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dcterms:isPartOf "University Publications"@en ;
dcterms:issued "2015-07-15"@en, "1944-06"@en ;
edm:aggregatedCHO "https://open.library.ubc.ca/collections/alumchron/items/1.0224166/source.json"@en ;
dc:format "application/pdf"@en ;
skos:note """ JUNE,1944 ,
HON. E. C. CARSON
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THE GRADUATE CHRONICLE ...when uou plan for Canada's future
Canada, when this war is ended, will
stand on the threshold of a splendid
and challenging opportunity. The need
will be there, the time will be ripe, for
vast, unprecedented development.Will-
ing hands will be there a-plenty
accumulated wealth will be there,
national resources and the power to
convert them to the general good will
be there. Let us plan courageously when
we figure out Canada's future.
Let us plan for lovelier, more labour-
saving homes . . . plan for spacious- and
beautiful towns. Let us plan for wider,
safer highways, well-graded and well-lit
... for modernized railroads, for greater
electrification . . . for new bridges, new
clover-leafs. Let us plan the spread of
rural electrification until its benefits
reach every farm and every hamlet.
Let us plan with vision for a richer
cultural life. Let us plan new centres of
science and art . . . colleges, laboratories, dramatic-centres, galleries. Let
us plan, for leisure and health, new open
spaces in our cities and towns . . . new
sports bowls, new swimming pools. Let
us plan the modernization of our factories, offices and stores, by re-equipment
and reorganization. Let us plan for
lighter work yet greater productivity
. . . for increased speed yet greater
safety. Let us plan for fuller living,
greater opportunity, economic security.
While there must not be the slightest
relaxation of our all-out efforts to win
the war — we must plan and we must
start planning now. We have had our
lesson in unpreparedness. We must not
gamble with peace as we gambled with
war.
Many governmental municipal and
industrial groups already are planning.
Many individuals are planning. But not
enough. More planning, much more
planning is needed. Whether we are
houseowners, business operators,
farmers, civic leaders — let us at J plan
for Canada's postwar future ... let us
plan with confidence, with courage —
For by planning today, we prepare
ready-made markets for tomorrow,
markets which will absorb our fullest
productive effort and thus create gainful employment for everyone.
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THE GRADUATE CHRONICLE The graduate hiisiimhi:
Published by the Alumni Association of
the University of British Columbia
JUNE, 1944
Editor: Darrell T. Braidwood, M.A., Barrister at Law
Associate Editor: A. D. Creer, M.E.I.C, M.Inst.C.E.
Assistant Editors:
Dorothy Taylor, B.A.; Donald A. C. McGill, B.A.
Business Manager: W. E. G. Macdonald
TABLE OF CONTENTS
11:59
Page
- 7
INDUSTRIES OF BRITISH COLUMBIA 10
PERSONAL NEWS AND NOTES 13
THE PLACE OF THE MINING INDUSTRY
IN BRITISH COLUMBIA 16
EDITORIAL 18
THE STONE .__.__ 20
POST-DISCHARGE REHABILITATION . . .
THE RECORD SO FAR!
22
THE FUTURE OF ENGINEERING 24
TEAM WORK IN TOWN AND COUNTRY
PLANNING 29
THE UNIVERSITY'S RETIRING PRESIDENT 30
CO-OPERATIVE ASSOCIATION A SUCCESS 32
U.B.C. INVADES THE CAPITAL 3 5
Editorial Office:
Alumni Assn. Office,
Brock Bldg.,
University of B. C.
Published at Vancouver, British Columbia.
Business Office:
16 - 555 Howe Street
Vancouver, B. C.
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THE GRADUATE CHRONICLE By R. S. LYND,
Chairman of the Department of Sociology in the
Graduate School of Columbia University.
Editor's Note: This article first appeared in the March 26, 1944, edition of PM, New
York. It is the Chronicle's policy to present as many views as possible on current problems and we feel that this article expresses one of those views. The material herewith is
used by permission of the author. Limitations of space have unfortunately necessitated
some condensation of the original article.
A wide, and I believe disastrous, gap exists between what
the decent people of the democracies are hoping for out of
this war and what the pressure of circumstances and organized power under the surface in democracy may force upon
them. Both here and in England these people hope that something really better will come out of the war, but private
thinking tends to be brow-beaten by the need to get on with
the war.
We Americans lag somewhat behind Britain in our awareness of the extent of impending change. Our mood—and our
American soldiers in Britain share it—is like that of a man
driving along a broad concrete road at 50 miles an hour who
has come to a barrier marked Detour—Road Under Repair; so
he is now, during the war, bumping along at 15 miles an
hour in the field beside the road; but he takes it for granted
that right up ahead behind that clump of trees he'll be back
on the concrete.
In England, on the other hand, as they bump along over
the rough war road, everybody takes it for granted that there
will be extensive new road-building ahead. If our hopes are
for a better "world in general," the people of Britain see their
own national institutions as also involved.
But I felt in England, as I feel here, a basic unprepared-
ness and helplessness of the ordinary folk to implement their
hopes, and the strong likelihood that the pressure of circumstances—specifically, the need for swift, effective action, and
the pressure of organized power groups—will force upon them
concurrence in a world they never intended.
I am reluctantly skeptical of the great plans of liberal intellectuals and of the hopes of liberal citizens for a brave new
world out of this war. I am skeptical because I believe democracy is unready and, especially, unorganized to state its program positively and to see that program through by organized
action. I believe that it is now 11:59 p.m. and events have
an accumulated momentum that probably cannot be stopped
or even seriously deflected in this final minute of feverish
effort.
In attempting to appraise the future, I make the following
assumptions:
1. One may not expect new and better things of the postwar world merely because men of good will all over the world
are fed up with war, depression and unemployment, aggressive
nationalism, and fascism.
2. There is every likelihood that the dominant direction
of thrust of economic and political institutions before the war
will primarily determine what we get after the war.
3. How institutions operate depends primarily upon who
has power—not theoretical power but factual power to do
decisive things.
4. In so far as war or any other emergency puts pressure
on this factual structure of power to change conditions, the
tendency of those in control is either to intensify their power
tactics enough to beat down the opposition or to make the
least possible changes necessary to keep the going system
running.
It becomes crucially important, therefore, to ask: Who
really wields controlling power in an industrial nation like
the United States? And what are they after? As democrats
we Americans have believed that political power should be
diffused among all adult citizens. The state has no independent power, but holds its power from the citizens.
Latent within the American attempt to marry political
democracy and private capitalism was a major conflict between majority rule and minority property rights.
The preponderant weight of economic power in the Constitutional Convention, while conceding the outward forms of
political democracy, went on to cripple democratic power at
the source by parcelling up this power by a marvellously dexterous system of barriers to its expression. And political power
was diffused among the people on the unstated, but factually
double-locked, assumption that it was not to be used to diffuse equality in the economic sphere.
Actually, our nation was founded in a backswing of revulsions from centralized power. Such power was viewed as
a thing to be feared, not used. The problem of power was
stated negatively. And our political democracy has, all down
through our national life, been casual to the point of recklessness about the positive development of its own authority.
Formally, the democratic state has held all the aces; but
actually as time has passed, to use Harold Laski's words, "The
disproportion in America between the actual economic control and the formal political power is almost fantastic."
Despite intermittent guerilla skirmishes between state power
and private economic power, American democracy has been
sluggish about recognizing the challenge to its very existence
involved in growing economic power. Several factors have
encouraged this casual attitude within democracy:
1. The issue between democratic power and private economic power has been viewed primarily only as a regional
issue between agrarian and eastern industrial states.
