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British Columbia Historical Books Collection
Anstey, Arthur
"There were at least four editions of this school history text. Also see entry [I-]1975." -- Lowther, B. J., & Laing, M. (1968). A bibliography of British Columbia: Laying the foundations, 1849-1899. Victoria, BC: University of Victoria, p. 185. "An elementary school history textbook. Reprinted 1929, 1931, 1934, 1939, 1940, 1942 and 1947. All printings except the first two have at head of title: The romance of Canada." -- Strathern, G. M. , & Edwards, M. H. (1970). Navigations, traffiques & discoveries, 1774-1848: A guide to publications relating to the area now British Columbia. Victoria, BC: University of Victoria, p. 8.
6, 216 pages
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mmarn i!? 1 i i ; ! RMUi AiStKY iHi^^HH m ^fMW^yjwm.imii [ "*■" .. m ii«« ubrh FREP& #2. o^M ^|V HQWAY I The Romance British Columbia Arthur Anstey, BA. Normal School, Vancouver CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE I. What the Book is all about, and why we shall enjoy reading it. , . 1 II. In Search of a Sea-passage Captain Cook finds—not a "'Water Opening" but a "Fur-trade Opening" 5 III. How Captain George Vancouver followed up Cook's Exploration and prepared a wonderful Chart of the North-west Coast. . . . 13 IV. Vancouver completes his Chart. Adventures of a Sailor captured by the Indians. . . Jjpf 26 V. All about the Indians of the North-west Coast. . . . . . . .38 VI. How Alexander Mackenzie, though shipwrecked in the Rapids, was the first white Man to cross the Mainland of North America. . . 52 VII. Simon Fraser explores the Great River of the West; not the Columbia, as he expected, but the Fraser River 68 VIII. David Thompson explores the Kootenay Country and reaches the Mouth of the Columbia River 80 IX. The North West Company on the Columbia River: a Canoe Trip across Canada a hundred Years ago 93 X. Life in a Fur-traders Fort: a Trip across British Columbia with the Land-brigade 104 XI. The Nor Westers combine with the Hudson's Bay Company: Forts and Fort-builders. . • • • ... . ... . .115 5 HBSZ9BSI ' 6 CONTENTS XII. How James Douglas came to New Caledonia: his Adventures there and in Oregon 126 XIII. Governor Douglas and the Beginnings of Victoria 139 XIV. The Royal City of New Westminster and the Cariboo Gold Rush. . 150 XV. Vancouver—the City at "the End of Steel" 171 XVI. Farms and Farmers in the early Days 185 XVII. From Colony to Province; a Story of Development 197 Index 209 The Romance of British Columbia CHAPTER I What the Book is all about, and why we.shall enjoy reading it. Boys and girls love a good story. In this book we are going to read some good stories, some very good stories, of the men and women who came to live in British Columbia in the very early days of long ago. /We shall read of the times when there were no cities or even small towns in the province, when the roads were only trails, and .neither automobiles nor trains were available for travel. We shall learn why our fathers and grandfathers came to live in this western country. \^l I Some of them, we shall see, were attracted by love of the mountains with their store of precious minerals. Others came to farm and ranch, finding good pasture-lands for their sheep and cattle, or the fertile soil and bright sunshine needed to grow beautiful red apples, choice pears, cherries, and peaches. We shall find that some came west to engage in trade with the Indians, who were skilful in trapping wild animals and in securing their valuable furs. Indeed, the desire to carry on a fur-trade with the Indians was, perhaps, the first inducement that led white men to leave their homes, travel hundreds of miles with canoe and pack-horse, and cross the great mountains that separate British Columbia 'from the plains of Central Canada. As we should expect, these early pioneers and explorers met with many strange experiences and adventures, for life 1 THE ROMANCE OF BRITISH COLUMBIA was very different in those days from what it is for us to-day. Brave, determined men and women, they were not to be turned back or made afraid by dangers and difficulties. The stories of their heroic deeds and patient endurance will show how grateful we should be to them for the noble part that they played in opening up the country and in making it possible for us to live here in ease, comfort, and plenty. —Photo by Leonard Frank, Vancouver. Vancouver, showing the financial district and the harbour. Some who read these stories have their homes near Victoria or Vancouver, New Westminster or Prince Rupert, and will wonder what the early visitors thought of the beautiful coast-line fringed with blue mountains and evergreen forest foliage. Others live in the inland towns, Kamloops, Revel- stoke, and Nelson, or among the fertile farm-lands of Vancouver Island, the Okanagan, and the Kootenays, or in the still greater farming areas of the northern part of the WHAT THE BOOK IS ABOUT 3 province. Others again have homes in the mining districts in the south, or amid the great silent forests. But in whatever part of our province we may be, we shall be interested in reading the story of the past, and in learning how in those long-ago days people searched out these beautiful districts and decided to settle down and make their homes there. —Photo by Stride, New Westminster. gjj^ New Westminster—Columbia Street. In reading this book we shall learn a great deal about our province, and the rivers and waterways along which people travelled before there were roads and railways. We shall notice the mountain ranges, the. rich farm-lands, and the numerous islands that fringe the coast-line. We shall want to find on a map the places that we are reading about, and some of us will make our own sketch or relief maps on which we shall show the places where people settled. Many of these places have now become important towns, or centres for carrying on such industries as mining, lumbering, fruit-farm- THE ROMANCE OF BRITISH COLUMBIA ing, and dairy-farming. In this way we shall understand the story better, and we shall realize more clearly the conditions that attracted people to settle in the various localities. What was it, then, that induced white men to visit this western land and to make their homes here in such numbers? We shall find that some of those who came earliest arrived by sea, crossing the great Pacific Ocean from the west. Famous sailors were these, and such glowing accounts did they give of the new lands which they had visited that before long ships began to arrive from all quarters. It looked as if the first land-settlement would be made by these hardy mariners. But this was not to be. For just about the time when the sailor-men came, certain fur-traders from Eastern Canada began to make their way across the mountains in order to establish a fur-trade with the Indians of the coast. It was from that side, therefore, that a permanent settlement was begun, and it was Canadians who opened up the country and cleared the way for building up the great province in which we have our homes to-day. Our next chapter will tell of the arrival of the first white man to visit British Columbia, the great navigator, Captain James Cook. CHAPTER II In Search of a Sea-passage Captain Cook finds—not a "Water Opening" but a "Fur-trade Opening." A hundred and fifty years is a long time to look back. Changes occur now-a-days with startling rapidity; forests are cut down and cleared; towns and settlements spring up; populations increase. And yet the general appearance of British Columbia has probably altered but little during that long period. In order to see what this west coast looked like a hundred and fifty years ago, let us imagine ourselves travellers on board one of two ships that may be seen beating up from the western ocean one blustery day of sunshine in March, 1778, and cautiously feeling their way towards the rocky shores of what is now British Columbia. The ships are the Resolution and the Discovery; their commander is Captain James Cook of the Royal Navy; and with the ships' companies we are to have the honour of being the first white men to visit and to land on these shores. Twenty long months ago these ships sailed from Old England, and Captain Cook has been sent to find out whether or not there is a navigable water way by which Hudson 5 gfai Captain James Cook. From a portrait by Dance in the Gallery of Greenwich Hospital, England. THE ROMANCE OF BRITISH COLUMBIA Bay and the Atlantic can% be reached by ships from the Pacific Ocean. To-day we know that there is no such passage. But at that time nobody was certain of this, and some of the old maps had actually shown this imaginary sea-passage, naming it the Strait of Anian. These maps may yet be seen in the Provincial Archives at Victoria, where they are carefully preserved. The voyage from England has been an unusually long one, for many of the South Sea Islands have been visited, and at some of them a long stay has been made. Besides their crews and the necessary supplies, the ships carried a number of domestic animals, such as sheep, goats, and pigs. Most of these, however, have been put on shore at various points where such animals were previously unknown, but where they will be of great value to the inhabitants. Stormy weather has been encountered as the westerly winds slowly sweep them across the Pacific, and the vessels are damaged and are in need of repair. So it is with great delight that land is sighted some seventy miles to the east. Long before the low shore-line becomes visible, we catch a glimpse of the glorious mountains rising as if by magic out of the sea. After a time we can see the rock-bound coast, with the great Pacific rollers breaking in white foam and dashing their spray high in the air. A nearer view discloses some of those wonderful inlets running far up into the land, with numberless rocks and islands standing sentinel over the entrance. From the Waters edge rise up steep, rocky crags towering high into the blue sky, every nook and cranny providing foothold for trees with evergreen foliage. In the background we see the dense mass of forest clothing the lower slopes of the snow-clad range, and between the higher peaks glaciers and ice-fields. The whole presents the" same welcome sight that greets the traveller as he nears these shores to-day. CAPTAIN COOK 7 A sheltered cove must be found where the ships may lie in safety while the crew make the necessary repairs. After a careful search, Captain Cook casts anchor in Nootka Sound, about half-way up the west coast of what we now call Vancouver Island. At that time it was not known that there was such an island, and Captain Cook thinks that he has reached the mainland of this part of North America. At last our troubles are over; and now for a well-earned rest while the ships are being repaired! Then, away once more to the north to hunt for the long-sought strait. So think the hardy sailor-men. But look—what is this? A crowd of canoes comes splashing out from shore to greet the visitors—ten, twenty, thirty in all, each carrying a party of seven or eight men and women. Are they going to attack us? No. That does not seem likely, for they appear to be friendly, and in one of the canoes a leader stands up and makes us a long speech. We cannot understand him, but he seems to be inviting us to land, and now and then he throws into the air handfuls of feathers and of some sort of red dust. Another chief is loudly singing a native song of welcome. A third—after a long and energetic speech—is greeting us with a noisy wooden rattle shaped like a bird. And what costumes! All are wearing what appears to be a flaxen garment or mantle edged with fur and fringed with tassels. These mantles, as we learn later, are made from cedar-bark. Over this garment a beautiful skin is frequently thrown. Some of the natives have tfyeir heads concealed by masks representing birds, wolves, and other animals. The natural colour of their skin seems hidden under paint—and dirt. They do not leave their canoes to board our ships, but they show us by signs that they are anxious to trade. As evening draws on, they return to shore, though some remain alongside all night. Such is our first experience of the Coast Indians of the North-west. 8 THE ROMANCE OF BRITISH COLUMBIA News of the arrival of the visitors quickly spread, and next day as many as a hundred canoes surrounded their ships. The natives soon lost their first timidity, "And", says Captain Cook in his journal, "they came on board the ships and mixed with our people with the greatest freedom." They showed themselves eager to trade various articles in return for knives, pieces of iron or tin, looking-glasses, buttons, and any kind of metal. Brass was in such demand that after a time scarcely a bit was left in the ships. Whole suits of clothes were stripped of every button; copper kettles, tin canisters, candle- wJS'^5iy*^W"**,*M.. Captain Cook's ships, the "Resolution" and the "Discovery" at Nootka, 1778. From a painting in the Provincial Archives, Victoria. sticks, and the like, all went the same way. And in return for these the Indians offered skins and garments made from them, clothing made from some kind of bark or hemp, pieces of carved-work, and ornaments. All of these were welcomed by the sailors as curiosities, but it was the splendid skins that were most eagerly sought after by the visitors, skins of bears, wolves, foxes, deer, martens, and in particular of sea-otters. These sea-otter skins were the most highly prized of all; four or five feet long and half as wide, the fur was rich, jet-black, and glossy, with perfectly white head and some white hairs mingled with the black. So plentiful was the supply of these that the Indians readily exchanged them, and the sailors who CAPTAIN COOK 9 were fortunate enough to obtain them were able, as we shall see, to sell them for large sums later on. Meanwhile repairs to the ships went forward. Timber was procured in the neighbouring forest, and all through the lengthening April days the sound of axe and hammer rang merrily through the woods. As reports of the arrival of the visitors spread far and wide, new parties of Indians put in an appearance, each going through the same quaint ceremony of introducing themselves. They first paddled completely around the ships. The chief stood up in his canoe and made a speech—which the visitors, of course, could not understand. Songs were sung and were often accompanied by the regular beating of paddles on the side of the canoe, and were ended with a joyous chorus in which all the natives joined. Then the Indians would come alongside and dispose of the cargoes of valuable furs that they had brought with them. They were perfectly friendly, were quite honest in their trading, but were inclined to steal if not closely watched. "During their visits", says Captain Cook, "they gave us no other trouble than to guard against their thievish tricks." After a month the work of repairing the ships was almost done.- Top-masts and yards had been replaced, the rigging had been completed, and Captain Cook decided to go ashore and pay a visit to some of the native villages before leaving. The Indians received him courteously, and he speaks of them as a docile and good-natured people. He went into their houses, arranged in rows and built of planks, long and roomy, with window-openings sheltered by mats to keep out the rain. For furniture they used chests and boxes packed full of skins, mats, and masks, and there were a number of curiously carved images four or five feet high representing human figures. These images were not idols, but were some of those "totems" which we shall read about in a later chapter, and which are highly prized to-day and carefully preserved in museums and public places. pWWfWff-' I 10 THE ROMANCE OF BRITISH COLUMBIA The women Captain Cook found to be very industrious and clever. They were usually engaged in preparing and drying fish for food, or in weaving garments from the fibre of bark or plants by means of an ingenious kind of wooden loom. These garments they often decorated with figures and designs in colour. The men were generally employed in hunting and fishing, and their canoes were skilfully fashioned out of one long tree-trunk, some measuring as much as forty feet in length and carrying twenty or more people. The strange masks that some of them wore were terrible to behold, and were carved to represent the heads of various wild animals. One man was observed to be wearing as an ornament two silver table-spoons, apparently of Spanish manufacture. At last all was ready for the departure of the vessels. So on April 26th, after a month's stay among these friendly people, anchors were hauled up, and the ships sailed away up the coast to the northward. On the day that he left, Captain Cook wrote these words in his journal: "Whoever comes after me to this place will find the natives prepared with no inconsiderable supply of skins, an article of trade which they could observe we were eager to possess, and which we found could be purchased at great advantage." His words, as we shall see, proved true. He had not found the long-sought sea-passage, but he had discovered the possibility of establishing a valuable fur-trade with the Indians, and his discovery had important results. Summer was now drawing on, the beautiful summer of the British Columbia coast district, and it was with a tinge of regret that Captain Cook and his men took leave of Nootka and its kindly inhabitants and resumed their northward journey. The middle of May found them off Southern Alaska, where a short stay was made in order to repair a leak. They cruised slowly up the coast, carefully examining any likely openings that might lead through to Hudson Bay, CAPTAIN COOK 11 and sometimes sending out small boats to explore more closely the channels and inlets. From time to time natives would put out in their canoes and visit the ships, bringing with them skins, or salmon, to exchange for metal and trinkets. Always friendly, but usually thievish, thev had to be closely watched. On one ;m The death of Captain Cook at the Sandwich Islands, 1779. From the picture by John Webber in the Provincial Archives, Victoria. occasion, when detected, they threatened the sailors with knives and had to be driven off by a show of cutlasses. "Then", said Captain Cook, "the whole company of plunderers sneaked off in their canoes with as much deliberation and indifference as if they had done nothing amiss; and they were observed describing to those who had not been on board how much longer the knives of the ship's crew were than their own." At last Bering Strait was reached, and, towards the end of August, they found their northward journey barred by vast 12 THE ROMANCE OF BRITISH COLUMBIA ice-fields. On the ice they saw great herds of walrus, huddling one over the other like swine and roaring or braying very loud, probably a novel and unexpected sight for many of the men. Soon fogs were encountered, and the floating masses of ice began to close around the ships. This ice- barrier showed Captain Cook that it would be useless to push farther north so late in the summer. He decided, therefore, to end the search for that season and to go south for the winter. Then, after resting and refitting, he could return next spring and renew his explorations. Southward they turned their prows, and in November they arrived at the Sandwich Islands, where it had been arranged that they should spend the winter. They had made a stay at these beautiful islands on their way north, and, after their toilsome experiences, they might well anticipate a few months of rest and quiet. But to the North-west Coast Captain Cook was destined never to return. In the following February this heroic explorer met his death at the hands of the Sandwich Island natives. Captain Clerke, who commanded the. Discovery, took charge of the expedition, and himself died from disease while continuing his explorations the following summer. The two ships arrived back in England in 1780, after an absence of over four years. Although Captain Cook's explorations did not finally settle the long-debated question as to the existence of a navigable North-West Passage, yet his work was of supreme value. He had the honour of being the first to visit and describe the North-west Coast and its inhabitants. In his search for a "water opening" he had indeed discovered an "opening" for a very valuable fur-trade, and his visit—as we shall see in our next chapter—was to have very important consequences. CHAPTER III How Captain George Vancouver followed up Cook's Exploration and prepared a wonderful Chart of the North-west Coast. When Captain Cooks sailors reached the Chinese port of Canton, on their way back to England, they were astonished to find that the furs which they had obtained so cheaply were valued very highly by the Chinese merchants there. One man sold his share for eight hundred dollars, and specially fine skins brought as much as a hundred and twenty dollars apiece. Even at this time China was a very wealthy country and carried on an extensive trade with Britain. The rich mandarins were delighted with the beautiful sea-otter skins and were willing to pay a great price for them; so it was seen that there was a market in which the rich furs of the North-west Coast could be disposed of at a great profit. The news of this fine opportunity to do business soon reached other lands, and, before long, keen-sighted traders began to fit out ships to visit this hitherto unknown region and reap the rich harvest offered by this maritime fur-trade. British ships were the first to come, some of them sailing direct from England and others, under the flag of the famous 13 •"■"fr***^ Nootka Sound chiefs, Callicum and Maquinna (Maquilla), with whom Meares negotiated for a site for his trading-post. 14 THE ROMANCE OF BRITISH COLUMBIA East India Company, coming from India and China. American vessels from Boston followed, and before many years had passed a large fleet of trading-ships would arrive in the spring, load up with costly furs, and sail away in the autumn to dispose of their wares in the hungry markets of distant China. The launching of the "North West America", Nootka Sound, 1788. She was the first vessel to be built on the North-west Coast. In the spring of 1788 some British vessels arrived at Nootka under the command of Captain Meares, who had formerly been an officer in the Royal Navy. Following the usual custom they proceeded to collect furs, and by arrangement with the principal Indian chief, Maquinna, a plot of ground was obtained. Upon this land a trading-post and a store were built. This was to be their headquarters, and from there they would make expeditions along the coast, wherever supplies of furs were to be obtained from the natives. CAPTAIN VANCOUVER 15 Meares had with him a number of Chinese carpenters, and these he put to work to build a little ship that should be of service in the fur-trade. When completed, this vessel was launched with great ceremony, and, being the first to be built on this coast, was named the North West America. One day, however, two Spanish war-ships sailed into Friendly Cove, as their harbour was named, and disturbed the peaceful fur-trading operations. Don Martinez, the Spanish commander, announced that he had orders to seize any ships found upon that coast, as, by right of discovery and occupation it belonged to the King of Spain. A little later he took possession of two of the ships and imprisoned their officers and crews. When news of what had happened reached England, there was great indignation, and for a time it looked as if the dispute would lead to war between Britain and Spain. But the statesmen of the two countries met around the council- board in London and Madrid, and, after long deliberations, the Spaniards acknowledged that they were in the wrong and agreed that the maritime fur-trade on the North-west Coast of America should be open and free to all nations. They also promised to restore the property that they had seized and to pay certain money as compensation. It was decided that the final settlement of the affair should be made on the spot. So in 1791 an expedition was sent from England to see that the terms of the Nootka Convention— as it was called—were duly carried out. The man selected to command this expedition was Captain George Vancouver, a young naval officer whose twenty years' service had already marked him as unusually capable and efficient. This was not Vancouver's first visit to the North-west Coast, for as a midshipman he had accompanied Captain Cook on his voyage to Nootka in 1778. His instructions required him not only to take over from the Spaniards the property that they had 16 THE ROMANCE OF BRITISH COLUMBIA seized, but also to explore the coast very carefully and to find out whether or not any "North-West Passage" connected the Pacific with Hudson Bay or the Atlantic Ocean. Thus we see how the name 'Vancouver" came to be connected with Canada's western province. In following George Vancouver's fortunes and adventures we shall under- The Spanish insult to the British flag at Nootka, 1789. The seizure of Captain Colnett of the British ship "Argonaut" by Esteban Martinez, the Spanish commandant. stand how well he deserved the honour of having the island and the city named after him. In the spring of 1791 Captain Vancouver's two vessels— the Discovery and the Chatham—set forth from England on their long journey. Very small ships they were in comparison with those of our days, for the "Princess" steamers that now travel between Vancouver and Victoria are ten times larger than the Discovery, which was only of three CAPTAIN VANCOUVER 17 hundred and forty tons measurement. They travelled in leisurely fashion, sailing around the Cape of Good Hope across the Indian and Pacific Oceans, making calls at Australia, New Zealand, Tasmania, and the Sandwich Islands on the way. They finally sighted the American coast and reached Cape Flattery and the Strait of Juan de Fuca towards the end of April, 1792. Should they proceed directly to Nootka and settle their business with the Spaniards there, or would it be better to make a start with the work of exploration? After careful The reply to the Spanish insult; the British fleet assembled at Spithead, 1790, in consequence of the "Nootka" dispute with Spain. From a picture in the Provincial Archives, Vancouver. consideration Vancouver decided not to visit Nootka immediately, but to spend some of the fine summer months exploring the coast-line, and thus to make a beginning with that wonderful chart which was so carefully and accurately drawn that it has served as a guide to mariners down to our own day. If any of us have made the journey up the coast to Prince Rupert, or have even sailed to the head of Burrard Inlet, or Howe Sound, near the present-day city of Vancouver, we shall understand how broken and dangerous is this western coast-line. Rocky islands, narrow winding channels, swift tide-rips, all make navigation difficult, unless the sailor is M 18 THE ROMANCE OF BRITISH COLUMBIA provided with accurate charts and maps. During the fourteen years that had passed since Captain Cook had visited Nootka, there had been little further exploration of the neighbouring coast-line. The visiting fur-traders had been chiefly concerned with the task of gathering furs from the Indians, and had not troubled to make charts of the coast. They probably preferred not to give too much informatioji as to the localities where they carried on their trade, lest that information be used by their competitors in the business. Eastward from Cape Flattery, then, the ships were steered. Passing through the Strait of Juan de Fuca—at that time thought to be merely an inlet—and keeping near the south shore, Captain Vancouver was amazed to discover that great land-locked sea which we now know by the names Captain George Vancouver, R.N. By of Puget Sound and the Strait of S£5*"L£o2" """££££ Georgia. In small boats his men made expeditions in all directions, threading their way amid the maze of islands and channels and penetrating southward to the head of the Sound. They took careful observations for use in making charts of the coast-line, and they noted the types of natives, the trees and plants, and the animals that were seen. Headland and inlet, island and mountain, all were carefully set down in the chart, and were named by- Vancouver after friends or after companions who were with him. Such names as Mount Baker, Puget Sound, Point Grey, Howe Sound, Jervis Inlet, Burrard Inlet, and others, all commemorate this notable visit. supplied by Charles Bradbury, Vancouver. CAPTAIN VANCOUVER 19 - 2. ■& --MOXTEB/-fcOOfcOINOf *«" With Vancouver was a clever botanist, Archibald Menzies, and in his journal as well as in Vancouver's own records we find interesting details of their experiences during that summer. While Vancouver's main object was not trade, he was naturally anxious to keep the Indians friendly, and he sometimes found them surly and suspicious. "On one occasion", says Menzies, "though we did not think it prudent to give them any further uneasiness by visiting their habitations, yet it was necessary to convince them by some means or other that we were friendly. So some copper, iron, medals, buttons, and other trinkets were fastened on a piece of board and left floating on the surface of the water, while we pulled away to a little distance and suffered the Indians to take it up; this was repeated two or three times with the same success; by this method they ventured to come alongside of the boats, and as we kept pulling along shore they followed us, accepting of little presents but offering no return." This particular party, Menzies tells us, dubbed the newcomers the "Poo-Poo-men", alluding to the reports of their muskets heard when they were shooting wild birds, and the attitude of these Indians was at times very threatening. In fact, it was at all times necessary for Vancouver's men to be very watchful and on the alert, lest an attack be made, though they always treated the Indians with kindness and were The house in which Captain Vancouver was born, King's Lynn, England. The lower part is now occupied as a second-hand store. This photograph is copyrighted by Charles Bradbury, Vancouver. CAPTAIN VANCOUVER 21 usually very successful in their dealings with them. The Indians gave them little information as to the country and its winding coast-line, but they readily supplied the visitors with fish, meat, and drinking water, and brought them some furs for trade. "Their food," says Menzies, "was some dried fish and clams; we also saw some fresh.halibut and purchased two large pieces of it for an English half-penny each. In one hut some pieces of the flesh of a porpoise were seen by some of the party, who had taken it for venison and nearly purchased the whole of it with great eagerness and at very high price when the mistake was discovered." Speaking of the occupations of the women, Menzies says, 'They were employed in making mats and large baskets for holding their provisions, stores, and luggage. In one place we saw them at work on a kind of coarse blanket made of double twisted woollen yarn and curiously wove by their fingers with great patience and ingenuity into various figures.' He wonders whether—in the absence of sheep—the fine, snowy-white wool which they are using has been obtained from the dogs, "of which the natives kept a large number, and no other use was observed to be made of them than merely as domesticated animals." The explorers speak enthusiastically of the beauty of the coast-line with its snow-clad peaks, Baker and Rainier, the fine, level, park-like lawns, clothed with a rich carpet of verdure, and adorned with clumps of trees and a surrounding verge of scattered pines. They praise the favourable climate, and enumerate the trees and fruits that thrive there. In fact, Vancouver and his men appear to have considered the shores of Puget Sound one of the most desirable locations for residence on the face of the earth. Following the mainland coast northward, Vancouver did not notice the outfall of the Fraser River, though he speaks of the sandbanks, the strong currents setting out into the bay, 22 THE ROMANCE OF BRITISH COLUMBIA and the low, swampy flats of the delta. Turning eastward, he sailed through the Narrows, with the bold, rocky bluff of Prospect Point on the right hand and the low, marshy flats at the mouth of the Capilano River on the left, and found himself in that land-locked harbour beside which the city of Vancouver has since grown up. Burrard Inlet, he named it, after his friend Captain Harry Burrard of the Royal Navy. During those long, sunny days of June his men carefully explored its beautiful winding shore-line, and met with Indians who were "wonderfully alarmed at the report of a musket; hence it was concluded that our people were the first Europeans with whom they had had any immediate intercourse." In Howe Sound Vancouver mentions the ridges of stupendous snowy mountains "rising almost perpendicular from the water's edge." He speaks also of "the small tract of low, marshy I land backed by high snowy mountains", the Squamish district of to-day, at the head of the sound. In the Strait of Georgia they fell in with two small Spanish vessels, also engaged in exploration work. From the Spanish commander Vancouver learned that the commander-in-chief, Don Quadra, was awaiting his arrival at Nootka. Each commander told the other the results of his work so far, and for a few days they continued their exploration in company. Into the beautiful Jervis Inlet they sailed, with "whitish water but no soundings with a hundred fathoms of line, and no regular tide towards the head of it, but a constant drain down." Near Texada Island, says Vancouver, the boats went over "in their different traverses up the winding arms and back again" about a hundred and five leagues; and there the smaller Spanish ships left him. Ever northward the bold explorers continued their journey, passing among the dangerous rocks and islands, through swift tide-rips, threading Seymour Narrows and Johnstone Strait, CAPTAIN VANCOUVER 23 mS SI *.$€& and finally reaching open water once more. They had now proved what had previously only been surmised—that Nootka was not on the mainland at all, but was on the west coast of a large island, later to be named after the explorer, Vancouver Island. Carefully examining and charting the coast-line, they reached Burke Channel and Calvert Island, each ship in turn risking disaster through grounding on dangerous rock- reefs. It was now the middle of August. The weather had broken and was cold, wet, and uncomfortable. The men were weary, and, as Menzies says, "no longer able to endure the fatiguing hardships of distant excursions in open boats, exposed to the cold, rigorous blasts of a high northern situation with high, dreary, snowy mountains on every side, performing toilsome labour on their oars in the day, and alternately watching for their own safety at night, with no ******5*S Courtesy of the Canadian Pacific Railway The official landmark erected on Gonzales Hill, Vancouver Island* by the Historic Sites and Monuments Board of Canada to commemorate the exploration of the Straits of Juan de Fuca by Vancouver and other early navigators. See page 208. 24 THE ROMANCE OF BRITISH COLUMBIA other couch to repose upon than the cold, stony beach or the wet, mossy turf in damp, woody situations; yet on every occasion struggling who should be most forward in executing the orders of their superiors to accomplish the general interest of the voyage." Brave British tarsi We may well praise their pluck and endurance. To them, above all, Vancouver owed the success which attended his efforts to explore these unknown shores, a success which ensured the ultimate inclusion of these Pacific coast-lands in British and Canadian territory. So back to the southward they steered the ships, and ten days later they were safely anchored in Friendly Cove, Nootka Sound. There Vancouver met the Spanish commander, Don Quadra, and the two entered upon the serious business of settling the differences between their countries according to the terms of the Nootka Convention. For six weeks Vancouver remained at Nootka, and we can imagine the relief with which his officers and men settled down to a period of rest and relaxation. The weather was finer and warmer than it had been farther north, and the pleasant autumn days were passed in visiting the neighbouring Indian tribes. To Chief Maquinna Captain Vancouver was introduced with much ceremony, and entertainments were arranged both for the visitors and for their native friends. The Indians exhibited their ceremonial dances in mask and costume, Maquinna himself taking part, and they feasted the new-comers right royally. In return the Indians were entertained by the visitors, British sailors dancing a reel to the strains of the fife, and a firework display given by Vancouver's order delighted both Spaniard and Indian. But during this time little progress was made with the business of handing over to the British the property that had been seized from Meares. The Spanish commander had not received definite instructions from his government, and CAPTAIN VANCOUVER 25 Vancouver could not accept the partial restoration that Don Quadra was prepared to make. So they agreed to postpone the final settlement until further instructions from their governments should reach them. Apart from this, the most friendly relations existed between Vancouver and Don Quadra, and the Spaniard showed himself courteous, straightforward, and affable. In October Vancouver's ships left Nootka on their way to the Sandwich Islands, where he had decided to spend the winter. Vancouver now had with him three British vessels, for, as we have seen, Nootka had become a kind of headquarters on the North-west Coast for trade, and as many as thirty ships, British, American, Spanish, and French, had visited the port that summer. On their way south a visit was paid to the Columbia River. An American, Captain Gray, had discovered the mouth of this river and had named it after his ship, the Columbia. Vancouver desired to enter and explore the stream, but so late was the season and so stormy the weather that it was very difficult to pass the sandbanks at the entrance. The Chatham, however, crossed the bar and anchored, and in small boats Lieutenant Broughton and his crews were able to ascend and explore the river for nearly a hundred miles. On his return the vessels continued their journey to Monterey, the Spanish headquarters south of San Francisco, and from there to the Sandwich Islands. CHAPTER IV Vancouver completes his Chart. Adventures of a Sailor captured by the Indians. The following spring Vancouver returned to the Northwest Coast, reaching Nootka in May, and learned—as he probably expected—that no further instructions^ had arrived from England. A hundred years ago the journey by sailing- ship occupied many months, and there would not have been time for his charts and dispatches, which had been forwarded to England the preceding fall, to have received consideration and for further orders to reach Nootka for his guidance. So, after a stay of three days, he left with his ships, the Discovery and the Chatham, to continue his surveys of the coastline, commencing at the point where he had turned back at the end of the previous season. The whole summer was spent in this work, and in June they were at Dean Channel and Cascade Inlet. Little did they suspect that just one month later other explorers, having travelled overland from Eastern Canada beyond the Rocky Mountains, would reach the coast at that self-same spot, and would talk with the very Indians whom Vancouver and Menzies met! Yet this was so, as we shall see later. Many curious customs did Captain Vancouver notice among the Indians, and perhaps none was stranger than their habit of wearing labrets, or lip-ornaments. These wooden labrets—two or three inches in length—were, he says, made of fir and were inserted in a slit made in the lower lip, just as ladies used to wear ear-rings suspended from holes pierced through the lobe of the ear. The Indians regarded these as ornamental, but Vancouver speaks of them as "hid- 26 CAPTAIN VANCOUVER 17 eous appendages", which by no means added to the ladies' good looks. Farther north the natives were seen to be wearing garments of cedar-bark with sea-otter fur neatly worked into them, the lower border only being woven of wool, often dyed a beautiful yellow. The Indians were very clever in preparing dyes from various roots and plants. Slowly the ships made their way northward. Day after day row-boats were sent out to explore the winding channels iisiyyi- ' ill' %^Jgjjjj L^'* '^si-ill W! ^^fe Kl— *^Sg5;'j^Sg •* -^jl' - *-3 |. :•&**%,£ -'. Bpi pi".;" #3|fe»* " Wf V&m^ •■ 5^01 ^BlB^ffT^P^Trffff^ffy^ 4?t-JHB ?