Arts, Faculty of
History, Department of
DSpace
UBCV
Fisher, Robin Anthony
Doctor of Philosophy - PhD
University of British Columbia
This thesis is an examination of the differing nature of Indian and European relations on a fur trading and a settlement frontier. The argument is based on the assumption that there was a fairly sharply definable shift from fur trade to settlement in British Columbia; that in 1858 the fur trade essentially came to an end and the settlement frontier was born. This transition from fur trade to settlement also brought quite fundamental changes in the nature of Indian-European relations. During the fur trading period Indians and Europeans were involved, in a mutually beneficial economic system. Because of the nature of their activities fur traders were both unable and unwilling to force major cultural change on the Indians, so the change that did occur within Indian societies was limited and could be controlled by the Indians. During the fur trading period Indian cultures were stimulated rather than disrupted as a result of contact with Europeans. With settlement, however, the Indians experienced major cultural disruptions. New groups of Europeans arrived and made different demands on the Indians. Gold miners, settlers, missionaries and government officials, in different ways, all required the Indians to make major changes in their way of life, and the whites now had the power to force change. The Indians were no longer free to adapt as they wished, and the pace of change was so rapid that many Indians lost control of their situation. As the Europeans consolidated their hold on the country the traditional Indian cultures were disrupted while the Indians' current needs were neglected. Governmental action constituted an attack on Indian cultures, and reflected the fact that the Indians had become irrelevant to the development of the Province by white settlers. By 189 0 the developments that had commenced with the advent of settlement were complete. The settlers were in a firmly established position of dominance over the Indians of British Columbia.
INDIAN-EUROPEAN RELATIONS IN B R I T I S H COLUMBIA: 1774 - 1890. by ROBIN ANTHONY FISHER B.A., M a s s e y U n i v e r s i t y , 1 968. M.A., U n i v e r s i t y o f A u c k l a n d , 1970. A THESIS SUBMITTED I N PAR T I A L FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY i n t h e D e p a r t m e n t o f HISTORY We a c c e p t t h i s t h e s i s a s c o n f o r m i n g t o t h e r e q u i r e d s t a n d a r d . THE UNIVERSITY OF B R I T I S H COLUMBIA May, 19 74. In p r e s e n t i n g t h i s t h e s i s i n p a r t i a l f u l f i l m e n t o f the requirements f o r an advanced degree a t the U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h Columbia, I agree t h a t the L i b r a r y s h a l l make i t f r e e l y a v a i l a b l e f o r r e f e r e n c e and study. I f u r t h e r agree t h a t p e r m i s s i o n f o r e x t e n s i v e copying o f t h i s t h e s i s f o r s c h o l a r l y purposes may be granted by the Head o f my Department or by h i s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s . I t i s understood t h a t copying or p u b l i c a t i o n of t h i s t h e s i s f o r f i n a n c i a l g a i n s h a l l not be allowed without my w r i t t e n p e r m i s s i o n . Department o f \ \ s ^ X - ^ y v ^ The U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h Columbia Vancouver 8, Canada ABSTRACT T h i s t h e s i s i s an e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e d i f f e r i n g n a t u r e o f I n d i a n and E u r o p e a n r e l a t i o n s on a f u r t r a d i n g a n d a s e t t l e -ment f r o n t i e r . The a r g u m e n t i s b a s e d on t h e a s s u m p t i o n t h a t t h e r e was a f a i r l y s h a r p l y d e f i n a b l e s h i f t f r o m f u r t r a d e t o s e t t l e m e n t i n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a ; t h a t i n 1858 t h e f u r t r a d e e s s e n t i a l l y came t o an end and t h e s e t t l e m e n t f r o n t i e r was b o r n . T h i s t r a n s i t i o n f r o m f u r t r a d e t o s e t t l e m e n t a l s o b r o u g h t q u i t e f u n d a m e n t a l c h a n g e s i n t h e n a t u r e o f I n d i a n - E u r o p e a n r e l a t i o n s . D u r i n g t h e f u r t r a d i n g p e r i o d I n d i a n s and E u r o p e a n s w e r e i n v o l v e d , i n a m u t u a l l y b e n e f i c i a l e c o n o m i c s y s t e m . B e c a u s e o f t h e n a t u r e o f t h e i r a c t i v i t i e s f u r t r a d e r s w e re b o t h u n a b l e and u n w i l l i n g t o f o r c e m a j o r c u l t u r a l c h a n g e on t h e I n d i a n s , s o t h e c h a n g e t h a t d i d o c c u r w i t h i n I n d i a n s o c i e t i e s was l i m i t e d a n d c o u l d be c o n t r o l l e d by t h e I n d i a n s . D u r i n g t h e f u r t r a d i n g p e r i o d I n d i a n c u l t u r e s w e r e s t i m u l a t e d r a t h e r t h a n d i s r u p t e d a s a r e s u l t o f c o n t a c t w i t h E u r o p e a n s . W i t h s e t t l e m e n t , h o w e v e r , t h e I n d i a n s e x p e r i e n c e d m a j o r c u l t u r a l d i s r u p t i o n s . New g r o u p s o f E u r o p e a n s a r r i v e d a n d made d i f f e r e n t demands on t h e I n d i a n s . G o l d m i n e r s , s e t t l e r s , m i s s i o n -a r i e s and g o v e r n m e n t o f f i c i a l s , i n d i f f e r e n t w a y s , a l l r e q u i r e d t h e I n d i a n s t o make m a j o r c h a n g e s i n t h e i r way o f l i f e , a n d t h e w h i t e s now h a d t h e power t o f o r c e c h a n g e . The I n d i a n s w e r e no l o n g e r f r e e t o a d a p t as t h e y w i s h e d , and t h e p a c e o f c h a n g e was so r a p i d t h a t many I n d i a n s l o s t c o n t r o l o f t h e i r s i t u a t i o n . As t h e E u r o p e a n s c o n s o l i d a t e d t h e i r h o l d o n t h e c o u n t r y t h e t r a d i t i o n a l I n d i a n c u l t u r e s w e re d i s r u p t e d w h i l e t h e I n d i a n s ' c u r r e n t n e e d s w e r e n e g l e c t e d . G o v e r n m e n t a l a c t i o n c o n s t i t u t e d an a t t a c k on I n d i a n c u l t u r e s , a n d r e f l e c t e d t h e f a c t t h a t t h e I n d i a n s h a d become i r r e l e v a n t t o t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e P r o v i n c e by w h i t e s e t t l e r s . By 189 0 t h e d e v e l o p m e n t s t h a t h a d commenced w i t h t h e a d v e n t o f s e t t l e m e n t w e r e c o m p l e t e . The s e t t l e r s w e r e i n a f i r m l y e s t a b l i s h e d p o s i t i o n o f d o m i n a n c e o v e r t h e I n d i a n s o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a . CONTENTS ABBREVIATIONS v i ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS v i i INTRODUCTION 1 CHAPTER I The M a r i t i m e F u r T r a d e 8 CHAPTER I I The L a n d B a s e d F u r T r a d e 43 CHAPTER I I I The T r a n s i t i o n a l Y e a r s , 1849-1858 78 CHAPTER I V The Image o f t h e I n d i a n 112 CHAPTER V G o l d M i n e r s a n d S e t t l e r s 144 CHAPTER V I The M i s s i o n a r i e s 180 CHAPTER V I I G o v e r n m e n t A d m i n i s t r a t o r s 220 CHAPTER V I I I The C o n s o l i d a t i o n o f S e t t l e m e n t : 260 t h e 1870's a n d 1880's NOTES I n t r o d u c t i o n 312 C h a p t e r I 314 C h a p t e r I I 326 C h a p t e r I I I 336 C h a p t e r I V 344 C h a p t e r V 352 C h a p t e r V I 360 C h a p t e r V I I 36 8 C h a p t e r V I I I 377 BIBLIOGRAPHY 389 i v L I S T OF MAPS The N o r t h e r n Queen C h a r l o t t e I s l a n d s 9 I n d i a n s o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , L i n g u i s t i c ^ S u b d i v i s i o n s Map o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a e n v e l o p e i n s i d e b a c k c o v e r . TABLE The I n d i a n P r o p o r t i o n o f t h e P o p u l a t i o n o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , 1 8 8 1 , 1891 a n d 1901 297 v ABBREVIATIONS AA. A m e r i c a n A n t h r o p o l o g i s t . BCHQ. The B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a H i s t o r i c a l Q u a r t e r l y . B . C . P a p e r s . B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a . P a p e r s C o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e I n d i a n L a n d Q u e s t i o n , 1 8 5 0 - 1 8 7 5 . V i c t o r i a , 1 875. CC. B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a . C o l o n i a l C o r r e s p o n d e n c e , ( I n w a r d C o r r e s p o n d e n c e t o C o l o n i a l G o v e r n m e n t ) . MSS, P r o -v i n c i a l A r c h i v e s o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a . CMSA. C h u r c h M i s s i o n a r y S o c i e t y . A r c h i v e s . M i c r o f i l m , U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a L i b r a r y . CO.42. G r e a t B r i t a i n , C o l o n i a l O f f i c e . O r i g i n a l C o r r e s -p o n d e n c e , C a n a d a . M i c r o f i l m , P u b l i c A r c h i v e s o f C a n a d a . CO.60. G r e a t B r i t a i n , C o l o n i a l O f f i c e . O r i g i n a l C o r r e s -p o n d e n c e , B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , 1 8 5 8 - 1 8 7 1 . M i c r o f i l m , U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a L i b r a r y . CO.305. G r e a t B r i t a i n , C o l o n i a l O f f i c e . O r i g i n a l C o r r e s -p o n d e n c e , V a n c o u v e r I s l a n d , 1 8 4 6 - 1 8 6 7 . M i c r o f i l m , U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a L i b r a r y . HBCA. Hudson's- Bay Company. A r c h i v e s . M i c r o f i l m , P u b l i c A r c h i v e s o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a . I A B S . C a n a d a , D e p a r t m e n t o f I n d i a n A f f a i r s . B l a c k S e r i e s , W e s t e r n C a n a d a , R e c o r d G r o u p 10. MSS, P u b l i c A r c h i v e s o f C a n a d a . PABC. P r o v i n c i a l A r c h i v e s o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a . PAC. P u b l i c A r c h i v e s o f C a n a d a . SC. S p e c i a l C o l l e c t i o n s , U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a L i b r a r y . TRSC. T r a n s a c t i o n s o f t h e R o y a l S o c i e t y o f C a n a d a . UBC. U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a L i b r a r y . WDP. Duncan,'".'-William. P a p e r s . M i c r o f i l m , U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a L i b r a r y . WHQ. The W a s h i n g t o n H i s t o r i c a l Q u a r t e r l y . v i ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I d i d n o t c o m p l e t e t h i s t h e s i s a l o n e , a n d I w o u l d l i k e t o t h a n k t h o s e who g a v e a s s i s t a n c e . I am p a r t i c u l a r l y i n d e b t e d t o Anne Y a n d l e and t h e s t a f f o f S p e c i a l C o l l e c t i o n s , U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a L i b r a r y , who h a v e b e e n c o n s i s -t e n t l y h e l p f u l o v e r t h e p a s t t h r e e y e a r s . A t t h e P r o v i n c i a l A r c h i v e s o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a t h e s t a f f , p a r t i c u l a r l y F r a n G u n d r y a nd K e n t H a w o r t h , a l w a y s a n s w e r e d my q u e s t i o n s h e l p f u l l y a n d g u i d e d me t h r o u g h t h e e c c e n t r i c i t i e s o f t h e c o l l e c t i o n . T h a n k s a r e a l s o due t o The P u b l i c A r c h i v e s o f C a n a d a ; The D e p a r t m e n t o f I n d i a n A f f a i r s a n d N o r t h e r n D e v e l o p m e n t ; The Gle n b o w H i s t o r i c a l L i b r a r y a n d A r c h i v e s > , C a l g a r y ; The A l e x a n d e r T u r n b u l l L i b r a r y , W e l l i n g t o n , New Z e a l a n d ; The M i t c h e l l L i b r a r y , S y d n e y , A u s t r a l i a ; t h e A r c h i v i s t o f t h e Hudson's Bay Company, L o n d o n ; a nd The C h u r c h M i s s i o n a r y S o c i e t y A r c h i v e s , L o n d o n . F i n a l l y , a n d m o s t i m p o r t a n t l y , I w a n t t o t h a n k my s u p e r v i s o r s , M a r g a r e t A. Ormsby a nd W i l s o n D u f f , who, i n d i f -f e r e n t w a y s , c o n t r i b u t e d s o much t o w h a t e v e r m e r i t t h i s t h e s i s may h a v e . v i i INTRODUCTION The h i s t o r y o f t h e f u r t r a d e i n N o r t h A m e r i c a h a s been- shown as a r e t r e a t i n t h e f a c e o f s e t t l e m e n t . I n C a n a d a t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e n a t i v e I n d i a n s and t h e i m m i g r a n t E u r o p e a n s h a s n o t b e e n a m a j o r c o n c e r n o f h i s -t o r i a n s . I n c o n t r a s t t o o t h e r f o r m e r B r i t i s h s e t t l e m e n t c o l o n i e s , t h e a b o r i g i n a l p e o p l e h a v e b e e n s e e n as p e r i p h e r a l r a t h e r t h a n c e n t r a l t o t h e s t u d y o f C a n a d a ' s p a s t ; o r , as some h a v e w r i t t e n , 2 t h e I n d i a n p r o v i d e s t h e " b a c k g r o u n d " f o r C a n a d i a n h i s t o r y . Some o f t h e m a j o r themes i n C a n a d i a n h i s t o r i c a l w r i t i n g h a v e a c t u a l l y done a d i s s e r v i c e t o t h e s t u d y o f t h e i n d i g e n o u s C a n a -d i a n . The s t a p l e - L a u r e n t i a n t h e s i s h a s b e e n t h e m o s t c r e a t i v e i d e a t o emerge o u t o f t h e s t u d y o f C a n a d i a n h i s t o r y . The n o t i o n t h a t C a n a d a ' s d e v e l o p m e n t c a n be e x p l a i n e d i n t e r m s o f t h e p r o -d u c t i o n o f c e r t a i n s t a p l e s f o r e x p o r t t o m e t r o p o l i t a n m a r k e t s was e n u n c i a t e d by H a r o l d I n n i s i n The F u r T r a d e i n C a n a d a and i t was e l a b o r a t e d i n D o n a l d C r e i g h t o n ' s The E m p i r e o f t h e S t . x L a w r e n c e . B o t h I n n i s a n d C r e i g h t o n make t h e p o i n t t h a t t h e c u l -t u r e o f t h e h u n t i n g I n d i a n s was e s s e n t i a l t o t h e f u r t r a d e , and C r e i g h t o n adds t h a t , w h i l e t h e f u r t r a d e p r e s e r v e d t h e I n d i a n s 3 f r o m e x t i n c t i o n , s e t t l e m e n t d r o v e them t o w a r d s d e g r a d a t i o n . Y e t b o t h , t h e s e h i s t o r i a n s d e a l w i t h t h e I n d i a n s o n l y as t h e y r e s p o n d t o t h e E u r o p e a n e c o n o m i c s y s t e m . The I n d i a n s a r e shown accommo-d a t i n g t o E u r o p e a n demands r a t h e r t h a n a c t i n g a c c o r d i n g t o t h e i r own i m p u l s e s a n d p r i o r i t i e s . A f u r t h e r e f f e c t o f s t a p l e t h e o r y 1 2 h i s t o r y h as b e e n t h a t t h e I n d i a n s h a v e d r o p p e d f r o m v i e w w i t h t h e d e c l i n e o f t h e f u r t r a d e . H a v i n g c e a s e d t o be an i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r i n t h e E u r o p e a n economy, t h e I n d i a n s a r e g i v e n l i t t l e a t t e n t i o n d u r i n g t h e d i s r u p t i v e s e t t l e m e n t p e r i o d . A t t e m p t s t o a p p l y F r e d e r i c k J a c k s o n T u r n e r ' s f r o n t i e r t h e s i s t o Canada have a l s o done l i t t l e t o e l u c i d a t e t h e r o l e o f t h e I n d i a n s . The f r o n t i e r t h e s i s i s c o n f i d e n t l y e t h n o c e n t r i c i n t h a t i t i s p r e d i c a t e d on t h e n o t i o n o f t h e " e x i s t e n c e o f an a r e a 4 o f f r e e l a n d " ; l a n d w h i c h , o f c o u r s e , r e a l l y b e l o n g e d t o t h e I n d i a n s . T u r n e r s i m p l y d i s m i s s e s t h e I n d i a n s as "a c o n s o l i d a t i n g a g e n t " , a common d a n g e r demanding u n i t e d a c t i o n on t h e p a r t o f 5 . . . . t h e s e t t l e r s . I n h i s v i e w t h e I n d i a n s were m e r e l y an impediment t o t h e d r i v e w e s t w a r d s . Work on c o m p a r i n g f r o n t i e r e x p e r i e n c e s and t h e i r i m p a c t on t h e I n d i a n s has t e n d e d t o p r o d u c e a smug s e l f - s a t i s f a c t i o n w i t h t h e C a n a d i a n example; as i f a c o m p a r a t i v e l a c k o f i n t e r - r a c i a l v i o l e n c e i s s u f f i c i e n t e v i d e n c e o f a s u p e r i o r I n d i a n p o l i c y . ^ The w r i t i n g o f C a n a d i a n h i s t o r y h as been w h i g g i s h t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t i t d e a l s w i t h w i n n e r s . The o v e r r i d i n g c o n c e r n has b e e n w i t h c e n t r a l p o l i t i c s and, as d r o p o u t s f r o m t h e d e v e l o p m e n t f r o m c o l o n y t o n a t i o n , t h e I n d i a n s have been n e g l e c t e d . B e r n a r d De V o t o ' s comment a b o u t A m e r i c a n h i s t o r y , t h a t i t "has b e e n w r i t t e n as i f h i s t o r y were a f u n c t i o n s o l e l y o f w h i t e c u l t u r e -i n s p i t e o f t h e f a c t t h a t t i l l w e l l i n t o t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y t h e I n d i a n s were one o f t h e p r i n c i p a l d e t e r m i n a n t s o f h i s t o r i c a l 7 e v e n t s " , i s e q u a l l y a p p l i c a b l e t o t h e w r i t i n g o f C a n a d i a n h i s t o r y . I n t h e h i s t o r i c a l w r i t i n g o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a t h e s i t u -3 a t i o n i s l i t t l e d i f f e r e n t . E v e n t h o u g h t h e I n d i a n s f o r m e d t h e m a j o r i t y o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n o f t h e p r e s e n t B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a u n t i l i n t o t h e 1 8 8 0 ' s , i n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a : a H i s t o r y t h e y a r e o n l y s m a l l p l a y e r s w i t h b r i e f e n t r a n c e s . More d e t a i l e d s t u d i e s h a v e o f t e n f a i l e d t o a c h i e v e minimum s t a n d a r d s o f h i s -t o r i c a l a c c u r a c y . Works l i k e F o r r e s t E. L a V i o l e t t e ' s The S t r u g g l e f o r S u r v i v a l a n d t h e s e c t i o n s t h a t d e a l w i t h B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a i n E. P a l m e r P a t t e r s o n I I ' s The C a n a d i a n I n d i a n : a 9 H i s t o r y S i n c e 1500 a r e b a s e d on s u p e r f i c i a l r e s e a r c h and c o n -s e q u e n t l y c o n t a i n numerous e r r o r s o f f a c t and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . B u t p e r h a p s t h e m o s t c u r i o u s t r e a t m e n t o f t h e n a t i v e B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a n s i s t h e i n c l u s i o n o f a c h a p t e r o n them i n a v o l u m e e n -t i t l e d ' Sjtrang^e_r_3__^ I t i s m i s l e a d i n g t o assume t h a t t h e I n d i a n s a r e c o m p a r a b l e w i t h t h e i m m i g r a n t g r o u p s w i t h i n t h e B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a p o p u l a t i o n . F o r i n s t a n c e , t h e f i r s t s e n t e n c e o f S t r a n g e r s E n t e r t a i n e d a s s e r t s , q u i t e i n c o r r e c t l y , t h a t " a l l o f us who l i v e i n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a a r e i m m i g r a n t s o r t h e d e s c e n d e n t s o f i m m i g r a n t s . " The a u t h o r g o e s on t o e x p l a i n t h a t by " s t r a n g e r s " he means " t h e e t h n i c g r o u p s o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a who h a v e come t o t h i s p r o v i n c e i n t h e l a s t century"."'""'' I n t h e s e t e r m s t h e I n d i a n s w e r e c l e a r l y n o t " s t r a n g e r s " and s u r e l y i t c a n n o t be a r g u e d t h a t , a f t e r t h e c o m i n g o f s e t t l e r s , t h e I n d i a n s o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a w e r e " e n t e r t a i n e d " . B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a h i s t o r i a n s h a v e , by d e f a u l t , l e f t t h e s t u d y o f t h e I n d i a n ' s r o l e i n t h e P r o v i n c e ' s h i s t o r y l a r g e l y t o . t h e a n t h r o p o l o g i s t and W i l s o n D u f f ' s The I n d i a n H i s t o r y o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , t e n y e a r s a f t e r i t s p u b l i c a t i o n , i s s t i l l t h e b e s t w o r k i n t h e f i e l d . I n 1958 t h e a u t h o r s o f a s t u d y o f 4 t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y s o c i a l a d j u s t m e n t o f t h e I n d i a n s o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a w e r e " i m p r e s s e d b y t h e l a c k o f h i s t o r i c a l w r i t i n g s d e a l i n g w i t h t h e s o c i a l h i s t o r y o f W h i t e a nd I n d i a n r e l a t i o n s . . 13 i n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a " . Today t h e r e m a r k h a s a l m o s t as much v a l i d i t y as i t d i d t h e n . One o f t h e p u r p o s e s o f t h i s t h e s i s , t h e r e f o r e , i s t o e s t a b l i s h t h e r o l e o f t h e I n d i a n i n t h e h i s t o r y o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a . I t i s n o t , h o w e v e r , an I n d i a n h i s t o r y . I t i s a h i s -t o r y o f t h e c o n t a c t o f two c u l t u r e s ; o f I n d i a n - E u r o p e a n r e l a t i o n s . Some h i s t o r i a n s h a v e i n d u l g e d i n r h e t o r i c a l g e s t u r e s i n t h e d i r e c t i o n o f p u t t i n g t h e I n d i a n a t " t h e c e n t r e o f h i s own h i s -t o r y " , a n d h a v e t h e n p r o c e e d e d t o w r i t e d e s c r i p t i o n s o f I n d i a n 14 and E u r o p e a n r e l a t i o n s . G i v e n t h e n a t u r e o f h i s s o u r c e s i t i s p e r h a p s more v a l i d f o r t h e h i s t o r i a n t o d e a l w i t h I n d i a n and w h i t e r e l a t i o n s r a t h e r t h a n w i t h s o - c a l l e d I n d i a n h i s t o r y . The h i s t o r i a n r e l i e s l a r g e l y o n w r i t t e n , a n d t h e r e f o r e E u r o p e a n , s o u r c e s w h i c h i n e v i t a b l y i m p o s e l i m i t s on h i s a p p r e c i a t i o n o f t h e I n d i a n s i d e o f t h e s t o r y . T h e s e s o u r c e s o b v i o u s l y c o n t a i n d i s t o r t i o n s r e s u l t i n g f r o m i g n o r a n c e a n d p r e j u d i c e , b u t t h e y s t i l l r e v e a l much a b o u t w h a t t h e I n d i a n s a r e d o i n g a n d , s o m e t i m e s , a b o u t w h a t t h e y a r e t h i n k i n g . The I n d i a n s ' r e s p o n s e t o t h e - i n t r u s i o n o f E u r o p e a n c u l -t u r e i s an i m p o r t a n t p a r t o f t h e h i s t o r y o f c u l t u r e c o n t a c t i n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a a n d much c a n be g l e a n e d f r o m t h e u s u a l h i s t o r i -c a l s o u r c e s a b o u t t h e b e h a v i o u r o f t h e I n d i a n s i n c o n t a c t w i t h 15 t h e w h i t e man. B u t t h e i m b a l a n c e t h a t w o u l d be c r e a t e d by r e l y i n g s o l e l y on r e c o r d s w r i t t e n b y E u r o p e a n s c a n be p a r t i a l l y c o r r e c t e d by u t i l i s i n g t h e w o r k o f a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s . A n t h r o -5 pological l i t e r a t u r e provides the h i s t o r i a n with descriptions of Indian cultures, with insights into the Indians' response to the impact of Europeans, and can help him avoid some of the p i t f a l l s of writing about a largely i l l i t e r a t e society. There are, nevertheless, i m p l i c i t tendencies towards ethnocentrism i n a study of thi s kind. The p o l i t i c a l e ntity of B r i t i s h Columbia, for example, did not even e x i s t u n t i l 1866 and c e r t a i n l y had no meaning to the Indians for most of the period under discussion. In a sense to write about the B r i t i s h Columbian Indian i s u n h i s t o r i c a l . There are also dangers i n making generalisations about the Indians of B r i t i s h Columbia as i f they were c u l t u r a l l y s i m i l a r . There were, of course, many subtle and not so subtle variations i n the Indian cultures of the area, as well as the quite fundamental d i v i s i o n between the coastal and i n t e r i o r t r i b e s . General applications of Ruth Benedict's description of Kwakiutl potlatching are a warning of 16 the problems of generalising even about the,coast Indians. The Kwakiutl were exceptional i n so many ways from generalisations that can be made about the Indians of the northwest coast during the contact period. The Indians of the area that became B r i t i s h Columbia did, however, have one important factor i n common during the period 1774 to 1890; and that was the European. Throughout this period most of the Indians were i n contact with, and had to adjust to, the representatives and products of an a l i e n culture. Naturally neither culture was monolithic and therefore neither was uniform i n i t s response to the other. Geography introduced another v a r i a b l e . \ T h e degree of contact and the pace of change 6 was not uniform among a l l Indian groups at a given time. Never-theless t h i s thesis does suggest that there i s at l e a s t one generalisation that can be made about the hi s t o r y of Indian-European contact i n B r i t i s h Columbia; that there was a funda-mental change i n the nature of Indian and European relations with the passing of the fur trade and the establishment of. settlement. This thesis, therefore, i s an examination of the d i f f e r -ing nature of race relations on a fur trading and a settlement f r o n t i e r . In B r i t i s h Columbia there was a sharply definable s h i f t from fur trade to settlement. Although there were tran-s i t i o n a l phases either side of that date, i n 1858 the fur trade e s s e n t i a l l y came to an end and the settlement f r o n t i e r was born. Based on this premise, the argument i s that the fur trade brought only minimal c u l t u r a l change to the Indians, and that i t was change that the Indians could control and adapt to. Settlement, on the other hand, was disruptive because i t i n t r o -duced major c u l t u r a l change so rapidly that most Indians began to lose control of t h e i r s i t u a t i o n . Because of the nature of t h e i r a c t i v i t i e s the fur traders made very li m i t e d demands on the Indians and there was a considerable degree of r a c i a l i n t e r -dependence during the fur trading years, whereas settlement brought various Europeans who were i n no way dependent on the Indians and therefore had no compunction about disrupting the Indian way of l i f e . The settlement f r o n t i e r i s defined broadly to include other groups besides farming s e t t l e r s . Gold miners, s e t t l e r s , missionaries and government o f f i c i a l s a l l , i n t h e i r d i f f e r e n t ways, changed Indian cultures. During the fur trade 7 p e r i o d t h e r e was t h e k i n d o f r e c i p r o c i t y b e t w e e n t h e two r a c e s t h a t i s i m p l i e d b y t h e w o r d " r e l a t i o n s h i p " , b u t w i t h s e t t l e m e n t t h e w o r d " i m p a c t " becomes more a p p r o p r i a t e . S e t t l e r s d o m i n a t e d t h e I n d i a n s a n d c h a n g e e s s e n t i a l l y moved i n one d i r e c t i o n , s o one c a n f a i r l y t a l k o f t h e i m p a c t o f one c u l t u r e on t h e o t h e r . T h i s t h e s i s d o e s n o t d e s c r i b e e v e r y a s p e c t o f I n d i a n -E u r o p e a n r e l a t i o n s i n t h e y e a r s c o v e r e d , b u t w i l l a t t e m p t t o d r a w o u t t h e e s s e n c e o f t h a t r e l a t i o n s h i p . I t d o e s n o t , l i k e a F r a n z B o a s e t h n o g r a p h y , a t t e m p t t o i n c l u d e a l l t h e i n f o r m a t i o n c o l l e c t e d ; r a t h e r , l i k e a l l h i s t o r y , i t i s by n e c e s s i t y s e l e c -t i v e . P a r t i c u l a r l y f o r t h e p e r i o d o f t h e m a r i t i m e f u r t r a d e t h e s o u r c e s a r e s c a t t e r e d a n d f r a g m e n t a r y anyway. M o s t o f t h e i n f o r m a t i o n comes f r o m v o y a g e r s S j o u r n a l s a n d t h e r e a r e y e a r s i n w h i c h s e v e r a l a c c o u n t s a r e w r i t t e n a n d t h e n p e r i o d s o f s e v e r a l y e a r s i n w h i c h t h e r e i s no i n f o r m a t i o n a t a l l . C o n s e q u e n t l y one h a s t o be s a t i s f i e d w i t h s u g g e s t i n g p o s s i b i l i t i e s and m a k i n g e q u i v o c a l s t a t e m e n t s . T h i s i s a k i n d o f h i s t o r y t h a t may n o t be c o n g e n i a l t o t h o s e a c c u s t o m e d t o t h e c o m p a r a t i v e c e r t a i n t i e s o f p o l i t i c a l h i s t o r y . The w e i g h t i n g o f t h i s t h e s i s i n t h e s e t t l e -ment p e r i o d i s a l s o a r e f l e c t i o n o f t h e s o u r c e s . T h i s t h e s i s , t h e n , w i l l l o o k a t t h e n a t u r e o f I n d i a n and w h i t e r e l a t i o n s ; b e g i n n i n g w i t h t h e f i r s t t e n t a t i v e , f l e e t i n g c o n t a c t i n 1 7 7 4 , a n d f o l l o w i n g t h e s t o r y up t o t h e 1 8 8 0 ' s , by w h i c h t i m e s e t t l e r s o c i e t y h a d become d o m i n a n t . CHAPTER I The M a r i t i m e F u r T r a d e . . . we f o u n d t o o u r c o s t , t h a t t h e s e p e o p l e , . . . p o s s e s s e d a l l t h e c u n n i n g n e c e s s a r y t o t h e g a i n s o f m e r c a n t i l e l i f e . 1 The f i r s t r e c o r d e d E u r o p e a n c o n t a c t w i t h t h e I n d i a n s o f w h a t was t o become B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a was i n 1774. I n J u l y o f t h a t y e a r t h e S p a n i s h n a v i g a t o r , J u a n P e r e z , was a p p r e h e n -s i v e l y g u i d i n g h i s v e s s e l , S a n t i a g o , t h r o u g h t h e e t e r n a l r a i n a n d f o g a r o u n d l a t i t u d e 54° n o r t h . More t h a n a month h a d p a s s e d w i t h o u t t h e s i g h t o f l a n d s i n c e t h e S p a n i s h e x p e d i t i o n l e f t M o n t e r e y , and t h e g r o w i n g t e n s i o n on b o a r d was r e l i e v e d when t h e r e was a g l i m p s e o f l a n d on 18 J u l y . Two d a y s l a t e r l a n d was s i g h t e d a g a i n a n d i t was named P o i n t S a n t a M a r g a r i t a by P e r e z t o commemorate t h e day " o f t h a t g l o r i o u s s a i n t " . The e x p e -d i t i o n was n e a r t h e n o r t h w e s t c o r n e r o f w h a t i s now known as L a n g a r a I s l a n d . Two F r a n c i s c a n f r i a r s , J u a n C r e s p i and Tomas de l a P e n a , w e r e a b o a r d t h e S a n t i a g o and t h e y h a v e r e c o r d e d i n t h e i r d i a r i e s t h e e v e n t s t h a t f o l l o w e d . The i n i t i a l c o n t a c t b e t w e e n t h e two c u l t u r e s came when a g r o u p o f H a i d a I n d i a n s p a d d l e d o u t f r o m t h e s h o r e . A c c o r d i n g t o t h e r e c o r d t h e f i r s t r e s p o n s e s o f t h e I n d i a n s t o t h e p r e s e n c e o f t h e S p a n i a r d s w e r e t e n t a t i v e , 2 c u r i o u s and p e a c e f u l . The f i r s t c a n o e t h a t drew o u t f r o m t h e s h o r e w o u l d n o t come c l o s e t o t h e v e s s e l a nd i t s o c c u p a n t s c o u l d n o t be c o n -v i n c e d t o come a b o a r d . B u t t h e H a i d a d i d p a d d l e a r o u n d t h e S a n t i a g o t h r o w i n g f e a t h e r s on t h e w a t e r . The a c t was a s i g n t h a t 8 10 t h e y came i n p e a c e a n d , a l t h o u g h t h e S p a n i a r d s c o u l d n o t know i t s s i g n i f i c a n c e , C r e s p i c o n c l u d e d t h a t t h e s e I n d i a n s w e r e a " p e a c e f u l and v e r y d o c i l e p e o p l e . " The I n d i a n s ' d e s i r e t o t r a d e s o o n became s t r o n g e r t h a n t h e i r f e a r o f t h e s t r a n g e r s , and when o t h e r c a n o e s p a d d l e d o u t t o t h e v e s s e l t h e e x c h a n g e o f g o o d s b e g a n . The s a i l o r s o f f e r e d c l o t h e s , b e a d s and k n i v e s and i n r e t u r n t h e H a i d a t r a d e d some s e a - o t t e r f u r s a l o n g w i t h a v a r i e t y o f hand-made a r t i c l e s . C a r v e d p l a t e s and s p o o n s , mats and h a t s w e r e a l l o b t a i n e d , b u t t h e d i a r i s t s w e r e m o s t i m p r e s s e d w i t h w h a t a p p e a r t o h a v e b e e n C h i l k a t b l a n k e t s a n d w i t h t h e o r n a t e l y c a r v e d wooden b o x e s t h a t w e r e o f f e r e d t o them. The S a n t i a g o s p e n t two d a y s i n t h e a r e a and t h e n moved on w i t h o u t any o f i t s c r e w h a v i n g made a l a n d f a l l . The e x p e d i t i o n made c o n t a c t i n a s i m i l a r way w i t h t h e I n d i a n s o f t h e w e s t c o a s t o f V a n c o u v e r I s l a n d , b u t a g a i n no one s e t f o o t on l a n d . T h i s f i r s t f l e e t i n g c o n t a c t was n o t r e n e w e d f o r a n o t h e r 3 f o u r y e a r s a n d , b e c a u s e t h e S p a n i s h w e r e u n w i l l i n g t o p u b l i c i s e t h e v o y a g e s o f t h e i r e x p l o r e r s t o t h e n o r t h w e s t c o a s t , a d e c a d e was t o p a s s b e t w e e n t h i s i n i t i a l c o n t a c t and t h e f i r s t f u r t r a d i n g e x p e d i t i o n . I n 1778 t h e b r i l l i a n t , m e t i c u l o u s James Cook, l e a d i n g h i s t h i r d e x p e d i t i o n t o t h e P a c i f i c , s p e n t n e a r l y a month r e f i t t i n g i n N o o t k a Sound. The P e r e z e x p e d i t i o n h a d a l s o c o n t a c t e d t h e I n d i a n s o f t h e a r e a , b u t w h e t h e r t h e r o a d s t e a d 4 named San L o r e n z o b y P e r e z was t h e same as C o o k ' s K i n g G e o r g e ' s Sound i s a m a t t e r f o r c o n j e c t u r e . C o o k ' s wa s , h o w e v e r , t h e f i r s t e x t e n d e d c o n t a c t w i t h t h e I n d i a n s . W h i l e he was a t N o o t k a he o b t a i n e d a number o f s e a - o t t e r s k i n s , and t h e s t o r y h a s b e e n f r e q u e n t l y r e - t o l d o f how t h e s e p e l t s f e t c h e d f a b u l o u s p r i c e s i n 1 1 China. G r a d u a l l y the news of t h i s t r a n s a c t i o n seeped out. In 1783 John Ledyard p u b l i s h e d an unauthorised account of the voyage of R e s o l u t i o n and D i s c o v e r y and he noted t h a t the f u r s had been s o l d i n China f o r $100 each. . Rumours about the p r o f i t s to be made s e l l i n g s e a - o t t e r p e l t s i n China were confirmed by the p u b l i c a t i o n of the o f f i c i a l account of the voyage i n 1784, and C a p t a i n James King's r e v e l a t i o n t h a t some of the b e s t s k i n s 6 had s o l d f o r $120. In the f o l l o w i n g year the f i r s t f u r t r a d i n g v e s s e l , a p p r o p r i a t e l y named Sea O t t e r , under James Hanna a r r i v e d a t Nootka. In the next few years as n a v i g a t o r s began to probe the sounds and c i r c l e the i s l a n d s , the c o n t i n e n t a l f o r e s h o r e was opened to the maritime f u r t r a d e . For the f i r s t t h ree seasons a l l the t r a d i n g v e s s e l s were E n g l i s h , but i n 1788 the f i r s t American v e s s e l s a r r i v e d on the c o a s t . In 1792 the maritime f u r trade r e a l l y began to burgeon. In t h a t season there were twenty-one v e s s e l s engaged i n the t r a d e , n e a r l y double the number o f the p r e v i o u s year, and more than h a l f o f them were B r i t i s h . But i n the f o l l o w i n g year the /Americans outnumbered the E n g l i s h , and t h i s t r e n d was to c o n t i n u e . I n i t i a l l y the B r i t i s h t r a d e r s were f e t t e r e d by the m o n o p o l i s t i c p r a c t i c e s of the E a s t I n d i a Company, and then the war w i t h France reduced the number of B r i t i s h v e s s e l s i n v o l v e d i n the t r a d e . By 1801 the trade was dominated by /American v e s s e l s , most of them out of Boston. The peak years of the maritime f u r trade were from 1792 t o about 1812. By 1825 the trade had v i r t u a l l y ceased to e x i s t as a separate e n t i t y . There are records of some 330 f u r t r a d i n g v e s s e l s coming to the northwest Coast d u r i n g the f o r t y years b e t w e e n 1785 and 1825. B e c a u s e t h e s e t r a d i n g v e s s e l s h a d t o m a n e u v e r i n d i f f i c u l t w a t e r s m o s t o f them w e r e r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l , f r o m 100 t o 300 t o n s b u r d e n . Of t h e t o t a l number o f s h i p s n e a r l y 40 p e r c e n t s p e n t more t h a n one t r a d i n g s e a s o n on t h e 7 c o a s t , a n d a b o u t 23 p e r c e n t made t h r e e o r more v i s i t s . T h e r e was , t h e r e f o r e , a d e g r e e o f c o n t i n u i t y a b o u t t h e t r a d e and some C a p t a i n s m u s t h a v e become w e l l known t o t h e I n d i a n s , p a r t i c u l a r l y as f u r t r a d i n g was c o n c e n t r a t e d i n c e r t a i n a r e a s . The I n d i a n s o f V a n c o u v e r I s l a n d and t h e Queen C h a r l o t t e I s l a n d s t r a d e d t h e m a j o r i t y o f t h e f u r s c o l l e c t e d on t h e c o a s t . D u r i n g t h e f i r s t c o u p l e o f y e a r s o f t h e m a r i t i m e f u r t r a d e p e l t s w e r e e a s i l y a c q u i r e d and t h e p r o f i t s made by E u r o p e a n t r a d e r s w e r e c o n s i d e r a b l e . On 2 J u l y 1787 C a p t a i n G e o r g e D i x o n was t a c k i n g i n t o a b a y t h a t was l a t e r t o become famous a s C l o a k B a y , when some H a i d a a p p r o a c h e d i n t h e i r c a n o e s . As P e r e z h a d f o u n d , c u r i o s i t y was i n i t i a l l y t h e d o m i n a n t r e a c t i o n o f t h e I n d i a n s . The H a i d a c o u l d n o t , a t f i r s t , be t e m p t e d t o t r a d e ; " t h e i r a t t e n t i o n seemed e n t i r e l y t a k e n up w i t h v i e w i n g t h e v e s s e l , g w h i c h t h e y a p p a r e n t l y d i d w i t h m a r k s o f w o n d e r and s u r p r i s e . " O n l y a f t e r t h e I n d i a n s h a d s a t i s f i e d t h e i r c u r i o s i t y a b o u t t h e v e s s e l c o u l d t h e y be i n d u c e d t o t r a d e . L a t e r i n t h e d a y D i x o n r a n h i s snow, t h e Queen C h a r l o t t e , f u r t h e r up t h e b a y and a s c e n e i s d e s c r i b e d " w h i c h a b s o l u t e l y b e g g a r s a l l d e s c r i p t i o n . " The c r e w was " s o o v e r j o y e d , t h a t we c o u l d s c a r c e l y b e l i e v e t h e e v i -d e n c e o f o u r s e n s e s " , b e c a u s e t h e I n d i a n s w e r e f a l l i n g o v e r e a c h o t h e r t o t r a d e t h e i r c l o a k s a n d f u r s : " t h e y f a i r l y q u a r r e l l e d w i t h e a c h o t h e r a b o u t w h i c h s h o u l d s e l l h i s c l o a k f i r s t ; a n d some a c t u a l l y t h r e w t h e i r f u r s - : on b o a r d i f n o b o dy was a t h a n d 9 t o r e c e i v e them." I n h a l f a n h o u r D i x o n o b t a i n e d 300 f u r s . A month l a t e r , when he l e f t t h e i s l a n d s t h a t he h a d named t h e Queen C h a r l o t t e s , h i s v e s s e l h a d 1,821 f u r s i n i t s h o l d . 1 0 Two y e a r s a f t e r D i x o n ' s v i s i t t h e c r e w o f t h e , A m e r i c a n s h i p C o l u m b i a e m u l a t e d h i s e x a m p l e . J o h n K e n d r i c k , t h e M a s t e r o f t h e C o l u m b i a , made one o f t h e b e s t d e a l s e v e r when, i n a few m i n u t e s , he t r a d e d 200 p e l t s a t t h e r a t e o f one c h i s e l e a c h a t t h e I n d i a n v i l l a g e o f K i u s t a on t h e n o r t h e r n e n d o f Graham I s l a n d . 1 1 I n t h e f i r s t y e a r s o f t h e t r a d e t h e s e f u r s , s o c h e a p l y p u r c h a s e d , -b r o u g h t h i g h p r i c e s i n C h i n a . I t was c l a i m e d t h a t t h e 560 s e a -o t t e r p e l t s t h a t Hanna c o l l e c t e d on h i s f i r s t t r i p r e a l i s e d 12 20,600 d o l l a r s , a n d t h a t t h e D i x o n a n d P o r t l o c k e x p e d i t i o n 13 s o l d 2,552 f u r s f o r 54,875 S p a n i s h d o l l a r s . P r i c e s s u c h as t h e s e moved D i x o n ' s a s s o c i a t e , N a t h a n i e l P o r t l o c k , t o r e m a r k t h a t t h i s b r a n c h o f commerce was p e r h a p s " t h e m o s t p r o f i t a b l e and l u c r a t i v e e m p l o y t h a t t h e e n t e r p r i s i n g m e r c h a n t c a n p o s s i b l y 14 e n g a g e i n . " B u t t h e e a s y t r a d i n g and h i g h p r i c e s i n i t i a l l y e n j o y e d by f u r t r a d e r s w e r e n o t t o c o n t i n u e . As t r a d i n g v e s s e l s v i s i t e d t h e I n d i a n s w i t h i n c r e a s i n g f r e q u e n c y t h e n a t u r e o f t h e t r a d e was s o o n t o c h a n g e . F o r one t h i n g t h e I n d i a n s r a p i d l y l o s t t h e i r c u r i o s i t y a b o u t t h e E u r o p e a n s and t h e i r v e s s e l s . As v o y a g e s became more f r e q u e n t v e s s e l s w e r e no l o n g e r a n o v e l t y . I n c o n t r a s t t o t h e c u r i o s i t y w i t h w h i c h t h e Queen C h a r l o t t e was r e c e i v e d i n 1 7 8 7 , t h e I n d i a n s o f C l o a k Bay w a n d e r e d a l l o v e r J a c i n t o Caamano's s h i p , A r a n z a z u , i n 1792 " w i t h o u t s h o w i n g w o nder a t a n y t h i n g , n o r was t h e r e any o b j e c t o f w h i c h t h e y d i d n o t a p p e a r t o know 15 t h e u s e " . A s h i p u n d e r f u l l s a i l was a n i m p r e s s i v e s i g h t , b u t t o t h e t r a d i n g I n d i a n s i t s o o n became commonplace. As i n m o s t 14 c o n t a c t s i t u a t i o n s the i n i t i a l phase, when the white men were i n e x p l i c a b l e and were perhaps even seen as s u p e r n a t u r a l b e i n g s , soon passed and crews ceased to be regarded w i t h wonder. I t was becoming apparent to the Indians t h a t t h e i r v i s i t o r s were q u i t e human. Though some o f t h e i r behaviour might be c u r i o u s , many o f t h e i r demands and d e s i r e s were f a m i l i a r . As the Indians grew accustomed to Europeans they a l s o became much more s o p h i s t i -cated t r a d e r s . • I t has been common among h i s t o r i a n s to d e s c r i b e the maritime f u r t r a d e as l i t t l e more than p i r a c y . F.W. Howay, whose c a r e f u l r e s e a r c h i n t o the s u b j e c t i s unsurpassed, r e f e r s 16 to the trade as a predatory a f f a i r , "merely a l o o t i n g of the 17 c o a s t " . E a r l i e r H.H. B a n c r o f t had w r i t t e n of Cook buying f u r s 18 from the " g u i l e l e s s savage". Yet, l i k e much h i s t o r i c a l w r i t i n g on Indian-white r e l a t i o n s , t h i s view i s e t h n o c e n t r i c to the e x t e n t t h a t i t i s an attempt to pass judgement on European behaviour r a t h e r than to analyse Indian responses. The imputation of r i g h t and wrong has o f t e n been a s u b s t i t u t e f o r examing the process o f c u l t u r e c o n t a c t . I t i s , f o r example, hard to see how 19 Cook i s (as the " f a t a l impact" s c h o o l would have us b e l i e v e ) m o r a l l y c u l p a b l e f o r the changes brought to the indigenous peoples of the P a c i f i c . C e r t a i n l y t o d e s c r i b e him as "the white 20 messenger of doom" i s to c r e d i t Cook, and"the f u r t r a d e r s who f o l l o w e d him, w i t h f a r more c o n t r o l over the t r a d i n g s i t u a t i o n than they a c t u a l l y had. The n o t i o n t h a t the Indians -were ex-p l o i t e d by the t r a d e r s i m p l i e s a s u p e r i o r i t y of the European t h a t the Indians d i d not r e c o g n i s e . There was no reason why they should. The ways i n which the European t r a d e r may have 15 f e l t s u p e r i o r h a d l i t t l e m e a n i n g f o r t h e I n d i a n . The I n d i a n s w e r e n o t p a s s i v e o b j e c t s o f e x p l o i t a t i o n ; e v e n i n t h e e a r l y y e a r s o f t h e t r a d e t h e y v i g o r o u s l y a s s e r t e d t h e i r own demands. I n d i a n s w e r e n e v e r v e r y i n t e r e s t e d i n b a u b l e s and b e a d s as 21 t r a d e i t e m s . C o o k , f o r e x a m p l e , n o t e d r n h i s j o u r n a l t h a t 22 E u r o p e a n b e a d s c o u l d n o t s u p p l a n t t h e N o o t k a n s 1 own o r n a m e n t s . So t h e o l d s t e r e o t y p e o f t h e a v a r i c i o u s t r a d e r s t e a l i n g I n d i a n f u r s f o r a few t r i n k e t s n e v e r a p p l i e d on t h e n o r t h w e s t c o a s t . As t h e I n d i a n s l o s t t h e i r i n i t i a l c u r i o s i t y a b o u t E u r o p e a n s t h e y became v e r y s h r e w d t r a d e r s . E v e n a f t e r h i s b r i e f e n c o u n t e r w i t h t h e H a i d a , P e r e z d e c l a r e d t h a t t h e I n d i a n s w e r e 23 e x p e r t and s k i l l f u l t r a d e r s . The members o f C o o k ' s e x p e d i t i o n r e a c h e d s i m i l a r c o n c l u s i o n s . As one o f them p u t i t , "They a r e v e r y k e e n t r a d e r s g e t t i n g as much as t h e y c o u l d f o r e v e r y t h i n g 24 t h e y h a d ; a l w a y s a s k i n g f o r more g i v e them w h a t y o u w o u l d . " The c o n s e q u e n c e o f t h e i r a s t u t e n e s s was t h a t t h e I n d i a n s o f N o o t k a " g o t a g r e a t e r m i d d l y a n d v a r i e t y o f t h i n g s " f r o m R e s o -l u t i o n a n d D i s c o v e r y t h a n any o t h e r p e o p l e t h a t t h e v e s s e l s h a d 25 v i s i t e d . When J o h n M e a r e s l e f t on a t r a d i n g e x p e d i t i o n t o t h e c o a s t he was w a r n e d t h a t " i t a p p e a r s t h a t t h e n a t i v e s a r e s u c h i n t e l l i g e n t t r a d e r s , t h a t s h o u l d y o u be i n t h e l e a s t d e g r e e l a v i s h , o r i n a t t e n t i v e i n f o r m i n g b a r g a i n s , t h e y w i l l s o e n h a n c e t h e v a l u e o f t h e i r f u r s , a s n o t o n l y t o e x h a u s t y o u r p r e s e n t s t o c k , b u t a l s o t o i n j u r e , i f n o t t o r u i n , any f u t u r e a d v e n t u r e . " The I n d i a n demand f o r m e t a l s , p a r t i c u l a r l y i r o n , was r e c o g n i s e d b y m o s t e a r l y t r a d e r s . C o o k ' s s h i p s l e f t N o o t k a w i t h h a r d l y any b r a s s l e f t on b o a r d , and h i s c r e w s h a d a l s o 27 t r a d e d a c o n s i d e r a b l e amount o f i r o n . L i k e t h e e x p l o r e r s , t h e 16 e a r l y f u r t r a d e r s f o u n d t h a t t h e I n d i a n s w e r e m o s t p a r t i a l t o i r o n . P e n a h a d n o t e d t h a t t h e y p a r t i c u l a r l y w a n t e d l a r g e p i e c e s w i t h a c u t t i n g e d g e , and D i x o n ' s s t a p l e medium o f e x -2 8 c h a n g e was " t o e s " , o r i r o n c h i s e l s . E a r l y i n 1789 t h e c r e w o f t h e C o l u m b i a , t r a d i n g i n t h e s t r a i t s o f J u a n De F u c a , w e r e m o r t i f i e d t o s e e 70 p r i m e p e l t s e s c a p e them " f o r w a n t o f C h i z e l s 29 t o p u r c h a s e them". I n d i a n s a l s o made o t h e r demands t h a t s u r -p r i s e d t h e i r v i s i t o r s . Cook f o u n d t h e N o o t k a n c o n c e p t o f r e s o u r c e o w n e r s h i p o p e r a t i n g when he was a s k e d t o p a y f o r wood, w a t e r , a n d e v e n t h e g r a s s c u t f o r l i v e s t o c k . T h e l a s t demand e v o k e d a d m i r a t i o n i n t h e E n g l i s h e x p l o r e r , and he i s r e p o r t e d t o h a v e r e s p o n d e d by d e s c r i b i n g t h e I n d i a n who made i t a s "an 31 /American i n d e e d ! " A f t e r t h e f i r s t f r a n t i c y e a r s t h e f u r t r a d e s e t t l e d down i n t o a p a t t e r n o v e r w h i c h t h e I n d i a n s e x e r c i s e d a g r e a t d e a l o f c o n t r o l . I t w a s , a f t e r a l l , I n d i a n demands t h a t h a d t o be s a t i s f i e d b e f o r e s e a - o t t e r p e l t s c h a n g e d h a n d s . One i n d i c a t i o n o f I n d i a n c o n t r o l o f t h e t r a d e was t h e r a p i d i n c r e a s e i n t h e p r i c e o f f u r s i n t h e e a r l y 1 7 9 0 ' s . T r a d e r s i n t h o s e y e a r s , who h o p e d t o f o l l o w t h e e x a m p l e o f t h o s e who w e r e f i r s t i n t h e f i e l d a n d p u r c h a s e l a r g e numbers o f f u r s c h e a p l y , w e r e o f t e n d i s a p p o i n t e d . J o h n B o i t r e t u r n e d t o t h e c o a s t i n 1795 and f o u n d t h a t t h e p r i c e o f p e l t s a t Dadens on L a n g a r a I s l a n d h a d i n c r e a s e d 100 p e r c e n t s i n c e 1792 when he h a d 32 b e e n t h e r e o n t h e C o l u m b i a . A r c h i b a l d M e n z i e s o b s e r v e d a s i m i l a r r a t e o f i n c r e a s e i n J o h n s t o n e S t r a i t when he r e t u r n e d 33 t h e r e w i t h V a n c o u v e r i n 1 7 9 2 , w h i l e a n o t h e r member o f V a n c o u v e r ' s e x p e d i t i o n c l a i m e d t h a t p r i c e s g e n e r a l l y h a d q u a d r u p l e d s i n c e 34 t h e e a r l i e s t v o y a g e s . A t N o o t k a , w h e r e M e a r e s h a d t r a d e d t e n 17 s k i n s f o r one p i e c e o f c o p p e r i n 1 7 8 6 , t h e a s k i n g r a t e s i x 35 y e a r s l a t e r was one p e l t f o r one p i e c e o f c o p p e r . P r i c e i n c r e a s e s s u c h as t h e s e l e d t h e S p a n i a r d , A l e j a n d r o M a l a s p i n a , t o c o n c l u d e t h a t t h e g r e a t p r o f i t s o f C o o k ' s and P o r t l o c k ' s 3 6 v o y a g e s s h o u l d be f o r g o t t e n as u n a t t a i n a b l e . T h e r e w e r e o f c o u r s e o t h e r f a c t o r s t h a t a f f e c t e d p r i c e s , i n c l u d i n g t h e g r o w i n g s c a r c i t y o f f u r s . H o w e v e r , t h e d e p l e t i o n o f t h e s e a -o t t e r was n o t a s s i g n i f i c a n t i n t h e e a r l y 1 7 9 0 ' s a s i t was t o be a f t e r t h e t u r n o f t h e c e n t u r y . The I n d i a n s h a d l e a r n e d t o demand h i g h e r p r i c e s w h i l e f u r s w e r e s t i l l r e l a t i v e l y p l e n t i f u l . N o t o n l y d i d t h e I n d i a n s q u i c k l y l e a r n t o demand a g r e a t e r q u a n t i t y o f goods f o r t h e i r f u r s , b u t t h e y a l s o became v e r y d i s c r i m i n a t i n g a b o u t t h e n a t u r e o f t h o s e g o o d s . I t i s a commonly h e l d v i e w t h a t t h e I n d i a n t a s t e i n t r a d e goods was 37 " s t r a n g e l y w h i m s i c a l a n d c o n s t a n t l y v a r i a b l e " . By c i t i n g e x a m p l e s f r o m w i d e l y d i f f e r i n g p o i n t s i n t i m e and p l a c e i t i s p o s s i b l e t o c r e a t e t h e i m p r e s s i o n t h a t I n d i a n demands w e r e m e r e l y 3 8 f i c k l e , and t o o b s c u r e t h o s e p a t t e r n s t h a t t h e i r r e q u e s t s c o n -f o r m e d t o . I n i t i a l l y t h e I n d i a n s w a n t e d a r t i c l e s t h a t h a d m e a n i n g and u s e w i t h i n p r e - c o n t a c t s o c i e t y . They p o s s e s s e d 39 b o t h i r o n and c o p p e r a t t h e t i m e o f c o n t a c t b u t t h e s e m e t a l s w e r e n o t p l e n t i f u l . F o r t h i s r e a s o n i r o n a n d o t h e r m e t a l s w e r e h i g h l y v a l u e d a n d i n g r e a t demand i n t h e e a r l y y e a r s o f t h e f u r t r a d e . The i r o n c h i s e l s b r o u g h t by t h e t r a d e r s w e r e s u f f i c i e n t l y s i m i l a r t o i n d i g e n o u s t o o l s t o be r e a d i l y u n d e r s t o o d , h e n c e t h e h e a v y i n i t i a l demand f o r them. As t h e m a r k e t became s a t u r a t e d w i t h t h e s e i t e m s t h e i r v a l u e d r o p p e d , o t h e r n e e d s b e g a n t o o p e r a t e , a n d new demands w e r e made. When t r a d i n g r a t h e r , t h a n 18 w e a r i n g f u r s s u p p l a n t e d o l d f o r m s o f c l o t h i n g t h e n e e d f o r an a l t e r n a t i v e a r o s e , s o t h e I n d i a n s t u r n e d t h e i r a t t e n t i o n t o t r a d i n g c l o t h , c l o t h i n g a n d b l a n k e t s . The demand f o r b l a n k e t s p a r t i c u l a r l y r e m a i n e d f a i r l y c o n s t a n t , and s o t h e y became a s t a p l e i n t h e t r a d e . As a g a r m e n t t h e y s e r v e d an i m p o r t a n t f u n c t i o n f o r t h e I n d i a n s . B u t t h e b l a n k e t was a l s o an a r t i c l e t h a t c o u l d be e a s i l y c o u n t e d a n d c o m p a r e d . I t - w a s , t h e r e f o r e , a u s e f u l medium o f e x c h a n g e b o t h f o r t h e f u r t r a d e and f o r I n d i a n p o t l a t c h e s . D u r i n g t h e l a t e r y e a r s o f t h e t r a d e t h e , I n d i a n s a c q u i r e d some more e x o t i c t a s t e s . A l i k i n g f o r rum, s m o k i n g t o b a c c o a n d m o l a s s e s g r a d u a l l y d e v e l o p e d , a n d m u s k e t s 40 a l s o became a n i m p o r t a n t t r a d e i t e m . N a t u r a l l y t h e r e w e r e e x c e p t i o n s t o t h i s p a t t e r n , as t h e I n d i a n m a r k e t was as much s u b j e c t t o f a d s as any o t h e r . Y e t m o s t o f t h e s e w e r e a l s o r e l a t e d t o I n d i a n u s a g e s . The p o p u l a r i t y o f t h e i r o n c o l l a r s f o r g e d a b o a r d t h e b r i g a n t i n e Hope h a s b e e n 41 s e e n as t h e h e i g h t o f H a i d a f a d i s h n e s s , b u t t h i s demand was c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e H a i d a t a s t e i n p e r s o n a l o r n a m e n t a t i o n . C o p p e r b r a c e l e t s , f o r e x a m p l e , w e r e f r e q u e n t l y w o r n and J o s e p h I n g r a h a m made h i s c o l l a r s f r o m t h e p a t t e r n o f one he h a d s e e n a 42 H a i d a woman w e a r i n g . The same p o i n t c a n be made a b o u t t h e e r m i n e s k i n s t h a t W i l l i a m S t u r g i s s o l d w i t h c o n s i d e r a b l e p r o f i t 43 a t K a i g a n i . E r m i n e p e l t s w e r e an i m p o r t a n t w e a l t h i t e m among t h e c o a s t I n d i a n s . B u t demand f o r t h i s k i n d o f a r t i c l e was t e m p o r a r y a nd t h e m a r k e t q u i c k l y became g l u t t e d . As w e l l as o c c a s i o n a l f a d s , t h e r e w e r e o t h e r f a c t o r s t h a t c r e a t e d t h e i m -p r e s s i o n t h a t t h e . I n d i a n s w o u l d t a k e a g r e a t v a r i e t y o f g o o d s . A t t i m e s t h e y w o u l d r e c e i v e as p r e s e n t s i t e m s , s u c h as b e a d s 19 and t r i n k e t s , that they would not accept as t r a d e . 4 4 Often when Indians accepted these baubles they were as an additional g i f t and not as part of the actual trading transaction. These presents added to the d i v e r s i t y of goods that changed hands but not to the number of a r t i c l e s that would buy furs. When trading the Indians not only paid great attention to the type of goods that they acquired, but they were also discriminating about q u a l i t y . Trade a r t i c l e s were examined 45 c l o s e l y and c a r e f u l l y before bargains were struck. Iron that contained flaws or was too b r i t t l e was of l i t t l e value to the 46 Indians because-they worked i t while i t was cold. Indians 4-showed great "judgement and sagacity? when selecting firearms, 48 woollen goods of i n s u f f i c i e n t q u a l i t y were turned down, and porcelain imitations of dentalia s h e l l s were treated with con-49 tempt. Usually the Indians knew what they wanted when they were trading and they were determined to get i t . Nor were Indian traders e a s i l y diverted from t h e i r purpose. One captain hoped.that a few hours of c o n v i v i a l i t y i n the.house of a chief would bring him more furs, "but, no sooner was t r a f f i c mentioned, than from being the engaging master of 50 the house, he became a Jew chapman and dealer." There are numerous comments i n the journals of trading expeditions to the northwest coast about the enterprise of Indian traders whose trading acumen meant that many captains "had the.sorrow to see valuable furs escape us, the a c q u i s i t i o n of which was the p r i n -c i p a l object of the expedition, for want of suitable objects to exchange. It has been argued that because trading captains seldom 20 e x p e c t e d t o r e t u r n t o a p a r t i c u l a r l o c a l i t y t h e y w e r e f r e -q u e n t l y a b l e t o d e f r a u d t h e I n d i a n t r a d e r s a n d r e g u l a r l y t o o k 52 v i o l e n t a c t i o n a g a i n s t them. I n f a c t t h e r e was more c o n t i n u i t y i n t h e t r a d e t h a n m i g h t be e x p e c t e d . Many v e s s e l s and c a p t a i n s 53 r e t u r n e d t o t h e c o a s t more t h a n o n c e , a n d a l a r g e p e r c e n t a g e o f t h e t r a d i n g was done w i t h a few I n d i a n l e a d e r s a n d a t a l i m i t e d number o f e n t r e p o t s . A t r a d e r who made more t h a n one v o y a g e t o t h e n o r t h w e s t c o a s t was, t h e r e f o r e , v e r y l i k e l y t o r e -t u r n t o t h e same p l a c e t o t r a d e , p a r t i c u l a r l y i f r e l a t i o n s w i t h t h e I n d i a n s h a d b e e n a m i c a b l e d u r i n g t h e f i r s t v i s i t . The p o s -s i b i l i t y o f a r e t u r n t r i p m i l i t a t e d a g a i n s t t h e i n d i s c r i m i n a t e u s e o f f r a u d a n d v i o l e n c e . As v e s s e l s came i n s e a r c h o f f u r ; S • w i t h i n c r e a s i n g f r e -q u e n c y t h e I n d i a n s became v e r y t o u g h - m i n d e d m a n i p u l a t o r s o f com-p e t i t i o n . They f o r c e d p r i c e s u p w a r d s , p a r t i c u l a r l y a t p l a c e s o f t e n v i s i t e d b y t r a d e r s . As a c o n s e q u e n c e i n t h e e a r l y y e a r s 54 f u r s w e r e f o u n d t o c o s t more a t N o o t k a t h a n a t o t h e r p l a c e s . L a t e r , h a r b o u r s s u c h as N e w i t t y , M a s s e t t and K a i g a n i became c e n t r e s o f t r a d e and o f h i g h p r i c e s . A t K a i g a n i J o h n D'Wolf f o u n d i n 1805 t h a t t h e I n d i a n s w e r e "so e x t r a v a g a n t i n t h e i r d e -55 mands . . . t h a t i t was q u i t e i m p o s s i b l e t o t r a d e . " When more t h a n one v e s s e l was a t a n c h o r t h e I n d i a n s w o u l d move f r o m one t o a n o t h e r c o m p a r i n g p r i c e s and b a r g a i n i n g t o f o r c e them u p w a r d ; a n d , as one t r a d e r o b s e r v e d , i t was e a s y t o i n c r e a s e o n e ' s p r i c e b u t a l w a y s i m p o s s i b l e t o r e d u c e i t . ^ 6 The A m e r i c a n , R i c h a r d C l e v e l a n d , w h i l e o n t h e n o r t h e r n c o a s t i n 1 7 9 9 , was t o l d b y a n o t h e r c a p t a i n t h a t he c o u l d e x p e c t t e n o t h e r v e s s e l s f r o m B o s t o n t o be t r a d i n g i n t h e a r e a t h a t y e a r . He was, t h e r e f o r e , a n x i o u s t o d i s p o s e o f h i s " a r t i c l e s o f t r a f f i c " b e f o r e c o m p e t i t i o n r e d u c e d t h e i r v a l u e , b e c a u s e , he s a i d , . . . t h e I n d i a n s a r e s u f f i c i e n t l y c u n n i n g t o d e r i v e a l l p o s s i b l e a d v a n t a g e f r o m c o m p e t i t i o n , and w i l l go f r o m one v e s s e l t o a n o t h e r , and b a c k a g a i n , w i t h a s s e r t i o n s o f o f f e r s made t o them, w h i c h h a v e no f o u n d a t i o n i n t r u t h , a n d s h o w i n g t h e m s e l v e s t o be a s w e l l v e r g e d i n t h e t r i c k s o f t h e t r a d e as t h e g r e a t e s t a d e p t s . E v e n t h e c a p t a i n s o f s o l i t a r y v e s s e l s who f e l t t h a t I n d i a n p r i c e s w e r e e x o r b i t a n t w e r e i n f o r m e d t h a t o t h e r t r a d e r s w o u l d 5 8 s o o n f o l l o w who w o u l d be w i l l i n g t o pay w h a t was a s k e d . S u c h e x p l o i t a t i o n o f c o m p e t i t i o n by t h e t r a d i n g I n d i a n s was one o f t h e r e a s o n s why, f a r f r o m m a k i n g a k i l l i n g , many f u r t r a d i n g 59 v o y a g e s w e r e r u i n o u s t o t h e i r p r o m o t e r s . As t h e I n d i a n s r a i s e d t h e i r p r i c e s c a p t a i n s w e r e a p t t o o v e r e s t i m a t e t h e v a l u e o f t h e i r c a r g o a n d , t h e r e f o r e , t h e i r m a r g i n o f p r o f i t . I n d i a n t r a d e r s w e r e n o t a b o v e a d d i n g a few t r i c k s t o t h e t r a d e . When Cook was a t N o o t k a he f o u n d t h a t t h e I n d i a n s w e r e n o t q u i t e as " g u i l e l e s s " as B a n c r o f t w o u l d h a v e us b e l i e v e . The e x p l o r e r d i s c o v e r e d t h a t t h e I n d i a n s w e r e d e c e i v i n g h i s men b y s e l l i n g c o n t a i n e r s o f o i l t h a t w e r e p a r t l y f i l l e d w i t h w a t e r . I n f a c t "once o r t w i c e t h e y h a d t h e a d d r e s s t o i m p o s e u pon us w h o l e b l a d d e r s o f w a t e r w i / t / h o u t a d r o p o f O i l i n t h e m . A n o t h e r c a p t a i n f o u n d a N o o t k a n t r y i n g t o p a s s o f f a l a n d o t t e r p e l t as a s e a - o t t e r i n t h e d u s k o f e v e n i n g . 6 1 M e a r e s w e n t as f a r as t o c l a i m t h a t i n t h e i r c o m m e r c i a l t r a n s a c t i o n s t h e I n d i a n s w o u l d p l a y a t h o u s a n d t r i c k s . He was p r o b a b l y e x a g g e r a t i n g when he a d d e d t h a t E u r o p e a n s w e r e "more o r l e s s , the d u p e s o f t h e i r c u n n i n g " , b u t i t i s u n d e n i a b l e t h a t I n d i a n s u s u a l l y b e h a v e d w i t h c o n f i d e n c e when t h e y w e r e t r a d i n g . 22 The Indians were able to assert t h e i r demands with such vigor that European captains had to modify t h e i r trading methods to accommodate them. In the early years of trade Dixon had lar g e l y coasted along the shore l i n e and r e l i e d on the Indians to paddle out to him to trade. He was convinced "that th i s plan was attended with better and speedier success than 6 3 our laying at anchor could possibly be." Only four years l a t e r , i n 1791, Ingraham co l l e c t e d 1,400 sea-otter skins o f f the Queen Charlotte Islands, and he attributed his success to the opposite t a c t i c of remaining at one v i l l a g e u n t i l no further furs could be secured. The Indians preferred t h i s approach to 64 paddling out four or f i v e miles to a moving vessel. The ten-dency was for captains to have to spend more and more time i n one place instead of moving about. I t also became apparent that one season was i n s u f f i c i e n t time to gather a p r o f i t a b l e cargo. Crews began to winter on the coast and, by 1806-1808, to trade 65 a l l year round. I n i t i a l l y most trading was conducted over the side of vessels with the Indians remaining i n t h e i r canoes, but increasingly they had to be allowed to come on deck to display t h e i r wares. Changes such as these resulted from the f a c t that the Indians preferred to trade at t h e i r l e i s u r e . They had plenty of time at t h e i r disposal and l i k e d to use i t to bargain over pr i c e s . Even though captains were invari a b l y i n a hurry to f i l l t h e i r holds, Indian concepts of time operated increasingly. Many "would wait alongside several hours - nay a l l day - to obtain t h e i r p r i c e . " 6 6 D'Wolf complained that the Kaigani Indians would l i e about the deck for days on end endeavouring to e x t o r t u n r e a s o n a b l e p r i c e s f o r f u r s , w h i l e a f f e c t i n g t h e u t m o s t i n d i f f e r e n c e as t o w h e t h e r t h e y s o l d them o r n o t . O t h e r I n d i a n u s a g e s h a d t o be o b s e r v e d by c a p t a i n s h o p i n g t o a c q u i r e f u r s . The j o u r n a l s show t h a t a c o n s i d e r a b l e amount o f I n d i a n c e r e m o n i a l a c c o m p a n i e d t r a d i n g c o n t a c t s . One o b s e r v e r n o t e d t h a t i t was a c o n s t a n t c u s t o m t o b e g i n and t e r -6 8 m i n a t e c o m m e r c i a l t r a n s a c t i o n s w i t h s t r a n g e r s w i t h s i n g i n g . A l t h o u g h t r a d e r s o f t e n f o u n d s u c h c e r e m o n i e s i r r i t a t i n g a n d t i m e c o n s u m i n g , t h e y h a d t o be p a t i e n t l y a c c e p t e d b e f o r e t h e e x c h a n g e o f goods b e g a n . However f i x e d E u r o p e a n n o t i o n s o f t h e n a t u r e o f t r a d e m i g h t b e , t r a d e r s a l s o h a d t o a c c e d e t o t h e c u s t o m o f 69 g i f t e x c h a n g e w i t h I n d i a n l e a d e r s . T h i s r i t u a l was o b s e r v e d i n s p i t e o f t h e f e e l i n g o n t h e p a r t o f some c a p t a i n s t h a t f u r s e x c h a n g e d a s p r e s e n t s w e r e s u r e t o p r o v e t h e d e a r e s t t h a t t h e y 70 o b t a i n e d . I n t h e i n t e r e s t s o f p r o f i t I n d i a n l e a d e r s o f t e n h a d t o be t r e a t e d w i t h much o f t h e d e f e r e n c e t h a t t h e y e x p e c t e d f r o m t h e i r own p e o p l e . C l e v e l a n d was one t r a d e r who g e n e r a l l y c o u l d n o t a b i d e t h e p r e s e n c e o f I n d i a n s o n t h e d e c k o f h i s s h i p . When he was a t K a i g a n i , h o w e v e r , t h e I n d i a n c h i e f named Kow h a d t o be i n d u l g e d w i t h h o s p i t a l i t y o n b o a r d . I t w o u l d , s a i d C l e v e -71 l a n d , "have b e e n f o l l y t o h a v e p r e v e n t e d h i m " . I n d i a n l e a d e r s 72 who w e r e u n w i t t i n g l y i n s u l t e d h a d t o be m o l l i f i e d , w h i l e s u p p o s e d i n s u l t s f r o m I n d i a n s w e r e t o l e r a t e d i n t h e hope o f 73 d r i v i n g a b a r g a i n . E u r o p e a n t r a d e r s w e r e , m o r e o v e r , s u b j e c t t o I n d i a n t r a d i n g p a t t e r n s t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t t h o s e I n d i a n s who s o l d them f u r s w e r e o f t e n m i d d l e m e n who h a d t h e i r own m a r k-up. The f i r s t E u r o p e a n s t o a r r i v e on t h e c o a s t n o t i c e d how I n d i a n t r a d e r s made 24 e f f o r t s t o p r e v e n t o t h e r I n d i a n s f r o m t r a d i n g w i t h them. W h i l e he was a t N o o t k a , Cook, who by 1778 was an e x p e r i e n c e d o b s e r v e r o f t h e b e h a v i o u r o f i n d i g e n o u s p e o p l e s , n o t e d t h a t t h e I n d i a n s t h a t he f i r s t c o n t a c t e d a t t e m p t e d t o m o n o p o l i s e t h e t r a d e w i t h t h e R e s o l u t i o n a n d t h e D i s c o v e r y . Whenever s t r a n g e r s w e r e a l l o w e d t o t r a d e w i t h t h e s h i p s t h e t r a n s a c t i o n s w e r e managed by 74 t h e p e o p l e o f Y u q u o t , and i n s u c h a way as t o i n c r e a s e t h e i r 75 own p r i c e s w h i l e l o w e r i n g t h e . v a l u e o f t h e E n g l i s h c o m m o d i t i e s . On o t h e r o c c a s i o n s t h e l o c a l I n d i a n s u s e d f o r c e t o p r e v e n t o u t -7 6 s i d e r s f r o m t r a d i n g w i t h t h e s h i p s . I t was e v i d e n t t h a t t h e s e e x p l o r e r s h a d n o t a r r i v e d i n a c o m m e r c i a l d e s e r t , b u t t h a t d e f i n i t e t r a d i n g p a t t e r n s a l r e a d y e x i s t e d . Much i s o f t e n made by E u r o p e a n h i s t o r i a n s o f t h e t r a d i n g a b i l i t i e s o f t h e Y a n k e e c a p t a i n s o u t o f B o s t o n , b u t i t i s l e s s f r e q u e n t l y remembered t h a t t h e I n d i a n s h a d a l o n g t r a d i t i o n o f t r a d i n g among t h e m s e l v e s . Many, p e r h a p s m o s t , o f t h e f u r s t h a t c h a n g e d h a n d s d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d o f t h e m a r i t i m e f u r t r a d e w e r e n o t c a p t u r e d by t h e I n d i a n s who t r a d e d them. When c a p t a i n s w e r e e x h o r t e d , as t h e y o f t e n w e r e , t o w a i t a day o r two so t h a t I n d i a n t r a d e r s c o u l d g a t h e r more f u r s i t d i d n o t mean t h a t t h o s e I n d i a n s i n t e n d e d t o h u n t f o r them. I n d i a n l e a d e r s on t h e o u t e r c o a s t c o l l e c t e d f u r s f r o m t h o s e who l i v e d d e e p e r i n l a n d , e i t h e r as p l u n d e r o r by t r a d e . Some c h i e f s q u i t e f r a n k l y t o l d w h i t e t r a d e r s t h a t i f t h e y w o u l d w a i t t h e y w o u l d go a n d f i g h t f o r f u r s w h i c h t h e y w o u l d 77 t h e n b r i n g t o s e l l . No d o u b t t h i s m e t hod o f g a t h e r i n g p e l t s was n o t uncommon. I t was w e l l known t h a t t h e famous N o o t k a l e a d e r , M a q u i n n a , c o n t r o l l e d a t r a d i n g n e t w o r k w i t h t h e I n d i a n s who l i v e d n e a r t h e mouth o f t h e N i m p k i s h R i v e r on t h e e a s t 25 c o a s t o f V a n c o u v e r I s l a n d . When E u r o p e a n e x p l o r e r s e s t a b l i s h e d t h e i n s u l a r i t y o f V a n c o u v e r I s l a n d , t h e y a l s o f o u n d t h a t t h e I n d i a n s who h a d v i l l a g e s a l o n g J o h n s t o n e a n d Queen C h a r l o t t e S t r a i t s w e r e q u i t e f a m i l i a r w i t h t h e i r m e r c h a n d i s e . T h e s e I n d i a n s , i n c o n t r a s t t o t h e C o a s t S a l i s h t o t h e s o u t h , h a d p a s s e d t h r o u g h t h e s t a g e o f h i g h demand f o r i r o n , and w e r e a l s o 7 8 much s h a r p e r t r a d e r s . M a q u i n n a n e v e r t h e l e s s made c o n s i d e r a b l e 79 p r o f i t i n h i s t r a d e w i t h t h e s e p e o p l e . W i c k a m n i s h , t h e c h i e f a t C l a y o q u o t S o u n d , ' e x e r c i s e d a s i m i l a r c o n t r o l o v e r t h e t r a d e 8 0 o f t h a t a r e a . The H a i d a l i k e w i s e t r a d e d w i t h m a i n l a n d g r o u p s . By 179 9 i t was c o n s i d e r e d t h a t n o t h a l f o f t h e f u r s t r a d e d a t 81 t h e Queen C h a r l o t t e s w e r e c o l l e c t e d t h e r e . I n d i a n s on t h e o u t e r c o a s t e x c h a n g e d E u r o p e a n g o o d s w i t h i n l a n d I n d i a n s a t two 8 2 and t h r e e h u n d r e d p e r c e n t p r o f i t m a r g i n s , a n d i n t h i s way f u r s w e r e c o l l e c t e d a t t h e c e n t r a l l o c a t i o n s o f t h e t r a d e w i t h E u r o -p e a n v e s s e l s . T h u s , one seaman o b s e r v e d , "we s e e t h e u n t u t o r e d 83 I n d i a n i n f l u e n c e d b y t r u e M e r c a n t i l e p r i n c i p l e s " . C e r t a i n l y , i f t h e r e was e x p l o i t a t i o n i n t h e m a r i t i m e f u r t r a d e , i t was n o t c o n f i n e d t o E u r o p e a n s . S u c h w e r e t h e demands made b y I n d i a n s on w h i t e t r a d e r s t h a t i t was c o n s i d e r e d t h a t "a man o u g h t t o be endowed w i t h an uncommon s h a r e o f p a t i e n c e t o t r a d e w i t h any o f t h e s e p e o p l e . Of c o u r s e many c a p t a i n s l a c k e d t h e i r f a i r s h a r e o f t o l e r a n c e a n d I n d i a n i m p o r t u n i t i e s e v o k e d t h e i r own b a c k l a s h . T r a d e r s c a u g h t i n t h e s q u e e z e o f i n c r e a s i n g c o s t s on t h e n o r t h w e s t c o a s t a n d d e c l i n i n g p r i c e s i n C h i n a w e r e a p t t o become a n n o y e d w i t h I n d i a n s who made w h a t t h e y c o n s i d e r e d t o be u n r e a s o n a b l e demands. When t h e e a r l y m e t h o d o f c o a s t i n g became u n f r u i t f u l , s h i p s h a d t o s t a y l o n g e r i n one p l a c e t o n e g o t i a t e t r a d i n g t e r m s w i t h I n d i a n s who w e r e i n c r e a s i n g l y a l l o w e d on d e c k . The e x t e n d e d c o n t a c t a d d e d t o t h e p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r f r i c t i o n . C o n s e q u e n t l y t h e t r a d e was a c c o m p a n i e d by a d e g r e e o f h o s t i l i t y a n d v i o l e n c e . Y e t i t i s c l e a r t h a t t h e h o s t i l i t y o f t h e I n d i a n s h a s b e e n o v e r e m p h a s i s e d i n E u r o p e a n r e c o r d s . C a p t a i n s o f t e n came t o t h e c o a s t e x p e c t i n g t h e I n d i a n s t o be h o s t i l e and t h e r e f o r e p e r -c e i v e d h o s t i l i t y w h e r e i t d i d n o t e x i s t . T h i s p o s s i b i l i t y was e x e m p l i f i e d w h i l e Cook was a t N o o t k a . The I n d i a n s whom he h a d b e e n d e a l i n g w i t h s u d d e n l y armed t h e m s e l v e s a n d became a g g r e s s i v e . Cook f i r s t t h o u g h t t h a t t h e h o s t i l i t y was d i r e c t e d a g a i n s t h i s men, b u t t h e n he r e a l i s e d t h a t i t was a i m e d a t a n o t h e r g r o u p o f 8 5 I n d i a n s who w e r e a t t e m p t i n g t o t r a d e w i t h h i s s h i p s . O t h e r c a p t a i n s - , l a c k i n g C o o k ' s e x p e r i e n c e , w e r e n o t s o d i s c e r n i n g . I n f a c t one o f h i s own c r e w was s t i l l s u s p i c i o u s t h a t t h e r e was a s t r a t e g y b e t w e e n t h e two p a r t i e s o f I n d i a n s t o c a t c h t h e v i s i t o r s 8 6 o f f t h e i r g u a r d and a t t a c k them w i t h a c o m b i n e d f o r c e . A mem-b e r o f C o o k ' s e x p e d i t i o n r e c o r d e d an a c c o u n t o f t h e N o o t k a w e l -c o m i n g c e r e m o n i e s , b u t a d d e d t h a t , a l t h o u g h i n t e n d e d a s a s i g n o f f r i e n d s h i p , t h e s e c e r e m o n i e s c o u l d a s e a s i l y be t a k e n as a n 8 7 i n d i c a t i o n o f e n m i t y . I n a c o n t a c t s i t u a t i o n w h e r e n e i t h e r r a c e was f a m i l i a r w i t h t h e b e h a v i o u r p a t t e r n s o f t h e o t h e r , t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g a n d h o s t i l i t y was a s g r e a t as t h e d e g r e e o f , .mutual s u s p i c i o n . S e e i n g t h e s i t u a t i o n i n r a c i a l t e r m s , E u r o p e a n s t e n d e d t o assume t h a t a l l I n d i a n s w e r e e q u a l l y h o s t i l e a nd t h a t a l l h o s t i l i t y was d i r e c t e d t o w a r d s them. T h a t t h e s e s a v a g e I n d i a n s w e r e " o n l y w a i t i n g an o p p o r t u n i t y f o r t o M a s s a c r e t h e w h o l e o f us 27 8 8 i n c o l d b l o o d " was a common eno u g h b e l i e f among f u r t r a d e r s . B e c a u s e t h e I n d i a n s w e r e o f t e n w a r l i k e t o w a r d s e a c h o t h e r i t was assumed b y some E u r o p e a n s t h a t t h e i r " i n t e n t i o n s t o w a r d s us 89 w h i t e p e o p l e , a r e a t a l l t i m e s b a d , n o d o u b t " . The t r a d e was p e r v a d e d by a s p i r i t o f j e a l o u s y , a n d some c a p t a i n s t r i e d t o d e t e r o t h e r s w i t h t a l e s o f t h e " M o n s t r o u s s a v a g e d i s p o s i t i o n " o f 90 t h e i n h a b i t a n t s . The t e n o r o f h o s t i l i t y was f u r t h e r i n c r e a s e d b y t h o s e I n d i a n l e a d e r s who t r i e d t o p r e v e n t t r a d e r s f r o m c a l l i n g o n n e i g h b o u r i n g g r o u p s b y e m p h a s i s i n g t h e i r u n c c o p e r a t i v e a n d w a r l i k e n a t u r e . B o t h r a c e s , i n an e f f o r t t o p r o t e c t t h e i r t r a d i n g i n t e r e s t s , e x a g g e r a t e d t h e h o s t i l i t y o f t h e o t h e r . Some I n d i a n c h i e f s w e n t f u r t h e r a n d t r i e d t o c o n v i n c e c a p t a i n s t o 91 t u r n t h e i r guns on r i v a l g r o u p s . V e s s e l s w e r e o f t e n c a u g h t i n t h e c r o s s f i r e b e t w e e n r i v a l I n d i a n t r a d i n g p a r t i e s . The I n d i a n s w e r e n o t u n i t e d a g a i n s t t h e E u r o p e a n s , a nd t h i s l a c k o f u n i t y , w h i c h many t r a d e r s c o u l d n o t s e e , t u r n e d some I n d i a n a t t a c k s o n 92 v e s s e l s i n t o f a i l u r e s . The f a c t i o n a l i s m i n I n d i a n s o c i e t y h a d a d v a n t a g e s f o r E u r o p e a n t r a d e r s . F o r e x a m p l e , when one g r o u p o f I n d i a n s c a p t u r e d some o f t h e c r e w o f t h e A r a n z a z u , Caamano 93 was l u c k y e n o u g h t o s e e them r e l e a s e d b y a n o t h e r g r o u p . W h i l e w h i t e c a p t a i n s e x a g g e r a t e d t h e i l l - w i l l t h a t t h e I n d i a n s b o r e t o w a r d s t hem, i t i s e q u a l l y e v i d e n t t h a t t h e a n t i c i p a t i o n o f h o s t i l i t y b r o u g h t i t s e x p e c t e d r e s u l t . The b e -h a v i o u r o f some c a p t a i n s i n t h e i r d e a l i n g w i t h t h e I n d i a n s v e r g e d o n t h e p a r a n o i d . When t r a d i n g o v e r t h e s t e r n o f h i s s h i p , R i c h a r d C l e v e l a n d was i n t h e h a b i t o f m o u n t i n g two f o u r p o u n d 9c a n n o n a nd a p a i r o f b l u n d e r b u s s e s , a l l l o a d e d , on t h e t a f f e r e l . T h i s p r a c t i c e was h a r d l y c o n d u c i v e t o r e l a x e d t r a d i n g r e l a t i o n s . 28 T a k i n g I n d i a n h o s t a g e s , e i t h e r t o p r e v e n t e x p e c t e d a t t a c k s o r t o f o r c e r e l u c t a n t t r a d e r s , became r e a s o n a b l y common. I n d i a n s i n c a n o e s w e r e f i r e d on f o r t r i v i a l r e a s o n s , a n d t h e s h e l l i n g o f I n d i a n v i l l a g e s by a n g r y t r a d e r s was n o t unknown. I n d i a n s t e a l i n g o f t e n r e s u l t e d i n v i o l e n c e . The t r a d e r s o p e r a t e d o u t s i d e I n d i a n s o c i a l s a n c t i o n s , s o E u r o p e a n p r o p e r t y was n o t r e g a r d e d i n t h e same way as t h e p r o p e r t y o f o t h e r I n d i a n s . B e -c a u s e t h e t r a d e r s w e r e a l i e n s a n d seemed i n c r e d i b l y w e a l t h y t o t h e I n d i a n s , t h e i r g o o d s w e r e l o o k e d u p o n as f a i r game. Y e t I n d i a n s s t o l e l i g h t h e a r t e d l y , a n d l a u g h e d when t h e y w e r e d e t e c t e d "as i f t h e y c o n s i d e r e d i t as a p i e c e o f ' D e x t e r i t y a n d d i d them - - 95 c r e d i t r a / t h e r / t h a n any d i s h o n o u r . " C a p t a i n s saw t h e m a t t e r d i f f e r e n t l y . They t r e a t e d t h e f t s e r i o u s l y , a n d t h e p u n i s h m e n t t h a t t h e y m e t e d o u t was s o m e t i m e s s a v a g e . N a t u r a l l y t h e I n d i a n s d i d n o t r e m a i n p a s s i v e i n t h e f a c e o f s u c h t r e a t m e n t ; t h e y r e a c t e d i n k i n d . I n d i a n r e t a l i a t i o n f o r o u t r a g e s c o m m i t t e d a g a i n s t them has b e e n s e e n as t h e m a j o r r e a s o n f o r t h e i r a t t a c k s o n f u r 96 t r a d e r s a n d t h e i r v e s s e l s . I n some i n s t a n c e s r e v e n g e was u n -d o u b t e d l y t h e m o t i v a t i o n . One o f t h e b e s t d o c u m e n t e d o f t h e s e c a s e s was K o y a h ' s a t t a c k o n t h e b r i g a n t i n e L a d y W a s h i n g t o n i n J u n e , 1 7 9 1 . K o y a h was t h e l e a d i n g f i g u r e a t t h e H a i d a v i l l a g e on A n t h o n y I s l a n d . The e a r l y c o n t a c t s w i t h h i s p e o p l e h a d b e e n 97 p e a c e f u l e n o u g h . F o r e x a m p l e , R o b e r t H a s w e l l on t h e C o l u m b i a n o t e d t h a t t h e I n d i a n s " p i l l a g e d a n e y l i t t l e t r i f f l i n g t h i n g t h e y c o u l d f i n d a good o p p o r t u n i t y t o t a k e u n o b s e r v e d " , b u t he a d d e d t h a t "as we t o o k no r a s h meens ( s i c ) w i t h them i t n e v e r 9 8 i n t e r r u p t e d o u r t r a d e . " O t h e r t r a d e r s w e r e much l e s s t o l e r a n t . 29 When p i l f e r i n g o c c u r r e d on J o h n K e n d r i c k ' s L a d y W a s h i n g t o n he r e a c t e d b y c a p t u r i n g K o y a h and m i s t r e a t i n g h i m i n a way t h a t was s h a t t e r i n g t o t h e I n d i a n l e a d e r ' s p r e s t i g e . K e n d r i c k a p p a r e n t l y f l o g g e d K o y a h , p a i n t e d h i s f a c e , c u t o f f h i s h a i r a n d t o o k .a l a r g e number o f p e l t s f r o m h i m . J o h n H o s k i n s a r r i v e d a f t e r t h e e v e n t on t h e C o l u m b i a ' s s e c o n d v o y a g e , and was t o l d t h a t "Coyah was now no l o n g e r a C h i e f b u t an " A h l i k o 1 o r one o f t h e l o w e r c l a s s ; t h e y now h a v e no h e a d C h i e f , b u t 99 many i n f e r i o r C h i e f s . " K e n d r i c k r e t u r n e d t o t h e v i l l a g e on t h e L a d y W a s h i n g t o n i n 1 7 9 1 . A l m o s t c e r t a i n l y i n r e v e n g e f o r t h e t r e a t m e n t he h a d r e c e i v e d , K o y a h a t t a c k e d t h e v e s s e l . A l -t h o u g h t h e H a i d a g a i n e d t h e i n i t i a l a d v a n t a g e , t h e e n d r e s u l t was a c o n s i d e r a b l e l o s s o f I n d i a n l i f e and c o n s e q u e n t l y f u r t h e r l o s s o f f a c e by K o y a h . 1 0 0 I n an e f f o r t t o r e - e s t a b l i s h h i s l o s t p r e s -t i g e , K o y a h l e d a t t a c k s on o t h e r v e s s e l s . T h e s e a t t a c k s w e r e p r o b a b l y t y p i c a l o f a number t h a t w e r e l a u n c h e d i n r e t a l i a t i o n f o r t h e h i g h - h a n d e d way i n w h i c h w h i t e t r a d e r s s o m e t i m e s t r e a t e d T 101 I n d i a n s . Y e t , e v e n i f t h e I n d i a n s r e v e n g e d a l l i n s u l t s a g a i n s t t hem, i t w o u l d be f a l l a c i o u s t o r e v e r s e t h e p r o p o s i t i o n and s a y 102 t h a t a l l a t t a c k s w e r e m o t i v a t e d by r e v e n g e . The " r e v e n g e o n l y " e x p l a n a t i o n i s an o b v i o u s c o r o l l a r y o f t h e v i e w t h a t t h e I n d i a n s w e r e e x p l o i t e d by t h e m a r i t i m e f u r t r a d e r s , and o v e r l o o k s o t h e r p o s s i b l e m o t i v a t i o n s . S u c h a t h e o r y f i t s i n t o t h e . c o n c e p t t h a t t h e I n d i a n s p l a y e d a p a s s i v e r o l e i n c u l t u r e c o n t a c t . A c c o r d i n g t o t h i s v i e w t h e I n d i a n o n l y r e a c t s i n r e s p o n s e t o E u r o p e a n a c t i o n , he d o e s n o t t a k e t h e i n i t i a t i v e . R a t h e r t h a n h a v i n g g ood r e a s o n s o f h i s own f o r a t t a c k i n g w h i t e s he m u s t w a i t 30 f o r t h e E u r o p e a n t o i n s u l t h i m . The " r e t a l i a t i o n o n l y " e x -p l a n a t i o n i s as n a i v e as t h e n o t i o n t h a t I n d i a n s a t t a c k e d s h i p s s i m p l y b e c a u s e o f t h e i r n a t u r a l t r e a c h e r y a n d f e r o c i t y . The s i m p l e m i s c o n s t r u i n g o f E u r o p e a n b e h a v i o u r c o u l d h a v e b e e n t h e r e a s o n f o r some I n d i a n a t t a c k s . The v i o l a t i o n o f I n d i a n s o c i a l c u s t o m s , e i t h e r w i t t i n g l y o r u n w i t t i n g l y , w o u l d a l s o be l i k e l y t o p r o d u c e c o n f l i c t . When t h e C o l u m b i a was i n C l a y o q u o t Sound i n 1792 H o s k i n s t r i e d r e p e a t e d l y t o v i s i t a g r o u p o f m o u r n i n g 103 I n d i a n women, i n s p i t e o f W r k a m n i s h ' s w a r n i n g s n o t t o . The c a p t a i n o f t h e s h i p , R o b e r t G r a y , a few d a y s e a r l i e r h a d d e -c l i n e d a n i n v i t a t i o n t o a p o t l a t c h w h i c h "by no means p l e a s e d " 104 h i s h o s t s . T h i s k i n d o f d i s r e g a r d f o r I n d i a n p r o t o c o l was • l i k e l y , t o p r o d u c e h o s t i l i t y . T h r o u g h i g n o r a n c e o f I n d i a n s o c i a l u s a g e s , w h i t e t r a d e r s p r o b a b l y o f f e n d e d I n d i a n s e n s i b i l i t i e s on many o c c a s i o n s . T h e i r r e f u s a l t o t r a d e , p a r t i c u l a r l y when f u r s w e r e o f f e r e d b y I n d i a n s i n t h e f o r m o f r e c i p r o c a l p r e s e n t s , 105 c o u l d b e , and s o m e t i m e s was, t a k e n as an i n s u l t . S i m p l e d i s -l i k e o f f o r e i g n i n t r u d e r s c o u l d h a v e b e e n a m o t i v e f o r I n d i a n a t t a c k s . I t i s p o s s i b l e t h a t f u r t r a d e r s , w h i l e t h e y r e m a i n e d on t h e i r v e s s e l s , w e r e s e e n b y t h e I n d i a n s a s c o m p l e t e l y o u t s i d e t h e I n d i a n s o c i a l s p h e r e . T h e r e a r e , h o w e v e r , no r e c o r d e d a t t a c k s o f v o y a g e r s w h i l e t h e y w e r e g u e s t s a t I n d i a n v i l l a g e s . I n s p i t e o f t h e v i v i d i m a g i n a t i o n o f some w h i t e s , who assumed t h a t I n d i a n s o n l y i n v i t e d them t o t h e i r h o u s e s t o b u t c h e r t h e m , 1 I n d i a n c o n c e p t s o f h o s p i t a l i t y a p p l i e d t o a l l v i s i t o r s . T h e r e w e r e many p o s s i b l e m o t i v e s b e h i n d I n d i a n a t t a c k s on v e s s e l s , a n d m o s t o f them more c o m p l e x t h a n j u s t t h e d e s i r e f o r r e v e n g e o r i n n a t e t r e a c h e r y . T h e r e was a d e l i c a t e b a l a n c e o f g a i n s and l o s s e s t o be w e i g h e d up by I n d i a n l e a d e r s who c o n -t e m p l a t e d an a t t a c k . The i m m e d i a t e a d v a n t a g e o f g a i n i n g w e a l t h b y p l u n d e r h a d t o be a s s e s s e d a g a i n s t t h e l o n g t e r m d i s a d v a n t a g e o f l o s i n g t r a d e . One o f t h e m o s t famous and s u c c e s s f u l I n d i a n a s s a u l t s was t h a t l e d by M a q u i n n a on t h e A m e r i c a n s h i p , B o s t o n , i n 1 8 0 3 . Many m o t i v e s seemed t o h a v e o p e r a t e d . G r i e v a n c e s h a d a c c u m u l a t e d a g a i n s t t h e w h i t e s o v e r t h e l a s t t w e n t y - f i v e y e a r s 107 o f c o n t a c t . T h e r e was a l s o d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n among t h e N o o t k a b e c a u s e t h e f u r t r a d e was p a s s i n g them b y . S e a - o t t e r w e r e r a r e i n N o o t k a Sound by t h e t u r n o f t h e c e n t u r y , a n d v e s s e l s w e r e v i s i t i n g t h e more l u c r a t i v e i n n e r h a r b o u r s . F o u r d a y s b e f o r e t h e a t t a c k on t h e B o s t o n t h e r e h a d b e e n an a n g r y e x c h a n g e b e -t w e e n t h e C a p t a i n , J o h n S a l t e r , and M a q u i n n a o v e r a m u s k e t w h i c h h a d b e e n p r e s e n t e d t o t h e C h i e f b u t w h i c h he c l a i m e d was d e f e c -10 8 t i v e . So t h e I n d i a n s a t t a c k e d t h e B o s t o n and k i l l e d h e r c r e w , w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f J o h n J e w i t t a n d J o h n Thompson who w e r e t a k e n as c a p t i v e s . M a q u i n n a was a s t u t e e n o u g h t o r e a l i s e t h e 109 p o s s i b l e c o n s e q u e n c e s o f t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f t h e B o s t o n . A c t i o n s s u c h as t h i s t e n d e d t o d e t e r o t h e r t r a d e r s , a n d two summers w e r e t o p a s s b e f o r e a n o t h e r v e s s e l came t o N o o t k a Sound. The b a l a n c e o f a c t u a l power on t h e c o a s t was q u i t e f i n e . E u r o p e a n c a p t a i n s r e l i e d on t h e assumed s u p e r i o r i t y o f t h e i r f i r e a r m s o v e r I n d i a n w eapons. They t h o u g h t t h a t t h e " t e r r o r " w h i c h t h e s e arms i n s p i r e d c o n s t i t u t e d t h e i r s t r e n g t h a n d s e c u r i t y " a g a i n s t t h e m u l t i t u d e . " 1 ' ' ' 0 T h i s a s s u m p t i o n i s a l s o i m p l i c i t l y a c c e p t e d by h i s t o r i a n s who a r g u e t h a t f u r t r a d e r s i m p o s e d t h e i r w i l l on t h e I n d i a n s . I n f a c t t h e s m o o t h b o r e m u s k e t , t h e weapon t h a t E u r o p e a n s r e l i e d o n , was n o t o r i o u s l y u n r e l i a b l e a n d i n -32 a c c u r a t e . P a r t i c u l a r l y u n d e r damp c o n d i t i o n s i t was l i a b l e t o m i s f i r e , i t e m i t t e d a c l o u d o f smoke t h a t o b s c u r e d v i s i o n , a n d i t t o o k a l o n g t i m e t o r e l o a d . Where a c c u r a c y and r a p i d f i r e w e r e r e q u i r e d t h e I n d i a n bow was p r o b a b l y s u p e r i o r . I n c l o s e f i g h t i n g t h e seamen h a d , i n e f f e c t , one s h o t . The c o a s t I n d i a n s p r o b a b l y u s e d h a n d weapons more t h a n t h e bow, a n d by t h e t i m e t h e s t r u g g l e became h a n d t o h a n d t h e y w e r e b e t t e r armed an d more e x p e r i e n c e d . F o r s i m i l a r r e a s o n s t h e I n d i a n s d i d n o t n e c e s s a r i l y become more e f f i c i e n t f i g h t e r s and h u n t e r s by t h e . . . . I l l . . a c q u i s i t i o n o f f i r e a r m s . I n i t i a l l y m u s k e t s p r o b a b l y made l i t t l e d i f f e r e n c e t o i n d i g e n o u s p e o p l e who a l r e a d y p o s s e s s e d p r o -j e c t i l e w e a p o n s . When h o s t i l i t i e s d e v e l o p e d , t h e I n d i a n s h a d t h e a d d i t i o n a l a d v a n t a g e s o f numbers and k n o w l e d g e o f t h e t e r r i t o r y . I n . t h e i r a t t a c k s o n t r a d i n g V e s s e l s , t h e n o r t h w e s t c o a s t I n d i a n s e m p l o y e d some o f t h e s t r a t e g i e s t h a t t h e y h a d u s e d i n p r e - c o n t a c t t i m e s . T a c t i c s d e s i g n e d t o c a t c h t h e f o e o f f h i s g u a r d a n d mount a s u r p r i s e a t t a c k w e r e v i e w e d as t r e a c h e r y by E u r o p e a n s , b u t t o t h e I n d i a n s t h e y w e r e a means o f e n s u r i n g s u c c e s s w i t h a minimum l o s s o f l i f e . S u c h t a c t i c s w e r e u s e d by K o y a h i n h i s a t t a c k on t h e L a d y W a s h i n g t o n a n d , more s u c c e s s f u l l y , by t h e N o o t k a when t h e y o v e r w h e l m e d t h e B o s t o n i n 1803 a n d t h e T o n q u i n 112 i n 1 8 1 1 . E u r o p e a n s d i d h a v e t h e power t o d e s t r o y I n d i a n v i l l a g e s a t l o n g r a n g e w i t h c a n n o n f i r e , b u t t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f p r o p e r t y was n o t new t o t h e I n d i a n s a s i t was a p a r t o f t h e i r own w a r f a r e . V i l l a g e s w e r e t o t a l l y d e s t r o y e d b y I n d i a n r a i d i n g p a r t i e s , a d m i t t e d l y n o t a t s u c h a r a n g e , b u t e q u a l l y e f f e c t i v e l y . T h e s e t a c t i c s may w e l l h a v e h e l d l e s s t e r r o r f o r t h e I n d i a n s t h a n E u r o p e a n s t h o u g h t . When t h e I n d i a n s , f o r t h e i r p a r t , 33 m o u n t e d , a d e t e r m i n e d and c o n c e r t e d a t t a c k on a v e s s e l t h e y s t o o d a g o o d c h a n c e o f s u c c e s s . What i s s u r p r i s i n g , t h e r e f o r e , i s n o t t h a t a few v e s s e l s w e r e c a p t u r e d , b u t t h a t t h e r e w e r e 113 n o t more a t t a c k s . The m i t i g a t i n g f a c t o r was t h e I n d i a n s ' r e a l i s a t i o n t h a t k i l l i n g t r a d e r s d i m i n i s h e d t h e i r u t i l i t y , 114 r a t h e r t h a n t h e . s o - c a l l e d s u p e r i o r i t y o f E u r o p e a n weapons. The I n d i a n s h a d c o n s i d e r a b l e c o n t r o l o v e r t h e t r a d e and o v e r t h e power r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e m s e l v e s and t h e E u r o p e a n s . C o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e y a l s o r e m a i n e d i n c o n t r o l o f t h e i r own c u l t u r e d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d o f t h e m a r i t i m e f u r t r a d e . Of c o u r s e t h e r e w e r e c h a n g e s i n I n d i a n c u l t u r e s , j u s t as t h e r e h a d b e e n c h a n g e s b e f o r e t h e a r r i v a l o f t h e E u r o p e a n . The f u r t r a d e d i d n o t i n t r o -d u c e c h a n g e i n t o a s t a t i c s o c i e t y , a l t h o u g h i t p r o b a b l y d i d q u i c k e n t h e p a c e o f c h a n g e . B u t , a s f a r as i t i s p o s s i b l e t o d e t e r m i n e , t h e c h a n g e s t o o k a l r e a d y e x i s t i n g d i r e c t i o n s r a t h e r t h a n new o n e s . The n a t u r e o f t h e e v i d e n c e makes i t d i f f i c u l t t o be p r e -c i s e a b o u t t h e t y p e o r d e g r e e o f c h a n g e t h a t t h e I n d i a n s w e r e e x p e r i e n c i n g . T r a d e r s who r e c o r d e d t h e i r o b s e r v a t i o n s o f t h e I n d i a n s , n a t u r a l l y e n o u g h , p a i d p a r t i c u l a r a t t e n t i o n t o t h o s e a s p e c t s o f t h e c u l t u r e t h a t w e r e r e l e v a n t t o t h e i r own p u r p o s e s . As h a s b e e n shown, t h e y l e f t i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e n a t u r e o f I n d i a n t r a d i n g p a t t e r n s and t h e k i n d s o f g o o d s t h a t t h e y demanded. They a l s o l e f t r e c o r d s on s u c h s u b j e c t s a s t h e n a t u r e o f l e a d e r s h i p i n I n d i a n s o c i e t y a nd t h e a v a i l a b i l i t y o f I n d i a n women. Changes t h a t t h e I n d i a n s w e r e e x p e r i e n c i n g , t h o u g h l e s s p r o m i n e n t i n t h e j o u r n a l s , c a n be d e d u c e d by a c a r e f u l r e a d i n g o f , a n d b e t w e e n , t h e l i n e s . 