of December, he finds—IA traveller in North America experiences great variations of temperature in the course of a very few days. An acquaintance, who had been shooting on the western prairies, told me that as he passed through Detroit at the very end of November, CANADIAN WINTER. 141 the weather was defightfully warm, and that landing here three days afterwards, he found hard frost and deep snow." A recent writer gives the following; accurate de- scription of a Canadian winter:— " The severity of winter in Canada is very commonly much exaggerated in England. The thermometer in the dry, clear, bracing atmosphere of this colony, is, to a certain extent, a rather imperfect guide to the inquirer accustomed to its ranges in the raw, damp atmosphere of our own islands. Throughout the greater part of the winter season in Canada the cold in the open air is by no means unpleasant. "During a comparatively few days only the degree of cold is uncomfortable. Persons who have resided in Canada not unfrequently observe that they have experienced more disagreeable sensations from the raw easterly winds of spring or autumn, while tra- velling in this country, than they have in the depth of winter in Canada, though travelling in an open sleigh. This fact of open sleighs being used throughout the whole winter, is one of the best proofs of the enjoyable nature of the climate. With good horses, and a well-beaten snow-path on the principal roads of the country, the exercise of sleigh-driving is most exhilarating. The horses, with their tinkling bells on their necks, seem to participate, as they bound along, in the enjoyment of the pure, bracing atmosphere. Warm clothing and good heavy furs are all that are requisite to ensure complete comfort in an open sleigh in the depth of winter. " Snow finally disappears in Lower Canada about the middle of April, and in Upper Canada, especially 142 BRITISH NORTH .AMERICA. the more western parts, about a month earlier. Then, under the influence of the genial south wind, all traces of winter rapidly disappear." Although in the Lower Province the cold is greater, there are more fine days than in the Upper—about three hundred fine to sixty-five of either rain or snow, whilst in the Upper Province, though the snow remains less time on the ground, there are perhaps twentymore days on which either rain or snow falls. Still, taking all points into consideration, people from England will infinitely prefer the Upper to the Lower Province. We have before us some observations made at Toronto during the winters of 1850-1, and 1851-2, which, it should be remarked, set in earlier and were more severe than usual. During the year rain fell one hundred days, snow on fifty, and two hundred and fifteen days were perfectly fair. The warmest day was on the 15th of September, and the coldest on the 30th of January. Toronto Bay was clear of ice on the 24th of March. Frogs were first heard on the 26th of March. Wild pigeons first seen on 31st of March. Indian summer, from 6th to 11th of October. First sleighing in Toronto, 26th of November. Toronto Bay frozen over, 8th of December. Sleighs crossing the Bay, 16th December. This was an unusually severe winter, but it was a far more agreeable and useful season than had it been an open winter with alternate frosts and thaws.* * The following was the author's experience on one occasion. He left Montreal when the sleighs, with their merry-sounding bells, were driving gaily about, and every one was enjoying the weather; two days afterwards he was in Boston, when there was a warm thaw, a dense fog, and the streets so full of mud and melting snow as to be almost impassable ; too soft for sleighs and too deep for wheels, and only to be crossed with Indiarubber boots or on stilts. i FISHINGS—SLEIGHLNG. 143 Among the summer amusements of those living on the shores of the lakes, vachting and boating take the first rank. Fishing affords abundant employment to others, and among the birds and four-footed creatures the sportsman will find no want of occupation. Picnics, too, are common, and in no country are they more agreeable. The naturalist, also, lias an inexhaustible field of delightful labour open to him. To the winter, however, Canadians look forward as the time for indulging in amusements out of doors. Sleighing is universal. Sleighs are of every possible form, from, the graceful shell-like vehicle richly ornamented, with handsome furs filling it and hang- ing over the sides, to the rough wooden box on runners used by the hahitans of the Lower Province. The horse's harness of the better sort is gaily adorned, and has merrily tinkling bells attached to it. Sleighs hold two or more persons, generally a gentleman drives, and the lady by his side is so muffled up in furs as to defy the cold. People often form large sleighing parties, and in many of the towns meet in some public place and drive up and down, as is done in the height of summer in Hyde Park. Picnics, too, take place in mid-winter, when, although the usual repast is eaten in-doors, several out-door amusements are indulged in. The chief is called coasting, that is, climbing to the top of a steep snow-covered hill, and descending on a piece of board, guided generally by a boy, who adroitly uses his legs as a rudder. Ladies and gentlemen thus go up and down, following each other rapidly, and often upsetting in the snow, with little chance of damage. One sort of these primitive 144 BRITISH N0KTH -AMERIOA. sleighs is called a toboggin, already spoken of as used by the Indians, on which they, or rather their squaws, drag their property. They are thin strips of wood turned up at the front. Tommycod fishing is another amusement, though rather less in vogue than formerly. A snow hut of good size is erected on the ice, and a fire is lighted in the centre, near a hole which is cut through the ice into the water. The fish, attracted by the light, come to the hole, and eagerly swallowing the bait let down to them, are forthwith transferred to the frying-pan. Often a merry fishing-party will spend many of the early hours of the night, heedless of the bitter cold to be experienced outside. Skating is a general amusement, but as the snow quickly spoils the ice on the lakes, places under cover have been formed, of late years, in the chief cities, where persons may enjoy the exercise, independent of the weather, as long as the frost continues. Even sailing in mid-winter is accomplished. A boat, fully rigged, is placed on runners, and provided with a long oar with a heavy iron blade, which can cut into the ice. This serves the purpose of a rudder. The wind acts on the sails, and sends the boat along as though it were in the water; she can thus sail very close to the wind, and* is put about and steered by the rudder. The ice, however, must be tolerably free from snow to allow of a boat sailing well. Snow-shoeing, or walking in snow-shoes, is another very common amusement, both of ladies and gentlemen. Some practice is required before a person can walk with ease. The snow-shoe is an oblong frame about three feet in length, with net-work in the § WINTER TRAVELLING. 145 centre. This is strapped to the foot, and, from its wide surface, prevents it from sinking into the snow ; while, from its lightness, it is easily lifted. After being exposed to Hie rays of the sun for a few days, the surface of the snow hardens; and travellers can make their way without impediment across country, over hedges, walls, ditches, and streams, which would be otherwise impassable. Both whites and Indians make long journeys on snow-shoes. Even English ladies learn to walk with ease and pleasure, and often go considerable distances. Social meetings of all sorts take place in winter, in consequence of the greater leisure enjoyed at that season, and from the facilities afforded for moving about. Closed carriages are seldom used, though the common sleighs used for journeys have roofs with curtains. On the railways, the American style of carriage, or car, is generally used. They allow of passing from one end to the other, and are warmed by stoves, with pipes running round them. Snow is the great opponent of railway tiavefiing in Canada, but it is found that a belt of forest on either side of the line prevents it from accumulating; and it is to be fioped that when new lines are constructed, trees will be left along the line, or planted where they do not exist. Those who dread a Canadian winter, have only to remember what the officers and men in the Arctic expedition went through year after year without suffering, and they will learn to laugh at their former fears regarding the severities of Canadian cold. Per- sons in the enjoyment of health, youth, and spirits, will find it a most enjoyable season; while the industrious labourer and mechanic have the means of 146 BRITISH NORTH -AMERICA. keeping out the cold more effectually than they generally have in the old country. There are considerable differences between the inhabitants of the Upper and Lower Province in character and mode of living. This is only to be expected from the fact that they belong to such different races. In the Lower Province the French element, as we have seen, largely preponderates. But the inhabitants belong to a bygone generation of the French people. They retain much of the character which prevailed in France before the changes wrought by the great Eevolution. As a rule the peasantry are kind, honest, courteous, and simple in their habits. They are, however, very ignorant, and thus become- an easy prey to priests and demagogues. They are frugal rather than industrious. Their farming is poor and slovenly, though in this respect they are improving. Their houses are generally log huts raised on platforms of stone or earth, and usually have one large common room, with a huge stove in the centre; the bedrooms are small, and are arranged round the centre saloon. Persons in better circumstances often have broad verandahs running round their houses, which, when gaily painted, with a profusion of flowers in front, gives the habitations a neat, pleasant appearance. In each village a number of little erections are seen, one between every five or six houses, sometimes standing on four pillars, and sometimes on platforms, something like bee-hives in shape, with high-pitched roofs over them. These are ovens, and are shared by five or six proprietors. TOWNS AND VILLAGES. 147 The villages have a Swiss look, with their high- pitched roofe, projecting eaves, bright-coloured verandahs, and churches of odd architecture and tall tin-covered spires. At the corners, too, may be seen shrines like dolls' houses, or pedestals with figures on them, of the Virgin Mary, adorned with silk robes and a tinsel crown; and at others, large black crosses surrounded by palisades. The fences, too, surrounding the houses are neatly carved and painted, as are many enclosing the fields; indeed, in the older settlements, not a snake fence is to be seen. The villages have generally a settled, old-fashioned look, very unlike the push-a-head, make-shift appearance of most of those in the west—where, though the towns are superior, the villages have a less settled look, and, as the climate is milder, the houses are not so substantial. Not only are the church spires of tin, but the roofs of many houses in Montreal, Quebec, and other towns and villages, are covered with it, which gives them, at a distance, a very un-English look. In the Upper Province, from the largest town to the smallest, everything is in transition, and gives signs of rapid progress. The habitations are of every possible style of architecture—plank, log, dab and wattle, brick, and clay. Snake fences forn? the usual division between the fields, and stump.. waiting for the decay of their roots are observed in every direction. Plank pavements, or rather sidewalks, are still to be found in the towns. Plank and corduroy roads are more common than those formed according to the system of Macadam. The telegraph- wire is found traversing the pathless forest, and often serves to guide the horseman out of its mazes. The L48 BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. railroad, too, is met with when the traveller fancies himself away from the neighbourhood of all signs of civilization; and he is reminded that though in the New World, it is one which is rapidly assimilating itself to the Old, and that ere many years, or perhaps months, have passed away, the ground on which he stands may become the site of a populous village or of corn-producing fields. In the cities, the private residences are generally substantially built of brick, and there are numerous public edifices of fine hewn stone, of a good style of architecture. In the Lower Province the private houses are commonly warmed by one large stove, with iron hot-air pipes communicating with all the rooms. This leaves the temperature of the dwelling too much at the mercy of the cook, and may be regulated rather by her temper than by the feelings of the inmates. In Upper Canada, though stoves are also used, open grates are much more common; giving better ventilation, and allowing the inmates that true satisfaction to an Englishman of poking the fire. With regard to the expenses of living in the two provinces, they vary but little, though they are perhaps slightly greater in the Upper than the Lower. In the cities they are altogether not much less than they would be in England for a family mixing in society. La the country districts, on the other hand, a family may, in the vicinity of a village or small town, live with comfort and respectability at a very much less cost than in England, provided luxuries are banished. To- do this they must farm as much land as will supply them with provisions ; their sugar should be produced from their own sugar- ii FARM PRODUCTIONS. 149 bush (maple trees); tobacco may be of home growth; their clothes and linen made from their home-spun wool and flax; soap and candles may be made at home; while the neighbouring, streams and lakes will supply an abundance of fish. The woods will supply fuel. Abundance of game may be constantly had for the trouble of shooting it. House rent in the towns is high, but in the country a comfortable abode can be erected at slight cost, or rented cheaply, and thus a family with one or two hundred a year of income, over and above the produce of the farm, may live with a comfort utterly unattainable in England, and enjoy the society of neighbours circumstanced like themselves and living in the same style. Although young men who have no profession or knowledge of farming are strongly advised not to emigrate in the hope of obtaining situations, the sons of settlers brought up in the country will find many more openings for employment suited to their tastes than in England, while farming is certain to yield ample remuneration for generations to come. Educated engineers especially will find abundant occupation on the numberless public works required for the development of the resources of the country. Whilst Canada affords great advantages and inducements to the more educated classes of society, it is to the small farmer or the hardy labouring man that its attractions are greatest. Land can be purchased at a very small cost or rented at a low rate, either wild or partly cleared, while he will not fail to obtain good wages on landing if he seeks for employment in the proper direction. For this purpose Government officers are stationed at each port to KB 150 BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. direct him where to go. If he lands without money, in two years he may save enough, besides having gained some valuable experience, to take up a grant of a hundred acres, which he can obtain along one of the great colonization roads, together with a small capital with which he may lay in provisions to last him till his crops come round; he may build his hut, get the necessary furniture and cooking utensils, tools, and farming implements, and a cow. Pigs and poultry he can add after his crops are gathered. He will thus be able gradually to accumulate around him many conveniences and comforts. And before long he will be able to secure the title-deeds of a freehold farm, which becomes his and his heirs for ever. "I have never known," said a clergyman, long resident in Canada, to the author, | an industrious, sober man fail of success in any part of the country. I have, of course, seen the strong man stricken down by disease or accident, and children by the death of a parent deprived of their support; but poverty, or anything like poverty, except as the evident result of profligacy or idleness, I have not met in the whole course of my experience." CHAPTEE VIII. BRITISH CENTRAL NORTH AMERICA. Boundaries—Extent—Physical geography—The Fertile Belt—Early settlers —Various approaches—Water communications. ' In an account of British North America, Canada claims, and has received, the first place, on account of its size and importance. Instead of turning eastward, and giving an account of the long-established and well-known settlements on this side of the continent, let us travel westward to that vast territory extending from Canada to the Eocky Mountains, properly called British Central North America, and commonly spoken of in Canada as the North-west Territory, but known in England as Eupert's Land and the Hudson's Bay Company's possessions. The boundaries of this magnificent, but little- known territory, are clearly defined on three sides— that is to say, on the south, east, and west. On the north-east the exact boundary is disputed. It may be said to extend to within about a hundred miles of Hudson's Bay, which was the extent of the territory at the time of the conquest of Canada, the Hudson's Bay Company, representing the English nation, I'll BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. claiming and holding at that period the shores, and the shores only, of Hudson's Bay, for about a hundred miles, all the rest of the territory being claimed, held, and traded over by the French exclusively. Due north it extends to, and is bounded by, the Polar Ocean. On the east there is a height of land of no great elevation, from which, on one side, the streams flow into Lake Superior, on the other, into Lake Winnipeg. The height of land from near Dog Lake runs north, circles round Lake Nepigon, and then turns north-east and east. This height forms the eastern boundary of British Central North America. It is bounded on the south by the United States. The international boundary line commences at the mouth of Pigeon Biver, on Lake Superior, latitude 48°, and continues on the same parallel west, till, passing the Lake of the Woods, it runs north to the 49th parallel of latitude, on which it continues to the Eocky Mountains and the Pacific, forming the southern boundary also of British Columbia. The western boundary is formed by the summits of the Eocky Mountains, which separate it from British Columbia; while on the extreme northwest it is bounded by the Eussian possessions. As " distance lends enchantment to the view," the tales-of travellers were the more readily believed when they reported that the Eocky Mountains were a range of lofty snow-covered barriers, with beetling cliffs, and frightful precipices scarcely to be scaled by the foot of the hardy hunter. The truth is, that the ascent from the east is sometimes so gradual, that, at more than one pass, the summit is gained before the traveller is aware that he has commenced the final ascent, and he GEOGRAPHICAL POSITION. 153 finds that he has passed into British Columbia before he realizes that he has crossed the boundary fine. Not only have hunters, Indians, fur traders, and explorers, passed this once-dreaded barrier, but large parties of emigrants, with women and children, from Canada and the Eed Eiver, have traversed the whole intermediate distance, have crossed the mountain- chain, and descended into British Columbia. In proceeding with a description of this territory, it may be noticed that the parallel of 55°, the boundary of the settled districts on the north, passes through the south of Scotland and the north of Leland. The parallel which forms the southern boundary passes close to Paris, so that the territory is considerably more to the south than the British Islands—the whole of Scotland being f o the north of it. The western hemisphere, however, is subject to far greater alternations of heat and cold than the eastern. But as we travel westward across the American continent, the climate becomes more and more temperate. Thus, if we proceed in a north-westerly direction from Western Canada—say from Toronto —the climate varies but slightly; so that places on the western coast of America, in a more northern latitude, enjoy a far more temperate climate than those on the east coast much to the south of them. The climate, for instance, of Victoria, Vancouver's Island, but a little to the south of 49°, may compare favourably with that of New York, which is in latitude 41°. The territory of British Central North America may be said to measure about 1,200 miles from east to west, and 400 miles from north to south. 154 BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. From about its centre the land begins to slope upwards towards the west, till it gains an elevation of 2,000 feet above the sea, where, at its western extremity, the Eocky Mountains form an abrupt termination to this long-continued ascent. Although some of the passes are easy, and of slight elevation, the general range is lofty, with rugged and precipitous peaks in many places. But the eastern side is composed of gradual slopes, thickly covered with timber of magnificent growth, amid which numerous streams rush down, soon forming rivers navigable for canoes and timber-rafts. On the western or British Columbian side, the descent is more abrupt, and the trees not of so fine a growth. There are several peculiar features in this vast territory. One of the most remarkable is, that the streams from south-east and west flow towards the centre, which, although the most fertile portion, is thinly wooded; whereas on both the east and west are dense forests, the trees from which can be brought down by the streams to the parts where they are most required for building and other purposes. In the region to the north-west of Lake Superior are three sheets of water, united by rivers, or rather straits, viz., Lakes Winnipeg, Winnipegosis, and Manitobah, having together an area of 13,000 square miles, being twice the size of Lake Ontario, or nearly half as much of the earth's surface as is occupied by Leland. Some small lakes joined to them are embraced in this calculation. They occupy the lowest depression of the great central basin of British North America, and yet are 628 feet above the level of the sea. !*• I. FERTILE DISTRICTS. 155 This great central basin, or valley, is drained by three large rivers : the Saskatchewan, rising in the Eocky Mountains, from the west; the Winnipeg, rising in the height of land above Dog Lake, from the east; and the Eed Eiver, rising in the State of Minnesota, from the south. South-east of Lake Winnipeg, and communicating with it by the Eiver Winnipeg, will be found the beautiful Lake of the Woods. From near the western shore of the Lake of the Woods commences the most remarkable feature of the territory—a belt of very fertile arable land (partly a rich open prairie country, partly covered with groves of aspen and other trees), known as the Fertile Belt, which, averaging from 80 to 100 miles in width, stretches for 800 miles to the very- foot of the Eocky Mountains. The area of this extraordinary belt of rich soil and pasturage is about forty millions of acres. Including adjacent fertile districts, the area may be estimated at not less than 80,000 square miles, or considerably more fertile land than the whole of Canada is supposed to contain. The North Saskatchewan, rising in the Eocky Mountains, near Howe's Pass (while the south branch rises near the Vermilion Pass), flows through the Fertile Belt, in a valley varying from one-fourth of a mile to a mile in breadth, and excavated to the depth of 200 to 300 feet below the level of the prairie or plains, till it reaches the low country some miles east of Fort a, la Corne. While the northern part of the territory is watered by the North Saskatchewan flowing from west to east, the southern part has a fine of water communication in the south branch of the Saskatchewan (into which flows the Calling MMi BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. Eiver) and a chain of long deep lakes, which join the Assinniboine, that stream falling into the Eed Eiver. Numerous tributary streams, passing directly across the Fertile Belt, fall into the Assinniboine, many of them navigable for boats, all abounding with fish, affording water power for mills and machinery, and aiding in fertilizing the ground. The portion of the territory east of the Lake of the Woods is very different to that which has been described. It is full of lakes united by rivers and exceedingly rapid streams, descending from the height of land forming the Canadian border, which is about 100 miles from Lake Superior, and 1,485 feet above the level of the sea. The soil of this lake region is of a partially rocky character, thickly covered, however, with trees of fine growth, with many spots fit for agricultural purposes. The climate, also, is far superior to that of the shores of Lake Superior. To the north of this lake and forest region there stretches a line of country with few streams and no lakes, along which it is proposed to form the Great Highway from Canada to the Pacific. At present the route from Lake Superior usually taken by canoes is up the Eaministiquia, through Dog Lake and Eiver, over the high lands, and down into the Lac des Milles Lacs; thence along the Eiver Seine, into Eainy Lake, from it along Eainy Eiver, into the Lake of the Woods. That lake communicates, by the Eiver Winnipeg, with Lake Winnipeg ; and as the Eed Eiver falls into the latter lake, the passage, though roundabout, is easy. A far shorter road, however, is that from Lake RED RIVER SETTLEMENT. 157 Plat, the north-western point of the Lake of the Woods, to the Eed Eiver by land, the whole distance being about 500 miles. This will be the first portion of the Great Highway opened up across America, and probably about 400 miles of this part of it will be found to be by far the most difficult part of the undertaking. Supposing, then, the traveller were to arrive at Fort William at the mouth of the Kaministiquia— which can be done with the greatest ease, as there is a weekly steam communication with Toronto, via, Colfingwood—he would, as numbers are constantly doing, proceed along a very interesting and romantic route, partly by canoes, and partly on horseback, to the Eed Eiver or Selkirk settlement, where is collected a community of some 6,000 or 7,000 British subjects, with a Protestant bishop and clergy, Eoman Catholic bishop and priests, and a chief factor of the Hudson's Bay Company, styled by them the governor, with one or more officers under him. This settlement is nearly the centre of British America, midway between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, with no impracticable barriers to bar approach, but with great natural facilities for transport across the magnificent territory in which it is placed. It has the fertile and flourishing Province of Canada on one side, and that of British Columbia, with its exhaustless gold fields, on the other, and forms the great highway between them, with no extraordinary difficulties to be surmounted, whilst from its fertility it is capable of supporting the population necessary to keep the way open. This territory presents itself to us under three important aspects: as the future home ——— 158 BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. of thousands of English people; as a great highway from England to China, and the' numberless islands of the Eacific; and as the link with which, in one unbroken chain, all the British provinces of North America may be united so as to form one great community, with free laws and institutions. We will first consider it as a Crown colony about to be settled. The richness of the valleys of the Mississippi and St. Lawrence are well known, but few supposed that there existed, in British territory, another valley capable of rivalling them in the value of its productions : yet such is the case, and that valley is the long unknown valley of the Saskatchewan, which forms so large a part of the Fertile Belt, already spoken of. This Fertile Belt is in a semicircular form, leading considerably north from the Eed Eiver to the north branch of the Saskatchewan, and then trending south, skirting the base of the Eocky Mountains. Eich as is the valley of the Mississippi, we have abundant proof that this Fertile Belt, for all agricultural and pastoral purposes, is not inferior to it, and as a home for people of the British race, is immeasurably superior to its southern rival. Before we dwell on its characteristics, its capabilities, its beauties, and its immense importance, we must give a sketch of the Eed Eiver, and the small British, settlements on it, as they at present exist, that we may thence take a more complete view of the territory round us. The Eed Eiver itself is no insignificant stream. It rises in Ottertail Lake, in the State of Minnesota, and first taking a westerly and then a northerly ASSINNIBOIA. 159 direction, runs, in an exceedingly tortuous course, for 525 miles, chiefly through fertile prairie country, before it reaches the international boundary fine at the village and post of Pembina. Hence it runs for about 140 miles through British territory before it falls into Lake Winnipeg. The largest river flowing into it is the Assinniboine, on the west, about 23 miles distant from its mouth. At the confluence of these two streams stands Fort Garry, long the chief post of the Hudson's Bay Company and the residence of their chief factor. A district measured by a radius of 50 miles round Fort Garry is named Assinniboia, and over this district the chief factor has acted as governor, and, with a legal officer under him styled the "recorder," has taken cognizance of all offences. The rest of the territory has been without even the semblance of legal authority, except such as the factors at the Company's posts have been able to maintain by their personal influence. The physical features of the Eed Eiver, after it ^enters British territory, will be best understood if we imagine a stream from 200 to 300 feet wide, which has forced for itself a channel from 30 to 40 feet deep in tenacious clay, through a nearly level country. On the edge of the cliffs thus formed, commencing at the distance of three or four miles from Lake Winnipeg, and extending on either side of the river about 13 miles south of Fort Garry, and also along the banks of the Assinniboine, the settlers' houses and cottages, with churches, schools, stores, barns, and windmills, are seen scattered at short distances from each other. There is no town, nor even what can be called a village, at this Eed I 160' BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. Eiver or Selkirk settlement. No buildings cluster round the fort, for the protection it might afford has never been sought or expected from it. Even round the churches—with the exception of the parsonage, the school-house, and the teacher's abode—the houses do not appear to be more thickly placed. The term settlement, indeed, gives a good idea of the mode in which the inhabitants are located. The district is divided into parishes, each with a water frontage, and generally containing a church, school-house, and parsonage. The most imposing structure is the Eoman Catholic cathedral, with its tin-covered spires glittering in the sun. Fort Garry is a regularly fortified post, with strength sufficient to withstand any attack which the Indians could make against it; but since its erection it has never been assailed. On the east side of the river the country is undulating, and at a short distance running parallel with it is a fine of . hills clothed with trees. A tolerably thick belt of trees fringes the banks of the river in several places, much improving the scenery. On the west the prairie stretches away to an immense distance. This district was established in 1812 by Lord Selkirk, with Scotch emigrants in the first place, and afterwards with the disbanded men of a foreign corps, known as De Meuron's Eegiment. They had innumerable difficulties to contend with till the year 1821; many having lost their lives by an attack of half-breeds, instigated by the North-west Company's fur-traders, others being driven off the ground and compelled to winter in skin tents, till at length the rival companies were amalgamated, and the settlers and their territory were transferred by Lord CHRISTIAN INDIANS. 161 Selkirk's heirs to the new corporation—henceforth frading under the name of the Hudson's Bay Company. The 6,000 or 7,000 inhabitants of the Selkirk settlement may be divided into settlers from Europe and Canada, retired officers and men of the Hudson's Bay Company (many of whom, however, have Indian wives and families), native-born whites, and half- breeds—the most numerous of all—a portion of whom, though Christians in name and professing to be civilized, have relapsed into the savage state of the tribes from which they sprang. The greater part of the half-breed population spend the summer in hunting the buffalo, an exciting occupation, which unfits them for the more regular and important occupation of agriculture. Nearer the mouth of the river there is a large village of Christian Indians, with a missionary, an ordained clergyman, superintending them. About thirty miles to the west of the latter, at Prairie Portage, there is another flourishing settle- ment of Christian Indians, brought together by the devoted zeal and perseverance of the missionary clergyman placed over them. The missionary proceedings in the territory demand, however, a separate notice. Let us suppose ourselves standing in the centre of this long isolated settlement, soon to become Hie nucleus of a vast colony, the chief post on one of the great highways of nations, and ti ike a survev o f the territory round us. Turning to the south, we see the Eed Eiver flowing towards us with many windings through a rich and level prairie. Northward, at the distance of twenty-three miles, is the southern M 162 BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. end of Lake Winnipeg, which extends nearly 240 miles to the north-west. Earallel to it and rather more to the west is Lake Manitobah, and to the north of that again Lake Winnipegosis, with numerous lakes joined to them, and still more numerous streams falling into them and flowing out of them northward. To the east is a country, partly wooded and somewhat undulating, watered by several streams, and extending for 90 miles or more to the Lake of the Woods. To the west we gaze over a rich, green prairie. Our horizon, where it joins with the sky, is not 20 miles off, and we have a difficulty in comprehending the fact that the prairie extends for 800 miles beyond our ken to the very foot of the Eocky Mountains, not all equally rich, perhaps, but all fit for the habitation of civilized man. Through this rich prairie flow two rivers, the Saskatchewan, already described, and the Assinniboine, up the course of which we can look and remark numerous flourishing farms on either side. It rises in the very centre of the richest part of the territory, and circles round to the south and east, with numerous streams running into it. It has a branch running west and east, and almost uniting with the South Saskatchewan. There are two other rivers of some size, the Swan Eiver and the Eed Deer Eiver, which both run into Lake Winnipegosis. There are also numerous other rivers and streams, some navigable for steamers, others only for boats and canoes; and innumerable lakes of various sizes, all abounding with excellent fish. A remarkable circumstance connected with the Fertile Belt is, that on the south of it commences an arid, II THE FERTILE BELT. 163 rainless desert, extending for many hundred miles into the United States, making a vast district utterly unfit for colonization, and through which consequently it would be almost impossible to form a railway, or to support one if formed. To the north of the Fertile Belt is a densely wooded region, amid whose wilds the roaming savage can alone find support. There are, however, a few fertile districts outside the belt, on the banks of the rivers and streams, and on some hills to the south. Though termed prairie-land, the Fertile Belt is not level. The numerous streams which cross it cause considerable inequalities. To the west of Lakes Winnipegosis and Manitobah there is a chain of three long mountains, known as Eiding, Duck, and Porcupine mountains, which are all well timbered. These three mountains, with Lake Manitobah, and the North Saskatchewan, bound the Fertile Belt on the north ; while the lower portion of the Assinniboine and the Calling rivers, with the Touchwood ranges of hills intervening, form its boundary on the south. The Touchwood Hills are thickly covered with trees, as are the banks of all the streams. It is supposed that this Fertile Belt was once covered with a dense forest, which, during the heat of summer, was so completely destroyed by fire that the trees never again sprang up, leaving the roots to decay. Hence the peculiar richness of the soil. There are no serious impediments to the passage of a waggon from one end of the belt to the other. Stall it cannot but be admitted, "that very incorrect ideas have been formed respecting the fitness of the Fertile Belt for the immediate construction of a railway, as merely in- BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. volving the laying down of rails and the bridging of rivers. The really level prairies cease after passing eastward of the Prairie Portage, on the Assinniboine, 60 miles from Fort Garry. The country then becomes undulating, and is often intersected by deep gullies and ravines, forming the narrow valleys along which rivers and brooks flow at 100 to 300 feet below the prairie level." These physical peculiarities add very much to the beauty and interest of the scenery, and offer but slight impediments to ordinary travelling, as carts and horses can descend the ravines without any difficulty, but they of course will make the expense of constructing a railway greater than were the prairie continuous. Even to the railway these streams will serve two very important purposes—they will supply water and will bring wood and other fuel up to the fine. . The following notes of a journey west from Fort Garry to the Eocky Mountains, made by Professor Hind, will give a more perfect idea of the nature of the country than an elaborate description. j Camp on the prairie, west side Fort Garry ; good pasturage. First day's journey: good trail through a fertile country and partially settled; fine prairies, adapted for grazing and agriculture; clumps of poplar; heavy timber in the bays of the river; 24 miles to Lane's Post. Camp by a pool in the shelter of a bluff of poplar ; good grass.; heavy timber skirting the river ; 16 miles. Cross a level prairie with rich soil and herbage, but nearly destitute of trees; good grazing; 19£ miles to Prairie Portage, a settlement with 200 inhabitants, chiefly Christian Indians. Fine open treeless prairie; no wood; ■ FORT GARRY TO ROCKY MOUNTAINS. 165 splendid pasturage; 16^- miles to Eat Eiver. Very fine agricultural country, diversified with beautiful woodlands and extensive open meadows, grass and many kinds of plants wonderfully luxuriant; crossing at Eat Creek bad ; deep mud; 14^ miles to ford of White Mud Eiver. Fine grass and timber; trail follows bank of White Mud Eiver, then through a rich prairie country with many rich meadows and woods of aspen; 25 miles to the crossing of White Mud Eiver (55 feet wide, 4 feet deep, in August). Fine timber; come on the flanks of the Eiding Mountain, and traverse a rich, undulating country; excellent pasturage; oak trees; 23 miles to north bank of White Mud Eiver. Fine country to the Little Saskatchewan, at the foot of the Eiding Mountain; river, 68 feet wide, 3 feet deep; current, three and a half miles an hour. (August 28th.) After crossing the Little Saskatchewan, the country is thickly covered with willows and aspen; excellent pasturage in the valley; scenery beautiful; 21 miles to the Little Saskatchewan. Thence there is fine rolling country; ponds very numerous; ducks in great abundance; 25 miles to next camping place. On then across an open country with excellent pasturage for 50f- miles to Fort Ellice." Such is the style of country for 236 miles from the Eat Eiver settlements, through which the Great Eaghway is destined to pass. It will hence trend rather more to the north, so as to keep within the Fertile Belt, and to pass to the north of the Touchwood Hills. From that point it will proceed due west, touching the elbow of the North Saskatchewan, crossing Battle Eiver, not far from its 166 BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. southern elbow, and advancing directly for the Vermilion Pass, to which all accounts point as presenting the fewest engineering difficulties for carrying over a railway, and as practicable for waggons, with the expenditure of a very small amount of labour. The country, far from appearing less fertile as we advance, is in no respect inferior to what has been described, but in some respects superior. The winter pasturage is excellent, and in consequence of less snow falling, both horses and horned cattle can remain out the whole winter, and are fatter at the end of it than in the autumn—for putting aside the snow with their noses, they feed on the grasses and vetches beneath. The Hudson's Bay Company have, for some years past, kept large herds of horses in the neighbourhood of several of their posts without the necessity of supplying them with fodder in any part of the year. We have spoken of the numberless rivers, streams, and lakes of the territory, all abounding in fish. A most important question is, how far they are navigable? For canoes this question may at once be answered in the affirmative, as they have passed, with short and easy portages, from the Atlantic to the Pacific. Even on the summits of the Eocky Mountains the interlockage of streams is most curious. The Saskatchewan, the Athabasca, the Fraser, and the Columbia, all rise close together, the two first flowing towards the east, and the two latter to the west, and being navigable almost from their sources. With the Saskatchewan, however, we have only now to do. Boat navigation commences on it close to the base of the Eocky Mountains, near Jasper's House. WATER COMMUNICATION. 