2. Again, the fact that American democracy began
coincidentally with the amazing productive advance we call
JUNE, 1944 the Industrial Revolution and the opportunity to exploit the
vast internal empire of the United States made it easy for the
citizens of democracy to take democracy for granted as essentially completed, whereas we had made only a beginning; and
to turn their backs on democracy's unfinished business and to
plunge into the grand personal adventure of growing rich.
3. The American way—loose-jointed, wasteful, evoking
prodigies of energy from men in the raw frontier era of preempt and exploit—has yielded a sumtuous take. And to a
nation manifestly growing rich, the growing insecurities
within such a predatory institutional system have prompted
us to seek security not through re-examining the system and
its contradictions but through the simpler process of reaffirming the perfection and finality of the Constitution.
Such has been the theory of power held by us hopeful and
busy Americans. But what is the fact of power in industrial
society today?
1. First, power is indivisible and economic power is political power. The effort to view political power and economic
power as separate things is, has been, and always will be a
fiction. Democracies have been able to avoid recognizing
this unified nature of power because they have fostered the
illusion that the State represents the common interests of the
people.
In connection with the weak role of the general public,
let me stress the fact that power means effective power, and
effective power in modern society means organized power. A
crucial problem democracy faces today is its lack of effective
organization to carry on its affairs. We have proceeded, all
down through our national life, on the casual assumption that
men are rational, free, and know what is best for them; and
that no positive philosophy of social organization is therefore
needed, because men can be counted on to recognize the need
for organizing themselves wherever that need exists and to go
ahead and organize themselves.
The catch is that that assumption about human behavior
just isn't true. And, as a result, the social organization of the
United States today is a shamples, characterized by grossly
uneven organization, with business and industry increasingly
extensively and effectively organized, with labor rising in
organization to meet organized business, and with organization
behind other interests of the people of democracy lamentably
weak and spotty. This, I submit, is a design for democratic
impotence.
The power of the meagerly organized or unorganized
people of democracy tends to become chiefly the power to
protect raggedly after the fact, after a fait accompli, like a
man futilely running after the ever-receding rear platform of
a train.
2. A second important aspect of power in industrial
society today is its technological base. Power in earlier eras
was founded on land; later it was based on finance, the control of free capital; but today the basis of power is control
over technology. What I mean is that the business system of
power that controls giant technology controls the core of
power in industrial society.
Look at the way big industry has moved in on the Government in this war and is coercing the Government to run
the war effort as business itself dictates. In England business
has similarly moved into Whitehall; there are 61 officers in
the Ministry of Supply holding senior posts remunerated at
£600 a year or more whose services have been made available
by Imperial Chemical Industries, Ltd., alone.
3. The central political fact in the world today is the
candid merging of state power with this technologically-based
economic power. The day is past, forever, when a nation
could afford to view what businessmen do as primarily only
the concern of businessmen.
In the United States, operating under private capitalism
and with some fifteen billion dollars of new wartime productive plant—super-efficient and built for mass production
—the structure of our industry has been seriously altered by
the war; and foreign trade in greater volume and variety will
be an absolute essential for even approximate economic stability. And if we are in this box, I need not elaborate how
desperate is Britain's need to crowd the tradeways of the world
with her product.
What this sort of thing means, in nation after nation, is
that business, on the one hand, is less and less willing and able
to tolerate checks on its activities by the State; whereas the
State, on the other hand, having delivered its welfare, and
fundamentally its international power, over into dependence
upon the welfare of its business system, needs increasingly the
utmost efficiency from its business men.
So from here on out, business must be in politics, and the
State must be in business. Neither of them can any longer
tolerate the frictions and inefficiencies of the kind of legalized
guerilla warfare between state apparatus and economic apparatus that has been characteristic of anti-trust actions, NRA,
New Deal labor and other social policies, and wartime coercions and recriminations. And the resulting trend is unmistakably toward the monolithic power structure of the totalitarian state.
Not, mark you, because certain men are wicked or even
necessarily see as yet that they are being forced toward such
totalitarianism; but because the logic of giant technology,
operating within nationalism and capitalistic rules of the
game, no longer allows any other option than centralization
and the merging of state and economic power. We people
who talk of a better postwar world must face, and face unflinchingly, the fact which liberal democracy has never dared
really to face: namely, that industrial capitalism in an era of
giant technology is an intensively coercive form of organization of'society that cumulatively constrains men and all of
their institutions to work the will of the minority who hold
and wield economic power; and that this relentless warping
of men's lives and decisions and all of their forms of association becomes less and less the result of voluntary decisions by
good and bad men and more and more an impersonal web of
coercions dictated by the stark need to keep "the system"
going.
What this means is that Hitlers are not themselves prime
causes, but are a type of role thrust forward by the pressure
of events within industrial society, events demanding solutions—political solutions, bold solutions, solutions that brush
the plans of idealistic men aside like flies off a table. When
these things happen, they are not the work of evil men, but,
rather, the grim moves of hard-pressed players in the gigantic
international game of poker in which every industry and
every nation must play if it is to survive.
Modern war, as a mass human experience, does a variety
of contrasting things to us:
1. Wartime is a time of enormously enhanced pressure,
pressure to get things done—even things that seem impossible
of accomplishment under peacetime institutions—and to get
them done immediately. And since the game is for keeps and
the stakes are survival, there is a tendency to create and foster
a temporary and somewhat phony sense of national unity; and
a tendency to disregard in the intensity of short-run, wartime
preoccupations—the chronic cleavages within American or
English society.
2. At the same time war also does a seemingly contradictory thing. By shattering the lock-step preoccupation with
habitual institutional ways of doing things, it invites some
men to speculate as regards new goals and a better world.
Humble men's imaginations in England have been caught and
aroused by the vision of Russia as a nation in which people
are being allowed to fight this war all-out.
THE GRADUATE CHRONICLE Likewise, some intellectuals turn afresh, under the stimulus
of war, to the development of plans for international co-opera-
tino. Thus war, instead of merely encouraging the glossing
over of social problems, can also jolt and stimulate men of all
classes to reach for new goals and to chart novel courses
towards them.
3. But let's not deceive ourselves. War does still another
thing. Common folk dream their hopes and intellectuals spin
their plans, yet still other men are learning other things from
this war. Big business controllers of industry are perceiving
their terrible jeopardy in the postwar world; and they are
getting a dress rehearsal in organized power tactics free from
the constraints of serious governmental controls.
As big business looks ahead at the probable raw, barefisted battle royal for world trade and economic survival in
the postwar world, it is learning the vast profitableness of a
business world that largely staffs the Government with its
own men.
Big business will emerge from this war enormously better
organized, more sure of the direction it must go, and more
powerful than ever before. That goes for the United States.
And it goes for Britain. And business is not spending time
spinning pretty humanitarian plans for a League of Nations
and an international police force. The sort of plans it is
making may be seen in The National Policy for Industry put
out by 120 British industrialists in November, 1942. Faith
in the power of humanitarian reason to transcend stark interest isn't going to stop such powerhouse tactics.
The only remaining option—and a desperate one for
democracy in its present poorly organized state—is whether:
—organized economic power will take over state power
and run the nation primarily for the goals of big business under an American and British version of fascism;
—or the democratic state will take over the economy,
socialize it, and run it for the welfare of the mass of
the people.
