CONTENTdm
Report Royal Commission of agriculture British Columbia 1914
British Columbia Historical Books Collection
Hayward, W. H.
British Columbia. Royal Commission on Agriculture
ix, 398 pages : tables, map (folded) ; 26 cm
application/pdf
PROVINCE OF BRITISH COLUMBIA FULL EEPOET OP THE EOTAL COMMISSION ON AGEICULTUEE APPOINTED ON THE 4TH DAY OF DECEMBER, 1912, UNDER THE "PUBLIC INQUIRIES ACT" THE GOVERNMENT OF ."HE PROMHCE OF BRITISH COUWIA. PRINTED BY AUTHORITY OF THE LEGISLATIVE ASSEMBLY. VICTORIA, B.C. : Printed by William H. Collin, Printer to the King's Most Excellent Majesty. 1914. ERDVINCIAL LIBRARY 'XVICTORIA; B.C. TABLE OF CONTENTS. PAET I. Page. Letter of Transmittal 1 Commission 3 Note 4 Introduction— Members of the Commission 5 Sessions held 5 Procedure 0 Response of Public 7 Personal Observation 7 Investigations in Other Countries by the Commissioners 7 Chairman Hayward's Visit to Europe 7 Commissioner Lucas's Visit to Australia and New Zealand 7 Commissioner Campbell's Visit to the Prairie Provinces 7 Commissioner Duncan's Visit to the United States, Washington and Oregon 7 Commissioner Kidston's Visit to California and Washington 7 Commissioner Shannon's Visit to Ontario and Wisconsin S Appreciation of Assistance S Reassembling in Victoria S Basis of Recommendations 8 Relation between Agriculture and other Industries 8 Agricultural Conditions 8 General Conditions summarized 8 Suitability for Various Branches 8 Possibilities for Agricultural Development • 9 Conditions affecting Agriculture 9 Rapid Growth of Cities 9 Diversion of Capital and Energy from Agriculture 9 Setting of New Land deterred 9 Cessation of Land-clearing in the Province 9 Need of Capital for Land-clearing 10 Need of Drainage and other Improvements 10 Small Returns due to Lack of Co-operation 10 • Need of Educational Work 10 Effect of Misrepresentation 10 Conditions necessary for growing Fruit commercially 10 Discontent caused by Erroneous Estimates 10 Lack of Co-operation 11 Transportation Facilities comparatively good 11 High Cost of Living : 11 Inflation not due to Farmers' Profits 11 Means of Reduction 11 Lands, Public and Private— Public Lands 11 Colonization Companies generally 11 Colonization-work of the Canadian Pacific Railway Company 11 Present Land Policy 12 Concessions to Companies not needed 12 Inactivity due to Lack of Capital 12 Effect of Wild-land Tax 12 Provisions for Closer Settlement 12 Free Pre-emptions 12 Settlement Conditions 12 1' iv. Contents. Page. Lands, Public and Private—Concluded. Public Lands—Concluded. Present Land Policy—Concluded. Living Area provided 13 Dry-farming Experiments 13 Pre-emption Policy 13 Free Selection disadvantageous 13 Closer Settlements Increasing 13 Recommendations , 13 Selection of Areas for Closer Settlement 13 Creation of Classification Branch of Land Department 13 Provisions for Gloser Settlements 13 Recommendations 14 Selected Areas to be opened for Pre-emption and Purchase 14 Improvement Conditions similar for Purchaser and Pre-emptor 14 Purchaser Exempt from Residency 14 Improvement Conditions stringent 14 No Person to acquire more than One Living Area 14 Exemption from Survey Fees 14 Purchase of Large Tracts 14 Provisoes 14 Prevention of Purchase by Proxy 14 Purchase of Land for Specific Purposes 14 Conservation of Deposits of Fertilizers 14 Reserves recommended 14 Bonus for Discoveries 14 Kelp Groves should be examined 14 Source of Potash-supply 14 Indian Reserves 14 Complaints of Nuisances 14 Noxious Weeds 14 Dogs killing Sheep 14 Live-stock running at Large 1.4 Recommendation 14 Federal Action 14 Oriental Land Tenure 14 Detrimental to Vegetable Farmers 14 Hindu Competition in Dairying 14 Real Estate misrepresented 15 Recommendations 15 Registration of Persons and Companies doing Real-estate Business 15 Licence and Bonds 15 Land Improvement— Land-clearing 15 Prevailing Conditions 15 Cost of Clearing 15 Methods of Clearing 15 Clearing with Heavy Machinery 15 Co-operation in Land Clearing 15 Lack of Experience among Settlers 15 Methods Compared 15 Recommendations 16 Instructors and Demonstrators 16 Permits to burn slashings 16 Repeal of Stumpage Royalty 16 Further Investigation 16'- Contents. v. Page. Land Improvement—Concluded. Ditches and Watercourses Act 16 Applicability in Unorganized Districts 16 Recommendation 16 Co-operation between Organized and Unorganized Districts 16 Irrigation 16 Water Rights 16 Disputes pending 16 Reserve of Watersheds 16 Municipal Ownership of Water Rights 16 Formation of Water Districts 16 Proposed Water Act approved 16 Sundry Remedial Legislation— Artesian-well Boring 16 Experiments by Government 16 Noxious Weeds 17 Condition Serious 17 Lack of Systematic Cultivation 17 Preventive Measures 17 Recommendations 17 Educational Campaigns 17 Weed Destruction '. 17 List of Weeds simplified 17 Enforcement of Act simplified 17 Weed Inspector 17 District Instructor as Weed Inspector 17 Infected Areas 17 Fruit Pests 17 Recommendation 17 Districts may be declared infected 17 Bovine Tuberculosis IS Approval of Government's Policy IS Bulls and Stallions running at Large IS Enforcement of Act IS Cattle-marking IS Recommendations IS Provincial Registry Office IS Duplication of Brands prevented IS Vent Brands IS Protection of Sheep IS Injury to Flocks caused by Dogs : IS Recommendations IS Game Laws and Gun Licences 19 Recommendation 19 Free Gun Licences for Farmers 19 Free Transferable Licences for Employees 19 Inspection of Imported Poultry 19 Recommendation for Federal Action 19 Prison Labour 19 Prohibitive Cost of Drain-tile and Lime 19 Recommendations 19 Prisoners to be employed 19 Wages to be -paid Prisoners 19 Public Improvements— Rural Telephone System 19 Telephone a Factor in Agricultural Development 19 vi. Contents. Page. Public Improvements—Concluded. Rural Telephone System—Concluded. Co-operative Telephone Associations 20 Modification of Saskatchewan System advised 20 Recommendations 20 Extension beyond three-mile line 20 Government Aid 20 Company to furnish Instruments 20 Cost of Extension 20 Recommendations 20 Incorporation of Associations 20 Future Extension 21 Public Roads 21 General Condition of Roads is good 21 Many Demands unjustified 21 Day Wage System justified in Past 21 Cost of Road Comparatively Great 21 Road Work Deters Farm Development 21 Effect of Agricultural Credit 21 Effect of Closer Settlement 21 Recommendations 22 Road-building commercialized 22 Roads in Subdivisions 22 Grading of Roads 22 Recommendation—Proviso respecting Roads 22 Width of Roads 22 66 Feet in most Cases excessive 22 General Remarks 22 Low Freight Rate on Road Material 22 Taxation— Real-property Tax 22 Exemption of Farm Improvements 22 Basis of Assessment 22 School Tax 23 Manner of raising Funds 23 Debts unpaid 23 Municipal School Taxation 23 Farms included in Municipal School Area 23 Recommendations 23 Exemption of Improvements 23 Basis of Valuation 23 School Tax disbursed quarterly 23 Amendment to School Act 23 Labour— Scarcity of Agricultural Labour 23 Comparative Cost of Labour 23 Causes of Scarcity 23 Immigration Labour necessary 23 Effect of Head-tax 23 Effect of Master and Servant Act 24 Recommendations 24 Board of Immigration to be appointed 24 Financial Aid to Immigrants 24 Master and Servant Act to be amended 24 Immigration, Child 24 Recommendations 24 Contents. vii. Page. Labour—Concluded. Immigration, Child—Concluded. Recommendations—Concluded. Training Schools established 24 Children placed in Homes 24 Inspection as to Treatment 24 Provision for Expense 24 Agricultural Credit— Urgent Need of Capital 25 Agricultural Credit in other Countries 25 Security available 25 Increased Assets to Province 25 Increased Production 25 Increased Traffic 25 An Interview with Sir George Paish 26 Necessity for increasing Agricultural Production 26 Intermediate Loaning Agency not advisable 26 Non-political Commission , 26 Need of Capital for Increased Production 26 No Capital available for Agricultural Industry 26 General Effect of Agricultural Credit 26 Various Countries providing Agricultural Credit 27 Characteristics of European System 27 Credit System in New Zealand 27 Board of Directors 27 Security and Terms 27 Safeguards provided 27 Effects of New Zealand System 2S Beneficial Effect on Rural Life 2S Statistics concerning Advances to Settlers 2S Characteristics of Australian System 29 Capital supplied by Savings-banks 29 Beneficial Results of System 29 Recommendations 29 Agricultural Credit should be provided 29 Board of Agricultural Credit Commissioners 29 Appointment of Members 29 Term of Service 29 Ex-offlcio Members 29 Loans to be authorized by Legislative Assembly 29 Funds raised by Minister of Finance 29 Minister acting for Commission 29 Mortgages form Collateral Security for Debentures 29 Proceeds of Land-sales to be loaned 29 Rate of Interest 29 Period of Amortization 29 Charges paid semi-annually 30 Applications for Loans 30 Basis of Valuation—Actual Production 30 Basis of Maximum Loans—60 per cent, of Valuation 30 Discretionary Power of Commissioners 30 Qualification for Loans 30 Character of Applicant 30 Security offered 30 Prospects of Success 30 Loans available as work proceeds 30 viii. Contents. Page. Agricultural Credit—Concluded. Recommendations—Concluded. Safeguards 30 Minimum and Maximum Loans 30 Loans to Agricultural Associations 30 Marketing and Co-operation— Outside Markets 30 Home Markets and Consignments 30 Cause of Unsatisfactory Condition 31 Co-operative Selling Agencies and City Markets 31 Special Marketing Conditions 31 Blended New Zealand Butter 31 Contents of Water 31 Food Value 31 Recommendation—Blended Butter should be marked 31 Marketing of Eggs and Butter 31 Cold-storage Eggs 31 Immediate Legislation recommended 31 Recommendation—Labelling of Eggs 31 Competition for North-west Markets 32 Findings summarized 32 Present Protection needed 32 Co-operation 32 General Condition in Province 32 Co-operative Movement generally 32 Immature Attempts 33 Lack of Capital 33 Loans under Agricultural Associations Act 33 Efficient Management needed 33 Creation of Commercial Branch of Department of Agriculture 33 Recommendations 33 Creation of Commercial Branch of Agricultural Department 33 Agricultural Associations Act 34 Recommendations 34 Duties of Organizer 34 Principle—One Man, One Vote 34 Public Markets .34 City Markets 34 Effect in lessening Prices 34 Recommendation 31 Provision for Loans 31 Transportation 35 Transportation Facilities 35 Cases of Special Complaint 35 Interviews with Railway Officials 35 Special Freight Rate on Agricultural Supplies 35 Cattle-guards 35 Expedited Freight Service 35 Agricultural Education— State of Agricultural Education 35 Educational Work of Department of Agriculture 36 Agricultural Education in Public Schools 36 Educational Literature 36 Monthly Journal 36 Agricultural Education in Ontario 37 District Representative 37 Contents. IX. Page. Agricultural Education—Concluded. Recommendations 37 District Instructors to be appointed 37 Inspection and Registration of Orchards 37 Systematic Visits to Orchards and Farms 37 Experimental and Demonstrative Orchard 37 Experimental Dry Farm 37 Soil Analysis 37 Agricultural Charts to be published 37 Provision for Accurate Information 37 Experimental Farms 37 Experimental Work on Farm at Agassiz 37 Recommendation in Favour of Effective Support 37 Governmental Farm Training School 37 Aim of Training School 3S Minister of Agriculture and Advisory Board— Separate Portfolio of Agriculture 3S Importance of Agricultural Department 3S Consultative Board 38 Duties of Advisory Board 3S Usefulness of Advisory Board 38 Recommendation 39 Separate Portfolio of Agriculture 39 Advisory Board 39 Conclusion 39 Index 41 4 Geo. 5 Eoyal Commission on Agriculture. To His Honour Thomas Wilson Paterson, Lieutenant-Governor of the Province of British Columbia. May it please Your Honour : The Royal Commission on Agriculture, appointed by Order in Council dated the 4th day of December, 1912, for the purpose of inquiring into the conditions affecting the various branches of agriculture in the Province, have the honour to submit the following Eeport. W. H. HAYWAED, Chairman. 4 Geo. 5 Eoyal Commission on Agriculture. COMMISSION. THOS. W. PATERSON, Lieutenant-Governor. CANADA: PROVINCE OF BRITISH COLUMBIA. GEORGE THE FIFTH, by the Grace of God, of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, and of the British Dominions beyond the Seas, King, Defender of the Faith, Emperor of India. In the Matter of the " Public Inquiries Act." COMMISSION. To W. H. Hayward, of the City of Duncan; Alexander Lucas, of the City of Vancouver; S. Shannon, of Cloverdale; Wm. Duncan, of Comox; J. J. Campbell, of the City of Nelson; Thomas Kidd, of Steveston; and J. Kidston, of the City of Vernon; and to all whom the same may in anywise concern,—Greeting. W J. Bowser, ( TTTHEREAS it is deemed expedient to cause inquiry to be made into Attorney-General. 1 » ' and concerning the conditions affecting agriculture in all its branches throughout the Province; and whereas by an Order of the Lieutenant-Governor in Council dated the 4th day of December, 1912, it is directed that a Commission under the provisions of the " Public Inquiries Act" be issued to you, W. H. Hayward, Alexander Lucas, S. Shannon, Wm. Duncan, J. J. Campbell, Thomas Kidd, and J. Kidston, jointly, appointing you to be Commissioners to inquire generally into the matter aforesaid: NOW KNOW YE that, under and by virtue of the powers contained in and conferred by the said recited Act, and of all and every powers and power vested in Us in that behalf, and by and with the advice of Our Executive Council, We, reposing trust and confidence in your loyalty, integrity, and ability, do hereby confer upon you, the said Commissioners, the power of making inquiry into all and every the matter aforesaid. And We direct you, the said Commissioners, to report in writing the facts found by you to Our Lieutenant-Governor of Our said Province immediately, or as soon as conveniently may be after you shall have concluded such inquiry, together with such recommendations as you may see fit to make. In Testimony Whereof We have caused these Our Letters to be made Patent, and the Great Seal of the Province to be hereunto affixed. Witness, His Honour Thomas Wilson Pateeson, Lieutenant-Governor of Our said Province of British Columbia, in Our City of Victoria, in Our said Province, this 4th day of December, in the year of our Lord one thousand nine hundred and twelve, and in the third year of Our Reign. By Command. HENRY ESSON YOUNG, Provincial Secretary. British Columbia. 1914 NOTE. In preparing this report, we have thought it advisable to divide it in two parts in order to ensure that one part dealing briefly with our findings and recommendations may be ready for presentation during this session of your Legislature, and permission then asked for the printing of the second part. In the latter will be supplied more details of the information obtained which has influenced our findings and recommendations, and other particulars bearing on the subject of our inquiry. 4 Geo. 5 Eoyal Commission on Agriculture. ROYAL COMMISSION ON AGRICULTURAL. REPORT: PART I. By Order in Council dated December 4th, 1912, the undernoted were appointed a Royal Commission under the " Public Inquiries Act" to inquire into the conditions affecting the various branches of agriculture in this Province:— W. H. Hayward, M.L.A., of the City of Duncan. Alexander Lucas, M.L.A., of the City of Vancouver. S. Shannon, of Cloverdale. Wm. Duncan, of Comox. J.' J. Campbell, of the City of Nelson. Thomas Kidd, of Steveston. J. Kidston, of the City of Vernon. Unfortunately, however, due to ill-health, Mr. Thomas Kidd was unable to join the Commission and subsequently resigned. C. B. Christensen was appointed Secretary to the Commission. Your Commissioners met for the purpose of organizing on December 17th in the Executive Chamber of the Government Buildings at Victoria. It was decided to hold public sessions at the following places- and times:— Vancouver January 9th, 10th, 1913. New Westminster January 13th, 191.3. Victoria January 17th to 2Sth, 1913. Saanichtoh April 7th, 1913. Metchosin April 8th, 1913. Ganges Harbour April 9th, 10th, 1913. Nanaimo April 11th, 1913. Parksville April 12th, 1913. Alberni- April loth, 1913. Courtenay April 17th, ISth, 1913. Duncah April 21st, 22nd, 1913. Steveston April 25th, 1913. Ladner April 26th, 1.913. Cloverdale April 2Sth, 29th, 1913. Milner April 30th, 1913. Huntingdon April 30th, 1913. Aldergrove May 1st, 1913. Abbotsford May 2nd, 3rd, 1913. Chilliwack May 5th, 6th, 1913. Port Haney May -7th, 1913. Hammond May 7th, 1913. Mission May Sth, 1913. Agassiz ! May 9th, 1913. Walhachin May 12th, 1913. Merritt May 13th, 1913. Nicola May 14tn, 1913. Kamloops May 15th, 1913. Salmon Arm May 27th, 1913. Enderby May 2Sth, 1913. British Columbia. 1914 Armstrong May 29th, 19^3. Vernon May 30th, 31st, 1913. Kelowna ; June 2nd, 3rd, 1913. Summerland June 4th, 1913. Penticton June 5th, 1913. Keremeos June 6th, 1913. Rock Creek June 7th, 1913. Midway June 7th, 1913. Greenwood June 7th, 1913. Grand Forks June 9th, 1913. Rossland June 12th, 1913. Trail June 12th, 1913. Columbia Gardens June 13th, 1913. Castlegar June 14th, 1913. Burton City June 16th, 1913. Edgewood June 16th, 1913. Nakusp June 17th, 1913. New Denver June ISth, 1913. Nelson June 21st to 24th, 1913. South Slocan June 25th, 1913. Kaslo June 26th, 1913. Balfour '. June 27th, 1913. Creston June 2Sth, 1913. Cranbrook June 30th, 1913. Baynes' Lake June 30th, 1913. Wasa July 1st, 1913. Windermere July 2nd, 1913. Wilmer July 3rd, 1913. Golden July 5th, 1913. Revelstoke July 7th, 1913. Ashcroft July Sth, 1913. Lillooet July 9th, 1913. Lytton July 10th, 1913. Clinton July 10th, 1913. Chileotin July 11th, 13th, 1913. Quesnel July 15th, 1913. Terrace August 9th, 1913. Trince Rupert August 11th, 12th, 1913. Hazelton August 13th, 1913. Telkwa August 15th, 1913. PROCEDURE. Every opportunity was given all persons desiring to be heard to lay such matters before the Commission as in their judgment might have a bearing upon the subject-matter of the inquiry. Notices stating the times and places of hearing and the scope and purport of the inquiry, and also inviting all parties interested to be present at the sessions to give evidence, were published in the British Columbia Gazette and in local newspapers. Similar notices were posted in conspicuous places throughout the Province. There were also sent special notices to the secretaries of many public bodies, such as Farmers' Institutes, Agricultural Societies, Fruit-growers' Associations, Poultry Associations, Boards of Trade, Progress Clubs, as well as to City Mayors, Government Agents, and Postmasters, where the sessions were to be held. Arrangements were made through the Governmental Departments to notify officials, whose duties gave opportunities for close observation or special knowledge of conditions affecting the subjects of inquiry, to appear before the Commissioners whenever a session should occur in the vicinity of the place where they were stationed. 4 Geo. 5 Eoyal Commission on Agriculture. The response of the public was general and cordial, and the investigation was rendered easier and more effective by the readiness and frankness with which information was furnished, the preparation by previous discussion at meetings for the purpose, at which dele- Public gates to present resolutions were appointed, and by the courtesy of public- Response, spirited residents of the districts in driving or motoring us to see the farms, orchards, and land available for cultivation in the districts visited. At the sixty-nine sessions, over six hundred witnesses gave sworn or solemnly affirmed evidence, and of those many represented Farmers' Institutes, Agricultural Associations, Boards of Trade, etc. While most-of the evidence was from men engaged directly in agriculture, much was also supplied by men in trades or business affecting or affected by that industry; so that it embraces facts and opinions gathered from representatives of all branches of agriculture and horticulture, of banks, loan companies, commission merchants, wholesale dealers, retailers, railroad and other transportation companies; and from a large number of departmental officials especially qualified to furnish valuable information. In every locality the information secured was supplemented by personal visits to farms and orchards and by inspection of undeveloped land. By personal observation we thus gained additional knowledge of the methods pursued, the farm development, the soil, and other local conditions. We therefore feel that we are well informed as to the opinions of the people of the Province on the subjects of our investigation, and are in a position to form conclusions as to their value. The plan which we laid out for the conduct of our inquiries was to make ourselves thoroughly acquainted with the development of agriculture in the Province, and of any conditions which militate against it, and thereafter to visit countries where similar problems Investigations had been studied and attempts at solution made, in order that we might judge by the Commis- for ourselves as to the success of such solutions and their suitability to our sioners in other conditions. In pursuance of this policy, the Chairman visited England, where Countries. among other subjects special attention was given to the question of farm- labour supply and child immigration; Ireland, where the development of co-operation following loans by the Government has so marvellously increased the prosperity of the farmers; Denmark, which probably leads the world in thorough and effective rural co-operation; Germany, France, and Holland, in which countries rural co-operatioii and agricultural credit systems have revolutionized the conditions of the rural population; and on his return journey conferred at New York and Washington, D.C., with members and officials of the Permanent American Commission on Co-operation and Agricultural Credit. Commissioner Lucas visited New Zealand and the six States of the Commonwealth of Australia, to familiarize himself with their legislation affecting agriculture, particularly their agricultural credit systems, and to study the comparative effect on agricultural development and general prosperity of the various systems in force. Commissioner Campbell visited a number of points in Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba; and there gathered information bearing on the problem of how best to develop the export business of fruit and vegetables from British Columbia to those Provinces, the different systems of agricultural education, the assistance given to co-operative creameries, the rural telephone systems, the land-settlement work of the Canadian Pacific Railway Company, and its policy of assistance to settlers by ready-made farms, by demonstration farms, by loans, and by furnishing live-stock on easy terms of payment. He also availed himself of the opportunity of conferring with Professor Oliver, of the Royal Commission on Agricultural Credit for the Province of Saskatchewan, which had just completed its report, and of gaining information from managers of loan companies regarding their farm-loan business. A tour through Washington and Oregon was undertaken by Commissioner Duncan, with the especial object of making a comparative inquiry into various methods of land-clearing and for the purpose of investigating the systems of agricultural education in those States. Other matters such as draining and irrigation also occupied his attention. Commissioner Kidston visited a number of the principal fruit producing and marketing centres in California, Oregon, and Washington, where methods of co-operative fruit-marketing have been developed to such a marked degree, in order to get a closer insight into the various British Columbia. 1914 methods followed and their respective success, and to study the methods of production and packing which make the producers of deciduous fruits in Oregon and Washington such formidable competitors of the British Columbian orchardists. Commissioner Shannon visited Ontario, Wisconsin, Illinois, and Minnesota, and made particular investigation into the methods employed in land-clearing and in carrying on agricultural education, noted the latest improvements in dairying, and inquired into the working of the co-operative systems as adapted to the requirements of those countries. We take this opportunity to express our sincere appreciation of the great assistance given us by the many gentlemen in the countries visited, who with such sympathetic readiness cheerfully took so much trouble to further our aims by giving us, or helping us Appreciation of to obtain, desired information and advice. Assistance. On December 2nd we reassembled at Victoria, and have since been engaged in obtaining evidence upon special subjects, in framing our recommendations to be embodied in this part of our report for legislation, and in compiling the second part of our report, which will deal at greater length with many subjects and furnish much particular information for reference. In arriving at the conclusions and deciding upon the recommendations that will he set forth in the report, we have been influenced by the conviction that there is nothing within the power of the people of British Columbia to do that will so much conduce to their Basis of Recom- present and future prosperity and their national strength and well-being, and mendations. so raise the credit of the Province in the money markets of the world, as to take measures to place the business of agriculture on a sound basis and make it attractive and profitable as an occupation for a large and growing proportion of its population. At the same time, in recommending such measures as we believe will tend to that end. we have felt the necessity of great caution and the wisdom of following lines approved by experience and in accord with sound business principles, even though that policy may cause delay in the introduction of desirable forward movements. It is recognized to-day by students of political economy that modern economic development has followed lines favourable to manufacturing and commerce rather than to agriculture, which consequently has failed to keep pace with other industries, with bad effects on Relation the welfare of the people in many countries. This has led to the establishment, between Agricul- in some cases, of systems of co-operation and of state-aided credit. Now that ture and other the time has come when it seems plain that we should adopt a similar policy. Industries. we have the advantage of being able to profit by approved experience in framing a system applicable to conditions in British Columbia. While we think that we have given full consideration to opinions and suggestions received in evidence, we have felt that upon us lay the responsibility of forming our own conclusions. Our recommendations for the betterment of agricultural industry are intended to supplement the thrift and application of the individual. AGRICULTURAL CONDITIONS. The natural advantages of British Columbia for the highest development of animal life, combined with its large home market, make it peculiarly suited for dairying, horse-breeding, i and the production of beef, mutton, pork, eggs, and dressed poultry. Some General districts are pre-eminently suited to some branches, other districts to others. Conditions In some parts alfalfa, in other parts vetch and oat hay, corn and roots, will summarized. be the leading fodder-crops; but there are no farming districts where crops of valuable stock - food could not be raised with great regularity. It is instructive to note in this connection that what seem to be the most prosperous districts in the Prairie Provinces are those where live-stock raising is the principal industry rather than the growing of grain for sale. Districts where climatic conditions made wheat an uncertain venture, and which accordingly devoted themselves to mixed farming, seem most uniformly thriving. We know of no other country which seems to be so much the natural home of the clover- plant as this Province. Alfalfa yields three good crops a year over large areas of the warmer sections of the Interior, and is being proven to be adapted in varying degrees to other parts. 4 Geo. 5 Royal Commission on Agriculture. In most of the developed districts small fruits have been proven to be very successful. Besides the local market, we have special advantages for these in the rapidly growing markets of the North-west. We have a few jam-factories, but most of the jams consumed in British Columbia and the Prairie towns come from Eastern Canada or Great Britain. Tasmania ships large quantities of fruit-pulp to Great Britain, some of which doubtless is eaten in jam in Victoria. The increase in the production of tree-fruit has been striking in the past few years, the total value being as follows :— 1911 $44S,24S 1912 046,S52 1913 S00.S47 And the increase from the orchards already planted will be enormous within the next few years. While the districts proven to have such favourable conditions as to enable them to compete on even terms in the world's markets with the best fruit districts of other countries are not so numerous as optimists have believed, there is an immense area of unplanted Possibilities for land in the proven districts. When a fair proportion of that area is brought Agricultural to the producing stage, the exports of fruit from the Province should add Development. enormously to its wealth. The excellence of the British Columbia potatoes, celery, cucumbers, tomatoes, onions, etc., is such that large quantities of them have already been sold in the towns of the Prairie Provinces, and there is room for great development in those lines of production. It will therefore be seen how well the conditions in many parts of the Province are suited to intensive farming. With a large population in close settlements, the development of rural life, with all its advantages, would thus be made possible. CONDITIONS AFFECTING AGRICULTURE. We will now refer briefly to some of the unfavourable conditions which are most common: The rapid growth of the Coast cities and the consequent increase in the price of lands has led to_the subdivision of many farms,L resulting in a large ^acreage being, with- Rapid Growth drawn from cultivation. The very large amount of public works being carried of Cities. on in the cities, with the wages paid, has attracted working-men and made farm labour scarce as a result. However, this state of affairs is rapidly adjusting itself. A number of new settlers have gone into districts lately opened up. Many of those who had a reasonable amount of capital have already made fine farms. But too many of them were without capital and were unable to obtain the credit necessary to enable them to clear their land and bring it under cultivation. Many of these sought work in the cities, and others became disheartened and have moved away. In older communities in the heavily timbered parts of the Province, it was very commonly found that when a man had succeeded, perhaps after years of effort, in clearing enough land to make a living from it, with perhaps some earnings from other work, he made no further attempt to bring more land under cultivation. Many witnesses explained that the struggle to accomplish what they had done without capital, and to make a living at the same time, was too strenuous to encourage them to continue it further; that if they could borrow money on reasonable terms they would Need of Capital he anxious to use it towards increasing their cultivated area. They were for Land- confident that they could not only provide for interest and amortization of clearing, etc. such loans, but increase their revenue, and this confidence was based on the profits from the operations of the past. In many cases, especially on Vancouver Island and the Lower Mainland, good drainage systems and the use of lime would double the productiveness of farms; but, again, lack of capital has hampered development. In other cases where better live-stock, silos, buildings, and similar improvements would greatly increase the earning-power of farms and encourage the owners to increase the scope of their operations. lack of capital has deterred them. Frequently, with a good market within reasonable reach, lack of co-operation and efficient marketing methods has led to returns so much lower than they should be (even though still profitable) that discontent has been caused ; and discontent does not lead to increased effort, nor encourage others to engage in the same business. 10 British Columbia. 1914 In a large number of instances, even where moderately profitable results were being gained, there was room for much improvement in farming methods, more systematic rotation of crops, better live-stock, etc. In short, we found that there is plenty of scope for extension of the educational work of the Department of Agriculture, notwithstanding the large amount of good work already done, of which we saw the proof, and which often was brought to our attention by witnesses. In many cases discouragement and disappointment were due to misrepresentation by real- estate agents or land companies. Sometimes people had bought land before coming to British Columbia; and sometimes they saw the land before buying, but had not enough knowledge of conditions to save them from huying under a misapprehension of the facts. The most common forms of misrepresentation have been the underestimation of the cost of clearing and the exaggeration of the earning-power of land. For instance, the earnings of a celery farm, in some locality especially adapted to its growth, have been quoted as the basis of estimation of the income to be derived from 10 acres of land in some other part of the Province with different conditions. The fact that, with some intensive form of cultivation, or with poultry-farming, a living can be made on a small acreage is too often taken as ground for advising people without especial fitness, and in districts where a considerably larger area would be advisable, to buy 5 acres of land at high prices, and to depend upon the earnings from it for a living. As representative of the opinion of many farmers, we quote the following from the evidence of a representative of a Farmers' Institute in the Fraser Valley: " With regard to the division and spoliation of the farms, I would suggest that any one who is in any way responsible for it be sentenced to five years on five acres without any other means of support." To warrant the large investment required to develop a commercial orchard, it is necessary that the conditions should be favourable to the production of large yields of the best varieties of fruit, with a minimum of climatic and other risks. Undoubtedly, some Conditions parts of the Province conform to these requirements, as has been proved by- necessary for actual experience. In others, to say the least, it has not been proved that Commercial these requirements are met. The fact that a few trees have been grown for Fruit-growing, a home supply of fruit is not sufficient evidence of the suitability of a district for profitable commercial orcharding, but the experience of the proven districts is used indiscriminately to force the sale of land for orchard purposes in unproven districts. The accounts sent out by people disappointed in these ways are the worst possible advertisement, as victims are usually prone to discredit a whole country rather than take blame for imprudence or poor judgment. In the well-proven fruit districts there has been disappointment as to the number of years from the time of planting of the average orchard before substantial returns could be depended upon. Estimates of this period have been too much influenced by the results realized under somewhat special circumstances, such as, for instance, from varieties of early bearing habit. Added to this, it has not been found by any means as easy as it reads in a prospectus to get the returns from intercrops in growing orchards. Apart from its great value as a permanent business, the growing of small fruit offers the greatest advantages for the above purpose, and with present market conditions would, we believe, enable orchardists to make a living during the early years after planting their Small Fruit. trees; but in most places the impossibility of securing a sufficient supply of suitable labour at reasonable prices for picking has prevented the development of this business, and consequently in many cases the settlers have exhausted their means before the returns from their investment have become sufficient to provide for their expenses. It is difficult to hire white men for this work under present conditions. They do not like it. and they do not pick quickly. Boys and girls are more suitable, but generally in the towns of this Province they do not seem anxious enough to earn money in this way to make them al dependable source of supply. Indians in some cases furnish fairly efficient pickers. Chinese and Japanese are by nature physically well adapted for this work. In the Nelson District the industry has been greatly stimulated by the action of the Doukhobors' Society in operating a jam-factory and making contracts for the purchase and picking of berries grown by settlers. 4 Geo. 5 Royal Commission on Agriculture. 11 The lack of successful co-operation as a means to better organized and more profitable marketing was found to be the greatest drawback in many communities. Although there have : ibeen some notable successes in operating co-operative associations, there have Lack ot been enough failures to show the need of special care in planning their organi- Co-operation. zation and operation to secure success. Under the stimulus of the new loan {provisions of the " Agricultural Associations Act" and with some assistance from your Department of Agriculture, a very general and determined effort has been made in the Okanagau to carry the principle of co-operation further than had hitherto been attempted successfully in British Columbia, by the creation of a central selling organization representative of a number of local associations. Transportation facilities of all kinds are good, considering the stage of development of the Province. The railway and steamer service is extending rapidly, and there is an evident disposition to meet the needs of increasing production. The roads, over many Transportation miles of which we travelled, were generally excellent; but the country is so Facilities. immense and settlement has been so widely scattered that there are still many who lack necessary roads, or, having roads, need them improved to cheapen haulage. Some complaints on this score came from residents in the back part of municipalities. HIGH COST OF LIVING. Though an inquiry into the high cost of living does not properly fall within the scope of our commission, it appears to us necessary to record here that, as far as we can gather, any inflation there may be in the cost of food products to the consumer is not caused by any excessive profits realized by farmers. We believe, however, that the cost of manufacture can be reduced by lessening interest charges on the capital employed; by increasing, through education, the production of each acre; by the extension of the productive area of each individual, and so effecting a corresponding reduction of the overhead charges, which can be promoted by making it easy to get capital for that purpose; by extending the area of production through the increase of operators, and so lessening many costs and making possible better facilities. Distribution can be cheapened by promoting: (1) Co-operation in marketing by the producers; (2) co-operation in buying by the consumers. Everything that can he done to make the business of the producers safe and profitable, and so encourage men to engage in production, will tend to the reduction of the cost of living. PUBLIC LANDS. The question of the best method of administering the public lands of the Province is a very wide one, and is necessarily so related to other governmental problems, especially that of finance, that we have not felt that it came within the scope of our commission. In inquiring, however, into means for the promotion of agricultural settlement of a permanent and satisfactory character, much evidence bearing upon the subject has been tendered to us, particularly in the sections recently opened up by the Grand Trunk Pacific Railway, and we have given much consideration to the matter from that point of view. We realize that the nature of some of the problems related to a land policy is such that the extent of our investigations would not warrant us in offering advice upon them, but we feel that on some points we have reached conclusions that justify us in making certain definite recommendations. We have inquired into the nature of various colonization schemes which have been proposed from time to time in this Province, and have learned something of the work done by such agencies elsewhere. In Alberta the Canadian Pacific Railway Company is carrying on extensive work, but. in order to give the settler brought in a fair chance of success, it has been found necessary to invest larger sums of money and to inaugurate a broader and more liberal policy C.P.R.'s than might be expected from any company without large and permanent Colonization interests at stake. That company has not only its large land-holdings and Policy. its enormous investment in irrigation-works to protect, but can hope for a steady traffic revenue for the future from every producing farm which its policy assists in creating. Under its Department of Natural Resources, with its Land Settle- 12 British Columbia. 1914 ment Branch and its Live-stock and Agricultural Branch administered by able men, a progressive policy of assistance to settlers is carried out. The company sells, with settlement and occupation conditions, land, either irrigable or non- irrigable, on terms of payment spread over twenty years, with 0 per cent, interest, on any of the following plans:— (a.) Up to 1.2S0 acres for settlement without loan: (!>.) Up to 320 acres for settlement with loan for improvements, limited to $2,000. to be expended on house, barn, well and pump, breaking land: (c.) Improved or ready-made farms. The Agricultural and Animal Industry Branch has a number of practical demonstration farms, also experimental farms, and advises and helps the farmers in many ways; sells them live-stock on easy terms of payment and inspects it regularly thereafter; studies every problem affecting the interest of their settlers and helps in their solution. Where the interest of the colonization company is confined to making a profit on the sale of the land, there is danger of an outcome unsatisfactory to the settler and the Province. We are of opinion that if the recommendations which we make in this report are acted upon, such a stimulus will be given to individual settlement as to render it unnecessary for your Government to consider the advisability of granting special concessions to colonization companies. In some districts of the Province, as, for instance, the Okanagan and Kootenay, the most active colonizing agents have been companies which bought tracts of land sufficiently large to justify expensive selling campaigns; and in one case, notably, we found very extensive clearing operations being carried on, and irrigation-works being installed before any land was being offered for sale. In considering the effect upon production of the holding for sale of tracts of land without any improvements being made, we found that very many of the pre-emptors were not doing much more in the way of farming than were the holders of these tracts, but were also waiting for an opportunity to sell. We attribute this inactivity in many cases to lack of necessary capital, and suggest that the adoption of the proposed scheme of agricultural credit will lead many of such pre-emptors from being simply speculators to become active farmers. It may be reasonably anticipated that the pressure of the wild-land tax will stimulate holders of large tracts to energetic efforts to sell, and that the competition of free land or land at the standard Government price in the " closer settlement areas," which we Effect of Wild- will describe presently, will have a modifying effect on the prices demanded. land Tax The first step towards settling new districts naturally is the provision of anticipated. railways, roads, and bridges to make the lands accessible and to bring markets within reach of the expected settlers. This has involved in such a vast territory a large expenditure in a short time, and the proceeds from sales of lands in new districts have made possible the provision of needed facilities in such districts without the imposition of an undue burden upon other parts of the Province. To illustrate this, we may mention that the expenditure on public works in the Skeena District outside of Prince Rupert during the past five years has amounted to $2,443,669.26. To this amount might be added the sums spent upon education, surveys, administration of justice, civil service, etc. Receipts on account of land-sales in the same district and period. $2,502,423.43. We have found that, following the opening-up of new territory by transportation facilities, there has been adopted a policy designed to encourage settlers to pre-empt land, and to make provision in some cases for closer settlement, by— Closer (1.) Free pre-emptions, with an increase of the amount of improvement Settlement. and length of residence required. Conditions of Pre-emption. Trior to 1913. Act of 1913. Residence, two years Three years. Improvements, $2.50 per acre $5 per acre and 5 acres to be brought under cultivation. Payment, $1 per acre Free grant. Payment for survey No survey fee. 4 Geo. 5 Royal Commission on Agriculture. (2.) Much activity in surveying areas for settlement, and in publishing maps of such areas and collecting information about them, as well as other districts, from surveyors and Government employees, and making it available for inquirers. No preparatory step is more essential to any satisfactory scheme of settlement than this. (3.) The adoption of the principle of reducing or increasing the size of pre-emptions on account of local conditions, so tending in suitable localities to closer settlement. From our study of the conditions in some of the arid parts of the Province and the results which we saw in the Springhouse District in the Chilcotin Plateau, and the Rose Hill District south of Kamloops, and from what we know is being accomplished in other Dry-farming dry countries, we attach much importance to the work which has been under- Experiments. taken in this direction and anticipate that it will yield valuable results. In connection with the system under which settlers now pre-empt land, we find the following disadvantages:— (1.) Absolute freedom of selection, while doubtless attractive to many for various reasons, leads to sparse, widely scattered settlements, with a consequent expense for roads, bridges, schools, etc., out of proportion to the population served and the shipments Free Selection of produce. In such cases the settlor and his family lack educational and of Land dis- social opportunities, co-operation is difficult or impossible, and consequently advantageous, marketing is often unsuccessful. (2.) Unregulated settlement may lead to complication with coal and timber licences, and cattle-ranchers complained of the trouble caused them by the harrying of their cattle by pre-emptors settled on land unsuited for agriculture. (3.) Loss of time and money by settlers in their search for homes. "Far pastures look green." In Australia and New Zealand, after many years of comparatively slow progress, the fact was recognized that, if steady and satisfactory advance in agriculture was to be secured, it must he by the encouragement of a multiplicity of comparatively small holdings, "Closer Settle- and accordingly a policy of "closer settlement" was introduced. In these ment " Plan in countries, owing to the fact that so much of the desirable land had been Australasia. alienated before the new policy was introduced, expropriation was necessary to get land for such settlement. Being therefore convinced that a satisfactory solution of many of these problems would be found in a system of " closer settlements on living areas," we recommend now the adoption of a policy for closer settlement, based on the following lines:— (1.) That certain areas be determined upon, in suitable parts of the Province, to be thrown open for closer settlement. (2.) That these areas be surveyed, with special reference to the require- Recommenda- ments of "living areas," as defined later, and that fully detailed information tions. be recorded with regard to each such area. (3.) That to carry out the above recommendations a separate branch of the Land Department be formed, to be called the " Land Classification Branch." (4.) That the rest of the unalienated land in the Province be reserved, except as suggested hereafter, until such time as your Government is advised that further areas should be opened up .on the above principles. (5.) That preference be given to these areas in the construction of roads. In making selections, areas should always he taken as close as possible to existing settlements and transportation .facilities, and from unalienated lands; but where it is found necessary to include in such areas any block or blocks of alienated land they should be resumed by expropriation. By " living areas " is meant an area from which a settler and his family might reasonably be expected to make a comfortable living, and such areas would vary greatly in size and form, according to climate and soil conditions, topography, and the form of agricul- Living Areas ture to be developed. The result of the adoption of the two principles of defined. "closer settlement" and "living areas" has been most satisfactory in Aus tralasia, both to the public purse in the matter of expenditure on roads, and to the settler as regards—- (a.) Facilities for selecting land suited to his requirements: 14 British Columbia. 1914 (b.) Prospect Of making a success thereafter. As regards the disposal of the land in these closer settlement areas, we would recommend:— (1.) That they be open for either pre-emption or purchase. (2.) That both pre-emptors and purchasers be subject to the completion Recommenda- of specific improvements before a Crown grant is issued. tions. (3.) That purchasers be exempt from the residential obligation. (4.) That on account of this exemption the improvement conditions be made more onerous for the purchaser than for the pre-emptor. (5.) That the improvements required from both pre-emptors and purchasers should be fixed by departmental regulations for each closer settlement area, as the cost of such work will vary greatly according to local conditions; for instance, clearing costing in some cases $25 per acre, in others $250. (6.) That legislation be enacted which will effectually prevent any person directly or indirectly acquiring from the Government, either by purchase or by pre-emption, or both, more than one living area. (7.) That no payment be exacted on account of survey fees on such lands. Our recommendation of a policy of closer settlement areas does not mean that it is our opinion that no lands should be alienated outside of those areas. We can conceive of financial or other circumstances which would make such a Provincial policy advisable or even necessary, but, in the consideration of any application for such lands, care should be taken that no alienation should take place without due regard to the recommendations outlined in the foregoing. CONSERVATION OF DEPOSITS OF FERTILIZERS. (1.) We would recommend that a sufficient number of deposits of lime should be reserved by your Government in every district where it is possible to do so, and that a bonus should be offered for the discovery of suitable deposits of phosphates and potash salts. (2.) We would also draw attention to the fact that the kelp groves of the Pacific Coast of the United States are being harvested by several companies to provide a fertilizer rich in potash, and suggest that some investigation should be made of similar groves on our own coast. The fact that the other sources of potash-supply are largely in Germany, and exports from them are regulated by the Government, makes any home supply of this important fertilizer of special value. •INDIAN RESERVES AND NUISANCES ARISING THEREFROM. Recognizing the fact that very large areas of most fertile land upon which no improvements are made are held as Indian reserves, we are pleased to note that a joint Federal and Provincial Royal Commission is inquiring into the matter, and we trust that means may be found whereby these lands may be brought under cultivation. Many complaints were received regarding nuisances arising from proximity to Indian reserves, particularly with regard to— (a.) Bulls and stallions running at large: (b.) Dogs worrying sheep: (c.) Noxious weeds. And we would therefore suggest that your Government approach the Indian Department with a view to instructions being issued to the Indian Agents requiring on each Indian reserve an observance of regulations regarding these matters as effective as obtains generally in the district in which such reserve is situated. ORIENTAL LAND TENURE. We find that Oriental ownership or leasehold of farm land is detrimental to the truck- farming industry as pursued in this Province by white settlers, and we recognize that such truck-farming is of vital interest to general farmers in the early stages of development, and is also in some sections of the Province a growing industry by itself. Our attention has also been called to the fact that Hindus are becoming troublesome competitors for dairymen who supply the Victoria market with fresh milk. 4 Geo. 5 Eoyal Commission on Agriculture. 15 There are now twelve firms made up of about fifty Hindus, owning about 400 cows, engaged in this trade, and the number is increasing. Some of the dairymen who were shipping milk to Victoria are discontinuing it in consequence of the nature of this competition. We therefore submit for the consideration of your Government, and through it to the authorities at Ottawa, the importance of seeking a solution of this difficult problem. REAL-ESTATE MISREPRESENTATION. The injury^ that many individuals have suffered and the harm to the reputation of the Province that has resulted by real-estate operators misrepresenting essential conditions, such as soih_ climate, irrigation, land-clearing, and earning-capacity affecting the value of land, have been, pressed strongly upon us for consideration. We have not been able to come to any conclusion as to a remedy, but recommend the matter for the consideration of your Government, with the suggestion that registration and licensing of all persons, companies, or corporations doing real-estate business in the Province, and the furnishing by them of bonds, would tend to reduce the evil, and would certainly be of service to injured parties in obtaining redress. LAND-CLEARING. Over the greater portion of the Province the timber-growth is the_chief natural obstacle to_b^m'ercome_before_crojps can he grown. . The cost of clearing varies greatly, the heaviest growth being in the moister districts at the" Coast, the lightest in the dry Prevailing valleys of the Interior. In the second part of the report some information Conditions. will be given of the conditions found in different parts of the Province. The problem of cheapening the cost of clearing has received much consideration by farmers in this and other countries. AVe have inquired into a number of methods and have reached the following conclusions:— That the advantage of the use of the largest machines hitherto operated in this country is greatly overestimated. In many cases it has been found that clearing with heavy machinery, contrary to the expectations of the operators, has proven more costly than by the use of explosives and horse-power with or without machines, or by the use of explosives and high- geared stump-pullers operated by hand. This has been due to the breakages, delays, aud the difficulty and expense of moving the machine. That, however, where a large block of ground, say 100 acres and upwards of heavy timber, is to be cleared near good transportation, and of contour which permits the cheap moving of a very heavy machine, the lowest cost as well as the greatest speed can be attained by the use of such a machine as the Clyde stump-puller of the latest design (see Appendix), with skilled men in charge. That where a number of farmers have adjoining land to be cleared, making a sufficiently large block under suitable conditions to be economically cleared with a large machine, there would be an excellent opening for a co-operative scheme of operation. That there is a great difference in result accomplished with the same means at their command and under similar conditions by skilled and unskilled men. That the best methods of blasting stumps and managing clearing operations are not commonly practised, and consequently that there is much unintentional extravagance in the use of explosives. That char-pitting can only be effectively done where the soil is a fairly stiff clay, and that in general practice it does not give the results claimed for it. That the claim made that by modern methods such saving can be made of by-products from distillation of stumps as to be an important economy would not at present apply under conditions here; that our fir yields much smaller quantities of these by-products than is obtained from Eastern wood, and that one of the best-equipped plants experimenting in this work has done so at a loss. That under the conditions as to size of proposed clearing, topography, etc., most commonly found, the work has been done more economically by the use of explosives, aided by horse-power or hand-power stump-pullers. This view is expressed here as the conclusion resulting from our investigation up to this time, but we feel that special investigation should be undertaken, both upon this point and upon 1G British Columbia. 1914 the question of the most safe, effective, convenient, and economical explosive for farmers' use in stump-blasting. We find that, generally speaking, most good will be done by encouraging and assisting individual effort, and recommend— (1.) That your Agricultural Department should carry on systematic experimental work on some block of Government land where varieties of conditions are found, so as to determine on methods to be recommended for general adoption, and through Recommenda- the departmental magazine keep the settlers informed of results and tions. conclusions. (2.) That it should send expert men to give instruction and demonstrations in the use of explosives and stump-pullers in different parts of the country. (3.) That it should investigate different explosives in an endeavour to find the most economical, convenient, and safest for stump-blasting. (4.) That Fire Wardens should be given full discretionary powers to grant permits for the burning of slashings and log or stump piles as freely and with as little delay and at as little trouble to settlers as is consistent with a due regard to safety. The conditions vary so in different parts that blanket regulations may unnecessarily interfere with clearing operations where they might be carried on with little or no risk. Many settlers complained of the hardship to them of the operation of the general order issued two years ago prohibiting the issue of any permits. (5.) That the stumpage royalty shall not be exacted on cordwood cut from land by bona-fide farmers in clearing it. In the second part of this report we intend to include some particulars, and we are communicating to your Department of Agriculture such information as we have obtained upon these subjects. We consider these subjects of such importance as to justify expense and trouble in fuller investigation. "DITCHES AND AVATEIICOURSES ACT." We found that the fact that the provisions of this Act are only applicable to organized districts materially lessens its usefulness. We therefore recommend that the above-mentioned Act be amended to make its provisions applicable in unorganized as well as in organized districts, and also to allow of working arrangements being made between the two classes of districts where a general scheme would be applicable to both. IRRIGATION. The evidence brought before us with respect to irrigation shows the existence of a great deal of confusion with respect to water rights. We heard of a large number of disputes which have been pending for a long time. In one case plans that are ready to be carried out and which would bring large tracts under water are held in abeyance. The work done by the P'orestry and Water Branches of the Lands Department in carrying out a policy protecting the forests of the Province from fire and placing reserves on timbered watersheds for the conservation of water is especially appreciated by those interested in irrigation. There are various districts where large tracts of fertile land could be brought under irrigation if the means were furnished to the owners of such lands for concerted action. We believe that the general policy embodied in the " Act respecting Public Irrigation Corporations" as just brought down by the Minister of Lands should very largely meet the situation. We had the advantage of interviews with the officials drafting the Bill and made certain suggestions that we thought advisable. ARTESIAN-WELL BORING. In various sections of the Province evidence was given showing that water is unobtainable through ordinary wells, and that individual farmers could not afford to conduct experiments in artesian-well boring. AVe therefore recommend that your Government should purchase an artesian-well boring outfit for the purpose of making experiments at these various points, as to the feasibility of obtaining domestic water-supplies in this manner. 4 Geo. 5 Royal Commission on Agriculture. 17 NOXIOUS WEEDS. Iii most parts of the Province, evidence, both oral and ocular, demonstrated that noxious weeds are a serious evil, and that, except in a few localities, no reasonable control over them has been secured. Further, the evidence showed that settlers, as a rule, were inclined to lay the blame for this condition on the presence of weeds on the roads and on other people's land; rather than on their own system, or want of system, of cultivation. AVe hold strongly, and the experience of other Provinces and countries bears out our view, that the only effective means of control is the adoption of better systems of cultivation, and that penal control must be purely supplementary. No law can be of any real or permanent use. nor, indeed, could it long remain on the statute-books, if its provisions have to be enforced on the majority of the people by the active intervention of the constable. Penal clauses and the cutting of weeds on the roads are a necessity and provision must be made for them, but we strongly advocate concentration on the educational side of this question. AVe understand that the Government is contemplating amendments in the present " Noxious Weeds Act," and we would suggest that the following points be kept prominently in view in framing such amendments :— Recommenda- (1.) That the educational side of the question be emphasized on the lines tions. of the Saskatchewan Act. (2.) That the duty of destroying weeds on roads be placed on the Government and municipal authorities respectively. (3.) That the preparation of the list of weeds be placed in the hands of the expert advisers of the Government to be included in the Act, with a view to the inclusion only of weeds that can be properly termed noxious. (4.) That the procedure necessary for the enforcement of the penal clauses be simplified. In other Provinces of Canada excellent Acts are in existence under which a AAreed Commissioner is appointed by the Government and Weed Inspectors by municipalities. Such AVoed Inspectors act under the instructions of and in close communication with the AVeed Commissioner. The duties of the Commissioner and Inspectors are entirely educational, or nearly so. In this Province such duties could well be undertaken by the District Instructors whose appointment is suggested in the section of our report dealing with education. It is of the utmost importance that those entrusted with the carrying-out of the Act should have a full scientific knowledge of the weeds with which it is proposed to cope, and of the proper system of coping with them. INFECTED AREAS. The danger which constantly menaces the agricultural and horticultural industries from the introduction of such serious pests as the codling-moth, the San Jose scale, or potato-tuber moth has been impressed upon us by the evidence given upon the subject. The Province is to be congratulated upon the fact that, thanks to its preventive legislation and to the efficient administration of the Act by its officials, no more serious damage has been done or expense caused. The experience in suppressing such outbreaks as have occurred in limited areas has, however, given warning which should not go unheeded. The Chief Fruit Inspector now feels that with the present large volume of imports, especially of wrapped fruit, the difficulty of prevention has greatly increased. It has been advised by many that this Province should prohibit the importation of certain fruit from infected areas, following, in so doing, the example set by other countries and States of the United States. In some of the latter, certain infected districts are quarantined in this way from the markets in their own State. AVe have concluded that, having in view all the circumstances, we would not recommend that importation from any district be prohibited at present, but we would recommend that legislation be enacted empowering you, by Order in Council, in case Recommenda- of emergency, to proclaim a quarantine against any district in or out of tion. the Province infected with an injurious insect, pest, or disease of agricultural or horticultural product. IS British Columbia. 1914 BOVINE TUBERCULOSIS. The evidence tendered almost unanimously expressed approval of the action of your Government in coping with this scourge, and we trust the work will be vigorously and continuously prosecuted. BULLS AND STALLIONS RUNNING AT LARGE. We find that, while the Act respecting this evil is sufficient, its enforcement is ineffective, and we therefore recommend that police officers and constables be instructed to bring action on their own initiative against owners as soon as they become aware of an infringement of the Act, without waiting for complaint or the laying of formal information. CATTLE-MARKING. A considerable amount of evidence was given showing dissatisfaction with the present " Cattle-marks Act." and we recommend that the Act be amended to provide for— (1.) Registration of all brands at one office instead of, as at present, at separate offices in separate districts, thus giving a brand a Provincial instead of a district standing. (2.) Elimination of duplication or similarity in brands. (3.) Registration of vents. AVe have had the benefit of consultations with some of the directors of the Stock-breeders' Association, and understand that an Act meeting the above requirements is now in course of preparation. PROTECTION OF SHEEP. Evidence was given at various places proving that the worrying and killing of sheep by dogs has become very prevalent. In one instance it was shown that in two nights dogs had killed sixty-seven ewes and lambs and badly worried sixteen, a total of eighty-three ewes and lambs out of a flock of 202. Where the evil has become prevalent, it is so serious that the industry is rapidly declining. AVe find that the present Act is ineffective, and we recommend that legislation be enacted on the following lines, the principles of which are laid down in the Ontario Act Recommenda- for the protection of sheep :— tions. (1.) Any person may kill any dog which he sees pursuing, worrying, or wounding any sheep. (2.) The owner or occupant of a farm, or his servant, who finds a dog without lawful permission in an enclosed field on such farm, giving tongue and terrifying any sheep on such farm, may kill such dog. (3.) (a.) Any person may kill any dog which he finds straying between sunset and sunrise on any farm whereon sheep are kept. (b.) No dog so straying which belongs to or is kept or harboured by the occupant of any premises next adjoining such farm or next adjoining that part of any highway or lane which abuts thereon, nor any dog so straying either when securely muzzled or when accompanied by or being within reasonable call or control of its owner or of any person having the charge or care thereof, shall be so killed unless there is reason to believe that such dog, if not killed, is likely to pursue, worry, wound, or terrify sheep then on such farm. (4.) (a.) On complaint made in writing on oath before a Justice of the Teace, that any person is the owner of a dog which has within six months previous worried or injured or destroyed any sheep, the Justice may issue his summons, directed to such person, stating shortly the matter of the complaint, and requiring such person to appear before him, at a certain time and place therein stated, to answer such complaint, and be further dealt with according to law. (6.) In case of conviction, the Justice may make an order for killing the dog, describing the same according to the description given in the complaint and in the evidence, within three days, and in default thereof may, in his discretion, impose a penalty upon such person not exceeding $20. (5.) No conviction shall be a bar to any action by the owner or possessor of any sheep for the recovery of damages for the injury done to such sheep. 4 Geo. 5 Royal Commission on Agriculture. 19 GAME LAWS AND GUN LICENCES. Without any wish to press the point unduly or to bring up individual cases, and while agreeing that game is a valuable asset of the Province and its preservation highly desirable, we desire to express our opinion that when the interests of agriculture and game preservation clash, the latter should not be allowed to interfere with the former, and we would suggest that this principle be embodied in instructions to Game AVardens. In particular, we consider that the Act presses unduly on farmers and settlers in— (a.) That free licences are only granted for use on their own lands; and (6.) That owners of herds and flocks have to take out and pay for licences individually in the name of each employee engaged in herding. In the first case, under free licences, a farmer or settler may not even follow up game or vermin off his own land. In the second, he must take out and pay for a fresh licence whenever the personnel of his herders changes. We therefore recommend— (1.) That the Act be amended so as to allow free gun licences to be issued to farmers for use within their own electoral districts; and (2.) That stock-breeders should be granted, free, transferable licences for their herders while on duty. INSPECTION OF IMPORTED POULTRV. The necessity for the protection of the British Columbia poultrymen against the importation of diseased birds was brought before us, and in view of the great and growing importance of the industry in the Province, we would recommend that the Dominion Government be asked to make similar regulations for the inspection of imported poultry as are now in force regarding live-stock. PRISON LABOUR. There are considerable areas of land in the Province the productive value of which would be greatly increased by drainage. The present very high cost of tiles, especially with the addition of an ordinary freight rate on such heavy material, almost entirely Prohibitive prevents their use—the rather limited amount of draining now being done Cost of Drain- being carried out in a less permanent way. In many districts liming would tiles and Lime, be of great benefit to the soil, but for the same, reason is little practised. A cheap supply of these two materials would be of great assistance in increasing production. A small number of prisoners in the Province are at present employed in breaking stone for road purposes, showing clearly that the State, in its penal system, recognizes the reformatory and disciplinary effects of healthy work. In some parts of the United States, State prisoners are employed upon the roads, and while this may be satisfactory from the point of view of preventing idleness, it is not conducive to the development of the prisoner's self-respect. (1.) AVe would suggest that by employing prisoners in— (a.) Drain-tile making; and (6.) Quarrying and crushing of lime for farm purposes— the prisoners and the Province would be benefited. The work might be performed under prison conditions, and, owing to area required, would not entail much expense, nor any serious apprehension as to escape, while at the same time it would provide healthy and useful occupation. Although realizing that the following proposal may be somewhat outside the scope of this inquiry, we would also suggest— (2.) That where prisoners are employed at such useful and productive work, a small wage should be allowed, which, in the case of those who have families to support, should be payable to those dependent upon them, and in the case of single men should be paid to the prisoners themselves upon their release. RURAL TELEPHONE SYSTEM. In all parts of the Province not yet served by telephone systems, the need of such communication was very earnestly pressed upon our attention on the grounds of— General improvement of conditions of country life: 20 British Columbia. 1914 The great assistance to co-operative marketing, which, for some products, it is difficult to manage successfully without such means of communication : The advantage commercially in many other ways: The aid in urgent cases of sickness and accidents: Assistance in apprehending criminals: Advantage to the Forest Fire Department and other kinds of Government work. It was commonly asked that the Government should provide telephone-lines on the ground that they are a necessary public convenience like roads or postal service. We are fully impressed with the great importance of an extension of telephone service throughout the country, and have found it is considered by the people of the Prairie Provinces that their extensive telephone facilities have been a great factor in the rapid Telephone settlement of their country districts, and we realize that commercial enter- System as a prise will not furnish so extended a service as is called for in British Columbia. Factor in Before, however, any one could be in a position to report for or against a Agricultural system of Government-owned telephones, it would be necessary to go into Development. the matter much more exhaustively than we have been able to do in the time at our disposal, and to consider not only its desirability as a factor in the development of the country, but the financial burden that it would impose upon the Province. In our opinion, the first step preparatory to giving that possibility consideration would be the employment for some months of a capable and reliable man, with experience in both the commercial and technical branches of the telephone business, to study the problem in this Province and report upon it. We have, however, given the matter much consideration, and have looked into systems in various places outside of the Province, some particulars of which will be given in the Appendix. It was learned from these that the rural lines are the least profitable part of general systems, that the expense of keeping such lines in repair is much reduced where the work is co-operatively done by the residents instead of by a company or Government, that other expenses are smaller for the same reason, and that subscribers on such lines are satisfied with a less expensive service. A modification of the principles of the Saskatchewan system appears to us to be the safest means of increasing the present rural facilities where lines already exist, but are not extended far enough from centres. In such cases we recommend— Recommenda- (1.) That assistance might well be given to settlers outside the three- tions. mile radius, within which the companies find it profitable to work at present, ; on the following lines :— (a.) Settlers outside the three-mile radius desiring communication should furnish and erect the poles necessary, the Government subscribing at the rate of $1 per pole, and allowing settlers to cut the poles from Government land, if available: (6.) The Government should pay the cost of wire, cross-arms, and insulators, and defray the cost of putting same in place on the poles: (c.) The telephone company should furnish the instruments, install same and keep them in order: (d.) The settlers should maintain the lines: (e.) The telephone company's charge not to exceed $1.50 per month for each subscriber, and the number of subscribers on a party line not to exceed six: (/.) On receipt of an application for the installation of such a service, the Inspector of Electrical Energy and the superintendent of the telephone company concerned should investigate its practicability and report to the Government. The approximate cost to the Government under this proposal would be about $70 per mile. The company would bear the whole cost of the lines up to the three-mile radius. It would also supply the instruments and bear the cost of their installation and maintenance while settlers would bear the balance of the cost of installation outside the three-mile radius and the whole cost of the maintenance thereof. If they so desire, the settlers could do much, if not all. of this work themselves, at a much lower cost than by letting the work out, and an efficient service would be obtained at a minimum total cost. We therefore recommend— (2.) That legislation should be enacted authorizing the incorporation of associations on these lines, with power to levy assessments on original members of the association and on members who join after the installation has been effected. 4 Geo. 5 Royal Commission on Agriculture. 21 We think that a trial of this form of assistance in the manner suggested might show that the principle could be further extended in aiding the building of other rural lines, and we would suggest that the special knowledge of the Superintendent of Electrical Energy might be taken advantage of to promote the building of lines under the " Rural Telephone Act" by assigning to him the duty of giving information and advice to communities desiring to form such companies under that Act. PUBLIC ROADS. Finding that the liveliest interest was taken in it everywhere throughout the Province, and seeing how important a bearing it has on successful agricultural development, we have given the road question much consideration. We now summarize our conclusions:— (1.) That the physical nature of the Province and the scattered nature of the settlements in many parts have required an expenditure large in proportion to the population, and that to provide a road system such as the Province needs, and to maintain it, will call for very heavy expenditure in the future. (2.) That, though there is an extraordinarily large mileage of fairly good roads in the Province, there are many settlers with inadequate roads, a condition that was sometimes complained of by those in the outlying parts of municipalities, and that main roads through adjoining municipalities do not always connect. (3.) That demands are frequently made for roads by settlers located at a distance from others, the building of which would entail an expenditure entirely disproportionate to the public benefit or to the use they would receive, or the value of the improved property served. (4.) That the system under_which the roads have been built has been of great use in providing work for many settlers who have been dependent upon other earnings than they could make from the small acreage which they had been able to bring under cultivation. (5.) That this need for such employment to enable them to remain on their holdings was generally due to the lack of capital with which to bring under cultivation a sufficient area for their'support, (0.) That, while many witnesses recommended the adoption of a contract system, we feel that there is a very general misapprehension of the conditions necessary to make contract work economical. We feel that where the proposed expenditure for a section of road is sufficiently large to keep the cost of engineering down to a reasonable percentage of such expenditure, the contract system might be used with- advantage. But where it has been necessary, as has been frequently the case, to furnish means of communication without providing for expensive construction, the cost of engineering would often have amounted to more than the saving which would have been effected by letting a contract as compared with day-work. (7.) That the wages paid have generally been higher and the hours of work, shorter on road- work than were customary for farm labour, thus^tending to ruakejhe farm-labour situation more difficult. (S.) That consequently the cost of road-building has been greater than if it had been done under competitive conditions, and that this difference in estimated cost has been much greater in some sections than in others. (9.) That, while the road-work has provided settlers with opportunities of earning money to supplement the revenue from their farms, the work has very commonly been done at seasons, such as seed-time or haying-time, when their farming operations suffered most from their absence. (10.) That the sentiment of the farmers throughout the Province is now strongly in favour of getting the largest possible amount of road-work accomplished for the money available without regard to the convenience of those desiring the employment at this work. (11.) That the adoption of our recommendations regarding agricultural credit would render road-work much less necessary as a means of support and enable farmers to attend to their own work at the proper season. (12.) That the adoption of our recommendation on the subject of settlement areas would lead to greater economy in expenditure and consequently to provision of better roads. (13.) That the adoption of our recommendation requiring roads in subdivisions to be graded before completion of the registration of the subdivision plans would lessen the demands upon the general road fund and serve to protect purchasers from lack of proper roads. British Columbia. 1914 (14.) That, as fast as conditions admit, the business of the Provincial road making and repairing should be commercialized. (15.) That, although it may not be desirable at the present stage of Provincial development to place the control in the hands of a Road Commission, it is suggested that by developing as fast as possible a technical road-making branch of the Department of Public Works, and placing more responsibility and power in the hands of that Branch, and by holding its officials responsible for results in economy and good work, with promotion dependent thereon, a great step would be made in the desired direction. We find that an undue burden is placed on the public by the fact that, while subdivision plans show a provision of land for roads, the making of such roads is placed upon the public at a later date. We hold that all roads as shown on subdivision plans should Roads in be made by the owner, at least as far as grading is concerned, and we recom- Subdivisions. mend that subdivisional plans, when approved as submitted for registration, should be provisionally accepted, subject to the grading of the roads to the satisfaction of the Provincial or municipal authorities, as the case may be, and that, on completion of such grading, the owner should obtain registration. In this way, owners wishing to subdivide would be in a position to obtain exact information as to what would be Tequired in the matter of roads, and they would not be subject to a possible change of policy regarding roads or registration between the time of provisional acceptance and registration, while the public would be relieved of the first cost of road-making. Much interest was evinced throughout the Province in the matter of the width of the roads, and the general opinion expressed was that the reservation of 66 feet is excessive: that the full reservation will in only a small percentage of cases be utilized; that Width of serious loss is caused by the withdrawal of an unnecessary amount of land Roads. from agricultural use; and that those portions of the road allowance which are not occupied by the track act as a breeding-ground for noxious weeds. The subject of discussion, as a rule, was not whether 66 feet may be necessary in some cases, but whether such a width is necessary in all cases, and we would recommend the matter to your Government for consideration. In regard to road matters generally, we would like to call the attention of the Railway Department of your Government and the railroads themselves to the heavy expense now incurred, both by the Department of Works and the various municipalities, in the haul- Low Freight age of gravel and rock used for purposes of road-building. In this connection. Rates on Road we would point out that in the State of Wisconsin the Highway Commission Material. took this matter up with the railroad companies running through that State, aud made the following arrangements, namely : A rate of M; cent per ton per mile, with a minimum rate of 25 cents per ton. for material used in the making of State and municipal roads, saving the State in one year $34,375, and in consequence assisting in securing much better roads. TAXATION. AA'e found everywhere in the Province a very strong feeling that farm improvements should be exempted from taxation, and we are convinced that their inclusion for taxation purposes is a penalty on progressive farming. We understand that this view is already Real-property held by your Government, and that it is its declared intention to exempt Tax. improvements from taxation, as recommended by the Royal Commission on Taxation. We would urge that this be done at the earliest possible moment, making the basis of valuation of land for taxation purposes as nearly as possible the price that a willing purchaser woulcLpay if the laud were in a state ofjiature. AVe found a considerable amount of complaint of the high assessment of land due to the alleged fictitious value given by excessive subdivision and speculation. Though we are convinced that hardships do exist in this way, we are not in a position to suggest any remedy, but believe that, if the values set under the assessments are, as stated, excessive, the right to appeal leaves the remedy in the hands of owners, and that no permanent hardships will be inflicted. 4 Geo. 5 Royal Commission on Agriculture. We found in many parts of the Province a strong feeling of discontent with respect to the present methods of dealing with the school tax. (1.) In unorganized districts, although the school trustees fix the amount School Tax. which must be raised locally over and above the Government grant, the Government undertakes the realization of that amount from the individual taxpayers just as they do in the case of general taxation. There the similarity ceases. Iu the case of general taxation, the Government arranges for expenditure in accordance with the estimates, irrespective of the date of collection. In the case of school taxes, school trustees are only t~>>' entitled to receive the same as they are collected. The result is that in rural school districts ' •-■ school trustees are always liable to find themselves without the necessary funds to carry on the schools, although they have fulfilled all the obligations entailed by the law to provide them. It was found that in some cases teachers' salaries and other debts legally incurred were unpaid,'and that in other cases school trustees had raised funds on their own personal credit to discharge such liabilities. (2.) The extension, under the Act, of municipal boundaries for school purposes into adjoining territory has entailed an undue burden on individual land-owners, as compared with individual residents in towns. Cases were cited where the school tax on lands included in a municipal school area for school-taxation purposes equalled the total Provincial tax, and in one case a farmer proved that in 1913, while his total Provincial tax amounted to only $14.40, the school tax on the same farm for the neighbouring city schools amounted to $52.S0. While we feel that the question of taxation is somewhat out of the scope of our inquiry, yet, having regard to its hearing on rural life and the large amount of evidence urged upon our attention, we feel that we should bring these matters to your attention. We therefore recommend— (1.) That, at as early a date as possible, improvements on farm lands be exempted from taxation, and that the basis of valuation of land for taxation purposes be made as nearly as possible the price that a willing purchaser would pay if the land were in a state of nature. (2.) That the amount voted under "school tax" in each district be paid direct by your Government to the school trustees by equal quarterly instalments throughout the year. (3.) That the "School Act" be revised in so far as the clause referring to extended areas is concerned, so as to prevent the recurrence of such hardships. LABOUR. The difficulty in securing efficient labour was frequently assigned by witnesses as a reason not only for failure to exterfd farming operations, but even for their curtailment, as where small- fruit growing has been abandoned and dairying given up in favour of selling hay. Particularly as regards land-clearing, emphasis was laid on this point, and witnesses showed that on Aran- couver Island comparatively little progress has been made since the days when Oriental labour was cheap and plentiful. Many witnesses testified that Chinese labour was to them the most satisfactory, and they favoured admitting it more freely, even in the form of indentured labour. Although many witnesses thought the rate of current wages too high, there was a greater amount of evidence to the effect that the real difficulty lies in the scarcity of labour possessing a high degree of efficiency. The information gained leads us to believe that Scarcity of the cost for the service obtained averages about 25 per cent, greater than in Efficient Labour. Washington, Oregon, California, and New Zealand. One of the causes of the above conditions is common to the world—viz., the glamour of city life; but the special circumstances peculiar to our Province are that labour has to be recruited entirely from immigrants, that the proportion of white immigrants suitable for agricultural work is relatively very small, and that, owing to restrictive legislation, Oriental labour, which in many ways is naturally best suited to the actual requirements of the farmer, has become much more difficult to obtain and can command a much higher rate of wage than prevailed a few years ago. Without entering into a discussion of the Oriental labour question, the fact must not be overlooked that the Chinese head-tax of $500, though nominally paid by the Chinese, is really collected many times over from the farmer or other employer of labour in the increased wages exacted. British Columbia. 1914 Another factor which aggravates the situation is the fact that, under the " Master and Servant Act," farmers are hindered from assisting servants to come to them from any place outside the Province—even from other parts of Canada or from Britain—because any contract made for that purpose would not be binding on the servant. The master could neither hold the servant to the contract nor recover any advances made. This appears to us to be opposed to the declared policy of your Government as regards agricultural labour. With this is closely associated the difficulty of domestic help, which is even harder to obtain than outdoor labour. Increasing the staff of outdoor labour means increasing the burden of work upon the housewife, as white labourers, as a rule, will not stay on a farm if they have to cook their own meals. Many farmers, while desirous of extending their operations, hesitate to do so when they cannot locally secure domestic servants to undertake the extra work in the house, or safely make arrangements to bring them in. As the restrictive legislation in respect to Oriental labour bears most severely upon the employer of agricultural and domestic labour, we feel that the Government should use every endeavour to provide other suitable and efficient labour of the nationalities desired as settlers in the Province. For this purpose the large sums that are, and have been, paid under the Oriental head-tax to the Province Should be drawn upon. AVith a good deal of force it might be said that the money paid to prevent a large number of Orientals from coming into the country should be spent in bringing in British people to take their place. We would suggest a number of courses which could with advantage be adopted to assist in the improvement of the situation:— (1.) The appointment of a Board of Immigration with representative in the United Kingdom to select and direct into the Province a desirable class of agricultural labourers and domestic servants. (2.) The granting by that Board of financial aid to agricultural labourers with families willing to come to the Province. (3.) The amendment of the "Master and Servant Act" to make contracts entered into in respect of white farm or domestic labour as binding upon the servant as they now are upon the master. Having thoroughly investigated the different sources of labour-supply, we have looked into the subject of child immigration. Here the following facts may be pointed out:— (a.) That there are about 70,000 children, boys and girls, under the care Child of the Poor-law Guardians of Great Britain. Immigration. (o.) That the best authorities compute that at least 15,000 of these child ren, between the ages of ten and fourteen, would be available for emigration. They are healthy and might become good and worthy citizens if given a chance. (e.) That through the auspices of Dr. Barnardo's Homes over 20,000 children have been sent to Canada, principally to the Province of Ontario, and that 95 per cent, have done well. (d.) That these children should be given a chance to become self-respecting and law-abiding citizens, and incidentally replace Oriental labour by people speaking our own tongue and brought up under our civilization. We would recommend the following plan:— (1.) That arrangements be made, as suggested above, to bring children (both boys and girls) into the Province from the British Isles. (2.) That training-schools for such children should be established in which— (a.) The boys would learn the elementary and practical side of farm life: (6.) The girls would learn the duties required of them as domestic servants. (3.) That after having received this elementary training they should be placed on farms and with families for a specific term, until able to provide for themselves. (4.) That a system of inspection should he inaugurated to ensure the proper treatment of such children. With this end in view, legislation along the lines followed in Ontario is proposed. (5.) That the capital expense incurred for this purpose should be discharged from the revenue derived from the Chinese head-tax. (6.) That these training-schools should be partially self-supporting after the initial cost has been defrayed. 4 Geo. 5 Royal Commission on Agriculture. AGRICULTURAL CREDIT. Following the plan already outlined, we now propose to submit a summary of our conclusions and recommendations and to deal more fully in the second part of our report with the matter relative to this question. The evidence from farmers as to the great need of a system of long-term loans at low interest; of the effect that might be expected in healthfully stimulating agriculture; as to the soundness of the security which could be given; and as to the protection of the lenders, has been moderate and sane and almost unanimously affirmative. The evidence from Boards of Trade and individual business-men has been strong as to the wisdom of providing such a system with the assistance of bonds guaranteed by the Government. Provincial managers of loan companies and bankers corroborated the evidence of farmers as to the inadequacy of any present source of agricultural credit, both as to amount and terms, and from them we learned that such increased financial facilities for farmers, soundly administered, would be welcomed by them, and in their opinion would be likely to greatly increase the prosperity of all classes of the community. It is not to be wondered at, in a country requiring generally either land-clearing, dyking, drainage, or irrigation, and settled by so large a proportion of pioneers with little or no capital, that this need should be acute when we consider what has happened elsewhere. Urgent Need In many old countries, with the land in cultivation for centuries, it has been of Capital. found necessary to have some special means of providing such credit. In the Australasian Dominions, with many conditions resembling our own, the same conclusion was forced upon the people. In the United States, with its well-established agricultural industry, this question became so pressing that investigation was undertaken, and as a result steps are now being taken to make the needed provision. Even in Saskatchewan, where the virgin land is ready for the plough, where neither irrigation nor drainage is practised, and where loaning institutions have furnished $S6,000,000 of capital to farmers, it has been found that the welfare of the Province demands that funds shall be available for agricultural credit on long terms at low interest. While this need was being conclusively brought home to us, we paid especial attention to the question of the security that could be furnished by borrowers for such loans. Our conclusion is that for loans of a reasonable percentage of the value of improved land, the valuation being based on the demonstrated earning-power of similar land in the same locality, and with a satisfactory moral risk, the losses should be as low as they had been shown to be in other countries under somewhat similar systems. That under such a system many applications would be refused, or smaller amounts granted than applied for, must be expected, and the careful administration necessary would cause many disappointments. The agricultural community would benefit from the lessons taught by such discrimination as to the market value of a reputation for honesty, industry, and thrift, as well as by the necessity for prudence in any projected agricultural undertaking. AVe think that the experience of other countries warrants the belief that the guaranteeing of bonds to provide funds for such loans would not have the effect of impairing the credit of the Province. Any tendency in that direction from the additional respon- Credit of sibility incurred would be offset— Province would (a.) By the increased assets in the form of improved farms created by not be the loans. impaired. (6.) By the increased amount of money retained in the Province through the production within its boundaries of much of the food products which now have to be imported. (c.) By the increased amount of money brought into the Province from the export of such products. (d.) By the increase of traffic for railways, the bonds of which are guaranteed by the Province. As bearing on this point, we quote a passage from a published interview with Sir George Paish, the eminent statistician and editor of the London Statist. He said:— " I have no doubt as to the ability of Canada to carry its existing burden of interest, amounting to nearly four pounds sterling per head, but for some years the burden will require stringent economy in national and municipal as well as individual expenditure. British Columbia. 1914 " In brief, I am convinced that every possible effort will be made by all concerned—the Canadian Government, the Provincial Governments, the municipalities, great railway companies, bankers, traders, and others, as well as by British investors—to increase Necessity of rapidly the agricultural and mineral output of the country, upon which the increasing welfare of the Canadian people, both individually and collectively, absolutely Agricultural depends, and that the effect' of their concerted efforts will be so great that Production. the country will carry with safety the burden of interest which otherwise might overtax its strength. It is, however, of the greatest possible importance that the work of directly increasing the productive power of the country by placing a larger proportion of population upon the land and in the mines should be carried out with the least possible delay." For reference we here give the last available returns of the production of the mines, forests, agriculture, and fisheries of the Province:— Minerals $30,15S,793 Lumber 29.S20.278 Agricultural products 23,974,524 Fish products 14,455,4SS We will briefly recapitulate some of our conclusions on this subject, as follows:— We decided that the employment of some intermediate agency such as a loan company to manage the loaning and collecting operations would increase the cost to the borrower without increasing the security against losses. In New Zealand and Australia the work of the Commission has been absolutely divorced from political influence, and the general public is satisfied with the impartiality of the administration of the loans. We found no ground for fear that with an independent Commission in charge of the fund there would be any danger of political influence interfering with the management of its business. AVe fiud that conditions in British Columbia are such that it requires considerable capital to bring the land into a proper state of cultivation for profitable production, and that in a large proportion of cases the making of farms rather than farming alone is the task that is being undertaken. That most of those who are taking up land with the intention of making a living from it are men with small capital. That for large industrial, transportation, and municipal undertakings, which call for investment of a permanent nature, it has been found necessary to obtain capital from abroad by the sale of long-term debentures. That the permanency of the investment is a feature to an exceptional degree in the case of the development of farm lands. That there is no monetary institution in British Columbia from which the farmer can borrow money on the security of his land on terms that would enable him to meet the payments out of the products of his farm. That modern transportation and cold-storage No Capital systems have brought the farm products of every nation in the world into available. competition on practically equal terms in the markets of the world, and that farmers with less capital available and higher interest charges than their competitors are severely handicapped. That, in competing for settlers, a country with an efficient system of long-time credit will have a great advantage, and agricultural countries which do not adopt some such system are likely to lose many of their own farmers by their emigration to countries furnishing such facilities. That the greater freedom with which credit is granted for industrial and business purposes than for farming tends to attract people to those pursuits. That in countries where long-term farm-loan systems have been adopted there has been a marked improvement in the standard of living on the farms, which, including as it does more recreation and culture, is not only good for the farmers and their Effect of families, but tends to keep the boys and girls on the land and to attract Farm Loans, others to follow this pursuit. This is found to be good for general business ; and for the welfare of the whole people. 4 Geo. 5 Royal Commission on Agriculture. 27 That the effect of such a system is to encourage productive effort in comparison with speculation as a means of making money. That the following figures are suggestive as to the effect of such systems upon production:— Exports of Domestic Products per Capita. (See "Official Yearbook, Commonwealth of Australia.") United States (no general farm credit system) $ 24 14 Canada (no general credit farm system) 40 6S Australia (has general farm credit systems) 79 60 New Zealand (has general farm credit systems) Ill 78 That, not including loans of school funds on farm mortgages amounting to $22,351,451 In eight of the United States at 5 or 6 per cent, and recently even 7 per cent., the principle of State-guaranteed loans or of loans of State funds has been recognized in the following countries, with conditions somewhat similar to ours, viz.: New Zealand in 1S94; AVestern Australia in 1S94; South Australia in 1S95; A'ictoria in 1S96; Tasmania in 1S98; New South Wales in 1S99; Queensland in 1901; Nova Scotia in 1912; and the Union of South Africa in 1912; and in Saskatchewan to the extent of enacting necessary legislation but requiring proclamation to become effective. That under none of the long-term loan systems under consideration has there been any loss to the lender not covered by the 1 per cent, usually provided for expense of administration and for losses, although the loans made have amounted to over $1,000,000,000,000. In many parts of Europe the problem has been successfully solved in more than one way, but there the problem of whence the necessary capital should be drawn has solved itself, for in the accumulated savings of the people themselves there exists a fund Characteristics amply sufficient to meet all requirements. All that was necessary was the of formation of channels through which that capital could flow. Such channels European Loans, have been provided by the creation of various forms of land mortgage and co-operative banks. In some cases the Governments supplied some of the funds to the banks; in others they did not. Through these banks loans may be obtained on long-term mortgages at low rates of interest, and with the privilege of amortization. Short personal credit loans may also be obtained on favourable terms. Co-operative associations are also afforded facilities for loans. The method of making the advances differs under different systems. In some cases direct loans are made; in others debentures are issued to the borrower, who disposes of them in the open market. The method of fixing the security also differs. In some cases each borrower is responsible only for his own borrowings; in others all borrowers in groups are collectively and individually responsible for the borrowings of the whole group. But under all the various systems extreme care is exercised that the security shall be ample and good. Investigation of Australasian systems showed that New Zealand adopted a system of issuing bonds for a long term of years, disposing of them in London, and loaning the proceeds to farmers for the purpose of making productive improvements on their land. System in The Act authorizing this provided for the appointment of a Superintendent Australasia. and a Board of Directors through whom the loans were made, and by whom all the business connected therewith was transacted and controlled. The system was established eighteen years ago. They have loaned out over $65,000,000, and not only have they made no losses, but there has been an accumulation of profits over and above flotation costs and other charges in connection with the system of over $1,500,000. These loans are made on first-mortgage security, at a rate of 4% per, cent, for terms up to thirty-six years, and the loans are up to 60 per cent, of the value of the property after the improvements for which the money was borrowed have been made. The Commissioners require the money to be spent for the purpose for which it was borrowed; and at the discretion of the Commissioners the money may only be available as the work progresses. 28 British Columbia. 1914 The mortgages contain covenants as to proper methods of farming to maintain the fertility of the soil, repairs on buildings, insurance, and similar provisoes. At the time the system was introduced, it was recognized that the agriculturist required short-term loans to carry him through the season, as well as long-term loans for the making of permanent improvements. It has been found in New Zealand that where Short-term long-term credit was supplied, short-term credit was available from the banks Loans provided and by one neighbour loaning to another. Under the working of the New by Banks. Zealand system, the commission being, as it were, a friendly mortgagee, and the amortization payments small, the banker is able to calculate the applicant's ability to repay a short-term loan at the end of the season. The idea underlying the New Zealand system is wholly constructive, the loans being calculated to supplement the industry and ability of the farmer, and the result has been a wonderful increase in the export of domestic products of that country. For the fifteen years preceding the introduction of the farm credit system the exports increased 35.30 per cent.; for the fifteen years after, the exports of the same products increased 161.54 per cent. New Zealand has increased her land under cultivation from 2% acres per head of population in 1S93 to 6% acres per head in 1913. In addition to that, there are 9,000,000 acres in sown grasses on land that has not been ploughed. During the last four years the total number of cattle, sheep, lambs, and hogs slaughtered for home consumption and for export was over 10,700,000; and during the same time the flocks and herds of the same animals increased by 3,325,000. During the same period, the cattle, sheep, and pigs in the Dominion of Canada actually decreased 1,600,000, and her agricultural production is at a standstill, despite the fact that production has increased enormously in the three Prairie Provinces. The adoption of the New Zealand loaning system has not only resulted in largely increasing the output of the farms and giving a great impetus to the agricultural industry, but it has reacted in related and other industries in a further stimulation of trade in General Results general. Failures have decreased 50 per cent, in the last fifteen years. of " Advances Commissioner Lucas, who visited New Zealand, reports as follows upon the to Settlers." effect on the rural life of that country:— " With money available on terms suitable to the industry, the farmers have built better houses or remodelled their old ones; brought a large acreage of land under cultivation that would otherwise be lying idle; have bought and kept better live-stock; have bought and used more labour-saving machinery on tbe farms and in the houses; have erected elevated tanks and windmills; have laid on water in their dwellings and in their outbuildings; have irrigation for their vegetable and flower gardens around the houses; and have increased their dairy herds. They keep more sheep and pigs and have so largely increased the revenue from their farms that they are able to meet the payments on the mortgages and to adopt a higher standard of living, and a better one. Throughout the country a higher and better civilization is gradually being evolved; the young men and women who are growing up are happy and contented to remain at home on the farms, and find ample time and opportunity for recreation and entertainment of a kind more wholesome and elevating than can be obtained in the cities." It is interesting to note that during the last decade New Zealand has raised 19.13 per cent, of her loans at home, the total amount now being carried by her people being £15,600,943 out of a total debt of £84,353,913. The average rate of interest on the outstanding debt on March 31st, 1S91, was £4 10s. 3d. per £100, as compared with an average rate of interest of £3 13s. 9d. on March 31st, 1912, being a decline of 16s. 6d. per £100, and the highest and lowest price for New Zealand bonds and stock during the year 1911 was as follows:— High. Low. 4 per cent., 1029 106% 102% 3 per cent, 1940 9Sy2 95% 3 per cent., S7% S5 4 Geo. 5 Royal Commission on Agriculture. Of the total debt— Per Cent £ 15,200 bears 6 321,000 bears 5 27,900 bears 4y2 39,4S9,763 bears 4 2,397,000 bears 3% 32,303,344 bears 3y2 9,799,706 bears 3 £S4,353,913 (total debt). The six States in the Commonwealth of Australia have adopted systems similar to that in force in New Zealand, the principal difference being that they depend largely on the State savings-banks for capital. Consequently they have not always been able to meet the demands for loans; neither have they loaned as much, the total amount in the Commonwealth being about $45,000,000. The loan system has not been in force as long as in New Zealand, being but very recently established in some of the States; but the results in proportion to the money loaned out have been equally as satisfactory as in New Zealand, and the benefits resulting therefrom have been similar. As a result of the consideration of the features in the different systems best adapted to the present needs of British Columbia, we recommend— (1.) That your Government adopt a system of direct agricultural credit Recommenda- on the lines of the system in force in New Zealand. tions. (2.) That an Act be passed providing for the creation of a Board, to be known as the " Agricultural Credit Commission," consisting of a Superintendent and four Directors, to deal with all matters pertaining to the administration of Government mortgage loans to farmers, and that such Act shall embody the following principles:— (a.) That the Lieutenant-Governor in Council appoint the Superintendent and two members, the latter to be practical farmers: (6.) That the Superintendent and two members so appointed serve till voluntary retiral or until removal by the Lieutenant-Governor in Council upon an address from the Legislative Assembly: (c.) That the Deputy Ministers of Finance and Agriculture be ex-officio members of the said Commission: (d.) That, in order to provide capital for the purposes of the Commission, the Legislative Assembly be asked each year to authorize the Minister of Finance to borrow up to a specified amount by the issue of stock or debentures bearing interest at not over 4 per cent, and having a currency of years: (e.) That the Minister of Finance raise from time to time such sum or sums as may be required, not exceeding in any one year the amount so authorized, and provided that— (i.) In raising the moneys, the Minister shall be deemed to be acting on behalf of the Agricultural Credit Commission: (ii.) Accordingly, the moneys raised shall be deemed to be raised by the Agricultural Credit Commission in its corporate capacity: (iii.) All mortgages and securities taken by the said Commission in respect of loans made from the said moneys shall be held as collateral security for the particular bonds or debentures in addition to the general credit of the Province: (/.) That the proceeds of the sale of such stock or debentures shall be available for the Agricultural Credit Commission to lend to farmers in respect of permanent improvements made on their land and for other productive purposes: (g.) That such loans shall bear interest at a rate of 1 per cent, per annum greater than the rate paid by the Government upon the actual amount realized from the sale of the stock or debentures: (h.) That such loans shall be repayable by amortization over such periods as the Commission may decide, but in no case exceeding 36y2 years; always provided that the borrower shall have the option of paying off the whole or any portion of the loan in advance of the contract period by payments of not less than $25: 30 British Columbia. 1914 (i.) That interest and amortization charges shall be payable half-yearly: (j.) That all applications for loans must be made on forms supplied by the Commission, and shall set forth clearly and definitely the purposes for which the loan is required. Such applications must be accompanied by testimonials from two well- known residents in the vicinity as to the adaptability and fertility of the laud offered as security, and the personal character and responsibility of the applicant. (fc.) That the basis of valuation of any land for loan purposes under this Act shall be the actual productive value after the improvements in respect of which a loan is desired have been made; and such value shall he ascertained by appraisers acting under the direction of the Agricultural Credit Commission: (I.) That the maximum loan which may be made on any laud shall not exceed 60 per cent, of the value calculated on a productive basis as specified in the previous paragraph: (hi.) That with the Agricultural Credit Commission shall rest the sole responsibility of making or withholding loans, and the Commission, before making any loan, must satisfy itself as to— (i.) The desirability of the proposed improvements: (ii.) The character and reliability of the applicant: (iii.) The value of the security on the basis specified: (iv.) The ability of the applicant to make a fair living from the farm after paying interest and amortization charges: (n.) That the Commission may, in its discretion, make advances as the work proceeds, but in no case shall the amount advanced exceed the proportion which the work done bears to the total work undertaken in connection with the specific loan: (o.) That the mortgage shall contain provisoes for good husbandry, repairs to buildings, insurance, and such matters: (p.) That no loan shall be made for less than $250 or for more than $10,000 to one applicant, or upon one property, and that applicants for loans not exceeding $2,000 shall be given priority. The above recommendations have been framed with a view to the conditions of mortgage loans on farm property. We would, however, recommend— (q.) That all loans made or to be made to associations under the " Agricultural Associations Act" or to any other co-operative concerns, such as the proposed Public Market Associations in cities, should be placed under the care of the Agricultural Credit Commission; that the funds necessary for such loans should be provided in the same manner; and that the necessary provisions to carry out these suggestions be made in the Act. MARKETING AND CO-OPERATION. With the exception of fruit and vegetables, all the farm produce of the Province is marketed within it, and supplies only a portion of the demand. The principal outside markets for fruit have been found in Alberta, Saskatchewan, and to a less extent in Great Britain and Australia, and for vegetables in Alberta and Saskatchewan. Notwithstanding the possession of high-priced home markets, we heard much complaint of the market conditions. Many witnesses testified to dissatisfaction with the treatment received from commission merchants to whom they had shipped produce on consignment, and some evidence was very positive as to the selling-price stated in account sales made to them being lower than was actually realized by the commission agent. These individual cases were not investigated by us, and we are therefore not in a position to say how much of the trouble is due to misunderstanding. The examination into the sworn complaints of either consignors or consignees by impartial officials would, we think, greatly reduce the number of complaints and promote mutual confidence and better understanding. A common complaint was that the commission agents, being also generally wholesale dealers, press the sale of goods which are their property more than those on consignment in their warehouses, resulting in frequent loss to the consignor through deterioration of his goods while so held. 4 Geo. 5 Royal Commission on Agriculture. 31 This condition is largely due to the greater ease and certainty with which arrangements can be made by dealers for regular supplies by purchasing them in a large producing market than by trusting to local consignments, irregular in quantity and quality, and not uniform in grade or pack, as has been too often the case with the home products. AVhether the condition complained of affects any large proportion of the production, we are not in a position to state, but there is no doubt that the care and certainty with which arrangements can be made for regular supplies from large producing centres in America must induce dealers to make such arrangements rather than trust to local supplies, which have too often been irregular, both in quantity and quality. We suggest that co-operation among farmers will remove one of the weaknesses of the situation by making it easy for merchants to make definite contracts for large amounts of homegrown produce at uniform prices; that city markets well organized and managed will further improve matters; that increased production will be greatly stimulated by the better marketing which should result; that the larger production brought about by these and other measures recommended in this report will furnish a supply large enough to command the attention of and properly supply our home markets. It was found that the New Zealand and other butter which arrives in bulk is frequently prepared for sale by reworking and washing, and then made into 1-lb. packets, labelled with the name of a creamery, sometimes imaginary, or without anything to indicate the place of origin. In this process a considerable percentage of water is absorbed, lessening the food-value of the butter proportionately. This will be seen by comparing analyses of the British Columbia creamery butter made in co-operative farm creameries, and of the " blended" or worked-over butter sold under various names:— British Columbia creameries (average of several samples) .. 10 per cent, water. Processed or blended butter (average of several samples) .. 19.5 per cent, water. With butter at 40 cents per pound, the difference in food-value of butter is as 36 cents in the case of our farm creameries to 32 cents in the case of the " blended " or worked-over butter. It would appear that all blended butter should be plainly marked as " blended " or worked- over butter, and not sold in competition on even terms with creamery butter that is fresh from the farm and creamery. Marketing of Eggs and Butter. We were informed that it is a common practice to expose for sale foreign cold-storage eggs labelled " fresh eggs." In seeking a remedy for the conditions referred to, we learned with satisfaction that the Dominion Department of Agriculture is preparing legislation dealing with the classification and inspection of eggs, and proposes to consult the British Columbia Poultry Association regarding the Bill before submitting it to Parliament. We would therefore like to impress the view that this legislation should be brought down this present session, and that it would be well if the Federal Inspectors under Part IX. of the "Inspection and Sale Act" were also Inspectors with regard to poultry products. The same views are held with regard to the inspection of butter. (1.) It is our opinion that cases and cartons containing eggs should be labelled with the name of the State or Province from which they come, together with the words " fresh," " held," or " cold-storage," as the case may be, and that all dealers offering same for sale should placard them in the same way. Also that the Provincial Poultry Instructors should be Inspectors under the Act. With regard to the outside markets for our produce, the conditions were found to be greatly improved over those of 1912. This was due to smaller crops of fruit in countries which are our competitors, better organization of co-operative selling associations, both in those countries and in our own fruit districts. We found that the grading and packing of British Columbia fruit and vegetables were pronounced by dealers in the Prairie Provinces to be much better and more uniform than ever before. These markets are increasing very rapidly, and the popularity of our fruit on the grounds of quality, reliability, and convenience of package is growing fast. The consumption of apples in the three Provinces is about five times as much as our production. 32 British Columbia. 1914 The most severe competition comes from Washington, which looks to cities in the United States for a market at profitable prices for its best apples, and offers its lower grade fruit to the Dakotas and the North-west Provinces at much lower prices. Co-operative fruit associations in Ontario have sold a large number of cars of apples to co-operative farmers' associations in those Provinces. Although there is a large market for berries, which should be supplied from this Province, the great part comes by refrigerator-cars from the United States. In order to promote better marketing, we find— (2.) That it is desirable to promote co-operation among the producers and also among the buyers of agricultural produce. (3.) That the maintenance of the present amount of protection afforded Findings by the Customs tariff to the articles produced by farmers is necessary and summarized. reasonable in view of the fact that these articles are produced under conditions and at costs influenced by the similar protection afforded to other classes of labour; not only because the farmer uses many of those products, but because the cost of labour employed by him is regulated by the wages that are rendered possible in other industries by the protection enjoyed by them. In the case of the boxed-apple industry, it is found that a duty of 13 cents per box of apples, which is being collected as an equivalent of the duty by tariff of 40 cents per barrel, while as high per pound, does not give the same relative protection on the labour and material used in their production. This is due to the fact that the labour expended in producing higher class fruit and packing it more carefully, with the higher wages ruling in this Province, costs nearly twice as much for three boxes as for one barrel, making the protection about one-half as great. (4.) That much assistance can be given to the British Columbia producer in his fight for a sufficient share of the North-west markets by the active co-operation of the Canadian railways and express companies operating in those Provinces, by making rates from British Columbia as low as possible, giving them as fully, as is reasonable, the advantage of their proximity to those markets; by furnishing the best possible facilities in refrigerator-cars and terminal storage; and by a specially fast freight service for fruit and vegetables. We note that much assistance is being given in marketing of farm products by the Wells Fargo Express by means of a system of distribution through the medium of the company's branches. The same principle is carried out by State railways in South Africa and New Zealand. Co-operation. We found throughout the Province a strong theoretical belief in the benefits of co-operation, but in very many places great discouragement as a result of the attempts already made. Even where the worst failures had been made, however, the farmers were ready to try again if the Government would step in and take charge of the organizing and afterwards exercise some control or influence by means of audits and inspection. While we were believers in co-operation before we began this investigation, we had not fully realized what had been accomplished through its means until this closer study of its history in many countries where its usefulness has been extended into many departments, and where the results of the development of the principle upon national life and prosperity have been so striking. In other parts of this report reference will be made to directions in which we believe co-operative effort can be well directed in this Province, and recommendations with a view to facilitating that end be submitted. We may, however, here point out some of the features which we think necessary to success, and some of the besetting dangers to which co-operation is peculiarly liable, especially at its inception in any locality. Where a successful start has already been made under the direction, and with the assistance of the Government, the movement should be forwarded along the lines of approved experience. The first and greatest danger to which co-operation in its infancy is exposed is the attempt to form a complete organization before there is a certainty of sufficient produce to enable the movement to run at a reasonable expense ratio. All who have had experience recognize that a 4 Geo. 5 Royal Commission on Agriculture. 33 co-operative business in any line entails greater efficiency and attention to detail work than any private business in the same line, and that an advantage to producers is only secured when a co-operative concern conducts its business as well as, but at a lesser margin than, a private concern. On account of the extra expenses involved by the nature of the work it follows that, when the produce to be handled is small in amount, an individual can work at a lesser cost than a co-operative concern, and the latter is foredoomed to failure unless a sufficient volume of business can be assured to allow of its being run at a low expense ratio. Where such a volume cannot be assured, the only hope of ultimate success is for local producers to arrange for one of their number to undertake the marketing of the produce of all and wait for growth until the volume of business justifies extension. Another fruitful cause of failure in co-operation in the past has been the inability of producers to provide sufficient capital to run the business, but this need not be enlarged upon, as the Government has fully recognized this difficulty and shown its willingness to help to overcome it. We approve the action taken in providing for loans to co-operative associations and in encouraging and assisting their formation, which has put new life into the movement and was spoken of by witnesses with warm appreciation. The necessary volume of business and capital being obtained, the next great danger is the failure to secure efficient management. The difficulties of successful co-operative management are so great that no price that the turn-over can possibly afford is too great to pay for the services of an efficient man. To secure and retain such a manager, it is an absolute essential that the Board of Directors should be men able and willing to make themselves masters of the intricacies of the business, to lay down the lines on which it should be run, to see that the manager carries out-,his duties efficiently along these lines, to support him loyally with the members if he does, and to dispense with his services if he does not. Good management is the keystone to success in any business, co-operative or otherwise, but it is more difficult of attainment in the former than in the latter. Commercial Branch of Department op Agriculture. With reference to marketing and co-operation, we recommend the establishment of a Commercial Branch of the Department of Agriculture, the business of which would be— (1.) To promote the organization of co-operative associations over the Recommenda- whole Province according to the particular needs of the different districts, tions. and the development of the central marketing organizations for those local associations. (2.) To organize a market news service to collect and disseminate information as to supply and demand of agricultural products. (3.) To study transportation problems, assist in securing the best service by freight and express possible, and the lowest rates, and to give assistance to shippers of produce in negotiations with railway and express companies. (4.) Generally to study all the problems connected with the marketing of farm produce and assist the farmers in their solution. (5.) To assist by investigation of complaints of consignors and consignees in adjustment of differences. It is submitted that this Department might well have the power of investigating complaints between producers and merchants. While we do not at present suggest that plenary powers shall be given to the investigator of such complaints, believing that producer and merchant will realize the benefit derived from such inquiry, we desire to express our view that, if the powers suggested do not prove sufficient to bring out the facts of the cases submitted, plenary powers should be conferred on the investigator. Pending the completion of such arrangements, we advise the continuance of the present policy, with the absolute determination to avoid the encouragement of the formation of full- fledged co-operative associations by financial assistance or otherwise, unless the Government is satisfied in each case that such an association has a reasonable prospect of success. 34 British Columbia. 1914 " Agricultural Associations Act." We would here make some specific recommendations regarding the principles to be followed in the organization of the co-operative associations, regarding some of which we have made suggestions to your Department of Agriculture upon these points, and others Recommenda- iwith a view to having them embodied in the provisions of the " Agricultural tions. Associations Act." (1.) That it should be the duty of the organizer or organizers under the Commercial Branch of the Department of Agriculture to conduct educational work in the different districts in the direction of co-operation, and to advise the proposed Agricultural Credit Commissioners on the feasibility and soundness of any proposed scheme. (2.) That the principle of " one man, one vote " should be substituted for the principle " one share, one vote." We have become convinced, not only from Provincial but also from world-wide inquiries, that this principle holds out the greatest prospect of success, but we are well aware that thej opposite view is held by many observers with a full knowledge of the particular circumstances in the Province. (3.) That provision should be made for regular audits by auditors chosen by shareholders, subject to the approval of the Minister of Finance. (4.) That the co-operative associations should be subject to inspection by the Commercial Branch of the Department of Agriculture. Public Markets. In considering the question of marketing from the point of view of the producer, we have never lost sight of the effect upon the consumer, and in this connection have investigated the work of various public markets. The most successful of those which came under our observation were in Seattle, where there are four, the first of which, the Pike Place Market, was built by a private citizen and transferred to the city, while the others have since been built and maintained by private effort. Apart from a few small stalls outside of the market proper reserved for the use of local producers at a daily rent of 10 cents and upward, the stalls are rented often for years at from $10 to $50 a month to retailers of fish, meats, groceries, vegetables, flowers, fruit, dairy and poultry products. Some of the stalls are held by producers selling their own and their neighbours' produce, but the great majority of stall-holders are strictly retailers; and the prices charged by the two classes are identical. The markets are primarily designed to reduce cost to consumers. They do not eliminate the middleman, for even the producer marketing his produce is a middleman in the sense that he requires an additional price for the added services he renders, but they do provide a class of middleman who is willing and able to work on a small margin. Not only is the standard of prices in the markets considerably lower now than in ordinary retail stores, but the prices in the latter have been considerably modified by the competition. These markets are entirely self-supporting and successful; thousands of residents visit them daily, pay cash, and take away their purchases. We cite this Pike Place Market in Seattle as an example, because it was the most successful of those that were investigated personally by any member of the Commission. It is, moreover, convenient for further study of methods and results by citizens of the Coast cities. Believing, as we have said, that such a market is primarily of interest to consumers and depends upon their co-operation and support for success, we are proposing means of assisting the consumers to co-operate similar to those now provided for producers. In order to develop the co-operative buying of farm produce in cities, we therefore recommend that encouragement and information should be given by your Government upon this subject, and that legislation should be enacted providing for the financing of co-operative Recommenda- public markets on the same basis as is now done in the case of agricultural tion. co-operative associations; that is to say, by lending 80 per cent, of the amount of subscribed capital on the security of the balance due by shareholders on their shares and of the real estate held by the associations. As already recommended in the case of other co-operative associations, we would lay stress upon the importance of the principle of " one man, one vote " being adopted in public market organizations. This would give every 4 Geo. 5 Royal Commission on Agriculture. 35 consumer and producer a like advantage and opportunity to aid in the upbuilding of an active city market, and would prevent the possibility of any particular interest gaining control. ■ Transportation. Cases were brought before us in which complaint was made of freight and express rates being too high, of slow freight service, of difficulty in recovering compensation for animals killed on the track, of ineffective cattle-guards, of damage to the banks from the wash of steamers; and suggestions made as to the need of a better refrigerator service for fruit, as to the supply of refrigerator-cars for the future, the advantage of a cooled compartment in express cars for less than car-load shipments of fruit, and the great advantage it would be to have a special expedited freight fruit service during the season of fruit shipments. Apart from special cases, some of which we have taken up, we have felt that there are some matters of general policy that might well be discussed with the various transportation companies, and we therefore, as opportunities offered, had conversations with Sir Donald Mann, Alce-President of the Canadian Northern Railway Company; Mr. Morley Donaldson, Alce-President of the Grand Trunk Pacific Railway Company ; Mr. F. W. Peters, General Superintendent for British Columbia, and Mr. Larmour, representing the Traffic Department of the Canadian Pacific Railway Company ; and Mr. Alan Purvis, Manager Interurban System of the British Columbia Electric Railway Company. We discussed with them the question of co-operating with your Government in a forward movement for the promotion of agriculture, and received assurance that their companies appreciate the importance of such action at this time, and would give favourable consideration to suggestions in that direction. We took up with them particularly the question of special rates on drainage-tiles for farm use, on crushed raw lime-rock for use as a fertilizer, and on fertilizers generally, on the ground that at ordinary freight rates the cost of drain-tiles and lime was practically prohibitive at any considerable distance from the point of shipment, while their general use would greatly increase the produce to be hauled. The Canadian Pacific Railway Company has special rates in effect now from Atkins to various points on crushed lime-rock shipped by the British Columbia Government under certificates of the Deputy Minister of Agriculture. Mr. Peters was fully in accord with the wisdom of this policy, and promised that proportionately low rates would be made from any point in British Columbia from which this material could be shipped, and that the certificate of any secretary of the Farmers' Institutes would be accepted in place of that of the Deputy Minister of Agriculture. Sir Donald Mann and Mr. Donaldson agreed that special rates would be made on these materials. As an instance of the appreciation this principle has received, we may say that in Illinois all railways haul this lime for farm purposes at % cent per ton per mile up to 200 miles. Regarding cattle-guards, an effective guard will, we are told, be gladly adopted if it can be found. It was suggested by Mr. Donaldson that, if a uniform value were fixed for animals killed, there would be much less trouble about settlement, as contests and delay commonly arose from a disposition to overvalue the animals killed. An expedited freight service is now furnished by the Canadian Northern on ordinary goods from AVinnipeg. The Grand Trunk has a fast fruit service from the Niagara District. The Northern Pacific gave this improved service last year with great satisfaction to the Washington fruit districts, and this matter and others relating particularly to fruit and vegetable traffic are receiving the consideration of the Canadian Pacific Railway Company. Mr. Purvis informed us that the company has placed freight-sheds at the disposal of co-operative associations, and is considering plans for assisting in marketing. AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION. A very large number of those who are engaged in agriculture in British Columbia have had no previous training in their profession. This has made more pressing than it might otherwise have been the need of the educational work that has been carried on by your Department of Agriculture, by means of bulletins, lectures, demonstrations, packing-schools, and visits 30 British Columbia. 1914 to the farms and orchards of the instructors in agriculture, horticulture, dairying, poultry, bee-keeping, etc. In all parts of the country we found that this work was greatly appreciated not only by those who were most dependent upon it, but by experienced farmers who had been thus assisted in the improvement of their methods, and we feel that much very valuable work has been accomplished. The immense importance of agricultural education is being generally recognized: "Everywhere it is accepted as an axiom that technical knowledge and the general enlightenment of the agiicultural class are the most valuable of all levers of progress." (Report of the Recess Committee of the House of Commons.) M. Marey-Oyens, the head of the Dutch Board of Commerce and Industry and head of the Agricultural Council, says: " Every guilder spent in the promotion of agricultural teaching brings back profit one hundredfold." Dean Rutherford, of the Agricultural University of Saskatchewan, says that the Women's Home Making Clubs, corresponding with our Women's Institutes, are revolutionizing rural life in that Province, although they have been at work for a very short time. Many men leave farms for city life because their wives and daughters are discontented with the conditions of rural life, and the work of these institutes does much to train women in making farm home life more enjoyable. While we realize that your Department is alive to the importance of extending and improving the work of agricultural education, we desire to call attention to features of this work which particularly struck the various members of the Commission in other countries, and to suggest modifications in the system under which the work is carried on, which appear to us likely to lead to the most effective work at the least expense. (1.) Beginning with the rural schools, we would suggest the teaching of nature-study and of the fundamental principles of agriculture, aided by the use of school or home plots, with the aim of giving boys who do not continue their education beyond the primary Recommenda- schools some knowledge of botany, soils, and kindred subjects, and. where tions. possible, some manual training; and providing for girls a useful course in domestic science. (2.) To be effective, this will require that provision shall be made for training teachers to fit them for the work. (3.) In these rural schools it is desirable that some simple form of farm book-keeping should be taught. (4.) In the curriculum of high schools should be found a place for such special work as would prepare a boy for entrance to an agricultural college, or better fit him for the business of farming, without further theoretical education. We have learned with satisfaction of the policy with regard to the new University which will give the training for the profession of agriculture the same prominence as that accorded to the courses for other professions. In some Provinces and States the agricultural colleges in connection with the universities undertake a great deal of special work, such as short courses for farmers, and we have no doubt that such useful methods will be fully developed in our own University. (5.) With reference to the educational work now done by means of bulletins, we would recommend that they be replaced by a monthly magazine to be issued by the Department, which Iwould be a most convenient means of reaching all members of Farmers' Monthly Institutes, and other subscribers throughout the country, with such informa- Journal. tion as is now published in bulletin form and with articles selected from other magazines. This plan has been followed with great success in Australia and South Africa. By that means the advice which farmers would get from such articles would be more practical and more applicable to the conditions of the Province than most that they now find in agricultural journals, and the knowledge that it has been edited by your departmental officials would give the readers confidence in acting upon the advice. Such a journal would, moreover, be a most convenient channel for notices and other than technical information intended for farmers. We think that the payments made for approved advertisements by manufacturers of implements, sprays, etc., might cover much, if not all, of the expense of publication. 4 Geo. 5 Royal Commission on Agriculture. 37 (6.) It has seemed to us that the system now being followed in Ontario of having a representative of the Department in each district, to be called " District Instructor," might be followed with advantage. It would, of course, be necessary that the districts should be smaller than those now assigned to your Assistant Horticulturists, for instance; but as the representative would attend in his district to all the work of instruction, inspection, and reporting, we think, that it would not involve any increase in the field staff. The idea in Ontario is that the district representative shall be the active promoter of every 'movement in the interest of the industry in his district; that he shall be the guide, counsellor, and friend of every farmer, and shall remain long enough in a district to thoroughly understand its conditions and have an interest in making a special study of them, and to get credit for the improvement which he brings about. (7.) AVe would suggest that each farm and orchard in each district should be numbered, and. that every one of them should toe inspected, if possible, once a year; but, at any rate, that the inspections should be reported, and that no undue time should be allowed to elapse without every one being visited. (S.) At these visits, as well as giving advice and instruction, it would be the duty of the representative to inspect orchards and farms carefully for pests and weeds, and to take the necessary steps in case of need. We saw with interest the demonstration orchards and farms in proven districts and the experimental orchards in doubtful districts, and experimental dry farms, the last named being established under the Department of Lands, and we expect that valuable results will be obtained from this work. (9.) We would recommend that arrangements be made so that a reasonable number of samples of soil may be analysed by the Provincial Assayer for members of Farmers' Institutes. The application should be made to the Deputy Minister of Agriculture, accompanied by the sample, and if approved by him would be analysed at a fee sufficient to cover cost. (10.) As a result of these experimental stations and the observation of the district representatives, we hope to see such agricultural charts published as would make it plain to prospective settlers and the resident farmers what grains, vegetables, fruits, etc., are best adapted to every locality, and what are the respective advantages and disadvantages of each locality for each branch of the industry. The dissemination of authoritative information of this character would save much wasted effort, loss, and discouragement, would encourage men to come to a country where they would be so safeguarded "from the misrepresentation of interested parties, and would be some check upon the activities of unscrupulous promoters or land speculators. EXPERIMENTAL FARMS. We paid a visit to the Dominion Experimental Farm at Agassiz, where some interesting investigations were being carried on in animal-diseases, particularly red-water in cattle; and paralysis of sheep, traced by Dr. Hadwen to the effects of tick; by Mr. Treherne, in plant- diseases, especially the strawberry weevil; and by Superintendent Moore, in animal and plant husbandry; some feeding experiments then being carried on being likely to give valuable results. AA7e felt that, with the considerable overhead charges necessary to such an institution, its usefulness could be increased greatly in proportion to any additional expense by some strengthening of the technical staff in order that special and definite experiments of such practical value can receive full attention. AAre are of opinion that the change of policy under which the work of the farm is directed along such lines rather than to fruit-growing, for which the conditions are not very favourable, has been wise, and that if well supported the institution will be of much practical benefit to the farmers of the Province. GOVERNMENT FARM TRAINING SCHOOL. As another means of attracting to the Province a very desirable class of settler—viz., lads and young men intending to become agriculturists and with means to do so—we would suggest the establishment of Government training farms, in which fees sufficient to cover the cost of operation would be charged. AVe believe that there are many men, in Great Britain especially, who would gladly avail themselves of such an opportunity to give their sons a fair start in colonial life. British Columbia. 1914 At present parents hesitate to allow lads fresh from school to come to a new country to establish themselves as farmers without oversight or training. Pupil farms conducted as a private enterprise have not proved generally effective. Agricultural colleges do not fill this want; they do not supply the manual training, the lack of which is the great handicap of so many lads, and, moreover, devote an amount of time to theoretical training that is only desired by a small proportion of those intending to take up practical farm-work. The training which the proposed farms would give would be in the all-round every-day work of the farm, from clearing land to milking cows, with the use of a library of agricultural textbooks, and a course of lectures taking up an hour or two a day. After some time spent on such a farm the pupils would be fit to take service with approved farmers or to embark upon farming on their own account. We believe that by this means would be encouraged in the most practical manner the settlement in the Province of a large number of a class of farmers who, with experience and training before attempting to farm on their own account, would be most successful settlers. One incidental result would naturally be that a direct personal interest in this Province would be created among the relations and friends of young men who thus become satisfactorily established in the country. The knowledge of the resources and opportunities that would be disseminated in this way might be expected to lead to visits to the Province of men seeking homes or fields for investment. MINISTER OF AGRICULTURE AND ADVISORY BOARD. If the recommendations which we make in this report are adopted by your Government, the duties of the Minister of Agriculture, which have been rapidly increasing of late, will become still more onerous. In order to deal most effectively with the needs of the agricultural industry of the Province at this critical juncture and to carry forward an aggressive policy in the future, it is in our opinion necessary that at the head of the Agricultural Department of your Separate Government there should be a Minister able to devote his undivided attention Portfolio of to the great work which lies ready to his hand. AVe do not conceive it to be Agriculture. possible for any man, if distracted by the care of another important department, to accomplish the immense amount of work which will be involved in thoroughly studying and successfully grappling with the problems awaiting solution, and which will continually arise. Moreover, we desire to draw your attention to the valuable assistance the Ministers of Agriculture in many other countries receive from Consultative Councils, whose function is to advise the Ministry and to keep it in touch with the agricultural classes. Functions of These Consultative Councils are as a rule two-thirds elective, their con- Consultative stituencies being the agricultural societies, and one-third nominated by the Boards. State, generally from amongst leading agriculturists or scientists interested in agriculture. The Consultative Councils meet a few times a year, and their sessions are attended by the Minister and some of his chief permanent officials. They propose subjects for legislation and discuss all matters administrative and legislative bearing upon the promotion of agricultural interests. The Minister invariably consults these Councils before he introduces any important legislation or any serious administrative reform, though he is not necessarily bound to take their advice. The Councils appoint a permanent Committee for more frequent consultation with the Ministry in the intervals between their sessions. We believe that the services of such a Committee or Board would prove very valuable in keeping the Minister informed upon matters affecting the industry in its different branches in the various parts of the Province. The close personal knowledge of conditions and difficulties, combined with experience, judgment, and independence of men such as should be selected for such a Board, should make their suggestions so practical and reliable as to give the Minister confidence in initiating new measures or making reforms which had received their endorsation. In administration it wOuld lead to much speedier action than would be otherwise prudent, and this sharing of responsibility would embolden the Minister to adopt measures which, however beneficial he might personally believe them to be, he might hesitate to make effective without such support. 4 Geo. 5 Royal Commission on Agriculture. 39 We therefore recommend— (1.) That the Minister of Agriculture be relieved from the charge of any other Department. (2.) That an Advisory Board of Agriculture consisting of nine members Recommenda- be created. tions. (3.) That the Chairman of such Board and two of its members be appointed by your Government. (4.) That one member be elected by the Directors of' each of the following associations: British Columbia Fruit-growers' Association, British Columbia Stock-breeders' Association, British Columbia Dairymen's Association, and British Columbia Poultry Association. (5.) That one member be selected by a committee of five appointed by the Annual Convention of British Columbia Farmers' Institutes. (6.) That one member be selected by a committee of five appointed by the Annual Convention of British Columbia Agricultural Associations. Under the suggested arrangement the Advisory Board could perform the duties now pertaining to the Horticultural Board, and would serve without fees as is the case with the members of the latter body. There have been brought to our attention many matters which we considered to be of a personal character rather than typical of a condition 'requiring remedial action, and many others that we felt to be outside the scope of this inquiry. Some of these have been taken up informally with that department of your Government most interested and some with transportation companies. In the second part of our report reference may be made to evidence upon which we have not felt that we could base recommendations. We hope to have the second part of this report with appendices finished by May, and request that the same, when ready, may be printed and given the same circulation as is proposed for this first part, which we now respectfully submit. W. H. HAYWARD. ALEX. LUCAS. S. SHANNON. WM. DUNCAN. J. J. CAMPBELL. JOHN KIDSTON. INDEX. Page. Act, Agricultural Associations 34 Act, Ditches and Watercourses 16 Act, Game 10 Advisory Board of Agriculture 3S Agriculture, Separate Portfolio 3S Areas, infected 17 Bulls and Stallions running at Large IS Cattle-marking IS College, Agricultural—Relation to University 36 Commercial Branch, Department of Agriculture 33 Commission, Members of 5 Commission, The 3 Conditions affecting Agriculture 9 Conditions, Agricultural S Co-operation 32 Credit, Agricultural 25 Education, Agricultural 36 Education, Agricultural—Monthly Journal 36 Education, Agricultural—Teachers 36 Farm, Experimental, at Agassiz 37 Fertilizers, Deposits of—Conservation 14 High Cost of Living . ...' 11 Immigration, Child 24 Improvement, Land 14 Investigation in other Countries 7 Irrigation i 16 Journal, Monthly ." 36 Kelp Groves to be examined 14 Labour 23 Labour, Domestic 24 Labour. Prison 19 Land Classifiers, Branch of Lands Department 13 Land-clearing '.. .15 Land, Oriental Tenure 14 Land, Public 11 Lands, Public, Reservation of 13 Letter of Transmittal 1 Licence, Gun 19 Licence, Real-estate Agents 15 Markets, City 34 Markets, Public 34 Marketing and Co-operation 30 Master and Servant Act 24 Misrepresentation, Real-estate 15 Note 4 Noxious Weeds 17 Oriental Land Tenure 14 Permits to burn 16 Poultry, Imported, Inspection of 19 Pre-emption Conditions 13 Procedure of Inquiry 6 42 Index. 1914 Page. Reserves, Indian 14 Roads, Public 21 Roads in Subdivision 22 Roads, Width of 22 Royalty, Stumpage, Repeal of 16 School, Farm Training 37 Sessions held 5 Settlements, Selection of Lands for 13 Sheep, Protection of IS Tax, Improvement 22 Tax, School—General 23 Tax, School—Municipal 23 Taxation 22 Telephone System. Rural 19 Transportation 35 Tuberculosis, Bovine IS Weeds, Noxious 17 Well Boring, Artesian 16 PAET II. TABLE OF CONTENTS, PAET II. . Page. I. Agricultural Conditions in British Columbia 47 Introductory Remarks 47 Southern Portion of Vancouver Island 4S Central and Eastern Portion of Southern Vancouver Island 49 AA'est Coast and Northern Portion of Vancouver Island 50 Lower Eraser Valley 51 Dry Belt of the Valley of the North Thompson River 53 The Nicola Valley 54 Shuswap Lake and River District 55 Okanagan Valley 56 Keremeos and Osoyoos Districts 5S Kettle River A'alley 09 ' South-West Kootenay District 60 North-West Kootenay District 01 East Kootenay District 02 The Chilcotin Country 64 Queen Charlotte Islands 05 Bella Coola District (ill The Nass River A'alley 66 Lower Skeena A'alley G" The Bulkley A'alley r,; Districts from Francois Lake to Fort George OS South Fork of the Eraser River District 019 II. Land Improvement 72 Land-clearing 72 Machinery 74 Explosives 70 Draining 7S Liming 79 Prison Labour SO III. Farming in British Columbia SI Live Stock SI Dairying S9 Bovine Tuberculosis 94 Fruit-growing 90 Poultry-raising Ill Bee-keeping 113 Labour-supply 113 Juvenile Immigration 114 IAr. Public Roads IIS V. Rural Telephones 121 AT. Marketing 123 Conditions of Distribution 123 Public Markets 135 AIL Co-operation in Agriculture 143 Denmark 140 Germany 157 France 169 Belgium 177 Holland 1S2 ' Italy 1S5 Ireland ISO 4G Contents. 1914 Pack. VII. Co-operation in Agriculture—Concluded. United States 190 Canada 211 Ontario 211 Nova Scotia 21S Saskatchewan 219 British Columbia 22C International Co-operation 227 VIII. Agricultural Credit 231 European Systems- Germany 231 France 245 Italy \ 250 Denmark 254 Holland 257 Belgium 258 Ireland 201 Summary of European Systems 264 Credit Systems in Australasia— New Zealand 205 Australia 272 Queensland .' 274 Western Australia 275 South Australia 270 New South Wales 27S Victoria 279 Tasmania 2S1 Systems in other Countries— Union of South Africa 2S2 Egypt 2S0 British India 289 The Philippine Islands 292 Attempts made in North America— The United States 293 Loans from School Funds 293 Credit Associations in Wisconsin \ 297 Failures in the United States • 300 The Fletcher Bill 301 Canada 304 Nova Scotia 304 Quebec, Caisses Populaire 300 New Brunswick 307 Saskatchewan SOS The Meighen Bill Sir. Conclusion 31 ( IX. Agricultural Education 311 X. Summary of the Commission's Findings 328 Appendices 337 Meteorological Data 339 British Columbia Lands 348 Agricultural Production and Imports 354 Irrigation, Data 304 Public Roads, Statistics 300 Advances to Settlers in Australasia 30'.: Departmental Publications 372 Bibliography 381 Index 387 4 Geo. 5 British Columbia Commission on Agriculture. 47 REPORT: PART II. I. AGRICULTURAL CONDITIONS IN BRITISH COLUMBIA. INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. In the following we have endeavoured from the evidence of witnesses, from our observation, and from other authentic information to compile a brief statement descriptive of most of the different agricultural sections of the Province. Graham Island, Bella Coola, the Nass A'alley, the country tributary to the Grand Trunk Pacific, east of the Bulkley A'alley, and the Peace River country were not visited by us; but we were able from authentic sources to obtain a fail- idea of the characteristics of the districts and have included notes upon them accordingly. It is inevitable that, following a condensed plan, with a number of districts grouped together, the same exactitude cannot be attained as in a full detailed description, but we hope that its convenience for reference and its general reliability may make this description useful. As an especially useful guide to the agriculturist and the horticulturist in determining the suitability of particular districts for any variety of fruit or vegetable we have for a number of districts included information prepared by your Agricultural Department from the Dominion meteorological records of the number of days in the growing season, the number of heat units, and the mean temperature of the six hottest weeks, which are the most important temperature conditions in determining the range of plants. The growing season is reckoned from the day on which the mean temperature on its rise passes 43° Fahr. and the day in autumn when it passes below that temperature. The heat units are determined by multiplying monthly mean temperatures by the number of days in the growing season. The temperature of the six hottest weeks is the indication of the summer heat, which is the principal factor in limiting the distribution of plants and animals southward, and is also a good guide as to the ripening of vegetables and fruits. In districts in which this is no more than 62° Fahr. it is difficult, to grow even the earliest varieties of corn and tomatoes, while in districts with a temperature of at least 66 degrees for a similar period they can be grown commercially on a large scale. In the Appendix will be found meteorological tables kindly prepared for us by Mr. E. Baynes Reed, Superintendent of the Dominion Meteorological Service at Victoria and Honorary Provincial Meteorologist. The Dominion Government has recording stations at a number of points, of which a list is given, and we hope that there will be further extension of this useful service. Recently the AVater Branch of your Department of Lands in its study of climatic conditions has found it necessary to establish a number of stations for obtaining records of precipitation and temperature. During this inquiry we were often questioned upon matters connected with the fruit industry, and have under the head of " Conditions " mentioned some of the varieties of fruit for which we consider there is the most hopeful outlook commercially. In selecting these we have not included varieties which it might be desirable to plant for home consumption or for a local trade, or even all those that might be grown with profit commercially; but have selected those which we think are the safest, taking into consideration factors of transportation, markets in their present condition and as in our judgment they are likely to be in the future, as well as especial suitability for the climatic and soil conditions most general in the particular district. The prices of land vary greatly in the same district on account of productivity, cost of clearing, and nearness to transportation, and still more on account of water-frontage and nearness to a city. 4S British Columbia. 1914 SOUTHERN TORTION OF VANCOUVER ISLAND. A'lCTOBIA SAANICH METCHOSIN—SOOKE. (1.) This district comprises the southern end of A'ancouver Island. (2.) Climate. Precipitation (1901 to 1912). 1st Quarter. 2nd Quarter. 3rd Quarter. 4th Quarter. Total. Snow. A'ictoria, etc ' Inches. S.52 Inches. 2.99 Inches. 2.S5 Inches. 12.52 Inches. 26.SS Inches. 9.47 (a.) Spring: A'ery early, long, changeable; moderate rainfall; occasional spring frosts are apt to injure fruit-blossom where air-drainage is imperfect. (b.) Summer: Cool, very dry; south-west winds in exposed situations, (c.) Fall: Long and moderate rainfall. (d.) Winter: Short, mild, wet. (e.) Growing season : 271 days. (/.) Heat units: 14,409. (g.) Temperature six hottest weeks: 60.S. (3.) Soils.—Glacial. Uplands: Red, sandy, gravelly loam; clover grows well, but soil generally deficient in lime and potash. Lowlands: Black loam, fertile; hard-pan IS or 30 inches from the surface is common; rich in nitrogen; generally lacks lime. (4.) Clearing.—Most of the land in these districts not already in cultivation is timbered with Douglas fir, and in the bottoms with cedar up to 6 feet in diameter, commonly costing from $100 to $350 an acre to clear. (5.) Drainage.—Drainage is often advisable, particularly in low lying lands. (7.) Labour.—Efficient labour is scarce. At present Chinese labourers are largely employed. The wages for these run from $1.50 to $2.50 a day. (S.) Markets.—Large. City of A'ictoria (estimated population 65,000 in 1912) ; City of A'ancouver (estimated population 202,07S in 1913) ; Nanaimo (estimated population S,420) ; Prince Rupert (estimated population 6,000), creating a big local demand. (9.) Roads.—The roads are generally good. (10.) Transportation.—Steamers to A'ancouver and Prince Rupert and all Coast cities: British Columbia Electric Railroad: A'ictoria & Sidney Railroad; Canadian Northern Railroad; Esquimau & Nanaimo Railroad. (11.) Co-operation.—Co-operation has not been generally successful, but the need of it is being appreciated. (12.) Conditions.—Conditions are very favourable for poultry, dairying, hog-raising, strawberries, vegetables, holly, bulbs, forcing in greenhouses, loganberries; and are favourable in well-selected situations for Bartlett, Bosc, and Clairgeau pears; Yellow Transparent, Duchess. Wealthy, and King of Tompkins apples; Olivet and English Morello cherries; Englebert plums; Cuthbert raspberries; Oregon Champion gooseberries; Fay and Victoria red currants. Owing to the long blossoming period, spring frosts may lessen the average yield. The early rains sometimes interfere with fall spraying of late winter varieties of apples. (13.) Prospects.—-Agricultural development is held back by high land-values. (14.) Prices of Land.—$100 to $1,000 per acre, the wide range being due to Acreages held for subdivision purposes. (15.) Telephones.—British Columbia Telephone Company. Average rate: Party lines, five to a line; charge, $1.50 iwithin three miles. 4 Geo. 5 Royal Commission on Agriculture. 49 CENTRAL AND EASTERN SECTION OF SOUTHERN VANCOUVER ISLAND. Duncan—Alberni—Comox—Gulf Islands. (1.) The middle and eastern sections of the southern portion of the Island, extending from the southern boundary of Cowichan District on the south and including the Comox, Cowichan, Newcastle, Nanaimo, Alberni Districts, and the Gulf Islands, comprise some of the best land on the Island. (2.) Climate. Precipitation (1905-1907; 1912). 1st Quarter. 2nd Quarter. 3rd Quarter. 4th Quarter. ' Total. Snow. Inches. 13.59 20.43 12.24 Inches. 4.25 8.94 4.10 Inches. 3.36 5.10 3.1S Inches. 17.74 29.76 1S.89 Inches. 3S.94 64.23 3S.41 Inches. 8.75 44.81 21.00 Temperature. Highest. Temperature. Lowest Temperature. Mean Temperature. Decrees. 95.5 106.4 95.0 Degrees. 1.5 2.S 17.0 Decrees. 49.57 49.00 48 50 (a.) Spring: Long, early, changeable. (6.) Summer: Moderately warm, dry. (c.) Fall: Long and moderately wet. (d.) Winter: November and December wet; January and February wet, with some snow, (e.) Growing season: Cowichan, 242 days; Alberni, 231 days; Saltspring Island, 235 days. (/.) Heat units: Cowichan, 13,096; Alberni, 12,902; Saltspring Island, 12,6S1. (fir.) Temperature six hottest weeks: Cowichan, 62.1; Alberni, 64.2; Saltspring Island, 61.8. (3.) Soils.—Suitable for any kind of farming, chiefly mixed farming with dairying as the chief branch. Uplands: Red, sandy, gravelly, some clay loam, hard-pan and stiff clay subsoil in places ; generally fertile; clover grows well. Lowlands: Rich alluvial. (4.) Clearing.—This district is wooded with fir, cedar, and hemlock; in the neighbourhoods of Cowichan and Comox maple and oak are common. Clearing generally costs from $100 to $250. (5.) Drainage.—Drainage is often advisable, particularly in lower lands. (7.) Labour.—Efficient farm labour and domestic help is difficult to get. Oriental labour is paid from $35 to $40 a month ; white labour $65 a month, or $35 to $50 and board. (8.) Markets.—The towns in the district: Nanaimo (population 8,420) ; Alberni (population 1,200) ; Port Alberni (population 1,250) ; Duncan (population-1,500) ; Cumberland (population 1,237); Courtenay (population 1,000); the coal-mines and lumber camps; and the Cities of A'ictoria and A'ancouver. Trade conditions are unfavourable for individual producers, but where co-operation has been successfully followed marketing is satisfactory. (9.) Roads.—Road-building in the district is expensive, but the roads generally are very good. 50 British Columbia. 1914 (10.) Transportation.—Transportation facilities are fair. The district is served by the Esquimau & Nanaimo Railway, and the Canadian Northern Railway is under construction. Points on the Coast are served by steamers plying between the Gulf islands and between A'ancouver Island and the Mainland, chiefly the Canadian Pacific Railway boats. (11.) Co-operation.—Co-operation has been very successful in some parts of this district. The Cowichan Creamery has been in operation for nearly twenty years. Its products command the highest price in the market. An egg-station and an association for the buying of feed has been established in connection with the creamery and have been successful from the inception. Nanaimo has a successful co-operative creamery. Comox has a co-operative creamery and feed- buying association, and also a co-operative butchery association, all of which have a long record of successful operation. (12.) Conditions.—Dairying is the chief agricultural industry. Poultry-farming can he favourably carried on to a large extent throughout the whole district. Around Cowichan it has been especially developed. The building of a jam-factory at Duncan has been decided upon, which will stimulate the development of a small-fruit industry. Among the Gulf Islands and at Cowichan several orchards were found in good condition and bearing well. The varieties advised are: Yellow Transparent, Duchess, AVealthy, King of Tompkins apples; Bartlett, Bosc, Clairgeau, Louise Bonne de Jersey, and Boussock pears; Olivet and English Morello cherries; Englebert plums; Cuthbert raspberries; Oregon Champion gooseberries; Fay and A'ictoria red currants. At Comox the evidence was not so favourable to commercial fruit-growing, but on high, well-drained sites the varieties named should succeed, provided careful attention is given to them. (14.) Land Prices.—Wild land is from $50 to $250. Cleared farm land up to $600. (15.) Telephones.—British Columbia Telephone Company at Cowichan, Comox, and Alberni. Average rate: Party lines, five to a line; $1.50 per month within three miles. Government telephone to Saltspring Island. WEST COAST AND NORTHERN PORTION OF A'ANCOUVER ISLAND. (1.) This district comprises the whole of the west coast of the Island north of Port Renfrew and all the north end of the Island. (2.) Climate.—Very wet, equable and mild. Total precipitation 120 inches. Highest temperature 90 degrees, Lowest temperature 15 ,. Mean temperature 48.4 „ For some points on the northern and north-eastern part of the coast the precipitation is somewhat lower than stated above. Prevailing winds: In the fall and winter, south-west, inclined to be stormy; in the summer, north-west, generally calm. (a.) Spring: Long. (b.) Summer: Short, (c.) Fall: Wet, long. (d.) Winter: Brief and mild, (e.) Growing season: 257 days. (/.) Heat units: 13,306. (g.) Temperature six hottest weeks: 5S.3. (3.) Soils.—Bottomlands: Brown loam, rich alluvial. Lowlands: Peat lands and muskeg swamps. Uplands: Salal soil, brown, sandy, hard-pan. Lagoons with good meadows. (4.) Clearing.—Patches of bottom land with alder and salmon-berry brush costs up to $100 per acre to clear. Heavy timber, consisting of spruce, cedar, and hemlock, costs from $200 to $350 or more to clear. (5.) Drainage.—Drainage is necessary. (7.) Labour.—The price of labour is $3 a day. (8.) Markets.—Cities are largely reached by steamers, no railroad service having reached this district. 4 Geo. 5 Royal Commission on Agriculture. 51 (9.) Roads.—There are a few roads in this large district, but so far the development has been slow. (10.) Transportation.—There is a AVest Coast service once a week by the Canadian Pacific Railway boats, "Princess Maquinna " or the "Tees," alternately to Clayoquot and to Holberg, at the head of the West Arm of Quatsino Sound. The northern and north-western coast has a semi-monthly mail service by means of motor-boats, which also take freight and passengers. These boats ply between Hardy Bay on the east coast and Winter Harbour at Quatsino Sound on the west coast. They make regular calls at Shushartie, Cache Creek, Cape Scott, and San Josef Bay. (11.) Co-operation.—There is a co-operative store at Holberg. (12.) Conditions.—Grass and clover grow luxuriantly; all small fruits do well, but tree- fruit cannot generally be grown commercially. (14.) Land Prices.—Land prices are as yet not standardized in this section. Only a few holdings have been sold. Prices have been from $10 to $25 an acre for wild land; higher prices have been paid occasionally for land with water-front. (15.) Telephones.—At present there is a combined telegraph and telephone service to points on Clayoquot Sound and Nootka Island, on the west coast. A similar line is now being constructed from Campbell River to Hardy Bay, Quatsino Sound, Holberg, and San Josef Bay. It is expected that this line will be finished in the early part of 1915. These lines are constructed and operated by the Dominion Government. EOAVER FRASER A'ALLEY. (1.) The Lower Fraser A'alley extends from the mouth of the river eastwards to Hope, and from the International Boundary-line northward to the northern boundary of the Municipalities of Coquitlain, Maple Ridge, Mission, Dewdney, and Kent. This is a fertile district, witli many fine farms and a large production. (2.) Climate.— (See A'ancouver, New AVestminster, Coquitlam, Agassiz, Chilliwack, and North Nicomen in meteorological tables.) Precipitation. 1st Quarter. 2nd Quarter. 3rd Quarter. 4 th Quarter. Total. Snow. Agassiz (1901-12) Chilliwack (1912) Inches. 15.24 17.81 19.05 9.24 19.61 Tnchcs. 12.7S 10.10 9.0S 6.12 10.73 inches. 9.49 8.91 7.00 5.49 10.19 inches. 20.52 21.74 25.00 16.29 28.46 Inches. 5S.03 58.56 60.13 37.14 6S.99 Inches. 39.S3 36 00 A'ancouver (1901-12) Ladner (1910-12) Nicomen (1910-12) 19.05 19.39 33.56 Temperature. Highest. .Temperature. Lowest Temperature. Mean Temperature. Chilliwack Degrees. 103.0 92.0 92.2 S7.0 99.0 Degrees. —13.0 2.0 2.3 1.0 —13.0 Degrees. 49.S 4910 A'ancouver 4SS2 Ladner 47 OS 49 69 (a.) Spring; Long, changeable, strong winds at times. (b.) Summer: Fairly long and warm, inclined to be dry. 52 British Columbia. 1914 (c.) Fall: Rather wet and fairly long. (d.) Winter: Short, wet; cold snaps are short and snow lies for a few weeks at a time. (e.) Growing season: Agassiz, 239 days; Chilliwack, 237 days; A'ancouver, 232 days; Ladner, 242 days; Nicomen, 237 days. (/.) Heat units: Agassiz, 13,030; Chilliwack, 13,213; A'ancouver, 12,067; Ladner. 12,960; Nicomen, 13.12S. (g.) Temperature six hottest weeks: Agassiz, 62.6; Chilliwack, 63.S; A'ancouver, 62.5; Ladner, 61.9; Nicomen, 64.1. (3.) Soils.—The lowlands are composed of rich alluvial silt, deposited by the Fraser River, and require dyking. On the land a little higher than the dyked areas, black surface soil, with clay or sandy clay subsoil; very productive. On the higher benches, chocolate loam to light sandy soil, with hard-pan, gravel, or sandy clay subsoil. (4.) Clearing.—The cost of clearing the lowland is from $25 to $75; the cost of clearing the land next to dyked land is from $00 to $140; the cost of clearing the upper benches is from $90 to $350. (5.) Draining and Dyking.—Much of the land has been dyked or requires dyking and most of it draining. Draining costs about $50 to $75 an acre. (7.) Labour.—Skilled farm labour for dairy-farms is scarce. The price of white labour is $35 to $40 a month and board, $60 a month without board, and $3 a day. Hindu labourers are paid 20 cents an hour, and Chinese $40 to $45 a month without board. (S.) Markets.—A'ancouver and New Westminster. Small fruit and rhubarb are sent to Prince Rupert and the North-west Provinces. There are two jam-factories in Mission, one in New Westminster, one in A'ancouver, and a condensing-factory at Chilliwack. (9.) Roads.