@prefix vivo: . @prefix edm: . @prefix ns0: . @prefix dcterms: . @prefix skos: . vivo:departmentOrSchool "Forestry, Faculty of"@en ; edm:dataProvider "DSpace"@en ; ns0:degreeCampus "UBCV"@en ; dcterms:creator "Elliott, Geoffrey Kenyon"@en ; dcterms:issued "2012-02-18T00:45:05Z"@en, "1957"@en ; vivo:relatedDegree "Master of Forestry - MF"@en ; ns0:degreeGrantor "University of British Columbia"@en ; dcterms:description "Spiral grain in timber may cause severe twisting of lumber and plywood. In the primary forest products industries the presence of spiral grain in the tree results in cross-grained products. Cross grain affects the strength properties of lumber to a marked degree. Thus a grain deviation of 1 In 25 (2°18') results in decreased tensile strength whereas a slope of 1 in 10 (5°43') will reduce compression strength. Spiral grain is a condition well known to the wood technologist and the silviculturalist. Until recently it was considered the exception rather than the rule. From recently published papers, however, and from unpublished data available to the author, strong evidence has been produced to show that spiral grain is the normal growth pattern in trees. This thesis is designed to investigate the spiral pattern of second-growth Douglas fir and western hemlock. Accordingly three sites were chosen: a good, a medium and a low site in a typical British Columbia coastal forest of second growth. Two crown classes for each species were sampled from each site and three trees in each crown class for each species were felled and their spiral patterns investigated. A general trend of spirality was established, the twist being initially left (at first), decreasing to the left and becoming right with increasing age. This pattern holds good for both species. The effect of site on spiral development was established as highly significant with both species. On high quality sites the chief factor influencing spiral development was found to be distance from the pith. On sites of lower quality, age from the pith was found to have the most significant influence on spiral development."@en ; edm:aggregatedCHO "https://circle.library.ubc.ca/rest/handle/2429/40791?expand=metadata"@en ; skos:note "SPIRAL GRAIN IN SECOND GROWTH DOUGLAS FIR AND WESTERN HEMLOCK by GEOFFREY KENYON ELLIOTT B,. Sc. (For.) (Wales), 1 9 5 5 A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF FORESTRY in the Department of FORESTRY We accept t h i s t h e s i s as conforming to the required standard THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA September, 1 9 5 7 i ABSTRACT S p i r a l grain in timber may cause severe twisting of lumber and plywood. In the primary forest products industries the presence- of s p i r a l grain i n the tree r e s u l t s in cross-grained products. Cro.ss grain affects the strength properties of lumber to a marked degree.. Thus a grain deviation of 1 In 2f? (2°l8') re s u l t s i n decreased t e n s i l e strength whereas a slope of 1 i n 10 (5°43') w i l l reduce compression strength. S p i r a l grain is a condition well known to the wood technologist and the s i l v i c u l t u r a l i s t . U n t i l recently i t was considered the exception rather than the r u l e . Prom recently published papers, however, and from unpublished data available to the author, strong evidence has been produced to show that s p i r a l grain Is the normal growth pattern i n trees. This thesis i s designed to investigate the s p i r a l pattern of second-growth Douglas f i r and western hemlock. Accordingly three s i t e s were chosen: a good, a medium and a low s i t e i n a t y p i c a l B r i t i s h Columbia coastal forest of second growth. Two crown classes f o r each species were sampled from each s i t e and three trees i n each crown .class f o r each species were f e l l e d and t h e i r s p i r a l patterns investigated. i i A general trend of s p i r a l i t y was established,, the twist being i n i t i a l l y l e f t (at f i r s t ) , decreasing to the l e f t and becoming right'with increasing age. This pattern holds good fo r both species. The effect of s i t e on s p i r a l development was established as highly s i g n i f i c a n t with both species. On high q u a l i t y sites the chief f a c t o r influencing s p i r a l development was found to be distance from the p i t h . On s i t e s of lower quality, age from the p i t h was found to have the most s i g n i f i c a n t influence on s p i r a l development. In presenting t h i s thesis i n p a r t i a l fulfilment of the requirements fo r an advanced degree at the University of B r i t i s h Columbia, I agree that the Library s h a l l make i t f r e e l y available for reference and study. I further agree that permission for extensive copying of t h i s thesis for scholarly purposes may be granted by the Head of my Department or by his representative. It i s understood that copying or publication of t h i s thesis for f i n a n c i a l gain s h a l l not be allowed without my written permission. Department o The University of B r i t i s h Columbia, Vancouver 8\\ Canada. i i i CONTENTS Page Introduction 1 Literature Survey $ Materials and Methods 17 Results: I. General Pattern •. • • 2 1 I I . The Influence of Height 2 2 I I I : The Influence of Age and Radius Between Sites'. 2 2 IV. The Influence of Age .and Radius Within Sites . 2$ V. The Influence of Crown Class . 27 VI. The Influence of Site 2 7 Conclusions 28 BIBLIOGRAPHY: Literature Cited . . 69 General Bibliography 71 i v LIST OF TABLES Table No. Page Explanation of Tabular Symbols 30 1 and 2 Tables of Average Angles at Each Decade. . 31 3 to ll]. Basic Data of A l l Trees from Plot 1 . . . 32-37 15\" to 26 Basic Data of A l l Trees from Plot 2 . . . 38-If3 27 to 38 Basic Data of A l l Trees from Plot 3 . . . kk~k-9 39 and If0 Correlation C o e f f i c i e n t s Calculated f o r Both Species 50 Ifl and If 1 Analysis of Variance f o r Both Species . . 5>1 V LIST OF FIGURES Figure No. Page 1 and 2 Actual S p i r a l vs Age at Breast Height f o r Both Species , $2-$3 3 to 6 Basic Data f o r A l l Trees from Plot 1 . . . 5i+\"57 7 to 10 Basic Data f o r A l l Trees from Plot 2 . . . 58-61 11 to lk Basic Data f o r A l l Trees from Plot 3 . . . 62-65 15 and 16 Radius vs Age Curve for Both Species . . . 66-67 17 The S p i r a l Grain Measuring Instrument . . 68 v i ACKNOWLEDGMENT The author- wishes to extend his thanks to the Forest Products Laboratories of Canada, Vancouver Laboratory, f o r t h e i r kind assistance throughout the work and the loan of the S p i r a l Grain Measuring Instrument. Acknowledgments are also due to Dr. R.W. Wellwood, Faculty of Forestry, the author's f a c u l t y advisor f o r help i n formulation and layout of the work, and to Dr. J..H.G. Smith f o r h e l p f u l advice i n the experimental layout and s t a t i s t i c a l a i d . Thanks are also due to the Faculty of Forestry f o r the use of f a c i l i t i e s at the University Research Forest, Haney, B r i t i s h Columbia.. SPIRAL, GRAIN IN SECOND GROWTH DOUGLAS FIR AND: WESTERN HEMLOCK Introduction The s p i r a l habit of growth i s of .common manifes-ta t i o n i n nature. S p i r a l development might be Considered as an expression of a widespread tendency which i s proto-plasmic i n o r i g i n . Certainly the twist found i n nature i s not r e s t r i c t e d to any p a r t i c u l a r group of organisms. In the animal world there are pronounced twists- developed i n the group. Molluaca, both i n the. dextral and the s i n i s t r a l d i r e c t i o n . The .spiral .arrangement is. not confined to. the animal kingdom, since t e n d r i l s of the cotton plant and the climbing parts of other plants, exhibit the phenomenon. .Cotton, f i b r e s themselves show both l e f t and right s p i r a l 1 2 development. Twist is. not confined to the m u l t i c e l l u l a r organisms, f o r the s p i r a l development of c e r t a i n b a c t e r i a l •colonies, i s well known. The occurrence of s p i r a l development at the sub-c e l l u l a r l e v e l has. become well known i n recent years. S p i r a l trends have been established i n muscle f i b r e s , and the s p i r a l arrangement i n c e l l u l o s e f i b r e s i s well established (21) . The s p i r a l nature of chromosomes .as they appear i n the d i v i d i n g nucleus has long.been known to the c y t o l o g i s t . With the advent of the electron microscope the h e l i c a l nature of the cellulose f i b r i l s i n the primary c e l l walls: of cambial tissue i n c e r t a i n plants .has become well established. Electron microphotograph.s have also indicated the s p i r a l architecture of certain f l a g e l l a and c i l i a found in the animal kingdom. These appendages are purely proteinaceous i n nature. I t has been shown t h e o r e t i c a l l y that certain proteins of high molecular weight i n the vitamin group must have a s p i r a l make-up. Hence we can hypothesize that s p i r a l i s the expression of a widespread tendency which i s protoplasmic in o r i g i n . In view of the universal nature .of s p i r a l i t y i t i s not surprising that the phenomenon i s exhibited i n trees. U n t i l recently however the spiraled tree has been 3 taken as the exception rather than the r u l e . Recent work in India and Canada has shown that twist Is an expression of the normal growth pattern i n trees. One influence of s p i r a l grain i n waod i s to cause-severe twisting of lumber and plywood. In the primary forest products industries, the presence of s p i r a l grain in the tree results i n cross-grained products. The effects of cross grain on the strength properties of wood has long been established. There i s a reduction of about J4. per cent i n bending strength when the slope of the grain i s I i n .25\",• ( 2 ° l 8 » ) ; with a. slope of 1 i n 1 0 ) the reduction i s 1 9 per cent. The s t i f f n e s s Of a beam Is also reduced by sloping grain, but to a lesser degree-, the corresponding reduction f o r the same Variations of slope being respect-i v e l y 3 and' 1 1 per- cent. Timber used f o r to o l handles and cooperage should under no circumstances, exceed a slope of 1 In 25\",. and a l l products requiring a bent timber should be straight grained. The loss i n strength i s due to the fact that basic stresses -are established on the basis that the forces act either p a r a l l e l to the grain or at rig h t angles to i t . It i s evident then that any departure i n grain alignment i s registered as a reduction i n the strength of the wood piece. The occurrence of s p i r a l grain leads to the degrad-ing of logs p a r t i c u l a r l y i n the peeler grades. 