£l^kb.xi W*^ ■"' Hf»■ 1 v * :"'M 1 *^V • ' -■'*-^^^^ ifiPP^Si'-'VT -''' 5f< lagakfeu &'j^Ofek j ,,v^JB ^8^f^>U^>. i^^^jKiS^^Srs^ 3\-T^"Sj fiif ^-'j^h ^^^F^^ &il_. «^ #?^MjS'^SmidKi8Sf.. J S?i«lLv* «■* fs 'f rain Wtpnsrc&aBMB <* J fw?y*mw fit* ■^ *«* 'i imh MP- jr5 2s*£?£ *^*^3\Pi ^O^iiii! . *s£^ V^v^ ^ -.' ^uLi^%.' -v *^£Ss^^p2^±."^g 8§I*S&rW« ^^^^^K^^ *t>$&<ffii*Hfp%£. HJ !p^ &'£§■<&£• EiSSJS An Indian habitation oh Nootka Sound. among the islands, maps and charts were carefully drawn, and names were given by Vancouver to the principal points, islands, and inlets. Most of these names are to be found in our maps to-day; Portland's Channel, Grenville Channel, Pitt's Archipelago, Brown's Passage, Dundas Island, Port Essington, all remind us of Vancouver's companions or of others known to him by name. Near Observatory Inlet he noted a curious rock, slender, tapering, and two hundred and fifty feet high. This reminded him of the Eddystone Lighthouse near Plymouth, and he promptly dubbed it "New Eddystone". 28 THE ROMANCE OF BRITISH COLUMBIA In this neighbourhood they had a most unpleasant adventure with the Indians. Four or five canoes had put out from shore to visit Vancouver's ships, and the natives appeared friendly and particularly anxious to trade. 'Winnee watter," they cried; that is "Stop and trade," and they repeated this again and again. Noticing that they were all armed, carrying spears, daggers, and one or two muskets, Vancouver suspected trouble and ordered his men not to encourage them. But the natives showed themselves most persistent, holding on to the row-boats in which Vancouver's men were approaching the shore. One party headed by an angry woman-chief lashed their canoe to the side of Vancouver's boat and seized the oars to prevent their rowing away. Their real object was now seen; for they began pilfering any small articles that they could lay hands on, and finally seized and removed to their canoes several muskets and pistols. Greatly alarmed, but anxious to avoid injuring them, Vancouver's men forcibly pushed the Indians off, and at last threatened them with their fire-arms. This had no effect, for they were defiant. After two of his men had been wounded in an attack made with spears, daggers, and showers of stones, Vancouver at last gave the word for his men to defend themselves with their muskets and to fire on the natives. The effect was instantaneous. The astonished Indians leaped overboard and paddled their canoes shoreward, holding them between themselves and the white men, so as to serve as a protection, and thus reached the land. From the cliffs they still waved defiance, hurling rocks and stones at the boats as they slowly withdrew to the ships. Vancouver would have been inclined to inflict some further punishment on the treacherous natives, but, as two of his men were wounded and needed surgical attention, he hastened to get them aboard ship. This incident was, fortunately, an unusual one; it must have been very disappointing to Vancouver, who was always kind CAPTAIN VANCOUVER 29 and humane in his dealings with the Indians. It shows, too, how difficult it must have been to carry on all this work of exploration without arousing the suspicion of the natives and stirring them to resistance. In this instance they wanted the white man's goods, and thought that they could obtain them by violence and treachery. It was evident that white traders had previously visited these tribes, and we cannot say whether it was simply native hostility and craftiness that prompted wanm* The interior of an Indian habitation on Nootka Sound. the attack, or whether it was caused by ill-treatment that they had experienced at the hands of earlier traders. After all, trade with the Indians was not Vancouver's object, and it must have been a great satisfaction to get safely away without further trouble. The end of the second summer of exploration was now drawing on. Already the days were getting shorter, and there were signs of approaching autumn, and of the bad weather that often sets in early in these northern latitudes. So, after mak- 30 THE ROMANCE OF BRITISH COLUMBIA ing some exploration of the Queen Charlotte Islands, Vancouver returned to Nootka in October, and three days later sailed south for the Californian coast. The kindly and courteous Don Quadra was no longer in command at Monterey, and his successor showed himself suspicious and unfriendly to the visitors. Only a short stay was therefore made there, and then Vancouver's ships sailed away, to spend the winter months at the Sandwich Islands. Most of the following summer was spent in a survey of the far north-west coast-line of Alaska. Vancouver's work was similar to that in which he had been engaged during the two preceding years, and he had the satisfaction of completing the chart upon which his mind was set—the famous chart of the North-west Coast. On his return to Nootka he found that no further instructions had arrived for him, but he spent six weeks there, repairing the masts and cordage of his ships in readiness for the long voyage back to England. He had decided that it was now time to return. His work on the North-west Coast had been completed, so far as was possible, and by the time that they reached home his men would have spent over four years in their long and arduous task. So, in October, 1794, Vancouver bade farewell to these western shores, never to return. Before leaving, however, in company with the Spanish commander, Alva, he paid a state visit to the famous Chief Maquinna. A large party they made—fifty-six in all, Spaniards and Englishmen; they arrived over-night and encamped near Maquinna's village. As they approached the settlement next morning, they were greeted with cries of 'Wacosh, wacosh," that is, 'Welcome, welcome," and were nearly stunned, says Vancouver, with ♦the noisy congratulations. Thirty men beating on a large board summoned Maquinna's retainers to the ceremony, and to them Maquinna made a long speech, praising his visitors and welcoming them to his village. CAPTAIN VANCOUVER 31 Then began the celebrations. First came a fearsome band of native performers—warriors fully armed, with painted faces and heads covered with white swansdown—dancing a war- dance and brandishing their arms; one could not help but feel somewhat alarmed. Then Maquinna himself condescended to perform a dance, decorated with mask and costume, his dress adorned with hollow shells and copper that made a loud jingling. Long and noisy was the applause that greeted him, for the visitors knew that he was doing them great honour and that their clapping and approval would gratify him. Presents were then distributed, copper and iron, trinkets and beads, blankets and cloth, and in return Maquinna's brother ceremoniously presented his principal visitors with valuable sea-otter skins. There was much feasting and merriment, and, after visiting Maquinna's great house, over a hundred feet in length and filled with treasures and wonderful totemic figures carved out of great cedar blocks, the white men took their departure. Once more the friendly Indians showed their pleasure and approval, for, as the boats were rowed away, the cheering and the kindly greeting, 'Wacosh, wacosh", followed them till they were out of sight and hearing. Such was a state-visit to an Indian chief in these early days; and indeed, Maquinna deserved the honour which they paid him, for he had shown himself a loyal friend to the white men. His feelings were to alter before long, however, as we shall see later in our story. In the autumn of 1795 Vancouver's ships reached England, and thankful indeed must his men have been to see home once more after an absence of four and a half years. That dread disease, scurvy, usually played havoc with sailors on these lengthy voyages, but by a judicious use of spruce beer Vancouver had kept his men in unusually good condition. So careful of their health had he been, and so good was his 32 THE ROMANCE OF BRITISH COLUMBIA organization, that only one man of the crews of his two vessels had been lost through disease. Three or four had died as the result of accident, but altogether Captain Vancouver's expedition had proved one of the most successful voyages of discovery ever attempted. Two years later, at the early age of forty, the great Vancouver died. He was laid to rest in the graveyard of the peaceful little red-brick church of Petersham village, near London, and to-day many Canadians on a visit to the Old Land go to see his tomb. For to us the great British sailor must always be a heroic and interesting figure, since the work which he did over a hundred years ago was largely responsible for the inclusion of this western land in our Dominion and Empire. In October, 1795, the Nootka Affair was finally settled. The famous little port was abandoned by both Spaniards and British, and no white settlement has since been made there. A monument, with a suitable inscription, has recently been erected by the Dominion government in commemoration of the stirring events that happened in that neighbourhood, and this monument, together with Vancouver's . charts in the Provincial Archives at Victoria, should be seen by any who have the opportunity of visiting these places. Petersham churchyard, where Captain Vancouver is buried, on the banks of the Thames, near Richmond Hill, England. CAPTAIN VANCOUVER 33 During the years that followed, many fur-trading vessels came each summer to the North-west Coast, which was now— as a result of the Nootka Convention—free and open to all nations. A large number of these ships were American, for the European nations were at that time in the throes of the twenty years' struggle with Napoleon. British merchants were further hampered by irksome trade restrictions, so that in the year 1801 the United States had fifteen vessels engaged in the coast fur-trade, while the British had only one. During that year the United States ships took eighteen thousand skins to China, though in the following years the amount of business done was smaller. Trading methods began to change for the worse, forsomeof thetraders treated the Indians harshly and took advantage of their ignorance to make unfair bargains. They supplied them with liquor and induced them to kill the fur-bearing animals recklessly, so that the supply began to fail. The kindly methods of Cook and Vancouver were forgotten, and, in return, the Indians sought revenge by attacking and killing the traders when their numbers were few. In the year 1803 an American ship, the Boston, commanded by Captain Salter, arrived off Nootka with a cargo of English cloths, blankets, beads, knives, and other things for trade with the Indians; she also had on board twenty casks of liquor. Among her crew was a young English black- A Haida Indian canoe. Notice the totemic decorations on the bow. 34 THE ROMANCE OF BRITISH COLUMBIA smith, John Jewitt, and to him we are indebted for the story of what happened on that eventful voyage. Arrayed in his royal robes of sea-otter skin, his hair sprinkled with white swansdown, Chief Maquinna came on board to welcome the new arrivals. Since the departure of the English and Spaniards from Nootka, eight years before, Maquinna's opinion of his own importance had greatly increased, and he was now a kind of "little king" in those parts. Captain Salter received the Indian chief courteously and entertained his companions to a feast. Some trading was carried on, and with particular admiration the Indians watched Jewitt as he worked at his forge and skilfully fashioned the iron and copper weapons which they valued so highly. A few days before the traders were to leave, Maquinna returned to the ship with a present of wild ducks for the captain. At the same time he handed back a new gun, which had been given him the previous day and which he had broken; it was "peshak", he said, that is, "no good". Answering him very roughly, Captain Salter tossed the gun to Jewitt for repair, little suspecting that his words had been understood and had mortally offended the chief. Maquinna said nothing, but put his hand to his throat, for his anger was "choking him", as he afterwards explained. Next morning the natives came aboard with salmon as usual, and later Maquinna with his chiefs and more men arrived in canoes. He was wearing a wolf's-head mask and appeared unusually cheerful. But while some of the sailors were away fishing for salmon, Maquinna gave a signal, and the natives on board attacked and killed officers and crew, while those on shore overpowered the fishing party. Not a man was left alive. Yes, one did escape; two even. John Jewitt, working below at his bench when the massacre occurred, was spared on condition that he become Maquinna's blacksmith; and CAPTAIN VANCOUVER 35 Thompson, a sail-maker, was found alive the next day and claimed by Jewitt as his father; so he too was spared. The Boston was plundered and later burned, and every chief became rich with the spoils. Rigged out with' their ill- gotten finery, they presented a ridiculous sight. Some wore women's cloaks of blue, red, or yellow broadcloth, with stockings drawn over their heads, powder-horns and cartridge An Indian village on Vancouver Island. Notice the canoes and the cedar-board houses. boxes slung around their necks, ten or more muskets apiece, and numerous daggers stuck in their belts. A dance followed, and one cask of rum—the only one that they had saved—was emptied, so that many became intoxicated. For two weary years the captives lived among the Indians, but they were not harshly treated. Thompson was disliked, for he was a rough old salt who had fought in the wars and heartily despised the savages: On several occasions his 36 THE ROMANCE OF BRITISH COLUMBIA rashness almost cost him his life, for he made no pretence of humouring or flattering his captors. Jewitt, on the other hand, was a favourite, fashioning bracelets, tools, and weapons to please them. Jewitt kept a diary until Maquinna grew suspicious and forbade it; then he kept notes on birch bark, and in the book which he wrote later he gives us many interesting details of the Indian life and customs. He describes their houses with plank roofs supported on huge ridge-poles and during violent storms held down by men lest they be blown away; their furniture, with the cleverly made baskets and cedar chests; the cloth that they made from cedar bark, the otter-skins, and the dog-hair blankets; their food, and the salmon boiled in water heated with stones; their bracelets and ornaments; their hunting and fishing; their canoes—sometimes forty-six feet in length—hollowed out of a single cedar log and ornamented with shells; their weird singing accompanied with drum, rattle, and whistle. On one occasion he and Thompson accompanied the natives in a war-like expedition against a neighbouring tribe. But the end came at last. In 1805 the American ship Lydia arrived off Nootka; since the massacre of the crew of the Boston, traders had avoided the place. Anxious once more to trade with the whites, Maquinna ordered Jewitt to write a friendly letter of introduction, which he himself would carry to the captain of the Lydia. Jewitt obeyed him and wrote a letter, but in the letter he requested the captain to, hold Maquinna prisoner until he and Thompson should be set free. The scheme was successful; for, as Jewitt says, "I knew that I had little to apprehend from their anger on hearing of their king being confined, while they knew his life depended on my release, and that they would sooner have given up five hundred white men than have him injured." So Jewitt and Thompson were finally sent on board in exchange for the chief, and, after two years of captivity, at last CAPTAIN VANCOUVER 37 found themselves free and among their own people. They remained on the Lydia during her voyage to Chinese ports, and later returned to Boston. There Jewitt published an account of his strange adventures. From time to time other attacks were made on the fur- traders visiting the North-west Coast. Another American ship, the Tonquin, was captured by the Indians in the year 1811, and, while her decks were crowded with natives, she was blown up by the explosion of her powder-magazine. Her whole crew perished with the exception of an interpreter, who was held a prisoner for two years and then escaped. But the maritime fur-trade, so far as the British were concerned, was now drawing to a close. As the years passed, it became of less and less importance, for the valuable skins were soon, as we shall see, to be shipped away by an entirely different route, and an overland trade was to take the place of the sea-traffic which had provided so many adventurous episodes. Before hearing the adventures of the overland explorers, let us look more closely at the earliest inhabitants of these western lands—the Indians. Captain Cook and Captain Vancouver have already whetted our appetites with strange stories of these people, and in the next chapter we shall learn more of their habits and customs. Knowing them better, we shall understand them better. We shall sympathize with them, and perhaps think more highly of these "lords of the lake and the forest" of the days before the white man. CHAPTER V All about the Indians of the North-west Coast. Those of us. who can visit a good library should read the graphic descriptions of the Coast Indians given by Captains Cook and Vancouver in the volumes narrating their journeys of exploration. Of recent years careful study has been made of these early races. Their legends and traditions have been recorded; their homes and villages have been visited; their weapons, tools, utensils, works of art and decoration have been examined. So we now have much information as to their civilization, their religion and folk-lore, and their arts and industries. In the Provincial Museum at Victoria, as well as in local museums, there are interesting Indian collections which are the result of this research work. Though we speak of all the native races of British Columbia as Indians, we should remember that there are a number of different "stocks", or nations, each speaking a different language. Looking at a map of the province we may note the following groups: Of the Coast races: the Haidas, living on the Queen Charlotte Islands; the Tsimshians around the Nass and Skeena Rivers; the Kwakiutl-Nootkas, occupying the north and east of Vancouver Island and the opposite 38 A typical face — Sarcee (Dene) Indian. From a photograph by C. W. Mathers, Vancouver. THE INDIANS 39 coast; the Salish on the rest of the island, on the lower mainland, and extending south of the present international boundary. Of the inland races, the Athapascan, or Dene, occupied the whole northern interior of the province, while the Kootenay tribes lived around the head-waters of the Columbia River and Kootenay Lake. There were subdivisions of these races. The Salish race, for example, included among others the Shuswaps, the Thompsons, the Okanagans, and the Lillooets; the Dene included the Carriers, the Babines, and a number of other tribes. We need not remember all these names, but it is interesting, when Indians are mentioned in the stories, for us to find on the map the areas where they were located. We are accustomed to think of Indians as roaming from place to place in search of game, and as living in skin or bark- covered wigwams. We read of their ignorance and super stition, of their cruel, revengeful A °*ne youth. From a photograph - , , r r by C. W. Mathers, Vancouver. nature, of their love or warfare, and of their contempt for labour. Though such a description may be true of some of the Indians of the Plains, we shall see that it by no means gives us an accurate picture of the Coast Indians. Nothing surprised the early visitors to these regions more than the sight of the huge community-houses of the Coast natives, that is, houses shared by a number of different families. In the southern part the dwellings were always erected facing sea-shore or river-bank, and were constructed 40 THE ROMANCE OF BRITISH COLUMBIA of thick cedar planks cleverly split from the tree trunk without felling the tree. These* houses were from forty to fifty feet in depth, back to front, and extended to five or six hundred feet in length. In one instance, one of these houses was a thousand feet long. The roof was nearly flat, only enough pitch being given to throw off the rain, and rested on stout up-rights fifteen feet high in front and about ten feet at the back. Farther north the houses were more nearly square, ranging in size from twenty feet by thirty up to fifty feet by sixty; these homes usually had a gable roof. These great buildings were occupied by a number of families, each having its separate fire, and shut off from its neighbours by partitions of planking or mats. On great occasions of feasting or celebrations the partitions were removed, one central fire was. used, and a large floor-space was available for the assembled guests. During the winter the interior was hung with reed mats to keep out the cold. Around the inside wall there ran a shelf or platform spread with mats on which the families slept, covered with skins or with blankets woven from the hair of mountain goats, or of woolly-haired dogs reared for the purpose. For furniture they used the cedar chests in which were stored the family treasures, blankets, ceremonial masks and costumes, and other valuables. These chests usually measured three feet by two, and were about two and a half feet in depth; the sides were made from one long cedar plank, split from the tree and worked down to proper thickness by chisel and adze. Where the three corners were to come the board was half cut through, so that it could be steamed and bent into shape without breaking; and the fourth corner, where the two ends of the board met, was pegged, or sewn with spruce-root thread. The bottom was accurately fitted and was pegged or sewn on to the sides. So well made were these boxes that food could be cooked in them by filling them with water and heating it by dropping in red-hot stones. THE INDIANS 41 From the beams that supported the roof were suspended shelves or racks on which were stored such supplies as fish, dried meat, and fruits. The earth floor was strewn with reeds or with fir branches. These houses were occupied during the greater part of the year. When the salmon began to run in the rivers, showing that the annual fishing season was at hand, the natives packed —Photo by C. W. Mathers, Vancouver. A family group, Coast Salish Indians. Notice the specimens of handicraft that they are displaying. up their belongings and set off for their summer villages, often removing the outside planks from the house and carrying them away in their canoes, to be replaced later when they returned to their community homes for the winter. The houses of the tribes of the northern coast were just as well constructed as these Salish houses and were more highly ornamented. Carved totem-poles were frequently set up before the house, and sometimes the entrance would be an opening cut through massive totem-poles that occupied the centre of the front wall. 42 THE ROMANCE OF BRITISH COLUMBIA The inland tribes also had two residences, a winter and a summer home. The summer home was a lightly-built structure of poles covered with mats and was suited for the moderate. weather conditions of that season. The winter homes were very different from those of the Coast tribes. Circular in shape, they were sometimes fifty or sixty feet across, but often smaller. For warmth these houses were built partly underground, a large circular space being dug out and roofed in by long beams meeting in the middle. This roof was then covered with earth, except for a hole in the centre, through which people entered by means of a notched pole like a ladder. Through the same hole the smoke of the fires escaped, and there were no windows. The ground was covered with spruce or fir boughs, and in other details the arrangements were like those of the Coast,winter houses. These subterranean houses could accommodate twenty or thirty persons, and each family would have its own fire-place; they are known as "keekwillee houses". Near-by would be the rubbish-heap, where garbage and other waste would be thrown during the occupancy of the house; some of these "kitchen middens" have been found after careful search, and have yielded objects of interest used by the Indians, drinking-cups, fire-tongs, dishes, platters, and spoons.* In addition to the foregoing, there were houses used for special purposes; large houses for ceremonial dances, pot latch-houses, hunting and fishing lodges. Skin-covered tepees were used only in the far north. Dressed skins formed the principal clothing of the men. These were made into a large square wrap> which was worn Professor Hill-Tout tells us that one of the most interesting of these middens, that at Eburne near the mouth of the Fraser, was nearly five acres in extent and had a maximum depth of twenty feet. This midden was formed when Sea and Lulu Islands were tidal flats, and must have been abandoned nearly a thousand years ago. Firs and cedars that have grown up from it show annular rings indicating seven centuries of growth. By measurement of skulls that have been recovered from this midden it has been concluded that a race of pre-historic Indians, entirely different from the Salish race, must at that period have inhabited this region. THE INDIANS 43 thrown over the right shoulder and under the left arm. Deer skin was the commonest, though, as we have seen, the beautiful sea-otter skins were used in the early days. Plaited hats were worn while fishing; and on important occasions face and body were smeared with oil and red ochre and sprinkled with glittering sand, and white swansdown—a symbol of peace and good-will—was sprinkled on the hair. The women wore petticoats and smocks made of deer skin, or of cedar bark which they shredded and wove with simple wooden looms. Cedar-bark blankets they also wove, using yarn of mountain goat or dog-hair wool interspersed at times with feathers. The Chilkat blankets, made in the far north, were beautifully decorated with totemic designs; in the south the patterns were generally geometrical. Buck-skin mocassins and leggings were worn in the northern interior. Besides being skilful weavers, the women were very clever at making baskets, nets, and mats. Their basket work was exceedingly beautiful, and even to-day the Indians have not lost the art. Spruce root and cedar bark were the materials used; these were plaited and twisted into a variety of forms and produced baskets of different sizes. Decoration was secured by geometrical designs carefully worked in grass material, which had been coloured with rich native dyes. These baskets were used for many purposes, for cooking, [KOgpijI -0k> II^Fj^S m wMm* \BHMJS»|p**«r Basketry of the Fraser River (Salish) Indians. * . * f INDIAN RACES OF BRITISH COLUMBIA SCALF OF M/LES 25 o zs so is too ns iso U»l 111! -I I THE INDIANS 45 holding water, storing food, and so on. Fishing nets were made of nettle fibre, gathered in October, dried,. and the fibres combed out: from this the women would spin nettle twine and tie it into meshes of uniform size. For personal adornment necklaces were used by both men and women, dentalium shells, claws of bears and other animals, beads of bone or horn being employed for this purpose; later on glass beads were obtained from the fur-traders. Ear and nose pendants were worn, and also the labrets, or lip ornaments, to which Captain Vancouver objected so strongly. For their food supplies the Coast Indians depended mainly on fish, and, among fish, the salmon easily came first. Each summer the arrival of the salmon on the coast, and their crowding up the rivers to the spawning places, was the signal for the natives to assemble in large numbers at their favourite fishing grounds. Various methods were used to catch the fish; trolling with baited hook at the end of a line attached to the hand with which the canoe-man paddled; spearing with a pronged fork or spear; netting; and trapping with basket traps placed at the salmon weirs. The women cleaned and prepared the fish. The salmon were cooked by roasting before the fire or in the ashes, or by boiling in water heated with stones. A large supply was dried and smoked, and so preserved for future use. Another fish greatly prized was the oolachen. These fish are ten or twelve inches long, and in spring they arrive at the mouths of certain rivers in large numbers. They were taken in nets, or were speared with a kind of rake; and, besides being valuable as food, they furnished a supply of oil which was used in cooking and flavouring. From the coast an important trade in this oil was carried on, and long trails, known as "grease trails", led up important river-valleys to the districts inhabited by the Dene and by other tribes of the interior. It is said that these fish, when dried, would burn 46 THE ROMANCE OF BRITISH COLUMBIA like a torch; hence they were known as "candle" fish. Shell fish, especially clams, were used as food; and herring and halibut were also caught in large numbers. The hardy Nootka Indians even carried on a whale fishery. Berries and roots, the inner bark of the hemlock tree, and certain kinds of sea-weed constituted the vegetable diet of the Indians. Wild onions and carrots, bulbs of the camas .lily, roots of bracken and clover were steamed in earth-ovens by pouring water on red-hot stones. Wild fruits such as elderberries, salmon berries, huckle-berries, salal berries, crab- apples, and other fruits were first boiled, then pounded in a mortar or kneaded with the hand, and spread out in the sun to dry. The dried cakes were put away and would keep for years. When it was to be used, the cake was broken up, kneaded with a little water, mixed with oil, and eaten with a spoon. Deer, though plentiful, were valued by the Coast tribes more for the skin than for food. In the interior, where fish was not so readily obtained, venison was an important food, and bear, mountain-goat, and other game were regularly hunted. In various forms of wood-work the men excelled, housebuilding, canoe-making, and carving being examples. We have already noted their skill in splitting planks and in the manufacture of cedar chests. As canoe-builders they were most expert, and the dug-out cedar canoes of the Coast Salish were noted alike for their graceful lines, their beautiful finish, and their seaworthiness. These canoes were hollowed from a single cedar log from thirty to sixty feet in length, and the only tools employed in making them were axe and adze, aided by the use of fire. Charring and laborious adzing were the methods by which the inside was hollowed out and the outside given its graceful curves, and the canoe-builder tested the thickness of the wood between the finger-tips of his two THE INDIANS 47 hands. Heat was then used to broaden the canoe and give it "beam", fires being lighted near enough to heat, without scorching, the outside, while water heated with hot stones filled the inside. In this way a log three feet across might produce a canoe of five foot beam, and strong thwarts would be fitted so as to hold the canoe permanently in shape. A raised bow and stern were added, and totemic decorations would adorn sides and bow. A large canoe of this kind held fifty or sixty persons, and could safely make sea-journeys anywhere among the islands or up the coast. The natives were exoert car— Typical Coast Salish canoes. vers in wood, bone, horn, and stone; we possess numerous examples of paddles and clubs, stone hammers, masks, oil- dishes, and platters, which testify to their skill and to their decorative ability. Probably all of us have seen a totem-pole and have wondered why men should go to such pains to produce the grotesque figures thereon represented. To understand this we must know something of the beliefs and religion of the Indian of the North-west Coast. In the first place, let us remember that, to the Indian, everything around him, living or dead, had a corresponding spirit, or "ghost". The man might die, but his spirit lived; the deer or salmon might be killed and eaten, the canoe or the tool might be destroyed, and yet the invisible spirit-form of 48 THE ROMANCE OF BRITISH COLUMBIA these things would remain. 'To the Indians," says Professor Hill-Tout, "the spirit world was a very real world, ever present, indeed the source of all the ills and pleasures of their existence. Whatever good luck might befall them was due entirely to the benevolence of the 'spirits'. They were thus at the mercy Haida Indian totem-poles on the Queen Charlotte Islands. Notice the entrance to the house through the base of the totem-pole. of the ghosts of things, whose pity must be implored, anger propitiated, and goodness recompensed." In the second place, the Indian believed that the spirit of anything might become a "totem", i. e. a guardian-spirit, to a man, bringing him good and averting disaster; and, in addition to this, he believed that the representation of an object was the spirit of that object. Even when he spoke the name of the totem, he thought that the spirit was present. THE INDIANS 49 So to benefit himself he would gather around him the representation of those objects or beings that were favourable to him, carved in wood or bone, or crudely painted on house- front and canoe. A man or woman might have an individual totem, or guardian spirit, as well as a totem of the clan to which his family belonged, the bear, eagle, raven, killer-whale, or thunder - bird, for example; and each clan had its own tradition as to how it came under the protection of that totem. So a totem-pole at the entrance to a house, or a totemic painting on the house-front, was reallv a Collection of Indians wearing ceremonial dance masks. From a photograph by C. W. Mathers, Vancouver. crests, and would be readily understood by an Indian. The animals and supernatural beings represented would show him the tribe and clan of the man and his wife who lived in the house, and would, perhaps, also indicate his family ancestors on both sides, and some of his family history; it was what we call a "heraldic device". And similarly, a mask worn during ceremonial dances indicated the totem, or guardian spirit, of the wearer, and therefore the clan or family to which he belonged. The representations were grotesque, and not beautiful, simply because the object was to produce, especially in the young, feelings of horror and dread, to preserve a sense of mystery and awe. Among the Coast Indians, as, indeed, among ourselves to-day, a man's social position depended on his wealth, his 50 THE ROMANCE OF BRITISH COLUMBIA control of property; and, if a man could afford to destroy or give away his property, it was regarded as conclusive proof of his wealth and greatness. This belief explains the importance among the Indians of the "potlatch", or festival at which a great distribution of presents was made. On important occasions, such as the building of a house, or the coming of age of his son, a man would summon all his friends to a great feast and would present them with numerous blankets, or, in early days, with slaves, canoes, and skins. The feasting might last many days, and the presents would be given most lavishly to the wealthiest of his friends, poor relations receiving less. Such presents could not be refused, and the man who received them was obliged, when he in turn gave a potlatch, to give back more than he had received. So the giver of the potlatch gained two advantages; first, he acquired great renown as a man of wealth and position; and, secondly, he made an investment that would surely be repaid, with interest, later on. At some places in British Columbia where these great festivities took place "potlatch houses" are still to be seen, with the posts beside which the blankets were exposed to public view when stacked up ready for distribution. The custom of giving potlatches was found to lead to trouble, and has now been forbidden by the government. Apart from their belief in the spirit world and its influence on their lives, the Coast Indians had little or no religion; and yet they were by no means a race of low and degraded savages. They lived simply, it is true, and somewhat roughly; but in social relations they had a code of rules that called for honest dealing, industry, humility, generous hospitality, and kindness to the old, to children, and to animals. They were not courageous and war-like, as were the Indians of the Plains, but then they were peaceably disposed, and less blood-thirsty. Kindly and good-tempered, they were almost child-like in their simplicity; they showed themselves ready to trust the THE INDIANS 51 white man and to imitate his ways. Says Judge Begbie in 1859, after travelling through British Columbia and visiting many of the Indian tribes: "My impression of the Indian population is that they have far more natural intelligence, honesty, and good manners than the lowest class—say the agricultural and mining population—of any European country I ever visited, England included." And Professor Hill-Tout, perhaps the greatest living authority on the Coast Indians, concludes his interesting book with these words: They were, before contact with Europeans, a well-regulated, peace- loving, and virtuous people, whose existence was far from being squalid or miserable;" and again: 'The life of an average Western Indian, as it was lived in the earlier days, was not that of a vicious or degraded savage. He had advanced many stages beyond this when we first came in contact with him, and his life, though simple and rude, was on the whole, well-ordered and happy; and if his wants and aspirations were few, so also were his cares and worries." These, then, were the Indians whom Cook and Vancouver found living on the North-west Coast; and we are now to read the story of the arrival among them of the Canadian fur-traders from across the mountains. CHAPTER VI How Alexander Mackenzie, though shipwrecked in the Rapids, was the first white Man to cross the Mainland of North America. It was a hot afternoon in July, 1793, the second year that Vancouver had spent exploring the North-west Coast. The summer had been unusually showery, but to-day the blazing rays of the sun glinted through the heavy green foliage of Douglas fir and spruce and shone upon a little group of white men slowly marching through the bush. They were following a narrow trail that wound in and out between moss-covered boulders and tall ferns and led from the river-bank to a large Indian village. Their keen faces were swarthy, their clothing was torn and travel-stained, and, although armed, they were of peaceable appearance. Presently they emerged into a clearing, and, if we may judge from the noise and confusion that greeted them as they approached the Indian houses, the visitors were not welcome. Their arrival had evidently been announced in advance, and the natives—armed with spears, bows and arrows, and axes— hurried to and fro in great alarm. The leader of the party solved the problem of their reception by boldly stepping to 52 Sir Alexander Mackenzie. From a portrait in the Canadian Archives. ALEXANDER MACKENZIE 53 the front and shaking hands with the Indian chief and his sons, quietly requesting a supply of food for his party and information as to his whereabouts. His confident manner allayed the suspicions of the natives, and they began to be more friendly. The visitors were supplied with food, and an Indian offered to accompany them as guide on their journey towards the coast. A day or two later the party fell in with more Indians in canoes, and among them was one young brave who seemed particularly hostile. With an insolent air he pressed forward to inform the new-comers that white men like them had quite recently visited the coast "in a big canoe", and that their leader, whom he called "Macubah", had fired a gun at him, and that another, "Bensins", had struck him with the flat of a sword. "Macubah" and "Bensins" were, of course, Vancouver and Menzies, and it is quite likely that they had awed these natives with fire-arms so as to restrain their war-like inclinations. This noisy individual was at last quieted, but the Indians never showed any real friendliness. So, after a stay of a few days in the neighbourhood, the white men embarked again in their canoe and returned up-river the way that they had come. Had the natives been able to understand the language of the new-comers they might have read on a great rock near Dean Channel (for that is where these events occurred) an inscription boldly painted in red. The inscription which the visitors had left behind them as a record of their coming was as follows: lcAlexander Mackenzie, from Canada, by land, the twenty-second of July, one thousand seven hundred and ninety- three." A wonderful thing had happened. For the first time white men had made their way from Eastern Canada across the mountains and had pushed through the forest till they had m 54 THE ROMANCE OF BRITISH COLUMBIA "vT reached the western ocean. No wonder that the savages were surprised to see their visitors from the east; and no wonder that these visitors in their turn had been astonished to see signs that these far-away Coast Indians had already met and traded with civilized peoples. But who was this Alexander Mackenzie? And how came it that he and his companions had succeeded in reaching the coast after threading the maze of untrodden forest and mountain that had so long blocked the road from the prairie? What led them to make this hazardous trip, and what dangers and adventures had they met? ||| This is the story that we are now to hear, and we shall go back to the point where Mackenzie began his adventure and witness the start of the expedition. It was a crisp, sunny morning in October, 1792. Already the nights were frosty, though snow had not yet mantled the earth in its wintry garb, and in Fort Chipewyan, at the south end of Lake Athabaska, all was hustle and bustle. For to-day Alex- ander Mackenzie, the officer in charge of this trading^post of the North West Company, was to set forth with his men on an adventurous journey into the unknown lands west of the mountains. A bold and experienced traveller was Mackenzie, beloved of his men, because he would ask of them nothing that he was not ready to do himself. Three years before this he had made a successful journey of exploration down the great river that connects Lake Athabaska with the m m &i^*w$mte Fort Chipewyan in early days. From a print in the Provincial Archives, Victoria. ALEXANDER MACKENZIE 55 Arctic, and which had been named after himself. When, therefore, he had announced his plan of pushing up the Peace River, and so into the west, he had had no difficulty in enlisting the services of a sufficient number of brave and skilful boatmen. The great expedition had two objects in view; first, to open up with the western Indians a fur-trade that might bring in increased business for the North West Company, in which Mackenzie was a partner; and also, to find (though this seemed too wonderful to hope for) the mysterious and eagerly sought waterway, the "River of the West", by which the Pacific Ocean would be reached. So on this particular morning all was rush and bustle. Everybody was busy; for finishing touches had to be given to canoes and equipment; arms and ammunition must be carefully packed; and the ninety- pound bales of goods needed for trading purposes or as presents for the Indians must be carefully stowed. Mackenzie himself was everywhere, and at last preparations were completed. All hands from the fort came down to the shore to wish the travellers God-speed and au revoir, and amid cheering, firing ofguns, and boat-songs they set forth. Roads there were none, but the rivers and the waterways formed the means of travel from one end of Canada to the other. Even between Fort Chipewyan and Montreal—the Company's headquarters thousands of miles away—all the goods required for barter with the Indians, all supplies for the fort, all the valuable furs that they had purchased, were shipped by water, the journey occupying months of arduous work on the part of the hardy French-Canadian boatmen employed for this duty. It was late in the season for a start, but Mackenzie planned to complete only the first stage of his journey before the winter frosts should bind river and lake in icy grip and make travel impossible. Crossing Lake Athabaska and paddling 56 THE ROMANCE OF BRITISH COLUMBIA steadily up the Peace River for two hundred miles, they reached Fort Fork, where the Smoky River joins the Peace. At this point was situated the last and most westerly of those little trading-posts where Indian would meet white man and exchange his furs for blankets, copper kettles, tobacco, firearms, knives, and other products of civilization. Mackenzie had arranged to spend the winter at Fort Fork, so as to be ready for an early start in the spring. The buildings, however, were small and inconvenient, and during the short autumn days they busied themselves in erecting substantial log-houses in which they could live in comfort. Winter was passed in this distant outpost. The cold was .