—The roads are expensive to build and maintain on account of the nature of the land, and where not very expensively constructed they get very bad in the wet season. Some fine roads have, however, been constructed. (10.) Transportation.—The Canadian Pacific Railway on the north side of the river; the Great Northern Railway; the British Columbia Electric Railway on the south side of the river; the Canadian Northern Railway nearing completion; the Fraser River—Canadian Pacific Railway steamers and independent steamer service. (11.) Co-operation.—Co-operation has not been very successful for fruit and general produce, but with encouragement will be tried again. Producers own and operate milk depots. There is a co-operative supply association at Hammond. (12.) Conditions.—Dairy-farming is extensively followed and conditions are very favourable. There are some very fine dairy herds. Much whole milk and cream are shipped to city markets and to the condenser at Chilliwack. McLaren Company is starting a plant at Clayburn for homogenizing and bottling milk and cream. There is a chocolate factory at New Westminster and at Mission. With regard to crops, much hay is grown for sale, but on the low ground it is coarser than that from the Interior and Washington and brings lower prices. Large yields of potatoes are grown, but prices are lower than for those grown in drier districts or on uplands. Oats are of fine quality. Conditions are favourable for hog-raising. Poultry-keeping is profitable and small fruits do very well. In several cases witnesses stated that on high ground in favourable situations they were succeeding with tree-fruits, but the evidence generally was discouraging. The following varieties are most suitable: Dunlop and Magoon strawberries: Cuthbert raspberries; Oregon Champion gooseberries ; Snyder and Evergreen blackberries; Bartlett, Bosc, and Boussock pears ; Duchess, King, and Yellow Transparent apples. (13.) Prospects.—Apart from general development, for which there is great opportunity, the draining of Sumas Lake will add a considerable area of what would probably be fertile land to the resources of the district. (14.) Land Prices.—The prices for bush land are from $50 to $300 an acre, and for cleared land from $250 to $500 an acre. (15.) Telephone.—Telephone system general. Chilliwack Telephone Company; British Columbia Telephone Company. 4 Geo. 5 Royal Commission on Agriculture. 06 DRY BELT OF THE A'ALLEY OF NORTH THOMPSON RIVER. LyTTON LlLLOOET SPENCES BRIDGE. (1.) This part of the valleys of the Thompson and Fraser Rivers has a limited amount of agricultural land in areas dependent upon the topography of the country and the feasibility of irrigation, and with many small Indian reserves of which the amount of arable land is small. The altitude is from 700 to 1,200 feet. The precipitation is about 8 inches. (2.) Climate.—Strong westerly winds prevail. (a.) Spring: Early and dry. (6.) Summer: Long, hot, and dry. (c.) Fall: Dry. (d.) AVinter: Short, with cold snaps; light snowfall, (e.) Growing season: Estimated, 216 days. (/.) Heat units: Estimated, 12,900. (g.) Temperature six hottest weeks: Estimated, 70. (3.) Soils.—Types: Light loam, fertile. Yields of alfalfa and potatoes are good. (4.) Clearing.—The cost of clearing is from $20 to $60 an acre. In some cases there is no clearing required. (6.) Irrigation.—Absolutely essential. (7.) Labour.—The cost of white labour is $45 a month and board, and $3 a day. Indian labour, which is much used, is $1.50 a day. (S.) Markets.—Railway Construction Camps; Lytton (population 500); Lillooet (population 500) ; Spences Bridge (population 150). As yet the markets are local for general produce. The Coast cities and Prairie Provinces are general export markets for fruit. (9.) Roads.—The roads are good. (10.) Transportation.—The Canadian Pacific Railway; the Canadian Northern; the Pacific Great Eastern. (11.) Co-operation.—None. (12.) Conditions.—The chief industries in this district are stock-raising, mixed farming, and fruit-growing. With irrigation two crops of alfalfa or timothy and clover are grown, and there is usually wild range available. Beans are grown commercially by the Indians. There has not been any extensive orchard-planting, but there are several orchards which are well known for the fine appearance of the fruit grown. The long, hot growing season is favourable to the development of some of the best commercial varieties of apples; but the light snowfall, with occasionally severe winter weather, has caused some loss from winter injury. Grapes have been grown commercially at Lytton. The following varieties are recommended as most suitable: Transcendent crab-apples; Mcintosh, Jonathan. Grimes Golden, and Winesap apples. (13.) Prospects.—There is room for development by means of co-operative irrigation. (14.) Land Prices.—The price of land is $15 an acre for range land and $100 for irrigable land. ASHCROFT WALHAOHIN KAMLOOrS. (1.) This part of the Thompson River A'alley has a large amount of agricultural land dependent upon irrigation. The altitude is 1,000 to 1,500 feet, not including the Rose Hill country on the plateau south of Kamloops (altitude 2,000 to 2,800 feet), for which we have no meteorological records; but where indications point to greater precipitation, probably 15 inches. The conditions noted below do not apply to the plateau referred to. Up the North Thompson some distance from Kamloops there is greater precipitation and a heavier growth of timber. (2.) Climate.—Windy. Precipitation (1901 to 1912). 1st Quarter. 2nd Quarter. 3rd Quarter. 4 th Qua rter. Total. Snow. Inches. 1.S7 Inches. 2.22 Inches. 3.30 inches. 2.14 Inches. 9.53 Inches. 27.34 54 British Columbia. 1914 (a.) Spring: Short, dry. (6.) Summer: Long, hot, and dry. (c.) Fall: Dry and short. (d.) Winter: Dry, little snow, and some severe weather, (e.) Growing season : 214 days. (/.) Heat units: 12,6S3. (gr.) Temperature six hottest weeks: 69.3. (3.) Soils.—The soil is usually rich and deep, sometimes sandy, gravelly, and shallow; gravel subsoil. (4.) Clearing.—There is no forest-growth in a great part of the district, but in parts where there is more precipitation the country is wooded or partly wooded. (5.) Drainage and Dyking.—No draining is necessary. ■ (6.) Irrigation.—Irrigation is necessary. At present the water company at Walhachin charges a minimum flat rate of $4, with $6 where the land is intercropped. The maximum rate that might be charged is $6 per acre-foot. Rates at Kamloops are from $2 to $4. (The rate varies according to the time when the water is required.) (7.) Labour.—Labour is scarce. In summer wages are $40 a month and board; in winter $30 a month and board. (8.) Markets.—The Coast cities for stock; North-west and export markets for fruit. (9.) Roads.—The roads are good. (10.) Transportation.—The Canadian Pacific Railway and the Canadian Northern Railway. (11.) Co-operation.—Ashcroft District Potato-growers' Association. (12.) Conditions.—There are a number of fairly, large stock-ranches in this section. Potatoes are very extensively grown and command the highest prices. The yields of alfalfa and potatoes under irrigation suggest the suitability of this district for particular development of hog-raising. A large number of orchards have been set out in late years, principally at AA'alhachin and Kamloops. While the summer conditions are favourable for fruit, the low temperatures iu winter, accompanied by wind and with little snow, endanger any hut the hardiest varieties, except when planted in sheltered positions. The following varieties are recommended as most suitable: Transcendent crab-apples; AVealthy and Mcintosh apples. (13.) Prospects.—Some large irrigation systems have been installed, and the development of all the land served by them will greatly increase the production. (14.) Land Prices.—Walhachin, from $200 to $500 an acre implanted. Ashcroft: Within three miles of Ashcroft fully irrigated land is about $250 per acre; range land, $5 to $10 per acre. Kamloops: Prices given for Ashcroft will apply equally to land around Kamloops. The Rose Hill District. This district is situated on a plateau about 1.S00 feet above the river-level, south of Kamloops. There are no meteorological records kept for the district, but indications are that the annual precipitation is about 15 inches. The country is rolling, with large patches of Aland poplar. The soil is fertile, and large yields of potatoes and grain are grown by dry-farming methods. THE NICOLA VALLEY. (1.) At Spences Bridge the Nicola flows into the Thompson River. In the southern part of the valley approaching Merritt and Nicola (altitude 2,100 feet) and the surrounding bench lands there is a large area suitable for stock-raising. With the high prices now ruling for cattle and horses prosperity is general. Farm locations are usually along the river-valley, where irrigation for growing winter feed is available, and the stock is pastured on the ranges in summer. (2.) Climate. Precipitation (1901 to 1912). 1st Quarter. 2nd Quarter. 3rd Quarter. 4 th Quarter. Total. Snow. Inches. 2.30 Inches. 2.65 Inches. 3.34 Inches. 2.77 inches. 11.00 Inches. 31 23 4 Geo. 5 Royal Commission on Agriculture. 00 Temperature. Highest. Tempera turc. Lowest Temperature. Mean Temperature. Degrees. 92.5 Degrees. —36.0 Degrees. 42.00 (a.) Spring: Short, fine. (6.) Summer: Sunny and not very warm; moderate rain in July and August. (c.) Fall: Dry. (d.) Winter: Cool, with cold spells; moderate snow. (e.) Growing season : 190 days. (/.) Heat units-. 10,331. (g.) Temperature six hottest weeks: 61.1. It is probable that in the wooded districts to the south at higher altitudes precipitation is greater and the snow lies longer. (3.) Soils.—The soil is fertile but shallow, with gravelly subsoil near the river; deep, rich soil on the benches. (4.) Clearing.—Where clearing is required on the lower levels the cost is light, perhaps $25 per acre. In the wooded country at higher altitude it is heavier. (C.) Irrigation.—On the lower levels this is essential, and the principal factor limiting development seems to be the expense of irrigation projects. (7.) Labour.—The price of labour is $2 a day and board, and $40 a month and board. (S.) Markets.—The Coast cities and local markets. (9.) Roads.—The roads are excellent and easily maintained. (10.) Transportation.—The Canadian Pacific Railway; branch line. (U.) Co-operation.—In stock-raising the need of co-operation has not been felt. (12..) Conditions.—Stock-raising is practically the only kind of farming carried on. and the conditions are very favourable. Interest was shown by witnesses in the fruit-growing possibilities, and it is probable that strawberries could be grown profitably for the Coast markets, as they would follow those of the other districts now supplying them. Tree-fruit of the earlier and hardier varieties can be grown for home consumption, but we would not encourage any one to go into it commercially. Your Department of Agriculture has a young experimental orchard there. The following is a list of varieties considered most suitable for the conditions found here: Magoon strawberries; Herbert raspberries; Oregon Champion gooseberries; Fay and A'ictoria red currants. Alfalfa is giving some encouraging results, but timothy and sainfoin are mainly grown. Evidence was given of success by one farmer in stock-raising and mixed farming without irrigation in the district to the south, 1,000 feet higher than the valley. The witness stated that there was a snowfall of about 30 inches and a reasonable rainfall during the summer; that potato-plants had been cut back by frost in June and July, hut had come on afterwards; and that the lowest temperature for 1912-13 was —2S degrees. The results of the experimental work in dry-farming in this district now being carried on by your Department of Lands will have an important bearing on its development. (13.) Prospects.—Success of dry-farming methods and irrigation projects under consideration would add greatly to the cultivable area. (14.) Land Prices.—Good bottom land in the lower portion of Nicola A'alley adjacent to Nicola River, $200 per acre when subdivided into 10-acre lots, $100 to $125 an acre in large holdings. Grazing land in foot-hills $10 to $25 per acre. (15.) Telephones.—Dominion Government telephone line from Kamloops through Nicola, Merritt, and Lower Nicola. SHUSWAP LAKE AND RIVER DISTRICT. (1.) Salmon Arm, Armstrong, Ehderby, and Notch Hill are the centres of this important farming district, in which there is a considerable area of fertile soil and a number of well- developed farms, commercial vegetable-gardens, and orchards at altitudes from 1,200 to 1,500 feet. (2.) Climate.—Dry to semi-humid. 5 5G British Columbia. 1914 Precipitation (1901 to 1912). 1st Quarter. 2nd Quarter. 3rd Quarter. 4th Quarter. Total. Snow. Enderbv Inches. 4.6S 5.IS Inches. 3.76 3.4S Inches. 4.47 4.83 Inches. 9.42 0.15 Inches. 22.33 10.64 Inches. 6S.30 Salmon Arm 60.35 Temperature. Highest. Temperature. Lowest Temperature. Mean Temperature. Degrees. 103.0 101.0 Degrees. —20.0 —20.0 Degrees. 45.33 45.71 64.4. heavy clays being (a.) Spring: Short and fine. (6.) Summer: Long and warm, (c.) Fall: Fine and long. (d.) Winter: Moderate, with cold snaps. (e.) Growing season: Salmon Arm, 200 days; Enderby, 190 days. (/.) Heat units: Salmon Arm, 11.4SS; Enderby, 11,093. (.</.) Temperature six hottest weeks: Salmon Arm, 65.5; Enderby, (3.) Soils.—The soil is generally fertile, deep, and retentive of moisture, common. The soils in lower parts are alluvial and irrigation unnecessary. (4.) Clearing.—The clearing costs from $25 to $150 an acre. (5.) Draining and Dyking.—Draining is necessary in some cases. (6.) Irrigation.—Where available it is used, but where not available the retentive nature of the soil enables growers to do without irrigation. (7.) Labour.—The price for labour is from $2 to $2.50 a day for Chinamen; from $35 to $40 a month and board for white men. (S.) Markets.—Salmon Arm (population 3.500) ; Enderby (population 830) ; Armstrong (population S10) ; the Coast and Trairie towns for vegetables and fruit; all export markets for fruit. (9.) Roads.—The roads are good. (10.) Transportation.—The Canadian Tacific Railway. (11.) Co-operation.—A'ery successful at Salmon Arm. Reorganized at Armstrong after previous failure. (12.) Conditions.—Salmon Arm : Fruit-growing on uplands; hay and dairying in the A'alley. Enderby: Dairying, hogs, and mixed farming successful; orchard-planting comparatively recent. Armstrong: Orcharding and mixed farming on the uplands; vegetables, especially celery-growing on flats near town is successful. The conditions are very favourable in these districts. The following are the varieties of fruit recommended as most suitable for these districts : Magoon strawberries; Cuthbert raspberries; Transcendent crab-apples; Flemish Beauty pears; Mcintosh, Jonathan, Grimes Golden, Wagener, and Northern Spy apples. (13.) Prospects.—There should be more development in the above branches of agriculture. (14.) Land Prices.—The prices of land are: From $50 to $200 for uncleared land; from $100 to $400 for cleared land; from $500 to $1,000 for celery-ground at Armstrong. OKANAGAN A'ALLEY. (1.) This valley takes in the country from A'ernon and Lumby to Penticton and Kaleden, in which section there are many large areas of arable land. The altitudes of the land under 4 Geo. 5 Royal Commission on Agriculture. 57 cultivation vary from 1,150 to 1,700 feet. The meteorological tables for A'ernon, Okanagan Mission (Kelowna), Summerland, and Penticton give a fair idea of conditions at the lower altitudes. There are no records on hand for the higher altitudes. (2.) Climate. Precipitation. 1st Quarter. 2nd Quarter. 3rd Quarter. 4th Quarter. Total. Snow. Summerland Inches. 2.OS 3.37 2.4S 2.95 Inches. 3.00 3.59 2.90 2.91 Inches. 3.29 4.11 3.4S 3.10 Inches. 2.44 3.50 2.33 3.48 Inches. 10.S1 14.63 11.19 12.44 Inches. 22.79 A'ernon 42.93 Penticton Kelowna Temperature. Highest Temperature. Lowest Temperature. Mean Temperature. Degrees. 9S.0 104.0 90.0 96.2 Degrees. —1S.0 (1909) —30.0 (1S93) — 1.0 —19.4 (1907) Degrees. 46.19 45.07 46.4 (1912) (a.) Spring: Short and fine. (6.) Summer: Long, fine, warm; some rain in growing season, (c.) Fall: Long and dry. (d.) Winter: Generally bright, moderate, with cold snaps. The snow lies for varying periods, according to the locality; there is usually sleighing for two months in A'ernon, but only for shorter periods at southerly points along the Lake, (e.) Growing season: Summerland, 203 days; A'ernon, 199 days; Kelowna. 201 days; Penticton, 209 days. (/.) Heat units: Summerland, 11,774; A'ernon, 11,423; Kelowna, 11,507; Penticton, 11,914. (fir.) Temperature six hottest weeks: Summerland, 67.3; A'ernon, 06.5; Kelowna, 66; Penticton, 65.4. (3.) Soils.—Type: There are various types of fertile soil throughout the district, and also some areas of gravelly, shallow soil, which latter have proved quite unsuited to fruit. Yields: There are large yields of fruit, alfalfa, and vegetables. (4.) Clearing.—Part of the country requires no clearing; in other places the cost ranges from $25 to $100 an acre. (5.) Drainage and Dyking.-—Drainage is not generally needed. (6.) Irrigation.—Generally speaking, irrigation is necessary for farming, always for orchards. Dry-farming has been practised in parts to some extent, and in years of heaviest rainfall some of the heavier soil does not require irrigation in clean cultivated orchards in the A'ernon District. There is a number of large irrigation companies in this district; at Summerland and Penticton there are municipal irrigation-works. The following water rates are in force at present: Peachland, $2.50 an acre; Summerland, $2.50 an acre; Penticton, $2.50 to $5 an acre; White A'alley Irrigation and Power Company, a sliding scale from $6 an acre-foot to $3. (7.) Labour.—The price of labour is from $2.50 to $3.00 a day, and from $35 to $40 a month and board. 5S British Columbia. 1914 (S.) Markets.—The markets are Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba; and the Coast cities for vegetables. These and British, Australian, and foreign markets for fruit. There are canning-factories at A'ernon, Kelowna, and Penticton. (9.) Roads.—The roads are excellent. (10.) 'Transportation.—The Canadian Pacific Railway and steamers; the Kettle A'alley Railway (under construction) approaching the south of the lake. (11.) Co-operation.—There are local produce-marketing associations at all centres, with a central selling agency at A'ernon organized in 1913. (12.) Conditions.—AVhile care must be exercised here as elsewhere to see that the soil conditions are right, and that the location is not one that is subject to winter injury, the conditions generally are very favourable to fruit-growing, and there has been extensive development. Apples rank first in production, but pears in heavy soils where conditions are suitable are exceedingly profitable. Peaches were extensively planted, largely as fillers in the orchards in the southern part of the district; but many trees were killed in an unusually hard winter some years ago, and markets in 1912 were very unsatisfactory ; it is now felt that apple-growing is a much safer branch of the industry. At Lumby, near A'ernon, where the climate is not so suitable for fruit, large quantities of timothy-hay are grown. Conditions generally are well suited to alfalfa. Onions and tomatoes are extensively grown, as well as other vegetables. Tobacco has been grown commercially for many years around Kelowna, while stock-raising on the ranges around these centres is an old-established industry. The following varieties of fruit are recommended: Magoon strawberries; Flemish Beauty, Bartlett, Anjou, Bosc, and Clairgeau pears; Mcintosh, Jonathan (AVagener for southern part), Grimes Golden, Rome Beauty, and Northern Spy apples. (13.) Prospects.—Prospects are good for large development. (14.) Land Prices.—The price of land under irrigation is about $300 an acre. (15.) Telephones.—The Dominion Government telephone connects lake points, and the Okanagan Telephone Company has a local system serving towns and their neighbourhoods. Local system at Summerland. KEREMEOS AND OSOYOOS DISTRICTS. (1.) The former district at the junction of Keremeos Creek with the Similkameen River and the latter in the neighbourhood of Lake Osoyoos have a considerable acreage of land suitable for alfalfa and fruit-growing and stock-raising, including sheep. The altitude in Keremeos District is from 1.500 to 1.700 feet, and in Osoyoos from 1,000 to 1,200 feet. There is no meteorological table at hand. (2.) Climate.—A'ery dry; persistent west winds at Keremeos. («.) Spring: Short and dry. (b.) Summer: Long, hot, and dry. (c.) Fall: Short and dry. (d.) Winter: Dry, little snow, some quite cold snaps. (c.) Growing season: Keremeos, estimated 21S days; Osoyoos, estimated 209 days. (/.) Heat units: Keremeos, 13,000; Osoyoos, 11,900. (fir.) Temperature six hottest weeks: Keremeos, 70; Osoyoos, estimated 67. (3.) Soils.—The soil is fertile sandy loam and volcanic ash. It yields good crops of alfalfa and fruit. (4.) Clearing.—A'ery little clearing. (6.) Irrigation.—This is absolutely essential, and upon the extension of irrigation systems development must depend. The water rate charged by the Keremeos Land Company is $3 an acre annually. (7.) Labour.—Efficient labour is scarce. Teamsters get $75 a month without board. (S.) Markets.—The towns in the Nicola A'alley, Upper Similkameen, and the Okanagan for sheep and cattle, and those markets and all outside markets for fruit. (9.) Roads.—The roads are excellent. (10.) Transportation.—The Great Northern Railway. 4 Geo. 5 Royal Commission on Agriculture. 59 (11.) Co-operation.—The farmers are trying to organize. (12.) Conditions.—The district is good for cattle-ranging, sheep-ranging, and fruit-growing. Good yields of alfalfa are obtained with irrigation. Stock-raising is profitable. The orchards are young, but the outlook for them is promising. A certain amount of injury was reported from sun-scald and winter injury. The long growing season and high average summer temperature are favourable for some of the desirable late winter varieties. The following varieties of apples are recommended as most likely to be suitable: Jonathan, AVagener, Delicious, Yellow Newtown, and Winesap. (13.) Prospects.—The expected early connection with the Great Northern to the Coast should lead to much development. (14.) Land Prices.—The price of cleared land varies from $300 to $400 an acre. KETTLE RIVER A'ALLEY. (1.) Kettle River A'alley from Cascade to Rock Creek and the adjoining more elevated districts. Altitude: Cascade, 1.5S7 feet; Grand Forks, 1,746 feet; Midway, 1,913 feet; Rock Creek, 2,100 feet; Greenwood, 2,464 feet. (2.) Climate.—Dry to moderately dry. Precipitation. 1st Quarter. 2nd Quarter. 3rd Quarter. 4 th Quarter. Total. Inches. 2.27 Inches. 4.12 Inches. 1.92 Inches. 1.56 Inches. 9.S7 Rainfall. Snow. Total Precipitation. Highest Temperature. Lowest Temperature. Mean Temperature. Grand Forks (1910) (1912) Inches. S.3S 15.5S Inches. 34.30 30.50 Inches. 11.82 Degrees. 97.0 Degrees. —21.0 Degrees. • (a.) Spring: Short and fine. (b.) Summer: Long and warm. (c.) Fall: Long and mild. (d.) AVinter: Bright, moderate, occasionally quite cold snaps. (3.) Soils.—The soil is usually deep and fertile, sometimes light, and in some parts shallow, with gravelly subsoil. The plateau soils are usually deep. (4.) Clearing.—The clearing is light and costs up to $100 an acre. (5.) Drainage and Dyking.—Drainage generally unnecessary. (6.) Irrigation.—Irrigation is desirable and in use in most orchards. Mixed farming is carried on without irrigation, especially on the plateaux. Water from small streams or from the Kettle River. A company system at Rock Creek. AVest KoOtenay Power and Light Company supplies power for pumps at a cost of $5 for 2 acre-feet. (7.) Labour.—The price of labour is from $35 to $45 a month with board, $2 a day and board, and $3 a day without board. The supply of labour is scarce, especially with respect to small-fruit pickers. (8.) Markets.—There is a good local market at mining and smelting centres in the district, and for fruit all outside markets as well. Shipments are usually made to Prairie points and Australia. (9.) Roads.—The roads are good. (10.) Transportation.—The Canadian Pacific Railway and the Great Northern Railway. GO British Columbia. 1914 (11.) Co-operation.—Fruit-growers' Association at Grand Forks. (12.) Conditions.—Grain and vegetable growing, mixed farming, stock-raising, and fruitgrowing are the principal branches. Large quantities of potatoes are grown. There are 2,500 acres in orchards near Grand Forks and 600 acres near Midway and Rock Creek. Care should be taken, in selecting sites for orchards, to make sure of good air-drainage and to avoid shallow, gravelly soils. Where conditions are not fully satisfactory in these respects, only the hardiest of the varieties mentioned should be planted. A'arieties of apples recommended are: Mcintosh, Jonathan, Rome Beauty, Red-cheeked Pippin, and Ontario. (13.) Prospects.—There is room for development in the various branches, particularly in mixed farming. (14.) Land Prices.—The price of land is from $25 to $50 an acre at Greenwood, and railway land from $1 to $10. On the plateaux at Rock Creek and Midway it is from $25 to $50 an acre. In the valley it is from $50 to $100, and cleared; irrigated land from $150 to $200. SOUTH-WEST KOOTENAY DISTRICT. (1.) Lower Arrow Lake, Columbia River to Boundary, Kootenay River and Lake from Creston on the east and Howser Lake on the north to the junction with the Columbia River at Castlegar; Slocan Lake and River A'alley to junction with the Kootenay River near South Slocan. This is a country of mountains, lakes, and rivers, the agricultural land being found in disconnected areas from a few acres to many thousands of acres in extent. The altitudes vary from 1,35S feet at Waneta to 1,750 feet at Nelson and 1,9S5 feet at Creston. This does not include Rossland (3,461 feet), where the climate is somewhat modified, and for which separate meteorological tables are given. The meteorological tables for Nelson will give a fair idea of the climate of most of the agricultural districts in this area. (2.) Climate.—Moderately dry to semi-humid. Moderate snowfall, which lies through the winter. Protected from high wind. o Precipitation. 1st Quarter. 2nd Quarter. 3rd Quarter. 4th Quarter. Total. Snow. Inches. 7.75 Inches. 5.S2 Inches. 5.27 Inches. S.06 Inches. 26.90 Inches. S4.00 Temperature. Highest. Temperature. Lowest Temperature. Mean Temperature. 1 Degrees. 07 0 Degrees. 7rt Degrees. AR 37 Spring: Short, fine. Summer: Long, warm, with moderate rains. Fall: Long, with moderate rains. Winter: Comparatively mild, with moderate frost and short cold spells; a good deal of snow. The snow Hes on the ground for two and a half to three and a half months. Growing season : Nelson, 202 days. Heat units: Nelson, 11,427. Temperature six hottest weeks : Nelson, 65. (3.) Soils.—Chocolate loam predominates, and there is much sandy loam, often stony, in some parts; some large areas where clay soils predominate. Soil-fertility usually readily available. Large yields of tree-fruit, small fruit, and clover; fair yields of potatoes and alfalfa. (a.) (6.) (c.) (d.) (c.) 4 Geo. 5 Royal Commission on Agriculture. Gl (4.) Clearing.—The cost of clearing usually varies from $50 to $150. (5.) Draining and Dyking.—There is good natural drainage generally. (6.) Irrigation.—Irrigation is desirable for the increase of yields and for security, though it is generally thought unnecessary for tree-fruit, but it is certainly advantageous. In 1910 the precipitation at Nelson was only 15.35 inches. Many small streams provide irrigation for groups of farmers, but there are no large incorporated systems. (7.) Labour.—The price for labour is from $2 to $3 a day, and from $30 to $40 a month and board. (S.) Markets.—The principal local towns, which are largely supported by mining, smelting, and lumbering, are: New Denver, Silverton, Slocan City (population 500), Trail (population 1,6S0), Rossland (population 2,S27), Nelson (population 7,003), Kaslo (population 1.200), Sancton, and Creston (population 800). The markets are mining and lumbering camps, the Crowsnest Pass coal-mining towns, North-west Provinces, Australia, and Great Britain. There are two jam-factories at Nelson and a canning-factory at Burton City. (9.) Roads.—There has been much extension of roads lately. (10.) Transportation.—The Canadian Pacific Railway trains and steamers and the Great Northern Railway trains. (11.) Co-operation.—The Kootenay Fruit-growers' Association, the Creston Fruit-growers' Association, and other smaller organizations; Poultry-growers' Associations, etc. (12.) Conditions.—Fruit-growing, dairying, poultry, hogs, mixed farming. Conditions generally are very favourable and safe for fruit-growing to a considerably higher altitude than elsewhere in the Interior. Poultry-keeping is increasing and might advantageously be much more followed. Jam-factories at Nelson and convenience to Prairie markets create good opportunities for small-fruit growing, for which climate and soil are well suited, for districts with convenient transportation. The following varieties are recommended: Magoon and Dunlop strawberries for shipping, and Glen Mary and Wm. Belt strawberries for jam; Cuthbert raspberries; Oregon Champion Gooseberries; Naples black currants (on low ground); Royal Anne, Bing, Lambert, and Black Tartarian sweet cherries; Italian prunes; Bartlett and Flemish Beauty pears; Mcintosh Red (of very fine quality but subject to scab), Gravensteiu (of exceptional quality), Northern Spy, AA'agener, Ontario, Baldwin, and Cox's Orange Pippin apples. Dairying and mixed farming are being successfully followed and conditions are favourable. Under irrigation clover yields two crops and alfalfa three. (13.) Prospects.—Prospects are good in most districts for a large development of fruitgrowing, and in some of dairying and mixed farming. (14.) Land Prices.—The price of land is from $50 to $200 an acre for uncleared land; $150 to $300 for cleared land. (15.) Telephones.—The British Columbia Telephone Company serves some districts; the Creston Telephone Company; the Slocan Lake Telephone Company. NORTIi-AVEST KOOTENAY. (1.) This includes the Upper Arrow Lake and the Columbia River from Arrowhead to Revelstoke, Lardeau, Duncan River, and Howser Lake Districts. (2.) Climate.—From the southern boundary of this district towards the north there is an increasing precipitation and heavier snowfall in winter than that of south-west Kootenay, with a shorter growing season and lower winter temperature. The altitude at Revelstoke is 1,476 feet. Precipitation. 1st Quarter. 2nd Quarter. 3rd Quarter. 4th Quarter. Total. Snow. Inches. 13.11 Inches. 7.07 Inches. 7.16 Inches. 14.20 Inches. 41.54 Inches. 129.09 G2 British Columbia. 1914 Temperature Highest. Temperature. Lowest Temperature. Mean Temperature. Degrees. 100 Degrees. -25 Degrees. 42.S4 (a.) Spring: Rather late, short, and some rain. (6.) Summer: Moderately long and warm, with cool nights; a good deal of rain, (c.) Fall: Rather long, mild, and wet. (d.) Winter: Moderate, cold snaps; not much really cold weather; much snow, (c.) Growing season: 182 days. (/.) Heat units: 10,176. (fir.) Temperature six hottest weeks: 63.3. (3.) Soils.—Fertile. Red loam on the uplands and black loam on the lowlands. Yields large crops of hay and roots. (4.) Clearing.—Clearing costs from $50 to $200 an acre. (5.) Drainage and Dyking.—Drainage is necessary in some places. (G.) Irrigation.—Irrigation is unnecessary. (7.) Labour.—The price of labour is $45 a month and board; $3 a day. (S.) Markets.—Revelstoke (population 4,000) ; Arrowhead (population 600) ; Nakusp (population 475). Local markets not yet supplied. (9.) Roads.—Not many roads, but fairly good. (10.) Transportation.—The Canadian Pacific Railway and steamers. (11.) Co-operation.—Co-operative Poultry Association at Revelstoke. (12.) Conditions.—A'ery well suited to dairying, hog-raising, and mixed farming. Poultry- raising is profitable, small fruit very successful, and in some parts tree-fruit of suitable varieties is quite successful. In districts where the snowfall is heaviest it is a drawback to orcharding. In favourable localities the varieties recommended are: Magoon strawberries; Cuthbert raspberries; Fay's Prolific black currants; Oregon Champion gooseberries; Wealthy, Gravenstein, and Salome apples. (13.) Prospects.—A large amount of land near Revelstoke has been opened to pre-emption, and there should be a considerable development in different parts of this district. (14.) Land Prices.—The price of land is from $25 to $150 an acre uncleared. EAST KOOTENAY DISTRICT. (1.) This section includes the districts east of the Creston district to the Albertan boundary and north to Golden. The principal agricultural areas are along the Kootenay River from Gateway (altitude about 2,400 feet), where it enters the United States north to Canal Flats (altitude 2,700 feet), and from there the valley of the Columbia River to Golden (altitude 2,5S0 feet). In this district are large areas of good soil, with favourable conditions for mixed farming with irrigation, or in some places for dry-farming, and development is going on at a number of points.. The centres are Golden, Cranbrook, Windermere. Invermere, Athalmer, Wilmer, and Elko. (2.) Climate.—Bright, bracing, dry to semi-humid. Precipitation. 1st Quarter. 2nd Quarter. 3rd Quarter. 4th Quarter. Total. Snow. Golden Inches. 4.20 4.3S 4.26 Inches. 3.14 4.39 5.99 Inches. 4.26 3.26 5.72 Inches. 5.48 3.S3 5.36 Inches. 17.14 15.S6 S.94 21.33 Inches. 44.79 36 60 Cranbrook Wilmer Elko 4 Geo. 5 Royal Commission on Agriculture. 63 Temperature. Highest. Temperature. Lowest Temperature. Mean Temperature. Degrees. 94.0 94.0 Decrees. —51.0 —29.5 Degrees. 39.21 37.5 AA'ilnier 42.5 Elko 43.8 (a.) Spring: Late, short, fine. (b.) Summer: Warm, short. (c.) Fall: Long; moderate rains in some parts. (d.) Winter: Bright; moderately cold, with some quite cold .weather. (e.) Growing season: Golden, 175 days; Wilmer, 190 days; Cranbrook, 1S2 days; Elko, 191 days. (/.) Heat units: Golden, 9,250; Wilmer, 10,750; Cranbrook, 10,000; Elko, 10.750. (fir.) Temperature six hottest weeks: Golden, 60.1; Wilmer, 63.8; Cranbrook, 62.2; Elko, 63.9. (3.) Soils.—These vary considerably; the most common is a fertile loam; in some districts rather shallow, with open subsoil, in which cases dry-farming will be difficult • of successful application. (4.) Clearing.—The cost of clearing is from $25 to $125 an acre. (5.) Drainage and Dyking.—This is not necessary unless in some special reclamation scheme. (6.) Irrigation.—Advisable wherever water is available, though where soil is deep and retentive dry-farming should succeed. AA'ater rate charged by Baynes Lake Land Company, Limited, is $2 an acre-foot. (7.) Labour.—Labour is scarce and dear. The price is from $40 to $60 a month and board and $3 a day. (S.) Markets.—Golden (population 953); AVilmer; Cranbrook (population 3,090, with suburbs 4,000) ; Elko. Local markets in many parts are good. The Kootenay Central Railway is now opening up the northern part to outside markets. (9.) Roads.—The roads are generally good. (10.) Transportation.—In the southern part the Canadian Pacific Railway and the Great Northern Railway; in the northern part the Canadian Pacific Railway and the Columbia River steamer; Kootenay Central under construction from Spillimacheen to a point on Crowsnest line near AVardner. (11.) Co-operation.—A'ery little. (12.) Conditions.—Conditions are favourable for stock-raising and mixed farming under irrigation, and small fruit, which, though perhaps not yielding very heavily, will on account of the later season bring good prices. Fruit-trees are being tried at most points in the district, but as yet commercial (tree) fruit-growing is in its experimental stage. Experimental orchards have been set out by your Agricultural Department at Baynes Lake, Jaffray, and Windermere. An experimental farm at Invermere has been started by the Dominion Government. From the results thus obtained useful information should in time be available for the guidance of those wishing to plant. With the knowledge at present at command, we would, however, advise caution in orchard-planting, confining the area to such a percentage of a farmer's operations as will not cause any embarrassment in case the results should not prove satisfactory, choosing favourable sites and the hardiest varieties. In small fruits we would suggest the following: Bederwood and Williams strawberries; Herbert raspberries; Victoria and Red Dutch' red currants; Saunders and A'ictoria black currants; Oregon Champion gooseberries. Alfalfa is giving encouraging results in some places; clover and timothy give good yields. There is room for large development of the live-stock industry in its various branches. In many places there is mountain range for horses and cattle, and this, with alfalfa, clover, and timothy, makes a good combination for economical production. Poultry-keeping might with advantage be given more attention. (14.) Land Prices.—The price of uncleared land is from $30 to $150 an acre. 04 British Columbia. 1914 THE CHILCOTIN COUNTRY. (1.) AA'e refer here to the country seen from the road between Clinton and Quesnel, between Clinton and Hauceville via the Gang Ranch, and from Hanceville via the Springhouse country to 150-Mile House, on the Cariboo Trail; a section which includes a large area of country suitable for stock and mixed farming. The extent of these operations has hitherto generally been limited by the supply of water available without much capital expenditure for irrigation, with which is grown winter feed for stock. It is hoped that the dry-farming experimental work now being carried on by your Department of Lauds in the neighbourhood of 105-Mile House, on the Cariboo Road, will demonstrate that, by following the methods now well recognized as successful in many countries with very light annual precipitation, farming can be carried on profitably over a vast area of which the conditions are similar to those at the 105-mile station. Dry-farming.—AVhen returning from Hanceville to the main Cariboo Trail, we were anxious to find the farm of a successful exponent of dry-farming methods in the Springhouse country referred to by Professor Elliot, and were fortunate to find, when we climbed down from a haymow where we had spent the night, having found this comfortable shelter when we abandoned our mired car in the dark, that we were on the very farm for our purpose. This was the home of Mr. S. T. Sorensen. He has good soil well suited to dry-farming methods, and had~good yields, 30 bushels of wheat and from 60 to 70 bushels of oats to the acre (1912). We have since learned from Mr. Sorensen that he had good crops again in 1913, but his wheat was somewhat injured by frost. It is probable that the wet season of that year had kept it growing too late. In June, 1914, he reports good prospects for the present year. He has substituted Marquis wheat for Preston, believing the former variety more suitable for that country. While we were in that part of the country we had heavier rains than usual in July, and we were informed that for the past two years the rainfall had been greater than usually. It is an attractive-looking farming country, rolling prairie, with large, lightly timbered areas and a good many ponds. From Mr. Wynn Johnson, at Alkali Lake, we have obtained* a record of precipitation for 1912 showing 12.4 inches, of which nearly one-half fell in July and August; and to September 30th, 1913, showing 12 inches, of which one-half fell in June and July. At Quesnel we found a local record of temperature and precipitation from which we found that the precipitation had been about 24 inches in MOS; 12.S3 inches in 1909; 13.7 inches in 1910; 12.54 inches in 1911; 12.51 inches in 1912; and that it would probably be several inches greater for 1913. This points to the probability that there is sufficient precipitation in most years for successful dry-farming with soils retentive of moisture. In the Quesnel record we found that there had been a few degrees of frost in June and late May in 1909, 1910, 1911, and 1912, and rather severe frost in June, 190S. The main industry of the country has been stock-raising and grain and hay growing for transport and railway-construction horses. In the Chilcotin country alone we got an estimate of 17,000 cattle and 3,000 horses. From Clinton about 3,000 head of cattle are shipped annually. For the past three years Quesnel farmers had sold hay at $90 a ton. (3.) Soils.—Soils vary very much in so large a district, but are generally good. (4.) Clearing.—Clearing is not heavy, costing in many cases only from $25 to $50 an acre. (5.) Drainage.—Drainage is seldom necessary. (0.) Irrigation.—Irrigation generally very desirable. Near Quesnel farmers were irrigating for hay, but not for grain as a rule. (7.) Labour.—From $40 to $50 a month and board. (S.) Markets.—Beef cattle in excess of local demand are driven to the railway. Local demand for hay and feed-grain has been good at abnormally high prices. This condition practically ends with the completion of the Grand Trunk Pacific and Pacific Great Eastern Railroad, and more attention than ever will then be devoted to stock. (9.) Roads.—The roads are good. (10.) Transportation.—Pacific Great Eastern, in course of construction. (11.) Co-operation.—There has been no need of co-operation. 4 Geo. 5 Royal Commission on Agriculture. 05 (12.) Conditions.—The country is well suited to stock and mixed farming, and the demonstration of successful dry-farming should lead to extensive development. AA'hen the problem of growing more winter feed is solved, there will doubtless be an increase in the number of cattle and horses, and sheep-raising should utilize the sour grass which cattle reject. (13.) Prospects.—Prospects are good. (14.) Land Prices.—Prices of land vary greatly over this large area. From $5 to $50 may be considered generally representative. QUEEN CHARLOTTE ISLANDS. (1.) Of the two large islands comprising the Queen Charlotte Islands. Graham Island appears to be the only one on which a large area need be considered in relation to agriculture. This island, which is only eighty miles distant from Prince Rupert, contains an area of about 2,300 square miles, of which a considerable portion may be regarded as more or less suitable for agriculture. (2.) Climate.—Mild and equable. PltECiriTATION AND TEMPERATURE. Rainfall. Snow. Total Precipitation. Highest Temperature. Lowest Temperature. Mean Temperature. Queen Charlotte Islands .... Inches. 5S.5 Inches. 22.0' Inches. 60.70 Degrees. S4.0 Degrees. 9.0 Degrees. 46.45 0 Ten inches of snow when melted produce one inch of water. (3.) Soils.—There are some areas of clayey loam, generally underlaid with hard-pan or a bluish conglomerate. There are large areas of muskeg, of which some are over 2 feet deep. (4.) Clearing.—Where the land is heavily timbered the cost of clearing is from $200 to $400 an acre. (5.) Drainage.—Draining and liming is generally necessary and is expensive. In many cases a general drainage system would be necessary. (7.) Labour.—There is no hired farm labour employed. (8.) Markets.—The market is local, and the demand is sufficient for the small amount of produce raised. Eventually Prince Rupert will be the chief market. (9.) Roads.—A good start has been made at building roads and trails, thus connecting the various settlements. (10.) Transportation.—Masset Inlet extends fifty miles into the island and affords the best means of transportation. There is a weekly steamer to Prince Rupert from Graham Island. (11.) Co-operation.—No attempt at co-operation has been made as yet. (12.) Conditions.—Graham Island: There are some small areas of open land suitable for mixed farming with little preparation. There is a variety of problems in connection with bringing most of the land under cultivation. The best land has a heavy timber-growth which would cost $250 up to $400 to clear. The part of the country which was burnt over sixty years ago, and having had the humus burned did not begin to reforest until twenty years ago, would be much less expensive to prepare. A large amount of the island is covered by muskeg, on some of which the moss is from 4 to 8 feet deep. To bring such lands under cultivation may under present conditions be considered commercially impracticable. Where the moss is less than 4 feet deep it can be burned off, the land drained, treated with lime, and when so treated and aerated is said to be productive. The contour of the country is such that small individual drainage systems would not be effective, and some large general system would be necessary. When these lands are brought into cultivation, the production of live stock, poultry, roots, vegetables, and small fruit will be the most promising branches of farming, and some tree-fruits might be grown for domestic use. 60 British Columbia. 1914 (14.) Land Prices.—From $5 to $50 an acre, according to quality and nearness to water transportation. (15.) Telephones.—A telegraph and telephone line has been built from Queenstown to the wireless station at Dead Tree Point. BELLA COOLA A'ALLEY. The Bella Coola River runs into the Bentinck Arm at the head of Burke Channel, about seventy miles from the ocean. The Commission did not visit this district, and the following general description of conditions has been gathered from evidence given by a delegate of the Bella Coola Farmers' Institute and from various other reports. The agricultural lands in this valley are said to be all taken up and held at prices ranging from $45 to $250 an acre for uncleared land, the clearing of which costs from $50 to $250 an acre. The soil is generally a fertile sandy loam. The climate is good, with warm summers, wet falls, and moderately cold winters, the mercury dropping to zero and sometimes a few degrees below, though four years ago it dropped to IS degrees below zero after mild weather. The cold that winter did much injury to fruit-trees. The average annual rainfall is 35 inches and the snowfall 50 inches at Bella Coola, getting much drier farther inland, until the precipitation is 15 inches seventy miles from Bella Coola. Sometimes snow falls in November, but usually about Christinas, and lies until early in March, giving two months' sleighing. The population numbers five or six hundred, mostly of Scandinavian descent, living along the valley, which is about forty miles long and three miles wide at the lower end, narrowing to one-half mile, some settlers living even ninety miles up the valley. The Government is building a wharf at the harbour and a steamer calls weekly. The settlers make part of their living by fishing, and keep cattle, hogs, and poultry, grow some hay, potatoes, vegetables, and fruit; the conditions for all these seem reasonably favourable. Prince' Rupert is at present looked to as the principal outside market in the future. THE NASS RIA'ER VALLEY. This valley runs parallel with the Skeena River A'alley and is from sixty to a hundred miles north of the latter. The distance by steamer from Prince Rupert to Port Nelson, in the Nass Harbour, is sixty miles, and about the same from Port Nelson to Ayansh. The valley along the river between the last two points is about one mile wide on each side of the river and is about 2 feet above high water. Sloughs cut into bottom lands in places, rendering drainage and in some cases even dyking necessary. The soil is an alluvial deposit and is covered with a growth of alder and willow. Above Ayansh the country changes in character. The main valley is above high-water level in the river and is of an undulating character; the low land is covered with alder and the high land with scrubby hemlock. The extremely low portions are subject to overflow in the spring-time, caused by snow melting in the mountains. The soil on the lower levels is very rich, and on the benches changes to a silt clay and sandy loam, with a clay, hard-pan, or sand and gravelly subsoil. The higher benches are also good, but the soil on the high plateau is light. The low land needs draining, which would cost from $50 to $150 an acre. A big fire ran through the country above Ayansh several years ago, and there are several tracts of open land covered with a rich growth of wild peavine, vetches, and wild grasses. The country is suitable for mixed farming and stock-raising. Oats, vegetables, and strawberries have been successfully grown. The growing season is about three weeks shorter than in the southern part of the Province; the length of the summer days make up in some degree for this. In some parts of the valley early as well as summer frosts occur, depending on conditions. Winter lasts from the first of November till the end of March, and the mercury goes down to —10 degrees. The snowfall is about 2% feet deep, and in some cases 4 feet has been known. There are about 40 inches of rainfall near Ayansh, but less farther inland, and in the upper part of the valley it is quite dry at times. The conditions indicate suitability for vegetable- growing, mixed farming, and small-fruit growing. 4 Geo. 5 Royal Commission on Agriculture. 67 LOWER SKEENA A'ALLEY. Following up the valley of the Skeena River from Trince Rupert, we held the first session in this district at Terrace, (altitude 215 feet), ninety miles inland, where evidence was taken from settlers in the Kitsumgallum A'alley, north of the Skeena River, and in the Lakelse A'alley, south of the Skeena. There is a considerable area of agricultural land in these valleys and the soil in many parts is rich. On the benches a gravel subsoil is common, and it is thought by residents that irrigation will he needed for such land. Projects for this were under discussion. The cost of clearing was estimated at from $150 to $300 an acre. The summer days are warm and long, and the growth is rapid. Winter weather is steady and not extremely cold, the lowest point registered last winter being 9 degrees below zero. Spring opens late and the first frost in the autumn begins about the first of September. The precipitation from October 1st to,; June 30th last year was 24% inches rain and 44 inches snow. Last season the results with respect to strawberries had been poor, but they had succeeded better in previous years. Perhaps keeping them under mulch to retard the blossoming period in spring would be advantageous. Some of the earlier varieties of apples may succeed; but further experimental work will be necessary before definte conclusions can be reached, the principal trouble having been a tendency to growth late in the season and consequent winter injury. Your Agricultural Department has started a small experimental orchard there. The yields of hay and vegetables are large, and results from recently sown alfalfa have been very satisfactory. It was the opinion of witnesses that the district is well adapted for mixed farming, specializing to supply the demands of the Prince Rupert market in eggs, poultry, butter, and vegetables; and that for this purpose holdings of about 40 acres, or not less than 25 acres, are desirable. THE BULKLEY VALLEY. (1.) This valley extends from Hazelton to Decker Lake, a distance of 130 miles, and is from one and a half to ten miles wide. Near Hazelton the area of agricultural land is quite limited, but the valley widens and improves farther south. There are a number of good farms in the neighbourhood of Telkwa, Aldermere, and Smithers. The altitude of Hazelton is 725 feet; Telkwa, 1,675 feet; Decker Lake, 2,300 feet. (2.) Climate.—Some meteorological data for the period of 1904-190S are given. The station was afterwards closed. Highest Temperature. Lowest Temperature. Greatest Depth of Snow. 90° (1904) 92° (1905) 9S° (1906) 102° (1907) 1S° below (1904-05) 29° below (1905-00) 3S° below (1906-07) 12° below (1907-OS) 16 inches (1904-05) S inches (1905-06) 30 inches (1900-07) 12 inches (1907-OS) Total annual precipitation, 20 to 25 inches. (a.) Spring: Short and fine. (b.) Summer: Not long, but the days are long and fairly warm, with cool nights and sometimes frost, (c.) Fall. (d.) AVinter: November to the end of March, bright, cold, and pleasant; 4S degrees below zero has been known. Snowfall light. (3.) Soils.—Types: Dark loam surface soil, clay or sandy subsoil. Productivity good. Timothy on unploughed, roughly harrowed new land yields 1% tons to the acre; on ploughed land 2% tons to the acre. v (4.) Clearing.—Light growth of poplar, spruce, and jack-pine, with clearings made by fires now covered with luxuriant growth of grasses, vetches, peavines, etc. The cost of clearing is from $30 to $60 an acre. 08 British Columbia. 1914 (S.) Markets.—Local markets and Prince Rupert. Prospects of mining development. (9.) Roads.—The roads are fair. When visited they were cut up by the heavy transport- work of railway-construction. (10.) Transportation.—Grand Trunk Pacific Railway runs through the valley. (11.) Co-operation.—None yet. Applications for incorporation have been made. (12.)' Conditions.—AA'ell adapted to mixed farming and stock. Hay, oats, and roots do well. (13.) Prospects.—The prospects are good for the development of mixed farming. There is a good deal of land held by non-residents. (14.) Land Prices.—The price of uncleared land is from $15 to $25 an acre. DISTRICTS FROM FRANCOIS LAKE TO FORT GEORGE. East of the Bulkley A'alley, the districts nearest to the Grand Trunk Pacific most promising from an agricultural standpoint west of Fort George are those in the neighbourhood of Francois Lake, Ootsa Lake, Fraser Lake, and the Nechako A'alley to Fort George. Owing to an accident to the steamer plying between Soda Creek and Fort George, and to the condition of the roads during the unusually wet weather at the time of our visit, we were unable without undue loss of time to go north beyond Quesnel on the route from Ashcroft to Fort George, or to go east beyond Telkwa. AVe obtained, however, at Quesnel and in the Bulkley A'alley, where there is much the same kind of climate and timber, descriptions of the country from reliable men, and have from other sources obtained authentic information. For convenience we have briefly summarized some of these data. Local conditions modify the climate, but generally snow may be expected at any time after November 1st. The total snowfall is from 20 to 35 inches, and the ground is bare by the middle of April. The winters are bright and dry, with cold freezing weather and occasional very cold spells, —45° Fahr. being sometimes recorded. Summer days are warm and the dry air and light breezes are pleasant. All these sections seem to be admirably adapted to mixed farming and stock-raising. Francois Lake (altitude 2,375 feet) is about sixty-three miles long and about three miles wide. The agricultural land on the north side is confined to three small areas containing 22.000 acres. The land slopes gently back from the shore for a distance of from one to two miles. The country is mostly open, dotted with small lakes, with scattered clumps of poplar. There is a luxuriant growth of vegetation in the open parts. The south shore is rough and is well timbered with pine, spruce, and balsam. The soil in many places is rocky and gravelly. It is estimated that there are about 10,000 acres of good land in this section, much of which is open country covered with an abundance of wild grasses, peavine, fireweed, cow-parsnips, etc. East and north of Tatalaska Lake there is good agricultural country, mostly open witli scattered clumps of willow. Near Mollice and Uncha Lakes are several thousand acres of arable land. The soil is characteristic of this section, being about 6 inches of black soil, with a clay loam subsoil covered with a light growth of poplar and willow. Ootsa Lake (altitude 2,740 feet) is forty miles long and from one-half to two miles wide. The land slopes more rapidly than the area around Francois Lake. The principal agricultural laud is found in a strip two miles wide and from ten to twenty-two miles long from the head of the lake, in which there are numerous wild hay meadows. The soil on the south side is sandy, with numerous jack-pine ridges alternating with scattered groves of poplar, and on the north side there is a considerable amount of good land. The climate is more subject to extremes of heat and cold than nearer the Coast. The snowfall is from 1 to 3 feet; the precipitation in the summer is moderate. Wild grasses, peavine, and wild vetches make a good growth; oats, bearded and hull-less barley, radishes, turnips, carrots, parsnips, and beets have all done well. Clover and alfalfa have been grown. Fraser Lake (altitude 2,250 feet), lying six miles east of Francois Lake, is fourteen miles long and two to three miles wide. It is bordered on the north and south by rather bold and broken hills, some of which attain an elevation of from 600 to S00 feet above it. Douglas fir of good size is found here. There are in some places patches of flat terrace country of fair size suitable for agriculture. A large area of rough, partly open land suitable for grazing supplements this. The commonest soil is a white clayey silt, which is easily worked, unci produces abundant crops. 4 Geo. Royal Commission on Agriculture. 09 The country is wooded as a rule with poplar, jack-pine, spruce, willow, alder, and birch. Snow comes early in November, sometimes in October, and falls to a depth of 2% to 3 feet. On the clearings it is usually gone by the middle of April. It is thought that this district is less subject to summer frosts than any of the country from Hazelton to Fort George, but nevertheless they do occur. The Nechako A'alley (elevation 2,400 feet), which stretches for forty miles east from Fraser Lake, is a fairly level but broken country, with an average width of fifteen miles, some of it . being rough and somewhat rocky. The soil varies from a clayey silt covered with a vegetable mould to a sandy and gravelly soil rather rocky in places. The usual growth of wild grasses is found. Red-top and wild brome-grass yield well where the land is cultivated. Oats yield from 50 to 75 bushels to the acre, but care has to be taken in the selection of early maturing varieties. Potatoes have not been grown successfully in all parts, but will doubtlessly become a surer crop when the country becomes cleared. SOUTH FORK OF THE FRASER RIVER DISTRICT. (1.) In the neighbourhood of McBride 7S,000 acres have been surveyed for pre-emption, and we regret that we had not an opportunity of visiting this section, where there appears to be a large area of laud suitable for mixed farming. (2.) Climate.— Precipitation. . , Inches. Estimated rainfall 27 Estimated snowfall 30 Total precipitation 30 Temperature. Precipitation. Maximun Minimum. Mean High. Mean Low. May (12 days) June July August September .... October .November .... inches. 2.00 2.16 3.07 6.50 4.5 3.05 Degrees. 76 82 S8 83 67 52 52 Degrees. 33 33 3S 3S 31 21 14 Degrees. 62 72 73 70 57 44 38 Degrees. 41 44 47 47 41 33 29 The general average of the winter temperature is from 20 to —10 degrees. The extreme winter temperature is from —30 degrees to —45 degrees. (3.) Soils.—Sandy loam to clay loam and sometimes peaty, with dry clay subsoil. (4.) Clearing.—Generally light-growth poplar, alder, and brush, costing from $25 to $40 an acre to clear; sometimes spruce, fir,.and cedar, costing from $75 to $100 an acre to clear. (12.) Conditions.—The conditions all point to the suitability of this district for mixed farming. British Columbia. 1914 OCT NOV DEC JAN. FE& MAR. APR. MAY JUN. JUL. AUG SEP g L KGKND. Mam/oo/>s iz «a«» . — Penticton s do. • Sa/monArm s »«. . Vernon 10 <x>. . DJA6/3AMS SJ-J0M/JV6 THE MEAN PREC/P/TAT/ON Kamloops, Penticton, Salmon Arm, Vernon, ANC Cranbrook, Golden, Nelson, Victor/a. '■w ■ ■ ■ ■ v U OCT NOV DEG JAN. FEB. MAR. APR MAY JUN. JUL.. AUS. SEP g OCT NOV DEC JAN. FEB. MAR. APR MAY JUN. JUL. AU6 SEP g LAKE COHU/TLAM Maximum Mean ___^__ Minimum ^ __ _ 1301-1913 MAX. MEAN A M/N. PPEC/P/TA T/ON AT Lake Cow/tlam & Lake Bvntzen OCT NOV DEC. JAN. FEB. MAR. APR. MAY JUN. JUL. AU6. SEP § OCT NOV DEC JAN. FEB. MAR. APR MAY JUN. JUL. AU6 SEP g LAKE COHU/TLAM Maximum Mean ___^__ Minimum ^ __ _ 1301-1913 D/AG/iAMs s/joyy/sjs MAX. MEAN A M/N. PPEC/P/TA T/ON AT Lake Cow/tlam & Lake Bvntxen OCT NOV DEC. JAN. FEB. MAR. APR. MAY JUN. JUL. AU6. SEP § 4 Geo. 5 Royal Commission on Agriculture. Al 'R. MAY JUN. JUL. AUG. Si :r a TT. N 5V D ec. j> \N. FEB. MAR. £ :(i A- LI A LLOO ET LAKE. ;/l ;/l A"'. A*. ia" .11 *V Minimum ^_^^» :/i O •. i in - /$/ 3 • /1 > .* *. • 1 * • 1 1 |J / • .•' / • . • • ..••• .• / 1 f 1 1 \ \ \ > \ N^*'. v. -»-" -•^ / / / \ \ \ 1 / / MO *^^. ■^ ^ ' »— «»* » \ X / dja GAA/yj s sj-jowj/ye MAX. MEAN & M/N. PPEC/P/TA T/ON AT Lillooet Lake & Jones Lake . . • • / • • . J0NES LAKE. > v . , . £ \ • .* ' .* . . #* \ ', . . /3/0-/3/3 .* "V- .* IV \ • .' J \ \ \\ ... •. .. .•' > \ \ \ \ ^ \ .' y •v'. .•' \ i > *. / * t / X ' \ \ / / * \ \ X / / / ^ • «.«.«! ■ * '^^ ""' ' ' ■ • —" ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ —j? APR. MAY JUN. JUL. AUG. SEP OCT. NOV DEC. JAN. FEB. MAR. | 72 British Columbia. 1914 II. LAND IMPROVEMENT. LAND-CLEARING. In the issue of Logged-off Farms Magazine for May, 1914, is an article on " The Cost of Clearing " by N. B. Coft'man, who for some time past has been investigating this question, and we quote some of his conclusions for comparisons with those stated in the first part of our report. Referring to conditions in the heavily timbered logged-off lands of Western Washington, and after suggesting the desirability of some highly developed and improved system for clearing large tracts, he says:— AVe hope that the day for land-clearing on so extensive a scale is near at hand, but it has not arrived. Possibly it may never come; but until it does Come it is just as well to dismiss as impracticable all schemes for organizing companies to buy laud and clear it, or partly clear it, and add something in the way of improvements with the expectation of selling with a profit added. It cannot be done. AATith the employment of clearing devices now in use the cost would far exceed the value. Any law framed to carry such a plan into operation through the creation of improvement districts will fail to work. Any legislation which commits the State to finance the cost of clearing before the sale of the land will prove calamitous if tried out. Conclusions reached.—To my mind, looking at conditions just as they are, two conclusions have been arrived at: First: Financing the settlers so as to encourage them to purchase and to give them a chance to pay out rests with our owu people making use of local capital through adaptation to means already provided. Second: Tho land must be sold to the settlers in its unimproved state, letting the purchasers pursue their own methods in clearing and improving. These conclusions force us back to methods that are commonplace; but, on the whole, I think this should not be counted as unfortunate. It is quite possible that in the upbuilding of our State they may finally prove to be advantageous. Only the sturdiest of men who are inured to hardship will purchase the land, and though the clearing may go forward less rapidly than we desire, yet the strength and manhood that will be developed in the tedious conflict cannot fail to give to the State the benefit of a self-reliant and resourceful rural citizenship. As a people, we are becomiug so accustomed to doing big things in a hurry-up way that we are inclined to look with disdain upon the day of small things; but let us not forgot that it is just as true now as it always has been, that it is the little things which make no noise that do the business. Land-clearing in Western Australia. In the report of the Scottish Agricultural Commission it is stated that:— The Government in some parts of Western Australia has done the clearing and added the cost to the land, but finds it difficult to persuade the intending settler of the advantage. He tends to judge by price alone. The Government has power to extend, and contemplates extending this policy. AVe were officially informed that it can clear heavy timber for $35, as against $60 by the individual. This is done by traction-engine and steel ropes pulling over the trees. The plant being on the spot can be hired out to the settler for further clearing. Clearing with Stumping-engines. A successful example of economical work in clearing such timber as is found in the valley of the Columbia between Windermere and Golden was seen at Sinclair, where the Columbia A'alley Orchards, Limited, has cleared a considerable acreage by this means, employing in charge of the machine highly paid men with a successful experience in AVashington, and saving 25 per cent, of the estimated cost of the work if done by means of horse-power machines. In that case there was a large area of land in one block to be cleared; the contour of the land was suitable, and cash outlay would have been required for all the work in whatever fashion it might have been done. Commissioner Shannon, in inquiring into the merits of various large power stumping- machines, found that one with new features manufactured by the Clyde Iron Works, Duluth, Minnesota, was considered to be an improvement on those hitherto in use. Mr. Shannon reported to us:— When in Duluth I visited land-clearing operations that were being carried on at one of the new State schools. I found that the cost of brushing, burning, stumping, and ploughing this land ready for crop ran from $40 to $65 per acre. However, the stumps in that country did not seem to have the depth of root that the small stumps have in our country. The stumps there would run from 3 to 10 and in some cases 12 inches in diameter. The State school is conducting some investigations on land-clearing under different methods, in order to determine and give out actual costs. 4 Geo. 5 Royal Commission on Agriculture. 73 I visited the Clyde Iron AVorks and found the cost of one of these stump-pullers and log-pilers to be $3,950 f.o.b. the cars there. The smaller machines have a maximum pulling capacity of about 112,000 lb. at low speed, a high speed with a capacity of 16,000 lb., and a speed of 300 feet per minute. The weight of the machine is about 20 tons. We give here a copy of a report made by a drainage engineer sent out by the Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C.:— An examination was made of a steam-operated stump-puller at Mosinee, AA'isconsin, on August 16th. The tract which is being cleared is owned by tho Worzalla Brothers, of Stevens Point, AVis., who are colonizing about 23,000 acres of logged-off lauds in Central AA'isconsin. The machine, which is mounted on wide skids made of I beams turned up in front to enable them to easily slip over any obstructions, consists of a vertical boiler, a two-cylinder 9- x 10-inch horizontal engine, three drums, and a 30-foot boom swinging from an A frame. The boom is used for piling the stumps. The skids also form the bed-frame of the machine. The base of the machine is S feet wide and 30 feet long. The total weight is 20 tons. The front drum carries the stump-pulling cable, while the other two carry the outhaul and piling lines. The outhaul-line is a light cable which is used to eliminate the labour of carrying the heavy main cable out from the machine by hand. This outhaul-line is passed through snatch-blocks A, B, and C, which are located on stumps forming the boundary of an irregular quadrangle of uncleared land. When the stumps on the line CD have been pulled and piled, snatch-block C is moved towards B a short distance and all stumps within reach are pulled. This operation is repeated until all of the stumps in the area enclosed by the outhaul-line have been pulled, when the machine is moved to a new location. The pulling-drum is geared to two speeds. A low speed of about 25 to 40 feet per minute is used for the actual pulling of the stump, in which the machine develops a pulling power several times that obtained in the high speed. The high speed, which is from 200 to 300 feet per minute, is used only in bringing the pulled stump into the pile. A unique feature of this machine is its ability to pile all stumps where they may be burned. The boom is supported at such an angle that a large number of stumps can be collected into a pile covering very little ground. Dragging the pulled stump to the machine aids in levelling down the high points and in filling holes left by stumps previously pulled. As soon as the pulled stump has been dragged up to the machine by the pulling-cablc, the piling-cable, which runs over a sheave at the end of the boom, is hitched' to the stump. The stump is hoisted, and when the boom is swung over to the stump-pile it is deposited on to the pile. These features cannot be too strongly emphasized. The stumps which were being pulled consisted mostly of white pine, which were quite numerous. There were also some birch and maple stumps. If these are to be pulled green, some operators use a small charge of dynamite to jar the dirt loose from the roots, while others do not consider the use of explosives necessary. Pine-stumps having the deep tap-roots are said to be the hardest stumps to pull. The amount of laud which can be cleared in a flay depends almost entirely on the number of stumps to the acre. The size of the stumps also affects the cost to some extent. AA'ith a crew of seven men, which is necessary to operate the machine economically. 100 stumps can ordinarily be pulled in a day, but as high as 125 have been pulled. At Mosinee, where the machine was operating when inspected, the stumps would probably average fifty to the acre, although the usual run is somewhat higher. The machine is practically the only one of its kind manufactured. Another type has been made which is self-propelling on caterpillars and weighs about 45 tons. This type has not yet been put on the market. The machine used at Mosinee costs $3,950. It is manufactured by the Clyde Iron AVorks, of Duluth, Minnesota. The cost of clearing land varies considerably. At Mosinee the machine was probably not being operated at its maximum efficiency, but it was clearing about 1% acres per day. The following gives the cost of operation per day:— One runner $ 2 00 Five assistants @ $2 10 00 One water-hauler 2 00 Fuel, oil 2 00 Total cost $16 00 The cost of operation per day was $16. thus making the cost about $11 per acre. Wood was used as fuel. AVhen surface water was plentiful near the machine a pit was dug, and a pump driven by gasolene-engine was used for supplying water for the boiler. It must also be remembered that the piling of stumps ready to burn is included in this cost. Such a machine is economical only when used on a large scale. If a tract of 600 acres or more is to be cleared, this machine can be economically used to do the work. It would be impracticable to clear 10 acres in one place, then move six or eight miles and clear another 10 acres. On a large scale this machine would soon pay for itself in the reduced cost of clearing and piling as compared to the old styles of hand- or horse-power machine. It must be remembered, however, that cost data acquired in one location might vary greatly from those obtained in another. In low swampy ground, in moving the machine from one location to another, it would undoubtedly be better to have a solid enclosed base on the skids instead of the open bed-frame. 74 British Columbia. 1914 A'arious Sxuiip-ruLLiNG Machines. In the evidence giving the experience of pioneers in this Province referring to land-clearing, emphasis was laid upon the economy in cash and labour effected by allowing the stumps to remain in the ground for some years after slashing and burning, during which period the land might be utilized for pasture or growing such crops as could be best handled. A number of different makes of horse-power stumpers are in use in the Province on the capstan and some on the jack-screw principle. We are communicating to your Department of Agriculture the evidence given to us regarding some of these machines, such as the Ducrest, the Ironclad Grubber, American Stump-puller. Monarch, Flynn. and Smith Grubber. All the machines to which witnesses referred were well spoken of, and it would be impossible to arrive at conclusions of comparative value without careful testing under similar conditions. AVe were particularly struck with the power and convenience of the hand-power machines using the ratchet principle, such as the " Trewhella Monkey Winch," which we had an opportunity of seeing at work; the " Samson " and the " Kirstin," which use the same principle. Mr. Cunningham, superintendent of the farm of the AArestern Fuel Company at Nanaimo. who was using a " Trewhella Monkey AVinch," as well as a horse-power capstan machine, found the hand-power machines most satisfactory, and apart from any comparison with horse-power machines, the ability to extract large stumps without needing to own or hire a horse would be a decided advantage to many pioneer land-clearers. There is no doubt about the great power developed by such machines; for we saw a large stump pulled by two men with this "Trewhella Monkey AVinch" after a heavy, steady horse had broken the sweep of a horse-power machine in the attempt, and had with another sweep failed to budge it. Three neighbours could advantageously work together in the ownership and use of such a machine as the " Trewhella Monkey AVinch," the " Samson," or " Kirstin"; for two men usually work the lever, while one man, using a mattock, knocks the earth out of the root as it is slowly and steadily dragged out of the ground. A'ery practical assistance might be given by your Government to those wishing1 to clear land, by the purchase at wholesale prices of a number of these machines and their sale to Farmers' Institutes on easy terms of repayment, with a discount for cash. The machines could then be rented to members of the institutes at rates that would provide for the payment for the machines in three or four years. Even the small cash investment needed to buy one of these machines is an obstacle oftener than is generally realized, and there would, moreover, be the advantage in the suggested plan of a considerable saving by the purchase at wholesale prices. The opportunity of thus testing the different machines before making individual purchases would he generally appreciated, and would probably lead to many being bought through the agency of the Farmers' Institute, and for that plan as well the necessary arrangements should be made. The "Trewhella Monkey Winch " is manufactured in Australia by Trewhella Brothers, and the Canadian agents are Cross & Pantelic, 207 Hastings Street, A'ancouver. It is operated on the ratchet and pawl principle, is attached by a short cable to an anchor-stump, the puiling-cable is passed around the stump to be extracted, and the machine can be worked in any position on or off the ground. The ropes are coupled up easily and quickly. The lever is 5 feet long. A fast gear is provided for tightening the rope and for light work. A reversible gear gives control and allows the load to be lowered. The machine can be wheeled by one man on level ground, or carried by two where the ground is rough or hilly. The complete outfit is made up of:- AVinch and handle 171 lb. One 40-ton snatch-block 30 lb. One 40-ton rope-shortener 30 lb. Drum-rope and attachments (50 feet) 53 lb. One pull-rope, 40 feet, %-inch galvanized cable 62 lb. One pull-rope, 15 feet, %-inch galvanized cable 33 lb. One SO-foot rope, %-inch galvanized, and attachments 116 lb. 495 lb. 4 Geo. 5 Royal Commission on Agriculture. 73 Retail prices at A'ictoria or A'ancouver, $190. The manufacturers are also making a machine on the same principle for use with one horse. The " Samson Extractor" is manufactured by Boving & Co. of Canada, Limited, at Lindsay, Ontario, and also uses the ratchet mechanism, though in a different manner. We have not seen this machine at work, hut it is guaranteed for loads up to 10 tons without the use of a block, and from its description merits careful trial and comparison with the " Monkey AA'inch." The total weight with wire ropes and all accessories is 275 lb., and the retail price is $S5 f.o.D. Lindsay, Ontario. The " Kirstin " is manufactured by A. J. Kirstin Co., Escanaba, Michigan, U.S.A., represented in British Columbia by R. E. Clark, 034 A'ieV Street, A'ictoria. The company intends to build a factory for those machines in Canada, and is at present looking for a suitable locality for this purpose. This stump-puller is made on the ratchet principle and weighs under 100 lb. without chains and cable. The " Kirstin One-man Stump-puller" is manufactured in four models, which, complete wTith chain and handles, sell at the following retail prices in A'ictoria, B.C.:— Kirstin Ratchet Model, complete, $55. For a force of 100 lb. put on the handle S,500 lb. are pulling on the stump. For lighter work. Kirstin Model I., complete, $70. Every 100 lb. power exerts a pull of 10,000' lb. Efficient on smaller stumps or for work in blasting. Capacity, S0,000 lb. Kirstin Model II., complete, $85.75. Every 100 lb. power exerts pull of 19,000 lb. For general all-round stump-pulling. Capacity, 160,000 lb. Kirstin Model III., complete, $93. Every 100 lb. exerts 2S,000 lb. pull on stump. Recommended for heavy working. Capacity, 150,000 lb. AVe are informing your Department of Agriculture of the special terms which may be made for these various machines in wholesale quantities. A'arious Methods of Clearing—Char-pitting. In Commissioner Duncan's report to us he gives the following information obtained from H. L. Phillips, C.E.. and Professor I-I. K. Benson, of the AA'ashington University:— Stumping. (H. L. Phillips, OE.)—Char-pitting has met with very indifferent success in the trial tests made by Professor H. K. Benson, of the State University. This process involves a large amount of hand-labour; is a slow and expensive method ; it can only be used in summer months, in dry weather, and where sufficient quantities of heavy plastic clay can be obtained to bank the stumps. Loose, sandy, or gravelly soils crumble, cave in, and put out the fires. Burning by Compressed-air Blowing-engines.—This cannot be used successfully during the winter months or on low bottom laud. Chemical Destroying Processes.—It has been claimed that by treating a stump with a strong solution of saltpetre or a mixture of sulphuric acid and nitric acid it could be burned out to the end of the roots, several weeks after treatment. This has been tested with no practical success. Wood Distillation and Extraction of the By-products.—A'ery exhaustive tests and experimental work have been devoted to this subject by the Washington State University and the Government Agricultural Department. It has been found possible to obtain commercial products by this process, but exhaustive tests have shown that it is too slow and expensive a method, involving too great a first-cost outlay to hope ever to accomplish any practical or extensive results when applied to the solution of the land-clearing problem. There is enough raw material upon one-tenth of the logged-off area of the State of AVashington alone to supply the markets of the world for generations to come. Whereas if our lands were cleared and put to actual use by a rapid and economical method, the cleared land would have supported a large increased population, and the commercial returns obtained from the annual products of the soil would far exceed the net returns that could be secured from the extraction and sale of all the by-products, providing it were possible to market the entire product, " which it is not." Mr. Phillips says he believes that men expert in the knowledge of machinery will soon perfect a machine, plans and detail drawings of which are now being prepared, which will be a great improvement on anything now in existence for land clearing purposes. Utilization of Waste Wood Fir-stumps. (Professor H. K. Benson, State University.)—There are two methods employed—steam distillation and destructive distillation. The nature of the product depends upon the type of process employed. In steam-distillation process the wood passes through a hogging-machine, after which it is fed into stills and steam turned into the retorts. The steam in passing over the wood carries the turpentine and fir-oil with it; it is then condensed, collected, and refined. The wood, however, still contains the resin, and accordingly a chemical solvent such as naphtha is pumped into the still, and the resin removed with the recovery of the solvent, which is used in succeeding extractions. 70 British Columbia. 1914 By this method the test on fir-stump wood of average pitchiness yielded 5% gallons of crude turpentine and about 300 lb. of crude resin per cord, which when refined gave a sweet turpentine, a fir-oil, and a clear light-coloured resin. The turpentine complies with all the requirements of gum- turpentine, except in one respect, which classes it as French turpentine, a grade which generally commands a higher price than American turpentine. Fir-oil is similar to pine-oil, and can be substituted for the latter in all its uses, which are extensive, in varnish, rubber, and chemical industries, and is regularly sold in car-load lots. The resin is of the " N" grade, and its use in paper-making and for general purposes can be brought about and substituted for the resin now shipped in from the East. The destructive-distillation process uses air-tight retorts, and heat is applied externally to produce the distillation. The products obtained in this process are wood-turpentine, wood-alcohol, acetate of lime, tar, and charcoal. In tests made by this process the yield of products per cord for 4,000 lb. was from 3 to 5 gallons of wood-turpentine, 6 to 8 gallons of impure wood-alcohol, S5 lb. of grey acetate of lime, 25 to 30 gallons of tar, 1,000 lb. of charcoal, together with an unmeasured quantity of combustible gas, which constitutes a part of the fuel required for distillation. Although this process is usually considered the most profitable among wood-distillers, its establishment on the Pacific Coast has met with failure or only partial success in every plant thus far established. The difficulty is to find a market for these products within a reasonable distance. In the Eastern distillation plants crude alcohol is sold to chemical plants, the acetate of lime is largely shipped to Germany, the wood-turpentine goes to paint and varnish manufacturers, tar is either burned as a fuel or else finds its way into established markets, while charcoal is largely sold to blast-furnaces for use in the manufacture of Swedish pig-iron. On account of our remoteness from large manufacturing centres, especially the manufacture of chemicals, it will appear obvious that these same markets are not open to similar products from the Pacific Coast. The opening of the Pnnaraa Canal may, of course, make a change in this. Results of Further Experiments.—In Michigan the farmer receives approximately $1 per 1,000 lb. of stump-wood. It has been found to pay to deliver stumps within a radius of five miles of the plant. One car of stumps shipped from AVashington to Cadillac* Michigan, and treated by the Yaryan extraction process gave results as follows per cord: Crude turpentine, 1.15 gallons; resin. 75 lb. The results of'the commercial test for determining the value of Douglas fir stump-wood for the recovery of turpentine and resin by the extraction process are entirely negative. The yield of less than 1 gallon of saleable oil and 75 lb. of resin per cord of 3,800 lb. would not much more than pay for the cost of obtaining the raw material. Best results give less than one-half of that obtained from Norway pine-stumps of Michigan. Resin of Douglas fir contains some high boiling oil which makes it tacky or sticky, and it does not get hard and brittle like other resin. The removal of this defect is expensive. Conclusions.—Under present market conditions the distillation of Douglas fir stumps as an aid to land-clearing is not feasible, for the following reasons:— (1.) The yields are too low. (2.) The products are different from those of the long-leaf and the Norway pine, and their uses and value have not yet been fully established. Further, the distillation of stump-woods would be illogical in view of the fact that there are such enormous amounts of mill-waste. By selecting the mill-waste it is possible to get a material giving yields equal to or better than those of stump-woods and at less cost. EXPLOSIVES. Whether used to prepare stumps for more easy extraction by means of machines or to blast them outright, stumping-powder has played a large part in the work of land-clearing, and the reduced price at which Farmers' Institutes have been able to procure it under the arrangement made by your Agricultural Department with the manufacturers has been of great assistance. The results obtained by the use of explosives in the hands of skilled men was stated in evidence to be three or four times as great as when the work is done by men with little experience or training, and much greater than what was accomplished by the average man who thinks that he understands their use. The proper precautions to take in handling and the most effective methods of using explosives are clearly explained in a handbook for the use of farmers issued by the Canadian Explosives. Limited, which we understand can be obtained upon application. If by means of investigation and experiment the most economical explosive consistent with safety and the best methods of use can be determined, and this knowledge disseminated by means of demonstrations throughout the Province, it will lead to a great saving in the expense of clearing. No matter how safe the powder may be called, it is an explosive and is dangerous if not properly handled. A common cause of accident is improper treatment in thawing. In order to lessen this danger, attention has been directed to the manufacture of explosives that do not require to be thawed before use. 4 Geo. 5 Royal Commission on Agriculture. 77 A'arious Kinds of Stumping-powder. The Canadian Explosives, Limited, now manufacture a nitro-glycerine stumping-powder which will not freeze at a higher temperature than 32° Fahr., and which has been specially manufactured to make it slower in action, more difficult to burn, and safer to handle than dynamite of the same strength. The company now manufactures this of a strength equal to 25 per cent, dynamite, which they find is most in demand for stumping purposes, and supply it in car-load lots for Farmers' Institutes at 10 cents a pound. Under some circumstances it would beomore economical to use a stumping-powder as low in strength as to be equivalent to 15-per-cent. dynamite, and if this were in demand the company would supply it. This would be a point to be looked into in the course of the investigation into this subject, which we have recommended. The Giant Powder Company, Consolidated, with factories at A'ictoria and Nanoose Bay, are now manufacturing a low freezing nitro-glycerine stumping-powder of 25-per-cent. strength which they inform us will stand a temperature of 10° Fahr. for two weeks before showing any signs of freezing, and which is very easily thawed when frozen. This company also has an arrangement with your Department of Agriculture for the Supply of car-load lots at 10 cents a pound. The Kootenay Explosives. Limited. Nelson, manufactures an explosive called " XL-ite." This is a chlorate-of-potash powder and consequently does not freeze. Chlorate-of-potash explosives have been generally considered unduly liable to explosion by shock or friction, but the manufacturers claim that " XL-ite " is safer and more efficient than ordinary stumping-powder, and submit a copy of the following certificate :— XL-ite. A sample of explosive called XL-ite, made by the Kootenay Explosives Company, Limited, of Nelson, B.C., was received for examination. Material is in the form of hard, regular white grains in the form of rounded disks. It was examined, with the following results :— Moisture 2.00 per cent. Oil 1.45 Potassium chlorate 66.16 „ Flour 31.39 Temperature of ignition 202° C. Impact test, 8 lb. weight 6 inches. A cartridge of this explosive was shot into with a 30-calibre military rifle without causing ignition or explosion. Another cartridge was completely detonated with a double-strength blasting-cap. Explosive was moistened with water and heated to a temperature of 100° C. for forty-eight hours consecutively without causing acidity or other decomposition. Material when ignited unconfined burns quietly but rapidly. It is classed as a high explosive and is sufficiently safe for transportation. The probable efficiency of this explosive iu use is not considered in this report. ((Sgd) Charles P. Beistle, Chemist. The price to farmers and institutes within 200 miles of the factory is $6 per case of 50 lb. Steelite Explosives (Canada), Limited, New Denver, manufactures " Steelite," which is also a chlorate-of-potash powder and therefore non-freezing. The manufacturers state that " Steelite " has been tested and allowed transportation in England, Belgium, Switzerland, and Germany; that it has been placed on the " authorized" as well as the " permitted" list in England; and they have furnished us with a copy of a certificate from the Chemist of the Bureau of Explosives, New York City, as follows:— Bureau of Explosives, New York City, November 14th, 1913. Steelite. Samples of explosives called Steelite, made by the Steelite Explosives, Limited, at Nelson, B.C., were received for examination. There were six samples, marked Steelite K, Steelite L, Steelite M, Steelite N, Steelite No. 1. Steelite No. 2, respectively. Steelite K and Steelite L were in the form of finely granular white powders. Steelite M and Steelite N were in the form of finely granular yellow powders of a strongly resinous odour. Gelatine Steelite No. 1 and Steelite No. 2 were in the form of a very finely divided semi-plastic powder of white colour. As received these explosives were all in small galvanized-iron boxes packed inside of a wooden box. The samples were analysed, with the following results:— 78 British Columbia. 1914 Temperature of ignition Impact test, S lb. weight Steelite K. 305° C. (5S1° F.) S inches Steelite L. 300° C. (5S3° F.) 7 inches Steelite AL 305° C. (5S1° F.) 4 inches Steelite N. 304° C. (579° F.) 0 inches Steelite No. 1. 353° C. (667° F.) S inches Steelite No. 2. 400° C. (752°F.) 7 inches The first four samples are readily ignited by contact with flame and burn with considerable rapidity. The two Gelatine Steelites are ignited with great difficulty and burn very slowly. Samples of all these explosives were submitted to a temperature of 100° C. (212° F.) for forty-eight hours in closed bottles. No ignition or apparent decomposition took place in any of them. Cartridges of all of these explosives were shot into with a 30-calibre military rifle without causing ignition or detonation. All of these explosives are classed as high explosives and are considered sufficiently safe for transportation. (Signed.) Charles P. Beistle, Chemist. Sabulite (Canada), Limited, is beginning the manufacture near Coquitlam of a recently patented explosive called " Sabulite." of which the principal constituents, when made of the strength suitable for stump-blasting, are understood to be nitrate of ammonia and calcium silicide. This also is a non-freezing powder and, it is claimed, cannot be exploded without a detonator. It is further stated that the process of mixing the component parts is so simple and safe that it can be carried on anywhere, and that therefore the component parts, not being explosive in themselves, can lie shipped in the ordinary way by rail or steamer and mixed after arrival. This would lessen the difficulty of getting supplies of an explosive to outlying points with infrequent communication, such as the west coast of A'ancouver Island. The late Mr. Sutton, representing the A'ancouver Island Development League, appeared before us shortly before his death to explain the disabilities under which the settlers at points like Ucluelet, A'ancouver Island, laboured in this respect. In the copy of a certificate by AV. H. Warren, M.Tnst.C.E., Professor of Engineering. University of Sydney, and J. A. Easthaugh, H.R.S.M., Demonstrator in Assaying, Metallurgy, and Chemistry, Sydney University, which Sabulite (Canada), Limited, has published, the following conclusions are stated :— (1.) Sabulite may be made by mixing the various materials in a simple apparatus without any danger of fire or explosion. (2.) There are no noxious gases developed during the explosion of Sabulite in a confined space that could possibly affect the health of workmen engaged in blasting operations. (3.) The power developed by Sabulite made at the university by mixing the necessary materials in a somewhat crude apparatus was 10 per cent, greater than gelignite. (4.) AA'ith an ordinary plant for producing Sabulite in a commercial quantity the results obtained would be better. (5.) Sabulite can be handled without danger and may be carried by rail or steamer with safety. Those and other qualities of these explosives, both as affecting safety and economy, are of very great importance indeed to farmers and others, but the investigation of the claims made requires special technical knowledge and thorough experimentation to render the conclusions reliable. For that reason we have recommended that it should he dealt with under the direction of your Government. DRAINING. At present there appear to be few ditching-machines in use in the Province, although the cost of the work with these machines is considered to be from 25 to 35 per cent, less than by hand-labour at current wages, by which it amounts to about 25 cents per rod. The small "Buckeye" ditching-machine made in Iowa, and costing f.o.b. cars there $1,450. is spoken of most favourably. As ditching-machines are not manufactured in Canada, there is no duty upon them, hut repair parts are dutiable. It would seem that a very practical benefit could be secured by co-operative ownership and operation of ditching-machines in many districts. 4 Geo. 5 Royal Commission on Agriculture. 79 Price of Tile.—Drain-tile costs at Clayburn :— 3-inch tile $23.25 per M. feet f.o.b. cars, Clayburn, B.C. 4-inch „ 29.00 6-inch „ 50.00 S-inch ,. 76.00 They weigli as follows:— Diameter. Weight per Foot. Feet per Ton. 3 inches 5 lb. 400 4 „ 6 „ 334 5 „ 8 „ 250 6 „ 11 „ 182 The commonest substitute for drain-tile is split cedar logs or planks; some use stones, some cement tiles. The Manufacture of Cement Tile.—Commissioner Duncan reports as follows:— Cement tile have been successfully .introduced in Minnesota and Iowa in competition with clay tile, with the prospect that their use will be extended in many sections where either the lack of suitable clay or distance from a factory precludes the use of clay pipes. Two methods of manufacture are employed; sizes from 4 to 16 inches may be moulded by a machine more cheaply than by hand, while the material for the larger sizes is tamped into the moulds by hand-labour. They may be made in the field near a ditch iu which they are to be placed, though the care required iu keeping them properly wet while being cured makes this method more expensive and less satisfactory than when made in a properly equipped plant. The mixture found most satisfactory is one part of Portland cement to four of sand for smaller sizes, and one to three for the larger ones. It is quite essential that the pipe be well cured before handling. This requires at least two weeks, and a longer time is preferable. Cement tile fail under a less crushing test than well- burned clay tile, but the difference in strength is not sufficient to discredit their use iu any way, as both exceed the requirements for ordinary depths. Draining in Ontario. Commissioner Shannon reports as follows in connection with demonstrations given by the Department of Agriculture, Ontario:— A Buckeye ditching-machine is used for giving these demonstrations and has been found to be very successful, digging on an average 75 rods per day ready for tiling. The depth of the ditches range from 30 to 36 inches. Three-inch tile costs from $11 to $15 per thousand delivered at the railway- station. More cement tile is now being used, and where properly made and cured is giving very good satisfaction, but has not been used long enough for the Department to give out authoritative information recommending its use. In order to make draining more efficacious, and frequently where the usual drainage system may not be necessary, the practice of subsoiiing by means of explosives is growing in popularity. This method is most useful in case of hard-pan, and particularly so where an orchard is to lie planted. LIMING. Increases of 43 per cent, of alfalfa and 64 per cent, of clover from the use of lime reported from experiments are an indication of the results that would frequently be obtained from its application to acid soils. There are large sections iu British Columbia where cheap supplies of lime would be of great value in increasing productivity, and it is so simple to test soils with iitmus-paper that every farmer should know whether the condition of any part of his farm would be improved by an application of this material. Impressed with what may be done by this means, we have recommended the retention by your Government of sufficient lime-deposits, the use of prison labour for quarrying and crushing, and very low freight rates. We would now add the suggestion of the co-operative operation of quarries and crushers by farmers. Generally speaking, the best form in which to apply lime is crushed as fine as coarse corn- meal, and plants for preparing such material are made by a number of manufacturers. AVe give here the names and addresses of some of them : Wheeling Mold and Foundry Company, AVheel- ing, AA'. A'irginia; Jeffrey Manufacturing Company, Columbus, Ohio; AVilliams Patent Crusher and Pulverizing Company, St. Louis, Missouri; Universal Crusher Company, Cedar Rapids, Iowa ; Pennsylvania Crusher Company, Philadelphia. Machines for preparing limestone for agricultural use may be divided into two classes, crushers and pulverizers. The crushers take the stones that come from the quarry, and by SO British Columbia. - 1914 having the jaws set close together the rock may be reduced so that a quarter of it will pass a sieve with perforations 1/m inch in width. The pulverizers may require rock that has first been roughly crushed, though machines are made combining crusher and pulverizer. Pulverizers will reduce the material so that 50 to 70 per cent, of it is fine enough to pass a 00-mesh sieve. The finer the material can be made, the smaller will the necessary application be. If the haul is short and the limestone can be cheaply procured, it may be more profitable to use it coarser. A small crusher requiring 6 or S horse-power will crush limestone to the fineness of sand at the rate of 15 to IS tons a day. One with a capacity of 50 to 70 tons a day, requiring from 35 to 40 horse-power, will crush limestone so that 50 to 70 per cent, of it will pass a CO-mesh sieve. In considering such an undertaking it would be important to know that the limestone available in the neighbourhood contains a sufficiently high percentage of lime and a relatively low percentage of silica to make it economically suitable. By sending a sample to your Agricultural Department for analysis by the Provincial Assayer this could be ascertained. Limestone to be suitable for pulverizing should contain 90 per cent, of lime and magnesium carbonate. PRISON LABOUR. As an instructive instance of the employment of convict labour for public utility, we submit the following summary of a report of the Highway Commission for the State of Washington, made December 6th. 1907. This report gives some definite information showing that in the experimental work during half of the season with a gang of twenty-five to twenty-nine convicts the results had been most satisfactory, both in economy to tho State and the health and morale of the prisoners. The cost of 5,820 cubic yards of solid rock excavation and 2,425 cubic yards of earth and loose rock excavation was $5,027.22. The contract price for the same work was $9,600, making a saving of $4,672.7S, besides the saving of the cost of maintenance of the men in the penitentiary, which would have amounted to $939. This result was equal to an earning of $1,944 and board for each day's work. The capital expenditure for buildings was $1,722. As to the effect upon the prisoners, we quote from the report:— Regarding tho policy of the employment of convicts on State roads, allow me to refer to the following passages in your second message to the Legislature of AVashington, in which you said : " Owing to the inadequacy of existing laws, a large number of the convicts in the State Penitentiary are unemployed. This condition is costly to the State and inhuman to the prisoners, utterly at variance with the dictates of common-sense and sound business methods in the management of a penal institution. . . . Work of this character in the open air and sunshine, away from prison walls, will have a direct return to the public in the value of the roads constructed, but society at large will reap a richer reward indirectly from the reformatory influence on the prisoners." The financial benefit to the public I have shown, and referring to the " reformatory influence on the prisoners," it may be said that a glance at the men who have been employed at State Camp No. 1 shows them hale, hearty, and well-contented, and shows that they have lost the peculiar appearance that comes from confinement in the gaol or penitentiary. The camp has been kept in excellent sanitary conditions; no cases of sickness have occurred, and but one slight accident, whereby a man slipped from the face of a bluff and fractured his ankle. Three men were paroled during the season for good conduct, and this had an excellent effect on those remaining. The men who were furnished for this work were not those noted at the penitentiary for a desire to work, but under the careful management of Mr. George F. Chariot, who has acted as chief guard and superintendent of construction, the men were encouraged to change their methods, and developed into a first-class crew of workmen. They worked regularly eight hours each day, losing only two quarter-days, on account of inclement weather or other causes, during the three months and a half they were at the camp. Each man seemed to take a pride in the work, and all of the men with whom I conversed desired to remain iu this kind of employment. They were trusted to such an extent that no stripes were worn and no irons of any description were used. In fact, one passing over the work, not knowing the character of the employees, would never have known it was a convict crew. It can safely be said that the men employed at State Camp No. 1 left there in far better physical, mental, and moral condition than they arrived there. The success of the proposition having been so satisfactorily demonstrated, it is now proposed to place a larger crew on State Road No. 7, known as the Snoqualmie Pass Road, in the early spring. Commissioner Shannon states in his special report that in the State of Wisconsin— The State has established a prison at one of the lime-deposits, and the prisoners are required to quarry and grind limestone, which is sold to the lurmers at actual cost. The price in 1913 was 60 cents per ton f.o.b. Lime-quarries operated by private concerns were charging from 60 cents to $1 per ton. The lime is ground fine enough to pass through an S or 10 mesh to the inch sieve, and in some cases a 4 mesh to the inch sieve is used. 4 Geo. 5 Royal Commission on Agriculture. Si III. FARMING IN BRITISH COLUMBIA. LIVE STOCK. RAISING BEEF CATTLE. The comparatively high prices for beef which have been current for some time have brought prosperity to this industry; and the evidence given to us by cattle-ranchers concerned such subjects as the protection of ranges, the branding regulations, and the need of additional range, rather than difficulties about profits and markets. The greater part of the beef production in the Province is from range-fed cattle, though some farmers are raising home-pasture, stall-fed beef with very satisfactory profits. Cattle- ranching has for comparatively many years been the most extensive form of farming in the Province. It has been carried on in the bunch-grass region of the Interior dry belt, and was for a long time the only kind of farming practicable on a large scale in a country where there were no other means of communication than such as were afforded by roads and trails and water-stretches. General Conditions for Cattle-raising. As the Province is 'becoming more settled it is, however, constantly becoming more difficult to run cattle in big herds, because the settler is pre-empting the choice lands, occupying the watering-places, and putting up his barbed-wire fences. The conditions of the beef-raising industry is therefore undergoing a change, making it certain that, generally speaking, the days of the big ranches will be gone before very long. The tendency of late years has been in direction of small herds and the improvement of the stock. Notwithstanding this fact, there are indications that the development of the industry will not suffer permanently from the changed conditions, and that the output of beef will increase rather than diminish. For many years to come there will yet be room in this Province for thousands of small cattle-ranches. In districts remote from railroads or where the ground is rolling and rough close settlement is likely to be retarded; the establishment of many small herds will tend to better care of the stock and to'better methods for the improvement of the grades; it will become profitable to raise a larger percentage of calves; and better provision will be made for winter feeding. Districts Suitable for Stock-raising. The parts of the Province especially adapted for cattle-raising are the Interior plateaux and the Fraser River A'alley, though there is scarcely a district in which the keeping of at least a few head will not pay well. The high prices prevailing justify stall feeding in many parts, especially where irrigation is not needed or where irrigatioh has made it possible to raise alfalfa. The question whether it will pay to raise cattle by stall feeding is, however, one which in view of the high price of feed will require careful investigation in each particular case before any attempt is made involving large expenditure. With respect to the general suitability of the Interior of the Province for cattle-raising, Professor Magoun, after a careful investigation, states in his Geographical Report of 1S77 :— The whole of British Columbia south of 52 degrees east of the Coast Range is a grazing country up to 3,500 feet, and a farming country up to 2,500 feet, where irrigation is possible. The limiting factor in this industry is the area on which feed for the winter can be grown, for in all parts of the Province it is found to be prudent to make such provision. Irrigation has hitherto been thought necessary in most of what would be described as range districts; but if dry-farming methods prove successful, it should be possible to utilize much grazing land that is now idle. Coast and Island Districts. On the Coast and Island Districts the beef-raising industry has practically been abandoned in favour of dairying, which in places where co-operative creameries have been established, with S2 British Columbia. 1914 the prices prevailing and under present circumstances, is more remunerative, and giving a steady income affords a reliable basis for the farmer's business, placing him in an independent position ■with respect to the marketing of his produce. Interior Districts. In many districts of the Interior large tracts of what was once ranch land has been cut up for orchard and various other purposes, so that the cattle industry has not been progressing during recent years, and the ranchers of British Columbia are at present unable to supply the growing demand for beef. In the valleys of the Okanagan, Similkameen. Nicola, North and South Thompson Rivers, in East Kootenay, and iu the valley of the Upper Fraser River, this industry prevailed as long as those districts were outside of railway communication, especially where the bottom lands furnished hay for winter feeding. The cattle were driven to navigable waters of the Lower Fraser and shipped to the Coast. AVith the advent of the Canadian Pacific Railroad, the activities incident to railway-development and the demonstrated possibility of fruit-growing suggested subdivision of the large ranches into orchards and small holdings. The inception of this movement was made with the Coldstream Ranch near A'ernon, and the pace was set for a development of commercial orchards which has become general in the Interior districts as far as they have come within the influence of railway-development. Thus the great majority of the large ranches in those districts have been sold for subdivision, and orchards have sprung up on the side-hills and table-lands, formed with volcanic ash and covered with hunch-grass where formerly cattle were grazing. Yale District. This district contains yet several fairly large cattle-ranches. Owing, however, to the demand for land for subdivision purposes, the majority of the many ranches it formerly contained have been divided up into small holdings, principally for fruit-culture, in which respect the district is developing rapidly. Similkameen District. At present this valley is chiefly devoted to cattle-raising. Portions of the adjoining hillsides and mountains are very steep, but the tops are covered with bunch-grass and winter grass; on the bottom lands grows rye-grass, which stands up through the snow and makes good winter forage. Nicola District. This district is a fine grazing country, and where irrigation has been established grain, fodder-crops, and all kinds of vegetables are doing well. The principal industry is cattle- raising and horse-raising. Tbe Douglas Lake Cattle Company has the largest cattle-range in the Province, being over 125,000 acres in extent, and stocked with many thousand head of cattle and horses. The Thompson River A'alley. The upper benches and mountain-slopes of this district afford good pasturage, few of them being heavily timbered, and cattle-raising is the main industry. The Thompson River A'alleys are very fertile, but irrigation is necessary to raise sufficient winter feed to make the industry profitable. The Kootenays. Much of the land from Kootenay Landing to the Alberta Boundary is open and rolling and is ideal for stock-raising; the industry should be profitable, as there is a good home market for live stock of all kinds. The Columbia A'alley. Cattle and sheep thrive on the nutritious grasses which cover the benches and hillsides. The snowfall is generally so light that the live stock winter out, and winter feeding is the exception. 4 Geo. 5 Royal Commission on Agriculture. So Lillooet District. Lillooet is largely a grazing country well adapted to cattle-raising. Irrigation is necessary at many places in this district owing to the dryness of the climate; however, a large portion is at such an altitude that irrigation would be impracticable. The bottoms and lower benches where irrigation is possible would produce excellent crops. Large ranches are the rule, and cattle-raising is the chief occupation of the settlers. Cariboo and Cassiar Districts. The central and northern valleys of these districts, including the Chilcotin District, the valleys of the Skeena, Bulkley, Nechako, and Blackwater Rivers, the country surrounding Ootsa, Francois, Stuart, Fraser, and the Babine Lakes, as well as the great Peace River A'alley contain undeveloped tracts where stock-raising apparently will become the main agricultural industry. In the southern part of the Cariboo District along the main wagon-road are several flourishing ranches principally devoted to cattle-raising. The larger portion of these extensive districts have for many years been practically dormant; the completion of the Grand Trunk Pacific Railway, with its projected tributaries running northerly and southerly, will, however, change this and create new conditions. A large portion of the country tributary to the Grand Trunk Pacific Railway is well adapted to agriculture, and especially to stock-raising. The Chilcotin Plateau. Wherever water could be found for irrigation the settlers in this district have taken land, and are raising hay, grain, and vegetables on the bottoms and benches, utilizing for grazing the higher plateaux, which are left as the natural ranges for the cattle, from which settlers derive their main revenue. Horses have been known to winter out and do not appear to have suffered seriously in the spring. To provide against contingencies arising from unfavourable seasons, it is, however, advisable to provide for the winter. The Districts of Francois and Ootsa Lakes. The great fertility of the soil in these districts is evinced by the luxuriance of the wild grasses, vetches and peavines covering the lands, as well as by the yields obtained from cultivated lands. Oats have yielded as high as 2.500 lb. an acre, and timothy 3 tons an acre. AA'hile mixed farming can be successfully carried on in this district, it appears to be best adapted for stock-raising. North of the Chilcotin plains and Quesnel the bunch-grass disappears and irrigation does not become a general problem. The Parsnip and Peace River Districts. There is in this district a great deal of land suited for pasturage and other agricultural purposes, many of the river-valleys of this district contain large tracts of open grazing lands suitable for stock-raising. Provision for leasing A'acant Crown Lands. . Under the general provisions of the " Land Act," section 72 and following sections, authority is given for leasing land for any purpose. These leases are at present limited to a term of twenty-one years and to an acreage of 040 acres to each lease, no limit being made to the number of leases a person can secure. The rental is 25 cents per acre per annum for first-class land, and 15 cents an acre for second-class land. Leases granted under the above provision make no distinction between cattle-grazing and sheep-grazing, and may be used for general pasturage. These leases may be applied to any kind of agricultural land in any part of the Province, except those districts and localities where the vacant Crown lands have been reserved from sale or lease. At present there are sixty-nine such leases outstanding for pasturage purposes, ranging from 30 acres to 100 acres in extent, and having a total area of approximately 22,207 acres, including 3.026 acres in Cariboo District, 7,29S acres in Lillooet District, 9,451 acres in Coast District, 1,340 acres in Kamloops District, 402 acres in Osoyoos District, and 90 acres in Esquimau District. S4 British Columbia. 1914 The reserve from sale or lease which in 1911 was placed on vacant Crown lands in Kamloops. Lillooet, and Cariboo Districts has recently been modified by the removal of the bar against leasing, and the vacant lands in these districts are again available for that purpose. The question of utilizing the lands of the Crown for grazing purposes has been under consideration for some time by the Department, and the matter is now in the hands of the Forest Branch, the officials of which are at present acquiring data for the purpose of formulating a system for the administration of such lands to the best advantage. • Necessity for Irrigation. By the irrigation of large areas of land for the production of alfalfa and other suitable forage-plants great improvement could be made in the cattle industry. A more liberal system of winter feeding would be the consequence, combined with careful selection of breeding animals, and the use of pure-bred sires would greatly tend to promote the industry. While the development of irrigation-works, as far as practicable, would tend to subdivide large ranches and lead to more intensive farming, it should, on the other hand, stimulate the cattle industry and make the Province self-supporting in regard to beef. Feeding. Where winter feeding is carried on, it is estimated that from S00 to 1,000 lb. of hay per head, consisting of clover and timothy, will winter a mixed head of cattle under ordinary circumstances. In districts where alfalfa can be grown it provides a most excellent winter fodder. Reseedino the Ranges. A matter that may need attention in the near future is the question of taking preventive means against the extermination of nutritive bunch-grasses. It appears that the systematic reseeding of the ranges must be resorted to in order to conserve this valuable forage, and the difficulty of obtaining seed for this purpose may be overcome by reserving certain areas for seed-growing. Losses due to Diseases and other Causes. Range cattle in this Province are practically free from disease. Tuberculosis is almost unknown on the ranges; cattle-mange is unknown in British Columbia, and black-leg is easily controlled by preventive vaccine, supplied by the Health of Animals Branch at a nominal price. Loss by predatory animals is not serious, but complaints are made by various stock-raisers that considerable losses are suffered due to theft. The disappearance of cattle referred to takes place chiefly in the summer-time, when ordinarily there should be very few losses. It is anticipated, however, that with the amendments made in the "Cattle-brands Act" and with its better enforcement those losses will become insignificant. Breeds favoured. There are at present in British Columbia several herds of pure-bred shorthorns and of Hereford cattle, and one herd of the Highland cattle. For close ranging and on the smaller ranches the shorthorns are favoured on account of the larger size. On the larger ranches, however, where the animal's ability to rustle is depended on, the Hereford are preferred. The efforts of the Stock-breeders' Association in the direction of obtaining a better class of live stock is being materially aided by the Canadian Pacific Railway, which grants a freight rate of one-half the regular rates on all importations of pure-bred stock, the valuation of which is placed within the maximum insurance value fixed by the company. In addition, the Stockbreeders' Association grants as a bonus the rebate of one-half the amount of the freight rate actually paid for imported pure-bred stock. Market Conditions. Practically all the beef produced in the Province is grown under range conditions. The chief shipping-points are Kamloops, Sicamous, and Ashcroft. Prices of all classes of live stock are somewhat variable; at present they are exceptionally good. As long as the agricultural districts of the Province are being opened up, and as long as our urban population is increasing 4 Geo. 5 Royal Commission on Agriculture. 85 at the present rate, average prices for all classes of live stock and food products must necessarily be good. Prevailing prices (1914) at the point of shipping are: Ranch cattle from 5 to 7 cents a pound, live weight; calves, 10 cents a pound, live weight; dairy cows, $60 to $150 for grades, and $150 to $500 for thoroughbreds. Nearly all the beef produced in British Columbia is marketed between the beginning of July and the end of December. During the rest of the year the supply is obtained chiefly from Alberta ; a small portion comes from Australia and New Zealand. With hay running from $12 to $25 per ton, prospects are not favourable for holding the animals over till late winter or spring. The amount annually sent abroad for imported meat is over $3,000,000. The British Columbia Stock-breeders' Association. The welfare of the live-stock industry is promoted by the British Columbia Live-stock Breeders' Association, which was instituted about seven years ago, and has now a membership of about 300. The Provincial Live Stock Commissioner is ex officio Secretary-Treasurer of the Association. This Association is the active agent and the medium through which the assistance of the Government is given in stimulating the importation into the Province of pure-bred stock. A Stock-breeders' Association of British Columbia, acting in the special interest of the breeders of range stock, has been organized quite recently. Prospects of the Cattle-raising Industry. It is not expected that the beef-raising industry will be greatly advanced in the already well-settled portion of the Province, where other lines of farming offer greater remuneration than the production of beef; but with the opening-up of lands suitable for ranching in the northern part of the Province, which railroad development is now bringing within easy reach of transportation, and with such additional beef production as is incidental with dairying and mixed farming in the closer-settled and more intensively cultivated farming districts, it appears that the industry should be capable of considerable expansion. HORSES. In the range districts horses are usually bred on most of the ranches, and no complaints were heard with regard to the business, and it was not therefore particularly investigated. Clyde and Percheron stallions are most commonly used. •Some good horses are bred in the farming districts and have been in demand at high prices for some years, but at present, on account of the general contraction in business, the demand is not very active. While there is a limited market for good farm-horses, the demand for light horses has recently become very slack, owing largely to the displacement of horse-traffic by motor-vehicles. However, the market for heavy horses is not likely to deteriorate, and under prevailing conditions should be profitable. SHEEP-RAISING. The scarcity of. sheep in the Dominion of Canada, and especially in British Columbia, together with the large annual importation of mutton carcasses into the Province and the high prices prevailing, indicate that steps should be taken to encourage this branch of agriculture. There were imported during the year 1913 into this Province about 105,500 sheep from other Canadian Provinces, and about 70,000 sheep from points outside of Canada, together with about 500,000 lb. of mutton. The home production was about 28,000 sheep existing in the Province at the end of the year, with a production for the year of about 923,000 lb. of mutton. A comparison of these numbers would indicate that the sheep industry should be able to expand considerably. Reasons for keeping Sheep. This Province offers a favourable climate and suitable soil for sheep-raising. There is an abundance of feed of a class on which sheep will thrive and which is not utilized by other animals. The demands for the products of sheep-raising is constantly increasing, and consequently prices are good. The invested capital is smaller than required for any other class of SO British Columbia. 1914 live-stock husbandry; with an amount of $200 a flock can be bought large enough for the beginner. Another advantage is that sheep only need sheltering in cheap sheds well ventilated and properly situated; besides, they require less labour than any other farm animals; they thrive on rough feed that often cannot be utilized in any other way; they destroy the weeds on the summer fallows and fertilize the land where they are grazing; finally, they give quick returns in lambs and wool. Sheep-raising in British Columbia. Until a few years ago sheep-raising was quite common among the farmers on the southern portion of A'ancouver Island and in the Lower Fraser A'alley; but, though a comparatively large number of sheep are still kept in those parts, this branch of agriculture has during recent years been abandoned by many farmers who formerly had quite large flocks, and the flocks still existing have been diminished. This change is to a great extent due to the rapid development of our Coast cities, which have created a growing demand for all kinds of dairy products, and made dairying more profitable than the raising of live stock for the market. The diminished activity in the sheep industry is. however, also to a great extent due to the recent move in real-estate value, which in many parts, by increasing the price of farm laud, has made sheep- raising on a large scale unprofitable. Another factor which has contributed to the falling-off in the sheep industry is the ravages among the flocks by dogs, a matter which will be referred to later in this article. Sheep-raising in the Interior. In the Interior dry belts of the Province there are many thousands of acres of land which on account of their broken condition cannot be brought into arable condition, but which would be suitable pasture lands for sheep. Many of these lands are not covered with the usual bunch- grass, but with a timber-grass disliked by the cattle, and on which sheep thrive.* The utilization of such lands for sheep pasture is therefore not open to the objection that the close cropping of the pasture by the sheep will interfere with the cattle-raising industry. The chief advantage of the Interior for sheep-raising is that the animals can be kept on wild land at least nine months during the year, and that the summer ranges are almost unlimited. AA'ith the prices prevailing, this industry can therefore be followed by any one who is in a position to secure lands on which he can raise winter feed for his flocks. Suitable Breeds. .' The choice of breeds which can be raised to the greatest advantage is to a great extent controlled by climatic conditions, but as the production of mutton is more important than the production of wool, the heavier mutton breeds are preferred, and flocks of Shropshire, Southdown, and Oxfords are therefore most numerous. The Size of Flocks. The tendency has for some time been in favour of small flocks rather than a few large ones, and at present there are not many large flocks in the Province. While there yet are flocks of from 1,000 to 2,000 in number, small flocks of from 200 to 500 sheep kept under range conditions are very remunerative. The largest flocks are found in the Similkameen, the Okanagan, and the Nicola Districts. The most serious difficulty in the maintaining of large flocks under range conditions is the depredation by coyotes and panthers, especially the former, which destroy a large percentage of the animals and scatter the flocks. In districts where several small flocks are ranged the owners can in many ways co-operate and be of service to each other in protecting the flocks. A small flock of sheep kept on the average farm where mixed farming is carried on should yield the owner a fair profit if the sheep are properly looked after and winter-fed. Under range conditions the annual yield of lambs is 0.75 per cent, while sheep kept under farm conditions yield 1.5 per cent. Bauds of twenty-five to fifty animals will be found to be very profitable. " Timber grass ranges can onlv bo classified as summer range, and can supply feed only for an annual period of from three to four months. The district containing the most available areas of this kind of range are tho Nicola, Similkameen, Kettle, Kootenay, Chilcotin. and the plateau between the Fraser and the North Thompson Rivers. There are in the Province several million acres of timber grass range, of which loss than one million is being utilized. Its carrying capacity varies greatly; roughly It may be placed at 30 acres for each head of cattle and from 5 to 10 acres for each head of sheep. 4 Geo. 5 Royal Commission on Agriculture. S7 Prevailing Prices. AA'hile the price of mutton is, of course, variable, it has of late not been subject to great fluctuation. Mutton always commands a good price, and lambs sell at high figures. Mutton averages to the producer about, 6 cents a pound, live weight, off the car; lamb, 10 cents, with 12% cents or more for early lamb. The price of wool has until lately been from 10 to 12 cents a pound at point of shipment, and wool-growing has so far not been a very remunerative adjunct to mutton-raising, chiefly on account of the high cost of labour and the transportation rate. The recent change in the import duty on wool to the United States has affected the industry favourably, the price at present being 15 cents a pound. Altogether sheep-raising should bring good returns, and with larger numbers of men going into the business it will be found to pay better. Depredatory Animals. The greatest depredation to the flocks is caused by coyotes, though great damage is also done by panthers. One breeder finds it advisable personally to add to the bonus paid by the Government for the killing of coyotes, and the opinion prevails that the bonus paid by the Government should be increased from the present amount of $3 to $0. For the protection of the flocks it is necessary that the men employed as herders carry a gun, and the breeders who employ several men find it unduly burdensome to be obliged to pay for a gun licence whenever they change employees. They have therefore asked that free gun licences should be issued for men employed at shepherding. Coyote-proof Fences. In some parts preventive measures have been taken by the erection of coyote-proof fences. This has been tried successfully in some of the States and in Alberta. The cost of erecting a coyote-proof fence is about $400 a mile. In one case four square miles of range land have been enclosed by such a fence, and it has been found a good investment. Over 2.000 sheep are kept on the enclosure and the expense of herding them has been greatly reduced. At the same time, tbe loss for animals killed has been diminished from between 5 and 10 per cent, annually to V=0 of 1 per cent. In the State of Oregon comparison has been made between sheep kept in such enclosures and sheep left on the open ranges. The result shows that the former gained in average weight about 10 lb. over the latter. Depredation caused by Dogs. A great deal of damage caused by dogs running at large is done to smaller flocks and to flocks kept under farm conditions. This trouble has become so serious that it has caused many sheep-breeders to abandon the business. The existing provisions of the Act for the protection of sheep against dogs have so far failed to cope efficiently with this difficulty. Til the first part of this report recommendations were made along the lines enacted in Ontario, giving the sheep-owners the right to kill stray dogs under certain conditions, and with the enforcement of such provisions this trouble should cease being serious. It may be mentioned in this connection that in Prince Edward Island the Government pays to the Stock-breeders' Association one-fourth part of the loss incurred for sheep insured in that association against damage from injury by dogs. Preventives against the Spreading of AA'eeds. In one part of the Province the weed commonly called horehound is said to be spreading, and by the seeds getting into the wool is causing depreciation in value. In the State of Oregon dealers deduct 2 cents in the price of wool infested by this seed. It is believed by the breeders that preventive means against the spread of this weed can be effectively taken by concerted action between them and the authorities in respect to Indian reserves. 7 SS British Columbia. 1914 Prospects of the Sheep Industry. AVith the increased importance of the sheep industry, wool production would give rise to allied industries, such as wool-combing, cloth and felt manufacture. At present Australia exports felt in large quantities to London and New York, and iu recent years the price has increased from 12 to 30 cents a pound. With increased production the establishment of such industries would not be remote. Another benefit that would accrue to the Province from the expansion of the sheep industry would be the incidental value given to lands now unproductive, which would be suitable for this industry, and thus become revenue-producing. GOATS. In many parts of the Province attention might profitably be devoted to the breeding of goats. AA'here dairying cannot be developed on account of the contour and nature of the land, or has not been developed yet because sufficient land has not been brought under culture to make it profitable, the milch-goat or Angora may prove of great value to the settler. Lately a great deal of interest has been taken in goat-breeding by many small-farm owners who find it to their interest to keep a few goats, but as yet there are no large flocks in the Province. It is well known that especially the Angora goat is a valuable assistant for the settler in clearing away underbrush. Panthers and coyotes are, however, causing considerable trouble. The price paid for good goats is frequently as high as $25 each, and even higher. The mohair of the Angora generally brings 10 cents more a pound than sheep's wool, and the yield from each animal is from 3 to 5 lb. annually. There is a prejudice against the goat's meat as an article of food, but it is claimed that if properly cooked it is nearly as good as mutton, and that the meat of young goats is equally as good as lamb. The ease with which goats are raised and the economy in milk production should make the business of breeding them a profitable one. HOG-ltAISING. During recent years the hog-raising industry has not kept pace with the demand for pork- products, in spite of the favourable conditions, climatically and otherwise, which British Columbia offers for this industry in connection with dairying and as a branch of mixed farming. Prices are generally good, averaging to the producer from 7 to 9 cents a pound, live weight; the breeds chiefly raised are Yorkshire, Berkshire, and Tamworth. Economic Pork Production. The production of pork as an economic problem largely depends on the farmer's ability to grow a great deal of cheaply produced roughage. AA'here cream or butter is sold, hogs are usually kept in proportion to tbe volume of skim-milk, but the growing of hogs on clover and alfalfa pasture does not seem to be practised much, and there are large districts where good yields of one or both of those crops can be grown. Alfalfa and Clover as Hog-feed. In various parts of the Province alfalfa has been tried with various degrees of success. It gives best satisfaction on sandy and loamy soils where the water-table is at least 4 feet below the surface. On irrigated laud it has been highly successful. Under favourable circumstances it produces an abundance of feed from early spring to late fall, and where it is intended to use the field continuously as hog pasture it is preferable to clover. It is claimed, however, that alfalfa and clover mixed will carry nearly one-third more hogs an acre than either crop grown alone. It would, of course, be important that the cost of imported grain food should be kept as low as possible by buying in car-load lots, and in many cases this is being co-operatively done with considerable reduction in the price which otherwise would have been charged by dealers. AVe recognize the risk of hog-cholera and the fluctuations iu prices to which pork products are subject, but the advantages enjoyed in many districts for economical production will warrant the devotion of much more attention to this branch of mixed fanning. 4 Geo.-5 Royal Commission on Agriculture. S9 DAIRYING. There are in British Columbia approximately 25,500 dairy cows, distributed as follows :- Vancouver Island and Gulf Islands. Saauich and lower portion 2,S00 Cowichan-Nanainio 2.000 Comox 1,000 Saltspring, Pender, and Mayne Islands 650 Other islands and west coast 250 7,300 Lower Mainland. Chilliwack-Matsqui 3.000 Langley-Surrey 3,000 Delta 1,S00 Lulu and Sea Islands S50 Coquitlam, Hammond, Pitt Meadows, Mission, Dewdney, and Agassiz ... 3,250 12,500 Rest of Province. Salmon Arm, Kamloops, and Revelstoke 950 Okanagan S50 Boundary and Kootenay 1.800 Nicola, Chilcotin, Columbia, and all points north 2,100 5,700 From this it will be seen that the greater part of the development has been in the older sections of the Province. In all parts of the Province the land devoted to dairying is capable of supporting far more cattle than it now does, and there are in all the districts named large areas of land which could be used for this purpose. In the newer parts opened up by the Grand Trunk Pacific and the Pacific Great Eastern Railways there are immense areas where dairying may in time be profitably followed. Distribution of Breeds in the Province. The favourite breeds are Holstelns on the Lower Mainland; Jerseys and Guernseys on A'ancouver Island and the Gulf Islands; Ayrshires distributed on the Lower Mainland and in the Interior, for which districts they are particularly well adapted. Shorthorn grades are found throughout the Province. There are about 1,550 pure-bred dairy animals in the Province, distributed approximately in the following proportion:— Holsteins 800 Jerseys 400 » Ayrshires 175 Guernseys 125 Minor breeds 50 Amount of Milk Products. The average annual production for each cow in British Columbia is about 4,000 lb. of milk, testing nearly 4 per cent, butter-fat. About 20,000 cows supplied last year the milk and cream trade of the cities and towns, and furnished S00,000 gallons of fresh milk to condenseries. The produce of the remaining 5,500 was manufactured into butter, two-thirds of it in creameries and one-third in dairies. As yet the greater part of the dairying in the Interior of the Province has been for the purpose of supplying milk to the towns and for the production of butter for home consumption by the farmers themselves. A plant for the manufacture of ice-cream and butter is about to be installed at Nelson. 90 British Columbia. ■ 1914 Prices obtained by Producers. The dairy-farmers supplying the milk to the Coast cities received for it from the wholesale dealers 50 to CO cents per pound butter-fat, according to the season, and those selling cream or supplying it to the co-operative creameries received about 32 to 40 cents a pound butter-fat, and for sweet cream from 50 to SO cents a pound butter-fat. It may be noted here that the New Zealand creameries pay their patrons 24 cents a pound of butter, which would be equivalent to paying about 28% cents a pound butter-fat. • The milk produced for city consumption is of the grade known as " market milk," and much of what is sold in the larger cities is pasteurized, many of the firms supplying it placing the date of such operation on the bottle-caps. The supervision of the milk trade is under the control of each municipality, which under the Provincial " Milk Act " is authorized to enact the necessary by-laws, which are required, however, to conform with Provincial and Dominion standards. The returns for 1913 show a marked decrease in the amount of fresh milk imported. Most of the milk now brought from the United States is consumed in A'ancouver, though in other places cream, for ice-cream purposes, is imported to some extent during the summer months. Other markets for whole milk are found in condensing plants at New AA'estminster and Sardis. It is expected that other condenseries will begin operations soon in the Delta and at Courtenay; a homogenizing plant has been built at Clayburn. Butter Production. The manufacture of creamery butter has during the past few years been seriously affected by the increasing demand for fresh milk and cream. Of the eighteen creameries now in operation, only six make butter-making their chief business. The others use for this purpose only their surplus milk and cream, after supplying their city milk trade. Some of the creameries show a considerable increase in the amount of butter manufactured, and some cream is used in improving the flavour of reworked New Zealand butter. The high prices of hay ruling for some years, largely attributable to the demand from railway-construction camps, has diverted many farmers from dairying. They found that selling hay was a relief from the trouble of carrying on dairying with the unsatisfactory supply of suitable labour available. Fortunately for the permanent fertility of the farms, these conditions are changing, and there is a great revival of interest in dairying. The fact that one or two patterns of milking-machines (of which we are most familiar with the Sharpies) are giving satisfactory results without injuring the cows lessens the difficulty about labour, and wherever an easy market is available dairying is therefore receiving more attention. In fact, the dairy industry would increase more rapidly than it is doing if it were not for the short supply of dairy cows for sale, both here and in the East, and the high prices consequently demanded for them. It is estimated that the prices in the East have advanced 100 per cent, within the past two years. and the prices in British Columbia from 25 to 50 per cent. As so large a proportion of the milk is sold as whole milk, the rearing of young stock has been discouraged. Although the average production of the cows of the Province compares favourably with such production in other parts of Canada, this is nevertheless the weakest point in connection with the dairy business here. Wherever we found dairymen who kept records of production of their cows in butter-fat, we found that yields were far above the average, and wherever that was the case we found prosperity. In the Coast districts the grazing season is especially long and the growth of spring and fall grass good. In the Interior especially, alfalfa flourishes and is likely to be an important feed for dairy cows. In many parts of southern British Columbia the winters are sufficiently mild to make expensive buildings unnecessary, and cattle can be outside almost, every day of the year. AVe give here the feeding system of a successful British Columbian dairyman :— Dairy Ration in the Fraser A'alley'. Cows are pastured from some time between the beginning and middle of April until the middle of October and the first of November. In addition to pasture, an early crop of rye-grass and clover is fed as a soiling crop. Cows are given what they wili eat of this from about June 15th to July 15th. 4 Geo. 5 Royal Commission on Agriculture. 91. This is followed by green oats and vetches to September 20th. This is followed by corn from the field and later from the stock up to October Sth. This is followed by thousand-headed kale at the rate of about 35 lb. a day up to December 1st, then 20 lb. turnips and 15 lb. corn ensilage to January 1st. Then 20 lb. turnips and mangels and 20 lb. corn ensilage until May 20th or later. It is well to have ensilage enough to last until green crops are available about June 15th. This is supplemented by a ration of grain at the rate of 1 lb. to 4 or 5 lb. of milk yield throughout the year, excepting to dry cows on good pasture. Composition of grain ration :— Bran 25 lb. ] Brewer's grain 50 lb. L Cost about $25 a ton. Oats 25 lb. J If alfalfa is fed as part of roughage ration, grain should be reduced proportionately. Tin- best results from roughage ration without alfalfa are obtained by a proportion of 50 per cent, ensilage and 50 per cent, roots. On this system our informant was able to ship at the best of his season for some days 9S0 lb. milk daily from twenty-five cows in all periods of lactation. We also give an estimate of capital investment and of expenditure and income from the operations of a good, well-managed dairy and mixed farm within a convenient distance of a creamery:— Approximate Expenditure and Income for a 100-acre Farm. Investment. Dwelling $ 1.500 00 Barn 2.500 00 Thirty cows at $175 0,250 00 Two teams at $500 1,000 00 Two wagons at $85 170 00 Ploughs 100 00 Disk harrow 40 00 Drag-harrow 30 00 Steel roller 30 00 Mowing-machine S5 00 Seed-drill 125 00 Rake 30 00 Reaper 150 00 Corn-planter 70 00 Corn-harvester 125 00 Corn-cultivator 100 00 Two silos at $100 200 00 Five sows at $20 100 00 One boar at $25 25 00 One bull at $250 250 00 Hog-pens 100 00 Poultry : 100 00 Poultry-house 100 00 $12.1S0 00 ■ Operating Expenses. Interest on land. $300 per acre. 7% $2,100 00 Interest on buildings, stock, machinery, S% 974 40 Two men, about $640 each L2S0 00 One foreman S40 00 Extra help 100 00 Seed '. 150 00 Mill-feed, including oats 070 00 Blacksmith's bill, about 50 00 $6,104 40 92 British Columbia. 1914 Income. A'alue of milk $4.S37 50 A'alue of veal, about 150 00 A'alue of pork, about 600 00 A'alue of poultry products 250 00 A'alue of potatoes 150 00 A'alue of grain, 30 tons at $25 750 00 A'alue of beef, about 250 00 $6,987 50 Total expenses 0,164 40 Profit $ S23 10 Improvement of Herds. The Live Stock Branch of your Department of Agriculture has helped the movement towards improvement by importing for members of the Live Stock Association pure-bred dairy cattle, and during 1913 by importing and selling about 500 grade dairy cattle of good quality, by selling pure-bred bulls to Farmers' Institutes on easy terms of payment, and by assisting the work of cow-testing associations. Under these associations the owners of at least 400 cows combine and agree to pay annually $1 a year for each cow towards the expenses of the association, the balance of the expense being borne by the Department. A competent man is selected to conduct the testing for each association; he also assists the owners in keeping accurate records of the yield of milk and butter and the amount of feed consumed by each cow. By this means the owner learns the profit or loss from each cow and is taught the value of business methods on the dairy-farm. The extension of this work will bring valuable results. The following notable records have been made under the supervision of the Dominion Live Stock Branch of yield from young cows in this Province:— Breed. Jersey .. Ayrshire Age. 2 years Period. 1 year 1 ,. Milk. Lb. 9.754 12.502 Butter-fat. Lb. 493 559 Dairy Fodder-crops. We did not find that alfalfa was as widely grown as it might be. and corn for ensilage was seldom grown. The variety of " Angel of Midnight" corn has been found very suitable on the Island and on the Lower Mainland. For the purpose of arousing interest and securing information regarding the growing of alfalfa and corn in various parts of the Province, small quantities of seed are being distributed to farmers who agree to furnish reports upon results. Such reports will give valuable information as to the adaptability of various sections for the growing of these crops, and the comparative value of the varieties tested. In addition, eleven experimental plots of one acre each in the southern portion of the Province have been sown in alfalfa, and tests will be made in the same manner in the country between Hazelton and Fort George. AA'e hope to see much general interest in the growing of these crops aroused by this means. The use of silage in dairies is growing steadily. Commissioner Shannon reports that in Ontario it has increased 60 per cent, in four years. AA'e found that wherever silos were used they were giving satisfaction and were proving profitable. Farmers often do without them on account of unfainiliarity with methods of construction and fear of high cost, but the Live Stock Branch is now furnishing specifications of a silo of 3S tons capacity which can be erected for $00. and the Agricultural Department will furnish a working model of such a silo to any Farmers' Institute for $3. 4 Geo. 5 Royal Commission on Agriculture. 93 Development of the Dairying Industry. In considering the question of how to promote the growth of the dairying industry throughout the Province generally, we are confronted with the difficulty that exists before a district has enough cows to support a creamery properly. The day of home-made butter for general commercial purposes is past. The scarcity and high cost of domestic labour is one reason for this, but the unevenness and unreliability of the average product is such that it cannot compete on a large commercial scale with the creamery product. There are large districts where the farmers wait for a creamery before buying and raising cows, and it is generally considered that to warrant starting a creamery there should be about 500 cows in a district. Government Aid in Saskatchewan. The Saskatchewan Government has helped the farmers to fill this gap by making it possible to ship cream for long distances to a central creamery by paying the express charges on all cream from outside points. The Government of that Province feels strongly the importance of stimulating dairying. Besides paying the express charges on the cream, it takes a very active part in the management of the creameries in any cases where it is desired to do so, and this assistance is always taken advantage of by the farmer. One-third of the cost of the creamery is lent by the Government, the sum advanced being repayable by deduction from the amount due for cream when payment is being made to the patrons of the creamery. The Superintendent of the Dairy Branch hires the butter-makers, superintends the manufacture, and markets the products. He distributes advances on account of the cream every two weeks according to the market quotation, and makes a final settlement at the end of the year. The Legislature votes a sum to provide for these advances, and the Government is recouped from the proceeds of sales. This management and the incidental clerical assistance are provided free by tho Government. Other overhead expenses are charged to the working expenses of the creameries. There are now thirteen creameries in that Province, and they have started poultry-fattening stations in connection with them. At these the poultry is fed for three weeks on skimmed milk, buttermilk, whey, and by-products; killed, plucked, and dressed, and is then marketed by the Superintendent of the Dairy Branch at prices varying according to grade, from 13 to 15 cents a pound. Loans for Improvement of Stock. In 1913 $50,000 was voted by the Legislature of Saskatchewan for the purpose of bringing in better cows for distribution among creamery patrons on the following plans:— (1.) To be paid for in cash : (2.) Half the purchase price to be paid in cash and the balance by the deduction of a small percentage from the payments made by the creamery for the cream of the debtor: (3.) On credit, payment to be made as in the last case. It is required that a patron desiring to buy cows without making any cash payment must be recommended by the directors of the creamery, who guarantee that payment will be made. This substantial assistance is having marked results in promoting the increase of dairying in Saskatchewan. The British Columbia Dairymen's Association. The present British Columbia Dairymen's Association dates from 1900, in which year the British Columbia Dairymen's and Stock-breeders' Association disbanded, to form the two associations as now constituted. The Association, which has a membership of 300, receives an annual grant from the Government (for 1914 of $3,500), which is disbursed by the directors, subject to the approval of the Department of Agriculture. The secretary must be of the staff of the Provincial Live Stock Branch. 94 British Columbia. 1914 The annual membership fee is $1, entitling a member to— (1.) A farm paper for one year: (2.) Reports and publications of the Association: (3.) Refunds of 50 per cent, of transportation charges on pure-bred dairy cattle or swine: (4.) The right to compete for the Association's special prizes. The work of the Association is chiefly educational; competitions and contests are instituted with this iu mind. The milk and cream competition which took place in connection with the last Annual Convention at Chilliwack called out some sixty-five entries, and will undoubtedly become an annual feature. A great part of the grant is expended upon prizes for dairy herds, butter, bacon, hogs. milk, cream, etc. BOATNE TUBERCULOSIS. There has been a great deal of discussion within the past few years as to the extent (if any) to which bovine tuberculosis is transmissible to human beings: as to whether the eradication of bovine tuberculosis is possible; and as to. failing the reasonable economic possibility of eradication, what are the best means of controlling and lessening the spread of this disease. Your Department of Agriculture lias entered upon a campaign of eradication more advanced in policy than that of any other country, as far as we are aware, excepting the State of Missouri. This policy has necessitated sacrifices by many stock-owners and considerable outlay by your Government. There has been criticism as to the soundness of such a policy and as to the method being followed. AVhile we are not veterinarians and did not presume to undertake a technical investigation, we think that conclusions which we have reached after noting what was being done in the Province towards eradication of the disease and the results therefrom would be of interest. We have reached these conclusions after learning the opinions of farmers affected, and after discussing these questions with veterinarians and stock-breeders in this Province, as well as in other Provinces and countries visited by us. Conclusions respecting Eradication. AA'e think that there is a very imperfect appreciation of the danger to human life, especially in infancy, from the use of milk from tuberculous cows, and of the great prevalence of this disease in dairy herds which have not been tested. That a campaign of education through the schools, as well as through the general and the agricultural press, would do very much to secure the active co-operation of the public in measures for public safety. If every householder before patronizing a dairyman would require to see the recent certificate of a Government veterinarian proving that his herd had been examined and found free from disease, he would only be taking a reasonable precaution. That the mild climate of a large part of this Province makes it especially easy to make use of tlie most effective agents in combating tuberculosis—namely, sunlight and fresh air—and that a campaign of education among stock-breeders and dairymen, encouraging still more ventilation and light in stables, more open air, more open sheds for shelter for stock instead of confinement in stables, would be advisable. That in old thickly populated countries the difficulty of eradicating bovine tuberculosis by such measures as your Government is now taking is so much greater than in British Columbia that opinions held in those countries as to the futility and extravagance of such an attempt do not apply in the case of this Province. That the weight of opinion of competent judges is favourable to the policy of your Government in this matter, and that such expenditure is justified as would enable the whole Province to be covered so thoroughly and quickly as to secure the greatest measure of success. That in addition to the saving in human life, and the economic value of that saving, the placing and maintaining of the dairying business upon a safer basis by this means and the value to the future reputation of the Province as a source of supply of sound dairy stock would justify the necessary expenditure. 4 Geo. 5 Royal Commission on Agriculture. 95 The Work of Eradication. Reviewing the work done by your Government in this connection, we find that prior to 1909 a charge was made for each animal tested, and very little testing was done. During 11X19. LSI4 head of cattle were tested free of charge; of these, 391 reacted and were slaughtered, for which no compensation was paid. During 3910, 1,S7S head were tested, 110 were found to react, and un amount of $3,1S2.50 was paid in compensation, hi 3911, 3,321 head of cattle were tested and 487 were reactors; $6,092.50 was paid in compensation. In 3912. 2.007 head were tested, of which 123 reacted, and $3,694 was paid in compensation. During 3933. 34.897 head were tested for the first time, of which 847 reacted, 400 additional head were retested, and $21,873.50 was paid in compensation. The following table will show in detail the operations for that year:— Saltspring Island Mayne Island Pender Island A'ictoria and Saauich Metchosin Cobble Hill Cowichan Chemainus and Ladysmith .. Nanaimo Alberni Comox Malcolm Island Denman Island Hornby Island Ladner Lulu Island and Sea Island South A'ancouver New Westmiuster Cloverdale Port Hammond Matsqui Langley • Huntingdon Chilliwack Agassiz Kamloops Salmon Arm Rossland (complete) Miscellaneous Totals Premises tested. 99 32 9 547 328 39 210 153 209 65 173 32 22 12 237 OS 103 24 3 4 40 0 1 3 2,313 Total Cattle. 455 07 3S 2.797 510 270 1.357 1.053 1,3S2 338 1,535 00 125 56 2,293 495 3.66 315 21 SS 50 10 77 960 35 2 82 223 51 14,S97 None. 17S 4 2 49 20 S3 None. 6 None. 1S7 13.1 14 19 None. IS 6 None. 5 88 5 None. 5 23 24 S47 From this it will be seen that the great part of the work done was on A'ancouver Island and at a few points on the Lower Mainland and at Rossland. the other work being in response ro applications where disease was suspected. The testing of the dairy stock supplying the wants of Kamloops. Kelowna. Penticton. Summerland, Rossland. Trail. Grand Forks. Cranbrook. Creston, and Revelstoke has been completed, and the greater part of the work yet to be done will lie in the Fraser A'alley. The Chief A'eterinary Inspector considers that the outlying districts of A'ancouver Island, such as Metchosin. Cowichan. Alberni, Comox. and islands near Comox. are practically cleared of tuberculosis. 9G British Columbia. 1914 The lack of a sufficient number of inspectors to make it possible to cover the whole of the Province quickly, and at the same time go over districts a second and third time at suitable intervals, renders it very difficult to accomplish the fullest results. However, the introduction of the intradermal method has made it possible to do the work of testing more quickly and economically. Chief A'eterinary Inspector Knight concludes from the experience of the past that the percentage of reactors which will be found in this season's work will not be more than 5 per cent. Tt is encouraging to find that in herds where five years ago there were found 30 per cent, of diseased cows, and where the breeders had undertaken systematically to eradicate tuberculosis and have had their herds retested every six or eight months, the Inspectors do not now find a single reactor. The Chief A'eterinary Inspector said that, with a sufficient number of men to cover tho ground speedily, the same results could be accomplished over the whole of British Columbia. The compensation is now based on a maximum valuation of $350 for grades and $250 for pure-breds, instead of $100 and $350 as formerly, 50 per cent, of the estimated value of the animal being paid. FRLTT-GROAATNG. The development of this industry has been very rapid during the past ten years. In parts of Oregon and Washington activity in orchard-planting had begun some years before that time, and when the success met with in many of those districts was attracting attention, and the results from a few of the earlier orchards planted in the interior of this Province had shown that these districts had equally favourable conditions, the movement spread to British Columbia. In those States and in British Columbia the interest in fruit-growing as an occupation was stimulated by the efforts of companies who acquired tracts of land and subdivided them for sale. In some cases such companies made extensive improvements by installing irrigation systems, clearing land, and planting orchards. Your Government has by means of literature and exhibitions of fruit in Great Britain and other countries encouraged the movement, and has since by educational work and by encouragement and assistance to co-operation among the growers promoted the welfare of this industry, which gives promise of becoming one of the most important in the Province. Until 1932 the production of Idaho, AA'ashington, Oregon, and British Columbia had been much less than the active market demand, and very profitable prices had been realized for most kinds of fruit without much effort. Consequently the development of markets had been neglected and the need of organization of shippers had not been urgent. Although there had been much co-operative action, it had not been sufficiently comprehensive to preserve the markets from demoralization under sudden stress. The Market Situation. In 1912 the fruit-crops of America were unusually bountiful. This coincided with a great increase in the area of bearing orchards in the AA'est. The result was that there was more fruit, especially peaches and other soft fruit in AA'ashington and Oregon, than markets had been arranged for. As one means of getting rid of the surplus the Canadian North-west was flooded with fruit sold at low prices or consigned, and the market for British Columbia fruit was seriously affected. As a consequence, the prices in British Columbia, although generally better than those in AA'ashington and Oregon, were unprofitable for peaches and plums, and less profitable for apples than in previous years. Had the industry been long established with a history of good and had years in the past this would have attracted little attention. Coming, however, as the first general check, its effect was marked. • Alarmist statements were made in the press which were not at all warranted by conditions, and much harm was done in this way to the reputation of the Province as a field for immigration. One beneficial result of the poor markets in that year was that in AA'ashington and Oregon attention was directed to the organization of co-operative selling agencies, covering so many of the fruit-growing districts as to reduce internal competition, the ill effects of which had been felt. 4 Geo. 5 Royal Commission on Agriculture. 97 In British Columbia fresh interest was also aroused in co-operation, and the reorganization of many of the fruit-growers in the Shuswap and Okanagan Districts with a central selling association was accomplished. The good results of this elimination of much of the competition between neighbouring districts in the Province and the increased centralization of control of the fruit exported from AA'ashington and Oregon to the Prairie Provinces was very plainly shown in those markets in 1933. It must not be forgotten, however, that the decrease in production of that year was so influential a factor that it is difficult to estimate fairly how much of the improvement was due to more effective co-operation. Arising from the market situation of 1932, there has also been much wholesome reviewing of the situation in both countries, and as a result there will be discouragement of planting of commercial orchards in districts where essential factors to economical production are lacking. There will also be more careful selection of sites for orchards and of varieties of trees in districts where the conditions are such as should enable the British Columbia growers to hold their own in the keen competition for which preparation must be made. The vital importance of the question has in the United States excited the interest not only of the growers, but of the merchants, transportation companies, and bankers, and the lessening of costs of production, the improvement of the transportation facilities, the development of home and foreign markets, the increase of co-operative organization, are all now receiving earnest attention. The conclusion seems to be that the business in those States is fundamentally sound, and that with energy and capability the markets of the world will be so developed that all the increased production of apples will be absorbed at prices which will make good orchards very profitable. In the case of those fruits which cannot be held in storage and shipped long distances the problem is much more complicated. AA'e refer to the conditions, actions, and conclusions in those States because the industry is older and more developed there and receives proportionately more public attention. Their experience is therefore most useful when our problems, which are very similar to theirs, are being considered. That the present position may be more readily understood, we give here some particulars:— Bearing. Not Bearing. Crop, 1012. British Columbia A cres. 12,000 25,000 6,000 Acres. 6S,000 27S,000 28,000 Car-loads. 1,000 15,000 1000 It will be seen from those figures how necessary it will be to develop extensive markets within the next five years, and how influential a factor the competition from the Pacific States in our Canadian markets is likely to be. Development of the Fruit Industry. It is estimated by those who have made a careful study of the subject that owing to so many mistakes having been made in the selection of orchard-sites, in the planting of trees of varieties unsuited to their environment, and owing to unfitness of the men in charge, only about 10 per cent, of the fruit-trees planted in the United States and Canada come into profitable bearing, and it is probably safe to estimate that not more than one-half of the orchards in the acreage stated above need be counted upon to come into the mature commercially producing class. It will not be unreasonable to anticipate by 1923 from the trees already planted in British Columbia a crop of 6,000 or 7,000 cars of fruit, and we expect that there will be a further addition to the planted area. This gives some idea of the commercial importance of this industry to the Province, though it does not give any idea of the great development that may take place. 9S British Columbia. 1914 AVestern fruit-growing has been the most popular " back to tlie land " movement that we know of: and if there is assurance that the industry is on a sound footing, it will mean the settlement in the Province of a large number of men retiring from other pursuits who would not be attracted by possibilities in mixed farming. It must also be remembered that on the same sized area a much larger population can he supported by successful fruit-growing than by mixed farming. From the evidence we heard, and from what we have seen and learned, we have come to the following conclusions regarding the industry in the Province generally, and as it is found in different parts of the Province:— That industry, intelligence, and skill of the grower are of greater importance than is commonly realized; that, nevertheless, the lack of skill need not discourage any one with industry and intelligence from taking up fruit-growing, for some of the most successful men in the business to-day knew nothing of it when they undertook it, but they were in earnest and made use of the opportunities afforded them of learning it. A large percentage of British Columbia fruit-growers were neither fruit-growers nor farmers before coming to British Columbia, and the assistance given by your Department, as referred to under " Agricultural Education," has been of vital importance. The increase and improvement of these facilities will assist greatly in the success of the industry. Many witnesses stated that they wanted visits from Assistant Horticulturists, hut had never had one, or not for years; and many orchards do not appear to have been inspected. AA'e were interested in the researches which were being carried on by the Provincial Plant Pathologist, and impressed by what we saw and heard in the fruit-growing districts of the importance of this work. AA'e found that the condition of the orchards visited was generally excellent, and that with the exception of some fire-blight in the Okanagan and Grand Forks Districts they were healthy and reasonably free from pests. in order to assist prospective growers in the selection of an orchard-site, every work on fruit-growing gives directions as to the conditions necessary to success, but these are frequently ignored, and orchards are planted in shallow, gravelly soils or with hard-pan within a foot or two of the surface, or in frost pockets. Much of the orchard-planting until the last few years has been done without definite knowledge as to the varieties suitable for the different districts, and to this is due the planting of the large number of varieties, many of them unsuitable to environments. At present the orchardist can get reasonably safe advice as to varieties, and advice will be modified and made more definite as further experience is gained. For this purpose we commend Bulletin No. 51. recently prepared by Provincial Horticulturist AVinslow. Favourable fruit-growing conditions are a valuable Provincial asset, and many of the difficulties being encountered and the dangers feared for the future may be regarded as avoidable. Some will be lessened by increase of age and production of the orchards, while others are within the power of your Government and the Federal Government to control. With older orchards there may be anticipated lessened cost for cultivation, spraying, and pruning, as compared with the amount of production. It has been found in AVashington and Oregon that instead of increased difficulty about the supply of labour as to the volume of the crop became greater, labourers in sufficient numbers were attracted to the district at the picking season by the assured demand for their services. Every year the orchardists and their assistants will become more proficient until the same standard of rapidity and efficiency is attained as is now found among their competitors. Your Government is doing much to promote general efficiency, and will doubtless extend its useful work in that direction. It is taking great care to protect our orchards from imported pests, and should, as we have recommended, obtain power to act still more effectively if it should be thought necessary to do so at any time. The maintenance of the present reputation of the Province for freedom from dangerous orchard diseases should prove of great importance in the development of export business to other fruit countries. The most serious danger to the industry seemed to be in the possibility of the North-west markets being made a dumping-ground for the "C" grade apples of AA'ashington and Oregon. 4 Geo. 5 Royal Commission on Agriculture. 99 The British Columbia orchardists, with the assistance of your Government, can do much to perfect their selling organizations, but they cannot control the action of shippers in the United States. Protection or Bounty for Boxed Apples. If the producers of Canadian boxed apples were protected by a duty bearing the same relation to the cost of production as is the case with barrelled apples, this danger would be to that extent lessened. This protection is, as we have pointed out in the first part of this report, only about one-half as great. To equalize this by a. method that would be approved by the consumers of the North-west Provinces, it is suggested that the plan followed by the Dominion Government with such satisfactory results in the promotion of the interprovincial fish trade might with suitable modifications be used to promote the boxed-apple trade from the Eastern and AVestern Provinces to the Prairie Provinces. The Deputy Minister of the Department of Marine and Fisheries, in his report for 1912-13. reviews the position of the fish trade, and shows clearly:— That prior to the time that the Department undertook to assist the trade the markets were very largely supplied from United States sources. That the railways did not find it feasible to give efficient service on account of the smallness of the trade. That the advantage previously held by the Canadian shippers through the action of the Customs tariff was more than offset by the fact that at United States ports, owing to the very large number of vessels operating therefrom, a supply of fish could always be relied on ; and, as the haul is short, orders could be sent to within a few hours before the consignments were needed, while the Canadian shippers were not always in a position to fill orders as received. That to overcome these disadvantages, and to assure not only the Canadian market being supplied from Canadian sources, but a rapid expansion of such markets as well, the Department arranged to pay certain proportions of the freight and express charges. That with the facilities and rates provided through the aid of the Department the Canadian dealers did not take long to demonstrate that they could control the situation; and that not only has the importation of fresh fish along the Canadian Atlantic Coast from the United States ceased, but the demand in other Canadian markets is being very rapidly expanded. That the following amounts were paid by the Department as its share of the express charge mentioned above :— 3 909-10 1930-11 3911-32 3912-13 Total On Shipments from East. $15,162 20 10,S9S 13 19,G20 02 29,969 4S $S1,650 43 On Shipments from West. $ 13,541 70 21,S00 73 35,315 10 39,277 13 $110,030 72 Total. $ 2S,703 00 3S,794 SO 54,935 72 69,246 61 $191,6S1 15 The appropriation for the year 3933-14 is $300,000. There is a striking similarity in the difficulties which prevented the development of the interprovincial fish trade and those affecting the interprovincial fruit trade. The Canadian producer of boxed apples has to wrest his market from an older and more highly organized competitor, who uses it as a dumping-ground for the surplus " C" grade apple, and so regulates the prices in North-west markets for all grades. There seems, in the circumstances surrounding the case, justification for some such measure of assistance for a term of years during which the Canadian growers of boxed apples would have an opportunity of getting on to even ground in costs of production. 100 British Columbia. 1914 AA'e would also suggest that there is a great opportunity, in connection with reciprocal tariff arrangements with the Australian and New Zealand Dominions, to gain an advantage for our fruit in those markets, and at the same time lessen the cost of imported fruits to the consumers of those Dominions and of Canada. Transportation. British Columbia growers have an important natural advantage in their nearness to the markets of Alberta and Saskatchewan. This advantage, though still most useful, has been lessened by the assistance given to competitive growers in the North-western States by American railways, which have reduced their rates on fruit from those States to the Canadian North-west markets. Such difference as there is in the mileage rates at present, after making allowance for terminal expenses, may be considered as an advantage to British Columbia growers held in reserve. The Canadian Pacific Railway Company without doubt appreciates the great direct and indirect value of a large and prosperous fruit-growing industry tributary to its line. It has shown itself appreciative of this and willing to furnish facilities and make rates which would enable the producers in its territory to hold their own in competition, and is not likely to allow them to be kept out of their natural markets if a reduction to as low a mileage rate as their United States competitors enjoy will enable them to secure it. The great increase iu the tonnage of fruit which may soon be expected to contribute to the earnings of the Canadian Pacific Railway will make possible a difference in the rates which can be profitably granted. We give here some of the rates on apples and mixed fruits from competitive points:— Freight Rates—Fruits from British Columbia and Washington Points to Prairie Centres. Table I. From To Mileage. Apple Rate per 100 lb. Apple Rate per 100 lb. per Mile. S2S 703 358 413 3.022 S97 552 007 1,SG9 1,1S2 S3S 737 1,364 1,407 1,062 961 1.527 1,540 1,195 3.094 Cents. OS 75 5S 5S 13.0 S5 07 07 S5 75 75 75 75 75 75 75 75 75 75 75 Cents. 0.1183 0.10G6 0.1621 0.1404 01135 0.0947 0.1233 0.1303 Uegina 0.0454 0.0634 0.0S94 0.1037 Brandon 0.0549 0.0533 0.0700 0.07S0 0.0491 0.04S7 0.0027 0.06S5 4 Geo. 5 Royal Commission on Agriculture. 101 Table II. From To Mileage. Mixed Fruit Rate per 100 lb. Mixed Fruit Rate per Mile per 100 lb. AA'enatchee Yakima .. A'ernon ... Nelson .... Wena tehee Yakima .. A'ernon . . . Nelson AA'enatchee Yakima .. A'ernon . . . Nelson Wenatchee Yakima .., A'ernon . . . Nelson AA'enatchee Yakima .., A'ernon ... Nelson AA'enatchee Yakima ... A'ernon ... Nelson Calgary Edmonton Regina Brandon AA'innipeg A'ancouver S2S 703 35S 412 022 S97 552 607 ,S69 ,1S2 S3S 737 364 407 062 961 527 540 195 ,094 254 3S0 501 Cents. 133.5 100 So S5 15S.5 1.10 99 99 322% 100 100 112% 112% 100 3 CO 112% 112% 100 100 35 40 48 70 Cents. 0.1632 0.1422 0.2374 0.205S 0.1550 0.1226 0.1793 0.1030 0.0952 0.1393 0.3350 0.0S24 0.0799 0.0941 0.1040 0.0730 0.0730 0.0S35 0.0914 0.137 0.126 0.3.24 As examples of other long- and short-haul rates we may mention Yakima to Seattle—303 miles at 20 cents equals 0.322 per 300 lb. per mile. Fruit is shipped to A'ictoria and A'ancouver from Seattle as well as direct from producing points. Ontario Points to Xorth-west Points. Apple Rate per 100 lb. Rate per Mile per 1.00 lb. From 1.342 miles To 2.13S miles Cents. 53 304 Cents. 0.04 0.0475 Local Difficulties. On A'ancouver Island and the Lower Mainland the difficulties brought to our notice were more local in their character. It is not easy in the Coast climate to grow apples equal in appearance to those of the Interior, and on both sides of the boundary-line the fruit from the Interior is more easily marketed at better prices. The failure of the local co-operative selling association left the smaller growers in a weak position; and the complaints which we heard were generally traceable to these causes. Most special care is needed in the selection of orchard-sites in the Coast districts, and the necessary judgment in this respect has very often not been shown. In the older orchards such a number of varieties was planted as to add to the difficulty in marketing. 102 British Columbia. 