167 Thence a boat can, with few interruptions, descend its whole length into Lake Winnipeg, and passing along, can ascend the Eed Eiver with one portage for nearly 400 miles into the United States. The south branch of the Saskatchewan is also navigable for canoes, from its junction with the north branch to its southern elbow. Here it interlocks with the Calling Eiver, which, again, by a chain of lakes communicates with the Assinniboine. La. the spring, when that river is full, a canoe can pass down to Fort Garry, thence up the Eed Eiver to the north, or down to Lake Winnipeg, or may quit it at Prairie Portage, and by another stream pass down into Lake Manitobah. It cannot be hoped that these fines will be improved so as to become navigable at all seasons till colonization has far advanced, but as they are at present they will be of great use to settlers. The three great lakes, Winnipeg (280 miles long), Winnipegosis, and Manitobah, however, are all navigable, and between each there is water communication, so that a steamer leaving the Eed Eiver can pass into Lake Winnipeg through the Little Saskatchewan, thence into Lake Manitobah, and from thence, by the Waterhen Eiver, into Lake Winnipegosis. The Eed, Deer, and Swan rivers, and many others, navigable for boats, pass through the very centre of the Fertile Belt into the lakes, and a glance at the map will show to what a large extent of country access by water may at once be given. A great part of the distance is navigable for steamers. Doubts have been expressed whether the North Saskatchewan can be navigated for its entire length BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. by steamers. Erobably, such vessels as have been built for the rivers of India, drawing but a few inches of water, would be found well adapted to stem the rapids, and would certainly be able to accomplish voyages of some hundred miles in length without interruption, even before any artificial means have been taken to improve the navigation. In addition to the fines of water communication already described, there exist streams and lakes, which do not appear in ordinary maps, of a size sufficient to afford easy communication between villages, hamlets, and farms, which may spring up in their neighbourhood. It will thus be seen that the greater portion of this territory is encircled by lakes and rivers navigable for steamers, boats, or canoes. The same race who have in less than a quarter of a century converted the Australian province of Victoria from a solitary desert into a colony, the most flourishing in the world, will not be long before it finds means of making full use of the advantages these numberless lakes and rivers afford, and covering the far- extending territory with prosperous, happy, and Christian communities. CHAPTEE LX. CLIMATE AND NATURAL PRODUCTIONS OF BRITISH CENTRAL NORTH AMERICA. Climate—Fertility—Natural productions—Minerals and metals—Flora and fauna—Agriculture—Illustrative incidents. Having given a rough geographical sketch of this wonderful region, hitherto so little known and so little appreciated, and spoken in general terms of its capabilities and appearance, we must now describe more particularly its climate, soil, and productions. First, with regard to the climate. The seasons may be divided into five months of winter, five of summer, one of spring, and one of autumn. Throughout the whole belt, whatever the latitude, the difference in the seasons and temperature is slight. The western or Saskatchewan end, however, enjoys the best climate; for, although farther to the north and far more elevated, it is at a greater distance from the chilling influences of Lake Winnipeg and Hudson's Bay, and enjoys the benefit of the south-westerly wind from the Pacific. The Eed Eiver Settlement is by far the coldest part of the whole basin of the Winnipeg. The climate grows rapidly warmer on the same parallels' as we go westward, even when there is an increase of elevation. The climate and ■—- 170 BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. soil, and consequently the productions, are much the same throughout the territory. The extremes of heat and cold are experienced, and the change is most sudden from the severities of winter to an almost tropical summer. The summer temperature at Eed Eiver is somewhat higher than that of Toronto in Upper Canada, and that of the winter falls below it. The mean annual temperature of the interior is lower, consequently, than that of Canada, while that of the western plains, in latitude 53° n., notwithstanding their elevation, nearly equals Toronto, 8° further south. In ordinary years the winter may be said to set in with November, and to last to the end of March. Snow, however, occasionally falls early in October and lasts till May. Mr. Lorin Blodget, the American climatologist, making an official report to his own Government, states that "The whole Saskatchewan valley has a climate very nearly as mild in its annual average as that of St. Paul's, which would give it a winter mean of 15°, and an annual mean of 44°, which represents the climate of Wisconsin, Northern Iowa, Michigan, Western Canada, Northern New York, and Southern New England. But though the winter of this region is a period of intense cold, during which the mercury often remains frozen for days together, its effect upon the physical comfort is mitigated by a clear, dry atmosphere, such as makes the winter of Minnesota the season of animal and social enjoyment. The buffaloes winter in myriads on the nutritious grasses of the prairies up to as high a latitude as Lake Athabasca. The half-breeds FERTILITY OF THE SOLL. 171 and Indians camp out during the whole winter with no shelter but a buffalo-skin tent and abundance of buffalo-robes, and the horses of the settlers run at large all the winter and grow fat on the grasses, which they pick up in the woods and bottoms." To those hearing of the intense cold of the winter, and unacquainted with the climate and soil of North America, it may seem surprising that its productions should be so varied and attain to such perfection; but, happily, vegetation depends much more on the length of summer and the intensity of heat, than on the cold of winter, and thus throughout a considerable part of British North America, cereals and fruits which entirely fail in England, come to maturity. Indian corn, melons, grapes, tobacco, and other productions of the earth, ripen to perfection in the so- called Arctic region of the Eed Eiver, while even in Devonshire they would but seldom be fit for use. The fact is, that no sooner does the snow melt, than the grass springs up, the leaves and buds burst forth, and nature, by the wonderful rapidity of its progress, seems resolved to make ample amends for its long torpidity. Mr. Blodget says, " Spring opens at nearly the same time from St. Paul's to Lake Athabasca; April and May are the natural spring months of the whole climatic belt. The abruptness of the transition from winter to spring in these northern latitudes is a wonderful feature of the climate. . . . This rich upward swell of the spring temperature is prolonged through the summer months of June, July, and August; to include the amplest measures of heat for all agricultural purposes. Corn (Indian corn) thrives well at a 172 BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. mean temperature of 65° for the summer months, requiring, however, a July mean of 67°. Wheat requires a mean temperature of from 62° to 65°, for the two months of July and August. These two great representative staples of American agriculture carry with them the whole procession of useful flora that characterize the northern belt of the temperate zone. The mean temperature of Eed Eiver for the three summer months is 67° 76', nearly three degrees of heat more than is necessary for corn (maize), while July has four degrees more of heat than is required for its best development. The mean of the two months of July and August is 67°, five degrees above the requirement of wheat. . . . The summer climate, it will be seen, of Eed Eiver is warmer than that of Illinois, Wisconsin, Northern New York, or Western Canada." Notwithstanding the excessive cold of winter and the great heat of summer, there are few climates more suited to British constitutions. Hundreds, indeed thousands, of the Company's servants—young men brought up with the ordinary comforts of civilized life—have for years inhabited that region, and others far more inhospitable to the north, and but little sickness is known among them. The larger number of the Company's posts are, indeed, situated far to the north of the Fertile Belt—so are many of the missionary stations—a fact which should be borne in mind when missionary reports are read; indeed, people forgetting this, and not looking at the map, have formed very erroneous notions of the climate. Captain Palliser remarks, "The extreme cold PREVAILING WINDS. 173 is in the month of February, when the thermometer falls to about 45° below zero. The winter is the most favourable time for the transport of heavy materials, such as those required for building purposes. If horses and horned cattle are properly provided with a sufficiency of hay during the autumn, when, the crust being formed on the snow, the animals cannot break through it to feed, they will not only survive, but continue strong and serviceable during the whole of winter, and in spring progress with great rapidity. In a few days snow disappears, and the new grass has already commenced to grow up by the beginning of May; at the end of that month agricultural operations may be commenced." Another authority, the late Mr. Eoss, of Eed Eiver, states, that he has "known open winters, when farmers have been ploughing at Christmas, and sometimes a whole winter passes away with but little snow, and with alternations of frost and thaw. Lake Winnipeg is often not navigable before June, but the ice in the Eed Eiver and Saskatchewan usually breaks up about the middle of April. The prevailing winds are north and south, that is to say, one quarter of the former, one-third of the latter, and the remainder from the west. With a north-east or easterly wind, there is generally rain in summer and snow in winter. Hudson's Bay, over which it blows, though far distant, has a great influence on the climate, contributing to the fertility of the soil, and preventing it becoming like the arid wastes farther south in the United States, bordering upon the valley of the Mississippi. Indeed, the climate of the whole territory is sufficiently, though not over-abundantly, 174 BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. humid. Violent storms occur, of rain and hail, thunder and lightning, occasionally, as the season advances, but they have their beneficial as well as injurious effects, one counterbalancing the other. The harvest for hay, which, formed out of the natural grasses, is in great abundance, commences in the beginning of July, and that for the cereals about the 10th of August." From the above remarks, a fair idea may be formed of the climate. Numerous other authorities agree that it is not inferior to that of the Garden of Canada, which is as well suited to British constitutions, to the physical development of all the best qualities of the Anglo-Saxon race, and to the bringing to perfection the most valuable productions required for the use of man, as any portion of the globe. 4 "The soil," says Captain Palliser, "is that of an ancient lake bottom, consisting of variously proportioned mixtures of clay, loam, and marl, with a remarkable deficiency of sand. It is overlaid by a great thickness of vegetable mould, varying from two to four or five feet in depth. The chief wealth of the agriculturist would be derived from rearing cattle, large quantities of nutritious grasses abounding everywhere. Hemp, flax, and hops grow admirably. The northern portion of the Saskatchewan district is well adapted for the rearing of cattle, also for the raising of sheep, if housed and fed during the winter and spring." We may illustrate these statements by a reference to districts scattered from one end of the territory to the other. The opinions expressed are not theo- PASTURAGE—COAL. 175 retical, but founded on actual experience, and the result of personal observation. Near the very centre of the territory, at the head of the Assinniboine, is Fort Belly. The pasture around is excellent, and the cattle raised there have produced beef of the finest quality. The Hudson's Bay Company have a considerable stock of cattle at the fort, and rear some fine horses, the breeds having been imported direct from England. Bound the various posts in this district there is abundance of timber for building and other purposes, consisting of spruce, pine, and poplar. Fort Edmonton is situated on the North Saskatchewan, at what may be considered the most north-westerly point of the Fertile Belt. About fifty miles west of it is a Eoman Catholic monastery, surrounded by a flourishing village of half-breeds and Indians. Dr. Hector, one of Captain Palliser's party, spent the winter of 1858-59 at the fort, making excursions in every direction round it. To the north, on the Athabasca Eiver, he discovered coal of fair quality cropping out in various places along the banks. In describing the country to the south, as well as along the belt to the east and west, he says—" The most valuable feature of this belt of country, which also stretches from Touchwood Hills, Carlton, and Fort Eitt, south of Fort Edmonton, to the Old Bow Fort at the foot of the Eocky Mountains, is the immense.'.extent it affords of what I shall term winter pasturage. This winter pasturage consists of tracts of country partially wooded with poplar and willow clumps, and bearing a most luxuriant growth of vetches and nutritious grasses. 1 176 BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. The clumps of wood afford shelter to animals, while the scrubby brushwood keeps the snow in such a loose state that they find no difficulty in procuring food; the large tracts of swampy country when frozen also form admirable feeding grounds, and it is only towards spring in very severe winters that cattle and horses cannot be left to feed in well-chosen localities throughout this region of the country." Of natural productions, besides the abundance of native grasses and vetches, there is a great variety of trees fit for building purposes and fuel. Professor Hind observes, " The western and southwestern slopes of the Eiding and Duck mountains supply heavy forests of white spruce, birch, aspen, and poplar. The trees often exceed one and a half and two feet in diameter, with an available length of 30 to 50 feet. The white spruce, the largest on the summit plateau of the Eiding Mountain, gives that region a great economic value. The -area over which these trees extend has a length of 120 miles and a width of 30 miles. The numerous streams flowing into the Assinniboine, will bring this valuable timber down to spots first likely to attract settlement. In the valley of the Assinniboine is a forest 130 miles in length, and four in breadth, of oak, elm, ash, maple, poplar, and aspen. Above Prairie Portage there is another fine forest of aspen, oak, birch, elm, and maple. All the valleys of the tributaries of the same river are well clothed with timber, consisting chiefly of aspen and balsam poplar, but often varied with bottoms of oak, elm, ash, and the ash- leaved maple. On the Qu'appelle, or Calling Eiver, good timber is found. Aspen forests cover the' TIMBER—SALT SPRINGS. 177 Touchwood Hill ranges, and other ranges in the neighbourhood.'' Thus with the abundance of timber which can be procured from the Eocky Mountains on one side, and from the Lake of the Woods region on the other, there will be no want of timber in the territory, and those places will first be settled to which it can be most easily brought. From the ash-leaved maple the natives manufacture large quantities of sugar. The white spruce (called pine in the country) is much used for building and boat timber, as it is fight, easily worked, and of sufficient strength for ordinary purposes. When oak is not to be procured, carts and sleighs are manufactured from the birch. For fuel, also, it must be remembered that an ample supply of peat or turf can be procured in every district, and this, dried in the hot sun of summer, forms excellent fuel when wood becomes scarce—a contingency not likely to occur. Various berries are abundant throughout the territory, viz., cranberry, sasketoom, Bembina currants, gooseberries, raspberries, and strawberries. Wild rice is plentiful in the region of Eainy Lake and many other localities; to these may be added a root called the prairie turnip, not unlike the Jerusalem artichoke. Salt springs exist on the borders of Lakes Manitobah and Winnipegosis ; they were visited by Professor Hind. The salt is of good quality; considerable quantities are manufactured, and it is generally used at the Eed Eiver settlements. The Professor remarks, " Springs rich in brine are known to exist in upwards of twenty different places along a stretch of country extending from the boundary fine N 178 BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. to the Saskatchewan. Not twenty miles from Fort Garry they are numerous, issuing from the sides of hills in positions very favourable for solar evaporation, in shallow basins, which might be excavated at a lower level than the spring, and salt extracted without the employment of artificial heat." limestone, fit either for building or burning into lime, exists in large quantities both on the Eed Eiver and on the west side of Lake Winnipeg. Clays suitable for bricks occur in many places on the Assinniboine, the Saskatchewan, the Eed Deer Eiver, Battle Eiver, and elsewhere. There is always a profusion of boulders of the unfossiliferous rocks to be found in the valleys and beds of streams, which serve for building materials. A large part of the region drained by the north and south branches of the Saskatchewan is underlaid by coal" or lignite. On the North Saskatchewan coal occurs below Edmonton in workable seams. From hence it may be conveyed by that river into Lake Winnipeg, and thence throughout a large part of the territory. On the Brazeaus and Eed Deer rivers, Dr. Hector discovered beds of great thickness; one group of seams measured 20 feet, "of which," he says, "12 feet consisted of pure compact coal." These coal-beds were traced for 10 miles on Eed Deer Eiver. At one point they were on fire (1858); the bed exposed is a cliff of about 300 yards in length, being in many places in a dull glow, the constant sliding of the bank continuing to supply a fresh surface to the atmosphere. "For miles round the air is loaded with a heavy sulphurous and limy smell, and the Indians say that, for as long as they MINERAL PRODUCTIONS. 179 can remember, the fire at this place has never been extinguished summer or winter." It is not known when or how the fire was kindled. Col. Lefroy observed lignite on Peace Eiver, and Dr. Hector discovered it in many other localities. Professor Hind observes, " The ease with which supplies can be procured on the banks of navigable rivers gives additional importance to wide areas of fertile soil, which, from the absence of timber for fuel, would otherwise lose much of their value as a region fit for settlement." The country is likewise rich in metallic ores. Sir John Eichardson states that copper and malachite exist in the region of the Coppermine Eiver, and plumbago, iron, and mineral pitch are found, the latter in great abundance, on the shores of Lake Athabasca to the north of the Saskatchewan. Speaking of the regions to the north, he says, " They are rich in minerals; inexhaustible coal-fields skirt the Eocky Mountains through 12° of latitude; beds of coal crop out to the surface on various parts of the Arctic coast; veins of lead-ore traverse the rocks of Coronation Gulf, and the Mackenzie Eiver flows through a well-wooded tract, skirted by metalliferous ranges of mountains, and offers no obstruction to steam navigation for upwards of 1,200 miles." Mr. Alexander Mackenzie met with petroleum, lumps of iron ore, and mineral springs, and says that all the Indians he encountered had either iron or copper tips to their spears. On the western parts of the Fertile Belt gold exists, probably in large quantities. On the banks of the North Saskatchewan miners are already at 180 BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. work, some having found their way over the Eocky Mountains from British Columbia, others from Eed Eiver and the United States, and undoubtedly, from the facilities of approach and the abundance of food to be procured in the neighbourhood, a flourishing settlement will soon spring up. A great number of wild animals fit for food are found in all directions. Buffaloes are still very numerous. There are the caribou and moose, black and grizzly bear, musk rat, porcupine, beaver, and rabbits, or rather hares, in great numbers; two kinds of small deer, the wapiti, the prong-horned antelope, big horn, and mountain goat. The musk ox is confined to the more northern regions. So wantonly are the buffaloes slaughtered that they must in time disappear, and civilization alone can prevent the Indians, who subsist on them, from vanishing at the same time. Wolves, possessing the usual characteristics of their race, abound in some districts, but they have been almost exterminated in the neighbourhood of the Eed Eiver settlements. To these may be added the horse, of which the Indians possess a peculiarly hardy and sagacious breed, which they train admirably for hunting the buffalo. They have great numbers-of large and powerful dogs which they employ in dragging their sleighs. They are always used for winter travelling, and will draw a sleigh, with one man, over the snow at the rate of six miles an hour. In the lakes, whitefish, which range from two or three up to seven pounds, are the most. esteemed. Pike also are very fine. Sturgeon are caught in Lake Winnipeg and the Lower Saskatchewan of the weight of 160 lbs. Trout also grow to a great size, and there FISH—WILD FOWL. 181 are goldeyes, catfish, and suckers. The names of the two last are not attractive, but the fish themselves are excellent. Nearly all the fish to be found in the Canadian lakes and streams are to be found in the lakes and streams of this territory. Ducks, plovers, prairie hens, and many other varieties of wild fowl are abundant. Pigeons also at some seasons visit the country in great quantities, and it may be said that nearly all the feathered tribes known in Canada are to be found in equal numbers here. Professor Hind mentions various ducks, loons, and other aquatic birds ; partridges, rails, whip-poor-will, golden-plover, hairy woodpecker, Canadian jay, blue jay, Indian hen, and woodcock. In order to afford the fullest information as to the agricultural advantages of this highly-favoured region, the following extracts are given from official documents and the writings of persons on whose accuracy and veracity full reliance may be placed. First, turning to Professor Hind's work on the Eed Eiver and Saskatchewan, * let us visit, with him, the farm of an English yeoman, born and bred in the old country. It is situated on the banks of the Assinniboine, about nine miles from Fort Garry. " A small stack-yard was filled with stacks of wheat and hay; his barn, which was very roomy, was crammed with wheat, barley, potatoes, pumpkins, turnips, and carrots. The root crops were shortly to be transferred to the root-houses, which he had constructed by excavating * Narrative of the Canadian Red River Exploring Expedition of 1857, and of the Assinniboine and Saskatchewan Exploring Expedition of 1858. By H. Y. Hind, Professor of Chemistry and Geology, in the University of Trinity College, Toronto. 182 BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. chambers near the high bank of the Assinniboine, and draining them into the river. Access was through a hole in the top, with a movable roof. Frost never entered, and he found no difficulty in' preserving a large stock of potatoes and turnips through the severe winters of this region. He had grown 56 measured bushels of wheat to the acre. His turnips (Swedes) were magnificent; four of them weighed 70 lbs., two 39 lbs., and two others 31 lbs. "Whatever manure his yard and stables supplied fie gave to green crops and the garden. His potato crop, still in the ground, far surpassed in quantity, quality, and size any I had ever seen before. As Mr. Gowler turned them up I counted thirteen, fourteen, and sixteen potatoes, averaging three and a half inches in diameter, at eaeh root respectively. They were planted 1st June, and were ready for eating 16th or 18th of August. The winter supply was rarely taken out of the ground before the beginning of October. Indian corn succeeded well on Mr. Gowler's farm, and onions of rare dimensions were growing in his garden. He had a splendid crop of melons, the seed being sown at the end of May, and the fruit gathered about the 1st of September; they were grown in the open air, without any artificial aid. Mr. Gowler insisted on my tasting his wife's chees© and smoking his tobacco; the first was tolerable, but the latter was terribly strong. " He had brought under cultivation a greater breadth of land than in any previous year. He sowed 63 bushels of wheat, 36 of barley, 24 of oats, and 101 of potatoes; and from these he realized 700 bushels of wheat, 350 of barley, 480 of oats, and m PRODUCTIVENESS OF THE SOIL. 183 2,100 of potatoes. The cost of the seed was £50; tilling soil, £25 ; gathering and thrashing, £100. Mr. Gowler's profits have already enabled him to enlarge the bounds of his estate to 600 acres, to stock it with a noble herd of cattle and horses, and to make preparations for erecting on it a snug and comfortable mansion. " On accompanying us to the gate, he, with much warmth of feeling and manner, expressed the following opinion of husbandry and its prospects in Assinniboia:—* Look at that prairie—10,000 head of cattle might feed and fatten there for nothing. If I found it worth my while I could enclose 500 acres more, and from every acre get from 30 to 40 bushels of wheat. Year after year I could grow corn, barley, oats, flax, hemp, hops, turnips, tobacco—anything you wish, and to any amount; but what would be the use ? There are no markets. If we had only a market, you'd have to travel long before you'd see the like of these prairies about the Assinniboine.' The substantial character of the barn, stables, and piggeries, constructed of wood—their neatness and cleanliness—the well-arranged hammels for cattle, and sheds for sheep,—all showed how far a little energy and determination, instructed by the experience of earlier years, would go in reproducing, amid the boundless prairies of Assinniboia, the comforts and enjoyments partaken of by the most successful in the old country." * Mr. Flett, another farmer, fifteen miles west of Fort Garry, visited by Professor Hind, told him " that Indian corn succeeds well, and can always be relied * Vol. i., pp. 149—153. ! 184 BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. on if care is taken. Where the soil is fight and dry, and where shelter is obtained from neighbouring timber, he has never known it fail. Over the whole of the White. Horse Plain district 30 bushels is the average crop of wheat, but on new land 40 bushels is common and generally expected." A third visit was paid by Mr. Hind to M. Pierre Gladieux, a Frenchman, residing five miles south of Fort Garry, on the right bank of Eed Eiver. "He showed me his farm-yard, barns, garden, and cattle. Four pea stacks, several wheat stacks, and five or six hay stacks, all of fair dimensions, were neatly arranged in the stock-yard; while the cattle-yard was tenanted by a number of cows, pigs, horses, and poultry. His peas were sown on the 7th of May, and reaped on the 25th of September. Before the house lay the trunk of a hard tree ready for splitting, which measured not less than 4 feet 10 inches in diameter 6 feet from the base, and 4 feet 8 inches 10 feet from the base." Near the settlement occurs the Nine Mile Swamp, of which Brofessor Hind says:—"A strong Scotch plough, drawn by a stout team of oxen, would soon effect the drainage. Its swampiness originates from the excessive luxuriousness of the grasses growing upon a level expanse, which, in a humid season, hold up a sufficiency of water to give permanency to the wetness of this portion of the prairie. Hay in considerable abundance, as exemplified by the stacks seen in all directions, is made on the dry intervals of the Nine Mile Swamp. A little well- directed labour would convert these extensive marshy areas into the richest pasture and hay privileges." CROPS—CORN, HAY, ETC. 185 Professor Hind gives the following summary of the crops which the soil will produce:— "Varieties of Indian corn exist which may always be expected to ripen in Assinniboia. In order, to secure this result the rich and moist prairie soil requires draining, which may be- accomplished, without difficulty or expense, by running deep furrows with ,a common plough at certain distances apart through the field devoted to Indian corn. This grain is a sure crop on the dry points of the Assinniboine and Eed rivers, where the absence of superabundant moisture permits it to ripen within a certain period, bo as to be secure against the early autumnal frosts. No doubt other varieties might be found which would ripen earlier. Wheat is the staple crop of Eed Eiver. Its cultivation is so general, and the good quality of the grain is so well and so widely known, that very little need be said respecting it. No fact is more satisfactorily determined than the admirable adaptation of the climate and soil to its culture. " Of hay, the quantity is unlimited, and the quality excellent. The prairies for hundreds of miles, through which Eed Eiver, the Assinniboine, Eat, and Eoseau rivers flow, offer everywhere a bountiful supply of grass and hay. Hay-ground privileges have been established on the banks of the larger rivers, and the right of making hay within certain limits is recognised by the inhabitants. " Barley and oats are not much cultivated. Hops grow wild and in the greatest luxuriance—ale and beer are manufactured from them in the settlement. Beet yields very abundantly. Tobacco is cultivated 186 BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. to a small extent, but is susceptible of improvement. All kinds of root crops grow well and attain large dimensions. All common garden vegetables which are cultivated in Canada are equalled, if not surpassed, by the productions ef the rich prairie soil of Assinniboia. Considerable quantities of sugar are made from the ash-leaved maple. Hemp and flax were cultivated to a considerable extent at the instigation of Sir G. Simpson, but hitherto the market has been too limited to encourage the continuance of its cultivation." * The Eev. Mr. Black expresses a strong opinion in favour of the rearing of sheep. "It is a splendid country for sheep pasture, and were there means of making the wool into clothes, blankets, etc., greater attention would be given to the rearing of sheep. Great quantities of such goods are also required for the fur trade, and it would be an advantage to have them manufactured here. Among the emigrants coming out to take possession of the land it would be a great advantage were there somebody to establish machinery for carding, fulling, dyeing, perhaps spinning and weaving also." Most certainly the Indians, when they have abandoned the precarious lives of hunters and taken to the various vocations of a civilized community, for which they are especially fitted—shepherds, boatmen, waggon drivers, postillions—will become large consumers of woollen cloths. Mr. Hind says when he asked the settlers why they did not keep more cattle, their reply was, "Find us a market for beef, tallow, and hides, and we will soon furnish you with * Vol. i., pp. 225—229. WHY CATTLE-FARMING IS NEGLECTED. 187 any quantity of cattle you can require." There does not appear any reason why sheep and cattle should not at some future time supply the place of the buffalo. The experience of many years shows that no physical impediments arising from climate or soil exist to prevent the prairies of Eed Eiver from becoming some of the best grazing grounds in the world. " Two reasons for the neglect of this important branch of industry are soon apparent even to a stranger at Eed Eiver. Buffalo meat, pemmican, made from buffalo meat and fat, together with the robes and sinews, are always cash articles at the honourable Company's stores; whereas beef, mutton, hides, tallow, and wool, are a mere drug in the market. Again, the habits of the half-breeds, who have long been trained to the hunt, are opposed to the quiet monotony of a pastoral fife. Introduce European or Canadian emigrants into the settlement, with the simple machinery they have been accustomed to employ in the' manufacture of homespun,' and in a very few years the beautiful prairies of Eed Eiver and the Assinniboine will be white with flocks and herds; and the cattle trade, already springing into importance between the settlement and St. Paul, will rapidly increase, or without much difficulty be diverted into an easterly channel. No real difficulty exists in the least degree likely to hinder Eed Eiver from becoming a grazing country of the first-class, when other interests shall be permitted to exist in the presence of that all-absorbing, all-controlling service—the fur trade." Mr. Hind's remarks command assent. No country would benefit more largely than Canada if a direct 188 BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. road between Lake Superior -and the Eed Eiver, and the vast territory beyond it, were opened up. Corn she does not want; but hides, and wool, and tallow would enable her greatly to increase her own manufactures; while an extensive market near at hand would be found for theirs in return. All these statements are corroborated in Captain BlaHston's very clear and well drawn out reports to her Majesty's Government. He adds: " Sheep do well at Eed Eiver, where there are but few wolves, owing to there being a head-money Pigs do remarkably well; and if turned out where there are oak woods require no looking after. . . . The cattle during summer roam at large at the back of the cultivated land, where they find excellent pasturage; owing to the annoyance caused by the ' bull dogs' (a species of fly), mosquitoes, and other flies, they collect in the smoke of smouldering fires made for their protection; but in the fall wander off and are often not seen for weeks. The cows are milked regularly twice a day. It is usual at the Eed Eiver to keep cattle housed and fed during winter; but as cattle sometimes on the Saskatchewan remain out all the winter in the same way as horses, herds of cattle might be wintered out in sheltered situations, with the assistance of a little hay cut in the previous summer. Wheat grows well at the missionary station at the north end of Manitobah Lake." Captain Palliser, who wintered at Fort Edmonton, says that all his horses got well through the season, with the exception of four which died, and nine were stolen. The Cypree's Mountains, one of the few fertile spots south of the belt, in lat. 49° 38' n., COMPARISON WITH CANADA. " 189 long. 110° w., are a range elevated 1,600 feet above the level of the plains, covered with fine timber, abounding in excellent grass, well watered, and fairly, though not abundantly, stocked with game. Captain Palliser and his party remained some days in the mountain to hunt and prepare provisions. We have, therefore, sufficient evidence to prove that the whole of the Fertile Belt is well suited for the habitation of civilized man, and that there are other fertile districts to the south and east, among the labyrinths of lakes and rivers. There is ample ground, fit for cultivation, to support the population required to maintain the road between the Lake of the Woods and Lake Superior. Abundant evidence, indeed, shows that as an agricultural country it is not inferior to the best parts of Canada, while for pastoral purposes it is in most respects superior. An account given in the following chapter, of the foundation of the settlement, proves that, in spite of the rigour of the season, it is possible for people from the old country (Scotch at all events) to exist without huts, in skin tents, with but slight covering and only a scanty supply of food. Even at that time one company of fur-traders showed their wish to prevent settlement by attacking the colonists, killing many, burning their huts, and driving them from their lands. The farmer is not without his natural foes here, as in every part of the world. Wolves at one time constantly visited the Selkirk settlement, but in consequence of head-money being given, Mr. Hind and Captain Palliser say they are now never seen. They must, of course, be looked for at first in the Ii; 190 BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. new settlements. Spring frosts rarely injure the crops, but autumn frosts sometimes do so, unless the crops are forward. Those cereals, therefore, which come with greatest speed to maturity are most suitable for the climate. A species of locust, called by the settlers grasshoppers, occasionally appear and commit great havoc; but Mr. Eoss, who certainly did not wish to tempt settlers to come out, stated that from 1819 (when the colonists' scanty crops were destroyed by grasshoppers) to 1856, when he wrote, they had not reappeared in sufficient numbers to commit any material damage. Mr. Hind, however, saw flights of them in the prairies to the south, and the year before his visit they had partially destroyed the crops at Brairie Portage, while, in the following year, some made their appearance at the Eed Eiver. Their ravages, however, are not to be compared to those committed by the red locust in Egypt, and yet Egypt has ever been one of the chief granaries of the world. " None of the diseases, with the exception of smut or rust, nor of the insect enemies, to which the wheat crops in Canada and the United States are subject, occur, it is said, at Eed Eiver," observes Mr. Hind. " I heard no complaints of rust. Although I made numerous inquiries respecting destructive- insects, yet I could hear of none similar to the Hessian fly, or wheat fly, as having been observed there." Fires occur on the prairies in the autumn, as is well known, but the settlements do not appear ever to have suffered from them. Where cattle are feeding, of course the grass is kept down, and it should not be allowed to grow long near any AGRICULTURAL ADVANTAGES. 191 settlements. There can be little cause to dread the hostility of the Indians. When the numerous small bodies of the exploring expeditions of Captain Palliser and Professor Hind were wandering about in every direction, they were never once molested. This was, of course, much owing to their judicious conduct. We should state that Mr. Bourgeau, who was selected by Sir William Hooker to accompany Captain Palliser's expedition as botanist, fully confirms in his report all the statements which we have made as to the advantages for agricultural settlement in Eupert's Land, particularly in the Saskatchewan district. " In effect, the few attempts at the culture of cereals already made in the vicinity of the Hudson's Bay Company's trading posts, demonstrate by their success how easy it would be to obtain products sufficiently abundant to remunerate largely the efforts of the agriculturist. There, in order to put the land under cultivation, it would be necessary only to till the better portions of the soil. The prairies offer natural pasturage as favourable for the maintenance of numerous herds as if they had been artificially created. The vetches found here, of which the principal are Vieia, JETedysarum, Lathyrus, and Asteagalui, are as fitting for the nourishment of cattle as the clover of European pasturage." Who, after this evidence, can doubt that this vast territory is capable of maintaining a population equal to that of any kingdom in Europe—a territory which, when once peopled with civilized men, must rise, with rapidity unexampled, to wealth and importance. II CHAPTEE X. EARLY SETTLEMENT OF BRITISH CENTRAL NORTH AMERICA. History and present state of the Red River or Selkirk settlement— Missionaries in the north-west territory—Early trials and sufferings— Results of their labours—Cases of usefulness—Missionary tour of the Bishop of Rupert's Land. Eeference has been made in a previous chapter to the colony founded by Lord Selkirk on the Eed Eiver. The importance of this settlement as forming the centre around which civilization and Christianity have subsequently gathered, is so great as to demand more detailed notice. Lord Selkirk commenced his operations in 1811, having ascertained from actual observation the great suitableness of the territory for colonization. The first settlers, however, did not arrive till 1812. They came by way of Hudson's Bay, and no sooner did they reach the ground where they expected to establish their homes, than they were visited by a party of the North-west-Company's people, who warned them not to make the attempt. These settlers were chiefly persons from the Orkney Islands on the north of Scotland, and must have been of peculiarly hardy constitutions to have survived all the hardships they were doomed to undergo. Unable to resist, they retreated as ordered, some going south to Pembina, HOSTILITY OF FUR TRADERS. 193 and others to Norway House at the head of Lake Winnipeg, where they spent the winter. Those who went to Pembina lived the whole time in tents made of the buffalo hides, without stoves to give warmth, and mainly depending on a tribe of Indians for their support. In the spring they went back to the site of the proposed settlement, but no sooner had they begun to cultivate the ground, than they were again driven off; some returning to Canada, and others to their former winter-quarters. When, in 1815, the main body of the emigrants arrived, there were few signs that the settlement would ever succeed. The perseverance of Lord Selkirk was almost unexampled. Undaunted by difficulties, fie had a store erected, furnished with provisions and goods, which he allowed to be sold on credit. A post existed called Fort Douglas, two miles below where Fort Garry now stands,- and a good many huts and cottages had been erected, but there was neither a place of worship, nor a minister of the gospel, from north to south, or from east to west of that wide-spreading territory, although there were already numerous forts scattered about it, inhabited by white men calling themselves Christians. No wonder that God's laws were set at defiance, and deeds of violence committed which were a disgrace to civilized men. Once more the forts and dwellings were burnt to the ground, and again, on the arrival of fresh settlers, they were rebuilt. This seems to have excited the anger and jealousy of the Northwest traders to such a degree, that in 1816 a band of them made an attack on the settlement, which resulted in the death of Governor Semple. o 194 BRITISH NORTH .AMERICA. Information of this and other lawless events having at length reached the ears of the Governor- general of Canada, he sent commissioners to the settlement to inquire into the state of affairs. The result was, that deeds of violence became less common, and the settlers were allowed to establish themselves in peace. They were a somewhat motley collection, chiefly Scotch, with a few English and Irish, and the men of a disbanded regiment known as De Meuron's, consisting of French, German, Swiss, and other European nations, who proved, however, not the best of" settlers. Still the new colony went on increasing, for the excessive fertility of the soil, the easy water communication with other parts, and the abundance of fish and game, persuaded the settlers that prosperity was yet in store for them, when two events occurred which well-nigh put an end to all their hopes. The first was a flood, which in the early spring, by the sudden melting of the snow, swept over the lower part of the settlement, destroying their fields and carrying away their houses ; the next was an unusual visitation of locusts or grasshoppers, as they are familiarly called, which totally destroyed their crops, and brought them to the verge of starvation. Few, however, abandoned the settlement; with admirable courage they determined to persevere, and although many years afterwards a second flood came and another flight of locusts, they were by that time too firmly established to be rooted out. There were numerous flourishing homesteads; and sheep, horned cattle, and horses had been introduced in considerable numbers, and had been found to answer admirably. INCREASE OF POPULATION. 195 Although the greater number of the settlers were Protestants, there was no minister among them—a layman acting in that capacity among the Presbyterians—when a body of Eoman Catholic Canadians arrived, with two French priests, in July, 1818. In 1820 the foundation of a Eoman Catholic church was laid. In the fall of that year the Eev. Mr. West, an Episcopal clergyman selected by the Church Misr sionary Society, arrived in the capacity of chaplain to the Hudson's Bay Company. His directions were to reside at Eed Eiver, and to endeavour to ameliorate the condition of the Indians. He was gladly received by all denominations of Erotestants, and the services he held were from the first well attended. He afterwards settled among the Scotch colonists, by whom he was much beloved. In addition to minis-t trations in the pulpit, he opened a school, where from twenty to twenty-five children attended. In 1823 the whole population of the colony was only 600; its increase was steady though slow; in 1843 it had reached 5,143; in 1849, 5,291 ; in 1856, 6,523. The greatest increase has been by the families of half-castes, who now number about 820 families. A very large number of those who originally came from Europe, had, up to 1856, quitted the settlement, despairing that anything like liberal institutions would be granted them, or that they would have a road opened up to enable them to carry their produce to the Canadian market. Situated as they were, there existed but one purchaser of their produce, the Hudson's Bay Company, from whom in return they had to take all their stores. The whole system under which they lived was so utterly at variance with any 196 -BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. to which British subjects are usually compelled to submit, that it is only surprising that they should have so long endured it with even tolerable patience. To the enterprise of an American company, the settlement is indebted for the advantage of steam communication along the whole navigable part of the river from Fort Garry upwards. In the United States, also, they have hitherto found the only market for their produce, supplying themselves in return with American goods. One of the most important events in the history of the eolony, was the visit of the late Bishop of Quebec, Dr. Mountain, as he brought its condition before the public far more prominently than had hitherto been done. Through his representations, a bishop was appointed to superintend the clergy of the territory, who received the title cf the Bishop of Eupert's Land. Since his arrival, in 1849, he has devoted all the energies of his mind to the improvement of the natives and settlers, to the establishment of a college and schools for the higher as well as the lower orders, to the erection of more churches, and to the extension of missionary efforts among the heathen. His untiring devotion is shown in a little incident mentioned by Brofessor Hind. His lordship not being at home, he went to the school-house, where, on entering, he found " the bishop, seated between two young half-castes, teaching them quadratic equations. His lordship told me," continues Professor Hind, "that the two lads showed a remarkable talent for mathematics, and for the sake of encouragement, he made a point of giving them instruction in algebra after the daily routine of the INDIAN SETTLEMENT—STONE FORT. 197 school was over, so that the extra tuition should in no way interfere with the more necessary requirements for their future station in life." Much, also, is due to the untiring exertions for a long course of years of Archdeacon Cochrane, who formed a settlement at Prairie Portage, chiefly of Indians, while all visitors speak in high terms of the patient self- denying constancy of all the missionaries throughout the territory. The settlements commence a few miles above Lake Winnipeg, and extend to the south for some 50 miles along Eed Eiver, and to the westward for about 70 miles, thus including Prairie Portage. Between that place and White Horse Blains, however, there is a considerable distance without settlers. The whole population may be reckoned at about 10,000. In the lower section, the parish of St. Peter, nearest Lake Winnipeg, the inhabitants are mostly Indians, under charge of an Episcopal clergyman. In the next parish stands the Stone Fort, or Lower Fort Garry, by far the finest establishment in the territory. A square area of some six acres- in extent is enclosed with walls and bastions of stone. The stores are situated on either side, and in the centre stands the residence of the officers—an imposing building, with verandahs running completely round it, and grounds in front laid out and planted with great taste. The establishment is under the charge of a Scotch gentleman, who carries on extensive farming operations, and has brought a considerable extent of new land under cultivation. Above it is the part of the settlement spoken of as the Eapids, from the character of the river which flows, through it. ' - -I 198 BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. St. Andrew's church stands above the Grand Eapids. The next parish is that of St. Paul's, and above it St. John's. Between the two is situated the Scotch Presbyterian church and parochial school. The inhabitants of all these parishes, called the middle part, are mostly retired traders and voyageurs, or descendants of the first Scotch settlers. On the banks of the -Assinniboine is St. James's parish and church, but the congregation is small, on account of the number of Eoman Catholics in the neighbourhood. Education is not neglected in the settlements. There are numerous schools, and several public libraries; amongst which we may name the following: St. John's College includes a boarding-school for boys and girls, under the immediate supervision of the Bishop of Eupert's Land. Here a first-rate education is given, and several of the pupils have distinguished themselves at the English universities and in those of Canada. Others have been ordained as ministers to labour in Ohe territory. There is a model tiaining institution and a large number of parochial and private schools, some of which are under the supervision of their respective ministers. Ten of the Episcopal schools are supported by the " Church Missionary Society," one by the " Society for the Propagation of the Gospel," while others receive assistance from Exeter College, Oxford, private firms in Edinburgh, and from English congregations. Thus there is an admirable commencement of a system of education for all classes. Little or no improvement is required—simply enlargement, and \L_ MISSION.ARY DLEFICULTIES. 