Education, Faculty of
DSpace
UBCV
Hodgkinson, Christopher Edward
Doctor of Education - EdD
University of British Columbia
A preliminary analysis of the concepts of attitude and value is made together with an examination of these concepts in relation to general phenomena of perception. The concept of organizational climate as some form of aggregate of social perceptions is then considered and hypotheses are derived specifying relationships between values and perceptions with in an organizational context. The major hypotheses can be summarized as postulating relationships between values and a) perceptions of social and leadership behaviour, b) organizational role, c) the operationalized concepts of authenticity, inner-direction and other-direction, and d) biographical variables. In addition a number of a prioi explorative propositions were stated and the relationship between organizational climate and the concepts of value congruence and consonance were examined and tested. The instruments used for measuring values and perceptions were respectively modifications of the scales developed by William A. Scott and the Organizational Climate Description Questionnaire developed by Andrew W. Halpin and Don B. Croft. In addition a general questionnaire was used for the purpose of collecting biographical data. The research was conducted in the early part of 1968 and involved a randomly selected sample of 40 public elementary schools from seven school districts in the Vancouver metropolitan area. Respondents numbered 68 school administrators and 523 teachers. Findings of the empirical study showed significant relationships between values and perceptions at both the individual and the school level of analysis. Significant value differences were observed between administrators and teachers (e.g. the former valuing creativity and independence less than the latter) which cannot be accounted for simply in terms of biographical variance. This leads to the tentative conclusion that organizational role is a substantial determinant of individual value orientation and the consequences are discussed. The findings also lead to certain doubts being cast upon facets of previous research viz., the importance of the notions of value congruence and consonance as developed by Dante Lupini and the conceptual and methodological validity of the organizational climate concept as developed by Andrew W. Halpin. In sum it can be stated that significant relationships' were found between specified values and the dimensions of organizational climate (e.g. directly between intellectualism and intimacy and inversely between independence and esprit) and some evidence was derived to infer a relationship between value orientation and organizational role. A concluding section examines the implications of the findings and proffers a tentative outline or schema for the investigation and development of a theory of organizational value.
VALUES AND PERCEPTIONS IN ORGANIZATIONS.-A STUDY OF VALUE ORIENTATIONS AND SOCIAL INTERACTION PERCEPTIONS IN EDUCATION ORGANIZATIONS by CHRISTOPHER EDWARD HODGKINSON B.Sc., U n i v e r s i t y o f London, 1959 M.Ed., U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , 1964 A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF EDUCATION i n the C e n t r e f o r the Study of A d m i n i s t r a t i o n i n E d u c a t i o n We a c c e p t t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n as c o n f o r m i n g t o the re£_Ji.red s/Qnd^rd THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA DECEMBER, 1968 In p r e s e n t i n g t h i s t h e s i s i n p a r t i a l f u l f i l m e n t of the r e quirements f o r an advanced degree at the U n i v e r s i t y of B r i t i s h Columbia, I agree t h a t the L i b r a r y s h a l l make i t f r e e l y a v a i l a b l e f o r r e f e r e n c e and Study. I f u r t h e r agree t h a t p e r m i s s i o n f o r e x t e n s i v e c o p y i n g of t h i s t h e s i s f o r s c h o l a r l y purposes may be granted by the Head of my Department or by h i s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s . It i s understood t h a t c o p y i n g or p u b l i c a t i o n of t h i s thes,is f o r f i n a n c i a l g a i n s h a l l not be a l l o w e d w i t h o u t my w r i t t e n p e r m i s s i o n . Department of Education Administration The U n i v e r s i t y of B r i t i s h Columbia Vancouver 8, Canada Date February 14, 1969 A d v i s o r : Dr. H a r o l d J . Dyck ABSTRACT A p r e l i m i n a r y a n a l y s i s o f the c o n c e p t s o f a t t i -tude and v a l u e i s made t o g e t h e r w i t h an e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e s e c o n c e p t s i n r e l a t i o n t o g e n e r a l phenomena of p e r -c e p t i o n . The c o n c e p t o f o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c l i m a t e as some form of a g g r e g a t e of s o c i a l p e r c e p t i o n s i s t h e n c o n s i d -e r e d and h y p o t h e s e s are d e r i v e d s p e c i f y i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p s between v a l u e s and p e r c e p t i o n s w i t h i n an o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c o n t e x t . The major h y p o t h e s e s can be summarized as pos-t u l a t i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p s between v a l u e s and a) p e r c e p t i o n s of s o c i a l and l e a d e r s h i p b e h a v i o u r , b) o r g a n i z a t i o n a l r o l e , c) the o p e r a t i o n a l i z e d c o n c e p t s o f a u t h e n t i c i t y , i n n e r - d i r e c t i o n and o t h e r - d i r e c t i o n , and d) b i o g r a p h i c a l v a r i a b l e s . In a d d i t i o n a number of a p r i o r i e x p l o r a t i v e p r o p o s i t i o n s were s t a t e d and the r e l a t i o n s h i p between o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c l i m a t e and the c o n c e p t s o f v a l u e c o n g r u -ence and consonance were examined and t e s t e d . The i n s t r u m e n t s used f o r m e a s u r i n g v a l u e s and p e r -c e p t i o n s were r e s p e c t i v e l y m o d i f i c a t i o n s o f t h e s c a l e s d e v e l o p e d by W i l l i a m A. S c o t t and the O r g a n i z a t i o n a l C l i -mate D e s p r i p t i o n Q u e s t i o n n a i r e d e v e l o p e d by Andrew W. H a l p i n and Don. B. C r o f t . In a d d i t i o n a g e n e r a l ques-t i o n n a i r e was used f o r the p u r p o s e o f c o l l e c t i n g b i o -g r a p h i c a l d a t a . The r e s e a r c h was c o n d u c t e d i n the e a r l y p a r t o f 1968 and i n v o l v e d a randomly s e l e c t e d sample o f 40 p u b l i c e l e m e n t a r y s c h o o l s from seven s c h o o l d i s t r i c t s i n the Vancouver m e t r o p o l i t a n a r e a . Respondents numbered 68 s c h o o l a d m i n i s t r a t o r s and 523 t e a c h e r s . F i n d i n g s of t h e e m p i r i c a l s t u d y showed s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p s between v a l u e s and p e r c e p t i o n s a t b o t h the i n d i v i d u a l and the s c h o o l l e v e l o f a n a l y s i s . S i g n i f i c a n t v a l u e d i f f e r e n c e s were o b s e r v e d between a d m i n i s t r a t o r s and t e a c h e r s (e^g^ the former v a l u i n g c r e a t i v i t y and i n d e p e n -dence l e s s t h a n the l a t t e r ) which cannot be a c c o u n t e d f o r s i m p l y i n terms of b i o g r a p h i c a l v a r i a n c e . T h i s l e a d s t o the t e n t a t i v e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t o r g a n i z a t i o n a l r o l e i s a s u b s t a n t i a l d e t e r m i n a n t o f i n d i v i d u a l v a l u e o r i e n t a t i o n and the consequences a r e d i s c u s s e d . The f i n d i n g s a l s o l e a d t o c e r t a i n doubts b e i n g c a s t upon f a c e t s of p r e v i o u s r e s e a r c h v i z . , the i m p o r t a n c e o f the n o t i o n s o f v a l u e congruence and consonance as d e v e l o p e d by Dante L u p i n i and the c o n c e p t u a l and m e t h o d o l o g i c a l v a l i d i t y of the o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c l i m a t e c o n c e p t as d e v e l o p e d by Andrew W. H a l p i n . In sum i t can be s t a t e d t h a t s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a -t i o n s h i p s ' were found between s p e c i f i e d v a l u e s and the d i m e n s i o n s of o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c l i m a t e (e_.g_. d i r e c t l y be-tween i n t e l l e c t u a l i s m and i n t i m a c y and i n v e r s e l y between independence and e s p r i t ) and some e v i d e n c e was d e r i v e d t o i n f e r a r e l a t i o n s h i p between v a l u e o r i e n t a t i o n and o r g a n -i z a t i o n a l r o l e . A c o n c l u d i n g s e c t i o n examines the i m p l i c a t i o n s o f the. f i n d i n g s and p r o f f e r s a t e n t a t i v e o u t l i n e or schema f o r the i n v e s t i g a t i o n and development o f a t h e o r y o f o r g a n i z a t i o n a l v a l u e . TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER P A G E I INTRODUCTION 1 Sources o f the Problem 1 V a l u e s and O r g a n i z a t i o n s . 4 M e r i t o f the Problem 8 Assumptions and L i m i t a t i o n s 13 Assumptions 13 L i m i t a t i o n s 15 T e r m i n o l o g y 16 P l a n 19 II THE VALUE CONCEPT 21 P h i l o s o p h i c a l C o n s i d e r a t i o n s 21 V a l u e s and M o r a l i t y 24 N o n - p r e s c r i p t i v e Nature o f the Study 26 P s y c h o l o g i c a l A s p e c t s 26 Approaches t o D e f i n i t i o n 26 The R e l a t i o n t o M o t i v e s 30 A t t i t u d e s 35 F a c t o r - A n a l y t i c Approaches 39 C a t t e l l 40 Eysenck F i e l d Theory : 48 CHAPTER A Composite Model 55 Toward D e f i n i t i o n 63 I I I VALUES, PERCEPTIONS AND SOCIAL BEHAVIOUR 69 Group B e h a v i o u r , Needs and P e r c e p t i o n s 83 R e l e v a n t R e s e a r c h 98 G e n e r a l P r o p o s i t i o n s 105 IV ORGANIZATIONS AND VALUES 113 The Concept o f O r g a n i z a t i o n a l C l i m a t e ' 118 The D e r i v a t i o n s of C l i m a t e 124 The Dimensions of C l i m a t e 127 A u t h e n t i c i t y 131 C l i m a t e as a Meta-Concept 136 V a l u e s and O r g a n i z a t i o n a l C l i m a t e ... 143 R e l a t e d S t u d i e s 147 Hypotheses 153 V EMPIRICAL STUDY 158 The S c o t t R e s e a r c h 158 The L u p i n i Study 163 Other R e s e a r c h 166 , Hypotheses and P r o p o s i t i o n s : O p e r a t i o n a l S t a t e m e n t s * 168 CHAPTER PAGE Methodology 175 I n s t r u m e n t a t i o n 175 V a l i d i t y 177 R e l i a b i l i t y 178 Data C o l l e c t i o n 180 S t a t i s t i c a l Methods 183 Data P r o c e s s i n g 187 T e s t i n g Hypotheses and P r o p o s i t i o n s 190 Summary 19 8 VI FINDINGS 201 S u b s t a n t i v e F i n d i n g s 201 E x p l o r a t i v e F i n d i n g s 215 C r i t i q u e o f the C l i m a t e Concept 220 D i s c u s s i o n 223 I m p l i c a t i o n s 234 The L u p i n i Study and I m p l i c a t i o n s f o r E d u c a t i o n 237 VII TOWARDS AN ORGANIZATIONAL VALUE THEORY . 241 I n t r o d u c t o r y Comment , 241 A C o n c e p t u a l O u t l i n e 246 The D e s c r i p t i v e M a t r i x 249 A p p l i c a t i o n o f the M a t r i x 257 CHAPTER Q u e s t i o n s P r o p o s a l s f o r f u r t h e r I n v e s t i g a t i o n . L o n g i t u d i n a l S t u d i e s C o mparative S t u d i e s Theory C o n s t r u c t i o n C o n c l u s i o n BIBLIOGRAPHY APPENDIX A The OCDQ I n s t r u m e n t B O r g a n i z a t i o n a l C l i m a t e V i g n e t t e s C S c o t t V a l u e S c a l e s D G e n e r a l Q u e s t i o n n a i r e E I n t e r n a l C o n s i s t e n c y and E q u i v a l e n c e E s t i m a t e s f o r OCDQ S u b t e s t s as r e p o r t e d by H a l p i n and C r o f t F V a l i d i t y Data f o r S c o t t S c a l e s G S k e t c h Map o f G r e a t e r Vancouver urban a r e a showing d i s t r i b u t i o n o f randomly s e l e c t e d s c h o o l s by s c h o o l d i s t r i c t H Mean Va l u e S c o r e s by S c h o o l , T e a c h e r s o n l y I I n t e r c o r r e l a t i o n s between S c o t t V a l u e S c a l e s J Value Congruence and Consonance Scor e s . LIST OF TABLES TABLE PAGE IV.1 The P a t t e r n o f P r o f i l e - F a c t o r L o a d i n g s f o r each o f the S i x O r g a n i z a t i o n a l C l i m a t e s ... 126 V . l Measures o f R e l i a b i l i t y o f S c o t t V a l u e S c a l e , O r i g i n a l I n s t r u m e n t 180 V.2 A b s t r a c t o f Data C o l l e c t i o n 184 V.3 V a l u e s o f Respondents by O c c u p a t i o n a l S t a t u s Means and S t a n d a r d D e v i a t i o n s 188 V. 4 OCDQ Mean Raw S c o r e s by S c h o o l and C l i m a t e S u b t e s t — V i c e - P r i n c i p a l s and T e a c h e r s ... 189 VI.1 V a l u e D i f f e r e n c e s between P r i n c i p a l s and V i c e - P r i n c i p a l s -- Mann-Whitney T e s t 202 VI.2 V a l u e D i f f e r e n c e s between A d m i n i s t r a t o r s and T e a c h e r s — Mann-Whitney T e s t 203 VI . 3 S i g n i f i c a n t C o r r e l a t i o n s ; T e a c h e r and A d m i n i s t r a t o r V a l u e s by C l i m a t e D imensions -I n d i v i d u a l as U n i t o f A n a l y s i s 206 VI.4 S i g n i f i c a n t C o r r e l a t i o n s ; T e a c h e r and A d m i n i s t r a t o r V a l u e s by r e l a t e d C l i m a t e D i m e n s i o n s . S c h o o l as U n i t of A n a l y s i s .... 207 VI . 5 D i s t r i b u t i o n o f S c h o o l s w i t h A d m i n i s t r a t o r s ' S c o r e s d i c h o t o m i z e d on the V a r i a b l e s o f Disengagement by Kindn e s s 208 VI. 6 S i g n i f i c a n t C o r r e l a t i o n s ; T eacher and A d m i n i s t r a t o r V a l u e s b y " B i o g r a p h i c a l V a r i a b l e s . I n d i v i d u a l as U n i t o f An a l y s i s 211 2 VI.7 M u l t i p l e R e g r e s s i o n A n a l y s i s . M u l t i p l e R and s i g n i f i c a n t I n t e r c o r r e l a t i o n s ; T e a c h e r V a l u e s by B i o g r a p h i c a l V a r i a b l e s 212 VI'. 8 P a r t i a l C o r r e l a t i o n s , T e a c h e r s ' V a l u e s by B i o g r a p h i c a l V a r i a b l e s 213 VI. 9 P a r t i a l C o r r e l a t i o n s , A d m i n i s t r a t o r s ' by B i o g r a p h i c a l V a r i a b l e s V a l u e s 214 LIST OF FIGURES FIGURE PAGE 11.1 Dynamic L a t t i c e of M o t i v a t i o n a f t e r C a t t e l l 43 11.2 H i e r a r c h y o f Response L e v e l s 45 11.3 I d e o l o g i c a l Response H i e r a r c h y 46 11.4 L e w i n i a n L i f e - S p a c e 50 11.5 P e r s o n a l i t y S e c t o r o f L e w i n i a n L i f e -Space 51 11.6 F a c t o r - a n a l y t i c A pproach t o S e l f -Concept 56 11.7 A t t i t u d i n a l H i e r a r c h y 58 I I . 8 E x t e n s i o n o f A t t i t u d i n a l H i e r a r c h y i n t o L i f e - S p a c e 59 11.9 Schematic R e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f Ambivalence 61 11.10 G e n e r a l i z e d V a l u e Concept Model 62 111.1 P e r c e p t u a l O r i e n t a t i o n s 83 111.2 I n t e r a c t i v e V a l u a t i o n a l F i e l d s -D y a d i c Case 84 IV.1 G e t z e l s - G u b a Model o f O r g a n i z a t i o n a l S o c i a l System 146 IV.2 T h e l e n Dimension o f G e t z e l s - G u b a Model . 147 V . l C o r r e l a t i o n M a t r i x V a l u e s and C l i m a t e -S c h o o l as U n i t of A n a l y s i s 192 V.2 C r o s s b r e a k A n a l y s i s Paradigm — A u t h e n t i c i t y Dimensions r e l a t e d t o V a l u e s . S c h o o l s as U n i t o f A n a l y s i s ... 195 FIGURE V. 3 V. 4 V.5 VII . 1 PAGE C r o s s b r e a k A n a l y s i s Paradigm — S e p a r a t e A u t h e n t i c i t y S u b t e s t s r e l a t e d t o V a l u e s . S c h o o l s as U n i t o f A n a l y s i s .... 195 C o r r e l a t i o n M a t r i x V a l u e C l u s t e r s and C l i m a t e — S c h o o l as U n i t o f A n a l y s i s ... 196 C r o s s b r e a k A n a l y s i s Paradigm -- V a l u e Congruence and V a l u e Consonance r e l a t e d t o C l i m a t e .. S c h o o l s as U n i t o f A n a l y s i s 197 M a t r i x of V a l u e Emergence 256 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION Sources of t h e Problem The r e a s o n s f o r t h i s s t u d y i n c l u d e a c o n c e r n w i t h the l a c k of c l a r i t y or d e f i n i t i o n a t t a c h i n g to t h e con-c e p t s of v a l u e and a t t i t u d e s , a c o n c e r n w i t h the e v o l u -t i o n of v a l u e s i n s o c i a l i n t e r a c t i o n , and a c o n c e r n w i t h the p o s s i b l e impact o f o r g a n i z a t i o n a l membership on i n d i -v i d u a l v a l u e systems. Such c o n c e r n s embrace many d i s -c r e t e and s p e c i a l i s t a r e a s of e x p e r t i s e but p a r t o f the m o t i v a t i o n f o r u n d e r t a k i n g such an i n t r i n s i c a l l y i n t e r -d i s c i p l i n a r y t a s k stems from a contemporary academic em-p h a s i s on the need f o r c r o s s i n g d i s c i p l i n a r y f r o n t i e r s . C e r t a i n l y , i t may be conceded t h a t a s y n t h e t i c approach cannot r e a s o n a b l y be a c h i e v e d t h r o u g h s p e c i a l i s t mastery and e x p e r t i s e i n ev e r y c o n f l u e n t b r a n c h o f l e a r n -i n g . But* t h i s does not o b v i a t e the a l t e r n a t i v e s t r a t e g y of n a r r o w i n g the f o c u s o f stu d y so as to a l l o w the 2 c o l l a t i o n and s e a r c h o f a l a r g e mass o f r e l e v a n t and c o n -t r i b u t o r y i n f o r m a t i o n . A second s o u r c e o f i n c e n t i v e towards t h e p r o b l e m i s t o be found i n the i n c r e a s i n g amount of c o n c e r n w i t h t h e t o p i c of v a l u e s and the s l o w l y growing academic r e -s p e c t a b i l i t y o f t h i s t o p i c . A l t h o u g h c e r t a i n l y c o n t r o -v e r s i a l and c e r t a i n l y an a r e a o f d i s c o u r s e l a c k i n g con-sensus y e t i t can no l o n g e r be c o n s i d e r e d as i l l e g i t i m a t e or a l i e n to s c i e n t i f i c d i s c o u r s e . The problem of v a l u e b i a s need not be o f c o n c e r n s i n c e v a l u e s are b e i n g t r e a t e d as the s u b j e c t m a t t e r o f i n v e s t i g a t i o n . One i s c o n c e r n e d , as i t were, w i t h the "mapping of the t e r r a i n " of v a l u e s r a t h e r t h a n w i t h t h e i r v a l i d i t y and t h e r e i s no presump-t i o n as t o the e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f g r o u n d s , r e a s o n s , or j u s -t i f i c a t i o n f o r the o r d e r i n g of systems o f p r e f e r e n c e ( K a p l a n , p.377 ). A f u r t h e r i n c e n t i v e t o r e s e a r c h i n t h i s a r e a was p r o v i d e d by f i e l d e x p e r i e n c e i n the t e a c h i n g p r o f e s s i o n . The s t r u c t u r e of a s c h o o l o r g a n i z a t i o n i s such complex; p a r t h i e r a r c h i c a l , b u r e a u c r a t i c , f o r m a l ; p a r t c o l l e g i a l , p r o f e s s i o n a l , t e c h n i c a l t h a t one may r a i s e q u e s t i o n s as to the systems of v a l u e which e x i s t , and changes i n v a l u e and a t t i t u d e which o c c u r , as a member f u n c t i o n s i n one r o l e or a n o t h e r w i t h i n the o r g a n i z a t i o n . In o t h e r words, one may be l e d to q u e s t i o n i n o r g a n i z a t i o n s a 3 p e c u l i a r f u n c t i o n o f which i s t o p r o p a g a t e ( i m p a r t , i n -duce, conduce t o , i n c u l c a t e , " t e a c h " ) a system o f p r e f e r -ences or v a l u e o r i e n t a t i o n , whether t h e p a r t i c u l a r o r g a n -i z a t i o n a l s t a t u s of an i n d i v i d u a l has a f u n c t i o n a l b e a r i n g on h i s own v a l u e o r i e n t a t i o n (and hence on t h e " o u t p u t " o f the o r g a n i z a t i o n ) . In a word, i s the o r g a n -i z a t i o n t h r o u g h o u t i t s s t r u c t u r e m o n o l i t h i c w i t h r e s p e c t t o v a l u e s ? Moreover, i n what ways can t h i s v a l u e s t r u c -t u r e of an o r g a n i z a t i o n , homogeneous or o t h e r w i s e , be r e l a t e d t o t h e f u n c t i o n i n g o f t h a t o r g a n i z a t i o n i n s o f a r as t h i s i s o b s e r v a b l e and m e asurable i n s o c i a l i n t e r -a c t i o n ? In b a r e s t g i s t t h e n the e s s e n t i a l p r o b l e m which t h i s s t u d y w i l l attempt to i n v e s t i g a t e i s t h a t o f e x p l o r -i n g the r e l a t i o n s h i p between v a l u e s , o r g a n i z a t i o n a l r o l e , and i n t r a - o r g a n i z a t i o n a l p e r c e p t i o n s . Are one's v a l u e s a f f e c t e d by one's o r g a n i z a t i o n a l s t a t u s ? Are i n t e r -p e r s o n a l p e r c e p t i o n s a f f e c t e d by v a l u e o r i e n t a t i o n s ? And c o n v e r s e l y ? What i s meant by v a l u e ? How do v a l u e s a f f e c t the s o c i a l p s y c h o l o g y o f an o r g a n i z a t i o n ? Such are the t y p e s of q u e s t i o n a s s o c i a t e d w i t h th e g e n e r a l r e -s e a r c h problem. 4 V a l u e s and O r g a n i z a t i o n s The p r o g r e s s i o n from the i n t e r n a l , i n d i v i d u a l , p s y c h o l o g i c a l e x p e r i e n c e o f v a l u e , t h r o u g h to the e x t e r -n a l , c o l l e c t i v e , s o c i o l o g i c a l g o a l - d i r e c t e d b e h a v i o u r o f o r g a n i z a t i o n s c a l l s f o r a s p e c i a l p e r s p e c t i v e and t r e a t -ment inasmuch as the u n i t o f a n a l y s i s changes from t h e i n d i v i d u a l t o the c o l l e c t i v i t y and i n d e e d from lower o r d e r t o h i g h e r o r d e r c o l l e c t i v i t i e s ( groups v s . o r g a n -i z a t i o n s ) . I t must be s t r e s s e d at t h e o u t s e t however t h a t the u n p r e f a c e d term v a l u e i s o n l y t o be u n d e r s t o o d as r e f e r r i n g to a s u b j e c t i v e i n d i v i d u a l phenomenon. In i t s t r u e s t sense i t i s e x p e r i e n t i a l and phenomeno-l o g i c a l and t h e r e f o r e u l t i m a t e l y e l u s i v e t o o b s e r v a t i o n , b e i n g i n f a c t o n l y i n f e r r e d from r e g u l a r i t i e s o f o b s e r v e d b e h a v i o u r and from v e r b a l r e p o r t . No c o r r e s p o n d i n g group e x p e r i e n c e or group mind or c o n s c i o u s n e s s i s i n any way b e i n g p o s t u l a t e d . Even a t the c l i m a x o f d i s c i p l i n e d group emotion ( t h e Nurnberg r a l l y , the c o r p s de b a l l e t ) the e x p e r i e n c e of v a l u e remains i n d i v i d u a l . The c o n n e c -t i o n between t h i s i n d i v i d u a l l e v e l o f a n a l y s i s and the m u l t i p l e or group l e v e l i s made t h r o u g h the p r i n c i p l e o f s o c i a l i n t e r a c t i o n . I n d i v i d u a l s are t hought o f as i n t e r a c t i n g w i t h each o t h e r , c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y t h r o u g h language and s i g n 5 communication, t h a t i s , c o n c e p t u a l l y and p e r c e p t u a l l y , so as to produce c o n j o i n t l y e x p e c t a t i o n s , norms, n o t i o n s o f the d e s i r a b l e which can be r e f e r r e d t o t h e group a s s o c i -a t e d w i t h the i n t e r a c t i o n . Thus one may t a l k o f group norms or v a l u e s w h i c h , though t h e y may be i n i t i a l l y ex-t e r i o r and p r e c e d e n t t o the e x p e r i e n c e o f an i n d i v i d u a l , can be a p p r o p r i a t e d and become p a r t o f t h e p s y c h o l o g i c a l e x p e r i e n c e and c o n s t i t u t i o n o f the i n d i v i d u a l i n t e r a c t i n g as group member. The theme o f i n t e r a c t i o n w i l l t h e r e -f o r e be f u n d a m e n t a l t o t h i s s t u d y . Another p s y c h o l o g i c a l l i n k o f the i n d i v i d u a l w i t h the c o l l e c t i v i t y i s t h r o u g h the m o d a l i t y o f p e r c e p t i o n . I n t e r a c t i o n i n t h e p s y c h o l o g i c a l sense i s not s i m p l y th e t o t a l i t y o f b e h a v i o u r which can be o b j e c t i v e l y d e t e r m i n e d as o c c u r r i n g between i n t e r a c t i n g p a r t i e s but i s b e h a v i o u r as s u b j e c t i v e l y p e r c e i v e d . The i n d i v i d u a l may be con-s i d e r e d as o c c u p y i n g b o t h an o b j e c t i v e and a p s y c h o l o g i -c a l s p a c e , which spaces may be r e l a t e d but would r a r e l y be i d e n t i c a l and i t i s the l a t t e r p e r c e i v e d and e x p e r i -enced space w i t h i t s f o c i of a t t e n t i o n , i t s f i g u r e - g r o u n d f l u c t u a t i o n , which i s c o n c e i v e d as the a c t u a l s e t t i n g f o r the i n t e r p l a y o f i n d i v i d u a l v a l u e s and v a l u e s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the c o l l e c t i v i t y . 6 None of t h i s i s t o say t h a t v a l u e s a r e n e c e s s a r -i l y c o l l e c t i v e l y d e t e r m i n e d . Nor i s i t t o say t h a t t h e y a r i s e s i m p l y and d i r e c t l y from i n t e r n a l f a c t o r s such as m o t i v a t i o n . The problem of m o t i v a t i o n w i l l be d e a l t w i t h at v a r i o u s p l a c e s t h r o u g h o u t t h i s s t u d y ( c f . C h . I I , C h .VII, pp.30-34, 249-256). As w i t h the n o t i o n s o f ex-t e r n a l v a l u e - a n c h o r a g e s and frames o f r e f e r e n c e ( S h e r i f and S h e r i f , p.175 f f . ) m o t i v a t i o n i s d i r e c t l y r e l e v a n t t o a d i s c u s s i o n of v a l u e s but a g a i n the r e s o l u t i o n o f the d i f f i c u l t y l i e s i n the p r i n c i p l e of i n t e r a c t i o n ; i n t e r -a c t i o n between i n d i v i d u a l and group, group and o r g a n i z a -t i o n , i n d i v i d u a l and o r g a n i z a t i o n . An i m p o r t a n t c o n c e p t i n the f o l l o w i n g s t u d y i s t h a t o f the r e f e r e n c e group. The modern usage of t h i s c o ncept can be t r a c e d t o Hyman i n 1942 ( l o c . c i t . ) . R e f e r e n c e groups a r e " s o u r c e s " of norms, e x p e c t a n c i e s , a t t i t u d e s and v a l u e s and can be c o n s i d e r e d as p e r m e a t i n g o r g a n i z a t i o n s and p l a c e s o f work. The im p o r t a n c e of such o r g a n i z a t i o n a l r e f e r e n c e groups i s p r o b a b l y h e i g h t -ened i n contemporary s o c i e t y where most members o f the work f o r c e are members of complex o r g a n i z a t i o n s . Ques-t i o n s may be r a i s e d as to the r e l a t i v e s t r e n g t h o f such groups as d e t e r m i n a n t s and p r e d i c t o r s of v a l u e and a t t i -t u d e . Q u e s t i o n s may a l s o be r a i s e d as t o the i n t e r a c t i o n between i n t r a - o r g a n i z a t i o n a l r e f e r e n c e groups and the 7 o r g a n i z a t i o n as a whole. A f u r t h e r s e r i e s o f q u e s t i o n s a r i s e w i t h r e g a r d t o the r e l a t i o n s h i p between v a l u e s and t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f o r g a n i z a t i o n s . V a l u e s and a t t i t u d e s as a s p e c t s o f p e r s o n a l i t y e n t e r i n t o o r g a n i z a t i o n a l systems as i n p u t s i n the s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s complex. At a common sense or i n t u i t i v e l e v e l one can p o i n t t o t h e c o n v i c t i o n on t h e p a r t of many o b s e r v e r s t h a t t h e r e e x i s t s something v a r -i o u s l y d e s c r i b e d as o r g a n i z a t i o n a l t o n e , m o r a l e , atmos-p h e r e , e s p r i t de c o r p s . O b s e r v e r s are l i k e w i s e w i l l i n g t o agree t h a t between s i m i l a r l y s t r u c t u r e d o r g a n i z a t i o n s s e r v i n g i d e n t i c a l f u n c t i o n s i n a comparable e n v i r o n m e n t one may a l s o d e t e c t marked v a r i a t i o n s i n member commit-ments, i n the degree o f c a m a r a d e r i e , i n the p e r c e i v e d c o n s i d e r a t e n e s s and f o r c e f u l n e s s o f the a d m i n i s t r a t i o n and so f o r t h . These o r g a n i z a t i o n a l v a r i a b l e s can p e r -haps be summed or c o l l e c t e d t o g e t h e r under the g e n e r a l n o t i o n o f p s y c h o l o g i c a l or o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c l i m a t e . One can t h e n ask i n what ways do v a l u e s a f f e c t or mediate c l i m a t e , or c o n v e r s e l y ? What i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s e x i s t between the dim e n s i o n s o f c l i m a t e and v a l u e s ? How can v a l u e s , c l i m a t e v a r i a b l e s , and m e d i a t i n g v a r i a b l e s be l i n k e d i n t o an o v e r a l l c o n c e p t u a l framework which might s e r v e as a st e p towards e x p l a n a t o r y t h e o r y and c a u s a l 8 a n a l y s i s ? Are t h e r e d i f f e r e n c e s i n the v a l u e s and c l i -mate r e l a t i o n s h i p s between o r g a n i z a t i o n a l l e a d e r s h i p and o r g a n i z a t i o n a l f o l l o w e r s h i p ? G i v e n such q u e s t i o n s and t h e f a c t t h a t t h e con-temporary body o f knowledge i n t h i s a r e a l a c k s the c o h e r -ence and c o n s i s t e n c y o f l o g i c a l t h e o r y and has a m b i g u i t -i e s o f c o n c e p t i o n as w e l l as d e f i c i t s o f e m p i r i c a l i n v e s -t i g a t i o n one can seek w i t h some j u s t i f i c a t i o n t o make a b e g i n n i n g i n q u i r y and t o attempt t o add, however d i m i n -u t i v e l y , t o the growth and f u r t h e r o r d e r i n g o f knowledge i n t h i s f i e l d . M e r i t o f the Problem For t h i s s t u d y to a v o i d the charge o f v a c u i t y t h e r e must be some advance, however t e n t a t i v e , i n t h r e e a r e a s ; i n a c c r e t i o n t o the body o f knowledge on the t o p i c , i n the g e n e r a t i o n or a c q u i s i t i o n o f i n s i g h t s i n t o the n a t u r e and scope o f the pro b l e m , and i n the f o r m u l a -t i o n of f u r t h e r q u e s t i o n s which may r e p e a t and advance the c y c l e of i n v e s t i g a t i o n . In p u r s u i t of t h e s e ends the c y c l e i s e n t e r e d at p o i n t s e s t a b l i s h e d by p r e v i o u s work o f L u p i n i and S c o t t ( o p . c i t . ) . Q u e s t i o n s were r a i s e d by t<he former s t u d y on the e f f e c t o f p r i n c i p a l s and s t a f f v a l u e s on the o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c l i m a t e o f s c h o o l s . 9 The p r e s e n t s t u d y w i l l seek In p a r t t o r e p l i c a t e t h i s t y p e o f I n v e s t i g a t i o n and t o a m p l i f y and v e r i f y some o f i t s f i n d i n g s . I t i s c o n s i d e r e d w o r t h w h i l e t o advance t h i s l i n e of I n q u i r y because of the need f o r u n d e r s t a n d -i n g the f u n c t i o n s of v a l u e s w i t h r e s p e c t t o s c h o o l s and t h e i r a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . S c o t t ' s work s e t s the second p o i n t o f d e p a r t u r e . A l t h o u g h the t y p e s o f o r g a n i z a t i o n s t u d i e d by S c o t t , f r a t e r n i t i e s and s o r o r i t i e s , d i f f e r i n s e v e r a l r e s p e c t s from s c h o o l o r g a n i z a t i o n s h i s r e s e a r c h , b e s i d e s b e i n g p r o v o c a t i v e i n i t s d i s c u s s i o n o f the n a t u r e o f v a l u e , r a i s e d a number of q u e s t i o n s and p r o p o s i t i o n s which can be t a k e n as h a v i n g g e n e r a l i m p o r t f o r a l l forms o f o r g a n i z a t i o n . The aim o f the p r e s e n t i n v e s t i g a t i o n i s to a p p l y some o f the S c o t t f i n d i n g s t o the s c h o o l con-t e x t . T h i s i s c o n s i d e r e d w o r t h w h i l e p e r se but e s p e c i a l -l y i n s o f a r as i t might l e a d t o c l a r i f i c a t i o n or I n s i g h t i n t o t h e n a t u r e o f v a l u e i n i t s o r g a n i z a t i o n a l a s p e c t s . The s t u d y to be u n d e r t a k e n i s p a t e n t l y i n t e r -d i s c i p l i n a r y . The d i s c i p l i n e s o f p h i l o s o p h y , s o c i a l p s y c h o l o g y ( I t s e l f i n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y ) , and o r g a n i z a t i o n a l and a d m i n i s t r a t i v e t h e o r y a r e d i r e c t l y i n v o l v e d even a p a r t from the I n c l u s i v e c a t e g o r y of e d u c a t i o n . Whether such commerce a c r o s s e s t a b l i s h e d academic f r o n t i e r s i s 10 i t s e l f m e r i t o r i o u s or m e r e t r i c i o u s i s a q u e s t i o n f o r de-bate but i t can at l e a s t be argued w i t h i n the contempor-ary c o n t e x t t h a t some b e n e f i t i s l i k e l y to a c c r u e from t h i s type o f s t u d y . I t has a l s o been argued t h a t t h e r e i s a need f o r e l u c i d a t i o n o f the d i f f e r e n c e , i f t h e r e be d i f f e r e n c e , between the c o n c e p t s o f v a l u e and a t t i t u d e . T h i s need w i l l be r e f e r r e d t o a g a i n below (cf_.Ch.VII pp.267-272 , 275-6) but i t can be shown t h a t the b u l k o f the s o c i a l p s y c h o l o g i c a l l i t e r a t u r e , i f not endeavour, has been d i s -p r o p o r t i o n a t e l y l o a d e d towards i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f a t t i t u d e s r a t h e r t h a n v a l u e s . (Rokeach, l o c . c i t . ) Whether or not one co n c u r s t h a t " t h e r e i s something wrong w i t h a s o c i a l s c i e n c e which i s f i v e or s i x tim e s more p r e o c c u -p i e d w i t h man's a t t i t u d e s t han w i t h man's v a l u e s " ( i b i d . ) t h i s s t u d y i s i n t e n d e d t o be a move i n the c o u n t e r v a i l i n g d i r e c t i o n . The s u b j e c t m a t t e r must a l s o be o f s p e c i a l con-c e r n t o t h o s e i n s t i t u t i o n s i n s o c i e t y which have a s p e c i a l l y v e s t e d i n t e r e s t i n m a i n t a i n i n g , i n i t i a t i n g , or p r o p a g a t i n g v a l u e s and systems o f v a l u e s . Such an i n -s t i t u t i o n , o f c o u r s e , i s p u b l i c e d u c a t i o n . The p u b l i c s c h o o l system i s p e c u l i a r l y c o n c e r n e d w i t h v a l u e s a t bo t h t a c i t and e x p l i c i t l e v e l s . A f t e r f a m i l y and home the 11 e l e m e n t a r y s c h o o l s form t h e f i r s t c l e a r l y s t r u c t u r e d r e f e r e n c e groups f o r the c h i l d , who becomes t h e f o c u s o f a c o n c e r t e d e f f o r t a t s o c i a l i z a t i o n , i n i t i a t i o n i n t o and i n d o c t r i n a t i o n w i t h the p r e v a l e n t s o c i a l norms, v a l u e s , and e x p e c t a n c i e s f o r b e h a v i o u r . While much i s e x p l i c i t about t h i s , much i s i m p l i c i t and, i n d e a l i n g w i t h p r o p -e r t i e s as s u b t l e as v a l u e s , much i s w i t h o u t doubt uncon-s c i o u s . T h i s has been g e n e r a l l y r e c o g n i z e d but what Is perhaps not so commonly a p p r e c i a t e d i s the p e r v a s i v e n a t u r e o f a c o n t i n u o u s l y a c t i v e h i e r a r c h y o f i n f l u e n c e s a f f e c t i n g p e r s o n a l v a l u e s , an o r d e r o f a c c u l t u r a t i n g f o r c e s i m p r e s s i n g i t s e l f from s o c i e t y at l a r g e t h r o u g h i t s i n s t i t u t i o n s and i t s i n s t i t u t i o n a l a g e n c i e s i n the form of complex o r g a n i z a t i o n s down t h r o u g h s p e c i f i c o r g a n i z a t i o n s such as an e l e m e n t a r y s c h o o l and i t s f o r m a l and i n f o r m a l subgroups t o t h e i n d i v i d u a l l e v e l . In t h i s c h a i n o f s t i m u l u s s i t u a t i o n s the d i s c r e t e o r g a n i z a t i o n , which i s the f o c u s of t h i s s t u d y , may p l a y a s p e c i a l r o l e one which has so f a r ten d e d t o e l u d e the a t t e n t i o n o f r e -s e a r c h i n q u i r y as r e g a r d s p e r s o n a l v a l u e systems. I f the g e n e r a l h y p o t h e s i s i s c o r r e c t t h a t o r g a n i z a t i o n s qua o r g a n i z a t i o n s a r e d e t e r m i n a n t s of such v a l u e s t h e n the I m p l i c a t i o n s a r e o f c o n c e r n f o r s c h o o l s and f o r v a l u e -p r o p a g a t i n g i n s t i t u t i o n s g e n e r a l l y . i n s o f a r as the organ-i z a t i o n a l i n f l u e n c e may have l a t e n t or m a n i f e s t f u n c t i o n s 1 2 and d y s f u n c t i o n s , w i t h r e s p e c t t o d e c l a r e d v a l u e o b j e c -t i v e s or g o a l s . The p roblem o f " o r g a n i z a t i o n a l i m p r e s s " , o f the s p e c i a l c a p a c i t y of an o r g a n i z a t i o n t h r o u g h th e m o d a l i t -i e s o f i t s s t r u c t u r e and l e a d e r s h i p , t o a f f e c t p e r s o n a l v a l u e o r i e n t a t i o n s i s n o t , however, c o n f i n e d t o t h e edu-c a t i o n a l e s t a b l i s h m e n t . The l a r g e r p r o p o r t i o n o f a d u l t s who are members of the work f o r c e are a l s o members of o r g a n i z a t i o n s o f v a r y i n g d e g r e e s o f c o m p l e x i t y . These o r g a n i z a t i o n s command a s u f f i c i e n t l y l a r g e p r o p o r t i o n o f a member's t i m e , p r e s e n c e , and energy f o r the a s s u m p t i o n t o be r e a s o n a b l e t h a t t h e y form s i g n i f i c a n t " a n c h o r a g e s " or r e f e r e n c e complexes In the p s y c h o l o g i c a l l i f e o f the i n d i v i d u a l . In a g e n e r a l c u l t u r a l e n vironment t h e n , where l a r g e s c a l e o r g a n i z a t i o n i s p e r v a s i v e and where i n d i v i d u a l economic, s o c i a l , and c u l t u r a l e f f o r t t e nds t o be subsumed under o r g a n i z a t i o n a l a e g i s , i t would seem t o be o f some Importance t o i n i t i a t e , i n however t e n t a -t i v e and e x p l o r a t i v e a manner, i n q u i r y i n t o t h e n a t u r e o f such an e x c e e d i n g l y complex problem a r e a . 13 Assumptions and L i m i t a t i o n s , As sumpt i o n s The e s s e n t i a l i n i t i a l a s s u m p t i o n s made w i t h r e s -p e c t to v a l u e s a r e as f o l l o w s : 1. That t h e c o n c e p t o f v a l u e has meaning which i s not i m p e r v i o u s t o d i s c u s s i o n . 2. That v a l u e s , when o p e r a t i o n a l l y d e f i n e d , a r e amenable t o q u a n t i t a t i v e measurement. 3. That t h e r e i s a r e l a t i o n s h i p between v a l u e s and a t t i t u d e s . 4. That v a l u e s mediate ( a f f e c t and are a f f e c t e d by) p e r c e p t i o n s . 5. That a s i m u l t a n e o u s measure of v a l u e s and p e r c e p -t i o n s p e r m i t s s t a t i s t i c a l s t u d y of t h e i n t e r -r e l a t i o n s h i p s . w i t h r e s p e c t t o p e r c e p t i o n s and o r g a n i z a t i o n s : 6. That p e r c e p t i o n s o f b e h a v i o u r are me a s u r a b l e and q u a n t i f i a b l e . 7. That p e r c e p t i o n s o f b e h a v i o u r can be m e a n i n g f u l l y c l a s s i f i e d w i t h r e g a r d to s o c i a l i n t e r a c t i o n s w i t h i n an o r g a n i z a t i o n . 8. That such p e r c e p t i o n s can be o r d e r e d or compounded i n some manner so as to r e f l e c t the p s y c h o l o g i c a l 14 c l i m a t e of an o r g a n i z a t i o n . 9. That the r o l e s o f which o r g a n i z a t i o n s a r e composed can be c l a s s i f i e d i n terms o f a s t r u c t u r a l h i e r -a r c h y . w i t h r e s p e c t t o methodology: 10. That the H a l p i n OCDQ i n s t r u m e n t ( q . v . Ch.V) w i t h i t s v a l i d i t i e s and r e l i a b i l i t i e s as r e p o r t e d i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e i s an a p p l i c a b l e i n s t r u m e n t f o r t h e measurement o f p e r c e p t i o n s i n the c o n t e x t o f t h i s r e s e a r c h . 11. That th e S c o t t v a l u e m e a s u r i n g s c a l e s ( q . v . Ch.V) w i t h t h e i r v a l i d i t i e s and r e l i a b i l i t i e s as r e p o r t e d i n the l i t e r a t u r e are a p p l i c a b l e i n s t r u m e n t s f o r t h e measurement o f v a l u e s i n the c o n t e x t o f t h i s r e s e a r c h . 12. That e l e m e n t a r y s c h o o l s form s u i t a b l e o r g a n i z a -t i o n a l s i t u a t i o n s f o r the o b s e r v a t i o n of i n t e r a c t i o n between v a l u e s , p e r c e p t i o n s , and r o l e s . 13. That a random s a m p l i n g of such s c h o o l o r g a n i z a -t i o n s i n an urban a r e a i s a v a l i d mode of a s s e s s -i n g t y p i c a l measures f o r the p a r e n t p o p u l a t i o n . 14-. That an e x p l o r a t i v e i n v e s t i g a t i o n of q u a n t i t a t i v e d a t a can be s u p p o r t i v e of s p e c u l a t i v e q u a l i t a t i v e p r o p o s i t i o n s c o n t i n g e n t upon the d a t a . 15 L i m i t a t i o n s The s t u d y i s s u b j e c t t o a l l o f the l i m i t a t i o n s c u s t o m a r i l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h m u l t i v a r i a t e d a t a c o l l e c t e d i n the s a m p l i n g o f a c t u a l f i e l d s i t u a t i o n s . More s p e c i -f i c a l l y , t h e s e c o n s t r a i n t s can be s p e l l e d out as f o l l o w s : 1. A l i m i t a t i o n i s c r e a t e d by the l a c k o f f o r m a l t h e o r y s u f f i c i e n t l y r i g o r o u s t o p e r m i t t h e deduc-t i o n of s t r i n g e n t f o r m a l h y p o t h e s e s , hence, 2. The s t u d y i s t o a l a r g e e x t e n t t e n t a t i v e and e x p l o r a t i v e , and c o n s e q u e n t l y , 3. F i n d i n g s must be s u g g e s t i v e , p r o v i s i o n a l , i n d i c -a t i v e , r a t h e r t h a n a s s e r t i v e , i n c o n t e s t a b l e , i r -r e f r a g a b l e . 4. The extreme c o m p l e x i t y and m u l t i p l i c i t y of v a r i -a b l e s o p e r a t i n g w i t h i n any human s o c i a l s t i m u l u s s i t u a t i o n p r e c l u d e s c o n t r o l , and i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f , a l l m e d i a t i n g v a r i a b l e s t h e r e f o r e , 5. With some t w e n t y - f i v e v a r i a b l e s o n l y s e l e c t e d f o r a n a l y s i s the number and i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f m e d i a t -i n g v a r i a b l e s i s not known. 6. The stud y i s c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l r a t h e r t h an l o n g -i t u d i n a l w i t h the consequent advantages and d i s -advantages . 7. The i n s t r u m e n t s employed are s u b j e c t t o the 16 l i m i t a t i o n s and a ssumptions b u i l t I n t o t h e i r d e s i g n i n the i n i t i a l r e s e a r c h i n which t h e y were employed. 8. The s t u d y i s d e l i m i t e d by the range o f c o n t e x t u a l f a c t o r s . 9. V a r i a b l e c o n t r o l s are o f a s t a t i s t i c a l r a t h e r t h a n e x p e r i m e n t a l n a t u r e . 10. The key v a r i a b l e s s t u d i e d ( v a l u e s and p e r c e p t i o n s ) a r e s e m a n t i c a l l y complex and must be r e d u c e d by o p e r a t i n g d e f i n i t i o n f o r the p u r p o s e s of e m p i r i c a l t r e a t m e n t . 11. The s t u d y i s s u b j e c t t o the l i m i t a t i o n s imposed by d i s s e r t a t i o n r e q u i r e m e n t s and p r o c e d u r e . In view o f the f o r e g o i n g p r a c t i c a l l i m i t a t i o n s the s u b s t a n t i v e n a t u r e o f the c o n t r i b u t i o n must t e n d t o be c o n s t r i c t e d and I t s m e r i t t h e r e f o r e i s most p r o p e r l y t o be a s s e s s e d on the b a s i s o f i t s i n d i c a t i v e and sugges-t i v e q u a l i t y . T e r m i n o l o g y In g e n e r a l t h o s e terms which ar e o f c r i t i c a l im-p o r t a n c e t o t h e s t u d y are d i s c u s s e d at l e n g t h and d e f i n e d i n the p e r t i n e n t p a r t of the t e x t . C o n s e q u e n t l y , terms are f o r the, most p a r t g i v e n o n l y c u r s o r y d e f i n i t i o n below 17 w i t h the a p p r o p r i a t e r e f e r e n c e s t o t h e c o n t e x t b e i n g I n d i -c a t e d . Terms are l i s t e d a l p h a b e t i c a l l y . A t t i t u d e . A p r e d i s p o s i t i o n to a c t towards a r e f e r e n t i n a c o n s i s t e n t manner. ( C h . I I , V I I , pp. 35-39 , 269 ) C l i m a t e . P a t t e r n s o f p e r c e i v e d b e h a v i o u r w i t h i n an o r g a n i z a t i o n . (Ch.IV, p p . H 8 f f . ) C u l t u r e . Man-made e n v i r o n m e n t . ( C h . V I I , pp. 255). Ego. A p s y c h o l o g i c a l subsystem composed i n p a r t o f i n t e r -c o r r e l a t e d v a l u e s and a t t i t u d e s . ( C h . I I , pp.39 f f . ) Frame o f r e f e r e n c e . The p s y c h o l o g i c a l p a t t e r n o f i n f l u -ences t e n d i n g t o d e t e r m i n e b e h a v i o u r i n s p e c i f i c s i t u a t i o n s . ( C h . I I , V I I , pp.87f.) Group. A s o c i a l u n i t w i t h r e g u l a t o r y norms c o n s i s t i n g o f i n d i v i d u a l s w i t h s t a t u s and r o l e r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h r e s p e c t t o each o t h e r . ( C h . I I I , IV, pp. 83-98). H y p o t h e s i s . A c o n j e c t u r a l s t a t e m e n t o f the r e l a t i o n between two or more v a r i a b l e s . (Ch.V, pp.168-175.) I n t e r a c t i o n . B e h a v i o u r i n s o c i a l s i t u a t i o n s i n which i n d i v i d u a l s or groups p a r t i c i p a t e w i t h and r e a c t t o one a n o t h e r . ( C h . I I I , pp.70-98 .) L i f e Space. T o t a l i t y o f p h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l f a c t s d e t e r m i n -i n g b e h a v i o u r o f i n d i v i d u a l * at a g i v e n moment. (Ch. I I , pp.48-55 . ) 18 M o t i v e . A p s y c h o l o g i c a l d r i v e s t a t e . ( C h . I I , I I I , V I I , pp.30-34-, 212-256 ). Norm. S t a n d a r d i z e d g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s c o n c e r n i n g e x p e c t e d b e h a v i o u r i n m a t t e r s o f consequence t o a gro u p . ( C h . I I I , IV, pp.90-93.) O r g a n i z a t i o n s . S t r u c t u r e d u n i t s of groups or members d e s i g n e d t o a t t a i n g o a l s . (Ch.IV, pp.113-118.) R e f e r e n c e Group. A group t o which an i n d i v i d u a l r e l a t e s or a s p i r e s t o r e l a t e p s y c h o l o g i c a l l y . ( C h . I I I , p p . 8 7 f f . ) R o l e . E x p e c t e d b e h a v i o u r of group member w i t h i n t h e scheme of e s t a b l i s h e d group r e c i p r o c i t i e s . (Ch. IV, p p . l 4 6 f f . ) S o c i a l p s y c h o l o g y . The s c i e n t i f i c s t u d y o f t h e e x p e r i -ence and b e h a v i o u r of i n d i v i d u a l s i n r e l a t i o n t o s o c i a l s t i m u l u s s i t u a t i o n s . ( C h . I I I , V I I ) Theory. A c o l l e c t i o n o f p r o p o s i t i o n s or c o n c e p t s form-i n g a s y s t e m a t i c and e x p l a n a t o r y view o f phenom-ena. ( C h . V I I , pp. 275-276). V a l e n c e . V a l u e f a c t w i t h i n a l i f e s p a c e . ( C h . I I , pp. 4-8-55 . ) V a l u e . A c o n c e p t i o n of the d e s i r a b l e . ( C h . I I , pp. 63-68 .) 0the*r s i g n i f i c a n t t e r m i n o l o g y w i l l be d e f i n e d or e x p l a i n e d as the need a r i s e s i n the c o n t e x t o f the s t u d y . 19 P l a n T h i s c h a p t e r has d e s c r i b e d the s o u r c e s and o r i -g i n s o f the problem t o be s t u d i e d . The n a t u r e and m e r i t of the problem were d i s c u s s e d and t h e ass u m p t i o n s and l i m i t a t i o n s d e t a i l e d . A g l o s s a r y of e s s e n t i a l terms was p r e s e n t e d . C h a p t e r s I I t h r o u g h IV w i l l be g i v e n over t o d i s c u s s i o n o f the v a l u e c o n c e p t and i t s r e l a t i o n t o s o c i a l p e r c e p t i o n s and o r g a n i z a t i o n s . C h a p t e r s V and VI w i l l p r e s e n t an e m p i r i c a l s t u d y and the c o n c l u d i n g C h a p t e r V I I w i l l d e v e l o p the theme of i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r f u r t h e r r e -s e a r c h . 20 R e f e r e n c e s f o r C h a p t e r I Hyman, H. "The P s y c h o l o g y o f S t a t u s " A r c h i v e s o f Psycho-l o g y 1942 No.' 269. K a p l a n , A. The Conduct o f I n q u i r y . ' Methodology f o r B e h a v i o r a l S c i e n c e C h a n d l e r . San F r a n c i s c o , 1964, L u p i n ! , D. A Study o f the R e l a t i o n o f D i f f e r e n t i a l V a l u e s t o S o c i a l and A d m i n i s t r a t i v e I n t e r a c t i o n s unpub. Ph.D. d i s s e r t a t i o n . U. of A l b e r t a , 1965. Rokeach, M. "The Role o f V a l u e s i n P u b l i c O p i n i o n Re-s e a r c h " , unpub. paper g i v e n at American A s s o c . f o r P u b l i c O p i n i o n R e s e a r c h c o n v e n t i o n . Santa B a r b a r a , C a l i f . May, 1968. S c o t t , W.A. V a l u e s and O r g a n i z a t i o n s Rand M c N a l l y , C h i c a g o , 19 6 5. S h e r i f , M., and S h e r i f , C.W. An O u t l i n e o f S o c i a l P s y c h o l o g y Harper and Row, N.Y. r e v . e d . 1956. CHAPTER I I THE VALUE CONCEPT P h i l o s o p h i c a l C o n s i d e r a t i o n s The p h i l o s o p h i c a l d i s c o u r s e on v a l u e has been co n c e r n e d w i t h the achievement o f a number of d i s c r i m i n -a t i o n s . These would i n c l u d e t h e d i s t i n c t i o n o f v a l u e from f a c t , a d i s t i n c t i o n between the r e a l m o f v a l u e and the r e a l m o f m o r a l i t y , and a c l a r i f i c a t i o n of the sy n -t a c t i c a l n a t u r e of the v a l u e term. A l l o f t h e s e aven-ues of d i s c r i m i n a t i o n l e a d t o c o n t e s t a b l e and, on o c c a -s i o n , s h a r p l y p o l a r i z e d p o s i t i o n s and i t would be o v e r l y a m b i t i o u s to e x p l o r e any one w i t h i n the p r e s e n t c o n t e x t . I t may be w o r t h w h i l e however t o note some o f the d i s c u s -s i o n on v a l u e i n o r d e r t o c l a r i f y t h a t p a r t i c u l a r d e f i -n i t i o n and usage of the term " v a l u e " t o be u n d e r s t o o d i n t h i s s t u d y . An e f f o r t has sometimes been made, f o r example, to d i s t i n g u i ' s h v a l u e from f a c t . A ^ p a r t i c u l a r l y s t r o n g case i s made by H a l l (p. ^ 7^ and pas s im t h r o u g h e n t i r e 21 22 work) but c o u n t e r arguments a g a i n s t t h i s a t t i t u d e a r e r a i s e d by K a p l a n (pp. 384-387, 3 7 0 - 3 7 3 ) . 1 The q u e s t i o n has a l s o been l a b o u r e d as t o the ob-j e c t i v e or s u b j e c t i v e n a t u r e of v a l u e , i . e . whether v a l u e i s i n t r i n s i c i n the sense o f i n h e r i n g i n an o b j e c t i v e u n i v e r s e p r i o r t o s u b j e c t i v e o b s e r v a t i o n and e v a l u a t i o n of t h a t u n i v e r s e , or whether i t i s dependent upon a p e r -c e i v i n g and e v a l u a t i n g c o n s c i o u s n e s s and w i t h o u t an i n d e -pendent and communally v e r i f i a b l e n a t u r e . Is b e a u t y e n t i r e l y i n the eye of the b e h o l d e r o r , as F r o n d i z i p u t s i t ( p . 1 3 ) : "Do o b j e c t s p o s s e s s v a l u e because we d e s i r e them, or do we d e s i r e them because they p o s s e s s v a l u e ? Is d e s i r e , p l e a s u r e or i n t e r e s t t h a t which bestows v a l u e upon an o b j e c t , or c o n v e r s e l y , do we e x p e r i e n c e t h e s e p r e f e r e n c e s due t o t h e f a c t t h a t t h e o b j e c t s i n q u e s t i o n p o s s e s s a v a l u e which i s p r i o r and f o r e i g n t o our p s y c h o -l o g i c a l and o r g a n i c r e a c t i o n s ? " Posed t h i s way the ques-t i o n may h i n t a t or t e n d t o provoke a both-and l o g i c a l r e s p o n s e ( i . e . c l a i m i n g v a l u e t o be c o n t e x t u a l l y dependent "'"Although not i m m e d i a t e l y r e l e v a n t t o the p r e s e n t d i s c u s s i o n i t may a l s o be n o t e d t h a t the sharp d i v o r c e o f v a l u e from f a c t ( o f t e n r e f e r r e d t o i n t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e and o r g a n i z a t i o n a l l i t e r a t u r e as the i s - o u g h t dichotomy) i s s e v e r e l y a t t a c k e d by B r a ybrooke and L i n d b l o m (pp.6-12, 29-32, pa s s i m ) i n r e g a r d t o the s o c i a l p r o c e s s of p o l i c y -making. 23 and t h e r e f o r e b o t h s u b j e c t i v e and o b j e c t i v e ) or i t may-g i v e r i s e t o c h a r g e s o f f a l s e d i c h o t o m i z i n g but t h e s e r e a c t i o n s a l s o i m p l y a s u b j e c t i v i t y the s u b j e c t i v i t y o f an e v a l u a t i n g c o n s c i o u s n e s s In i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h i t s e n v i r o n m e n t a l f i e l d . I t i s i n f a c t not u n r e a s o n a b l e on t h i s i s s u e to concede a c e r t a i n g e n e r a l consensus c u r r e n t l y o b t a i n i n g on b e h a l f o f t h e s u b j e c t i v i s t as opposed t o the o b j e c t i v i s t s c h o o l . A c c o r d i n g t o F r o n d i z i , the former e n r o l s such p r o m i n e n t and d i v e r g e n t t h e o r i s t s as P e r r y , Carnap, Ayer and R u s s e l l w h i l e i n the o p p o s i t e camp S c h e l e r s t a n d s a l m o s t d e s e r t e d and a l o n e (pp.31-102) To b a l a n c e t h i s l i s t , however, t h e r e c o u l d be added o t h e r i m p o r t a n t o b j e c t i v i s t s , n o t a b l y Moore ( o p . c i t . ) a l t h o u g h i t i s u s u a l l y a l l o w e d t h a t the l a t t e r has adopted a p o s i t i o n which, i f not u n p l a u s i b l e , i s at l e a s t d i f f i c u l t t o d e f e n d . The s u b j e c t i v e - o b j e c t i v e c o n t r o v e r s y i s grammat-i c a l l y r e f l e c t e d i n t h e argument as t o the n o m i n a t i v e , v e r b a l or a d j e c t i v a l n a t u r e o f v a l u e . I t w i l l be our s i m p l e c o n t e n t i o n t h a t t h e term v a l u e can o c c u r i n any or a l l of t h e s e t h r e e s y n t a c t i c a l usages or c o n s t r u c -t i o n s , i t s meaning b e i n g d i s c e r n i b l e from and dependent upon i t s l i n g u i s t i c c o n t e x t . I t i s not p r o p o s e d t h e r e -f o r e t o make any e x p o s i t i o n of l i n g u i s t i c c o n t e n t i o n s 24 w i t h r e g a r d t o the term v a l u e . I t may be n o t e d , however, t h a t Dewey and o t h e r s have l a i d c o n s i d e r a b l e s t r e s s on the t r a n s i t i v e or v e r b a l n a t u r e o f t h e term: ... 'to v a l u e ' means two r a d i c a l l y d i f f e r e n t t h i n g s : t o p r i z e and t o a p p r a i s e ; t o esteem and t o e s t i m a t e : to f i n d good ... and t o judge i t t o be good . . . ... To f i n d a t h i n g good i s , I r e -p e a t , t o a t t r i b u t e or impute n o t h i n g t o i t . I t i s j u s t t o do something to i t . (Dewey, a, p.354, 359 ) The t e s t o f t h e e x i s t e n c e o f a v a l u -a t i o n and the n a t u r e of t h e l a t t e r i s a c t u a l b e h a v i o r as t h a t i s s u b j e c t to o b s e r v a t i o n . (Dewey, b, p.5 4) V a l u e s and M o r a l i t y The i d e a o f v a l u e which i s t o be adduced i n t h i s c h a p t e r i s one r e l a t e d to the phenomena o f d e s i r e and a v e r s i o n . M e ntion of t h i s now may s e r v e t o s t r e s s the well-known d i s t i n c t i o n between what i_s_ and what ought t o be. C o n f u s i o n between r i g h t and good i s compounded by the f a c i l i t y of a s s o c i a t i o n of the f o r m e r w i t h the m oral and the l a t t e r w i t h the p l e a s u r a b l e . Indeed, e t h i c s i t -s e l f i s c o n c e r n e d w i t h d i s c r i m i n a t i n g between the t e c h n i -c a l d i v i s i o n s o f d e o n t o l o g y and a x i o l o g y , t h e former r o u g h l y r e f e r r i n g t o q u e s t i o n s of duty and the f e l t sense 25 o f "ought" and the l a t t e r t o q u e s t i o n s of the good, the d e s i r a b l e and the d e s i r e d . "The s t u d y of e t h i c s has been p l a g u e d by some s p e c i a l t e r m i n o l o g i c a l d i f f i c u l t i e s . Sometimes t h e term 'moral' i s made t o be synonymous w i t h 'good'. In t h i s case the m o r a l i s opposed t o the im-mor a l o r bad. Sometimes the term 'moral' i s made t o be synonymous w i t h ' e t h i c a l ' , and i s t h e n opposed to the nonmoral, t h a t i s , t o i s s u e s which do not i n v o l v e c o n s i d -e r a t i o n s of good or bad at a l l . ' E t h i c s ' , ' m orals', and ' m o r a l i t y ' have f o r t h e most p a r t been used i n t e r c h a n g e -a b l y . Sometimes t h e s e terms are b e l i e v e d t o be c o e x t e n -s i v e . At o t h e r t i m e s the term ' m o r a l i t y ' i s used to a p p l y to a s p e c i a l s u b c l a s s of e t h i c a l d a t a c o n s i s t i n g o f s o c i a l customs and norms...." ( S h i r k , p.75) One en-2 c o u n t e r s the p h r a s e 'moral v a l u e s ' even i n such s c h o l -a r l y work as t h a t o f Mukerjee (p.67) and Ewing ( p . 5 4 ) . The d i f f i c u l t i e s o f c l a r i f y i n g the c o n c e p t o f m o r a l i t y t h e r e f o r e are s e v e r e ( e . g . c f W i l s o n e t a l . pp.44-102) but t h e y need not be e n t e r e d i n t o h e r e . I t s u f f i c e s t o note t h a t the con c e p t o f v a l u e t o be d e v e l o p e d and used i n t h i s study may i n c l u d e such c a t e g o r i e s (e_-g_-2 The w r i t e r xs i n d e b t e d t o P r o f e s s o r D. Brown o f the P h i l o s o p h y Department o f the U n i v e r s i t y o f B.C. f o r a c c e s s to an u n p u b l i s h e d paper c l a r i f y i n g the d i s t i n c t i o n between m o r a l i t y and v a l u e s . K i n d n e s s , Honesty) as might o t h e r w i s e " m o r a l " h e a d i n g s . One f u r t h e r p o i n t made . N o n - p r e s c r i p t i v e Nature o f the Study The s t u d y i s n o n - p r e s c r i p t i v e . That i s , though i t d e a l s w i t h v a l u e s , some of which c o u l d p o s s i b l y be i n t e r p r e t e d as h a v i n g t o do w i t h m o r a l i t y , t h e r e i s no i n t e n t or attempt t o j u s t i f y norms, make v a l u e judgments, or p r e s c r i b e " o u g h t s " . T h i s s t a t e m e n t i s not i n t e n d e d however t o d e t r a c t from t h a t p e r v a s i v e and f u n d a m e n t a l r e l e v a n c e o f e t h i c s and a e s t h e t i c s t o the t o p i c which f o l l o w s d i r e c t l y from th e i n t i m a t e c o n n e c t i o n o b t a i n i n g between v a l u e s and m o r a l i t y . P s y c h o l o g i c a l A s p e c t s Approaches t o D e f i n i t i o n The more p s y c h o l o g i c a l a p p roach to d e f i n i t i o n o f the concept may be i l l u s t r a t e d , and i t s f l a v o u r sampled, by c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f some e a r l y f o r m u l a t i o n s by p s y c h o -l o g i s t s : The term v a l u e 'has two v e r y d i f f e r e n t s e n s e s . In the former i t i s s i m p l y the a f f e c t i v e or f e e l i n g a s p e c t o f e x p e r i e n c e ... I s h a l l c a l l t h i s p r i m a r y v a l u e . ( W i l l i a m s , p . 5 ) be c l a s s i f i e d under t h e r e f o r e must be 27 ... a v a l u e i s t h u s s i m p l y the m a i n t e n -ance of a s e t toward the a t t a i n m e n t o f a g o a l ... (Murphy, p.199) O r d i n a r i l y a t t i t u d e s h o u l d be employed when the d i s p o s i t i o n i s bound t o an ob-j e c t or v a l u e , t h a t i s t o say, when i t i s a r o u s e d by a w e l l - d e f i n e d c l a s s of s t i m u l i , and when the i n d i v i d u a l f e e l s towards t h e s e s t i m u l i a d e f i n i t e a t t r a c -o t x o n or r e p u l s i o n . ( A l l p o r t , p.294) ... any v a l u e i s b o t h a d r i v e and the c o n d i t i o n i n h e r e n t i n the d r i v e which we c a l l the v a l u e - f e e l i n g . There i s i n any case o f p o s i t i v e v a l u i n g a d r i v e and a f e e l i n g . They v a r y i n i n t e n s i t y i n r e l a t i o n t o each o t h e r , but they are always i n t e g r a l l y r e l a t e d and one does not appear w i t h o u t the o t h e r . (Raup, p.179) In A S t u d e n t ' s D i c t i o n a r y of P s y c h o l o g i c a l Terms v a l u e i s d e f i n e d as " t h a t which makes o b j e c t s d e s i r e d or d e s i r a b l e or t o be sought a f t e r ; worth. Though g e n e r a l l y a s c r i b e d t o the o b j e c t , c l e a r l y the v a l u e depends r a t h e r on the r e l a t i o n between the v a l u e r and the v a l u e d o b j e c t " . In g e n e r a l t h e emphasis on a f f e c t or f e e l i n g i s p e r s i s t e n t . I t i s m a n i f e s t , to g i v e a contemporary example, i n the d i f f i c u l t i e s Smith, Bruner and White (p.36) have w i t h the term: No-attempt i s b e i n g made at d i s t i n c t i o n between a t t i t u d e s and v a l u e s i n t h e s e i l l u s t r a t i o n s but see below p. 35f. 28 Obj e c t v a l u e . Here we r e f e r t o the a f f e c t i v e tone o f an o b j e c t . We had c o n s i d e r e d the term ' o b j e c t a f f e c t ' , our c h o i c e o f ' v a l u e ' b e i n g d i c t a t e d p r i m a r i l y by the i m p o r t a n c e o f v a l u e i n the sense of p o s i t i v e , n e g a t i v e , and n e u t r a l . For the f i r s t t h i n g we u s u a l l y ask about the o b j e c t o f a p e r s o n ' s s e n t i m e n t i s whether i t ap-pe a r s as d i s a g r e e a b l e , p l e a s a n t , or n e u t r a l .... A member o f the p s y c h o a n a l y t i c s c h o o l , Fromm, appear s t o beg the q u e s t i o n o f d e f i n i t i o n w h i l e s t r e s s i n g the phen-o m e n o l o g i c a l c h a r a c t e r of v a l u e : "The t h e s i s i s t h a t v a l u e s are r o o t e d i n the v e r y c o n d i t i o n s o f human e x i s -t e n c e ; hence t h a t our knowledge of t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s , t h a t i s , of the 'human s i t u a t i o n ' , l e a d s us t o e s t a b l i s h -i n g v a l u e s which have o b j e c t i v e v a l i d i t y ; t h i s v a l i d i t y e x i s t s o n l y w i t h r e g a r d t o the e x i s t e n c e o f man; o u t s i d e o f him t h e r e are no v a l u e s " . ( i n Maslow, a, p.151) Indeed, any s e a r c h f o r p r e c i s i o n of d e f i n i t i o n becomes i n c r e a s i n g l y d i f f i c u l t i n the p s y c h o l o g i c a l l i t e r a t u r e because o f a tendency t o move f r e e l y between cognate and r e l a t e d terms such as a t t i t u d e s , s e n t i m e n t s , b e l i e f s , e t c . ( i n f r a p . 3 5 f f ) . T h i s usage extends to s o c i a l p s y c h o -l o g i s t s a l t h o u g h H a r d i n g (p.57) attempts a d e n o t a t i v e d e f i n i t i o n : 29 By t h e i r ' v a l u e s ' I mean, f o r p s y c h o -l o g i c a l p u r p o s e s , t h e i r d e s i r e s and p r e f e r e n c e s , t h e s e , of c o u r s e , b e i n g o r g a n i z e d i n s y s t e m s , and t o some ex-t e n t h i e r a r c h i e s , o f v a r y i n g d e g r e e s of c o m p l e x i t y and c o h e r e n c e i n d i f -f e r e n t p e o p l e . In l o o k i n g a t one a s p e c t of t h e s e systems of p r e f e r e n c e we can speak o f ' i n t e r e s t s ' , r e f e r r i n g t o the d i r e c t i o n s i n which an I n d i v i d -u a l i s r e a d y t o be r e s p o n s i v e , and a l l the d i s c r i m i n a t i v e a b i l i t y , s k i l l s , i n f o r m a t i o n and o t h e r equipment t h a t he has g a t h e r e d i n the c o u r s e of ex-p l o r i n g each o f t h e s e d i r e c t i o n s of r e s p o n s e .... H a r d i n g a l s o throws some l i g h t on at l e a s t one b o r d e r l i n e between ( s o c i a l ) p s y c h o l o g y and p h i l o s o p h y and l e n d s some s u p p o r t t o the p o s i t i o n t a k e n thus f a r i n the argument: Faced w i t h t h e s e p s y c h o l o g i c a l problems we may be i n c l i n e d t o t u r n a s i d e i n t o e t h i c s , a e s t h e t i c s , s o c i a l p h i l o s o p h y and p o l i t i c a l s c i e n c e . F o r s o c i a l p s y c h o l o g i s t s t h i s i s a t e m p t a t i o n t o be r e s i s t e d , however v a l i d an under-t a k i n g f o r t h o s e w i t h the a p p r o p r i a t e I n t e r e s t s and q u a l i f i c a t i o n s . The t a r g e t f o r us i s the l a r g e p s y c h o l o g -i c a l element i n t h e q u e s t i o n s ; ^ our c o n c e r n i s w i t h the p s y c h o l o g i c a l p r o -c e s s e s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h c h o i c e s and e v a l u a t i o n s . Whether th e y - i n v o l v e value, 'judgements' may be l e f t t o p h i l o s o p h e r s t o d i s p u t e and, we may hope, d e c i d e .... ( H a r d i n g , p.158) The problems and q u e s t i o n s r e f e r r e d t o i n t h i s passage are t h o s e c o n c e r n e d w i t h the r e l a t i o n s h i p between the average*masses, i n terms of a p t i t u d e s , s k i l l s , p o t e n -t i a l s , t a s t e e t c . , and e l i t e , s p e c i a l l y g i f t e d m i n o r i t i e s 30 The R e l a t i o n t o M o t i v e s I t Is d i f f i c u l t t o d i s t i n g u i s h between m o t i v e s and v a l u e s i n any c l e a r or e n t i r e l y s a t i s f a c t o r y s e n s e . S c o t t attempts t o draw t h i s d i s t i n c t i o n but i f v a l u e s a r e , as he c l a i m s , a s u b s e t of m o t i v e s t h e n t h e y r e m a i n d i f f i c u l t t o d i s c r i m i n a t e w i t h i n the s u b s u m p t i o n , Though v a l u e s have g o a l - d i r e c t i n g and g o a l - s e t t i n g p r o p e r t i e s and, hence, may be c o n s i d e r e d as a s u b - c l a s s o f m o t i v a t i o n a l c o n s t r u c t s , t h e y may be t h e o r e t i c a l l y d i s t i n g u i s h e d from o t h e r t y p e s o f m o t i v e s on the b a s i s o f t h e p e r s o n ' s own view of them. He r e -gards a v a l u e as i n h e r e n t l y d e s i r a b l e ; not o n l y does he f e e l p o s i t i v e l y toward i t , but he b e l i e v e s t h a t o t h e r p e o p l e s h o u l d f e e l s i m i l a r l y , because v a l u a b l e -ness i n h e r e s i n the s t a t e o f a f f a i r s e n v i s a g e d . Thus, th e d i s t i n c t i o n be-tween a motive and a v a l u e c o r r e s p o n d s to the d i s t i n c t i o n between t h a t which i s d e s i r e d , or needed, and t h a t which i s deemed d e s i r a b l e the l a t t e r b e i n g a s u b - c l a s s of the f o r m e r . ( S c o t t , p.12) That S c o t t i s a t t e m p t i n g t o l i n k the m o t i v a t i o n c o n c e p t w i t h the "good" or d e s i r e d and v a l u e c o n c e p t w i t h the "ought" or d e s i r a b l e i s c l e a r from h i s f o l l o w i n g p o i n t s ( S c o t t , p.11 -- S c o t t ' s numbering): 1. A m otive r e f e r s t o a phenomenologic-a l l y o p t i o n a l g o a l and has the sub-j e c t i v e c o u n t e r p a r t : 'I want t o a c t t h i s way'. A v a l u e r e f e r s to a p h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l l y a b s o l u t e g o a l and has the s u b j e c t i v e c o u n t e r p a r t : 'I ought to a c t t h i s way'. 31 3. A p e r s o n w i t h a v a l u e wants o t h e r p e o p l e t o s h a r e i n the g o a l - o r i e n t e d a c t i v i t y ; a p e r s o n w i t h a n o n - v a l u e motive ( e . g . f o r f o o d or power) does not n e c e s s a r i l y f e e l a d e s i r e f o r such c o - o r i e n t a t i o n ; he may even w i s h t h a t o t h e r s not s h a r e h i s g o a l . 4. A p e r s o n w i l l blame o t h e r s f o r f a i l -u re t o s t r i v e toward a v a l u e d s t a t e , but w i l l not blame them f o r f a i l u r e to s t r i v e toward the o b j e c t o f a m o t i v e . 5. One w i l l f e e l m o r a l r i g h t e o u s n e s s as a consequence o f v a l u e a t t a i n m e n t (or s t r i v i n g ) , and p l e a s u r e as a con-sequence o f m o t i v e s a t i s f a c t i o n . 6. One w i l l f e e l g u i l t ( o r s e l f - a b a s e -ment) f o r f a i l i n g t o s t r i v e toward a v a l u e , and f r u s t r a t i o n f o r f a i l i n g to a t t a i n o t h e r m o t i v e - g o a l s . 7. A v a l u e w i l l be p u b l i c l y a p p e a l e d to as j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r one's a c t i o n ; an a t t i t u d e or m otive w i l l u s u a l l y not command such l e g i t i m a c y . ( S c o t t , p.11) I t would seem, however, somewhat more p a r s i m o n i o u s t o e x p l a i n a l l o f t h e above p o i n t s on the grounds o f s i m u l -t a n e o u s l y c o n t e n d i n g v a l u e s or m o t i v e s , or by s i m p l e con-f l i c t between h i g h e r and lower m o t i v a t i o n , the h i g h - l o w continuum r e f e r r i n g to a s t a n d a r d or e t h i c a l v a l u e -judgment. A more u s e f u l d i s t i n c t i o n seems to be t h a t o f f e r e d by Friedman ( p . 