1 For Douglas f i r , grain slope should not exceed 1 i n 1 2 (lj 0 3 6 » ) for logs of 3 0 \" - 3 5 \" i n diameter. With western hemlock logs 3 6 \" i n diameter and Over are degraded i f the slope of grain exceeds 1 i n 1 2 . In Figure 1 i t i s shown that the average s p i r a l of Douglas f i r f o r the best area sampled, (Plot l ) , i s 2°R at 60 yrs. I f the graph is. projected to 120 yrs. a s p i r a l of between 6°R ( 1 i n 9) and 8°R ( 1 i n 7) ;can be predicted. Such a s p i r a l development would cause serious degrade of the log, and would Impair the mechanical properties of the lumber. The work that t h i s thesis represents i s a d i r e c t r e s u l t of an investigation undertaken by the author, and R.W. Kennedy of the University of B r i t i s h Columbia, at the Vancouver Laboratory of the Forest Products Laboratories of Canada. In conjunction with a more general study of s p i r a l grain under the d i r e c t i o n of P.L. Northcott, the author Investigated the rel a t i o n s h i p between s p i r a l development and s i t e q u a l i t y . Red ald'er (Alnus rubra. Bong.) trees, growing on two d i f f e r e n t s i t e s were examined f o r s p i r a l i t y . The conclusion reached was. that there existed a strong cor r e l a t i o n between s p i r a l , expressed as cumulative- absol-ute .spiral..,-and-.age. The• present investigation examines • Forestry Handbook f o r B r i t i s h Columbia, The Forest Club, University of B r i t i s h Columbia,- Vancouver, 1 s t edition, 1 9 5 3 . 5 the p o s s i b i l i t y of similar trends existing i n the econom-i c a l l y more important Douglas f i r (Pseudotsuga menziesii (Mirb) Franco) and western hemlock .(Tsuga heterophylla (Raf) Sarg) . Literature Survey The l i t e r a t u r e concerning observations and theories pertaining to s p i r a l grain i n plants goes back to l 8 8 l when C.B...Clarke ( 6 ) wrote on Right-hand and Left-hand contortion, i n a paper published by the Journal of the Linnaean Society. The phenomenon has been the object of some f i f t y papers since t h i s time, many of which are- only reports, on the observation of s p i r a l and few are Concerned with mechanism:. Real experimentation began with the c l a s s i c contributions of H.G-. Champion ( 3 ) (4) (£) worked f o r the Indian Forest Service,., between 1 9 2 ^ and 1 9 3 0 ^ on the problem of twist i n Chir pine (Pinus l o n g i f o l i a Rox.). S i r Harry .Champion! s work remains the basis f o r contempor-ary study In the f i e l d . E a r l i e r n a t u r a l i s t s were well aware of twiat i n plants. The phenomenon was: noted by Hartig in .11888, Schlich i n 1 8 9 6 and Nis.bet i n 190$. Of the early work in India we owe much to Smythies ( 2 2 ) , who raised se.ed of twisted parents and got straight-grained progeny. 6 Cannings (.2) raised seed from parent trees with a r i g h t twist and got seedlings with a. pronounced l e f t twist. Troupe ( 2 3 ) , i n a s i l v i c u l t u r a l treatise- on .Pinus long-jf o l i a (Rox), noted that twisted trees gave both twisted and straight-grained progeny. Troupe seriously doubted the then current b e l i e f that heredity was. the sole c o n t r o l l i n g influence on s p i r a l ! t y . Subsequent to Troupe's investigations., H..G. .Champion began h i s \"Inves-tigations into the Origin of Twisted F i b r e \" . Champ ion's works on t h i s problem were: published' between 1 9 2 5 and 1 9 3 0 i n the o f f i c i a l publications of the Indian Forest Service under whose auspices, the work was undertaken. Investigations were conducted using Chir pine (Pinus long i f olia, Rox.) , a longleaf pine indigenous to India and other parts of Asia. Chir showed some- very remarkable s p i r a l growth, and Champion produced evidence of some trees with almost horizontal grain. In his. f i r s t interim report ( 3 ) Champion dealt with the p o s s i b i l i t i e s , of inheritance governing twist i n Pinus l o n g i f o l i a . As a result of progeny tests on seeds from selected l o c a l i t i e s , and ranging from areas where s p i r a l was prominent to areas where s p i r a l was rare,, the following conclusions were drawn, (i) \" I t i s a common character to a l l trees to produce a varying but small proportion of individuals with twisted f i b r e , the twist being l e f t at f i r s t , , changing to right with 7 w i t h passage -of time-,, v a r y i n g g r e a t l y i n l e n g t h w i t h species.. ( i i ) There i s p r o b a b l y a c e r t a i n amount of\" f l u c t u a t i n g v a r i a t i o n i n the d i r e c t i o n of the f i b r e a c c o u n t i n g f o r o c c a s i o n a l e x c e p t i o n s t o t h i s g e n e r a l rule.,, o t h e r s perhaps b e i n g t r a c e a b l e , to. s p e c i a l i n h i b i t i v e . i n f l u e n c e s , ( i i i ) I n areas where t w i s t i s e s p e c i a l l y f r e q u e n t , t w i s t e d f i b r e , , o r the tendency t o produce i t , i s u n q u e s t i o n -a b l y c a p a b l e of b e i n g t r a n s m i t t e d f r o m one. gener-a t i o n to. the n e x t . ( i v ) C o n d i t i o n s found i n e x i s t i n g f o r e s t make the i n h e r i -t a n c e of t w i s t as an a c q u i r e d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c d i f f i -c u l t t o a c c e p t as- a s a t i s f a c t o r y e x p l a n a t i o n , (y) In- s u c h a r e a s , a t w i s t e d v a r i e t y may have, o r i g i n -a t e d p o s s i b l y by a simple- l o s s , m u t a t i o n o f a f a c t o r c o n t r o l l i n g the o r i e n t a t i o n of the growing c e l l s . .Such m u t a t i o n must have o r i g i n a t e d i n d e p e n d e n t l y i n many areas', i t s s u r v i v a l b e i n g f a v o u r e d b y t h e con-t i n u e d s e l e c t i o n of t h e s t r a i g h t . e r t r e e s f o r r e m o v a l . ( v i ) Sound f o r e s t management on the g e n e r a l l y a c c e p t e d l i n e s , , e s p e c i a l l y as r e g a r d s s e e d - s e l e c t i o n and t h i n n i n g s h o u l d r e s u l t i n time i n the e l i m i n a t i o n of t w i s t e d t r e e s . \" I t i s f r o m t h i s - work t h a t we a c c r u e the f i r s t I n k l i n g i n t o , t he r o l e of h e r e d i t y and o t h e r f a c t o r s i n g o v e r n i n g t w i s t . Champion's d e f i n i t i o n of s p i r a l f o r h i s experiments- began a t 7 ° . T h i s i s v a l i d f r om the u t i l i z a t i o n p o i n t of view,, but i t s h o u l d be- emphasized when he speaks of e l i m i n a t i n g s p i r a l a l t o g e t h e r by sound f o r e s t management. In a f u r t h e r set of experiments, Champion. (I4.) combined seed of f i v e parentage types on four areas, i n every combin-a t i o n . To- obviate i n some respect the influence- of random p a r e n t a l f e r t i l i z a t i o n , , the types of seed used were as f o l l o w s (a) Prom a s t r a i g h t - g r a i n e d locality.,, where the. incidence of s p i r a l , , i . e . more than 7°, i s rare.,, perhaps 2 per cent maximum. (b) Prom a s t r a i g h t - g r a i n e d l o c a l area, as near as pos-s i b l e to. the. p a r t i c u l a r p l a n t i n g area-, where, the percentage of twi s t e d t r e e s i s l e s s than 10. (c) Prom t w i s t e d trees' s e l e c t e d from the predominantly s t r a i g h t l o c a l i t y . (d) Prom s t r a i g h t trees s e l e c t e d from the predominantly twi s t e d l o c a l i t y . (e) Prom a l o c a l i t y where the incidence of s p i r a l i s extremely common, at l e a s t 95 per cent. Prom t h i s i t f o l l o w s that the f o u r l o c a l i t i e s chosen were: (a) S t r a i g h t - g r a i n e d , where- the- incidence: of s p i r a l was 2 per cent. (b) S t r a i g h t - g r a i n e d , where- the incidence- of s p i r a l was 10 per cent. (c) Intermediate., where the incidence- of s p i r a l was' 60 per cent. (d) Twisted,, where the incidence: of s p i r a l was 95 per cent. 9 Champion drew, the f o l l o w i n g conclusions from t h i s experiment. ( i ) \"The hypothesis that s p i r a l i t y i s i n h e r i t e d i s completely v i n d i c a t e d . I t cannot be at t e s t e d that a 100 per cent t w i s t e d parent crop w i l l give 100 per cent twisted progeny. Some two-t h i r d s of the second r o t a t i o n crop, however, was found to be tw i s t e d beyond s e r v i c e a b i l i t y f o r timber. This .conclusion holds good when seed from 100 per cent t w i s t e d l o c a l i t y i s planted on any s i t e , ( i i ) The seed from s t r a i g h t - g r a i n e d areas gives a crop v i r t u a l l y f r e e of t w i s t on a l l s i t e s , ( i i i ) I n a l l cases the.seedlings r e f l e c t to some degree the t w i s t i n t h e i r parents.