1914 The rapid growth of the Coast cities has recently changed the situation materially in favour of local growers, the saving in freight being a valuable consideration. AA'ith this change and with the spread of knowledge regarding packing and the increasing proportion of apples from young orchards, better results may be expected in the future; The conditions generally are much better suited to pear-culture. For this fruit the Prairie demand has been good at satisfactory prices, and we should be inclined to recommend pear- culture as the leading line for Coast growers. A tendency to plum-rot makes the risk in commercial plum-growing at the Coast an objection. In the Shuswnp and Okanagan the situation is considered to be much improved by the increase in co-operation referred to elsewhere, and we understand that the bearing apple and pear orchards have been profitable every year. In the Southern Okanagan peaches were extensively planted, many of them having been set out as fillers in orchards designed to be apple-orchards eventually. Peaches have been selling at very low prices in Washington, in many cases at less than the cost of production. The dumping of much of this fruit on the North-west markets has kept prices low for British Columbia growers, and caused discouragement in peach-growing. Many trees of undesirable commercial varieties were planted, and the somewhat later season of maturity has been a disadvantage in the North-west markets, as housewives are inclined to can their supply when the peach season is at its height. Some orchards of all kinds of fruit planted in shallow soil with gravelly subsoil have been taken out. In some parts where the winter conditions are least favourable a good deal of replanting with hardier varieties of trees than those first planted has been found necessary. There are canneries at A'ernon, Kelowna, and Penticton, and the further development of a special express service to meet the conditions will probably improve matters. AA'e do not think that there will be any further commercial planting of peaches in the near future, and many trees have been pulled out. AA'e learn that in Yakima some peach-orchards have been pulled up and the ground devoted to alfalfa. Many of the orchardists in the different parts of the Interior are feeling cramped, and are discouraged by the fact that the period before profitable crops can be depended upon is proving longer than anticipated. This can be helped in many cases by using the orchard as range for poultry-farming. Good results have been reported in the Kootenay from growing soiling crops in the orchard and returning to it the manure from a dairy herd; and in the districts suitable to that industry, from small-fruit growing in the earlier years of the growth of the orchards, using barnyard manure, clover, and commercial fertilizers. The Small-fruit Industry. In considering the situation regarding small fruit, we find that there is sufficient advantage to the British Columbia producers in regard to duty and express rates to enable them to compete successfully with AA'ashington and Oregon growers; but they are failing to do it. for they must make car-load shipments to get the iced service, and they are not growing enough in excess of their contracts with jam-factories to enable them to make such shipments. This condition is due to various causes. AA'e have in the first part of our report referred to the discouragement caused by the uncertainty and difficulty of securing sufficient pickers. Some years ago there was great interest shown in strawberry-culture, and a considerable acreage was planted. For a season or two iced car-load lot shipments were made from some points. Had this movement been successful it would have aided greatly in the general development of the districts suitable for this purpose, and its comparative failure was a severe check to orchard-development. Most of the causes which led to disappointment then would have been avoidable. With the experience gained since then, and with the advantage of the greatly increased consuming capacity of the North-west markets, the time seems ripe for the encouragement of this industry in such a way as to enable iced car-load shipments being made from the producing districts. It may be well to describe the conditions prevailing at the time when the movement referred to took place. There were fairly effective co-operative associations in some districts. Much of the fruit sent out was carefully picked, graded, and packed, but there was weakness shown in allowing fruit of soft varieties to be shipped, thus contributing one cause to the wreck of the business. 4 Geo. 5 Royal Commission on Agriculture. 103 At that time there appears to have been lack of experience as to the essentials to secure delivery in good order in the Prairie markets. AVhen iced cars were used they were not brought to a proper temperature before being loaded, nor was the fruir. precooled at all. Cars were overloaded and the crates packed in the cars without sufficient air-spaces between, so that there was not the required circulation of air. The result of this combination was that some cars arrived at the Prairie markets in poor condition. The towns were at that time very much smaller than they are now, and effective distribution was much more difficult than at present. The ill-fated Central Exchange, with headquarters at Revelstoke, had charge of the sale of most of the fruit, and proved quite unequal to coping with the difficulties of the situation. The results were disastrous to the shippers, and small- fruit growing received such a set-back that it will require a special course of treatment to restore confidence in this industry. Transportation of Small Fruit. In the Kootenay District one serious defect was remedied by the Dominion Express Company and the Canadian Pacific Railway Company, when supplying a covered barge, which collected the fruit along the lake at night and delivered it to the car at Kootenay Landing in the morning. This contributed greatly to successful transportation ; but the quantity, in consequence of the failure referred to, had diminished to below car-load quantities, and results by less than car-load shipments were not sufficient to encourage additional planting. Therefore, when jam-factories began operations in the Kootenay and at Mission, so many availed themselves of what seemed a safer market that further shrinkage in shipments resulted. However, we believe that if some economical means of transporting small shipments in good condition to their destination could be devised, growers would now be able to ship profitably in competition with the American car-loads, and that this result would stimulate so many into planting such areas as they could take care of without much hired labour that the aggregate would make up car-load shipments during the height of the season. We have discussed the question with Mr. Helme, Superintendent of the Pacific Division of the Dominion Express Company. The company takes a keen interest in this business and has made steady improvement in its fruit service. It is now ready to co-operate with the growers in experiments along these lines. Mr. Helme has suggested the use of pony refrigerators. He says:— These refrigerators can be moved from one express car to another at transfer points without affecting the temperature of the fruit. These small refrigerators are made in various sizes, and contain all the way from thirty-six quart or pound baskets at an estimated billing weight of 50 lb. to one containing 116 baskets at an estimated billing weight of 145 lb. They are constructed in the form of a box or cabinet, and the fruit is placed in drawers with an air-space between each one, the ice- chambers being in the top of the box and so arranged that the cool air from it moves down through the various layers. So far, their use has been confined to California and other parts of the United States, but could, I think, be adopted with advantage in Canada. The weights these refrigerators are billed at makes the charges on the fruit 10 per cent, or less higher than when shipped in the ordinary crates. Mr. Helme thinks that the patent ventilated cars might be used when the shipments become too large for such refrigerators. He is taking up the question with fruit-growers, and when the arrangement thought most likely to be satisfactory is decided upon information will be made public. Cold Storage. When the business had become so far established it would be a reasonable step to provide cold storage at the point of shipment, so that fruit could be collected and held over for one or more clays in order that all shipments might go forward in car-load lots. Speaking in this respect of the Doncaster District near Melbourne, Australia, the Scottish Agricultural Commission says:— A contributing feature to the prosperity of fruit-growing here is the excellent cold store erected by the State. It is said to be unique in Australia, the air being driven by a fan at the rate of 12,000 cubic feet per minute, over 3,000 feet of 1%-inch pipes containing the cooling liquid (ammonia). The pipes are kept sprayed by a solution of calcium chloride; afterwards the air passes over dry chloride to regulate the humidity before it enters the chamber. Strawberries can be held for six weeks, and other fruits up to twelve months, according to their kind. The charge to the fruit-grower 104 British Columbia. 1914 is l%d. per case per week from October 1st to May 31st, and Id. per case per week from June 1st to September 30th. We were informed that the cold store was erected by the Government on a guarantee against loss by the local growers, and that there are requests from other districts for similar accommodation. Continuing, the Commission reports:— The use of cold storage for fruit is not yet so general as one would expect. The expenses connected with the erection and maintenance of cold stores are so very considerable as to render the institution of those important adjuncts to orcharding a matter to be dealt with by associations rather than by private growers. In more than one case the State has come to the aid of the orchardist in this matter. At Port Adelaide an institution of a different kind, but serving a similar purpose, was visited— viz., the cold stores which form part of the Government produce Department. Under the guidance of the Minister of Agriculture for South Australia, the Hon. J. P. Wilson, inspection was made of the great establishment. Ample space is given to fruit. An equable temperature, a little above freezing-point, is maintained in the refrigerating-chambers. Fruit such as apples and pears do not deteriorate, although kept in the chambers for twelve months. Examples of both, which had been stored for ten months, were sampled, and found to be as good as ever. Growers are finding this institution a great convenience, because it enables them to hold over shipment or sale at a time when the market is glutted. Experimental Investigation of Precooling. The Dominion Government is now erecting an experimental precooling and cold-storage warehouse for fruit at Grimsby. Ontario, with a precooling capacity of eight car-loads. The advantage of the precooling will be demonstrated, the practicability of precooling in a warehouse rather than in the cars after loading will be determined, and experimental investigation of problems connected with cold storage will be carried on. The refrigerating equipment is that known as the " Gravity Brine System." Shippers of berries to North-west markets sometimes experience trouble from rainy weather at the time of picking affecting the condition of the fruit when it reaches market. AA'e learned with interest of the encouraging results of experiments by the Horticultural Branch in drying and cooling fruit with an electric fan. It is hoped that this may prove a success commercially, for it will mean much to the soft-fruit industry. This gives an interesting example of the great practical value of some of the experimental and research work being carried on by your Department of Agriculture. Methods of Production in the Pacific States. The following extracts from Commissioner Kidston's report give information as to methods, conditions, and costs of fruit production in AVashington, Oregon, and California:— Clean cultivation was initiated and is still followed in California. AA'ashington and Oregon followed suit. In all three States experience has proved that the continuance of this system through a number of years results in the depletion of humus and decrease in soil-fertility, with a consequent lowering of the vitality of the trees and reduction in yield. To counteract this evil two methods have been extensively tried : (1) Heavy application of stable manure; and (2) cover-crops sown in the fall and ploughed in the spring. Both methods are good; but both are expensive, and the first is usually not available. During the past two or three years, in AA'ashington and Oregon, experiments have been fairly extensively tried with permanent alfalfa and clover. Both appear to have given good results, but clover demands a greater amount of water than is usually available. The alfalfa experiments seem more hopeful. The method adopted is to sow the seed very lightly— 2 to 3 lb. per acre—broadcast, either in August or in the spring. Some growers do not cut the alfalfa at all; others cut it three or four times annually, always before blooming, while again others cut it and use it as hay. The last method is not recommended so far as the trees are concerned. The results we saw in some of the orchards were most encouraging. Mr. Darlington, at AA'enatchee, is an enthusiastic believer in the alfalfa-sod method, and Mr. Gilbert, at Yakima, himself a follower of the clean-cultivation method, stated that he thought the alfalfa method would win out. All who have tried it maintain that the action of the roots appears to keep the soil up underneath and prevents the clogging of the land, while the roots, going so far down, draw their moisture mostly from a lower level than the tree-roots. The growers conducting the experiments, but not cutting for hay, assured us that certainly no more water was needed, after the alfalfa was set, than with clean cultivation; some said less. As a matter of fact, although I speak of this method as an experiment of the past two or three years, Mr. AV. P. Sawyer, the owner of the 6-acre block of Bartlett pears in Yakima, from which such remarkable results have been obtained for sixteen years, has had that orchard in per- 4 Geo. 5 Royal Coaimission on Agriculture. 105 manent alfalfa for fifteen years. He sowed 2 to 3 lb. per acre broadcast; cuts four times, before blooming, and leaves it lying; irrigates three times in one furrow, permanent, between each row of trees for forty-eight hours at a time; the first irrigation in early April, the second just before picking, and the third as late as possible. Mr. Sawyer states that the reduction in the heat of the soil under this system is most marked, as compared with good clean cultivation, and this is a point which should receive careful attention in British Columbia, where reduction in heat is probably not advisable. In all other respects the method would appear to be most suitable to the Dry Belt conditions in British Columbia and is certainly worthy of experiment. Under no circumstances should alfalfa be tried until the trees are at least five years old. Irrigation.—At most of the points at which we called irrigation is the general practice. The exceptions are: Medford, where there is no irrigation at all; AVatsonville, where irrigation is used only for small fruits; A'acaville, where irrigation has been comparatively little used except for small fruits, but where its use is rapidly extending, especially where clover is now being grown in the orchards. In AVashington and Oregon gravity systems are the rule, except in Spokane, where artesian wells arc the source of supply. In California the source of supply is almost invariably artesian wells and pumps. The cost of supplying the water naturally varies greatly under the different conditions. In the Spokane A'alley the cost averages about $S per acre for bearing orchards, exclusive of the cost of the wells and pumps. In the Yakima A'alley the average cost is about $3.50 per acre, in addition to an original payment of $65 for the purchase of a water right, which payment was included in the price of the land. In AVenntehee the charge under the high-line canal, the principal system, is $1.50 per acre, in addition to a payment of $125 for a water right, as above. Some pumping is done here to orchards above the level of the canal. In California in the bearing orange and lemon groves the cost runs as high as $30 per acre, and probably averages about $20 per acre, in addition to the cost of the wells and pumps. Most of the water is pumped from 100 to 600 feet. Cost of Production. Rates of Wages Locality. Alan per Day. California . AVatsonville A'acaville . . Medford . . Corvallis . . Yakima . .. AVenatchee Spokane . . Puyallup . . $2 00 2 00 1 50-1 75 2 00 2 00 2 00-2 50 2 00 2 50 2 50 2 50 Team with Teamster. $4 00 4 00 4 00 5 00 4 00-4 50 5 00 Women in Canneries and Backing-house. $1 35 i oo 1 00 15c. per hour. 1 25 Cost of Operating.—It is very difficult to arrive at any definite information as to this. Few people keep accurate records, and those who do vary greatly in their views of what should be included. Such figures as we took are only relatively useful. For instance:— In Yakima a block of 150 acres of three-year-old orchard is costing $20 per acre, actual outlay, but the owner of this block has use for men and teams when not actually at work on the particular block. At Corvallis a young apple-orchard of 120 acres is costing $20 per acre, but teams can be hired there, as wanted, at from $4 to $4.50 per day. At Hood River a young 34-acre apple-orchard costs $44 per acre, while an old bearing block under the same ownership costs $120 per acre, including picking. At AVatsonville a block of 150 acres, bearing, costs $60 per acre, exclusive of picking. In Yakima a 6-acre block of twenty-one-year-old pears costs $195 per acre, but this is a special case of growing for a particular market and yields very high net returns. In Medford figures were quoted for a large orchard, partly iu bearing, showing a cost of $60 to $70 per acre for non-bearing and $90 per acre for bearing grove, but these figures included compound interest on the whole capital expenditure, depreciation on buildings (large) and implements, taxes, etc. 10G British Columbia. 1914 In California the investigations of the California Citrus Protective League show the average cost of bearing groves to be, for lemons, $197.15 per acre, of which $92.51 was for labour; and for oranges, $136 per acre, of which $52.82 was for labour. On non-bearing citrus groves the cost is estimated at from $75 to $125 per acre per annum after planting till bearing commences. The taxes vary greatly. The following are some of the rates per acre: Southern California, citrus groves, bearing, from $8 to $14, averaging, say, $12; A'acaville, $3 per acre; Rogue River. $3.50 per acre on young orchards up to $12 on bearing; in Wenatchee, $10 to $12 on bearing orchards; in Plood River, $12 on bearing orchards. The custom seems to be to assess orchards at a comparatively low figure—$350 to $500 per acre; but the rates are heavy—25 to 40 mills. Cost of Materials in Washington and Oregon.—-There is good competition in the supply of materials and costs have been worked clown pretty low. For convenience of reference, I give the average prices of various commodities there and in the Okanagan, in both cases delivered in warehouse:— Peach-boxes Apple-boxes Plum-crates with four baskets Berry-crates, made up AVrapping-paper Lime-sulphur spray Alfalfa-hay Timothy-hay AA'ashington and Oregon. 4% cents 10 ., 10,11 „ 15 3% to 4% cents per pound . . $6.50 to $7.50 per barrel $0 to $7 in stack. $9 to $10, baled and delivered Okanagan. 8Vi cents. 13% „ 13% „ 24% sys „ $8.50 per barrel. $10 to $20 in stack. $15 to $30, baled and delivered. Cost of Production in Washington and Oregon.—It is difficult to arrive at accurate average figures for the cost of production ; conditions vary so much and such a very large percentage of the orchards are in the very young years, but the following figures represent fairly what the average fruit-farmer would be expected to do and what is being taken as a basis for calculations:— Actual cost of producing, packing, and loading on car of one box of: Apples, 55 cents; pears, 50 cents; peaches, 35 cents. One grower and shipper put the actual cost for peaches as low as 27% cents per box, but I should doubt if the work is really done as low as that. The actual cost of handling fruit, after delivery at the packing-houses—that is to say, packing (including the cost of materials), hauling to cars where necessary, and loading on cars—was worked out with us by several shippers and shows great variations; in most cases interest and depreciation on buildings was not included in the charges: Apples, 25 to 35 cents per box; pears, 22 to 32 cents per box; peaches, 12% to 15% cents per box. AA'here the marketing was done through a local association and central selling agency, an addition must be made of about 10 cents per box (5 cents each) for apples and pears, and 0% cents (5 cents for local and 1% cents for central) for peaches. Individuals marketing their own fruit and one or two growers marketing their own and a limited amount of other growers' fruit enter no charge for their time and management. Returns from Orchards in Washington and Oregon.—Such an infinitesimal proportion of all the orchards iu AA'ashington and Oregon are at real bearing age that it is difficult to form a reasonable! view, but we obtained some apparently absolutely reliable figures showing excellent results from some old orchards. As regards young orchards and the time for them to commence bearing commercially, there has been much rubbish written. It is true that, apparently, in Yakima and AVenatchee, the trees commence to bear considerably earlier than in British Columbia, and that in some particularly favourable situations highly profitable crops have been produced iu the quite early yars. but the more thoughtful growers do not expect much before the seventh or eighth year. Among young orchards we verified the following returns:—• Xakima: Two acres containing fifty-two AA'inesap apple-trees yielded S% boxes per tree in the sixth year, 12% boxes per tree in the seventh year, and 13% boxes per tree in the eighth year; but these two acres formed part of an orchard of 20 acres, and we were given no figures for the rest of the orchard. Twelve acres containing 000 Winesaps and 400 Spitz, seven years old. The crop was bought on the trees for $5,000, the purchaser doing the picking, and yielded 5,000 boxes of AA'inesap and 750 boxes of Spitz, or eight and two boxes respectively per tree. (Tbe AA'inesap in a suitable locality apparently stands pre-eminently for early and steady bearing combined with quality.) Among old orchards were ver'fied the following:— 4 Geo. 5 Royal Cojimission on Agriculture. 107 Five and six-tenths acres of Bartlett pears, twenty-one years old— Average gross annual return per acre from sixth to twenty-first years. . $569 62 Average gross annual cost per acre from sixth to twenty-first years 195 94 Average net annual profit for sixteen years $373 68 Three acres AVinesap have yielded from 1,800 to 2,400 boxes annually for eight years. These, of course, are records from small areas, and, as a matter of fact, the large areas planted are all young and not in a position to supply much in the way of data; but from Mr. Darlington, Horticultural Inspector at AVenatchee, we got some most useful and reliable figures, as follows:— In 1912 there were in the four counties under his charge 731,381 trees four years old and upwards; mostly four to eleven. The average yield from the whole was 2.S7 boxes per tree, as shown by the exports, no allowance being made for home consumption. The number of trees in his district in 1913 is as follows :— Five years up S75,000 Four years old 500,000 Three years old 655,000 Two years old 717,000 Total 2,747,000 The feeling regarding the prospects of the industry through AA'ashington and Oregon is distinctly optimistic. Land-values.—The following are conservative statements of the value of land at different points. Not many sales are being put through at present, but some sales are being made at about the figures given. AA'enatchee: Bearing apple-orchards in good locations, the best varieties, $1,000 to $3,000 per acre. Medford: Raw fruit lands, cleared, at two to three miles from town, $200 per acre; eight to ten miles from town, $30; bearing orchards, $500 to $2,000. Corvallis: Agricultural lands, Willamette Valley, raw, $50 to $75; clearing costs $30 to $50 per acre. Southern California: Citrus land, ready to plant, with water, $400 to $1,000; at six years old, $3,000 to $3,000; bearing groves, $2,000 to $3,000. Porterville: Citrus lands, ready to plant, with water, $250; bearing orange groves, $3,200 to $1,500. Oroville : Citrus land, ready to plant, with water, $100 to $150; bearing citrus groves, $1,000 up. A'acaville: Raw fruit lands, cleared, $75 to $150; bearing cherry, plum, pear, etc., orchards, $450 to $600. These figures may be taken as indicating the values at which returns can be earned. Mechanical Facilities. Trackage Facilities and Electric Power and Light.—Iu regard to these, the districts I visited are very well served. Many of the electric tram-lines, owned either by the railways or by private companies, operate through the orchard districts, so that cars are loaded right in the orchards for their ultimate destination. No switching or additional local freight charges are made, thus effecting a considerable saving to growers. In every packing-house I inspected, except one, electric light and power were available. Mechanical Graders for Apples.—In practically all the packing-houses that we saw in AVashington and Oregon, mechanical graders were being used and we saw several types at work. All apple- graders show very clearly their descent from the orange-grading machines in California, with modifications to overcome such difficulties as the irregular shapes of apples and the danger of bruising. In some of the models these modifications seem to be very successful, and I have no doubt that mechanical graders have come to stay. What appeared to be the most successful machine was the Schellinger 1913 model, but this could probably be improved by a brush-feed to clean tho fruit. Apart from any other possible advantages, it appeared to us that a greater general efficiency is reached in packing-houses using the mechanical graders than in .those worked entirely by hand, and there is no doubt that the work can be speeded up by their use, also economy of space is achieved. AA'e saw very small packing-houses with a daily output of from 500 to 1,000 boxes. Sprays and Spraying Methods.—The winter spraying of fruit-trees is at present undergoing a change. Lime-sulphur has proved, at best, only partially effective for San Jose scale and aphis-eggs, so that its use is falling off. Growers in some sections are looking to the oil sprays for better results, and much experimenting is being done with these in the three States. The cheap California distillates are being used as the basis, and some success has already been achieved, especially in the AVatsonville District, for apple-mildew. Spraying for apple-scab has generally been only partially successful, though we saw some successful work. Generally, growers, while continuing to use the old spray, are not satisfied with results and are constantly reaching out for more effective means. Blight-control.—Blight has been much more serious than usual in the Spokane, Yakima, and Medford Districts this year, while Wenatchee, Hood River, Vacaville, and AVatsonville have been 108 British Columbia. 1914 comparatively free. California has had little blight for several years. The San .Toaquim section, centring at Fresno, was a great pear-growing section, but the blight, which commenced in 1S98 and raged for three years, left absolutely no commercial pear-orchards at all. The Sacramento A'alley escaped till 1904, when the blight broke out virulently and raged for three or four years. Then it disappeared, but most of the orchards were wiped out, only a few of the best cared for surviving. As regards the possibility of control, the impression we gained from the authorities is that they consider that where the blight is only moderately active those growers who are able to keep it cut out will survive, while once it becomes really virulent the risk of the complete destruction of all the orchards is very great. AVe could learn of no section where blight of a virulent type had been really and effectively controlled as a whole. In Medford and AA'enatchee the type seems to be less virulent iu character and to be fairly well under hand. It is generally agreed that the methods of control at present known are only of partial value, but it is also recognized that blight cannot be taken too seriously, and that any methods which offer even a chance of success must be tried. By-products Industries.—Contrary to my previously held opinions, I find that the by-product industry enters to a very small extent into the fruit-growing business in AA'ashington and Oregon. Many small local canning, vinegar, and cider factories have been erected to take care of the low grade and surplus fruit, and some few—mostly new—are still running. But the amount of business clone is very small, and most of the attempts have ended iu failure. The truth of the matter is that canneries and evaporators to be successful must be run as a main, not a by-product, business; they must have an ensured supply of produce of good quality and in succession, so as to make up a full working season; and, further, the produce must be of the kinds which command a ready market. Iu the districts where the large canneries and evaporators have been established, fruit and produce are grown primarily to meet the requirements of the factories, and it is hopeless for the small factories with only a supply of low-grade and intermittent fruit and produce to compete in the markets. This does not necessarily mean that canneries may not.be of great service to growers in British Columbia, but merely that growers, if a canning industry is to be established, must make up their minds to furnish a definite and suitable supply of good fruit, regardless of the fresh-fruit market, at prices to enable the canneries to compete with the article as produced in Ontario and California. The duty on canned goods is 33%. To a limited extent the vinegar and cider business might be a help, but it is incapable of great extension. In AVashington, Oregon, California, Ontario, Nova Scotia, and New York the price paid for apples by vinegar and oider factories varies from $3 to $0 per ton delivered. Mr. Robins, of the North Pacific Distributors, spoke very strongly on the lines I have detailed. Small-fruit Industry in AA'ashington State. Commissioner Duncan found that at Puyallup the Magoon or Marshall strawberries are esteemed for shipment when the journey would not take more than twenty-four hours, but that for long-distance shipments it was necessary to have Clark Seedlings, and for canning either Clark Seedlings or Wilson. Loganberries are found to be profitable at Puyallup, and the demand exceeds the supply. Evergreen blackberries yield 600 to S00 crates of pint cups to the acre at a cost of 25 cents for picking, 35 cents for crate, 7% cents for hauling, etc., 7% cents for cultivation and care of canes. 5 cents for association charges, amounting in all to 60 cents, and are saleable at an average net price of 85 cents. The shipments of strawberries for 1913 season yielded the growers:— June 4th to 6th $3.5S per crate. ., 7th „ 30th 2.01 „ 31th „ 33th 3.20 „ 14th „ 22nd 1.01 „ 23rd „ end 1.03 Those prices would not be satisfactory to British Columbia growers. The British Columblv Fruit-growers' Association. This Association has been growing in numbers, having a membership of 700, with eighteen local organizations affiliated. Much useful work has been accomplished in the promotion of the welfare of fruit-growing, particularly with regard to marketing and transportation, and we are pleased to note the assistance given to it by your Government. Under the heads of " Marketing " and " Co-operation " we give some information bearing particularly upon fruit. 4 Geo. 5 Royal Commission on Agriculture. 109 Fruit-preserving Factories. The following jam and canning factories were in operation in the Province during 3913:— Name of Firm. Location. Manager. Nature of Products. Kootenay Columbia Pre John Sherbinnen . . . Jams and jellies; canned serving AVorks fruits; preserves. J. A. McDonald Jams and jellies, etc.; canned fruits. Procter Preserving Works G. A. Daniell Jams and jellies, etc.; canned fruit and vegetables. Arrow Lakes Cannery Co. President, Mr. June.. Canned fruits and vege tables. Eureka Jam and Pickle East Arrow Park. . Airs. Dean Jams, jellies, and pickles. AVorks A'ernon Canning and Jam Mr. Leitch Canned fruits and vege Co., owned and operated tables. this year by Dominion Canners, Ltd. Dominion Canners, Ltd.. Summerland Air. Leitch Canned fruits and vege tables. O.K. Cannery Co Okanagan Centre . . Canned fruits and vegetables. AA'estern Canners, Ltd... Canned fruits and vege tables. AVestern Canners, Ltd... tables. Summerland orated fruits and vegetables ; not put on the market yet. Mission City Jams and jellies, canned fruits and vegetables. Chilliwack Canning Co... Chilliwack Air. Smith Canned fruits and vege tables. J. Broder New AA'estminster.. A'ancouver E m p r e s s Manufacturing Jams and jellies, canned Co. vegetables and pickles. Empress Manufacturing Pulping plant. Co. Sidney Mr AA'hite Steps are being taken towards the establishment of new factories at Grand Forks, Nakusp, New AA'estminster, and Duncan. The enforcement of the provisions of the " Pure Food Act" should have the effect of strengthening the position of our local factories. Tables showing the quantities and prices of fruit marketed in this way, amounting to over 2.000.000 lb., will |e found in the Appendix. The Doukhobors' Society, operating the Kootenay Columbia Preserving AA'orks at Nelson, supplies pickers at its own expense, and we learned from the manager that the Russian Douk- hobor girls, at an allowance of 1% cents per pound for both raspberries and strawberries, earned from $2.50 to $3.50 a clay. AA'e learned of a small combined jam-making and canning plant, with a daily capacity of 12.000 lb. jam or 9,000 lb. canned fruit, which had cost without buildings about $2,500. The jam is sold in British Columbia, Alberta, and Saskatchewan. Jam from the factories in the Interior goes to Alberta and Saskatchewan, where it is on a better footing in competition 110 British Columbia. 1914 with English jam than it would be after paying freight of 77 cents per 100 lb. iu car-loads to the Coast. Jam-factories at the Coast, having less freight on their sugar and jam, can better meet this competition in the Coast cities. Sugar is brought from Glasgow to Nelson by the Atlantic route, and cans from Toronto. The wholesale price of a 5-ib. can of raspberry jam in Calgary is about 77 cents, out of which the manufacturer will probably have to pay about 35 cents for commissions and 3 cents for freight, leaving him 59 cents, or 11% cents per pound at the factory. This is for jam of the highest quality manufactured entirely from pure fruit and sugar. Several years ago British Columbia jam, which was.'perliaps, not of quite such high quality, sold at the following prices wholesale per 5-lb. pail:— Cents. Peach plum GO Gooseberry 02% Raspberry and strawberry 65 Peach jam 67% Red-curraut jelly 75 Out of this the manufacturers would have to pay 20 per cent, to the agent and wholesale grocer and a freight allowance varying between 5 per cent, and 7% per cent., so that strawberry jam netted him at his factory about 4S% cents per 5-lb. can, or 9 '/,„ cents per pound. In 1933 English jam in 5-lb. tins was sold to the wholesaler at 20s. per dozen for strawberry, 19s. Od. per dozen for raspberry, 19s. per dozen for assorted, and 20s. per dozen for black currant. This would be about 41 cents per 5-lb. tin, to which add freight, insurance, duty, etc., 34 cents, making a cost at the Coast of 55 cents for tins containing full 5 lb. net of jam, with a discount of 5 per cent, for cash. Many manufacturers sell as 5 lb. a tin containing from 4% to 4% lb. One-lb. glass jars of the same jams by the same invoice cost 5s. 3d. per dozen for assorted, 5s. Od. per dozen for raspberry, and 5s. 9d. per dozen for black currant and strawberry. This would equal about 31 cents per jar, to which add freight, insurance, duty, etc., 0 cents, making the laid-dowu cost to the wholesaler here 17 cents per jar. The canners had not a satisfactory season in 1913. Tomatoes sold at 25 cents a case less than the price of 1912, and the crop was light. The Interior of British Columbia is handicapped in competition with California by the higher cost of material and labour, and the freight on sugar and cans is an item of importance. Cans cost, British Columbia Interior 13% cents. „ in California 9% „ Gallon cans, British Columbia Interior $56 per 1,000. in California $45 „ 1,000. Sugar costs, British Columbia Interior 6 cents per pound. in California 4.6 ,, ,. Tbe following statements obtained from a commission merchant in British Columbia show the cost to a jam-factory of the selling of their goods. The goods concerned were chiefly disposed of in Alberta. For comparison a statement of jams brought from England by the same firm has been attached. Season of 1909-10.—A commission house in A'ictoria sold on commission for a Jam Company, jams and jellies amounting to $11,320. The cost to 'the Jam Company of the selling of these goods was:— . (1.) A rebate of 20 per cent, divided in varying proportions between the agent and the wholesale grocer. (2.) A freight allowance varying between 5 and 7% per cent, of the gross cost, and in no cases exceeding the actual freight cost. Minimum car-load from Nelson to the Coast is 24,000 lb. Prices obtained per 5-lb. pail were as follows:— * Cents. Peach plum jam 60 Gooseberry ., 62% Strawberry 65 Raspberry „ 65 Red currant „ 65 Golden plum 65 Peach , 67% Crab-apple jelly 65 Red currant „ 75 4 Geo. 5 Royal Commission on Agriculture. Ill And netted to the Jam Company, therefore, from 9.6 to 12 cents per pound, less freight allowance, say % to % cent, as before stated. Statement of Cost to Importer. Cents. Selling-price of 5-lb. tin at the factory, 19s. to 20s 41 Freight, insurance, duty, etc 14 Laid-down cost of 5-lb tin (contains 5 lb. net weight of jam) is therefore 55 The cost of 1-lb. tins is slightly higher in proportion owing to the extra cost for tins and freight. Cents. Selling-price of 1-lb. glass at the factory, 5s. 3d. to 5s. 9d 11 Freight, insurance, duty, etc 06 Laid-down cost of 1-lb. glass is therefore 17 Many manufacturers sell a tin which weighs 4% to 4% lb. as a 5 lb. tin. Five per cent, from f.o.b. prices for cash on arrival. Statement to Importer (August, 1913). 75 doz. 5-lb. tins strawberry, 20s £75 0 0 50 „ 5-lb. tins raspberry, 19s. 6d 48 15 0 75 „ 5-lb. tins assorted, 19s 71 5 0 25 „ 5-lb. tins black currant. 20s 25 0 0 100 „ 1-lb. glass strawberry, 5s. 9d 28 15 0 50 „ 1-lb. glass raspberry, 5s. 0d 13 15 0 50 „ 1-lb. glass assorted, 5s. 3d • 13 2 6 20 „ 1-lb. glass black currant, 5s. 9d 5 15 0 335 cases £2S1 7 0 Insurance, £ 220 at 10s. per cent, and £61 at 30s. per cent 2 OS Port dues 0 0 4 Bills of lading 0 2 0 £2S3 16 6 POULTRY-KEEPING. Looking into the position of this industry, we find from the statistics that, comparing the results of 3.913 with those of 1932, there was an increase of egg production of about 45 per cent, and of dressed poultry of about 25 per cent., a decrease of importations from other Provinces of about 5 per cent, of eggs and 45 per cent, of dressed poultry, but an increase in the importations from foreign countries of 30 per cent, of eggs and a small increase of dressed poultry, showing that the increase in home production, though marked, still had failed to keep pace with the growth of the home market. The fear of overtaking the local demand and being forced into competition in outside open markets has deterred many from taking up poultry-keeping on an extensive scale, but there is room for very large expansion before such a situation will arise. AA'e visited some very complete plants on Vancouver Island where a large business was done in the sale of eggs for breeding and in day-old chicks, as well as in the production of eggs. We found much interest in poultry-keeping shown in most parts of the Province, and more general co-operation among poultry-keepers in the purchase of grain and mill-feed than among any other class of producers. In some places co-operation in the sale of eggs and poultry was proving very satisfactory, and this movement is spreading. The drier parts of Vancouver Island, the Gulf Islands, and the Lower Mainland have more favourable conditions in some respects than the Interior for large egg production, and have larger city markets close at hand; but they are also subject to more severe outside competition, and on that account the profits have been at least as good in the Interior. Profits of the Poultrv Business. The Mediterranean breeds, headed by the AVhite Leghorns, are most popular, especially at and near the Coast and the milder parts of the Interior. In the colder parts the heavier breeds are probably more profitable. The lowest price for eggs reached during 1913 was 25 cents and the highest SO cents a dozen, and the average price for 3.911, 1932, and 3913 has probably been 30 per cent, higher than for 1907, 1908, 1909, and 1910. 112 British Columbia. 1914 The results of the recently concluded Second International Egg-laying Contest, as given in the report just issued by your Agricultural Department, furnish some valuable information for those who may be considering engaging in the business. AVe give here the summary of results:— Duration of contest (months) 3.0 Number of pens 40 Number of birds 240 Total number of eggs laid 34,977 Total value of eggs laid $3.020.37 Total cost of feeding $376.94.2 Profit over cost of feeding $643.22 Average market price of eggs per dozen .35 Average number of eggs laid per pen 874.4 Average number of eggs laid per bird 345.7 Average cost of food per pen (six birds) $9.42.35 Average cost of food per bird $1.57 Profit over cost of food per pen $16.0S Profit over cost of food per bird $2.6S Eggs laid by winning pen, Class 3 1.332 Average per bird, winning pen 3SS.G Eggs laid by winning pen, Class 2 3,07S Average per bird, winning pen 3.79.6 AA'hile poultry-keeping is undoubtedly proving generally quite profitable as an exclusive business when carried on by experienced, capable, industrious poultrymen, we cannot encourage any one without those qualifications to engage in it extensively. AVhen a flock is gradually increased from a small beginning, particularly as an adjunct to orcharding or dairying, and experience gained as the size of the flock increases, the risk which attends beginning on a large scale is avoided. Apart from such ground as may be used for growing crops for the use of the fowls, about one-half acre will furnish space enough for 100 fowls without danger of crowding and of insanitary conditions. Poultry-keeping is particularly advantageous when carried on in connection with an orchard, and cases came to our notice where fowls had been the mainstay of the orchardist before his trees had come into bearing. AA'hile eggs are the principal source of income, the returns from cockerels are important, and the opening of crate-fattening centres is making it easier to dispose of the surplus birds. Retail prices for fattened birds have during the past year ranged from 25 to 45 cents a pound. Ducks and geese are raised profitably in the different parts of the Province, and deserve, we think, more attention. TUKKEY-DREEDING. In the drier parts where there is abundance of free range the opportunities for turkey- breeding are excellent, and with the high prices prevailing large profits should be realized, as the demand far exceeds the supply. " Black-head,'' which is the great drawback to turkey-breeding, has not gained a foothold in the Province, and in the districts which we have in mind the dry springs would minimize one of the great difficulties of the turkey-breeder. The wide range with abundance of wild berries, seeds, and insects make ideal conditions for turkeys, wThich combine great hardiness after they are feathered, with susceptibility to disease in cramped quarters or when sharing ground with other fowl. Retail prices for dressed turkeys range from 28 to 40 cents per pound. The British Columbia Poultry Association. This Association was organized on August 30th, 1930, has now a membership of over 400. and is active in promoting the welfare of the industry. It receives a grant from your Government which it expends in assisting local poultry associations in providing prizes for the annual show and the egg-laying contest. The Association publishes a breeders' directory and has provided the transportation of poultry to shows outside of the Province. 4 Geo. 5 Royal Coaimission on Agriculture. 113 The Association, as in the case of the Dairy and Live Stock Association, forms a convenient channel for assistance in various ways from your Government to the individual breeder, and by co-operation among the members is doing much to further the interests of the poultryinen. The Chief Poultry Instructor of the Live Stock Branch acts as Secretary-Treasurer and the Poultry Instructor as Assistant Secretary. By means of bulletins, lectures, and visits the Instructors are spreading the knowledge of the best methods, and there has been a great improvement in the general practice. As an example of details of management of which the importance is not understood by many poultry-keepers until impressed upon them by such instruction, we may mention the removal of all male birds from laying-pens at the expiration of the breeding season. Failure to attend to this has been the cause of much loss and dissatisfaction, for fertilized eggs spoil very quickly. In South Dakota it is estimated that the loss through such improper methods during last year was $1,000,000, and the Pure Food Department of that State has issued a proclamation urging citizens to observe June 0th as " Rooster's Day." The Association has been active in its efforts to secure the prevention of the importation of diseased live poultry, in connection with which we have made a recommendation. The Association has also been pressing for legislation which will help to protect consumers and producers of fresh wholesome eggs from the effects of misrepresentation by dealers. The action of the Live Stock Branch in establishing thirty breeding-stations in outlying parts of the Province will do much to stimulate interest in poultry-keeping and to improve the grade of birds kept by farmers generally. BEE-KEEPING. AVhile there are instances of great success in bee-keeping on A'ancouver Island and the Gulf Islands, in the Lower Fraser A'alley, the Okanagan and the Kootenay Districts, the production of honey for sale and the average production of honey to a colony have been small, and there appears to be need of especial skill and attention to assure satisfactory commercial results. The importance of bees in assisting in the cross-pollination of fruit-blossoms is becoming more and more widely appreciated, and leads many growers to keep a few colonies of bees for that purpose, without having had previous experience and without devoting to them the attention required to learn how to overcome any difficulties which may arise from a difference in the conditions from those usually encountered. In the Appendix will be found the number of colonies and the yield in the different districts; the importance of skill and experience is shown by the yields of 100 to 150 lb. and even 200 lb. of honey reported in some cases, when compared witli the low average production. The principal nectar-secreting plants at the Coast are the white and alsike clovers, willow- herb or fireweed, wild blackberry, salal, snowberry, and soft maple; and in the Interior, white and alsike and yellow clovers, alfalfa, sainfoin, dandelion, milkweed, wild sage, buckwheat, snowberry, milkwort, fireweed, goldenrod, and raspberries (wild and cultivated). The quality of the honey produced is high; it is light iu colour, and of excellent flavour. It commands the highest price on the market. The colonies are generally healthy, and the Inspector for the district pronounces the Kootenays to be free from any of the germ diseases affecting bees. Failure to understand the proper means of preparing the colonies for winter has been a frequent cause of poor results. In the southern part of A'ancouver Island the cold south-west winds in May and June are unfavourable, and on the Lower Mainland the rains in June, which wash the nectar from the blossoms and prevent the flight of bees, are a drawback. The Inspectors are agreed that, with skill, bee-culture is highly profitable in different, districts, but in the face of the low general average of production do not yet advise engaging in it as a main business, but as an adjunct to some other rural pursuit. LABOUR-SUPPLY. One of the decisive factors in determining the extent to which farming can be made profitable is the farmer's ability to obtain skilled farm labour at wages which will enable him to compete with supply of products from other sources. In this respect the farmers of British Columbia 114 British Coluaibia. 1914 appear to be placed under special difficulties. Not only is an increased supply of farm and domestic labour needed in the Province, but it is very desirable that confidence should be established in the sufficiency of the supply. There is no doubt that uncertainty on this point is acting as a great deterrent to men with some capital engaging in farming. Some plan by which information as to supply and demand in different districts would be available through a central clearing office would help to regulate the supply and be useful to both employers and labourers. The fact that during some months past the financial stringency and consequent contraction of operations have thrown a number of men out of employment does not do away with the need of organized measures to encourage the immigration of farm-labourers. Assisted Passages to Immigrants. State assistance is granted by all the States of the Australian Commonwealth, excepting Tasmania, to immigrants of good character who have had some agricultural experience and to domestic servants. (See Report of the Scottish Agricultural Commission in the Australian Year-book, 1913.) In 1911 assisted passages were granted to 39,337 immigrants. That the efforts made to encourage immigrants from the United Kingdom to Australia are fruitful of results is shown by the increase in the number of British immigrants from 3,093 in 3903 to 04,374 in 190S, and 140,602 in 3.912. Tn Australia farm wages range from $3.50 a week to $5 a week and board, to $9 a week with cottage, wood, and water, or in some cases $1.50 a day with free house and milk. The wages of domestic servants are from $3.75 a week to $5 a week and higher, and of lads from fifteen to eighteen years old. from $3.85 to $3 a week and board. Commissioner Shannon reports:— The Ontario Government has set aside $25,000 to be used in assisting passages of experienced farm-labourers and domestics from Great Britain. The maximum amount advanced to each is $20, paid back at the rate of $10 per month for farm-labourers and $5 a month for domestics. On the basis of former experience it is estimated that 90 per cent, of the $25,000 will be repaid. The booking agent in the Old Country is responsible for the men reporting at their destination. On their arrival they are met at the boat and directed to their places of destination, and the farmers must report to the booking agent the arrival of the immigrants. Four thousand farm-hands were placed in the Province in 1913 through this means, 90 per cent of whom are proving satisfactory. It is probable that when they are able to borrow money to help them in improving farms of their own, many of the men now working on the farms of others will be employed on their own land, and that the need of more farm labour to replace them will be keenly felt. JUVENILE IMMIGRATION. During recent years there has been in all civilized countries a growing appreciation of the great good that can be accomplished by efforts on behalf of neglected children. The conclusion has been reached that the greater care which they have been receiving lately has contributed largely to the decrease in crime. In dealing with this problem in England, where in the metropolitan area there are some 70.000 children kept at an annual expense to the public of $100 for each child, emigration to the colonies is regarded as the wisest solution, and a number of children would doubtless be available for emigration to British Columbia, provided the requirements of the Boards iu control of them are satisfied. Through the agency of the Doctor Barnardo Homes nearly 25,000 children have been brought to Canada since 1SS2, and most of them are said to have done well, and chiefly in rural life. The society maintains three receiving homes in Ontario and one in Manitoba. The Church of England carries on work on somewhat similar lines, and maintains a receiving home for boys at Sherbrooke, Quebec, and one for girls at Niagara-on-the-Lake in Ontario. The Catholic Emigration Society, the Salvation Army, Mrs. Macpherson, Mrs. Bert, and other philanthropic persons and' charitable institutions are conducting emigration-work of the same character. The results are considered to have been beneficial from every point of view. Plan recommended by the Royal Colonial Institute. Realizing the importance of properly safeguarding and regulating juvenile emigration to the Dominions in the interest as well of the young emigrants as the Dominions, the Home 4 Geo. 5 Royal Cojimission on Agriculture. 115 Government took the matter up especially with respect to emigration to Australia, and a sub-commitlee of the Royal Colonial Institute was appointed to make a full inquiry. This committee in a resolution passed on April 10th, 1912, recommended a plan for the emigration of deserted children based on the provisions set forth in the following:— (1.) An intelligent and comprehensive scheme of child emigration can only be the outcome of co-ordinate work between the authorities in the Mother-land, the Dominions, and the emigration societies interested, so that a steady influx of child immigrants of both sexes to those countries can be ensured year by year. (2.) The Dominions should be recognized by the Home Government as a field for immigration of children of both sexes. (3.) Provision should be made by the Provincial Government for the reception, care, and supervision of the child immigrants. (4.) The Province should establish receiving homes and farm schools devised to ensure the welfare of the children from first selection to final arrival. (5.) The Home Government in the Mother-land should authorize the Poor Law Guardians to facilitate the emigration of deserted and adopted children of both sexes by— (a.) Spending, when necessary, a larger sum than at present for child emigration : (b.) Paying a subsidy chargeable to the rates, bearing a proportional relation to the expense of the children were they kept at home: (c.) To encourage throughout the Kingdom the emigration of Poor Law children as one of the best means of providing for their future. The Provincial Government should co-operate with the emigration societies by giving free or assisted passages and free railroad passes in the Dominion to children whose selection for immigration into the Province had been approved. (6.) The Provincial Government to arrange for the periodical inspectidh of all homes and farm schools established for immigrated children and report to the Home Government. The Child Emigration Society. The Child Emigration Society was founded by colonials at Oxford in October, 1909. To carry out its work it has arranged with the Government of AVestern Australia for the establishment of a farm school. A Farm School in West Australia. The Government has placed an area of 900 acres at the disposal of the society and will bear part of the cost of transport, while the primary educational system of the State will be available for the children. The children will live on the farm and have the benefit of expert instruction in agricultural and domestic science. The farm-school system is intended to fit British boys to take up good positions on farms in the colony of their adoption, and girls for useful occupation in colonial households. Resourcefulness and self-helpfulness will be taught by letting the children do everything possible for themselves—cook their own food, sew on their own buttons, and wash their own clothes, milk the cows, etc. A school council consisting of representative pupils and members of the staff will make rules and regulations and discuss the conduct of the pupils in relation to farm and school life. It will be the duty of the farm school to see that every attention is given to hygiene. Trained nurses and matrons will form part of the staff. Good health of the children will be secured by keeping them in the open air as much as possible, and by supplying them amply with simple nourishing food and with suitable clothing. The principles underlying the system are:— (1.) That the boys and girls be trained continuously from their first arrival at the farm school for farm and domestic work. (2.) That the children be brought up in the knowledge of the history of the Mother-laird and of Greater Britain. (3.) That the children shall have or share in whatever profits may be made on the farm, and be induced by the stimulus of ownership to take a real interest in their training. The extent of the shares in the profit will be determined according to the age of the children, their individual conduct, capacity for usefulness, etc. 116 British Columbia. 1914 (4.) That after a certain age the children shall have a share in the government of the farm school. This will give the pupils a sense of responsibility and comradeship and some idea of business. (5.) That boys and girls shall have as free social intercourse as experience proves desirable. At fourteen years of age the children are at liberty to leave the institution to become wage- earners. The society is trying to retain legal power over them even after leaving the school, and every effort is made to keep in touch with old pupils. At the same time every effort is used to retain them in the farm school until they are sixteen years of age, or even eighteen. In December. 3932, the farm school in AVestern Australia was opened with a group of twelve hoys. The report from the manager of the progress of those children was so favourable that another party consisting of twenty-four was sent out iu May, 1913. To accommodate the children of the latter party a new building was erected. The cost of this building was about $3,500. The public school education of Western Australia is of a high standard, and where supplemented with an equally efficient system of primary education in practical and theoretical agriculture will give the children the full opportunity to develop into intelligent and useful men and women. After arriving at the school farm the hoys have given evidence of great physical and mental improvement. The Government of Western Australia had at that time not consented to child immigration in respect to girls. The society has therefore arranged for a private home in New South Wales where the girls will lie temporarily trained. It was the intention to send out a party of girls in the autumn of 1933. <i Im .migration of Young Labourers into Australia. A feature of Australian immigration at the present moment is the plan promoted by the Governments of A'ictoria and New South Wales, under which British youths between the ages of sixteen and twenty are offered reduced passages with the guarantee of employment with an approved farmer at wages ranging from $1.75 to $3.75 per week with hoard. The demand for farm labour is very keen, and the average wages paid to an efficient man throughout the year is about $6 a week with board and lodging. The lads are not bound to continue with the same' farmer, but may change from time to time as opportunity is afforded. Lads of all classes are accepted, provided they have credentials for honesty and industry. AVithin the last few months hundreds of these young men have been sent to Australia. Three hundred who immigrated in this way last summer found employment at once, and were so satisfactory to their employers that the Immigration Agent in London has been instructed to secure several hundred more of similar immigrants. Juvenile Immigration to Canada. From the official Canadian reports has been gathered the following information:— There are sixteen homes and two receiving homes in Canada for these children. In the fiscal year 3913-12 the juvenile emigration from England to Canada was a total of 2.669. Of those children— Dr. Barnardo's Homes sent 971 The Catholic Emigration Association 399 Miss Macpherson 220 Church of England 125 Salvation Army 24 Other societies 930 For those 2,009 children there were received over 33,000 applications from farmers, so that the most satisfactory homes could be selected for the children. During the decade 1001-32 there had thus emigrated to Canada 20,669 children, out of which number— Dr. Barnardo's Homes had sent 12,453 Church of England societies 1.3.33 Catholic Emigration Society 2,909 4 Geo. 5 Royal Cojimission on Agriculture. .117 Mrs. Bert 1,773 Mrs. Macpherson 1,70S .7. T. Middleton 3,536 Mr. Quarrier 3.212 Salvation Army 1S2 Miscellaneous societies 3,S03 The total number of children who have been brought to Canada under the auspices of these various societies is estimated by C. Bogue Smart, Chief Inspector of Juvenile Immigration to Canada, as not falling much short of 75,000. Of this army of previously neglected children who have been given a chance to make good, the percentage of failures has been very small. Of 1,744 children reported upon during the last year, 3.530 were characterized as very good and only twenty-nine were pronounced unsatisfactory. It is very seldom that any of the juvenile immigrants are committed for breaches of law. The good result of this work is due to the following factors: (1) Pre-emigration training; (2) careful selection; and (3) continuous supervision in Canada at least until the young immigrants are eighteen years old. It is further stated that the discontinuance of this supply of young immigrants would be felt acutely by employers in the parts of Canada where they have been hitherto settled, and that there are many times more applications for them than the number of children sent out by the authorities. The result of this state of affairs and of the demand from Australia is that those in charge of the children are in a more independent position in arranging terms for emigrating them and selecting their destination. The Government of AA'estern Australia grants assisted passages, the free use of 900 acres of laud for a central farm home, and free primary education to all approved children. In order that British Columbia might secure a fair share of these immigrants, it would probably be necessary that the Province should bear the expense (or at least contribute towards it) of the children's transportation to British Columbia, and establish one or more farm schools where the children would be temporarily accommodated and receive preliminary training. It would be necessary to guarantee that the homes in which the children are placed when ready to leave the school are carefully selected, and that supervision over their treatment and conduct is maintained and interest in their welfare continued. It should be clearly understood that we regard the need of girls for domestic service as being perhaps even more acute than the need of boys for farm-work, and that the policy of the local authorities in England is quite decided in requiring that any arrangement which they may enter into for sending out children must include provision for a fair proportion of girls. IIS British Columbia. 1914 IV. PUBLIC ROADS. AA'hatever system of selling farmers may use, they cannot hope to get a sufficient proportion of the prices paid for their produce by consumers to make their business profitable unless they have convenient and economical means of transportation. Railway and steamer facilities are being rapidly extended throughout the Province, and the complaints made to us generally referred to some detail in connection with the service or to freight and express charges. Generally speaking, we have found that the question of rates was so involved and would require so much investigation that we felt it would be more effectively and permanently dealt with by such a commercial branch for the Department of Agriculture as we have recommended than by such investigation as we could make iu the time at our disposal. Some points incidental to the marketing of fruit in the North-west markets have, however, been dealt with under the head of " Fruit-growing." While the public generally is quite quick to feel the weight of any excessive charge by a transportation company, we doubt that there is general appreciation of what the saving would amount to in getting food from the field to the city consumer's table if the country roads of the Province were so good that the average cost of hauling produce to the railway or steamer would be reduced several dollars a ton. According to the data on the subject of costs of hauling, taking broken-stone roads dry and in good order as a standard, and assuming the cost on such roads to be 10 cents a ton a mile, on broken-stone roads in ordinary conditions it would be 15 cents; on earth roads with ruts and mud 50 cents; on sandy roads when wet 40 cents; on sandy roads when dry, SO cents. As an example under our personal observation, we mention that a four-horse team was seen heavily loaded with eighty boxes of apples, and on a better road two horses were hauling 140 boxes of apples. If we also take into account the difference in wear and tear of horses, harness, and wagons, and the reduction in capital investment in them, the advantage in being able to deliver produce in a shorter time and so cause less interference with other work, and the independence of weather conditions, there will be found such a saving to the country as would justify a large expenditure in bringing the main trunk roads of the country to a high standard of excellence. The difference in making the country easily accessible and rural life attractive would be almost immeasurable. The importance of this question is being more and more appreciated. In the United States a branch of the Federal Department of Agriculture is engaged in making a special study of the road problem, and has been building roads both as experiments and object-lessons in different parts of the United States. It is carrying on investigation-work and issuing bulletins. Road-building in the State of Wisconsin. In Wisconsin a State Highway Commission has charge of the road-work of the State and wo quote from Commissioner Shannon's notes:— The State Road Laws of Wisconsin are different from such laws in any other State in the Union. It is provided that a system of main highways must be laid out in each county. These roads must connect with the other main highways passing through the adjoining counties, and must not comprise more than 15 per cent, of the roads built in the county. In 1912 there was $350,000 raised for road-building; in 1913 $800,000 was raised; and in 19.14 it was estimated that $1,250,000 will be raised to carry on tho work. The money is raised by bonds, over a period of ten years. One-tenth and the interest must be paid back each year. Each county highway commissioner must pass a satisfactory examination and is engaged on trial for one year; if satisfactory he is continued. The Commission can dismiss any of these officials at any time if they have cause so to do. Ninety per cent, of the road-work is done with day labour. AVages for men range from $1.75 to $2.50 per day; average $2. AVages for teams run from $4 to $7 per day; average $5 per day. According to Mr. Hurst's* observations, the cost for road-building in AVisconsin is 25 per cent, less than in any other State in the Union. The average cost of grading, draining, and culverting is $1,000 per mile. The cost of macadamizing the road 9 feet wide, and when the- macadam is rolled into place to be S inches in depth, is $3,000 per mile. ° A. R. Hurst, Engineer in charge of State Highway Commission, Madison, Wis. 4 Geo. 5 Royal Comaiission on Agriculture. 119 Air. Hurst has an office staff of forty-five people, and the total cost of plans runs about $23.60 per mile. The concrete roads cost about $1S,000 per mile, with cement costing $1.09 per barrel. Road-building in Ontario. Road-construction has been attracting much public attention in Ontario for some years past, and it has been realized that " the past tendency has been to look too much to the individual mile of road, instead of regarding the broad network of highways as a great public work requiring careful organization and systematic management." In the report for 1910 of the Provincial Engineer for Highways, it is made plain that it is now realized that the old methods of roacT-building are out of date. He makes the following statement: " Lack of management has been the cause of an enormous waste in road expenditure." Width of Public Roads. Referring to the question of the advisability of reserving 66 feet for roads regardless of conditions, we quote from a report from the State Engineer of Kansas:— The proper width of public highways is a much-mooted subject, and a word of warning at this time in regard to the width fixed by law in a number of States, and the widths recommended after most careful study of the most satisfactory, economical width, or road-utility, nature of traffic, funds available, and everything considered, may save some serious blunders next spring. The Statutes in the States below fix the width of right-of-way for public highways as follows:— Indiana, not less than 30 feet. Michigan, „ 49.5 to 00 feet. Illinois, ., 40 to 00 feet. Iowa, „ 40 to 60 feet. Missouri, „ 30 feet. Kansas, „ 40 to 00 feet. Governor Carrol, of Iowa, strongly urged that the width of right-of-way of the public roads in his State be reduced from 66 to 40 feet, which would give ample room to accommodate the traffic, and would give back to the farmers about 300,000 acres of first-class tillable agricultural land valued at from $100 to $300 per neve, which would mean the restoration to the producing value of the State not less than $30,000,000. This sum has an annual interest value of $1,500,000. and if applied to the proper scientific construction of roads would, in a few years, give us as fine a system of roads as there is in the world. Land-values in Kansas are increasing rapidly, and the officials in determining the width of public highways should keep this point in mind. A width greater than is necessary to accommodate the traffic is a detriment, for it only gives a place for the weeds and brush to grow and an opportunity for inexperienced and fanatic road officials to waste public funds by trying to grade up and maintain, a road 35 to 00 feet wide between the centre of the ditches. The distance between curbs on paved streets in resident districts of the cities is from 20 to 40 feet, averaging about 30 feet. This is ample room to accommodate the traffic and leaves good room for a good parking on either side, which materially reduces the first cost and maintenance expense of paving and adds to the beauty of the street. Investigation made by the Massachusetts State Highway Commission revealed the fact that on heavily travelled double-tracked roads macadamized from 14 to 24 feet wide, averaging 10 feet, the traffic did not extend outside of 15 feet, except an occasional track, so that from the traffic standpoint 30 feet between the centres of the ditches is sufficiently wide on even the heaviest travelled roads, for this would give at least an lS-foot driveway. On the roads having less traffic the width between the centres of the ditches can be reduced from 20 to 25 feet, and should be until more funds are available. Roads 20 to 30 feet wide between the centres of the ditches are much cheaper to grade and drag and maintain when properly crowned than wider ones. Any excess funds would better be spent in reducing grades and properly surfacing, or on the end of road rather than on the width. It is practically impossible with funds available to construct and maintain roads 35 to 00 feet wide, and wide graded roads almost invariably have only one trace 8 to 3.0 feet wide winding back and forth across them, and little, if any, crown to provide surface drainage. I have many times seen men grade the right-of-way until the fence-posts fell in, and on some roads put in a culvert or bridge with a 12- or 14-foot roadway and no guard-rail on it. Deep, dangerous ditches on either side of the road account for most of the wide-road advocates, but the solution of the problem is not in moving the ditches away from the centre of the road, for they are almost as dangerous one place as the other, whether 10 feet or 40 feet out, but in removing them altogether. Missouri's Cross State Highway from St. Louis to Kansas City and the Santa Fe Trail from Kansas City to Pueblo are graded 30 feet between the centres of the ditches. The Meridian Road, the Sunflower Trail, the Golden Belt, and other cross-state highways in Kansas are to be constructed the same width, and on all these roads it has been recommended that the culverts be constructed with a clear width of from 20 to 24 feet. 9 120 British Columbia. 1914 The average width of right-of-way of the main highways iu Prussia is approximately 30 feet, and this width has proven ample for all purposes. German roads are perhaps subject to a hundred times more traffic than similar roads in the United States. These roads range from 20 to 30 feet in width. Any Kansas road properly graded and maintained 30 feet wide between the centres of the ditches, and the ditches well formed, and the bottom of these ditches not more than 20 to 30 inches below the crown of the finished road, will accommodate any kind of traffic so far as the width is concerned. 4 Geo. 5 Royal Coaimission on Agriculture. 121 V. RURAL TELEPHONES. TELEPHONE SYSTEMS IN THE PRAIRIE PROVINCES. AVe give here some particulars regarding the telephone systems of Manitoba and Alberta as representative of systems owned and operated by Governments; and of Saskatchewan, where the city, town, and long-distance lines are owned and operated by the Provincial Government, and where the rural lines are built and operated by local co-operative associations, but receive assistance and aid under the regulation of the Government. Manitoba. In Manitoba until 190S the telephone service was provided by the Bell Telephone Company. There were at that time seventy exchanges, 3.2,539 local subscribers, 1,523 rural subscribers, and 3,350 miles of line. The Telephone Company seems to have been unwilling to extend the service as rapidly as was desirable in the interests of the community, and the Government took over the system. In August, 1933, after some five years of Government ownership and operation, there were 3.25 exchanges, 32,993 local subscribers, 9,94S rural subscribers, and 35,200 miles of long-distance line. There are in addition some rural telephone companies, and in other cases municipalities have built and are operating their own systems. These municipal and privately owned systems" have 4S3 local and 2,317 rural subscribers, which, when added to the Government system with which they connect, make a total of 33,474 local and 12,265 rural subscribers out of about 45,000 farmers. The plant, working material-, and supplies are valued at $9,5SS,492; the revenue for eleven months ending November, 1912, was $1,352,S70.23; the expenses, including the maintenance, but not charging interest or depreciation, $9S0,727.S0, making a net revenue of 3.S2 per cent, on the capital invested on the plant, supplies, etc., which would, when some allowance is made for interest and depreciation, plainly show that the rates were not sufficient to provide for these charges. The Province is divided up into seven districts, and in these the rates for rural lines with unlimited service vary from $20 to $25 per annum, with maximum line allowance for subscribers of one mile. There is a mileage charge for excess beyond the maximum allowance of $3 for each one-quarter mile or fraction thereof. Subscribers are required to pay for all poles and anchors erected on private property. Saskatchewan. In Saskatchewan, generally speaking, the Government owns and operates all the longdistance and urban systems. In a few cases town systems are operated by local companies formed for that purpose. This is generally in towns where the number of phone-users is not large enough to justify the Government in building a system. Farmers' rural systems are built and operated by rural communities under the provision of the " Rural Telephone Act." Under this Act any five or more farmers may form themselves into a company and build a rural telephone system. They each subscribe stock to assist in providing for the cost of construction. AVhen any of the farmers are not in a position to pay cash for their capital stock, but can make arrangements with a bank to accept their notes and advance money for the construction of the system, the Government allows them to proceed. This company may issue debentures for fifteen years. Land on each side of the telephone-line is taxable for this purpose, whether occupied or unoccupied, and the municipality collects the tax. For a system costing $4,000 a tax of $S per quarter-section would repay the amount invested in fifteen years. The Government assists the farmers in organizing, registers them as a joint-stock company free of charge, formerly provided free poles, but now procures the poles at cost, requiring before shipping that the cash and notes for the stock subscription are on hand, and that arrangements shall have been made for discounting the notes. The Government controls the formation of these companies and will only allow one centre for each district, from which centre the messages are transmitted by the longdistance system over the Government lines. The Government insists that the line be built up to 122 British Columbia. 1914 a certain standard of construction, limits the number of subscribers on a circuit, and supervises the construction. The rural companies fix the charges, which range from $8 to $38 per year, the average being $30 to $32, plus $2 for switching. This switching-charge is made for connecting a subscriber in one of these small districts with another circuit. Under this system there are applications this year from 390 companies, representing about 4,000 miles, with an estimated capital expenditure of $3,000,000. For the year ending February 29th, 1912— The gross revenue was $392,393 17 The maintenance charge $323,380 IS Operation 357.54S 54 27S,934 72 With a surplus of $313,458 45 to provide for interest and depreciation. Alberta. In Alberta we have another case of Government ownership and operation, the Bell system having been taken over by the Provincial Government in 3908. At that time the system had been in operation for fifteen years and had a total of 1.859 wire-miles of long-distance toll-lines connecting seventy offices. On December 31st, 1911, there were 0,6S9 miles of toll-lines connecting 234 offices, there having been nearly as many miles constructed for each of the intervening three years as the total construction of the fifteen years previous to 390S. The estimated expenditure for 3933 for new construction was $2,000,000. The following statement shows the capitalization and earnings of the various branches and the percentage of earnings on the capitalization of each :— Capitalization, December 31st, 1912. Revenue, 1912. Per Cent, earned on Capitalization. $2,010,250 55 1.01S.047 42 1,309,950 27 $329,2S7 74 2S0,SG2 01 04,5S2 15 12.01 17.72 4.71 $5,59S.S4S 24 0S0,731 90 12.3.04 It will be noted that for the purposes of this statement the capitalization of buildings and sites is equally divided and added to exchanges and toll-lines, there being no charge made against rural-line capitalization for buildings and sites. Strathcona Exchange capitalization is included, advance rentals having been retained by the Department. AVe do not find in the annual report the cost of maintenance of rural lines segregated. AVe find that the cost of operation, maintenance, and interest of the whole system was $63S,44S.47. which is about 33 per cent, of the capitalization of $5,59S,S4S.24. The gross revenue of the rural lines being only 4.71 per cent, of the capital, it is probable that the rural lines are maintained and operated at a loss. Rural-line rates vary from $35 to $20 per annum. 4 Geo. 5 Royal Commission on Agriculture. 123 VI. MARKETING. The lack of success to market their produce in such a way as to get a fair share of the prices paid by the consumer has in British Columbia, as in many other parts of Canada and the United States, been a serious matter for growers. No complaints were heard regarding the sale of live stock and dressed meats. The shippers of milk to A'ancouver were dissatisfied with the share that they were receiving of the price paid by consumers. They were trying to improve this by co-operation, and had by this means increased their returns. Further action in this direction is felt to be necessary and is likely to be taken. Co-operative creameries and egg-collecting associations were securing fair prices for their products. Their markets are close at hand. For the successful marketing of those products it is necessary that there should be a sufficient quantity of produce to interest buyers and to permit of economical handling, that there should be high and uniform grading and packing, knowledge of markets, and businesslike methods which would assure to dealers prompt service and reliable supplies. Intelligent co-operation has provided these requisites. The producers of grain and hay seemed to have no problem that could not be solved in the same way. The growers of fruit and vegetables, however, have, iu addition, all the difficulties attending competition in distant markets. System of Marketing in the Pacific States. It is generally thought that the fruit-growers of the Pacific States have the best organized and most successful systems for collecting and disposing of their produce that are to be found in this continent. Accordingly, Commissioner Kidston, with the assistance of Provincial Horticulturist Winslow, made an especial study of the systems of marketing fruit in AVashiugtou, Oregon, and California, and we quote the following from his report to the Commission :— Systems of Marketing.—It has been very interesting to follow out the evolution of the ideals held by growers as to the best methods of getting produce from the grower to the consumer, as exemplified by the experience and efforts of the growers through the three States visited. The first stage was to get buyers to come in and buy the fruit on the trees, pack it, and take it away. This system is still in force, to a certain extent, in Watsonville, Cal., but need not be considered seriously. The next step was for the growers to organize so as to obtain a certain amount of control over competition in selling, to standardize the grading and packing in each district, and to arrange for, as far as possible, f.o.b. sales of the standardized article. The next step was to try to get a larger basis of control of selling by uniting various districts under one selling head. So far, in AA'ashington and Oregon, the stage reached is that various selling bodies, some co-operative and some not, but nearly all, in any case, handling the fruit on account of the grower at a fixed charge, aim to dispose of the fruit they control by f.o.b. sales, as far as possible, and all make use of established brokers and jobbers to do so. There is one exception to this rule which will be referred to later. In California evolution has gone one step further under the initiative of the California Fruitgrowers' Exchange. Initiating the change in 1900. this concern, the largest and most efficient co-operative concern that I know of, aimed gradually to build up direct representation in the markets; and I think there are now only two territories in North America which are worked otherwise than by direct representation. The idea at the bottom of the change was that f.o.b. sales tend to foster speculation, and that jobbers, having gained control of the output, would naturally try to force prices up for the consumer, and that too high prices restrict the demand. The scheme as worked out by the California Fruit-growers' Exchange is a great success, and their fruit is fed out to the market mostly either by straight spot sales or by auction. But the fact must not be overlooked that the Exchange, even when it bpffln making the change, had two factors in its favour:— Quantity : In 1906 the Exchange had 12,000 car-loads of fruit to dispose of. Continuity : The citrus industry is not seasonal, but all the year round. AA'ithout these two factors favouring, the establishment of direct representation would be a much more difficult matter. And I certainly know of no one organization in the apple industry which could, at present, successfully tackle it. There seems to me, however, to be no reason why, in America, more deciduous fruit should not be marketed through the California Fruit-growers' Exchange and through other concerns handling seasonal produce. At present, under a special arrangement, the California Fruit Exchange, of Sacramento, a partially co-operative concern handling about 2.000 car-loads annually of deciduous fruits, mostly cherries, peaches, apricots, pears, plums, and prunes, disposes of almost its total output through the machinery of the California Fruit-growers' Exchange at a fixed charge per car for each car-load so disposed of. The North-western Fruit Exchange, of Portland, disposes of a large part 124 British Columbia. 1914 of its output through the North American Fruit Exchange, an Eastern corporation which handles other lines of produce from the Southern States during other portions of the year. Further developments along these lines, while they probably could not be of much direct service to British Columbia growers, would at least be of advantage to them by favouring the better distribution of American fruit and so keeping up prices. It is therefore seen that, as a rule, the fruit-growers of AA'ashington and Oregon use the same means to dispose of their fruit as the growers of British Columbia. Tho exception to which I referred earlier is the AA'enatchee A'alley Fruit-growers' Association. This is a purely co-operative concern, organized by Mr. Clark, by whom its policy was evolved and worked out on the following lines:— The basis of the plan of selling was the practice of the California Fruit-growers' Exchange of having direct representation in the markets, but the difficulties previously mentioned as incident to the apple trade—viz., want of quantity and continuity—made a modification necessary. Accordingly. Mr. Clark worked out a compromise. He established a representative in Chicago to control the Eastern business, and made arrangements with various jobbers in all the large markets to act as direct agents on the following terms: The jobber undertook to receive the fruit and store it, he paying the freight and icing charges, and making, generally, in addition, some advance to the shippers. The Association, through its representative in Chicago, retains full control of the fruit and decides the price at which it shall be doled out to the retail trade. The jobber receives 10 cents a box on sales in car-load lots, and 15 cents a box on sales of less than car-load lots, which latter represent over 90 per cent of their sales. In theory the arrangement is excellent, but last year the returns made through the Association were much worse than those made through other concerns. The cause is plain. The Association did not control a sufficient proportion of the visible supply of apples to be able _ to keep prices up. Their competitors sold off wholesale as quickly as they could in a falling market, and the Association had slowly to clean up the greater part of their whole output in a market without any bottom at all. The Association is still receiving a large amount of support; it is one of the largest shippers from Wenatchee. and is said to be doing well this year; market conditions, of course, being particularly favourable at present to such a method of selling. But I should say, on general principles, that the California Fruit-growers' Exchange's system of sales, whether modified as in AVenatchee or not, is unsound unless the concern working it has an output not only large intrinsically, but also large relatively to the total output of the produce to be disposed of. Fruit-marketing Concerns in Washington and Oregon.—The following is a list of the principal marketing concerns in their order by volume (estimated) of business:— Shippers of over 200 cars annually: The North Pacific Fruit Distributors, operating principally in Hood River and Yakima, also in Wenatchee, Spokane, Southern Idaho, tho Bitter Root A'alley, and other less important sections; the North-western Fruit Exchange, operating principally in the Rogue River A'alley and Cashmere (Wenatchee), with smaller accounts in Yakima, Hood River, and four or five lesser points; the Wenatchee Produce Company, in AA'enatchee and at various local points; Ritchie and Gilbert, Toppinish, operating in the Lower Yakima A'alley and in North Yakima, the AA'enatchee Valley Fruit-growers' Association, in Wenatchee; White Brothers and Crum, Lewiston, Snake River points; Yakima County Horticultural Union, North Yakima; ,L M. Perry & Co.. North Yakima; J. F. Thompson & Co., North Yakima; the Co-operative Fruit-growers' Association, Medford. Among other shiopers, handling from 50 to 200 cars each, are the following: Pioneer Fruit Company, Medford; Producers' Fruit Company, Medford; W. P. Sawyer, AA'apato; the Wright Company. North Yakima; Chase Brothers. North Yakima; Pacific Fruit Company, North Yakima; II. ,T. Shinn & Co., Spokane; J. B. Powells & Co., Seattle; P. P. Holcomb & Co., AVenatchee; McDonald Company, Wenatchee; G. H. AVagner & Co., Wenatchee. In addition, there are numerous smaller shippers in all sections. Of all the concerns working, only three are really co-operative, viz.: The North Pacific Fruit Distributors, the North-western Fruit Exchange, and the Wenatchee Valley Fruit-growers' Association. But practically all the fruit is this year being handled on growers' account, either at a fixed charge per box or at a fixed rate of commission. A small proportion of the fruit is still sold by growers, with delivery at the shippers' warehouse, but this proportion is quite small and is declining. It is difficult to form a reliable estimate of the total crop and how it will be handled, but I should judge that the total estimated crop of apples will be about 9,300 cars, of which the three co-operative concerns will probably handle about 57 per cent, leaving 43 per cent, for proprietary concerns and individuals. We estimated that the North Pacific Fruit Distributors would handle about 33 per cent., the North-western Fruit Exchange 16 per cent., and the Wenatchee A'alley Fruitgrowers' Association S per cent. Distributing Agencies in Washington and Oregon.—Of the above-mentioned marketing concerns, two stand out as distributing agencies as distinguished from local concerns, viz.: The North Pacific Fruit Distributors and the North-western Fruit Exchange. The North Pacific Fruit Distributors was formed this year in the hope of uniting the growers of the greater part of the fruit in one selling agency. The North-west Fruit Exchange was formed in 1910 for much the same purpose, but with more limited views. AVhen the idea of a central selling agency was moved in the fall of last year, the three largest co-operative concerns were: The Yakima Valley Fruit-growers' Association, under the management of Mr. J. F. Robins; the AVenatchee Valley Fruit-growers' Association, under the management of Mr. W. T. Clark; and the North-western Fruit Exchange, under the management of Mr. Gwynn. 4 Geo. 5 Royal Coaimission on Agriculture. 123 Of these, the first and second were what we would call local unions, conducting the whole of the handling business, including selling. The third was already working on the lines of a central selling agency, not interfering in the local affairs of any of its shippers, except in so far as inspection for . quality was concerned. I understand that the three managers mentioned were asked to try to formulate a general scheme, and that Mr. Gwynn. while expressing the hope that all support necessary for its successful floating would be forthcoming, declined on the part of the Exchange to enter into negotiations. It therefore fell to Messrs. Robins and Clark to formulate a scheme. As each was wedded to his own system of marketing, it was a foregone conclusion that both would not stay, and, accordingly, it ended in the flotation of the North Pacific Distributors under the management of Mr. Robins, the other two concerns continuing as before. What the final outcome will be no one can say. The aims of both are identical—viz., to secure the best possible return for the growers. The AA'enatchee Valley Fruit-growers' Association is purely a local affair, and, at the best, certain never to be anything else. The North Pacific Fruit Distributors is a highly democratic organization, linking up a very large number of the smaller growers, but not handling much of the fruit of the larger growers. The North-western Fruit Exchange, although co-operative, is frankly financed by a few large growers who believe in keeping the control largely in their own hands with a view to continuity of policy, which policy is to handle co-operatively as much as possible of the best fruit. The officials believe that they have been able to do better for their growers in the past than any other concerns, and that they will always be able to do better. They recognize thoroughly that it is of the utmost benefit to them that as much of the other fruit of the States as possible should be handled under one head. Both Mr. Robins and Mr. Gwynn impressed me as good business-men and organizers, and it will be interesting to see how the two concerns progress. Fruit-marketing Concerns in California. Citrus.—Most of the ideas which are now being adopted in Washington, Oregon, and British Columbia regarding the marketing, and. indeed, the handling in general, of fruit have had their origin in California, and as the California Fruit-growers' Exchange is the oldest and most prominent of all the co-operative concerns and most typical of all that is best in co-operation, a few extracts from the United States Bulletin No. 98 descriptive of its aims and methods will be the best report of effective co-operation :— " The California citrus crop equals 50,000 car loads. There are between 10,000 and 12,000 growers. Four-fifths of the growers are organized into co-operative associations, more than 00 pel- cent, of which are federated into the California Fruit-growers' Exchange. " The California Fruit-growers' Exchange is an organization which acts as a clearing-house in providing the facilities through which 6,500 growers distribute and market their fruit. There an; three foundation-stones in the exchange system—the local association of growers, the district exchanges, and the central exchange. " The California Fruit-growers' Exchange comprises 115 local associations, each of which has from 40 to 200 members. The associations, which are purely co-operative, without profit, raise the necessary capital by issuing stock, under various plans, to members. Each association assembles the fruit in a packing-house and there grades, pools, packs, and prepares it for shipment. The fruit is marketed by the district exchange through the agents and facilities provided by the California Fruitgrowers' Exchange, each association putting its own brands on its own product. " There are seventeen district exchanges, which are corporations without profit. There may be one or more district exchanges in a community, depending upon the number of local associations and other local conditions. The district exchange acts as the representative of its affiliated associations in nil business relations with the California Fruit-growers' Exchange and attends to all details of shipment. " The California Fruit-growers' Exchange is a non-profit corporation, formed by seventeen district exchanges, with a paid-up capital of $1,700. The function of the Exchange is to furnish marketing facilities for the district exchanges at a pro rata share of the cost. Every shipper reserves the right to regulate and control his own shipments, including the price at which it shall be sold. The Exchange places bonded agents in tho principal markets of the United States and Canada and exercises supervision over them; through them it collects all information regarding market conditions, etc., for transmission to the district exchanges. " One-third of the entire shipments are sold at public auction, the remainder through unrestricted private competition, f.o.b. spot, or sold delivered, subject to usual terms. None is consigned. " The Exchange is organized into several divisions: Sales, legal, traffic, advertising, insurance, and mutual protection, and a supply department which furnishes to the members the material used in the packing-houses and on the ranches at cost." A great point is made of the fact that the Exchange does not make the sales; but while it is true that the district exchanges retain the right to control, as a matter of fact all the transactions in connection with the distribution and sale of the fruit are carried through by the California Fruitgrowers' Exchange, down even to the receiving of the money and its distribution to the district exchanges. The expenditure of the Exchange is $700,000 per annum, or at the rate of 2 per cent, on car values. Out of the total expenditure $200,000 goes in advertisement. The whole work is carried out with the utmost efficiency and economy. The supply department last year handled over $2,000,000 worth of materials at a cost of less than 1 per cent. The Mutual Orange Distributors, handling about 10 per cent, of the crop, has twenty-two local exchanges, and is organized along much the same lines as the California Fruit-growers' Exchange. The two together handle 72 per cent, of the total crop, and the balance is handled by proprietary companies, companies of individual growers, and individual shippers alone. 12(i British Columbia. 1914 Fruit-marketing Concerns, Deciduous Fresh Fruits.—The normal shipment of fresh deciduous fruits from California is 17,000 cars. Of this amount, 4,000 cars are represented by the AA'atsouville apples, handled through San Francisco and Los Angeles. The balance of 13,000 cars consists of cherries, peaches, apricots, pears, plums, and prunes, and is marketed through Sacramento. The two great marketing concerns for this class of fruit are the California Fruit Distributors, handling SO per cent, and the California Fruit Exchange, handling 14 per cent. Both are co-operative to a certain extent. The California Fruit Distributors is a non-profit organization, without capital, handling fruit only for its fourteen members, but its members are not necessarily co-operative. As a matter of fact, its fourteen members are collecting and shipping houses in various centres. Sometimes these houses are an association of growers, sometimes they are jobbers, purely. The business system of the Distributors seems highly efficient, and some of the growers we saw seem well pleased with its work. The California Fruit Exchange is a stock company, but co-operative in spirit. It does not confine its operations to the produce of members, but handles fruit on commission for any shippers. The total number of shippers through it is 1,500, of whom 300 are members and 1,200 non-members. Its output is marketed, by special arrangement, mostly through the organization of the California Fruit-growers' Exchange. Fruit-marketing Concerns, California Cured Fruits.—About 40,000 cars of California cured fruits, prunes, peaches, pears, apricots, raisins, etc., are shipped annually. Up to this year the business has been entirely in the hands of proprietary packing and shipping houses, who bought the dried fruit outright from the growers, prepared, packed, and shipped it. Markets have been very depressed of recent years and many growers are badly in debt. The serious situation led to the formation this year of the California Cured Fruit Exchange, modelled on the lines of the California Fruit-growers' Exchange, with necessary modifications. It has already developed twenty-two local associations, and expects to handle this year 3,000 cars, or 7% per cent, of the total output. The following is a summary of the marketing of the fruit-crops in AA'ashington. Oregon, and California, divided under the two heads of: (1) Co-operative or semi-co-operative; and (2) individual or on commission. Total Crop. Co-operative or Semi-co-operative. Individually or by Companies on Commission. Cars. Name. I Cars. Per Cent. Cars. Per Cent. North-west apple-crop 9,300 4,000 50,000 13.000 40,000 N.P.F.D. . . . N.W.F.E. . . . AV.V.F.G.A .. C.F.G.E Al.C.D C.E.D C.F.E C.C.F.E 3.000 1.500 700 30,000 5.000 10,400 1,800 3.000 33 10 S 60 10 SO 14 iy-2 4,100 4,000 15,000 800 37,000 43 AA'atsouville apple-crop 100 California fresh deciduous fruit, other than apple 30 6 92 y. 11 P. ?.f)0 ' 55,400 4S 60,900 52 So far as AVashington and Oregon are concerned, the above figures do not include peaches, plums, and other soft fruits, the figures for which are not readily obtainable. Such fruit is much more generally handled by individuals, the general impression I gathered being that, from the growers' point of view, associations are not in a position to handle them as efficiently as individuals, and, from the associations' point of view, that the difficulties in the way of handling such fruits are so great and the results so problematical that, they prefer to leave them alone as far as possible. Washington, Oregon, and California.— Local associations: All are agreed that strong local associations, worked absolutely co-operatively, are an absolute necessity, no matter what system of marketing may be followed. Each of these locals must be self-supporting and must raise sufficient capital in one way or another to run its own internal affairs. Pooling in Washington, Oregon, and California.—Pooling is universal in each local, but the pooling is never extended to cover more than one local in one pool. In the Okanagan each individual pool includes all the fruit from any part of the Okanagan which would naturally come into that pool. There are objections to both systems, and it is doubtful whether individual pools for each local would suit a comparatively small and young industry as well as the other system, but it is quite a matter for argument. 4 Geo. 5 Royal Commission on Agriculture. 127 Co-operative Handling of Small Fruit.—At Puyallup one co-operative organization, the Puyallup and Summer Fruit-growers' Association, handles about 95 per cent, of the production of raspberries and blackberries, shipping 230 cars of raspberries in 1913. The total turnover in 1913, including fresh and canned fruits and a large supply business, amounted to nearly $1,000,000. The organization is purely co-operative, is in a high state of efficiency, and is a monument to the energy and public spirit of its founder and president, Senator Paulhamus. At Hood River the strawberry-crop of about seventy-five cars is marketed through the Hood River Apple-growers' Union. In California the Sebastopol Berry Growers, Incorporated, handles about two-thirds of the production. This association is limited in form, but purely co-operative in action. It consigns to brokers, but has agents at selling points to protect its interests. Elsewhere the small fruit industry is unorganized, and very little generally in the hands of the jobbers by reason of advances made to the growers. On Vashon Island, whence the largest consignments of strawberries are made to Canada, the growing has passed largely into the hands of the Japanese, but they, from one cause and another, mainly wet weather for two seasons at picking-time, are in a state of bankruptcy, and the jobbers who have advanced very large sums to them run a very big chance of losing these advances altogether. Market Situation in the Prairie Provinces. The fruit and vegetable growers of British Columbia had been accustomed to regard the Prairie Provinces as a market that could be depended upon to take at fair prices all that British Columbia would export of those products. The rapid growth of population in those Provinces had increased this confidence, and it was an unpleasant shock when in 1912, with the first considerable amount of fruit to export, it was found that this valuable market was being treated as a dumping-ground by growers in the United States, with the usual result. Many contradictory statements had been heard as to the conditions attending fruit and vegetable marketing in the cities and towns of Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba, and Commissioner Campbell was asked to inform himself upon the subject when visiting those Provinces. Under the head of " Fruit-growing " we have included some of the matter reported to us by him, with our opinions and suggestions, and we will here refer to some other points and give some information obtained from wholesalers, commission merchants, retailers, fruit-mark inspectors, and consumers, as well as by personal observation. Potatoes.—Although large quantities of these are grown in those Provinces, the quality of the British Columbia potato is so superior, owing, doubtless, in part to its being thoroughly ripened, that there continues to be a considerable demand for them as far east as Saskatchewan, while at the same time potato-growers in those districts were overheard in some cases unsuccessfully seeking a market. Onions, Tomatoes, Cabbages, Cucumbers, Cauliflowers.—These and other vegetables were finding ready market. Mixed car-loads of fruit and vegetables helped in the distribution of both to outlying points. Apples.—There was a wide variation in the grade of the Washington apple marked " C." some being quite inferior, most of them ranking with British Columbia good No. 2's, and some which could be fairly graded as No. 1. In selling these the wholesalers commonly tell their customers that the Canadian grade number when placed on American apple-boxes is no indication of quality, as they are all marked No. 2 in order to avoid any risk from inspection. In this way the value to the British Columbia shipper of the stricter enforcement of the " Fruit Marks Act" is minimized. Some dealers found Washington apples to keep better than those from the Okanagan and preferred them for winter supply. Others noted no difference. Lack of colour was criticized in the fruit from some of our districts. There is a prejudice in the minds of many, more particularly in Manitoba and to a less degree in Saskatchewan, in favour of apples from Ontario, but this appears to be steadily lessening. It seems to have been due to the introduction in the first place of boxed apples of some of the poorer varieties, in the attempt to get low-priced boxed fruit to compete with the barrelled apples. Some of the largest wholesalers in Winnipeg with wide experience stated that there was no justification for the belief in the superiority of the quality of Ontario apples. The popularity of the box as a package is steadily gaining ground, and the box zone is extending eastward. The American-shaped box is more popular than that fixed by Canadian law for export. 128 British Columbia. 1914 The grading of the Ontario apples is about the same as that of British Columbia when in boxes, but in barrels the No. 1 Ontario apples are usually equal in grade to British Columbia boxed No. 2's. The demand in the AVestern cities is for some No. l's and more No. 2's, and the country demand is altogether for No. 2's, so that west of Winnipeg it is estimated that from 15 to 20 per cent, of the consumption is of No. 1 and the balance of No. 2. There is also a considerable market for No. 3's. without, it is contended, reducing the consumption of No. 2's. Some No. 3's were sent boxed, some even wrapped, some unpacked, and some in crates weighing about SO lb. The dealers thought they should be packed sufficiently to avoid bruising, but that it was unnecessary to pack them as carefully as other grades or to wrap. The question of a more suitable package than the present box is worthy of further study. Among the apples from Washington was seen a grade marked " Standard," ranking between " C's " and their fancy grade. It was thought by dealers that we should not pack crab-apples in pear-boxes as at present, as it was stated that Americans are now using special boxes for these. Wholesale prices ranged during October from $1.65 for No. 2's of ordinary varieties to $2.50 for No. 1 Mcintosh Reds. Retail prices from $2.3.0 for No. 2 Baxters in .Saskatoon to $2.75 for No. 1 Mcintosh Reds at Moosejaw. Ontario apples were selling at retail from $5.50 to $7 per barrel. Ontario boxes of No. l's that cost $1.50 in Ontario, plus 25 cents freight, were retailing at $2.50 in Winnipeg. It was suggested that the merits of the best varieties of British Columbia apples should be advertised in the papers of the North-west Provinces, as the dealers were more used to the American varieties in boxed apples, some of which are not much grown in British Columbia. Pears, particularly Anjou, were in good demand, and there was no criticism of those from British Columbia. They were wholesaling at from $3.25 to $4.50 a box. reaches were in many cases not packed as full as the Washington peaches, boxes weighing in some cases, it was said, as much as S lb. less than Washington boxes. Importations from AVashingfon had cost 27% cents in Washington, freight and ice 25 cents, duty 20 cents, amounting to 72% cents, as against, from British Columbia. 53 cents, plus freight 25 cents, amounting to 78 cents They were selling at from 75 cents to $1 wholesale, and were being retailed at a very small margin of advance as a rule. Regarding plums, it was said they came on after the dessert plums from AA'ashington, and the market for them was not very good. They were being sold by wholesalers in Saskatchewan at from $1 to $1.15. Prunes were being sold wholesale at 90 cents. Raspberries and strawberries frequently arrived in bad condition from Mission and Hatzic by express, and it was generally thought that no extensive sales of them would be made satisfactorily unless they were sent in refrigerated car-loads. They arrived in better condition from South-West Kootenay, but in most cases the merchants receiving them said that, while generally in fair condition, they could not be relied upon in that way, and that they did not come in such good condition as the iced car-loads from AVashington. Prices were good, strawberries retailing from $3.25 to $5 per crate; wholesale probably at an average of $3.75. Alberta had imported that season about sixty-five carloads of strawberries, and one wholesaler stated that on the basis of that year's prices he could afford to pay $2.25 per crate in car-loads refrigerated f.o.b. Nelson or Creston. Cherries.—There is a fair demand for cherries, both sweet and sour. In the former, Bings are preferred and Lamberts rank next in popularity. Some dealers recommend 10-lb. boxes, faced, at the beginning and end of the season, and crates of 24 1-lb. hallocks. Others preferred beginning and ending with cartons, using the 24-hallock crates during the rest of the season; a minority suggested beginning with cartons and then shipping 4-basket crates, but this package was frequently criticized on the ground that the cherries did not carry so well in it. The appearance of our boxes was said to be not so good as those from Washington, the box itself from there being better planed and the cherries better packed. Blackberries.—Some dealers spoke of the steady demand for these, while others sold very few of them. Channels of Markets. Sales were made last year through the following channels: Brokers, direct to wholesale houses; commission firms, direct to retailers; and a small amount direct to consumers. 4 Geo. 5 Royal Commission on Agriculture. . 12!) The principal brokers are: The Mutual Brokerage Company and the Alberta Brokerage Company, with headquarters at Calgary, who sold to wholesalers generally, charging for their services from $15 to $30 per car. The Mutual Brokerage Company is part of the organization of the Finch Nash Wholesale Houses, and those houses buy a great part of their requirements through it. The Alberta Brokerage Company sells mostly to the Scott Fruit Company's branches and the independent wholesale houses. The brokerage charge paid to these brokerage companies has been frequently commented upon as an unnecessary additional tax upon the business. The wholesalers justify it as reasonable payment for performing the necessary function of keeping them posted iu the markets, and assuring them that they are not paying more than fair market prices, the expense and cost of this service being much less than if the manager of every branch were doing it for his own business. The relation of the Mutual Brokerage Company to the shippers and to the Finch Nash Wholesale Houses is somewhat unusual, inasmuch as that company acts for the shippers in negotiating sales and receives brokerage from them, but as a part of the Finch Nash organization is directly interested in the terms of the purchase. The impression we received was that the shippers trusted the company to get as good prices as competition from other sources would admit of; and the wholesalers trusted it to see that they did not pay more than they would have had to pay anywhere else, being willing to forego the chance of an occasional bargain for the sake of the assurance that they were in no case paying too much. At the same time, the wholesalers stated that if they saw an opportunity of making a purchase in any other way which seemed to them more favourable they took advantage of it. AVholesale Houses. The following wholesale houses were handling fruit and vegetables: The Scott Fruit Company, with headquarters at Winnipeg and branches at Brandon, Regina, Moosejaw, Saskatoon, Edmonton, Lacombe, Calgary, Medicine Hat, and Lethbridge; Plunkett and Savage, with headquarters at Calgary and branches at Edmonton, Lethbridge, and Medicine Hat; AV. A'. Moore, Calgary; James Allen & Co., Limited (Alberta), Calgary; Campbell & Griffin, Calgary; Stoddard Fruit Company, Edmonton ; Western Fruit Company, Edmonton ; Brock Kelly & Love, Moosejaw; Regina Fruit and Produce Company, Regina ; and the following houses known as Finch Nash Houses: Acne Fruit Company, Calgary; Brown Fruit Company, Edmonton; Royal Fruit Company, Edmonton; Camrose Fruit Company, Camrose; Northern Fruit Company, Saskatoon; Crown Fruit Company, Saskatoon; Early Fruit Company, Saskatoon; Pioneer Candy Company, Limited, Saskatoon; Yorkton Fruit and Produce Company, Limited, Yorkton; Bright Emery Company, Winnipeg; Rogers Fruit Company, Winnipeg; Rex Fruit Company, Moosejaw; Canadian Fruit Company; Moosejaw; Moose Grocery Company, Moosejaw; Pioneer Fruit Company, Brandon; Rex Fruit Company. Swift Current; Branch of Saskatoon House, North Battle- lord ; AVeyburn Grocery Company, Weyburn; Medicine Hat Grocery Company, Medicine Hat ; Stockton & Mallinson Company, Regina; Prince Albert Fruit Company, Prince Albert. AA'e understand that the cost of carrying on the wholesale fruit business is from 12 to 3.5 per cent, of the value of the goods sold, and that the profit on an even market varies from 20 to 30 per cent.; that not much clear profit is made on soft fruit, and that the profit on staples provides for carrying the other fruits. Commission Merchants. The A'ernon Fruit Company, with representatives at Camrose, Edmonton, Medicine Hat, and Calgary; Jackson & McKibben, Regina, Saskatoon, and Moosejaw; Independent Fruit Company, Limited, Saskatoon; MacNaughton Fruit Company, Winnipeg. The commission charge made by the A'ernon Fruit Company and by Jackson & McKibben is 10 per cent., and collections are supposed to be guaranteed. The Independent Fruit Company charges 20 per cent, commission, which includes storage, carriage, and guarantee. The MacNaughton Fruit Company, Winnipeg, charges from 7 to 3.2 per cent., dependent upon the class of fruit. On apples by car-load, including guarantee and storage, the charge is 10 per cent., storage being 3 cents a box for each month. In addition to these, Messrs. Daykin & Jackson had their selling agent stationed in Calgary, and Mr. Stuart, of Summerland, had been stationed for some time in Regina and visiting neighbouring towns. 130 British Columbia. 1914 Little ground was found for the complaint which used to be heard of imperfect distribution, as with all this competition and organization trade is sought in every place where enough business can be done to pay for seeking it, and the extensive telephone systems make it comparatively easy to do business from central offices with a large area of country. Co-operative Distribution. The Grain-growers' Grain Company, Limited, and the Saskatchewan Farmers' Co-operative Elevator Company act as buyers for the co-operative farmers' unions, making a small charge for the service, receiving the orders in advance. They are able to distribute fruit very cheaply to the farmers, using their existing organization. In 3913 they bought considerable quantities of Ontario apples, two-thirds of No. l's and one-third of No. 2's at $3.05 a barrel f.o.b. shipping- point, charging 30 cents a barrel for distribution. They are quite ready to deal more extensively with British Columbia, where they have a market for grain and mill stuffs, and this channel is one through which the fruit can reach the consumers at least expense. This gives point to the view that to secure the lowest prices by economy of distribution it is the business of the consumers to co-operate. Co-operating to collect, grade, pack, and sell does not carry with it the obligation to keep up a large organization for distributing to consumers, or even to retailers. The question of the cheapest possible distribution and the elimination of as many middlemen as possible has been much discussed. The brokerage companies consider that by concentrating the buying intelligence service of a number of wholesale houses iu one office with a small staff, money and effort are economized, as in this way the shipper gets rather better prices and the wholesaler gets more reliable service; that the wholesaler can afford to pay a little more with certainty of supplies; and that if there were no central control of this kind the wholesalers would buy cheaper by provoking competition among the different selling agencies. The wholesalers contend that they are a necessary factor, that they secure better distribution, more supply iu small places, and more regularity of prices. They complain of the injury done by tramp dealers, who demoralize the market by forcing fruit upon it in excess of its requirements. They blame the consignment custom principally and the commission agents for breaking prices. One of the commission firms suggested that there should be a wholesale market established at Calgary, with commission agents to whom the local shipping associations could ship, and that the country retailers could employ brokers at 5 per cent, to buy for them at this market, making up the mixed cars which they require; the charge of the commission house to be 8 per cent., of which 3 per cent, to be returned to the association, and the settlement to be made direct to the owner of the fruit. A few of the largest retailers wanted to be able to buy direct from the selling associations at wholesale prices without any brokerage charge, but the general sentiment among retailers was that the wholesalers were a necessary factor in the business, that retailers do not want to carry stock, like to choose their fruit where they can see it, and that they do not want to take the risk of following tbe market; but it was frequently thought that the margin of profit of the wholesalers was unnecessarily great. If dealing directly with the retailers, shipping organizations would require to have storehouses and selling organizations in every centre. The wholesalers now have these storehouses; they have a good organization and experienced fruit- salesinen. AVe are of opinion that the producers have the capital which is at their disposal, and their executive and selling ability fully occupied in producing, packing, grading, shipping, and selling to wholesalers as economically and effectively as possible, and that it would be wise to work in co-operation with any well-organized existing distributing agencies in securing the largest possible distribution of their produce. At the same time, we think that wholesalers must recognize that when any number of men combine, either as a co-operative association or in any other way. so that they are able to buy in large quantities, they must be reckoned with accordingly, and that a scale of prices graduated according to the value of the purchases is the only protection that the wholesaler should require from the manufacturer. If, then, it is decided that in order to secure a distribution of the w7hole crop these existing agencies are to be used, it becomes greatly in the interest of the producer that there should be no irresponsible shipments and sales, but that the regular dealers should be assisted to maintain prices on the uniform basis which will cover the cost of such distribution, giving the dealer a fair profit and the producer the best possible return. 4 Geo. 5 Royal Coaiaiission on Agriculture. 131 The dealers do not generally favour storage of much fruit in the North-west Provinces. At the same time, a certain amount of storage is necessary, especially for carrying stock during the coldest part of the winter, say from December 30th to the middle of February. General Condition of Distribution. It seems to us that the British Columbia producer needs much fuller, more reliable, and earlier information about crop prospects and market conditions in the United States than he now has, and we know of no reason why there should not be friendly co-operation with the large marketing organizations in AVashington and Oregon, which would be mutually advantageous. It has been frequently said that the wholesale trade of the North-west is in the hands of a foreign ring. AVe could find no justification for this theory. The Nash Houses, so-called, are an excellently organized group of firms largely financed by Nash Brothers, with certain interests in common, and co-operating in various directions in order to be more effective. They have allied interests in the United States in the production of soft early fruit, peaches, plums, etc., and may have other interests of which we are not aware; but there has been nothing, as far as we could learn, in their actions to indicate any preference for selling American fruit, unless they thought it more easily sold or more profitable. In the past, American fruit was better packed than Canadian, supplies were much larger and more regular, and it was therefore more attractive to them. They seem, however, to have been prompt to realize that British Columbia was certain before long to produce large quantities of fruit for which its sister Provinces were the natural market, and that their best policy was to aim at being the distributing agency for as much of it as possible. In 1913 conditions in the market of the North-west Provinces were very different from what they had been in 3932. The smaller supply of fruit and the better organization, botli in British Columbia and in the Pacific States, as well as a good European demand for Ontario fruit, had all combined to make the selling of fruit an easy business. It was noticed that fruit was frequently offered for sale long before its proper season, and we would suggest the advisability of advertising the British Columbia fruit in the North-west papers, giving a list of the principal varieties, with the proper season for the use of each. While the market in those Provinces is so important, Australia and New Zealand are likely to absorb a considerable amount annually, and the development of those markets will doubtless receive full attention from the associations. The British markets also have great possibilities for the dessert apples of British Columbia, but the methods of selling which are most commonly practised there are hardly satisfactory, and the question of the best means of reaching the retailers of Great Britain and Ireland calls for further investigation and study. The shippers of South Australia have found that the appointment of a Trade Commissioner to represent them in England has been most beneficial. Our future position in the British market, as well as in the European markets, will depend largely upon the freight rates by the Panama route, and these will depend to some extent upon whether refrigerated service will lie necessary, or whether a ventilated " 'tween decks " accommodation will be satisfactory. Belgium, Denmark, Germany, and Norway all import American apples, and are markets capable of development. In South America, Argentina, and Brazil are good markets, but the present transportation is not very convenient. Mr. H. R. Poussette, Canadian Trade Commissioner. Buenos Ayres, would furnish information to any intending shipper. He is of opinion that a good market is now opening also in Venezuela. China imports a few thousand cases from the United States, and even in India it might be possible to market some of the longest- keeping varieties. Distribution through Express Companies. As object-lessons on distribution from producers through a transportation company without the services of any middleman, the operations of the AA'ells-Fargo Express Company will be worth studying. This great American express company has undertaken to add 'to the list of public services which it has performed in the past that of studying the food-products problem, aiding producers to find customers, and in that connection securing suitable sanitary containers in which to ship. The company states:— 132 British Columbia. 1914 It is a well-established fact that one of the greatest obstacles to an increased shipment by farmers and small producers in general of fruits, vegetables, poultry, and the like, has been the lack of availability of satisfactory containers in which safely to make shipments in small quantities. Careful inquiry does not indicate a general shortage in the supply of food products; the difficulty seems to be that the system of distribution has not kept pace with the growth of the country, and that it is in many details complicated and expensive, particularly in the larger cities. In towns a greater quantity and variety of seasonable fruit, vegetables, and the like, would be consumed if there was an organization having definite information regarding the produce that could be sold and where it could be obtained in producing and distributing sections. It is intended that this department shall gather information that will enable the producer, the distributer, the consumer, and the carrier to keep more closely in touch with each other, to the very material benefit of all. Agents of AVells, Fargo & Co. will be called upon by the Food Products Department for names of growers and shippers of food products from their stations. The department will bo anxious to know about the containers or shipping packages now in use, and those required by prospective shippers. The names of dealers, both wholesale and retail, of hotels, restaurants, and co-operative clubs will be sought by the department. Its facilities will be extended to all interested in food production or consumption—the grower, producer, and distributer, as well as the consumer. In this department the consumer who prefers to purchase foodstuffs direct from the producer will find a valuable aid. For the assistance extended to the producer, distributer, and consumer, in bringing them together and in promoting the distribution of foodstuffs, the company will make no charge other than that of its regular express transportation rates, and thes2 are especially moderate upon foodstuffs. Special commodity rates apply to such traffic, the rate on all food products being materially lower than those applicable to shipments of merchandise. An important function of the new department will be the publication of bulletins in booklet form and at frequent intervals. These will be intended for large distribution, and will deal not only with what the department is doing in general, but also with specific and unusual offers, such as the shipment of individual packages of fruits, vegetables, nuts, and the like. This express company is therefore undertaking to secure and furnish information as to sources of supply to consumers and as to markets to producers; to undertake buying commissions and selling commissions; to transport the produce, deliver it at the consumer's house, collect payment, and return the net proceeds direct to the producer. For the most satisfactory working of such a system it would seem that co-operation in the collecting and standardizing of produce would be of great assistance. Distribution in South Africa. The Government Railway Administration of South Africa undertakes to supply similar service, and states that the results have been satisfactory. AVe quote from the pamphlet in which are published the names of producers, the description of articles which they have for sale, prices, and remarks :— The Railway Department not only receives and delivers traffic, but for a nominal commission also collects from consignee any charges the sender may desire levied. This method of doing business is especially valuable where no market facilities exist and consumers desire to buy direct from producers. The object, of course, is to foster commercial intercourse by bringing sellers and buyers into closer touch with each other. This the " collect on delivery " system does admirably, particularly in the case of small consignments, and more especially in the case of small consignments of South African produce. Whilst merchants dispatch to country customers their commodities on the " collect on delivery " system, it is an even greater convenience for townsfolk to obtain eggs, butter, fruit, vegetables, and general produce by the simple expedient of ordering direct from the producer. It saves trouble of marketing. It enables consumers, however small their requirements, to obtain those requirements fresh from the farm. So much has this arrangement of purchasing fresh supplies direct from the farm been appreciated, and so useful has it proved to both consumer and producer, that it might with advantage be moro widely known. The Railway Department accordingly issues at regular intervals a gratis pamphlet, indicating to consumers the names and addresses of farmers, market-gardeners, and others willing to supply South African produce. In this pamphlet are given details of the kinds, quantities, and prices of the produce offered. To the price quoted m-ust be added railage and railway commission; the whole being collected from consignee on delivery by the Railway Department. Producers who desire their names included free iu the quarterly pamphlet should send full particulars to the nearest stationmaster. 4 Geo. 5 Royal Comaiission on Agriculture. 13:: All the intending purchaser has to do is to send an order to the producer. All the producer has to do is to consign his goods on the " collect on delivery " system. The Railway Department does the rest. No consignment is too small or too large to be so dealt with. Intending purchasers may, however, prefer to remit direct to sellers, and in this case the pamphlet will serve a useful purpose by indicating where the cheapest market lies. Fuller particulars may be obtained at any railway-station. Milk and Cream Traffic (South African Produce) in Cans. (a.) Milk and cream, in suitable cans, being South African produce, and duly labelled as described in paragraph (c), are carried on the lines of the Administration as station-to-statiou traffic, and at owner's risk, at the following prepaid rates:— d. 1 to 25 miles 0y> per gallon. 26 to 50 „ 1 " 51 to 75 „ 1% 76 to 100 ly, 101 to 200 2 " 201 to 250 „ 2% 251 to 300 , 3 301 to 400 „ sy, 401 to 450 4 " 451 to 500 4y> 501 to 550 , 5 „ 551 to 600 „ 5y2 (6.) The minimum charge is 3d. per consignment. The weight of .the milk-can is not included in the weight on which freight is levied. (c.) Empty milk or cream cans will be returned to the original sending station at owner's risk free of charge, and without a consignment note, on condition that a suitable brass or other metal label, with the name of the owner and sending station engraved thereon, is soldered to the can, or such name and sending station is indented on the can, in a position suitable for easy inspection: (d.) Should the producer desire to avail himself of the statutory liability of the Administration (or should he decline to conform to the conditions of paragraph (c) of this regulation), he may do so on payment of full parcels rates according to weight. South African Produce transported at Half Parcels Rates. (a.) The undermentioned articles are carried at one-half ordinary parcels rates, subject to the following conditions:— (1.) That the articles have been grown or manufactured in South Africa, and are declared on the consignment note as bona fide South African produce, the endorsement being signed by the producer; failing this, the higher rate will apply: (2.) That the articles are packed in suitable hampers, baskets, cases, crates, casks, bags, or cans: (3.) That the contents of each package are fully described on the consignment note: (4.) That the goods are transported at the risk of the owner. Bread. Butter. Cream cheese. Eggs. Fish, fresh (including oysters and turtles). Flowers. Fruit (dried or fresh). Game (dead). Ice. Meat (dried or fresh). Plants. Poultry (dead). Seeds. Trees (plantation and fruit). A'egetables, fresh or preserved (excluding potatoes and green mealies). (6.) Baskets in which fruit, vegetables, eggs, and such-like, are packed must be provided at the top with cross-pieces of wood of sufficient strength to permit of the loading of other baskets thereon without risk of damage to the contents, otherwise full rates will be charged. (c.) AVhen fish is transported packed in ice, an allowance of 15 per cent, is made off the gross weight at the forwarding station to cover wastage due to melting. (d.) The articles referred to in this clause are transported at owner's risk, but should the producer desire to avail himself of the statutory liability of the Administration he may do so on payment of the rate laid down, increased by 20 per cent. 134 British Columbia. 1914 To enable intending customers to approximate their charges the following rates for South African produce (fodder and live stock excepted) usually conveyed by passenger-train are subjoined:— Distance in Miles. Weight not Exceeding : % lb. lib. 1% lb. 2 lb. 2% lb. 3 1b. 3V4 lb. 4 lb. 4% lb. 5 lb. 0 to 5 . . 6 to 10 . 11 to 15 . 16 to 25 . 26 to 50 . 51 to 75 . 76 to 100 101 to 150 151 to 200 201 to 300 0 3 0 3 0 3 0 3 0 3 s. d. 0 3 0 3 0 3 0 3 0 3 0 3 0 3 0 3 0 3 0 3 s. d. 0 3 0 3 0 3 0 3 0 3 0 3 0 3 0 3 0 3 0 0 s. d. 0 3 0 3 0 3 0 3 0 3 0 3 0 3 0 6 0 6 0 6 s. d. 0 3 0 3 0 3 0 3 0 3 0 3 0 3 0 6 0 6 0 6 s. d. 0 3 0 3 0 3 0 3 0 3 0 3 0 0 0 6 0 (I 0 0 s. d. 0 3 0 3 0 3 0 3 0 3 0 3 0 6 0 6 0 6 0 9 s. d. 0 3 0 3 0 3 0 3 0 3 0 6 0 6 0 6 0 6 0 9 s. d. 0 3 0 3 0 3 0 3 0 3 0 6 0 6 0 6 0 6 0 9 Weight not Exceeding Distance in Allies. Gib. 7 b. Sib. 9 1b. 10 lb. ■15 lb. 25 lb. 50 lb. 100 lb. 150 lb. 200 lb. s. d s. d s. (1 s. d s. fl. s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. 0 to 5. .. 0 3 0 3 0 3 0 3 0 3 0 3 0 3 0 3 0 3 0 6 0 6 6 to 10.. 0 3 0 3 0 3 0 3 0 3 0 3 0 3 0 6 0 6 0 9 1 0 11 to 15. . 0 3 0 3 0 3 0 3 0 3 0 6 0 6 0 6 0 9 1 3 1 6 10 to 25. . 0 3 0 3 0 3 0 3 0 3 0 6 0 6 0 6 1 0 1 6 1 9 26 to 50.. 0 6 0 6 0 6 0 6 0 6 0 6 0 6 0 9 1 0 1 6 2 0 51 to 75. . 0 6 0 6 0 6 0 6 0 6 0 6 0 9 1 0 1 3 2 0 2 6 76 to 100 0 6 0 6 0 6 0 6 0 6 0 9 0 9 1 0 1 6 2 3 3 0 101 to 150 0 6 0 6 0 9 0 9 0 9 1 0 1 3 1 6 2 3 3 6 4 6 151 to 200 0 9 0 9 0 9 0 9 0 !) 1 3 1 6 2 0 2 9 4 6 5 9 201 to 300 0 9 0 9 1 0 1 0 1 0 3 6 2 0 2 9 4 3 6 3 8 3 " Collect on Delivery " System for Produce dispatched over the Union Railways. (a.) The Railway Administration undertakes to collect from the consumer, and pay over to the sender, less commission charges, the declared value of consignments, other than live stock, forwarded under the " collect on delivery " system. (o.) The following rates of commission and conditions apply:— Rates of Commission. Not exceeding 13s. 4d 3d. £ 1 6d. £2 9d. £5 Is. Each additional fl or part thereof Id. The maximum amount of any one consignment shall not exceed the sum of one hundred pounds sterling in value. These rates are payable, even though the collection is not effected, as recompense to the Administration for services which, though ineffectual, may exceed those rendered if the consignment were delivered and paid for in the first instance. (c.) Sender's Duty.—A producer wishing to take advantage of the "collect on delivery" system must hand the package which he or she wishes transported, fully and legibly addressed, to the station- master, together with a consignment note. This, in addition to the usual particulars, must show the amount to be collected from the consumer, irrespective of the railway freight and any special delivery instructions. A note giving detail of contents of such packages must also be furnished. (d.) The producer will, ih exchange, bo furnished with a receipt by the Administration, showing the conditions under which the package or packages are transported, warehoused, and the like. The acceptance of this receipt by the grower will be taken as an agreement by him to the conditions therein and thereon. 4 Geo. 5 Royal Coaimission on Agriculture. 135 (e.) The Administration will then transport the consignment to destination—charging the usual freight—and tender delivery of same to the consumer, recovering from the latter on delivery the amount notified by the sender to be collected in respect of the value of the consignment, together with freight, if the same has not been prepaid. (f.) On collection of the amount specified in the consignment note from the consumer, an " advice note" will be sent to the forwarding station, authorizing the amount recovered to be paid to the producer. (g.) Should the sender live at a considerable distance from the sending station, the statioumaster will, if desired by the grower in writing, remit any amount due to him by post-office order or postal notes, less cost of such orders and commission, after such amount has been collected from consignee in terms of the two last preceding paragraphs: Provided, however, that the Administration will not be liable for the loss of the remittance in the post. (h.) Traffic from or to sidings or stopping-places where there is no resident staff is not accepted under the " collect on delivery" system, nor are " C.O.D." consignments of value above 20s. dealt with at the Kazerne, Johannesburg. PUBLIC MARKETS. Our recommendation on the subject of public markets is based on the view that the great purpose of a city market is to reduce the cost of living; that to do this and to maintain itself in successful existence it must have a large and steady patronage; that one of the surest means of ensuring this is to make its patrons directly interested financially in its success and to give them a voice in its management; that unless enough people are sufficiently interested in having a market to be willing to take some trouble to get it. conditions are not ripe for a public market; that when they have become sufficiently interested to organize and invest money in a market, and when an independent credit commission considers that the proposed enterprise has the essentia! elements of success, it is reasonable and wise for the Government to assist in raising the necessary capital at a low rate of interest and on easy terms of repayment. Shortest Line from Producer to Consumer. Mr. Sullivan, who as a member of the Commission on Public Utilities of the National Civic Federation of tbe United States, has studied for a number of years past in tho United States of America and Europe the question of markets for the people, has recently written a book on the subject,* and we quote some of his conclusions:— People who do not practise the reasonable economies open to them fail to make the proper start in reducing their own cost of living. Therefore their first necessary step is to join the thrifty, a true class of social reformers. The outlay for food is 45 to 60 per cent, of the breadwinner's earnings in the typical family among the masses. Therefore the most widespread reductions in the cost of living can come from cheaper prices for food. The New York grocery or provision store retailer makes by far the largest percentage in the additions to price put on by the successive middlemen engaged in selling and transporting from country producer to city consumer. For New York the costs of retailing are double or treble the costs of wholesaling. Therefore, in the consumer's task of cutting down costs, his first attention is due tho retailer. The small retailer, moreover, while under heavy but unavoidable expense, is usually incapable of extending his trade beyond a regular custom restricted through unalterable circumstances; hence he cannot considerably promote the speedy distribution of an occasional or seasonal oversupply in the market; he cannot transfer to the general public the complete benefits that ought to arise from large crops; he has consequently learned to get his living through maintaining a high conventional level of prices or through other practices prejudicial to consumers' interests. The conditions of his occupation, instead of furnishing incentives to the most efficient public service, lead to his own non-service, or the excessive taxing of service, or the prevention of service. Therefore the petty store retailer's part in the general commercial machinery, being economically defective, must inevitably give way to forms yielding better results for tho consumers. A 20-per-cent. saving to the consumer of moderate means, and in cases much more, on stock of equal quality, in particular on fruits and vegetables, through push-cart dealers as against store retailers, has of recent years been repeatedly reported by investigators; among others, by New York State and City Commissions. Therefore the legitimate trade of the push-cart, to the fullest extent, is a reasonable demand on the part of consumers. It is not only through the economies of their prices that push-cart dealers can ordinarily best serve their customers, but through the peculiar convenience of their operations. AVhen their services are needed they can be handy—are so in the great cities in which they have freedom of the streets— serving the factory and other workers at lunch-hour and housekeepers at ail hours. Therefore, to * T. YV. Sullivan : Markets for the People. The Macmlllan Co., New York, 1013. 10 13(i British Columbia. 1914 meet various public wants, the push-cart trade should by law be freely ambulant and freely stationary, within general traffic limits, wherever consumers should wish to buy. The practicability and value of open-air markets for metropolitan cities have been convincingly demonstrated, through diverse experimentation, in London, Paris, and Greater Berlin—in London through long-established operation ; in Paris throuah concurrent operation of both open and housed municipal markets, the latter ruined in the competition ; iu Greater Berlin through the progressive development of open-air markets in the suburbs, while they were suppressed in the city proper to give life to the failing housed municipal retail system. Now York, contrary to law, and Newark, legally, have to-day sufficient beginnings of the open-air markets to indicate that neither climate nor the habits of the people in this vast community are unfavourable to this economical annex of the kitchen. Therefore any district of Greater New York, in suburb or centre, could be expected to supply consumers enough to encourage the attendance at open-air markets throughout the year by producers, push-carters, and retail dealers. Since selling in the open—by push-cart and market—regulates all forms of indoor retailing, it establishes a solid primary basis for the conditions of the foodstuffs trade, with consequently stable and unmanipulated retail prices. Therefore it should have precedence of all other projects for reducing the cost of living. The big up-to-date provision section of the department store, the " private market," and the chain store—each to day invading the commercial territory long held by the small retailer—all alike evince possibilities of lowering their own prices, and in general catering with improved efficiency to the wants of the public, especinlly of the well-to-do, as competition should develop with them through forms of open-air selling. Therefore the positive social value of these types of distributers, highly effective as they are without official outlay or administration, must be duly recognized by promoters of markets or other projects, public or private, involving expensive plant or cumbrous organization, for the sale of perishable foodstuffs. Any proposal for distributive co-operation based on the impressive progress of the system in Great Britain imposes on its originators the obligation of making a sincere and thorough study of the Roch-- dale methods and principles, ethical and commercial, and of the obstacles, peculiar in our national character and conditions, which for decades have rendered unsuccessful innumerable American imitations, genuine and counterfeit, of British co-operative methods. Therefore serious advocates of true co-operation in any American community must content themselves to await the development of co-operators, in spirit and education, before proceeding to begin a co-operative business. Housed district municipal markets, made up of rows of little stalls occupied the full week by petty dealers, have during the last twenty-five years been failing in all the four chief cities of our civilization : the system is unfitted to modern life and household conditions in large communities; providers for the home in many cases prefer—one class open-air selling, and another the more attractive private market. Therefore proposals to rehabilitate housed public retail markets involve the difficult obligation of demonstrating ways and means to obviate their present proven shortcomings. Particulars about Public Markets. AA'e will now give some brief particulars of public markets in towns in this Province and some other parts of Canada, the United States, and Australia. The information regarding a number of these markets has been obtained from an article by J. F. Carter. Secretary of the San Antonio Chamber of Commerce, which appeared in the February. 3933, number of the American City. Mr. Carter considers that in most cases the markets are not accomplishing their purpose very successfully, and he suggests as follows:— Let us reform the matter thus : AA'e shall make our public market the place where the producer and the consumer actually get together for purposes of sale and purchase. AVe shall allow no middlemen. AA'e shall ship in all products grown in other territory which are demanded or are out of season. AA'e shall keep in touch with producers in every part of the country. And we shall employ a market- master who is a business executive, paying him a salary that is commensurate. Here would be the result:— AA'hen goods are in season, the producer and the consumer are brought together in actuality. AVhen goods must be shipped in from a distance, the market-master will have gotten in touch with the producer, and will import goods direct from that producer. The only difference then will be the cost of transportation and the expense of operating the market. In the case of fish, meats, tropical fruits, etc., the market-master may carry out the direct-buying plan throughout the year, his tropical fruits coming from the importing company. But. you argue, this makes the municipality a purveyor of foodstuffs. Quite true, if one view be taken of it; and yet, did not one Indiana Mayor iu 193.1 show how it could be clone; and did he not cut down the cost to the consumer of all goods he handled? In this day, when we are so liberally and so seriously discussing municipal ownership of water, light, and power utilities, and Government ownership of railways, telegraphs, and telephones, it were well to consider a closer regulation by the city of the methods of doling out sustenance from its public market-house. However, if the market-master were the lessee of the market-house, operating under regulations established by the city, allowing all producers to sell direct at a low cost of rental, and himself shipping in goods not locally produced and selling them at a maximum percentage of profit to be set down in bis lease, we misfit dodge the municipal-purveying idea, and get very much closer to the result desired than we are to-day. 4 Geo. 5 Royal Coaiaiission on Agriculture. 137 The time has come for thinking iu big figures. In every line we find more and more system in getting goods to market, and more and more are producers of manufactured articles trying to cut clown the cost of production and eliminate waste. But in that one article so absolutely necessary to human life, food, we find the least system at any point and the greatest possible percentage of waste. In the production of food there are the greatest numbers employed, and every human being is a buyer. The genius who will weld the producers of food into one great association, and who will then operate public markets in every city, will come some of these days; and with his coming will come the swan-song of the non-producing profit-taker, who will fall back where he ought to be—in the great, God-blessed class of producers from the soil. And in that day, when a more stable market shall have been created, there will go back to the land myriads of those who are to-day the toilers in the city and whom we call the " other half." An investigation of some of the public markets of Europe satisfied our Chairman that the conditions were so entirely different that we could not apply their principles to a study of the question here, and notes regarding them are therefore omitted. Typical Public Markets in Canada. Victoria.—The present market in A'ictoria is a private venture. There were some fifty-six stalls rented mostly to retailers and a few to producers. There is some economy in rent and expenses, and prices are a little lower than in the stores, but not as many stalls are occupied as a few months ago. One of the purposes of a public market is served to some extent in A'ictoria and A'ancouver by the Chinese growers, who peddle their vegetables or deliver them to regular customers. Vancouver.—The market in A'ancouver is not conveniently situated for a large retail business. It receives consignments and auctions or sells to dealers or consumers, charging the shipper the cost of liandling and commission, which averages 7y per cent. The market opens at 7 a.m. every week-day and the greatest number of buyers are householders. Business was increased by personal canvass of producers. On receipt of a consignment, acknowledgment is sent and a statement as to the condition in which goods were received. AA'hen goods are sold a purchase slip is sent to the producer. Books are open to inspection by the producers. Formerly goods were not delivered, but now they are delivered at 3.0 cents per box and 35 cents per sack. The following have been the results of the operation of the A'ancouver Public Market since 190S :— 3908, deficit IJ3.000 3909, „ 2.000 1930, 3,000 1911, surplus 2,000 1932 3,000 1913, 2,400 1914, expected deficit, owing to reduction in rents, about 2,000 The value of produce sold in 3.912 was $140,000, so that the public market has not been a factor of importance in proportion to the volume of business of A'ancouver. During December, 1932, the market was compelled to refuse six car-loads for lack of proper .accommodation. The manager feels that with some working capital and a cold-storage plant much more could be accomplished. New Westminster.—The market at New AA'estminster seems to be a useful institution, and to be thought well of by business-men of New AA'estminster and the farmers of the Fraser A'alley. AVe summarize the evidence of the market clerk, from which it will be seen that the market forms an exchange where producers and dealers or consumers meet and arrange sales of produce that is delivered direct, and does not appear on the records of the market transactions at all. The market was donated by the city, and encourages farmers to go to New AA'estminster to do business. Only producers have stalls, and prices are about the same as charged by the retailers, who continue to sell a large proportion of the foodstuffs consumed in the city. AVe give the following extract from the evidence of Mr. Mackenzie, the market clerk:— AVe conduct both a wholesale and a retail branch of the City Market. The products sold are chiefly home productions; 95 per cent, of what we handle is produced in British Columbia. AA'e have no delivery system, but au arrangement with an expressman to deliver at 10 to 15 cents per 3.00 lb. Friday is market-day. Those who use the stalls for selling their farm product retail 138 British Columbia. 1914 are charged 10 cents a day. with the exception of the butchers, who pay a fee of $1, while those who wish open space to sell wholesale or on a larger scale pay according to the quantity and variety of their offering; everything for sale, however, is confined as far as possible to the product of the farm. In addition to this, stabling and shed accommodation is free for those who drive in to the market with their horses. Our first and main object is to assist the farmer. AVe have no auctions, and we do not consider them of advantage to the farmer. Our transportation facilities are good; goods are brought to the market by river-boats, or by the British Columbia Electric Tramway on Fridays; on other days by dray. We have no cold-storage plant; I do not think it would be of any great advantage. AA'e provide stable-room for 250 horses, but the present accommodation is too small. There are frequently as many as 400 to 500 farmers at the Friday -market. The poultry and egg trade is good, the products being largely sold to wholesale houses, and also to consumers. AA'e have separate arrangements for our wholesale and retail trade. The $75,000 worth of goods handled directly by our clerk is only a small portion of the products sold through the market. AA'hile the farmer on a market-day may sell 2,000 chickens, the clerk may probably only handle two dozen. The market does not handle hay. The present accommodation is not sufficient for the trade. It would be a great improvement if a track were laid to take the cars immediately into the building. We have a large trade outside of the immediate .district. Products are received on all days during the week from farmers who sell their goods through the clerk. On such sales is charged a commission of 10 per cent, in addition to the freight charge. The revenue and the expense of the market are about even ; it is not intended to produce a revenue from the market. During the last seven or eight years there has been a steady increase in trade. AA'e make no charge for stable-room, but if capital were available more stable accommodation should be provided for. and a storage plant would then be advisable. At present it does not'appear to be fair to ask the city to spend more money on the market. There are no commission-men here and no wholesale houses. No American fruit is sold here. AA'hile the city does not directly derive any profit from the market, there is an advantage in tho fact that the farmers come to the city and do their business there. The farmer obtains better prices, and the consumer gets the goods cheaper and in better condition. Customers of all classes frequent the market. I am not in a position to compare the prices charged at the market with prices in the outside retail business. Prices for the coming week are estimated every market-day by the clerk, and a market report is s?nt to the newspapers. This market report fixes the prices for a large portion of the district. The market is centrally located, both from the point of view of the customer and tho producer. Calgary.—In 1933 a campaign for a public market was begun in Calgary by some public- spirited ladies who believed that the city's growth was being seriously retarded by the high cost of living. The market was in operation last autumn and tbe promoters were satisfied with the progress made. In October most of the stalls were kept as branches by up-town dealers, and most of the growers who had stalls were Chinese. The Grain-growers' Grain Company kept a stall for the convenience of any of its members who might wish to send produce to be sold, and charged them 30 per cent, commission for the service. Tho ladies had enlisted the friendly co-operation of some of the larger retail dealers, and were getting their assistance in making delivery of purchases, for which service no charge was made. Orders might be telephoned to the market office, from which messages were given to individual box-holders. The market superintendent suggested that the different districts of British Columbia might advantageously have stalls in the market, with representatives who would sell at retail or wholesale, and would give information about their districts to inquirers. In response to our recent request for information as to the progress of the market. Air. D. G. Mackenzie, the superintendent, writes:— I wish to acknowledge receipt of your letter of the 21st instant, and by way of reply would say that all available space on our market is occupied, and the city is building a $20,000 extension, which is expected to be completed within the next six weeks. AVe find that the producers surrounding and adjacent to Calgary are patronizing us quite extensively, although the big end of the revenue is from the retailers or dealers. At the present time we have an arrangement whereby we handle butter, eggs, and poultry from farmers living at a distance and those who cannot conveniently attend the market, charging them 10 per cent, commission for cost of handling this end. 4 Geo. 5 Royal Coaijiission on Agriculture. 139 I have correspondence from different parts of British Columbia asking for space on our market, and understand that it is their intention to put their own representatives about the market during the fruit season, and I have suggested that those desiring space should make application at once. The prospects are that when the new building is completed the space to rent will be quickly booked up. Toronto.—The City of Toronto owns the public market, which is governed by rules and regulations passed upon by the Municipal Council. The annual expenses are approximately .$10,000. consisting chiefly of salaries. The market is in charge of a foreman, who receives a salary of $17 per week. No rental is charged to farmers for the use of the market. About 3.25 farmers display their goods for sale on Saturday, which is the main market-day. Commission- nien and produce dealers are neutral. The market receives shipments from other communities, and prices are regulated according to demand. Ottawa.—A successful public market has existed in Ottawa for twenty-five years under the ownership and government of the municipality. It has proven a most economic feature in the cost of living and in providing pure food. The market inspector receives a salary of $1,400 per year. Nine collectors, weighman, etc., receive $700 per year. A market fee of 3.0 cents is charged, for articles brought to the market-place iii a vehicle drawn by two horses; upon articles brought by a vehicle drawn by one horse, 5 cents; upon articles brought by hand or in a basket or vessel, 2 cents. A fee of 10 cents is charged for each horse, mare, or gelding brought to the market for sale; 5 cents for each head of horned cattle; 2 cents for each sheep, calf, or swine. This fee is collected immediately upon the articles being exposed for sale. Hucksters, grocers, butchers, and wholesalers are not permitted to purchase before the hour of 8.30 a.m. any of those articles for family use that are in demand by the consumer. Hamilton, Out.—The public market of Hamilton is owned by the city, and is governed by rules and regulations issued by the Council of the Corporation of the city. The market clerk receives a salary of $1,900 per year and secures his own help. In addition to this expense is that of the caretaker, who receives $720, and repairs amount to from $300 to $3,000 annually. This market is kept strictly for farmers and butchers. During the busy season it is patronized by from 300 to COO wagons in one day. No shipments from other communities are received, and nothing is sold in the market except the produce grown by the fanners. Prices are controlled by supply and demand. Sherbrooke, Que.—The public market in Sherbrooke is owned by the municipality, and is governed by rules and regulations passed upon by the Municipal Council. It has proven a source of revenue to the city and a benefit to both the farmers and the consumers. The annual expenses amount to about $900, including cleaning, painting, and general repairs. The market clerk also acts as city collector, and $200 of his salary is charged to the market. The average number of farmers who use the market once a week, on Saturdays, is 125. A small rental is charged for booths. Commission-men and produce dealers are friendly. Shipments of farm produce are received from adjoining counties. No attempt is made to keep down prices. As a protection to the consumer it is provided that no trader, grocer, huckster, butcher, or dealer in provisions shall buy any of the articles required for family use which are brought to the market for sale until after the hour of 10 a.m. Lethbridge, Alberta.—Five years ago an attempt was made to operate a public market in Lethbridge, but it was not a success owing to the competition of Chinese vegetable peddlers. Since the abandonment of this market, however, the growth of vegetables and garden-truck has increased rapidly, and drafts of plans for a new market building have been prepared, with a view to the re-establishment of a public market. Typical Public Markets in the United States. Baltimore, Md.—The Lexington Market in Baltimore is the one to which that city points with pride, though there are several other market-houses. About 600 wagons are accommodated at the curb-space at this Lexington Market, and there are 1,200 booths within. No accommodations are given to the public in the way of rest-rooms, restaurants, etc., but the idea of comfort-stations is now being discussed. The market-master receives a salary of $1,400, while the assistant market-masters receive $400 to $900 per annum; the cleaners are paid as high as $060. In 3.931 the Lexington Market expenses were $9,6S2, while the receipts were $17,209, leaving a very comfortable surplus. It is estimated that 50,000 people visit this market on market-days. There is no delivery service. The rental and licence bring $25 per annum to the city as a revenue from each stall. 140 British Coluaibia. 1914 Buffalo, V.I'.—There are four public markets in Buffalo owned and controlled by the city. They are considered a success, as " the people get larger assortment at lower cost," this lower cost brought about " by intense competition." The market-master is paid $2,200 per annum; total expenses in 3933 were $39,000 and total receipts $63,000. The stalls in the main building are rented at $S0 to $350 per year, those not in main building renting for $60 to $350 per year. There are 556 booths in all. During the producing season from 500 to 600 farmers use the markets daily and sell from wagons. The commission-men act in a friendly manner toward the market; outside goods are shipped in by various dealers in the market. To each farmer a 0-foot wagon-space is allowed; single wagons are charged 15 cents a day; teams 25 cents a day. Their space is reserved daily until 7 a.m. If at that time they are not on the market the space is rented to a huckster. The booth-holders in the brick building take out a yearly lease, payable quarterly in advance. The rent is fixed by the Board of Aldermen through its market committee and superintendent of markets. The main building is open at 4.30 a.m. from April 1st to November 1st, and from 5.30 from November 1st to April 1st. Only such lines are allowed to be sold on the market as the Board of Aldermen and the superintendent of markets agree to. The main market building closes at 2.30 p.m. Booth-holders along streets are open until 4 or 0 p.m. Besides the booths in the main market building, the booths contiguous to the streets and space for fanners, there are hucksters who do business at tables. AA'eekly tickets are issued to them, payable in advance. The charge varies from $1 to $2 per week. Besides the superintendent of markets there are two clerks at each market for collecting, at salaries of $1,300 per year, two sweepers at $2 per day, and a lady caretaker at $360 per year. Cleveland, Ohio.—There are three markets owned by the city and one owned by a private corporation in Cleveland, all of them well patronized by the public. The increase in custom, however, has not been in proportion to the increase in population. The following data applies to the municipal markets : The market-master receives a salary of $3,S0O per year. The annual expenses are $33,559 for the past year, in which amount no allowance is made for taxes, depreciation, or interest on the investment. These expenses include labour, supervision, cleaning, fuel, light, repairs, etc. The three markets furnish a total of about 500 booths, with unlimited curb-space for farmers. The booths rent for from $60 to $200 yearly, according to location. About 1,100 farmers are allotted 7 feet at curb in the market district at a rental of $10 per year. Reuters of the stalls in the market-houses receive shipments from other communities, and wholesale dealers are friendly to the market. Competition between the 500 renters of stalls and the fact of their having but a low rent to pay, together with no charge for telephone and no delivery service, keeps down the prices. Cleveland boasts of having the handsomest market-house in the world, its doors having been thrown open in early November, 1932, this AVest Side Market taking the place of the one which has served for half a century. Its cost was $500,000. exclusive of the site, which cost $3.S0,000. There are 110 stalls; three aisles of meat-dealers occupy the stalls in the centre of the floor, while butter, egg. and poultry dealers are allotted the stands along the side-walls. The fish market is in the north-east end of the building, and the grocery department is just across tbe floor. All stands are uniform as to size and equipment. The stands are of enamelled brick with marble counters. The floors inside the stands are cement, while the aisles are of tile. The entire building is lined with white tile. None of the stalls have telephones, it being the belief that the use of telephones would tend toward costly delivery and credits. The sheds for fruit and vegetable dealers will adjoin the main building, and will not be complete until spring of 1933. Dayton. Ohio.—There are three successful markets in Dayton, one owned by private individuals and two owned by the city. Two of these markets being in the down-town district, market-days are divided, the older market being open on Tuesdays, Thursdays, and Saturdays; and the other, known as the AVayne Avenue Market, being open on Mondays, AVednesdays, and Fridays from 5 to 10.30 a.m. The older of these two market-houses was erected almost forty years ago and has had no recent improvements. Its vegetable-stalls are rented for $100 per year and the butcher-stalls for $250 per year. The AVayne Avenue Building is a recently completed structure costing $35,000, and the stalls rent from $12 lo $20 per month. The down-town district also contains eight or ten squares, where curb-spaces are auctioned off in May of each year at prices ranging from $35 to $300 per year for each space. The income from these rentals is 4 Geo. 5 Royal Commission on Agriculture. 141 approximately $30,000 each year, while the expense approximates a total of $2,600 a year, making a good profit to the city. The Arcade Market Building is a model market, having a complete modern cold-storage plant in the basement and affording some 32,000 square feet of cold-storage space. It is open from 6 a.m. (or earlier) to 6 p.m. every day, and until 10 or 3.1 p.m. on Saturdays. A'egetable-stalls are rented for from $6.50 to $S.75 per month ; butcher- stalls, from $35 to $40. including cold storage. There are 200 stalls in this market, and the annual rental receipts amount to about $20,000 per year. The public market in Dayton has been established since 1S35, and is patronized by all classes. Prices are slightly lower than those of the retail dealers, and the produce is always clean and fresh. The markets are supplied from the immediate country, and no shipments from other communities are received. Commission-men are friendly. Detroit. Mich.—In Detroit there are two markets, both owned by the municipality. In regard to their success comes the reply: " Yes, because they have been successfully operated for many years." The market-master gets a salary of $900, and the total expenses of the two markets in 193.1 were $6,474. Neither market is enclosed, each being nothing more than a cement foundation with a raised walk, forming a cross in the centre of a square city block, the walks being about 60 feet in width, to which all wagons back, permitting the customers to pass around and examine the products and ascertain the prices. These walks are sheltered by roofs. There are no booths or stands. In the case of Detroit there appears to be tho nearest approach to direct marketing from the producer to the consumer. Dubuque, loica.—The market in Dubuque has been maintained for more than fifty years, and it is patronized by all classes of people. Early in -the morning, particularly on AVednesdays and Saturdays, swarms of buyers may be seen coming from all directions with baskets and carts to get first choice at low cash prices of all the goods displayed by the vendors of vegetables, fruit, flowers, poultry, meats, butter, eggs, etc., backed up near the curb in front of stores near the market-house. On a morning more than 300 different teams may be counted within ten minutes, the ones lined up against the curb occupying more than sixteen linear city blocks. The market-house is modest in character, but the market is used to the evident satisfaction of the people in effecting economies. Grand Rapids, Mich.—Grand Rapids makes the claim of having the largest wagon market in the world, not only being self-sustaining, but a profit-producer. It is owned and operated by the municipality. The market-master receives $1,000 per year, the annual expenses of the market being $4,000. The stall rents are from $5 to $25, there being 760, of which 372 were rented in 3932. Farmers using the market number from 300 to 200 per day, paying a daily entry fee of 25 cents. The commission-men are friendly and co-operate. Goods are shipped in from other localities during out-of-season periods, these being fruits and vegetables. The total annual income approximates $10,000. Every effort is made to attract, the buildings being repainted each year. Indianapolis, hid.—The market of Indianapolis is owned by the city and is considered by all to be a success, city ordinances governing. The annual expenses of the market are $3.2.500, of which the market-master receives $3,320, the remainder being applied to an assistant, four janitors, two engineers, and firemen, and light, heat, and garbage-removal. The rental charge for booths is from $25 to $350 per year. There are 035 booths inside the building and 300 curb stands for farmers, for which a charge of 25 cents per diem is made. The statement which the writer received and the investigation which he has made show that the commission-men and produce dealers are opposed to the market. The market receives shipments of tropical fruits and vegetables from the South, and every effort is made to hold prices down by competition. New Orleans, La.—New Orleans has had a public market since the first year of the nineteenth century- The market-house was ruined by a hurricane, and rebuilt in 1S12. One after another was built, until to-day there are twenty-three markets owned by the city and eleven privately owned through franchise from the city, by virtue of which franchise they will revert to the city in a period of years. New Orleans is surrounded by a large area of market-gardens, which supply fresh vegetables and fruits at all seasons of the year. The existence of two large public abattoirs allows the selling of meat without large investment, as a stall may be rented for 50 cents per day. and a butcher may have his cattle killed by payment of $1 per head to the abattoir, this price including storage for ten days. The price for stalls (meat or vegetables) 142 British Coluaibia. 1914 is 50 cents per diem; fish and game stalls rent at 15 cents per diem, and fruit-stalls at 2 cents a square foot. Markets are open from dawn to noon, after which cleaning is done. Peddlers are allowed licence, but cannot operate until after noon. There is much agitation about selling the markets instead of issuing bonds to build new ones to take the place of the old; but this agitation is being stoutly opposed by those who fear the " meat trust." The estimated revenue for 3932 from the markets is $190,000, but no definite reports were received on expense. New York City.—The City of New York now has under its jurisdiction six public markets— namely, AVashington. Fulton, Jefferson, AVest AA'ashington, and Gansevoort Markets iu the Borough of Manhattan, and AVallabout Market in the Borough of Brooklyn. AVashington Market: Retail. Established 3S32. Covered market, 175 x 253 feet. Assessed valuation of land. $SSO,000; building, $20,000. Average annual receipts, $54,000. Average annual expenditures (other than loss by exemption from taxes), $15,S00. Average charge per square foot, $2 annually. Size of stands, from 5x5 feet to 9 x 12 feet. This market is located in the lower westerly part of Manhattan, and the trade is principally with restaurants in the down-town business section and individuals doing business in the city and residing in New Jersey suburbs. Open from 5 a.m. to 0 p.m. daily, except on Saturday, when the closing hour is 31 p.m. Fulton Market: AVholesale, fish; retail, general. Covered market, 203 x 170 feet. Assessed valuation of land, $450.000; building, $75,000. Average annual receipts, $37,500. Average annual expenditures (other than loss by exemption from taxes), $9,700. Average charge per square foot, $2 annually. Size of stands, from 5x5 feet to 9 x 32 feet. Located in the lower easterly part of Manhattan. Twenty-five years ago the revenue from this market was 100 per cent, more than at present. The opening of the Brooklyn and other bridges and tunnels across the East River and the subsequent improvement in transit facilities affected the revenue, and this market will probably be abolished in the near future. Business is principally with hotel and steamship lines. Open from 0 a.m. to 0 p.m. AA'est AA'ashington Market: Wholesale, dressed meats and country produce. Covered market. 3S9 x 400 feet. Assessed valuation of land, $950,000; building, $150,000. Average annual receipts, $108,700. Average annual expenditures (other than loss by exemption from taxes), $9,S00. Size of stands, 9 x 20 feet. Rental, $450 and upward per annum. Located in the middle west side of Manhattan on water-front. In and about this market the meat and poultry supply of the city is handled, the business being very extensive in this locality. A large commission business is also done. Great quantities of fruit and vegetables coming to the city by freight are dealt in within a radius of six blocks of this market. Open from 4 a.m. to 2 p.m. Gansevoort Market: An open square restricted to farmers' and gardeners' wagons. Assessed valuation of land, $000,000. Average annual receipts, $7,800. Average annual expenditures (other than loss by exemption from taxes), $S,500. The local farm produce is offered from the farm-wagons here, and is sold to grocers, hotels, and restaurants. There is no restriction, however, upon the farmer as to his customers, but there is little, if any, produce sold direct to the actual consumer. A nominal fee of 25 cents is charged each wagon daily. Open from 9 p.m. to noon the following day. Jefferson Market: Retail. Triangular in shape, with an area of 30,000 feet. Covered market. Assessed valuation of land, $150,000; building, $40,000. Average annual receipts. $10,200. Average annual expenditures (other than loss by exemption from taxes), $4,000. Charge per square foot, $1 annually. Early in the eighties this market was one of the best in the city, but owing to the encroachment of business buildings in this section the patronage has fallen off, so that it will soon be abandoned as a public market. Open from 6 a.m. to 6 p.m. AVallabout Market, Brooklyn: Wholesale; general. Covered, with open square for farmers' wagons. Assessed valuation, $3,390,400. Average annual receipts, $S2,500. Average annual expenditures (other than loss by exemption from taxes), $22,500. This market supplies the large and rapidly increasing residential section of the Borough of Brooklyn. The manner of letting differs from all other city markets, the land being laid out in lots averaging 20 x 50 feet. and leased for a term of ten years with the privilege of a renewal. The lessees put up their own buildings, which conform to a uniform style of architecture and do not exceed two stories in height, giving the market a very attractive appearance. The rental per lot is $7 and upward monthly. Located on water-front. Open from 4 a.m. to 2 p.m. 4 Geo. 5 Royal Coaiaiission on Agriculture. 