«^jf' A canyon on the Peace River. From a photograph often Severe, but the in the Bureau of Mines, British Columbia. h()uses proved warm and comfortable. The days were filled with preparations for the journey that lay ahead. At night-fall, grouped around the blazing fire, the cheery French-Canadians sang songs and told thrilling tales of adventure and hair-breadth escapes, while Mackenzie would make and describe to them his plans for the future. From time to time Indians arrived at the post, bringing in furs, the result of their trapping or hunting. ALEXANDER MACKENZIE 57 Spring came at last, and, after five canoe-loads of the furs had been sent down-river to Fort Chipewyan, the adventurers were ready to bid farewell to civilization. The real start was now to be made. Ten men made up the party, which included Alexander Mackay—Mackenzie's right- hand man; Joseph Landry and Charles Ducette—experienced boatmen who had accompanied him on the Arctic trip; four other Canadian voyageurs; and two Indians with their mascot, the dog. One large canoe, twenty-five feet long but very light, held the whole party, together with provisions, goods for presents, arms, ammunition, and baggage, to the weight of more than a ton. On a beautiful May afternoon they set forth, and commenced the long, toilsome journey up the Peace River. The snow was melting in the mountains, and the current was very rapid, but when they were tired of paddling they would "pole" the canoe along mile by mile, all hands sharing in the heavy work. As they approached the foothills, the scenery became beautiful beyond description. On the grassy lawns which covered the benches beside the river they saw vast herds of buffaloes and elks, with their young frisking around them; trees were in blossom, and in the background the higher ranges of hills came into sight. Presently the river narrowed, and the stream ran so swiftly that it became a boiling torrent, and they had to land, lift out the cargo, and with tow-line over their shoulders haul the canoe along. For fourteen miles the river swept through the canyon in its headlong career, and the travellers' progress was slow, a few miles a day being all that they could do. In some places the rocks and cliffs so overhung the river that even when they cut steps in the rock it was difficult to secure a foothold. In one place they had to carry the canoe for nine miles, stumbling along a steep trail that they had hacked out through the bush. Pluck and determination carried them ALEXANDER MACKENZIE 59 through all difficulties, and by the end of the month they had reached the point where the Fin lay from the north-west and the Parsnip from the south-east join their waters to form the Peace. Which branch should they follow? After anxious consideration Mackenzie took the advice of the Indian guide and started up the southern stream, although this one ran the more swiftly and appeared to lead away from the direction of the western ocean. So strong was the current that for several miles some of the party walked along the bank in order to lighten the canoe, while those remaining in the boat hauled themselves along by grasping the overhanging willow- branches. The swift stream prevented paddling; it was too deep for them to use poles; and the dense bush along the banks made towing impossible. A few days later they met a small party of local Indians, and from them Mackenzie hoped to gain some information. At first the Indians seemed unfriendly, for these were the first white men whom they had ever seen; but Mackenzie won them over by giving them presents of beads, pemmican, and even sugar for their children. After much coaxing, one of the natives was persuaded to make a charcoal sketch on a piece of bark showing a river which, he said, would lead them to the western ocean, and he even volunteered to accompany them as guide. The Indian's plan showed that they must follow up to its source the river on which they were travelling, then cross the portage and descend a stream that would lead them to the Great River of the West, or, as it was afterwards called, the Fraser. This good news cheered and encouraged the little band of explorers, and once more they pressed forward. Gradually the Parsnip became narrower and the current more slow, and at last they reached the small lake out of which the river 60 THE ROMANCE OF BRITISH COLUMBIA flows. There they unloaded the canoe and carried it and the baggage along the narrow trail which the Indian pointed out. Eight hundred and seventeen paces was this "carrying-place", and then they once more launched the canoe on a small lake. Leaving this lake, they followed the southward-flowing stream which, according to their roughly sketched map, was to take them to their goal, a stream which Mackenzie named the Bad River. The junction of the Peace and the Parsnip Rivers. From "A History of British Columbia", by Scholfield and Ho way. Now, as the brave explorers floated down with the current, their troubles appeared to be over. They were yet to learn that though travel down these mountain streams was easier than ascending them, it could be even more dangerous. For some days all went well, and they made rapid progress, but on June 13th they met with an accident that threatened to involve the expedition in complete failure. ALEXANDER MACKENZIE 61 The party were travelling in their usual manner, some of the crew making their way along the high bank, while others were guiding the canoe as it swiftly sped down the river. Suddenly and without a moment's warning the current swept them around a bend, and instantly the frail bark was plunged into a turmoil of rapids and cascades. Disaster followed quickly. As the canoe spun around broadside to the stream, the steersman lost control; the stern struck heavily on a great boulder that stood up out of the river-bed; the bow swung on to a projecting ledge; jagged rocks pierced the canoe in several places, and, sweeping into shallow water, it filled and rested on the bottom. Though no lives were lost, the wreck was complete. The Indians wept at the sight, but some of the boatmen were not altogether disappointed, for they thought that now at last Mackenzie would abandon his hazardous plans and return home. They little knew their man. "Courage, friends," said he to the assembled party. 'We ought to be thankful for our escape and to learn from this experience to proceed with greater caution. You French- Canadian boatmen are famed for your bravery, so together we will repair our canoe or build a new one. It is honour, not disgrace, that this mishap will bring us, the honour of overcoming difficulties and not the disgrace of failure. Courage, mes enfants, en avant!" The brave words of their fearless leader put new heart into everyone, and with good-will they set to work. Everything was soaked with water; so camp was pitched, and clothing, baggage, and supplies were spread out in the sun to dry. From the Indians bark, resin, and a kind of oilcloth were j procured, and the canoe was patched up. A few days later they were ready to proceed. Leaving the scene of their disaster, they continued downstream, and on the fourth day they met with a fresh difficulty. 62 THE ROMANCE OF BRITISH COLUMBIA Their new-found Indian guide deserted them. Mackenzie had suspected that he intended to run away, so each night he and Mackay had taken turns to lie beside him and watch him, but all in vain. As it happened, this was no serious loss, for towards evening of the same day they reached the main stream of the Fraser, "and", says Mackenzie in his journal, "we enjoyed after all our toil and exertion the inexpressible satisfaction of finding ourselves on the bank of a navigable river, on the west side of the first great range of mountains." For three days the journey was continued without further incident, but on the fourth afternoon on the river-bank above them a large band of Indians made their appearance. Shouting threats at the white men, they finally discharged a flight of arrows, which fortunately fell short of the mark. Crossing over to the opposite side of the river, Mackenzie considered the situation, and at last decided on a bold and clever scheme. Keeping on the opposite bank, at some distance from his party, he took up a position alone on the beach, and, when the Indians approached in their canoes, he displayed to them trinkets, beads, looking-glasses, and other presents so as to show them that his intentions were friendly. Meanwhile, he had ordered one of his own Indians, fully armed, to hide himself at a short distance in the bush, so that in case of attack he might quickly come to Mackenzie's assistance. The plan succeeded perfectly, and before long, through the interpreters, a lively conversation was going on and some valuable information was obtained. They were now at a point on the Fraser close to where Fort Alexandria was afterwards built, and the Indians warned them not to continue down the main river, as the rapids were dangerous, and they would encounter many hostile natives. On this advice they turned back and paddled up-stream till they reached the river which* came in from the west, the Blackwater. They now felt confident that a few more days' travel would bring them to the sea. ALEXANDER MACKENZIE 63 With so much knocking about and so many repairs, their canoe had become leaky, as well as very heavy to carry, so bark and other materials were collected, and a week was spent in building a new one. In this they travelled up the Black- water till further progress seemed impossible, and then, towards the end of June, they met with Indians who had iron, brass, and copper trinkets, and beads and knives evidently of European make, and who told them that the coast was only six days' journey away. On July 4th, then, they carefully cached their canoe and the supplies which they could not carry, and set forth to complete the journey on foot. What a strange sight they must have presented as they wound their way along the Indian trial, carrying on their backs bags of pemmican, ammunition, presents for the Indians, and Mackenzie's instrument case and telescope, each man loaded with ninety pounds as well as carrying his gun. But here, perhaps, the most interesting part of their journey began. For, as they neared the coast, friendly Indians accompanied them, each little party seeing them safely to the next settlement and introducing them to their neighbours, who in turn passed them along to the next village. Mackenzie was able to learn much about Indian habits and customs. He visited their large community-houses in which a number of families lived together. These winter houses of the Coast Indians are described.in the preceding chapter. Substantially constructed of cedar boards, they were decorated outside with totemic pictures, and inside were divided into several sections, each with its own fire and sleeping quarters, and each accommodating a family. Clever fishermen were these Indians, for they had salmon-weirs on the river, and wonderful traps for catching salmon and trout, as well as nets, and fishhooks made of bone or iron. Mackenzie and his men tasted their strange foods, baked trout, salmon-roe served in oil, venison, wild parsnips, and various kinds of berries. ALEXANDER MACKENZIE 65 The trail which they had been following now brought them to a westward-flowing stream, the Bella Coola, and they continued their journey in canoes provided by their Indian friends. From time to time they landed to visit a neighbouring village and obtain supplies and information as to their route.. They were usually welcomed, and, even when their arrival alarmed the natives, Mackenzie's fearless bearing allayed suspicion and won their confidence and friendship. At the opening of this chapter we saw Mackenzie and his little party arrive at one of these villages. Success was almost won, and he felt confident that the western ocean was close at hand. He could no longer doubt it as he gazed at the Indians' trinkets and metal ornaments, evidently secured as the result of trading with Europeans, or as he listened to their tales of white men who had sailed in great canoes like floating islands. He could feel the tang of the sea in the west wind that lashed his cheeks, and, as we saw, he did attain his ambition and signalized his triumph by his famous inscription on the rock: "Alexander Mackenzie, from Canada, by land,.the twenty-second of July, one thousand seven hundred and ninety-three." Mackenzie had reached the shore of the Pacific at Elcho Harbour, near the mouth of Cascade Inlet, not far from where Ocean Falls is situated to-day. He was short of provisions, the Indians showed themselves unfriendly, and his men were anxious to be home again; so he decided upon an immediate return and started back the same day. The following morning brought an unpleasant adventure. They had landed and were walking along an overgrown bush- trail, Mackenzie as usual in the lead, when a crowd of Indians approached shouting and gesticulating, two men in front waving daggers and evidently bent on mischief. Quick as thought Mackenzie threw off his cloak, levelled his gun, and made as if to fire on them. Though they understood what 66 THE ROMANCE OF BRITISH COLUMBIA he meant and dropped the daggers, one of the crowd managed to grip the bold leader from behind. Fortunately he did not stab him, and, as Mackenzie's companions came running out of the wood, the natives fled back to the village from which they had come. Having ordered his men to prime their guns and prepare for a fight, Mackenzie followed the Indians to the houses and boldly demanded that they Lir^irrT^'1 ~^*«?*l —Photo by C. W. Mathers. Vancouver. Dog-Rib (Dene) Indians, Mackenzie River District. give back his cloak, hat, and other things that they had stolen. The natives were overawed by this display of courage, and not only returned the missing articles but also handed over a generous supply of fish. This village they named "Rascal Village"; to-day it is known as Bella Coola. Slowly the party made their way up-stream, and eventually reached the settlement where they had been so well received a few days previously, and which they had named "Friendly Village". There they were again welcomed, and, as their ALEXANDER MACKENZIE 67 store of pemmican was now getting very low, they gladly accepted the fish which was offered to them. Back they journeyed, following the bush trails by which they had crossed the mountain country on their westward march, and at the end of July they were at the spot where they had hidden the canoe and food supplies, all of which they found untouched. On the Fraser River Mackenzie saw numbers of salmon, for, as we have seen, these fish came up from the sea in great shoals at this season; the water was much higher than at the time of their earlier visit. By the middle of August the adventurers reached the divide between the Fraser and Peace Rivers, having safely passed the rapids where they had been shipwrecked, and where, as Mackenzie says in his journal, "some of us had nearly taken our eternal voyage". The weather was showery, and they found the nights very cold. Soon they were able to procure venison and buffalo meat from hunting, a welcome addition to their scanty fare, and, at length, on August 24th, they rounded a point and came into view of Fort Fork, which they had left on May 9th. After a short rest, the party continued down the river to Fort Chipewyan, arriving back home after eleven months' absence on as adventurous a journey as it is possible to imagine. Thus happily ended this famous journey across the mountains to Ae shores of the Pacific, and for all time Alexander Mackenzie will be remembered as the first white man to cross the main body of the North American continent. Such an exploit could have been accomplished only under skilled leadership and with the aid of loyal followers who had implicit faith in their chief. Two important results had been attained. Mackenzie had shown that it was possible to extend the Company's fur-trade in that vast unknown territory to the west; and he had also discovered a route by which these western coast-lands could be reached from the prairie-country, and that route was an overland route. CHAPTER VII Simon Fraser explores the Great River of the West; not the Columbia, as he expected, but the Fraser River. Alexander Mackenzie's wonderful explorations had shown his partners in the North West Company that a valuable fur-trade could be carriecLon with the Indians west of the Rocky Mountains. Yet his discoveries had little immediate result, and twelve years passed before the Nor'Westers began to establish trading-posts in these western lands. Why were they so slow to take action? The delay was caused by internal feuds and dissensions among the Nor'Westers. In 1795 — two years after Mackenzie's journey to the Coast—the North West Company split into two sections, a number of the seceders forming a rival organization which they named the XY Company. Bitter was the competition that followed, and a few years later Alexander Mackenzie himself joined the XY Company and became one of its most influential leaders. In 1804 the breach was healed, and at once the Nor'Westers entered on a spirited forward policy. At the annual conference at Fort William in 1805, it was decided to extend their fur-trade west of the mountains without delay. But not to Mackenzie fell the honour of carrying on that great work. His part in the drama had been played, and though he lived more than twenty years longer, the scene of his activities lay elsewhere than in Canada. It was left to another to complete the task which he had begun. The very year, 1792, that saw Mackenzie's departure on his memorable western trip, witnessed the enrolment in the ranks of the Nor'Westers of a new recruit. It was in that 68 SIMON FRASER 69 year that Simon Fraser, a brawny lad of sixteen, like Mackenzie of Scottish descent, entered the service of the famous fur- trading company. Stationed at various outlying forts, he soon proved his mettle, and in ten years he rose to the position of "bourgeois" or partner. For so young a man the honour was very great, but the promotion was well deserved. Fearless and energetic, blessed with a strong constitution, Fraser early gave evidence of a determination that would carry him over all obstacles, and of a cheerful yet firm disposition that admirably fitted him to be a leader of men. So, in 1805, he was selected to take full charge of the Company's operations across the mountains. His instructions were to extend the activities of the Company throughout the western land (now named New Caledonia), and, if possible, to explore and follow down to the sea the "Great River" which Mackenzie had discovered. It was with the greatest delight appointment, for he was a lover of adventure and of the wild life of the forest. Many a time he had enjoyed the- thrilling experience of watching the fur-traders arrive at or depart from the trading- posts where he had been stationed. He had been fired with enthusiasm as he looked upon the gaily attired French- Canadian voyageurs singing their cheery boat-songs, the canoes cutting through the water as they were urged along by flashing paddles, the crowd of swarthy Indians that ^raser accepted his Siftlon Fraser. From a portrait in the Provincial Archives, Victoria. 70 THE ROMANCE OF BRITISH COLUMBIA lounging around to barter their furs for # the trinkets and goods offered by the traders. And now he himself was to command an expedition, and to have the exciting experience of shooting dangerous rapids, of threading his way through the pathless wilderness, or of pow-wowing with the Indians and persuading them to engage in trade with their white friends. In the fall of the year 1805 Simon Fraser set forth on his journey. From the prairie lands he followed the route that Mackenzie had taken. Westward up the Peace River he ssPism ""^•■Wgfts-**** Fort McLeod on McLeod Lake, founded in 1805. This was the first fur-trading post built west of the Rocky Mountains. made his way, then southward up the Parsnip and Pack Rivers to McLeod Lake, where he built a fort—the first trading-post established west of the Rocky Mountains. Some of his men remained there for the winter. The following spring Fraser rejoined them and continued his task of exploring river and lake; for these were the highways into those western wilds from which he hoped to reap a harvest of furs for his company. He was now in the land of the Carrier rndians, a war-like tribe, who were inclined to resent the visit of the fearless SIMON FRASER 71 whites and to offer resistance to their advance. But Fraser was accustomed to dealing with such people, and knew well how to pacify them and win their confidence. Presents were distributed, and he tells amusing stories of their reception of his gifts of tobacco and soap. Mistaking the soap for fat, the squaws proceeded to eat it, till it turned to lather in their mouths. The tobacco they tasted and threw away, and great was their surprise to see the white men smoke it and puff the smoke out of their mouths. Evidently the "pipe of peace", so dear to the red men of the plains, had not yet reached them. ?M Three more forts Fraser built for the purpose of carrying on trade: Fort St. James on Stuart Lake and Fort Fraser on Fraser Lake, in 1806, and in the following year Fort George, named after the King and situated on the bank of the Great River just where the Nechako comes into it from the west. In this way the first trading-posts in our western land were established. From these early beginnings there arose the great system of fur-trading and settlement which laid the foundations of oUr province. Well may we honour Simon Fraser as one of the founders of British Columbia! And now Fraser began to make the final preparations for his crowning work of exploration, the journey down the Great River to the western ocean. In 1804 two American explorers, Captains Lewis and Clark, had descended the Columbia River from the Snake River to the sea, and in 1792 some of Vancouver's men had ascended the Columbia for a hundred miles from its mouth. Fraser expected, as had Mackenzie before him, that the Great River would prove to be the same Columbia whose outfall had thus been located, but whose direction through its upper course had so long been shrouded in mystery. As we shall see, he was mistaken. By the end of May, 1808, all was ready for the venturesome voyage. Twenty-four men made up the expedition, travelling 72 THE ROMANCE OF BRITISH COLUMBIA in four canoes. With Fraser went his chum, John Stuart, a trusty and experienced trader, who had long been in the service of the Company. Turning their backs on Fort George and bidding farewell to the little band which they were leaving behind them, they headed boldly downstream. At once their adventures began. Swollen with the melting snows, the river was high, and the stream ran fast. They soon entered canyons and were swept by the boiling, tossing waters through narrowing channels between high, rocky banks. Skilful as were the boatmen, it was with difficulty that they avoided shipwreck, and the sight of more level country, with the river running tranquilly between grassy meadows and low-lying hills, offered a welcome contrast. The party soon reached the point where Mackenzie had turned back on his southward journey. Indians were seen in large numbers, and from them they heard gruesome stories of the perils that lay ahead. The river was dangerous, the The descent of the Fraser River. From a. colour drawing by C. W. Jefferys, by permission of Glasgow, Brooke & Co., Limited. SIMON FRASER 73 natives told them, and no boat could live in the tossing waters that dashed through the rocky gorges; the precipitous cliffs on either side were unclimbable and impassable. It was a depressing outlook, and men of lesser courage and determination would have abandoned the enterprise. But Fraser and his companions were made of sterner stuff, and they resolved to make the attempt and to win through if it were any way possible. From the Indians they obtained supplies of food—salmon, berries, nuts, wild onions, and even dog's flesh—-a toothsome dainty. Just as Mackenzie had done, they arranged that news of their coming should be passed along ahead of them, so that before they arrived among unknown Indians their peaceable intentions had been announced. Day after day they continued their perilous descent. At night-fall, wearied with their exertions, they would find a suitable camping- place, or lodge in a native village or encampment. When the rapids made navigation impossible, they landed, packed the luggage, and carried the canoes over the toilsome trails and portages, launching their frail craft lower down and paddling a few miles, only to repeat the experience again and again. In one place, Fraser tells us, the river narrowed to forty yards and swept madly between perpendicular cliffs of immense height. To land and carry the canoes was impossible; to face the awful current was the only alternative. It was with the greatest difficulty that they kept, clear of rock and precipice, skimming along as fast as lightning, the crews cool and determined, following each other in awful silence, and—after making the passage—gazing at each other in silent congratulations at the narrow escape from total destruction. Simon Fraser realized at last that it was impossible to make the journey entirely by water. They must land and follow the Indian trail through the bush that everywhere 74 THE ROMANCE OF BRITISH COLUMBIA covered the high rocky banks of the rushing torrent. So the birch-bark canoes were drawn out of the water, carefully stored on a staging of wooden planks, and sheltered by pine- boughs from the blazing sun. Some of the supplies they cached in readiness for their return, and on foot they continued their journey towards the sea, "ten nights distant", as they learned from friendly Indians. On June 14th they reached the "Forks" where the Bridgel River joins the Fraser; near this point one of the greatest- power-plants in Western Canada is to-day in course of erection. Lillooet they reached the next day, and there they were deserted by the three friendly Indians who had been accompanying them, but who feared the war-like natives living on the lower mainland. Fraser's party were now among the Thompson Indians, and in every village articles of European make were seen, showing that these Indians carried on a regular trade with the native tribes of the coast. These Thompsons were intelligent and cultured, and gave the weary explorers a warm reception. Their principal village was situated near the point where a large river comes rolling down from the mountains to the east to join the main stream. This river Simon Fraser named the Thompson, .in honour of his friend David. Thompson, of whom we shall read in the next chapter. There the Indian chief had assembled his people to do honour to his visitors; "over twelve hundred," says Fraser, "sitting in rows, and I had to shake hands with the whole." Salmon and oil, berries and roots were offered them, and as a crowning gift they were presented with six dogs. All night long the natives sang and danced in honour of their guests. The following day, cheered and refreshed, the travellers once more embarked on the river. Not only did the friendly Thompson Indians supply them with canoes, but their chief, together with a guide, accompanied the expedition for six SIMON FRASER days and introduced them to the tribes farther down. This part of the journey proved even more dangerous than anything that they had hitherto encountered. To-day two railroads, like giant snakes, thread their twisting course down the stupendous canyon. As we look from the car-windows, —Courtesy of the Canadian Pacific Railway. The Fraser River, near North Bend; Hell Gate Canyon. between Lytton and Yale, we can form some idea of the difficulties that these brave adventurers had to overcome. To navigate the raging torrent below, swollen as it was by the melting snows, was impossible. Staggering along a narrow trail made by the Indian fishermen, scrambling over rocks and boulders which afforded at best but a treacherous 76 THE ROMANCE OF BRITISH COLUMBIA foot-hold, only a band of heroes could have won through to success. Says Fraser in his journal: "It is so wild that I cannot find words to express our situation at times. We had to pass where no human beings should venture; yet in these places there is a regular footpath impressed, or rather indented, upon the very rocks by frequent travelling. Besides this, steps which are formed like a ladder or the shrouds of a ship, by poles hanging to one another and crossed at certain distances with twigs, the whole suspended from the top to the foot of deep precipices and fastened at both extremities to stones and trees, furnish a safe and convenient passage. to the natives; but we, who had not had the advantage of their education and experience, were often in imminent danger." But courage and determination brought success, and the end of the dangerous canyon was reached at last. From Hope onward the Fraser >Valley broadens out, the river slows down, and—as it nears the sea—becomes the stately, placid stream that winds past New Westminster and across the fertile flats of the Delta country. Once more embarking in their canoes the explorers had little difficulty in making rapid progress through the beautiful lowland country. Meadow-lands were seen, fringed by dense forests of cedar and hemlock, with the snow- crowned peaks of the Coast Range forming an impressive background. The natives showed neither surprise nor alarm. Great communal houses like those described by Mackenzie A view on the Fraser River looking down from Lytton. SIMON FRASER 77 were noticed, and the monster totemic figures, carved to represent bear and killer-whale, thunder-bird and raven. And now Fraser proved the truth of the reports as to the war-like tribes who lived near the river-mouth. From the wooded banks close to where New Westminster stands to-day a canoe put out, and one of the natives joined Frasers little band for the purpose, it was thought, of guiding them to the right channel. But very soon more canoes made their appearance, and these were filled with armed natives singing war-songs, beating with paddles on the sides of the canoes, and making threatening gestures. Alarmed at this display and wishing to avoid a conflict, Fraser's party hurried on, and, reaching a point where the river divides into several channels, they took the northern one. Soon they reached a large Indian village known as Misqueam (the very name that it bears to-day), and from there they were able to catch a glimpse of the open water of the Strait of Georgia. This was on July 3rd, and for the heroic little band it was the supreme hour of triumph. Although they had not reached the open Pacific, as Fraser had all along hoped that they would do, they had traced the river to its outfall. Eagerly they set up their instruments and made careful observations to ascertain their exact location. To Fraser's astonishment he found that he was three degrees, (or more than two hundred miles) north of the entrance to the Columbia! Evidently, then, Mackenzie's "Great River", which he had been following, was not the Columbia, as had been supposed by Mackenzie himself and many others, but was ah entirely different river. While looking for one river he had found another! To Simon Fraser, therefore, belongs the honour of having first traced the course of the river that bears his name, and of settling for all time its identity. Like Mackenzie, Fraser found himself short of supplies and surrounded by hostile native tribes. Nothing remained 78 THE ROMANCE OF BRITISH COLUMBIA but to retrace forts. This w Scarcely had warriors were and blocking and evidently with difficulty his steps and return once more to his northern as, however, more easily proposed than done, the party started up-stream than hordes of observed massing their forces on both banks the river with their canoes. All were armed preparing to dispute their passage. 'It was ," says Fraser, "that we could prevent them --v"Tr 11 *** i^ ^t^^^s^^^^^^^^^^^- ^ft^L^e^^ jMjjjPPf|8fe- Ifx^gi-fc.? S&^^w^f •jjgj* ■ ^^^-^- . ■ - - * .^ ,JP**5^ Sli*^.... ' ", "''' —'- •. w •■' : "", '" r:~-^ii,«?^" "^*"r™i"^—^J?^'. ~; S"1 ^TSSS™^ T^lSslIilfe" jp *«fc— ;. -JSk * —Photo by Maynard, Victoria. Long community-houses of the Coast Indians as seen by Alexander Mackenzie and Simon Fraser. with the muzzles of our guns from seizing upon the canoe; they, however, managed to give us such a push, with the intention of upsetting us, that our canoe became engaged in a strong current, which, in spite of our efforts, carried us down the rapid. We gained the shore at the foot of a high hill where we tied the canoe to a tree. Here I ordered Mr. Stuart with some of the men to debark and ascend the hill in order to keep the Indians in awe: they, perceiving our preparation for defence, retired, but still kept ahead." This happened near the place where Chilliwack stands SIMON FRASER 79 to-day, and Fraser's companions were now well-nigh in despair. But the courage and resolution of their leader never faltered, and at length they were persuaded to trust themselves to his guidance, and once more to face the perils of the long northward journey. The party at last arrived at the village of the friendly Thompson Indians, who were greatly surprised to see them again. When, a month ago, these kindly natives had bidden them farewell, it was, as they thought, forever. They had fully expected that disaster would overtake Fraser's expedition at the hands of the war-like J2bast tribes. Food and supplies were freely granted; and the little band pushed north, up the swift-flowing rapids, over the dangerous trails, and on July 20th they reached the place where they had cached canoes and supplies on their southward journey. The last stage of the trip was completed by August 6th, and on that day Simon Fraser re-entered Fort George where a warm welcome awaited the heroic explorers. So ended one of the most remarkable expeditions that the history of our Country has recorded. Even to-day, as we travel in comfort and security through the wonderful Fraser Canyon, we are amazed at the skill and energy that have enabled engineers to build railroads through these stupendous gorges. What courage and determination, then, were shown by those hardy pioneers who blazed a trail through Unknown territory to an unknown destination, thus opening up routes for fur-trading brigades and laying the foundation for the development which we see to-day.