199 when more settlers arrive, and funds are forthcoming, this will certainly take place. In addition to the churches and schools that have been founded in the neighbourhood of the Eed Eiver, the love of Christ has induced missionaries to go forth to spread the glad tidings of salvation in every direction along the banks of the distant rivers, which fall either into the Bolar Ocean in the north, into the Pacific on the west, or the bleak shores of Hudson's Bay on the east. They have had much to endure. The solitary existence, the hardships, the dangers, the innumerable difficulties undergone by the missionaries of many distant stations, could only be borne by men who have the love of Christ reigning in their hearts. At the time when the first missionaries arrived at the Eed Eiver, it was an " isolated settlement of civilized and half-civilized men in the midst of an immense region of barbarism, so that its inhabitants were obliged to depend entirely on their own resources for the means of subsistence. A very small portion of land had been brought under cultivation, and this had been done almost solely by the European settlers, who had also succeeded in rearing cattle in considerable numbers. The rest of the inhabitants, Canadians, half-breeds, and Indians, had recourse chiefly, if not wholly, to the chase or to fishing for their support. Their principal dependence was on the buffalo hunt, which took place twice in the year, when perhaps eight hundred hunters would set out in pursuit of this animal, accompanied by their wives, children, and horses, to bring home the spoil IK 200 BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. "When the settlement was first established, the buffaloes were found in great numbers on the neighbouring plains, but they gradually retreated farther and farther into the distant country, till the hunters had sometimes to traverse 200 or 300 miles before they could meet with a herd. When, however, they did find them, the slaughter was prodigious, and, on some occasions, not less than 6,000 were killed in one expedition. Part of the flesh supplied them with food during the hunting season, . the rest, the women either dried or made into pem- mican* for future use. " From this statement it will be seen that if the season should prove unpropitious, either to the hunters or the agriculturists, the colonists must necessarily be brought into great straits, as there was literally no external source whatever from which their wants could be suppfied.t "It was on this account that the missionaries had, from the first, found it necessary to cultivate land and rear cattle, so as to raise their own supplies of provisions for their families and schools, as well as to be able to assist the number of starving half-breeds and Indians, while improvidence threw them on the bounty of others. But for everything that they needed beyond the produce of their little farms— for all other articles of food, for furniture, hardware, tools, books, clothing, and the various minor things * Pemmican is made by pounding the fat and lean together in a mortar, and then putting it into leathern bags, in which it is often preserved for months without spoiling. t The following accounts of missionary labour are. derived from various reliable sources; for Mr. Coehrane's report we are indebted to "The Bain- bow in the North." MISSIONARY LABOURS. 201 that contribute to our daily comfort, the colonists were entirely dependent on England. 1' This inconvenience is increased by the impossibility of obtaining any supplies from home except once in the year. Hudson's Bay is blocked up by fields of ice, except for a brief space during the summer months, so that vessels can seldom reach York Fort before the end of August, and are then obliged to unload and take in their cargoes as quickly as possible, lest their return should be cut off by a barrier of ice forming at the entrance of the bay, and preventing their leaving it during the winter. This annual visit of the ships was also the sole opportunity of either sending or receiving European letters, but once in the course of the winter the missionaries had the privilege of sending a small packet with the official despatches vid Canada." The missionaries were tried by the severest sufferings from cold, ill-health, storms, floods, and famine. They were often reduced to the extremity of not knowing whence the food for the next day could be procured, and more than once the only supply for themselves and their households was some half-ripe barley. Notwithstanding these great and varied difficulties, they persevered in their arduous work. Several retired servants of the Hudson's Bay Company, with native wives, settled round them. A school-house and church were built, and the outward trials they had to endure were blessed by the Spirit of God to the souls of many. La 1829 Mr. Cochrane removed with his family to the Grand Eapids, to form another settlement about 1 H 202 BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. fifteen miles from the former. He soon saw that not only for the temporal but for the spiritual welfare of the people it was of the utmost importance to reclaim them as much as possible from their wild and wandering habits, and to lead them to more settled and peaceful employments; so as to have an opportunity of instructing them more effectually. While, therefore, he took every opportunity of declaring to them the gospel in all its simplicity and power, of endeavouring to lead them to a conviction of sin, and of the need of a Saviour, he spared no pains, either by argument or example, to induce them to turn their minds to agriculture. This was no easy matter, on account of their idleness and awkwardness, and it required much perseverance to overcome so many difficulties. Yet he soon began to see some results from his patient, self- denying labours, and it was not long before the whole face of the country assumed a very improved aspect. The spiritual progress of the people kept pace with their external improvement, they eagerly sought for religious instruction, many applied for baptism, and in 1831, only two years after his settling among them, the congregation had increased from thirty to three hundred, while the alteration in their general habits and moral conduct bore testimony to the reality of the work within. On Mr. Cochrane's first settling at the Grand Eapids he had built a school-house where service was held. But the increase in the number of worshippers soon caused a larger building to be required. Poor as the people were, they assisted him in this to the utmost of their power. In 1831 a REPORT OF ARCHDEACON COCHRANE. 203 wooden church was finished. This has since been replaced by a handsome stone edifice, which cost £1,600, the larger part of which was supplied by the congregation. The people were regular in their attendance at the house of God. "In England," Mr. Cochrane says} "it is a frequent and painful remark, ' So many at market, and so few at church!' but here it is the reverse. On week-days you may travel for miles, and not see a human face; but on Sundays, as the time of service draws near, the track is covered with old, and young, and middle-aged, pressing forward to worship God in the congregation. It never comes into their minds that a slight oold, or a soaking rain, or a violent snow-storm, or a piercing frost, are any reasons to keep them from public worship. They have made up their minds to be found always in the house of God, and hitherto their strength has been equal to their day. Be the weather never so bad, none ever stay away but the aged and the sick; and when the ground is too wet for the women and children to walk, they are put into their little carioles; while the men, carrying their shoes in their hand, walk by their side through mud and water reaching half-way to their knees." Nor was this a mere formal attendance. Divine truth had reached the hearts of many hearers, and they had become new creatures. The instances of conversion are so interesting that we regret that space forbids us to record more than two. A woman, whom Mr. Cochrane visited in her illness, in reply to his questions as to what chiefly occupied her thoughts while lying alone on her bed 204 BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. of sickness, mentioned Matt. xi. 28,. and John vi. 37. " These words," she added, "dwell in my mind day and night." Then, clasping her hands, with the tears rolling down her cheeks, she exclaimed, "Precious Saviour ! thou art the best friend in the day of sickness! " " A man, finding himself very near his end, sent to the missionary to come and see him. When he entered, he exclaimed, j This is the last visit you will ever pay me. I know I shall soon die, but I have no fear: I have a Saviour, a friend in heaven, who hears my prayers, who draws away my heart from all below, even from my wife and children, and leads it to himself. I have sent for you to tell me all you know about this new state.' Then stretching out both his arms, as a bird stretching out its wings to fly away, he exclaimed, ' I want to go and be with Him who has washed away my sins in his own blood, and now gives me rest and peace in the midst of pain and suffering.' Five years before, as we find from the journals, this man was a heathen. *' The intercourse that the missionaries had with the Indians who from time to time joined their respective congregations, convinced them that the only effectual mode of permanently benefiting this people was by forming an exclusively Indian settlement, where the peculiarities of their minds and habits could more freely develop themselves and be more effectually directed than when dwelling among a mixed population. When the Indian steps on shore from his birch-rind canoe, his blanket thrown over his naked shoulders, in one hand his gun with which to pro- ■ INDIAN LETTER. 205 cure his next meal, and on his other arm a small hatchet with which to cut the poles for his tent, followed by his family, as peeled as himself—a few pieces of birch-rind for their tent, and a kettle to cook their food, constituting the whole of their property; —if such a man even wishes to change his habits, how is he to do it ? He has neither knowledge nor implements of husbandry, nor power of obtaining either. All must be gratuitously bestowed on them, if we would locate them; and we must locate them before we can preach the gospel to them." It must not be supposed that the writer held the erroneous opinion that civilization, of itself, could be expected to facilitate the reception of the gospel; but the case of the Eed Indian was a peculiar one, and required a peculiar course of proceeding. The evangelization of the new settlement was begun in 1.833, and though the progress was slow, it was steady. The Indians became more and more anxious to be instructed in the knowledge of Christ. A chief of the Muscaigoes sent this message to the English Missionary Society:—" Tell them to make haste; time is short, and death is snatching away our friends very fast: tell them to make haste." A letter was also sent from the principal men at the Indian village to the Church Missionary Society in the following words:— "August 1st, 1838. "Servants of the Great God, "We once more call to you for help, and hope our cry will avail. You sent us what you called the word of God; we left our hunting-grounds and came to hear it. But we did not altogether like it, for it -1 206 BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. told us to leave off drunkenness and adultery, to keep only one wife, to cast away our idols and all our bad heathen ways; but as it still repeated to us that, if we did not, the great God would send us to the great devil's fire, by the goodness of God we saw at last it was true. We now like the word of God, and we have left off our sins; we have cast away our rattles, our drums, and our idols, and all our bad heathen ways. I But what are we to do, our friends ? Mr. Jones is going to leave us; Mr. Cochrane talks of it. Must we turn to our idols and gods again ? or must we turn to the French praying-masters ? We see three ,French praying-masters have come to the Eiver, and not one for us! What is this, our friends ? The word of God says that one soul is worth more than all the world; surely, then, our friends, three hundred souls are worth one praying-master! It is not once or twice a week teaching that is enough to make us wise; we have a bad heart, and we hate our bad hearts and all our evil ways, and we wish to cast them all away, and we hope in time, by the help of God, to be able to do it. But have patience, our friends. We hope our children will do better, and will learn to read God's book, so as to go forth to their country-people to tell them the way of fife, and that many may be saved from the great devil's fire. "We hope you will pity us, and hear our cry, and send us a father to live with us here to teach us. We thank you all for what you have done for us, and for sending us the word of life; and may the great God be kind to you all! We feel our hearts WORK OF CONVERSION. 207 sore when we think of you all, and the praying- masters that are here: we* pray for you and for them, and shall still do so." To show the nature of the work of conversion among the Indians we give but one example. A young man who had for some time been under the influence of religion, and who now lay on his dying bed, sent for Mr. Cochrane, who asked him— " Joseph, what do you wish me to do for you ? " "I have sent for you, sir, to pray for me just here," pointing to his bedside. " When I was strong and could go to church, I felt happy in the worship of God; and as long as I could kneel down here and pray, I found my heart light; but now I cannot rise, my heart is heavy and cold as ice, and I fear it is not well with me." " Do you," asked Mr. Cochrane, "believe that the Son of God'is able and willing to save you? " "Yes, entirely," answered the youth; " and it is by looking to him that my heart has been drawn away from the world; and I now rejoice that I am going out of it. In heaven I shall be near God, and he will make me happy. I sometimes feel a little afraid when I think of the change, but I say to myself that Jesus is there, and he will call me to come near him, and then all my fears go." The following advice, given by an Indian father to his son when parting with him, is worthy of record:— " My son," said he, " as long as you have lived at home you have seen me pray; you have gone to church and heard that God is love. When you go through the plains you will no longer see me praying, you will no longer be told of your God and h" I 208 BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. Saviour. There you will meet with men whose hearts are cruel, who would like to drive an arrow through your heart, take the scalp from your head, and drink your blood. My son, when night comes on, before you close your eyes in sleep, ask your God to look on you, and spread his hand over you, for that you are alone, far from home, and have no other friend but him. When morning comes, ask him to go with you on your way, to turn bad men on one side, that they may not meet you. Never forget that the blood of Christ cleanseth from all sin. Trust in it; God has accepted it for your soul, and through it you and I shall meet in heaven." The father added to Mr. Cochrane— I My heart was light when I saw my son take his Bible and some tracts, and when he squeezed my hand with tears in his eyes, and said, j I will remember Him who is over all till we meet again.' " This mission in its labours and successes is but a specimen of very many in that vast territory, which, by the labours of faithful men and the blessing of God, is being conquered for Christ and his Gospel. Our prayer is that active, intelligent, well-educated young men may be moved to offer themselves as missionaries to the Indians. What more noble occupation than to bear the glad tidings of salvation to a perishing people ? Surely such a calling is not beneath the ambition of the best educated of England's sons, and we trust that some who read this account may learn to regard missionary work in its true fight, and take an active part in it. A pleasing account of this mission is given by a recent traveller. He and several of his men were r~-^ PLEASING INCIDENT. 209 attacked with fever on their passage down the Winnipeg Eiver. He says:—" So infectious was the disease, and of a type so virulent, that four out of eight individuals who were in my canoe were attacked with it. I and one of my men found shelter with the Eev. E. McDonald, who, strangers as we were to him, did all for us that kindness could prompt or intelligence suggest: and on our getting a little O OO ' o o better, perceiving my anxiety to rejoin my party, fie prepared his canoe and accompanied me all the way to Eed Eiver. Mr. McDonald is a clergyman of the Episcopal Church, in connection with the Church Missionary Society; and I may here mention an incident of the journey which, as it is illustrative of a practice common with all missionaries when travelling in that remote region, will serve in some measure to show the beneficial influence which their presence is producing among the native population. Every evening as we proceeded down the Winnipeg, as soon as the necessary preparation had been made for passing the night, the whole party, including his people and mine, in number seventeen, and, with three exceptions, all either pure Indians or partly of Indian origin, was assembled, when prayers were read and appropriate hymns sung. The Indians all joined, and, as night closed in, it had a strange effect in that unbroken wilderness to hear the anthem rising above the din of the rushing torrent, and to see the children of the forest bent in prayer, where so lately they had been accustomed to invocations of another kind. "The station here referred to by Mr. Dawson is a very important one. The Indians from Lac Seul on p 210 BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. the English Eiver, from Lee Portage, and from the Lake of the Woods, sometimes assemble there, more especially when they go to collect the wild rice, which is abundant in the neighbourhood. As yet there is only a congregation of fifty or sixty, but the establishment is not without its influence on the far greater number who have not embraced Christianity. It is impossible that these untutored savages can contemplate with indifference the efforts of a man who seeks them out in distress, ministers to them in illness, and does all in his power to relieve their necessities; this the writer had an opportunity of observing, for when he was there the chiefs came to see him as they passed, and it was not difficult to perceive the reverence and respect with which they all regarded him." The Wesleyan Missionary Society of Canada in connection with the English Conference sends three missionaries into British Central America, one to Norway House, another to Oxford House, and a third to Edmonton and the Eocky Mountains. Norway House is a very important position at the northern end of Lake Winnipeg. Eossville, too, will probably some day become a place of importance. The church there consists of nearly two hundred members. Abundant proof has been given that the seed sown has not been cast away. The knowledge of the truth has been conveyed even to the far-distant Indian tribes by their converted brethren. At a meeting held in St. John's school-room in 1860, where the Bishop of Eupert's Land presided, Lord Southesk stated "that in the Eocky Mountains he THE GOSPEL IN THE WILDERNESS. 211 fell in with a party of Assinniboines, who maintained family prayers: they assembled at the sound of a bell, and engaged in singing and prayer. They asked his lordship for Christian instruction, and he left with them several passages of Scripture. These interesting inquirers had not seen a missionary, but had obtained a knowledge of the gospel, and of writing in the syllabic characters, through another Indian who had been instructed by the Wesleyan missionary, Mr. Bundle, many years before. A true Christian fellow-feeling prevails among the missionary clergymen of the territory. Archdeacon Hunter mentions that a united prayer-meeting was. held at St. Andrew's. He says, "Eight hundred were assembled, and were deeply impressed with the solemn and earnest addresses and prayers. Mr. Black (Bresbyterian minister), Mr. Cowley, Mr. Chapman, Mr. H. Cochrane (native deacon of the Indian settlement), and myself, were present. We all took part in the meeting, giving short addresses on the awakening, converting, and sanctifying in-. fluenees of the Holy Spirit, mingled with singing and prayers." Now that this territory is about to be colonized, ministers of religion will be required for Europeans as well as for Indians. Let not the churches of Christ be slow in sending them forth. The Eomanists are sending their bishops and priests, and should Brotestants be less zealous in preaching the truth than others are in circulating error ? The following narrative written by the Bishop of Eupert's Land, containing an account of his visitation tour to a part of his diocese, gives us a good 212 BRITISH NORTH AMEKI0A. idea of the mode of operation in this field of missionary labour. Water transit is the one most natural and easy in a land abounding in rivers and lakes. So the bishop set out in a birch-bark canoe, with eight men as his companions, his crew, his attendants, and guides. Each night they encamped, and each Sabbath-day they suspended the labours of the paddle. It often happened that, through falls, rapids, or other obstacles, it was necessary that the canoe should be lightened, and its cargo and itself carried some distance overland. Sixty-two of such longer or shorter portages were required during the voyage.' At times, too, through the storms to which the lakes are subject, they were placed in circumstances, not only of difficulty, but of danger. A month was spent, with comparatively few incidents, before the journey's end was reached, and the special objects contemplated were realized. The season was July—the raspberry moon, in the graphic language of the Indians, as June had been the strawberry, and August would be the wortleberry moon. The latitude passed through was nearly that of London, but the summer's heat is there more oppressive, as the winter's cold is also vastly more intense. The mornings and evenings were full of loveliness, the surrounding scenery always beautiful, occasionally sublime; the atmosphere, too, was clear and calm, and nature lay in primeval repose. We may quote the description of the first Sunday, in illustration of the writer's spirit, and of the circumstances amid which his words were penned: "After breakfast we prepared for service; a large FOREST SERVICES. 213 Oil-cloth was stretched across the trees behind, so as to form a partial shelter from the rays of the sun. Some Indians from the settlement on the opposite side had come over, and remained close to us throughout, gazing in wonder: it almost reminded one of the court of the Gentiles. What a noble temple! In front, an amphitheatre of wood and rock, with the exquisite foreground of still water, of which there was a large expanse, larger than many of the smaller English lakes. We were ourselves on a rocky eminence, under a thickly-wooded bank. We sang, 'Frequent the day of God returns,' and ' Jesus shall reign where'er the sun.' All joined in the responses, and this made a delightful service very happy and heavenly. I preached from Eomans x. 17, 18 : 'So then faith cometh by hearing,' etc. I dwelt on the manner in which faith grows by hearing, in natural things as well as in grace, and on the word of God as the food of faith. I pressed upon my men the necessity of their labour and co-operation: they could often speak to the ear more than I could. I asked them especially to bless God for the unnumbered mercies of the week, and to pray for the good work. What myriads of creatures tenanting the water around! what swarms of insects in the air overhead! what thousands of animals roaming over this vast country! how surely it was the wish of that great and good God who upheld all, that it should be trodden also by the feet of his redeemed people. Let us pray that the Indians might worship with us, not alone in the outer court, but be brought within the fold, uniting with us in heart and voice. I expressed a wish that our little canoe should be called the Rose, 214 BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. the emblem which she bears on the bow, and with the profusion of which flower, scattered all around, I had been much struck. May we not hope to introduce the beauty and bloom of the flower, when cultivated and placed in the ' garden enclosed' ? May we not hope that the Indian may become as the rose of Sharon or Damascus of old, bearing the bud and blossom and full flower of abundant grace ? May the little trip of the ' swift messenger' hasten on this blessed consummation, that ' the wilderness and solitary place may be glad for it, and the desert rejoice and blossom as the rose.' " Two days later a station was reached, on the river Winnipeg, to which has been given the familiar name of Islington. Here a short halt was made, to confer with the catechist and encourage "him in the good work. We again quote from the bishop's journal. "After writing home, etc., I went to hear the children read and sing. They sang Bedford, Old Hundred, St. Augustine, and others, to Sal- teaux hymns. We then mustered for evening prayer, and sang the 23rd Bsalm to Bedford. We then sang a hymn in English, and joined in prayer in that tongue, closing with the Lord's Prayer and the Benediction in Salteaux, which I could just pronounce, the children following and taking up the words of the former. It was a pleasing scene, and gave me a lively hope that a good work was rooting here, the fruits of which might appear at the last day." A further extract may be made, in illustration of the country and the mode of conveyance across it. "We started soon after one o'clock. The scenery ■around was very beautiful; indeed the situation of NATIVE BAPTISM. 215 Islington is just what would be chosen at home for a quiet country-seat; the walks cut through the woods would be picturesque, and the boating in every direction would afford constant amusement and variety. We soon arrived at a portage, and that a long and tangled one. It would have required the sappers and miners to clear a pathway, and open up sufficient room for my canoe. One of our men preceded with an axe, cutting to the right and left, both the overtopping branches and the smaller trees. One thought at once of the highway of the Lord—of the method in which the path of the conqueror was opened of old, and the call to the messengers of the cross, 'Prepare ye the way of the Lord.' " The next day another pause took place on the banks of the English Eiver, to administer the rite of baptism to three Indian candidates, two elderly men and a woman. The incident was peculiarly interesting and suggestive. "They stood by my side. We sang together, ' Come, let us join our cheerful songs.' After which I read Acts viii. to the end, and then joined in prayer, especially for those to be baptized. I next explained to my own party what was about to be done; that I had purposely read the chapter of Philip and the eunuch, that they might see how similar God's church and people are in all times. The eunuch's knowledge was probably not great, but the Spirit had touched his heart, and he was baptized on the river aide, and went on his way rejoicing. So the knowledge of those before me might not be great, but they seemed to have a sense of sin and weakness, and a desire for the salvation which is in Christ Jesus. I then put the questions to the 216 BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. candidates themselves in a short and simple form. Philip, the catechist, then offered up a short prayer in Salteaux. After this, taking Littleton by the right hand, I led him to the river's brink, and, with its water, baptized him Adam, in the name of the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. Next, his wife, Elizabeth, and then taking the tall old man in the same way, I baptized him Philip. Such was the simple yet impressive rite on the banks of the English Eiver: do I err in calling it an apostolic and spiritual service ? What could be nearer to the circumstances in the Acts ? Here were two, with whom Philip had often talked of a Saviour; their sons had joined him often in the canoe, and had gone with him to Eed Eiver, and the one son urges the father, the wife urges the husband, not to delay, but to seek at once admission to the fold. The very stream bears a name telling whence come to them the life-giving tidings of the gospel. May we not pray that, wherever commerce leads our countrymen in this land, the river may not only carry the traffic of the country, but also that more precious freight, the enduring riches that fade not away—that the rivers of the land may not only bear the name of Britain, but may possess something upon them to remind all of Britain's glory, the word and worship of the living God ? " Then on they sped, fish, leaping around them, and eagles wheeling overhead, through woods of willow, poplar, fir, pine, oak, cedar, juniper, and birch. Eeach after reach they passed, with ever fresh and varied beauties; sometimes beguiling the way with a boat song, at others contented with the music of the paddles. Occasionally land-locked, to all ap- EXCITING VOYAGE. 217 pearance, they open suddenly on a little lake, and thence, perhaps, on a narrow river passage with abrupt rocks on either side. Then across larger lakes, studded with verdant isles, sailing before the breeze. So they gain the boundary height, from which the water flowed in two opposite directions. " We had finished the ascent, and were now to descend towards James's Bay; the current would now be with us, and greater speed would mark our movements. This was pleasurable to us; but is it so always ? Is it so in life ? Is it a joyful thing to all to feel that middle life is upon them, that they have climbed the hill and gained the summit; that theirs is now only the decline, the swift current sweeping all to the grave ? Yet why this difference ? ought it not to be a delightful thing to feel that our face is towards Zion, and our feet drawing nearer to our eternal home ?" Now they begin to shoot rapids, the most exciting part of the voyage, where one false stroke would have dashed their frail bark to pieces. On they advance, over a succession of ripples or eddies, and along a chain of lakes, each one apparently more picturesque than that preceding. As a specimen of such travelling, we may avail ourselves of the writer's own words. " Our only difficulty was, that we were blind from excess of fight, the sun shining on our faces, and causing such a dazzling reflection from the water, that the men at times could only guess their course, which, among rocks, was rather critical. We reached at last Martin's Falls, the upper and lower. Here we had only partially to lighten the canoe, and launch her down backwards. It was then floated to 218 BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. an island in the centre : we ourselves crossed where the water was very impetuous and the footing slippery ; two of the men stood in the water holding a long pole, to give a temporary support to those passing over; one then carried me across leaning on this as a banister. Their footing was, of course, surer than mine from practice; but I trembled as I saw them carrying over some of the pieces, where the slightest slip of the foot might have been fatal. At last all was safely accomplished." We need not dwell further on the details of the bishop's sojourn, nor follow him in his more tedious return to the Eed Eiver. A work is being prosecuted at which we should rejoice, amid difficulties which in our own land of high religious privilege we cannot adequately estimate. Difficulties there are in the country itself, the thinness of its population, the inaccessibility of its scattered stations, the rigour of its climate. Other difficulties arise from the variety of native dialects, but Calvary can repair the breaches made by Babel, and God's book is a link to bind together the dispersed of the Gentiles as well as the outcasts of Israel. There is but "one Lord, one faith, one baptism," one name only given whereby we may be saved; and time, before its course is run, shall witness and welcome that glorious consummation, when throughout a ransomed world -Christ will be " all and in all." CHAPTEE XL TRAVELLING LN BRITISH CENTRAL NORTH AMERICA. Various modes of travelling—Transit from Canada to British Columbia— Cruise on Lake Winnipeg to Red River—The great highway from the Atlantic to the Pacific—Its vast importance—The means proposed for its accomplishment. The modes of transit in the north-west territory are very various. The traveller in summer may prosecute his journey by carts or waggons, on horseback, by canoes, barges, or, on the innumerable lakes, by small sailing-vessels. In winter he must travel by sleighs, on horseback, or on snow-shoes. The Eed Eiver carts are very light and strong. They can be formed into rafts when crossing rivers, the wheels being taken off and the luggage floated over. Oxen will drag them at the rate of twenty-five miles a day. Travellers can thus traverse the territory with ease from one end to the other. Travelling on horseback is very pleasant, but, as provisions and baggage must be carried, it has hitherto been impossible for any great distance. As soon, however, as posts are established along the road, and relays of horses can be obtained, it will become a favourite mode of travelling. The following narrative of the journey of the first large party of emigrants wfio crossed from Canada to m iff ■ iliih: hi: 220 BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. British Columbia, is too interesting to be omitted, especially as it may be of service to others who may follow in the same direction. They numbered about one hundred and fifty persons; one man had brought his wife and children; the rest were unmarried, or had left their wives to follow. All the larger towns in Upper Canada were represented; the persons from each place forming separate parties. A captain was chosen with a committee to assist him. The guide was especially under his orders. He directed the time of starting and camping, the rate of travelling, and order of march. There were ninety-seven carts, and one hundred and ten animals, some used as saddle horses, and a few spare ones. The largest party took the lead the first day, the others following in order according to their size. The next day the second led, and the largest went in the rear. The object of this was to prevent jealousy, the first place in the train being considered the best, both for procuring game and for passing over soft places in the road before it was cut up too deeply by driving over it. So large a party made an imposing appearance, for, when marshalled in close order, it extended over the plain for half a mile. The march was conducted with great regularity, and, except when occasionally either a cart or harness broke, there were few delays. When an accident of the kind occurred to any of the party, they were ordered to drop out of the fine, repair immediately, and then to take their place in the rear, all being provided with tools and ropes. It was supposed that the Indians might attempt to steal their cattle. The camp was therefore arranged in a triangular shape, the carts forming a CANADA TO BRITISH COLUMBIA. 221 corral, being drawn up side by side, the shafts outward, and the cattle secured inside, each to its own cart. The tents were pitched on the outside, each party occupying the ground opposite to their own carts. Six men were appointed to watch at a time, two being stationed on each side of the triangle. The first watch began at ten o'clock, and was changed every two hours. During the first part of the journey the night was divided into three watches, the camp being aroused at four o'clock, so as to be ready to start at five, allowing an hour for breakfast. They drove till eleven o'clock, halted for dinner, started again at two, and camped for night at six o'clock, making ten hours of travelling each day. A little experience convinced them that six hours' drive in the forenoon without food was too much for the cattle. Accordingly, when the nights became very short, the camp was roused as half-past two, and they started at three, without breakfast; drove till five, and halted two hours to feed the animals and breakfast ; started again at seven, and drove till eleven, when they halted for dinner, making ten hours a day as before, but with much greater ease. The average rate of travelling was about two and a half miles per hour. The first part of the journey was over level prairie, then occasionally they crossed small streams of clear cold water, with high steep banks, down which they had to steady their carts with ropes; sometimes they met with miry sloughs, where it was necessary to put their shoulders to the wheels to help their cattle through. Some of the streams had gently sloping banks, shaded at intervals with groves of poplars. Ill 222 BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. A special article in the constitution of their company, provided that they should rest regularly on the Sabbath. A portion of the day was devoted to religious worship, a practice systematically observed throughout the journey. These exercises consisted \ of prayer and praise, and the reading and exposition of a portion of the Scriptures. Whatever may have been the sectarian differences which prevailed among them at home, here they all met on common ground, and presented their united petitions for that protection they so much needed. With very few exceptions they reached their destination in safety, and without any great hardships. A good idea of travelling in this country is given in the following interesting account of a cruise on Lake Winnipeg to Eed Eiver, extracted from the Leisure Sour:— "The sheet of water, margined with bays and headlands, called Lake Winnipeg, is a great shallow inland sea, covering 8,500 miles of surface, and circled with a coast-line.of nearly 1,000; upon which we will now, if you please, take a cruise. "We embark on 9th August, 1858, with Mr. Fleming (one of the employes on Professor Hind's exploring expedition), not at first upon the lake, but upon its greatest affluent, the broad Saskatchewan. Here, where palings and flagstaff, and a few wooden houses flanked with wigwams, indicate a settlement called Fort a, la Come, the stream is 960 feet wide and twenty deep, travelling north-east at the rate of three miles hourly. We step on board—if the term be not too substantial for the craft—a birch- bark canoe, which can be darned with flexible roots, CRUISE ON LAKE WINNIPEG. 223 or soldered with pitch, as required; its crew are two half-caste Indians, Ojibway and Blackfoot by descent. We paddle twenty miles the first afternoon, then draw to land, kindle a driftwood fire, and try to be comfortable for the night on a couch of nothing . softer than boulder-stones. For four days we find no variety: the banks may be a little higher or lower, the underwood thicker or thinner; on the whole our scenery is tame, until we reach Fort Cumberland, which is after the pattern of all the other forts garrisoning Eupert's Land: wooden palings and houses, and outlying wigwams, some fields of barley and potatoes, the only cultivated patch for myriads of acres all round. Here we find a brigade of boats just come in from Mackenzie Biver and the Arctic regions, laden with peltries; presently they depart for York Factory, their voyageurs singing joyously in chorus. This Cumberland Fort is the confluence of two great systems of water communication between the Arctic seas and the Eacific; more than one of our polar expeditions has here recruited, and in the garden is a memorial of one—a sun-dial erected by Sir John Eichardson. " Afterwards, the shores are solitary and swampy for a great way. One Indian hunter and his family, in a small canoe, are the only living things we meet, except a black fox and a beaver—the latter industrious among the trees. In such scarcity of quadrupeds the hunter has taken to fishing, and is drying sturgeon for his winter stores. To these aborigines the waters are what the rice-field is to the Hindoo, yielding the staple of fife. " Ah! our travelled eyes refuse to believe their 224 BRITISH NORTH .AMERICA. sight—a church spire in the wilderness! Above the perpetual alluvial flat, touched by gleams of sunset, . rises the strange object; and then we naturally expect to see the pretty white cottages and fields of waving grain wfiicfi surround it; an English missionary lives here. Again alluvial flats to Cedar Lake, which is a mere pond on the Saskatchewan, though much of it is below the horizon as we traverse from wooded point to point, and are a day and a half crossing its expanse. "Hark! the voyageurs' song again! We'meet another brigade of boats, fourteen in number, toiling up-stream from Lake Winnipeg. Mr. Christie, the factor in command, is eloquent on the need of steamers to navigate these noble waters, and transport the huge freights which now travel slowly and toilfully in bateaux. We fully agree with him, being tolerably tired by this time of our birch-bark equipage, and pass on to Cross Lake, where we come on the traces of a burnt and drowned forest, the ridges covered with charred trunks, and the swamps with soaked shrubs. " The Saskatchewan is now close to its resting- place in Winnipeg, though flowing on a level considerably higher; and at some olden period it is possible that the rush was made at once in perpendicular descent over a precipice: but the torrent has eaten through its limestone barrier, and changed a cataract (perchance) into a rapid. For almost three miles it flings itself along a rocky channel: and in all America this is the grand rapid, as Niagara is the waterfall. We shoot down the distance in our frail canoe, carried headlong by those great breakers and MOUTH OF THE SASKATCHEWAN. 