So there is a war within a war going on inside each nation
living under capitalism. It is this "war within the war" that
leaves the German people cowering united under our bombs
because we have offered them no wholehearted alternative to
Vansittartism.
We live in one of the climactic eras of history, as crucial
as the revolutionary era of 150 years ago. And it is characteristic of such a time that it is a time of extreme ideological
confusion. Fascist monopolistic capitalism calls itself national
socialism. Russian socialism still hangs in the balance, apparently a largely socialist-aimed economy within a dictatorship
by the Communist Party.
Whether the Soviet Union will, after this war, renew, with
the new confidence in itself and its institutions won in the
magnificent people's effort of its Stalingrads, the march toward
democracy promised in the New Constitutoin of the mid-
1930's remains to be seen. I profoundly hope so.
Here in the United States, again a manifestation of this
ideological confusion, organized industry opposes organized
labor in the name of democracy. And characteristic of this
confusion is the fact that we Americans tend to identify
democracy and capitalistic free enterprise as two aspects of
the same thing—a disastrously naive belief! For the world
issue today, the thing Hitlers stand for, is a counter-revolution against democracy. And, again characteristic of the
world-wide ideological confusion, the men who in a country
like the United States coerce democracy in the name of free
enterprise do so not as cynical Machiavellis, but as men who,
for the most part, honestly believe in democracy.
I am afraid that we people of democracy are going to
come out of this war with our democratic ideals badly soiled,
and well on the road to less democracy here at home. I don't
believe that, either in England or the United States, the sol
diers will return prepared to fight positively for democracy.
The mood of soldiers and civilians at war's weary end will be:
"Thank God! Now let's get out the old car and begin to live
again!" Both among soldiers and civilians this relaxed mood
of war's end will present a powerful weapon to the forces of
reaction.
In England, Winston Churchill's history of World War I
shows clearly that, as a Tory, he grasped the political significance of the mood of popular relaxation that followed November 11, 1918. And it is no accident that today he is
consistently fighting off social reform during the war, thereby
postponing the issue to the time when it will be no unmanageable issue. For, during that period of rejoicing when the
public ceases momentarily to care for anything but the fact
that the fighting has ceased, Tory power will quietly gather
up the reins and commence the drive to hold its power. And
that in a country where there is an organized Labor Party
and where men can call themselves socialists without lowering their voices! So the signals seem set for an exhausted
peace dictated by power.
I have suggested that this present moment in time is 11:59
p.m. The cause of democracy is probably due for defeat in
this round. But the hands of the clock will move on! What
have we learned? I believe this:
1. That, if the internal war within capitalist nations is
left un-won by democracy, democracy's cause cannot be saved
by creating international laws and Leagues of Nations for
international society.
2. So the test of the good faith of our current thinking
about a better world is whether it includes plans for immediate and fundamental extension of democracy to our internal
economic institutions.
3. Lazy democratic citizenship that comes up for air to
vote only once every four years can never curb an economic
power that is working all the time.
I believe profoundly in the eventual victory of democracy
—over the long future. But the road back will be long, and
American democracy carries no lucky horseshoe in its pocket.
A recent issue of the London Economist says, "Democracy
in the twentieth century needs fire in its belly."
That kind of fire does not happen. Nor will voting out
one President in November and voting in another kindle it.
It can come only as the imagination and energies of all the
millions of our citizens are enlisted in the direct work of
building more democracy—and a lot more. The thing will
have to happen which those in power have been afraid to let
happen here in the United States during this war: a genuine
people's movement, all-out and hell-bent for action.
There is no mystery about what men want, except such
mystery as those opposed to more decracracy choose to invent.
Men want a chance to work at jobs they believe in, and under
conditions in which they can share responsibiltiy and exercise
initiative, rather than merely laboring as "hands"; security of
the sort that enables a man to trust his weight onto life and
to grow ahead; more and better education for themselves and
their children; better housing; better health; an end to arbitrary class bottlenecks in living; no more phony "social problems" created by nothing more substantial than vested property rights; an end to this shabby business of democracy's
fearing to trust the people of democracy; direct movement
together toward concrete kinds of mass welfare, and a cessation of the.policy of regarding public welfare as an incidental
slopover from profitable private business.
To get these things democratic men will have to learn to
stand together, everywhere, at the grass-roots where life's
meanings are big; and together they will have to thrust against
the power that now divides and curbs them—and never stop
thrusting.
JUNE, 1944 INDUSTRIES...
of British Columbia
{
Each month the Graduate Chronicle will include in its editorial material a descriptive
story of the formation and growth of one industry identified with the industrial progress
of the Province.
*\\n
Britannia Mining & Smelting Co.
Like "Old Faithful," the Britannia Mining & Smelting
Company's copper mine has been a spectacular fixture in British Columbia's mining scene for so many years that it is
almost taken for granted. Yet its story is comparatively little
known, and many facts concerning the property make it even
now, after nearly forty years of operation, one of the Pacific
Northwest's outstanding base metal producers.
The Britannia, located on fiord-like Howe Sound which
lent its name to the parent company controlling the mine's
affairs, was until comparatively recently rated as one of the
biggest copper properties in the British Empire. It is still
large, although shortage of manpower has resulted in sharp
curtailment during the past year or so. Since Britannia has
been contributing metals for the United Nation's war program
detailed figures on recent production are not available. Some
hint of the magnitude of the company's operations is given
in the fact that the property has produced some 720,000,000
pounds of copper from about 3 3,000,000 tons of ore.
Low Grade Ore.
Apart from its size and record of production the Britannia
is notable as probably the only copper mine in the world handling such low grade ore in underground operations. It is still
primarly a tunnel mine, with very little hoisting, and the
whole flow of production is by gravity. This, of course, has
made Britannia an unusually low cost producer, which it has
had to be with recent millheads averaging only .8 to 1.1 per
cent copper.
In spite of its comparatively long life, Britannia probably
still has many good years left. Mine officials believe that the
property has passed its production peak and that'from now on
4500 tons of ore daily will probably represent about the top.
This is considerably higher than the rate attained at present
due to difficulty in getting an adequate number of miners,
and it is far from the all-time record of more than 6,000 tons
a day achieved about five years ago.
But the brakes necessarily applied to production now, although deplored by the management, will of course tend to
lengthen the future life of the mine, and present developments
indicate that there are still some important ore bodies locked
away in the rugged section of the Coast Range batholith dominated by Britannia's group of holdings that extend over
25,000 acres.
The current development of the company's 4100 haulage
level is an indication of the promise that the future may hold
for Britannia. This level, which is the lowest from which ore
can be fed into the mill on a gravity basis, is extended past
the No. 8 mine, cutting three separate ore bodies. The outlook for volume and higher grade in the No. 8 mine is hope-
ful, and the company is now proceeding with the sinking of
a shaft to open up that section and later to handle ore, men
and supplies. The hoist to be installed will be an 8-foot
double drum Canadian Ingersoll-Rand unit with 450-h.p.
Canadian Westinghouse motor.
President of Britannia Mining & Smelting Company is H.
H. Sharp of New York. The company is one of the Howe
Sound Company group which also comprises the Chelan Mine,
a copper-gold-silver property at Holden, Wash., and El Potosi
Mining Company silver-lead-zinc operations at Santa Eulalia,
Mexico.