* Simon Fraser takes an honoured place among the little band of heroic figures, Cook, Vancouver, Mackenzie, and others, whose victories over ^Nature's obstacles were no less notable, and often far more enduring, than victories won in war. CHAPTER VIII David Thompson explores the Kootenay Country and reaches the Mouth of the Columbia River. Thirty years had elapsed between Captain Cook's visit in 1778 and Simon Fraser's trip down the Fraser River. Although Captain Cook's visit had shown that a fur-trade with the Coast Indians could be carried on by sea, yet British vessels had by this time ceased coming, chiefly because of the irksome trade restrictions which hampered them; so the maritime fur-trade had fallen into the hands of their American rivals. Meanwhile, as we have seen, the mountain barrier to the east had been penetrated; the breach between the warring sections of the North West Company had been healed; and in the year 1805 a definite forward policy of extending the fur-trade into the West had been entered upon. Simon Fraser had established a group of forts in Northern British Columbia, then known as New Caledonia, and from these forts a steady supply of furs was being brought east over thousands of miles of waterway and portage to Montreal, the headquarters of the North West Company. But from the northern gateway of the Peace River to the southern entrance by the Columbia was a far cry, and the Nor'Westers determined to find other routes through the mountains as soon as possible. So in the year 1806 they instructed David Thompson, a partner in the company, to hasten to Rocky Mountain House, their western outpost" on the Saskatchewan River, to cross the mountains, and to build trading-posts in the south country just as Simon Fraser 80 DAVID THOMPSON 81 was already building them and opening up trade with the Indians in the north. Who was this David Thompson, and how came he to be entrusted with this responsible duty? At this time Thompson was in his thirty-seventh year, and he had long been in the service of the Company. Born in London in 1770, he had at an early age shown unusual promise, and when seven years old he was admitted as a charity pupil of the Grey Coat School in that city. This school was one of those long ago endowed by generous benefactors to provide a good education for children whose parents could not afford to pay for it themselves. Seven years completed Thompson's school career, and during that period Gulliver's Travels, Robinson Crusoe, and The Arabian Nights were the books that delighted him in the intervals of studying mathematics and geography. At the age of fourteen he was bound apprentice to the Hudson's Bay Company and left England to begin his term of service at Fort Churchill. The first two years were a trying experience. The cold was intense; the work disappointed him, though he found some satisfaction in being able to continue his.scientific and other studies. After that time he began a strenuous period of travel and exploration. He accompanied—and later on commanded—expeditions that visited the Nelson, Churchill, and Saskatchewan country, and he even penetrated as far as Lake Athabaska. But he was not satisfied with the treatment that he received at the hands of his superiors, and in 1797 he decided to throw in his lot with the rival organization —the North West Company. The Nor'Westers welcomed the energetic and ambitious young man. He was by this time not only an experienced trader, but was also highly skilled in geography and astronomy, useful knowledge for one who was to explore unknown lands THE ROMANCE OF BRITISH COLUMBIA and to make his own maps with the aid of observations taken from day to day. For the North West Company he did valuable work, making surveys and travelling thousands of miles in his visits to the head-waters of the Mississippi and to the Muskrat country north-west of Lake Winnipeg. No wonder that the Company selected him for the important duty of finding new passes across the Rocky Mountains! They could not have made a better choice. In the winter of 1806- 1807, then, we find Thompson at . Rocky Mountain House all ready for the fray. Not a word of his plans must leak out, for the neighbouring Indians, the war - like Piegans, would prove hostile, and would probably oppose any western expedition that might lead to trade with and so strengthen the weaker Kootenay tribe across the mountains. Travelling with canoe and pack-horse, his little party sets forth, following the North Saskatchewan River to its source among the mountain fastnesses. • As they advance, the country becomes wilder and rougher, and they look out over such scenery as to-day meets our gaze from the car-window of the Canadian Pacific train between Kicking Horse and Rogers passes. The river dwindles to a Typical Indians of the Plain (Eastern Dene), with 'whom Thompson came into contact. From a photograph by C. W. Mathers, Vancouver. DAVID THOMPSON 83 mere brook; the divide is passed; and they catch sight of a little stream flowing westward—the Blaeberry, as we now know it; for they are coming through the gap now known as Howse Pass. "May God in his mercy," writes Thompson in his journal, "give me to see where its waters flow into the ocean and return in safety." Down the steep valley the party winds in single file, crossing and recrossing the stream till it empties into the Columbia River. There they call a halt and spend some days building canoes, a task for which these hardy travellers are always prepared and in which they are very expert. Then "all aboard!" once more, and away they paddle southward up the Columbia to Lake Windermere, near its source There, following his instructions, Thompson begins to build a trading-post, Kootenae House, the first fort built by white men on the Columbia River, and in this fort they spend the following winter. While the fort was being built, Thompson had a thrilling experience with the fierce Piegans, who had by this time learned of his arrival west of the mountains. Crossing by the trails which they knew so well, thirty of these warriors encamped near the slowly-rising fortification, and their threatening attitude led Thompson to confine his men within the enclosure. Food was carefully rationed, so that there was no need to go outside hunting, and water was drawn up in kettles each night from the river below. After some weeks the unwelcome visitors disappeared, and danger seemed to be over. One morning two more Piegans, evidently scouts, showed themselves, and Thompson determined to face the matter out. Bringing them into the fort he showed them the strength of its defences, the heavy stockade, and the bastions loop- holed for gun-fire. "I know you come as spies," he said, "but, if your warriors attack us, many of you will die before you succeed. Go back and tell your people this." Then 84 THE ROMANCE OF BRITISH COLUMBIA he sent them away—loaded with presents of tobacco for their friends! Just as they were leaving, two Kootenay Indians came to visit the fort and caught sight of the hated Piegans; the rivals glared at each other like tigers. Meanwhile, the brave little band within the fort waited for the attack which they hourly expected, but which never —Courtesy of Mr. J. B. Tyrrell. Ruins of Kootenae House, near Lake Windermere. came. The winter snows at last had made the mountain trails impassable, and they were safe till the following spring. Later on Thompson learned the details of their escape. The two Piegans were, as he suspected, the advance guard of a party of over three hundred, who were determined to attack and crush the expedition. They arrived within DAVID THOMPSON 85 twenty miles of the post and awaited the return of the two scouts. When these did put in an appearance, their report was received with mixed feelings. The Kootenay warriors, the spies said, were assembling under the white men to fight for the protection of the fort. They described its defences, and produced and handed over Thompson's gift of tobacco, six feet for the head chief and eighteen inches for each lesser chief. A solemn council of war followed, and, strange to say, it turned out that the war-chief of the party was an old-time acquaintance of Thompson's, and was not particularly in favour of the proposed attack. Influenced by his opinion, the Indians one by one smoked the pipe of peace, and, in accepting the white man's present, bound themselves not to go to war with him. "For," as one chief said, "what can we do with this man, since our women cannot mend a shoe without his seeing them," (alluding to Thompson's astronomical instruments and observations). Another said, "I have attacked tents, and my knife can pierce them; but to fight" against logs of wood that a ball cannot pierce, and to attack people with whom we are at peace, that will I not do." Thus did Thompson's courage and resource, aided by the support of an old friend, prevent the destruction of the first trading-post on the Columbia. Sarcee (Dene; skin lodge, common among the northern Indians. 86 THE ROMANCE OF BRITISH COLUMBIA When the opening buds and lengthening days announced the approach of spring, Thompson prepared to continue his exploration. A two-mile portage from the source of the Columbia brought him to a stream which flowed south. On this he launched his boat, and, with four voyageurs he paddled down the Kootenay (as the river is known to-day) for over two hundred mijes, following its windings first west, —Courtesy of the Department of Agriculture, B.C. Sunset on Kootenay Lake, one of the many beauty spots among the mountains of British Columbia. then north, and by the middle of May reached Kootenay Lake. There he and his companions met friendly Indians, and from them obtained a few dried carp and some bitter black bread made from moss. It was poor fare, but by killing a deer now and again they managed to supply themselves with sufficient meat for their needs. Owing to the flooded rivers the Indians did not dare to come to the fort to trade, and it was impossible for the small party to paddle home again against the current. So the canoe was laid up, horses DAVID THOMPSON 87 were procured from the Indians, and they returned across country to Kootenae House. On the map the distance appears short, but even this brief journey was a trying one. Streams swollen by the summer floods had to be forded or bridged by trees that they felled. Their Indian guide lost heart and deserted them, and two men were sent back to engage another guide. None would venture on the perilous journey, but fortunately the chief, Ugly Head, agreed to lead the party, and at last they were safely back at the fort. Thompson now had to go to headquarters to take back the furs and secure supplies, and, when he returned to his companions, it was too late in the season to make further explorations. The following spring (1809) Thompson continued his laborious task, making long journeys to the south, visiting the Indians and promising them guns, ammunition, and iron arrow-heads in return for furs. While there he built two more forts, Kullyspell and Salish, and in 1810 Fort Spokane was founded; all these forts were situated well to the south of the present international boundary line. Thompson's visit put heart into the timid Indians; for by means of trade they were now able to purchase fire-arms and to defend themselves against the fierce Piegans of whom they had so long stood in awe. But the Piegans were filled with bitterness, and planned revenge against the bold white men who had crossed the mountains and supplied arms and ammunition to their ancient foes. Thompson had now carried out! his instructions. Forts had been built and trade started, and it was to be expected that in a short time the Nor'Westers would be receiving a valuable supply of furs from their new friends to the south. But the next year, 1810, news reached the Nor'Westers that an American ship, the Tonquin, loaded with goods for trade, was on her way around Cape Horn to the Columbia 88 THE ROMANCE OF BRITISH COLUMBIA River. Evidently the American traders were following up the explorations of Lewis and Clark and were preparing to establish a fur-trade in the south. So, in the month of October, at Rainy River, Thompson received orders to continue his exploration of the Columbia, and, if possible, to travel right down that river to its outfall in the Pacific Ocean. —Courtesy of Mr. J. B. Tyrrell. The ruins of Rocky Mountain House, the western outpost of the North West Company, on the banks of the Saskatchewan River, Alberta. We do not know whether Thompson really hoped to reach the mouth of the Columbia before the Americans arrived, for in his movements we do not see signs of any particular haste. In his journal Thompson says that he was to be at the river-mouth by August, and, as we shall see, he arrived there on July 15th. The Columbia drained an immense area, and there was room for both American and Canadian traders, but it was desirable that a fair division of the territory DAVID THOMPSON 89 should be made and that Canadian interests should be safeguarded. Although it was late in the season to set out on so long a journey, a beginning was made about the end of October. Thompson planned to follow, the Howse Pass trail across the mountains, but unfortunately the Piegans got wind of his plans, and it became necessary to follow another route. From Rocky Mountain House the party struck off northward till they reached the Athabaska River. They followed this stream, using an old trail of the Assiniboine Indians, and by December they were in the heart of the mountains close to Athabaska Pass. The cold was intense, thirty-two degrees below zero at night, and the horses that they had brought with them had to be sent back as useless in such rough country. Sleds and snow-shoes were got ready, and on foot they scrambled over the steep trail, amid rocky peaks and glacier-swept slopes that every moment threatened destruction. The summit was passed, and they began the western descent, following the course of the Wood River. So steep was the path that the dogs were at times unable to guide the sleds, and again and again sled and team would be entangled among the pine trees that clothed the mountainside. Loads had to be unpacked to relieve the faithful animals, and terribly hard work it was for both man and dog. The bank of the Columbia was reached at last, and a short halt was made where the river makes its great bend around the Selkirk Mountains, at the place afterwards known as Boat Encampment. Wearied and disheartened by the hardships of the journey, several of the men deserted the party, and Thompson decided to remain at Boat Encampment till the severe weather was over. A rough cabin was built, and during the early spring months the neighbouring district was visited and explored, and a clinker-built canoe was constructed in readiness for the descent of the river. 90 THE ROMANCE OF BRITISH COLUMBIA But, when they were ready to set out, only three canoe- men were willing to face the risks of the long voyage down the unknown river to the sea. To attempt the journey with so few would have been madness. They must make some new plan; and so Thompson was reluctantly compelled to follow his old route up the Columbia to Kootenae House, —Courtesy of Mr. J. B. Tyrrell. The Dalles of the Columbia River in flood, as when Thompson passed in 1811. The new canal is seen in the foreground. down the Kootenay River and by way of the forts which he had established in the Pend d'Oreille country far to the south. From there Thompson made his way to the Columbia River at Kettle Falls, built a canoe, and, With five French Canadians, two Iroquois, and two local Indians as interpreters, he set forth on the last stage of his journey. It was now June, and through the long summer days the canoe sped DAVID THOMPSON swiftly down-stream, urged on by the flashing paddles. Many natives were seen, and from time to time Thompson paid a visit to the village of some local chief. The pipe of peace was smoked, and the Indians promised that they would carry on trade with the white man. At the stern of the canoe floated a small Union Jack, and at one point a notice was posted claiming the land for King George. The Snake SSSSS&S^wS —Courtesy of the Canadian Pacific Railway The Thompson Memorial Fort, Windermere, erected by the Dominion government to.commemorate the work of the explorer. River was passed; the rapids known as the Dalles and the gorge through the coast mountain-range were left behind; and on July 15th, 1811, they reached the mouth of the river, and Thompson had completed his long journey. As the explorers rounded the last bend, the buildings and stockage on the river-bank ahead betokened the presence of the American traders. These trade rivals had been first to reach the river-mouth, and they were engaged in building a post which they named Astoria, after John Jacob Astor, the 92 THE ROMANCE OF BRITISH COLUMBIA founder of the Company. The Nor'Westers were for the time beaten; the Pacific Fur Company had established themselves on the lower Columbia; and yet—two short years later—the Americans were glad to hand over buildings and trade to their powerful rivals, and to leave the Canadians in full control from the Columbia northward to New Caledonia. But this story we must leave till our next chapter. After a short stay at Astoria, Thompson and his men retraced their journey up the river. Paddling up the Snake tributary, they travelled a short distance overland to Kettle Falls, and from there followed the Columbia through the Arrow Lakes to Boat Encampment, thus completing the survey of the river from its mouth through to its source. Among the pioneers and explorers of British Columbia David Thompson holds an honoured place. His work has not in the past been sufficiently appreciated, and it is sad to know that he ended his days in poverty and obscurity. To-day we hold him in high esteerri, and through the generosity of two great corporations, the Hudson's Bay Company and the Canadian Pacific Railway Company, there has recently been erected near Windermere a memorial fort commemorating the work of David Thompson, Geographer and Astronomer, the heroic explorer of the Kootenay country. CHAPTER IX The North West Company on the Columbia River: a Canoe Trip across Canada a hundred Years ago. We have seen that the northern part of our province had been named New Caledonia, and that the explorations of Simon Fraser and David Thompson had opened up a vast territory extending south to the Columbia River and even farther. To these new lands, which seemed destined to come under the sway of the Nor'Westers and add to their wealth, was given the name Oregon. But there was one thing that gave cause for anxiety. It was the fear that American traders, following the lead of their explorers Lewis and Clark and basing their claim on the discovery of the Columbia by Gray in 1792, might themselves push west and occupy this promising territory. Since it was the Canadians who had first crossed the continent to the Pacific and established trade with the Western Indians, it seemed only fair that they should enjoy the reward of their courage and enterprise. We can understand, therefore, the disappointment of the Nor'Westers when they found that the Pacific Fur Company had already established itself at the mouth of the river. We can understand, too, the annoyance of the Astorians when they realized that they would encounter severe competition at the hands of the powerful Nor'Westers, who had already commenced trading from the posts which David Thompson had established higher up the river. Little did either party suspect that dramatic events would in a few months remove all competition for the time being and hand over the whole of Oregon to the Canadian traders. 93 94 THE ROMANCE OF BRITISH COLUMBIA Even before the fort at Astoria had been completed, the eager Americans had begun to prepare for trade. The ship in which they had rounded Cape Horn, the Tonquin, in command of Captain Jonathan Thorn, was dispatched up the coast on her first fur-buying trip, and bands were sent inland to open trade with the Indians and build forts at important points on the river-bank. In the employ of the American company were a number of Canadian voyageurs, many of whom had seen service with the Nor- Westers. These voyageurs were keen and experienced, familiar with the country and inured to hardships, and they met with success in their efforts. They built Fort Okanagan near the junction of that river with the Columbia, and Fort Kamloops on the Thompson River. Disaster followed swiftly on the heels of these attempts. First came the terrible news that the good ship Tonquin had been captured by the Indians of Vancouver Island, her crew massacred, and the vessel blown up by the explosion of her powder-magazine. The sad story resembled that of the loss of the Boston. Captain Thorn was inexperienced in the ways of the Indians, but he had with him Alexander Mackay, who had accompanied Mackenzie to the coast in 1793. Mackay advised caution; but the captain, disregarding his warnings, allowed the savage natives to crowd on board the ship, and for his rashness the whole ship's company paid Fort Astoria in 1813. From a print in the Provincial Archives, Victoria. THE NORTH WEST COMPANY 95 the penalty with their lives. The only survivor was the native interpreter, who escaped and brought to Astoria the news of the tragedy. Shortly after came tidings that war had broken out between the United States and Britain (the War of 1812). This last occurrence made the position of the Astorians almost hopeless. On land they were exposed to attack by the Canadian fur- traders, who were far more numerous than they, and by sea there was likelihood of attack by British war-ships. When, therefore, a little later a strong party of Nor'Westers under John George MacTavish came paddling down-stream to Astoria, the occupants of the fort were only too glad to make terms with them; and Duncan McDougall—who was in charge—sold out the whole concern, trading-post, furs, and stores to their rivals. Thus the persistence of the Nor'Westers had earned its reward. The efforts of Mackenzie, Fraser, and Thompson had at last accomplished the result which the partners had desired, and the Canadian fur-traders reigned supreme from New Caledonia in the north to California far away to the south. It was a magnificent territory which they had won. In extent it was equal to half-a-dozen European states. Its fur supply seemed inexhaustible, and the Indian inhabitants had shown themselves willing to trade; the climate was ideal and the soil productive; and a maze of waterways offered ready means of communication from one end of the land to the other. To signalize the change of ownership Fort Astoria was re-named Fort George. Around the fort fields were cultivated, and the buildings were added to and strengthened. Preparations were then made to extend the fur-trade northward to the Fraser River. But these efforts, made between the years 1814 and 1821, did not meet with success, for they did not receive the whole-hearted support of the Company. Let us see the reason for this lack of support. 96 THE ROMANCE OF BRITISH COLUMBIA The North West Company had been for many years in keen competition east of the mountains with their powerful trade rivals, the wealthy and longer established Hudson's Bay Company. The struggle between them had become very severe, and the Nor'Westers were obliged to strain every nerve to hold their ground in the fight for the fur-trade. Just at the time when men and supplies should have been sent into the newly-won Oregon territory, they could not be spared, because they were needed in the Prairie country. So bitter did the feud become that open warfare was threatened, and, indeed, blood was shed in their quarrels during the year 1816. Thus the development of Oregon proceeded very slowly, and it was not until after the year 1821, when the two companies joined forces under the older name of the Hudson's Bay Company, that any real progress was made. We shall read more of this important change later on. Meanwhile, the Nor'Westers continued to draw an increasing supply of furs from their forts in New Caledonia. Let us pay a visit to one of these forts and see something of the life and adventures of the brave men who occupied them. For ten years after Simon Fraser left New Caledonia the destinies of these northern forts lay in the hands of two men, John Stuart, who had accompanied Simon Fraser on his journey down the river and who was now in charge of Fort McLeod, and Daniel Harmon, whose headquarters were at Fort St. James on Stuart Lake. It is to Daniel Harmon's post that we shall now pay a visit. The month of April is drawing to its close. The weather is gloriously fine, for spring is here, and the lengthening days, with birds singing and snow almost gone, show that summer is at hand. The early morning has been crisp and frosty, but the soft air and warm sunshine are putting new life into everything. The grass-carpeted meadows around the fort are gay with spring flowers, and against a blue background of THE NORTH WEST COMPANY 97 mountain and sky stand out clearly the tender greens of the breaking buds and the blushing crimsons of the twigs— a shimmering network of pale greens and delicate rose- pinks. The fort before us is enclosed by a heavy wooden palisade some eighteen feet high. All around the inside runs a staging of planks upon which—if need be—the defenders can stand and ward off attacks from the Indians. At two —Courtesy of the Hudson's Bay Company Old Fort St. James, Stuart Lake. From a painting by Innes in the Provincial Archives, Victoria. opposite corners, commanding the approach to the gates, are bastions, or wooden towers provided with small cannon and loop-holed for gun-fire. The gates of the fort are built in pairs and are made of stout planks doubled and strongly bolted together; a small wicket is provided for ordinary use, and each night a watch is set. Within the fort enclosure are log buildings, the chief trader's house, residences for the workmen, the store, the salmon- shed, and the meat-house. Overhead the old flag floats 98 THE ROMANCE OF BRITISH COLUMBIA in the breeze and reminds us that the Nor'Westers owe allegiance to the British Empire. At the fort are' stationed a small force of twenty-one men, five women, and a number of children. Ten or a dozen men are strolling about chatting together and evidently intent upon some approaching event. The great gate stands wide open, and in and out passes a constant stream of workmen, a few Indians lending a hand, carrying bale after bale of carefully packed furs, food supplies, and equipment, and securely arranging them as loads for a number of pack-horses which we see standing in readiness. What is happening? To what destination is this pack-train about to set forth? The bales of furs are the season's "returns" from this trading-post. The pack-train is to carry them over the eighty miles of rough mountain-trail that connect Fort St. James with Fort McLeod on McLeod Lake; and this day is the all-important occasion when the annual expedition is to be dispatched. No wonder that everybody is interested and excited! Some of the Indian hunters and trappers who have brought in the furs are encamped a few hundred yards outside the stockade, and you can see one or two strutting around in bright-coloured finery of bead and bracelet or admiring the gaudy hues reflected in mirror and looking-glass. Soon these Indians too will take their departure, to return later on with a fresh supply of furs. Daniel Harmon, chief trader, is keenly scanning the preparations. News has reached him that the ice is breaking up in the Peace River, and that the brigade from Fort McLeod, with its precious load of furs from New' Caledonia, will shortly set out on its long canoe journey eastward to Rainy River and Fort William. So he is sending his people with the Fort St. James returns, and he will follow to-morrow or next day and THE NORTH WEST COMPANY 99 probably overtake the slow-travelling pack-train before they reach Fort McLeod. At last all is complete ! The men selected for the journey put finishing touches to pack-horses and their burdens; a last farewell is waved; and, mid the din of shouts and cheers and reports of fire-arms, the little cavalcade winds up the trail that leads from the fort gate towards the mountains. Hardy voyageurs are in charge of the pack-train, gay with bright-coloured sashes and gaudy caps, and they enliven their march with French chansons as they slowly disappear into the haze. It is a merry journey, and the men who have been selected think themselves in luck. To them this annual trip is a veritable outing, for at their journey's end—Fort William on the shore of Lake Superior—they will meet old friends and enjoy a week or two of rest and fun. There will be merry-making and festivities and the "regale", or distribution of bread, pork, butter, liquor, and tobacco, to gladden their hearts after the toils of the long voyage. Short halts are made for meals, and at nightfall around the cheery camp-fire the air resounds with their rollicking choruses and tales of peril and adventure. After a few days Fort McLeod is reached, and there they join the main party. Rapidly and deftly the ninety-pound packs are transferred to the large birch- bark canoes, supplies of food, fire-arms, and ammunition are carefully stowed away, and amid the same joyous scenes of noisy merriment that witnessed their departure from Fort St. James, but with larger crowds and still more uproar, they finally take their leave. What a splendid adventure such a journey will be ! The canoes urged on by the paddles of the French- Canadian or Iroquois boatmen; in the bow the guide, a very responsible and highly-paid individual, whose word is law as he gives directions or signals with his hand the 100 THE ROMANCE OF BRITISH COLUMBIA course to be followed through the dangerous waters; behind the guide the foreman (perhaps the chief trader) in charge of a section of the brigade; next the middlemen plying their paddles, and in the stern the steersman, second in importance to the guide alone. In the rear follows canoe after canoe in long and picturesque procession. The weather at this season is usually fine. The village of Fort William on the shore of Lake Superior, the headquarters of the North West Company. The canoe-men know the rivers well, and all day long, as they fearlessly shoot the rapids or labour over^ the heavy portages or carrying-places, they enliven their work with joke and song, for all are in the highest spirits. Let us follow their course on a map. Down the Parsnip to the Peace River, portaging past its terrible rapids, and on to Fort Chipewyan on Lake Athabaska; nearly two hundred miles up the Athabaska River to the Clearwater, and over the La Loche portage to He a la Crosse Lake and the Churchill; down the Churchill and over the portage THE NORTH WEST COMPANY 101 to the Saskatchewan and Cumberland House, one of the Hudson's Bay Company's great establishments; thence down to Lake Winnipeg, across that lake and up the Winnipeg River to Rainy Lake; and so to Fort William on the shore of Lake Superior. They have reached their destination. There the brigades from Montreal meet them, having brought up the supplies of provisions and trading-goods for the next season's work in the upper country. These Montreal men, who work only in the summer season, are somewhat looked down upon by the "winterers", who will return to their arduous labours in the wilds; and by them they are known as the "pork- eaters", or the "comers and goers". But what happens during their stay of several weeks at Fort William ? At that post are now assembled, and this happens every summer, the chief factors from all the important up-country posts, and they will confer with partners of the Company who have come up from Montreal for this annual gathering. These meetings are conducted with great ceremony, and there all plans are made for carrying on and extending trade during the following season. In his historical work Astoria Washington Irving gives a vivid picture of the doings on such an occasion. 'To behold the North West Company in all the state and grandeur", he says, "it was necessary to witness an annual gathering at the interior place of conference established at Fort William, near what is called the Grand Portage, on Lake Superior. Here two or three of the leading partners from the various trading-posts of the wilderness met to discuss the affairs of the Company during the preceding year, and to arrange plans for the future. 'The partners from Montreal ascended the rivers in great state, like sovereigns making a progress; or rather, like Highland chiefs navigating their subject lakes. They were 102 THE ROMANCE OF BRITISH COLUMBIA wrapped in rich furs, their huge canoes freighted with every convenience and luxury, and manned by Canadian voyageurs as obedient as Highland clansmen. They carried up with them cooks and bakers, together with delicacies of every kind, and abundance of choice wines for the banquets which attended this great convocation. "Fort William, the scene of this important annual meeting, was a considerable village on the banks of Lake Superior. Here, in an immense wooden building, was the great council-hall, as also the banqueting chamber decorated with Indian arms and trophies of the fur-trade. The house swarmed at this time with traders and voyageurs, some from Montreal bound for the interior posts, some from the interior posts bound for Montreal. The councils were held in great state, for every member felt as if sitting in Parliament, and every retainer and dependent looked up to the assemblage with awe, as in the House of Lords. 'These grave and weighty councils were alternated with huge feasts and revels described in Highland castles. Th# tables in the banqueting-room groaned under the weight of game of all kinds, of venison from the woods, and fisW from the lakes, with hunters' delicacies such as buffaloes^ tongues and beavers' tails, and luxuries from Montreal, all served up by experienced cooks brought for the purpose. "While the chiefs thus revelled in hall, and made the rafters resound with bursts of loyalty and old Scottish songs, chanted in voices cracked and sharpened by the northern! blasts, their merriment was echoed and prolonged by a mongrel crowd of retainers, Canadian voyageurs, half- breeds, Indian hunters,^ and vagabond hangers-on who feasted sumptuously on the crumbs that fell from their table, and made the welkin ring with old French ditties, mingled with Indian yelps and yellings. THE NORTH WEST COMPANY 103 "Such was the North West Company in its powerful and prosperous days when it held a kind of feudal sway over a vast domain of lake and forest." At last the conferences are finished and the joys of the "regale" are ended. Trading supplies and provisions, yes, and the eagerly-sought letters from distant friends, are securely packed, and the New Caledonia brigade turn the prows of their canoes up-stream and prepare to return once more to the northern wilderness. Summer is now on the wane, and it will probably be well into October, or even later, before they are paddling into Lake McLeod and reach their starting point. They will be fortunate if they are able to complete the journey by water, for, if the cold sets in early, the rivers may be blocked with ice, and they may finish with a long tramp through the snow. In any case, the winter Supplies Will have tO be diS- Simon McTavish, the founder of .. , r r-. x >r t 11 the North West Company. tnbuted from rort McLeod by sledges and dog-teams, for this is the usual method of communication during the winter. The long double trip across mountain and prairie is now completed, and once more they are safely back at Fort St. James, where a warm welcome greets their arrival. From far and near assemble white man and Indian to listen to the story of adventure, discuss news from the outside world, and perhaps sample the latest in the way of tobacco and other luxuries. After a few days' rest, they will be ready to face the realities of another stern winter's work in New Caledonia. CHAPTER X Life in a Fur-trader's Fort: a Trip across British Columbia with the Land-brigade. We have watched the departure from Fort St. James of the annual expedition that carried the season's returns east to Fort William, and we have accompanied the voyageurs on their wonderful journey. To-day—with chief-trader Daniel Harmon s permission—we shall pass within the fort enclosure and witness for ourselves the happenings there. Since nine o'clock last evening the gates of the fort have been kept securely bolted, and all night long the watchman on duty has patrolled buildings and gallery. His cheery "All's well" reminds us of the need of constant watchfulness where so many Indians are in the neighbourhood. Soon after dawn the ringing of the fort bell calls the workers to their morning tasks, for every season of the year has its appointed duties. Stock must be fed and attended to; there is work in garden or field; repairs are made to implements and wagons; buildings may have to be erected or may need repair; and, when the Indians are camping around the fort and bringing in their loads of furs, the scene is a busy one indeed. Supplies of food must be secured, for these forts are all self-supporting, and regular hunting and fishing parties must be sent out. At eight the bell summons the men to breakfast; then work again till noon, when an hour is allowed for dinner. At six the day's labour ceases, though in the short, dark days of winter it is customary to stop a little earlier. Meals are taken in a large dining-hall around a common table. At the head sits the chief trader, and near him those higher in rank. The fare provided is simple but usually 104 THE LIFE OF THE FUR-TRADER 105 plentiful, salmon—fresh or dried—being a staple article of diet. August is the month when the salmon make their appearance in the river, and eagerly indeed is their arrival looked for. A poor run of salmon in any year means much suffering. "Unless the salmon from the sea soon make their appearance," says Harmon in his diary of August, 1811, "our condition will be deplorable." A week later he sends his people out to gather berries, so short are supplies; ten days later he writes, "One of the natives has caught a salmon, which is joyful intelligence for us all"; and on September 2nd, "We now have the common salmon in abundance." By October of that year twenty-five thousand salmon have been placed in the store-house for the winter supply; the usual ration, we are told, is four dried fish a day for each man. Some vegetables are grown around the fort; potatoes, turnips, onions, parsnips, carrots, beets, barley, all are successfully raised. Corn they try to grow, but find the climate too cold. The Indians cannot be induced to cultivate the land or grow crops. Tea and sugar, salt and pepper, flour and rum, are considered luxuries and are only —if at all—brought in when the annual expedition arrives from the East with the year's supply of goods for trading with the Indians. This trade with the Indians is carried on within the fort, though for safety only a few Indians are allowed within the gates at one time. There, in the large store, the furs which they Daniel Harmon. 