\" There i s a general conclusion which Can be drawn from t h i s part of Champion's work. I t i s tha t whatever a d d i t i o n a l f a c t o r s come i n t o p l a y the tendency to develop twisted f i b r e i s i n h e r i t e d . Concurrent w i t h these experiments, Champion i n i t i a t e d an i n v e s t i g a t i o n i n t o other p o s s i b l e causative e f f e c t s of s p i r a l . Kadambi (11) continued w i t h these experiments a f t e r Champion l e f t I n d i a . The experiments involved v a r i o u s methods of inducing t w i s t . Three main methods were used: 10 (1) Debarking a portion of the stem; t h i a caused no . appreciable change in the s p i r a l development. (2) Topping, by removal of the terminal bud and a portion of the l a s t year's growth; here the s p i r a l seemed to show some s i g n i f i c a n t increase from the tipped point upwards. (3) i Strangulation; In t h i s case an induced s p i r a l was probably produced. In general the experiment f a i l e d to show that s p i r a l could be induced by any external agencies to the tree. In this way the influence of man and his domestic animals was discounted as a cause of s p i r a l . From the early 19301s \"American Science\" has featured many short a r t i c l e s on the twist i n trees, although most have been i n the- form of observations rather than experimentation. Wentworth (2l|_), working on pines in Montana, observed a predominant right twist. With this evidence- and evidence from l i t e r a t u r e , he postulated a predominant right s p i r a l i n the northern hemisphere and a predominant l e f t s p i r a l i n the southern hemisphere. The implication i n t h i s theory i s that the earth's rotation affects the s p i r a l i n an antipodal way. Butler ( l ) , i n 193k-, noted apple trees twisted mainly to the l e f t i n the southern hemisphere. He advanced the theory that the s p i r a l effect i s phototropic and discounted the influence of s o i l , wind and weather. Jones (10), i n 1931, showed that maples i n Massachusetts were s p i r a l l e d to the r i g h t and elms to the l e f t . Also i n 1931, Jacot (9) observed that i n northern China, Thuja o r l e n t a l l s (L) showed l e f t s p i r a l , and Thuja occidentails (L) showed s p i r a l to the r i g h t . In t h i s observation there was no obvious co r r e l a -t i o n with exposure, i n c l i n a t i o n of the tree or other r e a d i l y observed environmental factors. Koehler (13) made observations on alpine f i r and found that of 1+00 specimens examined .85 per cent showed r i g h t twist, llf per Cent showed l e f t twist and 1 per cent no twist. No data concerning the age of the specimens measured are available Herrick (8) examined 1572 trees i n Louisiana where 53 per cent were twisted to the r i g h t , 2L|_ per cent to the l e f t arid 33 per cent not at a l l . Recently, at the Vancouver Laboratory of the Forest Products Laboratories of Canada, NorthCott (18) (data so f a r unpublished) has expounded the theory that the s p i r a l habit i s the normal growth pattern i n trees. In support of t h i s theory, evidence i s quoted from mature trees, poles and saplings; of 502' specimens taken from 11 species which were measured at the Vancouver laboratory only 3 specimens showed no s p i r a l . A l i t e r a t u r e survey reveals at least 86 species i n which s p i r a l has been recorded, and Champion (3) quoting Braun says that of 167 species examined 111 exhibited s p i r a l grain. I f 12 interlocked grain i s added to the c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of s p i r a l grain, and there seems to be no l o g i c a l j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r not doing so, then a large- percentage of t r o p i c a l hardwoods are included. Kribs .(.If?) l i s t s 2f?8 species of which 7 if per cent are subject to interlocked grain. S p i r a l i s therefore recorded In trees on a l l continents on both sides of the equator; i t i s recorded i n the simplest anatomical structures and the most complex of both conifers and hard-woods . A rather more important aspect of the work i n Vancouver i s the establishment of a d e f i n i t e pattern of spir.ality within the tree. With mature Douglas f i r , f o r example, the general pattern i s to b u i l d to a maximum l e f t spiral> and as the tree becomes older the angle decreases to the l e f t u n t i l i t becomes zero and thence becomes a right s p i r a l . This, however,, i s only the aver-age pattern and i n d i v i d u a l trees may deviate markedly. Nor i s t h i s general pattern the only one. With red alder, for example, the i n i t i a l s p i r a l i s r i g h t changing to. l e f t , again with individuals d i f f e r i n g markedly from the norm. The d i v e r s i f i c a t i o n of the i n d i v i d u a l with the norm within a species, p a r t i c u l a r l y with regard to the severity of s p i r a l , and the differences between the normal patterns of the species examined, leads to the view that s p i r a l pattern i s a product of the i n d i v i d u a l tree. 13 Northcott expresses t h i s view and i s well substantiated by the evidence of Champion (3)• Kennedy and E l l i o t t (12), working with red alder (Alnus rubra Bong.), showed a strong c o r r e l a t i o n between the s p i r a l developed by the tree> expressed as- the Cumul-ative Absolute S p i r a l , ^ and the age of the tree. This implies that the p o t e n t i a l s p i r a l of any i n d i v i d u a l within a species depends upon the age of the i n d i v i d u a l . Hence at a given merchantable diameter, the tree which takes longest to reach t h i s diameter i s l i a b l e to have the greatest p o t e n t i a l s p i r a l . The influence of site as expressed by rate of growth therefore seems to have an e f f e c t on spir.ality. In the case of red alder the f a s t e s t rate of growth produces the least p o t e n t i a l and the least actual s p i r a l . Thus on the better of two s i t e s , at lj_0 years / o of age there had developed a 1/2 R. actual s p i r a l , which represented a 6° Cumulative Absolute S p i r a l over a radius of 5>.5> Inches. On the slower growing site-,, at kO years a 6°L. actual s p i r a l had developed representing a 6-§-° Cumulative Absolute S p i r a l over a radius of 9-5 inches. In a recent paper on the \" S i l v i c u l t u r a l Implica-tions- of S p i r a l Grain- in Pinus •longif.olla, i n South Africa\",. 1 Cumulative Absolute S p i r a l i s a method of expressing the s p i r a l developed by the tree throughout Its age, with-out regard to the d i r e c t i o n of s p i r a l . I t i s an additive function. 14 Rault and Marsh (19) have shown that here too the q u a l i t y of the s i t e and the age of the tree are important factors a f f e c t i n g s p i r a l i t y . In t h i s case the slower growing s i t e s in general produced the least s p i r a l . It seems,- therefore, as though the e a r l i e r evidence that site q u a l i t y has l i t t l e influence, on the development of s p i r a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i s contradicted. However, there i s s t i l l no evidence to show . that such characters as s o i l types, climate and aspect have any dir e c t significance on s p i r a l i t y . .'.<: There have been many speculations as to the cause of s p i r a l grain formation. Among the e a r l i e s t was. the influence- of the wind. In 190$, Cooper, quoted by Champion (3) conducted the f i r s t experiments, and i n 1932, Howard, quoted by Roa (21), suggested the action of wind since- i t caused oval Crown formation and, i n the northern hemisphere, the eccentric growth thereby induced would lead to twist from the l e f t to the r i g h t . The wind theory i s i n f a c t supported by a certain amount of circumstantial evidence-, but i t has never been proved conclusively and can be safely dismissed. Kohl (14) i n 1933 offered an anatomical explan-ation. Cambial c e l l s divide*\\by a r a d i a l c e l l plate and tangentially by an oblique p l a t e . The oblique c e l l wall seems to determine the p i t c h of the path the c e l l s take i n elongation, which i s diagonally around the tree since this, follows the path of least resistance. Kohl concludes by 15 saying the p i t c h of the d i v i s i o n of the c e l l wall might be an inherited character and so the s p i r a l in the parent tree might very well be r e f l e c t e d to- some degree i n the progeny. Kadambi ( l l ) , i n 195l>- showed a p a r a l l e l between interlocked grain and s p i r a l grain, and demonstrated that the tendency to pronounced s p i r a l i s detectable i n the embryo. Certainly s p i r a l i t y can be detected i n the seedling by the twisting of the cotyledons-,, so that c u l l i n g of undesirable trees, i n the seedbeds becomes p r a c t i c a l . Haskins and Moore- (7) have shown that X-ray radiation might induce s p i r a l i t y . They exposed c i t r u s seedlings to- X-ray radiation and induced a l e f t twist; l a t e r the seedlings straightened Out. The explanation offered i s that the radiation caused abnormal mitosis- of the Cells leading to s p i r a l i t y . This abnormality ceased a f t e r the effects of the X-ray had gone.. The implication that twist is; a physio-l o g i c a l character i s keenly evident here. Other work on the physiological aspect was done by McKinney and Sando (16) who demonstrated a photoperiodic e f f e c t . Under short photoperiods certain v a r i e t i e s of wheat showed both a r i g h t and a l e f t twist. The conclusion reached reflects, upon the Current thought that a genetical effect was e n t i r e l y res-ponsible* \"Granting that the character -of twisting i s due to inheritable characteristics,, the expression of this character may be- due to environment\". Richens (20, reviewing world l i t e r a t u r e on forest genetics, concluded that both environment and genetic factors play a role i n determining the. twist of trees. There seems to be l i t t l e doubt that heredity plays an important role in the determination of s p i r a l i t y . That heredity plays the only role may well be doubted, although no authoritative statement can be made as to the d e f i n i t e demarcation of the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s purported to play t h e i r part i n s p i r a l development. I t i s the- way i n Which the genetical role is. enacted which must decide i t s ultimate- effect upon s p i r a l i t y . I t i s known that the s p i r a l i t y of the parents is, broadly r e f l e c t e d i n the pro-geny, but extreme- v a r i a t i o n found between trees growing on the same si t e and presumably of limited parentage shows that heredity i s not e n t i r e l y responsible. Certainly s p i r a l i t y has not been isolated i n any plant to a given set of genes or a given p a i r of homologous chromosomes. Thus the purely genotypic effect of heredity must f o r the moment be discounted. The phenotypic effect, although i t must be present, seems to, be so loosely bound to the environment that the solution to. the- problem must be sought in. seme-basic e n t i t y common to a l l plants exhibiting s p i r a l i t y . Since the most illuminating trend of thought seems to be that s p i r a l development can be Influenced by growth rate--,, the physiological factors concerned with regulation of 17 growth rate would seem to provide an encouraging lead. The problem, however, has now resolved i t s e l f into one of such magnitude that no single group of research workers can hope to solve I t . What started out as a problem f o r the wood anatomist now encompasses the whole- f i e l d of fore s t r y . If the problem i s worth solving i t must be approached from a l l angles and with f u l l support between a l l groups in the f i e l d of .forestry. Materials and Methods. The material for t h i s study was- collected from sample plots on the University Research Forest at Haney, B r i t i s h Columbia, i n the Lower Fraser Valley. The fore-st i s considered as t y p i c a l of the B r i t i s h Columbia coastal forest and i s predominantly a mixture of Douglas f i r , western hemlock and western red cedar. The area from- which the samples were taken i s even-aged, the res u l t of a f i r e i n the old-growth timber i n 1867. Certain variations i n the ages do appear, as shown i n the data sheets. .(Tables 3~ 3 8 ) , but f o r the purposes of p r a c t i c a l f o r e s t r y the area i s considered even-aged. Three plots were -c.hos.en>. with s i t e , indices 90,. 110, and li]-0,. which i s a common range of s i t e q u a l i t y on 18. the area, and represents a rather poor forest growth (Site V) through to a rather good forest growth (Site III)„^ Two species, Douglas f i r and western hemlock, were sampled from each p l o t . The i n d i v i d u a l trees were selected from two crown classes-, the Dominant-Codominant .class: and the Intermediate class. Three individuals from each crown class fo r each species were collected. This gave- a t o t a l of 36 trees, comprising 18 from each species, 6 from each s i t e per species averaging 3 from each crown c l a s s per s i t e . The trees were f e l l e d and cross' sectional discs were taken at the 4 l / 2 - f o o t (breast height) l e v e l , the 1.0-foot l e v e l , the 2 0-foot l e v e l and at 2 0-foot intervals' thereafter to a 3-inch diameter. The method of measuring the s p i r a l was that adopted by Kennedy and E l l i o t t ( 1 2 ) , and developed at the Vancouver Laboratory of the Forest Products Laboratories of Canada. The discs were s p l i t with a straight-edged wedge along a convenient diameter free of knots or other defects which might cause abnormal grain deviation. The s p l i t followed the grain and exposed the s p i r a l pattern, the operation being done while the cross section was i n the green condition to prevent s p i r a l Changes due to d i f f e r e n t i a l shrinkage. Actual s p i r a l measurements were made- at 10-year increments from the pith.. The incre-ments:-were- measured, on either- side- of-the- p i t h and an • - - • 1 Site Quality--as defined from United States Department of Agriculture Technical B u l l e t i n No. 2 0 1 . . . \"The Y i e l d of Douglas F i r i n the P a c i f i c Northwest.\" 1 9 4 9 . ' McArdle and Meyer. average value f o r each decade was' c a l c u l a t e d . The p i t h of each section was chosen as the reference l i n e from' which the s p i r a l determinations were made.. The measuring i n s t r u -ment was'a modified b e v e l p r o t r a c t o r ( P i g . 17) accurate to w i t h i n l / 2 ° . The k n i f e edge was. placed f i r m l y on the p i t h and at each decade the- angle of the\" g r a i n was measured by means .of the adjustable, p r o t r a c t o r , e i t h e r .as a r i g h t or a l e f t d e v i a t i o n from the p i t h a x i s . The radius from the 1 p i t h to .each S p i r a l measurement was ...also .annotated. The experimental design therefore incorporates the e f f e c t on . s p i r a l of age from the p i t h , r a d i u s , crown c l a s s and. s i t e . The primary i n f l u e n c e s were tested i n an a n a l y s i s of variance:, the e f f e c t of age and diameter on s p i r a l were g r a p h i c a l l y represented,, .and. r e g r e s s i o n analyses, were- made on these .curves (Figures' 3 to lk) . G r a p h i c a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of the data are not e a s i l y analysed when the a c t u a l s p i r a l angles,,, which vary from l e f t to r i g h t w i t h i n a given cross s e c t i o n , are- Used. Hence the concept of the absolute s p i r a l angle was\" used, by which the 1 d i r e c t i o n of s p i r a l i t y i s ignored. This i s a v a l i d concept from the p r a c t i c a l p o i n t of view since only the absolute degree of s p i r a l i t y a f f e c t s timber p r o p e r t i e s . .Furthermore> the absolute s p i r a l angle at any p o i n t was- p l o t t e d as the cumulative figure-, which represents the t o t a l number o f degrees through which the s p i r a l had progressed from the p i t h . This also, represents the p o t e n t i a l s p i r a l a t t a i n a b l e by the t r e e ; For example, i f a tre e had a maximum I4.0 r i g h t s p i r a l at .10 years,, 'and changed s t e a d i l y to .a- 5° l e f t s p i r a l .at $0 years, the cumulative absolute s p i r a l angle would be 9 ° at 5>0 years; The p o t e n t i a l s p i r a l f o r t h i s p a r t i c u l a r specimen would also be 9 ° 'at $0 years: d i s r e g a r d i n g the d i r e c t i o n of the s p i r a l change. The p r i n c i p l e of the cumulative' absolute angle was .used by Kennedy and E l l i o t t ( 1 2 ) In t h e i r work with r e d alder.. A l l t r e e s were taken from Sample- P l o t s at the U n i v e r s i t y Research F o r e s t . This was made p o s s i b l e because of severe damage due to snow break* and .only snow-broken trees were removed f o r measurement. The l i m i t s imposed by this, method of sampling are shown when compari-sons of growth r a t e are made. The best rate' of growth i s recorded i n some P l o t I I trees., Site- Index 1 1 0 , and i n general P l o t I-, S i t e Index ll+O-, shows as the second best growth rate of the three p l o t s . Another f a c t o r leading to t h i s c o n d i t i o n i s the; l a c k of Dominant t r e e s a v a i l a b l e f o r measurement. The group designated as f a s t e s t growing are the Codominant-Dominant crown c l a s s . S u f f i c i e n t evidence was -obtained to i n d i c a t e r e a l d i f f e r e n c e s between p l o t s I and I I , and p l o t I I I , - although maximum d i f f e r e n c e s perhaps have not been measured. 21 Results: I. General Pattern The general pattern of s p i r a l i t y observed i n Douglas, f i r and western hemlock i s presented i n Tables 1 and 2. The same- data are shown graphically i n Figures 1 and 2. It i s emphasized that these data represent .only .average values, calculated to the nearest l/k°. A. great deal .of v a r i a t i o n exists between i n d i v i d u a l trees, as i s shown by reference to Tables 3 -38. Certain conclusions can be drawn from these average data. Considering the k l/2-foot (breast height) l e v e l , and the average figures f o r both species on a l l plots, the general trend i s an increase, with age, from .zero to: a: maximum l e f t s p i r a l Which decreases i n in t e n s i t y and ultim-ately returns to zero. The decrease i s .continued as an Increasing r i g h t s p i r a l . Some trees, however, never exhibit, a l e f t s p i r a l , e.g.