143 There is no 'market-master in New York, the chief being the superintendent of markets, and being in reality an executive head. Farmers use the market squares, of which there are two— one in Manhattan and one in Brooklyn. The maximum using each market square is 700, and the minimum is 100. Shipments of commodities are brought iu from every part of the United States. Niagara Falls, V.Y.—The public market in this city is owned by the municipality. It draws from a rich fruit- and vegetable-producing country surrounding the city, and receives shipments of these products from country within twenty miles in radius. The market-master receives a salary of $70 per month. The annual expenses amount to $1,000 and include the salary of market clerk and supplies. This is a curb market. A charge is made of 15 cents for double teams and 10 cents for single teams each day they use the market, which is open on Tuesdays. Thursdays, and Saturdays. About 3.50 farmers patronize this market. Commission-men are friendly, and no attempt is made to keep down prices. Seattle, Wash.-—AVe have already referred to Pike Place Market as an example of a successful market which had come under observation by Commissioner Kidston, and we will now give some further particulars about it, as well as emphasize those already given. The public-market idea has made more notable progress in Seattle than in any other city of the Pacific Coast. Seven years ago a wealthy citizen built the Pike Place Market and transferred it to the city, under whose charge it is still operated. The rentals charged for the stalls make the project self-supporting. It was successful from the first, and three other markets—the Corner, Sanitary, and AA'estlake—have been started by private enterprise. In the four markets there are a total of 000 to S00 stalls, of from 100 to 300 square feet each, which rent at from $10 to $50 a month. The Pike Place Market also rents some 250 booths, for which a charge is made of 10 cents per diem. During the winter months about fifty farmers use the markets, and this number increases to 250 in midsummer. The market-master receives a salary of $110 per month. The annual expenses of the market are about $3,900, being divided as follows: Interest. $000; market-master, $3,320; janitor, $720; and inspector, $1,320. The stalls are small and are either under cover or in the open, and are assigned entirely to local producers of vegetables, fruits, poultry and dairy products, farm-killed meats, etc. AA'e noticed that among these stall-owners Japanese and Italians predominated. These day stalls in Pike Place Market are the only evidence here of the old public-market idea still found in the Eastern States and Eastern Canada. Aside from the day stalls, the four markets are public only in the sense that the public has access to them. The stalls are rented often for years to retailers of fish, meats, groceries, vegetables, flowers, fruits, dairy and poultry products, cider, pickles, candy, delicatessen, etc., and to restaurants and lunch-counters. Producers hold some of them, selling their own and their neighbour's stuff. The majority of stall-holders are strictly retailers; prices are, however, uniform, showing that the producer can sell his own goods no cheaper than can the retailer who buys it from him. In any of these markets any foodstuff obtainable in any store of the city may be purchased at the same or lower prices. The AVestlake Public Market in Seattle is owned by a private corporation. The annual expense is $40,000, made up of advertising, free delivery, janitor's services, light, water, refrigeration, etc. No rental is charged for permanent booths inside the market-house, but on the curb the charge is 20 cents per diem for each table. There are about 100 booths and the market is patronized by about 100 farmers, who consign their goods to dealers or sell directly to the consumer. These Seattle markets are primarily designed to reduce prices to consumers; encouraging local products is quite a secondary consideration, and, other than in the Pike Place Market, is apparently not considered at all. The markets do not eliminate any middleman, in the sense that he requires an additional profit for the added service he renders. All these markets seem entirely successful; few of the stalls were empty, except in the less desirable sections .of Pike Place Market; thousands of purchasers visit the market every day, pay cash, and take away their purchases. We were advised by jobbers that about one-third of the produce consumed in the city now goes through the public markets; that they had in that way hurt the retail trade considerably, and had compelled considerable reductions in prices as well. That the markets handle all foodstuffs from whatever source we consider a most significant feature, both from the consumer's 144 British Columbia. 1914 standpoint and that of the success of the market. Supplies, other than local products, are purchased by the jobbing trade, much the same as by other retailers; local produce may be bought through jobbers or direct from producers or producers' associations. Foodstuffs are low-priced in these markets for many reasons, principally those of more economical handling; rents are low, stocks are small, and turnover quick. The market is its own advertisement. All sales are for cash. Supplies are delivered by the jobber and the producer to the stall-holders; the stall-holders make no deliveries; customers see to that. There is keen competition both for the trade and for desirable stalls. Stall-holders are reputed to have become wealthy, and an unsuccessful man quickly gives way to another. The public markets do only a retail business and all by private sale. An auction company on Western Avenue, not connected with the public market, sells by auction to retailers, but is not an important factor as yet in reducing the margins of the jobbing trade. On the whole, the consumers of Seattle show an Immense appreciation of their public markets by giving them what we were assured was one-third of the total patronage of the city. Local producers seem satisfied, for the public 'markets have unquestionably stimulated the consumption of local products, even iu the keenest competition with car-load shipments from outside points. Toledo, Ohio.—The public market of Toledo is used almost exclusively by wholesale houses, which buy in large quantities direct from the gardeners and truck-farmers, hucksters and retail dealers also purchasing to some considerable extent. The market-master receives a salary of $720 a year. In 1931 the total expense of the market amounted to $2,096, which included the market-master's salary and the amounts paid to labourers for cleaning. There are about 200 stalls in the market, erected at a cost of about $120,000. these stalls being auctioned off at the beginning of the season. A charge of 25 cents per diem is made for every wagon standing outside the private stalls. This market is considered a success, having in 1911 paid the city a profit of several thousand dollars. Plans are now being formed to establish retail markets in Toledo with the object of obtaining lower prices. Wichita. Kan.—Under the commission form of government AA'ichita operates a successful public market, which is under the jurisdiction of the commissioner in charge of public parks, playgrounds, and health. The market-place is adjacent to the large gathering-place known as the Forum, and is 150 x 300 feet in dimensions, paved, and temporarily roofed, with a frontage of permanent buildings devoted to offices, restaurants, fruit-stalls, etc. The entire space will be permanently enclosed within a short time. It is the intention of the municipality to acquire the entire block in which the Forum and the market-place are located, and to use it for additional civic purposes of exposition and fairs of various kinds. The market-master receives a salary of $75 per month. The other expenses of the market are $4 per month for light. $S per month for water, and $32 per month for garbage-removal. There are ten booths, for which a rental of $5 is charged; 250 farmers use the market, which also receives shipments of vegetables and fruit from other communities. The commission-men and produce dealers are opposed. Prices are kept down by considering the standpoint of the consumer. This market has been a paying proposition from the beginning. Public Markets in Australia. In Australia public markets are a feature of the municipal administration in the Cities of Melbourne. Sydney, Brisbane, and Adelaide, and compare favourably with any of the open markets in the world. In Terth a market with refrigerating-works as an adjunct was erected twenty years ago, and in this facilities are provided for the daily auction of all articles of food-supply. Sections are set aside for fish and poultry, and other portions are leased to vendors of fruit, vegetables, meat, dairy produce, flowers, etc. The market is controlled by the " Government Trading Concerns Act," which makes provision for the appropriation of moneys for the capital and regulations of trading concerns under the control of a Minister of the Crown. The need of a larger market in Perth is now acknowledged, and the Government is considering the construction of an up-to-date market on an especially resumed site. Other markets in AVestern Australia, situated at Calgoorlie, Boulder, and Freewater. are controlled by municipal authorities, and there are also a number iu each town privately owned. So far in Western Australia no central system of markets has been evolved, but the matter is receiving earnest consideration. 4 Geo. 5 Royal Coaimission on Agriculture. 145 VII. CO-OPERATION IN AGRICULTURE. INTRODUCTION. There is a great deal of confusion in the minds of the general public as to the meaning and practical application of co-operation. It is, however, impossible to give an entirely satisfactory definition, because co-operation is not a question of formula; but it can be stated what co-operation can do, and also what it cannot do. Co-operation is simply a junction of forces among persons having a common object. It removes difficulties and creates facilities, but it does not create wealth; its aim is not to make the members rich. Co-operation among producers will break up rings, cheapen production, facilitate sales, and abolish the unnecessary toll levied on production by the superfluity of middlemen. It is not "dividend-hungry," but aims at performing a common service for producer and consumer. However good the description of this system may sound, it by no means is all that is necessary to efficient production and distribution; there must be plan and skill behind the machine. A good co-operative system must therefore aim to extend education, to raise the moral tone, develop intelligence, and create a bond of identity of interest and common sympathy. It has been maintained that co-operation is a "combination of persons, not of capital." and that therefore " one member one vote" in co-operative societies is an inevitable rule. " No dividend upon capital above the prevailing market rate for money " is another immutable rule. Unlimited liability and unrestricted admission to membership are principles on which many of them insist at their organization. Summing up: co-operation means mutual helpfulness. It means the adoption of a high standard of business procedure and business integrity; it includes organized efforts to teach the members how to reach these standards. Stating it very briefly, co-operation has been defined as " organized self-help " or as " the organized work of a community." There is, however, an intangible something that is essential to successful co-operation, a something which is evinced by feelings of fellowship and loyalty to a common cause. Without this bond co-operation will not endure. It is a further indication of this fact: that wherever there has been a real co-operative movement there has been some leader inspired with a missionary's faith in the great cause of human progress. At the same time, it is essential that the appeal to the nation for co-operation shall be based on the direct and distinct material benefit the suggested plan offers. The co-operative organization must therefore be a child of necessity, and it must crystalize around a vital economic question. A co-operative society is not formed solely on the principle of universal brotherhood, but is an organization created for industrial purposes and mutual profits. The reason for its existence must be based on the necessity of cheapening cultural methods and improving the system of distribution. The New Methods of Farming. It has been stated by one of the leaders in agricultural co-operation that farming must be regarded as an industry, a business, and as a life. Into the industry must be introduced the teaching of modern science as it has been done in all other industries. Into the business must be incorporated the most effective business methods. The life of the rural community must be made more attractive by making it physically more comfortable, mentally more stimulating. and socially more satisfying. To accomplish this threefold object is the aim of the co-operative system in agriculture. It is essential, however, that better business methods must precede better farming. The farmer's lack of ability to get his produce to the consumer without preposterous middle profits being deducted from the returns or added to the prices is to a great extent responsible for the present difficulties of the industry. If, however, the intermediate agencies are willing and able to distribute the farmer's produce uniformly at a reasonable cost and handle the business so that a reasonable profit is obtained by the producer, they are economically desirable from every point of view; but as long as the farmer stands by himself individually he is at a disadvantage in protecting himself against aggression. 14G British Columbia. 1914 The new agricultural business methods which have spread over many countries in Europe, and have to some extent been adopted by the United States and some of the British Dominions, as well as by India and Japan, consist in combining efforts into a system of co-operation and the acceptance of mutual obligation directed to the development of the various branches of the business of agriculture :— (1.) The provision of capital: (2.) The purchase of agricultural supplies: (3.) Collective agricultural production: (4.) Marketing of agricultural products: (5.) Agricultural education: (6.) Insurance. It is with the purchase of supplies, the productive and marketing business by co-operative methods as generally applied, we are here chiefly concerned. In the public mind co-operation has been so generally associated with Denmark that the extent to which its fundamental principles have spread in many countries is not realized. The development of co-operation in all its forms is everywhere one of the characteristic phenomena of our times. Better farming and better business methods should lead to improved social conditions, giving to rural life those essential features which would make life on the farm attractive, and bring an end to that exodus which is taking into the cities all that is most progressive in the country population. In the following sketch it will be endeavoured to show how the fundamental principles of co-operation have been applied in many countries to various branches of agriculture. The details of this sketch have been drawn from personal observation, aided by the works of such well-known authors as G. AV. Russell, Henry Wolff, J. H. Cahill, Sir Horace riunkett, F. N. Nicholson, and others; as well as by the information obtained in consultation with many of the most advanced students of co-operation in many lands. DENMARK. One of the most prominent leaders of international co-operation. Luigi Luzatti, the founder of the Popular Banks in Italy, has called Denmark the "world's laboratory of co-operation." It is the object of the following sketch to trace the development which has placed Denmark in this position and ascertain the moving forces of the system in this "cradle of co-operation." The peculiarity of agricultural co-operation in Denmark is that it was not called suddenly into being by legislation or State aid, but is entirely self-promoted; the associations have been created without support and stimulus from outside. They were formed as the want of them was felt and as the people's understanding of them permitted. There is therefore but little systematic connection between the various branches of agricultural co-operation. If it is desired to buy. sell, or produce a special article collectively, almost invariably a new society is formed instead of letting an already existing society take up the new co-operative activity. Sometimes these societies have grown into a union with common regulations and under a common director, but retain a great deal of local independence and free initiative. In other cases a large territory would accept the system simultaneously and be subdivided for local societies, and a central organization would then be immediately provided for. State aid, which is so frequently resorted to in many countries to foster co-operation, is entirely unknown in connection with distributive and productive associations in Denmark. It has never been considered. In fact, many of the strongest co-operative societies have grown up to their present magnitude in spite of strong opposition by manufacturers and tradesmen and all those depending on those classes, causing obstacles to be placed in their way by the authorities. Origin of the Movement. There is only one large city in Denmark—Copenhagen, the capital. The rest of the country is nearly all agricultural. Though originally the land was not very fertile, agriculture is highly developed and the farms are chiefly owned by small holders. Out of a total of about 200,000 properties, 116,000 contain less than 7% acres each. The large number of small holders has given strength to the co-operative movement, and again the 4 Geo. 5 Royal Coaiaiission on Agriculture. 147 co-operative movement has tended to increase the number of small holdings. Agriculture in Denmark has therefore become a network of co-operation. Denmark was more particularly stirred into action to improve her economic conditions by the urgent need consequent on the results of her conflict with Prussia, at the end of which she lost a portion of her most fertile land. Following this national disaster occurred the banking crisis of 1SS0-90, when the European farmers were on the verge of ruin. The price of grain was decreasing as a result of American competition, but on butter, bacon, meat, and eggs prices were steadily increasing. At this juncture the small farmers of Denmark combined to build up their industry on a new basis; they sought to organize their production under such a system that they could supply other countries with the more highly priced articles and be able to meet the changing demands of the world's market. The movement grew rapidly ; so that ten years after its beginning there was a co-operative creamery in every community in the country. The first co-operative dairy was erected in 3SS2 in the west of Jutland. The first co-operative bacon-factory was built in Horsens, Jutland, in 1SS7. The co-operative Danish Farmers' Egg Export Society was started in 3.S95. The first local fruit society was organized in Odense in 3906. However, the establishment of the co-operative dairy movement actually dates back to 1S76, when Lehfeld invented the centrifugal cream-separator, which allowed of greater yield of butter from the milk. As every farmer could not afford to have a separator of his own. it was obviously of mutual benefit that groups of neighbours should co-operate to obtain the necessary appliances aiwl appoint a skilled staff to make their butter for them in factories under such conditions that the cost of production would be reduced to a minimum, and that a large quantity of butter of uniform quality would be assured. As a natural sequel to combination for production came co-operation for sale. It is recognized that good producers are not necessarily good business-men, and therefore should employ their time looking after their production rather than attend to the details of marketing, which should be left to some specially competent person. Leading Principles. The principles of Danish co-operation have grown out of the needs of the moment and the life of the nation. They have been individualized by the features of the national temperament. They have shown themselves effective in imparting to Danish co-operation force and power. The fundamental principles of the system have been determined chiefly by the democratic individuality of the nation, and also in a great measure by the fact that these co-operative societies are founded by the middle classes and for their benefit. Being formed under the principle of self-help, it is easy to understand that the co-operative societies repose upon democratic self-government. A society is therefore not recognized as co-operative unless it conforms to the principles laid down respecting division of profits and self-government. The system evolved on these principles has been of incalculable value to the entire Danish people. Organization. There is in Danish law no special legislation for co-operative societies. The co-operative societies therefore find themselves singularly untrammelled from ail legal control, and to a large extent able to be their own lawmakers. They have no obligation as to registration, publication of rules, etc. They value highly this autocratic position. The joining into co-operative societies is in most cases absolutely voluntary, and a member can leave any of these societies at his own free will. Only he cannot go out and at the same time shake off liabilities already incurred. However, in some societies of a specific nature the members bind themselves to remain for a certain number of years. On the other hand, no member of a purchasing society is bound to buy from his own association more than he chooses. In this freedom to buy and not to buy is the best guarantee that the goods sold and the price asked will always be what they ought to be. The members of productive or marketing societies are, however, under obligations to deliver their products °or a certain number of years. If they fail to do so they are fined according to the amount not delivered. For instance, for a pig not delivered to the bacon-factory a fine of 148 British Columbia. 1914 $2.50 is imposed. At the same time, even when a co-operative wholesale house puts up a valuable plant and warehouses and manufactures its own goods, it does so at its own risk. No stipulations are made with respect to adhesion. Only the Danish Joint Stock Petroleum Company, a branch of the Standard Oil Company, has deviated from this rule. In all co-operative associations it is generally the accepted principle that no one applying for membership can be kept out if he complies with the rules and regulations governing the society. Societies who should draw other lines with respect to membership would be excluded from the wholesale unions. Each member of a co-operative society has only one vote, irrespective of the amount of his share and irrespective of whether his share is fully paid up or not. At the beginning it was not fully understood, especially among the creamery associations, that this is the most practical method. It was then not unusual to apportion voting power iu proportion to the number of cows owned by each member, so that a large number of cows might entitle the owner to five or ten votes. That rule, however, has been relegated to the past, and does not, as far as is known, exist anywhere. The present rule is one member one vote, and women who are members have the same rights in every respect as men. This rule has greatly tended to level social relations among the members, and it has shown its effect far beyond the limits of the particular society. Management. Supreme authority is everywhere vested in the general meeting, in which every member (man or woman) has a right to be present, speak, and vote. . The power of supervision is in the first instance committed to selected committees of inspection. But all members of these several bodies are themselves elected for a specified term by the general meeting. The executive power is committed by the general meeting to a committee of management and a body of managers, who again may appoint a special office committee. Liability-. With regard to liability for the debts of the co-operative society, the rules vary in different societies. Nevertheless, a broad line of demarcation may be noted. In the larger unions covering an extensive territory, liability is limited to the amount of each member's share. This is the case with the Danish Wholesale Society. The Danish Co-operative Egg Export Association practically adopts the same principle. In societies of this character there is no unlimited liability, yet they are in every sense of the word " co-operative." In the smaller societies covering only a small area, and where the members are intimately acquainted with each other, unlimited liability is always adopted. However, this liability may be constituted in various ways. It may be on the principle of joint liability, " one for all, and all for one." It may also be in the subsidiary form, so that the creditor, if the society fails to pay, is not in a position to proceed against any member except iu proportion to his individual share of the common liability. This means, under the laws of the country, that the creditor will first proceed against the society, and if not obtaining satisfaction he may in case of joint liability proceed against any one member, who in his turn is backed by all members, or iu case of subsidiary liability the creditor must proceed against each member for a proportional share in the liability. In the bacon-curing societies members are grouped according to districts, and the members of each group are jointly and severally liable for the amount subscribed by such group. The co-operative societies for supply of feedstuff's have adopted the same rule, and so have the common purchase societies for dairies. Co-operative creameries as a rule adopt subsidiary liability. Distributive societies adopt most frequently unlimited liability without group restriction. In societies where a large working capital is necessary, loans are made for which some of the members become liable, being in turn backed up by the entire association. Though in some cases members of societies with unlimited liability have had'to make good the losses incurred, it is not desired to abandon this form of liability, which is felt to be of great value to the healthy development of the system. The unlimited liability is an assurance against the apathy and indifference of the members. 4 Geo. 5 Royal Coaijiission on Agriculture. 14!) The co-operative creameries have for various purposes formed a number of central federations. In 1909 there were SSO creamery societies belonging to twenty-one unions aiming at developing the dairy industry by organizing expositions, by calling conferences, and by collecting various material intended to spread knowledge on the subject of dairy economy. These unions have combined in two federations which have formed a committee charged with looking after their common interests. A society for collective purchases was established by the Danish creameries in 3.901. It procures for the combined creameries all supplies, machinery, etc. This society is operating a factory. Shares. Members receive interest on their shares at a fixed rate, and they receive no consideration for becoming sureties for the societies. Classification. The co-operative movement has gradually organized its activities into the following branches :— (1.) Distributing societies under which come the (a) co-operative stores, and (b) the associations supplying raw materials : (2.) Productive societies: (3.) Marketing societies: (4.) Intelligence societies. • In 1909 the number of societies and the membership were as follows:— Number of Societies. Number of Members. Stores (chiefly household articles) Agricultural supply societies Creameries Abattoirs Cattle-exporting societies Egg-export societies Horse-breeding societies Cattle-breeding societies Pig-breeding societies Sheep-breeding societies Control societies 392,000 70,000 157,000 95.000 S4,000 52,000 21,500 31,300 0,430 S50 32.000 distributing associations. Stores. The Danish system of co-operation has by gradual development, come to include purchase of agricultural supplies and sale of agricultural products, as well as actual production. As, however, the general store for the distribution of household goods was most easily organized, the first co-operative movement confined its efforts to the establishment of these stores. There are 1,364 stores scattered all over Denmark; nearly as many as in England. The average membership is 143. In the majority of these societies funds are raised for their operations by initiation fees, generally $2.50 from each member. This small entrance fee is not necessarily paid in advance. In many cases dividends from the purchases of the members are held back, sometimes during several years, until the fee has been made up. Outside of the entrance fee no special qualifications for membership are required. All members are unlimitedly liable for the debts of the association. The officers consist of a board of five directors and a manager responsible to the directors. The manager is generally provided with a house and receives in salary 5 per cent, of gross 150 British Columbia. 1914 receipts. Out of this allowance he pays all the help. All business is done on a cash basis, and the price is the same as charged in private stores, but the profits are returned to the purchasers. This return generally amounts to about 10 per cent, on all purchases. Organization. In the supply societies, profits are invariably divided in proportion to the value of the purchases made; in the productive societies, in proportion to the goods delivered. There is one large supply organization for these associations, the United Co-operative Supply Association, comprising all the societies, of which one is found in every Danish village. There are country stores which sell provisions and general household articles, as well as raw materials. They own a very large wholesale house in Copenhagen very like the Manchester wholesale house. The wholesale house has eleven depots in various parts of the country from which the societies are supplied. For distributing purposes Denmark is divided into twenty-three districts, and each district elects a member of the board of representatives. The board of representatives elects the chairman and the vice-chairman and seven committee members. The chairman and the vice-chairman devote all their time to the work of the society. The committee elects the managers and oversees the business generally. The prices charged by the co-operative wholesale house to the affiliated societies are the same as those quoted by other wholesale houses. However, the local societies are not compelled to buy from the central house, but, as a matter of fact, buy nearly all their goods there. The total amount of goods sold in 3932 amounted to $20,000,000, of which $10,000,000 worth was sold to the affiliated societies. The capital invested in the wholesale house is over $2,000,000. The share capital is $200,000, the reserve fund $1,200,000, and real property $S00,000. Each society must take a share worth $27 (100 kroner) in the wholesale union for each twenty members or portion thereof. The dividend paid on the share capital is 5 per cent. Of the profits, one-third is held back for the reserve fund. This reserve fund is used as working capital. The net profits returned to the local stores are about 5 per cent. Savings Departments. Besides its purchasing departments, this establishment has a branch through which it receives savings. Through this channel it has obtained $S00,000 for additional working capital. Agricultural Supplies Societies. Besides the stores, which chiefly supply household articles, the Danish farmers have established a Farmers' Co-operative Purchase Federation comprising 4,000 farmers, who on ready- money terms purchase feeding-stuffs, seeds, fertilizers, etc., and sell butter, eggs, and garden produce through a single depot in Copenhagen. There are also six feeding-stuff associations with a membership of 000 co-operative creameries. There are four manure associations whose members are either agricultural societies, dairies, or individual farmers, and nine federations of seeds purchase societies, besides one creamery requirement association with a depot at Copenhagen comprising 362 creameries. In 1909 Denmark imported:— Grain for food purposes $32,000,000 Bran, etc 2,000,000 Oilcake 15,200,000 Seeds 2,300,000 Chemical fertilizer 2.500,000 $34,000,000 4 Geo. 5 Royal Coaiaiission on Agriculture. 151 Of this total, $9,000,000 represent the distribution through co-operative associations, and of that amount $8,000,000 represents grain and feed stuffs, the balance seeds and fertilizers. Thus the Danish farmer is enabled to buy his raw material in the world's cheapest market, and the small farmer enjoys the same advantages as the large land-owner. productive and marketing associations. Cattle-raising with its allied industries is the occupation which most perfectly suits the land and the general conditions in Denmark. Therefore the main departments of productive co-operative associations are :— (1.) Dairies: (2). Bacon-curing societies: (3.) Egg-collecting circles. In 1900 there were:— Societies. Members. Trade. Dairies 1.076 33 500 357.537 91,000 $382.2(19.000 69.595.000 4.709.000 Dairy Societies. In 1909 there were 1,157 co-operative creameries, accounting for over 85 per cent, of the butter-output.; seventy private ones owned by large landed proprietors, located especially on smaller islands. In addition to their own, they often take in the milk of their smaller neighbours. Besides, there are two societies for the supply of milk to Copenhagen, one of which is co-operative. Regulations in Creamery Societies. It is made obligatory to observe the utmost cleanliness during the process of milking. The manager of the dairy enforces the regulations strictly, and may enter and inspect the producer's premises at any time. Should there be cause for complaint the milk is returned to the producer. All cream and milk is pasteurized in the creamery, and all butter exported is marked with the Government brand. The AA'ori.d's Larcest Creamery'. At Haslev, Zeeland, is the world's largest and best-equipped creamery, Trifoliuin. The paid-up working capital was $300,000. It receives the milk from 12.000 cows, yielding over 60,000,000 lb. of milk annually. The value of the annual production of butter amounts to $950,000, and of cheese $1,150,000; there are kept in the store-rooms 40,000 cheeses, which would extend a length of thirteen miles. There are fifteen centrifugal separators, skimming 65,000 lb. of milk per hour. This dairy also supplies Copenhagen with 30,000 lb. of milk daily. The dairy employs 400 persons and 100 horses, outside of the horses transporting the milk from the farms and to the station. The power is supplied by two 130-horse-power machines. Besides the milk products, there is manufactured 2,000 lb. of ice daily. Roots are analysed for the farmers to ascertain how the food value can be increased. There are cooper-shops and repair-shops. In brief, this creamery represents the highest standard of butter-making based upon scientific research and technical progress. Total Production of Danish Creameries. The entire yield of butter for 1909 was about 240.000,000 lb., of which 210,000,000 lb. was produced in co-operative creameries. There were in Denmark, in 3909, 3S3,300 properties disposing of milk from 3,2.82,300 cows. The following table shows the distribution :— 11 152 British Columbia. 1914 Comparative Patronage. Number of Properties. Number of Cows. Co-operative creameries Creameries worked iu common Private creameries 154.56S 12,529 3.2.050 3,059,950 313,719 7S,73S The effect on the increase of the number of milch-cows is shown by the following statistics: There were in Denmark iu 1SS3 about 900,000 milch-cows. In 1909 the number had reached 1,2S2,000. At the same time, the average yield of milk had steadily increased per cow, as will be shown by the following table:— 1S9S 4,490 lb. 3901 4.S84 „ 1904 4,S95 „ 3907 5,6S9 „ 1905 5.S54 „ 1912 6,210 „ The average yield of butter for each cow has been raised from SO lb. in 1S64 to 220 lb. in 190S. This result has been achieved by systematic improvement of herds, promoted chiefly by cow-testing associations and prize competitions at fairs. The butter produced is marketed partly direct by the separate creameries, partly by the butter-export federations, of which the most important is the Danish Farmers' Butter Export Association. In addition, practically every dairy is a member of the Central Trade Mark Association. It is a significant fact that the product from the co-operative dairy societies brought a higher price than the butter from the dairies operated individually by the large land-owners. The total quantity of milk, which in 1903 was estimated at 5,800,000,000 lb., had in 3.909 increased to 7,700,000,000 lb., of which more than three-fourths was treated in co-operative creameries. The producers received for milk forwarded to the co-operative creameries in 1909, $65,000,000. In the form of skim-milk there was returned to the producers a value of $4,400,000 and a dividend of $9,200,000, or 35 per cent, of the receipts. AA'hen the cost of production is added, the total receipts of the co-operative creameries in 1909 was no less than $70,000,000. From 1903 to 3906 the percentage of the number of cows supplying milk to co-operative creameries has grown from 80.9 to S3.3 per cent, of the total number of milch-cows in the country. The following table shows how the number of cows of which the milk was utilized in co-operative creameries in 3909 was distributed among the properties of various size:— Acreage of Property. Number of Properties. Number of Cows. 0 to 12y2 acres 12y3 to 37% ,. 37% to 75 75 to 150 150 to 300 300 to 600 Over 600 No returns 56,999 49,623 35,942 24,116 5,717 1,296 581 8,139 1S2.413 114,057 210,3S0 290,252 2S0,099 84,397 31,63S 24,552 24.5S1 1,059,956 4 Geo. 5 Royal Commission on Agriculture. 153 On this basis we arrive at the following proportional figures, which show that the holders of more than 600 acres make use of co-operation in butter-making less than half as much as the small holders:— Acreage of Property. Percentage of the Cows owned and supplying' Milk to Co-operative Creameries. 0 to 32% acres 12% to 37% 37% to 75 ,, 75 to 150 , 150 to 600 „ More than 600 „ Average percentage S5.9 SS.9 90.7 S7.9 73.9 3S.S S3.8 This table shows that the co-operative creamery is especially adapted to the needs of the small and the middle-sized property-holder, and that it is above all the big farms that hold aloof from co-operative production. Cattle-export Associations. Out of 1S4,000 properties which raise cattle, 8,400, or about 4 per cent., belonged in 1909 to export societies. The proportion is largest among the large properties—about 11 per cent. Bacon-curing Associations. The number of bacon-curing societies is necessarily limited, because bacon-curing is a business which is most efficiently conducted on a large scale in factories with expensive equipment. There are, in all, thirty-four establishments of that kind. Some part of the selling is done through the federation at Copenhagen. Sixty-six per cent, of the country's whole output comes through co-operative factories. There were ISS.OOO properties where pigs were bred, yielding a total of 1,466,S00 pigs. The following table shows the hold the co-operative abattoirs are getting of the business:— No. of Pigs. Co-operative abattoirs Private abattoirs No returns 926,200 522,099 17,695 This table shows that while only 47.6 per cent, of the properties delivered to the co-operative abattoirs, yet 63.9 per cent, of the pigs produced in the country were slaughtered there. The increase has been steady. In 1903 it was 50 per cent. It is also noticeable that the largest; percentage is from the properties of medium size (15- to 60-acre properties delivering 72 per cent, of their total yield to co-operative abattoirs). In 18S7 the first co-operative abattoir was built. Eight new establishments were built in 1SSS, when Germany forbade the import of live pigs from Denmark. In spite of strong competition from private abattoirs, there has been a steady growth of the co-operative business. In 1909 there were thirty-four co-operative abattoirs where there were killed 1.362.500 pigs and 25,700 head of cattle. The product of the factories is rigidly inspected; every pig in which the least sign of disease, can be detected at the inspection is kept back from export. These severe rules are enforced so as to assure the customers of the absolute soundness of the products. 154 British Coluaibia. 1914 Egg-collecting Associations. There are 550 egg-gathering circles with ten different packing-houses organized under the Central Danish Egg Export Society in Copenhagen. In addition, five bacon-curing societies and the nine butter-export societies collect eggs from their members. Despite this, it is estimated that three-fourths of the eggs produced are sold through private merchants. The eggs handled through these societies are labelled with a number indicating the producer and the number of the station. After arrival the eggs are candled and all bad eggs are rejected. The defective eggs are then charged to the producer; if he continues shipping bad eggs he is warned, fined, and finally expelled. All eggs are bought and sold by weight. At the stations eggs may be preserved for six to nine months in large vats in a preparation the composition of which is a trade secret. Only absolutely good eggs are preserved. At an egg-station there is often kept from $7,000 to $S,000 worth of eggs in vats at a time. The largest of the egg-export federations is the Danish Egg Export Society, which from 3S95 to 1909 has increased its total annual turnover from $22,000 to $1,250,000, and now serves 550 circles. Out of the 2SS.000 properties having poultry, about 52,000 properties (IS per cent.) with 3,150,000 hens (27 per cent, of the total number) were members of an egg circle attached to an export federation. Membership in these associations is divided fairly evenly among large and small properties, and is constantly increasing. But while the membership has only doubled the yield has more than quadrupled. The total export of the co-operative egg societies was in 1909 valued at over $2,500,000, about one-third of the total egg export, the value of which was $7,500,000. The direct effect of co-operative production and marketing is that all producers get the same price for their products. The product is standardized and guaranteed, and the disposal of the articles produced is regulated under a comprehensive marketing policy. The milk is fetched from the farm every clay, eggs twice a week, the pigs are supplied to the slaughterhouses direct; in fact, the farmer has little to do with marketing. He can devote all his energy to the problem of production. intelligence associations. Over and above these co-operative societies there are a large number of non-producing and non-trading societies of a co-operative nature. These may be classed as intelligence departments and improvement societies. AVith the formation of these, co-operation went still a step farther in the formation of new types of agricultural associations which sought to promote:— (1.) A scientific system of cattle-breeding based on biological laws and heredity: (2.) The establishment of breeding syndicates: (3.) A system of supervision by which each farmer would be enabled to know from definite data the results obtained from each animal. In connection with the dairying industry, no less than seven special intelligence societies have been formed :— (1.) The dairy managers' associations for the comparison of methods of management: (2.) The dairy members' association for the comparison of returns and mutual assistance in inspection and the introduction of improvements: (3.) A society for the encouragement of cheese production: (4.) A friendly society: (5.) An accident insurance society: (0.) A statistics association which publishes weekly quotations: (7.) A wholesale butter-quotation committee which tries to bring prices up; and, in addition. (S.) A Government laboratory in which are held optional surprise competitions. There are also societies connected with live-stock breeding: (a) Horse-breeding societies, which conduct a stud farm (203 such societies in 3900, 270 in 3909) ; (b) cattle-breeding societies; and finally (c) about twenty live-stock insurance companies. The Bacon Producers' Federation acts as an intelligence department for the bacon-factories. Its functions are to keep them informed of the bacon quotations, obviate strikes, and to act as agents for the insurance of bacon exports with outside insurance companies. 4 Geo. 5 Royal Coaiaiission on Agriculture. 155 Farmers' Clubs. Another organization of great importance is the Federation of Farmers' Clubs. The whole country is mapped out into 107 districts, each with a club which conducts prize shows, excursions to model farms, experiments in breeding, and crop experiments. A few of the clubs supply agricultural requirements for their members. There are also poultry associations, beekeeping societies, and home industry societies. Live-stock Associations. The large majority of these societies have been very successful. The following tables will show the extent to which these organizations have been able to'make themselves useful. In 1909 there were the following number of breeding societies:— Animals. No. of Societies. Alcmbers. Alale Animals. State Aid. Horses Cattle . Pigs .. Sheep 270 1,259 253 102 21,510 31,300 6,430 S50 312 1,464 32S 109 $43,000 59,000 4,000 1,200 The next table gives a comparison between the total number of owners of live stock and the number affiliated to these associations in 3909:— Animals. Total Properties. Properties affiliated. Total Head. Head affiliated. Horses Cattle Pigs . . Sheep 163,550 182,652 1S8,276 95,378 23,700 30,300 7,150 900 534,6S0 2,243,0S9 1,4GG,S14 72G.G27 3.49,000 536,000 95,000 S,000 Thus about 30 to IS per cent, of the properties producing horses and cattle belong to the breeding societies, with 27 to 29 per cent, of the total number of animals. Except in respect to horse-breeding societies, members are most numerous among the middle-sized properties. The live-stock breeding societies act in conjunction with the control societies, as the cow-testing associations are called, with an aim to perform their work according to a fixed plan. Cow-testing Associations. The object of these societies is, among other things, to keep an account of the milk and its butter-fat contents from each cow registered in the association. The first cow-testing association was started at A'ejen, in Denmark, in 1S95 by twelve dairymen who owned 300 cows. They associated themselves and employed a tester, who kept a record of the milk and the percentage of butter-fat from each cow, weighed the feed. etc. Thus they were able to eliminate from the herd the undesirable milch-cows and breed from the best strain. The "control" society keeps an account of each cow registered with respect to: (1) Milk yield; (2) proportion of butter-fat in the milk; (3) relation between yield and fodder. The farmer obtains reliable information as to the condition of his herd and the success of his methods. He is thus enabled to select suitable stock for breeding and adopt a system suited to his conditions. Since 1900 there have been established forty control societies. They are liberally subsidized by the State. The average return of milk is 6,S76 lb. for cows under a " control" society and 5,S50 lb. for cows at large. In 1903 these societies had 13.9 per cent, and in 1909 17.7 per cent, of the total number of cows under "control." In this respect the large properties show the higher return, with 40.3 per cent. 15G British Columbia. 1914 While all other co-operative associations have prospered only by the efforts of their members, the live-stock breeding associations and the control societies have received considerable State aid. The effect of the activities of these various societies has been a greatly increased production by the skilful way in which science and technics have been at the service of the farmers. In the maintenance of this special intelligence system Denmark is far ahead of any other country' The societies maintain a head office, publish a paper, and hold an annual congress. This service is the crown of the Danish co-operative system. THE CHANGE. The change produced in the entire system of agriculture has been quite radical. In 3880 Denmark had a comparatively large export of grain. The revolution that has taken place in agricultural production has changed this. Not only does she consume her own grain production, but since 1SS2 the import of grain has exceeded the export in value by about $19,500,000 during recent years. To this amount should he added $1G,500,000 for other imported feedstuff's. At the same time, the export of more valuable products has grown rapidly. During that period the export of dairy products and of butcher products has grown from $S,000,000 to $SO,000.000. Little by little Danish agriculture has assumed an entirely new industrial and commercial character. The branches of agricultural production which have been organized successfully under co-operation are butter-making, egg production, and bacon-curing. On the other hand, meat-selling has never been successfully done on a co-operative plan. Several attempts to operate farms under a co-operative system have entirely failed. The farmer wants to remain independent in the control of his own land. Effect of the Movement. There are in Denmark altogether 4,500 agricultural societies with 600.000 members, three times the total number of farmers. All these associations are under the farmers' own administration, and the 20,000 directors receive through them an excellent education. The business management is executed efficiently, so that the co-operative associations are able to compete with private undertakings. To educate farmers to do this work with increasing efficiency there are established in the country about 120 schools of various character, through which there pass S,000 pupils each year. So many young farmers each year passing through these schools must necessarily greatly heighten the educational standing of the entire nation. Thus the effect of co-operation in Denmark has been to transform the character of agriculture within the period of a single generation. By means of altering the direction of production the farmers succeeded in adapting their industry to the new conditions in the world's market. The agricultural export of Denmark represents 93 per cent, of the total export. Denmark exports $325,000,000 worth of agricultural products annually, against $36,000,000 thirty years ago, or nearly $S0 per capita of the rural population. At the same time, the quality of the products and methods of packing and shipping have been greatly improved. The production of goods exported is under careful inspection. All the cattle slaughtered are inspected by veterinary surgeons before and after killing, and all dairies exporting butter are under Government supervision, so that full guarantee can be given to customers abroad. This system is expensive, but it has brought good returns. Another important effect of the new method has been that the arable land has increased in quantity and quality. Denmark had in 1907 under the plough 75 per cent, of its acreage; France. 53 per cent.; Germany, 49 per cent.; Great Britain and Ireland, 26 per cent. The greatest effect of the movement is the change it has brought about in rural life and the influence it has had on the farmer's life and character. Small Holdings. The effects of co-operation have greatly enhanced the tendency to subdivide the large landed estates. This is shown by the following classification of Danish properties according to size:— 4 Geo. 5 Royal Coaiaiission on Agriculture. 157 Comparative Acreage of Holdings. Size. Number. Area. 7% acres and under 7% to 11% acres . 11% to 22% „ . 22% to 33% ., ■ 33% to 67% ., 07% to 135 „ . 335 to 270 270 to 540 540 acres and over . 116,614 16,966 26,992 17,723 35,257 25,615 6,502 3,570 S22 Acres. 239,004 159.S32 473.59S 496,962 1,752,121 2,346,295 1,169,4S4 574,940 964,327 Before this movement the small farmer was dissatisfied and little regarded. The co-operative movement brought the many small farmers to the front. Of the agricultural area 'of Denmark, S5 per cent, belongs to small farmers and only 35 per cent, to large land-owners. The small holders have raised the grade of their products, so that they can more than hold their own with the large proprietors. Co-operation to the Danish farmer therefore means something more than a business method. By nourishing the principle of mutual sympathy and promoting common interests, by educating the farmer's capacity for self-government and his sense of equal rights, it has widened his horizon, heightened his independence and self-respect, as well as his respect for others. The Folk High Schools. It must not, however, be lost sight of that the popular high schools, which in their entire educational system are altogether peculiar to the country, have prepared the rural population systematically for this kind of work. From these schools there are annually returned to the farms thousands of young able men and women who go out into practical farming to perform the work with energy and industry. Under present agricultural conditions, especially the easy access to land ror young men without means which has been provided by a system of State loans, the much-deplored migration from country to city has practically ceased. The increase in population in Denmark has for the last few years been the same for the country as for the city. Thus Denmark lias become what Luzatti describes as ".the world's laboratory in co-operative and agricultral experimenting." These experiments and researches are carried out co-ordinately by farmers and Government experts; they are carried out in the dairies, in the abattoirs, and on the farms under the same conditions as the actual commercial production; the results are not stored in departments,'but made immediately available. In the words of the Danish Government Adviser, Mr. Rudolf Schou : "The Danish farmer has come to the conclusion that success depends on his own work and ability." GERMANY. One of the features of greatest interest in German co-operation for purchase and production is the gigantic scale on which the system is carried out. Almost immediately after the adoption of co-operative methods in agricultural production the movement spread rapidly and assumed very large proportions. Under its various credit systems German farmers had already become familiar with co-operative methods, and it only needed the stimulus of the example from Denmark to apply those methods to distributive and productive purposes. In Germany alone there are about 26,000 agricultural associations ministering to every conceivable want of agriculture—buying, selling, providing electric power, pressing grapes, distilling potatoes, drying roots, storing grain, improving breeds of live stock, insuring property against every variety of loss, and furnishing money for all those various purposes and for new operations. 15S British Coluaibia. 1914 Classification. Though not confining their activities to any one kind of business, the co-operative agricultural associations of Germany may be roughly divided into the following groups:— (1.) Supply societies: (2.) Dairying societies: (3.) Corn-selling and granary societies: (4.) Cattle-selling societies: (5.) Egg-selling societies: (6.) Electricity societies: (7.) Machinery societies: (S.) Other societies. Of the 20,000 co-operative societies now in operation in Germany, two-thirds are credit societies. The distributive and productive societies were in 1906 grouped as follows (the comparatively low membership given in this table indicates the expansion which has taken place since 1906) :— Societies. Members. (1.) Supply societies Machine-owning societies (2.) Productive societies Of which— Dairy societies Vintage societies (3.) Magazines (corn and spirit societies) 1,702 2S0 3,204 2,S20 159 3.43..S04 6,423 239,729 21S.999 2.615 33.8S5 It should here be noted that, with respect to grouping the various societies, there is a distinct difference between the systems obtaining in Germany and in Denmark. The Danes favour a distinct and separate organization for each co-operative activity, so that the Danish farmer may belong to six or ten different societies, in several of which he meets nearly the same men. In Germany the custom is, whenever the need of a new co-operative activity is apparent, to add a wing to an already existing structure instead of establishing a new association. For instance, nearly all the above-described activities are assumed by many of the numerous rural credit societies. Such a system may not easily be embraced in a national organization, but evidently it has suited the needs of the moment and the national temperament. Besides the outstanding feature of carrying the co-operative plan out on a colossal scale. Germany has contributed to the movement the thoroughness of its scientific investigations, and . in the loosely constructed plan on which the corn societies are organized it has added a peculiar feature to the co-operative movement. SUPPLY SOCIETIES. Between 3850 and 1S70 the chemical discoveries of the laboratory were applied to agriculture on the basis of discoveries made by A. D. Thaer (1752-3S2S) and J. von Liebig (3S03-3S73), who were the first Germans to develop the science of agricultural economics. The application of laboratory methods made it at once apparent that the distribution of agricultural raw material was in the hands of a class of dishonest traders. The two remedies applied to this condition were: First, the establishment of test-stations, erected by the " land- wirtschaftlichen A'erein" (non-trading agricultural association); secondly, elimination of the middlemen by the assumption of their work by farmers' associations. The Growth of a System. After some years of experimentally feeling the way, during which time the Raiffeisen societies did good service as forerunners, the first legally constituted supply society was founded in Friedburg, Hesse. The next year there were no less than fifteen forming the Hessische A'erband under the leadership of the famous Dr. Haas. 4 Geo. 5 Royal Coaiaiission on Agriculture. 159 It was at once realized that as the individual purchaser is helpless in the hands of retailers, so is the individual society helpless in the hands of the wholesale dealer, and that only by combining the forces of all societies iu a Province or State would it be possible for the co-operating fanners to make their influence effective in determining prices. The concentrated demand of forty unions of societies combining from one to two million farmers is certain to exercise a substantial influence. AA'hen the National Federation in 1910 contracted with the Potash Syndicate for 120.000 tons of purified potash salts, the Syndicate was willing to give advantageous terms. Up to 1SS5 the single societies dealt directly with the merchants, distributing supplies at net cost among the members. After that time the societies began to deal indirectly with the bigger merchants or manufacturers through their own wholesale business (Haupt Stelle). L'p to 1S90 the Haupt Stelle was an agency under the A'erband, but after 1S90 the agencies were transformed into regular wholesale societies (Einkaufgeuossenschaften). The Haas Supply Society at Insterburg was the pioneer in the movement towards wholesale centralization. The development of this society is interesting. It had been founded in 1S71 for the advancement of agriculture, and it drew its members from among the large proprietors. The small farmers were unable to use this large society and too weak to form their own. So, in 1SS5, they became attached as small supply societies to the larger association, which for them became a wholesale house. Finally, in 1S90, the small societies were admitted to full membership. This development is very significant. It shows: (1) That the supply societies have an important field in small scale agriculture; (2) that small and large farmers can devise means to co-operate together; (3) that one important society may shelter the weaker ones until they are strong enough to stand in equal alliance. The way pointed out at Insterburg was immediately followed all over Germany. Most of the new societies became members of Haas' Aligemein Verband (General Union), but were at first unconnected with one another. The year 1S95 marks the final stage of the development of the supply societies. German agriculture at that time began to move in a new atmosphere, and the supply societies were affected by the general movement of centralized activity in co-operative circles. Strongly organized societies began to unite in national opposition to non-co-operative companies which were organizing on a national basis. All the supply societies realized that national concentration was necessary to meet competition from outside. In 1S94 a standing business committee for negotiating the purchase of supplies had been appointed by the General Union. In 1S97 a successful attempt was made at complete centralization, and the Supply Union of German agriculturists was formed. This federation was joined by every section of agricultural co-operation. The final stage of national concentration had been reached when one and a half million farmers were connected with it. At the same time, other societies outside of the main organization, such as dairy unions and isolated credit societies, also centralized the purchase of raw material. The comparative extent to which the German supply societies have succeeded iu centralizing their activities is shown by the following figures: Out of a total number of 20,435 agricultural societies which in 1912 belonged to the "Imperial Federation" 2,241 were supply societies. Of these, SS per cent, were members of a central organization, so were two-thirds of the credit societies, but only 17.5 per cent, of the dairy societies. Functions of the Supply Societies. These societies confine their activities chiefly to supplying their members with fertilizers, feeding-stuffs, seeds, agricultural implements, and other miscellaneous articles. The goods chiefly supplied by the societies affiliated to the Imperial Federation are chiefly artificial manure, feedstuff's, seeds, and machinery. In respect to the purchase of machinery the advantage has been considerable. The manufacturers used to pay large commissions to the agents, but by direct purchase of large quantities on cash terms the central association obtains greatly reduced prices and sells to members on favourable terms. At the same time, it is not the least advantage that the quality of the goods is guaranteed. The society obtains expert advice before ordering. KiO British Coluaibia. 1914 Only in isolated cases do these societies supply general household articles, such as groceries, hardware, etc. A few societies, however, deal in those articles in some sections of Germany. The Agricultural Co-operative Union, however, discourages any attempt in this direction, except where conditions are extraordinary. Management of the Societies. The area of operation is confined to small districts not exceeding one, two, or three parishes; it corresponds roughly with that of the village bank. The area is generally decided with a view to obtaining sufficient business to assure wholesale prices without necessitating a large outlay for warehouses, management, etc. The directors of the central association are men of wide experience who devote their whole time to the service of the association, while the directors of the local associations are people with ordinary experience. Thus the locals are getting the service and supervision of trained men at a very small cost. Membership. The average number of members in these societies appears to be ninety to one hundred. However, the number varies greatly. The largest number of members in any supply society is listed in the Stolp Society in Pomerania, with 3,091 members in 1910. Many societies have found it advantageous to bind every member to buy from the society of which he is a member, but this practice is by no means universal. (In Denmark there is no such obligation.) Dealing with non-members is not encouraged. The value of the shares is generally nominal. The Imperial Federation advocates making the shares $25, payable over ten years. In many societies the number of shares for each member is fixed according to acreage or according to the amount of goods bought. The average amount paid up per share was, in 1910, about $5; the paid-up shares in the various societies varying from 75 cents (662 societies in Baden with 53,225 members) to $46 (for nine societies in one East Prussian Union with 2,269 members). Liability of Shareholders. The amount of liability attached to shares under limited liability differs in the various societies. In societies with only nominal shares the liability is larger (an average of over fifty times the shares). In societies with larger shares the liability is generally smaller (from one to ten times the amount of the shares is usual). Though the majority of German co-operative societies have adopted unlimited liability, there is an increasing tendency, especially among those that are not credit societies, to adopt a system of limited liability. The Imperial Federaton holds that limited liability is generally adequate and often preferable. The following table shows the proportion of co-operative societies in Germany, with unlimited and with limited liability (June, 1910) :— Unlimited Liability. Limited Liability. No. Per Cent. No. Per Cent. Credit societies 14,325 1,25S 2.202 S07 92.32 55.1S 66.07 31.93 1,172 1,03.9 3.002 3.832 7 55 Trading ., 44.69 Ha in- 31.S6 Other 07.4S Totals 1S.652 7S.22 5,0S5 21 SS Business Methods in the Supply- Societies. The orders are collected from the members by the society, and on the arrival of the goods samples are taken and kept for analysis. The local society maintains no store or warehouse, 4 Geo. 5 Royal Coaiaiission on Agriculture. 1G1 and goods are generally taken by the members at the railroad-station. Some of the large societies, however, maintain warehouses and keep goods in stock. Members are usually allowed a fixed amount of credit. Within that limit credit is generally allowed for a period of twenty to ninety days. After the lapse of the time fixed interest is charged. Discount is often allowed for early payment. Credit is seldom given for more than nine months. Profit-making is not an aim of these societies. The object is to supply tbe members with the best goods at the lowest price possible. Therefore profits are disregarded. A portion of the profit is retained as a reserve fund, the balance paid as a dividend to the members in proportion to their purchases. In 1912 there were registered 2,417 associations as agricultural supply and sale societies. The greater number, however, are purely supply societies. In certain districts, such as East Prussia, Hanover, and Saxony, both functions are, however, more or less regularly undertaken. A'alue of Supplies. Owing to the various channels through ■which these supplies are furnished, it is impossible to obtain exact information as to the total value of goods supplied to the farmers through co-operative associations. Returns for 1910 from 2,120 registered societies showed the amount of goods supplied to be above $30,000,000; 7,611 credit societies report to the Imperial Federation a sale of $21,000,000. For those two groups the value therefore exceeds $50,000,000. Making due allowance for those co-operative channels in respect to which no statistics exist, the total annual amount cannot be less than $65,000,000. When to this is added the amount for goods supplied to non-co-operative societies, this amount will be greatly increased. In 3930 the average amount bought by each niemher of the supply societies was $150, and for each society $15,000. This is an increase of 100 per cent, since 1904. Other Supply Societies. At the end of 1911 6,359 credit societies had entered as shareholders in the central trading associations attached to the Imperial Federation. There were 4,000 credit societies attached to the Agricultural Central Loan Bank, which also have included purchase of agricultural supplies among their functions. Dairies and other societies have also acted as supply societies. Altogether the number of societies undertaking supply as a subsidiary portion of the work was not less than 12,000. Again, there are non-co-operative societies, like the 2.000 to 3,000 peasant proprietors' associations, that supply their members with raw material; also the agricultural societies and the Agrarian League. Apparently the saving made for them by these societies has appealed very strongly to German farmers. Advantages obtained by- Members. The advantages obtained by the members of the co-operative supply societies are: First, the guarantee of quality. The farmers who buy individually must necessarily lose large amounts by getting adulterated goods. Each buys small quantities and cannot afford to pay for analysing them, while the supply societies, immediately after the arrival, take samples of all goods for analysis by experts. The importance of this is shown by the fact that twenty-seven societies who in 3911 had 31,672 samples analysed proved 12,627 to be of inferior quality and recovered about $140,000 in reimbursement. It can be imagined how much worse the individual purchaser is treated. Secondly, general lowering of cost of farm supplies owing to the breaking- up of " trade rings" in addition to the actual saving secured by sharing the profits of the society. Thirdly, the dissemination of useful knowledge and acquaintance with business methods. Many instances can be quoted to prove the lower prices at which farmers obtain their goods under this system. The founder of agricultural co-operation in Pomerania states that after the founding of the supply societies the farmers obtained artificial manure under guarantee at nearly half the prices previously paid for goods not guaranteed. A great deal of credit is due to the supply societies of the various types for the general progress of agriculture in Germany. They have done much to promote the knowledge and the use of artificial manures, seeds, feeding-stuffs, etc. Through the educational work carried on 102 British Coluaibia. 1914 by the central bodies, and by discussion at the general meetings, the spirit of investigation is fostered and a great deal of knowledge is disseminated. Besides, the practice of cash payment and promptness in fulfilling obligations exercises a wholesome discipline. productive and marketing societies. The movement to establish productive co-operative societies, while successful in various lines, has not met with the same unqualified response among the Germans as the credit societies and the supply societies. The degree of success which has attended productive and marketing co-operation is due to the concentration of huge populations -in the modern German cities. The problem of supplying these centres with large quantities of agricultural products of uniform quality has become intensified and suggested new methods. Further, the improvement of machinery and the advance of bacteriology have changed the economic basis of production and necessitated factory methods. These modern methods which thus have become a necessity are a natural inducement to co-operative production in a country where small holders predominate and their settlement in villages should be a further assistance to the movement. Dairy Societies. Co-operative dairying, however, has not attained the same relative proportions as in Denmark. Yet it has become second in importance only to the German credit societies. In 1SS0 appeared in Hesse the first dairies, with a central selling depot at their head, but at that time the line between private owners and co-operative societies was not well defined. However, in 1S93-94 there were established iu the Baltic Provinces five central depots organized in the usual fashion. Only dairies organized on co-operative principles could become members. Since then the increase in co-operative dairying lias been very rapid. In 1S90 there were in Germany 039 co-operative creameries; in 1912 (December 1st) the number had increased to 3,4S2, with about 300,000 members. In 1S9G there was some discussion about the organization of a large business association to act for the affiliated creameries, but there has been no result as yet. Types of Dairies in Germany. There are in Germany three types of co-operative creameries:— (1.) The most numerously represented is the creamery which collects the milk, separates the cream, markets the butter, and returns the skim-milk. About SO per cent, of the German creameries belong to that type. (2.) Dairies which utilize the cream and milk partly for butter-making and partly for cheese, and to some extent for fattening pigs. About 14 per cent, of the creameries are of that type. Their management requires more skill than the first type, both technically and commercially. (3.) The third kind is found in thinly populated districts. They are merely depots, where the cream is separated from the milk and sent to central dairies. The number of these depots is comparatively small. In 1890 there were 935 co-operative creameries in Germany. Of these, 735 were in Prussia, and again 340 of them were in the small Province of Schleswig Holsteiu (former Danish possessions). Many German creameries have with advantage added subsidiary branches to their main business; a considerable number act as supply associations and some as egg-gathering stations. Methods. When the individual farmers have a large number of cows the members deliver their own milk. Where small holders predominate the district is divided into routes, and some of the small holders are employed as carriers. In other cases arrangement is made among the contributors that each member in turn shall collect and deliver the milk for the producers on the route. Tests are made three or four times a month, except where poor results are obtained, when daily tests are made. Nearly all creameries pay for the cream according to percentage of butter-fat. The Federation will not recognize a dairy society where there has not been assured milk from 300 cows. The average number of cows is 500 for each creamery. 4 Geo. 5 Royal Coaiaiission on Agriculture. lG'J Membership and Liability. In 3930 there were 3,393 (3.475 in June, 1912) societies with 2SS,699 members, of which 32 per cent, had adopted limited and (IS per cent, unlimited liability. The Imperial Federation advises fixing the amount of each share at $200, payable over ten years. As a matter of fact, the amount varies from 25 cents (207 out of 2,97S societies) to $2,000 (two societies). Withdrawing members are not entitled to receive repayment of their share till eighteen months or two years after giving notice. Working Capital. If a creamery is to be constructed at, for instance, a cost of $0,000, the amount is generally obtained by a loan for which the bank requires a guarantee security of $30,000. This guarantee is obtained on shares, each farmer being required to take one share for a certain number of cows owned. Under the system of unlimited security each member takes only one share. The total working capital in 1910 for 1,963 societies reporting was $21,650,000. This amount had been obtained in the following manner:— Loan capital , 72.4 per cent. Reserve fund 19.4 „ „ Share capital S.2 „ „ The Imperial Federation recommeuds that 10 per cent, of the net profits shall be withheld for a reserve fund until the society has sufficient working capital of its own, when the percentage will be reduced. In 1910 the real property of 1.903 societies amounted to $1S,250,000, an average of about $7,500 for each society and $66 for each member. The production of the co-operative dairies in Germany is conservatively estimated at $300,000,000. The Largest Dairy in Germany. The largest co-operative dairy in Germany is at Striickhausen, Oldenburg. It handles daily at the best time of the year 90,000 lb. of milk. It was established in 1SS4 by five farmers. In. 1912 there were 800 farmers delivering 20,000,000 lb. of milk; 31 lb. of milk produced 1 lb. of butter, the average fat contents being 3.13 per cent. The farmers 'receive 1 cent a pound of milk, or about 31 cents per pound of butter. There was paid to them during the year about $200,000. Of this amount it is estimated that one-third was deposited in banks. The expense amounted to about $22,230; consequently, for 300 lb. of milk the expense was 3.1 cents. The expense account is made up as follows:— Salaries and wages $ 4,250 President, council of inspection and milk inspection 200 Travelling expenses 175 Postage, ledgers, printing, telephone 3,000 Fire, accident, and burglar insurance; also sickness account 190 Interest, taxes, machinery, and boiler-testing 750 Tubs, boxes, cardboard, packing-thread, paper 3,200 Freight on butter S25 Coal, oil, pure cultures, salt, soap, etc 1,900 Freight (1 kilo about 44 pfg., or 100 lb. about 20 cents) 3.0,250 Making copies 9G5 Maintenance of buildings and machinery 325 A'alue of stock, decrease 200 Total $22,230 The advantages of the co-operative creameries to the farmer are manifold:— (1.) The relative cost of machinery and building is greatly reduced to the individual farmer. (2.) There is a great saving of time and labour effected on the farm. (3.) A better product is assured than when the farmer's wife must keep the cream till sufficient is gathered for a churning, under varying conditions of temperature. (4.) The prices realized by the creamery for the farmer are better than he personally could obtain and he does not waste his time marketing. 1G4 British Coluaibia. 1914 (5.) The advantage of a steady monthly income. (6.) The educational influence of the creamery, leading to the establishment of intelligence societies, employment of experts, lectures, and demonstrations, raises the standard of farming and the intellectual standing of the farmer. Milk-selling Societies. The object of these societies is to secure the production of pure milk, to collect the milk at cooling-stations, and to dispatch milk of standard quality to the towns. The members undertake to submit to the regulations laid clown by the societies with respect to feeding and sheltering the cows and sanitary treatment of the milk. The premises and operations are under the supervision of officials of the societies. These milk-selling societies have to meet strong competition from private enterprises and spend a great deal in advertising. The milk society at Dresden, which handles 65,000 lb. of milk daily for 350 farmers, spends annually $2,000 in advertising. The advantages of these societies are very great, both for the small producer and the consumer. The milk is better cleaned and better cooled and preserved for a longer time. The farmer is saved trouble and time marketing, and generally gets a better price than he would otherwise. Egg-selling Societies. Egg production has not in Germany received the attention to which the importance of the market would entitle it. The German farmer has hitherto sold his surplus of eggs to the village merchant in trade, or to itinerant dealers for cash. In neither case has the return been encouraging. There were in 1910 only 145 registered egg-selling societies in Germany, with 3.3,544 members. However, there are many independent poultry-breeding associations, and many of the registered dairies and supply societies also sell eggs for their members. Methods of Egg-collecting. The method of operation of these societies varies according to the area covered. AVhen the society covers only a small area the eggs are generally delivered at the place of collection. AVhen it embraces several villages there are local collectors who gather the eggs twice a week. The eggs that are not transparent when candled are returned on the following collection trip, and the party is fined for each bad egg. The local collectors are generally men who only give part of their time to the work, milk- carriers, small shopkeepers, etc. They are paid about 25 cents per 1,000 eggs for handling, candling, weighing, marking, packing, and keeping account of the eggs. The societies lay stress on proper keeping and feeding, but not on pure breeds. The shares are usually small, from 50 cents to $5, with a liability on each share of from $2.50 to $12.50. Entrance fees are from 25 to 75 cents. One society handling about one million eggs weighing 110,000 lb. received in payment $17,500, and returned to members $35,500. The number of poultry associations is increasing rapidly. In Hanover they have increased from six in 1900 to sixty-four in 3912, when over 30,000,000 eggs were marketed through the associations and $450,000 paid to the members for the eggs delivered. Cattle-selling Agencies. The revolution in the condition of the cattle market which has taken place in later years has taken the control of the fixing of prices altogether out of the farmers' hands. Cattle markets are now usually connected with the large public slaughter-houses, and the farmers sell to agents, who again sell to district buyers, and these transmit in turn to the large slaughter-houses. A few salesmen and slaughter-houses are therefore able to control the prices. The effect has been that, while meat has increased greatly in price to the consumer, the amount paid to the producer is but slightly increased. In Germany an attempt was made to establish co-operative abattoirs on the Danish pattern, but contrary to the experience in Denmark they did not prove successful. The policy adopted 4 Geo. 5 Royal Commission on Agriculture. 1G5 does not appear to have been broad enough; the management and technical skill and the provisions for capitalization were not adequate. At present the policy in respect to co-operative cattle associations is to confine all efforts to marketing, and the societies are formed with the object of eliminating as many middlemen as possible. Shares and Liability. The shares are low, from 25 cents to $2.50, with a liability from $2.50 to $25 for each share held. Compulsory delivery has been made the rule. This rule is generally enforced and has contributed greatly to the success of these societies. Fines are imposed for non-delivery. However, the farmer has his choice whether he will sell his cattle direct to the society or on commission. The difference between the societies and the ordinary dealers is that the societies return all profits to the members. Announcements of the day and place of shipment are made, and members must give notice of animals to be brought five days before shipment. On arrival the animals are classified' in six grades and weighed. Statement of class, weight, and sum is given in writing, and the amount is paid at once. The owner can appeal with respect to classification to two members of the committee. Their decision is final. The cattle are shipped to various markets as directed by the central organization. The Berlin Central Co-operative Cattle Selling Society for Prussia was formed in 1S99. Shares are fixed at $25, with a liability of $250 attached to each share. In 1910, 2,220 societies were members of this central organization. In 3912 tbe business amounted to $17,500,000. against $6,500,000 in 3.906. The central association exercises supervision over and keeps the accounts of the local societies. There were in 1910 (June 1st) 145 cattle-selling societies with a total membership of 33.375. nearly all with limited liability. These societies have been especially successful in remote districts, where prices were completely controlled by a single buyer. Generally they have made great progress in Germany, though they are only as yet in a preliminary stage. Grain-selling Societies. The difficulties of operating granary societies are greater than in the case of common co-operative societies. By the nature of this business the societies must make greater demands on the loyalty of the members, and the managers must exercise greater firmness in dealing with them. The management requires an expert knowledge of prices and the movements of the markets. The marketing methods whicli these societies are trying to displace suffer from the effect of decentralization. The German farmer sells to small traders, who again sell to larger dealers. After being sorted and mixed the grain is dispatched to consumers. The farmer therefore does not obtain fair prices for his small quantity of uncleaned grain. By co-operation these drawbacks will be remedied to a great extent. In 1S90 the German grain-growers felt the wave of depression of grain prices caused by American competition that had swept through other countries, but which in Germany had been held in check for some time by the Customs duty on grain. However, at this time it was realized that something must be done to relieve the farmers' industry. Two remedies were suggested, American elevators and co-operation. State Aid for Elevators. As the State did not want private concerns to build elevators, and the farmers were not rich enough to do so, State aid was resorted to. In 3890 Prussia offered to lend $1,250,000 to farmers who were co-operatively associated for this purpose. Various other Governments in Germany made grants for the promotion of corn and granary societies in the hope of. improving the facilities for cleaning and classifying the various grades of grain delivered, and with the object of regulating prices, as well as to assist farmers to get credit on the ^rain in the warehouses and reduce charges of middlemen. It is, however, commonly thought that this form of State aid lias acted as a temptation to lavish expenditure. 1GG British Columbia. 1914 The result as evinced by reports of the president of the Pomeranian Union was not as successful as anticipated, principally on account of lack of good management. AVhile the co-operative movement was immediately stimulated to a mushroom growth, nevertheless a few years after there were costly elevators standing empty. The granaries had been built too large and expensive, and the elevator-sites in many cases had been injudiciously chosen. On that account several of the societies surrendered the buildings to the State, but continued business in less expensive quarters. The farmers have learned by experience, and a more healthy development has taken place in later years. Outside of this drawback the influence of these societies has been for improvement. The farmers have got some control of the formation of prices, and the technical handling of the grain has greatly improved. The present attitude among the farmers in respect to grain-selling societies differs according to the needs of the moment and the available means. (1.) AA'herever it has been possible, elevator associations have been established as an annex to Raiffeisen associations or other credit societies. In some places several credit societies have combined to own and operate elevators. Some of the supply associations have also taken grain- selling up as a branch of their work and organized as supply and sale societies. (2.) Where other co-operative societies were undeveloped new societies were formed. In some Provinces these societies sell through central depots; in others they sell independently at their own risk. In Pomerania, for instance, the large and important association of Stettin is a kind of head society. Even when not affiliated it is a rule that the societies do not operate in each other's territory. It is made compulsory for members to deliver all their grain to the societies, but in practice this is difficult to enforce. Many will sell their best grain to the dealers and inferior grades to the association; consequently they become dissatisfied with the price they get from the association. Prices are fixed daily by the Union, and if any member is dissatisfied the case is referred to the weekly meeting of his society. Grain can also be sold on commission and loans made at 75 per cent, of the market value. All book-keeping for the societies is clone by the central organization. In 1910 there were in Germany sixty-seven co-operative grain-selling societies with 33.898 members. Grain-selling is, however, as stated, carried on by numerous other societies, either supply or credit societies. The association at Stettin is the strongest society of this type in Germany. It owns large warehouses and flour-mills. The site on which they stand cost $87,500; the cost of the erection of one elevator was $75,000. The association advances money to the farmers on the grain stored. It is maintained by close students of the system that, in spite of mistakes in policy and in management, the grain-selling societies have in all essentials been a success. Co-operative A'intries. In all the wine-producing districts of Germany there are established co-operative vintries.. The first of these societies was organized in 1S6S. The co-operative vintries all make and sell the wine from grapes supplied by the members in nearly the same way as the co-operative dairies make and sell the butter from the milk supplied by members. The method of sale varies according to local conditions. In some Provinces the wine is sold at public auction to the wine merchants. In others the society sells directly to retailers or opens wine restaurants in the towns. In 3.900 there were 340 such vintries in Germany. Potato-spirit Societies. The potato-distilleries are at present organized in the following way: At the base stands the big farmer owning a private distillery. With those farmers of the district is then joined the association of the small farmers. Some of the large farmers sell privately; others sell their product, together with the co-operative societies, through a wholesale society. These societies are co-operative as far as the small producer is concerned. Witb respect to the large farmers the situation is difficult, for it cannot be said, as with respect to the Danish creamery societies, that the small producers are essential to the success of the big farmers' operations. 4 Geo. 5 Royal Coaiaiission on Agriculture. 1G7 miscellaneous co-operative societies. Machinery Associations. These societies own steam-thrashing machines, feed-grinders, sawmills, steam-ploughs, wagons, mowing-machines, manure-spreaders, seeders, sorting-machines, oilcake-breakers, etc. The extent to which they operate is instanced by Hanover, where in 3.932 there were thirty-one agricultural machinery associations. The cost in Germany of a thrashing-machine is from $2,000 to $3,000. It would be unprofitable for the average landholder to procure such expensive machinery individually, and thrashing- machine societies are therefore the most numerous kind of these associations. The total number of machinery societies in Germany has increased from seventy-four in 1901 to 571 in 3930, with a membership of 32,441, out of which 423 were thrashing-machine societies with a membership of 30,15S. The average number of members for each society is twenty-two, and in four-fifths of tho societies the shares do not exceed $25. The necessary capital is therefore raised by loans subject to annual sinking fund payments. Electricity Societies. AVhen the municipality cannot be induced to construct an electric power plant it is often undertaken by the farmers co-operatively, as electricity is becoming so important a convenience in modern agriculture. In Hanover there are 122 such associations, nine of which own their own plants. The others obtain the power from outside. Other Co-operative Societies. Numerous societies for various purposes have been formed by German farmers, of which the following are the most important:— Alembership. A'ine-growers Distilling Fruit-growing or fruit-disposal Potato-drying Preserved fruit and vegetable factories Horse-breeding Cattle-breeding' Other breeding (pig. goat, or horse and cattle) Common pasture AA'ater-supply Land-purchase and small holding or allotment Settlement Land improvement INTELLIGENCE SOCIETIES. Husbandry Societies. With the object of utilizing for practical agriculture the latest results of science and the modern method of communication, and to assemble all the farmers for the solution of the various problems presented, there was founded in 3.SS4 an association called Deutsche Landwirtschaft- gesellschaft. The problem as it presents itself is to find a system of farm-management and of cultivation of the land corresponding to the requirements of the day. The annual subscription to this society was fixed at $5, but, nevertheless, the number of members is comparatively large. In 3.009 there were 17,271 members, tbe majority being owners of large estates. 12 1GS British Coluaibia. 1914 The society has managed well. In 190S the revenue was $416,000; the expenditure $350,000. Besides its work of propaganda and the scientific work, this society occupies itself with agricultural shows and with the encouragement of co-operation. The educational work is chiefly done along the following lines: Farm buildings, book-keeping, agricultural machinery, seed production, and application of chemical manures. Special courses are given for itinerant professors. AA'ith respect to the importance of the shows held, a brief account of an agricultural show held at Hamburg will convey the best idea. This fair was visited by 437,776 persons, of whom 5.069 were members. It embraced the following divisions: Animals, agricultural produce, and agricultural machinery. Prizes amounting to about $350,000 were given, besides 350 medals. The standard of the competition was very high. A committee was appointed to examine the articles sent in. in order to investigate their claim to novelty and decide whether they should be recommended to the farmers or not. A collection of sheep-dogs was exhibited, with competition to show their skill in protecting the herds and their competency as police-dogs. Among the competitive contests were cow- milking, ploughing with oxen, and sheep-shearing. These shows prove by the steady progress made from year to year that the societies are doing effective work. The association has an office for the sale of guaranteed seeds. It supervises the fields of those members who wish to sell their seeds. It is the ambition of every seed-dealer to be recognized by the society. In 1909 the society sold to its members 45,000 tons of artificial manure and 5,525 tons of seeds. The society appears to be following a well-organized plan and is steadily extending its field of operation. Cow-testing Associations. For the purpose of increasing the yield of milk per capita, from twelve to eighteen farmers form an association and obtain the service of a trained Government official, who at certain intervals spends a day on each farm. He weighs fodder and observes the method of feeding and takes samples of the milk for analysis. All the animals observed are registered in a herd- book. These local associations are united in groups of six associations which appoint a chief tester. The milk production of herds belonging to the members has steadily increased from year to year. Political Associations—Council of Agriculture. In respect to agrarian legislation, Germany owes the beneficial results achieved to two factors: (1.) The League of Agrarian Associations of the Empire, which voices the interests of the farmers in a non-partizan unofficial manner. (2.) The Council of Agriculture, which is appointed from among the members of the agricultural unions and chosen by them. While the Agricultural League does the practical work and promotes technical improvement, the Council advises the Government and suggests changes in existing or proposed legislation. The leagues are behind the Council to enforce its demands. There is a Council for each German State. The one for Prussia consists of seventy-five members. They meet for one week in February. They have a permanent office iu Berlin with a secretary and office staff. As occasion arises special committees on various questions, such as tariff, credit, etc., are appointed. Each State Council sends from one to twenty-five delegates to the Imperial Council. Chamber of Agriculture. In 1S95 there was passed an Act providing for the establishment of a Provincial Chamber of Agriculture. The members of the Chamber are elected by the representatives of the farmers in the District Council. They serve for six years, half of the Chamber being renewed every three years. The administration of their functions is entrusted to a committee of at least five members. This committee can appoint other special committees to which it entrusts duties of detail. A general secretary has charge of the current business. To deal with questions of common interest there is established a central office at Berlin. 4 Geo. 5 Royal Coaiaiission on Agriculture. 1G9 The function of the Chamber is to encourage agricultural education, veterinary service, livestock improvement, pisciculture, forestry, and to grant subventions to agricultural associations. The Chamber is entitled to levy a tax of y2 per cent, of the net revenue on all farmers whose land is able to support a family. In 390S the Chamber for Prussia expended the following amounts for the purposes assigned:— Education and science $SOO,000 A'eterinary service 175,000 Live-stock improvement 027,000 Pisciculture 15,000 Forestry , 30,000 Orchards, etc 70,000 Agricultural associations 540,000 Administration 550,000 For the above purposes there was granted an aggregate amount of about $3,000,000, obtained from the following source :— State subvention .' $ 820,000 Provincial and district subvention 2S5.000 Revenue of the agricultural chambers 1,SS9,000 SUCCESS op the aiove.ment. The great successes of German co-operation have been achieved by the credit societies and the supply associations. Since 1S95 co-operation has been applied to every line of production with varying success. In productive lines the small farmers have achieved most success through dairying and vintries societies. The joining of the big farmer to the movement has not proved of essential value. His influence tends towards the development of a self-contained business department interested in joint marketing with non-co-operation, and not to the pursuit of a common ideal. In 1910 there were in Germany 24.0S1 co-operative societies, grouped as follows:— Credit societies 35,526 Supplies and sales societies 2.265 Dairy societies 3,364 Other societies 2,S30 At present there are altogether about 20,000 societies. The entire German co-operation is now ranged under the Imperial Union. The various societies have arrived along different routes, the newer squadrons handling weapons of a type different to those wielded by the old battalions, but all professing the same faith which fifty years ago proved its potency by rescuing the usury-ridden peasants " in a lonely village by the Rhine." The great network of co-operative associations in Germany does not present the simple outlines of the Danish system, neither have the Germans obtained the complete mastery of the situation for which productive co-operation in Denmark is remarkable. On the other hand, their national temperament has not induced the Germans to adopt the systematic precision of the system carried out in France. The currents of co-operative agriculture in Germany seem a bewildering network, but they resemble the rivulets of the same country coming from the mountains and backwoods, draining and watering and bringing fertility to the plains and the valleys. The divisions between them are indefinite and confusing, and it often seems difficult to decide to which system each tributary belongs. But, nevertheless, out of this bewildering network are created those mighty rivers that are the great channels leading to the sea. In the same way have the small beginnings of agricultural co-operation, with their apparent confusion of interrelation, created channels of trade, bringing the products of each little German farm into the world's market. FRANCE. In France agriculture has undergone great changes of late years, largely through the influence of State aid. Soon after 3SS0 the French farmer, in common with the farmers all 170 British Columbia. 19.14 over Europe, felt the depressing influence of American competition. Like the German State, the Government of France did all it could for the protection of the farmer by increasing the Customs tariff. The spirit of association appears always to have been strong among the French. From times immemorial the fanners of France have formed associations for carrying out permanent land improvement of a general character. There are numerous cases in which during the Middle Ages farmers have united under a royal charter to carry out. large drainage and irrigation works. Before the Act of 1SS4 made possible tbe creation of syndicates as they now exist, there were various agricultural associations, but without those features which in modern times are regarded as distinctly co-operative. They were chiefly intelligence societies or associations for specific purposes, such as drainage, irrigation, etc. At this particular time it was felt that only a new movement could arouse the farmer out of his individualism. The agricultural organizations that have been formed under the various Acts passed in France from time to time are mainly divided into two groups—associations and syndicates. Agricultural Associations. The agricultural associations comprise societies of agriculture, agricultural assemblies, and chambers of agriculture. They devote their energies chiefly to science, research, and improvement of live stock, agricultural legislation, etc. There were about the middle of the nineteenth century some 5,000 such agricultural associations in France. Besides these associations there had been created by an Act of 1S51 certain assemblies (cornices) of a professional agricultural character. They were meant to serve as electoral constituencies for the chambers of agriculture. The Agricultural Sy-ndicates. The term "syndicates" signifies in France simply "trade-unions." and does not, as in England, imply a group of financiers. The agricultural syndicate is a union of agriculturists for the advancement of their common interest. In 3932 there were GS5 associations and 927 agricultural assemblies. The new movement inaugurated with the agricultural syndicates, with their highly organized federation, was therefore considered a natural evolution stimulated by the spirit of co-operation, which in those years was becoming general in Europe. Legislative Origin of the Syndicate Movement. Under the Act passed in 3SS4, giving the representatives of any industry complete liberty of association, the French agriculturists have obtained a charter which enables them to organize groups of societies or syndicates comprised in agricultural organizations as developed in their country to-day. The Act authorizing the free formation of syndicates was passed in March, 1SS4. and in July five syndicates were formed. A year after there were nearly 2,000. They were found to be useful and at once became very popular. This Act has become the charter of all agricultural associations in France. It limits the membership to persons engaged in the agricultural industry or connected professions. Before the passing of the Act the creation of societies had been subject to Government approval when enrolling more than twenty members. Characteristic Features. The French syndicate is a mode of association which has proven applicable in many ways. and has become useful in many spheres of the agricultural profession. To omit the study of the syndicate in France would be to overlook nearly the whole co-operative activity in respect to supply and sale, the guiding and co-operative force which moulds the separate co-operative activities. It is apparent that the growth of the productive societies has been commensurate with that of the syndicates. The rural banks are constitutionally attached to them, and they have, on the whole, become the centre of rural life around which are grouped such affiliated associations as it may be necessary to create. There are in France two types of agricultural syndicates:— 4 Geo. 5 Royal Comaiission on Agriculture. 171 (1.) Syndicates which are legally trade-unions and whose object at their inception was intended to be the settlement of relations between employees and employers, but which to serve the need of the moment became organizers of co-operative associations. These syndicates are very numerous. (2.) Syndicates with a single special object are fewer in number. Such are:— (a.) Syndicat economique agricole, which protects the fanners in respect to legislation: (6.) Cattle-breeding societies. The general syndicates have the following special objects:— (1.) To encourage improved methods of farm-management by means of fertilizers, crop- rotation, selected seed, machinery, etc. : (2.) To encourage instruction and disseminate knowledge by conferences, lectures, and literature: (3.) To facilitate purchase of agricultural supplies: (4.) To acquire agricultural machinery for the purpose of hiring to members: (5.) To provide for advantageous sale of products: (6.) To give advice and consultation, to furnish market quotations, to name arbiters, and to send out experts. The syndicates were easily formed; the formalities as to formation were reduced to a minimum, the expense was nil, and the subscription insignificant. At first the syndicates limited their co-operative activities to encouraging distributive societies, to which the associated farmers looked as a means of obtaining at reduced cost the requisites for their farm-work. They have especially been successful with respect to the purchase of artificial fertilizers and feedstuff. Besides the lower prices secured, the farmers obtained through the societies the advantages of having the goods chemically analysed by experts. Some syndicates have attached to themselves special co-operative societies which supply the members with general provisions, as well as agricultural material; others have created special branch societies for the sale of products. Organisation. The method of organization generally followed is that the syndicate organizes the co-operative associations, which then become independent. This is the most important and the most difficult part of their work. Practically all the co-operative societies have been founded by them, and deal almost exclusively with syndicate members. For the professional and social education of the members the agricultural syndicates have organized competitions and shows, founded libraries, established experimental farms and schools of fanning, thus extending the influence of new ideas and methods to the most backward districts. The reason for this peculiar duplication of organization in syndicates and affiliated co-operative societies is that the syndicate is not legally a trading body. It set out equipped as a trade-union. It cannot sell shares or make profits, and therefore only acts as an intermediary. Centralization of the Syndicate. The country is at present covered with a network of well-organized and systematically centralized syndicates. Generally tbe syndicate covers one of the following areas:— (1.) The commune (parish) : (2.) The canton or union of parishes: (3.) The department (county). Each of these areas has its advantages and draw-backs as basis of organization. In the parish, family and neighbour feeling may strengthen the bond of co-operation, but the area is too narrow to give full scope for much activity. AA'hile the canton is free from this objection, yet it is not large enough to assure of able leaders for the movement. The department is free from both these drawbacks, but others take their places. Only few of the members know each other intimately, and the syndicate is apt to become simply a financial affair. 172 British Coluaibia. 1914 The dominating type in the system of syndicates, however, is the communal syndicate organized into regional unions. It is this form of syndicate whicli particularly enters into co-operation. Membership. There were, in 1910, 5,146 syndicates with a total membership of 777,006, showing annually an average increase of 300 to 500 syndicates and an average increase of membership of about 30,000. Besides these syndicates, there were, in 190S, 527 labourers' syndicates with 55,407 members, and 237 capitalist syndicates with 43.227 members. The number of members in the local syndicates varies greatly. The usual number is from 200 to 300. One hundred is generally the smallest, though the membership iu some syndicates is as high as 4,000. For the necessary expenditure to accomplish the various objects there are provided fees, dues, and membership assessments. The rapid development of the syndicate movement is shown by the following figures: In 1S90 there were 04S syndicates with 234,234 members; in 3030, 5,146 syndicates with 777,006 members. The syndicate includes everybody who is interested in agriculture in a certain limited district—the big land-owner, the farmer, the tenant, the metayer, the peasant proprietor, and the agricultural labourer; together with the priest, the schoolmaster, and the agricultural professors of the different departments. In the words of AA'aldeck Rousseau, "the agricultural syndicate is the rural population in France; it has given rise to a masterpiece of sociological organization." It owes its existence to private enterprise. It is organized from below and has been made the basis of agricultural co-operation. co-operative societies. i Supply Societies. As stated above, the syndicates frequently perform the function of a supply and sales agency. Often they own agricultural machinery which they hire to members. Having combined for the purpose of obtaining better and cheaper fertilizers, the success attained led gradually to other lines being taken up, such as seed-purchase, breeding stock, and machinery. From the following balance-sheet for the Chartres Association an estimate of the growth of the movement may be formed. This association was started by ten farmers in 1SS6. A'oar. Membership of Syndicate. Fertilizers delivered. Value of Fertilizers. 1886 3890 3905 3932 54 1.290 4.39S 7.027 Tons. 204 4.140 S.900 35.735 5.000 S0.000 3.24,000 209.000 Regulations. The local societies are allowed from thirty to sixty days for payments, discount being given for cash payment. When further credit is wanted by the local a loan has to be obtained through a bank. If individual members do not pay, the local is responsible for the amount. The operating expense of the co-operative purchase department is estimated to be 3.7 per cent, of the total purchases. If any profits are made after certain amounts have been set aside for the reserve fund for expenses and interest on shares, the remainder is paid to the members as a rebate on the purchases made. Since the formation of this association there has in this way been returned to the farmers $200,000. 4 Geo. 5 Royal Coaiaiission on Agriculture. 173 productive and marketing societies. Co-operation has been notably developed in the following branches of production and marketing (1930) :— Societies. Cheese-making or fruitiere About 3,S00 Dairies, butter-making 6S5 Wine-making 39 Starch-making „ 34 Collective purchase and employment of agricultural machines and implements ' , 23 Oil-mills „ 20 Distilling 17 Milling and baking „ 16 Sugar-manufacture ,. 8 Fruit and vegetable preserving 5 Collective carriage „ 1 Sauerkraut-preparation 1 Sale of eggs and farmyard produce 1 Distilling flowers for perfumery 3 Flax-preparation 1 Other co-operative societies 8 About 2,660 Adding to these the number of co-operative societies not composed exclusively of farmers, the total number of societies engaged in production and sale was 3,260. Dairy Societies. There are three kinds of dairying societies:— (1.) Butter-making societies: (2.) Cheese-making societies: (3.) Milk-selling societies. Creameries. Tho creation of co-operative creameries was stimulated by a vine-disease which between 1SS2 and 3.SS8 destroyed nearly all the vines in the north-western districts and ruined the owners of vineyards. In despair the land-owners took to dairy-farming, with immediate success. Co-operative creameries sprang up all over that district and have ousted nearly all the proprietary creameries that sprang up at the same time. The first co-operative creamery was founded in the AVest in 1SS7. Co-operative creameries flourished especially in the West and North. The AVest is tbe strongest district. In 1904 there were here ninety-eight societies with 50,000 members. How the capital for co-operative dairies is obtained is shown in the case of the co-operative agricultural societies at Gault. The share capital amounts to $9,000. A 2-per-cent. long-term loan of $12,000 is obtained. The State subsidy amounts to $1,700, besides the profits realized from operation. The Largest Creamery Association in France. The first co-operative dairy of Charentes was established at Chaille. The following year there were seven iu that region. In 3.S93 a central association was established. In 1913 it had 129 societies with a total membership (3.912) of 77,205, and cows belonging to those members to the number of 205,557. In 1932 the syndicated dairies received 365,000 tons of milk, the production of butter being 17,000 tons of butter, representing an average of 165 lb. for each cow annually. The value of the butter is annually $9,200,000, with the value of the skimmed milk added, bringing the total income of the district from this source up to $30,000,000. The average cost of manufacture amounts to 11 per cent, of the total receipts, varying in the several creameries belonging to this central association from 4 to IS per cent. This would be equal to from 5.45 to 24.5 cents, or an average expense of about 14 cents for each 100 lb. of milk. 174 British Coluaibia. 1914 This association maintains an inspector who is in control of all the creameries. It also maintains a dairy school where the pupils are instructed six months, and afterwards apprenticed and sent out to various creameries for further practical education. The association owns eighteen refrigerator-cars and an ice plant. It has its own men at the shipping and receiving points to look after the shipping, and it has a transportation agent at each of the chief markets. The following balance-sheet for 1932 of the co-operative creamery at Surgeres, which is a subsidiary society affiliated with the Charentes Association, gives a good idea of the economic standing of these societies:— Receipts from the sale of— Milk to the town $ 6,750 14 Cream outside of Surgeres 74 31 By-products and cream at retail 2S9 64 Skim-milk and residue from casein 12,507 62 Butter 103,751 57 Miscellaneous revenue, entrance fees 1,444 OS Total receipts $324,S17 96 Sum set aside, account of general expense 535 48 Amounts due for rent, entrance fees, etc 101 03 Balance forward on January 1st, 3932 1G2 73 $125,037 20 . ■ Expenditures. Amounts paid to members for their milk $133,062 92 Expended for new material 5S2 00 Repaid to Ave members amounts due them from 1904 636 35 Sum set aside, account of general expense 535 48 General Expense. 1. Sums paid 9,S44 3S 2. Amounts due 402 97 Total $325,004 10 Profits of the society 553 10 $125,017 20 The total amount of the butter-output in France was, in 1S92, $59,000,000. It is a remarkable fact that the attempts to establish co-operative creameries in Normandy and Brittany up to the present time have had no success. This is surprising, since these Provinces are the very heart of butter-making in France and export a great deal of butter to Enghuid. Cheese-making Societies. The fruitieres in the East of France date back to the twelfth century. They were created by the necessity of daily obtaining the milk of from fifty to seventy cows in order to manufacture one gruy<5re cheese. At present the total number of cheese-making syndicates is about 2,000. Milk-selling Societies. The milk-selling societies are formed with the object of supplying the large cities, and especially Paris, with milk. They were formed in defence against the hostility of non- co-operative dairies. They have proved a success. 4 Geo. 5 Roval Comaiission on Agriculture. 175 Co-operative A'intrieS. In 3903 there was founded in the region of Maraussan an association for the sale of wine by the members. In 1S95 it added a vintry for the manufacture of the wine. In 3900 the* association numbered 266 Individual members and accounted for half the wine production of the village. The peculiarities of this association are the following: (1.) The members are partly small holders and partly labourers owning small vine-patches, big growers being excluded. (2.) The association sells all its products to the labourers' co-operative stores. It is a nucleus of co-operative village activity, a supply syndicate, a credit bank, a building society, a store, and a labourers' union; it operates a co-operative vineyard. It is reported to be a financial success. The entire profit is expended evenly for the purpose of promoting the socialistic propaganda and for the development of the society. A Catholic society has been started in opposition, but so far has been a failure. Other similar societies have been started in the vicinity, and have been successful as far as they have been able to secure the trade of the co-operative stores in the towns. Irrigation Societies. In the Aries District are fifteen • syndicates that have organized for irrigation purposes. They have constructed irrigation-works with special pumping-stations (from one to ten pumping- stations for each system). The funds for these works are raised by one-third of the cost being provided each by the Government, the department, and the syndicate. It is legally provided that if three-fourths of the proprietors affected owning half the land or one-half owning three-fourths of the laud decide in favour of construction, all the owners must join in the enterprise. Electricity Societies. The electricity society at Chartres is a good illustration of the work of these associations. The object of the society is to secure for the farmers the electric power necessary for farm operation at the lowest possible cost. It comprises in its operations three villages with a total membership of 400. The Department of Agriculture furnishes the technical service gratuitously, which includes the construction of a special factory, the instalment of the necessary electric generators, the transmission-line, and the operating motors. The electric motors and the instalment of the first two lights are free to each of the co-operating members. The society lias raised $27,000 by subscription and loans. This amount was expended on additional buildings and supplementary machinery, a crushing-mill, public laundry, etc. The result is a saving of 25 per cent, of the expense of the operations, besides the relief as to manual labour and the general convenience afforded the farmers. Power is paid for at the rate of from 10 cents a kilowatt, falling to 3.0 cents at the limit of 2,000 kilowatts. Agricultural Hydraulic Associations. In 1901 there were in France 0,749 of these associations operating, of which 1,076 were constituted in conformity with the Act. These latter were distributed as follows :— Dyke-construction 3X0 Scouring of watercourses 22S Draining and reclaiming the land 317 Salt marshes 2 Irrigation 7§o A'arious 3X Total 1,676 Centralization of the Syndicates. The object of the union of syndicates is identical with that of the syndicates themselves. In many districts of the country the power they obtain by uniting their forces gives them an enormous importance, while the syndicates when isolated are powerless, and especially are 17(! British Coluaibia. 1914 unable to supply a common service for instruction. It is therefore necessary that they should attach themselves to Provincial unions sufficiently strong to furnish them the service they require. The Union. The Co-operative Union in France is a limited liability society which enjoys the greatest commercial latitude. It delivers to the affiliated syndicates agricultural supplies and such household provisions as groceries, etc. It secures for its members the lowest prices and guaranteed quality. Of the 5,146 syndicates now existing, 2,393 are affiliated to fifty-five unions. Each syndicate pays each season to the Union for each member 2 cents, with a minimum total of 60 cents. The Union encourages agricultural instruction in the primary as well as in the secondary schools, normal courses, and manual-training schools. An agent who is under the supervision of the Union is at the disposition of the members to furnish them with such merchandise as is not handled by the agricultural co-operative societies. He is also charged with the work of facilitating the sale of such agricultural products as wheat, hay, straw, oats, etc., and bringing together producer and consumer. Membership of Unions. Besides the subscription of one or more shares (a formality only, as none have been for sale for a long time), each syndicate must pay as an entrance fee 40 cents for each of its members. In the case of newly established syndicates the fee may be paid gradually by retaining dividends on purchases. The Union places at the service of the syndicates:— (1.) Technical service, agricultural engines, chemist, accountants, and inspectors: (2.) Committee on arbitration and legislation : (3.) Publications and library: (4.) Agricultural instruction organization: (5.) Agents and co-operative service. Besides offering service to the members in actual agricultural purchase, production, and selling, the unions offer through the co-operative associations assistance of various kinds in many lines of agricultural and personal insurance, etc. They send out lecturers and organizers to assist in forming new syndicates. The South-eastern Union. The South-eastern Union, with headquarters at Lyons, is the strongest federation. It has formed a number of sub-unions and has affiliated itself to the Central Union of Agriculturists of France. It includes 500 subsidiary syndicates. This Uuion covers ten departments. It is again divided into four sub-unions. The syndicates of the South-east Provinces realized from 1S93 to 1902 on total sales $S.S0O,000, and returned in dividends to the members about $150,000, which otherwise would have been lost. Tbe Union distributes annually among its members 20,000 copies of an almanac, and 50,000 copies of monthly bulletins, besides other publications. The Central Union of Syndicates. In 18SG the Central Uuion for the syndicates was formed with the general object of promoting joint action among the syndicates. This Union has to-day a total syndical membership of 1,200. It publishes a monthly bulletin and organizes every two or three years the National Congress. At the same time as the Central Union was formed the local syndicates began to form themselves into departmental unions, and these unions again form the starting-point of the regional unions. All syndicates desiring admittance to co-operative societies must first become members of tbe Union. Adhesion to the Central Union is not made compulsory upon the regional unions, and the connection between them is therefore somewhat loose. The tendency is, however, strongly- gravitating towards centralization. At the National Congress of Perigueux in 1905 the following resolution was passed, expressing the general policy of the syndicates and the co-operative societies affiliated with them: " That there be established in connection with each regional union of syndicates a co-operative 4 Geo. 5 Royal Coaimission on Agriculture. 177 agricultural supply society charged solely with the purchase of supplies and sales of products for the account of the syndicates in the Union. These co-operative societies ought to be affiliated in the same way as are all regional unions." Evidently the French system is gravitating towards a central organization of communal and federated syndicates. special features. The chief factors which in all countries act as a drawback to co-operation, and which means must be found to overcome, are given by a French writer as follows:— (1.) Lack of cohesiveness among the farmers: (2.) The farmer's suspicion that someone, somehow, gets an illegitimate profit out of. the transaction : (3.) Lack of capital: (4.) Lack of winter milk : (5.) Opposition of women who regard marketing-day as a holiday. To overcome this opposition and the general inertia it has been necessary in nearly every country where co-operation has been successful that certain public-spirited men or certain influential classes should become leaders of the movement. Such leaders have been Raiffeisen, Schulze, and Dr. Haas in Germany; Luzatti and Wollemborg in Italy; Sir Horace Plunkett in Ireland; or the Roman Catholic clergy in Belgium and the Peasants' High Schools in Denmark. France, however, does not appear to have possessed any such prominent leaders. Here the result seems to be due to a general movement suddenly taking hold and spreading to a large proportion of the agricultural population, the general movement in Europe acting as the stimulus and the opportunity given through favourable legislation. It must not be overlooked, however, that the foundation for successful co-operation already existed in France in the large numbers of small landholders created by the far-sighted agrarian policy instituted over a century ago, when, instead of forming large estates of the nationalized domain, the Government allotted the lands to the tillers of the soil. The immediate cause of the rapid success of the syndicates was the economic benefits they conferred. The farmer was seeking a means to obtain at moderate cost the merchandise required for his farm-work, and naturally the society followed that direction. Sociologically, the basis of the success of these societies is the progressive education of the agriculturist. He has discovered new horizons in the realization of tho power he possesses in association; his former suspicion has given way to a spirit of mutual confidence and respect for his own and his neighbour's pledged word. BELGIUM. The causes of the movement in Belgium were the same as met with all over north-western Europe. The scientific and industrial evolution of modern agriculture, necessitating the use of artificial manure and the substitution of machinery for labour, had entirely changed the economic basis of the industry. This condition required a capital exceeding the means of the individual agriculturist. The result of the new situation would either have been the creation of large estates where the individual owner could afford to buy modern appliances, or association between small holders, facilitating the accumulation of capital. Under the impulse of the movement in France the latter course was adopted. The moving forces behind the agricultural co-operative movement in Belgium were not: agrarian, but socialistic and Roman Catholic. The socialists, who had attained eminent success with their stores in the big towns, cast their eyes on the land, and began an agitation among the peasants, which, however, had very little success. Alarmed over the socialistic agitation, the clergy, aided by the Government and the landed aristocracy, created a movement in which at the same time there seems to be much democratic force. Small Agricultural Holdings. Proprietary conditions of the farm lands in Belgium are especially favourable to the success of the co-operative system. Of a total area of 6,300,000 acres, of which 4,SOO,000 acres are under crops, there are only 102 properties larger than 375 acres, amounting to a total of about 50,000 acres. Holdings of less than 75 acres amount to 69 per cent, and holdings of less than 17S British Columbia. 1914 37 acres to 61 per cent, of the agricultural surface. Of about 300,000 farms nearly 210,000, or 09 per cent, of the total number, have an average acreage of less than 32% acres and include 27 per cent, of the total farm acreage. Iu some of the Provinces the percentage of farm land divided into holdings less than 12% acres is considerably larger than this average. In AVest Flanders it is 40 per cent. State Aid: The Government has greatly contributed to the strength of the co-operative movement through the Agricultural Department:— (1.) By a strong propaganda in favour of co-operation: (2.) By direct assistance in the form of subsidies: (3.) By agricultural education in its different forms. Legislation. Under the "Associations Act" of 3831 the Belgian fanners were permitted to organize for agricultural purposes. The Acts of 1S73, 1SS6. and 1S9S were simply intended to foster a professional and co-operative spirit among the farmers. The aim was therefore to provide legal facilities and financial aid. The Act of 1S9S. which organized professional unions or syndicates, was directly inspired by the French Act of 1SS4. However, in two respects it is more liberal than the French Act: (3.) It recognized non-professional members, who may become honorary members and exercise a limited share of influence in the management of the societies. (2.) It allows the syndicate a wider scope iu holding real property. The societies registered under this Act enjoy various privileges and receive State grants. The societies organized in conformity with the various Acts are generally divided iu two groups: (1) Associations aiming at the promotion of the professional interests of the agriculturists, and (2) associations for a more strictly economic purpose. Practically, however, the societies of the second group are repetitions of the former, the societies of which have extended their usefulness by forming branch societies or have specialized their activities. The aspect of Belgian co-operation should therefore be considered from the point of view of the activities and affiliation of the societies rather than the form of their registration. Official Organization (Comices). The cornices are created by decree to watch over the agricultural interest in a certain prescribed district. They serve as constituencies for the superior Agricultural Council. The comices of a Province form a federation, the boundaries of which are determined by the Minister of Agriculture. Each of the Provincial federations elects two delegates to represent it iu the Superior Council of Agriculture. They serve for six years. The Government appoints eighteen members, of whom nine represent the free agricultural associations. This Council is an advisory body. The Provincial federation is comprised of delegates from the various comices (local associations). As a rule, it meets only once a year. It appoints a committee charged with the general administration of the society under the name of Provincial Committee of Agriculture. In 390S there were 15S comices with 35,2S8 members. The amount of revenue at their service was $S2,000. The expenditure was $71,000. In 190S they organized six district and ninety cantonal shows. Free Organizations. According to Government statistics, the membership of the chief agricultural societies were in 190S as follows:— groups of co-operative Group. Number of Societies. Total Membership. Total Turnover. Professional unions Purchase societies Dairy societies ... 1.014 1,070 500 55,000 61,000 47,000 $5,000,000 5,500,000 4 Geo. 5 Royal Coaiaiission on Agriculture. 179 How impossible it is to classify these societies in more than a general way is shown by the fact that of the 1,070 purchase societies mentioned in the above table only 03.0 were registered under the provisions of the Acts; the remainder were simply de facto societies. Of these 010 societies only 77 were registered as co-operative societies, while 523 were professional societies in their trading aspect. The professional unions, also called leagues or syndicates, with their various branch activities, are at present affiliated in eight federations, of which the most typical, the most powerful and efficient is the Peasants' League, or the " Boerenbond." This federation has headquarters at Louvain and extends throughout the Provinces of Babant, AA'est and East. Flanders, Antwerp, and Limburg. The Peasants' League. The object of the Peasants' League is partly religious, partly agricultural. To further the religious aim the following rules are adopted:— (1.) The League holds a monthly religious meeting at the parish church: (2.) The priest is a member of the board of management: (3.) The League celebrates annually the patron saint of agriculture: (4.) The League is represented in the Procession of the Sacrament. At tho same time, it is the material objects that have been the nucleus of the movement. The League acts as a purchase society for its members and furthers their agricultural education. It assists in organizing various other branches of activity which it is not equipped to manage, such as credit banks, sale societies, live-stock and insurance societies; it supervises the branches started and audits their accounts. Of those peasants' leagues the most numerous, most efficient, and the most religious are those belonging to the Boerenbond Beige, founded in 1S90 by l'Abbe Mellaertz. In 3.905 this federation numbered 430 leagues, called Boerengilden, with 31.5S0 members. Its headquarters are at Louvain, a Roman Catholic stronghold. All its members must attend church monthly and observe the festival of St. Isidore, the patron saint of agriculture. The statutes of the association provide that the Agricultural League shall have for its object the religious, moral, social, and material welfare of the members in order to establish a strong class of Christian agriculturists. The strength of this movement is shown by the fact that there is not a single district in Belgium without a co-operative federation under the direction of the Roman Catholic clergy. The Syndicates. The Union of Professional Leagues organizes the collective purchase of raw material and implements; in fact, everything necessary for agricultural production. A division of the society called the purchase division deals with this business. Often, however, special associations are formed under the " Co-operative. Act " of 1S73. In many lines the purchases are made directly through the local society, which then simply collects the orders of its members and transacts the business. AVhen a syndicate has become very strong it makes advantageous use of market fluctuations, and then must have a warehouse. Central Purchase Organization. The Provincial federations of the syndicates also organize purchase divisions, but these do not remain dependent on the federation. They are formed as co-operative societies and are called central purchase counting-houses. These counting-houses are in the same relation to the purchase societies as the Provincial federation is to the syndicates. A number of the large counting-houses have again united into a new society for the advantage of the united federation. Each of the federations lias formed a number of departments or sections. They deal with the separate work of the co-operative supply, sale, or credit. In the Boerenbond the purchase and sales association is a branch directly within the fold of the Bond, and dealing with none but its own leagues. Tn the other seven federations the central body has less power, especially in AVest Flanders, where some of the leagues are unaffiliated. This district being largely devoted to cattle-raising was less affected by the agricultural crisis about 1S90, and probably the greater prosperity is responsible for the lack of cohesiveness among the farmers. • The system is here only shown in its general outline, but it is needless to say that these distinctions so precise in theory are not so in practice, because collective purchase can be effected in so many different ways. ISO British Coluaibia. 1914 Generally the local societies prefer to purchase through the central society and forward their united orders to them. The central society then transacts the business and arranges for the analysis of the goods with respect-to quality. In 190S, 1,070 societies with a total membership of 61,103 bought the following goods:— Seeds $ 4S,000 Manure 3,024,000 Feedstuff's 2,640.000 Machinery 29,500 Other purchases 109,000 The National Division. The Provincial federations are divided into two groups, the Flemish and the AA'alloon. There are four unions in each federation. To the first group belongs the well-known Boerenbond. The character of these two groups of federations is very similar. They seek by all means at their disposal to further the interests of the agriculturists. None of them limits its achievements to any one branch. They all undertake purchase, sale, insurance, credit, and education. The associations iu the AA'alloon Provinces are not so uniformly scattered over the country as in the Flemish districts. Neither are they as closely affiliated to the central federations. They generally restrict their operations to the function originally intended, acting as intelligence societies, while special divisions are organized for credit, insurance, purchase, and sale purposes. Dairy Societies. Notwithstanding that the beginning of co-operative dairies in Belgium is quite recent, the dairy societies have already become the most important of Belgian co-operative associations. Under their stimulus the dairying industry has so developed that the whole country is covered with dairies. There are in Belgium three types of dairies with respect to equipment and working:-— (1.) Dairies worked by hand. They are well adapted to small associations; the cost of these is from $300 to $S00. These dairies are widely spread. (2.) Dairies with steam-power. They treat daily from 3,000 to 4,000 lb. of milk. (3.) Dairies that only make butter from cream supplied by small collecting-stations. This form is especially used in Luxemburg. They are suitable for large associations. In 190S there were in Belgium 609 dairy societies, of which 506 were working with a total membership of 47,1S5; the number of cows possessed by the members was 33G.S03. Milk sold $ 192,600 Butter 6,2S3,400 Cheese ". 16,340 Other produce 99,275 Federation. The dairy syndicates have formed several federations with the idea of solving the important problem of obtaining more remunerative prices. The federations arrange for the inspection of the working of the affiliated dairies and employ agricultural engineers, expert chemists, and accountants. These dairy associations are constituted independent of the general syndicate organization, but did not begin to flourish till after the appearance of the " ligues." It is the organization of the peasants' leagues which has supplied the example of association in the dairy business, and in most eases it is from among the members of the league that the members of the dairy are drawn. Frequently the initiative for their creation is taken by the peasants' leagues. Live-stock Breeders' Associations. The live-stock branch has the object of improving the native breeds by selection. The syndicates occupying themselves with this object have made great progress. Two methods are pursued by these societies. According to the first, each society keeps one or two sires. The members pay a certain fee for the service, and competitions are held where prizes are given for 4 Geo. 5 Royal Coaiaiission on Agriculture. 1S1 the best results. The other method consists in supersiving the stock belonging to members, sampling and testing the milk, observing the feeding, etc., and after a full inspection giving- advice as to the best way of improving the herds and flocks. In 190S there were 424 live-stock associations with 17,S03 members, registering 53,453 cows. The revenue was $51,G33, and the expenditure $49,399. Horse-breeding Societies. In 3.890 a National Draught-horse Society was organized. In 3.008 there were registered 20,009 stallions and 05,000 mares. Poultry-breeders' Associations. The technical work of the poultry associations aims at improving the breeds of table-fowls and egg-layers, as well as the economic production of eggs. There were, in 390S, 131 associations with 6,630 members. They are united in four federations. Bee-keepers' Societies. The bee-keepers' societies are active in the advancement of this branch of agricultural industry. There were, in 3908, 239 societies with 0,435 members, a revenue of $3,457, and expenditure of $2,913. Special Societies—Selling Societies—The Minque. Many of the syndicates have organized special selling branches which in certain lines have become very effective and popular. Such a branch is called a " minque," and consists of manager, commercial agent, hawker, and working-men. The president, secretary, and examiner of accounts of the federation form the board of management. The local " minques " have formed six federations. Some of these societies collect the product of their members and sell through brokers. Some arrange for sales on the markets in the town; others make offers to the wholesale dealers and the manufacturers. Some sell the produce in small lots at auction sales or become recognized suppliers for large consumers and institutions; others create a service with special agents. Collective sales have been made in various braucbes, such as butter, poultry, fruit, and beet-roots. The beet-root societies have succeeded in forcing the sugar-factories to buy according to yield of sugar instead of weight, thus making it profitable for the farmer to increase the quality of beets rather than the bulk. There were in 190S in Belgium seventy-three beet-root societies selling products for an amount of $700,000. They pay their members in proportion to the produce delivered, and later when sales have been made they distribute the dividends and supplementary profits. Special Societies—Irrigation and Dy-king. In the Flemish regions especially there exist certain societies created for a special object ■called " polders and wateringues." The polders are concerned with dyke-construction, and the wateringues with irrigation and draining. AA'est Flanders has thirty wateringues covering an area of nearly 250,000 acres; East Flanders has 117 polders representing over 300,000 acres. The operations of these special societies are regulated by royal decree. They are authorized to expropriate and to levy taxes. Social Societies—AA'omen's Clubs. Farm-women's clubs were started in Belgium in 1905 by De A'uyst, Inspector-General of .Agriculture, who was inspired by what he had seen of women's institutes in Canada. The institution established at Leuze was the first of its kind on the Continent of Europe. In 3930 there were seventy-five of those clubs in Belgium with a membership of 7,000. According to De A'uyst, the main object of the clubs is to keep fresh the knowledge acquired in the agricultural schools, and to enable the members to become acquainted with the new processes introduced by agricultural science. In effect, however, the clubs concern themselves with the whole range of women's interests and duties both on the farm and in the home. 182 British Columbia. 1914 The clubs procure libraries pertaining to all branches of farm-women's work. They hold meetings where lectures are given on a great variety of subjects; they arrange visits to model farms and hold exhibitions. They also publish a paper devoted to farm-women's interests. In 3933 a number of these clubs formed a federation which has become affiliated to the Boerenbond. The Problem. AA'hile the purchase societies have flourished greatly, the purely marketing societies, outside of the dairy societies, have not succeeded very well. The problem is yet how to create conditions and attain a position so as to obtain favourable prices; and secondly, to find new markets for goods that do not sell well. In Denmark it was the production associations with butter-making, egg-collecting, and bacon-curing, combined with an effective intelligence organization, by which the co-operative movement won its victories. In Belgium tbe movement was inaugurated by the numerous leagues and syndicates, by which a highly organized supply service was developed. Its strength was derived from the thrifty and economical character of the people. HOLLAND. The development of agricultural co-operation in Holland has been marvellous considering that in 3S90 co-operation was an unknown quantity to the Dutch people. The movement dates from the agricultural crisis which made itself felt in Holland in the years from 1SS0 to 3S90. In part this crisis was the cause of the present improvement in the peasant's condition, as it forced him to accept the idea of co-operation. However, the principal force behind the movement was the revolution in agricultural methods of production due to technical inventions and scientific discoveries. In a country with such a large proportion of small farm holdings and a thrifty population, co-operation must naturally thrive. The agricultural production of Holland is valued at 600,000,000 guilders. Of the 200,000 land-holdings in Holland, 72 per cent, are less than 25 acres; 3.5 per cent, run from 25 to 50 acres; 3.1 per cent, run from 50 to 325 acres; 2 per cent, run over 125 acres. It deserves to be noted that, exactly as in Denmark, the co-operative movement was solely fostered and organized by the peasants themselves. Only the associations formed to promote agricultural credit and cattle-breeding have received subventions from the State. . Legislation. The characteristic feature of legislation in respect to co-operation in Holland consists in leaving the associations the amplest possible latitude of choice as to the legal form each community or branch of activity may desire to adopt. Agricultural Associations. These associations have no need of royal sanction. They are incorporated by virtue of the notarial seal establishing their rules. However, associations not incorporated are very numerous. The members assume a liability which in some societies is limited, in others unlimited, continuing a year after leaving the association. These associations were formed chiefly as intelligence societies, but in some cases they have assumed more material interests. The majority of small creameries in Liinburg and Brabant come under this head. The same is the case with the local credit societies under the Eindhoven Federation, though the central institution is incorporated under the Act of 1870, which authorizes the formation of societies for the economic benefit of the members. Co-operative Associations. In 3933 there were in Holland 1,341 co-operative agricultural societies with a total membership of about 335,000. They have adopted tbe principle that profits shall not be divided in proportion to shares, but according to the produce supplied by each member. 4 Geo. 5 Royal Comaiission on Agriculture. 183 Supply Societies. Co-operative purchasing is carried out by agricultural societies of the following types:— (1.) Landbouwniaatschappyen : Forty years ago these agricultural societies were the only associations recognized. In each Province there was an association divided into local branches. They were then chiefly intelligence societies. Later they directed their attention to collective purchasing. (2.) Dorpslandbouwvereenigingen : A great number of these societies were formed between 1S80-90, when the chief object of agriculture associations was collective purchase of agricultural supplies. (3.) Boerenbonden : In the Roman Catholic districts of the country a number of the purchase societies united with the Boerenbonden or Provincial federation. These unions were greatly encouraged by the clergy. The Boerenbonden interest themselves in every movement that may promote the welfare of the peasants. • In 3907 there was bought by 990 societies with a total membership of 74,442 goods for a total amount of $347,2S0. Federation—Central Bureau at Eindhoven. The Central Bureau was organized in 1909. It is a co-operative society consisting of eleven members, one for each Province. The local societies that wish to purchase through this Bureau send their orders to the Provincial federation, which again forwards them to the Central Bureau. The latter executes the orders at market prices. Co-operative Dairy Societies. The first co-operative dairy association was founded in 1S86 in Friesland. Since then they have multiplied rapidly. The dairy societies are easily the first in importance among the Dutch co-operative productive associations. The majority of the co-operative dairies are grouped in seven Provincial federations. Five of the Provincial dairy federations are again united with the General Netherlands Federation. The following figures show the condition of the business in 390S: There were then in the Netherlands 6S0 co-operative creameries, of which 35S were worked by steam-power, 32S by hand- power. They produced a total of 36,4S0 tons of butter. Besides, there were 244 non-co-operative creameries in the country, of which 213 were worked by steam-power. The butter produced in the non-co-operative creameries amounted to 12.4S0 tons. The creamery associations have formed a branch which supervises and inspects the manufacture and quality of the butter. The creation of this branch of the organization is entirely clue to private initiative, though it is subsidized by the State. In 1908 the State contribution was $S,000. In 3909 the quantity of butter made under the supervision of this " control " office and stamped with its trade-mark was 47,300 tons. Live-stock Associations. There are three types of cattle-breeding societies:—• (1.) Societies for the collective purchase of sires: (2.) Societies for the "control" of the milk yield of cows belonging to members: (3.) Breeding societies, which keep pedigree registers. Of the first type there were, in 3.909, 170 societies; of the second type, S7 societies; of the third type, 61 societies; a total of 33.S societies. Side by side with the cattle-breeding societies there have been formed horse-breeding societies. For some years past the Dutch farmers have commenced to give attention to the breed of their goats, sheep, and pigs, and various societies have been formed in several Provinces for their improvement. In Provinces where the cattle-breeding societies are numerous, federal unions have been formed. Selling Societies—Horticultural Associations. Outside of the dairy industry, co-operative selling in Holland is chiefly organized in connection with garden produce (vegetables and fruit). This activity is under the management of the horticultural societies. In 1909 there were 245 such societies, of which eighty arranged public sales. In 3909 they disposed of $3,600,000 worth of jiroduce. 13 1S4 British Coluaibia. 19.14 There are in the Netherlands about 300 societies for the disposal of fruit and vegetables. Only market-gardeners and fruit-growers can be members of these societies. They elect a council and erect an auction building in which the council, with the assistance of managers which it appoints and pays, sells the produce grown by the members. The selling is conducted on the system called " Dutch auction." In the building, between the auctioneer and the customer, is a canal. The goods offered are poled on barges up before the auctioneer and the quantity is announced. A pointer swinging on a dial indicates the price. AVhen a figure is reached which a customer will pay, he presses an electric button, the pointer stops, and a number appears indicating the customer's seat. All sales are made for cash only. The business done by the society in Looisduinen indicates the growth of these societies. In 1901 this society started with 333 members and made sales amounting to $110,000. The total expenditure for buildings has been $45X00, of which $24,400 has been repaid. The yearly turnover has increased from $110,000 in 1901 to nearly $700,000 in 1912. Miscellaneous Societies. A'arious forms of agricultural insurance have also been developed, including insurance against damage from fire, storm, hail, as well as live-stock insurance. There are several hundred co-operative cheese-factories, thirteen starch-factories, six cooperative factories of goods made from straw, and two co-operative beet-sugar factories. State Aid. Up to 3SS4 the Government had paid but little attention to the interests of agriculture, but when the American competition in grain set in, and the international exposition at Amsterdam showed that the agricultural industry in Holland was beaten by foreign competitors, the Government changed its policy. A Commission was appointed to inquire into the needs of the industry, and the recommendations of this Commission were largely adopted by the Government. In conformity with these recommendations the aid which the State gives to agriculture is chiefly along educational lines and in the form of assistance to the co-operative intelligence societies conducted by the farmers. In 1S9S the first Director-General of Agriculture was nominated. In 1905 the Ministry of Agriculture was established and an Advisory Board of Agriculture organized. The expenditure of the Board of Agriculture amounted in 1931 to $1,579,200. The grants for the principal branches of State Aid were as follows:— Agricultural and horticultural instruction $34S,800 Experts for all branches 76,000 Grants for breeding societies of ail branches 104,000 Experiment and control station 72,000 A'eterinary service 730.400 AiP in Agricultural Education. The Government has established four grades of agricultural schools:— First Grade: The high school, with a three-years course for the training of experts. Second Grade: Two agricultural secondary schools, with a three-years course, one for Dutch and one for colonial agriculture. Third Grade: Nine agricultural and four horticultural winter schools. The full course lasts two successive winters. The pupils for these winter courses are mostly drawn from middle-class farmers and gardeners. Fourth Grade: 326 agricultural and 92 horticultural schools. These courses are generally conducted during winter, and in the evenings or on Saturday afternoons. Collectively, these institutions contribute greatly to the development of farming in Holland on modern lines. Iu addition to the instruction given through the schools, farmers and gardeners obtain constant advice from Government experts, of which there are stationed an agricultural, an horticultural, and a dairy instructor in each Province. Some of the Provinces also have an expert instructor in cattle-breeding. Travelling instructors in poultry-breeding and in bee- culture are appointed for the whole country. 4 Geo. 5 Royal Coaiaiission on Agriculture. 185 The policy adopted by the Dutch Government has been to help propagating the doctrine of co-operation, and to leave to each society the fullest possible freedom in choosing between the different modes of association sanctioned by the laws of the country. ITALY. While there existed in rural Italy many centuries ago associations of land-owners for the reclamation of land by irrigation and for similar purposes, agricultural co-operation of small landholders, as now understood, is only twenty-five years old in that country. The agricultural assemblies were the first modern form of agricultural associations to be formed. They were educational in character, and have been succeeded or supplemented by the co-operative agricultural associations. The movement has expanded rapidly and at present there are numerous organizations throughout the country. In 3907 the various groups were represented as follows:— Purchase societies 790 Credit societies 1,008 Productive societies S70 Sale societies :.. 45 Total 3,333 One special feature of co-operative organization in Italy is that there has always been harmonious relations between the rural co-operative societies and the co-operative town hanks, a condition which has greatly contributed to the notable success achieved. THE AGRICULTURAL SOCIETIES. The agricultural societies are associations like the French syndicates. But they are unhampered by restrictive legislation as lo their trading capacity, and therefore do not require the French duplication of machinery. They are very numerous and have become very strong by effective federation. Their main purpose is the collective purchase of agricultural requirements. In southern Italy the organization of these societies were the result of the work of the agricultural professors, who were sent out to teach the farmers the necessity of using artificial fertilizers. After some of the farmers had had their first experience with fertilizers, purchase societies were formed. In the beginning only fertilizers were bought, but when the great advantage of these purchases was realized other lines were added, such as farm machinery and feedstuffs. Membership—Shares—Liability. The membership was in 3907 estimated at 200,000, for the most part small proprietors. At present the entire number of farmers belonging to agricultural associations is estimated to be no less than 250,000. The shares are by Act limited to $20, and no member may hold stock for more than $1,000. In practice, however, they are limited to from $2 to $10. In most of these associations liability is limited to the amount of the share. A few of the associations, however, have adopted unlimited liability. The Rural Unions. Next in importance to the agricultural societies are the rural unions. These are agricultural associations organized and conducted by the clergy and restricted to members of the Roman Catholic faith. SUPPLY SOCIETIES. There were, in 3907, 790 societies for the common purchase of agricultural requirements, grouped as follows :— Agricultural societies 300 Rural unions 200 Other organizations 224 Total 790 ISO British Coluaibia. 1914 The movement is rapidly expanding, and at present there are 1,500 of these associations of various types. Some are very small; others are so large that they sell goods to the value of $600,000 annually. In certain districts there are regional agricultural societies, especially in Lombardy. General Stores. The associations, especially in northern Lombardy, maintain a store in nearly every village for the sale of agricultural requirements and household articles. Purchase of Farm Implements. The co-operative movement in Italy has proved most successful as far as the collective purchase of agricultural requirements is concerned. This branch of agricultural co-operation is most easily organized; it requires only a small outlay of capital for the start, and the results are immediately tangible; consequently this form of co-operation is most readily accepted. Co-operative Manufacturing. The agricultural supply societies in Italy have taken a new step by manufacturing fertilizers, especially phosphates. The product is sold at cost price, and the members bind themselves to take a certain minimum amount annually. These factories owe their existence to the high prices demanded by the private factories. The results obtained have been excellent. There are fourteen such chemical-works and all are flourishing. The largest is at Porto Gruaro. It lias an average output of 35,000 tons. In eight years it had cleared itself of a debt of $100,000 for erection of buildings and plant. Net profits reached $50,000, and the dividend paid is 5 per cent. As a result, prices on fertilizers are greatly reduced all over Italy. The total production of these co-operative factories annually is 200,000 tons of phosphates. In 1907 there was formed a central association, and the benefit of this closer association is already felt. At I'lacenza an association of farmers is operating an oilcake factory. The capital is $20,000, raised on shares. The membership is 1,200. About 50 per cent, of the fanners in the locality belong to this association. Tbe society sells to non-members, but only members share in the profits. Total Purchase Transaction. The amount of business clone by those societies varies greatly. It ranges from $200 in the smallest societies to $000,000 in the largest. In 3907 the total value of the goods handled by the purchase societies was estimated at $S.00O,O00. The agricultural wholesale society was formed in 1S92. and began with a membership of eighteen societies. In 1907 it was affiliated with 402 societies. Several provisions are made so as to enable these associations to give their members a partial credit for the amount of their purchases. For this purpose the associations obtain loans in the savings-banks, for which all the members are responsible; or the association may keep an open account with a credit bank. Special legislation enacted for southern and central Italy provides that the associations may obtain loans in the Bank of Naples and of Sicily at a less interest than the commercial rate. One of the features of the work of the local agricultural societies is the erection of collective storehouses, where the fanners store their products until marketing. Other features are co-operative bakeries conducted on hygienic principles. The members are not bound in any way to purchase from the federation. Local Supply Societies. An inquiry in 1907 among the societies of the Tlacenza Federation shows that 420 from which returns are made had a share capital of $2,000,000 and a reserve fund of $S00,000. They made total sales amounting to $10,000,000. In 1930 it is calculated that the sales reached $!S,000.000. At present the total sales are no less than $20,000,000. Some of these rural associations, notably the societies at Milan and Parma, have effected sales to the amount of $G00,000 and $S00,00O. Through the efforts of the travelling professors there has been formed a federation of about eighty purchase societies in Lombardy. The number is constantly increasing. With a view to 4 Geo. 5 Royal Coaiaiission on Agriculture. 187 stimulating the propaganda in southern Italy, the federation has opened a branch office in Sicily and one in Catania. The federation established for collective purchase does not confine its activity to this single branch of co-operation, but as the need arises it assumes any branch of co-operation, as well as agricultural education. In 1900 the federation instituted no fewer than 314 experimental plots and distributed 26,000 copies of educational pamphlets. Federation of Purchase Societies. Over 700 societies are affiliated with the federation at Placenza, which has a branch federation at Catania and at Naples. In 1901 there were 61S. holding 5,6S0 shares amounting to $2S,500, and a reserve fund of $35,000. The value of goods consigned annually to members of this federation is about $4,000,000. Gross profit, $00,000. Expenses were $55,000, with a net profit of $4,000. This profit was divided as follows :— Reserve fund $1,700 Shareholders S00 Purchasers 1,450 Employees 200 Propaganda 350 Some of the large societies have various " filials " or agencies dependent upon the central office. These agencies are rather rudimentary, and conducted by a local tradesman or farmer who has other duties besides. This branch system has been peculiarly effective in attracting the very small proprietors in districts where property is greatly split up. productive and aiarketing associations. Since the fourteenth and fifteenth century there have been dairies in Italy which in a sense have been co-operative. However, this early form of co-operation simply consisted iu bringing the milk together from the farms and letting the farmers each take in his turn the work of making the butter, each farmer receiving his share of the butter and disposing of it himself; or, again, the farmers might combine to employ a butter-maker, but each member would still dispose of his share of the output. Dairy' Societies. These primitive forms of co-operation have now given way to new methods, and the old " turni familiar!" have given place to the modern creamery, which not only produces the butter, but disposes of it on account of all the members. These dairies are of all sizes and development, from the nomad fromageries in the Alpine valleys to the huge dairy at Soresina, which iu 1900-7 had a daily milk-supply of 240 tons. There were in 1910 iu Italy 1,075 co-operative creameries, of which the greater number are in northern Italy. It does not appear that, except in the larger ones, those creameries pay their patrons by contents of butter-fat, or that cow-testing societies have been established, though that reform will no doubt be introduced before long. The average number of cows belonging to a dairy in Italy is stated to be from 100 to 150. The Creamery at Soresina. The co-operative creamery at Soresina, near Cremona, is one of the largest in the world. It is operated on entirely scientific principles and with modern equipment. This dairy manufactures cheese, butter, and casein for pharmaceutical purposes. The cheese production is the most profitable of these lines. The production of casein is not of great significance. This creamery controls the milk from 4,000 cows and receives daily an average of 40 tons of milk. Every member is obliged to have a share for each cow he owns. The shares sell at present for $34 dollars each. When a member leaves the association the society buys back his share. Profits are divided according to milk delivered. 1SS British Coluaibia. 1914 Federation of Dairies. About 250 creamery societies are affiliated to the National Union of Co-operative Creameries. These creameries had in 1912 more than 14,000 members, and received annually 49,000 tons of milk. Co-operative A'intries. In the first flush of national independence a number of vintries had started up as joint-stock companies. They were organized on too large a scale; the shareholders as a rule were not farmers, and most of them went bankrupt. The second period of this development began in 1SS4 with small vintries on strictly co-operative lines, profits being distributed according to the amount of grapes supplied. These vintries secured the support of the rural banks and were ultimately successful. In marketing the wine, some of the vintry societies join with co-operative distributive societies in the towns; others open offices or sell directly to the public; again others sell through commission agents. There are about 150 such vintries. The local vintries have formed several federations, which again have formed a central union. Distilleries. Co-operative distilleries are being established. There are about thirty and they have been a financial success. Silk Production. There are a few silk-growing societies in Italy. They prepare and store the cocoons, sometimes leaving sales to members, sometimes selling through the societies' organizations. Fruit-selling. There were about forty societies for the sale of table-fruit, vegetables, and eggs. , INTELLIGENCE SOCIETIES. Perhaps the most important co-operative factor in this development has been the institute called " cattedre amberlanti," travelling schools of technical instruction which conduct a co-operative propaganda. It is the duty of the travelling agricultural professors to promote the co-operative movement through lectures and talks with the farmers. As yet, however, the establishment of live-stock associations is but little developed in Italy. COLLECTIVE FARAIING. Scattered over Italy there are lands (a total of about 265,000 acres, with a population of 107,000 inhabitants) which, on account of the "civic usages" to which from ancient time they are subject, should readily yield to co-operative farming. These lands are subject to collective ownership of the people who inhabit them. The system handed down from olden times is to divide the land in as many lots as there are families. After a certain number of years the lands are again divided to adjust the equilibrium. Each occupier tries to get as much out of the soil as possible during his occupancy, with as little improvement as practicable. Naturally such a system is not conducive to the best methods of individual farming, but would be suitable for experiments in collective farming. In other parts of the country the causes that have led to collective farming are different. In Lombardy it originated in order to eliminate the middlemen, who rented large estates and sublet them to the farmer at a higher price. In Sicily there is a special form of co-operative organizations known as associations for collective leasing of land and co-operative farming. These associations are formed by small farmers and agricultural labourers, who combine for the purpose of renting large estates and farming them. The tendency has lately been to enlarge these leased holdings, and whenever possible to purchase the lands. In nearly all' the collective farming societies there is present a religious or political element as a binding link. Collective leasing and separate cultivation is generally practised by the religious societies, collective farming by the socialistic. 4 Geo. 5 Royal-Commission on Agriculture. 1S9 There are 152 societies of this type with a total membership of 35,360. cultivating about 134,000 acres, paying an annual rent of $630,000. Of these societies only 25 per cent, were working their land in common. The necessary capital is generally obtained through loans from banks. The Altedo Farm. Near Bologna is the Collective Altedo Farm. A very stubborn struggle between labourers and land-owners was the origin of this enterprise. The labourers were backed by public-spirited men, and finally the lands were leased and are now operated co-operatively. The co-operators maintain a purchase society with a warehouse. They operate boarding- houses and restaurants. General contentment appears to have been the result of their whole co-operative activity. There are 878 members. The capital investment is $6,500. The transaction with the Credit Bank in Bologna amounted to $60,000. The annual profits are divided thus: 20 per cent, to the reserve fund; 40 per cent, to the collective fund; 40 per cent, to members in proportion to work done. This farm is said to have caused an economic and social revolution among the members. It is under consideration to expand this movement, and an effort is being made to make agricultural labour undertake great reclamation-works, and after having reclaimed the soil, to farm it on co-operative methods. Labourers' Co-operative Society. The first congress of the collective leases associations was held in 1909, the second in 1911, and progress was evident as to number of members and also in respect to tbe system of co-operative farming. A very important co-operative movement is organized by the rural labourers (braccianti). They organize in order to undertake contracts for making roads, digging ditches, building dykes, etc. There are about 200 of these societies now in existence, including seventy in A'euetia alone. These societies, which are one of Italy's -contributions to the co-operative movement, are organized and self-controlled labour gangs. They engage a committee of engineers and technical supervisors, who examine the specifications, direct the execution of the work, and fix the remuneration to the working-men. The shares are small, if any; never over 25 cents. Of the net profits, 50 per cent, is retained as a pension and accident fund, and the remainder is paid to the labourers in proportion to their wages. To maintain an " esprit de corps " and to facilitate mutual supervision the men work in gangs generally not larger than fifteen to each. Each gang works under a foreman, who, in addition to his ordinary wages, receives from V, to y<i per cent, on the aggregate wages of the men under him. A general director is appointed from among the members. Effects of Collective Farming. The result of the system has been good. Its introduction has necessitated the formation of purchase societies and provision for credit as well as educational work, and will consequently place these classes on a higher intellectual level. Special schools have been established, with short courses in agriculture and in popular education. Although the Russian Government and some of the Balkan States have taken steps to encourage the system of collective farming, it is not one that will appeal to farmers generally. It is certain not to find imitators among Western farmers, who value the feeling of independent ownership and control of their land. Among the landless labourers iu Italy it has been beneficial, especially in those parts where there is a large labouring population, among whom strikes are frequent. Not only has it tended to increase the yield of the land, but it has also had a quieting social effect. It has raised the social status of the poorer class, as well as the agricultural standard. IRELAND. AVithiu the lifetime of a middle-aged man the Irish peasant has been transformed from a serf into a free landholder. This change has made the work of the agricultural association possible, and is the economic foundation on which the prosperity of the Irish farmer is being raised. 190 British Columbia. 1914 During the last twelve years a revolution has taken place in the condition of the Irish farmer, due mainly to the three following causes: Land-purchase, technical education, and agricultural co-operation. Land-purchase made the tiller of the soil owner of the land, and gave him a stimulus towards better farming and better living. Technical education taught him to do better farming and to apply himself to the smaller and more intensive branches of his industry. Co-operative business methods have enabled him to dispose of his products at a fair profit. As a result of the changed conditions, Ireland has advanced "out of a night of disorder and despair into a morning of genuine hope." The agrarian movement has had to surmount every imaginable difficulty. Still these difficulties seemed to serve only to stimulate, and the movement increased iu momentum by the very effort to overcome them. Origin of the Movement. Besides having disadvantages of a special nature essentially her own, Ireland had, like all other European countries, suffered from the critical position of agriculture which prevailed generally during the period between 1SS0-90. After 1SS0 the condition of the Irish farmers had become more unbearable than ever. The agrarian crisis, partly produced by American competition and partly by the adoption of co-operative methods in other countries, making advantageous use of the prevailing market conditions, brought those countries into closer competition and deprived Ireland of even her own markets for the products to which she was best adapted. In Ireland the land rents had at that time been greatly reduced by legislation, yet the income of the farmer, who was beaten in his old markets, had grown less. As a result, both laud-owner and tenant were equally dissatisfied. The only solution of the problem was to transfer the landlord's interest to the tenant and make him proprietor. This great transition requires aid of the State to the extent of over $3,000,000,000. It is easily understood that the Irish fanner had convinced himself, and nearly everybody else, that if he owned his land all would be well. However, he was suffering from economic troubles of another kind. The modern world had changed the way of doing business. AA'hole- sale provision dealers wanted to buy in a wholesale way. They could no longer be bothered witb the few pounds of butter produced by the small farmer or the two dozen eggs brought by his wife. The expense of collection in the accustomed way was too great for the individual dealers; they wanted to deal with producers who could supply them with large quantities of a uniform grade. This demand the foreign producer had made arrangements to meet by organization ; consequently the Irish farmer's business was going from bad to worse. Sir Horace I'lunkett. At this stage of the agricultural condition in Ireland. Sir Horace Plunkett, the man who became the chief promoter of Irish co-operation, returned from a prolonged residence in the United States. He noticed particularly the depressed condition of the agricultural industry, and conceived the idea of producing an economic improvement in Irish agriculture by combined action among the farmers. At the beginning the new movement in Ireland was simply a reproduction of an old movement in England. Sir Horace Plunkett and his first associates, Lord Monteagle and R. A. Anderson, became steady attendants at the congresses of the Co-operative Union in England, and an Irish section of this Union was set up. It became, however, soon apparent that the establishment of " stores" alone would not greatly improve economic conditions in Ireland, but that, if anything were to be accomplished, productive co-operation would have to be established, especially in respect to butter production, for which the climate of Ireland made her especially adapted. In this way Sir Horace Plunkett evolved a plan of co-operation before he heard that co-operative dairies were already an accomplished fact in Denmark. 4 Geo. 5 Royal Coaimission on Agriculture. 