Directly in charge of the whole operation is C. P. Browning, who joined Britannia as a young mining engineer in 1913,
fresh from the Columbia School of Mines and a brief term of
practical experience with the Miami Copper Co. in Arizona
and the Tennessee Copper Co. in Tennessee. Mr. Browning-
has been on the job since the company's infancy and he has
seen and participated in most of its expansion.
Mine superintendent is G. C. Lipsey, with Britannia for
19 years, and A. C. Munro, another Britannia pioneer whose
association with the company dates back to 1922, is mill superintendent. C. P. Charlton is secretary-treasurer and purchasing agent; E. C. Gillingham, chief accountant; Wm. Hatch,
metallurgist; Paul Everett, assistant mine superintendent; E.
C .Roper, chief mine engineer; W. A. Matheson in charge of
stores; George H. Mead, master mechanic; J. B. Hamilton,
mine electrical supervisor; C. H, Watson, electrical supervisor at the Beach operations.
Discovered in 1888.
The history of the mine, 30 miles north of Vancouver by
boat, goes back to 1888 when Dr. A. A. Forbes made the discovery. The story goes that the doctor shot a buck and in
dragging it down the hillside its horns scraped the moss from
a rock, exposing a green stain. Upon closer investigation Dr.
Forbes noticed float nearby and he was so impressed with what
he saw what he returned two or three summers in an attempt
to prove it up. Nothing came of this, however, and not until
ten years later did a trapper named Oliver Furry, tipped off
by Dr. Forbes and backed by a Vancouver merchant, go to
the trouble of staking five claims. F. Turner of Vancouver
and Boscowitz & Sons, Victoria fur traders, became interested, located other claims and established a camp. When an
adit driven for 150 feet failed to locate ore the project was
discontinued, and not until 1900, when Joseph Adams and H.
C. Walters inspected the prospect, was the Britannia Copper
Syndicate, forerunner of today's organization, formed. The
syndicate purchased a seven-tenths interest from Turner and
Boscowitz and three years later took over the remaining interest.
Development.
It was about this time that Grant B. Schley, the New York
banker, became interested and backed the enterprise with his
10
THE GRADUATE CHRONICLE personal fortune. He financed the building of a 200-ton
concentrator and an aerial tramway. The concentrates were
shipped to Crofton on Vancouver Island for smelting and in
1905 the newly organized Britannia Smelting Company, controlled by Howe Sound Company, acquired the smelter. The
Britannia syndicate and Britannia Smelting Co. were merged
in 1908 and the name was changed to Britannia Mining &
Smelting Company, 'which has prevailed ever since. The smelter was closed down in 1913, and since then most of the
concentrates have been shipped to the Tacoma smelter of the
American Smelting & Refining Company.
Most of the ore bodies are lenticular in shape and lie in a
major shear zone that follows the general strike of the formation. The principal copper mineral is chalcopyrite, which
is accompanied by pyrite. The mines are about three miles
from the concentrator which was built on the steep slope of
a hill that drops down to the Beach on which the company's
stores, office buildings and community have been established.
Exploration is done by drifts, crosscuts and raises, the different shafts serving as centres for such work.
Drilling equipment is selected according to the specific
conditions encountered. Machines now in use are furnished
by the Chicago Pneumatic Tool Co., Canadian Ingersoll-Rand,
Hoyman, Gardner-Denver, and the Sullivan Machinery Co.
Most of the drifting and stoping is done with 3 Yz -inch
machines.
The Britannia property is a consolidation of several mines
—including the Jane, No. 8, West Bluff, East Bluff, Fairview,
Empress and Victoria. West Bluff is at present the big producer. The Fairview has accounted for most of the com-
• pany's past production, but it has seen its best days. The
Victoria has been comparatively rich, but it does not rank
with the others in size.
Mining.
The 4100 haulage tunnel commences at the Victoria shaft
which, as the accompanying diagram shows, is the most distant
from the mill. Ore is drawn through raises to a crusher installed on the 3900 level and the ore therefrom is trammed by
20-car trains, each car having a 19-ton capacity.
Several types of raises are used in the mine. All raises
over 57° are timbered and contain a chute lined with 4-inch
planks, and a manway. These are separated by a row of stulls
on 5 to 7 foot centres. A strong bulkhead covers the man-
way. Just below the bulkhead a chute plan is left out to
facilitate entrance to the face and allow smoke to escape
after blasting, which is generally done at the end of the shift.
In general, the raise is advanced 20 feet above the bulkhead
before the stulls, chute, and bulkhead are raised, and staging
rests on round sprags from 4 to 6 inches in diameter. Raises
under 57° generally are un timbered. Usually, they are driven
from a bulldoze chamber at 50 to 57°, with the broken rock
flowing back to the chamber. Bulkheads covering half the
raise are placed each 50-foot advance. The ladders used in this
work are made from 3 by 4-inch fir with 1-inch pipe rungs
over %-inch rods. In the raise they are held in place by U-
shaped brackets made from old steel.
The different mining methods employed in the mines are
determined by the character of each individual block of ore
to be mined. These include surface glory holes, shrinkage
stoping, shrinkage with powder drifts for primary breaking,
horizontal cut-and-fill, horizontal square-setting, open rills,
and the Britannia method of mining, a large-scale retreating
shrinkage system frequently combined with powder drifts for
primary breaking.
The Britannia mining method was developed to meet the
necessity for low costs and increased safety. After some experimental work a section of the West Bluff mine was laid out
for stoping by this method, and in the early part of 1931,
when it was decided to mine the very hard East Bluff orebody,
the method was modified to fit this work.
Britannia Stoping.
The general scheme of operation is:
1. Establishment and development of a bulldoze-chamber
level or an alternative level for chute drawing.
2. Complete undercutting of a section of the orebody.
The orebody is usually cut from foot to hanging wall but
may be laid out in various ways, depending upon its size and
shape.
3. Development of block for use of powder blasts.
4. Control of ore drawing.
In undercutting, the practice is similar to that employed
in the big shrinkage stopes. In the East Bluff large areas can
be excavated safely with but few pillars, in the West Bluff
more frequent support is necessary. However, unless the
ground is very soft there is practically no limit to the size of
the block that may be undercut if adequate pillar support is
provided. The only limitation is that individual pillars must
not be so large that they cannot be conveniently drilled and
blasted out in one operation. The method is thus adapted
to a wide range of ground conditions. Undercuts have been
made up to 200 feet in width.
For the development of the block one or more service raises
are necessary according to the size of the block to be mined,
but within fairly wide limits the positions of these raises do
not affect subsequent mining and may be selected more by
convenience of service.
The number and location of such raises are governed by
the sublevel development that follows and are considered an
individual problem for each stope.
The Britannia method has the following advantages:
1. Flexibility and control. Not only can the system be
freely modified to suit conditions in the original planning of
the stope, but it can also be readily adapted to meet changing
conditions encountered as mining progresses.
2. No permanent pillars are left to be recovered by auxiliary methods.
3. In carrying on the mining work there is a constant
retreat from the worked-out areas into virgin ground.
4. Safety. As all working excavations following undercutting are of minimum size, the risk of injury from falls of
ground is greatly reduced.
Gloryhole mining was first practised in the Bluff orebody
where the deposit itself was large enough to warrant its use.
Later large gloryholes were opened up in the upper Fairview
section, where the closely spaced, parallel veins with some
mineralization between them made large-scale breaking preferable to expensive selective mining.
In both mines glory holing was originally carried out by
a system of benches. Drilling was done by pluggers or tripod
machines.
Milling.