106 THE ROMANCE OF BRITISH COLUMBIA bring are examined and valued, and payment for them is made in whatever goods the natives require. No coin is used; the unit of value is that of a prime beaver skin weighing about a pound and technically known as a "made beaver". All the skins brought by the Indians, as well as guns, ammunition, blankets, axes, knives, which they receive in exchange, are valued as worth so many "made beaver" or fractions of a "made" beaver". About the year 1830 we find a blanket valued at ten beaver^ skins and a gun at twenty; an axe sold for three skins and a file for two. Although the traders were very fair in their dealings with the Indians, there was sometimes trouble. Daniel Harmon tells us that on one occasion, soon after he came to Fort St. James, a local chief of the Carrier Indians named Kwah visited the fort and tried to force Harmon to advance credit to a worthless friend of his. Harmon refused and was insulted and threatened by Kwah, and finally had to give him a thrashing and drive him from the store. Some time later the chief invited Harmon to a feast. Mischief was evidently afoot, but, to avoid misunderstanding, Harmon felt obliged to accept the invitation. He went, however, in full uniform as chief trader—red coat with brass buttons, knee-breeches, and three-cornered hat with panache—and armed with sword and pistols. His interpreter, who accompanied him, was similarly armed, and they found nearly a hundred Indians View looking north on Stuart Lake. Note the Indian village in the distance. The mountains in the rear are the Babine Range. THE LIFE OF THE FUR-TRADER 107 assembled for the banquet. In the course of the feast the chief made a speech referring to the thrashing which he had received at the hands of Harmon. Had anyone but the chief trader attacked him, he said, one or the other would certainly have been killed, but he had misbehaved himself, and he was sorry for it, and from now on he regarded himself as Harmon's wife, for Harmon had treated him just as the Indian chief was accustomed to treat his own wives when they misbehaved ! This incident illustrates the effect on the Indians of firm and honourable dealing. Kwah trusted Daniel Harmon and was willing to acknowledge that he had done wrong and that he deserved his punishment. At times even still more exciting adventures befell these hardy pioneers, and, during one of their trips together, Stuart and Harmon, with their interpreter, narrowly escaped being massacred by the Indians of Fraser Lake. They had gone there to buy furs and salmon, and we are not told the exact cause of the trouble. Harmon does tell us, however, that eighty or ninety of the Indians armed themselves with guns, axes, and clubs for the purpose of attacking them, and that by mild measures they succeeded in appeasing their anger. The life of the early traders was not by any means an easy one. But usually life in these forts was rather monotonous and uneventful, and, as the months and years slowly passed, the traders often became weary of their exile in the wilderness. At the larger establishments there would be many buildings and a number of men. But the smaller posts were often left in charge of a trader with a clerk to help him, or they were even managed by one clerk alone. The loneliness of the life led many men to seek society among the Indians, and it often happened that they took to themselves wives from among the dusky daughters of the forest. These Indian 136° "I5f* THE LIFE OF THE FUR-TRADER 109 women generally proved devoted and helpful companions, and such alliances not only secured the friendship of the native tribes, but also reconciled the men to a life of isolation in the forest. Daniel Harmon himself married an Indian wife and had' several children. In the absence of priests, an official entry in the Company's books took the place of a legal ceremony of marriage. The Indians nearly always showed themselves friendly to the white traders who had settled among them; rarely was there any open hostility or even bad feeling between the two races. At times trouble arose through local customs which the natives could not be induced to change. Daniel Harmon tells us of their cremating the body of a dead chief to the accompaniment of great cruelty to the living survivors. The body of the man, who had married two wives, was burned on a funeral pyre along with his beaver-skin robe, shoes, gun, powder-horn, trinkets, and treasures. The two wives, standing one at the head and the other at the foot, were compelled by the surrounding;! Indian onlookers to assist in the ceremony, so that they themselves were seriously injured in the flames. Only certain tribes followed this custom, and at a later date the Company suppressed the cruel practice. The Indians' passion for gambling often led to quarrels, for they would bet on games of chance till they had lost everything that they possessed, even to the last stitch of clothing. In 1815, while Daniel Harmon was at Fraser Lake, eight Babine Indians paid a visit to the neighbourhood. Following their custom, they began to gamble with the local Carriers who were entertaining them. Either because they were cleverer than their hosts, or through trickery, the Babines always won, and bad feeling sprang up between the two factions. They prepared for a fight, but at the last moment peace was restored when the winners handed over all the 110 THE ROMANCE OF BRITISH COLUMBIA property which they had won. Even after that, one of the Babines was shot, as he was in the act of embarking in his canoe, and his friends departed, vowing vengeance on the murderers. Feuds like this often led to a series of killings—each under pretence of being an act of vengeance. If the actual'murderer did not pay the penalty of his crime, one of his family would be killed by a relative of the victim, who himself might be slain by the murderer's family, and so on. Liquor was freely supplied to the Indians in the early days, especially when there was keen competition between the rival companies for trade. It was soon found, however, that not only did drink turn the Indian into a madman, but also it hampered his skill as a huntsman, and the number and quality of the furs alike fell off. So, by agreement among the traders, no liquor was supplied to the natives, and later on this voluntary agreement was replaced by the strict regulations which have been maintained down to our own times. In these forts a careful record was made from day to day of all the important happenings, as well as of the various business transactions in fur-trading. The duty of writing up these records fell upon the trader himself or his clerk, and the fort-journal was just as sacred a document and as accurately kept as is a ship's log. Many of these old journals are still in existence, and it is in them that we are able to read interesting details of life in a fur-trader's fort. ^a^^'^i3^iSii^^»g^a£^sf--^^ WU K*K* lib 'J^j^l^^f EHML ^jBBKl5^U^i^j^^^R^^^^^I ~ "* '^ - ; flr 'Cj""~ *■ ?- • n - _•; -v^ «?y"*Jfe&lS*fi££ -*j m*^M^:I^*^k.,i\ A view of the present Fort St. James, showing the buildings as they appear to-day. THE LIFE OF THE FUR-TRADER 111 In our last chapter we saw that each summer the chief factors attended the gathering at Fort William. It was after one of these conferences that instructions came to John Stuart to explore and open up, if possible, an easier route by which the forts in New Caledonia might be reached from Eastern Canada. Down to Daniel Harmon's time Fort St. James had always been reached by way of the Peace River, the way by which Mackenzie and Fraser had travelled. But Oregon was now under the control of the Nor'Westers, and from Montreal goods could be shipped more cheaply and safely by sea to the mouth of the Columbia River, and from there be taken up the river and distributed among the posts of the interior. The question was: Could a safe route be found from Fort St. James to the Columbia River? It was to solve this problem that John Stuart set out from Fort St. James in the summer of 1813, blazing the trail and opening up from north to south a fur-trader's route that was in use for very many years. Let us follow this route on the map. From Fort St. James the traders paddled down the Stuart and Nechaco Rivers to Fort George on the Fraser, and down the Fraser to the point where Fort Alexandria was established a few years later. There they abandoned the canoes, for with their valuable cargoes they dared not face the perils of Simon Fraser's voyage through the canyons. At Fort Alexandria, when this route was in regular use, pack-horses were in readiness to carry the bales of furs over the wild mountain trails to Kamloops on the Thompson River. There horses were changed, and the journey was continued across the intervening high land to Okanagan Lake, following lake-shore and river-bank southward through the sage-brush country to Okanagan Fort. There they reached the Columbia River, after an overland journey of some four hundred miles in all. From Fort Okanagan the river journey was resumed, 112 THE ROMANCE OF BRITISH COLUMBIA the goods being stowed away in the heavier boats, "bateaux" as they were called, which carried them down to headquarters on the lower Columbia. To the Columbia came regularly the Company's supply ships from Montreal, having made the trip around Cape Horn. It was not till twelve years later that this route came into regular use, but thereafter the "brigade trail", as the overland part between Alexandria and Fort Okanagan was A freighting canoe used on the Fraser River. called, was as well-defined a highway as any road which we have to-day. "A beautiful sight," says Malcolm McLeod, "was that horse-brigade, with no broken hacks in the train, but every animal in his full beauty of form and colour, and all so tractable—more tractable than anything I ever knew in civilized life." To meet these pack-trains of two or three hundred horses was a thrilling experience. Hark! What are those sounds that we hear in the distance? Is it the jingle of bells? Not sleigh-bells, of course, for the season is late summer. Yes, it is the music of bells, and we can hear the voices of men, too. THE LIFE OF THE FUR-TRADER 113 Around the bend they come, and through the trees we catch a glimpse of a long cortege of pack-horses, winding in single file along the forest trail. Each section is led by a faithful old bell-mare, proud of the honour of her position as she carefully picks her way, sure-footed and sedate. Year after year she has made the journey back and forth, and now she knows the trail as well as the drivers themselves. Near the head of the train rides the chief factor, an imposing figure in black broadcloth, leather .gaiters, capes lined with coloured silk, and tall beaver hat over which a cover is pulled for protection. Behind him follow the pack- animals in their hundreds and of every variety of temper, for horses have tempers, just as men have. Some jog steadily along in the wake of the leader, others are spiteful and try to "elbow" a friend off the narrow track or viciously snap at him. Some are sure-footed, others just as likely to slip and lose their footing in some particularly dangerous spot. Some follow with an air of resignation, others as regularly lag behind and have to be rounded up, lest they get away from the party. Riding up and down the lines are the gaily-attired French-Canadian drivers, urging on the stragglers and enlivening the journey with joke and song. Away they go, and we wish them good luck as they slowly disappear down the trail, and the merry sounds are lost in the distance. The long overland journey lasted many days. Kamloops was the half-way house where horses were changed and the weary drivers enjoyed a week's well-earned rest. The Kamloops fort was strongly palisaded, and within its stockade there was room for the large pack-trains that were used on these trips. During the winter the horses were turned out upon the range-land in the neighbourhood, the sweet bunch- grass providing abundant and excellent pasture. They were rounded up and brought in each spring, fat and sleek and in 114 THE ROMANCE OF BRITISH COLUMBIA good condition for the season's work. Horses were also kept at Alexandria and Okanagan, the terminal points of the road. This brigade-trail connecting the canoe routes on the Columbia and Fraser Rivers provided a safe and comparatively easy means of carrying on trade between Fort St. James and the Company's headquarters on the Columbia. For many years the Columbia remained the main highway for the fur-trade of Oregon and New Caledonia. CHAPTER XI The Nor'Westers combine with the Hudson's Bay Company, Forts and Fort-builders. In an earlier chapter we mentioned the fight for the fur- trade waged for many years between Nor'Westers and Hudson's Bay men. It was in the Prairie country that this fight was carried on, though its results were felt in distant Oregon, where the Nor'Westers' trade almost came to a standstill during that period. On every lake and river between Hudson Bay and the Rocky Mountains, wherever Indians could be induced to bring in furs, forts were built by one or both of the companies. Often the rival traders would actually fight, and each company tried to outdo the other in selling its goods more cheaply or paying higher values for the precious furs. At last both companies were faced with ruin, and then it was that they decided to combine under the older name of the Hudson's Bay Company. This was in the year 1821. Most of the men employed by the Nor'Westers were retained in the service, but we must always remember to speak of the Hudson's Bay Company as controlling from the year 1821 onward the destinies of New Caledonia and Oregon. Of the Hudson's Bay Company thus re-organized the first governor was George—afterwards Sir George—Simpson, and few men have governed a wider territory. All of what is now Canada—with the exception of Ontario, Quebec, and the Maritime Provinces—came under his sway, together with much of what is now included in the states of Washington, Oregon, and California. Under his command were honest, capable officials, whose firm yet kindly rule saved Western 115 ■rariMiiiii'-i 116 THE ROMANCE OF BRITISH COLUMBIA Canada from the horrors of Indian warfare, and made it possible for the natives to settle down under the white mans control and even to share in his industries and activities. It was the marvellous organization of the Hudson's Bay Company that has largely contributed to this success. General control of the Company's affairs was vested in the governor and board of directors in London, it In Canada the highest official was the governor, whose headquarters were at York Factory and later at Fort Garry. From the governor downward the army of employees was grouped into classes: commissioned officers, non-commissioned officers, and the ordinary rank and file. The commissioned officers were the chief factors and the chief traders; they received no salary, but shared in the profits of the Company, The chief factors were in charge of districts, while the chief traders looked after the more important trading-posts. The non-commissioned officers included chief clerks, clerks, and apprentices; these"were paid a salary, and the chief clerks took charge of smaller posts or commanded crews of voyageurs who were sent out on expeditions. The clerks and apprentices were like midshipmen in the navy, young men with good education who kept the accounts, learned details of the Indian trade, and thus fitted themselves for the promotion that rewarded diligent and faithful service. Sir George Simpson, the first governor of the Hudson's Bay Company. THE EARLY FORTS 117 The rank and file were the ordinary workmen, and these received pay according to their skill; they included voyageurs, artisans, and labourers of all kinds. The third class could not rise beyond the rank of postmaster. The apprentice might earn a promotion to a clerkship after five years' service, and clerks could rise to the dignity of chief trader, chief factor, or even of governor. The whole organization worked with machine-like accuracy, and all classes were noted for their loyalty to the Company, and, in general, for their unswerving devotion to duty. When the companies were united in 1821, the "Western Department" of New Caledonia and Oregon was put in charge of Dr. John McLoughlin, who occupied this position, for over twenty years. Dr. McLoughlin was an old Nor- Wester, one of their chief traders, and he did not relish the changes that had been made. He came to Fort George, as Astoria had been re-named, in the year 1824, and at once threw himself heart and soul into his new duties. Over six feet high, of commanding appearance, keen and fearless, he was the very man for the position. Dr. McLoughlin soon saw that a more suitable site must be selected for the fur-trading headquarters on the Columbia. In 1818, when the forty-ninth parallel was made the boundary between British and American territory east of the Rocky Mountains, it was agreed that the subjects of both nations should enjoy equal trading rights in the lands west of the John McLoughlin. From a photograph of a painting by Savannah. 118 THE ROMANCE OF BRITISH COLUMBIA mountains. This was a temporary arrangement, and already it was expected that, when a definite boundary was selected, that boundary would be the Columbia River. Now Fort George was near the mouth of the Columbia and on the south bank, and it appeared desirable that the headquarters should be farther up the river and on the north bank. So, after careful exploration, McLoughlin's choice fell on a position eighty miles from the river-mouth, on the north Fort Vancouver in the early days. From a print in the Provincial Archives, Victoria. Notice the bastion and the stockade, and the cultivated fields outside. bank, and near the point reached by Broughton in his journey up the river in the year 1792. There in 1825 was established the famous Fort Vancouver. The situation was ideal. Close at hand were luxuriant meadows, which were soon turned into a great farm. The fort was one of the largest built by the Company, measuring seven hundred and fifty feet long by five hundred feet in breadth. There were about forty buildings, all constructed of wood except the powder magazine, which was of brick and stori«| In the centre was the governor's house, with dining-room and THE EARLY FORTS 119 public sitting-room, the latter being used as a museum for Indian relics and curios. Before the governor's residence were mounted two old eighteen-pounders, and in front of the chief factor's house were two swivel guns. A chapel occupied a prominent position. Other buildings included dwellings for officers and men, school, warehouses, store, and workshops. Outside was a picket-wall of large and closely-fitted beams, more than twenty feet in height. On the farm over fifteen hundred acres were soon under cultivation, the stock comprising many head of cattle, sheep, 'and horses. Crops of grain were grown, lumbering was carried on, flour and sawmills were soon in operation on the Columbia River, and produce was shipped to the Russian trading-posts in Alaska as well as to the Sandwich Islands. Dr. McLoughlin next decided on a forward movement in opening up new areas to the fur-trade, and parties were sent out to explore the country and find suitable places where posts could be built and trade begun. These trading-posts were usually established in this way. Down some river, or slowly coasting along a lake-shore, comes the little band of explorers, eagerly scanning the bank in search of a suitable location for a fort. Their canoes are loaded with provisions, guns and ammunition, tools for building, blankets, cloth, axes, knives,- and other articles for the Indian trade. A suitable site is selected, perhaps at some commanding spot on the high river-bank, or at the junction of two streams, or at the outfall of a lake. The canoes are unloaded, and camp is made. The men set to work cutting down trees, and with the logs they build house and store and fashion rude furniture. The whole is surrounded with a palisade of heavy logs twelve or eighteen feet high. Indians assemble to watch the proceedings, and they probably welcome the traders and give some assistance with the work. When all is completed, the workmen return to headquarters, 120 THE ROMANCE OF BRITISH COLUMBIA and a trader and a clerk are left in charge of the new trading-post. News of the establishment is quickly carried to the Indian tribes in the neighbourhood, and before long the natives begin to make their appearance, bringing furs to exchange for the articles which they need. As the months pass, the volume of trade increases, and in the spring a load of pelts is shipped to headquarters, and a fresh supply of trading goods A north view of Fort Langley. From a drawing by E. Hollandaine by courtesy of the Provincial Archives, Victoria. is brought back. Thus one more trading-post has been established, and the Company's profits are accordingly increased. Fort Langley, on the Fraser, was one of the earliest forts to be established. The site was chosen by a little band who travelled from the Columbia overland to the head of Puget Sound, taking with them provisions for sixty days. Embarking in canoes, they followed the coast northward to Mud Bay—now in Surrey Municipality—, then by way of the Nicomekl and Salmon Rivers to the Fraser. A clerk named THE EARLY FORTS 121 John Work was with the party, and he has left us a diary of the trip. He writes of the "fine meadow covered with remains of a crop of hay"—now Langley Prairie—,and he notices numerous tracks of beaver and elk, animals not to be found on the prosperous farm-lands of Langley to-day. The fort was built in the summer of 1827, and John McMillan was in charge of the work. The Hudson's Bay Company's ship Cadboro brought materials and supplies around from Fort Vancouver to the Fraser River, while McMillan and the building party, twenty- p^L>-V» *■- -**»$' -•''*• [BO*PlSiii ••-^Sl Fort Langley, showing the hall on the right. From a drawing by E. Hollandaine by courtesy of the Provincial Archives, Victoria. five in all, travelled overland to Puget Sound and joined her there. At first the hostile tribes—the same whom Fraser had met near the mouth of the river—threatened to attack the party, and for safety the workmen slept on board ship till the defences were ready. The summer was hot and dry, and bush-fires approached dangerously near the buildings, so that the men had to abandon their work and turn fire-fighters. The natives gradually became more friendly and offered beaver skins, berries, and fish for trade. The annual salmon- run had begun, and all day long a procession of canoes, some of them great war-canoes with lofty prows and painted sides, 122 THE ROMANCE OF BRITISH COLUMBIA passed up and down on their way to the fishing grounds. The salmon-fishing was the great event of the year for the natives, and each evening could be heard their hoarse singing as they chanted the weird "salmon-song", praying for a successful catch. In September the fort was completed, and its loop-holed bastions and little cannon inspired the Indians with respect. The traders were now able to settle down to their work, and the Cadboro sailed away to continue her voyage to northern waters. Fort Langley later became the most important trading-post on the lower mainland. Rebuilt on higher ground in 1840, it included fifteen or twenty buildings within the fort enclosure. One of these has recently been restored and marked with a memorial tablet by the Historic Si^es Board of Canada. Fort Kamloops, older even than Fort Langley, was the scene of many stirring events. In 1822 the Fraser Indians had killed a Thompson chief, and a blood-feud arose in consequence. Though the murderers offered payment to the relatives of the victim, the Thompsons demanded a life for a life, and with six hundred braves prepared for war. John McLeod was in charge of Fort Kamloops at that time, and it was with difficulty that an outbreak was avoided. Twenty years later Fort Kamloops witnessed a tragedy in the murder of Samuel Black, the officer in command. An Indian chief named Tranquille had died, and his superstitious widow had told her son, a fine-looking and well-disposed youth of eighteen, that his father's spirit ought to be accompanied into the next world by a spirit of some chief of equal rank. Urged on by this, the youth went to the fort and sat moodily in the hallway, his gun across his knee. Presently Black crossed the hall, going from one room to another. Raising his gun, the young man shot him in the back and escaped to the woods. THE EARLY FORTS 123 A small armed force was sent from Fort Vancouver, and, hoping to frighten the Indians into giving up the guilty man, they began to seize their horses and destroy property. Thousands of natives were in the neighbourhood, and this action only stirred their anger to such an extent that a general outbreak seemed imminent. Meanwhile John Tod had been appointed Black's successor. He was a man who well understood the Indian character, and he immediately restored the property that had been seized, and offered a reward to any who would hand over the murderer. His policy was successful. The natives had no desire to shelter the guilty man, and in a short time they gave information that led to his capture and punishment. In those days, when the Indians enormously outnumbered the whites, prompt action to check crime was necessary. Tod had averted a dangerous outbreak, and at the same time had induced the natives to co-operate with the whites in avenging a cruel and senseless crime. John Tod was a very original character. Three years after the events just narrated, the Shuswap Indians laid a plan to attack the incoming brigade and seize the goods which they were carrying. Tod received secret warning from a friendly chief named Lolo, but it was too late for him to summon help, because the murderous expedition had already started. His John Tod, who succeeded Samuel Black in command of Fort Kamloops. 124 THE ROMANCE OF BRITISH COLUMBIA decision was quickly made. Mounting a swift steed he galloped alone to the Indian camp. The astonished natives raised their weapons to fire on him, but Tod held aloft his own gun and pistols, and then threw them on the ground. Next he caused his well-trained mare to perform some strange peace-evolutions which the Indians understood, and finally he reined her in and began a parley. Smallpox had broken out among the tribes in the neighbourhood, he told them, and full well the Indians knew the meaning of that terrible scourge. But he had come, he said, to protect them against the disease with his medicine. They were overjoyed and permitted him to vaccinate them till his supply of serum was exhausted. Leaving them instructions to vaccinate one another till all had been treated, he rode back to Fort Kamloops. The grateful Indians abandoned their wicked plans and returned home little the worse for their adventure. The most northerly of the Company's forts was Fort Durham on the border of the Russian territory in Alaska. This post was built by Roderick Finlayson, a Hudson's Bay official of whom we shall hear a good deal, and was occupied for only three years. Situated among high mountains, in a country where it rained or snowed nine months out of twelve, it was a most dismal place in which to live. A fierce and war-like tribe of Indians occupied the surrounding district; and, as soon as the building party had completed its work and sailed away to the south, the natives prepared to attack the little band of traders. With this object a warrior attempted to force his way into the fort, and he nearly overpowered the sentry at the gate. Roderick Finlayson went to the man's help; and, incautiously venturing outside the stockade, he was seized and held by the savages. Drawing his pistols, and with his back to a tree, he threatened to fire on the first man who touched him, and at the same time he shouted to the gunner to fire a THE EARLY FORTS 125 round of blank cartridges to frighten the assailants. This was done, and fortunately had the desired effect. The flash of the little cannon and the loud report caused the Indians to withdraw, though for some days they continued to surround the stockade and besiege the fort. Some days later, finding that the traders were more than a match for them and fearing to lose the advantage of trade, the Indians came to terms and offered compensation for their wanton attack. The records of these times are full of such stories of danger and adventure. But it was only by courage and determination that trade could be developed and the country held for the Hudson's Bay Company. The number of trading-posts steadily increased. In the year 1826 there were thirteen of these Hudson's Bay posts west of the mountains, and during the next twenty years their number increased to twenty-five. Many of these forts are still in existence, and the sites of others can yet be traced. For us they constitute the most interesting evidences of the fur-trading period of provincial history. We should treasure these old buildings as memorials of pioneer life, just as the more permanent buildings of the Old World are preserved. Indeed, every boy and girl in British Columbia should be familiar with the details of the location and history of any forts in his neighbourhood, for they are almost the only remains that tell the romantic story of the early days. CHAPTER XII How James Douglas came to New Caledonia: his Adventures there and in Oregon. In the year 1803—two years before David Thompson began his exploration of the Rocky Mountain passes—there was born in Lanarkshire, Scotland, a child who was to play a great part in the story of British Columbia, James Douglas. His father was related to the historic Douglases and had lived for some years in British Guiana, where he had a sugar estate. Both father and mother died while James was very young. The little lad early showed signs of an adventurous disposition ; and, while still a youth, he accompanied an older brother to Canada and entered the service of the North West Company at Montreal as an apprentice. He worked hard, not only studying business methods and accounts but also learning to speak the French language. Later he was transferred to Fort William, where his ability and industry attracted the notice of the chief factor, Dr. John McLoughlin, who took a great liking to him. Under Dr. McLoughlin's kindly influence and watchful training, Douglas became still more expert in his duties. The young man improved his knowledge of French, learned all the intricate details of trading with the Indians, and also began to show qualities of determination and prudence which marked him out as a born leader of men. When the Companies were united in 1821, Dr. McLoughlin was sent to take charge of the Oregon territory, and successive promotions took Douglas first to Fort Chipewyan and later—in 1824—to the distant outpost of Fort McLeod under Chief-trader William Connolly. 126 JAMES DOUGLAS 127 It was there that he began his adventurous and remarkable career in New Caledonia and British Columbia, and nowhere could he have had better opportunity for developing qualities of independence and resourcefulness. Soon after his arrival, he was entrusted with the duty of supervising the fisheries of the district, an important responsibility since it was fish that the forts relied upon as the principal article of diet. A new fishing station was established at Stuart Lake, and "from that time on," one writer tells us, "we have frequent glimpses of the future governor hauling with dog-sledges the fish he had taken at his station or had purchased from the Indians." The life was one of incessant toil and hardship even for the officers; but young Douglas did not shrink from hardships, and whatever he had to do he did well. As we should expect, he met with various adventures, and one of these nearly cost him his life. Sir James Dous1*8- It happened at Fort St. James, while the chief trader was away on a distant trip, and Douglas was left in charge. One day a Carrier Indian, who had taken part in the murder of two of the Company's servants some years previously, ventured back into the neighbourhood of Stuart Lake. Hearing of his return, Douglas armed himself and, with a few Indians, pursued and captured him. The murderer was put to death, and Douglas ordered his body thrown to the dogs, for thus had he treated the bodies of the men whom he had killed a year or so back. The old chief of the Carriers, Kwah—the same man whom Harmon had thrashed—was angry and planned revenge 128 THE ROMANCE OF BRITISH COLUMBIA for the insult. It was right," said the chief,"that a murderer be punished, but he should not be treated as if Indians were dogs." Some days later, accompanied by a number of armed men of his tribe, Kwah boldly presented himself at Fort St. James and made his way into the trading-room. Douglas seized a heavy gun that was at hand and prepared to fire, but the chief gripped him by the arms and held him fast. In a moment all was confusion, and the small garrison of the fort were overpowered before they could offer resistance. Douglas' life was in danger; he was surrounded by Indians with drawn knives, and they eagerly shouted to their chief, "Shall we strike? Say the word, and we will kill him!" The chief hesitated. Just then Amelia Connolly, Douglas's young wife, broke into the room, and she grasped the situation in a moment. Knowing the Indian custom of presenting gifts to atone for crime, she offered the chief all that he desired if he would spare her husband's life. With a companion, the interpreter's wife, she dashed upstairs and began throwing down among the savages gifts of tobacco, clothing, and other things. The Indians scrambled for the prizes; Douglas broke loose from his captors, and the old chief called off his wild followers. He had accomplished his aim—to punish Douglas for his temerity, and had shown that, though he had him in his power, he was willing to spare him. It was fortunate that the presence of mind of Mrs. Douglas saved the situation, for in the excitement of the moment worse might have happened, and Douglas might have lost his life. In the year 1828 Fort St. James was visited by Sir George Simpson, governor of the Hudson's Bay Company. In the absence of his superior officer, Chief-factor William Connolly, it was James Douglas who had the honour of receiving the distinguished visitor. Sir George was ever a stickler for pomp and ceremony, and on his long canoe journeys he always liked to impress voyageur and Indian with the majesty and JAMES DOUGLAS 129 importance of the Company. He used to travel in his own lofty-prowed canoe, brightly coloured and decorated, with his chief guide in the bow. Behind sat the governor himself, resplendent in beaver hat, white ruffled choker, leathern gaiters, great-coat and capes lined with red silk. Close behind the governor was the piper with skirling bag-pipes, then the crew of Canadian voyageurs in gay attire, forcing the canoe onward with powerful strokes. But on this occasion the governor was travelling by way of the trail from Fort McLeod, and the whole company from Fort St. James were eagerly awaiting his arrival. Indians had assembled from far and near to do honour to the visitor, and at length the distant report of fire-arms showed that he was approaching. Presently the cavalcade came in sight. At its head marched the guide carrying the British flag, a band of buglers and bag-pipers followed, and behind them rode the governor, accompanied by the doctor of the party and a neighbouring chief factor, also mounted. In the rear came the rank and file of the little army of attendants. The garrison were drawn up to receive them; overhead flags waved in the breeze; the Indians shouted their greetings, and deafening reports from the little guns of the fort roared out a welcome. To the front stepped Douglas to receive his chief. It was an impressive scene with its wild background of mountain, lake, and forest. Into the fort they marched. Festivities were indulged in, including' the "regale", with distribution of tobacco and presents to the Indians. After a few days' rest—crammed full with duties: looking into accounts, planning for trade, and discussing prospects—the governor took his departure on his way south to visit Oregon and the Columbia. For Douglas the life at Fort St. James was a hard one, and he welcomed the change which came in 1830 when he was Sir George Simpson on a tour of inspection. JAMES DOUGLAS 131 transferred to Fort Vancouver. There his old chief, Dr. McLoughlin, was in command. McLoughlin needed a trusty assistant and was delighted to have with him Douglas, whose services he had valued so highly in the past. He was not disappointed in his choice. What were the problems that McLoughlin had to face at Fort Vancouver? As head of the Western Department he had charge of all the forts and had to attend to details of supplies of fur-trade returns and of correspondence with headquarters at York Factory. His letters are filled with minute instructions as to farming and crops, stock and dairying, fisheries, and so on. Besides this, new forts had to be built as trade was extended southward, and westward, and even northward to Russian territory in Alaska. Although he had with him other able assistants, it was on James Douglas that he relied most of all, and he placed Douglas in charge of many of the expeditions that were sent out. Douglas established new forts, superintended the trade, and inspected the posts once a year; he also improved the system of keeping the accounts. His energy brought him the reward of promotion, and in two years he became chief trader and three years later chief factor, a high dignity for one so young. For McLoughlin and Douglas perhaps the most troublesome question, from about the year 1840, was the constantly increasing numbers of American settlers who were coming into Oregon. They could not shut out these settlers, because, by an arrangement made in 1818, Americans had equal rights with British citizens. Yet they dared not encourage them, for, if settlers came in large numbers, the fur-trade would suffer, and the United States would claim the country as being peopled by Americans. Indeed, this claim was already being put forward, and the question which people were asking was: Where will the boundary line eventually be drawn? "Down the middle of the channel of the Columbia River," said the 132 THE ROMANCE OF BRITISH COLUMBIA British; "along the forty-ninth parallel," said the United States people; "at the southern-most point of Russian Alaska," said a few hot-headed and greedy Americans who wished to grasp everything for themselves. This last proposal was absurd; but supposing the boundary line were drawn north of the Columbia, then Fort Vancouver, the Company's headquarters, would be on American territory, and this would never do. So it was decided to search for a suitable site, where the Company could establish a new headquarters the location of which would not be in doubt; and what man knew the country better or was more likely to make a wise choice than James Douglas ? In 1842, then, Douglas travelled overland to the head of Puget Sound, there embarked on the Hudson's Bay schooner Cadboro, and proceeded to examine the south coast of Vancouver Island. His choice fell on the spot where the city of Victoria stands to-day, and we are not surprised at his selection. As one writer has said of this beautiful spot: 'The view landwards was enchanting. Before them lay a vast body! of land upon which no white man then stood. Not a human habitation was in sight; not a beast, scarcely a bird. Even the gentle murmur of the voiceless wood was drowned by the gentle beating of the surf upon the shore. There was some*! thing especially charming, bewitching in the place. Though wholly natural, it did not seem so. It was not at all like pure art, but it was as though nature and art had combined to map out and make one of the most pleasing prospects in the world." Douglas's choice of the new headquarters was approved by the Company, and the year 1843 saw the beginnings of what has since become the city of Victoria and the capital of our province. A party of fifteen men left Fort Vancouver with Douglas in command, and, travelling from Puget Sound on J- "' • m JAMES DOUGLAS 133 the little steamship Beaver, they reached the selected site about the middle of March. Work was begun at once. The Songhee Indians swarmed out in their canoes to welcome them and offered to supply the twenty-foot pickets that were needed for the palisade. For this the Indians were rewarded at the rate of a blanket for every forty pickets. More men and supplies ff were brought from Fort Durham, on Taku Inlet in the far north, and from another distant post which the Company had decided to abandon, and with these reinforcements the work went merrily on through the summer. The sounds of axe and hammer were heard among the oak- woods, and from far and near came more Indians to watch the proceedings. Except for their pilfering habits, they gave no trouble, and in three months the buildings were ready for occupation. Fort Victoria was of the usual type: strongly built, square in shape, and with bastions at the corners in which cannon were mounted. For the sake of economy not a nail was used in the construction, wooden pegs taking their place. The growing city has long since covered the site of the fort, but the names of Fort and Bastion Streets remind us of these days, and in the Provincial Archives a good model of the fort may be seen. Towards the end of the year Douglas returned to his duties at Fort Vancouver, and Roderick Finlayson, the The Steamer "Beaver". From a photograph by H. T. Devine, Vancouver. The "Beaver" was built at Blackwall, London, and reached the Columbia River in 1836, around Cape Horn, as a sailing vessel. Later she was fitted with machinery and was" the first steam vessel on the Pacific coast. She was wrecked on Siwash Rock in 1888. 