2 ) : The word v a l u e s , however, Is b e i n g sub-s t i t u t e d f o r the word m o t i v a t i o n s , not t h a t the two terms are c o m p l e t e l y syn-onymous , but because i n a v e r y r e a l sense one may say t h a t our v a l u e s are our m o t i v a t i o n s . The l o c a t i o n o f v a l u e s t h e n becomes the l o c a t i o n of 32 m o t i v e s , w i t h t h i s d i f f e r e n c e . M o t i v e s are u s u a l l y t h o u g h t o f as f u n c t i o n i n g w i t h r e s p e c t t o some p a r t i c u l a r s i t u a -t i o n . V a l u e s can be ' c a r r i e d a r o u n d ' ; t h e y become p a r t of the p e r s o n . When s t r o n g enough, t h e y cannot be d i f f e r e n -t i a t e d from the s e l f ; t h e y are what makes up t h e s e l f .... A s t r o n g case i s made f o r a d i r e c t , n a t u r a l i s t i c r e l a t i o n s h i p between v a l u e s and needs by Maslow: My t h e s i s i s , t h e n : we can, i n p r i n -c i p l e , have a d e s c r i p t i v e , n a t u r a l -i s t i c s c i e n c e of human v a l u e s ; t h a t the a g e - o l d m u t u a l l y e x c l u s i v e con-t r a s t between 'what i s ' and 'what ought t o be' i s i n p a r t a f a l s e one; t h a t we can s t u d y the h i g h e s t v a l u e s or g o a l s of human b e i n g s as we s t u d y t h e v a l u e s of a n t s or h o r s e s or oak t r e e s , o r , f o r t h a t m a t t e r , M a r t i a n s . We can d i s c o v e r ( r a t h e r t han c r e a t e or I n v e n t ) which v a l u e s men t r e n d toward, y e a r n f o r , s t r u g g l e f o r , as t h e y improve t h e m s e l v e s , and which v a l u e s t h e y l o s e as t h e y get s i c k . (Maslow,' b , p .157 ) ... Some v a l u e s are common t o a l l ( h e a l t h y ) mankind, but a l s o some o t h e r v a l u e s w i l l not be common t o a l l mankind, but o n l y t o some t y p e s of p e o p l e , or to s p e c i f i c i n d i v i d -u a l s . What I have c a l l e d the b a s i c needs a r e p r o b a b l y common t o a l l mankind and are t h e r e f o r e s h a r e d v a l u e s . But i d i o s y n c r a t i c needs g e n e r a t e i d i o s y n c r a t i c v a l u e s . C o n s t i t u t i o n a l d i f f e r e n c e s i n i n d i v i d u a l s g e n e r a t e p r e f e r e n c e s among ways of r e l a t i n g to s e l f , and t o c u l t u r e and t o the w o r l d , i _ . e_. , g e n e r a t e v a l u e s .... (Maslow, a ; p.122) 33 As f o r m o t i v e s qua m o t i v e s Murray can be quoted as a u t h o r i t y : I t i s c l e a r t h a t d i f f e r e n t t h e o r i s t s have d i f f e r e n t c o n c e p t i o n s about m o t i v a t i o n . N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e r e i s g e n e r a l agreement t h a t a m o t i v e i s an i n t e r n a l f a c t o r t h a t a r o u s e s , d i r e c t s , and i n t e g r a t e s a p e r -son's b e h a v i o r . I t Is not o b s e r v e d d i r e c t l y but i n f e r r e d from h i s b e h a v i o r or s i m p l y assumed to e x i s t i n o r d e r t o e x p l a i n h i s b e h a v i o r . M o t i v a t i o n i s d i s t i n g u i s h e d from o t h e r f a c t o r s t h a t a l s o i n f l u e n c e b e h a v i o r , such as the p a s t e x p e r i e n c e o f the p e r s o n , h i s p h y s i c a l c a p a b i l i t i e s , and the e n v i r o n m e n t a l s i t u -a t i o n i n which he f i n d s h i m s e l f , a l t h o u g h t h e s e o t h e r f a c t o r s may i n f l u e n c e m o t i v a -t i o n . (Murray , p. 7 ) The c o n v e r g e n c e o f the c o n c e p t s o f v a l u e and m o t i v a t i o n b e i n g so c l o s e ( c f . i n p h i l o s o p h y , S c h l i c k , " I f t h e r e were no p l e a s u r e and p a i n i n the w o r l d t h e r e would be no v a l u e s " , p.120) i t would seem r e a s o n a b l e t o r e t a i n the c l o s e c o n n e c t i o n i n d e v e l o p i n g a w o r k i n g d e f -i n i t i o n . Indeed, f o r the p u r p o s e s o f t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n , v a l u e s can be c o n s i d e r e d as p o t e n t i a l m o t i v e s . A s t a t e o f hunger and i t s consequent m o t i v a t i o n a l d r i v e w i l l t e n d t o cause a s u b j e c t t o v a l u e f o o d but t h a t v a l u a t i o n can be s u b j u g a t e d to o t h e r p h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l l y contemporaneous m o t i v a t i o n s such a s , say, a r e l i g i o u s p r a c t i c e of f a s t i n g , or a d e s i r e , t o l o s e w e i g h t . In t h i s sense when an i n t r a -p e r s o n a l d i a l e c t i c a l t e n s i o n e x i s t s between v a l u e s the 34 usage h i g h - l e v e l and l o w - l e v e l m o t i v a t i o n a p p l i e s r e s p e c -t i v e l y t o the "ought" and the " o u g h t - n o t " c o n t e n d i n g v a l u e s . The i n t i m a t e r e l a t i o n o f m o t i v e s t o v a l u e s i s acknowledged and w i l l be f u r t h e r e x p l i c a t e d and commented upon i n t h e f i n a l c h a p t e r . Meanwhile, d i s c u s s i o n on t h i s p o i n t i s n e a t l y summed up by Kluckhohn i n t h e f o l l o w i n g p a r a g r a p h : With many o l d e r p e o p l e , as has o f t e n been remarked, the sharp c o n t r a s t be-tween wish and duty tends t o become o b l i t e r a t e d . Only i n the e x c e p t i o n a l p e r s o n a l i t y , however, i s the C o n f u c i a n s t a t e r e a c h e d i n which 'you want t o do what you have t o do and have t o do what you want t o do'. V a l u e s and m o t i v a -t i o n are l i n k e d , but o n l y r a r e l y do they c o i n c i d e c o m p l e t e l y . V a l u e s are o n l y an element i n m o t i v a t i o n and i n d e t e r m i n i n g a c t i o n ; t h e y i n v a r i a b l y have i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r m o t i v a t i o n be-cause a s t a n d a r d i s not a v a l u e u n l e s s i n t e r n a l i z e d . O f t e n , however, t h e s e i m p l i c a t i o n s a r e i n t h e n a t u r e o f i n t e r -f e r e n c e w i t h m o t i v a t i o n c o n c e i v e d i n immediate and p u r e l y p e r s o n a l terms. When t h e r e i s commitment t o a v a l u e — and t h e r e i s no v a l u e w i t h o u t some com-mitment -- i t s a c t u a l i z a t i o n i s i n some sense and t o some degree "wanted"; but i t i s wanted o n l y t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t i t i s a p p r o v e d . D e s i r a b i l i t y and d e s i r e d -ness a r e b o t h i n v o l v e d i n the i n t e r n a l i n t e g r a t i o n of the m o t i v a t i o n a l system. But v a l u e s c a n a l i z e m o t i v a t i o n . T h i s i s what has happened i n the case of o l d p e o p l e whose p e r s o n a l i t i e s are both w e l l a d j u s t e d and i n t e r n a l l y harmonious. ( K l u c k h o h n , p.400) 35 A t t i t u d e s A n other i n t i m a t e r e l a t i o n s h i p and d i f f i c u l t d i s -c r i m i n a t i o n i s t h a t o b t a i n i n g between v a l u e s and a t t i t u d -es . The l a t t e r can be f o r m a l l y d e f i n e d as f o l l o w s : "An a t t i t u d e i s an o r g a n i z e d and c o n s i s t e n t manner of t h i n k i n g , f e e l i n g , and r e a c t i n g w i t h r e g a r d t o p e o p l e , g r o u p s , s o c i a l i s s u e s , o r , more g e n e r a l l y , any event i n one's e n v i r o n m e n t . I t s e s s e n t i a l components a r e t h o u g h t s and b e l i e f s , f e e l i n g s ( o r e m o t i o n s ) , and t e n d e n c i e s t o r e a c t . ..." (Lambert, p. 50) The a u t h o r s o f t h i s q u o t a -t i o n e i t h e r a v o i d or f a i l t o f i n d need t o employ the term v a l u e i n t h e i r work (Lambert) but the i n t e r m u t a t i o n s of v a l u e and a t t i t u d e can be o b s e r v e d i n the i n t e n s i v e s t u d y of o p i n i o n s and p e r s o n a l i t y made by Smith, Bruner and White. Thus, under the h e a d i n g , " L a n l i n ' s V a l u e s " one f i n d s , " L a n l i n ' s a t t i t u d e s toward R u s s i a and Communism f i t t e d i n t o a b r o a d e r system of v a l u e s and a t t i t u d e s which must be u n d e r s t o o d b e f o r e we can f u l l y a p p r e c i a t e why he r e a c t e d as he d i d t o the S o v i e t system". (Smith et a l , p.116) and l a t e r , under " S u l l i v a n ' s V a l u e s " , " S u l l i v a n ' s a t t i t u d e s toward R u s s i a were p a r t and p a r c e l o f h i s v e r s i o n o f the Communist w o r l d view. We a p p roach h i s o p i n i o n s about the S o v i e t s t a t e as he h i m s e l f would wish by f i r s t e xamining i n o u t l i n e the main f e a t u r e s of 36 h i s i d e o l o g y and v a l u e system". ( i b i d . p.156) S c o t t ( s u p r a ) has c o n s i d e r e d v a l u e s as b e i n g s u b s e t s of a t t i -t u d e s and he comments as f o l l o w s : Though p s y c h o l o g i c a l t h e o r i s t s are by no means ag r e e d on the m a t t e r , i t may be u s e f u l t o c o n s i d e r a t t i t u d e s a l s o as a s p e c i a l c l a s s of m o t i v a t i o n a l c o n s t r u c t s , which r e p r e s e n t the way an o r g a n i s m f e e l s about an o b j e c t -- whether he d e s i r e s to d e c r e a s e or i n c r e a s e h i s p s y c h o l o g i c a l d i s t a n c e from i t . A t t i t u d e s are m o t i -v a t i n g , but sc are o t h e r non-phenomeno-l o g i c a l s t a t e s o f the p e r s o n such as t i s s u e needs, i d e n t i f i c a t i o n s , and d e f e n s e mechanisms. V a l u e s are d i s -t i n g u i s h a b l e from o t h e r a t t i t u d e s (1) by the h o s t ' s view of them as a b s o l u t e and i n h e r e n t i n the o b j e c t and (2) by the h o s t ' s t r e a t i n g them as r e f e r r i n g t o u l t i m a t e ends, r a t h e r than as the ap-p r a i s a l o f means t o t h e s e ends. (Many a t t i t u d e s may, o f c o u r s e , be h e l d w i t h -out an e x p l i c i t means-end r e l a t i o n s h i p i n mind; but most o f them can at l e a s t be r a t i o n a l i z e d by t h e i r h o s t on the b a s i s of presumed r e l e v a n c e of the f o c a l o b j e c t f o r h i s v a l u e s ; the v a l u e s themselves- are not f u r t h e r j u s t i -f i e d , but s i m p l y r e g a r d e d as good f o r t h e i r own sakes . ( S c o t t , p.12) Kluckhohn et a l , i n a m u l t i - d i s c i p l i n a r y approach t o the problem, o f f e r a d e f i n i t i o n o f v a l u e which i s en-t i r e l y c o n c o r d a n t w i t h t h a t e l u d e s w i t h i n i t c o g n i t i v e , ments and runs as f o l l o w s : b e i n g adduced h e r e . I t i n -a f f e c t i v e , and c o n a t i v e e l e -"A v a l u e i s a c o n c e p t i o n , e x p l i c i t or' i m p l i c i t , d i s t i n c t i v e o-f an i n d i v i d u a l or c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of a group, of the d e s i r a b l e which i n f l u -ences the s e l e c t i o n from a v a i l a b l e modes, means, and ends 3 7 of a c t i o n " . ( K l u c k h o h n , p. 395 ) L a t e r ( i b i d , p . 4 0 0 ) , t h e s e a u t h o r s seem t o make a d i s t i n c t i o n from a t t i t u d e by s a y i n g , " ... I f t h e r a t i o n a l element i s o m i t t e d , [ f r o m d e f i n i t i o n of v a l u e ] we are l e f t w i t h something not v e r y d i f f e r e n t from ' a t t i t u d e ' or ' s e n t i m e n t ' .... " T h i s f a l l s s h o r t o f c l e a r d i s t i n c t i o n , however, and would seem to r e l a t e the a t t i t u d e c o n c e p t t o o c l o s e l y t o s i m p l e f e e l i n g . L a t e r a g a i n ( i b i d . p. 423) t h e a u t h o r s , w i t h d i r e c t r e f e r e n c e t o p s y c h o l o g y , s t a t e : I f one f o l l o w s A l l p o r t ' s c l a s s i c d e f i n -i t i o n o f a t t i t u d e -- 'a m e n t a l and n e u r a l s t a t e of r e a d i n e s s , o r g a n i z e d t h r o u g h e x p e r i e n c e , e x e r t i n g a d i r e c t i v e or dynamic i n f l u e n c e upon the i n d i v i d -u a l ' s r e s p o n s e t o a l l o b j e c t s and s i t u -a t i o n s w i t h which i t i s r e l a t e d ' -- t h e p r i n c i p l e d i f f e r e n c e s from v a l u e a r e : (a) e x c l u s i v e r e f e r a b i l i t y t o t h e i n d i v i d u a l , and (b) absence o f imputa-t i o n of the " d e s i r a b l e " . There would be a c e r t a i n c o n v e n i e n c e I f Woodruff's d e f i n i t i o n of a t t i t u d e s as 'momentary and temporary s t a t e s o f r e a d i n e s s to a c t ' were a c c e p t e d , f o r t h e n v a l u e s and a t t i t u d e s would be c o n t r a s t e d i n the time d i m e n s i o n and the i n f l u e n c e of v a l u e s on a t t i t u d e s c o u l d be more r e a d i l y e x p l o r e d . The c o n t i n u o u s commergence i n the l i t e r a t u r e o f the con-cept of v a l u e w i t h the Ideas of both m o t i v a t i o n and a t t i -t u d e s i s f u r t h e r r e v e a l e d i n t h e s u r v e y of the e m p i r i c a l work on o p i n i o n change by H o v l a n d , J a n i s , and K e l l e y where i t i s s t a t e d , " ... But w h i l e t h e term ' o p i n i o n ' w i l l be used t o d e s i g n a t e a b r o a d c l a s s of a n t i c i p a t i o n 38 and e x p e c t a t i o n s , the term ' a t t i t u d e ' w i l l be used ex-c l u s i v e l y f o r t h o s e i m p l i c i t r e s p o n s e s which are o r i e n t e d toward a p p r o a c h i n g or a v o i d i n g a g i v e n o b j e c t , p e r s o n , group, or symbol. T h i s may be i n t e r p r e t e d as meaning t h a t a t t i t u d e s p o s s e s s ' d r i v e v a l u e ' " . ( H o v l a n d e t a l , p.7) The d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n which i s b e i n g sought i s one such t h a t w h i l e v a l u e s always form a n e c e s s a r y component, and t h e r e f o r e d e t e r m i n a n t , of a t t i t u d e s the l a t t e r r e f e r t o a more d i f f u s e a s p e c t o f the p e r s o n a l i t y and e x i s t , as i t were, w i t h i n a more o v e r t and d i s c e r n i b l e s e c t o r o f the f i e l d o f i n t e r a c t i o n between psyche and e n v i r o n m e n t . T h i s w i l l be e l a b o r a t e d upon i n the t h e o r y s e t out below (pp.55-63 ). At t h i s p o i n t i t may be s u f f i c i e n t t o i n d i -c a t e t h a t v a l u e s a r e b e i n g t h o u g h t o f as c l o s e r t o the s e l f and a t t i t u d e s as c l o s e r t o the e n v i r o n m e n t ; the f ormer more p h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l , the l a t t e r more phenomenal. But the d i s t i n c t i o n , as w i t h t h a t o f m o t i v e s , tends t o become p r o t e a n and s u b t l e and, much as one might d e s i r e i n the i n t e r e s t s o f f o r m a l and l o g i c a l e x a c t i t u d e a p r e -c i s e d e l i n e a t i o n o f f r o n t i e r s between the s e v e r a l concep-t i o n s , i t must be conceded t h a t such d e f i n i t i o n i s u nat-t a i n a b l e i f a b s t r a c t i o n i s not t o be c a r r i e d to the l i m i t s o f a d i v o r c e from i t s e m p i r i c a l a n d . p s y c h o l o g i c a l r e f e r e n t s . 39 The f o r e g o i n g d i s c u s s i o n s h o u l d a l s o have c o n s i s -t e n t l y p o i n t e d to the c o n n e c t i o n between the v a l u e c o n c e p t and t h a t p s y c h o l o g i c a l o r g a n i z i n g p r i n c i p l e the l i n g u i s t i c i n d i c a n t s of which are f o u n d i n such terms as the s e l f , p e r s o n a l i t y , I , ego, the s u b j e c t . The e x p e r i e n c e o f v a l u e and the s u b j e c t o f t h a t e x p e r i e n c e a r e so i n t i m a t e l y j u x t a p o s e d t h a t a c o n s i d e r a t i o n of p e r s o n a l i t y t h e o r y i s i n t e n s e l y r e l e v a n t t o any e l u c i d a t i o n o f the v a l u e con-c e p t . F a c t o r - A n a l y t i c Approaches The p r i n c i p l e o f s t a t i s t i c a l f a c t o r a n a l y s i s can be u n d e r s t o o d , at a n o n - t e c h n i c a l l e v e l , as a p r i n c i p l e of p a r s i m o n y . I t i s used i n the s e a r c h f o r a r e d u c t i v e e x p l a n a t i o n o f q u a n t i t a t i v e v a r i a t i o n . I t i s an e v o l u -t i o n from the i d e a of r e g r e s s i o n w h e r e i n b e s t r e l a t i o n -s h i p s ( i n the c o n v e n t i o n a l sense of l e a s t s q u a r e s ) are sought between dependent and i n d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e s i n t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l s p a c e . With n v a r i a b l e s In n - d i m e n s i o n -a l space f a c t o r - a n a l y t i c t e c h n i q u e s o f c a l c u l a t i o n can be employed to i s o l a t e from the complex of v a r i a b l e s s m a l l e r numbers of f a c t o r s to a c count f o r as much as p o s s i b l e o f the v a r i a t i o n ( Y u l e and K e n d a l l , p.323 ; G u i l f o r d , Chap.16) That t h e s e t e c h n i q u e s may be e x t r e m e l y s o p h i s t i c a t e d i n a m a t h e m a t i c a l sense need not o bscure the f a c t t h a t t h e y are 40 p o w e r f u l i n s t r u m e n t s f o r c o p i n g w i t h complex masses of q u a n t i t a t i v e , m u l t i v a r i a t e d a t a . The p r i n c i p a l expon-ent of f a c t o r - a n a l y t i c t e c h n i q u e In the f i e l d of p e r s o n -a l i t y t h e o r y and i n v e s t i g a t i o n i s Raymond B. C a t t e l l . C a t t e l l I f the i d e a of p e r s o n a l i t y i s a p p r o a c h e d t h r o u g h the o b s e r v a t i o n and c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f b e h a v i o u r a l t r a i t s , and the i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s of t h e s e t r a i t s , t h e n i t be-comes p o s s i b l e t o d e f i n e p e r s o n a l i t y , as C a t t e l l has done ( C a t t e l l , a, p.21) as " t h a t which e n a b l e s us to p r e d i c t what [an i n d i v i d u a l ] w i l l do i n a g i v e n s i t u a t i o n " or ( i b i d , p.220 ), " p e r s o n a l i t y i s t h a t which d e t e r m i n e s be-h a v i o u r i n a d e f i n e d s i t u a t i o n " . The s e a r c h f o r such u n d e r s t a n d i n g and p r e d i c t i o n or i n o t h e r terms s i m p l y the s c i e n t i f i c endeavour can, w i t h p e r s o n a l i t y , t a k e the form of s t a t i s t i c a l a n a l y s i s of o b s e r v e d and e m p i r i -c a l l y measured b e h a v i o u r a l t r a i t s . Thus: The means by which p s y c h o l o g y seeks l a r g e r u n i t a r y t r a i t s ... c o n s i s t s i n c o r r e l a t i n g t r a i t elements u n t i l one d i s c o v e r s t h o s e which c o r r e l a t e p o s i -t i v e l y i n e v e r y p o s s i b l e i n t e r n a l c o m b i n a t i o n . Such a c o l l e c t i o n i s c a l l e d a syndrome i n abnormal p s y c h o -l o g y and i n normal p s y c h o l o g y a s u r -f a c e t r a i t . I f the s u r f a c e t r a i t i s v e r y broad we may p r e f e r t o c a l l t he -extremes of i t ' t y p e s ' . A s u r f a c e t r a i t i s i n any case s i m p l y a c o l l e c t i o n of t r a i t - e l e m e n t s , of 41 g r e a t e r or l e s s e r w i d t h of r e p r e s e n t a t i o n , which o b v i o u s l y 'go t o g e t h e r ' i n many d i f f e r e n t i n d i v i d u a l s and c i r c u m s t a n c e s . ( C a t t e l l , b, p.21) The r e l a t i o n o f t h e s e s u r f a c e t r a i t s t o " d e e p e r " s o u r c e t r a i t s can be b e s t shown by a f u r t h e r q u o t a t i o n : ... C o n s i d e r , f o r example, one o f the s u r f a c e t r a i t s or t y p e s a l r e a d y mentioned — t h a t r e v e a l e d by the t h r e e p o s i t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n s t h a t e x i s t among the t h r e e measures: (a) s i z e o f v o c a b u l a r y , (b) a r i t h m e t i c a l a b i l i t y , ( c ) t a c t f u l n e s s i n a s o c i a l s i t u a t i o n . I f we ask how t h i s s u r f a c e t r a i t may have come i n t o e x i s -t e n c e , a t t e n t i o n t u r n s f i r s t t o t h e I n -f l u e n c e o f i n n a t e m e n t a l c a p a c i t y . Other t h i n g s b e i n g e q u a l the i n d i v i d u a l o f g r e a t e r g e n e r a l m e n t a l c a p a c i t y w i l l a c h i e v e a g r e a t e r s i z e of v o c a b u l a r y , w i l l h a n d l e a r i t h m e t i c a l problems more c a p a b l y , and w i l l a l s o be more c l e v e r and t a c t f u l i n s o c i a l s i t u a t i o n s . Some o f t h e o b s e r v e d p o s i t i v e c o r r e l a -t i o n s among t h e t h r e e v a r i a b l e s i n the s u r f a c e t r a i t w i l l t h e r e f o r e have t h e i r s o u r c e i n the f a c t t h a t the p e r f o r m a n c e s a l l s p r i n g i n p a r t from a s i n g l e r o o t , namely, g e n e r a l m e n t a l c a p a c i t y . But i t a l s o happens t h a t t h e s e t h r e e p e r -formances are about e q u a l l y the o b j e c t s o f e d u c a t i o n a l a t t e n t i o n , so t h a t the i n d i v i d u a l who has l o n g e r or b e t t e r s c h o o l i n g w i l l t e n d t o do b e t t e r at a l l t h r e e of them. C o n s e q u e n t l y a n o t h e r p a r t (perhaps the r e m a i n i n g p a r t ) o f the p o s i t i v e i n t e r c o r r e l a t i o n seen i n the s u r f a c e t r a i t goes back to t h i s second s o u r c e -- l e n g t h of e d u c a t i o n . G e n e r a l m e n t a l c a p a c i t y and amount o f e d u c a t i o n e x p e r i e n c e d may t h e r e f o r e be c o n s i d e r e d two s o u r c e t r a i t s a c c o u n t i n g f o r the o b s e r v e d s u r f a c e t r a i t . ( C a t t e l l , l o c . c i t . ) 4-2 These q u o t a t i o n s do not r e f e r d i r e c t l y to t h e c o n c e p t of v a l u e . They are n e c e s s a r y , however, by way o f e x p o s i t i o n . C a t t e l l i s not s p e c i f i c w i t h r e s p e c t t o v a l u e but t a l k s r a t h e r o f g o a l s , p u r p o s i v e b e h a v i o u r , d r i v e s , a t t i t u d e s and s e n t i m e n t s . Perhaps h i s c l o s e s t c o n vergence comes w i t h h i s d e f i n i t i o n o f an e r g : "An i n n a t e p s y c h o - p h y s i c a l d i s p o s i t i o n w hich p e r m i t s i t s p o s s e s s o r t o a c q u i r e r e -a c t i v i t y ( a t t e n t i o n , r e c o g n i t i o n ) to c e r t a i n c l a s s e s o f o b j e c t s more r e a d i l y t h an t o o t h e r s , t o e x p e r i e n c e a s p e c i f i c emotion i n r e g a r d t o them, and t o s t a r t on a c o u r s e o f a c t i o n which ceases more c o m p l e t e l y at a c e r -t a i n s p e c i f i c g o a l a c t i v i t y t h a n a t any o t h e r . The p a t -t e r n i n c l u d e s a l s o p r e f e r r e d b e h a v i o r s u b s i d i a t i o n p a t h s t o the p r e f e r r e d g o a l . " ( C a t t e l l , b, p.199) The d i s -t i n c t i o n between t h i s e r g i c l e v e l o f p e r s o n a l i t y and the t e r m i n o l o g y of s e n t i m e n t and a t t i t u d e can be seen i n F i g . I I . 1 below which r e p r o d u c e s a p a r t o f a "dynamic l a t -t i c e o f m o t i v a t i o n " . 43 T i g . I I . 1 A t t i t u d e l e v e l S entiment l e v e l E r g i c l e v e l S o u r c e : C a t t e l l , b, p.161 The continuum d e e p - s u r f a c e or c o v e r t - o v e r t here runs from r i g h t t o l e f t of the page . A p o i n t of i m p o r t a n c e t o the t h e o r y b e i n g here d e v e l o p e d i s t h a t the C a t t e l l diagram, i n l i n e w i t h the p r i n c i p l e of f a c t o r a n a l y s i s , can be con-s t r u e d as an h i e r a r c h i c a l o r d e r i n g and t h i s o r d e r i n g In t u r n can be c o n s t r u e d as h a v i n g i n the a b s t r a c t sense a t r i a n g u l a r ( t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l ) or p y r a m i d a l - c o n i c ( t h r e e -d i m e n s i o n a l ) form. H.J. E y s e n c k , a n o t h e r p e r s o n a l i t y t h e o r i s t , employs f a c t o r a n a l y s i s i n a s i m i l a r v e i n . 44 Eysenck The t r i a n g u l a r h i e r a r c h i z a t i o n theme r e f e r r e d t o above i s l i k e w i s e i m p l i c i t i n E y s e n c k ' s work. I t i s im-p l i c i t , f o r example, i n h i s e x p o s i t o r y view o f f a c t o r t h e o r y : H i s t o r i c a l l y , f a c t o r a n a l y s i s i s me r e l y an e x t e n s i o n of the u n d e r l y i n g l o g i c a l pos-t u l a t e of a l l c o r r e l a t i o n p r o c e d u r e s , v i z . M i l l ' s s o - c a l l e d 'method of c o n c o m i t a n t v a r i a t i o n ' . The aim of f a c t o r a n a l y s i s i s to d i s c o v e r the s m a l l e s t number of in d e p e n d e n t f a c t o r s or v a r i a b l e s which w i l l a d e q u a t e l y d e s c r i b e and c l a s s i f y m e n t a l a b i l i t i e s and temperamental t r a i t s ; i t a t t e m p t s to g i v e the most p a r s i m o n i o u s a c c o u n t of the e x p e r -i m e n t a l f i n d i n g s i n so f a r as t h e s e are I n t e r d e p e n d e n t . In d o i n g s o, i t g i v e s r i s e t o f o u r d i f f e r e n t t y p e s of f a c t o r s : (1) G e n e r a l f a c t o r s , which are common t o a l l t h e t e s t s or t r a i t s used i n the i n v e s t i g a t i o n ; (2) Group f a c t o r s , common t o c e r t a i n o f t h e t e s t s or t r a i t s o n l y , but absent i n o t h e r s ; (3) S p e c i f i c f a c t o r s , which a r e p e c u l i a r to a s i n g l e t e s t or t r a i t whenever i t o c c u r s ; and (4) E r r o r f a c t o r s , which are p r e s e n t o n l y on one o c c a s i o n , and absent on a l l o t h e r s . These f o u r t y p e s of f a c t o r s , as Bu r t has shown, c o r r e s p o n d c l o s e l y t o the c a t e g o r i e s o f the s c h o l a s t i c l o g i c i a n s : Genus, S p e c i e s , P r o p r i u m , and A c c i d e n s . ( E y s e n c k , a, p.16) The h i e r a r c h i c a l p r i n c i p l e i s a g a i n c l e a r l y r e v e a l e d i n F i g . I I . 2 below which d e p i c t s E y s e n c k ' s d i a g r a m m a t i c r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f the h i e r a r c h i c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n of p e r s o n -a l i t y . F i g . I I.2 i s e x t r a c t e d from a 1947 work by Eysenck and the f o u r l e v e l s c o r r e s p o n d to the s c h o l a s t i c l o g i c a l c a t e g o r i e s mentioned i n the q u o t a t i o n above. I n t r o v e r s i o n i n t h i s example r e f e r s to the g e n e r a l type 45 F i t II . 2 Type L e v e l T r a i t L e v e l Hab i t u a l Response L e v e l M S p e c i f i c Response ... L e v e l Autonomic imbalance I r r i t a b i l i t y - 4 "> V, </i Source: Eysenck, a, p.28 or genus of i n t r o v e r t and the l e v e l s i n a s c e n d i n g o r d e r r e f e r , i n the f a c t o r - a n a l y t i c s e n s e , to e r r o r f a c t o r s , s p e c i f i c f a c t o r s , group f a c t o r s and g e n e r a l f a c t o r s . A g a i n , a t r i a n g u l a r - p y r a m i d a l - c o n i c r e p r e s e n t a t i o n i s a p p r o p r i a t e f o r c o n c e p t u a l p u r p o s e s . In a l a t e r 1957 work ( E y s e n c k , b) the paradigm of F i g . I I . 2 i s a p p l i e d t o t h e p o l i t i c a l a s p e c t of p e r s o n a l i t y as shown i n F i g . I I . 3 below. A g a i n , Eysenck d e r i v e s the model from f a c t o r a n a l y s i s and e m p i r i c a l t e c h n i q u e s : 46 F i g . I I . 3 Ideology-L e v e l A t t i t u d e Leve 1 Hab i t u a l O p i n i o n L e v e l S p e c i f i c Op i n i o n L e v e l E t h n o c e n t r i s m S t r i c t u p b r i n g i n g o f c h i l d r e n ! P r o -r e l i g i o u s a t t i t u d e s S ource: E y s e n c k , b, p.285 When we s t u d y , by s t a t i s t i c a l methods, the a c t u a l i m p l i c a t i o n s found i n l a r g e samples o f the p o p u l a t i o n we f i n d t h a t they are o r g a n i z e d i n a k i n d o f h i e r -a r c h i c a l system. At the bottom of the h i e r a r c h y we f i n d a m i l l i o n and one c a s u a l e x p r e s s i o n s of a t t i t u d e or o p i n -i o n which we make i n the c o u r s e of our l i v e s . Some of t h e s e are c h a r a c t e r -i s t i c of our l o n g - r a n g e v i e w s , o t h e r s are p u r e l y ephemeral and may j u s t be the outcome o f a temporary annoyance. Thus , the d r i v e r who has h i s new c a r s c r a t c h e d by an incompetent l a d y who d r i v e s i n a r a t h e r haphazard manner may be moved t o c a l l out some d e p r e c a t o r y remark c o n c e r n i n g woman d r i v e r s , w i t h o u t , i n h i s more sober moments, n e c e s s a r i l y 47 e n d o r s i n g the a n t i - f e m i n i s t p o s i t i o n i m p l i e d . I t i s o n l y when o p i n i o n s t a t e m e n t s are made on more t h a n one o c c a s i o n t h a t we r e a c h a r e l a t i v e s t a b i l i t y o f o p i n i o n which makes i t w o r t h w h i l e t o measure and r e c o r d the e x p r e s s i o n . Thus, i f a p e r s o n on s e v e r a l o c c a s i o n s g i v e s i t as h i s o p i n i o n t h a t c h i l d r e n s h o u l d be seen and not h e a r d , t h e n we may r e g a r d t h i s as a genuine e x p r e s s i o n o f o p i n -i o n . ( E y s e n c k , b, pp.284-5) T h i s l i n e of argument i s l o g i c a l l y e x t e n d e d , "Such o p i n -i o n s t h e m s e l v e s are i n t e r c o r r e l a t e d ; ... R e l a t i o n s h i p s such as t h e s e , which i n v o l v e a l a r g e number of o p i n i o n s r e g a r d i n g one c e n t r a l i s s u e ... g i v e r i s e t o a somewhat h i g h e r - o r d e r c o n c e p t t h a n t h a t o f o p i n i o n , namely the con-ce p t of a t t i t u d e . A t t i t u d e s t h e m s e l v e s , however, are not u n r e l a t e d , and when we a n a l y s e t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p s we come t o a h i g h e r - o r d e r c o n s t r u c t y e t , namely, t h a t of an I d e o l -ogy, such a s , f o r i n s t a n c e , the i d e o l o g y of c o n s e r v a t i s m . " ( E y s e n c k , b, pp. 285-6) A g a i n , whether from c a u t i o n or from l a c k of n e c e s s i t y , the concept of v a l u e i s not used but a c o n s i d e r a t i o n of F i g s . I I . 1 - I I . 3 t o g e t h e r w i t h the argument as p r e s e n t l y d e v e l o p e d would f a v o u r a c o n c e p t u a l -i z i n g of v a l u e as a m o t i v a t i n g d e t e r m i n a n t o f behav-i o u r and hence of p e r s o n a l i t y w i t h a l o c u s towards the apex of the a t t i t u d i n a l h i e r a r c h y . That i s to say, v a l u e s a r e d e e p - s e a t e d a s p e c t s o f the p e r s o n a l i t y s t r u c t u r e which t e n d to r e v e a l t h e m s e l v e s o v e r t l y i n b e h a v i o u r and i n 48 a t t i t u d i n a l e x p r e s s i o n . They may be c o n c e i v e d as l y i n g towards the apex of a f a c t o r i a l h i e r a r c h y , which h i e r -a r c h y can be c o n v e n t i o n a l l y r e p r e s e n t e d i n t r i a n g u l a r or t r i a n g u l a r - p r i s m a t i c form. The r e l e v a n c e o f f a c t o r a n a l y s i s t o the c o n c e p t of v a l u e l i e s i n the p o s s i b i l i t y o f u s e f u l a n a l o g y between s e t s o f i d e a s , e.g. C a t t e l l ' s s o u r c e t r a i t s , l o g i c a l genus, Eysenck ' s i d e o l o g i c a l and g e n e r a l t y p e l e v e l s , and i n the c o n c e p t u a l and method-o l o g i c a l b r i d g e which t h e t e c h n i q u e a f f o r d s between com-p l e x e m p i r i c a l v a r i a t i o n and i n d u c t i v e or r e d u c t i v e ab-s t r a c t i o n . F i e l d Theory The problem o f p e r s o n a l i t y , which i s of c o n c e r n inasmuch as i t b e a r s upon the n a t u r e o f v a l u e , can a l s o be viewed from the p e r s p e c t i v e o f h o l i s t i c t h e o r i s t s such as A n g y a l , Rogers, G o l d s t e i n and, p r e - e m i n e n t l y , K u r t Lewin. T h i s s e c t i o n w i l l d e a l p r i m a r i l y w i t h Lewin's f i e l d t h e o r y though i t i s acknowledged t h a t o t h e r p s y c h o l -o g i s t s and t h e o r i s t s have c o n t r i b u t e d to t h i s mode of con-c e p t i o n . A major c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of t h i s mode i s an attempt to break down h a r s h d i c h o t o m i e s between s u b j e c t and o b j e c t , organism and environment, ' i n s i d e ' and 'out-s i d e ' . The i n f l u e n c e s of G e s t a l t t h e o r y i n p s y c h o l o g y 4 9 and f i e l d t h e o r y i n the n a t u r a l s c i e n c e s are v e r y e v i d e n t i n t h i s t y p e o f c o n c e p t i o n . The i n f l u e n c e of phenomenology i s a l s o o b v i o u s i n Lewin's c e n t r a l Idea o f l i f e s p a c e . L i f e space i s de-f i n e d as : T o t a l i t y of f a c t s which d e t e r m i n e the b e h a v i o r (B) o f an i n d i v i d u a l a t a c e r t a i n moment. The l i f e space (L) r e p r e s e n t s the t o t a l i t y o f p o s s i b l e e v e n t s . The l i f e space i n c l u d e s the p e r s o n (P) and the environment ( E ) . B = f ( L ) = f ( P , E ) . I t can be r e p r e -s e n t e d by a f i n i t e l y s t r u c t u r e d s p a c e . (Lewin , p.215 ) and i t s q u a l i t y i s r e v e a l e d , f o r example, i n the " p r i n c i p l e of c o n t e m p o r a n e i t y " , "... We s h a l l here s t r o n g l y d e f e n d the t h e s i s t h a t n e i t h e r p a s t nor f u t u r e p s y c h o l o g i c a l f a c t s but o n l y the p r e s e n t s i t u a t i o n can i n f l u e n c e p r e s -ent e v e n t s . T h i s t h e s i s i s a d i r e c t consequence o f the p r i n c i p l e t h a t o n l y what e x i s t s c o n c r e t e l y can have e f -f e c t s . S i n c e n e i t h e r the p a s t nor the f u t u r e e x i s t s a t the p r e s e n t moment i t cannot have e f f e c t s a t the p r e s e n t . In r e p r e s e n t i n g the l i f e space t h e r e f o r e we take i n t o a c c o u n t o n l y what i s contemporary ... " ( i b i d . p. 35) The i d e a o f p e r s o n a l i t y as a d i f f e r e n t i a t e d r e g i o n w i t h i n the l i f e space can be r e p r e s e n t e d by two of Lewin's f i g -u r e s . F i r s t l y , F i g . I I . 4 below r e p r e s e n t s d i a g r a m m a t i c -a l l y the " d y n a m i c a l l y not c l o s e d " w o r l d , the boundary 50 p o i n t s of which r e p r e s e n t a r e a s where o u t s i d e i n f l u e n c e s may a f f e c t the phenomenology of the p e r s o n . F i g . I I . 4 H u l l of f a c t s not g overned by p s y c h o l o g i c a l laws Source: Lewin, p.70 S e c o n d l y , i n F i g . I I . 5 the c i r c l e d P of F i g . I I . 4 above i s e l a b o r a t e d t o s y m b o l i z e what Lewin r e f e r s t o as the t o p o l o g y of the p e r s o n . The components of t h i s t o p o l o g y are i d e n t i f i e d i n the f i g u r e . Lewin d e s c r i b e s and de-r i v e s h i s r a t i o n a l e f o r t h i s l a s t d e p i c t i o n as f o l l o w s : 1. Needs or o t h e r s t a t e s o f the i n n e r -p e r s o n a l r e g i o n s can i n f l u e n c e the en-v i r o n m e n t o n l y by way o f a b o d i l y ex-p r e s s i o n o f a b o d i l y a c t i o n , t h a t i s , by way of a r e g i o n which one can c a l l the motor r e g i o n . K o f f k a uses the term "the e x e c u t i v e " f o r t h i s r e g i o n .. We have t o r e p r e s e n t the motor r e g i o n as a boundary zone between the i n n e r -p e r s o n a l r e g i o n s and the e n v i r o n m e n t . One o f the most i m p o r t a n t p r o c e s s e s i n t h i s motor r e g i o n i s speech. I t p l a y s a g r e a t r o l e i n the communica-t i o n between the p e r s o n and -his s o c i a l e n v i r o n m e n t . The use o f g e s t u r e s , 51 F i g . I I . 5 M, m o t o r - p e r c e p t u a l r e g i o n ; I, i n n e r - p e r s o n a l r e g i o n ; p, p e r i p h e r a l p a r t s o f I ; c, c e n t r a l p a r t s of I; E, e n v i r o n m e n t . Source: i b i d . p.177 ' s m i l i n g ' and ' l o o k i n g a t ' b e l o n g h e r e . The p o s i t i o n of the motor r e g i o n as an i n t e r m e d i a t e between the environment and the i n n e r - p e r s o n a l r e g i o n s h o l d s f o r p u r p o s e f u l a c t i o n s as w e l l as f o r u n d i r e c t e d a f f e c t i v e d i s c h a r g e s of t e n s i o n , _i.e_. f o r a l l changes of the environment E r e s u l t i n g from the s t a t e o f the I n n e r - p e r s o n a l r e g i o n . 2. We f i n d an i n t e r m e d i a t e r e g i o n a g a i n when we c o n s i d e r the i n f l u e n c e i n the o p p o s i t e d i r e c t i o n , namely p s y c h o l o g i c a l changes of the i n n e r - p e r s o n a l r e g i o n r e s u l t i n g - from changes of the e nvironment. T h i s i n t e r m e d i a t e r e g i o n c o r r e s p o n d s to the p e r c e p t u a l system i n the b r o a d e s t sense o f the word, t h a t I s , to h e a r i n g , s e e i n g , e t c . I t i s i d e n t i c a l i n p a r t w i t h the motor r e g i o n . The eye f o r i n s t a n c e can b o t h e x p r e s s and p e r c e i v e . Other p a r t s , l i k e the e a r , s e r v e w i t h man to t r a n s m i t events o n l y i n one d i r e c t i o n , from o u t s i d e i n . In any case the boun-dary zone between the i n n e r r e g i o n s and the environment i n c l u d e s both motor and p e r c e p t u a l systems . ( i b i d . p.178) 5 2 The l o g i c of t h i s r e a s o n i n g i s p u r s u e d by d i f f e r e n t i a t i n g between p e r i p h e r a l and c e n t r a l s t r a t a o f the i n n e r - p e r s o n -a l r e g i o n , i . e . the r e g i o n bounded by the m o t o r - p e r c e p t u a l zone. N e v e r t h e l e s s the view i s b o t h dynamic and h o l i s t i c and t h e i n f l u e n c e o f f i e l d t h e o r y i n p h y s i c s i s a p p a r e n t i n such p h r a s e o l o g y a s , " ... The i n t e g r a t i o n o f the p e r -son d u r i n g development seems not t o be a s t r i c t r e v e r s a l of the d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n and a l s o not a s i m p l e r e s t r u c t u r -i n g of the i n n e r p e r s o n a l system. I t i s r a t h e r a p r o c e s s by which a c e r t a i n system ( o r group o f systems) becomes 'dominant' i n s o f a r as i t i s a b l e t o impose c e r t a i n p a t -t e r n s of a c t i o n and t o b u i l d up c e r t a i n q u a s i needs. I am i n c l i n e d t o v e n t u r e the t h e o r y t h a t we have t o d e a l here w i t h the r e l a t i o n of an i n d u c i n g f i e l d t o an i n d u c e d f i e l d . In o t h e r words, the p o s i t i o n of the dominant s y s -tem i s d y n a m i c a l l y e q u i v a l e n t t o t h a t of the c e n t e r o f a s o c i a l power f i e l d .... " ( i b i d . p.192) T h i s " i n d u c i n g f i e l d " a l s o r e t u r n s us to the theme of h i e r a r c h y which has been c o n s t a n t l y r e i t e r a t e d t h r o u g h o u t t h i s c h a p t e r . Thus, " ... i t might be w e l l t o l i m i t the term ' i n t e g r a -t i o n ' i n p s y c h o l o g y to t h o s e cases where the u n i f i c a t i o n of d i f f e r e n t i a t e d r e g i o n s i s due to the e s t a b l i s h i n g of the h i e r a r c h i c r e l a t i o n between an i n d u c i n g f i e l d and an i n d u c e d f i e l d .... " (idem.) 53 B e f o r e a t t e m p t i n g to l i n k the c o n c e p t of v a l u e w i t h Lewin's t h e o r y i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o s t r e s s the t h e o r y ' s 5 p h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l c h a r a c t e r and t o r e f e r t o t h e c o n c e p t of v a l e n c e . Murray, i n a t t e m p t i n g to d e r i v e a c l a s s i f i -c a t i o n of i n t e r a c t i o n s ( P a r s o n s and S h i l s ) comments on Lewin's i d e a o f f i e l d , " ... The f i e l d a t an i n s t a n t i n -c l u d e s b o t h the e x t e r n a l s i t u a t i o n and the i n t e r n a l s t a t e (e_.g_. energy l e v e l , e m otion, abdominal p a i n , e t c . ) . For Lewin, b o t h the s i t u a t i o n and the s t a t e are w i t h i n the head of the s u b j e c t , because f o r the s u b j e c t t h e r e i s no r e a l i t y e x c e p t the s i t u a t i o n as he a p p e r c e i v e s i t . T h i s , the s u b j e c t ' s a p p e r c e p t i o n of h i s e n v i r o n m e n t , we may c a l l the b e t a s i t u a t i o n . The e x t e r n a l s i t u a t i o n as i t a c t u a l l y e x i s t s ( i n s o f a r as t h i s can be d e t e r m i n e d by im-p a r t i a l i n q u i r y ) may be c a l l e d the a l p h a s i t u a t i o n .... " ( P a r s o n s , op . c i t . p.4-38) The f i e l d thus c o n c e i v e d i s pervaded t h r o u g h o u t by v a l e n c e s d e f i n e d by Lewin a s , "a v a l e n c e c o r r e s p o n d s to a f i e l d of f o r c e s whose s t r u c t u r e i s t h a t o f a c e n t r a l f i e l d . One can d i s t i n g u i s h p o s i -t i v e and n e g a t i v e v a l e n c e s " . (Lewin, p.217) These v a l e n c e s can be c o n s i d e r e d , f o r our p u r p o s e s , as e x t e r n a l 5 The term i s used i n t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n t o r e f e r to the c o n t e n t s of c o n s c i o u s s u b j e c t i v e e x p e r i e n c e as d i s -t i n c t from phenomenal which r e f e r s to e m p i r i c a l l y v e r i -f i a b l e c o n t e n t s (Murray's a l p h a s i t u a t i o n q_.v. s u p r a ) . ( f i e l d ) m a n i f e s t a t i o n s of i n t e r n a l ( i n n e r - p e r s o n a l ) a t t i -t u d i n a l s t r u c t u r e s . They imbue each f i e l d w i t h a v a l u e " c o l o u r i n g " the i n t e n s i t y , p a t t e r n and hue o f which ( t o pursue the s i m i l e ) i s a f u n c t i o n of the c h a r a c t e r and h i s t o r y o f the v a l u e b e a r e r or v a l u e a c t o r w i t h i n the p h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l f i e l d . T h i s i d e a i s seconded by Murray i n the c o n c l u s i o n of the paper quoted from above: As i n d i c a t e d i n the s e c t i o n on a t t i -t u d e s , I have come t o b e l i e v e ( a f t e r i d e n t i f y i n g m y s e l f w i t h Dr. A l l p o r t ) t h a t a c t i o n t e n d e n c i e s must be l i n k e d w i t h v a l u e s , which means t h a t b o t h v a l u e s and t e n d e n c i e s s h o u l d be c l a s -s i f i e d . F o l l o w i n g Lewin and E r i c k -son, I am c a l l i n g the a c t i o n t e n d e n -c i e s v e c t o r s , each v e c t o r b e i n g d e f i n e d as a d i r e c t i o n o f t r a n s f o r m -a t i o n . E v e r y v e c t o r may be combined w i t h e v e r y v a l u e , g i v i n g us a l a r g e but manageable number of v a l u e - v e c t o r s , each o f which i s a c e r t a i n k i n d o f need. (P a r s o n s , p . 463 ) The l i n k w i t h v a l u e i s t h e n an a t t i t u d i n a l one. Any g i v e n f i e l d i s p ervaded w i t h a t t i t u d i n a l v e c t o r s or ac-t i o n t e n d e n c i e s . On the one hand t h e s e l e n d v a l e n c e -c o l o u r i n g t o the f i e l d and on the o t h e r hand t h e y d e r i v e from a l e v e l o f p e r s o n a l i t y c l o s e l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h m o t i v a t i o n . The purpose o f expounding f i r s t , f a c t o r -a n a l y t i c approaches t o p e r s o n a l i t y and, second, the gen-e r a l f i e l d t h e o r y approach may now become c l e a r e r . I t 55 i s i n o r d e r t o r e c o n c i l e t h e s e ways of l o o k i n g at the psyche i n such a manner as t o 1) e l a b o r a t e the c o n c e p t of v a l u e and 2) d e v e l o p a model t o e l u c i d a t e the f u n c t i o n o f v a l u e In the t h e o r y o f i n t e r a c t i o n . A Composite Model Two p o s s i b l e k i n d s o f a p proach t o the problem o f c o n c e p t u a l i z i n g p e r s o n a l i t y have now been drawn upon and i l l u s t r a t e d . I t can be conceded t h a t each schema i s f u n d a m e n t a l l y m e t a p h o r i c w i t h r e s p e c t to i t s r e a l r e f e r -e n t s . The p r e s e n t t a s k i s t o u n i t e t h e s e d i f f e r i n g p e r s p e c t i v e s the one f u n d a m e n t a l l y i n d u c t i v e and e m p i r i c a l and the o t h e r d e d u c t i v e and t h e o r e t i c a l i n such a manner as to combine the u s e f u l q u a l i t i e s o f each metaphor so as t o d e r i v e a t h e o r e t i c a l model which might be employed w i t h r e f e r e n c e t o the c o n c e p t v a l u e s p e c i f i c -a l l y and to the c o n c e p t a t t i t u d e g e n e r a l l y . T h i s combi-n a t i o n i s j u s t i f i e d i f the a p r i o r i assumption i s a l l o w e d t h a t v a l u e Is i n some way c l o s e l y l i n k e d t o p e r s o n a l i t y s t r u c t u r e and i f no l o g i c a l i n c o m p a t i b i l i t y can be demon-s t r a t e d between the two modes o f c o n c e p t i o n . With r e -s p e c t t o the l a t t e r p o s s i b i l i t y i t i s s u b m i t t e d t h a t the onus f o r such d e m o n s t r a t i o n must l i e w i t h opponents and, f u r t h e r , such d e m o n s t r a t i o n would need to be o f s u f f i c i e n t s t r e n g t h to i m p a i r the d e r i v e d composite model expounded 56 below. Two i d e a s or p r i n c i p l e s are c e n t r a l t o the model. They are the p r i n c i p l e s of h i e r a r c h y and d e p t h . The former has been i l l u s t r a t e d i n the work of Ey s e n c k , T h u r s t o n e , C a t t e l l i n t e r a l i a and i m p l i e s a n u m e r i c a l n a r r o w i n g o f c a t e g o r i e s w i t h the a s c e n t o f t h e h i e r a r c h y from s p e c i f i c t o g e n e r a l . I t i s e s s e n t i a l l y a m a t t e r o f o p e r a t i n g d e f i n i t i o n . The l o g i c a l extreme o f t h i s p o s i -t i o n would be found i n the view t h a t a s i n g l e h i g h e r o r d e r f a c t o r c o u l d be found t o ac c o u n t f o r a l l v a r i a t i o n i n any c a t e g o r y of o b s e r v e d phenomena. The l a t t e r p r i n c i p l e i m p l i e s t h a t w i t h r e s p e c t to the c o n g e r i e s of phenomena i n c l u d e d under the c a t e g o r y p e r s o n a l i t y the apex o f a n a l y -s i s i s i n the d i r e c t i o n of the s e l f or the core of the p e r s o n a l i t y c o n c e p t i o n . By c o n v e n t i o n t h i s d i r e c t i o n i s termed depth ( e . g . depth a n a l y s i s , depth p s y c h o t h e r a p y e t c . ) . These i d e a s a r e combined i n the diagram of F i g . I I . 6 below: G e n e r a l l e v e l S p e c i f i c l e v e l F i g . I I.6 " s e l f " Homogeneity h i e r a r c h y of o b s e r v e d phenomena f a c t o r ' a n a l y t i c v e c t o r H e t e r o g e n e i t y 57 The o b s e r v a t i o n s of i n d i v i d u a l b e h a v i o u r which would con-s t i t u t e the raw m a t e r i a l f o r a n a l y s i s c o u l d embrace any d i s c r i m i n a b l e and q u a n t i f i a b l e phenomena amenable t o c l a s s i f i c a t i o n under the head b e h a v i o u r . T y p i c a l l y such o b s e r v a t i o n s c o u l d be r e s p o n s e items on a q u e s t i o n n a i r e or r e a c t i o n r e s p o n s e t i m i n g s but t h e y c o u l d i n v o l v e any b e h a v i o u r e.g. g o a l s s c o r e d per match or r a t i o of l a u g h -t e r to speech w i t h i n g i v e n time l i m i t s and c o n t e x t . With r e g a r d t o v a l u e i t i s p r o p o s e d t h a t i t Is o f such a n a t u r e as to l i e c l o s e r t o the h i e r a r c h i c a l apex o f an a t t i t u d i n a l h i e r a r c h y as d e p i c t e d i n F i g . I I . 7 below. A note o f c a u t i o n must be sounded here c o n c e r n i n g the terms s e n t i m e n t s and o p i n i o n s . These terms are employed here w i t h o u t d e f i n i t i o n and merely i n an i l l u s t r a t i v e sense as c o n v e y i n g , by common usage, the c o n n o t a t i o n o f i n c r e a s i n g s p e c i f i c i t y , i n s t a b i l i t y and f l u x w i t h d e s c e n t of the h i e r a r c h y and c o n v e r s e l y . V a l u e s t h e n are more s t a b l e d e t e r m i n i n g components of a t t i t u d e s and a l s o l e s s amenable t o e x a m i n a t i o n than the more o v e r t and l e s s s t a b l e a t t i t u d i n a l m a n i f e s t a t i o n s o f o p i n i o n . In F i g . II.6 and F i g . II.7 the d o t t e d v e c t o r can a l s o be i n t e r p r e t e d as r u n n i n g i n the d i r e c t i o n from a p p e a r a n c e - p e r s o n a l i t y , p e r s o n a , or r o l e towards c o r e -p e r s o n a l i t y or e s s e n t i a l s e l f . C o n s e q u e n t l y the d i r e c -t i o n i s t h a t of i n t e g r a t i o n i n the p s y c h o l o g i c a l sense 58 F i g . I I . 7 " s e l f " I An a t t i t u d i n a l h i e r a r c h y and v a l u e s t h e r e f o r e are c o n s t r u e d as more i n t e g r a t i v e , more e s s e n t i a l t o p e r s o n a l i t y c o h e s i o n , than the more o v e r t s e n t i m e n t s and o p i n i o n s commonly r e f e r r e d to as a t t i t u d e s . P s y c h o a n a l y s i s i s not the p r o v i n c e of t h i s s t u d y but I t i s s u b m i t t e d t h a t the model i s a p p l i c a b l e t o t h a t d i s c i p l i n e i n s o f a r as a p s y c h o t i c ( d i s i n t e g r a t e d ) p e r s o n a l i t y might h o l d p a r t i c u l a r l y r i g i d s e n t i m e n t s and o p i n i o n (and be u n r e s p o n s i v e t o p e r s u a s i v e communication) because o f an e x a c e r b a t e d need t o m a i n t a i n a c o r e s t r u c -t u r e . An i n t e g r a t e d ( s e c u r e ) p e r s o n w i t h e s t a b l i s h e d ( s e c u r e ) c o r e v a l u e s t r u c t u r e might f e e l more at l i b e r t y t o change b o t h the o v e r t e x p r e s s i o n s of a t t i t u d e and the depth v a l u e s t h e m s e l v e s ( r e a l i g n m e n t o f core s t r u c t u r e ) . These l a s t remarks must however be .taken e_n p a s s a n t and as i l l u s t r a t i v e o n l y . 5 9 To e x t e n d the model t o i n c o r p o r a t e f i e l d t h e o r y i t i s s i m p l y n e c e s s a r y t o i n c l u d e the environment w i t h i t s v a l e n c e c o l o u r i n g and t h e m o t o r - p e r c e p t u a l zone which m e d i a t e s between environment and c e n t r a l p e r s o n a l -i t y . T h i s i s done i n F i g . I I . 8 below: F i g . I I . 8 F i g . I I . 8 i s a l o g i c a l e x t e n s i o n of the model. The whole r e p r e s e n t s a s e c t o r of the f i e l d r e f e r e n t t o a p a r t i c u l a r v a l u e . For example, a v a l u e c e n t r a l t o the p e r s o n a l i t y , say l o y a l t y , may be h e l d by an i n d i v i d u a l s e l f , the mode and s t r e n g t h of the " h o l d i n g " o f the v a l u e b e i n g a f u n c t i o n of c h a r a c t e r o r , more g e n e r a l l y , p e r s o n a l i t y . T h i s v a l u e d e t e r m i n e s an a t t i t u d e i n t h a t 6 0 i t i s a g e n e r a l c o n c e p t i o n of the d e s i r a b i l i t y of the l o y a l t y q u a l i t y or t r a i t one "ought" t o be l o y a l and t o be l o y a l i s "good". In consequence l o y a l t y c o n n o t e s p o s i t i v e a f f e c t or s e n t i m e n t and, by r e v e r s e I m p l i c a t i o n , d i s l o y a l t y c onnotes n e g a t i v e a f f e c t , d i s l i k e , or l a c k o f a d m i r a t i o n . T h i s d i s p o s i t i o n of the p e r s o n a l i t y en-c o u n t e r s , and i s a f f e c t e d by, the e x t e r n a l , e m p i r i c a l environment ( l i f e s p a c e ) t h r o u g h the m e d i a t i o n o f the m o t o r - p e r c e p t u a l zone. Inasmuch as a l l v a l u e s are d i a l e c t i c a l , t h a t i s , h a v i n g t h e i r p o s i t i v e " a d m i r i n g " a f f e c t c o u n t e r b a l a n c e d by n e g a t i v e a f f e c t from the im-p l i e d v a l u e - o p p o s i t e , a " c o l o u r i n g " of v a l e n c e s i s im-p a r t e d t o t h e c o n t e n t s o f the f i e l d . C o n t e n t s of e x p e r -i e n c e e x h i b i t i n g the q u a l i t y l o y a l t y or r e f e r r i n g t o i t i n d i r e c t l y t h r o u g h s e n t i m e n t ( t h e f l a g , one's work-group companions, a dog) assume p o s i t i v e v a l e n c e , and con-v e r s e l y . T h i s i s i n d i c a t e d by random + and - s i g n s i n F i g . I I . 8 . In the most g e n e r a l s e n s e , zones of p o s i t i v e v a l e n c e would the n a t t r a c t movement and p e r c e p t i o n t o w a r d s , and c o n v e r s e l y f o r n e g a t i v e v a l e n c e r e p u l s i o n . In l i n e w i t h f a c t o r t h e o r y the model i s not o n l y dynamic but e s s e n t i a l l y n - d i m e n s i o n a l (where n_~> 3) and hence i t cannot be a d e q u a t e l y diagrammed i n any two-dimen-s i o n a l f o r m a t . N e v e r t h e l e s s , the p r i n c i p l e can be 61 e l a b o r a t e d and F i g . I I . 9 below at t e m p t s t o a p p l y t h e meta-phor t o two a n t a g o n i s t i c v a l u e s . I t i s w i t h i n the l o g i c o f the model t h a t any v a l u e i m p l i e s the s i m u l t a n e o u s pos-s e s s i o n of I t s d i a l e c t i c a l d i s v a l u e . T h i s has been d e s c r i b e d above and i s not t o be c o n f u s e d w i t h a m b i v a l -ence. The l a t t e r c o n d i t i o n o c c u r s when c o n f l i c t i n g v a l u e s a r e h e l d s i m u l t a n e o u s l y or a s i n g l e v a l u e i s h e l d weakly. In the former case ( e . g . h y p o t h e t i c a l courage v s . s a f e t y In F i g . I I . 9 ) an a r e a of o v e r l a p i s used to s i g n i f y the i n t r a p e r s o n a l c o n t e s t and the r e s u l t i n g f l u x o f v a l e n c e i n the f i e l d . In the l a t t e r case the v a l e n c e c o l o u r i n g o f the f i e l d would be s u b j e c t to f l u c t u a t i o n and the t r i a n g u l a r r e p r e s e n t a t i o n might be c o n c e i v e d as b e i n g v e r y b r o a d l y b a s e d . F i g . II._9_ / Ambivalence / \ ft i - ± ± ± ±. ±- ±~ ±\ ENVIRONMENT v 62 The most g e n e r a l i z e d d e p i c t i o n of the model, pace Lewin, would be t h e a d a p t a t i o n of F i g s . I I . 4 and I I . 5 shown below as F i g . 11.10. F i g . 11.10 L i f e Space Boundary W1 -v 1 n v -v 1 n s e l f a r e a v a l u e complex m o t o r - p e r c e p -t u a l zone o f a t t i t u d e m a n i f e s t a t i o n l i f e space f i e l d v a l e n c e s l i f e space environment I t might be n o t e d here t h a t a p o i n t of c o n s i s t e n -cy t h r o u g h o u t t h i s d e m o n s t r a t i o n has been the g e n e r a l v e c t o r t r e n d from h e t e r o g e n e i t y i n the f i e l d towards homo-g e n e i t y the c l o s e r the approach to the s e l f s t r u c t u r e . As p r e v i o u s l y s t a t e d , i t i s not an endeavour of t h i s study to e n c r o a c h upon p h i l o s o p h y but one may o b s e r v e i n p a s s i n g the g e n e r a l i m p l i c a t i o n of i n c r e a s i n g commonality o f v a l u e w i t h i n c r e a s i n g a p p r o x i m a t i o n t o depth p e r s o n a l -i t y a c o n n o t a t i o n which might go towards an e x p l a n a -t i o n o f the d e p t h s i m i l a r i t i e s between e t h i c a l systems and which would be i n l i n e w i t h r e c e n t e m p i r i c a l f i n d i n g s by Chomsky i n the f i e l d of l i n g u i s t i c s (Chomsky). I t might a l s o be n o t e d t h a t the c o n c e p t i o n l e a v e s open the p o s s i b i l i t y of a d a p t i n g by a n a l o g y the d i s t i n c t i o n s of p s y c h o l o g i c a l p r o c e s s : c o n a t i o n , a f f e c t , c o g n i t i o n to the a t t i t u d i n a l d i s t i n c t i o n s of v a l u e , s e n t i m e n t s , and a t t i t u d e s / o p i n i o n s r e s p e c t i v e l y . That a c o n s i d e r a b l e amount of space has been d e v o t e d t o the e x p o s i t i o n o f t h i s c o n c e p t i o n of v a l u e i s because i t l i e s at the r o o t of the p r e s e n t s t u d y . The model w i l l be employed l a t e r t o d e r i v e p r o p o s i t i o n s f o r e m p i r i c a l e x p l o r a t i o n and the d a t a examined w i l l be i n t e r p r e t e d i n the l i g h t of the c o n c e p t i o n here e x p l a i n e d . Toward D e f i n i t i o n T h i s c h a p t e r has p r e s e n t e d a s t u d i e d o v e r v i e w of the d i f f i c u l t i e s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the term v a l u e . Both p h i l o s o p h i c a l and p s y c h o l o g i c a l avenues were e x p l o r e d i n the m a t t e r of d e f i n i t i o n and d i s c r i m i n a t i o n s were sought among the c o n s t e l l a t i o n of meanings a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the words m o r a l i t y , m o t i v e s and a t t i t u d e s . I t was c o n c l u d e d t h a t the n a t u r e o f v a l u e was such as to be i n t i m a t e l y 64 a s s o c i a t e d w i t h p e r s o n a l i t y and two p a r t i c u l a r modes o f approach t o t h i s l a t t e r c o n c e p t were examined. F i n a l l y t h e s e a p p r o a c h e s were combined t o form a composite e x p l a n -a t o r y model. A r e m a i n i n g t a s k i s t o f o r m u l a t e a wo r k i n g d e f i n -i t i o n o f the c o n c e p t v a l u e f o r the pu r p o s e s of the e n s u i n g s t u d y . The word he r e t o be s t r e s s e d i s working f o r i t i s not f e l t t h a t an o v e r s t r i n g e n t d e f i n i t i o n i s e i t h e r pos-s i b l e or j u s t i f i a b l e g i v e n the p r e s e n t s t a t e of knowledge i n the f i e l d . In f a c t t h i s e n t i r e study may be con-c e i v e d s i m p l y as an e x e r c i s e In d e f i n i t i o n i f by t h a t i s u n d e r s t o o d an attempt at i n c r e a s i n g l y d i s c r i m i n a t o r y r e -f i n e m e n t and c l a r i f i c a t i o n o f the c o n c e p t . On the o t h e r hand, i t i s c e r t a i n l y p o s s i b l e t o f o r m u l a t e many u s e f u l w o rking d e f i n i t i o n s which, though l a c k i n g r i g o u r , can s e r v e as a b a s i s f o r e m p i r i c a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n . Of such d e f i n i t i o n s c u r r e n t i n the l i t e r a t u r e perhaps the most c a r e f u l l y d e v e l o p e d i s t h a t a t t r i b u t e d t o Kluckhohn and quoted on p.36 above. With s l i g h t m o d i f i c a t i o n t h e n , f o r the purpos e s of a l i g n i n g the d e f i n i t i o n w i t h the t h e o r y and e m p i r i c a l r e s e a r c h t o f o l l o w , the working d e f i n i t i o n of v a l u e i s t a k e n as a p h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l c o n s t r u c t which i s a c o n c e p t i o n of the d e s i r a b l e and which tends to o p e r a t e as a m o t i v a t i n g d e t e r m i n a n t of b e h a v i o u r . Pace Kluckhohn 65 the term v a l u e - o r i e n t a t i o n w i l l a l s o be commonly employed to r e f e r t o g r o u p i n g s , p a t t e r n i n g s , or c o n s t e l l a t i o n s o f v a l u e s t o which names and i d e n t i t i e s have been a t t a c h e d ( K l u c k h o h n , o p . c i t . pp.409-412). T h i s l a t t e r term i s u s e f u l In t h a t i t a l l o w s of the easy c o n c e p t i o n o f v a l u e p r o f i l e s and the a s p e c t of i n t e r r e l a t i o n between v a l u e s . The l o s s of l i n g u i s t i c p r e c i s i o n a s s o c i a t e d w i t h v a l u e i n the s i n g u l a r may thus be compensated f o r by a g a i n i n meaning when c o n s i d e r i n g a p l u r a l i t y o f v a l u e s . S u c c e s s i v e c h a p t e r s w i l l employ t h e s e d e f i n i t i o n s and t h i s c o n c e p t i o n o f v a l u e i n d e v e l o p i n g the t h e o r e t i c -a l framework o f the e m p i r i c a l s t u d y and i n d e r i v i n g e x p l o r a t o r y h y p o t h e s e s f o r t e s t i n g the model w i t h i n the c o n t e x t of f o r m a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s . The next s t a g e o f development i s t h e n t o show the i m p l i c a t i o n s o f the con-c e p t f o r i n d i v i d u a l and i n t e r p e r s o n a l p e r c e p t i o n s . 66 R e f e r e n c e s f o r Ch a p t e r I I A l l p o r t , G.W. P e r s o n a l i t y , A P s y c h o l o g i c a l I n t e r p r e t a -t i o n . H o l t , R i n e h a r t £ Wilson", W. Y, T~9 3 7 B r a y b r o o k e , D., L i n d b l o m , C.E. A S t r a t e g y of D e c i s i o n . F r e e P r e s s o f G l e n c o e , ' N.Y. 1963 . C a t t e l l , R.B. (a) An I n t r o d u c t i o n to P e r s o n a l i t y Study. H u t c h i n s o n , London, 1950. . (b) P e r s o n a l i t y : A S y s t e m a t i c T h e o r e t i c a l and F a c t u a l Study. M c G r a w - H i l l ,~1T. Y . 'TT9"50~. Chomsky, N. "Language and the Mind" P s y c h o l o g y Today February' 1968 , V o l . 1 #9, pp.48-52. Dewey, J . (a) E s s a y s i n E x p e r i m e n t a l L o g i c . U. of Chi c a g o P r e s s , C h i c a g o . 1916. . (b) Theory o f V a l u a t i o n . I n t e r n a t i o n a l E n c y c l o p e d i a of U n i f i e d S c i e n c e . U. o f C h i c a g o P r e s s , C h i c a g o , 1939. . ( c ) i n " V a l u e " i n Monroe, P. A C y c l o p e d i a of E d u c a t i o n . Ewing, A.C. E t h i c s . E n g l i s h U n i v e r s i t i e s P r e s s , London, 1953 . Eysenck, H.J. (a) Dimensions of P e r s o n a l i t y . R o u t l e d g e £ Kegan P a u l , London, 1947. . (b) Sense and Nonsense i n P s y c h o l o g y . P e n g u i n , Harmondsworth, M i d d l e s e x , 1957. Friedman, B.B. F o u n d a t i o n s of the Measurement of V a l u e s . Columbia U n i v e r s i t y , N.Y. 1946. F r o n d i z i , R. What i s Value? Open C o u r t , La S a l l e , 1963. G u i l f o r d , J . P s y c h o m e t r i c Methods. McGraw H i l l , N.Y. 1954 . H a l l , E.W. Modern S c i e n c e and Human V a l u e s . D e l l Pub-l i s h i n g Co . N . Y . , 1956. . 67 H a r d i n g , D.W. S o c i a l P s y c h o l o g y and i n d i v i d u a l V a l u e s . H u t c h i n s o n , London, 1966. Hov l a n d , G.I., J a n i s , I . L . , K e l l e y , H.H. Communication and P e r s u a s i o n . Y a l e U.P., New Haven, 1953. K a p l a n , A. The Conduct o f I n q u i r y . C h a n d l e r , San F r a n c i s c o , 1964. Kluc k h o h n , C. et_"a_l. " V a l u e s and V a l u e - O r i e n t a t i o n s i n the Theory of A c t i o n " i n Parso n s q.v. K o e h l e r , W. The P l a c e o f Value i n a World of F a c t s . L i v e r i g h t , N.Y. 1938. ~ "~ Lambert, W.W., Lambert, W.E. S o c i a l P s y c h o l o g y . P r e n t i c e H a l l , N.J. 1964" Lewin, K. P r i n c i p l e s o f T o p o l o g i c a l P s y c h o l o g y . M c G r a w - H i l l , N.Y. 1936. Li n d b l o m , C.E. "The S c i e n c e of Muddl i n g Through" P u b l i c A d m i n i s t r a t i o n Review XIX No. 2 ( S p r i n g ) 1959. Maslow, A.H. (a) New Knowledge i n Human V a l u e s . Harper £ Row, N.Y. 1959. "~ ' . (b) Toward a P s y c h o l o g y of B e i n g . van N o s t r a n d , P r i n c e t o n , N.J. 1962. Moore, G.E. P r i n c i p i a E t h i c a . Cambridge, U.P. Cambridge, 1903 . Mukerjee, R. The Dimensions of V a l u e s . A l l e n 6 Unwin, London, 1964. Murphy, G., Murphy, L.B., Newcomb, T.M. E x p e r i m e n t a l S o c i a l P s y c h o l o g y . Harper, N.Y. 1937. Murray, E . J . M o t i v a t i o n and Emotion. P r e n t i c e H a l l , N.J. 1965 . N o r t h r o p , F.S.C. C o l l i e r , The N.Y. Meeting of E a s t and West. 1946 . P a r k e r , D.H. "Value as Any O b j e c t o f Any I n t e r e s t " I n t e r n a l . J n l . o f E t h i c s 4 0: 466 and 468 , J u l y , 1930 . P a r s o n s , T. £ S h i l s , E.A. eds. Toward a G e n e r a l Theory o f A c t i o n . H a r v a r d U.P., Cambridge, Mass. 1954. P e r r y , R.B. (a) G e n e r a l Theory of V a l u e . Longmans, Green, N.Y. 1926. • (b) Realms of V a l u e . H a r v a r d U.P., Cam-b r i d g e , Mass., 1954. Raup, R.B. Complacency. M a c M i l l a n , N.Y. 1926. S a h a k i a n , W.S. Systems of E t h i c s and Va l u e Theory. P h i l o s o p h i c a l L i b r a r y , N.Y. 1963. S c h l i c k , M., R y n i n , D. t r . Problems of E t h i c s . P r e n t i c e H a l l , N.Y. 1939. S c o t t , W.A. V a l u e s and O r g a n i z a t i o n s . Rand M c N a l l y , C h i c a g o , 19 6 5 . S h i r k , E. The E t h i c a l Dimension. M e r e d i t h , N.Y. 1965. Smith, M.B., B r u n e r , J.S., White, R.W. O p i n i o n s and P e r s o n a l i t y . W i l e y , N.Y., 1964. Urban, W.M. "The Nature o f V a l u e " i n E n c y c l o p e d i a B r i t a n n i c a , 14th ed. W i l l i a m s , G. The Human P e r s p e c t i v e , B e i n g an I n t e r e s t Theory of V a l u e . Kramer, Oregon, Wis. 1930. Y u l e , G.U., K e n d a l l , M.G. An I n t r o d u c t i o n to the Theory of S t a t i s t i c s . G r i f f i n , London, 1950. CHAPTER I I I VALUES, PERCEPTIONS AND SOCIAL BEHAVIOUR The c o n c e p t of v a l u e d e v e l o p e d i n the p r e v i o u s c h a p t e r i s l i n k e d t o an a t t i t u d i n a l f i e l d t h e o r y model of t h e p e r s o n a l i t y . V a l u e was a l s o d e f i n e d as a phen-o m e n o l o g i c a l c o n s t r u c t and by t h i s i s meant t h a t the e x p e r i e n c e of v a l u e i s e n t i r e l y s u b j e c t i v e inasmuch as i t a r i s e s from the s e l f - s t r u c t u r e i n i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h the c o n t e n t s of the l i f e - s p a c e f i e l d . Now t h e s e con-t e n t s may or may not be o b j e c t i v e i n the sense of b e i n g e m p i r i c a l l y v e r i f i a b l e . The p a r a n o i a c p e r c e p t i o n of a snake i n a p i e c e of rope must be conceded a phenomeno-l o g i c a l r e a l i t y even though i t i s o n l y the rope which Is e m p i r i c a l l y v e r i f i a b l e . The snake has o b j e c t i v e r e a l -i t y (and presumably d i s v a l u e ) f o r him. The p o i n t here i s t h a t p e r c e p t i o n , w h i l e h a v i n g f o r i t s s u b s t r a t u m some form of e m p i r i c a l r e a l i t y , i s a l s o c o n t i n u o u s l y r e c o n -s t r u c t i v e of t h a t s u b s t r a t u m . This' p r i n c i p l e of 69 70 p e r c e p t i o n i s c o r r o b o r a t e d i n Tolman's n o t i o n o f behav-i o u r space which he d e f i n e s as "a p a r t i c u l a r i z e d complex of p e r c e p t i o n s (memories and i n f e r e n c e s ) as t o o b j e c t s and r e l a t i o n s and the " b e h a v i n g s e l f " , evoked by the g i v e n e n v i r o n m e n t a l s t i m u l u s s i t u a t i o n and by a c o n t r o l -l i n g and a c t i v a t e d b e l i e f - v a l u e m a t r i x ( o r perhaps sev-e r a l such m a t r i c e s ) . What i s p e r c e i v e d ( e x p e c t e d ) i s thus d e t e r m i n e d by what i s p r e s e n t e d by the s t i m u l u s s i t u a t i o n a t the moment and by the s t o r e o f c a t e g o r i z a -t i o n s , b e l i e f s , and v a l u e s which the a c t o r b r i n g s to the p r e s e n t e d s t i m u l i " . ( P a r s o n s , p. 296 ) But i f p e r c e p t i o n i n t h i s p h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l sense i s the i n a l i e n a b l e and i n a c c e s s i b l e p r o p e r t y of the p e r -c e i v e r t h i s i s not so f o r t h a t common p r o p e r t y of a c t i o n which o c c u r s t h r o u g h the motor a g e n c i e s and from which p e r c e p t i o n s can be i n f e r r e d by o b s e r v e r s e x t r a n e o u s to the f i e l d . " 1 " The m o t o r - p e r c e p t u a l zone of the model i s t h e r e f o r e the f o c u s f o r d e t e r m i n i n g the a t t i t u d i n a l c h a r a c t e r o f an o b s e r v e d s u b j e c t . Overt a c t s p r o v i d e the d a t a f o r i n f e r e n c e of both p e r c e p t i o n and a t t i t u d e s . "'"The q u e s t i o n whether any o b s e r v a t i o n of the f i e l d i n t r o d u c e s a s o c i a l s c i e n c e analogue of H e i s e n b e r g ' s p r i n c i p l e i n p h y s i c s i s r e l e v a n t . The a c c u m u l a t i o n of e v i d e n c e from the Hawthorne s t u d i e s ( R o e t h l i s b e r g e r ) would seem to i n d i c a t e t h a t some form of t h i s type o f i n t e r f e r -ence i s e x t r e m e l y p r o b a b l e . 71 The v a l i d i t y o f t h i s i n f e r e n c e i s i n t h e l a s t a n a l y s i s a s t a t i s t i c a l a r t i f a c t s i n c e by the f o r e g o i n g argument the p h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l e x p e r i e n c e i s a b s o l u t e l y i n a c c e s s i b l e to a l l save the s u b j e c t . T h i s c a v e a t i s n e c e s s a r y to t h i s s tudy and i n d e e d t o a l l s i m i l a r s o c i a l s c i e n c e r e s e a r c h . In the m a t t e r o f i n t e r p e r s o n a l p e r c e p t i o n Bruner has shown t h a t t h e r e i s a tendency f o r the p r o c e s s of p e r c e p t i o n to a c c o m p l i s h "1) a r e c o d i n g of the d i v e r s i t y of d a t a we e n c o u n t e r i n t o a s i m p l e r form t h a t b r i n g s i t w i t h i n t h e scope o f our l i m i t e d memory; 2) a g o i n g be-yond the i n f o r m a t i o n g i v e n to p r e d i c t f u t u r e e v e n t s and t h e r e b y m i n i m i z e s u r p r i s e " . ( B r u n e r , o p . c i t . ) P e r c e p -t i o n thus has an e c o n o m i c a l f u n c t i o n i n t h a t , a c t i n g t h r o u g h l a n g u a g e , i t conduces to s t e r e o t y p i n g . Or, a l t e r n a t i v e l y , i t can be s a i d t h a t p e r c e p t i o n i n i t s s t e r e o t y p i n g f u n c t i o n i s a t t i t u d i n a l . A p e r s o n ' s a t t i -t u d e s , as a s c e r t a i n e d , say, by q u e s t i o n n a i r e or o p i n i o n s u r v e y , are a r e f l e c t i o n of h i s h a b i t u a l o r d e r i n g c a t e -g o r i e s f o r the d a t a of e x p e r i e n c e . These a t t i t u d e s or d i s p o s i t i o n s to a c t and p e r c e i v e are of c o u r s e amenable to change i n a v a r i e t y of ways; by f o r c e maj e u r e , by p e r s u a s i v e communication, by f l u x i n the f i e l d o f p e r c e p -t i o n and by changes i n the a p p e r c e p t i v e mass and v a l u e s t r u c t u r e o f the p e r s o n a l i t y . I t might a l s o be hypo-t h e s i z e d t h a t change might o c c u r through simple i n t e n s i -72 f i c a t i o n ( s h a r p e n i n g ) o f p e r c e p t i o n a s , say, i n the case o f combat r e l a t i o n s h i p s o f negro and w h i t e American s o l -d i e r s e f f e c t i n g a t t i t u d i n a l change and p r e j u d i c e r e d u c -t i o n t h r o u g h d i m i n u t i o n o f s t e r e o t y p i n g . W i t h i n the d i s c i p l i n e of s o c i a l p s y c h o l o g y a num-ber of t h e o r i e s are c u r r e n t w i t h r e s p e c t t o a t t i t u d e change based upon a g e n e r a l p r i n c i p l e of tendencjr t o b a l -ance between s e l f and e n v i r o n m e n t , where s e l f i s i n f e r r e d from i t s a s p e c t o f a t t i t u d e ( Z a j o n c , l o c . c i t . ) N o t a b l e among t h e s e t h e o r i e s are t h o s e of A b e l s o n and Rosenberg ( b a l a n c e t h e o r y ) ( l o c . c i t . ) , F e s t i n g e r ( d i s s o n a n c e t h e o r y ) ( o p . c i t . ) and Osgood and Tannenbaum ( c o n g r u i t y t h e o r y ) ( l o c . c i t . ) . The sense o f t h e s e t h e o r i e s can perhaps be g r a s p e d from the f o l l o w i n g q u o t a t i o n : T h i s t h i r d model of a t t i t u d e change, d e v i s e d by A b e l s o n and Rosenberg (19 5 8 ) , i s v e r y l i k e the c o n g r u i t y model, b u t , at s e v e r a l c r u c i a l p o i n t s , d i f f e r e n t assumptions are made. We b e g i n w i t h the now fam-i l i a r n o t i o n t h a t the mind c o n t a i n s c o g n i t i v e elements which are such t h i n g s as p e r s o n s , c o n c e p t s , i n s t i -t u t i o n s , and groups, and t h a t such elements can be named. As i n the c o n g r u i t y model, though not i n F e s t i n g e r ' s d i s s o n a n c e model, i t i s assumed t h a t c o g n i t i v e elements toward which p e o p l e have a t t i t u d e s can be a s s i g n e d p o s i t i v e (+), n e u t r a l ( 0 ) , and n e g a t i v e (-) s i g n s . In a d d i t i o n t o e l e m e n t s , the mind con-t a i n s r e l a t i o n s , and t h e s e may be p o s i -t i v e ( p ) , as i n "x l i k e s y" or "x causes y " ; n e g a t i v e ( n ) , as i n "x d i s l i k e s y" or "x p r e v e n t s y_" ; or n u l l ( 0 ) , as i n "x_ i s i n d i f f e r e n t t o y" or "x Is uncon-n e c t e d w i t h y_" . The p o s i t i v e and neg-a t i v e r e l a t i o n s are e x a c t l y e q u i v a l e n t t o the a s s o c i a t i v e and d i s s o c i a t i v e bonds o f the c o n g r u i t y model. The n u l l r e l a -t i o n i s s i m p l y the case i n which no bond e x i s t s i n the c o n g r u i t y model. In terms of i t s elements and r e l a t i o n s , t h e n , the b a l a n c e model i s i d e n t i c a l w i t h the con-g r u i t y model and, as we have seen, c l o s e l y s i m i l a r t o d i s s o n a n c e t h e o r y . There a r e , however, i m p o r t a n t n o v e l t i e s i n the d e f i -n i t i o n o f a s t a t e of e q u i l i b r i u m , i n the s t a t e m e n t of c o n d i t i o n s d i s t u r b i n g e q u i l -i b r i u m , and i n p r e d i c t e d outcomes. . . . There i s e q u i l i b r i u m so l o n g as elements of i d e n t i c a l s i g n are l i n k e d by p o s i t i v e r e l a t i o n s or by n u l l r e l a t i o n s (not l i n k e d at a l l ) , and so l o n g as e l e -ments of o p p o s i t e s i g n are l i n k e d by n e g a t i v e r e l a t i o n s or by n u l l r e l a t i o n s . . . . (Brown, a, pp.60-61) In F r e u d i a n t h e o r y , as i n Lewin's and i n M i l l e r ' s c o n f l i c t t h e o r i e s , we have a c l e a r a n t e c e d e n t of the p r e s e n t c o n c e r n w i t h i m b a l a n c e , but a g a i n the a n t e c e d e n t does not make the contemporary d e v e l o p -ment s u p e r f l u o u s . B a l a n c e t h e o r y ex-p l o r e s c o g n i t i v e a d j u s t m e n t s and e s p e c i -a l l y a t t i t u d e change; c o n f l i c t t h e o r y e x p l o r e s a c t i o n s of approach and a v o i d -ance i n b o t h a n i m a l s and man; F r e u d i a n t h e o r y e x p l o r e s a range of extreme and sometimes p a t h o l o g i c a l a djustments i n both mind and body which o c c u r as r e -a c t i o n s to i n t e n s e i m b a l a n c e . There i s encouragement i n t h i s o v e r l a p of i d e a s . There i s the promise t h a t p s y c h o l o g y w i l l produce something more s a t i s f y i n g than a 7i+ c o l l e c t i o n o f models f o r p a r t i c u l a r problems , t h a t i t w i l l f i n d a t r u l y g e n e r a l t h e o r y . (Brown , a, p . 