Until the present critical manpower shortage developed,
the Britannia concentrator was handling five or six thousand
tons of ore a day, assaying less than 1 per cent copper.
A departure from the usual process is the removal of
primary slimes by washing and subsequent flotation in a separate machine, which is designed to effect the following:
1. Removal of sticky mud from the ore, thus simplifying
the mechanical problem of getting tonnage through the crushing plant equipment; and
2. The elimination of a large part of the slime from the
flotation machines in the main circuit materially increasing
JUNE, 1944
11 over-all performance. Another feature is the floating of a
bulk concentrate of pyrite and copper, and the subsequent
separation of the two sulphides after dewatering and regrind-
ing of the coarser particles.
Britannia ore consists of a mixture of chalcopyrite and pyrite in a relatively hard schist or quartz gangue. Zinc blende,
gold and silver also occur in small amounts. The minerals
can be released from one another and from the gangue by
moderately fine grinding, but the ore is remarkably hard, as
indicated by high steel consumption for roll crushing and fine
grinding.
The mine-run ore is crushed to 6 inches before being transported to the mill through a system of underground raises
and haulage ways. Further reduction is effected by three 5 l/z-
foot Symons Cone crushers set to %-inch and thence to 72
inches and 54 inches Traylor Rolls. The rolls are in closed
circuit with ten Hum-mer dry screens delivering a 5/32-
inch undersize product.
An unusual feature of the crushing operation consists
of washing and wet scheening of the ore after it is drawn
from the receiving bins to remove primary slimes, which
otherwise would build up on the rolls and blind the Hum-mer
screens. The physical condition of the ore is such that efficient crushing would be quite impossible without this washing operation.
The undersize product of the wet screens is further classified into a sand and slime, the latter product containing
large amounts of soluble salts, which are very detrimental to
flotation. The primary slimes and their contained soluble salts
are thus segregated from the major portion of the ore and
given special and intensive flotation treatment.
Final reduction of the 5/32-inch product of the crushing
plant is accomplished in Traylor ball mills, using as grinding
media 2-1/16-inch diameter eutetic cast steel balls, manufactured at Britannia Beach. These balls are quick-quenched
for high hardness. The ball mills are lined with 6-inch sections of the quenched runner gates obtained in the casting of
the grinding balls. This type of lining is set on end to the
mill-shell in a 50-50 sand-cement slurry and gives two to
three years useful life.
Two-stage Flotation.
Two flotation concentrates are produced, one containing
the copper mineral and the other pyrite, the latter being sold,
whenever markets are available, to acid manufacturers for
its sulphur content. Concentration is effected in two stages,
in the first of which a bulk concentrate, containing both the
chalcopyrite and pyrite, is floated. This bulk concentrate,
after thickening in Dorr tanks and regrinding in Allis-
Chalmers ball mills, is then subjected to differential flotation,
from which operation is recovered, first, a high grade copper
concentrate and, second, a middling which is retreated, and
finally a pyrite concentrate low in copper. Several advantages
may be claimed for this practice. The most important is due
to the fact that much finer grinding is necessary to free the
copper and iron minerals from one another than to liberate
either from the gangue. Bulk flotation followed by regrinding, therefore, allows a relatively coarse initial grind—50 per
cent minus 200 mesh—without impairing final recovery. The
use of larger amounts of powerful reagents in the roughing
circuit is also permissable, since differential conditions do not
have to be maintained.
The small amount of gold in Britannia ore is practically
all in the free state. Most of this free gold concentrates with
the copper, but a small percentage is retarded. In order to
guard against losses from this source, the tailings from the
roughing and secondary circuits are passed over blankets,
which are washed in place.
Roughing of the primary slimes and of the ground feed
is carried on in 8-foot deep air cells, the slimes in a cell 55
feet long and the ground feed in a 100-foot cell in series with
a 40-foot cell, the latter Deep-cell serving as a scavenger
machine. A Deep air cell is used as a recleaner.
Concentrates are settled in Dorr thickeners and American
disc fitters are used to dewater the final concentrates for
marketing.
Hydrated Lime is added at the primary mills in sufficient
quantity to maintain a trace of free alkalinity in the rougher
tailings. This slight alkalinity benefits recovery without depressing the pyrite.
Potassium Ethyl Xanthate and Pine Oil are applied at the
heads and centres of the roughers.
Cyanide is fed at the head of concentrate regrinding to
depress the pyrite while the copper is being floated in the secondary circuit. Very small amounts of Pine Oil and Butyl
Xanthate are required for this operation, after which a relatively large quantity of Ethyl Xanthate is added to reactivate
the pyrite.
Filtered copper and pyrite concentrates are transported by
belt conveyors to covered storage bins of 6,000 and 4,000-ton
capacity, from which clamshell buckets operated from overhead cranes load them onto a conveyor discharging directly
in the hold of the steamer. Sampling is done automatically-
wherever possible.
Community Life.
From the standpoint of the miner Britannia is a model
community. There is a regular boat service daily to and from
Vancouver, and the wharf is within a few hundred yards of
the office buildings, stores, laboratories, dormitories, mess and
recreation halls. For more than 20 years the Britannia stores
have been operated on a co-operative basis, employees participating in a total of $513,000 in rebates since the system was
inaugurated.
Apart from safety measures which are constantly being
improved and extended, employees are the beneficiaries of non-
contributory life insurance to a total of $1500 each. House
rentals to employees amount to only one dollar per room per
month. There are schools, churches, gymnasiums, libraries
and other facilities to contribute to the contentment and convenience of Britannia people, and those who have lived there
a considerable time often wonder why anyone should be attracted to jobs nearer the big cities.
After nearly forty years of harmonious labor relations at
Britannia without unionization the company early in September signed a working agreement with Local 663 of the International Union of Mine, Mill and Smelter Workers' Union,
Affiliated with the Congress of Industrial Organizations.
For over a year Britannia has been operating under a contract arranged with the Wartime Metals Corporation, a company wholly owned by the Canadian Government, under the
terms of which all the copper produced is used in the United
Nations' war effort by sale to the Metals Reserve Company,
a U. S. government organization.
—Reprinted by Kind Permission of "The Mining World"
"cJfdp. BudU BidiA CoLmka.".
12
THE GRADUATE CHRONICLE C/"er5ona/-
.NEWS and NOTES-
The Western branch of the Carter-Halls-Aldinger Company has been reorganized as the Commonwealth Construction Company Ltd. Headquarters of the firm will be Winnipeg and Mr. RALPH C. PYBUS has been appointed Western Manager in Vancouver.
Congratulations to Major J. B. HEDLEY, R.C.E.M.E., on
his promotion. Also to Group Captain J. ALLAN JONES,
who has been appointed Director of Construction Engineering
and Maintenance of the Division of Construction Engineering,
R.C.A.F. This Division replaces the old Directorate of Works
and Buildings.
The first person to make an .automobile trip over the new
Skeena River Highway from Smithers to Terrace was Mr. S.
A. CUNLIFFE, Assistant District Engineer for the Department of Public Works.
Major-General J. P. MACKENZIE, D.S.O., Inspector-
General for Western Canada, is retiring from army service.
Members of the 1944 engineering graduating class going
on active service: HUGH ABBOTT, B. W. ANDERSON, O.
W. BENNETT, C. A. CARNCROSS, R. G. CHESTNUT,
R. S. CROSBY, R. A. DAVIDSON, N. J. FILMAN, J. B.
GUSH, P. S. JAGGER, D. A. LIVINGSTON, J. A. PORTER and J. M. WALLACE.