191 Thus the initial idea resolved itself into an application of the co-operative principle to the dairying industry. No better advice could at that time be given than to follow where the Danes had led. The new movement was started in southern Ireland, in one of the poorest and most backward of the agricultural districts. A district of this character was chosen for the reason that if the attempt should be successful in such a community the result would be so much more marked; on the other hand, failure would not appear to be so disastrous to the movement as in a more prosperous section. The greatest difficulty of the task was to clear the minds of the Irish farmers of suspicion, suspicion that the leaders had some private sinister scheme behind it all, suspicion and distrust against their neighbours and even against themselves. The opponents maintained that the Irish can " conspire but not combine." It was maintained that the Irish temperament refuses to grow enthusiastic over economic humdrum principles, and that nothing but religion or politics would stimulate the Irish nation, into action. Economists insisted that, even if successful in awakening their interest in establishing the creameries, such an industry which requires a highly technical training would never succeed under democratic management and the " one man one vote " principle. The leaders determined, however, with faith in their countrymen, to push on until they had either won or been proved wrong b5* practical demonstration. Before being able to start a single co-operative creamery, Sir Horace Plunkett held fifty meetings, and then it took two years before the next was started. Both the Conservative and the Nationalist press were of one mind in denouncing the movement as " hellish work." At Rathkeale, where Mr. Anderson held a meeting in the interest of a co-operative creamery, a local solicitor said to him: " Rathkeale is a Nationalist town, Nationalist to the backbone, and every pound of butter made in this country must be made on Nationalist principles or it shan't be made at all." The extent to which old misunderstandings and prejudices militated against the reformers is illustrated by Sir Horace Plunkett in "Ireland in the New Century." He tells that on one occasion a project for the conversion of a disused mill into a creamery had to be abandoned because the stream of water connected with the mill passed through a conduit lined with cement originally purchased from a person who occupied a farm from which another man had been evicted. Farmers would get up at meetings and ask: " Before we go any further, I would like to know what Sir Horace Plunkett is going to get out of this job." In course of time these early difficulties were overcome; gradually the efforts gained support and have widened their sphere of operation. The Irish Agricultural Organization Society. In 1S94 the movement had so far expanded that a new organization under the name of the Irish Agricultural Organization Society was formed to carry on the work which hitherto had been performed by a few leaders. The object of this society was to help the farmers, through the application of co-operative principles, to dispose of their produce on the best terms, to buy their requirements at wholesale prices, and also to combine for the purpose of affording credit to the members. Further Development—State Aid. In 3895 to 3890 the agrarian movement resulted in the appointing of a committee called the Recess Committee, which issued a report that had great influence upon the agricultural development in Ireland. It pointed out the usefulness of the co-operative movement through the Irish Agricultural Organization Society, and recommended the establishment of a Department of Agriculture and Technical Instruction for Ireland. Consequently, in 1S99 such a department was created. Its organization included an Advisory Council and two Boards, the one concerned with agriculture and inland fisheries, the other with technical instruction. Thus the Irish Agricultural Organization Society was relieved of a great deal of the educational work which it bad previously done as a necessnry adjunct to the work of organization. 192 British Columbia. 1914 Co-operative Societies. The present position of Irish organization is shown by the following table from the report of the Irish Agricultural Organization Society, June, 3933. The returns, however, are not complete. No of Societies. ' Paid-up Membership Share Capital. Loan Capital. Turnover. 320 S7 171 •>30 45.725 j $733,830 38.273 34,3 SO 19.505 S555.91 .-i : SI O OOO 1 o-. Auxiliary societies not separately registered 1 ■ — 203.3C0 oso.770 „ ,..„„ 045.99-5 oS0.27.-i 38 5.879 3.375 4.928 057 624 247 9.850 3,530 78,085 320 2,750 42,5S5 32.372 322.9S5 Home industry societies 20 25 40 9 9 3.015 ] 31 .'->S5 Miscellaneous (including b a c o n - curing and bee-keepers' societies) Pig and cattle supply societies ... 39.235 20,853 55,770 29S.030 17,030 Federations 004,045 934 97,233 $903,530 $1,373,090 $12,202,300 Since the organization of this society the total turnover has been $123,000,000, of which $91,000,000 is for butter sold and $2,500,000 is loans. On the co-operative creameries alone the organization has gained $2,000,000. Supply' Societies. The agricultural societies, which are growing most rapidly in number, are supply societies. They enable the farmer to buy at wholesale prices. The individual farmer is not likely to use the safeguards offered by analysis of fertilizers and testing of seeds. These advantages are offered by the societies. Through their medium the smallest farmer is able to purchase his agricultural requirements at wholesale prices. Under their stimulus, consumption of fertilizers and use of machinery have greatly increased, and so enhanced the output of the manufactories. Another service which these societies offer to their members is the use of expensive machinery like steam-thrashers, which are lent out at a low rent. Some societies own thousands of pounds' worth of agricultural machinery. One of the first achievements of the supply societies was the breaking-up of a ring of artificial-manure manufacturers and lowering the price of fertilizers over 20 per cent. Later there was trouble to overcome with the agricultural-implement manufactories. Also in the sale of guaranteed seeds at low prices these societies have done good service. A main feature in connection with the organizations for the supply of farm requirements is the extent to which they carry on their trade through the federated body, the Irish Agricultural Wholesale Society, Limited. In 1900 there were seventy-nine societies affiliated, with sales for $270,000. In 1911 the number of agricultural societies was 171, with sales of $630,500. The Irish Co-operative Agency' Society'. With a view to overcome the difficulty of marketing butter on such terms as would ensure the best return, the Irish Co-operative Agency Society, Limited, was formed in 1S93 by sixteen creameries. It has been found, however, that the creameries can handle their own output to better advantage than the Agency. At present the chief function of the Agency is to provide a market for the products of the members and to .assist them in handling their own products. Reports are received from various branches every day. 4 Geo. 5 Royal Coaijiission on Agriculture. 19:> The society also supplies the creameries with all requirements. The profit made belongs to the co-operative societies, who are the shareholders. The Agency has broken up the " ring" which previously met every day and determined the price of butter. The greater part of the co-operative trade is done in Ireland through the medium of this. Agency, which has headquarters in Limerick, with depots in Dublin and seven other cities in Ireland, and sub-agents in the principal cities in Great Britain for the marketing of eggs, etc-. The Organization of New Societies. The Government assists the movement by providing money for the organization of new societies, but the work is done under the direction of the Irish Agricultural Organization. Society. The actual building-up of co-operative societies is the task of a new type of social worker,, the agricultural organizer. He goes everywhere, organizing all branches of agricultural co-operation. "The organizer must be a man of cheerful optimism. He must have tact,and perseverance and be a good judge of men. He will require great patience and must be able to express himself clearly and concisely orally and in writing; he must be conversant with the details of co-operative organization, be a man of wide experience and understanding, both of human nature and of social institutions, and be able to apply the general principles to the local conditions as he finds them." Altogether the Irish Agricultural Organization Society in 1911 comprised 934 societies, of which 320 were dairy societies, 171 agricultural societies, 230 credit societies, and the remainder of miscellaneous character. There are now 100,000 Irish farmers joined in co-operative agricultural associations, and there is little doubt but the membership will be doubled in a few years. The total business transacted through the co-operative societies in 1913 amounted to about $15,000,000. The extent of co-operation is only limited by the nature of each business. If individual or combined private enterprise can undertake a certain line of production to better advantage than the associations, the co-operative societies leave such branches outside of their activities. For instance, this is the case in respect, to the generation of electric light and power. It has been found that private companies can do this cheaper than the societies. In no other branch had the effect of the changed methods of production been so marked as in the manufacture of butter. Of all the Irish co-operative societies, the dairy societies are the most numerous and the most successful. Irish butter made by some hundreds of thousands of Irish farmers in as many more or less tidy homes did not longer meet the requirements of a market which was catered to by foreign farmers, who centralized the making of their butter in creameries under expert management, and who consigned regularly as uniform an article as it-was possible to produce. Consequently the price of Irish butter fell to a-point where the margin of profit disappeared. By the introduction of co-operative methods centralizing the butter-making of a parish irt one building, this condition has been entirely changed. Of all the Irish co-operative societies, the dairy societies have been the most successful and are the most numerous. There is now produced a butter which competes with the best butter made, and receives remunerative prices. At present the Irish farmers are producing iu their creameries $10,000,000 worth of butter annually under a system giving them entire control of the industry and all the profit arising therefrom. There is still a great deal of work to be done in this connection. The milking capacity of the average cow can be raised higher. Cow-testing societies as they exist in Denmark may enable the farmer to weed out from his stock the cattle that give him the lowest returns. The quality of the butter can be further improved, so that the Irish farmer may be able fully to meet the competition confronting him in the world's market. And there is no doubt but it will be accomplished in due course of time. Poultry Societies. The poultry industry is becoming of more importance to Ireland every year. There- are about twenty-four societies handling the poultry products, besides the dairies that often perform the same service for their members. The annual turnover through the poultry societies is about $350,000, and it is steadily increasing. 194 British Columbia. 1914 The poultry societies of the Irish Agricultural Organization Society are teaching farmers how to market their eggs in a businesslike way. The methods of packing are steadily improving under the instruction given. Through the organization the Irish fanner is able to place his eggs immediately in the British market. Poultry and eggs are naturally the great industry of the small holder and cottager, and Ireland could without doubt produce three times the present output without glutting the market. Flax Societies. The Irish Agricultural Organization Society has also brought into existence fifteen flax societies, with the object of bringing the scutching and marketing of flax directly under the farmers' control. Eventually these societies may lead to the introduction into Ireland of methods similar to those employed in Belgium, where the flax is sold on foot and subsequently pulled, rolled, and scutched by a staff of trained workers. .For some years the Irish flax-growing industry has been declining. Though there is invested $65,000,000 in the manufactories of linen and 65,000 skilled workers are employed iu the factories, yet there has been an annual import worth nearly $15,000,000. The following table will show the decline:— Year. Acres under Crop. Yalue of Crop. 1S09-S6 (average) 3S93 120,245 34,9S9 $4,S65,000 1,400,000 S5,25G $3,375,000 According to economic writers, the decline of the industry has chiefly been due to:— (1.) The use of inferior seed: (2.) Absence of proper methods of production : (3.) AA'ant of co-operation among the producers. Witb the adoption of co-operative methods of the same efficiency as are carried out in Belgium, the demands of modern business would be met. Women's Societies. This society was started in 1910 for the purpose of raising the standard of living in Irish homes. It has forty-one branches with a membership of 1,450. There were in addition 330 individual members not connected with any branch. The society employs three organizers who give information and advice and form new branches. Besides the travelling organizers, there are also instructresses who take tip their residence for a few mouths in each district and start classes in cookery, dressmaking, gardening, etc. The association is also visited by instructresses sent out from the Department of Agriculture and Technical Instruction; they give courses for two months or longer in all branches of domestic economy. Nurses are being trained and fairs, lectures, and concerts are held. A monthly paper bas been started. Miscellaneous Societies. Home industry societies have also been started by tbe Irish Agricultural Organization Society for a number of purposes, such as the making of lace, embroidery, crochet, and rugs. Unions of the societies occupied with each of these various branches have been proposed. The Plunkett House, a Centre of Co-operative Activities. A few years ago it was contemplated to recognize Sir Horace Plunkett's. services to the agricultural interests by a fitting testimonial. Sir Horace asked that the substantial sum which 4 Geo. 5 Royal Comaiission on Agriculture. 195 had been raised might be devoted to the purchase of a large house intended to become the headquarters of the Irish Agricultural Organization Society, and to act as a centre of research and dissemination of scientific and economical knowledge for the improvement of agricultural conditions in Ireland. This plan has been carried out, and the Plunkett House is to-day the centre of co-operation in Ireland. The Change—The New Rural Community. To what an extent the organized societies have transformed rural Ireland is shown in a report by a sub-committee of the Permanent American Commission, from which the following is an extract:— The District of Templecrone, in North-west Donegal, was a dozen years ago one of the most wretchedly poor in Ireland. The farmers were at the mercy of the gombeen traders and the agricultural middlemen. Then a co-operative society was started and a change for the better took place, greater than the oldest inhabitant'would be able to remember during his previous life. The reign of the middleman is over. The farmers control their own buying and selling. Their organization markets for them their products. It procures seeds, fertilizers, and domestic requirements. It turns the members' pigs into bacon. The women's organization is allied with the other co-operative organizations. They sell co-operatively the products of the women's industries. They have a village hall, u co-operative band, social gatherings, and concerts. In half a dozen years more all their industries will be fully organized and financed by themselves under their own administration. The cringing serf of the past generation is replaced by a free man who can meet his former landlord on even terms in committees and councils. : Effects of the Movement. On every hand the effects of the co-operative movement are noticeable. Simply the blocking together in one district of all the purchase of fertilizers into one order and asking for tenders has effected a reduction in prices to all Irish farmers of this article of about 40 per cent. One society reports profits of $1.3.00 and a saving of $2,000 to the members in the purchase of agricultural requirements. Another district reports a saving of $3,500. Still another district reports a saving of 25 per cent, in the prices of supplies and an added profit of 20 per cent, in the price of products. At the same time, the farmer secures better supplies and delivers better products. * In the wake of improved business methods followed better farming. The fields of the farms of members of the society are transformed as by a miracle. The crops are all improved, and especially so is tbe pasture. This is due to the better seed obtained through the associations and the high-class fertilizers used. The moral effect of the co-operative movement on the Irish farmer lias been no less striking than the material. He has been taught the commercial value of a good name. He has learned the necessity of sinking distrust and jealousy. He has become accustomed to lay aside religious and political differences in order to discuss with his neighbours matters concerning the common welfare. He is becoming subject to educational influence by performing the work of organization and through the village library. To this is added the influence of social gatherings, dances, concerts, lectures which the agricultural societies provide, and which bring fresh life into isolated communities. Results and Aims. The leaders of the movement in Ireland do not claim to have obtained great results yet. They only claim to have demonstrated that the co-operative system is capable of enabling the farmers to produce and distribute efficiently and economically, and at the same time to finance their operations. They have proved that common interest is the best foundation for common understanding. Rural Ireland is now ready to be organized, and the officers of the Irish Agricultural Organization Society are probably some of the hardest-working men-in Ireland. Demands for their services are continually coming in, and many activities like bacon-factories and insurance organization could be started if funds were available. The backbone of the resistance has been broken. The future of Ireland will be determined almost entirely by the success or failure which the farmers, who are now coming into possession of the land they till, make of their business. However, Sir Horace Piuukett's idea includes not only the spread of agricultural organization in Ireland, but aims at a comprehensive reconstruction of rural life in its various phases with 190 British Coluaibia. 1914 a view to retaining the agricultural population on the soil. The sense of responsibility for a neighbour's success which co-operation necessarily brings and the premium which membership in these organizations puts on character are matters of vital moment to the welfare of rural life. After all is said, the case of Irish co-operation cannot be stated more precisely than iu the motto adopted by Sir Horace Plunkett: " Better business ; better farming; better living;. better people." Consequently, first of all there must be better business, and that means co-operation. GENERAL EFFECT OF CO-OPERATION IN EUROPE. The effect of the co-operative movement in Europe lias, briefly stated, been to organize the many small producers. It has united millions of small efforts into a general movement, and thus contributed to the welfare of each individual member. To this general development each nation has contributed features characteristic of its development and national genius. The English obtained through "the stores" all the advantages of mutuality. Ireland has become prosperous by applying the Raiffeisen principles to purchase and production. The Germans clubbed together their collective integrity and their small savings so as to afford each other credit. The French aim through their co-operative syndicate to subordinate capital to labour. In spite of all misunderstanding, there remains in favour of co-operative methods the argument of Italy's enormous agricultural progress, Germany's ability to provide 90 per cent, of the sustenance of sixty-seven million people from a land smaller than Texas, and, further, there remains Denmark's solution of the rural problem and the cessation in that country of the exodus to the towns. It is essential, however, that a system which chiefly aims at the organization of the economically less favoured producers must be an evolution of slow growth, because it requires an order of citizenship only produced by cultural and technical education. However, the effect of bringing together in work for the general welfare men who otherwise would not have come into contact must necessarily be very beneficial in that respect. THE UNITED STATES. The last generation has been primarily an age of invention, not only as to mechanical appliances, but in respect to business methods as well. A special feature of modern business methods is the tendency to eliminate competition by extensive organization. As a class, the American farmer has hitherto been very prosperous, and the need of organizing his business along the lines indicated by modern methods has not appealed strongly to his individualistic nature. Agricultural organization, or co-operation, has in the United States been developed under peculiar conditions. Those features of the system which in a country like Germany are due to the thrifty and economic character of the people are in the States less developed than those which appeal to the sense of business expansion. Hitherto there has been comparatively little agitation for those branches of co-operation to which success in European countries is chiefly due. While co-operative purchase and collective credit have been the chief factors of the movement in Europe and co-operative selling has been less prominent, it is mainly the principle of combination for sale which characterizes (lie American movement wherever it has been successful. Another feature of agricultural organization in the States Is that the distinction between joint-stock companies and co-operative associations is not always quite clear. Any organization started among farmers is likely to be called co-operative in the States, whether based upon co-operative principles or not. The association may be incorporated as a joint-stock company and lie co-operative in principles, or vice versa; in either case it is popularly accepted as co-operative. It has been stated by writers dealing with this subject that there are 75.000 co-operative societies in the States, with a total membership of 3,000,000, but it must be kept in mind that for the reason stated the available information is very uncertain. The Agrarian Movement in the States. The first agricultural combinations in the States were formed on the pattern of the early European type of the intelligence societies, and did a great deal of good iu the days when agriculture was still in a crude state. Actual co-operation as now carried on among the 4 Geo. 5 Royal Coaiaiission on Agriculture. 1D7 American farmers is due to the farmer's conviction that he is not receiving a fair proportion of the profit realized on his produce. This conviction has crystallized in efforts from time to time to regulate by legislation or organization the alleged injustice. Directly due to this conviction were the movements in the States which have led to the organization of various fraternal or political parties with an economic tendency. The " Granges," organized in 1867, was for many years the leader in farmers' movements. The Populist party was an agrarian organization on political basis, principally for the attainment of advantageous legislation. It shared the fate of all " third" parties in the States. The Farmers' Alliance aimed more definitely at the economic side of the agrarian question and organized supply societies. For a time it represented a very strong movement. The Alliance collapsed, however, when it entered the arena of politics. The agitation caused by these associations has resulted in various laws, such as the interstate commerce laws and a great deal of railroad legislation. The Commission on Rural Life. One of the most important steps taken by the Federal Government in the direction of the betterment of rural conditions was the appointment of a Commission in 190S by President Roosevelt for the purpose of studying the problem of American rural life. In his letter of instruction to the Commission the President says:— Practically the whole effort has been directed towards the increasing of crops. Our attention has been concentrated almost exclusively in getting better farming. Agriculture is not the whole of country life—the great rural interests are human interests, and the good crops are of little value to farmers unless they open the door to a good kind of life on the farm. This problem of country life is in the truest sense a national problem. . . . The farmers have hitherto had less than their full share of attention along the lines of business and social life. There is too much belief among all our people that the prizes of life lie away from the farm. I am therefore anxious to bring before the people of the United States the question of securing better business and better living on the farms, whether by co-operation between farmers for buying, selling, and borrowing, by promoting social advantages and opportunities in the country, or by other legitimate means that will help to make country life more gainful, more attractive, and fuller of opportunities, pleasures, and rewards for the men, women, and children on the farms. The most important among the recommendations made in the report of the Commission was to the effect:— That before.all things an efficient movement in favour of co-operation among the farmers is to be desired to put them in a position to sustain the struggle against the other economic classes with which they have business relations. co-operative legislation. Under the laws prevailing in most of the States of the Union, it is, however, impossible to organize a business association on a non-profit-seeking basis. The laws governing associations have been enacted to suit the needs of capital, and the Acts regulating benevolent, religious, and fraternal societies do not provide for co-operative business. There is needed new legislation in most of the States for the conduct of co-operative associations. Such laws have already been enacted in Washington, California, AA'isconsin, Nebraska, Minnesota, and a few other States. The Wisconsin Act. The Act providing for the formation of co-operative associations in Wisconsin was passed in 1933. It provides that no stockholder shall hold stock in the society to a greater value than $1,000, and that he shall only be entitled to one vote. The dividend on the stock may not exceed 0 per cent. It is provided that no less than 30 per cent, of the profit shall be set aside as a reserve fund until it equals 30 per cent, of the paid-up capital, and thereafter 5 per cent, is reserved for an educational fund to be used in the propaganda for co-operation. The remainder of the net profit shall be divided among the shareholders pro rata on the amount of goods bought or raw materials delivered, non-shareholders being paid one-half of the declared dividend. The Nebraska Act. The Nebraska Act defines a co-operative society as an association which authorizes the distribution of its earnings in part or wholly on the basis of or in proportion to the amount 19S British Columbia. 1914 of property bought from or sold to members, or in proportion to labour performed or services rendered to the corporation. The Act also authorizes such co-operative associations to regulate and limit the right of stockholders to transfer their stock, to make by-laws, to provide the terms and limitation of stock ownership, and to make regulations for the distribution of their earnings. The California Act. In California an Act has been passed regulating the incorporation of non-profit-seeking co-operative associations in all branches of agriculture. The following are the chief provisions of this Act:— Obligatory Regulations. The association shall have no capital stock and its business shall not be carried on for profit. Any person or number of persons may become members upon such terms and conditions as are provided by the constitution and the by-laws of the association. The certificate of membership shall only be transferable upon the consent of the board of directors. Optional Regulations. The articles of incorporation of each society shall state whether the voting power and property rights are to be equal or unequal, and, if unequal, the articles shall set forth general rules applicable to all members by which their voting power and property rights may be definitely determined. After the association has been incorporated such provisions in the articles- shall only be amended on the unanimous vote of all the members. The by-laws shall provide regulations for the membership fee and the amount which each member shall be required to pay annually or from time to time. The by-laws shall also contain regulations concerning qualifications for membership and concerning votes by proxy. Each society shall have power to appoint such agents and officers as its business may require; it has power to admit to membership and expel members for violation of agreements or of the by-laws. The society may buy, hold, and sell all kinds of real and personal property needed for its business. The Act permits the societies to co-operate with other similar societies and to form a federation. Sectional Co-operation. It has appeared natural in the preceding sketch of co-operation in those countries in Europe where investigation has been made by this Commission to treat of each country individually, dealing separately with each branch of co-operative activity and the societies created for its promotion. In the United States of America, with its different climatic sections and zones of production, conditions are so diverse that the same method of treatment does not appear to lead to a conception of the aims and tendencies of co-operation in that country. The subject has therefore been dealt with sectionally and topically at the same time by outlining tbe methods pursued in those main branches of co-operative activity as have become prominent in each section of the country. Each section will be associated with a distinct branch of co-operation, which, however, does not imply that no other line of co-operative activity is being taken up in the same section. Thus the dairy and intelligence societies will be descrihed in connection with the States of AA'isconsin and Minnesota; mutual elevator companies will be identified witli the Western Central States; fruit distribution with AVashington and California, each section of the country supplying a distinct type of co-operation. SUPPLY SOCIETIES. Except in some notable instance, the purchase of farm supplies collectively has not in the United States received an attention equal to what has been accorded the marketing question. The most successful case of co-operative purchase in the States is undertaken by a corporation in California furnishing supplies to the fruit-growers. This society consists of a large number of fruit-growers' associations. Members of the California Fruit-growers' Exchange have for this purpose formed a company with a capital investment of $1,000,000. 4 Geo. 5 Royal Commission on Agriculture. 199 This company operates two departments, a manufacturing department and a general supply division. In the manufacturing department it leases timber land, operates mills, and manufactures box material. In the supply department it furnishes supplies used in the orchards and in tbe packing-houses. The articles manufactured by the association are sold to members at a price 6 per cent, over the cost; the general supplies are sold at cost. In 1911 this company delivered 12,000,000 boxes to members, besides $347,000 worth of orchard supplies and other goods. In the same year it sold $100,000 worth of fertilizers, imported 600 tons of vetch-seed, and 150 car-loads of tissue-paper. It cut 15,000,000 feet of lumber for box material. In 1912 this supply department handled over $2,000,000 worth of material at a cost of less than 1 per cent. The co-operative supply activities in the States are mostly carried on in connection with some productive or marketing association. In many cases the purchase of supplies is undertaken by co-operative creameries and other marketing societies. PRODUCTIVE AND AIARKETING SOCIETIES. In the United States co-operative methods have been most successfully adopted in the dairy industry, in connection with grain-elevators, and among the fruit-growers in the Pacific States. The co-operative marketing method is also developed to some extent among cotton and rice growers, in the tobacco industry, and among vegetable-growers. Dairy Societies. The greatest success achieved in the United States by co-operative production has been attained by the co-operative creameries, especially in Minnesota and Wisconsin. One of the greatest difficulties the co-operative creameries have to contend with in their operations is the competition of the " centralizers' companies." These companies establish skimming-stations and manufacture the butter at central points. They employ expert butter- makers and trained business-men, to whom they pay high salaries. They have the very best modern equipment and have developed a comprehensive marketing system. Some of these companies manufacture as much as 400,000 lb. of butter daily. The chief advantage which the co-operative creameries have over these centralizers' companies is that they are able to obtain the cream in good condition, while the centralizers frequently have to remedy the condition of the cream by expert treatment. The total number of co-operative creameries in the United States is about 1900, and the total value of the output of the creameries in the North Central States is estimated at $30,000,000 per annum. • At present only 7 per cent, of the butter produced in the State of Minnesota is made on the farm; nevertheless, only a comparatively small portion of the total production is made in the co-operative creameries. Strictly speaking, even the co-operative creameries cannot be said to practise co-operative marketing in the full sense. Ordinarily they do not combine together, but sell their product separately to commission-men, brokers, and wholesale bouses. The price is established by the boards of trade in the large cities, and the farmers have no influence in determining the price. AA'hile many co-operative creameries have been organized as a business necessity, a great number of them are due to the efforts of agents for creamery supplies, who have been induced to agitate for co-operative creameries by a desire to sell their goods. The creamery naturally becomes a centre for a number of other co-operative activities, such as egg-selling and organized purchase of farm supplies, and a cold-storage plant in connection with the creamery may be the central station for the collection of eggs, etc. Also cow-testing and cattle-breeding associations are often formed at the initiative of the creamery associations. Federation op Creameries, Minnesota. In Minnesota an effort is being made through the Minnesota Co-operative Dairies' Association to distribute and sell the product of creameries on a co-operative plan. This corporation was organized in 1907 with a capital stock of $32,500, divided into 500 shares. The purpose of the association is to receive, sell, or otherwise dispose of all products of any individual manufacturer or any agricultural co-operative association. To carry out this object it employs special agents in New York, Chicago, and Philadelphia. 14 200 British Colujibia. 1914 The federation charges 5 per cent, on all gross sales, and from the revenue derived in this manner each month pays the cost of operation, charging to each member a pro rata share of the expense. As yet, the success of this federation is not very marked, but the local societies realize that, while a small association can standardize the product for the market, it cannot meet organized competition nor develop a comprehensive system of marketing without affiliating itself to a strong central organization. Co-operation in Wisconsin. During the past few years co-operation in all agricultural branches has been organized in the State of AVisconsin. There are at present about a thousand societies of various kinds in this State. AVith the exception of co-operative credit, every phase of agricultural co-operation has been attempted. At present the promotion of agricultural co-operation receives the attention of two prominent organizations, the American Society of Equity and the Right Relationship League. The Right Relationship League gives all its attention to the establishment of co-operative stores. The activity of the Society of Equity has mostly consisted in educational propaganda. Lately this latter society has made efforts to act as a selling agency for its members. Active organization of the Equity Society began in AVisconsin iii 1903. In 1900 the AA'isconsin State Union was formed, and a paper, The Wisconsin Equity News, established in 190S. At present there are about 10,000 members of this society in Wisconsin. It has signed a working agreement with the Right Relationship League. Co-operative Dairies in Wisconsin. Recent statistics show that AVisconsin produces 9 per cent, of all the butter and 25 per cent, of all the cheese produced in the United States. The total amount of dairy products for this State amount at present to a value of $79,000,000. The cheese-factories return to more than 40,000 farmers a yearly average of $000 each, and from the creameries 3,000 farmers receive $400 each. AA'ith such a dairy production it is evident that co-operation once established must greatly increase the efficiency of community life in the State. Forty-two per cent, of the existing societies vote by share; 3S per cent, pay according to test. The tuberculin test has been used on all cows supplying milk to 2 per cent, of the factories, and on some cows in 10 per cent, of the factories. Only 7 per cent, of the creameries have worked in connection with other creameries to secure higher prices and lower transportation. Cheese-factories, Wisconsin. According to the census of 3911, out of 1,7S4 cheese-factories in Wisconsin only 244, or 14 per cent., are co-operative, while out of a total of 3,846 in the United States 349 are co-operative, or about 9 per cent. A somewhat larger number, some of which are incorporated as joint-stock companies, may, however, be regarded as co-operative in principle, or partly so. Cow-testing Associations, Wisconsin. The first cow-testing association in this State was established in 1905, when a dozen young farmers formed the AVaukesha Guernsey Breeders' Association. The first step generally taken to organize is to obtain the signatures of at least ten dairymen, who pledge a certain number of cows. The society is then organized and the directors employ a tester to visit the farms, ■who by testing the milk and inspecting the feeding assists the farmer to increase the yield of his cows. The affiliated associations employ a general superintendent who visits all the local societies several times a year, organizes new ones, and instructs the testers. The present method is to charge each member $1 a year for each cow tested. Each member furnishes the record-books for his cows and the necessary apparatus. The grant from the State for the benefit of the society is $3,000 a year. In 193.2 there were eleven associations with 2S7 members; 4,405 cows were being tested. Since organizing 1,452 dairymen have belonged to the cow-testing association. A year's record has been completed for 17,548 cows. 4 Geo. 5 Royal Coaiaiission on Agriculture. 201 The work of the cow-testing associations has been very beneficial. Herds that were actually a loss to the owner have become a source of profit. In one association, after two years' work, the average gain for all herds was 10 lb. butter-fat; in another association the gain was 41 lb. One member of an association states that during the first year following the inspection the average yield of his herd increased from 200 to 30S lb. fat, and later to 405 lb., while the herd remained identically the same. A cow that he had offered for sale at $150 before the testing wras later sold for $275, and bulls sold after the testing at two or three times their former price. The average gain for all herds tested in one of the best AVisconsin associations was 703 lb. per cow in milk yield and 41 lb. in fat; while the average gain for one individual herd was 2,01S lb. in milk yield and 113 lb. in fat. Co-operative Egg-selling. It has been estimated by the Department of Agriculture that the egg production of the United States represents $600,000,000, and is rapidly increasing. It has further been calculated that there is a total loss of $47,000,000 to the country on account of improper handling of eggs from the farm to the market. The method of marketing eggs has as yet not received that attention to which the importance of this produce entitles it. Egg-collecting circles federated into central unions as organized in Denmark do not exist. But in many communities where creameries are established the farmers have abandoned the common method of selling to the general merchant in trade, and dispose of their eggs through the creamery. As the farmer is daily sending milk to the creamery, this induces frequent collection, and the system generally followed by the members of egg-collecting circles to stamp the eggs with a mark is a further inducement to carefulness. AA'here this system has been introduced the majority of the farmers take advantage of it. It is, however, not connected with any comprehensive marketing policy. Egg-collecting in Minnesota. As an instance of the stimulus to production that can be given by successful co-operation may be mentioned a settlement near the village of Dussel, in Minnesota. The effect of co-operative egg-marketing here has been quite remarkable. Before the egg-collecting society was formed the farmers could barely supply the local market with eggs. Since an association has been organized after the Danish pattern the shipments have been constantly increasing. During the first year the egg-selling department handled nearly 50,000 dozen ; the next year, 60,000 dozen; while a private company shipped 120,000 dozen in addition. At the same time, the average price was 5 cents more per dozen than formerly received. Mhk-sellino Agencies. It has been shown in an investigation by the Attorney-General of New York State that the control of the milk-supply of New York City is in the hands of a few large corporations and associations of milk-dealers; that the price which the New York State dairymen receive for their milk often does not exceed the cost of production, and at times falls below, while the price which the consumer pays has been generally and arbitrarily raised. Independent dealers are coerced or forced out of business. In New York State the largest dealer in milk is the Borden Condensed Milk Company (closely identified with the Standard Oil Company). The facilities and equipment as well as the business methods of such companies are the very best. They own farms of their own with well-managed herds. These farms serve as model or experimental farms. AVitb respect to prices, however, the producer is at their mercy. An individual producer cannot cope with a situation of that kind. The condition has in many cases become so intolerable that the State has found it necessary in the interest of both consumer and producer to bring action against the company under the anti-monopoly laws. In some parts of the States the producers have applied co-operative methods to the business of milk-selling, but to a less extent than by the producers of butter and cheese, who co-operate in the marketing of their products. The Erie County Milk Selling Agency is formed by dairymen in Erie County, New York. The milk is collected, standardized, and handled by the association, which is a stock company. The members take shares in proportion to production. Earnings are prorated on the amount of stock. 202 British Columbia. 1914 The New York Dairymen's League is organized for the purpose of protecting the producer and consumer and preventing monopoly in the sale of milk. It does not act as a distributing agency, but protects the producers in their dealings with the agencies already established. This League has already thousands of members and represents local associations in New York State, the New England States, and Pennsylvania. It is, however, not only for protection against dictatorial middlemen that the farmers resort to co-operative methods. The need of adequate methods to deal with the changed condition of the market is constantly becoming more evident. In the City of Rochester, according to Mr. H. Allen, an investigation has demonstrated that, while the railroad transportation of milk costs % I»er cent, per quart per 100 miles, the distribution in the city costs 2% cents per quart. His investigation shows that a properly organized delivery system for the entire city would bring the cost of delivery down to % cent per quart, and effect an annual saving in the cost of $500,000. There is room here for increase of returns to the producers, as well as for a cheapening of price to the consumer. The somewhat uncertain means of invoking legal action against strong corporations need therefore not be resorted to for the protection of the producer and consumer. It has been practically demonstrated that they have in their own hands the means of self-protection. Cattle-selling Agencies, Minnesota. Minnesota has organized more completely in respect to cattle-selling than the neighbouring State of AA'isconsin. The associations have formed a central society, with a uniform marketing system which appears to answer the purpose. There are organized cattle-selling associations at from fifteen to twenty points in the State. In each of these associations a number of no less than ten cattle-breeders associate and send their cattle to market when they have a car-load. The cattle are tagged and the pigs graded. A small percentage on the return is retained for expense and insurance. Tho arrangement is quite simple. The result has been an increase in profit of from 25 to 50 cents per 300 lb. on all live stock marketed by the associations. CATTLE-BREEDERS' ASSOCIATIONS. Co-operative cattle-breeding is beginning to be employed to a limited extent in the States, especially in Wisconsin and Minnesota, and to a smaller extent in other dairying States. In the State of Wisconsin there were, iu 1901, thirty-one community breeding associations organized to improve high-grade and pure-bred dairy cattle, and to. establish the individual reputation of each community as a breeding centre. The AA'isconsin State Live-stock Breeders' Association is subsidized by the State, and has organized sixty-two associations for the purpose of raising the standard of live stock in the State. Each member agrees that his cows shall only be bred to pure-bred bulls of the breed adopted by the association. The members agree to co-operate with the association in purchase and in use of pure-bred bulls, in the sale of surplus stock, and in the .promotion of the dairy industry of the community. The associations keep a register in which the animals of each member are entered. They adopt methods of protection against contagious diseases, and co-operate for the insurance of bulls, etc. They also act as agents for the members in buying feed and other agricultural supplies. It has been the experience in Wisconsin that an association should not be too large, and that there should be a distinct association for each breed in each community. The formation of a number of associations leads to healthy rivalry. The Circuit Council. In the State of Minnesota the co-operative breeding of dual-purpose shorthorns was undertaken in 1907 by the United States Department of Agriculture in conjunction with the Minnesota Experimental Station and in co-operation with the owners of ten herds of shorthorn cattle, who together form an organization known as the Circuit Council. The president of the association, together with a representative of the United States Department of Agriculture and a represen- 4 Geo. 5 Royal Commission on Agriculture. 203 tative of the State Experimental Station, constitute the executive council. They have charge of the breeding operations and raise funds to purchase sires outside of the organization. The executive council employs a circuit superintendent, who advises and directs the management of the herds and keeps records of feed consumed, milk produced, and breeding power of all the animals in the district. The superintendent spends two days each month on the farm of each member of the circuit. The aim of those united efforts is:— (1.) To establish profitable milking qualities combined with the ability to make a good beef carcass. (2.) The working-out of a good system of community breeding. (3.) To establish a practicable system of co-operation:— (a.) By reducing the cost where herds are small: (b.) By making the most of the high-class sires produced in any breeding project: (c.) By changing the sires from one point to another: (d.) By creating community centres in certain breeds of pedigreed stock and attracting buyers to these communities. The plan of operation is to test all cows of desirable conformation, using the yearly records as the basis of selection. The sires are selected from herds systematically bred. They are the produce of dams with a record of 10,000 to 1S,000 lb. of milk and 400 to 600 lb. of butter-fat, combined with ability to lay on 1,400 to 1,000 lb. when in good flesh. In this way the best females are kept in the circuit and all good sires are kept available. The Experimental Station keeps an experimental herd of which complete records have been kept since 3.907. The annual average production is 0,000 to 8,400 lb. of milk, and of butter-fat 200 to 320 lb. There has now been completed a two-years record of production for all herds in the circuit. The great importance of this work is due to the interest awakened among fanners in the deeper problems of farm-husbandry, and the consequent stimulus towards practical co-operative breeding work. Horse-breeding. There has been little co-operative horse-breeding work done in the United States. In many cases, however, farmers have joined together for the purpose of buying stallions for the use of members, but those associations have rarely been formed on co-operative principles. This branch is yet in the hands of the company breeders. selling societies. Co-operative Elevator Companies. During the last twenty or thirty years the farmers in the Central and AA'estern States have formed co-operative grain-selling societies and erected elevators of their own. Until that time the grain-growers in the States had received a fair price for their produce, because of the large number of competitive dealers of various types. When, however, the Corn Dealers' League had eliminated the independent dealer, dictatorial methods were introduced, in which the dealers were generally supported by the railroads. The methods employed by the combined dealers was generally as follows: The company would, buy out an elevator or build one at a cost of, say. $5,000. On this property stock for $11,000 would be issued and $5,000 worth of stock sold, the real cost being thus covered and the company retaining the controlling influence. Thus the Peavy Company secured control of S00 elevators, the Armours of 700, etc. In locations where there was no competition the company would at once fix the price paid to the farmers AA'here there was competition the independent dealers were frozen out by artificial prices that they could not meet. After this had been accomplished the farmers were at the mercy of the companies. At this juncture the co-operative elevator companies were formed. The first farmers' elevator company was organized in Rockwell, Iowa, in 18S9. In 3900 two more elevator associations were formed. In 1904 there were thirteen, and by the end of 1911, 326 had been organized in Iowa. 204 British Coluaibia. 1914 These associations are all incorporated as joint-stock companies. However, the articles often provide that, no member shall have more than one vote, and that profits shall be distributed according to the amount of grain delivered. The membership in an association numbers from 70 to 225. The grower is paid a fair market price for his grain, and at the end of the year receives a dividend on his stock or a pro rata dividend on the volume of his transactions. Some of the farmers' elevator companies distribute profits according to the amount of grain handled for each member, after a certain fixed interest has been paid on the capital stock (generally 6 per cent.). In other associations the profits are distributed on the basis of capital, and may sometimes amount to 100 per cent. The construction of elevators has cost from $3,000 to $25,000 each. The cost of operating the larger elevators is from y2 to 1 per cent, of the gross returns, while the cost to the small elevator is about 2 per cent, of the total volume handled. The output of the elevators varies from 40,000 to 100,000 bushels of grain, while some of the larger handle 3,000.000 bushels. The elevators in Iowa in 1931 handled 65,000,000 bushels of grain, 200,000 tons of coal, and $750,000 worth of lumber and other supplies used by the grain-growers. In 1933 there were nearly 3,S00 farmers' grain-elevator companies in the States, of which there were: In Iowa, 327; North Dakota, 315; South Dakota, 222; Minnesota, 206; Illinois, 235; Nebraska, 103; Kansas, 326; and the remainder distributed through the AVestern and Southern States. Consequently there are not less than 225,000 farmers connected with the co-operative elevator associations, handling annually 270,000.000 bushels of grain, or about 40 per cent, of the grain shipped from the section where these elevators are located. In the conduct of this elevator business there have been many failures, due to lack of care in selecting a manager, or to lack of caution in respect to speculative ventures. However, as a general movement, the farmers' elevator societies have been successful. They have maintained fair prices and protected the producers against a dictatorial system that held them iu its grasp. The final form of the movement will evidently be in the direction of a national federation with large terminal elevators. On the basis of such a system a comprehensive working policy may be developed. Corn-breeding Societies. For the purpose of applying the principles of plant-improvement to the staple farm crops, the Government of the United States and the State Experimental Stations, with the co-operation of private individuals and associations, have clone very important work, and improved strains of wheat, corn, and other crops have been established. The first corn-breeders' association was started in Illinois in 1S99. New methods of preserving and improving the established types adapted to particular conditions have been employed and rigid selection maintained. The seed-breeders agreed to send out seed-corn in the ears, so that the customer could get a definite ideal of the merits of the seed. Annual meetings were held for the consideration of new plans and for the discussion of the work done. The Illinois breeders' success has led to the establishment of similar associations in nearly all the corn-growing States. The immense increase in the yield of corn in these States is attributed in a great measure to the work of these societies, and to the consequent appreciation among corn-growers of having pure'breeds of corn. The effect of the movement for the production of better seed has been to force unscrupulous dealers out of the business, while the business of the united corn-breeders has increased by leaps and bounds. FRUIT-GROWERS' ASSOCIATIONS. It is in the Pacific States in connection with fruit-marketing that co-operation in America has reached its highest degree of expansion and efficiency. In no other co-operative movement in the States is there found the same vital force as in the associations of the Pacific fruitgrowers. The class most nearly approaching them in this respect is the grain-growers of the AA'estern Central States. The desire to escape from the " exaggerated claims" of the middlemen, with whom each grower had to make his terms individually, was the main cause of the establishment of the 4 Geo. 5 Royal Coaimission on Agriculture. 205 fruit-selling agencies. However, a number of various other causes have contributed to this result, among which the following are the most outstanding:— (3.) The great production of fruit, especially in California, made it necessary to seek markets in other States and in other countries. (2.) It became necessaary to have a complete knowledge of the requirements of those markets. (3.) The desirability of shipping under such conditions as would ensure uniformity of quality. (4.) The advantage of having all this done through co-operative societies, each acting for a large group of growers. For the fruit-growers it was a matter of necessity to organize. It is recognized that too often the ordinary fruit-grower acting individually does not grade and pack uniformly or artistically. Many even do not pick honestly. In an unorganized district it is the exception to find fruit packed and graded uniformly and honestly. Only through co-operation could they secure that uniformity of quality which the market demands. The growers could not control brokers a thousand miles away, and they could not depend ou local buyers to give a fair price; individually they could not deal effectively with railroads. Only through co-operation could they develop a sufficiently comprehensive marketing policy. The evolution of improved systems of marketing fruit in the Pacific Coast States largely by means of co-operation, either partial or complete, has already been described under the head of " Marketing." The following will therefore only contain an outline of the co-operative aspect of the methods adopted by the Pacific fruit-growers in conducting their business. North Pacific Fruit Distributors. As affecting the marketing of fruit from districts competing with British Columbia, particular interest has been felt in the formation of the, North Pacific Fruit Distributors, an association in which are affiliated a number of co-operative selling associations. This association has headquarters in Spokane, Washington, and has branches in AA'ashington, Idaho, Montana, and Oregon. There are 3.09 local associations; they supervise the picking and packing; receive, inspect, and ship the fruit; furnish warehouses and distribute orchard supplies. The local associations are federated into eight sub-central associations governed by representatives of the locals. These unions act as intermediates between the associations and the central society, disseminate information, and distribute returns. They also maintain a system of regular inspection. The central society is absolutely owned and controlled by the growers. Each sub-central elects a representative as member of the board of trustees. The growers of each district also elect two of their number, who together constitute an auxiliary board, with power to revise the acts of the trustees. The general meeting is held at Spokane in May, at which meeting each member shipping through the association is entitled to vote. Each district markets under its own label and brand. The charge for the distribution has been $3.3 for each car, which amount is deducted from the proceeds of the sales. The association controls 30 per cent, of the fruit shipped from tbe four States where it has associations. California Fruit-growers' Exchange. Before the formation of the Fruit-growers Exchange it was no uncommon occurrence in California that the larger a crop a fruit-grower had, the larger was his indebtedness at the end of the season. As a matter of necessity the growers have developed a marketing system which is recognized to be the most comprehensive and best-organized distributive system applied to agricultural produce anywhere in America. To remedy the existing condition a convention of fruit-growers assembled in Los Angeles in 1S93. This convention recommended the establishment of the California Fruit-growers' Exchange. The Exchange is organized broadly on democratic lines. Membership is voluntary. " From top to bottom the organization is planned, dominated, and in general detail controlled absolutely by fruit-growers and for the common good of all members. No corporation nor 206 British Columbia. 1914 individual reaps from it either dividends or private gain." Particulars of the organization of the California Fruit-growers' Exchange and its methods of operating have been given iu the article on " Marketing." Working Capital of Local Associations. It requires about $10,000 to $40,000 for local packing-houses and equipment. This amount is raised on stock. The shares are from $1 to $5 each; they <lo not draw interest and are only sold to growers. In addition, funds are secured by loans from banks. The need of operating expense during the first few weeks of the season is supplied by a loan from a bank on a corporation note. For the rest of the season operating funds are secured by withholding a percentage of the returns. General Methods and Regulations. The local societies collect the fruit from their associated members and attend to the packing and shipping in complete truck-loads to any one of the seventy-five paid agents who are located at the chief market-points of the United States, in Canada, and in London. The agents arrange the sale and get the best possible terms (unless the consignor has specified to whom his shipment is to be delivered). Where it is not practicable to have the fruit-crop harvested by the association, rules for the picking of the fruit are adopted by the society and enforced through officers who inspect the operations of each orchard. This system of inspection is a potent educational factor iu the development of the business. Many of the associations pick the fruit, and some of them fumigate the trees and spray the orchards for the members. Each association has brands for each grade of fruit. The fruit is generally pooled once a month, though in some associations the pool includes the entire season. Occasionally the association handles the fruit for each member individually. The pooling system simplifies the business method of an association and is getting into favour among the associations. It necessitates the maintenance of small associations consisting of growers who raise the fruit under similar conditions. The members are, however, allowed to dispose of their fruit in free competition; consequently the selling agent is under their direction. The shipper determines the market in which the fruit shall be sold and the price. The affairs of the associations are conducted in the most economical and efficient manner. The annual expenditure of the central exchange is $700,000, of which nearly $200,000 is spent for advertising, a sum which, however, only amounts to 1 cent per box. The cost of marketing is assessed pro rata on the association and no dividend is declared. There have practically been no losses from bad debts. On a business aggregating $30,000,000 uet the total loss from failure to collect was $300. The associations in California have erected cold-storage plants in connection with their warehouses. These plants provide for from twenty-four to fifty car-loads of oranges. The fruit is cooled to 35° Fahr. and then forwarded with the initial icing of the cars only. In this way there is saved from $20 to $40 per car to the Eastern points. The right of fruit-growers to precool and pre-ice the cars has been recognized by the Interstate Commerce Commission, but is disputed by the railroads. Altogether there are more than 200 association packing-bouses in California. They are built near railroad-stations and equipped with all necessary appliances. The cost of establishing each warehouse is from $10,000 to $20,000 or more. The Magnitude or the Citrus-fruit Industry*. The scale on which these combinations operate may be illustrated by a few figures relating to the California citrus industry and the Fruit-growers' Exchange. The citrus-fruit crop of California now equals nearly 50,000 car-loads or 20,000,000 boxes. The industry represents an investment of from $150,000,000 to $200,000,000. There are from 12,000 to 15,000 growers; 100,000 people depend ou this industry for a living. The amount of fruit shipped annually represents a value of $35,000,000. 4 Geo. 5 Royal Commission on Agriculture. 207 In 3909 the shipments of fruit made by the co-operative societies amounted to 14,500,000 boxes. There was an aggregate return of about $21,500,000. In addition to the increased net returns, the growers saved about 50 per cent, in their expense, as compared with shipping expenditures under former conditions. In this connection it may be mentioned that, according to statistics furnished by the Department of Agriculture, fruit-growers receive an average of 25 per Cent, of the price paid by consumers when buying by the dozen, and nearly 60 per cent, when buying by the box. The Market Committee of the New York Food Investigating Commission of 1912 reports that the retailers' price of a dozen limes is 122.2 per cent, over the wholesale cost; Baldwin apples, 110.2 per cent.: Florida oranges, 40 per cent. Everything considered, it appears that at the present development of the fruit industry the Fruit-growers' Exchange has satisfactorily solved the problem of marketing. It has reduced the cost of supplies to growers, "reduced the cost of handling and shipping the fruit by nearly one-half, by advertising it has increased the demand for the fruit, so that instead of a luxury it has become almost a daily food. It has distributed the fruit more uniformly throughout the whole year and throughout the whole country. In many cases it has doubled the returns to the grower without increasing the cost to the consumer. The Fruit-growers' Exchange is the result of a slow evolution in marketing methods. Under the old methods the marketing of 4,000 car-loads of fruit brought disastrous results. At present the association markets successfully more than ten times that amount. In addition to the Fruit-growers' Exchange, there are in California about forty independent fruit-growers' exchanges. Together the co-operative associations handle S5 per cent, of the citrus fruit. One of the most important advantages secured by the co-operative movement among the fruit-growers in California is the improved system of picking and packing the fruit to which it has led. The fruit is picked, graded, and packed by labour under the control of the association, and the loss from decay, which was formerly estimated at 20 per cent., has practically been eliminated. The effect of the successful work done by the associations in fruit-handling has quickened the co-operative spirit among the fruit growers. Fumigation of trees and spraying of orchards is often done by the associations; in some cases they undertake the pruning of the orchards. It is found that work undertaken collectively by the association is done cheaper and better than it ever was done before. Consequently the effect has -been to increase the economic efficiency of the community. The Citrus Protective League. The Citrus Protective League is an association unique in its kind in America; it is a voluntary association formed by growers and shippers, supported by funds raised by general assessment based on shipments. It handles the public questions that affect the industry as a whole, such as transportation problems, Customs tariffs, State and Federal legislation affecting the citrus business, and all other questions of a general nature relating to the industry, except the marketing of the fruit. The League represents 90 per cent, of the growers and shippers of citrus fruit in the State, and makes it possible for them to stand together in handling the general questions affecting the industry. It defends the growers and shippers from unjust legislation and exorbitant freight rates. It develops a constructive policy with respect to the improvement of cultural practice and marketing methods. The effect of the work of the League has been very beneficial. It has saved the growers and shippers millions of dollars by obtaining reduction in freight rates. In 1907, for instance, it obtained a reduction of 10 cents per 100 lb., effecting a total saving of $4,000,000. In many ways it has protected California against unfair competition, and it has secured State aid for the general upbuilding of the industry. Cranberry-selling Agencies, Wisconsin. One of the most remarkable and successful marketing societies in AVisconsin is the Wisconsin Cranberry Sales Company. It consists at present of only forty members. The shares are $10 and each member is obliged to hold at least one share. Each member is given only one vote irrespective of the number of shares he may hold. 20S British Columbia. 1914 This association has become connected with two other large cranberry-selling societies, the New England and the New Jersey Cranberry Selling Companies. Together they form the American Cranberry Exchange. This company handles 90 per cent, of the cranberries shipped from Wisconsin. In 193.1 it shipped 33,000 barrels and returned $200,000 to the forty shippers, an average of $5,000 to each member. The notable success of this organization is largely due to the administrative ability of Mr. J. Gaynor, of Grand Rapids, secretary of the association. THE FARMERS' UNION OF AMERICA. The Farmers' Union is a national body with 3,000,000 members. It is organized into State unions, and still further subdivided into local unions. This organization, in which the Southern States are strongly represented and which chiefly embraces cotton-farmers, was formed in 1002. The first local union was formed in Texas. The national organization was formed in 3905. and in 1909 it had State and local organizations in twenty-three States, in the South, Middle West, and West. It is a secret fraternal society with all the attributes pertaining thereto, and it has a political programme. It operates warehouses, cotton-gins, and fertilizer plants. It purchases farm requisites collectively, and it owns newspapers. The object of the farmers' unions is to be a fraternal, educational, and social association as well as a business organization. Its chief economic object has been the control of the price of cotton, and in this respect it appears to have been remarkably successful. It has induced the cotton-farmer to reduce the acreage planted in cotton. For the purpose of enabling the farmers to market their production slowly and to facilitate the borrowing of money on cotton as collateral, the associations have erected a large number of warehouses, the majority of which, however, are not very expensive. Finally, they have declared a minimum price of cotton below which no member of the union may sell his crop, and they appear to have succeeded in maintaining the price declared. Regulations and Methods of the Union. A State union must have at least 5,000 members, and a local union at least five male members. The membership is confined to farmers, farm-labourers, and persons of allied industries. In 1909 the farmers' unions operated 3,900 warehouses. It is contemplated to consolidate all the Union warehouses into State companies, and, further, into a single warehouse company, so as to facilitate complete co-operation. The significant success of the farmers' unions was probably due to the great difficulties under which the cotton industry was labouring, and the complete control by the brokers and jobbers to which the cotton-farmers had become subject. Many economists are, however, of the opinion that the declaration of a minimum price by the Union is an economic mistake, and that the maintenance of tbe declared price was clue to other causes. CO-OPERATIA'E IRRIGATION. Co-operation in irrigation in the States has its origin with the Mormons of Utah. The success attained by that State in these co-operative undertakings caused the movement to spread to Montana, California, Colorado, and other States. The thirteenth census of the United States records that one-third of the irrigated land in those States in 3909 was under co-operative enterprises. In the various States there are nearly fourteen million acres of irrigated land, grouped as follows:— Acres. Individual and partnership enterprises G,25S,401 Co-operative enterprises 4,646,039 Commercial enterprises 1,444,S06 Irrigation districts 533,3.42 United States Reclamation Service 395,046 Carey Act enterprises 2SS,553 United States Indian Service 173,912 Total 33,740,499 4 Geo. 5 Royal Coaimission on Agriculture. 209 According to these data, only 30 per cent, of the undertakings are commercial enterprises, so that 90 per cent, of the irrigated acreage is served by works which are or soon will be under the control of the users of the water. Management. The mutual irrigation companies are controlled by a board of directors elected annually by the stockholders. AVhere the crops are of the same class, water is usually delivered by rotation, the circuit of which is completed in about thirty days. Schedules of rotation are made in advance, so that each stockholder knows the time when he is to have water. AA'here the crops to be irrigated are diversified, the rotation system is not always practical, but is modified according to local conditions. C. E. Tait, Irrigation Engineer, United States, states that the works in some cases are constructed by the settlers co-operating in supplying the labour, but more generally by subscription, by assessment, by loans, and by bonds. Some of the most successful irrigation systems in the United States have been constructed piece by piece by the land-owners, with no other aid than small loans from time to time obtained from local banks. The funds for maintenance and operating expense are raised by some of the companies by stock assessments; others by a charge for water delivered. The plan followed by some associations is to assess the stock for maintenance and permanent improvements and to obtain funds for the operating expenses by a water rate. This last method appears preferable and equitable. The unit of measurement is commonly the miners' inch per hour. Charges vary from % cent for gravity water to 3 cents for water pumped. The cost of water an acre for citrus orchards varies from $5 to $20 under different conditions. According to Mr. Tait, the Imperial A'alley Mutual Company use the acre-foot as the unit of measure for the quantity of water. The water rental charged by the company is 20 cents per acre-foot, and the additional stock assessments amount to from $1 to $1.50 per acre annually. Alfalfa in this valley requires from 3 to 3% acre-feet of water, and most other crops about 2 acre-feet. Co-operative Irrigation Company in Logan, Utah. This company was organized in 3SS3. The capital invested is represented by stock; there are 2,500 shares at a face value of $5, present value $70. This stock was issued in payment for work clone. Each share entitles to one vote. The company is managed by five directors. The water-master distributes the water under- the direction of the board of directors. The area of land under the ditch is 2,500 acres. The works were constructed by day labour by the water- users under the direction of the directors. The annual assessment averages about 72 cents, the total revenue being about $1,750. The annual cost is about $3.95 per mile for nine miles of ditch. Co-operative Irrigation in California. Besides the commercial water companies, there are a large number of mutual water companies in southern California. Some of these have been originated by companies acquiring large tracts of lands, and after irrigation disposing of the land and transferring the waterworks to the settlers. Other mutual companies were organized by land-owners, directly associating for the purpose of developing the water resources and the construction of irrigation-works. In such cases the system has generally been developed gradually as funds became available. The largest mutual company in California is the Imperial A'alley Irrigation Company, which irrigates 100,000 acres. Irrigation Project in the State of Washington. At the present moment there is pending before the voters of the State of AYashington a referendum submitting to a vote of the electorate a law, passed by the Legislature of that State, authorizing the issue of bonds guaranteed by the State for the reclamation of the lands in the Quincy A'alley. The district to he reclaimed is situated in Grant County, east of the Columbia 210 British Columbia. 1914 River, between the Great Northern and the Chicago, Milwaukee, and Puget Sound Railways. It is intended to use the AA'enatchee River and Lake as a reservoir by building a dam across that river, and bringing the water across the Columbia River. By the proposed plan 435,000 acres of agricultural lands will be irrigated at an estimated cost of $100 an acre. The Act provides for the appointment of a Board, by whom the engineering and the economic feasibility of the proposed enterprise must be investigated and approved before the bonds may be issued. Provisions are made for the association of the land-owners and for such expropriation as may become necessary. Proper safeguards are provided to protect the interests of the State as well as those of the settlers. It is claimed to be a conservative estimate that by carrying out this plan lands will be provided for prosperous homes of 100,000 families at a cost of one-third of the value which those lands will have when irrigated. Miscellaneous Co-operative Associations. In many other branches of agriculture have co-operative methods been employed in the United States. The vegetable-growers of the Eastern and South-eastern States have formed co-operative organizations ; so have the walnut-growers, the bean-growers, the dried-fruit interests of California, the potato-growers of the Eastern States, and the rice-growers of Louisiana; growers of various other products have organized more or less effectively. Co-operative insurance companies have been formed, covering all branches of farm insurance, fire insurance, life insurance, and insurance in case of sickness. Improvement of Rural Life. A great deal of attention has been given in the States to the improvement of social conditions in the country. The work of all co-operative societies is more or less effectively directed to that end. Many societies have, however, been created for the special purpose of improving social and intellectual life in the country. The New England Conference for Rural Progress is a representative body which has for its object to promote the interests of agriculture and of rural life in the New England States. the granges. The Granges are secret societies aiming at the advancement of agriculture in every branch and form of farm activity. The basis of the organization is formed by the local Granges. These Granges send delegates to County Granges, which again send delegates to State Granges. These in turn choose delegates to the National Granges at Washington, which was intended to be practically a Farmers' Parliament for the United States. In the past the body has been the most influential farmers' representation in the country. About 1S74 it was very active and has since had several revivals. Especially in the Eastern States the Granges still exercise considerable influence along educational lines, and have taken great interest in the improvement of highways. At present the tendency is to organize special organization for commercial and productive co-operation; nevertheless, there are indications that the Granges are preparing to assume some of their former prominence in rural life. Propagation of the Movement. Thus the seeds of co-operation have already been scattered broadcast over the United States; they have taken root in a virgin soil, and the resultant growth is already assuming gigantic dimensions in many cases. Here, as in other countries where this business method has been carried out on a large scale, this system has been attended by notable success. It has shown a remarkable ability to adapt itself to environment and the peculiar genius of the people of its adoption. In Europe it was the immediate benefits obtained through the purchase societies that made the system popular and led to the gradual development of all other branches of co-operation. In the United States it is chiefly the realization, based upon statistical information published by the United States Agricultural Department, that the farmer only receives from 25 to 35 cents out of each dollar which the consumer pays for his products which has led to co-operation on a large scale for collective sale. The success of operations in that line is already leading to the introduction of other co-operative activities, and may ultimately be a factor in transforming the economic and the productive as well as the social conditions of rural life in America. 4 Geo. 5 Royal Commission on Agriculture. 211 CANADA. Notwithstanding the recent origin of the development of the co-operative movement in Canada, it is possible to distinguish characteristic features in the methods pursued which may tend to make the system adopted here distinctly different from those prevailing in other countries. These characteristics arise in some Provinces, and mainly in those more recently developed, from the prominent part the Government has taken as leader of the movement; in others, and the older Provinces, from the degree to which the agricultural associations, such as farmers' clubs and farmers' institutes, have taken the initiative to further those collective activities which the needs of the moment required, without creating a special organization for each purpose. At the present stage of development the history of co-operation in Canada is therefore not so much an account of the specific branches of activity pursued as it is an account of the work of those associations under whose auspices the movement has been fostered, and of the efforts made by the various Governments for its promotion. The object of the following notes on Canadian co-operation is, however, not to give a complete sketch of the progress made in all the Provinces, but simply to refer briefly to typical organizations and movements that have attained success. Thus in Ontario the movement has been advanced through the work of the farmers' clubs, the fruit-growers and the vegetable-growers' associations, and similar agricultural societies. In Nova Scotia co-operation is represented chiefly by the Fruit-growers' Federation. The methods employed in Saskatchewan are to a great extent typical of the system which is being adopted in the Prairie Provinces. The peculiar feature in these Provinces is the prominent part which the Provincial Government takes in the movement, as evinced by the aid given to the Farmers' Elevator Company and to the creameries, which latter practically are conducted under the direction of the Government. With respect to British Columbia, a brief sketch has been submitted showing the amount of business done during the year 1913 by the more prominent co-operative associations in operation. ONTARIO. Co-operative Legislation. There is no special Act in Ontario for the incorporation of co-operative associations. However, the " Joint Stock Companies Act" has been so amended that a great deal of latitude as to constitution and by-laws is permitted. Many co-operative associations have been incorporated under the Act. Under the auspices of agricultural associations, co-operation therefore already is thriving in Ontario, especially in respect to the marketing of fruit, and is also extending to the purchase of farm requirements and to dairy production. These associations have carefully limited their membership to producers. Some of them grant only one vote to each member, or they limit the number of shares that each member may hold. Many of them also provide for a pro rata distribution of proceeds and profits in accordance with the quality and quantity of the product marketed. Agricultural and Experimental Unions. Among the intelligence societies which appear to have carried out co-operative ideas with a marked degree of success is the Ontario Agricultural and Experimental Union. This society is an outgrowth of efforts made by the Agricultural College of that Province. The object of the Union is in the first place to secure and impart information which will lead to better farming. In this respect it works along the same lines as many other agricultural associations. The most important work carried on by this association is the experimental and research work done on the farms of the members with the co-operation of the Agricultural College. The object of this work is to enable the farmer to find out for himself, on the basis of methods pursued at the College and under definite plans, how certain lines of culture will work out on his own farm. This experimental work covers all the important crops of the Province. It deals with soil- cultivation, fertilizers, mixtures of grains and grasses, quantity of seed per acre, etc. Experi- 212 British Coluaibia. 1914 ments of this nature are being made on 4,500 farms, 60,000 experiments having been made since 1SS5. Hundreds of farmers have conducted such experiments extending over five or six years, and while they have followed the written instructions from the College in the work, each member has been responsible for his own experiments. The system has developed a large number of able experimenters among farmers who have had no previous training for the work. In connection with their educational work the experimental unions have developed a system of experiments in elementary agriculture which is being carried out on the school-grounds of the Province. Some school superintendents are taking advantage of this work by encouraging their pupils to take part in it, and have designed the agricultural school-work so as to form a link in the experimental work conducted at the pupil's home. Agricultural Societies. The agricultural societies are organized mainly for the purpose of holding agricultural exhibitions and field-crop competitions. They have received grants from the Government to the extent of about one-third of their average expenditure for the above purposes during the three years past, and an additional grant of $50 to each competing association. Field-crop Competition. Since 1907, when field-crop competitions were inaugurated in Ontario, the total number of competing societies has increased from ten in 1907 to 3.75 in 3933. During the same time the number of competing farmers has increased from 3,000 to 30,000. The result has been that since the beginning of these competitions winners of prizes have in some cases been able to sell their seed-grain at an advance over market prices of 350 per cent. Incidentally a great deal of informal educational work is done by the forty judges who are sent out in connection with these competitions. Federation of Agricultural Societies. The agricultural societies form a central organization which meets in convention each year in February, and is attended by over 500 delegates from every part of the Province. It is through this body that the Government is approached in respect to legislation to promote agricultural development. Live-stock Associations. Organizations have been formed for the promotion of the interests of the different branches of the live-stock industry. The object of these associations is summarized by the Belleville District Hoistein Breeders' Association thus:— The promotion of good-fellowship among the members and the advance of the general interests of the Hoistein breed of cattle by holding public sales at auction, by encouraging the entry of cows and heifers in the advanced registry, discussions of the best methods of breeding, rearing, exhibiting, and raising the standard of excellence of their breed, and in other ways to generally widen and extend the interests of this breed of cattle; by acting in unison upon all occasions which demand it, and by establishing a reputation for the Belleville District as a centre for high-class Hoistein cattle. The sales conducted by some of these associations are attended by buyers coming from long distances, and good prices are being obtained. The following associations and membership were recorded in 1912 :— (1.) Ontario Horse-breeders' Association, with a membership of 77S: (2.) The Dominion Cattle-breeders' Association, with a membership of S52: (3.) The Dominion Sheep-breeders' Association, membership 354: (4.) The Dominion Swine-breeders' Association, membership 57S: (5.) The Ontario Poultry Association, membership 650: (6.) The Ontario Berkshire Society, membership 125: (7.) The Ontario Yorkshire Society, membership 175. These societies are organized for the purpose of improving the lines of stock Which they represent. One of the features of this work is the holding of two Provincial live-stock fairs. 4 Geo. 5 Royal Commission on Agriculture. 213 Along various lines the work of the associations has led to beneficial legislation. Prominent among tbe Acts thus passed is the " Stallion Act, 1912," which provided for the enrolment of stallions and created an Enrolment Board. Provisions for inspection are made, the Province being divided into eight districts for that purpose. One of the most important matters these associations have taken up is the question of transportation. They have succeeded in obtaining considerable reductions in the freight rates for pure-bred live stock, and upon their representations additional shipping facilities have been secured. The Live-stock Association has made arrangements for the shipment of pure-bred stock to Western Canada on a co-operative plan. It has been arranged that on the first day of each month from January to July cattle are shipped regularly, with a special car in October. If a breeder has an inquiry for stock, he knows the date of shipment and can make his arrangements. The Live-stock Improvement Associations. Through the agency of the district representatives live-stock improvement associations have been formed. Wherever twelve members can be secured an association is started. Each member pays an annual fee of $1. Each association is given the choice of sires suitable to the district. The Department of Agriculture places the animals free of charge at the disposal of the association. To ensure their proper treatment the animals are regularly inspected. During the year 1912 there were twenty-nine associations formed. The Dairymen's Association. This association has developed out of a Cheese and Butter-makers' Association which was started in 1S67. There are now two independent associations, one for eastern Ontario and another for the western portion of the Province. Both associations have clone much to promote technical education in their business. For this purpose they inaugurated a service of expert instructors, who were sent to the farmers' cheese-factories and butter-dairies. This work was finally taken over by the Department of Agriculture, as it assumed too large proportions for the associations to continue efficiently. A great deal has been done to improve dairy conditions throughout the Province. The association holds district dairy meetings in the various sections of the Province, and a dairy show in connection with the annual convention. Datry Societies. It cannot be said that the farmers of Ontario have taken any very definite steps in the organization of co-operative production. At the same time, it is evident that Ontario's position in the front rank among the Provinces with respect to the dairy industry is in some measure clue to a spirit of co-operation. Though this movement may not always have assumed the recognized form of a co-operative association, its influence has been very marked. One of the results attributed to this influence is the Government inspection of dairies, which has been the most important factor in bringing the industry to its present satisfactory position. In a report of 3.911, J. A. Roddick, Dairy Commissioner, states that, with a decrease of exactly 3.00 cheese-factories in operation and a decrease of 106,000 cows, the production of cheese has increased to the extent of nearly 40,000,000 lb., and the production of butter has increased 0,000,000 lb. The decrease in the number of cows is mainly due to the difficulty of getting farm labour, which compels the farmer to diminish bis stock. On the other hand, the increase in production which has taken place at the same time is caused by the improvement in the grade of stock, clue to the work of the cow-testing associations. The methods which have been employed by the factories in conjunction with the Government service have enabled the farmers of Ontario to maintain their position in the markets of the United Kingdom with the best Old Country products. At the same time, the advance in prices has been very marked, mainly due to the fact that the market insists on a uniform, high-grade product. There is also constantly increasing demand from the cities for milk and sweet cream, so that the city dealers are reaching far out for supplies. Speaking of Canada, Mr. Ruddiek estimates the entire annual consumption of milk and its products at $100,000,000, with an annual increase of $2,000,000. Consequently the home trade in these products is five or six times the export trade. 214 British Columbia. 1914 The total exports of milk products from Canada during the fiscal year 3912-13 were asl follows:— 1912. 1913. Cheese Butter Milk and cream (condensed) Milk (fresh) 103,450,6S4 lb. 9,744,402 „ 1,021,197 „ 4,389.350 „ 8SG,260 gals. 7,771 „ $20,SSS,S1S 2,077,910 3S,302 305,078 702,6S7 975 155,210,392 lb. S2S,323 „ 349,SG5 „ 335,S49 „ S20,360 gals. 7,939 „ $20,697,144 223.57S 15,342 25,554 751,123 1,412 Totals $24,104,376 $21,714,153 At the same time, the imports of butter were 7,9S9,269 lb., valued at $2,0S1,9S9. So that Canada must be regarded as a butter-importing country. Dairy Production in Ontario. In 1911 there were in the Province of Ontario 1,077 cheese-factories, using 1,370,000 lb. of milk and manufacturing 1,127,0001b. of cheese, valued at $15,500,000. There were 120 creameries making 13,740,000 lb. of butter,, valued at $3,208,000. Including the milk consumed by the cities and the condensed-milk factories, the total dairy production cannot have been less than $20,000,000. An estimate of the value of the dairy production of the Province has been made for the year 1912, which was as follows:— Cheese $16,000,000 Butter, creamery and dairy 8,500,000 Cream and milk for city and town trade 6,500,000 The larger number of these factories are only semi-co-operative or entirely private, out of a total of 171 creameries now in the Province only thirteen being strictly co-operative ; nevertheless, the co-operative spirit of our times is largely responsible for their progress. Government inspection and supervision, market intelligence bureaus, and the excellent work of the cow-testing societies have all contributed to the result. The sanitary condition of stables has been greatly improved, new methods of feeding introduced, silos dotted over the Province, and alfalfa- cultivation increased. The great need of the work performed by the cow-testing associations is illustrated by the following: The milk record of the 300 best cows in Ontario has been compared with the record for the 300 poorest ones. The comparison shows that the 300 best cows give an annual average profit of $04, while the profit of the poor ones is 33 cents. Thus one good cow is equal in profit to nearly 200 bad ones. If all the cows of the Province were brought up to the average standard of the 300 best cows, the revenue accruing from this improvement would be no less than $20,000,000 annually to the Province. It is the aim of the cow-testing associations to bring this about by educating the farmers to realize that cow-testing is the fundamental principle of dairy progress and should be universally applied. The Fruit-growers' Associations. The Fruit-growers' Association of Ontario was formed nearly fifty years ago and has a membership of over 1,500. It takes a leading part in all matters concerning fruit-growing in the Province. It is claimed that to the efforts of this association is mainly due the passage of the " Inspection and Sales Act," and that it has given the impulse for the establishment of the experimental stations in the Province. It has taken the lead in promoting demonstration in spraying and pruning and the introduction into the Province of valuable varieties of fruit-trees. The society holds a large fruit-show every fall and sends Ontario exhibits to the large exhibitions in other countries. 4 Geo. 5 Koyal Commission on Agriculture. 215 A great deal of good has been accomplished by the society in respect to obtaining better shipping facilities and lower freight rates for fruit. The fight for better rates, more and better cars for the Western markets, is incessantly kept up, and is said already to have produced beneficial results. The association holds an annual convention of fruit-growers for the discussion of subjects of interest to the industry. C'O-OFERATION IN FRUIT-MARKETING. The fruit-growers' organization claim the honour of having inaugurated the co-operative movement in Ontario and of having fathered many of the local fruit-shipping associations, especially the Central Sales Agency, which handles the products for the local societies. There were in 193.2 fifty commercial fruit-growers' associations in the Province, and several more were in course of organization. Last year they handled between 175.000 and 200,000 barrels of apples. The Ontario and Western Co-operative Fruit Company, Limited, with headquarters at. St. Catherines, has been incorporated under the " Companies Act" of the Dominion, with an authorized capital of $75,000 divided into 35,000 shares. In order to become a shareholder of this corporation it is necessary to be a member of the local association in the district where the shareholder resides. This company proposes to establish canning and jam factories and cold- storage warehouses in addition to its marketing business, and already furnishes certain supplies to its members. It is proposed to charge 10 per cent, commission for selling, which charge would cover expenses other than carriage and freight. This would be deducted from the moneys received in payment for each shipment of fruit and the balance distributed among the shippers. In 1906 thirteen scattered associations became affiliated under the name of the Co-operative Fruit-growers of Ontario, with head office at Toronto. Another example of federation in Ontario is the St. Catherines Cold Storage and Forwarding Company, which is extending its business rapidly. Thirteen of the associations have united to form a federation, with a central selling agency which has been very successful. Through the central agency there were sold last year 200 cars of apples for $7S,344. This federation also maintains a supply department. The Vegetable-growers' Association. The Vegetable-growers' Association has done valuable work. It holds field-crop competitions, for which purpose the Province is divided into four sections. These competitions are leading to more intense cultivation of the soil, to the production of better varieties and a better quality of the vegetables raised. Better methods for storing the vegetables are being discovered, and information as to the best methods of fighting weeds is being disseminated. This society lias undertaken to act as a supply society for its members with respect to the purchase of seeds. It is reported that as a result of the association's, work in that respect one branch made a saving for its members of over 100 per cent, over and above expenses. Another branch has estimated that by co-operative purchase of supplies its members have not only saved $1,000, but in addition gained several thousand dollars on account, of the better crops raised. A few years ago one of the branches organized a purchase society with twenty-nine members. It has now over 200 members and is expanding its activity in many directions. The society has in many cases been able to supply its members with farm and fruit-growers' requisites at a lower price than the retailers from whom they used to buy them could obtain those articles from the wholesalers. Practically every branch of the Provincial Vegetable-growers' Association buys fertilizers, berry-boxes, and garden supplies on a co-operative basis. The extent to which these associations co-operate in marketing their products for their members is shown by the shipments made by the vegetable-growers' associations around Sarnia, of which there are two. In 3.933 the Independent Vegetable-growers' of Sarnia shipped 3,322 tons of vegetables, making about ninety-four cars. Poultry- Associations.. The number of recognized local associations is forty-five, with a total membership of about: 2,000. A recognized association is one that is considered entitled to a Government grant and which holds an annual show. This grant amounts to $50 annually for each association. The total number of entries at the shows held in 1932 was 24,223, and the amount of prize-money was $10,000. 15 21(i British Columbia. 1914 The object of the organization is to assist the farmers in improving the breed of their poultry, to disseminate information as to the best methods of handling the product, and to aid in marketing. As a result of this activity co-operative marketing of eggs has greatly increased during the last few years. There were in 3932 eight collecting circles or associations in Ontario County with 500 members. In one association (Canniston) the total business averaged $1,000 a month, and the total production for eight associations was 10,000 dozen a month. In Ontario County nine egg circles are working with a membership of about 700. The business amounted in eleven months to $34,000. and the gain over previous selling methods was $2,500. the producers receiving 3.0 cents more per dozen for the eggs sold through the organization than for those sold in local stores. The effect has been to raise store prices and to improve the quality and condition of the product. Better returns have been obtained by hundreds of farmers and the business is gradually being placed on a modern economic basis. The work of these associations has done much to keep up the interest in rational poultry-raising. Potato-growers' Association. At present there are three potato-growers' associations in operation. Prominent among them is the Rainy River Potato-growers' Association. This association has branched off info various activities and is marketing cattle, hogs, eggs, butter, hay, and grain for the members. All shipments are paid for at delivery, the association raising the funds on a joint note. The association has six branches and did last year $1S.OOO worth of business. The- producers realized about one-third more on their goods than they had done previously. This result was accomplished by the more practical shipping and marketing methods, and not by increasing prices to consumers. Bee-keepers' Association. This association was organized in 1SS0 and the membership has been steadily increasing. It consists of a central organization and a number of affiliated bee-keepers' associations. In 3933 there were twenty-six federated societies, with a total membership of about 1.000. The society is growing rapidly and has doubled within the last year. Apiary demonstrations are held in different sections of the country. In 1932 fifty such meetings were attended by an average of thirty members. The association has been successful in securing legislation beneficial for the industry. It has also obtained an annual State grant of $4,000, which is being expended for the prevention of diseases by inspection, and for the demonstration of improved methods. A three-days convention is held annually, simultaneously with the fruit, flower, and honey show in Ontario. A committee of experts lias been appointed to forecast, the price for honey and to send bulletined information to the members. The work of this committee has done much good by standardizing the price of honey throughout the Province. There are estimated to be about 300.000 hives in Ontario kept by 10,000 owners, and producing annually about 5.000 tons of honey. Indications are that the work of this association, which so far has been mostly educative, will lead to commercial co-operation. Horticultural Societies. The object of the horticultural societies is the improvement and beautifying of the home surroundings in the Province, and to beautify public buildings, hospitals, schools, etc., with flowers and trees. The work is therefore of a varied character and has an extensive scope. There are seventy-three societies with over 32.000 members. To attain the object mentioned the following menus are made use of:— (1.) Seeds and plants are distributed to members and to school-children: (2.) Prizes are awarded for the best-kept lawns and back gardens, and to the children for well-kept school lots: (3.) Monthly meetings are held where addresses are given by experts in horticulture: (4.) An annual convention is held in Toronto. The Ploughmen's Association. To encourage greater attention being paid to the cultivation and fertilizing of the soil the Ploughmen's Association has been formed. There are eleven branches with 1,200 members. 4 Geo. 5 Royal Commission on Agriculture. 217 The Government grant for the objects of the association is $500 annually. The work carried on by tbe association is entirely educational, and consists chiefly in disseminating knowledge regarding soil fertilizing and cultivation. In order to induce young farmers and farmers' sons to become good plough-men, annual county and Provincial plopghing-inatches are held, where prizes are distributed and other means taken to attain the object. Besides the professional interest produced by these ploughing-matches, they are appreciated as a means of social intercourse and have given general satisfaction. Farmers' Institutes. There are about 200 farmers' institutes in the Province, with a membership of over 20,000. The object of this organization is mainly educational. It is one of the main channels through which the educational work of the Department of Agriculture reaches the farmers. The work of the institutes is to scatter information among the farmers which will lead to better farming methods. For this purpose the institutes work in conjunction with various branches of the Agricultural Department. Local meetings are addressed by lecturers sent out by the Department. The topics chosen for the lectures cover the entire field of economic and productive farm-management, as well as the social side of rural life. Under the auspices of the institute short courses are held in various branches in connection with field-demonstration work. The institute also holds an animal convention where subjects of common interest are discussed. It is in evidence that in all districts where these associations are active there is increased co-operation in dairy business, egg production, and fruit-selling, and consequently increased production with increasing prices. " The Better Farming Special." A highly appreciated feature of the work done under the auspices of the institute is the " Better Farming Special " train, which gives exhibits in practically every line of agricultural interest. In 3911 an agricultural instruction train was sent over the Michigan Central Railroad. This was followed in 1912 by a similar train on the Canadian Pacific Railway from Windsor to Montreal and on several branch lines. The Canadian Pacific Railway furnished free of cost to the Department a train consisting of three baggage-cars, three lecture-coaches, a diner and a sleeper. The lectures covered beef-raising, breeding of horses, improvement of dairy cattle, the feeding of live stock, seed-selecting, weeds, drainage, cultivation, poultry, diseases of domestic animals, bee-keeping, fruit-growing, fertilizers, and concrete construction. The lecturing force was drawn from the regular institute workers and from the staff of the Agricultural College. In 3933 a "Better Farming Special" was run over Canadian Pacific Railway lilies in Ontario. One car was used as a demonstration car and contained all the illustrative material. Another car accommodated the live stock used in the demonstration-work with live stock. The demonstration material included the following lines:— Field Husbandry.—Samples of grains, grasses, vegetables, etc.; specimens of weeds and weed-seeds. Drainage.—Surveyor's level, tools, tile, soil samples, plans and charts. Dairying.—Sanitary milk-pails, Babcock tester, charts showing effects of cow-testing, etc. Poultry.'—Model poultry-houses, brooder, apparatus for candling, and various equipment. Live Stock.—Horses and cattle, sheep and pigs of various breeds for demonstration in stock-judging. A car with demonstration material relating to farm mechanics is sent with the " Special " in alternate years. In this car is found a farm electric-lighting plant, a line shaft and engine to operate washing-machine, churn, cream-separator, and pump. During the afternoon brief demonstration lectures were given. Ample opportunity was afforded visitors to examine the demonstration material and to make inquiries. While lectures on animal husbandry were given to the men outside, the women were in the Home Economics car, and the children were given suitable demonstration lectures on nature-studies. The "Better Farming Special" of 1933 was attended at the various points by from 75 to 000 visitors, the total attendance at all points being 11,000. A new feature of the 393.4 " Special " were the motion pictures in a specially darkened coach. They showed the different stages of the growth of the chick in the egg. germination of 218 British Columbia. 1914 seeds, plants developing, different stages of insect-life, etc. Another new feature of this " Special " was an Information Bureau car where farmers might discuss matters relating to their business and obtain information from experts. The Women's Institutes. The Farm-women's Institute in Ontario is the most effective association of its kind in Canada. Though it is comparatively new. it has attracted the attention of other countries and served as a pattern of many similar institutes or clubs. The great social advantage of these clubs is that they are composed of farm-women of various social standing and different religious denominations. Prominence is given to such educational work as will make life on the farm more comfortable and raise the standard of home-life in every direction. The women's associations, however, expand their sphere of activities into the community life, and have exerted great influence in the direction of civic improvements, the welfare of children, the maintenance of hospitals, libraries, etc. By their initiative towns and villages have been better cleaned and better lighted, streets improved, and trees planted, schools better equipped and sanitarily constructed. Lectures are given on a great variety of subjects, such as house-planning, food value, care of children, gardening, poultry-raising, bacterial life, tuberculosis, first aid, and many others. There are about 100 district institutes in the Province, with 750 local institutes and a membership of 25.000. The total attendance at meetings during a year runs up to 300.000. Farmers' Clubs. The object of these organizations is to raise the profession of the farmer to its rightful status. They therefore deal with all questions affecting the farmers' position, economically and socially. The clubs number 1S5 and through their medium a great deal of effective work has been inaugurated in the Province. The means employed to achieve the object are mainly educational. Lectures and discussions are arranged for study and self-improvement, so as to maintain and increase interest in agriculture in the widest sense. They aim at the encouragement of experimental agricultural work, improvement of sanitary conditions of stables and other farm buildings, and proper breeding of live stock. While many of these farmers' clubs are putting forth educational efforts only, an increasing number of the clubs appear to have a tendency to branch into various co-operative activities of commercial character. Frequently they take the initiative in promoting collective purchase of farm supplies, co-operative creameries, and the solution of the marketing problem. One club handled from January to June $3,000 worth of goods and saved to its members $300. Other clubs have originated cow-testing associations, or they have given the impulse to the establishment of rural telephones and rural mail-delivery. The Minto Farmers' Club in Hastings County is carrying out its co-operative work through a system of committee-work. This club has appointed a purchasing committee, a live-stock committee, and various other committees, who are in charge of this work. The method of operating is quite simple. The live-stock committee, for instance, announces at a meeting the date of shipment, arrangements for acceptance of cheques are made, and all stock is weighed and paid at the car. With a membership of 109, this club last year did a business of $24,000, and members state that the returns received are considerably larger than what they could have expected if they had conducted their business through the ordinary channels. The distinctive feature of these clubs, as compared with, for instance, the farmers' institutes, is claimed to be that they are perfectly free from Government aid and control, and that the benefit obtained through them is derived from work the farmer does for himself. In some counties the farmers' clubs have combined, forming a County Board of Agriculture, which fulfils the same purpose for the farmer as the Board of Trade for the city. NOVA SCOTIA. There are in Nova Scotia 221 agricultural societies, chiefly of the intelligence type. Evidently these organizations might serve as a basis for productive and commercial organizations. The Province has only recently enacted legislation providing for co-operative organization. 4 Geo. 5 Royal Commission on Agriculture. 219 The Fruit-growers' Union. A prominent instance of actual and successful co-operation in the Province is the work done by the United Fruit-growers' Union of Nova Scotia. This organization consists of local companies organized into a central association, which exercises supervision over the local companies and acts as their marketing agency and intelligence bureau. The Annapolis Valley, which is the great apple region of Nova Scotia, is really a string of valleys lying along the Bay of Funcly—the Annapolis, Cornwallis, Gaspereau, and the Windsor. The geographical situation and similarity of soil conditions offer the very best inducements to co-operation. The Business of the Union. During 1912 twenty-nine fruit-growing associations united under a central union for the picking, packing, and marketing of the product of the orchards belonging to the members. At present there are thirty-eight companies, with a total membership of about 1,500. Out of a total output of nearly 500,000 barrels, these associations handled in 3913 over 300,000 barrels and furnished the members with supplies amounting to over $180,000. The mean average price paid to producers was $2.57 a barrel for grades 1, 2, and 3. Considering all market conditions and comparing with returns obtained by outsiders, the members of the associations express themselves in favour of the co-operative movement. Members of the associations send their fruit to the societies' depots, where it is standardized and sorted into three grades. It has been pointed out that the reputation of the unions is so well established that last season 30,000 barrels of apples were sold on the associations' guarantee as to grade and packing before being gathered. Since the organization of the union Nova Scotia's output of apples has already improved, especially in respect to grading and packing. The association's brand has. in the English market, become a guarantee for quality and good packing, and accordingly their product is accepted on the other side without inspection. saskatchewan. Farmers' Elevator Companies. The principal grain-handling concern in Saskatchewan and the principal co-operative enterprise in the Province is the Co-operative Elevator -Company, Limited, incorporated in 1911. It is purely a farmers' organization, and is the result of the work of the Saskatchewan Graiu- groWers' Association. Legal Provisions. The Act of incorporation provides that the capital stock of the company may be changed from time to time by the Government. It is provided that the stock shall be divided into shares of $50 each, and that no person can hold more than twenty shares. Fifteen per cent, of the subscribed stock must be paid up, the remaining 85 per cent, being subject to call. The liability of shareholders is limited to the amount of shares held. Each elevator is managed by a distinct board of directors. The central management is in the hands of nine directors. At all meetings of the supporters of the local elevator each shareholder has one vote for each share held by him up to five. The local elevators are represented by delegates at the general meetings of the company. No pledge or guarantee is required from the shareholders. They are at liberty to ship their grain as they please. For the work of organization the Act provides for a Government loan not exceeding $6,000. The Government loans to the company for the purpose of aiding in the acquisition or erection of any local elevator a sum not exceeding 85 per cent, of the estimated cost of the elevator. The company has power to borrow on the security of that part of the stock which lias not been paid up, and on the security of grain, real and personal property, etc. After the expenses of operating and maintaining the elevator and the amounts due to the Government on loans are paid, it is provided that the balance remaining of the money earned by the company shall be distributed as follows:— (1.) Dividends not exceeding 10 per cent, may be paid to shareholders. 220 British Columbia. 1914 (2.) Any surplus above that, but not exceeding 50 per cent., may, at the company's discretion, be paid to tbe shareholders and supporters proportionately to the volume of business done and on the basis of aggregate relative net financial results of the respective locals. The Fanners' Elevator Company has an authorized capital of $2,000,000, which lias been almost entirely subscribed for by the members. Fifteen thousand farmers are members of the organization. At the end of 1931 there were forty-six elevators, and now there are 192 in operation and twenty-five new elevators are being built. The head office is at Regina. In the year 3933-14 the company handled nearly 19,000,000 bushels through the elevators, and in addition 35,000.000 bushels on commission. Apart from the co-operative farmers' elevator companies, there are a number of independent farmers' elevator companies. They are organized as joint-stock companies and are operated as profit-making concerns. Co-operative Dairying. Co-operative activity in Saskatchewan is greatly assisted by the Provincial Government, the director of co-operative organization appointed by the Government being at the service of those who desire to start such an undertaking. Next the Farmers' Elevator Company, the creameries in Saskatchewan show the greatest co-operative activity. The first co-operative creamery in Saskatchewan was organized in 3S90 by Dr. J. Robinson, who then was Dominion Dairy Commissioner, but for a few years there was very little progress or interest manifested. In 3905 there were six of these creameries in operation. The following year these six creameries formed a federation. At the present time there are thirteen co-operative creameries operating in the Province. In 3.913 the total output of these creameries was 1,090,000 lb. In the article on "Dairying" particulars have been given in respect to the details of the system, by which the Dairy Branch of the Agricultural Department and the co-operative farmers work in co-ordination. The prospects for the success of this plan appear to he very bright. BRITISH COLUMBIA. Farmers' Institutes. At present there are 105 institutes incorporated, with a total membership of about S.500. Practically all these institutes are acting as supply societies for their members by the purchase of feedstuffs and many of the raw materials needed to furnish the finished farm products. Under special arrangement made with the manufacturers by the Agricultural Department they are able to furnish stumping-powder to members at $5 a box plus the freight, which, by arrangement with the transportation company, is reduced to one-half of the ordinary rate. Under the auspices of the farmers' institutes the Agricultural Department's short courses, packing-schools, and priming-schools are conducted. In 3913 the following courses were held :— Short Courses. Number of places S4 Number of sessions 151 Number of lectures 374 Average attendance 27 Packing-schools. Number of places 35 Number of schools 40 Number of pupils 410 Average proficiency S3 Number of instructors 96 Pruning-schools. Number of places 25 Total attendance 210 Average attendance 8.5 Fees collected $420 4 Geo. 5 Royal Commission on Agriculture. 221 Field-crop Competitions. In connection with the fanners' institutes, crop competitions have been held during the past year with the object of encouraging a spirit of wholesome rivalry in crop production. Competitions may be conducted with any one or any two (but not more than two) of the following crops: Oats, 2 acres; barley, 2 acres; wheat, 2 acres; peas, 1 acre; potatoes, % acre; turnips, % acre; mangels, % acre; field-carrots, % acre; fodder-corn, 1 acre; thousand-headed kale, V4 acre; red clover, 2 acres; alfalfa, 1 acre. Prizes are offered for each kind of crop, first prize being $25; second. $20; third, $35. The judges are appointed by the Department of Agriculture. The amount of the prizes and the cost of judging are defrayed by the Department. The interest taken in these competitions is shown by a comparison of the entries for 3934 with those of the preceding year, namely: 3933, 33. competitions; 3934, SO competitions and about 700 entries. Boy's and Girls' Field-crop Competitions. Any farmers' institute wishing to start these competitions must notify the Agricultural Department of its intentions in that respect and appoint a committee of three members to carry out the necessary arrangements. Regulations. There must be at least six bona.-fide competitors at each competition, and only one entry is allowed each competitor. Competitors must not be under ten or over eighteen years of age, and the plot entered for competition must be exactly one-tenth of an acre in area. At the present time these competitions are limited to potatoes. All competitors in the same institute must use the variety of potato decided by the committee appointed by the institute. Each competitor must keep an accurate crop report showing methods employed, returns, and profits. This report must include rent of land, labour, and stable manure at a uniform rate for all competitors as fixed by the Department. Prizes of from $1 to $5, amounting to $15, at each competition are offered. Grand Provincial prizes are offered for the highest total score in the Province. The boy taking the highest score receives a pure-bred heifer calf of the breed of his choice. The girl taking the highest score in the Province receives a high-grade sewing-machine. The Department appoints judges and defrays all expenses in connection with the competitions. To simplify matters at the start the competition has been confined to the potato, but it is the intention to go further and include poultry and pig-feeding. The competition for the present year has been entered by eighteen institutes with 250 competitors. Farm-man agem ent. At the beginning of the present year the Department of Agriculture, in co-operation with the farmers' institutes at the respective localities, secured four plots of land for the purpose of conducting demonstration-work in farm-management. The localities choseji for these stations were Chilliwack, Kamloops, Armstrong. Edgewood, Grand Forks, and Rock Creek. The land is leased by the Department for a period of three years, and an experienced man residing in the district is put in charge of the work. The fanners' institute in the district is required to appoint a committee of three members, who form an advisory board and who are to discuss all matters concerning the policy of the station with the Department's representative. The aim of this work is to evolve in co-operation with the farmers iu the district a system of cropping which in each district will yield the largest amount of crop suitable for live-stock fodder, and which at the same time will increase the fertility of the soil. The methods employed are to be based on recent scientific knowledge, but should at the same time be kept within the reach of the ordinary farmer by the elimination of expert demonstration. Alfalfa-plots. In a manner somewhat similar to the method employed for establishing the stations for farm-management, eleven plots have been selected for experimental alfalfa-culture. They are located at Courtenay, Parksville, Duncan, Saltspring Island, Gibson's Landing, Rose Hill, Nakusp, Burton, Edgewood, Rock Creek, and Bridesville. British Columbia. ' 1914 Other Experi.mental Work. With tbe object of obtaining definite data to be used by lecturers addressing farmers' institute meetings in the fruit districts where skim-milk is not. available, there is now conducted feeding experiments with bogs by one of the prominent farmers of the Province. Arrangements have been made for an educational campaign for the more general use of the silo, and encouragement is given in various ways to farmers erecting a silo in any farmers' institute district. Distribution of Literature. Through the farmers' institutes the following bulletins, reports, and circulars published by the Department of Agriculture during the year 1933 were distributed:— Bulletins. No. mallocl. Information for Fruit-growers. (June 30th.) 10,000 Market Poultry 30,000 Natural and Artificial Incubation and Brooding 5,000 Art of Right Living. (Sept. 26th.) • 2.000 Food and Diet: Part I. (Sept. 26th.) 3,S00 Food and Diet: Part II. (Sept. 26th.) 3,S00 Care and Marketing of Eggs. (Dec. 32th.) 1,000 Exhibiting Fruit and Vegetables 9,000 Apiculture 3,000 Reports. Women's Institute Report. (June 20th.) 3.500 Fruit-growers' Report. (June 26th.) 1,200 Farmers' Institute Report. (Sept. 16th.) 8,500 British Columbia Poultry Report. (Sept. 2nd.) S00 British Columbia Dairymen's Report. (Oct. 30tlO 800 Agricultural Fairs Report. (Nov. 22nd.) 500 British Columbia Entomological Society's Report 200 Circulars. Spray Calendar. (May 7th.) 30,000 Itinerary. (May 7th.) 7,500 Crop Competitions. (Sept. 30th.) S.000 Clearing Logged-off Lands 5.000 School Gardens 3,000 Tuberculosis in Poultry S.000 Construction of Fresh-air Brooders 8,000 Rules and Regulations, Women's Institutes 3.000 Instructions to Secretaries, Farmers' Institutes 150 Formula; for Preserving Fruit 200 Report of Markets Commissioner 10.000 Total 33.7,950 Women's Institutes. The first women's institutes in British Columbia were organized in 1909 under the " Agricultural Associations Act." In 1910 there ■were seventeen institutes with 545 members; the number has increased steadily, until at present there are forty-five institutes with a total membership of 2,345. Object of the Women's Institute Work. It is the aim of these institutes to improve conditions of rural life: By making the women's institutes a social and educational centre in the community ; by encouraging agricultural and other local and home industries for women; by the study of home economics, social and industrial needs, and civic improvement. 4 Geo. 5 Royal Commission on Agriculture. 223 The institutes try to accomplish these objects by various means; monthly meetings are held, with discussion of subjects that have a bearing on home-life and how to make the farin- woman's life more comfortable, her work more effective and of a wider influence. Educational Work. Under the auspices of the institutes there are held a series of lectures and demonstrations covering all the institutes in the Province. During the year 3933 demonstration-work was carried out in connection with lectures by three capable institute workers selected by the Department. A course of from one to two weeks has been arranged for at each institute, and great satisfaction is expressed in respect to the character of this work and the benefits obtained. The lectures and discussions cover the following subjects: The art of right living; labour- saving devices; household sanitation; prevention of diseases; domestic economy; care of children ; home nursing and first aid; demonstration-work in dressmaking, cooking, canning and bottling fruits and vegetables. In connection with the women's institutes the following bulletins have been issued by the Agricultural Department: No. 47, Food and Diet (by Miss A. Ravenhill) ; No. 50, The Art of Right Living (by Miss A. Ravenhill) ; No. 52, Report of Advisory Board, 1913: No. 53. Care of Young Children (by Miss A. Ravenhill) ; No. 54, Handbook of Women's Institutes. Exhibition-icork. Many of the women's institutes have held successful flower-shows, at which prizes have been awarded. In connection with- these flower-shows competition for wild-flower exhibits have been held for children. The institutes have also arranged exhibits of women's work in connection with the agricultural fairs at Victoria and New Westminster. These exhibits have been points of great attraction at those fairs. The competitions arranged for the year 1913 have been repeated this year, and the Department is offering the following prizes:—■ (1.) Prizes for institute having the best average attendance based on membership during the year 1913, consisting of books to form the nucleus of a Hbrary, to the value of: First prize, $30; second prize, $15. (2.) Prizes for institute having the best programme for 3.93.3, consisting of books to form the nucleus of a library, to the value of: First prize, $20; second prize, $30. Following the arrangement of 1913, the Department has again arranged to make a grant of $50 to any women's institute sending an exhibit of institute-work to the Coast fairs; while a per capita grant of 25 per cent, in addition to the grant made on account of membership is given to institutes holding flower-shows, or an exhibition of women's work combined with flower-show. Prizes are also offered by the Department for competition at flower-shows for various collections of flowers, and consist of first, second, and three juvenile prizes. In 3933 sixteen flower-shows were held and eighty prizes distributed. At the Provincial Fair in New Westminster, 3913, seven women's institutes were represented, six of them winning substantial prizes, and it is anticipated that a very much larger number will compete at the 1914 Fair. The range, variety, and quality of these exhibits was a surprise to many. Civic Work. Among the civic problems which have attracted the attention of the women's institutes the public school has naturally occupied the first place. The result of this activity has been improvement in school sanitation and the laying-out of school gardens in many communities. Garden seeds have been distributed among the children, and in some places an arbor day has been instituted. Good drinking-water has been secured, school libraries and school organs acquired, etc. Social Work. In many places these institutes are becoming social centres. Halls have been built or club- rooms rented and furnished. Here entertainments are given, concerts and amateur theatricals arranged, refreshments served, in connection with which funds are raised to carry on the work. 224 British Columbia. 1914 During the summer-time picnics and outings for the children are arranged. In many ways suggestions are carried out with the aim of encouraging a love of the beautiful and making life in the country more attractive. Conventions. Two conventions were held in 1913—one at Victoria for A'ancouver Island, and one at Chilliwack for the Mainland institutes. This year four conferences, necessitated by the increase in the number of institutes and of membership, will be held as follows: Duncan, for Island Institutes; New Westminster, for Lower Mainland; Nelson, for Kootenay Districts; Summer- land, for Okanagan Districts. General Results. Wherever women's institutes have been long and well established the effect of their work has been a higher standard of family health, attained by the improved sanitation of the homes; a greater attention is given to the purity of food-supplies and other necessaries, to the cleaning- up of yards and streets, and the beautifying of environments. The beneficial results of the institute-work is further evinced in the growth of'neighbourliness and the improved character of sociable recreation. In several Provinces of Canada women's institutes are carrying out co-operative work of a special character, the lecture-demonstration work being a peculiar feature for the women's institutes in British Columbia. This work has attracted world-wide attention, especially through the institutes in Ontario, where 25,000 women are associated in S00 institutes. Canadian women's institutes have served as a pattern for similar institutes in Belgium, from which country they have spread to other European countries. Dairymen's Associations. The membership for 1033 was 250. Stock-breeders' Association. The membership for the past year was 225. Co-operative Creameries. There are at present nineteen creameries in operation in the Province, the greater number of which are privately owned or only semi-co-operative. The following table gives particulars about the output in 3933 of five of these creameries, which are co-operative:— Xo. of Patrons. Batter made. Name of Creamery. Lbs. Value. t'rlce per Lb. Nanaimo Creamery Association. Ltd Saltspring Island Creamery Association, Ltd. Chilliwack Creamery Association, Ltd LS2 .102 (10 50 175 117.912 120,73(1 52.300 122,240 $50,703 72 44,670 2(1 20,498 03 45,754 84 Cents. 41.79 30.09 3S.75 30.5 Butter Returns. Eggs. Xame of Creamery. Per Lb. Total Value. Doz. Value. Selling Price. Returns Price. Cowichan Creamery Ass., Ltd Saltspring Island Creamery Ass., Ltd. 38.01 (butter) 40 (fat) 37 (butter) . . :',2i (oil test)° 41.5 (fat) .. $41,357 85 117.912 10,128 $01,495 69 3.129 01 Cents. 33.53 31.25 Cents. 29.99 30.25 Chilliwack Creamery Ass. Ltd Milk sold. 5.469,047 lb. Sweet cream sold, 207.870 lb. Sour cream sold. 14,970 lb. Ice-cream sold, 1,400 gallons. 0 As far as known, the Comox Creamery is the only one in the Province using the " oil test.' i Geo. 5 Royal Commission ox Agriculture. 225 Co-operative Creameries—Concluded. Name of Creamery. Poultry. Buttermilk. Foodstuff.. Turnover. Cowichan Creamery Association, Ltd Nanaimo Creamery Association, Ltd Saltspring Island Creamery Association, Ltd. Chilliwack Creamery Association, Ltd $10,619 47 $115'80 270 00 $73,277 10 2,270 95 $196,096 04 45.144 70 23.027 04 45,754 84 157.500 00 Fruit-growers' Associations. The number of associations affiliated under the society is at present twenty-four. The total membership is 735. Co-operative Fruit-growers' Association. The following table gives particulars about the business of the associations which are incorporated under Part II. of the "Agricultural Associations Act":— Xamo of Association. Authorized Capital. Government Loan. Stockholders. Xo. Shares subscribed. Shares. Amount. I'eachland Fruit-growers' Ass. Vernon Fruit Union Penticton Fruit-growers' Union Kelowna Growers' Exchange .. Salmon Arm Farmers* Exchange $ 20.000 200.000 100.000 200.000 20.000 250.000 50,000 20,000 $ 3.200 40.000 8,000 20.000 0,000 50.00(1 20,000 301 128 22.8 73 317 404 01 540 256 349 214 081 ' 38 $.100 ion 50 100 50 100 100 Name of Association. Shares held by each Member. Paid-up Capital. Real Estate. I'eachland Fruit-growers' Ass. Summerland Fruit Union Penticton Fruit-growers' Union Kelowna Growers' Exchange .. Salmon Arm Farmers' Exchange 1-10 1-lb 1-19 1-1'l 1-30 $ 1.220 10.800 2,430 6.980 2.140 13,620 6.441 700 $750 Land, $19,042 ; building. $14,725.90. Land, $3,000; building, $11,110. Land. $9,350; building, $15,014.70. Land, $5,850 ; building, $0,679.47. Xame of Association. Produce handled. Total Volume. Value. ' ' ' Turnover. I I'eachland Fruit-growers' Ass. Vernon Fruit Union Summerland Fruit Union Armstrong Growers' Ass Penticton Fruit-growers' Union Kelowna Growers' Exchange . . 372 cars .... 40.107 boxes 220 cars .... 37.110 boxes 71,888 boxes $170,260 20 30,000 00 81,834 SO 27.150 70 28,415 73 41,313 74 Flour and feed. 275 tons, $9.70(1.28 Flour and feed. $3,000 Supplies, $13,419.02 ; box. etc., 0,030.54 Feed, $2U,240.20 $105,'l84.05 Salmon Arm Farmers' Exchange $57,156.67 98,470.41 Central Selling Agency, Okanagan United Fruit-growers. Amount of produce handled in 3933:— Number of cars of fruit 541 Number of cars of vegetables 350 Number of cars of hay 57 Total <)54 22C British Columbia. 1914 The details of shipments were as follows :- Produce. Quantity. Average Price. Apples Pears Crabs Prunes Plums Peaches Nectarines Apricots Tomatoes Green tomatoes . . Raspberries Black currants Red currants Tain-raspberries ... White currants Gooseberries Cherries Grapes Wax beans String beans Cucumbers Pickling-cucunibers Corn Cauliflower Celery Pepper Green pens Ch. onions Lettuce Muskmelons Cantaloupes Watermelons Kgg-plants Rhubarb Iteets Cabbage Carrots Citrons Onions Parsnips Potatoes rnmpkins Squash Turnips Marrows .'. Timothy-hay Alfalfa 109.506 boxes 2,769 , 22,S16 „ 44,052 ,. 26,600 „ 05,793 „ 53 „ 7,23.4 „ 23,142 crates 0,950 boxes 946 crates 59 „ 221 „ 7,934 lb 14 crates 139 „ 4,409 „ 308 „ 492 „ 170 „ 1,2G2 pkgs 15 460 crates 77 „ 20S,792 40-lb. boxes .. 150 pkgs 342 „ 30 doz. bunches 39 pkgs 37 crates 35 „ 3.1 „ G4 , 45 „ 230,0S3 tons 1,002,S39 „ 372,430 „ 13,60S , 2,601,161 , 123.40S , 5,260,8S4 „ 24,059 „ 10,S75 , 160,977 10,945 „ 1,2S9,714 „ 12,075 , 09y± per box. 70% 0S% 49^4 05% 47% 45% 51 07% per crate. 52 per box. 7 per lb. 1 2S% per crate. 30% ,, 3 03 per 300 lb. 4 25 .. 100 „ 34 per dozen. 1 60. 3814 per dozen. 4 74 per 300 lb. 5 55 and $4.26 per 100 lb 67 %. 92. 25. 4 22 per S5%. 3.00 lb. 03 per lb. 02 82. 2 40 per 100 lb. 10 07 per ton. 20 90 , 18 00 28 S3 20 10 , 22 00 1G 70 22 44 23 9S , 30 15 > 28 52 17 28 , 14 29 » The success of the co-operative movement among the fruit-growers in the Okanagan Valley will no doubt lead to tbe organization of similar central selling agencies in other fruit sections of the Province. With central agencies in control of the output in the various sections. 4 Geo. 5 Royal Commission ox Agriculture. 227 co-operation among these agencies will eventually eliminate internal competition, secure higher prices, more economical production, and develop a comprehensive marketing policy. Poultry Associations. Twenty-eight co-operative associations have affiliated themselves with the Provincial Association. The membership in 3933 was 523. Their main object is to hold an annual poultry-show. The high prices for all poultry products and the high prices of farm land arc two facts which in this Province combine to promote the poultry industry, in spite of the drawback from high prices for even the poorest grades of feed-wheat. The first co-operative poultry association in the Province to undertake co-operative buying of feedstuff's was the association at Trail. The co-operative work carried on by the poultry associations is almost solely confined to collective purchase of feeclstuft's, flour, and other recpiire- ments. In this respect the example set by the Trail association has led seventeen other poultry associations to undertake co-operative purchasing. Other Co-operative Associations. Other co-operative associations are: Chilliwack Producers' Exchange; Grand Forks Produce Association; Ashcroft District Potato-growers' Association; Fraser Valley Milk Producers' Association; Poultry and Dairymen's Association of Mission District; Edgewood Co-operative Association; Arrow Park Produce and Canning Association; Farmers' Exchange Association of Tappeu; Pitt Meadow Poultry and Dairymen's Association; Farmers' Threshing Association of Britlesville and Sidley ; Saltspring Island Trading Company; A'ancouver Island Flockmasters' Association at Duncan; Hammond Fruit Association; Grand Forks Fruit-growers' Association; Kootenay Fruit-growers' Union. These associations are not all organized as co-operative societies. Several of them are incorporated as joint-stock companies, though by the nature of their activities and the principles followed they are practically co-operative. It will be seen from the above tables under co-operative creameries that the Creamery Association at Duncan is the one that in this Province leads in successful combination of the three main co-operative activities—purchase, production, and marketing. In an article published in the Agricultural Gazette of Canada, May, 193.4, Mr. W. E. Scott, Provincial Deputy Minister of Agriculture, summarizes the prospects of co-operation in British Columbia as follows: " A hopeful sign of the times is the co-operative spirit which is in evidence throughout British Columbia. Farmers are realizing more and more that in order to obtain the highest success in agriculture it is important that they conduct their business along well-thought-out businesslike co-operative lines." INTERNATIONAL CO-OPERATION. In the preceding sketch it has been endeavoured to condense the information obtained from various sources concerning methods and results of agricultural co-operation in several countries, most of which were visited by the Commissioners for the purpose of obtaining a first-hand knowledge of the facts. Before concluding the subject of co-operation it remains to refer to the international features that have been developed. This side of the movement is as yet in the embryonic state, but is nevertheless of the greatest significance. THE INTERNATIONAL LEAGUE. Above the national federations of co-operative unions of several countries in Europe is the International League of Co-operative Societies, founded in 1907, and now including the great agricultural organizations of Germany. Russia, Austria, Hungary, Italy, Denmark, Holland, Finland, Rumania, Servia, Bulgaria, and Japan. THE INTERNATIONAL AGRICULTURAL INSTITUTE. Besides this federation there has been established an International Agricultural Institute at Rome under a treaty dated June 7th, 3.905, with the object of collecting agricultural statistics, 22S British Columbia. 1914 studying social and economic questions affecting agriculture, and collecting and publishing information which might be useful in the various countries for the organization of co-operation along all lines of agricultural development. Origin oe the International Movement. The impetus which has resulted in the organization of this Institute was given by David Lubin. of California. This movement has reached much larger proportions than were thought of at its inception. Mr. Lubin's original conception was simply that of a universal crop-reporting bureau on lines similar to those already existing individually in many countries. He was stirred into action by the realization that the farmers in all lands are yearly being deprived of a large portion of what should be their share of the returns from their labours. While he was devising plans to remedy this condition he can hardly have anticipated the far-reaching nature of the agencies he was destined to put into motion by the organization of the International Institute of Agriculture. Participation of the King of Italy. It appears that, among all the monarchs and Governments of the leading countries in the world to whom Mr. Lubin submitted his plan. King Victor Emmanuel of Italy was the only one who did not reject it as impolitic or visionary. After careful consideration of the entire plan a request was issued by the King of Italy to all Governments in the world, inviting them to send representatives to Rome to discuss the formation of— An international institution, absolutely unpolitical in its aims, which would have before it the conditions of agriculture in the different countries of the world, which would give notice periodically of the quantity and quality of the crops on hand, and promote their production, facilitate their sale, and encourage a more favourable settlement. Acting in unison with the various agricultural bodies now iu existence, this institution would furnish reliable information as to the demand and supply of agricultural labour in various parts of the world, so as to provide immigrants with a safe and useful guide; it would make possible collective defence by the nations against diseases of plants and domestic animals, which, as a rule, cannot be successfully fought by means of partial action ; it would also encourage the development of societies for rural co-operation, agricultural insurance, and agrarian credit.* Organization of the Institute. Consequently there met at Rome in June. 3905, delegates chosen by the adhering countries, all men of high standing in the countries they represented. Great Britain was represented by the Earl of Minto; the Earl of Jersey; Sir Thomas Elliott, then Permanent Secretary of the British Board of Agriculture; Mr. T. P. Gill. Permanent Secretary of the Board of Agriculture and Technical Instruction for Ireland; and Sir Edward Buck, representing the Government of India. Mr. D. Lubin was chosen to represent the I'nited States, and the Dominion of Canada was for a time represented by Mr. J. G. Rutherford. However, the representation of Canada is now entrusted to an attache of the British embassy at Rome. The Adhering I'owers. The treaty creating the International Institute was ratified by forty Governments, and ten others have since given it their adhesion. The full list of countries who have joined in the work of tbe Institute is given as follows: Germany, Argentine, Austria. Hungary, Belgium, Brazil, Bulgaria. Chili. China, Costa Rica. Cuba. Denmark. Ottoman Empire. Egypt. Ecuador. Spain. I'nited States. Europe. France, Algeria. Tunis. Great Britain and Ireland, Australia. Canada. British India. New Zealand. Mauritius. Union of South Africa, Greece, Italy, Eritea and Italian Somaliland. Japan. Luxemburg, Mexico, Montenegro, Nicaragua. Norway, Paraguay. Holland, Peru. Persia, Portugal, Roumania, Russia, Salvador, and San Marino. Membership. . The membership of the Institute is divided into five classes, and the annual fee is fixed for members of each class at $4,800. $2,400, $1,200. $600, and $300 respectively, provision being made to allow this amount under special circumstances to be increased with two-thirds of the amount at present fixed for each group. The King of Italy proved his interest in the project by endowing the Institute with $00,000 from his personal revenue. This amount has chiefly been expended towards the erection of the magnificent building in which the Institute is installed. ' J. G. Rutherford : " The International Institute of Agriculture." Lethbridge, 3013. 4 Geo. 5 Royal Commission on Agriculture. :>o() Voting Powers. Each adhering country is allowed from one to five votes, according to the group in which it is placed; the Dominion of Canada was first placed in the fourth group, but now belongs to the second group and consequently has four votes. Provisions of the Constitution. The constitution of the Institute provides for a General Assembly of agricultural, diplomatic, and other representatives from the various adhering countries, and for a. Permanent Committee, to which these countries have the right to send each one delegate empowered to cast the entire number of votes to which the country he represents may be entitled. The General Assembly. The right to approve or disapprove of any detail of the programme prepared by the Permanent Committee is vested in the General Assembly. The Assembly is charged with the ultimate control of all budget matters. It lays down the rules for its own proceedings and fixes the dates for its meetings. Powers of the Permanent Committee. The Permanent Committee selects from among its members for a period of three years a president and a vice-president; it makes its own rules of procedure, appoints and dismisses employees, and votes on budget matters within the limits set by the General Assembly. Activity of the Institute. The first business meeting of the Institute, since the Constitutional Assembly, was held in May, 190S, in the palace at Rome, erected for the use of the Institute. The work undertaken by the Institute comprises the following divisions:— (1.) General management: (2.) General statistics: (3.) Agricultural intelligence and plant-disease: (4.) Economic and social intelligence. The Division of General Statistics deals with the following subjects:— Agricultural statistics: Inquiry, collection, and publication of agricultural information and statistics relating to animal and vegetable culture and production ; the trade in and distribution and consumption of agricultural produce; general and special fluctuations iu agricultural produce; market, sales, fairs, etc.; interpretation and comparison of various statistical data: Collection of finance and Customs statistics relating to agricultural produce; imports and exports; daily, weekly, and monthly agricultural statistics; general-statistics; special periodic and occasional statistics; statistical departments of each country, etc. The Division of Agricultural Intelligence and Diseases of Plants deals with— («..) Agricultural information : Inquiry, collection, and publication of practical information relating to animal and vegetable culture and production; inquiries and monographs regarding vegetable and animal produce; collection and abstraction of various periodic information as to the agricultural situation in every country: (b.) Plant-diseases: Distribution and prevalence of disease; remedies, destructive pests; entomology. The Division of Economic and Social Institutions deals with the following matters: Wages of agricultural labour; statistics and information concerning the organization of agricultural co-operation, insurance, and credit. The following bulletins are now issued regularly by the Institute:— (1.) A monthly Bulletin of Agricultural Statistics: (2.) A monthly Bulletin of Economic and Social Intelligence: (3.) A monthly Bulletin of Agricultural Intelligence and Plant-diseases. These bulletins are published monthly in several languages, including English. They form the most comprehensive and up-to-date summary of agricultural information which is within reach of the farmer. They are compiled by expert editors from two thousand journals and thousands of bulletins and reports dealing with agriculture in all its branches. The joint subscription for all three of these publications has been fixed at $7. 230 British Columbia. 1014 A summary by the Dominion Government of all three bulletins is issued monthly; this may be obtained free of charge on application to the Publications Branch, Department of Agriculture, Ottawa, but owing to the delay inseparable from the work of reprinting and reissue, and the condensation found necessary, the original publications are the more desirable. The information furnished by these bulletins is unquestionably the most reliable guide for those who want to study international market possibilities, social and economic conditions of ail agricultural nature, as well as many cultural problems. Evidently the Institute has been established with a great deal of careful forethought; it is apparently managed with efficiency, and has made a good beginning. The general impression is that it will steadily and permanently increase its usefulness to the farmers in all countries. Many are yet sceptical with respect to the great social transformation that enthusiastic leaders foresee as a result from the co-operative movement. However, it now appears that Luigi Luzatti was a practical business-man. and not only a visionary, when with $400 he founded the people's banks of Italy. These banks are some of the strongest and most democratic credit institutions in the world. By this organization works of national importance have been financed, and even a railroad has been constructed on co-operative lines. It is therefore not unlikely that the same man, giving a forecast of the great task that will yet be accomplished by co-operation, is no more an impractical enthusiast than he proved himself to be at the inception of the movement in his country. 4 Geo. 5 Royal Commission on Agriculture. 231 VIII. AGRICULTURAL CREDIT. GERMANY. German farmers have advanced so far towards the solution of the problem of obtaining adequate credit at moderate rates of interest and on convenient terms that practically all landowners in Germany, both large and small, are amply provided with credit. The large number of various mortgage-credit systems that exist are mainly of a public character and non-profit- seeking. They grant loans up to one-half or two-thirds of the valuation of the security at low and unchangeable rates of interest, repayable in small semi-annual instalments. To provide short-term loans, there exist in Germany over 17,000 local co-operative banks established and conducted by the borrowers and further organized in central co-operative banks. Roughly speaking, there are now between one and two million farmers who are members of those co-operative banks and deposit their savings at from 3% to 4 per cent, interest, while they can borrow at from 4 to 4% per cent, interest any sum of which they are in reasonable need and for which they can give adequate security. The various systems of co-operative credit are, as the Germans express it, " die Kinder der Not" (Children of Necessity), the effect of a realization that the individual small farmers, by roping themselves together, can create a security which the money-lender will accept as a guarantee that the loan will be repaid with interest when due. The collective guarantee offered may be that of real property—this is the basis of the " Landschaften " or land mortgage credit banks in Germany. Again, the collective guarantee may have a personal character and be limited or unlimited. Unlimited guarantee is a fundamental principle in the Raiffeisen system, while limited liability is a characteristic of tho Schulze Delitzsch banks. The " Landschaften " and similar mortgage banks obtain the needed funds by issuing bonds ; while the Raiffeisen banks obtain their working capital chiefly from the deposits they are able to attract. Having obtained the necessary capital, these institutions must be able to loan their funds to their members at an interest slightly in advance of the rate paid collectively. Consequently the losses must be brought down to a minimum and the administration must be efficient and cheap. The chief principle underlying all forms of co-operative credit is therefore that a group of persons combine to furnish a collective guarantee in order to obtain money at a lower rate of interest than they would be able to secure individually. Economic writers claim that the degree of success attained by the various systems in Germany clearly shows that the more undiluted the principle of a help to self-help has been applied the better have the institutions thrived. Summing up the economic conditions of German farming, Herr Miguel, a distinguished Prussian Minister of Finance, said: This must be our goal—to have a co-operative loan bank in practically every parish in the whole Empire." Agricultural Credit Institutions. The co-operative credit organizations in Germany differ in organization and type according to the security they demand. («.) Land-mortgage security is demanded by the institutions classified below:— (3.) Landschaften or Provincial land mortgage credit associations (collective security —amortization—non-profit seeking) : (2.) State land mortgage banks (Government guarantee—amortization—non-profit- seeking) : (3.) -Savings banks (loans partly amortizable—safeguard chiefly depositors' interests) : (4.) Joint-stock land mortgage companies (profit-seeking—loan's non-amortizable) : (5.) Rent-charge banks (small holders' credit—funds chiefly supplied by Government and partly raised on bonds—loans amortizable) : (6.) Land-improvement banks (credit for permanent improvements—funds supplied by Government). 16 232 British Columbia. 1914 (b.) Personal security is accepted by— (1.) Raiffeisen societies (unlimited liability) : (2.) Schulze Delitzsch societies (limited liability). LAND MORTGAGE CREDIT BANKS. " Landschaften." A Landschaft is a landholders' co-operative association organized for mutual credit. Its operations are confined to a province or " Landschaf t." It is a highly organized association of borrowers, with collective guarantee for obtaining loans by issuing bonds secured by mortgages on the properties of all the members. There are in Germany twenty-five Landschaften. They have at present outstanding loans to the amount of $900,000,000. Origin of " Die Landschaften." The first of the old Landschaften banks were founded in Silesia in 1767 by Frederick the Great, the object being to give financial relief to the impoverished nobility. Membership with consequent liability was enforced among the holders of large estates, whether they desired to become borrowers or not. This forced guarantee has now been abandoned. The old-established Landschaften were based on a mortgage system for rural credit established as early as 1721 in East Prussia under Frederick William I., but which had failed to become effective. The plan adopted by the able administrator. Frederick the Great, to promote agricultural progress in the then recently conquered Province of Silesia was propounded by Biiring, a Berlin merchant, and is in most essentials identical with the one on which the present system is founded, the fundamental principle being to replace the single mortgage system by an intermediary system between property seeking credit and capital seeking investment, raising the needed funds by disposing of bonds in the money market. In 17SS there had been formed five Landschaften in German Provinces. These five old societies are the basis of the entire system of collective mortgage credit in Europe. The principle of reducible mortgages by annuities, or amortization, was introduced in 1S21 by the Landschaft in Prussia and adopted by all other similar institutions. At present these banks borrow from the public by means of debentures, secured by the collective mortgages they hold, and not on the security of particular estates. The funds obtained are again loaned to individual borrowers on mortgage security, and repaid by the individual borrowers to the associations in annuities. The association receives from the borrower semiannually the interest and amortization charges. The bondholders are the creditors of the society. These Landschaften have constitutions varying considerably from each other, being adapted to the needs of each Province at the moment of their foundation. A Landschaft is established under Statute and its regulations must be approved by the Government. There is only one Landschaft for each political division. The Central Bank in, Prussia. The best-developed institutions of this type are those in Prussia. At present eight Prussian associations are affiliated in a Central Association. The object of creating the Central Association was to open a wider market for the bonds, and make them less exposed to fluctuation; but in this respect the Central Association has not met with the success expected, while in other respects it is of great importance. The issue of bonds of the Central Landschaft in 1909 only amounted to about $10S,000,000, which was less than the issue of the Landschaft of East Prussia alone. The total amount of bonds issued at from 3 to 4 per cent, by the Prussian Landschaften was, in 1932, about $S00,000,000. By economical administration they have accumulated funds amounting to nearly $15,000,000. The Central Bank does not place its funds directly. This is done through the Provincial branches, which then deposit mortgages for an equivalent amount. The debentures of the Central Bank are thus secured by the property of all the members of the various affiliations and by the combined sinking funds of the associations. This added security, however, does not appear to have affected the standing of their bonds in the market. 4 Geo. 5 Royal Commission on Agriculture. 233 Administration. The business of an association is carried out under the supervision of a Royal Commissioner, and under the control of its General Assembly by means of a board consisting of a director- . general and members chosen to represent different districts, besides several non-voting legal members called syndics. The members of the associations assemble at a general meeting and elect a board of directors. The council of administration stands between the General Assembly and the directorate. As the General Assembly is not summoned regularly, this council exercises supervision over the directorate. Local directors are elected for the various districts, and the administration is further decentralized by the election of district committees. State Control. The State exercises supervision and control over these banks and recognizes their bonds for trust investments. The Landschaften banks are not allowed to engage in selling or buying activities. There would be more or less risk attached to such enterprises, and as the bonds are authorized for trust investment of widows and orphans' means, all risk must be excluded from the operations. Membership. Individuals become members of an association by becoming mortgagors of the association. Membership ceases when the mortgage is redeemed. In the Landschaft of Saxony members are liable for the sum which they have borrowed, plus 5 per cent. The tendency is nowadays to decrease the various guarantees which have been imposed as safeguards. The Landschaften formed in late years do not make provision for general liability. While the association formerly only admitted to membership owners of large properties, the tendency is now to make small holders eligible. In some Provinces even very small holders are now brought within reach of the credit facilities offered by these societies. This tendency is shown by the fact that in 3.931. out of 2,265 loans made by the Bavarian Bank, thirty-four were made on properties not exceeding 2% acres, and 1,514 on properties not exceeding 25 acres, -while only six loans were on properties of over 250 acres. Loan Regulations. A land-owner who has reasonable security to offer can always get a loan in the Landschaften. After the necessary arrangements are made he receives the amount of the loan in bonds, which he sells at market value in the open market. Frequently the bank performs this transaction for him at a small charge. The face value of the bonds given the borrower represents exactly the amount of the loan. Bonds are issued in series of different denomination, varying from $25 to $1,000. The interest on bonds has always been very moderate. Only from 1S6S to 1S7S was it 5 per cent. Since then it has been reduced to 4%, to 4, and even to 3 per cent. However, the rate of interest paid on bonds being quoted at 3 to 3% or 4 per cent, is really higher, because the holder is generally compelled to sell these bonds below par. It is the rule to value the property offered as security for loans at from twenty to thirty times the income it can be expected to yield. In Prussia the maximum loan is generally fixed at two-thirds of this valuation, while in the other German States it is ordinarily limited to one-half of the valuation. Some of the associations give a higher percentage in the case of small properties than is permitted for the larger properties. The interest paid by the borrower is generally from % to 1 per cent, higher than the interest paid on the bonds. The mortgage is generally redeemed in eighty-four half-yearly instalments. The money paid in by amortization is used to redeem outstanding mortgage bonds. Payments to sinking funds and interest are due half-yearly. Intending borrowers indicate at what rates the bonds they wish to receive should draw interest. The rates open to choice are 3, 3%, 4, and 4% per cent., and in a few cases 5 per cent. At present 3%-per-cent. bonds are distinctly dominant. There has been a slow but steady rise in the rate of interest on the bonds. The Government does not guarantee the bonds of these banks, but only exercise control over their issue. 234 British Columbia. 1914 .The borrower will never be called on to redeem his indebtedness at a higher rate than the par value. If the bonds are below par, he can buy in the market and cancel his mortgage with those bonds. If they are above par, he can offer the amount of his debt to the bank, which then calls in a corresponding amount of bonds for cancellation at par. When a loan is repaid the association may cancel an equal amount of bonds by drawing bond numbers. The bonds drawn are then called in through the newspapers and the interest ceases. If the bonds are above par, the bank draws for them; if below par, they are bought in the market and the bank profits by the difference. It is a general practice for the banks to buy their own bonds when the market is favourable. There are no shares and consequently no divided profits. However, a surplus is accumulated and placed to the credit of the association until it reaches 5 per cent, of the outstanding obligation of the society. Flexibility of the System. The Landschaften supply a mortgage credit under the most flexible co-operative system that has yet been put into operation. The system has proven absolutely safe. Not one of the Landschaften has been known to fail in meeting its obligations. The borrower is assured that the interest he is to pay will never be any higher than at the time of procuring the loan, and the bondholder is assured that the amount of the bonds will never exceed the amount of the mortgage security. This fundamental principle is the key to the success of the system. The special feature of the Landschaften system are summed up as follows:— (3.) It enables the landholders to mobilize their properties by the creation of bonds passing into the general system of securites, instead of trying to dispose of a mortgage with limited currency: (2.) The loans are not subject to recall: (3.) The rate of interest is moderate: (4.) The rate of interest cannot be raised : (5.) The debt can be repaid at any time: (6.) The indebtedness is extinguished gradually: (7.) The initial charges are low: (S.) The administration is efficient and cheap; the directors are land-owners holding their office houorarily: (9.) There are no dividends, for there are no shares as no capital is needed. In spite of all the wars that have taken place and all the economic crises passed through during the time of their activity, these banks have been able to preserve a uniformly low interest and maintain a steady progress. They have always been able to obtain for their members sufficient credit at an interest far lower than if the members were borrowing individually. Concerning the notable success of these associations, M. Emmanuel Besson writes in the Journal of the Statistical Society in Paris :— Thus the Landschaften, free from the desire for profit and devoted to the consolidation of their reserves, are in a position to offer peculiarly favourable conditions to their clients. From this point of view we may truly consider tho organization as the one which best expresses that idea of solidarity and that mutual confidence towards which the institutions of our time are aiming more and more. State Mortgage Credit Banks. The liabilities of these institutions are guaranteed by the public authority (State, Provincial, or district) by which they have been established. There are sixteen such aided loan institutions in Germany, each being established for the whole of the State. Characteristics. Common to these banks are the following features:— (3.) Government guarantee: (2.) The funds are raised by issue of bonds: (3.) These bonds are recognized as trust investment: (4.) They are non-profit-seeking: (5.) There is a community of interest between bank and borrower: 4 Geo. 5 Royal Commission on Agriculture. 235 (6.) The loans are extinguished by amortization: (7.) The loans are paid in cash: (S.) The loans are not subject to recall: (9.) Loans are repayable at the borrowers' option: (3.0.) The interest of small holders is kept in view: (11.) The system of administration provides for decentralization as well as for centralization. Loans. The total of loans made by those banks in 1912 was $500,000,000, of which $200,000,000 was lent to communal authorities. The interest charged the borrower is usually from 14 to % per cent, higher than the rate paid on the bonds by the bank. The payment of the first, instalment may be postponed for a period of from two to three years. Administration. One of these institutions, the Bank of Cassel, in 1909 had loans amounting to $37,500,000. The cost of management in this bank was $75,000, or about 0.2 per cent, of the capital employed. The banks are usually managed by a special committee appointed by the authority guaranteeing the bonds. These banks have met with success. They have provided in a special manner suitable credit for medium and small land-owners., By a system of combined centralization and decentralization they have maintained supervision over borrowers and been able to reach all farmers in the district which they have been created to serve. Savings Banks. The German savings banks are institutes of considerable importance as suppliers of agricultural credit. Their aim is distinguishable from that of ordinary banks, inasmuch as they seek deposits in order to foster thrift. In the interest of the depositors they seek an absolutely safe investment. They have lent a certain proportion of their deposits on rural properties. The principal reason for the establishment of the savings banks are:— (1.) The importance of developing a nation of saving people: (2.) The necessity for mobilizing the savings of the people. There are said to be over $250,000,000 yet lying unused all the year round in German farm-houses: (3.) The need of teaching the farmers the use of paper exchange. It is calculated that hundreds of millions of marks are taken out of the banks annually in Germany to be transmitted by mail. The task of teaching the people how to conduct a moneyless commerce is part of the work of those banks. To facilitate the deposit in the banks of the savings of the people, various arrangements have been made:— (1.) Branch offices have been established iu charge of capable shopkeepers in hamlets aud villages: (2.) School savings banks have been established to promote thrift among the children: (3.) Home savings banks for the collection of small deposits are distributed: (4.) Savings automats are placed at industrial centres. At the end of 1910 there were in Germany (outside of Brunswick) 2,S44 savings banks with 7,404 branches. Loans. The average percentage paid by the savings banks is 3%, and the interest charged on loans is 4 to 4% per cent. The savings banks as a rule do not provide for amortization of the loan. Of the total sum outstanding for Prussian savings banks, only 17.37 per cent, is amortizable. Out of total deposits amounting to $4,000,000,000, the general savings banks have only invested $850,000 in rural loans. While generally only granting loans up to two-thirds of the valuation on rural property, many savings banks encourage the small holder by granting loans of three-fourths of the value. 23G British Columbia. 1914 Joint-stock Mortgage Companies. These banks obtain concession from the State and are subject to State supervision. They are purely commercial. At present there are about thirty-seven mortgage banks of this kind in Germany. Their outstanding loans amounted, in 1911. to $3,000,000,000, but the proportion of investment in mortgages on rural property was only 6 per cent. The reason for the small percentage of rural mortgage loans in these banks is principally the better facilities already provided by the co-operative credit mortgage associations. Amount of Loans. As an indication of the development of the German joint-stock banks, the following statistics are given for the Prussian Mortgage Credit Joint Stock Company, which has existed for forty-two years:— Rural mortgages $ 66,000,000 Urban mortgages 120,000,000 Communal loans 44,000,000 Bonds on mortgages 234,000,000 Capital 10,500,000 Reserve funds 430,000 Dividends 9% per cent. Substantial dividends are paid by these banks, generally from 7 to 3.0 per cent. The advantage of the joint-stock mortgage companies is due to the ability of their skilled management and the profits arising from other banking business conducted by them. On the other hand, the administration is expensive and aims at realizing high dividends. Rent-charge Banks. These institutions were founded in 1S50 to aid the German peasants in redeeming their manorial obligations. While in this respect having exhausted their usefulness, they have been revived to satisfy a more modern demand for agricultural credit. The present functions of these banks are:— (1.) To issue bonds to vendors on sale of lands for division into small holdings: (2.) To grant loans for land-settlement either to pay off preliminary charges or for the erection of buildings, such loans being repayable by yearly instalments. For this purpose these banks have been greatly utilized. Thus the rent-charge banks assist in creating small holdings from which the occupier can obtain a livelihood, and on which his presence is necessary, although he may at times find work in the neighbourhood. These banks had in 1909 issued bonds for the amount of $20,000,000, in addition to $150,000,000 supplied by the State. In consequence of the State aid the Government exerts control over their affairs through appointed commissions. There are eight general commissions. The commissions exercise general supervision of the small-holder movement and control the creation of co-operative associations for land-improvement purposes. The rent-charge banks are the financial agents for the general commissions. The commission has authority to grant cash loans to clear off debts upon property to be subdivided into small holdings. Security for these loans is regarded as adequate when the loan does not exceed thirty times the annual net yield of the land. The new landholders pay % per cent, in addition to the interest paid on the bonds. When the price of bonds is under par, in order to cover the vendor against loss, an addition is made to the price agreed upon and more bonds are issued if necessary. Land-improvement Banks. Most land-owners must at times seek credit for the execution of such improvement-work as drainage, irrigation, and construction of dykes, which, however, when carried out judiciously will be very profitable. Credit for land improvement may be said to stand midway between personal and mortgage credit. Its basis rests on the capacity and reliability of the borrower and upon the additional value which the land is expected to attain. The requirements for such credit can only be met by co-operative organizations or by the Government acting alone or in conjunction with such societies. In Prussia five such banks have 4 Geo. 5 - Royal Commission on Agriculture. 