34 I t i s p r o b a b l e t h a t t h e r o l e o f I n d i a n l e a d e r s was e x a g g e r a t e d i n t h e j o u r n a l s o f E u r o p e a n t r a d e r s , b u t i t i s a l s o t r u e t h a t t h e r o l e o f c e r t a i n i n d i v i d u a l s w i t h i n I n d i a n s o c i e t y -was b e i n g e x a g g e r a t e d as a r e s u l t o f t h e f u r t r a d e . C a p t a i n s l i k e d t o d e a l w i t h I n d i a n l e a d e r s r a t h e r t h a n t h e g e n e r a l p o p u l a c e . So t h o s e c h i e f s who h a d t h e g o o d f o r t u n e t o be i n t h e r i g h t p l a c e a t t h e r i g h t t i m e w e r e a b l e • t o e x e r c i s e a c o n -s i d e r a b l e c o n t r o l o v e r t h e t r a d e . T h e i r w e a l t h a n d , i n a c u l t u r e w h e r e t h e two w e r e c l o s e l y r e l a t e d , t h e i r p r e s t i g e , w e r e g r e a t l y i n c r e a s e d . They d i d n o t e x e r c i s e an a b s o l u t e c o n t r o l . Some o f t h e t r a d i n g was s t i l l done by i n d i v i d u a l f a m i l i e s , b u t " t h e p l e b e s " d i d n o t p o s s e s s s u c h an a b u n d a n c e o f f u r s as t h e i r 115 l e a d e r s . B e c a u s e o f t h e x r w e a l t h a n d p o s i t r o n c h i e f s w e r e a b l e t o g a t h e r more s e a - o t t e r p e l t s ; t h e r e f o r e t h e y t r a d e d more E u r o p e a n g o o d s , a n d w e r e a b l e t o a c q u i r e e v e n g r e a t e r numbers o f f u r s . The t r a d e p l a c e d t h e r i c h i n a p o s i t i o n t o add t o t h e i r w e a l t h by e v e r i n c r e a s i n g m u l t i p l e s . A number o f s u c h i n d i v i d u a l s emerge i n t h e j o u r n a l s o f t r a d e r s , b u t t h e m o s t famous was M a q u i n n a , who h a s r e c e i v e d p a r t i c u l a r a t t e n t i o n b e c a u s e o f t h e c e n t r a l i t y o f N o o t k a Sound i n t h e e a r l y h i s t o r y o f t h e n o r t h w e s t c o a s t . P r o b a b l y n e w l y 116 s u c c e e d e d t o c h i e f t a i n s h i p when t h e f u r t r a d e b e g a n , M a q u i n n a was a b l e t o t a p t h e w e a l t h o f h i s own p e o p l e and o f n e i g h b o u r i n g g r o u p s . D u r i n g t h e N o o t k a Sound c o n t r o v e r s y he was f e t e d by b o t h t h e S p a n i s h and t h e E n g l i s h , and E u r o p e a n t r a f f i c k e r s r e c o g n i s e d h i m as t h e l e a d i n g t r a d i n g c h i e f i n t h e a r e a . The s i t u a t i o n c a r r i e d i t s d i s a d v a n t a g e s f o r M a q u i n n a . B e c a u s e o f t h e i r m i s c o n c e p t i o n o f t h e n a t u r e o f c h i e f t a i n s h i p , E u r o p e a n s 35 w e r e i n c l i n e d t o h o l d I n d i a n l e a d e r s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e 117 " m i s c o n d u c t " o f t h e i r p e o p l e . Y e t , by I n d i a n s t a n d a r d s , M a q u i n n a became i n c r e d i b l y w e a l t h y . I n 1 8 0 3 , f o r e x a m p l e , i t i s r e p o r t e d t h a t he g a v e a p o t l a t c h a t w h i c h he d i s p e n s e d 200 m u s k e t s , 200 y a r d s o f c l o t h , 100 c h e m i s e s , 100 l o o k i n g g l a s s e s 118 a n d s e v e n b a r r e l s o f g unpowder. T h e r e w e r e o t h e r I n d i a n l e a d e r s whose power was com-p a r a b l e t o t h a t o f M a q u i n n a . I t i s p o s s i b l e t h a t W i c k a n i n i s h , t h e l e a d e r a t C l a y o q u o t S o u n d , was e v e n more p o w e r f u l t h a n 119 M a q u i n n a . On t h e n o r t h e r n Queen C h a r l o t t e s , C u n n e a h , who 120 r e s i d e d a t K u i s t a , was t h e f i r s t m e n t i o n e d and b e s t known c h i e f . A l s o v e r y i m p o r t a n t was Kow, who i n i t i a l l y l i v e d a t D a d e n s , b u t d u r i n g t h e 1790's moved a c r o s s D i x o n E n t r a n c e and e s t a b l i s h e d h i m s e l f p e r m a n e n t l y a t h i s summer v i l l a g e a t 121 K a i g a n i . L i k e M a q u i n n a , t h e s e l e a d e r s a c q u i r e d g r e a t w e a l t h . I n 1 7 9 9 , when t h e a u t h o r o f t h e E l i z a j o u r n a l v i s i t e d t h e h o u s e o f Kow, t h e c h i e f p r o u d l y d i s p l a y e d h i s w e a l t h . The h o u s e was l i n e d w i t h b o x e s o f g o o d s a c q u i r e d i n t h e t r a d e , b u t Kow d r e w p a r t i c u l a r a t t e n t i o n t o h i s h o a r d o f e r m i n e s k i n s w h i c h w e r e v a l u e d a s g o l d o r s i l v e r . By v i r t u e o f h i s c o l l e c t i o n o f 120 o f t h e s e p e l t s Kow c l a i m e d t h a t , n e x t t o C u n n e a h , he was t h e 122 w e a l t h i e s t c h i e f i n t h e a r e a . So g r e a t was t h e power o f some o f t h e s e l e a d e r s t h a t t r a d e r s f o u n d i t v e r y much i n t h e i r i n t e r e s t 123 t o c u l t i v a t e t h e i r f r i e n d s h i p . T h e i r w e a l t h e n a b l e d t h e s e c h i e f s t o a c q u i r e t h e l a b o u r f o r c e t o do t h e w o r k o f p r e p a r i n g p e l t s f o r m a r k e t . C o n s i d e r -a b l e t i m e a n d e f f o r t w e n t i n t o d r y i n g a n d s t r e t c h i n g a s e a - o t t e r p e l t , a nd t h e t r a d e p r o b a b l y p l a c e d a p r e m i u m on t h e l a b o u r o f s l a v e s . P r e p a r i n g p e l t s was o f t e n women's w o r k , so t h e t r a d e may a l s o h a v e p r o v i d e d a n i m p e t u s f o r i n c r e a s e d p o l y g a m y i n t h e h o u s e s o f c h i e f s . C e r t a i n l y t h o s e l e a d e r s who became more w e a l t h y b e c a u s e o f t h e f u r t r a d e c o u l d a f f o r d more w i v e s . I n t i m e women a l s o a c q u i r e d new e c o n o m i c v a l u e a s p r o s -t i t u t e s o n t r a d i n g v e s s e l s . P r o s t i t u t i o n f o r e c o n o m i c g a i n was s o m e t h i n g t h a t t h e I n d i a n s l e a r n e d f r o m t h e E u r o p e a n . The e a r l y v o y a g e r s who came v i a t h e P a c i f i c f o u n d t h e n o r t h w e s t c o a s t i n -h o s p i t a b l e , and one o f t h e r e a s o n s f o r t h i s f e e l i n g was t h e 124 m o d e s t y o f I n d i a n women c o m p a r e d t o t h e amorous P o l y n e s i a n s . The women o f N o o t k a S o u n d , f o r e x a m p l e , w e r e s a i d t o be u n a b l e 125 t o b e a r e v e n " t h e m o s t t r i f l i n g a t t a c k s o f g a l l a n t r y . " B u t t h e a t t i t u d e s o f I n d i a n women w e r e s o o n t o c h a n g e . I n 179 2 P e t e r P u g e t , who was w i t h V a n c o u v e r , was a s t o n i s h e d t h a t t h e women o f 126 N o o t k a h a d s o c o m p l e t e l y c h a n g e d t h e i r i d e a s a b o u t c h a s t i t y . 127 The H a i d a w e r e a l s o j e a l o u s o f t h e i r women a t f i r s t , b u t i n 12 8 t i m e " L a d i e s o f E a s y a c c e s s " became common. T h i s p a t t e r n was n o t c o n s i s t e n t f o r a l l t h e c o a s t . The V a n c o u v e r e x p e d i t i o n was p r o b a b l y t h e f i r s t t o e n t e r S m i t h I n l e t , a nd t h e r e t h e women 129 i m m e d i a t e l y s o l i c i t e d t h e company o f members o f t h e c r e w . I t i s p o s s i b l e t h a t i n t h i s c a s e , a s i n o t h e r s , one s h o u l d make a d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n h o s p i t a l i t y a n d p r o s t i t u t i o n . I t seems t h a t u s u a l l y t h e w i v e s o f c h i e f s c o u l d n o t be t e m p t e d , and i t i s l i k e l y t h a t p r o s t i t u t i o n was l a r g e l y c o n f i n e d t o " t h e i n f e r i o r 130 c l a s s " . I f t h i s o b s e r v a t i o n was a c c u r a t e t h e n t h i s E u r o p e a n v i c e b r o u g h t l i t t l e d e m o r a l i s a t i o n t o I n d i a n s o c i e t y . S l a v e g i r l s , a n d among some g r o u p s u n m a r r i e d women g e n e r a l l y , d i d n o t b r e a k I n d i a n s o c i a l s a n c t i o n s by g o i n g a b o a r d s h i p s . 37 The new w e a l t h b r o u g h t b y t h e f u r t r a d e was n o t e v e n l y s p r e a d among I n d i a n g r o u p s . D i s p a r i t i e s i n w e a l t h , a n d t h e r e -f o r e i n p o w e r , u n d o u b t e d l y i n c r e a s e d . D i f f e r e n c e s d e v e l o p e d i n t h e e c o n o m i c a c t i v i t i e s o f I n d i a n g r o u p s , s i n c e some s p e c i a l i s e d i n t r a d i n g a n d o t h e r s i n t r a p p i n g . T r a d i n g I n d i a n s w e r e f r e e d b y t h e t r a d e g o o d s t h a t t h e y a c q u i r e d f r o m some o f t h e a c t i v i t i e s t h a t h a d h i t h e r t o consumed much o f t h e i r t i m e , a n d t h e y w e r e now a b l e t o s p e n d more t i m e b a r g a i n i n g w i t h E u r o p e a n s . T h o s e g r o u p s t h a t c o n c e n t r a t e d on h u n t i n g d e v o t e d more o f t h e i r t i m e t o t h a t t a s k . C a p t u r i n g a s e a - o t t e r was t i m e c o n s u m i n g , p a r t i c u l a r l y a s t h e a n i m a l s became s c a r c e r , s o many I n d i a n s p r o b a b l y s p e n t m o s t o f t h e i r t i m e h u n t i n g f o r 131 p e l t s . The g r o w t h o f d i s p a r i t i e s i n w e a l t h b e t w e e n I n d i a n g r o u p s may h a v e i n c r e a s e d e x c u s e s f o r w a r f a r e , a l t h o u g h , a t t h e same t i m e , t h e f a c t t h a t w a r f a r e t e n d e d t o d i s r u p t t r a d e may h a v e m i l i t a t e d a g a i n s t i n t e r t r i b a l c o n f l i c t . W h i l e r i v a l r y b e t w e e n I n d i a n g r o u p s h o p i n g t o p r o f i t f r o m t h e t r a d e may h a v e a d d e d t o t h e i n c i d e n c e o f h o s t i l i t y , e c o n o m i c m o t i v e s h a d a l s o b e e n p o w e r f u l i n i n d i g e n o u s w a r f a r e . So t h e f u r t r a d e d i d n o t b r i n g new r e a s o n s f o r a t t a c k s . " F r a t r i c i d a l " , d i s p u t e s d i d n o t d e v e l o p i n t h e s e n s e t h a t I n d i a n b r o t h e r s now a t t a c k e d e a c h o t h e r b e c a u s e o f t h e new and d i s r u p t i v e i n f l u e n c e o f w h i t e 132 t r a d e r s . I n t e r g r o u p r i v a l r y d u r i n g t h e m a r i t i m e f u r t r a d e r a n a l o n g p r e - e x i s t i n g l i n e s - . When a t t e m p t i n g t o a s s e s s , i n a more g e n e r a l way, t h e i m p a c t o f t h e m a r i t i m e f u r t r a d e on I n d i a n s o c i e t y h i s t o r i a n s and a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s h a v e t e n d e d t o w a r d s o p p o s i t e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s . H i s t o r i a n s h a v e a d h e r e d t o t h e i r g u i l t - i n d u c e d m y t h o l o g y a nd 38 a r g u e d t h a t t h e e f f e c t on t h e I n d i a n s was d i s a s t r o u s . Howay s e t t h e p a t t e r n f o r h i s t o r i a n s when he c l a i m e d t h a t t h e m a r i -t i m e f u r t r a d e " s e r i o u s l y d i s l o c a t e d t h e f i n e l y b a l a n c e d e c o -133 n o m i c and s o c i a l f a b r i c o f t h e I n d i a n s . " A n t h r o p o l o g i s t s , on t h e o t h e r h a n d , h a v e i n c l i n e d t o w a r d s t h e v i e w t h a t t h e t r a d e s t i m u l a t e d I n d i a n c u l t u r e . Some a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s h a v e p o i n t e d t o t h e new p r o s p e r i t y b r o u g h t t o t h e I n d i a n s , w h i c h 134 f a c i l i t a t e d i n c r e a s e d a r t i s t i c a n d c e r e m o n i a l l i f e , a n d l e d 135 t o a g o l d e n age o f n o r t h w e s t c o a s t I n d i a n d e v e l o p m e n t . I t h a s e v e n b e e n a r g u e d b y M a r i u s B a r b e a u t h a t s u c h a m a j o r I n d i a n a r t f o r m as t h e t o t e m p o l e a c t u a l l y o r i g i n a t e d o u t o f t h e s t i m u -136 l a t i o n p r o v i d e d b y t h e f u r t r a d e . H o w e v e r , t h e a r g u m e n t s t o t h e c o n t r a r y a r e c o n v i n c i n g a n d B a r b e a u ' s v i e w c a n no l o n g e r be 137 a c c e p t e d . B u t t h e r e i s l i t t l e d o u b t t h a t t h e t r a d e d i d f a c i l i t a t e an i n c r e a s e i n I n d i a n wood c a r v i n g , p a r t i c u l a r l y among t h e H a i d a . T h i s d e v e l o p m e n t o f I n d i a n a r t i s e v i d e n c e t h a t f o r t h e i n i t i a l c o n t a c t p e r i o d t h e a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l i n t e r -p r e t a t i o n i s c l o s e r t o t h e t r u t h . The f l o u r i s h i n g o f n o r t h w e s t c o a s t I n d i a n wood c a r v i n g i s i l l u s t r a t i v e o f t h e f a c t t h a t t h e m a r i t i m e f u r t r a d e l a r g e l y p r o d u c e d an e l a b o r a t i o n o f e x i s t i n g c u l t u r e p a t t e r n s r a t h e r t h a n r a d i c a l s o c i a l c h a n g e . N a t u r a l l y t h e e n r i c h m e n t t h e s i s c a n n o t be a d v a n c e d w i t h o u t r e s e r v a t i o n . A l l t h a t i t c l a i m s i s t h a t t h e f u r t r a d e was more b e n e f i c i a l t h a n d e t r i m e n t a l t o t h e I n d i a n s , e v e n t h o u g h t h e y d i d p a y a p r i c e o t h e r t h a n f u r s . f o r t h e i r new w e a l t h . A m a j o r p a r t o f t h a t p r i c e was d i s e a s e , w h i c h was c e r t a i n l y one a s p e c t o f t h e c u l t u r e c o n t a c t s i t u a t i o n t h a t t h e I n d i a n s h a d l i t t l e c o n t r o l o v e r . The c o m p l e t e a b s e n c e o f a c c u r a t e f i g u r e s 39 makes i t i m p o s s i b l e t o d e t e r m i n e e x a c t l y w h a t h a p p e n e d t o t h e I n d i a n p o p u l a t i o n d u r i n g t h i s p e r i o d , b u t i t i s p o s s i b l e t h a t e s t i m a t e s o f t h e i m p a c t o f d i s e a s e h a v e b e e n e x a g g e r a t e d . I t i s e v i d e n t t h a t many c r e w s were, i n f e c t e d w i t h v e n e r e a l d i s e a s e when t h e y came t o t h e c o a s t , p a r t i c u l a r l y when t h e y h a d c a l l e d 138 a t H a w a i i on t h e way. B u t we do n o t know w h e t h e r t h e y b r o u g h t m o s t l y m i l d o r s e v e r e f o r m s o f t h e d i s e a s e , how many f a t a l i t i e s w e r e c a u s e d b y i t among t h e I n d i a n s , o r , f o r t h a t m a t t e r , w h e t h e r t h e I n d i a n s h a d v e n e r e a l d i s e a s e p r i o r t o E u r o p e a n c o n t a c t . T h e r e i s , h o w e v e r , one c e r t a i n t y a b o u t v e n e r e a l d i s e a s e , a n d t h a t i s t h a t e x p o s u r e t o i t d o e s n o t , o f n e c e s s i t y , l e a d t o -139 i n f e c t i o n . The means o f t r a n s m i t t i n g v e n e r e a l d i s e a s e i s v e r y s p e c i f i c and i t c a n o n l y be p a s s e d o n t o one p e r s o n a t a t i m e , s o i t s i m p a c t was p r o b a b l y more l i m i t e d t h a n s m a l l p o x w h i c h i s an e p i d e m i c d i s e a s e t r a n s f e r r e d b y a common medium. 140 S m a l l p o x p r o b a b l y was i n t r o d u c e d by E u r o p e a n s , a l t h o u g h a g a i n i t i s n o t known how v i r u l e n t t h e f o r m s w e r e . The j o u r n a l s do n o t c o n t a i n numerous a c c o u n t s o f w h o l e s a l e d e p o p u l a t i o n r e s u l t i n g f r o m s m a l l p o x . R e p o r t s t e n d t o be o f i s o l a t e d c a s e s , a n d o f t e n ,of I n d i a n s w i t h p o c k - m a r k e d f a c e s who w e r e a p p a r e n t l y s u r v i v o r s 141 o f t h e d i s e a s e . F r e q u e n t l y t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y comments a b o u t p o p u l a t i o n d e c l i n e w e r e b a s e d on t h e o b s e r v a t i o n o f d e s e r t e d v i l l a g e s . V o y a g e r s w o u l d a t t r i b u t e t h e s u p p o s e d d e p o p u l a t i o n t o d i s e a s e , w h e r e a s v i l l a g e s w e r e c l e a r l y a b a n d o n e d f o r a v a r i e t y o f r e a s o n s . S e a s o n a l m i g r a t i o n s , t h e e x h a u s t i o n o f r e s o u r c e 142 a r e a s , a n d moves t o be c l o s e r t o t h e c e n t r e s o f t h e f u r t r a d e w e r e a l l r e a s o n s f o r a n I n d i a n b a n d t o r e - l o c a t e i t s v i l l a g e . F u r t h e r m o r e m o s t v o y a g e r s came t o t h e c o a s t i n t h e summer months 40 when t h e . I n d i a n s w e r e more m o b i l e a nd t h e r e was a g r e a t e r number o f " d e s e r t e d " v i l l a g e s . I t i s , o f c o u r s e , as i m p r e s s i o n i s t i c t o a r g u e t h a t t h e impact* o f d i s e a s e i n t h i s p e r i o d h a s b e e n e x a g g e r a t e d a s i t was f o r v o y a g e r s t o a s s e r t t h a t t h e r e was c o n s i d e r a b l e d e p o p u l a t i o n . I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o n o t e , h o w e v e r , t h a t w h e r e s t a t i s t i c a l s t u d i e s o f t h e i m p a c t o f E u r o p e a n - i n t r o d u c e d d i s e a s e s o n t h e i n d i g e n o u s p e o p l e o f t h e P a c i f i c h a v e b e e n made, i t h a s b e e n f o u n d t h a t t h e p o p u l a t i o n d e c l i n e was o f t e n l e s s t h a n h a d p r e -v i o u s l y b e e n assumed. The d e m o g r a p h e r , Norma M c A r t h u r , h a s q u e s t i o n e d p r e v i o u s l y h e l d a s s u m p t i o n s t h a t E u r o p e a n d i s e a s e s c a u s e d w h o l e s a l e d e p o p u l a t i o n . She h a s a r g u e d t h a t f o r a n e p i -d e m i c t o i n i t i a t e s u b s t a n t i a l d e c l i n e i n a p r e v i o u s l y s t a b l e p o p u l a t i o n , a g e - s e l e c t i v e m o r t a l i t y i s a p r e - r e q u i s i t e . Con-t e m p o r a r y a c c o u n t s e m p h a s i s e d e a t h s when d i s a s t e r s s t r i k e , b u t t h e e f f e c t o f an e p i d e m i c o n t h e b i r t h r a t e i s f a r more s i g n i f i -c a n t . U n l e s s t h e c h i l d b e a r i n g s e c t o r o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n i n p a r t i c u l a r i s s t r u c k by t h e d i s e a s e , w i t h i n a few y e a r s b i r t h a n d d e a t h r a t e s r e t u r n t o t h e i r n o r m a l l e v e l s . T h e r e f o r e i f t h e p o p u l a t i o n was i n c r e a s i n g b e f o r e t h e e p i d e m i c , i n t h e a b s e n c e o f 143 f u r t h e r o u t b r e a k s i t w i l l s o o n i n c r e a s e a g a i n . Many c o n c l u s i o n s a b o u t t h e n a t u r e o f c u l t u r e c h a n g e among t h e c o a s t I n d i a n s d u r i n g t h e f u r t r a d i n g p e r i o d a r e b a s e d on t h e a s s u m p t i o n t h a t t h e r e was m a j o r p o p u l a t i o n d e c l i n e a s a r e s u l t o f t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f d i s e a s e s a n d new w e a p o n s . I t h a s b e e n h e l d , f o r i n s t a n c e , t h a t one c o n s e q u e n c e o f d e v a s t a t i n g d i s e a s e s was t h a t i n d i v i d u a l s w e r e p r o b a b l y e l e v a t e d t o s o c i a l p o s i t i o n s t h a t t h e y w o u l d n o t n o r m a l l y h a v e a t t a i n e d . A c c o r d i n g 41 t o t h i s a r g u m e n t e p i d e m i c s l e f t v a c a n c i e s i n t h e h i g h e r s o c i a l r a n k s t h a t h a d t o be f i l l e d b y p e o p l e f r o m t h e l o w e r c l a s s e s . 1 4 4 I f , h o w e v e r , t h e i m p a c t o f d i s e a s e was much l e s s t h a n h a s b e e n assumed s u c h d e d u c t i o n s a b o u t t h e n a t u r e o f s o c i a l c h a n g e become l e s s t e n a b l e . B u t w h a t e v e r i t s e f f e c t , d i s e a s e was t h e o n l y i m p o r t a t i o n t h a t t h e I n d i a n s h a d t o a c c e p t . D i s e a s e a p a r t , t h e I n d i a n s w e r e s e l e c t i v e i n t h e i r a t t i t u d e t o t h o s e a s p e c t s o f E u r o p e a n c u l t u r e t h a t c o n f r o n t e d them. They w e r e n o t i n c o n t a c t w i t h t h e w h o l e s c o p e o f w e s t e r n c u l t u r e , b u t met o n l y a v e r y s e l e c t number o f i t s r e p r e s e n t a -t i v e s , m o s t l y y o u n g men who came w i t h v e r y l i m i t e d i n t e n t i o n s a n d demands. T h e s e demands c o u l d be h a n d l e d b y e x i s t i n g I n d i a n s o c i a l p a t t e r n s , a n d o f f e r e d l i t t l e t h r e a t t o I n d i a n l e a d e r s h i p . Once s a t i s f i e d w i t h f u r s , t h e t r a d e r s l e f t t h e c o a s t . T h e r e was no r e a s o n f o r t h e I n d i a n s t o b e l i e v e t h a t s u c h a s m a l l number o f t r a n s i t o r y v i s i t o r s w o u l d s e r i o u s l y d i s l o c a t e t h e i r c u l t u r e . E v e n t h e more p e r m a n e n t S p a n i s h e s t a b l i s h m e n t a t N o o t k a h a d o n l y a v e r y l i m i t e d i m p a c t o n t h e I n d i a n s . The e r r a t i c S p a n i s h com-mander E s t e b a n M a r t i n e z , t h o u g h t t h a t b u i l d i n g t h e b a s e w o u l d g i v e them d o m i n i o n o v e r t h e c o a s t I n d i a n s f r o m N o o t k a t o Mon-145 t e r e y . B u t w h a t e v e r E u r o p e a n s t h o u g h t a b o u t t h e e a s e w i t h w h i c h " s a v a g e s " c o u l d be s u b j u g a t e d , t h e I n d i a n s p r o v e d t o be r e s i l i e n t . I n J a n u a r y 1 7 9 5 , when t h e S p a n i s h a b a n d o n e d N o o t k a , t h e I n d i a n s t o r e down t h e b u i l d i n g s , r e b u i l t t h e i r own summer h o u s e s , a n d F r i e n d l y Cove became Y u q u o t a g a i n . D u r i n g t h e m a r i t i m e f u r t r a d e t h e e s s e n t i a l r e l a t i o n -s h i p b e t w e e n t h e two r a c e s was t h e t r a d i n g o n e , and b e c a u s e o f t h e i r c o n t r o l o v e r t h e t r a d e t h e I n d i a n s s e l e c t e d t h o s e g o o d s 42 that they wanted and rejected those that they did not. The a r t i c l e s accepted were those that could be incorporated into the e x i s t i n g culture. The maritime fur trade was not "an unequal 146 trade with a primitive people." The overwhelming impression that emerges from the journals i s that the Indians were i n t e l l i -gent and energetic traders, quite capable of dr i v i n g a hard bargain. The confidence that the Indians showed i n t h e i r trading with the Europeans was i n d i c a t i v e of the power rel a t i o n s h i p . By making a concerted e f f o r t the Indians could have destroyed any of the vessels that came to t h e i r v i l l a g e s . But the northwest coast Indians met the sea-otter trade and were able to mould i t 4-u • ^ 1 4 7 to serve t h e i r own ends. CHAPTER I I The L a n d B a s e d F u r T r a c l e We a r e t r a d e r s , and a p a r t f r o m more e x a l t e d m o t i v e s , a l l t r a d e r s a r e d e s i r o u s o f g a i n . I s i t n o t s e l f e v i d e n t we w i l l manage o u r b u s i n e s s w i t h more economy b y b e i n g o n g ood t e r m s w i t h t h e I n d i a n s t h a n i f a t v a r i a n c e . 1 D u r i n g t h e p e r i o d o f t h e m a r i t i m e f u r t r a d e some t r a d i n g c a p t a i n s and t h e i r b a c k e r s h a d t o y e d w i t h t h e i d e a o f e s t a b l i s h -i n g s h o r e f a c t o r i e s i n o r d e r t o t a p t h e s o u r c e o f f u r s more e f f i c i e n t l y . A p a r t f r o m t h e s h o r t - l i v e d S p a n i s h e s t a b l i s h m e n t a t N o o t k a and t h e e v e n more t e m p o r a r y s h o r e p o s t s b u i l t b y M e a r e s , K e n d r i c k and G r a y , t h e s e p l a n s came t o n o t h i n g . The t r a d e r e m a i n e d m a r i t i m e and t h e r e f o r e , t o a d e g r e e , t r a n s i t o r y , u n t i l t h e 1 8 2 0 ' s . I t was n o t u n t i l a f t e r t h e a d v e n t o f t h e H u dson's Bay Company w e s t o f t h e R o c k i e s t h a t t h e f i r s t t r a d i n g f o r t was b u i l t on t h e c o a s t o f w h a t was t o become B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a . I n l a n d , h o w e v e r , f o r t s w e r e b u i l t f r o m t h e f i r s t d e c a d e o f t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y . The f i r s t a p p r o a c h f r o m t h e e a s t was i n 1 7 9 3 . I n J u l y A l e x a n d e r M a c K e n z i e , h a v i n g c r o s s e d N o r t h A m e r i c a f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e , came down t h e B e l l a C o o l a R i v e r and r e a c h e d t i d e w a t e r on B e n t i n c k Arm. He j u s t m i s s e d m a k i n g c o n t a c t w i t h t h e members o f t h e V a n c o u v e r e x p e d i t i o n who h a d b e e n i n t h e a r e a i n t h e armed t e n d e r Chatham o n l y a few weeks e a r l i e r . The f i r s t t h r u s t h a d b e e n made, b u t l i t t l e was done w i t h M a c K e n z i e ' s d i s c o v e r i e s f o r more t h a n a d e c a d e . N o t u n t i l t h e N o r t h w e s t Company s e n t a n o t h e r o f i t s s e r v a n t s , S i m o n F r a s e r , o v e r t h e m o u n t a i n s was t h e f i r s t 44 p e r m a n e n t f u r t r a d i n g p o s t e s t a b l i s h e d i n 1805 a t McLeod L a k e . I n t h e f o l l o w i n g y e a r F r a s e r e s t a b l i s h e d w h a t was l a t e r named F o r t S t . James a t t h e s o u t h e n d o f S t u a r t L a k e a nd a l s o a p o s t on F r a s e r L a k e . I n 1807 F o r t G e o r g e was b u i l t a t t h e c o n f l u e n c e o f t h e F r a s e r a n d N e c h a k o R i v e r s . T h e s e f o r t s w e r e t o be t h e m a j o r c e n t r e s o f t h e f u r t r a d e i n t h e v a g u e l y d e f i n e d a r e a 2 c a l l e d New C a l e d o n i a . The k e y t o u n l o c k i n g t h i s r i c h f u r r e g i o n was a c c e s s t o t h e s e a , b u t g e o g r a p h y i m p o s e d r e s t r i c t i o n s . I n 1808 F r a s e r made h i s famous j o u r n e y down t h e w i l d a n d t r e a c h -e r o u s r i v e r t h a t b e a r s h i s name, b u t i t p r o v e d t o be n e i t h e r t h e C o l u m b i a , as he h a d e x p e c t e d , n o r a s a t i s f a c t o r y r o u t e t o t h e s e a , as he h a d h o p e d . The C o l u m b i a R i v e r was s t i l l t h e m o s t f e a s i b l e r o u t e t o t h e P a c i f i c and t h e N o r t h w e s t Company h a d s e n t D a v i d Thompson t o e x p l o r e i t s p o s s i b i l i t i e s . M o v i n g w i t h l e s s d e t e r m i n a t i o n t h a n F r a s e r , Thompson d i d n o t r e a c h t h e mouth o f t h e C o l u m b i a u n t i l J u l y 1 8 1 1 . On h i s a r r i v a l he f o u n d t h e men o f J o h n J a c o b A s t o r ' s P a c i f i c F u r Company a l r e a d y c o n s t r u c t i n g F o r t A s t o r i a . Two y e a r s l a t e r t h e N o r t h w e s t Company a c q u i r e d t h i s f o r t as p a r t o f t h e s p o i l s o f t h e w a r o f 1 8 1 2 , and i t was renamed F o r t G e o r g e . The N o r t h w e s t e r s now p o s s e s s e d a v i a b l e o u t l e t f r o m New C a l e d o n i a t o t h e s e a . The r o u t e was v i a t h e u p p e r F r a s e r v a l l e y , F o r t K a m l o o p s ( e s t a b l i s h e d i n 1 8 1 2 ) , t h e Okanagan V a l l e y a n d t h e C o l u m b i a . The N o r t h w e s t Company now h a d c o n t r o l o f t h e P a c i f i c s l o p e , b u t i t was n o t u n t i l a f t e r i t s a m a l g a m a t i o n w i t h t h e Hu d s o n ' s Bay Company i n 1821 t h a t t h e f u r r e s o u r c e s o f t h e r e g i o n w e r e e x p l o i t e d s y s t e m a t i c a l l y . I n 1824 t h e Hudson's Bay Company e f f i c i e n c y e x p e r t , G o v e r n o r G e o r g e S i m p s o n , came t o l o o k o v e r t h e C o l u m b i a e n t e r -45 p r i s e . T r a v e l l i n g a t a f r a n t i c p a c e , he made t h e . j o u r n e y f r o m Y o r k F a c t o r y i n r e c o r d t i m e , a n d he a r r i v e d a t F o r t G e o r g e w i t h "oeconomy" on h i s m i n d . B e s i d e s t i g h t e n i n g up t h e s l a c k t h a t t h e s e r v a n t s h a d a l l o w e d t o d e v e l o p i n t h e r u n n i n g o f i n d i v i d u a l p o s t s , S i m p s o n ' s a t t e n t i o n was c o n c e n t r a t e d on two a r e a s w h e r e t h e Company f a c e d m a j o r o p p o s i t i o n . I n t h e S n a k e c o u n t r y and on t h e n o r t h w e s t c o a s t S i m p s o n was t o i n s t i t u t e m e thods o f d e a l i n g w i t h o p p o n e n t s t h a t he h a d f o r g e d i n t h e f i r e o f t h e A t h a p a s k a c a m p a i g n a g a i n s t t h e N o r t h w e s t Company. P e t e r Skene. Ogden, t h e f e i s t y l i t t l e e x - N o r t h w e s t e r , was d i r e c t e d t o l e a d a s e r i e s o f e x p e d i t i o n s i n t o t h e S n a k e c o u n t r y t h r o u g h t h e 1 8 2 0 ' s w i t h t h e o b j e c t o f c o m p l e t e l y e x h a u s t i n g t h e f u r r e s e r v e s o f t h i s f r o n t i e r a r e a a n d t h e r e b y e x c l u d i n g r i v a l t r a p p e r s . E l i m i n a t i n g c o m p e t i t i o n on t h e c o a s t was n o t s o e a s y . Compared t o t h e r e l a t i v e l y u n s o p h i s t i c a t e d I n d i a n s o f t h e S n a k e c o u n t r y , t h o s e o f t h e n o r t h w e s t c o a s t h a d h a d f o r t y y e a r s ' e x p e r i e n c e o f t r a d i n g w i t h E u r o p e a n s . They knew, a n d c o u l d b e n e f i t f r o m , t h e a d v a n t a g e s o f c o m p e t i t i o n b e t w e e n r i v a l f u r t r a d e r s . The Company's c o a s t a l p u s h was p l a n n e d by S i m p s o n i n 3 t h e w i n t e r o f 1825-1826 a t F o r t G e o r g e , e x p o u n d e d by h i m b e f o r e t h e L o n d o n c o m m i t t e e i n 1 8 2 6 , and b e g u n i n 1827 by t h e e s t a b l i s h -ment o f F o r t L a n g l e y o n t h e F r a s e r a b o u t t h i r t y m i l e s f r o m i t s m o u th. S i m p s o n came b a c k t o t h e c o a s t i n 1828 and made f u r t h e r p l a n s w i t h C h i e f F a c t o r J o h n M c L p u g h l i n , who was now i n c h a r g e o f t h e a r e a w e s t o f t h e R o c k i e s . Two more c o a s t a l f o r t s w e r e f o u n d e d i n t h e e a r l y 1 8 3 0 ' s . I n 1831 F o r t S i m p s o n was b u i l t a t t h e mouth o f t h e N a s s R i v e r , a l t h o u g h t h i s p o s i t i o n s o o n p r o v e d u n s a t i s f a c t o r y and t h e f o r t was moved t o a s i t e on t h e T s i m s h i a n 46 P e n i n s u l a . The a r e a a r o u n d t h e mouth o f t h e N a s s was t h e 4 " g r a n d m a r t " f o r b o t h l a n d a n d s e a f u r s , s o F o r t S i m p s o n was t h e Company's m o s t i m p o r t a n t c o a s t a l s t a t i o n . I n 1833 F o r t M c L o u g h l i n was f o u n d e d on M i l b a n k e S o u n d , t h u s c o m p l e t i n g a c h a i n o f f o r t s up t h e c o a s t a s f a r n o r t h as l a t i t u d e 54° 4 0 ' , 5 t h e b o u n d a r y b e t w e e n B r i t i s h a n d R u s s i a n A m e r i c a . T h e s e f o r t s w e r e t o be s u p p l i e d a n d s u p p l e m e n t e d by t h e v e s s e l s t h a t t h e Company o p e r a t e d . The s c h o o n e r C a d b o r o was a c q u i r e d i n 1827 and u s e d i n t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f F o r t s L a n g l e y a n d S i m p s o n . The p a r t y t h a t b u i l t F o r t M c L o u g h l i n was t r a n s p o r t e d i n t h e b r i g Lama w h i c h h a d b e e n p u r c h a s e d i n 1 8 3 1 . I n 1835 t h e l e g e n d a r y s t e a m s h i p B e a v e r was b o u g h t b y t h e Company. T h e s e f o r t s a n d v e s -s e l s w e r e t o be t h e means b y w h i c h t h e Hudson's Bay Company h o p e d t o b r e a k t h e h o l d o f A m e r i c a n a n d R u s s i a n t r a d e r s on t h e c o a s t . B u t i t was t o be no s i m p l e t a s k . N a t u r a l l y t h e i r E u r o p e a n o p p o n e n t s w e r e n o t a n x i o u s t o g i v e up a l u c r a t i v e commerce, and much h a s b e e n w r i t t e n b y h i s t o r i a n s o f t h e s t r a t e g i e s a n d p o l i c i e s b y w h i c h t h e Company t r i e d t o e l i m i n a t e t h e s e r i v a l s . L e s s a t t e n t i o n h a d b e e n g i v e n t o t h e r e a c t i o n s o f t h e t r a d i n g I n d i a n s 7 t o t h e s e d e v e l o p m e n t s . The Hudson's Bay Company i n a u g u r a t e d i t s c o a s t a l e n t e r -p r i s e among I n d i a n s who h a d l o s t none o f t h e i r t r a d i n g acumen. They w e r e s t i l l d i s c r i m i n a t i n g a b o u t t y p e s a n d q u a l i t y o f g o o d s , a n d c o u l d s t i l l d r i v e a h a r d b a r g a i n . I n s p i t e o f a l l t h e i r t r a d i n g e x p e r i e n c e t h e Company men f o u n d t h e I n d i a n s o f t h e g n o r t h w e s t c o a s t t o be " t i r e s o m e i n t h e i r b a r g a i n i n g " . S o metimes t h e i r demands w e r e s o e x h o r b i t a n t t h a t t h e Company's t r a d e r s f o u n d i t i m p o s s i b l e t o d e a l w i t h them. The I n d i a n s w e r e s t i l l n o t a b o v e u s i n g a c e r t a i n amount o f a r t i f i c e when t r a d i n g . A c c o r d i n g t o S i m p s o n , a f a v o u r i t e t r i c k was t o d o c t o r a l a n d o t t e r p e l t a n d p a s s i t o f f a s a s e a - o t t e r . F u r t h e r m o r e , s a i d S i m p s o n , "when a s k i n i s r e j e c t e d as b e i n g d e f i c i e n t i n s i z e , o r d e f e c t i v e i n q u a l i t y , i t i s i m m e d i a t e l y , a c c o r d i n g t o c i r c u m -s t a n c e s , e n l a r g e d , o r c o l o u r e d , o r p r e s s e d t o o r d e r , and t h e n i s s u b m i t t e d , a s a v i r g i n a r t i c l e , t o t h e b u y e r ' s c r i t i c i s m by 9 a d i f f e r e n t c u s t o m e r . " I n s h o r t t h e s e I n d i a n s w e r e s t i l l " s a g a c i o u s e n o u g h t o p u r s u e t h e i r own i n t e r e s t w i t h p e r s e v e r i n g i n d u s t r y " , 1 0 a n d , m o s t o f a l l , t h e y w e r e s t i l l m a s t e r s o f t h e a r t o f m a n i p u l a t i n g c o m p e t i t i o n . When t h e Company moved i n t o t h e c o a s t a l t r a d e i t s o f f i c e r s t h o u g h t t h a t a c o u p l e o f y e a r s w o u l d be s u f f i c i e n t t o e l i m i n a t e o p p o s i t i o n . 1 1 By i n c r e a s i n g t h e p r i c e o f f u r s b e y o n d t h e i r o p p o n e n t s ' a b i l i t y t o p a y t h e y h o p e d t h a t t h e y w o u l d s o o n h a v e a m o n o p o l y o f t h e t r a d e w i t h t h e c o a s t I n d i a n s . B u t t h e Company h a d r e c k o n e d w i t h o u t t h e f a c t t h a t t h e I n d i a n s w e r e a l r e a d y e x -a c t i n g h i g h p r i c e s . To i n c r e a s e p r i c e s f u r t h e r was t o i n v o l v e 12 t h e Company i n l a r g e l o s s e s , a n d e v e n t h e n i t was t o be more t h a n t e n y e a r s b e f o r e a n y t h i n g l i k e a m o n o p o l y s i t u a t i o n was a c h i e v e d . A l l t h r e e c o a s t a l f o r t s w e r e a f f e c t e d by t h e a c t i v i t i e s o f A m e r i c a n t r a d i n g v e s s e l s d u r i n g t h e 1 8 3 0 ' s , a nd h a d t o a d j u s t t h e i r t a r i f f s a c c o r d i n g l y . E v e n F o r t L a n g l e y , somewhat r e m o v e d f r o m t h e o u t e r c o a s t , was n o t immune. From t h e b e g i n n i n g i t was f o u n d t h a t t h e I n d i a n s v i s i t i n g t h e f o r t h a d g r e a t d i f f i c u l t y i n b a r t e r i n g a t Company p r i c e s a f t e r A m e r i c a n t r a d e r s h a d v i s i t e d 13 them and s u p p l i e d them w i t h g o o d s much more c h e a p l y . I n t h e 48 n o r t h t h e R u s s i a n t r a d e r s p r o v i d e d t h e I n d i a n s w i t h a s e c o n d a l t e r n a t i v e m a r k e t , and c o m p e t i t i o n was e v e n more i n t e n s e a t F o r t S i m p s o n . The F o r t S i m p s o n j o u r n a l s f o r t h e 183 0 ' s a r e r e -p l e t e w i t h r e f e r e n c e s t o I n d i a n s h o l d i n g o u t f o r h i g h e r p r i c e s i n t h e e x p e c t a t i o n t h a t A m e r i c a n v e s s e l s w o u l d s o o n b e i n t h e a r e a , o r b e c a u s e o f t h e k n o w l e d g e t h a t t h e y c o u l d do b e t t e r a t t h e R u s s i a n f o r t s . J u s t a few m i l e s a c r o s s D i x o n E n t r a n c e , K a i g a n i H a r b o u r w a s . s t i l l a g r e a t c e n t r e o f t r a d i n g w i t h t h e A m e r i c a n s . The K a i g a n i I n d i a n s w e r e " r e c k o n e d t o be t h e m o s t 14 d i f f i c u l t I n d i a n s o n t h e c o a s t t o d e a l w i t h " , and t h e i r p r o x -i m i t y f o r c e d up t h e t a r i f f a t F o r t S i m p s o n . The F o r t S i m p s o n I n d i a n s t h e m s e l v e s w e r e d e s c r i b e d a s b e i n g " i n t h e i r g l o r y " when c o m p e t i t i o n was i n t h e a r e a a n d " c h u c k l i n g a t t h e i r h i g h p r i c e s " . Company v e s s e l s , o p e r a t i n g up and down t h e c o a s t , e n -c o u n t e r e d a s i m i l a r s i t u a t i o n . When o p p o s i n g v e s s e l s w e r e w o r k i n g t h e same a r e a t h e I n d i a n s t o o k e v e r y a d v a n t a g e o f t h e s i t u a t i o n , j u s t as t h e y h a d done when a l l t h e t r a d e was m a r i t i m e . J o h n Work, h a v i n g b e e n r e l i e v e d f r o m t h e s t r u g g l e a g a i n s t t h e o p p o s i t i o n i n t h e Sn a k e c o u n t r y , s p e n t some t i m e i n 1835 c r u i s i n g t h e c o a s t i n t h e Lama i n s e a r c h o f f u r s . The o b s t i n a c y o f t h e I n d i a n t r a d e r s p r o v o k e d t h e n o r m a l l y s t o i c Work i n t o f u l m i n a t i o n s a g a i n s t them. An A m e r i c a n c a p t a i n named A l l e n was t h e m o s t f r e -q u e n t l y m e n t i o n e d o p p o n e n t , a n d i n A p r i l 1835 b o t h h i s b r i g , E u r o p a , a nd t h e Lama w e r e a t N e w i t t y a t t h e same t i m e . N o t h i n g p l e a s e d t h e I n d i a n s more t h a n s u c h a s i t u a t i o n , b u t Work was d i s t i n c t l y d i s p l e a s e d . " I t i s a n n o y i n g i n t h e e x t r e m e " , he w r o t e i n . h i s j o u r n a l , " t o s e e t h e a d v a n t a g e w h i c h t h e b l a c k v a g a b o n d s e n d e a v o u r t o make o f t h i s c i r c u m s t a n c e . " As t h e y 49 w e r e a c c u s t o m e d , t h e I n d i a n s w e r e m o v i n g f r o m one v e s s e l t o t h e o t h e r t r y i n g t o r a i s e t h e p r i c e . The t e c h n i q u e , p e r f e c t e d d u r i n g t h e m a r i t i m e f u r t r a d e , was a p p l i e d t o b o t h t h e f o r t s a n d t h e v e s s e l s t h a t t h e Company o p e r a t e d on t h e c o a s t . The i n e v i t a b l e c o n s e q u e n c e o f c o m p e t i t i o n , and t h e I n d i a n a b i l i t y t o e x p l o i t i t , was i n c r e a s i n g p r i c e s . B e c a u s e o f t h e o p p o s i t i o n , t h e I n d i a n s demanded p r i c e s t h a t w e r e s a i d t o 17 be "most e x t r a v a g a n t . " I n s p i t e o f t h e Company's s t r o n g d e s i r e 18 t o l o w e r t h e t a r i f f i t was "deemed n o t p r u d e n t t o do s o " as l o n g as c o m p e t i t i o n p e r s i s t e d . J o h n M c L o u g h l i n f o u n d i t n e c e s -s a r y t o m a i n t a i n t h r e e p r i c e l e v e l s i n h i s t e r r i t o r y . One p e r t a i n e d i n t h e i n t e r i o r , a s e c o n d on t h e c o a s t , and a t h i r d o n t h e c o a s t when c o m p e t i t i o n was p r e s e n t . The t h i r d was e x o r b i t a n t 19 by t h e s t a n d a r d o f t h e o t h e r t w o . B u t e v e n t h i s d e g r e e o f o r d e r l i n e s s was d i f f i c u l t t o m a i n t a i n . I n c r e a s e s i n p r i c e a n y -w h e r e on t h e c o a s t t e n d e d t o h a v e r e p e r c u s s i o n s t h r o u g h o u t t h e e n t i r e s y s t e m . One o f t h e s e n i o r t r a d e r s a t F o r t S i m p s o n , D r . J o h n K e n n e d y , s p e n t a w h o l e d a y i n May 1837 b a r g a i n i n g w i t h some T s i m s h i a n f o r s e a - o t t e r p e l t s . A t t h e e n d o f t h e d a y he h a d a c h i e v e d n o t h i n g . The d i f f i c u l t y was t h a t K e nnedy d i d n o t w a n t t o g i v e more t h a n e i g h t b l a n k e t s p e r p e l t a t t h e f o r t , a l t h o u g h he h a d r e c e n t l y g i v e n t h e . K a i g a n i H a i d a t e n b l a n k e t s p e r p e l t t o p r e v e n t some s e a - o t t e r f r o m f a l l i n g i n t o t h e h a n d s o f t h e R u s s i a n s . The H a i d a h a d a c q u a i n t e d t h e T s i m s h i a n w i t h t h e p r i c e t h a t t h e y h a d r e c e i v e d , and t h u s c a u s e d K ennedy "a g o o d d e a l o f t r o u b l e . " The f o l l o w i n g d a y t h e T s i m s h i a n w e r e s t i l l h o l d i n g 20 o u t f o r a h i g h e r p r i c e . F o r t L a n g l e y was s i m i l a r l y a f f e c t e d . The K w a k i u t l w e r e i n f r e q u e n t c o n t a c t w i t h A m e r i c a n t r a d e r s a n d , 50 b e c a u s e o f t h e h i g h p r i c e s t h e y w e r e o f f e r e d , t h e I n d i a n s w e r e a b l e t o d i v e r t t r a d e t h a t w o u l d n o r m a l l y h a v e gone t o F o r t 21 L a n g l e y . E v e n p r i c e s a t F o r t S i m p s o n - h u n d r e d s o f m i l e s away, b u t t h e s t o r m c e n t r e o f c o m p e t i t i o n - h a d an i m p a c t on r e t u r n s a t F o r t L a n g l e y . The K w a k i u t l w e r e a g a i n r e s p o n s i b l e . They r e d i r e c t e d f u r s f r o m t h e Musqueam, a S a l i s h g r o u p l i v i n g a t t h e mouth o f t h e F r a s e r R i v e r , t o F o r t S i m p s o n . " T h i s e v i l " a r o s e f r o m t h e f a c t t h a t t h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e t a r i f f s a t 22 F o r t L a n g l e y and F o r t S i m p s o n g e n e r a l l y . e x c e e d e d 100 p e r c e n t . As was t h e c a s e d u r i n g t h e m a r i t i m e f u r t r a d e , c o m p e t i -t i o n i n f l u e n c e d n o t j u s t t h e f l a t r a t e o f e x c h a n g e b u t a l s o t h e q u a l i t y o f t h e a r t i c l e s o b t a i n e d by t h e I n d i a n s . B l a n k e t s w e r e t h e t r a d i n g s t a p l e , b u t a t t i m e s e v e n t h e famous Hudson's Bay b l a n k e t p r o v e d t o be u n a c c e p t a b l e t o t h e I n d i a n s . When t h e i r b l a n k e t s w e r e i n f e r i o r t o t h o s e o f t h e A m e r i c a n s o r R u s s i a n s , . Company t r a d e r s h a d t o b u i l d up t h e p r i c e w i t h o t h e r g o o d s t o 23 o b t a i n f u r s . The i n t e n s i t y o f c o m p e t i t i o n on t h e c o a s t i n t h e 1830's meant t h a t t h e I n d i a n s c o u l d c o n t i n u e t o a s s e r t t h e i r demands w i t h c o n f i d e n c e . E v e n c r i t i c s o f t h e Company who h a v e s u p p o s e d , on d u b i o u s a u t h o r i t y , t h a t g e n e r a l l y . t h e I n d i a n s i n i t s t e r r i t o r i e s w e r e e n t i r e l y d e p e n d e n t on t h e Company h a v e h a d 24 t o a d m i t t h a t t h e a r e a w e s t o f t h e R o c k i e s was an e x c e p t i o n . D e a l i n g i n a c o m p e t i t i v e m a r k e t was n o t new t o t h e n o r t h -w e s t c o a s t I n d i a n s , b u t t h e a d v e n t o f t h e l a n d b a s e d f u r t r a d e d i d r e s u l t i n some i n n o v a t i o n s i n t h e i r t r a d i n g t e c h n i q u e s . One o f t h e m o s t o b v i o u s was t h e way i n w h i c h l o c a l I n d i a n s w o u l d c o n g r e g a t e a r o u n d a n e w l y e s t a b l i s h e d f o r t a nd a t t e m p t t o c o n t r o l i t s t r a d e . "Home g u a r d s " w e r e a f e a t u r e o f t h e f i r s t t h r e e 51 I n d i a n s o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , L i n g u i s t i c S u b d i v i s i o n s Names i n c a p i t a l s a r e l a n g u a g e s , t h o s e i n l o w e r c a s e a r e m a j o r d i a l e c t s . O n l y T s e t s a u t , P e n t l a t c h a nd N i c o l a A t h a p a s k a n a r e e x t i n c t . From W i l s o n D u f f , The I n d i a n H i s t o r y o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , v o l . I , t h e I m p a c t o f t h e W h i t e Man, A n t h r o p o l o g y i n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a M emoir no. 5, V i c t o r i a , 1964, p.14. 52 25 c o a s t a l f o r t s , a n d a f t e r F o r t V i c t o r i a was b u i l t i n 1843 t h e S o n g h e e s moved f r o m C a d b o r o B a y a n d " c o n s i d e r e d t h e m s e l v e s 2 fi s p e c i f i c l y a t t a c h e d t o t h e E s t a b l i s h m e n t " . F o r t S i m p s o n was t y p i c a l o f t h e p a t t e r n . A f t e r t h e f o r t was remov e d t o i t s s e c o n d l o c a t i o n a l a r g e p o p u l a t i o n o f T s i m s h i a n g a t h e r e d a r o u n d i t s w a l l s . The s i t e h a d p r e v i o u s l y b e e n a t e m p o r a r y c a m p i n g p l a c e f o r t h e v a r i o u s T s i m s h i a n t r i b e s on t h e i r way n o r t h t o t h e N a s s R i v e r f o r t h e s p r i n g e u l a c h o n f i s h i n g , b u t now i t b e -came a l a r g e w i n t e r v i l l a g e . The T s i m s h i a n who e s t a b l i s h e d t h e m s e l v e s a t F o r t S i m p s o n , l i k e t h e home g u a r d s a t t h e o t h e r c o a s t a l f o r t s , made e v e r y e f f o r t t o c o n t r o l t h e t r a d e o f t h e f o r t . T h e s e I n d i a n s w e r e a g e n t s a n d d e a l e r s more t h a n h u n t e r s and t r a p p e r s . They s e t t h e m s e l v e s up as m i d d l e m e n b e t w e e n o t h e r I n d i a n s and t h e Company t r a d e r s . B e c a u s e t r a d e r s t e n d e d t o a s s e s s I n d i a n i n d u s t r i o u s n e s s i n t e r m s o f t h e i r z e a l f o r h u n t i n g f u r s , f o r t I n d i a n s w e r e o f t e n a c c u s e d o f l a z i n e s s . James D o u g l a s o n c e c o m p l a i n e d t h a t t h e F o r t L a n g l e y I n d i a n s h a d t o be 27 " l i t e r a l l y d u n n e d i n t o s o m e t h i n g l i k e e x e r t i o n " . B u t t h e s e I n d i a n s w e r e k e e n l y a ware o f t h e b e n e f i t s o f c o n t r o l l i n g a f o r t . F o r t h i s r e a s o n I n d i a n s w e r e o f t e n p l e a s e d when t h e y l e a r n e d t h a t a f o r t was t o be b u i l t i n t h e i r m i d s t , a n d became a n g r y a n d h o s -t i l e when t h e y h e a r d t h a t a f o r t was t o be r e - l o c a t e d o r a b a n -d o n e d . The N i s h g a I n d i a n s o f t h e N a s s R i v e r w e r e e x t r e m e l y a n n o y e d when t h e y d i s c o v e r e d t h a t F o r t S i m p s o n was t o be moved t o t h e t e r r i t o r y o f t h e c o a s t T i m i s h i a n a n d t h e i r t h r e a t e n i n g a t t i t u d e r e s u l t e d i n a r a t h e r u n d i g n i f i e d r e t r e a t by t h e Company t r a d e r s . The f i n a l d e p a r t u r e f r o m F o r t M c L o u g h l x n , when i t was a b a n d o n e d i n 1 8 4 4 , was o n l y c a r r i e d o f f g r a c e f u l l y b y p l a n n i n g t h e move f o r a t i m e when t h e l o c a l I n d i a n s w e r e away f i s h i n g . ^ 1 7 I n d i a n s as w e l l as w h i t e s c o v e t e d t h e m o n o p o l y s i t u a t i o n a n d home g u a r d s , a n x i o u s t o k e e p t h e t r a d e e n t i r e l y i n t h e i r own h a n d s , w e r e j e a l o u s o f t h e v i s i t s o f o t h e r I n d i a n s t o t h e i r 30 f o r t . T h e s e I n d i a n t r a d e r s w e r e a b l e t o e x e r c i s e a c o n t r o l o v e r t h e t r a d e e v e n t h o u g h t h e i r i n t e r e s t s r a n c o u n t e r t o t h o s e o f t h e Company. The 1834 s e a s o n was a p o o r one a t F o r t S i m p s o n p a r t l y b e c a u s e t h e T s i m s h i a n c o n s i d e r e d t h e p r i c e o f f e r e d by 31 t h e Company t o be t o o l o w and t h e y w e re d e t e r m i n e d t o w i t h h o l d t h e i r f u r s . They a l s o made e v e r y e f f o r t t o p e r s u a d e a l l v i s i t i n g I n d i a n s t o do t h e same. T h e s e I n d i a n b r o k e r s c o u l d n o t a l w a y s m a i n t a i n a t o t a l c o n t r o l . The F o r t L a n g l e y I n d i a n s c o u l d n o t r e g u l a t e t h e a c t i o n s o f t h e f e a r e d s o u t h e r n K w a k i u t l a n d t h e T s i m s h i a n w e r e s e l d o m a b l e t o d i c t a t e t o t h e o b s t r e p e r o u s H a i d a . B u t t h e s e c o a s t a l I n d i a n s d i d m a i n t a i n h i g h l y p r o f i t a b l e monop-o l i e s o v e r t h e I n d i a n s o f t h e i n t e r i o r . The f i r s t w h i t e men t o c r o s s t h e c o n t i n e n t a l d i v i d e f o u n d e v i d e n c e t h a t t h e i n t e r i o r I n d i a n s h a d t r a d i n g l i n k s w i t h t h o s e o f t h e c o a s t . M a c K e n z i e d i s c o v e r e d t h a t b a n d s e v e n as f a r e a s t as t h e S e k a n i o f t h e F i n l a y a n d P a r s n i p R i v e r s p o s s e s s e d 32 i r o n t h a t h a d come f r o m t h e c o a s t . O t h e r e a r l y t r a v e l l e r s i n 33 New C a l e d o n i a f o u n d s i m i l a r e v i d e n c e . The t r a v e l s o f S a m u e l B l a c k i n t h e n o r t h e r n i n t e r i o r , i n p a r t i c u l a r , h a d awakened t h e Company t o t h e n a t u r e o f i n t e r - t r i b a l t r a d i n g p a t t e r n s i n t h e 34 a r e a . Company s t r a t e g i s t s w e r e aware t h a t m o s t o f t h e f u r s t r a d e d a t t h e c o a s t a c t u a l l y came f r o m t h e i n t e r i o r , a n d t h e c o a s t a l o p e r a t i o n was d e v e l o p e d t o t a p t h a t t r a d e . The f o r t on t h e N a s s R i v e r , f o r i n s t a n c e , was e s t a b l i s h e d p r i m a r i l y t o i n t e r -54 c e p t f u r s c o r n i n g o u t f r o m t h e i n t e r i o r . The I n d i a n s , h o w e v e r , w e r e n o t e a g e r t o r e l i n q u i s h t h e s e o l d t r a d i n g c o n n e c t i o n s a n d t h e p r o f i t s t h a t t h e y b r o u g h t . A t f i r s t t h e N i s h g a w e r e a p p r e -h e n s i v e a b o u t t h e i r t r a d e m o n o p o l y and t h e r e f o r e w e r e u n c o o p -35 e r a t i v e . I t became e v i d e n t , p a r t i c u l a r l y a f t e r t h e f o r t was r e - l o c a t e d , t h a t I n d i a n t r a d e p a t t e r n s w e r e t o be c o n t i n u e d and e v e n s t r e n g t h e n e d . One t r i b e o f t h e F o r t S i m p s o n T s i m s h i a n , u n d e r a s e r i e s o f l e a d e r s named L e g a i c , m a i n t a i n e d a t i g h t l y c o n t r o l l e d m o n o p o l y o v e r t h e G i t k s a n o f t h e u p p e r S k e e n a R i v e r . T s i m s h i a n p a r t i e s w e n t up t h e R i v e r t o t r a d e a t t h e v i l l a g e s a r o u n d t h e j u n c t i o n o f t h e S k e e n a a nd B u l k l e y R i v e r s , a n d t h e n 3 6 r e t u r n e d t o t h e f o r t t o r e a l i s e a handsome p r o f i t . The G i t k s a n w e r e p r e v e n t e d f r o m c o m i n g down t o t h e f o r t a n d s h a r i n g d i r e c t l y i n t h e h i g h c o a s t a l p r i c e s . B e c a u s e L e g a i c 1 s r e l a t i o n -s h i p w i t h t h e f o r t g a v e h i m a c c e s s t o new s o u r c e s o f w e a l t h a n d power he was s t r o n g e n o u g h t o e n f o r c e t h i s m o n o p o l y s t r i c t l y , a n d t h o s e I n d i a n s who t r i e d t o b r e a k i t w e r e s e v e r e l y p u n i s h e d . To t h e n o r t h a n d s o u t h o f F o r t S i m p s o n o t h e r I n d i a n g r o u p s r e a p e d t h e b e n e f i t s o f s i m i l a r t r a d i n g p a t t e r n s . The I n d i a n s o f M i l b a n k e Sound a c t e d a s d e a l e r s b e t w e e n t h e I n d i a n s 37 o f t h e i n t e r i o r a n d F o r t M c L o u g h l i n . To t h e n o r t h t h e T l m g i t w e r e famous as m i d d l e m e n and i t was a p p a r e n t t o t h e Company t h a t t h e y w e r e d r a i n i n g o f f a l a r g e q u a n t i t y o f f u r s f r o m t h e i n t e r i o r 3 8 o f n o r t h e r n New C a l e d o n i a t o s e l l t o t h e R u s s i a n s . The S t i k i n e l e a d e r named S h a k e s c o n t r o l l e d a t r a d e m o n o p o l y o n t h e S t i k i n e s i m i l a r t o t h a t o f L e g a i c on t h e S k e e n a . He t r a v e l l e d up t h e S t i k i n e R i v e r a n n u a l l y t o t r a d e , - a n d j e a l o u s l y g u a r d e d t h e p r i v i l e g e . T r a d i n g w i t h t h e i n t e r i o r I n d i a n s was a t r a -d i t i o n a l l y i n g r a i n e d a s p e c t o f t h e T l i n g i t way o f l i f e . They h a d a h i g h l y d e v e l o p e d s e n s e o f j u r i s d i c t i o n o v e r t r a d i n g 3 9 t r a i l s a n d t h e r i g h t t o t r a d e w i t h c e r t a i n g r o u p s . The " g r a n d m a r t " o f t h e S t i k i n e I n d i a n s was a v i l l a g e 150 m i l e s i n f r o m 40 t h e s e a and s i x t y m i l e s f r o m Dease L a k e . The Company, d e s i r i n g t o i n t e r c e p t t h i s k i n d o f t r a d e , p l a n n e d t h e e s t a b l i s h -ment o f a f o r t on t h e S t i k i n e R i v e r i n 1834. Ogden was d e l e g a t e d t o c a r r y o u t t h e p l a n and he was, n o t u n e x p e c t e d l y , o p p o s e d by t h e R u s s i a n s . T h i s o p p o s i t i o n p r o m p t e d a n o t h e r r o u n d o f d i p l o -macy. B u t t h e R u s s i a n s w e r e n o t t h e o n l y o p p o n e n t s o f t h e 41 scheme. F o r a l l t h a t t h e y t r i e d t o c o n c e a l i t , t h e Company o f f i c e r s a l s o f a c e d s t r o n g o p p o s i t i o n f r o m t h e l e a d e r s o f t h e S t i k i n e I n d i a n s who w e r e c o n c e r n e d a b o u t t h e i r m o n o p o l y w i t h t h e u p - r i v e r I n d i a n s . T h e s e I n d i a n s "assumed a t o n e " t h a t e v e n a t r o u b l e s h o o t e r l i k e Ogden "was n o t i n t h e h a b i t o f h e a r i n g " . The I n d i a n s w e r e w o r r i e d t h a t t h e Company's men m i g h t p r o c e e d up t h e r i v e r a n d i n j u r e t h e i r t r a d e , and t h e y a p p e a r e d t o be d e t e r m i n e d t o p r e v e n t i t . To d e p r i v e them o f t h e i r t r a d e , s a i d 42 t h e I n d i a n s , w o u l d r e d u c e them t o t h e s t a t e o f s l a v e s . The mood o f t h e T l i n g i t was one o f t h e r e a s o n s why Ogden d e c i d e d i n 1834 a g a i n s t e s t a b l i s h i n g i n t h e a r e a . A f t e r t h e 1839 a g r e e m e n t 43 w i t h t h e R u s s i a n s , t h e Company d i d t a k e p o s s e s s i o n o f F o r t S t i k i n e and b u i l t a n o t h e r f o r t n e a r t h e mouth o f t h e T a k u R i v e r , b u t i t s t i l l h a d t o c o n t e n d w i t h T l i n g i t m i d d l e m e n . D u r i n g t h e e x p e d i t i o n t o e s t a b l i s h t h e s e f o r t s D o u g l a s w e n t s o f a r a s t o s u g g e s t t h a t r e l y i n g on I n d i a n e n t e r p r i s e t o b r i n g f u r s t o t h e c o a s t "may p r o v e i n t h e e n d t h e s a f e s t and t h e l e a s t e x p e n s i v e 44 way o f i m p r o v i n g t h e i m p o r t a n t t e r r i t o r y i n q u e s t i o n . " As l o n g a s I n d i a n t r a d i n g r o u t e s b e t w e e n t h e i n t e r i o r a n d t h e c o a s t r e m a i n e d o p e n , and a c o m p e t i t i v e m a r k e t on t h e c o a s t s t i m u l a t e d p r i c e s , t h e I n d i a n s o f t h e i n t e r i o r c o u l d m a i n t a i n a d e g r e e o f i n d e p e n d e n c e f r o m t h e f o r t s i n t h e i r t e r r i t o r y . B o t h c o n d i t i o n s p e r t a i n e d a t l e a s t u n t i l 1840. The Company knew t h a t t o s e c u r e t h e t r a d e i n t h e i n t e r i o r t h e y h a d 45 t o d e s t r o y c o m p e t i t i o n o n t h e c o a s t , and t h e f a i l u r e t o a c h i e v e t h a t e n d q u i c k l y l e f t t h e I n d i a n s o f New C a l e d o n i a w i t h an a l t e r n a t i v e m a r k e t . I n some p a r t s o f New C a l e d o n i a t r a d i n g n e t w o r k s l i n k e d I n d i a n g r o u p s f r o m t h e s e a t o t h e R o c k i e s . The T s i m s h i a n t r a d e w i t h t h e G i t k s a n h a s a l r e a d y b e e n m e n t i o n e d . The p e o p l e o f t h e u p p e r S k e e n a i n t u r n t r a d e d w i t h t h e C a r r i e r , who h a d t r a d e c o n t a c t s w i t h t h e S e k a n i . The I n d i a n t r a d e r s who f o r m e d t h e l i n k s i n t h e s e c h a i n s knew a l l a b o u t p r i c e d i f f e r e n -t i a l s a n d t h a t t h i s t r a d e c o u l d a f f o r d "a v e r y handsome p r o f i t t o 46 t h e n a t i v e s p e c u l a t o r . " The N o r t h West Company h a d i n t r o d u c e d t h e d e b t o r s y s t e m among t h e I n d i a n s o f t h e i n t e r i o r a nd t h e H u dson's Bay Company c o n t i n u e d t h e s y s t e m a f t e r i t h a d t a k e n o v e r t h e a r e a . U n d e r t h i s s y s t e m t h e I n d i a n s w e r e s o l d g o o d s and e q u i p m e n t i n t h e f a l l a n d w e r e e x p e c t e d t o p a y f o r them i n f u r s t h e f o l l o w i n g s p r i n g . One o f t h e r e a s o n s f o r r e t a i n i n g t h e d e b t o r s y s t e m was t h e s u p p o s i t i o n t h a t i t made t h e I n d i a n s l e s s s u s c e p t i b l e t o t h e h i g h e r p r i c e s p a i d b y t h e c o a s t t r a d e r s , b u t a f t e r s e v e n y e a r s i n c h a r g e o f t h e New C a l e d o n i a d i s t r i c t , Ogden d o u b t e d t h a t t h e s y s t e m was h a v i n g t h e d e s i r e d e f f e c t . The i n t e r i o r I n d i a n s w e r e s t i l l " c l a n d e s t i n e l y " s e l l i n g t h e i r f u r s 47 t o c o a s t a l I n d i a n s . A c c o u n t s o f t h e t r a d e by o t h e r t r a d e r s i n t h e i n t e r i o r p r o v i d e e v i d e n c e t o s u p p o r t Ogden's c l a i m . T h e r e 57 i s no d o u b t t h a t t h e c o a s t a l t r a d e h a d an a d v e r s e e f f e c t on 48 t h e t a k i n g s a t i n l a n d p o s t s . I t i s , t h e r e f o r e , f a l l a c i o u s t o a s s e r t , a s F a t h e r A.G. M o r i c e h a s d o n e , t h a t t h e Hu d s o n ' s Bay Company e n j o y e d t h e s t r i c t e s t m o n o p o l y w i t h i n New C a l e -49 d o n i a . I n d i a n t r a d e w i t h t h e c o a s t p r e c l u d e d any a b s o l u t e m o n o p o l y . I t i s t r u e t h a t by t h e e a r l y 1 8 4 0 ' s t h e Company h a d c o n s i d e r a b l y r e d u c e d , a l t h o u g h n o t e n t i r e l y e l i m i n a t e d , compe-t i t i o n on t h e c o a s t . The 1839 a g r e e m e n t w i t h t h e R u s s i a n s r e m o v e d a l m o s t c o m p l e t e l y t h a t s o u r c e o f o p p o s i t i o n . By c o n -t r a c t i n g , u n d e r t h e same a g r e e m e n t , t o p r o v i d e t h e R u s s i a n p o s t s w i t h s u p p l i e s t h e Hudson's Bay Company t o o k an i m p o r t a n t s o u r c e o f r e v e n u e o u t o f t h e h a n d s o f A m e r i c a n c a p t a i n s . A l t h o u g h A m e r i c a n t r a d e r s d i d n o t c o m p l e t e l y d i s a p p e a r , t h e r e was a m a r k e d r e d u c t i o n i n t h e number o f A m e r i c a n v e s s e l s on t h e c o a s t f r o m a b o u t 1840. They c o n t i n u e d t o be s o m e t h i n g o f a n u i s a n c e t o t h e 50 . . . . Company on t h e c o a s t , and t h e e f f e c t s o f t h e i r a c t i v i t i e s w e r e 51 s t i l l f e l t i n t h e i n t e r i o r . N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e f a c t t h a t t h e Company was a b l e t o move t o w a r d s s t o p p i n g t h e l i q u o r t r a d e i n t h e f i r s t f e w y e a r s o f t h e 184 0 ' s was a s i g n " t h a t t h e o p p o s i t i o n h a d g r e a t l y d e c r e a s e d . U n q u e s t i o n a b l y t h e f u r m a r k e t was c o n -t r a c t i n g a n d t h e r e f o r e p r i c e s t o t h e I n d i a n s w e re d r o p p i n g . Y e t , e v e n w i t h t h e c l o s i n g down o f t h e o p e n m a r k e t , t h e Company d i d n o t d o m i n a t e t h e I n d i a n s . A l t h o u g h t h e Company was m o v i n g c l o s e r t o w a r d s t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f a t r a d i n g m o n o p o l y , t h e I n d i a n s s t i l l f o r m e d t h e s e c o n d h a l f o f a m u t u a l l y b e n e f i c i a l e c o n o m i c p a r t n e r s h i p . C o n t e m p o r a r y c r i t i c s o f t h e Company o f t e n assumed t h a t i t h a d 58 an a b s o l u t e c o n t r o l o v e r t h e I n d i a n s . F r e q u e n t l y , h o w e v e r , t h e s e a s s e r t i o n s w e r e b a s e d on p o l i t i c s r a t h e r t h a n f a c t s , a n d r e v e a l e d t h e p r e j u d i c e o f t h e c r i t i c a n d n o t t h e r e a l i t i e s o f t h e f r o n t i e r . B e c a u s e i t was a m o n o p o l y , t h e Company o f f e n d e d a g a i n s t c u r r e n t e c o n o m i c dogma i n E n g l a n d , a n d c r i t i c s t h e r e f o r e assumed t h a t i t m u s t h a v e b e e n d e t r i m e n t a l t o t h e I n d i a n s . Be-c a u s e m o n o p o l i e s i n g e n e r a l w e r e p e r n i c i o u s , t h e y r e a s o n e d , 52 t h i s p a r t i c u l a r m o n o p o l y m u s t h a v e b e e n b a d f o r t h e I n d i a n s . I n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s t h e Company was v i l i f i e d by t h o s e who saw 53 i t a s a h i n d r a n c e t o s e t t l e m e n t . M i s s i o n a r i e s a n d h u m a n i t a r -i a n s a l s o t e n d e d t o d e n i g r a t e t h e i n f l u e n c e o f t h e Company on t h e I n d i a n s ; c l a i m i n g , f o r e x a m p l e , t h a t t h e Company h e l d t h e 54 I n d i a n s i n s l a v e r y . B u t t h e s e v i e w s w e r e b a s e d , a t b e s t , o n a s u p e r f i c i a l k n o w l e d g e o f t h e f u r t r a d e w e s t o f t h e R o c k i e s a n d , a t w o r s t , o n a t o t a l i g n o r a n c e . C e r t a i n l y t h e I n d i a n s i n v o l v e d i n t h e t r a d e became d e p e n -d e n t on t h e Company f o r E u r o p e a n g o o d s , b u t no more t h a n t h e Company was d e p e n d e n t o n t h e I n d i a n s f o r f u r s . Some f o r t s e v e n h a d t o r e l y on t h e I n d i a n s f o r t h e i r v e r y s u s t e n a n c e , a n d w e r e t h e r e f o r e d o u b l y d e p e n d e n t . I n d i a n s who w e r e r e l i e d on f o r p r o -v i s i o n s b y t r a d e r s t o o k e v e r y a d v a n t a g e o f t h e i r p o s i t i o n j u s t 55 as t h e y d i d i n o t h e r a s p e c t s o f t h e t r a d e . Some Company t r a d e r s r e a l i s t i c a l l y a p p r e c i a t e d t h e r e s t r i c t i o n s t h a t t h e i r d e p e n d e n c e p l a c e d upon them i n t h e i r d e a l i n g s w i t h t h e I n d i a n s . Soon a f t e r t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f F o r t L a n g l e y t h e Company t r a d e r s , i r r i t a t e d b y I n d i a n s t e a l i n g , w a n t e d t o d e m o n s t r a t e t h e i r " d i s a p p r o b a t i o n o f s o k n a v i s h a b e h a v i o u r . " They r e f u s e d t o a l l o w any I n d i a n t o l a n d n e a r t h e f o r t , y e t a t t h e same t i m e t h e y 59 r e a l i s e d t h a t t h e "want o f f r e s h P r o v i s i o n s w i l l s o o n c o m p e l 56 us t o c o n c e d e a l i t t l e i n r e g a r d t o t h i s r e s t r i c t i o n " . N a t u r a l l y t h e j o u r n a l s a r e n o t e x a c t l y l i t t e r e d w i t h s u c h com-m e n t s , a s t h e a d m i s s i o n o f d e p e n d e n c e was n o t i n a c c o r d w i t h t h e w h i t e s e n s e o f s u p e r i o r i t y . B u t F o r t M c L o u g h l i n was s i m i -l a r l y d e p e n d e n t , a n d Duncan F i n l a y s o n p o i n t e d o u t i n a l e t t e r t o h i s s u p e r i o r s t h a t t h e i r l i v i n g w o u l d b e p r e c a r i o u s as l o n g as 57 t h e I n d i a n s h a d t o be r e l i e d o n f o r f o o d . L i k e E u r o p e a n s , I n d i a n s became f u r t r a d e r s b e c a u s e t h e y p e r c e i v e d t h a t t h e r e w e r e b e n e f i t s t o be g a i n e d , a n d d u r i n g t h e f u r t r a d e t h e I n d i a n s s t i l l h a d o p t i o n s o pen t o them. Some p r e f e r r e d n o t t o be i n v o l v e d i n t h e t r a d e a n d f o u n d i t p o s s i b l e t o e x e r c i s e t h a t c h o i c e . I n 1829 a f o r t was e s t a b l i s h e d w i t h i n t h e t e r r i t o r y o f t h e C h i l c o t i n I n d i a n s i n s p i t e o f some g r a v e 5 8 r e s e r v a t i o n s a b o u t t h e p r o s p e c t s o f t h e a r e a . T h e s e f e a r s w e r e q u i c k l y r e a l i s e d . The p o s t was a b a n d o n e d d u r i n g t h e y e a r a f t e r i t s f o u n d a t i o n , b u t a p p a r e n t l y s u b s e q u e n t l y r e - o c c u p i e d . R e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n t h e C h i l c o t i n and t h e t r a d e r s w e r e a l w a y s u n e a s y , and t h e I n d i a n s w e r e e v i d e n t l y n o t a t a l l i n t e r e s t e d i n h u n t i n g f u r s t o t r a d e a t t h e f o r t . T h e r e was c o n s t a n t b i c k e r i n g a b o u t p r i c e s a n d t h e men i n t h e f o r t w e r e f r e q u e n t l y a f r a i d o f 59 an a t t a c k . An I n d i a n s p o k e s m a n s a i d t h a t t h e Company t r a d e r s w e r e a l w a y s s h o r t o f t r a d e g o o d s , m a i n t a i n e d a h i g h t a r i f f , and r e j e c t e d p o o r q u a l i t y f u r s . The I n d i a n s , a c c o r d i n g t o t h e i r r e p r e s e n t a t i v e , c o u l d s e e no a d v a n t a g e i n t h e p r e s e n c e o f t h e w h i t e s , a n d e x p e c t e d them t o l e a v e t h e f o r t s o t h a t t h e y w o u l d h a v e an o p p o r t u n i t y t o b u r n i t down. I n r e p l y t h e h e a d t r a d e r h a d t o c o n c e d e t h a t t h e I n d i a n s w e r e a t l i b e r t y t o a c t as t h e y 60 p l e a s e d , t o h u n t o r n o t t o h u n t , b e c a u s e t h e r e was no c o m p u l s i o n i n t h e t r a d e . 6 0 E s s e n t i a l l y t h e C h i l c o t i n had o p t e d o u t o f t h e , f u r t r a d e and t h e r e was l i t t l e t h a t t h e Company c o u l d do b u t r e c o g n i s e t h e f a c t by a b a n d o n i n g t h e p o s t i n 1844. Some I n d i a n s , a t l e a s t , were s t i l l s u f f i c i e n t l y i n d e p e n d e n t t o r e s i s t s u c c e s s -f u l l y j o i n i n g t h e p a r t n e r s h i p . When t h e t r a d i n g p a r t n e r s h i p was e s t a b l i s h e d , however, t h e I n d i a n and t h e f u r t r a d e r s h a r e d c e r t a i n i n t e r e s t s , and t h e b e s t e v i d e n c e t h a t b o t h r e c o g n i s e d t h e i r m u t u a l r e l a t i o n s h i p i s t h e r e l a t i v e l a c k o f h o s t i l i t y between t h e two g r o u p s . I n d i v i d u a l t r a d e r s , d r i v e n t o e x a s p e r a t i o n by u n c o o p e r a t i v e I n d i a n s , w o u l d sometimes r a i l a g a i n s t them. Ogden once r e m a r k e d t h a t he w o u l d be w i l l i n g t o s p e n d a y e a r o r two e x t e r m i n a t i n g a l l t h e a d u l t 61 m a l e s o f t h e Snake c o u n t r y . I n 1835 Work f o u n d t h e d a r i n g o f t h e H a i d a t o be i n s u f f e r a b l e and t h o u g h t t h a t t h e t r a d e r s " own s a f e t y w o u l d e v e n t u a l l y compel them " t o come t o e x t r e m i t i e s w i t h t h e s e p e o p l e , and l e t them f e e l o u r f o r c e by d e s t r o y i n g a number o f them." B u t s u c h v e r b a l t i r a d e s and t h r e a t s s e l d o m became more t h a n t h a t . The n a t u r e o f t h e f u r t r a d e r s ' r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h t h e I n d i a n s r e s t r a i n e d any d e s i r e f o r w h o l e s a l e e x t e r m i n a t i o n . U n l i k e o t h e r f r o n t i e r s i t u a t i o n s , t h e f u r t r a d e p l a c e d no premium on d e a d I n d i a n s . The I n d i a n s were, a f t e r a l l , an i n t e g r a l p a r t o f t h e Company's o p e r a t i o n s . Dead I n d i a n s had l i t t l e v a l u e as h u n t e r s . When C a p t a i n T. S p a u l d i n g o f t h e A m e r i c a n v e s s e l L a u s a n n e made t h e r i d i c u l o u s c l a i m t h a t t h e Company was a c t u a l l y m u r d e r i n g h u n d r e d s o f I n d i a n s e v e r y y e a r , M c L o u g h l i n c o u n t e r e d by p o i n t i n g o u t t h a t as f u r t r a d e r s t h e y were u n l i k e l y t o b e n e f i t f r o m t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f t h e i r s o u r c e o f s u p p l y , and t h a t i t was 61 t h e r e f o r e i n t h e i r i n t e r e s t t o m a i n t a i n f r i e n d l y r e l a t i o n s w i t h t h e I n d i a n s . 6 4 The t e d i o u s " a n d u n c o u t h l i f e l e d by many t r a d e r s u n -d o u b t e d l y h a d a b r u t a l i z i n g e f f e c t on them a n d t h e r e w e r e i n c i d e n t s o f i n d i v i d u a l c r u e l t y t o w a r d s I n d i a n s . On a c o u p l e o f o c c a s i o n s I n d i a n s who made o f f w i t h t r a d e r s ' women h a d t h e i r 65 e a r s c u t o f f , a n d o n c e an I n d x a n was c a s t r a t e d a t F o r t V a n -c o u v e r . 6 6 I n c o n s i d e r i n g s u c h b e h a v i o u r i t o u g h t t o be remem-b e r e d t h a t t h e Company's p u n i s h m e n t o f i t s own s e r v a n t s who w e r e f o u n d g u i l t y o f m i s d e m e a n o u r s was o f t e n b r u t a l ; a f a c t w h i c h may e x p l a i n t h e u n d e r c u r r e n t o f c r u e l t y i n t h e t r a d e r ' s l i f e , e v e n t h o u g h i t d o e s n o t e x c u s e m i s t r e a t m e n t o f I n d i a n s . T h e r e w e r e c a s e s o f r a t h e r i n d i s c r i m i n a t e p u n i s h m e n t b e i n g m e t e d o u t t o g r o u p s o f I n d i a n s . F o l l o w i n g t h e m u r d e r o f A l e x a n d e r M c K e n z i e and f o u r o t h e r men by t h e I n d i a n s o f t h e . P o r t Townsend a r e a i n 6 7 1 8 2 8 , an e x p e d i t i o n was m o u n t e d t o t a k e r e v e n g e . The p a r t y d e s t r o y e d a g o o d d e a l o f I n d i a n p r o p e r t y and t h e h o t h e a d s o f t h e g r o u p w e r e d i s a p p o i n t e d t h a t t h e y w e r e n o t a l l o w e d t o do more 6 8 " t o t h e r a s c a l s t h e m s e l v e s . " T h e s e e x a m p l e s a r e , h o w e v e r , e x c e p t i o n s t o t h e Company's g e n e r a l r u l e o f l i m i t i n g t h e u s e o f v i o l e n c e a g a i n s t I n d i a n s . F rom v i o l e n c e , as Ogden s u c c i n c t l y p u t i t , "we h a v e n o t h i n g t o g a i n ; on t h e c o n t r a r y , e v e r y t h i n g t o l o s e . " 6 9 N o r m a l l y t h e o f f i c e r s o f t h e Company w e r e c i r c u m s p e c t a b o u t t h e p u n i s h m e n t t h a t t h e y g a v e t o I n d i a n s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r o u t r a g e s a g a i n s t t r a d e r s . T hey c e r t a i n l y b e l i e v e d i n t h e n e c e s -s i t y o f r e t a l i a t i o n when w h i t e men w e r e i n j u r e d o r k i l l e d . M c L o u g h l i n ' s v i e w i n s u c h c a s e s was " t h a t t h e h o n o u r o f t h e w h i t e s was a t a s t a k e " / u and t h a t t o l e a v e o f f e n c e s u n p u n i s h e d 71 " w o u l d l o w e r us i n t h e o p i n i o n o f t h e I n d i a n s " . F u r t r a d e r s demanded r e v e n g e and o f t e n , i n t h e h e a t o f t h e moment, demanded i t i n v i o l e n t t e r m s , b u t t h e r e w e r e d e f i n i t e l i m i t s w i t h i n w h i c h t h e y c o u l d a c t . E v e n S i m p s o n ' s " r o d o f i r o n " a p p r o a c h h a d t o be m o d i f i e d t o s u i t d i f f e r e n t c i r c u m s t a n c e s . I n t h o s e p a r t s o f t h e H udson's Bay Company's t e r r i t o r i e s w h e r e t h e I n d i a n s w e r e d e p e n d e n t t h e y w e r e t o be k e p t i n a " p r o p e r s t a t e o f s u b o r d i n a -t i o n " , b u t i n a r e a s l i k e t h e P a c i f i c n o r t h w e s t w h e r e t h e I n d i a n s r e t a i n e d a l a r g e d e g r e e o f i n d e p e n d e n c e " m i l d a n d c a u t i o u s 72 . . m e a s u r e s " w o u l d h a v e t o be u s e d . P u n i s h m e n t , when a d m i n i s t e r e d s h o u l d be s p e c i f i c a nd e f f e c t i v e . R a t h e r t h a n t h e i n d i s c r i m i n a t e k i l l i n g o f a number o f I n d i a n s , t h e g u i l t y p a r t i e s s h o u l d be d i s c o v e r e d and an e x a m p l e made o f them. T h e s e w e r e t h e v i e w s o f 73 many o f t h e Company's o f f i c e r s , a nd James D o u g l a s was a p a r t i c u l a r l y s t r o n g e x p o n e n t o f s u c h m e t h o d s . He a d v o c a t e d m o d e r a t e p u n i s h m e n t and t h e t a k i n g o f "due a l l o w a n c e f o r t h e i g n o r a n c e o f 74 t h e P a r t y w i t h whom I was d e a l i n g . " T h i s was a d v i c e f r o m a m a t u r e t r a d e r , who h a d l e a r n e d f r o m l o n g , a n d s o m e t i m e s b i t t e r , e x p e r i e n c e . I n h i s y o u t h D o u g l a s h a d b e e n much r a s h e r . I n 182 8, w h i l e s t a t i o n e d a t F o r t S t . J a m e s , he h a d l e a r n e d t h a t an I n d i a n a c c u s e d o f m u r d e r i n g a t r a d e r was h i d i n g i n a n e a r b y I n d i a n v i l l a g e . R u s h i n g p r e c i p i t a t e l y i n t o t h e v i l l a g e , D o u g l a s was r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e I n d i a n b e i n g b e a t e n t o d e a t h . The C a r r i e r I n d i a n s w e r e a r o u s e d by t h e a c t i o n , n o t s o much by t h e , k i l l i n g i t s e l f , b u t by t h e f a c t t h a t t h e v i c t i m was a g u e s t i n t h e i r v i l l a g e . The I n d i a n s f e l t t h a t t h e y d e s e r v e d r e c o m p e n s e f r o m D o u g l a s and h i s l i f e was s u b s e q u e n t l y e n d a n g e r e d on more t h a n one o c c a s i o n . 7 3 The a f t e r m a t h o f t h i s i n c i d e n t u n d o u b t e d l y g a v e D o u g l a s c a u s e f o r r e f l e c t i o n , a n d he e v i d e n t l y l e a r n e d t o c o n t r o l h i s e x p l o s i v e t e m p e r . The F o r t S t . James a f f a i r i n v o l v e d o n l y an i n d i v i d u a l I n d i a n , a t l e a s t i n i t i a l l y , a n d t h a t was t h e way t h a t t h e Company l i k e d t o k e e p s u c h d i s p u t e s . T h i s a p p r o a c h i s c l e a r l y i l l u s t r a -t e d i n t h e F o r t M c L eod j o u r n a l f o r 1823. A g r o u p o f I n d i a n s was i n d u c e d t o d i s c u s s t h e q u e s t i o n o f r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r some m u r d e r s a t F o r t G e o r g e . The C h i e f T r a d e r , G e o r g e M c D o u g a l l , d i s c o u n t e d any t h o u g h t o f i n d i s c r i m i n a t e k i l l i n g o f t h o s e I n d i a n s who came t o " n e g o t i a t e p a r t l y b e c a u s e t h e y w e r e t h e b e s t b e a v e r h u n t e r s a n d a l s o men o f i n f l u e n c e , "who i f o n c e d e s t r o y e d w o u l d 7 6 l e a v e o n l y t h e m o s t w o r t h l e s s p r o b a b l y t o t r o u b l e us a g a i n . " The Company men w e r e a l s o f a i r l y c e r t a i n t h a t t h e m u r d e r s h a d 77 b e e n t h e w o r k o f i n d i v i d u a l s a n d n o t o f a l a r g e g r o u p . F o l l o w -i n g t h e F o r t G e o r g e m u r d e r s t h e C a r r i e r I n d i a n s w a r n e d t h e t r a d e r s t h a t , s h o u l d any w h o l e s a l e k i l l i n g o f I n d i a n s o c c u r , t h e y w o u l d r e t a l i a t e a n d w o u l d n o t l e a v e a w h i t e man a l i v e i n w e s t e r n 7 8 C a l e d o n i a . C l e a r l y i t was n o t i n t h e i n t e r e s t s o f t h e Company t o become e m b r o i l e d i n t h e k i n d o f l a r g e s c a l e i n t e r - r a c i a l c o n -f l i c t t h a t w o u l d t h r e a t e n i f t h e y w e r e i n j u d i c i o u s i n t h e i r d e a l i n g s w i t h t h e I n d i a n s . The I n d i a n s , f o r t h e i r p a r t , a l s o r e s t r a i n e d much o f t h e v i o l e n c e t h a t f r i c t i o n w i t h t h e t r a d e r s c o u l d w e l l h a v e p r o -d u c e d . The h i s t o r y o f t h e l a n d b a s e d f u r t r a d e w e s t o f t h e R o c k i e s i s r e m a r k a b l e f o r t h e v i r t u a l a b s e n c e o f mass a t t a c k s o n f o r t s . The a s s e r t i o n t h a t f o r t s w e r e i n a c o n s t a n t s t a t e o f s e i g e a n d t h a t " h o s t i l i t y and a v o i d a n c e m a r k e d t h e i n t e r r e l a t i o n s 64 b e t w e e n w h i t e s a n d I n d i a n s " i s n o t s u b s t a n t i a t e d b y t h e e v i -79 d e n c e . T h e r e w e r e m u r d e r s o f i n d i v i d u a l t r a d e r s , b u t c o n c e r t e d a s s a u l t s o n p o s t s w e r e r a r e a n d h o s t i l i t y was n o t t h e norm. The k i l l i n g o f i n d i v i d u a l t r a d e r s was s o m e t i m e s t h e r e s u l t o f p e r s o n a l d i s a g r e e m e n t s , as was t h e c a s e w i t h t h e F o r t G e o r g e 8 0 murders.. On o t h e r o c c a s i o n s Company men w e r e u n k n o w i n g l y t h e v i c t i m s o f I n d i a n n o t i o n s o f r e v e n g e , w h i c h a p p a r e n t l y was t h e m o t i v e f o r t h e m u r d e r o f S a m u e l B l a c k a t F o r t K a m l o o p s i n 1 8 4 1 . T h i s k i l l i n g was c l e a r l y p e r p e t r a t e d by an i n d i v i d u a l a n d was s a i d t o be r e g r e t t e d as much b y t h e r e s t o f t h e I n d i a n s a s i t 81 was by t h e t r a d e r s . When an I n d i a n was k i l l e d w h i l e i n t h e e m p l o y o f t h e Company t h e t r a d e r s c o u l d e x p e c t t r o u b l e f r o m 82 o t h e r I n d i a n s who w o u l d r e g a r d them as a c c e s s o r i e s t o t h e f a c t . Company men s o m e t i m e s f o u n d t h e i r p o s t s t h e l o c a t i o n o f c o n f l i c t b e t w e e n r i v a l g r o u p s o f I n d i a n t r a d e r s . S u c h d i s s e n s i o n was a f r e q u e n t o c c u r r e n c e a t p o s t s l i k e F o r t S i m p s o n w h e r e a number o f I n d i a n g r o u p s o f t e n t r a d e d . What was e s s e n t i a l l y a f i g h t b e t w e e n I n d i a n s c o u l d be t a k e n b y t h e i n e x p e r i e n c e d t r a d e r as an a t t e m p t t o o v e r r u n t h e f o r t . T r a d e r s s o m e t i m e s a n t a g o n i s e d i n t e r - t r i b a l d i f f e r e n c e s . An a t t e m p t t o p l e a s e one g r o u p o f I n d i a n s c o u l d c a u s e o f f e n c e t o a n o t h e r . When J o h n Tod a l l o w e d a b a n d o f I n d i a n s t o s e t t l e n e a r F o r t K a m l o o p s i n 1 8 4 6 , an a t t a c k o n t h e f o r t was o n l y n a r r o w l y a v e r t e d when t h e y t u r n e d o u t t o be t h e 83 e n e m i e s o f t h e N i c o l a I n d i a n s . E f f o r t s t o b r e a k t h r o u g h I n d i a n t r a d i n g m o n o p o l i e s w e r e n a t u r a l l y r e s e n t e d , and a f o r t e s t a b l i s h e d on Dease L a k e was a t t a c k e d i n t h e w i n t e r o f 1838-1839 84 p r o b a b l y by c o a s t a l I n d i a n s who f e a r e d t h e l o s s o f t h e i r t r a d e . The c o n t a c t b e t w e e n r a c e s p r o v i d e d numerous p o s i b i l i t e s f o r 65 m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g and s o i n c i d e n t s l i k e t h e s e a r e n o t s u r p r i s i n g . What i s r a t h e r s i n g u l a r i s t h e r e l a t i v e a b s e n c e o f m a j o r i n t e r -r a c i a l c o n f l i c t . I s o l a t e d i n t h e i r l i t t l e o u t p o s t s , f u r t r a d e r s w e r e h i g h l y v u l n e r a b l e . The I n d i a n s p r o b a b l y h a d t h e power t o d e s t r o y them a nd y e t t h e y r e f r a i n e d , n o t b e c a u s e t h e y f e a r e d t h e w h i t e t r a d e r s , b u t b e c a u s e t h e y v a l u e d t h e i r p r e s e n c e . T h i s a t t i t u d e i s i n m a r k e d c o n t r a s t t o t h e I n d i a n b e h a v i o u r t o w a r d s w h i t e t r a p p e r s who, u n l i k e t h e t r a d e r s , o p e r a t e d i n d i r e c t c o m p e t i t i o n w i t h t h e I n d i a n . The I n d i a n s t h e r e f o r e h a d a p o w e r f u l i n c e n t i v e t o a t t a c k them. An A m e r i c a n , J o s e p h Meek, was f o r e l e v e n y e a r s a f u r t r a p p e r i n t h e R o c k y M o u n t a i n s , and he l a t e r a d m i t t e d t h a t w h e r e t h e i n f l u e n c e o f t h e Company was g r e a t " t h e i r men c o u l d go 85 w h e r e we d a r e n o t go u n l e s s we h a d f o r c e . " N e v e r t h e l e s s t h e Company t r a d e r s w e r e a t i n y m i n o r i t y among a l a r g e p o p u l a t i o n o f I n d i a n s , a n d o n l y s l i g h t l y l e s s v u l n e r a b l e i n t h e i r f o r t s t h a n a t r a p p i n g p a r t y m o v i n g a b o u t i n t h e I n d i a n s ' t e r r i t o r y . Company men s e t g r e a t s t o r e on t h e s t r e n g t h o f t h e i r f o r t s t o p r o t e c t them f r o m any I n d i a n a t t a c k s . H owever, t h e numerous o c c a s i o n s on w h i c h f o r t s w e r e t o t a l l y d e s t r o y e d by f i r e i n d i c a t e s how e a s i l y t h e I n d i a n s c o u l d h a v e r e m o v e d them. When t h e C a r r i e r w a r n e d t h a t t h e y m i g h t e l i m i n a t e a l l t r a d e r s f r o m New C a l e d o n i a i n 1 8 2 4 , t h e y p r o b a b l y c o u l d h a v e made g o o d t h e i r t h r e a t a n d some t r a d e r s w e r e w e l l a ware o f j u s t how f r a g i l e t h e i r s i t u a t i o n 87 was. A m e a s u r e o f t h e t r a d e r s ' w e a k n e s s was t h e i r f r e q u e n t b r a v a d o a b o u t t h e i r s t r e n g t h . I s o l a t e d among an a l i e n p o p u l a t i o n , t h e y assumed t h a t t h e o n l y way t o c o n t r o l t h e I n d i a n s was t o o v e r -66 awe them w i t h t h e power o f t h e E u r o p e a n s , a n d t h i s a s s u m p t i o n 8 8 h a s b e e n r e a s s e r t e d b y h i s t o r i a n s . T r a d e r s a t t e m p t e d t o i m p r e s s t h e I n d i a n s w i t h o s t e n t a t i o u s d i s p l a y s o f p o w e r , w h i c h o f t e n t o o k t h e f o r m o f a d e m o n s t r a t i o n o f t h e d e s t r u c t i v e 89 c a p a b i l i t i e s o f m u s k e t s o r c a n n o n . S u c h d i s p l a y s w e r e p o s s i b l y more f o r t h e b e n e f i t o f t h e w h i t e s t h a n t h e I n d i a n s . They w e r e r e a s s u r i n g , p a r t i c u l a r l y i f t h e I n d i a n s a p p e a r e d t o be s u i t a b l y i m p r e s s e d . One s u c h i n c i d e n t o c c u r r e d s o o n a f t e r F o r t V i c t o r i a was f o u n d e d i n 1843. The S o n g h e e s , who h a d moved t h e i r v i l l a g e o f r o m C a d b o r o Bay t o be c l o s e t o t h e F o r t t h r e a t e n e d t o a t t a c k t h e Company e s t a b l i s h m e n t w i t h t h e a s s i s t a n c e o f some n e i g h b o u r i n g t r i b e s . The C h i e f T r a d e r , R o d e r i c k F i n l a y s o n , f i r e d a c a n n o n l o a d o f g r a p e s h o t i n t o an empty I n d i a n h o u s e , c o m p l e t e l y d e s t r o y -i n g i t . The a c t i o n p r o d u c e d t h e d e s i r e d e f f e c t . A p p a r e n t l y t h e S o n g h e e s a n d t h e i r a l l i e s w e r e i m p r e s s e d and t h e q u a r r e l was 90 s e t t l e d b y n e g o t i a t i o n . Y e t I n d i a n s w e r e n o t a l w a y s o v e r a w e d b y t h e ways i n w h i c h w h i t e s t r i e d t o e x p r e s s t h e i r p o w e r . I n 1846 t h e f r i g a t e H.M.S. C o n s t a n c e a n c h o r e d a t E s q u i m a l t a n d F i n l a y s o n a s k e d C a p t a i n C o u r t n e y t o d r i l l some o f h i s men i n t h e u s e o f t h e i r arms i n o r d e r t o i m p r e s s t h e I n d i a n s . The S o n g h e e s t h i s t i m e w e r e unmoved. When a c h i e f was a s k e d w h a t he t h o u g h t o f t h e e x e r c i s e he p o i n t e d o u t t h e s t u p i d i t y o f f i g h t i n g i n t h e o p e n c o m p a r e d t o t h e I n d i a n m e t h o d o f f i g h t i n g f r o m b e h i n d c o v e r . "The C a p t a i n was n o t a t a l l p l e a s e d a t t h e s a v a g e ' s r e p l y " , 91 F i n l a y s o n o b s e r v e d . A t F o r t M c L e o d , J o h n Tod o n c e h a d i t e x p l a i n e d t o h i m by t h e I n d i a n s why t h e bow a n d a r r o w was more 92 e f f e c t i v e t h a n t h e m u s k e t . F u r t r a d e r s t h o u g h t t h a t t h e o n l y way t o e n s u r e t h e i r s e c u r i t y was t o i m p r e s s t h e I n d i a n s w i t h w h i t e p o w e r , b u t t h e y h a d n o t n e c e s s a r i l y a c c u r a t e l y a s s e s s e d t h e I n d i a n v i e w o f t h e s i t u a t i o n . Some f u r t r a d e r s c o u l d n o t c o n c e i v e t h a t t h e I n d i a n s m i g h t h a v e f o u n d t h e c o n t i n u e d p r e s -e n c e o f t h e Company t o t h e i r b e n e f i t . S e l f i n t e r e s t was a more i m p o r t a n t r e a s o n f o r t h e r e l a t i v e l a c k o f h o s t i l i t y t h a n f e a r . I n d i a n s , as much as E u r o p e a n s , c o u l d s e e l i t t l e p o i n t i n d e -9 3 s t r o y m g t h e i r s o u r c e o f s u p p l y . A n o t h e r m e a s u r e o f t h e r e c i p r o c i t y o f t h e t r a d e r s ' d e a l i n g s w i t h t h e I n d i a n s was t h e n a t u r e o f t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h t h e i r I n d i a n w i v e s . The t e m p o r a r y l i a i s o n s t h a t w e r e t y p i c a l o f t h e m a r i t i m e f u r t r a d e c o n t i n u e d , b u t i n a d d i t i o n t h e r e w e r e more p e r m a n e n t r e l a t i o n s h i p s . T h e r e was e v i d e n t l y some c o n c e r n t h a t I n d i a n women and t h e i r c h i l d r e n w e r e b e i n g d e s e r t e d by t r a d e r s when t h e C o u n c i l o f t h e N o r t h e r n D e p a r t m e n t p a s s e d an o r d e r i n 1824 r e q u i r i n g a l l o f f i c e r s a n d s e r v a n t s t o make a d e q u a t e p r o v i s i o n f o r t h e i r I n d i a n women, n o t o n l y w h i l e t h e y w e r e i n r e s i d e n c e i n t h e c o u n t r y b u t a f t e r t h e i r d e p a r -94 t u r e . P r o b a b l y t h e r e w e r e d i s c r e p a n c i e s b e t w e e n t h e i d e a l o f ' t h e o r d e r a n d t h e r e a l i t y o f i t s e x e c u t i o n , b u t some t r a d e r s d i d b u i l d l a s t i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p s b a s e d on m u t u a l r e s p e c t w i t h t h e i r I n d i a n w i v e s . The p u l l o f t h e m e t r o p o l i t a n s o c i e t y was s t i l l s t r o n g , a n d t r a d e r s w e r e aware t h a t t h e i r f r o n t i e r m a r r i a g e s m i g h t be f r o w n e d upon i n t h e " c i v i l i s e d " w o r l d . C h a r l e s R o s s , i n a l e t t e r t o h i s s i s t e r , f e l t i t n e c e s s a r y t o de n y t h a t he was ashamed o f h i s I n d i a n w i f e . W h i l e s he was n o t e x a c t l y f i t t e d t o g r a c e a n o b l e m a n ' s t a b l e , he s a i d , s h e s u i t e d t h e s p h e r e i n 95 w h i c h s h e h a d t o move. J o h n Work d e s c r i b e d h i s w i f e a s "an a f f e c t i o n a t e p a r t n e r " who t o o k "good c a r e o f my c h i l d r e n a n d 68 9 6 m y s e l f " ; b u t i n h i s o p i n i o n i t was o u t o f t h e q u e s t i o n f o r 97 an I n d i a n w i f e t o j o i n " c i v i l i s e d s o c i e t y " . Work's v i e w s n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g , some t r a d e r s d i d t a k e t h e i r I n d i a n w i v e s w i t h 9 8 them when t h e y l e f t t h e f u r t r a d e . The t e d i u m o f much o f t h e i r e x i s t e n c e p r o m p t e d t r a d e r s , e v e n t h o s e who w e r e i n i t i a l l y 99 d e t e r m i n e d n o t t o do s o , t o s e e k t h e c o m p a n i o n s h i p o f an I n d i a n woman. A p a r t f r o m t h e p e r s o n a l a d v a n t a g e s , s u c h u n i o n s w e r e o f t e n a l s o g o o d b u s i n e s s . A l t h o u g h w i v e s i n v o l v e d t h e Company i n a d d i t i o n a l e x p e n s e s , e v e n t h e economy-minded S i m p s o n saw t h a t t h e y w e r e "a u s e f u l l i n k b e t w e e n t h e t r a d e r s and t h e savage s . " " ' " 0 0 I n f a c t , d u r i n g t h e A t h a p a s k a c a m p a i g n he h a d p o s i t i v e l y u r g e d t r a d e r s " t o f o r m c o n n e c t i o n s " w i t h t h e d a u g h -t e r s o f I n d i a n l e a d e r s b e c a u s e " C o n n u b i a l a l l i a n c e s a r e t h e b e s t s e c u r i t y we c a n h a v e o f t h e g o o d w i l l o f t h e Natives"."'" 