Mr. J. A. WALKER has returned to the City from Ottawa and is resuming his work as Town Planning Engineer.
Mr. N. E. NELSON, Consulting Engineer for the Granby
Company for many years, has joined the satff of the Wright
Hargreaves Mine at Kirkland Lake, Ontario. The Chief
Mine Engineer for the same company, Mr. C. H. BREHAUT,
is now with the Beattie Gold Mines at Duparquet, Quebec.
The Assistant General Manager, Mr. W. R. LINDSAY, is
now in Toronto.
Recently transferred to the Vancouver office of the C. M.
& S. Company, is Mr. H. S. FOWLER, previously at Trail.
Mr. C. L. BATES, Chief Engineer for the Pacific Great
Eastern Railway, is retiring after seventeen years with the
Company.
Faculty promotions at the University include Major A. H.
FINLAY, now Professor of Civil Enginereing, and Mr. D. W.
THOMSON, Assistant Professor, Department of Mechanical
and Electrical Engineering. '
Lieut. J. E. STOREY, 1941 graduate in Mechanical Engineering, is among those listed as missing in the recent sinking of the H.M.C.S. Valley field.
Deepest sympathy is extended to Mr. and Mrs. L. J.
Street in the loss of their son, Louis, who died recently of
wounds received while serving with the Central Mediterranean
Forces.
Wing Commander "Don" Macdonald, D.F.C, known as
the "ghost raider," has recently left command of the Intruder
Squadron and has been assigned to what is termed a "more
important task."
"She was beautiful, too," adds. Lt. Graham Darling, B.A.
'40, to his description of the Tirpitz bombing in which he
participated. Graham joined the R.C.N, immediately on graduation, and served two years overseas with the Royal Navy
before taking a flying course in Canada. He is now with the
Fleet Air Arm.
Our sincere sympathy also to Mr. J. T. Coutts, whose
wife passed away on June 2nd.
Lenora Millerd, graduate of U.B.C. and Montreal's Royal
Victoria Hospital, was "the recent bride of Major H. C. Slade,
R.C.A.M.C., of Newfoundland.
Katherne ("Kay") Brooke Hewitt was married last month
to Lt. Alfred Smith of the Royal Navy. Kay took her B.A.
in 1940 and her M.A. in 1941 from U.B.C.
Margaret Ecker, former Ubyssey pubster and the Canadian
Press' only woman staff representative overseas, was awarded
the Canadian Women's Press Club Memorial Award for the
"best personality biographical sketch" published in 1941.
Margaret is married to Fl. Lt. Bob Francis and is at present
living in London, England. Our Congrats to a top-drawer
newswoman.
Recently home in Vancouver on short leave - from the
Medical Corps was Dr. F. Wells Brason who just graduated
from the University of Toronto Medical School. Dr. Brason
took his parchment from U.B.C. in 1940.
Phylis Wayles, B.A. '40, was married to Mr. Oliver Mel-
vin Julson early this month.
Off to Washington, D.C., to take up posts with British
Supply Mission are Graduates Elizabeth (Bobby) Boultbee and
Joan Villiers.
To Lt. and Mrs. Rodney Poisson, April 27, 1944, a daughter, Renee. Rod was B.A. '35 and an instructor in English
at U.B.C. from 1940 to 1942, when he joined the Canadian
Navy. Mrs. Poisson was Helen Ferguson, B.A. '3 3.
Chang-Lu Quo, graduate of National Wu-han University,
and a M.A. from British Columbia, is returning to Chungking
for a post with the Chinese Foreign Office. Mr. Quo came to
Vancouver via Hongkong in 1941.
Vic Freeman, B.A. '40 and a debater of some prominence,
is back in Vancouver on a short holiday from his medical
studies at Toronto Medical School. Also back in the city are
Peter Bell-Irving and W. K. Lindsay.
In town recently was Fl. Lt. W. C. (Bill) Gibson, now
with the No. 1 Clinical Investigation Unit, R.C.A.F., Toronto. Bill arrived at the coast after lecturing at the University
of Alberta on the physiology of high altitude flying. He has
travelled extensively through the U. S., England, Spain and
Russia, and wherever he has gone he has been one of the university's greatest boosters. He's promised to do some articles
for future editions of the Chronicle.
Peter Fowler, B.Ap.Sc. '3 3, has returned to Vancouver
after a long session at Trail with the Consolidated. Pete will
be in charge of explorations in the coast district for his company.
Oscar Orr, Jr., is now in the Persian Gulf area with a
large oil company.
Flight-Lieutenant Campbell Kenmuir was in Vancouver
on leave recently and is now stationed at Pat Bay.
JUNE, 1944
13 KILLED ON ACTIVE SERVICE %
P/O JACK SCRIVENER—Scout Master of Kerrisdale troop.
Joined R.C.A.F. in March, 1942.
MISSING AFTER AIR OPERATIONS
SGT. OBSERVER ALASTAIR J. YOUNG, R.C.A.F.—Enlisted in January, 1942.
W/C C. A. WILLIS, R.C.A.F.—WeU-known for attacking
enemy shipping in the face of heavy anti-aircraft opposition.
F/L J. H. "JIMMY" WHALEN, R.C.A.F.—Shot down three
Japanese dive-bombers in 45 minutes over Burma during
1943, following a bag of three Nazi planes in the European theatre—the first wing commander of the Vancouver
Air Cadets, of which he was an original member—also the
first member of the league to graduate under the British
Commonwealth Air Training Plan after joining the
R.C.A.F.
SGT. GORDON PREECE, R.C.A.F.—Listed missing after
his seventh operational flight over enemy territory on
March 31—went overseas in October, 1943.
F/L CHARLES MADDIN, R.C.A.F.—Missing after air operations on April 24—enlisted in 1942.
MISSING ON THE FRIGATE
"VALLEYFIELD"
LT. E. JOHN EDMUND STOREY, B.A.Sc. '41.
INJURED ON ACTIVE SERVICE
P/O CAMERON WESLEY McKENZIE, R.C.A.F.—Spine
injury received at Macleod, Alta.
F/O CHARLES CLEVELAND CUNNINGHAM—Now
serving on active service on the Atlantic Patrol.
GERMAN PRISONERS OF WAR
FLT. SERGT. EWART ALBERT SIM HETHERINGTON,
R.C.A.F.—B.A. 1936.
SGT. M. G. McGEER, R.C.A.F.
Sent letters in thanks for parcels received in prison camps—
LIEUT. GEORGE KANE, British Army.
F/L RALPH A. HENDERSON, R.C.A.F.
GENERAL NEWS OF SERVICEMEN
AND WOMEN
P/O DAVID DALE, R.C.A.F. overseas—Well-known in
golfing circles.
SUB-LT. RONALD SINCLAIR NAIRNE, R.C.N.V.R.—
Recently graduated from H.M.C.S. King's College.
F/L MURRAY K. PICKARD, R.C.A.F.—Promoted recently
from F/O—spent 16 months service in Coastal Command,
West Africa.
F/O HAROLD M. McDONALD, R.C.A.F.—Awarded the
D.F.C.
W/C D. C. S. MacDONALD, D.F.C—"Ghost raider" of
Vancouver—has left the command of the Intruder Squadron to assume a more "important task."
LT. EARL CUSHING, Canadian Forestry Corps,
Died, Hospital Ship "Lady Nelson," April, 1944.