81 ) The p o i n t f o r our p u r p o s e s i s l e s s a m b i t i o u s . I t i s t h a t the l i n k between a t t i t u d e s and p e r c e p t i o n s Is f i r m l y f o r g e d i n the form of a g e n e r a l tendency t o b a l a n c e . The s e l f - a t t i t u d e - p e r c e p t i o n - f i e l d c o n s t i t u t e s a two-way v e c -t o r system. On the one hand a t t i t u d e s m a n i p u l a t e , con-t r o l , or d i s t o r t p e r c e p t i o n of the f i e l d and, c o n v e r s e l y , f i e l d phenomena of s u f f i c i e n t s t r e n g t h to impress them-s e l v e s on the m o t o r - p e r c e p t u a l zone ( e . g . p a i n , danger) may l e a d t o a r e o r g a n i z a t i o n of a t t i t u d e s and, i n extrem-i s , of the s e l f - s t r u c t u r e . An a s s u m p t i o n c e n t r a l t o t h i s study can now be s t a t e d . I t i s t h i s . V a l u e s , i n the sense of the term e x p l a i n e d i n d e t a i l above, a f f e c t ( m o d i f y , i n f l u e n c e , d e t e r m i n e ) a t t i t u d e s as t h e s e are o b s e r v e d and e n c o u n t e r e d i n the m o t o r - p e r c e p t u a l zone. These a t t i t u d e s a f f e c t p e r c e p t i o n and hence the v a l e n c e c o l o u r i n g of the p e r -c e i v e d f i e l d . T h i s may be termed the a c t i v e f u n c t i o n of the p e r s o n a l i t y and the p a s s i v e f u n c t i o n of the f i e l d . I t i s one phase of the v a l u e - a t t i t u d e - p e r c e p t i o n sequence. The c o n v e r s e phase o c c u r s when f o r whatever r e a s o n v a l e n c e -c o l o u r i n g of the f i e l d a c t s upon p e r c e p t i o n so as to l e a d to an a t t i t u d i n a l change, which change, f o r the sake of 7 5 i n n e r c o n s i s t e n c y ( v i d e b a l a n c e t h e o r i e s pp. 7 3 above) r e s u l t s i n an u l t i m a t e v a l u e r e s t r u c t u r i n g ( p o s s i b l y a f t e r a p e r i o d o f a m b i v a l e n c e and i n n e r m o r a l c o n f l i c t ) . T h i s may be termed the a c t i v e f u n c t i o n of the f i e l d or the p a s s i v e f u n c t i o n o f the p e r s o n a l i t y . Both t y p e s o f sequence may be assumed t o o c c u r s u b j e c t to f i e l d and p e r s o n a l i t y c o n d i t i o n s but the i n t e r a c t i o n i s c o n s i s -t e n t l y dynamic even though t e n d i n g always toward an e q u i l i b r ium.^ T h i s l i n e o f r e a s o n i n g i m p l i e s t h a t a type of p s y c h o l o g i c a l d i s e q u i l i b r i u m or imbalance i s the mode or norm i n o r d i n a r y b e h a v i o u r . T h i s would be In f a c t the a t t i t u d i n a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of the c l a s s i c i s - o u g h t 3 dichotomy. A t e n s i o n n o r m a l l y o b t a i n s between an i n d i -v i d u a l ' s g e n e r a l c o n c e p t i o n of the d e s i r a b l e and the E q u i l i b r i u m i n the s p e c i a l sense n e c e s s a r y to t h i s t h e o r y c o u l d o c c u r o n l y i n two s e t s o f c i r c u m s t a n c e s . F i r s t l y , when p e r c e p t i o n was v o i d , i n the s t a t e s of u n c o n s c i o u s n e s s , d e a t h , and dreamless s l e e p and, s e c o n d l y , when the c o n t e n t s o f p e r c e p t i o n i n the waking or dream s t a t e were e n t i r e l y harmonious w i t h the t o t a l c o n c e p t i o n of the d e s i r a b l e of an e n t i r e l y i n t e g r a t e d p e r s o n a l i t y . T h i s l a t t e r s t a t e i s d i f f i c u l t t o e n v i s i o n and i s prob-a b l y comparable t o the I n d i a n n o t i o n of samadhi or Zen s a t o r i . I t can be seen t h a t the c o n d i t i o n s f o r v a l u e -a t t i t u d i n a l e q u i l i b r i u m c o n s t i t u t e what may be c l a s s i f i e d as end s t a t e . In the human c o n d i t i o n , t h a t i s . Not i n the s t a t e of " a n i m a l g r a c e " , v i d e Chap.LI. g i v e n c o n t e n t s o f e x p e r i e n c e as p r e s e n t e d t h r o u g h p e r c e p -t i o n . Such t e n s i o n might a c q u i r e a form o f pseudo-r e s o l u t i o n or p s e u d o - a g g r a v a t i o n t h r o u g h t h e use o f drugs or i n t o x i c a n t s o p e r a t i n g upon the p e r c e p t u a l f u n c t i o n but t h i s s t u d y i s c o n c e r n e d o n l y w i t h the normal c o n d i t i o n s of p e r c e p t i o n ( i . e . t h e waking s t a t e u n a f f e c t e d by drugs or psychos i s ) . G i v e n the t e n s i o n , which i s always i n the d i r e c -t i o n o f r e c o n c i l i a t i o n between the p e r c e i v e d f i e l d and the s e l f v a l u e s t r u c t u r e , i t f o l l o w s t h a t t h e r e i s f o r each i n d i v i d u a l an a t t i t u d i n a l s e t , which i s p r e d i s p o s i -t i o n o f the org a n i s m t o a c t or p e r c e i v e , and which s e t , d y n a m i c a l l y dependent upon p e r s o n a l i t y and e n v i r o n m e n t , i s i n t h e d i r e c t i o n o f m e l i o r a t i o n . In o t h e r words, each i n d i v i d u a l t e nds to r e s t r u c t u r e h i s b e h a v i o u r space i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h h i s v a l u e o r i e n t a t i o n and the most fu n d a m e n t a l and a c c e s s i b l e mode f o r a c c o m p l i s h i n g t h i s i s the mode o f p e r c e p t i o n . Such p e r c e p t i o n and i t s c o n c o m i t a n t a t t i t u d e s a r e of c o u r s e p h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l . But t h i s q u a l i t y need not imply d i s t o r t i o n . I t i s o f t e n s a i d t h a t a c c u r a c y of p e r c e p t i o n i n e v e r y d a y l i f e must be high' s i n c e s o c i a l i n t e r a c t i o n o r d i n a r i l y works s m o o t h l y . Cer-t a i n l y we need t o have and do have g r e a t a c c u r a c y i n f o r e s e e i n g what 77 p e o p l e w i l l do when we i n t e r a c t w i t h them, but much o f t h i s f o r e s i g h t i s at the l e v e l o f r o l e s r a t h e r t h a n o f p e r s o n a l i t i e s . A knowledge o f s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e a l o n e w i l l t a k e one smoothly t h r o u g h a l a r g e p a r t of the day's r o u t i n e . I f a man t a k e s h i s b r e a k f a s t i n a r e s t a u r a n t he needs t o know what to e x p e c t o f countermen or w a i t r e s s e s but i t i s not n e c e s s a r y t o know a n y t h i n g o f the p e r s o n s i n the r o l e s . I f he s t o p s a t t h e bank he needs t o know the f u n c t i o n s o f t e l l e r s but not t h e i r i n d i v i d u a l c h a r a c t e r s . (Brown, b, p. 637 ) N e v e r t h e l e s s t h i s s t u d y i s not e s s e n t i a l l y c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e a c c u r a c y or the e m p i r i c a l v a l i d i t y of s u b j e c t i v e p e r -c e p t i o n . I t i s enough t h a t t h e r e be p e r c e p t i o n and e v i -dence of t h a t p e r c e p t i o n . I f , s i m u l t a n e o u s l y , a s u b j e c t c o u l d a l s o p r o v i d e e v i d e n c e of h i s a t t i t u d e s or v a l u e s t h e r e would the n be the p o s s i b i l i t y o f d i r e c t i n f e r e n c e s about the i n t e r a c t i o n and i n t e r r e l a t i o n o f v a l u e s and p e r c e p t i o n s . None of t h i s i s i n t e n d e d t o deny the im p o r t a n c e of a c c u r a c y of p e r c e p t i o n i n the e m p i r i c a l v e r i f i c a t i o n s e n s e . On the c o n t r a r y , one i s e a s i l y p e r s u a d e d by Pepper's argument t o the e f f e c t t h a t a c c u r a c y o f r e a l i t y p e r c e p t i o n i s e s s e n t i a l l y d e s i r a b l e (Pepper pp . 4 3 8 - 4-51 ) . I t i s i m p o r t a n t , however, to keep c o n s t a n t l y i n mind the a f f e c t i v e , c o g n i t i v e , and c o n a t i v e d i s p o s i t i o n s of the organism w i t h i n i t s l i f e space which t o g e t h e r r e n d e r 78 p e r c e p t i o n such a complex and p r o t e a n human a c t i v i t y and one c o u l d doubt, or a t l e a s t r e l e g a t e t o the r e a l m s o f c u r i o s a , the o c c a s i o n s o f p u r e , u n i m p a i r e d , p e r f e c t appre-h e n s i o n o f o b j e c t i v e r e a l i t y . To sum up t h e n i t may be s a i d t h a t , d e s p i t e the p h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l n a t u r e o f v a l u e s and t h e i r a t t e n d a n t a t t i t u d e s , they a r e amenable t o o b s e r v a t i o n t h r o u g h mani-f e s t a t i o n i n the m o t o r - p e r c e p t u a l r e g i o n . Such o b s e r v a -t i o n s y i e l d i n f e r e n c e s about v a l u e s and a t t i t u d e s . The a t t i t u d i n a l s e t o f the m o t o r - p e r c e p t u a l zone i m p a r t s a b i a s to the p e r c e p t i o n of the f i e l d . The zone and i t s s e l f - s t r u c t u r e i s not autonomous, however, and may a l s o be a c t e d upon by s t i m u l i from t h e f i e l d . P e r c e p t i o n i s thus amenable t o c o r r e c t i o n or change. T h i s change may in d u c e a t t i t u d i n a l change and, u l t i m a t e l y , v a l u e change. The r e l a t i o n s h i p between v a l u e s and p e r c e p t i o n thus runs i n two d i r e c t i o n s . The p e r s i s t e n c e over time o f any p a r t i c u l a r d i r e c t i o n or v e c t o r i s f u n c t i o n a l upon b o t h the p e r s o n a l i t y and the h a b i t u a l n a t u r e of the f i e l d . I t i s c o n s i s t e n t w i t h the emerging p o s i t i o n to r e f e r b r i e f l y to some e x p e r i m e n t a l e v i d e n c e on p e r c e p t i o n and t o take note of the d i s t i n c t i o n made by Bruner and Postman ( l o c . c i t . ) between auto c h t h o n o u s and b e h a v i o u r a l d e t e r m i n a n t s of p e r c e p t i o n . T r e a t i n g the d i s t i n c t i o n f i r s t : a u tochthonous or s t r u c t u r a l d e t e r m i n a n t s are 79 t h o s e which a r e e s s e n t i a l l y p h y s i o l o g i c a l , i_.e_. r e l a t e d t o s t i m u l i e f f e c t s on r e c e p t o r s , a f f e r e n t n e u r o n s , and a c t i v i t y i n the s e n s o r y c o r t e x . B e h a v i o u r a l or m o t i v a -t i o n a l d e t e r m i n a n t s on the o t h e r hand a r e more c l e a r l y p s y c h o l o g i c a l and r e l a t e t o - t h e needs, t e n s i o n s , v a l u e s and g e n e r a l phenomenology of the p e r c e i v e r . They are u n d e r s t o o d as c o n s t i t u t i n g a c e n t r a l d i r e c t i v e s t a t e . T h i s s t a t e i s a k i n t o t h a t d e s c r i b e d i n the f o r e g o i n g argument as an a t t i t u d i n a l s e t . I t i s the d i s p o s i t i o n of the m o t o r - p e r c e p t u a l zone i n i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h f i e l d f a c t o r s . Our model thus a l l o w s f o r b o t h a u t o c h t h o n o u s and b e h a v i o u r a l a s p e c t s of p e r c e p t i o n . S e c o n d l y , w i t h r e g a r d t o e x p e r i m e n t a l e v i d e n c e i n l i n e w i t h the d i r e c t i v e s t a t e t h e o r y , t h e r e may be p r e -s e n t e d f i v e r a t h e r c l a s s i c h y p o t h e s e s which have r e c e i v e d some e m p i r i c a l s u p p o r t . These are now l i s t e d : 1. B o d i l y needs tend to d e t e r m i n e what i s p e r -ce l v e d . Experiment was based on r e s p o n s e s to f o o d s t i m u l i ( p i c -t u r e s ) a f t e r d e p r i v a t i o n . L e v i n e , C h e i n and Murphy, 1942. ( l o c . c i t . ) 4 The wording o f the h y p o t h e s e s f o l l o w s A l l p o r t ( q . v . ) . 80 2. Reward and punishment a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the p e r c e i v i n g o f o b j e c t s t e n d t o d e t e r m i n e what i s p e r c e i v e d . They a l s o t e n d t o d e t e r m i n e i t s a p p a r e n t magnitude and i t s speed o f r e c o g n i t i o n . Rewards i n the i n i t i a l S c h a f e r and Murphy e x p e r i m e n t s were s m a l l sums o f money (punishment by s u b t r a c t i o n ) and candy i n the l a t e r Rigby c o n f i r m a t i o n s . P i c t u r e and l e t t e r r e c o g n i t i o n s were t h e p e r c e p t u a l mode. S c h a f e r and Murphy 1943. Rigby and Rigby 1952. ( l o c . c i t . ) 3. The v a l u e s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l t e n d t o d e t e r m i n e the speed w i t h which words r e l a t e d t o t h o s e v a l u e s are r e c o g n i z e d . V a l u e s were measured by the A l l p o r t Vernon i n s t r u m e n t (q_.v.) and p e r c e p t u a l s t i m u l i were words p r e s e n t e d t a c h i s -t o s c o p i c a l l y . H y p o t h e s i s s t r o n g l y s u p p o r t e d . Postman, Bruner and M c G i n n i e s , 1948. ( l o c . c i t . ) 4. The v a l u e of o b j e c t s to the i n d i v i d u a l t e nds to d e t e r m i n e t h e i r p e r c e i v e d m a gnitudes. C h i l d r e n p e r c e i v e d c o i n s c o r r e l a t i v e l y w i t h t h e i r economic s t a t u s . Poor c h i l d r e n saw c o i n s as b e i n g l a r g e r . R e p l i -c a t e d and c o n f i r m e d f o r f o o d ( c o r r e l a t i v e w i t h l i k i n g ) by Beams and Thompson 1952. Bruner and Goodman 1947. ( l o c . c i t . ) 81 5. The p e r s o n a l i t y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f the i n d i -v i d u a l p r e d i s p o s e him t o p e r c e i v e t h i n g s i n a manner con-s i s t e n t w i t h t h o s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . Numerous e x p e r i m e n t s a r e s u p p o r t i v e o f t h i s h y p o t h e s i s . In p a r t i c u l a r , f a c t o r a n a l y t i c s t u d i e s by T h u r s t o n e 1944 and C a t t e l l and Wenig 1952 ( l o c . c i t . ) F a c t o r s a l l i e d w i t h m i s p e r c e p t i o n , o p e r a t i o n a l l y d e f i n e d , i n c l u d e d dom-i n a n c e d r i v e , sex d r i v e , and g e n e r a l n e u r o t i c i s m . D e s p i t e the f a c t t h a t t h e r e w i l l be o c c a s i o n to c r i t i c i z e the A l l p o r t - V e r n o n measure below ( c f . Ch. VII p.268 ) i t i s perhaps the t h i r d of the above h y p o t h e s e s t h a t i s of l a r g e s t I n t e r e s t i n s o f a r as i t c o n f i r m s the d e t e r m i n i n g e f f e c t o f v a l u e s upon p e r c e p t i o n v i a the mode of a d i r e c t i v e s t a t e . A c c o r d i n g t o the g e n e r a l c o n c e p t o u t l i n e s i n F i g . 11.10 (p.62) where V = v a l u e o r i e n t a t i o n and v = v a l e n c e c o l o u r i n g o f the f i e l d t h i s i s e q u i v a l e n t , i n Bruner-Postman t e r m i n o l o g y , to the b e h a v i o u r a l or m o t i -v a t i o n a l c o n d i t i o n where v = ( f ) V. The c o n v e r s e p o s t u -l a t e , t h a t V = ( f ) v, would the n be analogous to the autoch t h o n o u s c o n d i t i o n of p e r c e p t i o n . Of c o u r s e the g e n e r a l i z e d model now i n d i s c u s s i o n r e f e r s o n l y to a h y p o t h e t i c a l and u n r e a l s i n g l e - v a l u e c o n d i t i o n where t h a t s e c t o r of an a c t o r ' s f i e l d and p e r s o n a l i t y p e r t i n e n t a l o n e to a s i n g l e g e n e r a l i z e d c o n c e p t i o n o f the d e s i r a b l e and i t s c o n c o m i t a n t m o t i v a t i o n p a t t e r n i s b e i n g c o n s i d e r e d . 82 To be o f p r a c t i c a l i m p o r t the c o n c e p t i o n must be amended to a l l o w f o r the more normal and complex s t a t e o f mul-t i p l e - m o t i v a t i o n and m u l t i p l e - d e t e r m i n a t i o n . In t h i s c o n d i t i o n i t i s more r e a s o n a b l e to t a l k i n terms of v a l u e o r i e n t a t i o n s (V ) and c o m p o s i t e v a l e n c e s (v ). I t must o o be n o t e d t h a t , under t h i s c o n c e p t i o n , c o m p l e x i t y can a r i s e from two s o u r c e s : f i r s t l y , from the number of v a l u e s h e l d i n the p e r s o n a l i t y system t o g e t h e r w i t h the mode of t h e i r h o l d i n g ( i n i t s t u r n a complex f u n c t i o n o f the v a l u e i n t e g r a t i o n o f the p e r s o n a l i t y ) and, s e c o n d l y , from the c o n t e n t s of p e r c e p t i o n p r e s e n t e d by the h a b i t -u a l s t r u c t u r e o f the f i e l d . F i g - I I I . l below would be r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f i n d e p e n d e n t v a l u e s i t u a t i o n s f o r two a c t o r s , and A , e n t i r e l y d i v o r c e d from c o n t a c t w i t h each o t h e r or w i t h each o t h e r ' s e n v i r o n m e n t . The v e c -t o r s r e p r e s e n t , r e s p e c t i v e l y , the two t y p e s o f p e r c e p -t u a l d e t e r m i n a t i o n . In b o t h i n s t a n c e s the s t r e n g t h o f the v e c t o r , per h y p o t h e s i s 5 above, i s a dependent v a r i -a b l e of p e r s o n a l i t y a s p e c t s o f the a c t o r . The v e c t o r s are a l s o dependent upon the a u t o c h t h o n o u s or s t r u c t u r a l f i e l d c o n d i t i o n s . F i g . I I I . l P e r c e p t u a l O r i e n t a t i o n s Group B e h a v i o u r , Needs, and P e r c e p t i o n s The model t o t h i s p o i n t , s o l i p s i s t i c as i t may-be, i s u n r e a l i n s o f a r as i n d i v i d u a l s can n e v e r be c o n s i d e r e d i n vacuo or i n d e p e n d e n t o f s o c i a l c o n t e x t . Indeed i f s t r e s s has p r e v i o u s l y been p l a c e d upon i n d i v i d u a l a c t o r s i t i s because t h e r e w i l l be a tendency f o r t h i s m o l e c u l a r view to become i n c r e a s i n g l y b l u r r e d and s u p e r -seded i n a more molar, s o c i o l o g i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e . In t h sense o f f o r m a l a b s t r a c t i o n , however, no problem i s p r e -s e n t e d by e x p a n s i o n o f the v a l u e c o n c e p t from s i n g u l a r to d y a d i c , group and s o c i a l p r o p o r t i o n s . F i g - I I I . 2 below i n d i c a t e s s y m b o l i c a l l y the d y a d i c v e r s i o n of the model and f u r t h e r d i m e n s i o n s would be d e v e l o p e d m u t a t i s mutandis i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h s e t t h e o r y . F i g . I I I . 2 I n t e r a c t i v e V a l u a t i o n a l F i e l d s -- D y a d i c Case s h a r e d f i e l d and i n t e r a c t i n g p e r c e p t i o n and v a l u e s s h a r e d f i e l d , n o n - i n t e r a c t i n j p e r c e p t i o n The n a t u r e of man as a s o c i a l b e i n g and the dependence and d e r i v a t i o n of h i s v a l u e s upon the group and the so c i e t y which s u s t a i n s the group a r e p o i n t s which h a r d l y need t o be p r e s s e d . As H a r d i n g e x p r e s s e s i t : O r d i n a r y o b s e r v a t i o n s show the i n f i n i t e v a r i e t y of i n d i v i d u a l v a l u e systems t h a t d e v e l o p among members of a complex s o c i e t y . Without the o p p o r t u n i t y g i v e n by the c u l t u r e of a group, e x t r a o r d i n a r -i l y few human p o t e n t i a l i t i e s would be r e a l i s e d i n any i n d i v i d u a l l i f e t i m e , as the c o n d i t i o n of the ' w i l d c h i l d r e n ' s u g g e s t s . [ f e r a l s t u d i e s ] But once a good range of p o s s i b l e r e s p o n s e s to the environment had been s e t g o i n g the c h i l d ' s developments of i n t e r e s t and se n t i m e n t may o f t e n c a r r y him, i n one 85 d i r e c t i o n or a n o t h e r , t o p r e f e r e n c e s and p o i n t s o f view i n which he cannot e x p e c t to e n j o y the s y m p a t h e t i c u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the m a j o r i t y o f t h o s e among whom — and t h r o u g h whose h e l p as c a r r i e r s o f c u l t u r e -- h i s e a r l y development o c c u r r e d . On the o t h e r hand, t h e i r s e r v i c e s t o him w i l l have i n c l u d e d t h a t o f p u t t i n g him i n t o t o u c h w i t h a g r e a t v a r i e t y o f sub-groups o r g a n i s e d around the s p e c i a l i s e d development o f p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t s and systems o f v a l u e ; a n y t h i n g from a e r o -m o d e l l i n g t o work In the m i s s i o n f i e l d . H i s f a m i l y and i t s f r i e n d s w i l l i n c l u d e members and former members o f a l a r g e number o f s u b - g r o u p s , and h i s s c h o o l , h i s c h u r c h , h i s yo u t h o r g a n i s a t i o n s and h i s r e a d i n g m a t t e r w i l l o f f e r him c o n t a c t w i t h v e r y many more. ( H a r d i n g , pp.57-8) The " s o c i e t y " o f immediate i n t e r e s t t o t h i s s t u d y i s the s o c i e t y , w i t h i t s c o n c o m i t a n t c u l t u r e , o f the work group to which an i n d i v i d u a l b e l o n g s , or p e r c e i v e s h i m s e l f as b e l o n g i n g . T h i s p o i n t w i l l be r e t u r n e d t o i n the next c h a p t e r . For the moment i t w i l l s u f f i c e t o s t r e s s the p s y c h o l o g i c a l d e f i n i t i o n o f such a group and t o p o i n t t o i t s import f o r the development o f any i n d i v i d u a l v a l u e o r i e n t a t i o n . "The term 'sub-group' can u s e f u l l y i n c l u d e , not o n l y o r g a n i s e d groups w i t h a d e f i n e d s t r u c t u r e , but even an I l l - d e f i n e d vague u n i o n of p e o p l e who are aware of bonds of common i n t e r e s t and o u t l o o k h o l d i n g them t o -g e t h e r at l e a s t l o o s e l y and f o r some purposes and o c c a -s i o n s ; i t i n c l u d e s groups w i t h less,, d e f i n e d aims than those of what s o c i o l o g i s t s c a l l ' a s s o c i a t i o n s ' , i n which 86 a f a i r l y c l e a r g o a l o f a c t i o n u n i t e s and o r g a n i s e s p e o p l e . .. The e s s e n t i a l i s some awareness of s h a r e d v a l u e s .... Not o n l y I n t e r e s t s , i n t h e u s u a l sense o f the word, but the whole s t r u c t u r e o f an I n d i v i d u a l ' s v a l u e s , from i t s main b r a n c h e s t o i t s f i n e s t growing p o i n t s , w i l l be a f -f e c t e d by the sub-groups o f which he i s a member ... " ( I b i d , pp.59, 60 our i t a l i c s ) Subgroups such as t h e s e may or may not be f o r m a l l y s t r u c t u r e d . That i s , t h e y may form a p a r t o f an o r g a n i z -a t i o n which can be r e p r e s e n t e d on a s t r u c t u r a l - f u n c t i o n a l c h a r t , e_.g_. as a department or agency, or th e y may be a p a r t of the i n f o r m a l system of i n t e r p e r s o n a l c o n t a c t s which o c c u r s w i t h i n any o r g a n i z a t i o n ( S e l z n i c k , l o c . c i t . ) . A d i s t i n c t i o n , however, needs t o be made between sub-groups o f which an i n d i v i d u a l i s de f a c t o a v o l u n t a r y mem-ber and t h o s e of which he i s , as i t were, o n l y de j u r e a v o l u n t a r y member. The former comprise genuine i n t e r e s t g r o u p s , such as c l u b or s o c i a l " s e t " ; w h i l e the l a t t e r would i n c l u d e such subgroups as t h o s e d e r i v i n g from the work s e t t i n g . The l a t t e r may not be at any time e x a c t l y " t o the c h o o s i n g " of the member though h i s membership, o s t e n s i b l y v o l u n t a r y , i s conduced by a v a r i e t y o f r e a l i t y c o n s t r a i n t s such as economic p r e s s u r e or even f a u t e de mieux. The i n t e r e s t group s i t u a t i o n would l e a d us to 87 e x p e c t h i g h c o n g r u i t y between i n d i v i d u a l and group v a l u e s i n t h a t s e c t o r of the v a l u e o r i e n t a t i o n p e r t i n e n t t o the group; th e c o n s t r a i n e d s i t u a t i o n , on t h e o t h e r hand, does not a l l o w of such an e x p e c t a t i o n though one c o u l d p o s t u l a t e a c e r t a i n minimum c o n g r u i t y below which the r e -l a t i o n s h i p of i n d i v i d u a l t o group c o u l d not be s u s t a i n e d . Between t h i s v a l u e c o n g r u i t y f l o o r and t h e c e i l i n g t y p i c -a l o f t h e i n t e r e s t group one might e x p e c t a range o f v a l u e o r i e n t a t i o n w i t h disharmony and d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n w i t h the job b e i n g c o r r e l a t e d w i t h the l e v e l o f v a l u e c o n s e n s u s . Man as s o c i a l and o r g a n i z a t i o n a l a n i m a l i s pos-s e s s e d o f c e r t a i n s o c i a l needs and d e r i v e s c e r t a i n s o c i a l s a t i s f a c t i o n s among w h i c h , i t i s s u b m i t t e d , are the need f o r a v a l u e o r i e n t a t i o n and t h e s a t i s f a c t i o n s d e r i v e d from i t s r e i n f o r c e m e n t i n the group s e t t i n g . T h i s r e i n -f o r cement i s v e r y l a r g e l y a m a t t e r of p e r c e p t i o n . Such p e r c e p t i o n may have q u a s i - o b j e c t i v e r e f e r e n t s i n the form of s a l a r y awards, medals, t i t l e s and o t h e r forms o f o r g a n -i z a t i o n a l or group r e c o g n i t i o n , but i t Is perhaps more commonly s u b j e c t i v e l y sensed than o b j e c t i v e l y a s c e r t a i n e d . As i n d i v i d u a l s cannot p r o p e r l y be u n d e r s t o o d i n i s o l a t i o n so p e r c e p t i o n s and, at a f u r t h e r remove, v a l -ues, need to 'be u n d e r s t o o d i n a r e l a t i o n a l s e n s e . S h e r i f and S h e r i f (op. c i t . ) and o t h e r s use the p h r a s e frame of r e f e r e n c e to d e s c r i b e t h i s a s p e c t of e x p e r i e n c e and one 88 can adopt t h i s p h r a s e as b e i n g u s e f u l s i n c e i t i s a p p l i -c a b l e t o b o t h a t t i t u d e s and p e r c e p t i o n s . The frame o f r e f e r e n c e n o t i o n i s c l a s s i c and i s r o o t e d i n t h e work o f t h e G e s t a l t p s y c h o l o g i s t s . Thus, K o h l e r i n 1929 was showing how p e r c e p t i o n c o u l d be u n d e r s t o o d as the o r g a n -i z a t i o n o f a f u n c t i o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p between s i m u l t a n -e o u s l y o c c u r r i n g e x t e r n a l and i n t e r n a l ( a u t o c h t h o n o u s and m o t i v a t i o n a l ) f a c t o r s . ( K o h l e r , Ch . IX ) L i k e w i s e Lewin, i n 1935, was d e m o n s t r a t i n g the d e t e r m i n i n g e f f e c t o f b a c k g r o u n d , i n the sense of s o c i a l r e f e r e n c e group, upon a c t i o n . ( L e w i n , l o c . c i t . ) The i n t e r p l a y and r e l a t i v i t y can a l s o be s i m p l y o b s e r v e d i n G e s t a l t f i g u r e -ground diagrams and S h e r i f has c o n d u c t e d a u r a l e x p e r i m e n t s to c o n f i r m the f i g u r e - g r o u n d i n t e r a c t i o n and the f u n c t i o n o f the ground as p s y c h o l o g i c a l frame o f r e f e r e n c e ( S h e r i f , p . 3 9 ) . I t can be r e a s o n a b l y c o n c l u d e d t h a t the frame o f r e f e r e n c e i s a s o c i a l d e t e r m i n a n t o f p e r c e p t i o n . One w i l l see, i n f a c t , what one i s a c c u l t u r a t e d to see. What one i s accustomed to see. Now an e s s e n t i a l a t t r i b u t e o f custom and c u l t u r e , even s u b - c u l t u r e , Is r e l a t i v e p e r s i s -t e n c e over t i m e . I f t h i s were not so v a r i a b i l i t y and f l u x would be such as t o p r e v e n t the phenomenon becoming d i s c e r n i b l e . T h i s q u a l i t y of p e r s i s t e n c e or I n v a r i a b i l i t y , com-b i n e d w i t h the f a c t t h a t the f u n c t i o n of a frame of 89 r e f e r e n c e i s t o e s t a b l i s h norms, goes t o e x p l a i n t h e r o l e o f v a l u e - a t t i t u d e s i n p e r c e p t i o n . The frame o f r e f e r -ence and i t s a s s o c i a t e d norms ar e b o t h v a l u e - d e t e r m i n e d and v a l u e - d e t e r m i n i n g but i t can be h y p o t h e s i z e d , on the b a s i s o f the f o r e g o i n g argument, t h a t the more e s t a b l i s h e d the group norms, the more r i g i d the frame o f r e f e r e n c e , the more v a l u e s would t e n d t o be d e t e r m i n e d r a t h e r t han d e t e r m i n i n g and the more the a u t o c h t h o n o u s , a c t i v e f u n c -t i o n of the v^ f i e l d would be l i k e l y t o o b t a i n . A g a i n , the l e s s , i n Riesman's t e r m s , would s u b j e c t s t e n d t o be i n n e r - d i r e c t e d , or at l e a s t o v e r t l y so. Moreover, the v e r y s o c i a l n a t u r e o f man and h i s c o n s t a n t dependence upon s o c i a l e n vironment b i a s e s the argument i n the d i r e c -t i o n of (v ) f i e l d d e t e r m i n i s m , the moreso when the v a r i -o ous s e l f components o f the a g g r e g a t e f i e l d (V ...V ) p 0 , 0 1 n t h e m s e l v e s a l r e a d y r e p r e s e n t i n c o r p o r a t e d norms and s o c i a l v a l u e s . Even w i t h r e g a r d s i m p l y t o v i s u a l p e r c e p t i o n : I f the p e r c e p t i o n of even a l i n e i s i n f l u e n c e d by o t h e r l i n e s around i t , i t i s n a t u r a l t o e x p e c t t h a t our p e r c e p t i o n and subsequent b e h a v i o u r w i l l be m o d i f i e d i n a f u n d a m e n t a l l y s i m i l a r way when we are i n a s i t u a -t i o n f a c i n g o t h e r p e r s o n s i n some d e f i n i t e r e l a t i o n s h i p — one of com-p e t i t i o n , c o o p e r a t i o n , or any f a m i l -i a r type of group i n t e r a c t i o n . I t i s - u n l i k e l y t h a t we can haye p e o p l e around us i n d i f f e r e n t r e l a t i o n s h i p s as s t i m u l a t i n g agents and not be i n -f l u e n c e d i n our e x p e r i e n c e even by 90 t h e i r mere p r e s e n c e . And t h i s i s not a m e c h a n i c a l a d d i t i v e i n f l u e n c e . The p r e s e n c e o f arrowheads a t t h e e x t r e m i t i e s o f l i n e s i s not m e r e l y something added t o our e x p e r i e n c e of the l i n e ; i t a f f e c t s our p e r -c e p t i o n o f i t s v e r y l e n g t h . Sim-i l a r l y , t h e p r e s e n c e o f o t h e r p e r -sons does something more than add to the p e r c e p t u a l f i e l d . The f i e l d may be r e c a s t . ( i b i d . p.80) Norms S i n c e the f o r e g o i n g d i s c u s s i o n has depended heav-i l y upon the n o t i o n o f norm i t may be w e l l t o d i f f e r e n -t i a t e t h i s from v a l u e . Norms are p e r c e i v e d group expec-t a n c i e s f o r b e h a v i o u r but t h e y f i n d some common ground w i t h v a l u e i n t h a t t h e y are p r e s c r i p t i v e and c a r r y a con-n o t a t i o n of "ought". To the e x t e n t t h a t they bear t h i s c o n n o t a t i o n and t o the e x t e n t t h a t the norm i s a c c e p t e d and I n c o r p o r a t e d by an i n d i v i d u a l t o t h a t e x t e n t i t i s f o r him a g e n e r a l i z e d c o n c e p t i o n o f the d e s i r a b l e and, i n s o f a r as the group can m o t i v a t e v i a i t s s a n c t i o n s of reward and punishment, i t i s a m o t i v a t i n g d e t e r m i n a n t o f b e h a v i o u r . To t h i s e x t e n t norms may be v a l u e s . They are not v a l u e s , however, u n l e s s and u n t i l the i n d i v i d u a l s u b s c r i b e s t o them r a t h e r than merely submits t o them under group i n f l u e n c e . Norms can be ranked i n o r d e r o f import f o r the group and i n t h i s sense norms can be 91 e l e v a t e d at the s o c i e t a l l e v e l ( v i a mores and customs) t o the s t a t u s of laws. Law i s t h u s a k i n d of s o c i a l v a l u e but v a l u e i s d i f f e r e n t i a t e d from norm by v i r t u e o f I t s I n d i v i d u a l , p h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l c h a r a c t e r . Norms can a l s o be d i s t i n g u i s h e d from v a l u e on the continuum of s p e c i f i c -i t y - g e n e r a l i t y (see b e l o w ) . A nother s u b t l e t y of d i f f e r e n c e i s t h a t norms are p r i m a r i l y p e r c e p t u a l phenomena w h i l e v a l u e s can be s a i d to be p r i m a r i l y c o n c e p t u a l . A g a i n , one w i l l c o n c u r w i t h Brown: "A s o c i a l norm i s a r u l e , w r i t t e n or u n w r i t t e n , p r e s c r i b i n g p r o p e r b e h a v i o r and, s i n c e most b e h a v i o r i s p r o p e r , t h e norm a l s o d e s c r i b e s u s u a l b e h a v i o r . I t i s b o t h r i g h t and customary f o r m o t o r i s t s i n the U n i t e d S t a t e s t o d r i v e on the r i g h t - h a n d s i d e o f the r o a d and b o t h r i g h t and customary f o r p a r e n t s t o s u p p o r t t h e i r own young c h i l d r e n . The e x i s t e n c e o f a c l e a r norm p r o v i d e s always an o p p o r t u n i t y f o r the e x p r e s s i o n and p e r c e p t i o n o f i n d i -v i d u a l p e r s o n a l i t y . . . . " (Brown, b, p. 64) In a sense then the norm r e p r e s e n t s a c o n d i t i o n of p e r c e p t u a l e q u i l -i b r i u m . The f i e l d v a l e n c e s a r e , as i t were, i n a " s t e a d y s t a t e " . Marked d e p a r t u r e from t h i s s t e a d y s t a t e i s a c o n d i t i o n of d e v i a n c e and i s accompanied by f a c i l i t y of p e r c e p t i o n (emergence of f i g u r e from g r o u n d ) . The c o n c e r n of t h i s s t u d y , however, i s w i t h 92 n o r m a l i t y r a t h e r t h a n w i t h d e v i a n c e and i t i s c o n t e n d e d t h a t the normal c o n d i t i o n o f s t e a d y s t a t e p e r c e p t i o n i s dependent upon r o l e s . Newcomb s u p p o r t s t h i s c o n t e n t i o n w i t h h i s d e s c r i p t i o n o f the growing boy: The m o t i v a t e d r o l e b e h a v i o r s which the boy i s a c q u i r i n g i n c l u d e p e r c e p t u a l as w e l l as p e r f o r m a n c e a s p e c t s . He i s l e a r n i n g new ways of l o o k i n g a t h i s s o c i a l w o r l d and at h i m s e l f . A f t e r a l l , h i s s o c i a l w o r l d i s composed l a r g e l y o f p e o p l e who e x p e c t him t o a c t l i k e a boy of a c e r t a i n age, and h i s p i c t u r e of i t i s d e t e r m i n e d by the demands which t h o s e p e o p l e make upon him. His s e l f -p i c t u r e i s n e c e s s a r i l y d e v e l o p e d i n r e -l a t i o n t o t h i s p i c t u r e o f h i s s o c i a l w o r l d .... And so, i n e v i t a b l y , the s e l f -and o t h e r — p i c t u r e s of a l l boys i n the same s o c i e t y are i d e n t i c a l — q u i t e the c o n t r a r y . I t i s o n l y t o say t h a t they a l l have c e r t a i n elements In common. In our s o c i e t y , f o r example, n e a r l y e v e r y boy comes t o view h i s s o c i a l w o r l d as one which approves a c e r t a i n amount of ' toughness', but which d i s a p p r o v e s e i t h e r t o o much or too l i t t l e of i t . W i l l y -n i l l y , h i s own s e l f - p i c t u r e must be b r o u g h t i n t o some s o r t of f o c u s w i t h t h i s k i n d of p i c t u r e of h i s s o c i a l w o r l d . . . . (Newcomb , p.412 ) Members of a s o c i e t y or a group manage to communicate w i t h one a n o t h e r about t h e m s e l v e s and o t h e r p e o p l e because they share the same frames o f r e f e r e n c e f o r p e r c e i v i n g -- namely, the system of p o s i -t i o n s and r o l e s .... ...A p e r s i s t e n t frame of r e f e r e n c e i s n o t h i n g more than the p e r c e p t u a l p a r t o f an a t t i t u d e .... (Newcomb, p.456 , p.457 ) I n t e r p e r s o n a l b e h a v i o u r and i n d i v i d u a l p e r c e p t i o n are thus r e l a t e d t h r o u g h the c o n c e p t o f r o l e . I t i s the r o l e w i t h i t s l e a r n e d frame o f r e f e r e n c e which d e t e r m i n e s modal p e r c e p t i o n . P e r s i s t i n g frames o f r e f e r e n c e become p e r -s i s t i n g components of a t t i t u d e (Newcomb, s u p r a ) and i t f o l l o w s t h a t a p e r s i s t e n c e o f v a l e n c e c o l o u r i n g w i l l t e n d towards d e t e r m i n a t i o n of v a l u e - o r i e n t a t i o n . To r e c a p i t u l a t e b r i e f l y , a t t e n t i o n has been d i r e c -t e d to the p a r t p l a y e d by frames o f r e f e r e n c e i n e s t a b -l i s h i n g s o c i a l p e r c e p t u a l norms. Norms were d i s t i n g u i s h -ed from v a l u e s . They would t e n d t o be more s i t u a t i o n -s p e c i f i c and l e s s g e n e r a l t h an v a l u e s (c_f. S m e l s e r , pp.24-27) and t o be more s t r i c t l y a p p l i c a b l e to s p e c i f i c f i e l d or v a l e n c e c o n d i t i o n s . Norms and frames o f r e f e r e n c e are however g e n e r a t e d w i t h i n the c o n t e x t of r o l e s . An o r g a n i z a t i o n Is a c o n t r i v e d s t r u c t u r i n g of r o l e s w i t h a c e r t a i n s t a b i l i t y and p e r s i s t e n c e over t i m e . I t f o l l o w s t h a t a member's p o s i t i o n w i t h i n an o r g a n i z a t i o n i s a s s o c -i a t e d w i t h a p e r c e p t u a l frame of r e f e r e n c e d e t e r m i n e d by h i s o r g a n i z a t i o n a l l o c a t i o n and r o l e . The Waffen SS s o l d i e r engaged i n combat may p e r c e i v e no d i s v a l u e or ab-n o r m a l i t y i n t r e a t i n g p r i s o n e r s a c c o r d i n g t o the Geneva C o n v e n t i o n w h i l e h i s o r g a n i z a t i o n a l comrade i n Bergen-B e l s e n might p e r c e i v e no d i s v a l u e i n c r e m a t i n g the same p r i s o n e r . 94 A l l o f t h i s i s not t o equate norms and v a l u e s but s i m p l y to p o s i t the i n f l u e n c e , p o s s i b l y d e t e r m i n i n g i n f l u -ence, o f the for m e r on the l a t t e r t h r o u g h the m o d a l i t i e s of r o l e and p e r c e p t i o n . I t i s e q u a l l y w i t h i n t h e con-ce p t o f v a l u e b e i n g p u r s u e d here t h a t the c o n v e r s e s i t u -a t i o n c o u l d o b t a i n , t h a t i s , t h a t norms can be d e t e r m i n e d by v a l u e - o r i e n t a t i o n . I t s h o u l d be n o t e d though t h a t t h i s l a t t e r sequence i s an i m p o s i t i o n o f i n d i v i d u a l upon group and, c o n s e q u e n t l y , can be c l a s s i f i e d as a l e a d e r s h i p a c t . One c o u l d argue t h a t a c t s o f f o l l o w e r s h i p might t e n d t o be more p r e v a l e n t t h a n a c t s o f l e a d e r s h i p and t h a t more of r o l e b e h a v i o u r c o u l d be c l a s s e d under the former r a t h e r t h a n t h e l a t t e r head. The r e l a t i o n s h i p between norms and v a l u e s i s to a c e r t a i n e x t e n t b l u r r e d by S h e r i f i n such s t a t e m e n t s as: "The p s y c h o l o g i c a l a n a l y s i s o f v a l u e s has shown us t h a t s o c i a l v a l u e s are s t a n d a r d i z e d a f f e c t i v e f i x a t i o n s ; a major p a r t of our l i k e s and d i s l i k e s t h e r e f o r e r e v o l v e s around them. The v a l u e s thus s e r v e as more or l e s s s t a b l e frames of r e f e r e n c e . C o n s e q u e n t l y , i n s o c i a l p s y c h o l o g i c a l phenomena, the s o c i a l v a l u e s are e s p e c i a l l y i m p o r t a n t frames of r e f e r e n c e " . ( S h e r i f , p.195) and, " S o c i a l v a l u e s f u r n i s h the i n d i v i d u a l w i t h a s e t of a f -f e c t i v e l y toned f i x a t i o n s . These f i x a t i o n s are what we c a l l s o c i a l a t t i t u d e s . S o c i a l a t t i t u d e s , once formed i n 95 t h e i n d i v i d u a l , s e r v e as frames o f r e f e r e n c e i n the s i t u -a t i o n s i n t o which t h e y e n t e r , d e t e r m i n i n g t o an Important degree the p r e f e r e n c e s or l i k e s and d i s l i k e s of t h e i n d i -v i d u a l " , ( i b i d . p.117) N e v e r t h e l e s s , a c o n s i s t e n t em-p h a s i s upon s o c i a l d e t e r m i n i s m u n d e r l i e s S h e r i f ' s work, an emphasis s t r e n g t h e n e d by the p r i n c i p l e o f i n t e r i o r i z a -t i o n or i n t e r n a l i z i n g s o c i a l norms so t h a t t h e y become "autonomous" f o r the i n d i v i d u a l ( i b i d . p . 4 6 , p.182; Brown, b, p.194; Newcomb, pp.223-5 , pp.308-9 i n t e r a l . ) . T h i s p r i n c i p l e s t r e n g t h e n s the argument f o r the predomin-ance o f r o l e over p e r s o n a l i t y i n the d e t e r m i n a t i o n of v a l u e - o r i e n t a t i o n . The p r o c e s s of i n c o r p o r a t i o n of s o c i a l norms i n the growing p e r s o n a l i t y has been d e a l t w i t h a l s o by P i a g e t . P i a g e t , however, tends t o t a l k l e s s of v a l u e s as d e f i n e d i n t h i s s t u d y and more of m o r a l i t y or the a p p l i c a -t i o n o f v a l u e s t a n d a r d s , thus t a k i n g the argument i n t o more p h i l o s o p h i c a l r e a c h e s . His i n t e r e s t i s n e v e r t h e l e s s w i t h the p s y c h o l o g i c a l a s p e c t o f v a l u e and he i s c o n c e r n e d t o show how v a l u e s and even v a l u e s t a n d a r d s are I n c o r p o r -a t e d t h r o u g h s o c i a l p r o c e s s . " ... And w i l l not c o o p e r -a t i o n between a d u l t and c h i l d , i n so f a r as i t can be r e a l i z e d and i n so f a r as i t i s f a c i l i t a t e d by c o - o p e r a -t i o n between c h i l d r e n t h e m s e l v e s , s u p p l y the key t o the 9 6 t h e I n t e r l o r i z a t i o n o f commands and t o t h e autonomy o f the m o r a l c o n s c i o u s n e s s ? . . . . The c h i l d ' s u n i l a t e r a l r e s -p e c t f o r the a d u l t o b l i g e s him t o a c c e p t th e l a t t e r ' s com-mands, even when t h e s e are not such as can be put immed-i a t e l y i n t o p r a c t i c e . Hence the e x t e r n a l i t y o f r u l e s and the l i t e r a l c h a r a c t e r o f the m o r a l judgments t o which t h e y g i v e r i s e . I f , c o n v e r s e l y , the c h i l d ' s development i s such as t o i n t e r i o r i z e t h e s e commands and to make h i s own the n o t i o n of s u b j e c t i v e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y , t h i s i s because c o o p e r a t i o n and mutual r e s p e c t are g i v i n g him an i n c r e a s -i n g l y v i v i d u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f p s y c h o l o g i c a l and m o r a l r e a l -i t i e s . Thus t r u t h f u l n e s s g r a d u a l l y c e a s e s to be a duty Imposed by heteronomy and becomes an o b j e c t e n v i s a g e d as good by an autonomous p e r s o n a l c o n s c i e n c e . " ( P i a g e t , p.29, pp.173-4) I t must not be t h o u g h t , however, t h a t a s i m p l i s t i c r e d u c t i o n of v a l u e t o mere i n d u c e d h a b i t or a v a r i a n t of P a v l o v i a n c o n d i t i o n i n g i s b e i n g put f o r w a r d . T h i s i s not the c o n t e n t i o n though one may a l l o w t h a t i n s o f a r as v a l u e can be I n f e r r e d from a t t i t u d e and i n s o f a r as a t t i t u d e i s o b j e c t i v e , o b s e r v a b l e and e m p i r i c a l l y v e r i f i a b l e , and w i t h a b i o l o g i c a l s u b s t r a t u m , i n s o f a r i s v a l u e " b e h a v i o u r i s t i c " . R a t h e r , on the c o n t r a r y , our p o s i t i o n i s c o n g r u e n t w i t h MacLeod ( a l r e a d y drawn upon f o r a d e f i n i t i o n of enomenology , p.53 a b o v e ) : The c e n t r a l phenomenon f o r t h i s t y p e o f s o c i a l p s y c h o l o g y becomes of n e c e s s i t y t h a t o f s o c i a l l e a r n i n g . B e g i n n i n g w i t h the f a c t o f c u l t u r a l d i v e r s i t y , the p s y c h o l o g i s t must e x p l a i n how the p a t -t e r n s or themes or norms o f a c u l t u r e become ' i n t e r i o r i z e d ' i n the i n d i v i d u a l . T h i s c a l l s on the one hand f o r an a n a l y -s i s o f t h e c u l t u r e i t s e l f , f o r which the p s y c h o l o g i s t must depend upon the s o c i o l o g i s t and t h e a n t h r o p o l o g i s t , and, on the o t h e r hand, f o r d e s c r i p t i v e and e x p e r i m e n t a l s t u d i e s o f the ways In which the e f f e c t s o f s o c i a l s t i m u l a t i o n become s a l t e d away i n the form o f endur-i n g d i s p o s i t i o n s , and o f the ways i n which t h e s e d i s p o s i t i o n s a f f e c t behav-i o r . I t i s i n no sense a d i s p a r a g e m e n t of the b i o s o c i a l a p p r oach t o p o i n t out t h a t i n t h i s a r e a of i n v e s t i g a t i o n the p s y c h o l o g i s t i s s t i l l l a g g i n g s a d l y be-h i n d the s o c i o l o g i s t and the a n t h r o p o l -o g i s t . We have s t i l l no t h e o r y o f s o c i a l l e a r n i n g c a p a b l e o f d e a l i n g c o m p e t e n t l y w i t h the w e a l t h o f problems s e t f o r us by the c o m p a r a t i v e study of c u l t u r e s . Perhaps the d i f f i c u l t i s i n t r i n s i c i n the c o n c e p t o f ' l e a r n i n g ' as such; perhaps we have been merely too r e l u c t a n t t o r e l i n q u i s h the language of t r a d i t i o n a l ' l e a r n i n g ' p s y c h o l o g y . I t may be t h a t a p a t t e r n o f l e a r n i n g t h e o r y a p p r o p r i a t e to r a t s i n mazes , dogs i n P a v l o v i a n h a r n e s s , and sopho-mores memorizing nonsense s y l l a b l e s i s s i m p l y not a p p l i c a b l e to the p r o c e s s of a c q u i r i n g an a t t i t u d e . Rather than s t r e t c h the o l d laws to encompass the new f a c t s , i t might be w i s e r to concen-t r a t e on the new f a c t s w i t h the thought t h a t p o s s i b l y t h e r e may be some d i f f e r -ent laws . (MacLeod, l o c . c i t . ) 98 The c o n c e p t o f v a l u e d e v e l o p e d i n C h a p t e r I I has l e f t open the q u e s t i o n o f i t s b e h a v i o u r i s t i c d e t e r m i n a -t i o n t h r o u g h s o c i a l l e a r n i n g . V a l u e may more p r o p e r l y be c o n s i d e r e d as i n d i v i d u a l , In the sense t h a t I t i s a c l o s e r c o r r e l a t i v e o f p e r s o n a l i t y , or i t may be more s o c i a l , i n the sense o f b e i n g s u b j e c t to l i f e — s p a c e r o l e -d e t e r m i n a t i o n . I t i s an e x p l o r a t o r y f u n c t i o n of t h i s r e s e a r c h to f i n d i n which o f t h e s e d i r e c t i o n s e m p i r i c a l e v i d e n c e may p o i n t . R e l e v a n t R e s e a r c h S t r i c t l y s p e a k i n g the b u l k o f e m p i r i c a l i n v e s t i -g a t i o n has te n d e d to d e a l w i t h a t t i t u d e s r a t h e r t han v a l -ues . T h i s p o i n t has been c o n f i r m e d v e r y r e c e n t l y by Rokeach who o f f e r s an e x p l a n a t i o n : I t might seem somewhat p a r a d o x i c a l , i n view of the more c e n t r a l t h e o r e t i c a l s t a t u s g e n e r a l l y a c c o r d e d the v a l u e c o n c e p t , t h a t we s h o u l d have w i t n e s s e d over the y e a r s a more r a p i d t h e o r e t i c a l advance i n the stu d y of a t t i t u d e r a t h e r t h an v a l u e . One r e a s o n f o r t h i s , I s u s p e c t , was the more r a p i d development of methods f o r measuring a t t i t u d e s , due to t h e e f f o r t s o f such men as Bogardus , T h u r s t o n e , L i k e r t and Guttman. A second r e a s o n , p e r h a p s , was the e x i s t e n c e of a b e t t e r consensus on the meaning o f a t t i t u d e than v a l u e . A t h i r d p o s s i b l e r e a s o n i s t h a t a t t i t u d e s were b e l i e v e d to be more amenable to e x p e r i m e n t a l man-i p u l a t i o n than v a l u e s . In any e v e n t , the ready a v a i l a b i l i t y of q u a n t i t a t i v e 99 methods f o r m e a s u r i n g a t t i t u d e s made i t o n l y a m a t t e r o f time b e f o r e e x p e r i m e n -t a l l y - m i n d e d s o c i a l p s y c h o l o g i s t s would seek t o d e t e r m i n e whether the a t t i t u d e v a r i a b l e c o u l d be f r u i t f u l l y f i t t e d i n t o the c l a s s i c a l p r e t e s t - t r e a t m e n t - p o s t t e s t p aradigm. And upon f i n d i n g t h a t a t t i -t u d e s were i n d e e d s u s c e p t i b l e t o e x p e r i -m e n t a l i n f l u e n c e , a demand was c r e a t e d f o r t h e o r i e s o f a t t i t u d e o r g a n i z a t i o n and change t o e x p l a i n the r e s u l t s r a t h e r t h an f o r t h e o r i e s o f v a l u e o r g a n i z a t i o n and change . (Rokeach, l o c . c i t . ) None of t h i s , o f c o u r s e , i n any way d e t r a c t s from such s e r i o u s e f f o r t s a t the e m p i r i c a l t r e a t m e n t o f v a l u e as t h o s e o f M o r r i s , Kluckhohn and S t r o d t b e c k , and Smith ( l o c . c i t . ) . In any e v e n t , on our own view, v a l u e s and a t t i t u d e s , though d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e , are l i n k e d i n an h i e r -a r c h i c a l manner and v a l u e can be c o n s i d e r e d as the more e c o n o m i c a l and c e n t r a l component o f the r e l a t i o n s h i p --a view e n t i r e l y c o m p a t i b l e w i t h Rokeach ( i b i d . ) . A t t i -t u d i n a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n i s t h e r e f o r e of d i r e c t r e l e v a n c e to the study o f v a l u e and we may procede to c o n s i d e r some of the more s a l i e n t r e s e a r c h . S h e r i f ' s c l a s s i c e x p e r i m e n t s ( S h e r i f , a, pp.89-112) i n v o l v e d the use of the a u t o k i n e t i c e f f e c t ( s m a l l p o i n t s of l i g h t o b s e r v e d i n s u r r o u n d i n g d a r k n e s s cannot be p r e c i s e l y l o c a l i z e d i n the absence of r e f e r e n c e a x e s ) . By means of d e v i c e s f o r c r e a t i n g t h i s e f f e c t and by sug-g e s t i n g , or a r t i f i c i a l l y c r e a t i n g , frames of r e f e r e n c e or 100 norms I t was p o s s i b l e t o s t u d y a t t i t u d e f o r m a t i o n , con-f o r m i t y , and change. I t was fo u n d t h a t an i n d i v i d u a l i f l e f t a l o n e would c r e a t e h i s own "norm" but a group would e s t a b l i s h a common c o n s e n s u a l r e f e r e n c e p o i n t . When the group norm was a r t i f i c i a l l y p r e d e t e r m i n e d i t was found t h a t s u b j e c t s were h i g h l y c o n s i s t e n t i n c o n f o r m i n g . T h i s c o n f o r m i t y p e r s i s t e d even when s u b j e c t s were " s o p h i s t i -c a t e d " or i n f o r m e d of the e x p e r i m e n t a l m a n i p u l a t i o n . S h e r i f c o n s i d e r s t h i s i n d i c a t i v e o f a b a s i c p s y c h o l o g i c a l p r o c e s s which i s r e l a t e d t o s u g g e s t i o n and t o a t t i t u d e f o r m a t i o n and change. ( i b i d . p.136) Mc C l e a r y and L a z a r u s ( l o c . c i t . ) and McG i n n i e s ( l o c c i t . ) by means of the t a c h i s t o s c o p e (a d e v i c e f o r p r e s e n t -i n g p r e c i s e l y t i m e d v i s u a l s t i m u l i ) and g a l v a n i c s k i n r e s p o n s e which i n d i c a t e s i n v o l u n t a r y r e a c t i o n s were a b l e to show t h a t e m o t i o n a l l y d i s t u r b i n g or t h r e a t e n i n g v e r b a l s t i m u l i were r e t a r d e d i n p e r c e p t i o n or m e a n i n g f u l l y mis-p e r c e i v e d . Indeed, t h i s e x p e r i m e n t a l work seemed to i n d i c a t e a " d e p t h " l e v e l of p e r c e p t i o n c o n c o m i t a n t w i t h c o n s c i o u s p e r c e p t i o n which Is c a p a b l e of " d e f e n d i n g " the depth s t r u c t u r e . The i m p l i c a t i o n f o r p r e s e n t p u r p o s e s i s s i m p l y the s u g g e s t i v e one t h a t the occupant of a r o l e , assuming s u b m i s s i o n t o the r o l e , w i l l t e n d t o p e r c e i v e i n congruence w i t h e s t a b l i s h e d norms f o r the r o l e and t h a t t h i s type of p e r c e p t i o n w i l l tend to a f f e c t even the 1 0 1 depth s t r u c t u r e o f p e r s o n a l i t y and v a l u e s . P e r c e p t i o n i s p s y c h o l o g i c a l l y r e l a t e d t o a t t i t u d e f o r m a t i o n t h r o u g h p r o c e s s e s o f o m i t t i n g , s u p p l e m e n t i n g and s t r u c t u r i n g t h e c o n t e n t s of p e r c e p t i o n . T h i s has a l r e a d y been s t r e s s e d . P e r c e p t i o n i s a form o f s e l e c t i v e b e h a v i o u r and t h e mode o f s e l e c t i o n i s a f u n c t i o n o f m o t i -v a t i o n and v a l u e s . The p e r c e p t u a l s h o r t h a n d of the s t e r e o t y p e i s o f t e n c o n v e n i e n t l y employed (Lippmann, op. c i t . ) when c u l t u r a l or s u b c u l t u r a l frames of r e f e r e n c e are e x p l i c i t . A l l o f t h i s i s w e l l e s t a b l i s h e d e m p i r i c a l -l y ( C h a r t e r s and Newcomb, C e n t e r s , C a n t r i l , l o c . c i t . ) . The frames of r e f e r e n c e are moreover d e r i v e d from the p e r -c e i v e d r e f e r e n c e group ( S t e i n e r , l o c . c i t . ) r a t h e r than the a c t u a l r e f e r e n c e group. The i m p l i c a t i o n f o r t h i s s t u d y i s t h a t a g i v e n r e f e r e n c e group as d e f i n e d p r i m a r i l y by i t s r o l e (£_-g_-e l e m e n t a r y . s c h o o l a d m i n i s t r a t o r s ) and s e c o n d a r i l y by p e r -c e i v e d r e f e r e n c e ( e . g . e l e m e n t a r y t e a c h i n g v i c e - p r i n c i p a l p e r c e i v i n g h i m s e l f i n a d m i n i s t r a t i v e r a t h e r than t e a c h i n g r o l e ) w i l l a f f e c t not s i m p l y a t t i t u d i n a l p e r c e p t i o n s but a l s o u n d e r l y i n g v a l u e s t r u c t u r e . Role d e t e r m i n a t i o n of a t t i t u d e i s a l s o r e l a t e d to the " i n - g r o u p " phenomenon whereby a crude s t e r e o t y p i c d i v -i s i o n tends to o c c u r between t h o s e who p e r c e i v e t h e m s e l v e s 1 0 2 as b e i n g w i t h i n a group and t h o s e p e r c e i v e d as " o u t s i d e r s " Thus Gutzkow and Bowman found from t h e i r World War I I fo o d d e p r i v a t i o n e x p e r i m e n t s v e r y s t r o n g i n - g r o u p and a n t i - e x p e r i m e n t e r f e e l i n g d e v e l o p i n g i n the s u b j e c t s ( l o c . c i t . ) . A g a i n , i n s l e e p d e p r i v a t i o n e x p e r i m e n t s i t was o b s e r v e d t h a t s u b j e c t s were bonded or u n i t e d t h r o u g h the f e e l i n g s and f r u s t r a t i o n caused by the r o l e e x p e c t a n c i e s . ( S e a r s , H o v l a n d , M i l l e r l o c . c i t . ) From t h i s i t can be i n f e r r e d t h a t even u n w i l l i n g r o l e incumbents would be s u b j e c t t o some te n d e n c y t o group norm a l i g n m e n t . E v i d e n c e i s a l s o a v a i l a b l e t o us t h a t p e r c e i v e d p e r s o n a l i t y i s dependent upon r o l e ( A b r a v a n e l , o p . c i t . ) . I f v a l u e s are as i n t i m a t e l y r e l a t e d to p e r s o n a l i t y as we have argued above the n i t would f o l l o w t h a t p e r c e i v e d v a l u e o r i e n t a t i o n a l s o would v a r y f u n c t i o n a l l y w i t h r o l e and t h i s i s s u p p o r t e d by T a g i u r i . ( l o c . c i t . , a l s o see Chap .IV pp . 14.3f f ) . I f r o l e s , as i s l i k e l y , i n v o l v e a degree o f spa-t i a l c o n n e c t i o n and p h y s i c a l c o n t i g u i t y among the incum-bents t h e r e i s some mixed but g e n e r a l l y s u p p o r t i v e e v i -dence f o r a d i r e c t r e l a t i o n s h i p between s p a t i a l p r o x i m i t y and group s o l i d a r i t y ( F e s t i n g e r , S c h a c h t e r and Back; New-comb, b, l o c . c i t . ) . T h i s e v i d e n c e , however, and the f a c t o r of p r o x i m i t y i s not c r u c i a l to the p r e s e n t study 103 save as i t o b t a i n s between s c h o o l o r g a n i z a t i o n s . The above f i n d i n g s are a l s o s u p p o r t e d by some c l a s s i c s t u d i e s o f the r e l a t i o n s h i p between r o l e s and p e r s o n a l i t y t r a i t s : ( C o t t r e l l , H e m p h i l l l o c . c i t . ) . Data from t h e s e s t u d i e s p o i n t i n the d i r e c t i o n o f p e r s o n -a l i t y b e i n g a phenomenon l a r g e l y i n f e r r e d from s o c i a l be-h a v i o u r and S h e r i f has gone so f a r as to r e f e r to the ego as the " s o c i a l In man". ( S h e r i f , a, p p . l 6 4 f f . , b, p . 214'4f Contemporary e m p i r i c a l s t u d i e s by S h e r i f a l s o are s u p p o r t i v e of the h y p o t h e s i s t h a t , g i v e n s t a b i l i t y of r o l e and s t a t u s r e l a t i o n s , the norms and s t a n d a r d s a s s o c -i a t e d w i t h r o l e t e n d t o become b i n d i n g on new r o l e incum-b e n t s . ( S h e r i f , b, p.257) P i a g e t ' s e m p i r i c i s m , r e f e r r e d to above, p.95, i s of a s p e c i a l k i n d i n t h a t i t s methodology d i f f e r s g r e a t l y from the s h o r t - r u n paradigms t y p i c a l of much s o c i a l p s y c h l o g i c a l r e s e a r c h . E s s e n t i a l l y , the method i n v o l v e s p r o -l o n g e d o b s e r v a t i o n o f c h i l d r e n i n n a t u r a l s i t u a t i o n s . ( P i a g e t , passim) His f i n d i n g s w i t h r e s p e c t to v a l u e s and t h e i r s o c i a l d e t e r m i n a t i o n are not i n c o n s i s t e n t w i t h our t h e o r e t i c a l p o s i t i o n . A contemporary study by Rokeach ( l o c . c i t . ) has c o n f i r m e d the i m portance of c o g n i t i v e c o n s i s t e n c y i n the 104 p e r s i s t e n c e and change o f v a l u e - a t t i t u d e s ystems. I t may be n o t e d en p a s s a n t t h a t t h i s s t u d y , r e p o r t i n g an on-g o i n g r e s e a r c h programme a t M i c h i g a n S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y , goes t o some l e n g t h t o c l a r i f y v a l u e and a t t i t u d e concep-t i o n s and i t s t h e o r e t i c a l assumptions and c o n c l u s i o n s are c o m p a t i b l e w i t h and s u p p o r t the f o r m u l a t i o n g i v e n i n C h a p t e r I I . G i v e n t h a t r o l e i s as d e t e r m i n a t i v e o f a t t i t u d e -v a l u e o r g a n i z a t i o n as the above c i t a t i o n s i n d i c a t e then i t s h o u l d f o l l o w , t h a t r o l e d i f f e r e n c e s i n v a l u e - o r i e n t a -t i o n c o u l d be d i s c e r n e d i n two ways; by l o n g i t u d i n a l ob-s e r v a t i o n o f the same i n d i v i d u a l s over time ( c f . S c o t t , op. c i t . ) and by c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l o b s e r v a t i o n at a g i v e n i n -s t a n t . The a s s u m p t i o n u n d e r l y i n g the second of t h e s e modes of o b s e r v a t i o n (the method used In t h i s s t u d y ) i s t h a t the degree o f f l u x i n r o l e incumbency i s not such as to p r e v e n t the e s t a b l i s h m e n t of a t t i t u d i n a l frames of r e f e r e n c e a t t a c h i n g to each r o l e which i n t u r n are of s u f f i c i e n t s t r e n g t h to i n f l u e n c e new r o l e o c c u p a n t s . In o t h e r words, t h a t the " s i g n a l - t o - n o i s e r a t i o " i s of amen-a b l e p r o p o r t i o n s . 105 G e n e r a l P r o p o s i t i o n s T h i s c h a p t e r has p r e s e n t e d a d i s c u s s i o n o f the i n t e r - r e l a t i o n s h i p between v a l u e - a t t i t u d e systems, p e r -c e p t i o n s , and i n t e r p e r s o n a l b e h a v i o u r . The t h e o r e t i c a l p o s i t i o n t a k e n i s t h a t v a l u e o r i e n t a t i o n a f f e c t s p e r c e p -t i o n t h r o u g h the modes of s e l e c t i v e s e n s i t i z a t i o n and p e r c e p t u a l d e f e n c e ( c f . A l l p o r t , p . 3 2 ) . Throughout the c h a p t e r c u r r e n t t h e o r y and r e l e v a n t e m p i r i c i s m were drawn upon i n s u p p o r t o f t h i s p o s i t i o n . I t i s f u r t h e r s u b s t a n -t i a t e d by r e c e n t work and by t h e o r i e s o f a t t i t u d i n a l con-s i s t e n c y ( F e s t i n g e r ; H e i d e r ; Rokeach o p . c i t . ) . G i v e n t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p between v a l u e - o r i e n t a t i o n and p e r c e p t i o n ; and g i v e n t h a t i n d i v i d u a l s spend most o f the waking s t a t e as o c c u p a n t s of a v a r i e t y of s o c i a l r o l e s some of which, as i n the case o f f o r m a l and complex organ-i z a t i o n s , may be h i g h l y s t r u c t u r e d ; and g i v e n f u r t h e r the l i f e - s p a c e v a l e n c e - c o l o u r i n g t h e o r y o u t l i n e d In the p r e -v i o u s c h a p t e r ; a number of p r o p o s i t i o n s can be s a i d t o f o l l o w . These p r o p o s i t i o n s are now i n t r o d u c e d i n v e r y g e n e r a l terms, t h e i r r e f i n e m e n t and s p e c i f i c a t i o n i n the form o f h y p o t h e s e s pe n d i n g the d i s c u s s i o n of C hapter IV. G e n e r a l l y , t h e n , i t i s a s s e r t e d t h a t : 1. A v a l u e - o r i e n t a t i o n s p e c i f i c to a r o l e w i l l a t t a c h to t h a t r o l e t h r o u g h the h i s t o r i c a l s o c i o - p s y c h o -106 l o g i c a l p r o c e s s and t h i s o r i e n t a t i o n w i l l t e n d a) t o r e l a t i v e s t a b i l i t y over time and b) t o impress i t s e l f ( i n d u c e a l i k e v a l u e - o r i e n t a t i o n ) on new o c c u p a n t s o f the r o l e . 2. The manner i n which r o l e o c c u p a n t s p e r c e i v e t h e i r own and o t h e r r o l e s , i s d e t e r m i n e d by t h e i r i n d i v i -d u a l v a l u e — o r i e n t a t i o n s and the congruency o f t h e s e v a l u e -o r i e n t a t i o n s w i t h the p e r c e i v e d r o l e . 3. To the e x t e n t to which v a l u e s and v a l u e -o r i e n t a t i o n s can be b r o a d l y c l a s s i f i e d t o t h i s e x t e n t a l s o p e r c e p t i o n s can be s i m i l a r l y c l a s s i f i e d and t o t h i s e x t e n t group c o n s e n s u a l p e r c e p t i o n s ( p s y c h o l o g i c a l " c l i -mates") are f u n c t i o n s of v a l u e - o r i e n t a t i o n . 4. To the e x t e n t t h a t r o l e s are s t r u c t u r a l l y r e -l a t e d ( e_. g . l e a d e r - s u b o r d i n a t e s ) congruence or d i s s o n a n c e between v a l u e - o r i e n t a t i o n s of the r o l e incumbents may a f f e c t i n t e r - r o l e and group p e r c e p t i o n s and hence p s y c h o -l o g i c a l c l i m a t e . 5. V a l u e - o r i e n t a t i o n i s , however, an i n d i v i d u a l a t t r i b u t e and may be s e l f - d e t e r m i n i n g as w e l l as s o c i a l l y -d e t e r m i n e d or r o l e d e t e r m i n e d . C o n s e q u e n t l y , v a l u e -o r i e n t a t i o n may c o r r e l a t e more s i g n i f i c a n t l y w i t h b i o -g r a p h i c a l f a c t o r s such as age, w o r k - e x p e r i e n c e , or sex r a t h e r than w i t h r o l e . A l t e r n a t i v e l y , w i t h r e s p e c t to 107 v a l u e d e t e r m i n a t i o n , the r o l e may be o t h e r t h a n t h a t a s -s i g n e d by o r g a n i z a t i o n a l s t r u c t u r e . The r e f o r m u l a t i o n o f t h e s e p r o p o s i t i o n s as hypo-t h e s e s r e q u i r e s a f u r t h e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f c e r t a i n o r g a n -i z a t i o n a l a s p e c t s o f b e h a v i o u r , and t h i s i s p r e s e n t e d n e x t , but i t may be n o t e d t h a t , i n the most g e n e r a l s e n s e , the p r o p o s i t i o n s r e f e r p r i m a r i l y to the c o n t e s t between r o l e and i n d i v i d u a l as r e f l e c t e d i n the a t t r i b u t e o f v a l u e . 108 R e f e r e n c e s f o r C h a p t e r i l l A b e l s o n , R.P., Rosenberg, M.J. " S y m b o l i c P s y c h o l o g i c : A Model o f A t t i t u d i n a l C o g n i t i o n " B e h a v i o r a l S c i e n c e No. 3 1958, pp.1-13. A b r a v a n e l , E. "A P s y c h o l o g i c a l A n a l y s i s o f the Concept of R o l e " Unpub. M a s t e r ' s t h e s i s . Swarthmore, 1962. A l l p o r t , F.H. T h e o r i e s o f P e r c e p t i o n and the Concept c f S t r u c t u r e . W i l e y , N.Y. 1955. A l l p o r t , G.W., Vernon, P.E., L i n d z e y , G. Study o f V a l u e s . Houghton M i f l i n , B o s t o n , 1931 3rd ed. 1960 . Beams, H.L., Thompson, G.C. " A f f e c t i v i t y as a F a c t o r i n the P e r c e p t i o n o f the Magnitude o f Food O b j e c t s " American P s y c h o l o g i c a l A b s t r a c t s 19 5 2 #7, p.323. Brown, R. (a) "Models o f A t t i t u d e Change" i n New D i r e c -t i o n s i n P s y c h o l o g y . H o l t , R i n e h a r t £ W inston, N.Y. 1962. . (b) S o c i a l P s y c h o l o g y . C o l l i e r M a c M i l l a n , London , 19 6 5 . B r u n e r , J.S. " S o c i a l P s y c h o l o g y and P e r c e p t i o n " i n Maccoby, E. , Newcomb, T.M., H a r t l e y , E.L. eds . Readings i n S o c i a l P s y c h o l o g y . 3rd ed. H o l t , N.Y. 1958. , Goodman, C.D. "Value and Need as O r g a n i z i n g F a c t o r s i n P e r c e p t i o n " J o u r n a l of Abnormal and S o c i a l P s y c h o l o g y , 1947 Wo~. 42, pp.33-44. , Postman, L. "Symbolic Value as an O r g a n i z i n g F a c t o r i n P e r c e p t i o n " J o u r n a l of S o c i a l Psycho-logy^ 1948 , No. 27, pp.203-208. C a n t r i l , H. " P u b l i c O p i n i o n i n F l u x " The Annals of the American Academy o f P o l i t i c a l and S o c i a l S c i e n c e No. 220 , 1942 , pp. 136-152 . 109 C a t t e l l , R.B., Wenig, P.W. "Dynamic and C o g n i t i v e F a c -t o r s c o n t r o l l i n g M i s p e r c e p t i o n " J o u r n a l o f Abnormal and S o c i a l P s y c h o l o g y 1952, No. 47, pp.797-809. ' ~ C e n t e r s , R. The P s y c h o l o g y o f S o c i a l C l a s s e s . P r i n c e -t o n U.P., P r i n c e t o n , monog. 1949. C h a r t e r s , W.W. J r . , Newcomb, T.M. unpub. s t u d y i n Newcomb o p . c i t . p.227. C o t t r e l l , L.S. "The A n a l y s i s o f S i t u a t i o n a l F i e l d s i n S o c i a l P s y c h o l o g y " American S o c i o l o g i c a l Review No. 7 , 1942 , pp.370-382 . F e s t i n g e r , L. A Theory o f C o g n i t i v e D i s s o n a n c e . Row, P e t e r s o n , N.Y. 1957. , S c h a c h t e r , S. , Back, K. S o c i a l P r e s s u r e s i n I n f o r m a l Groups: A Study o f Human F a c t o r s i n Ho u s i n g . H a r p e r , N.Y. 1950. Gutzkow, H.W., Bowman, P.H. Men and Hunger. B r e t h r e n Pub. House, E l g i n , 111. 1946. S e a r s , R.R., Ho v l a n d , C . I . , M i l l e r , N.E. "Minor S t u d i e s In A g g r e s s i o n . I . Measurement o f A g g r e s s i v e B e h a v i o r " J o u r n a l of P s y c h o l o g y No. 9, 1940, pp.277-281 . H a r d i n g , D.W. S o c i a l P s y c h o l o g y and I n d i v i d u a l V a l u e s . H u t c h i n s o n , London, Rev.ed. 1963. H e i d e r , F. The P s y c h o l o g y of I n t e r p e r s o n a l R e l a t i o n s . W i l e y , N.Y. 1958. H e m p h i l l , J.K. S i t u a t i o n a l F a c t o r s In L e a d e r s h i p . Bureau of E d u c a t i o n R e s e a r c h , Ohio S t a t e U. Columbus, monog. 1950 Kluckhohn, F.R., S t r o d t b e c k , F.L. V a r i a t i o n s i n Value O r i e n t a t i o n . Row P e t e r s o n , E v a n s t o n , 111, 1961. K o h l e r , W. G e s t a l t P s y c h o l o g y . L l v e r i g h t , N.Y. 1929. 110 L e v i n e , R.I., C h e i n , I . , Murphy, G. "The R e l a t i o n o f the I n t e n s i t y o f a Need t o the Amount o f P e r c e p t u a l D i s t o r t i o n " J o u r n a l of P s y c h o l o g y , 1942, No.13. pp .283-293. Lewin, K. " P s y c h o s o c i o l o g i c a l Problems o f a M i n o r i t y Group" C h a r a c t e r and P e r s o n a l i t y , V o l . 3, No. 3. March, 1935. Lippmann, W. P u b l i c O p i n i o n . H a r c o u r t , B r a c e , N.Y., 1922 MacLeod, R.B. "The P l a c e o f P h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l A n a l y s i s In S o c i a l P s y c h o l o g i c a l T h e o r y " i n R o h r e r , J.H., S h e r i f , M. eds . S o c i a l P s y c h o l o g y at the C r o s s -r o a d s . H a r p e r , N.Y. 1951, pp.221-2. M c C l e a r y , C , L a z a r u s , B. i n B r u n e r , J.S., K r e c h , D. eds. P e r c e p t i o n and P e r s o n a l i t y : A Symposium. Duke U. P r e s s , Durham, 1950 , pp.171-179. M c G i n n i e s , E. " E m o t i o n a l i t y and P e r c e p t u a l D e f e n c e " P s y c h o l o g i c a l Review No. 56, 1949, pp.244-251. M o r r i s , C.W. V a r i e t i e s o f Human V a l u e . U. o f Ch i c a g o P r e s s , C h i c a g o , 1956. Newcomb, T.M. (a) S o c i a l P s y c h o l o g y . H o l t , R i n e h a r t S Winston, N.Y. 1961. , (b) The A c q u a i n t a n c e P r o c e s s . H o l t , R i n e h a r t £ Winston, N.Y. 1961. Osgood, C.E., Tannenbaum, P.H. "The P r i n c i p l e of Con-g r u i t y i n the P r e d i c t i o n o f A t t i t u d e Change" P s y c h o l o g i c a l Review, 1955 , No. 62, pp.42-55. P a r s o n s , T., S h i l s , E.A. eds. Toward a G e n e r a l Theory of A c t i o n . H a r v a r d U.P., Cambridge, Mass. 1954. P i a g e t , J . The M o r a l Judgment of the C h i l d . Free P r e s s , N.Y. 1965. Pepper , S.C. The Sources of V a l u e . U. of C a l i f . P r e s s , B e r k e l e y , 1958. I l l Postman, L. , B r u n e r , J.S., M c G i n n i e s , E. " P e r s o n a l V a l -ues as S e l e c t i v e F a c t o r s In P e r c e p t i o n " J o u r n a l o f Abnormal and S o c i a l P s y c h o l o g y , 1948, No. 43 pp.142-154. R o e t h l i s b e r g e r , F . J . , D i c k s o n , W.J. Management and the Worker. H a r v a r d U.P., Cambridge, Mass. 1939. Rokeach, M. "A Theory o f O r g a n i z a t i o n and Change w i t h i n V a l u e - A t t i t u d e Systems" J o u r n a l o f S o c i a l I s s u e s Vol.XXIV No. 1 , 1968 , p . 15~. S c h a f e r , R., Murphy, G. "The Role o f Autism i n V i s u a l F i g u r e - G r o u n d R e l a t i o n s h i p " J o u r n a l of E x p e r i -m e n t a l P s y c h o l o g y , 1943 , No. 32, pp . 335-343. S c o t t , W.A. V a l u e s and O r g a n i z a t i o n s . Rand M c N a l l y , C h i c a g o , 19 6 5. S e a r s , R.R., H o v l a n d , C . I . , M i l l e r , N.E. "Minor S t u d i e s i n A g g r e s s i o n . I. Measurement of A g g r e s s i v e B e h a v i o r " . J o u r n a l o f P s y c h o l o g y No. 9, 1940, pp . 277-281 . S e l z n i c k , P. " F o u n d a t i o n s o f the Theory o f O r g a n i z a t i o n " American S o c i o l o g i c a l Review, 1948, No. 13, pp.25-35 . S h e r i f , M. (a) The P s y c h o l o g y of S o c i a l Norms. Har p e r , N.Y. 1964. , (b ) S o c i a l I n t e r a c t i o n . P r o c e s s and P r o d u c t s . A l d i n e , C h i c a g o , 1967. , S h e r i f , C.W. An O u t l i n e o f S o c i a l P s y c h o l o g y . Harper £ Row, N.Y. r e v . e d . 1956. Smelser, N.J. Theory of C o l l e c t i v e B e h a v i o r . R o u t l e d g e £ Kegan P a u l , London, 1962. Smith, M.B. " P e r s o n a l Values as D e t e r m i n a n t s of a P o l i -t i c a l A t t i t u d e " J o u r n a l of P s y c h o l o g y , 1949, No. 28, pp.477-486. S t e i n e r , I.D. A Theory o f an E m p i r i c a l Study o f the Role of R e f e r e n c e Groups. Unpub. Master's T h e s i s . U~. of M i c h i g a n , 1948 . 112 T a g l u r i , R. "Value O r i e n t a t i o n s and t h e R e l a t i o n s h i p o f Managers and S c i e n t i s t s " A d m i n i s t r a t i v e S c i e n c e Q u a r t e r l y , V o l . 1 0 , No. 1, June, 1965, pp.39-51. T h u r s t o n e , L.L. A F a c t o r i a l Study o f P e r c e p t i o n . U. o f C h i c a g o P r e s s , C h i c a g o , 1944. Z a j o n c , R.B. " B a l a n c e , C o n g r u i t y , and D i s s o n a n c e " . P u b l i c O p i n i o n Q u a r t e r l y , 1960, No. 24. DD.280-CHAPTER IV ORGANIZATIONS AND VALUES The r e l a t i o n s h i p o f o r g a n i z a t i o n s t o v a l u e s , even In t h e sense i n which t h e v a l u e c o n c e p t i s employed t h r o u g h o u t t h i s s t u d y , f o l l o w s by i m p l i c a t i o n i f by o r g a n -i z a t i o n s we u n d e r s t a n d , w i t h P a r s o n s , " s o c i a l u n i t s ( o r human g r o u p i n g s ) d e l i b e r a t e l y c o n s t r u c t e d and r e c o n -s t r u c t e d t o seek s p e c i f i c g o a l s " ( P a r s o n s , p . 1 7 ) . The phra s e d e l i b e r a t e l y c o n s t r u c t e d i s i n t e n d e d t o e x c l u d e i n -v o l u n t a r y g r o u p i n g s such as k i n g r o u p s , f a m i l i e s and t r i b e s . C h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f o r g a n i z a t i o n s as we w i l l use the term w i l l be d i v i s i o n o f l a b o u r and h i e r a r c h y o f power s t r u c t u r e i n t h e d e c i s i o n making p r o c e s s ( E t z i o n i , p . 