- Plot 1, tree ,L, Table 12, whereas others show a fl u c t u a t i n g s p i r a l from l e f t to ri g h t and back again to l e f t , e.g. Plot 2,. tree F,-. Table 1-8- Others show, a high i n i t i a l l e f t s p i r a l , which, although decreasing with increasing age, never actually attains a ri g h t s p i r a l , e.g.. Plot 2, tree J, Table 19. Furthermore some, trees develop an immediate right s p i r a l which continues throughout the . l i f e of the tree, e.i'g.Plot 1, tree J,.. Table lk. A l l 22 these combinations of s p i r a l i t y show the v a r i a t i o n which can be expected around the general trend. I I . The Influence of Height The influence of height i s i n general uncertain. This i s i n part due to the fact that the average actual s p i r a l .developed was not very great and In no case- did It exceed 2 • FP to the 20-foot l e v e l , with both species on the three d i f f e r e n t areas:,- the s p i r a l tends to increase with height. This confirms, previous observations made by Smythi.es and quoted by Troupe (23) on Pinus l o n g i f o i i a . It i s contra-dictory to the evidence presented by Kennedy and E l l i o t t concerning red alder,, where the s p i r a l decreased with height. In Tables I and 2 are shown the average values for each species on each area. Whereas a general trend i s indicated, there i s no s i g n i f i c a n t conclusion to. be drawn from the influence of height on s p i r a l development. I I I . The Influence of Age and Radius Between Sites In Figures 3,\"*\" 1 > and. 1 1 are shown the effect with Douglas f i r of age on. s p i r a l development expressed as, the cumulative absolute s p i r a l at the B.H. l e v e l . The.average l i n e s ' l i n n f i g u r e s - 7 ahd^iib c; are curvilinear,, and show, that the s p i r a l angle changes most r a p i d l y i n youth and to a; less e r degree.- thereafter. At comparable ages the cumulative*, absolute- s p i r a l s on the three plots are somewhat variable. Figure 3 shows an almost straight l i n e r e l a t i o n s h i p . .23 P l o t s .1. and 2, the b e t t e r s i t e s , showed a very close r e l a t i o n s h i p ; P l o t 3. the poorest, always showed a higher s p i r a l angle. Thus at $0 years P l o t 1 shows a. cumulative absolute s p i r a l of k l/k°, P l o t 2 of k l/k°, P l o t 3 of 7 1 A ° . Because s p i r a l angle changes, w i t h age from the p i t h I t must also change w i t h distance from the p i t h . F i g u r e s k, 8-, and 12 i n d i c a t e t h i s change when cumulative absolute s p i r a l i s p l o t t e d against r a d i u s . Again there i s a close s i m i l a r i t y between P l o t s 1 and 2, which are markedly d i f f e r e n t from P l o t 3« Thus at a k.0-inch radius P l o t 3 shows ,a .cumulative absolute s p i r a l of 7 l/k°, whereas the corresponding s p i r a l s f o r P l o t s 1 and 2 are 3 3/k° and li° r e s p e c t i v e l y . Some explanation pf t h i s d i s s i m i l a r i t y i s i n d i c a t e d i n Figu r e 1$ which shows the r e l a t i o n s h i p between rad i u s and age f o r the Douglas f i r of a i l three p l o t s . At $0 years of age, the average r a d i u s of P l o t 3 i s 3-1 inches, whereas the average P l o t 2 tree has a radius of k.Z inches and an .average .Plot 1 tree. k.$ inches. Therefore, because of the coincidence of the r e l a t i v e growth r a t e s of the f i r on P l o t s 1 and. 2, the same r e l a t i v e s p i r a l , expressed as cumulative absolute s p i r a l , i s developed. Since the greatest .change In s p i r a l occurs on P l o t 3> I t f o l l o w s that the. slower growth r a t e produces the greater change In s p i r a l angle-. 24 A similar condition exists with hemlock,- where again the greatest change i n s p i r a l occurs on the poorer s i t e . The effect i s not so well marked as i n the f i r 1 because the differences .between 'the three plots are not .as- well defined; Thus Figures % 13,- and- 9 indicate that at 50 ye.ars the cumulative absolute s p i r a l developed f o r .Plots 1, 2, and 3 are $ l/k°, 5 3/4°, and 6 l/2° respectively. The corresponding r a d i i at 5>0 years (Fig. 16) are 4-7 inches, 3-8 inches and 3-4 inches. In t h i s case ..Plots- II and I I I show the closest resemblance to each other on the Age-Radius graph (Fig. 16). From the information cited from the Douglas f i r i t i s to be expected that at a given radius Plots .2 and 3 w i l l d i f f e r from Plot 1. At a 4 . 0-inch radius. Plot 2 shows a cumulative absolute s p i r a l of 6 1/2°, Plot 3' of 7° and Plot 1 of 5 9 . I t i s evident that both age and radius have consid-erable influence upon s p i r a l development i n both Douglas f i r and western hemlock. .In the general analysis; of variance, Tables 1+1 and 1\\Z, age has a highly s i g n i f i c a n t effect upon s p i r a l f o r both species. With a more complete s t a t i s t i c a l analysis^ shown i n Tables 39 and 40> the simple co r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s for age. and for radius are s i g n i f i c a n t i n a l l cases. 25 IV. The Influence of Age and Radius W i t h i n S i t e s The foregoing r e s u l t s i n d i c a t e that where a considerable d i f f e r e n c e i n growth r a t e occurs between s i t e s , then the d i f f e r e n c e i n s p i r a l development may be a t t r i b u t e d to s i t e f a c t o r s c o n t r o l l i n g growth r a t e . The problem remains as to which i s the more Important f a c t o r governing the s p i r a l , - age or ra d i u s ? The data, at the breast height l e v e l were subjected to a s t a t i s t i c a l a n a l y s i s to determine the r e l a t i v e importance of age and r a d i u s on cumulative absolute s p i r a l . The- c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s are shown i n Tables 39 „an.d Ij-Q.' The r e s u l t s may be sum-marised as f o l l o w s : (1) A l l zero-order or simple - c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s were h i g h l y s i g n i f i c a n t . Age and a l l other f a c t o r s l i n e a r l y associated w i t h i t were h i g h l y c o r r e l a t e d with s p i r a l i t y f o r both species and on a l l s i t e s . Radius was s t r o n g l y c o r r e l a t e d w i t h s p i r a l i t y f o r both species and on a l l s i t e s . The weakest c o r r e l a t i o n , , which was wit h s p i r a l and r a d i u s f o r Douglas f i r on Pl o t I I I , had an \" r \" ; of 0.394 which was w e l l w i t h i n the l i m i t s of a c c e p t a b i l i t y at the 5 per cent l e v e l of s i g n i f i c a n c e . (2) The r e l a t i v e importance of rad i u s and age on cumulative absolute s p i r a l angle .can be- seen 26 by comparing p a r t i a l c o r r e l a t i o n coefficients\".. For f i r the e f f e c t of rad i u s on s p i r a l , w i t h age held constant, i s small f o r P l o t s 3 and 2. However- f o r P l o t 1 the e f f e c t of r a d i u s i s h i g h l y s i g n i f i c a n t , , but when radius i s held constant the e f f e c t of age i s s m a l l . I n t h i s case radius seems to have the strongest e f f e c t on s p i r a l i t y . I n P l o t I I the e f f e c t of radius i s stronger than the e f f e c t of age. In P l o t 3, where the simple c o r r e l a t i o n of s p i r a l against radius i s lower than that of s p i r a l against age,, the e f f e c t of age shows a stronger i n f l u e n c e on s p i r a l i t y . This i s a l s o evident i n the high p a r t i a l c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t of s p i r a l and age against r a d i u s . As f a r as hemlock i s concerned the p a r t i a l c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s i n d i c a t e the- stronger i n f l u e n c e of r a d i u s on cumulative absolute- s p i r a l on a l l p l o t s . On P l o t 3,- the: i n f l u e n c e of age-equals that of r a d i u s , as shown by the p a r t i a l • c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s . The simple c o e f f i c i e n t s i n d i c a t e the stronger i n f l u e n c e of age p a r t i c u l -a r l y on P l o t 3. The i n d i c a t i o n i s that on the slower growing s i t e ( P l o t 3), age has the pre-dominant i n f l u e n c e on the change in. s p i r a l angle. On the fas.ter growing s i t e s ( P l o t s 1 and 2 ) , the influence- of radius' i s increased to pre-dominate over the i n f l u e n c e of age. Both f a c t o r s have a h i g h l y s i g n i f i c a n t e f f e c t on the cumulative absolute s p i r a l . V. The' Influence of Crown Class I n Tables .1+1 and l\\Z i s shown an a n a l y s i s of variance f o r the whole experiment. Prom these t a b l e s i t i s evident that crown c l a s s has the l e a s t e f f e c t on the development of s p i r a l c haracters. The e f f e c t has no s i g n i f i c a n c e w i t h f i r . V i s u a l examination of the b a s i c data sheets (Tables 3-3-8) w i l l confirm that w i t h i n a. given s i t e , and w i t h i n one- species* a d i v i s i o n i n t o crown Classes i s of l e s s importance than other f a c t o r s . VI. The Influence of S i t e D i f f e r e n c e s i n the s p i r a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the two species on the three p l o t s have already been d i s -cussed. The s i t e d i f f e r e n c e s are most marked w i t h Douglas f i r , - and from the analysis, of v a r i a n c e (Table lj.1) the e f f e c t of s i t e i s - shown to be. h i g h l y s i g n i f i c a n t . . On the same three p l o t s , where, d i f f e r e n c e s i n the growth rat e .of western hemlock are not w e l l defined, the d i f f e r -ences that e x i s t do not show as h i g h a: s i g n i f i c a n c e as they do w i t h f i r (Table 1+2) . I n both cases the e f f e c t under t e s t Is the cumulative absolute s p i r a l : * which i s . 