F/O W. W. COLLEDGE, R.C.A.F.—Killed in action overseas—received the award of D.F.C.—accepted by his
mother, Mrs. W. W. Colledge—awarded due to F/O Col-
ledge's bravery in an action in which he was attacked by
four enemy aircraft. Shot down one and damaged two
others.
F O W. A. T. WHITE, R.C.A.F.—Recently promoted to
F/O from P/O—is at present serving with the Coastal
Command at a northern Scotland base.
CPL. JOHN B. CORNISH, R.C.A.M.C—Returned home
after two and a half years overseas—lost an eye in a bomb
explosion in 1942—has been serving with the Basingstoke
Neurological and Plastic Surgery Hospital in England—
was Edtior-in-Chief of the Ubyssey while at U.B.C.
LAC BILL MUNRO, R.C.A.F.—Overseas in January, 1944.
P/O ANDREW M. "MONTY" FOTHERINGHAM, R.C.
A.F.—Navigator in England.
P O STANLEY H. JENKINS, R.C.A.F.—Stationed at Sum-
merside, P.E.I.—U.B.C. grad.
P O ALBERT M. BUCKLEY, R.C.A.F.—Serving overseas.
Navy Graduates from King's College—
P/O ROBERT G. McMYNN, R.C.A.F.
Air Navigator Graduates—
WILSON DUFF.
R. M. VOSBURGH.
F/O ROBERT GORDON CROSBY—Reported missing, now
safe in England—B.A.Sc. 1940.
BARBARA DIETHER—Training with the Women's Royal
Canadian Naval Service at Gait, Ont.—Kappa Kappa
Gamma Sorority.
PROB. SUB. LT. MARGARET W. CREELMAN—In the
Wrens doing naval library work—B.A. 1931.
PROB. SUB LT. MARION M. DIGNAN—Wrens—naval
writer in Halifax and Ottawa—made naval history by
being the first woman to accompany trial parties on inspection runs aboard new ships for the navy.—B.A. 1936.
14
THE GRADUATE CHRONICLE 3ln
emunam
MM., (&.M., EJG.3.. 3UUC*.
ADDRESS DELIVERED AT THE
FUNERAL SERVICE
CHRIST CHURCH CATHEDRAL
MAY 27th, 1944
BY L. S. KLINCK
The Chronicle publishes herewith Dr. L. S. Klinck's
address at the funeral service ior the late Chancellor of
the University, held Hay 27, 1944, in Christ Church
Cathedral. To the many graduates unable to be present
at this service, this address will express their admiration
for Dr. McKechnie and their sorrow at his passing.
—Editor.
This afternoon, long-established tradition has been departed from in that a layman has been requested
to speak from this lectern at a memorial service. The explanation for this departure from accepted custom
lies in the character and work of the man whose passing we mourn today.
In our common sorrow, in our sympathy with the bereaved family, and in our common loss, my remarks will be simple, brief and direct.
Your presence here in almost unprecedented numbers is, in itself, the highest tribute which could
be paid to the esteem and affection in which Dr. McKechnie was held.
As one who was privileged to know him long and intimately, it is not possible for me to express, with
any degree of adequacy, the deep sense of my personal loss. My remarks, therefore, will be not so much
in the nature of a personal tribute as to attempt to express the conviction of the thousands of citizens who
knew Dr. McKechnie as a physician and surgeon, as Chancellor of the University of British Columbia, as a
man, and as a friend.
It has been said that no two observers see the same rainbow, nor do any two critics see precisely the
same excellencies in canvas or marble. Nor do'men, in the same degree, see the virtues and abilities of
a great and good man. But what, by common consent, did Dr. McKechnie's fellow citizens see in his life
and in his work? They saw a strength of personality, a nobility of character, a professional proficiency,
an altruistic public spirit. They saw a man whose interests and sympathies were as spontaneous as they
were catholic; a man gentle in disposition, quiet and unassuming in manner, constant in friendship, wise in
counsel, and tireless in his devotion to duty; a man who gave cheerfully and unsparingly of his scanty leisure
time to worthy community causes; one whose friendly smile and kindly eyes revealed his sympathy with all
that is good in life; a man who won their confidence, commanded their respect, and retained their undying
affection. They saw a man of more than purely intellectual culture in whose person were happily blended
a strong will, a sensitive conscience, and a highly developed moral sense In him the ideal of unselfish service was exalted.
Anything that was less inclusive than humanity itself was not sufficiently inclusive for him; anything
less comprehensive in its outreach, anything less restricted in its perspective, made only a secondary appeal
to his generous nature. The quality of his life was such as to make him at home in the best traditions of
the race. The leadership he gave had a distinctive quality and carried something of the impress of the win-
someness of his own personality.
During his long life, many signal, unsought honors came to him, all of which were borne with characteristic modesty. These honors bear testimony to the esteem in which he was held by those whose opinion
he valued most highly—namely, the foremost scientific men in his profession.
Though his voice is stilled, what this gifted and beloved man said, and did, and was, will live long in the
minds and hearts of his fellow-citizens, be they rich or poor, high or low. In his life there was the quality of
immortality—a spiritual insight which inspired confidence and infused new courage and resolution into the
hearts of men.
May we here assembled be imbued with something of a like perspective; be supported by something
of a like poise; be imbued with something of a like spirit, and inspired by something of a like faith! The Placer mining Industry
in British Columbia
Before endeavouring to show the part mining has played
in the development of British Columbia, the present position
of that industry, and some of the problems and prospects
which it faces today, it might be well to establish a few points
of reference by recalling that in 1843 the Hudson's Bay Company's fort was established on the site of Victoria, that after
a period of government by the Company as separate colonies,
the Vancouver Island and Mainland colonies were united under
one government, and a few years later in 1871 entered confederation as the Province of British Columbia. Overland communication with the rest of Canada was provided when service over the Canadian Pacific Railway began in 1886. Railways were being built in the southern part of the Province in
the 90's, the line through Crows Nest Pass was completed in
1898, but it was not until 1912 that communication with
the southern interior became possible entirely over British
Columbia railways.
The first of our mineral resources to be utilized on an
important scale was coal. In 183 5 an Indian is said to have
reported existence of coal on northern Vancouver Island to
the blacksmith at a trading post on Millbanke sound, up the
coast from the northern end of the Island. Outcrop coal
from deposits exposed on the beach was obtained from the
Indians for several years and was used in Hudson's Bay Company steamers and in naval vessels. In 1849 the Hudson's
Bay Company established Fort Rupert on the Island, southerly from where Port Hardy is now situated, and attempts
were made to mine the coal, but the unsatisfactory quality
of the coal, and difficulties in mining it, caused the operation
to be abandoned. The difficulties included opposition from
the Indians, who resented the whites taking from them the
source of revenue which they had enjoyed for several years.
Discovery of the Nanaimo field also followed a report made
by an Indian. In 1850 a party, sent by Governor Douglas to
investigate the report, discovered one coal seam and other
seams were soon found. In 1851 a pit was started, coal was
shipped to Victoria in 1852, and in 1853 to San Francisco
where it is said to have sold for $28.00 per ton. The development of the interior coal fields depended on the building of
railways. The Crows-Nest Pass field, now our greatest producer, began production about 1896, while the railway was
being built.
Coal mining now employs about 2,500 men and produces
approximately 2,000,000 tons of coal per year with average
value of close to $8,000,000.