0''" J o h n K e n n e d y ' s m a r r i a g e t o a d a u g h t e r o f L e g a i c i s a go o d e x a m p l e o f an a l l i a n c e t h a t h e l p e d t o f a c i l i t a t e t r a d e . F r om L e g a i c ' s p o i n t o f v i e w t h e m a r r i a g e was p a r t o f a p a t t e r n w h e r e b y he m a r r i e d h i s d a u g h t e r s t o t h e l e a d e r s . o f I n d i a n g r o u p s w i t h whom he t r a d e d . I t was o n l y l o g i c a l t o e s t a b l i s h a s i m i l a r a l l i a n c e by m a r r i a g e w i t h t h i s new, and p a r t i c u l a r l y w e a l t h y , 102 t r i b e t h a t h a d a r r i v e d i n t h e a r e a . The m a r r i a g e was p a r t o f t h e r e a s o n f o r m o v i n g F o r t S i m p s o n i n t o T s i m s h i a n t e r r i t o r y and f o r L e g a i c ' s p r e - e m i n e n c e a f t e r 1834. The Company t r a d e r s h a d t h e b e n e f i t o f , a l e a d e r " o f w e i g h t and s t a n d i n g among t h e 103 • • N a t i v e s " who c o u l d a t t r a c t f u r s i n t h e i r d i r e c t i o n . W i l l i a m M c N e i l l , who s e r v e d t h e Company as commander o f t h e Lama and t h e n o f t h e B e a v e r , a p p a r e n t l y m a r r i e d a N a s s R i v e r woman, t h u s 104 e s t a b l i s h i n g a s i m i l a r a l l i a n c e w i t h t h a t g r o u p . M a r r i a g e s 69 s u c h a s t h e s e s e r v e d t h e Company's e n d s much more a d e q u a t e l y t h a n h a v i n g s e r v a n t s d i s a p p e a r o v e r t h e f o r t w a l l t o s p e n d t h e 105 n i g h t w i t h an I n d i a n woman. I t i s t r u e t h a t r e l a t i o n s o f any k i n d w i t h I n d i a n women c o u l d b r i n g t r o u b l e f o r t h e t r a d e r s . I t seems t h a t t h e F o r t G e o r g e m u r d e r s i n 1823 w e r e m o t i v a t e d b y 10 6 j e a l o u s y o v e r an I n d i a n woman. B u t , more i m p o r t a n t l y , a m a r r i a g e u n i o n c o u l d g r e a t l y e n h a n c e t h e e c o n o m i c u n i o n b e t w e e n t r a d e r a n d I n d i a n . The Company's d r i v e f o r p r o f i t e v e n o b t r u d e d i n t o t h e m o s t p e r s o n a l a s p e c t s o f t h e l i v e s o f i t s s e r v a n t s a n d o f f i c e r s , b u t f o r t h e I n d i a n s t h i s same s i n g l e m i n d e d n e s s d e f i n e d t h e l i m i t s o f t h e t r a d e r s ' i m p a c t on t h e i r c u l t u r e . L i k e t h o s e who h a d come by s e a , t h e l a n d b a s e d f u r t r a d e r s made l i m i t e d demands o n t h e I n d i a n s a n d d i d n o t a t t e m p t t o i n i t i a t e m a j o r c u l t u r a l c h a n g e . On t h e c o n t r a r y , t h e Company h a d a c o n s i d e r a b l e i n v e s t m e n t a n d i n t e r e s t i n k e e p i n g much o f t h e I n d i a n way o f l i f e i n t a c t . O b v i o u s l y i t d i d n o t w a n t t o s e e t h e k i n d o f r a d i c a l c h a n g e t o t h e I n d i a n s ' c u l t u r e t h a t w o u l d p r e v e n t them f r o m b e i n g e f f i c i e n t f u r h u n t e r s . F o r t h i s r e a s o n t h e r e was l i t t l e i n t r u s i o n on I n d i a n l a n d d u r i n g t h e f u r t r a d i n g p e r i o d . The I n d i a n s r e t a i n e d t h e i r v i l l a g e s i t e s , a n d t h e i r h u n t i n g a n d f i s h i n g g r o u n d s w e r e u n m o l e s t e d . The Company was o f t e n c h i d e d by h u m a n i t a r i a n s f o r i t s l a c k o f p h i l a n t h r o p i c c o n c e r n f o r t h e I n d i a n s a n d f o r d o i n g l i t t l e t o " r a i s e t h e i r l e v e l o f c i v i l i s a t i o n " . A l t h o u g h i t h a d moments when i t t r i e d t o deny t h e s e c h a r g e s , t h e Company r e a l l y h a d l i t t l e i n t e r e s t i n m a k i n g m a j o r " i m p r o v e m e n t s " t o t h e I n d i a n way o f l i f e . " P h i l a n t h r o p y " w r o t e S i m p s o n i n a p o i n t e d u n d e r -s t a t e m e n t , " i s n o t t h e e x c l u s i v e o b j e c t o f o u r v i s i t s t o t h e s e 70 N o r t h e r n R e g i o n s , b u t t o i t a r e c o u p l e d i n t e r e s t e d m o t i v e s " . I n s h o r t , he c o n c l u d e d , " B e a v e r i s t h e g r a n d bone o f c o n t e n -t i o n " . 1 0 7 T h e i r e f f o r t s t o a c q u i r e f u r s f r o m t h e I n d i a n s d i d s o m e t i m e s l e a d t r a d e r s t o a t t e m p t t o m o d i f y I n d i a n b e h a v i o u r . They p r e f e r r e d , f o r i n s t a n c e , t o s e e t h e I n d i a n s g a t h e r i n g f u r s t h a n e n g a g i n g i n i n t e r n e c i n e w a r f a r e . When."War, and n o t S k i n s " , seemed t o o c c u p y t h e I n d i a n s ' a t t e n t i o n , t r a d e r s became c o n c e r n e d a b o u t r e t u r n s . The o b v i o u s r e s p o n s e was t o t r y t o s e t t l e d i s -r u p t i v e i n t e r - t r i b a l c o n f l i c t s b y n e g o t i a t i o n . A l t h o u g h S i m p s o n d e n i e d i t b e f o r e t h e 1857 C o m m i t t e e on t h e Hudson's Bay Company, 1 t r a d e r s d i d s o m e t i m e s t r y t o a c t as m e d i a t o r s b e t w e e n w a r r i n g p a r t i e s o f I n d i a n s . T hey w a n t e d t h e I n d i a n s t o r e c o g n i s e t h a t t h e f o r t s w e r e n e u t r a l g r o u n d w h e r e a l l w e r e f r e e t o t r a d e , s o t h e I n d i a n s w e r e t o l d t h a t t h e i r d i s p u t e s s h o u l d be s e t t l e d e l s e -109 w h e r e . T r a d e r s a l s o t r i e d t o a c t as p e a c e m a k e r s i n i n t e r -t r i b a l c o n f l i c t s t h a t h a d no c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e f u r t r a d e . I n 1835 J o h n Work was c o n c e r n e d a b o u t t h e e f f e c t s o f c o n t i n u e d h o s -t i l i t y b e t w e e n t h e F o r t S i m p s o n T s i m s h i a n and t h e K a i g a n i H a i d a . He saw t h a t p e a c e f u l r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n t h e two g r o u p s w o u l d e n -a b l e t h e H a i d a t o come t o t h e f o r t more f r e q u e n t l y , s o he t o o k L e g a i c ' s s o n t o d e l i v e r a m essage f r o m h i s f a t h e r t o t h e K a i g a n i i n t h e hope t h a t i t w o u l d f a c i l i t a t e a s e t t l e m e n t . 1 1 0 I n a l l e f f o r t s o f t h i s k i n d , h o w e v e r , t h e Company men c o u l d o n l y u s e m o r a l s u a s i o n . They w e r e i n no p o s i t i o n , a n d h a d no d e s i r e t o u s e f o r c e . C o n s e q u e n t l y t h e i r p e a c e m a k i n g a t t e m p t s o f t e n met w i t h f a i l u r e . S ometimes t r a d e r s w e r e s i m p l y t o l d t o m i n d t h e i r own b u s i n e s s , 1 1 1 w h i l e on o t h e r o c c a s i o n s w o u l d - b e m e d i a t o r s h a d 71 t o d e s i s t b e c a u s e t h e i r e f f o r t s o n l y e x c i t e d t h e I n d i a n s ' 112 d e r i s i o n . " C o n j u r i n g " ( t h e w o r d t h a t Work u s e d t o d e s c r i b e K w a k i u t l w i n t e r c e r e m o n i a l ) was a n o t h e r a c t i v i t y t h a t t h e t r a d e r s t h o u g h t d i v e r t e d t h e I n d i a n s ' a t t e n t i o n f r o m h u n t i n g . The e x i s t e n c e o f s l a v e r y i n I n d i a n s o c i e t y a l s o d i s t u r b e d some Company men. B u t t h e s e w e r e i n t e g r a l p a r t s o f t h e I n d i a n way o f l i f e a n d c o u l d n o t e a s i l y be e l i m i n a t e d , o r e v e n m o d i f i e d , p a r t i c u l a r l y as t h e t r a d e r s h a d t o move w i t h e x t r e m e c a r e i n t h e i r o c c a s i o n a l e f f o r t s t o b r i n g a b o u t c h a n g e . The n e e d f o r g r e a t c a u t i o n was e x p l a i n e d b y D o u g l a s i n a l e t t e r t o t h e G o v e r n o r a n d C o m m i t t e e o f t h e Company. He w r o t e t h a t " u n d e s i r a b l e " p r a c -t i c e s c o u l d be d i s c o u r a g e d b y t h e e x e r t i o n o f m o r a l i n f l u e n c e a l o n e , c a r e f u l l y a v o i d i n g d i r e c t c o l l i s i o n e i t h e r w i t h t h e i r s e l f i s h f e e l i n g s o r i n v e t e r a t e p r e j u d i c e s , a s I d o n ' t f e e l j u s t i f i e d i n e x p o s i n g o u r i n t e r e s t s t o t h e s h o c k o f e x c i t e m e n t a n d d e s p e r a t e a n i m o s i t y w h i c h more a c t i v e m e a s u r e s , o n o u r p a r t , m i g h t p r o -v o k e . 113 As l o n g as t r a d e r s h a d t o be s o c i r c u m s p e c t a b o u t i n t e r f e r i n g w i t h I n d i a n s o c i a l c u s t o m s , a n d t h e I n d i a n s w e r e s t i l l i n a p o s i t i o n t o r e j e c t t h e s e e f f o r t s , c o n t r o l o f t h e i r s o c i e t y r e -m a i n e d i n I n d i a n h a n d s . T h e r e w e r e some c h a n g e s i n I n d i a n c u l t u r e t h a t w e r e b r o u g h t a b o u t i n a d v e r t e n t l y by t h e l a n d b a s e d f u r t r a d e r s . The s h i f t f r o m t r a d i n g w i t h v e s s e l s t o t r a d i n g a t f o r t s r e d u c e d t h e w e a l t h o f t h o s e I n d i a n g r o u p s l i v i n g o n t h e o u t e r f r i n g e s o f t h e c o a s t . As t h e t r a d e r s moved i n l a n d t h e g r o u p s -who h a d i n i t i a l l y r e a p e d t h e b e n e f i t s o f t h e m a r i t i m e f u r t r a d e e x p e r i e n c e d a. d e -c l i n i n g s t a n d a r d o f l i v i n g . I t w o u l d a p p e a r t h a t t h e N o o t k a 72 c o u l d make no e f f e c t i v e r e s p o n s e t o t h i s e x p e r i e n c e and t h e y l a p s e d i n t o o b s c u r i t y a s f a r a s E u r o p e a n t r a d e r s w e r e c o n -114 c e r n e d . The Queen C h a r l o t t e H a i d a , on t h e o t h e r hand,made d e f i n i t e e f f o r t s t o accommodate t h e m s e l v e s t o t h e c h a n g e d s i t u a -t i o n . I n 1825 t h e b o t a n i s t , D r . J o h n S c o u l e r , was on t h e c o a s t and l a t e r he r e c o r d e d some p e r c e p t i v e o b s e r v a t i o n s o f t h e I n d i a n i n h a b i t a n t s . He n o t e d t h a t when t h e s e a - o t t e r h a d a b o u n d e d a r o u n d t h e Queen C h a r l o t t e s t h e H a i d a w e r e among t h e m o s t w e a l t h y I n d i a n s o n t h e c o a s t , b u t w i t h t h e d e p l e t i o n o f t h e f u r - b e a r i n g a n i m a l s t h e H a i d a became p o o r e r . To o f f s e t t h i s d e c l i n e i n w e a l t h t h e H a i d a " l o o k e d f o r o t h e r s o u r c e s o f i n c o m e . They b e g a n t o c u l t i v a t e p o t a t o e s a n d s e l l t hem i n l a r g e q u a n t i t i e s b o t h t o t h e m a i n l a n d I n d i a n s a n d , a f t e r i t was e s t a b l i s h e d , a t F o r t S i m p s o n . The p o t a t o became t h e i r s t a p l e t r a d i n g a r t i c l e , b u t S c o u l e r a l s o r e p o r t e d t h a t t h e H a i d a " f a b r i c a t e m o s t o f t h e c u r i o s i t i e s f o u n d on t h e c o a s t " , and t h e s e t o o . w e r e t r a d e d . The H a i d a w e r e t u r n i n g t h e s u p e r b a r t i s t r y o f t h e i r wood c a r v i n g t o p r o f i t . N o t o n l y w e r e " c u r i o s i t i e s " c a r v e d i n wood, and l a t e r i n a r g i l l i t e , p r o d u c e d f o r e x p o r t , b u t a l s o t h e i r f i n e c e d a r c a n o e s 115 w e r e m a n u f a c t u r e d f o r s a l e . I n t h e s e ways t h e H a i d a s u p p l e -m e n t e d t h e i r t r a d e i n p o t a t o e s and r e g a i n e d some o f t h e w e a l t h t h e y l o s t b y t h e p a s s i n g o f t h e f u r t r a d e f r o m t h e i r s h o r e s . D i s e a s e was s t i l l a f a c t o r o v e r w h i c h t h e I n d i a n s c o u l d e x e r c i s e l i t t l e c o n t r o l , a nd f o r t h e h i s t o r i a n t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s o f a c c u r a t e l y a s s e s s i n g i t s i m p a c t s t i l l r e m a i n . P e r m a n e n t c o n t a c t w i t h E u r o p e a n s u n d o u b t e d l y d i d l i t t l e t o r e d u c e t h e i n c i d e n c e o f v e n e r e a l d i s e a s e among t h e I n d i a n s , M e r c u r y t r e a t -ment was a f r e q u e n t n e c e s s i t y a t t h e f o r t s , 1 1 6 and t h e r e a r e 73 117 r e f e r e n c e s t o c a s e s o f b o t h g o n o r r h o e a and s y p h i l l i s , b o t h o f w h i c h w e r e p a s s e d on t o t h e I n d i a n s . S m a l l p o x was a l s o t a k i n g I n d i a n l i v e s . R e p o r t s o f o u t b r e a k s became more f r e q u e n t i n t h e 1830's and t h e r e a r e comments a b o u t t h e " d r e a d f u l r a v a g e s " o f s m a l l p o x t a k i n g " g r e a t n u m b e r s " o f I n d i a n s . B u t t h e e v i d e n c e i s s e l d o m more s p e c i f i c . D o u g l a s w r o t e i n 1838 t h a t r e p o r t s i n d i c a t e d t h a t s m a l l p o x h a d k i l l e d one t h i r d o f t h e I n d i a n p o p u -118 l a t i o n on t h e n o r t h e r n c o a s t , b u t Rev. H e r b e r t B e a v e r , w r i t i n g t h e f o l l o w i n g d a y , c l a i m e d t h a t t h e d i s e a s e h a d o n l y t a k e n one 119 i n t h r e e o f t h o s e a t t a c k e d . A l l s u c h e s t i m a t e s h a v e t o be t r e a t e d w i t h c a u t i o n p a r t i c u l a r l y when t h e y w e r e b a s e d on I n d i a n r e p o r t s . D r . W i l l i a m F r a s e r T o l m i e , who by p r o f e s s i o n t o o k a g r e a t i n t e r e s t i n t h e i n c i d e n c e o f d i s e a s e , c l a i m e d t h a t e x p e r i -e n c e h a d t a u g h t h i m t o p l a c e l i t t l e f a i t h i n I n d i a n a c c o u n t s o f t h e s e v e r i t y o f o u t b r e a k s b e c a u s e o f t h e i r t e n d e n c y t o e x a g g e r a t e 120 m i s f o r t u n e . By 1838 d e a t h s f r o m s m a l l p o x s h o u l d h a v e b e e n d e c r e a s i n g as a r e s u l t o f a f a i r l y e x t e n s i v e programme o f v a c -121 c i n a t i o n o f I n d i a n s by Company t r a d e r s . B e s i d e v e n e r e a l d i s e a s e and s m a l l p o x , m e a s l e s and r e s p i r a t o r y d i s e a s e s w e r e a l s o p r e v a l e n t among t h e I n d i a n s . The c o m b i n e d e f f e c t o f a l l t h e s e c o m p l a i n t s was u n d o u b t e d l y a q u i c k e n i n g o f t h e d e a t h r a t e , b u t we c a n n o t be c e r t a i n a b o u t t h e e x a c t d e g r e e o f m o r t a l i t y . W i t h t h e p o s s i b l e e x c e p t i o n o f l o s s o f t r a d e , a n d t h e d e f i n i t e e x c e p t i o n o f d i s e a s e , t h e s o c i a l c h a n g e s t i m u l a t e d by t h e f u r t r a d e c o u l d be c o n t r o l l e d b y t h e I n d i a n s . D u r i n g t h e p e r i o d o f t h e l a n d b a s e d f u r t r a d e t h e d e v e l o p m e n t s i n I n d i a n c u l t u r e w e r e o f two k i n d s . T h e r e w e r e c h a n g e s t h a t i n v o l v e d t h e q u a n t i t a t i v e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t r a d i t i o n a l a s p e c t s o f I n d i a n 74 s o c i e t y a n d , s e c o n d l y , t h e r e w e r e q u a l i t a t i v e i n n o v a t i o n s i n t r o d u c e d i n t o t h e c u l t u r e . T h e r e w e r e c h a n g e s i n d e g r e e a n d t h e r e w e r e c h a n g e s i n k i n d . T h o s e d e v e l o p m e n t s t h a t w e r e an e l a b o r a t i o n o f e x i s t i n g f e a t u r e s o f I n d i a n c u l t u r e a f t e r t h e 1820's w e r e l a r g e l y a c o n t i n u a t i o n o f c h a n g e b e g u n b y t h e m a r i t i m e f u r t r a d e . I n t e r -t r i b a l a c c u l t u r a t i o n was s t i m u l a t e d a s more f r e q u e n t t r a d i n g c o n t a c t s b e t w e e n I n d i a n g r o u p s p r o v i d e d o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r c u l -t u r a l b o r r o w i n g . I n d i a n a r t forms,- c o n t i n u e d t o f l o u r i s h p a r t i c u l a r l y among t h e t r i b e s o f t h e n o r t h e r n c o a s t ; n o t j u s t b e c a u s e m e t a l t o o l s " m a d e wood c a r v i n g e a s i e r , b u t a l s o b e c a u s e new w e a l t h a l l o w e d more o f t h e c e r e m o n i a l t h a t a c c o m p a n i e d t h e e r e c t i o n o f a t o t e m p o l e . T h e r e i s l i t t l e d o u b t t h a t t h e f u r t r a d e p r o d u c e d an i n c r e a s e i n t h e number a n d s i z e o f p o t -l a t c h e s among t h e c o a s t a l I n d i a n s . I t h a s b e e n s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e a b s e n c e o f r e f e r e n c e s t o t h e p o t l a t c h i n t h e f u r t r a d e l i t e r -122 a t u r e demands a r e - e v a l u a t i o n o f i t s d e v e l o p m e n t . B u t t h e r e 123 a r e numerous c o n t e m p o r a r y a c c o u n t s o f t h e r i t u a l t o s u p p o r t t h e e q u a l l y numerous s c h o l a r s who c o n t e n d t h a t t h e p o t l a t c h 124 f l o u r i s h e d d u r i n g t h e f u r t r a d e . The f l o r e s c e n c e o f a r t and c e r e m o n i a l t h a t o c c u r r e d on t h e n o r t h w e s t c o a s t was e x c e p t i o n a l 125 among I n d i a n r e a c t i o n s t o E u r o p e a n c o n t a c t , b u t t h e r e i s s t r o n g e v i d e n c e t h a t s u c h a r e s p o n s e d i d o c c u r . The q u a l i t a t i v e c h a n g e s i n I n d i a n s o c i e t y i n c l u d e d t h e r i s e o f new l e a d e r s who s p e c i a l i s e d i n d e a l i n g w i t h E u r o p e a n t r a d e r s . L e a d e r s l i k e L e g a i c , a t F o r t S i m p s o n , a nd Kwah, among t h e C a r r i e r , assumed t h i s r o l e . I t was Company p o l i c y t o d e a l 75 w i t h t h e s e l e a d e r s a n d t o e n h a n c e t h e i r a u t h o r i t y b y b e s t o w i n g h o n o u r s u p on them. B e c a u s e o f t h e s p e c i a l t r e a t m e n t t h e y r e c e i v e d f r o m t h e Company t r a d e r s t h e s e l e a d e r s w e r e s u b j e c t t o t h e j e a l o u s i e s o f o t h e r I n d i a n s , b u t t h e i r enormous w e a l t h h e l p e d them t o w i t h s t a n d c h a l l e n g e s t o t h e i r l e a d e r s h i p . I n I n d i a n s o c i e t y an i n d i v i d u a l ' s p o s i t i o n was r e l a t e d t o t h e amount o f goods t h a t p a s s e d t h r o u g h h i s h a n d s , s o t r a d i n g c h i e f s w e r e w e l l p l a c e d t o m a i n t a i n a n d i n c r e a s e t h e i r p r e s t i g e . L e g a i c ' s t r a d e m o n o p o l y w i t h t h e u p p e r S k e e n a I n d i a n s "was a v e r y r i c h p r i v i l e g e " , a n d t h e t r a d i t i o n s r e c o r d a t l e a s t one o c c a s i o n o n w h i c h he was a b l e t o d e f e a t a t h r e a t t o h i s l i f e a n d p o s i t i o n p o s e d b y t h e o t h e r T s i m s h i a n t r i b e s s i m p l y b e c a u s e h i s w e a l t h was s o much g r e a t e r t h a n t h e i r s . L e g a i c ' s r i v a l s w e r e 127 h u m i l i a t e d when c o n f r o n t e d by h i s g r e a t w e a l t h . W h i l e i n -c r e a s e d w e a l t h c o n s o l i d a t e d t h e power o f c e r t a i n l e a d e r s , i t a l s o 128 i n c r e a s e d t h e p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r s o c i a l m o b i l i t y i n some g r o u p s . The e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f f o r t s o f t e n r e q u i r e d o t h e r s o c i a l a d j u s t m e n t s o n t h e p a r t o f t h e I n d i a n s . When t h e n i n e T s i m s h i a n t r i b e s moved t o F o r t S i m p s o n , t h e y a l l l i v e d a t t h e same p l a c e f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e a n d . a n a c c e p t a b l e o r d e r o f r a n k , b o t h f o r p h r a t r i e s a n d f o r i n d i v i d u a l s , h a d t o be e s t a b l i s h e d . L e g a i c c e r t a i n l y h a d i n i t i a l a d v a n t a g e s , b u t h i s p r e - e m i n e n c e was t h e r e s u l t o f a c o n t i n u i n g p r o c e s s o f s o c i a l r e - o r d e r i n g . As w e l l as a f f e c t i n g t h e s o c i a l h i e r a r c h y w i t h i n I n d i a n g r o u p s , t h e f u r t r a d e p r o d u c e d s h i f t s i n t h e i n t e r - t r i b a l b a l a n c e o f power. The e x p a n s i o n o f t h e K w a k i u t l as f a r s o u t h a s Cape Mudge was a p o s t c o n t a c t phenom-129 e n o n , a nd t h e i r new power was p a r t l y b a s e d On w e a l t h a c q u i r e d by m a n i p u l a t i n g t h e f u r t r a d e . I n c r e a s e d c o n c e n t r a t i o n on 76 h u n t i n g f u r b e a r i n g a n i m a l s b r o u g h t c h a n g e s i n c o n c e p t s o f l a n d o w n e r s h i p among some g r o u p s . The f u r t r a d e i n d u c e d I n d i a n s t o . r e t u r n t o t h e same t r a p p i n g t e r r i t o r y y e a r a f t e r y e a r a n d among t h e S e k a n i t h e r e s u l t was t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f f a m i l y h u n t i n g 130 t e r r x t o r i e s . S i m p s o n may h a v e b e e n d e s c r i b i n g an i n t e r -m e d i a t e s t a g e i n t h e same d e v e l o p m e n t when he n o t e d t h a t a r o u n d F o r t S t . James b e a v e r h u n t i n g g r o u n d s b e l o n g e d t o p a r t i c u l a r • • 131 f a m i l i e s w h i l e t h e r i g h t s t o s m a l l e r f u r s w e r e h e l d i n common. C l e a r l y t h e f u r t r a d e b r o u g h t c h a n g e t o I n d i a n s o c i e t y , a nd y e t i t was c h a n g e t h a t t h e I n d i a n s d i r e c t e d a n d t h e r e f o r e t h e i r c u l t u r e r e m a i n e d i n t a c t . New w e a l t h was i n j e c t e d i n t o I n d i a n c u l t u r e b u t n o t i n a way t h a t was s o c i a l l y d i s r u p t i v e , s o I n d i a n c u l t u r e was c h a n g e d b u t n o t d e s t r o y e d . F u r t r a d e r s o c c a s i o n a l l y c o n t e m p l a t e d m o d i f i c a t i o n s o f I n d i a n c u s t o m s b u t t h e y l a c k e d t h e power a n d , u l t i m a t e l y , t h e w i l l t o e f f e c t s u c h c h a n g e s . The n a t u r e o f t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h t h e I n d i a n s p r e -c l u d e d s u c h i n t e r f e r e n c e . D u r i n g t h e f u r t r a d i n g p e r i o d E u r o p e a n s and I n d i a n s w e r e p a r t o f a m u t u a l l y b e n e f i c i a l e c o n o m i c s y m b i o s i s , i n w h i c h n e i t h e r g a i n e d f r o m t h e h o s t i l i t y o f t h e o t h e r . To u s e 132 a c a t e g o r y o f a c c u l t u r a t i o n e s t a b l i s h e d b y R a l p h L i n t o n a n d 133 b o r r o w e d b y o t h e r s t u d e n t s o f t h e s u b j e c t , t h e I n d i a n s w e r e e x p e r i e n c i n g a p e r i o d o f n o n - d i r e c t e d c u l t u r a l c h a n g e . The s i t u a t i o n was s u f f i c i e n t l y p e r m i s s i v e f o r t h e I n d i a n s t o e x e r c i s e a l a r g e d e g r e e o f c h o i c e a b o u t t h o s e a s p e c t s o f E u r o p e a n c u l t u r e t h a t t h e y i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o t h e i r own. I t h a s b e e n p o i n t e d o u t t h a t a c c u l t u r a t i o n , p a r t i c u l a r l y when i t i s n o t f o r c e d , c a n be 134 a c r e a t i v e , p r o c e s s . The I n d i a n s o f t h e n o r t h w e s t c o a s t a n d New C a l e d o n i a p r o v i d e a c a s e i n p o i n t . The i m p a c t o f t h e f u r 77 trading f r o n t i e r on t h e i r culture was creative rather than destructive. On the other hand i t could well be that the co-operative relationship between the races during the fur trading period was poor preparation for the Indians when they had to cope with the new and disruptive elements that came with the settlement f r o n t i e r . Being used to fur traders, who were prepared to accommodate themselves to Indian demands to a considerable extent, the Indians were probably ill-equipped to deal with s e t t l e r s who were not so accommodating. CHAPTER I I I The T r a n s i t i o n a l Y e a r s , 1849-1858 The i n t e r e s t s o f t h e C o l o n y , a nd F u r T r a d e w i l l n e v e r h a r m o n i s e , t h e f o r m e r c a n f l o u r i s h , o n l y , t h r o u g h t h e p r o t e c t i o n o f e q u a l l a w s , t h e i n f l u e n c e o f f r e e t r a d e , t h e a c c e s s i o n o f r e s p e c t a b l e i n h a b i t a n t s ; i n s h o r t b y e s t a b l i s h i n g a new o r d e r o f t h i n g s , w h i l e t h e f u r T r a d e m u s t s u f f e r b y e a c h i n n o v a t i o n . 1 The c i r c u m s t a n c e s t h a t s u r r o u n d e d t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f t h e C o l o n y o f V a n c o u v e r I s l a n d i n 1849 l a r g e l y i n v o l v e d a d e b a t e b e t w e e n t h e p r o p o n e n t s o f t h e f u r t r a d e a nd o f s e t t l e m e n t . Was r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e C o l o n y t o be g i v e n t o t h e o l d f u r t r a d i n g company o r t o some new company f o u n d e d s p e c i f i c a l l y t o f o s t e r s e t t l e m e n t on V a n c o u v e r I s l a n d ? The m o s t p l a u s i b l e a l t e r n a t i v e t o r e s p o n s i b i l i t y b e i n g g i v e n t o t h e Hudson's Bay Company was a scheme p r o p o s e d t o t h e C o l o n i a l O f f i c e b y a c l e r k i n t h e B r i t i s h Museum named James E. F i t z g e r a l d . He a d v o c a t e d t h e f o u n d i n g o f a j o i n t s t o c k company t o d e v e l o p V a n c o u v e r I s l a n d as a s e t t l e m e n t c o l o n y a l o n g W a k e f i e l d i a n 2 l i n e s . Some o f f i c i a l s a t t h e C o l o n i a l O f f i c e w e r e , q u i t e r i g h t l y , d u b i o u s a b o u t t h e e f f i c a c y o f E d w a r d G i b b o n W a k e f i e l d ' s p r i n c i p l e s o f s y s t e m a t i c c o l o n i s a t i o n , a n d i n t h e e n d t h e y o p t e d f o r t h e s e c u r i t y a n d t h e p r o v e n f i n a n c i a l c a p a c i t y o f t h e Hudson's Bay Company. The C o l o n y o f V a n c o u v e r I s l a n d was g r a n t e d t o t h e Company b y a R o y a l C h a r t e r on 13 J a n u a r y 1849. I n many ways t h e d e b a t e b e t w e e n t h e f u r t r a d e and s e t t l e -ment t h a t h a d o c c u r r e d i n B r i t a i n p r i o r t o t h e f o u n d i n g o f t h e C o l o n y was t r a n s f e r r e d t o V a n c o u v e r I s l a n d a f t e r 1849. F i t z g e r a l d 78 79 had argued t h a t , because i t s i n t e r e s t s ran counter to those of s e t t l e m e n t , the Company would not be a v i g o r o u s promoter of c o l o n i s a t i o n . Perhaps he was r i g h t , although i n the end i t d i d not matter much as Vancouver I s l a n d h e l d l i t t l e a t t r a c t i o n t o s e t t l e r s b e f o r e 1858. The grant of the I s l a n d had gone to the f u r t r a d i n g Company, but the C o l o n i a l O f f i c e appointed R i c h a r d Blanshard, a lawyer who had no connection w i t h the Company, as the f i r s t Governor of the new Colony. Blanshard's p o s i t i o n was anomolous from the s t a r t . He was supposed to r e p r e -sent i n t e r e s t s o t h e r than the f u r trade i n a colony where the f u r trade was v i r t u a l l y the o n l y i n t e r e s t . He c o r r e c t l y observed t h a t the Colony was r e a l l y "nothing more than a f u r t r a d i n g post" and he soon r e a l i s e d t h a t he was a Governor w i t h no one to govern. A f t e r e i g h t e e n months of f u s s i n g and f r u s t r a t i o n Blanshard l e f t Vancouver I s l a n d , having expended h i s energy, money and h e a l t h i n a post f o r which he was not s u i t e d . With Blanshard's departure the Governorship passed to where the r e a l power i n the Colony l a y . On 16 May 1851 James Douglas, C h i e f F a c t o r at F o r t V i c t o r i a and member of the Company's three-man Board of Management f o r the area west of the Rockies, r e l u c -t a n t l y became the Governor of Vancouver I s l a n d . The f u r trade had t e m p o r a r i l y r e a s s e r t e d i t s dominance. Blanshard's p e r i o d of o f f i c e was an i n t e r l u d e t h a t , w i t h the e x c e p t i o n of one i n c i d e n t , probably went unnoticed by the Indians. The e x c e p t i o n was Blanshard's punishment o f the Newitty, a Kwakiutl group l i v i n g a t the n o r t h e r n end of Vancouver I s l a n d , who were 'held r e s p o n s i b l e f o r the murder of three B r i t i s h s a i l o r s l a t e i n the summer of 1850. Three company seamen had 80 d e s e r t e d i n V i c t o r i a and escaped on the Norman Mo r r i s o n , probably heading f o r a more l u c r a t i v e c a r e e r i n the g o l d mines of C a l i f o r n i a . The Norman M o r r i s o n went i n s t e a d to F o r t Rupert and there the men l e f t the s h i p and l a t e r were r e p o r t e d dead, presumably k i l l e d by Indians. I t i s q u i t e p o s s i b l e t h a t the Indians b e l i e v e d t h a t they had been o f f e r e d a reward f o r the capture of the d e s e r t e r s dead or a l i v e . One of the s e r v a n t s a t F o r t Rupert claimed t h a t the t r a d e r i n charge, George Blenkinsop, had o f f e r e d the Indians ten b l a n k e t s f o r each o f the d e s e r t e r ' s heads. 4 The s t o r y was 5 i n wide c i r c u l a t i o n a t the time, although the company o f f i c e r s n a t u r a l l y denied i t . But Blenkinsop d e f i n i t e l y d i d o f f e r the Indians a reward f o r i n f o r m a t i o n on the whereabouts of the. three men. In 1850 Blenkinsop was a young man, i n e x p e r i e n c e d i n leadership,, and i n Douglas's o p i n i o n i t was an i n j u s t i c e to him to have to take over the r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r such a d i f f i c u l t 7 p o s t as F o r t Rupert while W i l l i a m McNeil was on f u r l o u g h . Per-haps as a r e s u l t of Blenkinsop's i n e x p e r i e n c e the Indians gained a mistaken impression of what was b e i n g asked of them i n r e t u r n f o r the reward. I t was company p r a c t i c e to o f f e r the Indians q rewards f o r b r i n g i n g i n d e s e r t i n g s e r v a n t s . Furthermore, from the time of f i r s t c o n t a c t the Indians had assumed t h a t o r d i n a r y 9 seamen, and l a t e r company l a b o u r e r s , were s l a v e s . Undoubtedly the Indians f e l t t h a t t h e i r view was confirmed by the Company's o f f e r s of rewards f o r d e s e r t i n g servants and the punishment t h a t they r e c e i v e d on r e c a p t u r e . The Indians c e r t a i n l y claimed t h a t they regarded the three d e s e r t i n g s a i l o r s as s l a v e s on the r u n . 1 In Indian s o c i e t y s l a v e s had few human r i g h t s and runaway s l a v e s 81 h a d n o n e , t h e r e f o r e , i n t h e i r t e r m s , k i l l i n g t h e men was n o t o n l y p e r m i s s i b l e b u t p r o b a b l y d e s i r a b l e . T h a t t h e t h r e e men w e r e k i l l e d b y I n d i a n s was p r e t t y w e l l p r o v e n , b u t e x a c t l y w h i c h g r o u p o f I n d i a n s was r e s p o n s i b l e was much l e s s c e r t a i n . I n G o v e r n o r B l a n s h a r d ' s m i n d t h e r e was no d o u b t a b o u t w h e r e t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y l a y . The N e w i t t y I n d i a n s w e r e g u i l t y o f t h e m u r d e r s a n d i f n e c e s s a r y w o u l d be h e l d r e s p o n s i b l e as a g r o u p . I n c o n t r a s t t o t h e f u r t r a d e r s , B l a n s h a r d l a c k e d . t h e a b i l i t y , a n d p r o b a b l y t h e i n c l i n a t i o n t o d e l v e i n t o t h e s u b t l e -t i e s o f I n d i a n m o t i v a t i o n . He r e g a r d e d t h e I n d i a n s as e s s e n -t i a l l y i r r a t i o n a l a n d c o u l d s e e o n l y t h e n e e d t o e r e c t s a f e g u a r d s a g a i n s t any " s u d d e n o u t b u r s t o f f u r y t o w h i c h a l l s a v a g e s a r e l i a b l e . . " 1 1 B l a n s h a r d was i l l - a t - e a s e i n t h e u n c o u t h f r o n t i e r 12 e n v i r o n m e n t o f V a n c o u v e r I s l a n d , and h i s s e n s e o f i n s e c u r i t y demanded t h a t s t r o n g m e a s u r e s be t a k e n a g a i n s t t h r e a t e n i n g I n d i a n s . "The Queen's name i s a t o w e r o f s t r e n g t h " , he w r o t e , 13 b u t o n l y "when b a c k e d by t h e Queen's b a y o n e t s " . The G o v e r n o r r e q u e s t e d J o h n S e b a s t i a n H e l m c k e n , who h a d a r r i v e d e a r l i e r i n 1850 as a company d o c t o r , t o i n v e s t i g a t e t h e m u r d e r s . H e l m c k e n c o n d u c t e d a c a r e f u l , o n t h e s p o t e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e e v i d e n c e and h a d t o c o n f e s s t h a t he c o u l d h a r d l y b e l i e v e t h a t t h e N e w i t t y w e r e r e s p o n s i b l e . He p o i n t e d o u t t h a t t h e N e w i t t y h a d g i v e n no p r e v i o u s o f f e n c e t o t h e w h i t e s a n d , m o r e o v e r , t h a t i t was i n t h e i r i n t e r e s t t o m a i n t a i n f r i e n d l y r e l a t i o n s w i t h t h e t r a d e r s . I f t h e N e w i t t y k i l l e d t h e s a i l o r s , why, he a s k e d , d i d t h e y n o t m u r d e r o t h e r E u r o p e a n s who w e r e a l m o s t a s v u l n e r a b l e ? Then t h e r e was t h e f u r t h e r p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t t h e F o r t R u p e r t K w a k i u t l h a d i m p l i c a t e d t h e N e w i t t y i n t h e m u r d e r s o u t o f i n t e r - t r i b a l 82 j e a l o u s y r a t h e r t h a n f r o m k n o w l e d g e o f t h e f a c t s . 1 4 A p p a r e n t l y H e l m c k e n ' s r e s e r v a t i o n s and u n a n s w e r e d q u e s t i o n s r e c e i v e d l i t t l e a t t e n t i o n f r o m B l a n s h a r d . 15 A i d e d a n d a b e t t e d b y R e a r - A d m i r a l F a i r f a x M o r e s b y , t h e G o v e r n o r w e n t c h a r g i n g up t h e c o a s t on HMS D a e d a l u s s e e k i n g r e t r i b u t i o n . He h a d a l r e a d y a s k e d H e l m c k e n t o t e l l t h e I n d i a n s t h a t t h e " w h i t e man's b l o o d n e v e r d r i e s " ; 1 6 a n d when t h e N e w i t t y 17 p r o v e d u n w i l l i n g , o r p e r h a p s u n a b l e , t o s u r r e n d e r t h e m u r d e r -e r s t h e i r v i l l a g e was d e s t r o y e d . The f o l l o w i n g y e a r B l a n s h a r d w e n t n o r t h a g a i n , t h i s t i m e o n HMS Daphne, a n d a n o t h e r N e w i t t y v i l l a g e was s t o r m e d a n d d e s t r o y e d . L a t e r a g r o u p o f N e w i t t y came a l o n g s i d e t h e company's b r i g a n t i n e M a r y D a r e w i t h two b o d i e s s a i d , a l t h o u g h n e v e r p r o v e n , t o be two o f t h e m u r d e r e r s . 1 5 T h i s b r u t a l a c t i o n came n e a r t h e e n d o f B l a n s h a r d ' s t e r m o f o f f i c e , a n d s o o n D o u g l a s h a d t a k e n o v e r . The p u n i s h m e n t o f t h e N e w i t t y h a d b e e n one o f B l a n s h a r d ' s few f l u r r i e s o f a c t i v i t y a n d i n many ways i t was m i s g u i d e d . The k i l l i n g o f t h e t h r e e s a i l o r s d i d n o t e v e n r e m o t e l y c o n s t i t u t e an I n d i a n menace o f " s e r i o u s p r o p o r t i o n s " , n o r was t h e N e w i t t y t r i b e p a r t i c u l a r l y 19 w a r l i k e . P r e v i o u s t o t h e , k i l l i n g o f t h e t h r e e s a i l o r s t h e N e w i t t y h a d shown no s i g n s o f a g g r e s s i o n t o w a r d s t h e t r a d e r s a t 20 F o r t R u p e r t . B l a n s h a r d ' s r e a c t i o n t o t h e m u r d e r s was e x a c t l y t h e one t h a t , as a f u r t r a d e r , D o u g l a s h a d d i s a p p r o v e d o f , and u n d e r h i s g o v e r n a n c e f u r t r a d i n g m e t h o d s o f d e a l i n g w i t h t h e I n d i a n s w e r e r e i h s t i t u t e d . S t i l l , f o r t h e I n d i a n s , t h e d e s t r u c -t i o n o f t h e N e w i t t y v i l l a g e s was a f o r e t a s t e o f t h i n g s t o come. P a r t o f t h e r e a s o n f o r B l a n s h a r d ' s a c t i o n was t h a t he a n d M o r e s b y c o n s i d e r e d t h a t t h e f u r t r a d e r s ' m e t h o d s o f p r o t e c t i n g 83 21 t h e m s e l v e s f r o m I n d i a n a t t a c k s w e r e i n a d e q u a t e . The two men w e r e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f a new s e t o f a t t i t u d e s t h a t w e r e t o i m p i n g e o n t h e I n d i a n s w i t h t h e a d v e n t o f s e t t l e m e n t . M e t h o d s o f d e a l i n g w i t h t h e I n d i a n s t h a t t h e f u r t r a d e r s f o u n d q u i t e s a t i s f a c t o r y w e r e t o be i n a p p r o p r i a t e a s f a r as s e t t l e r s w e r e c o n c e r n e d . I n t h e m e a n t i m e , h o w e v e r ; t h e f u r t r a d e r s r e m a i n e d i n c o n t r o l a n d t h e y h a d b e e n v e r y u n e a s y a b o u t B l a n s h a r d ' s 22 h a n d l i n g o f t h e N e w i t t y . The a p p o i n t m e n t o f D o u g l a s as G o v e r n o r o f V a n c o u v e r I s l a n d was d u e , i n l a r g e p a r t , t o t h e r e c o g n i t i o n b y t h e C o l o n i a O f f i c e o f t h e v a l u e o f h i s l o n g e x p e r i e n c e i n d e a l i n g w i t h t h e I n d i a n s . D o u g l a s a c c o r d i n g l y p r o c e e d e d t o a p p l y many o f t h e l e s s o n s l e a r n e d as a f u r t r a d e r t o h i s new r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s a s G o v e r n o r . I n f a c t many c r i t i c s o f h i s a d m i n i s t r a t i o n w o u l d h a v e a r g u e d t h a t , b e c a u s e he r e m a i n e d a C h i e f F a c t o r i n t h e Company u n t i l 1 8 5 8 , he was s t i l l more o f a f u r t r a d e r t h a n a c o l o n i a l G o v e r n o r . D o u g l a s ' s d u a l r o l e s y m b o l i s e d t h e t r a n s i t i o n a l p h a s e f r o m f u r t r a d e t o s e t t l e m e n t . L i k e o t h e r f u r t r a d e r s , D o u g l a s was n o t a t a l l h a p p y a b o u t B l a n s h a r d ' s t r e a t m e n t o f t h e N e w i t t y , a n d a s G o v e r n o r he c o n s i d e r e d t h a t i t was d o w n r i g h t d a n g e r o u s . He d e s c r i b e d t h e a c t i o n "as u n p o l i t i c k a s u n j u s t " ; p o o r l y c o n c e i v e d as w e l l as 2 3 b a d l y e x e c u t e d . " I n a l l o u r i n t e r c o u r s e w i t h t h e n a t i v e s , " w r o t e D o u g l a s s u m m a r i s i n g t h e f u r t r a d e r s ' v i e w , "we h a v e i n v a r i a b l y a c t e d on t h e p r i n c i p l e t h a t i t i s i n e x p e d i e n t a n d 2 u n j u s t t o h o l d t r i b e s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e a c t s o f i n d i v i d u a l s . " I n any t e r m s t h e p u n i s h m e n t m e t e d o u t t o t h e N e w i t t y was o u t o f a l l p r o p o r t i o n t o t h e c r i m e , b u t w o r s e s t i l l i n D o u g l a s ' s m i n d 84 w e r e t h e p o s s i b l e c o n s e q u e n c e s o f t h e o p e r a t i o n . Had t h e I n d i a n s made any r e a l a t t e m p t t o d e f e n d t h e m s e l v e s t h e a t t a c k e r s 25 w o u l d h a v e s u f f e r e d a c o n s i d e r a b l e l o s s o f l i f e . E s c a l a t i n g t h e v i o l e n c e t o s u c h a l e v e l m i g h t i n t u r n i n v o l v e t h e i n f a n t C o l o n y i n a war w i t h t h e : I n d i a n s t h a t c o u l d o n l y be d i s a s t r o u s . The w h i t e s h a d n e i t h e r t h e numbers n o r t h e power t o w i t h s t a n d any c o n c e r t e d a s s a u l t . The f u r t r a d e r s r e c a l l e d t h a t t h e w a r w i t h t h e C a y u s e h a d s t r e t c h e d t h e r e s o u r c e s o f t h e O r e g o n 2 6 T e r r i t o r y t o t h e l i m i t a few y e a r s e a r l i e r . D o u g l a s ' s o p i n i o n t h a t B l a n s h a r d ' s a c t i o n h a d b e e n m i s -t a k e n was s u p p o r t e d b y t h e C o l o n i a l O f f i c e . E a r l G r e y , t h e S e c r e t a r y o f S t a t e f o r t h e C o l o n i e s , w r o t e t o B l a n s h a r d t o i n f o r m h i m t h a t h i s s u p e r i o r s w e r e by no means s a t i s f i e d a b o u t 27 t h e p r u d e n c e o f t h e s t e p s t h a t he h a d t a k e n . The G o v e r n o r was e v e n i g n o m i n i o u s l y a s k e d t o s t a n d t h e e x p e n s e s o f h i s e x c u r -s i o n i n t h e D a e d a l u s o u t o f h i s own p o c k e t . D o u g l a s ' s d i s a g r e e -ment w i t h B l a n s h a r d ' s h a n d l i n g o f t h i s p a r t i c u l a r a f f a i r was p a r t o f a more g e n e r a l d i f f e r e n c e o f o p i n i o n a b o u t t h e n e e d f o r a m i l i t a r y p r e s e n c e i n t h e C o l o n y . B l a n s h a r d . was i m p r e s s e d w i t h 2 8 t h e s u p p o s e d n e e d f o r h o s t i l e t r i b e s t o be " s p e e d i l y c o e r c e d " and t h o u g h t i t n e c e s s a r y t h a t t h e C o l o n y h a v e a m i l i t a r y f o r c e f o r t h e p u r p o s e ; D o u g l a s , who s t r o n g l y a d v o c a t e d m o d e s t m e a s u r e s , 29 c o n s i d e r e d t h a t t r o o p s w e r e an e v i l t o be a v o i d e d . D o u g l a s was c o n v i n c e d t h a t i n t h e c i r c u m s t a n c e s o f t h e C o l o n y e x p e d i e n c y r e q u i r e d t h a t t h e o l d m e t h o d s o f d i s c i p l i n i n g t h e I n d i a n s be c o n t i n u e d , and he was c o n f i d e n t o f h i s own a b i l i t y t o a d m i n i s t e r them. I f n o t e x a c t l y a m a r t i n e t , t h e new G o v e r n o r c e r t a i n l y b e l i e v e d t h a t s t e r n d i s c i p l i n e s h o u l d be 85 m e t e d o u t t o m a l c o n t e n t s , w h e t h e r t h e y be I n d i a n o r w h i t e . I n M a r c h 1849 he h a d o c c a s i o n t o d e a l w i t h some company s a i l o r s who h a d m u t i n i e d w h i l e t h e i r v e s s e l was a t F o r t L a n g l e y . The u n r u l y e m p l o y e e s h a d h o l e d up i n t h e f o r e c a s t l e and b e c a u s e o f t h e " t i m i d i t y " o f t h e o t h e r o f f i c e r s D o u g l a s h a d t o go and r o o t them o u t h i m s e l f . He n o t e d i n a l e t t e r t o S i m p s o n t h a t he t h o u g h t "a l i t t l e s e v e r i t y w o u l d h a v e a g o o d e f f e c t i n c h e c k i n g 30 t h e i r t u r b u l e n c e . " D o u g l a s h a d t h e r e p u t a t i o n o f b e i n g a g r e a t 31 h a n d a t a f l o g g i n g , and he was p r o b a b l y o r i g i n a l l y e m p l o y e d by t h e Company t o a c t as w h a t m i g h t e u p h e m i s t i c a l l y be t e r m e d a p o l i c e m a n . C e r t a i n l y D o u g l a s was a b i g , p o w e r f u l man, q u i t e a b l e t o a c q u i t h i m s e l f w e l l i n any a c t i v i t y t h a t demanded p h y s i c a l s t r e n g t h . I n d i a n s , no l e s s t h a n E u r o p e a n s , a d m i r e d p h y s i c a l p r o w e s s , • a n d . t h i s was u n d o u b t e d l y an i m p o r t a n t r e a s o n 32 f o r D o u g l a s ' s much r e p o r t e d i n f l u e n c e o v e r them. I n c o n t r a s t t o B l a n s h a r d , D o u g l a s was w e l l e q u i p p e d t o c o p e w i t h t h e r o u g h and t u m b l e o f t h e f r o n t i e r . C o n f i d e n t a n d e x p e r i e n c e d , he saw l i t t l e n e e d t o a d m i n i s t e r l a r g e d o s e s o f i n d i s c r i m i n a t e f o r c e t o I n d i a n s who c o m m i t t e d d e p r e d a t i o n s a g a i n s t E u r o p e a n s . C a p t u r e t h e i n d i v i d u a l s r e s p o n s i b l e a n d l e t them be d e a l t w i t h as 33 B r i t i s h l a w d i r e c t s a n d t h e j u s t i c e o f t h e c a s e r e q u i r e s . T h i s was D o u g l a s ' s r e c o m m e n d a t i o n i n t h e p a r t i c u l a r c a s e o f t h e F o r t R u p e r t m u r d e r s a n d t h e g e n e r a l c o u r s e t h a t he was t o f o l l o w h i m s e l f . By t r e a t i n g v i o l e n c e as a c o n s e q u e n c e o f t h e a b e r r a t i o n s o f i n d i v i d u a l s , D o u g l a s t a c i t l y d e n i e d t h a t i t h a d s o c i o l o g i c a l c a u s e s . F u r t r a d e r s a c c u s t o m e d t o c o o p e r a t i n g w i t h t h e I n d i a n s d i d n o t make t h e e a s y a s s u m p t i o n o f t h e s e t t l e r t h a t a l l I n d i a n s 86 w e r e h o s t i l e t o a l l E u r o p e a n s . D u r i n g t h e f u r t r a d e v i o l e n c e h a d b e e n on an i n d i v i d u a l a nd n o t a r a c i a l l e v e l a nd D o u g l a s p r e s u m e d t h a t ; t h i s s t a t e o f a f f a i r s w o u l d c o n t i n u e . V i o l e n c e was s e e n as a symptom o f t h e m a l a d j u s t m e n t o f i n d i v i d u a l I n d i a n s , r a t h e r t h a n t h e c o n s e q u e n c e o f two c u l t u r e s a n d f o r m s o f g o v e r n m e n t c o m i n g i n t o c o n f l i c t w i t h e a c h o t h e r . I n 1852 t h e r e was a n o t h e r i n c i d e n t t h a t , e x c e p t f o r t h e G o v e r n o r ' s r e a c t i o n , was s i m i l a r t o t h e m u r d e r s n e a r F o r t R u p e r t . A company e m p l o y e e , t h i s t i m e a s h e p h e r d named P e t e r B r o w n , was k i l l e d b y I n d i a n s i n t h e C o w i c h a n V a l l e y . A p p a r e n t l y two I n d i a n s w e r e i n v o l v e d ; one was a C o w i c h a n and t h e , o t h e r was a member o f t h e Nanaimo t r i b e . When he l e a r n e d o f t h e m u r d e r D o u g l a s was d e t e r m i n e d t o c a p t u r e t h e two i n d i v i d u a l s , b u t was e q u a l l y d e t e r m i n e d n o t t o i m p l i c a t e t h e i r t r i b e s . F o r r e a s o n s o f " p u b l i c j u s t i c e and p o l i c y " he d i d n o t w a n t t o i n v o l v e a l l t h e members o f t h e t r i b e s i n t h e " g u i l t " o f t w o , n o r d i d he w a n t t o p r o v i d e t h e c l o s e l y r e l a t e d C o w i c h a n and Nanaimo w i t h a r e a s o n t o f o r m an a l l i a n c e a g a i n s t t h e w h i t e s . D o u g l a s s e n t m e s s a g e s t o t h e t r i b a l l e a d e r s d e m a n d i n g t h e s u r r e n d e r o f t h e m u r d e r e r s , b u t when t h e s e r e q u e s t s p r o d u c e d o n l y e v a s i v e r e p l i e s he d e c i d e d t h a t "more a c t i v e m e a s u r e s " w e r e r e q u i r e d . So i n J a n u a r y 1853 he a s s e m b l e d a f o r c e made up o f 130 m a r i n e s f r o m t h e f r i g a t e T h e t i s and a s m a l l g r o u p o f m i l i t i a m e n who c a l l e d t h e m s e l v e s t h e V i c t o r i a V o l t i g e u r s . A c c o m p a n i e d by t h i s f o r c e D o u g l a s w e n t f i r s t t o t h e C o w i c h a n V a l l e y and t h e n t o Nanaimo and was a b l e t o c a p t u r e t h e two I n d i a n s w i t h o u t l o s s o f l i f e . B u t t h e a r r e s t s w e r e n o t a s i m p l e m a t t e r . When t h e C o w i c h a n c h a r g e d h i s f o r c e as a c e r e m o n i a l t e s t o f i t s c o u r a g e , D o u g l a s 87 h a d g r e a t d i f f i c u l t y i n r e s t r a i n i n g h i s men f r o m f i r i n g a v o l l e y a t t h e I n d i a n s . The C o w i c h a n m u r d e r e r was f i n a l l y s u r r e n d e r e d b y h i s p e o p l e , b u t t h e Nanaimo I n d i a n was a man o f some p r e s t i g e i n h i s t r i b e and was more d i f f i c u l t t o s e c u r e . I n t h e e n d D o u g l a s h a d t o go i n and t a k e h i m by f o r c e o f arms. Once c a p -t u r e d , t h e two I n d i a n s w e r e t r i e d a nd h a n g e d b e f o r e t h e Nanaimo p e o p l e . D o u g l a s was h i g h l y s a t i s f i e d w i t h t h e o p e r a t i o n . He c o n s i d e r e d , i n t h e c a s e o f t h e C o w i c h a n , t h a t t h e s u r r e n d e r o f t h e . k i l l e r w i t h o u t b l o o d s h e d "by t h e m o s t numerous and w a r l i k e o f t h e N a t i v e T r i b e s i n V a n c o u v e r ' s I s l a n d " was "an e p o c h , i n t h e 34 h i s t o r y o f o u r I n d i a n r e l a t i o n s " . D o u g l a s h a d s u c c e s s f u l l y e m p l o y e d t h e , f u r t r a d i n g p r i n -c i p l e o f s e l e c t i v e , r a t h e r t h a n i n d i s c r i m i n a t e p u n i s h m e n t . I n f a c t he was o f t h e o p i n i o n t h a t t h e s u c c e s s o f t h e v e n t u r e was due a s much t o t h e i n f l u e n c e o f t h e H u dson's Bay Company as i t . . . 35 . . was t o t h e u s e o f i n t i m i d a t i o n . I n c o n t r a s t t o i t s r e p r i m a n d t o B l a n s h a r d , t h e C o l o n i a l O f f i c e c o n s i d e r e d D o u g l a s ' s a c t i o n s t o be " h i g h l y c r e d i t a b l e " . 3 6 T h r e e y e a r s l a t e r , i n 1856, a s e t t l e r named Thomas W i l l i a m s was s h o t and wounded by a n o t h e r C o w i c h a n I n d i a n and D o u g l a s t r e a t e d t h i s o f f e n c e i n a s i m i l a r manner. W i t h a n a v a l f o r c e and 18 V o l t i g u e r s D o u g l a s a g a i n w e n t t o t h e C o w i c h a n V a l l e y 37 and t h e a t t a c k e r was c a p t u r e d , t r i e d a nd e x e c u t e d on t h e s p o t . A g a i n t h e C o l o n i a l O f f i c e h a d no h e s i t a t i o n i n a p p r o v i n g t h e p r o c e e d i n g s , a l t h o u g h D o u g l a s was r e m i n d e d , t h a t armed f o r c e 3 8 s h o u l d o n l y b e u s e d a g a i n s t t h e I n d i a n s w i t h g r e a t c a u t i o n . I n r e s p o n s e D o u g l a s f e l t i t n e c e s s a r y t o p o i n t o u t t h a t t h e u s e o f f o r c e h a d b e e n a l a s t r e s o r t and t o r e i t e r a t e t h a t , as i n 88 t h e e a r l i e r e x p e d i t i o n a g a i n s t t h e C o w i c h a n , he h a d o p e r a t e d on t h e p r i n c i p l e t h a t o n l y t h e g u i l t y w e r e c u l p a b l e . He a s s u r e d t h e C o l o n i a l O f f i c e t h a t t h e r e c e n t i n t e r - r a c i a l c o n f l i c t i n t h e O r e g o n T e r r i t o r y a l o n g w i t h B l a n s h a r d ' s " f r u i t l e s s e x p e d i t i o n " a g a i n s t t h e N e w i t t y w e r e q u i t e s u f f i c i e n t t o e v i n c e t h e d a n g e r s 39 a n d d i f f i c u l t i e s o f s u c h o p e r a t i o n s . The t o n e o f h i s r e p l y i n d i c a t e d t h a t D o u g l a s h a d b e e n r u f f l e d by w h a t he t h o u g h t was a r e p r i m a n d , b u t Herman M e r i v a l e , t h e P e r m a n e n t U n d e r S e c r e t a r y a t t h e C o l o n i a l O f f i c e , w r o t e t o t h e Hudson's Bay Company e x -40 p l a i n i n g t h a t no d i s a p p r o v a l h a d b e e n i n t e n d e d . D o u g l a s a l w a y s r e s e n t e d any i m p l i c a t i o n t h a t h i s h a n d l i n g o f t h e I n d i a n s was a t a l l i l l - c o n s i d e r e d . He r e g a r d e d s u c h i m p u t a t i o n s as a s l i g h t on h i s y e a r s o f e x p e r i e n c e as a f u r t r a d e r , a n d o f t e n c i t e d t h a t e x p e r i e n c e i n d e f e n c e o f h i s a c t i o n s . I n 1859 R e a r - A d m i r a l R o b e r t B a y n e s w r o t e t o D o u g l a s i n t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e d i s p u t e w i t h t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s o v e r t h e San J u a n I s l a n d s and among o t h e r t h i n g s he e x p r e s s e d t h e b e l i e f t h a t , i n t h e e v e n t o f c o n f l i c t b e t w e e n t h e w h i t e s , t h e I n d i a n s w o u l d t a k e a d v a n t a g e o f t h e s i t u a t i o n and p r e y on a l l i n d i s c r i m i n a t e l y . I n a s t a r c h i l y w o r d e d r e p l y m a r k e d " c o n f i d e n t i a l " D o u g l a s w o n d e r e d i f t h e A d m i r a l was " p e r h a p s n o t aware o f t h e i n t e n s e h a t r e d t h a t e x i s t s b e t w e e n t h e I n d i a n s and t h e A m e r i c a n . " He t o l d B a y n e s t h a t t h e A m e r i c a n s d i d n o t u n d e r s t a n d t h e I n d i a n c h a r a c t e r , w h e r e a s h i s p e r s o n a l a c q u a i n t a n c e w i t h them was o f many y e a r s r 4- 41 s t a n d i n g . I t was h i s e a r l y e x p e r i e n c e t h a t t a u g h t D o u g l a s t h e n e e d f o r l i m i t i n g p u n i s h m e n t o f I n d i a n s who a t t a c k e d E u r o p e a n s . H i s r e a l i s a t i o n t h a t i t was i n a d v i s a b l e t o i n t e r f e r e i n c o n f l i c t s 89 b e t w e e n I n d i a n s grew o u t o f t h e same e x p e r i e n c e . W h i l e he was d e t e r m i n e d t o e s t a b l i s h t h e p o i n t i n t h e m i n d s o f t h e I n d i a n s t h a t t h e w h i t e s e t t l e m e n t s w e r e " s a c r e d g r o u n d " , he - d i d n o t c o n s i d e r i t p r u d e n t t o i n t e r f e r e w i t h t h e I n d i a n s ' " d o m e s t i c b r o i l s . " He e x p o u n d e d t h e p r i n c i p l e when u n r e s t d e v e l o p e d among t h e I n d i a n s o f n o r t h e r n V a n c o u v e r I s l a n d f o l -l o w i n g an " a t r o c i o u s m a s s a c r e " o f t h e K o s k i m o b y N e w i t t y 42 I n d i a n s . D o u g l a s h a d a l r e a d y t o l d t h e C o l o n i a l O f f i c e t h a t he t h o u g h t i t u n w i s e t o i n v o l v e t h e g o v e r n m e n t i n d i s p u t e s " o f w h i c h we c o u l d l e a r n n e i t h e r t h e m e r i t s n o r t h e t r u e b e a r i n g s , and w h i c h p r o b a b l y w e r e i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e l a w s o f n a t u r a l 43 j u s t i c e . " I n f a c t he e v e n w e n t s o f a r as t o s u g g e s t t h a t q u a r r e l s b e t w e e n I n d i a n s w e r e o f some b e n e f i t t o t h e C o l o n y as t h e y p r o v i d e d an o u t l e t f o r v i o l e n c e t h a t m i g h t o t h e r w i s e be 44 d i r e c t e d a g a i n s t t h e s e t t l e r s . The m i n u t e s on D o u g l a s ' s l e t t e r t o t h e C o l o n i a l O f f i c e on t h i s s u b j e c t , a l o n g w i t h t h e Duke o f N e w c a s t l e ' s r e p l y , show t h a t h i s s u p e r i o r s a g r e e d w i t h h i s 45 " d i s c r e t e v i e w " o f n o n - i n t e r f e r e n c e i n p u r e l y I n d i a n m a t t e r s . P o l i c y m a k e r s a t 14 D o w n i n g S t r e e t w e r e c o n f i d e n t enough a b o u t D o u g l a s ' s k n o w l e d g e o f t h e I n d i a n s t o l e a v e much o f t h e d e t a i l o f I n d i a n p o l i c y i n t h e C o l o n y t o h i s own d i s c r e t i o n . T h i s c o n f i d e n c e was w e l l p l a c e d . D o u g l a s u n d o u b t e d l y d i d know more a b o u t t h e I n d i a n way o f l i f e t h a n any o t h e r G o v e r n o r o f V a n c o u v e r I s l a n d o r o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a d u r i n g t h e c o l o n i a l p e r i o d . He t h o u g h t t h a t t h e I n d i a n s w e r e " i n many r e s p e c t s a 46 h i g h l y i n t e r e s t i n g p e o p l e " , a n d w o r t h y o f a t t e n t i o n . I n c o n -t r a s t t o t h e s t r i n g o f a b u s i v e e p i t h e t s t h a t s e t t l e r s o f t e n u s e d t o d e s c r i b e I n d i a n s , D o u g l a s c h a r a c t e r i s e d t h e V a n c o u v e r I s l a n d 90 I n d i a n p o p u l a t i o n as " h o s p i t a b l e , and e x c e e d i n g l y p u n c t i l i o u s i n t h e i r m u t u a l i n t e r c o u r s e , - g r e a t e f u l f o r a c t s o f k i n d n e s s , and n e v e r f a i l t o r e v e n g e an i n j u r y . T hough g e n e r a l l y d i s h o n e s t , 47 t h e y a r e s e l d o m known t o v i o l a t e a t r u s t " . N a t u r a l l y he s o m e t i m e s u s e d h a r s h e r a d j e c t i v e s , b u t t h e y w e r e a l w a y s t e m p e r e d w i t h a d e g r e e o f s y m p a t h y . To D o u g l a s a s G o v e r n o r one o f t h e : a d v a n t a g e s o f a t t e m p t i n g t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e I n d i a n s was t h a t by k n o w i n g t h e i r a t t i t u d e s and i n t e n t i o n s s e r i o u s c o n f l i c t w i t h t h e s e t t l e r s m i g h t be s t o p p e d b e f o r e i t b e g a n , D o u g l a s s a i d t h a t he was p r e p a r e d t o make e v e r y a l l o w a n c e f o r t h e " i g n o r a n c e and 48 i m p u l s i v e n a t u r e s " o f t h e I n d i a n s , a n d he was c a p a b l e o f s e t t l i n g d i s p u t e s a c c o r d i n g t o I n d i a n c u s t o m s . F o r i n s t a n c e , when a S t i k i n e I n d i a n was a c c i d e n t l y wounded by a s a i l o r a t V i c t o r i a D o u g l a s a r r a n g e d f o r t h e p a yment o f c o m p e n s a t i o n t o t h e 49 . r e l a t i v e s . Of c o u r s e , by u s i n g an I n d i a n m e thod t o s e t t l e t h e d i s p u t e D o u g l a s a l s o r e v e a l e d t h a t t h e two r a c e s d i d n o t s t a n d e q u a l b e f o r e t h e l a w . A s t h e C o w i c h a n s d i s c o v e r e d , when an I n d i a n wounded a E u r o p e a n t h e s t a t u t e b o ok d e c l a r e d i t t o be 50 a n o f f e n s e p u n i s h a b l e w i t h d e a t h . B u t D o u g l a s d i d t r y t o u n d e r s t a n d I n d i a n s o c i e t y and he h a d some s y m p a t h y f o r t h e p r e -d i c a m e n t o f t h e I n d i a n s f a c e d w i t h t h e e n c r o a c h m e n t o f a f o r e i g n c i v i l i s a t i o n . D o u g l a s was a f u r t r a d e r and t h i s e x p e r i e n c e i n f l u e n c e d h i s I n d i a n p o l i c y ; y e t t h e e x i g e n c i e s o f t h e s e t t l e m e n t f r o n t i e r g r a d u a l l y b e g a n t o p r e s s i n on h i m . The f u r t r a d e r s u n d e r s t o o d t h a t w i t h t h e . a d v e n t o f s e t t l e r s t h e i r d a y s w o u l d be numbered. A t t h e t i m e o f t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f t h e C o l o n y o f V a n c o u v e r I s l a n d Ogden h a d assumed i n a l e t t e r t h a t S i m p s o n w o u l d be " f u l l y aware t h a t t h e F u r t r a d e a n d C i v i l i z a t i o n c a n n e v e r b l e n d t o g e t h e r and . . . t h e f o r m e r i n v a r i a b l y g i v e s way t o t h e 51 l a t t e r " . D o u g l a s h a d a l s o r e a l i s e d f o r a l o n g t i m e t h a t 52 s e t t l e m e n t w o u l d b r i n g "a new o r d e r o f t h i n g s " . U n l i k e o t h e r c o l o n i e s , V a n c o u v e r I s l a n d h a d n o t b e e n f o u n d e d f o r t h e p u r p o s e o f r e l i e v i n g o v e r c r o w d e d c o n d i t i o n s i n B r i t a i n , and s e t t l e r s a r r i v e d o n l y s l o w l y . By 1852 a s few as 435 e m i g r a n t s h a d b e e n s e n t t o t h e C o l o n y , o n l y 11 h a d p u r c h a s e d 53 l a n d a n d a n o t h e r 19 h a d a p p l i e d f o r l a n d . The t a r d y d e v e l o p -ment o f s e t t l e m e n t was n o t p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e r e s u l t o f company p o l i c i e s . I t h a s o f t e n b e e n assumed t h a t t h e f u r Company m u s t h a v e b e e n a b a d c o l o n i s e r b e c a u s e i t w a n t e d t o r e t a i n V a n c o u v e r 54 I s l a n d a s a p u r e l y f u r t r a d i n g p r e s e r v e . I t i s t r u e t h a t c l e a r i n g l a n d f o r a g r i c u l t u r e d o e s l i t t l e t o m a i n t a i n t h e h a b i t a t o f f u r - b e a r i n g a n i m a l s , b u t V a n c o u v e r I s l a n d was n o t v e r y i m p o r -t a n t as a s o u r c e o f f u r s by t h e 1 8 5 0 ' s . The Company w a n t e d t o c o n t r o l t h e i s l a n d t o e n s u r e t h e p r o t e c t i o n o f t h e much more 55 i m p o r t a n t r e g i o n o f New C a l e d o n i a . N o r was t h e Company's d e c i s i o n t o c h a r g e £1 p e r a c r e f o r l a n d d e s i g n e d -to r e s t r a i n s e t t l e m e n t a s C a n a d i a n h i s t o r i a n s h a v e t e n d e d t o s u p p o s e . The l e t t e r t o D o u g l a s i n w h i c h A r c h i b a l d B a r c l a y o u t l i n e s t h e p r i n c i p l e s o f c o l o n i s a t i o n t h a t t h e Company i n t e n d e d t o f o l l o w i s p u r e W a k e f i e l d . The Company s e c r e t a r y w r o t e o f t h e d e s i r -a b i l i t y o f t r a n s f e r r i n g a c r o s s s e c t i o n o f B r i t i s h s o c i e t y t o t h e C o l o n y , o f d i s p o s i n g o f l a n d i n a way t h a t w o u l d e n s u r e "a j u s t p r o p o r t i o n o f l a b o u r a n d c a p i t a l " , a n d o f p r e v e n t i n g t h e a d m i s s i o n o f p a u p e r s , s q u a t t e r s a n d l a n d s p e c u l a t o r s . ^ 6 The e c h o e s f r o m A L e t t e r f r o m S y d n e y a r e u n m i s t a k a b l e . The Hudson's 92 Bay Company was t h u s f o l l o w i n g w h a t many i n B r i t a i n , i n c l u d i n g t h e C o l o n i a l S e c r e t a r y , E a r l G r e y , t h o u g h t was t h e l a s t w o r d i n t h e t h e o r y o f c o l o n i s a t i o n . The e x p e r i e n c e o f o t h e r c o l o n i e s was t o show t h a t t h e t h e o r y , s o p r o m i s i n g on p a p e r , was u n w o r k -a b l e on t h e g r o u n d ; b u t p r e s u m a b l y t h e Company t r i e d t o p u t t h e W a k e f i e l d scheme i n t o e f f e c t b e c a u s e t h e y t h o u g h t i t w o u l d w o r k and n o t b e c a u s e t h e y e x p e c t e d i t t o f a i l . The b a s i c r e a s o n f o r t h e s l o w d e v e l o p m e n t o f c o l o n i s a t i o n on V a n c o u v e r I s l a n d was t h a t t h e r e was l i t t l e t o a t t r a c t a g r i c u l t u r a l s e t t l e r s , a n d n o t t h e p o l i c y o f t h e Company. O t h e r c o l o n i e s seemed t o h o l d g r e a t e r p r o m i s e f o r t h e p o t e n t i a l e m i g r a n t a n d , f o r t h o s e who came as f a r a s t h e w e s t c o a s t o f N o r t h A m e r i c a a f t e r 1 8 4 9 , C a l i f o r n i a was a much more l i k e l y p r o s p e c t . I t s o o n became e v i d e n t t h a t t h o s e c o l o n i s t s who d i d come t o t h e i s l a n d w e r e men whose o u t l o o k on many m a t t e r s d i f f e r e d f r o m t h a t o f t h e f u r t r a d e r s . T h e r e was a g r o w i n g g r o u p o f s e t t l e r s i n o p p o s i t i o n t o Company r u l e l e d by Rev, R o b e r t S t a i n e s , and t h e s e " f r e e s e t t l e r s " e x p e c t e d t o h a v e "a s o r e B a t t l e t o 57 f i g h t a g a i n s t t h e Companys ( s i c ) . " The c o n f l i c t s t h a t d e v e l -o p e d b e t w e e n D o u g l a s a nd men l i k e S t a i n e s may h a v e b e e n 5 8 " L i l l i p u t i a n " b u t t h e y do r e f l e c t many o f t h e a t t i t u d e s o f t h e s e t t l e r s t o w a r d s t h e f u r t r a d e r s . The t i m e h a d come, t h e c o l o n i s t s t h o u g h t , t o s e v e r t h e t i e s w i t h V a n c o u v e r I s l a n d ' s f u r t r a d i n g p a s t . The B r i t i s h Member o f P a r l i a m e n t , C h a r l e s F i t z - -w i l l i a m , c o n s i d e r e d t h a t D o u g l a s was i n c o m p e t e n t f o r t h e p o s t o f G o v e r n o r b e c a u s e h i s d e a l i n g s h a d b e e n w i t h I n d i a n s a n d n o t w i t h 59 w h i t e men. T h i s a t t i t u d e was a l s o p r e v a l e n t i n t h e C o l o n y . One o f t h e more s u p e r c i l i o u s o f t h e s e t t l e r s w r o t e t o h e r f a m i l y t h a t 93 D o u g l a s "has s p e n t a l l h i s l i f e among t h e N o r t h A m e r i c a n i n d i a n s ( s i c ) a nd h a s g o t one o f them f o r a w i f e s o c a n i t be e x p e c t e d t h a t he c a n know a n y t h i n g a t a l l a b o u t G o v e r n i n g one o f E n g l a n d ' s 6 0 l a s t C o l o n i e s i n N o r t h A m e r i c a " . A n n i e Deans was n o t t h e o n l y newcomer who c o n c e d e d t h a t , w h i l e D o u g l a s c o u l d h a n d l e I n d i a n s , 61 he "does n o t seem up t o g o v e r n i n g a w h i t e p o p u l a t i o n a t a l l . " F o r many o f t h e s e t t l e r s t h e v e r y q u a l i t y t h a t h a d recommended D o u g l a s t o t h e C o l o n i a l O f f i c e d i s q u a l i f i e d h i m as G o v e r n o r . One o f t h e j o k e s g o i n g r o u n d t h e C o l o n y was t h a t t h e l e t t e r s H.B.C. a c t u a l l y s t o o d f o r "Here b e f o r e C h r i s t " , and i t was i n d i c a t i v e o f t h e s e t t l e r o p i n i o n t h a t t h e f u r t r a d e r s w e r e c r u d e and u n -r e f i n e d . The Company men w e r e s a i d t o be o n l y one d e g r e e r e m o v e d f r o m t h e I n d i a n s . They h a d w h i t e s k i n s b u t h a d b e e n r a i s e d and e d u c a t e d up t o I n d i a n s t a n d a r d s , and o n l y w i t h t h e a r r i v a l o f 6 s e t t l e r s was a d e g r e e o f c i v i l i s a t i o n i n t r o d u c e d t o t h e c o u n t r y . Some f u r t r a d e r s w o u l d h a v e a g r e e d w i t h t h e a s p e r s i o n : J o h n Tod 6 3 o n c e r e m a r k e d t h a t he saw h i m s e l f as " h a l f a s a v a g e " . The s e t t l e r was 5 n e v e r f a c e d w i t h any s u c h c o n f u s i o n o f i d e n t i t y : he n e v e r g o t c l o s e e nough t o t h e I n d i a n f o r t h a t . W h i l e t h e n a t u r e o f h i s o c c u p a t i o n demanded t h a t t h e f u r t r a d e r s h o u l d , t o some e x t e n t , accommodate h i m s e l f t o I n d i a n s , s e t t l e r s h a d no n e e d a n d , t h e r e f o r e , no d e s i r e t o be a c c o m m o d a t i n g and t o l e r a n t . Whereas t h e s e t t l e r came t o r e - c r e a t e an a l i e n c i v i l i s a t i o n o n t h e f r o n -t i e r , t h e f u r t r a d e r h a d t o o p e r a t e l a r g e l y w i t h i n t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e i n d i g e n o u s c u l t u r e . A l t h o u g h s e t t l e r s a r r i v e d o n l y i n s m a l l numbers i n t h e e a r l y 1 8 5 0 ' s , i n c r e a s i n g l y t h e y w e r e t o i n f l u e n c e c o l o n i a l a f f a i r s i n g e n e r a l a n d I n d i a n p o l i c y i n p a r t i c u l a r . A t t h e t i m e t h a t t h e C o l o n y o f V a n c o u v e r I s l a n d was 94 g r a n t e d t o t h e Company, D o u g l a s was a s k e d by t h e management f o r h i s i d e a s on how c o l o n i s a t i o n m i g h t b e s t b e . e f f e c t e d . He r e p l i e d t h a t he h a d n e v e r g i v e n t h e m a t t e r a moment's t h o u g h t a n d t h a t any a t t e m p t t o d i s c u s s t h e s u b j e c t w o u l d o n l y r e v e a l h i s own i g n o r a n c e . The f u t u r e G o v e r n o r d i d , h o w e v e r , o f f e r some t h o u g h t s on t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s t h a t c o l o n i s t s w o u l d f a c e . Among them w e r e t h e p e t t y d e p r e d a t i o n s t h a t t h e I n d i a n s w o u l d be 64 t e m p t e d i n t o by t h e c a r e l e s s h a b i t s o f t h e s e t t l e r s . The. e f f e c t o f s e t t l e m e n t on r e l a t i o n s w i t h t h e I n d i a n s was t o g i v e D o u g l a s c a u s e f o r a g r e a t d e a l o f r e f l e c t i o n i n t h e n e x t few y e a r s . D o u g l a s was k e e n l y c o n s c i o u s o f t h e d e t e r i o r a t i o n o f r a c e r e l a t i o n s f o l l o w i n g t h e a d v e n t o f s e t t l e m e n t s o u t h o f t h e b o r d e r . I n 1846 t h e o l d f u r t r a d i n g p r e s e r v e h a d b e e n d i v i d e d i n h a l f b y w h a t D o u g l a s r e g a r d e d as a " m o n s t r o u s t r e a t y " . 6 5 F o l l o w i n g t h e O r e g o n T r e a t y t h e a r e a n o r t h o f t h e f o r t y n i n t h p a r a l l e l c o n t i n u e d t o be d o m i n a t e d by t h e f u r t r a d e , w h i l e t o t h e s o u t h s e t t l e m e n t p r e v a i l e d . A l m o s t i m m e d i a t e l y t h e r e was r a c i a l c o n f l i c t i n t h e s o u t h . O n l y a y e a r a f t e r t h e A m e r i c a n s t o o k o v e r t h e m u r d e r s a t t h e Whitman m i s s i o n and t h e h o s t i l i t i e s t h a t f o l l o w e d s e t t h e p a t t e r n f o r t h e n e x t d e c a d e . As f a r a s t h e f u r t r a d e r s w e r e c o n c e r n e d t h e r e was no d o u b t , a f t e r t h e k i l l i n g s by t h e C a y u s e a t W a i i l a t p u , " t h a t t h e A m e r i c a n s w i l l , i n t h e e n d , g l u t t h e i r r e v e n g e u p on t h e w r e t c h e d I n d i a n , a l t h o u g h f r o m t h e i r w a n t o f d i s c i p l i n e a nd means, i t w i l l r e q u i r e a l e n g t h o f t i m e t o e f f e c t t h e w o r k o f d e s t r u c t i o n . 1 , 6 6 The p r o p h e c y t u r n e d o u t t o be v e r y a c c u r a t e . T h e r e was w a r f a r e w i t h t h e I n d i a n s o f W a s h i n g t o n a g a i n i n 1855-56 and i t was a c c o m p a n i e d b y t h e i n d i s -95 c r i m i n a t e k i l l i n g o f i n n o c e n t I n d i a n s by g r o u p s o f v o l u n t e e r s . E v e n P h i l l i p S h e r i d a n , who was l a t e r a t t r i b u t e d w i t h t h e comment a b o u t " t h e o n l y g o o d I n d i a n . . . " and showed t h a t he was n o t p a r t i c u l a r l y s y m p a t h e t i c t o t h e p l i g h t o f t h e n a t i v e A m e r i c a n , c r i t i c i s e d t h e k i l l i n g o f i n o f f e n s i v e I n d i a n s i n W a s h i n g t o n f o r 6 7 no o t h e r r e a s o n t h a n t o g r a t i f y an " i n o r d i n a n t h a t r e d " o f them. D o u g l a s u s u a l l y c o u l d n o t e m p a t h i s e w i t h t h e A m e r i c a n s a t a l l ; a nd he h a d o n c e d e c l a r e d h i m s e l f t o be more " s u s p i c i o u s 6 8 o f t h e i r d e s i g n s , t h a n o f t h e w i l d n a t i v e s o f t h e f o r e s t . " B u t he r e g a r d e d t h e c o n f l i c t o f 1855-56 as a war o f r a c e s , o f 69 c i v i l i s a t i o n a g a i n s t b a r b a r i s m , and he a c k n o w l e d g e d a m o r a l o b l i g a t i o n w h i c h b o u n d C h r i s t i a n and c i v i l i s e d n a t i o n s t o g e t h e r 70 " i n c h e c k i n g t h e i n r o a d s o f t h e m e r c i l e s s s a v a g e s . " He t h e r e -f o r e t h o u g h t i t i n c u m b e n t on t h e C o l o n y t o r e n d e r some a s s i s t a n c e t o t h e W a s h i n g t o n a u t h o r i t i e s . A t t h e same t i m e he w a n t e d t o m a i n t a i n a f a c a d e o f n e u t r a l i t y ; t o a v o i d b e i n g i d e n t i f i e d w i t h t h e . A m e r i c a n s i n t h e m i n d o f t h e I n d i a n s . So he p r o v i d e d t h e A m e r i c a n s w i t h a r m s , a m m u n i t i o n a n d t h e u s e o f t h e B e a v e r , b u t n o t w i t h any more a c t i v e s u p p o r t . D o u g l a s was m o s t a n x i o u s t h a t h o s t i l i t i e s w i t h t h e I n d i a n s i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s s h o u l d n o t s p i l l o v e r t h e b o r d e r a n d t h r e a t e n t h e C o l o n y . He assumed t h a t t h e r e must h a v e b e e n "some g r e a t mismanagement" on t h e p a r t o f t h e A m e r i c a n a u t h o r i -t i e s . N o t h i n g e l s e made c r e d i b l e t h e h o s t i l i t y o f t h e A m e r i c a n I n d i a n s who h a d b e e n " s o f t e n e d and i m p r o v e d " by f i f t y y e a r s o f 71 c o m m e r c i a l d e a l i n g s w i t h t h e H u d s o n ' s Bay Company. H i s own I n d i a n p o l i c i e s w e r e l a r g e l y d e s i g n e d t o a v o i d s i m i l a r m i s -management a n d t h e c o n s e q u e n t h o r r o r s o f I n d i a n w a r f a r e . The 96 G o v e r n o r a l s o w a n t e d t o . e n s u r e t h a t t h e u n f a m i l i a r i t y o f t h e s e t t l e r s w i t h t h e I n d i a n s d i d n o t l e a d t o m a j o r c o n f l i c t o n V a n c o u v e r I s l a n d . F o r t h e ' p e o p l e i n t h e C o l o n y t o be r e d u c e d i n t h e e s t i m a t i o n o f t h e I n d i a n s t o t h e l e v e l o f t h e A m e r i c a n s 72 w o u l d , i n D o u g l a s ' s o p i n i o n , i n v i t e d i s a s t e r . The p r o g n o s t i c a t i o n made by D o u g l a s , t h a t t h e c a r e l e s s -n e s s o f t h e s e t t l e r s w o u l d i n v i t e d e p r e d a t i o n s b y t h e I n d i a n s , p r o v e d t o be a c c u r a t e f r o m t h e b e g i n n i n g o f c o l o n i s a t i o n . V a n c o u v e r I s l a n d ' s f i r s t i n d e p e n d e n t s e t t l e r was one C a p t a i n W a l t e r C a l q u h o u n G r a n t , who came t o . t h e C o l o n y t o s u r v e y l a n d f o r t h e Company and t o e s t a b l i s h a f a r m . He p r o v e d t o be i n c o m -p e t e n t i n t h e f i r s t o c c u p a t i o n a nd t o o i r r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e s e c o n d . When he l e f t t h e C o l o n y D o u g l a s ' s p a r t i n g comment was t h a t t h e " u n f o r t u n a t e man h a s b e e n an a b s o l u t e p l a g u e t o me 73 e v e r s i n c e he came t o t h e I s l a n d . " G r a n t and t h e s e t t l e r s t h a t he b r o u g h t w i t h h i m u n d e r h i s a g r e e m e n t w i t h t h e Company w e r e a p p r e h e n s i v e a b o u t t h e I n d i a n s , b u t D o u g l a s was c o n v i n c e d t h a t , i n s t e a d o f t h i r s t i n g f o r t h e i r b l o o d , t h e I n d i a n s w e r e w e l l d i s p o s e d a nd w i l l i n g t o a s s i s t t h e s e t t l e r s i n t h e i r l a b o u r s . He i m p r e s s e d on t h e i n e x p e r i e n c e d new a r r i v a l s t h a t i t was i n t h e i r own, and i n t h e C o l o n y ' s , i n t e r e s t t o c u l t i v a t e t h e f r i e n d -74 s h i p o f t h e s e " c h i l d r e n o f t h e f o r e s t . " When G r a n t , c o n t r a r y t o D o u g l a s ' s a d v i c e , l e f t h i s p r o p e r t y a t Sooke u n a t t e n d e d , some a r t i c l e s w e r e s t o l e n by unknown p a r t i e s , p r e s u m e d t o be I n d i a n s . The i m p r u d e n c e o f t h e s e t t l e r h a d e l i c i t e d t h e e x p e c t e d r e s p o n s e f r o m t h e I n d i a n . D o u g l a s knew t h a t G r a n t ' s a n x i e t y a b o u t I n d i a n b e h a v i o u r w o u l d become g e n e r a l and t h e s e t t l e r s w o u l d c l a m o u r f o r p r o t e c t i o n u n t i l a m i l i t a r y f o r c e was s e n t o u t , and t h i s was 97 75 t h e v e r y e v i l t h a t D o u g l a s w a n t e d t o a v o i d . I n J u n e 1854 a m a n n a m e d T h o m a s G r e e n h a m c a m e r u s h i n g i n t o V i c t o r i a f r o m t h e C o m p a n y ' s C a d b o r o B a y f a r m w i t h a w i l d r e p o r t t h a t t h e p l a c e h a d b e e n a t t a c k e d a n d o v e r r u n b y h u n d r e d s o f I n d i a n s . D o u g l a s a r m e d s o m e m e n a n d h a s t e n e d t o t h e s p o t o n l y t o f i n d n o s i g n o f t h e h o r d e s o f I n d i a n s a n d t h a t a l l r e s i d e n t s w e r e s a f e e x c e p t o n e m a n w h o h a d a c u t o n t h e h e a d . A p p a r e n t l y s o m e o f t h e l a b o u r e r s h a d f l e d a t t h e s i g h t o f t h e I n d i a n s a n d c o m p l e t e l y e x a g g e r a t e d t h e s e r i o u s n e s s o f t h e t h r e a t . T h e i n c i d e n t h a d t h e e f f e c t o f s e t t i n g t h e , w h o l e s e t t l e m e n t a f l a m e . T h e I n d i a n t r i b e s a s s e m b l e d a t V i c t o r i a a n d , f r o m m i s -t r u s t a n d a l a r m , t o o k u p a r m s a g a i n s t e a c h o t h e r , A r e l a t i v e l y m i n o r i n c i d e n t h a d q u i c k l y d e v e l o p e d i n t o a n e x t r e m e l y c r i t i c a l s i t u a t i o n . A f t e r t h e e x c i t e m e n t h a d d i e d d o w n D o u g l a s o b s e r v e d t h a t " a l a b o u r e r t a k e n f r o m t h e p l o u g h i s n o t t o b e t r u s t e d i n c i r c u m s t a n c e s o f d a n g e r w i t h o u t s o m e p r e v i o u s t r a i n i n g " , a n d t h a t s u c h e x a m p l e s o f t i m i d i t y d e s t r o y e d t h e i n f l u e n c e o f t h e w h i t e s . D u r i n g t h e e a r l y y e a r s o f t h e C o l o n y t h e r e w e r e l a r g e n u m b e r s o f f r e e - r o a m i n g c a t t l e t h a t w e r e a p o t e n t i a l s o u r c e o f i n t e r n - r a c i a l c o n f l i c t . D o u g l a s w a s a w a r e t h a t t h e I n d i a n s r e -g a r d e d c a t t l e i n m u c h t h e s a m e w a y a s t h e y d i d w i l d a n i m a l s , r e c o g n i s i n g n o n e a s e x c l u s i v e p r o p e r t y , a n d h e k n e w t h a t a n I n d i a n r e t u r n i n g u n s u c c e s s f u l f r o m t h e h u n t w o u l d f i n d t h e 77 s e t t l e r s ' c a t t l e i r r e s i s t i b l e . T o a v o i d o f f e r i n g s u c h p r o v o c a -t i o n t o t h e I n d i a n s D o u g l a s w a n t e d s e t t l e m e n t o n V a n c o u v e r I s l a n d t o b e c o n f i n e d t o a s p e c i f i c a r e a s o t h a t s e t t l e r s c o u l d p r o v i d e e a c h o t h e r w i t h m u t u a l p r o t e c t i o n . T h e p r a c t i c e o f t h e C o m p a n y 98 h a d b e e n t o m a i n t a i n s u f f i c i e n t men i n one p l a c e t o g i v e some s e c u r i t y b u t , l i k e s e t t l e r s e v e r y w h e r e , t h o s e on V a n c o u v e r I s l a n d b e g a n t o s p r e a d o u t i n s e a r c h o f good l a n d . I s o l a t e d a n d o u t n u m b e r e d , t h e s e t t l e r s f e l t i n s e c u r e i n t h e e a r l y y e a r s o f t h e . C o l o n y and f r e q u e n t l y f e a r e d a t t a c k s . D o u g l a s o f t e n r e c e i v e d r e q u e s t s f o r p r o t e c t i o n f r o m " t i m i d s e t t l e r s " who w e r e a l a r m e d a b o u t i m a g i n e d I n d i a n i n v a s i o n s . He d i s c o u n t e d s u c h " i d l e t e r r o r s " and was more c o n c e r n e d t h a t s e t t l e r s ' f e a r s w o u l d e n c o u r a g e t h e I n d i a n s a n d l e a d t o t h e 7 8 v e r y e v i l t h a t was s o much d r e a d e d . The c o l o n i s t s w e r e a d -v i s e d t o c o n c e a l t h e i r f e a r s and o n a l l o c c a s i o n s t o assume a 79 " b o l d c o u n t i n a n c e " w i t h t h e I n d i a n s . S e t t l e r s w e r e p a r t i c u l a r l y u n e a s y a b o u t t h e l a r g e numbers o f n o r t h e r n I n d i a n s , m o s t l y H a i d a and T s i m s h i a n , who v i s i t e d V i c t o r i a a n n u a l l y f r o m 1854. The H a i d a p a r t i c u l a r l y h a d a f e a r s o m e r e p u t a t i o n . Many u n f o u n d e d r u m o u r s w e r e s p r e a d a b o u t I n d i a n p l a n s t o d e s t r o y t h e s e t t l e m e n t . N i g h t a n d day D o u g l a s was r e c e i v i n g c a l l s f o r a s s i s t a n c e f r o m 8 0 t h e s e t t l e r s . B u t D o u g l a s r e c o g n i s e d t h a t t h e n o r t h e r n I n d i a n s h a d come t o b e n e f i t f r o m t h e e x i s t e n c e o f V i c t o r i a a n d n o t t o e n d 81 i t . The s e t t l e m e n t a t t r a c t e d t h e s e I n d i a n s b e c a u s e i t p r o -v i d e d a m a r k e t p l a c e ; t h e y came t o t r a d e a n d t o f i n d e m p l o y m e n t as l a b o u r e r s . I t was s e t t l e r h y s t e r i a r a t h e r t h a n I n d i a n h o s -t i l i t y t h a t p r o d u c e d t h e demands f o r p r o t e c t i o n , a n d t h e I n d i a n s w e r e p r o b a b l y f o r t u n a t e t h a t D o u g l a s s t o o d b e t w e e n them and t h e s e t t l e r s . I n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s p u b l i c o p i n i o n h a d a f r e e r r e i n . A t P o r t Townsend a m e e t i n g o f c i t i z e n s r e s o l v e d t o s h o o t w i t h o u t 8 2 q u e s t i o n a l l n o r t h e r n I n d i a n s f o u n d i n U n i t e d S t a t e s w a t e r s . S e t t l e r i n f l u e n c e was n o t s o s t r o n g o n V a n c o u v e r I s l a n d a n d 99 D o u g l a s w o u l d n e v e r h a v e t o l e r a t e d s u c h e x t r e m i t i e s . By t h e m i d 1 8 5 0 ' s , h o w e v e r , he h a d become much more c o n s c i o u s o f t h e n e e d f o r p r o t e c t i n g t h e C o l o n y . The m i g r a t i o n s f r o m t h e n o r t h w e r e g r e a t l y i n c r e a s i n g t h e I n d i a n p o p u l a t i o n a r o u n d V i c t o r i a a t a t i m e when e v e n t s i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s w e r e r a i s i n g t h e s p e c t r e o f r a c i a l w a r f a r e . D o u g l a s f e l t t h e V a n c o u v e r I s l a n d I n d i a n s h a d become " r e s t i v e a n d i n s o l e n t " as a c o n s e q u e n c e 8 3 o f I n d i a n m i l i t a r y s u c c e s s e s t o t h e s o u t h . Then came t h e news o f t h e C o w i c h a n a t t a c k on Thomas W i l l i a m s . W i t h t h i s , D o u g l a s b e g a n t o r e a l i s e t h a t i t r e q u i r e d more c o e r c i v e power t o m a i n t a i n a s e t t l e m e n t f r o n t i e r t h a n t h e f u r t r a d e r s h a d n e e d e d . He s t i l l d i s m i s s e d as u n l i k e l y any p r e c o n c e r t e d o r c o m b i n e d a t t a c k on t h e s e t t l e m e n t s , b u t he c o u l d n o t d i s c o u n t t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t i n d i v i d u a l d i s p u t e s c o u l d l e a d t o a g e n e r a l a f f r a y . So he r e c o m -mended m e a s u r e s t o p r o t e c t t h e C o l o n y , e v e n i f o n l y t o a l l a y t h e 84 f e a r s o f t h e c o l o n i s t s . H i s r e q u e s t s f o r a s s i s t a n c e f r o m t h e R o y a l Navy and h i s a d v o c a c y o f an armed f o r c e became more f r e q u e n t . I n s p i t e o f h i s e a r l i e r c o n t e n t i o n t h a t t h e d a n g e r o f h a v i n g an armed f o r c e i n t h e C o l o n y w o u l d be t h a t i t w o u l d r u s h r e c k l e s s l y 8 5 i n t o h o s t i l i t i e s w i t h t h e I n d i a n s , he b e g a n t o s e e t h e n e e d f o r m i l i t a r y p r o t e c t i o n . D o u g l a s was a c u t e l y c o n s c i o u s o f t h e p o t e n t i a l power o f t h e I n d i a n s . He r e a l i s e d t h a t t h e h o s t i l i t y o f t h e " N a t i v e T r i b e s " was t h e w o r s t c a l a m i t y t h a t t h e i n f a n t C o l o n y c o u l d f a c e . Hence t h e n e e d t o c o n c i l i a t e t h e good w i l l o f t h e I n d i a n s ; a d u t y t h a t , a c c o r d i n g t o D o u g l a s , was o f t e n r e n d e r e d d i f f i c u l t 8 6 b y t h e " r e c k l e s s n e s s a n d i m p r u d e n c e " o f t h e c o l o n i s t s . The C h i e f F a c t o r u n d e r s t o o d t h a t f a c t i o n a l i s m among t h e I n d i a n s 100 p r o b a b l y p r e c l u d e d a n y c o m b i n e d a t t a c k on t h e C o l o n y ; a f a c t t h a t m o s t s e t t l e r s t e n d e d n o t t o a p p r e c i a t e . B u t a s w e l l as t h e d e s t r u c t i o n t h a t I n d i a n e n m i t y m i g h t b r i n g , D o u g l a s a l s o r e a l i s e d t h e v a l u e o f t h e I n d i a n s a s a l l i e s . I n t h e e v e n t o f any c o n f l i c t w i t h t h e A m e r i c a n s , o v e r t h e S a n J u a n I s l a n d s , D o u g l a s t h o u g h t he 87 c o u l d r e l y o n t h e I n d i a n s f o r a s s i s t a n c e , a n d when t h e p o s s i -b i l i t y o f war b e t w e e n B r i t a i n a n d R u s s i a a r o s e he s u g g e s t e d t h a t an armed f o r c e i n c l u d i n g b o t h I n d i a n s a nd W h i t e s s h o u l d be r a i s e d t o d e f e n d t h e C o l o n y . The c o l o n i s t s , n o t u n e x p e c t e d l y , 8 8 w e r e u n e a s y a b o u t t h e n o t i o n o f a r m i n g t h e I n d i a n s , I t h a s b e e n shown t h a t when D o u g l a s p e r c e i v e d a r e a l t h r e a t t o t h e s e c u r i t y o f t h e C o l o n y he a c t e d f o r c e f u l l y a n d d e c i s i v e l y . Y e t , f o r a l l h i s e f f o r t s , some s e t t l e r s r e m a i n e d u n c o n v i n c e d t h a t , u n d e r t h e Hudson's Bay Company, t h e y w e r e s u f f i c i e n t l y p r o t e c t e d f r o m t h e I n d i a n s . Aware o f t h e i r v u l n e r -a b i l i t y , s e t t l e r s t e n d e d t o w a n t t o u s e l a r g e d o s e s o f f o r c e t o c o n v i n c e t h e I n d i a n s o f t h e i r i n v u l n e r a b i l i t y . T h e r e w e r e c o n -t i n u e d r e q u e s t s a n d p e t i t i o n s f r o m c o l o n i s t s f o r more p r o t e c t i o n , a n d some who v i e w e d t h e i r p o s i t i o n a s p r e c a r i o u s a r g u e d t h a t an 8 9 a b l e r man t h a n D o u g l a s was r e q u i r e d as G o v e r n o r . Many w e r e n o t a t a l l i m p r e s s e d when D o u g l a s u s e d I n d i a n m e t h o d s t o s e t t l e d i s p u t e s . A number o f q u a r r e l s w e r e e n d e d by t h e payment o f damages, b u t some s e t t l e r s t h o u g h t t h a t t h e I n d i a n s s h o u l d be made t o " s m e l l p o w d e r a n d b a l l , i n s t e a d o f p e r p e t u a t i n g t h e o l d 90 . . s y s t e m o f d o l i n g o u t b l a n k e t s t o them". O t h e r s d i s m i s s e d s u c h " b r i b e r y " as p e r h a p s a p p r o p r i a t e t o t h e f u r t r a d e b u t n o t t o a s e t t l e m e n t o f B r i t i s h s u b j e c t s . James C o o p e r , a non-Company s e t t l e r f r o m 1 8 5 1 - 1 8 5 7 , i n t e s t i m o n y b e f o r e t h e S e l e c t C o m m i t t e e 101 o n t h e H u d s o n l s Bay Company, d e s c r i b e d t h i s m e t h o d o f d e a l i n g w i t h t h e I n d i a n s a s p r o b a b l y humane, b u t n o t j u d i c i o u s . How-e v e r , when t h e p a t e n t l y o b v i o u s d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n r a c e r e l a t i o n s o n t h e B r i t i s h a n d A m e r i c a n s i d e s o f t h e . b o r d e r was p o i n t e d o u t i n i m p l i e d d e f e n c e o f t h e Company's a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f t h e C o l o n y , 91 C o o p e r c o u l d make no e f f e c t i v e r e j o i n d e r . D o u g l a s o f t e n made t h e same p o i n t i n h i s l e t t e r s t o L o n d o n . He was u n d o u b t e d l y c o n s c i o u s t h a t t h e c o n t r a s t b e t w e e n t h e " t r a g i c e v e n t s " t a k i n g p l a c e i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s a n d h i s r e p o r t s t h a t o n V a n c o u v e r I s l a n d t h e I n d i a n s c o n t i n u e d w i t h t h e i r " u s u a l q u i e t a n d f r i e n d l y 92 demeanor" r e f l e c t e d w e l l on h i s a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . None t h e l e s s , t h e meth o d s o f d e a l i n g w i t h t h e I n d i a n s t h a t D o u g l a s h a d l e a r n e d as a f u r t r a d e r , a n d a p p l i e d so s u c c e s s -f u l l y i n t h e e a r l y y e a r s o f t h e C o l o n y , w e r e u s e d l e s s a n d l e s s i n t h e l a t e r 1850's. I n 1855, when t h e n o r t h e r n I n d i a n s r e t u r n e d t o V i c t o r i a , D o u g l a s a s s e m b l e d t h e l e a d e r s a n d " s p o k e t o them s e r i o u s l y " a b o u t t h e i r r e l a t i o n s w i t h t h e w h i t e s . T h e r e w e r e no m a j o r d i s p u t e s and i n c a s e s o f m i n o r i n f r a c t i o n s o f B r i t i s h l a w t h e I n d i a n s s u b m i t t e d t o t h e d e c i s i o n s o f m a g i s t r a t e s . D o u g l a s e s t a b l i s h e d a f o u r man p o l i c e f o r c e . t o d e a l w i t h t h e s i t u a t i o n c r e a t e d by t h e c o n t i n u e d p r e s e n c e o f t h e n o r t h e r n I n d i a n s , b u t n o t e d t h a t w h a t was r e a l l y r e q u i r e d was a f o r c e o f 20 t o 30 men. B o t h D o u g l a s a nd t h e I n d i a n s r e a l i s e d t h a t a new r e l a t i o n s h i p was b e i n g e s t a b l i s h e d b e t w e e n them. D o u g l a s t h o u g h t t h a t t h e I n d i a n s w e r e b e g i n n i n g t o h a v e a c l e a r e r i d e a o f t h e n a t u r e a nd u t i l i t y o f B r i t i s h l a w , t h e o b j e c t o f w h i c h was t o p r o t e c t l i f e a n d p r o p e r t y . T h i s awareness,, w r o t e D o u g l a s , "may be c o n s i d e r e d 93 as t h e f i r s t s t e p i n t h e p r o g r e s s o f c i v i l i s a t i o n . " From 102 t h e i r p o i n t o f v i e w t h e I n d i a n s w e r e f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e f e e l i n g t h e f u l l i m p a c t o f an a l i e n . l e g a l s y s t e m . E v e n d i s p u t e s among t h e m s e l v e s w e r e b e c o m i n g s u b j e c t t o E u r o p e a n s c r u t i n y a n d j u r i s d i c t i o n as l o n g as t h e I n d i a n s r e m a i n e d n e a r t h e s e t t l e -m ents . Whereas e a r l i e r D o u g l a s h a d b e e n p r e p a r e d t o a l l o w t h e " l a w s o f n a t u r a l j u s t i c e " t o o p e r a t e among them, g r a d u a l l y B r i t i s h n o t i o n s o f s o c i a l c o n t r o l w e r e b e i n g a p p l i e d t o t h e I n d i a n s o f V a n c o u v e r I s l a n d . S e t t l e m e n t i m p i n g e d on D o u g l a s ' s r e l a t i o n s w i t h t h e I n d i a n s i n many a r e a s b e s i d e s , l a w and o r d e r . The a v a i l a b i l i t y o f armed f o r c e a n d t h e w i l l i n g n e s s t o u s e i t w e r e n o t , i n them-'-s e l v e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y s i g n i f i c a n t i n m a i n t a i n i n g p e a c e f u l r e l a t i o n s w i t h t h e I n d i a n s . I t h a s b e e n a r g u e d t h a t t h e R o y a l N avy p r o v i d e d t h e "power t o c o m p e l " on t h e n o r t h w e s t c o a s t , a n d i t s p r e s e n c e i n l a r g e p a r t a c c o u n t s f o r t h e r e l a t i v e l y p a c i f i c 94 n a t u r e o f I n d i a n a - W h i t e r e l a t i o n s . B u t as D o u g l a s a p p r e c i a t e d , t h e p o i n t o f t h e A m e r i c a n e x a m p l e was. t h a t a l l t h e pow e r i n t h e 95 w o r l d c o u l d n o t make up f o r d e f i c i e n c i e s i n I n d i a n p o l i c y . N o r 96 was t h e G o v e r n o r p o w e r l e s s w i t h o u t t h e n a v y 1 s s u p p o r t . The f u r t r a d e r s h a d m a i n t a i n e d a r e l a t i v e l y h a r m o n i o u s r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h t h e I n d i a n s b e f o r e t h e n a v y was v e r y a c t i v e , on t h e c o a s t , and a f t e r 1858 D o u g l a s was a b l e t o r e s t r a i n v i o l e n c e b e t w e e n t h e r a c e s on t h e F r a s e r arid C a r i b o o g o l d f i e l d s ; a r e a s w h i c h w e r e 97 n o t p a r t i c u l a r l y a c c e s s i b l e t o n a v a l v e s s e l s . O t h e r " t o o l s 9 8 o f s t a t e c r a f t " w e r e r e q u i r e d b e s i d e s t h e R o y a l N a v y , a s p e a c e was n o t m a i n t a i n e d b y power a l o n e . A much more s o p h i s t i c a t e d s e t o f p o l i c i e s t h a n s i m p l e f o r c i b l e p a c i f i c a t i o n was r e q u i r e d t o r e g u l a t e r a c e r e l a t i o n s . 