225 surges, whizzing past points of rock, deafened by the thunder of the torrent and blinded by its spray, yet enjoying the astomshing swiftness of motion, and excited by the sense of dexterously-evaded danger. We have indeed passed ' The river that runs swift,' which is Saskatchewan in Indian parlance. " Safe in smooth water, the question occurs— How did Mr. Christie's brigade of boats, how does ever any boat, climb this rapid up-stream ? Our voyageurs explain. They have often helped to ' track' boats through this difficulty, and, harnessed by leather belts, have drawn them against the full force of the current, by running along the top of the limestone cliffs. " Bresently we reach the mouth of the Saskatchewan, where its thousand miles of stream join placidly with a lake worthy of such a contribution. From our bivouac on the shingly beach, we see the vast grey level of Winnipeg spreading to the edge of the sky afar. South-east lies the great dim promontory of Eitchi-nashi, or the Big Point, a spur twenty-four miles long. Fifteen hours of tracking the next day along sandy beaches bring us to camp on its extremity. We overtake eight small canoes filled with Swampy Crees, paddling to the fishing grounds; subsisting meanwhile on gulls' eggs and young birds, from an almost exhaustless supply stored on the sandy islets. Their chief is somewhat suspicious about us, and in his superior wisdom thinks our observations and instruments must be connected with a design for seizing on this valuable country, which for scores of miles inland is nothing but ' muskeg [ or tremblin , swamp, composed of i 226 BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. such moss and mud as have formed peat tracts and bogs in Britain. However, after a day or two they are reassured, and establish lodges amicably beside our bivouac, and confess that their summer fishing has failed at the Grand Eapid; consequently they are often reduced to the roots of bulrushes for food, when gulls fail. " And now we find that, like other shallow natures, this Lake Winnipeg is very easily lashed into a rage: a wind of moderate strength covers it with angry waves and foam. We are often obliged to run for shelter into sluggish creeks and behind low islets. Once are we compelled to lighten cargo by throwing overboard some of our valued geological specimens. He who has ever chipped fossil from rock will comprehend the grief with which a very fine orthoceratite (a massive straight- chambered shell of extinct species and the silurian period) is cast into the undiscerning deep, and lost to museums for ever. " At the Little Saskatchewan Eiver we find more Indians encamped, catching whitefish in great numbers by a process reminding one of our schoolboy takes of herring fry. Each man, with a scoop net on a pole, has built himself a little stone inclosure at the edge of the stream, and as fast as he scoops up fish he throws them into this cage; others take them out and cure them by splitting and drying in the sun. These Indians are hospitably inclined, poor nomads, and in a certain wigwam have cooked a birch-rind dish of fish, sprinkled with blackish salt, which it is our duty as guests to consume to the last morsel, or we shall give offence. We do not foresee STRAITENED RESOURCES. 227 that, in a few days, that dubiously-cooked fish would be a priceless luxury, black salt and all. " Hitherto we have lived on the potted meat called pemmican, with such game as could be found; but ninety-six hours' imprisonment, from storms, reduces us to a few pounds of the former in a mouldy state, and we are obliged to make a rule of only one meal a day when weatherbound, unless we have the good fortune to catch anything eatable. But animated nature has deserted these wilds. One morning when we are at our last mouthful, and our last charge of powder, a bald-headed eagle comes wheeling above us in great circles, and that last charge brings him down into our midst with a collapse—a most acceptable plenishing to our larder, though a trifle tough. . " The 6th of September finds us at the base of the Cat Head, which the Indians say is the abode of a manitou or spirit; the all-sufficient reason being a rumbling at the base, in caverns open to the surges. Thirty-five feet is no great altitude for a cliff, but in this swampy region so much limestone is a phenomenon worthy of supernatural explanation; and it is named from the unlucky chase of a hunter after a lynx, say the Crees. "Our eagle being consumed, all but his feathers, we are glad to ascend the Jack-fish Eiver, to the Indian basket-traps set near its mouth. We find our civilized salmon-weirs at home anticipated by this wilderness contrivance—a fence of poles built across the stream, sloping with the current, allowing the water to pass through; a yard-wide opening near the bank, conducting the fish into a square box with a grated bottom, sloping upwards, through which falls the 228 BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. water, leaving them stranded. They have more wit than to enter this prison during daylight, but at night see no danger, and after the first bewildered flounder are tapped on the head by the mallet of a watching Indian, and flung ashore. We sit up all night, and catch nearly two hundred fish of various sorts, chiefly gold-eyes and pike, wherewith we deeply load our canoe, and travel on. " Five days through the narrows of the lake, until we reach the rushes at Eed Eiver mouth, where an Indian hunter gives us some of the hundred wild ducks he has shot during the day: reeds innumerable, far as the eye can see; only an occasional strip of sand and willows to relieve the prospect. Six sluggish channels fuse the Eed Eiver with Winnipeg, which last signifies by interpretation, ' The dirty^ water,' and deserves not so equivocal a name. "Entering the main mouth, and reflecting what unrivalled meadows might be embanked from these marshes, we paddle along for fourteen miles, till the whole country gradually rises, woods appear in clumps, and we begin to traverse the richest prairie in the world. Presently, neat white houses adorn the banks, amid inclosures of garden and field; we have reached an Indian missionary village, where such aborigines as we left gnawing bulrushes on the marshes of the Winnipeg, are changed into civilized and Christianized men and women. Thenceforth the shores are no longer solitary; farm-houses of settlers rise at short intervals for thirty miles to Fort Garry, the capital of the region named, in blue books, Assinniboia. It is the head-quarters of the fur trade of North America at present, and must be hereafter GREAT PACIFIC RAILROAD. 229 the central depot of a vast agricultural territory; where are already substantial stone churches, a college, a see-house for the Bishop of Eupert's Land, groups of commodious dwelling-houses, the limestone bastions and turrets of a regular fortification, and the confluence of two superb streams, the Assinniboine and Eed Eiver." The subject of forming a direct communication from the Atlantic to the Bacific, through British America, is one of such immense importance, not to the colonies only, but to the world at large, that it demands special notice in the present volume. We have already seen that it occupied the thoughts of La Salle, and prompted many of his adventurous enterprises. Batriotic and energetic men have kept this great work in view ever since. The Government of the United States has, for some years past, been pushing forward the Great Pacific Eailroad with an energy which even the great war has not entirely suspended. And the Canadians have zealously devoted themselves to the enterprise, in the hope that, whatever may be done by the neighbouring Eepublic, they may have a line running through British territory, which shall not only develop their own internal traffic and productions, but form a great highway between the two oceans, over which the commerce of Europe and Asia may pass to and fro. The remainder of the present chapter will be devoted to a brief narrative of what has been done, and what is now in contemplation, towards the accomplishment of this great work. It will be remembered that already a very large portion of that part of the line which extends from 230 BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. Halifax, Nova Scotia, to the extreme west of the Peninsula of Upper Canada, is completed. The main fine will be continued, either from Ottawa, or Barrie, or some intermediate point. With that object in view the country in the proposed direction is now being settled, while surveys are in progress along the entire length of the north shores of Lakes Huron and Superior. Having, however, a fine water communication for the greater part of the year, from. Colfingwood, on the shore of the Georgian Bay, to Thunder Bay, on the west shore of Lake Superior, the portion of the line along the shores of the two great lakes • will probably be the last completed. Undoubtedly the most important portion, and that which would the soonest prove remunerative, is the fine between Lake Superior and the Eed Eiver Settlement. Yet even that must be a work of time. The territory must first be opened up by means of a common road, or by a combination of road, tramway, steam-boat, and canoe navigation, by lake and river. A plan with this object in view has been suggested by Mr. Sandford Fleming, an engineer of high standing in Canada, who came over to England, deputed by the people of Eed Eiver, to explain their position, and to plead their cause with the British Government and the nation at large. His plan embraces the whole fine from the settled districts of Canada to British Columbia. He suggests that, in the first instance, a grand trunk road sfiould be formed through the districts to be opened up. This he calls a "territorial road," and advises that it should invariably be constructed with easy curves, GREAT PACIFIC RAILROAD. 231 and on the most available ground for railway service. Territorial road is the name given.in Canada to the first rough cutting through the forest to a new district. The trees are cleared away, and it is made passable for waggons; it is simply an earth road. The direction of this road is to be guided by the adaptability of the country for settlement, so that a population may be secured throughout its whole length. Now, as in constructing a railway, we have —1st, Formation level; 2nd, The ballast; 3rd, The permanent way; so, in the territorial road, we have— 1st, An earth road, corresponding with the formation level; 2nd, A gravel or stone road, corresponding with the road bed; 3rd, A railway. Instead of the mixed mode of intercommunication by land and water, Mr. Fleming advocates the formation of a territorial or earth road to the north of Dog Lake, Eainy Lake, and the Lake of the Woods, to the Eed Eiver settlements from Lake Superior. Thus no capital will be lost. All bridges, etc., should be constructed of a substantial character, with the final object in view. From the territorial road, what are called "colonization roads," should branch off, or rather be marked out, to districts especially suited to settlement. They in time may be converted into good gravel, or macadamized roads. Thirdly, he suggests " concession roads; " these are lines of least importance, designed simply to give access to farm lots from the leading lines. Concession roads might be laid out generally across the colonization roads, and between the several blocks into which townships are usually subdivided. The advantages of the plan are numerous, " as all the 232 BRITISH NORTH .AMERICA. roads in every section of the country along the line of the intended railway would connect, through the colonization ■ roads, directly with the station, the traffic would centre at these points, and at these points would railway crossings by public roads alone be required. The farm lots being laid out subsequent to the location of the road, no private or farm crossings would be required, and a great expense saved in bridges, land crossings, cattle guards, and gates, none of which would be required, as the farms would be wholly on one side or other of the fine." He advises, also, that on each side of the fine a broad belt of forest should be kept standing, and that, where there is no belt, trees should at once be planted, the object of which is to arrest the snow-drifts on the outer-side. The line being thus kept clear from drifted snow, a light plough would easily overcome any impediment the fallen snow might offer. He remarks that, in Canada, where railways pass through forests, the snow seldom interferes with the regular running of trains. It is only in open sections that the snow-drifts become so heavy that they cannot be moved without manual labour. He calculates that to supply sleepers, cross-trees, etc., 300 acres per mile is required, and that a belt extending a quarter of a mile beyond each side of the line of road would fully embrace the required area, and furnish all the timber that will be requisite for maintaining the permanent way. He advises, however, that there should be a space left free of trees on either side of the road, so that falling trees might not injure it. As soon as the road is located or laid out, and the posts or villages along it are established, a telegraphic EARLY OBSTRUCTIONS. 233 wire might be laid across the whole continent. Until the line is located, it would be very expensive, if not impossible.to establish telegraphic communication, as the wire would have to be carried round lakes or swamps, and amid forest trees, which, continually falling, would destroy the connection, perhaps at the very moment - it was most required. Telegraphic wires have other enemies to contend with in an unsettled country. Snow-drifts may overwhelm or break them, storms and floods may destroy the posts, or the tubing if carried underground. Indians would possess themselves of the wire; and though they may in time be taught to leave it unmolested, it will require civilization to give them the lesson, and this can only be brought about by settlement. The wire would have other enemies in two animals, the bear and the glutton or wolvereen, which have a singular propensity of destroying anything which has been touched by man. They would certainly wage war against the posts, or dig up the piping. From settled districts, however, they would quickly disappear, for the glutton is a slow animal, easily shot, as is the bear, who, also, wisely avoids the haunts of men. Such is the style of road which it is in contemplation to construct. The first step is proposed to be taken forthwith in the formation, from Thunder Bay to New West-minster, the capital of British Columbia, of a simple earth road. From this such impediments would be cleared away as would prevent the passage of a waggon in summer or a sleigh in winter. But, it will be asked—How is this territorial earth road to be kept up, and to be made at once of practical use ? The answer is simple. By forming settle- 234 BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. ments or posts at intervals, along its whole length, say twenty-five miles apart. As soon as the best fine of road has been determined, spots for these settlements should be selected, where the fertility of the soil, the neighbourhood to some navigable river or lake, or a forest, or some other cause, makes a settlement desirable. In the first instance, posts, such as Eussia has long maintained across her vast dominions in Europe and Asia, would alone be required. In some districts it might be necessary to build forts something like those of the Hudson's Bay Company, but no difficulties with the Indians need be apprehended, if, in the first instance, they are properly treated with. Generally it would only be necessary to lay out townships at the required distances. Certain lots would be reserved for government buildings, churches, schools, etc. The rest would quickly be taken by inn-keepers, stage-waggon contractors, coach and cart makers, blacksmiths, saddlers, carpenters, coopers, store-keepers, butchers, bakers, gardeners, and men of other callings usually collected in a settlement on a colonial high road. Free grants should in the first instance be made of such lots to persons of the callings and trades most required; this might be done according to a scale drawn up and published. Thus "the first two carpenters, one wheelwright, one saddler, three gardeners, six farmers, one baker, one butcher, etc., who apply at such a township will receive a free grant of acres of land and a town lot under such and such regula- tions." One of these regulations should be that they follow their proper trade for a year or two years, and build a residence, before obtaining title-deeds. LOCATION OF POSTS. 235 A small body of police, selected pensioners, bound to perform military duty, might be placed at each post, and an officer of character to act as magistrate. They would render good service in improving the road, aiding travellers in crossing rivers, and other similar duties. For the greater part of the distance no territorial road will be required at first, as the country is already passable for waggons from the Lake of the Woods to the Eocky Mountains, 900 miles, and directly the surveyors have located the road, the posts or settlements may be commenced. The first portion of 400 miles would require longer time, as trees have to be cut down, inequalities levelled, and bridges thrown across streams. Ninety miles of it the inhabitants of Eed Eiver will perform; and the rest has the advantage of vicinity to Lake Superior, and commencing from that end will quickly be pushed westward. There will be about 20 posts in the first portion, and 40 in the second, and supposing that it would be necessary to have 30 persons at each post, 1,800 persons would settle up the whole fine, and if conveyed to the ground in the spring, would be well housed with a store of provisions for the winter. In the very first winter the road would become far more practicable for travellers than heretofore. With regard to provisions, there can be no doubt, from what has already been shown, that directly the farmers of Eed Eiver know that the proposed arrangement has been made, they will take eare to sow an ample supply of wheat, and other grain, while speculators will introduce cattle, horses, and sheep from the States. Superior breeds might be 236 BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. procured from England or Canada; the Hudson's Bay Company would supply some horses, and others might be purchased from the Indians. The Indians, when they find that they can get good prices for their horses, will bring in as many as are required. The settlers' first care in the autumn would be to lay in a stock of hay for their animals. Each post will be under charge of a gentleman, with the rank of a police magistrate, and a daily communication should be kept up between the posts. This might be done by means of Indians, or half-breeds, either mounted or on foot. They would also carry the mail' Eather more than 100 men would perform this service. Some of the intermediate posts should be reserved entirely for Indians, who, under proper instructors, would find ample employment suited to their tastes and former habit of life, and probably no other means could be found so calculated to civilize them and in every way to improve their condition. Eersons accustomed to deal with the Eed men should communicate with the native tribes, win their confidence, and disabuse their minds of every prejudice which may exist. Some might be induced to collect provisions for sale to settlers, others should be told that if they will grow corn, and will catch fish, they will find a market; others might be advised to bring in their horses for sale. Stringent regulations should be laid down for the conduct of the settlers towards the natives. It should be impressed from the first on the minds of all that they must treat the natives with kindness, justice, and consideration, yet with decision and firmness. As postilions, cattle keepers, ferrymen, and in many other employments, the Indians PROB.ABLE RESULTS. 237 would find ample occupation, and, instead of opposing, they would aid much in the settlement of the country. These posts would speedily become self- supporting where the soil is tolerably good. In many places hamlets and villages would spring up, in others, towns. At each a considerable number of horses must be kept, and at not less than fifty miles apart inns of good size will be required. Farms must be attached to them to supply provisions, and tradesmen and artisans will flock to them. The settlement of this line of road, if its advantages were properly understood, would, probably, be as rapid as that of any district in the British possessions, wonderful as the progress of many of them has been. CHAPTEE XII. THE FUR TRADE AND THE HUDSON S BAY COMPANY. The far-bearing animals of British North America—The beaver—The marten—The bear and wolf—The wolvereen—The racoon—Origin of the fur trade—French Fur Company—The Hudson's Bay Company—Bitter rivalry between them—The North-west Company—Deadly feuds between the employes of the two companies—Lord Selkirk—Coalition of the two companies—Termination of the charter. Although the voyages of the early English navigators were unsuccessful as to their chief object of I discovering a North-west Eassage, the results were most important. They laid open the great extent of the Hudson's Bay Territory, and imparted some idea of the valuable furred animals by which its shores were tenanted. Amongst the principal of these may be mentioned the black bear, racoon, badger, marten, ermine, and four or five other members of the weasel tribe, the fox, the polar and brown lynxes, the beaver, the musk-rat, the deer, the elk, the hare and the rabbit, the wolf and the otter. "The beaver is the main staple of the fur trade, not owing to the value of the skin, which, in proportion to its size, is inferior to that of the marten and sea-otter, but from its abundance, and the large and sure demand for it in the hat manufacture. It appears to be indigenous in all the northern parts of FUR-BEARING ANIMALS. 239 this continent, though in the settled countries, and even those open to private hunters, it is nearly exterminated. There are two modes of taking it; one by traps, which is the easiest, and generally followed by single adventurers; the other by what is termed trenching. On a beaver-house being discovered, all the canals leading from it are stopped up; then, with an instrument called the ice-chisel, it is broken into, and the old animals speared. The young are left untouched, and thus the breed remains uninjured; while, in trapping, both old and young equally fall victims. The Company, therefore, prohibited the latter operation in all their settlements, and allowed only the other and less injurious mode of capture. The skins are divided into parchment, or those of the old animals; and cub, or those of the voung ones. The latter are the finest, but from their smaller size are not of equal value with the others. They have, of course, become much rarer since their capture was prohibited. " The marten ranks next in importance, and has the finest fur of any land animal on the new continent. This beautiful quadruped can be taken only by traps, laid baited across its customary tracks, which the natives are skilful in discovering. Its abundance depends mainly on that of rabbits and mice, which are its principal food; and as a dry season is favourable, and a wet one injurious to the rabbit, so is it also to the marten. Its skin is used for muffs, tippets, and other ornamental articles, and is usually sold in this country as sable, very few of the real sable being imported. The mink and the fisher are animals of the weasel species, somewhat allied to the marten; 240 BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. but the latter is much larger, though its fur is greatly ' inferior in value. The fox also in this country affords a few beautiful specimens, especially those of the black or silver kind, which are the most valuable of any, but found in very small numbers, while the red and speckled are not much prized. Mr. Simpson confirms Mr. Wilson's opinion, that these are all casual varieties of one species, the different colours being often produced in the same litter. " The musquash, or musk-rat, is found throughout the continent, but especially in the vicinity of Hudson's Bay; and though the skin does not bear a high price, the vast number taken renders it an article of some importance. It is a species of aiminutive beaver, building similar houses, and captured in the same manner. The fur is used in the manufacture of inferior hats. " The bear and the wolf form also profitable objects of hunting, and are killed chiefly by means of the fowling-piece. For the wolf, spring-guns are much used, having a cord attached to them, to which the bait is fastened; when the wolf seizes it, the string pulls the trigger, and the ball is discharged. These animals, however, being extremely sagacious, have been known to cut the cofd, and carry off the bait without sustaining injury. The hide of the wolf is considered peculiarly fitted for knapsacks and similar purposes, for which it is much employed in Germany. " Bear skins are much used in the northern countries of Europe, both for warmth and ornament, particularly on the outside of carriages.' The black bear (Ursus niger Americanus) is well known in INDIAN REVERENCE FOR BEARS. 241 Canada, and is found wherever wooded districts occur, northward to the shores of the Arctic Sea, southward as far as Carolina, and westward across the continent to the shores of the Bacific Ocean. Although this species is the least carnivorous of its kind, yet Dr. Eichardson informs us that its strength and agility, combined with its great tenacity of fife, render an attack upon it very hazardous, and its pursuit has always been considered by the rude inhabitants of the northern regions as a matter of the highest importance. They previously propitiate the whole race of bears by sundry ceremonies, and when an individual is slain, they treat it with the utmost respect, address it as a near relation, and offer it a pipe to smoke. This veneration has no doubt arisen from their admiration of. the skill and. pertinacity with which Bruin defends himself, and it is both curious and interesting to observe how the same feeling is exhibited by various tribes of people, speaking different languages, and inhabiting separate countries."* Alexander Henry, who travelled in Canada and the adjoining territories in the years 1760-76, has furnished us with some valuable and curious remarks regarding the black bear of the New World. While o o on the banks of Lake Michigan, in the month of January, he observed the trunk of an enormous pine tree much torn, as if by the claws of a bear ascending and descending. He next noticed a large opening in the upper portion, near which the smaller branches were broken off. It was agreed that all his retainers should assemble next morning, to assist in * " Fauna Boreali-Amerieana," part L, p. 17. B 242 BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. cutting down the tree, as from the absence of tracks upon the surrounding snow, it was presumed that a bear had for some time lain concealed within. The tree measured 18 feet in circumference. Their axes being very light, they toiled all day, both men and women, like beavers, till the sun went down, by which time they had got only about half way through the trunk. They renewed the attack next morning, and about two in the afternoon the monarch of the wood reeled and fell. For several minutes after the first crash, everything remained quiescent, and it was feared their labour had been spent in vain; but just as Mr. Henry advanced towards the opening, out came an enormous bear, which he immediately shot. No sooner was the monster dead, than his assistants approached, and all took the head in their hands, stroking and kissing it repeatedly, begging its pardon a thousand times, calling it their relation and grandmother, and requesting it to lay no blame on them, since it was truly an Englishman who had put it to death. "If," adds Mr. Henry, " it was I that killed their grandmother, they were not themselves behindhand in what remained to be performed. The skin was taken off, and the fat found to be in several places six inches deep, and when divided into two parts it formed a load for I two persons; the fleshy portions were as much as four men could carry. In all, the carcass must have exceeded 500 lbs. weight. As soon as they reached the lodge the head was adorned with various trinkets and laid upon a scaffold, with a large quantity of tobacco near the nose; and sundry other ceremonies were gone through in the course of the ensuing WOLVEREEN—RACOON. 243 morning, after which they made a feast of the flesh." * The wolvereen of America is described by Dr. Eichardson as a carnivorous animal, which feeds chiefly upon the carcasses of beasts that have been killed by accident. It possesses great strength, and frequently annoys the hunters by destroying their hoards of provisions and demolishing their marten- traps. It is sly and suspicious, and will rarely enter a snare, but rather, pulling it cautiously to pieces from behind, it scatters the logs of which it is composed, and then carries off the bait. It also preys on meadow-mice and marmots, and occasionally on such quadrupeds of a larger size as have been disabled. The wolvereen is supposed to do more damage to the small fur trade than all other vermin put together. It will follow a marten-hunter's path round a line of traps extending from 40 to 60 miles, and render the whole useless by eating off the partridge-heads or other baits. Though not fond of the martens themselves, they never fail, as it were from sheer spite and mischief, to tear them in pieces, and bury them beneath the snow. " The common racoon of North America (Procyon lotor) is a fox-like creature, with the gait of a bear. In a state of nature it sleeps throughout the day, and prowls about during the night in search of fruits, roots, small birds, eggs, and insects. It also frequents the sea-shore when the tide has ebbed, for the purpose of preying on Crustacea and shellfish." f * Henry's " Travels and Adventures in Canada and the Indian Territories," p. 142. t " British America," vol. iii. i Hi tmmm 244 BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. The French were the first to discover the commercial value of these animals. They engaged in the fur trade, immediately on their settlement in Canada—an honour no one would wish to dispute with them, for nothing has more directly tended to the destruction and deterioration of the native races, than the system pursued, from the earliest days down to the present, in carrying on the trade. It was this traffic which introduced the deadly "fire-water" with which the fur traders at Tadoussac early began to supply the Indians, and from that time spirits have been one of the chief articles of barter, and the stimulus to the Eed Men to continue hunters. In the year 1627, a French fur company was established under the immediate auspices of Cardinal Eichelieu and others, entitled, "LaCompagnie de la Nouvelle France." To this company a charter was granted by Louis xrv., conveying to them the whole of the trade by land and sea, from the river St. Lawrence to the Arctic Circle and the Frozen Ocean. Other associations were formed in Canada itself, and, under similar grants, continued to trade as far as the Saskatchewan, 2,000 miles west of their settled districts, till the cession of the province to the British Crown in 1763. Meantime, forty-one years after the formation of Cardinal Eichrelieu's company, that is in the year 1668, a party of English traders, under the guidance of two Freneh officers who had quarrelled with their own government, founded a factory on the south shore of Hudson's Bay. This led on their return to the incorporation of the adventurers into the Hudson's Bay Company, by a charter from King Charles n., dated 2nd May, 1669. Hudson's bay company. 245 There were thus two rival companies, soon to enter into disastrous and sanguinary conflict with each other. The English charter grants " all those countries, in whatever latitude they may lie, whose waters flow into Hudson's Bay," or "to which they could obtain access by land or water out of Hudson's Bay," but, "which were not already actually possessed by the subjects of any other Christian prince or state." No sooner had the English, who were naturally looked upon as interlopers by the French, established their posts,, than a force was sent from Canada to drive them out. This led to reprisals, and hostilities did not terminate till the treaty of Eyswick in 1697, by which the claims of the French to the greater part of Hudson's Bay were definitively acknowledged -r and up to the treaty of Utrecht in 1714, they enjoyed undisturbed possession of nearly the whole of the trade of the disputed territory. We hear little of the English company at this time. It is well known that, by the common law of England, a charter from the Crown conferring a monopoly of trade without the sanction of Barfiament is illegal and void, and as this was the character of the grant of Charles n., the company found it impossible to exclude interlopers from the countries over which the charter professed to extend, or to provide any remedy against its repeated infringements by illicit traders. On these grounds they, in 1690, obtained an act of Parliament confirming these charters—but "for seven years only, and no longer." In 1697, they were unsuccessful in obtaining a renewal of the act; nor have they from that time obtained it, but have continued to trade on their 246 BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. unconfirmed and defective charter. Their position was improved by the cession to Great Britain of the territory surrounding Hudson's Bay and Straits by the treaty of Utrecht in 1714; but still, afraid of competition with the French traders, who held possession of the whole interior, they advanced but little beyond the shores of the bay, the French keeping up their communication with the Saskatchewan, by way of Lakes Superior and Winnipeg. Small as were the operations of the Hudson's Bay Company during the first twenty years of their existence, so great were their profits, that notwithstanding considerable losses sustained by the capture of some of their posts by the French, amounting to £118,014, they were enabled to make a payment to the proprietors in 1684 of fifty per cent., another payment in 1688 of fifty per cent., and a further payment in 1689 of twenty-five per cent. In 1690 the stock was trebled, without any call being made; besides affording a payment to the proprietors of twenty-five per cent, on the newly created stock. From 1692 to 1697 the company incurred loss and damage to the amount of £97,500 sterling from the French. In 1720, their circumstances were so far improved, that they again trebled their capital stock, with only a call of ten per cent, from the proprietors, on which they paid dividends averaging nine per cent, for many years; showing profits on the originally subscribed capital stock actually paid up of between sixty and seventy per cent, per annum, from the years 1690 to 1800; or during a period of 110 years. By the cession of Canada to Great Britain in 1763, NORTH-WEST COMPANY. 247 the French traders became British subjects, and they, joined by others, speedily extended their traffic north and west. A number of these independent traders formed, in 1783, the celebrated North-west Company of Montreal. Becruited by spirited young men, chiefly from Scotland, they pushed their way toward Hudson's Bay, and soon found themselves involved in a fierce and bitter contest with the agents of the Hudson's Bay Company, which continued for many years with a bitterness and fierceness which was not only utterly at variance with the spirit of Christianity, but which was disgraceful to those who had been educated with the advantages which civilization could bestow. Young men who had been brought up in England or Scotland, in the same town or the same school, engaged themselves as clerks to the rival companies. The one became a servant of the Hudson's Bay Company, the other of the Northwest Company. Entering into the spirit of their superiors, they became deadly enemies, and many thus fell, shot down by bullets aimed by the hands of fellow-countrymen, as they were traversing the territory towards their appointed stations. When one party discovered that supplies were on the way to their rival's posts, an expedition was organized to attack, them, sometimes led on by a factor or clerk, or by one of the French Canadians in their employ. Sometimes a band of Indians were instigated to make the attack, and supplied with arms and ammunition for the purpose. H the latter were victorious, the white men's scalps were brought back as trophies of victory. The Indian hunters of one party were encouraged to attack those of the other, and thus ~1 248 BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. feuds sprang up among those who had hitherto been at peace, which tended much to that rapid decrease of the native tribes which has continued since the commencement of this century. Every temptation which could be held out was employed by one party to draw away the hunters employed by their opponents, and to gain them for themselves. Fire-water was found to be a most attractive bribe, and young men of the rank of factors professing to be Christians did not scruple to enter into nominal matrimonial alliances with the daughters of chiefs, for the sake of securing the tribe to their interest. The struggles between the representatives of the competing companies rose to such a pitch that they resembled the conflicts of fiostile nations, rather than the rivalries of hostile traders. Not a few perished, either in actual fighting, or from the. privations they endured by the destruction of their posts, with the stores laid up in them. Others were taken prisoners, and treated with extreme severity by their captors. It will surprise English readers to learn that such things have taken place in British territories, amongst British subjects, since the commencement of the present century. To explain it, we must retrace the history of the companies. The Hudson's Bay Company, as it then existed, engaged all its servants on fixed salaries, and employed, as its boatmen, people from the Orkney Islands, steady, trustworthy fellows, but without zeal or enterprise. The Northwest Company, on the contrary, by their arrangements, created an identity of interest, and a spirit of emulation among all they employed. They were ENTERPRISE OF LORD SELKIRK. 249 promoted according to their zeal and talents, and each individual was led to expect that his election to the proprietary depended on his own exertions. Courage was an indispensable qualification, not merely for the casual encounters with Indians, but to intimidate any competitor in trade with whom he might happen to come into collision. They employed also, as canoe- men, French Canadians, known as voyageurs, brought up from their childhood to the calling which had been followed by their fathers and grandfathers, and whose skill in managing canoes, capability of enduring hardships, and facility, of adapting themselves to the habits and peculiarities of the various tribes, rendered them infinitely more popular with, the Indians than were the matter-of-fact, unbending Orkneymen. At length the eves of the directors of the Hud- O •/ son's Bay Company were opened to their position by the great decrease of their dividends.* They attempted, on the strength of their charter, to lay claim not only to the territory round Hudson's Bay, but also to the distant Saskatchewan, Eed Eiver, and other streams falling into Lake Winnipeg. This territorial claim, unsupported by physical force, was set at defiance by their rivals, and they would probably have been driven from the field, fiad not Lord Selkirk come to their support. That energetic nobleman had conceived, as we have seen,f * The Interests of the Hudson's Bay Company suffered so much that between 1800 and 1821 their dividends were for the first eight years reduced to four per cent., during the next six years they could pay no dividend at all, and for the remaining eight years they oould only pay four per cent. t See chapter X., p. 192. r 2;">0 BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. the idea of establishing a colony on the Eed Eiver. The soil was fertile, the climate temperate; and were it not for its great distance from civilization, it was admirably calculated for a new settlement. It was, however, the great depot of the North-west Company for making pemmican, the principal article of food used by their canoe-men in voyaging. Should the colony succeed, it would gradually cut off the buffalo, from which the pemmican is made, and compel the company to import from Canada, at an enormous expense, whatever provisions they required. From their first arrival, the new colonists were treated with the most systematic opposition and resistance by the servants of the North-west Company, and were repeatedly driven away from the ground assigned to them. Lord Selkirk, on hearing this, purchased a number of shares in the Hudson's Bay Company, of which he became an active proprietor, and adopted retaliatory measures. By high bribes he won over some men of education and experience from the North-west Company, gave double the prices paid by his opponents for goods, and employed French Canadians as boatmen. His plans were so far successful that he was encouraged to send out several large bodies .of emigrants, who built a fort, and permanently established themselves, though not without undergoing the most severe hardships. Among the most active of the traders won over from the North-west Company was a Mr. Colin Eobertson, who had often risked his own life, both among white men and Indians, to advance the interests of his establishment; and, having a perfect knowledge of the EXTENDED OPERATIONS OF COMPANY. 251 interior, Lord Selkirk entrusted him with its chief management. The invigorating spirit which had been infused into the hitherto cautious councils of the Hudson's Bay Company, by the daring policy of Lord Selkirk and Mr. Eobertson, soon became manifest. The latter was acquainted with the strongholds and weak points of his opponents ; and knowing that much depended on the first impression made on the Indians, he determined to push for Athabasca, the great northern department of the North-west, and the most productive in beaver. No rival trader had ever before ventured to encroach on Athabasca. Mr. Eobertson was very successful. The high prices he offered for their furs seduced the natives from their allegiance to their old master, and hundreds came crowding to his standard. He was joined by a strong force led by Mr. Clark, another old North-west trader who had been engaged by Lord Selkirk, and who became a great favourite with the Ghippeways. This success of their rivals still further exasperated the traders of the Northwest Company, and made them ready for any act of violence. It is very evident that Lord Selkirk placed his colony with a strategical object in view, viz., for the purpose of cutting off the North-west Company from their head-quarters in Canada, whence all their supplies came by the Pigeon Eiver route, from Lake Superior. Three or four times had the colonists been driven from their lands, and compelled to endure all the winter rigours of that climate without shelter, and with but little food. Some, more fortunate, were carried by the North- 252 BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. west Company's people to Canada. But Lord Selkirk once more succeeded in collecting the scattered remnants, and with fresh comers planted them on the ground he had chosen. There now appeared a fair prospect of success for his colony ; as it began to flourish, the hostile feelings of its opponents increased. There is much conflicting evidence as to how the event about to be described occurred. It is certain that a large mounted party of the North-west Company's servants, mostly half-breeds, led by a Mr. Alexander Fraser, one of their factors, appeared in the neighbourhood of the Selkirk settlement, then under charge of Captain Semple, styled the governor. Whether Governor Semple believed that the Northwesters were coming to attack him is uncertain; but, collecting twenty-six well-armed men, with a field-piece, he went out to meet them. Some angry words ensued between one of the half-breeds and the governor, when it is asserted that he gave the order to his followers to fire. If so, two only obeyed, and instantly Mr. Fraser's party opened a deadly fire on Governor Semple's people. He, with five officers and the greater part of his men, fell desperately wounded by the unerring rifles of the wild hunters of the west. The survivors retreated; but only four effected their escape. Of the half- breeds, one was killed, and .another wounded. In triumph Mr. Fraser and his followers rode off with their prisoners, leaving their slaughtered fellow- countrymen on the ground. Such was the state of affairs which avarice and unbridled passions, utterly beyond all legal control, RUINOUS RIVALSHIP. 253 had brought about in the territory. " In fact, the spirit of rivalry had attained such a height," writes Mr. Cox, "that the mildest and bravest of both parties became in turn the most reckless desperadoes. Force was the only tribunal to which they appealed, and arms the only argument. The peace with the United States had thrown idle in Canada a number of soldiers whose regiments had been disbanded. Among them was De Meuron's regiment, upwards of two hundred of whom were engaged by Lord Selkirk to overawe the North-westers. On hearing, however, of the fate of the colonists at Eed Eiver, he did not proceed beyond Fort William, but after establishing some of them on the banks of the Kaministiquia, he went back to Canada to represent to the governor-general the mode in which his Majesty's subjects were murdering each other. It was not, however, till the spring of 1817 that the Government commissioners arrived to investigate the reported outrages. Their inquiries served to bring to light the dreadful state of things in the o o o North-west territory; but the perpetrators of the outrage do not appear to have received any punishment, and they almost all died violent deaths. Mr. Fraser was killed in a brawl in Paris in 1829, and of the rest, some were drowned in rapids, others were shot by Indians, killed in the chase, or starved to death. There was, after this, less actual violence; but the spirit of competition gained such a height, that the prices given to the Indians for furs, after deducting charges, exceeded their value to the companies. This ruinous rivalship must in the end have proved fatal to both parties, had not some of the ^2 254 BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. proprietors proposed a coalition, the preliminaries of which were signed in London, March, 1821, and confirmed at Fort William by the partners in the July following—the new body assuming the title of the Hudson's Bay Company. It numbered among its members many men of wealth and influence besides Lord Selkirk, and succeeded in obtaining a license to trade for twenty-one years over the territory to the west of Hie Eocky Mountains, part of which was known as New Caledonia. It was subsequently extended by a second license to 1859; but this charter, on its expiration, was not renewed, and great part of the territory was erected into a crown colony, under the title of British Columbia. The company had also obtained a charter for Vancouver's Island, on condition of promoting its colonization; but it being evident that they were unable or unwilling to do this, the license was withdrawn, compensation being made to them for the amount they had expended in the attempt, amounting in all to £160,000. The capital of the company was, according to the official statement laid before the select committee of the House of Commons in 1856, £1,265,067 19s. 4d. The distribution of profits to the shareholders, from 1847 to 1856 inclusive, ranged from 10 to 20 per cent., and the market value of the stock during the same period, ranged from 200 to 225 per cent. Of 298 proprietors, of which the company consisted in 1856, 196 had purchased their stock at from 220 to 240 per cent.