237 been created, which in MOS had loaned altogether $2,500,000 for irrigation, drainage, and kindred improvement purposes. In Bavaria the State has become guarantee for $12,500,000 worth of bonds. Loans for permanent improvements are made by the following institutions:— (1.) Land-improvement funds: (2.) Land-improvement banks. General Features. Dealing with the German improvement banks, it can be said that they have, in spite of a great deal of divergence, the following features in common :— (a.) Money supplied by Government: (&.) Limitation of loanable amount: (c.) Mortgage guarantee: (d.) Extinction of loan by amortization: (e.) State control: (/.) Supervision of improvements. These institutions have the privilege of issuing bonds to the amount of the loans made, redeemable by the bank, but irredeemable by the holder. The debenture-holders have priority over all other creditors, as the improvement adds to the safety afforded the prior debts. The security is regarded as sufficient if the capital required does not exceed half the value after the proposed improvement has been effected. Loans are repayable on sinking-fund methods, the only method considered safe; the loans are sunk in permanent improvements. The maximum interest is 4% per cent., while the annual payment to the sinking fund varies from % to 4 per cent. As a rule, loans for tbe construction of dams and reservoirs and similar works of improvements pay an interest of % Per cent, in excess of the interest paid on the bonds, and the amortization charges are not less than 1 per cent. The Act regulating these institutions provides for Government supervision of their transactions. Thus the German mortgage credit institutions have led the movement in establishing a liquid and mobilized agricultural credit. While other European countries have added new features to the system and adapted it to their needs and national temperament, giving in some cases the adapted system the appearance of greater precision, yet the leading principles are everywhere the same as first laid down by the German institutions. The European credit institutions are almost unanimous in adopting the sinking-fund system for extinction of long-term loans, and in providing safeguards guaranteeing that there never will be a larger amount of bonds in circulation than are secured by mortgage. personal security credit. Short-term Loans. During the first half of the past century the farmers who could not obtain access to banks suffered greatly at the hands of usurers. The seriousness of this situation was realized by two men in Germany, who devised and put into practice a system of supplying short-term loans on personal security, a system which has proved the best method of remedying the then existing evil. These men were Frederick Raiffeisen, burgomaster of Wegerbusch, and Francis Schulze, of Delitzsch. The former was the originator of the rural credit system which bears his name; the latter devised a system for urban credit. Both systems have spread over many parts of the civilized world. Raiffeisen Banks. For the purpose of providing credit at a low interest for the immediate need of the farmer in his business the Raiffeisen loan associations have been formed. No branch of German rural co-operation has attained such marked success as that of co-operative credit. Credit societies constitute over two-thirds of the co-operative societies in Germany, and there is estimated to be a co-operative association for every 2,500 inhabitants. 238 British Columbia. - 1914 In 1909 there were 14,500 co-operative credit associations in the German Empire. On January 1st, 1913, this number had increased to 16,927. The membership was over 1,500,000, of which the great majority are heads of families. The problem to be solved by these short-term loan societies was, in the words of Luigi Luzatti," " finding a moral guarantee and capitalizing honesty to serve as a pledge of security," and they have been eminently successful. It was necessary that special conditions should be considered when providing credit for the farmer's operating expense. Money borrowed toy the farmer does not usually bring rapid returns. The same short-term credits which are the practice in commercial life do not meet his demand. The rural co-operative credit societies founded by Raiffeisen in Germany and introduced into many other countries are organized on such a basis that they are able to grant loans on terms that conform with the need of the borrower. Their principles rest upon a Christian and patriotic foundation, notwithstanding that religious and political matters are excluded from their meetings and activities. The essential characteristics of ths system of agricultural credit is the creation of collective security based upon the intimate knowledge which residents of closely settled districts have of each other. Guiding Principles. To ensure cheapness of administration, it is important that no individuals shall derive any benefit from the societies except the privilege of borrowing. Every precaution is therefore taken against the introduction of a spirit of greed. To ensure safety of the working capital, caution is the guiding principle of every action, and risk is the one thing which the Raiffeisen societies have set themselves to avoid. Solidarity and mutual confidences are the foundation upon which the system is based. Function of the Rural Banks. The principal functions of the Raiffeisen banks are:— (1.) To furnish personal credit to members: (2.) To promote thrift among the rural population by receiving savings: (3.) To act as village bankers: (4.) By supervising the employment of the loan, to accustom the borrowers to punctuality and thrift, as well as to effect their moral improvement. These organizations are therefore often spoken of as thrift and credit societies. They are based upon the following business principles, known as the Raiffeisen principles:— (1.) Unlimited liability of all members for all liabilities of their particular society: (2.) Improvement of the moral as well as the material status of the members. Special Features. To attain their various object these societies have embodied the following features in their system:— (1.) Members are only admitted from a distinct district, which is as narrowly circumscribed as is consistent with its ability to maintain the society: (2.) Each member can only purchase one share: (3.) No entrance fees are collected: (4.) The administration is cheap. Managing directors are not paid for their services; only the cashier-accountant is paid a salary : (5.) Capital is not raised on shares unless this is required by law, and even then the amount of the shares is only nominal. Interest on such shares is not allowed to exceed the rate of interest paid by the borrower: (6.) Credit is granted up to five years in accordance with rural requirements and the merits of each special case: (7.) Loans are only made for productive purposes: (S.) The maximum amount of loans is determined each year by the members: (9.) Repayment by instalments: • Italian ex-Minister of Agriculture, a disciple of Raiffeisen, and founder of the people's banks in Italy. 4 Geo. 5 Royal Commission on Agriculture. 239 (10.) All profits are carried to the common fund of the associations and form a permanent reserve fund: (11.) Establishment of conciliation courts for the diminution of legal disputes: (12.) Opposition to such real-estate transactions as are against the common welfare: (13.) The holding of instructive lectures. Centralisation of the Raiffeisen Banks. Raiffeisen soon realized the necessity of grouping the local societies around central banks, and founded in 1876 the German Agricultural Central Bank, which extends its operations over the whole of Germany, and serves more than 4,300 affiliated societies. It has created twelve branches, limiting their operations to definite areas. Consequently the entire organization embraces the following divisions:— (1.) Local societies: (2.) Provincial banks: (3.) A central loan bank. Thus, through the Agricultural Central Bank, which serves as a clearing-house for all the banks, the institutions of the Raiffeisen type are grouped together. The business of the individual societies is conducted through the twelve branches of the Central Bank at Berlin. The Central Bank is organized as a joint-stock company, but this fact does not affect the co-operative character of the affiliated societies. Stock is divided in $23S (1,000 marks) shares, and can only be held by members of the boards of managers. The capital stock of the Central Bank is $2,400,000. The Central Bank extends its operations over the whole of Germany, but each of the twelve branches limits its business to a fixed area co-extensive with a Province. The entire plan of organization is as follows:— (1.) The local societies obtain credit when needed at the Central Provincial Bank and deposit there their excess of deposits: (2.) The Provincial banks serve as places of monetary adjustment between the local societies: (3.) The central organization at Berlin balances supply and demand, grants necessary credit, or makes necessary investment in the money market on behalf of the Provincial institutions. The objects of the Central Bank are:— (1.) To equalize temporary shortness or oversupply of cash in local banks: (2.) To provide means for collective purchase of agricultural supplies, as well as for collective sale of agricultural products. The working capital of the Central Bank is composed of:— (1.) Paid-up shares, capital, and reserve: (2.) Deposits of members: (3.) Deposits from non-members: (4.) Loans. The Agricultural Central Loan Bank for Prussia is the largest and the most important of the German co-operative banks. The capital of the bank was, in 1900, $2,400,000. The dividend may not exceed the interest paid to members for loans, and is only allowed on shares actually paid up. The actual turnover of the Central Bank in 1911 was $283,000,000. Only societies adopting the strict Raiffeisen principles are admitted to membership of the Central Bank. This restriction has led to the establishment of other credit associations of a different type, which exclude one or several of the Baiffeisen principles from their regulations. Function of Local Associations. The advantages offered to the rural population by these societies iu their functions as savings banks are proximity, security, and adequate interest. Each association is confined to one particular district, but parishes with less than 400 inhabitauts are not considered suitable, in which case two or three are joined. Membership of Local Associations. The associations are organized on entirely democratic lines. Rich and poor members have the same legal rights, though the rich, who bear the greater liability, often are allowed to 240 British Columbia. 1914 take the leading part. Admission to membership is open to all persons living within the area covered by the association, but is subject to the approval of the society. The number of members is generally unrestricted. The minimum membership is seven; the highest number iu any one bank is 1,400 (an exceptional case). The average number is from 90 to 100. In admitting applicants to membership the most rigid caution is exercised, the object being to exclude every one who is not desirable. However, admission to membership is not confined to actual agriculturists, but includes many working-men who have acquired a small laud-holding or aspire to do so. The Raiffeisen societies are opposed to levying any entrance fees on their members. Liability of Individual Members. Credit societies of this type entail unlimited liability on their members. In a society with unlimited liability the members undertake liability for the indebtedness of the society to its creditors directly to the extent of the whole of their property. This liability is individual and collective. On the strength of this collective liability the bank obtains its credit. If a society is dissolved within six months after the retirement or exclusion of a member, such cessation of membership is null and void. Rights of Members—General Meeting. The rights of the individual members are exercised through the meeting of members, usually called the general meeting. The general meeting elects all officers of the society, adopts and alters by-laws and regulations. It has full control of the nature of the business of the society, and is the highest authority in all questions concerning its conduct and welfare. Each member is allowed one vote, and only one vote, on every question coming before the meetings of the society. Women members may only vote by proxy. A member is only permitted to cast one vote by proxy in addition to his own vote. The average paid-up capital per member amounts to about $4. Raiffeisen favoured a maximum of $2.50. No member is allowed to hold more than one share. In later years there has, however, been a tendency to increase the amount of the shares in order to obtain a larger working capital. Management of Local Associations. The regulations of these societies provide for three.divisions of administration:— (3.) A committee of management: (2.) A board of supervision which supervises the conduct of affairs: (3.) The general meeting, which elects the committee of administration and is the highest authority in all matters concerning the society. Each Provincial branch has its own advisory committee elected by the various local boards of control and management. Council and committee members receive no remuneration either in the form of salary or commission. The only salary paid is generally that to the cashier. All expenses are kept as low as possible. The average cost of management per bank is about $3.50, amounting to an average percentage of 0.3S, with a maximum of 0.53 and a minimum of 0.04. The federated societies are so well organized that this threefold management—board of management, board of supervision, and general meeting—in practice works very smoothly and efliciently. Working Capital. The associations are loan associations, and the sole instrument which they employ is credit. The working capital of a society is made up of— (3.) The owned capital, consisting of share capital, entrance fees, and reserve: (2.) Deposits of members and non-members: (3.) Specific loans from individuals or banks. To increase the working capital Raiffeisen adopted the method of writing all profits over to a reserve fund rather than increasing the shares. In 1909 the aggregate net profits were over $2,000,000. This is sufficient evidence of the flourishing condition of these institutions. Seven- eighths of the profits made were added to the reserve fund. The reserve fund, which little by little has grown up in course of time, has become a rock of strength to the associations. From 4 Geo. 5 Royal Commission on Agriculture. 241 this fund is met such deficiencies as only with hardship individual members could be called on to bear. Secondly, this fund is intended to supply the place of borrowed capital. The aggregate working capital of these banks in tbe entire German Empire amounted in 1909 to over $450,000,000, distributed as follows :— Amount. Per Cent, of Total. Share capital .. Reserve Deposits, current Savings deposits Other liabilities . $ 5,400,000 11,700,000 44,100,000 33S,400,000 50,400,000 1.2 2.6 9.G 75.2 11.2 Thus it is seen that an enormous business is safely carried on the basis of a very small capital, and that 89 per cent, of the working capital was provided by the savings of the farmers themselves. Loan Regulations. Loans are granted mostly on promissory notes or personal bonds hacked by two sureties. No loan is granted without considering the justification of the object of the loan and the capacity of the borrower to meet his obligation promptly. The maximum loan that may be granted to a member is restricted by each society individually. It varies in the different societies from about $2,000 to $50,000. The loans are granted for at least one year, and generally in accordance with the needs of each particular case. The instalments are frequently fixed in accordance with the length of time for which the loan is granted, and in accordance with the object of the loan, but borrowers are entitled to repay the entire loan or any portion thereof at any time. Often a loan is granted for the purpose of acquiring more land, in which case the money is obtained on longer terms, and the borrower's laud is then charged with a " caution mortgage " (collateral). The rate of interest on deposits paid by these banks generally exceeds the interest paid by the loan and savings bank of the districts. The rate of interest charged by the rural loan societies varies from 4 to 5 per cent. Even in times of " dear money " the members of these societies are able to borrow money at reasonable rates. It is a fixed policy of these associations to make borrowing difficult. Every one who needs money for increased production can get it, but he must first prove that he is trustworthy and that his undertaking is financially justifiable. With such proof the poorest member can get money; without it the richest applicant would be refused. Independent Movements. Besides the societies organized under the National Federation, there are several independent federations, of which the Wurtemberg Federation, embracing 1,3S3 societies, is the most important. Under the guidance of William Hass there have arisen other institutions which do not accept the Raiffeisen principles in the full strictness. They have formed a federation with headquarters at Darmstadt. Centralisation. The federation founded in 1S77 by Raiffeisen and the federation founded in 1SS3 with headquarters at Darmstadt long led a separate existence, each propagating its own ideas. However, in 1905 they became affiliated under a joint National Federation, consisting of 1S,962 societies (1910), including seventy-eight central co-operative credit societies, besides about 6,000 other co-operative societies. The local societies are indirectly attached to this federation through the central Provincial banks to which they belong. 242 British Columbia. 1914 Total Business. The following table shows the amount of business done by the banks of the National Federation in 3909:— Aggregate Figures. Average per Bank. Number of banks of which particulars are given. Membership Total business done (incomings and outgoings) . Total liabilities Paid-up share capital Reserve funds Deposits in hand at end of year Loans outstanding at end of year Loans granted during the year 12,014 1,163,1S6 $839,440,000 461,500,000 5,306,000 12,230,000 40S,725,000 362,025,000 216,290,000 92 $S4,720 36,820 425 970 33,200 2S,6S0 17,140 The central banks may be said to fulfil the same functions for local societies as these perform for the individual members. The following table will show the amount of business done by provincial and national banks in 1909:— Aggregate Figures for Provincial Banks. National Bank for Co-operative Societies (Darmstadt). Central Agricultural Loan Bank of Germany (Berlin). Aggregate Figures for Provincial General Banks. No. of banks of which par ticulars are given 36 1 1 3S 10,987 50 4,399 15,430 Sum guaranteed by the liability of the members $ 04,039,000 $ 1,200,000 $ 2,059,000 $ G7,29S,000 Total business done (in comings and outgoings).. 1,179,120,000 196,44S,000 1SS,929,000 1,504,497,000 Total liabilities 62,075,000 5,158,000 4,237,000 23 ,S76,000 SS.ISS.OOO Paid-up share capital .... 1,200,000 2,069,000 S,427,000 1,037,000 2,060 170.S00 1,209.S60 Deposits from local co-oper ative societies in hand at end of year 44,952,000 2.363,000 19,292,000 06,607,000 Loans to local co-operative societies outstanding at end of year 43,000,000 2,562,000 17,915,000 62,407,000 Loans granted during year 175,851,000 45,940,000 221,791,000 The following table shows the development of the rural banks in Germany during twenty years:— Year. Number. Year. Number. 1S90 1S95 1900 1,729 4,872 9,793 1905 1910 13,181 15,517 4 Geo. 5 Royal Commission on Agriculture. 243 The rural banks make loans of two kinds, loans on current accounts and loans for fixed periods. At the end of 3909 the loans to the members were distributed as follows:— Loans on current accounts Loans on fixed period Amount. $104,200,000 259,700,000 $363,900,000 Percentage of Total. 2S.3 71.7 100.0 This shows that in all the banks there is a tendency to extend the practice of giving loans on current accounts. The Raiffeisen banks in Germany did in 3910 a total business of over $1,600,000,000. The credit societies frequently combine the banking business with co-operative undertakings for the purpose of buying supplies at wholesale prices, improving production, and marketing the farmers' products. Safety of the Rural Banks. During the period of the sixteen years from 1S95 to 1910 the total number of rural credit societies in Germany with limited or unlimited liability that were involved in bankruptcy were nineteen. Compared with urban co-operative credit societies, this result is very favourable. Of the latter, there are only one-tenth the number of rural societies, yet in fourteen years there were among them sixty-nine cases of bankruptcy. In comparison with ordinary commercial banking the contrast is still greater. According to carefully secured statistics the frequency of such business failures compares as one to fifty-five. The security of the depositors' money is safeguarded in the following ways:— (1.) The societies confine their operations to small areas and to well-secured transactions : (2.) The management is controlled by the board of supervision : (3.) The majority of the members have an intimate knowledge of each other and of the affairs of the society : (4.) Unlimited liability of all the members of the society: (5.) No society is permitted to extend its business beyond the collective solvency. The management is apt to be more careful under a system of unlimited liability, as the members will exert continual vigilance over the safety of an institution in which the safety of their whole possession is involved. The collective knowledge possessed by the committee of management is not likely to be at fault, and the collective surveillance of the board of supervision is certain to be effective in eliminating the danger of any risk for the security of the loans. Each branch office is required to send every week to the Central Bank a return of its transactions and holdings in each case, and every month a full return showing the whole state of its business. In addition, each society is subjected annually to a minute -inspection by a committee nominated by the council of inspection for the Central Bank. • As an extra precaution the central office employs a body of auditors travelling from association to association to examine and inspect the whole business at least once every two years. Summing up the advantages of the Raiffeisen societies, they are found to be:— (3.) Cheap and efficient administration: (2.) Low rate of interest: (3.) Absolute security. Local Achievements. It may here be of interest to note the extent to which these societies have endeavoured to promote the general social and moral welfare of the communities where they operate. This will best be done by a list of their activities in that direction (190S) :— (1.) For raising the level of popular education: 45S libraries; 237 continuation schools; 96 Raiffeisen evening clubs; 23 juvenile clubs; 24 village institutes (meeting- halls, etc.) : (2.) For the benefit of children: 10S infant schools; 1S1 children's savings banks: 244 British Columbia. 1914 (3.) For the sick: 357 village nurses; 20 ambulance corps and Samaritan funds; 32 sets of surgical appliances : (4.) For the general benefit of members: 329 death benefit funds; 103 cattle insurance societies; 309 accident funds; 33 sick funds: (5.) For various objects of public utility: 330 fire brigades; 49 telephone services; 20 veterinary pharmacies; 70 hearses; 52 cases where protection or help (veterinary and other) in the event of disease, etc., was afforded: (G.) Appliances for use in cultivation, on steadings, and in barns: 3,S70 machines, implement and other agricultural equipment. Evidently the object of the establishment of these banks has been achieved as far as could reasonably be expected. The result has been a perfectly balanced system of credit, eliminating all usury, all waste, and every factor which demands payment without having contributed a proportional share of service. In spite, however, of its intrinsic value iu all essential respects, socially as well as economically, this system would apparently not be adaptable to conditions in a country where the residents have lived but a short time, and in many cases belong to different nationalities. In such a country there would not exist that traditional solidarity or intimate mutual knowledge which a credit system of this type would require. The Schulze Delitzsch System. The development of this system proves the adaptability of co-operative ideas to suit various conditions. Schulze has stated that the problem which he had set himself to solve was how to obtain the use of borrowed money without a capital guarantee, and so far the problem was identical with that solved by Raiffeisen in the societies founded by him. Urban Credit Societies. The Schulze Delitzsch societies operate in large urban communities, where members are not able to supervise personally the safety of each investment nor the operations of the entire association. To those societies unlimited liability would therefore not be the same source of strength as it is to the Raiffeisen societies, which operate in small rural communities, and limited liability is therefore most frequently adopted. On the other hand, and for that very reason, these associations must lay stress on obtaining as large a capital by shares as possible. Favouring limited liability, they are especially adapted to meet the needs of the small employer of labour. They distribute dividends and reject the principle of unpaid management. Like the Raiffeisen banks, the Schulze Delitzsch societies deprecate the exercise of State control over their affairs, and they receive, therefore, no State aid. The special features of these banks may be summarized as follows:— («.) The area of their operations is chosen with a view to the maintenance of a bank with a regular banking business and a paid office staff. They are therefore established in towns and cover wide districts: (b.) Their usefulness to small farmers is thereby diminished: (c.) Their large membership excludes the possibility of intimate mutual relation between members: (d.) They are profit-seeking. The membership is large; in some societies up to 12,000: (e.) It is their object to make large dividends, and they therefore seek the more profitable business: (/.) They have a tendency to develop into ordinary commercial banks. As stated above, the Schulze Delitzsch banks confine their business to small tradesmen, whom the commercial banks regard as an annoyance. ■ Only 26.57 per ceut. of the membership in 1910 were agriculturists. Generally the area of their function is not restricted, but gives them a wide scope for operation. In 1911 the Provincial federations included, besides other co-operative societies, 973 credit societies. It is held by these banks that, as they have easy access to the money market, the affiliation to one central bank would rather be a hindrance to their operations than a facility. They carry on business with any bank that suits their convenience. When large amounts are needed they are generally obtained from the Dresden Bank, with which bank they have a special agreement. 4 Geo. 5 Royal Commission on Agriculture. 245 Regulations. The office staff of these associations are experienced accountants chosen with great carefulness. They are experts who devote their entire time to the work. Great care is also exercised in the selection of members with respect to sobriety, thrift, and general reliability. The association demands a membership fee of from $1 to $2.50. The first share instalment is no less than $10. The Darmstadt Federation favours shares of $125. Most of the societies have fixed the shares at an amount from $50 to $100, though frequently it is as low as $20. The amount may be paid at once, in half-yearly instalments, or even in small monthly payments. All members can obtain credit whether they have paid their full share or not. Each member may acquire more than one share, but is not allowed more than oue vote. The shares are non-transferable, except in the case of a surviving widow. In 3930 the net profit of the Schulze Delitzsch banks was $45,000,000, of which amount the greater portion was distributed as profits. The dividends vary usually from 0 to 3.0 per cent., the average dividend being S.6 per cent.; nineteen banks distributed 3.9 per cent, and one bank 25 per cent. Liability. It has already been pointed out that the Schulze Delitzsch associations question the advantage of unlimited liability. They allow each association to determine for itself which form of liability is most suitable for its particular needs. The founder of the system, Schulze, was a convinced advocate of limited liability, but the present leaders of the organizations hold that the superiority of the one principle over the other depends entirely on conditions prevailing in each particular locality, and the proportion of societies of the Schulze Delitzsch type abandoning the principle of unlimited liability is constantly increasing. Working Capital. The working capital of these associations is composed of funds raised on shares and savings deposits. They invariably start with a paid-up capital. The interest paid on deposits is the same as generally prevails in the locality, but members generally receive y2 per cent, higher interest on deposit than non-members. The urban societies of this type aimed from the beginning at providing a large share capital. They therefore adopt shares of a high nominal value and insist on payment in regular instalments. Amount of Agricultural Loans. The amount of agricultural credit afforded by these institutions is indicated by the following statistics supplied by the Federation of Agricultural Credit Associations in Baden for 1931:— Out of a total of $382,000,000 invested in Baden, there is loaned to farmers $30,960,000. While the proportion of the capital invested in farm loans appears small, yet while the ninety- two Schulze Delitzsch societies with 83,000 members supplied agricultural credit to the amount of $30,960,000, 437 Raiffeisen societies in Baden with 65,000 members, supplying a preponderating portion of their deposits to agricultural credit, furnished only a total amount of $23,280,000. The total amount of loans granted by the Schulze Delitzsch societies in the entire country during 1910 was over $3,000,000,000, and the total turnover $3,920,000,000; reserve funds, $22,604,000; share capital, $51,919,000. There is also a number of independent banks of this type in Germany. The feature which chiefly distinguishes Schulze Delitzsch associations from the Raiffeisen societies is the rejection of unlimited liability as a fundamental principle. It is now generally conceded that, although unlimited liability for a co-operative bank in its earliest stages unquestionably may be a substantial help in securing a large credit, nevertheless a bank which has once been fairly put on its feet may very well dispense with it, and a bank which by success has become strong is better without it. The adoption of limited or unlimited liability is therefore not so much a matter of principle as it is a matter of expedience. FRANCE. Among the European countries France was somewhat late in completing plans for agricultural credit, for which the Bank of France, on account of legal restriction, had not been able to 240 British Columbia. 1914 provide satisfactorily. The French people were thus able to profit by the experience of other nations, and embody in the systems adopted the approved principles of successful patterns. To a great extent the German Landschaft has served as a model for the Credit Foncier. A plan was developed to form a stock company under Government control able to supply mortgage credit by raising the necessary funds for the loans on shares and debentures. In the " Credit Agricole " societies the main features of the other famous German credit system, the Raiffeisen principles, have been adjusted to the needs of a short-term loan system for France. land mortgage credit. The Bank of France. The Bank of France is a bank of issue. It was instituted by Napoleon a century ago, and the chief object of its provisions is to make the notes emitted absolutely safe. Subject to the legal restrictions under which it is placed, the bank has always made every effort to assist agriculture. These restrictions and the main object for which this bank has been created make it impossible for the bank directors to supply the needs of agricultural credit. To overcome the legal restrictions which limits notes discounted to ninety days, the bank, in dealing with farmers, and in order to supply a limited agricultural credit generally makes the notes renewable every three months. The chief difficulty which the Bank of France encounters in serving the farmers with individual credit is that the law does not recognize agriculture as a trade, and consequently the laws covering bankruptcy do not apply to the farmer. It is therefore difficult for a bank to discount notes for a farmer. However, the bank has set aside a fund for rural credit in spite of the legal difficulties, and during the last ten years $100,000,000 has been loaned to farmers individually. Organisation. The bank has established branches in all towns of at least 8,000 inhabitants; altogether 570 branches, through which it accommodates the farmers as far as possible under the existing legal restrictions. A still greater service is furnished the agricultural industry by this bank in rediscounting the bills and drafts discounted by the regional banks. It further provides the Government with funds with which to supply the needs of the rural credit banks. In this way the Bank of France has supplied $26,000,000 for agricultural purposes. Credit Foncier. The famous Credit Foncier de France was formed by the amalgamation of three loaning societies that had been created in 1S52. The bank was placed under Government control and given many privileges. It is still practically the only land credit bank in France. Its connection with the Government is very close, and it has been granted freedom of various mortgage charges, as well as speedy legal proceedings and several other valuable privileges. In 3S00 Credit Foncier was authorized to grant loans to agricultural associations and communes. In 1S58 this bank had been able to grant loans for $20,000,000 for the completion of a large and profitable drainage enterprise which the Government had hesitated about carrying out. The war of 1S70-71 had no effect on its credit, and even the failure of an affiliated society through poor management did not shake the Credit Foncier. In 1S79 the first country agents- were appointed and enormous demands for loans poured in. Administration. The Credit Foncier is organized chiefly on the same principles as the German Landschaften.. The bank is administered by a governor and two sub-governors appointed for life by the President of the Republic, and by three directors who must be high officials. The three first named must be shareholders and they receive high salaries. 4 Geo. 5 Royal Commission on Agriculture. 247 Capital Stock. The capital stock must never be less than one-twentieth of the bank's debentures. At present the bank is authorized to issue shares of $100 each to the amount of $50,000,000. Within the limit, as fixed by Act from time to time, the share capital has been gradually augmented in order to maintain the required proportion between share capital and capital realized on the bonds in circulation. Since 193.2 the number of shares is 450,000. The dividend at present is $0.50 on shares of $100 each. But the shares are worth $1S0 in the open market. Debentures. The money raised on debentures are repayable in annuities over a maximum period of seventy-five years. The debentures are issued in series and the smallest denomination is $20. The bonds of the various series draw interest at 3 or 3% per cent, per annum. They may be bought by instalments, and this feature makes them a very popular form of investment in France. They are largely held by farmers and middle-class people. The issue of 1932 of $20,000,000 at 3 per cent., payable within seventy years, was oversubscribed eighteen times. The 3-per-ceut. bonds are selling at 90.0 per cent. The 3M!-per-cent. bonds sell at 97.4. The debentures are payable to bearer. Trust and public funds may be invested in them. Debentures may be recalled by the bank at option. In each issue a certain number are repayable by lot-drawing. To this lot-drawing prizes are attached. A bond may, for instance, be drawn out for recall with as high a prize as $40,000. This is a very popular feature of the system. This bond capital has been created to provide funds for the loans. The purpose of the share capital is to serve as a guarantee of the land-credit operations of the bank. Lioan Regulations. The transactions of the Credit Foncier are made under two headings:— (1.) Loans on mortgage security: (2.) Loans to municipalities. Mortgage loans are made under three forms:— (1.) Short-term loans on mortgages for a term not exceeding nine years. These loans are not amortizable: (2.) Long-term loans running from ten to seventy years. They are payable by amortization: (3.) By the opening of a mortgage line of credit. This is granted for a maximum period of nine years and can be drawn upon as an ordinary bank account. The mortgage loans must be first lien and the amount not larger than one-half of the value, and only one-third the valuation of orchards, vineyards, and similar properties. Further, it must be proven that the property yields a sure and durable income. The bank receives deposits from members and usually pays interest at a rate a little under 4 per cent.; the rate on loans cannot exceed the rate on bonds with more than % of 1 per cent. Borrowers usually pay 4.45 per cent., which provides for interest, expenses, and profit. On account of money stringency the present rate is 4.65 per cent, on loans to individuals. Loans to municipalities are made at a rate of interest 1 per cent, lower. In addition to the interest paid semi-annually, borrowers pay an amortization charge varying in accordance with the length of the period for which the loan has been arranged. The period runs from ten to seventy years, and consequently the annuities are often insignificant. The loan is always given to the farmer in cash. He receives the full amount of his mortgage less registration charges, and has nothing to do with the bonds. In this respect the Credit Foncier differs from the German Landschaften. After the dividend has been paid there is set aside an amount of from 5 to 20 per cent, of the balance of profits each year for the obligatory reserve fund. Since its beginning the Credit Foncier has loaned more than $1,800,000,000, and at the present time has outstanding $1,000,000,000. Merits of System. The Credit Foncier was the first institution which provided cheap credit and amortization repayment for the farmers in France, and it is yet the only land credit society authorized. The 17 248 British Columbia. 1914 bank owes its success to its intrinsic merits—the sinking fund principle and its system of mortgage debentures. So far it resembles the Landschaften. But it differs from the Landschaften in being composed of dividend-seeking capitalists. It is also authorized to receive deposits, which it uses for short-term loans. From an agricultural point of view, the real merits of the Credit Foncier lie in its long- term loans on land. The system has proved successful iu supplying credit to farmers seeking to improve their lands. personal security loans. Credit Agricole. Though organized agricultural credit on personal security is of recent origin in France, yet the authorities have succeeded in making the institution effective by providing the rural credit associations with considerable pecuniary assistance, and the highly organized society called Credit Agricole is considered the backbone of the prosperity of the French farmer. This association was established by an Act of 1S94 in the face of the opposition of practically all the great financial institutions. The Act authorized the creation of Caisses Locales and Caisses Regionales (local and district banks), and provided the funds necessary to float the entire project. It is this Act which gives French agricultural credit its professional, mutual, and decentralized character. Organisation. It was a guiding principle in the organization of this form of French rural credit that the structure of the system should arise on the basis of rural democracy. For this reason the agricultural syndicates were made the foundation of the system. The syndicates bad been organized under an Act of 1SS4. They were firmly established and formed a valuable nucleus for the creation of a credit system. Thus the farmers are themselves the men behind Le Credit Agricole. The Government showed them how to band themselves together into local mutual societies, provided the means, and left them in control of the machine. To become member of an agricultural bank the applicant must justify his title as farmer by producing proof that he is a member of an agricultural professional syndicate. Of these, there are 5,000 societies in France with about 200,000 members. Mode of Organizing. Before starting a Caisse Locale there must be at least seven chartered members, who all must be agriculturists and all members of the syndicates. They subscribe a certain number of shares. At the meeting called for the organization of a local society those present elect a council of five to pass on all applications for loans. All members become jointly liable for the mutual obligations of the society. The shares are from $4 to $S each, but only one-fourth of the subscribed share need be paid down. Dividends are only paid after three-fourths of the profits have been written over to a permanent reserve fund. From these regulations it is seen that the societies are based on Raiffeisen ideals, with character instead of property as the chief security. Operations of Credit Agricole. There are two distinct units in this system: (1) Tho local banks (Caisses Locales), and (2) the regional banks (Caisses Regionales). The local banks know the individual members intimately and guarantee the safety of the loan; the regional bank discounts the bills guaranteed by the local society. The functions and operation of these societies may be classified as follows:— (1.) Individual credit: Short-term loans; long-term loans: (2.) Collective credit: Short-term loans; long-term loans : (3.) Receiving deposits and savings, in order to derive the means for agricultural credit from the land itself. 4 Geo. 5 Royal Commission on Agriculture. 249 Under this system agricultural credit is a cheap credit. Credit is assured the farmers at the average interest for loans in their district. It is further a personal credit, in that it is granted in consideration of the personal character of the debtor and the usefulness of the purpose for which the loan is desired. Regulations. Unlike the local societies, the regional banks are established by the State, and are conducted under the control of the central organization. For the sake of organizing these societies France has been divided into thirty-seven districts. In order that a Caisse Regionale may be formed, two-thirds of the capital agreed upon must be subscribed by a number of Caisses Locales acting in conjunction. The remaining one-third of the stock may be subscribed by individuals. The operations of a regional bank generally covers an entire " department," and around it are grouped the local banks, which if isolated in their limited sphere might otherwise lose their vitality. The regional banks receive their capital from the local societies, and are thereafter entitled to borrow from the State free of interest an amount equal to four times their subscribed capital for short loans, and in addition twice their capital for long-term loans. By Government assistance the capital of the regional banks may thus be increased sixfold. These institutions are banks in every sense of the word and do all kinds of banking business. Relation to the Bank of France. To make these banks effective factors in the economic rural life of France, the Government decided on a plan by which to place large funds at their disposal. It happened that just at the time when these credit societies were designed the charter of the Bank of France was about to expire (1S95). The Government demanded as a condition of its renewal that the bank should lend without interest a sum of $8,000,000 for agricultural purposes, and in addition furnish an annual sum in the form of tax for the same purpose. In this way $30,000,000 has been placed at the disposal of French farmers free of interest, to which about $3,000,000 is added annually. Besides distributing the money for credit purposes to the local banks, the regional banks fill the function of endorsing the farmers' notes already endorsed by the local bank. When thus endorsed they may be discounted by the Bank of France, which requires three signatures on bills to be discounted. Describing this system of credit, Giovanni Lorenzoni, Secretary of the International Agricultural Institute at Rome, writes:— Short-term agricultural credit in France is a credit in bills acceptable by banks. It is not given in the form of advance upon security, but by means of bills payable to order, drafts, or any bill ■discountable by the Bank of France; that is to say, bills covered by at least three signatures and not more than ninety days date, unless renewed. By the signature of the borrower and the endorsement of the local society and of the regional bank, agricultural credit is now more easily verifiable than any other, generally speaking. Loan Regulations. The Caisses Regionales prefer to discount bills rather than to grant loans to the local banks. In 1910 the regional banks discounted bills to the amount of $33,000,000 and only granted loans for $240,000. 0 A member of a Caisse Locale may borrow an amount proportionate with his stock subscription. He can borrow from ten to twenty times the amount of his subscription and a loan can be arranged in a few days. When the loan has been granted by the Caisse Locale, the application is sent, to the Caisse Regionale, which at once forwards the money to the borrower. The system is marked by an entire absence of legal formality. It is noted, however, that many regional banks trusting to State aid are not sufficiently careful to make their repayments when due, and neglect to form resources of their own by efforts to attract deposits. By closer inspection and supervision the authorities are trying to remedy these defects. The period of the loans varies, but the favourite period is three months, subject to two renewals. However, the Act of 1910 gives the associations the power to grant loans to their members for periods exceeding three months, and limited to twenty years. Though the Act providing the latter form of credit has only been iu force a few years, .already $2,400,000 have been loaned under the system of long-term individual credit. In the 250 British Columbia. 1914 interest of the small holder it has been determined that the maximum loan shall be $1,600, and a loan be allowed to run for a maximum period of fifteen years. These loans are generally drawing interest at 2 per cent, and are extinguished by amortization. The Act under which these long-term loans are made is too recent to allow its applicability to be judged by results, yet there is every indication that it will act as a stimulus to the agricultural industry in France. Collective Long-term Ijoans. In order to secure for the small holder the benefit of co-operative purchasing, the Government has undertaken to provide facilities by which collective long-term credit may be obtained. This form of credit is calculated to benefit the farmers through the agricultural syndicates, the mutual insurance societies against risk in agriculture, and the co-operative societies for production, manufacture, and sale of agricultural produce. All such undertakings are assured the capital necessary for their business. These loans are granted to co-operative societies for the following purposes: Production, manufacturing, preservation, and sale of agricultural produce; acquisition, construction, installation, adaptation of buildings, workshops, storehouses, carriage material, purchase and use of machines and implements necessary for the operation of collective agricultural enterprises. The loans are advanced at a uniform rate of from 1% to 2 per cent, annual interest for a period of twenty-five years. The regulations under which these loans are granted may be summed up as follows :— (3.) The shares of the members must be in their own name: (2.) The maximum number of votes of each member must correspond with the number of shares held by him: (3.) The rules for the payment of dividend and for the creation of a reserve fund in the Credit Agricole must be complied with. Amount of Business. In ten years (3932) the number of these societies has increased from S7 to 3,150. The number of regional banks from 9 to 97; the number of members from 2,175 to 200,000. The amount of loans granted and the sums advanced from the State has in the same period increased from $3S2,000 to $21,000,000 and from $322,000 to $11,000,000 respectively. From 1900-10 these banks have placed $60,000,000. There are now 100 regional banks of the Credit Agricole system. The number of local banks is about 4,000, with a subscribed capital of nearly $4,000,000 and outstanding loans amounting to over $12,000,000. About 1,000 of these banks have adopted unlimited liability, while the other 3,000 have abandoned this principle, so universally accepted by the rural banks in Germany. Since its beginning Le Credit Agricole has lent $300,000,000, of which $2,400,000 was for long-term loans; the remainder for short-term loans. As these societies have access to the Bank of France, they will not be embarrassed for funds after they have exhausted their local resources. The farmer is thus enabled to continue his operations undisturbed even under a strained money market. The cost of management amounts to 0.32 of the loans. Not a cenj has been lost by tho Credit Agricole since its formation. ITALY. The organization of agricultural Credit in northern Italy is due to a spontaneous movement among the farmers. In middle and southern Italy, however, the movement was so weak that the State had to assist in order to make it effective. The underlying principle of the State's activity has been, wherever possible, to provide the needed credit through the channels of local organization. There are two kinds of rural credit institutions in Italy, which supply agricultural credit for the following purposes:— (a.) Land mortgage credit banks: (&.) Banks loaning on personal security: (1) For permanent improvements; (2) for current expenses. 4 Geo. 5 Royal Commission on Agriculture. 251 By special laws an amount of $15,000,000 has been placed at the disposal of farmers in Italy through various banks and credit institutions. land mortgage loans. Land mortgage credit is at present conducted by a number of institutions which are placed under statutory regulations. These institutions are:— (1.) The Savings Bank of Bologna: (2.) The Savings Bank of Milan: (3.) The Savings Bank of Verona: (4.) The Italian Land Credit Institutions (Rome) : (5.) The Monte Dei Paschi: (6.) The St. Paul's Institution of Charitable Organizations. Some of these banks are authorized to extend their loan operations to the entire kingdom; others are restricted to certain Provinces. Loan Regulations. The loans are repayable on amortization lines if the term exceeds ten years, and the interest charged is 4% to 5 per cent. The amortization period is from ten to fifty years. Land-owners not in immediate need of the full amount of a loan for expenditure may be accommodated by obtaining a cash credit from the banks instead of the usual delivery of bonds. In such cases advances are made in cash from time to time at various rates of interest. This feature has been greatly appreciated by many borrowers. The capital for the loans of the various land credit institutions is obtained by mortgage bonds bearing interest at rates varying from 3% to 5 per cent. This difference of rate is designed in order to lessen the fluctuations in the money market. The following statistics will give an idea of the amount of business carried by these institutions: The banks mentioned had, on December 31st, MOS, outstanding $100,000,000 in rural mortgage security. The total amount of mortgage bonds -was at the same time $95,000,000. personal security loans. The principal credit institutions in Italy organized to supply the farmers with short-term loans on personal security are the rural banks and the popular banks. The former were founded by Leone Wollemborg and have adopted the Raiffeisen principles; the latter were started by Luigi Luzatti, adapting the Schulze Delitzsch system to the special conditions of agriculture in Italy. Rural Banks. The credit for having initiated the movement of agricultural credit banks in Italy unquestionably belongs to Dr. Leone Wollemborg,* who formed the first little village bank in Italy as long ago as in 18S3. The reason why he did not fully succeed in making these banks a national feature was that a priest, Don Cerutti, borrowed the idea and gave it a religious character. The Roman Catholic banks have outnumbered the Wollemborg banks, thus creating a schism between the sectarian and the neutral banks. The rural banks (both sectarian and neutral) have all been established after the pattern of the Raiffeisen societies ; that is, on the principle of unlimited joint responsibility. The funds for the beginning of the bank, $400, were contributed by the founder. But the banks soon gained the support of the savings banks. In the thirty years of their relation the savings banks have not lost 1 cent on account of the assistance they have given these societies. Sectarian and Neutral Banks. While all these societies are modelled on the Raiffeisen principles, the Wollemborg banks are neutral in religious matters; the sectarian banks demand adherence to the doctrine and practice of the Roman Catholic Church. Speaking of this subject, L. Wollemborg has said:— It should be quite clearly understood that the neutral banks are not anti-Catholic, but simply non-sectarian. They do not inquire into the religious beliefs of their members. On the other hand, the Catholic banks only grant loans to practising members of the Church. ■ * Ex-Minister of the Treasury. 252 British Columbia. 1914 The defect of the Liberal party is that when its members come together to do something they always start iu discussing. The strength of the Catholic party is that when its members get together to do something they obey. In this way the Catholic party has won the day. On the whole, the competition between the Catholic banks and the neutral banks has been advantageous to the people. Each party has acted as a stimulus and a control over the other. It has been stated on good authority that the Catholic small credit banks have their origin at Bergamo. In this part of Italy the small credit business has grown to large proportion. Most of the rural banks in this Province are organized by the Roman Catholic Church, and all the members thereof are members in good standing of that Church. Usually the priest is at the head of the bank, keeps the hoofs, and has the guiding hand in its affairs. Altogether two-thirds of the entire number of rural banks in Italy are sectarian. Regulations. The members of the rural banks take no shares and receive no dividends. For working capital they avail themselves of deposits and loans; the accumulated profit forms a reserve. The rate of interest is reduced so low as just to be sufficient to cover the general expense. The members are liable for the obligations of the society to the full extent of their property. In respect to territory the banks are limited to the parish, or commune, and grouped around central banks, who supervise them and act as their clearing-house. The area of operation of a rural bank is about 25 square kilometres. The cost of establishment is about $12, which includes books and requisites. Rules of Membership. Members of these banks are small agriculturists, proprietors, metayers, and some few day- labourers. About OS per cent, are renters or metayers. Membership is given by assent of the association. The qualifications for membership are chiefly those of character. None but members may borrow from the bank. No member of any of those societies may become a member of another society of a similar character. Working Capital. The source of funds are:— (1.) Savings deposits of members: (2.) Deposits of non-members: (3.) Loans from savings banks. The savings banks make loans to the associations, who become responsible for the loan with their capital if the liability of the members is limited, and if unlimited, with the collective property of all the members. The small rural banks send their bills to the savings bank or to the Agrarian Institute of Latium, with which they are affiliated, and the bank discounts the hills, for which service it charges 1 per cent. The intermediary society may also charge 1 per cent, discount in addition to the interest paid for deposits on loans. For instance, the rural credit societies in the neighbourhood of Naples receive their capital from the Bank of Naples at 3% to 4 per cent., and loan to members at from 4% to 5 per cent, interest. Loan Regulations. The purpose of each loan must be stated by the applicant and approved by the local society. The limit of duration is for short-term loans two years, and for long-term loans ten years. However, the average duration of a loan is six months, but these loans are generally renewable from time to time, according to the needs of the borrower. The amount of a loan is not limited by fixed rules. It varies from $2 to $300. In the Bank of Bologna the minimum loan is $1; the maximum loan is $300. In exceptional cases this may be increased to $400. The average loan is about $100. Interest to depositors is 3% to 4 per cent. Interest to borrowers was 5 per cent, up to 1913; at present it is 5% per cent. The highest interest permitted by the Act is 6 per cent. 4 Geo. 5 Royal Commission on Agriculture. 253 Guarantees. The borrower offers first his personal security of integrity. Secondly, he must have as an endorser a man of good character owning property or of financial standing. An additional guarantee for these loans is the stated purposes for which they are made. Public opinion is another psychological factor which goes to ensure the safety of these banks. The heads of families in the village constitute the membership of the rural banks, and they are all interested in seeing that the loans for which they are severally and collectively responsible are safeguarded. There are now 2,000 rural banks in Italy. Though each bank is only a small factor, collectively they constitute an economic force of considerable importance. They are grouped around the various money institutions, which are authorized to supply them with capital. The Bank of Sicily, for instance, maintains 2S0 rural branches, through which the farmers are financed with short-term loans. No State supervision is exercised and no inspection, except that maintained by the Federation of Rural Banks. Small Credit Banks. A number of these banks in northern Italy give particular attention to small credit business (piccolo credito), and some of them take their name from that fact. The Piccolo Credito Romagno (small credit banks of Roinagno) is composed of five branches, seven sub-branches, and seventeen agencies located in small centres. Connected with them are seventy-two rural banks. In 3933 the deposits in the Romagno small credit banks amounted to $S,500,000; its active operations to $7,500,000, share capital $400,000, and net profits $30,000. Popular Banks. These banks preceded the rural banks, but were originally confined to towns. They were originated by Luigi Luzatti as an adaption of the Schulze Delitzsch system. It was in 3.863 that Luzatti began the agitation for a banking system upon the principle that credit must be earned by sound security, and that the financial resources of the common people is of tremendous value when organized. The banks he founded were originally created to meet the demand for credit of the lower and middle classes in the towns, principally the shopkeepers and the industrial classes. However, as soon as the branches of the banks went into the small towns they had to extend their business to the agricultural population, which forms the majority of the inhabitants of such small centres. After that followed an incessant demand for the opening of branch offices in the villages, and these banks began to work for the small land-owners and tenants. Principles of the Popular Banks. Some of Luzatti's leading principles were identical with those on which Raiffeisen founded his system:— (1.) Minimum of risk: (2.) Cheap credit: (3.) Close scrutiny of borrowers: (4.) Short loans: (5.) Object of loan specified and approved: (6.) The establishment of a reserve fund. But the Raiffeisen principle of unlimited liability has been rejected. The popular banks give open accounts for general purposes to the agricultural associations to be used at their discretion, and they give Hues of credit for special purposes, such as the purchase of seeds, live stock, and general farm requirements. Another form in which these banks assist the farmer is by making advances to the rural banks (Wollemborg banks). These small banks could not carry on their work for the farmer if they were not able to get their notes discounted by the people's bank. Special Features. In order further to increase their utility, these banks have from their inception made use of terminable interest-bearing bonds. In this way they have been able to include loans for long 254 British Columbia. 1914 periods, and in this they introduced a new feature in the loaning system. Special also is the feature of granting loans on no other guarantee than " honour." The " character " loans are small amounts lent to working-men exclusively on their reputation for honesty. Management. There is no federal organization of these banks, but the most important of them belong to the Association of Italian Popular Banks, founded by Luzatti, with headquarters in Rome. The administration of these banks is entirely democratic. The directors are selected by the shareholders, and in nearly all cases give their services gratuitously, considering themselves amply remunerated by the moral reward. The affairs of the associations are supervised by auditors, who audit the accounts and are personally responsible to the shareholders. Membership. Each member has only one vote, no matter how many shares he may hold. No member can hold more than $1,000 worth of shares, so that the shares are removed from the sphere of speculation. The profits are almost entirely added to the reserve funds. Amount of Business. In 190S there were 750 of these banks in Italy, with a share capital of $20,000,000 and deposits of $100,000,000, making with a reserve fund a capital of $200,000,000. At present the total capital is $230,000,000. The Popular Bank of Milan is the foremost of these banks, being one of the strongest financial institutions iu Italy. The Government has nothing to do with these banks, except that it requires of them every month a statement of their financial affairs. The popular banks of Italy, together with the rural banks, have acted as the nucleus around which the co-operative movement was organized. For instance, the Popular Bank at Placenza has made possible an amount of co-operative business aggregating, in 1912, $4,000,000, with a capital not exceeding $00,000. This stimulus to agricultural development would have been quite impossible without the aid of the banks. Luzatti thus describes the benefits which organized agricultural credit has brought to Italy :— The small and medium farmers freed themselves from the cruel usury which came to them as an inheritance from their fathers and from their fathers' fathers. Now, after receiving the benefits secured by the savings of the cities rendered prosperous by credit and by technical knowledge, the country has in its turn returned these benefits to the towns; and finally, when large amounts of capital were required for great agrarian drainage-works, the People's Bank of Cremona, for instance, was able to assist with the powerful means at its disposal in facilitating the building of the Villoresi,* which has multiplied over and over again the wealth of the agricultural population. DENMARK. Sixty or seventy years ago it was almost impossible to procure agricultural loans in Denmark, even on the best mortgage security. Adequate credit institutions did not exist, and private persons frequently hoarded their money instead of investing it. The establishment of credit societies has remedied this condition entirely. The bonds of the societies have become the means of exchange and the means of credit. They provide the funds for mortgage loans, while personal credit is obtained mainly through the ordinary banks. land mortgage credit. Credit Associations. The credit associations are mortgage loan associations organized, with very little modification, after the type of the Landschaften system. A society of land-owners has been formed with the object of borrowing money jointly. The associations here described are created for agricultural credit; special societies have been formed for urban mortgage loans. With the exception of a few unimportant privileges with respect to stamp duties, etc., the State has made no sacrifice for these societies, as has been done in the instance of the Danish cottagers' credit societies. Nevertheless, the Act of 1S50, by which credit societies were established, has been of the greatest benefit to the entire country. " The VilloresI Canal in Lombardy Is one of the monumental irrigation-works of the world. 4 Geo. 5 Royal Commission on Agriculture. 255 Loan Regulations—Bonds. A peculiarity of this system is that the borrower does not receive cash from the bank for the amount of his loan, but securities of the company, the face value of which equals the amount of the loan. These securities the borrower sells in the open market. The value of 4%-per-cent. bonds is at present 102%. "The bonds are disposed of on the Exchange or privately in the same way as any kind of merchandise whose price is subject to rise and fall on a par with the price in the world's market which represents the standard of value also for our own goods." (M. P. Blem, President of the Credit Society of Estate Owners for the Danish Island Districts.) In this respect the methods differ from those obtaining in France and Germany. In Denmark the bonds are directly handed to the borrower, who then disposes of them. In France he receives the amount of his loan in cash, and the Credit Foncier disposes on its own account of a corresponding amount of securities, while in Germany the Landschaften bank acts as the borrower's agent, and he receives the market value of the bonds, less a small percentage charged as brokerage. Loan Regulations. A farmer cannot loan more than 00 per cent, of the value of his property. The minimum loan was $325 for the Jutland associations, and $160 for the Island association. Later the Small Holders' Credit Society was established, fixing the minimum loan at $27. The term of amortization is sixty years. Interest, amortization, and other charges amount to 5 per cent, annually, which total charge is made up of 4%.per cent, interest, 0.34 per cent, for amortization, and 0.16 per cent, for cost of management, reserve fund, and loss. Though the borrower is obliged to repay the loan by semi-annual instalments, he has the option of repaying sooner by the purchase of securities of the association, and can avail himself of favourable market conditions. Outstanding Loans. There are altogether fourteen Danish credit associations (including urban associations). The total amount of mortgage loans outstanding in those associations is $436,000,000 (3932), the total reserve fund being $3.7,900,000. The outstanding loans of the agricultural credit societies on March 31st, 3.932, were as follows:— For Jutland $302,000,000 Reserve fund 3,S20,000 For the Island districts 132,000,000 Reserve fund 3,780,000 For West Jutland 36,450,000 Reserve fund 1,350,000 For Funeii 11,070,000 Credit institutions for country estates in the Island Districts .... 35,240,000 Reserve fund S43.000 Small Holders' Credit Society— For Islands 10,900,000 Reserve fund 453,000 Credit societies for Jutland 35,100,000 Reserve fund 1,240,000 Credit societies for South-west Jutland S,100,000 Reserve fund 350,000 Credit societies for municipalities 5,070,000 Reserve fund 45,000 The Government control and supervision over these societies quickly secured public confidence and has contributed greatly to their success. Small Holders' Credit Associations. As mentioned above, these societies were organized to meet the needs of the small laud- holders, which had not been provided for by the credit associations. The Government guarantees 25(! British Columbia. 1914 the quarterly payment of interest and amortization charges. It contributes the amount of expense incurred in valuing property to the extent of about $4 for each transaction. The associations are allowed to lend an amount not exceeding 00 per cent, of the value of houses with farm land, and 50 per cent, on houses without farm land. These associations grant loans not exceeding $3,000 and not smaller than $27. Supervision. The Government names and pays one or two auditors for each association. The State's expenses were, in 3931-32, $22,950. The losses in connection with guaranteeing these loans have been so small that they are hardly worth while mentioning. In this connection it should be noted that the Government guarantee for the bonds of the small holder's associations has maintained them 1 or 2 per cent, higher in the money market than quoted for the bonds of any other Danish credit association. Savings Banks. The first Danish savings banks were commenced at the beginning of the nineteenth century. They were started as philanthropic undertakings of a rather private character, but have in the course of their development become semi-public institutions. The depositors exercise no control or supervision of any kind over those banks. The Government, however, without exercising actual control over them, audits their books. A travelling auditor appointed by the Government inspects them once a year or every two years. Administration. The directors have no public appointment or commission, but are public-spirited men who have agreed among themselves to become directors of the savings hanks. They generally serve without salary, and the board of directors is self-perpetuating. A large amount of agricultural credit is supplied by the savings banks. These banks receive the savings of farmers and city people and loan it on urban and farm mortgage security. Interest and Reserve. The interest charged is about % per cent, higher than the interest paid on deposits, generally 4y> to 5 per cent. Most of the surplus is set aside for the reserve fund. A portion, however, is often used for charitable purposes or benevolent undertakings of a public character—hospitals, orphans' homes, etc. Communal Credit Association. The Communal Credit Association was created by an Act of 1S99. As a general rule, only municipalities may borrow money from this association. Before this organization was founded smaller municipalities had great difficulty in obtaining loans on reasonable terms, notwithstanding their ability to furnish safe security. State Loans to Cottagers. In 1S99 an Act was passed authorizing the Government to assist in the formation of small holdings, and for a period of five years to provide a certain amount annually for such loans. This action has been renewed first for five, and again, later, for ten years. The beneficial effects of the Act are likely to cause it to become permanent. Thus the State has put at the disposal of the people who want to start small farms several millions of dollars. An annual grant of $1,000,000 a year is now made for such loans. The plan is to assist the agricultural labourer to get land, to build a house, and to become independent. Therefore, only the very small holder or men without land can get this State aid, and the borrower has to fulfil certain conditions in order to obtain a loan. He must have worked at least for four years for other farmers. He must prove by testimonials from the community where he lives that he is sober, economical, and industrious, and he must satisfy the authorities that the investment is justified. When these conditions are fulfilled the Government grants a loan, the maximum amount of which is 90 per cent, of the value of the property. The 4 Geo. 5 Royal Commission on Agriculture. 257 funds are administered by a committee appointed for each district and consisting of three members. The loan must be expended under the direction of this committee. The security for these loans0 to the Government is the borrower's character in addition to the holding. The interest charged is 3 per cent. The holdings vary in size, and may be from about one-half to about ten acres. About 6.000 small farms have been established during the period this system has been in operation. The amount that the Government has loaned in this way was, in 1912, $6,750,000. Of this amount, only $2,500, or 0.34 per cent, has been lost. The effect has been to create a class of wideawake small holders out of a class of men who, without this assistance, largely would have remained agricultural labourers without opportunity to improve their condition. HOLLAND. Before any positive action was taken in Holland a great deal had been written about the unsatisfactory condition of agricultural credit in that country. It was the Peasants' League that first approached the subject in an effective manner. Soon after the federation of that League had been organized in 1S96, commissions were appointed in the various Provinces for the purpose of establishing a system of rural banks. LAND MORTGAGE CREDIT. The prevailing system of mortgage credit in Holland is yet antiquated and defective. It is expensive, and there are no guarantees against premature foreclosure. In 3931, out of a total mortgage debt of $300,000,000 in the whole country, $29,000,000 was placed on farm property, of which only $3,S00,000 came from mortgage banks. The Eindhoven Mortgage Bank. The Mortgage Bank at Eindhoven was incorporated in 3908 to relieve the Raiffeisen banks of the necessity of making long-term loans. Its management has been temporarily entrusted to the Central Savings Bank. The branches of the Eindhoven Central Co-operative Bank are admitted to membership. This Mortgage Bank is incorporated with a capital of $400,000. of which $SO,000 was subscribed by the central and the local savings banks. Shares. There are 230 shares divided among the affiliated rural banks. The amount of each share is $400. The dividend on the stock was about 2% per cent, in 1910. Loans. Before the mortgage loan is granted it must be consented to by the local society and endorsed by the Central Bank. If consent is given, the farmer receives the money directly from the local bank. The loan is paid either in cash or in mortgage bonds, which bonds bear 4% per cent., their market value being a little above par, about 300y2. Loans are generally not granted for more than 50 per cent, of the assessed valuation of the laud offered as security. In cases where the local association endorses the loan, it may be increased to 06 per cent, of the assessed value. The term of amortization is from five to forty years, but at least 1 per cent, of the principal must be repaid every year on amortizable loans. The borrower has the privilege of lifting any part of the indebtedness at any time. The interest is 4.75 per cent., in addition to which amortization charges are calculated according to the period of amortization. The Government exercises no supervision over the Mortgage Bank. It is only supervised by its own officials. If this system is successfully continued at Eindhoven, it will no doubt be introduced in the rural credit system of the Utrecht section, and be of great advantage, especially to the small landholders. PERSONAL CREDIT. When the rural co-operative banks of Holland were established the leader profited by the experience of other countries, and it was decided at once to form a Central Bank. The local associations are shareholders in the Central Bank, and are responsible for the amount of $S00 in addition to the face value of their shares. 258 British Columbia. 1914 However, it soon became apparent that there existed a divergence of opinion as to certain basic principles, and a division of territory became necessary. In the north, with Utrecht as a centre, there were established non-partizan and non-religious societies; while in trie south the societies grouped around the Central Bank at Eindhoven are an outgrowth of the Peasants' Christian League and remain sectarian. Thus the Eindhoven organization is Roman Catholic; the Utrecht is non-denominational. Co-operative Banks in Utrecht. The Utrecht and the Alkuiaar Banks conform to the principle of co-operation, while the Eindhoven Bank is organized under the " Association Act" of 1S55 as a joint-stock company. The Utrecht and the Alkuiaar Banks limit the responsibility of the members; the Eindhoven Bank has adopted limited liability,* so that, notwithstanding their form of registration as joint-stock companies, the Catholic banks have accepted, at least theoretically, the co-operative principles in a less modified form than is the case with the neutral credit societies. ' At the end of 1S99 the Utrecht Bank was connected with 25S rural loaning societies. At the end of 1910 the number had increased to 317 branches. The deposits were $1,600,000. The reserve fund amounted to $21,000. The transactions between this bank and its branches in 3.930 amounted to about $11,600,000. The capital subscribed was $117,500, of which $7,200 was paid up. The Eindhoven Banks (Joint-stock Companies). At the end of 3930 the Eindhoven Bank had 2S3 branches. The subscribed capital was $222,500, of which $2,020 was paid in. The reserve fund was $20,000. In 1910 the— Total deposits amounted to $1,710,000 Total loans, 3930 311,000 Total transactions 4,370,000 Interest on Loans. The rate of interest on loans to the societies is 1 per cent, higher than on deposits; generally this rate on deposits has been 3.25 per cent.; on loans, 4.25. In 1913 the farmer paid on a loan amortizable over forty years 5.80 per cent, in total charges, being 4.50 per cent, interest, 1.05 per cent, amortization charge, 0.25 per cent, expense. Government Aid. The Government has assisted the credit movement by giving subventions to defray the expenses of the establishment of local societies by lending subventions to the central banks for the supervision of the local branches, and by keeping the central banks under State supervision. Consolidation. Up to the present time the central banks have not been federated. It is recognized that consolidation would be of advantage in distributing the funds according to supply and demand. The Bank Of the Netherlands has agreed to discount the notes issued by the local banks, but would be likely to charge a higher interest than that charged by the central banks on their loans. The matter of finding an adequate source of funds is still unsettled. The situation of agricultural credit in Holland is summed up in the words of C. van den Hurk, Chief Inspector of the Central Raiffeisen Bank at Utrecht:— The peasant population of Holland is beginning by degrees to see the importance of a good and regular means of credit. Nevertheless, we are still very far from the final goal—" A peasants' bank in every village." BELGIUM. Through the activity of co-operative associations in Belgium provision has been made for the two usual forms of agricultural credit—land mortgage credit and credit on personal security. land mortgage credit. Comptoirs Agricoles. Most lands iu Belgium are mortgaged, and these mortgages are redeemable over a certain number of years. The Agricultural Mortgage Bank (Comptoir Agricole) does not loan its own money, but guarantees the loans to the General Savings Bank (a State institution), which then makes the loan. " The Alkmaar Bank imposes unlimited liability. 4 Geo. 5 Royal Commission on Agriculture. 259 Bonds are issued on the mortgages, commonly in denomination of $20. They bear interest at 3.6 per cent. The bonds are not listed in the public market, but sell readily at about par. The borrower gets his money at once, as the bank is selling bonds all the time. Loan Regulations. The mortgages run commonly for thirty years, but the borrower can at any time discharge his indebtedness without having to pay any commission. The individual borrower pays 4% per cent, interest on the loan. In addition to the guarantee of the borrower's security, the Mortgage Bank gives the General Savings Bank its own guarantee. There are fifteen agricultural mortgage banks in Belgium. They loaned, in 1910, $550,000, and had at that time outstanding loans amounting to $2,470,000. The General Savings Bank. The Federal or General Savings Bank is purely official and in no way co-operative. The law places the rural banks in business relation to the General Savings Bank by authorizing it to give credit, limited to $200,000 at 3*4 per cent, iuterest, to such of the rural banks of which it approves, on condition that they are affiliated to a Central Bank. The General Savings Bank gives 3 per cent, interest on its members' deposits, and only accepts individual deposits of more than $200. The Act of 3SS4 on agricultural loans provides not only that the General Savings Bank may loan to farmers through the medium of the rural banks, but also through certain other institutions called agricultural counting-houses. In demanding the guarantee of a Central Bank for all loans to local associations, the General Savings Bank wishes to create a responsible medium with the power of getting reliable information as to the worth of the various societies. The Central Bank would refuse to become liable for the loans unless assured that the management of the local bank is above reproach. personal security loans. Rural Banks. Co-operative agricultural credit societies in Belgium are of recent origin. Nevertheless, they have made rapid progress. The rural banks in Belgium were founded by AbbG Mellaerts. They followed the Raiffeisen principles as closely as the existing laws would permit. The first was formed in 3S92, and in eighteen years there were established 643 banks. One-half of the cashiers of these rural banks are priests, most of whom give their services free. It is stated that it is the intention, after these banks have been nurtured and become strong, to let them pass into the hands of civilians. The law authorizing the establishment of rural banks favours agricultural credit by granting the rural banks certain fiscal privileges, and by authorizing the savings banks to grant loans to farmers through the medium of the local societies. The rules for these societies were compiled by the Boerenbond of Louvain and comply generally with the Raiffeisen principles. In order to obtain connection with the Central Bank of the Peasants' League, the rural credit societies must accept the following principles :•— (1.) Liability of members must be unlimited: (2.) The sphere of operation must be restricted to a small community: (3.) Administration must be cheap: (4.) There must be full security for loans: (5.) Dividends must be small and profits be set over to a reserve fund. The societies divide their work into three principal branches :— (3.) The deposit service. Interest on deposits is fixed by the General Assembly: (2.) The loan service, also regulated by the General Assembly: (3.) The current account service. • The societies meet the demand for mortgage credit to a limited extent, and enable the peasants to dispense with outside capital for their personal credit. Federation of Rural Societies. These banks are combined into regional groups, each of which groups is attached to a central bank. The central banks are now seven in number. Only local agricultural banks can 260 British Columbia. 1914 be members of these central organizations. The members of the Central Bank subscribe a $20 share, which subjects them to a liability limited to $200 per share. The dividend on those shares is fixed at 3 per cent. The Central Bank is subject to the same general regulations and methods of administration as the local banks, but assumes only limited liability. The following are the chief functions of the central banks:— (1.) To receive the surplus funds of" the local banks. (However, local societies may place such funds with the General Savings Bank if they choose) : (2.) To advance funds to affiliated societies when these are unable to satisfy the local demand: (3.) To inspect the books and management of the affiliated societies at least once a year: (4.) To supply the affiliated societies with legal advice. When the Central Bank is unable to supply the local societies with funds they can call on the General Savings Bank to furnish capital. The Central Bank then guarantees the loan to the Savings Bank, for which service it receives one-twelfth part of the interest paid. Local Associations. The general procedure of starting a local society is described as follows: After a general interest has been awakened in the establishment of a credit society a meeting of the parish is called, at which there should not be less than about thirty present. The object is briefly and clearly explained, and after the statutes of the constitution have been signed by a sufficient number, the directors and managers are elected and the society is registered as required by law. The General Assembly is the supreme authority of the society and possesses the right of immediate intervention in all matters concerning it. There is to be held at least one General Assembly each year. The board of administration is elected by the General Assembly, and partially renewed every two years. A cashier is elected by the General Assembly. He is the responsible manager of the society. The cashier and president must be men who possess the full confidence of the entire community and have the practical qualifications for performing this work. The bookkeeping presents no serious difficulties. The Peasants' League has issued an excellent handbook dealing with the administration and book-keeping of a rural bank, and in addition sends instructors where it is needed. There is also elected by the General Assembly a council of supervision consisting of at least six members, one-third of whom are re-elected each year. Working Capital. The assets of a rural bank consists in the entrance fees, the share capital, the shared possessed by the society in a Central Credit Bank, and finally tbe reserve fund. The banks may apply their profits either to the payment of dividend on capital or for the increase of the reserve fund. The dividend is fixed at 3 per cent., and the remainder is paid into the reserve fund. There is no Government supervision of these banks, hut they are inspected regularly by the central banks. There is no record of any losses. Should there be any they would be small and readily covered. The latest available statistics relate to the year 3909:— Number of banks furnishing information 45S Membership 25,702 Paid-up share capital $ 33,700 Loans granted in 1909 793,500 Loans outstanding on December 33st, 3909 2,300,000 Deposits received in 1909 3,S50,000 Total working capital, including deposits in hand, Decenib'r 31st, 3909 4,200,000 Reserve fund S7,900 To find a safe investment for its capital the Boerenbond has recently organized a system of land-improvement credit. 4 Geo. 5 Royal Commission on Agriculture. 261 Schulze Delitzsch Banks. It has been attempted to introduce banks of the Schulze Delitzsch type into Belgium, but with slight success. In 1912 there were only two such banks in the country. They have granted altogether forty-four loans for an amount of about $10,700. Lately a third bank of this kind has been established. Agricultural Counting-houses. The agricultural counting-houses are free associations of landholders under the form of a society of collective title, and composed principally of great landholders. There were eleven agricultural counting-houses in 190S. They had endorsed 720 loans for a total amount of $576,000 iu the course of that year. The members are jointly and severally responsible for the loans granted by the General Bank through the medium of the counting-houses. These latter institutions have not been very successful. They are composed principally of large land-owners, and are therefore obliged to extend their operations over a large territory iu order to obtain a sufficient membership. This fact lias weakened their efficacy and lessened the control they should exert. Results. The success which so far has been achieved is significant, when it is taken into regard that a few years ago farmers in Belgium, and more particularly the small landholders, were entirely without any institutions from which they could obtain capital on terms adequate to the conditions of their business. The progress made is a promise of ultimate success. IRELAND. The position of the Irish farmers previous to the co-operative movement is described by the Rev. T. A. Finlay thus :■—■ Once well in the books of the shopkeepers, the farmer is his creature and his victim. He must take the goods offered without question, and pay the price demanded without protest. If his holding is worth having, he is allowed to increase his debt up to the point at which his security is exhausted, and his property then passes into the hands of his creditors. The first service co-operation did to the Irish farmer was to set him free. This could only be done by a system of organized credit. The agricultural credit movement in Ireland, as embraced in the entire co-operative movement, owes its existence and its success chiefly to the energy of one man, Sir Horace Plunkett. He has been able to draw into the movement a group of gifted public-spirited men, all working together for the common good of their country. They have succeeded in awakening a spirit of co-operation which is not confined to sections or parties, but embraces the whole people. Ireland has, however, not been able to adopt the system of land mortgage credit introduced in Europe through the Landschaften banks and further adapted to the needs of many other countries. The reasons are twofold :— (1.) The imperfection of the Irish land registration system: (2.) The public feeling in Ireland, which is adverse to any disturbance of occupying owners in the possession of their land. The conditions produced by these two factors make it difficult for any lending associations to invest money in mortgages on Irish land. However, the provisions of the Wyndham Act, which will be referred to later, make the need of a special laud credit system less urgent. personal security loans. In 3.895 the Irish Agricultural Organization Society began to turn its attention to the formation of agricultural credit societies, and this has become one of the most useful branches of its work. A few societies of the Raiffeisen type were formed, and as they were immediately successful a federated organization was created in 1S9S, since when the number has rapidly increased. The credit societies have been of great benefit to the peasantry, more particularly in the west of Ireland, but the system has been adopted even among the well-to-do farmers. They are mostly based on unlimited liability, though a few of them have adopted limited liability. 262 British Columbia. 1914 These organizations are registered under the " Friendly Societies Act" or under the " Industrial and Provident Societies Act." Those societies whose operations include trading are registered under the latter Act. Whenever it is found desirable, the organizer goes to a place where it may be advisable to encourage the creation of credit societies. He investigates conditions and gives advice. Central Organization. Owing to the activity of the Department of Agriculture and the " Congested Districts Board " in making advances to these societies, and to the fact that they have received generous treatment at the joint-stock banks, there has hitherto been no urgent need for the establishment of a central bank. However, it is recognized that a state of development has been reached which necessitates a central institution for the various rural credit societies. An outside authority to enforce the observance of rules is needed. Without such a central organization lax management is certain to creep in. With the growth of the societies, deposits may accumulate in one society and at the same time there may be demands for loans in another, which there are no funds to meet. A Central Institute is therefore needed as a safeguard and a clearing-house. Such a Central Institute has recently been established for the following purposes:— (1.) More efficient inspection of local societies: (2.) Advance of loans to associations: (3.) To act as a clearing-house for the associations: (4.) To supply guarantees for loans : (5.) Improved co-operation among associations. Membership. Share contributions are not required for membership in the local associations, but an entrance fee of 6d. is imposed. In nearly all the societies members become liable for all debts of the society to the full extent of their property, though a few societies have been organized with limited liability. Working Capital. The sources of capital for these societies are :-— (1.) Overdraft from chartered banks. As security for such overdrafts ten or twelve members of good financial standing become severally and jointly responsible: (2.) State loans, for which 3 per cent, interest is charged: (3.) Deposits from members. Loan Regulations. The applicant for a loan must state the purpose of the loan and prove that the loan is economically justified by the increased production it will make possible. The duration of these loans is generally limited to twelve months, though renewals are sometimes granted. The length of the period is determined by the purpose for which the loan is made. If the farmer, for instance, borrows to buy a cow, he makes monthly payments, as his milk cheque is paid every month. If he borrows to buy young pigs the term is considerably longer. Loans on the personal security of farmers and labourers are safeguarded by the same methods as are employed in Germany by the Raiffeisen societies, and as adopted in France by the Credit Agricole and in Italy by the rural banks. Ireland has transferred these methods from Germany without essential alterations. Guarantee for Deposits. The ten bondsmen who guarantee the creditors of the bank have behind them the collective guarantee of all the members of the credit society. Any deficiency that has occurred has been caused by inefficient management and lack of proper inspection. Those losses are not inherent in the system, but incidental, and will disappear when the inspection has become fully organized. In the words of the Rev. Mr. Finlay:— Our experience accords with that of Germany. It has proved that no system of credit is more secure than when based on the character of the poor man. Such security is as safe as railroad stock or Treasury bonds. 4 Geo. 5 Royal Commission on Agriculture. 263 There are now altogether about 240 of these credit societies in Ireland. The territory served by each society is generally limited to one parish; consequently all the members are neighbours, and the interest of the society is safeguarded by close vigilance. Supervision. The entire business of these societies is annually investigated by inspectors appointed by the Irish Agricultural Organization Society. Their accounts are audited by the Plunkett House, which annually contributes the necessary amount of money for the performance of this work. The leaders of the co-operative movement in Ireland are inclined to the opinion that credit; associations should not be separate from other co-operative organizations, but that each such organization should maintain its own financial branch, especially in districts where the farmers are economically well situated. They prefer that the co-operative societies formed for various purposes should be financed by share contribution of the members. However, in the districts that are most backward and economically weak, it is conceded that agricultural credit societies are urgently needed. In this connection the chief leader of the co-operative movement in Ireland, Sir Horace Plunkett, said, in his address before the American Commission:— To the development of the credit societies on the Raiffeisen plan, we look for the social redemption of the most backward and debt-laden of our rural communities. THE " WINDHAM ACT " OF 1002. Under this Act there has been appointed a Commission dealing with the purchase and division of estates for the benefit of the tenants. This Commission disburses over $40,000,000 annually, all of which is used for these purposes. Until 1933 the Commission had resold about 40,000,000 acres, valued at $450,000,000. The field of operation of the Commission covers the entire island. Though the Board has the right to purchase lands by expropriation, nearly all conveyances conducted by the Board made up to the present time have been voluntary. When an estate is offered for sale and the price has been agreed upon, the owner is paid in Government bonds bearing 3 per cent, interest. At present these bonds are selling at SO. Hitherto the voluntary seller has been given a 32-per-cent. bonus in addition to the purchase price. This bonus, however, seems to have been withdrawn. Estates sold under compulsion must be paid for in cash. When purchased the estate is divided into holdings of from 25 to 30 acres. Sometimes a house worth about $1,000 is built on each tract and the property sold to farmers, who generally are former tenants of the property. Often the arrangement is made directly between landlord and tenant, the State paying the purchase price in bonds. It is a rule that the land must be sold to the farmers at a price not exceeding the purchase price to the Commission. Frequently it is sold at less. Sometimes the house and improvements, in addition to the land, are sold at the price paid for the land. The holder pays 3 per cent, interest and % per cent, amortization charges, which will pay off the loan in about sixty-two years. The purchaser is given a title, pays taxes, and can transfer his equity if he desires. Effects of the " Wyndham Act." Of the $450,000,000 invested by the State, losses due to the failures to pay have been insignificant. In Cork County they have been nil. In case of default the instalments are paid out of the County Exchequer, and as defaulters, therefore, are frowned upon, public opinion has been very effective iu enforcing payment. An account of the effect of the operation of the " Wyndham Act" is given by a sub-committee of the Permanent American Commission, from which the following is an extract:— In the District of Rosscommon and Castelreagh some two hundred or more small holdings have been established. The lands which were subdivided belonged to two large estates and were chiefly pastures. One of the tracts was nearly twenty miles in length. When this land was subdivided into small holdings iu 1906-7, there was hardly a tilled acre in the entire tract and only a few herders' cottages, in poor condition. The land was subdivided into 25- to 40-acre farms, houses and other improvements provided, trees planted, and gardens laid out. After the new owners, who came from a poorer district, had been established in their homes, an agricultural instructor was located in the district. It is his business to instruct the small holder in the most suitable methods of agriculture and animal husbandry. He encourages the introduction of root-crops, and clover-crop rotation, etc., the use of proper fertilizers, introduction of implements and machinery, etc. 18 264 British Columbia. 1914 Owing to this encouragement the county has gradually taken on a more prosperous aspect and a profitable system of agriculture has been set up. All are paying the instalments and the people are generally hopeful. The contrast between the old-time thatched-roof cottage and the new slate-roofed building with sanitary surroundings is very great. Farm schools and schools of domestic economy are established at various points. The aim of the instruction is entirely practical. A great dea of attention is given to dairy instruction, including the Gare of herds and butter and cheese making. Gardening and poultry-raising is also included. The object of the instruction is adaptability to the needs of the small Irish farmer. The result of the system appears to be excellent. SUMMARY OF EUROPEAN SYSTEMS. The aim of the preceding sketch has been to show in brief outline the essential features of the various systems by which the agricultural classes in Europe have mobilized their capital. The details of the system on which the German credit associations are based have been given rather fully, as the German societies have furnished the pattern for agricultural credit associations in nearly all European countries. In dealing with similar institutions in those other countries, it was found sufficient to point out the similarity or to note the points of divergence. To provide for long-term loans the Landschaften have created the type of a land-credit system based on the collective security of the mortgaged property of the borrowers. Those societies are non-profit-seeking. The security for the bonds is unquestionable. They have easy access to the world's money market; consequently they furnish a cheap credit. A system of amortization permits the gradual extinction of the debt, and though under a money stringency the bonds may fall, the farmer is always able to get credit on the best terms the market affords. On the other hand, this system in its typical form involves no State aid, and Government control is not exercised over details of operation. It is absolutely free from paternalism. The chief factors in the success of the Landschaft system have been the three principles:— (1.) Cheapness: (2.) Amortization: (3.) The amount of bonds issued never exceeds the mortgage security. Denmark has adopted the Landschaften system almost without alteration, and it has there been found to fill all reasonable requirements for a mobile and reliable credit system suitable to the needs of the farmer. Holland is now introducing the system with some modifications. In France the Credit Foncier has adopted the Landschaft methods, but rejected or modified some of its essential principles. The similarity is found in the facts that the working capital under both systems is obtained by the sale of bonds and that the loans are extinguished by amortization. On the other hand, the Credit Foncier is profit-seeking and practically operates as a joint-stock company. In this aim is the chief difference between the Landschaft and a joint-stock company. The latter has necessarily an eye on the building-up of dividends; the former aims only at the strengthening of the agricultural industry. To provide what has been called " a daily life credit" for the farmers, the Raiffeisen associations, supplemented by the Schulze Delitzsch societies, have created a system of short- term loans based on personal security. Not the collective property of the borrowers but rather their collective integrity was here to be the basis of the security. These associations as developed in Germany are neither assisted nor controlled by the Government. Ireland has adopted the Raiffeisen system with slight modifications. Italy has in the rural banks and the popular banks been eminently successful in adapting this system to its needs and to the temperament of the nation. France has adopted the Raiffeisen principles in the local associations of the Credit Agricole, but some of the methods have been greatly changed. The structure of this institution, based as it is on the agricultural syndicates and forming an organization of local societies' and district banks, terminating in its connection with the Bank of France, has been formed into a system of almost geometrical precision. At the same time, the feature of Government paternalism has been introduced by the provision of large sums of money supplied as working capital free of interest. Thus by suppressing one feature and making another more prominent or introducing new features, each nation has adapted one or both of these famous German credit systems to the 4 Geo. 5 Royal Commission on Agriculture. 265 needs of the moment and the temperament of the people. Wherever organizations of these types have been introduced they have become the instruments by which the credit needed for the farmer's individual or co-operative business has been supplied by the people's collective security. Wherever associations founded on those principles have taken root a new spirit has gradually been developed. Instead of watching each other with jealousy and envy, neighbours have commenced to exercise mutual vigilance in a spirit of sympathy, realizing that they can help each other's progress without risk to themselves. A class of people for whom there seemed to be but little hope of advancement has been inspired with the spirit of progress. Gradually the men who have worked together iu this movement have realized that the only effective spirit by which material progress can be achieved by a nation is the one indicated by the motto of blind King John of Bavaria, " Ich dien—I serve." NEW ZEALAND. In New Zealand is found a most instructive example of a State-aided and State-managed agricultural credit system by which we may profit when considering the case of British Columbia. That system has been in operation for nearly twenty years, during which various Governments representative of different parties have been in power. The natural conditions in New Zealand resemble those in British Columbia sufficiently closely to make comparisons valuable. The country was for the most part rather heavily wooded and farms were cleared out of the bush. As in British Columbia, dairying is one of the most important branches of agriculture pursued. The people of New Zealand, their Government, and their institutions are all sufficiently like our own to make their methods an object- lesson of special value to us. Commissioner Lucas's Visit to New Zealand. It was therefore to New Zealand that Commissioner Lucas went first to learn the points of strength and weakness in such a system as exposed by experience. He spent nearly a month in his investigation there, discussed the subject with the Premier and the Cabinet Ministers, receiving valuable assistance from them. The Dominion House was in session at the time of his visit, and he had an excellent opportunity of learning the opinions of the representatives of every electoral district. He visited cities and towns and farms, consulted officers of the Departments of Agriculture and Finance, the Superintendent of the State Guaranteed Advances Office, dierctors and members of agricultural societies, men prominent in public life and connected with the different political parties, and some who are recognized authorities upon this and related subjects. On his trips through the country he met working-men, farmers, and shopkeepers; in the cities he interviewed bankers, merchants, lawyers, commission-men, and newspaper editors. Having made this close personal inquiry, he reported to us that he had not met any one who disapproved of the State-guaranteed advances to farmers. Some, he stated, complained of delay in dealing with applications and excessive carefulness in the valuation of securities, but he found it to be the almost unanimous opinion that the " Advances to Settlers Act" and the " State Guaranteed Loan Act," authorizing and guaranteeing loans to farmers on the security of their land for the purpose of improving and developing the same and increasing their output, was the most beneficent legislation ever passed by the New Zealand Government; that it has not only given a great impetus to the agricultural industry, but it has reacted in related and other industries in a further stimulation of trade in general. The " Advance to Settlers " Movement. Dealing with the introduction of the system, Commissioner Lucas reported:— The history of the movement which resulted in the establishment of the New Zealand Government's Advances to Settlers Office is, briefly, this: In the twenty years between 1873 and 1893 the value of exports of all kinds of produce from New Zealand, in spite of a rapid expansion in population, had only increased 53.22 per cent.; and in view of the financial obligations of the Colony it was felt that some decisive action on the part of the Government was imperative, otherwise bankruptcy would be inevitable. Of all industries, agriculture had been the most important and its development the least satisfactory, and the Hon. Richard Seddon, who was Premier at that time, decided that the only solution 266 British Columbia. 1914 of the problem was to be found in initiating legislation which would make it profitable and possible for more people to settle on the land. At the same time, he fully realized the fact that it was necessary, in order to bring about this development, for the Government to provide assistance to those who wished to take up land, and also to enable those already on the land to improve and stock their holdings. He proposed to effect this by means of Government guaranteed loans. After a thorough investigation of the European agricultural credit system—for which work experts were retained—he concluded that none of them could be adopted, as the conditions in a new country like New Zealand were so different to those existing in the old, settled communities of Europe. Mr. Seddon's view was that agriculture is in much the same position as any other industry; if the output is to be increased, more labour and capital must be expended and more up-to-date methods adopted. He also realized that no private company would, or could, loan money to farmers for a sufficiently long period to enable them to meet the interest and amortization charges from the net earnings of their farms, and at the same time leave them enough of a surplus to be used in bettering conditions of farm life; or at a rate of interest which the farmers could afford to pay; and as every citizen in the Colony was interested in the development of agriculture, he claimed that it was the duty of the people, through their representatives in Parliament, to furnish the necessary capital. Legislation for Advances to Settlers. Accordingly, in 1S94, legislation providing Government guaranteed loans was introduced into and passed by the Parliament, and was known as the " Advances to Settlers Act." The money was raised by the Government and lent to the farmers and settlers through the Advances to Settlers Office, for the establishment of which the Act made provision. Tho original Act has been amended from time to time, and to-day this office is known as the " State Guaranteed Advance Office." During the early years of operation the percentage charged the borrower in excess of the interest paid on the net proceeds of the debentures was insufficient to cover expenses, but with the increased volume of business it has proved more than sufficient to cover expenses and losses and to start a reserve fund. Effects of " Advances to Settlers." In the first part of our report we have given some figures showing increases in exports, cultivated land, cattle, sheep, hogs, and decrease of failures attributed to the beneficial effects of this legislation. It is further noted that the deposits in the chartered banks have increased from a little •over $r>S,000,000 in 1900 to about $124,730,000 in 3930, while the deposits in the post-office savings banks at tbe same time amounted to over $74,435,000, and deposits in other savings banks to about $S.320,300, making total deposits amounting to $207,2S5,100, belonging to 405,566 depositors, being one depositor for every 2.53 persons of the population. There are now in active operation in the Dominion 39S butter, cheese, and condensed milk factories; 42 ham- and bacon-curing factories; 427 skimming-stations; 61 fish- and meat-freezing plants; SI flax-mills; 00 flour-mills; and 22 fruit- and jam-preserving factories; there being one of the above factories for every 3,000 of the population. A large percentage of the above factories are co-operative. The Advances to Settlers Office was established by the Act passed in 3S94, which Act has since been amended from time to time, the various Acts being consolidated ill December, 3913, some time after Commissioner Lucas had left New Zealand. Appointment of Officers. In order that the development of the legislation may be traced, we will, in giving a resume of the Act, state the provisions as they formerly stood, and also as they now are, noting some of the changes made recently. The principal administrative officer, called the Superintendent, was formerly appointed by the Governor in Council and held office during pleasure; the Deputy Superintendent, when such an officer was necessary, was appointed in the same manner. Subordinate officers and clerks were also appointed by the Governor in Council and were subject to removal. Under the Act as amended, the Superintendent is to be appointed by the Public Service Commissioner and to hold office during pleasure. Under the " Public Service Act, 1912," which became operative on April 1st, 1933. the Public Service of New Zealand was placed under the direct and sole control of a Commissioner and two Assistant Commissioners, appointed in the first place for a term of seven years, who are responsible only to Parliament, and can be dismissed from office only for misbehaviour or incompetence. 4 Geo. 5 Royal Commission on Agriculture. 267 This Act applies to all members of the Public Service, with the exception of the Comptroller and Auditor-General, officers of the Railway Department, members of the Police and Defence Forces, Judges and Magistrates, officers of the House, certain officers of the Legislative Departments, and persons paid only by fees or commission, as well as any officers to whom the Governor in Council declares that the Act shall not apply. The Commissioner is charged with the general administration of the Act. and more particularly with the preparation of a classification of all officers coming under its provisions. The powers vested in the Commissioner are very wide. They include the inspection of offices; the appointment, promotion, transfer, and dismissal of officers; also the framing of regulations. An entrance examination and efficiency and educational tests for promotion are to be imposed by the Commissioner. Provision has been made for an Appeal Board, so that any officer dissatisfied with the decision of the Commissioner has the right to appeal to this Board. The decision of the Appeal Board in all matters brought before it is final and must be given effect. Under this last amendment of the " State Advances Act," not only the Superintendent but the Deputy Superintendent and all officers of the staff are appointed by the Public Service Commissioner. Advisory Board. A Board was created under the original Act to advise and co-operate with the Superintendent. It was composed of six members, of whom the following four were ex-officio members, namely: The Minister of Finance, the Superintendent of the Advances Office, and two members appointed from time to time from among officers in the Civil Service. The two remaining members, who were required to be competent persons not officers of the Civil Service, were appointed by the Governor in Council for two years, and might be reappointed. These two members were paid salaries or fees, while officers of the Civil Service received no extra remuneration. The decision of the Board was binding on the Superintendent. Under the amended Act the Board is to consist of the Superintendent, the Under-Secretary of Crown Lands, the Araluer-Geuerab and such two other persons, being officers of the Public Service, as the Governor in Council may appoint. The Board elects its Chairman, who has a deliberative and also a casting vote. Administration of Funds. The capital fund was at first limited to $14,550,000, which was to be raised within two years from the passing of the Act, at an annual rate of interest not exceeding 4 per cent. The first, issue of $7,275,000 realized £94 Ss. 9d. per £100 stock (94.44 per cent.). Under the Consolidated Act of 3938 there may be raised in one year for advances to settlers, $7,275,000; for advances to workers, $3,637,000; for advances to local authorities $4.S50,000. The balance unraised in any one year may be raised in any subsequent year in addition to the above. It is provided that the bond issues shall bear interest at a rate not to exceed 5 per cent. The business of the State Advances Office shall be carried on under three different branches: (1) The Advances to Settlers Branch; (2) Advances to Workers Branch; (3) Local Authorities Branch; each branch being charged with a fair proportion of the cost of the maintenance of the Advances Office. The moneys raised or received in other ways for the purposes of the Advances Account shall be paid into a bank named by the Governor in Council for the credit of the State Advances Account, and out of that account, without further authority from Parliament, shall be paid all moneys required for— (1.) The cost and expenses of raising the money: (2.)' Interest: (3.) Sinking fuuds: (4.) Redemption of debentures: (5.) Advances. Also, but subject to appropriation by Parliament, all expenses of management by the office of administration. Moneys withdrawn from the Advances Account shall be withdrawn only by cheque, signed by the Superintendent or Deputy Superintendent, and countersigned by the Audit Office. 268 British Columbia. 1914 Money in the Advances Account may be invested until required, as the Minister directs, in Government or other legal securities. With the consent of the Minister, funds belonging to one branch and not immediately required for its purpose may be temporarily transferred to another branch. Reserve Fund. A Reserve Fund of not less than $242,500 is established out of the funds of this branch within the Advances Account, to be invested and reinvested in Advances to Settlers. Sinking Funds. All loans raised under the provisions of this Act shall be deemed to be portions of the public debt, and provisions of the " Public Debt Extinction Act" shall apply thereto with certain modifications. In raising the money the Minister acts for the Superintendent, and prescribes the interest, which was originally limited to 4 per cent., afterwards 4% per cent., and, as noted, by the Act limited at a rate of 5 per cent. Tbe issue is guaranteed by the Government, with the interest and all debentures and other securities issued therewith. Classification of Securities. All advances are to be made on first mortgages on lands held in nineteen classes of freehold and a number of classes of leaseholds, which leaseholds are held under the Government at low rentals and are transferable. Details are omitted, as we have nothing in British Columbia corresponding to these. The requirements in case of advances being made are:— (1.) A written application in a prescribed form from the borrower: (2.) A formal resolution from the Board: (3.) The minimum amount of one loan to be $125. (4.) The maximum amount to be $10,000 (formerly $15,000) : (5.) The limit to one borrower to be $10,000 (formerly $35,000) : (6.) Applications for $2,500 and under to have priority over those for larger sums: (7.) Advances to be limited to two-thirds or three-fifths of the value of the security, depending upon certain conditions: (S.) In case of leaseholds all covenants and conditions must be complied with before loans are made: (9.) The leasehold land loans to be limited to three-fifths of the lessee's interest: (30.) A'aluation of every security to be made under certificate by the Valuer-General on behalf of the Superintendent, and to the satisfaction of the Board: .(11.) The security to consist of some one or more of the several classes of land before mentioned, free from all encumbrances, liens, and interests, other than leasehold interests. Advances may be made by progress payments corresponding in amount to the value of the improvements effected from time to time by the mortgagor, as valued by the Yaluer-General or some one authorized by him. The Act does not specify the object for which the advances may be made, but the Board, having power to grant or refuse applications, discriminates against loans for other purposes than land improvement, payment of existing indebtedness, or purchase of additional property. A security for a loan may be considered first class when the value of the land, or the applicant's interest therein, apart from improvements, is not less than three-quarters of the amount of the loan, and the property is in the opinion of the Board otherwise satisfactory ; second class, when the value of the land, or the applicant's interest therein, apart from improvements, exceeds one-third but does not equal three-quarters of the amount of the loan, and the property is deemed by the Board otherwise satisfactory ; and third class, when the value of the land, or the applicant's interest therein, apart from improvements, does not exceed one-third of the amount of the loan, and the property is deemed by the Board otherwise satisfactory. 4 Geo. 5 Royal Commission on Agriculture. 269 The classifying of securities, the granting of advances, and the determining of what shall be considered first-class agricultural land shall rest solely with the Board. When an advance is required for the purpose of erecting a building, the amount of the loan granted by the Board may either be paid over iu one sum when the building is completed, or, if the applicant desires, it may be advanced in progress payments from time to time as the erection of the building proceeds. An inspection and report must be made by an officer of the Valuation Department prior to payment of any progress payment on account of the loan, and for such inspection a fee as per scale below shall be paid by the applicant. The applications must be accompanied by an application fee, according to the following table:— Advances to Settlers. Valuation Fees. £ s. d. On an application for a loan not exceeding £100 10 6 ($2.50). Exceeding £300 but not exceeding £250 1 1 0 ($5.00). Exceeding £250 but not exceeding £500 1 11 6 ($7.50). Exceeding £500 but not exceeding £2,000 2 2 0 ($3.0.00). General Provisions of the Act. For the purpose of achieving the fullest benefit of the loaning system created by the Act, the following general provisions and regulations have been made:'— (1.) The Superintendent to be the sole mortgagee in his corporate style and capacity. (2.) The loan, with interest at 5 per cent, per annum, to be repaid by half-yearly equal instalments based on schedule of which examples are given. (3.) This-provision is subject to a provision for rebate, when the mortgagor pays the instalments within fourteen days after its due date, of one-tenth of the interest portion of the instalment. (4.) The Superintendent shall post, one month before any instalment falls due, notice giving full particulars, but the rights and liabilities of the mortgagor are not affected by the non-posting or non-receipt of notice or errors in the same. (5.) Irrespective of instalments, the mortgagor may from time to time pay the Superintendent not less than $25 or a multiple of $25 in the reduction of the mortgage debt. (6.) If moneys raised by the Minister for the purpose of this Act cost more than iy2 per cent., the interest charged may be raised to % of 1 per cent, higher than that provided by the Act. (7.) The Board shall decide the class to which any security belongs. (S.) Loans on first-class security shall be for thirty-six years; on second-class for thirty years; and on third-class for twenty years. (9.) Every mortgage docket shall be deemed to be executed by the mortgagor subject to the provisions of this Act, and the provisions of this Act shall apply thereto accordingly. (10.) In every mortgage docket of agricultural land there shall.be implied on the part of the mortgagor and in favour of the mortgagee the following briefly summarized covenants and conditions:— (a.) To pay principal and interest in accordance with the terms of the Act: (b.) To keep buildings insured and the premiums thereon paid: (c.) To keep buildings repaired: (d.) If (b) and (c) are not complied with, the Superintendent may insure and repair at the mortgagor's expense: (e.) The Superintendent shall decide whether insurance collected in case of fire shall be expended on repairs or applied towards payment of mortgage: (/.) All moneys expended by the Superintendent on repairing, insuring, or costs of enforcing shall be due on demand and shall bear 5 per cent, interest until paid: (g.) The Superintendent to have power of sale conferred on mortgage by "Land Transfer Act. 100S," with this modification: that it may be exercised without notice or demand in case of default for fourteen days in payments or default in performance of other covenants : 270 British Columbia. 1914 (h.) Default shall entitle the Superintendent to call up principal, interest, and other moneys owing, irrespective of date due: (/.) The mortgagor to properly cultivate and manage the land which is security for loan. Forms of Mortgage Dockets. Under the " State Advances Act, 3933." the following forms are prescribed:— Mortgage Docket. To be registered as a memorandum of mortgage under the provisions of the " Land Transfer Act, 1908." Mortgagor: (A. Ii., of Wellington, farmer.) Estate: (Freehold in fee-simple or leasehold, as the case may be.) Land: (Area and particulars.) Reference to title in Register of the District Land Registrar: Mortgagee: The State Advances Superintendent. Principal sum : Date of advance: Due date and amount of first prescribed half-yearly instalment: And for the better securing to the Superintendent, as mortgagee, the payment in manner prescribed by the above-mentioned Act of the said principal sum. interest, and other moneys, I hereby mortgage to the Superintendent all my estate and interest in the said land above described. As witness my hand as mortgagor this day of , 19 A. B., Mortgagor. Signed by the said A. B., as mortgagor, in the presence of—- C. D. (Occupation and address.) (Memorandum of leasehold interests, if any.) Mortgage Docket. To be registered as a deed of conveyance of land by way of mortgage under the provisions of the " Deeds Registration Act, 1908." Mortgagor: (A. B., of Wellington, farmer.) Land: (Area and particulars.) Mortgagee: The State Advances Superintendent. Principal sum : Date of advance: Due date and amount of first prescribed half-yearly instalment: And for the purpose of securing to the Superintendent the payment of the aforesaid principal sum 0f , with interest and other moneys, in accordance with the provisions of this deed and of the " State Advances Act, 1913," the above-named A. It. hereby conveys and assures to the Superintendent, by way of mortgage, the land above described, with all appurtenances thereto belonging. In witness whereof the said A. Ii. has hereunto subscribed his minie this day of , 19 . A. B., Mortgagor. Signed by the above-named A. B. in the presence of— C. D. (Occupation and address.) Moneys paid in advance. In clause 43 provision is made for applying an advance repayment in such a way that at the option of the mortgagor the repayment of the balance by instalments shall continue without a break in the periodical continuity, or. if he so choose, with a break in the continuity of such period as covered by the instalments repaid in advance. Readjustment of Loans. In clause 44 provision is made by which after one-tenth of a loan has been repaid the Superintendent may assent to a readjustment of the loan by which the unpaid balance shall be treated as a new loan dating from the time of such arrangement. 4 Geo. 5 Royal Commission on Agriculture. 271 Further Advances. In clause 45 provision is made for further advances during the currency of a loan when all instalments and interest have been paid. The whole indebtedness, including the further advance, must not exceed the limits fixed by the Act. Various Loan Regulations. Clause 40 provides safeguards in cases of loans on other than freehold security. Clause 48 gives power to the Superintendent, in case of default in payments, to lease land instead of selling it, and protects the mortgagor's equity in the property. The mortgagor pays fees for valuation of security and preparation and completion of mortgage according to scale fixed by regulations. Clause 51. In any case where the Superintendent sells any security or any part thereof in exercise of the power of sale, he may. to the extent of the amount owing thereunder, accept from the purchaser a mortgage of the land for the whole or any part of the purchase-money, whatever the value of the security. Clause 52. Moneys payable to the Superintendent or to the Advances to Settlers Branch may be lodged for credit of that account with authorized postmasters. Audit. The Minister of Finance has access to all accounts and documents. He is entitled to any information, and receives monthly returns of the commitments, funds available therefor, and loans granted. The Audit Office has full power of inquiry concerning the transactions of the Advances Office, the accounts thereof, and persons employed therein. Annual statements after audit by Audit Office shall be laid before Parliament, showing financial position of branch, financial result of the year's operations, cost of management, and gross profits. Penalties. Any person employed in the business of the Advances Office who directly or indirectly takes any fee or reward from an applicant for a loan shall be dismissed from his office, and be liable to imprisonment not exceeding two years, with or without hard labour. Every person who, having any pecuniary interest in any land tendered as security for a loan or being a partner of the applicant, acts as a valuer in connection with such land or loan or sits and votes at any meeting of the Board upon any resolution having reference thereto is liable to a fine of from $250 to $1,000, and shall be dismissed from office. Every person who in respect to any loan or application therefor bribes or attempts to bribe or corruptly influences any person appointed or acting under this Act is liable to imprisonment for a period not exceeding two years, with or without hard labour. General Regulations. Tho Governor may by Order in Council make regulations for the conduct of the business of the Advances Office, and may alter any of the forms in the Schedules of the Act. The " Bankruptcy Act" shall not apply to debts under the Act excepting with consent of the Minister. Appreciation of the New Zealand Credit System. In confirmation of the views expressed in Commissioner Lucas's report to us, we quote from statements made by W. M. Dnffus, of the Wisconsin Free Library Commission, in his report prepared for the Board of Public Affairs of the State of AVisconsin :— The predictions of the opponents of the " Advances to Settlers Act" of 1894 and the amending Acts of succeeding years, however, have failed to be realized. The advances-to-settlers system, on the contrary, has been successful from the start. It las not only supported itself as a banking institution, but in so doing it has made loans to the amount of $00,000,000 at comparatively low rates of interest and on other favourable terms to thousands of settlers who would otherwise have found it difficult to obtain loans on any terms. 272 British Columbia. 1914 Further, this report states :— The financial success of the advances-to-settlers system of New Zealand is admitted even by critics who are doubtful of the wisdom of much of the so-called socialistic legislation of the Dominion. Later, Mr. Duff us writes in this report:— There can be no doubt about the financial and economic success of the operations of the Advances Office. The facts which support this statement are to be found in the annual reports of the office, in the New Zealand Year-book, and in the discussions by students of Australian and New Zealand land legislation. At the present time no political party opposes the system as a whole. Tho fight, when there is one, is over the amount of money to be borrowed for loans to settlers and the terms on which it is to be loaned. Further, Mr. Duffus gives the following statistics:— A considerable number of applications for loans are refused because of insufficiency of security offered, or the amount offered by the Board is refused by the applicant as inadequate. In the year ending March 31st. 3933, applications for 4,857 loans were received and only 3,1S3 granted, and in the following year 5,355 applications for loans amounting to $12,676,150 were received and only 4,136 advances amounting to $10,531,960 granted. These averaged:— Number. A mount. Exceeding £500 ($2,500) but not £1.000 ($5,000) Exceeding £1 000 ($5,000) but not £2,000 ($10.000) 2.S72 797 3S0 S7 $3,874,850 2,834.340 2,712.320 Exceeding £2,000 ($10,000) but not £3,000 ($15,000) 1.110,050 Total 4,136 $10,531,960 0 Summing up its conclusion, the Wisconsin Board finds that:— The advances-to-settlers system in New Zealaud has successfully maintained itself for seventeen years. It has directly benefited thousands of settlers by securing long-time loans of capital for them at low rates of interest. It has promoted the development of the agriculture, manufactures, and commerce of the Dominion by attracting settlers and enabling them to make their holdings productive. It has aided in the development of community advantages in isolated settlements by increasing the value of property, and consequently the amount of taxes available for the construction of roads, schools, and other community facilities. It has benefited the entire Commonwealth indirectly by all of these benefits. Now that the Government has provided such credit facilities to farmers there has been a remarkable extension of credit from private sources, and it has been reported that more money is now loaned in New Zealand by private institutions and individuals than by the Government, and that this applies also in Australia. The action of the Government presumably attracted the attention of lenders to the safety of prudently conducted farm mortgage loans. In British Columbia it is noticeable that in the centres where the representatives of capital are mostly found there is much ignorance of the agricultural conditions and possibilities of the Province, excepting those parts nearest at hand, and that this lack of knowledge, coupled with the large demand for loans on the security of city property with which lenders are familiar, discourages the extension of any lending system to the outlying agricultural districts. AUSTRALIA. Having thoroughly satisfied himself as to the success of the agricultural credit system of New Zealand. Commissioner Lucas visited Australia, and the following extract from his report to the Commission shows what full opportunities he availed himself of to ascertain the views of all classes of the people of the Commonwealth, and how convincing was the testimony as to the beneficial effects of the system in the different States:— During the course of my investigations there I travelled over 3,S00 miles, and visited Brisbane, the capital of Queensland; Melbourne, the capital of Victoria; and Sydney, the capital of New South Wales; Melbourne being also tbe seat of the Commonwealth Parliament. The Legislative Assemblies of each State and the Parliament of the Commonwealth were in session during my visit; I therefore had the opportunity of interviewing the members of Parliament from every electoral district in the Commonwealth. 4 Geo. 5 Royal Commission on Agriculture. 273 I made a number of trips into the country from points along the railway in each State, and met a very large number of farmers and storekeepers in the small villages. I interviewed the Minister of Agriculture and the Minister of Lands, also the Minister of Finance in each State. I likewise interviewed Mr. Russel French, the general manager of the Bank of New South Wales, which has branches in every important centre in Australia, and corresponds very closely iu capital and influence with the Bank of Montreal in Canada. I also interviewed the managers and directors of other banks and of the savings banks in all the three States. In Melbourne I had the opportunity of visiting the Royal Agricultural Exhibition for four days, and there I met a very large number of manufacturers and business-men, as well as farmers from all parts of the country. I spent two clays with Dr. Elwood Meade, an American, who is Chairman of the Water Board and Irrigation Department iu the State of Victoria. He has been in the country for six years, and has travelled extensively not only in Victoria, but also in Queensland, New South Wales, and South Australia, and has had a good opportunity of observing the effect and results of State-guaranteed loans for farmers. Dr. Meade is acknowledged to be an authority on such matters, and he has, since my interview with him. resigned his position in Australia in order to accept tho Chair in Rural Economics in the University of California. In Sydney I met the Under-Secretary of Agriculture in the Government of New South Wales. He has been in the employ of the Department for over twenty years, whore lie had full charge of the field-work, and has had exceptional opportunities for observing the great benefits derived by farmers from the State-guaranteed loan system. He was loaned by tho Government of New South Wales to the Government of South Africa for two or three years to assist the latter in establishing an Agricultural Department. I interviewed Sir John Forrest, Finance Minister of the Commonwealth Government, and at one time Premier of Western Australia. I wish especially to thank the Hon. Mr. Trefle, Minister of Agriculture in the New South Wales Government, and the Hon. Mr. Hagel- thorne, Minister of Works in the Victorian Government, for I am especially indebted to them for the assistance given me. Thanks are also due to Mr. Frank Coffee, Sr., for letters of introduction to various gentlemen in the Commonwealth, which proved of the greatest value to me. I had a long interview with Hon. Andrew Fisher, leader of the Labour Opposition in the Federal House, and with Hon. William Watson, who at one time was Prime Minister of the Commonwealth, and with many other prominent men holding responsible positions in the Commonwealth. Without exception they expressed themselves as heartily in sympathy with and ardent supporters of the Government's policy of advancing money to farmers at a low rate of interest and for a sufficiently long term to meet their requirements. This policy has resulted in a very large increase in the output of agricultural products. It has not in any way interfered with or affected the other monetary institutions of the country, and it met a demand for credit that private enterprise could not supply. The consensus of opinion with regard to the results was almost identical with and corroborative of what I had learned about the system in New Zealand. The general opinion was that provision would have to be made for more capital, so that the farmers of Australia might more nearly obtain the same results as had been achieved in New Zealand. Effects of the Credit System in Australia. It must be bonie in mind that the system of loans to farmers has not been in force in Australia as long as it has in New Zealand, and that fewer loans have been made; yet the increase in the exports of domestic products from Australia has been wonderfully augmented, and amounts at present to $79.60 per head of her population, while tho Dominion of Canada, shows only $40.6S per head. It is only reasonable to suppose that when Australia has as much loaned out in proportion the proportionate value of her exports will be nearly equal to New Zealand's. As it is, she stands third amongst the nations of the world, and is only exceeded by New Zealand and Belgium, while she is $30 ahead of her next competitor, the Argentine Republic. (Sec Appendices.) The deposits in chartered banks in Australia in 1903 aggregated $444,051,500; in 1912, $726,559,100. Deposits in savings banks in 1903 were $164,415,000; in 1912, $324,405,000. The total amount of money loaned in Australia since tho inception of tho system was $232,373,200, and the total amount outstanding at the present time is $125,605,300. Public Opinion respecting System in Australia. The State-guaranteed loan system has been in force in New Zealand for eighteen years; in West Australia for eighteen years; in Victoria, seventeen years; iu New South Wales, fourteen years; iu Queensland, twelve years; and in Tasmania for five years, operated and directed by seven different Governments, through superintendents and advisory boards. It is reasonable to suppose that if there had been anything unsound in the principles involved it would have been exposed by this date. The House of Representatives of the Commonwealth of Australia consists of 75 members and the Senate of 36 members. The six Legislative Assemblies, representing the six States, are composed of 347 members. The six State Senates are represented by 200 members. The House of Representatives in New Zealand consists of SO members and the Upper House of 39 members, making a total of 777 members sitting in eight different Parliaments, and representing something over 5,700.000 intelligent, progressive people, the equal of any in the world ; and I am assured of the fact that there is not one member of the 777 who is not an ardent supporter of the principle involved iu State-guaranteed loans to farmers. 274 British Columisia. 1914 Is it not reasonable to suppose that if the system were not entirely satisfactory in principle, some of the members would be opposing it? This is not a political question in Australia. There are naturally differences of opinion in regard to the details of administration, but none whatever in regard to the great benefits resulting from the system. Peculiarities of Australian System. It will le seen from an examination of the different systems, a summarized description of which we append, that while following generally the principles of the New Zealand system, there are striking differences in the capital provided and the amounts loaned, and in the increase in land brought under cultivation and iu production. In Western Australia, which was the first to follow the example of New Zealand, and where the loans were liberal and designed particularly to promote production, the increase in the area under cultivation during sixteen years has been 997 per cent. In Tasmania, where a system on a much more restricted scale lias recently been adopted, the increase during the same period lias been 27 per cent. After eighteen years' trial Western Australia has shown its confidence in the scheme by enlarging its scope. By recent legislation the amount which may be loaned to an individual lias been increased from $3,750 to $10,000; tbe restrictions governing the uses to which the borrowed money may be put are widened; and the total authorized bond issue, which had already been increased from time to time, was raised from $35,000,000 to $37,000,000. QUEENSLAND. Legislation. The Queensland Government was authorized, under the " Agricultural Bank Act, 3903." to establish a bank for the purpose of encouraging and promoting the occupation, cultivation, and improvement of the agricultural lands of the State, and a body of three trustees was appointed to administer the Act. The Government was empowered to raise a sum not exceeding $1,250,000 by the issue of debentures bearing interest at a rate of not more than 4 per cent. The original Act was amended in 1904 and again in 3905, the latter specifying that no advance he made to an alien. Further, an Act. the "Agricultural Bank Act (Consolidated), 193.3," provides for the appointment of a managing director and two trustees in lieu of three trustees as formerly, in this Act the provisions regarding supervision are very clear and are especially worthy of note. Roles for Supervision. We quote from the Act :— 16. (1.) It shall be the duty of the inspectors to report upon applications for advances, and to inspect from time to time the improvements which are iu course of being effected by means of such advances; and, if the trustees so think fit, any advance may be made by the manager by instalments upon the report of the inspector as the improvements are being effected. (2.) At any time upon the report of an inspector that any money advanced under the provisions of this Act has not been applied for the purpose for which it was advanced, or has been expended in a careless or extravagant manner, the manager may refuse to pay any further instalment of the proposed advance, and may at once' call iu the whole amount already advanced, whereupon the borrower shall forthwith repay the same; and in default the manager shall have the same remedies for the recovery of the same as are provided by this Act for the recovery of sums payable by the borrower. Security on which and Purposes for which Advances are made. Advances may be made to owners of agricultural lands or to occupiers of Crown lauds held either as agricultural farms or homesteads, grazing farms or homesteads, unconditional selections or miners' homestead leases, and may be for any of the following purposes:— (a.) The payment of existing liabilities: (b.) Agricultural, dairying, horticultural, or viticultural pursuits on the holding: (c.) Making improvements or adding to improvements already made: (</.) The purchase of stock, machinery, or implements. Advances are only made on the security of first mortgages. Amount of Repayment of Advances. No advances may exceed 50 per cent, of the fair estimated value of the holding in the cases of (a) and (b) above, while in the other cases the limit of the amount of the advance 4 Geo. 5 Royal Commission on Agriculture. 275 is 60 per cent, of such value, and the advance at any time must not exceed $4,000. Applications for amounts not larger than $1,000 have priority over those of larger amounts. During the first five years following the date of the loan the borrower must pay interest at the rate of 5 per cent, per annum. After the expiration of that period the loan, together with the interest, must be repaid by half-yearly instalments within twenty years, the amount of such half-yearly instalments being £4 0s. 3d. for each £3.00 advanced. In the case of advances for the purpose of paying off existing liabilities or buying stock, machinery, or implements, the loan must be repaid by equal half-yearly instalments of the amount of $3.55 for every $100 advanced within twenty-five years from the date of its granting. Transactions of Agricultural Bank. The subjoined table shows particulars of the transactions of the Agricultural Bank for the year ending June 30th, 3012:— Total amount advanced to June 30th, 3932 $2,090,063 00 Total amount advanced per capita 3 27 Balance of loans at June 30th, 1912 3,4S8,525 00 Balance of" loans per capita 2 33 Accumulated profits 57,802 00 Maximum loan, 50 per cent, of value and up to 4,000 00 Losses written off 1,042 00 Population 636,425 WESTERN AUSTRALIA. Legislation. By the " Agricultural Bank Act, 1894," the Governor of Western Australia was empowered to establish a bank for the purpose of promoting the occupation, cultivation, and improvement of the agricultural lands of the State. This Act had been amended from time to time until a consolidating Act was passed in the year 3900 repealing all previous enactments on the subject. Under this Act the Governor in Council appoints three trustees, in whose control is placed the whole of the bank property. The necessary funds are provided for by the issue of mortgage bonds bearing interest at a rate not exceeding 4 per cent, per annum. The amount authorized to be raised was originally $5,000,000, but by the amending Acts of 1907-9-30-3.1 it was raised successively to the present total of $14,550,000, increased by amendment of 1912 to $10,975,000. Purposes for which Advances may be made. The bank is authorized to make advances for— (a.) Ring-barking, clearing, fencing, draining, or water-conservation: (b.) For discharging any existing mortgages: (c.) For the purchase of stock for breeding purposes: ((/.) For the purchase of agricultural machinery manufactured in Western Australia, subject to the employees engaged in the manufacture of such machinery being paid the ruling rate of wages. Amount of Advances. An interesting feature of the development of the " advances to settlers" movement in Western Australia is the expansion and elasticity acquired by the system from time to time. Under the principal Act of 1900 the following provisions were made:— Advances may be made to an amount not exceeding $2,000 up to the full value of the improvements proposed to be made. Further advances may be made up to an amount not exceeding $1,750 up to half the value of the additional improvements proposed to be made. No advance, however, for the purpose of discharging existing mortgages may be made to an amount exceeding three-quarters of the value of the improvements already made, and the total advances to any one person may not at any time exceed $3,750. Not more than $500 may be advanced to any person for the purpose of purchasing stock or agricultural machinery. Advances are made only on a first mortgage, but a second mortgage is taken as a collateral security. When any land is held by two or more persons as joint 276 British Columbia. 1914 proprietors, the amount to be advanced may be multiplied by the number of such joint proprietors, provided the restrictions as to the proportion of the amount of the loan to the value of the improvements contemplated are observed. A significant change in the Act was made by an Amendment Act of 3932, repealing the above provisions and authorizing the Governor in Council within a certain limit to fix by proclamation the maximum advance for any branch of rural industry. The amendment of 3932 provides for advances on first mortgages up to $30,000 to persons engaged in the business of farming or grazing, or in agricultural, horticultural, or pastoral pursuit, or to persons engaged in any industry, that the Governor in Council may declare to be a rural industry, for any purpose incidental to or in aid of any such business; provided that no advance shall be made exceeding the sum limited by the proclamation for the purpose of any proclaimed rural industry. Repayment of Advances. During the five years following the date of loan the borrower pays interest only, at the rate of 5 per cent, per annum. By the Amendment Act of 1912 the interest on loans for any other purpose than effecting improvements is increased to 0 per cent, per annum, and the period of repayment limited to twenty-five years. After the expiration of that period the amount advanced, with interest at 5 per cent., must be repaid within twenty-five years with equal half-yearly instalments. In the case of advances for the purpose of buying stock the bank fixes the time and manner of repayment. Particulars of Advances to Farmers. Total amount advanced to June 30th, 1932 $9,477,916 00 Total amount advanced per capita 30 69 Balance of loans at June 30th, 3912 6,237,105 00 Balance of loans per capita 20 37 Accumulated profits 233,494 00 Maximum loan 3,750 00 Population 300,129 The improvements effected with the loans are as follows:— Clearing $5,9S3,550 Cultivating 623,910 Ring-barking 745,215 Fencing 1,S08,3S5 Draining 28,300 Wells and reservoirs : 517,595 Buildings 439,340 Total $10,120,095 As hearing on the manner in which obligations are met, we quote from the report for 1911 of the managing trustee:— At date of last report we had five properties on hand carrying advances amounting to $3,400. Thirty additional securities reverted to the bank during the year, and at present writing we are in formal possession of ten properties carrying advances amounting to about $3,425. The remaining securities, with one exception, were realized without loss, but in this instance we have to record a loss of £90 3s. (about $450) interest, which it will be necessary to write off during the current year. This loss is trifling as against the profit for the year of $33,760. SOUTH AUSTRALIA. Legislation. Under the " State Advances Act, 1S95," amended in 1S96 and 3.903, a State bank has been established in South Australia for the purpose of making advances: (1) To farmers and other producers; (2) in aid of industries on the security of land held in fee-simple or under Crown leases; and (3) to local authorities oil the security of their rates. The bank is managed by a 4 Geo. 5 Royal Commission on Agriculture. 277 Board consisting of five trustees appointed by the Governor. The Board of Trustees appoint, subject to approval of the Governor, a chief executive officer or general manager who is known as Inspector-General. He receives all applications for loans, renewals and extensions of loans, and reports to the Board of Trustees in writing on each application and the security offered to support it. Provision for Funds. The funds required are raised by the issue of mortgage bonds carrying interest at a rate not exceeding 4 per cent., to an amount not greater than the total amount due the bank for State advances, and in any case not greater than $15,000,000. It was the idea in framing this Act that the bonds should be sold locally, and only as needed to raise the necessary funds for loans; and this was made easy by providing for the issue of mortgage bonds in denominations of $50, or some multiple of $50, which should be freely transferable without endorsement, and be payable to bearer and redeemable at the pleasure of the bank at any time after five years at their face value, with any unpaid interest added. These freely transferable bonds were evidently not satisfactory to all investors, for in 3901 provision was made for the issue of registered bonds, which are payable, principal and interest, only to holders whose names are registered with the bank. The freely negotiable bonds were retained as well, however, giving investors the opportunity of choosing the kind that suited their purpose. Provision was also made for the exchange at the bank of one kind of bond for the other. Amount and Repayment of Advances. No advance to farmers or other producers or in aid of any industry may exceed three-fifths of the unimproved value of land held in fee-simple and permanent improvements thereon, and if the land has acquired a special additional value by reason of cultivation as a vineyard or an orchard, plus one-third of such additional value. If the advance be made on the security of a Crown lease, the amount of the loan may not exceed one-half the selling value of the lease, including the interest of the bolder in any improvements on the land. The amount loaned to any one person at a time must not exceed $25,000. Advances are repaid by half-yearly instalments; the rate of interest, up to a limit of 5 per cent, per annum, being a matter of arrangement between the hank and the borrower. Other Advances. On December 23rd, 190S, the advances to settlers on Crown lands was passed. By this was established a Board, composed of the Surveyor-General, the members of the Land Board, and the Deputy Surveyor-General, to administer the Advances to Settlers Fund, which consisted of loan moneys provided by Parliament not to exceed $1,000,000 in any one year. Loan Regulations. These advances were for specific purposes, either improvements or discharging existing mortgages, or, as provided by the Act of 1911, stocking the settler's farm. As amended in 3911, the Act restricts the advance to one settler to $4,250, and to three-fourths the value of the improvements. If the money advanced was not used for the purpose for which the loan was asked, or was not carefully expended, the Board could refuse any further instalment or recall the whole amount already advanced. For five years no payment on principal was required, the interest at 5 per cent, per annum being payable half-yearly. From that time on the repayment of principal was made in equal half-yearly instalments, together with the interest on the balance of principal at that time. This system has only been in force a few years, but it is interesting as having been especially designed for the pioneers on unimproved lands which would not have furnished very attractive security on which to obtain loans. It is worthy of note that the fund is not provided as usual by the sale of bonds, but is provided directly by the State. Several Acts have been passed from time to time dealing with seed-wheat advances. The purposes for which loans shall be made are not strictly defined, being left apparently to the discretion of the trustees. 27S British Columbia. 1914 Transactions of the State Bank, 1908-32. In addition to assisting farmers and other producers, the State Bank makes, as mentioned above, advances in aid of industries and also to local authorities. Total amount advanced to March 31st, 3912 $10,054,539 00 Total amount advanced per capita 23 00 Balance of loans at March 31st, 3912 4,707,6S3 00 Balance of loans per capita 10 95 Accumulated profits 249,037 00 Maximum loan— State Bank, CO per cent, of value 25,000 00 Advances to Settlers Board 3,000 00 Population 430,090 NEW SOUTH WALES. Initial Legislation. New South Wales adopted tbe principle of advances to settlers on April 4th, 1SS9, when the " Advances to Settlers Act" received assent. The objects of this Act were to authorize the raising of a loan for making temporary advances to settlers, to provide for the making and repayment of such advances for purposes incidental to or consequent on these objects. In order to provide the funds necessary for the carrying-out of this Act, the Colonial Treasurer was authorized to sell inscribed stock, secured upon the consolidated revenue, to an amount not exceeding $2,425,000, to be sold in amounts of $50, or some multiple of $50, and bearing interest at the rate of 3% per cent, per annum, payable half-yearly. A Board consisting of not more than three members appointed by the Governor, called the Advances to Settlers Board, was appointed to deal with applications for loans and to decide whether they should be granted. The maximum amount that was authorized to be advanced to any one person was $1,000, and the advance was to be repaid in full, together with interest at 4 per cent., within ten years of the making of the loan, but on no account was a loan to be granted except on the recommendation of the Board, and only when the security given was deemed satisfactory. An Amendment Act was passed in 1902 by which the advance limit was increased to $2,500, and the period within which repayments were to be made was extended to thirty-one years. In the latter part of the same year a further Amendment Act came into force. Under the provision of this Act the amount of inscribed stock was increased to $4,S50,000, and the maximum amount of advance to any person was raised to $7,500, interest on the latter being payable at not less than 4 per cent, per annum. Legislation now in Force. The above Acts were all repealed by the " Government Savings Bank Act, 1906," which received assent December 21st of that year. All property held by the Advances to Settlers Board was to be vested in three Commissioners appointed under this Act, who were styled " The Commissioners of the Government Savings Bank of New South Wales." An Advance Department of the Savings Bank was constituted, and debentures to the amount of $1,480,000 (that being the amount of stock issued under the " Advances to Settlers Acts " and held at the passing of this Act) were issued, an equivalent amount of Government stock transferred to the Government Savings Bank Department being, at the same time, cancelled. All moneys, securities, documents, property, etc., held by the bank on behalf of the Advances to Settlers Board were transferred to and became vested in the Commissioners and were carried to the accounts of the Advance Department of the Savings Bank. Security on which and Ohjects for which Advances are made. The Commissioners are authorized to issue debentures to the amount of $10,000,000, bearing interest at a rate not exceeding 4 per cent, per annum. They may lend money from the Advances Department:— (a.) Upon mortgage of an estate of inheritance in fee-simple in any laud in the State: (b.) Upon the mortgage of conditional purchase, with or without associated conditional leases: 4 Geo. 5 Royal Commission on Agriculture. 279 (c.) On deposit at call or short notice in the Treasury or any bank of issue in the State or on deposit in the Savings Bank Department. Loans may be made for any of the following purposes:— (a.) To pay off existing encumbrances or to purchase the land: (b.) To pay off money to the Crown in respect of the land: (c.) To make improvements or to develop the agricultural and horticultural resources of the land: (d.) To build homes on the land. Amount of Repayment of Advances. No loan to any person may amount to less than $250 or more than $10,000, and applications for loans not exceeding $2,500 have priority over those for a larger amount. In no case does the amount of the advance exceed SO per cent, of the Commissioners' valuation of the security. Advances may be made up to two-thirds of the value of the interests of the borrower in the land, buildings, and improvements, except where the land is held as a conditional lease, homestead grant, settlement lease, homestead selection, settlement purchase, or conditional purchase as to which the first five years' certificate has not been issued, in which cases the amount advanced may not exceed one-half of the holder's interest in the improvements. Loans are made only in respect of first mortgage, and, except in the case of loans on the security of freeholds or certificated conditional purchases, are repayable with equal half-yearly instalments within such period, not exceeding thirty-one years, as the Commissioners may see fit. Loans granted on the security of freeholds and certificated conditional purchases are repayable either in the same manner as loans on other securities just mentioned, or at the expiration of a fixed term, not exceeding five years, during which period interest only is payable. Advances on Purchases of Farms. To facilitate close settlement on private estates suitable for the purpose the Commissioners are authorized to make advances in order to assist persons in purchasing land. In the case of such advances the title to the land must be either freehold or certificated conditional purchase, and the amount advanced may not exceed SO per cent, of the Commissioners' valuation. Particulars of Advances to Settlers. The following table shows particulars of the advances made:— Total amount advanced to December 31st, 1912 $11,S04,666 00 Total amount advanced per capita 6 64 Balance of loans at December 31st, 1932 6,S00,2SS 00 Average amount of each advance since 1899 '... 1,0S0 00 Arrears of principal and interest, December 31st, 1912 47,0S6 00 Number of people iu arrears 555 Accumulated profits C$173,7S1 00 Minimum loan 250 00 Maximum loan 10,000 00 Applications refused or withdrawn to December 31st, 1912 7,610 00 Population 1,777,534 VICTORIA. Legislation. The Advances Department of the Government Savings Bank of Victoria was established by the " Savings Bank Act, 1S96," amended in 190.1 and again in 1903. The funds for the purpose of making advances are raised by the issue of mortgage bonds, the total amount of which is limited to $15,000,000. Security* on which Advances are made. In order to assist farmers, graziers, market-gardeners, or other persons employed in agricultural, horticultural, or pastoral pursuits, the Savings Bank Commissioners are empowered to make advances, either by instalments or otherwise, upon the security of any lands held by 19 2S0 British Columbia. 1914 such person, either in (a) fee-simple or (b) under a Crown lease in which the rent received is taken by the Crown in part payment of lands demised. Security must be in every case a first mortgage. A loan may be either in cash or mortgage bonds at par face value, at the option of the Commissioners. Amounts of Advances. The limits of the advances are $250 or $10,000, as in New South Wales, applications for over $2,500 having similar priority. In the case of land held in fee-simple or under lease as specified in (6) above, the amount of the advance which may be made must not exceed two-thirds of the actual value of such land at the time of advance, which is reduced by the amount of all rent payable in respect of the land previous to the issue of a Crown grant for such. If the person appointed by the Commissioners as valuator of any lands certify that the improvements effected thereon increase the productive power of the land and exceed $10 per acre, the Commissioners may make, notwithstanding anything contained above, an advance of $3.75 for every acre so improved. Special Provision for Vineyards, Orchards, etc. In the case of land which has acquired a special value by reason of being cultivated as vineyards, hop-grounds, orchards, fruit-growing plantations, etc., advances may be made upon the following terms:— (a.) The total amount which may at any time be advanced upon any such land may not exceed $500,000: (b.) The amount of two-thirds of the actual value referred to above may be increased by one-quarter of any special increase in value, but such increase is in no case to be considered as greater than $150 an acre: . (c.) No advance shall be made 'for a longer period than fifteen years. Purposes for which Advances are granted. Advances are made for the following purposes only:— (a.) To pay off existing liabilities: (6.) To pay off money owing to the Crown in respect of the land: (c.) To make improvements or to improve and develop the agricultural, horticultural, viticultural, or pastoral resources of the land: (d.) Commissioners may at any time cancel a loan and sell the security held for it if the borrower misuses the money advanced to him. Repay-ment of Advances. The rate of interest charged on loans originally fixed at 4% per cent, per annum may by the Amendment Act of 1903 be altered by the Commissioners, with the approval of the Governor in Council, up to but not beyond 5 per cent. All advances, together with interest, must be repaid by sixty-three half-yearly instalments, or such smaller number of instalments as may be agreed upon between the borrower and the Commissioners. Particulars of Advances to Farmers, 1907 to 1912. The folio-wing table gives particulars as to the loans raised and repaid by the Advance Department, the number and amount of applications received and granted, and the amounts advanced and repaid for each financial year from 1907-08 to 1911-12, inclusive: The number of repayments by farmers which became due during the year 1911-12 was 7,010, representing amounts of $2S5,7S0 for interest and $144,530 for principal. These instalments have been well met, and on June 30th, 1912, there were only ten farmers in arrear, the principal in arrear amounting to $140 and interest to $175. The savings banks and general public of Victoria appear to take up a great part of the issue of the mortgage bonds. In 1S99 the Advances Department stated that four-fifths of the bonds were held by savings banks and one-fifth by the general public. It appears that private funds for farm loans are available in Victoria at moderate rates of interest, which condition has greatly improved since the institution of Government loans on a fairly extensive scale. 4 Geo. 5 Royal Commission on Agriculture. 281 The following table shows the particulars of advances to farmers:— Total amount advanced to June 30th, 1912 $14,388,990 00 Total amount advanced per capita 10 44 Number of advances granted 7,459 Balance of loans, June 30th, 1912 $6,544,471 00 Balance of loans per capita 4 75 Number of balances, Juue 30th, 1912 3,139 Average amount of each advance $1,950 92 Arrears of principal and interest, June 30th, 1912 46S 42 Number in arrears 10 Property in possession $ 1,657 46 Accumulated profits, including profits on house and shop loans.. 428,589 00 Minimum loan 250 00 Maximum loan 10,000 00 Applications refused or withdrawn to June 30th, 1912 6,529 Population 1,350,561 TASMANIA. The present system only provides for advances to persons holding land " on credit purchase " from the State of Tasmania, and the amount of business has consequently been small. Plans are now under consideration for the extension of the system to those who own the land on the security of which they desire advances. Legislation. Under the " State Advances Act, 1907," assented to November 22nd of that year, authority is given to make advances to persons holding land on credit purchase. Three persons called the " Trustees of the Agricultural Bank of Tasmania " have power to administer the provisions of the Act. Funds were raised from the issue of debentures or inscribed stock for a sum not exceeding $250,000, bearing interest at 4 per cent, per annum. Purposes for which Advances may be made. Loans may be granted for any of the following purposes:— (a.) Payment of liabilities already existing on the holding: (b.) Carrying on agricultural dairying, grazing, or horticultural pursuits: (c.) Making or adding improvements. Amount of Loans. The minimum amount of any loan is $125 and the maximum $2,500. No advance may exceed one-half of the amount already paid to the Crown in respect of the land held by the borrower under purchase upon the credit system, plus one-half of the present value of any improvements upon such land. Repayment of Loans. Interest at the rate of 6 per cent, per annum is payable on all advances made. After five years the borrower may begin to pay off the principal in fifty half-yearly instalments, but the advance may, at the option of the borrower, be repaid at any time sooner than is provided, and in larger instalments. Particulars of the Operation of the Agricultural Bank. During the eighteen years ending June 30th, 1909, seventy-seven applications for advances were made, which, with forty-nine carried over from the previous year, made a total of 126 applications, representing $54,450. Of these, ninety-four, of a value of $29,5S5, were granted, the amount advanced being $27,582. The amount repaid during the period was $146, leaving a balance of $27,430 outstanding. For the year 1909-10 the number of applications for loans was eighty-two, totalling $28,130. The trustees of the bank approved of sixty-one of these, amounting to $17,571, and refused eleven, representing a value of about $4,000, owing to the applicants not being entitled to the loans according to the Act. During the year one borrower failed to comply with the requirements of his mortgage deed and his section was sold. 282 British Columbia. 1914 During 1910-11 ninety applications for loans totalling $34,920 were received. Of these, seventy-one, amounting to $26,190, were approved and five were not entertained; the remainder were awaiting consideration of the trustees at the end of the year. The sum of $34,600 was actually paid to borrowers during the year. Sixty-four applications for loans totalling $20,900 were received during 1911-12. Of these, fifty-two, amounting to $15,520, were approved. The amount advanced was $19,200, making the total amount advanced under the Act to June 30th, 1912, $90,757, of which $9,954 had been repaid, leaving a balance outstanding of $S0,S03. Particulars of Advances to Farmers. Total amount advanced to June 30th, 1912 $90,757 00 Total amount advanced per capita 47 Balance of loans, June 30th, 1912 80.S03 00 Balance of loans per capita 40 Accumulated profits 151 00 Minimum loan 125 00 Maximum loan 2,500 00 Population 197,205 UNION OF SOUTH AFRICA. In October, 1912, the Land and Agricultural Bank of South Africa was established and took over the assets and liabilities of the Land and Agricultural Loan Fund of the Province of Natal, the Transvaal Land and Agricultural Bank, and the Land and Agricultural Loan Fund of the Province of the Orange Free State, which institutions then ceased to exist. Province of Natal. The Land and Agricultural Loan Fund of the Province of Natal was established in October, 1907, and began operations in May, 190S. It was administered by five Commissioners, one of whom acted as manager. During the four years and four months of its operation the bank had received S70 applications for loans, amounting to $2,206,850; had accepted 53.S for $1,394,0S7; had declined 239 for $670,755; and there had been withdrawn 339 for $330,150. The loans made were for amounts shown as follows: $250 and under, S; $1,000 and under, 104; $2,500 and under, 195 ; $5,000 and under, 139; $7,500 and under, 57; the average being $2,750. The purposes for which advances had been made were:— (o.) To pay off existing liabilities $ 792,090 (6.) To effect improvements 1S2,645 (c.) For purchase of live stock and plant 376,169 (d.) Not yet paid over 42,5S3 $1,394,087 Repayments amounted to $20S,065. There were no losses made, and the profits on operation were $17,276. Transvaal. The Transvaal Land and Agricultural Bank began operations on November 4th, 1907, and up to September 30th, 1912, had received S,321 applications for $17,500,000, and had made loans for about $11,000,000. The analysis of these loans shows:— 142 loans over $7,500 but not exceeding $12,500 $1,452,150 234 loans over $5,000 but not exceeding $7,500 1,450,353 7S5 loans over $2,500 but not exceeding $5,000 2,6S6,900 1,446 loans over $1,250 but not exceeding $2,500 2,643,250 2,303 loans over $500 but not exceeding $1,250 1,809,005 3,470 loans of $500 and under 564,055 The average amount of the loans was $1,741.15. Loans were made for the following purposes :— (a.) To effect improvements, including farm buildings, irrigation- works, fencing, and planting of trees $1,134,900 4 Geo. 5 Royal Commission on Agriculture. 283 (b.) For purchase of stock, plant, and agricultural requirements generally ' 2,49S,550 (c.) To pay off existing liabilities on land 4,006,724 (d.) To pay costs incidental to the subdivision of land 51,1S9 (e.) For the establishment and promotion of agricultural and rural industries .... (/.) For the purchase of land for any of the purposes described under (a), (b), (e) 2,314,150 The repayments amounted to $2,591,000. In one case only was the bank compelled to proceed for non-payment of interest, and in two other instances the estates of mortgagors were surrendered as insolvent and realized more than the advances. Loans were also made to co-operative agricultural societies amounting to $1,396,S00; and under the " Fencing Act," $930,050. A reserve fund was accumulated from profits of $3,29S,000. In the last six months of operation the administration expenses were 0.5S4 per cent, of the amount invested on mortgage advances to co-operative societies, which shows a reduction of 0.021 per cent., as compared with the year ended March 31st. 3912. The total earnings represent 5.38 per cent, on the bank's capital, as compared with 5.175 per cent, for the year ended March 31st, 1912. In the final report the Chairman and the Acting-Manager said:— A review of the foregoing figures cannot but forcibly show the value which that institution has been to the farming community of the Transvaal, and this fact has been so patent that it has elicited many eulogistic remarks not only in the South African, but also in the foreign press. The retiring directorate cannot but feel that an institution with such a precedent behind it must be productive of public benefit and be worthy of public support. The Land Bank is indissolubly associated with the farming -movement, and without the hearty co-operation of the farmer it cannot exist; but, given this co-operation, it will not only increase in power, but be able to give greater facilities and a reduced rate of interest, facts which are but an exemplification of the true object of the bank. The Orange Free State. The Land and Agricultural Loan Bank, Orange Free State, began operations on March 10th, 3.910, and made up to September 30th, 1912, loans to the amount of $2,S03,300, and for lack of funds was unable to meet the demand. The analysis of loans made is with regard to mortgage bonds:— 7S loans over $5,000 but not exceeding $7,500 $489,550 246 loans over $2,500 but not exceeding $5,000 S92,400 276 loans over $1,250 but not exceeding $2,500 52S,650 128 loans over $500 but not exceeding $1,250 321,250 46 loans not exceeding $500 20,127 i ; $2,051,977 And with regard to promissory notes:—■ 337 loans over $750 but not exceeding $1,000 $320,405 151 loans over $500 but not exceeding $750 111,550 331 loans over $250 but not exceeding $500 16,005 605 loans not exceeding $250 330,023 $5S3,0S3 The purposes for which loans were granted were as follows:— (1.) To pay off liabilities on land or other liabilities incurred for purposes defined by the Act $1,235,000 (2.) To effect improvements, including building, irrigation, fencing, and tree-planting 218,250 (3.) To pay costs incidental to subdivision of land 3,040 (4.) For the purchase of live stock, plant, and machinery 701,945 (5.) For the purchase of land 477,725 $2,635,960 284 British Columbia. 