103 W i t h t h e a d v e n t o f s e t t l e m e n t , E u r o p e a n s a nd I n d i a n s came i n t o c o m p e t i t i o n f o r t h e u s e o f t h e l a n d . A g r i c u l t u r a l s e t t l e m e n t was d e s t r u c t i v e t o t h e I n d i a n s ' i n d i g e n o u s m e t h o d s o f f o o d g a t h e r i n g . I n t h e F o r t V i c t o r i a a r e a , f o r e x a m p l e , I n d i a n camas g r o u n d s w e r e b r o k e n up by t h e p l o u g h . I t was t r u e t h a t t h e I n d i a n s no l o n g e r r e l i e d s o l e l y on t h e o l d methods o f f o o d g a t h e r i n g , a n d t h a t many h a d become a c c u s t o m e d t o c u l t i v a t i n g c r o p s , b o t h f o r t h e i r own c o n s u m p t i o n and f o r s a l e a t t h e f o r t s . T h e s e g r o u p s w e r e t o come e v e n more d i r e c t l y i n t o c o m p e t i t i o n w i t h t h e E u r o p e a n s f o r t h e b e s t a r a b l e l a n d . I f t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f o t h e r c o l o n i e s meant a n y t h i n g , c o m p e t i t i o n b e t w e e n r a c e s f o r l a n d was l i k e l y t o p r o d u c e c o n f l i c t . I n 1849 D o u g l a s w r o t e t o t h e Hudson's Bay Company d r a w i n g a t t e n t i o n t o t h e n e e d f o r some a r r a n g e m e n t t o be made f o r t h e p u r c h a s e o f I n d i a n l a n d . 1 ^ I n r e p l y t h e Company c i t e d t h e r e p o r t o f a C o m m i t t e e o f t h e House o f Commons s e t up t o e x a m i n e t h e c l a i m s o f t h e New Z e a l a n d Company. T h i s r e p o r t a r g u e d t h a t aborigines..-, h a d o n l y " q u a l i f i e d D o m i n i o n " o v e r t h e i r c o u n t r y , c o n s i s t i n g o f a r i g h t o f o c c u p a n c y b u t n o t t i t l e t o t h e l a n d . U n t i l t h e " u n c i v i l i s e d i n h a b i t a n t s " o f any c o u n t r y e s t a b l i s h e d among t h e m s e l v e s . " a s e t t l e d f o r m o f g o v e r n m e n t a nd s u b j u g a t e t h e g r o u n d t o t h e i r own u s e s b y t h e c u l t i v a t i o n o f i t " t h e y c o u l d n o t be s a i d t o h a v e i n d i v i d u a l p r o p e r t y i n t h e l a n d . C o n s e -q u e n t l y , w h i l e much was l e f t t o D o u g l a s ' s d i s c r e t i o n a n d know-l e d g e o f t h e l o c a l s i t u a t i o n , t h e Company a u t h o r i s e d h i m t o c o n f i r m t h e I n d i a n s i n t h e p o s s e s s i o n o f o n l y t h o s e l a n d s t h a t t h e y h a d c u l t i v a t e d o r b u i l t h o u s e s on by 1846, when t h e y came u n d e r t h e s o v e r e i g n t y o f G r e a t B r i t a i n . A l l o t h e r l a n d was t o 104 be r e g a r d e d as w a s t e and t h e r e f o r e a v a i l a b l e f o r c o l o n i s a t i o n . 1 0 1 I n p u r s u a n c e o f h i s i n s t r u c t i o n s D o u g l a s h a d e l e v e n t r e a t i e s made w i t h t h e I n d i a n s o f t h e F o r t V i c t o r i a a r e a , and l a t e r two a t F o r t R u p e r t and one a t Nanaimo. B e c a u s e t h e s e t r e a t i e s w e r e l a r g e l y b a s e d on c u r r e n t B r i t i s h o p i n i o n a b o u t t h e n a t u r e o f a b o r i g i n a l l a n d t e n u r e , t h e y t o o k l i t t l e a c c o u n t o f I n d i a n r e a l -i t i e s . I n s p i t e o f D o u g l a s ' s f a m i l i a r i t y w i t h t h e I n d i a n s t h e 102 t r e a t i e s c o n t a i n e d a number o f " e t h n o g r a p h i c a b s u r d i t i e s " , i n c l u d i n g t h e f a c t t h a t o n l y " v i l l a g e s i t e s a nd e n c l o s e d f i e l d s " w e r e t o be r e s e r v e d : t h a t i s a r e a s o f l a n d o f w h i c h I n d i a n p o s s e s s i o n c o u l d be r e c o g n i s e d i n E u r o p e a n t e r m s . I n t h e S a a n i c h a r e a D o u g l a s f o u n d i t q u i t e i m p o s s i b l e t o s o r t o u t t h e r e a l o w n e r s f r o m t h e numerous c l a i m a n t s t o t h e l a n d , s o an a r e a o f 50 103 s q u a r e m i l e s was p u r c h a s e d . By t h e s e t r e a t i e s t h e I n d i a n s s u r r e n d e r e d t h e i r l a n d s i n r e t u r n f o r a few b l a n k e t s , t h e r e s e r -v a t i o n o f a l i t t l e l a n d f o r t h e i r u s e , a n d t h e f r e e d o m t o h u n t on u n o c c u p i e d l a n d and t o f i s h as b e f o r e . W i t h t h e " s m a l l e x c e p t i o n s " o f v i l l a g e s i t e s a n d e n c l o s e d f i e l d s , t h e l a n d became " t h e e n t i r e p r o p e r t y o f t h e w h i t e p e o p l e f o r e v e r " . 1 0 4 D o u g l a s d i d n o t f i n d t h e s e t r e a t i e s e a s y t o n e g o t i a t e . He f o u n d t h a t a n y d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e q u e s t i o n o f I n d i a n r i g h t s 105 i n v a r i a b l y p r o d u c e d " t r o u b l e s o m e e x c i t e m e n t s " . I t i s u n l i k e l y t h a t t h e I n d i a n s c o m p r e h e n d e d t h e f u l l i m p o r t o f t h e p h r a s e " e n t i r e l y a n d f o r e v e r " t h a t was a p p l i e d t o t h e s u r r e n d e r o f t h e i r l a n d . I n t h e p r e - s e t t l e m e n t p e r i o d t h e I n d i a n s h a d no way o f l e a r n i n g a b o u t E u r o p e a n c o n c e p t s o f l a n d o w n e r s h i p , and t h e s i g -n a t o r i e s o f t h e t r e a t i e s p r o b a b l y t h o u g h t t h a t t h e y w e r e s u r r e n d e r i n g t h e r i g h t s t o t h e u s e o f t h e l a n d r a t h e r t h a n t i t l e 105 t o i t . The c o m p e n s a t i o n t h a t t h e I n d i a n s r e c e i v e d f o r t h e s e c o n c e s s i o n s was m i n i m a l . D o u g l a s h a d f a v o u r e d p a y m e n t by 1 0 fi a n n u i t y s o t h a t t h e I n d i a n s w o u l d d e r i v e a c o n t i n u i n g b e n e f i t , b u t a p p a r e n t l y t h e I n d i a n l e a d e r s p r e f e r r e d a lump sum. They w e r e p a i d i n g o o d s , m o s t l y b l a n k e t s , f r o m t h e F o r t V i c t o r i a s t o r e s and t h e v a l u e t o t h e I n d i a n s i n c l u d e d a mark-up o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y 300 p e r c e n t f r o m t h e " d e p a r t m e n t " , o r w h o l e s a l e , p r i c e . The S o n g h e e s , f o r i n s t a n c e , r e c e i v e d g o o d s w i t h a r e t a i l p r i c e o f B30 9.10.0, b u t t h e c o s t t o t h e Company h a d a c t u a l l y b e e n 107 £103.10.0. B u t i n s p i t e o f t h e many i n a d e q u a c i e s i m p l i c i t i n t h e s e t r e a t i e s made u n d e r D o u g l a s was t h e n o t i o n t h a t t h e a b o r -i g i n a l r a c e e x e r c i s e d some k i n d o f o w n e r s h i p o v e r t h e l a n d t h a t o u g h t t o be e x t i n g u i s h e d by t h e c o l o n i s i n g p o w e r . B e c a u s e D o u g l a s n e g o t i a t e d t h e s e t r e a t i e s t o f a c i l i t a t e s e t t l e m e n t , he was o n l y p r e p a r e d t o p u r c h a s e I n d i a n l a n d w h e r e s e t t l e m e n t was i m m i n e n t . The C o w i c h a n I n d i a n s w a n t e d t o s e l l t h e i r l a n d s i n t h e same way as t h e S o n g h e e s h a d d o n e , b u t D o u g l a s r e f u s e d t h e i r r e q u e s t o n t h e g r o u n d s t h a t s e t t l e m e n t was n o t 10 8 i m m e d i a t e l y m o v i n g i n t o t h a t a r e a . I t was a d e c i s i o n t h a t was t o p r o d u c e m a j o r p r o b l e m s i n t h e f u t u r e . Once t r e a t i e s w e r e s i g n e d , h o w e v e r , D o u g l a s was d e t e r -m i n e d t o p r o t e c t I n d i a n l a n d f r o m t h e e n c r o a c h m e n t o f s e t t l e m e n t ; a l t h o u g h t h i s r u l e d i d h a v e one e x c e p t i o n t o p r o v e i t . C o n t a i n e d w i t h i n t h e f u r t r a d e r e s e r v e a r o u n d F o r t V i c t o r i a was a 10 a c r e I n d i a n r e s e r v e . T h a t i s , , .as f a r as e v e r y b o d y was c o n c e r n e d i n 109 1854 i t was an I n d i a n r e s e r v e . B u t by t h e e n d o f t h e d e c a d e t h e l a n d h a d b e e n r e - a l l o t t e d a s t h e s i t e o f t h e g o v e r n m e n t of-f i c e s . 1 1 ^ T h e r e i s u n d o u b t e d l y s o m e t h i n g s y m b o l i c a b o u t t h e f a c t t h a t t h e L e g i s l a t i v e b u i l d i n g s o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a s t a n d on l a n d 106 t h a t p e r h a p s r i g h t f u l l y b e l o n g s t o t h e I n d i a n s , X X 1 and a f u r t h e r t o u c h o f i r o n y i s a d d e d by a m u r a l u n d e r t h e c e n t r a l r o t u n d a o f t h e p r e s e n t b u i l d i n g w h i c h d e p i c t s a g r o u p o f I n d i a n s s i g n i n g a t r e a t y a n d c a r r i e s t h e c a p t i o n " J u s t i c e " . . The e x c e p t i o n i s an i n t e r e s t i n g o n e , b u t g e n e r a l l y D o u g l a s d i d make e v e r y e f f o r t t o p r o t e c t t h o s e I n d i a n r i g h t s g u a r a n t e e d by t h e t r e a t i e s t h a t he made. D o u g l a s ' s c o n c e r n f o r I n d i a n w e l f a r e a l s o f o u n d e x p r e s s i o n i n a r e a s o t h e r t h a n l a n d p o l i c y . H i s a t t i t u d e s t o t h e I n d i a n s w e r e a m i x t u r e i n w h i c h t h e k n o w l e d g e o f t h e f u r t r a d e r was a c c o m p a n i e d by t h e p a t e r n a l i s t c o n c e r n s o f t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n -t u r y h u m a n i t a r i a n . H i s i d e a s a b o u t t h e n e e d and means t o " i m p r o v e " t h e I n d i a n s h a d b e e n a d u m b r a t e d a s a f u r t r a d e r . Now, as G o v e r n o r o f a s e t t l e m e n t c o l o n y , n o t o n l y was t h e n e e d f o r p h i l a n t h r o p y g r e a t e r , b u t t h e r e was much more p o t e n t i a l f o r a c t i o n . L i k e t h o s e o f h i s c o n t e m p o r a r i e s who saw any hope a t a l l f o r t h e s u r v i v a l o f t h e N o r t h A m e r i c a n I n d i a n , h i s hope was e x p r e s s e d i n t e r m s o f t h e I n d i a n s b e c o m i n g r e d - s k i n n e d E u r o p e a n s . C h r i s t i a n i t y , e d u c a t i o n a n d a g r i c u l t u r e - t h e h o l y t r i n i t y o f B r i t i s h C o l o n i a l p o l i c y on a b o r i g i n e s - w e r e t o be t h e means by w h i c h t h e I n d i a n c o u l d a c h i e v e h i s new s t a t u s . C o n s e q u e n t l y h i s i n t e n t i o n was t o s e c u r e f o r t h e I n d i a n s s u f f i c i e n t l a n d f o r them t o d e v e l o p a n d m a i n t a i n a l i v e l i h o o d b a s e d on a g r i c u l t u r e , b u t a l s o t o e n c o u r a g e " s c h o o l s a n d c l e r g y m e n t o s u p e r i n t e n d 112 t h e i r m o r a l a nd r e l i g i o u s t r a i n i n g . " He b e l i e v e d t h e " u n t u t o r e d r e a s o n o f man" t o be a c o n t e m p t i b l e t h i n g , a n d s a i d t h a t t h o s e f o o l s who d e n i e d t h e e n n o b l i n g i n f l u e n c e o f r e l i g i o n w o u l d be c u r e d o f t h e i r i d l e f a n c i e s by a few m o n t h s ' r e s i d e n c e 107 113 among t h e I n d i a n s , S o , w h e n e v e r he c o u l d , D o u g l a s g a v e e n c o u r a g e m e n t a nd a s s i s t a n c e t o m i s s i o n a r i e s o f a l l d e n o m i n a t i o n s who came t o w o r k among t h e I n d i a n s . As w e l l , he h a d h i s own p l a n s f o r s o c i a l r e o r g a n i s a t i o n . I n 1860 he w r o t e t h a t he h a d l o n g c h e r i s h e d t h e hope t h a t he w o u l d be a b l e t o o r g a n i s e t h e I n d i a n s i n t o c o m m u n i t i e s i n w h i c h p e a c e and t h e e n f o r c e m e n t o f l a w s w o u l d be f a c i l i t a t e d b y t h e a p p o i n t m e n t o f I n d i a n p o l i c e o f f i c e r s a n d m a g i s t r a t e s . As t h e o n l y p l a n t h a t p r o m i s e d t o r e s u l t i n t h e m o r a l e l e v a t i o n o f t h e I n d i a n s , D o u g l a s t h o u g h t t h a t i t s s u c c e s s f u l o p e r a t i o n w o u l d " r a i s e an i m p e r i s h a b l e monument t o t h e j u s t i c e a n d p h i l a n t h r o p y o f t h e G o v e r n m e n t w h i c h l e n d s i t s u p p o r t . " He a d d e d , h o w e v e r , t h a t t h e p l a n w o u l d c o s t money, and t h e r e i n l a y t h e i m p e d i m e n t . I n a c o l o n y t h a t was c o n s t a n t l y s h o r t o f f u n d s , D o u g l a s n e v e r f o u n d t h e money t o p u t 114 t h e s e i d e a s i n t o a c t i o n . B e f o r e 1849 t h e r e h a d b e e n no n e e d t o c o n t e m p l a t e m e a s u r e s f o r t h e r e a r r a n g e m e n t o f I n d i a n s o c i e t y . P l a n s s u c h as D o u g l a s ' s f o r I n d i a n c o m m u n i t i e s w e r e p r o m p t e d b y t h e a r r i v a l o f c o l o n i s t s a n d t h e c o n s e q u e n t n e e d t o f o s t e r p e a c e f u l r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n t h e I n d i a n s and t h e , w h i t e s e t t l e r s . D u r i n g t h e f u r t r a d e i t h a d b e e n u n n e c e s s a r y t o d e v e l o p p o l i c i e s d e s i g n e d t o a v o i d h o s t i l i t i e s w i t h t h e I n d i a n s . D o u g l a s , r u l e d t h e C o l o n y a u t o -c r a t i c a l l y , he t o o k l i t t l e a d v i c e a n d r e t a i n e d power i n h i s own h a n d s as much as p o s s i b l e , y e t t h e s e t t l e r s s t i l l i n f l u e n c e d h i s p o l i c i e s . The mere f a c t o f , t h e i r p r e s e n c e demanded t h a t new m e a s u r e s be t a k e n f o r t h e r e g u l a t i o n o f r a c e r e l a t i o n s . T h e n , i n s p i t e o f D o u g l a s f s p r e d i l e c t i o n s , t h e e l e c t i v e p r i n c i p l e was c o n c e d e d i n 1856 w i t h t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f a L e g i s l a t i v e A s s e m b l y 108 w i t h s e v e n members. Company men d o m i n a t e d t h e f i r s t House and t h e g o v e r n m e n t o f t h e C o l o n y , . b u t t h e i r t i m e was p a s s i n g . H a v i n g e s t a b l i s h e d a f o o t h o l d i n g o v e r n m e n t , t h e s e t t l e r s w e r e t o p l a y an i n c r e a s i n g p a r t i n t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f t h e C o l o n y . The few c o l o n i s t s on V a n c o u v e r I s l a n d i n t h e 1 850's w e r e t h e h a r b i n g e r s . B e s i d e s t h e s e s e t t l e r s , f o r e r u n n e r s o f a d i f f e r e n t k i n d a l s o b e g a n a r r i v i n g i n t h e 1 8 5 0 ' s . The o f f i c e r s o f t h e H u d s o n ' s Bay Company w e r e "aware a t l e a s t as e a r l y a s 1850 t h a t t h e r e was g o l d on t h e Queen C h a r l o t t e 115 I s l a n d s . T h i s k i n d o f i n f o r m a t i o n c o u l d n e v e r be c o n t a i n e d and i n 1852 g o l d s e e k e r s f r o m t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s b e g a n t o a p p e a r on t h e I s l a n d s . T h e i r p r e s e n c e n e c e s s i t a t e d t h e p r o m u l g a t i o n o f l a w s t o r e g u l a t e t h e i r a c t i v i t i e s , a nd D o u g l a s ' s r e s p o n s i -b i l i t i e s w e r e i n c r e a s e d when he was i s s u e d w i t h a c o m m i s s i o n as L i e u t e n a n t - G o v e r n o r o f t h e Queen C h a r l o t t e I s l a n d s . The H a i d a w e r e somewhat l e s s t h a n e n t h u s i a s t i c a b o u t t h e a r r i v a l o f w h i t e men come t o e x p l o i t r e s o u r c e s t h a t t h e I n d i a n s r e g a r d e d as b e l o n g i n g t o them. D o u g l a s knew t h a t t h e r e was l i k e l y t o be c o n f l i c t as t h e Company h a d a l r e a d y b e e n f o r c e d t o a b a n d o n i t s own e f f o r t s t o f i n d g o l d on t h e Queen C h a r l o t t e s b e c a u s e o f t h e 116 " t u r b u l e n t o p p o s i t i o n " o f t h e I n d i a n s . The e x p e c t a t i o n s o f h o s t i l i t y b e t w e e n t h e H a i d a a n d A m e r i c a n m i n e r s w e r e n o t t o be d i s a p p o i n t e d . M i n e r s w e re d r i v e n o f f t h e I s l a n d s by t h e I n d i a n s , b u t t h e m o s t famous i n c i d e n t was t h e c a p t u r e and p l u n d e r o f t h e S u s a n S t u r g i s by t h e H a i d a . The S u s a n S t u r g i s c a r r i e d a g r o u p o f g o l d m i n e r s and a c c o r d i n g t o D o u g l a s t h e C a p t a i n , M a t t h e w Rooney, d i s r e g a r d e d a l l w a r n i n g s a b o u t t h e d i s p o s i t i o n o f t h e 117 I n d i a n s and showed "a l a m e n t a b l e w a n t o f j u d g e m e n t . " F o r t u -109 n a t e l y t h e r e was no l o s s o f l i f e . The H a i d a c h i e f , E denshaw, 118 who h a d v i s i t e d V i c t o r i a a nd p r e s u m a b l y t a l k e d w i t h D o u g l a s , c o n v i n c e d t h e I n d i a n s n o t t o t a k e t h e l i v e s o f t h e c r e w o f t h e S u s a n S t u r g i s . B u t t h i s was t h e k i n d o f i n c i d e n t t h a t compe-t i t i o n b e t w e e n I n d i a n s a n d w h i t e s f o r r e s o u r c e s was l i k e l y t o p r o d u c e , and t h e Queen C h a r l o t t e g o l d " r u s h " was o n l y a p r e l u d e t o t h e m a i n e v e n t . T h r o u g h o u t t h e 1850's r e p o r t s a n d s a m p l e s i n d i c a t i n g t h e e x i s t e n c e o f g o l d i n t h e i n t e r i o r o f New C a l e d o n i a h a d d r i b b l e d i n t o V i c t o r i a . By t h e summer o f 1857 i t was e v i d e n t t h a t g o l d was t h e r e i n c o n s i d e r a b l e q u a n t i t i e s , a l o n g t h e F r a s e r and Thompson R i v e r s . I n November D o u g l a s w r o t e t o t h e Company h e a d q u a r t e r s i n L o n d o n a n d , i n a c o n s c i o u s l y m e t a p h o r i c a l manner, n o t e d t h a t t h e " p r o s p e c t s o f t h e d i s t r i c t a r e r e a l l y b e c o m i n g b r i l l i a n t " . D o u g l a s a l s o r e a l i s e d t h a t as t h e " a u r i f e r r o u s c h a r a c t e r o f t h e c o u n t r y " b e c a m e more a p p a r e n t , an i n f l u x o f " m o t l y a d v e n t u r e r s " f r o m t h e s o u t h was l i k e l y . I t was a p r o b a -b i l i t y t h a t c a u s e d h i m c o n c e r n a s g o l d m i n e r s a r r i v i n g i n l a r g e numbers w o u l d n o t o n l y f e r m e n t h o s t i l i t i e s w i t h t h e I n d i a n s , b u t w o u l d a l s o d i s t u r b t h e Company's t r a d i n g r e l a t i o n s . The I n d i a n s o f t h e a r e a q u i c k l y a s c e r t a i n e d t h e v a l u e o f g o l d as a t r a d e i t e m and h a d a l r e a d y s e r v e d n o t i c e o f t h e i r o p p o s i t i o n t o i n t r u d e r s who came t o m i n e t h e r e s o u r c e s o f t h e l a n d . A g r o u p o f A m e r i c a n m i n e r s who came n o r t h l o o k i n g f o r g o l d i n 1857 w e r e f o r c i b l y 120 e j e c t e d by t h e Thompson R i v e r I n d i a n s , and t h e r e w e r e r e p o r t s 121 o f a n o t h e r g r o u p b e i n g p l u n d e r e d by t h e O k a n a g a n s . A l t h o u g h he was a p p r e h e n s i v e a b o u t t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s o f g o l d d i s c o v e r i e s , t h e l e t t e r s t h a t D o u g l a s w r o t e i n t h e w i n t e r 110 an d s p r i n g o f 1857-1858 show t h a t he s t i l l t h o u g h t t h a t t h e Company's o l d r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h t h e I n d i a n s w o u l d c o n t i n u e . W h i l e s e t t l e m e n t was i n t h e p r o c e s s o f t e r m i n a t i n g t h e Company's hegemony o v e r V a n c o u v e r I s l a n d , D o u g l a s assumed t h a t t h e f u r t r a d e r s w e r e s t i l l s e c u r e on t h e m a i n l a n d . He o b v i o u s l y h o p e d t h a t t h e same c o s y a r r a n g e m e n t t h a t t h e Company h a d w i t h t h e I n d i a n s f o r t r a d i n g f u r s c o u l d a u t o m a t i c a l l y be a p p l i e d t o t h e a c q u i s i t i o n o f g o l d . The I n d i a n s d i d n o t w a n t o u t s i d e r s e x -t r a c t i n g g o l d and t h i s d i s p o s i t i o n c o i n c i d e d e x a c t l y w i t h t h e i n t e r e s t s o f t h e Company. I n f a c t D o u g l a s c o u l d n o t h e l p a d m i r i n g t h e w i s d o m and f o r e s i g h t o f t h e I n d i a n s who w e r e i n a d -v e r t e n t l y a r r a n g i n g t h i n g s f o r t h e b e n e f i t o f t h e Hudson's Bay ' Company. He i n s t r u c t e d t h e s e r v a n t s t o l e a v e t h e I n d i a n s t o w o r k t h e g o l d t h e m s e l v e s on t h e , a s s u m p t i o n t h a t t h e y w o u l d 122 b r i n g i t i n t o t h e Company p o s t s as an a r t i c l e o f t r a d e . A f o r t f o r t h e s p e c i f i c p u r p o s e o f t r a d i n g g o l d f r o m t h e I n d i a n s was p l a n n e d a nd b u i l d i n g was b e g u n i n A p r i l 185 8 a t t h e f o r k s o f t h e F r a s e r a nd Thompson R i v e r s . I t was r e p o r t e d i n t h e same month t h a t C h i e f T r a d e r D o n a l d M c Lean h a d o b t a i n e d 130 o u n c e s o f g o l d d u s t o v e r a p e r i o d o f 18 d a y s , and p r o s p e c t s f o r t h e f u t u r e 123 l o o k e d j u s t as p r o m i s i n g . E v e n l a t e i n t h e s p r x n g o f 1858 D o u g l a s and t h e o t h e r company o f f i c e r s w e r e a r r a n g i n g f o r t h e c o n t i n u a t i o n o f t h e same r e c i p r o c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p t h a t t h e y h a d a l w a y s h a d w i t h t h e I n d i a n s . They w e r e u n a w a r e o f t h e d i s r u p t i v e human d e l u g e t h a t was t o f l o o d i n t o New C a l e d o n i a i n t h e n e x t few m o n t h s : a s u r g e o f h u m a n i t y t h a t was t o s i g n a l t h e e n d o f t h e f u r t r a d e . I l l B r i t i s h c o l o n i a l p o l i c y - m a k e r s h a d t u r n e d t h e a d m i n i s -t r a t i o n o f t h e C o l o n y o f V a n c o u v e r I s l a n d o v e r t o t h e Hudson^s Bay Company i n 1849 and made D o u g l a s t h e G o v e r n o r f o r a v a r i e t y o f r e a s o n s . B u t i m p o r t a n t among t h o s e r e a s o n s was t h e a d v a n t a g e o f t h e f u r t r a d e r s ' " s y s t e m a t i c " m e t h o d s o f d e a l i n g w i t h t h e 124 I n d i a n s c o m p a r e d t o t h e "mere c a p r i c e o f o r d i n a r y s e t t l e r s " . On t h e w h o l e t h e C o l o n i a l O f f i c e was s a t i s f i e d w i t h D o u g l a s ' s 125 h a n d l i n g o f I n d i a n - E u r o p e a n r e l a t i o n s . E v e n some s e t t l e r s 126 w e r e i m p r e s s e d w i t h h i s e f f o r t s . H i s t o r i a n s , h o w e v e r , h a v e b e e n . q u i c k t o c r i t i c i s e Company r u l e f o r n o t f o s t e r i n g c o l o n i s a -t i o n . They h a v e b e e n l e s s w i l l i n g t o r e c o g n i s e t h a t b y m a i n -t a i n i n g r e l a t i v e l y p e a c e f u l r e l a t i o n s w i t h t h e I n d i a n s D o u g l a s made a c r u c i a l c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f t h e s e t t l e -ment f r o n t i e r . D o u g l a s e x p r e s s e d t h e v e r i t i e s when he p o i n t e d o u t t h a t b y e s t a b l i s h i n g f r i e n d l y r e l a t i o n s w i t h t h e I n d i a n s t h e Company r e n d e r e d t h e a r e a w e s t o f t h e R o c k i e s h a b i t a b l e f o r 127 s e t t l e r s . A n g l o c e n t r i c c o m m e n t a t o r s , b o t h m t h e n i n e t e e n t h and t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y , h a v e e v a l u a t e d t h e s u c c e s s o f t h e Company's a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f t h e C o l o n y a c c o r d i n g t o t h e s i z e o f t h e s e t t l e r p o p u l a t i o n , r a t h e r t h a n b y t h e n a t u r e o f t h e r e l a t i o n s w i t h t h e I n d i a n s . E v e n i n t h e n a s c e n t s t a g e o f s e t t l e m e n t t h e I n d i a n s w e r e b e c o m i n g o f s e c o n d a r y i m p o r t a n c e . B e f o r e many o f them h a d r e a l i s e d i t , s e t t l e m e n t h a d e s t a b l i s h e d a f o o t h o l d u n d e r t h e a u s p i c e s o f t h e o l d f u r t r a d i n g o r g a n i s a t i o n t h a t t h e y w e r e s o u s e d t o d e a l i n g w i t h . On V a n c o u v e r I s l a n d i n t h e 185 0 ' s t h e f u r t r a d i n g a n d s e t t l e m e n t f r o n t i e r s h a d merged i n a way t h a t a l l o w e d one t o e n g e n d e r t h e o t h e r . CHAPTER TV The Image o f t h e I n d i a n The p r e v a i l i n g i d e a w h i c h e x i s t s a m ongst t h e l a t e r a r r i v a l s a nd p r e s e n t p o p u l a t i o n as t o t h e c h a r a c t e r o f t h e I n d i a n t r i b e s i n t h o s e e a r l y d a y s , i s n o t , i n my e x p e r i e n c e , b o r n e o u t by f a c t s . I h a v e h e a r d s u c h t e r m s as t r e a c h e r o u s , v i n d i c t i v e , r e v e n g e f u l and m u r d e r o u s a p p l i e d t o them; p o s s i b l y some may h a v e d e s e r v e d t h e e p i t h e t s ; b u t t a k e n as a w h o l e , I s u b m i t t h a t , w i t h t h e o p p o r t u n i t i e s t h e y h a d , we may c o n s i d e r t h e m f a i r l y e n t i t l e d t o a more l e n i e n t v e r d i c t . 1 W i t h t h e t r a n s i t i o n f r o m f u r t r a d e t o s e t t l e m e n t E u r o p e a n s whose e x p e c t a t i o n s o f t h e f r o n t i e r w e r e q u i t e d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h o s e o f t h e f u r t r a d e r s b e g a n t o a r r i v e . B e c a u s e s e t t l e r s h a d d i f f e r e n t r e a s o n s f o r c o m i n g t o t h e P a c i f i c n o r t h w e s t t h e y made d i f f e r i n g demands on t h e i n d i g e n o u s i n h a b i t a n t s , and t h e s e demands w e r e b o t h a c a u s e and a c o n s e q u e n c e o f t h e i r a t t i t u d e s t o w a r d s t h e I n d i a n s . On t h e a s s u m p t i o n t h a t a t t i t u d e s d e t e r m i n e a c t i o n s , i t seems i m p o r t a n t t o p a u s e , b e f o r e l o o k i n g a t t h e i m p a c t o f t h e s e t t l e m e n t f r o n t i e r on t h e I n d i a n s o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , and e x a m i n e t h e v i e w o f t h e I n d i a n t h a t h a d a l r e a d y b u i l t up i n t h e m i n d o f t h e E u r o p e a n . T h i s c h a p t e r , t h e n , d e a l s n o t s o much w i t h w h a t i s as w i t h w h a t i s t h o u g h t t o b e . What i m p r e s s i o n s o f t h e I n d i a n s h a d d e v e l o p e d o v e r e i g h t y y e a r s o f c o n t a c t , and w h a t v a r i a t i o n s w e r e t h e r e i n t h e a t t i t u d e s o f f u r t r a d e r s and s e t t l e r s ? I t h a s become commonplace i n t h e s t u d y o f r a c e r e l a t i o n s t o a s s e r t t h a t i m a g e s a r e f r e q u e n t l y more p o t e n t d e t e r m i n a n t s o f b e h a v i o u r t h a n " r e a l i t y " . E u r o p e a n s i n c o n t a c t w i t h i n d i g e n o u s 112 113 p e o p l e a c t a c c o r d i n g t o w h a t t i i e y p e r c e i v e , b u t t h e i r p e r c e p t i o n s a r e o f t e n d i f f e r e n t f r o m wh.at " a c t u a l l y e x i s t s " . I n d i g e n o u s s o c i e t y and b e h a v i o u r i s v i e w e d t h r o u g h a c u l t u r a l f i l t e r t h a t d i s t o r t s " r e a l i t y " i n t o a n image t h a t i s more c o n s i s t e n t w i t h E u r o p e a n p r e c o n c e p t i o n s and n e e d s . The p r o c e s s i s c o m p l e t e when t h e i m age becomes r e a l i t y . T h e r e w e r e , o f c o u r s e , as many i m a g e s o f t h e I n d i a n as t h e r e w e r e E u r o p e a n s i n V a n c o u v e r I s l a n d and B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a . Y e t common a t t i t u d e s emerge f r o m t h e c o l l e c t i o n o f i n d i v i d u a l v i e w s , a n d i t i s t h e amalgams t h a t t h i s c h a p t e r w i l l t r y t o i s o l a t e a n d d e s c r i b e . I t i s a l s o an a t t e m p t t o p r o b e b e y o n d t h e 2 r e a l m o f o f f i c i a l d e s p a t c h e s and u n c o v e r t h e a t t i t u d e s o f a l a r g e r number o f p a r t i c i p a n t s i n t h e c u l t u r e c o n t a c t s i t u a t i o n . A l t h o u g h t h e s t u d e n t s t i l l h a s t o r e l y o n t h e o p i n i o n s o f t h e l i t e r a t e a n d t h e a r t i c u l a t e , t h i s c h a p t e r d r a w s more on t r a v e l l e r s ' a c c o u n t s and t h e w r i t i n g s o f r e s i d e n t s t h a n on o f f i c i a l p a p e r s . From t h e f i r s t E u r o p e a n c o n t a c t s w i t h t h e I n d i a n s , l a y e r s o f m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g w e r e l a i d down b y u n i n t e r e s t e d and u n s k i l l e d o b s e r v e r s . Some e a r l y t r a d e r s a n d e x p l o r e r s r e m a i n e d i g n o r a n t a b o u t I n d i a n c u l t u r e b e c a u s e t h e y assumed t h a t t h e r e was n o t h i n g w o r t h s t u d y i n g . One o f t h e f i r s t t r a d e r s t o v i s i t t h e c o a s t , James S t r a n g e , who l e d an E a s t I n d i a n Company e x p e d i t i o n i n 1 7 8 6 , c o n s i d e r e d t h a t " s u c h i s t h e s a v a g e s t a t e o f t h e I n h a b i -t a n t s " , t h a t he v e r y much d o u b t e d i f k n o w l e d g e o f t h e i r s o c i a l u s a g e s w o u l d a f f o r d any e d i f i c a t i o n t o e v e n t h e m o s t c u r i o u s r e a d e r . He w a s , h o w e v e r , p r e p a r e d t o b r o a c h t h e s u b j e c t i n as 3 ' f a r as i t w o u l d " a d m i t o f E n t e r t a i n m e n t " . O t h e r t r a d e r s h a d more p r e s s i n g r e a s o n s f o r n o t r e c o r d i n g t h e i r o b s e r v a t i o n s o f 114 t h e c o a s t a l I n d i a n s . Many f u r t r a d i n g c a p t a i n s , b e c a u s e t h e i r a c t i v i t i e s w e r e o f d u b i o u s l e g a l i t y , w e r e a n x i o u s n o t t o l e a v e any r e c o r d s a t a l l . Among t h e e a r l y v i s i t o r s , h o w e v e r , t h e r e w e r e some E u r o p e a n s who t o o k a l i v e l y i n t e r e s t i n t h e I n d i a n s . I n an age o f s c i e n t i f i c e x p l o r a t i o n t h e n a t i o n s o f E u r o p e s e n t e x p e d i t i o n s t o t h e P a c i f i c e x p e c t i n g them t o r e t u r n w i t h a f u n d o f i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e p l a c e s t h a t t h e y h a d v i s i t e d i n c l u d i n g a c c o u n t s o f t h e "manners and c u s t o m s " o f t h e i n h a b i t a n t s . S p a n i s h n a v i g a t o r s , f o r e x a m p l e , r e c e i v e d i n s t r u c t i o n s t o o b s e r v e t h e c u s t o m s , p o l i t i c a l s y s t e m , r e l i g i o n a n d b a r t e r o f t h e n o r t h w e s t c o a s t 4 I n d i a n s . Some e x p l o r e r s h a d b o t h a n a t u r a l c u r i o s i t y and many y e a r s o f e x p e r i e n c e i n o b s e r v i n g t h e b e h a v i o u r o f i n d i g e n o u s p e o p l e . F o r men l i k e Cook t h e e x p e r i e n c e h a d made them a c u t e and r e l a t i v e l y d i s p a s s i o n a t e o b s e r v e r s o f o t h e r c u l t u r e s . B u t e v e n t h o s e who t o o k an i n t e r e s t e n c o u n t e r e d a l m o s t i n s u r m o u n t a b l e o b s t a c l e s i n t h e way o f a c c u r a t e o b s e r v a t i o n . L a n g u a g e a nd c o n -c e p t u a l b a r r i e r s meant t h a t many a s p e c t s o f I n d i a n c u l t u r e c o u l d n o t be e n q u i r e d i n t o . B e c a u s e t h e y d i d n o t s p e a k t h e I n d i a n s ' l a n g u a g e o b s e r v e r s h a d t o r e l y on o u t w a r d b e h a v i o u r t o a s s e s s i n n e r m o t i v a t i o n , a p r o c e d u r e t h a t was b o u n d t o p r o d u c e m i s c o n -c e p t i o n s . E v e n a t t h e t i m e o f t h e e a r l y v o y a g e s i t was a p p a r e n t t o some o b s e r v e r s t h a t t h e e v i d e n c e b e i n g u s e d t o make j u d g e m e n t s a b o u t t h e c h a r a c t e r o f t h e I n d i a n s was e x t r e m e l y m a l l e a b l e a n d c o u l d e a s i l y be m a n i p u l a t e d t o c o n f o r m t o p r e c o n c e i v e d n o t i o n s . M e a r e s , . f o r i n s t a n c e , c l a i m e d t h a t M a q u i n n a was a c a n n i b a l . He g a v e as e v i d e n c e o f a n t h r o p o p h a g y t h e f a c t t h a t he h a d s e e n t h e 115 c h i e f s u c k i n g b l o o d f r o m a wound i n h i s l e g and d e c l a r i n g i t t o t a s t e g o o d . B u t P e t e r P u g e t r i g h t l y p o i n t e d o u t t h a t i f " a l l Mens c h a r a c t e r s w e r e d r a w n f r o m s u c h v a g u e & S h a l l o w C o n c l u -s i o n s , . . . f e w w o u l d be f o u n d f r e e f r o m i n j u r i o u s s l a n d e r " . One o f t h e e a r l i e s t v i s i t o r s t o t h e c o a s t n o t e d t h a t t h e s u p e r -f i c i a l i t y o f t h e i r o b s e r v a t i o n s meant t h a t E u r o p e a n s c o u l d come t o q u i t e c o n t r a r y c o n c l u s i o n s a b o u t t h e c h a r a c t e r and d i s p o s i t i o n o f t h e I n d i a n s . J u d g e m e n t s w e r e b a s e d on t h e p e r s o n a l e x p e r i e n c e o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l , a nd c l e a r l y t h e e x p e r i e n c e and r e a c t i o n s o f i n d i v i d u a l s v a r i e d g r e a t l y . C o n s e q u e n t l y , w h i l e some m i g h t c o n c l u d e t h a t t h e I n d i a n s w e r e s u l l e n , o b s t i n a t e a n d m i s t r u s t f u l , o t h e r s s a i d t h a t t h e y w e r e d o c i l e , g o o d n a t u r e d and u n s u s p i -c i o u s . D i s t o r t i o n s o f r e a l i t y w e r e c r e a t e d by t h e f a c t t h a t i m a g i n a t i o n r a t h e r t h a n e m p i r i c i s m seems t o h a v e b e e n t h e b a s i s f o r many j u d g e m e n t s . The c h r o n i c l e r o f D i x o n ' s v o y a g e was t a k e n t o t a s k by a n o t h e r e x p l o r e r b e c a u s e o f h i s i m a g i n a t i o n w h i c h was p "much d i s p o s e d t o be s t a r t l e d a n d t a k e t h e a l a r m . " F o r t h e o b j e c t i v e i n d i v i d u a l i t was d i f f i c u l t e n o u g h t o r e p r e s e n t I n d i a n c u l t u r e a c c u r a t e l y , b u t f o r t h e i m a g i n a t i v e p e r s o n i t was v i r t u a l l y i m p o s s i b l e . And f o r a l l t h e E u r o p e a n s , w h a t e v e r t h e i r f r a m e o f m i n d , t h e r e c o r d i n g o f t h e i r o b s e r v a t i o n s o f t h e I n d i a n way o f l i f e was i n c i d e n t a l t o t h e p r i m a r y c o n c e r n s o f e x p l o r a t i o n o r t r a d e . We h a v e no f i r s t h a n d i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t I n d i a n c u l t u r e b e f o r e t h e E u r o p e a n s a r r i v e d a n d e v e n t h e e a r l i e s t o f t h e s e u n -t r a i n e d men w e r e o b s e r v i n g a c u l t u r e t h a t was a l r e a d y u n d e r g o i n g c h a n g e as a r e s u l t o f t h e i r p r e s e n c e . The p r e s e n c e o f t h e o b s e r v e r , a l o n g w i t h t h e I n d i a n s r own p r o b l e m s o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g , 116 t e n d e d t o u n s e t t l e the. s i t u a t i o n a nd i n c r e a s e d t h e d i f f i c u l t y o f a c c u r a t e o b s e r v a t i o n . E a r l y E u r o p e a n v i s i t o r s t o t h e c o a s t , l a c k i n g e i t h e r t h e i n c l i n a t i o n s o r t h e s k i l l s o f t r a i n e d e t h n o g r a p h e r s , t e n d e d t o be s u p e r f i c i a l o b s e r v e r s . T h e i r j o u r n a l s make much o f o b s e r v a b l e p h y s i c a l d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n I n d i a n s a n d E u r o p e a n s . On t h e n o r t h e r n c o a s t p e r h a p s t h e m o s t f r e q u e n t l y e m p h a s i s e d f e a t u r e i n t h e t r a d i n g j o u r n a l s was t h e l a b r e t w o r n by I n d i a n women, w h i l e t h e p r a c t i c e i n t h e s o u t h o f f l a t t e n i n g t h e f o r e h e a d r e c e i v e d g r e a t a t t e n t i o n . D e s c r i p t i o n s o f p h y s i c a l a p p e a r a n c e w e r e o f t e n a c c o m p a n i e d by e x p r e s s i o n s o f r e v u l s i o n , and a v e r s i o n t o t h e I n d i a n s ' p h y s i c a l a p p e a r a n c e b e g a n t o assume t h e t o n e o f a m o r a l j u d g e m e n t . V a n c o u v e r , who was l e s s t o l e r a n t t h a n Cook, h i s f o r m e r C a p t a i n h a d b e e n , c o n s i d e r e d t h e l a b r e t t o be "an i n s t a n c e 9 o f human a b s u r d i t y " t h a t h a d t o be s e e n t o be b e l i e v e d . N o t o n l y d i d many v i s i t o r s c o n s i d e r t h e I n d i a n s t o be " t h e n a s t y e s t r a c e o f p e o p l e u n d e r t h e s u n " , 1 ^ b u t t h e r e w e r e s t r o n g s u g g e s -t i o n s t h a t t h e y b a r e l y q u a l i f i e d as humans a t a l l . Comments a b o u t " t h a t s a v a g e i n h u m a n i t y w h i c h d i s t i n g u i s h t h e s e P e o p l e f r o m t h e r a c e o f Human Kin d " , 1 " ' " and a b o u t i n d i v i d u a l I n d i a n s 12 b e h a v i n g "more l i k e a b r u t e a n x m a l t h a n a r a t i o n a l C r e a t u r e , " b e t r a y t h i s t e n d e n c y t o d e h u m a n i s e t h e I n d i a n s . By t h e i r l e n g t h y p h y s i c a l d e s c r i p t i o n s w h i c h e m p h a s i s e d t h e ways i n w h i c h t h e I n d i a n s d i f f e r e d f r o m t h e m s e l v e s E u r o p e a n s w e r e e x a g g e r a t i n g t h e t h i n g s t h a t s e p a r a t e d t h e two r a c e s . They w e r e m a k i n g t h e p o i n t , f o r t h e i r own b e n e f i t , t h a t t h e I n d i a n s w e r e s o m e t h i n g d i s t i n c t a nd o t h e r t h a n t h e m s e l v e s . The I n d i a n s w e r e n o t o n l y d i f f e r e n t b u t i n f e r i o r . E u r o p e a n s a l w a y s f e a r e d b e i n g r e d u c e d t o t h e l e v e l o f "savages'' and s o f r o m t h e f i r s t c o n t a c t s on 117 t h e n o r t h w e s t c o a s t t h e y t e n d e d t o e m p h a s i s e t h o s e t h i n g s t h a t e s t a b l i s h e d t h e i r s e p a r a t e n e s s f r o m t h e I n d i a n s , r a t h e r t h a n t h o s e f e a t u r e s t h a t d e m o n s t r a t e d t h e i r common h u m a n i t y . A s p e c t s o f t h e I n d i a n way o f l i f e t h a t w e r e l e s s c l e a r l y m a n i f e s t t h a n p h y s i c a l a p p e a r a n c e w e r e n o t s o w e l l d o c u m e n t e d i n t h e j o u r n a l s . S e v e r a l c o m m e n t a t o r s n o t e d t h e d i f f i c u l t y o f 13 i n v e s t i g a t i n g t h e p o l i t i c a l o r g a n i s a t i o n o f t h e I n d i a n s . T h e r e was t h e p r o b l e m o f l a n g u a g e as w e l l as t h e r e l u c t a n c e o n t h e p a r t o f t h e I n d i a n s t o a l l o w t h e E u r o p e a n s a c c e s s t o much o f t h e i r p r i v a t e k n o w l e d g e . When t h e I n d i a n s d i d d i v u l g e p r i v a t e i n f o r m a t i o n t h e y t e n d e d t o t e l l t h e E u r o p e a n i n q u i r e r w h a t t h e y t h o u g h t he w a n t e d t o h e a r r a t h e r t h a n w h a t was a c t u a l l y t r u e . V o y a g e r s o f t e n f o u n d t h i s a t t i t u d e e x a s p e r a t i n g a n d s o m e t i m e s c o n c l u d e d t h a t t h e I n d i a n s w e r e a p e o p l e who h a d l i t t l e r e s p e c t 14 f o r t h e t r u t h . When t h e s o c i a l o r g a n i s a t i o n o f t h e I n d i a n s was d e s c r i b e d i t was o f t e n i n t e r m s o f c r u d e a n a l o g i e s t o E u r o p e a n p a t t e r n s , s u c h as c o m p a r i n g I n d i a n g o v e r n m e n t t o t h e f e u d a l s y s t e m . B e c a u s e r e l i g i o u s b e l i e f s a n d c u s t o m s a l s o 15 p r o v e d v e r y d i f f i c u l t t o p r o b e , i t was o f t e n s i m p l y assumed t h a t t h e I n d i a n s l a c k e d any c o n c e p t o f r e l i g i o n . I n t h e a r e a o f I n d i a n c e r e m o n i a l l i f e E u r o p e a n s e m p h a s i s e d t h e d i s t i n c t i v e a n d t h e b i z a r r e , a g a i n d e m o n s t r a t i n g t h a t t h e I n d i a n s w e r e u n l i k e t h e m s e l v e s . Some I n d i a n c u s t o m s b o t h s h o c k e d a n d f a s c i n a t e d o b s e r v e r s a n d t h u s r e c e i v e d much a t t e n t i o n . O t h e r c u s t o m s , s u c h as t h e d a n c e s o f t h e N o o t k a women, s o s c a n d a l i s e d E u r o p e a n s t h a t 16 " d e c e n c y " c o m p e l l e d them t o o m i t d e t a i l e d d e s c r i p t i o n s . Comments a b o u t t h e r o l e o f I n d i a n women i n t r a d i n g , a n d i n s o c i e t y i n g e n e r a l , a r e an i n t e r e s t i n g a n d p u z z l i n g a s p e c t 118 o f t h e j o u r n a l s . T h e r e a r e f r e q u e n t r e f e r e n c e s t o t h e c o n t r o l t h a t I n d i a n women h a d o v e r b a r t e r i n g , a n d s o m e t i m e s t h i s f a c t was e x t e n d e d i n t o a s s e r t i o n s t h a t I n d i a n s o c i e t y was r u l e d b y 17 a " p e t t i c o a t g o v e r n m e n t . " T h e s e c o n c l u s i o n s a r e t o o f r e q u e n t f o r t r a d e r s t o be m e r e l y g e n e r a l i s i n g f r o m a few i s o l a t e d e x a m p l e s , o r r e a d i n g e a c h o t h e r s ' j o u r n a l s a n d r e p e a t i n g m i s t a k e s . Y e t t h e s t a t e m e n t s a r e d i f f i c u l t t o e x p l a i n t h r o u g h t h e m a l e -18 c e n t r i c e t h n o g r a p h i e s . Many, a l t h o u g h n o t a l l , o f t h e a c c o u n t s o f t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e r o l e o f I n d i a n women come f r o m t h e n o r t h e r n c o a s t w h e r e t h e I n d i a n s h a d a m a t r i l i n e a l s o c i a l o r g a n -i s a t i o n . B u t a m a t r i l i n e a l s o c i e t y was n o t n e c e s s a r i l y m a t r i -a r c h a l a n d , i n any c a s e , t h e r e n e e d be n o t h i n g i n t h e t r a n s a c t i o n s o f t r a d e r s t o r e v e a l t h e s o c i e t y as m a t r i l i n e a l . M o r e o v e r , some a c c o u n t s o f t h e c r u c i a l r o l e o f women i n t r a d i n g came f r o m t h e s o u t h w h e r e s o c i e t y was o r g a n i s e d p a t r i l i n e a l l y . The m o s t l i k e l y e x p l a n a t i o n w o u l d seem t o be t h a t t h e v o y a g e r s w e r e o b s e r v i n g women i n an u n a c c u s t o m e d r o l e . E u r o p e a n s , more u s e d t o d o c i l i t y a n d o b e d i e n c e f r o m t h e i r w i v e s , w e r e s u r p r i s e d b y t h e a s s e r t i v e -n e s s o f I n d i a n women and h e r e a g a i n t h e y e x a g g e r a t e d t h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e I n d i a n s a n d t h e m s e l v e s . I t i s c e r t a i n t h a t t h e c u l t u r a l b a g g a g e t h a t t h e E u r o p e a n s b r o u g h t w i t h them t o t h e n o r t h w e s t c o a s t i n c l u d e d p r e c o n c e i v e d e x p e c t a t i o n s a b o u t I n d i a n b e h a v i o u r . P r e - e m i n e n t l y t h e y e x p e c t e d t h e I n d i a n s t o be b o t h h o s t i l e and t r e a c h e r o u s . J u a n P & r e z , p e r h a p s t h e f i r s t E u r o p e a n t o r e c o r d h i s i m p r e s s i o n s o f t h e I n d i a n s o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , r e j e c t e d I n d i a n i n v i t a t i o n s 19 t o come a s h o r e b e c a u s e he f e a r e d t r e a c h e r y . F o u r t e e n y e a r s l a t e r D i x o n was s i m i l a r l y s u s p i c i o u s when some H a i d a i n d i c a t e d 119 t h a t h i s ! c r e w w o u l d be welcome i n t h e i r v i l l a g e , a n d he assumed 20 t h a t o n c e a s h o r e h i s . m e n w o u l d be " i n s t a n t l y b u t c h e r e d . " E v e n p r e s e n t d a y h i s t o r i a n s h a v e j u d g e d t h i s c a u t i o n t o be w e l l a d v i s e d g i v e n t h e H a i d a ' s " s u b s e q u e n t r e c o r d o f a t t e m p t i n g t o 21 o v e r p o w e r t r a d i n g v e s s e l s w i t h o u t p r o v o c a t i o n " . E u r o p e a n s e x p e c t i n g s u c h t o t a l h o s t i l i t y n a t u r a l l y f o u n d e v i d e n c e t o s u p p o r t t h e i r p r e j u d i c e . Any I n d i a n a t t a c k , o r s u s p e c t e d a t t a c k , was r e p o r t e d i n t h e j o u r n a l s f o r o t h e r s t o r e a d . A c c o u n t s o f i n d i v i d u a l a c t s o f a g g r e s s i o n p r o d u c e d r a c i a l g e n e r a l i s a t i o n s t h a t a l l I n d i a n s w e r e h o s t i l e . E v e n when I n d i a n s a p p r o a c h e d them i n an o u t w a r d l y f r i e n d l y way E u r o p e a n s o f t e n b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e y w e r e j u s t more d e v i o u s a nd t r e a c h e r o u s t h a n m o s t and were t h e r e f o r e e s p e c i a l l y u n t r u s t w o r t h y . A l t h o u g h i t was c o n c e d e d t h a t s o m e t i m e s I n d i a n s w e r e f r i e n d l y a n d c o o p e r a t i v e - i t . was s a i d , f o r e x a m p l e , t h a t Cook "met w i t h r e m a r k a b l e s i v e l t r e a t m e n t 22 f r o m t h e n a t i v e s " - E u r o p e a n s t e n d e d t o b e l i e v e t h e w o r s t a b o u t t h e I n d i a n s . When C l e v e l a n d met t h e H a i d a c h i e f named A l t a t s e e o f f L a n g a r a I s l a n d he knew t h a t a c o u p l e . o f y e a r s e a r l i e r t h e I n d i a n h a d b e e n p r e s e n t when an A m e r i c a n C a p t a i n named N e w b e r r y h a d b e e n a c c i d e n t l y k i l l e d . B u t t h e l o o k s a n d b e h a v i o u r o f A l t a t s e e c a u s e d C l e v e l a n d t o v e r y much d o u b t t h a t t h e d e a t h was 23 an a c c i d e n t . I t was t h e p e j o r a t i v e r a t h e r t h a n t h e c o m p l i -m e n t a r y t h a t was remembered f r o m t h e d e s c r i p t i o n s o f t h e I n d i a n s , and t h e c o a s t a l I n d i a n s g e n e r a l l y e merged f r o m t h e i n i t i a l c o n t a c t p e r i o d w i t h an u n e n v i a b l e r e p u t a t i o n . The f a m i l i a r s t e r e o t y p e o f t h e I n d i a n s a s f i l t h y , t r e a c h e r o u s , l a z y , l a s -c i v i o u s a n d d i s h o n e s t was a l r e a d y e s t a b l i s h e d b y t h e m a r i t i m e f u r t r a d e r s . N o t t h a t s u c h j u d g e m e n t s w e r e a l w a y s a b s o l u t e : 120 f r e q u e n t l y t h e n o r t h w e s t c o a s t I n d i a n s w e r e b e i n g e v a l u a t e d r e l a t i v e l y , i n c o m p a r i s o n w i t h t h e more a p p e a l i n g p e o p l e o f t h e P a c i f i c I s l a n d s . A p a t t e r n o f m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g h a d a l r e a d y b e e n l a i d down, b u t i t m i g h t be e x p e c t e d t h a t w i t h t h e s h i f t t o a l a n d b a s e d f u r t r a d e a more s y m p a t h e t i c , o r a t l e a s t a more o b j e c t i v e p i c t u r e o f t h e I n d i a n m i g h t emerge. The e m p l o y e e s o f t h e f u r t r a d i n g C o m p a n i e s h a d c l o s e r c o n t a c t s w i t h t h e I n d i a n s o v e r e x t e n d e d p e r i o d s o f t i m e . They c o u l d t h e r e f o r e o b s e r v e a s p e c t s o f t h e I n d i a n s ' way o f l i f e t h a t s h i p s ' c r e w s , b e c a u s e o f t h e i r l i m i t e d c o n t a c t , w e r e u n a b l e t o s e e . The a n n u a l p a t t e r n o f a c t i v i t i e s , f o r e x a m p l e , c o u l d o n l y be d o c u m e n t e d by someone who l i v e d among t h e I n d i a n s f o r a y e a r . T h e r e w e r e , o f c o u r s e , s t i l l o b s t a c l e s i n t h e way o f f a c t u a l o b j e c t i v i t y . The I n d i a n s r e m a i n e d r e l u c t a n t t o d i v u l g e i n f o r m a t i o n on c e r t a i n s u b j e c t s , s o m e t i m e s b e l i e v i n g t h a t t h e f u r t r a d e r s ' i n q u i r i e s w e r e 24 " d i r e c t e d b y i m p r o p e r m o t i v e s . " A t t i m e s t h e I n d i a n s s t i l l g a v e a n s w e r s t o p l e a s e t h e q u e s t i o n e r and s o r e t a i n e d t h e i r r e p u t a t i o n f o r g i v i n g u n r e l i a b l e i n f o r m a t i o n . N o r w e r e t h e t r a d e r s e n t i r e l y f r e e o f p r e j u d i c e . I n f a c t t h e i r v e r y c l o s e n e s s t o t h e I n d i a n s o f t e n f o r c e d them, t o a c c e n t u a t e i d e a s o f I n d i a n i n f e r i o r i t y , a n d t o make e v e r y e f f o r t t o e n s u r e t h a t t h e I n d i a n s r e c o g n i s e d w h i t e s u p e r i o r i t y . The f i r s t o f t h e f u r t r a d e r s t o c r o s s t h e R o c k i e s l a t e r r e c o r d e d h i s o p i n i o n t h a t i t was e a s i e r " f o r a c i v i l i s e d p e o p l e t o d e v i a t e i n t o t h e m anners and c u s t o m s o f s a v a g e l i f e , t h a n f o r s a v a g e s t o r i s e i n t o a 25 s t a t e o f c i v i l i s a t i o n . " O b l i g e d t o f o r e g o t h e " p l e a s u r e s o f p o l i s h e d . . . s o c i e t y " t h e t r a d e r s e x p r e s s e d a c o n c e r n t h a t 121 t h e y w o u l d t e n d t o a s s i m i l a t e w i t h t h o s e whom t h e y l i v e d c l o s e s t t o , " v i z - t h e w r e t c h e d a b o r i g i n e s . " The t r a d e r s w e r e v e r y much c o n c e r n e d a b o u t t h e i r own i m a g e , and n e e d e d t o d e f i n e c l e a r l y t h e b o u n d a r y b e t w e e n " c i v i l i s a t i o n " a n d " s a v a g e r y " . N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e l a n d b a s e d f u r t r a d e r s , i n s p i t e o f a l l t h e s e i m p e d i m e n t s , d i d r e c o r d a g o o d d e a l o f i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t t h e 27 I n d i a n t h a t was r e l a t i v e l y u n a d u l t e r a t e d b y p r e j u d i c e . Company t r a d e r s h a d l i t t l e t r u c k w i t h n o t i o n s o f t h e n o b l e s a v a g e . T h a t c o n c e p t was a m e t r o p o l i t a n l i t e r a r y c o n v e n t i o n n o t t y p i c a l l y h e l d b y t h o s e i n c l o s e c o n t a c t w i t h t h e I n d i a n s o n t h e f r o n t i e r . Y e t s o m e t i m e s t h e v i s i o n o f t h e man on t h e s p o t was s o l i m i t e d t h a t h i s o p i n i o n s o f t h e I n d i a n s a r e no more r e l i a b l e t h a n t h o s e o f t h e E u r o p e a n n o v e l i s t . A l e x a n d e r C a u l f i e l d A n d e r s o n , i n an a r t i c l e p u b l i s h e d i n 1 8 6 3 , c a u t i o n e d t h a t g e n e r a l i s a t i o n s a b o u t t h e I n d i a n s s h o u l d n o t be b a s e d on e x t r e m e e x a m p l e s . He w r o t e t h a t , S u c h o f my r e a d e r s as i n t h e a b s e n c e o f o t h e r o p p o r t u n i t y , may h a v e f o r m e d t h e i r i m p r e s s i o n s o f I n d i a n l i f e a n d c h a r a c t e r f r o m t h e a l l u r i n g f i c t i o n s o f Mr. C o o p e r ; o r t h o s e who, on t h e o p p o s i t e h a n d , h a v e i m b i b e d w e l l f o u n d e d p r e j u d i c e s f r o m c o m m u n i c a t i o n w i t h t h e w r e t c h e d f i s h e a t e r s o f t h e C o l u m b i a a nd i t s n e i g h b o u r i n g c o a s t , w i l l do w e l l t o p a u s e as r e g a r d s t h e m a j o r i t y , b e t w e e n b o t h e x -t r e m e s . 2 8 I n a book e n t i t l e d T r a i t s o f A m e r i c a n - I n d i a n L i f e a n d C h a r a c t e r , p r o b a b l y w r i t t e n b y P e t e r S k e n e Ogden u n d e r t h e . pseudonym o f "A F u r T r a d e r " , t h e a u t h o r was c o n c e r n e d t o c o r r e c t c e r t a i n f a l s e i m p r e s s i o n s c o n v e y e d b y r e c e n t p u b l i c a t i o n s . He p o i n t e d , o u t f r o m t h e s t a r t t h e v a s t d i f f e r e n c e " b e tween t h o s e who t r a v e l i n p u r s u i t o f amusement o r s c i e n c e , a n d men l i k e us 122 who o n l y e n c o u n t e r t h e s e h a r d s h i p s f o r v i l e l u c r e . " The i m p l i c a t i o n t h r o u g h o u t t h i s b o o k i s t h a t t h e t r a d e r s w e r e c l o s e r t o t h e f r o n t i e r r e a l i t i e s , and t h e r e f o r e w e r e more o b j e c t i v e . The I n d i a n s , t h e a u t h o r a r g u e d , d i d n o t p o s s e s s many o f t h e f i n e q u a l i t i e s o f t e n a t t r i b u t e d t o them, and n o t e v e r y I n d i a n was a h e r o . 3 0 The book c o n t a i n s a g o o d d e a l o f i n v e c t i v e b u t a l s o some c o m p l i m e n t a r y r e m a r k s . Company t r a d e r s , i n c o n t r a s t t o t h e t y p i c a l s e t t l e r , w e r e p r e p a r e d , o r p e r h a p s h a d , t o make a l l o w a n c e s f o r t h e I n d i a n s . O f t e n c u s t o m s t h a t o u t r a g e d o t h e r E u r o p e a n s w e r e d e -s c r i b e d d i s p a s s i o n a t e l y b y f u r t r a d e r s , and c o m p a r i s o n s w e r e s o m e t i m e s made w i t h c o r r e s p o n d i n g w e s t e r n p r a c t i c e s . The " i n d o m i t a b l e p a s s i o n " f o r g a m b l i n g among some I n d i a n g r o u p s was s a i d , when c a r r i e d t o e x c e s s , t o r e s u l t i n m i s e r y a nd d e g r a d a t i o n . L a t e r g a m i n g was t o be t h e s u b j e c t o f much a n g u i s h e d comment by m i s s i o n a r i e s a n d p h i l a n t h r o p i c a l l y - m i n d e d g o v e r n m e n t o f f i c i a l s . The " F u r T r a d e r " o b s e r v e d t h e c u s t o m a nd m o m e n t a r i l y l a m e n t e d t h e I n d i a n s ' "want o f t h e c i v i l i s e d e d u c a t i o n o f E u r o p e " . Y e t i n t h e n e x t i n s t a n t he was " h u m i l i a t e d b y t h e rememberance o f 31 s i m i l a r s c e n e s i n t h e m o s t r e f i n e d s o c i e t y . " On o b s e r v i n g m o u r n e r s g r i e v i n g a t a C a r r i e r f u n e r a l t h e " F u r T r a d e r " e x p e r i -e n c e d a " g r a t i f i c a t i o n deep b e y o n d m e a s u r e t o w i t n e s s among r u d e b e i n g s s u c h a s t h e s e , t h e e x c i t e m e n t o f t h o s e p u r e f e e l i n g s 32 o f o u r n a t u r e w h i c h r e m i n d us o f o u r common o r i g i n " . E v e n t h e h e a d f l a t t e n i n g c u s t o m o f t h e I n d i a n s o f s o u t h e r n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a t h a t s o s h o c k e d many E u r o p e a n s was d i s p a s s i o n a t e l y c o m p a r e d , b y A l e x a n d e r R o s s , t o t h e E n g l i s h women's h a b i t ' o f , c o m p r e s s i n g t h e i r w a i s t s . " A l l n a t i o n s , c i v i l i s e d as w e l l as 123 33 s a v a g e , h a v e t h e i r p e c u l i a r p r e j u d i c e s " , he r e m a r k e d . The f u r t r a d e r s showed a d e g r e e o f t o l e r a n c e f o r t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s 34 and b e h a v i o u r o f t h e , I n d i a n s . : T r a i t s t h a t o t h e r E u r o p e a n s w e r e t o f i n d d i s g u s t i n g , t h e f u r t r a d e r s o f t e n r e c o r d e d w i t h o u t j u d g e m e n t , a l t h o u g h , as L e w i s Saum h a s p o i n t e d , o u t , t h e t r a d e r s ' t o l e r a n c e was s e l e c t i v e . G e n e r a l l y " t h e e x c u s a b l e f l a w s i n I n d i a n n a t u r e w e r e t h o s e t h a t h a d l i t t l e o r no i m p a c t o n t h e 35 e c o n o m i c s o f t r a d e r - I n d i a n r e l a t i o n s . " A n o t h e r m e a s u r e o f t h e t r a d e r s ' f a m i l i a r i t y w i t h t h e I n d i a n s was t h a t t h e i r t e n d e n c y t o g e n e r a l i s e a b o u t them was somewhat l e s s t h a n t h a t o f o t h e r E u r o p e a n s . W h i l e s e t t l e r s w e r e i n c l i n e d t o make r a c i a l g e n e r a l i s a t i o n s a b o u t a l l t h e I n d i a n s o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , t h e f u r t r a d e r h a d some a w a r e n e s s o f 3 6 i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s , a n d an e v e n g r e a t e r c o n s c i o u s n e s s o f t r i b a l d i f f e r e n c e s . N o t a l l t h e I n d i a n s w e r e e q u a l l y a d m i r e d o r d i s l i k e d : s o t h a t many o f t h e f u r t r a d e r s ' j u d g e m e n t s w e r e n o t r a c i s t b u t r a t h e r t h e r e s u l t o f c o m p a r i n g one g r o u p o f I n d i a n s w i t h a n o t h e r . The v a r i o u s t r i b e s w e r e c l a s s i f i e d a c c o r d i n g t o a d e f i n i t e h i e r a r c h y o f m e r i t . I f one w e r e t o t a k e t h e s o u t h e r n t i p o f V a n c o u v e r I s l a n d a s a s t a r t i n g p o i n t , i n t h e e y e s o f t h e f u r t r a d e r s t h e I n d i a n s became more a t t r a c t i v e as one t r a v e l l e d n o r t h w a r d a l o n g t h e c o a s t o r e a s t w a r d i n t o t h e i n t e r i o r . The I n d i a n s o f t h e n o r t h e r n c o a s t w e r e t h o u g h t t o be s u p e r i o r t o t h o s e o f t h e s o u t h , w h i l e t h e c o a s t a l I n d i a n s g e n e r a l l y w e r e r e g a r d e d a s b e i n g i n f e r i o r t o t h o s e who l i v e d i n l a n d . The n o t i o n t h a t t h e I n d i a n s o f t h e n o r t h e r n c o a s t ( t h e H a i d a p a r t i c u l a r l y , b u t a l s o t h e T s i m s h i a n ) w e r e s u p e r i o r was 124 b a s e d o n o b s e r v a b l e p h y s i c a l d i f f e r e n c e s , t h e o p i n i o n t h a t t h e y w e r e l e s s d e g r a d e d by w e s t e r n c o n t a c t , and t h e f a c t t h a t t h e y p o s e d a g r e a t e r m i l i t a r y t h r e a t . T r a d e r s r e v e a l e d t h e i r e t h n o c e n t r i c b i a s b y d e s c r i b i n g t h e n o r t h e r n I n d i a n s as c l e a n e r , f a i r e r , t a l l e r a n d b e t t e r b u i l t t h a n t h o s e t o t h e s o u t h : i n s h o r t t h e H a i d a a n d T s i m s h i a n w e r e more a t t r a c t i v e b e c a u s e t h e y w e r e more l i k e E u r o p e a n s . P e r h a p s t h e . c l a s s i c e x p o s i t i o n o f t h i s p o i n t was w r i t t e n b y D r . J o h n S c o u l e r , i n a c o m m u n i c a t i o n t o t h e R o y a l G e o g r a p h i c a l S o c i e t y o f L o n d o n . T h i s n o r t h e r n f a m i l y , i f we s e l e c t t h e Queen C h a r l o t t e ' s I s l a n d e r s as s p e c i m e n s , a r e by f a r t h e b e s t l o o k i n g , m o s t i n t e l l i g e n t a n d e n e r g e t i c p e o p l e o n t h e N.W. c o a s t , and i n e v e r y r e s p e c t c o n t r a s t f a v o u r a b l y w i t h t h e S o u t h e r n T r i b e s o f N o o t k a Sound a nd t h e C o l u m b i a . They a r e t a l l e r a n d s t r o n g e r t h a n t h e N o o t k a n s , t h e i r l i m b s a r e b e t t e r f o r m e d , a n d t h e i r c a r r i a g e i s much b o l d e r . They p e r m i t t h e h a i r o f t h e u p p e r l i p t o gr o w , a nd t h e i r m u s t a c h i o s a r e o f t e n as s t r o n g as t h o s e o f E u r o p e a n s . T h e i r com-p l e x i o n , when t h e y a r e w a s h e d a n d f r e e f r o m p a i n t , i s as w h i t e a s t h a t o f t h e p e o p l e o f t h e S. o f E u r o p e . 37 T h e s e comments w e r e a d m i t t e d l y n o t p e n n e d b y a f u r t r a d e r , b u t Dr . S c o u l e r g l e a n e d much o f h i s i n f o r m a t i o n f r o m c o n v e r s a t i o n s 3 w i t h t r a d e r s , many o f whom w o u l d h a v e a g r e e d w i t h t h e s e r e m a r k s . B e c a u s e t h e y w e r e t h o u g h t t o be more a t t r a c t i v e p h y s i c a l l y , t h e I n d i a n s o f . t h e n o r t h e r n c o a s t w e r e more o f t e n t a k e n as w i v e s b y f u r t r a d e r s t h a n S a l i s h women w e r e . B u t t h e s u p e r i o r i t y o f t h e H a i d a a n d T s i m s h i a n was n o t j u s t a m a t t e r o f p h y s i q u e ; t h e y w e r e a l s o s e e n t o be m o r a l l y a n d i n t e l l e c t u a l l y s u p e r i o r . The H a i d a p a r t i c u l a r l y w e r e t h o u g h t t o be a d a p t a b l e and i n d u s t r i o u s , a n d f o r t h i s r e a s o n b e t t e r a b l e t o w i t h s t a n d t h e d e g r a d i n g i n f l u e n c e s o f w e s t e r n c i v i l i s a t i o n . B u t t h e y w e r e a l s o more w a r l i k e . 125 Simpson once n o t e d t h a t t h e f u r t h e r n o r t h one goes on t h e c o a s t 39 t h e more f o r m i d a b l e t h e I n d i a n s become. I t was a maxim t h a t most Company men a g r e e d w i t h , and t h e y t h e r e f o r e a n t i c i p a t e d h o s t i l i t y when t h e y e s t a b l i s h e d f o r t s i n t h e a r e a . " I n t h e n o r t h " , w r o t e T o l m i e , e x p e c t i n g t o be p o s t e d a t F o r t M c L o u g h l i n , one "must be c o n t i n u a l l y armed t o t h e t e e t h as t h e I n d i a n s a r e 40 d a n g e r o u s . " The c o a s t a l I n d i a n s , t h e n , were n o t e q u a l l y e s t e e m e d by t h e f u r t r a d e r s . B u t t h e I n d i a n s o f t h e c o a s t were g e n e r a l l y r e g a r d e d as i n f e r i o r t o t h o s e o f t h e i n t e r i o r . T h i s j udgement was b a s e d on o b s e r v a b l e d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e way o f l i f e o f t h e I n d i a n s . A t i t s most s i m p l e l e v e l t h e v i e w was t h a t h u n t e r s were s u p e r i o r t o f i s h e r m e n . I t was as i f t h e method by w h i c h an I n d i a n t r i b e g a t h e r e d i t s l i v e l i h o o d i m p r i n t e d a c e r t a i n s e t o f t r a i t s on i t s n a t u r e and c h a r a c t e r . " F i s h i n g " I n d i a n s l i v e d i n a d i f f e r e n t e n v i r o n m e n t and had a d i f f e r e n t way o f l i f e f r o m " h u n t i n g " I n d i a n s , and f u r t r a d e r s c l a i m e d t h a t t h e s e f a c t o r s l a r g e l y a c c o u n t e d f o r v a r i a t i o n s between t r i b e s . The f i s h e r m e n n o t o n l y l i v e d d i f f e r e n t l y , b u t a l s o l o o k e d , a c t e d and t h o u g h t d i f f e r e n t l y f r o m t h e h u n t e r s . The n o t i o n t h a t t h e r e was a c l o s e c o r r e l a t i o n between e n v i r o n m e n t and c u l t u r e was common i n t h e e i g h t e e n t h and e a r l y n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , and o b s e r v e r s o f t h e c o a s t a l n o r t h w e s t saw s o m e t h i n g a k i n t o t h e " t r o p i c a l e x u b e r a n c e " t h a t P h i l i p C u r t i n has d e s c r i b e d i n West A f r i c a . The c o a s t was t h o u g h t t o be a l u x u r i a n t e n v i r o n m e n t t h a t y i e l d e d a l i v e l i h o o d w i t h l i t t l e e f f o r t on t h e p a r t o f t h e I n d i a n s . S u c h an e n v i r o n m e n t n o t o n l y made i t s i n h a b i t a n t s l a z y , b u t a l s o " g r o s s , s e n s u a l , and f o r t h e most p a r t c o w a r d l y " . By c o n t r a s t 126 " t h o s e t r i b e s , . w h o , w i t h n e r v e s and s i n e w s b r a c e d by e x e r c i s e , a n d m i n d s c o m p a r a t i v e l y e n o b l e d b y f r e q u e n t e x c i t e m e n t l i v e c o n s t a n t l y a m i d w a r and t h e c h a s e " w e r e i n e v e r y way more 42 a t t r a c t i v e . T h i s v i e w p e r v a d e s t h e w r i t i n g s o f t h e f u r t r a d e r s . Ogden, o r t h e " F u r T r a d e r , " w r o t e o f t h e " s t a t e l y i n d e p e n d e n c e " w h i c h d i s t i n g u i s h e d " t h e n a t i v e h u n t e r o f t h e w i l d s o f N o r t h A m e r i c a , f r o m t h e more i g n o b l e f i s h e r o f i t s 43 w a t e r s . " D o u g l a s n o t e d t h a t few o f t h e I n d i a n s o f t h e C o w l i t z R i v e r a r e a e v i n c e d "a d e s i r e t o become h u n t e r s by c o u r t i n g t h e n o b l e r , e l e v a t i n g a nd more a r d u o u s e x e r c i s e o f t h e c h a s e " ; 4 4 w h i l e Tod c a t a l o g u e d t h e d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n t h e two t y p e s . o f I n d i a n s . The f i s h e r s w e r e mean, s n e a k i n g , t h i e v i n g a nd d e c e i v i n g 45 w h e r e a s t h e h u n t e r s w e r e n o b l e . a n d g e n e r o u s . I t was a l m o s t as i f by c l i m b i n g o n a h o r s e t h e I n d i a n t r a n s f o r m e d h i s w h o l e c h a r a c t e r . I n f a c t Commander C h a r l e s W i l k e s o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s e x p l o r i n g e x p e d i t i o n a s s e r t e d i n 1841 t h a t t h e I n d i a n s s h o u l d n e v e r be s e e n e x c e p t on h o r s e b a c k . M o u n t e d , he s a i d , t h e I n d i a n s w e r e " r e a l l y men" a n d i n s p i r e d a c e r t a i n amount o f r e s p e c t , b u t d i s m o u n t e d he became a " l a z y l o u n g i n g c r e a t u r e , i n s e n s i b l e t o 46 any e x c i t e m e n t b u t h i s l o w g a m b l i n g p r o p e n s i t i e s . " I t was t h i s d i c h o t o m y b e t w e e n h u n t e r and f i s h e r t h a t a c c o u n t e d f o r t h e d e c r e a s i n g r e s p e c t f o r t h e I n d i a n s t h a t a c c o m p a n i e d t h e f u r 47 t r a d e r s ' j o u r n e y s w e s t w a r d f r o m t h e m o u n t a i n s t o t h e s e a . By t h e t i m e t h e y h a d r e a c h e d t h e mouth o f t h e C o l u m b i a t h e I n d i a n s seemed q u i t e d e t e s t a b l e . They w e r e , w r o t e D u g a l d M a c T a v i s h , " t h e m o s t m i s e r a b l e and w r e t c h e d " o f t h e I n d i a n s t h a t he h a d 48 s e e n . T h i s f e e l i n g among f u r t r a d e r s t h a t t h e I n d i a n s o f t h e 127 i n t e r i o r w e r e s u p e r i o r t o t h o s e o f t h e c o a s t was n o t e n t i r e l y u n r e l a t e d t o some I n d i a n s ' v i e w o f t h e m s e l v e s . The u p p e r Thompson, f o r i n s t a n c e , l o o k e d down on t h e i r l o w e r Thompson 49 n e i g h b o u r s and on t h e S a l i s h , w h i l e t h e I n d i a n s c l o s e r t o 50 t h e c o a s t f e a r e d t h e more w a r l i k e u p - r i v e r I n d i a n s . E c o n o m i c c o n s i d e r a t i o n s p l a y e d a l a r g e p a r t i n t h e f u r t r a d e r s ' a s s e s s m e n t o f t h e v a r i o u s I n d i a n t r i b e s . To t h e e x t e n t t h a t t h e c o a s t a l I n d i a n s w e r e d e a l e r s r a t h e r t h a n h u n t e r s t h e y w e r e n o t a p p r e c i a t e d by t h e t r a d e r s . Company men p r e f e r r e d h u n t i n g I n d i a n s who c a p t u r e d and b r o u g h t p e l t s d i r e c t l y t o a f o r t , as o p p o s e d t o "home g u a r d s " who a c t e d as m i d d l e m e n and f o r c e d up p r i c e s . F o r t I n d i a n s w e r e a l s o d e n i g r a t e d b e c a u s e o f t h e i r a p p a r e n t l a c k o f i n d u s t r y . C o n f i d e n t o f t h e p r o f i t s t o be made as m i d d l e m e n , many o f t h e s e I n d i a n s d i d n o t s e e any n e e d t o h u n t f o r f u r s t h e m s e l v e s ; a c o n c l u s i o n t h a t d i d n o t p a r t i c u -l a r l y e n d e a r them t o t h e Company t r a d e r s . W i t h t h e a r r i v a l o f s e t t l e r s t h i s e c o n o m i c b a s i s f o r t h e n o t i o n t h a t t h e i n t e r i o r I n d i a n s w e r e s u p e r i o r b e g a n t o d i s a p p e a r ; and y e t t h e i d e a p e r -s i s t e d . W r i t e r s who d e s c r i b e d V a n c o u v e r I s l a n d and B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a d u r i n g t h e s e t t l e m e n t p e r i o d c o n s t a n t l y r e i t e r a t e d t h e p o i n t t h a t t h e i n l a n d h u n t e r was a more a d m i r a b l e k i n d o f I n d i a n . T h e i r p r e f e r e n c e was d e s c r i b e d i n much t h e same t e r m s as t h e f u r t r a d e r s ' . One t r a v e l l e r was a g r e e a b l y s u r p r i s e d , a t t h e immense i m p r o v e m e n t i n t h e , p h y s i q u e o f t h e I n d i a n s when he r e a c h e d t h e Thompson R i v e r , a n d e v e n w e n t as f a r as t o s p e c u l a t e t h a t t h e i n t e r i o r I n d i a n s w e r e E u r o p e a n , and t h e c o a s t a l I n d i a n s 51 m o n g o l o i d , i n o r i g i n . T h e i r p h y s i c a l s u p e r i o r i t y was t h e 128 v i s i b l e e v i d e n c e o f l e s s t a n g i b l e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t h a t d i s -t i n g u i s h e d t h e i n t e r i o r t r i b e s f r o m t h o s e o f t h e c o a s t . I n 52 s h o r t t h e i n l a n d I n d i a n s w e r e . " m e v e r y way a n o b l e r r a c e " . E v e n F r a n z B o a s h a d t o w a i t f o r h i s s e c o n d p e r i o d o f f i e l d w o rk i n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a and a t r i p t o t h e K o o t e n a y s b e f o r e he saw 53 h i s " f i r s t r e a l I n d i a n s " . T h i s k i n d o f o p i n i o n was b o t h w i d e l y 54 h e l d a n d w i d e l y p u b l i c i z e d among s e t t l e r s . C o l o n i s t s a l s o saw t h e i n t e r i o r I n d i a n s as a g r e a t e r p o t e n t i a l t h r e a t t h a n t h e c o a s t a l t r i b e s . R e a d e r s o f The B r i t i s h C o l o n i s t w e r e t o l d t h a t " i t i s n o t f r o m t h e m i s e r a b l e , f i s h - e a t i n g t r i b e s on t h e s e a b o a r d , b u t f r o m t h e more n o b l e a n d w a r - l i k e redman o f t h e i n t e r i o r , who 55 l i v e by t h e c h a s e , t h a t r e a l d a n g e r i s t o be a p p r e h e n d e d " . The f e e l i n g t h a t i n t e r i o r p e o p l e , who h a d f e w e r c o n t a c t s w i t h E u r o p e a n s t h a n c o a s t a l p e o p l e , a n d t h e r e f o r e w e r e l e s s 5 6 d e g r a d e d , was common i n o t h e r B r i t i s h c o l o n i e s . Y e t , i n some w a y s , t h e v i e w i s a c u r i o u s one i n t h e B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a n c o n t e x t . T h o s e s e t t l e r s who t h o u g h t a t a l l a b o u t t h e f u t u r e o f t h e I n d i a n s u s u a l l y saw i t i n t e r m s o f a s e t t l e d a g r i c u l t u r a l e x i s t e n c e . P r e s u m a b l y t h e c o a s t a l I n d i a n s , who a l r e a d y h a d f i x e d v i l l a g e s i t e s , c o n f o r m e d more c l o s e l y t o t h i s i d e a l t h a n t h e more n o m a d i c 57 I n d i a n s o f t h e i n t e r i o r . T h e r e i s an a m b i v a l e n c e a b o u t t h e s e t t l e r s ' d e r i s i o n o f t h o s e I n d i a n s who m o s t c l o s e l y a p p r o a c h e d t h e i r s u p p o s e d f u t u r e s t a t u s ; a l t h o u g h i t i s an a m b i v a l e n c e t h a t r a n deep i n B r i t i s h t h o u g h t a b o u t a b o r i g i n e s . C o l o n i s t s w e r e aware t h a t w e s t e r n c o n t a c t was a s l i k e l y t o be d e g r a d i n g as i t was e l e v a t i n g t o t h e I n d i a n s , and t h e y d e s p i s e d t h o s e I n d i a n s who s u c c u m b e d . The l i n g e r i n g h a n g o v e r o f t h e n o b l e s a v a g e i d e a meant t h a t t h e s e t t l e r s s t i l l h a d a s u r r e p t i t i o u s r e g a r d f o r t h e 129 I n d i a n s who s t i l l r o amed w i l d a n d f r e e . S e t t l e r s a l s o i n h e r i t e d and p e r p e t u a t e d t h e f u r t r a d e r s ' image o f t h e I n d i a n s o f t h e n o r t h e r n c o a s t . A g a i n b o t h t h e i d e a s a n d t h e t e r m i n o l o g y u s e d t o e x p r e s s them w e r e much t h e same as t h e t r a d e r s ' . One v i s i t o r w e n t s o f a r as t o s a y t h a t "The Hydah I n d i a n i s p r o b a b l y t h e f i n e s t s a v a g e I h a v e e v e r h a d 5 8 t h e p l e a s u r e o f m e e t i n g " . F o r t h e c o l o n i s t s i n t h e v i c i n i t y o f V i c t o r i a i n t h e e a r l y y e a r s o f s e t t l e m e n t , r e s p e c t f o r t h e n o r t h e r n I n d i a n s was l a r g e l y a r e s u l t o f t h e f a c t t h a t t h e y seemed a much g r e a t e r m i l i t a r y t h r e a t t h a n t h e S a l i s h . A t t h e t i m e t h a t t h e f o u n d i n g o f t h e C o l o n y o f V a n c o u v e r I s l a n d was b e i n g m o o t e d some c o n s i d e r e d t h a t no c o l o n y c o u l d be e s t a b l i s h e d w i t h o u t b e i n g r e n d e r e d s a f e a g a i n s t t h e n o r t h e r n t r i b e s by a 59 s t r o n g d e t a c h m e n t o f t r o o p s . B r i t i s h s e t t l e r s a l w a y s h a d a h e a l t h y a p p r e c i a t i o n o f p o w e r . I t m i g h t e v e n be a r g u e d t h a t when i n c o n t a c t w i t h i n d i g e n o u s p e o p l e v i o l e n c e was t h e o n l y 6 0 t h i n g t h a t t h e y u n d e r s t o o d . C o l o n i s t s a t o n c e f e a r e d a n d y e t r e s p e c t e d a b o r i g i n e s who p o s e d a m i l i t a r y t h r e a t . 6 1 So t h e n o r t h e r n I n d i a n s commanded some a d m i r a t i o n f r o m many o f t h e 6 2 s e t t l e r s , w h i l e t h e S o n g h e e s w e r e d e s p i s e d . The m i x e d f e e l i n g s w i t h w h i c h t h e n o r t h e r n I n d i a n s w e r e r e g a r d e d w e r e p e r h a p s b e s t e x p r e s s e d b y a r e s i d e n t o f P u g e t S o u n d , James G. Swan, w r i t i n g i n t h e San F r a n c i s c o E v e n i n g B u l l e t i n i n 1860. The " v e r y i n t e l l i g e n c e " o f t h e s e I n d i a n s a l o n g w i t h t h e i r c o u r a g e a nd d e t e r -m i n a t i o n , made them a " t e r r o r and a d r e a d " i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s and V i c t o r i a ; t h e y a r e " t h e o n l y r e a l f o e we h a v e t o l o o k o u t f o r on t h i s f r o n t i e r " , w r o t e Swan. And y e t , a t t h e same t i m e , he b e l i e v e d t h a t " i f i t w e r e p o s s i b l e t o e f f e c t an e x c h a n g e a nd 130 s u b s t i t u t e t h e N o r t h e r n I n d i a n s f o r t h e l a z y , ' c u l t u s ' a n d t r i f l i n g t r i b e s o f F l a t h e a d s , t h i s T e r r i t o r y w o u l d be b e n e -f i t e d . 1 , 6 3 I n t h e i r c o m p a r a t i v e e v a l u a t i o n s o f t h e v a r i o u s I n d i a n t r i b e s s e t t l e r s a n d f u r t r a d e r s s o m e t i m e s s h a r e d o p i n i o n s , b u t t h e d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e a t t i t u d e s o f t h e two g r o u p s t o w a r d s t h e I n d i a n s w e r e more s i g n i f i c a n t t h a n t h e s i m i l a r i t i e s . S e t t l e r s h e l d many o p i n i o n s a b o u t t h e I n d i a n s t h a t f u r t r a d e r s h a d n o t a d h e r e d t o and a f t e r t h e a d v e n t o f s e t t l e m e n t t h e g e n e r a l t e n d e n c y was f o r t h e image o f t h e I n d i a n t o become more d i s p a r a -g i n g a n d l e s s o b j e c t i v e . The c o a s t - i n t e r i o r d i c h o t o m y , a l t h o u g h p e r h a p s b y a c c i d e n t , d i d h a v e some b a s i s i n t h e r e a l i t i e s o f t h e I n d i a n c u l t u r e s . More f r e q u e n t l y s e t t l e r i m a g e s were i n l a r g e p a r t t h e c o n s e q u e n c e o f e v e n t s a nd c u r r e n t s o f t h o u g h t a t t h e c e n t r e o f t h e B r i t i s h E m p i r e , w h e r e a s t r a d e r s ' a t t i t u d e s w e r e more t h e p r o d u c t o f l i f e on t h e p e r i p h e r y . T h a t i s , t r a d e r s r e a c t e d more t o w h a t t h e y saw t h a n s e t t l e r s , who r e a c t e d more t o w h a t t h e y e x p e c t e d t o s e e . The 185 0 ' s and 1860's w e r e a p e r i o d when r a c i a l a t t i t u d e s w e r e h a r d e n i n g i n B r i t a i n , a n d i t was o u t o f t h i s e n v i r o n m e n t t h a t t h e f i r s t s e t t l e r s came t o V a n c o u v e r I s l a n d and B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a . The t i g h t e n i n g o f r a c i a l a t t i t u d e s i n B r i t a i n was a p p a r e n t i n t h e r e a l m s o f e v e n t s a nd i d e a s . I t h a d b e e n a r g u e d t h a t t h e c h a n g e s i n a t t i t u d e s t o o t h e r r a c e s was r e l a t e d t o 64 c h a n g e s i n t h e s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e o f B r i t a i n . T h e r e w e r e a l s o o t h e r , more o v e r t , i n d i c e s o f t h e s h i f t i n t h i n k i n g . The h e a d y d a y s o f t h e a b o l i t i o n o f s l a v e r y a n d o f t h e S e l e c t C o m m i t t e e on A b o r i g i n e s i n t h e 1830's h a d p a s s e d . B o t h t h e movement f o r 131 t h e a b o l i t i o n o f s l a v e r y and t h e A b o r i g i n e s P r o t e c t i o n S o c i e t y h a d l o s t much o f t h e i r e a r l i e r s i n g l e m i n d e d n e s s and d i r e c t i o n . The h u m a n i t a r i a n movement e n j o y e d a r e s u r g e n c e o f o f f i c i a l i n f l u e n c e w h i l e E a r l G r e y was a t t h e C o l o n i a l O f f i c e , b u t t h i s was i t s l a s t f l i n g , a n d i t came t o an e n d i n 1852. By t h a t t i m e P e r m a n e n t U n d e r - S e c r e t a r y James S t e p h e n , whose c o n n e c t i o n s w i t h " E x e t e r H a l l " h a d a l w a y s b e e n s t r o n g , h a d r e t i r e d t o a c h a i r o f h i s t o r y a t O x f o r d . A s a s i g n o f t h e c h a n g i n g t i m e s V a n c o u v e r I s l a n d was n o t e s t a b l i s h e d i n a h o t f l a s h o f h u m a n i t a r i a n z e a l as New Z e a l a n d h a d b e e n ' n i n e y e a r s e a r l i e r , b u t was f o u n d e d f o r t h e more p r o s a i c r e a s o n s o f i m p e r i a l s t r a t e g y . E v e n t s o n t h e f r i n g e s o f t h e E m p i r e a l s o h a d t h e i r i n f l u e n c e on d o m e s t i c r a c e a t t i t u d e s . The " I n d i a n M u t i n y " and t h e w a r s i n S o u t h A f r i c a i n t h e 1850's and t h e n t h e M a o r i - E u r o p e a n l a n d w a r s i n New Z e a l a n d a n d t h e r e b e l l i o n i n J a m a i c a i n t h e 1860's a l l s h o c k e d and h o r r i f i e d E n g l i s h m e n . T h e s e c o n f l i c t s seemed t o c o r r o b o r a t e d e r o g a t o r y v i e w s o f a b o r i g i n e s a n d f o r c e d r a c i a l u n d e r c u r r e n t s c l o s e r t o t h e s u r f a c e . E v e n t s s u c h a s t h e s e w e r e b o t h a c a u s e and a r e s u l t o f r a c i a l t h o u g h t . D u r i n g t h e 1850's t h e s c h o l a r l y d e b a t e b e t w e e n t h e a d v o c a t e s o f m o n o g e n e s i s and p o l y g e n e s i s , h a v i n g b e e n l a r g e l y r e s o l v e d i n f a v o u r o f t h e f o r m e r , was b e i n g d r o p p e d as a t t e n t i o n t u r n e d t o e v o l u t i o n a r y i d e a s . E v o l u t i o n a r y t h e o r i e s o f r a c e w e r e b e i n g t o s s e d a r o u n d b e f o r e t h e p u b l i c a t i o n o f The O r i g i n o f S p e c i e s i n 1 8 5 9 , and seemed t o be c o n f i r m e d by t h e f a t e o f a b o r i g i n e s i n a r e a s a l r e a d y s e t t l e d b y E u r o p e a n s . None o f t h e t h r e e t h e o r i e s o f r a c e - m o n o g e n e s i s , p o l y g e n e s i s o r e v o l u t i o n - made much i m p a c t o n . t h e f a c t t h a t B r i t o n s saw t h e 132 r a c e s o f t h e w o r l d as a r r a n g e d i n a h i e r a r c h y w i t h t h e B r i t i s h a t t h e t o p . B u t i n t h e l a t e 1 850's t h e n o t i o n o f B r i t i s h s u p e r i o r i t y and a b o r i g i n a l i n f e r i o r i t y was b e i n g s o l i d i f i e d f r o m a g e n e r a l l y h e l d h y p o t h e s i s i n t o an e m p i r i c a l l y p r o v e n d o c t r i n e by t h e w o r k o f s c i e n t i s t s a nd p s e u d o - s c i e n t i s t s . 6 5 The g e n e r a l r e s u l t o f t h i s t r e n d was t o c o n f i r m t h e r a c i s t e r r o r t h a t r a c e was t h e p r i n c i p a l d e t e r m i n a n t o f c u l t u r e . S e t t l e r s c o m i n g t o V a n c o u v e r I s l a n d and B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a o u t o f s u c h a c l i m a t e o f o p i n i o n o f t e n came w i t h p r e - d e t e r m i n e d n o t i o n s a b o u t t h e i n f e r i o r i t y o f t h e I n d i a n t h a t w e r e l i t t l e m o d i f i e d b y c o n t a c t . I m m i g r a n t s w i t h more r e f i n e d s e n s i b i l i t i e s t h a n m o s t - o r p e r h a p s w i t h g r e a t e r p r e t e n t i o n s - o f t e n f o u n d t h e i r f i r s t c o n t a c t w i t h t h e I n d i a n s t o be a s h o c k i n g e x p e r i e n c e . H e l m c k e n t h o u g h t t h a t t h e f i r s t I n d i a n s he saw on n e a r i n g 6 6 V i c t o r i a t o be " d i r t y g r e a s y n a s t y s m e l l i n g c r e a t u r e s " , w h i l e a n o t h e r new a r r i v a l t h o u g h t t h e y w e r e " t h e m o s t h i d e o u s b e i n g s 6 7 . . . i m m a g i n a b l e " . One y o u n g l a d y c o m i n g i n t o V i c t o r i a on t h e T o r y f o u n d h e r f i r s t s i g h t o f a n a k e d I n d i a n s o u p s e t t i n g 6 8 t h a t s h e b u r s t i n t o t e a r s . T h o s e s e t t l e r s whose f i r s t and m o s t f r e q u e n t c o n t a c t s w e r e w i t h t h e I n d i a n s o f t h e V i c t o r i a a r e a , b a s e d t h e i r s t e r e o t y p e on w h a t w e r e g e n e r a l l y a g r e e d t o be t h e m o s t " d e g r a d e d " I n d i a n s o f t h e C o l o n i e s . A r e s i d e n t o f V a n c o u v e r I s l a n d o n c e n o t e d t h a t h i s c o n t e m p o r a r i e s w e r e f a r t o o a p t t o j u d g e t h e w h o l e r a c e by t h o s e I n d i a n s t h e y saw " l o u n g i n g a b o u t t h e t o w n s " who w e r e a t o n c e t h e m o s t c i v i l i s e d a n d t h e 69 m o s t d e g r a d e d o f t h e I n d i a n s . The p r o p o s i t i o n t h a t c i v i l i s a t i o n w o u l d b r i n g n o t o n l y d e g r a d a t i o n b u t a l s o a n n i h i l a t i o n t o t h e I n d i a n s was one t h a t 133 was much more f r e q u e n t l y e x p o u n d e d b y s e t t l e r s t h a n i t h a d b e e n by f u r t r a d e r s . Some s e t t l e r s r e c o g n i s e d t h a t t h e n a t u r e o f t h e i r i m p a c t on t h e I n d i a n s was d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h e I n d i a n s 1 r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h t h e f u r t r a d e r s . C a p t a i n G r a n t t o l d t h e R o y a l G e o g r a p h i c a l S o c i e t y i n 1857 t h a t h i t h e r t o t h e I n d i a n s ' r e l a t i o n s w i t h w h i t e men h a d b e e n m o s t l y t r a d i n g o n e s t h a t h a d n o t i n t e r f e r e d w i t h t h e i r " o r d i n a r y p u r s u i t s " . B u t now s e t t l e -70 ment w o u l d mean b o t h d i s p l a c e m e n t and d e a t h f o r t h e I n d i a n s . I n f u r t h e r c o n t r a s t t o t h e f u r t r a d e r s , many s e t t l e r s , i n c l u d i n g G r a n t , t h o u g h t t h a t t h e I n d i a n a n d t h e E u r o p e a n c o u l d n o t a s s i m i l a t e . The r e a s o n , i n t h e w o r d s o f one o f t h e c o l o n i s t s , was t h a t " t h e i r h a b i t s a n d n a t u r e s " w e r e " i n d i r e c t o p p o s i t i o n . " So t h e d i s a p p e a r a n c e o f t h e I n d i a n s was a s i n e v i t a b l e as t h e i n f l u x o f E u r o p e a n s e t t l e r s . I t was w i d e l y h e l d , b o t h i n B r i t a i n a n d i n N o r t h A m e r i c a , t h a t c o l o n i s a t i o n by d e f i n i t i o n i n v o l v e d t h e e x t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e " i n f e r i o r " i n d i g e n o u s p e o p l e s . The i n e v i t a b i l i t y o f t h e I n d i a n s ' doom was s a i d by some t o be a 72 l a w o f n a t u r e . A t l e a s t one v i s i t o r t o t h e P a c i f i c n o r t h w e s t was p r o m p t e d t o p o n d e r t h e q u e s t i o n o f why t h e I n d i a n s h a d b e e n p l a c e d on t h e e a r t h a t a l l ? P e r h a p s , he c o n c l u d e d , t h e y w e r e o n l y meant t o l i v e a l i f e i n t h e w i l d s u n t i l " r a c e s o f g r e a t e r c a p a c i t y w e r e r e a d y t o o c c u p y t h e s o i l . A s u c c e s s i o n o f r a c e s , l i k e a r o t a t i o n o f c r o p s , may be n e c e s s a r y t o t u r n t h e e a r t h 73 t o t h e b e s t p o s s i b l e a c c o u n t " . B u t w h a t e v e r t h e r e a s o n g i v e n , many s e t t l e r s l o o k e d f o r w a r d t o a n o t t o o d i s t a n t f u t u r e when t h e I n d i a n s w o u l d h a v e d i s a p p e a r e d , a n d some w o u l d h a v e u n d o u b t -e d l y a d d e d " t h e s o o n e r t h e b e t t e r " . B e i n g a ware t h a t t h e i r p r e s e n c e was t e n d i n g t o d e s t r o y 134 t h e I n d i a n and h i s way o f l i f e , a n d s o m e t i m e s e v e n f e e l i n g g u i l t y a b o u t i t , t h e s e t t l e r s w e r e u n l i k e l y t o s e e much v a l u e i n t h e c u l t u r e t h a t t h e y w e r e e l i m i n a t i n g . By d e n i g r a t i n g I n d i a n c u l t u r e E u r o p e a n s c o u l d c o n v i n c e t h e m s e l v e s t h a t l i t t l e o f w o r t h was l o s t i f t h e I n d i a n way o f l i f e was b r o u g h t t o , a n e n d . A t t h e same t i m e t h e y r e m i n d e d t h e m s e l v e s , by c o m p a r i s o n , o f t h e e x c e l l e n c e o f . t h e i r own i n s t i t u t i o n s . W i t h some e x c e p t i o n s s e t t l e r s ' a c c o u n t s o f t h e I n d i a n s c o n t a i n e d much t h a t was d e r o g a t o r y and w e r e s u f f u s e d w i t h i g n o r a n c e . Much o f t h e t o n e o f many a c c o u n t s o f t h e I n d i a n s c a n be g a t h e r e d f r o m t h e c h a p t e r h e a d i n g s o f b o o k s d e s c r i b i n g B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a . I n h i s B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a and V a n c o u v e r I s l a n d , Duncan G e o r g e F o r b e s M a c D o n a l d d e s c r i b e d t h e f o l l o w i n g a s " P r o m i n e n t F e a t u r e s i n t h e L i f e a nd C h a r a c t e r o f t h e I n d i a n s - S l a v e s H o r r i b l y A b u s e d - The ' M e d i c i n e Man' and t h e Dead - Mode o f S c a l p i n g - Y o u n g I n d i a n s more S a v a g e t h a n O l d - H o r r i b l e Modes o f T o r t u r e - B a r b a r o u s C o n d u c t o f an O l d Squaw - S h o c k i n g C r u e l t i e s t o an O l d Man and I n s t a n c e o f C a n n i b a l i s m - H o r r i b l e M a s s a c r e o f E m i g r a n t s - C r u e l C u s t o m o f g e t t i n g r i d o f t h e A g e d -". A d m i t t e d l y t h e p i c t u r e i s a m e l i o r a t e d by one a c c o u n t o f . a 74 " T o u c h i n g I n s t a n c e o f P a r e n t a l A f f e c t i o n -". M a c D o n a l d w r o t e a g o o d d e a l o f d r i v e l a b o u t t h e I n d i a n s , as he d i d a b o u t m o s t t o p i c s t h a t he t a c k l e d i n h i s b o o k , and h i s i s an e x t r e m e e x a m p l e o f t h e t e n d e n c y t o d i s p a r a g e t h e I n d i a n s . N e v e r t h e l e s s M a c D o n a l d ' s c a r i c a t u r e d e m o n s t r a t e d t o t h e s e t t l e r t h a t t h e r e was l i t t l e t o be v a l u e d o r p r e s e r v e d i n t h e I n d i a n way o f l i f e . L i k e many a c c o u n t s , i t a l s o s u c c e e d s i n t r e a t i n g a l l I n d i a n s as i f t h e y w e r e t h e same. I t i g n o r e s t h e s u b t l e and n o t s o s u b t l e 135 d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n t h e v a r i o u s I n d i a n c u l t u r e s o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a . The f a n t a s t i c a n d t h e b i z a r r e a r e e m p h a s i s e d t o make a l l I n d i a n s seem t h e same i n t h e f a c t t h a t t h e y a r e a l l s o 75 d i f f e r e n t f r o m E u r o p e a n s . L i k e m o s t s t e r e o t y p e s t h e s e t t l e r s 1 v i e w o f t h e I n d i a n s was n u r t u r e d b y i g n o r a n c e . As l o n g as t h e s e t t l e r s r e m a i n e d i g n o r a n t a b o u t I n d i a n s o c i e t y t h e y h a d no r e a s o n t o d o u b t t h e i r own assumed s u p e r i o r i t y . When he was I n d i a n R e s e r v e C o m m i s s i o n e r i n t h e l a t e 1 8 7 0 ' s , G i l b e r t M a l c o l m S p r o a t w r o t e t h a t one o f t h e m o s t s i n g u l a r e x p e r i e n c e s t h a t he h a d was t h e i m p o s s i b i l i t y o f g e t t i n g a c c u r a t e i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t t h e I n d i a n s f r o m t h e s e t t l e r s who l i v e d i n t h e i r m i d s t . He w a s , f o r i n s t a n c e , t o l d on o c c a s i o n s t h a t t h e I n d i a n s w e r e i n c a p a b l e o f b u i l d i n g i r r i g a -t i o n d i t c h e s "when i n g e n i o u s l y c o n s t r u c t e d d i t c h e s s e v e r a l m i l e s 7 6 i n l e n g t h w e r e a l m o s t v i s i b l e . " S p r o a t ' s d i f f i c u l t y i n g a t h e r i n g r e l i a b l e i n f o r m a t i o n i s i n d i c a t i v e o f t h e t e n d e n c y o f t h e c o l o n i s t s t o f i l t e r o u t d a t a t h a t d i d n o t c o n f i r m t h e i r p r e j u d i c e a b o u t t h e I n d i a n s . One m i g h t e x p e c t t h a t t h e a r t i s t i c l i f e o f t h e n o r t h e r n c o a s t I n d i a n s w o u l d be a p o i n t i n t h e i r f a v o u r i n t h e m i n d o f t h e s e t t l e r , a s i g n t h a t t h e I n d i a n p o s s e s s e d s o m e t h i n g t h a t m i g h t be c a l l e d a c u l t u r e . A few a d m i r e d I n d i a n a r t . and some w e r e i m p r e s s e d w i t h I n d i a n " i n g e n u i t y " a n d " f a c u l t y f o r c o n t r i -77 v a n c e " , b u t f o r o t h e r s I n d i a n a r t m e r e l y p r o v i d e d c o n f i r m a t o r y e v i d e n c e o f t h e d e p r a v i t y o f I n d i a n n a t u r e . T h e i r c a r v i n g was 7 8 d i s m i s s e d as " h i d e o u s " o r " g r o s s l y o b s c e n e " . C e r t a i n l y S p r o a t was o f t h e o p i n i o n t h a t many o f t h e s e t t l e r s w e r e s t e e p e d i n a p r e j u d i c e t h a t p r e v e n t e d them f r o m h a v i n g any s y m p a t h y f o r t h e 136 p e o p l e among whom t h e y w e r e l i v i n g . He was amazed t h a t s e t t l e r s who h a d l i v e d among t h e I n d i a n s f o r y e a r s h a d o n l y a 79 s u p e r f i c i a l k n o w l e d g e o f them. N o r was S p r o a t a l o n e i n t h i s o p i n i o n . R o b e r t B r o w n , t h e l e a d e r o f t h e V a n c o u v e r I s l a n d e x p l o r i n g e x p e d i t i o n o f 1 8 6 4 , w r o t e t h a t few o f t h e w h i t e s e t t l e r s t o o k t h e t r o u b l e t o l e a r n a b o u t t h e I n d i a n s , a n d e v e n f e w e r r e a l l y knew a n y t h i n g b a d a b o u t them a l t h o u g h t h e y w e r e 8 0 l o u d i n t h e i r d o g m a t i c d e n u n c i a t i o n o f t h e I n d i a n s . T h e r e was a d e f i n i t e t e n d e n c y f o r t h e image o f t h e I n d i a n t o become l e s s p o s i t i v e w i t h t h e t r a n s i t i o n f r o m f u r t r a d e t o s e t t l e m e n t . Some c o l o n i s t s may h a v e f o u n d , l i k e D o n a l d F r a s e r , a j o u r n a l i s t , t h a t t h e y h a d " t a k e n r a t h e r a f a n c y t o 81 t h e s e I n d i a n s " ; b u t more w o u l d h a v e a g r e e d w i t h J o h n C o l e s , a r a n c h e r , who w r o t e t h a t t h e j a i l i n g o f a n I n d i a n f o r b e i n g a v a g a b o n d was a b s u r d s i n c e t h e y w e r e " a l l v a g a b o n d s w i t h a . v e r y , 8 2 v e r y f e w e x c e p t i o n s . " The w r i t i n g s o f s e t t l e r s i n d i c a t e t h a t f o r many o f them t h e r e was l i t t l e o r n o t h i n g t h a t c o u l d be s a i d i n f a v o u r o f t h e I n d i a n way o f l i f e . R a c i a l p r e j u d i c e was n o t c o n f i n e d t o E u r o p e a n s e t t l e r s . The I n d i a n s t h e m s e l v e s w e r e n o t immune. H e n r y M a y n a r d B a l l , w h i l e G o l d C o m m i s s i o n e r a t L y t t o n , c l a i m e d t h a t t h e I n d i a n s o f t h e a r e a t r e a t e d t h e C h i n e s e as i n f e r i o r b e i n g s a n d t h e y d i d n o t 8 3 m i s s any o p p o r t u n i t i e s t o commit o u t r a g e s a g a i n s t them. T h e r e i s a l s o e v i d e n c e t h a t t h e C o w i c h a n c o n s i d e r e d t h e m s e l v e s s u p e r i o r t o t h e b l a c k s who came t o s e t t l e on s o u t h e r n V a n c o u v e r 84 I s l a n d a n d S a l t S p r i n g I s l a n d i n 1 8 58. B u t f o r t h e p r e j u d i c e d i n d i v i d u a l s among t h e c o l o n i s t s e v e r y a s p e c t o f t h e I n d i a n s a n d t h e i r s o c i e t y seemed t o c o n f i r m 137 t h e i r i n f e r i o r i t y . The I n d i a n p h y s i q u e was d e s c r i b e d i n 8 R d e r o g a t o r y t e r m s . 