* * When the property of the Hudson's Bay Company changed hands in 1863 the proprietors received £300 per share. Mttfai GOVERNMENT OF COMPLY. 255 Their trade is almost exclusively in furs, small quantities only of oil, dried and salted fish, feathers, quills, etc., being sent to England. Except as a profitable investment for a few English shareholders, the commerce of the vast regions under the sway of the company was altogether insignificant. The whole of the trade to the Hudson's Bay territory employs, as it did a century ago, two or three small ships annually, with a few armed steamers and sailing vessels, on the north-west coast, to trade with the treacherous —because often deceived—natives of those regions. According to Mr. Simpson, one of their partners, " The entire value of all the furs and other articles traded by the company from the Indians in all its territories and possessions, averaged about £200,000 per annum. In one year it amounted to £211,000, and the net profits for that year were declared at £119,003." The affairs of the company were managed by a governor-in-chief, 16 chief factors, 29 chief traders, 5 surgeons, 87 clerks, 67 post-masters, 1,200 permanent servants, and 500 voyageurs, and other servants; the whole number employed being about 3,000. The governor-in-chief was assisted by a council for each of the two departments into which the territory is divided. The seat of council for the northern department was at Norway House, on Lake Winnipeg; for the southern at Michipicoten, on Lake Superior, and Moose Factory, on James's Bay. The council consisted of the chief officers of the company, the chief factors being ex-officio members of council. Their deliberations were conducted in private. The sixteen chief factors were in charge of 256 BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. different districts in the territory, and a certain number of them assembled every year at Norway House, for the northern department, generally about the middle of June, to meet the governor, and transact business. Seven chief factors with the governor formed a quorum, but if a sufficient number of the higher rank of officers were not present, a quorum -was established by the admission of chief traders. The territories in which they traded were divided into five departments, these again into thirty-three districts, in which there were altogether 152 posts. Of these only twenty-four were in, or on the borders of, the Fertile Belt. They were as follows:—Bed Eiver, six; Swan Eiver, six; Cumberland, three; Saskatchewan, nine. These twenty-four posts, though belonging to districts which will soon be settled, will not themselves be occupied by settlers for many years to come. The price at which furs were bartered, was, through the ignorance of their value on the part of the Indians, and the complete monopoly of the trade possessed by the company, out of all proportion to the market value of the skins in England. "The prices paid to the Indians for their furs," says Mr. Simpson, "are in general exceedingly small. Throughout the whole of the protected territories, the value of the goods bartered for furs is certainly under one-twentieth of the value of those furs in England." For instance, a gun, costing 22s., sold for twenty beaver skins, valued at £32 10s.; a gill of powder, costing l£d., for one beaver skin, £1 12s. 6d.; but a scalping knife, which cost 4d., likewise sold for one beaver skin, as did a dozen brass buttons, a TRADING WITH INDIANS. 25 paper-mounted mirror, 1 oz. of vermilion, 6 ozs. of tobacco, and a common horn comb. A blanket was calculated at ten times the value of these articles, and a copper kettle at sixteen times. An axe sold for three skins, and a file for two, as did a tinder- box and burning-glass. A pair of trousers sold for nine skins, value £14 12s. 6d. The beaver skin was the usual standard of value, and was the most valua^- ble. Other skins were bartered at proportionate rates. The price set upon spirits is not mentioned; but that must have been tolerably high, for it is well known how readilv the Indian will part with everything he possesses for the sake of the accursed fire-water. The trading posts are generally situated on the banks of a navigable river, or on some spot constantly passed by Indians. They are all fortified with stockades sufficient to resist an attack of the Indians, and contain the dwellings and storehouses of the traders. They usually contain a large, commodious hall for dining and public meetings. The posts in British Central North America were supplied with stores by boats, which came once a year either from York Factory or Fort William. Their chief provision consisted either of fish or pemmican, with flour, and such roots and vegetables as they chose to grow, while beef and mutton were not unknown to those in the more southern districts. In their trading transactions with the Eed Men money was unknown; every article was bartered. The Indians were allowed, and even encouraged, to get into debt, so that a more complete control might be gained over them. The careless Indian often made no preparation for the coming winter, and he s w ^«fNh*' 258 BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. was then compelled, with his family, to starve, or to continue his search for the fur-bearing animals with which. alone he could obtain provisions at the neighbouring fort. Some of the officers of the company were Christian men, and desired the amelioration of the natives; but the system was radically bad: they could not give the Indians better prices for their skins, or useful articles instead of baubles; they could not urge them to settle down, to cultivate the soil, to build huts, or adopt civilized customs. Their duty to their employers was to keep them hunters, and as hunters it was hard for them to become Christians— impossible to adopt the customs of civilization. May the recent change in the government of the territory usher in the dawn of brighter days for settlers, traders, and hunters throughout those vast regions! CHAPTEE XIII BUFFALOES AND BUFFALO HUNTING. Value of the buffalo to the Indians—Mode of hunting it—Numbers killed—Buffalo pound—Fondness of the buffalo cowfor her calf—Perilous nature of the hunt. The animal known throughout North America as the buffalo is, in reality, the bison {Bos Americanus). He is a huge, ferocious-looking creature, with an oblong hump over the shoulders, and is covered with long, shaggy, but fine hair. His hide is valuable, and is extensively used for cloaks, coats, rugs, and bed coverings. The skins are known in the trade as buffalo robes. The horns are manufactured into powder-flasks, and are useful in a variety of ways. The flesh of the bull is rather coarser grained than that of the domestic ox, but in tenderness and flavour is superior. That of the female is by far the best. The hump, especially, is deservedly celebrated for its richness and delicacy. The flesh forms the chief food of the native tribes inhabiting the prairies, as well as of the voyageurs, hunters, and traders of the Hudson's Bay Company. It is prepared for keeping by being cut into thin slices and dried in the sun. It is then pounded between two stones till the fibres separate, and the melted fat of the animal being poured on it, it is pressed tightly into ^•w m 260 BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. bags made of the skin, about fifty pounds in each. In this state it will keep for months, and even years, exposed to every variety of temperature. In this state it is called pemmican, or pemmi-kon—pemmi signifying meat, and Icon fat. One pound of pemmican is considered equal to four pounds of ordinary meat. Numberless are the uses to which the Indian puts the bison. His lodge, or tent, is covered with the skins neatly fastened together. He is clothed in them, and his couch, saddle, bridle, and sleigh, are made of them. The fibres serve him for his thread and strings for his bow. The finer bones he uses for needles, the larger for hammers, chisels, and other tools. Out of the stronger sinews he makes his bow. With the hoof he makes glue to strengthen his bow, and for other purposes. The dung serves him for fuel, and the bladder for carrying water. Its flesh, made into pemmican, is his chief article of trade with the whites, from whom he obtains numerous articles he requires, and also unhappily the destructive fire-water. He knows full well that this will bring him to an early grave, but his reply is, The buffalo is disappearing, and when that is gone, on what shall we subsist? Notwithstanding the wholesale slaughter of the animal by the Indians, the bison still exists in vast herds throughout the whole of the Fertile Belt, and is found in most parts of British Central North America. It passes not only the summer, but the winter, as far north as Lake Athabasca. These animals roam in large herds, and take so regular a course, that old hunters can calculate to a BUFFALO HUNTING. 261 nicety where they are to be found, unless they have been turned aside by prairie fires; they then seek a new path, in search of food. No slaughter which the hunters can make upon them will lead them to change the direction in which they are going. The greater number of half-breeds residing at Eed Eiver depend almost entirely on the buffalo, both for their own food, and for enabling them to carry on a barter with the Hudson's Bay Company. They have a summer and fall, hunt, the first commencing in June, the latter in September, but they often remain out during the early part of the winter, and have at times suffered great privations. If successful, they are enabled to spend the remaining part of the year in idleness. It is a species of gambling; and though by steady industry they could enjoy far greater comforts and prosperity, not only the young and thoughtless, but all classes of the community, are eager to engage in it. Their farms are, in consequence, neglected, and many of the half- breeds depend entirely on hunting for their support. The greater number of the hunters are Canadian half-breeds, though some are of Scotch and English extraction. But few Europeans are buffalo hunters by profession. For the summer hunt the Eed Eiver hunters leave the settlements about the 15th of June, and remain on the plains till the 20th of August. They often take their wives and families with them, each being provided with a cart, drawn by a horse or an ox— the carts carrying.the tents, provisions, and certain stores and tools. In one party are sometimes assembled from 800 to 1,500 hunters, with a like 262 BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. number of carts and horses, and some hundred oxen and dogs. Two or three hundred Ojibbeway Indians generally accompany such a party, for the sake of the superabundant meat, and in the hope of killing some of their hereditary enemies, the Sioux. The greatest order and regularity prevails. As soon as they have fairly started, a council is held, and a leader or president is selected, to whose commands all promise implicit obedience. He then selects a certain number of captains, who appoint constables, the duty of these being to see that all regulations regarding the hunt are properly carried out. Guides also are selected, and each of them is supplied with a flag. Each guide takes the lead for a day in turn. The fnfriT.gmT.e-nt of rules is punished with fines. No man may pass a guide on duty. No fiunter can return home without leave. No one can leave the camp should any animal or property, supposed to be stolen, be missing. Fires also must be extinguished every morning when the camp breaks up. The captains can order any cart to be removed and placed in the position they think necessary for the public safety, but have to return it in the morning. As there is a deadly feud between the Sioux and half-breeds, these precautions are very necessary. From Fort Garry the hunting expedition proceeds generally in a south-westerly direction. Day after day they travel on with few impediments over the open prairie. Order and regularity prevail in the camp. Sometimes a priest accompanies the expedition, and then mass is performed every morning in the wilderness. APPROACHING THE HERD. 263 The half-breeds are here seen to advantage. Descended from a long line of hunters, they are physically a remarkably fine race, with the vivacity and good-humour of their French ancestors. They possess a large amount of self-esteem, and are easily irritated, but quickly appeased. They are brave, hardy, and intelligent; and when the buffalo disappears, as it must ere long, they will prove a valuable part of the population of the country. At length the scouts bring in word that the buffaloes are in sight. The camp is pitched—the women and children remaining with proper guards. The hunters advance; as the herd is neared they form in line, the president, captains, and police in front. Not a gun must be fired without permission from the chief. The horses seem to understand the work to be done. It is an animating scene. The long line of hunters get within a quarter of a mile of the nearest of the buffaloes. The wind blows from the animals, who go on feeding, not aware of the approach of foes. The herds in countless numbers stretch over the plains far as the eye can reach. Each hunter loads his gun, looks to his priming, examines his saddle-girths, and fills his mouth with bullets, that he may drop them into his gun without wadding while at full gallop. The elders caution the less experienced not to shoot each other. Cautiously they approach the herd, till the animals, numbering four or five thousand, perceive them, and set off at full speed. Away gallop the fearless hunters in hot pursuit, and are soon in the midst of them, firing right and left. As each animal is shot down, the hunter who has killed it drops BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. some article of his property to denote his prey, and then gallops on, slaughtering, with unerring aim,, on either hand. For an hour or more the chase continues. Over an area of several miles, some six or eight hundred buffaloes are sometimes slain. Sometimes the horse of one of the hunters stumbles, and his rider is thrown. A furious bull makes at the man, but the well-trained horse, quickly regaining its feet, stands quite still till his master has mounted, when he nimbly springs aside and sagaciously avoids the infuriated animal. When the affrighted buffaloes have galloped out of sight, the carts come up, the robes, humps, tongues, and part of the flesh of the buffaloes, are carried off, and those left in the camp forthwith begin to make it into pemmican. Large quantities of the flesh, however, are left to rot on the ground. When the pemmican is made, the expedition advances to overtake the herd, and the same scene is again enacted. Captain Blackiston computes that since 1842, when the Hudson's Bay Company first commenced to trade to any extent in robes, there have been no fewer than 145,000 buffaloes annually killed in British territory; while on the great prairies on the American side, where the trade in buffalo robes has been carried on to a far greater extent, the amount annually slaughtered at the early part of the period mentioned, was upwards of 1,000,000, but this trade is now said to have decreased, on the Missouri, one-half. In 1855, on the British side, there were 20,000 robes and skins received at York Factory alone. Probably there were not fewer than about 230,000 slaughtered the previous year. This, INDIAN HUNTERS. 265 allowing two pounds per head per diem (a very liberal allowance), would have served to sustain a population of a quarter of a million, while probably not 30,000 benefited by this slaughter. The following account, abridged from Professor O 7 O Hind's report, shows the reckless and almost suicidal way in which the buffaloes are slaughtered by the Indians, whose very existence depends on them. The professor and his party were tiavelling with their carts and waggons along the banks of the Calling Eiver :—"We hear that a considerable body of Crees are encamped in the neighbourhood, and, with a view to secure a favourable reception, send a messenger to announce our arrival and to express a wish to see their chief. .After a lapse of some time we see about sixty Cree horsemen galloping towards us, many of them naked with the exception of the breech-cloth and belt. They are accompanied by the chief's son, who informs us that in an hour's time they will escort us to the camp. They are about constructing a new pound, having literally filled the present one with buffalo, and are compelled to abandon it on account of the stench which arises from the putrefying bodies. We sit on the ground and smoke till they think it time for us to accompany them to their encampment. The chief expresses a wish through his son that we should see them entrap the buffalo in his pound, a rare opportunity few would be willing to lose. We pass through the camp to a place which the chief's son points out, and there erect our tents. The women are still employed in moving the camp, being assisted in the operation by large numbers of dogs, each dog having two poles 266 BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. harnessed to him, on which a little load of meat, pemmican, or camp furniture is laid. After another smoke, the chief's son asks if we would like to see the old buffalo-pound, in which during the past week they have been entrapping buffalo. We accept the offer, and a guide leads us to a little valley through a lane of branches of trees which are called ' dead men,' to the gate or trap of the pound. A sight most horrible and disgusting breaks upon us as we ascend a hill overlooking the pound. Within a circular fence, 120 feet broad, constructed of the trunks of trees, laced together with withes, and braced by outside supports, lie tossed in every conceivable position above two hundred dead buffaloes. From old bulls to calves, animals of every description lie huddled together in all the forced attitudes of violent death. Some lie on their backs, with eyes starting from their heads, and tongue thrust out through clotted gore. Others are impaled on the horns of the old and strong bulls; others again, which had been tossed, were lying with broken backs, two and three deep. " The Indians look upon the dreadful and sickening scene with evident delight, and tell how such and such a bull or cow exhibited feats of wonderful strength in the death struggle. The flesh of many of the cows has been taken off, and is drying in the sun on stages near the tents. The odour is overpowering, and millions of large blue flesh-flies are humming and buzzing over the putrefying bodies. After the first run, ten days ago, the Indians drove about two hundred buffalo into the inclosure, and were still urging on the remainder of the herd, when POUNDING THE BUFFALO. one wary old bull, espying a narrow crevice which had not been closed by the robes of those outside, whose duty it was to conceal every orifice, made a dash and broke the fence ; the whole body then ran helter-skelter through the gap, and, dispersing among the hills, escaped, with the exception of eight, who were speared or shot with arrows as they passed in their mad career. In all, however, two hundred and forty animals have been killed.* " From the pound two lines of trees are placed, extending to a distance of four miles into the prairie, each tree being about fifty feet from the other, forming a road from one and a half to two miles in width at the entrance, gradually narrowing towards the pound. These trees are called ' dead men.' Men are also concealed near the trees, and when the hunters have succeeded in driving a herd into the road, they rise and shake their robes, should any animals attempt to break away from it. "At the entrance of the pound there is a strong trunk of a tree placed at about a foot from the ground, and on the inner side an excavation is made sufficiently deep to prevent the buffalo from leaping back when once in the pound. As soon as the animals have taken the fatal spring, they begin to* gallop round and round the ring fence, looking for a chance of escape, but with the utmost silence men, women, and children hold their robes before every orifice until the whole herd is brought in. They then climb to the top of the fence, and with the hunters, who have followed closely in the rear of the * The mode of pounding buffaloes is very similar to that by which wild elephants are caught in Ceylon, 268 BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. buffalo, spear, or shoot with arrows or fire-arms, the bewildered animals, now frantic with rage and terror at finding themselves unable to escape from the narrow limits of the pound." Mr. Hind conversed with a Cree a hundred years old:—"He remembers the time when his people were as numerous as the buffalo are now, and the buffalo thick as the trees in the forest." The hunters of the tribe stated that during the existence of the two companies all went well with the Indians; they obtained excellent pay, and could always sell their meat, skins, robes, and pemmican. Since the union they had received bad pay for their provisions, and were growing poorer, weaker, and more miserable year by year. In consequence of the wholesale and wanton destruction, the buffalo have greatly diminished, and all the Indians agree in the belief that they, in like manner, will decrease till none are left. With regard to the Indians, the philanthropist may hope that eivifization will bring means of subsistence to the Indians of which they know little at present; and with respect to the buffaloes, although they may disappear, it is satisfactory to know that the rich pastures which feed them will equally support domestic cattle, sheep, and horses; indeed, a stock derived from a cross of them with the cow increases, becomes perfectly tame, is as hardy as they are, and gives an.abundant supply of rich milk. Mr. Kane tells us that the half-breeds of the Eed Eiver settlement alone are supposed to kill thirty thousand annually. Among numberless illustrations of the necessity of estabfishing British rule in the BUFFALO MEAT KEPT IN ICE. 269 country, he mentions the following:—While accompanying a band of half-breed hunters—British subjects, it must be remembered, some of them sons of British fathers—one of their number, a scout, was found murdered (no uncommon occurrence), probably by Sioux, with whom they had been at war for several years. " Three days afterwards the scouts gave notice that enemies were in sight. Immediately a hundred of the best mounted hastened to the spot, and, concealing themselves behind the shelter of the bank of a small stream, sent out two as decoys, who exposed themselves to the view of the Sioux. The latter supposing them to be alone, rushed upon them; whereupon the concealed half-breeds sprung up and poured in a volley among them, which brought down eight. The others O / o o escaped, though several must have been wounded, as much blood was afterwards discovered on their track." The half-breeds do not take scalps, but their Salteaux allies performed that office, and rejoiced over them in true Indian style. Mr. Kane spent the winter at Fort Edmonton, round which buffaloes abounded all the time, and he engaged in many hunts. Their flesh, is preserved through the summer in the following way:—An ice- pit is made, capable of containing the carcasses of 700 to 800 buffaloes. The ice in the river is cut into square blocks of a uniform size with saws. With these blocks the floor and sides of the pit are lined, and cemented together with water thrown on them, which freezes hard. Each carcass, without being skinned, is divided into four quarters, which are piled in layers in the pit till it is filled up. It is then 270 BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. covered with a thick coating of straw, which is again protected from the sun and rain by a shed. In this way the meat is kept perfectly good through the summer, and is more tender, and of better flavour, than when fresh. The buffaloes keep near the habitations of men to avoid their determined enemies the wolves, though men slaughter them in greater numbers. The difference is this: the wolves worry them, the huntsmen kill them outright. The fare which Mr. Kane enjoyed at the fort was not to be despised, consisting as it did of whitefish, buffalo-tongues, tea, milk, sugar, and gaieties* for breakfast. Then for dinner: at one end of the table a dish of boiled buffalo- hump, at the other a smoked and boiled buffalo calf, mouffle or dried moose-nose, whitefish browned in buffalo marrow, a dish of beavers' tails, roast wild goose, piles of potatoes and turnips, and abundance of bread. Kane, with a companion Francois, were constantly out shooting. Falling in with a herd of buffaloes, Francois instructed him in the mysteries of "making a calf," thus taking advantage of the great affection of the buffaloes for their young, which the whole herd will assist in protecting. This ruse is generally performed by two men, one covering himself with a wolf-skin, the other with a buffalo robe. They then crawl on all fours witiiin sight of the buffaloes, and as soon as they have engaged their attention, the pretended wolf jumps on the pretended calf, which bellows in imitation of a real one. The herd then rush on to protect their * Cakes of simple flour and water, baked under the ashes. I "MAKING a calf." 271 supposed young with such impetuosity, that they do not detect the cheat till they are close enough to be shot. Francois' bellowing was so perfect, that Kane and he were nearly run down. As soon, however, as they jumped up, the buffaloes fled, leaving behind two of their number, who paid the penalty of their want of discernment with their lives. Sometimes twenty men would go out, crawling one after the other, in a long line towards the herd, which they could thus approach quite close, seldom failing to shoot several The Indians say that the buffaloes mistake the line for a snake moving along the grass. o o o Professor Hind graphically describes a combat he witnessed through his telescope on the Calling Eiver. A buffalo bull appeared on the opposite side of the valley. " Armed with his bow from the bois d'arc, ! his arrowB from the mesaskatornina, neatly feathered With the plumes of the wild duck, and headed with a barb fashioned from a bit of iron hoop, the young Cree warrior threw off his leather hunting shirt, jumped on a horse, and hurried across the valley. Dismounting at the foot of the bank, he rapidly ascended its steep sides, and, just before reaching the top, cautiously approached a large boulder, which lay on the brink, and crouched behind it. The buffalo was within forty yards of the spot where the Indian crouched, slowly approaching the valley as he leisurely cropped the tufts of parched herbage which the sterile soil was capable of supporting. When within twenty yards of the Indian, the bull raised his head, snuffed the air, and began to paw the ground. Lying at full length, the Indian sent an arrow into the side of his huge antagonist. 3 272 BRITISH NORTH -AMERICA. The bull shook his head and mane, planted his fore feet firmly in front of him, and looked from side to side in search of his unseen foe, who, after driving the arrow, had again crouched behind the boulder. Soon, however, observing the fixed attitude of the bull, a sure sign that he was severely wounded, he stepped on one side and showed himself. The bull instantly charged, but when within five yards of his nimble enemy, the Indian sprang lightly behind the boulder, and the bull plunged headlong down the hill, receiving, after he had passed the Indian, a second arrow in his flanks. As soon as he had reached the bottom, he fell on his knees, and looked over his shoulder at his wary antagonist, who speedily followed, and, observing the bull's helpless condition, sat on the ground within a few yards of him, waiting for the death gasp. After one or two efforts to rise, the huge animal gave up the strife, and dropped his head. The Indian was at his side without a moment's pause, cut out his tongue, caught his horse—an excited spectator of the conflict —and, galloping across the valley, handed me the trophy of his success." All buffalo hunters are not equally fortunate. Dr. Eichardson mentions cases in which men lost their lives. He says :— "While I resided at Carlton House, Mr. Finnan M'Donald, one of the Hudson's Bay Company's clerks, was descending the Saskatchewan in a boat; and one evening, having pitched his tent for the night, he went out in the dusk to look for game. It had become nearly dark, when he fired at a bison- bull, which was galloping over a small eminence; PERILOUS ENCOUNTER. 273 and as he was hastening forward to see if his shot had taken effect, the wounded beast made a rush at him. He had presence of mind to seize the animal by the long hair on its forehead, as it struck him on the side with its horn; and being a remarkably tall and powerful man, a struggle ensued, which continued until his wrist was severely sprained, and his arm rendered powerless. He then fell, and after receiving two or three blows, became senseless. Shortly after, he was found by his companions lying bathed in blood, being gored in several places ; and the bison was couched beside him, apparently waiting to renew the attack had he shown any signs of fife. Mr. M'Donald recovered from the immediate effects of the injuries he had received, but died a few months afterwards."* The following facts connected with the buffalo are important in their bearing upon colonization. First, that where the buffalo exists, the cow can find subsistence; and that, as has been stated, they not only winter on the Upper Saskatchewan, but as far north as Lake Athabasca. The next is, that the bison itself can be domesticated. It can also be crossed with the cow. Humboldt states that the mixed breed was quite common fifty years ago in some of the northwestern counties of Virginia; and he found in Mexico an Indian tribe whose principal riches consisted in herds of tame bisons. Thus we find certain promise of an abundant supply of food for the future settler. * "Fauna Boreali Americana," vol. i. p. 281. CHAPTEE XIV BRITISH COLUMBIA. Early history of British Columbia—Boundaries and eitent — General aspect of the country—Principal rivers—The gold fields— Agricultural capabilities—Forests of valuable timber—Towns—Chinese settlers—The aboriginal tribes—Missions among them—Extract from Blue Books respecting the natural productions of the country—Fisheries—Progress from_lS59 to 1863. British Columbia remained an almost unknown region till Sir Alexander Mackenzie, in 1790, crossed the Eocky Mountains from the east and descended into it. The enterprising traders of the North-west Company soon followed, and established numerous posts on the Columbia Eiver; and, in 1806, Mr. Fraser, a trader of the Hudson's Bay Company, established Fort Fraser at the head of the river of that name. The Hudson's Bay Company obtained a license for the exclusive trade over the whole of the territory west of the Eocky Mountains, which expired in 1859. Till that time scarcely a white man had set foot in the territory, except the agents of the Fur Company, and no settlement, properly so called, existed. Its fertile valleys and rich pasture lands; its mines of gold, copper, and silver; its forests of superb trees; its lakes and streams, teeming with fish, all remained useless, except to support a few wandering tribes of Indians. No steam-boats navigated its lakes; no CREATED A COLONY. 275 roads were opened; its streams turned no mills. The few Europeans and Canadians who formed its civilized population were occupied with the sole object of obtaining the greatest possible number of furs for the lowest possible price. A writer well remarks: " It was not the interest of a commercial company, who monopolized a highly lucrative sale of European goods, and an equally profitable barter of furs, to make known the fine climate, valuable resources, and ample capabilities of the country." Thus, New Caledonia, as British Columbia was then called, has no history, unless an account of white men murdered by Indians, and Indians slaughtered by the fur traders, can be so called. It would probably have still remained unsettled, but for the discovery, in 1858, that gold, in large quantities, existed in the territory. The news spread rapidly through California, and there was an immediate rush of gold-seekers to explore the auriferous reefs and diggings. The Hudson's Bay Company was powerless to establish order amongst the newcomers. Their charter was therefore revoked, and the country was erected into a colony under the name of British Columbia, with a governor and legislative council of fifteen members; of whom five are public officers, five are magistrates, and five are chosen by the colonists. The boundaries of the colony are, On the south, the United States territory; on the north, 60° north latitude; on the west, the Pacific and the Eussian territory; on the east, the water-shed of the Eocky Mountains, and 120° west longitude. The adjacent islands are included in the colony, with the exception 276 BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. of Vancouver's, which has been placed under a separate government. The mainland of British Columbia thus has a coast-line of about 500 miles in length, with a depth of about 500 miles from the sea-board to the Eocky Mountains. The province embraces every description of country —lofty snow-capped mountains, wooded heights, large forests, undulating prairies, level pastures, and numerous lakes; streams, and rivers. Governor Douglas describes the scenery of the Lower Fraser as follows:—" The banks of this river are almost everywhere covered with woods. Varieties of pine and firs of prodigious size, and large poplar trees, predominate. The vine, and soft maple, the wild apple-tree, the white and black thorn, and deciduous bushes in great variety, form the massive undergrowth. The vegetation is luxuriant almost beyond conception, and at this season of the year presents a peculiarly beautiful appearance. The eye never tires of ranging over the varied shades of the fresh green foliage, mingling with the clustering white flowers of the wild apple-tree, now in full bloom, and filling the air with delicious fragrance. As our boat, gliding swiftly over the surface of the smooth waters, -occasionally swept beneath the overhanging boughs, that form a canopy of leaves impenetrable to the sun's scorching rays, the effect was enchanting." Other districts are stern, gloomy, and savage. Few spots in the world are more terrible in their desolation than the summits of the Eocky Mountains. The Fraser is the chief river of British Columbia, having a course of from 450 to 500 miles. It may be WATER COMMUNICATION. 277 divided into the Upper and Lower Fraser. The Upper drains the northern part of the interior, receiving the Stuart, Thompson, and many other rivers. The lower part is navigable from its mouth for 103 miles to the town of Yale. Above this, for a considerable distance, rapids extend till near the mouth of the Thompson Eiver. The Columbia, though navigable for canoes almost from its source, is of less consequence than the Fraser, as it flows though the extreme south-east portion of the province, and then enters American territory. The next in importance is the Thompson Eiver, which, flowing through Lake Kamloops,. after a southerly course, turns to the west and unites with the Fraser, being navigable for steamers for a considerable distance. Lakes Shouswap and Okanagan, with others, form an important chain, much increasing the facilities of communication to the eastern part of the. province. A road unites the southern end of the chain- with the Fraser at Fort Hope, while at the northern end Lake Shouswap is united with Lake Kamloops, and Thompson Eiver with the Upper Fraser, thus completely surrounding, with easy means of communication, a very large and fertile district. A navigable stream, the Canoe Eiver, rising in the Cariboo district, falls into the Columbia, at a point known as Boat Encampment. Thus travellers from Canada and Eed Eiver, after crossing the Eocky Mountains, at the very foot of which Boat Encampment is found, can proceed by water to Cariboo. On the west, along the coast-fine, are numerous deep inlets, while various rivers and streams flow through that part of the province. Many other lakes and rivers 278 BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. interlock, so that by means of canals, short railways and tramways, or common roads, easy means of communication will be speedily opened up throughout the country; and from the general fertility of the soil, little else is requisite for the development of its almost unlimited resources. The chief gold regions are the banks of the Fraser and its tributaries, the Bavilion, Quesnelle, Cottonwood, and other streams; the Thompson, with its tributaries; and the whole Cariboo region; especially at the base and on the sides of the hills, on the banks of the stream, and on the shores of its lakes. The whole course of the Columbia is auriferous, and so are somo of the streams which fall into Lake Okanagan. In the extreme south, the chief diggings o * OO o are on the Shirnilkomeen Eiver, on Eock Creek, and, in all probability, on the Columbia Badge. There can be little doubt that gold will also be found on the sides of the Eocky Mountains. It undoubtedly exists to the east of the range, extending along the banks of the Saskatchewan. The principal gold fields, which are already under working, are marked by a star in the accompanying plan. The colony is rich, too, in other metals. Silver exists on Harrison Lake, and Dr. Forbes, of H.M.S. Topaze, who surveyed the district, is of opinion that the mines can be worked advantageously. Lon also is found, and will prove a source of wealth to the colony, as coal does already. The agricultural capabilities of British Columbia are very great. Perhaps one of the most rocky districts, and least available for farming purposes, is along the shores of the Lower Fraser, to which :m PLAN ^ 280 BRITISH NORTH .AMERICA. settlers first resorted; and hence, partly, arose the unfavourable reports circulated in England. The climate of this hilly region is rainy, clouds being attracted by the neighbouring mountains from the sea. The fertile spots on level land are densely wooded, and difficult to clear. Settlers in search of land first visited this settled district, and finding considerable difficulty in pushing inland, very naturally pronounced the country hilly, rocky, and unfit for agriculture. Had they travelled on with more courage and determination, they would have discovered vast tracts, consisting of undulating land, lightly wooded, or free from heavy timber, and open prairie, drained and fertilized by numerous streams and lakes, the greater part in every way adapted for agricultural and pastoral purposes. The climate here is mild, fine, and dry; indeed, the only doubt which at first existed as to its fitness for agriculture arose from the possibility of its being too dry; but any danger from this cause is obviated by the facility with which the land, in every direction, can be irrigated. The native grasses are generally scanty, and die away in September, except the swamp grass; and on this cattle find sustenance in winter. Clover, vetches, and tares, however, grow spontaneously in most localities, and make ample amends for the want of grass. Wild fruits also, of numerous descriptions, come to great perfection, and wild flowers bloom in the richest luxuriance. The forests of British Columbia must prove for many years to come a great source of wealth. They abound in excellent timber, which grows to a gigantic size. Some valuable descriptions of pine reach the NEW WESTMINSTER. 281 amazing height of 150 to 200 feet, with a circumference of 25 to 30 feet at the base. The Douglas pine will sometimes reach the altitude of 300 feet, and is perfectly straight. It is, therefore, invaluable for masts and spars of ships. The banks of all the rivers in British Columbia, communicating with the sea, are clothed with forests, and the logs can be floated down to New Westminster, and other ports on the Gulf of Georgia (in the same way that the timber of Canada reaches Quebec), thence to supply the regions washed by the Pacific, which are destitute of that necessary article. Australia has already become a customer for the timber of British Columbia and Vancouver's Island. South America and China will also take all that can be supplied. We may sum up the capabilities of the country in the words of the evidence given before the House of Commons:—"Its minerals are most valuable; its timber the finest in the world for marine purposes; it abounds with bituminous coal, well fitted for the generation of steam. From Thompson's Eiver and Colville districts to the Eocky Mountains, and from the 49th parallel to some 350 miles north, a more beautiful country does not exist. It is in every way suitable for colonization." A considerable number of towns have already sprung up in British Columbia. New Westminster, situated on the right or north bank of the Fraser, just above the junction of the north fork, and about fifteen miles in a north-easterly direction from its mouth, is the capital of British Columbia. At first complaints were made that some other site more suitable might have been chosen, but every day r~ «»u. 282 BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. proves more and more the practical wisdom of the selection. It stands on elevated ground overlooking the Fraser Eiver, which flows majestically past. It is finely situated, and as it can be well drained without difficulty, it will undoubtedly prove a healthy city. Not only in a military point of view, but as a mercantile port, no superior site could have been found. It is at an easy distance from the entrance of fhe harbour, has an excellent anchorage, a good depth of water along its river front, and great facilities for wharfage. By its position it commands the trade of the river. At present it is the only port of entry in British Columbia. In a naval, military, and commercial point of view, it combines all that can be desired. Its progress has been rapid. In 1859 its site was thickly covered with heavy timber, and dense forests stretched away in every direction. In March of the same year the first house was erected. There are now upwards of three hundred buildings, many of them of a very substantial character, including churches, warehouses, stores, a court-house, and other public buildings. A fire brigade exists, known as the Hyack Fire Company. The principal thoroughfare—Columbia Street—is ninety-nine feet wide, and already presents a handsome appearance. In the spring of 1859 the first wharf was constructed; since then wharves have been extended along the whole business portion of the city front, on which substantial sheds and warehouses have been erected. Hitherto the greater part of the trade of the mines has passed through the capital; it enjoys the daily increasing traffic of the Fraser, and derives a large revenue FORT HOPE—VALE. 283 from its custom duties. As other routes from the sea are opened up to the interior, some of this trade will be drawn off; but at the same time, as the general commerce of the province increases, so must that of the capital. In a despatch dated New Westminster, May, 1860, Governor Douglas reports:—"The Custom-house receipts exceed £1,000 per week, and corroborate the opinion I have expressed with respect to the state of trade, and indicate the spirited manner in which supplies are being sent into the mining districts, and the confidence entertained by business men in the auriferous resources of the country." In the same despatch he states:—"This city has very greatly improved in appearance since my last visit, many new buildings have been erected, and the surface, in many parts, cleared of the gigantic stumps and fallen trees that obstructed the thoroughfares and encumbered the ground." Eoads have been formed from the capital through the forest, and the land on either side has been speedily taken up by settlers. Fort Hope—the town next in importance to the capital—is about 100 miles up the Fraser, at the elbow where the course alters from south to west. Here the miners stop both going to and returning from the upper country gold-diggings; and a number of Chinese have taken up their abode in the town. It is making rapid progress, and roads are being pushed forward north and east of it. Yale—situated fifteen miles above Fort Hope, on the right bank of the Fraser—is the termination of steam navigation. It is a flourishing place, with a rapidly-increasing population. From Fort Hope 284 BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. eastward a road extends to the fertile district of Shimilkomeen. Above Yale is Spuzzum, and north of it is Quayome. The new road, formed near the banks of the Fraser Eiver runs along the face of terrific precipices, but is perfectly safe. Still further up, on the eastern bank, at what is called the Forks of the Fraser, where it is joined by the Thompson Eiver, is the increasing town of Lytton. The whole distance between Yale and Lytton is cut up into mining claims, and gold-digging is here carried on with more science than in many other places. The miners have a great advantage in getting supplied with provisions at a cheap rate. The carriage-road between Quayome and Lytton is ■of the greatest importance. The settlers are as eager about the formation of mule tracks and waggon roads as people were a few years ago about railways in England. Lytton is rising into importance; but those unaccustomed to new settlements in America would be rather astonished at the appearance of this and other similar towns in the province. An avenue is cut through the forest; the stumps of the trees remain in the ground and stand up everywhere; the logs form walls for cottages or fences; squares in the forest are cut out for gardens or fields. Space only is cleared to allow waggons to pass. In the Cariboo district, the town of Quesnelle has sprung up on a lake of the same name. Its population is very fluctuating, though rapidly increasing. Many other towns are rising up in the forest or amongst the gold fields. Of these Douglas is, perhaps, the most promising and important. It is most picturesquely situated on Harrison Lake, with POPULATION AT THE DIGGINGS. 