28 a measure of the change i n s p i r a l angle. F i g u r e s 1 and .2 show the average a c t u a l s p i r a l s developed by each species on .each p l o t . The s i t e of slowest growth i n each case shows the strongest i n i t i a l , s p i r a l development, and the g r e a t e s t subsequent s p i r a l change. The weakest i n i t i a l development, and. the l e a s t change i n s p i r a l angle,, i s a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of the sit'e where growth, i s f a s t e s t . S p i r a l change .on the b e t t e r of the three s i t e s samples i s governed to a large extent by radius,- so t h a t r a p i d increase i n radius may tend to r e s u l t i n an increase i n s p i r a l i t y . .Conclusions 1. There Is a general p a t t e r n of s p i r a l development i n both Douglas f i r .and western hemlock on the three s i t e s studied. This p a t t e r n takes the form of an i n i t i a l l e f t s p i r a l which,- w i t h i n c r e a s i n g age and r a d i u s , decreases t o the .left,; passes through zero,- and becomes a r i g h t .spiral-. 2. I n d i v i d u a l trees of the same species and on the same s i t e , although, c o n t r i b u t i n g to the: general p a t t e r n , v a r y considerably In t h e i r i n d i v i d u a l S p i r a l development.-29 3. The highest average- a c t u a l s p i r a l s are measured on the- poorest s i t e s . The greatest change i n s p i r a l angle occurs under thes.e ..conditions, so that i n a general way the slowest growing trees e x h i b i t the greatest amount of s p i r a l develop-ment i [(.. On the slower growing s i t e s the change i n s p i r a l Is h i g h l y c o r r e l a t e d w i t h the age of the t r e e . On s i t e s of higher quality,, although age i s c o r r e l a t e d highly,, radius exerts the strongest i n f l u e n c e on s p i r a l i t y . 30 EXPLANATION OF SYMBOLS USED IN THE FOLLOWING TABLES Tables 3 to 38. inclusive Sec - Height, i n feet, of the cross sectional disc taken from the tree. 2 Act - Actual average s p i r a l angle, i n degrees. . 3 , . C.A..S. — Cumulative absolute s p i r a l angle,-, i n degrees. Had - Radius from the pith,., i n inches... Age- •- Age from the pith,, i n years-. There- are three crown c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s used i n Table s 3 - 38: Dom. - Dominant Codom. - Godominant Inter. - Intermediate 31 TABLE. 1. TABLE OP AVERAGE ANGLES (to. the nearest l/k°) AT EACH DECADE DOUGLAS FIR Height of • section\" i n tree ( f t . ) 10 20 Age. (years) • 30 .' ko. .60 P l o t 1 P l o t 2 P l o t 3 k 1/2 10 .20 ho 6 0 k 1/2 10 20 kO 60 k 1/2 10 2 0 ho ,60. 1/2L 1 l / k L 1 1/2L 1 1/kL 2. l/l+L 1 l/kL. 1 1/2L 1 3/kL 1 3/i|L 3 A X -IL. 2 l / k L 1 1/2L 2 l/l\\L. 0 IL IL 1 1/2L l/ k L 0 0 3A-R 1 1/kL IL 1 1/2L 1 1/2L. 1 3AL 1 3A-L 1R 2R 3/kR 1 l/kR 1/2L 2R 1/2L 2L IL 1 3/kL 1 3/kL 1 3/kE 2L 1. l/ii-L .1. 1/2L • 1/2L 1 l/kL I L 1/2L 1/2L. 3AL 1 1/kL L. 1/1|L 1/2L 1/2L 0 1R 0 1/2R lAR 3AR I L 1/2L 3AL I A L 1R 0 1R 0 TABLE 2. .WESTERN HEMLOCK Height of .s.ect.ion. .in-tree ( f t . ) 10' 20 JO. 6'0 P l o t 1 P l o t 2 P l o t 3 k 1/2 10 20 kO 60 k 1/2 10 2 0 kO 60 k 1/2 10 2 0 ho . , 60 IL IL IL 1 1/2L 1/2L 2L 2 1/2L 2 l A L 1 3AL 1 3/i+L. 1 3/kL 2L , IL-3/kL 0 3/kL 1/2R 3/1+R 1/kL 1 1/2L 3A-L 0 1 1/kL 2 3/kL IL •.. 0 . 0 3/kL 1/2R 0 1R 1/2L 3/kL 0 L/kR, i/m 3/kL 3/kL 1/2L 1/2R IL 1/2L 1/kR 1 1/kR 0 0 3/kR 1/2R 0- 3/kR 3/kL. 1 1/2L. 1/2L 1/kL 1/2R 1/2R 1/2R 1 1/kR 1/2R 1/2R 1R 1 3/kR 1 1/2R 1/2R 0 1/2R 3 2 Rad^ Age Sec'1 2 ACt C.A.S.3 Rad^ Age 1 4 10 3/4.L 3/4' 0.9 10 2.6 20 1/2L 1 1.7 20 3-5 30 1 1/2L 2 3.0 3.0 3.9 40. 3/4L •2 3/4 3-7 40 4-3 50 4 1/2' 1 I/4L 3 1/4 4.2 50 4-7 60 1/2R 4 , 4-51 60 5.0 70 1 1./4R' $ 3/4 4-9 70 5.2 80 2.3/4R- 7 1/4 5.2 78 1.8 10 1 1 / 2 L 1.8. 10 2.9 20 3/4'L 2.8 20. 3.6 30 1/4L 3.5 30. 4.1 kO IR 3.9 40 5.0 10 •»• 2 R 4.2 50-4.8 60 2 1/2R k.$ 60 5.0 70 2 I/J4R 4-7 68. 5.3 74 TABLE 3 TABLE 4 Plot 1 Tree C Inter F i r Plot 1 Tree: D Dom F i r Sec 1 A c t 2 C.A.S.3 1 L 1 1/2L 1 1/2 1/2R .2 1/2 2 R 4 4 i/2« 2 3 / 4 * 4 3 / 4 3 3 / 4 R $ 3 / 4 5 1/2R 7 1/2 5 1 / 2 R 7 1/2 1 1 / 2 L 0 1 1/2R 2 l/lfR 10 ' 2 1/2R 3 1/4R 4 i/4R 5 R 1 3/4L 1.8 10 2 L 2.0 10: 2 L 2.8 20 1 1/4L. 3 . 2 20 l/ifL 3 . 4 30 1 / 2 L , 3 . 7 30 IR 3 . 8 4 0 2 0 ' 1/2R 4 . 1 4 0 20. ' 2 R i f . l 5 0 IR , 4 . 4 5 0 2 1/2R if.5 . 61 1 1/2R if. 7 60 2 1/2R If . 9 6,8 3/4R 2.1 10. 2 3/4L 1.7 10 1/2R 3 , 3 20 2 L 2.6 20 1/2L 3 . 8 30 1 L 3 .2 30 4 0 1 1/2L. .if.2 kO ifO I 1/2.L 3 . 5 4 0 V 4 R . 4 . 4 $0 3 / 4 R 3 ; 9 5 0 IR 5 8 1/2R l f . 0 53 2 1/41. 1.7 10 .2 3/4L 1.4 10 1 L ... 3 . 0 20 3L 2,1 20 V2L 3 . 3 30 1 3/4L 2.6 30 6 0 G 3 . 7 4 0 60' 1L . 2 .9 4 0 1 R 4 . 0 5 0 1/i+R 3.1 1^8. 33-TABLE: 5 Plot 1. Tree. E Dom Fir-Sec x Act 0 1/1+L 4 1/2* IR 1/2R 2R kR 1 0 2 0 ho 60 C.A.S 0 l / 4 1 1 / 2 2 3 1 / 2 5 1 / 2 3 1/2R 0, I A L 1 1/2R 0 2L 3L 1 1 3/i+L 2L 1/2L: 1/2L 1/2L. 1 l / l f l x 1L 1 1/2L 2L Rad 1 . 0 2 . 1 2.9 3.6 k.3 5.o k Age 1.0 2 0 3 0 kO 5o 58 .Plot 1 Sec 1 4 1 / 2 ' TABLE 6. Tree H .Oodom F i r 2 Act 1 1/2L. 3/kL 1/2L 0 1/2R 3/kR 1 l/kR C.A.S. 1 1 / 2 2 1/k 2 1 / 2 3 3 1 / 2 3 3 / 4 k l/k 3 Rad 1 . 5 2 . 8 3 . 8 k . 3 4 - 5 k . 6 k . 8 k Age 1 0 2 0 3 0 kO 5 o 6 0 6 5 1 . 1 1 0 0. 2 . 0 1 0 2 . 1 2 0 1 1/2L, 3 . 5 2 0 2 . 9 3 0 . 1 0 . ' 1 1/2L 4 . 0 3 0 3.6 ko 1 3/kL 4 . 3 4 0 . k.k 5 o 1 3/kL; 4 , 5 5 0 h-7 5 5 2L 4 . 6 - 5 5 l.k 1 0 2 3 / 4 L 2,0 1 0 2 . 5 2 0 3-L 3 . 5 2 0 3.3 3 0 2 0 ' 3 IAL; 4 . 0 3 0 k.O ho 3 1/hL. 4 - 4 4 0 k.6 3 1/2L 4 . 6 5 o . 3 1/2L 4 . 7 5 2 1.4 1 0 3L . 2 . 1 1 0 2 . 5 2 0 3 1/2L 3 . 1 .20 3 . 3 3 0 kO ' 3 1/kL 3.6 3 0 3 - 8 3 8 3 1/kL 3 . 9 4 0 3L 4 . 1 4 8 . 1 . 2 1 0 kL 1 . 8 1 0 2.k 2 0 6.0 ,» 5 1/kL 2 . 5 2 0 2 . 8 26 5 1/kL. 3 . 0 3 0 6L. 3 . 3 4 0 3i+ TABLE 7 .Plot 1 Tree F Inter F i r Plot 1 TABLE 8 Tree B Inter F i r 10 Sec. Act 1/2R 3 A L 0. k 1/2' 0 2 1/2R 4 1/2R 5 1/2R 1/2R 1L IR 1 1/2R 2R 2 1/2R 3R 1 1/2L ,2L 3 A L 3 A L IR 2R 2 1/2L 1 3/kL 3 A L l A L IAR. 1/2R 2 l/kL 3AL 2 0 ! kO ' C.A.S.. 1/2 1 3 A 2 1/2 2 1/2 7 8 60 ' IR 3/4R Rad. 1 . 5 3 . 1 k.O 5,1 5 4 5.7 2 ; 0 3 4 k . 3 4-7 5.1 5.5 5.7 2 . 3 3.5 4 . 0 4.5 4 .8 5.o 2 . 1 3 , 2 3 . 7 4-'2 44 4 .6 1 .8-3 . 3 3.5 3 . 9 4 .2 Age 10 20 3 0 40 5o. 6.0 70 10 2 0 30. 4 0 5 o 60 66 10 2 0 3 0 4 0 5o 60. 10 2 0 30. 50 58 10 2 0 30 ko 5o Sec. 4 1/21 10 , ' 2 0 ' 4o 6.0 « Ac:.t l/kR 2L 1 -1/4L 1 3/4L 0 1/2L 5 i/4L 2L 1 1/kL 3 A L 1 1/4L 1L. 1 1/2L 1 3/4L 1 3/4L 1 3/4L 2L 1 1/4L 2 1/2L 2 3/kL 2 I/4L 1 3/4L 1 1/kL 1 1/2L 2 1/kL 2 3/4L ). A. S. 1/4 2 i /4 3 3 1/2 5 1/4 5 3/4 Rad. 1 . 2 2 . 3 3.5 4 - 2 4.7 5,i 1.9 3 , 0 3 - 7 4.0 4- 3 4 .6 2 . 0 2 . 9 3 , 6 4 .0 44 1 . 8 2 . 8 3 - 2 3.5 3 . 9 1 . 3 2 . 1 2 . 7 3 . 2 Age. 10 2 0 30 kO 5 0 6 0 1.0 2 0 3 0 4 0 5 0 5 8 10 2 0 3 0 k0. 5 0 10 2 0 3 0 4 0 4 8 10 2 0 3 0 4 0 3:5 TABLE 9 Plot 1 Tree K Dom Hemlock Plot 1 4 1 / 2 ' 10 ,1 20 ' 4 0 601 Act 1 3 A L 1 3/kL-2 1/2L 3L 2 3 A L 3L C.A.S. ! 1 3 ^ 1 3 / 4 2 1/2 3 3 1 A 3 1/2 Rad. 1 . 6 3 . 7 5 - 4 7 . 0 8 . 3 9 . 1 3 3/kL k 1/k 10.0 3 1/2L 4 1/2 10.6 Age 10 2 0 3 0 4 0 5o 6 0 70 7 5 0 1 . 9 10 2L 3 . 8 2 0 2 1/2L 5 . 2 3 0 2L 5 . 9 ko 2L 6 . 6 ^o 1 1/4L 7 . 5 60 2 1/2L 8 . 1 70 '1/2R. 2 . 3 10 1 1/2L 4 - 3 2 0 2 1/2L 5 . 2 3 0 2 1/2L 5 . 9 4 0 2 1/4L 6 . 6 5o 2L 7 . 0 60 1 3/4L 7 . 5 68 1 / 2 L 2 . 5 10 1 3/4L 4 . 1 2 0 .2 1/2L. 5 . 2 3 0 2 1/2L 6 . 0 4 o IL; 6 . 8 5o 0 7 4 60 GL- 2 . 1 10 IAL, 3 . 6 2 0 1/2L 4 . 6 . 3 0 3 A R 5 . 5 4 0 1 3/kR 6 . 2 5o 1 3/kR 6 . 5 5 4 TABLE 10 Tree rA Codom Hemlock Sec Act .2L 1 1/2L 1/2R 4 1/2'- 1 3/kR 3/4R 1/4R 1 3/kR 1/2L 1/2R 1R 2R. 2 1/2R 4 1/2R 5.R. 10 « 2 0 ' 4 0 j-6 0 X C ..A.S. 2 2 1/2\" 3 1/2: 4 3 /4 5 3 /4 6 1/4 7 3 /4 3L 3 /4L lAR V 4 R 3/kR 3R 1 1/2L 0 1/2R 1/2R 3/kR 1 1/2L 1/2R 1 3/kR 2. 1/2R-Rad. 0: 6 1..6. 2.5 3 . 3 k.O k.5 5.Q 0 . 7 i . 4 2 . 3 3 . 0 3 . 5 4 . 2 4 - 5 1 . 1 2 . 2 3 . 0 3 . 5 4 - 1 1 . 3 2 . 2 3 . 0 3 . 6 . 4 . 0 1 . 0 .2.0 •2.9 3 . 1 Age 10 2 0 3 0 5 o 6 0 7 0 10 2.0 3 0 k o 5 o 6.0 68 10 2 0 3 0 4 o 5 o 6 0 10 2 0 3 0 4 0 48. 10 20. 3 0 3 6 3 6 TABLE 11 TABLE 12 Plot 1 Tree I Codom Hemlock Plot 1 Tree L Inter Hemlock Sec k 1/21 Act 2 1/2L .2 3/kL 1 1/kL 1 1/2R 2 3/m 3 1/kR 3..A.S. 2 1/2 2 3 / 4 4 i/k 5 3/k 8. 1 / k 8 3 / k Rad. Age Sec Act C.A.S. Rad Age l.k 10 0, .0 1.0 10 .2.0 20 1R 1 l.k 20 2.6 30 3R 3 2.6 30 3.0 kO 4 i/2« 2R 4 3.2 ko 3.6, 50 1 1/2R 4 1/2 3.7 5 0 4-3 60 3 1/2R 6 1/2 3.9 60 4 - 9 70 3 3/kR 6 3/k k.2 7Q kR 7 4 - 5 78 10 *• 20 < ho 60» IL. •o. 1 1/2R 2 1/kR 3R 3 1/kR kR 1 1/kL 1/2R 1R 1 1/kR 2 3/kR 3R 0 1/2R 1 1/2R 2R 2R 0 2R 2 3/kR 3 1/2R 1 . 3 10 1 . 7 2 0 2.k 3 0 3 . 1 4 0 10 i 3 . 8 5 o k . l 60 4 . 5 6 . 6 1 . 1 10 1 . 8 2 0 . 2 . 1 3 0 2 . 6 4 0 2 0 ! 3 . 1 5 o 3 . 5 6 1 1 . 2 lo-1 . 7 20 2 . 0 3 0 4 0 » . 2 . 4 ko . 2 . 8 5o 1 . 1 10 1 . 7 2 0 2 . 0 3 0 60 ' 2 . 5 4 o 3L 1/2R 3 3/kR 1R 1 1/2R 2 1/kR 2 1/4R, 0 IL. IL 1 1/2L 1 1/2L 1 1/2L 5L IL. 0 1/2L 1/2R 0 1 1/2R 1 3/kR 3R 1.0 .2.0 2 . 