3 " P h r e n o l o g i c a l l y s p e a k i n g " , w r o t e one v i s i t o r a d d i n g a d a s h o f b o g u s s c i e n c e , " t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e N o r t h A m e r i c a n I n d i a n i s o f a l o w o r d e r , t h e a n i m a l p r o p e n -s i t i e s p r e p o n d e r a t i n g g r e a t l y o v e r t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l f a c u l t i e s . " B o t h t h e p e r s o n s a n d t h e h a b i t a t i o n s o f t h e I n d i a n s w e r e s a i d t o be e x c e e d i n g l y f i l t h y . I n d i a n c e r e m o n i e s w e r e d i s m i s s e d as " d i s g u s t i n g " o r a s " g r o t e s q u e a n t i c s " , a c c o u n t s o f w h i c h w o u l d 8 7 o n l y t a x t h e p a t i e n c e o f t h e r e a d e r . The I n d i a n m i n d was 8 8 t h o u g h t t o be " f u l l o f w e i r d s t r a n g e f a n c i e s a n d i m a g i n a t i o n s " , . 89 and t h e I n d i a n t o be " s t r a n g e l y s u p e r s t i t i o u s " . A p a r t f r o m a "few m i s e r a b l e s u p e r s t i t i o n s , a n d a c h i l d i s h b e l i e f i n omens", t h e I n d i a n s h a d no c o n c e p t o f r e l i g i o n a n d w e r e " i n c a p a b l e o f 90 r e t a i n i n g any f i x e d i d e a . " They a c t e d more f r o m i n s t i n c t t h a n 91 f r o m r e a s o n a n d w e r e n e a r l y d e s t i t u t e o f any s e n s e o f r i g h t 92 . an d w r o n g . They w e r e w a r l i k e , b u t t r e a c h e r o u s and c u n n i n g 93 r a t h e r t h a n c o u r a g e o u s . " I n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a " , i t was a s s e r t e d , " t h e new a r r i v a l i s w a i t e d f o r by t h e c r a f t y b l o o d t h i r s t y a n d i m p l a c a b l e s a v a g e , who n e v e r t h r o w s away a c h a n c e , n e v e r e x p o s e s h i m s e l f t o t h e weapon o f an enemy, n o r m i s s e s an o p p o r t u n i t y o f 94 s l a u g h t e r a n d r e v e n g e . " The I n d i a n s w e r e a l s o s a i d t o b e d i s h o n e s t a n d d e c e i t f u l a s w e l l as l a z y and u n s u i t e d t o m a n u a l l a b o u r . P e r h a p s one o f t h e m o s t r e v e a l i n g comments a b o u t t h e I n d i a n was t h a t he " e x h i b i t s v e r y l i t t l e d e f e r e n t i a l r e s p e c t 95 f o r h i s s u p e r i o r s " . The p i c t u r e o f p r e j u d i c e was summed up by C o l o n e l G r a n t when he c o n c l u d e d t h a t "The n a t u r e o f t h e r e d man i s s a v a g e a nd p e r v e r s e . He p r e f e r s w ar t o p e a c e , n o i s e t o 96 q u i e t , d i r t t o c l e a n l i n e s s , a n d j u g g l e r y t o r e l i g i o n . " 138 S e t t l e r s , l i k e f u r t r a d e r s , t e n d e d t o r e j e c t t h e n o b l e s a v a g e i d e a . On a c o u p l e o f o c c a s i o n s i n d i v i d u a l s r e m a r k e d 97 t h a t t h e y h a d n e v e r s e e n a " F e n i m o r e C o o p e r " I n d i a n . B u t , u n l i k e t h e f u r t r a d e r s , t h e c o l o n i s t s w e r e t o o o f t e n u n p r e p a r e d t o make a l l o w a n c e s f o r c u l t u r a l d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n t h e m s e l v e s and t h e I n d i a n s . I n t h e s e n s e t h a t t h e y p r e - j u d g e d t h e I n d i a n s and t h e i r c u l t u r e , a n d r e f u s e d t o c h a n g e t h e i r o p i n i o n o n t h e b a s i s o f new i n f o r m a t i o n , t h e s e t t l e r s as a g r o u p w e r e more p r e j u d i c e d t h a n t h e f u r t r a d e r s . Some o f t h e i r a s p e r s i o n s w e r e p r o b a b l y j u s t i f i e d f r o m a r e l a t i v e p o i n t o f v i e w - I n d i a n s 1 h o u s e s may w e l l h a v e b e e n d i r t i e r t h a n E u r o p e a n ones - b u t many w e r e m e r e l y e x a m p l e s o f c u l t u r a l d i f f e r e n c e s . The I n d i a n s d i d n o t h a v e a E u r o p e a n w o r k f e t i s h , f o r e x a m p l e : t h e y w e n t t h r o u g h p e r i o d s o f r e l a t i v e i n a c t i v i t y , b u t t h e y a l s o w o r k e d e x t r e m e l y h a r d when n e c e s s a r y . B u t t h e s e t t l e r s , v i e w i n g t h e I n d i a n s f r o m t h e v a n t a g e p o i n t o f t h e i r own v a l u e s , s i m p l y g e n e r a l i s e d t h a t t h e y w e r e l a z y . I n many ways t h e u n s y m p a t h e t i c s t e r e o t y p e o f t h e I n d i a n was s e l f - p e r p e t u a t i n g . S e t t l e r s w o u l d r e p e a t e a c h o t h e r s ' 98 99 p u b l i s h e d r e m a r k s a b o u t t h e I n d i a n s , e i t h e r w i t h o r w i t h o u t a c k n o w l e d g e m e n t . N o r w e r e t h e I n d i a n s u n a w a r e . o f t h e a t t i t u d e o f many s e t t l e r s t o t h e i r c u l t u r e , and t h e a w a r e n e s s o n l y i n c r e a s e d t h e i r r e l u c t a n c e t o d i v u l g e i n f o r m a t i o n . When Boas came t o t h e c o a s t he f o u n d t h a t some I n d i a n s w e r e v e r y s u s p i c i o u s o f h i s i n f o r m a t i o n g a t h e r i n g . A C o w i c h a n I n d i a n r e s p o n d e d t o h i s r e q u e s t s by p o i n t i n g o u t t h a t t h e " w h i t e s l o o k upon t h e I n d i a n s n o t as humans b u t a s d o g s , a n d he d i d n o t w i s h a n y o n e t o l a u g h a t t h i n g s t h a t w e r e t h e i r l a w s , s u c h as p a i n t e d h o u s e s and 139 a r t i c l e s u s e d f o r c e l e b r a t i n g t h e i r f e s t i v a l s . " " ' " 0 0 O b s e r v e r s i n t h e e a r l y 1860's h a d n o t i c e d a s i m i l a r r e s p o n s e on t h e p a r t o f t h e I n d i a n s . S p r o a t f o u n d i t d i f f i c u l t t o o b t a i n k n o w l e d g e o f I n d i a n r e l i g i o u s i d e a s b e c a u s e t h e y commonly assumed t h a t no w h i t e man was c a p a b l e o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g s u c h m y s t e r i e s . I n S p r o a t ' s c a s e t h e y w e r e c o r r e c t . He w e n t on t o s a y t h a t l i t t l e r e l i a n c e c o u l d be p l a c e d on I n d i a n i n f o r m a t i o n o n r e l i g i o u s m a t t e r s b e c a u s e i n n i n e o u t o f , t e n c a s e s i t was f u l l o f " l i e s a n d m i s s t a t e m e n t s " , e i t h e r a i m e d a t m y s t i f y i n g t h e i n q u i r e r " o r o w i n g t o t h e m e n t a l w e a k n e s s o f t h e s a v a g e on r e l i g i o u s s u b j e c t s " x' I n d i a n s w e r e r e l u c t a n t t o g i v e away v a l u a b l e i n f o r m a t i o n t o a b u s i v e E u r o p e a n s , and i n t h e a b s e n c e o f a u t h e n t i c e x p l a n a t i o n s f o r c u s t o m s , s e t t l e r s s u b s t i t u t e d t h e i r own. C a r r i e r c e r e m o n i e s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e c r e m a t i o n o f t h e d e a d w e r e t h e s u b j e c t o f much j a u n d i c e d comment by E u r o p e a n s . P a u l K a n e , f o r e x a m p l e , b e i n g u n a b l e t o l e a r n o f any m o t i v e o r e x p l a n a t i o n f o r t h e c u s t o m s c o u l d " o n l y a c c o u n t f o r them i n t h e n a t u r a l s e l f i s h n e s s , l a z i n e s s 102 and c r u e l t y o f t h e I n d i a n s " . U n d o u b t e d l y s e t t l e r o p i n i o n o f t h e I n d i a n s o f t e n o p e r a t e d as a s e l f - f u l f i l l i n g p r o p h e c y . I t h a s b e e n a r g u e d t h a t , i n a s i t u a t i o n w h e r e one g r o u p s e e s a n o t h e r a s i n f e r i o r , t h e s u b o r d i n a t e g r o u p w i l l t e n d t o a c t i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e r o l e a l l o t t e d t o i t , t h u s c o n f i r m i n g t h e o p i n i o n o f t h e d o m i n a n t g r o u p . x 0 ^ The m i s s i o n a r i e s , as a g r o u p , e x h i b i t e d much more s y m p a t h y f o r t h e p l i g h t o f t h e I n d i a n s t h a n d i d t h e s e t t l e r s , a n d y e t m i s s i o n a r y p u b l i c a t i o n s d i d l i t t l e t o s a l v a g e t h e . i m a g e o f t h e I n d i a n . By t h e m i d d l e o f t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y m i s s i o n s w e r e l e s s p o p u l a r i n B r i t a i n t h a n t h e y h a d b e e n i n t h e e a r l i e r 140 d e c a d e s , b u t m i s s i o n a r y p u b l i c a t i o n s s t i l l r e a c h e d a w i d e a u d i e n c e . I n d e e d , s i n c e m i s s i o n s r e l i e d on v o l u n t a r y c o n t r i -104 b u t i o n s , p u b l i c a t i o n s w e r e e s s e n t i a l t o t h e i r e x i s t e n c e . M i s s i o n a r y m a g a z i n e s w e r e i n t e n d e d t o w h i p up e n t h u s i a s m f o r m i s s i o n a r y w o r k and one o f t h e t e c h n i q u e s t h e y u s e d was t o show how t h e u n r e d e e m e d a b o r i g i n e was doomed t o a l i f e o f b a r -b a r i s m . The d a r k e r t h e p i c t u r e o f I n d i a n s a v a g e r y t h e g r e a t e r t h e n e e d f o r m i s s i o n a r i e s , and t h e more God c o u l d be g l o r i f i e d b y t h e I n d i a n s ' c o n v e r s i o n . I n h i s f i r s t r e p o r t f r o m F o r t S i m p s o n , i n F e b r u a r y 185 8, W i l l i a m Duncan d e s c r i b e s i n g r a p h i c t e r m s t h e c r u e l m u r d e r o f a s l a v e by a T s i m s h i a n c h i e f . 1 0 ^ H i s a c c o u n t o f t h i s e v e n t t u r n s up a g a i n and a g a i n b o t h i n m i s s i o n a r y p u b l i c a t i o n s and i n s e c u l a r a c c o u n t s o f t h e I n d i a n s o f B r i t i s h 106 C o l u m b i a , and t h e d e s c r i p t i o n i s o f t e n u s e d t o make t h e p o i n t t h a t s u c h b e h a v i o u r t y p i f i e d t h e I n d i a n c h a r a c t e r . T h e r e c o u l d be no q u e s t i o n i n t h e m i s s i o n a r y m i n d o f d e n y i n g t h e h u m a n i t y o f t h e I n d i a n s , f o r t o d e n y t h e i r h u m a n i t y w o u l d be t o d e n y t h e i r c a p a c i t y f o r s a l v a t i o n . N e v e r t h e l e s s i n t h e i r d e s c r i p t i o n s o f t h e I n d i a n s as " m i s e r a b l e s p e c i m e n s o f 10 7 h u m a n i t y " r e q u i r i n g t o be r e s c u e d f r o m a " s t a t e o f h e a t h e n 108 d a r k n e s s a n d c o m p l e t e b a r b a r i s m " m i s s i o n a r y p u b l i c a t i o n s d i s t o r t e d I n d i a n c u l t u r e as much as w o r k s w r i t t e n by l a y m e n . I n r e c e n t p u b l i c a t i o n s v a r i o u s s c h o l a r s h a v e e x a m i n e d and a t t e m p t e d t o e x p l a i n t h e c a u s e s o f r a c i a l p r e j u d i c e o f t h e k i n d t h a t e x i s t e d i n V a n c o u v e r I s l a n d a n d B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a . Roy H a r v e y P e a r c e i n h i s s t u d y The S a v a g e s o f /America was one o f t h e f i r s t t o r e c o g n i s e t h e c o m p l e x i t i e s o f I n d i a n - w h i t e r e l a t i o n s . He a r g u e d t h a t , f o r t h e s e t t l e r c o n c e r n e d t o e s t a -141 b l i s h a n d d e f e n d a b e a c h h e a d o f c i v i l i s a t i o n i n t h e w i l d e r n e s s , t h e I n d i a n was t h e s y m b o l o f s o m e t h i n g t h a t he mu s t n o t a l l o w 109 h i m s e l f t o become. The B r i t i s h c o l o n i s t e s t a b l i s h e d a l i n e o f c l e a v a g e b a s e d o n r a c e b e t w e e n h i m s e l f a n d t h e I n d i a n , a n d c o u l d n o t p e r m i t a n y c r o s s i n g o f t h a t b a r r i e r b y a d m i t t i n g t h a t t h e I n d i a n was i n any way c o m p a r a b l e t o w e s t e r n man. So i n t h e i r a c c o u n t s o f t h e I n d i a n s t h e s e t t l e r s t e n d e d t o s t r e s s t h o s e a s p e c t s o f I n d i a n l i f e t h a t w e r e r e p e l l e n t t o E u r o p e a n s and t h u s deny t h e i r common h u m a n i t y w i t h t h e I n d i a n s . I n V a n c o u v e r I s l a n d a n d B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a s e t t l e r s w e r e p a r t i c u l a r l y u n e a s y a b o u t t h e p r e s e n c e o f h a l f - b r e e d s b e c a u s e t h e y b l u r r e d t h e r a c i a l l y d e t e r m i n e d d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n " s a v a g e " a n d " c i v i l i s e d " . W hereas o n t h e f u r t r a d i n g f r o n t i e r t h e c h i l d r e n o f m i x e d m a r r i a g e s p l a y e d an i m p o r t a n t r o l e , w i t h t h e a d v e n t o f s e t t l e m e n t a t t i t u d e s t o b o t h " t h e m a r r i a g e s a n d t h e c h i l d r e n became much l e s s p o s i t i v e . T h i s c h a n g e i n a t t i t u d e was u n d o u b t -e d l y d u e , a t l e a s t i n p a r t , t o t h e a r r i v a l o f E u r o p e a n women i n a p p r e c i a b l e n u m b e rs. The f a c t t h a t t h e G o v e r n o r ' s w i f e was p a r t I n d i a n was d i f f i c u l t f o r many o f t h e c o l o n i s t s t o c o p e w i t h . Some f o u n d i t n e c e s s a r y t o e x p l a i n L a d y D o u g l a s o n t h e g r o u n d s t h a t s h e was " n o t a woman o f much c o l o u r . " X X ° E v e n w o r s e t h a n t h e h a l f - b r e e d s i n t h e m i n d o f t h e s e t t l e r was t h e E u r o p e a n who v o l u n t a r i l y assumed t h e way o f l i f e o f t h e I n d i a n s . T h e s e men w e r e a l i v i n g d e n i a l o f t h e n o t i o n o f t h e a b s o l u t e s e p a r a t e n e s s o f t h e two c u l t u r e s . I n h i s b o o k , P a t t e r n s o f D o m i n a n c e , P h i l i p Mason h a s n o t e d t h a t p y s c h o l o g i c a l r e s e a r c h h a s g e n e r a l l y c o n f i r m e d t h e h y p o t h e s i s t h a t t h e r e i s a s t r o n g c o r r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n r a c i a l 142 i n t o l e r a n c e and i n s e c u r i t y . X X X C e r t a i n l y t h e E u r o p e a n s f e l t i n s e c u r e i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e I n d i a n s i n t h e e a r l y y e a r s o f s e t t l e m e n t on t h e n o r t h w e s t c o a s t . The c o l o n i s t s w e r e o v e r -w h e l m i n g l y o u t n u m b e r e d and some o f them a t l e a s t h a d b e e n t o l d 112 f e a r f u l s t o r i e s a b o u t t h e I n d i a n s b e f o r e t h e y l e f t home. Mason h a s a l s o o b s e r v e d , more s p e c i f i c a l l y , t h a t an i n d i v i d u a l who h a s r e c e n t l y r i s e n o r f a l l e n s h a r p l y i n t h e s o c i a l s c a l e i s 113 l i k e l y t o e x h i b i t r a c i a l i n t o l e r a n c e . The p o i n t h a s p a r t i c u l a r p e r t i n e n c e i n a c o l o n i a l s i t u a t i o n . I n a p o p u l a t i o n w h e r e t h e m a j o r i t y h a v e r e c e n t l y l e f t t h e h o m e l a n d i n o r d e r t o b e t t e r them-s e l v e s , and a r e t h e r e f o r e e x p e r i e n c i n g a p e r i o d o f d i s l o c a t i o n , t h e n e e d t o r e a s s u r e t h e m s e l v e s o f t h e i r own " c i v i l i s a t i o n " c a n be s a t i s f i e d b y e m p h a s i s i n g t h e " s a v a g e r y " o f t h e I n d i a n s . T h i s t e n d e n c y w o u l d be f u r t h e r s t r e n g t h e n e d t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t t h e r e 114 was a h e i g h t e n e d c o n s e n s u s i n t h e c o l o n i a l s o c i e t y . T h e r e w e r e , t h e r e f o r e , numerous p r e s s u r e s w i t h i n t h e s e t t l e r s o c i e t y f o r t h e p e r p e t u a t i o n o f p r e j u d i c e . A t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h i s c h a p t e r t h e a s s u m p t i o n was made t h a t t h e r e was a r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e E u r o p e a n s ' image o f t h e I n d i a n and t h e i r b e h a v i o u r t o w a r d s them. T h i s r e l a t i o n -s h i p i s a c o m p l e x o n e . A t t i t u d e s w e r e b o t h a c a u s e and a r e s u l t o f a c t i o n . The d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n t h e a t t i t u d e s o f f u r t r a d e r s a n d s e t t l e r s c o i n c i d e d w i t h t h e i r i n t e n t i o n s . When t r a d e was t h e E u r o p e a n s ' o b j e c t t h e I n d i a n was s e e n as p r i m i t i v e , b u t r e s p o n s i v e t o t h e a d v a n t a g e s o f c o - o p e r a t i o n r a t h e r t h a n h o s t i l e . When p e r m a n e n t s e t t l e m e n t was t h e i n t e n t i o n o f t h e E u r o p e a n s and t h e y c o v e t e d I n d i a n l a n d t h e I n d i a n became a h o s t i l e s a v a g e , a h i n d e r a n c e r a t h e r t h a n a h e l p ' t o t h e new a r r i v a l . The t h i n g s 143 w r i t t e n a n d s a i d a b o u t t h e I n d i a n s became more and more a b u s i v e . B u t b e h a v i o u r t o w a r d s t h e I n d i a n s a l s o a r o s e o u t o f t h e o p i n i o n s t h a t w e r e h e l d a b o u t them. T h e r e f o r e one m i g h t e x p e c t t h a t i f t h e s e t t l e r i m a ge was l a r g e l y b a s e d o n p r e j u d i c e a n d i g n o r a n c e t h e r e w o u l d be l i t t l e i n t h e i r b e h a v i o u r a nd p o l i c i e s t o b e n e f i t t h e I n d i a n a nd t h a t , a s a t t i t u d e s became more a b u s i v e , s o d i d t h e t r e a t m e n t o f t h e I n d i a n s . CHAPTER V Gold Miners and Sett l e r s As an i n f e r i o r race . . . we believe they /the Indians/ must give way i n order to make room for a race more enlightened, and by nature and habits better f i t t e d to perform the task of converting what i s now a wilderness into productive f i e l d s and happy homes. 1 The events of the summer of 185 8 ended the domination of the fur trade i n Vancouver Island and B r i t i s h Columbia. Although furs did not cease to change hands between Indians and Europeans, by the end of the summer the fur trade had been replaced as the dominant factor i n the relations between the two races. The f i r s t signs came late i n A p r i l . When news that the Fraser River contained gold i n substantial quantities reached C a l i f o r n i a , men began to move. On 21 A p r i l Douglas 2 reported that 400 miners had arrived at V i c t o r i a . Throughout the summer thi s t r i c k l e of hundreds became a torrent of thousands as San Francisco drained into V i c t o r i a . In May Douglas wrote to the Company that, while i t was impossible to stem the tide of gold miners, he s t i l l intended to try and protect the Company's 3 interests on the mainland. But the second end was as impossible to achieve as the f i r s t . As the i n f l u x of miners increased the Hudson's Bay Company l o s t i t s grip on the fur trading preserve. The men who came to the Fraser i n 1858 came to make money quickly, primarily by gold mining, but i f there was p r o f i t i n trading they were not predisposed to respect the p r i v i l e g e s of the Company. The Company's exclusive licence to trade with the Indians west of the mountains, that expired i n 1858, had 145 become u n t e n a b l e anyway. D u r i n g t h e summer V i c t o r i a h a d b u r g e o n e d f r o m a v i l l a g e t o a t o w n . I n c o n t r a s t t o t h e s i t u a -t i o n o n l y n i n e y e a r s e a r l i e r when B l a n s h a r d h a d r e m a r k e d t h a t • . 4 V i c t o r i a was m e r e l y a f u r t r a d i n g p o s t , b y " t h e e n d o f 1 8 5 8 , 5 F o r t V i c t o r i a was an a n a c h r o n i s m " . On t h e m a i n l a n d p e t t y t r a d e r s w e r e d e a l i n g w i t h t h e I n d i a n s and u n d e r c u t t i n g t h e Company's p r i c e s . So Ogden's e a r l i e r p r o p h e c y , t h a t t h e f u r t r a d e r s w e r e " t r u l y a doomed r a c e " 6 , was c o m i n g t r u e . I n 1857 t h e S e l e c t C o m m i t t e e on t h e . H u d s o n ' s Bay Company h a d recommended t h a t t h e C o m p a ny 1s r u l e o n V a n c o u v e r I s l a n d s h o u l d be e n d e d . N e g o t i a t i o n s f o r t h e t r a n s f e r o f power b e g a n i n J a n u a r y 1858. O f f i c i a l l y t h e d u a l p o s i t i o n o f James D o u g l a s came t o an e n d . I n May D o u g l a s t r i e d t o p r o t e c t t h e i n t e r e s t s o f t h e Company by i s s u i n g a P r o c l a m a t i o n as G o v e r n o r p r o h i b i t i n g v e s s e l s n o t l i c e n s e d by t h e Company f r o m e n t e r i n g t h e F r a s e r R i v e r . T h i s a c t i o n drew a r e p r i m a n d f r o m t h e C o l o n i a l O f f i c e . D o u g l a s was i n f o r m e d t h a t he was n o t t o u s e h i s power t o p r o t e c t t h e i n t e r e s t s o f t h e Hudson's Bay Company, and t h a t i t was c o n t r a r y t o l a w and t o h i s i n s t r u c t i o n s t o a t t e m p t t o g e x c l u d e p e o p l e f r o m B r i t i s h t e r r i t o r y . On 2 A u g u s t 1858 t h e B r i t i s h G o v e r n m e n t p a s s e d an A c t e s t a b l i s h i n g a d i r e c t r u l e on t h e m a i n l a n d , and New C a l e d o n i a became B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a . D o u g l a s was o f f e r e d t h e G o v e r n o r s h i p o f t h e new C o l o n y , b u t o n l y o n t h e c o n d i t i o n t h a t he s e v e r h i s c o n n e c t i o n s w i t h t h e Hudson's Bay Company. D o u g l a s was a p p o i n t e d G o v e r n o r o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a on 14 A u g u s t 1858. The t r a n s i t i o n a l p h a s e was o v e r and t h e f u r t r a d e h a d come t o an e n d . The g o l d m i n e r s w e r e t h e a d v a n c e g u a r d o f t h e s e t t l e m e n t 146 f r o n t i e r . W i t h t h e a d v e n t o f . s e t t l e m e n t came E u r o p e a n s who n o t o n l y h a d a d i f f e r e n t s e t o f a t t i t u d e s f r o m t h o s e o f t h e f u r t r a d e r s , b u t who made q u i t e d i f f e r e n t demands on t h e I n d i a n s . D u r i n g t h e f u r t r a d i n g p e r i o d t h e I n d i a n and t h e t r a d e r h a d s h a r e d a c o m m u n i t y o f i n t e r e s t . The t r a d e r s h a d b r o u g h t c h a n g e t o I n d i a n s o c i e t y b u t i t was c h a n g e t h a t t h e I n d i a n s c o u l d c o p e w i t h , s i n c e t h e y w e r e s t i l l i n c o n t r o l ' o f t h e i r s i t u a t i o n . The f u r t r a d e r s d i d n o t t r y t o a l t e r r a d i c a l l y t h e s o c i a l s y s t e m o f t h e I n d i a n s , t o u n d e r m i n e t h e i r b e l i e f s o r t o d e s t r o y t h e i r means o f l i v e l i h o o d . T h e s e E u r o p e a n s w e r e i n v o l v e d i n a b u s i n e s s e n t e r p r i s e t h a t r e q u i r e d t h e c o - o p e r a t i o n o f t h e I n d i a n s t o be s u c c e s s f u l . B e c a u s e t h e I n d i a n s w e r e an i n t e g r a l p a r t o f . t h e i r o p e r a t i o n s , t h e f u r t r a d e r s h a d t o accommodate t h e m s e l v e s t o I n d i a n w a y s . W i t h t h e a r r i v a l o f t h e s e t t l e r s a l l t h a t b e g a n t o c h a n g e : r a t h e r t h a n w a n t i n g t o accommodate t o t h e f r o n t i e r , t h e s e t t l e r came t o r e c r e a t e t h e m e t r o p o l i s . V a n c o u v e r I s l a n d and B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a w e r e c h a n g i n g f r o m c o l o n i e s o f e x p l o i t a t i o n w h i c h made u s e o f t h e i n d i g e n o u s manpower t o c o l o n i e s o f s e t t l e -ment w h e r e t h e I n d i a n became a t b e s t i r r e l e v a n t , and a t w o r s t an o b s t a c l e , t o t h e d e s i g n s o f t h e E u r o p e a n s . R a t h e r t h a n e c o n o m i c c o - o p e r a t i o n , now t h e r e was e c o n o m i c r i v a l r y b e t w e e n t h e r a c e s . S e t t l e m e n t b r o u g h t g r o u p s o f E u r o p e a n s who h a d come t o t r a n s f o r m t h e w i l d e r n e s s a n d , w i t h v a r y i n g d e g r e e s o f c o n -s c i o u s n e s s , t o c h a n g e t h e I n d i a n s who w e r e s e e n t o be a p a r t o f . i t . W i t h t h e c o m i n g o f t h e g o l d m i n e r s , I n d i a n s and E u r o p e a n s w e r e , f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e , c o m p e t i n g f o r t h e r e s o u r c e s o f t h e c o u n t r y . The f u n d a m e n t a l d e s i r e o f t h e s e t t l e r s was t o a c q u i r e 1 4 7 t h e l a n d t h a t h i t h e r t o h a d b e e n i n t h e p o s s e s s i o n o f t h e , I n d i a n s . E v e n more d e l i b e r a t e a c c u l t u r a t i o n o c c u r r e d as t h e p l a n s o f t h e m i s s i o n a r i e s and a d m i n i s t r a t o r s b e g a n t o be i m p l e m e n t e d . The c o m b i n e d i m p a c t o f t h e s e g r o u p s was t o f o r c e t h e p a c e o f a c c u l t u r a t i o n and t o t a k e t h e i n i t i a t i v e o u t o f I n d i a n h a n d s . D u r i n g t h e f u r t r a d e the I n d i a n s h a d b e e n a b l e t o s e l e c t t h o s e i t e m s t h a t t h e y w a n t e d t o i n c o r p o r a t e i n t o t h e i r s o c i a l f a b r i c a c c o r d i n g t o t h e i r own p r i o r i t i e s , and t o r e j e c t o t h e r s t h a t w e r e . n o t a c c e p t a b l e . W i t h s e t t l e m e n t t h i s f r e e d o m was l o s t . The I n d i a n s w e r e m o v i n g f r o m a n o n - d i r e c t e d a c c u l -t u r a t i o n e x p e r i e n c e t o a s i t u a t i o n i n w h i c h c u l t u r e c h a n g e was 9 d i r e c t e d f r o m o u t s i d e t h e i r s o c i e t y . D i r e c t e d c u l t u r e c h a n g e o c c u r s i n t h o s e s i t u a t i o n s w h e r e t h e r e i s a r e l a t i o n s h i p o f d o m i n a n c e and s u b m i s s i o n b e t w e e n t h e two g r o u p s i n c o n t a c t . 1 0 S u c h a r e l a t i o n s h i p b e g a n t o d e v e l o p i n V a n c o u v e r I s l a n d a n d B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a w i t h t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f s e t t l e m e n t . C o e r c i v e p r e s s u r e s , w i t h v a r y i n g d e g r e e s o f s u b t l e t y , w e r e b r o u g h t t o b e a r on t h e I n d i a n s . D u r i n g t h e p e r i o d o f t h e f u r t r a d e E u r o p e a n s h a d b e e n a s m a l l m i n o r i t y and t h e i r numbers h a d b e e n f a i r l y c o n s t a n t , b u t a f t e r t h e e s t a b l i s h -ment o f s e t t l e m e n t t h e E u r o p e a n p o p u l a t i o n i n c r e a s e d r a p i d l y a n d t h e I n d i a n p o p u l a t i o n d e c l i n e d . R a t h e r t h a n a few s e l e c t i n d i v i d u a l s who came w i t h l i m i t e d a i m s , t h e r e was a new p o p u l a -t i o n t h a t w a n t e d t o r e c r e a t e E n g l i s h s o c i e t y a l m o s t i n i t s e n t i r e t y . F u r t h e r m o r e t h e I n d i a n s now b e g a n t o e n c o u n t e r E u r o p e a n s who n o t o n l y w a n t e d t o c h a n g e t h e i r way o f l i f e b u t who h a d t h e power t o do s o . P r e v i o u s l y t h e r e h a d b e e n a s i t u a t i o n o f I n d i a n d o m i n a n c e ; now t h e b a l a n c e o f power was t i p p i n g i n 148 f a v o u r o f t h e E u r o p e a n s . When t h e i n t e r e s t s o f t h e two r a c e s c o n f l i c t e d t h e s e t t l e r s w e r e i n c r e a s i n g l y i n a p o s i t i o n t o f o r c e t h e i r w i l l on t h e I n d i a n s ; and s e t t l e m e n t b r o u g h t t h e c l a s h o f t h e two c u l t u r e s i n a way t h a t t h e f u r t r a d e h a d n e v e r d o n e . N o t a l l I n d i a n g r o u p s w e r e i m m e d i a t e l y o r e q u a l l y a f f e c t e d b y t h e s e d e v e l o p m e n t s . Some o f t h e c o a s t a l g r o u p s - t h e H a i d a , K w a k i u t l and N o o t k a e s p e c i a l l y - and t h e more i s o l a t e d i n t e r i o r I n d i a n s h a d o n l y l i m i t e d c o n t a c t w i t h g o l d m i n e r s and s e t t l e r s d u r i n g t h e 1 8 6 0 ' s . B u t among t h o s e I n d i a n s who w e r e i n c o n t a c t w i t h t h e E u r o p e a n s a p r o c e s s was b e g u n t h a t was e v e n t u a l l y t o a f f e c t a l l t h e I n d i a n g r o u p s o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a . C o n f l i c t b e g a n w i t h t h e g o l d m i n e r s . The men who came t o t h e F r a s e r and Thompson R i v e r s i n 1858 w e r e i m p e l l e d by an e x c i t e m e n t t h a t i s p e r h a p s i m p o s s i b l e f o r modern man t o f u l l y c o m p r e h e n d . I t h a d d r i v e n many f r o m E u r o p e , a n d some h a l f way r o u n d t h e r i m o f t h e P a c i f i c . T h o s e who came t o t h e two C o l o n i e s b r o u g h t w i t h them t h e h y s t e r i a a b o u t g o l d t h a t a c c o m p a n i e d a l l new s t r i k e s . One V a n c o u v e r I s l a n d s e t t l e r w r o t e home i n 1858 t h a t " t h e p e o p l e seems ( s i c ) t o be g o i n g mad a l t o g e t h e r a b o u t t h e g o l d mines". 1''" H u n d r e d s o f b u s t l i n g m i n e r s came t o g e t r i c h , a nd t o do s o q u i c k l y ; They w e r e i n t o l e r a n t o f a n y -t h i n g t h a t s t o o d i n t h e i r way. They h a d a l r e a d y d e m o n s t r a t e d i n C a l i f o r n i a t h a t t h e y w o u l d e s p e c i a l l y g i v e s h o r t s h r i f t t o any " s a v a g e s " t h a t w e r e s e e n as a h i n d r a n c e t o t h e i r a c t i v i t i e s . The m i n e r s i m p o r t e d e x a c t l y t h e same a t t i t u d e i n t o B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , b u t h e r e t h e y e n c o u n t e r e d a d i f f e r e n t k i n d o f I n d i a n . As one o f t h e i r number p o i n t e d o u t , t h e I n d i a n s o f t h e F r a s e r 149 and Thompson R i v e r s w e r e u s e d t o c o m m e r c i a l d e a l i n g s w i t h 12 E u r o p e a n s . I n 1858 many I n d i a n s a l r e a d y u n d e r s t o o d t h e v a l u e o f g o l d t o w h i t e s , a nd many more w e r e l e a r n i n g f a s t . So t h e I n d i a n s w e r e u n l i k e l y t o l o o k w i t h f a v o u r on m i n e r s who.came r a m p a g i n g i n t o t a k e r e s o u r c e s t h a t t h e y n o t o n l y owned b u t knew t h e v a l u e o f . D o u g l a s r e p o r t e d t o h i s s u p e r i o r s t h a t t h e I n d i a n s w e r e e x t r e m e l y " j e a l o u s o f t h e w h i t e s a nd s t r o n g l y 13 o p p o s e d t o t h e i r d i g g i n g t h e s o i l f o r g o l d . " I t was a s i t u a t i o n t h a t was b o u n d t o p r o d u c e i n t e r - r a c i a l c o n f l i c t . F r o m t h e b e g i n n i n g t h e r e was v i o l e n c e b e t w e e n t h e m i n e r s and t h e I n d i a n s . Much o f i t u n d o u b t e d l y w e n t u n r e p o r t e d , b u t t h e r e c o r d s a r e s u f f i c i e n t t o i n d i c a t e t h e t e n o r o f t h e s i t u a t i o n . A l a r g e p r o p o r t i o n o f t h e m i n i n g p o p u l a t i o n w e r e t r a n s i e n t s , men who h a d c u t l o o s e f r o m t h e t i e s a n d r e s t r a i n t s o f e s t a b l i s h e d s o c i e t i e s . As a c o n s e q u e n c e o f t h e u n s t a b l e c o n d i t i o n s t h a t t h e y 14 h a d l i v e d u n d e r many h a d become " h a b i t u a t e d t o v i o l e n c e " . As D o u g l a s , i n one o f h i s more pompous moments, p u t i t , " I h a v e j u s t b e e n i n f o r m e d t h a t a number o f t h a t c l a s s o f p e r s o n s commonly c a l l e d ' r o w d i e s ' i n C a l i f o r n i a h a v e t a k e n up t h e i r q u a r t e r s i n 15 t h i s C o l o n y " . D o u g l a s was c o n c e r n e d t h a t t h e i n f l u x o f A m e r i c a n s w o u l d l e a d t o " d i f f i c u l t i e s " b e t w e e n w h i t e s a n d I n d i a n s . 1 6 A n o t h e r o b s e r v e r d e s c r i b e d t h e g o l d m i n i n g town o f Y a l e as a n e s t "whence i s s u e s t h e w r e t c h who w i l l s h o o t an 17 I n d i a n i n t h e b a c k when he f i n d s one a l o n e a nd unarmed". Some o f t h e m i n e r s came up f r o m C a l i f o r n i a b o a s t i n g t h a t t h e y w o u l d 18 " c l e a n o u t a l l t h e I n d i a n s i n t h e l a n d , " a nd t h e r e w e r e i n s t a n c e s o f t h e k i n d o f i n d i s c r i m i n a t e k i l l i n g o f I n d i a n s t h a t was a f e a t u r e o f t h e A m e r i c a n West. A company o f miners""coiming 150 n o r t h , a l o n g t h e o l d Hudson's Bay Company t r a i l d e s t r o y e d t h e w i n t e r p r o v i s i o n s i n an u n a t t e n d e d I n d i a n v i l l a g e on t h e s h o r e o f Okanagan L a k e . Some o f t h e p a r t y o b j e c t e d t o t h i s b e h a v i o u r , b u t t h e p e r p e t r a t o r s t h o u g h t t h a t i t was " g r e a t f u n " . The f o l l o w i n g d ay a g r o u p o f unarmed I n d i a n s w e r e m a s s a c r e d b y t h e m i n e r s . E v e n t h e member o f t h e p a r t y who r e l a t e s t h e i n c i d e n t t h o u g h t t h a t i t was "a b r u t a l a f f a i r " . A p a r t f r o m a g e n e r a l p a r a n o i a a b o u t h o s t i l e I n d i a n s t h i s a t t a c k was n o t m o t i v a t e d b y 19 any p a r t i c u l a r g r i e v a n c e a g a i n s t t h e O k a n a g a n s . The F r a s e r C a n y on was a l s o t h e s c e n e o f i n t e r - r a c i a l v i o l e n c e i n t h e summer o f 1858. T h e r e w e r e i n d i v i d u a l k i l l i n g s , b o t h o f m i n e r s a n d o f I n d i a n s , a n d on a t l e a s t two o c c a s i o n s t h e s i t u a t i o n t h r e a t e n e d t o e s c a l a t e i n t o m a j o r c o n f l i c t . T h e r e w e r e some i n t h e C o l o n i e s who w e r e q u i t e c a v a l i e r a b o u t t h e 20 p o s s i b i l i t y o f an I n d i a n w a r , b u t D o u g l a s was v e r y w o r r i e d a b o u t t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s o f s u c h a c o n f l i c t . He f e a r e d t h a t a " s a n g u i n a r y w a r o f r a c e s " w o u l d be " t h e i n e v i t a b l e c o n s e q u e n c e o f a p r o l o n g e d s t a t e o f m i s r u l e " a n d w o u l d p l u n g e t h e G o v e r n m e n t 21 . . i n t o s e r i o u s d i f f i c u l t i e s . I n b o t h c a s e s o f m a j o r h o s t i l i t i e s D o u g l a s v i s i t e d t h e m i n i n g a r e a . H i s i n t e r v e n t i o n a t H i l l ' s B a r i n J u n e s e t t l e d t h e c o n f l i c t , a n d a p o t e n t i a l l y u g l y s i t u a t i o n a t Y a l e h a d r e s o l v e d i t s e l f b e f o r e h i s a r r i v a l l a t e i n A u g u s t . J u s t p r i o r t o h i s a r r i v a l a t Y a l e t h e m u t u a l h o s t i l i t y b e t w e e n m i n e r and I n d i a n h a d t h r e a t e n e d t o b o i l o v e r . Rumours w e r e f l y i n g , a n d when some d e a d m i n e r s w e r e f o u n d i t was assumed t h a t t h e y h a d b e e n m u r d e r e d by I n d i a n s . The m i n e r s a t Y a l e f o r m e d them-s e l v e s i n t o v o l u n t e e r c o m p a n i e s t o t a k e r e p r i s a l s a g a i n s t t h e I n d i a n s up r i v e r . T h e r e was w i l d t a l k a b o u t e x t e r m i n a t i n g t h e 151 I n d i a n s , b u t t h e s e m i l i t i a u n i t s i n v o l v e d t h e m s e l v e s more i n b r a v a d o t h a n i n a c t i o n . I n c r e d i b l e s t o r i e s c o n t i n u e d t o c i r -c u l a t e . On 25 A u g u s t 1858 t h e D a l l y V i c t o r i a G a z e t t e r e p o r t e d t h a t t h e I n d i a n s h a d m u r d e r e d 42 men and h a d h o r r i b l y m u t i l a t e d t h e b o d i e s o f 38 o f them. The f o l l o w i n g d a y t h e s t o r y was r e t r a c t e d a s u n t r u e , f o r i n f a c t f r i e n d l y I n d i a n s h a d p r e v e n t e d m a j o r h o s t i l i t i e s f r o m d e v e l o p i n g . N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e m i n e r who c a r r i e d t h e s o - c a l l e d news t o Y a l e h a d c r e a t e d a f e r m e n t o f e x c i t e m e n t i n t h e t o w n . E v e n t u a l l y , h o w e v e r , t h e s i t u a t i o n b e g a n t o s immer down as t h e m i n e r s made p e a c e t r e a t i e s w i t h t h e I n d i a n s . B u t a l r e a d y a number o f I n d i a n s h a d b e e n k i l l e d , some v i l l a g e s d e s t r o y e d , a n d an I n d i a n p r i s o n e r n e a r l y l y n c h e d by a c r o w d o f 22 a n g r y m i n e r s . O u t b r e a k s o f v i o l e n c e s u c h as t h e s e w e r e s y m p t o m a t i c o f a g e n e r a l a n t a g o n i s m b e t w e e n t h e two r a c e s . L a r g e numbers o f m i n e r s a n d I n d i a n s w e r e w o r k i n g i n c l o s e p r o x i m i t y on t h e g o l d b a r s . One w i t n e s s s a i d t h a t t h e r e w e r e f r o m s i x t y t o s e v e n t y E u r o p e a n s w o r k i n g a l o n g s i d e f o u r t o f i v e h u n d r e d I n d i a n s 23 a t H i l l ' s B a r a l o n e i n t h e summer o f 1858. E a c h r a c e h a r b o u r e d g r i e v a n c e s a g a i n s t t h e o t h e r . Numerous a c c u s a t i o n s o f I n d i a n s k i l l i n g m i n e r s , w h e t h e r t r u e o r n o t , i n c e n s e d t h e E u r o p e a n s . M i n e r s a l s o c o m p l a i n e d o f I n d i a n s s t e a l i n g t h e i r e q u i p m e n t , s t o c k a n d f o o d . Then t h e r e w e r e t h e e f f o r t s o f t h e I n d i a n s t o p r e v e n t t h e m i n e r s f r o m e x t r a c t i n g any g o l d a t a l l . T h e r e w e r e r e p o r t s o f I n d i a n s t r y i n g t o s t o p t h e m i n e r s f r o m p r o c e e d i n g up t h e r i v e r s 2 4 and a t t e m p t i n g t o i m p o s e t a x e s on t h o s e w o r k i n g g r o u n d 25 c l a i m e d by t h e I n d i a n s . L a r g e a s s e m b l i e s o f I n d i a n s t e n d e d t o make t h e m i n e r s u n e a s y and t h e y w e r e a p t t o c o n c l u d e t h a t 152 2 6 Indian gatherings were "for no f r i e n d l y purpose." Government o f f i c i a l s reported to V i c t o r i a that a l l these factors made the miners apprehensive and touchy, even though they had brought 27 much of the Indian h o s t i l i t y on themselves. Apart from the simple objection to the presence and a c t i v i t i e s of the miners, the Indians objected to the abuses that they had to endure. They r e i t e r a t e d i n reverse the miners' allegations of th e f t , complaining that miners took t h e i r stock and destroyed t h e i r 2 8 crops. Indians also complained that miners abused t h e i r 29 women and were generally i n s u l t i n g . Indian accusations were corroborated by European observers who wrote of the miners 30 treating the Indians with "cowardly cruelty". One of the Gold Commissioners even went as far as to express the,belief that i t was "a f a l l a c y " to "endeavour to e n l i s t the good w i l l of 31 the American or I r i s h toward the Indian". The miners and t h e i r operations were a major interference with the l i f e and l i v e l i h o o d of the Indians who were, as a consequence, becoming very unsettled. The Fraser canyon had been the major salmon f i s h i n g area, not just for the Indians i n the immediate v i c i n i t y , but for those as far away as the S t r a i t of Georgia. Mining operations disrupted the catching and drying of a major staple i n the Indian d i e t . The 1858 run turned out to be a poor one for salmon- anyway, and many held that the a c t i v i t i e s of the miners were responsible for depleting the 32 f i s h i n g . Certainly one of the reasons that the Indians had opposed the entrance of the miners i n the f i r s t place was the fear that the salmon would be eliminated from the r i v e r s and 33 • streams. They undoubtedly held the Europeans responsible for 153 t h e l a c k o f f o o d d u r i n g t h e w i n t e r o f 1 8 5 8 - 1 8 5 9 . M i n e r s a l s o i n t e r f e r e d w i t h t h e I n d i a n s ' l a n d h o l d i n g s ; v i l l a g e s i t e s , f i s h i n g s t a t i o n s , a n d c u l t i v a t e d a r e a s w e r e a l l i n t r u d e d u p o n . The f i r s t w i n t e r a f t e r t h e a r r i v a l o f t h e m i n e r s was a h a r d one f o r t h e I n d i a n s . G o v e r n m e n t o f f i c i a l s a n d o t h e r s 34 w r o t e numerous r e p o r t s o f I n d i a n s b e i n g d e s t i t u t e a n d s t a r v i n g . I t was n a t u r a l , and p r o b a b l y j u s t , f o r t h e I n d i a n s t o b l a m e t h e m i n e r s f o r t h e i r s i t u a t i o n . Many E u r o p e a n s s i m p l y e x p l a i n e d t h e I n d i a n s ' l a c k o f f o o d as b e i n g a r e s u l t o f t h e i r " n a t u r a l i m p r o v i -d e n c e " , b u t m i n i n g d i d damage t h e I n d i a n s ' r e s o u r c e a r e a s . Many I n d i a n s w e r e c a u g h t by t h e m a n i a f o r g o l d a n d some p r o b a b l y n e g l e c t e d t h e i r t r a d i t i o n a l summer f o o d g a t h e r i n g , e i t h e r f o r m i n i n g o r f o r p r o v i d i n g a n c i l l a r y s e r v i c e s f o r t h e w h i t e m i n e r s . J u d g e M a t t h e w B e g b i e r i g h t l y p o i n t e d o u t t h a t t h e w i l l i n g n e s s o f t h e I n d i a n s t o w o r k h a r d f o r wages seemed t o a r g u e a g a i n s t t h e 35 i d e a o f " n a t u r a l i m p r o v i d e n c e " , i n d e e d many I n d i a n s w e r e a b l e t o s u p p o r t t h e m s e l v e s a n d t h e i r f a m i l i e s by b e c o m i n g wage 3 6 e a r n e r s . O t h e r s , h o w e v e r , o b v i o u s l y m i s c a l c u l a t e d t h e i r w i n t e r n e e d s . The p r e s s u r e o f s t a r v a t i o n f o r c e d some I n d i a n s t o s t e a l f r o m E u r o p e a n s . A l s o I n d i a n s o f t h e c a n y o n , a t t r a c t e d b y t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f t r a d e a n d w o r k , a b a n d o n e d t h e i r w i n t e r v i l l a g e s 37 a n d b e g a n t o c o n g r e g a t e a r o u n d t h e m i n i n g t o w n s . T h e n t h e I n d i a n s f o u n d t h a t t h e s e t o w n s h a d o t h e r , l e s s d e s i r a b l e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . By a l l a c c o u n t s t h e m i n i n g t o w n s , p a r t i c u l a r l y Y a l e , w e r e u n s a v o u r y p l a c e s . As I n d i a n s b e g a n t o a c q u i r e l i q u o r f r o m w h i t e t r a d e r s a n d I n d i a n women became p r o s t i t u t e s o r t h e t e m p o r a r y w i v e s o f m i n e r s , d r u n k e n n e s s a nd p r o s t i t u t i o n b r o u g h t t h e a t t e n d a n t e v i l s o f d e g r a d a t i o n a n d d i s e a s e . 154 Had t h e m i n i n g a r e a s r e t u r n e d t o t h e i r p r e - 1 8 5 8 c o n d i t i o n a f t e r t h e m i n e r s h a d d e p a r t e d t h e i r i m p a c t o n t h e I n d i a n s m i g h t h a v e b e e n as t r a n s i t o r y as t h e i r p r e s e n c e . M o s t o f t h e m i n e r s l e f t t h e c a n y o n a r e a d u r i n g t h e w i n t e r , a n d as one f i e l d became e x h a u s t e d t h e y moved on t o f r e s h e r o n e s . G r a d u a l l y m o s t o f t h e m i n i n g p o p u l a t i o n moved n o r t h . By t h e e a r l y 1 8 6 0 ' s t h e C a r i b o o was t h e c e n t r e o f a t t e n t i o n a n d i n t h e e a r l y 1870's t h e r e w e r e g o l d s t r i k e s on t h e S k e e n a a n d O m i n e c a R i v e r s . To t h e e a s t t h e r e was a s t r i k e a t Rock C r e e k a nd b r i e f e x c i t e m e n t s i n t h e K o o t e n a y s a n d i n t h e B i g Bend c o u n t r y . B u t as t h e m i n e r s d e p a r t e d t h e i r p l a c e was t a k e n by o t h e r E u r o p e a n s who w e r e t o h a v e an e v e n more p r o f o u n d i n f l u e n c e o n t h e I n d i a n s . A t t h e t i m e o f t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f t h e new C o l o n y o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , h o p e s w e r e e x p r e s s e d i n B r i t a i n t h a t a more p e r m a n e n t 3 8 p o p u l a t i o n w o u l d be a d d e d t o t h e g o l d s e e k e r s a n d i n V i c t o r i a D o u g l a s h a d a l r e a d y recommended " t h a t t h e w h o l e c o u n t r y be 39 i m m e d i a t e l y t h r o w n o p e n f o r s e t t l e m e n t " . T h e s e h o p e s w e r e n o t t o be d i s a p p o i n t e d . P e r m a n e n t s e t t l e r s w e r e a r r i v i n g i n i n c r e a s i n g n u m b e r s , and t h e y b e g a n t o h a v e an i m p a c t on t h e I n d i a n s t h a t was a l s o t o be p e r m a n e n t . S e t t l e r s , l i k e g o l d m i n e r s , a d o p t e d l i t t l e o f t h e c i r c u m s p e c t i o n t h a t c h a r a c t e r i s e d t h e f u r t r a d e r s 1 d e a l i n g s w i t h t h e I n d i a n s . Many s e t t l e r s w e r e h i g h h a n d e d i n t h e i r t r e a t m e n t o f t h e I n d i a n s . One o b s e r v e r c l a i m e d t h a t i n many i n s t a n c e s t h e w h i t e man c o n s i d e r e d h i m s e l f " e n t i t l e d t o demand t h e i r w i v e s o r t h e i r s i s t e r s , and i f s u c h demand i s d i s p u t e d , 40 t o p r o c e e d t o a c t s o f v i o l e n c e t o g a i n t h e i r o b j e c t . " O f t e n when I n d i a n s c o m p l a i n e d a b o u t m i s t r e a t m e n t , t h e y w e r e s i m p l y 155 41 t r e a t e d w i t h a b u s e , a nd s o m e t i m e s t h e y r e s p o n d e d i n k i n d . Many o f t h e s o - c a l l e d " o u t r a g e s " p e r p e t r a t e d b y I n d i a n s o n t h e E u r o p e a n s c o u l d be a t t r i b u t e d , a c c o r d i n g t o M a t t h e w M a c f i e , " t o some w a n t o n v i o l a t i o n o f t h e p e r s o n a l o r d o m e s t i c r i g h t s o f t h e I n d i a n s o n t h e p a r t o f t h e w h i t e s . " A t t a c k s on E u r o p e a n s w h i c h a p p e a r e d t o be w i t h o u t p r o v o c a t i o n w e r e p e r h a p s a c o n -s e q u e n c e o f t h e f a c t t h a t "some o f t h e t r i b e s h a v e h e l d t h e 42 p r e s e n c e o f o u r r a c e t o be p r a c t i c a l l y an i n v a s i o n . " The q u i n t e s s e n t i a l c o n f l i c t b e t w e e n t h e s e t t l e r s a n d t h e I n d i a n s was o v e r l a n d . L a n d was as e s s e n t i a l t o t h e c o n -t i n u a t i o n o f I n d i a n c u l t u r e as i t was t o t h e a i m s o f t h e s e t t l e r s . The o v e r w h e l m i n g d e s i r e t h a t b r o u g h t t h e s e t t l e r s s a i l i n g s o f a r f r o m home was f o r " a d v a n c e m e n t " , b o t h e c o n o m i c and s o c i a l . F o r many t h e a c q u i s i t i o n o f l a n d was t h e p r i m a r y means o f a d v a n c e m e n t . F o r t h e s p e c u l a t o r l a n d was t h e means o f m a k i n g a p r o f i t a n d f o r t h e s e t t l e r w i t h a l i t t l e c a p i t a l i t 43 was t h e means o f r i s i n g a b o v e t h e l e v e l o f t h e "mere l a b o u r e r " . L a n d meant e i t h e r money o r s t a t u s , o r b o t h , . t o t h e c o l o n i s t . He h a d come t o t h e C o l o n i e s t o a c q u i r e t h e l a n d t h a t c o u l d be no l o n g e r o b t a i n e d i n B r i t a i n a n d he was i n no mood t o t a k e t h e c l a i m s o f t h e I n d i a n s i n t o a c c o u n t . As f a r as t h e I n d i a n s w e r e c o n c e r n e d t h e l a n d was t h e i r s , a s i t h a d b e e n f r o m t i m e i m m e m o r i a l . N o t i o n s o f o w n e r s h i p v a r i e d f r o m one t r i b e t o a n o t h e r , b u t t r a d i t i o n a l l y t h e I n d i a n i d e n t i f i e d s t r o n g l y w i t h h i s l o c a l e . S e t t l e r s w e r e s o m e t i m e s s u r p r i s e d a t t h e number o f g e o g r a p h i c f e a t u r e s and p l a c e s t h a t t h e I n d i a n s h a d names f o r . G r a n t n o t e d t h a t i n S o o k e h a r b o u r " e v e r y l i t t l e p o i n t t o w h i c h a w h i t e man w o u l d n o t d r e a m o f g i v i n g a name has i t s separate appellation".' 1"* Many Indian groups possessed myths that explained the existence of the topographic features i n t h e i r l o c a l i t y . Most commonly i n Indian s o c i e t i e s house s i t e s and food gathering places were owned by the kinship group. But the Indians' relationship with the land was not jus t material, i t was also s p i r i t u a l . Some groups believed that just as a l l growing things had a soul, so also did the rocks and the water since they had a l l been people during the myth-o l o g i c a l age. The "land mysteries" were a part of the r e l i g i o u s 45 b e l i e f s of many i n t e r i o r Indians. The land, as well as sustaining l i f e , was l i f e . When he was working as Reserve Commissioner among the Shuswap i n the 1870's Sproat wrote i n a l e t t e r to Ottawa that "I do not exaggerate i n saying that some of these Indians die i f they lose t h e i r land: they take i t so 46 much to heart." To r e l i e v e the Indian of his land was to de-prive him of the place of his ancestors and to take away part of his i d e n t i t y . Not that the Indians' attitude to, and use of, the land was unchanging. I t i s probable that the fur trade resulted i n a sharpening of notions of t e r r i t o r i a l i t y among some groups, and i t i s certa i n that as the Indians l o s t land they placed a greater value on what they retained. European contact had also induced some tribes to turn from a purely hunting, and gathering economy to c u l t i v a t i n g increasing areas of t h e i r land and, p a r t i c u l a r l y in the i n t e r i o r , running growing herds of horses and c a t t l e . But either way the Indians were i n competition with the s e t t l e r s . If the Indians farmed, either for subsistence or for p r o f i t , they competed d i r e c t l y with the Europeans. If they retained 157 t h e i r t r a d i t i o n a l economy t h e r i v a l r y was e v e n g r e a t e r , a s t h e two ways o f u s i n g t h e l a n d w e r e m u t u a l l y e x c l u s i v e . I t was d i f f i c u l t f o r t h e I n d i a n s t o h u n t o r p i c k b e r r i e s on l a n d t h a t h a d b e e n r i p p e d up by t h e f a r m e r ' s p l o u g h . The c o n f l i c t was s i m p l e and i n e v i t a b l e : t h e I n d i a n s h a d t h e l a n d and t h e s e t t l e r s w a n t e d i t . E u r o p e a n s h a d n e v e r l a c k e d f o r j u s t i f i c a t i o n s f o r d i s -p o s s e s s i n g a b o r i g i n e s o f t h e i r l a n d . T h e r e w e r e b i b l i c a l i n -j u n c t i o n s t h a t c o u l d be c i t e d i n s u p p o r t o f t h e i r a c t i o n s . P e r h a p s t h e f i r s t E n g l i s h m a n t o comment on t h e s u b j e c t was S i r Thomas M o r e . The p e o p l e o f M o r e ' s U t o p i a c o n s i d e r e d t h i s t h e m o s t j u s t c a u s e f o r w a r ; "when any p e o p l e h o l d e t h a p i e c e o f g r o u n d v o i d and v a c a n t t o no g o o d n o r p r o f i t a b l e u s e , k e e p i n g o t h e r s f r o m t h e u s e and p o s s e s s i o n o f i t w h i c h n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g b y t h e l a w o f n a t u r e o u g h t t h e r e o f t o be n o u r i s h e d and r e -47 l i e v e d . " J o h n L o c k e , i n h i s S e c o n d T r e a t i s e o f G o v e r n m e n t , i m p l i e s t h a t an a g r i c u l t u r a l p e o p l e , m i g h t j u s t l y f o r c e a h u n t i n g 48 p o p u l a t i o n t o a l t e r i t s economy. P e r h a p s t h e a u t h o r i t y t h a t was m o s t f r e q u e n t l y r e f e r r e d t o i n N o r t h A m e r i c a was t h e S w i s s j u r i s t , V a t t e l , who h e l d t h a t p e o p l e who do n o t s e t t l e and c u l t i v a t e t h e l a n d c a n n o t h a v e a t r u e and l e g a l p o s s e s s i o n o f i t . I n h i s The Law o f N a t i o n s , f i r s t p u b l i s h e d i n 1760 and r e p u b l i s h e d i n 1 8 3 4 , V a t t e l c o n c l u d e d t h a t p e o p l e i n N o r t h A m e r i c a h a d " n o t d e v i a t e d f r o m t h e v i e w o f N a t u r e " by d e p r i v i n g 49 t h e I n d i a n s o f some o f t h e i r l a n d . Among t h o s e s e t t l e r s who t h o u g h t t h a t d e e p l y a b o u t t h e q u e s t i o n , V a t t e l ' s v i e w p r e v a i l e d . The B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a n h e l d t h a t " A c c o r d i n g t o t h e s t r i c t r u l e o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l l a w 158 t e r r i t o r y o c c u p i e d b y a b a r b a r o u s o r w h o l l y u n c i v i l i s e d p e o p l e may be r i g h t f u l l y a p p r o p r i a t e d b y a c i v i l i s e d o r C h r i s t i a n n a t i o n " . ^ 0 S p r o a t d i s c u s s e d t h e same q u e s t i o n w i t h some o f h i s f e l l o w c o l o n i s t s s o o n a f t e r t h e i r a r r i v a l i n t h e A l b e r n i a r e a i n 1 8 6 0 . They a g r e e d t h a t t h e d i s p o s s e s s i o n o f t h e I n d i a n s was l e g i t i m a t e on t h e g r o u n d s t h a t a l l t h e l a n d was " l y i n g w a s t e 51 w i t h o u t p r o s p e c t o f improvement".-, E n g l i s h m e n g e n e r a l l y t h o u g h t t h a t a h u n t i n g economy was i n f e r i o r t o an a g r i c u l t u r a l o n e , a n d t h a t h u n t e r s a n d g a t h e r e r s made i n c o m p l e t e u s e o f t h e l a n d . I t was e v e n a s s e r t e d t h a t t h e I n d i a n s p l a c e d no v a l u e on 52 t h e i r l a n d b e c a u s e t h e y n e v e r c u l t i v a t e d i t . S e t t l e r s w e r e e i t h e r u n w i l l i n g o r u n a b l e t o u n d e r s t a n d I n d i a n c o n c e p t s o f l a n d t e n u r e , a n d i n s t e a d made t h e e a s i e r a s s u m p t i o n t h a t t h e l a n d was l y i n g " w a s t e " . They t h o u g h t i t "a g r e a t p i t y t o s e e t h i s b e a u t i f u l c o u n t r y so w e l l a d a p t e d t o t h e w a n t s o f man, l y i n g w a s t e , when s o many E n g l i s h m e n a nd S c o t c h m e n w o u l d be g l a d t o 53 come h e r e a nd t i l l t h e s o i l . " A n o t h e r , more p o r t e n t o u s , way o f j u s t i f y i n g p o s s e s s i o n o f t h e i r l a n d was t o deny t h e h u m a n i t y o f t h e a b o r i g i n a l i n h a b i t a n t s . T h a t c u r r e n t o f t h o u g h t was s e l d o m f a r b e l o w t h e s u r f a c e o f t h e s e t t l e r s ' w r i t i n g s on t h e I n d i a n s . W h a t e v e r t h e r e a s o n o r t h e r a t i o n a l i s a t i o n , n e a r l y a l l t h e s e t t l e r s a g r e e d t h a t t h e " i n d o l e n t , c o n t e n t e d , s a v a g e , m u s t g i v e p l a c e t o t h e b u s t e l i n g / s i c / s o n s o f c i v i l i s a t i o n & 54 T o i l " . I n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a a n d V a n c o u v e r I s l a n d t h e r e w e r e some l o c a l f a c t o r s t h a t i n t e n s i f i e d i n t e r - r a c i a l c o n f l i c t o v e r l a n d . E u r o p e a n s a nd I n d i a n s t e n d e d t o s e l e c t l a n d f o r t h e same r e a s o n s ; t h e y b o t h w a n t e d l a n d t h a t was f e r t i l e a n d p r o d u c t i v e . 159 W h i l e t h e t o t a l l a n d a r e a o f t h e two C o l o n i e s was l a r g e , o n l y a s m a l l p r o p o r t i o n was s u i t a b l e f o r c u l t i v a t i o n . The f a c t s o f g e o g r a p h y t h e r e f o r e f o c u s s e d t h e c o n f l i c t on c o m p a r a t i v e l y s m a l l p o c k e t s o f f e r t i l e r i v e r v a l l e y l a n d . P r i o r t o t h e a r r i v a l o f t h e s e t t l e r s v e r y l i t t l e o f t h e , l a n d was " w a s t e " i n t h e s e n s e t h a t i t was unowned. C o n s e q u e n t l y i f one t r i b e was d i s p l a c e d b y E u r o p e a n s e t t l e r s i t c o u l d n o t move t o a n o t h e r p l a c e w i t h o u t i n t r u d i n g on t h e t e r r i t o r y o f a n o t h e r g r o u p . Un-l i k e A u s t r a l i a t h e r e was no v a s t u n u s e d i n t e r i o r t h a t t h e a b o r i g i n e s c o u l d r e t r e a t t o , s o t h e l a n d q u e s t i o n c o u l d n o t be d e f e r r e d f o r l o n g ; t h e c o n f l i c t h a d t o be s e t t l e d o n t h e s p o t . The a c t i v i t i e s o f s p e c u l a t o r s a d d e d t o t h e p r e s s u r e on I n d i a n 55 l a n d . When l a n d was b o u g h t b y E u r o p e a n s f o r t h e p u r p o s e s o f s p e c u l a t i o n i t was t h e r e b y w i t h h e l d f r o m t h o s e who w a n t e d t o f a r m i t , s o t h a t e v e n more I n d i a n l a n d was n e e d e d t o s a t i s f y t h e n e e d s o f f a r m i n g s e t t l e r s . A f u r t h e r f a c t o r a d d i n g t o t h e i n t e n s i t y o f t h e c o n f l i c t was t h e f a c t t h a t t h e more s e t t l e r p r e s s u r e t h e r e was on I n d i a n l a n d , t h e more t h e I n d i a n s v a l u e d t h e l a n d t h a t t h e y h a d l e f t a n d t h e more r e l u c t a n t t h e y became t o g i v e i t u p. G i v e n t h e i n c r e a s i n g numbers o f s e t t l e r s a r r i v i n g i n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a a n d t h e g r o w i n g d i s c r e p a n c y i n t h e power r e l a t i o n s h i p i t was p e r h a p s i n e v i t a b l e t h a t t h e I n d i a n s s h o u l d be t h e l o s e r s i n t h e s t r u g g l e f o r t h e l a n d . As h a d h a p p e n e d , and w o u l d h a p p e n , a l l o v e r N o r t h America'; t h e I n d i a n s l o s t l a r g e a n d i n c r e a s i n g amounts o f t h e i r t e r r i t o r y . I n a r e a s w h e r e p r e s s u r e f r o m E u r o p e a n s was p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t e n s e e v e n I n d i a n 56 v i l l a g e s i t e s and c u l t i v a t e d f i e l d s w e r e i n t r u d e d u p o n . T h o s e 160 I n d i a n s who i n i t i a l l y t h o u g h t t h a t t h e E u r o p e a n s o n l y w a n t e d t h e u s e o f t h e l a n d s o o n came t o r e a l i s e t h a t t h e y i n t e n d e d t o p o s s e s s i t u t t e r l y . When E u r o p e a n s owned l a n d t h e y f e n c e d i t i n a n d o f t e n became i r a t e when t h e I n d i a n s o r t h e i r s t o c k t r e s -p a s s e d on i t . E u r o p e a n o w n e r s h i p o f l a n d a l s o h a d a d e s t r u c t i v e a s p e c t . S e t t l e r s f a i l e d t o r e a l i s e t h a t t h e I n d i a n s h a d d e v e l o p e d an economy t h a t was f i n e l y t u n e d t o t h e e n v i r o n m e n t . E u r o p e a n s , b y c o n t r a s t , t e n d e d t o w a n t t o d o m i n a t e t h e i r e n v i r -onment, and t o e x t r a c t t h e m i n e r a l s and f e r t i l i t y f r o m t h e s o i l . T h i s i s w h a t t h e E u r o p e a n meant when he t a l k e d . a b o u t " i m p r o v i n g " t h e l a n d . G r a d u a l l y t h e e c o l o g i c a l b a l a n c e t h a t t h e I n d i a n way o f l i f e was b a s e d on was b e i n g e r o d e d away. N a t u r a l l y n o t a l l t h e I n d i a n s o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a l o s t t h e i r l a n d a t t h e same r a t e . Some c o a s t a l g r o u p s , s u c h as t h e K w a k i u t l and H a i d a , w e r e l i t t l e a f f e c t e d . B u t i n c r e a s i n g I n d i a n d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n o v e r t h e l a n d . q u e s t i o n was i n d i c a t i v e t h a t m o s t o f t h e I n d i a n s w e r e e x p e r i e n c i n g , and w e r e v e r y a n n o y e d b y , d i s p o s s e s s i o n o f t h e i r l a n d . F o r t h e I n d i a n s l o s i n g t h e i r l a n d d i d n o t j u s t mean l o s i n g t h e i r s o u r c e o f s u b s i s t e n c e ; i t a l s o meant t h e l o s s o f a m a j o r p a r t o f t h e i r s o c i a l and s p i r i t u a l i d e n t i t y . I t h a s b e e n a r g u e d , w i t h c o n s i d e r a b l e v a l i d i t y , t h a t " n e x t t o i n t r o d u c i n g e p i d e m i c s a n d f i r i n g b u l l e t s i n t o t h e i r b o d i e s , t h e m o s t e f f e c t i v e way t o d e s t r o y n a t i v e s i s t o t a k e away t h e i r l a n d s . " The e x t e n t t o w h i c h an i n d i g e n o u s p e o p l e h a v e r e t a i n e d t h e i r l a n d i s t h e b e s t 57 s i n g l e c r i t e r i o n on w h i c h t o j u d g e t h e i r s u r v i v a l . I t h a s b e e n shown i n o t h e r p a r t s o f t h e w o r l d t h a t t h e r e i s a c l o s e c o r r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n l o s s o f l a n d a n d d e p o p u l a t i o n and s o c i a l 5 8 d i s o r g a n i s a t i o n among i n d i g e n o u s p e o p l e s . C e r t a i n l y i n B r i t i s h 161 C o l u m b i a t h e I n d i a n s e x p e r i e n c e d b o t h d e p o p u l a t i o n a n d m a j o r s o c i a l d i s r u p t i o n d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d i n w h i c h t h e s e t t l e r s w e r e m o v i n g on t o t h e i r l a n d . The e x a c t c a u s a l r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n l o s s o f l a n d a n d t h e d e c l i n i n g I n d i a n p o p u l a t i o n o f t h e 1860's may be d i f f i c u l t t o e s t a b l i s h , b u t t h e r e was a q u i t e d i r e c t r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e I n d i a n s ' l o s s o f l a n d and t h e l o s s o f c o n t r o l o v e r t h e i r s o c i e t y . T h i s was n o t j u s t b e c a u s e t h e y w e r e d e p r i v e d o f t h e l a n d t h a t was t h e b a s i s o f t h e i r way o f l i f e , b u t a l s o b e c a u s e l e g i s l a t i n g t h e I n d i a n s o f f t h e i r l a n d r e q u i r e d a d e g r e e o f p o l i t i c a l c o n t r o l o v e r them on t h e p a r t o f t h e s e t t l e r s . I n o r d e r t o d i s p o s s e s s t h e I n d i a n s o f t h e i r l a n d t h e s e t t l e r s h a d t o c u r t a i l t h e i r f r e e d o m o f a c t i o n i n many way s . When, f o r e x a m p l e , t h e I n d i a n s p r o t e s t e d w i t h v i o l e n c e t h e t a k i n g o f t h e i r l a n d t h e s e t t l e r s demanded t h a t a c t i o n be t a k e n a g a i n s t them by g o v e r n m e n t f o r c e s . T h e r e w e r e many m i n o r i n c i d e n t s o f I n d i a n s e i t h e r t h r e a t -e n i n g o r a c t u a l l y a t t a c k i n g s e t t l e r s whom t h e y f e l t w e r e s t e a l i n g t h e i r p r o p e r t y . I n 1864 t h e r e was a d i s p u t e b e t w e e n t h e Canoe C r e e k I n d i a n s a n d a s e t t l e r named R.P. R i t c h i e . The I n d i a n s c l a i m e d t h a t R i t c h i e h a d t a k e n t h e i r c u l t i v a t e d l a n d s and de-p r i v e d them o f a c c e s s t o w a t e r . Some o f t h e I n d i a n s w a n t e d t o 59 k i l l t h e s e t t l e r b u t " w i s e r c o u n s e l s " p r e v a i l e d . I n t h e same y e a r t h e C o w i c h a n o b j e c t e d t o t h e p r e s e n c e o f a s e t t l e r who h a d f e n c e d i n p a r t o f t h e i r r e s e r v e a n d t h e y q u e s t i o n e d a Roman C a t h o l i c p r i e s t a b o u t t h e a d v i s a b i l i t y o f k i l l i n g t h e m a n . 6 0 On a number o f o c c a s i o n s E u r o p e a n s c o n d u c t i n g m i n i n g o p e r a t i o n s i n S k i d e g a t e I n l e t a s k e d f o r p r o t e c t i o n f r o m t h e G o v e r n m e n t a g a i n s t t h e I n d i a n s . E a r l y i n 1870 i t was r e p o r t e d t h a t t h e r e 162 was much e x c i t e m e n t among t h e F r a s e r V a l l e y I n d i a n s o v e r t h e i r 6 2 l o s s o f l a n d a n d t h a t t h e p e a c e o f t h e a r e a was e n d a n g e r e d . Some a t t a c k s on s e t t l e r s w e r e t o o e a s i l y a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e I n d i a n s . On 3 May 1863 The B r i t i s h C o l o n i s t c a r r i e d t h e . s t o r y , u n d e r t h e h e a d l i n e " A n o t h e r I n d i a n O u t r a g e " , o f t h e h o u s e o f a H o r n b y I s l a n d s e t t l e r b e i n g d e s t r o y e d by f i r e . The n e w s p a p e r , h o w e v e r , c i t e d no e v i d e n c e t h a t t h e I n d i a n s w e r e r e s p o n s i b l e o t h e r t h a n t h e c l a i m t h a t t h e y h a d b e e n " t r o u b l e s o m e and i n s o l e n t " 6 3 t o s e t t l e r s i n t h e p a s t . T h e s e n i g g l i n g i n c i d e n t s w e r e c o m p a r a t i v e l y m i n o r a f f a i r s , b u t i n 1864 t h e r e was a more m a j o r a s s a u l t . E a r l y i n t h e m o r n i n g o f 30 A p r i l a g r o u p o f I n d i a n s a t t a c k e d a r o a d p a r t y t h a t was w o r k i n g on t h e Homathco R i v e r and t h i r t e e n w h i t e men w e r e 64 k i l l e d . The m o t i v a t i o n b e h i n d t h i s a t t a c k was c o m p l e x a n d i t i s now p e r h a p s i m p o s s i b l e t o i s o l a t e t h e o v e r r i d i n g c a u s e . T h e r e w e r e u n d o u b t e d l y a number o f p e r s o n a l g r i e v a n c e s t h a t a r o s e o u t o f t h e t r e a t m e n t o f t h e I n d i a n s e m p l o y e d by t h e r o a d p a r t y . 6 5 One o f t h e u n d e r l y i n g c a u s e s was t h e I n d i a n s ' d i s l i k e o f E u r o p e a n i n t r u s i o n i n t o t h e i r t e r r i t o r y . The r o a d p a r t y was i n t h e e m p l o y o f A l f r e d W a d d i n g t o n , who h a d s u r v e y e d a t o w n s i t e a t t h e h e a d o f B u t e I n l e t , h a d p r e - e m p t e d l a n d t h e r e , and was now t r y i n g t o f o r m a r o a d l i n k w i t h t h e C a r i b o o g o l d m i n e s . W a d d i n g t o n was t h e e p i t o m e o f t h e c o l o n i a l d e v e l o p e r , and t h e I n d i a n s f i g u r e d n o where i n h i s c a l c u l a t i o n s . U n t i l t h e e a r l y 1860's t h e I n d i a n s o f t h e C h i l c o t i n c o u n t r y a n d t h e Homathco V a l l e y h a d b e e n r e l a -t i v e l y i s o l a t e d f r o m E u r o p e a n c o n t a c t , a l t h o u g h t h e y no d o u b t r e a l i s e d t h a t t h e W a d d i n g t o n r o a d w o u l d p r o v i d e a c c e s s f o r E u r o p e a n i n f l u e n c e and w o u l d l e a d t o f u r t h e r a l i e n a t i o n o f l a n d . 163 The a t t a c k on t h e r o a d w o r k e r s was t o some e x t e n t an a t t e m p t t o e x c l u d e s e t t l e m e n t a n d l a n d d e v e l o p m e n t . A f t e r t h e m u r d e r s on t h e Hd i i i a t h k o t h e I n d i a n s moved d e e p e r i n t o C h i l c o t i n t e r r i -t o r y w h e r e t h e y a t t a c k e d a p a c k t r a i n a n d a l s o k i l l e d a s e t t l e r named W i l l i a m M a n n i n g who h a d e s t a b l i s h e d h i m s e l f n e a r P u n t z i L a k e . A p p a r e n t l y M a n n i n g h a d u s u r p e d a n I n d i a n " c a m p i n g s i t e " 6 6 n e a r a s p r i n g a n d h a d d r i v e n t h e I n d i a n s o f f . When t h e I n d i a n s a t t a c k e d M a n n i n g t h e y "even w e n t t o t h e t r o u b l e o f 6 7 b r e a k i n g up t h e p l o u g h s a n d o t h e r a g r i c u l t u r a l i m p l e m e n t s . " By a t t a c k i n g s e t t l e r s a n d t h e l i n e s o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n t h a t m a i n -t a i n e d t h e i r e x i s t e n c e t h e s e I n d i a n s w e r e r e c o r d i n g t h e i r p r o t e s t a g a i n s t t h e i n v a s i o n o f t h e i r l a n d by E u r o p e a n s . The r e a c t i o n o f t h e c o l o n i s t s t o t h e s e k i l l i n g s , p a r t i c u -l a r l y i n V i c t o r i a , was i m m e d i a t e a nd n o i s y . A t f i r s t s e t t l e r s c o u l d s c a r c e l y b e l i e v e t h a t a p a r t y o f " s t r o n g r o b u s t f e a r l e s s " w h i t e men c o u l d b e n e a r l y a l l m u r d e r e d b y a d o z e n " c o w a r d l y 6 8 s a v a g e s " . B u t a s t h e f a c t s o f t h e m a t t e r w e r e e s t a b l i s h e d t h e s e t t l e r s made i t c l e a r t h a t t h e y w e r e n o t g o i n g t o t r e a t l i g h t l y any t h r e a t t o t h e i r p r e s e n c e i n t h e . C o l o n i e s . The m u r d e r s w e r e a f l a s h p o i n t i n t h e h i s t o r y o f r a c e r e l a t i o n s t h a t r e v e a l e d t h e a t t i t u d e s o f many o f t h e s e t t l e r s t o I n d i a n s who m i g h t impede t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e C o l o n i e s . T h r o u g h o u t May 1864 t h e V i c t o r i a n e w s p a p e r s c l a m o u r e d f o r r e t r i b u t i o n a g a n s t t h e mur-d e r e r s . The k i l l i n g s w e r e d e s c r i b e d as " f i e n d i s h " , and a s h a v i n g b e e n c o m m i t t e d w i t h o u t p r o v o c a t i o n b y c o w a r d l y a n d 69 t r e a c h e r o u s I n d i a n s . Some demanded t h a t j u s t i c e be done w h i l e o t h e r s s i m p l y c a l l e d f o r r e v e n g e . By t h e b e g i n n i n g o f J u n e V i c t o r i a n s w e r e h i g h l y d i s s a t i s f i e d w i t h t h e a p p a r e n t l a c k o f 164 a c t i o n b y t h e G o v e r n m e n t i n t h e f a c e o f c o n t i n u i n g r e p o r t s o f m u r d e r s o f E u r o p e a n s i n t h e C h i l c o t i n c o u n t r y . On J u n e 1 The B r i t i s h C o l o n i s t d e s c r i b e d t h e k i l l i n g o f t h e p a c k e r s , n o t e d t h e f o l l y o f w a i t i n g f o r t h e t a r d y a c t i o n s o f t h e a u t h o r i t i e s , a n d c a l l e d f o r c i t i z e n s t o t a k e m a t t e r s i n t o t h e i r own h a n d s . T h e r e w e r e , p o i n t e d o u t t h e e d i t o r i a l i s t , h u n d r e d s o f men who w o u l d v o l u n t e e r a n d who w o u l d n o t r e s t u n t i l " e v e r y member o f t h e r a s c a l l y m u r d e r o u s t r i b e i s s u s p e n d e d t o t h e t r e e s o f . t h e i r 70 own f o r e s t s . " T h a t e v e n i n g , i n a manner t y p i c a l o f t h e A m e r i c a n W e s t , t h e p e o p l e o f V i c t o r i a . h e l d a p u b l i c m e e t i n g a t w h i c h 129 men v o l u n t e e r e d t o t a k e up arms a g a i n s t t h e I n d i a n s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e k i l l i n g s . Men s u c h a s Amor De Cosmos r e v e a l e d p u b l i c l y t h e i r " a n t i p a t h y and h a t r e d " f o r t h e I n d i a n s . De Cosmos s a i d t h a t "he h a d l i v e d among t h e I n d i a n s and knew 71 t h e i r t r e a c h e r y . " One man, C.B. Y o u n g , d i d r e m i n d t h e a u d i e n c e t h a t j u s t i c e s h o u l d be e v e n h a n d e d , and t h a t t h e f e n c i n g o f f o f I n d i a n p o t a t o p a t c h e s b y E u r o p e a n s was n o t j u s t i c e , n o r was i t j u s t i c e when a c r i c k e t p i t c h was t a k e n o u t o f t h e I n d i a n r e s e r v e 72 a t N a n aimo. B u t m o s t V i c t o r i a n s a t t h e m e e t i n g w e r e n o t i n t e r e s t e d i n s u c h l o g i c , a nd t h e p r o p o s a l t h a t t h e I n d i a n s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e m u r d e r s s h o u l d be h a n g e d on t h e s p o t was 73 g r e e t e d w i t h " g e n e r a l c h e e r s " . T h i s m e e t i n g c o n t a i n e d a l l t h e e l e m e n t s o f v i g i l a n t i s m , an a b e r r a t i o n t h a t i s o f t e n assumed t o h a v e b e e n a b s e n t f r o m t h e h i s t o r y o f t h e C a n a d i a n W e s t . J o h n Tod was somewhat amused a t a l l t h e s e f r a n t i c p r e p -a r a t i o n s , a n d t h e o l d f u r t r a d e r r e m i n d e d a f o r m e r comrade o f how t h e I n d i a n s u s e d t o be k e p t i n " c o m p l e t e s u b j e c t i o n " by "a mere h a n d f u l o f F u r T r a d e r s . " A p p a r e n t l y some s e t t l e r s w e r e 165 amazed t h a t s u c h s m a l l numbers o f f u r t r a d e r s c o u l d h a v e 74 s u r v i v e d a mongst a l a r g e a n d " l a w l e s s " I n d i a n p o p u l a t i o n . The o f f e r f r o m V i c t o r i a o f v o l u n t e e r s t o t a k e up arms a g a i n s t t h e C h i l c o t i n was d e c l i n e d b y t h e a u t h o r i t i e s , a l t h o u g h t h e l e a d e r s o f t h e I n d i a n s h e l d r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e m u r d e r s w e r e c a p t u r e d , t r i e d , a nd h a n g e d . T h e i r f a t e was a s i g n a l t o t h e I n d i a n s t h a t i t was n o t a d v i s a b l e t o o b j e c t t o t h e p r e s e n c e o f E u r o p e a n s w i t h v i o l e n c e , and t h a t p u n i t i v e m e a s u r e s w o u l d be t a k e n a g a i n s t t h o s e who a t t a c k e d s e t t l e r s . B e s i d e s a n e n f o r c e d l o s s o f l a n d , e c o n o m i c o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r t h e I n d i a n s w e r e b e i n g r e d u c e d i n o t h e r ways b y t h e p r e s e n c e o f t h e s e t t l e r s . The I n d i a n b e g a n t o f a c e c o m p e t i t i o n f r o m t h e E u r o p e a n n o t o n l y f o r t h e u s e o f t h e l a n d , b u t a l s o f o r t h e r e s o u r c e s o f t h e w a t e r . D u r i n g h i s s t a y on V a n c o u v e r I s l a n d i n t h e e a r l y 1 850's C a p t a i n G r a n t h a d f o r e s e e n t h a t f i s h i n g r i g h t s w e r e l i k e l y t o c a u s e f r i c t i o n b e t w e e n I n d i a n and E u r o p e a n , "as a l l t h e t r i b e s a r e s i n g u l a r l y j e a l o u s o f t h e i r f i s h i n g p r i v i l e g e s a n d g u a r d t h e i r r i g h t s w i t h t h e s t r i c t n e s s o f a m a n o r i a l p r e s e r v e T h i s p r o p h e c y became a r e a l i t y d u r i n g t h e 1860's as c o m m e r c i a l f i s h i n g b e g a n t o d e v e l o p , f i r s t o n t h e F r a s e r R i v e r and t h e n on t h e r i v e r s a n d i n l e t s t o t h e n o r t h . I n t h e i n t e r i o r as e a r l y as 1859 when t h e s a l m o n s t o p p e d r u n n i n g i n t h e L y t t o n a r e a t h e s u p p o s e d r e a s o n was t h a t a f i s h i n g company h a d p l a c e d a n e t a c r o s s t h e r i v e r . I n c r e a s i n g l y t h e I n d i a n s w e r e t o f e e l t h e r e s t r i c t i o n s t h a t E u r o p e a n f i s h e r m e n p l a c e d o n t h e i r t r a d i t i o n a l f r e e d o m t o h a r v e s t t h e r i v e r s a nd t h e s e a . P r i o r t o s e t t l e m e n t t h e I n d i a n s h a d p r o v i d e d t h e e s s e n -t i a l manpower f o r t h e f u r t r a d e economy, b u t now I n d i a n l a b o u r 166 was o n l y o f m a r g i n a l s i g n i f i c a n c e i n t h e e c o n o m i c c o n c e r n s o f t h e E u r o p e a n s . F a r m i n g was n o t p a r t i c u l a r l y l a b o u r i n t e n s i v e a n d , i n t h e i n t e r i o r , r a n c h i n g u s e d v e r y l i t t l e manpower i n p r o p o r t i o n t o l a n d . A l t h o u g h f r o m t h e . b e g i n n i n g o f s e t t l e m e n t on V a n c o u v e r I s l a n d some I n d i a n s w e r e e m p l o y e d by E u r o p e a n f a r m e r s i t was u s u a l l y o n l y on a s e a s o n a l o r p i e c e w o r k b a s i s , so t h e i n c o m e was n e i t h e r s t e a d y n o r p e r m a n e n t . Whereas d u r i n g t h e f u r t r a d e p e r i o d any I n d i a n c o u l d b r i n g f u r s t o a f o r t a n d s e l l them, now I n d i a n s c o u l d g a i n e m p l o y m e n t o n l y a t t h e p l e a s u r e o f t h e w h i t e s . I n d i a n s o f t h e i n t e r i o r e a r n e d money p a c k i n g f o r t h e E u r o p e a n s , b u t one o f f i c i a l r e p o r t e d t h a t t h e y f a c e d s t a r v a t i o n when t h e y 77 c o u l d n o t o b t a i n t h e w o r k t h a t t h e y h a d become a c c u s t o m e d t o . T h e r e w e r e o t h e r r e p o r t s o f I n d i a n s n o t b e i n g p a i d f o r t h e i r l a b o u r . J o h n M u i r , an o l d r e s i d e n t o f t h e Sook e a r e a , was a p p a r e n t l y i n t h e h a b i t o f g i v i n g t h e I n d i a n s h e - e m p l o y e d 78 p r o m i s s o r y n o t e s w h i c h t h e y w e r e s u b s e q u e n t l y u n a b l e t o redeem. I t was c l a i m e d t h a t W a d d i n g t o n a n d h i s men d i d t h e same t h i n g 79 t o I n d i a n s who h a d b e e n e m p l o y e d on t h e B u t e I n l e t r o a d p a r t y . When t h e y w e r e p a i d t h e y s e l d o m r e c e i v e d as much as E u r o p e a n s d i d . Of c o u r s e many s e t t l e r s t h o u g h t t h a t t h e I n d i a n s w e r e un-s a t i s f a c t o r y as l a b o u r e r s ; t h a t t h e y w e r e n a t u r a l l y l a z y , t h a t t h e y h a d t o be c o n s t a n t l y s u p e r v i s e d , a n d t h a t t h e y c o u l d n o t p e r s e v e r e a t a j o b f o r any l e n g t h o f t i m e . I n d i a n s w e r e u s e f u l a s h e w e r s o f wood and d r a w e r s o f w a t e r , commented one o b s e r v e r , b u t w e r e n o t " a l w a y s t o be t r u s t e d w i t h w h a t may be t e r m e d t h e more d e l i c a t e a n d r e f i n e d p o r t i o n s o f h o u s e h o l d s e r v i c e , s u c h 8 0 a s , f o r i n s t a n c e , t h e w a s h i n g up o f d i s h e s . " O t h e r s e t t l e r s p o k e s m e n s t r o n g l y o b j e c t e d t o e m p l o y i n g I n d i a n w o r k e r s on 167 p r i n c i p l e . The e d i t o r o f The B r i t i s h C o l o n i s t c o n s i d e r e d t h a t t o b r i n g I n d i a n l a b o u r i n t o c o m p e t i t i o n w i t h E u r o p e a n i m m i g r a t i o n w o u l d be h i g h l y d e t r i m e n t a l t o t h e c o u n t r y ' s b e s t i n t e r e s t s . I n d i a n l a b o u r was n o t t h e k i n d t h a t was r e q u i r e d t o d e v e l o p t h e C o l o n i e s , r a t h e r " i t i s C a u c a s i o n - A n g l o - S a x o n b o n e , m u s c l e , a nd 81 i n t e l l e c t t h a t we w a n t . " The same n e w s p a p e r h a d e x p r e s s e d t h e o p i n i o n a f e w months e a r l i e r t h a t i t w o u l d be much more t o o u r a d v a n t a g e i f we w e r e t o e n c o u r a g e a t h r i f t y w h i t e p o p u l a t i o n , who w o u l d buy town l o t s , b u i l d c o t t a g e s , b r i n g t h e i r f a m i l i e s h i t h e r , a n d pay t a x e s , r a t h e r t h a n a h o r d e o f r e d s k i n s , who s p e n d t h e i r money f o r w h i s k e y , a nd n e v e r c o n t r i b u t e a d o l l a r t o w a r d s t h e p u b l i c t r e a s u r y . 82 T h e s e w o r d s w e r e p r o b a b l y w r i t t e n b y De Cosmos, and t h e y c e r -t a i n l y r e f l e c t h i s p a r t i c u l a r l y r a b i d b r a n d o f r a c i s m . The l o v e o f Amor De Cosmos, r a t h e r t h a n b e i n g c o s m i c , h a d d i s t i n c t l i m i t a t i o n s , a n d i t was n o t e x t e n d e d t o i n c l u d e t h e I n d i a n s . Many s e t t l e r s w o u l d , h o w e v e r , h a v e a g r e e d w i t h h i s v i e w t h a t t h e I n d i a n s s h o u l d be s p e c t a t o r s , r a t h e r t h a n p a r t i c i p a n t s i n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e c o l o n y . By d e p r i v i n g t h e I n d i a n s o f l a n d a n d m a k i n g o n l y l i m i t e d u s e o f I n d i a n l a b o u r , t h e e f f e c t o f t h e s e t t l e m e n t f r o n t i e r was t o d i m i n i s h I n d i a n w e a l t h . P a r t i c u l a r l y on t h e c o a s t , t h e I n d i a n s h a d t r a d i t i o n a l l y p l a c e d g r e a t e m p h a s i s o n w e a l t h a n d p r o p e r t y a s t h e b a s e s o f power and s t r e n g t h i n t h e i r s o c i e t y . The a b i l i t y t o a c q u i r e w e a l t h was t h e m a j o r m e a s u r e o f t h e v i t a l i t y o f an I n d i a n t r i b e , a n d an i n d i v i d u a l w i t h o u t p r o p e r t y l a c k e d t h e means t o e s t a b l i s h h i s s t a t u s . The f u r t r a d e h a d s t i m u l a t e d I n d i a n c u l t u r e b y a d d i n g t o I n d i a n w e a l t h and t h e r e -f o r e t o t h e s c o p e o f I n d i a n c r e a t i v i t y . S e t t l e m e n t , on t h e 168 o t h e r h a n d , o f t e n h a d t h e e f f e c t o f s u b t r a c t i n g f r o m I n d i a n w e a l t h and t h u s t e n d e d t o s t u l t i f y t h e i r c u l t u r e . A l a r g e number o f I n d i a n s t r i e d t o a l l e v i a t e t h e d e c l i n e i n t h e i r f o r t u n e s by m o v i n g t o l i v e , e i t h e r p e r m a n e n t l y o r t e m p o r a r i l y , n e a r E u r o p e a n t o w n s . B u t t h e y w e r e n o t made v e r y welcome by t h e s e t t l e r s , many o f whom d i d n o t w a n t t o l i v e i n c l o s e p r o x i m i t y t o g r o u p s o f I n d i a n s . A t F o r t Hope t h e r e was p r e s s u r e t o remove t h e I n d i a n s f r o m a r e s e r v a t i o n t h a t was c l o s e t o t h e t o w n , a l t h o u g h B e g b i e a d v i s e d a g a i n s t t h e move on t h e g r o u n d s t h a t t h e I n d i a n s p r o v i d e d t r a d e and c o u l d e a r n more by 8 3 w o r k i n g i n t h e town t h a n t h e y c o u l d by f a r m i n g . G o v e r n o r D o u g l a s r e c e i v e d q u i t e d i f f e r e n t a d v i c e f r o m one o f h i s o f f i c i a l s i n Y a l e . T h e r e t h e m e d i c a l o f f i c e r , D r . M.W. F i f e r , w r o t e t h a t t h e t o wn c o u n c i l h a d g i v e n c o n s i d e r a t i o n t o t h e q u e s t i o n o f m o v i n g t h e I n d i a n r e s e r v e away f r o m t h e t o w n . I t was u n n e c e s s a r y , he s a i d , t o d e t a i l t h e e v i l s t h a t r e s u l t e d f r o m t h e p r e s e n c e o f t h e I n d i a n s " t o t h e d e t r i m e n t o f t h e m o r a l s o f t h e w h i t e I n h a b i -t a n t s " . F i f e r was p a r t i c u l a r l y c o n c e r n e d a b o u t t h e s e t t l e r s ' c h i l d r e n . The t o w n s p e o p l e w i s h e d t o b a n i s h v i c e f r o m t h e d a i l y s i g h t o f t h e i r o f f s p r i n g . As w i t h m o s t r e q u e s t s f o r I n d i a n r e m o v a l t h e r e was a l s o a p r o f e s s e d c o n c e r n f o r t h e I n d i a n s . I t was s a i d t h a t t h e t o wn was h a r m f u l t o t h e I n d i a n s ; t h a t t h e women became d e p r a v e d and d i s e a s e d , and t h a t a l l t h e I n d i a n s became a d d i c t e d t o a l c o h o l . The p e o p l e o f Y a l e t h o u g h t t h a t t h e s e u n d o u b t e d s o c i a l p r o b l e m s w o u l d be s o l v e d i f t h e I n d i a n s w e r e r e m o v e d f u r t h e r away f r o m t h e t o w n and r e s t r i c t e d f r o m 84 e n t e r i n g i t a f t e r c e r t a i n h o u r s o f t h e d a y . I n b o t h New W e s t m i n s t e r . a n d V i c t o r i a t h e r e was s i m i l a r p r e s s u r e f o r I n d i a n r e m o v a l . The B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a n c o m p l a i n e d 169 t h a t " d e c e n t p e o p l e " i n New W e s t m i n s t e r w e r e b e i n g s u b j e c t e d " t o t h e . i n t o l e r a b l e n u i s a n c e o f h a v i n g f i l t h y , d e g r a d e d , 85 d e b a u c h e d I n d i a n s as n e i g h b o u r s " . I n V i c t o r i a , w h e r e t h e numbers o f I n d i a n s and E u r o p e a n s w e r e g r e a t e r , w h i t e a g i t a t i o n f o r I n d i a n r e m o v a l was e v e n more v o c i f e r o u s . By t h e e n d o f t h e 1850's m o s t o f t h e S o n g h e e s h a d moved t o a r e s e r v e on t h e o p p o s i t e s i d e o f t h e h a r b o u r f r o m t h e o l d f o r t . F o l l o w i n g t h e g o l d r u s h boom i n V i c t o r i a i n c r e a s i n g numbers o f I n d i a n s f r o m t h e n o r t h e r n c o a s t came t o s p e n d t h e summer i n t h e t o w n . I n A p r i l 1859 The V i c t o r i a G a z e t t e e s t i m a t e d t h e p o p u l a t i o n o f t h e 86 v a r i o u s I n d i a n g r o u p s a t V i c t o r i a t o be 2,835 and t h e f o l -l o w i n g y e a r D o u g l a s r e p o r t e d t o L o n d o n t h a t 2,000 I n d i a n s f r o m t h e n o r t h w e r e l i v i n g n e a r t h e t o w n . D o u g l a s w r o t e t h a t t h e s e 8 7 I n d i a n s w e r e o f v a l u e t o t h e t o wn as l a b o u r e r s a n d c o n s u m e r s . The I n d i a n s came t o t r a d e f u r s and h a n d c r a f t s , a n d t h e y p r o v i d e d t h e t o w n s p e o p l e w i t h a s u p p l y o f f i s h , game an d p r o d u c e . A p p a r e n t l y some I n d i a n s f e l t t h a t t h e E u r o p e a n s w e r e . g u l l i b l e t r a d e r s a n d t h o u g h t t h a t t h e y c o u l d make l a r g e p r o f i t s i n V i c t o r i a . The I n d i a n s who came t o V i c t o r i a u n d o u b t e d l y b e n e f i t t e d e c o n o m i c a l l y , b u t s o c i a l l y t h e e f f e c t s w e r e n o t s o b e n e f i c i a l . W i t h c o n s i d e r a b l e numbers o f I n d i a n s o f v a r i o u s t r i b e s l i v i n g i n c l o s e q u a r t e r s d i s p u t e s a n d h o s t i l i t i e s w e r e b o u n d t o o c c u r . D u r i n g t h e summer o f 1860 t h e r e was a m a j o r f e u d b e t w e e n t h e H a i d a a n d o t h e r g r o u p s w h i c h p r o d u c e d s e v e r a l o u t b r e a k s o f v i o l e n c e . S u c h h o s t i l i t i e s w e r e e x a c e r b a t e d b y t h e l a r g e q u a n t i t i e s o f i l l e g a l , a n d t h e r e f o r e i m p u r e , l i q u o r t h a t t h e I n d i a n s w e r e a b l e t o a c q u i r e a n d consume. I n s p i t e o f e v e r y 170 e f f o r t b y t h e a u t h o r i t i e s i t p r o v e d t o be i m p o s s i b l e t o p r e v e n t t h e s a l e o f " a r d e n t s p i r i t s " t o t h e I n d i a n s . I n 1860 an A c t was p a s s e d t o p r o h i b i t t h e s a l e o r g i f t o f i n t o x i c a t i n g l i q u o r s 89 t o t h e I n d i a n s , b u t i t was e x t r e m e l y d i f f i c u l t t o p o l i c e t h i s l a w . F r e d e r i c k Whymper, an a r t i s t who v i s i t e d t h e n o r t h w e s t c o a s t i n 1 8 6 4 , c l a i m e d t h a t t h e r e w e r e 336 c a s e s a n d 240 c o n -v i c t i o n s i n v o l v i n g E u r o p e a n s s e l l i n g l i q u o r t o t h e I n d i a n s 90 b e t w e e n 1858 and 1864. P r e s u m a b l y t h e r e w o u l d h a v e b e e n many more c o n v i c t i o n s b u t f o r t h e . i m p e d i m e n t t h a t w h i s k e y s e l l e r s c o u l d n o t be c o n v i c t e d on I n d i a n e v i d e n c e a l o n e . A l l t h i s a c t i v i t y i n t h e c o u r t s seemed t o make l i t t l e i m p a c t on t h e l i q u o r t r a d e ; i n f a c t i t was c l a i m e d i n 1860 t h a t s e l l i n g l i q u o r t o t h e I n d i a n s h a d become one o f t h e m o s t p r o f i t a b l e b u s i n e s s e s i n 91 V i c t o r i a . I n d i a n d r i n k i n g was a s s o c i a t e d w i t h o t h e r c r i m e . T h e r e was a c o n s i d e r a b l e amount o f t h e f t a n d t h e r e w e r e numerous c a s e s o f a s s a u l t i n V i c t o r i a w h i c h o f t e n i n v o l v e d I n d i a n s , e i t h e r as p e r p e t r a t o r s o r v i c t i m s . M u r d e r s w e r e a l s o r e a s o n a b l y common and I n d i a n s w e r e r e s p o n s i b l e f o r some o f them, a l t h o u g h t h e r e was a t e n d e n c y f o r V i c t o r i a n n e w s p a p e r s t o a t t r i b u t e u n s o l v e d 92 m u r d e r s t o I n d i a n s w i t h o u t r e a l e v i d e n c e . P r o s t i t u t i o n was a n o t h e r p r o b l e m . The c o m i n g o f t h e s e t t l e r s meant c h a n g e s i n t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e t w e e n E u r o p e a n men and I n d i a n women. An I n d i a n w i f e was a p o s i t i v e a d v a n t a g e t o a f u r t r a d e r b u t n o t t o a s e t t l e r . Some s e t t l e r s d i d f o r m t e m p o r a r y l i a i s o n s w i t h I n d i a n women, b u t more commonly t h e y p r o v i d e d m e r e l y a t e m p o r a r y s a t i s f a c t i o n o f d e s i r e s . The t e r m "squaw", w i t h a l l i t s p e j o r a t i v e c o n n o t a t i o n s , was v i r t u a l l y 171 unknown on t h e e a r l y f u r t r a d i n g f r o n t i e r b u t was w i d e l y u s e d a f t e r t h e a r r i v a l o f t h e s e t t l e r s . L a r g e numbers o f I n d i a n women f r o m t h e n o r t h came t o V i c t o r i a a n n u a l l y t o e a r n money by p r o s t i t u t i o n . A p p a r e n t l y some w e r e a b l e t o r a i s e t h e i r h u s b a n d ' s s o c i a l p o s i t i o n w i t h t h e w e a l t h t h a t t h e y a c q u i r e d i n 93 . . t h i s way. Women c o u l d e a r n t w i c e as much as p r o s t i t u t e s i n 94 V i c t o r i a t h a n t h e y c o u l d f u r t h e r up t h e c o a s t . S o - c a l l e d "squaw d a n c e h o u s e s " , b r o t h e l s , and I n d i a n women " d r e s s e d up 95 as f i n e as 'White S o i l e d D o v e s ' do i n C a l i f o r n i a " w e r e a l l f e a t u r e s o f . c e r t a i n s t r e e t s i n V i c t o r i a i n t h e e a r l y 1 8 6 0 ' s . I n t h e m i n d s o f many o f t h e c o l o n i s t s s o c i a l i l l s s u c h as t h e s e w e r e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e p r e s e n c e o f t h e I n d i a n s r a t h e r t h a n w i t h t h e s u d d e n i n f l u x o f a l a r g e a n d u n s t a b l e E u r o p e a n p o p u l a t i o n . As a c o n s e q u e n c e t h e r e was c o n s t a n t p r e s s u r e i n t h e e a r l y y e a r s o f s e t t l e m e n t , b o t h f r o m t h e c o l o n i s t s and f r o m t h e i r r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s i n t h e L e g i s l a t u r e , t o h a v e t h e I n d i a n s r e m o v e d f r o m t h e v i c i n i t y o f V i c t o r i a , a n d e s p e c i a l l y t o ha v e t h e S o n g h e e s ' r e s e r v e r e l o c a t e d . I t was f e l t t h a t no m a t t e r how a p p r o p r i a t e t h e p r e s e n c e o f t h e I n d i a n s m i g h t h a v e b e e n t o t h e n e e d s o f t h e Hudson's Bay Company, t h e s e c i r c u m s t a n c e s h a d p a s s e d a n d p o l i -96 c i e s m u s t now be c h a n g e d t o meet p r e s e n t a n d f u t u r e e x i g e n c i e s . As w i t h many p u b l i c i s s u e s i n V i c t o r i a , The B r i t i s h C o l o n i s t l e d t h e f r a y . The n e w s p a p e r o n c e e x p r e s s e d t h e o p i n i o n " t h a t t h e r a s c a l l y r e d s k i n s who r e f u s e d t o s u b s c r i b e t o t h e 97 C o l o n i s t , h a v e g o t t o make room f o r w h i t e men who w i l l . " The e d i t o r s w e r e p r o b a b l y o n l y h a l f j o k i n g , a n d t h e y d i d h a v e r e a s o n s b e s i d e s b o o s t i n g t h e c i r c u l a t i o n o f t h e i r p a p e r f o r a d v o c a t i n g t h e r e m o v a l o f t h e I n d i a n s . On 8 J a n u a r y a n d 26 F e b r u a r y 1859 172 The C o l o n i s t p u b l i s h e d u n s i g n e d l e t t e r s d e m a n d i n g t h a t t h e I n d i a n s be moved f r o m V i c t o r i a . "How much l o n g e r " , a l e t t e r w r i t e r a s k e d , " a r e we t o be i n f l i c t e d w i t h t h e i n t o l e r a b l e n u i s a n c e o f h a v i n g h u n d r e d s u p on h u n d r e d s o f h i d e o u s , h a l f - n a k e d , d r u n k e n s a v a g e s i n o u r m i d s t ? " How t e r r i b l e was t h e e x a m p l e t o o u r c h i l d r e n , t o o u r s i s t e r s a n d d a u g h t e r s , t o h a v e t h e s t r e e t s " t e e m i n g w i t h d r o v e s o f t h e s e d i s g u s t i n g o b j e c t s , r e e l i n g a b o u t 98 and s h o u t i n g " . S e t t l e r s seemed t o be p a r t i c u l a r l y c o n c e r n e d a b o u t t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f " i n s u l t s t o f e m a l e m o d e s t y " , a n d one o f them h i n t e d d a r k l y t h a t " W i t h s u c h d i s g u s t i n g s i g h t s b e f o r e t h e y o u n g , who c a n t e l l t h a t t h e f o u n d a t i o n i s n o t g r a d u a l l y 99 b e i n g l a i d o f w i c k e d n e s s e s t o o f e a r f u l t o m e n t i o n . " S e t t l e r o u t r a g e a t t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f m i s c e g e n a t i o n was o n l y t h i n l y d i s g u i s e d by s u c h r e m a r k s . L e t t e r s l i k e t h e s e w r i t t e n by i t s s u b s c r i b e r s w e r e s u p p o r t e d e d i t o r i a l l y b y The B r i t i s h C o l o n i s t . 