3 ) . The term g o a l s i n the above d e f i n i t i o n (and i t s synonyms ends, p u r p o s e s , f u n c t i o n s e t c . ) can l e a d one t o i n f e r a s o r t o f meta-concept i n t h a t over and above what-eve r v a l u e - o r i e n t a t i o n each i n d i v i d u a l member might b r i n g t o t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n t h e r e i s an o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c o n c e p t i o n 113 114 o f t h e d e s i r a b l e or v a l u e - o r i e n t a t i o n w i t h i t s g e n e s i s i n o r g a n i z a t i o n a l ends and i t s e x e g e s i s i n o r g a n i z a t i o n a l means. T h i s theme w i l l be d e v e l o p e d more f u l l y i n the f i n a l c h a p t e r but i t can be p r e s e n t l y n o t e d t h a t a con-s i d e r a b l e l i t e r a t u r e e x i s t s w i t h r e s p e c t t o o r g a n i z a t i o n a l g o a l s (c_f. S i l l s , pp.253-68 and pas s im; C l a r k ; Merton pp.154-5; Thompson and McEwen; S e l z n i c k , pp.16-17; op. c i t . ) In g e n e r a l , however, t h e s e w r i t e r s t e n d f o r the most p a r t ( S e l z n i c k i s an e x c e p t i o n ) to e x c l u d e the term v a l u e and t o c o n s i d e r o r g a n i z a t i o n a l g o a l b e h a v i o u r and g o a l phenomena qua s o c i a l p r o c e s s r a t h e r t h a n as a form o f m a c r o - m o t i v a t i o n or as a b a s i s f o r m a c r o - v a l u a t i o n a l t h e o r y . These l a t t e r p o s s i b i l i t i e s w i l l be r e f e r r e d to a g a i n i n C h a p t e r V I I , the s o c i o - p s y c h o l o g i c a l p r o c e s s o f norm development w i t h i n o r g a n i z a t i o n s and t h e sub-group-i n g s o f o r g a n i z a t i o n s b e i n g now c o n s i d e r e d . S h e r i f has shown how norms, i_.e^. a c c e p t a b l e v a l u e s t a n d a r d s of b e h a v i o u r w i t h i n a group, are e s t a b l i s h e d s o c i a l l y . Thus: The e x p e r i m e n t s [on the a u t o k i n e t i c e f f e c t ] , t h e n , c o n s t i t u t e a s t u d y of the f o r m a t i o n of a norm i n a s i m p l e l a b o r a t o r y s i t u a t i o n . They show i n a s i m p l e way the b a s i c p s y c h o -l o g i c a l p r o c e s s i n v o l v e d i n the e s t a b l i s h -ment of s o c i a l norms. They are an e x t e n -s i o n I n t o the s o c i a l f i e l d o f a g e n e r a l p s y c h o l o g i c a l phenomenon t h a t we found i n p e r c e p t i o n and i n many o t h e r p s y c h o l o g i c a l f i e l d s , namely t h a t our e x p e r i e n c e i s 115 o r g a n i z e d around or m o d i f i e d by frames o f r e f e r e n c e p a r t i c i p a t i n g as f a c t o r s In any g i v e n s t i m u l u s s i t u a t i o n . On the b a s i s o f t h i s g e n e r a l p r i n c i p l e c o n s i d e r e d i n r e l a t i o n t o our e x p e r i m e n t a l r e s u l t s , we s h a l l v e n t u r e t o g e n e r a l i z e . The p s y c h o l o g i c a l b a s i s o f the e s t a b l i s h e d s o c i a l norms, such as s t e r e o t y p e s , f a s h -i o n s , c o n v e n t i o n s , customs and v a l u e s , i s the f o r m a t i o n o f common frames o f r e f e r e n c e as a p r o d u c t o f t h e c o n t a c t o f i n d i v i d u a l s . Once such frames o f r e f e r e n c e are e s t a b -l i s h e d and i n c o r p o r a t e d i n the i n d i v i d u a l , t h e y e n t e r as Important f a c t o r s t o d e t e r -mine or m o d i f y h i s r e a c t i o n s t o the s i t u -a t i o n s t h a t he w i l l f a c e l a t e r -- s o c i a l , and even n o n - s o c i a l , a t t i m e s , e s p e c i a l l y i f the s t i m u l u s f i e l d Is not w e l l s t r u c -t u r e d . ( S h e r i f , pp.105-6) Less t h e r e be m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g i t may be remarked here t h a t the v a l u e c o n c e p t o f C h a p t e r I I , i m p l y i n g as i t does an u n d e r l y i n g commonality o f "human n a t u r e " , does not f u r -t h e r imply t h a t t h i s c o v e r t homogeneity n e c e s s a r i l y l e a d s t o o v e r t homogeneity at the l e v e l o f b e h a v i o u r a l m a n i f e s -t a t i o n . I t i s w i t h i n the l o g i c o f the model t h a t "ex-t e r n a l " f i e l d c o n d i t i o n s can a f f e c t v a l u e s t r u c t u r e and v a l u e o r i e n t a t i o n . H a r d i n g c l a r i f i e s t h i s p o i n t , E v i d e n c e i s h a r d to come by but i t seems p r o b a b l e t h a t some c u l t u r e s d i s t o r t , more th a n o t h e r s , c e r t a i n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l q u a l -i t i e s of human n a t u r e . The i n t e n s e mutual s u s p i c i o n and h o s t i l i t y of the i s l a n d e r s o f Dobu, the withdrawn d e t a c h -ment o f the B a l i n e s e , p r o b a b l y depend on p a t h o l o g i c a l p r o c e s s e s t h a t I n t e r f e r e w i t h a more n a t u r a l t e n d e n c y t o v a l u e a f f e c t i o n . The i n s t i t u t i o n s and s e n t i -ments of m e d i a e v a l c h i v a l r y , as i t 116 a f f e c t e d t h e r e l a t i o n s between t h e s e x e s , d i d v i o l e n c e t o human n a t u r e . The V i c -t o r i a n c o n c e p t i o n s o f decency meant to o s e r i o u s a d i s t o r t i o n o f n a t u r a l f a c t s t o be m a i n t a i n e d w i t h o u t r e p r e s s i o n . I t seems l i k e l y t h a t a w e l l - i n t e g r a t e d mind w i l l t e n d t o s t r a i n away from t h o s e f e a -t u r e s o f i t s c u l t u r e w hich t o o much d i s -t o r t human n a t u r e and which would i n v o l v e s e v e r e c o n f l i c t but f o r r a t i o n a l i s a t i o n and r e p r e s s i o n . I f t h e r e i s such a t h i n g as human n a t u r e , a range o f p s y c h o -l o g i c a l p o t e n t i a l i t y made a c t u a l i n d i f f e r -ent d e g r e e s by t h e v a r i o u s c u l t u r e s , our chances o f l e a r n i n g about i t w i l l depend on s t u d y i n g the d e v i a n t s as w e l l as t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l members of human s o c i e t i e s . E v e r y c u l t u r e i s engaged i n a p e r p e t u a l d e f e n c e o f i t s e s t a b l i s h e d v a l u e s , and t h o s e i n d i v i d u a l s who d e v i a t e from i t s u s u a l l e v e l o f a t t a i n m e n t or i t s u s u a l range o f v a l u e judgements are under so-c i a l p r e s s u r e t o r e t u r n t o c o n f o r m i t y . ( H a r d i n g , pp.122-3) I t i s i n l i n e w i t h t h i s t h a t the b e h a v i o u r a l m a n i f e s t a -t i o n o f v a l u e s , t h a t i s , t h o s e e m p i r i c a l i n d i c a n t s o f v a l u e m a n i f e s t e d i n the m o t o r - p e r c e p t u a l r e g i o n t o an o u t s i d e o b s e r v e r , w i l l be f u n c t i o n a l upon the p e r c e i v e d c o n t e n t s o f the f i e l d and the a c c u l t u r a t i o n o f the v a l u e a c t o r . These c o n t e n t s are dependent upon the g r o u p i n g s which h a b i t u a l l y s t r u c t u r e the i n d i v i d u a l ' s l i f e space t h e r e f o r e , w i t h r e s p e c t t o o r g a n i z a t i o n s , upon the s o c i a l i n t e r a c t i o n s o f the work group o r , i n o t h e r words, upon the i n d i v i d u a l ' s o r g a n i z a t i o n a l r o l e . E x p r e s s i n g the same i d e a d i f f e r e n t l y and from a l a r g e r p e r s p e c t i v e i t 117 may be s a i d t h a t an I n d i v i d u a l i s p r o g r e s s i v e l y a c c u l t u r -a t e d w i t h i n h i s l i f e - h i s t o r y by f o r c e s o f f a m i l y - k i n -g r o u p - c l a n - n a t i o n i n the f i r s t i n s t a n c e , f a m i l y - p e e r -g r o u p - e d u c a t o r y - s y s t e m i n the second i n s t a n c e , and work-g r o u p - i n t e r e s t - g r o u p - o r g a n i z a t i o n i n the t h i r d i n s t a n c e . From the o r g a n i z a t i o n a l s t a n d p o i n t the f o r m a l o r g a n i z a -t i o n can be c o n c e i v e d as f o r m i n g a " s u b - c u l t u r e " w i t h i n a s o c i a l - n a t i o n a l - i n t e r n a t i o n a l c u l t u r e c o n t e x t . The o r g a n i z a t i o n can then be f u r t h e r s u b d i v i d e d i n t o f o r m a l and i n f o r m a l g r o u p i n g s each o f which t e n d t o p e r p e t u a t e t h e i r own s u b - c u l t u r e s w h i l e b e i n g c o n s i s t e n t l y under the immediate i n f l u e n c e o f the next a s c e n d a n t c o n t e x t i n the c u l t u r a l h i e r a r c h y . I t may deduced from the model (p.59 above) t h a t each s u b c u l t u r a l or o r g a n i z a t i o n a l g r o u p i n g would have i t s d i s t i n c t i v e v a l e n c e - c o l o u r i n g or A u f f o r d e r -u n g s c h a r a k t e r e i n Lewin's term (Lewin, p.101). T h i s c o l o u r i n g can be g e n e r a l i z e d i n t o the i d e a of s i t u a t i o n -norms or even, w i t h S h e r i f , s o c i a l v a l u e s : " ... We c a l l such norms as are e x e m p l i f i e d i n t h e s e i n s t a n c e s s o c i a l v a l u e s . L i k e any o t h e r common norm, s o c i a l v a l u e s come i n t o e x i s t e n c e as a consequence of the c o n t a c t of i n d i -v i d u a l s or groups or i n d i v i d u a l s . In t h e i r t u r n , s o c i a l v a l u e s which have been so s t a n d a r d i z e d as to r e a c h the s t a t u s of the common p r o p e r t y of the' group, may form or 118 even s t a n d a r d i z e common a t t i t u d e s , l i k e s and d i s l i k e s , a v e r s i o n s , and p r e f e r e n c e s i n t h e I n d i v i d u a l members o f the g roup" ( S h e r i f , p . 1 1 3 ) . In any event an i n d i v i d u a l o r g a n i z a t i o n a l member ( r o l e incumbent) i s under a p s y c h o l o g i c a l t e n s i o n at l e a s t t o the e x t e n t o f e x p r e s s i n g h i s v a l u e s i n the d i r e c -t i o n o f congruence w i t h the r o l e norm. T h i s n o r m a t i v e , v a l u a t i o n a l a s p e c t o f o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c u l t u r e and sub-c u l t u r e can be t a k e n as f o r m i n g an i m p o r t a n t p a r t , perhaps the most i m p o r t a n t p a r t , o f the consensus o f p e r c e p t i o n s which go t o make up the " p s y c h o l o g i c a l c l i m a t e " o f an o r g a n i z a t i o n . We t u r n t h e n t o t h i s c o n c e p t i o n o f c l i m a t e . The Concept o f O r g a n i z a t i o n a l C l i m a t e Forehand and G i l m e r i n a r e c e n t paper have summar-i z e d the l i t e r a t u r e d e a l i n g w i t h e n v i r o n m e n t a l v a r i a t i o n i n o r g a n i z a t i o n a l b e h a v i o u r o r , more g e n e r a l l y , o r g a n i z a -t i o n a l c l i m a t e ( Forehand and G i l m e r , l o c . c i t . ) . They p o i n t t o the emergent d i s c i p l i n e of o r g a n i z a t i o n a l p s y c h o -l o g y and then d i s c u s s t h e m e t a - c o n c e p t i o n of a g g r e g a t e i n t r a - o r g a n i z a t i o n a l v a r i a t i o n s as f o l l o w s : What to c a l l the d e s i r e d c o n c e p t u a l l y i n t e g r a t e d s y n t h e s i s o f o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s has been a problem f o r many r e s e a r c h e r s . The term o r g a n i z a -t i o n a l c l i m a t e has been used by s e v e r a l 119 o f them, a l t h o u g h the term means d i f f e r -ent t h i n g s t o d i f f e r e n t w r i t e r s . We s h a l l use the term i n t h i s paper t o r e f e r t o t h e s e t o f c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t h a t d e s c r i b e an o r g a n i z a t i o n and t h a t (a) d i s t i n g u i s h the o r g a n i z a t i o n from o t h e r o r g a n i z a t i o n s , (b) are r e l a t i v e l y -e n d u r i n g o v e r t i m e , and ( c ) i n f l u e n c e the b e h a v i o r of p e o p l e i n t h e o r g a n i z a -t i o n . These d e f i n i n g p r o p e r t i e s were chosen i n the e f f o r t t o f o c u s d i s c u s s i o n upon f e a t u r e s o f o r g a n i z a t i o n a l v a r i a -t i o n t h a t are amenable to s p e c i f i c a t i o n , measurement, and i n c o r p o r a t i o n i n t o e m p i r i c a l r e s e a r c h . Work on the problem o f c o n c e p t u a l i z i n g v a r i a t i o n i n c l i m a t e has been done on many f r o n t s . R e l e v a n t s t u d i e s are fou n d i n the l i t e r a t u r e o f p s y c h o l o g y , s o c i o l o g y , a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , and educa-t i o n .... ( l o c . c i t . ) The paper c i t e d , however, makes no mention of the work o f A.W. H a l p i n i n the f i e l d o f e d u c a t i o n a d m i n i s t r a t i o n ( H a l p i n and C r o f t , H a l p i n q.v.) and i t i s from t h i s work t h a t the con c e p t o f o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c l i m a t e , as employed i n t h i s s t u d y , i s d e r i v e d . As w i l l emerge, the p a r a l -l e l s between the c o n c e p t o f v a l u e as d e v e l o p e d i n C h a p t e r II and the con c e p t of c l i m a t e are r a t h e r e v i d e n t . Both r e s t upon the s t a t i s t i c a l p r i n c i p l e of f a c t o r a n a l y s i s and both share the common ground of p e r c e p t i o n . The g e n e r a l n o t i o n o f an o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c l i m a t e i s , of c o u r s e , q u i t e o l d and r o o t e d i n common se n s e . I t s o r i g i n s are r e v e a l e d i n such terms as " t o n e " , " f e e l " , 120 "atmosphere", " e s p r i t de c o r p s " , " t i g h t s h i p " , e t c . F o r l o n g , however, the number and c o m p l e x i t y of the v a r i a b l e s c o n s t i t u t i n g such an i n t u i t i v e , p s y c h o l o g i c a l phenomenon d e t e r r e d e m p i r i c a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n and a t t e m p t s at r e f i n e -ment o f the c o n c e p t r e s t e d on d e s c r i p t i v e p r o p o s i t i o n s about l e a d e r s h i p s t y l e and f o l l o w e r s h i p b e h a v i o u r w i t h i n the f o r m a l and i n f o r m a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s . I t was a p p a r e n t t h a t b o t h t h e s e l a r g e d i m e n s i o n s o f c l i m a t e ( l e a d e r s h i p and f o l l o w e r s h i p ) were f u n c t i o n s o f p e r c e p t i o n on the p a r t of the r o l e incumbents. A l e a d e r c o u l d see h i m s e l f as b e i n g " d e m o c r a t i c " w h i l e h i s s u b o r d i n a t e s p e r c e i v e d him as " a u t h o r i t a r i a n " . The c o n c e p t o f environment has been a d i f f i c u l t one f o r p s y c h o l o g i s t s to d e a l w i t h e m p i r i c a l l y . The p o s t u l a t e t h a t b e h a v i o r i s a f u n c t i o n o f the i n t e r a c t i o n o f o r g a n i s m and e n v i r o n -ment i s w i d e l y a c c e p t e d and b o t h i t s t h e o r e t i c a l and p r a c t i c a l i m p l i c a t i o n s have been e x p l o r e d ( B a r t o n , 1961; Brunswik, 1956; Cronbach, 1957; Murray, 1938). E f f o r t has been de-v o t e d t o d i s c o v e r y o f r e l e v a n t dimen-s i o n s of p e r s o n a l v a r i a b l e s and to the p r e c i s e d e f i n i t i o n o f e x p e r i m e n t a l t r e a t m e n t s , but t h e r e have been few attempts to d e v e l o p m u l t i v a r i a t e d e f -i n i t i o n s o f e n v i r o n m e n t , and fewer s t i l l t o st u d y b e h a v i o r as a f u n c t i o n of the s i m u l t a n e o u s v a r i a t i o n of p e r -s o n a l and s i t u a t i o n a l f a c t o r s . In the p a s t few y e a r s s e v e r a l p s y c h o l o -g i s t s have n o t e d the l a c k of such s t u d i e s and have begun to d e v e l o p models f o r s y s t e m a t i c a l l y i n c o r p o r -a t i n g e n v i r o n m e n t a l v a r i a t i o n i n 121 r e s e a r c h d e s i g n (e_. g_. A b e l s o n , 1962 ; S e l l s , 1963a, 1963bT. Models r e l e v a n t t o t h i s p roblem o f g e n e r a l p s y c h o l o g y are emerging from the r a p i d l y d e v e l o p -i n g and m u l t i - d i s c i p l i n a r y s t u d y o f b e h a v i o r o f i n d i v i d u a l s i n o r g a n i z a t i o n s . ( i b i d " . ) In t h e c o n c l u s i o n o f Forehand and G i l m e r ' s paper the a u t h o r s i n d i c a t e the g e n e r a l n a t u r e o f the c l i m a t e con-ce p t as f o l l o w s : " ... We have on s e v e r a l o c c a s i o n s drawn an a n a l o g y between the c l i m a t e o f an o r g a n i z a t i o n and the p e r s o n a l i t y o f an i n d i v i d u a l i n o r d e r t o b r i n g a t t e n t i o n t o I s s u e s i n the s t u d y o f e n v i r o n m e n t . There o f t e n ap-p e ar i n the l i t e r a t u r e , p a r t i c u l a r l y the management l i t -e r a t u r e , s u g g e s t i o n s and a s s u m p t i o n s t h a t the a n a l o g y can be t a k e n more l i t e r a l l y , t h a t c l i m a t e may be t r e a t e d as a c o n s t r u c t , and the ' p e r s o n a l i t y o f an o r g a n i z a t i o n ' i d e n -t i f i e d and d e a l t w i t h . . . . " ( l o c . c i t . p. 377 ) The c l i m a t e i n s t r u m e n t and c o n c e p t as employed i n the p r e s e n t r e s e a r c h have t h e i r o r i g i n i n the Ohio S t a t e L e a d e r s h i p S t u d i e s d i r e c t e d by C.L. S h a r t l e i n the 1950's. ( S t o g d i l l and S h a r t l e ) These s t u d i e s d e a l t l a r g e l y w i t h U.S.A.F. a i r c r e w s engaged i n combat f l y i n g i n the Korean war but s t u d i e s were a l s o c a r r i e d out i n e d u c a t i o n a l and I n d u s t r i a l s e t t i n g s . A key i n s t r u m e n t d e r i v e d i n the s t u d y was the L e a d e r s h i p B e h a v i o r D e s c r i p t i o n Q u e s t i o n -n a i r e (LBDQ) which i d e n t i f i e d , a c c o r d i n g to H a l p i n and 1 2 2 Winer ( o p . c i t . ) , two b a s i c d i m e n s i o n s l a b e l l e d I n i t i a t i n g S t r u c t u r e and C o n s i d e r a t i o n . In g i s t , the f o r m e r r e f e r s t o t h a t a s p e c t o f t h e l e a d e r ' s b e h a v i o u r which i s con-c e r n e d p r i m a r i l y w i t h o u t p u t , p r o d u c t or p e r f o r m a n c e on the p a r t o f an o r g a n i z a t i o n and the l a t t e r r e f e r s t o main-t e n a n c e , m o r a l e , and s u p p o r t o f t h e i n f o r m a l s t r u c t u r e o f the o r g a n i z a t i o n . The e f f e c t i v e l e a d e r i s t h e n the one s c o r i n g h i g h on b o t h o f t h e s e d i m e n s i o n s , and c o n v e r s e l y . The d i m e n s i o n s are not t o be t a k e n as e x h a u s t i v e o f the l e a d e r s h i p t a s k b u t , on the b a s i s o f t h e Ohio S t u d i e s , t h e y would appear t o be c o n s t a n t l y r e c u r r i n g and c r i t i c a l a s p e c t s of the l e a d e r r o l e ( H a l p i n , (a ) , (b ) , (c ) , (d ) , pas s i m ) . A f u r t h e r development from the above work was an i n s t r u m e n t s p e c i f i c a l l y d e s i g n e d f o r s c h o o l s ( H a l p i n and C r o f t ) . P a r t of the i n c e n t i v e f o r such an I n s t r u m e n t i s e x p l a i n e d as f o l l o w s : " ... We knew from d i r e c t e x p e r i e n c e t h a t s c h o o l s d i f f e r e d markedly i n t h e i r ' f e e l ' . T h i s was no new d i s c o v e r y . But we wanted to go beyond t h i s . We sought to map the domain o f o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c l i m a t e , t o i d e n t i f y and d e s c r i b e i t s d i m e n s i o n s , and to measure them i n a dependable way which would m i n i m i z e t h o s e l i m i t a t i o n s t h a t n e c e s s a r i l y i n h e r e i n ev e r y i n s t r u m e n t which must, i n the f i n a l i n s t a n c e , r e l y upon some form of s u b j e c t i v e j udgment. 123 A second impetus was our d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n w i t h t h e con c e p t o f morale and w i t h the s l o p p y way i n which t h i s c o n c e p t had been used i n t y p i c a l s t u d i e s o f s c h o o l s and s c h o o l s y s t e m s . Statements about the morale i n a s c h o o l f a i l e d t o t e l l us enough about the s c h o o l ' s O r g a n i z a t i o n -a l C l i m a t e " . ( H a l p i n , ( e ) , pp.131-2) H a l p i n and C r o f t d e s c r i b e t h e i r r e s e a r c h p r o c e d u r e and r a t i o n a l e i n the f o l l o w i n g p a r a g r a p h s . The OCDQ items are e s s e n t i a l l y t h o s e g i v e n i n Appendix A. In c o n s t r u c t i n g the OCDQ we s t a r t e d by b u i l d i n g a bank o f about 1000 i t e m s . We s c r e e n e d t h e s e items i n v a r i o u s ways, but p r i n c i p a l l y by c o n s t r u c t i n g and a c t u a l l y t e s t i n g t h r e e p r e l i m i n a r y forms o f the OCDQ. The major a n a l y s i s was done w i t h d a t a on Form I I I o f the OCDQ, s e c u r e d from 1151 r e s p o n d e n t s i n a t o t a l of 71 e l e m e n t a r y s c h o o l s . Form I I I c o n t a i n e d 80 i t e m s , but our a n a l y s i s showed t h a t we c o u l d prune i t t o 64 i t e m s . ( l o c . c i t . p.147) We a n a l y z e d the c l i m a t e o f 71 e l e m e n t a r y s c h o o l s chosen from s i x d i f f e r e n t r e g i o n s o f the U n i t e d S t a t e s . T h i s a n a l y s i s was based upon the d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e s e s c h o o l s g i v e n by 1151 r e s p o n d e n t s . The 64 items i n the OCDQ were a s s i g n e d to e i g h t s u b t e s t s which we had d e l i n e a t e d by f a c t o r -a n a l y t i c methods. Four of th e s e s u b t e s t s p e r t a i n to c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the f a c u l t y group as a group , the o t h e r f o u r to c h a r -a c t e r i s t i c s o f the p r i n c i p a l as a l e a d e r . From the s c o r e s on t h e s e e i g h t s u b t e s t s we then c o n s t r u c t e d , f o r each s c h o o l , a p r o f i l e , or p s y c h o g r a p h , which d e p i c t s 124 t h e s c h o o l ' s O r g a n i z a t i o n a l C l i m a t e . By comparing th e p r o f i l e s o f d i f f e r e n t s c h o o l s we can s p o t the d i s t i n g u i s h i n g f e a t u r e s o f t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e O r g a n i z a t i o n a l C l i m a t e s . F u r t h e r m o r e , by a n a l y z i n g the p r o f i l e f o r a g i v e n s c h o o l , we can e s t i m a t e the q u a l -i t y o f i t s c l i m a t e . ( i b i d , p.133) H a l p i n seeks an e x p r e s s i o n o f the " p e r s o n a l i t y " o f an o r g a n i z a t i o n . Moreover, as h i s h i g h e r o r d e r c o n c e p t o f c l i m a t e (i_.e_- the p e r s o n a l i t y o f the o r g a n i z a t i o n ) i s s t a t i s t i c a l l y d e r i v e d i t i s t o some e x t e n t a c o n c e p t u a l a r t i f a c t . As he s a y s : "In a genuine sense we d i d not d i s c o v e r t h e s e O r g a n i z a t i o n a l C l i m a t e s ; we i n v e n t e d them". ( i b i d . p.138) T h i s i n v e n t i o n was c o n t r i v e d t h r o u g h the f o l l o w i n g p r o c e d u r e . The D e r i v a t i o n of C l i m a t e G i v e n the g e n e r a l u n s u i t a b i l i t y o f a u n i d i m e n -s i o n a l model ( w i t h a s i n g l e h i g h e r o r d e r e x p l a n a t o r y f a c -t o r ) r e s o r t was made t o t w o - f a c t o r and t h r e e - f a c t o r v a r i -max r o t a t i o n a l s o l u t i o n s of e i g h t s u b t e s t s c o r e s i n the OCDQ (n=1151). On the t w o - f a c t o r s o l u t i o n the f a c t o r s were named " S o c i a l Needs" and " S o c i a l C o n t r o l " : "In a crude way, most o f the s o c i a l b e h a v i o r which o c c u r s i n an o r g a n i z a t i o n can be c l a s s i f i e d e i t h e r as o r i e n t e d t o so-c i a l needs, or as a s s o c i a t e d w i t h s o c i a l c o n t r o l . For t h i s r e a s o n the t w o - f a c t o r s o l u t i o n i s v e r y a p p e a l i n g . 125 I t a l l o w s us t o d e s c r i b e t h e a s s o c i a t i o n among t h e sub-t e s t s In a way which heeds the f a c t o r i a l d a t a and y e t a l s o makes good sense i n terms o f o r g a n i z a t i o n a l t h e o r y " . ( i b i d . p.159) N e v e r t h e l e s s a t h r e e - f a c t o r s o l u t i o n was p r e f e r r e d f o r t h e f o l l o w i n g r e a s o n s : "We b e l i e v e t h a t t h e t h r e e - f a c t o r ' s o l u t i o n ' p r o v i d e s the ' b e s t ' d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e f a c t o r s t a p p e d by the OCDQ. As compared t o the t w o - f a c t o r s o l u t i o n , the t h r e e - f a c t o r s o l u t i o n i s more c o n c o r d a n t w i t h o r t h o d o x p r o c e d u r e s f o r f a c t o r a n a l y s i s . F u r t h e r m o r e , i n the t h r e e - f a c t o r s o l u -t i o n , the h i g h c o m m u n a l i t i e s f o u n d f o r each o f t h e i n d i -v i d u a l s u b t e s t s p r o v i d e e s t i m a t e s and e n c o u r a g i n g l y h i g h e s t i m a t e s o f t h e r e l i a b i l i t y o f the e i g h t sub-t e s t s " , ( i b i d , pp.150-161) The t h r e e g e n e r a l f a c t o r s were the n named ( I ) So-c i a l Needs, ( I I ) E s p r i t , and ( I I I ) S o c i a l C o n t r o l and had r e f e r e n c e to i n d i v i d u a l s , groups and l e a d e r s r e s p e c t i v e l y . P r o t o t y p i c c l i m a t e s were then deduced on the b a s i s o f the p a t t e r n i n T a b l e IV.I below. 126 TABLE IV.1 The P a t t e r n o f P r o f i l e - F a c t o r L o a d i n g s f o r Each o f the S i x O r g a n i z a t i o n a l C l i m a t e s F a c t o r C l i m a t e I I I I I I Open + x* Autonomous +x C o n t r o l l e d -x F a m i l i a r +x P a t e r n a l -x C l o s e d -x A x i n d i c a t e s f a c t o r on which each c l i m a t e has h i g h e s t l o a d i n g . S i g n s added by w r i t e r . S o u r c e : i b i d . p.189 The s i x c l i m a t e s a r e named as i n T a b l e IV.1. J o u r n a l i s -t i c d e s c r i p t i o n s i n the form o f v i g n e t t e s were a l s o p r e -p a r e d by H a l p i n (Appendix B ) . "These p r o t o t y p e s can be viewed as d e s c r i p t i o n s of s i x d i f f e r e n t O r g a n i z a t i o n a l C l i m a t e s , which we have named and r a n k e d i n o r d e r from Open to C l o s e d . Even as one can r e g a r d minds as open or c l o s e d , so can we view O r g a n i z a t i o n a l C l i m a t e s . Nor does our c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n d i f f e r v e r y much, i n e s s e n c e , from Lewin's h y p o t h e s i s about the s t r u c t u r e of 'mind'. To use Lewin's terms, we can d e s c r i b e the Open C l i m a t e as marked by ' f u n c t i o n a l f l e x i b i l i t y ' , and the C l o s e d C l i m -ate as d i s t i n g u i s h e d by ' f u n c t i o n a l r i g i d i t y ' . . . . 127 I f we s h o u l d choose t o d e a l w i t h c r u d e r r u b r i c s , we c o u l d c o l l a p s e the s i x c a t e g o r i e s i n t o t h r e e major g r o u p s : (1) composed o f the f i r s t two, r e l a t i v e l y Open, c l i m a t e s ; (2) composed o f the t h i r d and f o u r t h c l i m a t e s [ C o n t r o l l e d and F a m i l i a r ] , each o f which s t r e s s e s o n l y one o f t h e two major o r g a n i z a t i o n a l r e q u i r e m e n t s (group maintenance or t a s k a c c o m p l i s h m e n t ) ; and (3) composed o f the f i f t h and s i x t h c l i m a t e s , b o t h o f which a r e C l o s e d " . , ( i b i d . pp.170-173). The Dimensions o f C l i m a t e Having thus o u t l i n e d the meta-concept one can r e -t u r n t o a c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f i t s p r i n c i p a l components, v i z . the e i g h t s u b t e s t s o f c l i m a t e . These d i m e n s i o n s , i t w i l l be remembered, were d e r i v e d by f a c t o r a n a l y s i s o f r e s p o n s e s from 1151 r e s p o n d e n t s . I t was c o n c l u d e d by H a l p i n and C r o f t t h a t the di m e n s i o n s or s u b t e s t s c o u l d be d i v i d e d e q u a l l y under the heads o f t e a c h e r s ' b e h a v i o u r and p r i n c i p a l s ' and c a p t i o n a l names were g i v e n t o each f a c t o r . As t h i s s t u d y i n i t s e m p i r i c a l phase uses the H a l p i n OCDQ i n s t r u m e n t t h e s e names have been r e t a i n e d and i t i s p r o p e r t h e r e f o r e t o d e s c r i b e the di m e n s i o n s i n H a l p i n ' s words: T e a c h e r s ' B e h a v i o r 1. Disengagement r e f e r s t o t h e t e a c h e r s ' t e n d e n c y t o be 'not w i t h i t ' . T h i s d i m e n s i o n d e s c r i b e s a group which i s 'going t h r o u g h the m o t i o n s ' , a group t h a t i s 'not i n g e a r ' w i t h r e s p e c t to the t a s k a t hand. I t c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e more g e n e r a l c o n c e p t o f anomie as f i r s t d e s c r i b e d by Durkheim. In s h o r t , t h i s s u b t e s t f o c u s e s upon the t e a c h e r s ' b e h a v i o r i n a t a s k - o r i e n t e d s i t u a t i o n . 2. H i n d r a n c e r e f e r s t o t h e t e a c h e r s ' f e e l i n g t h a t t h e p r i n c i p a l burdens them w i t h r o u t i n e d u t i e s , committee demands and o t h e r r e q u i r e m e n t s which the t e a c h e r s c o n s t r u e as u n n e c e s s a r y 'busywork' The t e a c h e r s p e r c e i v e t h a t the p r i n c i -p a l i s h i n d e r i n g r a t h e r t h a n f a c i l i t a t i n g t h e i r work. 3. E s p r i t r e f e r s t o m o r a l e . The t e a c h e r f e e l t h a t t h e i r s o c i a l needs are b e i n g s a t i s f i e d , and t h a t t h e y a r e , at the same t i m e , e n j o y i n g a sense o f accom-p l i s h m e n t i n t h e i r j o b . 4. I n t i m a c y r e f e r s t o the t e a c h e r s ' e n j o y ment o f f r i e n d l y s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s w i t h each o t h e r . T h i s d i m e n s i o n d e s c r i b e s a s o c i a l - n e e d s s a t i s f a c t i o n which i s not n e c e s s a r i l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t a s k -accomplishment . P r i n c i p a l ' s B e h a v i o r 5. A l o o f n e s s r e f e r s t o b e h a v i o r by the p r i n c i p a l which i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d as f o r m a l and i m p e r s o n a l . He 'goes by the book' and p r e f e r s to be g u i d e d by r u l e s and p o l i c i e s r a t h e r than to d e a l w i t h the t e a c h e r s i n an i n f o r m a l , face-t o - f a c e s i t u a t i o n . His b e h a v i o r , i n b r i e f , i s u n i v e r s a l i s t i c r a t h e r than p a r t i c u l a r i s t i c ; n o m o t h e t i c r a t h e r than i d i o s y n c r a t i c . To m a i n t a i n t h i s s t y l e , he keeps h i m s e l f at l e a s t , ' e m o t i o n a l l y ' s t a f f . — a t a d i s t a n c e from h i s 6. P r o d u c t i o n Emphasis r e f e r s t o b e h a v i o r by the p r i n c i p a l which i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by c l o s e s u p e r v i s i o n o f the s t a f f . He i s h i g h l y d i r e c t i v e and p l a y s the r o l e o f a 'straw b o s s ' . H i s communication t e n d s t o go i n o n l y one d i r e c t i o n , and he i s not s e n s i t i v e t o f e e d b a c k from t h e s t a f f . 7. T h r u s t r e f e r s t o b e h a v i o r by t h e p r i n c -i p a l which i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by h i s e v i -dent e f f o r t i n t r y i n g to 'move the o r g a n i z a t i o n ' . T h r u s t b e h a v i o r i s marked not by c l o s e s u p e r v i s i o n , but by the p r i n c i p a l ' s attempt t o m o t i v a t e t h e t e a c h e r s t h r o u g h the example which he p e r s o n a l l y s e t s . A p p a r e n t l y , because he does not ask the t e a c h e r s to g i v e o f t h e m s e l v e s any more t h a n he w i l l i n g l y g i v e s of h i m s e l f , h i s b e h a v i o r , though s t a r k l y t a s k - o r i e n t e d , i s n o n e t h e l e s s viewed f a v o r a b l y by t h e t e a c h e r s . 8. C o n s i d e r a t i o n r e f e r s t o b e h a v i o r by the p r i n c i p a l which i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by an i n c l i n a t i o n t o t r e a t the t e a c h e r s 'human-l y ' , t o t r y to do a l i t t l e s omething e x t r a f o r them In human terms. ( i b i d . p.150-151) Such then are the components o f the l a r g e r o r g a n i z a t i o n -a l c l i m a t e c o n c e p t . I t i s d e s e r v i n g of emphasis t h a t they are t h e m s e l v e s h i g h e r o r d e r c o n c e p t s which are de-s i g n e d t o measure p e r c e p t i o n s s i m p l i c i t e r . Consequent-l y the di m e n s i o n s r e p r e s e n t d i f f e r e n t p e r c e p t u a l c l u s t e r s the p e r c e p t i o n s by o r g a n i z a t i o n members of t h e i r p e e r -group o r g a n i z a t i o n a l member behaviour-; and the p e r c e p -t i o n s by the same s u b j e c t s of o r g a n i z a t i o n a l l e a d e r be-h a v i o u r . Each c l u s t e r can then be f u r t h e r r e f i n e d i n t o 130 the p e r c e p t i o n s o f disengagement, h i n d r a n c e , e s p r i t , and i n t i m a c y ; and the p e r c e p t i o n s o f a l o o f n e s s , p r o d u c t i o n emphasis, t h r u s t and c o n s i d e r a t i o n r e s p e c t i v e l y , w i t h the c o n t e n t o f p e r c e p t i o n as d e s c r i b e d above. I t i s t h e s e d i m e n s i o n s or s u b t e s t s which i n t u r n were f a c t o r - a n a l y z e d t o y i e l d t h e t h r e e h i g h e r o r d e r f a c t o r s ( g r o u p , l e a d e r , and I n d i v i d u a l ) r e f e r r e d t o above on p.125. A l t h o u g h H a l p i n o f f e r s a s e r i o u s and d i r e c t i v e c r i t i q u e o f h i s own work ( i b i d . p.193-203 ) and a l t h o u g h much r e s e a r c h has s u b s e q u e n t l y been c o n d u c t e d w i t h H a l -p i n ' s i n s t r u m e n t (c_f. M o r r i s l o c . c i t . , Watkins l o c . c i t . ) t h e g e n e r a l q u e s t i o n o f the c o m prehensiveness of the e i g h t d i m e n s i o n s of p e r c e i v e d b e h a v i o u r seems t o have been e l i d e d . Any c r i t i q u e a l o n g t h e s e l i n e s however must be d i r e c t e d a g a i n s t the c o n c e p t u a l r a t h e r than the s t a t i s t i c a l bases of the i n s t r u m e n t . B e a r i n g t h i s c a u t i o n i n mind i t can n e v e r t h e l e s s be conceded t h a t the s u b t e s t s or c l i m a t e d i m e n s i o n s do a f f o r d the o r g a n i z a -t i o n a l r e s e a r c h e r a measure o f p r i n c i p a l components of o r g a n i z a t i o n a l b e h a v i o u r i n the s o c i a l - p s y c h o l o g i c a l sense . 131 A u t h e n t i c i t y A c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f t h e components o f o r g a n i z a -t i o n a l c l i m a t e i s i n c o m p l e t e w i t h o u t r e f e r e n c e t o the h e u r i s t i c c o n c e p t o f a u t h e n t i c i t y , so l a b e l l e d by H a l p i n , which he c l a i m s t o have c o n s i s t e n t l y e n c o u n t e r e d i n h i s r e s e a r c h . We c e r t a i n l y were s u r p r i s e d at what happened t o u s , as i n v e s t i g a t o r s , dur-i n g the c o u r s e o f the O r g a n i z a t i o n a l C l i m a t e s t u d y . When we s t a r t e d , the word ' a u t h e n t i c i t y ' was not p a r t o f our p r o f e s s i o n a l v o c a b u l a r y . But the more we worked w i t h the C l i m a t e d a t a , t h e more we s c r u t i n i z e d the b e h a v i o r t h a t d i f f e r e n t i a t e d Open from C l o s e d c l i m -a t e s , the more t h a t we sought f o r ex-p l a n a t i o n s t o a c c o u n t f o r the d i f f e r -ences t h a t we f o u n d , the more, t o o , d i d we f i n d o u r s e l v e s f o r c e d to c o n t e n d w i t h the c o n c e p t o f a u t h e n t i c i t y . We were not always s u r e t h a t we knew what we meant by the term. Indeed, even now we are not s u r e . Yet we found t h a t t h e a u t h e n t i c i t y c o n c e p t , f u z z y as i t was, d i d g i v e us a u s e f u l p u r c h a s e on our f i n d i n g s . ( H a l p i n , ( e ) , p. 203-4) H a l p i n , i n g r a p p l i n g w i t h t h i s c o n c e p t , uses such des-c r i p t i o n s o f b e h a v i o r as g e n u i n e , " f o r r e a l " , " t h r e e -d i m e n s i o n a l " and seems t o imply t h a t a u t h e n t i c b e h a v i o u r o c c u r s when t h e r e i s an i n t r u s i o n of the s e l f i n t o the r o l e ; of the p e r s o n i n t o the p e r s o n a ; or i n the l a n g -uage of our v a l u e c o n c e p t i o n , the impress of V q upon the v^ f i e l d . "In the language of the Fre n c h e x i s t e n t i a l -132 I s t s , the incumbents were g i v e n t h e chance t o i n v e n t t h e m s e l v e s . W i t h i n t h e o p p o s i t e [ c l o s e d ] c l i m a t e t h e r o l e s seemed t o be o v e r s p e c i f i e d . The I n d i v i d u a l ap-p e a r e d t o use h i s p r o f e s s i o n a l r o l e as a p r o t e c t i v e c l o a k , a l m o s t as i f the c l o a k might s e r v e t o h i d e h i s i n n e r e m p t i n e s s and h i s l a c k o f p e r s o n a l i d e n t i t y . (One g e t s t h e i m p r e s s i o n t h a t t h e s e p e o p l e are l i v i n g t h e i r l i v e s i n s i d e c e l l o p h a n e w r a p p e r s . ) The r o l e i t -s e l f and the i n d i v i d u a l ' s s t a t u s as a t e a c h e r or a p r i n -c i p a l a p p eared to c o n s t i t u t e h i s e s s e n t i a l sense o f i d e n t i t y . F u r t h e r m o r e , i n t h e s e i n s t a n c e s the i n d i v i d -u a l used h i s r o l e r i t u a l i s t i c a l l y , so t h a t i t became a d e v i c e which k e p t o t h e r s a t a d i s t a n c e and thus p r e c l u d -ed the e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f a u t h e n t i c r e l a t i o n s h i p s " . ( I b i d . H a l p i n i s of the o p i n i o n t h a t the two c l i m a t e d i m e n s i o n s of T h r u s t and E s p r i t r e p r e s e n t the b e s t i n -d i c e s o f a u t h e n t i c i t y and he r e p e a t s t h i s a s s e r t i o n , " In the same way t h a t T h r u s t f u r n i s h e s an i n d e x t o the authen t i c i t y of the p r i n c i p a l ' s b e h a v i o r , so does E s p r i t p r o -v i d e an i n d e x t o the a u t h e n t i c i t y of the group's b e h a v i o r P r o b a b l y the b e s t s i n g l e i n d e x of a u t h e n t i c i t y which we can adduce from the p r e s e n t d a t a i s the c o m b i n a t i o n o f h i g h OCDQ s c o r e s on bo t h T h r u s t and E s p r i t . " ( i b i d . ) I t w i l l be one o f the o b j e c t i v e s o f t h i s r e s e a r c h t o 133 e x p l o r e the r e l a t i o n s h i p s between v a l u e s and t h e a u t h e n -t i c i t y c o n c e p t . Because of t h i s i n t e n t i t i s t h o u g h t n e c e s s a r y t o devote some c o n s i d e r a t i o n t o the t o p i c a t t h i s p o i n t . D e s p i t e t h e f o r e g o i n g a s s e r t i o n s by H a l p i n au-t h e n t i c i t y i s , as he h i m s e l f a d m i t s , a d i f f i c u l t c o n c e p t t o o p e r a t i o n a l i z e or d e f i n e . Moreover, t h e r e i s an im-p l i c a t i o n o f an a b s o l u t e or ex c a t h e d r a s t a n d a r d s i n c e the s i t u a t i o n i s c o n c e i v a b l e w h e r e i n o b s e r v e d s u b j e c t s may p e r c e i v e t h e m s e l v e s as b e i n g a u t h e n t i c b u t , t o a de-t a c h e d v i e w e r , may be s i m p l y engaged i n the r i t u a l i s t i c r e i n f o r c e m e n t of s e l f - d e l u s i o n . A g a i n , t h e r e i s a t e n -dency on H a l p i n ' s p a r t t o i d e n t i f y a u t h e n t i c ' b e h a v i o r w i t h what appears t o .be s e l f - a c t u a l i z a t i o n i n Maslow's term (Maslow, pp.345-352) or i n n e r - d i r e c t i o n i n Riesman's term (Riesman, p . 3 3 ) . We know t h a t when we s t a r t s p e a k i n g i n terms of an a b s o l u t e s t a n d a r d o f a u t h e n -t i c i t y , many s c i e n t i s t s w i l l p r o m p t l y b r i s t l e . With the b e h a v i o r a l s c i e n c e s , i n p a r t i c u l a r , we have become so a c c u s -tomed t o the n o t i o n ' t h a t e v e r y t h i n g i s r e l a t i v e ' t h a t even the s l i g h t e s t sug-g e s t i o n o f an a b s o l u t e s t a n d a r d i s ana-thema to most of us. Yet i n s p i t e of the r e s i s t a n c e which our s u g g e s t i o n may p r o d u c e , we b e l i e v e t h a t f u t u r e r e s e a r c h e f f o r t s s h o u l d be d i r e c t e d t o the d e v e l -opment of c r i t e r i a f o r i d e n t i f y i n g a u t h e n t i c i t y i n b e h a v i o r , a n d * t h a t t h e s e c r i t e r i a s h o u l d be r e g a r d e d as more analogous to s t a n d a r d s f o r p o s i t i v e 134 m e n t a l h e a l t h t h a n t o t h o s e f o r a d j u s t -ment. In t h e p a s t two decades the i s s u e of a d j u s t m e n t and t h e problem o f c o n f o r m i t y i n t h e American c h a r a c t e r have been d i s c u s s e d In a s p a t e o f books and a r t i c l e s . A few a u t h o r s , p a r t i c u -l a r l y Fromm and L i n d n e r , have r a i s e d s e r i o u s q u e s t i o n s about the l e v e l i n g e f f e c t of c o n f o r m i t y and the damage which man has s u f f e r e d because o f s o c i -e t y ' s c u r r e n t emphasis upon a d j u s t m e n t . A c c o r d i n g l y , i f the s u g g e s t i o n t h a t we s h o u l d d i f f e r e n t i a t e between a u t h e n t i c -i t y as p e r c e i v e d by the p a r t i c i p a n t s i n the s i t u a t i o n and a u t h e n t i c i t y as e v a l -u a t e d by an e s s e n t i a l l y a b s o l u t e c r i t e r -i o n s h o u l d seem o b t u s e , we must c o u n t e r t h i s c r i t i c i s m by n o t i n g t h a t the d i f f i -c u l t y o f d e a l i n g w i t h t h e c o n c e p t o f a u t h e n t i c i t y does not d i m i n i s h the u r g e n -cy t o d e a l w i t h i t p r o m p t l y . T h i s p r o b -lem o f a u t h e n t i c i t y t r a n s c e n d s t h e s p e c -i f i c a r e a o f the p r e s e n t r e s e a r c h ; i n d e e d , i t must be a n a l y z e d w i t h i n the c o n t e x t o f t h e major s o c i a l changes t h a t have t a k e n p l a c e i n America d u r i n g the p a s t 40 y e a r s .... ( H a l p i n , e, p.208 ) T h i s a l s o r e v e a l s the s t r o n g t e n d e n c y on H a l p i n ' s p a r t t o r e l a t e the c o n c e p t to the s o c i o - c u l t u r a l e n v i r o n m e n t . No doubt the u l t i m a t e d e t e r m i n a n t s are t o be d i s c o v e r e d w i t h i n the l a r g e r c u l t u r a l f a b r i c but i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f t h i s a r e a would seem t o l i e more s q u a r e l y w i t h i n the t e r -r i t o r y of the c u l t u r a l a n t h r o p o l o g i s t than t h a t of the o r g a n i z a t i o n a l t h e o r i s t or group p s y c h o l o g i s t . D e s p i t e the d i f f i c u l t i e s i t would seem p o s s i b l e to approach the c o n c e p t , at l e a s t i n an e x p l o r a t o r y manner, from a l e s s e r l e v e l . To do t h i s we s h a l l s i m p l y f o l l o w H a l p l n ' s own 135 s u g g e s t i o n s , e.g. "The p r i n c i p a l who s c o r e s h i g h on T h r u s t Is not e n s l a v e d by a narrow d e f i n i t i o n o f h i s r o l e , nor does he seem t o be p r e o c c u p i e d w i t h h i s s t a t u s . He i s more i n t e n t on t a s k - a c c o m p l i s h m e n t , on g e t t i n g the job done, and on moving the o r g a n i z a t i o n toward i t s g o a l s . (Note, however, t h a t he does t h i s w i t h o u t s a c -r i f i c i n g C o n s i d e r a t i o n . ) In a s e n s e , he i s w i l l i n g t o u n f r e e z e the o r g a n i z a t i o n from one s t a g e o f i t s d e v e l o p -ment (even i f t h a t s t a g e be h i g h l y s a t i s f y i n g to the group members i n terms — f o r example -- of E s p r i t or C o n s i d e r a t i o n ) . And he i s r e a d y to take the r i s k o f change, c o n f i d e n t t h a t such change w i l l r e s u l t i n a h i g h e r o r d e r of o r g a n i z a t i o n a l development which, i n t u r n , w i l l p e r m i t a g r e a t e r congruence between the so-c i a l - n e e d s s a t i s f a c t i o n o f i n d i v i d u a l group members and the s p e c i f i c a t i o n o f t h e i r r o l e s . To take t h i s r i s k and t o gamble on the outcome o f u n f r e e z i n g the o r g a n i z a -t i o n , the p r i n c i p a l 'must s t a n d f o r s o m ething'. He a l s o must be open i n l e t t i n g h i s t e a c h e r s and the s c h o o l ' p a t r o n s know what, i n d e e d , he does s t a n d f o r . In s h o r t , he must be a u t h e n t i c . " ( i b i d . p.205-6 ) G i v e n H a l p i n ' s c o n c l u s i o n s as to the c h i e f i n -d i c e s of a u t h e n t i c i t y ( T h r u s t and E s p r i t d i m e n s i o n s ) i t s h o u l d be p o s s i b l e t o i d e n t i f y t h o s e v a l u e s c o r r e l a t i n g 136 most h i g h l y w i t h t h e s e d i m e n s i o n s and t o compare t h e s e w i t h g r o u p i n g s c o n s i d e r e d most r e l a t e d t o the a u t h e n t i c -i t y c o n c e p t on a p r i o r i g r o u n d s . C l i m a t e as a Meta-Concept I t i s i m p o r t a n t t o s t r e s s the i n f e r e n t i a l n a t u r e o f the H a l p i n OCDQ i n s t r u m e n t w i t h r e g a r d t o c l i m a t e . No r e s p o n s e s are made t o " c l i m a t i c - t y p e " q u e s t i o n s , i . e . q u e s t i o n s r e f e r r i n g t o the openness, c l o s e d n e s s , con-t r o l l e d n e s s e t c . o f t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n s . I n s t e a d r e s p o n -ses a r e made t o q u e s t i o n s d e a l i n g w i t h p e r c e i v e d a s p e c t s o f b e h a v i o u r and t h e s e a s p e c t s are grouped i n t o s e t s o f h i g h e r o r d e r c o n c e p t s , the c l i m a t e d i m e n s i o n s or sub-t e s t s . These i n t u r n are m a n i p u l a t e d i n the manner de-s c r i b e d below. The p o i n t t o be n o t e d i s t h a t t h e s h i f t from s u b t e s t to the l a r g e r o r d e r c o n c e p t Is a l s o a move from i n d i v i d u a l r e s p o n s e s and p e r c e p t i o n s to group or c o n s e n s u a l i n f e r r e d p e r c e p t i o n s based upon s t a t i s t i c a l a v e r a g i n g . Here we w i l l r e p o r t t h e a n a l y s i s of t h d a t a , not a t the i t e m l e v e l or s u b t e s t l e v e l , but at the s c h o o l l e v e l . For each s c h o o l we c o n s t r u c t e d a p r o f i l e whose e i g h t p o i n t s were d e f i n e d by the s c o r e s on t h e e i g h t s u b t e s t s c o r e s . T h i s gave us 71 p r o f i l e s -- one, o f c o u r s e , f o r each s c h o o l . The next t a s k was to deter m i n e whether the p r o -f i l e s t h e m s e l v e s c o n s t e l l a t e d i n t o e d i f f e r e n t i a b l e c l u s t e r s . By a p p l y i n g t h e Q t e c h n i q u e o f f a c t o r a n a l y s i s t o the 71 p r o f i l e s , we f o u n d t h a t we c o u l d , i n d e e d , c l a s s i f y t h e s e p r o f i l e s I n t o s i x major c l u s t e r s , each o f which c o u l d be used t o d e p i c t a d i f f e r e n t t y p e o f O r g a n i z a t i o n a l C l i m a t e . How, t h e n , d i d we i d e n t i f y t h e s e s i x major C l i m a t e s ? We w i l l r e p o r t t h i s p r o c e s s i n f o u r s t e p s : Step 1. We c o n s t r u c t e d s c h o o l - p r o f i l e s b ased upon the raw s c o r e s on the e i g h t s u b t e s t s o f the OCDQ and t h e n c o n v e r t e d t h e s e raw s c o r e s i n t o s t a n d a r d i z e d s c o r e s which we s t a n d a r d i z e d i n two ways: n o r m a t i v e l y and i p s a t i v e l y . [To c o n s t r u c t the s c h o o l - p r o f i l e s , we f i r s t computed, s c h o o l by s c h o o l , a school-mean s u b t e s t s c o r e f o r each o f the e i g h t s u b t e s t s . These s c o r e s d e f i n e the 'average r e s p o n s e of the t e a c h e r s f o r each r e s p e c t i v e s u b t e s t . Hence, t h e p r o f i l e o f s c o r e s shows how most of the t e a c h e r s i n a s c h o o l c h a r a c t e r i z e the O r g a n i z a t i o n a l C l i m a t e of t h e i r p a r t i c u l a r s c h o o l . S p e c i f i c -a l l y , the s c o r e s i n d i c a t e how o f t e n c e r t a i n t y p e s o f b e h a v i o u r ' o c c u r ' among the t e a c h e r s and w i t h the p r i n c -i p a l . The 71 p r o f i l e s , a t t h i s s t a g e , had been e x p r e s s e d i n terms o f raw s c o r e s . The next s t e p was t o c o n v e r t t h e s e raw s c o r e s i n t o s t a n d a r d s c o r e s and t o p l o t each p r o f i l e i n s t a n d a r d s c o r e s . S i n c e we p l a n n e d t o i n t e r -c o r r e l a t e the p r o f i l e s c o r e s among t h e s c h o o l s ( u s i n g the Q t e c h n i q u e ) , i t behooved us t o s t a n d a r d i z e the s c o r e s f o r each s c h o o l t w i c e : f i r s t , norma-t i v e l y , and s e c o n d , i p s a t i v e l y . N o r m a t i v e l y , we s t a n d a r d i z e d the sub-t e s t s c o r e s a c r o s s the sample o f 71 s c h o o l s so t h a t we c o u l d compare each of the e i g h t s u b t e s t s c o r e s on a com-mon s c a l e . Thus each s u b t e s t was s t a n d a r d i z e d a c c o r d i n g t o the mean and s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n o f the t o t a l sample f o r t h a t s u b t e s t . Then we to o k t h e s e s t a n d a r d i z e d s c o r e s and s t a n d a r d i z e d them a g a i n — t h i s t i m e , i p s a t i v e l y . A c c o r d i n g l y , a l l th e s u b t e s t s c o r e s were s t a n d a r d i z e d w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e mean and s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n o f the p r o f i l e s c o r e s f o r each s c h o o l . For b o t h s t a n d a r d i z a t i o n p r o c e d u r e s we chose a s t a n d a r d - s c o r e system based upon a mean o f 50 and a s t a n d a r d d e v i -a t i o n o f t e n . These s t a n d a r d i z e d s c o r e s now t o l d us two t h i n g s . F o r example, f i r s t , t h a t the g i v e n s c h o o l s c o r e d above the mean o f the sample on t h a t s u b t e s t , and s e c o n d , t h a t t h e s c o r e on t h a t s u b t e s t was above the mean o f t h e s c h o o l ' s o t h e r s u b t e s t s c o r e s . The c o n v e r s e , o f c o u r s e , a p p l i e d t o s c o r e s below 50 .... By s t a n d a r d i z i n g the raw s c o r e s b o t h n o r m a t i v e l y and i p s a t i v e l y we had ap-p r o x i m a t e d a d o u b l e - c e n t e r e d m a t r i x . T h i s d o u b l e s t a n d a r d i z a t i o n t e c h n i q u e a l l o w s us t o examine the r e l a t i o n s h i p between the s c o r e s on the s u b t e s t s , w i t h t h e d i f f e r e n c e s among the means of the s u b t e s t s c o r e s f o r each s c h o o l In the sample h e l d s t a t i s t i c a l l y c o n -s t a n t . In s h o r t , t h e i n t e r s c h o o l v a r i a n c e and the i n t r a s c h o o l v a r i a n c e are not c o n f o u n d e d . ] Step 2. We f a c t o r — a n a l y z e d t h e 71 s c h o o l - p r o f i l e s , e x t r a c t e d t h r e e p r o f i l e f a c t o r s , f o u n d s i x major p a t t e r n s o f f a c t o r l o a d i n g s among the p r o f i l e s , and t h e n c a t e g o r i z e d each s c h o o l - p r o f i l e i n r e s p e c t t o one o f th e s e s i x s e t s ( t h a t i s , p a t t e r n s ) . [ W i t h the OCDQ s c o r e s a p p r o p r i a t e l y s t a n d a r d i z e d , we next computed t h e i n t e r c o r r e l a t i o n s among the s c h o o l -p r o f i l e s and f a c t o r - a n a l y z e d t h i s m a t r i x . Because we had fo u n d i n the p r e v i o u s R f a c t o r a n a l y s e s at the sub-t e s t l e v e l t h a t the e i g h t s u b t e s t s seemed t o be measuring t h r e e ' t h i n g s ' we r o t a t e d t h r e e f a c t o r s , u s i n g the Q f a c t o r a n a l y s i s . 139 Now, t o see whether t h e s c h o o l - p r o f i l e s c o n s t e l l a t e d i n t o d i f f e r e n t i a b l e c l u s t e r s , our f i r s t t a s k was t o c a t e g o r i z e s i m i l a r p r o f i l e s i n t o g r o u p s . Because we s u s -p e c t e d t h a t t h e f a c t o r l o a d i n g s would h e l p us a c h i e v e t h i s end, we examined t h e f a c -t o r m a t r i x and n o t e d t h a t some o f the 71 p r o f i l e s s e c u r e d e i t h e r h i g h p o s i t i v e l o a d -i n g s or h i g h n e g a t i v e l o a d i n g s p r i m a r i l y on o n l y one o f the t h r e e p r o f i l e f a c t o r s . Hence, we s e p a r a t e d t h e s e s c h o o l - p r o f i l e s i n t o s i x s e t s : two s e t s f o r each f a c t o r ; one s e t o b t a i n e d a h i g h p o s i t i v e l o a d i n g on t h e f a c t o r ; t h e o t h e r , a h i g h n e g a t i v e l o a d i n g on the same f a c t o r ....] Step 3. For each o f t h e s i x s e t s o f s c h o o l - p r o f i l e s we computed t h e m e a n - p r o f i l e f o r t h o s e p r o f i l e s w i t h i n the s e t which were d i s t i n g u i s h e d by a h i g h l o a d i n g on o n l y one o f the t h r e e p r o f i l e f a c t o r s . We des-i g n a t e d t h e s e s i x p r o f i l e s as p r o t o t y p i c p r o -f i l e s and d e f i n e d t h e s i x O r g a n i z a t i o n a l C l i m a t e s i n terms o f t h e s e s i x p r o t o t y p e s . Step 4. We r a n k e d t h e s e s i x O r g a n i z a t i o n a l C l i m a t e s i n r e s p e c t o f Openness v e r s u s C l o s e d n e s s and t h e n used the c o n t e n t of t h e s u b t e s t items (and, o f c o u r s e , t h e p r o t o -t y p i c s c o r e s f o r each of the e i g h t s u b t e s t s ) to d e s c r i b e , f o r each c l i m a t e , the b e h a v i o r which c h a r a c t e r i z e s the p r i n c i p a l and the t e a c h e r s . ( i b i d , pp.166-173, e x c i s e d and r e a r r a n g e d f o r c o n c i s e n e s s , a l s o see p.126 above and Appendix B) The p r o t o t y p i c s c o r e s are based on a_ p r i o r i i d e a l t y p e c l i m a t e s w i t h r e l a t i o n t o the f a c t o r s r e v e a l e d by the t h r e e - f a c t o r v a r i m a x r o t a t i o n a l s o l u t i o n f o r the complete r e s p o n d e n t p o p u l a t i o n , v i z . I ( S o c i a l Needs) I I ( E s p r i t ) I I I ( S o c i a l C o n t r o l ) . Thus the i d e a l - t y p e d e f i n i t i o n o f the meta-concept i s t h a t g i v e n i n T a b l e IV.1 p.126 above. 140 C a u t i o n s a r e , o f c o u r s e , n e c e s s a r y i n d e a l i n g w i t h t h i s t y p e o f c o n s t r u c t i o n . H a l p i n h i m s e l f r e f e r s t o t h e " p i t f a l l s o f l a n g u a g e " ( i b i d . p.138) His d e f e n c e i s c o n d u c t e d as f o l l o w s : Why, i n d e e d , d i d we f i n a l l y choose as a major dichotomy t h e Open v e r s u s the C l o s e d C l i m a t e ? Why d i d we s e t t l e f o r t h e p a r t i c u l a r names t h a t we a s s i g n e d t o the o t h e r f o u r c l i m a t e s ? Why s i x c l i -mates r a t h e r t h a n s e v e n , or f o r t h a t m a t t e r , 50? Why e i g h t r a t h e r t h a n t e n or 20 s u b t e s t s ? And how do t h e s e e i g h t s u b t e s t s happen t o have been a s s i g n e d t h e p a r t i c u l a r names t h a t we have g i v e n them? Why speak o f the T h r u s t b e h a v i o r o f the p r i n c i p a l ? T h i s i s a new term. Why i n t r o d u c e i t a t a l l ? Are t h e r e not o t h e r terms t h a t are more commonly used i n e v e r y d a y d i s c u s s i o n s o f l e a d e r s h i p s u f f i c i e n t t o e x p l a i n what we seek t o e x p l a i n ? Why c o m p l i c a t e m a t t e r s by i n t r o d u c i n g new t e r m s , and new c o n c e p t s ? Are the new terms and the new j a r g o n p r e s e n t e d h e r e i n t r o d u c e d j u s t f o r t h e s h e e r sake o f b e i n g d i f f e r e n t ? Is t h e i r i n t r o d u c t i o n s i m p l y a m a t t e r o f c a p r i c e ? Q u e s t i o n s of t h i s k i n d d e s e r v e t o be answered, and i t i s wise t o t r y t o an-swer them p r o m p t l y . The f u l l answers must r e s i d e i n t h e complete r e p o r t g i v e n i n t h i s c h a p t e r , f o r each o f the c o n c e p t s t h a t we i n t r o d u c e i s d e f i n e d l i t e r a l l y by the complete s e t of o p e r -a t i o n s t h a t we have used t o measure i t . T h i s i s t h e o p e r a t i o n a l d e f i n i t i o n o f each c o n c e p t . Yet each c o n c e p t con-t a i n s a f u r t h e r meaning which we l a t e r I n f u s e i n t o i t on the b a s i s o f l i n k a g e s t h a t we make between the s t a r k e m p i r i c a l f i n d i n g s and our t h e o r e t i c a l knowledge about the n a t u r e o f o r g a n i z a t i o n s and human p e r s o n a l i t y . Such knowledge i s 141 drawn not m e r e l y from th e c o n t e x t o f t h e r e s e a r c h r e p o r t e d h e r e , but a l s o from o t h e r s o u r c e s and d i s c i p l i n e s t h a t p r o -v i d e i n s i g h t s which can I l l u m i n a t e our own f i n d i n g s . C o n s e q u e n t l y , q u e s t i o n s o f t h i s k i n d cannot be answered f u l l y at t h i s p o i n t ; t h e y must be answered at d i f f e r e n t p o i n t s d u r i n g the p r e s e n t a t i o n w i t h t h e hope t h a t each s u c c e s s i v e ap-p r o a c h t o t h e s e q u e s t i o n s w i l l f i l l In a g r e a t e r number o f d e t a i l s about th e answers and w i l l do t h i s w i t h i n the c o n -t e x t o f the s p e c i f i c r e s e a r c h p r o c e d u r e s and t h e a c t u a l f i n d i n g s .... ( i b i d . p.138-9) But we come n e i t h e r t o bury H a l p i n nor t o p r a i s e him. Our p u r p o s e h e r e i s not t o c r i t i c i z e the OCDQ t h a t i n s t r u m e n t i s s t i l l b e i n g e f f e c t i v e l y a p p l i e d and v a l i -d a t e d ( c f . Watkins , l o c . c i t . ) but r a t h e r t o expose the n a t u r e o f the c l i m a t e c o n c e p t . Forehand and G i l m e r , who have I g n o r e d or are unaware o f H a l p i n ' s c o n t r i b u t i o n , c o n c l u d e from t h e i r s u r v e y o f t h e l i t e r a t u r e t h a t : "As the p r e c e d i n g d i s c u s s i o n has s t a t e d , p r e s e n t e v i d e n c e p e r m i t s no d e f i n i t i v e d e s c r i p t i o n o f d i m e n s i o n s of o r g a n -i z a t i o n a l v a r i a t i o n . The attempt t o d e f i n e the c l i m a t e o f an o r g a n i z a t i o n r a i s e s a d i f f e r e n t and more complex q u e s t i o n about which t h e r e i s a v a i l a b l e no e v i d e n c e : the q u e s t i o n o f the way i n which d i m e n s i o n s are b e s t combined to d e s c r i b e a p a r t i c u l a r o r g a n i z a t i o n . A m e a n i n g f u l c o m b i n a t i o n may be a l i n e a r one, but i t seems more l i k e l y 142 t h a t i t w i l l be a p a t t e r n or c o n f i g u r a t i o n . The u s e f u l n e s s o f the p r o c e d u r e s d e v e l o p e d f o r s t u d y i n g c l i m a t e need n o t depend upon t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f c l i m a t e as g e n e r a l l y a p p l i c a b l e t h e o r e t i c a l c o n s t r u c t , f o r t h e p r o c e d u r e s a r e a p p l i c a b l e t o the much more gen-e r a l p r o b l e m o f s p e c i f i c a t i o n o f the env i r o n m e n t ...." (For e h a n d and G i l m e r , l o c . c i t . ) That i s , c l i m a t e i s a s u b s e t o f the o v e r a l l p roblem o f s p e c i f i c a t i o n o f the env i r o n m e n t or l i f e s p a c e . O r g a n i z a t i o n a l c l i m a t e would t h e n r e f e r t o t h e l i f e space a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the w o r l d o f work and, i n the s p e c i f i c terms o f t h i s s t u d y , t o the f i e l d s o c c u p i e d by t e a c h e r s and a d m i n i s t r a t o r s i n e l e m e n t a r y s c h o o l s . In d e s c e n d i n g o r d e r of g e n e r a l i t y t h e n t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n i s c o n c e r n e d w i t h the way i n which v a l u e o r i e n t a t i o n s are r e l a t e d t o (a) l i f e - s p a c e , t h r o u g h the m o d a l i t i e s o f (b) the o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c l i m a t e and ( c ) i t s d i m e n s i o n s as measured by (d) i n d i v i d u a l p e r c e p t i o n s . The magnitude of i n f e r e n c e , and the consequent need f o r c a u t i o n In g e n e r a l i z a t i o n , i s i n the r e v e r s e d i r e c t i o n . Y e t , a f t e r making a l l c a v e a t s and g r a n t i n g a l l c a u t i o n s , the g e n e r a l c o n c e p t o f o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c l i m a t e would appear t o have t h e o r e t i c a l ground and e m p i r i c a l s u p p o r t and i t would ap-pe a r t o be u s e f u l f o r our p u r p o s e s . The s i m p l e p r e m i s e l<4-3 and b a s i c a s s u m p t i o n i s t h a t v a l u e s are i n some way f u n c t i o n a l l y r e l a t e d t o c l i m a t e . V a l u e s and O r g a n i z a t i o n a l C l i m a t e The l i t e r a t u r e p r e s e n t s us w i t h a t l e a s t t h r e e f o r m a l ways o f c o n n e c t i n g t h e c o n c e p t i o n s o f o r g a n i z a t i o n -a l c l i m a t e and v a l u e , v i z . t h r o u g h t h e o r y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h n o r m - f o r m a t i o n , needs, and p e r c e p t i o n . Norm f o r m a t i o n and frames o f r e f e r e n c e have a l r e a d y been d e a l t w i t h e l s e w h e r e (c_f. pp. 90-97 )- Needs t h e o r y from the s t a n d -p o i n t s o f Maslow and G e t z e l s w i l l be d e a l t w i t h below. P e r c e p t i o n from th e G e s t a l t i s t view has a l s o been t r e a t e d i n C h a p t e r I I I but i t s d i r e c t c o n n e c t i o n w i t h p r e s e n t r e -s e a r c h i s t h r o u g h the OCDQ i n s t r u m e n t used i n the empir-i c a l s e c t i o n o f t h i s s t u d y : A l t h o u g h the s c a l e i s marked a c c o r d i n g to f r e q u e n c y of o c c u r r e n c e , the e s s e n -t i a l q u e s t i o n i s s i m p l y , 'How t r u e i s t h i s o f your s c h o o l ? ' And t h i s , i n -deed, i s how the t e a c h e r s and the p r i n c i p a l s r e s p o n d to the i t e m s . O b v i o u s l y , each t e a c h e r ' s p e r c e p t i o n o f t h e s c h o o l ' s c l i m a t e i s m e d i a t e d t h r o u g h h i s own s e t o f p e r s o n a l v a l u e s and needs. Y e t , as i n the case o f the LBDQ, the members of any g i v e n f a c u l t y show c o n s i s t e n c y among t h e m s e l v e s i n t h e i r p e r c e p t i o n o f what i s 'out t h e r e ' . When, f o r example, a f a c u l t y d e s c r i b e s the O r g a n i z a t i o n a l C l i m a t e o f i t s s c h o o l as Open, the q u e s t i o n 'Is i t r e a l l y Open?' i s unanswerable and i r r e l e v a n t . 144 The c l i m a t e i s Open i f t h e f a c u l t y p e r -c e i v e s i t as Open. A c c o r d i n g l y , t h e OCDQ ite m s a r e measures o f a t t i t u d e s , or a l t e r n a t i v e l y , o f p e r c e p t i o n s . (To speak o f p e r c e p t u a l a t t i t u d e s I s t o d escend t o r e d u n d a n t j a r g o n . ) We a r e s a t i s f i e d t o t a k e the p o s i t i o n t h a t the f a c u l t y ' s c onsensus i n i t s p e r c e p -t i o n of the s c h o o l ' s c l i m a t e can be used as a dependable i n d e x o f what i s 'out t h e r e ' . ( H a l p i n , e, p.147 our i t a l i c s ) One might q u e s t i o n H a l p i n ' s i n d i c t m e n t o f t h e p h r a s e " p e r c e p t u a l a t t i t u d e s " as mere r e d u n d a n t j a r g o n i n view o f the f o r e g o i n g e x p o s i t i o n but the p o i n t i s not o f s e r -i o u s c o n t e n t i o n . The c h a i n from v a l u e s t h r o u g h a t t i -t u d e s t h r o u g h m o t o r - p e r c e p t i o n t o r o l e - d e t e r m i n e d f i e l d has been e s t a b l i s h e d . I f i n t h i s c h a i n v a l u e s have any c a u s a l f u n c t i o n ( i n t h e c o r r e l a t i o n a l s e n s e ) t h e n i t f o l l o w s t h a t o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c l i m a t e has as one o f i t s d e t e r m i n a n t s the v a l u e - o r i e n t a t i o n s o f t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n -a l members. C l i m a t e i s measured t h r o u g h p e r c e p t i o n s . And c l i m a t e , as H a l p i n s t a t e s above, i s p e r c e p t i o n s . A g a i n , however, the c o n v e r s e r e a s o n i n g o b t a i n s . I f a p e r c e p t u a l c l i m a t e be e s t a b l i s h e d ante f a c t o t h e n a d e t e r m i n i n g t e n dency i s a l s o e s t a b l i s h e d w i t h r e s p e c t t o v a l u e - o r i e n t a t i o n . In e i t h e r sequence, from t o c l i -mate and c o n v e r s e l y , v a l u e and c l i m a t e have a c o r r e l a t i v e s t a t u s , a s t a t u s which i t i s an e x p l o r a t o r y f u n c t i o n of t h i s r e s e a r c h t o i n v e s t i g a t e . 145 A n o t h e r a s p e c t o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between v a l u e s and p s y c h o l o g i c a l c l i m a t e i s t h a t which f i n d s i t s f o c u s i n need t h e o r y . Maslow e s p e c i a l l y has p o s t u l a t e d a h i e r a r c h y o f needs a s c e n d i n g from the b a s i c or b i o l o g i c -a l (e^g_. f o o d , sex, s e c u r i t y ) t h r o u g h t o h i g h e r l e v e l s o f g r a t i f i c a t i o n ( s t a t u s , esteem, l o v e , e t c . ) to an a u t o n -omous l e v e l o f s e l f - a c t u a l i z a t i o n (Maslow, p. 1 4 6 ) . Each l e v e l o f needs g e n e r a t e s i t s own c a t e g o r i e s o f v a l u e s and i n o r g a n i z a t i o n t h e o r y t h e r e has been a movement towards a s e l f - a c t u a l i z i n g s c h o o l o f t h o u g h t ( c f . S c h e i n p p . 5 6 f . ) . O r g a n i z a t i o n a l l e a d e r s h i p based on the p r i n c i p l e s o f t h i s s c h o o l would presumably t e n d t o maximize the o r g a n i z a t i o n -a l p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r the s e l f - a c t u a l i z a t i o n o f i t s mem-b e r s . A model o f t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n as a s o c i a l system has been p r e s e n t e d by G e t z e l s and Guba ( l o c . c i t . ) . I t i s d e p i c t e d i n F i g . IV.1 below: 146 F i g . IV.1 G e t z e l s - G u b a Model Nomoth e t i c Dimension [ n s t i t u t i o n s R o l e s Role E x p e c t a t i o n s S o c i a l System %, Needs ' I n d i v i d u a l s P e r s o n a l i t y D i s p o s i t i o n s I d i o g r a p h i c Dimension S o u r c e : G e t z e l s and Guba ( l o c . c i t . ) G o a l B e h a v i o u r o f O r g a n i z a t i o n In b r i e f , i n s t i t u t i o n s or o r g a n i z a t i o n s are c o n c e i v e d as g e n e r a t i n g r o l e s which r o l e s have i n t u r n a s p e c i f i e d p a t t e r n o f b e h a v i o u r a l e x p e c t a t i o n s . T h i s i s the nomo-t h e t i c d i m e n s i o n . But o r g a n i z a t i o n s are a b s t r a c t i o n s and t h e i r r e a l components are i n d i v i d u a l s who each pos-sess p e r s o n a l i t i e s w i t h c o n c o m i t a n t needs which t e n d t o g e n e r a t e b e h a v i o u r a l o n g an i d i o g r a p h i c d i m e n s i o n . The l a t t e r may be d i v e r g e n t from or c o n v e r g e n t w i t h the organ-i z a t i o n a l g o a l d i m e n s i o n . Another c o n c e p t u a l d i m e n s i o n was added by T h e l e n ( l o c . c i t . ) r e l a t i n g ethos and i t s c o n c o m i t a n t mores and v a l u e s so t h a t the whole appears as i n F i g . IV.2 below. 147 Soc . System F i g . IV.2 T h e l e n Dimension C u l t u r a l Dimension E t h o s Mores V a l u e s I n s t ' n Ro l e s Role Exp'ns / I n d l s . P e r s o n -a l i t y Needs Orgz ' 1 Go a l s S o u r c e : T h e l e n and G e t z e l s ( l o c . c i t . ) I f the model o f F i g . IV.2 be t a k e n as even a mere c o g n i t i v e o r d e r i n g of c r i t i c a l phenomena c o n t r i b u t i n g t o o r g a n i z a t i o n a l s o c i a l p r o c e s s i t p r o v i d e s a f u r t h e r r a t i o n a l e f o r r e l a t i n g v a l u e s and o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c l i m a t e s i n c e the for m e r has i t s impress on t h e c e n t r a l nomo-t h e t i c d i m e n s i o n t h r o u g h b o t h the c u l t u r a l and the i d i o -g r a p h i c d i m e n s i o n s and s i n c e c l i m a t e , which i s o p e r a t i o n -a l l y d e f i n e d as the consensus o f r o l e incumbent p e r c e p -t i o n s , i s a measure o f the o r g a n i z a t i o n as s o c i a l system. R e l a t e d S t u d i e s R e l e v a n t e x p e r i m e n t a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n s of a t t i t u d -i n a l and v a l u e development and change have a l r e a d y been r e v i e w e d i n Chapter I I I above ( p p . 