285 lofty tree-covered heights rising above it; but the stumps of trees still form a prominent feature in any view taken of it. The Chinese are very numerous at all the towns, as well as at the diggings. Mr. Commissioner Sanders reports, from the Yale district, that "The mining claims are, with few exceptions, in the hands of the Chinese, there being, about 2,000 of this people within the district." They are industrious, sober, and, generally, well conducted, certainly assisting to develop the resources of the country, and to increase the Government revenue. In other respects they are an undesirable people, but it may be that, under God's Brovidence, they may reap advantages of a spiritual nature which they in no way expect. One Christian missionary labours among them, but many more would find ample occupation in speaking to them of Christ. Several of the ministers established in the towns devote much attention to them, but without speaking their language it is difficult to convey the truth to their understandings. Perhaps some missionaries may be found, whose state of health prevents them returning to China, who would be able to minister to them. The natives of the country, no less than emigrants, claim the sympathies of the Christian philanthropist. Already some mission-stations have been formed among them, and a few Indians have gladdened the hearts of the missionaries by receiving Christ in faith. There are but few of the aborigines in the interior of the province; indeed, it is supposed that they do not amount to more than 2,000. On the sea-board and neighbouring islands they are more numerous; 286 BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. reckoning all the tribes to the north, and including those of Vancouver, they number upwards of 64,000. The Hudson's Bay Company's officers calculate that they amount in all to 80,000. They belong chiefly to the great Chippeway family, and are tolerably well disposed towards the whites;. but, unhappily, frequent quarrels have arisen, which have ended in bloodshed. The greater number are in a sadly degraded condition. Several families unite to build a house proportionate in size to the number of inhabitants. The building has one long ridge-pole, which is uncovered in several places for the free egress of Hie smoke. They are excessively dirty and lazy, and full of vermin. They never bathe or wash, and present in consequence a most repulsive appearance of filth. When reproached with this want of deanfiness, they replied, that the dirt preserved them from the cold of winter, and protected them from the scorching heat of summer. The women, who saturate their hair with salmon fat, paint it with red ochre, and powder it with the down of birds, are still more repulsive than the men. A recent writer speaks generally of those on the coast, as " with few exceptions, terribly ugly, with flat heads, projecting cheeks, long greasy masses of black hair, and dirty blanket robes. They are very cruel and vindictive, constantly kill each other, and the women are compelled to labour in the most slavish manner. It is advisable to pass to windward of them on a hot day. Indeed, there is nothing romantic about them, though at a distance they form picturesque groups in the landscape, and their canoes are perfect triumphs of art. They all drink as much INDIAN POPULATION. 287 fire-water as they can get, and are thus dangerous to offend, though friendly enough with the whites at other times." Savage heathenism is the same everywhere, and no words could describe the horrors which have been committed generation after generation throughout the whole Indian territory. Yet those savages have souls to be saved, and are as susceptible of the sanctifying influence of the Holy Spirit as are their white-skinned brethren. Happily, this truth has long been recognised; and missionaries have gone forth to reclaim them, who have met with most blessed success; but more—many more—are called for. It is estimated by Mr. Duncan, of the Church Missionary Society, that between the parallels of 49° and 54° 40' north latitude, there are four distinct tribes of natives, each numbering about 10,000 souls. The first of these great branches of the Indian family are met with at Victoria and on the Fraser Eiver. Among these the Columbian Mission has placed several agents. The second branch is located about a hundred miles north of Victoria, round Fort Eupert, at the north end of Vancouver's Island. Among these no mission has been established. The third division of Indians is settled at Fort Simpson, Nasse Eiver, Skeener Eiver, and on the islands of the coast. These are the Tsimsheeams, to whom missionaries have been despatched. There are, fourthly,'the Indians on Queen Charlotte's Island, among whom there is no missionary. European vices are making great inroads, and creating terrible havoc, both physically and morally, 288 BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. among the people. But the gospel is beginning to check these inroads. A missionary at Fort Simpson writes:—" How I wish the friends of missions could see Mr. Duncan's congregation on the Sunday. They would, indeed, thank God, and take courage. I have never seen an English congregation more orderly and attentive. With few exceptions, both the children and adults come clean and neatly dressed. The children sang several hymns very sweetly. The Indians all up the coast are crying out for teachers, 'Come over and help us.' Now is the propitious moment—soon hundreds, yea, thousands, of the poor Indians will have perished." The emigration into British Columbia has hitherto consisted mainly, if not exclusively, of those who have been drawn thither by the gold-fields to which reference has been already made. It can hardly be doubted, however, that the richness of its soil and the excellence of its climate will before long attract a large agricultural population. The official documents of the governor, confirmed by the evidence of visitors and settlers, speak in the highest terms of the capabilities of the country. The following extracts from the Blue Books issued by the Government will give a more accurate and trustworthy statement than many pages of general description could do:— "Leaving Lytton," says Governor Douglas, "I travelled for thirty-five miles along the banks of Thompson's Eiver by a good horse-road, lately made at a trifling cost, and successively visited the Buonaparte and Hat Eivers and the Bavilion, where we fell upon the Fraser and followed it downward to Cayoosh. The district comprehended within these <® NATURAL PASTURAGE. 289 fimits is exceedingly beautiful and picturesque, being composed of a succession of hills and valleys, lakes and rivers, exhibiting to the traveller accustomed to the endless forests of the coast districts, the unusual and grateful spectacle of miles of green hills, curving slopes, and level meadows, almost without a bush or tree to obstruct the way, and even to the very hill-tops producing an abundant growth of grass. It is of great value as a grazing district, a circumstance which appears to be thoroughly understood and appreciated by the country packers, who are in the habit of leaving their mules and horses here when the regular work of packing goods to the Cariboo mines is suspended for the winter. "The animals, even at that season, are said to improve in condition, though left to seek their own food, and to roam at large over the country, a fact which speaks volumes in favour of the climate, and of the natural pastures. It has certainly never been my good fortune to visit a country more pleasing to the eye, or possessing a more bracing and healthy climate, or a greater extent of fine pasture land; and there is no doubt that with a smaller amount of labour and outlay than in almost any other colony, the energetic settler may soon surround himself with all the elements of affluence and comfort. " A good deal of running stock has been brought in for sale; but with Hie exception of eight or ten persons, there are no farmers in the district (owing to the difficulties of access which have till now existed). One of these, Mr. M'Lean, a native of Scotland, and lately of the Hudson's Bay Company's service, has recently settled on a beautiful spot, near u 290 BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. the debouchure of the Hat Eiver, and is rapidly bringing his land into cultivation. He has a great number of horses and cattle of the finest American breeds, and from the appearance of the crops there is every prospect that his labour and outlay will be well rewarded. He is full of courage, and as confident as deserving of success. He entertains no doubt whatever of the capabilities of the soil, which he thinks will, under proper management, produce any kind of grain or root crops. The only evil he seriously apprehends is want of rain, which has induced him to bring a supply of water from a neighbouring stream, by which he can at pleasure irrigate the whole of his fields. "I received an equally favourable report from Mr. Eeynolds, who commenced a farm- at the Bavilion in the year 1859, and he has consequently had the advantage of two years' experience. His last crop, besides a profusion of garden vegetables, consisted of oats, barley, turnips, and potatoes, and the produce was most abundant. The land under potatoes yielded 375 bushels to the acre. The turnip crop was no less prolific; one of the roots weighed twenty-six pounds, and Swedes of fifteen pounds and sixteen pounds were commonly met with. He could not give the yield of oats and barley, the greater part having been sold in the sheaf, for the use of the mule trains passing to and fro from the Cariboo mines; but the crop, as was manifest from the weight and length of the straw, which attained a height of fully four feet, was remarkably good. He allows his cattle to run at large, and they seldom require to be housed in winter. Bi CLIMATE—IRRIGATION—FISHERIES. 291 "The cold is never severe ; the greatest depth of snow in 1859 was twelve inches, and the following winter it did not exceed six inches. Bloughing commences about the middle of March. The summers are generally dry, and Mr. Eeynolds is of opinion that irrigation will be found an indispensable application in the process of husbandry in this district. In the dry summer of 1859, he kept water almost constantly running through his fields, but applied it only twice during the summer of 1860, when the moisture of the atmosphere proved otherwise sufficient for the crops. "The numerous streams which permeate the valleys of this district afford admirable facilities for inexpensive irrigation; so bountiful, indeed, has Nature been in this respect, that it is hardly an exaggeration to say, that there is a water-course or rivulet for every moderate-sized farm that will be opened in the district."* Any statement of the natural resources of British Columbia would be incomplete which did not take into account its fisheries. A recent writerf thus speaks of them :— "La common with the whole of the seas, gulfs, bays, rivers, and lakes of the entire district and coast, the Fraser swarms with prodigious quantities of fish. Indeed, in the harbours, herrings are literarv raked into the canoes, by means of a flat piece of board, sixteen or eighteen feet long, and about two and a * Despatch from Governor Douglas to Colonial OfEcc, dated Victoria, Vancouver's Island, July, 1861. t " Edinburgh Review," No. 2H, p. 463. 292 BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. half inches broad, studded with a dozen tenpenny nails—in this rude manner an Indian will fill his canoe in an hour or two; and the traveller along the banks of the shallower streams may catch the salmon in his hands, or ' gaff' them from the bank with his walking-stick. The herrings -closely resemble the ordinary Scotch herring, though somewhat smaller in size; but of the salmon there are no less than four varieties—three differing from the English variety, but all, with the exception of the hump-backed salmon, of excellent quality and flavour. About the middle of July these salmon begin to ascend the streams from the sea in immense shoals. Whether it is that the temperature of the coast region is too mild for the proper development of the ova, or that, near the entrance of rivers, they would be more liable to be devoured by fish of prey, which prowl about the coast, attracted by the immense swarms of smaller fish, certain it is that Nature has implanted in these creatures an extraordinary desire to reach the head-sources of the various streams, which they resign only with their lives. Indeed, so invincible is this instinct in the salmon of British Columbia, that its origin must probably be traced to some cause still more peculiar—which we may perhaps find in the rapid. incline of its river-beds, and the high and impetuous floods from the melting of mountain snows, which would sweep the spawn Sack into the sea. During the months of July and August these salmon may be seen hurrying on to their fate, passing up each stream in countless, myriads, and succeeding each other in interminable shoals. SALMON FISHERIES. 293 1 " ' Onward they speed. The impetuous current is breasted, rapids are passed, cascades leaped. Onward, onward! The shallow waters are reached; but still they press forward, wriggling through meandering streams too scant for swimming. Onward, onward! ever onward; while myriads are left upon the strand, and die still stiuggling onwards. The fish are, upon entering the mouth of a river, in tolerably good order, but after travelling up stream a few hundred miles they become poor—poor indeed —and much injured. The skin, broken and abrased, loses its brightness, often becomes a deep pink, and robbed of its silvery scales; the head disfigured from blows and falls upon the rocks; the fins torn and divided in their efforts to force through spots too shallow; the eyes, once so bright, are now sunken and lustreless. None of these poor salmon ever descend the river again, but perish.' * " The bodies of these fish, exposed to a short and scorching northern summer, taint the air for miles O ' around; until, with the autumnal melting of the snow, they are again set afloat, and swept back into the ocean. The fry, however, remain in the mountains until the following spring, when they descend more leisurely to the sea, where they are said- to remain for four years. In all probability, it is their immunity from danger, amid these mountain fastnesses, which thus recruits so prodigious a waste by not less prodigious supplies. Nevertheless, from some unassigned cause, there is a dearth of salmon every fourth year throughout the rivers; and, as it furnishes the staple food of the whole native population, * " British-Golumbia and Vancouver Island," by D. G. F. Macdonald. 294 BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. they would all miserably perish but for another curious phenomenon. Every fourth year, when the salmon fail, we are told that the country swarms with rabbits, which are used as a substitute. Besides herrings and salmon, there are immense quantities of cod, bass, mackerel, flounder, skate, sole, halfibut, sardines. Sturgeon, sometimes exceeding 500 lbs. in weight, are found at the entrance of the various rivers, and in the larger inland lakes. The harbours and coast abound with oysters, a very large and excellent description of crayfish, crabs, mussels, and other shell-fish—excepting, however, lobsters; while the thousand lakes with which the interior is studded, possess trout, pike, perch, carp, eels, and a ' white- fish,' from 2 lbs. to 6 lbs. apiece, found also in the great lakes on the east side of the Eocky Mountains, and said to be the only description of fish of which the palate does not grow weary. On the whole, the fisheries of British Columbia offer wide and remu nerative fields for the introduction of capital." We must not conclude our brief account of British Columbia without remarking on the unprecedented progress made by the colony in the first four years of its establishment, from 1859 to 1863. It has already become self-supporting, so that it will no longei appear in the annual estimates of the House of Commons—a very important and significant fact, which must afford the greatest encouragement to those engaged in the work of colonization. As yet there are no exports except gold, but the imports, which, in 1861, were in value 1,414,000 dollars, reached, in 1862, 2,201,000 dollars, or nearly double, in the short space of twelve months. The PROGRESS OF THE COLONY. 295 revenue of the province doubled within twelve months, up to the end of 1862, when it amounted to £100,000, with every prospect of success. One thousand miles of road had been opened up at the end of 1862, the tolls on which alone produced in that year £10,000, and were expected to produce in 1863 £20,000. j CHAPTEE XV. Vancouver's island. History—Physical aspects—Beauty of scenery—Nature of soil—Climate— Natural productions—Price of land—Agriculture—Advantages offered to small farmers—Progress. Continuing our course westward, we reach the large and important island which lies along the coast of British Columbia, and which is separated from it by the Gulf of Georgia. It now forms an independent colony, under its own legislative government. It therefore receives separate notice. Vancouver's Island is situated between the parallels of 48° 20" and 51° north latitude, and 123° and 128° west longitude. It is 300 miles in length, with a general breadth of from 30 to 50 miles. It has a superficial area of 14,000 square miles, being about one-fourth the size of England and Wales. Its southern and broadest end lies in a deep indentation of the mainland, part of which, with several of the adjacent islands, belongs to the Government of the United States, and is called Washington Territory. Its coast-fine is marked by numerous creeks and inlets of the sea which run far inland, forming adniirable harbours for shipping, and affording the greatest facilities for inter-communication. These history of Vancouver's island. 297 are the more valuable, as the rivers, though numerous, are only navigable for canoes at short distances from their mouths. The rapidity with which they rush down from the mountains, though it impedes navigation, will prove an invaluable source of power for driving machinery. Already these great natural advantages are being appreciated. Ships from all nations are found in the harbours. A legitimate and extensive trade is taking the place of the barter of baubles and firewater for furs with the Indians. Coal-mines are being worked, corn-fields cultivated, towns and villages are springing up with an almost magical rapidity. The island is assuming the appearance of an established and prosperous colony. The history of Vancouver's Island is brief. Cook, as we have seen, sailed along its coast in 1776, communicated with the natives, and anchored in Nootka Sound, believing the island to form part of the continent of America. Two years afterwards, a company of London merchants, at the head of which was a Mr. Meares, formed a settlement there, with the intention of trading with China. Their vessels were, however, seized by the Spaniards, who laid claim to all the west coast of America south of latitude 60°. On this a fleet assembled at Spithead, and war was about to be declared with Spain, when she made the required concessions, and indemnified the merchants for their loss, virtually abandoning her claims, Captain Vancouver, of the Eoyal Navy, being sent out to receive the transfer. He afterwards explored its coasts, and made the discovery of its insular character. It has properly, therefore, been 298 BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. called after him. It was visited the same year by Quadra, by whose name it was also, for some time, known. Men-of-war cruising in the Pacific occasionally touched there, as did whalers, and it was occasionally resorted to by the servants of Puget Sound and Hudson's Bay Companies, to collect furs; but no interest whatever was taken in it by the public generally. However, in 1849, the Hudson's Bay Company succeeded in obtaining a lease of the island for ten years, on the condition of colonizing it, the Imperial Government reserving the right of resuming authority over it at the termination of that period on repaying to the Company the sums they had expended in their attempt to settle it. In 1858 gold was discovered in the neighbouring territory of New Caledonia, as it was then called; and as numerous strangers had begun to flock to the shores of Vancouver on their way to the gold mines, the Government resumed their right, and created it into a colony in 1859, New Caledonia being created into a colony at the same time under the name of British Columbia. At that period the whole population of Vancouver, men, women, and children, did not exceed 500, chiefly servants of the Hudson's Bay Company. That Company, however, sent in a bill to the Government for cash expended in colonization of £162,071 8s. 3d., so that each person cost the nation £330. Mr. Douglas, an officer of the Hudson's Bay Company, who had been acting as governor, was appointed as first governor under the Crown. The governor is assisted by a nominated council and an assembly, elected by the inhabitants holding twenty DESCRIPTION OF COUNTRY. 299 acres and upwards of land. Originally the number of representatives was only seven, but it has recently been increased to fifteen, and an executive council granted. Until within a few years back our chief knowledge of this large island was derived from the rough surveys of Captain Vancouver, who thus describes the southern end:—"The serenity of the climate, the innumerable pleasing landscapes, and the abundant fertility that unassisted Nature puts forth, require only to be enriched by the industry of man, with villages, mansions, cottages, and other buildings, to render it the most lovely country that can be imagined, whilst the labours of the inhabitants would be amply rewarded in the bounties which Nature seems ready to bestow on cultivation." Other surveyors from time to time added a little to the general stock of knowledge, yet very imperfect, till the English Government sent out H.M.S. Plumper, Captain G. H. Eichards, r.n., by whom the coasts of the island have been thoroughly surveyed, although part of the interior still remains to be explored. The island may be described as consisting of a central mountain ridge, which attains at Mount Arrowsmith an elevation of 5,900 feet, with various spurs branching off to the coast on either hand, their sides clothed with the gigantic Douglas pine and other fine trees; while rich, well-watered valleys and undulating prairies, precipices, and hills, and wild rocks, rising out of the ground, often surrounded by superb oaks, whose branches afford a grateful shade in the heat of summer, beautifully diversify the scenery. m 300 BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. The outline of the coast is bold and romantic in the extreme, its chief features being lofty promontories, rocky cliffs, bays, inlets, sheltered coves, and pebbly beaches, with harbours where ships can at all times find shelter; indeed, in few spots on the earth's surface can more picturesque scenery be found, while from its geographical position, its great fertility, and the excellence of its harbours, it will undoubtedly play no unimportant part in the future history of the Bacifie. Added to its other advantages, it guards, as it were, the western portal to that great intercolonial high road now forming through British North America, to be developed hereafter into a railway, across the whole continent. Vancouver is separated from the mainland on the north by the Straits of San Juan de Fuca, on the east by the Gulf of Georgia—which further north is called Queen Charlotte's Sound. From its narrowness and intricacy, this channel is difficult of access. Approaching Vancouver by way of the Bacifie, deep water will be found till within fifteen miles, where it suddenly shoals to ninety fathoms. Approaching the coast, on the right rises the rugged, dark, snow-capped Olympian Mountains, in American territory, and on the left a long, rugged range rising abruptly from the sea, and broken into pinnacles and precipices, presenting every variety of mountain scenery of the grandest and most attractive description. The straits are nowhere more than from ten to twelve miles in width, but the navigation is not difficult. At the entrance of the strait is found the convenient and safe harbour of San Juan. About ESQUIMAULT—VICTORIA. 301 fifty miles up is the flashing light on the Eace Bocks, the scenery preserving the same mountainous and picturesque character, the range on the right increasing in height till opposite Victoria, where it attains an elevation of 8,000 to 9,000 feet. Sometimes the hills rise cliff-like from the water, which is studded with numerous rocky islands and islets. Bounding the Eace Eocks, so called from the agitation of the water as it rushes over a rough bottom, Eoyal Bay is entered, and the light at the entrance of Esquimault Harbour is seen. A promontory, or rather a peninsula, some ten miles in circuit, separates Esquimault from Victoria Harbour. The neck of the peninsula is only three miles across, and the two harbours can be united by either a canal or a railway. Esquimault Harbour is deep, extensive, and so safe that vessels may unload alongside the rocks. It is the great British naval harbour in the Pacific, and can be entered by ships of any size at all times of tide, both by day and night. Victoria Harbour, further to the east, is of great beauty. At present only smaller vessels are able to cross the bar at its entrance, but when that is deepened large ships may float on its ample bosom. The site of Victoria, now the capital, was chosen on account of the extent of fertile land in its neighbourhood. It is, too, somewhat nearer the entrance of the Fraser and the capital of British Columbia, and is capable of being easily defended from an attack by sea. The description by Dr. Forbes conveys a good idea of the scenery of this part of the island. The new comer is supposed to have rounded Eace Eocks, and entered Eoyal Bay, when a magnificent ffi 111 302 BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. prospect opens to his view—a picture which, viewed by the warm sunlight of a fine autumnal day, can nowhere be surpassed for beauty of outline or richness or variety of colouring. " On his immediate left are the rounded trappean hills of Vancouver, covered nearly to the summits by a thick vegetation, the purple tints of the bold, outstanding rocks mingling in harmony of tone with the dark green of the pine and of the oak; while below, in the valleys and lower grounds, the cool greys of the rounded rock-masses, fringed by a thick carpet of purple- brown fern, join with the autumnal orange tints of the maple, and the bright yet tender green of the alder and willow, to form a mass of colour on which the eye dwells with delight. Before the observer stretches an undulating park-like country, backed by wooded hills of moderate height, the sea face formed by a succession of low, rounded, rocky promontories, with outlying reefs and islands. From Fisguard fight, which, like a watchful sentinel, guards the entrance to the harbour of Esquimault, past Victoria Harbour, Beacon Hill, and sweeping on by Cadborough Bay, this same character of country obtains; its sloping pastures, studded with oak and maple, giving from their general appearance the idea of a country long occupied by civilized man,, and covered with flocks and herds. To the north, outlying groups of islands, some low and undulating, others bold and picturesque, stud and spring from the glassy sea. And in the east, the horizon is bounded by the American continent, grandly outlined and defined by the noble proportions of Mount Baker, towering in its mantle of perpetual snow, from the giant shoulder of which NATURE OF SOIL. 303 stretches in a south-easterly direction the serrated snow-clad range of the Cascades." The scenery of the interior in no way disappoints those who have thus beheld the coast, under every advantage, from the calm waters of the straits. In no part of the world, within a limited distance, can be found a more beautiful combination of mountain, lake, stream, woodland, and marine landscapes, than are to be met with within a short distance of Victoria itself. Of more importance to the settler than the appearance of the country, is the nature of the soil which covers it. First, then, there is abundance of a calcareous sandy loam, of good quality, which is ready at once for cultivation, producing excellent crops of vegetables, and suitable for clover and other plants. Then there is what is known as humus—a rich, dark, brownish black soil, the product of decayed vegetable-matter, in certain localities mixed with alluvium. It is of variable depths, and rests on a clay subsoil, which itself overlies trap and concretionary limestone. There is also a poor gravelly soil, with a thin coating of vegetable mould, which, however, bears large timber of a superior quality, coarse grass, and but little underwood. The poverty of this soil is the consequence of its inability to retain moisture. The rains percolate through it, and drain off into lagoons, leaving the hot sun to desiccate the surface. In some localities this may be remedied by irrigation, for which the numberless streams flowing through the country offer great facilities. On the clay subsoil, springs «re numerous, and the water excellent. 304 BRITISH NORTH .AMERICA. A remarkable feature of the island is the numerous lakes, fringed by graceful trees—the willow, alder, aspen, which lie embosomed among the mountains, and which, in one part, are so numerous that, aided by two deep inlets of the sea, they form an almost unbroken chain of water communication across it. The climate of Vancouver is peculiar. The isothermal line, which runs through Vienna, Brussels, London, and New York, passes considerably to the north of it, and though undoubtedly its climate is healthy, and the temperature allows of the growth of many of the productions of southern Europe, there is, with a hot sun, a peculiar sharpness and keenness in the air, in the shade or at night, which a stranger would not expect, and which makes him glad to draw his cloak round him, except when the wind blows from the west. This arises from two causes. The island has on three sides lofty snow-capped mountains, over which the winds frequently blow; and, in the second place, the waters which flow round it are chilled by coming from the icy sea, and by the large admixture of melted snow which runs into them. Still, as a whole, the climate is mild, the summers genial, and the winters not more severe than those in England. At intervals of several years, severe winters occur, but even then not of so long duration as those of England. As a rule, the climate of Vancouver and the south of England may be considered similar. Compared with Canada, that of Vancouver, with regard to mildness, has greatly the advantage. The range of temperature, in the same year, in Vancouver was 48£°; Canada, 138°. The thermometer showed Van- CLIMATE. 305 couver's highest, 72°; lowest, 23£°. Canada, highest, 102°; lowest, 36° below zero. The summer of Vancouver is rather longer, and the winter very much shorter, than that of Canada; while it has an advantage over that of England by being drier and less variable. In England rain falls on an average once in two days ; in Vancouver, once in three days. It is sufficiently hot to ripen Indian corn in most years, but not with the same certainty that it ripens on the eastern side of the Eocky Mountains, where, although the summer is much shorter, the heat is immensely greater. Thunder-storms are rare. At times distant thunder is heard, but the electrical discharge seldom takes place over Vancouver. It must be understood that there is a considerable difference in the temperature of the coast and the interior, the heat of the latter being much the greatest, and the cold probably more severe. The cold of winter commences about the same time that it does in England, towards the end of December, except in unusually severe winters, as that of 1849, when it commenced on the 27th of November; but the following year, 1850, was fine throughout. Again, in 1859, severe cold set in in November, and continued for some months, with heavy falls of snow; but from March, 1860, the weather was mild, and continued so through the winter and into the spring of 1861. The summer of this latter year was very hot and dry, and the early autumn fine and clear, with occasional cold southeasterly winds and heavy rains. The following description of the month of May is from a journal kept at Victoria at its first settle- x 306 BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. ment:—"15 fine clear days, 12 overcast, 4 rainy. Maximum temperature, 79°; minimum, 39° Fahr. 1st. Blains covered with verdure; the turncap lily, heart's-ease, crow's-foot, jonquil, and many other flowers in full bloom; camass flowering, spring wheat and peas rising, early potatoes above ground. 4th. Campanula and lupin coming into flower, wild cherry and service-berry coming into blossom, and wild vetch flowering in warm places. 6th. Apple-trees blossoming, strawberries forming. 9th. Potatoes, which were planted in March and April, coming up. 12th. Early beans in bloom. 18th. Wild rose coming into bloom. 25th. Strawberries ripening. 31st. Wild gooseberries ripening." Only in the southern parts of England would a gardener's journal show the season so advanced. An abundance of game is found in every part of the island. Of wild animals, there are bears, racoons, mink, and deer of several kinds, often in large herds; the puma, wolf, etc. Grouse, woodcock, snipe, and an infinite variety of wild fowl, as well as most of the birds found in North America, frequent its shores. The timber of the island is particularly fine: the Douglas pine is the most valuable of its tribe, and the timber trade must, in time, be of considerable importance. Its trees are especially adapted for making masts and spars. It was from hence that the fine flagstaff in Kew Gardens was sent. A scarcity of timber is already felt in many countries to the south, so that numerous markets will be found for all that Vancouver can hereafter supply. Already several houses are actively pushing the timber trade. TIMBER—FISHERIES. The coniferce (or cone-bearing family) predominate. Among them are, the Douglas pine, Canada balsam pine, white or Weymouth pine, hemlock pine, black spruce, noble fir, red cedar, common cypress cedar, and western yew: of the catkin-bearing family (amentacece), plane, aspen, cotton-wood, black oak, white oak; and of the ericacece, the arbutus. The British Government are already importing spars from thence for men-of-war. There is a great demand in the island, also, for timber for fire-wood, housebuilding, fencing, and sMp-building. Some saw-mills have been already erected, but more are required, and men to work them. There is an abundance of both fresh and salt-water fish. Salmon are very fine, and are caught in great quantities by the natives, who bring them for sale to the Victoria market. Most of the tribes five entirely on fish. Some establishments have already been formed for catching and curing salmon, but only on a limited scale compared to that of which the trade is susceptible. Cod, sturgeon, and herrings are caught in great quantities, and will find ready sale in Chili, Beru, China, and other countries bordering on the Bacifie. But more especially may the whale fishing be prosecuted with advantage from Esquimault. Within a few days' sail, shoals of whales are found, and it is considerably nearer to Behring's Straits, the northern limits of the Bacifie whaling ground, than is England to Davis Straits. Both the seas frequented by the "right whale" and the sperm whale can be easily reached from Vancouver. Hitherto San Francisco has chiefly been frequented by both English and American whalers fishing in „ HI ■..IMW£U!!*]|JLU 308 BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. the Bacifie, but Esquimault offers superior advan-' tages, especially for those bound northward. No harbour ean compete with it as head-quarters for vessels engaged in catching seals, and the morse or walrus, which abound to the northward. Fur-bearing animals are still numerous in the island. The trade has hitherto been exclusively in the hands -of the Hudson's Bay Company, and their agents will probably, from their knowledge of details, continue for some time to monopolize it. As civilization advances it must decrease, but it may yet be reckoned among the internal sources of wealth. Of far more value than the fur trade is that of coal. It has been found, both on the east, northeast, and west coasts, thus making it probable that it exists throughout the island. Hitherto it has only begun to be worked extensively at Nanaimo, whence a large amount is now exported. The demand, however, is far greater than, from want of labour, ean be supplied. It is a bituminous coal, fighter than the Welsh, consumes rapidly, and answers well for steamers, as well as for gas. Though not equal to that of the north of England, it is superior to much Scotch coal. As the miners get deeper, the coal improves, and fresh seams have been discovered of a very superior quality. The coal alone of Vancouver is sufficient to make the ports where it is shipped places of importance. Nanaimo, where the first coal mines discovered are situated, possesses a commodious, safe, and easily- accessible harbour, in which vessels of 1,500 tons can fie close to the mines and load with facility. When labour is more abundant, and the quality SSSSS S4AOE OF LANDS. 309 improves, as it promises to do, the demand will very greatly increase. At present Nanaimo coal costs from six to seven dollars per ton at the mines, and sells at San Francisco at from twelve to fifteen dollars per ton, while English coal sells both there and in CJhina at from fifteen to twenty dollars. Now, as there is reason to believe that Nanaimo coal will prove equal to the English, with markets close at hand, the profits must become very great. Copper has been found in Vancouver, and there are indications of the existence of iron, usually existing in the neighbourhood of coal, but, from want of labour, no attempt has as yet been made to work either one or other. Land is sold in Vancouver by the government at an upset price of 4s. 2d. per acre, but the Hudson's Bay and Buget Sound companies, which still hold land, demand £1 per acre. Suburban lots of excellent land, of five acres each, can also be rented from the government at £3 per acre, with the power of purchasing at a fixed sum. This is an advantage to market gardeners, who can get a high price for their produce. Male British subjects may also pre-empt —that is, a single man may occupy 150 acres of umsurveyed land, and a married man 200 acres, with ten acres additional for each child, on payment of a fee of 8s. 4d. at the office of the surveyor-general. The claimant must describe the tract in writing, and it must run in a certain direction.. He holds the land, till it is surveyed, without payment; and when the survey is completed he must pay 4s. 2d. per acre into the land-office. H he occupies land JP 310 BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. already surveyed, he must pay 4s. 2d. per acre, in three annual instalments—Is. Id. per acre, within a year of the claim being recorded, Is. Id. at the end of two years, and the balance of 2s. at the end of three years. The interior of the island has hitherto been only partially explored, so that it is difficult to state the amount of good land fit for agricultural purposes. Those first arriving at Victoria with the intention of farming, and expecting to find an agricultural district, are disappointed. Beautiful as is the scenery, to the eye of the practical farmer its character is not attractive. Undulating pine-clad liills, rising irregularly one beyond another, with narrow valleys between them, such as are seen in the neighbourhood of Victoria, though picturesque objects, do not convey a promise of farming capability. Still there is a comparatively level peninsula in the neighbourhood of Victoria, containing some 200 square miles, where there are several excellent farms and sheep stations, and there is much good land also in the Cowitchan district, as well as in other directions. The crops raised are usually wheat, barley, oats, and peas; green crops, turnips (Swedes), mangel- wurzel, vetches, potatoes, and all kinds of vegetables. I The average production of wheat is 25 to 30 bushels per acre, 64lbs. to the bushel; of oats, 40 bushels per acre, weight 36 to 46 lbs. ; potatoes, 200 bushels per acre, and of very superior quality." Horses, oxen, and mules are employed in the field and farmyard: the latter are especially prized. Bigs and poultry are easily reared. Sheep, the South Down especially, thrive, and the meat is M1 v AGRICULTURAL ADVANTAGES. 311 excellent and of the finest flavour: the quality of the wool is good. There are upwards of 5,000 sheep on the island. The average increase is 90 per cent. Herds of cattle, which have escaped from the farms, exist in a wild state in the mountains. Bractically, the colony of Vancouver's Island was only founded in 1859. Since then its progress has been wonderful. In 1861 the shipping was 101,721 tons; in 1862 it had increased to 199,000 tons. In 1861 the imports in value were 2,335,000 dollars, and in 1863 they had increased to 3,555,000. To show the immense benefit derived by the mother country from this colony alone, it is sufficient to state that the imports which in 1861 were 516,000 dollars, in 1862 amounted to 694,000 dollars, being an increase of 178,000 dollars. Another very gratifying fact is, that the imports from England, which in the first three months of 1862 were 120,000 dollars, had in the first three months of 1863 reached 400,000 dollars, being an increase of more than 300 per cent., while the increase of imports from other countries was only 63 per cent. The Admiralty establishment is increasing at Esquimault, and merchants are now storing goods in large quantities at Victoria, instead of, as formerly, at San Francisco, for the markets of Vancouver and British Columbia, and the islands of the Pacific. Ifi8*l CHAPTEE XVI. NOVA SCOTIA AND CAPE BRETON. Eastern provinces of British North America—Nova Scotia—Its physical geography—Mineral wealth—Cape Breton—Soil and climate—The Magdalen Islands—Sable Island—History of Nova Scotia and Cape Breton— Population—Chief towns: Halifax, Pictou, etc. Canada, from its size and importance, claims the first place amongst the British colonies in America. Its close connection with the North-west territory led us to speak next of British Central North America, British Columbia, and Vancouver's Island. We now retrace our steps, and come to the eastern provinces of British America. These are Nova Scotia with Cape Breton, New Brunswick, Brince Edward's Island, and Newfoundland, with Labrador. The vast colonial possessions of Great Britain do not contain a more hardy, brave, and loyal race than that inhabiting these eastern provinces. Nova Scotia, lying between 43° and 46° north latitude, and 61° and 67° west longitude, has the advantage of an almost insular position, combined with that of the mainland—the low, sandy neck of land which unites it to its sister province, New Brunswick, being scarcely eight miles across. It MOUNT.AINB—RIVERS. 