1914 Repayments had amounted to $344,350. A reserve fund had been created from profits and 5 per cent, of gross interest of $23,765. No losses were sustained. The expenses of administration bore the following relation to the amount invested:— Per Cent. For year ended March 31st, 1913 0.S13 For year ended March 31st, 1912 0.5S2 For year ended September 30th, 1913 0.542 For six months ended September 30th, 1913 0.271 The Land and Agricultural Bank for South Africa. The experience gained during the operation of these systems and the attention thus directed to the general question of agricultural credit for some years before the enactment of the legislation providing for the Land and Agricultural Bank of South Africa appear to us to make the provisions of that Act worthy of especial consideration. The capital of the bank consists of the funds of the three Provincial banks, together with all amounts recovered in respect of any advances made by the Government for fences and dipping-tanks, and such funds as may be voted by Parliament from time to time. In the three months in 1912 after it began operations the bank made 2S7 farm loans amounting to about $520,000, or an average of $1,S04, for the following purposes:— Improvements $ 9S,700 Purchase of stock 71,295 Discharge of existing liabilities 240,075 Subdivision of land S40 Purchase of land 110,6S0 Applications for advances for fencing, $3,695.70, were granted, though not actually paid out, and for dipping-tanks applications for $11,155 were granted and $2,085 paid out. i Terms. Ordinary advances are made for thirty years; during the first five years of which the borrower pays interest at the rate of 5 per cent, but may, if he so desires, make a payment on account of the principal at any due date of interest by payments of $25 or any multiple thereof. After five years the payments on account of the principal are required half-yearly for twenty-five years, making a total annual payment of principal and interest of 7 per cent. In case of an advance for thirty years being authorized, it may be made in instalments from time to time during the first five years as improvements are being effected or stock is being purchased, and interest on such instalment would be calculated from the date on which it is paid. The security for such loans is usually first mortgage on land property, but where property has been purchased from the Government, and the balance of such purchase price has been secured by a bond bearing no interest, the Board is empowered to take a second mortgage. The minimum amount which may be advanced to an individual farmer is $250, and the maximum amount is $10,000, except where large agricultural works and improvements have been especially authorized by the Governor-General, in which case advances up to $25,000 may be made. Advances may be made up to 60 per cent, of the value of the security as determined by the Board. Provision is also made for loans up to five years on the security of partially paid-for Crown lands, the advances being limited to 50 per cent, of the payments made on account of the purchase price, and 50 per cent, of the value of improvements effected since the date of purchase. In case of such land reverting to the Crown, it is provided that the bank shall be paid out of the Consolidated Revenue Fund such debts as it may be unable to recover from the mortgagors. Advances may be made for any period up to five years upon the security of land held under lease from the Crown the unexpired period whereof is ten years or more. In such cases advances are made up to 50 per cent, of the value of the lessee's interest in the lease as determined by the Board, and the Board may take into account standing and recurring crops which may last beyond the period for which the advance is made. Provision is also made for short credits on similar security up to $5,000, which loans must be repaid within five years. This class of advance grants a very convenient form of credit for 4 Geo. 5 Royal Commission on Agriculture. 285 the business of the farmer, who is allowed to draw money from the bank and to pay it into the bank as and when he desires, provided that at no time shall the amount due by him to the bank exceed the original amount of the grant. Six per cent, interest is payable on the monthly balance of the grant outstanding. Credit to Co-operative Societies. Advances may also be made to co-operative societies, for which the members are jointly and severally responsible. On the authority of a resolution passed by a two-thirds majority a co-operative society may obtain from the bank any sum up to $50,000 for the proper purposes of the association. The application, signed by the chairman and secretary if granted by the bank, binds the society and all the members jointly and severally for the repayment of any advance made in pursuance of such application. For a larger sum than the amount mentioned the approval of the Minister is required. Cash Credit Accounts. An advance to a co-operative society may be made in the form of a cash credit account, and the society may draw the whole or any part of the advance and may at any time repay the whole or any portion thereof. Interest at the rate of 5 per cent, is payable on the maximum monthly balance of the amount outstanding. The Central Board may guarantee contracts of co-operative societies, and in case of failure of the society to carry on the business satisfactorily may complete it or compromise it and recover any loss from the society. The fee for such guarantees is % per cent, on the amount guaranteed. Members of co-operative societies cannot by withdrawal from a society evade responsibility for obligations to the bank incurred while they were members. Advances for dividing-fences and dipping-tanks will also be made. Administration. The operations of the bank are controlled by a Central Board appointed by the Governor- General, consisting of a general manager who is constituted chairman and whose appointment is permanent, and four members, one of whom retires each year in rotation and who may be renominated. The following are debarred from service on the Board: Members of the Senate, of the House of Assembly, of a Provincial Council, and officers in the Public Service (excepting the general manager or a temporary substitute). Members of the Board other than the general manager are paid fees of $15 and travelling and subsistence expenses for each day or portion of a day occupied in the bank's business. Advances may not be made to members of the Central or Local Boards nor to public officers connected with them. On account of the large area of the Union and the diversity of the nature of the farms, provision has been made for the creation of a Local Board for any particular area. Appointments to the Local Board are made by the Governor-General, who indicates the chairman. A Local Board consists of three members holding office for two years and eligible for reappointment, two of whom form a quorum. They are paid travelling and living expenses, and fees of $5 for each day or portion of a day while engaged in the business of the bank. The duties of the Local Boards are to consider and transmit all applications submitted to them, with their recommendations, to the Central Board, and to advise the Central Board, but they have no executive functions and act as agents of the Central Board. Five districts were created and a Local Board appointed for each of the following: Cape Western, Cape Eastern, Free State Area, Natal Area, leaving the fifth, the Transvaal District, to be directly controlled by the Central Board. Loan Regulations. The purposes for which advances may be made are:— (a.) Improvements, including farm buildings, fences, tanks, and other structures for the dipping and spraying of stock, the clearing of land for cultivation, the blocking of sluits, dongas, and watercourses to prevent denudation of soil, and the planting of trees, orchards, vineyards, sugar-cane, and tea: 280 British Columbia. 1914 (6.) The purchase of stock or plant of all kinds and of agricultural requirements generally: (c.) The discharge of existing liabilities on land or in special circumstances any other existing liabilities: (d.) The payment of costs incidental to the subdivision of land held in undivided shares: (e.) The establishment and promotion of agricultural and rural industries, including, in addition to other such industries, tobacco, dairy, and like industries, and the cultivation, sale, and exportation of fruit: (/.) The purchase of land for any of the purposes described in paragraphs (a), (b), and (c) of this section by a person or group of persons whose financial resources are deemed adequate to carry on a purpose described in any of these paragraphs. The rate of interest paid by the bank to the Government for its funds is ordiuarliy 3% per cent. Provision is made protecting the bank regarding advances made by the Provincial banks and for change iu the rate of interest on the resolution of both Houses of Parliament. Provision is made for the creation of a reserve fund from profits until it amounts to $2,425,000, after which the fund shall only be credited with interest derived from its investment. It is provided that, when the reserve has grown to that amount, the rate of interest on all outstanding advances may, with the authority of Parliament, be reduced to such rate as is found necessary to cover the interest which it is paying and the working expenses. Provision is also made for the appointment of paid valuators and for the use, without additional payment, of the services of magistrates, field-cornets, police officers, Postmaster- General and his subordinates for the purpose of reporting on cases submitted to them. Land acquired by foreclosure must be sold at the earliest favourable opportunity, and no one connected with the bank may buy it directly or indirectly. A fine of $2,500 or imprisonment for five years with hard labour, or both, is the penalty for bribing or attempting to bribe any officer of the bank or for receiving (if an officer) any fee, other than authorized, in connection with any application for a loan. A penalty of not less than $250 or more than $1,000 is fixed for actiug as a valuator or voting on a Board with reference to an advance if interested pecuniarily in any land offered as security for an advance, or if a partner, creditor or debtor, or related within the third degree of affinity or consanguinity to such an applicant. EGYPT. In the Agricultural Bank of Egypt we find an example of a system under which a Government guarantees interest on the capital of a bank created for making agricultural loans. Agricultural loans began with an advance of $50,000 in small sums to the fellaheen, some time before Lord Cromer reported upon the subject in 1S95 and 1S96. There were local conditions that made it particularly inexpedient that the need of some system of lending money to the small farmers should be met by direct Government action. Arrangements were made first with the Egyptian Credit Foncier and afterwards with a newly created National Bank, and experiments were made cautiously. There were misgivings on various grounds, especially on account of the reputation for inveterate improvidence of the fellaheen population. Amount of Transaction. The growth of the business was such that in 1902 Lord Cromer -wrote:— I mentioned in my last annual report that the National Bank of Egypt had advanced about $2,000,000 in small sums to the fellaheen, and that the directors could not reasonably be expected to lock up a still larger amount of capital in an undertaking of this nature. At the time I wrote, further demands for loans were coming in. The difficulty was temporarily met by the Government advancing $1,212,500 to the bank. It was evident, however, that the class of operations involved in making these small loans fell more properly within the functions of a land bank than within those of an ordinary bank. Moreover, after a prolonged trial it appeared that the somewhat novel system adopted in Egypt some few years ago had passed out of the experimental stage, and that the institution of a scheme of more permanent character than that heretofore adopted was justifiable. Negotiations having this object in view were set on foot, with the result that on June 1st, 1902, an Agricultural Bank was started under the auspices of the National Bank of Egypt. All loans outstanding with the National Bank were transferred to the new bank, whose solo business it is to lend money to the fellaheen. The capital of the bank was fixed at $12,125,000, of which half has 4 Geo. 5 Royal Commission on Agriculture. 287 already been paid up. Interest at the rate of 3 per cent, is guaranteed by the Government. It was at the same time arranged that the rate of interest at which money was advanced to the fellaheen, which was previously 10 per cent., should be lowered to 9 per cent. I give below some details as regards the operations of the past years. During 1902, 34,532 loans, repayable in fifteen months, and amounting in the aggregate to $984,550, were made. Of these, 19,785 were for sums less than $25; 7,807 were for sums between $25 and $50; 6,940 were for sums between $50 and $100. The number of loans repayable in five annual instalments was 20,341, representing in the aggregate a sum of $3,633,050. Of those, 8,513 were for sums below $100. Most of the other loans were for sums less than $500. The maximum amount of any one loan was $1,500. On December 31st, 1902, the total number of loans outstanding was 46,572, and the amount $1,013,650, as against $1,950,700 on December 31st, 1901. During 3902, $1,404,100 had to be recovered from 35,884 borrowers. Of this amount all but $11,44G was actually paid. There is every reason to believe that the balance due at the end of the year will shortly be recovered. So far Upper Egypt has scarcely been touched, and the bank is as yet only well known in parts of Lower Egypt. The demands for small loans continue to be very numerous. There can be no doubt that the assistance afforded to the fellaheen has been greatly appreciated throughout the country. The system in Egypt adopted in connection with the interesting and important question appeal's to have attracted a good deal of attention in other countries. I have received numerous inquiries on the subject. ij The distinctive feature of the Egyptian system is that, although the whole of the management is in the hands of the bank, the Government tax-collectors collect the sums due on account of interest and sinking fund. ; Causes of Success. ' The reasons why the Egyptian system has attained a certain measure of success are mainly twofold. They are :— (1.) That, although the action of the Government has been so far philanthropic that it has wished to benefit a large and important class of the community, the undertaking has in no degree been established on a philanthropic basis. On the contrary, the basis has been strictly commercial. There was in the first instance some very natural difficulty in convincing capitalists that tho business would be fairly lucrative. But when by applying the test of actual experiment this difficulty was overcome the main obstacle to success was removed. ; (2.) The supervision, which has been conducted by very carefully selected British agents, has been capable, vigilant, and honest. ; When I say that a certain degree of success has been attained in Egypt, I merely mean that under the new system it is clear that the fellaheen are anxious to borrow, and that the arrangement for advances and recoveries has worked well. Before it can be said the system has been completely successful, it has to be shown that the fellaheen are not, generally, making use of their improved credit to contract fresh debt at a ruinous rate of interest. Time must be allowed before any confident statement can be made on this subject. So far the reports which I have received on this branch of the question are satisfactory. As I have frequently stated before, the fellaheen are generally much less improvident than used to be imagined. v In 1904 Lord Cromer further reports as follows:— I continue to receive so many inquiries about the system adopted in Egypt for advancing small loans to cultivators that, at the risk of repeating much that I have said on former occasions, it will perhaps be desirable that I should again explain the main features of the Egyptian plan. Special Feature of Egy-ptian Sy'stem. That plan is very simple, but it differs materially from any which, so far as I am aware, has been adopted elsewhere. Notably, it is in no degree to be confounded with the co-operative system in force in some other countries. The Government guarantees interest at the rate of 3 per cent, on the capital of the bank. This guarantee has enabled the requisite capital to be raised on comparatively easy terms. It is in the highest degree improbable that any occasion will arise for calling on the Government to make good a deficit. The rate of interest charged on the advances made by the bank is 9 per cent. The maximum amount lent to any one individual has, up to the present time, been $1,500, but the Government has recently agreed to allow the bank to make advances, amounting in the aggregate to not more than $1,000,000, up to a limit of $2,500. Loans are limited in amount to 50 per cent, of the selling value of the land on which the advance is made. The maximum value of the best land has so far been taken at $300 an acre, but this figure has now been raised to $400. The bank makes the advances and incurs the whole responsibility of the undertaking. The Government, on the other hand, through the agency of its tax-gatherers, collects the money due to the bank at the same time as the land-tax. Thus the bank, being relieved of the necessity of maintaining an expensive staff of subordinates, is able to advance the money to the peasantry at a relatively low rate of interest. 288 British Columbia. 1914 Amount of Loans. The facts which led to the establishment of the Agricultural Bank are briefly as follows:— In 1S96 the Egyptian Government decided to lend $50,000 in small sums to the cultivators. The measure was purely tentative and experimental. It was never intended that the Government should seriously occupy a field which can more suitably be left to private individuals and institutions. The experiment proved successful. Nothing further was done in the matter until 189S, when the National Bank of Egypt was established. The bank, shortly after its creation, advanced about $130,950 to 870 cultivators. (See "Egypt" No. 1 of 1900, pp. 4-6.) In 1900, 9.500 advances were made, amounting in the aggregate to about $669,300. (See " Egypt " No. 1 of 1901, pp. 6-9.) By the end of 1901 over 15,000 loans were outstanding, amounting in the aggregate to about $1,949,700. (See " Egypt" No. 1 of 1902, p. 8.) The operations had by this time become so extended as to be manifestly outside the scope of an ordinary bank. An Agricultural Bank with a capital of $12,125,000 was therefore started under the auspices of the National Bank of Egypt. All loans outstanding with the National Bank were transferred to the new bank, whose sole business it is to advance money in small sums to the fellaheen. (See "Egypt" No. 1 of 1903, pp. 16-17.) On December 31st, 1902, 46,572 loans were outstanding for an aggregate sum of about $5,858,800. On December 31st, 1903, the outstanding loans amounted in the aggregate to $10,605,718. This sum was owing by 78,911 persons, namely:— Loans of $5 and under 759 Loans over $5 to $25 5,963 Loans over $25 to $100 6,434 Loans over $100 to $250 53.481 Loans over $250 to $500 7.928 Loans over $500 to $750 2,359 Loans over $750 to $1,500 1,987 Total 78,911 The average amount of each loan was $117.12. Additional capital to the amount of $12,125,000 is about to be raised in order to extend the operations of the bank. Concession of the Egyptian Government to the Agricultural Bank of Egypt (May, 1902). (Translation.) The Egyptian Government, represented by His Excellency the Minister of Finance, duly authorized for this purpose by resolution of the Council of Ministers on the 17th day of May, 1902, party of the one part, and the National Bank of Egypt and Sir Ernest Cassel, K.C.M.G., parties of the other part, have executed the following covenant:— Article I. The National Bank of Egypt and Sir Ernest Cassel are authorized to form an Agricultural Credit Company, Limited, on the following bases:— (1.) The company shall have a capital of $12,325,000, part of which shall be in shares and part in obligations. The distribution of its capital in shares and obligations shall be determined by the company itself. This capital shall not be increased except with the consent of the Government. (2.) The company shall be managed by a council to consist of the governor of the National Bank of Egypt as president, and five members, two of whom shall be selected from among the members of the council of administration of the National Bank of Egypt, and it shall be controlled by the Government Commissioners of the aforesaid bank. (3.) Its duration shall be fifty years. (4.) Its sole object shall be to advance money to the small agriculturists, with the following conditions:— (a.) Loans not exceeding 300 Egyptian pounds each and payable within five and one-half years. These loans shall be guaranteed by first mortgage on land, the value whereof shall be at least double the amount of the loan: (6.) Loans not exceeding the sum of 20 Egyptian pounds each, payable within fifteen months. (5.) The rate of interest charged shall not exceed 9 per centum per annum, and in all cases the conventional maximum fixed by the law. (6.) The recovery of tho loans, principal, and accessories shall be effected through tho mediation of the sarrafs of the villages, who shall receive from the company a commission of y2 per centum on all moneys collected. (7.) The receipts shall comprise:— (a.) The interest actually paid each year: (o.) The amounts of loans or instalments due from preceding years and actually paid during the business year, excepting as stipulated in the last paragraph of this article. (8.) From tho aforesaid receipts there will be deducted:— (a.) All the expenses of the company: (6.) The total of all the loans or instalments thereof which have become due and have not been paid during the business year. 4 Geo. 5 Royal Commission on Agriculture. 289 The difference shall constitute the net profits. From the said net profits there shall be paid successively and in the following order: (1.) Th interest on the obligations. (2.) Five per centum on the interest actually collected each year for the reserve fund. The moneys paid into the reserve fund shall be invested subject to the approval of the Government; the interest accruing on these investments shall be added to the reserve fund. Out of the balance of the profits there shall be paid in the first place the interest on the preferred stock, if there be any, and then 5 per centum of said profits to the National Bank of Egypt, as stipulated remuneration for carrying on the financial operations of the Agricultural Bank of Egypt, and the sum necessary for 5 per centum interest to the holders of ordinary shares on the sums invested by them. The balance shall be distributed as follows: 50 per cent, to ordinary stock; 50 per cent, to the charter members. Article II. If at any time during the fifty years of the duration of the company the interests collected during any one business year and the moneys paid on loans or instalments due from preceding years, and not paid, shall not constitute a sum sufficient (a) to cover all the expenses for the year and the amount of loans or instalments become due, but not actually paid, during the year, and (6) to leave a net gain representing 3 per centum of the capital invested in loans to the fellaheen, the additional sum necessary for the purposes above mentioned shall be taken from the reserve fund; and in case of said fund being insufficient, the Government shall pay to the company the balance of the sum required for said purposes, in the nature of a subsidy, and not later than the 15th of February of each year. In the latter case, the loans and instalments due and not recovered during the year which shall be received during the subsequent years shall be paid to the Government until the subsidy paid to the company shall have been paid off. Done at Alexandria, in three copies, on the 17th of May, 1902. Other Agricultural Banks. The large land-owner in Egypt had been fairly well provided with agricultural credit for some time past. In 1901 there were two land banks doing business in Egypt, and during the following five years the number increased to six. The share and debenture capital and surpluses of the mortgage banks in Egypt increased from $35,232,400 in 3901 to $14S,750,000 iu 1905; their liabilities increased during the same period from $31,670,500 to $123,190,000, and their assets from $36,0S4,000 to $159,476,750. These banks, other than the Agricultural Bank of Egypt, limited their operations to large advances to the more wealthy land-owners. The Government desired to relieve the fellaheen of the oppression of usury under which they suffered, the charges of these usurers ranging from 25 to 200 per cent, per annum, and interest charges of 40 and 50 per cent, being common. Security". Regarding the guarantee, it is not thought by critics that there is the least danger that the Government will ever be called upon to make good a deficit of interest on the capital of the bank. Those best qualified to judge believe that the guaranty makes a difference of at least 6 per cent, in the prices realizable upon debentures floated in the Loudon and Paris markets. The opinion of Mr. E. W. Kemmerer, a Special Commissioner to Egypt from the Government of the United States in 1906, was that the Egyptian Agricultural Bank has so far proven a remarkable success, both from the standpoint of the stockholders and of the Egyptian fellaheen. BRITISH INDIA. We find in the recent development of co-operative credit in British India a very interesting example of what may be done under this principle even under unfavourable conditions. It is true that it was necessary to modify the systems to meet those conditions, so that the system may be more accurately described as one of State aid effectively administered than of organized self-help. A large proportion of the population to be served is very poor, while in the hands of the rich are large hoarded treasures not put to any use, which are estimated to amount to $1,500,000,000. : . Legislation. By the " Co-operative Credit Societies Act, 1904," provision was made for the organization of two classes of societies: (1) Rural, of which it was required that four-fifths of the members should be farmers; and (2) urban, of which four-fifths of the members should not be farmers. 290 British Columbia. 1914 In the rural societies the liability was made unlimited, and in the urban societies it .was required that the Local Government should decide for each particular society whether the liability should be limited or unlimited. In cases where the liability is limited by shares no one person may hold more than one-fifth of the issued shares, and the limit may be fixed at less. In societies with unlimited credit the principle of " one man one vote " has been adopted, while in those with limited liability each society may make by-laws governing the voting power. All the profits of a rural society must go to form a reserve until a fixed amount has been reached and the interest has been reduced below a point stated in the by-laws or fixed by the rules governing such societies. One rural society may lend to another with the permission of the registrar, who is an officer appointed by the Local Government to organize, register, inspect, audit, and sometimes to act as banker for the societies in his district. The societies are exempted from payment of income-tax, stamp duty, and registration fees. In case of advances made by a society for the purchase of seed or manure its claims have priority over those of other creditors, except in the case of debts for rent or land revenue. In promoting the formation of these societies great difficulties had to be overcome, but as the benefits derived from them became felt, they have increased rapidly, and in 1909 there were 2.00S societies with a membership of 1S4,SS9 persons; of these societies, 1,700 with 117,151 members were rural. The systems adopted were modelled closely on the Raiffeisen, the Schulze Delitzsch, or the Luzzatti types, depending upon the conditions to be met, which varied greatly in different parts of the country. The Act was flexible in this respect and allowed much liberty in the choice of a system best adapted to the character, means, and earning power of the people whom it was designed to serve. Henry Wolff, the authority on co-operative credit, says of the results accomplished that this legislation has " borne fruit in such abundance as never before witnessed." Leading Principles and Regulations. The legislation upon which these co-operative credit societies are based followed a report to the Government of India by a committee appointed to inquire into the subject. Some years before that time, Mr. (now Sir Frederick) Nicholson devoted two years to the study of the question, under instructions from the Government of Madras, aiid we will here quote from the draft Bill prepared by him to show the conclusions at which he arrived on the subject of loans for land improvement:— Objects. The sole object of land-improvement banks shall be the grant of credit for the permanent improvement and amelioration of landed property, through— (1.) The bringing of waste lands into cultivation: (2.) The irrigation of dry lands, whether by banks, channels, wells, and the like, including the levelling of land for the purpose : (3.) The draining of lands and their embanking against floods: (4.) The afforesting of lands, including therein provision for hedging and enclosure: (5.) The plantation of orchards of fruit-trees expected to last at least twenty years: (0.) The erection of permanent buildings for the housing of the owner or occupier of the land, or of his labourers, or of his stock : (7.) The provision of roads or tramways for the development of the estate. 317. -Such hanks may be either joint-stock or co-operative, and shall be subject to the provisions of the following sections. Loans. 118. Loans may be granted up to 75 per cent, of the existing value of the land to be improved. During the progress of the improvement the borrower may demand a further loan or loans up to 75 per cent, of the estimated value of the amount spent upon the improvement. Loans may also be granted at the outset up to two-thirds of the estimated value of the land, including the intended improvement, but in such case shall be advanced only by instalments at the discretion of the bank, and after due inspection and valuation of the progress of the work: Provided that if the improvements be roads, tramways, or buildings, such loan shall not exceed one-half of the value of the land and of such roads, tramways, or buildings. 139. Repayment of loans shall be solely through equal annuities, including both principal and interest, but it shall be lawful for the borrower to repay at any time the whole or any part of the 4 Geo. 5 Royal Commission on Agriculture. 291 loan, not being less than 10 per cent, of the outstanding balance, in which case he shall be liable to pay a commission not exceeding 1 per cent, on the whole balance. The bank cannot demand repayment of the loan otherwise than by the stipulated annuities, except in the following cases, viz.:— If the borrower or his successor in interest does not conform to the terms of his contract after being notified by the bank: If the land or the improvement is allowed by the owner or possessor materially to deteriorate, so as to lessen the security of the bank: If the land is sold for debt or for arrears of revenue or rent: If the borrower becomes bankrupt. In any of such cases the bank may proceed to sell the land forthwith without the intervention of a Court, subject to the provisions of the Act. 120. All loans granted solely for land improvements under the provisions of this chapter and bona fide spent thereupon shall form charges upon the land itself, and shall follow the land notwithstanding any changes of possession or ownership. Section 42 of Madras Act II. of 1864 shall not apply to such charges. Such loans so spent shall, moreover, when registered, fonm first charges on the land and its crops, notwithstanding any prior charges whatsoever, whether registered or unregistered, save only (1) dues for revenue; (2) dues for rent owed to a landholder as defined in the first clause of section 1, Madras Act VIII. of 1865; (3) dues payable to Government for prior loans under the "Land Improvement Loans Act" and "Agriculturists Loans Act"; (4) dues payable to the same or any other bank for loans for similar improvements to the same land. They shall be absolutely binding on all co-sharers, heirs, or successors to the land, any contract to the contrary notwithstanding. 121. During the pendency of the bank's charge upon the land the owner or possessor of the land shall be bound to maintain the improvement in full working-order, and he shall at least once in a year certify to the bank that the land and improvement are in complete order, and the bank may Inspect such laud and improvement. Failure to maintain the land or improvement in good order shall entail the immediate recovery of the loan, should the bank so desire. Transactions. One Year. (1908-09). Receipts $1,709,070 Disbursements ' 1,660,230 Profit 00,4S9 Assets 1,400,0S5 Liabilities 1,32S,580 Loans granted during year 1,239,4S0 Loans outstanding 1,200,945 These loans were almost all made for periods not exceeding one year and for small amounts. They were generally made for productive purposes or for the payment of prior debts. The present sources of capital are:— Per Cent. Loans from non-members 1S.0 Loans from other societies 35.8 Loans from Government 13.7 Share capital 14.1 Deposits by members 15.4 Reserve fund 2.6 The proportion of the capital which it has been necessary for the Government to provide has been diminishing in a marked degree. Supervision and Control. The central societies and district banks, which receive deposits and make loans to societies, exercise some supervision over them and to that extent relieve the registrars. It is said that the educational results of the movement have been scarcely less marked than the economic, and in some cases the good effect upon the moral tone of the people has been noted. It is the Government's policy gradually to educate the population for whose benefit these societies have been created to participate in their management and control; the aim being, as far as possible, to convert the initiative of the State into an active propaganda conducted by the people. This movement, fostered by a dominant race among a population numbering three hundred millions and speaking numerous languages, furnishes one of the most remarkable chapters in the history of co-operative credit. 292 British Columbia. 1914 PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. The system of State loans was inaugurated in 3.90S after investigation by the Government, and is considered to have been productive of much benefit. This step was only taken after a failure to secure the operation of an agricultural bank by private enterprise with a Govemment guarantee of an income up to 4 per cent. Administration. \ The Secretary of Finance and Justice is ex-officio president of the Board of Directors, and the Insular Treasurer is ex-officio manager of the bank; three members appointed by the Governor-General with them compose the Board. Use is made of Provincial and Muuicipal Treasurers as local agents, and of the Attorney-General as legal adviser. Working Capital. One million pesos ($500,000) was appropriated from the Treasury Fund as capital, and the banks authorized to receive deposits of funds of Provinces, municipalities, postal offices, bonds of societies, corporations, and private persons, paying interest on such deposits at a rate not exceeding 4 per cent, per annum. Loan Regulations. Loans may be made only for payment of mortgages on agricultural lands, or construction, repair, or maintenance of drainage and irrigation works; for purchase of fertilizers, seeds, machinery, or stock; for purchase of agricultural land, for clearing land, for farm labour, and other expenses connected with farming. The loans may be made up to 60 per cent, of the value of the security on first mortgage of urban or agricultural land, or on a chattel mortgage on crops already harvested. Loans must not exceed 35,000 pesos ($17,500) to one person, and 50 per cent, of the capital is set apart for loans of not more than 5,000 pesos ($2,500). The term of loans is fixed by the directors up to ten years, and the interest must not exceed 10 per cent. It should be noted that before the introduction of this system rates of from 10 to 40 per cent, per annum were common. Since 1911 the rate on loans guaranteed by property ■with good title has been S per cent. The real-estate titles are so uncertain that it has greatly hampered the operations of the bank and lessened its power for good; for that reason it is not considered to have effectively remedied the conditions, although it has undoubtedly ameliorated the condition of the farmers. Up till June, 1933, 390 loans had been made amounting to $SS0,126, averaging $2,256 per loan. The bank has twenty-four Provincial Agents throughout the Philippine Islands, and time and current deposits are received at the agencies, but are not used for loans, being deposited in the bank and operated for the advantage of the depositors where there are no banks. As the bank develops, these funds will be available for short-term loans on farm produce. The head office at Manila does not accept deposits from the public, but is the official depository for all the Provincial Treasurers. Source of Funds. The amount of the outstanding agricultural loans is $811,325, and the capital and surplus only amounted to $605,656, so that it has been necessary to secure additional funds. Three methods were considered for that purpose:— (1.) Getting a grant from the Legislature: (2.) The issue of debenture bonds secured by the bank's mortgage loans: (3.) Accepting deposits and using a portion of the deposits made by the Provincial Governments for the purpose of agricultural loans. Doubt was felt as to the ability to market such bonds satisfactorily, and as it would have been difficult for the Government to make the necessary grant, the third method was adopted. It was decided to limit the amount of such funds issued for this purpose to 50 per cent, of the minimum which these deposits had reached during the past six years, and this limit was afterwards reduced to 20 per cent, pending the receipt of instructions from the authorities at Washington. 4 Geo. 5 Royal Commission on Agriculture. 293 These Provincial deposits, it was contended, are withdrawn only as required to meet official obligations, and would not be affected by panics or other conditions that so readily affect ordinary deposits. Amount of Loans. Loans in the past fiscal year amounted to $514,325, as against $110,651 of the preceding year. Of 390 loans made to date: 122 were for amounts not exceeding $1,000; 155 for $1,000 to $5,000; 56 for $5,000 to $10,000; 39 for $10,000 to $20,000; 18 for $20,000 to $35,000. At the end of the year twenty payments amounting to $2,659 were overdue, of which eight had been granted an extension of time. Since the bank has been in operation there have been only five foreclosures, and only one case of loss of less than $75 may be incurred in realizing on the securities. The bank is authorized to make ten-year loans, but so far loans have been almost all confined to five years. Loans are made to the amount of from $25 to $17,500, and 50 per cent, of the capital is set aside for loans of not more than $2,500. Provision is made for the redemption of property sold under mortgage during a certain period on payment of principal, interest, and costs. THE UNITED STATES. LOANS FROM SCHOOL FUNDS. Although there has not in the past been any general system of Government or co-operative agricultural credit in the United States, the principle has been to some extent recognized in individual States which have by legislation permitted making loans of State funds on the security of mortgages on farms. While these loans have been made at moderate rates of interest and are reported to have been of great use to the farmers of those States, the main purpose was to find a safe means of investment for the funds. We would not therefore refer to the regulations governing them as models in framing legislation for the purpose under consideration, but as giving instances of farm loans made direct by Governments in order that we may derive the cause of their successes and failures. Idaho. The Act of 1S90, amended in 1900, authorized the loaning of permanent educational funds, other than funds arising from the disposition of university lands, on first mortgages on improved farm lands within the State up to one-third of the market value of lands exclusive of buildings. On September 26th, 1912, the State had $1,506,191.33 outstanding in loans to farmers. Loans were made up to $25,000 to one person, but since 1912 have been limited to $5,000. Some were made at 5 per cent, interest, most at 6 per cent., and since January, 3.912, at 7 per cent., payable semi-annually. Loans are made for periods ■ of from one to five years, and are payable only at maturity. Administration. The business is administered by the State Board of Land Commissioners, wThich consists of the Governor, the Attorney-General, the Secretary of State, the State Auditor, and the Superintendent of Public Instruction. State Land Appraisers value the properties offered as security, and the Attorney-General passes upon titles. During the twenty-two years since these loans were begun, about six foreclosures have been made and no loss is reported. The demand for the loans is increasing and applications are far in excess of the available funds. Indiana. The information about the loans in this State which is available does not distinguish between loans upon the security of farms and upon other real estate. Loans are limited to $4,000, and are made up to 50 per cent, of the value of security within the border of the county making the loan, or 40 per cent, of the value of security located elsewhere in the State. The maximum period of the duration of a loan is five years, and interest rate is 6 per cent, with the privilege of repayment of 10 per cent, at the end of any year. 294 British Columbia. 1914 Loans are made by the County Auditors, who must require three disinterested freeholders of the neighbourhood to appraise any land offered as security. The system seems to give satisfaction. Iowa. Loans are made on the security of farm mortgages and mortgages on other real estate. On June 30th, 1910, the amount outstanding was $4,595,735.10. Loans are made through the counties, which are responsible to the State for losses incurred through the corruption or incompetence of county officers. The State charges the counties 4% per cent, per annum interest, and the counties charge the borrowers from 5 to 6 per cent, per annum. The legislation authorizing these loans was passed in 3.S57, and for several years thereafter the business was unsatisfactory owing to the fact that no provision had been made for proper machinery for the valuation of securities. In 1S60 the system was amended in that respect, and since then appears to have been satisfactory. A lesson to be learned from this and other similar cases is that it is wise to have the administration of loans made the special work of officers who devote most of their time to that work. \ North Dakota. In 1SS9 this State passed a law requiring that one-third of the permanent School Fund and other educational funds should be invested in first mortgages in improved lands in the State, provided there was sufficient demand. It was not until a few years ago that the funds were sufficient to permit of any extensive loaning business. Since 1907 nearly all the loans now outstanding have been made. The outstanding amount on June 1st, 1912, was $1.6S0.012.25. The loans are made on first mortgages for terms up to twelve years at 5 per cent, interest. After five years repayments of 10 per cent, or a multiple of 30 per cent, of the principal may be made on account of a loan. After three years a loan may be repaid in full on any interest-due date with a penalty of six months' interest. Loans are only made on cultivated lands within the State to one-third of their value, and with a limit of $5,000 to one person. Administration. The loans are made by the State Land Department through its Bond or Mortgage Division. Applicants for loans are required to make sworn statements as to mortgage debts, location, character, assessed and market valuation of their land, the kind and condition of crops growing upon it, the character of the improvements made, and the value of buildings. A sworn statement from the County Board of Appraisers is also required. Success of the System. According to the officer in charge, until August, 1912, only one mortgage had been foreclosed, and the State had made a profit on the transaction. There had never been a cent of loss, and it was thought that these loans had had the effect of reducing the rate charged by private money-lenders. Applications are made for far more than there are funds to loan, and in order to avoid complaints of partiality, applications are dealt with in the same order as they are received and filed. It is estimated that when the school lands are all sold the funds from that source will be iu excess of $50,000,000, and that probably $18,000,000 to $20,000,000 will be available within the next ten years. According to the law as it stands at present, one-third of these funds must be loaned to farmers on farm mortgages. Oklahoma. ■ In 1907 the loaning of educational funds on improved farm land mortgages up to 50 per cent, of the value of security was authorized. On August 2nd, 1912, the aggregate amount of loans made was $4,079,225. The loans are made by the Commissioners of the State Land Office at 5 per cent, interest for terms of five years, and the extension of this term to ten years was under consideration. Applicants are required to make a detailed statement as to the security offered. In August, 1912, no mortgages had been foreclosed, but presumably not many had matured. 4 Geo. 5 Royal Commission on Agriculture. Oregon. In this State loans have been made since 1S64 under broad powers granted in 1S57, constituting the Governor, Secretary of State, and State Treasurer a Board of Commissioners for the sale of school and university lands and for the investment of the funds arising therefrom. Since 1SS7 10,000 loans have been made, and on October 1st, 1910, there were $5,07S,144 outstanding. Loans are limited to one-third the value of the security exclusive of buildings. From 1S04 to 1S91 the interest rate was 10 per cent.; from 1S91 to 1S99, S per cent.; and since then 0 per cent per annum. Not less thaii $250 or more than $5,000 may be loaned to any one person. Administration. There is a notable difference between tbe methods of administering the funds for these loans in the State of Oregon and the methods employed in other States. In Oregon the loans are made under the direction of the State Land Board. An attorney is appointed in each county who examines titles and appraises property proposed as security, and receives as payment fees of 1 per cent, of the amount of the loan, with a minimum of $10. We have no exact information of the details of the foreclosures, but so far as we can learn there have been in the forty-eight years of operation something under 500 foreclosures, or about 5 per cent, of the number of loans made. Between 1900 and 1930, 119 farms which the Board had acquired at various times were sold for $597,402.57, covering $4S0,393, the principal of the loans for which these properties were security, and $117,069 on account of the interest, leaving a loss of $112,073.23 of interest and expense. This loss is attributed to errors in judgment on the part of the valuating attorneys and to periods of financial stringency. The experience of Oregon, although the loss is relatively small, points to the wisdom of accumulating a reserve fund and of having a carefully devised system of valuation. South Dakota. For more than twenty years past the State has been making loans on first mortgages on farms from school funds, and on September 30th, 1912, there were outstanding 7,000 loans amounting to $6,216,405.61. Loans may be made up to one-third of tbe value of the security, and must be limited to $5,000 to any one person. The interest charged by the State to the county through which the loan is made is 5 per cent, and the county is authorized to make an additional charge up to 1 per cent, per annum, but this authority is seldom taken advantage of. Administration. The State and counties combine in the administration of the loans. The securities are passed upon by the State Attorney and the County Auditor, and the applications are then decided upon by the Board of County Commissioners. In twenty years there has been only one foreclosure and no loss, and the applications for loans on file on September 30th, 1912, which could not be considered on account of lack of funds amounted to $100,000. Utah. Loans from certain State funds known as Land Grant Funds may be made upon the security of first mortgages on improved farms up to two-thirds of the assessed value, exclusive of improvements, at 6 per cent, per annum, the expense of investigation of titles and values being borne by the intending borrower. In about five years 903 loans aggregating $1,0S9,174.47 have been made, and $3S7,239.97 have been repaid. Administration. The State Board of Land Commissioners deals with the applications for loans. One member of the Board acts as secretary and takes charge of the office of the Board at Salt Lake City. For the purpose of more convenient administration the Board has divided the State into four districts, each of which is administered by a member of the Board, whose duties, include the examination and appraisal of lands proposed as security for loans. 20 290 British Columbia. 1914 The rate of interest is lower than that current on farm loans in the State. Up to 1912 there had been only two foreclosures for loans aggregating $3,000, and there had been no losses. WISCONSIN. The State of Wisconsin in 1933, after having had a report from the State Board of Public Affairs upon the subject, passed two Acts making provision for additional credit facilities for farmers. One of these made mortgages on agricultural lands one of two preferred securities in which to invest money from various school and college funds at 5 per cent, interest, the other preferred investment being in loans to school districts, and made the Commissioners in charge of this business a channel for the investment of private funds in the same class of securities, investors receiving 5 per cent, and borrowers paying for these funds 0 per cent. The other Act provided machinery and regulations for land mortgage associations, and made the bonds of such associations a legal investment for saving associations, trust companies, trustees, executors, custodians of public or private trust funds. We will now give some details of the provisions of these Acts. The first-mentioned Act provides for the investment by the Commissioners of Public Lands of moneys belonging to the School Fund, the University Fund, the Agricultural College Fund, and the Normal School Fund in— (1.) State bonds: (2.) Loans to school districts: (3.) Approved mortgages on agricultural lands: (4.) Bonds of United States and certain specified States, and in loans to towns, villages, cities, counties, and boards of education in Wisconsin. It provides that iu investing trust funds the preference shall be given to loans to school districts and on the security of agricultural lands. Applications for Loans on Agricultural Lands. Applications shall state— The purpose for which a loan is desired: Applicant's place of residence: His interest in the land offered as security : Surveyor's description: Assessed value of land: Market value of land: Nature of land, and any other matters the Commissioners deem relevant. Application forms may be obtained from and sworn applications shall be received by the County Clerk. The applicant files with the County Clerk his application, together with the abstract of title to the land offered as security, and the certificate from the District Attorney of the county where the land is situated that he has examined the abstract of title and believes it to be valid. The County Clerk forwards the application with a statement of his opinion as to the assessed and market value of the land, and as to any misstatement he believes to have been made in the application. The Commissioners may request statements from other county officers as to the valuation and other accounts in the application. The Commissioners meet twice monthly, or oftener if necessary, to consider applications, and may grant loans for the whole amount applied for or for a reduced amount if thought advisable. Loan Regulations. Loans are made on the security of first mortgage on agricultural land of a value at least double the amount of the loan, exclusive of the value of buildings and other perishable improvements. The borrower must be a resident of the State and a bona-fide occupant of the land offered as security. The market value of the land must be at least $10 per acre. Loans are limited 4 Geo. 5 Royal Commission on Agriculture. 297 to a minimum of $100 and to a maximum of $5,000 to one person; $100,000 of the moneys available from the trust fund for loans are set aside each year for loans of not more than $1,000. Loans are granted only for the purpose of assisting to erect buildings, build silos, and clear land. The interest is 5 per cent, per annum, payable annually. Loans are made for a term of twenty years, but are repayable, at the option of the borrower, in whole or in part on any interest date after five years. Method of Advance. When a loan is granted, the Commissioners deposit in the bank named by the applicant the amount of the proposed loan, with the mortgage and other documents prepared for signature of the applicant. The bank holds the money until directed to pay it over or otherwise dispose of it. The bank also records the mortgage and returns the papers to the Commissioners without charge, excepting for the fee charged by the 'Registrar of Deeds, which is payable by the borrower. Before the loan is paid over the Commissioners satisfy themselves that the improvement for which the loan is granted has been accomplished. Upon completion of the improvement the applicant notifies the County Clerk and pays him a fee of 2 per cent, which notice and fee are then forwarded to the Commissioners. The land is then examined by the Superintendent of Farm Loans or a deputy. If the report is satisfactory, the Commissioners direct the bank to pay over the loan; otherwise they may refuse to pay it over, or may reduce the sum to an amount for which they consider the security offered to he adequate. The Commissioners appoint the Superintendent of Farm Loans at a salary not exceeding $3,000 per annum, plus travelling expenses, and appoint his assistants when necessary. Powers and Duties of Commissioners. Provision is made that any person or company desiring to place loans through the Commissioners may list his or its name under an agreement to supply a specified amount of funds at any time within the limit set in the agreement, which the Commissioners may invest in loans under the same system as followed with State funds, paying the lender 5 per cent, interest per annum, and charging the borrower 6 per cent, interest. When so directed by the owner of these funds, loans are made for less than twenty years. The State becomes liable for the safe custody of such funds until paid over to the borrower, or when collected from the borrower until returned to the lender, but does not guarantee repayment by the borrower of either principal or interest. In all mortgages provision is made for keeping buildings and other improvements in good repair, and failure to do this or false statements made about the use of the money will cause the whole sum at the option of the Commissioners to become due. In case of foreclosure the property is sold at auction for enough to pay the principal, interest, damages, and costs. If there is no bid high enough to do this, the property is bought in for the State, and may then be sold on instalments spread over twenty years, with interest at 5 per cent. As a further incentive to care in making statements in the application, the making of false statements is made a misdemeanour, with a penalty of from sixty days' to one year's imprisonment. The State Commissioner is made ex-officio Treasurer for the Commissioners. It is provided that he should pay out of the 5 per cent, interest collected 3% per cent, to the trust fund providing the money, and the balance into a farm loan fund, from which are to be paid salaries and other expenses which have not been provided for by the 2-per-cent. fee upon the amount of the loan paid with the application. In case of there being no money in the farm loan fund, provision is made for an annual appropriation from the State Treasury of any sum up to $5,000 for this purpose. CREDIT ASSOCIATIONS IN WISCONSIN. At the same session of the Legislature of Wisconsin there was passed an Act making provision for the formation of land mortgage associations, of which the following are the principal features:— 29S ' British Columbia. 19.14 Any number of freeholders, not less than fifteen, may form an association with a capital of not less than $10,000. The association shall be managed by a Board of not less than six trustees elected by ballot. Of those elected at first, one-third shall serve for one year, one-third for two years, one-third for three years, and subsequent trustees shall serve for three years. The Board shall elect its president, vice-president, and treasurer and secretary, and a Committee on Loans of from three to five members, all of whom shall serve for one year. The Committee on Loans shall approve of all applications before loans are granted. Applicants must state in writing the purpose for which the loan is desired, aud no loan shall be made unless the committee is satisfied that it promises to benefit the borrower, and unless it has received the unanimous approval in writing of all the members of the Committee; but the applicant may appeal to the Board from the committee's decision. The stockholders elect the Auditing Committee annually, which inspects the securities, cash, and accounts every three months, and at all times supervises the accounts of the Board and officers. A copy of the Auditing Committee's report shall be forwarded to the Commission and to the bank. The Auditing Committee by vote may suspend any member of the Committee on Loans, and by a majority vote may call a committee of stockholders to consider any violation of statutories or by-laws or any practice which they consider unauthorized. The treasurer shall give satisfactory bonds. The association shall have the following powers:— (1.) To make loans on the security of first mortgages on agricultural lands, forest lands, or land occupied by dwelling-houses up to 65 per cent, of their value if improved, or 40 per cent, if wholly unimproved: (2.) To issue bonds secured by pledge of the mortgages so taken: (3.) To pledge mortgages as security for the bonds of the association. The Commissioners of Banking must approve of all by-laws or amendments thereto of the association. At stockholders' meetings each share shall entitle the owner to one vote, but no one shareholder may vote in excess of 10 per cent, of the stock outstanding. No proxies or powers of attorney shall be effective, excepting from wives to husbands, and vice versa, and in the case of minors, incompetents, joint owners, corporations, widows, and unmarried women. The mortgages taken by a company shall be subject to the following restrictions:— (1.) Shall be the first lien on agricultural lands, forest lands, or lands occupied by dwelling-houses within Wisconsin: (2.) Shall be upon the whole and undivided fee: (3.) Shall be given to secure a principal indebtedness not exceeding in amount 15 per cent, of the capital and surplus of the association: (4.) Shall provide for proper soil-conservation: (5.) Shall provide for the annual or semi-annual reduction of the indebtedness: (6.) Shall provide against any interest in the security by any officer or trustee, except with the approval of two-thirds of all the trustees: (7.) Loans for buildings shall be paid out only upon construction vouchers, countersigned by an agent of the company. Appraisal. Each application shall be accompanied by a certificate of appraisal by two resident freeholders approved by the directors of the association, and a certificate confirming the valuation by the assessor of incomes. The prospective borrower dissatisfied by the valuation may apply to the Tax Commissioner for a revision, and file evidence as to the value of the land. Tbe borrower will pay all expenses incidental to the examination of title. Repayments. , The total amount to be paid periodically by the borrower shall include:— (1.) Rate of interest agreed upon: (2.) An allowance for expenses of the association not exceeding 1 per cent, annually of the face of the loan: 4 Geo. 5 Royal Commission on Agriculture. 299 (3.) The payment upon the principal (amortization) of not less than 1 per cent, of the original amount. The borrower may repay by instalments of such frequency and amounts as may be agreed upon, providing that not less than 1 per cent of the original amount of the mortgage shall be paid upon the principal annually. He may pay a larger instalment or the whole of the principal at any interest date. Such payment may be made iu cash or by tendering at par bonds of the association. The borrower may, upon sixty days' notice or payment of sixty days' interest, repay his total indebtedness. For failure to pay the interest or any instalment when due the borrower may be fined. Any one buying land which is mortgaged to the land mortgage association shall enter into an agreemeut to assume personal responsibility for the debt attached to the land. Every land mortgage association has power to call in loans on giving sixty days' notice when the person acquiring the mortgaged lands does not make a direct agreement as required, or when obligations are not met, or when premises become the subject of forced sale, or when the premises are depreciated from lack of care or from a failure to maintain and conserve them properly. The association may inspect premises to investigate the care being given to them and to see that the soil is not being depleted. The association may require a suitable partial repayment if the mortgage premises become depreciated in value. If a loan is called in and the borrower fails to pay, principal and interest, the Association may foreclose, but in no case shall the borrower be liable for more than the unpaid principal, interest, and expenses of collection. Regulations concerning Bonds. The aggregate amount of the principal of all bonds issued by the association and outstanding at any one time shall not exceed twenty times the capital and surplus of the company. Associations shall not give preference to any creditor by pledging any of its assets as collateral security, excepting fOr temporary purposes. If this should be done habitually, the Commissioner of Banking may require such loans to be paid off, subject to the approval of the Commissioner of Banking. The association decides the particulars of the bond issue, such as dates, interest, and amount. The association shall keep the register of bondholders and transfers for the inspection of the Banking Commission or the Department of the State Treasurer. To secure the payment of such bonds the association shall issue a collateral deed of trust to the State Treasurer, pledging as security the notes of mortgages taken as provided in an amount equal to or exceeding the aggregate amount of bonds to be issued. The total amount of bonds outstanding shall not at any time exceed the total amount unpaid upon the notes secured by the mortgages belonging to the association and pledged for the payment of the bonds, plus such securities and moneys as may be on deposit with the State Treasurer under the provisions of the Act. All mortgages pledged as stated above shall be deposited with the State Treasurer, or there may, with the Treasurer's approval, be substituted for them other mortgages or money or State bonds or certificates of deposit to an equal amount. Notice of redemption of bonds may not be given by holders, but only by the association as provided by giving six months' notice. Bonds that are not presented for more than two years after maturity or the date fixed for their redemption shall no longer be a lien, but simply a legal money claim without interest after maturity; Bonds of land mortgage associations shall be a legal investment for savings associations, trust companies, or other financial institutions chartered under the laws of Wisconsin, and shall also be a legal investment for executors, administrators, or custodians of public or private funds, and partnerships or associations. Various Provisions. Whenever the taxes upon the real estate subject to the mortgages pledged as security for any bonds of any land mortgage association shall be payable by either the mortgagee or mortgagor, then such bonds shall be exempted from further taxation in the hands of their holders. 300 British Columbia. 1914 Two per cent, of the net profits shall be set aside as reserve fund annually, until the fund equals 20 per cent, of the capital stock. Associations shall not acquire real estate except to protect their interest in mortgages foreclosed, and in such case shall sell it promptly. It is interesting to note that this legislation passed the Wisconsin Assembly by a vote of 57 to 7. FAILURES IN THE UNITED STATES. We have, in contrast to the cases of successful administration of State loans on the security of real estate which we have cited, a history of failure in practice, resulting in abandonment of the system by the States of New York and New Jersey, and in Wisconsin the abandonment of an old system, and since then the inauguration of a new and improved system. New York. According to the report of the Comptroller of the State for 1909, the failure would appear to have been due to poorly drafted laws and lax, incompetent, and corrupt administration. From this report we learn that loans were administered by two Commissioners in each county who were, the sole judges of the sufficiency of the security, and these Commissioners received small remuneration; that loans were made for amounts in excess of the statutory limitation; that they were made on the security of land to which the title was not clear; on security of land on which there were prior encumbrances; upon an undivided share when the whole property would have furnished insufficient security: and that other poor methods were followed. An instance is given of a Loan Commissioner deeding a farm to his wife and then lending her Government funds upon its security. It appears that after the death of the Commissioner and of his wife the heirs refused to pay the loan on the ground that there was no record of title to the mortgaged farm in the name of the wife or mortgagor, the deed to which, if one had ever been actually given, was not on record. In cases of foreclosure, instead of the Attorney-General's Department being called upon, attorneys were employed whose charges and bills of costs were excessive. Failure under methods such as those described by the Comptroller should not deter from the inauguration of an agricultural credit system, but serve to suggest proper safeguards against similar weaknesses. New Jersey'. In this State loans of school funds upon real-estate mortgages were abandoned in 1SS3 because they " failed to prove satisfactory investments." The losses are ascribed to lax methods of administration, with a slump in land-values as a contributing cause. The management of the school fund was at the time vested by law in a Board of Trustees composed of the Governor, Secretary of State, Attorney-General, Comptroller, President of the Senate, and Speaker of the House of Assembly. Applications for loans were made to this Board, who, upon being satisfied of the value of the securities offered, granted the loans subject to the Attorney-General's approval of the titles. From such description of their administration as we have seen we have received the impression that there was no department with proper organization for tho valuation of securities, and that the lack of success was due to the system by which the administration was an additional burden laid upon the shoulders of men whose time and attention were fully occupied by their other public work, instead of being the special work of trained officials. Wisconsin. The Act of 1S49 provided for the investment of trust funds upon real-estate security by the School and University Land Commissioners, who were the Secretary of State, State Treasurer, and the Attorney-General. Loans were to be from $300 to $500 at 7 per cent, per annum, payable in advance, for a term of five years, which might be extended provided the interest was paid, but this privilege of extension was subject to change at any time by the Legislature. Loans were to be limited to one-half the value of security. The failure of the system has been ascribed to " colossal fraud 4 Geo. 5 Royal Commission on Agriculture. 301 and corruption " and gross carelessness in administration. Many defective and irregular mortgages were taken; sometimes no mortgage at all was given. In some cases the amount of loans as limited by law was exceeded, and loans were made upon insufficient security. In short, the maladministration was such as would be impossible under a system modelled upon those of New Zealand, Australia, and South Africa. THE FLETCHER BILL. Following the visit of the American Commission to Europe in 1913, a Bill was introduced in the Senate of the United States in August, 1933, by Senator Duncan U. Fletcher, Chairman of the Commission, designed to provide for the establishment, operation, management, and control of rural banks in the United States. This Bill combined provisions for personal credit as well as for mortgage loans. After further study of the two problems, another Bill was drafted dealing exclusively with mortgage credit and leaving the problem of personal credit to be dealt with by a separate measure. Tbe Bill as redrafted was presented by Mr. Fletcher in the Senate on January 29th, 3914, and referred to the Committee on Banking and Currency. The Proposed System. It is suggested that legal provision shall be made for the creation of national farm land banks which are to be separate and independent. They will only be formed into a system as far as their compliance with the provisions of the Act and the uniformity of regulations, as well as the supervision of the Federal Government, to which they will be subject, will have a tendency to systematize their operations. Administration of the National Farm Land Banks. Under the provisions of this suggested legislation there would be created in the Department of the Treasury a bureau charged with the supervision of the operations of the rural banks. The banking system is to be headed by a Commissioner of Farm Land Banks, who shall be under the direction of the Secretary of the Treasury. The Commissioner is appointed by the President of the United States with the advice and consent of the Senate, and shall hold office for five years unless sooner removed for cause. He shall give bonds in the amount of $50,000 and receive a salary of $6,000. There may also be appointed a Deputy Commissioner by the Secretary of the Treasury at a salary of $3,500. Form of Incorporation. It is provided that national rural banks may either be incorporated as co-operative or profit- seeking institutions. The character in this respect of each class of bank must be indicated by the name of the individual bank. Mode of Formation. The exercise of Governmental activity in respect to these banks is to bo confined to rigid supervision, and allows wide scope for individual initiative. Permission is given to organize separate and distinct rural bank institutions. An association for carrying on the business of farm laud banking may be formed by a number of qualified persons not less than ten. Powers of the Farm Land Banks. These banks are entitled to receive deposits to the extent of 50 per cent, of their capital and surplus. Loans on farm lands may be made for not more than thirty-five years; all the farm mortgages shall be on first mortgages, and such loans are not to exceed 50 per cent, of the value of improved farm land or 40 per cent, of other land. Mortgage loans for less than five years may be made, but national land bank bonds cannot be issued against such loans. Capital Stock. ; The shares of co-operative national farm land banks are placed at $25 each; those of profit- seeking farm land banks at $300 each. In the case of co-operative banks each shareholder is entitled to only one vote. In the case of profit-seeking banks each shareholder is entitled to one vote for each share of stock standing in his name. At least 25 per cent of the capital stock 302 British Columbia. 1914 shall be paid in before the bank is authorized to do business, and the remainder shall be paid in monthly instalments of 10 per cent, each on the whole amount from the time the bank is authorized to do business. The minimum share capital of a national farm laud bank is to be $10,000. Repayment of Loans. All mortgage loans granted under the provision suggested shall be amortizable. The borrower may, however, pay off his loan at any interest period after five years, and, with the consent of the bank, also after a shorter period than five years. The bank is authorized to issue, sell, and trade in its own collateral trust bonds, which are designated as national land bank bonds. These bonds are issued under the following provisions:— (1.) The rate of interest paid by the farmer shall not exceed the rate of interest paid by the bank to the investor by more than 1 per cent., and this 1 per cent, must include all charges of administration or expenses of the bank: (2.) All national land bank bonds must be payable on a date specified, and are subject to call at par: (3.) National land bank bonds shall always be protected by the deposit of first-mortgage farm loans of an equal amount iu face value maturing not less than five years from their date: (4.) The amortization payment as made must be credited on the mortgage, and land bonds must be retired for an equal amount: (5.) A specific Government agent, to be known as the Federal Fiduciary Agent, is given joint possession with the bank of the mortgages securing the national land bank bonds, and will have control over the registry of such mortgages: (6.) The banks are authorized to use their capital surplus and deposits for the temporary purchase and holding of first-mortgage loans. In this way the bank is enabled to maintain its bonds against depreciation in the market. Powers and Restrictions. i The capital surplus and deposits may be loaned on short-term first lien mortgages not exceeding five years. The bank is, however, to be prohibited from permanently investing more than one-half of its capital and surplus in such loans, or in its national land bank bonds, so as to prevent the tying-up of all its resources in this way. There is also to be given the farm land bank power to do an ordinary banking business to a limited extent; that is, as far as may be required by the limited volume of deposits which it is authorized to receive—namely, deposits to the extent of 50 per cent, of its capital and surplus. Each bank is authorized to deal in national land bank bonds of other farm land banks with its deposits; this will enable the funds available in one section of the county to meet the needs in another section. While the bank can buy its own bonds in the market on the best terms possible, it cannot " call " national land bank bonds for payment at less than par. The amount of national land bank bonds that may be issued and outstanding at any one time must not exceed fifteen times the capital and accumulated surplus of the bank, so as to put some limitation upon the use of its credit. The periodic payments by the borrower must be sufficient in all cases to pay the interest charge upon the loan, to cover the administration charge of the bank, and to include an amortization payment sufficient to retire and pay off the amount of the principal borrowed. Provisions are made preventing the loan by a national farm land bank upon the security of its own stock or the stock of any other farm land bank. The amount that can be loaned to any one individual is limited to 20 per cent, of the capital and surplus. Dividends. Dividends which will impair the capital stock of the banks are prohibited, nor shall any dividend be paid which will reduce the amount of capital and surplus of each bank to less than one-fifth of the outstanding bonds of the bank. 4 Geo. 5 Royal Commission on Agriculture. 303 In the case of co-operative banks the net earnings shall be distributed as follows:— (1.) Interest upon the par value of the shares of stock at the rate prevailing in the community where the bank is located, and not exceeding the legal rate of interest in the State, if the net earnings are sufficient for that purpose, and if otherwise, then to be computed pro rata: (2.) The balance of such earnings (if any) shall be distributed among the patrons of the co-operative banking corporation in proportion to the amount of business transacted with the bank: Provided, however, that in such distribution the share- owning patrons may, if approved by a twojthirds vote, take dividends at a rate twice as great as that paid to non-share-owning patrons; and provided that a special reserve fund shall be maintained by each national farm land bank. This reserve fund shall at all times be equal to 5 per cent, of the total annual interest charge on the land bank bonds which are outstanding against the bank at the close of the last fiscal year. Regulations—Real Estate. A national farm land bank may hold real estate for the following purposes:— (1.) Such real estate as may be necessary for the transaction of its business: (2.) Such as shall be mortgaged to It as security for loans: (3.) Such as shall be conveyed to It as satisfaction of debts contracted in the course of business dealings. But no national farm land bank shall for a longer term than five years hold the title of any real estate conveyed to it or purchased by it to secure any debt due to such bank. Liability. The shareholders of every national farm land bank are to be held individually responsible, equally and rateably, and not one for another, for all engagements of the bank to the extent of the amount of their stock at par value, in addition to the amount invested in such shares, unless in the case of such co-operative farm land banks which may have undertaken a larger liability by a two-thirds vote of the stockholders. Privileges to be granted. It is to be provided that the national land bank bonds can be received:— (1.) As security for the deposits of postal savings funds in farm land banks and in other banks: (2.) These bonds are made legal investment for-funds accumulated in the savings bank of the District of Columbia, as well as time deposits in national banks. The bonds are made a legal investment for trust funds and estates under charge of the United States Courts. They are made available as security for loans from national banking associations either to farm land banks or to individuals. Deposits of Postal Savings Banks. Upon request the national farm land bank shall receive deposits of postal savings funds to the extent of one-half of their capital and surplus, and pay the interest required thereon. Taxation. These banks are exempt from Federal, State, and local taxation on their capital stock and income, the mortgages held as security, and the bonds issued ; but they are not exempt from taxation iu respect to real estate. Management. The affairs of each bank shall be administered by not less than five and not more than nine directors, all of whom are to be elected by the shareholders at a general meeting. Branch banks of the farm land banks are to be prohibited, but the Bill provides for loau agencies throughout the State in which the bank is operated. With the consent of the Commissioner, sales agencies are permitted, either within or without the State, for the sale of national farm bank bonds. 304 British Columbia. 1914 Appraisal. The Committee on Appraisement consists of three directors. No loan on any farm land can be made until an appraisement of such land has been made iu writing by this committee and filed. It is to be provided that, in appraising property for loans, buildings or other destructible property shall not be valued at more than 20 per cent of the total appraisement. The amount of the loan must not exceed 50 per cent, of the total appraised value. Supervision. The Commissioner of Farm Land Banks shall as often as deemed necessary appoint examiners to investigate the affairs of each national farm land bank; the expenses of this examination to be assessed upon the banks examined in proportion to assets held by such banks. The granting of loans and gratuities by any such bank to such examiners is prohibited. CANADA. NOVA SCOTIA. The Legislature of Nova Scotia passed an Act in 3012, entitled "An Act for the Encouragement of Settlement on Farm Lands," which provided for guarantees to a loan company making advances on the security of mortgages on approved farm lands and buildings on the following terms:— The loan up to 50 per cent, of the appraised value of the security would be at the risk of the loan company, and the Government would guarantee the loan company against " loss on any such mortgage to an amount not exceeding the difference between 50 per cent, of such appraised value and the amount of the loan up to SO per cent, of the appraised value, together with interest thereon." Or the Government may supply this extra 30 per cent, of the appraised value of the security to be loaned in any particular case up to $2,500. Repayments of principal of such loans were required by the Act to be first applied by the loan company towards a reduction of the Government guarantee or advance, but it was provided that the Government may agree to defer the repayment by the farmer of the instalments of principal and interest on the additional amount loaned or guaranteed by the Government for a period of five years from the time of effecting the loan. In 1933 an amendment was passed providing for a guarantee by the Government for a term not exceeding twenty years of the payment of the bonds and interest thereon of any loan company to the extent of money advanced or agreed to be advanced under the provisions of the Act. Guarantee. The following system appears to be followed: The Government guarantees principal and interest of an issue of debentures by the loan company, which bear interest at 4% per cent. Tbe company sells these, and computing the actual interest on the money realized by the sale of the bonds charges the borrower 1% Per cent, additional for the service. The company takes the risk of the loan up to 50 per cent, of the value of the security, and the Government takes the risk of any additional amount loaned, being made up to SO per cent, for terms not to exceed twenty years. On this 30 per cent., the payment of principal and interest of which is guaranteed to the loan company by the Government, the loan company appears to make a profit of 1% per cent. Loan Regulations. A borrower is required to farm, cultivate, manure, and manage the mortgaged farm iu a husbandlike manner, to follow such methods of husbandry as will keep the whole in good heart, and must not allow it to become impoverished by exhausting crops or otherwise. We quote from the regulations :— The mortgagor shall also repair and keep in repair the dwelling-house, cottages, and other buildings on the farm or property, and all doors, gates, gate-irons, posts, rails, fences, hedges, and walls, and shall paint or whitewash the same when necessary. 4 Geo. 5 Royal Commission on Agriculture. 305 The mortgagor shall during the term of this mortgage follow and adhere to such rotation of crops as may be advised or required by the Inspector. So far as practicable, the mortgagor shall not allow thistles, mustard (charlock), ragwort, or other weeds declared to be dangerously noxious by the Secretary for Agriculture to run to seed, but shall use his best endeavours to keep the land clear from same. The mortgagor shall keep the farm well and properly stocked, and so far as is practicable shall consume with cattle and stock on the farm all hay, straw, fodder, root, and grain crops grown on the farm. In the event of selling any hay, straw, or any cereals off the farm, he shall return to the farm either barnyard manure, if purchasable, or commercial fertilizer of a value equal to two-thirds of the manurial value of the products sold as determined by the Secretary for Agriculture. Interest and Amortization. AVe gather from the report of the Secretary of Industries and Immigration for Nova Scotia that on loans from independent sources the current farm mortgage interest rate is from 7 to 8 per cent, and the borrower, with the assistance of the Government, has therefore been able to save the difference between 6% per cent, and 7 per cent, or S per cent., as the case may be, and to borrow a larger percentage of the value of his security, and to secure a longer term of loan than is usual without renewal. Tbe legal and valuation expenses are not affected by the connection of the Government witb a loan. The following is a copy of the City Solicitor's tariff, exclusive of disbursements or of any charges for services by the country valuer or solicitor:— For examining title, preparing mortgage attendance, and all necessary correspondence on an advance:— Less than $500 $ 8 00 For $500 and under $1,000 9 00 For $1,000 and under $3,500 10 00 For $1,500 and under $2,000 11 00 For $2,000 and under $2,500 12 00 For $2,500 and under $3,000 13 00 For $3,000 and under $5,000 14 00 For over $5,000, by special agreement. For each additional title 3 00 For release or assignment of mortgage 4 00 For paying off encumbrances, if not more than two 2 00 For drawing collateral bond, when necessary 2 50 For agreement of extension of time or change of term 2 50 For renewals or additional advances, half above rates. For additional searches when loans advanced by instalments 50 Where proposals are withdrawn or declined after examination of title, half above rates. Where proposals are withdrawn or neglected to be proceeded with after approval of title and preparation of mortgage, full rates. For examining abstract of title, deeds, etc., as submitted by country valuator 2 00 For preparing mortgage, etc., the scale as above, less 4 00 The above rates do not include registration fees, which are usually for: Mortgage, $2 to $2.50; release, 70 cents to $1; deed, $3..S0 to $2.50.. The borrower must begin repayments at once on the amortization principle, which at terms of ten or twelve years makes a fairly heavy annual repayment, amounting to 33.444 per cent, on a ten-year loan as shown in the report referred to, and 10.97 per cent, on a fifteen-year loan. Special Features. Nova Scotia uses the Eastern Canada Saviugs and Loan Company as an intermediary. When a flotation of 4%-per-cent. debentures issued for this purpose with a guarantee by the Government realizes par, the company charges the borrower 6 per cent. The issue made at an unfavourable time sold at 93, and borrowers accordingly pay for that money 6% per cent. In the report referred to, it is stated: "Instead, therefore, of paying 6 per cent, for their money, these farmers secured it for 3% per cent." This statement is, however, based on a 300 ' British Columbia. 1914 comparison in which interest is computed on the amount of the original loan for the whole term of the amortization period without any deduction for interest on the amounts repaid semiannually. " Ready-made " Farms. While the Nova Scotia Act delegates the lending to an intermediary, it is evidently not from fear of the danger of any evil effect from Government influence, for the same Act provides:— Tho Governor in Council is authorized from time to time to purchase real estate in farming districts, subdivide it into farms or lots, repair, alter, or erect buildings and fences, prepare, till, and seed the land for crops, purchase stock and implements, and sell said real estate, stock, and implements to selected settlers in such parcels or lots, on such terms, and on such security on the property sold as are approved by the Governor in Council; and the Governor in Council may employ any approved loan company to act as agent in the taking of such securities and for the collection of principal and interest thereon. The Governor in Council may make regulations for carrying out effectively the provisions of this Act. The Governor in Council is authorized to borrow, on the credit of the Province, a sum not exceeding $200,000, for the purpose of providing a fund for the purpose of this Act. The Provincial Secretary shall make an annual report to the Legislature of all loans effected and the terms thereof. The Act provides :— The Governor in Council may, on behalf of the Province of Nova Scotia, guarantee for a term not exceeding twenty years the payment of the bonds and interest thereon, according to their tenor, of any loan company to the extent of money advanced or agreed to be advanced under the provisions of this Act. Such guarantee shall be iu such form and shall be given upon such terms and conditions as the Governor in Council prescribes. Schedule. In the matter Chapter 10, Act 1912. The Province of Nova Scotia hereby guarantees the payment of principal to the extent of $ of a mortgage from [name of farmer] to {name of loan company] ou the lands hereinafter described, and interest thereon, provided that all repayments of principal on said mortgage shall be first applied towards the reduction of the amount so guaranteed. [,In case of an agreement to defer repayment under section Ji, this form to be varied accordingly.] The said lands are described as follows, that is to say: \description]. Dated at Halifax. N.S., the day of , a.d. 19 Provincial Secretary. In this connection it should be noted that the guarantee is only given in the case of loans at the discretion of the Government after receiving a report from a Government Inspector. Nova Scotia has a representative in the United Kingdom explaining to intending immigrants how they can borrow 80 per cent, of the cost of their farms. Although the loans in Nova Scotia have been small, the practical working of their system is of especial interest as being an example of the operation of a plan providing for the management of the loans by a company rather than by a commission or department of the Government. Apparently the Government receives no payment from which to form a fund for protection against loss. For a small amount of loans it is probable that this plan is the most economical, but loans on such a scale would not meet the requirements of the situation in British Columbia. THE CAISSES POPULAIRES OF QUEBEC. We have in Canada what we are informed is a very successful instance of co-operative rural banks in those founded in Quebec by M. Alphonse Des Jardins, of Levis. P.Q., who by his energy and perseverance succeeded in overcoming the prejudices of the people and in popularizing a system based on a combination of the principles advocated by Schulze and Luzzatti, modified by the abandonment of the principle of either unlimited or limited liability, and by the permission of the withdrawal of capital by a shareholder upon giving thirty days' notice. Number of Banks. Three of these banks were in operation before there was auy legislation regulating them. In 1906 the " Quebec Syndicates Act" made the necessary provisions under which they could operate, and now there are 122 of these banks in Quebec, ten in Ontario, and twenty-three in Massachusetts and New Hampshire. 4 Geo. 5 Royal Commission on Agriculture. 307 Character of Operations. It is estimated that through these banks $3,500,000 is lent annually in small amounts to people who would have little chance of getting loans from the ordinary banks. At the same time, it is stated that absolutely no losses have been made. The basis of credit is the character of the borrower, who is required to be honest, punctual in his payments, sober, of good habits, industrious, and laborious. As the operations of each bank are confined to its own electoral district, and as the people among whom these banks are established are as much attached to the land and settled in their methods of farming and manner of life as the farmers of European countries, the system has been found suitable to the conditions. Deposits are received at the current savings-bank rate, and the interest to borrowers averages about 6% per cent. I Administration. The business is managed by a council of administration of from five to nine members and a credit committee of three members; it is supervised and audited by a committee of supervision of three members. These committees are elected by the shareholders and serve without remuneration for two years. Twenty per cent, of the annual profits and 10 cents on each share paid as an entrance fee go to form a reserve fund. NEW BRUNSWICK. Sale of Improved Farms. While no provision has yet been made for farm loans in New Brunswick, the Government of that Province has recognized the need of making it easier for farmers to get assistance in acquiring improved farms. In 1912, by " An Act to encourage Settlement of Farm Lands." a Farm Settlement Board was created, with power to buy, improve, and sell to intending settlers " real estate suitable for farming purposes." One Of the three Commissioners composing the Board is the Superintendent of Immigration, who acts as secretary. Terms of Sale. These farms when improved are to be sold at cost to bona-fide settlers on the following terms:— If the purchase price is less than $S0O, the purchaser is required to pay 25 per cent, of the price in cash, and the balance from time to time, as may be arranged, within ten years, or in exceptional cases twelve years, with interest as may be agreed upon. If the purchase price is over $800, a cash payment of 35 per cent, is required, and the same terms with respect to the payment of the balance of the purchase price are granted as in the case of purchases of less amount than $S00. Government Lands offered for Sale. With regard to Government lands, provision is made for granting to the Board such portions as are unfit for lumbering, but suitable for farming purposes. The Board is authorized to divide such lands into lots, to clear not more than 10 acres in a 100-acre lot, to erect a dwelling- house and outbuildings upon each of these lots, and to sell them to bona-fide settlers at prices sufficient to cover the cost of survey and the improvements made thereon, and upon the same terms as to payment as required in the sale of other farms purchased by the Board from private owners. Regulations. Title does not pass until all payments according to the agreement are completed, and default in making payments as agreed or in fulfilling other conditions of the contract entitles the Board to resume possession of the property after one month's notice of such default, and to resell the same. The Board is subject to the direction of the Governor iu Council, to whom full reports are made quarterly. The Commissioners hold office during the pleasure of the Governor in Council. 30S British Columbia. 19.14 Provision for Funds. Funds for the scheme may be provided according to the Act, by borrowing $100,000 for twenty years, or by issuing annual instalment bonds to the amount of $5,000 each year covering the period of twenty years. This loan and interest are to be repaid out of the current revenue of the Province, the sums received for the sale of lands being devoted to the purchase and development of further lands to be dealt with in the same maimer. SASKATCHEWAN. The Province of Saskatchewan appointed a Commission on Agricultural Credit in 1913, and two of its members were associated with the Permanent American Commission in its investigation of this subject and general co-operation in Europe. The Commission made its report in October, 1913, and iu December an Act was passed by the Legislature embodying their recommendations, and providing that the Lieutenant-Governor in Council should proclaim the date of the coming into force of the -Act. This has, as far as we are yet advised, not been done. The Act provides for the formation of the Saskatchewan Co-operative Farm Mortgage Association, consisting of three Commissioners and all such persons as may become members of the association. Membership. Applicants for membership may organize themselves or be organized by the Commissioners into local groups of not less than ten persons, each of whom is acceptable to and approved as a member by each of the other applicants. Administration. The association is managed by the Commissioners; those first appointed are to act for three, four, and five years respectively, and to be eligible for reappointment; subsequent appointments to be for five years. All the Commissioners are removable for cause by the Government. One of the Commissioners shall he managing Commissioner and be paid a salary; tbe other Commissioners receive only a per diem allowance and travelling expenses. Provision is made for an Advisory Board of fifteen, five of whom shall be appointed by the Government, and hold office during pleasure; five shall be appointed for one year's service, one by each of the following: The University, the Grain-growers' Association, the Union of Rural Municipalities, the Provincial Winter Fair Board, the Convention of Agricultural Societies; five shall be elected by the association and retire in rotation annually; those subsequently elected are to serve for three years. Status of Members. (1.) Any person shall be a member of the association and shall be entitled to a certificate of membership who has— (a.) Associated himself with at least nine other persons in an organized local group of members: (o.) Forwarded to the Commissioners an application for a loan on the security of a first mortgage on farm land, such application having previously been approved by the other persons comprising the local group and their approval endorsed thereon : (c.) Paid to the Commissioners the sum of $1 as membership fee: (d.) Received notification from the Commissioners that his application has been approved by them and that a loan will be made to him: (e.) Executed at his own charge, in favour of the association a first mortgage in form acceptable to the Commissioners upon the parcel of land described in the application as being the security for the said loan. (2.) A member of the association shall remain a member so long and only so long as any portion of the principal or interest of his loan from the association remains unpaid: Provided that he shall be considered still to be a member in so far as his contingent liability is concerned for a period of one year from the date of his final payment (3.) If a member sells property mortgaged to the association, his membership and liability may be transferred to the purchaser with the concurrence of not less than three-fourths of the 4 Geo. 5 Royal Commission on Agriculture. 309 members of his local group and the approval of the Commissioners: Provided that in case a member is unable to secure the concurrence of three-fourths of his local group, but secures the concurrence of a majority of the members thereof, such member may appeal to the Commissioners for approval of such sale and transfer; and in case such approval is given, the sale may be made and the membership and liability transferred to such purchaser. (4.) On applying for a discharge of mortgage a member shall return to the Commissioners his certificate of membership. A member becomes liable for the liabilities of defaulting members of his group which the association fails to recover to the extent of 50 per cent, of the amount of his own loan. Each group elects its chairman and secretary, and may send at its own expense a delegate to the annual general meeting. Additional members are admitted to a group upon a two-thirds vote approving of loans applied for and upon the acceptance of the application by the Commissioners. After twenty-five groups have been formed, annual meetings shall be held for the purpose of receiving reports, inquiring into the business of the association generally, and making by-laws and regulations consistent with the Act. Loans. Loans may be made on first mortgages on farm lands, and to be expended on permanent improvements or productive purposes in connection with the mortgaged property or in tho payment of liabilities incurred for such purposes. Limit of Advance. Loans are limited to 40 per cent, of the valuation of security, and partial repayment may be required in case of depreciation. Term. •Loan may not be made for less than fifteen or more than thirty-five years, and are repayable in equal annual or semi-annual instalments of principal and interest. Rate. The rate of interest to be charged by the association on its loans shall be such as will be sufficient, but no more than sufficient, to pay the interest on the cost of marketing its securities, the expense of conducting the business of the association, and the creation of a reserve fund; the association shall not seek to earn and shall not pay any profits. Additional repayments may be made on the due date of any payment by giving three months' notice or paying three months' interest. Mortgage Bonds. The issue of mortgage bonds to be limited to the aggregate amount of mortgages held by the Association. i Sinking Fund. Provision shall be made for the creation of a sinking fund in accordance with regulations to be made by Government All sums of principal repaid must be reloaned or expended in the purchase of the association's bonds or deposited to the credit of its sinking fund. The accounting system to be approved by the Provincial Auditor, and the accounts to be audited by him or an auditor approved by him. Moneys received to be deposited in a chartered bank and paid out by cheques signed by two Commissioners, or one Commissioner and one other officer, and all officers handling moneys to be under bonds. Government Assistance. The Government may guarantee payment of principal and interest of the mortgage bonds, and may pay the managing Commissioner's salary for three years and the expenses of organizing the association and the local groups. 310 British Columbia. 1914 THE MEIGHEN BILL. During the last session of the Dominion Parliament there was introduced by Solicitor- General Meighen a Bill intended to authorize the organization of co-operative savings and credit societies in Canada. It may be expected that this Bill will become law at the next session of Parliament. Under the provisions of this Bill it would be possible to incorporate a society with the power to receive deposits from and to make loans to its members. Such a society would be managed by a Board of five directors elected annually, who would appoint a president, vice- president, a secretary, and a manager. The following are some of the provisions:— Any number of persons not less than seven, capable of contracting, may be incorporated as a society, subject to the approval of the Secretary of State, who shall make a full investigation before assenting to formation of such society. No member shall have more than one vote. Proxies, excepting in stated cases, will not be allowed. Membership and operations shall be restricted to the district gazetted. The working capital may be obtained (1) by disposing of shares to members; (2) by deposits from members; (3) by making loans. A guarantee fund shall be created by setting aside 10 per cent, of the annual net profits until equal to the maximum paid-up capital and deposits, and shall be invested in specified securities. No society shall make loans to or receive deposits from non-members. The rate of interest on deposits shall be fixed by the Board of Management and on loans by the Board of Credit. There shall be elected to serve three years a Board of Credit of at least three members who shall not be members of the Board of Management or Board of Supervision or officers, and who shall not borrow from the society. The president shall be ex-officio member of the Board. It shall he the duty of this Board to consider and approve of all loans and investments of funds of the society. A Board of Supervision shall be elected annually, and consist of at least two members who shall not be members of other Boards mentioned or officers of the society. This Board shall audit accounts and perform other similar duties. The members of this Board shall not borrow from the society. No officer but the manager shall be paid for his services. Provision is made for compulsory independent audits upon requisition for returns and for liquidation, in which case members are only liable for the amount unpaid on their shares. The Board of Management may expel any member who has not carried out his engagements with the association, or who has been convicted of a criminal offence, or who refuses to comply with the provisions of the rules and regulations, or whose private life shall be a source of scandal, or who shall become insolvent or bankrupt, or shall be indicted. CONCLUSION. , It seems unnecessary to emphasize our conclusion, already stated, as to the pressing need of promptly finding means by which the farmers and farm-makers can borrow money on easy terms of repayment and at a moderate rate of interest. It would seem that wherever the question of the need of agriculturists for a system of long-time credit is investigated the findings are affirmative. In a report by Wm. Dufftis, and presented by the Wisconsin State Board of Public Affairs, the general condition in the United States in respect to farm loans is summed up as follows:— The need for a better system of rural credit is universal throughout the United States, but the possibilities of successful co-operation to meet this need are limited. Nevertheless, it is essential to the public welfare that the need be met. It is probable that the Federal Government and the States will be compelled not only to encourage the formation of co-operative credit associations, but also to enter the field directly and engage actively in the work of securing funds for the making of long-time loans to farmers on the security of their real estate. The opinion expressed here by the Wisconsin Board of Affairs may be taken as typical of the prevailing sentiment. 4 Geo. 5 Royal Commission on Agriculture. . 311 If it is asked why it should be more necessary for the State to aid in providing a credit system for farmers than for manufacturers, we find that the latter, by the nature of their business and the conditions created, have developed a system under which the work of many men is combined under the guidance of men of special ability. The system is therefore hi itself a form of co-operation in production, and carries with it advantages of combination in efficiency in production and marketing and in the ability to secure capital for its operations. In farming we find the greatest of all individualistic enterprises, with all its advantage to the State in the creation of wealth, in stability, support of law and order, building of moral and physical strength and health. In many old countries, of which instances are given in this report, great strides have been made in combination among farmers for particular purposes while maintaining individual ownership of land. It will, however, take many years in most of the newer countries to develop conditions suitable for such combination in the matter of credit, and this makes it necessary in such cases for the State to supply the organization. This has been recognized in many parts of the British Empire, and we have given a brief description of some systems which embody principles which are the result of the experience for years past in the operation of such systems iu different places. In Saskatchewan it was recognized by the Royal Commission of Inquiry into Agricultural Credit that a co-operative land mortgage system was impracticable under existing conditions in that Province without direct State aid, and the legislation (not yet made effective) resulting from the Commission's report provides for Government guarantee in connection with a co-operative system, with administration and financing intended to become independent of the Government when conditions make such a state practicable. The system proposed for Saskatchewan, while modelled on that of the Landschaften, differs from it in one important respect, in that it provides for a liability by a member for the obligations of other members of his own particular group up to the amount of 50 per cent, of his own liability as distinguished from his share of a collective liability for the obligations of the whole association. As a natural sequence to this, this plan provides for admission to membership by a two-thirds majority vote of the local association. Even supposing that sufficient funds would be available on suitable terms for the purposes of such co-operative societies, which we do not believe would be the case, we fear that there would be great practical difficulties in the operation of a system with those provisions, and that it would afford only partial (if any) relief to the need of the people of this Province. In order that farmers should be willing to take upon themselves financial responsibility for their neighbours, it is necessary that they should have been known to one another for a number of years, and that there should have been sufficient experience of farming of the kind carried on in the district to inspire confidence in its stability and profit. This would imply knowledge on the part of the members of the group desiring to co-operate of the success of each individual, of the fertility of his farm, and, as well, an intimate knowledge of and confidence in the character of each of those for whom responsibility would be undertaken. If there are farming districts in British Columbia where such conditions are found, they are too limited to be taken into consideration in seeking a solution for the general problem. In 3S97 "An Act respecting Co-operative Associations" was passed in this Province, which gave powers that might have been made use of for a system of co-operative loaning, but no association for that purpose has been formed under it. If this had been due to some imperfection of detail in the provisions of the Act, we may suppose that an effort would have been made to secure amendments to meet the difficulty, but our inquiry has not disclosed any request for amendment. This serves to confirm our conclusion that we cannot look to a co-operative credit system for relief. A system by which the Government guarantees bonds to procure funds to be loaned to farmers by a private lending institution suggests itself as one means of securing money at a low rate of interest, and of avoiding the evils incidental to partizan influence upon the administration of the loans. Such a method would, however, seem to carry with it the disadvantage that, in order to provide a profit for the lending institution, the rate of interest to the borrowers would need to be higher than would be necessary under a system of direct loans from the Government. This, then, would be a penalty that the people would have to pay for protecting one part of themselves from the representatives of all. It would, however, appear that the same 21 312 British Columbia. ' 1914 or perhaps even greater independence and freedom from interference can be secured by making the positions of the majority of the credit commission sufficiently independent, and recognizing the importance and responsibility of the office in making appointments. Success will depend on economy of management, and upon care, discrimination, and impartiality in granting loans. We have concluded that the Government can establish the system on lines that will secure those essential features. Under the circumstances, then, we are compelled by the exigencies of the case to forego the advantage of the training in the co-operativo spirit and practice on the one hand, and on the other to face the danger of a State loan institution being made a factor in politics. This danger would be the ground of objection of many to a system of State loans, but the evidence given throughout the Pi'ovince showed little anxiety on that point. We think that the people generally believe that if such an institution were to be created by the Government it should be with the assurance that its activities were to be absolutely impartial, and that it would be organized in such a way as to make the independence and impartiality of the office in control outstanding features. By the creation in 1912 of a Public Service Commission, New Zealand has taken an important step towards the removal of its officials from the influence of party politics, and it is noteworthy that in the consolidation of the " Advances Act, 1933," the Board is composed entirely of departmental officials. It may appear surprising that the foreclosures and losses under long-term credit systems should be so trifling when foreclosures are so common under the ordinary loaning system as practised, for instance, iu Saskatchewan, where the Agricultural Credit Commission for that Province reported for the period of fifteen mouths ended August 15th, 3.933, no less than 1,723 sale and mortgage proceedings under mortgage. The explanation is that under a long-term system embodying the amortization principle the semi-annual instalments are not a heavier tax upon the earnings of the farmer than can be reasonably borne by one who would be likely to obtain a loan from a lending institution under careful management; and, further, that the principle of amortization encourages thrift, stimulates the borrower in his efforts by the greater incentive to meet his payments, and increases as each instalment is paid the margin of security and the borrower's interest in protecting his equity in the property given as security. With such an increased margin of security and the improbability of eventual failure to meet his obligations, it is easier for the borrower to get a temporary loan to enable him to pay any instalment promptly in case of embarrassment by reason of accident or other misfortune finding him unprepared; besides, under this system he is never confronted with the necessity of repayment at one time of a large sum. What would, for instance, be the standing of railway bonds if they were issued for a term of five years and carried interest at S to 10 per cent, per annum? They would not be considered a safe investment because of the improbability that their earnings would enable them to meet such obligations. Referring to the 1,723 sale and mortgage proceedings in Saskatchewan, the report of the Commission gives the following statistics:— Of the mortgages in connection with these proceedings, 150, or S.7 per cent., bore an interest, rate less than S per cent. But 435, or over 25 per cent., bore an interest rate higher than 8 per cent.; 261, or over 35 per cent., a rate of 10 per cent, or higher; thirty-five a rate of 12 per cent, or higher; and three a rate of 15 per cent. And these mortgages were placed at these rates before the present upward trend in interest rates occurred. Before arriving at the conclusions which we have stated, we had the benefit of the observation by our Chairman of the conditions under which the most perfect of the co-operative systems are worked in Europe, and of his consultations with many of the men prominently connected with their operations. While he was impressed with much that he saw and learned with regard to co-operative activities which would be applicable to conditions here, he was convinced that to solve the problem of long-term agricultural credit for British Columbia neither the co-operative credit systems nor the State-aided systems of Europe would serve. This conclusion was confirmed by his conference with members and officials of the American Commission on Co-operation and Agricultural Credit, then fresh from an exhaustive investigation of the various European systems. 4 Geo. 5 Royal Commission on Agriculture. 313 The same conclusion was reached independently by Commissioner Campbell after a discussion of the matter with Professor Oliver, one of the Saskatchewan representatives on the American Commission, who had acted as Vice-Chairman of the Section on Finance or Credit. In our recommendations for legislation we have refrained from dealing with the problem of short-time credit, so important to farmers, for the reason that we believed that long-time credit was the first great want requiring to be satisfied, and that when this should have been done it would make it comparatively easy to deal with the less pressing need for the temporary credit, which farmers should obtain as easily as people in other lines of work get credit for their operating fund as distinguished from the development fund supplied by the long-term mortgage. We anticipate that the business of farming will be placed by the means of long-time credit and better marketing arrangements in such a position as to make it much easier for the farmers to obtain from banks more general accommodation than they have had in the past. We do not think, however, that the farmers will remain contented with that degree of improvement in their position. In other countries, as we have shown, systems of co-operative credit have been developed which have given deserving farmers the advantage of easily obtained short-term loans at low rates of interest. 314 British Columbia. 1914 IX. AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION. As bearing upon our recommendations on this subject, we quote or summarize from the reports made by some members of the Commission on what is being done in other places, and also from the report of the Scottish Agricultural Commission. AUSTRALIA. The agricultural education in several of the Australian States is theoretically organized on the assumption that the child beginning with nature-study and school gardening in the country school will proceed through a course of simple lessons in agriculture to higher work in an agricultural high school, and if he wishes to qualify as an educated farmer he can enter the agricultural college of his State. If he desires to proceed further with his education he will find that in New South Wales, Victoria, and South Australia the university of the State confers the Degree of B.Sc. in Agriculture; but only in Sydney, New South Wales, is there at present a complete and comprehensive agricultural curriculum as it is understood in the universities of Great Britain. The funds for agricultural education are obtained from the Department of Education and the Department of Agriculture. The former is responsible for nature-study and school-garden work, and for the agricultural teaching in high schools and the farms attached to those schools. The latter finances the colleges and experiment stations. The higher agricultural education in the universities is provided for by the grants from Government which those institutions receive. Nature-study and School Gardening. The initial stages iu an agricultural education are much the same the world over, and consist in getting the child to take an interest in his surroundings. The success depends upon the training of the teacher and his or her individuality. We found abundant evidence of a deep interest in the birds and beasts and plants in the neighbourhood of the country schools. Where there was no school garden there was often a small museum of birds' eggs, of strange nests, of stones and geological specimens, and of seeds, weeds, and grasses. Land 'being cheap in Australia, the school gardens are larger, and not only provide room for the horticultural efforts of the children, but allow of tree-planting and flower- gardening, and other and often highly successful attempts at beautification. Occasionally a small country school would be found in the midst of a treeless or unpicturesque scrubby plain, and inside the school-grounds would be found ornamental trees and shrubs tastefully arranged, a flower-garden managed by the girls would occupy part of the space, and on the school would be trained creepers and flowering plants which grow so luxuriantly in Australia. The whole effect would be pleasing to the eye and the mind, and a valuable object-lesson -to the pupils and their parents. There being plenty of room greater latitude is allowed to the boys, and more experimental work is carried out than we are accustomed to see. Very often a plot is managed by a captain and one or two subordinates, or at another school each boy has a plot, or, again, all the garden is worked in co-operation. It all depends on the teacher. In one or two cases the school-garden method is carried to a pitch beyond anything known in England (school gardening in Scotland is at too rudimentary a stage to offer room for comparison). For example, one school in the suburbs of Sydney has a garden in which all the ordinary farm crops are grown, and from the plants the boys turn out the manufactured article. In the school museum may be seen tea, sugar, tobacco, olive-Oil, and rape-oil, made from the plants which are cultivated in the garden. Yet in this school less than one and a half hours per week are devoted to the work, the explanation being that the children spend much of their spare time attending to their plots and defending them from the insects and other pests which are so numerous in Australia. Whatever may be the educational value of the nature-study in Australia, its practical value cannot be doubted. For example, the attention of the boys is drawn to the work of the late Mr. Farrar by the growth of his varieties of- wheat, which have done so much to add to the wealth of the wheat-growers in Australia. The importance of quality of milk is brought out iu some schools by the use of a milk-tester which the boys are taught to manipulate. In some districts almost every child in the school when at home has to milk several cows each day, and nearly all are aware that the monthly cheque from the creamery depends on the amount of cream in the milk, so that the use of the milk-tester in school is likely to arouse considerable interest both in them and their parents. The older boys in many of the country schools receive a few lessons in plant-life and the growth of crops, but as a rule it is not until they reach one or other of the high schools that they receive systemtic teaching in agriculture. Agricultural High Schools. A new and important step in agricultural education has been taken by the institution and organization of agricultural high schools. The object of the high schools is to provide for the boy of fourteen, who has passed beyond the curriculum of the elementary school, whose parents wish him to get some knowledge of agriculture, and to keep him learning until he is of age for the agricultural college. In short, the high school is a secondary school with an agircultu'ral bias, and a link between 4 Geo. 5 Royal Commission on Agriculture. 315 the rural school and the agricultural college. It is also a preliminary stage in the education of boys and girls who wish to become teachers and eventually graduate in the State training-college and university. The subjects taught are principles of agriculture; science of agriculture, including the study of plants and animals, climatology, physics, chemistry, botany, geography, practical farm-work, sldyd, farm handiwork, carpentry, and blacksmithing; mathematics, including arithmetic, book-keeping; mensuration, algebra, geometry, trigonometry; English language and literature; modern languages (French and German) ; drawing. Although those schools have not been in operation long enough to provide complete evidence of their success, that success can be safely anticipated, and it would be difficult to give too great praise to tlve scheme and its method of development in the State of Victoria. A visit to one of those high schools is of peculiar interest. The boys and girls share the class-rooms, ■but have separate common rooms, and are boarded with private families iu the neighbourhood. The handsome pile of buildings stands ia carefully planned grounds in which trees, shrubs, and flowers, all planted and tended by the pupils, .are making vigorous growth. Large, airy class-rooms are full of busy students. In the largest room we find the whole school at a singing lesson, conducted by one of themselves, as each in turn must mount the platform and conduct the lesson. Later on we find ■the chemistry, physics, and carpentry classes in full swing, but it is outside where the greater interest lies. A wooden building, entirely the work of the students, is in course of erection. When questioned, a boy driving nails tells us why he is using cut nails instead of wire nails ; another explains why he is varnishing instead of painting; another why he is using shingles for the roof instead of corrugated iron; and still another knows the kind of wood of which the building is composed and why it has been selected; and they are all so happy driving nails, slapping on varnish, and adjusting shingles that they will scarcely stop to speak to us. ■Beyond the school-grounds, close at hand or a mile or more away, as the case may be, is a farm of any size between 20 and 300 acres, and here are drains being dug, fences erected, and roads made. Numerous small plots of most of the Australian crops are under trial. There are horses to be harnessed, cows to be milked, chaff to be cut, and pigs to be fed, all as part of the school programme; ■and for all this the fees for the agricultural course are only eight guineas per annum. The drift of the agricultural population towards the cities is as marked and disquieting in Australia as in Britain, but the system of nature-study in rural schools and the extension of the agricultural high school should do much to arrest it. We found the nucleus of agricultural high schools in several States, and an organization in New South Wales which comprises six apprentice farm schools for the training of labourers, four farm schools for the higher education of farmers and dairymen, and an agricultural college and university department of agriculture ; but it was in Victoria, where education is under the very able and enthusiastic direction of Mr. Tate, that we found the agricultural high school at its best. Agricultural High Schools in Victoria. Perhaps the most favourable impression was created by the agricultural high schools in Victoria. Those high schools are calculated to do an immense amount of good in the country, and controlled as they are by a local body, supervised by the Department of Education, which is in close touch with the Agricultural Department, they are likely to supply the local needs and maintain the local interest. The co-education of the boys who intend to be farmers, along with the girls who intend to be teachers, is probably good for both, and the inclusion of a certain amount of farm-work along with a training in the use of tools must be of supreme usefulness later on in life. The only subject for regret in regard to those schools is their scarcity, but in time their number will no doubt be greatly increased. Victoria has anticipated the recommendations of the British Royal Commission on Agricultural Education by instituting those schools, and when the time comes for such a system iu Great Britain it will he possible to learn much from what has been done in Australia. Agricultural Colleges. Western Australia and Tasmania are the only States of the 'Commonwealth which have no agricultural colleges. The others have at least one in each. The first agricultural college was started at Roseworthy, in South Australia, in 1SS5, and it has led the way not only in the development of agricultural education, but in the discovery of the use of superphosphate for wheat- growing. All the colleges are organized on the same lines—viz., to provide an essentially practical training, along with a certain amount of theoretical teaching. Hawkesbury College, N.S.W. The Hawkesbury College, New South Wales, is perhaps the most typical, as less attention is there given to theoretical teaching and research-work, and more to instruction in skilled manual labour. It is remarkable, not only in the extent of land which it controls, 2,000 to 3,000 acres, but in the peculiarly practical nature of the instruction and its successful adaptation to Australian conditions. In a new country a knowledge of fertilizers and feeding-stuffs is at a discount, and what is required by the farmer is an understanding of stock and implements, and how to fend for himself when a hundred miles from blacksmith, joiner, or veterinary surgeon. In the now country a knowledge of the highest branches of agricultural science is of no less importance than in the old to the expert, and to those responsible for the exploitation of untouched regions under unknown conditions; the Hawkesbury College does not provide such instruction, but within its own purely practical limit it is a magnificent success. 31G British Columbia. 1914 The object striven for is a phenomenal efficiency in skilled labour and skilled management, and that object is attained. There are over 100 horses at work on the farm, and every one of the 200 students at the end of his course of three years has driven, fed, and groomed each of those horses; has worked, taken to pieces, and put together every implement; has .made a complete set of harness (except the collars) for a pair of horses and taken it away as his own property, paying for the materials. The same principle is carried out in all departments. Every student not only feeds and looks after the pigs, but kills, cuts up. and cures a pig, and assists in eating it; and as each pig bears the brand of the executioner, his name is published at breakfast on the morning when his handiwork appears before 199 hungry and jubilant judges end the miserable amateur Armour. Thus efficiency is promoted. It is assumed that the student will take up land a hundred miles from anywhere, and therefore he must not only be able to shoe a horse, but he must make the shoes. This he does. He also makes bits for the bridle, hinges for gates, and even turns steel collars for bearings, and makes nuts, bolts, and rivets. After that, woodwork is mere recreation, and the manufacture of a wheelbarrow is a kind of practical joke. The students built and fitted u'p their own gymnasium, and in addition to growing their own fruit and vegetables and preserving and curing raisins, prunes, pears, etc., they make their own jam, and revenge themselves by eating 13 tons of it per annum. Two hundred head of dairy cattle are kept upon the farm. They include specimens of every dairy breed, and the boys do the milking, manipulate two different mechanical milking-machines, and nrake butter and cheese. Any one who is a believer in the old system of several years' apprenticeship would receive a ru'de shock at Ilaweskbury. In three years a raw lad becomes a first-class farm-hand, shepherd, and dairyman, and an expert butcher, saddler, joiner, and rough blacksmith. There is no doubt about his expertness. AVe have seen a set of harness, as good as any from a shop, made in three weeks after the boy had seen a set of saddler's tools for the first time. Ia the understanding of steam-engines, oil-engines, pumps, and electrical motors the student obtains a thorough training, for all are used upon the farm, and he must use them all. He becomes familiar also with experimental work, for the fields contain hundreds of plots of wheat, oats, and rye under selection, and from the first of these two rust-resistant straws have been isolated recently. There are manurial plots also, and 350 different grasses and forage-crops under observation ; but the Principal. Mr. II. W. Potts, does not believe in specializing on experimental work in the meantime, when staff and funds are so urgently required for instruction. But all the time is not spent in manual labour. Three days a week and several evenings the student attends lectures and does not go on the farm at all. On Saturdays he plays cricket, football, golf, and tennis, and waxes famous on the College rifle-range of 1,000 yards. It is not astonishing that students come from all the Australian States, from Europe and Japan. There are some Boers also, sent by Mr. Botha, and one at least was fighting against us in the war. Perhaps the most remarkable feature of this remarkable College is the fee, which, for three years of board, residence, and tuition, amounts to £30 for the first year, £20 for the second, and £l0 for the third. There is also urgent need for some of the attention to book-keeping which is given at Hawkesbury, where every student must keep a history of every field and show a balance-sheet and profit and loss account for every crop. There is no space to describe the students themselves; they are fine fellows, healthy, cheerful, happy, and with all the politeness and good manners which distinguish the Australians. It will naturally occur to some reader that the Hawkesbury College would make a good training- ground for a British lad who proposed to farm in Australia. Undoubtedly it would, and vacancies for British boys have been reserved not only at the Hawkesbury College, but at Dookie and Rose- worthy, in Victoria and South Australia. In New South Wales tbe applications must be approved by the Agent-General in London. With regard to this school, the Secretary for Agriculture states significantly: "It is not easy to be assured that the students coming from abroad will meet our educational, physical, and moral requirements for admission, and that they will not be sent here for reasons of health or moral reform. It must be admitted that our limited experience of Students coming from the Old Country has not been altogether favourable." Recently provision has been made for the reception of 500 London boys per year for training on apprentice farms at a cost of £5 for the first six months. Tbe expense is defrayed from a fund known as " The Dreadnought Fund," which was contributed by Australia originally for the purpose of building a dreadnought. The boys are selected by the Central Emigration Body in London, and it may be hoped and expected that in this way a very useful addition will be made to the agricultural population of Australia. Roseworthy College, South Australia. At Roseworthy Agricultural College, in South Australia, there are better laboratories, classrooms, and museums, and, in addition to practical work, more time is given to scientific teaching, experiment, and research. The general curriculum is similar to that at Hawkesbury, and the fees are £30 per annum. Roseworthy College has had great influence on the improvement of agriculture in Australia, and South Australian farmers who have migrated to other States make their mark as thrifty and efficient agriculturists. In South Australia generally the agriculture is of a higher order than in the other States, and it is safe to say that the Roseworthy College has been a prominent factor in its improvement. Victoria has an agricultural college on a great scale at Dookie, and a smaller institution at Longerenong. The college at Dookie differes only in detail from that of Hawkesbury. The same 4 Geo. 5 Royal Commission on Agriculture. 317 devotion to practical work, which entails almost continuous labour for at least half the week on the part of the pupils, is evident. There we saw magnificent crops for which the land had been ploughed and sown and cultivated by the students. Several breeds of sheep and herds of cattle are provided as object-lessons and fed and tended by the boys themselves. Poultry-keeping and fruit-growing are also prominent branches of the work at Dookie, and the pupils receive almost a unique experience in the breeding and selection of varieties of wheats and oats. Gatton Agricultural College, Queensland. The Gatton Agricultural College in Queensland is on the same huge scale, but at present is scarcely on the same plane as the others which have been mentioned. At Gatton the improvement of live stock is perhaps the most important feature, and rightly so, for the average quality of the stock of Queensland is certainly low. Several fine specimens of cattle, horses, and more especially of pigs, are kept there, and as demonstrations to the students they should be of incalculable value. Considering the population of Queensland and its comparatively limited revenue, the work in agricultural education is deserving of great praise, although it is arguable that more might be made of the resources at hand. Training in the Agricultural Colleges. The agricultural colleges impressed us by their supremely practical character, and by the completeness with which they carried out the ideal of producing a practical working-farmer. Whether so much time and money should be spent on training in manual dexterity is a matter of opinion, but there is no doubt that the object is successfully accomplished. Those colleges are not, of course, adapted to British conditions, where skill in manual operations is not as a rule the concern of a farmer, but of his labourers, and where su'ch tradesmen as saddlers, blacksmiths, carpenters, and so on, are never far away. At the same time, some of the subjects taught in the Australian agricultural colleges are well worthy of imitation in the Old 'Country, especially the system of estimating the cost of producing the crops of the farm and the book-keeping in connection with it. One cannot praise this method too highly, or advocate its adoption in British colleges too persistently. The number of students attending those colleges can hardly be considered satisfactory in view of the extent and importance of agriculture in Australia. The whole number of students is scarcely more than those in attendance at the Scottish agricultural colleges, and in comparison -with the small area of Scottish agriculture much greater interest is taken in education in Scotland than in Australia. To British eyes a notable omission in the college curriculum Is the absence of provision for training agricultural experts who will be capable of occupying positions in the agricultural departments and on the staff of colleges and experiment stations. This omission, h&wever,' will soon be rectified iu New South Wales, which appears likely to supply the agricultural experts required for Australia for some time to come. Agricultural Departments oe Universities. New South Wales is the only State at present which has a complete and comprehensive system of education in agriculture at the University, and even in New South Wales this development is quite recent. A University Chair of Agriculture and a Chair of Veterinary Science were founded in 1909, in order to educate veterinary surgeons and agricultural experts and teachers for service in the Department of Agriculture and its educational branches. In connection with this department there is a system of training cadets which is worthy of notice. Eight young men of superior education are chosen after competitive examination, and admitted as scientific cadets. They start at a salary of £75 per annum, and receive increments of £25 per annum for three years, after which a further system of increment will be provided, until their salaries reach £300 per annum. Each cadet does a year's scientific work in each of the laboratories of the department, and a year's practical work on one of the experiment farms. After four years' study at the University, and of vacations spent in practical work >at one or other of the experiment stations, it is expected that these young men will be well-trained junior officers, fitted to be experimentalists, assistant managers, and laboratory assistants, and bound by the contract made between themselves and the department to give five years' service in some branch after completion of the University training. The curriculum at the University only differs from that in British colleges in being more than usually extensive and complete. It is presided over by Professor Watt, M.A., B.Sc, a distinguished west country Scot, with some years' experience in South Africa. Agricultural Research. In Australia there are upwards of thirty stations or farms devoted to experiment and research, and if orchards, vineyards, and semi-permanent areas are added the total is over eighty. The larger of those experiment stations cover a total area of 45,000 acres, require 700 horses, and support 2,000 .head of cattle and 11»000 sheep. It is almost unnecessary to state that those stations are intended for different purposes, ranging from sugar-cane farms in northern Queensland to grain and forage stations in more southern regions. Each State has made some effort to assist the farmer by investigation, and in many cases with great success. Microbiological Bureau. In New South Wales we find a Bureau of Microbiology closely associated with the department and doing work of great value to agriculture. We find the chemical staff making a soil-survey of 318 British Columbia. 1914 the State, and well on with the work. It is depressing to us to find such a survey receiving the attention of the agricultural departments in Australia when in our much smaller country, with a greater variety of soils and a more urgent need, soil-surveys for agricultural purposes have received so little attention. Demonstration Stations. Much good work lias been done by means of demonstration stations, which have been established in most of the States in order to indicate the possibilities of new areas to promote settlement. Those demonstration farms are less concerned with the experimental work than with the object of showing how the results of research may be put to a practical use. They are not in any sense model farms, but are rim largely on commercial lines as simple object-lessons to the farmers. At many of the experiment stations a demonstration area is included to bring quite clearly to the farmer's notice the profitable results which may be obtained by the application of methods which have been discovered on smaller areas of the same farms. Similar to those demonstration farms, and difficult to distinguish from them, are several stations established in new areas solely for the purpose of discovering what those areas can do. At Yanco, for example, a farm has been acquired by the New South Wales Government to discover for the benefit of intending settlers what can be grown in that dry area when the great Murrumbidgee irrigation scheme is in full operation. On this farm, fruit, ordinary farm crops, lucerne, and other forage-plants are being grown, and it is proposed to ascertain the number of sheep which can be maintained on 20 acres of lucerne, or how many pigs can be grazed on 30 acres, as well as to find out the varieties of fruit most suitable for those areas and the best methods of treating the fruit-trees. Agricultural Information. On the whole, the Australian farmer is amply provided with information in regard to his occupation. Not only has he the annual report of his agricultural department, the monthly journal or gazette, the weekly press, which devotes much space to agriculture, and the bulletins intended for his special use, but he has five other States with a similar organization from which he can obtain information his own State may be unable to supply. ALBERTA. In Alberta there is now being introduced into the primary schools, under the name of " nature- studies," the beginning of a course in the fundamental principles of agriculture, aiming to give to the boys who do not continue their education beyond the primary schools some rounded-off knowledge on botany, soils, etc., and to the girls a useful course in domestic science. In order to fit teachers for doing justice to this department of their work, it is proposed to have at the University a six-weeks summer school in agriculture for teachers. Farm Schools. The Province has established three agricultural schools and will devote the Dominion Government grant towards their maintenance. Each school is on a Provincial Demonstration Farm, giving better facilities for practical work, stock-judging, etc., and securing the co-operation of the Superintendent of the farm. The school course is modelled on the first two years' work at the Manitoba Agricultural College and at the Ontario Agricultural College. No matriculation nor tuition fees are charged, and the classes are open to boys over fourteen years of age. These schools will have no connection with the University, but it is planned to have the two years' course at one of them accepted as preliminary work in the subjects taught in them in the college course of those who take up agriculture at the University. The intention is, however, to make these schools training-schools not so much for boys who want to become teachers of agriculture as for those who will continue practical farm-work, and as the school terms are from October 2Sth to March 2Sth, the boys work at home during the summer and keep up their close connection with the farms. At the Claresholme School, which Commissioner Campbell visited, there were sixty-four boys in attendance, some from a distance who boarded in the town, and many who rode or drove in daily from farms within a radius of six miles. The school had a staff of six, who were assisted by special lectures from six officials of the Department of Agriculture. A blacksmith's and wood-worker's shop was being equipped with eighteen forges and a wood-working machine. A dairy-room was being equipped with appliances for milk-testing, churning, butter-making, etc.. and the science-room was being fitted with a laboratory. Short courses particularly adapted to local conditions are given for the farmers of the district, and departmental officials help in this work. 4 Geo. 5 Royal Commission on Agriculture. 319 Domestic Science. Thirty-two girls were in attendance, taking the domestic science course, lasting from October 28th to December 23rd, and everywhere in the Prairie Provinces the greatest importance is attached to this work. The dissatisfaction of mothers and wives with the present conditions of farm-life is recognized as a strong influence in inducing sons and husbands to abandon farming for city life. The tendency of the work in these schools is to give the pupils an aspect of the deeper problems of farm-life and a stimulus towards wider activities, which will overcome the lure of the glamour of city life and substitute a realization of the advantages of country life. Each school was estimated to cost about .$46,000 for building and equipment and $30,000 per annum for maintenance. University. It is intended to make the Agricultural College a very prominent feature of the University, and Dr. Tory (President of the Provincial University) is full of the newer ideas of the proper place of the science of agriculture in the general scheme of education. Extension Work. This has been carried on by the Department of Agriculture by short courses of a week in stock, dairy, and grain farming, with a demonstration train of three cars carrying valuable live stock loaned by breeders for the purpose. Two lectures on stock, dairying, grain-growing etc., and one on domestic science accompany these trains. The courses are attended by large numbers of farmers, who are accommodated in the small towns where these schools are held. SASKATCHEWAN. Elementary Schools. A Commission on elementary and secondary education conducting an inquiry with a view to introducing the study of agriculture into the schools of the Province has made a report making favourable recommendations in that respect. However, the full report has not been made available yet. High Schools. The view of Dean Rutherford, of the Saskatchewan University, is that the course in the high schools should be broadened, and that the schools should be provided with plots of land for practical agricultural instruction and with equipment and instructors for agricultural and domestic science subjects, having special reference to agricultural instruction to the local conditions; and that after a course in such high schools, boys will be ready for agricultural work in the University. University. The University occupies a very important position in relation to agricultural education in this Province, having under its control both the Agricultural College and what is called " extension work." In the Agricultural College it is intended to have two courses of study :— A Certificate Course.—No matriculation is necessary for this course, the requirements being: Age 1G years, good character, and one year's work on a farm. Sessions from October 25th to March 25th—one, two, or three years' course—a full course each winter. It costs for fees and board about $3.50, and for men from outside of the Province $15 extra. This course is designed for men returning afterwards to work on their farms. Degree Course.—Four years, designed to train men as leaders; for research-work or administration-work ; matriculation examination about the same as required for second-class teachers' certificates. Three sciences and either French or German are taught; the students receive a good liberal education and good drilling in animal and field husbandry, in farm and dairy mechanics. The first two years are devoted to general work and one year to special work. One 320 British Columbia. 1914 year must be spent on a farm, and each vacation the student must work on a farm or at other work approved by the directors, such as would give him special training for his work. It is aimed throughout the course to keep the student close to the soil and to the people among whom his future is intended to be spent. Deaii Rutherford claims that experience has proved the great advantage of this affiliation of the Agricultural College with the University, causing the students to mix in sport and social life with men training for all professions, thus begetting mutual respect and confidence, broadening the view-point of all, and making agriculture popular with men from other callings. Extension Work. The activity of the University in this work is most suggestive; for example, during the last two weeks in January classes are conducted at the University, free, for farmers and for men who accept positions with the municipalities, teaching better farming methods. Farm Engineering. Four days' instruction is given at rural points, after which the participants may be admitted to a ten-days course at the University. Demonstration Lectures. In new districts a scout is sent a month ahead to stir up interest and secure good attendance, and also to find out the conditions of the farms and the special needs of the district for the guidance of the lecturers. Demonstration in the fields is combined with lectures. Ploughing Competitions. These contests are encouraged In every way and considered very important. The Extension Branch will hold a ploughing-school at the University for two days, at which judges for the various ploughing competitions will be coached. Stock-judging Competitions. These are promoted and the University provides stock judges for the fairs. Dairying. A dairyman is sent to dairy districts, through which he drives from farm to farm showing farmers how to improve their methods; for instance, the instructor will build a silo at a central point as an object-lesson. He shows them how to test milk, how to build sanitary stables, etc. He will be followed later through the district by an agriculturist, giving practical advice about their farms. Home-makers' Clubs. These Dean Rutherford considers the biggest factor in changing the whole complexion of rural home-life. The unit for organization purposes is the school district. All districts are under the management of a directress of home-makers' clubs, and her work has so increased that an assistant has been appointed. They were started in 1910 and there are now sixty clubs, some of which have sixty members. The Principal of the Normal School has asked that the directress shall go to the Normal School and instruct the teachers, so that they can teach the women and work themselves for the beautifying and improvement of the home conditions in the districts in which they teach. In Juue delegates will be brought to the University for four days, and their expenses paid, to discuss problems of home-life and hear good speakers on those subjects. Four delegates were sent to Oklahoma Dry-farming Congress to hear the discussions on home-making subjects, and they would report to their districts and speak to meetings iu different places after their return. These home-making clubs are springing up everywhere and having great effect for good. MANITOBA AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE. The Manitoba Agricultural College carries on much extension work in conjunction with the Provincial Department of Agriculture, and in this way much use is made of the College staff as lecturers in rural districts. 4 Geo. 5 Royal Commission on Agriculture. Short Courses. At the time of Commissioner Campbell's visit the new College buildings were not quite finished, and the short courses designed for farmers had not been fully organized. These embraced courses in gasolene and steam engineering for three weeks in June, poultry for three weeks in February, a special short course for weed inspectors and farmers on weeds, animal and field husbandry for farmers, a home-nursing course had been outlined, and it was proposed to have other short courses. Diploma Courses. Until 1913 there had been courses occupying two winter terms of five months each, for attendance at which diplomas were given. From 10 to 15 per cent, of the students who attended these courses continued attendance at the College for more advanced work. Degree Courses. A course for five winters is necessary for a degree. It is proposed to modify this plan and require attendance for three winters before issuing the diplomas, and the students that wished to continue for the degree course would be obliged to decide this after attendance for two years. In this way, in the third year there would be two classes of students, one made up of those who intended to return to practical farm-work upon securing diplomas, and the others are those who intended to take the full course for a degree, most of whom would probably go in for educational work of some kind in connection with Agriculture. Farmers' " Special." During recent years the Canadian Pacific Railway Company and the Canadian Northern Railway Company have supplied special trains for agricultural demonstration purposes. The railway companies supplied the equipment and operating staff and the Department of Agriculture the lecturers, who are selected by President Black of the College. The sleeper and the dining-car are provided by the railway and were paid for by the Department of Agriculture. During the last two seasons they had had two trains at the same time for three or four weeks. Co-operation with Agricultural Department. As an instance of co-ordinate work between the Department and the College, it is noted that the Department Superintendent of Dairying is Professor of Dairying at the College. The College has 570 acres surrounding it, of which it is proposed to use 300 acres for a College farm. Relation between College and University. President Black favours keeping agricultural colleges separated from universities. He fears the danger of control of the policy of the Agricultural College by a majority of the Board of the University who might not be in full sympathy witli the aims of the Agricultural College, and thinks that as yet the sentiments of the average University Governor are not sufficiently in sympathy with agricultural work. His view is that the colleges which are free from University control are succeeding best iu their mission, and quotes as examples Michigan, Guelph, Massachusetts, Kansas, and explains the success of the work of the Agricultural College in Wisconsin as due to the active agricultural extension work carried on by the University. He thinks that the tendency in agricultural colleges connected with universities is to educate the students away from the land. In contrast with these views are those of President MocLeau, President of the Manitoba University, who with nineteen years' experience holds strong views as to the desirability of agricultural colleges being connected with universities rather than with departmental institutions. In the United States twenty-one States have separated the agricultural colleges from the universities, and twenty-one have adopted the policy of combination. He contends that in nearly all the States where the separate system was originally followed there is now a movement in favour of some form of co-operation and combination. He summarizes the arguments against segregation as follows:— ]22 British Columbia. 1914 (1.) Unanimity of opinion of educators against segregation: (2.) Regrets in States where separation has taken place: (3.) Waste of resources through duplication of work in the two schools: (4.) Greater annual expense of maintenance of two schools: (5.) Undignified scramble for appropriation in the Legislature: (6.) Delayed development of both institutions from lack of resources: (7.) Inadequate equipment due to division of public funds and public interest: (S.) The creation of two universities instead of one: (9.) One university with many strong high schools will serve the State better than two universities: (10.) Miscellaneous troublesome problems : (a.) Attraction of the strong unified institution for strong young people; (b.) Segregation brings competition of the alumni of the separate institutions, and (c.) Preponderance of local considerations, with consequent (d.) Weakening of both institutions, and therefore reduced public service. Agricultural Courses. With the literature on the subject we have filed extracts of letters from a number of prominent educationalists in the United States in agreement with Principal MacLean's view. He recommends the following forms of agricultural education:— First: Four years in an agricultural college. Second : A school of practical agriculture with three winter terms of six months each, without special requirements as to matriculation and age; but pupils must be able to understand the English language. Three terms are required for the full course in modern agricultural science. The object of this course is to return the pupils to the farms rather than creating professors and dwellers of the city. Mr. MacLean thinks that from such schools 90 per cent, of the pupils would go back to the farm. Third: Movable schools of agriculture. Continuity of education is the essential feature. This is divided under three heads, the teachers of which change around, as follows:— («.) School: One lecturer, horses and hogs, two days a week; one lecturer, dairy cows, two days a week: (6.) School: One lecturer, fruit raising and packing, two days a week; one lecturer, gardening, two days a week: (c.) School: One lecturer, irrigation, two days a week; one lecturer, preparation of ground for crops, two days a week; one lecturer, mixed farming, two days a week. These movable schools should interchange constantly and are to be connected with courses in home economics. Fourth: The usual one-day institute meeting for some places. Fifth: Field-work. He would place under the Department of Agriculture one man in dairying, who would visit the farms and give practical instruction in dairy methods; e.g., would show how to build silos at much less cost; would go with helpers at strategical points to demonstrate this. He could be sent to bring in trains of dairy stock and auction them. Could be used for the teaching of testing of dairy herds. For irrigation, one man; for horticulture, one man. In some counties the railways and irrigation companies are using their own men for this work, employing local college graduates to spend the summer in the field and the winter in lecturing. STATE OF WASHINGTON. The following is a resume of Commissioner Duncan's report to this Commission on the subject of higher agricultural education in the State of Washington:— The Agricultural College in the State of Washington is a branch of the State College at Pullman, which is an institution covering the entire field of technical instruction and applied sciences. Practically the State College consists of three united institutions: The Agricultural College, the Experiment ■Station, and the School of Science. 4 Geo. 5 Royal Commission on Agriculture. 323 Legislation. In pursuance of Federal legislation to encourage the establishment of State institutions for technical instruction, the State College of Washington was founded by an Act of the State Legislature in 1S90. Land Endowment. Under the Federal legislation referred to, the agricultural branch of the College has been endowed with 90.000 acres of land, none of which has been sold yet, but which, when sold, shall constitute a fu'nd for the endowment, support, and maintenance of the College, and will be a permanent and irreducible fund for the maintenance and support of the Agricultural College, but no portion of which fund may be applied to the erection or preservation of any buildings. Endowment Funds and Appropriations. The source of maintenance for the College is derived from various funds set aside by Acts of Congress and supplemented by appropriation of the State Legislature. The College campus contains about 40 acres, and is situated directly east of the city limits of Pullman and west of the Experiment Station Farm. The Farm. All of the more important breeds of cattle, horses, sheep, swine, and poultry are represented. A herd of twenty-six grade cows is maintained as the basis of the work of dairying. . The Experiment Station. One of the most important departments of the State College, as far as the promotion of agriculture is concerned, is the Experimental Station. Thirty thousand dollars is received from the national Government for the purpose of conducting experiments in agriculture and for the dissemination of the results of such experiments. This station maintains the following departments: Agriculture, chemistry, entomology, zoology, horticulture, irrigation engineering, plant-pathology, and veterinary science. The work of the station is entirely distinct from that of the College and is provided for by a separate fund. The North-west (Experimental Station. This station is located about a mile west of P by the State Legislature, and is an integral part Board of Regents and the President of the State devote their entire time to experimental demonstra cereals, plant breeding and improvement, plant-dis tests with dairy cows, cultural methods, and fertil of logged-off lands. The farm consists of 60 acres of valley land, i cultivation, and a proportion of the remaining apr The tillable land for the most part is divided fruits, tree-fruits, asparagus, rhubarb, numerous g uyallup. It is maintained by appropriation granted of the institution under the direct control of the College. The members of the staff at the station tion-work. Problems relating to forage-plants and eases, faulty production, honey production, feeding izer investigations are studied, also the reclamation neluding four types of soil. Fifty acres are under eage is used as pasture. into small plots devoted to various tests with small arden-truck, honey-plants, forage-plants, etc. ONTARIO, ILLINOIS, MINNESOTA, AND WISCONSIN. The following is an extract from Commissioner Shannon's report on agricultural education in Ontario, Illinois, Minnesota, and Wisconsin:— ONTARIO. The Farmers' Institutes. The Farmers' Institute in Ontario has been in existence for thirty years, and has been the means of accomplishing much towards the improvement of agricultural conditions. Tho practice has been to supply one meeting a year with a speaker from the Department of Agriculture. Up to a certain point this has been very beneficial, but in order to extend the work of the Department and make it more effective a two or three days' short course is now held. These courses are well attended and great interest is shown. Courses are given in seed and weed-seed judging in the forenoon of the first clay and' afternoon of the second day of each session, the balance of the time being occupied by livestock judging and the discussion of topics of interest to the locality. Special meetings are held under the auspices of the Farmers' Institute where demonstrations on pruning of fruit-trees, spraying, and talks on diseases are given. These meetings are held in the spring-time. Packing demonstrations are conducted in the fall. Agricultural District Representatives. The most important movement as regards agricultural education iu the rural districts is due to the appointment of district agricultural representatives, who, iu addition to being practical men, have a fair amount of agricultural college education. 524 British Columbia. 1914 A four to eight weeks' short course on agriculture is held at the central points in the district under the supervision of the district agricultural representative. Instruction is given in all branches of agriculture; boys ranging in age from sixteen to twenty-five years are allowed to attend these, and only boys who are taking this course are allowed to enter into the acre-crop competition which is held in the district each year. Accurate information in detailed form as to cost of production must be kept and sent to the district agricultural representative. A boy winning the contest is sent to the Ontario Agricultural College for a two weeks' short course; all expenses, including railroad fares, are paid by the Department of Agriculture. The idea of the acre-crop competition is to gain some knowledge of the cost of production, and also to note the increase of yields by proper methods of cultivation. The district must vote on the kind of crop that is to be grown. Mr. Bailey is the manager also of the Rural School Fall Fair Associations. These associations are made up of from eight to twelve schools, and an annual fair is held at some central point as decided upon, where prizes are given for grains and vegetables grown by the children themselves, and also for poultry. Each school contributes from S3 to as high as $3.5. In many cases the children elect their own officers and conduct their own fall fair under the supervision of the district agricultural representative. In 1912 there were twenty-five of the3e fairs held; in 1913 there will be close to 300. The prize-winners in the different classes are required to write an essay on how they grow their stuff, giving all -the details as regards cultivation of the soil, planting, harvesting, etc. Agricultural College. The Agricultural College at Guelph is one of the most up-to-date institutions in the country. The attendance at the different courses for the year 193.2 was 1,451; of the 493 hoys taking the January course, 350 were from Ontario, seventy from other Provinces of Canada, sixty-six from seventeen other countries, including twenty-two from England and seventeen from the United States. During the month of June in each year the Farmers' Institute and Farmers' Clubs of the Province undertake excursions to the College from all parts of the Province. A number of from 35,000 to 20,000 made up these excursions in 1912. The Department of Field Husbandry in connection with the Experimental Union of the Province is carrying on many co-operative experiments which are proving very beneficial to the farmers in determining the varieties suitable for the different localities. The Department of Physics receives a special appropriation of $4,000 from the Provincial Government and $5,000 from the Federal Government for the purpose of giving demonstrations in different parts of the Province of Ontario. Last year demonstrations were held in the following counties:— Two demonstrations in Haldimand County: One demonstration in Peterboro County : Two demonstrations an Lennox County : One demonstration in Hastings County: The attendances at these demonstrations ranged from seventy-five to 300 people. A Buckeye ditching-machine is used for giving drainage demonstrations and has been found to be very effective, digging on an average 75 rods per clay ready for tiling. The depth of the ditches ranges from 30 to 36 inches. Three-inch clay tile costs from $11 to $15 per thousand delivered at the railway-station. More cement tile is now being used-, and where properly made and cured is giving very good satisfaction, but has not been used long enough for the department to give out authoritative information recommending its use. Elementary Agricultural Education. I had an interview with Professor F. D. MacCready, Director in charge of the Elementary Agricultural Education of the Province. He outlined to me the plan in operation to introduce agricultural education into the public schools. He showed me extracts from letters of teachers where elementary agriculture is taught, which showed a keen interest in the matter. This plan is as follows:— The Ontario Department of Education, co-operating with the Department of Agriculture, aims to have instruction in elementary agriculture and horticulture given in rural and village schools for the following purposes:— (1.) To bring the life and interests of the school more closely into touch with the home-life of the pupils and the employments in which they will be engaged after they leave school: (2.) To stimulate interest and to impart useful information in agricultural subjects, and thus offset to some extent the tendency to leave the farm for the city: (3.) To develop at an early age habits of industry, respect for labour, and a love for productive and constructive work ; to promote a spirit of independent investigation in other branches of study : (4.) To give facility in the handling of tools and in the practice of garden craft; to provide healthful exercise for body and mind ; to afford to the pupil an opportunity to direct his activities along useful lines: (5.) To encourage careful observation of nature, thus enabling the pupil to understand his or her environment and to appreciate more fully the beautiful in nature: (6.) To promote the desire to improve home surroundings and to train boys and girls to work with efficiency: (7.) To promote the qualities that make for good citizenship, such as the responsibility of ownership, respect for public property, consideration for the rights of others, and the principle of co-operation in seeking the good. 4 Geo. 5 Royal Commission on Agriculture. The work to be carried into effect through the encouragement of school gardens, home-gardening schemes, experimental and observation plots on school-grounds, children's clubs, and other practical measures. This work is under the general supervision of the Director of Elementary Agricultural Education. The Department supplies charts, instruction sheets, bulletins, leaflets for pupils, material for sowing, etc. In supervising this work he will be assisted by the school inspectors and the district agricultural representative. Training Courses for Teachers. This work is taken up in a practical way (1) under teachers holding special certificates in elementary agriculture and horticulture, and (2) under teachers competent but not specially certificated. Teachers will receive certificates in elementary agriculture and horticulture upon satisfactory completion of (1) a ten weeks' spring course at the Ontario Agricultural College; (2) two summer sessions at the College and a directed winter's reading course; (3) a course in agriculture in a high school, followed by a further course at the normal school and one summer session at the Ontario Agricultural College. The work may be conducted on a plot set aside in tbe school-ground, or in some cases land is rented alongside or near the school. The trustees must make the necessary arrangements for the introduction and support of the instruction, thus sharing with the teacher the efforts to ensure success. The work is carried 'out in the way and along lines best suited to the district. No prescribed text-book is required ; bulletins are sent from the Ontario Agricultural College and also from the Department. Provision for Elementary Courses. In 3.912 the Province of Ontario set aside the sum of $3,000 for elementary agricultural education. A rural or village school entitled to share in this grant must provide and maintain a course of instruction in elementary agriculture and horticulture, which must be carried out in a practical manner by means of a school garden and other practical instruction. The teacher must have a Department certificate on those subjects; one hour per week must be spent in this work, and a careful record of work done must be kept by the teacher and the older pupils. Teachers are required to record on a special form supplied by the Department the work carried on in the garden and in instruction given in the school, a copy of which is sent to the Minister of Education at the end of the year. The grant must be spent for promoting the cause of agriculture and horticulture in the community through the school. Schools intending to take up the work must make application before the end of the year, and the application must be signed by the secretary of the Board as well as by the teacher. On the recommendation 'Of the Director the Minister will pay to the School Board an initial grant not exceeding $50, and an annual grant not exceeding $30, when the work is carried on through the year. To the teacher conducting the work satisfactorily throughout the year an annual grant of $30 will be paid; to the teacher conducting the work for the first six months the amount will be $3.5; to the teacher conducting the work after the summer holidays the amount paid will be $12. To the teacher who has taken the first year's summer course at the Ontario Agricultural College and completes the second year's course for certificate during the year $30 will be paid, provided the work is carried on satisfactorily through the year. In the year 1912 $1,000 was set apart to be spent in elementary agricultural education in schools where teachers were employed who did not have certificates in agriculture. The requirements as stated for schools with specially trained teachers will be compulsory. The annual grants to schools are not to exceed $12, and iu no case may they exceed the amount spent by the School Board. The teacher conducting this work successfully throughout the year will receive $12, but will receive no portion of the grant if teaching only a part of the year. Any school in the Province will be supplied with charts, bulletins, leaflets, and free seed on application to the Director. illinois. Agricultural College Extension. In the State of Illinois agriculture is taught in some of the academies, in 20 per cent, of the high schools, and in a large percentage of the graded schools. Teachers are required to take an eight or nine weeks' summer course at the Agricultural College. There were 921 students attending the College in October, 193.3, and it was expected this number would be increased by about 3.00 before the end of November. It is encouraging to note that, of the 635 students who had completed a previous term, 424 went back to farming and a large percentage of the remaining 3.91 were directly interested in farming. The Agricultural Extension Branch of the College serves as an intermediary between the College and station on the one hand, and the local community and farm clientage on the other. Some of these general extension enterprises are: (1) Agricultural schools of a week's duration, of which some fifteen will be held during the current year; (2) demonstrations held in connection with soil-fertility and field crops throughout the State; (3) the two weeks' course held annually in January at the College; (4) help at farmers' institutes and similar gatherings; (5) aid with special lecture trains; (6) Boys' State Fair School; (7) educational exhibits at fairs and expositions; i'2(i British Columbia. 1914 (8) excursions to the University and the care of visitors; (9) keeping in close touch with former students and alumni through a special alumni association; (10) welfare work of any kind in rural communities, which is giving them a little more extended and efficient service than they could otherwise receive; and (11) courses of study which are offered to assist in determining what phases of agriculture are suitable for secondary-school purposes, and to give a knowledge of agricultural organization and extension projects and methods. This extension work is largely co-operative and its spirit is to help the people to help themselves. In order to assist this movement further, several counties have formed themselves into soil and crop improvement associations, and have engaged the services of a man who has had practical as well as agricultural college training. This adviser or agricultural representative prescribes for sick land in the same way as a physician advises members of the family. The Agronomy Department has forty experimental fields with from 20 to 40 acres in each, where specialists are trying different methods of soil-improvement. Men with college training are in charge, and one man has charge of four or five fields; records are kept of the different methods employed and conclusions arrived at are published. In winter these men assist at short-course work, and they also assist the farmers in buying fertilizers, etc. The demonstration trains have been the means of arousing the people to more advanced methods in agriculture. Through the experiments carried on by the Agronomist it was found that a great deal of the land needed ground limestone and phosphate rock. minnesota. University Extension. The State of Minnesota has made rapid strides in the past two decades as a dairy State. In 1890 there were 566,000 cows yielding an average of 2,S00 lb. of milk and 12S lb. of butter per cow; in 1932 there were 3,325,000 cows yielding an average of 4,000 lb. of milk containing 350 lb. of fat, equivalent to 375 lb. of butter. The results at the University Farm with a herd of common cows—that is, cows with no dairy heredity—are somewhat larger, a herd of twenty-three yielding 5,000 lb. of milk and 222 lb. of butter. From the above two comparisons it may be stated that the extra yield of the cows at the University Farm is clue to the feed and care that they get, and this would indicate that the farmer has not given as close study to the feeding problem as he should. The Director of the Agricultural Extension Work and Farmers' Institute work is making a particular study of co-operation and endeavouring to assist in solving the problem of distribution. The farmers' institutes are very successful; they are connected with 325 farmer's clubs. The Department of Agriculture issues a monthly bulletin on timely topics which is sent to eacli of these clubs where discussion is carried on. The results of this discussion as to attendance and interest must be reported to the Extension Department. Four-page leaflets issued monthly are mailed to the high and rural school-teachers; these are prepared especially to assist the work of the teacher. County Advisers. The State has now twenty-five agricultural county advisers. These are working on much the same lines as similar officials in other States. Each year an acre-crop competition is held for boys in the State, who show a keen interest in the matter. In the corn competition 1,300 boys participated; the average yield for the thirty-one highest competitors was 105 bushels per acre, the average production on the farms in the State being 30 bushels. The Extension Department has twenty-four farms operating under instruction. The farmer must sign a five-year contract on entering into this agreement; the State does not pay any money contribution. All work must be carried on under the supervision of the Extension Department, and the results so far are encouraging. WISCONSIN. County Advisers. Ten of the counties in the State have employed agricultural advisers, who are sent out by the College. In addition to their work among the people of the district, they give assistance in the way of lectures, etc., to the graded and high schools where elementary agriculture is taught. It is very gratifying to note the interest the teachers and pupils are taking in this matter. Wherever it is possible, a small garden-plot is worked on the school-grouuds, and this is used for demonstration when the teacher is giving lectures or talks on any of the subjects connected with this work. Farmers' Institutes. The farmers' institutes in Wisconsin have been in existence for over twenty-five years, and great interest is taken in the meetings held. The plan is that every town that wishes a meeting must send in a request to the Superintendent, who gives due consideration to the matter. It is aimed to have meetings in different sections of the 4 Geo. 5 Royal Commission on Agriculture. 