9 8 f f ) . i t i s not 14-8 i n t e n d e d t o r e v i e w t h i s r e s e a r c h a g a i n h e r e but t o draw a t t e n t i o n t o r e c e n t work which i s l e s s g e n e r a l i n c h a r -a c t e r and more s p e c i f i c a l l y r e l a t e d to o r g a n i z a t i o n a l b e h a v i o u r . The work o f S h e r i f and Asch ( o p . c i t . ) has been c o n f i r m e d and r e f i n e d by K i e s l e r a t Y a l e ( l o c . c i t . ) . An i m p o r t a n t c o n t r i b u t i o n o f K i e s l e r i s t o draw a t t e n t i o n t o the f a c t o r o f commitment. A p e r s o n ' s r e s p o n s i v e n e s s t o group norms, h i s c o n f o r m i t y b e h a v i o u r , i s f u n c t i o n a l -l y dependent on the degree o f h i s commitment to the group. Thus, e x p e r i m e n t a l e v i d e n c e was adduced t o show t h a t , even i f an . i n d i v i d u a l d i s l i k e d h i s r e f e r e n c e group and was i n t u r n d i s l i k e d by the members o f t h a t group, h i s o p i n i o n s were s t i l l m o d i f i e d i n the d i r e c t i o n of the group norm p r o v i d e d he was committed to remain w i t h them ( K i e s l e r , o p . c i t . ) . The i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r r o l e incum-bency of a r e l a t i v e l y permanent n a t u r e (e.g_. e l e m e n t a r y t e a c h e r ) are s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d . Lieberman ( l o c . c i t . ) has c o n d u c t e d a study which i n p r i n c i p l e i n v e s t i g a t e s an a r e a s i m i l a r t o t h a t o f t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n . He a l s o d e v e l o p e d a r a t i o n a l e which i s of d i r e c t i n t e r e s t f o r the p r e s e n t i n v e s t i g a t i o n . His study examined the e f f e c t s of o r g a n i z a t i o n a l r o l e s on a t t i t u d e s i n a f i e l d s i t u a t i o n , h i s s u b j e c t s b e i n g 149 f a c t o r y w o r k e r s , s u p e r v i s o r y n e l . Because o f the d i r e c t quoted from a t some l e n g t h : and a d m i n i s t r a t i v e p e r s o n -r e l e v a n c e t h i s s t u d y may be A r o l e may be d e f i n e d as a s e t o f behav i o r s t h a t are e x p e c t e d o f p e o p l e who occupy a c e r t a i n p o s i t i o n i n a s o c i a l system. These e x p e c t a t i o n s c o n s i s t of s h a r e d a t t i t u d e s or b e l i e f s , h e l d by r e l e v a n t p o p u l a t i o n s , about what r o l e o c c u p a n t s s h o u l d and s h o u l d not do. The t h e o r e t i c a l b a s i s f o r h y p o t h e s i z i n g t h a t a r o l e w i l l have e f f e c t s on r o l e o c c u p a n t s l i e s i n the n a t u r e o f t h e s e e x p e c t a t i o n s , the ' r i g h t s ' or 'rewards' a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the r o l e w i l l be a c -c o r d e d t o him. I f he f a i l s t o meet t h e s e e x p e c t a t i o n s , the ' r i g h t s ' or 'rewards' w i l l be w i t h h e l d from him and 'punishments' may be meted ou t . A d i s t i n c t i o n s h o u l d be made between the e f f e c t s of r o l e s on p e o p l e ' s a t t i -t u d e s and the e f f e c t s o f r o l e s on t h e i r a c t i o n s . How r o l e s a f f e c t a c t i o n s can p r o b a b l y be e x p l a i n e d i n a f a i r l y d i r -e c t f a s h i o n . A c t i o n s are o v e r t and r e a d i l y e n f o r c e a b l e . I f a p e r s o n f a i l s t o behave i n ways a p p r o p r i a t e to h i s r o l e , t h i s can i m m e d i a t e l y be seen, and s t e p s may be t a k e n to b r i n g the d e v i a n t or n o n - c o n f o r m i s t i n t o l i n e . Role d e v i a n t s may be e v i c t e d from t h e i r r o l e s , p l a c e d i n l e s s r e w a r d i n g r o l e s , i s o l a t e d from o t h e r members of the group, or b a n i s h e d e n t i r e l y from the s o c i a l system. A change i n r o l e s almost i n v a r i a b l y i n v o l v e s a change i n r e f e r e n c e g r o u ps. O l d r e f e r e n c e groups may c o n t i n u e to I n f l u e n c e t h e r o l e o c c u p a n t , but new ones a l s o come i n t o p l a y . The change i n r e f e r e n c e groups may i n v o l v e moving i n t o a c o m p l e t e l y new group (as when a p e r s o n i s promoted, t o a h i g h e r , pos i t i o n i n a h i e r a r c h i c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n ) . In b o t h s i t u a t i o n s , new r e f e r e n c e groups w i l l t e n d t o b r i n g about new frames o f r e f e r e n c e , new s e l f - p e r c e p t s , and new v e s t e d I n t e r e s t s , and t h e s e i n t u r n w i l l t e n d t o p r o d u c e new a t t i t u d i n a l o r i e n t a t i o n s . In a d d i t i o n t o a change i n r e f e r e n c e g r o u p s , a change i n r o l e s a l s o i n v o l v e s a change i n f u n c t i o n s and a change i n the k i n d o f b e h a v i o r s and a c t i o n s t h a t the r o l e o c c u p a n t must d i s p l a y i f he i s t o f u l f i l t h e s e f u n c t i o n s . A change i n a c t i o n s , l e t us assume, comes about because t h e s e a c t i o n s are i m m e d i a t e l y r e q u i r e d , c l e a r l y v i s i b l e , and hence s o c i a l l y e n f o r c e a b l e . I f we f u r t h e r assume a need f o r p e o p l e t o have a t t i -t u d e s t h a t are i n t e r n a l l y c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e i r a c t i o n s , t h e n a t l e a s t one a s p e c t of the f u n c t i o n a l s i g n i f i c a n c e o f a change i n a t t i t u d e s becomes c l e a r . A change i n a t t i t u d e s e n a b l e s a new r o l e o c c u p a n t t o j u s t i f y , to make r a t i o n a l , or perhaps s i m p l y t o r a t i o n -a l i z e h i s change i n a c t i o n s . Having a t t i t u d e s t h a t are c o n s i s t e n t w i t h a c t i o n s h e l p s the r o l e o c c u p a n t t o be 'at one' w i t h h i m s e l f and f a c i l i t a t e s h i s e f f e c t i v e p e r f o r m a n c e o f the f u n c -t i o n s he i s e x p e c t e d t o c a r r y o u t . The r e f e r e n c e - g r o u p p r i n c i p l e and the s e l f - c o n s i s t e n c y p r i n c i p l e p o s t u -l a t e somewhat d i f f e r e n t c h a i n s o f e v e n t s i n a c c o u n t i n g f o r the e f f e c t s of r o l e s on a t t i t u d e s and a c t i o n s . In a b b r e v i a t e d v e r s i o n s , the d i f f e r e n t c h a i n s may be s p e l l e d out i n the f o l -l o w i n g ways : 1. R e f e r e n c e - g r o u p p r i n c i p l e : A change i n r o l e s i n v o l v e s a change i n r e f e r e n c e groups ... which l e a d s to a change i n a t t i t u d e s ... which l e a d s t o a change i n a c t i o n s . 2. S e l f - c o n s i s t e n c y p r i n c i p l e : A change i n r o l e s i n v o l v e s a change i n f u n c t i o n s ... which l e a d s to a change 151 i n a c t i o n s . . . which, l e a d s t o a change i n a t t i t u d e s . ( L i e b e r m a n , l o c . c i t . ) I t s h o u l d be n o t e d t h a t b o t h p r i n c i p l e s ( p r e v i o u s l y r e f e r r e d t o and expounded i n C h a p t e r I I I q.v.) s u p p o r t t h e n o t i o n , c o n f i r m e d by Lieberman's e m p i r i c a l f i n d i n g s , o f an a t t i t u d i n a l o r i e n t a t i o n s p e c i f i c t o an o r g a n i z a t i o n a l r o l e . Our own c o n t e n t i o n , f o l l o w i n g upon our c o n c e p t o f v a l u e , i s s i m p l y t h a t t h i s a t t i t u d i n a l o r i e n t a t i o n s h o u l d a l s o be d i s c e r n i b l e at the v a l u e l e v e l and t h a t r o l e s can, i f s u f f i c i e n t l y d i f f e r i n g i n l i f e - s p a c e , be d e t e r m i n a n t s o f d i f f e r i n g v a l u e o r i e n t a t i o n s . That p e r c e p t i o n s as w e l l as v a l u e s d i f f e r between r o l e s i s s u b s t a n t i a t e d by T a g i u r i ' s s t u d y o f v a l u e o r i e n -t a t i o n s and the r e l a t i o n s h i p o f managers, e x e c u t i v e s and s c i e n t i s t s i n i n d u s t r y ( T a g i u r i , l o c . c i t . ) . U s i n g the A l l p o r t - V e r n o n i n s t r u m e n t a c t u a l and p e r c e i v e d v a l u e o r i e n t a t i o n s f o r t h r e e t y p e s o f r o l e incumbent were as-c e r t a i n e d . P e r c e p t i o n s by r o l e incumbents o f o t h e r r o l e v a l u e - o r i e n t a t i o n s were not as d i f f e r e n t from a c t u a l v a l u e - o r i e n t a t i o n s as b e l i e v e d by the s u b j e c t s y e t were i n the p e r c e i v e d d i r e c t i o n . That i s t o say, the e v i d e n c e showed t h a t v a l u e d i f f e r e n c e s between r o l e s d i d e x i s t but not e n t i r e l y to the e x t e n t p e r c e i v e d to e x i s t . A l t h o u g h q u e s t i o n s can be r a i s e d as t o c o n c e p t s and methodology i n t h i s s t u d y i t g e n e r a l l y s u b s t a n t i a t e s our t h e o r e t i c a l pos i t i o n . In g e n e r a l , however, the amount o f e m p i r i c a l v e s t i g a t i o n i n the a r e a o f r o l e and v a l u e - o r i e n t a t i o n s l i g h t . One may quote a c u r r e n t a u t h o r i t y t o t h i s e f f e c t : The e m p i r i c a l e v i d e n c e f o r t h e e f f e c t s o f r o l e e x p e r i e n c e and b e h a v i o r on p e r s o n a l -i t y i s t h i n , perhaps because i t has not been o f t e n s o u g h t . The t r u t h o f t h e f o l k s a y i n g t h a t 'you become what you do' has y e t t o be put t o s y s t e m a t i c t e s t . How-e v e r , Cameron and Magaret (1951) r e p o r t e d t h a t the absence o f r o l e — t a k i n g s k i l l s seemed t o c o n t r i b u t e t o the development of p a r a n o i d symptoms. Gough and P e t e r s o n (1952) found t h a t the number of r o l e s p l a y e d by an i n d i v i d u a l was r e l a t e d to h i s a b i l i t y to be s e l f - c r i t i c a l , and t h a t de-f i c i e n c i e s i n r o l e p e r f o r m a n c e l e d to an I n c r e a s i n g i n a b i l i t y t o see o n e s e l f i n o b j e c t i v e terms and to i d e n t i f y w i t h the views o f o t h e r s . In an extended e x p e r -iment i n v o l v i n g the m a n i p u l a t i o n o f the l e v e l o f d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g i n a l a r g e c l e r -i c a l o p e r a t i o n , Tannenbaum (1957) showed t h a t both the autonomous and the h i e r a r c h i c a l c o n d i t i o n s p r o d u c e d s i g n i f i c a n t changes i n p e r s o n a l i t y . The p e r s o n a l i t y changes were i n the d i r e c t i o n of i n c r e a s i n g congruence between r o l e and p e r s o n . E a r l i e r a c c o u n t s o f the e f f e c t s of r o l e on p e r s o n a l i t y were u n s u p p o r t e d by q u a n t i t -a t i v e d a t a , and were c o n c e n t r a t e d p r i m a r i l y on the d y s f u n c t i o n a l e f f e c t s of b u r e a u c r a t -i c r e q u i r e m e n t s . V e b l e n ' s d i s c u s s i o n o f ' t r a i n e d i n c a p a c i t y ' , Dewey's d e s c r i p t i o n o f ' o c c u p a t i o n a l p s y c h o s i s ' , and Warnotte's r e f e r e n c e to ' p r o f e s s i o n a l d e f o r m a t i o n ' are p erhaps the major examples of t h i s l i n e of argument. Merton (1957) b u i l d s on them i n 153 h i s own e x p o s i t i o n o f b u r e a u c r a t i c s t r u c -t u r e and p e r s o n a l i t y , and c o n c l u d e s w i t h a p l e a f o r ' s t u d i e s o f r e l i g i o u s , e d u c a t i o n -a l , m i l i t a r y , economic, and p o l i t i c a l b u r e a u c r a c i e s d e a l i n g w i t h the i n t e r d e p e n -dence o f s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n and p e r s o n a l i t y f o r m a t i o n ...' The c o n c l u s i o n remains a p p r o p r i a t e t o d a y . ( K a t z and Kahn, pp.195-6, our i t a l i c s ) . In view t h e n o f such e x i g u o u s a c t i v i t y at t h e e m p i r i c a l l e v e l and i n d e e d o f the r a t h e r j e j u n e n a t u r e o f t h e o r y c o n n e c t i n g the phenomena o f v a l u e s and o r g a n i z a t i o n a l membership one i s emboldened i n s e t t i n g f o r t h some ex-p l o r a t i v e h y p o t h e s e s and p r o p o s i t i o n s which are based on the argument to t h i s p o i n t . Hypotheses The l a r g e r p o r t i o n of t h i s c h a p t e r has been de-v o t e d t o a d i s c u s s i o n o f the c o n c e p t o f o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c l i m a t e , p a r t i c u l a r l y as d e v e l o p e d i n the work of A.W. H a l p i n . In a d d i t i o n , however, o t h e r r e s e a r c h r e l e v a n t to the g e n e r a l i n t e r a c t i o n between i n d i v i d u a l v a l u e -o r i e n t a t i o n s and o r g a n i z a t i o n a l membership has been con-s i d e r e d and the case has been p r e s e n t e d from the view-p o i n t o f o r g a n i z a t i o n a l t h e o r y r a t h e r than t h a t o f s o c i a l p s y c h o l o g y g e n e r a l l y as i n the p r e v i o u s c h a p t e r . The major p r o p o s i t i o n s f o r the e m p i r i c a l s e c t i o n o f t h i s study were a l s o f i r s t o u t l i n e d i n a g e n e r a l manner at the end o f 154 C h a p t e r I I I . I t i s now p o s s i b l e t o make a more f o r m a l s t a t e m e n t o f t h e s e p r o p o s i t i o n s as f o l l o w s below. The o p e r a t i o n a l v e r s i o n s o f the h y p o t h e s e s w i l l be s e t out In the f o l l o w i n g c h a p t e r t o g e t h e r w i t h s t a t e m e n t s o f minor p r o p o s i t i o n s o f an e x p l o r a t o r y n a t u r e . H y p o t h e s i s I: The h i e r a r c h i c a l l e v e l s o f a s c h o o l o r g a n -i z a t i o n a r e r e f l e c t e d i n d i f f e r e n c e s o f v a l u e s and v a l u e o r i e n t a t i o n s o f r o l e i ncumbents. H y p o t h e s i s I I : The v a l u e o r i e n t a t i o n s o f s c h o o l s t a f f s are s i g n i f i c a n t l y c o r r e l a t e d w i t h o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c l i m a t e . H y p o t h e s i s I I I : There i s a r e l a t i o n s h i p between the v a l u e o r i e n t a t i o n s o f t e a c h e r s and a d m i n i s t r a t o r s and the c o n c e p t of a u t h e n t i c i t y . H y p o t h e s i s IV: There i s a r e l a t i o n s h i p between " i n n e r -d i r e c t e d " and " o t h e r - d i r e c t e d " v a l u e o r i e n t a t i o n s and "openness" of o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c l i m a t e . H y p o t h e s i s V: The v a r i a b l e s o f age, sex, and o r g a n i z a -t i o n a l e x p e r i e n c e are p r e d i c t i v e o f v a l u e o r i e n t a t i o n . H y p o t h e s i s VI: There i s a f u n c t i o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p be-tween t e a c h e r - p r i n c i p a l v a l u e congruence and o r g a n i z a t i o n -a l c l i m a t e ; and between s t a f f v a l u e consonance and o r g a n -i z a t i o n a l c l i m a t e . 155 R e f e r e n c e s f o r C h a p t e r IV Asch, S.E. " E f f e c t s o f Group P r e s s u r e s upon the Modi-f i c a t i o n and D i s t o r t i o n o f Judgments" i n Swanson G.E., Newcomb, T.M., H a r t l e y , E.L. eds. R e a d i n g s i n S o c i a l P s y c h o l o g y 2nd ed. H o l t , N.Y. 1952. C l a r k , B.R. " O r g a n i z a t i o n a l A d a p t a t i o n and P r e c a r i o u s V a l u e s . A Case Study" American S o c i o l o g i c a l Review V o l . 21, June, 19~5lT E t z i o n i , A. Modern O r g a n i z a t i o n s . P r e n t i c e H a l l , N.J. 1964-. Forehand, G.A., G i l m e r , B.v.H. " E n v i r o n m e n t a l V a r i a t i o n i n S t u d i e s o f O r g a n i z a t i o n a l B e h a v i o r " P s ycho-l o g i c a l B u l l e t i n V o l . 62, No. 6, December 1964. pp . 361-379. G e t z e l s , J.W., Guba, E.A. " S o c i a l B e h a v i o r and the A d m i n i s t r a t i v e P r o c e s s " S c h o o l Review No. 65 W i n t e r 1957 , pp . 42 3-4-1. H a l p i n , A.W. (a) The L e a d e r s h i p B e h a v i o u r of S c h o o l S u p e r i n t e n d e n t s . Ohio S t a t e U. Columbus, Ohio, 1956 . . (b) "The B e h a v i o r of L e a d e r s " E d u c a t i o n a l L e a d e r s h i p 14, No. 3, December 1956, pp.172-176. ( c ) "The Leader B e h a v i o r and L e a d e r s h i p I d e o l o g y of E d u c a t i o n a l A d m i n i s t r a t o r s and A i r -c r a f t Commanders" H a r v a r d E d u c a t i o n a l Review 25 W i n t e r 19 5 5 , pp.18-32. (d) "The S u p e r i n t e n d e n t ' s E f f e c t i v e n e s s as a L e a d e r " A d m i n i s t r a t o r ' s Notebook, 7, No. 2. October 1958. (e) "Theory and R e s e a r c h i n A d m i n i s t r a t i o n " " M a c M i l l a n , N.Y. 1966. , C r o f t S c h o o l s . C h i c a g o , , D.B. The O r g a n i z a t i o n a l C l i m a t e o f Midwest A d m i n i s t r a t i o n C e n t e r . U. o f C h i c a g o , 1963. 156 H a l p i n , A.W., Winer, B . J . The L e a d e r s h i p B e h a v i o r o f t h e A i r p l a n e Commander. T e c h n i c a l R e p o r t I I I , Ohio S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y R e s e a r c h F o u n d a t i o n , Columbus, 1952 mimeo. H a r d i n g , D.W. 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" O r g a n i z a t i o n a l C l i m a t e of A l b e r t a S c h o o l s " Canadian S c h o o l A d m i n i s t r a t o r ' s B u l l e t i n , No. I l l June, 1964. P a r s o n s , T. S t r u c t u r e and P r o c e s s i n Modern S o c i e t i e s . Free P r e s s , G l e n c o e , 1960. Riesman, D. The L o n e l y Crowd. Doubleday, N.Y. 1958. S c h e i n , E.H. O r g a n i z a t i o n a l P s y c h o l o g y . P r e n t i c e - H a l l , N.J. , 1965 . S e l z n i c k , P. L e a d e r s h i p i n A d m i n i s t r a t i o n . Harper and Row, N.Y. 1957. S h e r i f , M. (a) The P s y c h o l o g y of S o c i a l Norms. Harper and Row, N.Y. 1966. . (b) S o c i a l I n t e r a c t i o n . A l d i n e , C h i c a g o , 1967. 157 S i l l s , D.L. The V o l u n t e e r s . F r e e P r e s s , G l e n c o e 1957 S t o g d i l l , R.M., S h a r t l e , C L . Methods i n the Study o f A d m i n i s t r a t i v e L e a d e r s h i p . Bureau o f B u s i n e s s R e s e a r c h , Ohio U. Columbus, Ohio, 1955. T a g i u r i , R. " V a l ue O r i e n t a t i o n s and t h e R e l a t i o n s h i p of Managers and S c i e n t i s t s " A d m i n i s t r a t i v e S c i e n c e Q u a r t e r l y V o l . 10, No. 1, June 1965, pp . 39-52. T h e l e n , H.A., G e t z e l s , J.W. "The S o c i a l S c i e n c e s : C o n c e p t u a l Framework f o r E d u c a t i o n " S c h o o l Review LXV Autumn 1957 , p . 346 . Thompson, J.D., McEwen, W.J. " O r g a n i z a t i o n a l G o a l s and E n v i r o n m e n t " American S o c i o l o g i c a l Review 23 (1958 ), pp. 2 3- JT. W a t k i n s , J . F . "The OCDQ -- An A p p l i c a t i o n and Some I m p l i c a t i o n s " E d u c a t i o n a l A d m i n i s t r a t i o n Q u a r t e r l y , V o l . IV. No. 2, S p r i n g 1968, pp. 46-60. CHAPTER V EMPIRICAL STUDY The S c o t t R e s e a r c h The p r e c e d i n g c h a p t e r s have been g i v e n o v e r t o the c o n s t r u c t i o n o f a t h e o r e t i c a l p o s i t i o n and the d e r i -v a t i o n o f h y p o t h e s e s . The e m p i r i c a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f t h e s e h y p o t h e s e s w i l l be the e s s e n t i a l s u b j e c t m a t t e r o f the p r e s e n t c h a p t e r . In o r d e r t o form a p r o p e r p e r s p e c -t i v e , however, two p r e v i o u s s t u d i e s which are c l o s e l y r e -l a t e d t o the p r e s e n t work w i l l be b r i e f l y r e v i e w e d . The f i r s t o f t h e s e i s a major work by W.A. S c o t t ( o p . c i t . ) . T h i s s t u d y i s f u l l y r e p o r t e d i n the book V a l u e s and O r g a n i z a t i o n s ( q . v . ) . I t i s e s s e n t i a l l y a l o n g i t u d -i n a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n c o n d u c t e d over a p e r i o d o f one y e a r a t the U n i v e r s i t y of C o l o r a d o w i t h the s u b j e c t s b e i n g mem-ber s of f r a t e r n i t i e s and s o r o r i t i e s at t h a t u n i v e r s i t y (n = 702 , s u b j e c t s ; n = 1 0 , o r g a n i z a t i o n s ) . U s i n g an i n -strument d e v i s e d by S c o t t f o r the measurement o f v a l u e s 158 159 ( p p . l 6 1 f f . below) s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s were o b s e r v e d over t i m e . The s t u d y b u i l d s upon p r e v i -ous work by J a c o b , P i a g e t , Newcomb and S a n f o r d ( o p . c i t . ) . In h i s t h e o r e t i c a l p r e l u d e S c o t t d i f f e r s from us i n t h a t he te n d s to l i n k v a l u e s and m o r a l i t y and t o s t r e s s the p r e s c r i p t i v e or "ought" component o f an i n d i v i d u a l c o n c e p t i o n o f the d e s i r a b l e . H i s p e r s p e c t i v e can be gauged from the f o l l o w i n g q u o t a t i o n . A v a r i e t y of appro a c h e s t o ' e x p l a i n i n g ' the appearance of human m o r a l i t y have been c o n s i d e r e d . Some o f t h e s e e x p l a n -a t i o n s r e f e r t o the i n d i v i d u a l ' s a c q u i s -i t i o n o f p a r t i c u l a r v a l u e c o n t e n t s ; o t h e r s r e f e r t o the r e a s o n s why any p a r t i c u l a r c o n t e n t i s r e g a r d e d by the p e r s o n as a u n i v e r s a l and a b s o l u t e good. Reasons may be sought i n the i n d i v i d -u a l ' s own h i s t o r y o f l e a r n i n g from s o c i a l groups t h a t are i m p o r t a n t t o him; they may a l s o be sought i n the f u n c t i o n s t h a t the 'moral a t t i t u d e ' and p a r t i c u l a r m o r a l c o n t e n t s f i l l f o r the group t h a t t r a n s -m i t s the v a l u e s . I t has been assumed, b r o a d l y , t h a t any v a l u e c o n t e n t may be a c q u i r e d by an i n d i -v i d u a l , g i v e n s u f f i c i e n t l y c o n s i s t e n t r e i n f o r c e m e n t from h i s s o c i a l s u r r o u n d . The v e r y f a c t o f p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n an a c t i v i t y seems t o be s u f f i c i e n t f o r many pe o p l e t o d e v e l o p a p o s i t i v e a t t i t u d e toward i t . But the r e a s o n why t h i s p o s i t i v e c a t h e x i s s h o u l d be c o n v e r t e d i n t o an a b s o l u t e , u n i v e r s a l 'ought' i s o b s c u r e . A l a r g e number of p e o p l e e v i d e n t l y do r e g a r d t h e i r own e v a l u a -t i v e s t a n d a r d s as a b s o l u t e s which o t h e r s ought t o s h a r e . I t has been proposed t h a t t h i s 'moral a t t i t u d e ' s e r v e s c e r -t a i n f u n c t i o n s f o r the i n d i v i d u a l s ' s e l f -160 m a i n t e n a n c e , h e l p i n g t o s u p p o r t h i s s e l f - c o n c e p t as a r a t i o n a l human b e i n g and h e l p i n g t o j u s t i f y the h u r t he must o f t e n cause o t h e r s . I t i s a l s o commonly contended t h a t i n t e r n a l i z e d s t a n d a r d s o f r i g h t and wrong s e r v e the f u n c t i o n s o f group maintenance and a d a p t a t i o n . They h e l p a group t o j u s t i f y i t s own e x i s t e n c e and a c t i v i t i e s ; t h e y h e l p t o d e t e r d e v i a n c y and t o j u s t i f y t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f s a n c t i o n s when d e v i a n c y does o c c u r . These views o f m o r a l i t y as s e r v i n g t h e f u n c t i o n s o f s e l f - m a i n t e n a n c e and group maintenance i n e v i t a b l y a s s i g n a s u b o r d -i n a t e p o s i t i o n t o m o r a l p r o c e s s e s --c o n c e i v i n g them as consequences o f i n d i v i d u a l and c o l l e c t i v e e f f o r t s at a d a p t a t i o n . Y e t , once e s t a b l i s h e d , c o n c e p t i o n s of m o r a l i t y may s e r v e t o g u i d e and s u s t a i n e i t h e r i n d i v i d u a l or c o l l e c t i v e a c t i v i t y , thus becoming d e t e r m i n i n g f a c t o r s i n t h e i r own r i g h t . An i n d i v i d u a l , g u i d e d by a c o n c e p t o f a b s o l u t e good, i s i n a p o s i t i o n t o reward h i m s e l f f o r c o n f o r m i t y t o h i s own s t a n d a r d , and thus t o s u s t a i n ac-t i v i t y i n p u r s u i t o f t h a t s t a n d a r d even i n the f a c e of a d v e r s e c i r c u m -s t a n c e s , and i n the absence o f group a p p r o v a l . J u s t how such an i n d e p e n -d e n t , s e l f - s u f f i c i e n t m o r a l i t y comes about, and the c o n d i t i o n s t h a t may h e l p t o m a i n t a i n or e x t i n g u i s h i t , are problems t h a t need f u r t h e r s t u d y . ( S c o t t , a, p.7 3-4) Working from t h i s s t a n d p o i n t S c o t t d e r i v e d an i n s t r u m e n t f o r the measurement o f 12 p e r s o n a l v a l u e s l T h e q u o t a t i o n c l e a r l y r e v e a l s the i n t e r s e c t i o n of S c o t t s r e a s o n i n g w i t h t h a t adduced above. The sub-s t i t u t i o n s , however, of the term p r e s c r i p t i v e f o r a b s o l -u t e . a n d n o r m a t i v e b e h a v i o u r f o r m o r a l i t y would d e s i r a b l e from the w r i t e r ' s p e r s p e c t i v e . seem 161 w h i c h , i n s l i g h t l y amended form, i s t h a t employed i n t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n s t u d y (Appendix C and below pp.161-62). The I n s t r u m e n t was d e v e l o p e d f i r s t l y t h r o u g h open-ques-t i o n assessment and i t sought c o n c e p t i o n s o f the d e s i r a b l e i n t h e f i e l d o f i n t e r p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s , a f i e l d most apropos t o the c o r r e l a t i v e s t u d y o f o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c l i m a t e , The i n s t r u m e n t as f i n a l l y c o n s t r u c t e d was o f t h e m u l t i p l e -q u e s t i o n t y p e which i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h a L i k e r t t y p e s c a l e e n a b l e s t h e s u b j e c t t o a c c e p t o r r e j e c t t r a i t des-c r i p t i o n s . The v a l u e s w i t h summaries of t h e i r c o n t e n t are d e s c r i b e d by S c o t t as f o l l o w s : I n t e l l e c t u a l l s m : Having s t r o n g i n t e l -l e c t u a l and c u l t u r a l i n t e r e s t s ; t r y -i n g t o l e a r n a g r e a t d e a l about t h i n g s , even though t h e knowledge may not be u s e f u l . K i n d n e s s : B e i n g m o s t l y c o n c e r n e d about o t h e r p e o p l e , d o i n g good f o r them, and t r y i n g t o make them happy, even i f i t i s a g a i n s t one's own i n t e r e s t s . S o c i a l S k i l l s : B e i n g charming, p o p u l a r , w e l l mannered and g e t t i n g a l o n g w i t h a l l k i n d s o f p e o p l e . L o y a l t y : Being a l o y a l , d e v o t e d member of the group, never c r i t i c i z i n g i t to o u t s i d e r s , and wor k i n g h a r d t o get i t ahead o f o t h e r g r o u p s . Academic Achievement: S t u d y i n g a g r e a t d e a l and working h a r d to get good g r a d e s . P h y s i c a l Development: B e i n g a w e l l -d e v e l o p e d o u t d o o r s type who e n j o y s phys-i c a l a c t i v i t y . S t a t u s : Having s t r o n g l e a d e r s h i p q u a l -i t i e s , b e i n g r e s p e c t e d by o t h e r s , and g a i n i n g r e c o g n i t i o n f o r one's a c h i e v e -ments . Honesty: Always t e l l i n g the t r u t h and 162 b e i n g c o m p l e t e l y h o n e s t ; n e v e r c h e a t i n g or l y i n g , even though t h e s e might make f o r an e a s i e r r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h o t h e r s . R e l i g i o u s n e s s : B e i n g a r e l i g i o u s p e r s o n , b o t h i n b e l i e f and p r a c t i c e ; a t t e n d i n g c h u r c h r e g u l a r l y ; and a b i d i n g by the B i b l e ' s t e a c h i n g s . S e l f - c o n t r o l : Always b e i n g p a t i e n t and s e l f - c o n t r o l l e d ; n e v e r l o s i n g one's temper, no m a t t e r what t h e p r o v o c a t i o n . C r e a t i v i t y : B e i n g i n v e n t i v e , c r e a t i v e , and always t h i n k i n g o f d i f f e r e n t ways o f do i n g t h i n g s . Independence: B e i n g i n d e p e n d e n t , o u t -spoken, f r e e - t h i n k i n g , and unhampered by the bounds o f t r a d i t i o n or s o c i a l r e s t r a i n t . ( i b i d . p.24) The f i n d i n g s r e p o r t e d i n the S c o t t s t u d y p r o v i d e some s u p p o r t f o r H y p o t h e s i s I above. I n t e r a l i a t h e y showed: 1) t h a t o r g a n i z a t i o n s t e n d t o r e c r u i t new members w i t h v a l u e s s i m i l a r t o t h o s e o f o l d members ( s u p p o r t e d ) , 2) t h a t e s t a b l i s h e d members who m a i n t a i n , or d e v e l o p , v a l u e s t h a t are d e v i a n t from the group norm t e n d t o be-come a l i e n a t e d and l e a v e the o r g a n i z a t i o n ( p a r t i a l l y sup-p o r t e d ) , 3) t h a t a t t r i t i o n or f a l l o f f i n membership among new members i s h i g h e s t i n o r g a n i z a t i o n s where s e l e c t i o n p r o c e s s e s have r e s u l t e d i n the p o o r e s t v a l u e match w i t h o l d members ( s u p p o r t e d ) . Some o f S c o t t ' s f i n d i n g s (e.g_. i b i d . p.181, T a b l e 26) are perhaps open to s t a t i s t i c a l c r i t i c i s m on the grounds t h a t the u n d e r l y i n g assumption of n o r m a l i t y o f d i s t r i b u t i o n i s unexamined. The study i s c r u c i a l to the 163 p r e s e n t r e s e a r c h , however, by v i r t u e o f i t s c a r e f u l l y r e a s o n e d and s t r i n g e n t l y d e v e l o p e d i n s t r u m e n t . The L u p i n i Study The i n i t i a l s t i m u l i f o r u n d e r t a k i n g t h e p r e s e n t r e s e a r c h c o n s i s t e d o f the f o r e g o i n g s t u d y and a n o t h e r con-d u c t e d i n the f i e l d o f e d u c a t i o n a d m i n i s t r a t i o n by L u p i n i ( a , o p . c i t . ) . The l a t t e r examined some of the i n t e r -r e l a t i o n s h i p s between s o c i a l b e h a v i o u r i n s c h o o l o r g a n i z -a t i o n s and v a l u e s on the a s s u m p t i o n t h a t "an i n d i v i d u a l ' s b e h a v i o u r i s p r i m a r i l y an e x t e r n a l m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f h i s b a s i c v a l u e s " ( i b i d , p . <+. ) . L u p i n i a l s o assumed t h a t the e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f l e a d e r s and a d m i n i s t r a t o r s depended l a r g e l y on t h e i r s o c i a l s k i l l s and t h e s e i n t u r n depended upon a knowledge o f v a l u e s . Though t h e s e a s s u m p t i o n s may be open t o debate i t i s more t o the immediate p u r -poses t o s t r e s s t h e p o s t u l a t e common t o the p r e s e n t s t u d y and t o the work o f L u p i n i and S c o t t , v i z . t h a t v a l u e s are c o r r e l a t e d w i t h s o c i a l b e h a v i o u r and i n t e r a c t i o n i n o r g a n -i z a t i o n s . In the L u p i n i s t u d y the v a l u e s s t u d i e d are d i c h o t -omized about the c a t e g o r i e s o f " t r a d i t i o n a l " and "emerg-e n t " ; the former embracing v a l u e s c l a s s i f i e d as m o r a l commitment, wo r k - s u c c e s s e t h i c , i n d i v i d u a l i s m , and f u t u r e -time o r i e n t a t i o n , the l a t t e r , v a l u e s termed s o c i a b i l i t y , 164 r e l a t i v i s t i c m o r a l a t t i t u d e , c o n f o r m i t y , and p r e s e n t - t i m e o r i e n t a t i o n . The I n s t r u m e n t used f o r m e a s u r i n g b e h a v i o u r was the H a l p i n OCDQ which , as p o i n t e d out above, i s a measure o f p e r c e p t i o n s . The i n v e s t i g a t i o n was c o n d u c t e d w i t h a non-random sample o f 854 t e a c h e r s and 81 p r i n c i p a l s i n 81 e l e m e n t a r y E n g l i s h C a t h o l i c s c h o o l s i n the G r e a t e r M o n t r e a l a r e a . The v a l u e i n s t r u m e n t employed was the D i f f e r e n t i a l V a l u e s I n v e n t o r y d e v e l o p e d by P r i n c e ( o p . c i t . ) . T h i s instrument- uses the t r a d i t i o n a l - e m e r g e n t r a t i o n a l e r e -f e r r e d t o above which i n t u r n was d e r i v e d from the work o f S p i n d l e r and G e t z e l s ( l o c . c i t . ) . L u p i n i ' s p r i m a r y c o n c e r n was w i t h i n t r a - s c h o o l v a l u e v a r i a t i o n and he d e v e l o p e d the n o t i o n s of v a l u e -c o n g r u e n c e , i . e . the e x t e n t o f agreement between the v a l -ues o f a p r i n c i p a l and the t e a c h e r s on h i s s t a f f and v a l u e - c o n s o n a n c e , i . e . the e x t e n t o f s i m i l a r i t y o r homo-g e n e i t y among t e a c h e r s ' v a l u e s w i t h i n a g i v e n s c h o o l . He h y p o t h e s i z e d t h a t t h e s e measures would c o r r e l a t e w i t h OCDQ s u b t e s t s and hence w i t h the o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c l i m a t e of s c h o o l s . S i g n i f i c a n t s t a t i s t i c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s were found between the c l i m a t e d i m e n s i o n s of A l o o f n e s s and Produc-t i o n Emphasis and v a l u e - c o n g r u e n c e but i n g e n e r a l the v a l u e c o n t e n t , r a t h e r than the degree o f congruence or 165 consonance, p r o v e d t o be the more p r e d i c t i v e o f v a r i a b l e r e l a t i o n s h i p s . Thus, openness o f c l i m a t e was s i g n i f i c -a n t l y r e l a t e d t o emergent v a l u e p a t t e r n s , and c o n v e r s e l y . L i k e w i s e , a t r a d i t i o n a l o r i e n t a t i o n t e n d e d t o be a s s o c i -a t e d w i t h h i g h s c o r e s on the Disengagement and P r o d u c t i o n Emphasis s u b t e s t s and w i t h low s c o r e s on E s p r i t and T h r u s t . On the d a t a p r e s e n t e d p r i n c i p a l ' s v a l u e s d i d not show any s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p t o s c h o o l c l i m a t e . L u p i n i c o n c l u d e s an a b s t r a c t o f h i s r e s e a r c h w i t h the f o l l o w i n g words: The r e s u l t s o f t h i s s t u d y r e v e a l a s t r o n g p r o b a b i l i t y t h a t the b e h a v i o r o f the p r i n c i p a l i s p e r c e i v e d d i f f e r e n t l y by t h o s e t e a c h e r s whose v a l u e s are s i m i l a r t o h i s own t h a n by t h o s e members o f t h i s s t a f f who h o l d d i f f e r e n t v a l u e s . I f the t e a c h e r s ' p e r c e p t i o n o f the p r i n c i -p a l as a l e a d e r a f f e c t s t h e i r own behav-i o r , the i m p o r t a n c e o f v a l u e s i s o b v i o u s . In f a c t , t h i s s t u d y r e v e a l e d t h a t w i t h few e x c e p t i o n s , v a l u e s were c o n s i s t e n t l y and s i g n i f i c a n t l y r e l a t e d to the o r g a n -i z a t i o n a l c l i m a t e o f the s c h o o l . T h e i r i m p o r t a n c e , t h e r e f o r e , s h o u l d not be m i n i m i z e d by the p r i n c i p a l . Moreover, th e y s h o u l d be g i v e n due c o n s i d e r a t i o n i n any program which p u r p o r t s t o t r a i n the e d u c a t i o n a l a d m i n i s t r a t o r . F i n a l l y , p r e v i o u s f i n d i n g s as w e l l as th o s e o f t h i s s t u d y s u g g e s t t h a t the c l i m a t e s u b t e s t s r e p r e s e n t i m p o r t a n t and t h e o r e t i c a l l y m e a n i n g f u l c o n c e p t s o f a d m i n i s t r a t i v e and s o c i a l b e h a v i o r w i t h -i n the s c h o o l . As s u c h , t h e s e c o n c e p t s c o u l d w e l l form the b a s i s f o r c e r t a i n a s p e c t s of a d m i n i s t r a t i v e t r a i n i n g p r o -grams. They, or s i m i l a r c o n c e p t s , c o u l d 166 become e s p e c i a l l y u s e f u l i n the s t u d y o f o r g a n i z a t i o n t h e o r y now t h a t the l a t t e r i s becoming one o f the b a ses f o r the s t u d y o f a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . ( L u p i n i , b, p.7-8) Here, as w i t h S c o t t , t h e r e i s some room f o r ques-t i o n about c e r t a i n s t a t i s t i c a l a s s u m p t i o n s and t h e use o f p a r a m e t r i c t e s t s . A g a i n , the OCDQ meta-concept o f c l i -mate i s a c c e p t e d r a t h e r u n c r i t i c a l l y . Moreover, the DVI u sed f o r t h e measurement o f v a l u e s i s , l i k e the A l l p o r t -V e r n o n - L i n d z e y i n s t r u m e n t (_q. v_. ) , o f a f o r c e d - c h o i c e de-s i g n and arguments can be r a i s e d a g a i n s t the v a l i d i t y and a p p l i c a b i l i t y o f t h i s t y p e o f d e s i g n . The L u p i n i r e -s e a r c h does, however, make a v a l u a b l e i n i t i a l i n v e s t i g a -t i o n i n t o a s e c t o r o f the v a l u e - s o c i a l p e r c e p t i o n f i e l d and i t s e r v e s as t h e datum and p o i n t o f d e p a r t u r e f o r the p r e s e n t e m p i r i c a l s t u d y . Other R e s e a r c h In g e n e r a l , as Rokeach has i n d i c a t e d (p.98 above) the b u l k o f i n v e s t i g a t i o n has t ended t o be c o n c e r n e d w i t h a t t i t u d e s r a t h e r t h an v a l u e s . T h i s i s not to say, how-e v e r , t h a t the ground i s e n t i r e l y u n t r o d d e n . A s e a r c h of the l i t e r a t u r e would r e v e a l , i n a d d i t i o n to the s o u r c e s a l r e a d y quoted above, e m p i r i c a l work by von M e ring on c u l t u r a l v a l u e o r i e n t a t i o n s and among- contemporary s t u d i e s 167 i n the s c h o o l s i t u a t i o n work by Rasmussen on s c h o o l -s t a f f v a l u e o r i e n t a t i o n s and by K i t c h e n and F r i e s e n on s t u d e n t o r i e n t a t i o n s . ( o p . c i t . ) I t would appear however t h a t t h e o n l y p r e v i o u s work r e l a t i n g v a l u e s t o p s y c h o -l o g i c a l c l i m a t e i n s c h o o l s Is t h a t c o n d u c t e d by L u p i n i . Other r e l e v a n t e m p i r i c a l s t u d i e s r e g a r d i n g c l i -mate have a l r e a d y been r e f e r r e d t o above ( p . 1 2 0 ) . I t may be a d v i s a b l e , however, t o p o i n t out t h a t the major c o n c e r n o f t h e p r e s e n t i n v e s t i g a t i o n i s t h a t o f the c l i -mate s u b t e s t s , t h a t i s , w i t h the measures o f p e r c e p t i o n y i e l d e d by the OCDQ a l o n g e i g h t d i m e n s i o n s , r a t h e r t h a n w i t h the d e r i v e d h i g h e r o r d e r c o n c e p t o f c l i m a t e . I n -deed, c e r t a i n c r i t i c i s m s w i l l be r a i s e d i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h H a l p i n ' s d e r i v a t i o n o f the c l i m a t e c o n c e p t which may c a l l t h a t c o n c e p t i n t o q u e s t i o n (see below p.220 ). N e v e r t h e l e s s , i t i s u n l i k e l y t o be d e n i e d t h a t p e r c e p t i o n s i n the a g g r e g a t e can be o r d e r e d i n some way i n t o a des-c r i p t i v e i n d e x o f an o r g a n i z a t i o n ' s human r e l a t i o n s com-p l e x . And t h i s complex i s o f c o n c e r n to the s t u d y . In sum t h e n i t seems not u n r e a s o n a b l e to c o n c l u d e t h a t work i n the v a l u e - s o c i a l p e r c e p t i o n a r e a g e n e r a l l y t e nds to be somewhat j e j u n e and the s u b s t a n t i v e f i n d i n g s i n the s p e c i f i c a r e a o f s c h o o l o r g a n i z a t i o n s would p o i n t to the need f o r f u r t h e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n . 168 H ypotheses and P r o p o s i t i o n s : O p e r a t i o n a l S t a t e m e n t s The major h y p o t h e s e s f o r e m p i r i c a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n have been s t a t e d e a r l i e r ( r e f . p . 1 5 3 a b o v e ) . These w i l l now be r e s t a t e d t o g e t h e r w i t h o p e r a t i o n a l n o t e s and w i t h a number o f a d d i t i o n a l e x p l o r a t o r y p r o p o s i t i o n s b a s e d on q u e s t i o n s c o n c e r n i n g presumed v a l u e and c l i m a t e d i r e c t i o n r e l a t i o n s h i p s . H y p o t h e s i s I : The h i e r a r c h i c a l l e v e l s o f a s c h o o l o r g a n -i z a t i o n a r e r e f l e c t e d i n d i f f e r e n c e s o f v a l u e s and v a l u e o r i e n t a t i o n s o f r o l e i ncumbents. O p e r a t i o n a l l y : Respondents on the S c o t t v a l u e i n s t r u m e n t w i l l be c l a s s i f i e d as a d m i n i s t r a t o r s or t e a c h e r s . S c o r e s w i l l be computed f o r each v a l u e d i m e n s i o n . N u l l Hypo-t h e s i s H^: There i s no d i f f e r e n c e between the p a r e n t pop-u l a t i o n s o f t h e s e h i e r a r c h i c a l groups on any o f the S c o t t v a l u e s u b t e s t s . Hypothes i s 11: The v a l u e o r i e n t a t i o n s o f s c h o o l s t a f f s are s i g n i f i c a n t l y c o r r e l a t e d w i t h o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c l i m a t e . O p e r a t i o n a l l y : V a l u e s and c l i m a t e s are measured by the S c o t t and H a l p i n i n s t r u m e n t s r e s p e c t i v e l y . Mean v a l u e s c o r e s are t a k e n f o r each s c h o o l and c l i m a t e i s r anked on the continuum 1 (open) - 6 ( c l o s e d ) . C o r r e l a t i o n s are c a l c u l a t e d between each v a l u e and c l i m a t e over 4-0 s c h o o l s . N u l l H y p o t h e s i s H_: There i s no s i g n i f i c a n t c o r r e l a t i o n 169 between t h e v a r i a b l e s o f s c h o o l s t a f f v a l u e s and o r g a n i -z a t i o n a l c l i m a t e . H y p o t h e s i s I I I : There i s a r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e v a l u e o r i e n t a t i o n s o f t e a c h e r s and a d m i n i s t r a t o r s and the c o n c e p t o f a u t h e n t i c i t y . A u t h e n t i c i t y h e r e r e f e r s t o a h i g h e r o r d e r s t a t i s t i c a l c o n c e p t d i s c o v e r e d and named by H a l p i n ( c f . above pp.121). ( P r o p o s i t i o n s 3 and, t o a l e s s e r e x t e n t , 1, 2, 4-, and 8 can be c o n s i d e r e d as a s p e c t s o f t h i s g e n e r a l h y p o t h e s i s ) . O p e r a t i o n a l l y : V a l u e s a r e measured and s c o r e d as b e f o r e . The f o c i o f a u t h e n t i c i t y are the o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c l i m a t e s u b t e s t s o f t h r u s t , e s p r i t , h i n d r a n c e and disengagement wh i c h , upon t h e H a l p i n h y p o t h e s i s , c o r r e l a t e ( t h e f o r m e r two p o s i t i v e l y , the l a t t e r two n e g a t i v e l y ) w i t h t h e au-t h e n t i c i t y f a c t o r . The q u e s t i o n i m p l i e d i n the hypo-t h e s i s may be p h r a s e d t o ask whether t h o s e s c h o o l u n i t s s c o r i n g h i g h (above mean) on the s u b t e s t s o f t h r u s t and e s p r i t and s i m u l t a n e o u s l y low (below mean) on the sub-t e s t s o f h i n d r a n c e and disengagement show s i m i l a r i t i e s o f v a l u e s c o r i n g p a t t e r n , i_-e_- h i g h i n t e r c o r r e l a t i o n s of mean s c h o o l v a l u e s c o r e s . H y p o t h e s i s IV: There i s a r e l a t i o n s h i p between " i n n e r -d i r e c t e d " and " o t h e r - d i r e c t e d " v a l u e o r i e n t a t i o n s and "openness" o f o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c l i m a t e . 170 T h i s h y p o t h e s i s i s a v a r i a n t o f H y p o t h e s i s I I . O p e r a t i o n a l l y : The S c o t t v a l u e c l u s t e r s ( s c o r e d as a group) o f i n t e l l e c t u a l i s m , i n d e p e n d e n c e , and c r e a t i v i t y ( i n n e r - d i r e c t i o n ) and s t a t u s , s o c i a l s k i l l s , s e l f - c o n -t r o l , k i n d n e s s , l o y a l t y , p h y s i c a l development and r e l i g -2 i o u s n e s s ( o t h e r - d i r e c t i o n ) . (c_f. S c o t t , p.29) There i s a p r e s u m p t i o n , b a s e d on l o g i c a l p r i m a f a c i e r e l a t i o n -s h i p s between Riesman's d e s c r i p t i o n s o f i n n e r - and o t h e r -d i r e c t e d n e s s ( o p . c i t . ) and H a l p i n ' s v i g n e t t e s o f the s i x t y p e s o f c l i m a t e t h a t i n n e r - d i r e c t e d n e s s s h o u l d be d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d t o open c l i m a t e and c o n v e r s e l y . That i s , n o m o t h e t i c c l i m a t e s and s u b t e s t s s h o u l d y i e l d , on the t h e o r y , h i g h e r s c o r e s on o u t e r - d i r e c t e d v a l u e s t h a n t h e i n n e r - d i r e c t e d g r o u p i n g . T h e r e f o r e : H|: For t h o s e s c h o o l s w i t h open c l i m a t e o v e r a l l average s c o r e s on the i n n e r - d i r e c t e d c l u s t e r s h o u l d be s i g n i f i c a n t l y g r e a t e r than the c o r r e s p o n d i n g s c o r e s f o r t h o s e s c h o o l s w i t h c l o s e d c l i m a t e . H^: For the o t h e r -d i r e c t e d c l u s t e r the c o n v e r s e r e l a t i o n s h i p s h o u l d o b t a i n . ( A l t e r n a t i v e l y , the c l i m a t e s u b t e s t s c o r i n g p a t t e r n f o r openness of c l i m a t e w i l l show a c o n s i s t e n c y o f 2 The t e n a b i l i t y o f the p r e s u m p t i v e c l u s t e r s i s s u b j e c t t o c o n f i r m a t i o n by p r e l i m i n a r y e x a m i n a t i o n o f the (12x12) c o r r e l a t i o n m a t r i x of v a l u e "scores f o r the whole p o p u l a t i o n . 171 c o r r e l a t i o n a l p a t t e r n w i t h c o m p o s i t e s c o r e s on i n n e r - and o t h e r - d i r e c t e d v a l u e c l u s t e r s . ) H y p o t h e s i s V: The v a r i a b l e s o f age, sex and o r g a n i z a t i o n -a l e x p e r i e n c e a r e p r e d i c t i v e o f v a l u e o r i e n t a t i o n . O p e r a t i o n a l l y : From c o r r e l a t i o n m a t r i c e s f o r a l l r e s p o n -dents and a l l v a r i a b l e s s p e c i f i e d , e x c e p t sex, s i g n i f i c -ant i n d i c e s can be a s c e r t a i n e d . For the v a r i a b l e o f sex the r e s p o n d e n t p o p u l a t i o n i s r e c l a s s i f i e d on the sex dichotomy and t e s t s f o r s i g n i f i c a n c e made f o r each v a l u e on t h e n u l l h y p o t h e s i s H^: t h a t t h e r e i s no d i f f e r e n c e i n the p a r e n t p o p u l a t i o n s of the male and female s u b j e c t s , H y p o t h e s i s VI: There i s a f u n c t i o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p be-tween t e a c h e r - p r i n c i p a l v a l u e congruence and o r g a n i z a t i o n -a l c l i m a t e ; and between s t a f f v a l u e consonance and o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c l i m a t e . O p e r a t i o n a l l y : congruence can be d e f i n e d f o r each s c h o o l as the summation o f a b s o l u t e d i f f e r e n c e s between the p r i n c i p a l ' s v a l u e s c o r e s f o r t h a t s c h o o l and the mean o f t e a c h e r s ' v a l u e s c o r e s f o r t h a t s c h o o l . ^ Consonance can be d e f i n e d as the mean v a r i a n c e f o r a l l t e a c h e r s on each o f the v a l u e s c o r e s . ' /r-'J- 2 S V P - xT v v 172 The congruence and consonance s c o r e s can t h e n be c o r r e -l a t e d w i t h c l i m a t e as i n H y p o t h e s i s I I above. While the f o r e g o i n g h y p o t h e s e s c o v e r the major p u r p o s e s of the e m p i r i c a l r e s e a r c h a number of s e c o n d a r y p r o p o s i -t i o n s o f an e x p l o r a t o r y n a t u r e can be s t a t e d . These ar e o u t l i n e d below and were d e r i v e d by the f o l l o w i n g method. G i v e n the axes o f X, 12 p e r s o n a l v a l u e s and Y, 8 dimen-s i o n s o f o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c l i m a t e and g i v e n a dichotomy f o r each a s p e c t i n t o h i g h or low i t f o l l o w s t h a t some 384-b a s i c r e l a t i o n s h i p p o s s i b i l i t i e s are open f o r a p r i o r i e x a m i n a t i o n . U s i n g the c o n c e p t u a l d e s c r i p t i o n s of each v a r i a b l e the q u e s t i o n can be r a i s e d f o r each r e l a t i o n s h i p i n s t a n c e whether on prima f a c i e grounds the c e l l s c o r e would be i n the upmost or l o w e s t q u a r t i l e s o f c o l l e c t e d d a t a . A m a t r i x s p r e a d would t h e n r e v e a l the d i r e c t i o n o f presumed r e l a t i o n s h i p s as g i v e n i n the p r o p o s i t i o n . These p r o p o s i t i o n s are t h e r e f o r e o f t e n t a t i v e n a t u r e and do not p u r p o r t t o be e i t h e r e x c l u s i v e or f o r m a l l y e s t a b -l i s h e d i n r i g i d t h e o r y . ( P r o p o s i t i o n s 1-9 are a d m i n i s t r a t o r p r o p o s i t i o n s ; minor p r o p o s i t i o n s 10-17 are s t a f f p r o p o s i t i o n s ) . P r o p o s i t i o n 1: The v a l u e o f S o c i a l S k i l l s i s d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d to the d i m e n s i o n s of E s p r i t , I n t i m a c y and C o n s i d -e r a t i o n and i n v e r s e l y r e l a t e d t o Disengagement, H i n d r a n c e 17 3 and A l o o f n e s s , O p e r a t i o n a l l y : The c o r r e l a t i o n m a t r i c e s f o r a l l v a r i -a b l e s y i e l d a d i r e c t measure o f r e l a t i o n . T h i s s o u r c e can be employed f o r a l l p r o p o s i t i o n s s i n c e v a r i a b l e s i n p r o p o s i t i o n s or m a t r i c e s are d e f i n e d by the same o p e r -a t i o n s . A l t e r n a t i v e l y , t a k i n g s c h o o l s as the u n i t of a n a l y s i s s c h o o l s may be d i c h o t o m i z e d about the mean s c o r e o f the v a l u e i n q u e s t i o n and l i k e w i s e f o r the c l i -mate d i m e n s i o n i n t h e d i r e c t i o n i n d i c a t e d . The c r o s s -break can be t e s t e d f o r s i g n i f i c a n c e . P r o p o s i t i o n 2: The v a l u e o f K i n d n e s s i s d i r e c t l y r e -l a t e d t o the d i m e n s i o n s o f E s p r i t and C o n s i d e r a t i o n and i n v e r s e l y r e l a t e d t o Disengagement, H i n d r a n c e and A l o o f -ness . P r o p o s i t i o n 3: The v a l u e o f C r e a t i v i t y i s d i r e c t l y r e -l a t e d t o the d i m e n s i o n s o f E s p r i t and T h r u s t and Inv e r s e -l y r e l a t e d t o Disengagement and H i n d r a n c e . P r o p o s i t i o n 1: The v a l u e o f I n t e l l e c t u a l i s m i s d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d t o the di m e n s i o n s of E s p r i t and T h r u s t and i n -v e r s e l y r e l a t e d t o Disengagement. P r o p o s i t i o n 5: The v a l u e o f S t a t u s i s d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d t o the d i m e n s i o n s o f Disengagement, A l o o f n e s s and T h r u s t Prop os i t i o n 6: The v a l u e o f S e l f - C o n t r o l i s d i r e c t l y 174 r e l a t e d t o the d i m e n s i o n s o f E s p r i t , A l o o f n e s s and Con-s i d e r a t i o n . P r o p o s i t i o n 7: The v a l u e o f L o y a l t y i s d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d t o the d i m e n s i o n s o f E s p r i t and C o n s i d e r a t i o n and i n -v e r s e l y r e l a t e d t o Disengagement. P r o p o s i t i o n 8: The v a l u e o f Independence i s d i r e c t l y r e -l a t e d t o E s p r i t and i n v e r s e l y r e l a t e d t o H i n d r a n c e . P r o p o s i t i o n 9: The v a l u e o f Academic Achievement i s d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d t o H i n d r a n c e and P r o d u c t i o n Emphasis. P r o p o s i t i o n 10: The v a l u e o f S o c i a l S k i l l s i s d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d t o the d i m e n s i o n s of I n t i m a c y and E s p r i t and I n -v e r s e l y r e l a t e d t o the d i m e n s i o n s o f Disengagement and P r o d u c t i o n Emphasis. P r o p o s i t i o n 11: The v a l u e o f S t a t u s i s d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d t o the d i m e n s i o n s o f H i n d r a n c e , P r o d u c t i o n Emphasis and T h r u s t and i n v e r s e l y r e l a t e d t o I n t i m a c y . P r o p o s i t i o n 12: The v a l u e o f K i n d n e s s i s d i r e c t l y r e -l a t e d t o the d i m e n s i o n s o f I n t i m a c y and E s p r i t and i n -v e r s e l y t o Disengagement. Propos i t i o n 13: The v a l u e o f L o y a l t y i s d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d to the d i m e n s i o n s o f I n t i m a c y and E s p r i t and i n v e r s e l y to Disengagement. P r o p o s i t i o n 14: The v a l u e o f Independence i s i n v e r s e l y r e l a t e d t o the d i m e n s i o n s of I n t i m a c y and T h r u s t . 175 P r o p o s i t i o n 15: The v a l u e o f C r e a t i v i t y i s d i r e c t l y r e -l a t e d t o the d i m e n s i o n o f E s p r i t and I n v e r s e l y r e l a t e d t o P r o d u c t i o n Emphasis. P r o p o s i t i o n 16: The v a l u e o f Academic Achievement i s d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d t o the d i m e n s i o n s o f P r o d u c t i o n Emphasis and T h r u s t . P r o p o s i t i o n 17: The v a l u e o f S e l f - C o n t r o l i s d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d t o t h e d i m e n s i o n s of I n t i m a c y and T h r u s t . Methodology The g e n e r a l method was t h a t of s u r v e y r e s e a r c h u s i n g q u e s t i o n n a i r e s a d m i n i s t e r e d to a randomly s e l e c t e d sample from the u n i v e r s e under i n v e s t i g a t i o n . Responses o b t a i n e d were c o n f i d e n t i a l and e n t i r e l y v o l u n t a r y . Data was a n a l y z e d by a v a r i e t y o f s t a t i s t i c a l t e c h n i q u e s f o r the p u r p o s e s o f t e s t i n g the h y p o t h e s e s . I n s t r u m e n t a t i o n Each r e s p o n d e n t was asked to complete t h r e e ques-t i o n n a i r e s ; 1. the H a l p i n O r g a n i z a t i o n a l C l i m a t e Des-c r i p t i o n Q u e s t i o n n a i r e (OCDQ), 2. the S c o t t S c a l e and 3. a g e n e r a l q u e s t i o n n a i r e . Both 1 and 2 were used i n s l i g h t l y m o d i f i e d form and appear t o g e t h e r w i t h o r i g i n a l forms i n A p p e n d i c e s A and C. The 64 items of the OCDQ are i n t e n d e d t o tap the e i g h t d i mensions d e s c r i b e d on 176 pp.128-9 above. The i t e m s a r e u n e v e n l y d i s t r i b u t e d about the d i m e n s i o n s as i n d i c a t e d i n Appendix A. F i v e of the items a r e r e v e r s e - s c o r e d . The h i s t o r y and d e v e l -opment o f the OCDQ, a w i d e l y used i n s t r u m e n t , has been d e s c r i b e d above ( p p . l 2 8 f f ) . The S c o t t s c a l e used c o n s i s t s o f 72 items i n t e n -ded t o tap e v e n l y the 12 v a l u e d i m e n s i o n s d e s c r i b e d on pp.161-2. The i n s t r u m e n t i s m o d i f i e d somewhat from t h a t used i n the S c o t t s t u d y (see Appendix C) but i n the d i r e c t i o n and w i t h the i n t e n t i o n o f i n c r e a s i n g r e l i a b i l -i t y . E i g h t o f the items are r e v e r s e - s c o r e d . Response c a t e g o r i e s on Q u e s t i o n n a i r e s I and II were expanded t o f i v e from f o u r and t h r e e r e s p e c t i v e l y i n the i n t e r e s t s o f s c o r i n g u n i f o r m i t y and e x t e n s i o n of r e s p o n s e d i s c r i m -i n a t i o n . A t h i r d q u e s t i o n n a i r e (Appendix D) was i n c l u d e d i n o r d e r t o c o l l e c t d a t a on the v a r i a b l e s o f r e s p o n d e n t ' s s t a t u s , age, sex, number of y e a r s t e a c h i n g e x p e r i e n c e , a d m i n i s t r a t i v e e x p e r i e n c e , and e x p e r i e n c e i n the p r e s e n t r o l e and s c h o o l . A r e a s o n a b l e e s t i m a t e (based on p i l o t t e s t s ) o f the time n e c e s s a r y to complete the q u e s t i o n n a i r e would be i n the range 30 - "+5 mins . The c o n d i t i o n s of admin-i s t r a t i o n d i d not however demand c o m p l e t i o n at a s i n g l e 177 s i t t i n g . The q u e s t i o n n a i r e s as d i s t r i b u t e d were p r i n t e d i n t h e o r d e r g i v e n above on a s i n g l e c o n c e r t i n a f o l d e r and i n s e r t e d i n e n v e l o p e s marked c o n f i d e n t i a l which were s e a l e d by r e s p o n d e n t s . V a l i d i t y OCDQ: H a l p i n and C r o f t p r e s e n t e v i d e n c e o f v a l i d -i t y and r e l i a b i l i t y o n l y i n the form g i v e n i n Appendix E, _i.e_. as d e r i v e d from s t a t i s t i c a l t e s t s o f i n t e r n a l c o n s i s -t e n c y . However, a l a r g e - s c a l e i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f con-s t r u c t v a l i d i t y was c o n d u c t e d by Andrews who c o n c l u d e d t h a t "the s u b t e s t s o f the O r g a n i z a t i o n a l C l i m a t e Q u e s t i o n -n a i r e p r o v i d e r e a s o n a b l y v a l i d measures o f i m p o r t a n t a s -p e c t s o f the l e a d e r s h i p o f the s c h o o l p r i n c i p a l i n a p e r -s p e c t i v e o f i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h h i s s t a f f " (Andrews, p . 3 8 ) . S c o t t S c a l e : S c o t t sought to t e s t the c o n s t r u c t v a l i d i t y o f h i s i n s t r u m e n t by a s s e s s i n g c o r r e l a t i o n s w i t h 1) g e n e r a l c o n c e p t s o f " r i g h t " and "wrong", 2) p r e s c r i b e d v a l u e s f o r o t h e r s , and 3) a n t i c i p a t e d g u i l t over v a l u e t r a n s g r e s s i o n . The f i n d i n g s are g i v e n i n Appendix F and can be t a k e n as g e n e r a l l y s u p p o r t i v e o f c o n s t r u c t v a l i d -i t y . S c o t t a l s o used the c r i t e r i o n group method o f v a l -i d a t i o n f o r the v a l u e s o f r e l i g i o u s n e s s , i n d e p e n d e n c e , p h y s i c a l development, c r e a t i v i t y , academic achievement, 178 l o y a l t y and s o c i a l s k i l l s . In each case s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s s u p p o r t e d t h e v a l i d i t y c o n t e n t i o n . K i n d -n e s s , s t a t u s , h o n e s t y , i n t e l l e c t u a l i s m and s e l f - c o n t r o l were not g i v e n t h i s t y p e o f v a l i d a t i o n ( S c o t t , pp.33-36 ). G e n e r a l Q u e s t i o n n a i r e : T h i s q u e s t i o n n a i r e can be t a k e n as h a v i n g f a c e v a l i d i t y o n l y but the assumption o f p r o f e s s i o n a l i n t e g r i t y and the f a c t s t h a t 1) r e s p o n d e n t s c o u l d deduce t h a t v a l i d a t i o n would be p o s s i b l e t h r o u g h e x a m i n a t i o n o f s c h o o l r e c o r d s , 2) c o n f i d e n c e o f r e s p o n s e was g u a r a n t e e d , 3) the q u e s t i o n s were e s s e n t i a l l y f a c t u a l and innocuous would m i l i t a t e i n s u p p o r t o f o v e r a l l v a l i d -i t y . R e l i a b i l i t y OCDQ: The t a b l e p r e s e n t e d i n Appendix E shows s p l i t - h a l f c o r r e c t e d c o e f f i c i e n t s o f r e l i a b i l i t y f o r the e i g h t c l i m a t e d i m e n s i o n s as c a l c u l a t e d from the o r i g i n a l d a t a t o g e t h e r w i t h a s p l i t - h a l f a n a l y s i s t a k e n w i t h s c h o o l s as a u n i t and w i t h c o m m u n a l i t i e s f o r the f a c t o r -a n a l y t i c s o l u t i o n . Ranges f o r the t h r e e methods of r e l i a b i l i t y assessment are r e s p e c t i v e l y : .26-.84; .49-.76; .44-.73. The c o n d i t i o n s o f the o r i g i n a l r e -s e a r c h p r e v e n t e d H a l p i n and C r o f t from c o n v e n t i o n a l t e s t -r e t e s t e s t i m a t e s of r e l i a b i l i t y but 'they c o n c l u d e d t h a t the e s t i m a t e s as d e r i v e d above, e s p e c i a l l y the communality 179 method, were s a t i s f a c t o r y f o r t h e r e s e a r c h as u n d e r t a k e n ( H a l p i n and C r o f t , pp.48-49). Mean s u b t e s t r e l i a b i l i t -i e s on the b a s i s o f t h e e s t i m a t e s p r o v i d e d i n Appendix E are as f o l l o w s : Disengagement .66, H i n d r a n c e .55, E s p r i t .70, I n t i m a c y .54, A l o o f n e s s .58, P r o d u c t i o n Emphasis .60, T h r u s t .76, C o n s i d e r a t i o n .62. S c o t t S c a l e : S c o t t used a number of methods t o a s c e r t a i n s c a l e r e l i a b i l i t i e s and t h e s e a r e c o l l a t e d and assembled i n T a b l e V . l below. I t would seem f a i r t o c o n c l u d e t h a t b o t h the OCDQ and the S c o t t S c a l e , w h i l e f a l l i n g s h o r t o f the a c c u r a c y d e s i r a b l e f o r s t r i n g e n t p r e c i s i o n o f measurement at the i n d i v i d u a l l e v e l , y e t can be t a k e n as r e a s o n a b l y r e l i a b l e and v a l i d i n s t r u m e n t s f o r group assessment, p a r t i c u l a r l y at the p r e s e n t e x p l o r a t o r y s t a g e of r e s e a r c h i n t h i s a r e a . 180 T a b l e V . l Measures o f R e l i a b i l i t y o f S c o t t V a l u e S c a l e O r i g i n a l I n s t r u m e n t Value C o e f f i c i e n t I n t r a - c l a s s C o r r e l a t i o n o f C o r r e l a t i o n s w i t h improved S t a b i l i t y (2 wk. i n - S c a l e t e r v a l ) ( r t t 85 ) I n t e l l e c t u a l i s m .64 .63 .66 K i n d n e s s .68 .68 .76 S o c i a l S k i l l s . 74 .73 .76 L o y a l t y . 58 .57 .79 Academic Ac'mt .68 .67 .75 P h y s i c a l Dev't . 74 . 71 . 81 S t a t u s .70 . 70 .67 Honesty . 74 .72 .75 R e l i g i o u s n e s s . 77 .77 . 81 S e l f - c o n t r o l .72 .72 .78 C r e a t i v i t y .66 .66 .62 Independence .73 . 73 .74 S ource: S c o t t , p. 25 , 80 , 257 T a b l e s l,7,A-2 Data C o l l e c t i o n Sample: The sample f o r s t u d y was chosen by r a n -dom s e l e c t i o n from the p u b l i c e l e m e n t a r y s c h o o l s of the G r e a t e r Vancouver m e t r o p o l i t a n a r e a . T h i s a r e a i n c l u d e s seven s c h o o l d i s t r i c t s and was chosen i n o r d e r t o p r o v i d e a t y p i c a l Canadian or North American l a r g e urban a r e a . Vancouver i s Canada's t h i r d l a r g e s t c i t y w i t h a p o p u l a t i o n i n J a n u a r y 1967 of 923,000 (D.B.S. p r o j e c t i o n ) . Elemen-t a r y s c h o o l s (Grades K-VII) were chosen i n p r e f e r e n c e to 181 s e c o n d a r y or mixed grade s c h o o l s i n the I n t e r e s t s o f con-f o r m i t y w i t h the L u p i n i s t u d y and s i n c e t h e OCDQ was i n i t i a l l y d e s i g n e d f o r the st u d y o f t h i s t y p e o f o r g a n i z -a t i o n . S i n c e p r e v i o u s r e s e a r c h ( e . g . Watkins , L u p i n i , Thomas and F i n k ) p o i n t e d t o s c h o o l s i z e as b e i n g a s i g -n i f i c a n t f a c t o r r e l a t e d t o c l i m a t e the p o p u l a t i o n o f s c h o o l s was s t r a t i f i e d by s i z e o f s t a f f and a q u a r t e r o f the s u b j e c t s c h o o l s chosen from each s t r a t u m . A l l r e s -pondents were t e a c h e r s or a d m i n i s t r a t o r s i n the s c h o o l s s t u d i e d . N = 40 f o r s c h o o l s and N=707 f o r s u b j e c t s . D i s t r i b u t i o n of the random sample by d i s t r i c t i s shown i n Appendix G. P e r m i s s i o n was sought and o b t a i n e d from the seven s c h o o l d i s t r i c t s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s c o n c e r n e d t o approach the p r i n c i p a l s o f t h e s u b j e c t s c h o o l s f o r t h e i r c o o p e r a t i o n . In the Vancouver d i s t r i c t the approach was made v i a the Department o f R e s e a r c h and Sta n d a r d s m a i n t a i n e d by t h a t s c h o o l d i s t r i c t . Of the 4-0 p r i n c i p a l s i n i t i a l l y a p p r o a c h -ed a l l but f i v e e x p r e s s e d w i l l i n g n e s s t o c o o p e r a t e . Three of the r e f u s i n g p r i n c i p a l s c o n s e n t e d a f t e r f u r t h e r p e r s u a -s i v e e f f o r t s but two p e r s i s t e d i n r e f u s a l and, as a con-sequence, two s c h o o l s matched by s t r a t u m and d i s t r i c t were randomly s e l e c t e d as r e p l a c e m e n t s and t h e i r c o o p e r a t i o n e n l i s t e d i n the f o r e g o i n g manner. Each s u b j e c t p r i n c i p a l 182 was t h e n p e r s o n a l l y i n t e r v i e w e d and the n a t u r e and p u r -poses o f the r e s e a r c h e x p l a i n e d t o him at l e n g t h . The d a t a was c o l l e c t e d over a p e r i o d o f approx-i m a t e l y t h r e e weeks i n the months o f F e b r u a r y and March of 1968. P r i n c i p a l s were r e q u e s t e d t o a c t as d e l e g a t e s In e x p l a i n i n g the s t u d y t o s t a f f members but on o c c a s i o n i t was n e c e s s a r y t o supplement t h i s a p p r o a c h by mimeo-graphed l e t t e r s t o s t a f f or by a d d r e s s i n g s t a f f g r o u p s . Q u e s t i o n n a i r e s were d e l i v e r e d t o each s c h o o l p r i n c i p a l and t e a c h e r s a r r a n g e d f o r t h e i r d i s t r i b u t i o n and c o l l e c -t i o n . The elements o f f r e e w i l l and c o n f i d e n t i a l i t y were s t r e s s e d and a r e s p o n d e n t c o u l d opt out o f the study by s i m p l y r e t u r n i n g a b l a n k q u e s t i o n n a i r e i n the s e a l e d e n v e l o p e . The n e c e s s i t y of a h i g h r a t e o f r e t u r n was a l s o s t r e s s e d , however, and an a p p e a l made i n t h i s r e g a r d to the r e s p o n d e n t ' s p r o f e s s i o n a l good w i l l . A f t e r the i n i t i a l c o l l e c t i o n of r e t u r n s numerous f o l l o w -up p r o c e d u r e s were u n d e r t a k e n where t h e s e were i n d i c a t e d . Data were the n e n t e r e d from the q u e s t i o n n a i r e f o l d e r s to F o r t r a n c o d i n g s h e e t s and keypunched on IBM c a r d s . As each r e s p o n d e n t was r e q u i r e d to make some 142 r e s p o n s e s t h r e e c a r d s were punched f o r each s u b j e c t . The scope of c o o p e r a t i o n i s to some e x t e n t i n d i c a t e d by the f a c t t h a t r e s p o n s e s a l o n e would account f o r some 500 man-hours o f 183 t e a c h i n g and a d m i n i s t r a t i v e t i m e . In consequence the w r i t e r e x p r e s s e s a g a i n h i s i n d e b t e d n e s s t o the p a r t i c i -p a n t s i n the s t u d y . An a b s t r a c t o f the d a t a c o l l e c t i o n i s p r e s e n t e d In T a b l e V.2. In c o n n e c t i o n w i t h the o v e r a l l r a t e o f r e t u r n an a u t h o r i t y has r e p o r t e d 65% as b e i n g the average f o r r e p u t a b l e s t u d i e s i n a s a m p l i n g o f t h e s e s , d i s s e r t a -t i o n s and p r o f e s s i o n a l a r t i c l e s (Shannon, p.138-4-1). S t a t i s t i c a l Methods I t was r e a l i z e d a t an e a r l y s t a g e o f the r e s e a r c h t h a t many of the assumptions u n d e r l y i n g p a r a m e t r i c s t a t -i s t i c a l t e c h n i q u e s such as n o r m a l i t y of d i s t r i b u t i o n of the p a r e n t p o p u l a t i o n and homogeneity of v a r i a n c e c o u l d not be m a i n t a i n e d , p a r t i c u l a r l y w i t h the S c o t t S c a l e , the " r o b u s t n e s s " of commonly employed s t a t i s t i c a l t e s t s n o t -w i t h s t a n d i n g . In consequence c o n s i d e r a b l e use has been made o f n o n - p a r a m e t r i c t e c h n i q u e s . Mann-Whitney U T e s t : T h i s t e s t can be used w i t h o r d i n a l d a t a t o de t e r m i n e whether samples are drawn from the same p o p u l a t i o n . I t a v o i d s the assumptions of St u d e n t ' s t t e s t and can be used when measurement i s weaker than i n t e r v a l s c a l i n g . A s t a t i s t i c U_ i s computed the s i g n i f i c a n c e of which can be de t e r m i n e d from t a b l e s . 184 T a b l e V.2 A b s t r a c t o f Data C o l l e c t i o n S c h o o l Q u e s t i o n n a i r e s -6 No. D i s t r i b u t e d R e t u r n e d R e t u r n T o t -a l s 1 25 11 44 2 22 12 54 3 20 11 55 4 20 15 75 5 18 18 100 6 18 8 44 7 13 12 92 8 11 10 91 9 13 12 92 10 22 20 91 11 17 15 88 12 15 7 47 13 15 13 87 14 13 13 100 15 22 22 100 16 16 14 88 17 9 9 100 18 7 6 86 19 7 7 100 20 33 31 94 21 27 24 89 22 27 25 93 23 27 26 96 24 23 22 96 25 20 18 90 26 22 20 91 27 21 20 95 28 20 20 100 29 19 15 79 30 20 19 95 31 17 16 94 32 17 17 100 33 15 15 100 34 19 17 89 35 19 13 68 36 18 14 78 37 5 5 100 38 9 7 78 39 15 10 67 40 11 10 91 40 707 600 85 ( A d m i n i s t r a t o r R e t u r n s : 68 Teacher R e t u r n s : 532) 185 As compared w i t h the most p o w e r f u l p a r a m e t r i c e q u i v a l e n t , the t_ t e s t , i t s p o w e r - e f f i c i e n c y a p p r o x i m a t e s 95% f o r m o d e r a t e - s i z e d N's. ( S i e g e l , pp.116-127) Spearman Rank C o r r e l a t i o n C o e f f i c i e n t p : The r a t i o n a l e o f t h i s s t a t i s t i c i s b ased upon the c o m p a r a t i v e r a n k i n g o f o r d e r e d p a i r s o f v a r i a b l e s . S i n c e o n l y i d e n -t i t y o f o r d e r i n g would y i e l d p e r f e c t c o r r e l a t i o n the d i f -f e r e n c e o f rank f o r each p a i r (d=X^-Y^) i s m a n i p u l a t e d t o d e r i v e a measure of c o r r e l a t i o n . S i g n i f i c a n c e can be a s c e r t a i n e d t h r o u g h the c o m p u t a t i o n o f a t_ s t a t i s t i c and r e f e r e n c e t o a p p r o p r i a t e t a b l e s . As compared w i t h the p a r a m e t r i c e q u i v a l e n t s the P e a r s o n r_, the e f f i c i e n c y o f f> i s about 91%. ( i b i d . pp.202-213 ) C h i Square ^: Where e x p e c t e d f r e q u e n c i e s o f o c c u r r e n c e o f phenomena can be compared a g a i n s t o b s e r v e d f r e q u e n c i e s the s t a t i s t i c ^ ^ y i e l d s a d i s t r i b u t i o n which p e r m i t s t e s t i n g f o r non-randomness or s i g n i f i c a n c e of d i f f e r e n c e . I t may be used f o r t e s t s o f independence i n c o n t i n g e n c y t a b l e s and f o r c a l c u l a t i o n s o f goodness o f f i t . ( i b i d . p.42-47, F e r g u s o n , pp.191-215) Pe a r s o n Product-Moment r : T h i s c o e f f i c i e n t i s d e r i v e d from l i n e a r r e g r e s s i o n a n a l y s i s of b i v a r i a t e d i s -t r i b u t i o n s and assumes l i n e a r i t y but not n e c e s s a r i l y nor-m a l i t y i n the d i s t r i b u t i o n o f the c o r r e l a t e d v a r i a b l e s . 186 Where skewness or o t h e r f a c t o r s t e n d t o produce non-l i n e a r i t y F e r g u s o n s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e achievement o f n o r m a l i t y t h r o u g h t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s can be employed t o p r o -t e c t a s s u m p t i o n s . ( i b i d . p.129) P a r t i a l and M u l t i p l e C o r r e l a t i o n : T e c h n i q u e s o f m u l t i v a r i a t e a n a l y s i s have been d e v e l o p e d which p e r m i t the d e t e c t i o n o f the i n f l u e n c e o f c o v a r i a t e s ( p a r t i a l c o r -r e l a t i o n ) or the c o n t r i b u t i o n o f c o v a r i a t e s t o p r e d i c t i o n ( m u l t i p l e c o r r e l a t i o n ) . The t e c h n i q u e s can be employed as a mode of a n a l y s i s o f v a r i a n c e and s t a t i s t i c a l s i g n i f -i c a n c e can be a s s e s s e d ( i b i d . p.401 f_. ) A n a l y s i s of V a r i a n c e : T h i s i s a t e c h n i q u e f o r e s t a b l i s h i n g the s i g n i f i c a n c e o f d i f f e r e n c e between sample means. K r u s k a l and W a l l i s and Friedman have p r o -v i d e d n o n - p a r a m e t r i c methods f o r computing t h i s t e s t . F a c t o r A n a l y s i s : A number of methods e x i s t and are f e a s i b l e by v i r t u e o f computer f a c i l i t i e s f o r the an-a l y s i s of c o r r e l a t i o n m a t r i c e s i n o r d e r to determine u n d e r l y i n g f a c t o r s which can account f o r much of the co-v a r i a n c e between measures or between s u b j e c t s . The t e c h n i q u e i s an e x p r e s s i o n o f the parsimony i d e a l i n s c i e n t i f i c method and can be c o n c e i v e d as a contemporary v e r s i o n of Occam's r a z o r . 187 F a c t o r a n a l y s i s Is g e n e r a l l y by R t e c h n i q u e s (between t e s t s ) or Q t e c h n i q u e (between p e r s o n s ) . H a l -p i n used T h u r s t o n e ' c e n t r o i d and p r i n c i p a l component methods i n the development o f the OCDQ. I t i s p o s s i b l e , however, t h a t some miscomprehensions o c c u r r e d i n the p r o -cedure f o l l o w e d by H a l p i n t o d e v e l o p h i s h i g h e r o r d e r c l i m a t e c o n c e p t s c o r e s and a c r i t i q u e w i l l be o f f e r e d l a t e r i n t h i s r e g a r d . A n a l y s i s o f C r o s s b r e a k s : The d a t a c o l l e c t e d i n t h i s s t u d y l e n d t h e m s e l v e s to t a b u l a t i o n on a dichotomous b a s i s . T h i s p r i n c i p l e was i n f a c t employed p r i o r t o the c o l l e c t i o n o f d a t a f o r the p u r p o s e s of d e r i v i n g the ex-p l o r a t o r y p r o p o s i t i o n s ( q . v . ) . C r o s s b r e a k t a b l e s are amenable t o /C ^ a n a l y s i s and the c a l c u l a t i o n o f i n d i c e s of a s s o c i a t i o n . ( K e r l i n g e r , pp . 6 2 — 619 ) Data P r o c e s s i n g Raw d a t a was t r a n s f e r r e d d i r e c t l y from q u e s t i o n -n a i r e forms to F o r t r a n c o d i n g s h e e t s f o r k e y p u n c h i n g . Three c a r d s were punched f o r each r e s p o n d e n t . Use was made of f a c i l i t i e s p r o v i d e d by the U n i v e r s i t y of B.C. Computer Ce n t r e h o u s i n g IBM 7044- and CDC 8092 type com-p u t e r s . P r e l i m i n a r y d a t a runs were f o r the s c o r i n g and t a b u l a t i n g o f r e s p o n s e s . 188 Appendix H p r e s e n t s r e s u l t s o f t h i s p r e l i m i n a r y a n a l y s i s . T a b l e s V.3 and V. 4- below g i v e a c o n s o l i d a t e d v e r s i o n o f the same i n f o r m a t i o n summed a c r o s s the sample of 4-0 s c h o o l s . T a b l e V.3 V a l u e s o f Respondents by O c c u p a t i o n a l S t a t u s . Means and S t a n d a r d D e v i a t i o n s V i c e -Pr i n c i p a l s P r i n c i p a l s T e a c h e r s V a l u e n = 38 n = 30 n = 523 (1) (2 ) (3) I n t e l l e c t u a l i s m 24 . 92 24 . 43 25 .06 2 . 26 2 . 65 2 . 80 Ki n d n e s s 24 . 47 24 . 20 25 . 16 3 . 01 3 . 08 2 . 94 S o c i a l S k i l l s 25 . 34 24 . 63 25 . 36 2 . 42 2 . 34 2 .74 Loyalty- 23 . 24 22 . 80 23 .22 3 . 04 2 . 51 3 . 38 Academic Achmt . 22 . 18 23 . 00 23 . 10 3 . 06 4 . 05 3 .23 P h y s i c a l Devpt . 23 . 16 23 . 13 24 . 32 2 . 70 2 . 69 2 . 87 S t a t u s 24 . 76 24 . 97 24 .82 3 . 17 3 . 12 2 . 72 Hones t y 21. 90 20 . 57 22 . 12 4 . 52 3 . 97 3 .78 R e l i g i o u s n e s s 19 . 05 19 . 67 19 . 92 4 . 20 4 . 24 4 .72 S e l f - C o n t r o l 23 . 45 22 . 37 23 . 42 2 . 81 3 . 09 3 . 82 C r e a t i v i t y 23 . 92 23 . 57 24 .59 2 . 55 2 . 32 2 .78 Independence 15 . 16 14 . 80 16 .29 2 . 9 3 3 . 92 3 .51 Source: Appendix H 189 T a b l e V.4 OCDQ Mean Raw S c o r e s by S c h o o l and C l i m a t e S u b t e s t -- V i c e - P r i n c i p a l s and T e a c h e r s I n t i - D i s e n S c h o o l macy gage No. ment E s p r i t H i n - T h r u s t drance Con- P r o d u c -s i d - A l o o f - t i o n e r a - ness Empha-t i o n s i s 1 12 . 30 17 . 90 2 13 . 36 11. 64 3 13 . 33 9 . 67 4 10 . 