134 THE ROMANCE OF BRITISH COLUMBIA experienced trader whom we saw at Fort Durham, was left in charge at Fort Victoria. Finlayson soon had trouble on his hands. In the next spring the Indians began to kill for food some of the traders* cattle which were grazing in the woods and meadows around the fort. A messenger was sent with a demand that the guilty men be given up or that compensation be paid; failing this, said Finlayson, they would close the gates and trade with Fort Victoria, built in 1843 on the site of the modern city of Victoria. them no more. "Close your gates if you will,' said the chief, "but we will soon break them down! Do you think that we cannot live without you and your trade?" In a few days armed Indians began to assemble around the fort ready for an attack. It was a critical moment, for the powerful and war-like Cowichan tribe had joined the Songhees, and a fight appeared inevitable. The bastions were manned for defence, and careful watch was kept by day and night. Two days later the JAMES DOUGLAS 135 attack was made. With savage war-cries and a shower of musket balls, the Indians advanced towards the palisade. Not a shot was returned by the defenders, and after half an hour the Indians ceased firing, for they had not much ammunition. Now was the time for Roderick Finlayson to show his tact and his knowledge of the Indian character. Finlayson called a parley and warned the chief how useless it was for him to attack the whites. "See here," said he, "how easily I can destroy you all; look at your houses yonder!" As they looked in the direction of their camp, one of the cannon from the fort boomed out, and several of the Indian huts were blown to pieces by the shot. With terrified yells the Indians ran to their camp, expecting to see signs of blood and slaughter. But no one had been hurt, for Finlayson had secretly sent a messenger with instructions to warn those in the huts to leave them, and to signal to him when the buildings were empty. The only damage done was to send splinters of the cedar- boards flying in all directions! The astonished Indians had never before seen the effect of cannon-fire, and the lesson which Finlayson had given them was sufficient. Peace was made, and compensation was paid for the cattle. But the best thing about this story is that it shows the reason why these Indians respected the British fur-trader. It was because he always treated them with reasonable kindness. Never in the history of the Hudson's Bay Company were there any of those terrible Indian wars and massacres that occurred elsewhere on the continent. The new fort soon became a centre of business and trade. In 1845 came the first ship direct from England, the Company's bark Vancouver. From that time vessels regularly sailed direct to Fort Victoria and there landed the goods which they carried for the coast trade, going on to Fort Vancouver with the supplies that were to be sent up-country by the Columbia route. Land near the fort was cleared, so that crops could be JAMES DOUGLAS grown, and before long three farms were being worked, and supplies of grain, vegetables, and dairy produce were being shipped up the coast to the Russian settlements in Alaska. Farming proved very successful, for the soil and climate were good, and the natives gladly worked as labourers or herdsmen, being paid the same wages as were received by white labourers. Already there were indications of the future prosperity of the settlement. Meanwhile, let us follow Douglas back to Fort Vancouver and see what was happening farther south. During all these years American settlers continued to cross into Oregon in increasing numbers. Many of them were very poor, but all were intent on "squatting" on the land, so as to claim it later on and demand protection as American citizens. Dr. McLoughlin was a humane ruler, and he showed them kindness, often extending a helping hand and protecting them against the Indians; yet he knew full well that their coming meant the end of the Company's fur-trade. But how else could he have acted, unless he wished to see them starved or massacred ? At length the question of ownership of the land came to a head. It was evident that there would be serious trouble, unless a boundary were established definitely marking off British from American interests. There were long discussions as to exactly where this line should be drawn, and the British government's proposal that it follow the forty-ninth parallel was finally accepted. The agreement is known as the Oregon Treaty between Great Britain and the United States, and this treaty was signed in the year 1846. By this agreement Vancouver Island was to be wholly British, and the Hudson's Bay Company's lands and buildings south of the boundary were to be retained by them. It was expected, in fact, that the Company would continue to use the Columbia River as the highway for their fur-trade into the 138 THE ROMANCE OF BRITISH COLUMBIA interior. But this was found to be an inconvenient arrangement, and some years later, in return for compensation, Fort Vancouver and the other forts south of the new boundary were handed over to the Americans. When the Oregon Treaty was signed, Dr. McLoughlin retired from his position as manager of the Hudson's Bay Company's Western Department and went to reside in Oregon City at the falls of the Willamette. There he died several years later, and by the Americans he is affectionately spoken of as the "Father of Oregon". A committee, at the head of which was James Douglas, took charge of the Company's affairs on the west coast, and in 1849 Douglas removed with his family to the new headquarters at Fort Victoria. Of his work there we shall read in our next chapter. CHAPTER XIII Governor Douglas and the Beginnings of Victoria. 'Victoria, B.C." What pictures the name calls up! Cliffs crowned with golden gorse; harbour-waters in which Parliament House, office-building, and hotel are clearly mirrored; boulevarded streets; parks with sylvan glades; the snow-capped Olympics standing sentinel over mirage-haunted strait; and the whole in perfect setting of oakwood, sea, and mountain! What is the story of this beautiful city? Built, as we have seen, in 1843, Fort Victoria soon became a centre of farming activity and trade, and included at the time of Douglas' arrival in 1849 some, two hundred white •residents, besides a large number of natives. It was now to become still more important. No sooner had the Oregon country definitely become American than a demand arose that the land north of the new boundary be thrown open to British settlers, and this demand was backed by people in England. Why should not British settlers, they asked, occupy this fertile country, just as Americans had been induced to occupy that farther south? But the Hudson's Bay Company at once realized that the clearing and settlement of these lands would seriously interfere with the valuable fur-trade. Consequently, with the object, of controlling any possible immigration, they decided to ask the British government to make them a grant of Vancouver Island. After some delay, this request was granted. In 1849 Vancouver Island was handed over to the Company for a term of years, on condition that they should encourage settlement by selling land at a reasonable price and that they 139 140 THE ROMANCE OF BRITISH COLUMBIA should spend money on roads and improvements. They were to remain in general control of the new colony. In this way was established the first British colony on the Pacific coast. Southward in California other events were happening that year which were to have a great effect on Fort Victoria. Gold was discovered in that state, and to San Francisco and other towns came thousands of miners anxious to make a fortune at the diggings. Roderick Finlayson, who was in command of Fort Victoria, shall tell us how the exciting news came to the trading-post on Vancouver Island. "Early in 1849," he says, "a vessel appeared in the harbour, the crew of which wore red flannel shirts. When they landed, we took them to be pirates. I ordered the men to the guns, manned the bastions, and made ready for defence. A few of the men approached the gate and informed me they were peaceable traders, come from San Francisco with gold which they would give in exchange for goods, as this was, they were told, the only station on the northern coast where they could get the goods they wanted. "Having satisfied myself that they were what they represented themselves to be, I gave them permission to enter. They informed me that the previous year gold had been discovered in California in large quantities, and that they had brought nuggets to give for goods. They produced several of these, of the value of which at first sight I felt doubtful, but brought one of them over to the blacksmith's shop and asked him and his assistant to hammer it on the anvil. This they did and flattened it out satisfactorily. I next referred to my books on minerals and concluded that the specimens were genuine. I then offered them $11.00 per ounce for their gold, which they took without a murmur. I then mentioned my prices, to which they did not object. I felt somewhat doubtful, but concluded to accept the gold, and the trade went on. They took in exchange such goods as were not often required »-■ ^U.^^.i)i^^Al-.Hg*»«'"Bf»»««W" - VICTORIA 141 in our trade—old iron pots, sea boots, blankets, baize, etc., for which I received satisfactory prices. "A considerable sum was thus traded for the nuggets; but, being doubtful as to the value I placed on the gold, I dispatched a boat with a crew of eight men to Puget Sound and thence to the head depot at Vancouver, with specimens of my trade, and asking whether I was right or wrong. The answer was that I was right, and that more goods would be sent to carry on the trade. Afterwards several other vessels came with the same object and more gold. The effect was that soon our operations became considerably disarranged by numbers of our men leaving us for the California diggings, including the sailors from our ships. We had to increase their pay to induce them to remain, and had to employ Indians to replace the sailors on the ships and the labourers on the land." It was shortly after this that James Douglas came to Victoria. During the same year a governor for the new colony was sent out from England, Richard Blanshard, who arrived in 1850. There was but little for him to do, for the real ruler of the settlement was Douglas, the chief factor. Beyond the men in the Company's employment there were very few residents; neither house nor salary had been provided for the governor, and in a. year he resigned his position and returned to England in disgust. During Richard Blanshard, the first governor of Vancouver Island. 142 THE ROMANCE OF BRITISH COLUMBIA the year of his stay he had appointed a Legislative Council of three members, one of whom was Douglas; and ther British government at once appointed Douglas as his successor. Douglas threw himself heartily into his duties as governor of Vancouver Island. Very few colonists had arrived, for they found the land too expensive and the conditions of settlement too irksome. Coal had been discovered on the north-east coast of the island near Fort Rupert as early as 1836, and during the year 1849 miners had been brought from Scotland to work it. In the prevailing excitement they, too, left to £ry their fortunes in California. It was not till three years later that the richer coal seams near Nanaimo were successfully worked. The gold rush to California had indeed proved a serious hindrance to the development of the new colony, for the high wages and the excitement of a lucky gamble attracted many who might otherwise have remained on the island. By 1853 the number of white residents was only four hundred and fifty. By this time, however, the settlement around the fort had grown into a little town—the beginnings of Victoria-, the capital of the province that was to be. The population slowly increased, roads ran from the fort in different directions, comfortable little homes were built and occupied, larger buildings began to appear, schools were provided for the children, and the foundations of the present-day capital were well and truly laid. Governor Douglas had his hands very full. He kept close watch over the affairs of the settlement, and to the Legislative Council was added in 1856 an elected Legislative Assembly. Arrangements were made for defending the new colony against the Indians, who sometimes collected in dangerous numbers; provision was made for the administration of justice, for raising funds by taxation, and for • I VICTORIA 143 Mi . Sf'-r. j Jgrf & T** 1 Ijl 1 ~*i fcP * JklJ |-fijg*S^|MslS 1 H^^H -''^ff^HB^a^SB building roads. As head of the Hudson's Bay Company's affairs on the mainland, Douglas realized that a change in the fur - traders' routes was necessary, now that Victoria had replaced Fort Vancouver as headquarters. He decided that the Fraser, instead of the Columbia, should be the main trade-route, and that supplies for the interior should be sent from Victoria to Fort Langley and thence up- country. But how was Fort Kamloops, the great interior post, to be reached from Fort Langley ? Exploring parties were sent out to examine the country, and in 1848 Governor Douglas made final selection of a brigade trail that was successfully used the following season and for some years afterwards. To Fort Langley came the ships from Victoria. From there the supplies were carried up-stream in "bateaux" to a new post, Fort Hope, close to the mountains. From Hope the pack-trains travelled through the pass down which the Coquihalla River foams and dashes on its way from the Cascades; arrived at the top of the pass, they crossed to the Tulameen and up the Otter River; then over the high land past Nicola Lake to Kamloops. It was a wonderful journey over mountain country of the wildest description. To-day the Kettle Valley Railway runs through part of it, and we can appreciate the courage of the pioneers who opened up such a route into the interior. Hope was a busy centre in those days. Each June saw the arrival of a fleet of bateaux from Fort Langley and the assembling of the pack-horses of the Kamloops land-brigade. The first school on Vancouver Island. ■93 F5«a BSSSSIBi 144 THE ROMANCE OF BRITISH COLUMBIA Scenes of merry-making and jollity marked the weeks when supplies for up-country and furs for the coast were being transferred, and hundreds of Indians collected for the summer's salmon-fishing, thus adding to the crowds that frequented the place. Through the forests of New Caledonia these Indians still roamed undisturbed, hunting and bringing the spoils of the chase to the trading-posts. In the forts the traders plied their peaceful occupation, regularly shipping to Langley and Victoria the loads of furs, and as regularly receiving thence the year's supplies. Except immediately around the forts, there was no farming or settlement, and from all indications there never would be. It was a pleasant life, with all the charm and romance of existence in the wilds, yet with the comfort and security provided by the Company's beneficent control. But a bomb was shortly to burst, which would shatter forever all dreams of a British Columbia lulled to sleep under any such idyllic conditions! About the year 1856 it was reported that gold had been found in considerable quantities on the Thompson River near its junction with the Fraser. The discovery was made by an Indian who was taking a drink from the river and, having no vessel, was quaffing from the stream, when he perceived a shining pebble. This he picked up, and it proved to be gold. The whole tribe forthwith began to collect the glittering metal. News of the find soon got abroad, and the year 1858 witnessed a veritable stampede into the favoured area. Thousands of miners came from California; settlers hurried from Oregcn and from Vancouver Island; from Australia, from Canada, from Europe they came, until the Gold Rush had attracted to the Fraser River over thirty thousand people. Some travelled overland from the south by way of the Columbia, a few came direct by sea to the mouth of the Fraser, but by far the greatest number came by way of Victoria. ■ I VICTORIA 145 Commander Mayne was at Victoria during that summer, and he says: 'The excitement in Victoria, I think, reached its climax in July. On the 27th of June the Republic steamed into Esquimalt harbour from San Francisco with 800 passengers; on the 1st of July the Sierra Nevada landed 1,900 more; on the 8th of the same month the Orizaba and the Cortez together brought 2,800; and they all reported that thousands waited to follow. The sufferings of the passengers The Land The Legislative The Colonial The Supreme The Office Council Court Office Court Treasury The old Parliament Buildings at Victoria. From a print in the Provincial Archives, Victoria. upon this voyage, short as it is, must have been great, for the steamers carried at least double their complement of passengers. Of course, Victoria could not shelter this incursion of immigration, although great efforts were made, and soon a large town of tents sprung up along the harbour side." Governor Douglas was equal to the occasion. He kept the British government fully informed of what was happening, and he himself visited the mining camps on the Fraser and saw that order was maintained among the lawless class to which many of the miners belonged. Most of the 146 THE ROMANCE OF BRITISH COLUMBIA new-comers were Americans, and to the "Boston men", as they termed them, the Indians were by no means friendly. Disputes arose, and there was danger of actual warfare, but the Indians respected Douglas so highly and trusted him so fully that the danger passed. Meanwhile, from England came instructions for the organization of a settled form of government. The mainland was to be created a British colony with Douglas as first governor. He was to retain the governorship of Vancouver Island, but was to resign his position under the Hudson's Bay Company. A small military force of Royal Engineers was to be sent from England to aid in survey work and, if the need arose, to help in maintaining law and order. At Fort Langley on November 19th, 1858, Governor Douglas was installed in office, and the colony of British Columbia celebrated its birthday. Never before or since has Fort Langley witnessed such stirring scenes. The rain is falling in torrents as Governor Douglas of Vancouver Island lands from the steamboat Beaver on the slippery bank of the Fraser below Fort Langley. Accompanying him are Rear-Admiral Baynes, Chief-Justice Cameron of Vancouver Island, and Judge Begbie of the new colony, Captain Grant in charge of a company of Royal Engineers, and others. As the party enters the fort, the Beaver fires a salute of eighteen guns, and the British flag floats out overhead. Owing to the bad weather, the ceremonies| are carried out in a large room, and there—in the presence of about a hundred persons—the colony of British Columbia comes into existence. Governor Douglas reads the Royal Commission appointing Mr. Begbie Judge of British Columbia and administers the oath of office. Judge Begbie in his turn reads the Commission appointing James Douglas Governor of British Columbia. His Excellency Governor Douglas reads the Royal Proclamation establishing the • tzams VICTORIA 147 Colony of British Columbia, and the ceremonies are ended. A salute of seventeen guns from the fort celebrates the departure of Governor Douglas the following day. Governor Douglas returned to Victoria after the ceremony, and during the next five years he ruled over the colonies of Vancouver Island and British Columbia. New Westminster became the capital of the mainland colony, but Douglas L«*JS l8S*R3«5ai Tp .' -'sr*wS^ivrr??^^^^^^^ ^^^SilPS^i^^^ ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^- ^^ r'-^mmg ^gj ^s _: ^ Tv^j S^ittuC"-- x 1 vX^Vv l^^fc*j|i!ftfaM ft "*;■ ,,, * v!*!§S ■™ JMstifeii'-„ 5rl. .^TVL ^n «««* fg H^f .. * «iKfii^sdiHEi^4i-i-6ii ■P?**^ w l^w^**^v £§£* * *** «? >\W"' ^s^6.* ■•ss*V«« ^fc» Old Victoria. From a print in the Provincial Archives, Victoria. Notice the James Bay bridge. The low land on this side of the bridge has been filled in, and the Empress Hotel has been built on the land thus reclaimed. remained in Victoria, visiting the mainland from time to time as his duties required. Of his splendid work on the mainland we shall read in our next chapter. Victoria was by this time becoming a town of considerable size. In 1858 we find money voted by the Assembly for streets, water, and schools; postal arrangements were made —a letter for New York costing twelve and a half cents in addition to a further payment in the United States of fifteen 148 THE ROMANCE OF BRITISH COLUMBIA cents; two fire-engines were ordered from San Francisco; building was going on in all quarters of the town,—the first brick building was at that time nearing completion and was intended for a hotel. A town-map was published showing the new street-names given in honour of the governors—such as Douglas and Blanshard; of navigators—Cook and Vancouver; of explorers—Franklin and Kane; of s'hips—Discovery and Chatham, and so on. Douglas built for himself a house near James Bay; its position is to-day indicated by a granite pillar. The first Parliament Buildings were about this time erected on the site where the newer ones stand. The next few years saw great additions to the town, and in 1862 Victoria was incorporated as a city. There were fifteen hundred buildings there, many of the familiar redbrick houses dating back to that time. Warehouses were erected to provide for the increasing trade that was carried on with the mainland; side-walks were built, and streets were macadamized. Hospitals, theatres, reading-rooms, banks, and numerous churches soon made their appearance in the now flourishing city. In 1863 Governor Douglas decided to retire into private life. His five-year term of office was drawing to a close, and from both island and mainland petitions had been sent asking that separate governors be appointed for the sister colonies. Douglas had ruled over Vancouver Island for ten years and over the mainland colony for five, and, when the British government agreed to make the changes asked for, he considered it a fitting time to withdraw from official duties. He was now sixty years old and had well earned a few years of rest and relaxation. The news of his decision was received with universal regret, and at banquets given in his honour he was assured of the respect and gratitude of both island and mainland citizens. From the British government he received the honour of knighthood and thus ■" "" I ■ ■■ VICTORIA 149 became Sir James Douglas, K.C.B., a fitting reward for distinguished services to colony and Empire. The story of his later years is soon told. Freed from the cares of office, he was able to gratify a wish which he had long cherished, that of paying a visit to the countries of Europe. Scotland, England, France, Spain, Italy, and Germany were visited, and he finally returned to his home in Victoria, there to pass his closing years amid the surroundings which he loved and with such amusements as reading, gardening, and outdoor exercise. He died in 1877, six years after British Columbia became part of the Dominion of Canada. In this western land he will ever be remembered as the first governor of British Columbia, and as the strong man who watched the interests alike of the Indians, of the Hudson's Bay Company, of the infant colony of Vancouver Island, of the mainland colony, and of the Empire in so far as Imperial interests were concerned, at a time when the rule of a strong man was needed. CHAPTER XIV The Royal City of New Westminster and the Cariboo Gold Rush- Why is New Westminster called the "Royal City"? Was it really the capital of British Columbia? And how comes it that Victoria is the capital to-day? We have seen that the new colony of British Columbia was established in the year 1858, and that James Douglas was its first governor and Matthew Baillie Begbie its first judge. At that time there was no town or city on the mainland and therefore no centre for the new government, and until then the Hudson's Bay Company had been overlord of the country. The British government had now cancelled the Company's special privileges, and James Douglas was to govern the land with the aid of a representative council as soon as it was possible to call one together. In order to establish settled government three things were needed; a capital or headquarters, roads by which the mines could be reached, and laws to regulate and govern the newly-arrived population. It was expected that the capital would be at Langley; and on the level ground around the old fort, then known as Derby Townsite, lots were being sold and streets planned even before Douglas returned to Victoria. But Colonel Moody, who commanded the detachment of Royal Engineers that had been sent from England, considered Fort Langley unsuitable. It was on the south bank of the river, and was far up-stream where the water was too shallow for ocean-going vessels. Further surveys were made, and, against the advice of his officers, Colonel Moody selected St. Mary's Hill near the 150 NEW WESTMINSTER 151 mouth of the Pitt River in preference to a finer site two miles farther down. Captain Jack Grant was ordered to make the "first cut" at one of the trees near the bank, but, just as he was in the act of swinging the axe, he realized that a mistake was being made and said, "Colonel, with much submission I will ask not to do it. Will you yourself take the responsibility," at the same time giving reasons why the lower site was better. Colonel Moody saw the force 5 fpll'f An old view of New Westminster, which, in 1859, was by Royal Proclamation declared the "Royal City and Capital of British Columbia". of his arguments, and so the choice fell on the present site of New Westminster. There the high land, gently falling away to the river-bank, offered a splendid site for a town, and the water was deep enough for ocean-going ships to anchor iii safety. The new city was to be named Queen- borough, and preparations were at once made to clear the land of the heavy timber that covered it and to begin the erection of buildings. A mile up-stream was the camp of the "sappers" who were engaged in this work, and this picturesque little settlement, in the elbow of a beautiful river- bank, received the name Sapperton. 152 THE ROMANCE OF BRITISH COLUMBIA The work of clearing proved a tremendous undertaking, as the bank was clothed with the densest forest, giant cedars, firs, and hemlocks raising their heads aloft amid an impenetrable mass of undergrowth. Progress was slow but sure, and at last streets were surveyed and laid out, lots were sold, piers and wharves were constructed, government buildings were erected, and in May, 1859, Colonel Moody and his suite took up residence in the town. The name of the city presented difficulty; Colonel Moody had proposed Queenborough, but this was thought to be too much like Victoria—the city named after the Queen. Queens- borough was proposed, but was also objected to, and finally Queen Victoria herself was asked to select a name. She did. so, and by Royal Proclamation the name Queensborough was converted into a ^Royal City and Capital of British Columbia under the name of New Westminsters So here we have the origin both of the city's name and of the term "Royal City", which is so often applied to New Westminster. What kind of people were these new-comers whose arrival had created a new colony and a new capital? Of the thirty -thousand who had flocked to the Fraser during 1858 not more than a sixth remained at the end of the season. The rest had left, disappointed at the poor results of their adventure, at the terrible rapids and floods that hindered their work, and at the scarcity of food and supplies. Some, of course, had made fortunes. In the river-bottom the humble prospector plied his task with the simple equipment of pick and shovel, pan and quicksilver. He scooped up in his pan a quantity of sand, squatted at the edge of the water, and with circular motion shook up sand and water so as to wash out the lighter dirt and leave in the pan the larger pebbles mixed with heavy particles of black sand and, perhaps, grains of the precious metal. If he were in luck, he might find a nugget; if not, the final ... - . ^»^». i.-iiei'J!.... i I DBS NEW WESTMINSTER 153 separation of gold from sand was brought about by using quicksilver, with which the gold would amalgamate. But more often several "pardners" worked together, using a "rocker" or "cradle". This was a wooden box four feet long and of half that width and depth supported on rockers; the top and one end were open, and the sides sloped to the bottom; at the head was a jointed box with iron bottom pierced with holes for the pebbles to pass through. One miner fed the gravel into the iron box, another rocked the cradle and supplied a stream of water. Gold and pebbles passed down to the real bottom, where the water carried away the stones, while the heavier gold Was MinCrS workinS at the head of the shaft. caught by the "riffles" or cross-bars which were fixed for this purpose. To retain the finer particles of gold quicksilver was used, held by the riffles, or on a copper plate, or at times on a rough woolly cloth used for the purpose. Though this method was slow and tedious, men frequently made from five to twenty-five dollars a day, the amount depending on whether or not they had chosen a good "claim" on which to Work. These workings were known as "bars", and were often named after the men who discovered them. At the time of summer high-water on the river these workings had to be abandoned. 154 THE ROMANCE OF BRITISH COLUMBIA Sometimes the gold-bearing soil was found above high- water mark on the benches beside the river; then the method of "sluicing" was used. A stream of water was carried by a pipe or wooden flume (either from the main river higher up, or from some convenient side-stream) and was directed to sluice-boxes into which the pay-dirt was thrown. The force of the water carried away the dirt, and the gold particles were retained by wooden riffles, as in the rocker method. Quicksilver was generally used, and a series of these sluice-boxes or troughs would often extend to several thousand feet in length. The method of "sluicing was also used on the bar diggings, if they were extensive enough to justify the additional Miners sluicing. expenditure of capital which this process necessitated. First the miners worked the bars from Hope up to Yale. But in the following years they pushed slowly up the river, and in 1860 they were working around Lillooet, Quesnel, and even to Fort George. By this time the workings on the lower Fraser had been abandoned to the Chinese. But the most astounding "strike" of all was made by those who left the main river and turned east into the Cariboo country. There, on creeks to which they gave such names as "Keithley", "Antler", and "Horsefly" Creeks, they discovered gold in larger quantities than ever, and that year NEW WESTMINSTER 155 the famous "Cariboo Rush" began. From the ends of the earth came a wild crowd of enthusiastic adventurers, many of whom were men of wealth and standing whose arrival was a real benefit to the colony. In the Cariboo district the surface-mining soon gave place to deep-mining methods, and shafts, tunnels, pumps, and other mining machines 3$S1P&; ^v 'SP^Wt'M&r The town of Barkerville in 1868. This little mining settlement was the scene of many stirring events in the "Cariboo Rush" of 1860. were introduced. Money was needed for all this, and so capital began to flow into the country, and the industry became permanent. The yield from the Cariboo district was enormous. In the first seven years alone twenty-five million dollars' worth of gold was taken out. The fortunes made by individual miners were equally startling; many men earned a thousand dollars in one day, and one party of miners took out in three 156 THE ROMANCE OF BRITISH COLUMBIA months a hundred thousand dollars' worth of gold. Williams Creek, in less than two miles of its length, has yielded fifty million dollars and is the richest gold-bearing creek ever known. In the very centre of this giddy whirl of mining activities the little town of Barkerville sprang into existence. It grew as if by magic, and by the year 1861 is said to have had a population of nearly eight thousand. Barkerville—the hub of the new-found El Dorado! Buried in the heart of the mountains that rise steeply from each bank of Williams Creek, what stories of the past could it tell us as we pace the length of its little street, passing store and hotel, saloon and dancehall! Yarns of the days of "Cariboo Cameron", the man fr®m Glengarry who made one hundred and fifty thousand dollars in three months, retired east and built a mansion on the St. Lawrence, had to Cariboo to try his luck poor man. Yarns of "Billy 'Cariboo" Cameron. unlucky investments, returned once more, and died there a Barker", who gave his name to Barkerville, and of many another bold prospector long since gone to his rest. The very flag-poles beside each door, like totem-poles in an Indian village, remind us of the motley throng speaking every language under heaven that surged through the streets, each nationality erecting a flag-pole in loyalty to the fatherland. Money was easily made in those days—and was just as NEW WESTMINSTER 157 easily spent—and many a miner who had made his "pile" squandered it in a wild spree of gambling and dissipation. But there were many splendid men among them, men who laid the foundation of that mining industry that has meant so much to the prosperity of the country, and to these all honour is due. Little serious wrong-doing or crime occurred in the mining- camps of British Columbia. Wild characters there will always be, but from the outset Judge Begbie saw to it that they were impressed with a wholesome respect for British law and order. From time to time he visited the mining districts and held court, settling disputes that arose, and putting down with a firm hand lawlessness and crime. Begbie was a man over six feet in height, strong and active, a good sportsman, and an excellent shot. Many stories are told of the judge, some of them smacking of good justice if not of first- class law. At the close of a trial in which the prisoner had been found guilty of manslaughter, though the evidence pointed to murder, he said: "Prisoner, you deserve to be hanged; and, had the jury performed their duty, I should have had the painful satisfaction of sentencing you to death. As for you, gentlemen of the jury, it would give me great pleasure to sentence you to be hanged each and every one of you, for bringing in a murderer guilty only of manslaughter." On another occasion a man had been "sand-bagged" in a saloon and thrown out Sir Matthew Baillie Begbie. From a portrait by Savannah. 158 THE ROMANCE OF BRITISH COLUMBIA to die. His companion was tried for the crime and acquitted, though the evidence pointed the other way and Begbie had directed the jury to find him guilty. "Prisoner," said Begbie, "the jury have said you are not guilty, and you may go. But I devoutly hope that the next man you 'sandbag' will be one of the jury." One more incident will show the respect in which Judge Begbie's name was held by the miners. One stormy night, soon after his arrival at Williams Creek, the judge was caught without an overcoat. Having to make a journey, he entered a miner's cabin to borrow one. The occupant of the cabin happened to be a deserter from the American army, and his greatcoat was the one which he had taken with him when he decamped. He lent it to the judge, however, with this remark: 'You're welcome to the use of the coat, stranger, but don't let that fellow Begbie catch you with it on." But, in spite of his severity towards offenders, Begbie was respected and beloved by all, for the rough miners appreciated a judge who had no favourites, but who treated white man and foreigner, Indian and Chinaman with equal and impartial justice. Before this time the lure of gold had caused rushes to other gold-fields, to California in 1849, and to Australia in 1851, but never before had the rougher and more lawless element been held in check as it was in British Columbia. Like Douglas, Matthew Baillie Begbie was honoured with a knighthood; he died in harness at Victoria in 1894. $ 0>« m |. | 1 Governor Douglas kept careful watch over the interests of the colony, and in one of his reports written about this time he says: "The colony is yet destitute of one highly important element; it has no farming class, the population being almost entirely composed of miners and merchants. Without the farmer's aid, British Columbia must forever NEW WESTMINSTER remain a desert—be drained of its wealth, and dependent on other countries for daily food." And a little later, upon another problem: 'The great object of opening roads from the sea-coast into the interior of the country continues to claim a large share of my attention. So essential are they as a means of settling and developing the resources of the country that their importance can hardly be over-rated." The mint at New Westminster. It was really an assay office and refinery. A few gold coins were made, but were not put into circulation. It was- to the work of road-building that Douglas now gave his attention. The mining districts of the interior had hitherto been reached by the old fur-traders' trails over the mountains, and, owing to snow, they were often impassable during seven or eight months of the year. These pack trails were, moreover, of little use for the wagon traffic by which supplies and machinery needed to be transported. So before long two new highways into the interior were opened. 160 THE ROMANCE OF BRITISH COLUMBIA The first left the Fraser River near Harrison Lake. Look at the map, and you will see a chain of lakes funning north and west, Harrison, Lillooet, Anderson, and Seton Lakes. At government expense, and with the voluntary assistance of the miners themselves and of the Royal Engineers, these lakes were connected by a serviceable road, twelve to eighteen Old view of Yale at the entrance to the Fraser Canyon. Provincial Archives, Victoria. From a print in the feet wide, with strong wooden bridges where creeks or ravines had to be crossed. And on the lakes by 1862 steamboats were regularly carrying freight and passengers. The broken land and water travel caused delay in handling and transferring the freight, but a safe route had been provided which connected the village of Douglas, at the head of Harrison Lake, with the Fraser River at Lillooet, far above the dangerous canyons. ' NEW WESTMINSTER 161 But it is the second of these highways that is always remembered as one of the proudest achievements of the infant colony, and of Douglas, its governor—the famous Cariboo Road from Yale to Barkerville, built between the years 1862 and 1864. In the early days of mining in the Cariboo, supplies were carried in by mule-trains of sixteen to forty-eight animals, that struggled over the heavy grades of a trail running from Yale up the canyon. This trail was rough, narrow, frequently overhanging the river, and with a steep drop on one side and a perpendicular cliff on the other. From Lytton it followed the Thompson River to Cook's Ferry, now Spence's Bridge, where the river was crossed, and the trail continued north to Quesnel Forks and the Cariboo. The whole journey usually took a month, and three trips were made in the season. No pack-saddles were used, but on each mule's back was securely lashed a leather sack full of straw, and to this was fastened the load of from two hundred to four hundred pounds' weight. A bell-mare led the train, and so tractable were the animals that each would carefully keep his place in the procession. The crew in charge consisted of one man for eight mules, and in some months as many as five hundred mules would leave Yale for the Cariboo^ In an attempt to solve the problem of expensive transportation, some camels were imported in 1862 and were tried on the Harrison-Lillooet trail. They could carry very large loads, and were satisfied with scanty forage, but their feet could not endure the rocky surface alternating with the wet, marshy ground. Mules and horses hated them, and became wild and unmanageable as soon as they scented the strange beasts, so that accidents sometimes happened. In 1861, then, a sturdy band of Royal Engineers set out to survey a route for a wagon-road between Yale and Lytton, NEW WESTMINSTER 163 and before long blasting and cutting were in full swing, and the great enterprise had begun. Through all the length of the Fraser Canyon were heard, above the roar of the river, the mightier sounds that betokened man's conquest over the forces of nature. Rock-bluffs were cut through or blasted away, ledges were broadened by chiselling out the solid rock, bridges were thrown across chasms, trees were felled, and The old Cariboo Road in the Fraser Canyon. To hew a road out of these bluffs of solid rock was no easy task. with the timber "cribbing" was built to support the roadbed where it clung to the naked face of some projecting crag. The Fraser and Thompson Rivers had to be crossed, and a suspension bridge near Spuzzum, together with the famous old Spence's Bridge, bear witness to the thoroughness with which the work was carried out. Until recently the railway traveller could spy from the car-window portions of the road still clinging to dizzy heights across the river. 