313 stretches from north-east to south-west; is about 280 miles long, with a width varying from 50 to 100 miles, and has an area of 16,000 square miles, equal to about two-thirds the area of Leland. It is calculated that about one-fifth part consists of lakes, rivers, inlets of the sea, marshes, and land otherwise unfit for tillage. The physical features of the province may be briefly described. In the first place, the coast-line is remarkable for its deep indentations, which form excellent harbours on every side, of which that of Halifax, on the south coast, is one of the finest in the world, and though in so northern a latitude is seldom or never blocked up with ice. Although there are no mountains, and only two ridges of high hills, there is not more than about half a mile of perfectly level ground in any direction—the rest being beautifully undulating, and affording, with the aid of its woods, lakes, and streams, the most lovely and picturesque views. One range skirts the Bay of Fundy on the north coast, and the other the west coast between St. Mary's Bay and Argyle. The highest elevation is that of Ardoise BQll or Arthur's Seat, only 810 feet above the level of the sea. There are twenty-six harbours of considerable extent, nearly half of which are capable of receiving ships of the fine. Its rivers are very numerous. The Shubenacadie, the Annapolis, the West, and the Middle rivers are navigable for large vessels for some distance from their mouths. The other rivers, though not available for ships of heavy tonnage, are valuable as affording facilities for irrigation and for intercommunication between different parts of the colony. The scenery 314 BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. on the banks of many of these streams is most picturesque and beautiful. The lakes, though numerous, are not large. They, too, are serviceable as increasing the facilities of water communication in various districts, and add much to the picturesque beauty of the scenery. The two largest are lakes Eossignol and George. The mineral wealth of the province is considerable. Coal is the most important, an extensive bed running through the colony. Iron, copper, and lead ores are , found. Gold has been discovered in sufficient quantities to attract diggers. Its grey granite has long been in demand for millstones, and its sandstone for grindstones, known in the United States as "Nova Scotia blue grits." Eich in its almost inexhaustible coal mines, its agricultural produce, its timber, and numerous other productions, Nova Scotia is able to support a much larger population than at present inhabits it. Cape Breton, a large island on the north-east of Nova Scotia, and separated from it by the Strait of Canso, a mile wide, now forms part of the same province. It is almost divided into two islands by a remarkable inlet of the sea called Bras d'Or, which ramifies in every direction, and forms numberless coves, bays, and land-locked havens. The inner end forms a magnificent lake, 50 miles in length by 20 in breadth, navigable throughout, with from 12 to 60 fathoms of water. The chief entrance is by a passage called the Great Bras d'Or, 25 miles long, from two to three wide, and sixty fathoms deep. Few parts of the world offer a more superb sheet of water for CAPE BRETON. 315 inland navigation by large ships; it at the same time gives the benefit of water communication to the villages and farms on the island. The isthmus which unites the two parts of the island is only 3,000 feet across; another deep bay (that of St. Beter's) running up, and almost joining the Bras d'Or. The whole seaboard has also numerous indentations and harbours. On the north and north-west there are continuous ranges of mountains, which reach, at Smokey Cape, an elevation above the sea of 1,800 feet. In the northern divisions of the island the land is generally low, the highest elevation being 800 feet. The southwest coast, opposite the mainland, from being well sheltered, is consequently the most thickly inhabited. The houses and farm bufidings peep picturesquely through openings in the forest. On the north-west the hills are bleak and bare, and the coast consists of precipitous cliffs, which give little hope of escape to the hapless mariner whose vessel may be driven against them. Ten miles from North Cape, and in the direct entrance to the Gulf of St. Lawrence, is the small island of St. Baul's—about a mile long and three- quarters of a mile wide, with three hills in the centre rising upwards of 200 feet above the level of the ocean. Numberless were the ships cast away on this rock, till a lighthouse was erected to warn the mariners of their danger. It is in a direct fine with Cape Bay, the south-west point of Newfoundland. Cape Breton is about 100 miles long, 80 wide, and contains an area of 4,687 square miles, exclusive of the portion covered by lakes and rivers. Of this no 316 BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. less than 120 square miles is known to contain veins of the best coal, easily workable, extending from Mire Bay to the chief entrance of the Bras d'Or. On the west also are coal-fields. These are now extensively worked. There are also immense deposits of gypsum, the lower part being fit for building purposes, and the upper for improving certain soils, of which great quantities are used in the United States. There are numerous salt springs, especially valuable, in the neighbourhood of the ocean fisheries of North -America. Copper, iron, and lead are also found in large quantities. The soil of the island is generally fertile; along the banks of the rivers it is deep and rich, and in many places, where the granite boulders are not too thick, or can be removed, it is fit for the cultivation of any crops. The climate is similar to that of the neighbouring o o continent—rather moister on its western side, perhaps, from its greater exposure to ocean fogs, but it is as healthy as can be desired. Its summer heat is not so great, nor its winter cold so piercing, as that of the greater part of British North America, but in other respects there is little difference. Indigenous shrubs begin to blossom in June, and apple-trees in July, at which time strawberries are in perfection. Hay is made in July. Easpberries, currants, and gooseberries do not ripen till August, wheat in September, and apples and plums towards the end of October, thus showing that the seasons resemble those of Scotland rather than the south of England. SABLE ISLAND. 317 The Magdalen Islands belong to Nova Scotia, and are distant from the north-west point of Cape Breton eighteen leagues, and from Newfoundland thirty-six leagues; they form a continuous chain of forty-two miles. Amherst Island, the most southern, is about five miles across, and has an elevation in the centre of 260 feet, and a harbour into which vessels drawing eleven feet of water can enter. About 200 families, chiefly French Acadians, employed in fishing, live on them. Sable Island is the most remarkable and dangerous in these seas. It is about eighty-five miles distant from Cape Canso. It may be described as a low, bow-shaped sand-bank, thirty miles long and one and a half wide, with shoals and sand-banks extending far away on either side. In one place the fine sand has been driven up to form a hill 100 feet in height. Not a tree nor a shrub exists upon it larger than a cranberry or whortleberry bush. In other places it is covered with bent and sea-weed, on which cattle can barely subsist. A curious feature in this island is a lake, eighteen miles long and about a mile wide, which a sand-bank separates from the ocean. A storm once forced a passage, through which vessels passed in and out, but another storm closed it up, and two American vessels, which had ventured within, were caught as in a trap. At one time a large herd of cattle ranged over the island, but they were wantonly destroyed, and were succeeded by some horses, which have become perfectly wild. They, however, can be shot, and serve as food for shipwrecked seamen. A superintendent, with several men, supplied with means V. 318 BRITISH NORTH AMERIOA. for saving life, reside on the island, placed there by the government of Nova Scotia. One superintendent, Mr. Hodgson, lived there for forty years, and brought up a large family. He had a farm, with a few cows,' oxen, pigs and poultry, and four horses which had been broken in. The coarse grass afforded sufficient hay for their food in the winter. Drift-wood supplied abundance of fuel. A good variety of wild fowl resort to the island, and give ample sport to the inhabitants. Seals also come in great numbers, and are killed for the sake of their skins and blubber, the sale of which goes towards the funds of the institution by which the establishment on the island is supported. This establishment has been the means of saving the lives of many hundreds of shipwrecked mariners. It is difficult to imagine a more desolate spot for a permanent abode. Often, during a storm, pieces of wreck and human bones, long hidden by the sand, are thrown up; and the ceaseless roar of the ocean, as it thunders on the long thin fine of sand, is almost overpowering, while the whole island vibrates with its successive blows, and seems to be giving warning that the whole mass of sand is about to be carried away into the boiling ocean. The first attempt to colonize Nova Scotia was made in the year 1598 by the French, who despatched an expedition with a body of convicts, under the Marquis de la Eoche. The marquis, however, did little more than land forty of the wretched prisoners on Sable Island and return to France. Seven years were allowed to pass, when, probably owing to applications made by some of the friends of the wretched SETTLEMENT OF NOVA SCOTIA. 319 men, the pilot who had accompanied the marquis was sent to bring them back to France. After undergoing incredible hardships, twelve out of the forty were found alive. In 1604 a second expedition, under De Monti, was sent to form settlements on the coast by the French, who had given the name Acadia to the whole of it, including also New Brunswick and part of Maine. A few only remained, but they were finally expelled by the colonists of New England, who claimed the territory as belonging to Great Britain. Some years passed by, when, in 1621, Sir William Alexander obtained a grant of the territory now known as Nova Scotia, on which he bestowed that name. Sir William, had considerable influence, and was able to obtain the assistance of a considerable number of gentlemen of property in carrying out his schemes. A certain number of them received grants of large tracts of land, and on their settling so many persons on them, and bringing so many acres under cultivation, they were to become baronets of Nova Scotia, and to take precedence of all knights. Several, on fulfilling the stipulated conditions, obtained the rank, enjoyed to the present day by their descendants. War, however, broke out between France and England, and efforts were made by the English to drive away the French colonists, who had been increasing in numbers. In 1654, a strong force was sent by Oliver Cromwell, under Major Sedge wick, who succeeded in gaining possession of it; the French settlers—Acadians, as they were called, —however, continuing to pursue their avocations without much molestation. hi i 320 BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. Prosperity was dawning on the province when, by the treaty of Breda, it was again restored to France. For twenty years the Acadians were unmolested, till on the renewal of hostilities in 1689, Bort Eoyal was captured by the enterprising Sir William Bhipps, with a squadron from Massachusetts, to which colony he belonged. His history is worthy of record. He was the son of a blacksmith in New England, was employed as a shepherd, and afterwards apprenticed to a ship's carpenter. After a few years he built himself a vessel, in which he went to sea, and ultimately succeeded in raising the large sum of £300,000 sterling from a wrecked Spanish ship at the Bahamas. He was knighted by James n., and led several important expeditions fitted out by England or the colony. The British and French colonists were continually engaged in conflicts, till, by the treaty of Eyswick, the colony was once more placed under the French government. The French did not hold it long. A new expedition was fitted out in 1710 for its conquest;—the leaders, however, exacting a guarantee from the Crown that if captured it should never again be restored to France. The expedition was successful. Port Eoyal was captured, and its name changed to Annapolis, in honour of Queen Anne. It was formally ceded to England in 1714, at the peace of Utrecht. As was too frequently the custom in those days, England paid no attention to the colony, till it was evident that the' French contemplated regaining possession of it. After the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, a number of disbanded troops and other settlers were sent out there with a HISTORY OF GAPE BRETON. 321 governor, the Hon. Edward Cornwallis, who landed on the spot on which Halifax now stands. The town of Halifax soon rose into importance and became the capital of the colony, and its harbour the mosi important naval station on the coast of North America. The history of Cape Breton is not of less interest than that of Nova Scotia. In 1714 a few fishermen from Nova Scotia settled there, and in winter the fur-traders and fur-hunters came across from the mainland to obtain furs. For the purpose of extending the cod-fishery, and commanding the navigation of the St. Lawrence, Louis xrv., in 1620, more completely colonized it. The strong fortress of Louisburg was built on the south-east coast, and named after him. Scarcely did the French fancy themselves secure in their new fortress, than they began to instigate the Indians to harass the British settlers on the mainland. Finally, they and their Indian allies attacked Annapolis, held by the British, who were supported by other bodies of Indians. The garrison of Annapolis obtained aid from the gnvftTT.-mftT.Ti of Massachusetts, and a savage warfare was carried on for some years, which only terminated with the expulsion of the French from the whole of Acadia, and was the prelude of the downfall of their power in North America. Louisburg was considered almost impregnable. It was two miles and a half in circumference, and surrounded with a rampart of stone from thirty to thirty-six feet high, and a ditch eighty feet wide, except near the sea, where the shallowness of the Y hmm 322 BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. water and numerous rocks made it inaccessible. It was flanked by bastions and batteries, containing embrasures for 148 guns. At the entrance of the harbour was an island, on which was planted a thirty-gun battery of 28-pounders, and at the end of the harbour was the grand battery of twenty-eight 42-pounders. At the west gate, the principal entrance to the town, was another circular battery of sixteen guns—making it, after Quebee, the strongest fortress in North America. Its garrison consisted of 4,000. men, including regulars and militia. Yet, strong as the fortifications of Louisburg were deemed, its capture was effected by Governor Shirley, of Massachusetts, and Mr. Bepperal, a merchant of New. England, who drew up the plan of attack. Mr. Bepperal was appointed general, having about 4,000 provincial troops under him. Many of these were followers of Whitfield (then preaching in New England),- who believed that by the destruction of the French, popery would be driven from the country. They thus looked upon the expedition somewhat in the light of a crusade. The expedition was joined by a squadron, under Commodore Warren, who received orders from home to proceed to its support. The besieged held out for forty-nine days, sustaining five fierce assaults, in which the English lost 101 men, and the French 300. Finally, driven from battery to battery by the provincials, the French were compelled to surrender. Bepperal was created a baronet, as was Commodore Warren. Several large French ships were afterwards captured, and the Island of St. John was also taken by the English. CAPTURE OF LOUISBURG. 323 It has often been remarked, that what British soldiers win by their bravery, British statesmen lose by their diplomacy. Such was the case in this instance, and the New Englanders had the vexation of seeing their gallantly-won acquisition restored to France in exchange for Madras, at the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, in 1749. The French, knowing its value, and the influence it gave them over the fisheries of the Gulf of St. Lawrence and Newfoundland, still further fortified it. In June, 1758, it contained a garrison of 6,000 regular troops, 3,000 rnilitia, and 1,300 Indians, while Hie harbour was secured by six ships of the fine and five frigates, three of which were sunk across the entrance. To attack the fortress, an expedition, consisting of 14,000 men and 151 sail, was fitted out under Lord Amherst, under whom was serving the gallant General Wolfe. In spite of a heavy sea rolling on the shore, the troops were landed under a hot fire, and succeeded in capturing several batteries, the guns of which were turned against the enemy. Admiral Boscawen meantime, with 600 men in boats, entered the harbour and destroyed one ship of the line, and towed out another, in the most spirited manner. Several breaches being made practicable, the French governor offered to capitulate, but the terms were refused. He was compelled, with the garrison, to surrender as prisoners of war. The British loss was only 400 killed and wounded; the French, besides the fortress, lost five or six fine-of-battle ships and several frigates. The English Government, fearing that Louisburg might again fall into the hands of the French, completely dismantled it, in which state it has since remained. 324 BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. Very little attention was paid to Cape Breton till after the American revolution, when several fnTT.fl.fls of royalists settled on it. It was then separated from Nova Scotia, and Sydney, its present capital was built. About 1800 a considerable immigration from the Highlands of Scotland took place, and the first settlers from thence being followed by their relations, the population has yet further been increased by a hardy and industrious race, who, however imperfectly they may cultivate the soil on their native hills, prove excellent colonists. In 1820, Cape Breton, somewhat to the annoyance of its inhabitants, was reunited to Nova Scotia, with the power of sending two members to the House of Assembly at Halifax. It still continues a county of Nova Scotia, and we believe that the inhabitants' have become perfectly reconciled to the arrangement —indeed, as the means of intercommunication improve, it will probably be found advantageous to unite the whole group into one province. The government of Nova Scotia is administered by a lieutenant-governor, aided by a responsible Executive Counoil of eight members, a Legislative Council of twenty members, and a House of Assembly of fifty-one members, elected by householders or landholders. The population may be estimated at 300,000. Of these 5,000 are coloured, and there are nearly 1,500 Indians remaining out of the once numerous tribes which formerly inhabited it. The proportion, however, is greater than exists in the United States and in some other British provinces. In 1859, the revenue was £175,957, and the HALIFAX—PICTOU. 325 expenditure £172,648. The value of imports was £1,620,191, and exports £1,377,826. Halifax, the capital, is a handsome town, built on the shore of its magnificent harbour, and rising gradually from the water. It was named after Lord Halifax, who founded the settlement after the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, in 1748. The harbour is one of the finest in the possession of Great Britain. It has an area of about ten square miles, affording anchorage to fully 1,000 ships, and is open at all seasons, Hie navigation being scarcely ever impeded by ice. Halifax is the principal British naval station in North America, and the Government have here an extensive dockyard. It is considered both by naval and military men as a very pleasant station, the hospitality of the inhabitants being proverbial. The city is about two miles long, and half a mile broad, with wide streets crossing each other, and numerous wharfs along the water's-edge. There are upwards of 2,000 houses, with a population of about 25,000. The private houses have a handsome appearance, and the public' buildings are substantial edifices; the Province Building, in the centre of the city, being one of the finest in British North America. It contains the chambers of the Council and Legislative Assembly, the Supreme Court, and all the provincial offices. The admiral's house is an antique- looking mansion, of a baronial character seldom to be seen in America. Bictou, next to Halifax, is the most important place in Nova Scotia on account of its fine harbour, situated at the entrance of the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and the rich coal fields in its neighbourhood. The 326 BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. harbour is, however, occasionally frozen up in the winter.' The population is from 6,000 to 7,000. It is a free warehousing port, and has an extensive trade in timber, coal, and fish. A railway, the commencement of the Great Intercolonial Line, now runs from Halifax to the town of Truro, at the head of the Mines Basin. It will be continued on to Pictou, thus uniting the northern and southern parts of the province. From Truro the Grand Trunk Eailway will run along the isthmus, through the northern part of New Brunswick, to "Riviere du Loup on the shores of the St. Lawrence. Another railway runs from Halifax to Windsor, about forty-five miles in length, and through a fertile part of the country. The formation of the Great Intercolonial Eailway from Halifax to Ottawa, and thence, in course of time, through the vast prairies of British Central North America, across the Eocky Mountains to New Westminster, the capital of British Columbia, may be looked upon as an undertaking certainly to be accomplished. The conclusion of even the first portion will add greatly to the importance of Halifax, and to the prosperity of the province at large. In enumerating the towns of Nova Scotia, Sydney, the capital of Cape Breton, must not be omitted. It is finely-situated on an elevated tongue of land, a few miles to the south of the entrance of the Bras d'Or. On the east side there is a basin three miles in circumference, and on the west is the main channel of the inlet, which forms a fine harbour for large ships. Sydney is becoming the Newcastle of the Atlantic coast of North America, as Nanaimo, in Vancouver's Island, is of the Pacific. It is CLIMATE. 327 remarkable that coal should thus be found at two opposite points of the continent, where it is most serviceable for the requirements of man. Louisburg, which, as has been narrated, was captured from the French in 1745, and again in 1758, is now a mere heap of ruins with a few fishermen's huts scattered about. The other chief towns of Nova Scotia are Liverpool and Lunenburg, Yarmouth at the entrance of the Bay of Fundy, and Annapolis on the eastern side of the same bay. At Windsor there is a college, and several schools. The climate of Nova Scotia is as healthy as that of any part of America. The temperature is milder in winter than that of Quebec, and the heat is. less intense in summer; the air is pure, though sea- fogs occasionally pass over some districts. The longevity of a large number of its inhabitants is proof of its general salubrity. Its orchards are very fine, and plums, pears, quinces, and cherries grow in profusion, while peaches and grapes ripen, in ordinary seasons, in the open air. The autumn, as in most parts of North America, is a most delicious season; the severe weather of winter seldom sets in until the end of December, and a thaw generally occurs early in January. Indeed, the climate is much like that of Canada, modified by the atmosphere of the ocean. § CHAPTER XVII. NEW BRUNSWICK. Its extent and boundaries—Division into counties—Principal towns— Numerous rivers and lakes—History—Government—Education—Natural productions—Climate and soil—Forests—Fisheries—Minerals—Flora and fauna—Aborigines—Regulations for the sale of land. New Brunswick is the link in the chain of provinces between Nova Scotia and Canada. It is situated between the parallels of 45° and 48° north latitude, and the meridians of 63° 45' and 68° 50" west longitude. It is bounded by the Bay of Chaleur and part of Lower Canada on the north; by the Gulf of St. Lawrence and Nova Scotia on the east; by the Bay of Fundy on the south; and the State of Maine and Canada on the west. The Eiver Eistigouche runs between it and Canada, and the rivers St. John and St. Croix, between it and the State of Maine. It contains 17,677,360 acres, or 27,620 square miles. Of this quantity upwards of .6,000,000 acres have been alienated by the Crown, leaving 7,500,000 acres unsold, of which 250,000 are surveyed and ready for settlers. The physical features presented by New Brunswick are long, bold, swelling undulations, now rising into actual mountains, and now sinking into deep COUNTIES—TOWNS. 329 valleys, or spreading into plains covered with magnificent forests and intersected by innumerable rivers and lakes. The northern shore is low and sandy, and covered with trees of stunted growth; but along the course of the Eistigouche the scenery is very fine, with lofty pine-clad mountains, beautiful glens and valleys, and numberless lakes and streams. New Brunswick is divided into counties, each of which has a shire-town, and is subdivided into parishes. They are as follows:— COUNTT. ShIBE-TOWIT. Eistigouche Dalhousie. Gloucester Bathurst. Northumberland ... Newcastle. Kent Ricbibucto. Westmoreland Dorchester. Albert Hillsborough. St. John's St. John. CouNTr. Shiee-towb-. Charlotte St. Andrew's. King's Kingston. Queen's Gagetown. Sunbury Burton. York Fredericton. Carleton Woodstock. Victoria Colebrooke. Northumberland is the largest of these counties, Sunbury the smallest. Amongst the most wealthy and prosperous is the county of St. John. Its shire- town of the same name is the commercial capital of New Brunswick. With Bortiand, one of its suburbs, it contains not far short of 40,000 souls. The position of its harbour, at the mouth of a large river with numerous tributaries, and its perfect freedom from ice, give it a great advantage over all the northern ports of America, and will, when the railway is completed to Biviere du Loup, make it a powerful competitor of Portland in the State of Maine. Electric telegraphs extend to Nova Scotia, to Canada, and to all parts of the States. A railway runs from the harbour of St. John, a distance of 114 miles, to Shediac, on the Gulf of St. Lawrence. The New 880 BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. Brunswick and Canada Eailway runs from St. Andrew's, on Bassamaquoddy Bay, in a direct line for Biviere du Loup, but has only reached as far as Scotch Corner on the frontier. The great objection to this route is its vicinity to the American boundary fine. It will inevitably bring a population to benefit the States, whereas, did it run more through the heart of the province, that would have reaped, as it should, the chief benefit. The city of St. John is lighted with gas, and well supplied with water. There are several banks, numerous saw-mills, grist-mills, tanneries, foundries, breweries, and other factories. Its trade has been steadily increasing, and at present it may be calculated that from 400,000 to 500,000 tons of shipping clear inward, and from 500,000 to 600,000 clear outward, yearly. The city was founded so recently as 1785. The political capital of the province is Fredericton, the shire-town of York county. It stands on the Eiver St. John, about 84 miles from its mouth, in the Bay of Fundy. The river is navigable up to Fredericton for large river steamers and small sea-groins: vessels. At this point it is about three-quarters of a mile wide. The city is pleasantly situated on an open plain, with the broad river sweeping round it, and a range of picturesque hills in the rear. The streets are wide, well built, and cross each other at right angles. A belt of gardens and pleasure- grounds, which environ the city, add greatly to its beauty. The lieutenant-governor resides here in a large and handsome edifice known as Government House. Mm WATER COMMUNICATION. 331 New Brunswick enjoys means of water communication inferior to no other province of British North America. The chief river is the St. John, 450 miles in length, and navigable 84 miles up to Fredericton. Steamers run up to Woodstock, 62 miles farther, and when the water is high to the Grand Falls, 220 miles from the sea. Above the falls the river has been navigated by a steamer to Madawaska. That river again is navigable for 30 miles to Lake Temiscouta; and the upper end of that lake (27 miles long and of great depth) is only 18 miles from the Eiver St. Lawrence at Trois Pistoles. The Grand Lake, 30 miles long, is also connected with the St. John. The Salmon Eiver, navigable for 16 miles, falls into the Grand Lake, with which French and Maguapit Lakes are also connected. The Washade- moak Lake, also navigable, is 25 miles long, and the stream from it enters the St. John 40 miles from the sea. The Kennebeccasis Eiver, falling into the St. John, is navigable up to Hampton, a distance of 25 miles. Large vessels are built here, and still larger ones on the Oromocto, which is navigable for 20 miles from its. mouth in the St. John Biver, 72 miles from the sea. The Peticodiac, the Eichibucto, and the Miramichi, are all navigable from 15 to 30 miles from their mouths. There are many other fine rivers navigable for boats, which, with numerous small lakes, form a net-work of water communication in every direction throughout the province. The Bay of Chaleur may be described as one vast haven, 90 miles long, and from 15 to 30 broad, without rocks or shoals, and with fine harbours on either side. BRITISH NORTH -AMERICA. When first peopled by the French, New Brunswick formed part of Acadia, and remained in their possession till it was finally ceded to Great Britain by the treaty of Utrecht in 1713. Not, however, till French authority was finally overthrown in North -America in 1759 had the English peaceable possession of the province. In 1785 its present limits were fixed, and it was separated from Nova Scotia, of which it had up to that time formed a part. The .American Eevo- lution brought numerous 1 loyalists as settlers to its shores, and the paternal government of Colonel Carleton contributed greatly to its prosperity. Its advancement has ever since been steady. Its greatest misfortune was the terrific fire at Miramichi, in 1825, which extended over 6,000 square miles of forests, when two towns, full of stores and provisions, 500 human beings, several vessels, numerous herds of cattle, and countless numbers of wild animals, were totally consumed. Property to the extent of a quarter of a million was destroyed: £40,000 were sent from Europe for the relief of the sufferers. The government is modelled after that of England. There is a lieutenant-governor to represent the Crown; a Legislative Council, or upper house, of 21 members, appointed for life, to represent the House of Lords; and Ohe House of Assembly, or lower house, of 41 members, to represent the House of Commons. These are elected by the people for four years, when a new election takes place. The governor has an executive council of nine members, whose functions are similar to those of the Ministry at home. They hold office only while they possess the confidence of the people, expressed through their representatives in the EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS. 333 Assembly. Theyretire when in the minority on any important question, as do the MinistryinEngland. All bills passed in the two houses must receive the_ assent of the lieutenant-governor before they become law, and they are then subject to the veto of her Majesty in Council. The greater number of British provinces are now governed on the same principle. The government of the province devotes £12,000 annually to educational purposes: a large sum in proportion to the population. The chief educational establishment is King's College, Fredericton, founded in 1823, for " the education of youth in the principles of the Christian religion, and their instruction in the various branches of literature and science." In each county there is a grammar school, at which instruction is given in the classics and the usual branches of English education, and whence the pupils may proceed at once to King's College. The Baptist College at Fredericton was founded in 1836. The course of instruction comprises the classics, English education, and mathematics. The Wesleyan Methodists have an academy at Mount Allison. There are several free or common schools in almost every parish except the most thinly populated. In addition to these, the Eoman Catholics have four schools under their own control. Altogether the schools in the province number 800, with 30,000 to 35,000 scholars. The fertility of the soil is remarkable, and considerably greater than that of the State of New York. The average produce per acre of wheat is 19 bushels; barley, 28; oats, 34; rye, 20£; buckwheat, 33f; Indian corn, 41f; potatoes, 226; turnips, 460; hay, If tons. In each county there is an agricultural 334 BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. society, and a provincial board of agriculture has lately been established for the purpose of watching over the interests of the farmers generally. A large proportion of the population of New Brunswick, who began fife with little or nothing but strong hands and stout hearts, are now in good circumstances, and many actually rich. The farmer can work out of doors as many days as in England, though not for so long a period. The frosts penetrate the ground and prepare it for the plough. In consequence of this, root-crops thrive exceedingly well A large number of cattle and sheep are kept, and wool-combing affords a considerable amount of employment. Of the seasons it may be said that in January there is the usual thaw, in February the deepest snow, which in March begins to melt, and disappears in April, when spring sowing commences. Seed-time continues from the end of April till the end of May. Apple- trees are in full blossom in June, and in July strawberries are ripe, and haymaking begins. Wild raspberries and other fruits are eatable in August. Wheat, oats, and other cereals, are ready for cutting in September, and should be housed by October. The autumn is the most delightful season, and lasts for a considerable time. Heavy rains generally fall in November, but the weather is pleasant when dry. Towards the end of the month ice forms, and the rivers close up ; though the winter does not fairly set in till December, and the cold then is not so severe as in Lower Canada. The forests of New Brunswick are extensive and valuable. The timber when cut can be carried by TIMBER. 335 Water from every district to the sea. This is another of the numberless instances in which we see how kindly our beneficent Maker has prepared the earth to be the happy abode of his creatures. If these fine forests grew in the centre of vast plains, where no streams run, and where they have no communication with the ocean, they would scarcely be available for the use of man except to a limited extent. Here the massive trunks can be floated down the rivers for exportation, while the smaller trees, branches, and brushwood serve for fences, or, when burnt, assist in fertilizing the ground. The finest tree in the province is the white pine, well known in England as American pine. When freshly exposed the wood is perfectly white; it is soft, light, free from knots, easily wrought, durable, and not liable to split when exposed to the sun. It furnishes timber of large dimensions and boards of great width. It is employed in larger quantities, and for more varied uses, than any other tree in America. The black spruce constitutes a third part of the forests of the province, and attains 80 feet in height. Its properties are strength, lightness, and elasticity, and it furnishes fine yards and topmasts, while it is cut extensively into boards known as spruce deals. There are between 700 and 800 steam or water saw-mills employed in cutting them. The American larch is the next tree in order of value. It is known also as the tamarack, and by its Indian name hackmatack and is also erroneously called the cypress and juniper. The trunk is straight, often 80 feet high, and upwards of two feet in diameter. It is very durable, and especially adapted for shipbuilding. 336 BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. 1 The clipper ships of New Brunswick are wholly built of it. Of birch there are four species, all tall trees. The black is much used for shipbuilding, and is almost indestructible under water. Both the black and yellow furnish timber of large size. The bark is used by the Indians for making canoes and wigwams, and by the settlers for roofing-in their cottages and shanties.' The maple is a lofty and beautiful tree; the wood is known as the curled maple and the bird's-eye maple. It makes excellent fuel; but the most valuable quality of one species, the sugar maple, is the large amount of sugar which is manufactured from its sap. It is obtained by boring holes in the tree early in March, when, although the cold is still intense, and the ground covered with snow, the sap is already rising, and flows freely out into troughs placed to receive it. From the troughs it is poured into cauldrons over a brisk fire, the scum being taken off as it rises, and when reduced to a syrup it is left to cool. After a second boiling it is strained, and the syrup becoming thicker, it is poured into moulds, and is fit for use. In one year upwards of 350,000 lbs. of maple sugar were made in New Brunswick. One tree will produce from 4 lbs. to 6 lbs. of sugar. " Maple honey " is made late in the year, when the sap, possessing less saccharine matter, is incapable of crystallization. It is, therefore, consumed in a liquid form, and is considered far superior to West Indian molasses. The fisheries of New Brunswick are particularly valuable. At the mouth of the Biver St. John alone not less than 40,000 salmon, 12,000 to 16,000 barrels of alewives, and 1,000 barrels of shad, are annually MINERAL RESOURCES. 337 caught. Some are salted and exported, others are eaten fresh. The annual value to the province of these fisheries is £50,000, besides the quantities consumed in the province. The mineral resources of the province are considerable. Only of late years has it been discovered that extensive coal fields exist in Albert County, from which the exports are already to the value of from £30,000 to £40,000 annually. Lon ore abounds near Woodstock and in other places. Gypsum, copper, and lead are found, as is gold, in several places. Limestones, sandstones, grindstones, granite, marble, flagstones, roofing-slates, potter's-clay and fire-clay, abound. Pure crystals, agates, jasper, amethysts, and garnets are found. Game and wild animals are the same as those of Canada. Most English fruits and vegetables come to perfection in New Brunswick. Indeed, there are few products of British soil which may not be cultivated there with advantage. The natives have greatly decreased. At present they number scarcely 1,000, including two distinct tribes—the Micmacs, or Salt-water Indians, as they are called, from inhabiting the coasts; and the Mificetes, or Wood Indians, who inhabit the forests and the borders of the lakes and streams. They are both partly civilized, and live on friendly terms with the whites, by whom the Mificetes are often employed on shooting and fishing excursions as guides. Several Micmac families are engaged steadily in agricultural pursuits and in keeping cattle. Land in the province can be bought on terms very favourable to the purchaser. He may obtain it at z mmmmmmmmmmmi^^ 338 BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. the auction sales, which take place in each county on the first Tuesday in every month, at the upset price of 3s. currency (that is, 2s. 5d. sterling) per acre, with an addition of 2^d. per acre to pay for the cost of the survey. A discount of 20 per cent, is allowed when the money is paid down at the sale, thus enabling those paying cash to become the possessors of 100 acres at £10 6s. sterling. Bersons of limited capital may obtain land by paying one- quarter down, and the remainder by three annual instalments. All British subjects above eighteen, who wish to become settlers, may claim 100 acres of Crown land wherever they choose, without competition, on paying 2s. sterling per acre; or, they may work out the worth of the money at an estimated rate by labouring on the public works, and will be allowed five years to complete the payment. "Six or more persons may appoint an agent in the province to select land for them for actual settlement, who will be allowed to select 100 acres for each person so uniting, which will be reserved for them for a year, thus giving them time to make all necessary arrangements to go out and take possession. These regulations for obtaining land are found to work admirably, and afford every facility to emigrants. CHAPTEE XVIII. prince Edward's island. Favourable situation of Prince Edward's Island—General aspect—Division into counties—History of the colony—Schemes for its colonization- Disposed of by lottery—Government—Fisheries—Climate. Prince Edward's Island was formerly called St. John's. It received its present name in honour of the Duke of Kent, who was for ten years commander- in-chief of British North America. It is looked upon as the garden of the North American colonies. It lies snugly ensconced in a deep bay on the north coast of Nova Scotia, with Cape Breton circling round on the east, its highlands sheltering it from the storms and mists of the Atlantic. It is separated from Nova Scotia by Northumberland Strait, which is about nine miles wide, while from Cape Breton it is 27 miles distant. Its length is 140 miles, and its breadth from 15 to 34 miles, with an area equal to 2,134 square miles. Its physical aspect is most attractive, presenting chiefly gentle undulations, covered with well-cultivated farms and homesteads, and rich forests. When sailing along the north shore, the eye is attracted by neat villages and farms, picturesque headlands sfretching out into the sea, or coves and bays running i ii .[rt 1L1 340 BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. inland; and here and there rich green openings through the forests, with shining lakes in the distance. The whole island is so deeply indented with bays and inlets, that there is scarcely any part of the country more than seven or eight miles from the sea, and thus every village has good water communication. There are several good harbours: the most secure is that on theseuthern side, on which Charlotte Town, the capital, is built, and on the northern side is Bichmond Bay, from which there is safe inland water communication along Cavendish Channel. West of it is Holland Harbour. The lands on the shores of Bichmond Bay are fertile and well cultivated. Seven townships abut on the bay, and there are in it several small but beautiful and fertile islands. The island is divided into three counties—Prince's, Queen's, and King's counties—which together contain fourteen parishes. Charlotte Town, the capital, stands on the south-east side of the island, on the shore of Hillsborough Bay, at the point where the three rivers, Hillsborough, York, and Elliott, fall into it. The ground on which it is built rises gradually to a moderate height above the sea. By means of the three rivers sweeping round it, its water communication with the interior is extensive; while large ships may unload close inshore, and vessels of 200 tons burden can go fourteen miles higher up. The town is well laid out in broad, regnlar streets, running: at right angles with each other, and having several, open spaces for squares; while the private dwellings, picturesque and well planned gardens, and public bufidings, give it a handsome and attractive appear-. ance. The views the higher parts of the HISTORY OF THE ISLAND. 341 town, looking across Northumberland Straits to the distant mountains of Nova Scotia, or around on the bay, the estuaries, and rivers, their shores lined with homesteads, grassy glades, partly cleared nooks, green meadows, and forests of variously tinted trees, are picturesque and attractive in the extreme. The history of the island may be briefly narrated. Though seen by Cabot, no attention was paid to it by the English; the French therefore took possession of it as part of New France. It was granted in 1663 to the Sieur Doublet, a captain in the French navy, to be held as a feudal tenure. The Sieur and his associates, although holding the island till the Treaty of Utrecht, in 1715, regardless of its agricultural capabilities, did little more than, employ it. as a fishing station. In- the incessant petty wars waged between the French and English colonists, the few French settlers in this district mainly occupied themselves in fitting out privateers to prey upon British commerce, and in concerting attacks upon the hostile colonies. In these inroads they had willing and eager allies in the Micmacs, an Indian tribe whose head-quarters were in the island. Numberless sanguinary conflicts took place, till, in 1758, it was taken possession of by the English under Lord Eollo. On ^a.e conquerors- exanfining the house of the French governor, there were found hung up in it numerous British scalps, which the Indians had taken. On the conclusion of peace in 1763, Brince Edward's Island was, with Cape Breton, annexed to Nova Scotia, and the greater number of French Acadians were shipped off either to France or to various French, possessions,, in consequence of the implacable 342 BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. feeling of hostility they exhibited towards their conquerors. It was a happy day for all parties when the French power was finally extinguished in North America, and the incessant petty wars came to an end. Had just and wise councils prevailed, and the American revolution been avoided, unexampled prosperity would have been the lot of all the Provinces and States of North America. Man's evil passions have, unhappily, continued to retard, and often to mar, the onward progress of those regions which God, in his boundless goodness, has made so fertile and so fair. Various schemes were devised for the colonization of this beautiful little island by the English. One of the most notable and most absurd was that devised bv the Earl of Egmont, then First Lord of the Admiralty. He suggested that it should be settled on a feudal plan (he being lord paramount), divided into baronies to be held under him; each baron to erect a castle, to maintain a certain number of men-at- arms, who, with their under tenants, were to perform suit and service as in days of yore. Although there might have been no difficulty in finding barons, and probably men-at-arms—if a raid were to fiave been allowed occasionally on neighbouring territories, they certainly could not have existed without the far more important class, the agriculturists, who were to have been their tenants, but who were not likely to have emigrated for the purpose of becoming serfs in America. When this scheme fell to the ground, the Board of Trade and Plantations, which then existed, divided the island into townships, and put them up in the iil._ vjSjSB GOVERNMENT. 