21 18 . 14 5 11. 53 8 . 88 6 12 . 38 13 . 88 7 13 . 54 13 . 36 8 13 . 56 11. 56 9 13 . 54 10 . 27 10 12 . 58 11. 0 0 11 13 . 57 15 . 79 12 15 . 14 19 . 14 13 12 . 17 8 . 75 14 10 . 58 15 . 75 15 10 . 67 16 . 29 16 14 . 62 13 . 85 17 16 . 75 9 . 50 18 10 . 80 6 . 00 19 13 . 50 13 . 50 20 12 . 97 15 . 33 21 14 . 26 11. 56 22 12 . 62 13 . 25 23 12 . 92 12 . 88 24 13 . 76 10 . 50 25 12 . 47 12 . 65 26 11. 63 10 . 21 27 13 . 74 12 . 21 28 12 . 32 7 . 53 29 12 . ,00 14 . 57 30 11. ,17 14 . 39 31 11. ,67 13 . 00 32 12 . , 19 10 . ,62 33 12 . ,71 10 . ,00 34 11 . .94 14 . 44 35 13 . .83 12 . 33 36 12 , .29 11. . 21 37 13 . .00 5 . 50 38 14 , .62 10 . 12 39 10 , . 38 15 , .75 40 16 .00 10 , .89 X 12 .71 12 , .54 27 . 90 13 .20 22 .70 31, .45 9 .91 22 . 91 26 . 33 10 .78 25 . 78 20 , .93 13 . 86 17 .43 29 .12 9 .76 27 .65 30 .62 11 .00 26 .38 26 .09 8 .18 17 . 36 30 . 11 9 . 89 23 . 89 30 .45 9 .18 26 .18 31 . 84 9 .26 27 . 58 25 . 14 9 .57 14 .57 27 .29 10 . 86 19 .00 28 . 33 8 .25 25 .67 25 . 17 9 .33 20 . 92 25 .52 11 .38 16 . 81 27 .77 10 .92 23 .15 31 .50 7 . 88 28 .88 28 .20 11 .60 33 .00 29 .83 9 . 17 29 .83 27 . 30 11 .00 24 .23 30 .56 9 .26 27 . 74 26 . 33 9 .75 24 .83 29 . 84 10 . 80 30 .08 31 .05 8 .86 28 . 14 29 .76 11 .12 26 . 35 28 . 21 10 .58 25 .68 26 .42 10 .95 24 .68 30 .79 7 .95 32 . 37 25 .50 11 .93 25 .29 28 . 83 10 .72 25 . 28 27 . 80 10 .13 24 .93 31 .00 9 .44 30 .81 31 .50 9 . 86 26 .64 27 .12 11 .62 27 .25 32 .42 10 .00 30 .25 28 .79 10 . 14 25 . 14 36 .00 3 . 50 33 .25 30 . 88 9 .75 29 .00 24 .62 12 . 38 22 .38 32 . 33 10 .00 29 .22 28 .58 10 . 20 25 .46 11 .50 16 . 30 15 . 30 10 . 36 15 . 82 13 . 64 11 . 11 15 . 89 15 . 44 7 . 57 12 . 64 10 . 43 12 . 35 15 . 53 15 . 47 10 .12 11. 62 12 . 88 10 .45 14 . 36 8 . 91 8 .44 17 . 11 15 . 00 12 . 36 16 . 36 12 . 91 10 . 47 16 . 37 14 . 74 9 . 36 8 . 93 8 . 50 10 .71 15 . 57 13 . 14 12 . 50 16 . 08 14 . 42 9 .08 13 . 50 15 . 33 8 .52 18 . 05 15 . 29 11 .69 16 . 92 18 . 54 13 . 25 13 . 25 13 . 50 9 .40 14 . 40 13 . 20 14 .67 12 . 67 13 . 33 10 . 10 16 . 37 12 . 67 12 .17 14 . 44 15 . 09 11 .38 17 . 46 15 . 79 13 . 80 16 . 16 15 . 64 13 .05 14 . 19 16 . 29 13 .76 14 . 53 14 . 88 9 .58 17 . 26 14 . 26 10 .16 16 . 37 17 . 68 11 . 39 13 . 32 12 . 74 11 .07 16 . 21 17 . 29 12 .50 15 . 00 11. 83 10 .13 16 . 87 14 . 47 12 .69 13 . 31 16 . 81 10 . 86 14 . 64 12 . 43 13 . 5 3 18 . 06 13 . 50 16 . 17 14 . 42 15 . 58 11 .71 14 . 07 15 . 21 16 .00 11. 50 9 . 50 13 .62 14 . 88 12 . 75 10 .75 17 . 62 11. 88 11 . 89 15 . 78 14 . 67 11 .41 15 . 33 14 . 29 190 T e s t i n g Hypotheses and P r o p o s i t i o n s O p e r a t i o n a l f o r m u l a t i o n s o f the h y p o t h e s e s have been g i v e n above (pp.168-172). The mode and p r o c e d u r e s f o r t e s t i n g the s e v e r a l h y p o t h e s e s and p r o p o s i t i o n s w i l l now be s p e c i f i e d more p r e c i s e l y . H y p o t h e s i s I: Were v a l u e s t o be d i s t r i b u t e d n o r m a l l y i n the p o p u l a t i o n i t would be p o s s i b l e t o compare sample means u s i n g S t u d e n t ' s t on the n u l l h y p o t h e s i s H^ t h a t = w^- t^- i n s p e c i f i e d l i m i t s o f p r o b a b i l i t y . How-ever a c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f the n a t u r e o f v a l u e as expounded above and as q u a n t i f i e d and measured i n t h i s f i e l d i n v e s -t i g a t i o n would g i v e cause f o r the c o n t r a r y a s s u m p t i o n , v i z . t h a t v a l u e s would g i v e r i s e to a skewed d i s t r i b u t i o n to an e x t e n t which would v i o l a t e the p a r a m e t r i c assump-t i o n o f n o r m a l i t y . A c c o r d i n g l y the f i r s t t e s t o f d a t a c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h i s h y p o t h e s i s would be an a p p r o p r i a t e t e s t f o r skewness o f d i s t r i b u t i o n . The r e s u l t s of t h i s t e s t would d e t e r m i n e the type o f s t a t i s t i c (e_«g_« S t u d e n t ' s t , Mann-Whitney, Kolmogorov-Smirnov) to be computed f o r s i g n i f i c a n c e o f d i f f e r e n c e . Second, the sample of p r i n c i p a l s can be t e s t e d a g a i n s t the sample o f v i c e - p r i n c i p a l s on each of the 12 v a l u e s c o r e s f o r s i g n i f i c a n c e o f d i f f e r e n c e . I t no d i f -f e r e n c e s were found i t would then be r e a s o n a b l e to 191 combine t h e s e h i e r a r c h i c a l l e v e l s i n t o a compound c a t e -gory o f a d m i n i s t r a t o r s . I n s o f a r as d i f f e r e n c e s e x i s t t h e y would p r e v e n t c o m p o s i t i o n on the v a l u e s c o n c e r n e d . T h i r d , composite a d m i n i s t r a t o r s c o r e s can be t e s t e d a g a i n s t t e a c h e r s c o r e s f o r s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r -e n c e s . The e x t e n t o f s t a t i s t i c a l d i f f e r e n c e s d i s c o v e r -ed would s u s t a i n or f a i l t o s u p p o r t the h y p o t h e s i s . Hypothes i s 11: F i v . V . l g i v e s the paradigm f o r t e s t i n g t h i s p r o p o s i t i o n . High o r d e r c o r r e l a t i o n s are s u p p o r t i v e o f the h y p o t h e s i s . C e l l c o n t e n t s f o r c o l s . 1-12 are median v a l u e s c o r e s f o r r e s p e c t i v e s c h o o l u n i t s . Col.13 c e l l s would have a n u m e r i c a l c l i m a t e s c o r e based on the range open t o c l o s e d . H y p o t h e s i s I I I : A number o f methods are con-c e i v a b l e f o r the t e s t i n g o f t h i s h y p o t h e s i s , t h e i r f e a s -i b i l i t y b e i n g dependent on the d i s t r i b u t i o n o f the c r i t -i c a l v a r i a b l e s among the sample p o p u l a t i o n . They may be o u t l i n e d as f o l l o w s : 1) With the s c h o o l as u n i t of a n a l y s i s and t a k -i n g mean s c o r e s on the c l i m a t e s u b t e s t s o f t h r u s t , e s p r i t , h i n d r a n c e and disengagement as a b r e a k i n g p o i n t t h o s e s c h o o l s which are s i m u l t a n e o u s l y above the mean on the 192 39 40 F i g . V . l C o r r e l a t i o n M a t r i x V a l u e s and C l i m a t e S c h o o l as U n i t o f A n a l y s i s V l V 2 V V 3 a V12 c s l : >) ; 1 1 1 1 1 1 S2 1 1 ; S 3 • 1 1 1 --1 1 - , 1 1 1 1 . r~}* 1 { 1 J Col.13 12 11 S 1 = S c h o o l N o . l V 1=Value S u b t e s t 1 C -"Climate Type Score r ^ = C o r r e l a t i o n between v a l u e 1 and C l i m a t e 193 f i r s t two d i m e n s i o n s and below the mean on the l a t t e r two can be c o r r e l a t e d w i t h the s e v e r a l v a l u e s u b t e s t s f o r c l i m a t e . (Note t h a t t h i s l a t t e r o p e r a t i o n w i l l a l -ready have been p e r f o r m e d i n the t e s t i n g of the p r e v i o u s h y p o t h e s i s ) . 2) S u b j e c t t o t h e r e b e i n g s u f f i c i e n t c e l l c o n t e n t h i g h t h r u s t and h i g h e s p r i t s c h o o l s as d e f i n e d above can be a n a l y z e d w i t h i n the paradigm o f F i g . V.2 below, and c o n v e r s e l y f o r low h i n d r a n c e and low disengagement s c h o o l s . 3) A g a i n u s i n g s c h o o l s as u n i t s o f a n a l y s i s c r o s s b r e a k s can be s e t up f o r each v a l u e and each a u t h e n -t i c i t y d i m e n s i o n and ^ ^ c o n t i n g e n c y t e s t s a p p l i e d i n each a p p r o p r i a t e 2x2 c a s e . The paradigm i s g i v e n i n F i g . V.3. 4) With the i n d i v i d u a l as u n i t of a n a l y s i s the c o r r e l a t i o n m a t r i x over the e n t i r e sample can be examin-ed f o r s i g n i f i c a n t c o r r e l a t i o n s between v a l u e s and the a u t h e n t i c i t y s u b t e s t s i n the d i r e c t i o n s i n d i c a t e d . 5) Assuming v e r i f i c a t i o n of the p r e s u m p t i o n s i n H y p o t h e s i s IV a f u r t h e r c o r r e l a t i o n c o u l d be run between c o n s o l i d a t e d v a l u e s c o r e s and a u t h e n t i c i t y s u b t e s t s over the s e v e r a l samples, s i g n i f i c a n t c o r r e l a t i o n s i n the 195 F i g . V.2 4/ High Low. C r o s s b r e a k A n a l y s i s Paradigm -- A u t h e n t i c i t y D imensions r e l a t e d t o V a l u e s . S c h o o l s as U n i t o f A n a l y s i s High T h r u s t , High E s p r i t H i n d r a n c e High Low ( r e p e a t p a t t e r n f o r V 2 - V 1 2 ) Dis engagement High Low ] \ / 12 F i g . V.3 C r o s s b r e a k A n a l y s i s Paradigm -- S e p a r a t e A u t h e n t i c i t y S u b t e s t s r e l a t e d t o V a l u e s . S c h o o l s as U n i t o f A n a l y s i s . T h r u s t 12 High Low High Low (N=4-0 ) / (Repeat p a t t e r n f o r each v a l u e and f o r s u b t e s t s of E s p r i t , H i n -drance , and D i s -engagement ) . 196 p r e d i c t e d p a t t e r n s a g a i n b e i n g s u p p o r t i v e o f the hypo-t h e s i s . H y p o t h e s i s IV: A t h r e e - s t a g e p r o c e d u r e i s i n d i -c a t e d f o r t h i s t e s t . F i r s t , the s e v e r a l i n t e r c o r r e l a -t i o n m a t r i c e s need t o be examined f o r s u p p o r t o f the pre-sumption, t h a t the s p e c i f i e d v a l u e c l u s t e r s i n t e r c o r r e -l a t e more h i g h l y w i t h i n groups than between g r o u p s . F a i l u r e o f t h i s e v i d e n c e n u l l i f i e s the h y p o t h e s i s a l -though a l t e r n a t i v e g r o u p i n g s might be s o u g h t . Second, w i t h a p r i o r i c l u s t e r s e s t a b l i s h e d , c o n s o l i d a t e d s c o r e s can be c o r r e l a t e d w i t h c l i m a t e by s c h o o l on the paradigm of F i g . V . 4 . F i g . V.4 C o r r e l a t i o n M a t r i x Value C l u s t e r s and C l i m a t e V S c h o o l as U n i t of A n a l y s i s V C 4 0 V . - - I n n e r - d i r e c t e d V a l u e s V =0th e r - d i r e c t e d V a l u e s C =Climate s c o r e S 1 = S c h o o l #1 r . - " C o r r e l a t i o n between 1 V. and C r ^ C o r r e l a t i o n between 0 V and C o T h i r d , the c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s r ^ , r_ Q p r o v i d e a d i r e c t measure of r e l a t i o n s h i p and hence a d i r e c t o f the hypothes i s . 197 H y p o t h e s i s V: I n t e r c o r r e l a t i o n m a t r i c e s o v e r the two sample p o p u l a t i o n s , a d m i n i s t r a t o r s and t e a c h e r s y i e l d d i r e c t t e s t s o f the h y p o t h e s i s f o r the r e l e v a n t v a r i a b l e s . H y p o t h e s i s VI: U s i n g s c h o o l s as the u n i t o f a n a l y s i s congruence and consonance s c o r e s are c a l c u l a t e d as d e s c r i b e d above. C r o s s b r e a k a n a l y s i s can then be used on the f o l l o w i n g paradigm: F i g . V.5 C r o s s b r e a k A n a l y s i s Paradigm -- Va l u e Congruence and Value Consonance r e l a t e d t o C l i m a t e — S c h o o l s as U n i t of A n a l y s i s Open C l i m a t e C l o s e d C l i m a t e Congruence High Low (N = 40 ) Cons onance High Low Open C l o s e d (N = 40 ) By open c l i m a t e s are s i g n i f i e d t h o s e i n the c l a s s i f i c a -t i o n s : Open, Autonomous and C o n t r o l l e d and by c l o s e d those i n the c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s : F a m i l i a r , P a t e r n a l and C l o s e d . E f f i c i e n c y o f the t e s t i s dependent on m i n i m a l c e l l c o n t e n t . 198 P r o p o s i t i o n s : P r o p o s i t i o n s can be t e s t e d d i r -e c t l y by r e f e r e n c e t o the s e v e r a l i n t e r c o r r e l a t i o n m a t r i c e s . L e v e l o f S i g n i f i c a n c e : =.05 f o r a l l t e s t s . Summary T h i s c h a p t e r has o u t l i n e d the e m p i r i c a l phase o f the s t u d y . Immediately p r e c e d e n t and d i r e c t l y r e l e v a n t r e s e a r c h , p a r t i c u l a r l y the work o f S c o t t and L u p i n i , was f i r s t summarized. The h y p o t h e s e s and e x p l o r a t i v e p r o -p o s i t i o n s o f the p r e s e n t r e s e a r c h were the n r e s t a t e d and e x p r e s s e d i n o p e r a t i o n a l form. Methodology was then s p e c i f i e d i n d e t a i l and p r o c e d u r e s f o r t e s t i n g h y p o t h e s e s and p r o p o s i t i o n s e x p l a i n e d . The f i n d i n g s and r e s u l t s of the d a t a a n a l y s i s d e s c r i b e d i n p r i n c i p l e above w i l l be p r e s e n t e d i n the next c h a p t e r . 199 R e f e r e n c e s f o r C h a p t e r V A l l p o r t , G.W., Vernon, P.E., L i n d z e y , G. Study o f V a l u e s . Houghton M i f l i n , B o s t o n , 1931 3rd ed. 1960. Andrews, J.H.M. Some V a l i d i t y S t u d i e s of the OCDQ. Dept. o f E d u c a t i o n a l A d m i n i s t r a t i o n . U. o f A l t a . mimeo. 1965. F e r g u s o n , G.A. S t a t i s t i c a l A n a l y s i s i n P s y c h o l o g y and E d u c a t i o n . 2nd. ed. McGraw H i l l , London, 1966. F r i e s e n , D. "Value C l i m a t e s i n Canadian High S c h o o l s " The C a nadian A d m i n i s t r a t o r . V o l . V I , No. 1, Oc t o b e r 1966. G e t z e l s , J.W. "The A c q u i s i t i o n o f V a l u e s i n S c h o o l and S o c i e t y " i n Chase, F.S., Anderson, H. eds. The High S c h o o l i n a New E r a . U. o f Ch i c a g o P r e s s , C h i c a g o , 1958. H a l p i n , A.W., C r o f t , D.B. The O r g a n i z a t i o n a l C l i m a t e of S c h o o l s . Midwest A d m i n i s t r a t i o n C e n t e r . U. o f C h i c a g o , C h i c a g o , 1963. J a c o b , P.E. Changing V a l u e s i n C o l l e g e . H a r p e r , N.Y. 1957 . K e r l i n g e r , F.N. F o u n d a t i o n s of B e h a v i o r a l R e s e a r c h . H o l t , R i n e h a r t and Winston, London, 1966. K i t c h e n , H.W. " D i f f e r e n c e s i n V a l u e - O r i e n t a t i o n s : A Newfoundland Study" The Canadian A d m i n i s t r a t o r V o l . V, No. 3, December 1965. L u p i n i , D. (a) A Study of the R e l a t i o n o f D i f f e r e n t i a l V a l u e s to S o c i a l and A d m i n i s t r a t i v e I n t e r a c t i o n s unpub. Ph.D. d i s s e r t a t i o n , U. of A l b e r t a , 1965. (b) " V a l u e s and S o c i a l B e h a v i o r i n S c h o o l s " The Canadian A d m i n i s t r a t o r V o l . V, No. 2, Novemb er 19 6 5. 200 M e r i n g , 0. von. A Grammar o f V a l u e s . U. o f P i t t s b u r g h P r e s s , P i t t s b u r g h , 1961. Newcomb, T.M. P e r s o n a l i t y and S o c i a l Change. Dryden, N.Y. 1943. P i a g e t , J . The M o r a l Judgment o f the C h i l d . H a r c o u r t , B r u c e , N.Y. 1932. P r i n c e , R. I n d i v i d u a l V a l u e s and A d m i n i s t r a t i v e E f f e c -t i v e n e s s . Unpub. Ph.D. d i s s e r t a t i o n . U. o f C h i c a g o , 1957. Rasmussen, G.R. " P e r c e i v e d Value D i s c r e p a n c i e s of T e a c h e r s and P r i n c i p a l s -- A t h r e a t t o C r e a t i v e T e a c h i n g " . The B u l l e t i n o f the N a t i o n a l A s s o c -i a t i o n o f Secondary S c h o o l P r i n c i p a l s . V o l . 4 6 , No. 272, March 1962, pp.1-12. R i esman, D. The L o n e l y Crowd. A Study o f the Changing American C h a r a c t e r . Y a l e U.P. New Haven, Conn. 1950 . S c o t t , W.A. V a l u e s and O r g a n i z a t i o n s . Rand M c N a l l y , C h i c a g o , 1965. Shannon, J.R. " P e r c e n t a g e s o f Returns o f Q u e s t i o n n a i r e s i n R e p u t a b l e E d u c a t i o n a l R e s e a r c h " . J o u r n a l o f E d u c a t i o n a l R e s e a r c h No. 42, October 1948. S i e g e l , S. N o n p a r a m e t r i c S t a t i s t i c s f o r the B e h a v i o r a l S c i e n c e s . M c G r a w - H i l l , London, 1956. S p i n d l e r , G. " E d u c a t i o n i n a t r a n s f o r m i n g American C u l -t u r e " . H a r v a r d E d u c a t i o n a l Review V o l . 25, No. 3, 1951T Thomas, E . J . , F i n k , C F . " E f f e c t o f Group S i z e " P s y c h o l o g i c a l B u l l e t i n 1963, No. 60, pp.371-384. Watkins, J . F . "The OCDQ -- An A p p l i c a t i o n and Some I m p l i c a t i o n s " E d u c a t i o n a l A d m i n i s t r a t i o n Q u a r t e r l y V o l . IV, No. 2, S p r i n g 1968, pp.48-60. CHAPTER VI FINDINGS S u b s t a n t i v e F i n d i n g s H y p o t h e s i s I: (The h i e r a r c h i c a l l e v e l s of a s c h o o l o r g a n i z a t i o n are r e f l e c t e d i n d i f f e r e n c e s o f v a l u e s and v a l u e o r i e n t a t i o n s of r o l e incumbents.) Raw s c o r e s on the v a l u e s u b t e s t s were f i r s t computed f o r the c a t e g o r -i e s p r i n c i p a l and v i c e - p r i n c i p a l and means and s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n s by s c h o o l f o r the c a t e g o r i e s of t e a c h e r s . T e s t s of skewness were r u n which i n d i c a t e d a t endency to a s s y m e t r y . T h i s tendency was to be e x p e c t e d on the grounds t h a t the S c o t t S c a l e t a p s v a l u e d i m e n s i o n s which c o n s t i t u t e commonly adhered to s o c i a l norms which are e s t a b l i s h e d components o f the g e n e r a l c u l t u r a l e t h i c . I t was d e c i d e d t h e r e f o r e t o use the Mann-Whitney t e s t t o determine whether s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s e x i s t e d between sample p o p u l a t i o n s . 201 202 T a b l e VI.1 shows r e s u l t s o f the t e s t i n a com-p a r i s o n between p r i n c i p a l s and v i c e - p r i n c i p a l s . None o f t h e v a l u e s u b t e s t s a p p r o a c h s i g n i f i c a n c e and hence i t was d e c i d e d t o combine t h e s e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s i n the s i n g l e c a t e g o r y , a d m i n i s t r a t o r s . T a b l e VI.1 V a l u e D i f f e r e n c e s between P r i n c i p a l s and V i c e - P r i n c i p a l s - - M a n n - W h i t n e y T e s t Value U z I n t e l l e c t u a l i s m 532 -0 , .474 K i n d n e s s 530 -0 , .1+97 S o c i a l S k i l l s 1470 -1. . 247 L o y a l t y 518 -0 . .642 Acad. Achmt. 1+88 -1. .017 Phys. Dev'ment 552 -0 , . 224 S t a t u s 544 -0 . . 324 Honesty 1+54 -1. .437 R e l i g i o u s n e s s 525 -0 . .558 S e l f - C o n t r o l 1+65 -1. .306 C r e a t i v i t y 518 -0 . .655 Independence 522 -0 . .590 T a b l e VI.2 shows the r e s u l t s of the comparing a d m i n i s t r a t o r s a g a i n s t t e a c h e r s . I t w i l l be seen t h a t s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s o b t a i n on the v a l u e s o f c r e a t i v i t y , i n d e p e n d e n c e , p h y s i c a l development, k i n d n e s s (th e f i r s t t h r e e at the .01 c o n f i d e n c e l e v e l ) . A l l d i f -f e r e n c e s are i n the d i r e c t i o n o f b e i n g more v a l u e d by t e a c h e r s . The o n l y o t h e r v a l u e a p p r o a c h i n g a s i g n i f i c -a n t l y d i f f e r e n t l e v e l was t h a t of h o n e s t y . Mean raw 203 s c o r e s o f v a l u e s t e n d e d t o be h i g h e r i n a l l i n s t a n c e s f o r t e a c h e r s t h a n f o r a d m i n i s t r a t o r s w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n of s t a t u s . The c o m b i n a t i o n o f t h e s e r e s u l t s p e r m i t s t h e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t H y p o t h e s i s I i s p a r t i a l l y s u p p o r t e d . T a b l e VI.2 V a l u e D i f f e r e n c e s between A d m i n i s t r a t o r s and T e a c h e r s Mann-Whitney T e s t V a l u e U z I n t e l l e c t u a l i s m 16662 -1. 066 Ki n d n e s s 15626 -1. 8 3 9 * S o c i a l S k i l l s 16683 -1. 051 L o y a l t y 17782 -0 . 228 Acad. Achmt. 16922 -0 . 869 Phys. Dev'ment 139 84 -3 . 06 8"* S t a t u s 17195 -0 . 667 Honesty 16467 -1 . 208 R e l i g i o u s n e s s 17336 -0 . 560 S e l f - C o n t r o l 16800 -0 . 960 C r e a t i v i t y 14592 -2 . 614** Independence 14672 -2 . 5 4 6 * * 05 .01 H y p o t h e s i s 11: (The v a l u e o r i e n t a t i o n s o f s c h o o l s s t a f f s are s i g n i f i c a n t l y c o r r e l a t e d w i t h o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c l i m a t e ) . Because of the c r i t i q u e o f the c l i m a t e con-ce p t o f f e r e d below (p.220) i t was d e c i d e d t o t e s t the h y p o t h e s i s I n d i r e c t l y , i . e . by e x a m i n a t i o n o f the o v e r a l l c o r r e l a t i o n s between s t a f f members and the s e v e r a l dimen-s i o n s of c l i m a t e . 204 Note on c o r r e l a t i o n a l a n a l y s i s : The l a r g e r p a r t o f the c o r r e l a t i o n a l a n a l y s i s o f d a t a employed the P e a r s o n r_ c o e f f i c i e n t . T h i s c o e f f i c i e n t was more amenable t o c a l -c u l a t i o n and per F e r g u s o n ( p . 1 2 9 ) : "In c a l c u l a t i n g a c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t i t need not be assumed t h a t the d i s t r i b u t i o n s o f the two v a r i a b l e s are n o r m a l . C o r r e -l a t i o n s can be computed f o r r e c t a n g u l a r and o t h e r t y p e s of d i s t r i b u t i o n s . I f the two v a r i a b l e s have d i f f e r e n t s h a p e s , however, t h i s c i r c u m s t a n c e w i l l impose con-s t r a i n t s upon the c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t . I f a p o s i -t i v e l y skewed d i s t r i b u t i o n i s c o r r e l a t e d w i t h a n e g a t i v e -l y skewed d i s t r i b u t i o n , the d i f f e r e n c e s i n the shapes o f the d i s t r i b u t i o n s w i l l i n f l u e n c e the c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c -i e n t . Some p a r t o f the d e p a r t u r e o f the c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t from u n i t y w i l l r e s u l t because of the d i f f e r -ent shapes o f the two d i s t r i b u t i o n s . In such a s i t u a -t i o n as t h i s the d i f f e r e n c e s i n shapes of the d i s t r i b u -t i o n s w i l l i n e f f e c t ensure t h a t one or the o t h e r or both r e g r e s s i o n l i n e s are n o n l i n e a r . In p s y c h o l o g i c a l r e -s e a r c h s u b s t a n t i a l d i f f e r e n c e s i n the shapes of the d i s -t r i b u t i o n s under st u d y o c c a s i o n a l l y are fo u n d . Under t h e s e c i r c u m s t a n c e s i t i s common p r a c t i c e to t r a n s f o r m the v a r i a b l e s to a b i n o m i a l or to an a p p r o x i m a t e l y normal form. Such t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s w i l l f r e q u e n t l y tend to 205 e l i m i n a t e c u r v i l i n e a r l t y o f r e g r e s s i o n . " In view o f t h e s e c o n s i d e r a t i o n s a random sample o f n o n - p a r a m e t r i c c o r r e l a t i o n s were a l s o computed u s i n g K e n d a l l ' s t a u c o -e f f i c i e n t . These sample r e s u l t s c o n f i r m e d t h o s e ob-t a i n e d u s i n g the P e a r s o n f o r m u l a . T a b l e VI . 3 p r e s e n t s s c h e m a t i c a l l y the s i g n i f i c a n t i n t e r c o r r e l a t i o n s over the sample p o p u l a t i o n . I t w i l l be seen t h a t w i t h the e x c e p t i o n o f one c l i m a t e d i m e n s i o n ( H i n d r a n c e ) and one v a l u e ( P h y s i c a l Development) t h e r e are h i g h l y s i g n i f i c a n t c o r r e l a t i o n s between the dimen-s i o n s and v a l u e s . When s c h o o l s r a t h e r t han i n d i v i d u a l s are t a k e n as the u n i t o f a n a l y s i s the r e s u l t s are as sum-m a r i z e d i n T a b l e VI.4. The s i g n i f i c a n t a d m i n i s t r a t o r r e l a t i o n s h i p s are c o n f i n e d w i t h one e x c e p t i o n t o the d i s -engagement d i m e n s i o n . Teacher r e l a t i o n s on the o t h e r hand are c o n c e n t r a t e d on the I n t i m a c y and A l o o f n e s s dim-e n s i o n s . Three v a l u e s ( R e l i g i o u s n e s s , C r e a t i v i t y , and Independence) are u n c o r r e l a t e d . I t may be n o t e d however t h a t w i t h the s c h o o l as u n i t of a n a l y s i s degrees o f f r e e -dom are c o n s i d e r a b l y r e d u c e d as compared w i t h i n d i v i d u a l a n a l y s i s o f the e n t i r e sample p o p u l a t i o n . In g e n e r a l t h e r e f o r e , t a k i n g the r e s u l t s of both t a b l e s i n t o c o n s i d -e r a t i o n , and i n s o f a r as c l i m a t e i s a c o n s t r u c t d e v e l o p e d from the d i m e n s i o n s u b t e s t s one may c o n c l u d e t h a t the h y p o t h e s i s i s s u p p o r t e d . T a b l e VI.3 S i g n i f i c a n t C o r r e l a t i o n s ; T eacher and A d m i n i s t r a t o r V a l u e s by C l i m a t e Dimensions — I n d i v i d u a l as U n i t of A n a l y s i s ( N > 500 ) I n t i - D i s e n -macy I n t e l l e c t u a l i s m + + + *' Kindness S o c i a l S k i l l s L o y a l t y Acad. Ach 'ment Phys.Dev'ment S t a t u s Honesty R e l i g i o u s n e s s S e l f - C o n t r o l C r e a t i v i t y Independence + + + »»' + + + * * • Con- P r o duc-gage- H i n - s i d e r - A l o o f - t i o n ment E s p r i t drance T h r u s t a t i o n ness Emphasis + + + + + + + + + « « " + + + ! * + + + * * * + + *** p <.05 p < .01 p <^ . 001 _j_ _j_ _j_ K M $2 + + + ** * + + + ** * + + + «•>" + + + * * * + + * * + + + s + + + }'«s': ft + + + + ft ft + + * * + + * * + + T e a c h e r s + p < . 05 + + p <. 01 + + + p 001 A d m i n i s t r a t o r s N e g a t i v e c o r r e l a -t i o n s u n d e r l i n e d 207 T a b l e VI . 4 S i g n i f i c a n t C o r r e l a t i o n s ; T e a c h e r and A d m i n i s t r a t o r V a l u e s by r e l a t e d C l i m a t e D i m e n s i o n s . S c h o o l as I n t e l l ' m . K i n d n e s s S o c i a l S k i l l s L o y a l t y Academic Achvment Phys . Dev'ment S t a t u s Honesty R e l i g . S e l f - C ' 1 C r e a t ' t y Indep'ce U n i t o f A n a l y s i s (N = 40 ) D i s e n - C o n s i d - A l o o f -I n t i m a c y gagement T h r u s t e r a t i o n ness *p < .05 t e a c h e r s +p<^.05 a d m i n i s t r a t o r s **p <.01 n e g a t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n s u n d e r l i n e d . 208 H y p o t h e s i s I I I : ( T h e r e i s a r e l a t i o n s h i p between the v a l u e o r i e n t a t i o n s o f t e a c h e r s and a d m i n i s t r a t o r s and the conc e p t o f a u t h e n t i c i t y ) . A c r o s s b r e a k a n a l y s i s o f s c h o o l s on the d i m e n s i o n s i n d i c a t e d ( T h r u s t , E s p r i t , H i n -d r a n c e , Disengagement) f o r each o f the 12 v a l u e s r e v e a l e d o n l y one s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t r e s u l t (see T a b l e V I . 5 ) . T a b l e VI.5 D i s t r i b u t i o n o f S c h o o l s w i t h A d m i n i s t r a t o r s S-cores d i c h o t o m i z e d on the V a r i a b l e s o f Disengagement by Ki n d n e s s Kindne s s below above mean mean D i s e n -gagement below mean 11 10 21 above mean 4 15 19 15 25 40 X 24.177 ( p < . 0 5 ) A number of the c o n t i n g e n c y t a b l e s approached s i g n i f i c -ance p <^.10 >^ . 0 5 as f o l l o w s : 209 L o y a l t y v. T h r u s t Academic Achievement v. T h r u s t ( n e g a t i v e r e l a t i o n ) S t a t u s v. T h r u s t Honesty v. Disengagement ( n e g a t i v e r e l a t i o n ) These t a b l e s were f o r p r i n c i p a l s o n l y as c o n t r a s t e d w i t h a d m i n i s t r a t o r s and t h e r e i s thus some s l i g h t e v i d e n c e o f s u p p o r t f o r the a u t h e n t i c i t y d i m e n s i o n o f t h r u s t b e i n g r e l a t e d t o v a l u e o r i e n t a t i o n . In g e n e r a l , however, i t must be c o n c l u d e d t h a t the h y p o t h e s i s i s not s u p p o r t e d . H y p o t h e s i s IV: (There i s a r e l a t i o n s h i p between " i n n e r -d i r e c t e d " and " o t h e r - d i r e c t e d " v a l u e o r i e n t a t i o n s and "openness" o f o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c l i m a t e ) . E x a m i n a t i o n o f the i n t e r c o r r e l a t i o n m a t r i x f o r a l l r e s p o n d e n t s s u p p o r t e d the d i v i s i o n o f v a l u e s i n t o i n n e r - d i r e c t e d and o t h e r -d i r e c t e d c l u s t e r s , the f o r m e r c o n s i s t i n g of Independence, I n t e l l e c t u a l i s m , and C r e a t i v i t y ; the l a t t e r o f R e l i g -i o u s n e s s , S e l f - C o n t r o l , K i n d n e s s , L o y a l t y , S o c i a l S k i l l s , S t a t u s , and P h y s i c a l Development. That i s , t h e s e c l u s -t e r s i n t e r c o r r e l a t e d more w i t h i n than between g r o u p s . The r e s p e c t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n s w i t h i n groups are I n n e r -d i r e c t e d .31 ( S c o t t Study .33); O t h e r - d i r e c t e d .34 ( S c o t t Study .29). Complete i n t e r c o r r e l a t i o n s f o r both s t u d i e s are r e p o r t e d i n Appendix I. A g a i n , because of the c r i t i q u e below (pp.220), 210 the h y p o t h e s i s i s t e s t e d i n d i r e c t l y w i t h r e g a r d t o c l i -mate, t h a t i s , c o r r e l a t i o n s were r u n a g a i n s t the c l i m a t e d i m e n s i o n s r a t h e r t h a n c l i m a t e p e r s e . In t h i s i n s t a n c e o n l y one i n t e r r e l a t i o n a t t a i n e d s t a t i s t i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e beyond the .05 l e v e l , the r e l a t i o n o f o t h e r - d i r e c t e d v a l u e s and the d i m e n s i o n o f A l o o f n e s s (r=+.351, df 3 9 ) . In consequence i t must be c o n c l u d e d t h a t the h y p o t h e s i s i s not s u p p o r t e d . H y p o t h e s i s V: (The v a r i a b l e s of age, sex and o r g a n i z a -t i o n a l e x p e r i e n c e a r e p r e d i c t i v e of v a l u e o r i e n t a t i o n ) . A f i r s t a p p r o a c h t o t e s t i n g t h i s h y p o t h e s i s can be made t h r o u g h e x a m i n a t i o n o f the g e n e r a l c o r r e l a t i o n m a t r i x . T a b l e VI.6 shows s c h e m a t i c a l l y the prima f a c i e s i g n i f i -c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p s . These f i n d i n g s g i v e a f i r s t s u p p o r t to the h y p o t h e s i s . M u l t i p l e r e g r e s s i o n a n a l y s e s y i e l d i n g m u l t i p l e c o r r e l a -t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s and p a r t i a l c o r r e l a t i o n m a t r i c e s were computed f o r the b i o g r a p h i c a l v a r i a b l e s and the a n a l y s e s were c o n d u c t e d s e p a r a t e l y f o r the p o p u l a t i o n s of admin-i s t r a t o r s . T a b l e VI.7 summarizes the r e s u l t s f o r t e a c h -e r s w i t h the s t a t i s t i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e o f p r e d i c t a b i l i t y i n d i c a t e d . For a d m i n i s t r a t o r s no s i g n i f i c a n t F probab-2 i l i t i e s were o b t a i n e d and the R was d i s t r i b u t e d s i m i l -a r l y f o r the v a l u e v a r i a b l e s w i t h an i d e n t i c a l mean of .08 . 211 T a b l e VI.6 S i g n i f i c a n t C o r r e l a t i o n s ; T eacher and A d m i n i s t r a t o r V a l u e s by B i o g r a p h i c a l V a r i a b l e s . I n d i v i d u a l a s U n i t o f A n a l y s i s . (N>500 ) Years Years i n T e a c h i n g S c h o o l Sex Age I n t e l l ' i s m K i n d n e s s *** Soc. S k i l l s * *** L o y a l t y ftft* ftft ft ftftft Acad. Acmt. Phys. Devt. * S t a t u s Honesty R e 1 i g . * * * * * * * * * * S e l f - C o n t l . * * C r e a t i v i t y * Independ'ce *** *** *** *p <. 0 5 **p . 01 ft ft ftp _/ . 001 N e g a t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n s u n d e r l i n e d 212 T a b l e VI.7 M u l t i p l e R e g r e s s i o n A n a l y s i s : M u l t i p l e R 2 and s i g n i f i c a n t i n t e r c o r r e l a t i o n s ; T e a c h e r Value s by B i o g r a p h i c a l V a r i a b l e s (N 500) Years Years i n R T e a c h i n g S c h o o l Sex Age I n t l l c ' i s m . 09 ( . 04-) + ft ft ftft K i n d n e s s .13(.14) ft li- ... A ... *> S o c . S k i l l s .12(.04) ft ft ft ft L o y a l t y .11( .11) ftft ftft Ac.Achvmnt. . 05 ( . 04 ) ft ftft ftft Phys. Devpt . .11(.01) * ftft ftft S t a t u s .07( . 06 ) ftft ftft Honesty .04( .06 ) ft-R e l i g ' n e s s . 09 ( . 07 ) ft ft ft S e l f - C o n ' 1 . 04 ( . 12 ) J\ (Til rf* C r e a t i v i t y .08( .14) •T. A Indep'ce .04( .14) ft * *p < . 0 5 **p < . 01 N e g a t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n s u n d e r l i n e d , t a d m i n i s t r a t o r s i n b r a c k e t s . A n a l y s e s o f c o e f f i c i e n t s f o r the two groups ar e s e n t e d i n T a b l e s V I . 8 and VI.9 below. T a b l e VI.8 P a r t i a l C o r r e l a t i o n s , T e a c h e r s ' V a l u e s by B i o g r a p h i c a l V a r i a b l e s (N > 5 0 0 ) Years T e a c h i n g Years i n S c h o o l Sex Ag ;e I n t e l l ' s m .06 . 01 .00 02 K i n d n e s s - . 10* .03 .18*** 06 Soc. S k i l l s .03 -.00 .16ft ft ft _. 06 L o y a l t y .04 .02 - . 03 07 Ac.Achvmt. -.04 . 04 .03 02 Phys.Dev't. - . 02 - . 05 .09* 06 S t a t u s - . 01 .02 -.06 02 Honesty .06 . 01 - . 08 03 R e l i g ' n e s s . 04 - . 05 .07 02 S e l f C o n t ' l .07 .02 -.13** 0 9* C r e a t i v i t y -.10* -. 04 - . 07 07 Independ'ce - . 06 - . 04 - . 02 02 . *p <. 0 5 **p < . 01 ***p <.0 01 214-T a b l e VI . 9 P a r t i a l C o r r e l a t i o n s , A d m i n i s t r a t o r s ' V a l u e s by B i o g r a p h i c a l V a r i a b l e s (N=6-8 ) Years as Admin'r Years i n S c h o o l Years T e a c h i n g Age I n t e l l ' s m . 10 . 11 . 16 - . 11 Kindne s s -.03 - .13 -.30* .08 S o c . S k i l l s - . 04 .15 .08 - . 02 L o y a l t y . 17 -.29* . 08 . 04 Ac.Achvmt. - . 06 . 10 .11 -.07 Phys. Dev't -.13 . 12 - . 11 .13 S t a t u s -.02 .00 .15 - . 18 Honesty - . 03 - .12 - . 14 - . 17 R e l i g ' n e s s .13 . 10 .22 - . 24 S e l f C o n t ' l - . 01 .12 - . 10 . 10 C r e a t i v i t y .18 - . 16 .04 - . 09 Independ'ce .06 - . 08 - .04 - . 09 *p <.05 On the b a s i s of t h i s e v i d e n c e i t may be c o n c l u d e d t h a t the h y p o t h e s i s h o l d s t r u e f o r t e a c h e r s on the v a r i a b l e s of age and sex and to some e x t e n t y e a r s of t e a c h i n g ex-p e r i e n c e but not f o r a d m i n i s t r a t o r s . In consequence, the h y p o t h e s i s may be c o n s i d e r e d p a r t i a l l y s u p p o r t e d . 215 H y p o t h e s i s V I : (Th e r e i s a f u n c t i o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p be-tween t e a c h e r - p r i n c i p a l v a l u e congruence and o r g a n i z a t i o n -a l c l i m a t e ; and between s t a f f v a l u e consonance and o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c l i m a t e . ) Congruence and s c o r e s were c a l c u l a t e d as d e s c r i b e d above ( p . 1 7 1 ) , f o l l o w i n g the L u p i n i method. These s c o r e s are r e p o r t e d f o r the sample s c h o o l s In Appendix J . For the r e a s o n s a l r e a d y g i v e n r e s o r t was a g a i n made t o t e s t i n g v i a c o r r e l a t i o n s w i t h the c l i m a t e d i m e n s i o n s . No s i g n i f i c a n t c o r r e l a t i o n s were o b t a i n e d . The h y p o t h e s i s was not s u p p o r t e d . E x p l o r a t i v e F i n d i n g s In an i m p o r t a n t sense t h i s e n t i r e s t u d y can be c o n s i d e r e d e x p l o r a t o r y i n s o f a r as i t i s c o n c e r n e d w i t h s e e k i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p s i n the a n a l y s i s of d a t a . That h y p o t h e s e s were a l s o d e v e l o p e d from e s t a b l i s h e d t h e o r y does not d i s a l l o w t h e i r t e n t a t i v e n a t u r e . Where a com-p l e x o f m e d i a t i n g v a r i a b l e s cannot be a c c u r a t e l y and p r e -c i s e l y s p e c i f i e d , as i s u s u a l i n much s o c i a l p s y c h o l o g -i c a l r e s e a r c h , any c l a i m to a_ p r i o r i t h e o r e t i c a l r i g o u r must t e n d t o be s p e c i o u s . The e x p l o r a t i v e n a t u r e of such i n q u i r y i s thus t a c i t and i m p l i c i t even i f u n s t a t e d . The f o l l o w i n g s e c t i o n r e p o r t s on the c o r r e l a t i o n a l f i n d -i n g s w i t h r e g a r d t o the e x p l o r a t i v e minor p r o p o s i t i o n s . 216 P r o p o s i t i o n 1: (The v a l u e o f S o c i a l S k i l l s i s d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d t o the d i m e n s i o n s o f E s p r i t , I n t i m a c y and C o n s i d -e r a t i o n and i n v e r s e l y r e l a t e d t o Disengagement, H i n d r a n c e and A l o o f n e s s . ) With the e x c e p t i o n o f Disengagement and A l o o f n e s s t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s were i n the p r e d i c t e d d i r e c t i o n and, on the b a s i s o f a o n e - t a i l e d t e s t , s i g n i f i c a n t l y so f o r C o n s i d -e r a t i o n at the .01 l e v e l and f o r I n t i m a c y and f o r A l o o f -ness a t the .005 l e v e l . The i n v e r s e r e l a t i o n w i t h the d i m e n s i o n o f A l o o f n e s s was a l s o s i g n i f i c a n t at the .005 l e v e l . I t may be c o n c l u d e d t h a t the p r o p o s i t i o n i s p a r t i a l l y s u p p o r t e d . P r o p o s i t i o n 2: (The v a l u e o f Kind n e s s i s d i r e c t l y r e -l a t e d t o the di m e n s i o n s of E s p r i t and C o n s i d e r a t i o n and i n v e r s e l y r e l a t e d t o Disengagement, H i n d r a n c e and A l o o f -n e s s . ) The r e l a t i o n s h i p s were i n the p r e d i c t e d d i r e c t i o n (.05 s i g n i f i c a n c e f o r C o n s i d e r a t i o n and .01 f o r A l o o f n e s s ) w i t h the e x c e p t i o n of Disengagement which c o r r e l a t e s p o s i t i v e l y (.109 df 39) w i t h the Kindness v a l u e . With t h i s e x c e p t i o n the p r o p o s i t i o n i s s u p p o r t e d . '''Propositions 1-9 are a d m i n i s t r a t o r p r o p o s i t i o n s 217 P r o p o s i t i o n 3: (The v a l u e o f C r e a t i v i t y i s d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d t o the d i m e n s i o n s o f E s p r i t and T h r u s t and i n -v e r s e l y r e l a t e d t o Disengagement and H i n d r a n c e . ) C o r r e l a t i o n s were i n the r e v e r s e d i r e c t i o n to t h a t p r e -d i c t e d w i t h the e x c e p t i o n o f H i n d r a n c e which showed a l -most no r e l a t i o n s h i p . L e v e l s o f c o r r e l a t i o n d i d not a t t a i n s i g n i f i c a n c e . P r o p o s i t i o n not s u p p o r t e d . P r o p o s i t i o n 4: (The v a l u e o f I n t e l l e c t u a l i s m i s d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d t o the d i m e n s i o n s o f E s p r i t and T h r u s t and i n v e r s e l y r e l a t e d t o Disengagement). R e l a t i o n s as p r e d i c t e d w i t h s i g n i f i c a n c e at the .05 l e v e l f o r D i s e n -gagement. P r o p o s i t i o n s u p p o r t e d . P r o p o s i t i o n 5: (The v a l u e o f S t a t u s i s d i r e c t l y r e -l a t e d t o the d i m e n s i o n s o f Disengagement, A l o o f n e s s and T h r u s t ) . R e l a t i o n s as p r e d i c t e d w i t h s i g n i f i c a n c e (.05) f o r A l o o f -n e s s . P r o p o s i t i o n s u p p o r t e d . P r o p o s i t i o n 6: (The v a l u e of S e l f - C o n t r o l i s d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d t o the d i m e n s i o n s of E s p r i t , A l o o f n e s s and Con-s i d e r a t i o n ) . The r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h E s p r i t i s u n c l e a r (r=-.072 d f 3 9 ) . The o t h e r v a r i a b l e s are r e l a t e d as p r e d i c t e d w i t h A l o o f -ness at the .05 l e v e l . P r o p o s i t i o n g e n e r a l l y s u p p o r t e d . 218 P r o p o s i t i o n 7: (The v a l u e o f L o y a l t y i s d i r e c t l y r e -l a t e d t o the d i m e n s i o n s o f E s p r i t and C o n s i d e r a t i o n and I n v e r s e l y r e l a t e d t o D i s engagement). R e l a t i o n s h i p s are i n the p r e d i c t e d d i r e c t i o n w i t h .05 s i g n i f i c a n c e f o r Disengagement. P r o p o s i t i o n s u p p o r t e d . P r o p o s i t i o n 8: (The v a l u e o f Independence i s d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d t o E s p r i t and i n v e r s e l y r e l a t e d t o H i n d r a n c e ) . The r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h E s p r i t Is i n the i n v e r s e d i r e c t i o n (r=-.175 df39) but s i g n i f i c a n t l y (.05) i n the p r e d i c t e d d i r e c t i o n f o r H i n d r a n c e . P r o p o s i t i o n p a r t i a l l y s u p p o r t -ed. P r o p o s i t i o n 9: (The v a l u e o f Academic Achievement Is d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d to H i n d r a n c e and P r o d u c t i o n E m p h a s i s ) . H i n d r a n c e c o r r e l a t e d n e g a t i v e l y (-.160 d f 3 9 ) . The o t h e r v a r i a b l e r e l a t e d as p r e d i c t e d . P r o p o s i t i o n p a r t i a l l y s u p p o r t e d . (The subsequent p r o p o s i t i o n s are t e a c h e r p r o p o s i t i o n s ) . P r o p o s i t i o n 10: (The v a l u e o f S o c i a l S k i l l s Is d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d t o the d i m e n s i o n s of I n timacy and E s p r i t and i n -v e r s e l y r e l a t e d to the dimensions of Disengagement and P r o d u c t i o n E m p h a s i s ) . R e l a t i o n s h i p s are as p r e d i c t e d w i t h .001 s i g n i f i c a n c e f o r I n t i m a c y and E s p r i t . P r o p o s i t i o n s u p p o r t e d . 219 P r o p o s i t i o n 11: (The v a l u e o f S t a t u s i s d i r e c t l y r e -l a t e d t o the d i m e n s i o n s o f H i n d r a n c e , P r o d u c t i o n Empha-s i s and T h r u s t and i n v e r s e l y r e l a t e d t o I n t i m a c y ) . The v a l u e i s s i g n i f i c a n t l y (.05) r e l a t e d as p r e d i c t e d f o r P r o d u c t i o n Emphasis and I n t i m a c y but i n v e r s e l y f o r H i n d r a n c e and T h r u s t . P r o p o s i t i o n p a r t i a l l y s u p p o r t e d . P r o p o s i t i o n 12: (The v a l u e o f Kindn e s s i s d i r e c t l y r e -l a t e d t o the di m e n s i o n s o f I n t i m a c y and E s p r i t and i n -v e r s e l y t o Disengagement). The r e l a t i o n s h i p s are as p r e d i c t e d w i t h .001 s i g n i f i c -ance f o r I n t i m a c y and E s p r i t and .05 s i g n i f i c a n c e f o r Disengagement. P r o p o s i t i o n s t r o n g l y s u p p o r t e d . P r o p o s i t i o n 13: (The v a l u e of L o y a l t y i s d i r e c t l y r e -l a t e d t o the d i m e n s i o n s of I n t i m a c y and E s p r i t and i n -v e r s e l y t o Disengagement). D i r e c t i o n s o f r e l a t i o n s h i p are as p r e d i c t e d w i t h s i g n i f -i c a n c e f o r E s p r i t (.001) and Disengagement (.01). Prop-o s i t i o n s u p p o r t e d . P r o p o s i t i o n 14-: (The v a l u e o f Independence i s i n v e r s e l y r e l a t e d t o the di m e n s i o n s of In t i m a c y and T h r u s t ) . D i r e c t i o n s as p r e d i c t e d w i t h .01 l e v e l s i g n i f i c a n c e f o r T h r u s t . P r o p o s i t i o n s u p p o r t e d . 220 P r o p o s i t i o n 15: (The v a l u e o f C r e a t i v i t y i s d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d t o the d i m e n s i o n o f E s p r i t and i n v e r s e l y r e l a t e d t o P r o d u c t i o n E m p h a s i s ) . The d i r e c t i o n s are as p r e d i c t e d a l t h o u g h the c o r r e l a t i o n w i t h P r o d u c t i o n Emphasis i s v i r t u a l l y n o n - e x i s t e n t (r=-.002 d f 500). P r o p o s i t i o n weakly s u p p o r t e d . P r o p o s i t i o n 16: (The v a l u e o f Academic Achievement i s d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d t o the di m e n s i o n s o f P r o d u c t i o n Empha-s i s and T h r u s t ) . D i r e c t i o n s o f r e l a t i o n s h i p as p r e d i c t e d w i t h s i g n i f i c -ance (.05) f o r T h r u s t . P r o p o s i t i o n s u p p o r t e d . P r o p o s i t i o n 17: (The v a l u e of S e l f - C o n t r o l i s d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d t o the d i m e n s i o n s of I n t i m a c y and T h r u s t ) . D i r e c t i o n s as p r e d i c t e d . H i g h l y s i g n i f i c a n t (.001) f o r T h r u s t . P r o p o s i t i o n s u p p o r t e d . C r i t i q u e o f the C l i m a t e Concept: A f o r t u i t o u s and un-f o r e s e e n but n o n e t h e l e s s s u b s t a n t i v e d i s c o v e r y o c c u r r e d i n the a n a l y s i s of d a t a phase as a r e s u l t o f c l o s e exam-i n a t i o n o f the s t a t i s t i c a l p r o c e d u r e s used by H a l p i n In d e r i v i n g the h i g h e r o r d e r c l i m a t e s c o r i n g p a t t e r n from 2 the e i g h t c l i m a t e d i m e n s i o n s . A t t e n t i o n was f i r s t 2 These p r o c e d u r e s are not n o r m a l l y s u b j e c t to i n v e s t i g a t i o n . Most r e s e a r c h e r s have s i m p l y used the H a l p i n and C r o f t s c o r i n g program f o r the OCDQ which 221 drawn t o p o s s i b l e e r r o r by H a l p i n ' s s t a t e m e n t w i t h r e -gar d t o the c o n s t r u c t i o n and s t a n d a r d i z a t i o n of the s c h o o l p r o f i l e s : "These s t a n d a r d i z e d s c o r e s now t o l d us two t h i n g s . For example, t h a t a s c o r e above 50 on a p a r t i c u l a r s u b t e s t i n d i c a t e d , f i r s t , t h a t the g i v e n s c h o o l s c o r e d above the mean o f the sample on t h a t sub-t e s t , and s e c o n d , t h a t the s c o r e on t h a t s u b t e s t was above the mean o f the s c h o o l ' s o t h e r s u b t e s t s c o r e s . . . . " ( s t a t e m e n t q u o t e d i n f u l l p.137 Ch.IV a b o v e ) . Such a st a t e m e n t i s l o g i c a l l y u n t e n a b l e s i n c e i t i s p o s s i b l e t o show by d e v e l o p i n g s i m p l e raw s c o r e m a t r i c e s p a t t e r n s i n which the above c o u l d not o b t a i n ( e.g. by g i v i n g a m a t r i x c e l l a s c o r e s i m u l t a n e o u s l y ^ t h e columns mean and <Cfthe rows mean). A g a i n , H a l p i n ' s e x p l a n a t i o n o f the d e r i v a t i o n o f the c l i m a t e p r o f i l e s c o n t a i n s the f o l l o w i n g p a s s a g e : By s t a n d a r d i z i n g the raw s c o r e s both n o r m a t i v e l y and i p s a t i v e l y we had ap p r o x i m a t e d a d o u b l e - c e n t e r e d matrix."' T h i s double s t a n d a r d i z a t i o n t e c h n i q u e a l l o w s us to examine the r e l a t i o n s h i p between the s c o r e s on the s u b t e s t s , w i t h the d i f f e r e n c e s among the means of the s u b t e s t s c o r e s f o r each s c h o o l embodies w i t h i n i t the m e t h o d o l o g i c a l a s s u m p t i o n s . In the p r e s e n t r e s e a r c h the p o s s i b i l i t y was c o n s i d e r e d o f d e r i v i n g from f i r s t p r i n c i p l e s a new. c l i m a t e s c o r i n g p a t t e r n . 222 i n the sample h e l d s t a t i s t i c a l l y con-s t a n t . In s h o r t , the i n t e r s c h o o l v a r i a n c e and the I n t r a s c h o o l v a r i a n c e are not c o n f o u n d e d . * * (p.168 ) The f o o t n o t e s t o t h e s e p a s s a g e s quoted i n f u l l a r e : *Where s c o r e s have been s t a n d a r d i z e d b o t h i p s a t i v e l y and n o r m a t i v e l y , we can e x p e c t t o o b t a i n t r a n s p o s a b l e f a c t o r s when we f a c t o r - a n a l y z e w i t h b o t h the R t e c h n i q u e and the Q t e c h -n i q u e . Broverman d i s c u s s e s the r e s u l t s o f a p p l y i n g b o t h t e c h n i q u e s t o the same d a t a . See Donald M. Broverman, P s y c h o l o g i c a l Review, 68 ( J a n u a r y 1961), pp.68-80. **An e x c i t i n g e x p o s i t i o n o f the l i m i t a t i o n s o f the R t e c h n i q u e o f f a c t o r a n a l y s i s i n a d e q u a t e l y c o n t r o l l i n g the c o n f o u n d i n g o f i n t e r - i n d i v i d u a l and i n t r a - i n d i v i d u a l s o u r c e s of v a r i a n c e i s p r e s e n t e d by Donald M. Broverman, "Normative and I p s a t i v e Measurement i n P s y c h o l o g y , " P s y c h o l o g i c a l Review, 69 ( J u l y 1962 ), pp.295-305 . These a r t i c l e s by Broverman ( l o c . c i t . ) were s u b j e c t e d t o c l o s e s c r u t i n y by the w r i t e r and by a u t h o r i t i e s i n the f i e l d of computer s c i e n c e and f a c t o r a n a l y s i s at the Com-3 p u t e r C e n t r e o f the U n i v e r s i t y o f B.C. and i t was t e n -t a t i v e l y c o n c l u d e d t h a t they c o n t a i n some e r r o r s and d e f i c i e n c i e s , at l e a s t to s u f f i c i e n t e x t e n t to c a s t doubt Paper i n p r e p a r a t i o n f o r f u t u r e p u b l i c a t i o n w i t h r e g a r d t o f o r m a l c r i t i q u e of Broverman. 223 on H a l p i n ' s e n t h u s i a s m . Moreover i t can be shown (and was s u b j e c t e d t o t e s t ) t h a t i t i s i r r e l e v a n t whether t h e f a c t o r a n a l y s i s i s c o n d u c t e d from raw or from s i n g l y or dou b l y s t a n d a r d i z e d d a t a . In view of t h e s e doubts as t o t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f the c l i m a t e p r o f i l e s i t was con-s i d e r e d r e a s o n a b l e t o a v o i d t e s t i n g the c l i m a t e c o n c e p t d i r e c t l y . I t may be a l l o w e d , however t h a t some c o n f i g -u r a t i o n o f the. c l i m a t e d i m e n s i o n s u b t e s t s c o r e s i s I n d i c -a t i v e o f c l i m a t e and, t h e r e f o r e , s t a t e m e n t s about the di m e n s i o n s r e f e r i n d i r e c t l y to c l i m a t e . D i s c u s s i o n The e m p i r i c a l f i n d i n g s w i t h r e g a r d t o the hypo-t h e s e s t e s t e d can be summarized as f o l l o w s : 1) S t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t c o r r e l a t i o n s o b t a i n between v a l u e s and c l i m a t e dimen-s i o n s at b o t h the I n d i v i d u a l and the s c h o o l l e v e l . 2) Value d i f f e r e n c e s can be shown t o e x i s t between s c h o o l a d m i n i s t r a t o r s and t e a c h e r s . 3) Teacher v a l u e f l u c t u a t i o n s can be shown to be i n p a r t a t t r i b u t a b l e to or p r e d i c t a b l e by the v a r i a b l e s age, sex, and l e n g t h of e x p e r i e n c e as t e a c h e r . 224-4) No s u p p o r t i s g i v e n t o the n o t i o n o f a r e l a t i o n between v a l u e o r i e n t a t i o n s as s t u d i e d and H a l p i n ' s c o n c e p t o f a u t h e n -t i c i t y . 5) No s u p p o r t i s g i v e n to the n o t i o n o f a r e l a t i o n between v a l u e o r i e n t a t i o n c l u s -t e r s p e r S c o t t (op . c i t . p.29) and the d i m e n s i o n s o f c l i m a t e . 6) No s u p p o r t Is g i v e n to the n o t i o n o f a r e l a t i o n between the L u p i n i c o n c e p t s o f v a l u e congruence and consonance and the d i m e n s i o n s o f c l i m a t e , ( o p . c i t . ) A l t e r n a t i v e l y , i t may be s t a t e d t h a t the major c o n t e n t i o n s o f the s t u d y were c o n f i r m e d or r e j e c t e d as f o l l o w s : 1) V a l u e s and s o c i a l p e r c e p t i o n s are r e -l a t e d . ( S u s t a i n e d ) 2) V a l u e s are r e l a t e d t o o r g a n i z a t i o n a l r o l e . ( P a r t l y s u s t a i n e d ) 3) S u b s i d i a r y r e l a t i o n s as d e f i n e d e x i s t between v a l u e s and a s p e c t s of organ-i z a t i o n a l c l i m a t e . (Not s u s t a i n e d ) With r e g a r d t o the e x p l o r a t o r y s t u d y ; of the 17 p r o p o s i -t i o n s advanced on a_ p r i o r i grounds o n l y one (No. 3) was c l e a r l y not s u p p o r t e d . P a r t i a l s u p p o r t was o b t a i n e d f o r p r o p o s i t i o n s 1, 8, and 9 ( f o r a d m i n i s t r a t o r s ) and f o r 11 225 and 15 ( f o r t e a c h e r s ) . The r e m a i n i n g p r o p o s i t i o n s were c l e a r l y s u p p o r t e d . I t may be c o n c l u d e d t h e r e f o r e t h a t , 1) s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p s do o b t a i n between v a l u e s and the c l i m a t e d i m e n s i o n s . 2) the d e s c r i p t i o n s and o p e r a t i n g d e f i n i t i o n s o f the v a l u e s and c l i m a t e v a r i a b l e s have a f a c e v a l i d i t y and can be p r e d i c t i v e of t h e s e r e l a t i o n s h i p s . In o r d e r t o s i m p l i f y d i s c u s s i o n i t i s c o n v e n i e n t t o t r e a t the f i n d i n g s w i t h r e s p e c t t o the s e v e r a l v a l u e s s t u d i e d . Thus: I n t e l l e c t u a l i s m : No s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s be-tween a d m i n i s t r a t o r s and t e a c h e r s . For b o t h groups a h i g h l y s i g n i f i c a n t i n d i v i d u a l c o r r e l a t i o n w i t h the c l i -mate d i m e n s i o n o f I n t i m a c y , a r e l a t i o n p e r s i s t i n g w i t h the s c h o o l as u n i t o f a n a l y s i s . I t would appear t h a t c e t e r i s p a r i b u s the more t e a c h e r s v a l u e i n t e l l e c t u a l q u a l i t i e s the g r e a t e r the p e r c e i v e d c l i m a t e o f s o c i a l i n t i m a c y i n the s c h o o l . The v a l u e i s s i g n i f i c a n t l y p r e -d i c t a b l e on the b a s i s of sex, age and e x p e r i e n c e but b i o -g r a p h i c a l v a r i a b l e s a c c o u n t f o r at most 9% of the v a r i a -t i o n i n t h i s v a l u e . For a d m i n i s t r a t o r s the v a l u e c o r -r e l a t e s n e g a t i v e l y w i t h age ( t h e o l d e r the a d m i n i s t r a t o r the l e s s the v a l u e ) . 226 K i n d n e s s : T h i s v a l u e i s h e l d more s t r o n g l y by t e a c h e r s t h a n a d m i n i s t r a t o r s ( s i g n i f i c a n t a t t h e .05 l e v -e l ) . I t i s t h u s one o f the r o l e d i s c r i m i n a t i n g v a l u e s . At the i n d i v i d u a l l e v e l i t c o r r e l a t e s s i g n i f i c a n t l y w i t h a l l o f t h e c l i m a t e d i m e n s i o n s e x c e p t H i n d r a n c e and P r o -d u c t i o n Emphasis and i s n e g a t i v e l y r e l a t e d t o D i s e n g a g e -ment. These d i m e n s i o n s are r e d u c e d to I n t i m a c y and Con-s i d e r a t i o n when the s c h o o l i s t a k e n as u n i t o f a n a l y s i s . N e v e r t h e l e s s i t must be a l l o w e d t h a t t h i s appears to be a key v a l u e f o r t h e s c h o o l o r g a n i z a t i o n . I t i s h i g h l y c o r r e l a t e d w i t h sex and v a r i e s i n v e r s e l y w i t h y e a r s o f t e a c h e r e x p e r i e n c e . (The i n f e r e n c e i s t h a t younger t e a c h e r s w i l l t e n d t o h o l d t h i s v a l u e more s t r o n g l y ) . P a r t i a l c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s c o n f i r m t h i s d e c l i n e i n s t r e n g t h o f v a l u e w i t h y e a r s o f e x p e r i e n c e e i t h e r as ad-m i n i s t r a t o r or t e a c h e r . The v a l u e i s s i g n i f i c a n t l y r e -l a t e d t o sex but b i o g r a p h i c a l v a r i a b l e s a c c o u n t f o r o n l y 14% o f the v a r i a t i o n . S o c i a l S k i l l s : The v a l u e does not d i s c r i m i n a t e between o r g a n i z a t i o n a l r o l e s . At the i n d i v i d u a l l e v e l i t s r e l a t i o n i s h i g h l y s i g n i f i c a n t w i t h the c l i m a t e d i m e n s i o n s of I n t i m a c y , E s p r i t , and T h r u s t and are l e s s so w i t h A l o o f n e s s . T h i s l a s t r e l a t i o n which i s con-f i r m e d at the s c h o o l l e v e l of a n a l y s i s ( f o r a d m i n i s t r a t o r s ) 227 might seem p r i m a f a c i e o b s c u r e but i t can be i n t e r p r e t e d as the more s o c i a l s k i l l s a r e v a l u e d the more the admin-i s t r a t o r might t e n d t o be p e r c e i v e d as a l o o f and t h i s would appear t o be r e a s o n a b l e . B i o g r a p h i c a l v a r i a b l e s e x p l a i n more o f the v a r i a n c e f o r t e a c h e r s (12%) than f o r a d m i n i s t r a t o r s (4-%). B eta c o e f f i c i e n t s show a h i g h l y s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n w i t h sex. The v a l u e appears t o be c r i t i c a l w i t h r e g a r d t o o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c l i m a t e . L o y a l t y : At e i t h e r the group or i n d i v i d u a l l e v e l o f a n a l y s i s the v a l u e appears to c o r r e l a t e s t r o n g l y w i t h a l l c l i m a t e d i m e n s i o n s e x c e p t I n t i m a c y or H i n d r a n c e . With r e g a r d t o I n t i m a c y t h i s r e l a t i o n might seem p e c u l i a r s i n c e might e x p e c t a prima f a c i e r e l a t i o n . The p e r c e p -t i o n o f I n t i m a c y amongst t e a c h e r s appears however to d i s c r i m i n a t e between t h i s v a l u e and the p r e c e d i n g v a l u e s of S o c i a l S k i l l s and K i n d n e s s . There i s a s t r o n g i n d i -v i d u a l c o r r e l a t i o n w i t h age and y e a r s o f t e a c h i n g — the o l d e r and more e x p e r i e n c e d a s c h o o l s t a f f member the more he w i l l v a l u e the t r a i t of l o y a l t y . An i n t e r e s t i n g and s i g n i f i c a n t (.05) p a r t i a l c o r -r e l a t i o n f o r a d m i n i s t r a t o r s i s In the n e g a t i v e d i r e c t i o n and i m p l i e s t h a t the l o n g e r a d m i n i s t r a t o r s are i n a p a r -t i c u l a r s c h o o l the l e s s ( c e t e r i s p a r i b u s ) they v a l u e l o y a l t y . 228 Academic Achievement: Some r e l a t i o n s w i t h the c l i m a t e d i m e n s i o n s appear at the group l e v e l o f a n a l y s i s , p o s i t i v e l y w i t h T h r u s t and A l o o f n e s s and n e g a t i v e l y w i t h Disengagement. B i o g r a p h i c a l v a r i a b l e s a c c o u n t f o r l i t t l e o f the t o t a l v a r i a n c e i n t h i s v a l u e and p a r t i a l c o r r e l a -t i o n s r e v e a l a s l i g h t n e g a t i v e r e l a t i o n w i t h age. The v a l u e appears t o be o f some Importance t o members o f s c h o o l o r g a n i z a t i o n s but not as s i g n i f i c a n t l y so as one might have been e x p e c t e d . P h y s i c a l Development: T h i s v a l u e shows the l e a s t r e l a t i o n o f a l l v a l u e s t o the c l i m a t e d i m e n s i o n s . In f a c t the o n l y s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n (.05) appears w i t h s c h o o l as u n i t of a n a l y s i s f o r the di m e n s i o n o f A l o o f -n e s s . I t i s , however, a d i s c r i m i n a t i n g v a r i a b l e between r o l e s (.01). There i s a s l i g h t n e g a t i v e r e l a t i o n w i t h age. B i o g r a p h i c a l v a r i a b l e s account f o r almost no v a r i -a t i o n i n the case of a d m i n i s t r a t o r s and f o r a maximum o f 11% i n the case of t e a c h e r s . I t i s not c l e a r on the e v i d e n c e why t h i s p a r t i c u l a r v a l u e s h o u l d d i s c r i m i n a t e between t e a c h e r s and a d m i n i s t r a t o r s and f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h would be n e c e s s a r y t o c l a r i f y t h i s d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n . S t a t u s : T h i s v a l u e d i d not d i s c r i m i n a t e be-tween r o l e s . Some s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s at e i t h e r the 229 i n d i v i d u a l or group l e v e l s appear w i t h a l l o f the c l i -mate v a r i a b l e s e x c e p t H i n d r a n c e , C o n s i d e r a t i o n , and A l o o f n e s s . No d i r e c t c o r r e l a t i o n s o b t a i n e d w i t h any of the b i o g r a p h i c a l v a r i a b l e s though sex and age were p r e -d i c t i v e w i t h i n the range o f the m u l t i p l e r e g r e s s i o n a n a l -y s i s . P a r t i a l c o r r e l a t i o n s were a l s o not s i g n i f i c a n t . The v a l u e appears t o make a c o n t r i b u t i o n to o r g a n i s a t i o n -a l c l i m a t e but t h i s c o n t r i b u t i o n i s o b s c u r e and i t f a i l s t o d i s c r i m i n a t e between o r g a n i z a t i o n a l r o l e s as might have been e x p e c t e d . Honesty: T h i s v a l u e shows s i g n i f i c a n c e o f c o r -r e l a t i o n on the s o c i a l p e r c e p t i o n d i m e n s i o n s o f A l o o f n e s s and P r o d u c t i o n Emphasis but the e f f e c t d i s a p p e a r s when the s c h o o l i s t a k e n as u n i t of a n a l y s i s . I t a l s o does not show o v e r a l l c o r r e l a t i o n w i t h the b i o g r a p h i c a l v a r i -a b l e s , c o e f f i c i e n t s g i v e some s l i g h t i n d i c a t i o n t h a t o l d e r a d m i n i s t r a t o r s t e n d t o h o l d the v a l u e l e s s s t r o n g l y b u t , i n g e n e r a l , the v a l u e would not appear on the e v i -dence t o be c r i t i c a l t o an o r g a n i z a t i o n a l s t u d y . R e l i g i o u s n e s s : The v a l u e does not d i s c r i m i n a t e between r o l e s b u t , i n t e r e s t i n g l y , c o r r e l a t e s s i g n i f i c -a n t l y at the i n d i v i d u a l l e v e l w i t h f i v e o f the c l i m a t e d i m ensions ( p o s i t i v e l y w i t h E s p r i t , T h r u s t , C o n s i d e r a t i o n , and P r o d u c t i o n Emphasis; n e g a t i v e l y w i t h Disengagement). 230 These marked e f f e c t s d i s a p p e a r , however, when the s c h o o l i s t a k e n as the u n i t o f a n a l y s i s . The v a l u e shows an o v e r a l l c o r r e l a t i o n w i t h a l l o f the b i o g r a p h i c a l v a r i -a b l e s , a f e a t u r e s h a r e d i n common o n l y w i t h the v a l u e o f L o y a l t y . N e v e r t h e l e s s , b i o g r a p h i c a l v a r i a b l e s do not a c c o u n t f o r a l a r g e p r o p o r t i o n o f the v a r i a n c e i n t h i s v a l u e . A g a i n , as w i t h S t a t u s and Honesty t h e r e i s some i n d i c a t i o n t h a t o l d e r a d m i n i s t r a t o r s t e n d t o h o l d the v a l u e l e s s h i g h l y . The e v i d e n c e o f T a b l e VI.3 would i n d i c a t e t h a t the v a l u e s h o u l d be c o n s i d e r e d as r e l e v a n t t o the s t u d y o f p s y c h o l o g i c a l c l i m a t e i n o r g a n i z a t i o n s . S e l f - C o n t r o l : When group and i n d i v i d u a l a n a l -y s e s are combined the v a l u e c o r r e l a t e s s i g n i f i c a n t l y w i t h a l l c l i m a t e v a r i a b l e s e x c e p t H i n d r a n c e and I n t i m a c y . F o r t e a c h e r s t h e r e are s i g n i f i c a n t p a r t i a l c o e f f i c i e n t s i n the n e g a t i v e d i r e c t i o n w i t h sex and age. C r e a t i v i t y : T h i s v a l u e d i s c r i m i n a t e s between o r g a n i z a t i o n a l r o l e s at the .01 l e v e l . ( A d m i n i s t r a t o r s h o l d the v a l u e l e s s s t r o n g l y . ) I t shows, however, l i t t l e r e l a t i o n w i t h the c l i m a t e s u b t e s t s and no o v e r a l l c o r r e -l a t i o n w i t h sex or y e a r s i n s c h o o l . There i s a n e g a t i v e r e l a t i o n , however, w i t h y e a r s of t e a c h i n g e x p e r i e n c e . B i o g r a p h i c a l v a r i a b l e s account f o r more of the v a r i a n c e (14%) w i t h a d m i n i s t r a t o r s than w i t h t e a c h e r s (8%) and the 231 d i r e c t i o n o f r e l a t i o n between t h e s e groups d i f f e r s on the age v a r i a b l e . That i s , o l d e r a d m i n i s t r a t o r s t e n d t o v a l u e c r e a t i v i t y l e s s ; o l d e r t e a c h e r s t e n d t o v a l u e i t more. T h i s r e l a t i o n i s u n c l e a r f o r , w i t h o t h e r b i o -g r a p h i c a l v a r i a b l e s and o t h e r v a l u e s h e l d c o n s t a n t , the more t e a c h i n g e x p e r i e n c e f o r a t e a c h e r the l e s s (.05 s i g -n i f i c a n c e ) s t r o n g l y the v a l u e i s h e l d w h i l e c o n v e r s e l y f o r y e a r s s e r v i c e as a d m i n i s t r a t o r . In view o f the low l e v e l o f R i n the m u l t i p l e r e g r e s s i o n a n a l y s e s i t would be unwise t o attempt a c a t e g o r i c a l e x p l a n a t i o n o f the d i f f e r e n c e between o r g a n i z a t i o n a l r o l e s but i t i s c l e a r t h a t the v a l u e i s s i g n i f i c a n t f o r a st u d y of r o l e d i f -f e r e n c e s i n t h e s c h o o l o r g a n i z a t i o n . Independence: T h i s v a l u e a l s o d i s c r i m i n a t e s be-tween r o l e s at t h e .01 l e v e l . A d m i n i s t r a t o r s h o l d the v a l u e l e s s s t r o n g l y than do t e a c h e r s . No group l e v e l r e l a t i o n s o f s i g n i f i c a n c e w i t h c l i m a t e were o b s e r v e d but at the i n d i v i d u a l l e v e l t h e r e i s a h i g h l y s i g n i f i c a n t n e g a t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n w i t h E s p r i t and a s i g n i f i c a n t neg-a t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n w i t h T h r u s t , as w e l l as a s i g n i f i c a n t p o s i t i v e r e l a t i o n w i t h Disengagement. The i m p l i c a t i o n i s t h a t the more an i n d i v i d u a l v a l u e s Independence the l e s s he w i l l t e n d to p e r c e i v e a h i g h l e v e l of e i t h e r E s p r i t or T h r u s t and the more he w i l l tend to p e r c e i v e Disengagement. A g a i n , h i g h i n d i v i d u a l c o r r e l a t i o n s were 232 o b s e r v e d o v e r a l l i n the n e g a t i v e d i r e c t i o n w i t h y e a r s o f e x p e r i e n c e and age. The o l d e r more e x p e r i e n c e d s t a f f members h e l d the v a l u e l e s s h i g h l y . These r e s u l t s would t e n d t o c o n f i r m the i d e a t h a t an " o r g a n i z a t i o n man" a t t i -t ude i s d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d t o time i n the o r g a n i z a t i o n . As w i t h t h e o t h e r r o l e - d i s c r i m i n a n t v a l u e s b i o g r a p h i c a l v a r i a b l e s do not a c c o u n t f o r the o b s e r v e d d i f f e r e n c e s . With r e g a r d t o the e x p l o r a t i v e p r o p o s i t i o n s the f i n d i n g s can be c o n s i d e r e d under the two r o l e h e a d i n g s . A d m i n i s t r a t o r s : C l e a r s u p p o r t i s g i v e n f o r the d i r e c t r e l e v a n c e t o p e r c e i v e d a d m i n i s t r a t i v e and t e a c h e r b e h a v i o u r o f t h e v a l u e s o f S o c i a l S k i l l s , K i n d n e s s , I n -t e l l e c t u a l i s m , S t a t u s , S e I f - C o n t r o l , L o y a l t y and Indep dence. Of t h e s e K i n d n e s s and Independence were r o l e d i s c r i m i n a t i n g v a l u e s . C r e a t i v i t y , a n o t h e r r o l e d i s -c r i m i n a n t v a l u e , does not show any c l e a r r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h c l i m a t e v a r i a b l e s . I t can be c o n c l u d e d however t h a t most o f t h e v a l u e s s e l e c t e d f o r i n v e s t i g a t i o n a r e of r e l e v a n c e t o a s t u d y o f o r g a n i z a t i o n a l r o l e . A r a t h e r c l e a r d e m o n s t r a t i o n o f t h i s i s the e v i d e n c e t h a t the more a d m i n i s t r a t o r s v a l u e S t a t u s the more they t e n d to be p e r c e i v e d as b e i n g a l o o f . A g a i n , the more they v a l u e Independence the more they are p e r c e i v e d as not a c t i n g i n such a way as t o f r u s t r a t e t e a c h e r s ' e f f o r t s ( H i n d r a n c e ) . en-233 T e a c h e r s : A l l t h e minor p r o p o s i t i o n s f o r t e a c h -e r s were s u p p o r t e d and hence the v a l u e s s e l e c t e d ( S o c i a l S k i l l s , S t a t u s , K i n d n e s s , L o y a l t y , Independence, C r e a t -i v i t y , Academic Achievement and S e l f - C o n t r o l ) a r e r e l e -v a n t f o r o r g a n i z a t i o n a l r o l e s t u d y . As would be ex-p e c t e d the v a l u e o f s o c i a l s k i l l s i s p a r t i c u l a r l y r e l e -v a n t f o r the s o c i a l d i m e n s i o n s of c l i m a t e , I n t i m a c y and E s p r i t . K i n d n e s s , a r o l e d i s c r i m i n a t o r , i s a l s o h i g h l y r e l a t e d i n t h i s r e s p e c t , as i s the v a l u e o f L o y a l t y . On the o t h e r hand Independence i s n e g a t i v e l y r e l a t e d . The more t e a c h e r s v a l u e Independence the l e s s they are I n -c l i n e d t o p e r c e i v e a c l i m a t e o f s o c i a l i n t i m a c y . A nother s t r o n g r e l a t i o n s h i p , the e x p l a n a t i o n of which i s not i m m e d i a t e l y s e l f - e v i d e n t , i s t h a t between S e l f - C o n t r o l and T h r u s t . The l a t t e r v a r i a b l e r e f e r s to a d m i n i s t r a t i v e e f f o r t t o m o t i v a t e by example w i t h c o n c e r n f o r t a s k or " o u t p u t " . Perhaps as such b e h a v i o u r would imply a degree o f " d i s c i p l i n e " on the a d m i n i s t r a t o r ' s b e h a l f t h i s q u a l i t y , whether i n f a c t or a p p e a r a n c e , i s the more r e a d i l y s u s c e p t i b l e of p e r c e p t i o n amongst t h o s e i n d i v i d u a l s who t e n d to h o l d a " s y m p a t h e t i c " v a l u e such as S e l f - C o n t r o l . The v a l u e of Academic Achievement which might be e x p e c t e d t o be p e r t i n e n t t o a s c h o o l o r g a n -i z a t i o n a l c o n t e x t c o n f i r m s the r e l a t i o n s w i t h T h r u s t . 