9 3 .4 3 . 7 4.1 4 4 1.2 .2.0 3 .4 3 ? 9 4 - 2 4.4 1 . 5 2 . 5 3 . 3 3 . 6 3 . 8 1.1 2.0 2 . 5 . 2 . 8 . 10 2 0 3 0 kO 5 o 6 0 65 10 2 0 3 0 k o 5 o 56 10 2 0 3 0 kO 5 o 10 2 0 3 0 3 5 3 7 •TABLE 13 TABLE l k P l o t 1 T r e e G I n t e r Hemlock P l o t 1 T r e e J I n t e r Hemlock S e c . k 1/2-1 10 « 20 ' kO A c t . 1 / 2 L 1 1 / 2 L 1 / 2 L 1 3 / k L 2 L 2 1 / 2 L 2 L 1 / 2 R 1 / 2 R l / 2 R 1 / 2 R 3/kR 1 / 2 L 1 / 2 L . 1 / 2 L 1 / 2 L 1 1 / k L 1 1 / 2 L 1L. 1 L 1L. 1 1 / 2 L 1 L 1 / 2 L 0 0 1 / 2 R C.A.S. 1/2 1 1/2 2 1/2 3 3 A 4 , 4 1/2 5 Rad. 1 . 1 1 . 8 2 . 5 3 . 1 3 . 6 4 . 0 4 . 3 1 . 2 2 . 1 2 . 8 3 . 4 3 . 9 4 -1 -4-3 1 . 3 2 . 0 2 - 7 3 . 2 3 - 4 3 . 7 4 . 1 1 . 1 1 . 8 2 . 3 2 . 7 3 . 0 . 3 . 2 Age 10 20 3 0 ko 5o 60 70 10 20 3 0 40 5o 6 0 68 10 .20 3 0 ko. 5o 60 6 5 10 20 30. ko 5o 52 Sec. 4 1 / 2 ' 10 » .20 «• 4 0 6 0 ' A c t . 0 i 3 / 4 R 1 / 2 R 3 / 4 R 2 R 3 1 / 4 R 5R 1 l / k L 1/4L 1 /4L 1/4L 3 / 4 R 1 1 / 2 R 1 / 1 / 2 R 1 3 A L 3/4L 1/4L 1 L 0 1 /kR 0 1 / 2 R 1 / 2 R 1 / 2 R 1 / 2 R 3 A L 3 / 4 R 1 l / k R 1 1 /kR C . A . S . 0 1 3 / 4 3 3 1/4 4 1/2 5. 3/4 7 1/2 Rad. Age 0 . 9 10 1.8. .20 3 . 0 3 0 k . 2 4 o 5 . 0 5 o 5 . 6 6 0 5 . 8 6 5 l . l 10 2 . 2 2 0 3 . 1 3 0 3 . 9 .40 4 - 5 5 o 5.o 6 0 5 . 2 62 1 . 5 10 2 . 7 2 0 3 . 6 3 0 4 . 2 4 0 4 - 5 5 o 4 - 9 5 6 1 . 3 1 0 2 . 6 2 0 3 . 0 3 0 3 . 5 4 o 4 . 0 4 6 1 . 2 10 2 . 3 2 0 3 . 0 3 0 3 . 4 3 6 38 TABLE l 5 Plot 2 Tree D Dom F i r TABLE 16 Plot 2 Tree E. Dom F i r Sec k l/2=« 10 r 20 •»• ho 60 •« Act 3L 3/kL 0 1/2L 1R r0 1/2R .C.A.S. 3 5 1/k 6 6 1/2 8 9 9 2L 1 .2 3/4L 2 1/2L, 3L . 2 3/kL 0 1 1 1/kR 1/kR 3/kR 3/kR 3 1/kL 2L 1 1/kL 1/kL 1 1/kL 1 1/kL 2L 1/2 Rad 2.3 3.0 3.9 4-3 4-7 5.0 5 . 1 2.0 3.0 3.6 k.O k.3 4 - 5 .6 • 7 3.0 3.7 4.2 1.7 2.7 3.3 3.7 1 . 5 2.3 2.8. Age 10 .20 3 0 40 5o 6 0 63 10 20 30 ko 5 o 5 8 10 20 30 kO 5o 10 20 30 40 10 20 28 S.ec 4 1/2' 1.0. • 20 » 4 o 6 0 « Act 3/4L IL. 1/2L 1/2R l/2R 1/2R C.A.S. 3 / 4 2L 1 1 2 2 2 1/4L 3/4L 1/2L. 3/4L 1/2L. 3/4L. 3/4L 3/4L: 1/2L 3/4L .2 l/2L 3 1/4L 3L 2L 1 1/2L 1 1/2L .2 1/4L 2 1/2L 2 3/4L 1 1 2 2 2 1/2 1/2-1/2 1/2 Rad 2.0 3 . 3 k . 3 5.2 5.8 6 . 5 2.1 3.3 4.2 5 . o 5 . 6 5.9 .2.0 3.2 .4.2 5 . o 5 . 6 1,9 3.0 3.9 4-6 4.9 1.6 2.8 3.6 3.8. Age 10 20 30 kO 5 o 60 10 20 3 0 ko 5 o 5 5 10 20 3 0 ko 5 o 10 2 0 30 4 0 4 5 10 2 0 3 0 3 4 3 9 TABLE 1 7 Plot 2 Tree I Dom PIr Sec 4 1 / 2 i 1 0 . ' 2 0 « kO Act 0 1 2 2 2 1 3/kR 1/2R 1/2R 1/2R 3/kR C-.A.S. 0 1 3 / 4 2 1 / 2 2 1 / 2 2 1 / 2 3 1/k 2L 1 1/kL 1L 0 0 1/2R 2 1/2L 1 1/kL IAL 1 1/2R 1 3/kR 1 IAL-3/kL 1 / 4 L 1/kL Rad 1 . 3 2 . 0 2 . 5 3 . 1 3 . 5 4 . 0 1 . 4 2 . 1 2 . 7 3 . 2 3 . 6 4 . 0 1 . 2 . 2 . 1 2 . 8 3 - 2 3 . 9 1 . 4 2 . 2 . 2 . 8 3 . 1 Age 1 0 2 0 3 0 kO 5 o 5 8 1 0 . 2 0 3 0 kO 5 o 5 5 1 0 2 0 3 0 4 0 4 8 1 0 2 0 3 0 3 6 TABLE 1 8 . Plot 2 Tree P Dom F i r Sec 4 1 / 2 ' 1 0 ' 2 0 T 4 0 6 0 ' Act C.A.S. Rad Age 1L 1 1 .7\" 1 0 IR 3 2 . 9 2 0 1/4L 4 i / 4 3 - 4 30 1L 5 4 - 2 4 0 3 / 4 L 5 i / 4 4 . 6 . 5 o 3/4R 6. 3 / 4 5 . 2 5 8 i/4R 1 . 9 io-1/2L 2 . 9 2 0 1/kR 3 . 4 3 0 1/2R 3 . 9 4 o 1 1/2R 4 .2 5 0 2R 4 - 5 5 4 1 1/2L 1 . 8 1 0 1 1/4L 2 . 7 2 0 2L. 3 . 3 3 0 1 3 / 4 3 . 6 4 o 3 / 4 L 4 - 2 5 o 1/2R 1 . 4 1 0 1/2L 2 . 6 2 0 1L. 3 . 3 30 1 1/2L 4 - 3 4 0 1 1/2L 4 . 5 4 2 1 3 / 4 L . 1 . 5 1 0 1 3 / 4 L . 2 . 6 2 0 4o TABLE 19 Plot .2 Tree J Inter F i r TABLE 20 Plot 2 Tree C Inter F i r Sec. Act 1 1/kL. 1/2L. k l/2« 1/2L 1/2L 3/kL: 3/kL 3L 1 l/kL 1 1/2L. 0 1 1/kR 1 1/kR io t 20 « ko .2 1/2L 1 3/kL 1/2L 1/kR 3/kR 2L 1/2E. 1R 2 1/2R C 1 2 2 2 2 2 .A.S. 1 A i A i A Rad Age Sec Act 1.3 10 1 1/kL .2.0 20 1/2L 2.5 30 k 1/2« 1 1/kR 2.7 ko 2R 2.9 5o 2 1/2R 3.1 60 3R l.k 10 3/kL 2.2 20 0 2.6 30 1/2R 2.8 ko io r 1 1/2R 2.9 5o 2R 3.1 56 1.5 2.1 2.5 3.0 3.1 1.2 1.8 2.2 2.6 10 20 30 kO k6 10 20 30 38 20 .»• kO 1 1 1/2L 1/2L 1R 2 1/2R 2 1/2E. 1 1/2L. 1AL 1/2R .A..S. 1 A ^ 1/2 5 1/2 Rad 1.5 2.1 2.3 3.2 3-7 3.9 1.3 1.7 2.3 2.8-3.3 1.1 1.5 1.9 2.3 2-4 1.3 1.6 2.1 2.6 Age 10 20 30 kO 5o 56 10 .20 30 ko 5o 10 20 30 40 42 10 20 30 4o 4 1 TABLE .21 TABLE 22 Plot 2 Tree K Codom Hemlock Plot 2 Tree G Codom Hemlock Sec 4 1 / 2 ' 10. .20 * ko Act 1 3/kL IAL 1/2R 2 3/kR kR 3R 0. 1L. 0 • 0. 1L 2L ' 1/2L 3 1/kR 1 I/2R 1 I/2R: .2 3/kL 3/kL 1/kR IR C-.A.S. 1 3/k 3 1/k 4 , 6 l/k 7 1/2 8 1/2 Rad Age Sec Act C.A.S. Rad Age 1 . 0 10 1 1 3/kL 1 3A 1 4 10 1 . 5 2 0 0 2 1/2 2 . 2 2 0 2 . 0 3 0 IR . 3 1/2 3 . 2 3 0 2 , 4 kO 4 1 / 2 ' 1 3/kR h l A 3 . 8 ko 2 . 8 5 0 4 i/hE 6 3 A 4 - 5 •50 3 . 1 60 6R .8- 1/2 5 . 0 58. 0 . 9 10 1 1 / 2 L 1 . 3 10 1 . 6 20 2 1/kL 2.k 2 0 2 . 0 3 0 1 L 3 . 3 3 0 2.k ko. 10 0 4 . 1 ko .2.7 5 0 1/2R 4 . 5 5 0 3 . 0 5 5 1 1/kR k . 6 5 3 1 . 0 10 2 1 / 2 L 1.7 10 1 . 6 2 0 1 3/kL. 3 . 1 2 0 2 . 0 3 0 1 L 3 . 9 3 0 2 . 3 4 0 2 0 1 3/i|H 4 . 5 ko . 2 . 8 5 o IR 4 . 6 k2 0 . 9 10 3 L 1 . 5 10 l.k 2 0 .2L 2 . 6 2 0 1 . 8 3 0 kO ! 3/kL 3 . 3 3 0 2 . 1 3.8. 0 3 . 8 . 3 8 42 TABLE .23 Plot 2 Tree B. Codom Hemlock Plot 2 Sec Act C.A.S. 2L 2 3/kL 3 l A 1 3/ k L k 1/4 4 1/2' 1 1/2L 4 1/2 3/4L 5 1/4 0 6 10 -1 20 -i .2. 2 2 2 0 2 1/2L 1/2L 1/2L 1/2L 1/2E 2 3/4L IL 1 1/2L IL 1 1/kL. 40 o IL 1/2L 1/2L Rad 1.2: 2.6 3.7 4.3 4.8 5.3 1.6. .2.8. 3.7 k.3 4,8 5.1 1.6 2.7 3-4 4.. 0. 4.6 1.1 .2.1 2.9 3.2 Age 10 20 30 kO 50 56 10 20 30 40 50 53 • 10 .20 30 40 47 10 20 30 32 Sec 4 1/21 10 • .20 •»• TABLE. 24 Tree L. Inter Hemlock 40 Act 1 1/2L 1 1 A L 1/4L 1R 2 1/2R 3 1/2R 1/2L 3/4R 1 1 / 2 R 2 1 / 4 R 2 3/kR 3 1/2R 2 1/kL 1/2L 1 1/2R 2 1/kR 2. 3/kR O 1 1/kR 1 1/kR C.A.S. 1 1/2 1 3/4 2 3/4 4 5 1/2 6 1/2 Rad 1.3 1.8. 2.2 2.7 3.3 4.1 1.0. 1.4 .2.0 .2.8 3.4 3.6 1.0 1.8 2.2 2.6 2.9 1.4 1.9 •2.5 Age 10 20 30 kO 50 60 10 20 30 40 50 54 10 20 30 40 Hh 10 20 30 43 TABLE 25 Plot 2 Tree A Inter Hemlock Plot 2 TABLE 26 Tree H Inter Hemlock Sec Act C.A.S. 1 1/2L 1 1/2 1 1/2R k 1/2 4 l/2» IL 7 l/kL 7 3/4 1 1/kR 9 1/4 1 1/4R 9 1/4 10 » 20 ••' 40 1 A L 1/4L 1 1/kR 1/kR 1 1/kR 1R 2L 0 1 3/kR 1 3/kR 1R 2L 1R 1 3/kR 1 1/kR Rad 1.0 1.9 2.5 3.3 3.6 3.9 1.1 1.8 2.5 3.1 3.5 3.7 1.3 2.2 2.7 3.3 3.5 1.3 2.0 2.6 2.9 Age 10 20 30 kO 50 55 10 20 30 ko 5o 52 10 20 30 40 47 10 .20 30 38 Sec 4 1/2' 10 ? 20 ' 40 •* Act 2 3/kE 1 1/2L 1 1/kL. IL 1/2L 4 3/4L 3 1/4L 2L. 3L 1 1/2L 2 1/2L IL 1/2R .2. 1/2R. 2L 1 1/2E 1/2L C . A. S , 2 3/4 k l A 4 1/2 k 3/4 5 1/4 Rad 1.1 2.2 2.9 3.5 4-1 I..4 2.4 3.3 '4.1 4-3 1.4 1.7 2.2 2.6 1.8. 2.1 2.5 Age 10 20 30 kO 50 10 .20 30 40 44 10 20 30 37 10 20 30 hh TABLE 27 TABLE. 28 Plot 3 Tree H Dom F i r Plot 3 Tree I Dom F i r Sec. h 1/2' 10 4 20 ' ho Act 1 1/kR IR 0 1 i/h-L 1 l/J+L, 1 1/kL 2 1/kL. 1 3AL 1/kL l/2L 1 1/kL 1 1/2L 1 1/2L .2 1/kL 1L 1/kR 1/kR 1/kR 1L ' 1 IAL. 1 1/2L C.A.S. 1 l A 1 1/2 2 1/2 3 3 A 3 3/k 3 3 A Rad 0.9 1.6 2.1 2.5 3-0 3.3 1.1 1.8 2.3 2.7 3.0 3.2 1.1 1.7 2.2 2.6 2.8-1.1 1.7 2.2 2.3 Age 10 20 30 kO 50 60 10 20 30 kO 50 55 10 20 30 ho h&-10. .20 30 35 Sec 10 » .20 I ho Act C.A.S. Rad Age 3 1/kL- 3 1/2 0.7 10 .2 3/kL. k 1.5 20 1 1/2L h 3/h 2.2 30 1 1/kL 5 2.7:' ho 3/kL 5 1/2 3.2 5o 3/hL 5 1/2 3.7 60 2L. 1.0 10 2L 1.2 20 1/1/kL 2.2 30 3AL 2.7 ko 0 3.3 50 • 1/2R 3.6 55 2L. 1.1 10 3 1/2L 1.7 20 ML. 2.4 30 hL 2.9 ho kL 3.2 . h3 2 1/2L 1.0. 10 2 3/kL 2.2 20 3L 2.3 30 45 TABLE .29 Plot 3 Tree J Codom F i r Sec Act C.A.S. Rad Age 3L 3 1.0 10 1 3/kL. 4 3/4 1.7 20 IR 7 2.6 30 4 1/2' 1 3/4* 7 3/4 3.0 40 4 1/kR 10 1/k 3-8 50 5 3/kR 11 3 A 4-3 58 2 1/2L 0.7 10 1 1/2L l . l 20 1/kR 1.7 30 10 » 1/kL 2.2 40 1/kR 2.6 5o 1/2R 3.1 54 1 3AL 1.0 10 1 1/2L 1.9 20 20 t 1/2L 2.4 30 1/2L 3.0 40 1/2L 3.5 5o 1/2L 1.2 10 1 1/2L 1.6 20 1 1/kL 2.3 30 1 1/lj.L 3.0 36 TABLE 30. Plot 3 Tree F Inter F i r Sec. Act C.A.S. Rad Age 3L. 3 1 . 0 10 1L. 5 1 . 7 20 4 1/2' 1/4L 5 3/4 2.3 30 3/kR 6 3 / 4 2.9 4 0 1/2R 7 3 - 5 5 o IR 7 1/2 4.0 61 2L 1.3 10 2L 2.0 20 1L 2.5 30 10 '• 1L 3 . 0 4 o 0 3 . 4 5 o 0 3.6 5 7 1 1/2L 1 . 4 10 1 1/2L 2.0 20 20 -1 1/2L .2.6 30 1L 3 - 1 4 0 1/4L 3.6 5 o 1/4L 3.6 5 i 4 0 ' 2 l/2L 1 . 1 10 .1 3/4L 2.0 20 1 1/2L 2.6. 30 1 1/2L 3.0 39 ! 46 TABLE 31 TABLE 32 Plot 3 Tree C Inter F i r Plot 3 Tree E Inter F i r Sec. k 1/2' 10 -1 20 « ko Act 2 1/2L 2 1/2L 3/kL, 1/kR 1/kR 1R 1/2L 2 3/kL 4 IAL 5L. 4L. 2 1/kL. 3AL 1 1/2L. 1 3 / kL 0 3/kR 1/2L IL. 1 1/2L 2L C.A.S. 2 1/2 2 1/2 4 i/k 5 i/k 6. Rad Age Sec Act C.A.S. Rad Age 1.-3 10 2 1/2L 2 1/4 0.9 10 1.9 .20 1 1/kR 5 3/4 1.5 20 2.k 30 4 1/2' 2 1/4L. 9 1/4 1.7 30 2.9 k0: 1R 12 1/2 1.9 40 3.3 50 1 1/kR. 12 3/4 2.2 50 3.7 60 3/kR 13 1/4 •2.3 60 1.3 10 2L 1.0 10 1.9 .20 1/2L 1.5 20 2.J| 30 1R 1.-6 30 2.8 ko 10 ? 2R 2.0 40 3.2 50 2 1/2R 2.1 50 3.5 57 3R 2.2 54 1.1 10 3L 1.0. 10 1.8 20 2L 1.5 20 2.3 30 20 » 3/4L 1..8 30 2.8 ko 1/4R 2.0 40 3.2 5o IR 2.1 46 1.1 1.9 2 . 3 .2.6 10 20 30 36 47 TABLE 33 TABLE 3k Plot 3 Tree G\" Dom Hemlock Plot 3 Tree A Dom Hemlock Sec Act C.A.S. Rad Age Sec Act C.A.S. Rad Age 3 1/2L 3 1/2 O.k 6 1 1/kL. 1 1/k 1.0 10 3 1/kL 3 3/4 0.6 10 1 1/kL. 1 l/k 1.7 20 3 1/2E. k 1.0 l k 1 1/kL. 1 1/k 2.5 30 k 1/2' 3 1/2L k 1.3 20 k 1/2' IR 3 1/2 3-2 kO 1 1/2L 6 1.9 30 3 1/2R 6 3.9 50 1/2R 8, .2.5 kO 3 1/kR 6 l/k k.7 60 1 1/2R 9 2.8 50 2 1/kR 7 1/4 5-0 62 2R. 9 1/2 3.2 60 2R 9 1/2 3-3 62 1L 1.1 10 3 1/2L 0.4 6 1L 2.0 20 3 1/4L 0.7 10 1/2R 2.6. 30 2 3/4 1.6 20 10 ' 2R 3.3. kO 10 •' 1 1/kL 2.2 30 1 1/kR k.3 50 1/2R 2.6. kO 3/4R 4.7 56 2R 3.050 2R 3.2 55 • I W O T « H , L O 10 4 1/2L 0.5 6 0 1.9 20 or, , o r l / 2 L °'9o 1 0 2 0 1 X / 2 R 2.8 30 20 ' 2L 1.8 .20 2R 3 ^ kO w r £ ?4 30 IR Ijf To 3/4R 2.7 4 1 1/kR 3.0 47 2 1/2L 0.6 7 IR i / 4 : R 1.1 10 2.1 20 4 0 ' 3 IAL 0.9 10 k o r IAE 3:O TO 2 L I - 6 20 1L r> L 3 1/2L 2.3 30 3 , 6 3 6 3 1/2L 2.6 kO k 8 TABLE 3 5 Plot 3 \"Tree L Dom Hemlock Sec k 1/2-Act 2 1/2L 2 1/2 1 l/kL 1/kL 0 10 ' 1/kR 1/kR 3/kL 3/kL 1 1/2L 1 1/kL 1 I/I4L.. 1 l/kL 3L ZL 20 •'!