Indians also contributed to the first gold discoveries. Lode-
gold in a narrow vein on Moresby Island fo the Queen Charlotte group, was reported in 1851; attempts to mine it were
not commercially successful. Discovery of placer gold in the
Thompson River and in bars on the Fraser River near Yale
encouraged miners to search farther in the interior. By 1861
discoveries had been made at Quesnel Forks, Keithley Creek,
Antler Creek, Williams Creek and Lightning Creek; and in
the southern interior at Rock Creek and Fort Steele and north
of Revelstoke on the Columbia River.
Political developments were forced by the rapid growth
of mining. The great influx of gold seekers transformed
By Hon. E. C. CARSON
Minister of Mines, British Columbia
Victoria from a quiet trading post into a roaring boom town.
Governor Douglas, who in 1853 had proclaimed regulations
governing digging or mining gold on the Queen Charlotte
Islands, undertook to collect licence fees from the miners on
the mainland and to maintain law and order. His firm handling of the situation probably kept the colony under British
control.
Fascinating tales have been written of life in the very raw
country—of the stupendous efforts such as the building of the
Cariboo Road to serve the placer mining camps of the Cariboo, of enterprising people who drove beef cattle up the
Okanagan Valley and into the heart of the Cariboo country,
and of course of the unfortunate attempts to use camels on
the Cariboo Road.
Placer mining in British Columbia has yielded gold worth
about $92,000,000. The production of the first 25 years,
1858 to 1883, had an estimated value of more than $54,000,-
000. By the end of fhat period the annual output had declined greatly, and from that time until 1936 the annual
value of placer gold rarely reached $1,000,000. The lowest
year was 1929 with production valued at less than $120,000.
The output increased to more than $1,000,000 in 1936 and
even under wartime conditions the output had not again
fallen below $1,000,000 at the end of 1942.
Prospectors interested in lode-deposits had made some discoveries while placer mining was still the principal interest.
The decline of placer mining and the construction of railways in the southern part of the Province tended to increase
prospecting for lode deposits. The 15 years following the
completion of the Canadian Pacific Railway in 1886 saw the
discovery of most of the important lode mining camps in
southern British Columbia: Slocan-Ainsworth, Nelson, Kimberley, Moyie, Rossland, Boundary, Field and Texada Island.
With the development of these camps, British Columbia became an important lode-mining Province, producing gold,
silver, copper and lead. By 1900 the annual value of lode-
mine production had reached $10,000,000, and coal production was valued at more than $4,000,000.
Mining has continued to expand in volume and in value of
material produced, and has also become the basis for a great
chemical industry at Trail.
We now produce a long list of refined metals or high-
grade concentrates, for export. We also produce, largely for
home consumption, coal and building materials, including
cement and clay products, in substantial quantity.
16
THE GRADUATE CHRONICLE For the 10 years ending in 1941 the average annual value
of production exceeded $56,000,000, divided between
Metals (refined or in concentrates) nearly $48,000,000
Fuel (refined or in concentrates) nearly 7,000,000
Non-metallics more than 800,000
Clay and clay products 300,000
Other structural materials nearly 1,500,000
Gold valued at more than $16,000,000 constituted more than
a third of the metal and considerably more than quarter the
value of all mineral products.
This 10-year period includes the worst years of the depression, including 1932, when the total value of production
was approximately half of the average annual value for the
10-year period. The increase in gold production to an average of nearly $23,000,000 per year for the four years 193 8 to
1941 inclusive, was an extremely important factor in the
total production.
A measure of the importance of the industry is the number employed in it. The average for the 10-year period, computed as full-time employment, was 14,260 according to our
figures. The figures for the average number of employees in
all industries in 1941 is 97,300. For that year the total number employed in the three main branches of the mining industry was 12,350, or rather more than one-eighth of the total
for all industries. A Dominion Bureau of Statistics figure for
1942 places the average earnings of workers in the mining
industry at 1% above the average for all industries. When
fewer people were employed in highly paid war industries the
average earnings in the mining industry were considerably
higher than the average for all industries.
In the war years the mining industry produced gold in
substantial volume, while gold was desired for foreign exchange. It has produced refined lead and zinc in large volume, at prices from a third to a half of United States prices,
and copper at the United States export price. The production
of these base metals reached maximum figures in 1941 and
1942. The Province has produced important quantities of
tungsten concentrates and of refined mercury which were
urgently required for war purposes. British Columbia is the
only important source of mercury within the Empire. Tungsten and mercury are now coming fom other sources and
British Columbia production has been stopped or drastically
reduced. Tin, still in short supply, and several other metals
are being produced as by-products of base metal mining and
refining.
Gold-miners were urged to increase or at least maintain
their production in the earlier years of the war when foreign
exchange was needed. The peak value of gold production was
reached in 1940. Since 1941 production has fallen off and
for 1943 the amount of gold produced was less than 40 per
cent of the quantity produced in 1940. Coal production has
been set at a higher rate than for the pre-war years but 1943
production was materially below that for 1942. Lead and
zinc production have declined in the last two years and the
production of copper has fallen off greatly.
The reductions in output have been caused by war conditions, principally labour shortage, which under National
^*tfcs--"
regulations affects gold mines most seriously. Mines in general have been unable to keep up their development programs,
that is, they have been unable to devote enough effort to
searching for ore and to opening up ore-bodies which have
been discovered. To varying degrees production has been at
the expense of developed ore reserves. This situation holds
serious difficulties for the present and future; unless ore continues to be discovered, reserves shrink rapidly; and frequently
the effort to maintain production results in difficulties in
mining. The gold mines have met the difficulties of declining
reserves or inability to maintain production at a profitable
level by reducing the rate of production, alternating between
production and development, or shutting down completely.
The base metal mines, because of the urgent need of metal
for war purposes, have tried to maintain production at high
rates.
If at the end of the war our ore reserves are seriously
depleted and at that time we face low metal ptices, the situation will be grave for the mining industry and this situation
will certainly be reflected by the Provincial economy in general. It will be essential for the good of the Province that
new ore be made available. This can only be done by finding
new ore-bodies in established mining areas, and by finding
new areas which contain commercial ore-bodies. To a degree
provision of transportation in under-developed parts of the
Province may contribute to the latter.
To date our ore depostis have been discovered very largely
by prospectors whose hope of gain has depended on finding
mineral deposits which they could sell. Some of them have
been assisted by individuals or groups contributing toward or
meeting the expenses. For some years the number of men
actively prospecting has been inadequate, accordingly in 1943
the Provincial Government began to provide grub-stakes for
prospectors. It is hoped that experienced prospectors will be
encouraged to continue prospecting, that others will be attracted to prospecting, and that training and experience under
this program will benefit both the new recruits and the old-
timers.
Geological maps and reports are of great assistance in
searching for ore, and in planning prospecting programs. The
Dominion Geological Survey, and the Provincial Department
of Mines in a real mapping and examination of minerals occurrences have made contributions of great value. However,
to meet present and post-war needs this type of work will
have to be increased.
So far the mining industry has been based principally on
the production of the metals—gold, silver, copper, lead, zinc,
fuel—and structural materials. Mercury and possibly tungsten, which have been produced during the war years, may
also make a contribution to our future mineral output. Utili
zation of our iron ore deposits, long a topic of interest, is to
the fore again with prospects that production of pig iron and
of steel may be undertaken on a modest scale. With increas
ing industrialization and with some demand for export, it is
probable that production of industrial minerals may becomt
increasingly important.
JUNE, 1944
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