164 THE ROMANCE OF BRITISH COLUMBIA Xv/ To-day the old road has in part been used in constructing the new trans-provincial highway. From Lytton the road followed the -Nicoraen River, crossing the Thompson at Spence's Bridge and following the opposite bank to Ashcroft Creek; then overland to Clinton, where the road from Harrison was joined. From Clinton the old brigade-trail was followed to Alexandria, and from AJexandria the road followed the Fraser to Quesnel and turned east to Barkerville. Stern-wheel steamers carried freight between Alexandria and Quesnel. Much of the survey work, as well as some actual construction, was done by that splendid body of trained men—the Royal Engineers, but the greater part was built by contractors employed by the government. As soon as it was completed, the road became the main artery of the interior. Day after day might be seen massive six-horse stage-coacrjes, "bull-teams" hauling a couple of wagons loaded with a car-load of supplies, pack-trains ^a_ mile long, and hardy prospectors with pack on back, all hurrying to or coming from the mines. A number of road- houses and hotels, often with a prosperous farm attached, were established at various points, with here and there a village or settlement destined soon to grow into a town. Freight costs were reduced to a fifth of their former figure, though toll-charges were for some years levied on road and bridges. Stretching from Yale, at the head of navigation on the Fraser River, to Barkerville, in the heart of the mining country, the road was nearly four hundred miles in length, and, although it was built with the strictest economy, yet the expense was a heavy burden on the struggling young colony. For the success of the enterprise and for his skill in financing it without aid from the British government praise is due to Governor Douglas. Among the many services which he NEW WESTMINSTER 165 rendered the colony the building of the Cariboo Road stands out as one of the greatest. Now that we have seen a little of the people who were coming into British Columbia, let us return to New Westminster and follow the events that occurred there. As capital of the country and headquarters from which the *,..£ .'-- fit * ,^&* Freighters laden with supplies arriving at Clinton, the junction of the old Cariboo Road with the road from Harrison. mining-camps on the Fraser and in the Cariboo were reached, New Westminster was bound to grow in size and importance. New streets were added to the town; fine warehouses and stores were built for merchants who were establishing themselves in trade there; on the hill overlooking the Fraser, avenues were opened and were soon lined with comfortable homes; parks were laid out, and churches and public buildings were erected. People invested their money freely, for, as the capital of the colony, the future of the city seemed assured. Governor Douglas continued to make his home in Victoria, and, although a few government officials came 166 THE ROMANCE OF BRITISH COLUMBIA to live in the new capital, people were dissatisfied, and petitions were sent to the British government asking for a change. They demanded that the governor reside in New Westminster—the capital—and that the people be permitted to elect the representative council that had been promised them. Similar demands were put forward by the island colony. In 1863, as we saw in the last chapter, Governor Douglas retired into private life, and the requests of the people were granted. Elections were held in five districts of British Columbia, and the chosen representatives formed part of the first Legislative Council. Separate governors were appointed for island and mainland — Governor Kennedy for Vancouver Island and Governor Seymour for British Columbia. For several years this arrangement continued, and the sister colonies— now completely separated — looked (fondly^ at each other across the intervening straits. But the end was not yet. The prosperity of Victoria and of the island depended on the mainland mines, and this prosperity was endangered when the mainland colony prepared to encourage direct trade between foreign ports and New Westminster. The combined population of the two colonies was little more than twelve thousand, and they could not afford the expense of maintaining two sets of Arthur E. Kennedy, Governor of Vancouver Island, 1864-1866. NEW WESTMINSTER 167 government officials. In both colonies business was falling off, and a period of depression was beginning. As a remedy, people on the island urged that the two colonies be united, a proposal to which strong objection was made on the mainland. Nevertheless, on the advice of Governor Seymour, the British government decided to sanction the proposed union. The Cariboo Road near Alexandra Bridge. So on November 19th, 1866 (eight years to a day from the time when British Columbia came into existence at Fort Langley), the Royal Proclamation was read enacting that, "the Colony of Vancouver Island shall be and the same is hereby united with the Colony of British Columbia, and thenceforth these two colonies shall form and be one colony 168 THE ROMANCE OF BRITISH COLUMBIA with the name British Columbia." Governor Seymour retained his position as governor of the combined colony, and the first Legislative Council met in New Westminster in 1867. ||| § ||. And now, having for nine years enjoyed the distinction of being the capital, New Westminster was to be deprived of that honour. Within four months the Legislative Council had passed a resolution that Victoria be made the capital. The final decision was left to Governor Seymour, who had at first opposed the proposal, but who had no real convictions on the matter. Yielding to the insistent demands of the island representatives, he now recommended that the change be made, and in 1868 Victoria became the capital.* Those who had invested their money in New Westminster were disappointed at the decision. To quote Judge Howay: "They had invested in the town on the strength of its selection as the capital. For Imperial interests, and against the expressed wish of the mainland, union had been forced upon them, and now, as a result, the capital had been removed at a time of great financial stringency. They were simply ruined, without compensation or redress. A feeling of unfair treatment, of deliberate injustice long remained, which only completely disappeared after a lapse of thirty years." On Dominion Day, July 1st, 1867, the Dominion of Canada had been organized, four provinces at that time entering Confederation. Even while the question of the union of island and mainland was being discussed, there were men who turned their eyes towards the stirring events that were occurring in Eastern Canada, and who questioned whether the Pacific Coast Colony should not throw in her lot with the sister provinces. After the two colonies had joined forces, it was but another step in the same direction for them to enter Confederation. The union of island and mainland only partially solved the ■**«**'■ '- ■ • ' - - " NEW WESTMINSTER 169 difficulties that had made that union advisable. The population was small and was not increasing; expenses of carrying on government and of meeting the public debt were heavy; gold production was decreasing, and other industries such as farming had as yet scarcely started. Provided that fair terms could be secured, it was probable that union with Canada would turn out to be of permanent advantage to British Columbia. The Imperial government was very anxious that the colony should throw in its lot with Canada. Accordingly, when Governor Seymour died in • 1869, his successor, Sir Anthony Musgrave, was given special instructions to further in every way in his power the project of union. After long negotiations with the Federal government an agreement was reached, and on July 20th, 1871, the union was proclaimed, and British Columbia became part of the Dominion of Canada. New Westminster was but twelve years old when this event occurred, and her subsequent growth was at first slow, then more rapid, but always permanent. For many years she remained the largest and busiest city and sea-port on the mainland. In 1898 a disastrous fire destroyed a large part of the town; but—in the words of the lieutenant-governor of the province: 'The energy and courage of her citizens rose to the emergency, and, encouraged by the sympathy and material assistance of Sir Anthony Musgrave, Governor of British Columbia, 1868-1871. 170 THE ROMANCE OF BRITISH COLUMBIA the people of all parts of Canada, they put forth such efforts as have already caused the city to rise from its ashes." In two respects the Royal City occupies a unique position: incorporated in 1860, she has the distinction of being thff first example of municipal government in the province; and, by reason of her historical associations, she is to-day by far the most interesting centre on the mainland of British Columbia. IXfckjE CHAPTER XV Vancouver—the City at "the End of Steel." Reading the story of the early days of our province is like watching a moving-picture. There are three figures that constantly flit to and fro across the silver screen, those of the fur-trader, the gold-miner, and the merchant. The first opened a way into the pathless wilderness that stretched from the Rockies to the sea; the second revealed those hidden treasures that attracted a population; the third built up trade and laid the foundation of commercial prosperity. Victoria grew up around the fur-trader's fort; New Westminster was founded as the mainland capital of the mining population; Vancouver—youngest of the three—is the city at the "end of steel", the product of railway development. The year 1843 saw the birth of Fort Victoria; the building of New Westminster dates from 1859—the year of the Gold Rush; Vancouver came into existence when the Canadian Pacific Railway reached the Pacific coast in 1885. To understand the story of Vancouver, we must turn back to events narrated at the end of the last chapter, when British Columbia—in the year 1871—decided to enter Confederation. Times had been bad during the five years between 1866 and 1871. Business in the province had slowed down. Gone were the days of "easy money" for the individual miner and prospector, and the later days of investment irt the expensive methods of modern mining had not yet dawned. Fur-trading could not support a population as large as the province already held, and farming and other industries that would attract and maintain newcomers had scarcely been started. A wave of depression 171 172 THE ROMANCE OF BRITISH COLUMBIA swept over island and mainland alike, and the outlook was gloomy. What was to be the remedy ? Americans who had crossed into the colony to engage in mining favoured annexation to the great Republic to the south, and to many people this appeared a wise policy. But there were others, and these turned out to be in the vast majority, who wished to remain under the old flag, and who looked longingly across the mountains to the recently-formed Dominion of Canada. Confederation, they said, would prove the cure for their ills. United with the eastern provinces into a great Dominion that stretched from ocean to ocean, they could bid defiance to the grim spectres of weakness and poverty that threatened them. United with Canada they would stand, while divided they could expect only to fall. Thus it was that wise counsels prevailed, and that British Columbia, as we have seen, became part of the Dominion of Canada. One of the conditions upon which the province entered Confederation was that the Dominion government should commence within two years and complete within ten years a railway connecting the coast of British Columbia with the existing railways of Canada. We can see the reason for such a demand, when we remember that at this time most of the trade between British Columbia and the outside world was carried on by way of San Francisco and other American ports. Her trade, that is to say, was a north-to-south trade, and it united more closely than ever the interests of the province with those of the states to the south. Yet, if attached to the great Canadian Dominion, it was necessary to forge links that would bind the Pacific colony in lasting union with the provinces beyond the mountains. Hence an east-to-west connection must be made and must be permanently maintained. For many years it had been seen that a railway would be the best means of establishing this • wwr • • - i VANCOUVER 173 east-to-west connection, and so a railway was demanded as a condition of entering Confederation. To promise a railway was one thing; to build a railway through thousands of miles of prairie country, across a mighty mountain-barrier, down the forest-clothed defiles of the A business street in Vancouver to-day. Notice the top of the War Memorial at the lower left corner. From a photograph by Leonard Frank, Vancouver. Pacific slope was an undertaking of such magnitude as to give pause to the boldest imagination. "It cannot be done," said some, "the Dominion should never have made so rash a promise." 'The cost of building and operating such a railway will be ruinous," said others, "the Dominion cannot afford so extravagant a project." But there were heroic men who decided that the promise could, and should, be 174 THE ROMANCE OF BRITISH COLUMBIA kept, and their opinion prevailed. Let us see how the great work was accomplished. When a railway is to be built, the first thing to be done is to make a survey of the country through which it is to pass and to select the best route. In mountain country the shortest way is rarely the best, for the grades over which heavy trains are to be hauled must not be steep, and at high elevations snow-slides may occur and block the tracks. Among the mountains the work of the railway surveyor is always difficult and dangerous, and, could we accompany him, we should have some exciting experiences. Day after day, likeDavidThomp- son and many another pioneer, he tramps through the mountain f ast- nesses, accompanied by a band of helpers, and with eagle eye searches for gaps through which the road can betaken. Here a narrow defile offers a promising gate-way, and he laboriously follows it—only to find that it climbs too steeply, or that the defile closes in and bars any further advance. There a foaming mountain-stream opens a possible road; in its mad rush down from the snow-fields it has surely carved out a glen that can be followed through the hills. But no, it plunges into a deep ravine, and costly trestles or heavy "fills'' would be needed. There, again, the bare mountainside shows signs of the huge snow-slides that come hurtling A residence district in northern Vancouver to-day. From a photograph by Leonard Frank, Vancouver. VANCOUVER 175 down in spring-time, and snow-sheds will be expensive to build and to keep in repair. Even what is apparently a suitable mountain-pass has to be avoided, because its high elevation will call for heavy operating expenses in surmounting the grades. With delicate instruments the surveyor observes heights and elevations, distances and measurements, and careful records are made from which plans will afterwards be drawn. For weeks and months the weary search goes on, and every possible route is examined before a final selection is made. Thus it was that during the seven years from 1871 to 1878 the Dominion government spent millions of dollars in survey work. In British Columbia during one year no fewer than seven survey parties, numbering over three hundred men, were engaged, and even then no decision was reached as to the best route across the province. East of the Rockies more rapid progress was made, ,since, with the exception of the rough district north of Lake Superior, the level, open country made it easier to select a route and lay the road-bed. Two choices were made for the road through British Columbia, and each was strongly advocated by a section of the people; on a map of the province we can trace the rival routes. As early as 1872 it had been decided that the best way to cross the mountains was by the Yellowhead Pass—the gateway by which the head-waters of the Fraser and North Thompson Rivers are reached from the east. To cross this pass the railway would climb to a height of only three thousand seven hundred and fifty feet above sea-level, and the Thompson River valley offered a route westward to the coast. Follow this route on the map; down the valley to Kamloops and on to Lytton, down the Fraser to Yale— keeping near the old Cariboo Road through the canyons, and so to tide-water at Burrard Inlet. The surveyors said that this route was possible, but that construction work in the Fraser canyons would be very expensive. 176 THE ROMANCE OF BRITISH COLUMBIA But the island residents desired that the western terminus of the railway should be on Vancouver Island, at Esquimalt near Victoria. To reach this point the railway would run from the Yellowhead Pass down the North Thompson as far as the place where the Clearwater tributary joins it from the north; then up the Clearwater and westward across the central table-land of the province to the Chilcotin tributary of the Fraser, and through the Chilcotin valley to the coast at Bute Inlet, opposite Vancouver Island. At this point there was to be a ferry or bridge across Seymour Narrows, and the line was to follow the east coast of the island through Nanaimo to Esquimalt. For several years the question of the rival routes remained undecided. Other surveys were made, and every possibility was carefully examined. The Dominion government had intended building the line as a government railway, and further delay was caused by the changes of government at Ottawa after general elections. As the years passed, and the people of the province saw no signs of actual construction work, they began to grow impatient and to wonder whether the railway which they so eagerly desired would ever be built at all. Complaints were sent to Ottawa, and even to the British government, demanding that the Dominion keep its promise and that construction be commenced immediately. If these demands were not granted, the province wished to withdraw from Confederation. The situation became so serious that Lord Carnarvon, the Secretary of State for the Colonies in the Imperial government, felt called upon to take up the question. An agreement was reached, known as the "Carnarvon Terms", which it was thought would hasten the construction of the railway. But even this accomplished but little. There was still delay, and the railway seemed as far away as ever. I In the year 1878, however, the Dominion government, now headed by Sir John A. Macdonald, felt that it was in a position ■■■ !"■•; VANCOUVER 177 to commence work in British Columbia, and contracts were let for building the line through the Fraser canyons from near Yale to Kamloops Lake. Two years later a number of financiers banded themselves together, and the famous Canadian Pacific Railway Company was formed and took over from the government the whole business of building the line. From that time construction work went on rapidly. A busy scene was Yale during "construction days", busier even than it had been at the height of the Gold Rush. Yale was the base from which the advance was to be made, and an army of workmen of every nat ional it y was quickly j assembled. A town of tents and shacks, of stores, saloons, and workshops sprang up in a night. Fleets of steamboats fought their way up-stream with huge loads of machinery, equipment, and stores, and from there supplies were sent forward to the scene of action. Into the greedy maw of the grim canyon they disappeared^ only to be replaced by fresh Totem poles in Stanley Park, Vancouver. From a photograph by Charles Bradbury, Vancouver. These splendid examples of totem poles were brought from the northern coast and erected in the park. 178 THE ROMANCE OF BRITISH COLUMBIA relays brought up from the rear. The old Cariboo Road was the only means of approach from Yale, and, as it had to be kept open for teaming, most of the work that would now be done by steam-shovel had to be done by hand. The hills re-echoed with sounds of blasting as tons of solid rock were hurled from the cliff or were rushed away by work- trains to make "fills" where they were needed. Bridge and trestle appeared as if by magic, "cuts" were made, tunnels bored, and, by the time that the line was finished, whole sections of the old road were blotted out. So urgent was the demand for labour that Chinese had to be imported, and at one time over three thousand of them were working between Yale and Lytton. Near the latter place the Fraser River itself had to be crossed, and a splendid iron-and-steel three-spanned bridge, over five hundred feet in length and costing nearly three hundred thousand dollars, was built. Six thousand tons of iron and steel went into its construction, a notable achievement when we remember that all the material had to be transported by way of the dangerous, winding canyon. Mr. H. J. Cambie, one of the engineers, describes some of the difficulties of the work in these words*: "No such mountain work had ever been attempted in Canada before, and we were confronted by new problems almost every day. One of our great troubles was the old wagon road, which ran for miles alongside the railway and which had to be kept open, as it was the only means of access to the interior. The difficulty of keeping this road open can only be appreciated by people who have seen prairie schooners. These usually consisted of two wagons, coupled together and drawn by nine yoke of oxen or teams of mules, the whole well over a hundred feet long. It will be gathered what these meant going round curves. I remember upon one occasion near old *Blazing the Trail through the Rockies, page 105. VANCOUVER 179 Spuzzum suspension bridge that a blast had been fired, filling all the road. A fine old fellow named Dave McBeth, who was well known in B.C. and who died in Vancouver only the other day, was foreman. He got the slide partly cleared away, when a coach came along driven by that notable" whip, Steve Tingley. Among the loose stuff a rock, of which Dave was unaware, had been left, and the coach in which was Judge McCreight upset. The judge was irritated and told Dave, much to the amusement of the other passengers, that if he was ever brought before him he would have no compunction in condemning him to be hanged for his carelessness in allowing such an accident to happen." # During such dangerous work accidents were bound to happen. 'There was heavy loss of life," says Mr. Cambie, "more especially through the canyons of the Fraser, where all the work was in rock, and there was £reat difficulty in getting good cover when shots were fired. A great many men, too, were drowned." As an example of a most fortunate escape he relates the following: "Mr. W. Evans, who ran an engine for Mr. Onderdonk, the contractor, was going east with a long train. Three or four miles beyond Keefers he met a slide of rock on the track. The engine ran up on it, turned partly round and dropped about forty feet Into a pile of rock debris — with which it slid about two hundred feet to the Fraser River. The extraordinary feature of the incident is that no one was seriously hurt, and the engine was quite uninjured—not even a head-light broken —though one could hardly expect a cat to get down there alive. The engine was hauled up and repaired, and started out again in three weeks' time with Evans again in charge, and a short distance above Ashcroft went through a trestle, when he again escaped unhurt, though two men with him were killed. So far as I know, Evans has met with no accident since. I have a photograph of the first of these 180 THE ROMANCE OF BRITISH COLUMBIA two incidents, showing the engine with its cowcatcher in the river." By the year 1883 rails had been laid through the canyon, and before long the track was completed down to Port Moody on Burrard Inlet. On the advice of the Canadian Pacific engineers, it was decided not to use the Yellowhead Pass, Driving the last spike of the Canadian Pacific Railway at Craigellachie, on November 7th, 1885. as had all along been intended, but to cross the Rockies at a point farther south, so as to obtain a route nearly a hundred miles shorter. Kicking Horse Pass was the gateway selected. Entering the province a little south of the Howse Pass, discovered by David Thompson nearly eighty years before, the railway passed through the most wonderful mountain scenery in the world. Crossing the upper part of the Columbia River, the line cut through the mighty Selkirk range by way of Rogers Pass, again crossed the RBan^^ng WM VANCOUVER 181 Columbia at Revelstoke, and continued west to Kamloops, following Eagle Pass and the South Thompson River. Far steeper grades had to be climbed than would have been met on the longer Yellowhead route, and years later expensive tunnels had to be bored so as to cut down the heavy operating expenses. In the fall of the year 1885 the construction parties working eastward from the coast and westward from Winnipeg and the Prairie met at Craigellachie between Revelstoke and Sicamous, and there on November 7th, the last spike was driven by Mr. Donald A. Smith, later Lord Strathcona, the president of the Canadian Pacific Railway Company. The following day the first railway train to cross Canada reached Port Moody, and in June, 1886, the regular service of trains between Montreal and the Pacific coast was begun. The building of the Canadian Pacific Railway was a notable triumph for all concerned; for the intrepid surveyors, the pathfinders who had spied out the road; for the skilful engineers and the hardy workmen whose untiring efforts had conquered every obstacle; for the Dominion government and the railway company that had successfully financed the project with millions of dollars; and for the people of the Pacific Province whose destinies were for all time united with those of Canada. As Judge Ho way says : "The dream of the centuries had become reality. The North-West Passage had been found, not amid ice-floes and Arctic climate, but across the broad prairies, beside the winding rivers, and over the mountain wall', along a pathway familiar to the eyes of David Thompson seventy years before. It was particularly fitting that the last act should have been played by Donald A. Smith, who in his earlier years had been intimately connected with the fur-trade, and who could be regarded as the representative of the McGillivrays, McTavishes, and other 'Lords *British Columbia, Vol. II, page 427. m 182 THE ROMANCE OF BRITISH COLUMBIA of the North' through whose exertions the riches of this western land were first made known." Although the railway had now been completed to tidewater, it was already realized that Port Moody was not the best place for a terminus. A great city would inevitably be built at the trans-shipping point between railway and The arrival of the first train in Vancouver on May 7th, 1887. by H. T. Devine, Vancouver. . From a photograph ocean steamer, and the site of Port Moody was not only inadequate and unsuitable but also was too far from the open sea. On the shore of Burrard Inlet, twelve miles farther down, there was a place that had been named Coal Harbour, because twenty years back some prospectors had been searching for coal there. This spot was selected by Mr. William Van Home as the site of the future city of Vancouver. The little village there was called Granville, and a mile east was another small settlement near Hastings Mill. VANCOUVER 183 To recompense the railway company for building the additional twelve miles of railway, the government of British Columbia made generous grants of land on what was subsequently the town-site of Vancouver, and many private owners made the company gifts of a third j of their holdings. The work of construction was hurried on, and in May, 1887, the first railway train steamed into Vancouver. »*«*wT *f2k?m' m The first meeting of the City Council of Vancouver after the fire, June, 1886. From a photograph by H. T. Devine, Vancouver. At the earliest intimation that the railway would be extended I to Coal Harbour preparations were made for establishing a great city. Fortunate were the few men who happened to own land in the neighbourhood, for the value of their holdings soon increased enormously. The railway company at once began to clear the town-site, and very expensive work it proved to be. The whole district was covered with the heaviest growth of forest timber, much 184 THE ROMANCE OF BRITISH COLUMBIA like that which we see in Stanley Park to-day. Streets were laid out and named after prominent men, Mr. L. A. Hamilton —agent for the Canadian Pacific Railway Company—being in charge of the work. Abbot Street he named after the general superintendent; Cambie after Mr. H. J. Cambie, the engineer; Hamilton Street after himself; Homer was named for the member of the Legislature for the district; Richards after a lieutenant-governor of the province; Seymour after Governor Seymour; Smythe, Robson, and Davie were all named after premiers of British Columbia; while Nelson was another lieutenant-governor. In April, 1886, Vancouver was incorporated as a city, and by June of that year the population had increased to two thousand. In the same month a disaster befell the little city similar to that which twelve years later was to overtake New Westminster; it was completely destroyed by fire. Nothing daunted, the residents set to work to rebuild, and a finer city rose from the ashes—the beginning of the Vancouver of to-day. Two years more saw graded streets, side-walks, and sewage and water systems installed. In 1888 the British Columbia Electric Railway Company received the charter inaugurating the fine transportation system which they have since provided for city and district. From this time the city increased rapidly in size and population. Wharves and piers were built for the shipping, and great steamship companies established regular sailings to and from the port of Vancouver. Other trans-continental railways built lines into the city, and to-day, possessing with adjoining municipalities a population of several hundred thousand, Vancouver is Canada's western gateway, the city at "the end of steel". CHAPTER XVI Farms and Farmers in the early Days We have read the story of fur-trading and the fur-traders, and of mining and the miners, and we have seen how the cities of Victoria, New Westminster, and Vancouver came into being. Of farming and farmers we have heard but little, and we may well ask how and when it was that settlers came into the Fraser Valley, or to the Okanagan and Kootenay countries, or to the farming areas of Vancouver Island. For to-day agriculture has become one of the four great industries of the Pacific Province. In 1859 Governor Douglas could write that British Columbia was "destitute of that highly important element of the population, the farming class". And yet a few farms were already in existence, both on island and mainland. From the first establishment of the trading-posts, farming had been a necessity, and crops had been raised to supply food for the fort inmates and for others employed by the companies. For the beginnings of farming we must go back a hundred years and more. mmimm** The Hudson's Bay Company's farm at Craigflower, Victoria, one of the earliest on Vancouver Island. From a print in the Provincial Archives, Victoria. 185 186 THE ROMANCE OF BRITISH COLUMBIA Daniel Harmon tells us in his journal that between the years 1810 and 1818 crops of potatoes, of barley and turnips, of onions and carrots, beets and parsnips, were successfully raised at Fort St. James. Climate and soil were alike favourable, for he says that his potatoes increased forty-fold, and that the barley yield reached the equivalent of eighty-four bushels to the acre; "Sufficient proof", he adds, "that the soil is in many parts favourable to agriculture, though it will probably be long before it will exhibit the fruits of cultivation." A few years later, when Dr. McLoughlin was looking for a suitable headquarters for the Hudson's Bay Company on the lower Columbia, the splendid stretch of good land in the neighbourhood was one inducement that led him to select the site of Fort Vancouver. In 1836 the farm adjoining this fort extended to three thousand acres, "fenced into fields such as would have graced the estate in Old England, with dairies and cottages for the herdsmen and shepherds. In the same year there were harvested eight thousand bushels of wheat, fifty-five hundred bushels of barley, six thousand bushels of oats, nine thousand bushels of peas, fourteen thousand bushels of potatoes, besides large quantities of roots, pumpkins, and other vegetables." There were also stocks of cattle, horses, goats, sheep, and swine, and such fruits as apples, pears, and quinces were grown in profusion. The produce of this farm was used to supply the Hudson's Bay Company's trading- posts and ships, and much of it was shipped north to the Russian settlements in Alaska. Fort Langley, too, was in the heart of what later became a rich farming country. Soon after its establishment in 1827, we find such heavy crops of grain and vegetables being produced that, together with the salmon trade, they exceeded in value the annual fur production from this important fort. On Vancouver Island the Hudson's Bay Company began farming as soon as Fort Victoria had been completed. There FARMS AND FARMERS 187 were three large farms, and we can trace signs of their existence to-day. The central one was known as the Fort Farm; another to the south was named the Beckley Farm; and a third to the northward was the North Dairy Farm. Cattle were brought over from the Company's mainland establishments, oats and barley, potatoes and peas were successfully raised, and much of the produce was shipped to the Russian settlements in the north. So successful, in fact, had the Company's farming operations become, that they threatened to overshadow its fur-trading activities. About the year 1840 a separate company, called the Puget Sound Agricultural Company, was established by men connected with the great fur-trade concern, and this new company took charge of the extensive farms that were operated on the lower Columbia and near Victoria. We saw that it was the arrival in Oregon of large numbers of American settlers that forced the boundary question to an issue. After the signing of the treaty in 1846, the number of American farmers in Oregon increased very rapidly, and a demand arose that British settlers be permitted to take up land north of the new boundary, just as American settlers had been induced to settle to the south. Thus Vancouver Island was granted to the Hudson's Bay Company on condition that they should encourage colonization by selling the land on reasonable terms. The Company were to use part of the money received in making such improvements as land-clearing, road-building, and so on. But the price asked was high, and most of the land near Fort Victoria was reserved for the use of the Company's officers and men. So the incoming settlers were obliged to purchase, if they took land at all, in the outlying districts, often in the neighbourhood of Indians, and a long way from their only market, the fort and the settlements surrounding it. No wonder that the farmers remained few in number and were often heartily discouraged! 188 THE ROMANCE OF BRITISH COLUMBIA Among the earliest of the Hudson's Bay men to purchase land from the Company were James Douglas, Roderick Finlayson, and John Work. These men solved the labour problem by securing men who would work their farms for them on condition of sharing the proceeds. As years passed, the land farther out was taken up, usually by settlers from England. Edward E. Langford, on behalf of the Puget Sound Company, established the Colwood Farm on Langford Plains in 1851; Col wood Golf Links now occupy part of this holding. In 1853 Kenneth Mackenzie brought out twenty-four families from England and settled on the property known as the Craigflower Farm; and in the same year J. T. Skinner established the Skinner Farm at Esquimalt. These farms were also controlled by the Puget Sound Company. At that time it was the custom for the farm-hands to be regularly drilled and trained in the use of fire-arms—in case of attack from the Indians. This appears, however, to have been an unnecessary precaution. f Some of these farms, broken up into smaller holdings, have passed from the hands of the families who originally occupied them; others have been absorbed within the growing city of Victoria. Here and there we come across a bit of old-world garden, often walled in, with venerable shade and fruit trees that remind us of the bvsone days. A few of the old farm- houses still stand, and at Colwood and Craigflower we may catch a glimpse of the picturesque homes of the early farmers. As roads and railways opened up more distant areas, the agricultural settlements extended farther from the urban centres. Saanich peninsula, the coast-lands east of the island, and the valleys around Duncan and Alberni and Comox were soon dotted with farms, and to-day we have prosperous agricultural settlements over much of the south part of Vancouver Island. As the mining industry grew, it brought a larger population and an increased demand for farm produce; B^^^^^Rt FARMS AND FARMERS 189 and the lower mainland development has provided a market which absorbs an ever-increasing amount of the island's agricultural products. To the Hudson's Bay Company itself and to its officials individually belongs, then, the credit of introducing the agricultural industry. The Company's extensive farming operations near the chief trading-posts proved that fine crops Old farm, Burnside, Victoria. Notice the oak trees around the picturesque farm-house. From a photograph by Harold Fleming, Victoria. could be successfully raised, and the experience gained was later on .of great value to the individual farmer. In addition to this, many of the Company's officials, on retiring from the service, settled on their own land and became experimenters. "It was they,** says R. E. Gosnell, "who imported seeds and plants and flowers, made orchards, and demonstrated vegetable and grain and stock possibilities. Before Vancouver Island had cast off the sovereignty of the Hudson's Bay Company and the mainland of British Columbia had become a sister 190 THE ROMANCE OF BRITISH COLUMBIA colony in the Empire, that corporation had indicated a wide horticultural and agricultural field for development. It had gardens and orchards and fruitful fields, even though limited in extent, under cultivation." It was, however, the Gold Rush that first gave an impetus to agriculture on the mainland. The lure of the mining camps drew crowds from all sides; the population thus hastily assembled must be fed—with beef, and bread, and bacon. Many of the new-comers to the Cariboo reached their destination (if they reached it at all) after travelling overland from Eastern Canada, or by the Okanagan trails from Oregon and California. As these adventurous spirits pressed forward to their goal, threading their way through mountain defile and forest trail, past fertile valleys and ranges rich with bunch grass, their keen eyes could not fail to recognize the possibilities of the land which they were traversing. Should luck fail them in the mining camp, what an opportunity lay ready to hand—fresh from the lap of Nature herself! A sparsely-settled country; soil sufficiently well-watered and fertile; an agreeable climate; to these add eager ambition, indomitable will, the spice of adventure, and what more potent combination towards the realization of their dreams? Little wonder, then, if to some the call of the land proved stronger than the lure of gold; or that, disappointed in their hope of speedy affluence in the mining camp, they withdrew to the less thrilling but more permanent attractions of stock ranch and grain farm! Thus it was that between the years 1860 and 1870 many an ' 'old timer" was securely launched on his career as "cattle king". Thousands of acres were to be had for the asking, or at a merely nominal expense. In the Cariboo and Lillooet districts, through the Okanagan Valley, and in the Douglas Lake country, great ranches were taken up, and herds of cattle were soon grazing on the range-land. It was in the year 1860 that the first Pre-emption Act was passed, and that the government H FARMS AND FARMERS 191 began to grant quarter-sections of land at a price not to exceed ten shillings an acre. The sale of lands brought a welcome revenue, but the mistake was sometimes made of granting large areas to purchasers who merely desired to re-sell at a profit. At a dollar an acre great tracts of land passed out of the control of the government and were bought by speculators; millions of acres were thus held back from development or were later sold to farmers at a higher price. Besides these great cattle ranches, smaller holdings, of a hundred and sixty acres and upward, were occupied in the neighbourhood of the mining camps or adjacent to the Cariboo Road. In 1861 the Mud Lake ranch was established near Soda Creek, and close by was located the first flour mill in the interior. It is stated that flour from this mill was teamed down the Cariboo Road and sold in the Fraser Valley. The Borland and Comer ranches at Williams Lake included fifteen hundred acres; and on the Australian ranch, near Quesnel, methods of irrigation were used. It is said that on one occasion, after an outbreak of scurvy in the Williams Creek mining camps, the miners were so eager to get fresh vegetables that they bought up the whole turnip crop grown on a small patch at the Fernbrook ranch near the mouth of Quesnel River. Selling for from twenty-five cents to a dollar apiece, the turnips netted the fortunate owner more than three thousand dollars! An old ranch house, Okanagan Mission, near Kelowna. 