• 1 1/2L IL C.A.S. 2 1/2 2 1/2 3 3/k I ^ k 5 1/k kO 1/2R 1/2R Rad 1 . 1 1 . 8 2 . 2 2 . 6 3 . 2 3 . 8 3 - 9 1 . 1 1-7 2.k 2 . 9 3-k 3 . 6 . 1..2 2 . 0 3 . 0 3 . 6 1 . 3 1 . 8 Age 10. .20 3 0 kO 5 0 60 62 10 2 0 3 0 ko 5 0 53 10 2 0 3 0 kO 10 2 0 TABLE. 36. Plot 3 Tree K Dom Hemlock Sec k 1 / 2 ' 2 0 kO Act 1/2L 0 1 1/2R 1 3/kR 3R 3 1/kR 1 1/2L 0 0 10 • 1/kR 1R 2L 1/kR 1R 1 1/kR 1 1/kR 1 1/kL 1 3/kR 2 1/2R 2 3/kR C.A.S. 1/2 1 2 2 k , k l A 1/2 3A Rad 1 . 0 1 . 8 2 . 7 3 . 7 k.k k.8 1 . 1 2 . 0 3 . 0 3 . 9 k . 8 1 . 3 2 . 3 3 . 3 k.O k-3 1 . 3 2 . 5 3 . 3 3 . 7 Age 10 2 0 30 kO 5 0 58. 10 2 0 3 0 ko 5 o 10 2 0 3 0 kO k 6 10 2 0 3 0 3 6 4 9 TABLE 37 TABLE 3 8 Plat 3 Tree D Inter Hemlock Plot 3 Tree B Inter Hemlock Sec Act C.A.S. Rad Age Sec. Act C-.A.S. Rad Age kL i | 0 . k . 6 1 L 1 1 . 1 10 2 1 / 2 L 5 1/2 0 . 7 10 3/4L 1 1/4 1 . 9 2 0 2 L 6. 1 . 2 2 0 1/2R 2 l/Z 2 . 5 3 0 4 i / 2 » i 3 / 4 L 6 1/4 1 . 7 3 0 4 1 / 2 « 2 3/4R 4 3 / 4 2 . 9 ko-1 3/4L 6 1/4 2 . 3 4o 2R 5 1/2 3-4 5 0 1 1/4L 6 3/4 3 . 0 5 0 IR 6 1/2 3 - 9 6 0 0 .8- 3 . 8 . 6 1 10 2 0 « 2L. 2 3 / 4 L 3 1/2L .2 1/2L 3/4L 3/4L 1/2E. 2 L 1 3/kL 1 L 1 1 / 2 L 0.4 0 . 8 1.4 1 . 9 2 . 6 3 . 2 3'.:6 0 . 5 1 . 3 1 . 9 2 . 5 ' 3 . 1 6 10 2 0 3 0 kO 5 0 5 5 10 2 0 3 0 4 0 4 9 10 ' 2 0 ' 2L 3 / 4 L 1 1/2L 1/2R 2R IR 2L 0 0 1/2L 1/2L 3/4R 0 . 6 1 . 2 1 . 9 2 . 5 2 . 8 3 . 4 1 . 4 2 . 1 2 . 5 2 . 9 3 . 5 3 . 6 10 2 0 3 0 kO 5 0 5 8 10 20 3 0 40 5 o 5 i 40 2 1 / 2 L 1 3 / 4 L ' 1 1 / 2 L 0 . 8 1 . 5 2 - 4 10 2 0 2 5 40 0 1/2R 1 1/2R 1/2R 0 . 8 1 . 6 2 . 3 2 . 7 10 2 0 3 0 3 6 5o TABLE 3 9 -CORRELATION COEFFICIENTS BETWEEN RADIUS, AGE AND CUMULATIVE. ABSOLUTE. SPIRAL.: DOUGLAS FIR. A l l C l a s s i f i c a t i o n S t a t i s t i c Plot Plots 1 2 3 Zero r s p i r a l . a g e 0 . 8 9 2 ^ 0 . 5 5 8 § 0 , 5 6 2 5 0.57L5 Order r s p i r a l . r a d i u s 0 . 9 5 7 5 0.6-195 0 . 3 9 4 ^ 0 - 3 3 4 ? Correlations ^age.radius 0 . 9 6 9 ^ 0 . 8 k 5 ^ 0 . 9 0 8 5 0 . 8 J J . i 5 P a r t i a l r s p i r a l age.radius 0 . 0 k 8 0 . 2 6 k 0 . 5 3 3 k Correlation's S p i r a l radius.age 0.8.332 0 . 3 3 3 1 0 . 3 3 8 -1 - S i g n i f i c a n t at 0 . 1 per cent 2 - S i g n i f i c a n t at 0 . 0 5 per cent 4 - Si g n i f i c a n t at 0 . 0 1 per cent 5 - Si g n i f i c a n t at O.OOl per cent TABLE kO CORRELATION COEFFICIENTS BETWEEN RADIUS, AGE AND CUMULATIVE ABSOLUTE SPIRAL: WESTERN HEMLOCK A l l C l a s s i f i c a t i o n S t a t i s t i c Plot Plots 1 2 3 Zero r s p i r a l . a g e 0 . 6 5 6 ^ 0 . 8 4 2 5 0 . 6 8 2 ^ 0 . 8 7 k 5 Order p s p i r a l ..radius 0 . 5 2 6 ^ O.filOg 0 . 4 2 9 3 0 . 3 2 k 2 Correlations rage.radius 0 . 7 6 7 5 0 . 8 8 2 5 0 . 9 2 8 ^ 0 . 8 6 8 > P a r t i a l r s p i r a l age.radius 0 . 0 4 6 3 0 . 4 6 3 3 0 . 8 4 7 ^ Correlations- r s p i r a l radius.age 0.45 -4-- 0 . 6 3 o 5 0 . 7 5 4 5 1 - S i g n i f i c a n t at 0 . 0 2 per cent 4 - Si g n i f i c a n t at 0 . 0 1 per cent 5 - S i g n i f i c a n t at 0 . 0 0 1 per- cent TABLE .kl - DOUGLAS FIR ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE TO .SHOW COMPARATIVE EFFECT OF SITE, CROWN CLASS AND AGE ON CUMULATIVE ABSOLUTE SPIRAL Ef f e c t DF . SS MS Vr. Site Crown Class Age Residual 2 1 5 99 1 5 3 - 5 6 0 2 1 6 . 6 2 4 5 2 6 7 . 2 k 0 7 3 5 0 . 9 3 5 5 7 6 . 7 8 0 1 1 6 . 6 2 4 5 5 3 . k k 8 l 3 . 6 2 9 8 2 1 . 1 5 2 7 3 .k. 5 8 0 0 1 lij . . 7 2 k 8 . 3 Total 107 7 8 8 . 3 5 1 9 3 - S i g n i f i c a n t at 0 . 0 per cent l e v e l 1 - S i g n i f i c a n t at 5 . 0 ~per cent l e v e l TABLE k 2 - WESTERN HEMLOCK ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE TO SHOW COMPARATIVE EFFECT OF' SITE, CROWN CLASS AND AGE ON CUMULATIVE. ABSOLUTE SPIRAL Eff e c t DF. SS MS. Vr. • Site 2 2 2 . 9 3 0 6 1 1 . 4 6 5 3 4 . 4 5 0 9 1 Crown Class 1 3 - 7 9 3 9 3 - 7 9 3 9 1.4.728. Age 5 294.H+41 5 8 . 8 2 8 . 8 2 2 . 8 3 8 l 3 Residual 9 9 2 5 5 - 0 2 2 1 2 . 5 7 5 9 Total 107 5 7 9 . 8 9 0 7 3 -1 -S i g n i f i c a n t at 0 . 1 per Cent l e v e l S i g n i f i c a n t at 5 . 0 ' per cent l e v e l F i g . 10 Cumulative Absolute S p i r a l vs Radius Plot 2 - Western Hemlo.ck h-1 F i g . 11 Cumulative Absolute S p i r a l vs Age Plot 3 - Douglas o^ ro F i g . l 5 Radius vs Age Graph - At Breast Height - Douglas F i r o^ F i g . 17 The S p i r a l Grain Measuring Instrument 6 9 LITERATURE CITED 1 . Butler, B.T., Twisted trunks of Apple Trees, Science 73 ( 1 9 0 3 ) , 674-, 1 9 3 1 . 2 . Cannings, P., Twisted f i b r e in Chir pine, Indian For. k l ( 4 . ) , . 1 1 2 - 1 1 6 , 1 9 1 5 . 3 . Champion, H.G., Contributions Toward a Knowledge of Twisted F i b r e ' i n Trees, Indian For. Rec. 1 1 , Pt. I I , 1 1 - 8 0 , 1 9 2 5 . 4.. .Champion, H.G., An Interim Report on the Progress of Investigations, into the Origin of Twisted F i b r e i n Pinus l o n g i f o l i a Roxb. Indian For., 53 ( 1 ) , 1 8 - 2 2 , 1 9 2 7 . 5 . Champion, H.G-., Second Interim Report on the Progress of Investigations.into the Origin of Twisted Fibre i n Pinus l o n g i f o l i a Roxb. Indian For., % ( 1 2 ) , 511 - 2 0 , 1 9 3 0 . 6. Clarke, C.B., On Right-hand and Left-hand Contortion, J. Linn. Soc. 18 ( 1 1 2 ) , 4 . 6 8 - 7 3 , l 8 8 l . 7 . Haskins, P. and Moore, N., The Physiological Basis of the Twisting Habit In Plant Growth, Science- 77 ( 1 9 9 k ) , 2 8 3 , 1 9 3 3 . 8 . Herriek, E.H., Further notes on Twisted Trees, Science 76 ( 1 9 7 5 ) , i j .06.-7, 1 9 3 2 . 9 . Jacot, A.P., Tree Twist, Science 74- ( 1 9 2 7 ) , 5 6 7 , 1 9 3 1 . 1 0 . Jones, A.T., Trees with Twisted Bark, Science 74- ( 1 9 2 7 ) , 5 6 7 , 1 9 3 1 . 1 1 . Kadambi, K.,.. and Dabral, S,N. , On Twist i n Chir (Pinus l o n g i f o l i a Roxb) , Indian For. .81 ( l ) , 5 8 - 6 4 , 1 9 5 5 -1 2 . Kennedy, R.W.-.and E l l i o t t , G.K., S p i r a l Grain i n Red Alder (Alnus rubra Bong.) (In the press). 13. Koehler, A., More about Twisted Grain i n Trees, Science 73 ( 1 8 9 6 ) , 4 7 7 , 1 9 3 1 . l k . Kohl> E.J., An Explanation of the Cause of S p i r a l Grain in Trees, Science 78. ( 2 0 1 2 ) , 5 8 - 9 , 1 9 3 3 -70 15>. Kribs, D.A., Commercial Foreign Woods on the American Market, a Manual of Their Structure, I d e n t i f i c a t i o n , Uses and D i s t r i b u t i o n , T r o p i c a l Wood Laboratory, State College, Pa., 1 9 5 0 . 1 6 . McKinney and Sando, .Journal of Heredity 2$ ( 7 ) , 2 6 1 - 2 6 3 , 1 9 3 1 . 17- Misra, .P.,- Observations On S p i r a l Grain in the Wood of Pinus l o n g i f o l i a Roxb. Forestry 13 ( 2 ) , 1 1 8 - 3 3 , 1939. 18. Northcott, P.L., The Mechanism of S p i r a l Grain ( i n the press). 1 9 . Rault, J.P. and Marsh, E.E., The.Incidence and Implications of S p i r a l Grain i n Pinus' long If o l i a Roxb. In South A f r i c a and i t s effect on Converted Timber,. S. Afr. For. Prod. Inst., P r e t o r i a West, Paper presented at Comm. For. Conf., Canada, 1 9 5 2 . 2 0 . Richens, R., Forest Tree Breeding and Genetics,•Imperial 'Agriculture Bureau, Joint Publication No. . 8 , pp. 1 - 7 9 , 1 9 4 5 . 2 1 . Roa, H.S., The Phenomenon of Twisted Trees, Indian For. 80 ( 3 ) , 1 6 5 - 7 0 , 1 9 5 4 . 22' . Smythi-es, E.A., Notes on the Twisted Fibre i n Chir pine, Indian For. k l ( 3 ) , 6 . 9 - 7 5 , 1 9 1 5 -2 3 . Troupe, R.S., S i l v i c u l t u r e of Indian Trees, Vol 3 : 1 0 5 6 - 6 1 , . University of Oxford Press, 1 9 2 1 . 2 k . Wentworth, C.K.,. Twist in\" the Grain of Coniferous Trees, Science 73 ( 1 - 8 8 5 ) , 1 9 2 , 1 9 3 0 . 7 1 GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY1 1 . Banks-, G.H., S p i r a l Grain and Its' E f f e c t on the Strength of South A f r i c a n Grown Pines, J.S. A f r . For. Ass.., No, 2 3 : 1 - 6 , 1 9 5 3 . 2 . Bhat,-R..V. and-Singh, M.M., Wrapping Papers from Chir (Pinus l o n g i f o l i a . Roxb) of Twisted Grain, Indian For, 8 1 (12), 7 6 5 - 7 3 , 1 9 5 5 -3 . Castle, E.S., S p i r a l Growth and Reversal :of S p i r a l l i n g In Phycomycetes, and Their Bearing on Primary Wall Structure, Amer. J. Bot., 2 9 , 6 6 k , 19k2. k. G r i f f i t h , A.L,, Twisted Fi b r e i n Conifers, Indian For. 72 ( 1 1 1 ) , 5 1 2 - 3 , 191+6. 5 . Jacobs, M.R.., The Occurrence and Importance Of S p i r a l Grain i n Pinus radiata i n the Federal Capital T e r r i t o r y , L e a f l . For. .Bur. Aust. No. 5 0 , 1 9 3 5 . 6 . Krogh, P..M.D., The Twisting of Wooden Telephone Poles' in Service in South A f r i c a , S. Afr. For. Prod. Inst. Pretoria West, Paper presented at Comm. For. Conf., Canada,. 1 9 5 2 . 7 . Misra, P., Correlation Between E c c e n t r i c i t y and S p i r a l Grain i n the wood of Pinus l o n g i f o l i a , Forestry 1 7 : 6 7 - 8 0 , 1 9 k 3 . 8 . Wardrop, A.B, and Dadswell, H.E., The Development and Structure of Wood Fibres, Aust. Pulp and Pap. Ind. Tech. Ass. Proc. 8 , 6-26, 1 9 5 k . 1 References quoted here have not been used by the author In t h i s work, "@en ; edm:hasType "Thesis/Dissertation"@en ; edm:isShownAt "10.14288/1.0302311"@en ; dcterms:language "eng"@en ; ns0:degreeDiscipline "Forestry"@en ; edm:provider "Vancouver : University of British Columbia Library"@en ; dcterms:publisher "University of British Columbia"@en ; dcterms:rights "For non-commercial purposes only, such as research, private study and education. Additional conditions apply, see Terms of Use https://open.library.ubc.ca/terms_of_use."@en ; ns0:scholarLevel "Graduate"@en ; dcterms:title "Spiral grain in second growth Douglas fir and western hemlock"@en ; dcterms:type "Text"@en ; ns0:identifierURI "http://hdl.handle.net/2429/40791"@en .