234 I t may be s a f e l y c o n c l u d e d t h a t the v a l u e o r i e n -t a t i o n s o f t e a c h e r s do c o r r e l a t e w i t h t h o s e p e r c e p t i o n s which c o n s t i t u t e c l i m a t e but the e x t e n t and i d e n t i t y o f m e d i a t i n g v a r i a b l e s as w e l l as the e x t e n t and i d e n t i t y o f a l t e r n a t i v e v a l u e and c l i m a t e v a r i a b l e s r e m a i n sub-j e c t s f o r f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h . The p r e s e n t c o n s t e l l a t i o n o f v a r i a b l e s , however, would seem t o be c o n f i r m e d as a r e l e v a n t b a s i c p a t t e r n which might m e r i t c o n t i n u e d i n v e s -t i g a t i o n . The p r e s e n t s e c t i o n has d i s c u s s e d and summarized the e s s e n t i a l e m p i r i c a l f i n d i n g s . R e f e r e n c e w i l l be made t o t h e i r g e n e r a l i m p l i c a t i o n s i n the f o l l o w i n g s e c -t i o n . D i s c u s s i o n w i l l a l s o be c o n t i n u e d t h e r e w i t h r e -gar d t o the p r e v i o u s f i n d i n g s o f the L u p i n i s t u d y . I m p l i c a t i o n s The f i n d i n g s which have been r e p o r t e d on above are o f c o u r s e t e n t a t i v e and p r o v o c a t i v e r a t h e r than as-s e r t i v e but are based on a randomly s e l e c t e d sample of the type o f o r g a n i z a t i o n under study and can t h e r e f o r e be g e n e r a l i z e d w i t h a r e a s o n a b l e measure o f c o n f i d e n c e to the Canadian urban e l e m e n t a r y p u b l i c e d u c a t i o n system. Some i n d i r e c t s u p p o r t i s i m p l i e d f o r the model of v a l u e - a t t i t u d e s p r e s e n t e d i n Chapter I I f o r i f v a l u e p r e f e r e n c e s were at one extreme e n t i r e l y random (de 235 g u s t i b u s non e s t disputandum) or at the o t h e r extreme u n i f o r m the d i v e r g e n c i e s and c o n f o r m i t i e s o b s e r v e d i n the d a t a would not have been d i s c o v e r e d . On the o t h e r hand t h e wide range o f b i o g r a p h i c a l and o r g a n i z a t i o n a l v a r i a b l e s f a i l e d t o randomize out or c o m p l e t e l y mask p a t t e r n s of v a l u e o r i e n t a t i o n and t h i s would seem t o im-p l y a c e r t a i n s t a b i l i t y o v e r time f o r the v a l u e c o n c e p t . I f t h e r e s p o n s e s t o the s o c i a l p e r c e p t i o n items a r e i n t e r p r e t e d as a t t i t u d e s t h e n the g r e a t e r v a r i a b i l i t y of the l a t t e r over the former v a l u e s would t e n d t o c o n f i r m or l e n d s u p p o r t i n g e v i d e n c e to the model adduced. As has been p r e v i o u s l y s t r e s s e d , however, the c l a r i f i c a t i o n o f the d i s t i n c t i o n between v a l u e s and a t t i t u d e s i s a problem f o r f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h and c o n c e p t u a l s p e c u l a t i o n . The p r e s e n t f i n d i n g s t e n d t o s u p p o r t the v a l i d i t y of the S c o t t S c a l e s i n t h a t t h e y appear t o be mea s u r i n g what may be c l a s s e d as c o n c e p t i o n s o f the d e s i r a b l e and hence, by d e f i n i t i o n , v a l u e s r a t h e r than a t t i t u d e s . The i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r o r g a n i z a t i o n a l t h e o r y are d e v e l o p e d at a g e n e r a l l e v e l i n the next c h a p t e r but the f i n d i n g s o f f e r s u p p o r t f o r two b a s i c p r e m i s e s . The f i r s t i s t h a t v a l u e o r i e n t a t i o n tends to s h i f t w i t h changes i n o r g a n i z a t i o n a l r o l e and w i t h i n the same r o l e w i t h changes i n l e n g t h of o r g a n i z a t i o n a l e x p e r i e n c e . These f i n d i n g s are s u g g e s t i v e i n the p e r s p e c t i v e o f f e r e d 236 by Whyte's O r g a n i z a t i o n Man ( q . v . ) . I f the v a l u e s and o r i e n t a t i o n s w hich ar e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f r o l e s can be I d e n t i f i e d and measured and i f t h e s e , as the e v i d e n c e i m p l i e s , are p r e d i c t i v e o f a d a p t a t i o n t o r o l e s t h e n an-o t h e r s e l e c t i v e i n s t r u m e n t c o u l d be added t o the armoury o f the p e r s o n n e l p s y c h o l o g i s t s and v a l u e s might a l s o be a s s e s s e d i n the s e l e c t i o n o f i n d i v i d u a l s f o r the v a r i e t -i e s o f o r g a n i z a t i o n a l r o l e . S e c o n d l y , and i n f u r t h e r s u p p o r t o f the above i m p l i c a t i o n , t h e f i n d i n g s g i v e e v i d e n c e o f c o n s i s t e n t r e -l a t i o n s h i p s between v a l u e s and the s o c i a l p e r c e p t i o n s which i n the a g g r e g a t e can be t a k e n as c o n s t i t u t i n g , t h r o u g h some c o n f i g u r a t i o n o f d i m e n s i o n s , a measure or i n d e x o f the s o c i a l p s y c h o l o g i c a l or o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c l i -mate. I f t h i s c l i m a t e c o n c e p t has e f f e c t i v e meaning, and t h e r e i s a p p a r e n t consensus t h a t i t does (cf_. Chap. IV p p . l 2 0 f f ) , and i f t h i s i n t u r n i s c l e a r l y r e l a t e d t o o r g a n i z a t i o n a l e f f i c i e n c y and e f f e c t i v e n e s s t h e n , a know-le d g e o f the c r i t i c a l v a l u e s and t h e i r p r e c i s e r e l a t i o n -s h i p s to the c r i t i c a l d i m e n s i o n s of c l i m a t e would p e r m i t the development o f means and i n s t r u m e n t s f o r p r e f a b r i c -a t i n g or c o n t r o l l i n g such c l i m a t e , or at l e a s t moving In the d i r e c t i o n of such c o n t r o l . The work done p r e v i o u s l y by L u p i n i and c o n f i r m e d i n t h i s r e s p e c t by the p r e s e n t 237 s t u d y , though o n l y t e n t a t i v e and i n i t i a l , p o i n t s i n the d i r e c t i o n o f p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f e m p i r i c a l c o n t r o l o f the c l i m a t e f a c t o r i n o r g a n i z a t i o n s . A g a i n , th e m u l t i p l e r e g r e s s i o n a n a l y s e s r e v e a l t h a t when v a l u e s are c o n s i d e r e d i n d i v i d u a l l y o n l y a low o r d e r p r o p o r t i o n o f the v a r i a n c e (maximum 14%) can be a t t r i b u t e d t o the i n f l u e n c e o f the b i o g r a p h i c a l v a r i a b l e s , which v a r i a b l e s a l s o a c c o u n t f o r o r g a n i z a t i o n a l e x p e r i -ence. Moreover, when the r e g r e s s i o n a n a l y s i s i s r e -v e r s e d , t h a t i s , when v a l u e s are t a k e n as i n d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e s t o a c t as p r e d i c t o r s of the b i o g r a p h i c a l v a r i -2 a b l e s the maximum R of .278 (28%) i s a c h i e v e d i n the p r e -d i c t i o n o f the a d m i n i s t r a t o r ' s age v a r i a b l e . These r e -s u l t s s t r o n g l y i mply t h a t some l a r g e r u n d i s c o v e r e d and u n i d e n t i f i e d f a c t o r i s a t work i n the d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f the v a r i a b l e i n t e r r e l a t i o n s and w h i l e t h i s f a c t o r or com-p l e x o f f a c t o r s i s open t o s p e c u l a t i o n i t i s i n l i n e w i t h our argument to h y p o t h e s i z e i t s c o n n e c t i o n w i t h o r g a n i z a -t i o n a l s t r u c t u r e s and f u n c t i o n s which remain to be ex-p l o r e d . T h i s a s p e c t i s r e f e r r e d t o a g a i n i n the c o n c l u d -i n g c h a p t e r . The L u p i n i Study and I m p l i c a t i o n s f o r E d u c a t i o n : I t may be a p p r o p r i a t e here t o compare the e m p i r i c a l f i n d i n g s above w i t h those of the p r e v i o u s s t u d y made by L u p i n i (op. c i t . ) . That study showed some s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t 238 n e g a t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p s between c l i m a t e d i m e n s i o n s and v a l u e c o n g r u e n c e . Such a f i n d i n g was not c o n f i r m e d i n t h e p r e s e n t sample and i n d e e d n e i t h e r congruence no r con-sonance a p p r o a c h e d l e v e l s o f s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h the c l i m a t e f a c t o r s . On the o t h e r hand L u p i n i i s c o n f i r m e d i n t h a t s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p s were f o u n d between i n d i v i d u a l ' s v a l u e s and the c l i m a t e d i m e n s i o n s . An i m p l i c a t i o n which may be drawn, and which a l s o appeared i n the L u p i n i s t u d y , i s t h a t the v a l u e s o f p r i n -c i p a l s are not d i r e c t l y o f i n f l u e n c e upon the p s y c h o l o g -i c a l c l i m a t e o f a s c h o o l . R a t h e r i t would seem t h a t t h i s c l i m a t e i s a f u n c t i o n o f t e a c h e r s ' v a l u e s and the p e r c e i v e d q u a l i t y of l e a d e r b e h a v i o u r on the p a r t o f the p r i n c i p a l i s dependent upon the p a t t e r n i n g o f the s t a f f v a l u e s , the p r i n c i p a l ' s d i v e r g e n c i e s from t h i s p a t t e r n 4 not b e i n g o f s t r o n g consequence. The i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r e d u c a t i o n g e n e r a l l y depend on the c o n n e c t i o n between the l e a r n i n g e x p e r i e n c e i n s c h o o l and the c l i m a t e ("tone", "mood", " s e t " e t c . ) as i t i m p r e s s e s i t s e l f upon the l e a r n e r . T h i s c o n n e c t i o n ^ L u p i n i ' s c a v e a t t h a t over 50% o f h i s sample p r i n c i p a l s were i n t h e i r p r e s e n t s c h o o l s f o r l e s s than 18 months i s not a p p l i c a b l e to the p r e s e n t study where average y e a r s i n s c h o o l s f o r a d m i n i s t r a t o r s was 3.9 or 47 months l o n g enough, one would assume, to e f f e c t any i n f l u e n c e . 239 r emains t o be c l a r i f i e d but i f i t e x i s t s t h e n s c h o o l s t a f f v a l u e s may have c r i t i c a l i m p o r t f o r the l e a r n i n g a c c o m p l i s h m e n t s o f i n d i v i d u a l s i n the s c h o o l c o n t e x t . Of more d i r e c t c o n c e r n may be the f a c t t h a t v a l u e s them-s e l v e s a r e b e i n g l e a r n e d and presumably the p a t t e r n models p r e s e n t e d by a d u l t s i n the s c h o o l c o n t e x t are t h o s e o f t e a c h e r s and a d m i n i s t r a t o r s . C l e a r u n d e r s t a n d -i n g o f t h e r e s p e c t i v e impress o f t h e s e g r o u p s , however, and the s c h o o l as a whole, i s dependent on c l a r i f i c a t i o n o f the r e s p e c t i v e o r i e n t a t i o n t e n d e n c i e s o f the s e v e r a l r o l e s p u p i l , t e a c h e r , a d m i n i s t r a t o r . Thus, the f i n d i n g o f d i f f e r e n c e s between a d m i n i s t r a t o r s and t e a c h -e r s , p l u s i n t u i t i v e e x p e c t a t i o n , would l e a d one t o hypo-t h e s i z e f u r t h e r d i f f e r e n c e s when p u p i l s are c o n s i d e r e d as a r o l e i n the o r g a n i z a t i o n . F u r t h e r r e s e a r c h i s im-p l i e d here and t h i s p o i n t i s d e v e l o p e d l a t e r . The p r e s e n t c h a p t e r has r e p o r t e d upon and d i s -c u s s e d the e m p i r i c a l f i n d i n g s o f t h i s s t u d y . The con-c l u d i n g c h a p t e r w i l l d e v e l o p the i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h and f o r the p o s s i b i l i t y o f d e v e l o p i n g a t h e o r y o f o r g a n i z a t i o n a l v a l u e . 240 R e f e r e n c e s f o r C h a p t e r VI Broverman, D.M. (a) P s y c h o l o g i c a l Review No. 68 J a n u a r y 1961, pp.68-80. . (b) P s y c h o l o g i c a l Review No. 69 J u l y , 1962, Pp.295-305 . F e r g u s o n , G.A. S t a t i s t i c a l A n a l y s i s i n P s y c h o l o g y and E d u c a t i o n 2nd ed. McGraw H i l l , N.Y. 1966. H a l p i n , A.W. Theory and R e s e a r c h i n A d m i n i s t r a t i o n . M a c M i l l a n , N.Y. 1966. L u p i n i , D. A Study o f the R e l a t i o n o f D i f f e r e n t i a l V a l u e s t o S o c i a l and A d m i n i s t r a t i v e E f f e c t i v e -n e s s , unpub. Ph.D. d i s s e r t a t i o n U. o f A l b e r t a , 1965 . S c o t t , W.A. V a l u e s and O r g a n i z a t i o n s . Rand M c N a l l y , C h i c a g o , 19 6 5. Whyte, W.H. j r . The O r g a n i z a t i o n Man. Doubleday, N.Y. 1956. CHAPTER VII TOWARDS AN ORGANIZATIONAL VALUE THEORY I n t r o d u c t o r y Comment The p r e v i o u s c h a p t e r s were a d d r e s s e d to t h r e e b r o a d t a s k s : t o e x p l i c a t e t h e con c e p t o f v a l u e , t o make a t h e o r e t i c a l e x a m i n a t i o n o f v a l u e i n r e l a t i o n to p e r c e p -t i o n and o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c l i m a t e and, f i n a l l y , t o r e p o r t on an e m p i r i c a l e x p l o r a t i o n o f t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p i n a sample of urban s c h o o l o r g a n i z a t i o n s . T h i s c o n c l u d i n g c h a p t e r w i l l be used t o u n d e r t a k e a d i f f e r e n t though r e -l a t e d t a s k ; t h a t o f e s s a y i n g a s p e c u l a t i v e advance or p r e s e n t i n g a c o n c e p t u a l schema c o n s i s t e n t w i t h the f o r e g o i n g d i s c u s s i o n . In o r d e r to make t h i s advance i t i s n e c e s s a r y to to u c h a g a i n upon m o t i v a t i o n t h e o r y . T h i s need not a f -f e c t the d e f i n i t i o n o f v a l u e a l r e a d y adopted but i t may imply a s h i f t o f p e r s p e c t i v e i n the d i r e c t i o n o f the 241 242 b e h a v i o u r a l i n t h a t v a l u e i s l i n k e d i n t o a c h a i n o f p u r -p o s i v e b e h a v i o u r . The e x i s t e n c e o f a g o a l ( m o t i v e ) im-p l i e s c o n a t i o n (a m o t i v a t i o n a l d r i v e s t a t e ) which i m p a r t s v a l u e ( d e s i r a b i l i t y ) t o the means-end sequence o f a c t i o n s n e c e s s a r y t o a p p r o a c h or consummate the g o a l . T h i s can l e a d l o g i c a l l y t o the p o s t u l a t i o n o f a number of t y p e s o f v a l u e such as the c o n a t i v e , a f f e c t i v e and achievement t y p e s o f v a l u e propounded by Pepper ( o p . c i t . pp.307-362 ). In any e v e n t , one can c o n s i d e r m o t i v a t i o n i n terms o f a d r i v e s t a t e o f t h e o r g a n i s m which i p s o f a c t o g e n e r a t e s v a l u e . Our i d e a of motive i s c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h a t of S h e r i f and S h e r i f who have d e f i n e d i t as "a g e n e r i c term to c o v e r a l l o f the i n t e r n a l f a c t o r s which l e a d t o d i f -f e r e n t k i n d s o f g o a l - d i r e c t e d ( m o t i v a t e d ) b e h a v i o r , t o d e s i g n a t e such i n t e r n a l i n f l u e n c e s as the needs o r i g i n -a t i n g and embedded i n the f u n c t i o n i n g of the o r g a n i s m , d e s i r e s based upon them, as w e l l as s o c i a l l y a c q u i r e d d e s i r e s , a s p i r a t i o n s , and t a s t e s " , (p. 367 ) But as t h e s e a u t h o r s r e v e a l i n t h e i r a u t h o r i t a t i v e s u r v e y o f the f i e l d no t r u l y adequate e x p l a n a t i o n o f human m o t i v a t i o n has as y e t been o f f e r e d (op . c i t . p.409, 413, p a s s i m a l s o Murray, p . v i ) . M e r e l y to l a b e l m o t i v e s as b i o g e n i c or s o c i o -g e n i c i n terms of t h e i r o r i g i n Is but to e f f e c t a crude 243 and not v e r y h e l p f u l d i c h o t o m y . A g e n e r a l p r e s u m p t i o n may be a l l o w e d t h a t , g i v e n s u f f i c i e n t l y p r o l o n g e d and i n -t e n s e d e p r i v a t i o n , t h e b i o g e n i c w i l l t e n d t o l e g i s l a t e o ver th e s o c i o g e n i c , but even h e r e one can t a l k o n l y i n terms o f g e n e r a l t e n d e n c y . A r e c e n t t r e n d has been t o propose a h i e r a r c h y of m o t i v e s or n e e d - d i s p o s i t i o n s r a n g i n g from the h o m e o s t a t i c or p h y s i o l o g i c a l t h r o u g h c a t e g o r i e s such as s e c u r i t y and esteem t o a p o s t u l a t e d m o t i v e f o r s e l f - a c t u a l i z a t i o n . T h i s i s p r i n c i p a l l y the work o f Maslow ( o p . c i t . ) . M u k e r j e e , w i t h an I n d i a n p h i l o s o p h i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e , would p o s t u l a t e an even h i g h e r l e v e l which c o u l d be c a l l e d s e l f -t r a n s c e n d e n c e ( o p . c i t . ) . The c a u t i o n must however be made t h a t the s e l f - a c t u a l i z i n g c o n c e p t , d e s p i t e Maslow's s u p p o r t i v e c l i n i c a l e v i d e n c e , remains an h y p o t h e s i s . Yet I t i s p e r s u a s i v e and i t makes at l e a s t a f i r s t ap-p r o a c h t o the problem of the i n t e r n a l l e g i s l a t i o n of m o t i v e s over each o t h e r w h i l e I t s h y p o t h e t i c a l s t a t u s does not d e t r a c t from i t s s p e c u l a t i v e m e r i t i n a f i e l d of i n q u i r y which i s f a r from c l o s e d t o s u g g e s t i o n . I t i s my c o n t e n t i o n t h a t the f i e l d of m o t i v a t i o n and emotion i s i n a p e r i o d of . c r e a t i v e f l u x t h a t i s g r a d u a l l y l e a d i n g to a new image o f the n a t u r e o f man. In the p a s t , the f i e l d of m o t i v a t i o n and emotion was dominated by two t h e o r i e s -- the 244 c l a s s i c a l F r e u d i a n and the c l a s s i c a l b e h a v i o r i s t . The F r e u d i a n image o f man was t h a t o f a c r e a t u r e d r i v e n by i n h e r i t e d , u n c o n s c i o u s s e x u a l and d e s t r u c t i v e i n s t i n c t s c o n s t a n t l y s e e k i n g r e l e a s e i n a f r u s t r a t i n g s o -c i a l e n v i r o n m e n t . The b e h a v i o r i s t view was t h a t o f a c r e a t u r e q u i e t l y m e t a b o l i z i n g i n the shade, o c c a s i o n -a l l y goaded i n t o a c t i o n by the hot sun and the l u r e o f a c o l d g l a s s o f b e e r . There i s p r o b a b l y n ot a p s y c h o l o g i s t a l i v e who would a c c e p t e i t h e r o f t h e s e views t o d a y , b u t what i s the new image l i k e ? To b e g i n w i t h , the o l d b a t t l e be-tween h e r e d i t y and environment i s l a r g e l y dead. Man i s not t h r u s t i n t o the w o r l d w i t h ready-made, i n -f l e x i b l e i n s t i n c t s nor i s he a p a s -s i v e p i e c e o f c l a y t h a t s o c i e t y models i n t o neat v a l u e systems. Man i s b o r n w i t h a g r e a t many p o t e n t i a l i t i e s t h a t i n t e r a c t w i t h a complex p h y s i c a l and s o c i a l w o r l d to form a spectrum o f m o t i v a t i o n a l s ystems. There i s p r o b a b l y not a s i n g l e motive t h a t i s e n t i r e l y i n n a t e or e n t i r e l y l e a r n e d . B i o l o g i c a l p o t e n t i a l i t i e s are chan-n e l e d and i n h i b i t e d , expanded and c o n t r a c t e d . We s t i l l do not know what man's f u l l p o t e n t i a l i s . (Murray, p.10) I t i s not u n r e a s o n a b l e t h e r e f o r e to a v a i l o n e s e l f o f some v a r i a n t o f the Maslowian taxonomy of needs i n a t t e m p t i n g to l i n k m o t i v a t i o n t h r o u g h v a l u e s to the p r o c e s s o f p u r -p o s i v e b e h a v i o u r and e x p e r i e n c e . Perhaps the c r i t i c a l c o ncept i n what f o l l o w s , how-e v e r , Is t h a t o f i n t e r a c t i o n . In the schema to be ou t -l i n e d below i t i s t o be t a c i t l y u n d e r s t o o d t h a t b e h a v i o u r a l 245 or e x p e r i e n t i a l phenomena are always p r o d u c t s o f i n t e r -n a l ( m o t i v e s , v a l u e s , a t t i t u d e s ) and e x t e r n a l ( e n v i r o n -m e n t a l s t i m u l i ) f a c t o r s . N e i t h e r s e t o f f a c t o r s can be u n d e r s t o o d o r p r o p e r l y comprehended u n i l a t e r a l l y though a t t i m e s i t may be d i d a c t i c a l l y o r t a c t i c a l l y a d v a n t a g -eous t o f o c u s a t t e n t i o n on a s i n g l e a s p e c t . The t r e a t -ment i s t h u s i m p l i c i t l y t h a t o f s o c i a l p s y c h o l o g y i n a s -much as the c y c l e o f p u r p o s i v e b e h a v i o u r from e x p e r i e n -t i a l s t a t e t h r o u g h t o g o a l - d i r e c t e d a c t i o n i s c o n c e i v e d as an i n t e r a c t i o n between i n d i v i d u a l s and s o c i a l s t i m u l u s s i t u a t i o n s . Much s t u d y has been made of and much knowledge a c c u m u l a t e d w i t h r e g a r d to the s o c i a l s t i m u l u s s i t u a t i o n p r e s e n t e d by the s m a l l group, whether i n f o r m a l or f o r m a l , much of t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n b e i n g subsumed under the g e n e r a l head o f group dynamics. Some of t h i s a c c u m u l a t i o n b e a r s d i r e c t l y on the i n t e r n a l f a c t o r s of m o t i v e s and v a l u e s . E v i d e n c e and argument from t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n would l i k e -wise add, however d i m i n u t i v e l y , to t h i s a g g l o m e r a t i o n . But what does not appear t o have been done i s to r e l a t e the i n d i v i d u a l p r o b l e m o f v a l u e t o the s o c i a l s t i m u l u s s i t u a t i o n p r e s e n t e d by the complex o r g a n i z a t i o n . The l a r g e o r g a n i z a t i o n , c o n s i s t i n g o f numerous f o r m a l and i n f o r m a l g r o u p i n g s , a r t i c u l a t e d and c o o r d i n a t e d t o a 2i+6 g r e a t e r o r a l e s s e r e x t e n t , Is an i n c r e a s i n g l y p o t e n t and o m n i p r e s e n t f a c t o r i n the l i v e s o f c i t i z e n s and work-e r s i n a complex t e c h n o l o g i c a l s o c i e t y . There would appear t o be a c e r t a i n l a c u n a i n t h e t e c h n i c a l l i t e r a t u r e h e r e . While the r e l a t i o n o f v a l u e s t o group norms can be t r a c e d w i t h even a degree o f p r e c i s i o n the r e l a t i o n •of t h e groups t h e m s e l v e s to t h e i r p a r e n t o r g a n i z a t i o n w i t h i n the h i s t o r y and p u r p o s i v e b e h a v i o u r o f t h a t o r g a n -i z a t i o n t e nds t o be o v e r l o o k e d . Yet the o r g a n i z a t i o n i t s e l f i s a g o a l - d i r e c t e d complex. I t i s p o s s i b l e t o t a l k o f o r g a n i z a t i o n a l m o t i v e s , needs, ends, pur p o s e s and, hence, v a l u e s . I t i s p r o p o s e d t h e r e f o r e t o under-t a k e a p r e l i m i n a r y s k e t c h , a f i r s t a p p r o a c h , t o a t h e o r y o f o r g a n i z a t i o n a l v a l u e . A C o n c e p t u a l O u t l i n e In s e e k i n g t o l i n k what might a t f i r s t appear to be e n t i r e l y d i f f e r e n t o r d e r s o f phenomena, v i z . the be-h a v i o u r and e x p e r i e n c e of i n d i v i d u a l s and the b e h a v i o u r and n a t u r e o f o r g a n i z a t i o n s , t h e r e are two p r i m a r y p r o b -lems. These i n v o l v e 1) c l a r i f i c a t i o n and d e f i n i t i o n o f the terms and c o n c e p t s employed and 2 ) the e l u c i d a t i o n of the common ground between the two l e v e l s o f a n a l y s i s , i n d i v i d u a l and c o l l e c t i v i t y . 247 The e s s e n t i a l c o n c e p t o f v a l u e has been e x p l a i n e d above i n C h a p t e r I I . One can, however, a g a i n p o i n t t o the d i s t i n c t i o n from m o t i v e . M o t i v e s have a demand q u a l i t y or " r e q u i r e d n e s s " which a c t s i n a t e l l e or d r i v e s t a t e manner on the m o t i v a t e d p e r s o n whereas v a l u e s , though stemming i n p a r t from i n t e r n a l m o t i v a t i o n a l i n t e r -a c t i o n , have a r e f e r e n c e t o s t a n d a r d s or c o g n i t i v e s y s -tems o f p r e f e r e n c e which may c o n t r a d i c t or c o u n t e r v a i l a g a i n s t s i m p l e m o t i v e s and t h e i r i m m e d i a t e l y a t t e n d a n t v a l u e s . M o t i v e s Indeed g e n e r a t e v a l u e s but t h e s e v a l -ues i n t u r n have t o be r e c o n c i l e d w i t h s e c o n d - o r d e r i n t e r n a l i z e d v a l u e systems or s t a n d a r d s . These l a t t e r are i l l - u n d e r s t o o d f u n c t i o n s o f the p e r s o n a l i t y s t r u c t u r e which are c a p a b l e i n the extreme case o f l e g i s l a t i n g o v e r a l l m o t i v e s and t h e i r a t t a c h e d f i r s t - o r d e r v a l u e s , e.g_. by t h e " f a s t unto d e a t h " or the s t u d i e d s e l f - i m m o l a t i o n o f a B u d d h i s t monk. In p a r t at l e a s t the c e n t r a l ques-t i o n o f an o r g a n i z a t i o n a l a p p roach t o v a l u e may be: Is an o r g a n i z a t i o n c o n d u c i v e to or d e s t r u c t i v e o f the growth and development of a v a l u e o r i e n t a t i o n i n c o n t r a s t to a m o t i v a t i o n a l o r i e n t a t i o n ? The second p a r t of the problem, t o e l u c i d a t e the ground of i n t e r a c t i o n between i n d i v i d u a l , group, and meta-group, w i l l be u n d e r t a k e n by d e v e l o p i n g the themes 24-8 o f p u r p o s i v e b e h a v i o u r a t the v a r i o u s l e v e l s o f i n t e r -a c t i o n and by o r g a n i z i n g t h e s e I n t o a taxonomy o f v a l u e s and m o t i v e s . Much o f the argument f o l l o w s the r e a s o n i n g of P r o f e s s o r Pepper i n h i s major work Sources o f Value (q_.y_. ) and makes use o f the n o t i o n o f s e l e c t i v e systems d e f i n e d as " s t r u c t u r a l p r o c e s s e s by which a u n i t a r y dynamic agency i s c h a n n e l l e d i n such a way t h a t i t g e n e r -a t e s p a r t i c u l a r a c t s , d i s p o s i t i o n s , or o b j e c t s ( t o be c a l l e d " t r i a l s " ) , and a l s o a c t i v a t e s a s p e c i f i c s e l e c -t i v e agency ( t o be c a l l e d "the norm") by which some of the t r i a l s a r e r e j e c t e d and o t h e r s are i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o the dynamic o p e r a t i o n o f the system." ( i b i d . p.667 ) What i s conveyed h e r e i s t h a t energy systems at a p e r s o n -a l or s o c i e t a l , o r g a n i s m i c or o r g a n i z a t i o n a l l e v e l p u r s u e a " s p l i t dynamics" p u r p o s i v e b e h a v i o u r a l p a t t e r n ; t h a t i s , energy seeks by a t r i a l - a n d - e r r o r mode or means t o a c h i e v e o u t l e t or q u i e s c e n c e i n an end, which end s e t s up n o r m a t i v e c r i t e r i a . These i d e a s w i l l be c o n s i d e r a b l y m o d i f i e d , however, i n the e n s u i n g d i s c u s s i o n and, f o r c l a r i t y ' s s a k e , they w i l l be e l a b o r a t e d i n the form o f a m a t r i x or taxonomy. 24-3 The d e s c r i p t i v e M a t r i x . ( r e f . F i g . V I I . l p.256 ) I: P u r p o s i v e A c t i o n : - The f i r s t s e l e c t i v e system t o be c o n s i d e r e d i s t h a t c o n c e r n e d w i t h s i m p l e a p p e t i t i o n and a v e r s i o n at the I n d i v i d u a l l e v e l . These m o t i v a t i o n s may be bo t h b i o g e n i c ( i n n a t e ) and s o c i o g e n i c (1 e a r n e d ) . There i s about human and a n i m a l b e h a v i o u r when viewed as t h e m e c h a n i s t i c p u r s u i t o f p l e a s u r e and a v o i d a n c e o f p a i n a s e d u c t i v e s i m p l i c i t y which has i n -t r i g u e d more t h i n k e r s than Hobbes , Bentham and Tolman. C e r t a i n l y t h e r e would seem t o be an a x i o m a t i c q u a l i t y t o the a s s e r t i o n t h a t p u r p o s i v e b e h a v i o u r seeks q u i e s c e n c e o f a p p e t i t i e s or s a t i s f a c t i o n o f d e s i r e s ( g o a l a c h i e v e -ment and a p p e t i t i o n ) on the one hand and r i d d a n c e or freedom from p a i n s t i m u l i ( a v o i d a n c e or a v e r s i o n ) on the o t h e r . P u r p o s i v e a c t i o n i s synonymous w i t h g o a l - d i r e c -t e d b e h a v i o u r whether the g o a l be an o b j e c t o f d e s i r e ( a p p e t i t i o n ) or an o b j e c t of a v o i d a n c e ( a v e r s i o n ) . The end or g o a l i m p l i e s a sequence of means ( c o n s e q u e n t i a l a c t i o n s , l o g i c a l a c t i v i t y ) t o r e a c h the g o a l and i t i s s u g g e s t e d t h a t the v a l u e v e s t e d i n the g o a l g e n e r a t e s s u b s i d i a r y v a l u e which a c c r u e s t o the s u c c e s s i v e means. Such d i s t r i b u t e d v a l u e can be c a l l e d i n s t r u m e n t a l v a l u e . The v a l u e s t a n d a r d s or n o r m a t i v e c r i t e r i a a g a i n s t which such v a l u e s are measured are the p r a g m a t i c t e s t s o f 250 s u c c e s s or e f f i c i e n c y . The c o n c e p t of d e s i r a b l e i s t h a t which l e a d s t o s u c c e s s or i n c r e m e n t a l g o a l - a t t a i n -ment, and by the s h o r t e s t , l e a s t - c o s t r o u t e . D e s p i t e a comment by Rokeach (p.18) and d e s p i t e the n o m e n c l a t u r e o f some of t h e S c o t t v a l u e s c a l e s (e_.g_. S o c i a l S k i l l s ) t h e y cannot p r o p e r l y be c o n s i d e r e d i n s t r u m e n t a l f o r t h e y r e f e r t o q u a l i t i e s or ends c o n s i d e r e d d e s i r a b l e i n them-s e l v e s . I I : Consummatory A c t i o n : - By t h i s i s meant the a c t u a l a t t a i n m e n t o f a g o a l s t a t e and the consequent p s y c h o l o g i c a l o n s e t o f r e l e a s e of energy t e n s i o n . Be-cause r e l e a s e o f t e n s i o n i s p l e a s u r a b l e t h e r e i s a m o t i -v a t i o n t o e x t e n d i t i n time or i n t e n s i t y or b o t h , t h a t i s , t o m a x i m i z a t i o n of the consummation p r o c e s s . A c r i t i c a l d i s t i n c t i o n of end s t a t e s from p u r p o s i v e means s t a t e s i s the d e s i r a b i l i t y In the former of p r o t r a c t i o n , s p i n n i n g o u t , making as i n t e n s e as p o s s i b l e . In the consummatory f i e l d one can p o s t u l a t e c r i t e r i a of i n t e n -s i t y , m a x i m i z a t i o n , o p t i m i z a t i o n . That i s the more de-s i r a b l e , the more t o be p r e f e r r e d , which y i e l d s the maxi-mum p l e a s u r e , g r e a t e r a e s t h e t i c e x p e r i e n c e , the g r e a t e r h e d o n i c q u a n t i t y and q u a l i t y . A c t i o n which c u l m i n a t e s i n g o a l achievement can be c o n c e i v e d t h e r e f o r e as gener-a t i n g a t y p e of end v a l u e which can be c a l l e d h e d o n i c . A g a i n the S c o t t v a l u e s c a l e s are not p r o p e r l y a p p l i c a b l e 251 I I I : P e r s o n a l i t y S t r u c t u r e : - While the p r e v i -ous c a t e g o r i e s I n v o l v e b o t h b e h a v i o u r and e x p e r i e n c e the t h i r d c l a s s i f i c a t i o n i s more d i r e c t l y e x p e r i e n t i a l , t h a t I s , i n t e r n a l , h a v i n g t o do w i t h the Inner s t a t e o f t h e a c t o r and h a v i n g t o do, from an o b s e r v e r ' s v i e w p o i n t , w i t h the c o n s i s t e n c i e s o f b e h a v i o u r and r e s p o n s e s t o s t i m u l i which a l l o w him t o i n f e r a t t i t u d i n a l and v a l u e p a t t e r n s and p e r s o n a l i t y of the a c t o r . V a l u e s g e n e r a -t e d by t h i s s e l e c t i v e system have the n t o do w i t h the n a t u r e o f the ego. They would i n c l u d e what S h e r i f and S h e r i f c a l l ego a t t i t u d e s as g i v e n i n t h e i r d e f i n i t i o n of ego: "a d e v e l o p m e n t a l f o r m a t i o n (a 'subsystem') i n the p s y c h o l o g i c a l make-up of the i n d i v i d u a l c o n s i s t i n g o f i n t e r r e l a t e d a t t i t u d e s which are a c q u i r e d i n r e l a t i o n t o h i s own body, to o b j e c t s , f a m i l y , p e r s o n s , g r o u p s , s o c i a l v a l u e s , and i n s t i t u t i o n s and which d e f i n e and reg-u l a t e h i s r e l a t e d n e s s to them i n c o n c r e t e s i t u a t i o n s . " ( S h e r i f and S h e r i f , p.581) A g a i n one can draw a t t e n t i o n to a d i s t i n c t i o n between end s t a t e s and means s t a t e s . The ego can be presumed to be an e x i s t e n t subsystem which i s means r a t h -er t h an end when compared a g a i n s t end s t a t e s which, un-l i k e the h e d o n i c , are u s u a l l y more or l e s s d i s t a n t , un-a t t a i n a b l e , i d e a l and o f t e n m e t a p h y s i c a l i n t h a t the 252 i d e a l form i s e x t r a - t e m p o r a l and e x t r a - s p a t i a l ( c f . n o t i o n s o f f u l f i l l m e n t t h r o u g h s a l v a t i o n , e v o l u t i o n , a s c e t i c i s m e t c . ) . More e m p i r i c a l l y , but l e a v i n g open r e l i g i o u s , humanist and e s o t e r i c norms of f u l f i l l m e n t , the p o s t u l a t e d s t a n d a r d a g a i n s t which p e r s o n a l i t y s t r u c -t u r e v a l u e s are r e f e r r e d i s t h a t i m p l i e d i n the i d e a s o f p s y c h o l o g i c a l i n t e g r a t i o n , or s e l f - a c t u a l i z a t i o n (Murphy, Maslow, b, P o l a n y i i n t e r a l i a ) . C o n s e q u e n t l y , the s t a n d a r d s can be r e f e r r e d t o by t h e s e terms and the t y p e s o f v a l u e f a l l i n g under t h i s head can be c a l l e d c h a r a c t e r -o l o g i c a l , i . e . h a v i n g t o do w i t h the n a t u r e or c h a r a c t e r o f the p e r s o n . ( S i m p l e r terms such as p e r s o n a l , human-i s t i c , e g o i s t i c e t c . t e n d t o be u n s a t i s f a c t o r y because of ambiguous c o n n o t a t i o n s a l r e a d y a t t a c h i n g t o t h e s e words.) I t may be n o t e d t h a t t h e s e t y p e s o f v a l u e , l i k e t h o s e of the second c a t e g o r y , r e f e r t o end s t a t e s but ends d i f f e r i n g i n t h a t they do not t e n d n o r m a l l y to f u l l y a c h i e v e d , consummated, or consumed. With r e s p e c t t o the d e s i r e d s t a t e c h a r a c t e r ever t e n d s , never ends. I t may be n o t e d a l s o t h a t i t i s i n t h i s group t h a t the S c o t t s c a l e s may be c l a s s e d . The t y p e s o f v a l u e so f a r d e s c r i b e d are not mutu-a l l y e x c l u s i v e and t h a t a l l t h r e e can be p r e s e n t and oper-a t i v e w i t h i n a g i v e n c o n t e x t i s e a s i l y seen from an i l l u s -t r a t i o n . Thus, a p r o f e s s o r t r a v e l l i n g by a i r to a con-25 3 f e r e n c e may s i m u l t a n e o u s l y be t h e s u b j e c t o f 1) I n s t r u -m e n t a l v a l u e i n t h a t the a i r c r a f t i s g e t t i n g him t o h i s d e s t i n a t i o n e f f i c i e n t l y and the end v a l u e o f the d e s t i -n a t i o n i s d i s t r i b u t e d over the means, 2) h e d o n i c v a l u e i n t h a t he i s e n j o y i n g the f l i g h t and the p r e s e n c e and a t t e n t i o n s o f the s t e w a r d e s s and, 3) c h a r a c t e r o l o g i c a l v a l u e i n t h a t the f l i g h t i t s e l f c onnotes s o c i a l i m p o r t -ance o f some s o r t and h i s ego may be g r a t i f i e d , f i n d v a l u e , i n r e l a t i n g i t s e l f w i t h a r e f e r e n c e group o f "p e o p l e i n demand" thus perhaps s a t i s f y i n g s t a t u s or s e l f - f u l f i l l m e n t v a l u e s i n h i s needs h i e r a r c h y . The l e v e l o f a n a l y s i s i n c a t e g o r i e s I - I I I has been t h a t o f the i n d i v i d u a l . The l e v e l o f a n a l y s i s i n c a t e g o r i e s V and VI w i l l be t h a t o f the c o l l e c t i v i t y w h i l e c a t e g o r y IV w i l l d e a l w i t h b o t h l e v e l s i n i n t e r -a c t i o n . IV: L i f e Space:- The i n d i v i d u a l i s c o n c e i v e d as o c c u p y i n g a l i f e space or p e r s o n a l s i t u a t i o n which space i s i n f l u e n c e d and s t r u c t u r e d by s o c i a l s t i m u l i --the s p e c i a l l y p e r t i n e n t s o c i a l s t i m u l i b e i n g here the I n -f o r m a l and f o r m a l groups o f which the s u b j e c t i s a member and w i t h i n which most of h i s i n t e r a c t i o n o c c u r s d u r i n g the p e r i o d s of h i s o r g a n i z a t i o n a l a c t i v i t y . The norm-a t i v e c r i t e r i a stem from t h e s e groups ( S h e r i f and S h e r i f , 254-pp.4-91 f_. ) and t h e t y p e o f v a l u e g e n e r a t e d i s fundamen-t a l l y c o n f o r m i n g , or s o c i a l , i n l i n e w i t h the group e s -t a b l i s h e d norms. V a r i a n t v a l u e s (c_f. Kluckhohn and S t r o d t b e c k , C h . I I ) a r e t o l e r a t e d and even admired when pr o v e n t o be s u c c e s s f u l l y i n n o v a t i v e or p r o p e r t o " l e a -d e r s h i p " b e h a v i o u r but d e v i a n c e cannot be s u f f e r e d f o r any p r o l o n g e d p e r i o d , the group b e i n g a b l e t o e n f o r c e i t s norms t h r o u g h the s a n c t i o n o f group rewards and punishments ( R o e t h l i s b e r g e r e_t_ al_. ) . In g e n e r a l how-e v e r t h a t i s d e s i r a b l e which tends t o maintenance o f the group and group s o l i d a r i t y . Such v a l u e s a r e at f i r s t e x t e r n a l t o the i n d i v i d u a l (heteronomous) but ten d t o become i n t r o j e c t e d , i n t e r n a l i z e d (autonomous). V: O r g a n i z a t i o n a l Space:- By t h i s i s meant s i m p l y t h a t a g g r e g a t e o f group s p a c e s , i n t u r n compounded of the c o n s t i t u e n t l i f e s p a c e s , which go t o make up what i s r e c o g n i z a b l e as a d i s c r e t e , complex o r g a n i z a t i o n ( s c h o o l , b a t t l e s h i p , b u s i n e s s f i r m ) . The v a l u e s t a n d a r d i n t h i s i n s t a n c e i s c l e a r l y heteronomous and d e r i v e s from the o r g a n i z a t i o n a l g o a l s ( t o e d u c a t e , to wage n a v a l war-f a r e , t o make a p r o f i t ) . A gain s u c c e s s - e f f i c i e n c y can be p o s t u l a t e d as c r i t e r i a but at a macro as opposed to m i c r o or i n d i v i d u a l l e v e l . The ty p e s of r e l e v a n t v a l u e can be s p e c i f i e d as o r g a n i z a t i o n a l and, i n g e n e r a l , t h a t 255 i s c o n c e i v e d as d e s i r a b l e which, f u r t h e r s the ends o f the o r g a n i z a t i o n or i s i n s t r u m e n t a l at the m a c r o - l e v e l . V I : S o c i o - c u l t u r a l Space:- Complex o r g a n i z a -t i o n s do not e x i s t in_ vacuo but have t o work out t h e i r d e s t i n i e s w i t h i n a s o c i o - c u l t u r a l framework which at i t s l a r g e s t e x t e n t i s i n t e r n a t i o n a l and i n the n a r r o w e s t sense Is s i m p l y bounded by the i n d i v i d u a l , group and o r g a n i z a t i o n space o f t h o s e I n d i v i d u a l s , groups and o r g a n i z a t i o n s w i t h which t h e r e i s i n t e r a c t i o n . The v a l u e s t a n d a r d s here are d e t e r m i n e d by the r e l e v a n t c u l -t u r e . P r e v a i l i n g I d e o l o g i e s t e n d t o d e t e r m i n e the s o c i o - c u l t u r a l t y p e s o f v a l u e which are dominant. P a t -t e r n s o f v a r i a t i o n and d e v i a n c e o c c u r i n the manner d e l i n e a t e d by Kluckhohn and S t r o d t b e c k ( o p . c i t . ) . Gen-e r a l l y , t h a t i s d e s i r a b l e which i s e i t h e r c ongruent w i t h the vogue i d e o l o g y or i f v a r i a n t , v a r i a n t i n the i n n o -v a t i n g l e a d e r s h i p sense (the c r i t e r i a of which are p r a g -m a t i c and ex p o s t f a c t o ) . The t y p e s of v a l u e measured by Rokeach ( l o c . c i t . ) would seem t o b e l o n g i n the main t o t h i s c l a s s i f i c a t i o n . S e l e c t i v e systems and the t y p e s o f v a l u e and s t a n d a r d s are s e t out a c c o r d i n g t o the above d i s c u s s i o n i n the f i r s t t h r e e columns of F i g . V I I . l . M a t r i x F i g . V I I . l o f V a l u e Emergence C l a s s i f -i c a t i o n L e v e l Se l e c t i v e System (1) Type o f Value (2) S t a n d a r d s Normative C r i t e r i a (3) B a s i c M o t i v a t i o n a l P a t t e r n s CO II I I I Purpos i v e A c t i o n Consummatory A c t i o n P e r s o n a l i t y Space I n s t r u m e n t a l Hedonic C h a r a c t e r o -l o g i c a l S u c c e s s -E f f i c i e n c y ( P r a g m a t i c ) O p t i m i z a t i o n M a x i m i z a t i o n I n t e g r a t i o n S e l f -A c t u a l i z a t i o n A p p e t i t i o n -Avers i o n G o a l Achievement P l e a s u r e D r i v e Maslowian H i e r a r c h y H O | OP pj & O IV VI L i f e Space O r g a n i z a t i o n Space S o c i o -c u l t u r a l Space S o c i a l O r g a n i z a t i o n a l I d e o l o g i c a l Group Norms, Frame o f R e f e r e n c e O r g a n i z a t i o n a l G o a l s (Macro-p r a g m a t i c ) H i s t o r i c a l l y -d e t e r m i n e d I d e o l o g y (Macro-Frame of R e f e r e n c e ) Maslowian h i e r a r c h y i n i n t e r a c t i o n ; S o c i a l needs Maintenance Expans i o n S u r v i v a l Growth Dominance o 3 o d-CD r+ o S3 O a PJ < CD 257 C r i t i c a l I n s p e c t i o n o f t h i s m a t r i x w i l l r e v e a l t h a t t h r e e a s p e c t s o f v a l u e are b e i n g d i s t i n g u i s h e d v i z . (1) the s p o n t a n e o u s , a f f e c t i v e v a l u e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h m o t i v a t i o n i n i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h s t i m u l i , (2) the s t a n d -ards o r systems o f v a l u e t o which the spontaneous v a l u e c o u l d be r e f e r r e d and (3) s t a b i l i z e d , r e f e r r e d or op e r -ant v a l u e s which e n t e r i n t o b e h a v i o u r a l p a t t e r n s . A p p l i c a t i o n o f the M a t r i x B e f o r e c o n s i d e r i n g the a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e s e i d e a s i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o make a few p o i n t s . F i r s t , c l a s s e s I - I I I r e f e r to v a l u e as i t i s m a i n l y c o n c e i v e d i n t h i s s t u d y , t h a t i s , i n d i v i d u a l e x p e r i e n c e o f d e s i r a b i l i t y . C l a s s e s V and VI r e f e r t o e x t r a n e o u s , d e r i v e d v a l u e , t h a t i s , v a l u e e s t a b l i s h e d by the j o i n t a c t i o n o f c o l l e c t i v -i t i e s and which may or may not be a p p r o p r i a t e d i n t o i n d i -v i d u a l e x p e r i e n c e . C l a s s IV r e p r e s e n t s the i n t e r a c t i o n l e v e l where v a l u e i s d e r i v e d from and i m p a r t e d t o group norms, v a l u e systems, l e v e l s of a s p i r a t i o n and e x p e c t a -t i o n , v a l e n c e m i x i n g and the l i k e . 1 T h i s s e l e c t i v e s y s -tem r e f e r s to the f i e l d i n which v a l u e i s a c t u a l l y "'"This i n no way d e n i e s i n d i v i d u a l i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h m a t e r i a l and n o n - m a t e r i a l c u l t u r e o u t s i d e the o r g a n i z a -t i o n a l group, e.g. th r o u g h the medium of T.V i n the home; but the purpose" and f o c u s of t h i s - c l a s s i f i c a t i o n i s o r g a n -i z a t i o n a l and hence a t t e n t i o n i s c o n c e n t r a t e d on t h i s a s p e c t . 258 e x p e r i e n c e d , a b s o r b e d , e n c o u n t e r e d , m o d i f i e d . T h i s has been the main l e v e l o f c o n c e r n t h r o u g h o u t t h i s s t u d y and I t can be c o n s t r u e d as the meeting ground o f i n d i v i d u a l and o r g a n i z a t i o n and the f i e l d i n which the r e s o l u t i o n o f v a l u e - v e c t o r s o c c u r s . Second, c o l . 4 o f F i g . V I I . l l i s t s , r e l a t i v e to the s e l e c t i v e systems and t y p e s of v a l u e , the t y p i c a l m o t i v a t i o n a l p a t t e r n s which can be assumed f o r each c l a s s . C l a s s I, r e f e r r i n g t o means, i s always d e r i v -a t i v e i n the sense t h a t i t i s l e g i s l a t e d over by l e v e l I I I . C l a s s I I r e f e r s to the s u c c e s s f u l c u l m i n a t i o n o f a c t s o f a p p e t i t i o n and a v e r s i o n and i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a t e n d e n c y t o p e r s e v e r a t i o n . In C l a s s e s I I I and IV, i f the Maslow h y p o t h e s i s i s a l l o w e d , the i n d i v i d u a l s e e k s , s u b j e c t t o r e a l i t y c o n s t r a i n t s , s e l f - a c t u a l i z a t i o n , a l o n e and i n s o c i a l i n t e r a c t i o n . The m o t i v a t i o n a s s o c i a t e d w i t h c l a s s e s V and VI i s assumed to be lower l e v e l i n t h a t o r g a n i z a t i o n s and the s o c i e t i e s and c u l t u r e s i n which t h e y o p e r a t e are governed by f u ndamental p r i n c i p l e s o f s e l f - p r e s e r v a t i o n which can be e x p r e s s e d by the terms m a i n t e n a n c e , e x p a n s i o n , s u r v i v a l , growth, and dominance. O r g a n i z a t i o n s cannot be s e l f - c o n s c i o u s s i n c e they are not p o s s e s s e d o f a " s e l f " . T h e r e f o r e they cannot p r e -sume, save i n a p o e t i c and m e t a p h o r i c a l s e n s e , to be s e l f - a c t u a l i z i n g . The Church may d e s c r i b e i t s e l f as 259 the m y s t i c a l body o f C h r i s t i n the w o r l d b u t i n f a c t i t must, i f i t f o l l o w s i t s o r g a n i z a t i o n a l l o g i c , be con-c e r n e d f u n d a m e n t a l l y w i t h s e l f - p r e s e r v a t i o n ( i . e . o r g a n i z a t i o n m a i n t e n a n c e ) and expa n d i n g i t s i n f l u e n c e i n the s o c i o - c u l t u r a l space i t o c c u p i e s . C o n f l i c t i s im-p l i c i t t h e n between i n d i v i d u a l and o r g a n i z a t i o n a l v a l u e s i n s o f a r as 1) o r g a n i z a t i o n a l n o m o t h e t i c g o a l s c o n t r a d i c t or c o n s t r a i n i n d i v i d u a l i d i o g r a p h i c g o a l s and 2) o r g a n -i z a t i o n a l l y g e n e r a t e d v a l u e s a r e a n t i p a t h e t i c because th e y are f u n d a m e n t a l l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a lower l e v e l o f m o t i v a t i o n . T h i r d , a p e c u l i a r i t y o f human v a l u e as opposed t o a n i m a l v a l u e ( i . e . s i m p l e m o t i v a t i o n a l l y - a r o u s e d d e s i r a b i l i t y ) i s r e v e a l e d i n the c o n s t a n t r e f e r e n c e to s t a n d a r d s . The v a l u e e x p e r i e n c e i s , as i t were, s e l f -r e f l e c t i v e ; a motive may g e n e r a t e a v a l u e (V) but t h i s i s r e f e r r e d t o an a p p r o p r i a t e s t a n d a r d and becomes modi-f i e d t h e r e b y ( V ' ) . One i s reminded o f de C h a r d i n ' s d i s t i n c t i o n between a n i m a l and human i n the c o g n i t i v e s e n s e , the former knowing but the l a t t e r knowing t h a t he knows. S i m i l a r l y , man does not d e s i r e s i m p l i c i t e r but d e s i r e s to d e s i r e i n a d e s i r a b l e manner. The j u s t i f i c -a t i o n o f s t a n d a r d s , however, as p o i n t e d out i n Chapter II i s not the p r i n c i p a l c o n c e r n of t h i s work. 260 The e m p i r i c a l s t u d y r e p o r t e d on above i n Chap-t e r s V and VI has i n d i c a t e d t h a t c l a s s I I I v a l u e s a r e a f f e c t e d by c l a s s V t h r o u g h the m e d i a t i n g systems o f l e v e l IV. F u r t h e r m o r e the t y p e s of c h a r a c t e r o l o g i c a l v a l u e s t u d i e d c o u l d p r i m a f a c i e be supposed t o be more d i r e c t l y i n f l u e n c e d by the s e l e c t i v e system o f c l a s s V I . The f i n d i n g s i n d i c a t e t h a t the more d i r e c t l y an i n d i v i d -u a l i s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the upper l e v e l s o f h i e r a r c h i c a l s t r u c t u r e w i t h i n a complex o r g a n i z a t i o n the more h i s l i f e - s p a c e i s s t i m u l u s - b o u n d ( v a l e n c e - c o l o u r e d ) by the o r g a n i z a t i o n and the more t h e r e f o r e p e r s o n a l i t y s t r u c -t u r e as a s e l e c t i v e agency o f v a l u e tends t o be l e g i s -l a t e d over by an o r g a n i z a t i o n a l frame o f r e f e r e n c e . Of c o u r s e i t must be a d m i t t e d t h a t F i g . V I I . l compresses i n t o a c o n c e p t u a l framework an immense com-p l e x i t y o f v a l u e - r e l e v a n t v a r i a b l e s . There are the whole range o f c u l t u r a l and i n d i v i d u a l v a r i a t i o n s to be embraced, as w e l l as o r g a n i z a t i o n a l v a r i a b l e s such as open or c l o s e d c l i m a t e , a u t h o r i t a r i a n or d e m o c r a t i c , c o e r c i v e - n o r m a t i v e e t c . ( H a l l e_t a l . ) N e v e r t h e l e s s , the m a t r i x schema i s a c o n c e p t u a l o r d e r i n g d e v i c e the m e r i t of which u l t i m a t e l y r e s t s i n i t s u s e f u l n e s s f o r g e n e r a t i n g h y p o t h e s e s o r o r g a n i z i n g s t r a t e g i e s o f i n -v e s t i g a t i o n . To t h e s e ends we may d i s t i n g u i s h t h r e e 261 main s o u r c e s o f v a l u e as i n d i c a t e d by v e c t o r s to the r i g h t o f F i g . V I I . l . Arrow A r e p r e s e n t s the d i r e c t i o n o f p e r s o n a l , i d i o g r a p h i c o r i e n t a t i o n s . B r o a d l y t h e s e v a l u e s may be c l a s s e d as i n n e r - d i r e c t e d though t h e o r i -g i n s o f the v a l u e s may o r i g i n a l l y have been e x t e r n a l i n l e v e l s IV - V I . Arrow B, s u b j e c t t o i n f l u e n c e s from C, r e p r e s e n t s the v e c t o r o f o t h e r - d i r e c t i o n or the nomo-t h e t i c t r e n d . The r e s o l u t i o n o f t h e s e two b r o a d s e t s o f o r i e n t a t i o n o c c u r s w i t h i n the i n d i v i d u a l ' s l i f e space and, o f c o u r s e , i n the r e a l s i t u a t i o n i n v o l v e s an un-manageable a g g r e g a t e o f v a r i a b l e s . The stu d y c o n d u c t e d above however, and t h e l i n e o f argument t a k e n , would seem t o i m p l y t h a t the v e c t o r B ( p o s s i b l y because o f i t s a s s o c i a t e d power of s a n c t i o n and i t s b a s a l type o f m o t i -v a t i o n ) w i l l t e n d t o l e g i s l a t e over A. Such a t r e n d i s o b j e c t i v e l y r e i n f o r c e a b l e t h r o u g h the c a p a c i t y o f an o r g a n i z a t i o n to r e j e c t d e v i a n t members from i t s system. V a l u e a d j u s t m e n t w i t h i n the l i f e space thus tends to be o r g a n i z a t i o n - d e t e r m i n e d but t h i s c o n c l u s i o n r e q u i r e s f u r t h e r t e s t i n g and f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h . Q u e s t i o n s A r i s i n g b o t h from the above c o n c e p t u a l o u t l i n e and d i r e c t l y from the r e s e a r c h r e p o r t e d on i n t h i s study are c l u s t e r s of q u e s t i o n s which In sum would I n d i c a t e 262 a r e a s d e s e r v i n g o f f u t u r e e x a m i n a t i o n . I t may be h e l p -f u l t o l i s t some o f t h e s e i n the form o f p r o p o s i t i o n s . 1 . T r e a t i n g s c h o o l s from the o r g a n i z a t i o n a l v i e w p o i n t t h e h i e r a r c h i c a l l e v e l o f p u p i l s would d i f f e r i n v a l u e o r i e n t a t i o n from the l e v e l s o f s t a f f and admin-i s t r a t i o n and t h i s d i f f e r e n c e would be a f u n c t i o n o f o r g a n i z a t i o n a l i n f l u e n c e as w e l l as o t h e r m e d i a t i n g f a c t o r s . 2. Where o r g a n i z a t i o n a l g o a l s d i f f e r t h i s d i f -f e r e n c e would t e n d t o be r e f l e c t e d i n s h i f t s o f v a l u e -o r i e n t a t i o n among o r g a n i z a t i o n a l subgroup members. (An i n t e r o r g a n i z a t i o n a l p r o p o s i t i o n ) 3. A s h i f t In o r g a n i z a t i o n a l g o a l s would be r e -f l e c t e d i n changes o f o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c l i m a t e . (An i n t r a -o r g a n i z a t i o n a l p r o p o s i t i o n ) 4. A member r i s e or f a l l i n the s t a t u s h i e r a r c h y of the o r g a n i z a t i o n w i l l t e n d t o be accompanied by measur-a b l e s h i f t s i n v a l u e - o r i e n t a t i o n . ( T h i s p r o p o s i t i o n i s l o n g i t u d i n a l and c o u l d be i n v e s t i g a t e d f o r example i n s c h o o l s where a_ members have been promoted, b_ are s e e k i n g p r o m o t i o n , c have v o l u n t a r i l y r e t u r n e d t o t e a c h i n g a f t e r e x p e r i e n c e i n a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . ) 263 5. V a l u e s can u s e f u l l y be d i s t i n g u i s h e d from a t t i t u d e s a l o n g the l i n e s i n d i c a t e d i n t h i s s t u d y and i n the work o f Rokeach (a_. v. ) . ( T h i s p r o p o s i t i o n may i n -v o l v e p h i l o s o p h i c a l as w e l l as p s y c h o l o g i c a l a n a l y s i s ) . 6. Per c o n t r a Rokeach the taxonomy o f v a l u e s can be d e v e l o p e d as d e m o n s t r a t e d above. 7. O r g a n i z a t i o n a l i n f l u e n c e upon i n d i v i d u a l v a l u e o r i e n t a t i o n i s a f u n c t i o n o f the t e c h n o l o g i c a l l e v e l o f the s o c i e t y i n which the o r g a n i z a t i o n f u n c t i o n s . (The more d e v e l o p e d the s o c i e t y the more the o r g a n i z a -t i o n a l i m p r e s s ) . 8. When an o r g a n i z a t i o n s e r v e s a s p e c i a l s o c i a l f u n c t i o n as a c a r r i e r or t r a n s m i t t e r o f c u l t u r a l or i d e o -l o g i c a l v a l u e s ( c h u r c h , s c h o o l , p o l i t i c a l p a r t y ) nomo-t h e t i c ( C l a s s V and VI) v a l u e s t e n d t o l e g i s l a t e o v e r I d i o g r a p h i c ( C l a s s e s I - I I I ) . 9. Where subgroups of a complex o r g a n i z a t i o n are under t h r e a t v a l u e conformism w i l l t e n d t o i n c r e a s e and the o r g a n i z a t i o n a l impress o f v a l u e s to l e s s e n ( e . g . u n i v e r s i t y department c o n s i d e r e d at a h i g h e r o r g a n i z a -t i o n a l l e v e l t o be d i s p e n s a b l e . ) 10. O r g a n i z a t i o n s i n g e n e r a l t e n d t o a c t i n the i n t e r e s t s o f s e l f - p r e s e r v a t i o n and e x p a n s i o n and t h i s 264 m o t i v a t i o n e n t e r s i n t o t h e p o l i c y - m a k i n g d e c i s i o n p r o -c e s s . ( E v i d e n c e e x i s t s f o r t h i s c o n t e n t i o n but t h e r e i s q u e s t i o n as t o t h e o v e r t or c o v e r t , c o n s c i o u s or un-c o n s c i o u s , means whereby t h i s m o t i v a t i o n a l p r i n c i p l e e n t e r s i n t o the group p r o c e s s e s ) . 11. The p r e v a l e n c e o f the p r a g m a t i c s t a n d a r d o f p u r p o s i v e v a l u e i s d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d t o the r a t i o n a l i t y of o r g a n i z a t i o n a l s t r u c t u r e and f u n c t i o n . T h i s f o l l o w s from the p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t i n t r a d i t i o n - o r i e n t e d and a e s t h e t i c - o r i e n t e d c u l t u r e s p u r p o s i v e a c t i o n may have s t r o n g epiphenomenal h e d o n i c and hence consummatory com-ponents . 12a. When o r g a n i z a t i o n a l v a l u e s are c o n t r a d i c t e d by but r e c o n c i l a b l e w i t h i d e o l o g i c a l v a l u e s s u c c e s s f u l o r g a n i z a t i o n a l l e a d e r s h i p b e h a v i o u r i m p l i e s v a l u e v a r i -a t i o n or d e v i a t i o n i n the d i r e c t i o n o f the s o c i o - c u l t u r a l l e v e l . 12b. Where group v a l u e s are c o n t r a d i c t e d by but r e c o n c i l a b l e w i t h o r g a n i z a t i o n a l v a l u e s s u c c e s s f u l group l e a d e r s h i p b e h a v i o u r i m p l i e s v a l u e v a r i a t i o n or d e v i a t i o n i n the d i r e c t i o n o f the o r g a n i z a t i o n a l l e v e l . 13. S u c c e s s f u l membership b e h a v i o u r i m p l i e s v a l u e conformism at the group l e v e l . 265 14. I d i o s y n c r a t i c v a l u e - o r i e n t a t i o n s are the more t o l e r a b l e ( t h e l a t i t u d e o f v a r i a t i o n i s the g r e a t e r ) the l e s s s t r u c t u r e d the o r g a n i z a t i o n and the l e s s s t r u c -t u r e d the o r g a n i z a t i o n a l r o l e s . 15 . L e v e l s o f e s p r i t and o r g a n i z a t i o n member s a t i s f a c t i o n are d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d t o v a l u e consonance. 16 . The p e r c e i v e d s t a t u s of an o r g a n i z a t i o n mem-ber depends on the congruence between c h a r a c t e r o l o g i c a l and o r g a n i z a t i o n a l v a l u e s . (A v a r i a n t of t h i s p r o p o s i -t i o n was weakly s u p p o r t e d i n the S c o t t s t u d y . ) 17. The degree t o which an o r g a n i z a t i o n i n f l u -ences the v a l u e o r i e n t a t i o n o f new members ( o r g a n i z a -t i o n a l i m p r e s s ) depends on the degree o f s t r u c t u r e w i t h -i n the o r g a n i z a t i o n . 18a. Conforming t e n d e n c i e s are s t r o n g e s t ( s o c i a l v a l u e s t a n d a r d s more dominant) i n the e a r l y s t a g e s of o r g a n i z a t i o n a l membership. ( S u p p o r t e d i n the S c o t t s t u d y ) . 18b. C h a r a c t e r o l o g i c a l v a l u e s w i l l t e n d to r e -a s s e r t t h e m s e l v e s w i t h the passage o f time . ( C o r o l l a r y t o 1 8 a ) . 19. O r g a n i z a t i o n s t e n d t o r e c r u i t new members w i t h v a l u e s s i m i l a r t o those of o l d members. (Sup-p o r t e d by S c o t t ) . 266 More g e n e r a l l y , t e n t a t i v e l y , and i n t e r r o g a t i v e l y : 20. What are the d i f f e r e n t t y p e s o f d i m e n s i o n s o f o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c l i m a t e ? 21. How a r e t h e s e d i m e n s i o n s d i f f e r e n t i a l l y d i s t r i b u t e d between d i f f e r e n t t y p e s of o r g a n i z a t i o n s ? 22a. What a r e the v a l u e c o r r e l a t e s o f H a l p i n ' s c o n c e p t o f a u t h e n t i c i t y ? 22b. Is t h i s c o n c e p t i n f a c t v a l i d ? 23. How can the Riesman t r i c h o t o m y of v a l u e s be r e c o n c i l e d w i t h the schema p r o p o s e d above? 21. To what e x t e n t are o r g a n i z a t i o n a l and c h a r -a c t e r o l o g i c a l v a l u e s a n t a g o n i s t i c i n s p e c i f i c o r g a n i z a -t i o n a l r o l e s and c o n t e x t s ? 25. What are the i m p l i c a t i o n s o f the n o m o t h e t i c -i d i o g r a p h i c c o n t e s t f o r v a l u e - p r o p a g a t i n g o r g a n i z a t i o n s ( e . g . s c h o o l s ) ? 26. What are the i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r e d u c a t i o n g e n e r a l l y of the con c e p t o f o r g a n i z a t i o n a l impress? 27. What s t r u c t u r e s and f u n c t i o n s o f o r g a n i z a -t i o n are most c o n d u c i v e to the emergence o f c h a r a c t e r o -l o g i c a l v a l u e i n the d i r e c t i o n o f i n t e g r a t i o n ? 28. How does C l a s s V v a l u e i n t e r a c t w i t h C l a s s 267 I I I v a l u e i n d i f f e r i n g t y p e s o f o r g a n i z a t i o n ? i-n mutual b e n e f i t v s . b u s i n e s s o r g a n i z a t i o n s or c o e r c i v e v s . n o r m a t i v e o r g a n i z a t i o n s ) . 29. What i s the e f f i c i e n c y of e d u c a t i o n a l o r -g a n i z a t i o n s (e_.g_. s c h o o l s y_s_. o t h e r media) i n v a l u e main-t e n a n c e and p r o p a g a t i o n at the s e v e r a l l e v e l s ? The f o r e g o i n g p r o p o s i t i o n s and q u e s t i o n s i n no way e xhaust the i n q u i r y but can be t a k e n as g e n e r a l l y i l l u s t r a t i v e . In the end a n a l y s i s perhaps the l a r g e s t and most p e r v a s i v e q u e s t i o n , u n d e r l y i n g the e n t i r e i n -q u i r y , c o n c e r n s the d e t e r m i n i s t i c n a t u r e of o r g a n i z a t i o n -a l l i f e . To what e x t e n t are the h i g h e s t e t h i c a l s t a n d -ards t e n a b l e i n an o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c o n t e x t ? P r o p o s a l s f o r f u r t h e r I n v e s t i g a t i o n I f the q u e s t i o n s and g e n e r a l i n q u i r y r a i s e d above m e r i t f u r t h e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n s , and t h i s i m p l i e s v a l u e judgments o u t s i d e the scope o f t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n , then i t i s p o s s i b l e t o s k e t c h i n c e r t a i n d i r e c t i o n s and g u i d e -l i n e s . S u g g e s t i o n s can be advanced f o r b o t h the v e r i -f i c a t o r y and the s p e c u l a t i v e phases of the r e s e a r c h cy c l e . C o n s i d e r i n g f i r s t the e m p i r i c a l a s p e c t s one i s 268 s t r u c k by t h e d e a r t h o f s a t i s f a c t o r y m e a s u r i n g i n s t r u -ments. B r o a d l y s p e a k i n g , the c h o i c e among e x i s t e n t measures may be s a i d t o l i e between t h o s e u s i n g f o r c e d -c h o i c e and t h o s e u s i n g L I k e r t or T h u r s t o n e t y p e r e s p o n -s e s . The d e f e c t s o f the former are r e v e a l e d i n the c l a s s i c A l l p o r t - V e r n o n - L i n d z e y Study o f V a l u e s i n s t r u -ment (op . c i t . ) . With t h i s measure p r o f i l e s are d e v e l -oped which a r e not s u s c e p t i b l e t o s t a t i s t i c a l t r e a t m e n t s i n c e i t i s not known whether a g i v e n s c o r e o f x r e l a -t i v e t o y_ comes about by x b e i n g d e p r e s s e d r e l a t i v e t o y or c o n v e r s e l y . A g a i n , the problem of v a l i d i t y Is c o m p l i c a t e d by the f a c t t h a t n e i t h e r o r b o t h o f the a l t e r n a t i v e s p r e s e n t e d may be r e l e v a n t t o the s u b j e c t ' s v a l u e s t a n d a r d s and i n t e r n a l i z e d s c a l e s of r e f e r e n c e . M o d i f i c a t i o n o f t h i s type o f t e s t g i v e s some v a r i a n t o f the Q - s o r t t e c h n i q u e , an example o f which i s the i n s t r u -ment used by M o r r i s i n h i s s t u d y of ways o f l i f e ( o p . c i t . ) . A c e n t r a l d i f f i c u l t y of I n s t r u m e n t a t i o n r e s t s i n the d i s t i n c t i o n between a t t i t u d e s and v a l u e s . A t t i t u d -i n a l measures have p r o l i f e r a t e d and i t has been e s t i m -a t e d t h a t the r a t i o of a t t i t u d e to v a l u e s t u d i e s (1961-1965) i s between 5:1 and 6:1 (Rokeach, b ) . As Rokeach comments: "I n o t i c e d t h a t h a l f a c e n t u r y a f t e r Thomas and Z n a n i e c k i f i r s t i n t r o d u c e d the a t t i t u d e concept i n t o 269 s o c i a l p s y c h o l o g y t h e r e i s s t i l l v e r y l i t t l e c o nsensus among us about t h e e x a c t c o n c e p t u a l d i f f e r e n c e between an a t t i t u d e and a v a l u e ; we sometimes employ t h e s e two c o n c e p t s i n t e r c h a n g e a b l y and sometimes d i f f e r e n t i a l l y . I n o t i c e d t h a t we sometimes employ t h e s e two c o n c e p t s i n the s i n g u l a r and sometimes i n the p l u r a l , as i f we have not y e t l e a r n e d how to count them. I n o t i c e d t h a t most o f the l i t e r a t u r e on a t t i t u d e s does not c o n c e r n i t -s e l f w i t h v a l u e s , and t h a t most o f the l i t e r a t u r e on v a l u e s does not c o n c e r n i t s e l f w i t h a t t i t u d e s . And I n o t i c e d t h a t most o f the m e t h o d o l o g i c a l advances c o n c e r n the measurement o f a t t i t u d e s and not the measurement o f v a l u e s and v a l u e s y s t e m s . " ( i b i d . ) Rokeach h i m s e l f has d e v e l o p e d and used r e l i a b l e 2 i n s t r u m e n t s e m p l o y i n g some 18 items f o r r a n k i n g . A p a r t from t h e i r d i r e c t a p p l i c a t i o n some m o d i f i c a t i o n of t h e s e i n s t r u m e n t s would seem p a r t i c u l a r l y s u i t e d to the c o n c e p t u a l schema o u t l i n e d above. Problems a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the above type o f meas-u r i n g d e v i c e a r e t o a c e r t a i n e x t e n t a v o i d e d i n the S c o t t s c a l e s . These were l a t e r d e v e l o p e d by S c o t t i n t o l o n g e r In t h i s type of p r e f e r e n c e t e s t the a l t e r n a t i v e outcomes v a r y as the f a c t o r i a l o f . t h e number of i t e m s . 270 and more r e l i a b l e forms which c o u l d be a p p l i e d t o t h e i n -t e n s i v e s t u d y o f s e l e c t e d v a l u e s . The s h o r t s u p p l y o f r e p u t a b l e v a l u e I n s t r u m e n t s need not t h e r e f o r e be a d e t e r r e n t t o f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h . The i n s t r u m e n t s a v a i l -a b l e l e n d t h e m s e l v e s b o t h to d i r e c t use and t o m o d i f i c a -t i o n i n l i n e w i t h s p e c i f i c r e s e a r c h g o a l s . I t i s r e a -s o n a b l e t o s u g g e s t , however, t h a t one o f the e a r l y a s s i g n -ments i n a l a r g e s c a l e v a l u e study be the c r i t i c a l r e v i e w o f e x i s t e n t i n s t r u m e n t s p u r p o r t i n g to measure v a l u e s and a l s o o f t h e major s c a l e s o s t e n s i b l y measuring a t t i t u d e s (e_.g_. E y s e n c k ' s S o c i a l A t t i t u d e I n v e n t o r y ) . The g e n e r a l s t r a t e g y p r o p o s e d i s t h a t o f o r d e r i n g an a r r a y o f i n s t r u m e n t s ; by a p p r o p r i a t i n g , a d a p t i n g and m o d i f y i n g e x i s t i n g p r o v e n i n s t r u m e n t s and a l s o by d e v e l -o p i n g new ones, and t h e n , i n the s i t u a t i o n t o be i n v e s t -i g a t e d , c o n d u c t i n g an e x p l o r a t o r y phase t o determine t h o s e i n s t r u m e n t s or c o m b i n a t i o n s o f i n s t r u m e n t most s e n s i t i v e , v a l i d , and r e l i a b l e to t h a t c o n t e x t . Thus, i n the s t u d y o f a g i v e n o r g a n i z a t i o n a b a t t e r y c o n s i s t i n g of the s h o r t S c o t t S c a l e , the Rokeach i n s t r u m e n t c o n s i s t i n g of 36 t e r m i n a l and i n s t r u m e n t a l v a l u e s , and an ad_ hoc I n -strument c o n s i s t i n g o f v a l u e measures p e c u l i a r to the o r g a n i z a t i o n might be a d m i n i s t e r e d to a random sampling o f o r g a n i z a t i o n members. An a n a l y s i s o f t h i s p r e l i m i n a r y 271 s u r v e y would i n d i c a t e t h o s e h i e r a r c h i c a l s t r a t a , and o r g a n i z a t i o n a l s u b g r o u p i n g s , which t e n d t o d i f f e r s i g n i f -i c a n t l y on c e r t a i n o f the p r e s e n t e d v a l u e s . These v a l -ues c o u l d t h e n form the f o c u s o f c o n c e n t r a t i o n . An ap-p r o p r i a t e i n s t r u m e n t d e s i g n e d f o r t h e s e v a l u e s c o u l d be c o n s t r u c t e d , v a l i d a t e d , and b r o u g h t t o the h i g h e s t l e v e l o f r e l i a b i l i t y c o n s i s t e n t w i t h the c i r c u m s t a n c e s of i n -v e s t i g a t i o n . A p r i m a r y c o n c e r n i n the e f f o r t t o answer some of t h e q u e s t i o n s posed above and to v e r i f y or j u s t i f y the s c h e m a t i c o u t l i n e Is t h a t of i d e n t i f y i n g the p a r t i c u l a r v a l u e s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of each c l a s s and among t h e s e i d e n -t i f y i n g t h o s e most u s e f u l f o r r e s e a r c h and h y p o t h e s i s t e s t i n g . In a g i v e n o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c o n t e x t what are the o r g a n i z a t i o n a l t e r m i n a l and i n s t r u m e n t a l v a l u e s and what are the i d e o l o g i c a l v a l u e s s a n c t i o n i n g and m o d i f y i n g the o r g a n i z a t i o n a l v a l u e system? In t u r n , what i d i o g r a p h i c v a l u e s are i n f l u e n c e d , or l i k e l y to be i n f l u e n c e d , by t h e s e systems? In the i n i t i a l s t a g e s i t would seem t h a t each o r g a n i z a t i o n a l case would have to be t r e a t e d i n a s p e c i f i c e x p l o r a t o r y manner and a number o f a_d hoc s t u d i e s made b e f o r e more g e n e r a l t a c t i c s c o u l d be adopted. The p o s s i b i l i t i e s of n o n - o b j e c t i v e measures of v a l u e ( i n t e r v i e w , c o n t e n t a n a l y s i s e t c . ) are not to be 272 o v e r l o o k e d b ut t h e y are p r i m a r i l y c o n c e i v e d as e i t h e r e x p l o r a t i v e d e v i c e s or v a l i d a t i n g t e c h n i q u e s s i n c e the d e s i r e d aim Is t o make r e a s o n a b l y o b j e c t i v e q u a n t i t a t i v e s t u d i e s o f v a l u e which can be s u b j e c t e d t o s t a t i s t i c a l t r e a t m e n t . L o n g i t u d i n a l S t u d i e s I t i s s u g g e s t e d t h a t a u n i v e r s i t y s e t t i n g p r o -v i d e s an i d e a l l o c u s f o r the i n i t i a t i o n o f a s e r i e s o f l o n g i t u d i n a l s t u d i e s s i n c e i t i s p o s s i b l e to form e x p e r -i m e n t a l and c o n t r o l groups of p r e - p r o f e s s i o n a l s u b j e c t s p r i o r t o t h e i r e n t r y i n t o p r o f e s s i o n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n a l e n v i r o n m e n t s . I t would be p o s s i b l e t h e n t o f o l l o w such groups t h r o u g h the e a r l y s t a g e s of t h e i r c a r e e r , p a r t i -c u l a r l y t h r o u g h the i n i t i a t o r y or a c c u l t u r a t i o n phase o f e n t r y i n t o o r g a n i z a t i o n a l l i f e . The m e d i c a l p r o f e s s i o n would seem t o be o f p e c u l i a r i n t e r e s t here s i n c e an o r g a n i z a t i o n a l phase of I n t e r n s h i p i s commonly f o l l o w e d by p r i v a t e p r a c t i c e . I f the key v a l u e v a r i a b l e s can be i d e n t i f i e d i t s h o u l d be p o s s i b l e by means of l o n g i t u d i n -a l s t u d y t o a s s e s s changes which o c c u r t h r o u g h o u t a m e d i c a l p r a c t i t i o n e r ' s c a r e e r and p o s s i b l y o b s e r v e w i t h p a r t i c u l a r c l a r i t y the s p e c i a l i n f l u e n c e , i f any, of the o r g a n i z a t i o n a l phase. 273 The l o n g i t u d i n a l s t u d y need not be c o n f i n e d t o p r o f e s s i o n s w i t h e s t a b l i s h e d s c h o o l s on the u n i v e r s i t y campus. C a r e e r s i n the m i l i t a r y , the p o l i c e , and i n m a n u f a c t u r i n g , s a y , can be s t u d i e d over time from o t h e r 3 s t a r t i n g p o i n t s , e_.g_. i n h i g h s c h o o l s or t r a d e s c h o o l s . The paradigm i s s i m p l y the c l a s s i c t e s t - t r e a t m e n t - p o s t -t e s t w i t h t r e a t m e n t b e i n g d e f i n e d as n e a r l y as p o s s i b l e as o r g a n i z a t i o n a l i n f l u e n c e . A n oteworthy p o i n t w i t h r e g a r d t o l o n g i t u d i n a l s t u d y a r i s e s from the assumed n a t u r e o f v a l u e . I f v a l u e i s more c e n t r a l t o the psyche than a t t i t u d e s , as we have a r g u e d , and i f i t i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by r e l a t i v e p e r s i s t e n c e o v e r time and i s h i g h l y p r e d i c t a b l e from b i o -g r a p h i c a l v a r i a b l e s t h e n a most f i t t i n g and r e w a r d i n g mode o f s t u d y might be over the v e r y l o n g term, say, 10 t o 25 y e a r s . Such p r o t r a c t e d i n v e s t i g a t i o n s , i f under-t a k e n , would f u r n i s h a n o t h e r i n c e n t i v e f o r b e g i n n i n g at the u n i v e r s i t y p r o f e s s i o n a l s c h o o l l e v e l s i n c e such 3 A s p e c i a l i n s t a n c e o f such case s t u d i e s i s p r e -s e n t e d by the merchant s h i p . T y p i c a l l y , f r e i g h t e r s or tramp s h i p s s i g n on w i t h e n t i r e l y new crews f o r g l o b a l voyages e x t e n d i n g commonly between one and two y e a r s . Such s h i p s r e p r e s e n t o r g a n i z a t i o n s w i t h h i g h l y s t r u c -t u r e d , h i e r a r c h i c a l l i f e - s p a c e which are v i r t u a l m i c r o -cosmic e n t i t i e s on the l o n g p e r i o d s of voyage between p o r t s . The i n f l u e n c e o f s h i p as frame of r e f e r e n c e s h o u l d be p a r t i c u l a r l y d i s c e r n i b l e because of the unique c o n t e x t u a l f e a t u r e s . 274-s c h o o l s t e n d t o produce g r a d u a t e s w i t h l i f e l o n g commit-ments t o t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e c a r e e r s and who are a l s o more amenable t o I d e n t i f i c a t i o n and t r a c i n g over time t h r o u g h p r o f e s s i o n a l r e c o r d s . C o m p a r a t i v e S t u d i e s C o n c o m i t a n t l y w i t h the l o n g i t u d i n a l s t u d i e s des-c r i b e d above, and employing the same methodology, compar-a t i v e i n t e r o r g a n i z a t i o n a l and i n t e r p r o f e s s i o n a l s t u d i e s c o u l d be u n d e r t a k e n . T h i s would appear t o be a l i k e l y a r e a f o r p r o g r e s s towards a t h e o r y of o r g a n i z a t i o n v a l u e . O r g a n i z a t i o n a l t y p o l o g i e s have been d e v e l o p e d ( B l a u , S c o t t , E t z i o n i , o p . c i t . ) and t h e s e can be employed f o r the s e l e c t i o n o f o r g a n i z a t i o n s f o r s t u d y . When the c a r e e r s o f e n t r a n t s t o these o r g a n i z a t i o n s are s t u d i e d o v e r t i m e , and when combined w i t h c o m p a r a t i v e and d i s -c r i m i n a n t a n a l y s i s i t s h o u l d be p o s s i b l e t o d e t e c t and i s o l a t e the s e v e r a l i n f l u e n c e s upon v a l u e p o s t u l a t e d i n the schema above. These s u g g e s t i o n s and p r o p o s a l s have been con-f i n e d t o the e m p i r i c a l a s p e c t s of dat a c o l l e c t i o n . Such dat a cannot be c o n s i d e r e d as end but merely as means f o r c o n f i r m i n g or s u g g e s t i n g t h e o r y . 275 Theory C o n s t r u c t i o n V a l u e t h e o r y must have i t s g e n e s i s i n and t a k e i t s exodus from p h i l o s o p h y . Whether p h i l o s o p h y be con-s i d e r e d as the a n a l y t i c s t u d y o f languages or the sy n -t h e t i c s e a r c h f o r wisdom i t w i l l be g e n e r a l l y conceded t h a t t h e o r y of v a l u e must a c h i e v e some degree o f p h i l o -s o p h i c a l l e g i t i m a c y i f i t i s t o have f i n a l s i g n i f i c a n c e . In the c r o s s - d i s c i p l i n e a p p r oach p r o p o s e d here i t i s sug-g e s t e d t h a t an i n i t i a l p h i l o s o p h i c a l c o n t r i b u t i o n be an e f f o r t t o d e l i n e a t e and c l a r i f y the b o u n d a r i e s o f and m a r g i n a l a r e a s between e t h i c s , a x i o l o g y , moral p h i l o s o p h y , and the p s y c h o l o g i c a l s t u d y of v a l u e f o r the purpos e s o f the s p e c i f i c r e s e a r c h p r o j e c t s to be u n d e r t a k e n . W i t h i n the bounds s e t by p h i l o s o p h y i t seems r e a s o n a b l e to d e l e -gate the t a s k o f e s t a b l i s h i n g and e x p l a i n i n g t h e o r y o f o r g a n i z a t i o n a l v a l u e to the f i e l d o f s o c i a l p s y c h o l o g y . T h i s s i n c e much o f the o r i g i n a l work w i t h r e g a r d t o v a l -ues i n t h i s f i e l d has been done i n the p a s t by S h e r i f (op. c i t . ) and i s b e i n g done i n the p r e s e n t by Rokeach (op . c i t . ) . S i m i l a r l y , w i t h r e g a r d t o o r g a n i z a t i o n s , the work o f Katz and Kahn can be n o t e d . (op . c i t . ) A major t a s k i s s e t f o r t h e o r y b u i l d i n g by the need f o r e l u c i d a t i o n o f the d i s t i n c t i o n between a t t i t u d e s and v a l u e s . I t has been argued above ( C h a p . I I . p p . 