1 0 ( S o c i a l p r o b l e m s and o f f e n s e t o s e t t l e r s e n s i b i l i t i e s w e r e two r e a s o n s f o r t h e demands f o r t h e r e l o c a t i o n o f t h e I n d i a n s , b u t a t h i r d , a nd p r o b a b l y more i m p o r t a n t r e a s o n , was t h e f a c t t h a t w i t h t h e g r o w t h o f V i c t o r i a t h e S o n g h e e s r e s e r v e h a d become a v a l u a b l e p i e c e o f r e a l e s t a t e . C o l o n i a l d e v e l o p e r s w o u l d h a v e p r e f e r r e d t o s e e t h e l a n d t u r n e d t o a p r o f i t by t h e m s e l v e s , r a t h e r t h a n b e i n g o c c u p i e d b y t h e I n d i a n s . A t t e m p t s w e r e made by t h e s e t t l e r s t o buy t h e l a n d f r o m t h e S o n g h e e s , b u t D o u g l a s f o r e s t a l l e d t h a t move b y p l a c i n g a n o t i c e i n t h e V i c t o r i a G a z e t t e t o t h e e f f e c t t h a t t h e r e s e r v e was t h e p r o p e r t y o f t h e Crown and t h a t t h e I n d i a n s c o u l d n o t c o n v e y l e g a l t i t l e t o i t . 1 0 1 B u t t h e r e was a l s o a g i t a t i o n i n t h e House o f A s s e m b l y t o h a v e t h e I n d i a n s r e m o v e d by o f f i c i a l a c t i o n . James Y a t e s , a t a v e r n owner 173 and g o v e r n m e n t c r i t i c , i n t r o d u c e d t h e q u e s t i o n o f r e m o v i n g t h e I n d i a n r e s e r v e f r o m a c r o s s t h e h a r b o u r a t s e v e r a l m e e t i n g s o f t h e A s s e m b l y d u r i n g J a n u a r y and F e b r u a r y 1859. On 25 J a n u a r y he moved t o a s k t h e G o v e r n o r i f t h e y h a d t h e power t o 102 remove t h e I n d i a n s , a n d i f n o t why n o t . I n a l e t t e r d a t e d 5 F e b r u a r y 1 8 5 9 , D o u g l a s i n f o r m e d t h e s p e a k e r a n d t h e members o f t h e A s s e m b l y t h a t he was n o t p r e p a r e d t o s e e t h e I n d i a n s moved b e c a u s e t h e G o v e r n m e n t was p l e d g e d by t r e a t i e s t h a t he h a d made n o t t o d i s t u r b t h e i r o c c u p a t i o n o f t h e l a n d . D o u g l a s a d d e d , h o w e v e r , t h a t he was p r e p a r e d t o a l l o w t h e l e a s i n g o u t 103 o f p a r t s o f t h e r e s e r v e . B u t t h i s a c t i o n was n o t en o u g h f o r t h o s e who w a n t e d r e m o v a l , a n d Y a t e s c o n t i n u e d t o a g i t a t e t o w a r d s t h a t e n d i n t h e A s s e m b l y . On t h e 15 F e b r u a r y he i n t r o d u c e d a n o t h e r r e s o l u t i o n t o h a v e t h e I n d i a n s moved and one f o r a c o m m i t t e e t o be e s t a b l i s h e d t o e n q u i r e i n t o t h e c i r c u m s t a n c e s o f t h e I n d i a n s c o m i n g i n t o t h e a r e a s o t h a t H i s E x c e l l e n c y c o u l d 104 be f u l l y i n f o r m e d . The d e b a t e w h i c h e n s u e d was n o t c a r r i e d o n " e n t i r e l y w i t h i n t h e r u l e s o f g o o d b r e e d i n g a n d p a r l i a m e n t a r y 105 u s a g e . " Y a t e s h a d made i t c l e a r t h a t he w a n t e d t o s e e t h e r e s e r v e p u r c h a s e d f r o m t h e I n d i a n s , d i v i d e d i n t o t o w n l o t s , a n d 106 s o l d t o t h e h i g h e s t b i d d e r . He a r g u e d t h a t D o u g l a s ' s p r o p o s a l t o l e a s e t h e l a n d was a b s u r d as t h e i n c o m e w o u l d be enormous a n d w o u l d g i v e t h e I n d i a n s s u c h an i n f l a t e d v i d e a o f t h e v a l u e o f t h e p r o p e r t y t h a t i t w o u l d be i m p o s s i b l e t o p u r c h a s e i t f r o m them i n t h e f u t u r e . Anyway, Y a t e s a d d e d , n o t h i n g c o u l d be done t o i m p r o v e t h e c o n d i t i o n o f t h e I n d i a n s w h i l e t h e y r e m a i n e d w h e r e t h e y w e r e w i t h l i q u o r s o e a s y t o o b t a i n . J o s e p h D e s p a r d P e m b e r t o n p e r t i n e n t l y p o i n t e d o u t t h a t i t was o n l y s i n c e 174 t h e i r l a n d s h a d become v a l u a b l e t h a t t h e I n d i a n s w e r e f o u n d t o be a n u i s a n c e a n d , t a k i n g a s w i p e a t Y a t e s , r e m a r k e d t h a t i f l i q u o r was a p r o b l e m t h e n t h e g r o g s h o p s s h o u l d be c l o s e d . B o t h 107 o f Y a t e s ' r e s o l u t i o n s w e r e l o s t , b u t t h e A s s e m b l y c o n t i n u e d 10 8 t o r a i s e o b j e c t i o n s t o t h e i d e a o f l e a s i n g t h e l a n d . A l t h o u g h D o u g l a s r e s i s t e d t h e e f f o r t s t o h a v e t h e I n d i a n s r e m o v e d i t was c l e a r t h a t t h e s e t t l e r s d i d n o t w a n t them l i v i n g n e a r V i c t o r i a any more t h a n t h e y w a n t e d them o c c u p y i n g v a l u a b l e l a n d . A f u r t h e r c o n s e q u e n c e o f t h e l a r g e numbers o f I n d i a n s v i s i t i n g arid l i v i n g i n V i c t o r i a was t h a t d i s e a s e i n c r e a s e d and s p r e a d among them. I n d i a n s who came t o V i c t o r i a f o r t h e summer c a r r i e d d i s e a s e s up t h e c o a s t when t h e y r e t u r n e d home, t h u s s p r e a d i n g a i l m e n t s more r a p i d l y t h a n i f t h e p o p u l a t i o n h a d b e e n s t a t i o n a r y . V e n e r e a l d i s e a s e , . f o r e x a m p l e , was c o n t r a c t e d by I n d i a n women i n V i c t o r i a a n d t h e n c a r r i e d up t h e c o a s t w h e r e i t c a u s e d d e a t h and i n f e r t i l i t y . The m o s t s t r i k i n g i n s t a n c e o f t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n o f d i s e a s e i n t h i s way was t h e s m a l l p o x o u t -b r e a k o f 1862. D u r i n g M a r c h o f t h a t y e a r s m a l l p o x was b r o u g h t t o V i c t o r i a , p r o b a b l y by a s a i l o r c o m i n g f r o m San F r a n c i s c o , and i t s o o n t o o k h o l d among t h e I n d i a n s . I n t h e m i d d l e o f t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y l i t t l e was known a b o u t t h e m e c h a n i s m by w h i c h s m a l l p o x was s p r e a d . N e w s p a p e r s i n V i c t o r i a w e r e a d v i s i n g c i t i z e n s t o c l e a n up any r e f u s e t h a t was l i k e l y t o c a u s e 109 m i asma, a n d t h e u l t i m a t e m e t h o d u s e d t o t r y a n d c o n t r o l t h e d i s e a s e among t h e I n d i a n s was t h e w o r s t one p o s s i b l e . As i t became a p p a r e n t t h a t more and more I n d i a n s w e r e i n f e c t e d w i t h s m a l l p o x V i c t o r i a n s b e g a n t o a g i t a t e t o h a v e them r e m o v e d f r o m t h e v i c i n i t y o f t h e t o w n . F i n a l l y t h e a u t h o r i t i e s e v i c t e d t h e I n d i a n s a n d b u r n e d down t h e i r h o u s e s / ' ' " R a t h e r t h a n c o n -t a i n i n g t h e h i g h l y c o n t a g i o u s d i s e a s e a t i t s s o u r c e i t was a l l o w e d t o s p r e a d up t h e c o a s t as t h e n o r t h e r n I n d i a n s r e t u r n e d home i n f e c t i n g o t h e r s w h e r e v e r t h e y made a l a n d f a l l . From t h e c o a s t t h e d i s e a s e a l s o b e g a n t o s p r e a d i n t o t h e i n t e r i o r , u n t i l t h e I n d i a n s o f a l a r g e p a r t o f t h e two C o l o n i e s w e r e i n c o n t a c t w i t h i t . T h i s i n c r e a s e d i n c i d e n c e o f s m a l l p o x p r o d u c e d c o n s i d -e r a b l e e x c i t e m e n t a n d h y s t e r i a among t h e s e t t l e r s . F o r some t h e i m p a c t o f t h e d i s e a s e c o n f i r m e d t h e i r e x p e c t a t i o n t h a t t h e I n d i a n s w e r e s o o n t o d i e o u t . C o n t e m p o r a r y r e m a r k s a b o u t s m a l l -p o x c o n v e r t i n g I n d i a n 'camps i n t o g r a v e y a r d s s h o u l d , t h e r e f o r e be t r e a t e d w i t h some c a u t i o n , a s s h o u l d s t a t e m e n t s b y more r e c e n t c o m m e n t a t o r s t h a t t h e e p i d e m i c b e g i n n i n g i n 1862 r e d u c e d t h e 112 I n d i a n p o p u l a t i o n by one t h i r d . D u r i n g 1862 t h o u s a n d s o f 113 I n d i a n s w e r e v a c c i n a t e d a n d by t h a t t i m e t h e r e must h a v e b e e n a d e g r e e o f b u i l t - u p i m m u n i t y as a r e s u l t o f p r e v i o u s c o n t a c t w i t h t h e d i s e a s e . N o n e t h e l e s s , t h e r e c a n be no d o u b t t h a t l a r g e numbers o f I n d i a n s w e r e k i l l e d b y s m a l l p o x . I n many r e s p e c t s t h e 1862 s m a l l p o x o u t b r e a k was r e p r e s e n -t a t i v e o f t h e k i n d o f c h a n g e t h a t t h e I n d i a n s f a c e d w i t h t h e a r r i v a l o f t h e s e t t l e r s . J u s t as t h e I n d i a n s h a d b e e n i n t r o -d u c e d t o s m a l l p o x b e f o r e 1862 t h e i r c u l t u r e h a d b e e n c h a n g e d as a r e s u l t o f t h e E u r o p e a n p r e s e n c e p r i o r t o t h e c o m i n g o f t h e s e t t l e r s ; b u t now t h e p a c e o f c h a n g e o u t s t r i p p e d t h e , I n d i a n a b i l i t y t o c o p e w i t h i t . The o l d c u r e s f o r i l l n e s s e s p r o v e d i n e f f e c t i v e a g a i n s t s m a l l p o x , and t r a d i t i o n a l s o c i a l f o r m s w e r e i n a d e q u a t e t o c o p e w i t h t h e c r i s i s t h a t s e t t l e m e n t b r o u g h t t o 176 I n d i a n c u l t u r e . D u r i n g t h e f u r t r a d e c h a n g e h a d b e e n g r a d u a l e n o u g h f o r t h e I n d i a n s t o accommodate t o i t , b u t i n t h e y e a r s f o l l o w i n g 1858 t h e I n d i a n s f a c e d a g r e a t r a n g e o f m a j o r d i s -r u p t i o n s w h i c h w e r e i n t r o d u c e d t o o q u i c k l y f o r t h e I n d i a n s t o a d a p t t o them e a s i l y . I n d i a n s r e a l i s e d t h a t t h e i r way o f l i f e was b e i n g s e r i o u s l y d i s r u p t e d . They o b j e c t e d t o t h e i n t e r f e r e n c e a n d y e t t h e y c o u l d do l i t t l e a b o u t i t . I n 1860 when S p r o a t a r r i v e d a t A l b e r n i C a n a l t o s u p e r v i s e t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f a s a w m i l l , he a n n o u n c e d t o t h e I n d i a n s t h a t t h e y m u s t move t h e i r v i l l a g e as he h a d b o u g h t a l l t h e s u r r o u n d i n g l a n d f r o m t h e Queen and he w i s h e d t o o c c u p y t h e s i t e o f t h e v i l l a g e . The I n d i a n s m u s t h a v e b e e n a s t o n i s h e d a t t h e o d d b e h a v i o u r o f t h i s w h i t e man, b u t t h e y p r o c e e d e d t o n e g o t i a t e a s a l e . I t became a p p a r e n t , h o w e v e r , t h a t t h e I n d i a n s w e r e u n w i l l i n g t o move t h e m s e l v e s f r o m t h e i r v i l l a g e . One o f t h e t r i b a l e l d e r s l a t e r s a i d p r o p h e t i c a l l y , We s e e y o u r s h i p s , a n d h e a r t h i n g s t h a t make o u r h e a r t s grow f a i n t . They s a y t h a t more K i n g - G e o r g e - m e n w i l l s o o n be h e r e , and w i l l t a k e o u r l a n d , o u r f i r e w o o d , o u r f i s h i n g g r o u n d s ; t h a t we s h a l l be p l a c e d on a l i t t l e s p o t , a n d s h a l l h a v e t o do e v e r y t h i n g a c c o r d i n g t o t h e f a n c i e s o f t h e K i n g - G e o r g e - m e n . The o l d man a d d e d t h a t "We do n o t w a n t t h e w h i t e man. He s t e a l s w h a t we h a v e . We w i s h t o l i v e as we a r e . " B u t t h e o p p o s i t i o n was f u t i l e . The A l b e r n i I n d i a n s p r e p a r e d t o r e s i s t t h e i n t r u s i o n o f S p r o a t ' s p a r t y by f o r c e , b u t t h e E u r o p e a n ' s v e s s e l s w e r e e q u i p p e d w i t h c a n n o n a nd a f t e r t h e u s e o f t h e s e was d e m o n s t r a t e d t h e I n d i a n s "saw t h a t r e s i s t a n c e w o u l d b e i n e x p e d i e n t , a n d b e g a n t o move f r o m t h e s p o t . " 1 1 4 The s c e n e was one t h a t was r e p e a t e d i n many p l a c e s i n t h e two C o l o n i e s . I n d i a n s e v e r y w h e r e w e r e 177 t r y i n g t o c o n v i n c e t h e s e t t l e r s t h a t t h e y h a d no b u s i n e s s 115 b e i n g t h e r e , a n d t h a t t h e l a n d b e l o n g e d t o t h e m s e l v e s . B u t by 1858 i t was a l r e a d y t o o l a t e t o t u r n b a c k t h e s e t t l e r s , a n d i n any c a s e t h e I n d i a n s o c i e t i e s w e r e t o o f r a g m e n t e d f o r t h e I n d i a n s t o p r o v i d e s e r i o u s o p p o s i t i o n . N e i t h e r t h e . S a l i s h n o r t h e Shuswap, n o r e v e n t h e C h i l c o t i n , c o u l d p r e v e n t t h e a d v a n c e o f s e t t l e m e n t on t h e i r own, a n d t h e I n d i a n s h a d n e v e r a c t e d t o g e t h e r b e f o r e ; h i t h e r t o t h e r e h a d b e e n no r e a s o n f o r u n i t e d a c t i o n . R e c a l l i n g h i s a r r i v a l i n A l b e r n i s o m e t i m e l a t e r , S p r o a t s a i d t h a t t h e c l a t t e r i n g o f s h i p s ' c a b l e s h a d n o t b e e n h e a r d b e f o r e by t h e I n d i a n s o f t h e a r e a , b u t i t was a n o i s e " t h a t m i g h t w e l l be remembered b y t h e p e o p l e , f o r t h e i r l a n d r e a l l y p a s s e d i n t o t h e u n r e l a x i n g E n g l i s h g r i p as o u r a n c h o r s s a n k t o t h e b o t t o m " . 1 1 6 I n d i v i d u a l a n d g r o u p s o f I n d i a n s t r i e d t o o p p o s e t h e p e n e t r a t i o n o f t h e w h i t e s , w h i l e o t h e r s m e r e l y r e t r e a t e d f r o m a s i t u a t i o n t h a t t h e y f e l t was b e y o n d t h e i r c o n t r o l . S p r o a t t o l d t h e E t h n o l o g i c a l S o c i e t y o f L o n d o n t h a t a f t e r h a v i n g s p e n t some t i m e among t h e I n d i a n s he n o t i c e d t h a t a l a r g e number o f them "no l o n g e r v i s i t e d t h e s e t t l e m e n t i n t h e i r f o r m e r f r e e i n d e p e n -d e n t way, b u t l i v e d l i s t l e s s l y i n t h e i r v i l l a g e s , b r o o d i n g s e e m i n g l y o v e r h e a v y t h o u g h t s . " T h e s e I n d i a n s g r a d u a l l y s h r a n k f r o m a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h t h e E u r o p e a n s . S p r o a t ' s n o t i m p l a u s i b l e e x p l a n a t i o n f o r t h i s b e h a v i o u r was t h a t t h e I n d i a n s h a d b e g u n t o d i s t r u s t t h e i r o l d h a b i t s and t r a d i t i o n s a n d y e t w e r e s t u n n e d and c o n f u s e d by t h e t e c h n i c a l a c h i e v e m e n t s a nd v i t a l i t y o f w e s t e r n c u l t u r e . S p r o a t a l s o n o t i c e d t h a t i l l n e s s h a d i n c r e a s e d among t h e I n d i a n s f o r no i m m e d i a t e l y a p p a r e n t r e a s o n ; he c l a i m e d 178 t h a t i t was n o t c a u s e d by e x c e s s i v e d r i n k i n g o r s e x u a l c o n t a c t w i t h t h e w h i t e s , b u t t h o u g h t i t t o be t h e r e s u l t o f d e s p o n d e n c y 117 p r o d u c e d b y c o n t a c t w i t h w e s t e r n c u l t u r e . A n o t h e r o f f i c i a l r e p o r t e d a n i n c r e a s e i n t h e s u i c i d e r a t e among t h e I n d i a n s o f 118 t h e D o u g l a s a r e a . C e r t a i n l y i f S p r o a t ' s d e s c r i p t i o n i s a t a l l a c c u r a t e t h e n t h e s e I n d i a n s w e r e e x p e r i e n c i n g an a c u t e c u l t u r a l c r i s i s . The s e t t l e m e n t f r o n t i e r , t h e n , was b r i n g i n g m a j o r d i s -r u p t i o n s t o t h e c u l t u r e s o f t h o s e I n d i a n s i n c o n s t a n t c o n t a c t w i t h t h e w h i t e s . Some g r o u p s s t i l l r e m a i n e d f a i r l y i s o l a t e d f r o m s e t t l e m e n t d u r i n g t h e 186 0 ' s a n d i n some c a s e s w e r e s t i l l v i g o r o u s l y a s s e r t i n g t h e i r own c u l t u r e . N o t a l l I n d i a n s e x p e r i -e n c e d t h e anomie w h i c h S p r o a t d e s c r i b e s . Some c o a s t I n d i a n s w e r e s t i l l d e v e l o p i n g a n d a s s e r t i n g I n d i a n c u l t u r a l f o r m s . H e l e n C o d e r e h a s shown t h a t among t h e K w a k i u t l w i n t e r r i t u a l a n d p o t l a t c h i n g Were i n c r e a s i n g i n t h e y e a r s a f t e r t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t 119 o f s e t t l e m e n t , a n d t h e H a i d a w e r e s t i l l d e v e l o p i n g t h e i r a r t f o r m s t o s u c h an e x t e n t t h a t t h e i r v i l l a g e s a p p e a r e d f r o m a 120 d i s t a n c e as a f o r e s t o f t o t e m p o l e s . B e c a u s e o f t h e i r r e l a t i v e i s o l a t i o n t h e s e g r o u p s h a d y e t t o e x p e r i e n c e t h e f u l l i m p a c t o f t h e s e t t l e m e n t f r o n t i e r , b u t n o n e t h e l e s s t h e d e v e l o p -ments i n K w a k i u t l r i t u a l a n d H a i d a a r t c a n be s e e n as a s s e r t i o n s o f I n d i a n c u l t u r e i n r e s p o n s e t o t h e m a l a i s e b r o u g h t a b o u t by t h e w h i t e man's p r e s s u r e . D u r i n g t h e 1860's many I n d i a n s i n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a w e r e e x p e r i e n c i n g w h a t , e v e n t u a l l y , a l l w o u l d e x p e r i e n c e : a d i s r u p t i o n o f t h e i r c u l t u r e . I t was a d i s t u r b a n c e t h a t t h e I n d i a n s c o u l d t o l e r a t e o r o b j e c t t o b u t , i n t h e l o n g t e r m , c o u l d n o t r e a l l y 179 r e s i s t . The a t t i t u d e s a n d a c t i o n s o f t h e s e t t l e r s meant t h a t o p t i o n s w e r e c l o s i n g o f f f o r t h e I n d i a n s a nd t h e i r f r e e d o m o f a c t i o n was b e i n g l i m i t e d . B u t m i n e r s a n d s e t t l e r s w e r e n o t t h e o n l y a g e n t s o f c u l t u r a l c h a n g e a t w o r k among t h e I n d i a n s a f t e r 1858. CHAPTER V I The M i s s i o n a r i e s . . . t h e y saw t h a t C h r i s t i a n i t y meant n o t h i n g l e s s t h a n t h e s u b v e r s i o n o f e v e r y e v i l w ork and no c o m p r o m i s e , . . . 1 D e s p i t e t h e f a c t t h a t t h e s e t t l e r s a nd g o l d m i n e r s b r o u g h t r a d i c a l c h a n g e t o I n d i a n s o c i e t y , s u c h c h a n g e was t h e b y - p r o d u c t o f o t h e r E u r o p e a n o b j e c t i v e s . S e t t l e r s d i d n o t come t o B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a w i t h a s p e c i f i c p o l i c y o f c u l t u r e c h a n g e i n m i n d , t h e y s i m p l y e x p e c t e d t h e I n d i a n s t o g i v e way b e f o r e t h e i r demands. So t h e c h a n g e s b r o u g h t by s e t t l e r s w e r e , t o a d e g r e e , i n a d v e r t e n t , a l t h o u g h t h e e f f e c t o n t h e I n d i a n s was no l e s s p r o f o u n d f o r t h a t r e a s o n . The m i s s i o n a r i e s , h o w e v e r , h a d d e v e l o p e d q u i t e d e l i b e r a t e l y and c o n s c i o u s l y t h o u g h t o u t p l a n s o f a c c u l t u r a t i o n f o r t h e I n d i a n s . The m i s s i o n a r i e s w e r e t h e s e c o n d p r o n g o f t h e s e t t l e m e n t f r o n t i e r ' s a t t a c k o n I n d i a n c u l t u r e . M i s s i o n a r i e s w e r e a p a r t o f t h e s e t t l e m e n t f r o n t i e r b e c a u s e t h e y demanded m a j o r c h a n g e o f t h e I n d i a n s , e v e n t h o u g h t h e y w a n t e d c h a n g e o f a d i f f e r e n t k i n d and f o r d i f f e r e n t r e a s o n s t h a n t h e s e t t l e r s . M i s s i o n a r i e s h a d b e e n o p e r a t i v e i n t h e a r e a t h a t was t o become B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a b e f o r e t h e a d v e n t o f t h e s e t t l e m e n t f r o n t i e r , b u t t h e i r e f f o r t s h a d met w i t h l i t t l e s u c c e s s . P r o t e s -t a n t m i s s i o n s t o t h e n o r t h w e s t c o a s t d u r i n g t h e f u r t r a d i n g p e r i o d w e r e few and s h o r t - l i v e d . I n 1829 J o n a t h a n G r e e n , r e p r e -s e n t i n g t h e A m e r i c a n B o a r d o f C o m m i s s i o n e r s f o r F o r e i g n M i s s i o n s , 180 181 made a t r i p f r o m t h e S a n d w i c h I s l a n d s t o t h e n o r t h w e s t c o a s t t o i n v e s t i g a t e t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f e s t a b l i s h i n g a m i s s i o n . G r e e n v i s i t e d s e v e r a l p o i n t s o n t h e n o r t h e r n c o a s t , i n c l u d i n g K a i g a n i , t h e N a s s R i v e r and S k i d e g a t e , and w r o t e a r e p o r t a d v o c a t i n g t h a t m i s s i o n a r y a t t e n t i o n s h o u l d be p a i d t o t h a t p a r t 2 o f t h e w o r l d . B u t a p p a r e n t l y t h e A m e r i c a n B o a r d d i d n o t f o l l o w up h i s s u g g e s t i o n , a t l e a s t n o t n o r t h o f t h e f o r t y - n i n t h p a r a l l e l . S e v e n y e a r s l a t e r a n o t h e r P r o t e s t a n t m i s s i o n a r y came t o t h e c o a s t . Rev. H e r b e r t B e a v e r a r r i v e d a t F o r t V a n c o u v e r i n S e p t e m b e r 183 6 , h a v i n g b e e n s e n t o u t b y t h e H u d s o n ' s Bay Company as a c h a p l a i n and a m i s s i o n a r y t o t h e I n d i a n s . B e a v e r may, as Ogden 3 o n c e r e m a r k e d , h a v e b e e n s u i t e d b y name t o t h e f u r t r a d e , b u t i t i s d i f f i c u l t t o i m a g i n e a man l e s s s u i t e d by n a t u r e t o t h a t e n v i r o n m e n t . He l a c k e d c o m p l e t e l y t h e t o l e r a t i o n t h a t was r e -q u i r e d t o s u r v i v e on t h e f u r t r a d i n g f r o n t i e r . M i s s i o n a r i e s d i d n o t l e a v e E u r o p e t o accommodate them-s e l v e s t o t h e f r o n t i e r ; t h e y came w i t h p l a n s t o a l t e r I n d i a n s o c i e t y t o t a l l y . They w e r e , t h e r e f o r e , m i s f i t s w i t h i n t h e f u r t r a d i n g e n v i r o n m e n t . The f u r t r a d e r s knew t h a t t h e m i s s i o n a r i e s c o u l d d e s t r o y t h e f u r t r a d e b y c o n v e r t i n g t h e I n d i a n s t o a new way o f l i f e . W h i l e t h e t r a d e r s ' a t t i t u d e t o m o s t m i s s i o n a r i e s was one o f u n e a s y t o l e r a t i o n , men l i k e B e a v e r w e r e s i m p l y i n f u r i a t i n g . The R e v e r e n d B e a v e r seemed t o t a l l y u n a b l e t o make any c o n c e s s i o n s t o t h e m i l i e u t h a t he was t r y i n g t o w o r k i n . He was o v e r l y c o n c e r n e d w i t h m a i n t a i n i n g " t h e d i g n i t y o f my s t a t i o n " . He c o m p l a i n e d a b o u t t h e a c c o m m o d a t i o n t h a t he was p r o v i d e d w i t h a t t h e F o r t ; he p r o t e s t e d t h a t h i s a l l o w a n c e o f f o o d a n d w i n e was i n s u f f i c i e n t f o r a man o f h i s s t a t i o n , and 182 when he b e g a n t o w o r k as a t e a c h e r and a m i n i s t e r he was p r e p a r e d t o make a b s o l u t e l y no a l l o w a n c e f o r t h e f a c t t h a t m o s t o f h i s p u p i l s and c o n g r e g a t i o n w e r e Roman C a t h o l i c . M c L o u g h l i n w a n t e d B e a v e r t o t e a c h a n o n - d e n o m i n a t i o n a l f o r m o f C h r i s t i a n i t y t h a t w o u l d be a p p r o p r i a t e t o t h e c a t h o l i c c h a r a c t e r o f t h e Company's s t a f f , b u t B e a v e r w o u l d t e a c h o n l y t h e d o c t r i n e s o f t h e C h u r c h o f E n g l a n d . 5 He was a s t o n i s h e d a t t h e s t r o n g h o l d o f " P o p e r y " i n t h e F o r t a n d , e v e n w o r s e , t h a t i t was " d e f e n d e d and 6 s u s t a i n e d by t h e h e a d o f t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t h i m s e l f " . B u t t h e i s s u e t h a t r e a l l y e n r a g e d B e a v e r was t h e m a r i t a l s t a t u s o f t h e o f f i c e r s a nd men o f t h e Company. Many o f t h e m a r r i a g e s o f Company men and I n d i a n o r h a l f - b r e e d women w e r e u n i o n s made i n t h e "manner o f t h e c o u n t r y " r a t h e r t h a n h a v i n g b e e n f o r m a l i s e d a c c o r d i n g t o t h e ways o f E u r o p e a n s o c i e t y . A s i t u a t i o n t h a t t h e f u r t r a d e r s t o o k s o much f o r g r a n t e d h o r r i f i e d a nd o u t r a g e d t h e m i s s i o n a r y . I n h i s l e t t e r s B e a v e r r a v e d a b o u t " u n h a l l o w e d 7 8 c o n n e c t i o n s " and women " l i v i n g i n a s t a t e o f c o n c u b i n a g e " . He demanded t h a t i f a m a r r i e d c h a p l a i n was t o d w e l l w i t h i n t h e F o r t a l l t h o s e whose m a r r i a g e s w e re n o t s o l e m n i s e d b e f o r e God s h o u l d be made t o l i v e o u t s i d e t h e w a l l s . As f a r as t h e t r a d e r s w e r e c o n c e r n e d t h i s s u g g e s t i o n was j u s t r i d i c u l o u s . The c r i s i s came on t h i s m a t t e r when B e a v e r , i n a l e t t e r t o t h e Company, r e f e r r e d t o . M c L o u g h l i n ' s w i f e as a " f e m a l e o f n o t o r i o u s l y l o o s e c h a r a c t e r " and as " t h e k e p t M i s t r e s s o f t h e h i g h e s t p e r s o n a g e i n y o u r s e r v i c e a t t h i s s t a t i o n . " " ' " 0 When he r e a d t h e s e r e m a r k s , M c L o u g h l i n was i n c e n s e d . The u n f o r t u n a t e B e a v e r l e a r n e d s o m e t h i n g o f t h e M c L o u g h l i n t e m p e r when he was s e v e r e l y b e a t e n up i n t h e q u a d -r a n g l e o f t h e F o r t b y t h e C h i e f F a c t o r . S oon a f t e r t h i s i n c i d e n t 183 M c L o u g h l i n l e f t on f u r l o u g h a n d b e f o r e he r e t u r n e d B e a v e r h a d d e p a r t e d f r o m F o r t V a n c o u v e r . The m i s s i o n a r y h a d b e e n u t t e r l y u n a b l e t o c o p e w i t h c o n d i t i o n s i n s i d e t h e F o r t l e t a l o n e b e g i n w o r k among t h e I n d i a n s . B e a v e r ' s b e h a v i o u r m i g h t be p u t down t o p e r s o n a l e c c e n t r i c i t y w e r e i t n o t f o r t h e f a c t t h a t h i s a t t i t u d e s w e r e t y p i c a l o f t h e e v a n g e l i c a l m i s s i o n a r y . Some y e a r s e a r l i e r S i m p s o n h a d w r i t t e n p r o p h e t i c a l l y t h a t i f a m i s s i o n a r y was t o be s e n t t o w o r k i n a f u r t r a d i n g a r e a he . . . o u g h t t o be c o o l a n d t e m p e r a t e i n h i s h a b i t s a n d o f a M i l d a n d c o n c i l i a t o r y d i s -p o s i t i o n e v e n t e m p e r e d a nd n o t t o o much d i s p o s e d t o f i n d f a u l t s e v e r e l y w i t h any l i t t l e l a x i t y o f M o r a l s he may d i s c o v e r a t t h e C o y ' s . E s t a b l i s h m e n t o t h e r w i s e ' t i s t o be f e a r e d he w o u l d f i n d h i s s i t u a t i o n u n c o m f o r t a b l e a n d i t m i g h t e v e n i n t e r f e r e w i t h t h e o b j e c t s o f h i s M i s s i o n ; . . . 11 A f t e r t h e B e a v e r i n t e r l u d e a t F o r t V a n c o u v e r , D o u g l a s commented s i m i l a r l y , t h a t a c l e r g y m a n i n t h e f u r t r a d i n g c o u n t r y s h o u l d be d e v o t e d t o t h e s u p p o r t o f p r i n c i p l e s r a t h e r t h a n f o r m s , s h u n d i s c o r d a n d a v o i d u n c h a r i t a b l e f e e l i n g s , and t e m p e r z e a l w i t h 12 d i s c r e t i o n . B u t t h e s e w e r e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t h a t w e r e s e l d o m f o u n d i n a P r o t e s t a n t m i s s i o n a r y o f t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y . Men l i k e B e a v e r w e r e z e a l o u s a n d d e t e r m i n e d , d o c t r i n a i r e and o b d u r a t e . They saw t h e m s e l v e s w a g i n g a w a r , o f t e n v a i n l y , 13 a g a i n s t an " i r r e s i s t a b l e t o r r e n t o f i n i q u i t y " , a n d t h e y w e r e n o t d i s p o s e d t o make c o n c e s s i o n s t o t h e enemy. The f i r s t Roman C a t h o l i c m i s s i o n a r i e s t o come i n t o c o n t a c t w i t h t h e I n d i a n s o f t h e n o r t h w e s t c o a s t w e r e t h e , f r i a r s who came w i t h t h e e a r l y S p a n i s h v o y a g e r s . Some o f t h e S p a n i a r d s w e r e v e r y s a n g u i n e a b o u t t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f c o n v e r t i n g t h e 184 I n d i a n s . F r a n c i s c o de E l i z a , t h e S p a n i s h commandant a t N o o t k a , t h o u g h t i n 1792 t h a t i f t h e s e t t l e m e n t w e r e t o be m a i n t a i n e d f o r a c o u p l e o f y e a r s t h e n t h e r e w o u l d be v e r y few I n d i a n s who h a d 14 n o t b e e n c o n v e r t e d t o Roman C a t h o l i c i s m . B u t t h e s e h o p e s w e r e n o t t o be r e a l i s e d . W i t h t h e d e p a r t u r e o f t h e S p a n i s h f r o m N o o t k a i t was t o be many y e a r s b e f o r e Roman C a t h o l i c m i s s i o n a r i e s w e r e t o come a g a i n t o t h e I n d i a n s o f t h e a r e a . D u r i n g t h e H udson's Bay Company y e a r s a number o f Roman C a t h o l i c m i s s i o n a r i e s s t a t i o n e d t o t h e s o u t h made f o r a y s i n t o New C a l e d o n i a . I n 1 8 3 8 , t h e same y e a r t h a t B e a v e r e n d e d h i s m i n i s t r y , t h e f i r s t Roman C a t h o l i c p r i e s t s a r r i v e d a t F o r t V a n c o u v e r . F a t h e r s F r a n c i s N. B l a n c h e t and M o d e s t e Demers w e r e s e n t o u t by t h e B i s h o p o f Quebec t o b e g i n a m i s s i o n i n O r e g o n . I n 1841.Demers t r a v e l l e d t o F o r t L a n g l e y and i n t h e . f o l l o w i n g y e a r he j o i n e d Ogden's b r i g a d e w h i c h . l e f t F o r t V a n c o u v e r t o s u p p l y t h e p o s t s o f New C a l e d o n i a . Demers w e n t a s f a r n o r t h a s S t u a r t L a k e , p a s s e d t h e w i n t e r a t F o r t A l e x a n d r i a , a n d r e t u r n e d t o F o r t V a n c o u v e r i n A p r i l 1 8 4 3 . D u r i n g t h e m i d - 1 8 4 0 ' s t h e J e s u i t p r i e s t , F a t h e r P i e r r e De Smet, was t r a v e l l i n g among t h e K o o t e n a y and O k anagan I n d i a n s , w h i l e F a t h e r J o h n N o b i l i S . J . was o p e r a t i n g i n n o r t h e r n New C a l e d o n i a . When D o u g l a s made a j o u r n e y o f r e c o n n a i s s a n c e t o t h e s o u t h e r n t i p o f V a n c o u v e r I s l a n d i n 1843 he was accom-p a n i e d by F a t h e r J e a n - B a p t i s t B o l d u c who s p e n t some t i m e w o r k i n g among t h e c o a s t S a l i s h . F o l l o w i n g t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f t h e •Colony o f V a n c o u v e r I s l a n d , Demers, who h a d b e e n c o n s e c r a t e d B i s h o p o f V a n c o u v e r I s l a n d , a n d F a t h e r L e m p f r i t b o t h l a b o u r e d among t h e I n d i a n s , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h e V i c t o r i a a nd C o w i c h a n a r e a s . 185 Y e t a l l t h e s e e f f o r t s b y Roman C a t h o l i c m i s s i o n a r i e s made o n l y a m i n i m a l i m p a c t o n t h e I n d i a n s . The f i r s t o f them t o t r a v e l among t h e I n d i a n s o f New C a l e d o n i a made o n l y f l e e t i n g c o n t a c t w i t h e a c h . g r o u p . I n s p i t e o f l i b e r a l s p r i n k l i n g s o f b a p t i s m a l w a t e r a n d t h e u s e o f v i s u a l a i d s s u c h as t h e C a t h o l i c l a d d e r , t h e i m p a c t o f t h e s e m i s s i o n a r i e s was s u p e r f i c i a l . As a l a t e r O b l a t e m i s s i o n a r y t o B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a p u t i t , t h e s e 15 e a r l y v i s i t s "were b u t s k i r m i s h e s . " H u n d r e d s w e r e b a p t i s e d w i t h l i t t l e o r no p r e p a r a t i o n , a n d u n d e r t h e s e c i r c u m s t a n c e s b a p t i s m o b v i o u s l y d i d n o t mean c o n v e r s i o n t o C h r i s t i a n i t y . " ' ' 6 Many I n d i a n s who r e c e i v e d "God's w a t e r " t h e n f e l t s e c u r e and 17 s i m p l y r e t u r n e d t o t h e i r o l d way o f l i f e . As t h e y c o n c e i v e d i t , t h e y h a d p r o p i t i a t e d t h e new g o d and no r e a l c h a n g e i n l i f e s t y l e was r e q u i r e d . E v e n when t h e m i s s i o n a r i e s t r i e d t o e s t a -b l i s h t h e m s e l v e s more p e r m a n e n t l y t h e y met w i t h l i t t l e s u c c e s s . I n 1852 D o u g l a s h a d t o a s k F a t h e r L e m p f r i t t o aba n d o n h i s m i s s i o n t o t h e C o w i c h a n . The I n d i a n s h a d a t t a c k e d t h e m i s s i o n a r y ' s p r o p e r t y a n d h a d t r e a t e d h i m w i t h c o n t e m p t , p r o v i n g t o D o u g l a s t h a t t h e y w e r e n o t p r e p a r e d t o b e n e f i t f r o m r e l i g i o u s t e a c h i n g , a n d t h a t f o r L e m p f r i t t o r e m a i n i n t h e a r e a w o u l d e n d a n g e r t h e 18 p e a c e o f t h e C o l o n y . D o u g l a s w r o t e t o t h e C o l o n i a l O f f i c e t h a t , as a r e s u l t o f t h i s s i t u a t i o n , he i n t e n d e d t o d i s c o u r a g e m i s s i o n a r i e s f r o m w o r k i n g among t h e I n d i a n s e x c e p t w i t h i n t h e b o u n d a r i e s o f . t h e s e t t l e m e n t w h e r e t h e y c o u l d be p r o t e c t e d a n d s u p p o r t e d . 1 9 D u r i n g t h e f u r t r a d i n g p e r i o d some I n d i a n s h a d a l s o i m b i b e d r u d i m e n t a r y n o t i o n s o f C h r i s t i a n i t y i n an i n f o r m a l way f r o m t r a d e r s . W i l l i a m T o l m i e n o t e d i n h i s j o u r n a l a t F o r t 186 N i s q u a l l y t h a t on o c c a s i o n s he h a d e n d e a v o u r e d t o a c q u a i n t t h e I n d i a n s " w i t h t h e e x i s t e n c e o f a Supreme B e i n g , h i s c r e a t i o n o f 20 t h e w o r l d a n d Commandments t o Man". B o t h o f t h e f u r t r a d i n g c o m p a n i e s t h a t w e r e a c t i v e on t h e P a c i f i c s l o p e e m p l o y e d F r e n c h C a n a d i a n s and Roman C a t h o l i c I r o q u o i s who c o n v e y e d a s p e c t s o f C h r i s t i a n i t y t o t h e l o c a l I n d i a n s . S o m e t i m e s C h r i s t i a n c o n c e p t s s p r e a d among t h e I n d i a n s w i t h s t a r t l i n g r a p i d i t y . I n 1829 two y o u n g I n d i a n s , one a S p o k a n and t h e o t h e r a K u t e n a i , r e t u r n e d t o t h e i r homes a f t e r h a v i n g b e e n e d u c a t e d and b a p t i s e d a t Red R i v e r . One o f t h e men, S p o k a n G a r r y , b e g a n p r e a c h i n g t h e w h i t e man's r e l i g i o n t o I n d i a n g r o u p s a n d h i s m e s s a g e was s p r e a d o v e r g r e a t d i s t a n c e s . J o h n M c L e a n , as f a r away as F o r t S a i n t J a m e s , r e p o r t e d t h a t a b r a n d o f C h r i s t i a n i t y t a u g h t by t h e s e two y o u n g men h a d s p r e a d w i t h a m a z i n g r a p i d i t y t o F o r t 21 A l e x a n d r i a , and t h e n t o t h e S t u a r t L a k e a r e a . I n d i a n s on t h e f u r t r a d i n g f r o n t i e r w e r e i n t r o d u c e d t o C h r i s t i a n i t y f r o m a v a r i e t y o f s o u r c e s , b u t t h e i r d i s p o s i t i o n t o w a r d s w e s t e r n r e l i g i o n was t h e same as i t was t o w a r d s o t h e r a s p e c t s o f E u r o p e a n c u l t u r e : t h e y w e r e f r e e t o s e l e c t a n d r e j e c t as t h e y p l e a s e d . Some d i d r e j e c t C h r i s t i a n i t y a l t o g e t h e r . O t h e r s s i m p l y a d d e d t h e C h r i s t i a n God t o t h e e x i s t i n g p a n t h e o n as a k i n d o f i n s u r a n c e p o l i c y . S t i l l o t h e r s d e v e l o p e d s y n c r e t i s t i c c u l t s t h a t w e r e a f u s i o n o f I n d i a n and E u r o p e a n e l e m e n t s . T h e s e p r o p h e t movements a r e p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t e r e s t i n g e x a m p l e s o f t h e k i n d o f s e l e c t i v e a d a p t a t i o n t h a t was p o s s i b l e f o r t h e I n d i a n s d u r i n g t h e f u r t r a d i n g p e r i o d . I t i s q u e s t i o n a b l e w h e t h e r t h e p r o p h e t d a n c e , f o r e x a m p l e , h a d i t s r o o t s i n t h e a b o r i g i n a l b e l i e f s o f t h e p e o p l e o r w h e t h e r i t was a p o s t - c o n t a c t phenomenon. 187 B u t i t i s c e r t a i n t h a t C h r i s t i a n e l e m e n t s w e r e i n c r e a s i n g l y a d d e d t o t h e p r o p h e t c u l t s a f t e r m i s s i o n a r i e s h a d b e e n a c t i v e 22 i n a g i v e n a r e a . T h e s e I n d i a n p r o p h e t s p r e p a r e d t h e way f o r l a t e r m i s s i o n a r i e s . Y e t i t was n o t u n t i l a f t e r t h e c o m i n g o f s e t t l e m e n t t h a t t h e m i s s i o n a r i e s w e r e s u f f i c i e n t l y w e l l o r g a n i s e d t o b r i n g m a j o r c h a n g e t o I n d i a n c u l t u r e a n d t h e I n d i a n s w e r e f a c e d w i t h more c o m p e l l i n g r e a s o n s t o a d o p t C h r i s t i a n i t y i n i t s e n t i r e t y . The l a s t y e a r s o f t h e 1 8 5 0 ' s , t h e y e a r s t h a t saw t h e p e r m a n e n t e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f s e t t l e m e n t , a l s o m a r k e d t h e b e g i n n i n g o f e f f e c t i v e m i s s i o n a r y w o r k among t h e I n d i a n s . I n J u n e 1857 W i l l i a m D u n c a n , t h e b e s t known m i s s i o n a r y s e n t t o B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a by t h e C h u r c h M i s s i o n a r y S o c i e t y , a r r i v e d i n V i c t o r i a . The f o l l o w i n g y e a r t h e O b l a t e s o f Ma r y I m m a c u l a t e e s t a b l i s h e d a c e n t r e f o r t h e i r o p e r a t i o n s a t E s q u i m a l t , a n d 1858 was a l s o t h e y e a r i n w h i c h t h e s i s t e r s o f S a i n t Ann a r r i v e d . I n 1859 t h e f i r s t M e t h o d i s t m i s s i o n a r i e s a r r i v e d f r o m C a n a d a t o b e g i n w o r k on t h e w e s t c o a s t a n d i n t h e same y e a r r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f t h e S o c i e t y f o r t h e P r o p a g a t i o n o f t h e G o s p e l i n F o r e i g n P a r t s came t o B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a . I t was no a c c i d e n t t h a t t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f e f f e c t i v e m i s s i o n s t o t h e I n d i a n s c o i n c i d e d w i t h t h e b e g i n n i n g o f s e t t l e m e n t . As l o n g as t h e i r t r a d i t i o n a l way o f l i f e r e m a i n e d i n t a c t t h e I n d i a n s h a d no r e a s o n t o a d o p t a new v a l u e s y s t e m s u c h a s C h r i s t i a n i t y . I t was o n l y a f t e r t h e d i s r u p t i v e i m p a c t o f s e t t l e m e n t h a d r e n d e r e d o l d t r u t h s i n e f f e c t u a l t h a t t h e I n d i a n s n e e d e d t o t u r n t o new o n e s . A c c e p t a n c e o f m i s s i o n a r y t e a c h i n g by I n d i a n s was a s i g n t h a t t h e y s e n s e d t h a t t h e i r c u l t u r e was u n d e r g o i n g m a j o r c h a n g e a nd t h a t t h e y n e e d e d new k n o w l e d g e t o 188 c o p e w i t h t h e i r new s i t u a t i o n . The a i m s o f t h e m i s s i o n a r i e s w e r e a t one w i t h t h e g e n e r a l i m p a c t o f t h e s e t t l e m e n t f r o n t i e r i n t h a t t h e m i s s i o n -a r i e s demanded t o t a l c u l t u r a l c a p i t u l a t i o n f r o m t h e I n d i a n s . No m a t t e r how much m i s s i o n a r y s o c i e t i e s m i g h t d e b a t e t h e q u e s t i o n o f w h e t h e r c i v i l i s a t i o n s h o u l d p r e c e d e o r f o l l o w e v a n g e l i z a t i o n , i n e f f e c t t h e two w e r e i n e x t r i c a b l y i n t e r t w i n e d . The m i s s i o n -a r i e s b r o u g h t a new s e t o f r e l i g i o u s b e l i e f s t o t h e I n d i a n s , b e l i e f s w h i c h w e r e t o c l e a n s e them " f r o m t h e a w f u l s u p e r s t i t i o n s 23 i n w h i c h t h e y w e r e now s u n k " . B u t t h e m i s s i o n a r i e s a l s o assumed t h a t t h e " i m p r o v e m e n t " o f t h e h e a t h e n was an e s s e n t i a l p a r t o f t h e i r b e c o m i n g C h r i s t i a n , and f o r t h e E u r o p e a n o f t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y " i m p r o v e m e n t " meant w e s t e r n i s a t i o n . The m i s s i o n a r i e s w e r e a g g r e s s i v e l y c o n f i d e n t a b o u t t h e s u p e r i o r i t y o f t h e i r own c u l t u r e a n d t h e r e f o r e h a d no q u a l m s a b o u t i n t e r -f e r i n g w i t h t h e c u s t o m s o f t h e I n d i a n s . They w e r e d e t e r m i n e d t o e r a d i c a t e t h a t w h i c h was I n d i a n , and t o i m p o s e t h a t w h i c h was E u r o p e a n . The demands o f t h e m i s s i o n a r i e s , u n l i k e t h o s e o f t h e t r a d e r , c o u l d n o t be i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o e x i s t i n g I n d i a n s o c i e t y ; t h e i r t e a c h i n g a n d t h e i r e x a m p l e h a d t o be e i t h e r a c c e p t e d o r r e j e c t e d , and a c c e p t a n c e meant v i r t u a l l y a t o t a l c u l t u r a l c h a n g e f o r t h e p r o s e l y t e . N o r d i d t h e m i s s i o n a r i e s s i m p l y demand a c h a n g e i n o u t w a r d b e h a v i o u r f r o m t h e i r c o n v e r t s ; t h e y a l s o r e q u i r e d t h a t , i n t h e w o r d s o f J o h n W e s l e y , t h e y be " b o r n a g a i n o f t h e s p i r i t " . 2 4 O u t w a r d c h a n g e was t o be a c c o m p a n i e d by a c o n v e r s i o n o f t h e h e a r t and m i n d so t h a t t h e C h r i s t i a n I n d i a n became a c o m p l e t e l y new b e i n g . W i l l i a m D u n c a n , t h e f i r s t a n d m o s t s u c c e s s f u l o f t h e 189 P r o t e s t a n t m i s s i o n a r i e s t o w o r k i n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , was i n 25 . . many ways t y p i c a l o f t h e r e s t . Of h u m b l e o r i g i n s , Duncan h a d s t r u g g l e d t o r i s e a bove h i s b i r t h , a n d by h i s own e f f o r t s 2 6 h a d e l e v a t e d h i m s e l f i n t o t h e r a n k s o f t h e l o w e r m i d d l e c l a s s . T h i s u p w a r d m o b i l i t y was common among y o u n g men who w e r e c o n -27 v e r t e d t o t h e m i s s i o n a r y l i f e , a n d f o r some t h e d e c i s i o n t o wo r k as a m i s s i o n a r y was an e x t e n s i o n o f t h e i r d r i v e f o r s u c c e s s i n t h e s e c u l a r w o r l d . As a m i s s i o n a r y i n a f o r e i g n l a n d Duncan c o u l d a c h i e v e t h e r e s p e c t a b i l i t y a n d p o s i t i o n o f l e a d e r s h i p t h a t h e h a d s t r i v e n f o r i n B r i t a i n . D u n c a n ' s d e s i r e t o become a m i s s i o n a r y a l s o a r o s e o u t o f an i n t e n s e l y f e l t r e l i g i o u s f e r v o u r . As a y o u n g man Duncan e x p e r i e n c e d two c o n v e r s i o n s , t h e f i r s t o f w h i c h was t o e v a n g e l i c a l C h r i s t i a n i t y . The d o c -t r i n a l p o s i t i o n o f t h e e v a n g e l i c a l s was a p r o d u c t o f t h e s p i r i t u a l r e v o l u t i o n i n B r i t a i n t h a t was a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e names o f J o h n W e s l e y a n d G e o r g e W h i t e f i e l d . I t was a b e l i e f t h a t t o o k t h e c o n v e r t f r o m t h e d e p t h s o f d e s p a i r a t h i s own u n w o r t h i n e s s to 2 8 t h e h e i g h t s o f j o y when he c o n t e m p l a t e d God's m e r c y t o h i m . L i k e many o t h e r s D u n c an t e n d e d t o e x a g g e r a t e h i s s h o r t c o m i n g s , a n d t h e i n t e n s e e x p e r i e n c e o f s i n made p o s s i b l e a h e i g h t e n e d e x p e r i e n c e o f s a l v a t i o n . The W e s l y a n d o c t r i n e o f s a l v a t i o n by 29 g r a c e was e s s e n t i a l l y a d o c t r i n e f o r s i n n e r s . Duncan o n c e w r o t e i n h i s j o u r n a l " I r e s o l v e & r e s o l v e a n d p l a n & p r a y - b u t a l l i s u n a v a i l i n g . I go b a c k t o my s i n a s a d o g r e t u r n s t o h i s 30 v o m i t . I am i n d e e d a l o s t s i n n e r " . The r e a l i s a t i o n o f h i s s i n f u l n e s s awakened i n Duncan t h e d e s i r e t o be c o n v e r t e d i n t o 31 a new c r e a t u r e . O u t o f t h i s r e l i g i o u s e x p e r i e n c e came Duncan's s e c o n d c o n v e r s i o n t o t h e m i s s i o n a r y v o c a t i o n . Among t h e e v a n -190 g e l i c a l s t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f p e r s o n a l r e b i r t h o f t e n d e v e l o p e d i n t o a d e s i r e t o b e i n s t r u m e n t a l i n t h e s a l v a t i o n o f o t h e r s . Duncan " p i t i e d t h e p o o r h e a t h e n and f e l t e x c e e d i n g l y d e s i r o u s 32 o f t h e s a l v a t i o n o f a l l men". The e v a n g e l i c a l b e l i e v e d t h a t n a t u r a l man, t h a t i s man w i t h o u t God, was u t t e r l y d e p r a v e d . He t h o u g h t t h e p h r a s e " n o b l e s a v a g e " t o be a c o n t r a d i c t i o n i n t e r m s , and s u b s t i t u t e d i n i t s p l a c e a " p i c t u r e o f a d e g r a d e d b r u t e who .might be s a v e d f r o m 33 e t e r n a l d a m n a t i o n o n l y b y c o n c e r t e d m i s s i o n a r y a c t i v i t y . " The e v a n g e l i c a l m i s s i o n a r i e s o f t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y b e l i e v e d i n t h e e q u a l i t y o f man, s i n c e b e f o r e God a l l s o u l s w e r e e q u a l ; b u t t h e y a l s o b e l i e v e d t h a t i t was o n l y t h r o u g h t h e w o r k o f m i s s i o n -a r i e s t h a t t h e h e a t h e n c o u l d b e s a v e d f r o m h i s d e p r a v e d n a t u r a l s t a t e a n d h i s p o t e n t i a l e q u a l i t y c o u l d be c o n v e r t e d i n t o r e a l e q u a l i t y . H i s d e s i r e t o s a v e t h e " p e r i s h i n g " h e a t h e n l e d Duncan t o p r e s e n t h i m s e l f a s a c a n d i d a t e f o r t h e m i s s i o n f i e l d , a n d i n 1854 he b e g a n h i s t r a i n i n g a t t h e C h u r c h M i s s i o n a r y S o c i e t y ' s H i g h b u r y C o l l e g e i n L o n d o n . He was s t i l l a t H i g h b u r y w h e n , i n 1 8 5 7 , t h e c a l l came t o go a n d wo r k among t h e I n d i a n s o f t h e n o r t h w e s t c o a s t . C a p t a i n James P r e v o s t o f t h e R o y a l Navy h a d w r i t t e n t o t h e C.M.S. p o i n t i n g o u t t h a t t h e I n d i a n s o f t h e c o a s t r e m a i n e d " i n a s t a t e o f h e a t h e n d a r k n e s s a n d c o m p l e t e b a r b a r i s m " i n s p i t e o f m a n i f e s t i n g "a g r e a t d e s i r e a n d a p t i t u d e t o a c q u i r e t h e k n o w l e d g e a n d a r t s o f c i v i l i s e d l i f e " . P r e v o s t s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e I n d i a n s w e r e m e n t a l l y a n d p h y s i c a l l y e q u a l , i f n o t 34 s u p e r i o r , t o t h e M a o r i s o f New Z e a l a n d among whom a g e n t s o f t h e C.M.S. h a d b e e n l a b o u r i n g f o r s o many y e a r s . So i t was 191 d e c i d e d t o s e n d a m i s s i o n a r y t o t h e n o r t h w e s t c o a s t , a n d Duncan was t h e one c h o s e n . Duncan a r r i v e d i n V a n c o u v e r I s l a n d i n J u n e 1857 c o n s c i o u s o f h i s p e r s o n a l i n a d e q u a c i e s a n d y e t c o n f i d e n t t h a t h i s m i s s i o n was d i v i n e l y o r d a i n e d . He h a d s e e n t h e s i g n s t h a t p r o v i d e n c e was o n h i s s i d e . A t V a l p a r i s o he h a d gone a s h o r e a n d n e a r l y m i s s e d h i s s h i p when i t d e p a r t e d b u t he h a d made i t b a c k i n t i m e . T h i s e x p e r i e n c e he " s e t down as a d i r e c t m e r c y f r o m a n d a s p e c i a l 35 i n t e r p o s i t i o n o f God on my a c c o u n t . " He was t o r e c a l l l a t e r t h a t , as he b e g a n h i s m i s s i o n t o t h e I n d i a n s , he " n e v e r d o u b t e d f o r a moment t h a t I s h o u l d be a b l e t o s u b v e r t h e a t h e n i s m , a nd 3 6 t r i u m p h o v e r i g n o r a n c e . " B u t Duncan was n o t j u s t t h e e m i s s a r y o f m i d - V i c t o r i a n e v a n g e l i c a l C h r i s t i a n i t y , he was a l s o t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f m i d -V i c t o r i a n c i v i l i s a t i o n . H i s w o r k t o w a r d s t h e c o n v e r s i o n o f t h e h e a t h e n was t o be c o m b i n e d w i t h a n a t t a c k o n I n d i a n s o c i a l p r a c t i c e s . B e f o r e h i s a r r i v a l a t F o r t S i m p s o n Duncan saw much t o c o n v i n c e h i m t h a t i t w o u l d n o t be e a s y t o e r a d i c a t e t h e " a b o m i n a t i o n s " o f t h e I n d i a n s . On o b s e r v i n g t h e n o i s e a n d c o n -f u s i o n o f t h e S o n g h e e s v i l l a g e a t V i c t o r i a he l o n g e d f o r t h e t i m e when " t h e s e dens o f d a r k n e s s & i n i q u i t y w o u l d be i l l u m i n a t e d 37 by t h e G o s p e l l i g h t " . Among t h e " a t r o c i t i e s " a n d t h e " s u p e r s t i t i o n s " o f t h e F o r t R u p e r t I n d i a n s he saw p r a c t i c e s t h a t w e r e " o v e r w h e l m i n g l y s h o c k i n g t o b e h o l d . " T h e r e was much t h a t r e q u i r e d " i m p r o v e m e n t " , and Duncan a l m o s t d e s p a i r e d a t t h e 3 8 e n o r m i t y o f t h e t a s k a h e a d o f h i m . He a r r i v e d a t F o r t S i m p s o n on 1 O c t o b e r 1 8 5 7 , a n d f r o m t h a t d ay he b e g a n h i s a t t a c k on T s i m s h i a n c u l t u r e . 192 D u r i n g t h e f i r s t m onths among t h e T s i m s h i a n Duncan f o u n d some t h i n g s a b o u t t h e I n d i a n s t o a d m i r e a n d much t o a b h o r . One o f h i s f i r s t p o s i t i v e i m p r e s s i o n s o f t h e T s i m s h i a n was t h a t t h e y w e r e "a f i n e i n t e l l i g e n t r a c e " . He n o t e d a " c o n s c i o u s s u p e r i o r i t y b o t h i n numbers and a b i l i t y " w h i c h d i s t i n g u i s h e d t h e T s i m s h i a n f r o m t h e I n d i a n s o f t h e s o u t h e r n c o a s t . He was a s t o n i s h e d a t " t h e i r s k i l l i n b o t h t h e u s e f u l a n d t h e f i n e a r t s " and he o b s e r v e d t h a t t h e a b i l i t y t o w o r k m e t a l o r c a r v e wood 39 seemed t o be i n t u i t i v e among t h e n o r t h e r n I n d i a n s . B u t Duncan was o b l i g e d t o d e m o n s t r a t e t h a t t h e I n d i a n s h a d a c a p a c i t y f o r i m p r o v e m e n t ; a f t e r a l l i f t h e T s i m s h i a n w e r e c o m p l e t e l y u n r e g e n e r a t e t h e n h i s m i s s i o n w o u l d be p o i n t l e s s . As w e l l as t h e a d m i r a b l e , t h e r e w e r e a l s o many a s p e c t s o f T s i m s h i a n c u l t u r e t h a t a p p a l l e d a n d h o r r i f i e d t h e y o u n g m i s s i o n a r y , a n d t h e r e i n l a y a n o t h e r j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r h i s w o r k . Duncan c o u l d n o t " d e s c r i b e t h e c o n d i t i o n o f t h i s p e o p l e , b e t t e r t h a n b y s a y i n g t h a t i t was 40 j u s t w h a t m i g h t be e x p e c t e d i n s a v a g e h e a t h e n l i f e . " He h a d a r r i v e d a t F o r t S i m p s o n a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e " s e a s o n i n w h i c h t h e deep h e a t h e n i s m a nd d a r k n e s s o f t h i s p e o p l e 41 . i s m a n i f e s t e d " , t h a t i s , t h e p e r i o d o f w i n t e r d a n c i n g a n d c e r e m o n i a l . I t was t h e t i m e o f y e a r when t h e w h o l e t e n o r o f I n d i a n l i f e c h a n g e d , when s e c u l a r m a t t e r s w e r e p u t i n t h e b a c k -g r o u n d w h i l e t h e r e l i g i o u s a n d m y s t i c a l a s p e c t s o f e x i s t e n c e w e r e e x p l o r e d a n d c e l e b r a t e d . I t was n a t u r a l e nough t h a t t h e m i s s i o n a r y s h o u l d f i n d t h i s p a r t o f T s i m s h i a n c u l t u r e p a r t i c u -l a r l y o b j e c t i o n a b l e s i n c e he was t h e r e t o i n c u l c a t e an e n t i r e l y new r e l i g i o n . The r i t u a l o f t h e w i n t e r s e a s o n was d e s c r i b e d b y 42 D uncan as a " h o r r i d f a b r i c a t i o n o f l i e s " ; ;> he t h o u g h t t h a t t h e 193 r o l e o f t h e shaman was s i n i s t e r , t h e w i n t e r d a n c e s f r i v o l o u s , a n d t h e p o t l a t c h w a s t e f u l . He r e a l i s e d t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e s e c u s t o m s w i t h i n T s i m s h i a n s o c i e t y , b u t t h e r e a l i s a t i o n o n l y i n c r e a s e d t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f s t o p p i n g w h a t was h e a t h e n i s h a n d i d o l a t r o u s . The i n c i d e n c e o f d r u n k e n n e s s and v i o l e n c e i n t h e T s i m s h i a n v i l l a g e a d j a c e n t t o t h e F o r t a p p a l l e d t h e m i s s i o n a r y , as d i d t h e w i d e s p r e a d p r o s t i t u t i o n o f I n d i a n women. He p e r c e i v e d many a s p e c t s o f t h e I n d i a n p e r s o n a l i t y t h a t seemed t o c o n f i r m t h e i r s a v a g e r y . The m o s t p r o n o u n c e d t r a i t o f t h e T s i m s h i a n was p r i d e , he w r o t e i n h i s j o u r n a l , a l t h o u g h " t h e y h a v e many o t h e r c o r r u p t i o n s i n a d e p l o r a b l e m e a s u r e " s u c h as t h e d i s h o n e s t y and 43 t r i c k e r y f o r w h i c h t h e y a r e n o t o r i o u s , t h e i r j e a l o u s i e s and 44 f e u d s , a n d t h e i r a b o m i n a b l e c u s t o m " o f r e v e n g i n g c r i m e on a n y -45 one who b e l o n g e d t o t h e same t r i b e a s t h e c u l p r i t . " He l a t e r r e c a l l e d t h a t To a t t e m p t t o d e s c r i b e t h e c o n d i t i o n o f t h e s e t r i b e s o n my a r r i v a l w o u l d be b u t t o p r o d u c e a d a r k a n d r e v o l t i n g p i c t u r e o f human d e p r a v i t y . The d a r k m a n t l e o f d e g r a d i n g s u p e r s t i t i o n e n v e l o p e d them a l l , a n d t h e i r s a v a g e s p i r i t s , s w a y e d b y p r i d e , j e a l o u s y a n d r e v e n g e w e r e e v e r h u r r y i n g them t o d e e d s o f b l o o d . Thus t h e i r h i s t o r y was l i t t l e e l s e t h a n a c h a p t e r o f c r i m e a n d m i s e r y . 46 Duncan was some months r e c o v e r i n g f r o m t h e i n i t i a l " d e p r e s s i n g 47 s e n s a t i o n w h i c h t h e s i g h t o f t h e i r s t a t e h a s a w a k e n e d " , b u t t h e s e i m p r e s s i o n s o n l y i n c r e a s e d h i s e v a n g e l i c a l z e a l . "0 d r e a d f u l , d r e a d f u l , t o s e e o n e ' s f e l l o w c r e a t u r e s l i k e t h i s when t h e b l e s s e d G o s p e l h a s b e e n 1,000 y e a r s i n t h e w o r l d " , he t h o u g h t . Duncan was p a r t i c u l a r l y i m p r e s s e d w i t h t h e a p p a r e n t l a c k 194 o f i m p a c t t h a t F o r t S i m p s o n h a d made on t h e I n d i a n s . The F o r t was a c l e a n , o r d e r l y p r e m i s e s w i t h a l a r g e , w e l l c u l t i v a t e d g a r d e n , "an o a s i s i n t h e d e s e r t " , and y e t t h e . I n d i a n s , who h a d i m i t a t e d none o f t h e s e t h i n g s , l i v e d i n d i n g y , smoky h o u s e s i n w h i c h , t o D u n c a n , f i l t h and u n c o m f o r t a b l e n e s s w e r e t h e m o s t 49 s t r i k i n g f e a t u r e s . Y e t t h e m i s s i o n a r y d i d n o t s e e t h e f u r t r a d e r s ' l a c k o f i n f l u e n c e on t h e I n d i a n s as a c a u s e f o r d e s -p o n d e n c y . How was i t , he a s k e d h i m s e l f , t h a t t h e I n d i a n s c o u l d h a v e m i x e d w i t h a g r o u p o f E u r o p e a n s f o r t w e n t y y e a r s and y e t h a v e r e m a i n e d i n t h e i r s a v a g e s t a t e ? I t was s i m p l y t h a t t h e r i g h t means o f a c c u l t u r a t i o n h a d n o t b e e n t r i e d . C i v i l i s a t i o n w i t h o u t C h r i s t i a n i t y l a c k e d t h e v i t a l i t y t o e f f e c t r e a l c u l t u r a l c h a n g e : " C i v i l i s a t i o n a p p e a l s t o t h e e y e & t o t h e h a n d b u t n o t t o theUheart." A p a r t f r o m C h r i s t i a n i t y , c i v i l i s a t i o n was n o t "a f i t i n s t r u m e n t f o r a w a k e n i n g t h e l o n g s l u m b e r i n g o f f s p r i n g o f A d a m . " 5 0 51 P e r c e i v i n g "a g r e a t m o u n t a i n o f h e a t h e n i s m " b e f o r e h i m , Duncan b e g a n w o r k i n g t o remove i t . The t a s k o f l e a r n i n g t h e T s i m s h i a n l a n g u a g e , b e g u n w h i l e he was i n V i c t o r i a , was c o n t i n u e d d u r i n g D uncan's f i r s t w i n t e r a t F o r t S i m p s o n . The f a c t t h a t he was n o t s a t i s f i e d w i t h t h e C h i n o o k j a r g o n as a means o f c o m m u n i c a t i n g h i s i d e a s i n d i c a t e d t h a t he a s p i r e d t o a d i f f e r e n t k i n d o f i n f l u e n c e o v e r t h e T s i m s h i a n t h a n t h e . f u r 52 . . t r a d e r s h a d d o n e . H i s i n v e s t m e n t i n l e a r n i n g T s i m s h i a n was n o t t o p r e s e r v e w h a t was an e s s e n t i a l p a r t o f t h e c u l t u r e , b u t t o f a c i l i t a t e t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f c u l t u r a l c h a n g e among t h e I n d i a n s . D uncan's w o r k on t h e l a n g u a g e b e g a n t o b e a r f r u i t i n May 1858 when he t r a n s l a t e d t h e f i r s t " t r u t h s o f t h e g o s p e l " 195 53 i n t o T s i m s h i a n . The f o l l o w i n g month he p r e a c h e d f o r t h e 5 4 f i r s t t i m e i n t h e h o u s e s o f t h e I n d i a n s i n t h e i r own l a n g u a g e . When t h e m i s s i o n a r y a d d r e s s e d t h e I n d i a n s he l a i d g r e a t e m p h a s i s on s i n and i t s c o n s e q u e n c e s ; on s h o w i n g t o t h e T s i m s h i a n " t h e e v i l o f t h e i r d o i n g s " and " i l l u s t r a t i n g f r o m t h e i r own c u s t o m s " 55 t h e i r n e e d f o r a s a v i o u r . The o t h e r means o f i n s t r u c t i o n b e s i d e s p r e a c h i n g was t e a c h i n g . D u r i n g t h e f i r s t m onth a t F o r t S i m p s o n Duncan f o u n d e d a s c h o o l i n s i d e t h e F o r t . Then i n t h e summer o f 1858 w o r k was s t a r t e d on b u i l d i n g a s c h o o l o u t s i d e t h e w a l l s , a n d i n s t r u c t i o n was b e g u n i n t h e new s c h o o l i n November 1859. The s t u d e n t s w e r e t a u g h t r e a d i n g , w r i t i n g , c o u n t i n g , s i n g i n g a n d r e l i g i o u s know-l e d g e . As i n m o s t C.M.S. m i s s i o n s D u n c a n ' s s c h o o l a t F o r t S i m p s o n was an i m p o r t a n t a g e n t o f a c c u l t u r a t i o n ; i t g ave t h e m i s s i o n a r y d a i l y o p p o r t u n i t y t o t e a c h t h e I n d i a n s s y s t e m a t i c a l l y a b o u t t h e new way o f l i f e t h a t he h o p e d t o i n t r o d u c e among them. D u r i n g t h e t i m e t h a t Duncan w o r k e d o u t o f F o r t S i m p s o n h i s m i s s i o n was n o t w i t h o u t s u c c e s s . He c l a i m e d t o d e t e c t a q u i c k e n i n g o f i n t e r e s t i n h i s t e a c h i n g , and p e r c e i v e d a s t i r r i n g o f o p i n i o n a g a i n s t t h e " h e a t h e n i s h w i n t e r c u s t o m s . " 5 6 D u r i n g 1861 and 1862 t h e r e was e v e n more t a n g i b l e e v i d e n c e t h a t t h e T s i m s h i a n w e r e r e s p o n d i n g t o h i s m e s s a g e . By J u l y 1862 f i f t y -e i g h t I n d i a n s h a d b e e n b a p t i s e d o r a c c e p t e d as c a n d i d a t e s f o r 57 b a p t i s m . B u t Duncan was b e c o m i n g i n c r e a s i n g l y c o n v i n c e d t h a t F o r t S i m p s o n was n o t a c o n d u c i v e e n v i r o n m e n t f o r a c h i e v i n g t h e k i n d o f t h o r o u g h g o i n g c h a n g e among t h e I n d i a n s t h a t he was a i m i n g f o r . As e a r l y a s 1859 D u n c an was t o y i n g w i t h t h e i d e a o f 196 m o v i n g away f r o m F o r t S i m p s o n t o a p l a c e w h e r e h i s n e o p h y t e s c o u l d be i s o l a t e d f r o m t h o s e i n f l u e n c e s t h a t m i l i t a t e d a g a i n s t h i s w o r k . He was e x e r c i s i n g h i s m i n d on t h e p r o b l e m o f w h a t was b e c o m i n g o f t h e y o u n g p e o p l e u n d e r h i s i n s t r u c t i o n when " t e m p o r a l n e c e s s i t i e s " c o m p e l l e d them t o l e a v e h i s s c h o o l . " I f t h e y a r e p e r m i t t e d t o s l i p away f r o m me i n t o t h e g u l f o f v i c e a n d m i s e r y w h i c h e v e r y w h e r e s u r r o u n d s t h e m " , t h e n Duncan f e l t 5 8 t h a t a l l h i s e f f o r t s w o u l d be w a s t e d . The s o l u t i o n t o t h i s p r o b l e m was t o move t h e C h r i s t i a n I n d i a n s t o a p l a c e w h e r e much more c o n t r o l l e d e n v i r o n m e n t c o u l d be e s t a b l i s h e d . Duncan w a n t e d t o move h i s f o l l o w e r s away f r o m t h e b a n e f u l i n f l u e n c e o f E u r o p e a n c i v i l i s a t i o n , f r o m F o r t S i m p s o n a n d f r o m t h e ; f a t a l a t t r a c t i o n o f V i c t o r i a , a n d a l s o f r o m t h o s e u n r e p e n t a n t I n d i a n s who r e f u s e d t o a c c e p t t h e C h r i s t i a n way o f l i f e . He c o n c l u d e d t h a t t h e o n l y way t o " s t e m t h e t i d e o f d i s s i p a t i o n a nd r u i n " t h a t he saw a r o u n d h i m was t o t a k e h i s " l i t t l e b a n d o f c a t e c h u m e n s o u t o f t h e r e e k i n g camp - i n a s e n s e , i n d e e d , t o b e a t a r e t r e a t , b u t o n l y f o r t h e p u r p o s e o f g a t h e r i n g up o u r s t r e n g t h , s e c u r i n g o u r p o s i t i o n , a n d t h u s t h e more s u c c e s s f u l l y t o c o n f r o n t and a s s a i l 59 t h e e v i l s a r o u n d u s . " I n c o n s u l t a t i o n w x t h t h e I n d i a n s , M e t l a k a t l a , t h e o l d v i l l a g e s i t e o f t h e T s i m s h i a n t r i b e s , was s e l e c t e d a s t h e l o c a t i o n f o r a c o m p l e t e l y new k i n d o f I n d i a n v i l l a g e . I n May 1862 Duncan a n d a s m a l l g r o u p o f T s i m s h i a n f o l l o w e r s l e f t F o r t S i m p s o n t o e s t a b l i s h a b r a v e new w o r l d . T h e r e w e r e many r e a s o n s why a s i g n i f i c a n t number o f T s i m s h i a n s h o u l d be w i l l i n g t o make s u c h a r a d i c a l b r e a k i n t h e i r p a t t e r n o f l i f e b y f o l l o w i n g a m i s s i o n a r y f r o m a n o t h e r l a n d t o e s t a b l i s h a m o d e l v i l l a g e b a s e d o n t h e s t a n d a r d s o f . 197 a n o t h e r c u l t u r e . I m p o r t a n t among t h e r e a s o n s f o r t h e move was t h e d i s r u p t i v e i n f l u e n c e t h a t t h e s e t t l e m e n t f r o n t i e r h a d h a d on T s i m s h i a n s o c i e t y . T o w a r d s t h e e n d o f t h e 1 8 5 0 ' s t h e t r a d e r s a t F o r t S i m p s o n n o t e d a ch a n g e among t h e T s i m s h i a n : d r u n k e n n e s s was i n c r e a s i n g t o t h e p o i n t w h e r e i t t h r e a t e n e d t o d i s r u p t t h e t r a d e s e r i o u s l y . 6 0 An e n t r y i n t h e F o r t S i m p s o n j o u r n a l n o t e d t h a t "We now h a v e immense t r o u b l e w i t h o u r I n d i a n s a n d i n a few y e a r s I h a v e some d o u b t s i f an e s t a b l i s h m e n t c a n be k e p t up a t t h i s p l a c e . " 6 1 A f t e r 1858 more and more T s i m s h i a n made t h e summer t r i p t o V i c t o r i a . T s i m s h i a n l e a d e r s w e r e b e c o m i n g v e r y c o n c e r n e d a b o u t t h e d e b i l i t a t i n g e f f e c t s o f t h e s e e x c u r s i o n s . An o l d I n d i a n t o l d D u n c a n . t h a t " t h e y h a d s e e n n o t h i n g among t h e f i r s t w h i t e s who 6 3 came among them t o u n s e t t l e them i n t h e i r o l d h a b i t s " , b u t now t h e T s i m s h i a n w e r e f a c e d w i t h s e r i o u s s o c i a l p r o b l e m s t h a t t h e y w e r e f i n d i n g d i f f i c u l t t o c o p e w i t h . The d i s r u p t i o n o f T s i m s h i a n s o c i e t y i n t h e l a t e 1 8 5 0 ' s a nd e a r l y 1860's was n o t , as one h i s -t o r i a n h a s c l a i m e d , a c o n s e q u e n c e o f t h e a b s e n c e o f any means o f 64 s o c i a l c o n t r o l among t h e T s i m s h i a n , b u t r a t h e r a r e s u l t o f new and d i s t u r b i n g i n f l u e n c e s t h a t i m p i n g e d f r o m o u t s i d e I n d i a n s o c i e t y . I n d i a n s o l u t i o n s t o s o c i a l p r o b l e m s w ere no l o n g e r e f -f e c t i v e , a n d many T s i m s h i a n f e l t t h a t t h e y w e r e l o s i n g c o n t r o l o f t h e i r s i t u a t i o n . D uncan s e n s e d t h a t , p a r t i c u l a r l y among t h e y o u n g , t h e p r e s e n c e o f t h e E u r o p e a n s a nd t h e v i s i t s t o V i c t o r i a h a d s h a k e n I n d i a n c o n f i d e n c e i n t h e o l d k n o w l e d g e a nd h a d awakened a s p i r i t o f i n q u i r y . He w r o t e i n h i s j o u r n a l t J t h a t " T h e r e i s g e n e r a l l y a b e l i e f among them t h a t t h e w h i t e s do p o s s e s s some g r a n d s e c r e t a b o u t e t e r n a l t h i n g s a n d t h e y a r e g r a s p i n g t o know i t . " 6 5 The t i m i n g o f Duncan's a r r i v a l among t h e T s i m s h i a n was p r o p i t i o u s : , he was t h e r e t o p r o v i d e an a n s w e r a t a t i m e when 198 t h e I n d i a n s w e r e b e i n g f o r c e d t o a s k f u n d a m e n t a l q u e s t i o n s . The f a c t t h a t t h e T s i m s h i a n f a c e d a s i t u a t i o n t h a t was c a l l i n g o l d b e l i e f s i n t o q u e s t i o n was d r a m a t i c a l l y h i g h l i g h t e d a t t h e t i m e o f t h e move t o M e t l a k a t l a . Two d a y s a f t e r Duncan and h i s f o l l o w e r s l e f t F o r t S i m p s o n t h e s m a l l p o x , b r o u g h t n o r t h f r o m V i c t o r i a , s t r u c k among t h e I n d i a n s . The i m p a c t o f t h e d i s e a s e p r o v i d e d a n i m p o r t a n t o b j e c t l e s s o n f o r Duncan a nd f o r t h o s e I n d i a n s who w e r e c o n s i d e r i n g j o i n i n g h i s new c o m m u n i t y . A t F o r t S i m p s o n " t h e h e a t h e n s o u g h t r e f u g e i n t h e i r c h a r m s & l y i n g v a n i t i e s . . . t h e y s a n g t h e i r h e a t h e n s o n g s a n d k e p t t h e r a t t l e o f t h e c o n j u r e r s a l m o s t p e r p e t u a l l y g o i n g . " B u t many h u n d r e d s w e r e s t r i c k e n w i t h t h e d i s e a s e , w h e r e a s a t M e t l a k a t l a o n l y f i v e 6 6 d i e d o u t o f t h o s e who h a d o r i g i n a l l y l e f t w i t h Duncan. The T s i m s h i a n shaman was c o n f r o n t e d w i t h a s i t u a t i o n t h a t was a l i e n t o h i s e x p e r i e n c e a n d w i t h w h i c h he was u n a b l e t o c o p e . A l l t h e " d e c e i t s " o f t h e " c o n j u r e r s " p r o v e d t o be o f no a v a i l ; i t was c l e a r l y a v i c t o r y f o r t h e w h i t e man's g o d. A n o t h e r s t u d e n t o f Dunca n ' s m i s s i o n t o t h e T s i m s h i a n h a s c o n t e n d e d t h a t h i s s u c c e s s e s w e r e i n p a r t t h e r e s u l t o f h i s a b i l i t y t o accommodate t o I n d i a n ways. I t h a s a l s o b e e n c l a i m e d t h a t Duncan was p a r t i c u l a r l y i n f l u e n c e d b y t h e i d e a s o f H e n r y V e n n , who was t h e s e c r e t a r y o f t h e C.M.S. f r o m 1841 t o 1 8 7 2 . Venn a d v o c a t e d a d e g r e e o f t o l e r a t i o n o f n a t i v e c u s t o m s , a n d t h o u g h t t h a t t h e m a j o r o b j e c t i v e o f t h e C.M.S. s h o u l d be t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f " N a t i v e C h u r c h e s " r u n by t h e i n d i g e n o u s p o p u -6 8 l a t i o n . B u t i t was n o t Venn who w e n t t o wo r k among t h e T s i m s h i a n , a n d i t i s c r u c i a l i n s t u d y i n g t h e c u l t u r a l i m p a c t o f 199 any C.M.S. m i s s i o n a r y o n an i n d i g e n o u s p o p u l a t i o n t o l o o k , n o t a t t h e c u r r e n t m i s s i o n a r y t h e o r y b e i n g a d v o c a t e d . i n L o n d o n , b u t a t w h a t t h e i n d i v i d u a l a g e n t a c t u a l l y d i d on t h e s p o t . T h e r e i s an i n h e r e n t c o n t r a d i c t i o n i n t h e a r g u m e n t t h a t Duncan was a V i c t o r i a n m i s s i o n a r y whose " c u l t u r a l r e f e r e n c e was a l w a y s 69 L o n d o n " , a n d t h e c l a i m t h a t he a c t e d i n r e s p o n s e t o T s i m s h i a n c u l t u r e . T h e r e i s v e r y l i t t l e e v i d e n c e t h a t D u n c a n , i n h i s d e a l i n g w i t h t h e T s i m s h i a n , was p a r t i c u l a r l y t o l e r a n t o f , I n d i a n c u s t o m s ; i n f a c t t h e e v i d e n c e i s o v e r w h e l m i n g l y t o t h e c o n t r a r y . L i k e m o s t m i s s i o n a r i e s , Duncan came among t h e I n d i a n s e s s e n t i a l l y t o t e a c h r a t h e r t h a n t o l e a r n , a n d t o c o n v e r t r a t h e r t h a n t o c o n s e r v e . I t was, f o r i n s t a n c e , t r u e t h a t Duncan was p r e p a r e d t o c l o s e h i s s c h o o l t o a l l o w t h e I n d i a n s t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n t h e s p r i n g f i s h i n g . C l e a r l y , I n d i a n s who came t o s c h o o l s t a r v i n g w o u l d n o t make p a r t i c u l a r l y r e c e p t i v e p u p i l s . Duncan was, h o w e v e r , a d a m a n t l y d e t e r m i n e d n o t t o c l o s e t h e s c h o o l when T s i m s h i a n l e a d e r s c l a i m e d t h a t i t i n t e r f e r e d w i t h t h e w i n t e r 70 c e r e m o n i a l . T h i s was t h e k i n d o f r i g i d p o l i c y t h a t , b y p r o v o k i n g t h e h o s t i l i t y o f T s i m s h i a n l e a d e r s , v e r y n e a r l y l e d 71 t o a d i s a s t r o u s s i t u a t i o n . I t i s a l s o v e r y d i f f i c u l t t o s e e t h a t "Duncan was a t g r e a t p a i n s " t o t r e a t t h e T s i m s h i a n c h i e f s 72 "as t h e y w e r e t r e a t e d by t h e i r own p e o p l e " , when he was m a k i n g e v e r y e f f o r t t o d e s t r o y t h e p o t l a t c h t h a t was t h e m a j o r b a s i s o f t h e i r a u t h o r i t y . I t was i m p o s s i b l e t o a t t a c k t h e r i t u a l t h a t v a l i d a t e d c h i e f t a i n s h i p a n d n o t l o w e r t h e a u t h o r i t y o f t h e c h i e f s . D uncan may h a v e made m i n o r c o n c e s s i o n s t o T s i m s h i a n c u l t u r e w h i l e he was a t F o r t S i m p s o n and h i s p o s i t i o n among t h e 200 Indians was tenuous, but the move to M e t l a k a t l a was an emphatic a s s e r t i o n o f Duncan's d e s i r e t o disengage h i s f o l l o w e r s from Indian c u l t u r e . The o b j e c t was to draw the Indians "out of the miasma of heathen l i f e , and away from the deadening and e n t h r a l -73 l i n g i n f l u e n c e o f heathen customs." The p o i n t o f moving t o M e t l a k a t l a was to i s o l a t e converts from Indian customs, not to f o s t e r t h e i r continued e x i s t e n c e . M e t l a k a t l a was to be a community t h a t was to be i n c o n t r a s t w i t h , not s i m i l a r t o , other Indian v i l l a g e s . One onl y has to look a t the r u l e s t h a t Duncan l a i d down f o r r e s i d e n t s a t M e t l a k a t l a to see j u s t how r a d i c a l the break w i t h the Indian p a s t was. Duncan r e q u i r e d h i s f o l l o w e r s 1) To g i v e up t h e i r A h l i e d or Indian d e v i l r y . 2) To cease c a l l i n g i n c o n j u r e r s when s i c k . 3) To cease gambling. 4) To cease g i v i n g away t h e i r p r o p e r t y f o r d i s p l a y . 5) To cease p a i n t i n g t h e i r f a c e s . 6) To cease d r i n k i n g i n t o x i c a t i n g l i q u o r . 7) To r e s t on the Sabbath. 8) To atte n d r e l i g i o u s i n s t r u c t i o n . 9) To send t h e i r c h i l d r e n to s c h o o l . 10) To be c l e a n l y . 11) To be i n d u s t r i o u s . 12) To be p e a c e f u l . 13) To be l i b e r a l and honest i n t r a d e . 14) To b u i l d neat houses. 74 15) To pay the v i l l a g e tax. Here was the essence of the change t h a t not onl y Duncan, but most of the m i s s i o n a r i e s i n B r i t i s h Columbia, hoped t o . b r i n g about 201 among t h e I n d i a n s . F i v e r e g u l a t i o n s p r o h i b i t e d t r a d i t i o n a l T s i m s h i a n c u s t o m s t h a t h a d b e e n i n t e g r a l t o t h e I n d i a n s ' o l d way o f l i f e , a n d t e n more w e r e d e s i g n e d t o e s t a b l i s h a new way o f l i f e . And t h e s e w e r e o n l y t h e m i n i m a l r e q u i r e m e n t s t h a t Duncan e x p e c t e d o f t h o s e who j o i n e d h i m . He knew v e r y w e l l t h a t o b e y i n g t h e s e i n j u n c t i o n s meant g i v i n g up t h e , c u s t o m s 75 t h a t w e r e "most d e a r t o t h e h e a t h e n I n d i a n s " , and t h a t f o r many I n d i a n s t o s u r r e n d e r t o h i s r e g u l a t i o n s was " l i k e t h e 7 C\ c u t t i n g o f f t h e r i g h t h a n d & p l u c k i n g o u t t h e r i g h t e y e " . C h r i s t i a n i t y a t M e t l a k a t l a was t o mean t h e s u b v e r s i o n o f e v e r y " e v i l " I n d i a n c u s t o m , a n d a c c o r d i n g t o Duncan t h e r e was t o be 77 no c o m p r o m i s e . T h i s was n o t t h e k i n d o f g r a d u a l c h a n g e t h a t 7 8 Venn h a d a d v o c a t e d . D uncan was q u i t e c o n s c i o u s l y t r y i n g t o r e p l a c e t h e I n d i a n p a s t w i t h a f u t u r e b a s e d on t h e p r e c e p t s d f V i c t o r i a n E n g l a n d . The s i t e o f M e t l a k a t l a may h a v e b e e n I n d i a n , b u t t h e v i l l a g e i t s e l f was V i c t o r i a n . T h e r e w e r e a few m i n o r c o n c e s s i o n s t o t h e I n d i a n s . I n t h e f i r s t h o u s e s t h a t w e r e b u i l t a t M e t l a k a t l a D u n c a n p e r m i t t e d more t h a n one n u c l e a r f a m i l y t o l i v e i n e a c h 79 d w e l l i n g , a l t h o u g h i n d i f f e r e n t r ooms. T h i s k i n d o f c o n c e s s i o n d o e s n o t , h o w e v e r , d e n y t h e t h o r o u g h n e s s o f t h e s o c i a l c h a n g e s t h a t he made. To many o b s e r v e r s t h e h o u s e s a t M e t l a k a t l a s t i l l 8 0 seemed t o be " s i m i l a r t o l a b o u r e r s c o t t a g e s a t home", an d i n s i d e t h o s e homes Duncan h i m s e l f w a n t e d t o s e e t h e I n d i a n s 81 s u r r o u n d e d by a l l t h e V i c t o r i a n t r a p p i n g s . The h o u s e s w e r e a r r a n g e d a c c o r d i n g t o t h e E u r o p e a n manner, i n s t r e e t s r u n n i n g a t r i g h t a n g l e s t o t h e c o a s t , r a t h e r t h a n i n a s i n g l e l i n e f a c i n g t h e w a t e r . M e t l a k a t l a was a m o d e l o f V i c t o r i a n o r d e r and 202 reg u l a r i t y . Dominating the v i l l a g e was the massive church; not b u i l t according to any Indian pattern, but with arched windows, cr e n e l l a t i o n s , f l y i n g buttresses and a l l the features of the European mason's c r a f t assiduously carpentered into northwest coast cedar. In the organisation of the v i l l a g e there were apparent concessions to the Indians that were not r e a l l y concessions at a l l . Duncan refused to permit cert a i n C h r i s t i a n r i t u a l s to be celebrated at Metlakatla, not just because he thought that they would be misunderstood by the Indians, but also because his re f u s a l to accept ordination d i s q u a l i f i e d him 8 2 from conducting the sacraments of the Church of England. Law and order was maintained at Metlakatla by a group of twenty uniformed constables, but the fac t that Duncan selected Indians for these positions would seem to be not so much the r e s u l t of 8 3 "remarkable in s i g h t " as the simple r e a l i t y that there was no one else around to carry out these duties. D i s c i p l i n e at Metlakatla was s t r i c t and rigorously administered, with a severity 84 that some missionaries objected to. The government-'of v i l l a g e a f f a i r s was nominally i n the hands of a Native Council of twelve, but e f f e c t i v e l y Duncan was the r u l e r . Chiefly rank was not recognised at Metlakatla, clan d i v i s i o n s and obligations were ignored, polygamy was disallowed, and p a t r i l i n e a l inheritance replaced the old Tsimshian system of m a t r i l i n e a l inheritance. According to missionary propaganda, Metlakatla elevated the Tsimshian from being "savages of the most degraded and ferocious kind" to "decent orderly Christians" who were now to be seen "clothed and i n t h e i r r i g h t mind, and s i t t i n g at the feet of. 85 Jesus." Both Indians and Europeans were impressed with the 203 c o n t r a s t between the C h r i s t i a n Indians and those o f the sur-8 6 rounding t r i b e s , and none more so than Admiral A r t h u r Cochrane, who v i s i t e d M e t l a k a t l a i n 1873, and on ob s e r v i n g the Indians a t work was prompted to ex c l a i m "I say these men are not Indians, 87 they are white men." At M e t l a k a t l a Duncan was the source o f a l l a u t h o r i t y , both r e l i g i o u s and s e c u l a r , and i n t h i s r e s p e c t he d e v i a t e d from the m i s s i o n a r y theory o f Henry Venn. For Venn the most important f u n c t i o n of the C.M.S. mi s s i o n a r y was to t r a i n members of the indigenous p o p u l a t i o n as p a s t o r s so t h a t they c o u l d take over the m i s s i o n a r i e s ' r o l e . Venn b e l i e v e d t h a t the mi s s i o n a r y who d i d not educate an indigenous m i n i s t r y to r e p l a c e h i m s e l f was b u i l d i n g on an i n s e c u r e f o u n d a t i o n . The mis s i o n a r y should, t h e r e f o r e , a v o i d p u t t i n g h i m s e l f b e f o r e the people as a l e a d e r . A c c o r d i n g t o Venn, "Prompting to s e l f - a c t i o n i s more important 8 8 than i n d u c i n g men to f o l l o w a l e a d e r " . These concepts, t h a t Venn developed i n response to the s p e c i f i c problems f a c e d by C.M.S. m i s s i o n a r i e s i n Ea s t A f r i c a , were not a p p l i e d by Duncan at M e t l a k a t l a . Duncan was a proud, determined man who c o u l d t o l e r a t e no l i m i t a t i o n on h i s l e a d e r s h i p , e i t h e r by a European or an In d i a n . He was a man who enjoyed the p r a i s e and a d u l a t i o n of o t h e r s . In h i s e a r l y j o u r n a l s he reprimands h i m s e l f f o r h i s p r i d e and h i s enjoyment of the admiration o f the other students 89 a t Highbury. As a m i s s i o n a r y on the northwest c o a s t Duncan r e l i s h e d the n o t o r i e t y and a c c l a i m t h a t h i s work brought him 90 among the European p o p u l a t i o n as much as the a d u l a t i o n t h a t he 91 • r e c e i v e d from h i s Tsimshian f o l l o w e r s . He was not w i l l i n g to share these advantages o f l e a d e r s h i p w i t h anyone. At M e t l a k a t l a 20 4 Duncan's r u l e was a b s o l u t e . The T s i m s h i a n may h a v e c h o s e n t h e s i t e , b u t i t was Duncan who r a n t h e v i l l a g e . As one o f t h e m i s s i o n a r i e s who t r i e d t o work w i t h Duncan c o m p l a i n e d " e v e n t h e m o s t t r i v i a l a n d p r i v a t e m a t t e r i s known t o & c o n t r o l l e d b y 92 Mr. Duncan f r o m whose d e c i s i o n t h e r e i s no a p p e a l . " C o n t r a r y t o V e n n ' s e x h o r t a t i o n t h a t t h e m i s s i o n a r y s h o u l d n o t become i n d i s p e n s i b l e t o h i s f o l l o w e r s , Duncan l e d t h e p e o p l e o f M e t l a k a t l a i n a l l t h i n g s . Duncan's a u t h o r i t y as r e l i g i o u s l e a d e r o f t h e s e t t l e m e n t was a u g m e n t e d by s e c u l a r power when he was a p p o i n t e d t o t h e o f f i c e o f J u s t i c e o f t h e P e a c e i n 186 3. T h i s p o s i t i o n made Duncan a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f B r i t i s h l a w on t h e c o a s t a n d e n a b l e d h i m t o c a l l on t h e a s s i s t a n c e o f t h e R o y a l N a v y . A t l e a s t one G o v e r n o r f e l t t h a t Duncan was "a l i t t l e t o o f a n a t i c a l t o be t r u s t e d w i t h t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e p r o -93 c e e d m g s o f a s h i p o f w a r 500 o r 600 m i l e s f r o m Head Q u a r t e r s " , b u t t h e f a c t t h a t he c o u l d c a l l on v e s s e l s o f w a r t o b u t t r e s s h i s a u t h o r i t y g r e a t l y e n h a n c e d h i s power o v e r t h e I n d i a n s . Y e t a n o t h e r r o l e t h a t Duncan assumed was t h e c o n t r o l o f t h e c o m m e r c i a l d e a l i n g s o f t h e s e t t l e m e n t . Duncan d e s c r i b e d h i s p o s i t i o n i n t h e v i l l a g e t h i s way, I saw i t t o be n e c e s s a r y t h a t I s h o u l d f o r a t i m e be e v e r y t h i n g t o t h i s s e t t l e m e n t & t h e I n d i a n s n a t u r a l l y & c o n f i d e n t l y l o o k t o me t o be e v e r y t h i n g t o them; - t h u s I h a v e p l a c e d m y s e l f a t t h e h e a d o f t h e i r t r a d e , -I am a p p o i n t e d t h e i r m a g i s t r a t e , - t h e y p a y t h e i r t a x e s t o me, - I c a r r y on t h e i r p u b l i c w o r k s , as w e l l as a t t e n d t o t h e d u t i e s w h i c h p r o p e r l y b e l o n g t o my s p h e r e . 94 The t r o u b l e w i t h p o s i t i o n s o f l e a d e r s h i p l i k e t h i s i s t h a t t h e y t e n d t o become s e l f - p e r p e t u a t i n g . O u t s i d e o b s e r v e r s f e l t t h a t Duncan r a n h i s m i s s i o n i n an a u t o c r a t i c and p a t r i -205 a r c h a l manner,^ and A.C. Anderson was probably c o r r e c t when he wrote t h a t the weakness o f the M e t l a k a t l a system was t h a t i f Duncan d i e d tomorrow then "the whole e d i f i c e which he has founded wi t h so much p a i n s , would probably crumble to the ground." Nor was Anderson alone i n t h a t o p i n i o n . Joseph T r u t c h a l s o thought t h a t i f the m i s s i o n was d e p r i v e d of Duncan's 97 presence then much of the good work would be undone. Duncan c o u l d t o l e r a t e no one who might t h r e a t e n to usurp h i s p o s i t i o n . No Tsimshian p a s t o r s were or d a i n e d d u r i n g the t h i r t y years t h a t he worked among them. None of the other m i s s i o n a r i e s t h a t the C.M.S. sent out to work wit h him, e i t h e r o r d a i n e d or l a y , stayed at M e t l a k a t l a f o r l o n g . Some of them departed f o r other reasons, but many l e f t because they found Duncan i m p o s s i b l e to work wit h . S i m i l a r f a c t o r s l a y behind Duncan's disagreement w i t h Bishop W i l l i a m R i d l e y i n the 1880's and h i s f i n a l r i f t w ith the C.M.S. I f , as Venn had advocated, the f i r s t o b j e c t of the m i s s i o n was to t r a i n Indians to take over the l e a d e r s h i p then i t would not have mattered whether Duncan or R i d l e y was the pre-eminent r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of the C.M.S. at M e t l a k a t l a . Many m i s s i o n a r i e s i n B r i t i s h Columbia, o f v a r i o u s denominations, f o l l o w e d Duncan's example: both the s p e c i f i c example of M e t l a k a t l a and the g e n e r a l example of t r y i n g t o i n t r o d u c e a new way of l i f e to the Indians. Few, however, were abl e to emulate Duncan's success. Other m i s s i o n a r i e s l a c k e d Duncan's d r i v e and d e t e r m i n a t i o n and were unable to i s o l a t e t h e i r f o l l o w e r s so completely from o u t s i d e i n f l u e n c e s . More-over, o t h e r Indian groups proved to be l e s s t r a c t a b l e than the Tsimshian. For example, Roman C a t h o l i c m i s s i o n a r i e s worked f o r 206 o v e r t e n y e a r s a t F o r t R u p e r t b u t made v e r y l i t t l e i m p r e s s i o n on t h e K w a k i u t l . Y e t , w h i l e D uncan's a c h i e v e m e n t s may h a v e e l u d e d them, m i s s i o n a r i e s d i d f o l l o w t h e M e t l a k a t l a e x a m p l e . T h e r e w e r e C.M.S. m i s s i o n a r i e s who s p e n t some t i m e a t M e t l a k a t l a b e f o r e m o v i n g t o e s t a b l i s h m i s s i o n s o f t h e i r own. The f i r s t o f t h e s e o f f s h o o t m i s s i o n s was e s t a b l i s h e d a t K i n c o l i t h o n t h e N a s s R i v e r . Work among t h e N i s h g a was b e g u n b y Rev. R o b e r t D o o l a n i n 1864 and t h r e e y e a r s l a t e r t h e m i s s i o n was t a k e n o v e r by Rev. R o b e r t T o m l i n s o n . I t was T o m l i n s o n ' s o b j e c t i v e t o c h a n g e t h e N i s h g a " f r o m i g n o r a n t b l o o d t h i r s t y c r u e l s a v a g e s i n t o 98 q u i e t u s e f u l s u b j e c t s o f o u r G r a c i o u s Queen", and t o t h i s e n d he f o u n d e d t h e m i s s i o n v i l l a g e a t K i n c o l i t h o n t h e same p r i n -9 9 c i p l e s as M e t l a k a t l a . F u r t h e r e x p a n s i o n o c c u r r e d i n t h e 1 8 7 0 ' s . The H a i d a h a d f r e q u e n t l y v i s i t e d M e t l a k a t l a i n o r d e r t o t r a d e ; t h e y h a d o b s e r v e d t h e m i s s i o n t h e r e , a nd o f t e n a s k e d f o r a m i s s i o n a r y t o come and w o r k amongst them on t h e Queen C h a r l o t t e I s l a n d s . I n r e s p o n s e t o t h e s e r e q u e s t s Rev. W.H. C o l l i s o n e s t a b l i s h e d h i m s e l f a t M a s s e t t i n 1876. Two y e a r s l a t e r t h e Rev. A . J . H a l l b e g a n w o r k a t F o r t R u p e r t , w h i c h h a d b e e n a b a n d o n e d by t h e Roman C a t h o l i c s . L a t e r he moved h i s m i s s i o n t o A l e r t Bay. I n 1883 A i y a n s h was e s t a b l i s h e d up t h e N a s s R i v e r and p l a c e d i n t h e c h a r g e o f Rev. J . B . M c C u l l a g h who a l s o m o d e l l e d h i s v i l l a g e on M e t l a k a t l a . I n 186 0 t h e n e w l y a r r i v e d B i s h o p o f C o l u m b i a , G e o r g e H i l l s , w e n t on a t o u r t o i n s p e c t h i s new d i o c e s e . C r o s s i n g o v e r f r o m V i c t o r i a t o New W e s t m i n s t e r , he t h e n t r a v e l l e d up t h e F r a s e r R i v e r as f a r n o r t h as L i l l o o e t . I n t h e f o l l o w i n g few y e a r s A n g l i c a n m i s s i o n a r i e s , u n d e r t h e a u s p i c e s o f t h e S o c i e t y 207 f o r t h e P r o p a g a t i o n o f t h e G o s p e l i n F o r e i g n P a r t s , b e g a n t o wo r k among t h e I n d i a n s a t many p l a c e s t h a t t h e B i s h o p h a d v i s i t e d . By t h e e n d o f t h e d e c a d e t h e S o c i e t y ' s m i s s i o n a r i e s w e r e a c t i v e i n V i c t o r i a , C o w i c h a n , S a a n i c h , N a n a i m o , Comox, A l b e r n i , New W e s t m i n s t e r , Y a l e and Hope, L y t t o n , t h e C a r i b o o and K i n c o l i t h . 