192 THE ROMANCE OF BRITISH COLUMBIA In 1857 a Roman Catholic mission was established on the east shore of Okanagan Lake, not far from where Kelowna stands to-day. Following their usual custom, the missionaries cultivated gardens and farm-land, and met with great success, thus proving the possibility of growing good crops in that district. Joseph Christien's was the first farm established there, and he was followed by a number of French-Canadian settlers, who occupied land in the Mission Valley and farther north in White Valley, near Lumby. Among the early settlers in the northern part of the district were A. L. Fortune, who was the first to export produce from the valley, shipping hams and bacon down the river to Kamloops; the brothers Vernon, who established the famous Coldstream ranch of a thousand acres near Vernon (as the city is named to-day); and F. J. Barnard, who started the "B. X." ranch for raising horses for use in his Cariboo freighting business ("Barnard's Express"). This ranch Barnard stocked with four hundred horses brought up from Mexico by "that famous whip", Steve Tingley. Charles O'Keefe and Thomas Greenhow, about the year 1866, established cattle ranches at the head of Okanagan Lake; and between the lake and the American border the famous old- timer, Tom Ellis, took up land in 1866, increasing his holdings till they reached the astonishing area of thirty-one thousand An old church, Okanagan Mission, near Kelowna. iWffiinWiii FARMS AND FARMERS 193 acres, which he kept well stocked with thousands of cattle brought in from the state of Oregon. Tom Ellis it was who, in 1874, planted the first orchard in the Okanagan Valley; in 1890, built the first steamboat that plied on the lake; and in 1892,located and partly developed the site of the town of Penticton One of the many prosperous fruit-farms in the Okanagan Valley. Owing' to the inrush of population and the high prices obtained for the produce, farming was a prosperous industry for several years. When the gold excitement died down, and while the population remained stationary, there was little agricultural development. The building of the Canadian Pacific Railway led to a revival of farming, and there was a great demand for farm-lands in the vicinity of the railroad. Between 1903 and 194 THE ROMANCE OF BRITISH COLUMBIA 1912 many of the large ranches of the interior wrere subdivided and broken up into smaller farms. It was during this period that fruit-growing began to assume its present importance as a separate industry, and thousands of acres in the Okanagan and Kootenay country were planted with fruit trees. About the time of the Cariboo gold rush farmers began to take up land in the lower Fraser, John Mclvor, an old Hudson's Bay man, settling in what is now the Maple Ridge district. Two years later, in 1862, to the Harrison-Chilliwack district came Thomas Marks, John Barber, Isaac Kipp, and others, who met with immediate success in farming a peculiarly fertile soil. They spoke of it as prairie soil of the best quality, with forty thousand acres of it affording excellent opportunities for farming and grazing. The near-by Sumas Prairie was occupied about the same time; and a few years later the Chadsey brothers, two of the earliest settlers, were shipping by ox-team over the old Cariboo Road to Williams Creek a cargo of Sumas butter. Northward the old wagon bore its precious freight, packed in sealed cans, the experimental shipment that was to open a profitable market to the enterprising Chilliwack pioneers; for two months later a Barkerville merchant was offering for sale six thousand pounds of Sumas butter, at the unusually low price—for those days -— of a dollar a pound. The years between 1870 and 1890 saw a great influx of settlers into the Chilliwack district. The annual flooding, due to the summer freshet, for a time held back development, for much of the low-lying country was periodically under water. Dikes were built at considerable expense to the farmers, and by 1903 the greater part of this area had been protected. Under the Government Reclamation Scheme an additional area of some thirty thousand acres has been transformed from unproductive marsh-land into useful bottom-land. wmm ■mm Mm FARMS AND FARMERS 195 From Chilliwack through to the river-mouth the farm-lands were gradually occupied. The smiling uplands around old Fort Langley were dotted with farm-steads at an early date; the "delta" country began to be cultivated about 1864, when Samuel Brighouse purchased seven hundred acres on Lulu Island. Others followed in his footsteps, and on the Rosebrook Land clearing, the first step towards pioneer farming. From a photograph in the Provincial Archives, Victoria. farm two pioneers, Boyd and Kilgour, were able to raise during eleven years and without using fertilizers, crops of timothy hay that averaged three and a half tons to the acre. In 1868 William H. Ladner, who had noted these fertile stretches of land on his way to the Cariboo some years previously, preempted and purchased six hundred and forty acres on the south bank of the river. In the next year his brother, Thomas E. Ladner, took up in the same district a property almost 196 THE ROMANCE OF BRITISH COLUMBIA twice as extensive, and the two thus owned the largest and most prosperous farm on the lower Fraser. As railway communication has been extended, new farming areas have been opened up; for it is just as important that a farmer be able to market the produce of his land as it is that he be able to grow that produce. Railways like the Canadian National, which crosses the middle of the province from west to east and follows the Skeena, Bulkley, Nechako, and Upper Fraser River valleys, make farming possible in those districts by providing transportation. So, during recent years, many farmers have taken up land in what has been called "the central interior" of the province. Many, too, have settled in the Peace River country, with which railway communication will shortly be provided. Writing in the year 1914, R. E. Gosnell predicted for British Columbia an agricultural production to the value of two hundred and fifty million dollars a year. In 1912 the total production was valued at twenty-two million dollars, and in 1925 at sixty million dollars. The farmers are evidently well on the way to realize the prediction! CHAPTER XVII From Colony to Province: a Story of Development. In this chapter we shall briefly trace the steps by which this western land has reached its present position as a province of the Dominion of Canada. Some of the story has been told in previous chapters; but it will be well for us to picture clearly the successive stages of the journey from fur-trading preserve, under company control, to self-governing province under the great Canadian Dominion. We have seen in the earlier chapters what these stages were. First, the colony of Vancouver Island was established in 1849, the, first British colony on the Pacific coast. Next came the sister colony of British Columbia, born in 1858 as a result of the Gold Rush. The third stage saw, in 1866, the union of the Vancouver Island colony with British Columbia. And last came the entry of British Columbia into Confederation in 1871. How was it that so many changes were made within a period of less than twenty- five years? Let us examine more closely the reasons for these changes, and some of the results which they have occasioned. It will help us to understand the story better if we arrange it under five heads, as follows: • I. The rule of the Hudson's Bay Company, 1821 to 1849. Let us- go back to the union of the Hudson's Bay and North West Companies in 1821. Three years before that time the British and American governments had agreed that their subjects should enjoy equal rights in the territory west of the Rocky Mountains, and in 1821 the British government conferred upon the re-organized Hudson's Bay Company the monopoly of trade in this area. This meant that, of British 197 198 THE ROMANCE OF BRITISH COLUMBIA traders, Hudson's Bay men alone could carry on the fur-trade with the Indians; and the Company was also given the right to hold land for trading-posts, forts, pasturage, or farming. In 1838 this arrangement was renewed for a term of twenty- one years, that is, down to the year 1859. The years following the union of the companies saw a great extension of the fur-trade on both the mainland and the island. Between the years 1826 and 1846 the number of Hudson's Bay forts west of the mountains was doubled, and it was during this period that forts Alexandria, Babine, Vancouver, Colville (at the junction of the Kettle and Columbia Rivers), Langley, Simpson, EssingtOn, Rupert, Durham, and Victoria were established. From these forts as centres, as well as from the forts previously established by Simon Fraser and David Thompson, the Hudson's Bay Company really controlled the vast territory. As long as fur-trailing was the only industry in New Caledonia and Oregon, there was no need of a large population of white men; and it was the inrush of American settlers, intent upon farming, that led to the Oregon Treaty of 1846 and the loss of the territory south of the forty-ninth parallel. Suppose that more settlers arrived and occupied the land north of the new boundary, was it not likely that the Company's fur-trade interests would be still further endangered? The steel bridge over the Fraser, New Westminster. This bridge is used by the Pacific Highway (motor road, Vancouver to Mexico), two trans-continental railways (Canadian National and Great Northern), and the Inter-urban Car line, Vancouver to Chilliwack. From a photograph by Stride, New Westminster. FROM COLONY TO PROVINCE 199 The Hudson's Bay Company saw the need of controlling immigration, and so they offered to take—and received from the British government the grant of—Vancouver Island, on condition that they encourage colonization. In the year 1849, then, the Colony of Vancouver Island was established, with the Company in charge, but with a governor appointed by the British government. After Blan- shard's brief tenure of office and resignation, Douglas was appointed governor in 1851, and he retained the position until 1864. II. The colony of Vancouver Island, 1849 to 1866. Hampered by the counter attractions of the California gold rush of 1849, and by the competition of the cheaper land offered in Oregon, the progress of the Vancouver Island colony was slow. For some years there were but few independent settlers, most of the island residents being in the employment of the Company. Douglas was a strong ruler, somewhat autocratic, it is true, and intensely distrustful of representative government. Nevertheless, under instructions from the British government, he summoned a representative Assembly in 1856. Most of their legislation was concerned with roads and bridges, schools, and licenses. In 1859 an international The Pacific highway near New Westminster. From a photograph by Stride, New Westminster. 200 THE ROMANCE OF BRITISH COLUMBIA question was brought to the notice of the Assembly, the San Juan difficulty, as it was called. American troops had been landed on the San Juan Islands, near Vancouver Island. These islands were at that time occupied by Hudson's Bay men, but were claimed by the Americans under the Oregon Treaty. The dispute was later settled by arbitration. The gold rush to the Fraser led to the establishment of the mainland colony of British Columbia. Douglas became governor of the new colony as well as of Vancouver Island, but he severed his connection with the Hudson's Bay Company. In 1859 the British government cancelled the grant of Vancouver Island. With the exception of certain properties which the Company retained, the land was handed back to the government, and the Company received a sum of money as compensation for their expenditure in improvements. Douglas continued to live in Victoria, and when, in 1863, it was decided to appoint separate governors for mainland and island colonies, he retired into private life. From 1864 to 1866 Arthur Kennedy was governor of Vancouver Island. III. The Mainland Colony of British Columbia, 1858 to 1866. I During the years 1858 to 1864 Douglas, besides being governor of Vancouver Island, controlled the destinies of British Columbia, the mainland colony that had come into existence at Fort Langley on November 19th, 1858. The trading monopoly which the Hudson's Bay Company had enjoyed since 1838 was at this time cancelled. Douglas appointed an Executive Council of two members. Colonel Moody and Judge Begbie, but no attempt was made to secure a representative Assembly like that of the island colony. The mainland population did not cease to petition the British government for a resident governor and for representative government. The former request was granted in 1864, when Douglas retired, and Governor Seymour succeeded him. In the same year FROM COLONY TO PROVINCE 201 the first Legislative Council for British Columbia met at New Westminster, ten of its members being government officials or magistrates, and five being elected by the people. During the next two years there arose a demand that British Columbia and Vancouver Island be united. The combined population of the two colonies did not exceed The Fraser Canyon near Boston Bar. Notice on the left, across the river, the Canadian Pacific Railway and tunnel; on the right the Canadian National Railway, and the Cariboo Highway in course of construction. From a photograph by Gowen, Sutton Company, Vancouver. twelve thousand, and the cost of maintaining two sets of government officials and of carrying the public debt pressed very heavily. In 1866, therefore, the colonies were united under the name British Columbia, and the first Legislative Council met in New Westminster in January, 1867. IV. British Columbia—the colonies united, 1866 to 1871. The new Legislative Council of British Columbia consisted of twenty-three members, but only nine of these were elected 202 THE ROMANCE OF BRITISH COLUMBIA by the people—five from the island, and four from the mainland; the remainder were government appointees. The question of a capital for the united colonies had been left to the decision of Governor Seymour. Though personally in favour of New Westminster, the governor yielded to the recommendations of the Legislative Council, and, in 1868, named Victoria as capital of British Columbia. In the year 1867 the Dominion of Canada had been organized and, as we saw in an earlier chapter, it was but another step in the same direction for the Pacific coast colony to enter Confederation. On July 20th, 1871, this step was taken, and British Columbia became part of the Dominion of Canada. The terms of union provided that Canada should financially assist the new province by assuming its debts, by granting it an annual subsidy, and by paying the salaries of the lieutenant-governor and the judges. The Dominion government also took over responsibility for certain public services, and further agreed to defray the cost of building a railway from the Pacific to connect with the railway system of Canada. This railway was to be commenced within two years and completed within ten years of the date of union. V. British Columbia a Province of the Dominion, 1871 to the present day. It was, perhaps, the promise of a trans-continental railway that appealed most strongly to the people of British Columbia and induced them to enter Confederation. "Every person," says Judge Ho way, "had a direct material interest [in the construction of the railway]. But those who had worked for the union, who wished to see a united Canada, also fully realized that no real union could exist without the railways that would open markets and lead to an interchange of products. The people of British Columbia literally hungered for the early, vigorous, and continued construction of the railway." In Chapter XV we saw the difficulties that had to be over- FROM COLONY TO PROVINCE 203 come, the vexatious delays that occurred, and the final success of the great achievement in the year 1885. From 1871 onward the story of British Columbia has been the story of Canada. There have been, however, certain happenings with which the Coast Province has been more particularly concerned, and some of these we shall briefly notice. The Legislative Council of the colony of British Columbia was replaced, after 1871, by a Legislative Assembly elected by the people of the province. From this time the province has been governed, except for matters over which the Dominion Parliament has control, by a premier and by cabinet ministers responsible to the Legislative Assembly at Victoria. In the early days frequent changes of government occurred; general elections followed one another in rapid succession, and during one five-year period five different governments held office. This was because members of the Assembly supported a premier and his cabinet mainly for personal reasons; their support could not be relied on, and was often withdrawn quite unexpectedly. Then, of course, the government had to resign. In order to secure greater permanence Richard McBride, when he formed a cabinet in 1903, included in it only members of his own—the Conservative—party; this custom has been followed by his successors in office since that time, and so we have had "party government" in the province, as in the Dominion. It would, be difficult to imagine a greater contrast than that between conditions of hardship existing in pioneering days and those of comfort and security prevailing to-day. Boys and girls are but little concerned with the actual making of laws, but they are very dependent upon the kind of legislation in force in the land where they grow up. Laws which affect the child's welfare, health, education, the care of under-privileged children, and conditions of employment of children often FROM COLONY TO PROVINCE 205 determine our opportunities in life; and in these matters British Columbia is well in the fore-front. "From being the most backward of provinces," says Judge H. G. McGill of the Juvenile Court, "to-day this province leads in social legislation." Among examples of this advanced type of legislation may be mentioned the laws which protect the children of negligent parents, which control early and unwise marriage, which provide assistance for poor mothers, which ensure to mothers the possession of their children, and which protect a woman's property rights. It is such laws as these, together with others that provide for the health, education, and general welfare of children, that enable British Columbia to compare favourably with the older provinces, and, indeed, with any country in the world. The question of the admission of Orientals into Canada has had special interest for British Columbia, and has from time to time been considered by the Legislative Assembly.. Facing the Orient, it was perhaps inevitable that this province should 'attract the attention of Asia's teeming millions, and as early as the days of the Gold Rush we find Chinese coming in from California. At first the new-comers attracted little attention, for they did not seriously compete with the white man. But later on, when thousands arrived to work at railway construction, their presence was considered a menace. The Dominion government, in 1885, imposed a head-tax, which was subsequently raised to the sum of five hundred dollars, but the Chinamen still continue to come. Japanese began to settle in the province in 1896, and soon they were arriving in large numbers. Again the Dominion government intervened, and by arrangement with the Japanese government the numbers of the immigrants were restricted. From India, too, came natives who settled in the country and engaged in various forms of unskilled labour. 206 THE ROMANCE OF BRITISH COLUMBIA Some there are who would exclude all Orientals, as being unlikely to assimilate and to build up a great nation. Others welcome the cheap labour thus provided, but would limit the supply by some kind of control. Others, again, would like to see preferential treatment of the natives of India, which is part of the British Empire. Others, yet again, would gradually exclude Oriental labour by insisting on a minimum wage standard; this, they say, would replace Oriental labour by white labour, since the cost of each would be the same. The question bristles with difficulties, and no final policy has yet been agreed upon. From a total of eleven thousand white people in 1871, the population of the province increased to nearly one hundred and eighty thousand by the close of the century, and to-day exceeds half a million. The oldest industry, the fur- A modern motor road: the Banff-Winder- trade, is Still being Carried mere Highway near Sinclair Hot Springs. t . , on, but mining, agriculture, lumbering, and fishing now provide occupation for large sections of the population. No such development of industry would have been possible had not cheap and easy transportation been provided. From fur-trader's canoe to wagon road was a notable advance, and the steel tracks of the Canadian Pacific provided a. fitting sequel to the construction of that I IHHMlBHUim BmlS&Bt TTTjafW Hwra FROM COLONY TO PROVINCE 207 romantic old highway into the Cariboo. But to-day far more than this has been accomplished.. The Canadian Pacific has been extended by the provision of branch lines. The Canadian Northern and the Grand Trunk railways (both now incorporated in the Canadian National System), together with the Pacific Great Eastern Line, have opened up large areas in the central part of the province. And, strange to say, we have in these later days once more returned to road transportation. Well-engineered, hard-surfaced motor roads now thread the principal valleys of British Columbia. These highways provide cheap and easy communication not only with remote parts of the province, but even with Eastern Canada, and with the United States to the south. To the Great War British Columbia gave freely of her sons and daughters, and of her material wealth. In most of her cities and townships are to be seen the war memorials that commemorate those who went but did not return. The spirit which these heroes displayed was the spirit of Canada, the same spirit that animated the pioneers as they laboured to build up this great Dominion. It is for us, as we read the story of the fur-traders, prospectors, and road-builders of by-gone days, to emulate their spirit, if not their deeds, and to uphold the traditions which have been wrought into the fabric of both the Dominion and the Empire. *~*m\ &S3S i3fc H^H «*r^A$5 •VST*-' i,3t.-t !?•* ml Kf ZTE ifiilfllll j CCMZALSS ^^^^ ' OFFICIAL LAM&MAIX CQIUIlliOlurig^ SXFLOIUTION Of STUAIt^^ JvUp Fun tiuoi wxnowjahottM ; Chajmumi Wjiatam Ika-sotr stKronrfp. S^uiw.i^^ Official mctWjLkfmit Smwixh NaVY. S79-LIS8TBMAH7 Kamt?*x, QaraMFMC'^M-CIOlB ANB HAM£J> <|©»3AIIS FmKT^^plJ <5w.jp m Qsojuka, i**fvf|' 3fciTis>i Maw. Castao* <5so*sx ^4-»c«rv«3t, 1LN^|@|8vbi> s#i|p|§ cx»cuMMAvr#A-rt«^ ^.'ji%i^d'AM» ,%pvs» MttikM? ^""■CKASLACTSS. 07 VAWCOflVJgR ■; iSLAKS117 C0MJ4A1IB83U Ipl&HJJRa afef^^^AO^^^S Hi SKiTs" =^7S^S?fe>>..' —Courtesy of the Canadian Pacific Railway. The tablet on the official landmark erected by the Historic Sites and Monuments Board of Canada on Gonzales Hill, Vancouver Island, to commemorate the exploration of the Straits of Juan de Fuca by Vancouver and other early explorers. See page 23. INDEX Abbot Street, Vancouver, 184. Alaska, 10. 30, 119, 124, 131, 132, 137, 186. Alberni, 188. Alexandra Bridge, 167. Alexandria, 164. Alexandria, Fort, $2, 111, 112, 114, 198. Alva, 30. Anderson Lake, 160. Anian, Strait of, 6. Antler Creek, 154. Arctic Ocean, 55, 57, 181. Argonaut, 116. Arrow Lakes, 92. Ashcroft, 179. Ashcroft Creek, 164. Asia, 205. Astor, John Jacob, -91. Astoria, Fort, 91, 92, 94, 95, 117. Astoria, 101. Astorians, 93, 94, 95. Assiniboine Indians, 89. Athabaska, Lake, 54, 55, 81, 100. Athabaska Pass, 89. Athabaska River, 89, 100. Athapascan Indians, 39. Atlantic Ocean, 6, 16. Australia, 17, 144, 158. Babine, Fort, 198. Babine Indians, 39, 109-110. Bad River, 60. Baker, Mount, 18, 21. Banff-Windermere Highway, 206. Barker, Billy, 156. Barker, John, 194. Barkerville, 155, 156, 161, 164/194. Barnard, F. J., 192. Barnard's Express, 192. Bastion Street, Victoria, 133. Baynes, Rear-Admiral, 146. Beaver, 133, 146. Beckley Farm, 187. Begbie, Judge Matthew Baillie, 51, 146, 150, 157-158, 200. Bella Coola, 66. Bella Coola River, 65. Bering Strait, 11. Black, Samuel, 122, 123. Blackwall, 133. Blackwater River, 62, 63. Blaeberrv River, 83. Blanshard, Richard, 141, 199.^ Blanshard Street, Victoria, 148. Boat Encampment, 89, 92. Borland Ranch, 191. Boston, 37. Boston, 33, 35, 36, 94. Boston Bar, 201; "Boston Men," 146. Boyd, 195. Bridge River, 74. Brighouse, Samuel, 195. British Columbia, Colony of, 146- 147, 149, 150, 166, 167, 197, 200-202; Province of, 169, 171, 202-207. British Columbia Electric Railway Company, 184. British Guiana, 126. Broughton, Lieutenant, 25. Broughton, 118. Brown's Passage, 27. Bulkley River, 196. Burke Channel, 23. Burrard, Captain Harry, 22. Burrard Inlet, 17, 18, 22, 175, 180, 182. Burnside Farm, 189. Bute Inlet, 176. BX Ranch, 192. Cadboro, 121, 122, 132. California, 30, 95, 115, 140, 141, 142, 144, 158, 190, 199, 205. 209 210 THE ROMANCE OF BRITISH COLUMBIA Callicum, 13. Calvert Island, 23. Cambie, H. J., 178-180. Cambie Street, Vancouver, 184. Cameron. "Cariboo,*' 156. Cameron, Chief-Justice, 146. Canada, Dominion of, 115, 144, 149, 168, 169, 171, 172, 197, 202, 207; Government, 172, 173, 175, 176, 181, 202, 205. Canadian National Railways, 196, 198, 201, 207. Canadian Northern Railway, 207. Canadian Pacific Railway, 82, 92, 171-184, 193, 201, 206, 207. Canton, 13. Cape Flattery, 17, 18. Cape Horn, 87, 94, 112, 133. Cape of Good Hope, 17. Capilano River, 22. "Cariboo" Cameron, 156. Cariboo Country, 154, 155, 156, 161, 165, 190, 195, 207. Cariboo Gold Rush, 155, 194. See also Gold Rush. Cariboo Road, 161-165, 167, 175, 178, 191, 194, 201, 204. Carnarvon, Lord, 176. Carnarvon Terms, 176. Carrier Indians, 39, 70,106,109, 127. Cascade Inlet, 26, 65. Cascades, 143. Chadsey Brothers, 194. Chatham, 16, 25, 26. Chatham Street, Victoria, 148. Chilcotin River, 176. Oiilcotin Valley, 176. Chilkat blankets, 43. Chilliwack, 78, 194, 195, 198. China, 13, 14, 33. Chinese, 205. Chipewyan, Fort, 54, 55, 57, 67, 100, 126. Christien, Joseph, 192. Churchill, Fort, 81. Churchill River, 81, 100. Clark, Captain, 71, 88, 93. Clearwater River, 100, 176. Clerke, Captain, 12. Clinton, 164, 165. Coal Harbour, 182, 183. Coast Indians, 7-10, 26-27, 28-29, 30-31, 34-36, 38-51, 54, 63, 78, ^ 79, 80. Coast Range, 76. Coldstream Ranch, 192. Colnett, Captain, 16. Columbia, 24. Columbia River, 39, 68, 71, 77, 93, 94, 111, 112, 114, 117, 118, 119, 120, 129, 131, 132, 133, 135, 137, 143, 144, 180, 181, 186, 187, 198; Discovery of, 25; Exploration of, 80-92. Colville, Fort, 198. Colwood Golf Links, 188. Colwood Farm, 188. Comer Ranch, 191. Comox, 188. Confederation, 168, 171, 172, 173, 176, 197, 202. Connolly, Amelia, 128. Connolly, William, 126, 128. Coquihalla River, 143. Cook, Captain James, 4, 5-12, 13, 15, 18, 33, 37, 38, 51, 79, 80. Cook Street, Victoria, 148. Cook's Ferry, 161. Cortex, 145. Cowichan Indians, 134. Craigellachie, 180, 181. Craigflower Farm, 185, 188. Cumberland House, 101. Dalles (Rapids of the Columbia River), 90, 91. Davie Street, Vancouver, 184. Dean Channel, 26, 53. Delta Country, 76. Dene Indians, 38, 39, 45, 66, 82, 85. Derby Townsite, 150. Discovery, 5, 8, 12, 16, 26. Discovery Street, Victoria, 148. Dog-Rib Indians, 66. Don Martinez, 15. Don Quadra, 22, 24, 25, 30. Dominion of Canada, see Canada, Dominion of. Dominion Government, 172, 173, 175, 176, 181, 202, 205. INDEX 211 Douglas, Sir James, 126-149, 150, 158, 161, 164, 165, 166, 185, 188, 199, 200. Douglas, Mrs., 128. Douglas Lake, 190. Douglas Street, Victoria, 148. Douglas, Village of, 160. Ducette, Charles, 57. Dundas Island, 27. Duncan, 188. Durham, Fort, 124, 133, 134, 198. Eagle Pass, 181. East India Company, 14. Eburne, 42. Eddystone Lighthouse, 27. Elcho Harbour, 65. Ellis, Tom, 192-193. Empress Hotel, 147. England, 5, 15, 16, 19, 26, 51, 81, 135, 139, 141, 146, 149, 150, 186, 188 Esquimalt, 145, 176, 188. Essington, Fort, 198. Essington, Port, 27. Europe, 144, 149. Evans, W., 179. Farms—Beckley, 187; Burnside, 189; Colwood, 188; Craigflower, 185, 188; North Dairy, 187; Rosebrook, 195; Skinner, 188. Fernbrook Ranch, 191. Finlay River, 59. Finlayson, Roderick, 124, 133, 134, 135, 140-141, 188. Fork, Fort, 56, 67. "Forks," The, 74. Fort Farm, 187. Fort Street, Victoria, 133. Fort William, 68, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103, 111, 126. Forts—Alexandria, 62, 111, 112, 114, 198; Astoria, 91, 92, 94, 95, 117; Babine, 198; Chipewyan, 54, 55, 57, 67, 100, 126; Churchill, 8i; Durham, 124, 133, 134, 198; Essington, 198; Fork, 56, 67; Fraser, 71; George, 71, 72, 79, 95, 111, 117, 118, 154; Hope, 143, 154; Kamloops, 94, 111, 113, 122, 124, 143; Kootenae House, 83, 84, 87, 90; Kullyspqll, ,87; Langley, 120, 121, 122, 143, 144, 146, 150. 167, 186, 195, 198, 200; McLeod, 70, 96, 98, 99, 103, 126, 129; Okanagan, 94, 111, 112, 114; Rocky Mountain House, 80, 82, 88, 89; Rupert, 142, 198; St. James, 71, 96-98, 99, 103, 104-110, 111, 114, 127-128, 129, 186; Salish, 87; Simpson, 198; Spokane, 87; Vancouver, 118, 121, 123, 131, 132, 133, 135, 137, 138, 141, 143, 186, 198; Victoria, 133, 134, 135, 136, 138, 139, 140, 141, 171, 186, ^ 187, 198. Fortune, A. L., 192. France, 149. Franklin Street, Victoria, 148. Fraser, Simon, 68-79, 80, 93, 95, 96, 108, 111, 121, 198. Fraser Canyons, 79, 160, 163, 175, s 177, 179, 201, 204. Fraser, Fort, 71. Fraser Lake, 71, 107, 109. Fraser Indians, 122. Fraser River, 21, 42, 43, 59, 62, 67, 80, 95, 111, 112, 114, 120, 121, 143, 144, 145, 146, 152, 154, 160, 163, 164, 165, 175, 176, 178, 179, 194, 196, 198, 200; Exploration of, 68-79. Fraser Valley, 76, 185, 191. "Friendly Village," 66. Friendly Cove, 15, 24. George, Fort, 71, 72, 79, 95, 111, 117, 118, 154. Georgia, Strait of, 18, 22, 77. Germany, 149. Glengarry, 156. Gold Rush, 144, 171, 177, 190, 194, 197, 200, 205. See also Cariboo Gold Rush. Gosnell, R. E., 189-190, 196. Government Reclamation Scheme, 194. Grand Portage, 101. Grand Trunk Railway, 207. Grant, Captain Jack, 146, 151. Granville, 182. 212 THE ROMANCE OF BRITISH COLUMBIA Gray, Captain, 25, 93. Great Northern Railway, 198. Great River of the West, 59, 68, 69, 71, 77. See also Fraser River. Great War, 207. Greenhow, Thomas, 192. Grenville Channel, 27. Grey Coat School, 81. Grey, Point, 18. Haida Indians, 33, 38, 48. Hamilton, L. A., 184. Hamilton Street, Vancouver, 184. Harmon, Daniel, 96, 98, 104-110, 111, 127, 186. Harrison, 164, 165. Harrison Lake, 160. Harrison-Chilliwack District, 194. Harrison-Lillooet Trail, 161, 162. Hastings Mill, 182. Hell Gate Canyon, 75. Hill-Tout, Professor, 42, 48, 51. Homer Street, Vancouver, 184. Hope, 76. Hope, Fort, 143, 154. Hope-Kamloops Brigade Trail, 162. Horsefly Creek, 154. Howay, Judge, 168, 181, 202. Howe Sound, 17, 18, 22. Howse Pass, 83, 89, 180. Hudson Bay, 5, 10, 16, 115. Hudson's Bay Company, 81, 92, 96, 101, 128, 131, 132, 135, 137, 138, 139, 141, 143, 144, 146, 149, 150, 185, 186, 187, 188, 189, 194, 197-199, 200; Forts, 115-125. He a la Crosse Lake, 100. India, 14, 205. Indian Ocean, 17. Indians—Assiniboine, 89; Athapascan,' 39; Babine, 39, 109-110 Carrier, 39, 70, 106, 109, 127 Coast, 7-10, 26-27, 28-29, 30-31 34-36, 38-51, 54, 63, 78, 79, 80 Cowichan, 134; Dene, 38, 39, 45 66, 82, 85; Dog-Rib, 66; Fraser 122; Haida, 33, 38, 48; Iroquois 90, 99; Kootenay, 39, 82, 84-85 Kwakiutl-Nootka, 38; Lillooet, 39 Nootka Sound, 13; Okanagan, 39 Piegan, 82, 83-85, 87, 89; Salish, 39, 41, 43, 46, 47; Sarcee, 38, 85; Shuswap, 39, 123-124; Songhee, 133-134; Thompson, 39, 74, 79, 122; Tsimshian, 38. Indians of the Plains, 39, 50. Inter-urban Car line, 198. Iroquois Indians, 90, 99. Irving, Washington, 101. Italy, 149. James Bay, 148. James Bay Bridge, 147. Japanese, 205. Jervis Inlet, 18, 22. Jewitt, John, 34, 35, 36, 37. Johnstone Strait, 22. Juan de Fuca, Strait of, 17, 18. Kamloops, 2, 175, 181, 192. Kamloops, Fort, 94, 111, 113, 122, 124, 143. Kamloops Lake, 177. Kamloops-Okanagan Trail, 162. Kane Street, Victoria, 148. Keefers, 179. Keithley Creek, 154. Kelowna, 191, 192. Kennedy, Governor Arthur E., 166. 200. Kettle Falls, 90, 92. Kettle River, 198. Kettle Valley Railway, 143. Kicking Horse Pass, 82, 180. Kilgour, 195. King's Lynn, 19. Kipp, Isaac. 194. Kootenae House, 83, 84, 87, 90. Kootenay Country, 80, 92, 185, 194. Kootenay Indians, 39, 82, 84-85. Kootenay Lake, 39, 86. Kootenay River, 86, 90. Kootenay Valley, 2. Kullyspell, Fort, 87. Kevah, Chief, 106-107, 127-128. Kwakiutl-Nootka Indians, 38. Ladner, Thomas E., 195. Ladner, William H., 195. Lake Superior, 99, 100, 101, 102, 175. La Loche, 100. INDEX 213 Lanarkshire, 126. Landry, Joseph, 57. Langford, Edward E., 188. Langford Plains, 188. Langley, Fort, 120, 121, 122, 143, 144, 146, 150, 167, 186, 195, 198, 200. Langley Prairie, 121. Lewis, Captain, 71, 88, 93. Lillooet, 74. 154, 160, 190. Lillooet Indians, 39. Lillooet Lake, 160. Lolo, Chief, 123. London. 15, 32, 116, 133. Lydia, 36, 37. Lytton, 75, 76, 161, 164, 175, 178. Lulu Island, 42, 195. Lumby, 192. Macdonald. Sir John A., 176. Mackay, Alexander, 57, 62, 94. Mackenzie, Alexander, 52-67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 76, 77, 78, 79, 95, 111. Mackenzie, Kenneth, 188. MacTavish, John George, 95. Madrid, 15. * Marks, Thomas, 194. Maple Ridge District, 194. Maquinna, Chief, 13, 14, 24, 30, 31, 34, 36. Maritime Provinces, 115. Martinez, Esteban, 16. Mayne, Commander, 145. McBeth, Dave, 179. McBride, Richard, 203. McCreight, Judge, 179. McDougall, Duncan, 95. McGill, Judge H. G., 205. McGillivr.ays, 181. Mclvor, John, 194. McLeod, John, 122. McLeod, Malcolm, 112. McLeod, Fort, 70, 96, 98, 99, 103, 126, 129. McLeod Lake, 70, 98, 103. McLoughlin, John, 117, 118, 119, 126, 131, 137, 138, 186. McMillan, John, 121. McTavishes, 181. Meares, Captain, 13, 14, 24. Menzies, Archibald, 19, 21, 23, 26, 53. Mexico, 192, 198. Misqueam, 77. Mission Valley, 192. Mississippi River, 82. Monterey, 25, 30. Montreal, 55, 80, 101, 102, 111, 112, 126, 181. Moody, Colonel, 150, 151, 152, 200. Mount Baker, 18. Mud Bay, 120. Mud Lake, 191. Musgrave, Sir Anthony, 169. Muskrat Country, 82. Nanaimo, 142, 176. Napoleon, 33. Narrows, 22. Nass River, 38. Nechako River, 71, 111, 196. Nelson, 2. Nelson River, 81. Nelson Street, Vancouver, 184. New Caledonia, 69, 80, 92, 93, 95, 96, 98, 103, 108, 111, 114, 115, 117, 126, 127, 144, 198. New Eddystone, 27. New Westminster, 2, 3, 76, 77, 147, 150-170, 171, 184, 185, 198, 199, 201, 202. New York, 147. New Zealand, 17. Nicola Lake, 143. Nicomekl River, 120. Nicomen River, 164. Nootka, 15, 16, 17, 18, 22, 23, 24, 26, 27, 29, 30, 34, 36. Nootka Convention, 15, 23, 32, 33. Nootka Sound, 7, 8, 10, 14. Nootka Sound Indians, 13. North Bend, 75. North Dairy Farm, 187. North Saskatchewan River, 82. North Thompson River, 175, 176. North West America, 14, 15. North-west Coast, 12, 13, 14, 15, 25, 26, 30, 33, 37, 47, 51, 52. 214 THE ROMANCE OF BRITISH COLUMBIA North West Company, 54, 55, 67, 68, 69, 72, 80, 81, 82, 87, 88, 92, 93-103, 109, 111, 112, 114, 115, 126, 197. North-West Passage, 12, 16, 181. Observatory Inlet, 27. Ocean Falls, 65. Okanagan, Fort, 94, 111, 112, 114. Okanagan Indians, 39. Okanagan Lake, 111, 192. Okanagan Mission, 191, 192. Okanagan River, 94. Okanagan Trail, 190. Okanagan Valley, 2, 162, 185, 190, 193, 194. O'Keefe, Charles, 192. Olvmpic Mountains, 139. Oriderdonk, Mr., 179. Ontario, 115. Oregon, 93, 96, 108, 111, 114, 115, 117, 126, 129, 131, 137, 139, 144, 187, 190, 193, 198, 199. Oregon City, 138. Oregon Treaty, 137, 198, 200. Oriental question, 205-206. Orizaba, 145. Ottawa, 176. Otter River, 143. Pacific Fur Company, 92, 93. Pacific Great Eastern Railway, 207. Pacific Highway, 198, 199. Pacific Ocean, 4, 6, 16, 17, 55, 65, 67, 77, 88. Pack River, 70. Parsnip River, 59, 60, 70, 100. Peace River, 55, 56, 57, 59, 60, 67, 70, 80, 98, 100, 111, 196. Pend d'Oreille Country, 90. Penticton, 193. Petersham, 32. Piegan Indians, 82, 83-85, 87, 89. Pitt River, 151. Pitt's Archipelago, 27. Plymouth, 27. Point Grey, 18. "Poo-Poo-men," 19. Port Moody, 180, 181, 182. Portland's Channel, 27. Pre-emption Act, 190. Prince Rupert, 2, 17. "Princess" Steamers, 16. Prospect Point, 22. Puget Sound, 18, 21, 120, 121, 132, 141. Puget Sound Agricultural Company, 187, 188. Quebec, 115. Queen Charlotte Islands, 30, 38, 48. Queenborough, 151, 152. Queensborough, 152. Quesnel, 154, 164, 191. Quesnel Forks, 161. Quesnel River, 191. Rainier, Mount, 21. Rainy Lake, 101. Rainy River, 88, 98. Ranches—Borland, 191; BX, 192; Coldstream, 192; Comer, 191; Fernbrook, 191. "Rascal Village," 66. Republic 145. Resolution, 5, 8. Revelstoke, 2, 181. Richards Street, Vancouver, 184. Richmond Hill, 32. Rocky Mountain House, 80, 82, 88, 89. Rocky Mountains, 26, 68, 70, 82, 115, 117, 126, 175, 180, 197. Robson Street, Vancouver, 184. Rogers Pass, 82, 180. Rosebrook Farm, 195. Royal City, 152, 170. Rupert, Fort, 142, 198. St. James Fort, 71, 96-98, 99, 103, 104-110, 111, 114, 127-128, 129, 186. St. Lawrence River, 156. St. Mary's Hill, 150. Salish, Fort, 87. Salish Indians, 39.41, 43, 46, 47. Salmon River, 120. Salter, Captain, 33, 34. San Francisco, 25, 140, 145, 148, 172. San Juan Islands, 200. Sandwich Islands, 11, 12, 17, 25, 30, 119. INDEX 215 Sapperton, 151. Sarcee Indians, 38, 85. Saskatchewan River, 80, 81, 88, 101. Scotland, 126, 149. Sea Island, 42. Selkirk Mountains, 89, 180. Seton Lake, 160. Seymour, Governor, 166, 167, 168, 169, 200, 202. Seymour Narrows, 22, 176. Seymour Street, Vancouver, 184. Shuswap Indians, 39, 123-124. Sicamous, 181. Sierra Nevada, 145. Simpson, Sir George, 115-116, 128- 129, 130. Simpson, Fort, 198. Sinclair Hot Springs, 206. Siwash Rock, 133. Skeena River, 38, 196. Skinner, J. T., 188. Skinner Farm, 188. Smith, Donald A., 181. Smoky River, 56. Smythe Street, Vancouver, 184. Snake River, 71, 91, 92. Soda Creek, 191. Songhee Indians, 133, 134. South Sea Islands, 6. South Thompson River, 181. Spain, 15, 17, 149. Spanish Insult, 16. Spence's Bridge, 161, 163, 164. Spithead, 17. Spokane, Fort, 87. Spuzzum, 163, 179. Stanley Park, Vancouver, 177, 184. Strait of Georgia, 18. Strait of Juan de Fuca, 17, 18. Strathcona, Lord, 181. Stuart, John, 72, 78, 96, 107, 111. Stuart Lake, 71, 96, 97, 106, 127. Stuart River, 111. Sumas Prairie, 194. Superior, Lake, 99,100,101,102,175. Surrey, 120. Taku Inlet, 133. Tasmania, 17. Texada Island, 22. Thames River, 32. Thompson, 35, 36. Thompson, David, 74, 80-92, 93, 95, 108, 126, 174, 180, 181, 198. Thompson Indians, 39, 74, 79, 122. Thompson Memorial Fort, 91. Thompson River, 74, 94, 111, 144, 161, 163, 175. Thorn, Captain Jonathan, 94. Tingley, Steve, 179, 192. Tod, John, 123, 124. Tonquin, 37, 87, 94. Tranquille, Chief, 122. Tsimshian Indians, 38. Tulameen River, 143. Ugly Head, 87. Vancouver, Captain George, 13-37, 38, 45, 51, 52, 53, 71, 79. Vancouver, 135. Vancouver, City of, 2, 16, 17, 171- 184, 185, 198; incorporated, 184. Vancouver, Fort, 118, 121, 123, 131, 132, 133, 135, 137, 138, 141, 143, 186, 198. Vancouver Island, 2, 23, 35, 38, 94, 132, 137, 139, 140, 143, 144, 176, 185, 186, 187, 188, 189, 199; Colony of, 141, 146, 147, 148, 149, 166, 167, 197, 199-200, 201. Vancouver Street, Victoria, 148. Van Home, William, 182. Vernon, 192. Vernon Brothers, 192. Victoria, City of, 2, 16, 132, 133, 134, 139-149, 150, 152, 165, 166, 176, 185, 188, 200, 202, 203; incorporated, 148; created capital, 168. Victoria, Fort, 133, 134, 135, 136, 138, 139, 140, 141, 171, 186, 187, 198. War of 1812, 95. Washington, 115. White Valley, 192. Willamette River, 138. Williams Creek, 156, 158, 191, 194. Williams Lake, 191. Windermere, 91, 92, 206. m 216 THE ROMANCE OF BRITISH COLUMBIA Windermere, Lake, 83, 84. Winnipeg, 181. Winnipeg, Lake, 82, 101. Winnipeg River, 101. Wood River, 89. Work, John, 121, 188 XY Company, 68. Yale, 75, 154, 160, 161, 164, 175, 177, 178. Yellowhead Pass, 175, 176, 180, 181. York Factory, 131. «a-"* <o»-»* f% / 6 V -^ f&3 -^4-fr^ h. He £p S "? i 4 9zM C i
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Original Format: University of British Columbia. Library. Rare Books and Special Collections. FC3811 .A578 1927
Textbooks--History
British Columbia--History
The romance of British Columbia
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