327 State each year, as the law provides only for a certain number of meetings. A great deal of the success is due to the fact that the most successful men in the different branches of agriculture are chosen as speakers. Elementary Agricultural Education. In 1905 a law was passed to have agricultu State, and an outline of the work to be done was teachers in country schools passed an examinatio is given to graded schools taking up the teachin course. Any high school establishing a four-year Teachers for these schools must have, in additi Board to teach agriculture. There are seven cou in the 'State, supported by a grant of one-third o ■is located and two-thirds from the State. Teache ral education taught in every public school in the prepared for the teachers. Previous to this time a conducted by the Department. A grant of $300 of agriculture; 540 schools have taken up this course in agriculture receives a grant of $350. on to State certificates, a licence from a special nty schools of agriculture and domestic economy f the expense from the county where the school rs from outside the county must pay a tuition fee. Public Grant. The Act passed in 1913 by the State grants $15,000 towards the erection of buildings for these schools, not more than three schools to be erected in one year, the schools to be in different senatorial districts. In some of the high schools, where the teachers are paid by the year, they assist in looking after the plots grown by the children on the farm. In county schools one afternoon of each week is set apart for agricultural education. The results are very satisfactory, particularly in the high schools. Fifty high schools in the State received the grant last year. In many places county teachers meet on Saturday afternoon and instructors are sent from the Department of Agriculture to those meetings to discuss with the teachers matters relating to agricultural advancement. 328 British Columbia. 1914 X. SUMMARY OF FINDINGS. (Topically and alphabetically arranged.) The conclusions arrived at and set forth in the First Part of this Report may be summed up as follows:— " Agricultural Associations Act." (1.) That it should be the duty of the organizer or organizers under the Commercial Branch of the Department of Agriculture to conduct educational work in the different districts in the direction of co-operation, and to advise the proposed Agricultural Credit Commissioners on the feasibility and soundness of any proposed scheme. (2.) That the principle of "one man, one vote" should be substituted for the principle "one share, one vote." (3.) That provision should be made for regular audits by auditors chosen by shareholders, subject to the approval of the Minister of Finance. (4.) That the co-operative associations should be subject to inspection by the Commercial Branch of the Department of Agriculture. (See page 34.) Agriculture, Department of. Board, Advisory. (1.) That an Advisory Board of Agriculture consisting of nine members be created. (2.) That the Chairman of such Board and two of its members be appointed by your Government. (3.) That one member be elected by the Directors of each of the following associations: British Columbia Fruit-growers' Association, British Columbia Stock-breeders' Association, British Columbia Dairymen's Association, and British Columbia Poultry Association. (4.) That one member be selected by a committee of five appointed by the Annual Convention of British Columbia Farmers' Institutes. (5.) That one member be selected by a committee of five appointed by the Annual Convention of British Columbia Agricultural Associations. (See page 3S.) Commercial Branch. That with reference to marketing and co-operation there should be established a Commercial Branch of the Department of Agriculture, the business of which would be— (1.) To promote the organization of co-operative associations over the whole Province according to the particular needs of the different districts, and the development of the central marketing organizations for those local associations. (2.) To organize a market news service to collect and disseminate information as to supply and demand of agricultural products. (3.) To study transportation problems, assist in securing the best service by freight and express possible, and the lowest rates, and to give assistance to shippers of produce in negotiation with railway and express companies. (4.) Generally to study all the problems connected with the marketing of farm produce and assist the farmers in their solution. (5.) To assist by investigation of complaints of consignors and consignees in adjustment of differences. (See page 33.) Minister of Agriculture. That the Minister of Agriculture he relieved from the charge of any other Department. (Sec page 3S.) 4 Geo. 5 Royal Commission on Agriculture. 329 Co-operation. Promotion. That it is desirable to promote co-operation among the producers and also among the buyers of agricultural produce. Loans to Co-operative Associations. * That we approve the action taken iu providing for loans to co-operative associations and in encouraging and assisting their formation. (See pages 32 and 33.) Credit, Agricultural. (1.) That j'our Government adopt a system of direct agricultural credit on the lines of the system in force in New Zealand. (2.) That an Act be passed providing for the creation of a Board, to be known as the " Agricultural Credit Commission," consisting of a Superintendent and four Directors, to deal with all matters pertaining to the administration of Government mortgage loans to farmers, and that such Acts shall embody the following principles:— (a.) That the Lieutenant-Governor in Council appoint the Superintendent and two members, the latter to be practical farmers: (b.) That the Superintendent and two members so appointed serve till voluntary retiral or until removal by the Lieutenant-Governor in Council upon au address from the Legislative Assembly: (c.) That the Deputy Ministers of Finance and of Agriculture be ex-officio members of the said Commission. (d.) That, in order to provide capital for the purposes of the Commission, the Legislative Assembly be asked each year to authorize the Minister of Finance to borrow up to a specified amount by the issue of stock or debentures bearing interest at a rate not over 4 per cent, and having a currency of years: (c.) That the Minister of Finance raise from time to time such sum or sums as may De required, not exceeding in any one year the amount so authorized, and provided that— (i.) In raising the moneys, the Minister shall be deemed to be acting on behalf of the Agricultural Credit Commission : (ii.) Accordingly, the moneys raised shall be deemed to be raised by the Agricultural Credit Commission in its corporate capacity : (iii.) All mortgages and securities taken by the said Commission iu respect of loans made from the said moneys shall be held as collateral security for the particular bonds or debentures in addition to the general credit of the Province: (/.) That the proceeds of the sale of such stock or debentures shall be available for the Agricultural Credit Commission to lend to farmers in respect of permanent improvements made on their land and for other productive purposes: (g.) That such loans shall bear interest at a rate of 1 per cent, per annum greater than the rate paid by the Government upon the actual amount realized from the sale of the stock or debentures: (h.) That such loans shall be repayable by amortization over such periods as the Commission may decide, but in no case exceeding 36% years; always provided that the borrower shall have the option of paying off the whole or any portion of the loan in advance of the contract period by payments of not less than $25: (i.) That interest and amortization charges shall be payable half-yearly: (j.) That all applications for loans must be made on forms supplied by the Commission, and shall set forth clearly and definitely the purposes for which the loan is required. Such applications must be accompanied by testimonials from two well- known residents in the vicinity as to the adaptability and fertility of the land offered as security, and the personal character and responsibility of the applicant. (7c.) That the basis of valuation of any land for loan purposes under this Act shall be the actual productive value after the improvements in respect of which a loan is 330 British Columbia. 1914 desired have been made; and such value shall he ascertained by appraisers acting under the direction of the Agricultural Credit Commission: (I.) That the maximum loan which may be made on any land shall not exceed 60 per cent, of the value calculated on a productive basis as specified in the previous paragraph: (m.) That with the Agricultural Credit Commission shall rest the sole responsibility of making or withholding loans, and the Commission, before making any loan, must satisfy itself as to— (i.) The desirability of the proposed improvements: (ii.) The character and reliability of the applicant: (iii.) The value of the security on the basis specified: (iv.) The ability of the applicant to make a fair living from the farm after paying interest and amortization charges: (».) That the Commission may, in its discretion, make advances as the work proceeds, but in no case shall the amount advanced exceed the proportion which the work done bears to the total work undertaken in connection with the specific loan: (o.) That the mortgage shall contain provisoes for good husbandry, repairs to buildings, insurance, and such matters: (p.) That no loan shall be made for less than $250 or for more than $10,000 to one applicant, or upon one property, and that applicants for loans not exceeding $2,000 shall be given priority : (q.) That all loans made or to be made to associations under the " Agricultural Associations Act" or to any other co-operative concerns, such as the proposed Public Market Associations in cities, should be placed under the care of the Agricultural Credit Commission; that the funds necessary for such loans should be provided in the same manner; and that the necessary provisions to carry out these suggestions be made in the Act. (See page 29.) " Ditches and Water Courses Act." That the above-mentioned Act be amended to make its provisions applicable in unorganized as well as in organized districts, and also to allow of working arrangements being made between the two classes of districts where a general scheme would be applicable to both. (See page 16.) Education, Agricultural. Elementary. (1.) That, beginning with the rural schools, we would suggest the teaching of nature-study and of the fundamental principles of agriculture, aided by the use of school or home plots, with the aim of giving boys who do not continue their education beyond the primary schools some knowledge of botany, soils, and kindred subjects, and, where possible, some manual training; and providing for girls a useful course in domestic science. (2.) To be effective, this will require that provision shall be made for training teachers to fit them for the work. (3.) In these rural schools it is desirable that some simple form of farm book-keeping should be taught. (4.) In the curriculum of high schools should be found a place for such special work as would prepare a boy for entrance to an agricultural college, or better fit him for the business of farming, without further theoretical education. University. That we have learned with satisfaction of the policy with regard to the new University which will give the training for the profession of agriculture the same prominence as that accorded to the courses for other professions. 4 Geo. 5 Royal Commission on Agriculture. 331 District Representative. That apparently the system now being followed in the Province of Ontario of having a representative of the Department in each district, to be called " District Instructor," might be followed with advantage. Orchards, Inspection and Registration of. (6.) We would suggest that each farm and orchard iu each district should be numbered, and that every one of them should be inspected, if possible, once a year; but, at any rate, that the inspection should be reported, and that no undue time should be allowed to elapse without every one being visited. (7.) At these visits, as well as giving advice and instruction, it should be the duty of the representative to inspect orchards and farms carefully for pests and weeds, and to take the necessary steps in case of need. Soil-analysis. (S.) We would recommend that arrangements be made so that a reasonable number of samples of soil may be analysed by the Provincial Assayer for members of Farmers' Institutes. The application should be made to the Deputy Minister of Agriculture, accompanied by the sample, and if approved by him would be analysed at a fee sufficient to cover cost. Charts, Agricultural. (9.) That as a result of these experimental stations and the observation of the district representatives, we hope to see such agricultural charts published as would make it plain to prospective settlers and the resident farmers what grains, vegetables, fruits, etc., are best adapted to every locality, and what are the respective advantages and disadvantages of each locality for each branch of the industry. Journal, Monthly. (3.0.) That with reference to the educational work now done by means of bulletins, we would recommend that they be replaced by a monthly magazine to be issued by the Department, which would be a most convenient means of reaching all members of Farmers' Institutes, and other subscribers throughout the country, with such information as is now published in bulletin form and with articles selected from other magazines. (See pages 36 and 37.) Farm Training Schools. That as another means of attracting to the Province a very desirable class of settler—viz., bids and young men intending to become agriculturists and with means to do so—we would suggest the establishment of Government training farms, in which fees sufficient to cover the cost of operation would be charged. (See page 37.) Fertilizers, Conservation of Deposits. (1.) That a sufficient number of deposits of lime should be reserved by your Government in every district where it is possible to do so, and that a bonus should be offered for the discovery of suitable deposits of phosphates and potash salts. (2.) That as the kelp groves of the Pacific Coast of the United States are being harvested by several companies to provide a fertilizer rich in potash, it is suggested that some investigation should be made of similar groves on our own coast. (See page 14.) Fruit Areas, Infected. That legislation be enacted empowering you, by Order in Council, in case of emergency, to proclaim a quarantine against any district in or out of the Province infected with an injurious insect, pest, or disease of agricultural or horticultural product. (See page 17.) 332 British Columbia. 1914 Game Laws and Gun Licences. (1.) That the Act he amended so as to allow free gun licences to be issued to farmers for use within their own electoral districts. (2.) That stock-breeders should be granted, free, transferable licences for their herders while on duty. (See page 19.) I M MIGRATION, JUVENILE. (1.) That arrangements be made, as suggested above, to bring children (both boys and girls) into the Province from the British Isles. (2.) That training-schools for such children should be established in which— (a.) The boys would learn the elementary and practical side of farm life: (6.) The girls would learn the duties required of them as domestic servants. (3.) That after having received this elementary training they should be placed on farms and with families for a specific term, until able to provide for themselves. (4.) That a system of inspection should be inaugurated to ensure the proper treatment of such children. With this end in view, legislation along the lines followed in Ontario is proposed. (5.) That the capital expense incurred for this purpose should be discharged from the revenue derived from the Chinese head-tax. (6.) That these training-schools should he partially self-supporting after the initial cost has been defrayed. (See page 24.) Indian Reserves, Nuisances arising therefrom. That your Government approach the Indian Department with a view to instructions being issued to the Indian Agents requiring on each Indian reserve an observance of regulations regarding these matters as effective as obtains generally in the district in which such reserve is situated. (See page 34.) Irrigation. That the general policy embodied in the " Act respecting Public Irrigation Corporations " as just brought down by the Minister of Lands should very largely meet the situation. We had the advantage of interviews with the officials drafting the Bill and made certain suggestions that we thought advisable. (See page 3.6.) Labour, Farm. That a number of courses could with advantage be adopted to assist in the improvement of the situation:— (1.) The appointment of a Board of Immigration with representative in the United Kingdom to select and direct into the Province a desirable class of agricultural labourers and domestic servants. (2.) The granting by that Board of financial aid to agricultural labourers with families willing to come to the Province. (3.) The amendment of the "Master and Servant Act" to make contracts entered into in respect of white farm or domestic labour as binding upon the servant as they now are upon the master. (See page 24.) Land-clearing. Experimental Work. (1.) That your Agricultural Department should carry on systematic experimental work on some block of Government land where varieties of conditions are found, so as to determine on methods to be recommended for general adoption, and through the departmental magazine keep the settlers informed of results and conclusions. 4 Geo. 5 Royal Commission on Agriculture. 333 (2.) That it should seud expert men to give instruction and demonstrations in the use of explosives and stump-pullers in different parts of the country. (3.) That it should investigate different explosives in an endeavour to find the most economical, convenient, and safest for stump-blasting. , Permits to burn. (4.) That Fire Wardens should be given full discretionary powers to grant permits for the burning of slashings and log or stump piles as freely and with as little delay and at as little trouble to settlers as is consistent with a due regard to safety. Stumpage Royalty. (5.) That stumpage royalty shall not be exacted on cordwood cut from land by bona-fide farmers in clearing it. (See page 3.6.) Land-tenure, Oriental. That the importance of seeking a solution of this difficult problem be submitted for the consideration of your Government, and through it to the authorities at Ottawa. (See page 14.) Live Stock. Bovine Tuberculosis. That the work of eradication will be vigorously and continuously prosecuted. Bulls and Stallions running at. Large. That police officers and constables be instructed to bring action on their own initiative against owners as soon as they become aware of an infringement of the Act, without waiting for complaint or the laying of formal information. " Cattle-brands Act." That the Act be amended to provide for— (1.) Registration of all brands at one office instead of, as at present, at separate offices in separate districts, thus giving a brand a Provincial instead of a district standing. (2.) Elimination of duplication or similarity in brands. (3.) Registration of vents. Sheep, Protection of. That legislation be enacted on the principles which are laid down iu the Ontario Act for the protection of sheep :— (1.) Any person may kill any dog which he sees pursuing, worrying, or wounding any sheep. (2.) The owner or occupant of a farm, or his servant, who finds a dog without lawful permission in an enclosed field on such farm, giving tongue and terrifying any sheep on such farm, may kill such dog. (3.) (a.) Any person may kill any dog which he finds straying between sunset and sunrise on any farm whereon sheep are kept. (b.) No dog so straying which belongs to or is kept or harboured by the occupant of any premises next adjoining such farm or next adjoining that part of any highway or lane which abuts thereon, nor any clog so straying either when securely muzzled or when accompanied by or being within reasonable call or control of its owner or of any person having the charge or care thereof, shall be so killed unless there is reason to believe that such dog, if not killed, is likely to pursue, worry, wound, or terrify sheep then on such farm. (4.) (a.) On complaint made in writing on oath before a Justice of the Peace, that any person is the owner of a dog which has within six mouths previous worried or injured or destroyed any sheep, the Justice may issue his summons, directed to such person, stating shortly the matter of the complaint, and requiring such person to appear before him, at a certain time and place therein stated, to answer such complaint, and be further dealt with according to law. 334 British Columbia. ' 1914 (6.) In case of conviction, the Justice may make an order for killing the dog, describing the same according to the description given in the complaint and in the evidence, withiu three days, and in default thereof may, in his discretion, impose a penalty upon such person not exceeding $20. (5.) No conviction shall be a bar to any action by the owner or possessor of any sheep for the recovery of damages for the injury done to such sheep. (Sec page 3S.) i Marketing. Blended Butter to be marked. That all blended butter should be plainly marked as " blended " or worked-over butter, and not sold in competition on even terms with creamery butter that is fresh from the farm and creamery. Eggs to be labelled. That cases and cartons containing eggs should be labelled with the name of the State or Province from which they come, together with the words " fresh," " held," or " cold storage," as the case may be, and that all dealers offering same for sale should placard them iu the same way; also that the Provincial Poultry Instructors should be Inspectors under the Act. Transportation. That much assistance can be given to the British Columbia producer in his fight for a sufficient share of the North-west markets by the active co-operation of the Canadian railways and express companies operating in those Provinces, by making rates from British Columbia as low as possible, giving them as fully, as is reasonable, the advantage of their proximity to those markets; by furnishing the best possible facilities in refrigerator-cars and terminal storage; and by a specially fast freight service for fruit and vegetables. Customs Tariff. That the maintenance of the present amount of protection afforded by the Customs tariff to the articles produced by farmers is necessary and reasonable in view of the fact that these articles are produced under conditions and at costs influenced by the similar protection afforded to other classes of labour. Duty on Apples. < That a duty of 13 cents per box of apples, which is being collected as an equivalent of the duty by tariff of 40 cents per barrel, while as high per pound, does not give the same relative protection on the labour and material used in their production. Public Markets. That encouragement and information should be given by your Government upon this subject, and that legislation should be enacted providing for the financing of co-operative public markets on the same basis as is now done in the case of agricultural co-operative associations. (Sec pages 31-34.) Noxious Weeds Eradication. (3.) That the educational side of the question be emphasized on the lines of the Saskatchewan Act. (2.) That the duty of destroying weeds on roads be placed on the Government and municipal authorities respectively. (3.) That the preparation of the list of weeds be placed in the hands of the expert advisers of the Government to be included in the Act, with a view to the inclusion only of weeds that can be properly termed noxious. (4.) That the procedure necessary for the enforcement of the penal clauses be simplified. (See page 37.) Poultry-, Imported, Inspection of. That the Dominion Government be asked to make similar regulations for the inspection of imported poultry as are now in force regarding live stock. (See page 19.) 4 Geo. 5 Royal Commission on Agriculture. 335 Prison Labour. (1.) That by employing prisoners in— (a.) Drain-tile making; and , (b.) Quarrying and crushing of lime for farm purposes— the prisoners and the Province would be benefited. (2.) That where prisoners are employed at such useful and productive work, a small wage should be allowed, which, iu the case of those who have families to support, should be payable to those dependent upon them, and in the case of single men should be paid to the prisoners themselves upon their release. (See page 19.) Real Estate Misrepresentation. That registration and licensing of all persons, companies, or corporations doing real-estate business in the Province, and the furnishing by them of bonds, would tend to reduce the evil, and would certainly be of service to injured parties in obtaining redress. (See page 15.) Roads, Public Construction. (1.) That, as fast as conditions admit, the business of the Provincial road making and repairing should be commercialized. (2.) That by developing as fast as possible a technical road-making branch of the Department of Public Works, and placing more responsibility and power in the hands of that Branch, and by holding its officials responsible for results in economy and good work, with promotion dependent thereon, a great step would be made in the desired direction. In Subdivisions. < That all roads as shown on subdivision plans should be made by the owner, at least as far as grading is concerned, and we recommend that subdivisional plans, when approved as submitted for registration, should be provisionally accepted, subject to the grading of the roads to the satisfaction of the Provincial or municipal authorities, as the case may be, and that, on completion of such grading, the owner should obtain registration. Necessary Width. That serious loss is caused by the withdrawal of an unnecessary amount of land from agricultural use; and that those portions of the road allowance which are not occupied by the track act as a breeding-ground for noxious weeds. (See page 22.) Settlement, Closer. Living Areas. (1.) That certain areas be determined upon, in suitable parts of the Province, to be thrown open for closer settlement. (2.) That these areas be surveyed, with special reference to the requirements of "living areas," as defined later, and that fully detailed information be recorded with regard to each such area. (3.) That to carry out the above recommendations a separate branch of the Land Department be formed, to be called the " Land Classification Branch." ' (4.) That the rest of the unalienated land in the Province be reserved, except as suggested hereafter, until such time as your Government is advised that further areas should be opened up on the above principles. (5.) That preference be given to these areas in the construction of roads. Disposal of Agricultural Grown Lands. (3.) That these areas be open for either pre-emption or purchase. (2.) That both pre-emptors and purchasers be subject to the completion of specific improvements before a Crown grant is issued. 33(i British Columbia. 1914 (3.) That purchasers be exempt from the residential obligation. (4.) That on account of this exemption the improvement conditions be made more onerous for the purchaser than for the pre-emptor. (5.) That the improvements required from both pre-6mptors and purchasers should be fixed by departmental regulations for each closer settlement area. (6.) That legislation be enacted which will effectually prevent auy person directly or indirectly acquiring from the Government, either by purchase or by pre-emption, or both, more than one living area. (7.) That no payment be exacted on account of survey fees on such lands. (See pages 33 and 14.) Taxation. Exemption of Farm Improvements. That, at as early a date as possible, improvements on farm lands be exempted from taxation, and that the basis of valuation of land for taxation purposes be made as nearly as possible the price that a willing purchaser would pay if the land were in a state of nature. School Tax, Administration of. That the amount voted under " school tax " in each district be paid direct by your Government to the school trustees by equal quarterly instalments throughout the year. " School Act," Extended Municipal Areas. That the "School Act" be revised in so far as the clause referring to extended areas is concerned. (See page 23.) Telephones, Rural. (1.) That assistance might well be given to settlers outside the three-mile radius, within which the companies find it profitable to work at present, on the following lines:— (a.) Settlers outside the three-mile radius desiring communication should furnish and erect the poles necessary, the Government subscribing at the rate of $1 per pole, and allowing settlers to cut the poles from Government land, if available: (b.) The Government should pay the cost of wire, cross-arms, and insulators, and defray the cost of putting same in place on the poles: (e.) The telephone company should furnish the instruments, install same and keep them in order: (d.) The settlers should maintain the lines: (e.) The telephone company's charge not to exceed $1.50 per month for each subscriber, and the number of subscribers on a party line not to exceed six: (/.) On receipt of an application for the installation of such a service, the Inspector of Electrical Energy and the superintendent of the telephone company concerned should investigate its practicability and report to the Government. (2.) That legislation should be enacted authorizing the incorporation of associations on these lines, with power to levy assessments on original members of the association and on members who join after the installation has been effected. (3.) That the special knowledge of the Superintendent of Electrical Energy might be taken advantage of to promote the building of lines under the "Rural Telephone Act" by assigning to him the duty of giving information and advice to communities desiring to form such companies under that Act. (See page 26.) Well Boring, Artesian. That your Government should purchase an artesian-well boring outfit for the purpose of making experiments at various points, as to the feasibility of obtaining domestic water-supplies in this manner. (See page 16.) APPENDICES. 4 Geo. 5 Royal Commission on Agriculture. 339 APPENDIX A. METEOROLOGICAL TABLES. List 1.—Stations in British Columbia of the Meteorological Service of the Dominion of C-anada. Class A. Barometer, temperature, rainfall 9 Class B. Temperature and rainfall 93 Class C. Rainfall only 20 Class D. Sun-recording stations 14 Class A. Atlin. Trauquille. Barkerville. Triangle Island. Kamloops. Vancouver. Nanaimo. Victoria (chief station). Prince Rupert. Class B. Agassiz. Golden. Alberni (Beaver Creek). Grand Forks. Armstrong. Greenwood. Alert Bay. Gillies Bay (Vananda). Ashcroft. Gateway. Babine Lake. Harper's Ranch (Kamloops). Bella Coola. Hedley. Biological Station (Nanaimo). Hedley Nickel Plate Mine. Britannia Beach. Holberg. Boatswain Bank (Cobble Hill). Hope. Chilcotin (Big Creek). Howser. Chilliwack. Hydraulic (Cariboo). Clayoquot. Ikeda Head. Clo-oose. Invermere Experimental Station. Cowichan (Tzouhalein). James Island. Crawford Bay. Kaslo. Cranbrook. Keremeos. Creston. Kelowna. Chinook Cove. Ladner. Cranberry Lake. Ladysmith. Cluculz Lake. Masset. Duck Lake (Okanagan Centre). Monte Creek. Enderby. Mary Island. Elko. Nakusp. East Arrow Park. Nanoose Bay. Fort St. John. Nelson. Fort George. Now Westminster. Fauquier. Nicola Lake. Fernie. North Nicomen. Glacier Okanagan Mission. 340 British Columbia. 1914 Pemberton Hatchery. Pemberton Meadows. Penticton. Princeton. Perry Siding. Quatsino. Quesnel. Qualicuin Beach. Revelstoke. Richlands (Hilton). Rossland. Salmon Arm (Hobson). Salmon Arm (Sharpe). Saltspring Island. Snawnigan Lake. Stuart Lake (Fort St. James). Stewart. Alberni (Stamp Falls). Alkali Lake. Beaver Lake (Victoria Waterworks). Bear Creek. Bowen Island. Canoe Point (Annis). Coquitlam. Denman Island. Ferguson. Coldstream Lake. Agassiz. Harper's Ranch. Invermere Experimental Station. Kamloops. Kelowna. Nanaimo. Salmon Arm. Class D. Stave River Falls. Sooke Harbour. Steveston. Summerland. Swanson Bay. Sidney. Strathcona Park. Terrace. Tappen. Toad Mountain (Nelson). Vernon. Vavenby. Wilmer. Waueta. Westley (East Robson). Yale (Fifteen-mile Creek). Class C. Hornby Island. Invermere. Jordan River. Little Qualicum. Lumby. Nass Harbour. Rock Creek. Sooke Lake. Swift River Dam Wycliffe. Shawnigan Lake. Sidney. Summerland. Strathcona Park. Tranqnille. A'ancouver. Victoria. (Cariboo). List 2.—Meteorological Stations maintained by the Provincial Government of British Columbia. In nearly all cases where a Provincial station is established in juxtaposition to a Dominion station it is at a higher altitude, where the precipitation is a great deal heavier than at the latter. Tho majority of the Provincial stations are equipped for the purpose of observing precipitation only; at a few thermometers are read, and at three stations hygroscopic observations are noted. .\iyaush. Chinook Cove. Alert Bay. Christina Lake. Aspen Grove. Coutlee. Birch Bank. Cowichan Bay. Bonnington Falls. Cowichan Lake. Bridge River. Cranbrook. Buttle Lake (Strathcona Park). Crowsnest. Cache Creek. Cumberland. Canal Flats. Deer Park (Lower Arrow Lake). Canoe River. Echo Lake. Capilano Creek. Edgewater. Carmi. Elko. 4 Geo. 5 Royal Commission on Agriculture. 341 Fernie. Fifth Cabin. Fort Eraser. Fort Steele. Gateway. Goat River (Powell River). Gooseneck Lake (Strathcona Park). Grand Forks. Harpers Camp. Hazelton. Howe Sound (Lower Station). Howe Sound (Upper Station). Invermere. Kamloops, North (B.C. Fruitlands Ranch). Kelowna (Belgo-Canadiau Dam). Kelowna (South Kelowna Land Co. Dam). Keremeos. Kingsgate. Klinaklini River. Lake Buntzen. Lake Coquitlam. Lake Jones. Lake Lillooet. Lillooet (Moha). Long Lake Forest Reserve. Lynch Creek. Lynn Creek. Lytton. Malakwa. Mill Bay (Nass River). Mill Creek (Nicola). Naramata. New Denver. Ninth Cabin. Nitinat. Notch Hill. 105-Mile House. I'eachland. Penticton (on road to Carmi). Phoenix. Pouce Coupee. Powell River (Pulp Mills). Powell Lake (upper end). Quilchena. Quilchena Common. Seymour Creek. Slahaltkan. Soda Creek. Spillimaclieen. Telegraph Creek. Telkwa. Thrums. Vancouver. Wolf Creek (Cranbrook). Table 1.—Meteorological Data. Rain Snow Total precipitation . Highest temperature Lowest temperature Mean temperature . (Referring to the year 1912 except where stated otherwise.) Agassiz. June. 5.05 Rainy days Total precipitation . Highest temperature Lowest, temperature . Mean temperature . . Jan. 3. 11 12.00 4.31 5M.0 12.0 34.S 12 10.50 52.0 10.0 34.2 Feb. 10.04 March. 2.03 April. 4.20 May. 3.00 July. 5.00 Aug. 7.S4 Sept. 2.50 Oct. Rain Snow Total precipitation . . Highest temperature Lowest temperature - Mean temperature . . . 0.00 2.50 0.25 52.0 ■31.0 11.2 Rain Snow Total precipitation . . Highest temperature Lowest temperature . . Meau temperature . . Rain Snow Total precipitation . Highest temperature Lowest temperature - Mean temperature . . 10.04 54.0 7S.0 41.S 13 0.77 01.0 21.0 30.4 2.01 05.0 20.0 42.5 25 1.02 73.0 10.0 43.2 0.00 0.00 2.00 1.00 0.20 0.10 40.0 57.0 — 5.0 —10.0 23.7 20.2 3.02 33.50 0.27 51.0 2.0 31.3 0.00 11.00 1.10 4S.0 ■20.0 14.0 5.43 1.13 5.43 53.0 28.0 41.7 1.13 05.0 22.0 41.3 4.20 03.0 20.0 40.2 3.00 02.0 30.0 57. S 5.05 SO.O :i5.0 00.4 5.0!) SO.O 43.0 01.2 Alberni (Beaver Creek). it> 12 1. 05.0 20.0 40.2 10 2.57 S5.0 31.0 54. S 0.00 0.03 0.35 2.00 0.20 0.03 40.0 50.0 3.0 —20.0 20.S 27.1 0.35 60.0 18.0 44.0 1.54 SO.O 33.0 50.7 Chilcotin. 1.50 0.43 1.04 1.50 50.0 12.0 3S.0 2.13 2.13 04.0 31.0 47.7 0.43 1.04 S3.0 SS.O 27.0 £4.0 40.0 50.1 Chilliwack. 1.55 2*23 i.55 2.23 02.0 01.0 31.0 35.0 50.0 (10.3 Cranbrook. 1.08 1.05 1.08 1.65 87.0 00.0 20.0 28.0 52.0 02.0 25 0.83 00.0 41.0 03.5 2.S2 2.82 S3.0 30.0 57.4 2.17 2.17 00.0 40.0 04.0 3.70 3.70 89.0 30.0 59.9 7.S4 80.0 40.0 01.0 10 3.28 02.0 42.0 01.0 3.41 S2.0 31.0 2.50 R1.0 30.0 50.4 23 2.00 80.0 35.0 50.1 7.27 04.0 33.0 47.8 .12 0.08 70.0 24.0 47.0 1.25 '1.0 23.0 0.S3 3.00 1.13 05.0 10.0 5.12 5.12 S5.0 37.0 02.0 1.01 i.'o'i 87.0 33.0 59.S 1.23 1.23 S4.0 34.0 50.7 0.50 6.50 S7.0 10.0 47.0 0.70 05.0 20.0 40.0 1.14 1.14 00.0 10.0 37.5 Nov. 13.S2 13.82 55.0 30.0 42.4 i 13.54 SS.O 20.0 41.2 0.22 2.00 0.42 52.0 3.0 54.4 40.0 35.0 20.! 10.81 55.0 30.0 42.0 0.00 11.00 1.10 48.0 0.0 32.5 Dec. 0.04 4.50 10.00 40.0 25.0 30.5 12.07 47.0 27.0 34.7 0.00 4.00 0.40 42.0 -0.0 20.; 3.80 2.50 7.05 48.0 20.0 3S.4 0.00 1.40 0.14 40.0 — 0.0 23.7 Year. 70.14 10.50 77.70 02.0 12.0 40.32 107 00.57 90.0 10.0 4S.07 .12.40 14.50 13.01 SS.O -.11.0 37.21 51.22 30.00 54.82 02.0 2.0 40.10 0.5S 20.0 12.18 00.0 -20.0 41.07 342 British Columbia. 1914 Table 3—Continued. Cowichan (Tzouhalem). Bain Jan. 5.40 , 10.50 0.51 51..S 14.5 . 37.0 0.80 2S.0 3.00 40.0 — 2.0 23.8 0.43 18.0 2.23 47.0 -17.0 17.4 0.04 25.50 3.10 45.0 -25.0 17.0 0.00 18.00 1.S0 21.0 -12.0 6.0 1.00 24.25 3.43 44.0 -50.0 - 4.2 0.58 14.70 2.05 43.0 -21.0 17.0 0.05 11.25 1.18 47.5 -18.0 17.0 5.17 0.25 0.10 51.0 10.0 37.9 0.73 28.50 3.58 43.0 — 4.0 22.9 Feb. 4.53 4.53 54.5 22.5 40.9 1.51 5.25 2.04 45.0 10.0 32.8 1.17 i.'lT 53.0 3.0 30.2 0.82 4.25 1.25 45.0 0.0 29.3 0.00 6.00 0.00 38.0 3.0 22.5 1.15 17.75 2.7S 44.0 -35.0 - 12.4 0.80 6.00 1.55 45.0 5.0 20.6 0.37 2.50 0.02 48.8 9.2 31.3 3.54 3.54 53.2 20.0 40.5 0.84 9.00 1.74 45.0 9.0 32.2 March. April. May. June. July. 0.S3 2.03 2.05 1.67 0.07 6.83 2.03 2.05 i.07 6.67 02.0 03.0 83.0 S4.S 8S.0 20.S 27.0 34.6 3S.8 44.6 40.2 49.9 55.3 50.0 03.4 Crawford Bay (Main Kootenay 0.1S 0.84 1.79 2.04 3.30 0.75 0.80 0.S4 1.79 2.04 3.30 57.0 08.0 S1.0 93.0 84.0 12.0 27.0 37.0 38.0 41.0 32.8 47.0 56.4 62.6 61.5 Elko. 0.99 1.24 1.20 2.64 3.S5 6.99 1.24 1.20 2.04 3.S5 02.1 71.1 8S.0 98.1 90.1 0.0 21.0 29.0 34.0 36.0 30.1 46.8 55.1 04.7 62.0 Enderby. 0.S7 2.18 '.'.'. '.'.'. '. '. '. 6.87 2.is 102.0 04.0 38.0 45.0 66.4 65.6 Fairview. 0.28 0.18 0.54 0.30 0.11 6.28 6.18 6.54 6.30 6.11 73.0 71.0 SO.O 80.0 08.0 12.0 32.0 35.0 40.0 50.0 43.S 51.9 56.0 08.9 7S.1 Fort George, B.C. Fort George (1013). 3.60 2.80 1.92 2.40 1.02 8.75 4.48 2.80 1.92 2.40 1.02 47.0 70.0 70.0 S2.0 90.0 -30.0 0.0 21.0 31.0 30.0 22.4 38.6 46.2 50.9 57.5 Grand Forks. 0.10 1.31 1.7S 2.13 2.S1 0.50 0.15 1.31 1.7S 2.13 2.81 64.0 71.0 86.0 07.0 94.0 6.0 27.0 30.0 30.0 30.0 32.0 47.0 55.9 G3.S 05.0 Kamloops. 0.00 1.30 0.32 1.52 3.50 6.00 i.SO 6.32 1.52 3.50 66.0 68.0 SS.O 101.0 90.0 7.0 20.4 30.1 41.0 48.0 33.7 49.0 59.7 07.3 06.2 Nanaimo. i 0.53 1.83 2.44 1.57 0.7S 6.53 i.83 2.44 i.57 6.78 61.0 60.0 80.0 83.3 86.2 21.0 29.8 34.0 40.0 47.0 40.5 46.1 54.4 50.7 02.2 Nelson. 0.08 1.3S 2.31 2.26 5.60 5.00 1.38 0.58 1.38 2.31 2.20 5.60 50.0 73.0 80.0 100.0 SO.O 12.0 29.0 32.0 38.0 42.0 35.2 47.0 57.3 64.5 62.0 Aug. 2.S4 2.84 S3.2 45.3 61.7 Lake). 2.44 2.44 81.0 39.0 60.1 2.56 2.56 01.0 38.0 62.4 1.2S i.2S 94.0 40.0 03.3 0.13 6.13 101.0 59.0 80.3 2.22 2.22 88.0 31.0 57.5 1.86 i.'s'o 00.0 35.0 59.7 2.28 2.28 92.0 39.0 02.5 2.09 2.00 87.4 42.8 04.4 4.11 4.11 84.0 42.0 2.57 2.57 86.0 41.0 61.1 Sept. 1.56 1.50 79.0 30.5 55.5 1.21 1.21 70.0 32.0 50. S 2.14 2.14 78.1 28.0 40.7 1.04 i .04 80.0 20.0 52.0 0.37 6.37 00.0 50.0 67.9 0.55 6.'55 77.0 21.0 49.3 3.50 3.00 71.0 31.0 50.0 1.10 i.Yo 81.0 27.0 63.0 0.80 6.80 81.0 37.5 50.4 2.03 2.03 77.3 30.8 54.8 1.19 i.'io 77.0 34.0 52.0 Oct. 3.30 3.80 63.2 27.5 47.4 1.71 i.Vi 60.0 25.0 41.6 2.56 2.56 66.1 25.0 42.4 1.39 i.39 67.0 23.0 42.9 0.17 6.17 74.0 36.0 54.6 1.28 1.50 1.43 62.0 0.0 37.6 1.S8 0.20 1.00 07.0 17.0 3S.1 0.75 6.75 OS.O 24.0 44.1- 0.00 5.00 71.0 24.8 45.0 2.50 2.50 61.6 20.1 46.3 2.SO 2.80 04.0 23.0 42.5 Nov. 0.S1 o.si 55.0 27.0 43.0 2.5S 8.75 3.41 47.0 19.0 30.2 2.25 3.20 2.57 51.0 14.0 30.3 1.71 2.50 1.00 48.0 21.0 35.7 II ' 0.3 7.00 0.73 48.0 21.0 35.8 0.S7 0.25 1.50 52.0 0.0 29.9 0.02 4.00 0.42 48.0 10.0 32.3 1.70 1.40 1.90 51.0 15.0 34.3 0.72 1.00 0.82 52.0 20.2 37.7 S.7I 8.71 58.0 20.0 43.1 3.30 1.00 3.40 49.0 18.0 36.3 Dec. 7.29 7.29 49.2 29.3 39.5 0.09 36.75 3.77 40.0 14.0 30.2 0.34 0.00 0.04 52.1 0.0 30.0 0.05 18.00 2.45 41.0 12.0 34. S 0.00 10.50 1.05 40.0 — 1.0 1S.0 11.00 1.10 44.0 — 3.0 22.3 0.12 13.00 1.42 42.0 2.0 25.4 0.14 4.00 0.50 40.0 11.0 20.0 5.S9 5.80 50.5 28.2 30.8 0.05 31.00 3.15 40.0 17.0 30.2 Year. Total precipitation . Highest temperature Lowest temperature . Mean temperature . . Kaln 39. SS SS.O 14.5 49.55 Total precipitation . Highest temperature Lowest temperature Mean temperature .. S5.00 27.01 93.0 — 2.0 44.05 21.37 Total precipitation . Highest temperature Lowest temperature Mean temperature . . 27.20 24.00 98.1 — 17.0 43.93 Total precipitation . Highest temperature Lowest temperature Mcau temperature . . Bain 102.0 — 25.0 2.17 41.50 Total precipitation . Highest temperature Lowest temperature Mean temperature .. Knin 0.32 101.0 — 12.0 4S.8 Total precipitation . Highest temperature Lowest temperature . Mean temperature . . Total prectpitatlon . Highest temperature Lowest temperature - Mean temperature . ■ 15.58 Total prectpitatlon . Highest temperature Lowest temperature - Mean temperature . . 30.50 19.23 07.0 — 21.0 44.14 11.59 Total precipitation . Highest temperature Lowest temperature - Mean temperature . . 18.75 13.47 101.0 — 18.0 40.52 39.10 9.25 Total precipitation . . Highest temperature Lowest temperature Mean temperature. .. 40.03 80.2 19.0 23.11 Total precipitation . . Highest tempera! tire Lowest temperature Mean temperature . . . 74.50 30.50 100.0 —4.0 45.42 4 Geo. 5 Eoyal Commission on Agriculture. 343 Table 1—Continued. Jan. Ralri Snow Total precipitation . . Highest temperature Lowest temperature - Mean temperature . . Rain Snow Tutat precipitation .. Highest temperature Lowest temperature - Mean temperature . . . Rain Snow Total precipitation .. Highest temperature Lowest temperature Mean temperature . .. Rain Snow Total precipitntion . Highest temperature Lowest temperature . Mean temperature . . Rain Snow Total precipitation . Highest temperature Lowest temperature Mean temperature . . Rain Snow Total precipitation . Highest temperature Lowest temperature Mean temperature .. Rain Snow , Total precipitation . . Highest temperature Lowest temperature Mean temperature .. . Rain Snow Total precipitation .. Highest temperature Lowest temperature . . Mean temperature .. . Rain Snow Total precipitation . Highest temperature Lowest temperature Mean temperature .. Rain Snow Total precipitation . . Highest temperature Lowest temperature - Mean temperature . . . Rain Snow Total precipitation .. Highest temperature Lowest temperature .. Mean temperature . .. Nicola. Feb. March. April. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Year. o.so 0.57 0.0 1.50 0.S3 0.SS 1.58 2.03 0.97 0.02 O.SO 0.25 11.13 4.40 2.50 0.75 2.00 4.00 2.75 10.40 1.24 0.S2 0.08 i.50 6.83 6.88 i. 5S 2.03 6.97 1.12 1.20 0.52 12.77 4S.0 46.0 04.0 05.0 82.0 01.0 SS.O 82.0 75.0 05.0 57.0 40.0 91.0 -22.0 10.0 6.0 21.0 33.0 30.0 43.0 39.0 31.0 23.0 2p.O 0.0 — 22.0 10.2 30.8 30.1 43.9 52.5 00.5 00.4 59.2 50.1 41.0 35.1 2S.3 42.39 Okanagan Mission. 0.5S 1.42 0.00 1.13 0.38 1.42 1.35 1.02 0.85 0.91 1.47 0.35 10.88 14.87 1.25 2.10 IS.22 2.00 1.55 6.00 i.13 6.38 1.42 i.'.35 i.02 6.S5 0.9.1 1.47 0.50 .12.70 42.0 40.0 02.0 04.0 S3.0 02.0 89.0 85.0 75.0 04.0 40.0 42.0 92.0 -14.0 5.0 0.0 30.0 34.0 38.0 40.0 43.0 32.0 27.0 21.0 13.0 — 14.0 20.3 30.8 31.0 47.8 57.2 04.0 05.0 02.4 52.5 42.0 30.5 30.0 45.21 Penticton. 0.20 0.70 0.05 1.15 1.10 1.52 1.14 1.13 1.37 1.00 0.04 0.44 10.92 7.50 O.SO 0.50 8.80 1.05 6.70 6.05 i .15 i.'io i.52 i.14 i.'i's i.37 i.'o'o 1.02 0.49 31.80 4S.0 40.5 50.5 6S.0 84.0 00.0 85.0 88.0 74.0 0S.0 54.0 48.0 90.0 — 1.0 13.5 12.5 21.0 29.0 34.5 45.0 40.0 32.5 26.0 21.5 10.5 — 1.0 20.5 35.0 33.3 47.7 55.0 03.8 64.5 62.1 53.7 44.7 39.5 34.0 46.70 Perry Siding (Slocan River) (1913). 2.33 4.15 1.45 2.30 1.77 1.26 0.75 2.07 10.50 0.05 fl.GO 2.33 4.15 1.40 2.30 i.77 1.34 3.12 0.7.1 81.0 80.0 92.0 05.0 SO.O 70.0 48.0 41.0 30.0 30.0 42.0 39.0 30.0 24.0 20.0 13.0 53.8 01.0 04.2 04.7 53.7 41.8 34.3 2S.8 Jicvelstoke. 1.13 1.70 0.72 1.03 1.80 2.29 4.IS 4.03 1.49 4.90 4.78 0.40 29.42 40.80 10.20 12.00 77.50 140.50 5.21 3.32 6.72 i.03 i.SO 2.29 4. is 4.03 i.49 4.'96 5.08 8.15 44.07 40.0 40.0 00.0 05.0 S3.0 05.0 SO.O 82.0 77.0 5S.0 40.0 43.0 95.0 -17.0 CO 0.0 20.0 32.0 30.0 40.0 43.0 32.0 20.5 17.0 12.0 — 17.0 17.0 31.1 31.2 45.4 55.0 03.9 02.2 00.9 52.0 41.0 34.5 29.3 43.70 Salmon Arm (Shuswap Lake). 1.00 0.00 0.03 1.55 0.00 0.87 2.14 2.08 1.21 1.48 2.20 0.23 14.41 10.00 1.00 2.10 1S.S0 38.50 2.00 1.13 6.03 i.55 6.00 6.'87 2.'l4 2.08 i.21 i.48 2.41 2.11 18.27 41.0 45.0 57.0 07.0 87.0 97.0 00.0 85.0 76.0 67.0 50.0 42.0 07.0 15.0 2.0 3.0 29.0 34.0 35.0 44.0 42.0 32.0 22.0 21.0 13.0 — 15.0 18.0 24.1 31.0 40.9 57.5 05.5 63.3 61.6 52.4 43.0 30.3 29.0 44.18 Summerland. 0.33 0.50 0.08 1.01 1.11 1.00 1.53 2.14 1.34 0.55 1.10 0.00 11.89 11.00 3.00 7.80 0.50 5.50 29.30 1.52 0.S6 6.08 i.'o'i i.'l'l i.'o'o i.53 2.14 i.34 1.33 1.15 0.55 14.82 43.0 45.0 65.0 05.0 85.0 90.0 92.0 87.0 84.0 67.0 52.0 44.0 00.0 -7.0 10.0 11.0 32.0 32.0 42.0 48.0 40.0 30.0 20.0 22.0 15.0 — 7.0 21.5 31.0 34.4 47.3 57.1 05.5 66.1 02.4 54.2 43.3 30.3 2S.8 45.00 Terrace. 0.08 5.20 3.75 17.75 7.30 0.25 45.0 40.0 28.0 20.0 31.4 32.5 Terrace (1913). 1.73 0.00 3.09 2.01' LSI 1.80 1.72 1.60 5.23 7.04 5.04 30.47 42.89 19.25 0.00 0.50 5.00 14.00 44.75 3.00 1.20 3.14 2.01 i.Sl i.'so 1.72 i.'o'o 5.23 7.04 0.14 11.87 47.37 42.0 41.0 47.0 60.0 07.0 80.0 84.0 85.0 SO.O 50.0 52.0 45.0 85.0 -0.0 0.0 11.0 29.0 28.0 37.0 45.0 38.0 40.0 28.0 22.0 15.0 — 0.0 17.3 29.1 32.5 42.0 40.3 50.7 60. S 03.5 54.G 43.0 36.5 31.5 43.2 Vernon. 0.48 0.42 0.00 1.10 O.SO 1.32 2.57 1.10 0.70 1.10 1.35 0.42 13.45 19.0 5.00 1.00 0.25 7.75 33.0 2.38 0.02 6.00 i.'l'o o.'s'o i.32 2.57 i.'io 6.70 1.20 1.37 1.20 14.75 41.0 42.0 56.0 05.0 S5.0 00.0 01.0 80.0 80.0 67.0 50.0 40.0 00.0 18.0 3.0 6.0 27.0 30.0 34.0 45.0 37.0 33.0 23.0 20.0 10.0 18.0 10.7 28.0 30.2 47.3 50.8 04.5 04.2 62.5 53.0 42.6 30.0 28.8 44.82 Victoria. 3.83 3.14 1.43 1.30 1.50 0.09 1.15 2.26 0.60 2.33 5.04 5.84 20.54 3.20 3.20 4.15 3.14 1.43 i.30 i.'so 6.99 i .15 2.26 6.00 2.33 5.04 5.84 20.85 52.5 53.9 58.3 01.S 84.2 S5.0 80.8 81.8 78.4 63.2 55.4 49.6 89.8 23.5 28.5 27.2 30.2 37.9 41.2 45.5 41.2 41.7 33.0 30.3 31.4 23.5 40.6 43.0 42.5 4S.6 50.0 59.1 01.0 59.0 57.2 48.0 45.2 41.3 50.33 344 British Columbia. .19.14 Rain Snow Total precipitation . Highest temperature Lowest temperature . Mean temperature . . Rain Snow Total precipitation . Highest temperature Lowest temperature - Mean temperature . . Agassiz Alberni Alkali Lake Armstrong Ashcroft Atlin Babine Lake Barkerville Bear Creek Beaver Lake Bella Coola Biological Station (Nanaimo) Canoe 1'oint (Annis) Chilcotin Chilliwack Clayoquot Clo-oose Coquitlam Cowichan Cranbrook Crawford Bay Creston Denman Island Duck Lake Elko Enderby Ferguson Fort George Fort St. James .... Glacier Golden Coldstream Lake . . . Grand Forks Greenwood Hedlev Hedley (Nickel Plate) Holberg Hope Hornby Island Howser Hydraulic Station . . . Ikeda Head Jordan River Kamloops Kasdo Keremeos Ladner Lailysmith Little Qualicum Lumloy Masset Monte Creek Nass Harhour NaKusp Nanaimo Nanoose Bay Needles (Fauquier) .. Nelson New Westminster . . . Nicola Nort h Nicomen Okanagan Mission .. . Pemberton Meadows. . Pemberton Hatchery. . Penticton Perry Siding Prince Rupert Princeton Quatsino Quesnel Revelstoke Ricblands Rock Creek Rossland Tab LE 1— Concl tided. Vfaneta (near Peni d'Oreille) (1913). Jan. Feb. March. April. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Year. 1.55 0.24 2.51 0.19 3.5S 0.00 1.00 0.08 4.25 4.05 1.00 10.30 S.70 4.25 2.04 0.34 2.51 0.19 3.58 0.00 1.00 1.71 5.12 0.43 40.5 74.5 S1.0 S7.0 02.0 04.0 70.5 07.0 47.5 40.0 1.5 20.0 25.0 38.0 39.0 3S.5 30.5 21.0 18.0 15.0 29.5 45.2 51.3 60.4 62.4 61. S 53.5 40.3 33.4 20.0 Wilmer. 0.59 0.00 0.00 0.35 1.12 1.07 3.05 1.52 1.35 0.74 0.10 0.00 11.30 5.50 1.30 0.00 S.50 5.00 20.30 1.14 0.13 0.00 0.35 1.12 1.07 3.05 1.52 1.35 6.74 0.05 0.50 13.42 44.0 42.0 55.5 67.0 SO.O 07.0 85.0 SO.O 70.0 50.0 40.0 37.0 07.0 20.5 0.0 — 1.0 18.0 20.0 30.0 40.0 38.0 2S.0 15.0 7.0 4.0 — 20.5 0.0 24.7 25.5 44.4 54.1 03.S 5S.2 5S.2 40.5 37.0 20.5 30.4 30.33 Table 2.- —Precipitation, 1013. 13.22 5.12 7.00 4.72 0.08 7.33 3.71 2.71 7.08 8.S4 12.20 3.30 82.72 0.90 2.09 3.53 4.50 2.51 3.S9 2.60 3.62 0.43 4.17 10.52 S.02 03.44 0.68 0.14 0.37 0.10 0.S4 4.17 1.80 2.53 0.42 0.55 0.00 13.29 3.25 1.07 0.72 0.35 1.33 7.50 1.77 1.02 0.00 2.4S 1.01 0.75 20.74 0.40 0.47 0.00 0.11 0.41 0.50 0.73 Closed down 1.63 0.02 0.20 0.38 0.28 0.52 l.ll 1.27 1.10 1.40 O.SS 3.30 12.5S 2.25 1.55 1.05 1.00 1.20 1.87 0.S5 5.20 7.50 1.00 4.15 1.85 3.13 1.99 2.15 5.54 5. OS 4.53 5.20 3.05 45.3!! 16.70 O.SO 9.17 3.51 3.57 3.79 2.21 0.00 7.79 9.53 1S.23 0.02 01.33 6.12 2.30 2.23 0.74 0.74 1.30 0.80 0.72 1.91 3.15 0.32 3.07 28.04 6.68 2.73 3.07 2.00 4.37 3.31 0.71 1.77 S.ll 12.42 0.35 0.00 02.75 4.82 1.04 2.25 1.33 1.00 2.77 1.87 0.25 2.30 4.13 7.32 2.15 33.09 4.01 1.20 0.07 0.44 1.55 3.02 2.03 1.27 2.18 2.19 1.02 0.32 22.30 0.70 1.40 0.75 0.21 0.08 2.59 2.03 3.32 0.79 1.23 0.05 0.20 14.50 10.05 0.40 7.40 2.48 3.19 3.S2 2.53 2.24 0.35 7.S4 10.73 2.30 00.11 13.07 9.70 8.43 11.28 5.78 0.10 3.25 2.09 9.90 S.10 18.05 10.8S 114.40 9.00 5.97 4.00 4.50 5.35 6.00 3.70 1.07 7.77 5.40 0.15 2.40 00.30 10.04 0.78 8.09 3.01 4.73 5.02 1.00 3.92 4.09 7.05 11.51 5.12 72.78 1.55 2.04 1.00 1.S4 1.52 0.S1 0.00 1.93 2.98 8.90 2.34 31.20 2.00 0.04 2.20 0.4S 0.05 O.SO 1.20 2.24 0.S1 0.44 3.05 O.SO 14.33 4.60 2.41 3.70 1.32 O.SO 0.7S 0.00 2.10 2.50 1.03 2.30 1.05 24.30 2.38 0.42 1.48 0.33 1.40 2.01 1.S2 1.14 1.32 O.GG 5.10 0.80 18.05 5.34 2.49 1.64 2.12 0.00 2.10 1.58 O.OS 3.03 4.52 13.5S 5.30 44.57 0.07 1.70 2.02 0.59 1.02 0.S7 1.81 0.03 0.25 2.72 0.21 0.02 0.72 2.28 4.05 2.11 1.93 0.7S 0.45 1.35 0.00 17.S2 4.15 1.38 0.69 0.05 1.40 3.73 1.18 1.07 1.35 1.31 1.71 1.10 19.77 0.70 3.20 4.65 2.2S 2.97 3.00 3.25 1.07 4.02 4.30 7.08 2.70 47.02 3.43 2.78 4.48 2.80 1.92 2.40 1.02 I.SO 3.50 1.90 0.42 2.50 0.72 1.01 0.83 1.47 1.27 3.25 1.S7 2.51 1.79 1.27 O.SO 20.38 10.10 5.25 8.05 2.20 1.30 2 52 4.00 0.77 8.32 5.75 10.10 3.53 08.03. 4.00 0.00 0.90 0.03 0.40 2.51 2.05 1.83 3.25 2.53 2.10 0.30 10.90 10.10 3.42 4.93 1.02 1.00 2.24 0.07 O.SS 3.22 5.02 12.00 3.01 51.17 2.80 0.13 0.72 0.28 2.21 3.39 0.02 0.71 LIS I.SO 2.01 0.50 30.74 COS 0.05 0.33 0.45 2.50 2.91 1.25 1.29 1.54 1.05 0.50 0.50 13.50 1.38 0.40 0.99 0.03 LIS 2.29 0.37 0.83 0.32 1.07 0.30 0.35 10.07 3.75 0.00 0.05 1.50 1.11 3.51 0.41 1.21 0.45 2.90 0.75 0.85 37.39 5.88 5.84 10.77 11.22 4.01 S.10 5.10 11.70 23.43 20.30 9.79 3.50 4.76 1.88 2.SO 2.75 2.50 1.01 0.77 7.40 0.91. l.SS 55.89 7.09' 2.42 2.20 1.00 1.20 2.15 1.30 0.79 4.51 4.08 13.92 2.01 45.38 4.10 1.08 0.10 1.70 0.90 2.10 1.54 2.SI 3.02 1.74 2.51 0.30 22.05 4.00 0.RS 2.07 0.5G 1.23 2.10 2.41 3.80 2.40 2.SO 1.08 0.25 23.53 0.70 3.05 5.01 0.07 0.70 0.00 7.86 10.57 21.15 32.35 10.92 4.90 4.90 2.3S 3.06 3.74 1.92 0.44 5.27 9.24 15.00 3.07 00.13 1.10 1.01 0.17 0.22 0.60 2.00 0.00 0.80 0.4S 1.04 0.71 0.20 0.05 4.13 0.05 1.11 1.24 0.81 2.4S 2.20 1.04 3.33 1.01 4.50 O.SS 24.04 0.08 0.27 0.13 0.53 1.00 2.23 0.20 1.2S 0.20 1.50 1.0S 0.40 10.40 2.27 1.S0 2.70 1.58 3.30 2.57 1.05 0.25 1.00 3.40 S.25 2.15 31.S2 1.S4 0.77 0.S3 2.80 3.OS 12.32 2.00 4.77 2.31 1.S0 1.40 1.70 2.73 1.52 0.85 2.51 3.00 9.05 2.40 35.75 1.05 0.53 0.00 1.03 3.4S 1.71 1.11 1.30 1.S2 1.40 0.45 18.34 5.10 2.35 4.59 4.81 3.10 2.51 2.20 2.13 0.52 S.SO 12.00 9.30 03.3S 1.23 0.00 0.02 0.17 0.08 2.85 2.23 1.00 0.18 3.42 0.81 0.03 11.38 0.05 3.58 8.02 5.77 2.10 2.05 5.09 4.47 11.07 17.08 S.SO 13.09 00.SO 4.SI 1.S5 2.00 0.55 1.08 2.53 1.55 2.35 2.SO 1.97 3.30 1.18 20.72 5.S8 1.77 2.99 1.31. 0.51 2. IS 3.34 7.90 2.27 2.18 1.27 1.32 1.00 1.13 2.50 1.34 1.10 2.85 3.70 7.78 2.20 20.45 0.27 0.77 1.00 2.34 3.05 1.40 2.00 2.10 2.14 I.SO 0.40 4.00 0.80 1.42 1.10 2.10 3.42 2.44 2.35 3.17 2.05 3.05 O.SO 2S.20 8.84 5.30 0.28 3.12 5.03 4.S4 1.08 0.70 3.09 0.34 9.50 4.17 59.10 0.7R 1.40 0.15 0.15 0.77 2.02 0.85 1.49 0.73 0.00 1.2S 0.24 10.82 S.SO 7.10 7.50 3.SS 3.57 4.25 3.52 2.75 8.50 10.31 13.20 3.00 77.20 1.70 1.15 0.20 0.13 1.91 2.33 0.55 1.27 0.2S 2.27 0.84 0.90 13.05 4.70 1.94 1.05 1.37 1.58 0.07 1.35 1.50 4.00 3.79 8.09 3.27 34. SS 3.20 2.07 0.77 1.15 1.19 2.07 1.00 3.15 3.22 7.03 1.23 31.55 0.67 0.42 0.28 0.34 2.21 3.S2 0.54 1.17 0.38 1.4S 0.03 0.05 12.50 2.33 4.15 1.40 2.30 1.77 1.34 3.12 0.71 11.33 5.73 14.11 8.80 0.75 3.50 7.73 5. OS 13.74 15.91 14.00 10.OS 126.48 2.13 0.45 0.18 0.32 0.75 2.01 0.38 1.08 .52 1.17 0.75 0.50 10.24 14.00 5.31 4.20 7.44 11.SO 2.82 2.07 5.78 10.09 9.19 10.10 13.06 107.10 2.20 1.03 1.18 0.31 1.30 1.55 3.47 3.05 1.51 2.07 0.S7 0.42 20.52 7.57 2.01 1.20 0.8S 2.25 1.73 3.05 4.00 3.20 3.OS 0.00 3.75 43.27 0.35 2.37 0.00 0.12 1.94 3.00 2.14 1.04 1.15 2.20 1.09 0.00 37.52 1.83 0.30 0.37 0.00 1.09 3.00 0.37 0.81 1.21 1.14 0.85 0.80 33.06 4.00 0.20 2.17 0.71 3.32 4.15 1.20 0.71 1.10 1.50 3.OS 1.37 24.SO 4 Geo. Boyal Commission on Agriculture. 345 Table 2—Concluded. Jan. Salmon Arm (Obs. Hobson) 3.85 Salmon Arm (Obs. Sliarpe) 3.15 Saltspring Island . . . 5.70 Sbawnigan Lake .... 7.74 Sooke Harbour S.S1 Stave Biver Falls . . . 8.2S Steveston 5.37 Stewart 0.00 Summerland 1.00 Swanson Bay 22.07 Tappen 4.10 Terrace 3.00 Tranquille 0.09 Triangle Island 9.27 Vancouver 9.02 Vaimnda Vnvenby Vernon 2.45 Victoria 4.54 Waneta Wilmer 1.2S WyclifCe Agassiz 2S.S Alberni 31.0 Armstrong Aslicrott 34.8 Atlin —1.00 Ilabine Lake 2.8 Harkerville S.O Bella Ooola 21.5 Biological Station (Nanaimo) 37.7 Chilcotin (Big Creek) 8.8 Chilliwack 27.1 Clayoquot 37.1 Clo-ooso 32.7 Cowichan (Tzouhalem) 33.2 Cranbrook 13.7 Crawford Bay 21.0 Creston 10.5 Duck Lake (Yale) Elko 18.3 Enderby 15.0 Fort George 4.2 Gillies Bay, Vananda Glacier 31.7 Golden 8.1 Grand Forks 15.0 Greenwood 16.4 Harper's Ranch Hedley IS.2 Hedley (Nickel Plate) 13.8 Holberg 33.0 Hope 22.S Howard 14.1 Hydraulic 0.7 Ikeda Head 34.8 Kamloops 14.3 Kaslo 21.0 Keremeos 20.4 Ladner 34.0 Lndysmilh Masset 35.1 Monte Creek Nakusp 18.9 Nanaimo 35.0 Nunoose Bay 34.1 Noodles (Fauquier) Nelson 20.0 New Westminster . . . 30.5 Nicola Lake 12.1 North Nicomen 29.G Okanagan Mission . . . 19.1 Penticton 22.0 Pemberton Hatchery.. 19.8 Pemberton Meadows.. 14.0 Perry Siding Prince Rupert 29.2 Princeton 11.4 Quatsino 33.7 Quesnel 8.0 Revelstoke 10.0 Richlands 14.7 Rossland 10.3 Salmon Arm (Obs. Hobson) 10.0 Salmon Arm (Obs. Sharpe) 13.S Feb. March. April. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Year. 1.13 0.60 0.3S 1.39 3.10 1.92 1.45 1.31 2.00 1.88 0.81 10.88 0.80 0.51 0.52 1.20 2.72 1.S3 0.7S 1.74 1.84 1.32 0.78 17.25 1.91 2.42 1.32 2.20 1.07 1.33 3.09 2.08 3.54 8.50 2.52 34.32 1.85 2.67 1.00 1.0S 2.08 0.02 1.02 1.98 3.03 10.10 2.30 30.55 3.29 3.17 1.2S 1.40 2.15 0.S6 0.45 3.11 6.02 0.94 2.47 43.04 8.25 8.03 4.52 5.13 5.45 3.22 3.03 5.S1 0.55 11.82 3.93 7S.52 2.42 2.S5 1.S9 3.40 2.89 3.36 0.51 2.47 4.29 5.21 2.2S 34.95 3.50 6.31 2.5S 3.78 5.43 0.09 10.S7 10.78 S.S2 11.02 0.50 0.20 6.35 1.03 4.60 0.30 0.83 0.20 1.20 0.50 1.00 12.49 10.22 18.02 20.27 12.74 3.95 St ation closed 0.02 0.75 0.30 1.09 3.20 1.05 1.49 l.SG 1.72 2.66 0.S9 26.33 1.20 3.14 2.01 LSI 3.89 3.72 1.00 5.23 7.04 0.14 33.87 47.37 1.45 0.81 0.77 0.07 0.80 0.6G 0.29 3.01 4.86 7.37 5.84 3.70 1.55 2.01 7. OS 7.28 4.2S 5.37 2.53 4.33 3.SI 2.02 0.85 3. SO 6.30 io.'o's 3.9H 50.02 2.28 1.58 3.73 1.98 1.00 3.84 5.38 8.20 2.35 0.44 0.50 3.50 1.07 2.15 1.74 1.50 1.20 0.32 1.02 6.34 0.67 1.50 4.37 1.20 O.SO 1.33 1.01 0.00 0.40 10.00 1.91 2.00 0.62 O.SO 3.05 0.45 0.84 1.95 3.03 4.70 3.35 23.84 2.04 0.34 2.51 0.3 9 3.5S 0.09 1.09 1.7.1 5.12 0.43 6.35 0.S5 0.44 0.70 3.57 2.24 2.04 1.78 0.42 1.33 0.35 13.24 3.40 4.27 1.43 O.0G 0.05 3.00 0.70 Tabli : 3.—Mean Tempekatuke, 1913. 34.8 40.3 51.3 52.2 58.3 02.5 04.5 50.5 47.7 43.7 40.2 48.4 37.0 3S.3 44.4 52.0 53.7 02.2 01.5 5S.7 47.4 30.2 30.7 40.0 29.9 44.6 59.2 02.3 00.8 52.9 40.0 33.7 2S.0 10.8 33.2 50.2 50.8 64.0 72.0 Station closed 14.1 18.0 31.1 41.0 51.8 52.2 49.4 43. S 32.4 23.6 20.3 31.4 11.8 31.3 35.3 55.0 40.7 35.8 20.7 22.4 14.7 20.9 34.4 41.8 51.4 51.9 52.1 43.7 32.3 20.1 24.4 33.5 31.3 34.0 43.2 40.5 56.8 59.4 59.8 52.7 44.5 30.7 34.2 43.7 37.0 46.0 52.8 5S.8 03.S 04.2 55.2 40.7 43.5 30.9 10.0 22.4 37.3 44.8 52.5 55.2 55.1 40.4 34.7 25.7 20.0 35.0 33.5 39.2 49.0 53.7 58.8 03.4 03.9 55.8 47.8 40.4 3S.0 47.0 40.1 42.5 46.7 52.0 55.8 00.5 00.2 54.0 47.8 43.2 43.1 48.7 30.0 39.4 44.6 40.5 54.3 57.5 59.4 54.1 47.0 43.2 41.4 40.0 3G.9 30.0 47.6 53.3 5S.0 02.7 03.9 55.7 47.7 43.7 39.3 48.4 33.2 20.7 43.5 51.5 5S.7 01.2 01.0 51.0 30.5 32.5 21.4 39.0 21.0 30.2 44.0 53.1 01.4 03.0 02.3 53.0 42.7 35.2 29.0 43.1 1S.2 20.0 44.4 52.3 50.7 02.3 02.0 53.4 43.2 34.1 27.2 42.3 54.4 01.S 00.2 00.1 55.4 42.7 30.2 30.3 18.3 2S.S 45.4 52.3 02.5 04.3 05.3 5G.4 42.0 30.2 24.4 42.6 3 0.5 30.0 47.1 54.3 05.0 04.1 04.5 54.0 43.0 34.8 2S.8 43.3 32.4 22.4 3S.6 40.2 50.0 57.5 59.7 50.0 38.1 32.3 44.1 50.0 57.0 01.0 02.2 53.6 44.7 30.S 30.2 33.7 18.9 33.6 40.4 51.8 50.3 54.9 44.0 33.8 20.2 10.7 33.2 32.1 23.0 41.3 40.0 58.7 00.3 00.3 7S.3 37.4 20.0 30.7 37.4 10.5 32.4 47.0 54.2 62.3 05.5 66.8 55.9 3G.S 33.0 28.3 42.9 15.4 30.4 44.6 51.0 50.9 01.8 62.8 52.0 30.7 33.7 27.5 41.3 10.1 30.5 40.0 54.4 61.3 03.4 54.6 21.3 33.0 47.6 53.8 61.3 06.8 66. S 50.0 43.7 30.6 30.0 44.6 15.4 21.0 31.9 30.0 47.5 51.3 52.5 45.1 32.5 25.9 23.4 33.4 38.5 3S.7 43.2 48.8 54.7 5S.6 60.1 47.0 42.4 42.1 20.9 34.S 46.8 54.3 50.1 03.4 64.5 50.4 40.3 3S.2 35.2 40.0 1S.0 28.0 42.4 52.1 02.2 04.4 64.2 S3.3 43.3 30.7 2s!l 42.3 30.0 24.6 41.4 50.0 58.3 5S.0 60.3 51.2 43.0 33.4 31.4 30.7 30.0 43.3 43.5 75.3 47.2 49.3 43.5 42.0 10.0 32.2 49.4 57.0 03.7 07.4 08.3 ns.n 44.7 37.2 32.4 45.2 20.0 20.2 42.0 50.2 57.7 00.2 00.3 51.0 43.1 35.1 26.9 43.4 23.3 34.8 50.2 50.5 03.2 07.7 07.8 58.9 44.5 38.1 • 32.0 40.5 35.S 40.5 40.3 02.7 02.0 55.6 40.0 43.5 30.0 57.0 01.0 02.0 57.5 40.5 40.2 3S.5 39.5 38.9 40.8 40.0 52.5 55.9 55.4 50.6 45.5 38.5 30.9 44.0 20. S 48.7 54.5 02.4 00.8 04.7 56.0 44.4 30.0 34.5 39.2 29.2 42.7 51.5 58.0 02.1 01.4 51.2 40.7 33.0 27.9 43.4 37.4 39.1 04.2 03.0 50.1 47.9 42.0 40.8 30.1 37.2 44.8 50.8 57.6 01.7 01.0 57.2 46.3 40.9 30.8 47.0 25.5 34.5 46.2 53.5 50.3 63.6 04.1 52.2 44.8 30.5 34.1 23.2 32.0 40.1 54.2 00.8 04.0 04.3 54.0 42.3 34.0 29.7 44.6 34.7 30.2 48.0 53.3 50.4 00.9 63.9 57.1 47.7 43.4 39.0 4S.4 20.7 30.7 43.4 51.1 01.0 01.3 53.5 44.0 35.0 20.5 34.6 30.4 49.3 54.0 50.8 04.8 G5.5 58.0 48.7 43.9 30.3 48. s' 3S.6 32.8 40.2 55.1 01.7 64.9 04.4 53.0 43.1 30.8 30.8 44.0 23.9 34.S 48.0 54.0 01.8 65.5 00.0 50. S 45.0 3S.0 33.3 45.0 27.0 34.0 44.7 51.7 58.2 62. S 02.5 40.0 34.0 32.2 44.2 23.0 32.0 44.5 52.9 58.5 61.9 00.4 51.3 42.6 33.3 20.8 42.2 53. S 61.0 64.2 04.7 53.7 41.8 34.3 28.8 37.5 37.4 42.9 48.0 50.0 56.2 58.0 53.3 45.1 42.0 41.3 45.V 16.1 30.4 43.4 51.0 57.9 01.6 62.6 51.0 30.7 31.7 24.1 40.2 38.7 40.8 43.9 49.5 54.7 5S.1 58.3 52.0 45.1 41.8 42.3 40.7 15.6 24.4 42.0 51.1 59.7 50.8 61.5 40.0 30.0 27.3 28.9 38.0 10.0 20.3 44.2 50.0 01.6 03.4 03.5 53.4 42.3 33.2 25.1 42.0 20.4 27.2 47.2 48.0 55.0 59.8 59.5 50.0 30.0 33.5 25.2 40.1 30.0 29.7 41.S 50.3 57.4 01.2 02.0 53.5 30.1 32.5 26.0 4.1.1 10.8 30.4 45.8 54.2 60.0 03.0 04.8 54.3 42.J 35.2 20.7 42.8 15.5 29.0 45.8 53.5 50.9 04.0 64.0 54.5 42.3 35.7 30.4 42.4 34G British Columbia. .1.914 Jan. Feb. Saltspring Island . . . 32.S 30.4 Shawnigan Lake Soolce 34.1 37.5 Stave River Falls . . 2S.S 30.8 Steveston (Garry Point) 32.0 30.4 Stewart 10.0 26.0 Stuart Lake (Fort St. James) 3.1 11.5 Summerland 38.5 23.0 Swanson Bay 2S.0 34.1 Tappen 10.S 22.2 Terrace 17.3 29.1 Tranqulile 15.3 10.2 Triangle Island 35.4 3S.9 Vancouver 32.5 35.S Vavenby Vernon 15.3 15.4 Victoria 30.0 38.4 Waneta Wilmer 9.2 14.9 Table 4.—Temperature Data (referring to Growing Season). Table 3- -Concl uded. March. Aprll. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Yeai 38.5 40.1 52.1 57.0 01.4 00.4 54.9 46.9 41.2 39.3 47.7 45.2 41.2 52.0 02.2 05.0 55.2 46.4 40.1 37.7 39.3 45.0 50.0 55.4 58.8 01.0 54.9 48.0 42.5 40.7 47.4 37.4 47.0 53.7 01.0 04.0 05.S 50.1 47.7 40.0 38.2 47.7 39.0 40.0 52.1 57.7 60. S 01.2 52.9 45.7 40.0 38.4 40.5 28.0 45.8 55.7 50.9 55.2 4S.9 39.2 32.7 27.4 20. S 37.2 42.2 53.2 54.2 55.3 40.0 37.1 2S.3 24.2 34.5 32.2 70.0 54.S 02.5 00.8 00.3 55.9 43.2 30.2 20.0 43.9 34.9 40.2 47.3 50.1 34.5 49. S 57.0 03.9 05.S 07.3 55.5 43.4 30.0 31.0 45.0 32.5 42.0 70. S 50.7 60.8 03.5 54.6 43.9 30.5 31.5 43.2 33.0 07.0 00.5 57.4 45.1 37.8 32.0 3S.4 41.3 45.5 50.2 53.8 55.3 47.4 39.7 48.3 53.S 50.2 02.9 02.8 55.5 47.6 42.4 40.1 48.4 44.3 52.4 59.5 00.7 03.1 52.8 41.3 33.7 27.7 2S.7 46.4 53.5 00.5 04.5 05.4 55.2 42.8 35.4 28.7 42.7 40.4 48.4 53.7 59.1 01.8 02.0 50.6 4S.8 44.1 42.8 40.5 29.5 45.2 51.3 00.4 02.4 01. S 53.5 40.3 33.4 20.0 23.5 41.S 40.1 59.4 01.3 01.2 50.6 38.3 20.8 19.9 38.3 Station. Agassiz Chilliwack Vancouver Alberni Cowichan Victoria Nanaimo Saltspring Island Kamloops Nicola Lake Kelowna Penticton Summerland .... Vernon Midway Cranbrook Nelson Revelstoke Golden Rossland Salmon Arm Clayoquot Ladner Nicomen Elko Glacier Hedley Enderby Wilmer Length of Record. Years. 12 9 10 12 9 12 11 2 12 12 12 5 5 11 2 6 9 9 11 Yearly Mean. 4S.0 49.2 48.0 49.0 4S.0 40.8 4S.7 48.5 47.3 42.1 45.5 40.4 45.0 44. S 44.2 41.4 45.8 42.5 42.0 42.1 44.8 48.4 48.3 40.1 43.8 35.0 45.0 43.0 42.5 Length of Growing Season. Total Heat Units. (March (March (March (March (March (March (March (March (March (April (April (April (April (April (April (April (April (April (April (April (April (March (March (March (April (May (April (April (April Days. 239 10 to Nov. 237 17 to Nov. 232 25 to Nov. 231 22 to Nov. 242 21 to Nov. 271 8 to Dec. 231 25 to Nov. 235 20 to Nov. 214 28 to Oct. 190 13 to Oct. 201 5 to Oct. 209 3 to Oct. 203 2 to Oct. 199 0 to Oct. 198 15 to Oct. 1S2 10 to Oct. 202 3 to Oct. 1S2 10 to Oct. 171 19 to Oct. 181 15 to Oct. 200 0 to Oct. 257 18 to Nov. 242 19 to Nov. 237 17 to Nov. 101 S to Oct. 120 14 to Sept. 104 7 to Oct. 19G 4 to Oct. 101 0 to Oct. 10) 0) 12) S) IS) 4) 11) 10) 2S) 20) 23) 29) 22) 22) 30) 15) 22) 15) 7) 13) 23) 30) 10) 9) 36) 20 IS) 17) 17) 13,030 13,213 12,667 12,902 13,006 14,400 12,008 12.0S1 12.6S3 10,331 11,507 11,934 11,774 11,423 11,232 9,988 11,427 10,176 9,242 0,898 11,488 13,306 12,960 13,128 10,705 0,795 11,134 11,093 10,750 Mean Average Temperature of Six- Hottest Weeks. 62.6 63.8 62.5 04.2 02.1 GO. 8 03.0 01.8 00.3 01.1 00.0 65.4 67.3 66.5 04.0 02.2 G5.0 63.3 00.1 02.2 05.5 58.3 01.9 04.1 03.9 50.8 66.6 64.4 63.S 4 Geo. 5 Boyal Commission on Agriculture. 347 Table 5.—Average Precipitation. Length of Record. First Quarter. Second Quarter. Third Quarter. Fourth Quarter. Agassiz Chilliwack Vancouver Alberni Cowichan Victoria Nanaimo Saltspring Island Kamloops Nicola Lake Kelowna Penticton Summerland .... Vernon Midway Cranbrook Nelsen Revelstoke Golden Rossland Salmon Arm Clayoquot Ladner Nicomen HIko Glacier Hedley Enderby 12 (1001-12) 9 (1901-07, 1911-12) 10 (1901-03, 1900-12) 12 (1001-12) 7 (1905, 3907-32) 32 (1001-12) 11 (1902-12) 5 (1S00-9S, 1910-12) 12 (1001-12) 12 (1901-12) 10 (1903-12) 5 (100S-12) 5 (190S-12) 10 (1003-12) o (1903-02) 0 (3001-04, 1010-12) 0 (1004-12) 0 (1004-12) 7 (1902-03, 1908-12) 8 (1905-12) 0 (1907-12) 3 (1910-12) 3 (1910-12) 3 (1910-12) 3 (1010-12) 3 (1910-12) 3 (1930-12) 2 (1010-11) 15.24 17.SI 10.05 20.43 13.59 8.52 14.24 12.24 1.S7 2.30 2.95 2.4S 2.08 3.37 2.27 4.3S 7.75 13.11 4.26 8.26 5.18 34.60 9.24 19.01 4.20 21.34 3.43 4.G8 12.78 10.10 9.08 S.94 4.25 2.99 4.90 4.10 2.22 2.05 2.91 2.90 3.00 3.59 4.12 4.39 5.S2 7.07 3.14 7.00 3.48 10.77 6.12 10.73 5.09 7.95 3.74 3.76 9.49 S.91 7.00 5.10 3.3G 2.85 3.97 3.18 3.30 3.34 3.10 3.48 3.29 4.11 1.92 3.2G 5.27 7.16 4.26 5.28 4.83 10.02 5.49 10.10 5.72 10.95 3.20 4.47 20.52 21.74 25.00 20.70 17.74 12.52 17.27 18.S9 2.14 2.77 3.48 2.33 2.44 3.56 1.56 3.83 8.06 14.20 5.48 9.29 6.35 49.00 10.29 28.40 5.36 23.74 2.53 9.42 5S.03 5S.50 00.13 64.23 3S.94 2G.S8 40.3S 3S.41 9.S3 11.00 12.44 11.10 10.81 14.03 0.87 15.80 20.90 41.54 17.14 29.89 19.04 111.OS 37.14 68.99 21.33 63.98 12.90 22.33 348 British Columbia. 1914 APPENDIX B. TABLES BELATING TO BBITISH COLUMBIA LANDS. Table 1.—Farm Holdings in 1911 and 1901. Schedule. Comox Atlin. Kootenay. Nanaimo. New Westminster. Vancouver City. Occupiers being— 1,455 133 107 2,252 16S 25 2,497 456 26 3,5S1 652 147 168 Tenants 39 Owners and tenants Occupiers of— Tinder 1 acre 56 187 89 194 210 731 228 203 308 487 COO 209 362 267 569 556 471 554 284 352 193 200 574 904 1,216 597 702 187 39 5 to 10 acres 82 45 11 to 50 acres 51 to 100 acres 101 to 200 acres 28 6 4 3 Total occupiers 1,695 2,445 2,979 4,380 207 Schedule. Victoria City. Yale and Cariboo. Totals. 1011. 1901. Occupiers being— Owners Tenants Owners and tenants . Occupiers of— Under 1 acre I to under 5 acres .. . 5 to 10 acres II to 50 acres 51 to 100 acres 101 to 200 acres 201 acres and over .. Total occupiers 260 25 206 157 17 11 2 1 5,524 15,846 604 2,077 239 544 237 1,510 1,022 2,S86 74S 2,761 1,231 3,843 445 1,753 1,592 3,744 1,092 1,970 5,412 1,031 296 238 563 545 740 813 2,186 1,654 394 6,367 18,467 6,739 4 Geo. 5 Boyal Commission on Agriculture. 349 Table 2.—Farm Lands classified according to Tenure and Conditions. Schedule. Comox Atlin. Kootenay. Nanaimo. New Westminster. Vancouver City. Population Number of all farms.. Total land area Land occupied Land owned Land leased or rented Land improved .... Land unimproved ... Land in natural forest Land in marsh, etc.. . Land in field crops.. Laud in orchard and nursery Land in vegetables .. Laud in vineyards . . Land in small fruits. . 42,263 1,695 Acres. 91,680,880 240,273 219.C1S 20,615 20,510 213,763 178,410 0,772 10,914 720 566 31 44 50,772 2,445 Acres. 17,290,420 239,010 211,650 27,360 31,813 207,197 103,546 12,416 13,357 6,039 1,501 11 268 31,822 2,979 Acres. 173,SSS 179.S53 151,9S7 27.S6C 41,904 137,949 109,575 5,480 1,736 2,881 1,010 20S 206 55,079 4,380 Acres. 3,100,4S0 275,996 211,250 64,746 113,103 162,893 110,839 6,721 C,S24 4.400 1,003 2S 552 123,902 207 Acres. 417,2S0 3,260 2,682 578 1,487 1,773 211 1 47 132 2S0 15 Schedule. Victoria City. Yale and Cariboo. Totals. mil. 1001. Population Number of all farms Total land area Land occupied Land owned Laud leased or rented Land improved Land unimproved Land in natural forest Land in marsh, etc Land in field crops Land in orchard and nursery Land in vegetables Land in vineyards Land in small fruits 31,660 394 Ac-res. 1,S94 949 SS4 65 77S 171 133 233 10 56.3S2 6,367 Acres. 111,956,530 1,600,652 1,273,399 327,253 261,981 1,33S,671 1,00S,400 50,285 129.S94 19,301 3,754 31 185 392.4S0 18,467 Acres. 22G,1S0,370 2,539,993 2,071,510 468,483 477,576 2,062,417 1,516,987 81,681 239,820 33,600 9,213 309 1,280 17S,657 6,739 Acres. 236,922,177 1,497,382 1,2S8,210 209,172 473,646 1,023,730 391,096 171,424 7,502 2,840 IS 350 British Columbia. 1914 Table 3.—Number of Pre-emption Records issued during the Year 19]3. Pre-emption Records. Certificate of Improvements. Certificates of Purchase. Alberni Ashcroft Atlin Barkerville Clinton Cranbrook Fairview Fernie Fort Fraser Golden Hazelton Kamloops Kaslo Nanaimo Nelson New Westminster .. Nicola Prince Rupert Revelstoke South Fort George Telegraph Creek ... Vancouver Vernon Victoria Totals 315 12 4 279 367 19 144 490 02 167 206 20 13 25 13 160 442 4 581 1 391 109 31 05 5 51 55 14 70 3 55 13 110 44 2 6 7 2 39 100 121 71 107 16 3,S55 962 523 12 2 166 127 55 70 3 SO 24 434 48 41 5 36 5 51 552 6 326 3 426 84 558 3,646 Table 4.—Crown Grants issued for the Year 1913. Town lots 127 Pre-emptions 731 Purchase 950 Minerals 23S Reverted land 3S Reverted minerals 16 " Schools Act " 3 Miscellaneous 7 Total 2,110 Table 5.—Total Acreage of Crown Grants issued in the Year 1.913. Acres. Pre-emptions I12,S70.71 Mineral claims 9.247.46 Purchase, surveyed land 92,0S5.92 Purchase, unsurveyed land 175,832.14 Applications for Crown grants 2,007 Crown grants actually written up 2,15S 4 Geo. 5 Boyal Commission on Agriculture. 851 Table 0.—Land Sales during the Year 1913. Acres. Surveyed lauds sold 11,572.00 Unsurveyed lands sold 409,689.50 Total lands sold in 1913 421,202.10 Table 7.—Total Surveyed Area in the Province. In Area under Provincial Jurisdiction. In Railway Belts, Dominion Government and E. & N. Total. Timber surveyed Acres. 16,035,000 4,1S2,000 Acres. 2,907,659 1,581,863 Acres. 19,602,659 5,763,863 546,000 387,107 Total 26,299,6S9 Table S.—Unsurveyed Area to which moke or less Defined Eights have been obtained hy the Public. 1912. 1913. Estimated Area. 1912. 1913 Applications to purchase Pre-emption records Coal licences Applications to lease .. Timber licences Totals 2,128 2,800 2,202 70 8,000 1,097 1,745 1,510 95 6,000 Acres. 1,300,000 310,000 1,400,000 5,450,000 15,S00 10,445 8,400,000 Acres. G5S,000 179,000 900,000 3,S40,000 5,577,000 Table 9.—Areas of Land surveyed and dealt with under the Various Statutes governing the Alienation op Crown Lands, Mining Rights, etc. Preemption. Purchases. Mineral Claims. Timber Limits. Coal Licences Leases. B.C. Govt. Surveys. Totals. Acres. Acres. Acres. Acres. Acres. Acres. Acres. Acres. 1907 ... 50,460 162,218 10,017 83,016 20,307 4,387 113,968 444,433 1908 ... 66,788 147,9S0 14,607 167,925 9,821 2,5S0 97,072 506,773 1909 ... 71,316 145,325 10,744 426,121 8,310 15,239 512,373 1,189,428 1910 ... 79,273 455,356 12,499 509,201 43,303 5,864 302,536 1,407,912 1911 ... 89,485 1,352,809 21,325 686,909 120,938 6,500 948,644 3,226,610 1912 ... 99,461 1,011,934 16,645 804,730 99,236 8,500 820,302 2,866,997 1913 ... 55,202 508,062 18,043 1,181,355 72,719 4,740 1,014,300 2,854,487 852 British Columbia. 1914 Table 10.—Showing the Acreage of Real Property in the Province (outside of Municipalities and exclusive of Timber Land, Railroad Subsidy Land, and Townsites). District. Total Acreage. Persons or Corporations Assessed. (a.) Persons (6.) Corporations. («•) (&.) Percentage. (Estimated by Deputy Tax Assessors.) Cultivated. That might be cultivated. (a.) (6.) («.) (6.) Alberni Atlin Ashcroft Barkerville .. Comox Cowichan .... Fort Steele .. Galiano Island Golden Kamloops ... Kettle River.. Lillooet The Islands— Mayne and Pender Isis. Nanaimo .... Nelson Nicola New Westm'r Omineca Pender Is. (see Mayne Is.) Prince Rupert Princeton .... Quesnel Forks Revelstoke ... Rossland .... Saltspring Is.. Slocan Telegraph Ck. Vancouver ... Vernon Victoria Totals... 202,240 2,323 50,000 24G,S19 103,207 30,515 172,050 5,910 138,179 440,862 169,819 287,000 1S,373 114,00S 62,484 305,379§ 59,357 S0,000 116,188 137,104 103,499 79,145 124,433 31,045 S0,143 2,010 47,517U 409,552 10S,2S2 1,097 16 801 625t 1,872 984 563 54 558 1,935 688 606 150 2,472 4,S57 279 686 816 340 322 2,381 1,224 231 1,428 22 **368 3,100 1,293 24 4 12 6 48 18 11 12 None 28 536 4 12 37 9 0 38 13 2 43 11 4 181,711 1,893 35,000 9S,21G 163,207 30,515 127,752t 5,910 61,949 405,384 136,670 227,737 1S,373 9S,490 55,998 165,930 62,000 100,707 132,466 90,199 105,180 31,045 75,519 S40 42,003 35S,289 90,609 20,535 430 15,000 4,931 44,298 76,230 35,478 33,149 59,263 15,51S 6,4S6 123,7S9 1S,000 15,481 4,638 7,300 19,247 4,624 1,170 5,514 51,203 17,013 Per Cent. 2 2 10 20 7y2 10 10 35 25 40 15 S 3 3 3% 10 20 15 15 40 Per Cent. 3 5 50 5 15 50 10 15 Nil 3 25 8 Nil 20 3,788,049 32,001 886 2,910,258 579.957 Per Cent. 60 50 * 75 4S 20 70 75 50 50 50 12 75 GO 50 30 40 Per Cent. 75 75 o 05 G5 75 60 50 9 60 60 50 40 * All cultivated for which owners have water. t 945 pre-emptions with 143.672 acres, Included in total acreage, not assessable till 1914 and 1915. j Including railroad and subsidy lands. § Pre-emptions, not yet assessable, amounting to 15,000 acres, included in total. 'i Exclusive of 0,614 small lots of which acreage is unknown. 00 088 owners of small lots. 4 Geo. 5 Boyal Commission on Agriculture. 353 Table 11.—Showing the Acreage in the Province taxed as Wild Land. Person's ou Corporations Assessed. («.) Persons (6.) Corporations. Acreage. («.) (».) Percentage* that might he cultivated. <«.) (6.) Alberni Atlin Ashcroft Barkerville Comox Cowichan Fort Steele Galiauo Island Golden Kamloops Kettle River Lillooet Islands— Mayne and Pender Islands Nanaimo Nelson . Nicola New Westminster Omineca Pender Island (see Mayne Island). Prince Rupert Princeton Quesnel Forks Revelstoke Rossland Saltspring Island Slocan Telegraph Creek A'ancouver Vernon Victoria Totals 671 11 5 3,498 476 63 219 9 271 177 7 573 2 456 475 4 10 1,350 1,916 42 340 2,452 125 17 167 3 248 13,593 20 1 1 23 42 1 10 5 1 3 14 102 2 11 47 4 2 13 1 17 None 2 109,414 1,413 975 1,G30,79G 170,128 18,425 109,058 1,309 126,595 49,904 3,077 311,592 171 48,695 407,266 1,0S4 796 437,7S5 751,713 16,224 177,626 42,042 40,302 2,571 25,385 984 140,100 322 4,031,496 10,S77 253 1,330 20,202 002,653 7,3S1 59,353 0,1S1 480 522 18,7S4 30,4S5 1,308 75,000 50,125 772 420 10,305 592 3,100 G23 900,866 50 to 75 75 42 50 75 06 None 50 33 80 G5 50 25 20 50 to 75 SO GO 75 75 50 60 SO 50 50 Estimated by Deputy Tax Assessors. 354 British Columbia. 1914 APPENDIX C. TABLES RELATING TO AGRICULTEAL PRODUCTION AND IMPORTATION OF AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS. Table 1.—Rive Stock in Beitisii Columbia, 1913. Horses. District. Brood Marcs. Value, each. Total Value. 1&2 Years old. Value, each. Total Value. Other Horses. Value, each. Total Value. Islands Lower Mainland.. Thompson Kivcr Watershed Okanagan and Boundarv East and West 426 1,570 2,504 1,080 271 $233 02 244 SO 157 76 157 76 157 76 $ 99,650 384,336 395,031 2G5.037 42,753 126 1,868 1,952 614 225 $125 00 136 00 108 80 108 80 108 80 $ 15,750 254,048 212,378 66,803 24,480 2,523 5,578 4,778 7,219 7,844 1,581 $217 00 233 00 140 S8 146 88 14G 88 140 88 $ 549,005 1,299,074 701,793 1,000,327 1,152,127 232,217 Totals G,451 $183 97 $1,186,807 4,785 $119 84 $573,459 29,523 $169 42 $4,995,143 Dairy Cattle. District. Milch. Value, each. Total Value. Heifer Calves. Value, each. Total Value. Other Heifers. Value, each. Total Value. Lower Mainland . . . Thompson River Watershed 7,703 12,2G7 1,959 894 2,917 1,578 .$120 20 132 00 90 15 120 20 96 15 90 15 $ 979,690 1,619,244 188,358 107,459 280,470 151,725 2,198 4,642 1,691 198 $24 00 24 00 24 00 24 00 $ 52,752 111,408 40,584 4,752 4,055 4,507 2,540 95 $60 00 00 00 00 00 60 00 $243,300 274,020 Okanagan and Boundarv East and West 152,400 5,700 Totals 27,378 $121 90 $3,320,946 8,729 $24 00 $209,490 11,257 $60 00 $675,420 Beef Cattle. District. Calves. Value, each. Total Value. Other Cattle. Value, each. Total Value. 8,274 8,082 840 126 $24 00 24 00 24 00 24 00 $198,570 208,368 20,160 3,024 33,753 29 3'\3 2L168 3,326 $78 15 78 15 78 15 78 15 $2,637,797 2,291,592 1,654,279 259,927 17,922 $24 00 $430,128 87,570 $78 15 $6,843,595 4 Geo. 5 Royal Commission on Agriculture. 355 Table 1—Concluded. Swine. District. Brood Sows. Value, each. Total Value. Other I'igs. Value, each. Total Value. 494 1,032 1,047 1,270 3S0 $28 13 28 13 28 13 2.8'.13 28 13 $13,890 45,908 29,452 35.978 10.858 4,321 10.088 5,588 1.459 3.317 2,900 $11 25 11 25 11 25 11 25 11 25 11 25 $ 48,510 113,490 02.S65 10.414 37,310 33,300 Totals 4,838 $28 13 $130,092 27,724 $11 25 $311,895 Sheep. District. Islands Lower Mainland Thompson River Watershed Northern Okanagan and Boundary . . East and West Kootenay . . Totals All Kinds and Ages. 4,100 10,300 3,242 2.1S2 4,009 074 25,179 Value, each. $9 30 9 30 7 75 $8 04 Total Value. $38,186 95,84(1 25.125 16,9.11 36,185 5,224 $217,477 Poultry. District. All Kinds. Value, each. Total Value. 250,000 353,201 50,000 10,000 110.000 30.000 $337,500 470,902 07.500 40.500 803,201 $1,084,402 Table 2.—Recapitulation, Grains, Hay, and Vegetahles (Entire Province, 1913). Wheat. District. Acres in Crop. Yield per Total Yield. Price per Bushel. Total Value. Islands Lower Mainland Thompson River Watershed . Northern Okanagan and Boundary ... East and West Kootenay . . . Totals and averages 717 1.230 4,000 741 3,083 214 33.8 40.0 34.5 29.3 28.3 40.7 24,228 50,359 158,761 21.737 88,097 8,713 $1 00 89 79 2 70 91 94 10,594 33.3 352,495 $0 97 S 24,228 45,021 125,422 58.S03 80,972 8,190 $342,096 Oats. 2.346 18.319 5.SS7 7,973 4.290 330 48.5 70.1 50.1 47.0 49.4 52.2 113,800 1.284.770 330,043 375,014 21.1,850 17,544 $0 42 38 43 1 50 45 45 $ 48.255 489,842 141,91 S 500 070 90 280 7.S95 39,151 59.0 2,333,033 $0 58 $1,344,S66 35G British Columbia. 1914 Table 2—Continued. Barley. District. Acres in Crop. Yield per Acre. Total Yield. Price per Bushel. Total Value. Islands Lower Mainland Thompson River Watershed . Northern Okanagan and Boundary . . . Totals and averages 157 1,000 952 297 483 33.7 49.8 35.6 40.2 35.5 2,895 40.9 5,285 50,130 33,943 11.945 17,105 $0 07 00 75 2 13 55 118,474 $0 70 $ 3,541 30,081 25,457 25,444 9,495 $94,01S Rye. Islands Lower Mainland Thompson River Watershed . Northern Okanagan and Boundary . . . Kast and West Kootenay . . . Totals and averages OS 340 29 520 32.0 23.5 2 7.5 37.7 33.7 27.0 14,028 212 $0 60 8,120 81 1,430 2 35 3,280 85 977 60 $0 90 $ 127 6,585 3,355 2,792 5S6 $13,445 Peas. 33 480 33 33.3 33.0 32.2 1,009 10,028 1,003 $.1 25 1 21 1 30 $ 1.374 19,393 1,382 552 33.0 ■ 18,190 $1 22 $22,149 Beans. ' ' 25 5G3 20.6 15.2 ' ' 500 8,581 $2'40 2 40 $'i,200 20.594 588 15.4 0,081 $2 40 $21,794 Mixed Grains. 185 50.0 9 252 $0 02 $5,730 185 50.0 9,252 $0 G2 $5,730 Grain-hay. District. Acres in Crop. Yield per Acre. Total Yield. Price per Ton. Total Value. Islands Lower Mainland Thompson River Watershed . Northern Okanagan and Boundary . . . East and West Kootenay . . . Totals and averages 1.277 2,305 2.120 359 5.891 1.501 2.2 2.4 1.5 1.7 1.0 2.15 2,871 5,578 3,262 603 9.187 3 922 $14 00 12 30 17 50 84 08 12 79 19 07 13,453 1.8 24,723 $10 00 .$ 40,194 08,555 57,083 51.003 117,530 01,450 $395, S84 4 Geo. 5 Royal Commission on Agriculture. 357 Table 2—Concluded. Bay (Cultivated). District. Acres in Crop. Yield per Acre. Total Yield. Price per Ton. Total Value. Islands Lower Mainland Thompson River Watershed . Northern Okanagan and Boundary East and West Kootenay ... Totals and averages 8,823 42,520 32,539 16,030 25,129 5,740 2.3 2.0 2.2 1.9 1.9 1.9 20,207 109,080 70,007 31,133 47,078 10,797 $14 00 12 30 17 50 54 14 10 30 19 31 130.703 290,108 $19 11 $ 282,898 1,349,130 1,235,022 1,085,576 779,872 210,539 $5,543,043 Table 3.—Showing Fruit Production, 1913. Description. Apples Pears Prunes Plums Peaches Apricots Cherries Strawberries Raspberries Blackberries Other small fruit Totals . . Islands. Packages. 18,130 054 1,053 810 1,440 24,091 2,090 240 50,317 Cars. 33.0 1.7 1.0 0.8 1.4 25.0 2.7 0.2 Loweu Mainland. Thompson ltivint Watershed. Packages. 8,850 17.0 1,582 2.9 13,295 13.3 3,030 3.0 210 0.2 2,912 2.9 11,730 11.7 30,144 30.1 13,051 13.0 2,350 2.4 87,100 Cars. 90.! Packages. 30,038 290 922 1,349 110 1,015 585 40,309 Cars. 05.5 0.5 1.0 1.3 0.1 1.0 0.0 70.0 Description. Okanagan and Boundary. Packages. Cars Kootenays. Packages. Cars. Totals. Packages. Cars. Apples Pears Prunes Plums Peaches Apricots Cherries Strawberries .... Raspberries Blackberries Other small fruits Totals . . 368,792 9,347 68,818 47,105 118,770 14,851 10,520 5,237 4,010 070.5 17.0 68.1 47.1 IIS.8 14.9 10.5 5 2 4!o 33,593 1,381 427 2.083 1,290 531 1,449 23,378 0,195 2.'l'.34 01.1 •'> r. 0.4 2.7 1.3 0.5 1.5 23.4 0.2 '2.1 465,412 13,554 84,515 54.977 120,270 15,382 10.431 00.351 43.024 13,291 4.490 S47..1 24.0 83.8 54.9 120.3 15.4 10.4 00.3 4.3.0 13.2 4.5 047,450 950.1 73,001 10.1.7 898,297 1.290.1 Note.—Apples and pears : 550 boxes per car ; balance, 1,000 crates per car. 358 British Columbia. 1914 Table 4.—Showing Total Trees, Production, and Values (British Colujuua, 1013). Prices used are average of market and cannery figures. Apples. District. Total Trees. Trees five Years and under. Percentage five Years and under. Total Yield. Boxes. Price per Box. Total Value. 158,378 79,882 250,510 1,370,513 430,063 27,399 50.045 22S.S75 950,339 343,948 17.3 03.4 89.2 09.8 80.0 18,139 8,850 30,038 368,792 33,593 $1 45 1 45 1 25 1 24 1 20 $ 20.302 32 S32 45.075 4 57.302 40,311 Totals 2,294,952 1,607,200 70.0 405,412 $1 25 $581,822 Pears. 1G.470 20,140 2,498 131.325 17,069 1,548 10,103 2.108 S8.3.S2 12,732 9.4 80.4 80.8 67.3 72.1 954 1,582 290 9,347 1,381 $1 25 1 35 1 60 1 55 1 40 $ 1,192 2,130 404 14,488 2,008 188,108 121,023 04.3 13,554 $1 50 $20,338 Prunes. 7,477 8,107 1,874 30.381 9,627 1,970 2,175 591 29.030 7.605 20.3 26.8 31.5 81.4 78.9 1,053 13,295 922 68,818 427 $0 70 70 05 01 75 $ 737 9,300 599 41,979 320 Totals 03,406 41,971 66.1 84,515 $0 63 $52,941 Plums. 7,479 591 7.9 8.10 $0 70 $ 507 18,782 7,150 38.1 3,030 70 2,12.1 Thompson River Watershed SOO 470 58.7 1.349 7;> 1.012 83.223 41.029 49.3 47,105 70 32,973 East and West Kootenay 3.S48 2,450 63.7 2,083 67 1,798 114,132 51,096 45.3 54,977 $0 70 $38,471 Peaches. 435 2,479 28 293.873 2,641 890 22 135,181 2,316 35.9 78.0 46.0 87.7 ' 210 118,770 1.290 $i'25 "58 46 $ ' 2G2 Okanagan and Boundary 68,8.87 593 Totals 209,456 138,409 4G.2 120,270 $0 58 $69,742 Apricots. Okanagan and Boundary East and West Kootenay 27 28,370 17 02.9 22,708 80.0 14,851 531 $6'54 51 $S,020 271 Totals 28,397 22,725 80.0 15,382 $0 54 $8,291 Thompson River Watershed includes Salmon Arm. Note.—Variation in prices in different districts is due to percentage of produce supplied to canneries. 4 Geo. 5 Royal Commission on Agriculture. 359 Table 5.—Home Production, Agricultural Products ; A'alues, 1913. Description. Value. Horses $ 6,755,400 Beef cattle 7,273,723 Dairy : 4,211,862 Sheep 217,477 Swine 447,087 Poultry ' 1,0S4,402 Total live stock $19,990,S60 Butter $ 542,260 Cheese Milk 2,051,144 Total dairy products $' 2,593,404 Beef, veal, etc $ S67.157 Pork and pork products 63,980 Mutton 152,435 Total meats $ 1,083,572 Apples $ 581,822 Other tree-fruits 221,597 Small fruits 21S,797 Vegetables 3,006,339 Total fruit and vegetables $ 4,118,555 Eggs $ 1,757,133 Honey 8,175 Total eggs and honey $ 1,765,608 Hay $ 5,099,7G4 Grains 1,844,704 Flax 48 Hops 311,427 Nursery stock 318,825 Canned meats Canned fruit and vegetables 0S,052 Total hay, grain, and miscellaneous $ 8,572,820 Grand total $38,124,819 24 360 British Columbia. 1914 Table 6.—Imported Agricultural Products, 1913. Imported from Canadian Provinces. Imported from Points outside Canada. Quantity. Value. Quantity. Value. Cattle (beef) , 60,000 2,000 105,500 43,000 l,2G0,50O $4,680,000 150.000 092,000 856,000 283,480 1,545 "'531 69,459 5,490 $160,800 (dairy) 20,600 253,480 409 Poultry lb. 191,238 Total live stock $6,001,480 $626,653 Butter lb. Milk gals. 7,502,000 1,985,000 1,704,500 $2,041,740 317,750 G81,S00 6,011,600 566,400 976,505 $1,680,082 127,500 220,309 $3,041,290 $2,043,801 Pork and pork products ... ,, 13,325,000 7,537,500 (See $1,406,500 1,084,235 Sheep.) 5,836,747 4,040,352 4,844,881 $454,001 075,098 497,570 $2,490,735 $1,627,275 18,780,480 6,147,723 2,876,038 (No $300,044 227,278 Berries and other small fruits... 197,043 returns.) Total fruits and vegetables $725,505 1,785,200 4,500 $440,300 575 4,876,513 144,871 $1,170,579 20,339 Total eggs and honey.... $440,875 $1,190,918 Malt lb. Grains (wheat, oats, barley, rye, (No (No (No (No (No (None 209,000 5,553,000 returns.) returns.) returns.) returns.) returns.) imported.) $ 19,500 277,100 1,778,747 20,250 203,870 (No 07,227 410,433 3,901,078 . $ 42,056 285,980 229,944 Flax „ 19,435 50,246 77,396 Canned fruits and vegetables „ 214,448 Total hay, grain, etc $290,600 $919,505 $12,930,980 $7,133,777 Table 7.—Showing Quantities of Fruits and Vegetables received at several Canning and Jam Factories, 1013. Islands. Description. Quantity. Price per Lb. Total Value. Fruits. Lb. 87,500 2,000 12,000 5,000 Cents. 9-10 i 1 $787 50 100 00 120 00 50 00 100.500 $1,057 50 4 Geo. 5 Boyal Commission on Agriculture. 3G1 Table 7—Concluded. Lower Mainland. Description. Quantity. Price per Lb. Total Value. Fruits. Lb. 123,419 36,001 7,088 11,486 10,000 30,617 13,034 160,745 34,471 192,263 239,867 80,855 23,220 20,913 Cents. 1 a 5 1-10 5 8 2-5 5 1-2 8 1 1 8-10 1 1-4 1-10 3-5 2-5 3-5 1 1-10 $ 1,234 19 1,847 10 354 03 908 88 550 00 2,449 30 30 34 2,893 41 430 89 13,050 67 15,831 22 Vegetables. 1,009 80 139 32 230 04 Totals 073,979 $42,519 31 Okanagan and Boundary. Fruits. Lb. 121,328 73,798 5.400 2,132 396 469,172 5,043 45,028 9,547 10,730 40,934 14,955 4,313 79,720 0,400 1,780,756 21,040 Cents. 1 1 8-10 0 6 1 6-10 1 4-10 2 1 1-2 7 6 1-2 2 1-4 3-4 4-5 1-2 1 1-2 3-5 2 $ 1,213 28 1,328 36 324 00 127 92 0 33 6,568 40 100 80 675 43 668 29 697 45 Vegetables. 921 00 112 16 34 50 398 00 90 00 10,084 54 420 80 Totals 2,690,092 $24,377 92 East and West Kootenay. Fruits. Lb. 117,978 9,159 2,575 112 1,882 3,552 2,806 10,704 11,505 9,913 74,773 16,334 218,299 2,335 274 58 500 105 409 20 528 840* 159,592 Cents. 1 1-2 4 5 1-10 0 4 2-5 8 1-10 5 1-10 4 3-10 3 2 2-5 2 7 2-5 6 1-2 *> 1 1-4 3 3 5 2 10 1 3-4 3-5 5 4-5 $ 1,769 67 366 36 146 77 0 72 .82 81 287 71 143 10 402 85 346 95 237 91 1,495 46 1,208 71 14,189 4:: 46 70 Vegetables. 3 48 1 74 15 00 5 25 8 18 2 00 9 24 5 04 9.250 33 Totals 644,373 $30,097 30 * Mostly green. 362 British Columbia. 1914 Table 8.—Showing Quantity of Imported Fruit inspected and condemned, 1013. Number inspected. Number condemned. Percentage condemned. Net Imports. Kind. Increase Percentage. Decrease Percentage. Deciduous. ..% ., 309,668 607 25 33,411 973 179 19G 131,363 40,000 686 42,283 8,569 174 13,526 ""l 447 44 20 3,759 3,034 107 1,040 30 4.4 ' 4.6 1.3 4.5 11.2 ' 2.9 7.6 15.6 2.5 0.4 33.9 94.5 41.2 12.7 36.0 15.3 14.6 26.3 157.9 .... . . % „ 76.8 0.5 ..% :; 1.9 net) ' 5.9 Totals (grand and 568,134 22,008 3.9 24.1 Citrus. Onnefrult 7 6,484 23,739 59 " "39 104,583 15 210,902 2,896 55 554 329 422 25,503 ' 329 180 1 6,372 13,774 ""5 i,'803 ' 5.1 0.8 2.0 ' 'e'.i ' 6.5 ' b'.i ' V.i 25.8 94.6 14 8 Californian ,, Chinese ,, 29.3 31.0 32.6 85.7 0.4 0.4 21.2 58 0 ' 1.5 3.9 net) Totals (grand and 375,587 22,404 5.9 1.1 4 Geo. 5 Boyal Commission on Agriculture. 3G3 Table 0.—Showing Imported Nursery Stock inspectei Vancouver, 1013. at Provincial Fumigating Station, Number inspected. Number condemned. Percentage condemned. Net Imports. Kind. Increase Percentage. Decrease Percentage. 76,393 1,591 18,414 1,959 604 3,824 28,372 11,819 3,884 420 3,858 5 560 281 ' ' 56 1,591 163 255 1 5.1 3 3.0 14.3 ' l'i 5.6 1.4 6.6 277'. 6 5.6 14.8 15.1 73.9 49.0 Crab 0.3 86.3 Plum 48.7 82.6 147,330 6,770 4.6 60.7 36 149 56 429 915 0 16 '' 12 16.7 10.8 ' Y.3 15.4 143.5 150.9 Vs. 3 Fig Filbert 18.4 1,585 34 2.1 1.2 9,887 884,067 4,887 14,309 49.4 1.6 83.4 47.0 893,954 19,196 2.1 48.2 50,929 32,431 37,131 7,055 54,279 178,735 281 1,342 120 1,264 877 0.6 4.1 0.3 17.9 1.6 102.9 75. i 4.2 13.3 Grape-vines 21.0 45.4 Total, vines, bushes, etc 300,500 3,884 1.1 23.3 Ornamentals Plants 5,117,000 218,400 55,256 148,005 27,000* 1,612 5 494 0.5 0.7 ' 0.3 1,261.2 l'l'2'.i 35.8 5,538,661 29,111 0.5 . 659.5 Fumigated. Table 10.—Showing Apiaries inspected in Various Districts, Season 1013. District. Total Bee-keepers visited. No. of Hives, 1913. Honey-crop, 1912. Average per Hive. Average Price per Lb. Total Value. Lower Mainland Thompson River Watershed. . Okanagan Boundary Kootenays Totals 178 17 79 11 75 948 175 472 28 240 Lb. 26,554 1,240 11,955 339 10.130 Lb. 28.0 7.1 23 2 12il 42.2 360 50,218 27.0 $0.17 0.20 0.19 0.19 0.19 $0.18 $4,514 248 2,271 64 1,952 $9,022 364 British Columbia. 1014 APPENDIX D. DATA RELATING TO IRRIGATION COMPANIES IN BRITISH COLUMBIA. Name. Manner of Incorporation. Date of Organization. Description of System. Total Acreage supplied with Water. Acres. Baines Lake Land Co., Ltd. Joint-stock Co. 1913 8,100 British Columbia Fruit Land Co., Walhachin Columbia Valley Irrigation Main line, 5 miles; lateral 15,000 Fruit Lands Co. ditch, 18 miles Columbia Valley Orchards, Joint-stock Co. 1911 System divided into three units. In South Vermilion unit main 2,200 Ltd. ; Vermilion Irrigation Co., Ltd. flume No. 60 galvanized-stecl flume, with galvanized-steel flume laterals and wire- bound, wooden syphons Kamloops Fruitland Irrigation Main canal, concrete lining 1,318 and Power Co. and steel Burning; distributing svstem concrete pipe Keremeos Land Co., Ltd Joint-stock Co. 1907 Gravity system for irrigation purposes, consisting of pipe, 400 flume, and open ditches The Feachland Townslte Co., Storage and gravity by ditches 962 Ltd. and flumes The Corporation of the Dis Municipal Purchased from Ditches with wooden and metal 4,000 trict of Penticton the Penticton Water- supply and S. 0. Land Co., 1910. 1907 flumes, some concrete, all gravity Rock Creek Irrigated Fruit Co-operative.. . Gravity system, water obtained 438 Land Co. from Rock Creek. About six miles of flume (wooden) and ditches, with wooden flume and ditch laterals Joint-stock Co. 1908 Main supply, concrete - lined ditch, 28-lnch steel siphon, 1,270 and 32-inch wood-stave pipe ; distribution system concrete pipe and wooden flumes Joint-stock Co. 1911 Gravity from Similkameen River to land along railroad 500 and from Barels, Blind, and Cawston Creeks on bench The Municipality of Summer- Took over sys Domestic and lrrig-ation .... 3,250 land tem in 1010. Western Okanagan Orchard 1911 Co., Ltd. White Valley Irrigation and 1900 Storage In mountain 4,500 4,000 Power Co. . ti , . . _ elevation, south of White Valley, partly source of White Creek; thence by ditches, pipes, and flumes for 33 miles to Okanagan Lake, North-east Branch 4 Geo. 5 Royal Commission on Agriculture. 365 Irrigation Companies—Concluded. Name. Total Acreage that might be supplied with Present Installation. Total Acreage that might be supplied with Increased Installation. Annual Charge to Users of Water. Raines Lake Land Co., Ltd. British Columbia Fruit Land Co., Walhachin Columbia Valley Irrigation Fruit Lands Co. Columbia Valley Orchards, Ltd. ; Vermilion Irrigation Co., Ltd. Kamloops Frultland Irrigation and Power Co. Acres. 8,100 4,400 Acres. Company owns 14,500 acres, of which 10,500 acres are irrigable 6,000 $2 per acre-foot. Flat rates: Minimum, $4 per acre, with intercropping $6 per acre; maximum rate allowed, $0 per acre-foot. Unsettled. $2.50 per acre, minimum ; $8 per acre maximum. Intention to charge actual cost. $2.50 to $5 per acre for large and small properties respectively. $2 from May 15th to June 30th ; $4 balance Irrigation period, per acre-foot. 4,000 2.000 4,000 1,312 Present installation sufficient for available water 3,000 6,000 Ltd. The Corporation of the District of Penticton Rock Creek Irrigated Fruit Land Co. 780 week during season. Scale of charges, majority, $3.25 per acre-foot. »,720 holders. Similkameen Fruit Land Co... The Municipality of Summer- land Western Okanagan Orchard Co., Ltd. White Valley Irrigation and Power Co. 1,500 4,000 $3.50 an acre for year. Irrigation $2.50 an acre for year net; domestic, $1.50 a month net. Sliding scale from $6 for 1 acre- foot to $3 for 200 acre-feet. 20,000 1,800 acres in vicinity of Westbank 23,000 366 British Columbia. 1914 APPENDIX E. DATA BELATING TO THE PUBLIC BO ADS. Table 1.—Showing Approximate Mileage of Roads maintained by the Government of the Province of British Columbia. Electoral District. 1909. 1910. 1911. 1912. 1913. Alberni Atlin Cariboo Chilliwack .. Columbia ... Comox Cowichan ... Cranbrook ... Delta Dewdney Esquimau ... Fernie Grand Forks Greenwood .. Islands Kamloops ... Kaslo Lillooet Nanaimo City Newcastle ... Okanagan ... Revelstoke .. Richmond ... Similkameen Skeena Slocan Yale Yniir Totals . 210.22 Unknown 722.50 S6.62 233.50 23S.75 138.75 - 501.65 Unknown 112.51 112.50 Unknown 152.25 124.25 C6.71 822.00 86.30 038.00 40.50 13S.63 1,161.25 S3.50 65.26 016.75 246.50 1S0.50 5S0.12 3S1.82 272.S5 1S0.25 1,271.00 112.13 242.25 255.00 140.00 506.65 126.21 203.35 208.54 Unknown 104.25 162.25 87.65 046.50 106.00 038.00 44.50 152.75 1,21 S.75 91.50 87.26 704.00 434.00 106.75 604.1S • 517.27 314.18 250.75 1,446.25 135.00 Unknown 270.00 13S.25 471.00 140.72 215.79 216.74 202.50 204.25 170.25 150.07 070.00 133.75 067.00 44.50 162.25 1,256.00 112.50 95.SD 765.50 545.75 204.00 605.00 427.12 336.68 Unknown 1,463.50 1S1.50 230.25 32S.75 17S.75 460.00 187.S6 247.70 230.33 310.50 212.00 184.50 203.03 1,141.50 151.35 1,059.00 50.75 175.25 1,270.25 125.00 05.70 S15.25 636.50 215.30 726.00 5S0.25 354.05 273.50 1.771.00 1S7.50 406.50 336.75 170.62 555.00 217.75 250.20 289.3S 314.00 244.00 100.00 217.S3 1,315.00 171.10 1,004.00 52.25 1S2.25 1,363.50 147.00 142.50 840.00 044.37 218.05 766.00 601.50 S,056.34 10.010.S4 10.S50.S2 11,S07.44 13.635.75 4 Geo. 5 Royal Commission on Agriculture. 367 Table 2.—Showing Approximate Mileage of Trails maintained by the Government of the Province of British Columbia. Electoral District. 1909. 1910. 1911. 1912. 1913. Alberni Atlin ... Cariboo .... Chilliwack .. Columbia ... Comox Cowichan ... Cranbrook .. Delta Dewdney ... Esquimau .. Fernie Grand Forks Greenwood . Islands Kamloops .. Kaslo Lillooet Newcastle .. Okanagan .. Revelstoke . Richmond .. Similkameen Skeena Slocan Yale Ymir Totals 170.25 Unknown 162.00 4.00 478.00 27.00 9.00 243.00 30.50 19.00 Unknown 66.00 24.00 13.21 22.00 513.00 103.00 47.00 471.00 363.00 66.25 214.00 S61.25 278.75 121.00 403.50 4,709.80 174.25 45.50 513.00 4.00 652.00 17.75 45.00 251.00 30.50 29.00 Unknown 60.00 24.00 6.68 22.00 531.12 193.00 45.00 494.00 387.75 66.25 224.00 025.88 270.25 121.00 326.00 142.00 450.50 307.00 4.00 Unknown 11.25 45.50 281.00 31.00 25.75 141.00 60.00 20.00 17.50 4S.50 549.35 177.00 45.00 470.75 32S.50 70.25 327.50 1,107.00 203.25 155.00 365.S4 5,468.02 5,668.44 175.50 Unknown 409.00 4.00 648.00 S.25 Unknown 281.00 33.50 24.75 136.00 60.00 25.00 1S.50 4S.50 587.05 176.00 45.00 482.75 300.00 61.00 354.00 1,320.25 2S7.30 123.00 357.00 156.50 500.50 500.00 603.00 16.25 Unknown 2S1.00 37.00 24.75 Unknown 60.00 21.00 21.15 42.50 5S7.55 176.00 45.00 67S.00 333.00 75.07 364.00 1,700.00 308.75 138.50 300.00 6,073.35 7,326.52 36S British Columbia. 1914 Table 3.—Showing Approximate Number of Bridges maintained by the Government of the Province of British Columbia. Electoral District. 1909. 1910. 1911. 1012. 1913. Alberni Atlin Cariboo Chilliwack .. Columbia .... Comox Cowichan ... Cranbrook ... Delta Dewdney .... Esquimau ... Fernie Grand Forks Greenwood .. Islands Kamloops ... Kaslo Lillooet Nanaimo City Newcastle ... Okanagan ... Revelstoke .. Richmond ... Skeena Similkameen Slocan Yale Ymir Totals 96 Unknown 49 Unknown 45 72 SS 98 12 85 93 Unknown 6 8 Unknown 41 65 Unknown 16 42 246 19 76 Unknown 130 52 102 77 107 Unknown Unknown 21 50 74 03 100 30 103 112 13 6 8 Unknown 28 70 115 16 40 275 29 112 Unknown 138 44 106 109 55 61 32 Unknown 77 110 116 5S 134 120 15 S 9 Unknown 3S 01 118 13 40 267 2S 86 Unknown 136 42 107 40 Unknown Unknown 62 41 58 90 112 13S 72 176 122 17 10 10 Unknown 4S 114 110 .13 40 270 Unknown 95 133 138 51 12S 127 Unknown Unknown OS" 50 81 10S 113 ISO 7S 173 142 17 10 12 Unknown Unknown 117 123 12 40 2S0 42 116 136 138 52 70 160 1,51S 1,405 1,019 2,175 2,366 4 Geo. 5 Royal Commission on Agriculture. 369 APPENDIX F. DATA RELATING TO ADVANCES TO SETTLERS IN AUSTRALASIA. AUSTRALIA. Table 1.—Showing Loans to Farmers in 1012. State. Population. Advances to 1912. i Advances outstanding, 1912. Accumulated Total. Total per Capita. Total. Total per Capita. Profit, 1912. New South Wales. . South Australia* . . West Australia .... 1,777,534 1,380,561 636,425 430,000 306,129 107,205 $11,804,666 14,3SS,990 2,006,063 10,054,510 0,477,016 00,757 $ 6 64 10 44 3 27 23 35 30 69 0 47 $0,800,288 6,544,471 1,488,525 4,707,683 6,237,165 80,S03 $ 3 S3 4 75 2 33 10 05 20 37 0 40 $173,781 428,589 57,S02 240,037 223.404 151 Commonwealth 4,727,044 $47,012,011 $10 14 $25,S5S,035 $5 47 $1,132,854 • Includes loans to farmers and to other producers, also to local bodies. Table 2.—Showing Comparative Increase of Areas under Cultivation for the Years 1895-96 and 1011-12. State. Acres under Cultivation. 1895-90. 1911-12. Increase In Sixteen Years New South Wales A'ictoria Queensland South Australia . West Australia .. Tasmania 1,348,600 2,413,235 2S5.319 2,002,942 07,S21 212,703 3,628,513 3,640,241 526,388 2,065,33S 1,072,653 270,000 2,270,013 1,227,006 241,060 872,396 974,a32 57,297 Acres. Area under cultivation per capita, excluding fallow land 2.71 Acres sown in grass per capita (frequently sown in uncultivated land)... 0.64 Total average per head of population 3.35 370 British Columbia. 1914 new zealand. Table 3.—Showing Particulars of Loans to Farmers, Settlers, and Workers. Total advance to settlers, March, 1S95, to March, 1912 $65,061,645 30 Total number of settlers who have borrowed 27,6S0 Total average of each loan $2,3S2 22 Total amount current loans, March 31st, 1012 $36,244,000 62 Total number settlers owing to State now 18,397 Average of each loan $1,970 14 Included iu above table are 6,S0S loans on urban and suburban property amounting to $12,550,479 30 Actual amount loaned to farmers now current. 11,5S9 loans amounting to $23,0S5,657 12 Totla amount loaned per capita $65 96 Gross receipts for year ending March 31st, 1912 $415,530 72 Cost and expenses of Department for year $55,331 10 Net profit on year's operation $35S,0S0 04 Number of foreclosures in eighteen years 35 Number of foreclosures in past year None. Total net profit of Department from March, 1895, to March, 1912, $2,SS4,S64 74 Disposed of as follows:— Loan notations charges written off $1,4S6,5S6 48 Carried to Reserve Fund $243,000 00 Office furniture written off $321 92 Balance to credit of Profit and Loss, reinvested on mortgage, $1,153,966 20 Table 4.—Showing Particulars of Exports, the Products of the Dominion. Exports in 1S75 $ 26,612,601.S4. Per Cent. Exports in 1S95 40,776,143.5S; increase in 20 years, 126.76 Exports in 1910 106,64S,632.1S; increase in 15 years, • 161.54 Exports in 1895. 1910. Percentage Increase. Wool Grain Frozen meat Butter Cheese Fibre Gold Gum Provisions, tallow, timber, etc. Total $17,797,956 66 1,048,705 38 6,136,775 46 1,106,140 86 733,417 74 102,254 40 5,648,199 66 2,035,202 76 6,167,490 66 $40,776,143 58 $40,359,432 60 1,550,694 78 18,714,776 22 8,S06,198 50 5,812,117 74 2,179,292 04 9,216,105 48 2,260,113 84 17,733,065 94 $106,631,797 14 126.76 47.86 204.96 69G.11 692.47 2,031.24 63.16 10.05 187.52 161.54 Per Capita Value of Exports. 1895. 1910. Percentage Increase. 1911-12. $58 25 $106 63 82 $111 78 4 Geo. 5 Boyal Commission on Agriculture. 371 Table 4—Concluded. Population. 1896. 1911. Percentage Increase. 307,294 396,066 505,598 502,870 64.53 26.96 703,360 1,008,870 Table 5.—Showing Exports of Various Countries of Domestic Products per Head of Population up to the Latest Date Statistics available. 1. New Zealand $111 7S 2. Belgium 88 46 3. Australia 79 60 4. United Kingdom 51 82 5. Argentine Republic ...'. 49 SS 6. Denmark 48 06 7. Canada 40 68 8. Uruguay 38 50 9. France 32 52 10. Norway 30 49 11. Sweden 29 04 12. Germany 28 36 13. United States 24 14 372 British Columbia. 1914 APPENDIX G. DEPARTMENTAL PUBLICATIONS AVAILABLE FOB DISTRIBUTION. List 1.—Publications of the Provincial Department of Agriculture. Note.—All publications available for distribution may be obtained free by" applying to the Bureau of Provincial Information, Victoria, B.C. To avoid misunderstanding, applicants for bulletins, circulars, and maps are requested to state the number of the publication desired. Horticultural Circulars. No. 1. Short Courses in Horticulture. 2. Commercial Onion-culture. 3. Selection of Orchard Sites and Soils. 4. Insects Injurious to Orchards. 5. Plant-growth. 6. Spray Calendar. 7. Fungous Diseases of Orchard and Garden. S. Packing Orchard Fruits. 9. Sprays and Spraying. 10. Commercial Potato-culture. 11. Progress and Prospects in Fruit and Vegetable Growing. 12. Orchard Intercrops. 13. The Home Vegetable Garden for Coast Sections. 14. Practical Irrigation. 15. Cabbage, Celery, and Tomato Production. 16. Culture of Small Fruits in the Coast Sections. 17. Planting Plans and Distances. IS. Report of the Markets Commissioner. 19. Propagation and Selection of Nursery Stock. 20. Orchard Cultivation and Cover Crops. 21. Pruning Fruit-trees. 22. Thinning Tree-fruits. 23. Fire-blight (Bacillus amylovorus—Burrill). (2nd Edition.) 25. Culture of Small Fruits for the Interior Districts of British Columbia. 26. Top-working of Fruit-trees. 27. Methods of Fruit Picking and Handling. 28. Fertilizers for Fruits and Vegetables. 29. Varieties of Fruit recommended for Commercial Planting. 30. Fruit Marketing. 4 Geo. 5 Royal Commission on Agriculture. 373 List 1—Concluded. Agricultural Department Circulars. Date issued. No. Name. December 4th, 1912 ... 2 Results of Field-crop Competition, 1912. April 29th, 1913 3 Hints on Curing for School Gardens. December, 1913 5 Field-crop Competitions, 1913-14. June 12th, 1911 How to grow Tobacco from Seed. Circular Bulletins. April 29th, 1913 2 Tuberculosis in Poultry. (2nd Edition.) July 23rd, 1913 3 Construction of Fresh-air Brooders. (2nd Edition.) October 14th, 1913 ... 4 Management of Turkeys. December 13th, 1913 . . 5 Clover Dodder. February 24th, 1914 .. 6 Seed Improvement. March 31st, 1914 7 Keeping Poultry Free from Lice. May 13th, 1914 8 Corn. August, 1914 Line Cuts for Poultry-houses. The Care of Milk and Cream. Reports. May 9th, 1913 Fourteenth Annual Report, Farmers' Institutes, 1912. September oth, 1913 . . Fourth Annual Report, Agricultural Fairs Association. September 22nd, 1913.. Report of Meeting, British Columbia Entomological Society. June, 1913 British Columbia Dairymen's Report. Second Egg-laying Contest. January 20th, 1914 . .. February 20th, 1914 .. Second Annual Report, British Columbia Markets Commissioner. March 31st, 1914 Twenty-fourth Annual Report of British Columbia Fruit-growers' Association. Miscellaneous. April 4th, 1913 Rules and Regulations, Women's Institutes. May 6th, 1913 Instructions to Secretaries, Farmers' Institutes. July 15th, 1913 Formula! for preserving Fruit. October, 1914 Rules and Regulations, Farmers' Institutes. Bulletins in Stock. May 21st, 1901 8 Feeding Farm Animals (Dairy Cows). November, 1908 25 Orchard-cleansing. July 19th, 1913 26 Practical Poultry-raising. (4th Edition.) April, 1911 32 Control of Tuberculosis. February, 1912 33 Fruit-growing Possibilities, Skeena River. (Reprint.) 35 Place and Purpose of Family Life. 36 Preparation of Food. February, 1912 38 Preparation of Silos. February 28th, 1913 .. 39 Natural and Artificial Brooding and Incubation. (3rd Edition.) March, 1912 40 Alfalfa. June, 1913 42 Agriculture in British Columbia. May 7th. 1912 44 Irrigation in British Columbia. April 29th, 1912 45 Agricultural Statistics, 1911. December, 1912 46 Food and Diet: Part I. January 15th, 1913 ... 48 Exhibition Fruit and Vegetables. September 3rd, 1913 .. 49 Market Poultry. (2nd Edition.) March 8th, 1913 50 The Art of Right Living. April 15th, 1913 52 Annual Report, Advisory Board of Women's Institutes. November 18th, 1913 .. 53 Care of Young Children. November 20th, 1913 .. 55 Care and Marketing of Eggs. December 13th, 1913 .. 56 Field-crop Competitions, 1913. 1914 .. 57 Boys and Girls' Field-crop Competitions. May 13th, 1914 58 Farm Storages for Fruits and Vegetables. 59 Agricultural Statistics for Year 1913. British Columbia Poultry Association Bulletin. 1914 2 Poultry-keeping on a City Lot. 374 British Columbia. 1914 List 2.—Publications of Provincial Department of Lands. The Skeena Land Recording Division. South Fork of the Fraser River. British Columbia Land Policy. Speech by the Hon. W. R. Ross, K.C., Minister of Lands. British Columbia Forest Policy. Speech by the Hon. W. R. Ross, K.C., Minister of Lands. Kitimat Valley. Fort Fraser Land Recording Division. Cariboo Land Recording Division. Report of the Survey Branch, 1012. Report of the Water Branch. Report of the Minister of Lands, 1013. How to pre-empt or purchase Land. 1914. List 3.—Bulletins issued by the Bureau of Provincial Information. No. 17. Game of British Columbia. No. 23. Handbook of British Columbia. No. 27. Climate of British Columbia. Folders. British Columbia, Canada. Pacific Great Eastern Railway: Lands, Facts, Figures, Opportunities. Canadian Northern Pacific Railway: Lands, Opportunities, Facts. Kettle River Valley: Lands, Facts, Figures, and Photographs. List 4.—Maps published by British Columbia Lands Department. Map No. Year of Issue. Title of Map. Scale. Per Copy. Per Dozen. Ia 1b lc Id IB 2a 2b 3a 3b 3c 3d 8b 3p 3d 3h 3j 13k 4a 4b 4C 4d 4e 4f 4g t4H 1912 1913 1913 1913 1914 1913 1914 1914 1914 1913 1914 1913 1914 1914 1914 1914 1914 1912 1912 1912 1913 1913 1913 1914 Geographic Series— British Columbia. In four sheets. Showing roads and trails, railway systems, etc British Columbia. In one sheet. Showing Land Districts British Columbia. In one sheet. Showing Land Recording Divisions British Columbia. In one sheet. Showing Mining Divisions Kootenay, S.E. British Columbia Land Series— Southerly Vancouver Island New Westminster Pre-emptors' Series— Fort George Nechako Stuart Lake Bulkley Valley Peace River Chilcotin Lac La Hache Tete Jaune North Thompson Lillooet Degree Series— Rossland Sheet Nelson Sheet Cranbrook Sheet Fernie Sheet Upper Elk River Sheet Duncan River Sheet Windermere Sheet Arrowhead Sheet 18 m. to 1 in. 30 m. to 1 in. 39 m. to 1 in. 30 m. to 1 in. 8 m. to 1 in. 4 m. 4 m. 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 to 1 in. to 1 in. $1 00 25 25 25 25 25 25 Free Free Free Free Free Free Free l-'ree Free Free 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 $10 00 2 00 2 00 2 00 2 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 In course of preparation. 25 4 Geo. 5 Royal Commission on Agriculture. 375 List 4—Concluded. No. Issue. Map Year of 49 1913 48 1913 33 1912 27 1912 22 1912 20 1912 18 1912 11 1911 9 1907 8 1907 i 1903 6 1902 5 1898 4 1897 3 1897 2 189G 1 1895 Title of Map. Degree Series—Concluded. North-east Portion of Graham Island Sayward District, Sketch-map of Yale District and Portion ot Adjacent Districts Rupert and Coast Districts, Portions ot Northern Interior New Westminster and Vancouver Island, Portions of . . British Columbia. South-west Portion of. (Second Iss.) Kootenay District, East and West, showing Mining Divs. Northern Interior (A. G. Morice) Bulkley River, Range 5, Coast District Crown Lands . . British Columbia. In two sheets British Columbia, Electoral Redistribution of Kootenay District, East, Triangulation Survey of Osoyoos District, Portion of Kootenay District, West Division, and Part of Lillooet, Yale, etc., Mining Recording Divisions Kootenay District, West, Portion of Vancouver Island, West Coast, Portion of; Clayoquot District Scale. 2 m. 3 m. 8 m. 3 m. 17.75 m. 3 m. 12 m. 8 m. 10 in. 20 m. to 1 in. 0,000 ft.'to 1 in. 2% m. to 1 in. 8 m. to 1 in. 1 m. to 1 in. % m. to 1 in. Per Copy. Free 10 25 25 25 25 25 25 10 10 'io 10 10 10 10 10 Per Dozen. 1 00 2-00 2 00 2 00 2 00 2 00 2 00 50 50 u 00 50 50 50 50 50 In addition to the above publications, the Government publishes the Year-book of British Columbia, edited by R. E. Gosnell. The edition of 1914 can be obtained for $1. List 5.—Publications of the Federal Department of Agriculture. The following are the various publications that have been Issued by the Dominion Department of Agriculture and are available for distribution at the office of the Publications Branch, Department of Agriculture, Ottawa :— The report of the Honourable the Minister of Agriculture is issued annually. Copies for the years 1911, 1012, and 1013 are available. The Experimental Farms. Annual Reports. Annual Reports of Officers and Superintendents of the Central and Branch Experimental Farms and Stations for the following years: 1889; 1S00; 1S01; 1S02; 1S03; 1S94; 1895; 1897; 1S9S; 1800; 1000; 1901; 1002; 1905; 1007-08; 190S-09; 1909-10; 1910-11; 1911-12; 1912-13. Bulletins. No. Title. Author. Year. 2. On Vitality of Seeds, Seed Distribution Wm. Saunders 7. Two-rowed Barley Wm. Saunders 9. Two-rowed Barley, grown from Seed imported by the Government of Canada Wm. Saunders 12. Indian Corn or Maize , Wm. Saunders, F. T. -Sliutt 13. Report on the Progress of the Work of the Experimental Farms Wo. Saunders 14. The Cattle Horn Fly Jas. Fletcher 15. Ladoga Wheat Wm. Saunders 28. Weeds Jas. Fletcher 32. Results obtained in 1S98 from Trial Plots of Grain, Fodder Corn, Field Roots, and Potatoes Wm. Saunders 189S 34. Results obtained in 1899 from Trial Plots of Grain, Fodder -Corn, Field Roots, and Potatoes Wnn. Saunders 35. The Stave Silo J. H. Grisdale 36. Results obtained in 1900 from Trial Plots of Grain, Fodder Corn, Field Roots, and Potatoes Wm. Saunders 1900 39. 'Results obtained in 1901 from Trial Plots of Grain, Fodder Corn. Field Roots, and Potatoes Wm. Saunders 42. The Rape Plant J. H. Grisdale 43. Plum Culture W. T. Macoun 45. Emmer and Spelt C. E. Saunders 46. Alfalfa or Lucerne J. H. Grisdale, F. T. Shutt, Jas. Fletcher 25 1.8SS 1.890 1S91 1891 1S91 1.S92 3S93 1S97 1S99 1900 1901 1903 1903 1904 1904 376 British Columbia. 1914 - List 5—Continued. Experimental Farms—Bulletins—Concluded. No. Title. Author. Year. 47. Trees and Shrubs tested in Manitoba and the North-west Territories Wm. Saunders 1904 4S. Results obtained in 1004 from Trial Plots of Grain, Fodder Corn, Field Roots, and Potatoes Wm. Saunders, C. E. Saunders. . 1004 49. The Potato and its Culture \V. T. Macoun 1905 51. Bacon Pigs in Canada J. I-I. Grisdale 1905 57. Quality in Wheat C. E. Saunders, F. T. Shu'tt 1907 58. Results obtained in 1007 from Trial Plots of Grain, Fodder Corn, Field Roots, and Potatoes Wm. Saunders, C. E. Saunders. . 1907 50. The Flax Plant Wm. Saunders 190S 60. Grades of Wheat, Crop of 1907 C. E. Saunders, F. T. Shutt 190S 62. Strawberry Culture W. T. Macoun 1909 63. A Serious Potato Disease occurring in Newfoundland H. T. Gussow 1909 64. Results obtained in 1909 from Trial Plots of Grain, Fodder Corn, Field Roots, and Potatoes Wm. Saunders, C. E. Saunders.. 1909 65. Growing and using Corn for Ensilage J. H. Grisdale 1910 66. Results obtained in 1010 from Trial Plots of Grain, Fodder Corn, Field Roots, and Potatoes C. E. Saunders 1910 67. Mangels, Sugar Mangels, and Forage Beets J. H. Grisdale 1910 68. Progress in the Breeding of Hardy Apples for the Canadian North-west Won. Saunders 1930 69. The Honey Bee C. Gordon Hewitt 1912 70. Cut Worms and Army Worms Arthur Gibson 3912 71. Results obtained in 1911 from Trial Plots of Grain, Fodder Corn, Field Roots, and Potatoes C. E. Saunders 1911 72. Milk Production in Canada J. H. Grisdale 1913 73. Smut Diseases of Cultivated Plants H. T. Gussow 1913 74. Summary of Results, Cereals, 1913 Chas. E. Saunders 1914 75. Summary of Results, Field Husbandry, 1913 O. C. White 1914 70. Summary of Results, Division of Agrostology M. O. Malte 1914 77. Summary of Results, Division of Horticulture W. T. Macoun 1914 Bulletins, Second Series. 4. Alkali Soils F. T. Shutt 190S 5. List of Herbaceous Perennials tested in the Arboretum and Botanic Garden at the Experimental Farm, Ottawa .. W. T. Macoun 190S 0. Western Prairie Soils; their Nature and Composition F. T. Shutt 1010 S. Alfalfa Growing in Alberta W. H. Fairfield, G. H. Hutton. . 1912 9. The Control of Insect Pests in Canada C. Gordon Hewitt 1912 10. The Large Larch Saw Fly C. Gordon Hewitt 1912 11. Legislation in Canada to prevent the Introduction and Spread of Insects, Pests, and Diseases destructive to Vegetation, with Regulations regarding the Importation of Vegetation into Canada C. Gordon Hewett 1912 13. Experiments in Steer Feeding in Manitoba W. C. McKiilican 1912 14. Corn Growing in Manitoba W. C. McKiilican 1913 15. Preparing Land for Grain Crops on the Prairies J. H. Grisdale 1913 10. How to tell the Age of Hens and Pigeons Victor Fortier 1014 17. Preliminary Survey of Forest Insect Conditions in British Columbia J. M. Swaine 1014 IS. The Strawberry Root Weevil in British Columbia R. C. Treherne 1914 Pamphlets. 2. Preston and other Early-ripening Varieties of Wheat C. E. Saunders 190S 3. Preparing Land for Grain Crops in Saskatchewan A. Mackay 1909 4. How to make and use a Hot Bed and Cold Frame; Top Grafting; How to transplant a Tree or Shrub; Protection of Fruit Trees from Mice and Rabbits, and care of Injured Trees W. T. Macoun 1900 5. Asparagus, Celery, and Onion Culture W. T. Macoun 1909 7. Ginseng, Mushroom, and Melon Culture W. T. Macoun 1909 8. The Preservation of Fruits for Exhibition Purposes F. T. Shutt 1912 9. Hardy Rose Culture in Canada W. T. Macoun 1913 10. Tomato Culture W. T. Macoun 1913 11. Cabbage and Cauliflower Culture W. T. Macoun 1913 4 Geo. 5 Boyal Commission on Agriculture. 377 i List 5—Continued. Experimental Farms—Concluded. i Farmers' Circulars. No. Title. Author. Year. 1. Potato Canker imported into Canada H. T. Gussow 1032 2. Orange Hawk Weed H. T. Gussow 1912 3. Potato Canker H. T. Gussow 1012 4. Potato Diseases transmitted by the Use of Unsound Seed Potatoes H. T. Gussow 1014 5. Powdery Scab of Potatoes J. W. Eastham 1014 Entomological Circulars. 1. Tent Caterpillars J. M. Swaine 1013 2. Flea Beetles and their Control Arthur Gibson 1913 3. The Chinch Bug in Ontario H. F. Hudson 1914 Experimental Farm Notes. S. Inoculation for the Growth of Legumes F. T. Shutt 1907 Miscellaneous Publications. A Guide to the Experimental Farms and Stations 1012 The Work of the Experimental Farms F. T. Shutt 1913 List of the Publications issued from the Dominion Experimental Farms, 1SS7-1910 inclusive 1010 The Dominion Experimental Farms, A Review, 18S6-1912. . J. B. Spencer 1013 Spraying Calendar W. T. Macoun 1013 Tobacco Division—Bulletins. 13. Experiment Stations of the Province of Quebec O. Chevalier 1012 14. Research Work at Harrow Experimental Station in 1011 . . W. A. Barnet 1012 Dairy and Cold Storage Branch. Bulletins. Report of Commissioner of Dairy and Cold Storage 1006 to 1013 1. List of some British Importers of Farm Products W. W. Moore 1005 7. List of Exporters of some Canadian Products W. W. Moore 1008 S. Some of the Factors that control the Water Content of Bu'tter F. T. Shutt, C. F. Whitley, A. T. Cliarron 1900 13. Sweet Cream Butter F. T. Shutt, A. T. Charron, J. G. Bouchard 1007 14. Apparatus for the Determination of Water and Fat in Butter F. T. Shutt 1907 17. Butter-making on the Farm, Second Edition Geo. H. Barr 1007 20. The Use of Ice on the Farm J. A. Ruddick 1907 22. The Cooling of Milk for Cheese-making J. A. Ruddick, G. H. Barr 1910 23. Cold Storage and the Cold Storage Act J. A. Ruddick 1910 24. Report on some Trial Shipments of Cold Storage Apples . .J. A. Ruddick 1.910 25. Coulommiev Cheese—some Notes on its Manufacture Janet McNaughton 1910 26. Dairy Legislation J. A. Ruddick 1910 27. Trial Shipments of Peaches in 1910 J. A. Ruddick, W. W. Moore . . 1911 28. An Historical and Descriptive Account ol the Dairying Industry in Canada J. A. Ruddick 1911 29. Notes for Factory Cheese-makers J. A. Ruddick, G. H. Barr 1911 30. 'Cream Cheese Miss G. Bagnall 1911 32. The Care of Cream for Butter-making G. H. Barr 1912 33. Cow Testing, with some Notes on the Sampling and Testing of Milk J. A. Ruddick, C. F. Whitley . . . 1013 34. Modern Methods of Packing Apples and Pears A. McNeill 1013 35. Small Cold Storages .' J. A. Ruddick 1913 36. Cold Storage for Creameries J. A. Ruddick, J. G. Bpuchard. . 1913 37. The Island of Orleans Cheese J. A. Chapais 1013 3S. Co-operation and Fruit Growing A. McNeill 1013 30. List of Cheese Factories, Creameries, Skimming Stations; also Condensed Milk and City Plants in Canada 1913 40. The Inspection and Sale Act, Pt. IX., as amended in 1907-8 and 1912-13 1013 41. 'Cheese Factory and Creamery Plans with Specifications . . . G. H. Barr, J. G. Bouchard . .. 1914 378 British Columbia. 1914 List 5—Continued. Dairy and Cold Storage Branch—Concluded. Circulars. No. Title. Author. Year. 2. The Milk Test Act 1010 3. The Outlook for Canadian Tomatoes in Great Britain .... J. A. Ruddick 1010 5. Good Reasons for Cow Testing C. F. AVhitley 1012 6. Creamery Cold Storage Bonuses J. A. Ruddick 1012 S. -List of Wholesale and Retail Apple Dealers in Manitoba, Saskatchewan, and Alberta, and also in Kenora and Keewatin W. W. Moore 1013 9. Amendment to the Inspection and Sale Act, 1913, as affecting Fruit, and Regulations thereunder A. McNeill 1913 10. Notes on Cow Testing C. F. AVhitley 1914 Special Publications. Map showing the Location of Cheese Factories and Creameries in Canada 1907 Report of the Third Dominion Conference of Dairy Experts 1911 Proceedings of the Third Conference of Fruit Growers of the Dominion of Canada, February 14th, 1912 1012 Report of a Special Inquiry into the Fruit Growing Conditions in Canada, 1011 Wm. H. Bunting 1012 Report of Royal Commission to inquire into Alleged Complaints relating to Weighing of Butter and Cheese in Montreal Live Stock Branch. Second General Convention, National Live Stock Association 1008 Third General Convention, National Live Stock Association 1012 The Canadian Record of Performance for Pure-bred Dairy Cattle, Reports 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 I960, 10.10, 1011, 1912, 1013 The Cattle Trade of Western Canada J. G. Rutherford 1000 Report of the Commission on the Swine Breeding Industry in the United Kingdom and Denmark J. B. Spencer 1010 A Directory of the Breeders of Pure-bred Live Stock of the Dominion of Canada 1910 Report of the Veterinary Director-General and Live Stock Commissioner 1909, 1910, 1911, 1912 Report of the Commissioners, Sheep Industry in Canada, Great Britain, and the United States 1911 Bulletins. 12. Sheep Husbandry in Canada J. B. Spencer 1913 13. Beef Raising in Canada J. B. Spencer 1913 14. Horse Breeding and Rearing of Colts J. G. Rutherford 1911 15. Observations upon Government Assistance to Agriculture in certain Countries of Europe H. S. Arkell 1911 16. The Care of Market Eggs W. A. Brown 1912 Pamphlets. 1. Winter Egg Production W. A. Brown, B.S.A 1913 2. The Crate Fattening of Poultry T. A. Benson 1913 3. The Candling of Eggs W. A. Brown, B.S.A 1913 Leaflets. 1. Rules for the Production and Marketing of New-laid Eggs.. W. A. Brown, J. H. Hare 1914 2. The Importance of the Removal of Male Birds after the Breeding Season W. A. Brown, J. H. Hare 1914 3. Suggestions for Egg Circle Members W. A. Brown, T. A. Benson . .. 1914 Health of Animals Branch. Report of the Veterinary Director-General and Live Stock Commissioner 1909, 1910, 1911, 1912 The Control of Bovine Tuberculosis; a Paper read before Section VII. of the International Congress on Tuberculosis, 1908 and 1010 1010 4 Geo. 5 Royal Commission on Agriculture. 379 List 5—Continued. Health of Animals Branch—Concluded. No. Title. Author. Year. Tuberculosis: a Plain 'Statement of Facts regarding the Disease, prepared especially for Farmers and others interested in Live Stock Dr. J. G. Rutherford 1011 Bulletin on Contagious Abortion 1013 Regulations relating to Rabies 1905, 1909 Regulations relating to Sheep Scab 1911 Regulations relating to Actinomycosis 1904, 1911 Regulations relating to Anthrax 1911 Regulations relating to Glanders 1905, 1908 Regulations relating to Hog Cholera 1911 Regulations relating to Mange 1911 Regulations relating to Maladie du Coit 1911 Regulations relating to Tuberculosis 1904, 1909 Quarantine Regulations 1S98, 1004, 190S, 1911 Regulations relating to Transportation of Animals and Transfer of Stock Cars between Canada and the United States 1909 Fees for Inspection of Animals imported to Canada 1903 Report of the Veterinary Director-General 1913 Canadian Meat Inspection Service Dr. J. G. Rutherford 1907 Directions for cleansing and disinfecting Premises after Outbreaks of Hog Cholera Dr. J. G. Rutherford 1903 Instructions for sending Specimens for Microscopic Examination Dr. J. G. Rutherford 1903 Notice—Glanders Dr. J. G. Rutherford 1906 Regulations governing the Inspection of Meats Dr. J. G. Rutherford 1907 Special Report on Glanders Dr. J. G. Rutherford 1906 Special Report on Maladie du Coit or Dourine Dr. J. G. Rutherford, Chas. H. Higgins 1907 Special Report on Pictou1 Cattle Disease Dr. J. G. Rutherford, W. I-I. Pethick 1900 'Special Report on SarcosporidifE and their Association with " Loco " Disease and Dourine E. A. AVatson 190S Araccin du Charbon, Anthrax Serum Bulletins. 9. Foot and Mouth Disease J. G. Rutherford 1902 11. Maladie du Coit J. G. Rutherford 1906 12. Mange in Horses and Cattle J. G. Rutherford 1911 13. Anthrax and Blackleg J. G. Rutherford 1908 14. Rabies Geo. Hilton 1900 15. Hog Cholera F. Torrance 1913 16. AVarble Flies—the Economic Aspect and a Contribution on the Biology Seymour Hadwen 1012 The Seed Branch. Report of the Seed Commissioner, 1005-11, 1011-13 G. H. Clark Seed Testing 1012 The Seed Supply in Manitoba, Saskatchewan, and Alberta. .Compiled by E. D. Eddy 1012 Bulletins. S. 2. The Production and Use of Seed Grain Jas. Murray 1005 S. 4. Seed Corn, Field Root, and Garden Seeds—Seed Trade Investigation G. H. Clark 1903 S. 5. List of Public Institutions that have been supplied with the 1st Edition of " Farm Weeds of Canada " 1909 S. 7. Wild Oats and False Wild Oats, their Nature and Distinctive Characters Norman Criddle 1912 16. Weed Seeds G. H. Clark 1904 Farm AVeeds of Canada (coloured plates). For sale by single copies only, at the office of the King's Printer, Government Printing Bureau. ('Price $1.00) G. H. Clark, Dr. James Fletcher Fodder and Pasture Plants (coloured plates). For sale by single copies only, at the office of the King's Printer, Government Printing Bureau. (Price 50 cents) G. H. Clark, M. O. Malte 1913 380 British Columbia. 1914 List 5—Concluded. The Seed Branch—Bulletins—Concluded. No. Title. Author. Year. Annual Report of the Canadian Seed Growers' Association J 1905, 1007, 1908, \ 1000, 1010, 1011, 1912 The Canadian Seed Growers' Association and its Work . . L. H. Newman 1012 The Seed Control Act, with Regulations 1013 Special Bulletins. 2-B. The Maple Sugar Industry in Canada J. B. Spencer 1913 List of Publications available for distribution. International Agricultural Institute. The Commissioner for Canada to the International Agricultural Institute has issued since October, 1910, a monthly bulletin, "The Publications of the International Agricultural Institute." From January, 1914, this bulletin appears under the title " Bulletin of Foreign Agricultural Intelligence." 4 Geo. 5 Boyal Commission on Agriculture. 381 APPENDIX H. BIBLIOGRAPHY. It is believed that the following list of publications will be found useful to the student of agricultural co-operation and agricultural credit systems adopted in various countries. During our work we have collected a large number of reference books and public reports dealing with the various subjects investigated. These publications contain very valuable matter, and have all been placed in the Provincial Library, where they may be consulted for details and statistics with which it has not been thought advisable to encumber this report. Many of these works are included in this list. It has not been our aim to make this bibliography exhaustive, and we have no doubt that many works on the subjects mentioned have been omitted which might have been included. At the same time, every care has been taken in compiling the list to make it useful as well to the general reader as to the student. The works marked with an asterisk (*) will be found in the Provincial Library. *"Acts, Australasia. New South Wales, relating to Government Savings Bank. * Queensland, to establish an Agricultural Bank. * West Australia, to establish an Agricultural Bank. 1906. * New Zealand, Advances to Settlers. 1909, 1910, 1911, consolidated 1913. * Canada, Bill to establish Co-operative Savings and Credit Societies. Ottawa, 1914. * ■ Alberta, to establish Co-operative Associations. 1913. * to establish Co-operative Farm Mortgage Association. 1913. * British Columbia, to establish Agricultural Associations. 1914. * to establish Co-operative Associations. 1897. New Brunswick, to encourage Farm Settlement. 1913. Nova Scotia, to incorporate Farmers' Associations. 1913. to encourage Settlement on Farm Lands. 1913. Saskatchewan, to establish Agricultural Co-operative Associations relating to Co-operative Elevator Companies. 1913. to incorporate Co-operative Farm Mortgage Associations. 1913, 1914. Union of South Africa, to establish a Farm Loan Bank. Orange River Colony, to establish Farm Loan Funds. 190S. * Transvaal, to establish Agricultural Associations. * United States, Bill relating to National Farm Land Banks. 1914. * Bill relating to Rural Banks. * — New York, to amend the Banking Law. 1913. "— Philippine Islands, to establish an Agricultural Bank. • Wisconsin, Market Commission Bill. 1913. * relating to Loans for Land Improvement. 1913. Adams, E. W. The Modern Farmer. San Francisco, 1899. Adams and Fant. Notes on Agricultural Co-operation in the Netherlands. (Pamphlet.) Dublin. 'Alliance, Co-operative International: Year-book of International Co-operation. ♦Amortization Tables. •Anderson, R. A. Our Creameries. (Pamphlet.) Dublin. *— Agricultural Co-operation in Ireland. Arealets Benyttelse i Danmark. Kobenhavn, 1909. •Arkell, H. S. Observations on Government Assistance to Agriculture. "Bailey, L. H. Cyclopedia of American Agriculture. (The Macmillan Co., 1913.) Balachine, A. The Siberian Co-operative Butter-making Societies. .1908. 382 British Columbia. 1914 "Banking" Law of AA'isconsin. "Barbour. The Work of the I.A.O.S. (Pamphlet.) Dublin. "Beretning. Kreditforeningen af Grundejere. Kobenhavn. *Blem, M.P. The Danish Credit Societies. (Denmark Abroad.) Copenhagen. Bertrand, L. Histoire de la Co-op&ration en Belgique. Bruxelles. Bjoernson, Erling. Om de danske Kontrolforeninger. Bjornason. Co-operation in Iceland. Bjerkness. Co-operation in Norway. Bonn, M. I. Modern Ireland and her Agrarian Problem. Dublin, 10C6. Boyve, F. de. Necessity of International Co-operation. Buchruder, A. The Organization of Co-operation for Credit, for Supply and Sale of Goods, and for United Action on Raiffeisen Principles. Berlin, 1913. "Bulstrode, W. Co-operative Farming. (Pamphlet.) (P. S. King, London.) "Bureau of Census and Statistics: Commonwealth of Australia : Production. "Cahill, J. R. An Inquiry into Agricultural Credit and Agricultural Co-operation in Germany. London, 1011. Campbell, D. The Scottish Co-operative Wholesale Societies. Carve*,' Prof. T. N. Rural Economics. "Chandler, W. H. Co-operation among Fruit Growers. Columbia, Mo. Clark, Dr. V. S. The Labour Movement in Australasia. "■Commonwealth of Australia: Official Year-book. Melbourne. ^Commission on Agricultural Co-operation and Rural Credit in Europe: Report of Investigation in Europe. Washington, 1013. Cooley, C. H. Personal Competition. New York, 1S00. Co-operation and the AVork of American Commerce in Europe. 1013. "Coulter, J. L. Co-operation among Farmers. * The Problem of Rural Credit or Farm Finance. 1013. Country Life Commission, Report. AVashington, D.C., 1909. Danmarks Statistik. Kobenhavn. Danmarks A'areomsaetning med Udlandet. Kobenhavn, 1909. "Dansk Andels Aeg Export. Kobenhavn, 1907. "Department of Agricultural and Technical Instruction for Ireland: Organization and Policy. (Pamphlet.) Dublin, 1912. Denmark: The Co-operative Movement, A Report. Desjardins: La Caisse Populaire. Co-operation in Canada. (Rep. 5th Int. Co-op. Cong.) 1902. Devine, II. C. History of the People's Co-operative Bank. (Cassell.) Duffus, William M. State Loans to Farmers. Madison, Wis., 1913. (Report on Agricultural Settlements and Farm Ownership.) Dyke Acland, A. H., and Jones, B. Working Men Co-operators. Manchester, 1S97. "Egg Export, By-laws for Circles. "Export of Meat from Denmark, A Report. Fairchild, G. T. Rural Wealth and AVelfare. New York. "Fay, C. R. Co-operation at Home and Abroad. (P. S. King, London, 1908.) Finlay, Rev. T. Agricultural Co-operation in Ireland. Dublin. "Fraser, M. State Aid to Settlers and AVorkers. AVellington, N.Z. "Fletcher, Duncan. Agricultural Credit. Washington, D.C. Graham, P. Anderson. The Rural Exodus. London. Gilman, N. P. Profit Sharing in the United States. Boston. "Green, C. E., and Young, D. Cyclopedia of Agriculture.' (W. Green & Sons, Edinburgh and London.) Hale", E. E. History of Co-operation in the United States. (John Hopkins University Press.) 1S88. "Haggard, H. Rider. Rural Denmark and its Lessons. (Longmans, Green & Co.) "Hays, W. M. Farm Management. Washington, D.C, 1912. Harris, J. N. Agricultural Co-operation and its Relation to Co-operative Distribution Societies. (Pamphlet.) (The Agricultural Organization Societies.) 4 Geo. u Royal Commission on Agriculture. 383 "Hawkes, Arthur. Special Report on Immigration. Heineman, William. A Free Farmer in a Free State. London, 1912. Derrick, M. T. Report on Land and Agricultural Credit in Europe. Washington, D.C, 1012. Hobson, J. A. Labour upon the land. (Co-operative.) (S. Sonnenschein.) "Hobart Tourist Association: Beauties of Tasmania. Holmes, George K. United States Department of Agriculture. (Bulletin OS.) Systems of Marketing Farm Products and Demand for such Products at Trade Centres. Washington. Holyoake, C J. The History of Co-operation. 2 vols. London, 1006. History of the Rochdale Pioneers. ■ The Co-operative Movement To-day. 1003. "Hughes and Neale. A Manual for Co-operators. "Hungarian Minister of Agriculture. Rural Credit and Co-operation in Hungary. Buda-Pest. International Co-operative Year-book. London, 1913. "International Institute of Agriculture. Monographs on Agricultural Co-operation in various Countries. Rome, 1911. * Bulletins, Monthly, of Agricultural Intelligence and of Plant Diseases. Rome. * • Monthly Bulletins of the Bureau of Economy and Social Intelligence. Jorgensen, Severin. Haandbog for Brugsforeninger. Kobenhavn. Jones, Benjamin. Co-operative Production. London. Klimmer, Wilhelm. Die Entwickelung des landwirtshaftlichen Genossenshaftswesens in Grossherzogtum Baden. Diisseldorf, 1906. Kralinsky, V. Organization of Small Credit in Turkestan. Krapotkin, Prince P. Mutual Aid. "Kreditforeningen af Grundejere: Statutter. Kobenhavn. Kriiger, Dr. H. Die Deutsche Genossenschaftsgesetzgebung. Leipzig. La Rossignol and Stewart: State Socialism in New Zealand. "Ledetraad for Taxationsmaend i Kreditforeningen af Grundejere. Kobenhavn. Lewis, C I. The Apple from Orchard to Market. (Bulletin No. 94.) Oregon, 1007. "Lewis, Sir Elliott. Tasmania. Hobart, 1.011. "Lloyd, H. Newest England. 1000. "Lorenzoni, G. Systems of Agricultural Credit. Washington, D.C, 1013. An Outline of European Credit Systems. Rome, Italy. Lubin, David. The International Institute of Agriculture and Co-operative Banking. Rome, Italy, 1000. Mackerow, N. The Co-operative Movement among the Peasants of West Siberia. "Marks, J. E. The Land and the Commonwealth. London, 1913. "McNeill. Co-operation and Fruit Growing. Ottawa. Meyrick. How to Co-operate. (Orange Judd, New York.) "Michell, H. The Problem of Agricultural Credit in Canada. (Pamphlet.) Kingston. 1013. "Mills, J. S. England's Foundation. "Ministere d L'Agriculture. Annuaire des Syndicats Agricole. Paris, 1911. * Dix Ans de Credit Agricole. Paris, 1011. * Le Credit Agricole. Paris, 1013. * Guide Practique pour la tenue de la compatibilite d' une Caisse locale de Credit Agricole Mutuel. Paris, 1012. "Minnesota Farmers' Institutes. Winona, Minn. "Minnesota Farmers' Library. St. Paul, Minn. "Model Rules for Co-operative Societies. (I.A.O.S.). Dublin. "Montgomery, H. de T. Notes on Agricultural Co-operation and Co-operative Agricultural Credit in Germany. Dublin, 1006. "Mulcahy, E. Tasmania Crown Lands Guide. Miiller, Dr. Friederich. Die geschichtliche Entwickelung des lanwirtshaftlichen Genossen- schaftswesens in Deutschland. Leipzig. New South Wales. Co-operative Organization of Fruit-growers. (Bulletin 26.) Sydney. "New Zealand: State Guaranteed Advances. Wellington, N.Z. 384 British Columbia. 1914 Nicholson, Sir Frederic. Report regarding the Possibility of Introducing Land and Agricultural Banks into the Madras Presidency. 2 vols. 1805-97. "Parker, Sir Gilbert. The Land for the People. (Pamphlet.) London, 1909. Parsons. The Story of New Zealand. "Perkins, A. J. Agriculture in other Lands. Adelaide. 1912. "Powell, G. H. Co-operation in Agriculture. New York, 1013. Plunkett, Sir Horace. The Rural Life Problem in the United States. (Macmillan & Co.) " Suggested Solution of the Rural Problem. (Pamphlet.) Dublin. Co-operative Dairying. Plain Talk to Irish Farmers. (Pamphlet.) Dublin. * The New Movement in Ireland. Dublin. State Aid and Self Help in Agricultural Development. (Pamphlet.) Dublin. 0 Ireland in the New Century. New York, 1008. Ellice Pilkington, and George Russell. United Irishwomen. Dublin. "Pratt, E. A. Agricultural Organization. London, 1912. The Organization of Agriculture. (John Murray.) The Transition in Agriculture. (John Murray.) * Small Holders. (P. S. King, London.) * Traders, Farmers, and Agricultural Organization. (Pamphlet.) (P. S. King & Sons.) Rabild, H. Cow-testing Associations. (Circular 1.79.) Washington. D.C, 1911. "Radford, Geo. Agricultural Co-operation. London. "Rasmussen, F. Cattle Breeding in Denmark. Washington. Reeves, W. P. State Experiments in New Zealand and Australia. 1903. "Report, Annual, of the Agricultural Organization Societies. London. "Report, Annual, of the Land Tax for the Commonwealth of Australia. Melbourne. "Report, Annual, Commission on Conservation. Canada. Ottawa. "Report, Annual, Minister of Agriculture for the Dominion of Canada. "Report, Annual, of the Irish Agricultural,Organization Societies. Dublin. "Report, Annual, Department of Agricultural and Technical Instruction for Ireland. "Report, Annual, Congested District Board for Ireland. "Report, Annual, of the National Poultry Organization Societies. London. "Report, Annual, Department of Lands. New South Wales. Sydney. "Report, Annual, of New Zealand Superintendent of Advance Office. Wellington. "Report, Annual, New Zealand Department of Agriculture and Commerce. Wellington. "Report, Annual, of the Ontario Agricultural College. "Report, Annual, of the Bureau of Industries for the Province of Ontario. Toronto. "Report, Annual, of the Ontario Agricultural and Experimental Union. "Report, Annual, of the Ontario Agricultural College and Experimental Farm. "Report, Annual, of the Ontario Horticultural Societies. "Report, Annual, of the Ontario Vegetable Growers' Association. "Report, Annual, of the Treasurer of the Philippine Islands. Manila. "Report, Annual, Queensland Department of Public Lands. Brisbane. "Report, Annual, Queensland Department of Agriculture and Stock. Brisbane. "Report, Annua], Saskatchewan Dairy Commission. Regina. "Report, Annual, of the Department of Agriculture of the Province of Saskatchewan. "Report, Annual, of the Scottish Organization Societies. "Report, Annual, on the Operation of the Agricultural Bank of Western Australia. "Report of the Royal Commission on Depression of Agriculture. London. Report of the Scottish Agricultural Commission of 1910-11 on Australia, its Land Conditions and Prospects. "Report of the Permanent American Commission on Agriculture, Co-operation, and Cooperative Credit in Europe. 1913. Report on Co-operative Agriculture and Rural Conditions in Denmark. Dublin, 1004. Report by Her Majesty's Representatives Abroad on the System of Co-operation in Foreign Countries. 1SS6. "Report of the Minister of Agriculture for the Dominion of Canada. Ottawa. 4 Geo. 5 Royal Commission on Agriculture. 385 "Report of the Fruit Growers in the Dominion of Canada. Ottawa. "Reports on Industrial and Co-operative Societies. Ottawa, 1007. "Report of the Dairy and Cold Storage Commission. Ottawa. Report of the Committee on the Establishment of Co-operative Credit Societies in India. London, 1003. "Report, Nova Scotia, of the Secretary of Industries and Immigration. "Report on Agriculture for the Province of New Brunswick. "Report, New Zealand Commission on Cost of Living. Wellington. "Report of the Minister of Agriculture for the Province of Ontario. Toronto. "Report of the Agricultural Societies of Ontario. Toronto. "Report of the Farmers' Institutes of the Province of Ontario. "Report of the Women's Institutes of the Province of Ontario. Toronto. "Report, Agricultural Credit Commission for the Province of Saskatchewan. Regina, 1013. "Report of the Saskatchewan Grain and Markets Commission. Regina, 1014. "Report of the Transactions of the Highland Societies of Scotland. "Report of the Reclamation Service of the United States. AVashington, D.C. "Report, Union of South Africa Department of Agriculture. Cape Town. "Report, Land and Agricultural Banks in South Africa. Roberts, I. P. The Farmers' Business Handbook. New York. Robinson, S. The Spirit of Association. (Murray.) "Rowntree, B. S. Land and Labour Lessons from Belgium. New York, 1010. "Russell, Geo. W. The Building up of Rural Civilization. (Pamphlet.) Dublin. * Co-operation and Nationality. Dublin, 1912. * The Rural Community. (Pamphlet.) Dublin, 1913. "Russell, Hon. Rollo. The Distribution of Land. (P. S. King & Sons, London.) "Rutherford, J. G. The International Institute of Agriculture. Lethbridge, 1913. Samuelson, J. The Rochdale Pioneers. St. Louis, Mo. "Saskatchewan Co-operative Elevator Companies. Regina, Sask. "Scholefleld, G. H. New Zealand in Evolution. "Schou, Rudolf. Danish Agriculture. (Agricultural Year-book.) Berlin. "Sinclair, J. T. Agricultural Co-operation. Madison, Wis.. 1913. * Distributive or Store Co-operation. Madison, Wis.. 1912. "Smith,. Herbert G. The Best Methods of Organization for Agricultural Co-operation and Credit. Dublin, 1903. "Sullivan, J. W. Markets for the People. (The Macmillan Co., New York, 1913.) "Tasmania, Handbook. Hobart, 1912. "Thompson, Carl, and Warber, G. P. Social and Economic Survey of Rural Township in Southern Minnesota. Minneapolis, 1913. Todd, S. E. Agricultural Co-operation. (Bulletin 192.) Toronto. United States National Monetary Commission: Miscellaneous Articles on Foreign Banking. AVashington, 1910. Aruyst M de. Le Role de la Ferinhire. Bruxelles. Webb, Catherine. Industrial Co-operation. Manchester, 1904. "Wisconsin Farmers' Institutes. Madison, Wis. "Wisconsin Market Commission Bill. "Wolff, H. W. A Co-operative Credit Handbook. London, 1909. * Agricultural Banks. * Co-operation in Agriculture. London, 1912. Co-operative Banking. London, 1907. Co-operative Credit. Co-operative Credit Banks. Credit Co-operation in Germany. First Fruits of Co-operation in India. * People's Bank. 1910. A People's Bank Manual. Village Banks. "Year-book, Official, of the Commonwealth of Australia. Melbourne. 386 British Columbia. 1914 "Year-book of the Province of British Columbia. Victoria, B.C., 1914. "Year-book, The, of Canada. "Year-book, Official, New Zealand. Wellington. "Year-book, Department of the United States. Washington, D.C. "Yerburgh, R. A. Agricultural Credit Banks. Periodicals dealing more or less with Agricultural Co-operation. Co-operation iu Agriculture. Organ of the Agricultural Organization Societies. London. The Irish Homestead. Organ of the Irish Agricultural Organization Societies. Dublin. The Agricultural Economist. London. The Small Holder and Small Owner. London. Agricultural Gazette of Canada. Ottawa. Alberta Homestead. Edmonton, Alta. Fruit and Farm. Vancouver, B.C. Poultry, Pigeons, and Pet-stock Journal. Vancouver, B.C. The Successful Poultryman. Vancouver, B.C. Homestead. Halifax, N.S. Maritime Farmer and Co-operative Dairyman. Sussex, N.B. The Journal of Agriculture. Montreal, Que. Canadian Farm. Toronto, Ont. Canadian Horticulturist. Toronto, Ont. The Farmers' Magazine. Toronto, Ont. Canadian Bee Journal. Brantford, Ont. The Farmers' Advocate. Winnipeg, Man. Farm and Home of Canada. Winnipeg, Man. American Co-operative Journal. Chicago, 111. Consumers' Co-operative Journal. New York. Co-operation. Minneapolis, Minn. Co-operative Farmer. Chicago, 111. Co-operative Magazine. Buffalo, New York. Co-operative Sale Journal. Philadelphia, Pa. "The Country Gentleman. Philadelphia, Pa. Better Farming. Fargo, N.D. Better Fruit Magazine. Hood River, Ore. Oregon Apple News. Corvalis, Ore. California Fruit-grower. San Francisco, Cal. Farm Loans and City Bonds. Chicago, 111. Northwest Pacific Farmer. Portland, Ore. Northwest Farm and Home. N. Yakima, Wash. Northwest Horticulturist. Seattle, Wash. Northwest Farm and Orchard. Spokane, Wash. Little Logged-off Farms. Seattle, AVash. Agricultural Journal. Cape Town, S.A. •Rhodesian Agricultural Journal. Agricultural Journal. Pretoria, S.A. Indian Agriculturist. Calcutta. Agriculturist. Sydney, Australia. New Zealand Farmer, Bee, and Poultry Journal. Auckland, N.Z. Dairyman. Wellington, N.Z. Garden and Field. Adelaide. Journal of Horticulture. Melbourne. Journal of the Department of Agriculture. Adelaide. The Agricultural Gazette. Sydney. INDEX. Page. Acts— Australasia— New South Wales, Advances to Settlers 27S New Zealand, Advances to Settlers . .. 266 Queensland, Agricultural Bank 274 South Australia, Agricultural Bank ... 276 Victoria, Savings Bank 279 Western Australia, Agricultural Bank.. 275 Tasmania, State Advances 281 Canada— British Columbia— Associations, Agricultural .. 34, 225, 328 Co-operative 311 Cattle-marking 18, 333 Ditches and Watercourses 16, 329 Game 19, 87, 332 Master and Servant 24, 332 Public Irrigation Companies .... 16, 332 School 23, 336 New Brunswick— Settlement of Farm Lands 307 Nova Scotia— Co-operative Associations 218 Settlement of Farm Lands 304 Ontario— Joint-stock Companies 211 Protection of Sheep 18, 333 Saskatchewan— Elevator Companies 219 Farm Mortgage Association 308 India, British- Co-operative Credit Societies 289 Ireland— The Wyndham Act 263 South Africa— Land and Agricultural Bank 284 United States— Co-operative Associations 197, 198 Advances to settlers (sec Credit). Agricultural conditions (see British Columbia). Agriculture, conditions affecting 9 Department of— Advisory Board 38, 328 Commercial Branch 33, 32S Minister of 38, 328 Alberta— Education 318 Telephones 122 Anderson, R. A 190 Altedo, Italy, collective farming 1S9 Appendices 337 Advances to settlers, Australasia 369 Bibliography 3S1 Imports, agricultural 360 Inspection 362 Irrigation data 364 Lands, British Columbia 348 Meteorological data 339 Production, agricultural 354 Publications, departmental 372 Roads, public 366 Area, living 13, 335 Fruit, infected 17, 331 Pace. Ashcroft, agricultural conditions 53 Associations, co-operative (see Societies). Australia— Credit 272 Education 314 Immigration, juvenile 115, 116 Settlers, advances to, tables 369 Banks—• Agricultural— Australia 274, 275, 276 Egypt 286 Philippine Islands 292 South Africa 2S2 Bills- Canada— The Meighen Bill 310 United States— The Fletcher Bill 301 Central— Germany 232, 241 Commercial— Intermediate, Nova Scotia 305 Co-operative— Belgium 25S Canada 310 Denmark 254 Germany 231 France 245 Holland 257 Ireland 261 Italy 250 Saskatchewan 308 Wisconsin 297 Des Jardins. Quebec 306 Joint stock— Germany 236 Mortgage— Belgium 25S Denmark 254 France 246 Germany 232 Holland 257 Italy 251 People's— Italy 253 Personal security— Belgium 259 Denmark 257 France 248 Germany 237 Holland 257 Ireland 261 Italy 251 Raiffeisen— Belgium 259 Germany 237 Ireland 261 Regional— France 248 Rural— Belgium 259 Italy 251 388 Index. Page. Banks—Concluded. Savings— Australia 279 Denmark 256 Germany 235 Italy 251 School funds, loan of (see Credit). Schultze Delitszch— Belgium 261 Germany 244 Italy 253 Small credit— Italy (Piccolo Credito) 253 Denmark 256 Ireland 263 Small holders— Denmark 255 State loans— Denmark 256 Ireland 263 France 240 Bee-keeping (see Farming in British Columbia). Belgium— Co-operation 177 Credit 258 Bella Coola District, agricultural conditions 66 Bibliography 381 Bills, agricultural credit (see Banks). Bounty or protection 99 Brands (see Cattle-marking). Bovine tuberculosis 18, 94, 333 British Columbia, agricultural conditions. . 8, 47 Ashcroft, AValhachin, Kamloops, and Rose Hill District 53 Bella Coola District 66 Bulkley Valley 67 Chilcotin country 64 Francois Lake to Fort George 6S Fraser River, South Fork 69 Fraser Valley, Lower 51 Introductory remarks 47 Keremeos and Osoyoos District 58 Kettle River Valley 59 Kootenay District, East 61 Kootenay District, North-West 61 Kootenay District, South-AVest 60 Nass Valley 06 North Thompson River, Dry Belt of the valley of 53 Nicola Valley 54 Okanagan Valley 56 Queen Charlotte Islands 65 Shuswap Lake and River District 55 Skeena Valley, Lower 67 A'ancouver Island, central and eastern portion of south— Duncan. Alberni, Comox, Gulf Islands. . 49 A'ancouver Island, southern portion of— A'ictoria, Saanich, Metchosin, Sooke ... 48 A'ancouver Island, west coast of— From Port Renfrew to north end of the Island 50 Co-operation 220 Farming (see Farming in British Columbia). Bulletins (sec Publications). Bulls and stallions running at large ... 18, 333 Bulkley Valley, agricultural conditions .... 67 Buntzen Lake, precipitation diagram 71 Butter, blended 31 Page. California— Co-operation 205 Fruit-growers' Exchange 125, 205 Marketing 123 Protective League, Citrus 207 Canada— Co-operation 211 Credit 304 Education 31S Cattle-marking 18, 333 Char-pitting 75 Charts, agricultural 37, 331 Chilcotin, agricultural conditions 64 Circulars (see Publications). Clearing, land (see Improvements). College, agricultural (see Education). Commission, members of 5 Climate (see British Columbia, agricultural conditions). Clubs (see Societies). Competitions— Field crops 221 Boys and girls' 221 Co-operation, agricultural 32, 145, 320 Belgium— Aid, State 175 Comices. the 178 Legislation 178 Problem, the 182 Societies, agricultural— Dairy, federation 180 Peasants' League, the 170 Sectarian 17S Societies, intelligence— Bee-keepers' associations 1S1 Live-stock breeders' associations .... ISO Horse-breeding associations 181 Poultry-breeders' associations 181 Societies, selling 181 The Minque 181 Societies, social—• AVomen's clubs 1S1 Societies, special 181 Dyking 181 Irrigation 1S1 Canada— British Columbia 220 Associations, agricultural— Co-operative fruit-growers' 225 Central selling agency 225 Creamery 224 Dairymen's 224 Fruit-growers' 225 Miscellaneous 227 Poultry 227 Stock-breeders' 225 Institutes, farmers' 220 Boys and girls' field-crop competitions 221 Field-crop competitions 221 Literature, distribution of 222 Packing-schools 220 Pruning-schools 220 Short courses 220 Institutes, women's 222 Conventions 224 AVork, special 223 Special features 220 Nova Scotia 218 Fruit-growers' Union 210 Legislation 218 Index. 389 Page. Co-operation, agricultural—Continued. Canada—Concluded. Ontario— Associations, intelligence— Agricultural 212 Bee-keepers' 210 Federation 210 Prices, committee on 216 Cow-testing 214 Dairying 213 Dairymen's 213 Fruit-growers' 214 Horticultural 216 Live-stock 212 Ploughmen's 210 Poultry 215 Purchasing 216 Potato-growers' 216 Vegetable-growers' 215 Purchasing 215 Clubs, farmers' 218 Institutes, farmers' 217 Better Farming Special 217 Institutes, women's 218 Union, experimental 211 Legislation 211 Saskatchewan— Dairying 220 Elevator companies 219 Legislation 219 Denmark 146 Conclusion— The change 156 Effect of the movement 156 Classification 149 Features of the system, general 146 Liability 14S Management 148 Movement, origin of the 146 Organization 146 Principles, leading 147 Shares 147 Folk high schools, the 157 Societies, distributive 149 Supply, agricultural 150 Stores 149 Societies, intelligence 154 Live stock 155 Control (cow-testing) 155 Societies, productive and marketing .. . 151 Cattle export 153 Dairy 151 Egg-collecting 154 Bacon-cuving 153 France 160 Associations, agricultural 170 Centralization 175 Union, Central 170 Union, The 176 Membership 176 Conclusion 177 Special features 177 Small holdings 157 Introduction— Movement, origin of the 160 Small holdings 177 Societies, co-operative 172 Electrical 175 Hydraulic 175 Irrigation 175 Page. Co-operation, agricultural—Continued. France—Concluded. Societies, productive and marketing— Dairy 173 Cheese-factories 174 Creameries 173 Milk-selling 174 A'intries, co-operative 175 Societies, supply 172 Syndicates, agricultural 170 Aim and function 17.1 Centralization 171-175 Characteristics 170 Membership 172 Origin, legislative 170 Organization 171 Germany— Conclusion 160 Success of the movement 160 Introduction 157 Classification 158 Societies, intelligence 167 Chamber of Agriculture 168 Control societies (cow-testing) 16S Husbandry 167 Political leagues 167 Societies, productive and marketing . . . 162 Cattle-selling 164 Degree of success 164 Methods 165 Shares and liability 165 Dairy 162 Capital, working 163 Dairy in Germany, largest 163 Membership and liability 163 - Methods 162 Shares 163 Statistics 1.63 Types of dairies 162 Egg-selling 164 Methods 164 Shares 164 Electricity 167 Grain-selling 165 Methods 166 Origin 165 State aid 165 Statistics 166 Machinery 167 Milk-selling 164 Other societies 167 Potato-spirit 166 A'intries, co-operative 166 Societies, supply 158 Advantage 161 Centralization 159 Functions 159 Liability 160 Management 160 Membership 160 Methods, business 160 Reserve fund 161 Shares 160 Statistics 160 Supplies, value of 161 Supply societies, other 161 System, growth of 158 Holland 182 Aid, State 1S4 Agricultural education 1S4 390 Index. Page. Co-operation, agricultural—Continued. Holland—Concluded. Legislation 1S2 Societies, co-operative 182 Dairy societies 183 Live-stock associations 1S3 Miscellaneous societies 184 Selling associations 1S3 Dutch auction sales 184 Horticultural societies 183 Supply societies 183 Federation 1S3 International 227 Institute, Rome 227 Activities 229 Adhering powers 228 Publications 220 League 227 Ireland 180 Aid, State ISO Aim and results 195 Change, the 195 Development, further 191 Effect, the, of movement 196 Land-tenure, system of 190 Movement, origin of 190 Organization, the 191 Problems, further 190 Plunkett House 194 Plunkett, Sir Horace 190 Societies, co-operative— Irish Agricultural Organization Society, the 101 New, organization of 193 Marketing 192 Miscellaneous 194 Productive and marketing— Agency, co-operative 192 Dairy 192 Flax 104 Poultry 193 Supply 192 AVomen's Union 194 Italy 185 Movement, origin of the 1S5 Societies, co-operative 185 Collective farming 188 The Altedo Farm 1S9 Labourers' co-operative societies . . 1S9 Effects 189 Intelligence 188 Productive and marketing associations 187 Co-operative vintries 18S Dairy societies 187 Creamery Soresina 187 Federation 188 Distilleries 1SS Fruit-selling 188 Silk production 188 Supply associations— Raw material and machinery .... 187 Agricultural 1S7 Federation 187 General stores 186 Manufacturers 1S6 Turnover 186 Rural unions 185 United States 196 Irrigation, co-operative 209 California 209 Page. Co-operation, agricultural—Concluded. United States—Concluded. Irrigation, co-operative—Concluded. Logan, Utah 209 AVashington, State of 209 Legislation 196 Movement, characteristics of the 196 Rural Life, Commission on 196 Rural life, improvement of 210 The Granges 210 Societies— Intelligence 202 Cattle-breeders' associations in Minnesota and AVisconsin 202 Circuit Council 202 Corn-breeding 204 Horse-breeding 203 Miscellaneous 210 Productive and marketing societies.. 199 Co-operation in Minnesota and AVisconsin 200 Cattle-selling agencies 202 Cheese-factories 200 Cow-testing associations 200 Dairy societies 199 Federation 199 Egg-selling in Minnesota 201 Milk-selling agencies in Eastern States 201 Selling 203 Elevator companies 203 Cranberry-selling agencies in Wisconsin 207 Pacific States, co-operation in the 205 Fruit-growers' associations 205 California Fruit-growers' Exchange 205 The Citrus Protective League 207 North Pacific Fruit Distributors 205 Supply societies 19S Union, Farmers' 208 Co-operation in the Southern States.. 20S Coquitlam Lake, precipitation diagram 771 Cranbrook, precipitation diagram 70 Credit, agricultural 25, 231, 329 Australasia— Australia— Australian system, peculiarities of . . . 274 System in Australia, effects of the . . . 273 Public opinion respecting 273 New South Wales 278 Advances to settlers, objects of 278 Particulars of 270 Security for 270 Legislation, initial 27S In force 278 Purchases of farms, advances on ... 270 Repayment, amount of 279 Security on which made 278 Statistics 270 New Zealand 265 Advances to settlers, effects of 266 Further advances 271 Legislation for 266 Advisory Board 267 Audit 271 Fees, valuation .. , 260 Fund, reserve 268 Funds, administration of 267 Index. 391 Page. Crcdi t, agricultural—Continued. Australasia—Concluded. New Zealand—Concluded. Funds, sinking 268 Loans, progressive 270 Readjustment of 270 Moneys paid in advance, disposal of. . Mortgage docket, forms of 270 Movement, advances to settlers 265 New Zealand credit system, appreciation of 271 Officers, appointment of 266 Penalties 271 Provisions of Act, general 260 Regulations, various loan 271 Regulations, loan 271 Securities, classification of 268 Visit to New Zealand, Commissioner Lucas's 265 Queensland 274 Advances to settlers, amount of 274 Repayment of 274 Purpose for 274 Security on which made 274 Supervision, rules for 274 South Australia 277 Advances to settlers, amount and repayment of 277 Particulars 278 Funds, provision for 277 Legislation 276 Regulations, loan 277 State Bank, transaction of, 1908-12 . . 278 Tasmania 281 Advances to settlers, particulars of. . . 282 Legislation 281 Loans, amount of 281 Repayment of 281 Operation of the Agricultural Bank. . 281 Purposes for 281 A'ictoria 279 Advances, amount of 280 Advances to settlers, amount of .... 280 Particulars of 2S0 Advances, repayment of 280 Legislation 279 Purposes for 280 Security on which made 279 Vineyards, orchards, etc 280 Western Australia 275 Advances to settlers, amount of .... 275 Particulars of 276 Repayment of • 276 Legislation 275 Purposes for 275 Belgium 258 Counting-houses, agricultural 261 Land mortgage 258 Comptoirs Agricoles (land banks) . . 258 Bonds 259 Loans 250 Statistics 250 Savings banks 250 Function 250 Guarantee -259 Personal security 259 Rural banks 259 Administration 250 Associations, local 260 Central banks 260 20 Page. Credit, agricultural—Continued. Belgium—Concluded. Personal security—Concluded. Rural banks—Concluded. Federation of 259 Function 259 Organization 260 Statistics 260 Schultze Delitszch banks 261 Canada 304 Meighen Bill, the 310 New Brunswick 307 Farms, improved, sale of 307 Lands offered for sale 307 Provisions for funds SOS Regulations 307 Sale, terms of 307 Nova Scotia 304 Farms, ready-made 306 Features, special 305 Guarantee 304 Interest and amortization 305 Regulations, loan 304 Quebec, Caisses Populaires 300 Des Jardins, M 306 Administration 307 Banks, number of 306 Operations, character of 307 Saskatchewan 308 Association, farm mortgage 30S Administration 308 Advance, limit of 309 Assistance, Government 309 Bonds, mortgage 309 Funds, sinking 309 Legislation 308 Loans 309 Members, status of 308 Rate 309 Repayment 309 Terms 309 Conclusion 310 Denmark 254 Loans, land mortgage 254 Communal credit associations 256 Credit associations 254 Bonds 255 Loans 255 Object 255 Statistics 255 Personal credit 257 Savings banks 256 Administration 256 Function 256 Loans 256 Origin 256 Small holders' credit associations .... 255 Benefits 256 Government guarantee 256 Loans 256 Supervision 250 State loans to cottagers 256 Loans 257 Origin 257 Principles 257 Egypt 286 Banks, other agricultural 289 Concession 28S System, special features of 287 Loans, amount of 288 392 Index. Page. Credit, agricultural—Continued. Egypt—Concluded. Security 289 Success, causes of 287 Transaction, amount of 286 European systems, summary 265 Failures in the United States 300 Findings, summary 328 France 245 Land mortgage credit banks 246 Bank of France . 246 Functions 246 Organization 246 Restrictions, legal 246 Credit Foncier 246 Administration 246 Capital stock 247 Debentures 247 Loan, regulations 247 Merits 247 Origin 247 Personal security loans 24S Credit Agricole 248 Bank of France, relation to 249 Business, amount of 250 Caisses Locales 248 Caisses Regionales 24S Loans, collective 250 Loans, short-term 24S Operations of 248 Organization 248 Origin 248 Regulations, loan 249 Statistics 250 Syndicates, relation to the 248 Germany 231 Banks, land credit mortgage 232 Joint-stock mortgage companies 236 Characteristics 236 Statistics 236 Land-improvement banks 236 Landschaften, Die 232 Administration 233 Centralization 232 Membership 233 Merits, flexibility 234 Organization 233 Origin 232 Regulations, loan 233 Rent-charge banks 236 Savings banks 235 Function 235 Loans 235 State mortgage credit banks 234 Administration 235 Characteristics 234 Loans 235 Classification 231 Personal security 237 Raiffeisen associations 237 Administration 240 Achievements, local 243 Bank, Central 239 Capital, working 240 Centralization 241 Guarantees 243 Liability 240 Loans 241 Membership 239 Principles, guiding 238 Statistics 242 Page. Credit, agricultural—Continued. Germany—Concluded. Personal security—Concluded. Schultze Delitszch societies 244 Administration 245 Capital, working 245 Features, special 244 Liability 245 Loans, amount of 245 Organization 244 Principles 244 Shares 244 Regulations, general 245 Statistics 245 Territory 244 Holland 257 Land mortgage 257 The Eindhoven Bank 257 Loans 257 Shares 257 Personal security 257 The Eindhoven societies 258 Consolidation 258 Statistics 258 The Utrecht societies 25S Liability 25S Loans 25S Statistics 258 India, British 2S9 Legislation 2S0 Loans 290 Objects 290 Principles and regulations, leading .... 290 Supervision 291 System, effects of the 291 Transaction, statistics 291 Ireland 261 Personal security 261 Capital, source of 262 Capital, working 262 Guarantee 262 Membership 262 Organization, central 262 Origin 261 Regulations, loan 262 Supervision 263 Italy 250 Classification 250 Land mortgage 251 Institutions 251 Regulations, loan 251 Statistics 251 Personal security 251 Popular banks 253 Bonds 253 Business, amount of 254 Capital, source of 254 Functions 253 History 253 Loans 253 Management 254 Membership 254 Principles 253 Statistics 254 Rural banks 251 Capital, working 252 Features, special 253 Guarantees 253 History of 251 Loans 252 Membership 252 Index. 393 Page. Credit, agricultural—Continued. Italy—Concluded. Personal security—Concluded. Rural banks—Concluded. Sectarian and neutral banks 251 Small credit banks 253 Regulations 252 Statistics 253 Supervision 253 Loans, State— Australasia 265, 2S2 British Columbia 33, 329 France 246 Germany 236 India, British 2S9 Ireland 263 United States 293-297 Philippine Islands 292 Administration 292 Capital, working 292 Funds, source of 292 Loans, amount of 293 Regulations, loan 292 Union of South Africa 2S2 Land and Agricultural Bank for South Africa 284 Accounts, cash credit 285 Administration 285 Regulations, loan 2S5 Societies, co-operative, credit to .... 2S5 Natal, Province of 282 Orange Free State 2S3 Transvaal 282 United States— Associations, credit, in Wisconsin 297 Advance, method of 298 Appraisal 208 Bonds, regulations 200 Interest 208 Legislation 207- 300 Loan, purpose of 208 Provisions, various 200 Repayments 208 Security 200 Terms 299 Failures in the United States 300 New Jersey 300 New York 300 AA'isconsin 300 Fletcher Bill, the 301 Administration 301 Agencies 303 Appraisement 304 Bonds, National Farm Land Bank . . 301 Banks, powers of 301 Capital, amount of 302 Dividends 302 Formation, mode of 301 Incorporation, form of 301 Liability, nature of 303 Loans, repayment of 302 Management 303 National Farm Land Bank 301 Postal savings banks, deposits from. . 303 Powers, restriction of 302 Privileges to be granted 303 Real-estate regulations 303 Stock, capital 301 Supervision 304 Page. Credit, agricultural—Concluded. United States—Concluded. Fletcher Bill—Concluded. System, proposed 301 Taxation, exemption from 303 School funds, loans from 293 Idaho 293 Indiana 293 Iowa 294 North Dakota -294 Oklahoma 295 Oregon 205 South Dakota 205 Utah 295 AA'isconsin 296 Crown lands (see Lands). Customs tariff 32, 334 Dairying (sec Farming). Denmark— Co-operation 146 Credit 254 High schools, folk 157 Diagrams, precipitation 70 Ditches and AVatercourses Act 16, 330 Draining (sec Improvement). Duty (sec Customs). Dry-farming 13, 64 Education, agricultural 36, 314, 330 Alberta 31S Extension work 319 Schools, farm 318 Science, domestic 319 University 319 Australia 314 Bureau, Microbiological 317 Colleges, agricultural 315 The Gatton Agricultural College, Queensland 317 The Hawkesbury College, New South AVales 315 Roseworthy College, South Australia 310 Colleges, agricultural, training in the . . 317 High schools, agricultural 314 High schools in A'ictoria, agricultural .. 315 Information, agricultural 318 Nature-study and school gardening .... 314 Research, agricultural 317 Stations, demonstration 318 Universities, departments of, agricultural 317 Illinois 325 Extension, Agricultural College 325 Manitoba 320 College 320 Courses, agricultural 322 Degree 321 Diploma 321 Short 321 Department, co-operation with 321 Train, farmers' special 321 University, relation to 321 Minnesota 326 Advisers, county 326 Extension, university 326 Ontario 323 College 324 District representatives 323 Elementary 324 Elementary courses, provision for .... 324 Teachers, training courses for 325 Institutes, farmers' 323 394 Index. Page. Education, agricultural—Concluded. Saskatchewan— Schools, elementary 319 High 319 University, extension 319 Competitions, ploughing 320 Competitions, stock-judging 320 Course, certificate 319 Degree 319 Dairying 320 Engineering, farm 320 Lectures, demonstration 320 AA'ork, extension 320 Teachers 30, 329 AVashington, State of 322 Appropriation 323 Endowment, land 323 Endowment funds 323 Experiment station 323 Experimental station. North-west 323 Farm, The 323 Legislation 323 AVisconsin, State of 32G Advisers, county 326 Schools, elementary 327 Public grant 327 Eggs to be labelled 31, 334 Elevator companies, co-operative— Saskatchewan 219 United States 203 Exchange, Fruit-growers', California 205 Explosives 76 Farm, experimental— British Columbia 37 Holdings, table 34S Improved— New Brunswick 307 Nova Scotia 306 Lands, tenure, table 349 Farmers' institutes (see Societies). Farming, better, " special " 217, 321 Farming in British Columbia 81 Bee-keeping 113 Inspection, table 363 Dairying 80 Aid in Saskatchewan, Government .... 93 Association, British Columbia Dairymen's 224 Breeds, distribution of 92 Crops, fodder 92 Farm, average, expenditure and income 91 Industry, development of the 93 Development, present 93 Herds, improvement of 02 Milch-cows, distribution of SO Milk products, amount of 80 Production, butter 00 Price obtained by producers 00 Ration in the Fraser A'alley, dairy .... 00 Statistics, tables 330 Fruit-growing 06 Association, British Columbia Fruitgrowers' 10S Bounty for boxed apples, or protection 00 Conditions, present 102 Difficulties, local 101 Factories, fruit-preserving, in British Columbia 100 Industry, development of the 07 Market situation 06 Page. Farming in British Columbia—Concluded. Fruit-growing—Concluded. Pacific States, fruit-growing in the .... 104 Blight, control of 107 By-products industry 108 Electric power and light 107 Facilities, mechanical 107 Materia], cost of, in AVashington and Oregon 100 Operation, cost of 105 Orchards, returns from, in Washington and Oregon 100 Production, cost of, in AA'ashington and Oregon 105 Methods of 104 Crops, cover 1.07 Irrigation 105 Sprays and spraying methods 107 Small-fruit industry in the State of AA'ashington 10S A'alues. laud, in AA'ashington and Oregon 10 Small-fruit industry 102 Small fruit, transportation of 103 Storage, cold 103 Investigation, experimental 104 Statistics, tables 357 Transportation 1.00 Freight rates 100 Live stock SI Boef cattle SI Districts, suitability of 81 Hog raising . . 88 Horses 85 Sheep-raising 85 Districts, suitability of 86 Depredatory animals 87 Statistics, tables 354 Poultry-keeping Ill Development Ill Poultry Association. British Columbia. . 112 Poultry-raising, profits of Ill Turkey-breeding 112 Statistics, tables 355 Tuberculosis, bovine 18, 04, 333 Conclusions 94 Conditions, present 90 Eradication, work of 05 Farm schools 37, 115. 331 Fertilizers, deposits, conservation of, findings 14, 331 Findings, summary of 328 Finlay, Rev. T. A 261 Fletcher Bill, the 301 Folk high schools, Denmark 157 France— Co-operation, agricultural 100 Credit, agricultural 245 Francois Lake to Fort George, agricultural conditions 6S Fraser River, South Fork District, agricultural conditions 60 Fraser A'alley. Lower, agricultural conditions 51 Fruit areas infected, findings 17, 331 Fruit-growing (see Farming iu British Columbia). Game law 10, 332 Germany— Co-operation 157 Credit 231 Index. 3!J£ Page. Granges, the, United States 210 Holland- Co-operation 1S2 Credit 257 Illinois, education, agricultural 325 Immigration, juvenile 24, 114, 332 Canada, juvenile immigration to 116 Emigration Society, Child 115 Royal Colonial Institute, plan of the .... 114 AVest Australia, a farm school in 115 Young labourers, immigration of, to Australia 110 Imports, agricultural, tables 360 Improvement, land— Clearing, laud 14, 72, 333 British Columbia 72 AVashington, State of, conditions 72 AA'isconsin 72 AVest Australia, State aid 73 Explosives 76 Sabulite 78 Steelite 77 Stumping-powder, nitro-glycerine 77 NL-ite 77 Findings, the Commission's 14, 333 Machinery— Engines, clearing with 72 Machines, stump-pulling 74 Kirstin, one-man stump-puller 75 Samson Extractor 75 Trewhella Monkey AVinch 74 Methods— Char-pitting 75 Chemical processes 75 Permits to burn slashings 16, 333 Liming 70 Fertilizers, deposits, reserve of 70 Prison labour SO Draining 78 Cement tile, manufacture of 70 Ontario, draining in 70 Tile, cost o£ 79 By-products 75 Explosives 76 Machinery 72 Methods, various 75 Stumps, utilization of 75 Indian reserves, nuisances 14, 332 Inquiry, procedure at 6 Inspection, tables— Apiaries 363 Fruit % 362 Nursery stock 363 Poultry 10, 334 Institute, National, Rome 227 Institutes, farmers'— British Columbia 220 Ontario 217 Institutes, women's— British Columbia 222 Ontario 218 Ireland— Co-operation ISO Credit '. 261 Irrigation 10. 332. 364, 365 Italy- Co-operation 1S5 Credit 250 Journal, monthly 30, 331 Kamloops, agricultural conditions 53 Precipitation diagram 70 Pace. Kelp groves 14 Keremeos, agricultural conditions 'OS Kettle River A'alley, agricultural conditions. . 50 Kirstin, the (see Stumping-machiues). Kootenay, East, District, agricultural conditions 62 Kootenay, North-AA'est, District, agricultural conditions 61 Kootenay, South-AA'est, District, agricultural conditions 60 Labour— Agricultural 23, 113 Findings, the Commission's 24, 332 Masters and Servants Act 24, 332 Passages to immigrants, assisted 114 Relative supply 114 Domestic 24 Prison 10, 80, 335 Land classifiers (see Settlements). Clearing (see Improvements). Crown, disposal of 13, 335 Public 11 Reservation of 13 Statistics, tables— Crown grants 350 Pre-emptions 350 Purchase 351 Real property 352 Sales of 351 Surveyed 351 Wild 353 Landshaftcn, Die 232 Licence, gun 10, S7, 332 Lillooet, agricultural conditions 53 Lillooet Lake, precipitation diagram 71 Liming (see Improvement, land). Live stock (see Farming iu British Columbia). Living, high cost of 11 Loans, State (see Credit). Luzatti, Luigi 25.'! Lytton, agricultural conditions 53 Machinery (sec Improvement, land). Manitoba— Education 320 Telephones, rural 121 Map, precipitation, British Columbia 70 Maps for distribution (see Publications). Marketing 30, 123 Express companies, distribution through, in the United States 131 Findings, the Commission's 32, 334 Pacific States, system of marketing in the 123 Associations, local, AVashington, Oregon, and California 126 Agencies, distributing, AA'ashington and Oregon 124 California, fruit-marketing concerns in. . 125 Fruit-growers' Exchange 125 Cured fruit, fruit-mnrketing concerns . . 126 Deciduous fruit, fruit-marketing concerns 120 Small fruit, co-operative handling of, Washington 127 Washington and Oregon, fruit-marketing concerns in 124 Prairie Provinces, marketing situation in the 127 Fruit, marketing, channels of 128 Brokers 120 Distribution, co-operative 130 Distribution, general condition of . . . 131 Express companies, distribution through 131 390 Index. Page. Marketing—Concluded. Prairie Provinces—Concluded. Fruit—Concluded. Merchants, commission 120 AVholesale houses 120 Railway administration in South Africa, distribution through the 132 Markets, public 34, 135 Findings, the Commission's 34, 334 Producer to consumer 135 Typical markets— Australia 144 Canada 137 United States, the 130 Meighen Bill 310 Mcllaerts, Abbe 179 Meteorological tables 341 Minnesota— Co-operation 190, 201, 202 County advisers 326 University extension 326 Municipal school area, extension of .... 23, 336 Nass River A'alley, agricultural conditions .. 66 Nelson, precipitation diagram 70 New Brunswick, improved farms 307 New South AVales— Advances to settlers 278 Education 315 New Zealand, advances to settlers 205 Nicola Valley, agricultural conditions 54 North Thompson River, Dry Belt of 53 North Pacific Fruit Distributors 124, 265 Nova Scotia— Co-operation 218 Ready-made farms 308 Noxious weeds (see Weeds). Okanagan VaUey, agricultural conditions ... 56 Ontario— Co-operation 211 Education 323 District representatives, agricultural .... 324 Marketing 215 Osoyoos District, agricultural conditions ... 5S Peasants' League, Belgium 170 Periodicals, list of 386 Permits to burn slashings 14, 333 Philippine Islands, credit 292 Plunkett, Sir Horace 190 Poultry, imported (see Inspection). Poultry-keeping (sec Farming iu British Columbia). Precipitation— Annual, table 344 Average, table 347 Data (see British Columbia, agricultural conditions). Diagrams 70, 71 Map 70 Pre-emptions, tables 353 Prison labour (see Improvement). Production, agricultural, in British Columbia 354 Fruit, fresh 357, 358 Canned 360, 361 Grains 355 Hay 356 Total 359 Vegetables 356 Protection 334 Protective League, Citrus (see California). Purchase of public land, tables 351 Page. Publications, departmental 372 Bulletins and circulars— Dominion 375 Provincial 372 Maps 374 Quebec, Caisses Populaires 306 Queen Charlotte Islands, agricultural conditions 65 Queensland— Advances to settlers 274 Education 315 Raiffeisen, F. W 237 Real estate, misrepresentation 15, 335 Recommendations (see Findings). Representatives, district 331 Reserves, Indian, nuisances on 14, 335 Roads, public 21, 118 Condition 118 Construction, findings 22, 335 Ontario, road-building in 119 State of AVisconsin 118 Statistics 366 Subdivision, in (findings) 22, 335 AVidth of 22, 119, 335 Rose Hill District, agricultural conditions . . 54 Royalty, stumpage 16, 333 Sabulite (sec Explosives). Salmon Arm, agricultural conditions 55 Samson Extractor (see Stumping-machiues). Saskatchewan— Co-operation 219 Credit 308 Education 319 Telephones 121 School funds, loans from 293 Schulze, Francis 237 Season, growing, tables 346 Sessions held •> Settlement, closer (findings) 13, 335 Sheep, protection to 18, 87, 333 Shuswap Lake and River Districts, agricultural conditions 5o Skeena River District, Lower, agricultural conditions 67 Societies—■ Agricultural— Belgium 178 British Columbia 227 France 170 Holland 182 Italy 1S5 Nova Scotia '■ • • 218 Ontario 212 Bacon-curing, Denmark 153 Bee-keepers'— Belgium 181 Ontario 216 Boerenbond—- Belgium 170 Holland 183 Cattle-breeding— British Columbia 224 Denmark 155 Minnesota 202 Ontario 212 Cattle-selling agencies— Denmark 153 Germany 164 Minnesota 202 Index. 397 PAGE. Societies—Continued. Clubs, farmers'—■ Denmark 155 Ontario 21S Clubs, women's— Belgium 181 Ontario 218 Ireland 104 Corn-breeders', United States 204 Cow-testing— Denmark 155 Germany 168 AVisconsin 200 Credit, agricultural (see Banks). Dairying— Belgium 180 British Columbia 224 Denmark ; 151 France 173 Germany 162 Holland 183 Ireland 102 Italy 187 Ontario 213 Saskatchewan 220 United States 100 Dyking, Belgium 181 Egg-collecting—• Denmark 154 Germany 162 Ireland 103 Minnesota 201 Electric light and power— France 175 Germany 167 Elevator companies— Germany 165 Saskatchewan 210 United States 203 Experimental Union, Ontario 211 Farming, collective, Italy 18S Flax, Ireland 104 Fruit-growers' associations— British Columbia 225 California 125, 204, 205 Italy 188 Nova Scotia 219 Ontario 214 AVashington -124, 205 AVisconsin 207 Grain-selling societies— Germany 165 Saskatchewan 219 United States 203 Granges, United States 210 Horse-breeders'— Belgium 181 United States 203 Horticultural— Holland 183 Ontario 216 Husbandry, Germany 167 Hydraulic, France 175 Institutes, farmers'-— British Columbia 220 Ontario 217 Institutes, women's— British Columbia 222 Ontario 218 Irrigation— Belgium 181 Page. Societies—Continued. Irrigation—Concluded. France 175 California 209 Italy 185 United States 208 Utah 209 AVashington 209 Labourers, collective, Italy 189 League— International 227 Peasants', Belgium 179 Protective, Citrus, California 125, 205 Live-stock— Belgium 180 British Columbia 224 Denmark 155 Germany . .; 164 Holland 1S3 Minnesota 202 Ontario 212 AVisconsin 202 Live-stock improvement, Ontario 213 Machinery, Germany 167 Manufacturing, Italy 180 Milk-selling— Denmark 174 Germany 164 United States 201 Official- Chamber (Germany) 168 Comices (Belgium) 178 Council (Germany) 1.68 Organization, Irish agricultural 191 Peasants' League— Belgium 179 Holland 183 Political (agrarian) — Germany 168 United States 227 Potato-growers', British Columbia 216 Potato-spirit distillers', Germany 166 Poultry-keepers'— Belgium 181 British Columbia 227 Ireland 193 Ontario 215 Rural, Italy 1S5 Selling agencies— Belgium 1S1 British Columbia 224, 225 California 205 Denmark 151 France 174 Germany 164 Holland 183 Ireland 102 Nova Scotia 219 Oregon 214, 216 United States 203 Washington 125, 205 Silk, Italy 188 Stores— Denmark 149 England 106 Italy 1S6 Supply— British Columbia 220 California 198 Denmark 150 France 172 398 Index. Page. Societies—Concluded. S u ppl y—Co ncludcd. Germany 158 Holland 1S3 Ireland 192 Italy 1S5, 186 Ontario 215 Syndieats Agricolcs— Belgium 179 France 170 Vegetable-growers', Ontario 215 A'intries— France 175 Germany 166 Italy 1S8 Soil, analysis 37, 331 South Africa, Union of—• Credit 282 Marketing 132 South Australia, advances to settlors 276 Spencps Bridge, agricultural conditions .... 53 Stations, meteorological 339 Experimental 323 Statistics, agricultural (sec Appendices). Stumpage (sec Royalty). Stumping-ongines 72 Machines 74 Subdivisions, roads in 22, 335 Summary. European credit systems 265 Findings of the Commission 328 Steelite (see Explosives). Tariff (sec Customs). Tasmania, advances to settlers 281 Tax. improvement 22, 336 School, municipal 23, 336 Provincial 23, 336 AVild land 12 Telephone, rural system— Findings, the Commission's 19, 336 Prairie Provinces, in the— Alberta 122 Manitoba 121 Saskatchewan 121 Temperature— Data, general (see British Columbia, agricultural conditions). Tables 341 Moan 345 Training, farm school 37, 331 Transmittal, letter of 1 Page. Transporta tion— Findings 35, 334 Fruit 100 Small fruit 103 Trewhella (sec Stumping-machincs). Tuberculosis, bovine 18, 94, 333 Union, Farmers', United States 20S United States- Co-operation 196 Credit 293 Education 323, 325 University, State— British Columbia 30, 330 Relation to agricultural college 321 Saskatchewan 319 A'ancouver Island, central and eastern part of southern portion- Duncan, Alberni, Comox, Gulf Islands, agricultural conditions 49 A'ancouver Island, southern portion— A'ictoria, Saanich, Metchosin, Sooke, agricultural conditions 48 A'ancouver Island, west and north coast, agricultural conditions 50 A'ictoria, Australia, advances to settlors . . . 279 A'ictoria, precipitation diagram 71 A'ernon, precipitation diagram 70 Walhachin, agricultural conditions 53 Washington, State of— Co-operation 205 Education, agricultural 322 Experiment Station 323 Prison labour 80 Weeds, noxious 17. 334 Well boring, artesian 16, 336 Western Australia, advances to settlers .... 275 Wild land, tax 12 Tables 353 Wisconsin, State of— Advisers, county 326 Co-operation 200, 207 Credit 290, 297 Education, elementary 327 Prison labour SO Road-building 118 Wollemborg, Hon. Leone 251 AVomen's institutes (see Societies). Wyndham Act 263 NLite (see Explosives). VICTORIA, B.C. : Printed by William II. Cit.lix, Printer to the King's Must Excellent Majesty. 1914. PRECIPITATION MAP FOR SEASON OCT 1. 1912 TO SEPT 30. 1913 Drawn by Geographic Branch Surveyor-Generals Office To ACCOMPANY BULLETIN No 27. THE CLIMATE or BRITISH COLUMBIA'
Other Copies: http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/605954924
Legislative proceedings
English
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Victoria : William H. Cullin
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Original Format: British Columbia Legislative Library. BC ZR1912A3 B 1914
British Columbia--Agriculture
Full report of the Royal Commission on Agriculture appointed on the 4th day of December, 1912, under the " Public Inquiries Act"
Text