1 0 0 P e r h a p s t h e m o s t s u c c e s s f u l o f t h e s e m i s s i o n a r i e s was Rev. J . B . Good who was s t a t i o n e d f i r s t a t Nanaimo a nd t h e n a t Y a l e . W h i l e he was a t Y a l e , Good r e c e i v e d a r e q u e s t f r o m t h e L y t t o n I n d i a n s t o go and w o r k amongst them. Good t h o u g h t t h a t t h e u p p e r Thompson, who l i v e d a " f r e e i n d e p e n d e n t l i f e on h o r s e -b a c k " , w e r e I n d i a n s " o f a s u p e r i o r o r d e r " . 1 0 " ' " So i n 1867 he moved n o r t h a n d b e g a n a m i s s i o n a mongst t h e o n c e w a r l i k e L y t t o n I n d i a n s . B e f o r e he w e n t t o w o r k w i t h them Good h a d p o i n t e d o u t t o t h e L y t t o n p e o p l e " a l l t h e i r m a n i f o l d h y p o c r i s y , u n c l e a n e s s , 102 and i d l e n e s s , a n d many o t h e r s x n s and e v i l p r a c t i c e s " , a n d he h a d w a r n e d them t h a t t h i n g s w o u l d h a v e t o c h a n g e . A c c o r d i n g l y Good b e g a n h i s m i s s i o n b y a t t a c k i n g s u c h c u s t o m s as s h a m a n i s m and p o l y g a m y as w e l l as t e a c h i n g C h r i s t i a n i t y . I n an e f f o r t t o r e d u c e d i s e a s e he a d v o c a t e d new method s o f s a n i t a t i o n , a n d he t r i e d t o d i r e c t t h e I n d i a n s t o w a r d s " t h e f o r m a t i o n o f h a b i t s o f 103 s t e a d y i n d u s t r y , economy and s o b r i e t y . " In. t h e f i r s t m o nths o f h i s m i s s i o n he s t a r t e d a b o y s ' s c h o o l t o i n s t i l " h a b i t s o f 104 • i n s t a n t o b e d i e n c e . " W i t h i n a few y e a r s Good h a d a c q u i r e d a p i e c e o f l a n d a s m a l l d i s t a n c e f r o m t h e " e v i l i n f l u e n c e s " o f L y t t o n t o w n s h i p . He b u i l t a c h u r c h on t h e s i t e , a n d S a i n t P a u l ' s became t h e c e n t r e o f h i s m i s s i o n . I n t h e I n d i a n v i l l a g e s o f t h e s u r r o u n d i n g a r e a he w o r k e d t o s e c u r e t h e a l l e g i a n c e o f 208 t h e c h i e f s and he a p p o i n t e d I n d i a n s as watchmen t o o b s e r v e a n d r e p o r t o n t h e b e h a v i o u r o f c o m m u n i t y members. Good was l e s s a u t h o r i t a r i a n t h a n Duncan b u t t h e s e m e a s u r e s a r e r e m i n i s c e n t o f t h e M e t l a k a t l a s y s t e m a n d , l i k e D u n c a n , Good's a i m was t o 105 " c a r r y o u t a p e r f e c t c o d e o f s o c i a l a nd d o m e s t i c r e f o r m . " Roman C a t h o l i c m i s s i o n a r i e s a l s o s p r e a d o u t f r o m s o u t h e r n V a n c o u v e r I s l a n d o v e r t h e m a i n l a n d d u r i n g t h e 1860's b e g i n n i n g t h e " g r a n d t a s k " o f c o n v e r t i n g and " c i v i l i s i n g " t h e I n d i a n s . 1 0 6 From t h e c e n t r e i n E s q u i m a l t t h e O b l a t e V i c a r o f M i s s i o n s t o O r e g o n , F a t h e r L o u i s D'Herbomez, d i r e c t e d t h e w o r k o f h i s o r d e r i n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a . The f i r s t m a i n l a n d s t a t i o n was e s t a b l i s h e d i n 1.859 when F a t h e r C h a r l e s P a n d o s y was s e n t t o w o r k among t h e Okanagan I n d i a n s . O t h e r s t a t i o n s w e r e e s t a b l i s h e d a t K a m l o o p s and W i l l i a m s L a k e b u t i t was p e r h a p s i n t h e l o w e r F r a s e r v a l l e y t h a t t h e i r i n f l u e n c e was s t r o n g e s t . I n 1861 F a t h e r L e o n F o r q u e t e s t a b l i s h e d t h e S a i n t M a r y ' s m i s s i o n n e a r t h e s i t e o f t h e p r e s e n t M i s s i o n C i t y a nd i t became an i m p o r t a n t c e n t r e f o r d i s s e m i n a t i n g Roman C a t h o l i c i s m among t h e S a l i s h . The I n d i a n s c h o o l s a t S a i n t M a r y ' s p l a c e d p a r t i c u l a r e m p h a s i s on i n d u s t r i a l e d u c a t i o n and some g o v e r n m e n t o f f i c i a l s w e r e i m p r e s s e d w i t h t h e 107 . r e s u l t s t h a t t h e y a c h i e v e d . T h e s e s c h o o l s w e r e o r g a n i s e d a l o n g l i n e s t h a t w e r e a d v o c a t e d as t h e m o s t e f f e c t i v e f o r r e -e d u c a t i n g I n d i a n s . Day s c h o o l s w e r e h e l d t o be u n s a t i s f a c t o r y b e c a u s e t h e y o n l y a l l o w e d t e m p o r a r y c o n t a c t w i t h t h e I n d i a n s . What was f e l t t o be n e c e s s a r y w e r e i n d u s t r i a l a nd a g r i c u l t u r a l s c h o o l s "where t h e c h i l d r e n a r e l o d g e d , b o a r d e d and c l o t h e d " and w h e r e t h e y c o u l d " s p e n d s e v e r a l y e a r s i n a c q u i r i n g r e g u l a r h a b i t s o f o r d e r and d i s c i p l i n e a nd a t a s t e and l i k i n g f o r 209 w o r k " . x u o By r e m o v i n g I n d i a n c h i l d r e n f r o m t r a d i t i o n a l i n -f l u e n c e s s u c h s c h o o l s w e r e d e s i g n e d t o be a p r i m a r y means o f a c c u l t u r a t i o n , a s w e r e t h e C h r i s t i a n c o m m u n i t i e s t h a t t h e Roman C a t h o l i c s d e v e l o p e d among t h e S e c h e l t I n d i a n s d u r i n g t h e 1 8 6 0 ' s . T h e s e c o m m u n i t i e s w e r e n o t d i s s i m i l a r f r o m t h e p a t t e r n a t M e t l a k a t l a . - I n d i a n s who j o i n e d v i l l a g e s e s t a b l i s h e d a c c o r d i n g t o t h e O b l a t e s ' " s y s t e m " w e r e r e q u i r e d t o b u i l d new h o u s e s a f t e r t h e E u r o p e a n p a t t e r n , and i n e a c h c o m m u n i t y t h e d o m i n a t i n g b u i l d i n g was t h e c h u r c h . L i k e D u n c a n , t h e p r i e s t s r e q u i r e d t h e i r f o l l o w e r s t o a d h e r e t o a s e t o f r u l e s w h i c h demanded t h a t t h e I n d i a n s g i v e up o l d c u s t o m s s u c h as d a n c i n g , g a m b l i n g , p o t l a t c h i n g , and p a t r o n i s i n g t h e shaman, a n d t h e y a l s o h a d t o p l e d g e t o ab-s t a i n f r o m i n t o x i c a t i n g l i q u o r . C o n t r o l o f e a c h v i l l a g e was i n t h e h a n d s o f a few " c h i e f s " o f t e n a p p o i n t e d by t h e m i s s i o n a r i e s . O t h e r I n d i a n s w e r e d e s i g n a t e d t o p o l i c e t h e r u l e s o f t h e commu-n i t y . T h e s e "watchmen" r e p o r t e d on t h e c o n d u c t o f t h e v i l l a g e p e o p l e , a s y s t e m o f " s p y i n g on o t h e r I n d i a n s " t h a t some o b s e r v e r s 109 f o u n d o b j e c t i o n a b l e . The Roman C a t h o l i c C h u r c h h a d c e n t u r i e s o f m i s s i o n a r y e x p e r i e n c e b e h i n d i t , a n d i t s m i s s i o n a r i e s w e r e u s u a l l y more t o l e r a n t o f t r a d i t i o n a l I n d i a n c u s t o m s t h a n w e r e t h e P r o t e s t a n t s , s o t h e r e was p r o b a b l y a g r e a t e r d e g r e e o f s y n c r e t i s m i n Roman C a t h o l i c v i l l a g e s t h a n t h e r e was a t M e t l a k a t l a . N e v e r t h e l e s s t h e " s y s t e m " h a d c o n s i d e r a b l e c u l t u r a l i m p a c t on t h e I n d i a n s . I n 1871 t h e s a c r a m e n t o f c o n f i r m a t i o n was a d m i n i s t e r e d t o a l l t h e S e c h e l t I n d i a n s a n d o b s e r v e r s a l s o r e p o r t e d c o n s i d e r a b l e c h a n g e i n t h e s e c u l a r c u l t u r e o f t h e I n d i a n s . 1 1 0 The t h i r d m a j o r d e n o m i n a t i o n whose m i s s i o n a r i e s w e r e 210 a c t i v e among t h e I n d i a n s o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a i n t h e 1 8 6 0 ' s was t h e M e t h o d i s t . I n F e b r u a r y 1859 Rev. E p h r i a m E v a n s , Rev. A r t h u r B r o w n i n g , Rev. E b e n e z e r R o b s o n and Rev. E d w a r d W h i t e a r r i v e d i n V i c t o r i a , t h e f i r s t M e t h o d i s t m i s s i o n a r i e s t o b e g i n w o r k among t h e I n d i a n s . T h e s e men d i v i d e d t h e i r t i m e b e t w e e n t h e I n d i a n s a n d t h e E u r o p e a n p o p u l a t i o n , a n d t h i s p r a c t i c e l i m i t e d t h e i r i m p a c t o n t h e I n d i a n s . I t was t h e y o u n g , e n t h u s i -a s t i c Thomas C r o s b y who d e v e l o p e d t h e I n d i a n m i s s i o n as a s e p a r a t e e n t i t y a n d he was t o be i n s t r u m e n t a l i n p l u c k i n g many " b r a n d s f r o m t h e . b u r n i n g " . W o r k i n g f i r s t a s a l a y m i s s i o n a r y , b u t l a t e r b e i n g o r d a i n e d , C r o s b y b e g a n h i s m i s s i o n a r y c a r e e r a t Nanaimo i n 1 8 6 3 , t h e n he moved t o t h e C h i l l i w a c k a r e a , a n d i n 1873 e s t a b l i s h e d a m i s s i o n a t P o r t S i m p s o n . I n t h e c o u r s e o f h i s c a r e e r , C r o s b y waged a t o t a l w ar a g a i n s t I n d i a n c u s t o m s . A t Nanaimo t h e c h i e f s t r i e d t o e x t r a c t c o n c e s s i o n s f r o m C r o s b y . I f t h e y c o u l d be a l l o w e d t o c o n t i n u e t h e i r d a n c e s , t h e y p r o m i s e d t o a t t e n d c h u r c h a n d send, t h e i r c h i l d r e n t o s c h o o l . D a n c i n g was n o t v e r y e v i l , t h e y s a i d , a n d t h e y o u g h t t o be a b l e " t o k e e p up a l i t t l e o f w h a t t h e i r f a t h e r s t o l d them." B u t C r o s b y was o b d u r a t e . He t o l d t h e I n d i a n l e a d e r s he c o u l d h a v e n o t h i n g t o do w i t h t h e o l d way, " t h e d a n c e , t h e p o t l a t c h e t c . , i t i s a l l b a d " . The I n d i a n s w h i s p e r e d among t h e m s e l v e s t h a t t h e m i s s i o n a r y was as immoveable as a p o s t . 1 1 ' ' " C r o s b y , l i k e o t h e r M e t h o d i s t m i s s i o n a r i e s , p l a c e d a g r e a t e m p h a s i s on i t i n e r a n t p r e a c h i n g a n d camp m e e t i n g s as a means o f e v a n g e l i s a t i o n . B u t h i s v i l l a g e a t P o r t S i m p s o n was i n some r e s p e c t s m o d e l l e d on M e t l a k a t l a . Once a g a i n t h e b u i l d i n g s w e r e E u r o p e a n i n s t y l e , a c o d e o f l a w s b a n n i n g many I n d i a n c u s t o m s was d r a w n u p , and a c o u n c i l e s t a -211 112 b l i s h e d t o a d m i n i s t e r them. The many m i s s i o n a r i e s w o r k i n g i n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a met w i t h v a r y i n g d e g r e e s o f s u c c e s s . I n some p l a c e s t h e I n d i a n s r e m a i n e d a l o o f o r w e r e e v e n p o s i t i v e l y h o s t i l e t o m i s s i o n a r y t e a c h i n g . M i s s i o n a r i e s made l i t t l e i m p r e s s i o n o n t h e b o i s t e r o u s , u n r e d e e m e d K w a k i u t l . Many I n d i a n s f e l t t h a t t h e m i s s i o n a r i e s r e q u i r e d them t o g i v e up t o o many o f t h e i r o l d c u s t o m s . T h i s f e e l i n g was p a r t i c u l a r l y s t r o n g among t h o s e who h a d an i n v e s t -ment i n t h e c o n t i n u a n c e o f t h e t r a d i t i o n a l I n d i a n way o f l i f e . So o l d e r p e o p l e and I n d i a n l e a d e r s f r e q u e n t l y r e s i s t e d t h e e f f o r t s o f m i s s i o n a r i e s . When t h e C.M.S.'s N a s s m i s s i o n was e s t a b l i s h e d and t h e N i s h g a c h i e f s r e m a i n e d unmoved by D o o l a n ' s p r e a c h i n g , Duncan c o n c l u d e d t h a t t h e r e a s o n m u s t be t h a t t h e s e l e a d e r s , r e a l i s i n g t h a t on b e c o m i n g C h r i s t i a n t h e y w o u l d h a v e t o f o r g o many o f t h e b e n e f i t s o f t h e i r p r e s e n t p o s i t i o n , w e r e 113 u n p r e p a r e d t o make t h e s a c r i f i c e . U n c o n v e r t e d I n d i a n s s o m e t i m e s made e f f o r t s t o r e a s s e r t t r a d i t i o n a l c u l t u r e a g a i n s t t h e i n r o a d s o f t h e m i s s i o n a r i e s . D uncan w r o t e home o f a t t e m p t s among t h e T s i m s h i a n t o r e v i v e " h e a t h e n i s m " . W i t h i n t h a t t r i b e , a s w i t h i n o t h e r s , t h e e f f e c t o f t h e m i s s i o n a r y p r e s e n c e was t o d i v i d e t h e I n d i a n s i n t o p r o -m i s s i o n a r y and a n t i - m i s s i o n a r y f a c t i o n s . The c o n s e q u e n t h o s -t i l i t i e s b e t w e e n t h e two g r o u p s p r o d u c e d f u r t h e r f r a g m e n t a t i o n i n I n d i a n s o c i e t y . As w e l l as a t t e m p t s t o r e a s s e r t t r a d i t i o n a l I n d i a n c u l t u r e t h e r e w e r e a l s o some s y n c r e t i s t i c movements among t h e I n d i a n s . Rev. Good r e c a l l e d one s u c h phenomenon t h a t h a d o c c u r r e d d u r i n g t h e t i m e t h a t he was s t a t i o n e d a t L y t t o n . An I n d i a n p r o p h e t on 212 t h e l o w e r m a i n l a n d h a d a c q u i r e d , t h r o u g h a v i s i o n f r o m h e a v e n , a s e c r e t m e d i c i n e t h a t r e n d e r e d t h e u s e r i n v u l n e r a b l e f r o m b u l l e t s , o r any o t h e r weapon. He a l s o t a u g h t h i s a d h e r e n t s a k i n d o f m i l i t a r y d r i l l w h i c h he c l a i m e d w o u l d make them t r i u m -p h a n t o v e r any f o e . T h i s p r o p h e t t r a v e l l e d up t h e F r a s e r R i v e r g a t h e r i n g f o l l o w e r s as he w e n t . A c c o r d i n g t o Good, he was a n i m a t e d by a f e r o c i o u s h a t r e d o f t h e w h i t e man, and u r g e d h i s f o l l o w e r s t o c o m b i n e t o t h r o w t h e E u r o p e a n s f r o m t h e c o u n t r y . E v i d e n t l y t h i s movement f i z z l e d o u t when t h e p r o p h e t was k i l l e d 114 b y p o i s o n i n g , b u t t h e a p p e a r a n c e o f s u c h m y s t i c a l r e l i g i o u s s e c t s i s a common r e a c t i o n o f i n d i g e n o u s p e o p l e t o t h e i n t r u s i o n • o f E u r o p e a n s . A m i x t u r e o f C h r i s t i a n i t y a nd a u t o c h t h o n o u s e l e m e n t s , t h e s e m i l l e n a r i a n movements l o o k e d f o r w a r d t o t h e t i m e when t h e E u r o p e a n s w o u l d be d r i v e n f r o m t h e l a n d and t h e t h i n g s t h a t t h e y h a d u s u r p e d w o u l d be r e t u r n e d t o t h e i r r i g h t f u l o w n e r s . Many o f t h e s e movements h a d i n common t h e b e l i e f t h a t t h e i r f a i t h a n d r i t u a l w o u l d p r e s e r v e them f r o m t h e b u l l e t s o f t h e E u r o p e a n s . T y p i c a l l y t h e s e s e c t s a r o s e a t a t i m e o f c u l t u r a l d i s l o c a t i o n . They w e r e t h e p r o d u c t o f a l i m i t e d a c q u a i n t a n c e w i t h m i s s i o n a r y t e a c h i n g , a n d o f t e n t h e y w e r e i n d i c a t i v e o f t h e f a c t t h a t t h e E u r o p e a n h a d become so d o m i n a n t t h a t more r a t i o n a l means o f r e s i s t a n c e w e r e s e e n t o be i n e f f e c t u a l . O t h e r I n d i a n s u n d o u b t e d l y o b s e r v e d t h e f o r m s , b u t n o t t h e s u b s t a n c e , o f t h e new r e l i g i o n . B i s h o p H i l l s n o t e d t h a t I n d i a n s w o u l d g i v e t h e i r a t t e n t i o n f o r a t i m e t o a n y o n e who w e n t amongst 115 them w i t h any. a p p e a r a n c e o f a u t h o r i t y . S e c u l a r o b s e r v e r s c l a i m e d t h e I n d i a n s m e r e l y p a r r o t e d t h e l i t u r g y , b u t a t t a c h e d no g r e a t s i g n i f i c a n c e t o t h e new c e r e m o n i e s , and c o n t i n u e d t o i n d u l g e 213 t h e i r f a v o u r i t e v i c e s a f t e r t h e y h a d l e f t t h e c h u r c h . 1 " * " 6 A t t r a c t e d by n o v e l t y o r m o t i v a t e d b y a d e s i r e f o r t h e goods and t h e t e c h n i c a l a b i l i t i e s t h a t t h e m i s s i o n a r i e s b r o u g h t w i t h them, some I n d i a n s o b s e r v e d t h e r e q u i s i t e f o r m a l i t i e s w i t h o u t n e c e s s a r i l y b e i n g " b o r n a g a i n " i n t o a new way o f i i f e . They m o d i f i e d some o f t h e i r b e h a v i o u r b u t n o t t h e i r way o f t h i n k i n g . I n d i a n s m i g h t become C h r i s t i a n f o r r e a s o n s t h a t w e r e q u i t e d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h o s e t h a t t h e m i s s i o n a r i e s t h o u g h t w e r e p r o m p t i n g them. When C r o s b y b e g a n b a p t i s i n g l a r g e numbers o f I n d i a n s a t P o r t S i m p s o n , Duncan w r o t e t h a t t h e M e t h o d i s t m i s s i o n -a r y " d i d n o t know ( p e r h a p s he d i d n o t c a r e t o know) t h a t t h e p o o r I n d i a n s w e r e s e e k i n g b a p t i s m f r o m h i s h a n d s t o a c t a s a 117 c h a r m f o r t h e i r b o d i l y p r e s e r v a t i o n . " P r e s u m a b l y I n d i a n s a t M e t l a k a t l a c o u l d a l s o h a v e b e e n s i m i l a r l y m o t i v a t e d t o s e e k b a p t i s m . S o m e , p a r t s o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h e i n t e r i o r , w e r e s t i l l c o v e r e d o n l y b y i t i n e r a n t m i s s i o n a r i e s . T h e s e m i s s i o n a r i e s s c a r c e l y r e m a i n e d i n one p l a c e l o n g e n o u g h t o 118 i n d u c e t h e I n d i a n s " t o a d o p t t h e h a b i t s o f c i v i l i s a t i o n . " O t h e r m i s s i o n a r i e s d i s s i p a t e d much o f t h e i r e n e r g y f i g h t i n g t h e i n f l u e n c e o f o t h e r d e n o m i n a t i o n s . Thus m i s s i o n a r i e s o p e r a t e d a g a i n s t e a c h o t h e r . F e e l i n g was p a r t i c u l a r l y s t r o n g b e t w e e n t h e P r o t e s t a n t s a n d Roman C a t h o l i c s a t t i m e s . The C.M.S. h e l d t h a t " R o m a n i s e d h e a t h e n i s m i s f a r more d i f f i c u l t t o d e a l w i t h t h a n 119 t h e same e l e m e n t i n i t s o r i g i n a l s t a t e " . F o r some P r o t e s t a n t s c o n v e r t i n g I n d i a n s f r o m Roman C a t h o l i c i s m seemed a s i m p o r t a n t as c o n v e r t i n g them f r o m p a g a n i s m . 1 2 0 214 N o t w i t h s t a n d i n g t h e f a c t t h a t t h e r e w e r e l i m i t a t i o n s on t h e i r e f f e c t i v e n e s s a n d v a r i a t i o n s i n t h e i r i m p a c t , t h e r e i s no d o u b t t h a t t h e m i s s i o n a r i e s i n t r o d u c e d c o n s i d e r a b l e s o c i a l c h a n g e t o many g r o u p s o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a n I n d i a n s . Numerous n o n - m i s s i o n a r i e s commented on t h e c h a n g e s t h a t t h e m i s s i o n a r i e s h a d w r o u g h t among t h o s e I n d i a n s who w e r e r e c e p t i v e t o t h e i r t e a c h i n g . When a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s b e g a n m a k i n g f i e l d t r i p s t o B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a i n t h e 1 8 8 0 ' s t h e y s o m e t i m e s made i m p l i e d c r i t i c i s m s o f t h e m i s s i o n a r i e s ' r o l e as s o c i a l i n n o v a t o r s . F r a n z B o a s s a i d o f t h e L y t t o n I n d i a n s t h a t t h e y " u n f o r t u n a t e l y h a v e b e e n C h r i s t i a n s f o r a l o n g t i m e , and t h a t s t a n d s v e r y much i n my way. 121 I h e a r v e r y l i t t l e a b o u t o l d e n t i m e s . " A t t h e same p e r i o d o f t i m e , a b o u t t h e e n d o f t h e 1 8 5 0 ' s , t h e s e t t l e r a nd t h e m i s s i o n a r y b e g a n t o i m p o s e m a j o r s o c i a l c h a n g e on I n d i a n s o c i e t y . The m i s s i o n a r i e s w o r k e d w i t h i n t h e f r a m e w o r k o f g o v e r n m e n t a l c o e r c i o n e s t a b l i s h e d by t h e s e t t l e m e n t f r o n t i e r . I n d e e d many o f f i c i a l s saw t h e i r programme o f s o c i a l r e n o v a t i o n as t h e I n d i a n s ' o n l y hope f o r t h e f u t u r e . G o v e r n o r D o u g l a s e x p r e s s e d t h e o p i n i o n t h a t D u n c a n ' s w o r k " g i v e s r i s e t o t h e g r a t i f y i n g h o p e t h a t t h e N a t i v e s w i l l y e t , t h r o u g h God's b l e s s i n g be r e s c u e d f r o m i g n o r a n c e , and assume a r e s p e c t a b l e 122 p o s i t i o n i n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a . " . E i g h t y e a r s l a t e r one o f 123 h i s s u c c e s s o r s , G o v e r n o r F r e d e r i c k Seymour, a g r e e d w i t h h i m . T h e r e was, h o w e v e r , a v a s t d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e c h a n g e w h i c h was i n t r o d u c e d by t h e s e t t l e r s a nd t h e c h a n g e s t h a t t h e m i s s i o n a r i e s p l a n n e d f o r t h e I n d i a n s . F o r t h e s e t t l e r s t h e I n d i a n s w e r e l a r g e l y i r r e l e v a n t t o t h e i r c o n c e r n s , and i n any c a s e i t was t h o u g h t t h a t t h e y w e r e d e s t i n e d f o r e x t i n c t i o n b e f o r e 215 v e r y l o n g . As f a r as many o f t h e s e t t l e r s w e r e c o n c e r n e d t h e I n d i a n s h a d no f u t u r e . To t h e m i s s i o n a r i e s , h o w e v e r , t h e I n d i a n s v e r y d e f i n i t e l y h a d a f u t u r e ; a l t h o u g h t h a t f u t u r e was s e e n i n t e r m s o f them c e a s i n g t o be I n d i a n s a n d c l o s e l y i m i t a t i n g t h e w h i t e s . The b e l i e f t h a t t h e I n d i a n s w o u l d s o o n d i e o u t , w h i c h f o r some s e t t l e r s was an e x c u s e t o i g n o r e t h e i r p r o b l e m s w a s , f o r t h e m i s s i o n a r y , a s p u r t o i m m e d i a t e a c t i o n . " ' " 2 4 The m i s s i o n a r i e s t h o u g h t t h a t t h e I n d i a n s c o u l d be s a v e d f r o m e x t i n c t i o n i f t h e y c o u l d be t u r n e d , a s q u i c k l y as p o s s i b l e , i n t o r e d - s k i n n e d r e p l i c a s o f t h e E u r o p e a n s . The m i s s i o n a r i e s w e r e t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s i n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a o f t h e o p t i m i s t i c , h u m a n i t a r i a n v i e w t h a t E u r o p e a n c o l o n i s a t i o n n e e d n o t n e c e s s a r i l y be an u n m i t i g a t e d d i s a s t e r f o r t h e I n d i a n s . They b e l i e v e d t h a t by t a k i n g t h e a p p r o p r i a t e a c t i o n a n d by p a s s i n g t h e a p p r o p r i a t e l e g i s l a t i o n t h e I n d i a n s c o u l d be s a v e d , e v e n t h o u g h t h e i r c u l t u r e w o u l d be d e s t r o y e d . B o t h s e t t l e r a n d m i s s i o n a r y b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e I n d i a n was d e g r a d e d by c o n t a c t w i t h " c i v i l i s a t i o n " , b u t t h e m i s s i o n a r y t h o u g h t t h a t , g i v e n t h e r i g h t c o n d i t i o n s , t h e p r o c e s s c o u l d be a r r e s t e d . The m a t t e r was, h o w e v e r , e x t r e m e l y u r g e n t . D uncan t h o u g h t t h a t , u n l e s s s o m e t h i n g was done f o r t h e I n d i a n s o f t h e V i c t o r i a a r e a , i n f i v e o r t e n y e a r s t h e y " w i l l h a v e 125 p a s s e d i n t o t h e j a w s o f t h e i n s a t i a b l e d e s t r o y e r " . I n o r d e r t o a v e r t s u c h a d i s a s t e r t h e m i s s i o n a r i e s p l a n n e d f o r an I n d i a n f u t u r e i n a way t h a t many s e t t l e r s t h o u g h t was u n n e c e s s a r y . The d i f f e r i n g a p p r o a c h e s o f t h e s e t t l e r a n d t h e m i s s i o n a r y w e r e c l e a r l y e x e m p l i f i e d i n t h e i r a t t i t u d e t o t h e I n d i a n s who l i v e d o n t h e r e s e r v e a c r o s s t h e h a r b o u r f r o m V i c t o r i a . To t h e s e t t l e r s t h e s e I n d i a n s w e r e i r r e d e e m a b l e r e p r o b a t e s who o u g h t 216 t o be r e m o v e d f r o m t h e v i c i n i t y o f t h e t o w n . Many s e t t l e r s f a v o u r e d r e m o v a l s i m p l y b e c a u s e o u t o f s i g h t w o u l d be o u t o f m i n d . The m i s s i o n a r i e s , h o w e v e r , p l a n n e d f o r t h e " i m p r o v e m e n t " o f t h e S o n g h e e s . O f t e n t h e y a l s o a d v o c a t e d t h e r e m o v a l o f t h e I n d i a n s f r o m t h e d e b i l i t a t i n g i n f l u e n c e o f t h e E u r o p e a n s . B u t f o r t h e m i s s i o n a r y , r e m o v a l was t o be a c c o m p a n i e d b y p o s i t i v e p l a n s f o r s o c i a l c h a n g e : r e m o v a l was n o t s i m p l y a n e g a t i v e d e f e r r a l o f t h e i s s u e o f t h e I n d i a n s ' f u t u r e . D u r i n g t h e summer o f 1860 Duncan s p e n t some t i m e i n V i c t o r i a a n d c o n c e r n e d h i m s e l f w i t h t h e p l i g h t o f t h e I n d i a n s t h e r e . He g a v e G o v e r n o r D o u g l a s a g r e a t d e a l o f a d v i c e o n how t o ^ a m e l i o r a t e c o n d i t i o n s o n t h e S o n g h e e s r e s e r v e , a n d o u t l i n e d a p l a n f o r s e t t i n g up an o r g a n i s e d c o m m u n i t y t h a t w o u l d h a v e b e e n v e r y s i m i l a r t o M e t l a k a t l a h a d 126 i t b e e n e s t a b l i s h e d . The Rev. A.C. G a r r e t t was a l s o p r o m i n e n t i n e f f o r t s t o o r g a n i s e t h e f u t u r e o f t h e V i c t o r i a I n d i a n s . He o p e n e d a s c h o o l among t h e S o n g h e e s and was a c t i v e on an I n d i a n i m p r o v e m e n t c o m m i t t e e i n t h e e a r l y 1 8 6 0 ' s . B o t h o f t h e s e men r e g i s t e r e d t h e i r s t r o n g o b j e c t i o n s t o t h e o p i n i o n o f many s e t -t l e r s t h a t e i t h e r a p a s s i v e p o l i c y s h o u l d be a d o p t e d t o w a r d s t h e I n d i a n s , l e a v i n g them a l o n e t o meet t h e i r f a t e , o r t h a t t h e i r e v e n t u a l doom s h o u l d be h a s t e n e d b y a p o l i c y o f e x t e r m i n a t i o n . A t a m i s s i o n a r y m e e t i n g i n V i c t o r i a D u n c a n , s t r i k i n g a h i s t r i o n i c p o s e , s a i d t h a t t h e c o l o n i s t s w o u l d be j u d g e d b y f u t u r e g e n e r a -t i o n s o n - ' t h e i r t r e a t m e n t o f t h e I n d i a n s , e i t h e r t o t h e i r d i s g r a c e 127 o r t h e i r h o n o u r . P r e s u m a b l y t h e f o r m e r was t h e c a s e , as Duncan was d i s a p p o i n t e d i n t h e l a c k o f e f f o r t on t h e p a r t o f t h e 128 G o v e r n m e n t t o i m p r o v e t h e c o n d i t i o n o f t h e S o n g h e e s . B e c a u s e o f t h e i r d i f f e r i n g c o n c e p t i o n s o f t h e I n d i a n s ' 217 f u t u r e , m i s s i o n a r i e s a n d s e t t l e r s s o m e t i m e s c l a s h e d . Many s e t t l e r s t h o u g h t t h a t t h e m i s s i o n a r i e s w e r e s i m p l y w a s t i n g t h e i r t i m e . De Cosmos w r o t e i n t h e C o l o n i s t t h a t t h e p o p u l a c e h a d " h e a r d t o o much a b o u t e d u c a t i n g I n d i a n s . " He c l a i m e d t h a t one " m i g h t a s w e l l t r y t o t u r n t h e w a t e r s o f t h e F r a s e r f r o m t h e i r c o u r s e , as t o t h i n k o f r e f o r m i n g t h e o l d e r s a v a g e s " . The e d i t o r d i d c o n c e d e some hope f o r t h e y o u n g e r g e n e r a t i o n p r o v i d i n g t h e y 129 w e r e r e m o v e d f r o m t h e i n f l u e n c e o f t h e E u r o p e a n s . I n many ways t h e movement t o p r o t e c t t h e I n d i a n s c o n f l i c t e d w i t h t h e c h i e f p r e o c c u p a t i o n o f t h e s e t t l e r s . W h i l e Duncan t h o u g h t t h a t t h e f u t u r e w o u l d j u d g e t h e c o l o n i s t s o n t h e b a s i s o f t h e i r t r e a t -ment o f t h e I n d i a n s , m o s t s e t t l e r s t h o u g h t t h a t t h e t r u e s t t e s t o f t h e i r c i v i l i s a t i o n l a y i n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f r o a d s , t o w n s , f a r m s a n d t r a d e . The I n d i a n s w e r e n o t a n i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r i n any o f t h e s e c o n s i d e r a t i o n s . M o s t m i s s i o n a r i e s r e a l i s e d t h a t any e f f o r t t o s e c u r e a f u t u r e f o r t h e I n d i a n s h a d t o be b a s e d on a s o u n d e c o n o m i c f o u n d a t i o n a n d t h a t c u l t u r e c h a n g e a n d e c o n o m i c d e v e l o p m e n t m u s t go h a n d i n h a n d . F o r them t h i s c o n c l u s i o n m eant t h a t t h e I n d i a n s h a d t o h a v e s u f f i c i e n t l a n d t o d e v e l o p an a g r i c u l t u r a l way o f l i f e . So m i s s i o n a r i e s o f t e n became a d v o c a t e s o f t h e I n d i a n s ' r i g h t t o f a i r t r e a t m e n t o v e r t h e J l a n d q u e s t i o n . By a c t i n g a s s p o k e s m e n f o r t h e I n d i a n s t h e y o f t e n a r o u s e d a n g e r among t h e E u r o p e a n s e t t l e r s . A t M e t l a k a t l a Duncan a i m e d t o p u t h i s co m m u n i t y on a s e c u r e e c o n o m i c f o o t i n g by d e v e l o p i n g t h e v i l l a g e as a t r a d i n g p o s t . By v i g o r o u s l y d e v e l -o p i n g t r a d e a t h i s m i s s i o n s t a t i o n D uncan e a r n e d t h e d i s a p p r o v a l 130 o f many o f t h e w h i t e i n h a b i t a n t s o f t h e c o a s t . O f t e n t h e ai m s o f p h i l a n t h r o p y c o u l d n o t be r e c o n c i l e d w i t h t h o s e o f 218 c o l o n i s a t i o n . G i v e n s u c h d i f f e r e n c e o f p u r p o s e i t i s i r o n i c a l t h a t t h e more s u c c e s s f u l t h e m i s s i o n a r i e s w e r e t h e more t h e y t e n d e d t o e n c o u r a g e s e t t l e m e n t . To t h e e x t e n t t h a t t h e y c o n -v i n c e d t h e I n d i a n s t o a b i d e by B r i t i s h l a w t h e y r e d u c e d t h e t h r e a t o f v i o l e n c e a n d t h u s made t h e C o l o n y more a t t r a c t i v e t o s e t t l e r s . T h a t t h e m i s s i o n a r i e s a i m e d f o r a d i f f e r e n t k i n d o f i m p a c t on t h e I n d i a n s t h a n t h e f u r t r a d e r s h a d done was made e v i d e n t by an i n c i d e n t i n 1868 on t h e N a s s R i v e r . I n t h e s p r i n g t h r e e I n d i a n s f r o m t h e . m i s s i o n a r y v i l l a g e a t ' ' K i n c o l i t h w e r e m u r d e r e d b y o t h e r I n d i a n s . Duncan demanded t h a t t h e G o v e r n m e n t t a k e a c t i o n t o a p p r e h e n d t h e k i l l e r s . A n a v a l - v e s s e l was s e n t t o d e a l w i t h t h e p r o b l e m , b u t a p p a r e n t l y G e o r g e B l e n k i n s o p e x -p r e s s e d t h e o p i n i o n t h a t t h e m i s s i o n a r i e s s h o u l d f o l l o w t h e e x a m p l e o f t h e o f f i c e r s o f t h e H u d s o n ' s Bay Company and c o n f i n e t h e m s e l v e s t o t h e i r " l e g i t i m a t e b u s i n e s s " , l e a v i n g t h e I n d i a n s 131 t o s e t t l e t h e i r own d r u n k e n q u a r r e l s . Of c o u r s e t h i s s e n t i m e n t d i d n o t go down w e l l w i t h D u n c a n . He h a d o n c e c r i t i c i s e d t h e f u r t r a d e r s f o r t h e i r l a c k o f c o n c e r n f o r t h e b o d i e s a n d s o u l s o f 132 t h e I n d i a n s , and as f a r a s he was c o n c e r n e d i t was m o s t d e f i n i t e l y t h e " l e g i t i m a t e b u s i n e s s " o f t h e m i s s i o n a r y t o i n t e r -f e r e w i t h a l l a s p e c t s o f t h e I n d i a n s ' way o f l i f e i n o r d e r t o 133 r e s c u e them f r o m b a r b a r i s m a n d b r i n g them t o s a l v a t i o n . The demands o f t h e f u r t r a d e r s h a d b e e n e a s i l y i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o I n d i a n s o c i e t y , t h e i r a c t i v i t i e s b e i n g q u i t e c o m p r e h e n s i b l e t o . t h e I n d i a n s . B u t t h e m i s s i o n a r i e s w e r e a p a r t o f t h e s e t t l e m e n t f r o n t i e r a n d r e q u i r e d m a j o r s o c i a l c h a n g e f r o m t h e I n d i a n s . B e c a u s e t h e m i s s i o n a r i e s d i d n o t s e p a r a t e w e s t e r n 219 C h r i s t i a n i t y a n d w e s t e r n c i v i l i s a t i o n , t h e y a p p r o a c h e d I n d i a n c u l t u r e as a t o t a l i t y a n d demanded a t o t a l t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f t h e I n d i a n p r o s e l y t e . T h e i r a i m was t h e c o m p l e t e d e s t r u c t i o n 134 o f t h e t r a d i t i o n a l i n t e g r a t e d I n d i a n way o f l i f e . The m i s s i o n a r i e s demanded e v e n more f a r r e a c h i n g c h a n g e t h a n t h e s e t t l e r s , a n d t h e y p u s h e d f o r c h a n g e more a g g r e s s i v e l y t h a n any o t h e r g r o u p o f w h i t e s . CHAPTER V I I G o v e r n m e n t A d m i n i s t r a t o r s The I n d i a n s r e a l l y h a v e no r i g h t t o t h e l a n d s t h e y c l a i m , n o r a r e t h e y o f any a c t u a l v a l u e o r u t i l i t y t o them; . . . I t seems t o me, t h e r e f o r e , b o t h j u s t a n d p o l i t i c t h a t t h e y s h o u l d be c o n f i r m e d i n t h e p o s s e s s i o n o f s u c h e x t e n t s o f l a n d o n l y as a r e s u f f i c i e n t f o r t h e i r p r o b a b l e r e q u i r e -ments f o r p u r p o s e s o f c u l t i v a t i o n a n d p a s t u r a g e , a n d t h a t t h e r e m a i n d e r o f t h e l a n d now s h u t up i n t h e s e r e s e r v e s s h o u l d be t h r o w n o p e n t o p r e - e m p t i o n . 1 The t h i r d m a j o r a c c u l t u r a t i v e a g e n t a t w o r k among t h e B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a n I n d i a n s a f t e r t h e a d v e n t o f t h e s e t t l e m e n t f r o n t i e r was t h e g o v e r n m e n t o f f i c i a l . S o m e t i m e s t h e s e a d m i n i s -t r a t o r s s u p p o r t e d t h e e f f o r t s o f t h e m i s s i o n a r i e s ; m o s t l y t h e y r e p r e s e n t e d t h e demands o f t h e s e t t l e r s , b u t s e l d o m d i d t h e y a d v o c a t e t h e i n t e r e s t s o f , t h e I n d i a n s . The s i n g l e m o s t i m p o r t a n t e x c e p t i o n t o t h e l a t t e r was James D o u g l a s . As l o n g a s he was G o v e r n o r o f t h e two C o l o n i e s t h e I n d i a n s d i d h a v e a s y m p a t h e t i c a d v o c a t e who s t o o d b e t w e e n them and t h e u n r e s t r a i n e d p r e s s u r e o f s e t t l e m e n t . W i t h i n t h e l i m i t a t i o n s o f t h e means a t h i s d i s p o s a l , D o u g l a s t r i e d t o p r o t e c t t h e I n d i a n s f r o m t h e w o r s t e f f e c t s o f t h e s e t t l e m e n t f r o n t i e r . W i t h h i s d e p a r t u r e f r o m p u b l i c o f f i c e , h o w e v e r , t h i s r e s t r a i n t was r e m o v e d and t h e I n d i a n s b e g a n t o f e e l t h e f u l l b r u n t o f a s e t t l e r o r i e n t e d s e t o f g o v e r n m e n t p o l i c i e s . D u r i n g t h e t r a n s i t i o n a l y e a r s D o u g l a s h a d t r i e d t o a c t as a m e d i a t o r b e t w e e n t h e n e e d s o f t h e I n d i a n s a nd t h e demands o f t h e s e t t l e r s , a n d he c o n t i n u e d t o f u l f i l t h i s r o l e a f t e r 221 1858. As G o v e r n o r , D o u g l a s t e n d e d t o be a u t o c r a t i c . He o f t e n a c t e d s i n g l e h a n d e d l y a n d w i t h a minimum o f c o n s u l t a t i o n . C o l o n i a l s , a n x i o u s t o g a i n a c c e s s t o p o w e r , n a t u r a l l y r e s e n t e d D o u g l a s 1 s l a c k o f e n t h u s i a s m a b o u t d e v o l v i n g g o v e r n m e n t a l a u t h o r i t y . F o r t h e I n d i a n s , who w o u l d be u n r e p r e s e n t e d i n a s e t t l e r d o m i n a t e d a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , t h e r e w e r e a d v a n t a g e s i n h a v i n g a G o v e r n o r whose p o s i t i o n was n o t d e p e n d e n t on t h e p o p u l a r w i l l and who was p r e p a r e d t o a c t i n t h e i r i n t e r e s t s . A t t h e t i m e o f t h e a r r i v a l o f t h e g o l d m i n e r s t h e C o l o n i a l O f f i c e h a d u r g e d D o u g l a s t o c o n s i d e r " t h e b e s t and most humane means o f d e a l i n g w i t h t h e N a t i v e I n d i a n s . " The S e c r e t a r y o f S t a t e f o r t h e C o l o n i e s , S i r E d w a r d B u l w e r L y t t o n , l e f t t h e d e t a i l s o f p o l i c y t o t h e G o v e r n o r ' s " k n o w l e d g e and e x p e r i e n c e " , b u t w a r n e d h i m t h a t t h e " f e e l i n g s o f t h i s c o u n t r y w o u l d be s t r o n g l y o p p o s e d t o t h e a d o p t i o n o f any a r b i t r a r y o r o p p r e s s i v e 2 m e a s u r e s t o w a r d s them". I n r e p l y t o t h i s e x h o r t a t i o n , D o u g l a s made t h e same commitment t o t h e C o l o n i a l O f f i c e t h a t he h a d made t o h i s House o f A s s e m b l y t h r e e y e a r s e a r l i e r : t h a t he w o u l d make e v e r y e f f o r t t o e n s u r e t h a t a l l t h e " c i v i l a n d 3 a g r a r i a n r i g h t s " o f t h e I n d i a n s w e re p r o t e c t e d . D o u g l a s ' s e x p e c t a t i o n s f o r t h e I n d i a n s w e r e w e l l e x p r e s s e d i n h i s h ope t h a t D uncan's m i s s i o n t o t h e T s i m s h i a n w o u l d h a v e t h e e f f e c t o f r a i s i n g t h e I n d i a n s t o "a r e s p e c t a b l e p o s i t i o n i n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a . " He w a n t e d t o s e e t h e I n d i a n s t r e a t e d , as much as p o s s i b l e 7 o n a l e v e l o f e q u a l i t y w i t h t h e w h i t e s , w i t h t h e e v e n t u a l o b j e c t i v e b e i n g a s s i m i l a t i o n i n t o s e t t l e r s o c i e t y . D o u g l a s t h o u g h t t h a t a s f r i e n d s a n d a l l i e s t h e I n d i a n s c o u l d r e n d e r v a l u a b l e a s s i s t a n c e t o t h e C o l o n y , and he knew t h a t t h e i r 222 e n m i t y w o u l d l e a d t o much s u f f e r i n g among t h e s e t t l e r s a n d 5 w o u l d r e t a r d t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e C o l o n y . B e i n g c o n c e r n e d a b o u t t h e " n u m b e r l e s s e v i l s " t h a t w o u l d f l o w f r o m I n d i a n h o s t i l i t y , D o u g l a s a g r e e d w i t h t h e n e e d t o t r e a t them w i t h " l i b e r a l i t y a n d j u s t i c e . " I t was o n t h i s p r e m i s e t h a t he a c t e d i n h i s e f f o r t s t o e s t a b l i s h l a w and o r d e r on t h e g o l d f i e l d s . He was d e t e r m i n e d t o i m p r e s s upon t h e m i n d s o f t h e . m i n e r s " t h e g r e a t p o i n t t h a t t h e l a w w i l l p r o t e c t t h e I n d i a n s e q u a l l y w i t h t h e w h i t e man". B a s e d o n t h e A u s t r a l a s i a n e x a m p l e D o u g l a s a p p o i n t e d g o l d c o m m i s s i o n e r s who a l s o a c t e d as p o l i c e m e n , m a g i s t r a t e s , a n d I n d i a n A g e n t s on t h e g o l d f i e l d s . When s e l e c t i n g t h e s e o f f i c e r s D o u g l a s l o o k e d f o r men who h a d some k n o w l e d g e o f t h e I n d i a n c h a r a c t e r a n d who c o u l d a d m i n i s t e r t h e 8 l a w s w i t h " p r o p r i e t y a n d d i s c r e t i o n " , a l t h o u g h t h e s h o r t a g e o f g o o d c a n d i d a t e s i n t h e new C o l o n y meant t h a t t h e s e i d e a l s w e r e n o t a l w a y s l i v e d up t o . D o u g l a s a d v i s e d t h e I n d i a n s t o s e e k r e -d r e s s t h r o u g h t h e s e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f B r i t i s h l a w , r a t h e r t h a n 9 r e s o r t i n g t o t h e t r a d i t i o n a l modes o f r e t a l i a t i o n . D o u g l a s ' s p e r s o n a l c a p a c i t y f o r s e t t l i n g d i s p u t e s was s t r i k i n g l y demon-s t r a t e d d u r i n g t h e c o n f l i c t a t H i l l ' s B a r i n 185 8. S t r o n g w o r d s w e r e s a i d t o e a c h s i d e . The m i n e r s w e r e t o l d t h a t t h e l a w w o u l d p r o t e c t t h e I n d i a n s no l e s s t h a n t h e w h i t e man, and D o u g l a s t o o k one o f t h e I n d i a n s i n v o l v e d i n t h e a f f r a y i n t o t h e G o v e r n m e n t s e r v i c e . D o u g l a s w r o t e t h a t t h e man was "an I n d i a n h i g h l y c o n n e c t e d i n t h e i r way, and o f g r e a t . i n f l u e n c e , r e s o l u t i o n and e n e r g y o f c h a r a c t e r " , a n d he p r o v e d t o be " e x c e e d i n g l y u s e f u l i n s e t t l i n g o t h e r I n d i a n d i f f i c u l t i e s . " 1 0 D o u g l a s was d e t e r m i n e d t h a t d i s p u t e s b e t w e e n I n d i a n s a n d 223 m i n e r s w e r e t o be t r e a t e d w i t h c a u t i o n . S u b o r d i n a t e s who d e a l t c i r c u m s p e c t l y w i t h d i s a g r e e m e n t s b e t w e e n t h e r a c e s w e r e p r a i s e d , w h i l e t h o s e who i n t e r f e r e d h a s t i l y w e r e r e p r i m a n d e d . D o u g l a s e x p r e s s e d h i s a p p r o v a l when, d u r i n g a d i s p u t e b e t w e e n m i n e r s a nd I n d i a n s , a n o f f i c i a l made no a t t e m p t t o p u n i s h t h e I n d i a n s f o r o f f e n c e s m e r e l y a l l e g e d t o h a v e b e e n c o m m i t t e d . S u c h a c t i o n w o u l d h a v e b e e n t a n t a m o u n t t o w a g i n g w a r on t h e I n d i a n s who w e r e t o a l l i n t e n t s a n d p u r p o s e s H e r M a j e s t y ' s s u b -j e c t s a n d e n t i t l e d t o t h e p r o t e c t i o n o f t h e l a w . 1 1 D o u g l a s w a n t e d t o be j u d i c i o u s a n d y e t he was f i r m on t h e n e e d t o m a i n t a i n l a w a n d o r d e r on t h e f r o n t i e r . H i s p l a c e -ment o f g o v e r n m e n t o f f i c i a l s a t l i k e l y t r o u b l e s p o t s u s u a l l y h a d t h e d e s i r e d e f f e c t . An I n d i a n A g e n t i n t h e O r e g o n T e r r i t o r y , n o t i n g t h a t i n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a t r e a t m e n t o f t h e I n d i a n s was more c o n d u c i v e t o p e a c e b e t w e e n t h e r a c e s , a r g u e d t h a t t h e C o l o n y ' s s y s t e m o f g o v e r n m e n t p l a c e d g r e a t e r r e s t r a i n t on t h e l a w l e s s c l a s s i n s o c i e t y . I n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s t h e r e was more i n d i v i d u a l f r e e d o m , b u t i n t h e g o l d m i n i n g a r e a s o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a t h e g o v e r n m e n t o f f i c i a l ' s t e n u r e was n o t d e p e n d e n t on 12 . . t h e mood o f t h e p o p u l a c e . The c o n s e q u e n c e was t h a t v i g i l a n t i s m , w h i c h i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s was a r e s p o n s e t o t h e a b s e n c e o f e f f e c t i v e l a w a n d o r d e r on t h e f r o n t i e r , d i d n o t f l o u r i s h i n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , a nd t h e I n d i a n s w e r e a f f o r d e d a g r e a t e r d e g r e e o f p r o t e c t i o n . D o u g l a s a l s o c o n t i n u e d e f f o r t s t o m a i n t a i n l a w a n d o r d e r on t h e c o a s t , b u t a g a i n h i s i n t e n t i o n was t h a t t h e l a w s h o u l d p r o t e c t t h e I n d i a n s a s much a s t h e w h i t e s . B o t h i n V i c t o r i a a n d up t h e c o a s t , D o u g l a s u s e d t h e v e s s e l s a n d men o f t h e R o y a l Navy 224 t o s e t t l e d i s p u t e s b e t w e e n I n d i a n s a n d E u r o p e a n s a n d , i n c r e a s -i n g l y , t o i n t e r v e n e i n i n t e r - t r i b a l h o s t i l i t y . I n V i c t o r i a t h e c o l o n i s t s w e r e s t i l l a p p r e h e n s i v e a b o u t t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f a n a t t a c k o n t h e s e t t l e m e n t b y t h e n o r t h e r n I n d i a n s . D o u g l a s , w h i l e a c k n o w l e d g i n g t h a t t h e r e w e re i s o l a t e d i n c i d e n t s o f v i o l e n c e , t h o u g h t t h a t t h e r e was no r e a l c a u s e f o r a l a r m . T h e r e 13 w e r e f a b r i c a t e d r e p o r t s o f I n d i a n a t t a c k s c i r c u l a t i n g , b u t when t h e r e was a r e a l n e e d t o do s o D o u g l a s i n t e r v e n e d t o s e t t l e d i s p u t e s . I n 1859 t h e r e was a c o n f l i c t b e t w e e n t h e T s i m s h i a n a n d H a i d a a t V i c t o r i a a n d he a s s e m b l e d a m i l i t a r y f o r c e a n d i n t e r c e d e d t o p r e v e n t any t h r e a t t o t h e t o w n . The C o l o n i a l O f f i c e a p p r o v e d o f t h i s a c t i o n , b u t a t t h e same t i m e c a u t i o n e d D o u g l a s t h a t m i l i t a r y f o r c e s h o u l d be u s e d o n l y when 14 a b s o l u t e l y n e c e s s a r y a n d t h e n o n l y w i t h g r e a t c a u t i o n . F u r t h e r up t h e c o a s t I n d i a n s w e r e r e c e i v i n g l e c t u r e s f r o m n a v a l o f f i c e r s . o n t h e d e s i r a b i l i t y o f e n d i n g i n t e r - t r i b a l w a r f a r e , a n d i n 1860 R e a r - A d m i r a l R.L. B a y n e s a d v i s e d D o u g l a s o f t h e n e e d t o p l a c e m a g i s t r a t e s on t h e c o a s t t o m a i n t a i n l a w a n d o r d e r a n d t o p r o t e c t 15 t h e I n d i a n a g a i n s t t h e w h i t e man. I n p u r s u a n c e o f t h a t o b j e c t i v e D o u g l a s i n s t i t u t e d p r o -c e e d i n g s e v e n i n q u e s t i o n s i n v o l v i n g h i s f o r m e r e m p l o y e r s . I n 1859 N a v a l o f f i c e r s r e p o r t e d t h a t t h e r e h a d b e e n a d i s p u t e b e t w e e n H u d s o n 1 s Bay Company men and t h e I n d i a n s a t Nanaimo o v e r t h e t h e f t o f t h e k e y t o t h e Company s t o r e . When t h e I n d i a n s w e r e n o t s u f f i c i e n t l y f o r t h c o m i n g o n t h e m a t t e r two o f them w e r e b e a t e n up - one was f l o g g e d i n s e n s i b l e a n d t h e o t h e r was f o u n d by a n a v a l s u r g e o n t o h a v e h a d h i s "arm b r o k e n a n d h e a d b a d l y l ft damaged." D o u g l a s s e t an i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f t h e i n c i d e n t i n 225 m o t i o n b u t was e v e n t u a l l y u n a b l e t o b r i n g c h a r g e s f o r l a c k o f e v i d e n c e . 1 7 D o u g l a s was n o t a b l e t o b r i n g j u s t i c e t o a l l I n d i a n s o f t h i s " t u r b u l e n t f r o n t i e r " . The I n d i a n s o f t h e w e s t c o a s t o f V a n c o u v e r I s l a n d w e r e p a r t i c u l a r l y o b s t r e p e r o u s a n d n a v a l v e s s e l s w e r e f r e q u e n t l y s e n t t o p a c i f y them. The f i r s t a n d o n l y e x c l u s i v e l y I n d i a n a g e n t a p p o i n t e d b y D o u g l a s , W i l l i a m B a n f i e l d , was a l s o s e n t t o t h i s a r e a . He was i n s t r u c t e d i n 1859 t o s t o p t h e s a l e o f s p i r i t s t o I n d i a n s , , , t o p r e v e n t d i s t u r b a n c e s a r i s i n g among t h e I n d i a n s , a n d b e t w e e n I n d i a n s a n d w h i t e men a n d , i f p o s s i b l e , t o i n d u c e t h e I n d i a n s t o a b a n d o n " t h e i r r e v o l t i n g a n d 18 s a v a g e c u s t o m s " a n d l i v e " i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h c i v i l i s e d u s a g e s " . T h i s was a l o t t o a s k o f one man among a p o p u l a t i o n o f u n r u l y I n d i a n s . I n 1862 B a n f i e l d d i s a p p e a r e d a n d i t was assumed i n V i c t o r i a t h a t he h a d b e e n k i l l e d by t h e I n d i a n s o f B a r k l e y Sound. On t h e p e r i p h e r y i t was d i f f i c u l t t o a r r a n g e f a i r t r i a l s i n m a t t e r s i n v o l v i n g I n d i a n s . When a n I n d i a n was s h o t by a E u r o p e a n a t A l b e r n i , S p r o a t , as l o c a l m a g i s t r a t e , a r r a n g e d an a d h o c i n q u e s t i n t o t h e c a u s e o f d e a t h . The j u r y o f w h i t e men f i r s t b r o u g h t down a v e r d i c t t h a t t h e v i c t i m h a d b e e n " w o r r i e d b y a d o g " , a n d t h e n , a f t e r r e t i r i n g t o r e c o n s i d e r , t h a t he " f e l l o v e r 20 • a c l i f f . " E v e n a t t h e c e i n t r e , i n V i c t o r i a , t h e c o u r t t r i a l s o f I n d i a n s i n v o l v e d many p i t f a l l s . I n 1860 A l f r e d W a d d i n g t o n p u b l i s h e d a f o u r page b r o a d s h e e t e n t i t l e d J u d i c i a l M u r d e r i n w h i c h he c o m p l a i n e d t h a t a T s i m s h i a n I n d i a n h a d b e e n h a n g e d on e v i d e n c e o b t a i n e d t h r o u g h a n i n t e r p r e t e r who s p o k e C h i n o o k b u t 21 who was c o m p e t e n t i n n e i t h e r T s i m s h i a n n o r E n g l i s h . O f t e n i t was d i f f i c u l t f o r t h e c o u r t s t o d e c i d e w h e t h e r I n d i a n s w e r e 226 p r o v i d i n g v a l i d e v i d e n c e o r m e r e l y u s i n g t h e B r i t i s h j u d i c i a l p r o c e s s t o s e t t l e o l d s c o r e s . The I n d i a n t r i e d f o r m u r d e r i n g B a n f i e l d was a c q u i t t e d on t h e s t r o n g s u s p i c i o n t h a t t h e man who g a v e e v i d e n c e a g a i n s t h i m w a n t e d t o e l i m i n a t e t h e a c c u s e d a s a 22 d a n g e r o u s member o f t h e c o m m u n i t y . O t h e r I n d i a n s i n s i m i l a r 23 s i t u a t i o n s w e r e l e s s f o r t u n a t e . E v e n w h e r e t h e r e w e r e t h e b e s t o f , i n t e n t i o n s on t h e p a r t o f o f f i c i a l s , f r o n t i e r j u s t i c e was o f t e n r o u g h a n d r e a d y i n i t s h a n d l i n g o f I n d i a n s . I t was p o l i c y o n t h e c r u c i a l l a n d q u e s t i o n , t h e i s s u e t h a t was s o v i t a l t o t h e i n t e r e s t s o f e a c h r a c e , t h a t m o s t c l e a r l y e x p r e s s e d t h e a t t i t u d e o f t h e v a r i o u s c o l o n i a l a d m i n i s t r a -t i o n s t o t h e I n d i a n s . I n t h i s i m p o r t a n t a n d i n d i c a t i v e m a t t e r D o u g l a s a t t e m p t e d t o t r e a t t h e I n d i a n s j u d i c i o u s l y a n d , as i n o t h e r a r e a s , t o d e f e n d t h e i r i n t e r e s t s a g a i n s t t h e e n c r o a c h m e n t o f s e t t l e r s . D o u g l a s was n o t o p p o s e d t o t h e i n f l u x o f a g r i c u l -t u r a l s e t t l e r s o n t h e c o n t r a r y he p o s i t i v e l y e n c o u r a g e d i t . He t h o u g h t t h a t w i t h o u t " t h e f a r m e r s a i d , B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a m u s t f o r e v e r r e m a i n a d e s e r t " , a n d a c c o r d i n g l y he g a v e c o n s i d e r a t i o n 24 t o g o v e r n m e n t a l m e a s u r e s t o e n c o u r a g e s e t t l e m e n t . I t was p a r t i c u l a r l y i m p o r t a n t t o D o u g l a s t h a t s e t t l e m e n t s h o u l d be f o s t e r e d i n a way t h a t w o u l d r e s u l t i n t h e " E n g l i s h e l e m e n t " p r e -25 p o n d e r a t i n g i n t h e C o l o n i e s . B u t he was a l s o d e t e r m i n e d ' t h a t t h e I n d i a n s s h o u l d n o t be s w e p t a s i d e as t h e s e t t l e r s s c r a m b l e d t o p o s s e s s t h e l a n d . D o u g l a s was t o l d b y t h e C o l o n i a l O f f i c e t h a t t h e r e w e r e a l r e a d y t o o many i n s t a n c e s w h e r e c o l o n i s t s h a d f o r g o t t e n t h e c l a i m s o f t h e I n d i a n s a n d s o , i n V a n c o u v e r I s l a n d and B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , when s e t t l e m e n t b e g a n t o i m p i n g e on I n d i a n l a n d , " m e asures o f l i b e r a l i t y a n d j u s t i c e " s h o u l d be a d o p t e d t o c o m p e n s a t e them f o r t h e s u r r e n d e r o f t h e i r t e r r i t o r y . * u T h i s i n s t r u c t i o n f r o m D o w n i n g S t r e e t seemed f a i r l y s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d , b u t t h e f o l l o w i n g month a q u a l i f i c a t i o n was a d d e d . D o u g l a s was c a u t i o n e d t o a v o i d l a y i n g o u t I n d i a n r e s e r v e s t h a t m i g h t c h e c k 27 t h e p r o g r e s s o f w h i t e s e t t l e r s i n t h e f u t u r e . S o , e v e n i n t h e G o v e r n o r ' s i n s t r u c t i o n s , a t e n s i o n was c r e a t e d b e t w e e n t h e demands o f t h e s e t t l e r s a nd t h e r i g h t s o f t h e I n d i a n s t h a t was d i f f i c u l t t o r e s o l v e . T h i s t e n s i o n was f u n d a m e n t a l t o t h e i n c r e a s i n g i n a d e q u a c y o f I n d i a n l a n d p o l i c y d u r i n g the' c o l o n i a l p e r i o d . D o u g l a s ' s p o l i c y , u n t i l 1 8 5 9 , was t o c o m p e n s a t e t h e 2 8 I n d i a n s f o r t h e s u r r e n d e r o f t h e i r l a n d , and t o l a y o u t -a n t i c i p a t o r y r e s e r v e s i n t h e a r e a s t h a t s e t t l e r s w e r e b e g i n n i n g t o move i n t o . He r e j e c t e d t h e A m e r i c a n s y s t e m o f r e m o v i n g t h e I n d i a n s f r o m t h e i r t r a d i t i o n a l homes a n d r e l o c a t i n g them on l a r g e a m a l g a m a t e d r e s e r v e s . R i g h t l y c o n c l u d i n g t h a t t h i s p o l i c y p r o d u c e d h o s t i l i t y r a t h e r t h a n s e t t l e m e n t , D o u g l a s a d v o c a t e d t h a t I n d i a n r e s e r v e s s h o u l d a l w a y s i n c l u d e t h e I n d i a n s ' c u l t i v a t e d f i e l d s a nd v i l l a g e s i t e s " f o r w h i c h f r o m h a b i t and a s s o c i a t i o n t h e y i n v a r i a b l y c o n c e i v e a s t r o n g a t t a c h m a n t , a n d p r i z e m o r e , f o r 29 t h a t r e a s o n , t h a n f o r t h e e x t e n t o r v a l u e o f t h e l a n d . " H a v i n g e s t a b l i s h e d r e s e r v e s a c c o r d i n g t o t h e s e p r i n c i p l e s , D o u g l a s was e q u a l l y c o n c e r n e d t h a t t h e y s h o u l d n o t be r e d u c e d , e i t h e r by t h e e n c r o a c h m e n t o f i n d i v i d u a l s o r t h e c o l l e c t i v e a c t i o n o f t h e House o f A s s e m b l y o f V a n c o u v e r I s l a n d . T h i s d e t e r m i n a t i o n was demon-s t r a t e d b y h i s r e s p o n s e s t o e f f o r t s t o h a v e t h e S o n g h e e s r e m o v e d f r o m t h e i r V i c t o r i a r e s e r v e . I n 1858 t h e S e c r e t a r y o f S t a t e f o r t h e C o l o n i e s d e c l a r e d t h a t " I h i g h l y a p p r o v e o f t h e s t e p s w h i c h 228 y o u h a v e t a k e n , . . . w i t h r e g a r d t o t h e I n d i a n s . " J U T h e r e w e r e , h o w e v e r , new f a c t o r s t h a t w e r e b e g i n n i n g t o p l a c e l i m i t a t i o n s on D o u g l a s ' s f r e e d o m t o a c t a c c o r d i n g t o h i s own p r e c e p t s . F o l l o w i n g h i s a p p o i n t m e n t a s G o v e r n o r o f t h e G o l d C o l o n y i n 1858, a n d t h e c o n s e q u e n t s e v e r a n c e o f h i s t i e s w i t h t h e Hudson's Bay Company, D o u g l a s c o u l d no l o n g e r d i p i n t o t h e Company s t o r e s f o r t h e goods t h a t he h a d g i v e n t o t h e I n d i a n s a s c o m p e n s a t i o n f o r t h e s u r r e n d e r o f t h e i r l a n d . A t t h e same t i m e t h e I n d i a n s w e r e b e c o m i n g more aware o f t h e v a l u e o f t h e i r l a n d a n d s o t h e c o s t o f e x t i n g u i s h i n g t h e i r t i t l e was i n c r e a s i n g . A new s o u r c e o f c a s h was r e q u i r e d b u t , i t p r o v e d , was n o t a v a i l a b l e . T h i s p r o b l e m was made a b u n d a n t l y a p p a r e n t when s e t t l e r s began, m o v i n g i n t o t h e C o w i c h a n - C h e m a i n u s d i s t r i c t o f V a n c o u v e r I s l a n d . D u r i n g h i s e x p e d i t i o n t o t h e C o w i c h a n a r e a t o a p p r e h e n d t h e I n d i a n a t t a c k e r o f Thomas W i l l i a m s i n 1856 D o u g l a s h a d b e e n i m p r e s s e d b y t h e v a l l e y a n d t h e p r o s p e c t s t h a t 31 i t h e l d f o r s e t t l e r s . W i t h i n t h r e e y e a r s s e t t l e r s w e r e m o v i n g i n t o t h e a r e a , t h e C o w i c h a n w e r e b e c o m i n g u n e a s y a b o u t t h e a c t i v i t i e s o f s u r v e y p a r t i e s , a n d e v e n some c o l o n i s t s w e r e d e m a n d i n g t h a t , i n t h e i r own i n t e r e s t s , I n d i a n t i t l e t o t h e a r e a 32 o u g h t t o be e x t i n g u i s h e d . I n 1850 t h e C o w i c h a n h a d o f f e r e d t o s e l l t h e i r l a n d a n d D o u g l a s h a d t u r n e d them down, b u t now t h e I n d i a n s w e r e d i v i d e d o v e r t h e q u e s t i o n o f s e l l i n g . One p a r t y was i n f a v o u r o f a s a l e w h i l e a n o t h e r , i n c l u d i n g m o s t l y y o u n g men, was o p p o s e d . D o u g l a s a n t i c i p a t e d t r o u b l e i n " a d j u s t i n g " t h e s e 33 d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n t h e I n d i a n s , b u t t h e r e a l t r o u b l e was t o come f r o m e l s e w h e r e . "Want o f f u n d s " , r a t h e r t h a n I n d i a n i n t r a n s i g e n c e , was 229 to prevent extinguishing Indian t i t l e to the Cowichan-Chemainus d i s t r i c t . In 1860 the c o l o n i a l estimates included the.provision of £2,000 to extinguish Indian t i t l e to the Chemainus d i s t r i c t . Most members of the Vancouver Island House of Assembly f e l t that i t was the r e s p o n s i b i l i t y of the Imperial Government to provide funds for the purpose, and at a meeting on 3 July 1860 34 the item was stricken out of the estimates. In 1861, bearing i n mind "that from the dawn of modern colonisation u n t i l the present day, wars with aborigines have mainly arisen from d i s -35 putes about land," the Assembly petitioned the B r i t i s h Govern-ment to provide a loan of £3,000 to extinguish Indian t i t l e to the Cowichan-Chemainus area. In London the request was placed on the bureaucratic merry-go-round. The Treasury argued that, as the Vancouver Island House of Assembly had asserted the l i a b i l i t y of the Imperial Government to extinguish Indian t i t l e , they were actually asking for a grant and not a loan. I t was also f e l t at the Treasury that only land required immediately for settlement needed to be purchased and therefore that £3,00 0 was 3 6 an excessive amount to grant. In short, they were not prepared to pay. Newcastle r e p l i e d to Douglas that, while he was " f u l l y sensible of the great importance of purchasing without loss of time the native t i t l e to the s o i l of Vancouver Island", the acq u i s i t i o n of t i t l e was a purely c o l o n i a l matter and the 37 B r i t i s h taxpayer could not be burdened with the expense. The Colonial O f f i c e simply handed the matter back to the l o c a l l e g i s -lature, saying that i t should give Douglas the power to raise 38 the loan l o c a l l y . In spite of t h e i r pretentions, neither the Imperial Govern-230 ment n o r t h e C o l o n i a l a u t h o r i t i e s w e r e p r e p a r e d t o a l l o c a t e money t o e x t i n g u i s h I n d i a n t i t l e t o V a n c o u v e r I s l a n d . The a d m i n i s t r a t o r s o f a p o s t C o r n Law E m p i r e w e r e u n w i l l i n g t o s p e n d money o n t h e C o l o n i e s , w h i l e t h e c o l o n i a l L e g i s l a t u r e c o n s i d e r e d i t s e l f u n a b l e t o r a i s e t h e l o a n . C a u g h t i n t h e c e n t r e , t h e I n d i a n s o f t h e two C o l o n i e s f a i l e d t o r e c e i v e c o m p e n s a t i o n f o r t h e a l i e n a t i o n o f t h e i r l a n d a f t e r 1 8 5 9 . A l t h o u g h t h e G o v e r n m e n t s o f G r e a t B r i t a i n a n d V a n c o u v e r I s l a n d b o t h r e c o g n i s e d a b o r i g i n a l t i t l e , f r o m t h i s p o i n t i n t i m e r e s e r v e s w e r e l a i d o u t f o r t h e I n d i a n s w i t h o u t t h e s i g n i n g o f t r e a t i e s t o e x t i n g u i s h 39 t h e x r t i t l e t o . t h e l a n d . A l t h o u g h he was u n a b l e t o g i v e t h e I n d i a n s c o m p e n s a t i o n f o r t h e l o s s o f t h e i r l a n d , D o u g l a s n e v e r t h e l e s s c o n t i n u e d t o a d v o c a t e t h e p r o t e c t i o n o f t h e i r r i g h t s . The r e a l i t i e s o f t h e s i t u a t i o n w e r e a c c u r a t e l y e x p r e s s e d when he w r o t e t o t h e C o l o n i a l O f f i c e t h a t " t h e N a t i v e I n d i a n t r i b e s a r e p r o t e c t e d i n a l l t h e i r 40 i n t e r e s t s t o t h e u t m o s t e x t e n t o f o u r p r e s e n t means." The c h r o n i c s h o r t a g e o f f u n d s was a c o n s t a n t l i m i t a t i o n on t h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f I n d i a n l a n d p o l i c y . I n 186 2, f o r e x a m p l e , D o u g l a s c o u l d n o t g r a n t t h e r e q u e s t o f t h e C h i e f C o m m i s s i o n e r o f L a n d s a nd Works f o r B35 t o d e f r a y t h e c o s t s o f s t a k i n g o u t I n d i a n r e s e r v e s . 4 1 F i n a n c i a l r e s t r i c t i o n s s e v e r e l y c i r c u m s c r i b e d h i s f r e e d o m o f a c t i o n , b u t w i t h i n t h e s e l i m i t s D o u g l a s t r i e d t o t r e a t t h e I n d i a n s w i t h f a v o u r . When i s s u i n g i n s t r u c t i o n s t o t h o s e l a y i n g o u t I n d i a n r e s e r v e s D o u g l a s made i t c l e a r t h a t t h e I n d i a n s w e r e t o h a v e as much l a n d as t h e y w a n t e d . I n t h e i n t e r i o r r e s e r v e s w e r e l a i d o u t by t h e G o l d C o m m i s s i o n e r s . Many w e r e e s t a b l i s h e d b y W i l l i a m 231 Cox, t h e G o l d C o m m i s s i o n e r a t Rock C r e e k i n t h e e a r l y 1 8 6 0 ' s , whose s y m p a t h y f o r t h e I n d i a n s was e v i d e n c e d b y t h e f a c t t h a t h i s l a n d a l l o c a t i o n s t o them w e r e s u b s t a n t i a l b y l a t e r s t a n d a r d s . He s t a k e d o u t r e s e r v e s i n t h e O k a n a g a n , on t h e S o u t h Thompson R i v e r a n d o n t h e B o n a p a r t e R i v e r , f o l l o w i n g D o u g l a s ' s o r d e r s t h a t t h e I n d i a n s w e r e t o h a v e w h a t e v e r l a n d t h e y a s k e d f o r . A t K a m l o o p s , f o r e x a m p l e , Cox l a i d o u t a r e s e r v e e x t e n d i n g a p p r o x i -m a t e l y s i x m i l e s up t h e N o r t h Thompson, t w e l v e m i l e s a l o n g t h e 42 S o u t h Thompson a n d r u n n i n g b a c k t o t h e m o u n t a i n s . The i n s t r u c t i o n t h a t r e s e r v e s w e r e t o be e s t a b l i s h e d "as t h e y may be s e v e r a l l y p o i n t e d o u t by t h e I n d i a n s t h e m s e l v e s " was s o f r e q u e n t l y r e p e a t e d t h a t t h e r e i s no room f o r d o u b t t h a t 43 t h i s was D o u g l a s ' s p o l i c y . T h i s i n s t r u c t i o n was t o be f o l l o w e d b y a l l t h o s e o f f i c i a l s l a y i n g o u t I n d i a n r e s e r v e s , and w h e r e t h e a r e a r e q u i r e d b y t h e I n d i a n s a p p e a r e d t o be i n s u f f i c i e n t f o r 44 t h e i r n e e d s a d d i t i o n a l a r e a s w e r e t o be l a i d o f f . On a t l e a s t one o c c a s i o n a f t e r a r e s e r v e h a d b e e n l a i d o u t I n d i a n c o m p l a i n t s t h a t t h e a r e a was n o t s u f f i c i e n t g o t b a c k t o D o u g l a s , and h i s r e s p o n s e was t o e n s u r e t h a t t h e i r g r i e v a n c e was met. I n a l e t t e r t o C o l o n e l R.C. Moody, t h e C h i e f C o m m i s s i o n e r o f L a n d s and Works i n t h e m a i n l a n d C o l o n y , h i s v i e w s w e r e c l e a r l y e x p r e s s e d . N o t w i t h s t a n d i n g my p a r t i c u l a r i n s t r u c t i o n s t o y o u , t h a t i n l a y i n g o u t I n d i a n R e s e r v e s t h e w i s h e s o f t h e N a t i v e s t h e m s e l v e s , w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e b o u n d a r i e s , s h o u l d i n a l l c a s e s be com-p l i e d w i t h , I h e a r v e r y g e n e r a l c o m p l a i n t s o f t h e s m a l l n e s s o f t h e a r e a s s e t a p a r t f o r t h e i r u s e . 45 T h i s o b s e r v a t i o n was f o l l o w e d by i n s t r u c t i o n s t o Moody t o i n v e s -t i g a t e t h e c o m p l a i n t s , a n d t o e n l a r g e t h e r e s e r v e s s u f f i c i e n t l y t o remove a l l c a u s e f o r o b j e c t i o n by t h e I n d i a n s . I n r e s p o n s e t o 232 t h e c r i t i c i s m Moody c l a i m e d t h a t t h e " i n t e r e s t s o f t h e I n d i a n p o p u l a t i o n a r e s c r u p u l o u s l y , I may s a y j e a l o u s l y r e g a r d e d by m y s e l f a n d e v e r y o f f i c e r and man u n d e r my command." 4 6 B u t t h e r e h a d b e e n o t h e r c o m p l a i n t s a b o u t Moody's d e p a r t m e n t . S e t -t l e r s c l a i m e d t h a t l a n d h a d b e e n r e s e r v e d by t h e L a n d s and Works D e p a r t m e n t , a n d s u b s e q u e n t l y t h r o w n o p e n t o p r e - e m p t i o n w i t h o u t s u f f i c i e n t n o t i c e , s o t h a t o n l y members o f t h e D e p a r t m e n t c o u l d b e n e f i t . T h e r e w e r e a l s o c o m p l a i n t s t h a t r a t h e r t o o many p i e c e s o f l a n d w e r e r e c o r d e d i n t h e names o f g o v e r n m e n t s e r v a n t s , 47 p a r t i c u l a r l y t h o s e i n t h e L a n d s and Works D e p a r t m e n t . D o u g l a s s o m e t i m e s h a d d i f f i c u l t i e s w i t h h i s l o c a l o f f i c i a l s a n d he f e l t t h a t Moody i n p a r t i c u l a r was i n c l i n e d t o be i n s u b o r d i n a t e . I n t h i s c a s e t h e G o v e r n o r o r d e r e d t h a t a l l G o v e r n m e n t a n d I n d i a n r e s e r v e s s h o u l d be p u b l i c i s e d s o t h a t i t was q u i t e c l e a r w h a t l a n d was a v a i l a b l e f o r p r e - e m p t i o n . C o n f u s i o n o v e r w h a t l a n d was f r e e t o be p r e - e m p t e d s o m e t i m e s e n c o u r a g e d s e t t l e r s t o l a y c l a i m s t o p a r t s o f I n d i a n r e s e r v e s . B u t h a v i n g e s t a b l i s h e d r e s e r v e s i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e w i s h e s o f t h e I n d i a n s , D o u g l a s was e q u a l l y c o n c e r n e d t h a t t h e s e a r e a s w e r e n o t be r e d u c e d b y t h e e n c r o a c h m e n t o f s e t t l e r s . E u r o p e a n s who t o o k l a n d p e r m a n e n t l y o c c u p i e d by I n d i a n s i n t h e h o pe t h a t t h e G o v e r n m e n t w o u l d l a t e r v a l i d a t e t h e i r c l a i m w e r e t o 48 be d i s a p p o i n t e d . C o l o n i s t s w e r e i n f o r m e d t h a t t h e y w o u l d n o t 49 be p e r m i t t e d t o e n c r o a c h on I n d i a n r e s e r v e s , a n d t h e v i l l a g e a n d c u l t i v a t e d s i t e s o f t h e I n d i a n s c o u l d n o t be l e g a l l y p r e -50 e m pted. The o b v i o u s p r o b a b i l i t y t h a t t h e s e t t l e r s w o u l d t a k e a d v a n t a g e o f t h e I n d i a n s was t h e r e a s o n why D o u g l a s d i d n o t g r a n t t h e I n d i a n s t i t l e t o t h e i r r e s e r v e s , b u t i n s t e a d r e t a i n e d i t i n 233 51 t h e h a n d s o f t h e C rown. I n 1858 P e t e r O ' R e i l l y was s u p e r -v i s i n g t h e s u r v e y o f Hope t o w n s h i p a n d , i n o r d e r t o f a c i l i t a t e m a t t e r s , a d v i s e d t h e G o v e r n o r t h a t t h e I n d i a n r e s e r v e a d j a c e n t t o t h e t o wn s h o u l d be moved " t o some more s u i t a b l e l o c a l i t y . " O ' R e i l l y t h o u g h t t h a t t h e move c o u l d be e a s i l y a c c o m p l i s h e d "by m a k i n g a t r i f l i n g r e m u n e r a t i o n t o t h e C h i e f s " , b u t a n o t e p e n c i l l e d on h i s l e t t e r by D o u g l a s s i m p l y s t a t e d t h a t " t h e 52 I n d i a n s m u s t n o t be d i s t u r b e d . " W h i l e D o u g l a s was G o v e r n o r o f t h e two C o l o n i e s t h e I n d i a n s w e r e , on o c c a s i o n s , p e r m i t t e d t o a d d t o t h e i r r e s e r v e s when t h e y w a n t e d t o r e - l o c a t e a v i l l a g e . A r e s e r v e l a i d o u t f o r t h e I n d i a n s o f t h e C o q u i t l a m R i v e r l a t e r p r o v e d t o be " a l t o g e t h e r i n s u f f i c i e n t t o r a i s e v e g e t a b l e s enough 53 f o r t h e i r own u s e " and D o u g l a s h a d t h e a r e a i n c r e a s e d . A t L a n g l e y when t h e I n d i a n s w a n t e d t o r e - e s t a b l i s h t h e i r v i l l a g e on t h e o t h e r s i d e o f t h e r i v e r , o p p o s i t e t h e F o r t , t h e y w e r e g r a n t e d 54 a new r e s e r v e o f 160 a c r e s . D u r i n g t h e D o u g l a s r e g i m e n o t o n l y w e r e t h e r e s e r v e d l a n d s o f t h e I n d i a n s t o r e m a i n s e c u r e , b u t o t h e r methods o f a c q u i r i n g l a n d w e r e a l s o o p e n t o them. I n May 1862 Moody w r o t e t o D o u g l a s t h a t a S q u a m i s h I n d i a n d e s i r e d t o p u r c h a s e a s u b u r b a n l o t n e a r New W e s t m i n s t e r . He p o i n t e d o u t t h a t t h e l o t was " a t some d i s t a n c e f r o m t h e t o w n , s o t h a t i t c a n n o t p r o v e an a n n o y a n c e " , 55 a n d he r e q u e s t e d i n s t r u c t i o n s on t h e m a t t e r . D o u g l a s r e p l i e d t o t h e e f f e c t t h a t I n d i a n s c o u l d b o t h p r e - e m p t l a n d a n d p u r c h a s e t o w n l o t s u n d e r s i m i l a r c o n d i t i o n s t o a n y o n e e l s e i n t h e C o l o n y : t h a t i s p r o v i d i n g t h e y r e s i d e d on t h e c l a i m , b u i l t a d w e l l i n g and c l e a r e d a n d c u l t i v a t e d a c e r t a i n amount o f l a n d . 5 6 H i s i m m e d i a t e r e s p o n s e t o Moody's l e t t e r h a d b e e n t h a t a s t h e I n d i a n s 234 " a r e i n p o i n t o f l a w r e g a r d e d as B r i t i s h s u b j e c t s " t h e y " a r e 57 f u l l y e n t i t l e d t o t h e r i g h t s a n d p r i v i l e g e s o f s u b j e c t s . " I m p l i c i t i n t h e d e c i s i o n t o a l l o w t h e I n d i a n s t o p u r c h a s e a nd p r e - e m p t l a n d was t h e n o t i o n t h a t c u l t u r e was n o t r a c i a l l y d e t e r -m i n e d , a n d t h a t I n d i a n s h a d t h e c a p a c i t y f o r s o c i a l " i m p r o v e m e n t " an d c o u l d a s s i m i l a t e i n t o w h i t e s o c i e t y . N e a r t h e e n d o f h i s t e r m o f o f f i c e D o u g l a s o u t l i n e d h i s I n d i a n l a n d p o l i c y t o t h e c o l o n i s t s . He c l a i m e d t h a t h i s p o l i c y o f r e s e r v i n g t h e " V i l l a g e s i t e s , c u l t i v a t e d f i e l d s , and f a v o u r i t e p l a c e s o f r e s o r t " o f t h e I n d i a n s a n d s e c u r i n g them a g a i n s t e n -c r o a c h m e n t b y s e t t l e r s h a d b e e n " p r o d u c t i v e o f t h e h a p p i e s t 5 8 e f f e c t s on t h e m i n d s o f t h e N a t i v e s " . S e e m i n g l y h i s r e m a r k h a d some v a l i d i t y . Many E u r o p e a n s w e r e i m p r e s s e d w i t h t h e p o s i t i v e i n f l u e n c e t h a t D o u g l a s 1 s p e r s o n a l i t y a n d p o l i c i e s h a d o n t h e I n d i a n s . H e l m c k e n r e c a l l e d t h a t t h e I n d i a n s a l w a y s f e l t c e r t a i n o f r e c e i v i n g " f a v o u r and j u s t i c e " f r o m D o u g l a s , w h i l e Rev. E d w a r d C r i d g e s a i d t h a t D o u g l a s ' s t r e a t m e n t o f t h e I n d i a n s g a v e h i m 59 " unbounded I n f l u e n c e " among them. A f t e r h i s r e t i r e m e n t f r o m t h e G o v e r n o r s h i p , w h i l e many o b j e c t e d t o o t h e r p o l i c i e s , m o s t s e t t l e r s a g r e e d t h a t h i s h a n d l i n g o f t h e I n d i a n s h a d b e e n " o f v a s t b e n e f i t t o t h e c o l o n y " . 6 0 I n r e t r o s p e c t a t l e a s t t h e I n d i a n s o f t h e two C o l o n i e s w e r e a l s o s a t i s f i e d w i t h t h e t r e a t m e n t t h e y h a d r e c e i v e d u n d e r D o u g l a s . More t h a n t e n y e a r s a f t e r h i s r e t i r e m e n t I n d i a n s s t i l l r e c a l l e d a n d p r a i s e d t h e manner i n w h i c h 61 he h a d d e a l t w i t h them. Y e t , i n s p i t e o f a l l t h i s f a v o u r a b l e r e a c t i o n , n e a r l y e v e r y a s p e c t o f . D o u g l a s ' s I n d i a n p o l i c y was d r a s t i c a l l y a l t e r e d a f t e r h i s r e t i r e m e n t . As l o n g as D o u g l a s r e m a i n e d i n o f f i c e t h e s t r e n g t h o f 235 h i s p o s i t i o n was t h a t he c o u l d i n t e r c e d e p e r s o n a l l y on b e h a l f o f t h e I n d i a n s a n d , w i t h i n c e r t a i n l i m i t s , p r o t e c t them f r o m t h e w o r s t e f f e c t s o f s e t t l e m e n t . The w e a k n e s s o f h i s p o l i c y was t h a t i t was t o o d e p e n d e n t on h i s own p e r s o n a l m a g n a n i m i t y . H i s I n d i a n l a n d p o l i c y was n e v e r c o d i f i e d i n any l e g i s l a t i v e e n a c t m e n t . T h i s f a i l u r e t o e s t a b l i s h a s e l f - p e r p e t u a t i n g p o l i c y m a t t e r e d l i t t l e a s l o n g a s D o u g l a s was G o v e r n o r , b u t a f t e r h i s r e t i r e m e n t t h e e f f e c t s q u i c k l y became a p p a r e n t . B e c a u s e h i s l a n d p o l i c y h a d n o t b e e n e s t a b l i s h e d b y s t a t u t e i t was s u b j e c t t o m i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n a n d m a n i p u l a t i o n when men l e s s f a v o u r a b l y d i s -p o s e d t o w a r d s . t h e I n d i a n s came t o p o w e r . Many c o l o n i s t s f o u n d D o u g l a s 1 s m e t h o d o f g o v e r n m e n t o b j e c t i o n a b l e a n d w e r e n o t p a r t i c u l a r l y s o r r y when he r e t i r e d f r o m o f f i c e . A l t h o u g h t h e p o p u l a c e a l s o q u i c k l y t i r e d o f t h e new G o v e r n o r s , i n 1864 t h e r e was a hope t h a t t h e y w o u l d i n t r o d u c e a new a g e i n t h e C o l o n i e s . The l a s t o f t h e f u r t r a d e r s h a d r e t i r e d f r o m o f f i c i a l l i f e . I n V a n c o u v e r I s l a n d t h e s e t t l e r s w e r e s a i d t o be d e l i g h t e d " a t t h e c o n t r a s t b e t w e e n t h e quondam f u r -6 2 t r a p p e r a n d h i s g e n t l e m a n l y s u c c e s s o r " , a n d i n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a e d i t o r i a l i s t s e x p r e s s e d t h e hope t h a t t h e new G o v e r n o r w o u l d i n a u g u r a t e a n " e n l i g h t e n e d " I n d i a n p o l i c y . The I n d i a n s , w i t h g o o d r e a s o n , w e r e n o t q u i t e s o c o n f i d e n t a b o u t t h e f u t u r e i n 1864. I n t h a t y e a r D o u g l a s . w a s s u c c e e d e d by two men, n e i t h e r o f whom h a d h i s i n t e r e s t o r i n f l u e n c e i n I n d i a n a f f a i r s . N e i t h e r F r e d e r i c k Seymour, i n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , n o r A r t h u r K e n n e d y , i n V a n c o u v e r I s l a n d , was a s s u b s t a n t i a l a f i g u r e a s D o u g l a s . Of t h e t w o , Kennedy was p r o b a b l y more a b l e b u t h i s r u l e i n V a n c o u v e r I s l a n d was o n l y an i n t e r l u d e o f two y e a r s i n t h e m i d d l e o f s i x 236 o t h e r G o v e r n o r s h i p s . U n l i k e C h i e f F a c t o r D o u g l a s , b o t h Seymour an d Kennedy came as c a r e e r i s t G o v e r n o r s , and b o t h s u f f e r e d f r o m a m a l a d y t h a t was n o t uncommon among men who moved a b o u t f r o m p o s t t o p o s t on t h e p e r i p h e r y o f e m p i r e . I t was o f t e n assumed t h a t a l l " n a t i v e s " w e r e a b o u t t h e same a n d , t h e r e f o r e , t h a t e x p e r i -e n c e w i t h t h e a b o r i g i n e s o f one c o l o n y somehow e q u i p p e d an a d m i n i s t r a t o r f o r d e a l i n g w i t h t h o s e o f a n o t h e r . Kennedy h a d a l r e a d y h e l d two G o v e r n o r s h i p s . - i n S i e r r a L e o n e and W e s t e r n A u s t r a l i a - b e f o r e he came t o V a n c o u v e r I s l a n d a n d by v i r t u e o f t h a t e x p e r i e n c e f e l t q u i t e c o m p e t e n t t o g o v e r n t h e I n d i a n s . K ennedy a n n o u n c e d t o t h e I n d i a n s s o o n a f t e r h i s a r r i v a l t h a t " I h a v e h a d e x p e r i e n c e i n t h e g o v e r n m e n t o f n a t i v e t r i b e s i n v a r i o u s p a r t s o f H e r M a j e s t y ' s d o m i n i o n s and I c a n t h e r e f o r e t h e more e a s i l y 64 a p p r e c i a t e y o u r c h a r a c t e r . " Seymour, whose m o s t r e c e n t p o s t h a d b e e n L i e u t e n a n t - G o v e r n o r o f B r i t i s h H o n d u r a s , was a l s o c o n f i d e n t o f h i s a b i l i t y t o d e a l w i t h n a t i v e r a c e s . E a r l y i n h i s G o v e r n o r -s h i p o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a he g a i n e d l o c a l p o p u l a r i t y and C o l o n i a l O f f i c e p r a i s e f o r h i s d e a l i n g w i t h t h e I n d i a n s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e k i l l i n g s a t B u t e I n l e t i n 1864. A l t h o u g h p r a i s e o f h i s f i r m h a n d l i n g o f t h i s a f f a i r seems t o h a v e u p s e t h i s j u d g e m e n t some-w h a t and he e a r n e d a r e b u k e f r o m t h e C o l o n i a l O f f i c e when he n o t e d i n a d e s p a t c h t h a t , i n t h e e v e n t o f a r e a l e m e r g e n c y , " I may f i n d m y s e l f c o m p e l l e d t o f o l l o w i n t h e f o o t s t e p s o f t h e G o v e r n o r o f C o l o r a d o . . . and i n v i t e e v e r y w h i t e man t o s h o o t e a c h I n d i a n i - J _ ii 6 5 he may meet. The p o l i c i e s o f b o t h o f t h e new G o v e r n o r s d i f f e r e d i n f u n d a m e n t a l ways f r o m t h o s e o f D o u g l a s . K ennedy was p r e p a r e d t o p e r m i t s e t t l e r s t o o c c u p y p a r t s o f I n d i a n r e s e r v e s p r o v i d e d i t 237 d i d " n o t i n v o l v e t r o u b l e w i t h t h e I n d i a n s . " u u Kennedy a l s o t h o u g h t t h a t i t was a m i s t a k e t o a l l o w an I n d i a n r e s e r v e t o e x i s t n e a r V i c t o r i a , t h u s a l l o w i n g t h e two r a c e s t o m i x t o g e t h e r " t o t h e g r e a t d e g r e d a t i o n o f o n e , and t h e d e m o r a l i s a t i o n o f b o t h . " He t h e r e f o r e a d v o c a t e d r e m o v a l . H a v i n g b e e n a f u r t r a d e r D o u g l a s d i d n o t t h i n k i n t e r m s o f t h e s e p a r a t i o n o f t h e two r a c e s , s o he h a d no o b j e c t i o n t o t h e e x i s t e n c e o f t h e V i c t o r i a r e s e r v e . N o r d i d he l a y o u t o t h e r r e s e r v e s w i t h s e p a r a t e d e v e l o p -ment i n m i n d . B u t he a i m e d t o p r o v i d e t h e I n d i a n s w i t h a b a s e f r o m w h i c h t h e y c o u l d e s t a b l i s h a p o s i t i o n w i t h i n c o l o n i a l s o c i e t y . The n o t i o n t h a t r a c e s c o u l d be s e p a r a t e d , as was b e i n g p r o v e d i n o t h e r p a r t s o f t h e E m p i r e , was c h i m e r i c a l anyway. N e v e r t h e l e s s K e nnedy h a d g o v e r n e d i n A f r i c a a nd W e s t e r n A u s t r a l i a a nd he knew a l l a b o u t " n a t i v e s " . I t was h i s c o n s i d e r e d o p i n i o n t h a t t h e I n d i a n p o l i c y o f t h e two C o l o n i e s , w h i l e i t "may h a v e b e e n a t one t i m e e x p e d i e n t " , i s " c e r t a i n l y no l o n g e r n e c e s s a r y o r p o s s i b l e . E f f o r t s t o s u p p r e s s v i o l e n c e a p a r t , Seymour o p e r a t e d more on t h e ' l e v e l o f v a p i d g e n e r a l i t i e s t h a n o f e s t a b l i s h i n g a 69 s o u n d I n d i a n p o l i c y . H i s p r o f e s s e d c o n c e r n f o r t h e I n d i a n s o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a m o s t l y i n v o l v e d d i s p e n s i n g l a r g e s s e r a t h e r t h a n p r o t e c t i n g t h e i r i n t e r e s t s . Soon a f t e r h i s a r r i v a l Seymour became aware t h a t t h e I n d i a n s f e l t t h a t t h e y h a d l o s t a p r o t e c t o r a n d a f r i e n d w i t h t h e d e p a r t u r e o f D o u g l a s f r o m o f f i c i a l l i f e . The new G o v e r n o r d e t e r m i n e d t o d e m o n s t r a t e t o t h e I n d i a n s t h a t he h a d " s u c c e e d e d t o a l l t h e p o w e r s o f my p r e d e c e s s o r and t o 70 h i s s o l i c i t u d e f o r t h e i r w e l f a r e " . H i s m e t h o d o f m a k i n g t h i s p o i n t c l e a r was t o e x t e n d an i n v i t a t i o n t o t h e I n d i a n s t o come 238 t o G o v e r n m e n t House i n New W e s t m i n s t e r a n d c e l e b r a t e t h e Queen's b i r t h d a y . On t h e f i r s t o f t h e s e o c c a s i o n s , i n 1 8 6 4 , a l u n c h e o n was p r o v i d e d a t t h e e x p e n s e o f t h e G o v e r n m e n t ; b u t t h e g u e s t s w e r e i n f o r m e d t h a t t h e r e w a r d s " t o a l l g o o d I n d i a n C h i e f s " 71 w o u l d be g r e a t e r n e x t t i m e . A c c o r d i n g l y Seymour r e q u e s t e d t h e C o l o n y ' s a g e n t s i n L o n d o n t o f o r w a r d "One h u n d r e d s m a l l c h e a p c a n e s w i t h s i l v e r g i l t t o p s o f an i n e x p e n s i v e k i n d , a l s o one h u n d r e d s m a l l c h e a p E n g l i s h f l a g s s u i t a b l e t o c a n o e s 20 t o 30 f e e t l o n g . " Seymour's i n n o v a t i o n i n I n d i a n p o l i c y was t o i n t r o -d u c e a " p r a c t i c e w h i c h w o r k e d v e r y s u c c e s s f u l l y i n H o n d u r a s , o f p r e s e n t i n g a s t a f f o f o f f i c e t o t h e c h i e f o f e a c h f r i e n d l y t r i b e . " ' U n d e r s t a n d a b l y , some I n d i a n s w e r e n o t i m p r e s s e d by t h i s n o n s e n s e , . , a n d r i d i c u l e d t h o s e who a t t e n d e d f u t u r e Queen's b i r t h d a y c e l e -73 b r a t i o n s a t G o v e r n m e n t House. T h e s e g a t h e r i n g s d i d , h o w e v e r , p r o v i d e some I n d i a n l e a d e r s w i t h an o p p o r t u n i t y t o e x p r e s s t h e i r o p i n i o n on m a t t e r s t h a t c o n c e r n e d them more a c u t e l y t h a n f r e e l u n c h e o n s and g i l t c a n e s . On a t l e a s t t h r e e o c c a s i o n s t h e I n d i a n s p r e s e n t a t t h e 74 c e l e b r a t i o n s p e t i t i o n e d Seymour t o p r o t e c t t h e i r r e s e r v e s . The f i r s t t i m e h i s r e p l y was c l e a r . "You s h a l l n o t be d i s t u r b e d i n 75 y o u r r e s e r v e s " , t h e I n d i a n s w e r e t o l d . T h r e e y e a r s l a t e r t h e r e p l y was a l i t t l e more e q u i v o c a l , as t h e I n d i a n s w e r e a s s u r e d t h a t t h e i r r e s e r v e s w o u l d n o t b e r e d u c e d w i t h o u t S e ymour's 7 6 p e r s o n a l i n s p e c t i o n . The a c t u a l w o r d i n g o f t h e r e p l i e s i s , h o w e v e r , somewhat i m m a t e r i a l . W h i l e Seymour was m a k i n g r e a s s u r i n g g e s t u r e s a t Queen's b i r t h d a y c e l e b r a t i o n s h i s C h i e f C o m m i s s i o n e r o f L a n d s and Works was c a r r y i n g o u t a r e a l l o c a t i o n o f r e s e r v e s t h a t i n v o l v e d a c o n s i d e r a b l e r e d u c t i o n i n s i z e , a nd t h e r e i s no 239 e v i d e n c e t h a t Seymour v i s i t e d any o f t h e r e s e r v e s c o n c e r n e d . I n r e l a t i o n t o t h e I n d i a n s ' l a n d , Seymour's p r o f e s s e d " s o l i c i t u d e f o r t h e i r w e l f a r e " was v e r b a l r a t h e r t h a n r e a l . The I m p e r i a l a u t h o r i t i e s , who h a d b e e n s o c o n c e r n e d a b o u t t h e t r e a t m e n t o f t h e I n d i a n s i n 1 8 5 8 , t o o k l e s s i n t e r e s t i n t h e i r w e l f a r e a f t e r 1864. B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a was e s t a b l i s h e d d u r i n g a p e r i o d o f d o w n t u r n i n e n t h u s i a s m f o r e m p i r e , and t h e C o l o n i a l O f f i c e a l w a y s h a d more i m p o r t a n t m a t t e r s t o d e a l w i t h . B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a and V a n c o u v e r I s l a n d w e r e n e v e r among t h e m o s t c r u c i a l c o n c e r n s o f t h e i m p e r i a l a u t h o r i t i e s , a n d o t h e r c o l o n i e s demanded, 77 an d g o t , more a t t e n t i o n . When t h e B r i t i s h G o v e r n m e n t r e f u s e d t o h e l p pay t h e c o s t o f s u p p r e s s i n g t h e C h i l c o t i n I n d i a n s i n 1864, l o c a l n e w s p a p e r s d i d n o t m i s s t h e p o i n t t h a t t h e m o t h e r c o u n t r y was c u r r e n t l y f i n a n c i n g a w a r a g a i n s t t h e M a o r i s i n New 7 8 Z e a l a n d . B u t t h e I m p e r i a l G o v e r n m e n t r e m a i n e d u n w i l l i n g t o s p e n d money o n a c o l o n y " w h i c h h a s b e e n f o r c e d i n t o e x i s t e n c e b y 79 i t s g o l d d i s c o v e r i e s " . J u s t a s i t was u n w i l l i n g t o p a y t h e e x p e n s e s o f t h e C o l o n y , t h e C o l o n i a l O f f i c e d i d n o t p a y much a t t e n t i o n t o B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a ' s I n d i a n p o l i c y . I t i s q u i t e u n t r u e t o s a y t h a t " t h e l a n d p o l i c y o f t h e I m p e r i a l G o v e r n m e n t e f f e c -t i v e l y r e s t r a i n e d t h e a c t i o n s o f t h e c o l o n i a l s a nd t h e i r l o c a l 8 0 o f f i c i a l s " i n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a . B r i t a i n ' s m i l d commitment t o f a i r t r e a t m e n t o f a b o r i g i n e s was o f l i t t l e h e l p t o t h e B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a n I n d i a n s . I t was t h e men on t h e s p o t who f o r m u l a t e d and e x e c u t e d I n d i a n l a n d p o l i c y i n t h e C o l o n y a f t e r 1864. P o l i c y - m a k e r s i n t h e C o l o n i e s w e r e n o t a t h i r d p a r t y a c t i n g a s a n a r b i t r a t o r b e t w e e n I n d i a n a n d E u r o p e a n , b u t w e r e d e e p l y i n v o l v e d i n t h e s o c i e t y o f s e t t l e r s . T h ey w e r e d e a l i n g 240 w i t h m a t t e r s t h a t i n t e n s e l y a f f e c t e d t h e i r own l i v e s a n d s o w e r e h a r d l y l i k e l y t o b e o b j e c t i v e . The h u m a n i t a r i a n s i n B r i t a i n h a d l o n g a d v o c a t e d t h a t n a t i v e p o l i c y s h o u l d be a d d e d t o t h e f o u r o t h e r a r e a s t h a t Durham's r e p o r t h a d recommended a s b e i n g I m p e r i a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s . T hey assumed t h a t s e t t l e r s w o u l d , i f g i v e n t h e o p p o r t u n i t y , o p p r e s s t h e a b o r i g i n e , a n d t h e r e f o r e u r g e d t h a t I n d i a n a f f a i r s s h o u l d n o t be c o n t r o l l e d by c o l o n i s t s . D u r i n g t h e d e b a t e i n t h e B r i t i s h House o f Commons o n t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f t h e C o l o n y o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a H e n r y L a b o u c h e r e , o n c e S e c r e t a r y o f S t a t e f o r t h e C o l o n i e s , a l s o a d v o -c a t e d t h e n e e d f o r a s t r o n g e x e c u t i v e t o p r e v e n t w h i t e s e t t l e r s 81 f r o m m o l e s t i n g t h e I n d i a n s . When D o u g l a s h a d b e e n a p p o i n t e d G o v e r n o r o f V a n c o u v e r I s l a n d i t was p a r t l y b e c a u s e , a s a f u r t r a d e r , he w o u l d p r o t e c t t h e I n d i a n s f r o m t h e "mere c a p r i c e o f 82 o r d i n a r y s e t t l e r s " , b u t now I n d i a n p o l i c y was f i r m l y i n t h e h a n d s o f t h o s e c a p r i c i o u s s e t t l e r s . The r e s t r a i n i n g h a n d o f D o u g l a s h a d b e e n r e m o v e d , Seymour a n d K e n n e d y w e r e l e s s c o n c e r n e d t h a n t h e i r p r e d e c e s s o r a b o u t I n d i a n r i g h t s r e g a r d i n g l a n d , a n d t h e C o l o n i a l O f f i c e c e a s e d t o be a m o d e r a t i n g i n f l u e n c e a f t e r 1 8 6 4 . The p e r s o n who s t e p p e d i n t o f i l l t h i s vacuum was J o s e p h W i l l i a m T r u t c h , who was a p p o i n t e d C h i e f C o m m i s s i o n e r o f L a n d s a nd Works f o r B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a i n 1864. F o r t h e n e x t s e v e n y e a r s he was t o h a v e more i n f l u e n c e o n I n d i a n l a n d p o l i c y t h a n any o t h e r i n d i v i d u a l . He was recommended f o r t h e p o s t b y D o u g l a s b e c a u s e he was a c o m p e t e n t 8 3 s u r v e y o r a n d e n g i n e e r , n o t b e c a u s e o f any a b i l i t y t o d e a l w i t h I n d i a n a f f a i r s . B u t , i n t h e a b s e n c e o f any o t h e r e f f e c t i v e a u t h o r i t y , I n d i a n p o l i c y d e v o l v e d t o h i m , and T r u t c h was v e r y 241 much a p a r t o f s e t t l e r s o c i e t y . T r u t c h e p i t o m i s e d t h e d e v e l o p m e n t a l m e n t a l i t y w h i c h b r o u g h t s o many men t o t h e C o l o n i e s . He a r r i v e d i n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a i n 1859 w i t h e i g h t y e a r s ' e x p e r i e n c e b e h i n d h i m i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s a s a s u r v e y o r a n d f a r m e r . A f t e r w o r k i n g f o r f i v e y e a r s i n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a as a s u r v e y o r a n d e n g i n e e r he s u c c e e d e d C o l o n e l Moody as C h i e f C o m m i s s i o n e r o f L a n d s a nd W o r k s . T r u t c h ' s i n t e r e s t i n t h e G o l d C o l o n y i n t h e e a r l y y e a r s was i n b u i l d i n g r o a d s a nd b r i d g e s , i n s u r v e y i n g t o w n s h i p s a nd e s t a -b l i s h i n g f a r m s a n d a m a s s i n g a p e r s o n a l f o r t u n e . To h i m t h e C o l o n y was an a r e a o f l a n d r e q u i r i n g d e v e l o p m e n t a n d c o n s e q u e n t l y a n y t h i n g , o r more i m p o r t a n t l y a n y o n e , who s t o o d i n t h e way o f t h a t d e v e l o p m e n t h a d t o be moved. T r u t c h was a l s o v e r y much a p r o d u c t o f i m p e r i a l B r i t a i n ' s c o n f i d e n c e i n t h e s u p e r i o r i t y o f h e r own c i v i l i s a t i o n . O t h e r r a c e s came somewhat l o w e r on t h e s c a l e o f human e x i s t e n c e t h a n t h e E n g l i s h , a n d i n t h e r a c i s t h i e r a r c h y t h e I n d i a n was s c a r c e l y human a t a l l . I n a r e f e r e n c e t o t h e I n d i a n s o f t h e O r e g o n T e r r i t o r y T r u t c h u s e d r e v e a l i n g t e r m i n o l o g y . " I t h i n k t h e y a r e t h e u g l i e s t & l a z i e s t c r e a t u r e s I e v e r saw, & we s h o d , as s o o n 84 t h i n k o f b e i n g a f r a i d o f o u r dogs a s o f them". The i n d i g e n o u s A m e r i c a n t e n d e d t o w a r d s t h e b e s t i a l r a t h e r t h a n t h e human t o T r u t c h , a n d h i s v i e w was e s s e n t i a l l y u n m o d i f i e d by c o n t i n u e d c o n t a c t w i t h t h e I n d i a n s . B e t w e e n 1859 a n d 1864 he e m p l o y e d 8 5 I n d i a n s on h i s p u b l i c w o r k s p r o j e c t s i n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , a n d as C h i e f C o m m i s s i o n e r o f L a n d s a n d Works he v i s i t e d I n d i a n v i l -l a g e s i n many p a r t s o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a . Y e t he c o n t i n u e d t o s e e t h e I n d i a n s a s u n c i v i l i s e d s a v a g e s . I n 1872 he t o l d t h e 242 P r i m e M i n i s t e r o f C a n a d a t h a t m o s t o f t h e I n d i a n s o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a w e r e " u t t e r s a v a g e s l i v i n g a l o n g t h e c o a s t , f r e q u e n t l y c o m m i t t i n g m u r d e r amongst t h e m s e l v e s , one t r i b e u p o n a n o t h e r , a n d 8 6 on w h i t e p e o p l e who go amongst them f o r t h e p u r p o s e o f t r a d e " . T r u t c h h a d s t e r e o t y p e d t h e I n d i a n s as l a w l e s s a n d v i o l e n t , and was f r e q u e n t l y p r e o c c u p i e d w i t h t h e n e e d t o s u p p r e s s them b y a show o f f o r c e . V i o l e n c e a m o n g s t t h e I n d i a n s t h e m s e l v e s was b a d e n o u g h , b u t v i o l e n c e d i r e c t e d a g a i n s t E u r o p e a n s was t h e u l t i m a t e b r e a k d o w n o f t h e c o l o n i a l s i t u a t i o n . What was n e e d e d i n s u c h c a s e s , t h o u g h t T r u t c h , was a t h e a t r i c a l d e m o n s t r a t i o n o f E u r o p e a n p o w e r . The d i s p a t c h o f w a r s h i p s t o c o a s t a l t r o u b l e s p o t s , f o r e x a m p l e , w o u l d p r o d u c e "a s a l u t a r y i m p r e s s i o n " o n t h e 8 7 I n d i a n s . Whereas D o u g l a s h a d w a n t e d t h e l a w t o o p e r a t e " w i t h t h e l e a s t p o s s i b l e e f f e c t on t h e c h a r a c t e r a n d t e m p e r o f t h e 8 8 I n d i a n s " , T r u t c h i n s i s t e d t h a t B r i t i s h l a w m u s t be " e n f o r c e d 89 among them a t w h a t e v e r c o s t . " D o u g l a s h a d m o s t l y r e f e r r e d t o t h e " N a t i v e I n d i a n s " , b u t T r u t c h s e l d o m c a l l e d them a n y t h i n g o t h e r t h a n s a v a g e s , a n d he was s k e p t i c a l a b o u t t h e i r c a p a c i t y f o r " i m p r o v e m e n t " . A f t e r t w e n t y y e a r s on t h e n o r t h w e s t c o a s t , a n d e v e n a v i s i t t o M e t l a k a t l a , he was t o r e m a r k t h a t " I h a v e n o t y e t met w i t h a s i n g l e I n d i a n o f p u r e b l o o d whom I c o n s i d e r t o h a v e a t t a i n e d e v e n t h e m o s t g l i m m e r i n g p e r c e p t i o n o f t h e c h r i s t i a n c r e e d . " The r e a s o n f o r t h i s s i t u a t i o n , a c c o r d i n g t o T r u t c h , was t h a t " t h e i d i o s y n c r a s y o f t h e I n d i a n s o f t h i s c o u n t r y a p p e a r s t o i n c a p a c i t a t e them f r o m a p p r e c i a t i n g any a b s t r a c t i d e a , n o r do t h e i r l a n g u a g e s c o n t a i n 90 w o r d s b y w h i c h s u c h a c o n c e p t i o n c o u l d be e x p r e s s e d . " T h e r e i s no e v i d e n c e t h a t T r u t c h was p a r t i c u l a r l y f l u e n t i n any o f t h e 243 I n d i a n l a n g u a g e s , o r t h a t he h a d made any s t u d y o f I n d i a n r e l i g i o n , p o e t r y o r a r t . B u t t h e n s t e r e o t y p e s a r e s e l d o m b a s e d on c o n c r e t e e v i d e n c e ; t h e y a r e more o f t e n t h a n n o t t h e p r o d u c t o f i g n o r a n c e . I t was t h i s man, t h i s a r c h e t y p a l c o l o n i a l i s t , who made I n d i a n l a n d p o l i c y f r o m 1864 t o 1 8 7 1 . H i s v i e w s r e g a r d i n g c o l o n i a l d e v e l o p m e n t and t h e a b s o l u t e i n f e r i o r i t y o f t h e I n d i a n g o v e r n e d h i s a t t i t u d e t o t h e I n d i a n l a n d q u e s t i o n . H i s a t t i t u d e s c o a l e s c e d t o p r o d u c e s o m e t h i n g o f a n o b s e s s i o n w i t h t h e i d e a t h a t t h e I n d i a n s w e r e s t a n d i n g i n t h e way o f t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f . t h e C o l o n y by E u r o p e a n s . To men l i k e T r u t c h t h e I n d i a n s h a d t o be r e l i e v e d o f as much l a n d as p o s s i b l e s o t h a t i t c o u l d be " p r o p e r l y " a n d " e f f i c i e n t l y " u s e d b y E u r o p e a n f a r m e r s . F o r T r u t c h , B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a ' s f u t u r e l a y i n a g r i c u l t u r e . The C o l o n y ' s d e v e l o p m e n t h a d t o be f o s t e r e d b y " l a r g e and l i b e r a l " 91 l a n d g r a n t s t o s e t t l e r s , a nd I n d i a n l a n d c l a i m s c o u l d n o t be a l l o w e d t o h i n d e r t h i s d e v e l o p m e n t . As G o v e r n o r , D o u g l a s h a d a l s o b e e n an a d v o c a t e o f c o l o n i a l d e v e l o p m e n t t h r o u g h E u r o p e a n s e t t l e m e n t , b u t he h a d n o t a l l o w e d t h i s v i e w t o o v e r r i d e h i s c o n c e r n f o r I n d i a n r i g h t s . I n c o n t r a s t t o D o u g l a s , who w a n t e d t o p r o t e c t t h e I n d i a n s f r o m t h e p r o g r e s s o f s e t t l e m e n t , T r u t c h w a n t e d t o move them o u t o f t h e way s o t h a t s e t t l e m e n t c o u l d p r o -g r e s s . U n d e r T r u t c h a p o l i c y o f r e d u c i n g I n d i a n r e s e r v e s was c a r r i e d o u t , s o t h a t much o f t h e l a n d t h a t t h e y h a d a c q u i r e d u n d e r D o u g l a s was s u b s e q u e n t l y t a k e n away f r o m t h e I n d i a n s . The p r o c e s s o f w h i t t l i n g away t h e r e s e r v e s b e g a n i n 1865 when P h i l l i p N i n d , t h e G o l d C o m m i s s i o n e r a t L y t t o n , r e p o r t e d on I n d i a n l a n d 244 c l a i m s i n t h e Thompson R i v e r a r e a . The m a i n p o i n t o f h i s l e t t e r t o t h e C o l o n i a l S e c r e t a r y was t h a t t h e I n d i a n s w e r e c l a i m i n g " t h o u s a n d s o f a c r e s o f g o o d a r a b l e a n d p a s t u r e l a n d " a n d t h a t t h e s e c l a i m s h a d " t h e e f f e c t o f p u t t i n g a s t o p t o 92 s e t t l e m e n t i n t h e s e p a r t s . " The a r e a s r e f e r r e d t o a s " c l a i m s " i n N i n d ' s l e t t e r w e r e t h e r e s e r v e s t h a t Cox h a d l a i d o u t e a r l i e r . G o v e r n o r Seymour r e f e r r e d a n d d e f e r r e d t o T r u t c h o n t h i s m a t t e r , a n d . T r u t c h was q u i t e s a t i s f i e d f r o m my own o b s e r v a t i o n s t h a t t h e c l a i m s o f t h e I n d i a n s o v e r t r a c t s o f l a n d , on w h i c h t h e y assume t o e x e r c i s e o w n e r s h i p , b u t o f w h i c h t h e y make no r e a l u s e , o p e r a t e v e r y m a t e r i a l l y t o p r e v e n t s e t t l e m e n t a n d c u l t i v a -t i o n , i n many i n s t a n c e s b e s i d e t h a t t o w h i c h a t t e n t i o n h a s b e e n d i r e c t e d by Mr. N i n d , and I s h o u l d a d v i s e t h a t t h e s e c l a i m s b e a s s o o n a s p r a c t i c a b l e e n q u i r e d i n t o a n d d e f i n e d . 