343 form of a lottery, to be granted to the numerous applicants eager to obtain them. In this unwise manner the whole island was allotted. A large proportion of those who obtained grants never intended to fulfil their engagements by becoming colonists. This was a great injustice to those who did go out to settle, for in every direction numerous tracts were left without inhabitants. This was in 1768. During the American revolutionary war, two Eepubfiean cruisers attacked and plundered Charlotte Town, and carried off the governor and surveyor- general. They were, however, immediately released by Washington, with a stern rebuke to the officers who had acted so improperly. The island remained for many years but thinly populated, and a large portion of the land was escheated to the Crown from the non-payment by the proprietors of long arrears of quit-rents. In 1771 the island was erected into a separate province; in which condition it has ever since remained, gradually increasing in prosperity. The island enjoys a responsible and representative government. It is ruled by a lieutenant-governor, appointed by the Crown; an Executive Council, who form the cabinet, consisting of eight members; a Legislative Council of fifteen, and a House of Assembly of fifteen members. The whole population, scattered over the country, does not amount to 80,000. The imports in the year 1858 amounted to £186,229, and the exports to £153,071. The revenue in the same year was considerably under the expenditure. There are from ninety to a hundred schools of different descriptions, and a proportionate number of churches. 344 BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. Ten times the present population could find ample occupation in agricultural pursuits, independent of those to which they would give rise; and all accounts agree m testifying that no part of British North America is more fertile. Fish of every description, shell-fish, lobsters, and oysters, are very plentiful, and are caught at the mouths of all the rivers. Cod-fish, and herrings abound on the coast, and when the ice melts, the herrings rush into the harbours in vast shoals, and are easily caught in nets. The rivers likewise are well stocked with all varieties of fresh-water fish. It only needs capital and enterprise to develop the fisheries to add greatly to the wealth of the colony. The climate is unsurpassed by that of any of the North American colonies. The. cold in winter is moderate, and scarcely more severe than that of England. The heat of summer is tempered by the sea-breezes, which . sweep refreshingly over the island. Montgomery Martin says of it, " The air is dry and tinent are unknown, and puny British emigrants, soon after their arrival, attain robust health and unwonted strength. No person ever knew an intermittent fever produced in the island; pulmonary consumption is rarely met with; the greater proportion of the colonists five to old age—90 to 100— and then die by a gradual decay of nature." After making allowance for some exaggeration in this glowing description, enough remains to show that Prince Edward's Island, though one of the smallest, is not the least attractive of British colonies. 1_ SBi CHAPTEE XIX. NEWFOUNDLAND AND LABRADOR. Extent and general features—Harbours—St. John's—Occupation of inhabitants—Staple commodities—History—Early settlements—Revenue— Aborigines—Cod fishery—Seal catching—Description of Labrador- Population—Government—Value of exports. Although Newfoundland is the nearest part of America to Great-Britain,* it is seldom visited and little known. It is an island, lying between 46° 40' and 51° 39' north latitude; and 52° 44' and 59° 31' west longitude, its southern coast forming the northeast shore of the entrance of the Gulf of St. Lawrence. It is about 400 miles in length, with an average breadth of 130, though in some parts it is 300 miles across. It is 1,000 miles in circumference, and its estimated area is 36,000 square miles. It is separated from the coast of Labrador by the Straits of Belleisle, which in their narrowest part are about 12 miles wide. In shape Newfoundland is nearly triangular. Of the interior many parts are very little known. It consists of ranges of fiills of no great elevation, of swamps, and of numerous lakes, some of which are of considerable size. The soil is generally rocky and * The distance from St. John's, the capital, to Valentia, on the west coast of Ireland, is 1,656 miles. iliii 346 BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. barren, though along the banks of the rivers, and in some districts in the south-east, there are tracts of alluvial soil from which crops of oats and barley of fair quality are produced. The native grasses are nutritious, and cattle can be reared with care in sufficient numbers to supply the inhabitants with meat. In the gardens round Olq settlements potatoes and other vegetables grow, but not in profusion. Trees also grow near the rivers and in a few other fertile spots, but do not attain any great size. But what the land denies, the sea amply supplies—food for the support of the inhabitants, and the means of obtaining wealth for those who are industrious. The shores of the island on every side are deeply indented, and rugged in the extreme. Throughout the whole circumference there are numberless harbours, deep bays with pebbly beaches, coves and creeks, inlets and rivers, with lofty headlands and cliffs, and woods often reaching down to the water's edge. The chief harbours are the bays of Conception, Bonavista, Trinity, Notre Dame, Hare, and White, on the east and north coasts; St. George, on the west; and Fortune, Placentia, and St. Mary's, on the south. On the south-east is a large peninsula, known as Avalon: the isthmus which unites it to Hxe mainland separates Trinity from Placentia Bay on the south. Conception and St. Mary's Bays are in this peninsula, as is Trepassey Bay on the south, and St. John's Harbour on the east. The peninsula of Avalon is the best cultivated part of the island, and contains by far the larger number of settlements. At the extreme south-east portion of the peninsula -*»a GENERAL FEATURES. 347 is Cape Eace, the land generally made by ships on entering the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and, unhappily, the scene of many disastrous shipwrecks. A vast sand-bank surrounds Newfoundland, about 600 miles long and 300 miles broad. The English fish round the greater part of the north and south, and the entire east coast; but the French claim the right of fishing and curing their fish on the west coast; and the Americans on the opposite coast of Labrador. The scenery on some parts of the coast is wild and awe-mspmng, rn others- more gentle and snfifin^ The district of Conception is the most populous and richest part of the province, and the inhabitants are said to be the most enterprising and industrious. It probably contains a population of about 30,000. Harbour Grace, the principal town, is of good size, and well built, and the harbour is very secure. To the north of Conception Bay is a large insulated rock, called Baccalao, on which an infinite number of wild fowl congregate to lay their eggs. Their loud screams as they circle round and round in the air above their nests in the rock serve to warn mariners of their danger. Numerous edicts have been promulgated by different governors to prevent their destruction. St. John's Harbour is a place of great natural strength and carefully fortified; the only entrance to it, called the Narrows, being between two mountains, and allowing only one ship to pass at a time, while on the rocky heights on either side are strong batteries, threatening any enemy with destruction who should attempt to enter it. Above the town are other strong batteries. In this passage also lies a reef, dangerous 348 BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. i to ships going up. Opposite to it is another rock known as the Chain Bock, from the fact that a chain extends from it across the strait to prohibit the entrance of an enemy's ship. Altogether St. John's Harbour is one of the strongest in America. Newfoundland contains a population of not less than 103,000, the greater number of whom are engaged partly or entirely in pursuits connected directly with the fish trade. Even those employed in agriculture occupy themselves either in catching, carrying, or curing: the cod which come in such countless num.- bers around these shores. A small number of persons are engaged in ship-building, the larger timber being supplied from New Brunswick. The women employ themselves in knitting every variety of warm woollen clothing, socks, stockings, vests, and caps. Where the produce of the land is so limited it cannot be expected that the exports should be very varied; indeed, the products of the sea form the sole staples of commerce. They consist of dried and cured cod and other fish, sounds, tongues, fish oils, and seal-skins. Portugal, the Brazils, and parts of Spain, consume a very large proportion of the dried fish exported from this province. Notwithstanding the ungenial character of the climate for a large portion of the year, it has been proved, by experience, that those who devote their attention steadily to agriculture and the rearing of stock, find an ample reward for their labours. There are probably in the island about 2,000 horses, and from 15,000 to 20,000 horned cattle, about the same number of sheep, and twice that number of swine, with a considerable quantity of STAPLE COMMODITIES. 349 poultry. Potatoes are produced in large quantities, and, with the addition of fish and garden vegetables, afford an abundant supply of nutritious food to all who are contented with a sameness of fare. Some fruits come to perfection, such as currants, gooseberries, and strawberries; the latter grow wild in great quantities, as do raspberries. Cherries and damsons also are cultivated, and even apples and pears. A variety of beautiful flowers grow wild, but last a very short time. There are also several useful plants, among them the Labrador tea-plant, of which a wholesome infusion is made, and drunk as a common beverage. The trees are the black spruce and fir, the black birch, the juniper, and the witch hazel. Kelp is found round the coasts, but is now used chiefly for manure. The history of Newfoundland goes back to a period of comparatively remote antiquity. Tradition carries us back to times anterior to the conquest of England, when the sea kings of the north roamed the ocean in search of new lands, or the plunder which might be obtained on the shores of those already known. It is asserted that at that time Biorn, of Iceland, one of these sea kings, (as in courtesy they were called, though more properly pirates,) was driven by stress of weather into one of the harbours of Newfoundland, and that he founded a settlement on its shores. Others believe that the country received colonies from Norway, but that the people degenerated into utter barbarism, and became amalgamated with the Indians. At the time of its second discovery by Cabot, no traces of these people were found. The island was visited both by the Ik 350 BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. gallant Cortereal and by Jacques Cartier, by whom it was called Baccalao, the name given by the Indians to the cod-fish abounding on the coast. This name has been adopted by the Bortuguese as their designation for the fish in its dried state. It was on this coast that about the year 1583 the brave and good Sir Humphrey Gilbert, having obtained a large grant of land from Queen Elizabeth, attempted to found some settlements, and it was on his return home in bis small disabled vessel that he and his companions were swallowed up by the waves. Two years afterwards Sir Bernard Drake made another attempt to found a colony, and seized several Bortuguese ships laden with fish, oil, and furs ; but he returned without effecting his main object. The war with Spain prevented any expeditions in that direction for some time, but when British enterprise again revived, after the destruction of the Spanish Armada, several attempts were made to plant a colony; but though fishing was commenced with considerable success, no permanent settlement was formed till 1623, when Sir George Calvert, a Eoman Catholic gentleman, who afterwards became Lord Baltimore, went out with a considerable number of followers of his own persuasion. They established themselves at Ferry Low, and gradually extended themselves over the south-eastern peninsula, to which Lord Baltimore gave the name of Avalon, as Glastonbury in Somersetshire was anciently called, he supposing that his new colony was the first place in America where the Gospel was preached, as Glastonbury was believed to have been the first spot in England to which the EARLY. SETTLEMENTS. 351 "glad tidings of great joy" were brought. Lord Baltimore appointed his son governor of Avalon, which appears to have increased and flourished under his superintendence. It received considerable attention from the authorities at home—not always bestowed by the English Government in those days on their plantations. Another settlement was formed in 1654 by Sir David Kirk, but at the same period it appears that the French had taken possession of a spot on the coast, called Blacentia. As might have been expected, they soon quarrelled with the English; and their encroachment was one of the causes of the war which broke out between the two nations soon after the accession of William,in. Several fiostile expeditions were undertaken by both parties with varied success, till peace was established by the treaty of Eyswick. On war again breaking out several attempts were made by the French to make themselves masters of the whole island; and at length, in 1708, a strong force from Blacentia having captured and burnt St. John's, they were entirely successful. The island remained in their hands till, by the treaty of Utrecht, it and all adjacent islands were declared to belong to England, the French retaining certain rights of fishery and leave to cure their fish on shore. The Americans in the same way have the right of fishing on the Labrador coast, of which they largely avail themselves. Newfoundland has ever since that period been entirely an English colony, and the fact that it has been considered a very important one is proved by the eminent men, chiefly naval officers, who have been sent out since 1729 to govern it. From 1776 I oOli BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. to 1818 no less than fifteen admirals governed the province in succession, all well known to fame. Among them were Admirals Waldegrave, Gambier, Sir Erasmus Gower, Holloway, Sir J. Duckworth, and Sir J. Keats. The last governors have been Sir J. Gaspar Le Marchant, Ker Bailfie Hamilton, C. H. Darling, and Sir Alexander Bannerman. In 1858 the revenue amounted to £141,128, and the expenditure to £173,965, the imports to £1,172,862, and exports to £1,318,836. The population in 1857 consisted of 64,268 males, and 58,370 females; total, 122,638. Since then it has probably considerably increased, though the male population, from its maritime character, is very fluctuating. Newfoundland was the last of the British North American provinces which obtained a responsible government. It was fully established in 1855. The government is administered by a lieutenant-governor, aided by a responsible Executive Council of eight members, a Legislative Council of twelve members, and a House of Assembly of thirty members. Education is not neglected in the province, and in every town, village, and hamlet will be found a day school, a Sunday school, and a school for adults; the upper classes usually send their children to be educated in England. The aboriginal inhabitants who formerly occupied the island are thought to have been a branch of the Esquimaux. They were tall of stature, fierce and brave, and had for centuries carried on a war to the death with the Micmac Indians, who invaded their shores from Nova Scotia. They in return crossed the straits to retaliate on their foes, and were frequently ABORIGINES. 353 successful, till they excited the enmity of the white men who had settled on their coasts. The tale of their fate has been often told. It is that of unnumbered tribes of the Eed children of the forest. They had to feel the effects of the death-dealing firearms of Europeans, till, dismayed and broken, they fled to their fastnesses amid the rocks and forests of the interior. Here for years they remained concealed, every now and then making a sudden descent on the settlements, burning the houses, and murdering the inhabitants; the colonists, in return, pursuing them, hunting them down like wild beasts, and remorselessly slaughtering them whenever taken. At length convinced, by the severe lessons they had received, of the utter hopelessness of contending successfully with the Europeans, the natives no longer ventured to approach the settlements. Occasionally a wild figure, seen amid the fastnesses of the interior —but who fled from the presence of the white intru-> der—and signs of recent camp fires, showed that small remnants of the native races still fingered in the land which once they called their own. Let Warburton tell the story of the last appearance of the unhappy aborigines. "The winter of 1830 was unusually severe in this country, and prolonged beyond those of former years. Towards its close, a settler was hewing down trees at some distance from one of the remote villages, when two gaunt figures crept out from the neighbouring bush; with sad cries and imploring gestures they tried to express their prayer for help. The white man, terrified by their •uncouth and haggard looks, seized his gun, which lay at hand, and shot the foremost; the other tossed his AA 354 BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. lean arms wildly into the air; the woods rang with his despairing shrieks as he rushed away. Since, then none of the fallen race have been seen. The emaciated frame of the dead man showed how dire had been their necessity. There is no doubt that the last of the Eed men perished in that bitter winter." A description of Newfoundland would be very imperfect without an account of its fisheries. They are to the province what timber and corn are to Canada; coal, to Nova Scotia and Vancouver; gold, to British Columbia. The cod fishery is of the chief importance. It is pursued in two distinct ways; one by large vessels on the outer banks at a distance from the land, the other by a vast number of boats of various sizes on the inner banks, and often close inshore. The larger vessels, which are often round- stemmed and strongly built, to encounter the ice, cure the fish on board and bring it to the markets in the south. The fish are larger than those caught inshore, and are sold in Spain, Portugal, and the Brazils. At one time there were nearly 700 British vessels employed in the outer bank fishery alone; but the fishing fleet sailing under British colours has greatly diminished, their place being supplied by Americans and French, who now, it is asserted, well-nigh monopolize it. The fish are caught by fines with hooks and bait, and it is exciting work hauling up the huge fish almost as rapidly as the lines can be lowered. The fishing season commences early in April, and ends in October. The boats engaged in the inshore fishing are known by various designations. Shallops, carrying seven or eight men, and measuring 40 to 60 COD FISHERY. 355 tons, fish at a considerable distance from the land; they are, however, now little used. The western boats and jacks, or jackasses, are next in size; they go to some distance from the shore, salt their fish aboard, and only return to port when full. The skiffs carry four hands or more, and go to a distance of twenty or thirty miles from the ports to which they belong. The punts are the smallest, and with the skiffs form what is known as the "Mosquito Fleet." They leave the shore each day at early dawn, and return with their scaly prey in the evening, unless from the abundance of cod they are full before that time. On the shore numerous covered stages, fitted up with benches and tables, are erected, so that the boats can at all times land and dry their cargoes. Here the operation of curing commences. The fish being pitched before one of the workmen, called by the pleasant name of cut-throat, he rips it open, and almost cuts off its head, passing it on to the header, who completely tears off the head and takes out the entrails, selecting the fiver and sound. The head and entrails are passed down a slide into a boat below the stage, and carried off to serve as manure; the sound is salted; and the fiver is thrown into a cask, exposed to the sun, by which means the oil is extracted. The splitter next obtains possession of •the fish, rapidly cuts out the backbone and opens out the fish. It is wheeled off to the Salter, who piles one fish on another in layers, with a proper amount of salt between each. They are kept piled up in these layers for some days, and are then wheeled in barrows to the washer, who, standing in a trough at the end of the stage, with a mop washes off the slime 356 BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. and superfluous salt. Again they are returned to the shore and piled up to drain, and form what the fishermen call a "water-horse." After draining for a day or two they are spread out to dry in the sun on the " fish flakes." Here they are frequently turned, and at night are piled up in small heaps called faggots, the backs of the upper fish serving as thatch. These being allowed to sweat for a few days, after undergoing a little more drying in the sun, are now quite ready for use, and are stored up in warehouses for exportation. They are distinguished as '' Merchantable,'' "Madeira," and "West India" fish. The first are perfect fish, cured without any defect. Madeira are those having some slight blemish on the outside, and the West Indian are those which are blemished, or have cracked and broken fins. Ireland and the West of England consume the largest quantity of salted cod in the British Isles. That there must be a vast reproduction of cod is evident, for, notwithstanding the enormous quantities caught, the supply in no degree appears to diminish. This will not be surprising when the immense amount of roe which is found in a single cod is known, and which a celebrated naturalist found to number 9,344,000; so that a few dozen fish would soon stock the ocean. A large number of the inhabitants of Newfoundland are engaged in the far more perilous though lucrative employment of seal-catching. The vessels employed are strongly-built schooners, from sixty to a hundred and sixty tons measurement, the larger carrying thirteen or fourteen hands, and are provided with poles to fend off the ice, saws to out their way SEAL CATCHING. 357 out of it, and fire-arms to kill the seals. Before the ice has melted so as to set them free from their respective harbours they have to cut their way out to sea. They then ply to windward of the vast sheets of ice which surround the island, till they sight a field where the seals congregate, called by them a seal meadow. While two or three hands remain on board to work the schooner, the rest put off in the boats, armed with clubs and fire-arms. Landing on the ice, they rush in among the seals, generally using their clubs, and, striking right and left, despatch the animals with a blow on the forehead. Sometimes, however, the creatures, if they have young with them, will turn on the hunters and bravely fight for their offspring. Fire-arms are used if they take to flight or are in the water, where they are easily shot, but frequently sink if not immediately grappled. The valuable part of the^ seal is the fat or blubber and the skin. This is taken off, and the carcass left on the ice. The sealers experience the greatest of the many dangers to which they are exposed when storms spring up and surprise them on the icy ocean, surrounded by icebergs and other floating masses of ice, whence, amidst the darkness of night or the dense fogs which prevail in those latitudes, it requires all the courage, knowledge, and seamanship they possess to extricate themselves. Sometimes a gale springs up while the hunters are on the ice, and their vessels are driven off to a distance, or fogs come on and they can with difficulty find them. It is not easy to imagine the sufferings which they may have to endure under these circumstances. 358 BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. So excellent is the training which these fisheries afford that the seamen brought up in them are looked upon as among the very best who form the royal navy of England. They have, therefore, always been looked upon as important on that account, besides directly increasing the wealth of the mother oountry. Between 400,000 and 500,000 seals are annually caught by the Newfoundland sealers alone, and were it not for the encroachments of the French and Americans, more English vessels would be employed and a far greater number caught. Annexed to the colony of Newfoundland is Labrador, a region which, though sterile and barren, is not altogether without importance, and which claims a brief notice here. It consists of a large peninsula nearly triangular in shape, extending from latitude 50° to 63°, and from longitude 56° to 79°. It was surveyed and reported upon by Captain Loch, who describes it in the following terms:—"This extensive coast, commencing from the estuary of the St. Lawrence, and stretchine: far north to the regions of perpetual snow, is one of the most barren and desolate in the world; and it seems that nature has removed the means of supporting human fife from its surface to the waters which surround it, the abundant productions of which offer the inducement and reward the industry and perseverance of the thousands of adventurers who resort to it from both Europe and -America. The portion forming the northern boundary of the Straits of Belleisle is not so well marked or grand in feature as when it recedes from the island of Newfoundland, either to the north or south. From the sea, the country has a green and alluvial appearance, and it is not until close to it that this is lost, and nothing is seen but bare granite rocks, partially covered with moss and stunted shrubs. Juniper, birch, and poplar trees grow in the valleys, where the soil is sandy clay, the temperature much higher, and the fogs less frequent than upon the coast. Here deer, bears, foxes, martens, otters, beavers, and a variety of wild fowl, take up their abode, until driven to the coast by the snow-drifts of approaching winter. The ice does not usually leave the bays free for vessels to enter before June, and it begins to form again in the shallow bays and pools in the beginning of September." Its chief value is as a fishing station, for which it is admirably adapted. Its coast affords numerous harbours, safe, large, and convenient. Its waters swarm with fish, and seals are very numerous. During the season from 260 to 300 schooners sail from Newfoundland for the Labrador fishery. These employ in catching, curing, and packing the fish, not fewer than 20,000 persons. Between 100 and 200 vessels from Nova Scotia and New Brunswick likewise fish off the coast during the season. The importance of Labrador as a fishing station seems to be rapidly increasing. The British vessels driven from the Banks of Newfoundland by their French and American rivals, find ample occupation on the coasts of Labrador. The trade has in consequence increased sixfold since 1815, when, at the close of the war, the Newfoundland fishery was opened to the French. Though the country has a superficial area equal to nearly one-third of Europe, the population does not 360 BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. exceed 5,000. Of these a small but influential part are the agents of British merchants in charge of the establishments there. A larger proportion consists of the fishermen, sealers, and others engaged in the staple trade of the district. The Esquimaux, with missionaries who labour among them with admirable zeal and self-denial, make up the remainder. Amongst the numerous missions, to the heathen, which are the glory of Christendom, it may be doubted whether there is one which is conducted in a more devoted and Christ-like spirit than that of the Moravians amongst the heathen who occupy these inclement shores. The government is administered by a court held during the summer, under the authority of the lieutenant-governor of Newfoundland. No exact statistics can be given of the trade of Labrador. The annual value of exports has been approximately estimated at from £557,000 to £800,000. They consist of cod, herring, salmon, oil, skins, furs, and feathers. It is thus seen how one of the least promising and least attractive of British colonies is among the most valuable. Indeed, in whatever direction we turn we see some of the numberless resources which the bounteous hand of our loving Creator has spread over the surface of the globe for the use and advantage of his creatures. He has, moreover, kindly implanted in the bosom of man that peculiar feeling which makes the inhabitants of the sea- bound sand-bank, the rugged mountain, the parched desert, the region of perpetual ice and snow, the tangled forest, or the treeless plain, all equally .cling CONCLUSION. with affection to the land of their birth. The inhabitant of these regions of perpetual snow loves his home with an affection no less intense than does the native of the sunny south. Habit makes him insensible to the hardships he has to endure, and endears to him a mode of existence which to others would be intolerable. In closing this brief notice of British North America, it is impossible not to be impressed by the vastness and grandeur of the colonial empire of which it forms but a part. How immense the responsibility, how great the dignity, thus conferred upon Britain! It is no vain boast that ours is an empire upon which the sun never sets. In the words of an eminent writer, " England is not only the heart of a mighty empire, whose branches and roots extend to the uttermost parts of the earth, she is also the ' nursing mother' of nations yet in their infancy, and on her righteous fulfilment of this responsible duty depends alike their future welfare and her ■ own. J£ true to her trust, she may, under Divine Providence, be the instrument of estabfishing peace, extending civilization, and (fisseminating the inestimable blessings of Christianity throughout the world." INDEX. Aborigines, 43 et seq. Accommodation, the, first steamboat on St. Lawrence, 107. Algonquins, 43. Alleghany Mountains, 24. American Board of Missions, 56. American continent discovered, 9 et seq. Annapolis, 327. " Apostle of the Indians," 53. Ardoise Hill, 313. Assinniboia, 159. Assinniboine River, 156 et seq. Asteagalus, 191. Avalon, 347. Balboa, Vasco Nunez de, discovers the Pacific, 20. Bear story, 241. Belleisle, Straits of, 11. Belvidere copper mine, 135. Black Biver copper mine, 135. BlaMston, Captain, quoted, 188. Blodget quoted, 170 et seq. Blue Mountains, 26. Boat Encampment, 277. - Bonavista Bay, 347. Brainerd, David, account of his preaching, 55. Brantford, 118. Bras d'Or, 314. Britannia Tubular Bridge, 84. British Central North .America —Its boundaries and extent, 151 et seq.; peculiar features of, 154; lakes and rivers of, 154 et seq.; the Fertile Belt, 155 et seq.; Saskatchewan, Biver, 155; the Great Highway, 156 et seq.; Bed Biver, 158; Selkirk settlement, 159 et seq.; history and present state of, 192 et seq.; Christian Indians, 161; notes by Professor Hind, 164; its water communications, 166 et seq.; climate, 169 et seq.; fertility, 173 et seq.; Fort Pelly, 175; Fort Edmonton, 175 ; coal , fields, 178 et seq.; wild animals, 180; agricultural resources, 181 et seq.; settlement of, by Lord Selkirk, 192 et seq.; missionary labours and results, 195 et seq.; its educational institutions, 198 et seq.; Indian letter, 205; narrative of Bishop of Eupert's Land, 211 et seq.; modes of travelling in, 219 et seq. INDEX. British Columbia—History of, 274; extent of, 275; discovery of gold in, 275; description of its scenery, 276; gold regions of, 278 (see map); climate and fertility of, 280; towns, 281 et seq.; population of, 285 et seq.; necessity of missions to, 285 et seq.;. description of the country by Governor Douglas, 288 et seq.; fisheries of, 291 ; progress of the colony, 294. British North America—Extent of, 29; division into provinces, 30 ; its climate, 31; agricultural and mineral resources, 37; its natural history and fisheries, 40; aboriginal inhabitants, 43. Brockville, 118. Buffalo—Uses of the, 259; hunting the, 261 et seq.; reckless slaughter of, 264 et seq. ; Indian pound, 265 et seq.; preserving the meat of, 269; "making a calf," 270; Indian encounter with, 271. Bytown, 108. Cabot, John, 9. Cabot, Sebastian, 11. California, discovery of, 20. Canada—Discovery of, by Car- tier, 13; his description of the country and inhabitants, 13; Indian name Kanata, 15; Bo- berval appointed viceroy, 16; conquered from the French, 23; early missions to, 61 et seq.; its extent and boundaries, 58 ; its mountains, 59; lakes, 64; rivers, 74; public works of, 81; Welland Canal, 82; Grand Trunk Eailway, 85; Great "Western Eailway, 87; origin of fur trade, 89 ; settlement of Quebec, 90; Quebec surrendered to the English and re-occupied by the French, 91; French explorations, 92; English settlements on Hudson's Bay, 95; attack on Quebec by Sir W. Phipps, 96 ; " Company of a Hundred Partners," 97; capture of Quebec by General Wolfe, 100; becomes a British province, 104; increasing prosperity, 105 et seq.; chief towns of, 111 et seq.; population of 113 et seq.; educational system, 118 et seq.; religious statistics, 121 et seq.; government of, 125 et seq.; taxation of, 127; productions and manufactures of, 127 et seq.; agricultural statistics, 129 et seq.; Crown lands, 132; its mineral resources, 135; fisheries, 136; wild animals, 138; birds, 140; its climate, 140; amusements in, 143; appearance of villages, 146; village ovens, 146; expense of Bving in, 148. Canadian explorers, 28. Canoe Eiver, 277. Canso, Strait of, 314. Cape Breton—Its position and physical features, 314; the Great Bras d'Or, 314; mountains of, 315; its extent, 315; mineral resources of, 316; INDEX. 365 climate and seasons, 316; history of, 321; successive occupation of, by English and French, 321; fortifications of Louisburg, 321 ; Louisburg finally captured and dismantled by the English, 323; united to Nova Scotia, 324; Sydney, capital of, 326. Caroline, the, destruction of, 108. Cartier, Jacques, his description of the Indians, 13. Chaleur, Bay of, 13. Champlain, Samuel de—Founds settlement of Quebec, 90; alliance with the Indians, 90; discovery of Lake Champlain, 90; conflict with the Indians, 91; second visit to the colony, 91; journey to England, 91. Charlesbourg, 16. Charlotte Town, 340. Chaudiere Falls, 76. Chippeways, 44. Christian Indians, 51 et seq., 161, 199 et seq. Church of England missions, 55. Cochrane, .Archdeacon, quoted, 203 et seq. Cockburn's Island, 67. Columbia Biver, 277. " Company of a Hundred Partners," 97. Conception Bay, 347. Conchachine, Lake of, 72. Cook, Captain James, his discoveries, 21. " Coronation of winter," 34. Cortereal, Gaspar, 11. Cortereal, Miguel, 12. Cortereal, Vasco, 12. Cypree's Mountains, 188. Dakotahs, 44. Denonville, Marquis de, atrocity of the, 96. Detroit Eiver, 69. Dog Lake and Eiver, 73. Douglas, Governor, quoted, 283, 288 et seq. Douglas, town, 284. Drake, Sir Francis, 22. Drummond's Island, 67. Duck Mountains, 163. "Edinburgh Eeview" quoted, 291 et seq. Edward vi., 16. Eliot, Hugh, 11. Elizabeth, Queen, 17. Elliott, Eiver, 340. English Eiver, 215. English settlements in America in the seventeenth century, 23. Erie, lake and canal, 69. Esquimault Harbour, 301 et seq. Esquimaux, 43. Fertile Belt, 155 et seq. Florida, 13. Fort Edmonton, 175. Fort Garry, 159. Fort Hope, 283. Fort Pelly, 175. Fortune Bay, 347. Francis i., 12. Fraser Eiver, 276. Fredericton, 330. French missions to Indians, 51. French Eiver, 72. INDEX. Frobisher, Sir Martin, 17. Fuca, Juan de, Straits of, 21, 300. Fur-bearing animals, 238 et seq. Fur trade, 89, 238 et seq. Galt, 118. George, Indian, founds settlement of Little Current, 68. George, Lake, 314. Georgia, Gulf of, 22. Georgian Bay, 67. Gilbert, Sir Humphrey, fate of, 17. Goat Island, 70. Goderich, 118. Gold fields of British Columbia, 277 (see map). Golfo Quadrado, 11. Gomez, 12. Grand Lake, 331. Grand Manitoulin Island, 67. Grand Eapids, settlement, 197 et seq. Grand Eiver, 69. Great Highway, the, 156 et seq.; plans for its construction, 230 et seq. Great Pacific Eailroad, 229. Green Mountains, 26. Guelph, 118. Halifax, 325. Hamilton, situation of, 117; population of, 117. Hare Bay, 347. Haskett Hill, copper mine, 135. Hector, Dr., quoted, 175, 178. Hedysarum, 191. Henry, Alexander, quoted, 241 et seq. Henry vii. grants patent of discovery to Cabot, 10. Hillsborough Bay and Biver, 3-10. Hind, Professor, quoted, 164,176 et seq., 181 et seq., 196, 265 et seq. Hochelaga, 15. Holland Harbour, 340. Hudson's Bay Company — Origin and incorporation of, 244; competition with the French, 245; large profits of, 246 ; conflict with the Northwest Company, 247 et seq.; enterprise of Lord Selkirk, 250 et seq.; death of Governor Semple, 252; Government investigation of outrages, 253; coalition of, with North-west Company, 254; government of, 255; trading operations of, 256 et seq. Huron, Lake, 67. Icy Cape, 22. Indian letter, 205 et seq. Indian summer, 33. Indians—Captain Cook's description of, 13; causes of diminution of, 46; their intellectual capacity, 49; religion, 49; cruelty, 49; dwellings, etc., 50; missions to, 61 et seq.; Champlain's alliance with, 90 et seq.; allies of the French, 96; population in Canada, 123; Christian settlements of, 51, 161,199 et seq.; report of Archdeacon Cochrane, 203 et seq.; Indian INDEX. 367 letter, 205; narrative of the Bishop of Eupert's Land, 211 et seq.; reverence for bears, 241; buffalo hunters, 265 et seq.; in British Columbia, 285; fate of, in Newfoundland, 354. Iroquois, 44. Isle Eoyale, 66. Isle St. Ignace, 66. Lilington mission station, 214. Juan de Fuca, Straits of, 21, 300 ; harbour of, 300. Kagawong, Lake, 67. Kaministiquia Eiver, 28. Kingston, description of, 115; its importance as a military and naval depot, 115; population of, 116. Labrador—Discovery of, by Cabot, 10; boundaries of, 359 ; surveyed by Captain Loch, 369 ; important fishing station, 360 et seq. Lachine, village of, 94. La Cloche Mountains, 63. Lake of the Thousand Islands, 71. " La Npuvelle France," 13. La Salle, his voyage from Lake Erie to mouth of Mississippi, 92; murder of, 93. Lathyrus, 191. "Leisure Hour" quoted, 222 et seq. Little Current Harbour, 68. Liverpool, 327. London, description of, 117; its rapid growth, 117; population of, 117; its agricultural situation, 117. Longue Soutte Eapids, 75. Louisburg, 321 et seq. Lunenburg, 327. Lytton, 284. Magdalen Islands, the, 317. Manitobah, Lake, 154 et seq. Manitou Lake, 67. Mattawan, Eiver, 72. McClintock, Sir Leopold, 18. Mealy Mountains, 26. Michiflimakinac, Fort, capture of, by the Indians, 99. Michipicoten Island and Harbour, 66. Mindemoya, Lake, 68. Miramichi, Eiver, 331. Mire Bay, 316. Mississippi, Eiver, discovery of the, by a French priest, 92. Montcalm, Marquis de, defends Quebec, 100 ; death of, 104. Montgomery Martin quoted, 100 et seq., 109, 344. Montmorenci, Falls of, 62. Montreal, position of, 113; its population and educational institutions, 113. Moravian missions, 56, 361. Mount Elias, 25. Mountain, Dr., 196. Mountain ranges, 24. Muskoka, Lake, 72. New Albion, 21. New Brunswick—Its extent and boundaries, 328; counties and towns of, 329 et seq.; water 368 INDEX. communication of, 331; its. history, 332; government of, 332; educational establishments, 333; fertility of its soil, 333; timber forests of, 334, et seq.; manufacture of maple sugar, 336; its mineral resources, 337 ; Indian population of, 337. Newfoundland—Discovery of, 10; extent and general features of, 346 et seq.; harbours and bays, 347 ; population of, 349; its products, 349; early history of, 350; last of aborigines, 354; cod fishery, 355 et seq.; seal catching, 357 et seq. Nepigon settlement, 65 ; river and lake, 73. Niagara Biver and Falls, 70. Nine Mile Swamp, 184. Nipissing, Lake, 72. Nootka Sound, 21. North-west Company—Formation of the, 247; competition with Hudson's Bay Company, 247 et seq.; activity of its servants, 248; amalgamation with Hudson's Bay Company, 254. North-west passage, expedition of Cabot in search of a, 10. Notre Dame Bay, 347. Nova Scotia—Situation of, 312; its rivers and lakes, 313; mineral resources of, 314; Cape Breton, 314 et seq.; soil and climate, 316; Magdalen Islands, 317; Sable Island, 317; early settlement of Nova Scotia, 318 et seq.; conflicts with the French, 319 et seq.; principal towns of, 325 et seq.; climate of, 327. Okanagan, Lake, 277. Ontario, Lake, 71. Oskelanaio, Lake, 80. Otonabee, Biver, 73. Ottawa Biver, description of, .75; city, advantageous position of, 114; population of, 114. " Over the falls," 76. Pacific, the, discovery of, 20. Palliser, Captain, quoted, 172 et seq. Pemmican, 200; its preparation, 259. Perth, 118. Peticodiac, Eiver, 331. Peterborough, 118. Pictou, 326. Pie Island, 63. Porcupine Mountains, 163. Port Hope, 73, 118. Port Eoyal, 320. Prairie Indians, 45. Prince Edward's Island—Its situation and extent, 339; counties and parishes of, 340; its history, 341 et seq.; disposed of by lottery, 343; its government and educational institutions, 343; productions and climate of, 344. Quebec, situation of, 62; settlement and history of, 90 et seq.; attack on, by the English, INDEX. 369 repulsed, 96; capture of, by General Wolfe, 100; province of, 105; attack on, by the -Americans, 105; description of, 111; its population, 113. Quesnelle, Eiver, 278; town, 284. " Eainbow in the North" quoted, 199 et seq. Ealeigh, Sir Walter, founds the settlement of Virginia, 22. Eed Eiver, 28, 155 et seq.; settlement, 157 et seq. Bice Lake, 73. Eichardson, Dr., quoted, 272. Eichardson, Sir John, quoted, 179. Bichelieu, Eiver and Canal, 80. Eichibucto, Eiver, 331. Bichmond Bay, 340. Eideau Canal and Eiver, 76. Eiding Mountains, 163. Eoberval, Sieur de, 16. Eoche, Marquis de la, 89. Eocky Mountains, 24. Eoseau, Lake, 72. Eossignol, Lake, 314. Eoyal Bay, 301. Eupert's Land, 30; Bishop of, quoted, 211 et seq. Sable Island, convict settlement on, 89; desolate appearance of, 317; singular lake in, 317; government establishment on, 318. Saguenay, Eiver, scenery of, 60; " deepest river in the world," 61; description of, 79. Salmon Eiver, 331. Sandwich Islands, discovery of the, 21. Saskatchewan, Eiver, 28; description of, 155 et seq. Sault St. Marie, 66. Scandinavian settlements, 9. Sea -Alps of California, 25. Selkirk, Lord, 192 et seq. Selkirk settlement, 157 et seq., 192 et seq.; opposition of North-west Company, 194 et seq.; appointment of Bishop of Eupert's Land, 196; extent of, 197; educational institutions, 198; missionary difficulties, 199 et seq.; results of mission work, 203 et seq.; Archdeacon Cochrane's report, 201 et seq. Severn, Eiver, 72. Shawenegan,Eiver andFalls,80. Sherbrooke, 114. Shouswap, Lake, 277. Simcoe, Lake, 72. Smokey Cape, 315. Squirrel, loss of the, 17. St. Clair, Lake and Eiver, 69. St. George's Bay, 347. St. John, Lake, 74. St. John's,Town,329; Eiver,331. St. Joseph's Island, 67. St. Lawrence, 25; first steamboat on the, 107; towns on the, 111 et seq. St. Mary's settlement, 65. St. Maurice, Eiver, 80. St. Paul's Island, 315. Stadaconna, 15. Stone Fort, 197. Superior, Lake, description of, 65; settlements on, 65. Sydney, 326. BB 870 I-S"I>EX. Tadoussac, Village and Harbour, 79. Terra Primum Visa, 10. Thompson Biver, 277. Thome, Master, 11. Three Bivers, 114. Thunder Bay, 62; cape, 63; copper mine, 135. Toronto, description of, 116; its universities, colleges, and schools, 116; its population, 117. Trepassey Bay, 347. Trinity Bay, 347. Trois Brricrcs settlement, 99. Vancouver, Captain, explorations of, 22. 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By FraNcis Wayland, D.D., late President of Brown University; With Notes and Analysis, by Joseph Angus, D.D. 18mo. 3s. cloth boards.
Includes index. Other Copies: http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/30850085
Books
English
Vancouver : University of British Columbia Library
London : Religious Tract Society
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Original Format: University of British Columbia. Library. Rare Books and Special Collections. F5016 .B8
Canada--Description and travel
British North America : comprising Canada, British Central North America, British Columbia, Vancouver's Island, Nova Scotia and Cape Breton, New Brunswick, Prince Edward's Island, Newfoundland and Labrador. With maps
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