5 5 f f . ) 276 t h a t a l i k e l y a p p r o a c h t o the s o l u t i o n o f t h i s p roblem might be f o u n d i n the t e c h n i q u e s o f f a c t o r a n a l y s i s . I t has a l s o been a r g u e d , however, ( I b i d . , p a s s i m . ) t h a t the p s y c h o l o g i e s o f p e r s o n a l i t y and m o t i v a t i o n must be con-s u l t e d . To sum up, the a r e a s which seem d e s e r v i n g o f e a r l y a t t e n t i o n a r e : a) programme development f o r f a c t o r a n a l y t i c s t u d y o f a t t i t u d e s and v a l u e s . b) c l a r i f i c a t i o n o f d i s t i n c t i o n between a t t i t u d e and v a l u e . c) r e c o n c i l i a t i o n o f v a l u e c o n c e p t w i t h f i n d i n g s o f m o t i v a t i o n a l t h e o r y and r e -s e a r c h . d) r e c o n c i l i a t i o n of v a l u e concept w i t h f i n d i n g s of p e r s o n a l i t y t h e o r y and r e s e a r c h . e) i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of v a l u e s w i t h r e g a r d t o the c o n c e p t u a l o u t l i n e . C o n c l u s i o n T h i s c h a p t e r has d i s c u s s e d the p r o s p e c t s o f con-c e r t e d r e s e a r c h to the end of i n v e s t i g a t i n g the s p e c i a l i n f l u e n c e o f o r g a n i z a t i o n a l membership upon i n d i v i d u a l v a l u e systems. A t e n t a t i v e c o n c e p t u a l o u t l i n e was 277 d e v e l o p e d t o p r o v i d e g u i d e l i n e s f o r the d i r e c t i o n o f such r e s e a r c h . Some i l l u s t r a t i v e p r o p o s i t i o n s and hypo-t h e s e s were a l s o p r e s e n t e d . The d i s s e r t a t i o n as a whole has examined the r e l a t i o n s h i p s between v a l u e s , a t t i t u d e s , p e r c e p t i o n s and s o c i a l b e h a v i o u r i n o r g a n i z a t i o n s . Hypotheses were d e v e l o p e d and t e s t e d i n e m p i r i c a l s t u d y . I m p l i c a t i o n s f o r f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h were th e n adduced. The s p e c i a l r e l e v a n c e o f the stud y t o e d u c a t i o n l i e s i n the i n t i m a t e c o n c e r n o f t h a t f i e l d o f human endeavour w i t h i s s u e s o f v a l u e . 278 R e f e r e n c e s f o r C h a p t e r V l l A l l p o r t , G.W., Vernon, P.E., L i n d z e y , G. Study o f V a l u e s . 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"The P r i n c i p l e o f Con-g r u i t y i n the P r e d i c t i o n o f A t t i t u d e Change" " P s y c h o l o g i c a l Review 1955, No. 62, pp.42-55 P a r k e r , D.H. "Value as any O b j e c t o f Any I n t e r e s t " I n t e r n a t i o n a l J o u r n a l o f E t h i c s 40:466, 468, J u l y 1930 P a r s o n s , T . S t r u c t u r e and P r o c e s s In Modern S o c i e t i e s . F r e e P r e s s , G l e n c o e , 1960 , S h i l s , E.A. eds. Toward a G e n e r a l Theory of A c t i o n . H a r v a r d U.P. Cambridge, Mass., 1954 Pepper, S.C. The Sources of V a l u e . U. o f C a l i f . P r e s s , B e r k e l e y , 1958 P e r r y , R.B. G e n e r a l Theory of V a l u e . Longmans, Green, N.Y. 1926 Realms of V a l u e . H a r v a r d U.P. Cambridge, Mass., 1954 P i a g e t , J . The M o r a l Judgment o f the C h i l d . Free P r e s s , N.Y. 1965 P o l a n y i , M. P e r s o n a l Knowledge. U. of Chicago P r e s s , C h i c a g o , 1958 Postman, L., B r u n e r , J.S., M c G i n n i e s , E. " P e r s o n a l V a l -ues as S e l e c t i v e F a c t o r s i n P e r c e p t i o n " J o u r n a l of Abnormal and S o c i a l P s y c h o l o g y , 1948, No. 43, pp .142-154 288 P r i n c e , R. I n d i v i d u a l V a l u e s and A d m i n i s t r a t i v e E f f e c t -i v e n e s s . Unpub. Ph.D. d i s s e r t a t i o n . U. o f C h i c a g o , 1957 Rasmussen, G.R. " P e r c e i v e d V a l u e D i s c r e p a n c i e s o f T e a c h e r s and P r i n c i p a l s -- A t h r e a t t o C r e a t i v e T e a c h i n g " The B u l l e t i n o f t h e N a t i o n a l A s s o c i a -t i o n o f Secondary S c h o o l P r i n c i p a l s , V o l . 4-6 , No. 272, March 1962, pp.1-12 Raup, R.B. Complacency • M a c M i l l a n , N.Y. 1926 Riesman, D. The L o n e l y Crowd. A Study o f the Changing American C h a r a c t e r . Y a l e U.P. New Haven, Conn. 1950 R o e t h l i s b e r g e r , F . J . , D i c k s o n , W.J. Management and the Worker. H a r v a r d U.P. Cambridge, Mass. 1939 Rokeach, M. "A Theory o f O r g a n i z a t i o n and Change w i t h i n V a l u e - A t t i t u d e Systems" J o u r n a l o f S o c i a l I s s u e s Vol.XXIV, No. 1 , 1968 , p.15 "The Role o f V a l u e s i n P u b l i c O p i n i o n Re-s e a r c h " unpub. pa p e r . American A s s o c . f o r P u b l i c O p i n i o n R e s e a r c h . C o n v e n t i o n , Santa B a r b a r a , C a l i f . , May 1968 S a h a k i a n , W.S. Systems o f E t h i c s and Value Theory. P h i l o s o p h i c a l L i b r a r y , N.Y. 1963 S c h a f e r , R., Murphy, G. "The Role of Autism i n V i s u a l F i g u r e - G r o u n d R e l a t i o n s h i p " J o u r n a l o f E x p e r i -m e ntal P s y c h o l o g y 1943, No. 32, pp.335-343 S c h e i n , E.H. O r g a n i z a t i o n a l P s y c h o l o g y . P r e n t i c e H a l l , N.J. 1965 S c h l i c k , M., R y n i n , D. t r . Problems o f E t h i c s . P r e n t i c e H a l l , N.Y. 1939 S c o t t , W.A. V a l u e s and O r g a n i z a t i o n s . Rand M c N a l l y , C h i c a g o , 1965 289 Shannon, J.R. " P e r c e n t a g e s o f Returns o f Q u e s t i o n n a i r e s i n R e p u t a b l e E d u c a t i o n a l R e s e a r c h " J o u r n a l o f E d u c a t i o n a l R e s e a r c h No. 4-2, 1948 O c t o b e r S e a r s , R.R., H o v l a n d , C . I . , M i l l e r , N.E. "Minor S t u d i e s i n A g g r e s s i o n . I. Measurement o f A g g r e s s i v e B e h a v i o r " J o u r n a l o f P s y c h o l o g y No. 9, 1949, pp.277-281 S e l z n i c k , P. " F o u n d a t i o n s o f the Theory of O r g a n i z a t i o n " American S o c i o l o g i c a l Review, 1948, No. 13, pp.25-35 . L e a d e r s h i p i n A d m i n i s t r a t i o n . Harper and Row, N.Y. 1957 S h e r i f , M. The P s y c h o l o g y o f S o c i a l Norms. H a r p e r , N.Y. 1964 S o c i a l I n t e r a c t i o n . P r o c e s s and P r o d u c t s . A l d i n e , C h i c a g o , 19 67 , S h e r i f , C.W. An O u t l i n e o f S o c i a l P s y c h o l o g y . Harper 6 Row, N.Y~ r e v . e d . 19 5 6 S h i r k , E. The E t h i c a l D imension. M e r e d i t h , N.Y. 1965 S i e g e l , S. N o n p a r a m e t r i c S t a t i s t i c s f o r the B e h a v i o r a l S c i e n c e s . M c G r a w - H i l l , London, 1956 S i l l s , D.L. The V o l u n t e e r s . Free P r e s s , G l e n c o e , 1957 S m e l s e r , N.J. Theory o f C o l l e c t i v e B e h a v i o r . R o u t l e d g e 6 Kegan P a u l , London, 1962 Smith, M.B. " P e r s o n a l V a l u e s as D e t e r m i n a n t s o f a P o l i t i c a l A t t i t u d e " J o u r n a l o f P s y c h o l o g y , 1949, No. 28, pp.477-486 , B r u n e r , J.S., White, R.W. O p i n i o n s and P e r s o n a l i t y . W i l e y , N.Y. 1964 S p i n d l e r , G. " E d u c a t i o n i n a t r a n s f o r m i n g American C u l -t u r e " H a r v a r d E d u c a t i o n a l Review, V o l . 25, No. 3, 1955 290 S t e i n e r , I.D. A Theory and an E m p i r i c a l Study o f t h e Rol e o f R e f e r e n c e Groups. Unpub. M a s t e r ' s t h e s i s , U. o f M i c h i g a n , 1948 S t o g d i l l , R.M., S h a r t l e , C L . Methods i n the Study o f A d m i n i s t r a t i v e L e a d e r s h i p . Bureau o f B u s i n e s s R e s e a r c h , Ohio U. Columbus, Ohio, 1955 T a g l u r i , R. "Value O r i e n t a t i o n s and the R e l a t i o n s h i p o f Managers and S c i e n t i s t s " A d m i n i s t r a t i v e S c i e n c e Q u a r t e r l y V o l . 10, No. 1, June 1965, pp.39-51 T h e l e n , H.A., G e t z e l s , J.W. "The S o c i a l S c i e n c e s : C o n c e p t u a l Framework f o r E d u c a t i o n " S c h o o l Review LXV Autumn, 1957, p.346 Thomas, E . J . , F i n k , C F . " E f f e c t o f Group S i z e " P s y c h o l o g i c a l B u l l e t i n 1963, No. 60, pp.371-384 Thompson, J.D., McEwen, W.J. " O r g a n i z a t i o n a l G o a l s and E n v i r o n m e n t " American S o c i o l o g i c a l Review 23 (1958 ) , pp.23^31 T h u r s t o n e , L.L. A F a c t o r i a l Study o f P e r c e p t i o n . U. o f Ch i c a g o P r e s s , C h i c a g o , 1944 Wat k i n s , J . F . "The OCDQ -- An A p p l i c a t i o n and Some I m p l i c a t i o n s " E d u c a t i o n a l A d m i n i s t r a t i o n Q u a r t e r l y V o l . I V , No. 2, S p r i n g 1968 , pp.48-60 Whyte , W.J. j r . The O r g a n i z a t i o n Man. Doubleday, N.Y. 19 5 6 W i l l i a m s , G. The Human P e r s p e c t i v e . B e i n g an I n t e r e s t Theory o f V a l u e . Kramer, Oregon, Wis., 1930 W i l s o n , J . , W i l l i a m s , N., Sugarman, B. I n t r o d u c t i o n to M o r a l E d u c a t i o n . P e n g u i n , Harmondsworth, 1967 Y u l e , G.U., K e n d a l l , M.G. An I n t r o d u c t i o n to the Theory o f S t a t i s t i c s . G r i f f i n , London, 1950 Z a j o n c , R.B. " B a l a n c e , C o n g r u i t y , and D i s s o n a n c e " P u b l i c O p i n i o n Q u a r t e r l y 1960, No. 24, pp.280-296 APPENDICES 291 APPENDIX A The OCDQ Inst r u m e n t (1) The OCDQ i n s t r u m e n t as used i n the p r e s e n t s t u d y : O r g a n i z a t i o n a l C l i m a t e D e s c r i p t i o n Q u e s t i o n n a i r e The f o l l o w i n g l i s t o f items are used t o d e s c r i b e the o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c l i m a t e or the " p e r s o n a l i t y " o f a s c h o o l o r g a n i z a t i o n . The items d e s c r i b e t y p i c a l b e h a v i o u r or c o n d i t i o n s t h a t o c c u r w i t h i n a s c h o o l . P l e a s e do not e v a l u a t e them i n terms o f "good" or "bad" but c o n s i d e r how w e l l each s t a t e m e n t d e s c r i b e s y o u r s c h o o l . I t i s i m p o r t a n t t h a t y o u r answers be " i n d e p e n d e n t " , so p l e a s e do n o t d i s c u s s y o u r answers w i t h o t h e r s t a f f mem-be r s b e f o r e c o l l e c t i o n o f the i n s t r u m e n t s . P l e a s e be f r a n k i n your r e s p o n s e s w i t h the a s s u r a n c e t h a t i n d i v i d -u a l r e s p o n s e s are s t r i c t l y c o n f i d e n t i a l . The i t e m s s h o u l d be marked by c i r c l i n g the a p p r o p r i a t e number, u s i n g the f o l l o w i n g s c a l e : h. Very f r e q u e n t l y o c c u r s , 3. O f t e n o c c u r s , 2. Sometimes o c c u r s , 1. R a r e l y o c c u r s , 0. Never o c c u r s . T e a c h e r s ' c l o s e s t f r i e n d s are o t h e r s t a f f members a t t h i s s c h o o l . The mannerisms o f t e a c h e r s at t h i s s c h o o l are a n n o y i n g . T e a c h e r s spend time a f t e r s c h o o l w i t h s t u d e n t s who have i n d i v i d u a l p r o b l e m s . I n s t r u c t i o n s f o r the o p e r a t i o n o f t e a c h i n g a i d s are a v a i l -a b l e . T e a c h e r s i n v i t e o t h e r f a c u l t y members t o v i s i t them at home . There i s a m i n o r i t y group o f t e a c h e r s who always oppose the m a j o r i t y . E x t r a books are a v a i l a b l e f o r c l a s s r o o m use. S u f f i c i e n t time i s g i v e n t o p r e p a r e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e r e p o r t s . T e a c h e r s know the f a m i l y background., o f o t h e r s t a f f members. 292 In s t a f f m e e t i n g s , t h e r e I s the f e e l i n g o f " l e t ' s g e t t h i n g s done" . A d m i n i s t r a t i v e paper work i s burdensome at t h i s s c h o o l . T e a c h e r s t a l k about t h e i r p e r s o n a l l i f e t o o t h e r s t a f f members. T e a c h e r s seek s p e c i a l f a v o u r s from the p r i n c i p a l . S c h o o l s u p p l i e s are r e a d i l y a v a i l a b l e f o r use i n c l a s s -work . Student p r o g r e s s r e p o r t s r e q u i r e too much work. T e a c h e r s have f u n s o c i a l i z i n g t o g e t h e r d u r i n g s c h o o l time . T e a c h e r s i n t e r r u p t o t h e r s t a f f members who are t a l k i n g i n s t a f f meetings . Most o f the t e a c h e r s here a c c e p t the f a u l t s o f t h e i r c o l l e a g u e s . T e a c h e r s have too many committee r e q u i r e m e n t s . There i s c o n s i d e r a b l e l a u g h t e r when t e a c h e r s g a t h e r i n -f o r m a l l y . T e a c h e r s ask n o n s e n s i c a l q u e s t i o n s at s t a f f m e e t i n g s . C u s t o d i a l s e r v i c e i s a v a i l a b l e when needed. R o u t i n e d u t i e s i n t e r f e r e w i t h the job o f t e a c h i n g . T e a c h e r s p r e p a r e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e r e p o r t s by t h e m s e l v e s . T e a c h e r s ramble when they t a l k a t s t a f f m e e t i n g s . T e a c h e r s at t h i s s c h o o l show much s c h o o l s p i r i t . The p r i n c i p a l goes out of h i s way to h e l p t e a c h e r s . The p r i n c i p a l h e l p s t e a c h e r s s o l v e p e r s o n a l p roblems. T e a c h e r s at t h i s s c h o o l s t a y by t h e m s e l v e s . The t e a c h e r s a c c o m p l i s h t h e i r work w i t h g r e a t vim, v i g o u r , and p l e a s u r e . 293 The p r i n c i p a l s e t s an example by wo r k i n g h a r d h i m s e l f . The p r i n c i p a l does p e r s o n a l f a v o u r s f o r t e a c h e r s . T e a c h e r s e at l u n c h by t h e m s e l v e s i n t h e i r own c l a s s r o o m s . The morale o f the t e a c h e r s i s h i g h . The p r i n c i p a l u ses c o n s t r u c t i v e c r i t i c i s m . The p r i n c i p a l s t a y s a f t e r s c h o o l t o h e l p t e a c h e r s f i n i s h t h e i r work . T e a c h e r s s o c i a l i z e t o g e t h e r i n s m a l l s e l e c t g r o u p s . The p r i n c i p a l makes a l l c l a s s - s c h e d u l i n g d e c i s i o n s . T e a c h e r s a r e c o n t a c t e d by the p r i n c i p a l each day. The p r i n c i p a l i s w e l l p r e p a r e d when he speaks at s c h o o l f u n c t i o n s . The p r i n c i p a l h e l p s s t a f f members s e t t l e minor d i f f e r -ences . The p r i n c i p a l s c h e d u l e s the work f o r the t e a c h e r s . T e a c h e r s l e a v e the grounds d u r i n g the s c h o o l day. T e a c h e r s h e l p s e l e c t which c o u r s e s w i l l be t a u g h t . The p r i n c i p a l c o r r e c t s t e a c h e r s ' m i s t a k e s . The p r i n c i p a l t a l k s a g r e a t d e a l . The p r i n c i p a l e x p l a i n s h i s r e a s o n s f o r c r i t i c i s m t o t e a c h e r s . The p r i n c i p a l f a v o u r s b e t t e r s a l a r i e s f o r t e a c h e r s . E x t r a duty ( s u p e r v i s i o n e t c . ) f o r t e a c h e r s i s p o s t e d c o n s p i c u o u s l y . The r u l e s s e t by the p r i n c i p a l are never q u e s t i o n e d . The p r i n c i p a l l o o k s out f o r the p e r s o n a l w e l f a r e o f t e a c h e r s . S c h o o l s e c r e t a r i a l s e r v i c e i s a v a i l a b l e f o r t e a c h e r s ' use 294 The p r i n c i p a l runs t h e s t a f f m e e ting l i k e a b u s i n e s s c o n f e r e n c e . The p r i n c i p a l i s i n the b u i l d i n g b e f o r e t e a c h e r s a r r i v e . T e a c h e r s work t o g e t h e r p r e p a r i n g a d m i n i s t r a t i v e r e p o r t s . S t a f f m e e t i n g s are o r g a n i z e d a c c o r d i n g t o a t i g h t agenda. S t a f f m e etings are m a i n l y p r i n c i p a l - r e p o r t m e e t i n g s . The p r i n c i p a l t e l l s t e a c h e r s o f new i d e a s he has r a n a c r o s s . T e a c h e r s t a l k about l e a v i n g the s c h o o l system. The p r i n c i p a l checks the s u b j e c t - m a t t e r a b i l i t y o f t e a c h e r s . The p r i n c i p a l i s easy t o u n d e r s t a n d . T e a c h e r s are i n f o r m e d of the r e s u l t s of a s u p e r v i s o r ' s v i s i t . The p r i n c i p a l i n s u r e s t h a t t e a c h e r s work t o t h e i r f u l l c a p a c i t y . (2) The OCDQ i n s t r u m e n t Form IV as used by H a l p i n (op. c i t . ) w i t h items a r r a n g e d under s u b t e s t heads. Disengagement The mannerisms of t e a c h e r s at t h i s s c h o o l are a n n o y i n g . There i s a m i n o r i t y group of t e a c h e r s who always oppose the m a j o r i t y . T e a c h e r s e x e r t group p r e s s u r e on nonconforming f a c u l t y members . Te a c h e r s seek s p e c i a l f a v o r s from the p r i n c i p a l . T e a c h e r s i n t e r r u p t o t h e r f a c u l t y members who are t a l k i n g i n s t a f f m e e t i n g s . T e a c h e r s ask n o n s e n s i c a l q u e s t i o n s - i n f a c u l t y m e e t i n g s . 295 T e a c h e r s ramble when the y t a l k i n f a c u l t y m e e t i n g s . T e a c h e r s a t t h i s s c h o o l s t a y by t h e m s e l v e s . T e a c h e r s t a l k about l e a v i n g the s c h o o l system. T e a c h e r s s o c i a l i z e t o g e t h e r i n s m a l l s e l e c t g r o u p s . H i n d r a n c e R o u t i n e d u t i e s i n t e r f e r e w i t h the job of t e a c h i n g . T e a c h e r s have too many committee r e q u i r e m e n t s . S t u d e n t p r o g r e s s r e p o r t s r e q u i r e too much work. A d m i n i s t r a t i v e paper work i s burdensome at t h i s s c h o o l . S u f f i c i e n t time i s g i v e n to p r e p a r e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e r e -p o r t s . ( R e v e r s e - s c o r e d ) I n s t r u c t i o n s f o r the o p e r a t i o n o f t e a c h i n g a i d s are a v a i l a b l e . ( R e v e r s e - s c o r e d ) E s p r i t The morale o f the t e a c h e r s i s h i g h . The t e a c h e r s a c c o m p l i s h t h e i r work w i t h g r e a t vim, v i g o r , and p l e a s u r e . T e a c h e r s at t h i s s c h o o l show much s c h o o l s p i r i t . C u s t o d i a l s e r v i c e i s a v a i l a b l e when needed. Most o f the t e a c h e r s here a c c e p t the f a u l t s o f t h e i r c o l l e a g u e s . S c h o o l s u p p l i e s are r e a d i l y a v a i l a b l e f o r use i n c l a s s -work . There i s c o n s i d e r a b l e l a u g h t e r when t e a c h e r s g a t h e r i n f o r m a l l y . In f a c u l t y m e e t i n g s , t h e r e i s the f e e l i n g of " l e t ' s get t h i n g s done". 296 T e a c h e r s spend time a f t e r s c h o o l w i t h s t u d e n t s who have i n d i v i d u a l p r o b l e m s . E x t r a books are a v a i l a b l e f o r c l a s s r o o m u s e. I n t i m a c y T e a c h e r s ' c l o s e s t f r i e n d s are o t h e r f a c u l t y members a t t h i s s c h o o l . T e a c h e r s i n v i t e o t h e r f a c u l t y members t o v i s i t them at home . T e a c h e r s know the f a m i l y background o f o t h e r f a c u l t y members. T e a c h e r s t a l k about t h e i r p e r s o n a l l i f e t o o t h e r f a c u l t y members. T e a c h e r s have f u n s o c i a l i z i n g t o g e t h e r d u r i n g s c h o o l time T e a c h e r s work t o g e t h e r p r e p a r i n g a d m i n i s t r a t i v e r e p o r t s . T e a c h e r s p r e p a r e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e r e p o r t s by t h e m s e l v e s . ( R e v e r s e - s c o r e d ) A l o o f n e s s F a c u l t y m eetings are o r g a n i z e d a c c o r d i n g to a t i g h t agenda. F a c u l t y meetings are m a i n l y p r i n c i p a l - r e p o r t m e e t i n g s . The p r i n c i p a l runs the f a c u l t y meeting l i k e a b u s i n e s s c o n f e r e n c e . T e a c h e r s l e a v e the grounds d u r i n g the s c h o o l day. Te a c h e r s eat l u n c h by th e m s e l v e s i n t h e i r own c l a s s r o o m s . The r u l e s s e t by the p r i n c i p a l are never q u e s t i o n e d . T e a c h e r s are c o n t a c t e d by the p r i n c i p a l each day. S c h o o l s e c r e t a r i a l s e r v i c e i s a v a i l a b l e f o r t e a c h e r s ' use ( R e v e r s e - s c o r e d ) 297 T e a c h e r s a r e i n f o r m e d o f the r e s u l t s o f a s u p e r v i s o r ' s v i s i t . ( R e v e r s e - s c o r e d ) P r o d u c t i o n Emphasis The p r i n c i p a l makes a l l c l a s s s c h e d u l i n g d e c i s i o n s . The p r i n c i p a l s c h e d u l e s the work f o r the t e a c h e r s . The p r i n c i p a l checks the s u b j e c t - m a t t e r a b i l i t y of t e a c h e r s . The p r i n c i p a l c o r r e c t s t e a c h e r s ' m i s t a k e s . The p r i n c i p a l i n s u r e s t h a t t e a c h e r s work to t h e i r f u l l c a p a c i t y . E x t r a duty f o r t e a c h e r s i s p o s t e d c o n s p i c u o u s l y . The p r i n c i p a l t a l k s a g r e a t d e a l . T h r u s t The p r i n c i p a l goes out o f h i s way t o h e l p t e a c h e r s . The p r i n c i p a l s e t s an example by working har d h i m s e l f . The p r i n c i p a l uses c o n s t r u c t i v e c r i t i c i s m . The p r i n c i p a l i s w e l l p r e p a r e d when he speaks at s c h o o l f u n c t i o n s . The p r i n c i p a l e x p l a i n s h i s r e a s o n s f o r c r i t i c i s m t o t e a c h e r s . The p r i n c i p a l l o o k s out f o r t h e p e r s o n a l w e l f a r e o f t e a c h e r s . The p r i n c i p a l i s i n the b u i l d i n g b e f o r e the t e a c h e r s a r r i v e . The p r i n c i p a l t e l l s t e a c h e r s o f new i d e a s he has run a c r o s s . The p r i n c i p a l i s easy t o u n d e r s t a n d . 298 C o n s i d e r a t i o n The p r i n c i p a l h e l p s t e a c h e r s s o l v e p e r s o n a l p r o b l e m s . The p r i n c i p a l does p e r s o n a l f a v o r s f o r t e a c h e r s . The p r i n c i p a l s t a y s a f t e r s c h o o l t o h e l p t e a c h e r s f i n i s h t h e i r work. The p r i n c i p a l h e l p s s t a f f members s e t t l e minor d i f f e r e n c e s . T e a c h e r s h e l p s e l e c t which c o u r s e s w i l l be t a u g h t . The p r i n c i p a l t r i e s t o get b e t t e r s a l a r i e s f o r t e a c h e r s . 299 APPENDIX B O r g a n i z a t i o n a l Climate V i g n e t t e s ( a f t e r H a l p i n , op . c i t . pp.174-181) Open Climate The Open Climate d e p i c t s a s i t u a t i o n i n which the members enjoy extremely h i g h E s p r i t . The t e a c h e r s work w e l l t o -gether without b i c k e r i n g and g r i p i n g (low Disengagement). They are not burdened by mountains of busywork or by-r o u t i n e r e p o r t s ; the p r i n c i p a l ' s p o l i c i e s f a c i l i t a t e the t e a c h e r s ' accomplishment of t h e i r t a s k s (low H i n -d r a n c e ) . On the whole, the group members enjoy f r i e n d l y r e l a t i o n s w i t h each o t h e r , but they a p p a r e n t l y f e e l no mood f o r an extremely h i g h degree of Intimacy. The t e a c h e r s o b t a i n c o n s i d e r a b l e job s a t i s f a c t i o n , and are s u f f i c i e n t l y m o tivated to overcome d i f f i c u l t i e s and f r u s -t r a t i o n s . They possess the i n c e n t i v e t o work t h i n g s out and to keep the o r g a n i z a t i o n "moving". Furthermore, the t e a c h e r s are proud to be a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e i r s c h o o l . The b e h a v i o r of the p r i n c i p a l r e p r e s e n t s an a p p r o p r i a t e i n t e g r a t i o n between h i s own p e r s o n a l i t y and the r o l e he i s r e q u i r e d to p l a y as p r i n c i p a l . In t h i s r e s p e c t h i s b e h a v i o r can be viewed as genuine. Not only does he set an example by working hard h i m s e l f (high Thrust) b u t , depending upon the s i t u a t i o n , he can e i t h e r c r i t i c i z e the a c t i o n s of t e a c h e r s or go out of h i s way to help a t e a c h e r ( h i g h C o n s i d e r a t i o n ) . He possesses the person-a l f l e x i b i l i t y to be genuine whether he be r e q u i r e d to c o n t r o l and d i r e c t the a c t i v i t i e s of others or to show compassion i n s a t i s f y i n g the s o c i a l needs of i n d i v i d u a l t e a c h e r s . He has i n t e g r i t y i n t h a t he i s " a l l of a p i e c e " and t h e r e f o r e can f u n c t i o n w e l l i n e i t h e r s i t u a -t i o n . He i s not a l o o f , nor are the r u l e s and proced-ures which he s e t s up i n f l e x i b l e and i m p e r s o n a l . None-t h e l e s s , the r u l e s and r e g u l a t i o n s t h a t he adheres to p r o v i d e him w i t h s u b t l e d i r e c t i o n and c o n t r o l f o r the t e a c h e r s . He does not have to emphasize p r o d u c t i o n ; nor does he need to monitor the t e a c h e r s ' a c t i v i t i e s c l o s e l y , because the teachers do, indeed, produce e a s i l y and f r e e l y . He does not do a l l the work h i m s e l f be-cause he has the a b i l i t y to l e t a p p r o p r i a t e l e a d e r s h i p a c t s emerge from the teachers (low P r o d u c t i o n Emphasis). 300 W i t h a l , he i s i n f u l l c o n t r o l o f the s i t u a t i o n , and he c l e a r l y p r o v i d e s l e a d e r s h i p f o r the s t a f f . Autonomous C l i m a t e The d i s t i n g u i s h i n g f e a t u r e o f t h i s O r g a n i z a t i o n a l C l i -mate i s the a l m o s t complete freedom -chat the p r i n c i p a l g i v e s t o t e a c h e r s t o p r o v i d e t h e i r own s t r u c t u r e s - f o r -i n t e r a c t i o n so t h a t t h e y can f i n d ways w i t h i n the group f o r s a t i s f y i n g t h e i r s o c i a l needs. As one might s u r m i s e , the s c o r e s l e a n s l i g h t l y more toward s o c i a l - n e e d s s a t i s -f a c t i o n t h a n toward t a s k - a c h i e v e m e n t ( r e l a t i v e l y h i g h s c o r e s on E s p r i t and I n t i m a c y ) . When the t e a c h e r s are t o g e t h e r i n a t a s k - o r i e n t e d s i t u a -t i o n t h e y a r e engaged i n t h e i r work; they a c h i e v e t h e i r g o a l s e a s i l y and q u i c k l y (low Disengagement). There are few m i n o r i t y p r e s s u r e g r o u p s , but whatever s t r a t i f i c a t i o n does e x i s t among the group members does not p r e v e n t the group as a whole from w o r k i n g w e l l t o g e t h e r . The e s s e n -t i a l p o i n t i s t h a t the t e a c h e r s do work w e l l t o g e t h e r and a c c o m p l i s h the t a s k s o f the o r g a n i z a t i o n . The t e a c h e r s are not h i n d e r e d by a d m i n i s t r a t i v e p a p e r work, and t h e y do not g r i p e about the r e p o r t s t h a t they are r e q u i r e d t o submit. The p r i n c i p a l has s e t up p r o -c e d u r e s and r e g u l a t i o n s to f a c i l i t a t e the t e a c h e r s ' t a s k . A t e a c h e r does not have t o run t o the p r i n c i p a l e v e r y time he needs s u p p l i e s , books, p r o j e c t o r s , and so on; adequate c o n t r o l s have been e s t a b l i s h e d t o r e l i e v e the p r i n c i p a l as w e l l as the t e a c h e r s o f t h e s e d e t a i l s (low H i n d r a n c e ) . The morale o f the t e a c h e r s i s h i g h , but not as h i g h as i n the Open C l i m a t e . The h i g h morale p r o b a b l y stems l a r g e l y from the s o c i a l - n e e d s s a t i s f a c -t i o n which the t e a c h e r s r e c e i v e . ( E s p r i t would p r o b a b l y be h i g h e r i f g r e a t e r t a s k - a c c o m p l i s h m e n t a l s o o c c u r r e d w i t h i n the o r g a n i z a t i o n . ) The p r i n c i p a l remains a l o o f from the t e a c h e r s , f o r he r u n s t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n i n a b u s i n e s s l i k e and a r a t h e r im-p e r s o n a l manner ( h i g h A l o o f n e s s ) . His l e a d e r s h i p s t y l e f a v o r s the e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f p r o c e d u r e s and r e g u l a t i o n s which p r o v i d e g u i d e l i n e s t h a t the t e a c h e r s can f o l l o w ; he does not p e r s o n a l l y check to see t h a t t h i n g s are g e t -t i n g done. He does not f o r c e p e o p l e t o p r o d u c e , nor does he say t h a t "we s h o u l d be working h a r d e r " . I n -s t e a d , he appears s a t i s f i e d t o l e t the t e a c h e r s work at t h e i r own speed; he m o n i t o r s t h e i r a c t i v i t i e s v e r y l i t t l e (low P r o d u c t i o n E m p h a s i s ) . On the whole, he i s 301 c o n s i d e r a t e , and he a t t e m p t s t o s a t i s f y t h e s o c i a l needs o f t h e t e a c h e r s as w e l l as most p r i n c i p a l s do ( a v e r a g e C o n s i d e r a t i o n ) . The p r i n c i p a l p r o v i d e s T h r u s t f o r the o r g a n i z a t i o n by s e t t i n g an example and by working h a r d h i m s e l f . He has t h e p e r s o n a l f l e x i b i l i t y b o t h t o m a i n t a i n c o n t r o l and t o l o o k out f o r t h e p e r s o n a l w e l f a r e of t h e t e a c h e r s . He i s g e n uine and f l e x i b l e , but h i s range of a d m i n i s t r a t i v e b e h a v i o r , as compared t o t h a t o f the p r i n c i p a l i n the Open C l i m a t e , i s somewhat r e s t r i c t e d . C o n t r o l l e d C l i m a t e The C o n t r o l l e d C l i m a t e i s marked, above e v e r y t h i n g e l s e , by a p r e s s f o r achievement at the expense o f s o c i a l - n e e d s s a t i s f a c t i o n . E veryone works h a r d , and t h e r e i s l i t t l e t i m e f o r f r i e n d l y r e l a t i o n s w i t h o t h e r s or f o r d e v i a t i o n from e s t a b l i s h e d c o n t r o l s and d i r e c t i v e s . T h i s c l i m a t e i s o v e r - w e i g h t e d toward t a s k - a c h i e v e m e n t and away from s o c i a l - n e e d s s a t i s f a c t i o n . N o n e t h e l e s s , s i n c e morale i s h i g h ( E s p r i t ) , t h i s c l i m a t e can be c l a s s i f i e d as more Opened t h a n C l o s e d . The t e a c h e r s are c o m p l e t e l y en-gaged i n the t a s k . They do not b i c k e r , f i n d f a u l t , or d i f f e r w i t h the p r i n c i p a l ' s d i r e c t i v e s . They are t h e r e t o get t h e j o b done, and t h e y e x p e c t to be t o l d p e r s o n -a l l y j u s t how t o do i t (low Disengagement). There i s an e x c e s s i v e amount o f paper work, r o u t i n e r e p o r t s , busy work, and g e n e r a l H i n d r a n c e which get i n the way o f the t e a c h e r s ' t a s k - a c c o m p l i s h m e n t . Few p r o c e d u r e s have been s e t up t o f a c i l i t a t e t h e i r work; i n f a c t , paper work seems t o be used t o keep them busy ( h i g h H i n d r a n c e ) . A c c o r d i n g l y , t e a c h e r s have l i t t l e time to e s t a b l i s h v e r y f r i e n d l y s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s w i t h each o t h e r , and t h e r e i s l i t t l e f e e l i n g o f c a m a r a d e r i e (low I n t i m a c y ) . T e a c h e r s o r d i n a r i l y work by t h e m s e l v e s and are i m p e r s o n a l w i t h each o t h e r . In f a c t , s o c i a l i s o l a t i o n i s common; t h e r e are few g e n u i n e l y warm r e l a t i o n s among the t e a c h e r s . E s p r i t , however, i s s l i g h t l y above a v e r a g e . We i n f e r t h a t t h e job s a t i s f a c t i o n found i n t h i s c l i m a t e r e s u l t s p r i m a r i l y from t a s k - a c c o m p l i s h m e n t , not from s o c i a l - n e e d s s a t i s f a c t i o n . The p r i n c i p a l i s d e s c r i b e d as d o m i n a t i n g and d i r e c t i v e ; he a l l o w s l i t t l e f l e x i b i l i t y w i t h i n the o r g a n i z a t i o n , and he i n s i s t s t h a t e v e r y t h i n g be done " h i s way ( h i g h P r o d u c t i o n E m p h a s i s ) . He i s somewhat a l o o f ; he p r e f e r s to p u b l i s h d i r e c t i v e s to i n d i c a t e how each p r o c e d u r e i s to be f o l l o w e d . These d i r e c t i v e s , of c o u r s e , are i m p e r s o n a l and are used t o s t a n d a r d i z e the 302 way i n which t e a c h e r s a c c o m p l i s h c e r t a i n t a s k s . E s s e n -t i a l l y , t h e p r i n c i p a l s a y s , "My way o f d o i n g i t i s b e s t and t o h e l l w i t h the way p e o p l e f e e l . " Means and ends have a l r e a d y been d e t e r m i n e d ; the p r i n c i p a l becomes dogmatic when members o f the group do not conform t o h i s v i e w s . He c a r e s l i t t l e about how p e o p l e f e e l ; the im-p o r t a n t t h i n g i s t o get the job done, and i n h i s way. A c c o r d i n g l y , he does not seek t o s a t i s f y the group's s o c i a l needs (low C o n s i d e r a t i o n ) . N e v e r t h e l e s s , he i s t r y i n g t o move the o r g a n i z a t i o n by w orking h a r d ( a v e r a g e T h r u s t ) , and he p e r s o n a l l y sees to i t t h a t e v e r y t h i n g r u n s p r o p e r l y . He d e l e g a t e s few r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s ; l e a d e r s h i p a c t s emanate c h i e f l y from h i m s e l f , r a t h e r than from th e group. ( S u r p r i s i n g l y , i t seems t h a t many s c h o o l f a c u l t i e s a c t u a l l y r e s p o n d w e l l t o t h i s t y p e o f m i l i t a n t b e h a v i o r and a p p a r e n t l y do o b t a i n c o n s i d e r a b l e j o b s a t i s f a c t i o n w i t h i n t h i s type o f c l i m a t e . ) F a m i l i a r C l i m a t e The main f e a t u r e o f t h i s c l i m a t e i s the c o n s p i c u o u s l y f r i e n d l y manner o f b o t h the p r i n c i p a l and the t e a c h e r s . S o c i a l - n e e d s s a t i s f a c t i o n i s e x t r e m e l y h i g h , w h i l e , con-t r a r i w i s e , l i t t l e i s done t o c o n t r o l or d i r e c t the group's a c t i v i t i e s toward g o a l achievement. The t e a c h e r s are d i s e n g a g e d and a c c o m p l i s h l i t t l e i n a t a s k - o r i e n t e d s i t u a t i o n , p r i m a r i l y because the p r i n c i p a l e x e r t s l i t t l e c o n t r o l i n d i r e c t i n g t h e i r a c t i v i t i e s . A l s o , t h e r e are too many p e o p l e t r y i n g t o t e l l o t h e r s how t h i n g s s h o u l d be done ( h i g h Disengagement). The p r i n c i -p a l does not burden the t e a c h e r s w i t h r o u t i n e r e p o r t s ; i n f a c t , he makes i t as easy as p o s s i b l e f o r them t o work. P r o c e d u r a l h e l p s are a v a i l a b l e (low H i n d r a n c e ) . The t e a c h e r s have e s t a b l i s h e d p e r s o n a l f r i e n d s h i p s among t h e m s e l v e s , and s o c i a l l y , at l e a s t , everyone i s p a r t o f a b i g happy f a m i l y ( h i g h I n t i m a c y ) . M o r a l e , or job s a t i s f a c t i o n , i s a v e r a g e , but i t stems p r i m a r i l y from s o c i a l - n e e d s s a t i s f a c t i o n . In s h o r t , the E s p r i t t h a t i s found i n t h i s c l i m a t e i s o n e - s i d e d i n t h a t i t stems almost e n t i r e l y from s o c i a l - n e e d s s a t i s f a c t i o n . The b e h a v i o r a l theme o f the p r i n c i p a l i s , e s s e n t i a l l y , " l e t ' s a l l be a n i c e happy f a m i l y " ; he e v i d e n t l y i s r e l u c t a n t to be a n y t h i n g o t h e r than c o n s i d e r a t e , l e s t he may, i n h i s e s t i m a t i o n , i n j u r e the "happy f a m i l y " f e e l -i n g ( h i g h C o n s i d e r a t i o n ) . He wants everybody t o know t h a t he, t o o , i s one o f the g r o u p , . t h a t he i s i n no way d i f f e r e n t from anybody e l s e . Yet h i s a b d i c a t i o n o f 3 0 3 s o c i a l c o n t r o l i s accompanied, i r o n i c a l l y enough, by h i g h Disengagement on the p a r t o f the group. The p r i n c i p a l i s not a l o o f and not i m p e r s o n a l and o f f i -c i a l i n h i s manner. Few r u l e s and r e g u l a t i o n s are e s t a b l i s h e d as g u i d e s t o su g g e s t to the t e a c h e r s how t h i n g s " s h o u l d be done" (low A l o o f n e s s ) . The p r i n c i p a l does not emphasize p r o d u c t i o n , nor does he do much p e r -s o n a l l y to i n s u r e t h a t the t e a c h e r s are p e r f o r m i n g t h e i r t a s k s c o r r e c t l y . No one works to f u l l c a p a c i t y , y e t no one i s e v e r "wrong", a l s o , the a c t i o n s o f members at l e a s t i n r e s p e c t t o t a s k accomplishment are not c r i t i c i z e d (low P r o d u c t i o n E m p h a s i s ) . In s h o r t , l i t t l e Is done e i t h e r by d i r e c t or by i n d i r e c t means to e v a l u a t e or d i r e c t the a c t i v i t i e s of the t e a c h e r s . However, t e a c h e r s do a t t r i b u t e T h r u s t t o the p r i n c i p a l . But, i n t h i s c o n t e x t , t h i s p r o b a b l y means t h a t t h e y r e g a r d him as a "good guy" who i s i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e i r w e l f a r e and who " l o o k s out f o r them". P a t e r n a l C l i m a t e The P a t e r n a l C l i m a t e i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by the i n e f f e c t i v e a t tempts o f the p r i n c i p a l t o c o n t r o l the t e a c h e r s as w e l l as to s a t i s f y t h e i r s o c i a l needs. In our judgment, h i s b e h a v i o r i s nongenuine and i s p e r c e i v e d by the t e a c h e r s as n o n m o t i v a t i n g . T h i s c l i m a t e i s , of c o u r s e , a p a r t l y C l o s e d one. The t e a c h e r s do not work w e l l t o g e t h e r ; they are s p l i t i n t o f a c t i o n s . Group maintenance has not been e s t a b l i s h -ed because o f the p r i n c i p a l ' s i n a b i l i t y to c o n t r o l the a c t i v i t i e s o f the t e a c h e r s ( h i g h Disengagement). Few H i n d r a n c e s burden the t e a c h e r s i n the form o f r o u t i n e r e p o r t s , a d m i n i s t r a t i v e d u t i e s , and committee r e q u i r e -ments, m a i n l y because the p r i n c i p a l does a g r e a t d e a l of t h i s busywork h i m s e l f (low H i n d r a n c e ) . The t e a c h e r s do not enjoy f r i e n d l y r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h each o t h e r (low I n t i m a c y ) . E s s e n t i a l l y , the t e a c h e r s have g i v e n up t r y i n g ; they l e t the p r i n c i p a l take care of t h i n g s as b e s t he can. O b v i o u s l y , low E s p r i t r e s u l t s when the t e a c h e r s o b t a i n i n a d e q u a t e s a t i s f a c t i o n i n r e s p e c t to bot h t a s k - a c c o m p l i s h m e n t and s o c i a l - n e e d s . The p r i n c i p a l , on the o t h e r hand, i s the ve r y o p p o s i t e of a l o o f ; he i s everywhere at once, c h e c k i n g , m o n i t o r i n g , and t e l l i n g p e o p l e how to do t h i n g s . In f a c t , he i s so n o n - a l o o f t h a t he becomes I n t r u s i v e . He must know e v e r y t h i n g t h a t i s g o i n g on. He " i s always e m p h a s i z i n g 304 a l l t h e t h i n g s t h a t s h o u l d be done ( P r o d u c t i o n E m p h a s i s ) , but somehow n o t h i n g does get done. The p r i n c i p a l s e t s up such Items as s c h e d u l e s and c l a s s changes, p e r s o n a l l y ; he does not l e t the t e a c h e r s p e r f o r m any o f t h e s e a c t i v -i t i e s . H i s view i s t h a t "Daddy knows b e s t " . The s c h o o l and h i s d u t i e s w i t h i n i t are the p r i n c i p a l ' s main i n t e r e s t i n l i f e ; he d e r i v e s o n l y m i n i m a l s o c i a l -needs s a t i s f a c t i o n o u t s i d e h i s p r o f e s s i o n a l r o l e . He i s c o n s i d e r a t e , b u t h i s C o n s i d e r a t i o n appears t o be a form o f s e d u c t i v e o v e r s o l i c i t o u s n e s s r a t h e r t han a gen-u i n e c o n c e r n f o r the s o c i a l needs of o t h e r s . In a s e n s e , he uses t h i s C o n s i d e r a t i o n b e h a v i o r t o s a t i s f y h i s own s o c i a l - n e e d s . A l t h o u g h he p r e s e r v e s an average degree o f T h r u s t , as e v i d e n c e d by h i s attempts t o move the o r g a n -i z a t i o n , he n o n e t h e l e s s f a i l s t o m o t i v a t e h i s t e a c h e r s , p r i m a r i l y because he, as a human b e i n g , does not p r o v i d e an example, or an i d e a l , which the t e a c h e r s c a r e to emulate . C l o s e d C l i m a t e The C l o s e d C l i m a t e marks a s i t u a t i o n i n which the group members o b t a i n l i t t l e s a t i s f a c t i o n i n r e s p e c t to e i t h e r t a s k - a c h i e v e m e n t or s o c i a l - n e e d s . In s h o r t , the p r i n -c i p a l i s i n e f f e c t i v e i n d i r e c t i n g the a c t i v i t i e s o f the t e a c h e r s ; at the same t i m e , he i s not i n c l i n e d to l o o k out f o r t h e i r p e r s o n a l w e l f a r e . T h i s c l i m a t e i s the most c l o s e d and the l e a s t genuine c l i m a t e t h a t we have i d e n t i f i e d . The t e a c h e r s are d i s e n g a g e d and do not work w e l l t o g e t h e r ; c o n s e q u e n t l y , group achievement i s m i n i m a l ( h i g h D i s e n -gagement). To s e c u r e some sense o f achievement, the major o u t l e t f o r the t e a c h e r s i s to complete a v a r i e t y o f r e p o r t s and to a t t e n d to a h o s t o f " h o u s e k e e p i n g " d u t i e s . The p r i n c i p a l does not f a c i l i t a t e the t a s k -accomplishment of the t e a c h e r s ( h i g h H i n d r a n c e ) . E s p r i t i s a t a n a d i r , r e f l e c t i n g low job s a t i s f a c t i o n i n r e s p e c t to b o t h job s a t i s f a c t i o n and s o c i a l - n e e d s s a t i s f a c t i o n . The s a l i e n t b r i g h t spot t h a t appears to keep the t e a c h e r s i n the s c h o o l i s t h a t they do o b t a i n s a t i s f a c t i o n from t h e i r f r i e n d l y r e l a t i o n s w i t h o t h e r t e a c h e r s ( a v e r a g e I n t i m a c y ) . (We would s p e c u l a t e t h a t the t u r n - o v e r r a t e f o r t e a c h e r s i n t h i s c l i m a t e would be v e r y h i g h u n l e s s , o f c o u r s e , the t e a c h e r s are too o l d to move r e a d i l y to a n o t h e r j o b , or have been " l o c k e d i n t o the system" by the a t t r a c t i o n s o f a r e t i r e m e n t s y s t e m ) . The p r i n c i p a l i s h i g h l y a l o o f and i m p e r s o n a l i n c o n t r o l l i n g and 305 d i r e c t i n g the a c t i v i t i e s o f the t e a c h e r s ( h i g h A l o o f n e s s ) . He emphasizes p r o d u c t i o n and f r e q u e n t l y says t h a t "we s h o u l d work h a r d e r " . He s e t s up r u l e s and r e g u l a t i o n s about how t h i n g s s h o u l d be done, and t h e s e r u l e s are u s u a l l y a r b i t r a r y ( h i g h P r o d u c t i o n E m p h a s i s ) . But h i s words ar e h o l l o w , because he, h i m s e l f , p o s s e s s e s l i t t l e T h r u s t and he does not m o t i v a t e the t e a c h e r s by s e t t i n g a good p e r s o n a l example. E s s e n t i a l l y , what he says and what he does ar e two d i f f e r e n t t h i n g s . For t h i s r e a s o n , he i s not g enuine i n h i s a c t i o n s . He i s not c o n c e r n e d w i t h the s o c i a l needs o f t e a c h e r s ; i n f a c t , he can be d e p i c t e d as i n c o n s i d e r a t e (low C o n s i d e r a t i o n ) . H i s c r y o f " l e t ' s work h a r d e r " a c t u a l l y means, "you work h a r d e r " . He e x p e c t s everyone e l s e t o t a k e the i n i t i a t i v e , y e t he does not g i v e them the freedom r e q u i r e d t o p e r f o r m what-e v e r l e a d e r s h i p a c t s a r e n e c e s s a r y . Moreover, he, h i m s e l f , does not p r o v i d e adequate l e a d e r s h i p f o r the g r o u p . Fo r t h i s r e a s o n the t e a c h e r s view him as not g e n u i n e ; i n d e e d , t h e y r e g a r d him as a "phony". T h i s c l i m a t e c h a r a c t e r i z e s an o r g a n i z a t i o n f o r which the b e s t p r e s c r i p t i o n i s r a d i c a l s u r g e r y . 306 APPENDIX C S c o t t V a l u e S c a l e s O r i g i n a l Form I n s t r u c t i o n s : P l e a s e r e a d over t h e f o l l o w i n g s t a t e m e n t s , and f o r each one i n d i c a t e (by a check i n the a p p r o p r i a t e s p a c e ) whether i t i s something you always admire i n o t h e r p e o p l e , or something you always d i s l i k e , o r something t h a t depends on the s i t u a t i o n whether you admire i t or n o t . (Numbers b e s i d e the f o l l o w i n g items r e f e r to t h e i r a c t u a l o r d e r i n the q u e s t i o n n a i r e . ) I n t e l l e c t u a l l s m 1. Having a s t r o n g i n t e l l e c t u a l c u r i o s i t y . 19. D e v e l o p i n g an a p p r e c i a t i o n o f the f i n e a r t s m u s i c , drama, l i t e r a t u r e , and b a l l e t . 45. Having a keen i n t e r e s t i n i n t e r n a t i o n a l , n a t i o n a l , and l o c a l a f f a i r s . 50. B e i n g an i n t e l l e c t u a l . 58. Having an a c t i v e i n t e r e s t i n a l l t h i n g s s c h o l a r l y . K i n d n e s s 28. B e i n g k i n d t o p e o p l e , even i f they do t h i n g s con-t r a r y t o one's own b e l i e f s . 37. T u r n i n g the o t h e r cheek, and f o r g i v i n g o t h e r s when they harm you. 4-6. H e l p i n g a n o t h e r p e r s o n f e e l more s e c u r e , even i f you don't l i k e him. 51. H e l p i n g a n o t h e r a c h i e v e h i s g o a l s , even i f i t might i n t e r f e r e w i t h your own. S o c i a l S k i l l s 3. B e i n g a b l e to get a l o n g w i t h a l l k i n d s of p e o p l e , whether or not t h e y are w o r t h w h i l e . 21. B e i n g p o i s e d , g r a c i o u s , and charming under a l l c i r c u m s t a n c e s . 25. B e i n g the p e r s o n i n the group who i s the most p o p u l a r w i t h the o p p o s i t e sex. 29. B e i n g w e l l mannered and b e h a v i n g p r o p e r l y i n s o c i a l s i t u a t i ons . 47. D r e s s i n g and a c t i n g i n a way t h a t i s a p p r o p r i a t e to the o c c a s i o n . 52. B e i n g a b l e to get p e o p l e to c o o p e r a t e w i t h you. 307 L o y a l t y 5. D e f e n d i n g the honor o f one's group whenever i t i s u n f a i r l y c r i t i c i z e d . 17. H e l p i n g o r g a n i z e group a c t i v i t i e s . 30. T r e a t i n g an a t t a c k on one's group l i k e an a t t a c k on o n e s e l f . 34. C o n c e a l i n g from o u t s i d e r s most o f one's d i s l i k e s and d i s a g r e e m e n t s w i t h f e l l o w members o f the group. 38. Doing a l l one can t o b u i l d up the p r e s t i g e o f the g r o u p . 53. Working h a r d to improve .the p r e s t i g e and s t a t u s o f one's group. Academic Achievement 4. S t u d y i n g c o n s t a n t l y i n o r d e r t o become a w e l l e d u c a t e d p e r s o n . 13. Work i n g h a r d t o a c h i e v e academic h o n o r s . 39. S t r i v i n g t o get the top g r a d e - p o i n t average i n the group. 48. S t u d y i n g h a r d t o g e t good grades i n s c h o o l . P h y s i c a l Development 14. B e i n g good i n some form of s p o r t . 22. D e v e l o p i n g p h y s i c a l s t r e n g t h and a g i l i t y . 31. T a k i n g good c a r e o f one's p h y s i c a l s e l f , so t h a t one i s always h e a l t h y . 54. D e v e l o p i n g an a t t r a c t i v e body t h a t o t h e r s w i l l a dmire. 56. B e i n g g r a c e f u l and w e l l c o o r d i n a t e d i n p h y s i c a l movements. S t a t u s 6. B e i n g r e s p e c t e d by p e o p l e who are t h e m s e l v e s worth-w h i l e . 23. Having the a b i l i t y t o l e a d o t h e r s . 32. B e i n g i n a p o s i t i o n to d i r e c t and mold o t h e r s ' l i v e s . 40 . Showing g r e a t l e a d e r s h i p q u a l i t i e s . 59. G a i n i n g r e c o g n i t i o n f o r one's a c h i e v e m e n t s . Honesty 7. Always t e l l i n g the t r u t h , even though i t may h u r t o n e s e l f or o t h e r s . 41. Never t e l l i n g a l i e , even though to do so would make the s i t u a t i o n more c o m f o r t a b l e . 49. Never c h e a t i n g or h a v i n g a n y t h i n g to do w i t h c h e a t i n g s i t u a t i o n s , even f o r a f r i e n d . 55. ( R e v e r s e - s c o r e d ) H e l p i n g a c l o s e f r i e n d get by a t i g h t s i t u a t i o n even though you may have to s t r e t c h the t r u t h a b i t to do i t . 308 R e l i g i o u s n e s s 8. B e i n g devout i n one's r e l i g i o u s f a i t h . 15. Always a t t e n d i n g r e l i g i o u s s e r v i c e s r e g u l a r l y and f a i t h f u l l y . 33. Always l i v i n g one's r e l i g i o n i n h i s d a i l y l i f e . 42. E n c o u r a g i n g ' o t h e r s to a t t e n d s e r v i c e s and l e a d r e l i g i o u s l i v e s . 57. A v o i d i n g the p h y s i c a l p l e a s u r e s t h a t a r e p r o h i b i t e d i n the B i b l e . S e l f - C o n t r o l 9. Always b e i n g p a t i e n t w i t h p e o p l e . 16. Never l o s i n g one's temper, no m a t t e r what the r e a s o n . 24-. P r a c t i c i n g s e l f - c o n t r o l . 43. R e p l y i n g to anger w i t h g e n t l e n e s s . 60. Not e x p r e s s i n g anger, even when you have a r e a s o n f o r d o i n g so. C r e a t i v i t y 2. C r e a t i n g b e a u t i f u l t h i n g s f o r the enjoyment o f o t h e r p e o p l e . 12. C o n s t a n t l y d e v e l o p i n g new ways o f a p p r o a c h i n g l i f e . 20. I n v e n t i n g gadgets f o r the f u n o f i t . 26. D e v o t i n g one's e n t i r e energy to the development of new t h e o r i e s . 35. B e i n g a b l e t o c r e a t e b e a u t i f u l and a r t i s t i c o b j e c t s . 36. D e v e l o p i n g new and d i f f e r e n t ways o f d o i n g t h i n g s . Independence 10. ( R e v e r s e - s c o r e d ) Conforming to the r e q u i r e m e n t s of any s i t u a t i o n and d o i n g what i s e x p e c t e d o f one. 11. ( R e v e r s e - s c o r e d ) Working and l i v i n g i n harmony w i t h o t h e r p e o p l e . 18. B e i n g outspoken and f r a n k i n e x p r e s s i n g one's l i k e s and d i s l i k e s . 27. T h i n k i n g and a c t i n g f r e e l y , w i t h o u t s o c i a l r e s t r a i n t s , and e n c o u r a g i n g o t h e r s to do l i k e w i s e . 44. B e i n g i n d e p e n d e n t , o r i g i n a l , n o n - c o n f o r m i s t , d i f f e r -ent from o t h e r p e o p l e . Form as used i n the Study I n s t r u c t i o n s : The items i n t h i s s e c t i o n d e s c r i b e a v a r i e t y of I n d i v i d u a l b e h a v i o u r s . Think of t h e s e b e h a v i o u r t r a i t s or q u a l i t i e s i n o t h e r p e o p l e and mark the items by c i r c l i n g the a p p r o p r i a t e number, u s i n g the f o l l o w i n g s c a l e : 5. Always admire t h i s b e h a v i o u r i n o t h e r s 4. Sometimes admire t h i s b e h a v i o u r i n o t h e r s 3~'. Undecided whether I admire t h i s b e h a v i o u r i n o t h e r s 309 2. Sometimes d i s l i k e t h i s b e h a v i o u r i n o t h e r s 1- Never admire t h i s b e h a v i o u r . 10* Having a s t r o n g i n t e l l e c t u a l c u r i o s i t y . 20 C r e a t i n g b e a u t i f u l t h i n g s f o r the enjoyment o f o t h e r p e o p l e . 12 B e i n g a b l e t o get a l o n g w i t h a l l k i n d s o f p e o p l e , whether or not t h e y are w o r t h w h i l e . 10 B e i n g i n t e r e s t e d o n l y i n one's work. ( R e v e r s e -s c o r e d ) 14- S t u d y i n g c o n s t a n t l y i n o r d e r t o become a w e l l -e d u c a t e d p e r s o n . 13 D e f e n d i n g t h e honour o f one's group whenever i t i s u n f a i r l y c r i t i c i z e d . 16 B e i n g r e s p e c t e d by p e o p l e who are t h e m s e l v e s worth-w h i l e . 17 Always t e l l i n g the t r u t h , even though i t may h u r t o n e s e l f or o t h e r s . 18 B e i n g devout i n one's r e l i g i o u s f a i t h . 11 B e i n g c o n s i d e r a t e o f o t h e r s ' f e e l i n g s . 19 Always b e i n g p a t i e n t w i t h p e o p l e . 21 Conforming to the r e q u i r e m e n t s o f any s i t u a t i o n and d o i n g what i s e x p e c t e d o f one. ( R e v e r s e -s c o r e d) 21 Working and l i v i n g i n harmony w i t h o t h e r p e o p l e , ( r e v e r s e - s c o r e d ) 20 C o n s t a n t l y d e v e l o p i n g new ways o f l i f e . 14- Working h a r d t o a c h i e v e academic honours . 11 L o o k i n g out f o r one's own i n t e r e s t s f i r s t . ( R e v e r s e - s c o r e d ) 15 B e i n g good i n some form of s p o r t . 18 Always a t t e n d i n g r e l i g i o u s s e r v i c e s r e g u l a r l y and f a i t h f u l l y . 19 Never l o s i n g one's temper, no m a t t e r what the r e a s o n . 13 H e l p i n g o r g a n i z e group a c t i v i t i e s . 21 B e i n g outspoken and f r a n k i n e x p r e s s i n g one's l i k e s and d i s l i k e s . 14 B e i n g s t u d i o u s . 10 D e v e l o p i n g an a p p r e c i a t i o n o f the f i n e a r t s music, drama, l i t e r a t u r e and b a l l e t . 20 I n v e n t i n g gadgets f o r the fun of i t . 12 B e i n g p o i s e d , g r a c i o u s , and charming under a l l c i r c u m s t a n c e s . 15 D e v e l o p i n g p h y s i c a l s t r e n g t h and a g i l i t y . 16 Having the a b i l i t y t o l e a d o t h e r s . 14 B e i n g s a t i s f i e d w i t h poor g r a d e s . ( R e v e r s e - s c o r e d ) Numbers r e f e r t o code (see below) 310 20 19 P r a c t i s i n g s e l f - c o n t r o l . 12 B e i n g the p e r s o n i n the group who i s the most p o p u l a r w i t h the o p p o s i t e sex. D e v o t i n g one's e n t i r e energy to the development of new t h e o r i e s . 21 T h i n k i n g and a c t i n g f r e e l y , w i t h s o c i a l r e s t r a i n t s , and e n c o u r a g i n g o t h e r s t o do l i k e w i s e . 11 B e i n g k i n d to p e o p l e , even i f they do t h i n g s c o n -t r a r y t o one's own b e l i e f s . 15 B e i n g an i n d o o r t y p e , and a v o i d i n g o u t d o o r a c t i v i t -i e s . ( R e v e r s e - s c o r e d ) 12 B e i n g well-mannered and b e h a v i n g p r o p e r l y i n s o c i a l s i t u a t i o n s . 13 T r e a t i n g an a t t a c k on one's group l i k e an a t t a c k on o n e s e l f . 15 T a k i n g good c a r e of one's p h y s i c a l s e l f , so t h a t one i s always h e a l t h y . 16 B e i n g i n a p o s i t i o n t o d i r e c t and mold o t h e r s ' l i v e s . 18 Always l i v i n g one's r e l i g i o n i n h i s d a i l y l i f e . 16 B e i n g i n a p o s i t i o n t o command r e s p e c t from o t h e r s . 13 C o n c e a l i n g from o u t s i d e r s most o f ones' d i s l i k e s and d i s a g r e e m e n t s w i t h f e l l o w members of the group. 20 B e i n g a b l e t o c r e a t e b e a u t i f u l and a r t i s t i c o b j e c t s . 20 D e v e l o p i n g new and d i f f e r e n t ways of d o i n g t h i n g s . 11 T u r n i n g the o t h e r cheek, and f o r g i v i n g o t h e r s when the y harm you. 13 Doing a l l one can to b u i l d up the p r e s t i g e o f the group. 16 Showing g r e a t l e a d e r s h i p q u a l i t i e s . 17 Never t e l l i n g a l i e , even though t o do so would make the s i t u a t i o n more c o m f o r t a b l e . 18 E n c o u r a g i n g o t h e r s t o a t t e n d s e r v i c e s and l e a d r e l i g i o u s l i v e s . 19 R e p l y i n g t o anger w i t h g e n t l e n e s s . 17 Always r e p r e s e n t i n g one's own t r u e thoughts and f e e l i n g s h o n e s t l y . 21 B e i n g i n d e p e n d e n t , o r i g i n a l , n o n c o n f o r m i s t , d i f f e r -ent from o t h e r p e o p l e . 10 Having a keen i n t e r e s t i n i n t e r n a t i o n a l , n a t i o n a l , and l o c a l a f f a i r s . 11 H e l p i n g a n o t h e r p e r s o n f e e l more s e c u r e , even I f you don't l i k e him. 12 D r e s s i n g and a c t i n g i n a way t h a t i s a p p r o p r i a t e to the o c c a s i o n . 311 14 S t u d y i n g h a r d t o g e t good grades i n s c h o o l . 18 B e i n g an a t h e i s t . ( R e v e r s e - s c o r e d ) 17 Never c h e a t i n g or h a v i n g a n y t h i n g t o do w i t h c h e a t i n g s i t u a t i o n s , even f o r a f r i e n d . 10 B e i n g an i n t e l l e c t u a l . 11 H e l p i n g a n o t h e r a c h i e v e h i s g o a l s , even i f i t might i n t e r f e r e w i t h y o u r own. 12 B e i n g a b l e t o get p e o p l e t o c o o p e r a t e w i t h you. 13 Working h a r d t o improve the p r e s t i g e and s t a t u s o f one's group. 19 S u p p r e s s i n g h o s t i l i t y . 15 D e v e l o p i n g an a t t r a c t i v e body t h a t o t h e r s w i l l admire. 17 H e l p i n g a c l o s e f r i e n d get by a t i g h t s i t u a t i o n even though you may have t o s t r e t c h the t r u t h a b i t t o do i t . ( R e v e r s e - s c o r e d ) 15 B e i n g g r a c e f u l and w e l l c o o r d i n a t e d i n p h y s i c a l movements. 18 A v o i d i n g the p h y s i c a l p l e a s u r e s t h a t are p r o h i b i t e d i n the B i b l e . 10 Having an a c t i v e i n t e r e s t i n a l l t h i n g s s c h o l a r l y . 21 B e i n g a n o n c o n f o r m i s t . 16 G a i n i n g r e c o g n i t i o n f o r one's a c h i e v e m e n t s . 19 Not e x p r e s s i n g anger, even when you have a r e a s o n f o r d o i n g so. Code 10 I n t e l l e c t u a l i s m 11 K i n d n e s s 12 S o c i a l S k i l l s 13 L o y a l t y 14- Academic Achievement 15 P h y s i c a l Development 16 S t a t u s 17 Honesty 18 R e l i g i o u s n e s s 19 S e l f - C o n t r o l 20 C r e a t i v i t y 21 Independence 312 APPENDIX D G e n e r a l Q u e s t i o n n a i r e Your name s h o u l d not appear on t h i s q u e s t i o n n a i r e . The f o l l o w i n g i n f o r m a t i o n i s b e i n g g a t h e r e d o n l y t o a l l o w f o r the v a r i a b l e s of e x p e r i e n c e , age, and sex. I t i s c o m p l e t e l y anonymous and c o n f i d e n t i a l . S e c t i o n A - FOR TEACHERS ONLY Number of y e a r s o f t e a c h i n g e x p e r i e n c e (Count p r e s e n t y e a r as one) Number o f y e a r s i n t h i s s c h o o l (Count p r e s e n t y e a r as one) Sex Age S e c t i o n B - FOR PRINCIPALS AND VICE-PRINCIPALS ONLY P o s i t i o n ( P r i n c i p a l or V i c e - P r i n c i p a l ) Number o f y e a r s as p r i n c i p a l or v i c e -p r i n c i p a l (Count p r e s e n t y e a r as one) Number o f y e a r s as t e a c h e r b e f o r e t a k i n g a d m i n i s t r a t i v e appointment Sex Age P l e a s e make sure t h a t you have answered a l l the q u e s t i o n s i n e i t h e r s e c t i o n A or s e c t i o n B. 313 APPENDIX E I n t e r n a l C o n s i s t e n c y and E q u i v a l e n c e E s t i m a t e s f o r OCDQ S u b t e s t s as r e p o r t e d by H a l p i n and C r o f t ( op . c i t . pp . 48-49 ) S p l i t - h a l f C o e f f i c i e n t o f r e l i a b i l i t y C o r r e c t e d by the Spearman-Brown Formula. 5 (N = 1151) C o r r e l a t i o n between Scor e s o f Odd-Numbere d and the Even-Numbered Re-spondents i n each s c h o o l , (N=71)** Communality E s t i m a t e s f o r Three F a c t o r R o t a t i o n a l S o l u t i o n (N=1151) 1. Disengagement .73 .59 .66 2. H i n d r a n c e .68 .54- .44 3. E s p r i t .75 .61 .73 4. I n t i m a c y .60 .49 .53 5. A l o o f n e s s .26 .76 .72 6. Prod.Emphasis .55 .73 .53 7. T h r u s t .84 .75 .68 8. C o n s i d e r a t i o n .59 .63 '•Estimate o f i n t e r n a l c o n s i s t e n c y . '""Estimate o f e q u i v a l e n c e . ***These a r e lower-bound, c o n s e r v a t i v e e s t i m a t e s o f e q u i v a l e n c e . 314 APPENDIX F V a l i d i t y Data f o r S c o t t S c a l e s ( S o u r c e : S c o t t ( o p . c i t . ) pp.31-3) 1) C o r r e l a t i o n s between p e r s o n a l v a l u e s and (a) Concep-t i o n s o f " R i g h t " and "Wrong" and (b) P r e s c r i b e d V a l u e s f o r O t h e r s . (N=208) " R i g h t " and "Wrong" P r e s c r i b e d f o r Val u e • r r * Others c o r .,, r r co r I n t e l l e c t u a l i s m .63 .95 . 44 .67 Kindnes s .72 1 .00 .61 .95 S o c i a l S k i l l s . 74 1 .00 . 54 .90 L o y a l t y .69 .96 . 46 .75 Acad. Achievement .52 . 74 .48 .72 P h y s i c a l Development .69 . 88 .63 . 88 S t a t u s .64 1 .00 .54 .93 Honesty .69 1 .00 .57 1.00 R e l i g i o u s n e s s .78 .98 .53 .67 S e l f - c o n t r o l .69 .96 .58 . 83 C r e a t i v i t y . 57 .86 .47 . 77 Independence .74 1 .00 .56 1.00 Me d i an .69 .97 .54 . 86 * r s c o r r e c t e d f o r a t t e n u a t i o n ; when computed •values exceed 1.00, they are r e p o r t e d as 1.00 2) C o r r e l a t i o n s between V a l u e S t r e n g t h and A n t i c i p a t e d G u i l t o v e r T r n s g r e s s i o n . (N=218) V a l u e T> I n t e l l e c t u a l i s m .2 3** Kindnes s .15* S o c i a l S k i l l s .20* * L o y a l t y - .04 Academic Achievement . 31** P h y s i c a l Development . 31** S t a t u s .06 Honesty . 2 6** R e l i g i o u s n e s s .5 7** S e l f - c o n t r o l .26* * C r e a t i v i t y . 11 Independence .27* * Mean ( v i a z t r a n s f o r m a t i o n ) .23* * .05 .01 316 APPENDIX G S k e t c h Map o f G r e a t e r Vancouver urban a r e a showing d i s t r i b u t i o n o f randomly s e l e c t e d -s c h o o l s by s c h o o l d i s t r i c t 317 APPENDIX H Val u e S c o r e s (mean) by S c h o o l , T e a c h e r s Only (N=532) ( C o n t i n u e d o v e r l e a f ) S c h o o l No . Va l u e \ ^ 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 V01 I n t e l l e c t ' I s m 23 . 20 23 .40 25 .12 25 .46 23 .00 24 .67 23 . 80 V0 2 Kindnes s 24 . 20 26 .30 25 . 25 25 . 31 25 .38 22 .33 24 .40 V03 S o c i a l S k i l l s 24 .60 26 .20 24 .50 23 .62 24 . 31 24 . 33 24 .70 V04 L o y a l t y 21 .80 24 . 20 23 . 88 23 .54 21 . 31 20 . 33 21 . 30 V05 Acad.Achvmt 21 . 80 23 .50 21 .62 25 .00 21 .12 20 .00 20 . 80 V06 Phys.Dev'ment 23 .80 24 . 30 24 .62 24 .46 23 . 25 22 .00 23 . 30 V07 S t a t u s 22 .70 25 . 20 23 . 88 25 . 31 24 .06 23 .67 23 .90 V08 Honesty 22 .60 22 .70 22 .62 23 . 46 22 . 00 21 .67 20 . 30 V09 R e l i g i o u s n e s s 20 . 80 21 .60 20 . 38 20 .54 19 .38 18 .00 16 .60 V10 S e l f - C o n t r o l 24 . 33 24 .60 22 .38 24 .54 22 . 38 19 .00 20 . 80 V l l C r e a t i v i t y 24 .00 23 .70 24 .12 24 .62 23 . 50 21 .50 24 .10 V12 Independence 16 . 80 13 . 10 15 .50 16 .15 16 .06 16 .50 17 .60 318 8 9 10 11 V61 23.67 25.73 26.41 25.62 V02 25.00 24.36 25.35 23.77 V03 25.89 25.27 26.53 24.38 V04 23.33 24.45 23.06 20.85 V05 22.00 23.36 24.41 22.23 V06 22.11 24.36 24.47 24.08 V07 25.44 24.45 24.76 23.77 V08 23.22 21.73 22.65 20.54 V09 19.11 22.73 20.76 17.15 VI0 24.22 22.09 24.65 22.00 V l l 23.44 24.00 24.76 24.62 V12 16.11 14.64 16.12 17.62 17 18 19 20 VOl 26.12 19.20 24.83 25.48 V0 2 26.75 22.00 25.50 25.62 V03 25.38 22.60 24.33 26.00 V04 24.88 21.80 23.83 23.10 V05 23.62 22.20 22.33 23.31 V06 24.88 23.60 25.00 24.41 V07 26.38 21.80 25.17 25.03 V08 22.88 17.60 24.50 22.52 V09 22.75 19.20 20.50 19.56 V10 24.50 23.40 25.33 23.03 V l l 25.50 21.00 23.17 25.07 V12 15.38 15.80 17.17 15.83 26 27 28 29 VOl 24.39 26.39 25.53 24.15 V02 24.50 25.94 23.35 24.62 V03 25.78 26.33 25.53 25.31 V04 23.17 23.83 24.29 23.85 V05 24.00 24.11 23.71 21.62 V06 24.65 24.17 25.24 24.77 V07 25.17 25.39 25.65 24.69 V08 21.94 22.78 20.12 22.62 V09 19.88 20.17 18.88 20.85 V10 23.00 23.72 22.88 24.23 V l l 24.50 25.33 24.65 24.31 V12 15.61 16.17 17.47 16.00 12 13 14 15 16 26.14 24.00 24.73 25.25 24.08 26.00 23.45 24.27 24.80 26.17 26.86 24.09 24.73 25.90 26.00 24.00 22.00 22.82 24.30 24.50 23.29 21.73 23.09 22.85 23.92 24.00 23.45 24.64 24.65 24.58 26.14 24.55 24.27 24.65 24.67 18.29 19.64 23.00 23.00 22.08 19.43 19.56 18.73 20.60 19.00 23.57 22.73 24.73 23.55 24.08 25.00 24.45 25.45 24.45 24.58 16.71 16.91 17.91 16.05 17.08 21 22 23 24 25 25.75 25.86 25.54 25.32 27.06 26.20 26.09 26.00 24.10 26.06 25.80 25.41 26.42 24.74 25.94 22.80 24.09 23.58 22.42 23.19 23.25 23.18 23.92 23.21 22.88 24.60 24.14 24.14 24.50 23.84 24.85 25.27 24.88 24.16 25.50 22.35 21.91 22.08 21.90 22.75 20.50 20.78 20.83 19.00 18.75 24.20 24.73 24.62 22.21 23.88 24.85 24.77 24.96 24.00 25.88 15.56 15.50 16.33 15.95 16.94 30 31 32 33 34 25.29 24.43 24.53 24.31 25.07 25.88 25.00 24.53 25.39 24.87 25.29 25.14 24.93 25.92 25.27 23.82 23.43 2 3.13 22.08 23.67 22.94 22.29 23.33 23.15 23.00 24.65 25.00 23.93 24.69 24.80 25.24 24.21 25.67 24.92 25.00 22.47 21.57 22.60 21.00 21.87 21.18 20.15 20.60 19.08 19.80 24.00 23.21 22.73 23.23 23.67 25.53 25.50 25.00 24.38 25.00 15.82 18.29 16.87 17.23 15.07 319 35 36 V01 25.09 25.17 V02 25.55 26.08 V03 25.67 23.83 V04 23.73 22.67 V05 24-.09 22.00 V06 23.73 23.92 V07 23.45 24.17 V08 21.36 21.58 V09 18.09 18.76 V10 22.73 21.75 V l l 24.09 25.58 V12 15.00 18.00 37 38 39 25 . 00 25 . 29 25 . 12 25 . 25 26 . 57 25 . 25 25 . 50 25 . 57 24 . 25 23 . 50 23 . 86 23 . 00 23 . 00 23 . 14 25 . 25 21. 75 25 . 57 24 . 75 25 . 00 25 . 86 25 . 38 22 . 75 22 . 71 26 . 12 22 . 50 19 . 29 .20 . 75 21 . 75 24 . 43 22 . 38 23 . 00 24 . 57 23 . 50 16 . 50 17 . 86 16 . 75 40 Mean S.D. 26.12 25.06 2.80 25.25 25.16 2.94 26.12 25.36 2 . 74 23.38 23.22 3.38 25.38 23.10 3.23 25.25 24.32 2.87 26.62 24.82 2.72 24.38 22.12 2.78 20.88 19.92 2.72 23.50 23.42 3.8 2 25.00 24.59 2.78 16.00 16.29 3.51 Va l u e S c o r e s (mean) by S c h o o l , A d m i n i s t r a t o r s (N=68) ( C o n t i n u e d O v e r l e a f ) (top f i g u r e P r i n c i p a l , lower f i g u r e V i c e -P r i n c i p a l where a p p l i c a b l e ) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 V01 23 27 26 24 23 22 29 25 28 26 23 23 25 V02 22 26 27 24 25 25 29 27 21 24 21 30 27 V03 25 27 28 20 24 23 29 27 28 23 21 30 27 V04 25 25 26 22 21 23 25 25 27 24 23 24 23 V05 21 24 20 20 25 21 23 19 28 17 24 16 24 V06 24 27 22 23 22 20 30 26 24 20 24 24 26 V07 24 27 26 23 26 23 29 26 30 28 27 27 23 V08 22 27 20 13 26 23 22 26 25 19 17 30 17 V09 21 24 17 18 22 19 10 22 25 19 16 28 24 V10 23 26 25 18 26 24 30 25 20 26 23 22 22 V l l 24 26 29 22 23 23 30 25 21 24 22 23 26 V12 17 12 15 18 13 19 19 16 13 16 19 9 16 320 9 10 11 13 14 15 16 17 18 V01 24 26 24 25 26 23 23 23 20 21 22 25 23 22 26 V02 25 23 28 20 27 22 23 24 22 24 23 20 16 26 26 V03 25 24 29 24 27 22 27 24 27 23 25 21 24 24 21 V04 20 21 23 13 23 19 23 26 21 23 21 18 25 22 23 V05 23 22 19 15 25 21 14 27 24 19 23 19 27 18 29 V06 19 23 22 19 28 20 20 23 23 21 24 24 23 22 24 V07 22 20 26 23 27 11 22 26 23 25 27 22 23 21 29 V08 19 21 26 15 22 22 27 24 21 18 19 25 24 18 26 V09 13 19 27 13 23 19 16 17 25 15 16 17 20 21 22 V10 23 23 28 19 27 23 21 24 25 23 17 20 20 26 25 V l l 22 22 23 25 25 24 24 24 19 23 20 22 21 23 25 V12 19 13 9 16 14 13 12 18 12 13 12 15 8 10 19 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 V01 25 28 29 27 23 26 23 29 23 25 19 25 27 25 17 26 28 V02 27 25 26 22 29 27 27 20 21 25 24 23 26 25 22 29 29 V03 27 27 25 27 27 26 22 22 26 24 24 26 25 28 24 26 26 V04 23 23 23 23 22 24 18 21 23 24 20 22 19 24 19 22 23 V05 23 21 19 25 22 23 22 25 18 25 23 26 17 24 24 26 27 V06 24 24 25 27 22 22 26 24 20 21 23 25 23 26 20 18 26 V07 27 26 27 27 23 26 23 24 24 26 23 22 26 27 22 19 26 V08 27 28 13 23 13 27 22 29 15 14 20 22 16 23 19 25 23 V09 23 26 10 23 19 20 19 17 20 17 23 14 17 18 18 20 21 V10 26 26 23 23 22 24 25 20 20 23 23 20 21 26 19 26 26 V l l 25 24 24 25 25 20 25 27 20 23 23 24 25 25 24 25 29 V12 11 13 19 19 13 13 13 20 17 11 14 15 19 16 15 17 19 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 22 22 22 24 27 24 28 25 26 24 27 22 23 25 26 28 28 25 17 23 25 21 29 21 26 27 22 21 24 26 23 26 21 29 27 22 23 26 26 29 25 27 27 24 26 27 28 21 26 20 28 26 25 22 26 26 27 21 25 25 22 27 23 24 24 26 16 24 25 20 21 28 22 27 21 26 29 20 28 18 28 24 21 22 25 25 22 21 26 21 26 24 24 24 18 25 19 25 2 4 28 21 30 25 21 26 28 24 29 28 26 28 25 28 24 27 24 27 17 19 22 21 25 25 20 29 17 25 23 16 19 24 22 20 16 17 13 16 18 16 25 18 21 14 21 25 18 27 20 21 20 21 7 25 24 21 17 25 25 25 21 21 22 20 27 27 26 17 22 16 28 26 23 19 23 23 27 23 22 22 24 24 21 27 22 21 25 18 10 17 12 15 13 17 19 14 10 18 11 11 15 15 10 26 37 38 39 40 Mean S . D. 27 26 23 24 .92 2 .26 25 27 24 .43 2 .65 26 27 19 24 .47 3 .01 25 27 24 .20 3 .08 24 24 20 25 . 34 2 .42 26 26 24 .63 2 . 34 29 27 20 23 .24 3 .04 25 24 22 . 80 2 .51 24 24 20 22 .18 3 .06 20 25 23 . 00 4 .05 22 21 18 23 . 16 2 . 70 27 26 23 .13 2 .69 23 24 23 24 . 76 3 . 17 28 23 24 .97 3 . 12 19 21 16 21. .90 4 , .52 17 26 20 , . 57 3 . 97 24 18 18 19 . 05 4 . 20 18 24 19 . 67 4 . 24 23 26 19 23 . ,45 2 . 81 21 24 22 . 37 3 . 09 23 27 20 23 . 92 2 . 55 26 24 23 . 57 2 . 32 17 16 15 15 . 16 2 . 93 16 18 14 . 80 3 . 92 321 APPENDIX I I n t e r c o r r e l a t l o n s Between S c o t t Value S c a l e s S o u r c e : S c o t t o r i g i n a l s t u d y (N=218) ( S c o t t , op. c i t . p . 28 f _ f _ . ) Hodgkinson st u d y X¥^> 500 ) ( f i g u r e s i n p a r e n t h e s e s ) Indep • m t e l l . C r e a t . Acad • Independence .51* I n t e l l e c t u a l i s m . 22( . 14) .69 C r e a t i v i t y • 21( . 22 ) .51( .49 ) .54 Academic Achievement . 07 (-. 02 ) . 34( . 33 ) . 35 ( . 31) .63 Honesty . 04(-. 00 ) . 09 ( .19) . 00 ( . 12) . 23 ( .26 ) R e l i g i o u s n e s s -. 22(- . 33 ) .18( .04) .13( . 02 ) .15( . 20 ) S e l f - c o n t r o l - . 1 8 ( - .16) .15( .16) . 08 ( . 23 ) . 08 ( . 27 ) Ki n d n e s s - . 1 0 ( - . 09 ) . 23( . 33 ) • 19( . 35 ) • 11( .16) L o y a l t y 07(- .17) . 06 ( . 21) .13( . 28 ) . 32 ( .18) S o c i a l S k i l l s - . 2 7 ( - . 20 ) .01( . 29 ) . 07 ( . 32 ) • 18( .29 ) S t a t u s - . 1 0 ( - . 05 ) .13( . 30 ) .12( . 35 ) . 28( . 40 ) P h y s i c a l Development -.12( . 04 ) . 04( . 28 ) .15( . 34) . 30 ( . 27 ) * s e p a r a t e s c a l e r e l i a b i l i t i e s ( C o n t i n u e d o v e r l e a f ) 322 Hon 35 ) 34) 29 ) 21) 21) 26 ) 16) R e l i j I n t e l l e c t u a l i s m Independence C r e a t i v i t y Academic Achievement Honesty .30* R e l i g i o u s n e s s ,17(. S e l f - c o n t r o l .06(. K i n d n e s s .15(, L o y a l t y -.10(. S o c i a l S k i l l s - . 09 C. S t a t u s -.01(. P h y s i c a l Development -.06(. ,76 ,31( 43 ( 36 ( 26 ( 14( 25( S e l f -c o nt Kind, 41) 35 ) 33 ) 04 ) 26 ) 16) , 61 .51( ,31( , 33( 12( I K 48 ) 40 ) 45 ) 32 ) 22 ) ,57 26 ( 20 ( 07( 11( 32 ) 43 ) 26 ) 22 ) Independence I n t e l l e c t u a l i s m C r e a t i v i t y Academic Achievement Honesty R e l i g i o u s n e s s S e l f - c o n t r o l K i n d n e s s L o y a l t y S o c i a l S k i l l s S t a t u s P h y s i c a l Development Loy . Soc . Sk .62* , 36 ( . 48 ) , 35 ( . 44 ) 41(.36) 62 42( . 47 ) 25 ( . 38 ) S t a t u s 47 41( 36 ) Phys . 71 323 APPENDIX J Val u e Congruence and Consonance Sc o r e s f o r Sample S c h o o l s S c h o o l No. Congruence Consonance 1 10 .40 24.23 2 22.00 9 . 26 3 28.62 6.03 4 25 .43 51.73 5 21.88 12 .24 6 47 . 29 80 .10 7 56.60 13 . 74 8 21 .67 7 . 26 9 35.00 11.73 10 10 . 28 40 . 61 11 51.69 7 .81 12 17 . 86 13 42 .64 9 . 37 14 26 . 36 8 .43 15 41. 05 9 .16 16 40 . 58 13.03 17 25.50 9.79 18 26.20 14.24 19 40.00 6 .94 20 22 .10 11. 22 S c h o o l No. Congruence Consonance 21 29.29 38.90 22 32.22 33 . 15 23 24.75 9.70 24 19.00 39.50 25 30.06 9.08 26 30.22 16 . 53 27 17 . 22 11. 61 28 37 .11 41.09 29 25.08 11.13 30 37.35 10 .11 31 22.50 10.75 32 30.93 7 . 81 33 25.38 9.82 34 21.67 11 . 24 35 36.91 11.47 36 28.93 77.53 37 20.00 11. 81 38 11.78 39 29.00 15.20 40 56.88 7.78
Thesis/Dissertation
eng
Education
Vancouver : University of British Columbia Library
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Graduate
Values and perceptions in organizations; a study of value orientations and social interaction perceptions in education organizations.
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