9 3 S e t t l e r s w e r e w a n t i n g t o . a c q u i r e t h e a r e a o f t h e Thompson R i v e r t h a t h a d b e e n r e s e r v e d f o r t h e I n d i a n s , a n d c l e a r l y a s e t t l e r g o v e r n m e n t c o u l d n o t a l l o w s e t t l e m e n t t o be i m p e d e d . I n a l e t t e r t o T r u t c h t h e O f f i c e r A d m i n i s t e r i n g t h e G o v e r n m e n t i n Seymour's a b s e n c e , A r t h u r N. B i r c h , f e l t t h a t i t was t o o l a t e i n "the y e a r t o c a r r y o u t a g e n e r a l r e d u c t i o n o f r e s e r v e s , b u t he n o t e d t h a t t h e G o v e r n o r was v e r y d e s i r o u s o f r e d u c i n g t h e Thompson R i v e r r e s e r v e s a n d r e q u e s t e d t h a t W a l t e r M o b e r l y , t h e a s s i s t a n t S u r v e y o r G e n e r a l o f t h e C o l o n y , i n q u i r e i n t o t h e 94 95 m a t t e r . On t h e b a s i s o f M o b e r l y 1 s r e p o r t T r u t c h i n f o r m e d B i r c h t h a t t h e r e s e r v e d l a n d was " e n t i r e l y d i s p r o p o r t i o n a t e t o t h e numbers o r r e q u i r e m e n t s o f t h e I n d i a n t r i b e s " , and t h a t i t was " v e r y d e s i r a b l e , f r o m a p u b l i c p o i n t o f v i e w , t h a t i t s h o u l d b e p l a c e d i n p o s s e s s i o n o f w h i t e s e t t l e r s as s o o n a s p r a c t i c -9 6 a b l e " . T r u t c h h a d n e v e r t a k e n a c e n s u s o f t h e I n d i a n s o f t h e 245 a r e a a nd s o he c o u l d n o t know w h a t t h e i r numbers w e r e , a n d n a t u r a l l y t h e i r r e q u i r e m e n t s w e r e as T r u t c h , a nd n o t t h e I n d i a n s , a s s e s s e d them. B u t t h e l a n d was v a l u a b l e a n d t h e r e f o r e , e v e n t h o u g h i t h a d b e e n r e s e r v e d f o r t h e I n d i a n s , t h e y h a d t o make way f o r s e t t l e m e n t . By O c t o b e r 1866 a n o t i c e was a p p e a r i n g i n t h e G o v e r n m e n t G a z e t t e i n d i c a t i n g t h a t t h e r e s e r v e s of. t h e K a m l o o p s and Shuswap I n d i a n s h a d b e e n r e d e f i n e d . The s o - c a l l e d " a d j u s t m e n t " meant t h a t o u t o f a f o r t y m i l e s t r e t c h o f t h e Thompson R i v e r t h e I n d i a n s w e r e l e f t w i t h t h r e e r e s e r v e s , e a c h o f b e t w e e n t h r e e a n d f o u r s q u a r e m i l e s . The r e m a i n d e r o f t h e l a n d h i t h e r t o r e s e r v e d f o r them was t o be t h r o w n o p e n t o p r e -97 e m p t i o n f r o m 1 J a n u a r y 1867. The r e a l l o c a t i o n c a r r i e d o u t i n t h e K a m l o o p s a r e a p r o -v i d e d a p r e c e d e n t when T r u t c h c a r r i e d o u t a s e c o n d s e r i e s o f r e d u c t i o n s i n v o l v i n g I n d i a n r e s e r v e s i n t h e l o w e r F r a s e r a r e a . P r e s s u r e f o r t h e s e r e d u c t i o n s came f r o m t h e s e t t l e r s . I n F e b -r u a r y 1867 J o h n R o b s o n moved i n t h e B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a L e g i s l a t i v e C o u n c i l t h a t t h e G o v e r n o r be i n f o r m e d o f t h e d e s i r a b i l i t y o f h a v i n g t h e l o w e r F r a s e r r e s e r v e s " r e d u c e d t o w h a t i s n e c e s s a r y 98 f o r t h e a c t u a l u s e o f t h e N a t i v e s " . A g a i n i t seems t h a t Seymour r e f e r r e d t h e m a t t e r t o T r u t c h f o r a r e p o r t , a n d o n c e a g a i n T r u t c h a d v o c a t e d r e d u c t i o n s . H i s r e a s o n i n g was s i m i l a r t o t h a t a d u m b r a t e d i n t h e K a m l o o p s c a s e . The I n d i a n s w e r e h o l d i n g g ood l a n d t h a t t h e y w e r e n o t u s i n g i n a p r o d u c t i v e way, t h e r e f o r e i t o u g h t t o be made a v a i l a b l e t o s e t t l e r s . T r u t c h a l s o c o n c l u d e d t h a t , as i n t h e c a s e o f t h e K a m l o o p s a n d Shuswap r e s e r v e s , t h e r e was no g r e a t n e e d t o c o m p e n s a t e t h e I n d i a n s f o r t h e l a n d t h a t t h e y l o s t . A f t e r a l l , w r o t e T r u t c h , 246 The I n d i a n s r e a l l y h a v e no r i g h t t o t h e l a n d s t h e y c l a i m , n o r a r e t h e y o f any a c t u a l v a l u e o r u t i l i t y t o them; a n d I c a n n o t s e e why t h e y s h o u l d e i t h e r r e t a i n t h e s e l a n d s t o t h e p r e j u d i c e o f t h e g e n e r a l i n t e r e s t s o f t h e C o l o n y , o r be a l l o w e d t o make a m a r k e t o f them e i t h e r t o G o v e r n m e n t o r t o i n d i v i d u a l s . . . 99 H a v i n g d e n i e d t h e l o w e r F r a s e r I n d i a n s t h e r i g h t t o r e t a i n e v e n t h e l a n d s t h a t h a d b e e n r e s e r v e d f o r them u n d e r D o u g l a s , a n d t h e r e f o r e t o c o m p e n s a t i o n f o r l a n d t h a t t h e y w e r e r e l i e v e d o f , T r u t c h i n i t i a t e d t h e p o l i c y o f " a d j u s t m e n t " . Seymour, f o r g e t t i n g h i s p r o m i s e s t o t h e I n d i a n s , a u t h o r i s e d a n d a p p r o v e d o f t h e a c t i o n . 1 0 0 I t i s d i f f i c u l t t o d i s c o v e r t h e p r e c i s e e x t e n t o f t h e s e r e d u c t i o n s , a l t h o u g h t h e r e c a n be l i t t l e d o u b t t h a t t h e y i n v o l v e d a c o n s i d e r a b l e a r e a . The r e p o r t o f one o f t h e s u r v e y o r s who m a r k e d o u t t h e r e s e r v e s n o t e d t h a t t h e new b o u n d a r i e s w o u l d o p e n 40,000 a c r e s f o r s e t t l e m e n t . 1 0 1 I n c a r r y i n g o u t t h e s e r e d u c t i o n s T r u t c h h a d c h a n g e d D o u g l a s ' s I n d i a n l a n d p o l i c y t o make i t f i . t more c l o s e l y t h e p r i o r i t i e s o f a s e t t l e m e n t c o l o n y . I n a t t e m p t i n g t o v a l i d a t e h i s a c t i o n s T r u t c h , w i t h some h e l p f r o m t h e C o l o n i a l S e c r e t a r y , -W.A.G. Y o u n g , d e l i b e r a t e l y m i s r e p r e s e n t e d t h e n a t u r e o f D o u g l a s ' s i n s t r u c t i o n s t o h i s o f f i c e r s . T r u t c h a l s o a d o p t e d t h e t a c t i c o f c l a i m i n g , q u i t e w r o n g l y , t h a t t h o s e r e s p o n s i b l e f o r l a y i n g o u t t h e o r i g i n a l r e s e r v e s h a d e i t h e r e x c e e d e d o r m i s u n d e r s t o o d t h e i r i n s t r u c t i o n s . The c o n s e q u e n c e was t h a t T r u t c h r e d u c e d r e s e r v e s t h a t D o u g l a s h a d e x p r e s s e d h i m s e l f t o be q u i t e s a t i s f i e d w i t h i n t h e i r o r i g i n a l f o r m . The c h a n g e s made b y T r u t c h w e r e a l s o i n d i c a t i v e o f a f u n d a m e n t a l c h a n g e i n a t t i t u d e t o w a r d s t h e p o s i t i o n o f t h e I n d i a n i n t h e C o l o n y . Men l i k e T r u t c h t h o u g h t t h a t t h e I n d i a n s w o u l d 247 p l a y o n l y a v e r y m i n i m a l r o l e i n t h e f u t u r e o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , a n d t h e r e f o r e t h a t t h e y r e q u i r e d o n l y a m i n i m a l amount o f l a n d . I n d i a n p r e - e m p t i o n o f l a n d , p r o p o s e d b y D o u g l a s as t h e means b y w h i c h t h e I n d i a n c o u l d i n t e g r a t e i n t o s e t t l e r s o c i e t y , was v i r t u a l l y d e n i e d them i n 1866. A L a n d O r d i n a n c e o f t h a t y e a r p r e v e n t e d t h e I n d i a n s f r o m p r e - e m p t i n g l a n d w i t h o u t t h e w r i t t e n 10 3 p e r m i s s i o n o f t h e G o v e r n o r , a n d b y 1875 t h e r e was o n l y a s i n g l e s u b s e q u e n t c a s e o f an I n d i a n p r e - e m p t i n g l a n d u n d e r t h i s 104 c o n d i t i o n . I t was T r u t c h ' s o p i n i o n t h a t t o a l l o w I n d i a n s t o 105 p r e - e m p t l a n d w o u l d c r e a t e an " e m b a r a s s i n g p r e c e d e n t " . A t t h e same t i m e a s h e was r e d u c i n g I n d i a n r e s e r v e s t o a minimum T r u t c h was a d v o c a t i n g m e a s u r e s t h a t w o u l d i n c r e a s e t h e amount o f l a n d t h a t a s e t t l e r c o u l d a c q u i r e . H i s s u g g e s t i o n was t h a t a E u r o p e a n , i n a d d i t i o n t o a p r e - e m p t i o n o f 160 a c r e s , b e a l l o w e d t o p u r c h a s e up t o 480 a c r e s , was i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t h e 1865 L a n d O r d i n a n c e . ' ' " 0 6 M e a n w h i l e he was r e q u i r i n g t h a t an I n d i a n f a m i l y e x i s t on t e n a c r e s , an a r e a t h a t was n o t o n l y i n s u f f i c i e n t f o r many I n d i a n f a m i l i e s t o s u b s i s t o n , b u t w h i c h a l s o f a i l e d t o t a k e i n t o a c c o u n t t h e d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e e c o n o m i e s o f t h e v a r i o u s I n d i a n g r o u p s . T r u t c h ' s n o t i o n t h a t I n d i a n r e s e r v e s s h o u l d be r e a l l o c a t e d o n t h e b a s i s o f t e n a c r e s p e r f a m i l y was a n o t h e r b a s i c c h a n g e f r o m D o u g l a s ' s p o l i c y . D o u g l a s h a d i n c l u d e d i n h i s d i r e c t i o n s t o t h o s e l a y i n g o u t r e s e r v e s i n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a t h e p r o v i s i o n t h a t i f t h e a r e a demanded by t h e I n d i a n s d i d n o t e q u a l t e n a c r e s p e r 107 f a m i l y t h e n t h e r e s e r v e s w e r e t o be e n l a r g e d t o t h a t e x t e n t . I n s t e a d o f u s i n g t e n a c r e s as a minimum as D o u g l a s h a d i n t e n d e d , T r u t c h u s e d i t a s a maximum f i g u r e . When i n s t r u c t i n g O ' R e i l l y t o 248 r e - a l l o c a t e t h e B o n a p a r t e r e s e r v e , f o r e x a m p l e , T r u t c h w r o t e t h a t "as a g e n e r a l r u l e i t i s c o n s i d e r e d t h a t an a l l o t m e n t o f a b o u t t e n a c r e s o f g o o d l a n d s h o u l d be made t o e a c h f a m i l y i n 108 t h e t r i b e . " S u c h was n e v e r t h e i n t e n t i o n o f D o u g l a s . H i s o p i n i o n was c l e a r e nough i n h i s i n s t r u c t i o n s a t t h e t i m e , b u t he o u t l i n e d them w i t h e v e n g r e a t e r c l a r i t y some y e a r s l a t e r . " I t was n e v e r . . . i n t e n d e d t h a t t h e y s h o u l d be r e s t r i c t e d o r l i m i t e d t o t h e p o s s e s s i o n o f 10 a c r e s o f l a n d , o n t h e c o n t r a r y , we were' p r e p a r e d , i f s u c h h a d b e e n t h e i r w i s h t o h a v e made f o r t h e i r u s e much more e x t e n s i v e g r a n t s " . The l e t t e r c o n t a i n i n g t h i s s t a t e m e n t was w r i t t e n b y D o u g l a s i n 1874 i n r e s p o n s e t o a r e q u e s t f o r i n f o r m a t i o n by I.W. P o w e l l , t h e P r o v i n c i a l C o m m i s s i o n e r o f I n d i a n A f f a i r s . P o w e l l h a d , a s k e d D o u g l a s i f , d u r i n g h i s a d -m i n i s t r a t i o n , t h e r e h a d b e e n an y p a r t i c u l a r a c r e a g e u s e d as a b a s i s f o r e s t a b l i s h i n g I n d i a n r e s e r v e s . D o u g l a s a n s w e r e d t h e s p e c i f i c q u e s t i o n , b u t a l s o commented more g e n e r a l l y t h a t h i s s u r v e y i n g o f f i c e r s h a d i n s t r u c t i o n s t o meet t h e w i s h e s o f t h e I n d i a n s i n e v e r y p a r t i c u l a r . " T h i s was done w i t h t h e o b j e c t o f s e c u r i n g t o e a c h c o m m u n i t y t h e i r n a t u r a l o r a c q u i r e d r i g h t s ; o f r e m o v i n g a l l c a u s e f o r c o m p l a i n t on t h e g r o u n d o f u n j u s t d e p r i v a -109 t i o n " . T h i s l e t t e r i n w h i c h D o u g l a s r e c a p i t u l a t e s h i s p o l i c y i n d i c a t e s t h e e x t e n t t o w h i c h T r u t c h b r o u g h t r a d i c a l c h a n g e t o .the C o l o n y ' s d e a l i n g s w i t h t h e I n d i a n s and t h e i r l a n d , and makes n o n s e n s e o f t h e c l a i m t h a t i n l a y i n g o u t r e s e r v e s o f f i c i a l s t h r o u g h o u t t h e c o l o n i a l p e r i o d f o l l o w e d D o u g l a s ' s example."'""'"0 W h i l e T r u t c h ' s I n d i a n l a n d p o l i c i e s w e r e d i s c o r d a n t w i t h t h o s e o f D o u g l a s , t h e y w e r e v e r y much i n t u n e w i t h s e t t l e r demands. To t h e e x t e n t t h a t i t i s p o s s i b l e t o a s s e s s t h e a t t i t u d e s o f t h e 249 s e t t l e r s , t h e y c o i n c i d e d w i t h T r u t c h ' s . The n e w s p a p e r s c e r t a i n l y a p p r o v e d t h e r e d u c t i o n p o l i c y . The B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a n r e p o r t e d o n t h e g o o d s e r v i c e t h a t h a d b e e n done f o r t h e C o l o n y by r e -c l a i m i n g "a m o s t v a l u a b l e a n d e x t e n s i v e t r a c t o f l a n d i m p r o p e r l y g i v e n t o t h e I n d i a n s , u n d e r a p r e v i o u s a d m i n i s t r a t i o n " . 1 " ' ' 1 The e d i t o r o f The B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a n , who c l a i m e d t o be a c o n s t a n t d e f e n d e r o f I n d i a n r i g h t s , h a s t e n e d t o a d d t h a t t h o s e r i g h t s d i d n o t i n c l u d e t h e r i g h t " t o h o l d l a r g e t r a c t s o f v a l u a b l e a g r i c u l -112 t u r a l a n d p a s t o r a l l a n d w h i c h t h e y do n o t and c a n n o t u s e " . One c o u l d a l w a y s r e l y on De Cosmos t o be f o r t h r i g h t on I n d i a n m a t t e r s . R e a d e r s o f t h e C o l o n i s t w e r e t o l d i n 1863 t h a t t h e y c o u l d no more t a l k o f I n d i a n r i g h t t o t h e l a n d " t h a n we c a n p r a t e 113 o f t h e n a t u r a l r i g h t o f a h e - p a n t h e r o r a s h e - b e a r t o t h e s o i l " . To t h e e d i t o r b o t h t h e p r o b l e m a n d i t s s o l u t i o n w e r e s i m p l e . . . . s h a l l we a l l o w a few r e d v a g r a n t s t o p r e v e n t f o r e v e r i n d u s t r i o u s s e t t l e r s f r o m s e t t l i n g o n t h e u n o c c u p i e d l a n d s ? N o t a t a l l . . . . L o c a t e r e s e r v a t i o n s f o r them o n w h i c h t o e a r n t h e i r own l i v i n g , a n d i f t h e y t r e s p a s s o n w h i t e s e t t l e r s p u n i s h them s e v e r e l y . A few l e s s o n s w o u l d s o o n e n a b l e them t o f o r m a c o r r e c t e s t i m a t i o n o f t h e i r own i n f e r i o r i t y , a n d s e t t l e t h e I n d i a n t i t l e t o o . 114 C o l o n i a l n e w s p a p e r s a l s o d i s a p p r o v e d o f t h e n o t i o n o f a l l o w i n g I n d i a n s t o p r e - e m p t l a n d . The B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a n was h o r r i f i e d a t t h e t h o u g h t o f I n d i a n s b e i n g a b l e t o l o c a t e l a n d w h e r e v e r t h e y p l e a s e d , a n d u r g e d t h a t t h e y be a b s o l u t e l y c o n f i n e d t o t h e i r r e s e r v e s . W h i t e men, w r o t e t h e e d i t o r , w o u l d be h a r d l y l i k e l y t o w a n t t o s e t t l e w h e r e t h e r e was t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f h a v i n g 115 I n d i a n n e i g h b o u r s on e v e r y s i d e . T h e s e n e w s p a p e r s u n d o u b t e d l y r e f l e c t e d t h e o p i n i o n s o f 250 a g o o d many o f t h e i r s u b s c r i b e r s . A f t e r a l l , one o f them r e m i n d e d i t s r e a d e r s , y o u c a n n o t e x p e c t t h e f a r m i n g p i o n e e r s o f a new c o u n t r y t o h a v e " t h a t s e n t i m e n t a l r e g a r d f o r t h e ' p o o r I n d i a n ' w h i c h c e r t a i n members o f t h e L e g i s l a t i v e C o u n c i l " h a v e e x h i b i t e d . 1 1 6 T h a t comment n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g , t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e a ssem-b l i e s i n b o t h c o l o n i e s r e f l e c t e d s e t t l e r o p i n i o n on I n d i a n l a n d , and much o f t h e p r e s s u r e f o r r e m o v i n g t h e I n d i a n s f r o m t h e i r l a n d came f r o m t h e s e i n s t i t u t i o n s . I n V i c t o r i a t h e r e w e r e t h e e f f o r t s o f t h e A s s e m b l y t o remove t h e S o n g h e e s f r o m t h e i r r e s e r v e , a n d t h e r e w e r e s i m i l a r p r e s s u r e s o n t h e m a i n l a n d w h e r e t h e L e g i s l a t i v e C o u n c i l u r g e d t h e r e d u c t i o n o f r e s e r v e s . One member o f t h e B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a L e g i s l a t i v e C o u n c i l e v e n f e l t t h a t t e n a c r e s 117 o f l a n d p e r f a m i l y was u n n e c e s s a r i l y l a r g e f o r t h e I n d i a n s . A l t h o u g h m o s t g o v e r n m e n t members a d v o c a t e d t h e i n t e r e s t s o f t h e s e t t l e r s , i t was p e r h a p s T r u t c h ' s own o f f i c i a l p o s i t i o n t h a t m o s t c l e a r l y p i n p o i n t s t h e i n f l u e n c e o f s e t t l e r s on g o v e r n m e n t . T h a t t h e C h i e f C o m m i s s i o n e r o f L a n d s a n d Works s h o u l d a l s o c o n t r o l I n d i a n l a n d p o l i c y g o e s a l o n g way t o w a r d s e x p l a i n i n g why i t s o c l o s e l y m i r r o r e d t h e a s p i r a t i o n s o f t h e c o l o n i s t s . B e c a u s e t h e same p e r s o n was r e s p o n s i b l e f o r a l l o c a t i n g l a n d t o E u r o p e a n s a nd I n d i a n s he c o u l d n o t r e f l e c t t h e i n t e r e s t s o f b o t h ; and b e c a u s e t h a t p e r s o n was T r u t c h I n d i a n r i g h t s w e r e n o t c o n s i d e r e d i m p o r -t a n t . B r i t i s h p o l i c y , a n d t o a l e s s e r e x t e n t C a n a d i a n p o l i c y , was f o r m u l a t e d b y men who w e r e n o t s o c l o s e l y i n v o l v e d i n t h e p r o c e s s o f s e t t l e m e n t . The I n d i a n s h a d no c o n s t i t u t i o n a l b o d y w h i c h c o u l d r e p r e -s e n t t h e i r v i e w s , b u t i t i s c l e a r t h a t t h e y w e r e unhappy a b o u t 251 t h e new p o l i c i e s . T r u t c h h a d i n f o r m e d Seymour t h a t t h e r e w o u l d be no d i f f i c u l t y i n r e d u c i n g t h e r e s e r v e s " w i t h t h e f u l l 118 c o n c u r r e n c e o f t h e I n d i a n s t h e m s e l v e s " . T h i s a s s u r a n c e was q u i t e m i s l e a d i n g . T r u t c h h a d f a i l e d t o p e r c e i v e , o r c o m p l e t e l y i g n o r e d , I n d i a n o b j e c t i o n s t o h i s p o l i c y . One o f t h e many p e t i t i o n s o n t h e q u e s t i o n f o r w a r d e d t o Seymour d e m o n s t r a t e s t h a t t h e I n d i a n s saw w i t h g r e a t c l a r i t y w h a t was h a p p e n i n g t o t h e i r l a n d , a n d t h e y b y no means l i k e d w h a t t h e y saw. G o v e r n o r D o u g l a s d i d s e n d , some y e a r s ago h i s men a m o n g s t us t o m e a s u r e o u r R e s e r v e a n d a l t h o u g h t h e y g a v e us o n l y a s m a l l p a t c h o f l a n d i n c o m p a r i s o n t o w h a t t h e y a l l o w e d t o a w h i t e man o u r n e i g h b o u r , we w e r e r e s i g n e d t o o u r l o t . . . Some d a y s . a g o came new men who t o l d u s t h a t b y o r d e r o f t h e i r C h i e f t h e y h a v e t o c u r -t a i l o u r s m a l l r e s e r v a t i o n , a n d s o t h e y d i d t o o u r g r e a t e r g r i e f ; n o t o n l y t h e y s h o r t e n e d o u r l a n d b u t by t h e i r new p a p e r t h e y s e t a s i d e o u r b e s t l a n d , some o f o u r g a r d e n s , a n d g a v e us i n p l a c e , some h i l l y a n d s a n d y l a n d , w h e r e i t i s n e x t t o i m p o s s i b l e t o r a i s e a n y p o t a t o e s : o u r h e a r t s a r e f u l l o f g r i e f d ay a n d n i g h t . . . 119 The p e t i t i o n e r s w e n t on t o e x p r e s s t h e i r c o n f i d e n t b e l i e f t h a t s u c h a m e a s u r e c o u l d n o t h a v e b e e n a p p r o v e d b y t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f t h e Queen who was "so g r a c i o u s a n d s o w e l l d i s p o s e d t o w a r d s h e r c h i l d r e n o f t h e f o r e s t . " U n f o r t u n a t e l y t h e i r c o n f i d e n c e i n Seymour was m i s p l a c e d . T h i s p e t i t i o n was r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f numerous c o m p l a i n t s b e i n g made by I n d i a n s a b o u t t h e i r t r e a t m e n t o v e r t h e l a n d q u e s t i o n . I n t h e l a t e 1 860's I n d i a n s f r o m many p a r t s o f t h e C o l o n y w e r e o b j e c t i n g t o t h e way i n w h i c h t h e s e t t l e r s h a d t a k e n t h e i r l a n d . I n d i a n d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n o v e r s e t t l e r b e h a v i o u r t o w a r d s them made them r e s t l e s s a n d s o m e t i m e s l e d t o v i o l e n c e . I n t h e a b s e n c e o f a s a t i s f a c t o r y I n d i a n p o l i c y t h e G o v e r n m e n t h a d t o 252 u s e c o e r c i o n t o k e e p t h e l i d on I n d i a n d i s c o n t e n t . On t h e c o a s t w a r s h i p s c o n t i n u e d t o be u s e d a g a i n s t r e c a l c i t r a n t I n d i a n s . Some n a v a l o f f i c e r s b e l i e v e d t h a t i n c o n f l i c t s " b e t w e e n t h e W h i t e P o p u l a t i o n a n d t h e I n d i a n s t h e , f a u l t i s more 120 g e n e r a l l y on t h e p a r t o f t h e f o r m e r t h a n t h e l a t t e r . " Y e t t h e r e t r i b u t i o n t h a t was t a k e n b y t h e n a v y a g a i n s t t h e I n d i a n s was o f t e n h a r s h . When t h e t r a d i n g v e s s e l K i n g f i s h e r was c a p t u r e d a n d i t s c r e w m u r d e r e d by t h e I n d i a n s o f C l a y o q u o t Sound t h e n a v a l v e s s e l s S u t l e j a n d D e v a s t a t i o n w e r e s e n t t o s e e k v e n g e a n c e . I n t h e c o u r s e o f t r y i n g t o c a p t u r e t h e c u l p r i t s n i n e I n d i a n v i l l a g e s a n d 64 c a n o e s w e r e d e s t r o y e d b y s h e l l i n g , a n d t h i r t e e n 121 I n d i a n s w e r e k i l l e d . I t p r o b a b l y w o u l d h a v e b e e n o f l i t t l e c o n s o l a t i o n t o t h e C l a y o q u o t I n d i a n s i f t h e y h a d r e a d i n t h e C o l o n i s t t h e r e p o r t w h i c h n o t e d t h a t t h i s a c t i o n "was c o n d u c t e d 122 a c c o r d i n g t o t h e s t r i c t r u l e s o f c i v i l i s e d w a r f a r e . " The p o i n t was t h a t t h e n a v y was n o t s u p p o s e d t o be w a g i n g a w a r , b u t c o n d u c t i n g a p o l i c e a c t i o n . The s h e l l i n g a n d d e s t r u c t i o n o f I n d i a n v i l l a g e s on t h e c o a s t b y n a v a l v e s s e l s was n o t uncommon d u r i n g t h e c o l o n i a l p e r i o d . P o l i c i n g i n t e r - r a c i a l c o n t a c t i n t h e i n t e r i o r was more d i f f i c u l t , b u t t h e d i s s i d e n t s o f t h e C h i l c o t i n c o u n t r y l e a r n e d i n 1864 t h a t t h e y w e r e n o t immune f r o m B r i t i s h l a w . G o v e r n o r Seymour o r g a n i s e d two p a r t i e s o f men t o go i n t o t h e C h i l c o t i n c o u n t r y t o c a p t u r e t h e m u r d e r e r s o f t h e B u t e I n l e t r o a d w o r k e r s . One p a r t y , u n d e r W i l l i a m C o x , was made up o f v o l u n t e e r s f r o m t h e g o l d f i e l d s a n d a p p r o a c h e d f r o m A l e x a n d r i a w h i l e a n o t h e r , u n d e r C h a r t r e s B rew, a p p r o a c h e d f r o m B e n t i n c k Arm. Seymour h i m s e l f a c c o m p a n i e d t h e l a t t e r e x p e d i t i o n . S e t t l e r s i n t h e i n t e r i o r 253 e x p e c t e d h a r s h m e a s u r e s t o be t a k e n a g a i n s t t h e C h i l c o t i n a n d some b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e g o v e r n m e n t f o r c e s s h o u l d e x t e r m i n a t e t h e 123 t r x b e . C o x ' s f o r c e was composed m o s t l y o f A m e r i c a n s who w e r e " n o t much d i s p o s e d t o r e l i s h t h e r e s t r a i n t " w h i c h t h e 124 G o v e r n o r p l a c e d on them w h i l e c a r r y i n g o u t t h e o p e r a t i o n . Seymour s a i d t h a t he h a d j o i n e d t h e e x p e d i t i o n t o e n s u r e t h a t t h e I n d i a n s w e r e t r e a t e d w i t h m o d e r a t i o n . E v e n t u a l l y K l a t s a s s i n a n d some o f t h e o t h e r s i n v o l v e d i n t h e m u r d e r s w e r e m i s l e d , e i t h e r i n t e n t i o n a l l y o r u n i n t e n t i o n a l l y , i n t o s u r r e n d e r i n g t o 125 C o x ' s p a r t y , a n d w e r e s u b s e q u e n t l y t r i e d a n d e x e c u t e d . O t h e r C h i l c o t i n I n d i a n s a l s o s u f f e r e d a s a r e s u l t o f t h e a c t i o n t a k e n a g a i n s t t h e k i l l e r s . B e c a u s e t h e y w e r e i n v o l v e d i n t h e s e o p e r a -t i o n s d u r i n g t h e h u n t i n g a n d f i s h i n g s e a s o n s a number o f ' - C h i l c o t i n 126 d i e d o f s t a r v a t i o n d u r i n g t h e w i n t e r o f 1 8 6 4 - 1 8 6 5 . The C o l o n i a l O f f i c e , w h i l e w a r n i n g Seymour a b o u t t h e d a n g e r o f t a k i n g any a c t i o n t h a t m i g h t r e s u l t i n w a r f a r e w i t h t h e I n d i a n s , was 127 p l e a s e d w i t h h i s h a n d l i n g o f t h i s a f f a i r . The c o l o n i a l a u t h o r i t i e s w e r e n o t , h o w e v e r , a l w a y s s o i m p r e s s e d w i t h t h e v i g o u r w i t h w h i c h Seymour r e s p o n d e d t o d i s p u t e s i n v o l v i n g I n d i a n s . When t h r e e M e t l a k a t l a I n d i a n s w e r e m u r d e r e d by some N a s s p e o p l e Seymour t w i c e s e n t t h e g u n - v e s s e l S p arrowhawk t o t h e a r e a b u t , b e c a u s e t h e c o n f l i c t i n v o l v e d I n d i a n s o n l y , t h e n a v a l o f f i c e r s r e f u s e d t o make any a r r e s t s . I n . r e s p o n s e t o Seymour's c l a i m t h a t t h e m a t t e r was now t a k e n o u t o f h i s 12 8 h a n d s , t h e C o l o n i a l O f f i c e h a d t o p o i n t o u t t o t h e G o v e r n o r t h a t h i s p r e s e n t i n a c t i o n " c o n t r a s t s s t r o n g l y w i t h t h e s t i r r i n g a n d e x p e n s i v e o p e r a t i o n s " t h a t he t o o k a g a i n s t t h e C h i l c o t i n when t h e y c o m m i t t e d o u t r a g e s a g a i n s t E u r o p e a n s . Seymour was 254 r e m i n d e d t h a t I n d i a n s who h a d " p l a c e d t h e m s e l v e s u n d e r w h a t t h e y s u p p o s e t o be t h e p r o t e c t i o n o f B r i t i s h Law" w e r e as much 129 e n t i t l e d t o r e l y on t h e G o v e r n m e n t f o r r e d r e s s as any s e t t l e r . Seymour was f i n a l l y g o a d e d i n t o a c t i o n b y t h e r e b u k e a nd w e n t n o r t h on t h e Sparrowhawk h i m s e l f t o s e t t l e t h e m a t t e r . S h o r t l y a f t e r l e a v i n g M e t l a k a t l a , i n J u n e 1869, Seymour d i e d on b o a r d s h i p . G e n e r a l l y i t h a d b e e n Seymour's p o l i c y t o i n t e r f e r e i n c r i m e s i n v o l v i n g I n d i a n s . E a r l y i n h i s G o v e r n o r s h i p when an I n d i a n m u r d e r e d a woman " i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h I n d i a n c u s t o m " Seymour h a d t h e man a r r e s t e d a n d t r i e d . P r e s u m i n g t h a t D o u g l a s h a d made no e f f o r t t o c a p t u r e I n d i a n s who k i l l e d o t h e r I n d i a n s , Seymour commented t h a t much a s he w i s h e d " t o f o l l o w t h e I n d i a n p o l i c y o f my p r e d e c e s s o r , I c a n n o t s a n c t i o n m u r d e r b e i n g c o m m i t t e d 130 i n o u r m o s t s e t t l e d d i s t r i c t s " . A p a r t f r o m t a k i n g t h e i r l a n d a n d s u p p r e s s i n g v i o l e n c e , t h e c o l o n i a l G o v e r n m e n t ' s p o l i c y t o w a r d s t h e I n d i a n s was l a r g e l y one o f n e g l e c t . A t l e a s t t w i c e t o w a r d s t h e e n d o f t h e c o l o n i a l p e r i o d t h e G o v e r n m e n t ' s I n d i a n p o l i c y was a t t a c k e d as b e i n g h o p e l e s s l y i n a d e q u a t e b y t h o s e w i t h a h u m a n i t a r i a n c o n c e r n f o r t h e I n d i a n s . Rev. W i l l i a m S e b r i g h t G r e e n , i n a l e t t e r t o t h e A b o r i g i n e s P r o t e c t i o n S o c i e t y , a n d Rev. G e o r g e H i l l s , B i s h o p o f C o l u m b i a , i n a l e t t e r t o t h e S e c r e t a r y o f S t a t e f o r t h e C o l o n i e s b o t h c r i t i c i s e d B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a ' s I n d i a n p o l i c y . I n b o t h c a s e s T r u t c h was c a l l e d u p o n t o d e f e n d c o l o n i a l a c t i o n , o r r a t h e r i n a c t i o n . He h a d a l r e a d y r e v e a l e d h i s b a s i c b e l i e f a b o u t t h e I n d i a n p o l i c y o f t h e C o l o n y a t a m e e t i n g o f t h e L e g i s l a t i v e C o u n c i l i n F e b r u a r y 1 8 6 9 , w h e r e he i s r e p o r t e d t o h a v e m a i n t a i n e d 255 t h a t Our s y s t e m o f t r e a t m e n t o f t h e I n d i a n s was more humane t h a n i n any o t h e r c o u n t r y . Our l a w s e n t i t l e d them t o a l l t h e r i g h t s a n d p r i v i l e g e s o f t h e w h i t e man; t h e y h a v e t h r i v e n u n d e r them a n d h a d v a s t l y i m p r o v e d i n e v e r y r e s p e c t by c o n t a c t w i t h t h e w h i t e man. The l a w s when a p p l i e d t o t h e I n d i a n s w e r e a l w a y s s t r a i n e d i n h i s f a v o u r . 131 T h i s s t a t e m e n t was e r r o n e o u s o n e v e r y p o i n t , b u t s u b s e q u e n t d e f e n c e s o f p o l i c y w e r e m e r e l y an e l a b o r a t i o n o f t h i s f u n d a m e n t a l a t t i t u d e . The b u r d e n o f G r e e n ' s c r i t i c i s m was t h a t t h e G o v e r n m e n t o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a h a d n e i t h e r p o l i c y n o r c o n c e r n f o r t h e I n d i a n s . G o v e r n o r A n t h o n y M u s g r a v e , who made no r e a l c o n t r i b u t i o n t o I n d i a n p o l i c y , r e q u e s t e d T r u t c h t o comment on t h e s e c r i t i c i s m s 132 and a f t e r w a r d s a g r e e d w i t h h i s o p i n i o n s . P a r t o f T r u t c h ' s r e p l y was t h a t t h e G o v e r n m e n t h a d " s t r i v e n t o t h e e x t e n t o f i t s p ower t o p r o t e c t a n d b e f r i e n d t h e N a t i v e r a c e " . I n f a c t , he c o n t i n u e d , " i t s d e c l a r e d p o l i c y was t h a t t h e I n d i a n s h o u l d i n a l l r e s p e c t s be on t h e same f o o t i n g a s E u r o p e a n s " . We h a v e s e e n how, u n d e r T r u t c h , t h e G o v e r n m e n t ' s n o t i o n o f e q u a l i t y w o r k e d i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e i m p o r t a n t l a n d q u e s t i o n . As T r u t c h e x p l a i n e d i t , t h e I n d i a n s w e r e g i v e n s u c h l a n d s "as w e r e deemed p r o p o r t i o n a t e 133 t o , a n d a m p l y s u f f i c i e n t f o r , t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s o f e a c h t r i b e " . The s e t t l e r s w e r e t r e a t e d e q u a l l y b e c a u s e t h e y w e r e a l s o a l l o w e d w h a t was s u f f i c i e n t f o r t h e i r r e q u i r e m e n t s . N o r w e r e t h e I n d i a n s e q u a l l y p r o t e c t e d b y t h e l a w . I n some i n s t a n c e s I n d i a n s who b r o u g h t c a s e s o f t h e i r c u l t i v a t e d a r e a s b e i n g t r a m p l e d b y s e t t l e r ' s c a t t l e b e f o r e t h e c o u r t s 134 f a i l e d t o s e c u r e c o n v i c t i o n s , w h e r e a s I n d i a n d e f e n d a n t s i n 135 s i m i l a r c a s e s w e r e f o u n d g u i l t y . A g o v e r n m e n t o f f i c i a l p o i n t e d 256 o u t t h a t M a g i s t r a t e s h a d no power b y l e g i s l a t i o n t o e j e c t 136 s e t t l e r s who e n c r o a c h e d o n I n d i a n r e s e r v e s . I n some p l a c e s w h i t e s e t t l e r s w e r e e v e n g r a n t e d p r e - e m p t i o n c e r t i f i c a t e s f o r a r e a s o f l a n d t h a t i n c l u d e d p o t a t o p a t c h e s b e l o n g i n g t o 137 I n d i a n s . No d o u b t t h e I n d i a n s c o n c e r n e d i n s u c h c a s e s w o u l d h a v e b e e n i n t r i g u e d w i t h T r u t c h 1 s c l a i m t h a t t h e y w e r e e q u a l w i t h t h e E u r o p e a n b e f o r e t h e l a w . I n h i s memorandum, w r i t t e n i n r e s p o n s e t o G r e e n ' s c r i t i -c i s m s , T r u t c h a l s o t o o k t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o c l a i m t h a t B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a h a d a l w a y s d e n i e d t h e i d e a o f a b o r i g i n a l t i t l e . He w r o t e t h a t " t h e t i t l e o f t h e I n d i a n s i n f e e o f t h e p u b l i c l a n d s , o r i n any p o r t i o n t h e r e o f , h a s n e v e r b e e n a c k n o w l e d g e d by G o v e r n -ment, b u t , on t h e c o n t r a r y , i s d i s t i n c t l y d e n i e d . " T r u t c h d o e s n o t , h o w e v e r , e x p l a i n why t h e V a n c o u v e r I s l a n d House o f A s s e m b l y s h o u l d a s k t h e I m p e r i a l G o v e r n m e n t i n 1861 f o r £3,000 t o e x t i n g u i s h an I n d i a n t i t l e t h a t t h e y d i d n o t r e c o g n i s e t h e e x i s t e n c e o f . He a l s o argued- i n t h e same memorandum,and a g a i n q u i t e w r o n g l y , t h a t t h e t r e a t i e s t h a t D o u g l a s made w i t h t h e I n d i a n s o f V a n c o u v e r I s l a n d w e r e " n o t i n a c k n o w l e d g e m e n t o f any g e n e r a l t i t l e o f t h e I n d i a n s t o t h e l a n d s t h e y o c c u p y " b u t w e r e s i m p l y " f o r t h e p u r -p o s e o f s e c u r i n g f r i e n d l y r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n t h o s e I n d i a n s a n d 138 t h e s e t t l e m e n t o f V i c t o r i a " . T h i s was q u i t e d e f i n i t e l y n o t t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h o s e m o s t c l o s e l y i n v o l v e d i n t h e s i g n i n g o f t h e F o r t V i c t o r i a t r e a t i e s . D o u g l a s c l e a r l y c o n s i d e r e d t h a t 139 he was p u r c h a s i n g I n d i a n l a n d , a n d t h e I n d i a n s t h e m s e l v e s , a l t h o u g h t h e y h a d y e t t o c o m p r e h e n d E u r o p e a n n o t i o n s o f l a n d o w n e r s h i p , knew t h a t t h e p a p e r t h a t t h e y w e r e s i g n i n g i n v o l v e d more t h a n a d e c l a r a t i o n o f f r i e n d s h i p . 257 I n 1 8 7 1 , t h e y e a r o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a ' s c o n f e d e r a t i o n w i t h C a n a d a , t h e I n d i a n p o l i c y o f t h e C o l o n y was a g a i n u n d e r f i r e , t h i s t i m e f r o m t h e B i s h o p o f C o l u m b i a who was c o n c e r n e d a b o u t t h e p a u c i t y o f g o v e r n m e n t s p e n d i n g on I n d i a n s . T h i s p o i n t may h a v e p r o v e d a l i t t l e d i f f i c u l t f o r T r u t c h t o r e f u t e , as t h e c o l o n i a l e s t i m a t e s i n d i c a t e t h a t a l l o c a t i o n s f o r I n d i a n s w e r e m i s e r a b l e ; a n d o f t e n o n l y a f r a c t i o n o f t h e amount i n c l u d e d i n t h e e s t i m a t e s a p p e a r e d i n t h e e n d - o f - y e a r s t a t e m e n t o f a c t u a l e x p e n d i t u r e . T r u t c h d i d c o n c e d e t h a t " f r o m t h e p e c u n i a r y i n a b i l i t y o f t h e C o l o n y i n t h e p a s t no s u c h a p p r o p r i a t i o n s h a v e 140 b e e n made as c o u l d h a v e b e e n w i s h e d " . He d i d , h o w e v e r , n e g l e c t t o m e n t i o n t h e f a t e o f money c o l l e c t e d b y l e a s i n g I n d i a n r e s e r v e l a n d . I t w i l l be remembered t h a t D o u g l a s h a d i n t e n d e d t h a t r e n t s f r o m t h e l e a s i n g o f t h e V i c t o r i a r e s e r v e w e r e t o be u s e d f o r t h e b e n e f i t o f t h e I n d i a n s . E a r l y i n 1873 t h e n e w l y a p p o i n t e d S u p e r i n t e n d e n t o f I n d i a n A f f a i r s was h a v i n g d i f f i c u l t y i n d i s -c o v e r i n g w h a t h a d h a p p e n e d t o t h e sum o f $1,9 84.82 t h a t h a d b e e n h a n d e d t o T r u t c h i n 1869 by t h e c o m m i s s i o n e r s o f t h e S o n g h e e s 141 r e s e r v e . The r e p l y was t h a t , i n s t e a d , o f b e i n g s p e n t on I n d i a n n e e d s , t h e sum " f o r m e d p a r t o f t h e a s s e t s o f t h e C o l o n y a t 142 t h e d a t e o f C o n f e d e r a t i o n " . I n s p i t e o f t h e f a c t t h a t he h a d m i s a p p r o p r i a t e d I n d i a n money T r u t c h a p p a r e n t l y h a d no c o n s c i e n c e a b o u t d e s c r i b i n g B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a ' s I n d i a n p o l i c y "as a w e l l c o n s i d e r e d s y s t e m , a b l y d e v i s e d by e x p e r i e n c e d men s p e c i a l l y 143 i n t e r e s t e d i n f a v o u r o f t h e I n d i a n s " . T r u t c h d i d , h o w e v e r , h a v e some o t h e r a r g u m e n t s t o o f f e r o n t h e q u e s t i o n o f p a r s i m o n y w i t h f u n d s . W h i l e B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a h a d n o t s p e n t as much as s h e m i g h t h a v e done d i r e c t l y o n t h e I n d i a n s , 258 t h e B i s h o p o f C o l u m b i a was f o r g e t t i n g t h a t t h e I n d i a n s w e r e p a r t a k i n g o f " t h e a d v a n t a g e s o f c i v i l i s a t i o n w h i c h we h a v e b r o u g h t t o them". F o r e x a m p l e , t h e I n d i a n s c o u l d now u s e r o a d s a n d t r a i l s w i t h o u t e v e n h a v i n g t o p a y t h e t o l l s t h a t w e r e o f t e n i m p o s e d on w h i t e p e o p l e . E u r o p e a n s h a d a l s o b r o u g h t t o t h e I n d i a n s i m p l e m e n t s " o f h u s b a n d r y a nd a g r i c u l t u r e , t h e c h a s e a n d f i s h i n g e t c . , w h i c h b e f o r e t h e y w e r e w i t h o u t . " T r u t c h d o e s n o t e x p l a i n how t h e I n d i a n s h a d s u r v i v e d i n t h e n o r t h w e s t c o a s t e n v i r o n m e n t w i t h o u t d e v e l o p i n g some v e r y s o p h i s t i c a t e d e q u i p m e n t f o r g a t h e r i n g f o o d . A n o t h e r o f t h e b e n e f i t s o f c i v i l i s a t i o n m e n t i o n e d was one t h a t was p a r t i c u l a r l y c l o s e t o h i s h e a r t . . . . t h e b l e s s i n g s w h i c h r e s u l t f r o m t h e p r e s e r v a t i o n o f l a w a n d o r d e r t h r o u g h o u t t h e c o u n t r y , i n s t e a d o f t h o s e s c e n e s o f b l o o d s h e d a n d r o b b e r y w h i c h p r e v a i l e d f o r m e r l y among them, and a m i d s t w h i c h t h e i r l i v e s w e r e p a s s e d i n a s t a t e o f c o n s t a n t d r e a d a n d u n c e r t a i n t y o f l i f e a n d p r o p e r t y ; . . . W i t h a r g u m e n t s s u c h as t h e s e T r u t c h . h a d l i t t l e d i f f i c u l t y i n c o n v i n c i n g h i m s e l f t h a t I n d i a n p o l i c y i n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a h a d 144 b e e n " e s s e n t i a l l y b e n e v o l e n t t o w a r d s t h e I n d i a n s . " T r u t c h ' s f a c i l e a t t e m p t s t o d e f e n d i t s i m p l y r e v e a l how e m a c i a t e d c o l o n i a l I n d i a n p o l i c y was. W i t h a g o v e r n m e n t s o b l a t a n t l y p r o - s e t t l e r one c a n n o t h e l p f e e l i n g t h a t , f r o m an I n d i a n p o i n t o f v i e w , t h e a d v a n t a g e s d e r i v e d f r o m t h e " b l e s s i n g o f c i v i l i s a t i o n " w e r e b o u n d t o b e o u t w e i g h e d by t h e d i s a d v a n t a g e s . S o - c a l l e d b l e s s i n g s s u c h a s B r i t i s h l a w a n d o r d e r a n d t h e f r e e d o m t o u s e r o a d s a n d b r i d g e s h a r d l y c o m p e n s a t e d t h e I n d i a n s f o r t h e d i s p o s s e s s i o n o f t h e i r l a n d . E v e n b e i n g s u b j e c t t o l a w and o r d e r was a b l e s s i n g i n d i s g u i s e . The r e s u l t was t h a t I n d i a n l e a d e r s w e r e l o s i n g t h e i r 259 a u t h o r i t y . C h i e f s w e r e m a n i p u l a t e d t o s e r v e t h e ends o f t h e s e t t l e r g o v e r n m e n t . G o v e r n m e n t o f f i c i a l s a ssumed t h a t I n d i a n l e a d e r s h a d f a r more a u t h o r i t y t o make d e c i s i o n s a f f e c t i n g t h e i r p e o p l e t h a n was a c t u a l l y t h e c a s e . T r a d i t i o n a l l y l e a d e r -s h i p was b a s e d on r e s p e c t r a t h e r t h a n a u t h o r i t y . I n d i a n c h i e f s w e r e n o t a b s o l u t e g o v e r n o r s b u t , h a v i n g made t h e m i s t a k e , w h i t e s o f t e n h e l d c h i e f s r e s p o n s i b l e when o t h e r I n d i a n s r e f u s e d t o a b i d e by a r r a n g e m e n t s made b e t w e e n I n d i a n l e a d e r s a n d g o v e r n m e n t o f f i c i a l s . I f one i n d i v i d u a l p r o v e d d i f f i c u l t t o d e a l w i t h a more p l i a n t p e r s o n a l i t y was s o m e t i m e s e l e v a t e d t o " c h i e f t a i n s h i p " b y g o v e r n m e n t a d m i n i s t r a t o r s . A new k i n d o f I n d i a n l e a d e r e m e r g e d : one who was n o t n e c e s s a r i l y q u a l i f i e d a c c o r d i n g t o t h e t r a d i t i o n a l s t a n d a r d s b u t who f u l f i l l e d t h e r o l e o f m e d i a t o r w i t h t h e w h i t e s . T h e s e s p o k e s m e n w e r e o f t e n i n v e s t e d w i t h s y m b o l s o f o f f i c e i n o r d e r t o b o l s t e r t h e i r a u t h o r i t y among t h e I n d i a n s . 1 T h i s was t h e b e g i n n i n g o f a d e v e l o p m e n t w h i c h r e s u l t e d i n t h e t i t l e " c h i e f " m e a n i n g t o many I n d i a n s a man a p p o i n t e d b y a g o v -146 e r n m e n t o f f i c i a l t o c o n d u c t t h e a f f a i r s o f t h e r e s e r v e . I t h a s b e e n s a i d t h a t p r o b a b l y " t h e m o s t s i g n i f i c a n t t u r n i n g p o i n t i n t h e a c c u l t u r a t i v e h i s t o r y o f a n I n d i a n t r i b e 147 was t h e l o s s o f p o l i t i c a l a utonomy." T h i s was e x a c t l y t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f many B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a n I n d i a n s d u r i n g t h e 1 8 6 0 ' s . They w e r e l o s i n g t h e i r f r e e d o m o f c h o i c e w i t h i n t h e c o n t a c t s i t u a t i o n . They c o u l d no l o n g e r a d a p t s e l e c t i v e l y t o t h e a l i e n c u l t u r e and c o u l d n o t d e s t r o y i t s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s w i t h o u t s e v e r e r e t r i b u t i o n . They w e r e l o s i n g c o n t r o l o f t h e i r own d e s t i n y a s i t was i n c r e a s i n g l y d i r e c t e d f r o m t h e o u t s i d e b y a g o v e r n m e n t t h a t i g n o r e d I n d i a n n e e d s i n o r d e r t o s a t i s f y s e t t l e r demands. CHAPTER V I I I The C o n s o l i d a t i o n of Settlement: the 1870's and 1880's Everybody says, "sure what the d e v i l i s the good of a Government t h a t can't put a few siwashes o f f a man's l a n d " . 1 B r i t i s h Columbia's c o n f e d e r a t i o n w i t h Canada was perhaps the l a s t chance t h a t the Indians had of p o l i c y towards them undergoing any s i g n i f i c a n t change. But the chance was l o s t . The 1870's and 1880's simply saw the c o n t i n u a t i o n and c o n s o l i d a -t i o n of p o l i c i e s designed by s e t t l e r s to meet s e t t l e r r e q u i r e -ments, while Indian needs continued to be i g n o r e d by Government. Knowing t h a t the Indian p o l i c y of Canada was somewhat d i f f e r e n t from B r i t i s h Columbia's, the Indians hoped t h a t a new 2 system would be adopted towards them a f t e r c o n f e d e r a t i o n . They thought t h a t the changes i n the white man's world might b r i n g them a b e t t e r d e a l , p a r t i c u l a r l y over the land. Throughout the 1870's the Canadian a u t h o r i t i e s were making t r e a t i e s w i t h the P r a i r i e Indians to e x t i n g u i s h t h e i r t i t l e t o the l a n d . These t r e a t i e s were i n d i c a t i v e o f an Indian l a n d p o l i c y t h a t was d i f -f e r e n t from B r i t i s h Columbia's i n a number o f ways. The P r a i r i e Indians had none of the freedom of c h o i c e i m p l i e d by the word " t r e a t y " , f o r the numbered t r e a t i e s were imposed on the Indians 3 r a t h e r than n e g o t i a t e d w i t h them. Yet these t r e a t i e s were a r e c o g n i t i o n of the p r i n c i p l e t h a t the Indians had r i g h t s to the 4 lan d t h a t ought to be e x t i n g u i s h e d b e f o r e s e t t l e r s moved m. The minimum o f 160 acres per f a m i l y was a much l a r g e r a l l o c a t i o n of r e s e r v e land than B r i t i s h Columbia had given, and i n a d d i t i o n 260 261 t h e r e was p r o v i s i o n i n t h e t r e a t i e s f o r i n i t i a l p a y m e n t s f o l l o w e d by a n n u i t i e s and o t h e r f o r m s o f a s s i s t a n c e . The f o r m -a l i t y o f a t r e a t y i n v o l v e d a m i n i m a l r e c o g n i t i o n o f I n d i a n r i g h t s a nd n e e d s s u c h as h a d n o t o c c u r r e d i n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a s i n c e 1859, and a f t e r c o n f e d e r a t i o n t h e I n d i a n s h o p e d t h a t t h i s p o l i c y m i g h t be e x t e n d e d a c r o s s t h e R o c k i e s . B u t t h e y w e r e t o be d i s a p p o i n t e d . The I n d i a n s w e r e t o t a l l y u n r e p r e s e n t e d i n t h e n e g o t i a t i o n s t h a t p r e c e d e d c o n f e d -e r a t i o n , s o t h e i r c o n c e r n s w e r e g i v e n v i r t u a l l y no c o n s i d e r a t i o n i n t h e b u s i n e s s d e a l t h a t e s t a b l i s h e d t h e u n i o n W i t h C a n a d a . The m a j o r i t y o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a n s w ere n o n - p a r t i c i p a n t s i n c o n -f e d e r a t i o n . D u r i n g t h e d e b a t e on u n i o n i n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a t h e r e was o n l y a m i n i m a l d i s c u s s i o n o f I n d i a n a f f a i r s . A m o t i o n f o r t h e p r o t e c t i o n o f t h e I n d i a n s d u r i n g t h e c h a n g e o f g o v e r n m e n t was l o s t t w e n t y t o one and a n o t h e r , a d v o c a t i n g t h e e x t e n s i o n o f 5 C a n a d i a n I n d i a n p o l i c y t o t h e new P r o v i n c e , was w i t h d r a w n . C o n s e q u e n t l y t h e Terms o f U n i o n p r o p o s e d by t h e G o v e r n o r i n C o u n c i l o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a c o n t a i n e d no r e f e r e n c e t o t h e I n d i a n s . P r e s u m a b l y C l a u s e t h i r t e e n o f t h e f i n a l T e r m s , t h e one t h a t d e a l s w i t h I n d i a n s , was a d d e d i n O t t a w a , and as T r u t c h was t h e o n l y p e r s o n c l o s e l y i n v o l v e d w i t h c o l o n i a l I n d i a n p o l i c y who was p r e s e n t a t t h o s e d i s c u s s i o n s , he c a n be f a i r l y a t t r i b u t e d w i t h 7 r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r t h e C l a u s e . C l a u s e t h i r t e e n o f t h e Terms o f U n i o n s t a t e s t h a t : The c h a r g e o f t h e I n d i a n s , and t h e t r u s t e e s h i p and management o f t h e l a n d s r e s e r v e d f o r t h e i r u s e and b e n e f i t , s h a l l be assumed by t h e D o m i n i o n G o v e r n m e n t , and a p o l i c y as l i b e r a l as t h a t h i t h e r t o pursued., by t h e B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a G o v e r n m e n t s h a l l be c o n t i n u e d by t h e D o m i n i o n G o v e r n m e n t a f t e r t h e u n i o n . i 262 To carry out such a p o l i c y , tracts of.land of such an extent as i t has hitherto been the practice of the B r i t i s h Columbia Government to appropriate for that purpose, s h a l l from time to time be conveyed by the Local Government to the Dominion Government in t r u s t for the use and benefit of the Indians, on application of the Dominion Gov-ernment; and i n case of disagreement between the two Governments respecting the quantity of such tracts of land to be so granted, the matter s h a l l be referred for the decision of the Secretary of State for the Colonies. 8 The wording of t h i s Clause i s very curious indeed, p a r t i c -u l a r l y the s t i p u l a t i o n that "a policy as l i b e r a l as that hitherto pursued by the B r i t i s h Columbia Government s h a l l be continued by the Dominion a f t e r the union." A variety of words could be used to describe c o l o n i a l p o l i c y p r i o r to Union, but " l i b e r a l " i s not one of them. Certainly, i f Canadian policy was to be the c r i t e r i o n , the Colony's p o l i c y was considerably less l i b e r a l than that of the Dominion. Trutch must have been aware of t h i s f a c t , and even i f he r e a l l y believed that B r i t i s h Columbia's was a l i b e r a l p o l i c y , Clause thirteen remains deliberately mis-leading. Subsequently David L a i r d , the Canadian Minister of the Interior from 1873 to 1876, thought that the framers of the Clause "could hardly have been aware of the marked contrast between the Indian p o l i c i e s which had, up to that time, prevailed 9 xn Canada and Britxsh Columbxa respectxvely." Unfortunately xt i s more l i k e l y that the B r i t i s h Columbian representatives were aware of the discrepancy i n p o l i c i e s but wanted to camouflage i t . Certainly Trutch was quite s a t i s f i e d that "as to Indian policy . . . the wisest course would be to continue the system that has prevailed h i t h e r t o " . 1 0 Maintenance of the status quo was p r e c i s e l y what the B r i t i s h Columbians hoped to achieve by 263 / a g r e e i n g t o g i v e t h e D o m i n i o n G o v e r n m e n t o n l y as much l a n d f o r I n d i a n r e s e r v e s as h a d " h i t h e r t o b e e n t h e p r a c t i c e o f t h e B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a G o v e r n m e n t t o a p p r o p r i a t e f o r t h a t p u r p o s e " . C l a u s e t h i r t e e n was a p t l y n u m b e r e d . I t was u n l u c k y f o r t h e I n d i a n s b e c a u s e i t meant t h a t some t i m e was t o e l a p s e b e f o r e t h e F e d e r a l a u t h o r i t i e s r e a l i s e d j u s t how i l l i b e r a l t h e C o l o n y ' s t r e a t m e n t o f them h a d b e e n . The P r o v i n c e m e a n w h i l e was d e t e r -m i n e d t o s t a n d b y t h e l e t t e r o f t h e Law. I n t h e y e a r s f o l l o w i n g C o n f e d e r a t i o n f e d e r a l o f f i c i a l s t r y i n g t o e x t r a c t c o n c e s s i o n s on t h e l a n d q u e s t i o n f r o m t h e P r o v i n c e on b e h a l f o f t h e I n d i a n s w e r e n o t i f i e d t h a t " a l l t h a t i t i s ' r e a s o n a b l e a n d j u s t ' t o demand o f t h e P r o v i n c i a l G o v e r n m e n t i s t h a t t h e 1 3 t h S e c t i o n o f t h e Terms o f U n i o n s h o u l d be f a i t h f u l l y observed.""'""'" N a t u r a l l y , i n i n t e r p r e t i n g t h e C l a u s e , t h e P r o v i n c e t o o k t h e p o l i c y " h i t h e r t o p u r s u e d b y B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a " t o mean T r u t c h ' s p o l i c y and n o t D o u g l a s ' s . J u s t as t h e y w e r e e x c l u d e d f r o m t h e p r o c e s s o f c o n f e d e r a -t i o n , t h e I n d i a n s w e re p r e v e n t e d f r o m h a v i n g any r o l e i n g o v e r n m e n t a f t e r 1 8 7 1 . R e s p o n s i b l e G o v e r n m e n t came t o B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a a f t e r c o n f e d e r a t i o n a n d i n c r e a s e d t h e s e t t l e r ' s p o w e r o v e r t h e I n d i a n s . A l t h o u g h i t was a g r e a t b o o s t t o s e t t l e r e g o , R e s p o n s i b l e G o v e r n m e n t h e l d no a d v a n t a g e f o r t h e I n d i a n s . No one i n g o v e r n m e n t was r e s p o n s i b l e t o them and s o t h e y h a d no way o f i n f l u e n c i n g p o l i c y . T h e r e was no t h o u g h t o f g i v i n g t h e I n d i a n s o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a t h e v o t e , e v e n on t h e same c o n d i t i o n s as E u r o p e a n s . Q u i t e t h e c o n t r a r y , i n 1872 and 1875 l e g i s l a t i o n was p a s s e d w h i c h s p e c i f i c a l l y e x c l u d e d I n d i a n s f r o m v o t i n g p u r e l y 12 o n t h e g r o u n d s o f r a c e . E v e n t h e new De Cosmos n e w s p a p e r , 264 The V i c t o r i a D a i l y S t a n d a r d , was e d i t o r i a l l y o p p o s e d t o s u c h 13 r a c i s t l e g i s l a t i o n . . As was b e i n g p r o v e d i n o t h e r p a r t s o f t h e B r i t i s h E m p i r e , p r o t e c t i n g n a t i v e i n t e r e s t s was i n c o m p a t i b l e w i t h g r a n t i n g s e l f g o v e r n m e n t t o s e t t l e r s . B e c a u s e t h e y w e r e e x c l u d e d f r o m t h e p o l i t i c a l p r o c e s s , t h e o n l y way t h a t t h e I n d i a n s c o u l d a m e l i o r a t e t h e i r c o n d i t i o n was by s e l f - h e l p . B u t e v e n t h i s r o a d was o f t e n b l o c k e d by t h e s e t t l e r s . I n 1879 t h e r e was a m e e t i n g o f a l a r g e number o f t h e t r i b e s o f t h e s o u t h e r n i n t e r i o r a t L y t t o n . I n d i a n s f r o m t h e F r a s e r a n d Thompson R i v e r s , t h e N i c o l a v a l l e y a n d t h e S i m i l k a m e e n a r e a g a t h e r e d t o d i s c u s s t h e i r p r o b l e m s . G i l b e r t S p r o a t , t h e I n d i a n R e s e r v e C o m m i s s i o n e r , . w a s p r e s e n t a t t h e m e e t i n g a nd he r e p o r t e d on t h e m e a s u r e s t h a t w e r e t a k e n . The I n d i a n s a g r e e d on a s e t o f r e g u l a t i o n s d e s i g n e d t o f o s t e r t h e e d u c a t i o n o f t h e i r c h i l d r e n , t o i m p r o v e s a n i t a r y a n d m e d i c a l f a c i l i t i e s i n t h e v i l l a g e s , t o s u b d i v i d e a r a b l e l a n d on an i n d i v i d u a l b a s i s , t o r e d u c e t h e number o f n o n - w o r k i n g d a y s , t o a b o l i s h t h e p o t l a t c h and t o l e v y f i n e s f o r d r u n k e n n e s s a nd g a m b l i n g . A h e a d c h i e f , a Spuzzum I n d i a n named M i c h a e l , a n d a c o u n c i l o f t h i r t e e n w e r e 14 e l e c t e d t o a d m i n i s t e r t h e s e o r d i n a n c e s . T h i s m e e t i n g was a p r o m i s i n g a t t e m p t by t h e I n d i a n s t o a d a p t t o t h e s e t t l e m e n t f r o n t i e r a n d t o compete w i t h t h e E u r o p e a n s . I n n e a r l y e v e r y r e s p e c t t h e m e a s u r e s p r o p o s e d b y t h e I n d i a n s a t L y t t o n p a r a l l e l e d t h o s e a d v o c a t e d b y E u r o p e a n p h i l a n t h r o p i s t s . S p r o a t r e m a r k e d i n a l e t t e r t o O t t a w a t h a t t h e L y t t o n m e e t i n g d e m o n s t r a t e d " t h e l a u d a b l e d e s i r e o f t h e I n d i a n s t o make e f f o r t s , a t t h e i r own c o s t p r i n c i p a l l y , t o i m p r o v e t h e p h y s i c a l c o n d i t i o n and t h e m i n d s o f t h e i r c h i l d r e n a n d t o t r a i n t h e m s e l v e s f o r c i t i z e n s h i p " . 1 5 265 The s e t t l e r s , h o w e v e r , w e r e h o r r i f i e d a t t h i s d e v e l o p m e n t . They w e r e n o t s o much i n t e r e s t e d i n I n d i a n s i m p r o v i n g t h e i r p h y s i c a l a n d s o c i a l c o n d i t i o n s as i n t h e t h r e a t t h a t any " c o n f e d -e r a t i o n " o f t r i b e s m i g h t p o s e t o t h e i r s e c u r i t y . A p p a r e n t l y o n l y E u r o p e a n s w e r e t o be p e r m i t t e d t o c o n f e d e r a t e t o b e n e f i t them-s e l v e s . I n t h e p r e c e d i n g y e a r s t h e r e h a d b e e n r u m o u r s o f an I n d i a n o u t b r e a k i n t h e i n t e r i o r , a nd t h e L y t t o n m e e t i n g p r o v o k e d a r e c u r r e n c e o f s e t t l e r f e a r s . Many o b j e c t e d s t r o n g l y and l o u d l y t o t h i s a t t e m p t by t h e I n d i a n s t o o r g a n i s e t h e m s e l v e s . De Cosmos, b o t h i n h i s n e w s p a p e r and i n a l e t t e r t o t h e P r i m e M i n i s t e r o f C a n a d a , e m p h a s i s e d t h e d a n g e r t o w h i t e s e c u r i t y p o s e d by t h i s d e v e l o p m e n t . He t h o u g h t t h a t t h e I n d i a n s s h o u l d n o t be a l l o w e d t o c o m b i n e f o r any p u r p o s e i n c a s e t h e y m i g h t e n d e a v o u r " t o o b t a i n some p r i v i l e g e o r c o n c e s s i o n a n t a g o n i s t i c t o w h i t e i n t e r e s t s " . He c o n s i d e r e d t h e L y t t o n g a t h e r i n g t o be " i n e v e r y way o b j e c t i o n a b l e " , and he h o p e d t h a t t h e h e a d c h i e f w o u l d n o t 16 be r e c o g n i s e d a n d t h e r e g u l a t i o n s n o t be c o n f i r m e d . Many o t h e r s e t t l e r s w r o t e o f t h e s u p p o s e d d a n g e r o f any a t t e m p t by 17 I n d i a n s t o o r g a n i s e , a n d t h e i r o p i n i o n s w e r e s u p p o r t e d by t h e 18 I n d i a n S u p e r i n t e n d e n t i n V i c t o r i a a n d t h e D e p a r t m e n t i n O t t a w a . S p r o a t , on t h e o t h e r h a n d , f e l t t h a t many o f t h e s e o b j e c -t i o n s a r o s e o u t o f a s i m p l e i g n o r a n c e o f t h e I n d i a n s and t h e i r p r o b l e m s . A c c o r d i n g t o h i m , many s e t t l e r s , "whose n o t i o n o f I n d i a n management i s t e r r o r i s m " , seemed t o h a v e h a d t h e i r r a c i a l p r e j u d i c e " s t i r r e d t o t h e d e p t h s " by t h e s e e l e m e n t a r y p r o p o s a l s 20 by t h e I n d i a n s t o i m p r o v e t h e i r c o n d i t i o n . C e r t a i n l y t h e s e t t l e r s w e r e more i n t e r e s t e d i n k e e p i n g t h e I n d i a n s u n d e r c o n t r o l 266 t h a n i n i m p r o v i n g t h e i r c o n d i t i o n , and t h e way t o e n s u r e t h e i r s u b j u g a t i o n was t o k e e p them d i v i d e d . Hence t h e s e t t l e r s f e a r e d and d i s c o u r a g e d any a t t e m p t by t h e I n d i a n s t o c o - o p e r a t e t o a d v a n c e t h e i r own i n t e r e s t s . The Rev. J . B . Good, who h a d w o r k e d as a m i s s i o n a r y among t h e L y t t o n I n d i a n s f o r more t h a n t e n y e a r s , n o t e d t h a t t h e r e was a r e a d y c h o r u s i n t h e P r o v i n c e a g a i n s t any a c t i o n e i t h e r f o r , o r b y , t h e I n d i a n s , h o w e v e r 21 s e n s i b l e i t m i g h t b e . The s e t t l e r s i n t e n d e d t o m a i n t a i n t h e i r p o s i t i o n o f d o m i n a n c e and s o t h e y d i d n o t e v e n w a n t t o f o s t e r I n d i a n d e v e l o p m e n t , i n t h e manner o f t h e p a t e r n a l i s t , t o w a r d s a d i s t a n t f u t u r e when t h e I n d i a n s w o u l d be a b l e t o a c t i n d e p e n -22 d e n t l y . The I n d i a n s w e r e w a r d s o f t h e Crown and s h o u l d be 23 t r e a t e d as s u c h . As f a r as t h e s e t t l e r G o v e r n m e n t was c o n c e r n e d t h e I n d i a n s w e r e a p o p u l a t i o n t o b e ' a d m i n i s t e r e d r a t h e r t h a n l i s t e n e d t o . D e c i s i o n s w e r e made t o ' b e i m p o s e d n o t d i s c u s s e d . The I n d i a n s r e m a i n e d i r r e l e v a n t t o t h e m a j o r c o n c e r n o f t h e s e t t l e r s : t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e r e s o u r c e s . o f t h e P r o v i n c e . N e g l e c t , and e v e n h o s t i l i t y , on t h e p a r t o f t h e s e t t l e r s meant t h a t I n d i a n a d m i n i s -t r a t i o n i n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a i n t h e two d e c a d e s a f t e r c o n f e d e r a t i o n was a s h a m b l e s . The F e d e r a l G o v e r n m e n t a p p o i n t e d two men t o be r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f I n d i a n a f f a i r s i n t h e P r o v i n c e d u r i n g t h e 1 8 7 0 ' s . D r . I s r a e l Wood P o w e l l was a p p o i n t e d I n d i a n S u p e r -i n t e n d e n t i n 1872 a n d was b a s e d i n V i c t o r i a , a nd i n 1874 James L e n i h a n was a p p o i n t e d as s e c o n d S u p e r i n t e n d e n t c e n t r e d i n New W e s t m i n s t e r . P o w e l l was t h e s e n i o r S u p e r i n t e n d e n t w i t h p a r t i c u l a r r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r t h e c o a s t a l I n d i a n s w h i l e L e n i h a n was e x p e c t e d 267 t o c o n c e n t r a t e on t h e i n t e r i o r t r i b e s . N e i t h e r man, h o w e v e r , was e n t i r e l y s u i t e d t o t h e p o s i t i o n he h e l d . The a p p o i n t m e n t o f P o w e l l was f o i s t e d o n J o h n A. M a c d o n a l d b y p r e s s u r e f r o m t h e B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a n Members o f P a r l i a m e n t e v e n t h o u g h t h e P r i m e M i n i s t e r t h o u g h t t h a t t h e 24 a p p o i n t e e " o u g h t t o h a v e known more a b o u t t h e I n d i a n s . " O t h e r s . w e r e a l s o u n i m p r e s s e d by P o w e l l ' s q u a l i f i c a t i o n s f o r t h e p o s i t i o n . D o u g l a s , w r i t i n g i n p r i v a t e t o h i s d a u g h t e r , i n d i c a t e d t h a t he was somewhat l e s s t h a n e n t h u s i a s t i c a b o u t t h e a p p o i n t m e n t 25 o f P o w e l l as I n d i a n S u p e r i n t e n d e n t . S p r o a t t h o u g h t t h a t P o w e l l 2 6 knew l i t t l e a b o u t I n d i a n ways a n d , n i n e y e a r s l a t e r , F r a n z 27 Boas t h o u g h t s o t o o . A p a r t f r o m P o w e l l ' s p e r s o n a l i n a d e q u a c i e s , S p r o a t o b s e r v e d t h a t t o t r y t o a d m i n i s t e r I n d i a n a f f a i r s f r o m an 2 8 o f f i c e i n V i c t o r i a " i s an a b s u r d i t y " . P o w e l l a l s o c o n t i n u e d t o p r a c t i s e m e d i c i n e i n V i c t o r i a a t a t i m e when t h e management o f I n d i a n a f f a i r s s h o u l d h a v e b e e n a f u l l t i m e o c c u p a t i o n . The s e l e c t i o n o f L e n i h a n as t h e s e c o n d S u p e r i n t e n d e n t i s e v e n more d i f f i c u l t t o u n d e r s t a n d . A t t h e t i m e o f h i s a p p o i n t -29 ment.he was i n b u s i n e s s m T o r o n t o a nd t h e r e i s no e v i d e n c e t h a t he was p a r t i c u l a r l y f a m i l i a r w i t h t h e I n d i a n s o r t h e P r o v i n c e t o w h i c h he was s e n t . F u r t h e r m o r e , i t was a p p a r e n t t o some a t t h e t i m e o f h i s a r r i v a l t h a t he was m e n t a l l y i n a d e q u a t e f o r h i s t a s k , a n d b y t h e e n d o f t h e 1 8 7 0 ' s i t h a d become q u i t e o b v i o u s t o m o s t . L e n i h a n was, i n t h e p a r l a n c e o f t h e d a y , g o i n g " s o f t i n t h e h e a d " . I t was e v i d e n t t o S p r o a t i n 1877 t h a t L e n i h a n f e l t q u i t e u n c o m f o r t a b l e i n t h e p r e s e n c e o f I n d i a n s a n d , . i n c o n f e r e n c e s , s u c c e e d e d o n l y i n o f f e n d i n g them.- L e n i h a n ' s i n c o m p e t e n c e n e a r l y r e s u l t e d i n d i s a s t e r i n t h e t e n s e s i t u a t i o n t h a t e x i s t e d i n t h e 268 K a m l o o p s a r e a i n t h e summer o f 1877. By 1880 P o w e l l h a d t o a d m i t t o h i s s u p e r i o r s i n O t t a w a w h a t was common k n o w l e d g e i n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , t h a t L e n i h a n was " t o o weak i n t h e m i n d t o t a l k f i v e m i n u t e s w i t h I n d i a n s " . The I n d i a n s w e r e s h r e w d n e g o t i a t o r s and w h e n e v e r L e n i h a n t r i e d t o d e a l w i t h them he was " a t o n c e 31 made t h e u n f o r t u n a t e s u b j e c t o f r i d i c u l e . " I n d i a n a d m i n i s t r a t i o n i n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a was c h a o t i c b e c a u s e , i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e p e r s o n a l i n a d e q u a c i e s o f t h e o f f i c i a l s , n e a r l y e v e r y a c t i o n t h a t t h e y t r i e d t o t a k e was i m p e d e d by t h e d e l i b e r a t e l y o b s t r u c t i o n i s t t a c t i c s o f t h e P r o -v i n c i a l a u t h o r i t i e s . C o n s t a n t w r a n g l i n g b e t w e e n t h e P r o v i n c i a l G o v e r n m e n t a n d f e d e r a l l y a p p o i n t e d o f f i c i a l s f r e q u e n t l y p a r a l y s e d I n d i a n p o l i c y . The P r o v i n c e was t o t a l l y u n w i l l i n g t o make any c o n c e s s i o n s t o t h e I n d i a n s a n d c e r t a i n l y d i d n o t w a n t t o s e e t h e F e d e r a l G o v e r n m e n t make any s i g n i f i c a n t c h a n g e s t o t h e s e t t l e r d o m i n a t e d p o l i c i e s t h a t h a d o p e r a t e d b e f o r e c o n f e d e r a t i o n . B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a s t r o n g l y r e s e n t e d O t t a w a ' s " i n t e r f e r e n c e " i n I n d i a n m a t t e r s . As one P r o v i n c i a l P r e m i e r w r o t e t o S p r o a t , t h e C a n a d i a n M i n i s t e r o f t h e I n t e r i o r was t h o u s a n d s o f m i l e s f r o m t h e s c e n e and knew n o t h i n g o f t h e f a c t s o r m e r i t s o f P r o v i n c i a l p o l i c y . A ndrew C. E l l i o t t s a i d t h a t t h e P r o v i n c i a l G o v e r n m e n t w a n t e d t o t r e a t t h e I n d i a n s j u s t l y , b u t t h a t j u s t i c e a l s o r e q u i r e d t h a t 32 t h e i n t e r e s t s o f t h e s e t t l e r s s h o u l d n o t be s a c r i f i c e d . He was m e r e l y r e s t a t i n g , a n d n o t r e c o n c i l i n g , t h e o l d i n c o m p a t i b l e o p p o s i t e s . M o s t members o f t h e . P r o v i n c i a l G o v e r n m e n t w e r e e i t h e r f a r m i n g s e t t l e r s o r w e r e i n v o l v e d i n l a n d s p e c u l a t i o n and t h e y f o s t e r e d t h e i r own, a n d n o t I n d i a n , i n t e r e s t s . S p r o a t was amused a t t h e d o g m a t i s m o f t h o s e G o v e r n m e n t members who h a d s p e n t 269 a l l t h e i r t i m e i n V i c t o r i a , a n d p e r h a p s knew e n o u g h C h i n o o k t o a s k an I n d i a n t o b l a c k e n t h e i r b o o t s , a n d y e t g a v e t h e a p p e a r a n c e o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e w i s h e s , r e q u i r e m e n t s , a n d s o c i a l c o n d i t i o n 33 o f a l a r g e a n d w i d e s p r e a d I n d i a n p o p u l a t i o n . O ut o f i g n o r a n c e o r a n t i p a t h y t h e P r o v i n c i a l G o v e r n m e n t d i d l i t t l e f o r t h e I n d i a n s and t h e n b l a m e d t h e F e d e r a l G o v e r n m e n t when t h i n g s w e n t w r o n g . I n i t i a l l y t h e F e d e r a l G o v e r n m e n t ' s p l a n was t o e s t a b l i s h a t h r e e man B o a r d t o manage I n d i a n a f f a i r s i n t h e P r o v i n c e . The B o a r d was t o c o m p r i s e t h e two I n d i a n S u p e r i n t e n d e n t s a n d t h e L i e u t e n a n t - G o v e r n o r . B u t t h e n e w l y a p p o i n t e d L i e u t e n a n t -G o v e r n o r was J o s e p h T r u t c h , a n d he was d e t e r m i n e d t o d e f e n d c o l o n i a l p o l i c y , h i s p o l i c y , a g a i n s t t h e e n c r o a c h m e n t o f d i f f e r i n g i d e a s h e l d i n O t t a w a . He h a d b e e n o p p o s e d t o P o w e l l ' s a p p o i n t m e n t i n 1 8 7 2 , n o t b e c a u s e he h a d any c r i t i c i s m o f h i s p r o f e s s i o n a l o r b u s i n e s s a b i l i t y , b u t b e c a u s e he t h o u g h t t h a t t h e L i e u t e n a n t -G o v e r n o r s h o u l d c o n t r o l I n d i a n a f f a i r s . A c c o r d i n g t o T r u t c h , D r . P o w e l l " m i g h t p e r f o r m t h e d u t i e s o f t h e o f f i c e w e l l e nough i f a c t i n g u n d e r t h e u l t i m a t e d i r e c t i o n a n d a d v i c e o f someone o f 34 more e x p e r i e n c e h e r e . " T h a t "someone o f e x p e r i e n c e " was, o f c o u r s e , T r u t c h h i m s e l f . I f he r e t a i n e d c o n t r o l o f I n d i a n p o l i c y he w o u l d e n s u r e t h a t t h i n g s r e m a i n e d as t h e y w e r e . So when t h e t h r e e man B o a r d o f Management was e s t a b l i s h e d i n 1874 T r u t c h was n o t i n t e r e s t e d i n s e r v i n g on i t u n l e s s he d i r e c t e d i t s a c t i o n s , a n d he was p r e p a r e d t o h i n d e r i t s w o r k i f he was n o t g i v e n a c o n t r o l l i n g p o s i t i o n . P o w e l l was p r e p a r i n g t o v i s i t K a m l o o p s i n t h e summer o f 1874 t o d i s c u s s t h e l a n d q u e s t i o n w i t h t h e I n d i a n s and T r u t c h o b j e c t e d t o t h e t r i p on t h e g r o u n d s t h a t P o w e l l was a c t i n g t o o i n d e p e n d e n t l y . The L i e u t e n a n t - G o v e r n o r d i d n o t w a n t 270 P o w e l l t o make any p r o m i s e s t o t h e I n d i a n s t h a t w o u l d i n t e r f e r e 35 w x t h any f u t u r e a c t x o n o f t h e B o a r d . He t o l d t h e M i n i s t e r o f t h e I n t e r i o r t h a t he was p r e p a r e d t o a c t on t h e B o a r d o n l y i f he h a d t h e a u t h o r i t y t o d i r e c t t h e management o f I n d i a n a f f a i r s 3 6 i n t h e P r o v i n c e . By now, h o w e v e r , t h e F e d e r a l G o v e r n m e n t was b e c o m i n g aware o f some o f t h e e l e m e n t s o f t h e s i t u a t i o n i n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a : an a w a r e n e s s t h a t was r e f l e c t e d i n L a i r d ' s r e p l y . T r u t c h was t o l d t h a t " I v e r y much d o u b t . . . w h e t h e r t h e G o v e r n m e n t w o u l d be p r e p a r e d t o d e l e g a t e t o any p e r s o n i n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a t h e g e n e r a l c o n t r o l o f I n d i a n a f f a i r s i n t h e 37 P r o v x n c e . " T r u t c h ' s was n o t t h e o n l y a t t e m p t t o f r u s t r a t e P o w e l l ' s w o r k . A f t e r h i s a p p o i n t m e n t , P o w e l l q u i c k l y a s c e r t a i n e d t h a t t h e l a n d q u e s t i o n was s t i l l t h e m o s t c r u c i a l , a n d t h e r e f o r e t h e m o s t t r o u b l e s o m e i s s u e . J u s t as q u i c k l y he a l s o r e a l i s e d t h a t i t was g o i n g t o be e x t r e m e l y d i f f i c u l t t o e x t r a c t c o n c e s s i o n s f r o m P r o v i n c i a l o f f i c i a l s , o r e v e n t o o b t a i n t h e i r c o - o p e r a t i o n . The F e d e r a l a u t h o r i t i e s w e r e f a c e d w i t h a r u n n i n g b a t t l e o v e r t h e a c r e a g e q u e s t i o n . i n t h e e a r l y 1 8 7 0 ' s . I n 1873 O t t a w a s u g g e s t e d t h a t I n d i a n r e s e r v e s s h o u l d be a l l o c a t e d on t h e b a s i s o f e i g h t y a c r e s p e r f a m i l y , b u t B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a c o u n t e r e d w i t h an o f f e r o f t e n . P o w e l l managed t o g a i n a s h o r t l i v e d a g r e e m e n t on t w e n t y a c r e s , b u t w i t h t h e c o l l a p s e o f t h a t a c c o r d no f u r t h e r b i d s w e r e t a k e n . The f i n a l s t a g e o f t h e s e n e g o t i a t i o n s was t h e a c c e p t a n c e i n 1875 o f a s u g g e s t i o n by W i l l i a m Duncan t h a t no s p e c i f i c a c r e a g e be a l l o c a t e d , b u t r a t h e r t h a t i n d i v i d u a l s i t u a t i o n s be e x a m i n e d by a c o m m i s s i o n a nd a d e c i s i o n r e a c h e d on t h e b a s i s o f 3 8 t h e l o c a l k n o w l e d g e o f t h e t h e n n o n - e x i s t e n t I n d i a n A g e n t s . 271 B u t t h e s e i n t e r - g o v e r n m e n t a l n e g o t i a t i o n s o n l y e x p o s e d t h e s u r f a c e o f t h e p r o b l e m a nd a t t h e l o c a l l e v e l t h e r e was e v e n more c o n f u s i o n . I n 1874 P o w e l l c o m p l e t e d a s u r v e y o f t h e Musqueam r e s e r v e w h i c h i n d i c a t e d t h a t , a l t h o u g h t h e b a n d i n c l u d e d 70 f a m i l i e s , ' t h e y h a d o n l y 314 a c r e s r e s e r v e d f o r them, 39 114 o f w h i c h , i n - P o w e l l ' s o p i n i o n , w e r e q u i t e u s e l e s s . E v i -d e n t l y t h e b a n d h a d n o t r e c e i v e d t e n a c r e s p e r f a m i l y , a n d on t h e b a s i s o f t w e n t y a c r e s t h e y r e q u i r e d 1,400. The C h i e f C o m m i s s i o n e r o f L a n d s a nd W o r k s , R o b e r t B e a v e n , who S p r o a t d e s c r i b e d as 40 "a n a r r o w , s t u b b o r n man", r e p l i e d t o P o w e l l ' s r e q u e s t t h a t an a p p r o p r i a t e amount o f l a n d be s u r v e y e d f o r t h e I n d i a n s w i t h a s e r i e s o f p e t t y a n d r i d i c u l o u s q u e s t i o n s d e s i g n e d t o o b s t r u c t 41 t h e s u r v e y . The P r o v i n c i a l G o v e r n m e n t d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t i t was s t i l l more c o n c e r n e d w i t h r e d u c i n g I n d i a n r e s e r v e s t h a n w i t h any j u s t s e t t l e m e n t o f t h e m a t t e r . B e a v e n i n f o r m e d P o w e l l t h a t he was u n a b l e t o g r a n t e x t e n s i o n s t o p r e s e n t r e s e r v e s u n l e s s t h e S u p e r i n t e n d e n t w o u l d g u a r a n t e e , on b e h a l f o f t h e D o m i n i o n 42 G o v e r n m e n t , t h a t t h e , I n d i a n s w o u l d a g r e e q u i e t l y t o r e d u c t i o n s . I n 18 75 P o w e l l a g a i n a p p l i e d t o t h e P r o v i n c i a l G o v e r n m e n t f o r l a n d s t o make up t h e d e f i c i e n c y i n r e s e r v e s t h a t h a d b e e n s u r -v e y e d . T h i s t i m e t h e r e p l y was t h a t t h e b a s i s o f t w e n t y a c r e s a g r e e d t o o n l y a p p l i e d t o f u t u r e r e s e r v e s and n o t t h o s e a l r e a d y i n e x i s t e n c e . As some r e s e r v a t i o n s amounted t o o n l y two a c r e s p e r f a m i l y , P o w e l l f e l t t h a t he c o u l d do l i t t l e e l s e t h a n t e r m i -43 n a t e s u r v e y s u n t i l t h e q u e s t i o n was s e t t l e d . P o w e l l made t h i s d e c i s i o n i n s p i t e o f t h e g r o w i n g u r g e n c y o f t h e p r o b l e m . He knew t h a t I n d i a n s f r o m a l l o v e r t h e P r o v i n c e w e r e b e c o m i n g i n c r e a s i n g l y d i s s a t i s f i e d as a r e s u l t o f t h e 272 G o v e r n m e n t ' s d i l a t o r y p o l i c y . P o w e l l f e l t t h a t v i s i t i n g t h e , I n d i a n s , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h e i n t e r i o r , when he c o u l d b r i n g no f i n a l i t y on t h e l a n d q u e s t i o n d i d more harm t h a n g o o d t o r a c e 44 r e l a t i o n s . F r o m t h e c o a s t a n d t h e i n t e r i o r , w h e r e v e r w h i t e s h a d s e t t l e d o r l o o k e d l i k e l y t o s e t t l e , I n d i a n c o m p l a i n t s p o u r e d i n a b o u t t h e t r e a t m e n t t h a t t h e y h a d r e c e i v e d o v e r t h e i r l a n d . When L e n i h a n o p e n e d h i s o f f i c e i n New W e s t m i n s t e r he was i n u n -d a t e d w i t h I n d i a n c o m p l a i n t s , a n d t h e p a r a m o u n t c o n c e r n was 45 l a n d . L e n i h a n a l s o d i s c o n t i n u e d v i s i t s t o I n d i a n g r o u p s b e c a u s e he was u n a b l e t o a n s w e r s a t i s f a c t o r i l y t h e i r q u e s t i o n s a b o u t l a n d p o l i c y . A p e t i t i o n s e n t t o P o w e l l , b y 110 I n d i a n l e a d e r s o f t h e l o w e r F r a s e r a r e a i n 1874 was r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f many c o m p l a i n t s he r e c e i v e d f r o m I n d i a n s o f t h e c o a s t and l o w e r m a i n l a n d . They p r o t e s t e d t h e a r b i t r a r y way i n w h i c h t h e B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a G o v e r n -ment h a d l o c a t e d a n d d i v i d e d t h e i r r e s e r v e s , a n d the. f a c t t h a t t h e i r c u l t i v a t e d l a n d was n o t p r o t e c t e d a g a i n s t e n c r o a c h m e n t b y w h i t e s . T h e s e I n d i a n s s a i d t h a t t h e y h a d a t t e m p t e d t o a d o p t t h e w h i t e man's way s . "We a r e n o t a l a z y a n d r o a m i n g - a b o u t p e o p l e , a s we u s e d t o b e " , t h e y t o l d t h e I n d i a n S u p e r i n t e n d e n t . They h a d t r i e d t o d e v e l o p a g r i c u l t u r e a n d a n i m a l h u s b a n d r y , b u t t h e y w e r e d i s c o u r a g e d a n d d e p r e s s e d . H a v i n g l a i d t h e i r c o m p l a i n t s b e f o r e G o v e r n m e n t o f f i c i a l s o n many o c c a s i o n s , t h e y h a d r e c e i v e d no r e d r e s s . Now, t h e y t o l d P o w e l l , t h e y f e l t " l i k e men t r a m p l e d o n , a n d a r e commencing t o b e l i e v e t h a t t h e a i m o f t h e w h i t e man 46 i s t o e x t e r m i n a t e us as s o o n as t h e y c a n " . The l e a d e r s o f t h e Nanaimo I n d i a n s t o l d T r u t c h t h a t t h e i r men w e r e " g e t t i n g o l d a n d Al g r e y " w a i t i n g f o r t h e p r o m i s e s o f t h e G o v e r n m e n t t o be f u l f i l l e d . 273 Sometimes t h e P r o v i n c i a l G o v e r n m e n t r e f u s e d e v e n t o l i s t e n t o t h e s e c o m p l a i n t s . When A l e x i s , t h e C h i e f a t Cheam, w r o t e t o L e n i h a n c o m p l a i n i n g a b o u t t h e i n a d e q u a c y o f h i s r e s e r v e , h i s l e t t e r was d u l y p a s s e d on t o t h e P r o v i n c i a l S e c r e t a r y . A l e x i s h a d p o i n t e d o u t t h a t t h e r e s e r v e h a d b e e n l a i d o u t w i t h o u t c o n s u l t a t i o n w i t h t h e I n d i a n s a n d t h a t e v e n t w e n t y a c r e s p e r f a m i l y "was a m o c k e r y , was d e s t r u c t i o n t o t h e I n d i a n r a c e . " The P r o v i n c i a l S e c r e t a r y , h o w e v e r , " a l s o d i s c o v e r e d t h a t t h e C h i e f ' s l e t t e r c o n t a i n e d l a n g u a g e " d i s r e s p e c t f u l t o h e r M a j e s t y " and t h r e a t s o f v i o l e n c e a g a i n s t w h i t e s e t t l e r s . He t h e r e f o r e i n f o r m e d L e n i h a n t h a t he d i d " n o t c o n s i d e r i t w i t h i n t h e s c o p e o f my d u t y t o s u b m i t t o t h e L i e u t e n a n t - G o v e r n o r i n C o u n c i l any s u c h 48 o f f e n s i v e d ocument." I n t h e i n t e r i o r s i m i l a r g r i e v a n c e s w e r e s i m i l a r l y e x p r e s s e d . The C h i l c o t i n , f o r e x a m p l e , w e r e c o n t i n u i n g t h e i r h o s t i l i t y t o t h e i n t r u s i o n o f w h i t e s , m a i n t a i n i n g t h a t t h e l a n d was t h e i r s , and o b j e c t i n g t o s e t t l e r s l i v i n g o n i t . A p p a r e n t l y t h e C h i l c o t i n t h o u g h t t h a t t h e E u r o p e a n s w e r e g o i n g t o a p p r o p r i a t e t h e i r l a n d w i t h o u t c o m p e n s a t i o n , a n d t h a t t h e y w o u l d be c o n f i n e d t o l i m i t e d r e s e r v e s . O d d l y , g i v e n t h a t t h i s h a d b e e n h i s p r e c i s e p o l i c y i n t h e p a s t , T r u t c h , i n a l e t t e r t o O t t a w a , d e s c r i b e d t h e C h i l c o t i n 49 f e a r as a " m i s a p p r e h e n s i o n " . I t was i n t h e K a m l o o p s a r e a , w h e r e T r u t c h f i r s t c a r r i e d o u t h i s r e d u c t i o n programme, t h a t d i s c o n t e n t was r e a l l y s i m m e r i n g . The g r i e v a n c e s a r e f a m i l i a r . As t h e O b l a t e m i s s i o n a r y , F a t h e r C . J . G r a n d i d i e r , w r o t e : The. w h i t e s came, t o o k l a n d , f e n c e d i t i n , and l i t t l e b y l i t t l e hemmed t h e I n d i a n s i n t h e i r s m a l l r e s e r v a t i o n s . . . Many o f t h e s e r e s e r -v a t i o n s h a v e b e e n s u r v e y e d w i t h o u t t h e i r c o n s e n t ^ and s o m e t i m e s w i t h o u t h a v i n g r e c e i v e d any n o t i c e o f i t , s o t h e y c o u l d h o t e x p o s e t h e i r n e e d s a n d 274 t h e i r w i s h e s . T h e i r r e s e r v e s h a v e b e e n r e p e a t e d l y c u t o f f s m a l l e r f o r t h e b e n e f i t o f t h e w h i t e s , and t h e b e s t and m o s t u s e f u l p a r t o f them t a k e n away t i l l some t r i b e s a r e c o r a l l e d on a s m a l l p i e c e o f l a n d , as a t Canoe C r e e k o r e l s e w h e r e , o r e v e n h a v e n o t an i n c h o f g r o u n d , as a t W i l l i a m s L a k e . The n a t i v e s h a v e p r o t e s t e d a g a i n s t t h o s e s p o l i -a t i o n s , f r o m t h e b e g i n n i n g . They h a v e com-p l a i n e d b i t t e r l y o f t h a t t r e a t m e n t , b u t t h e y h a v e n o t o b t a i n e d any r e d r e s s . 50 The Shu'swap-Sand r e l a t e d I n d i a n s o f t h e s o u t h e r n i n t e r i o r h a d become s o s u s p i c i o u s o f G o v e r n m e n t o f f i c i a l s t h a t t h e b a n d s o f N i c o l a and O kanagan L a k e s r e f u s e d t o a c c e p t p r e s e n t s f r o m P o w e l l " l e s t , b y d o i n g s o , t h e y s h o u l d be t h o u g h t t o w a i v e t h e i r c l a i m f o r c o m p e n s a t i o n f o r t h e i n j u s t i c e done them i n r e l a t i o n . t o t h e 51 L a n d G r a n t s . " I n 1874 P o w e l l v i s i t e d K a m l o o p s and h e a r d t h e c o m p l a i n t s o f t h e I n d i a n s . They t o l d h i m t h a t t h e y h a d i n s u f -f i c i e n t l a n d f o r t h e i r l a r g e and g r o w i n g h e r d s o f c a t t l e a nd h o r s e s w h i l e w h i t e s e t t l e r s a r o u n d them w e r e a b l e t o p r e - e m p t and l e a s e t h o u s a n d s o f a c r e s o f l a n d a n d t h e n o f t e n t r e a t e d t h e 52 I n d i a n s w i t h c r u e l t y . P o w e l l r e t u r n e d f r o m h i s v i s i t t o t h e i n t e r i o r c o n v i n c e d t h a t t h e I n d i a n s h a d v a l i d g r i e v a n c e s t h a t o u g h t t o be r e c t i f i e d . He a l s o r e a l i s e d t h a t many o f t h e p r o b l e m s a r o s e o u t o f t h e . r e d u c t i o n s t h a t h a d b e e n c a r r i e d o u t b y T r u t c h . He h a d w r i t t e n t o D o u g l a s t o a s c e r t a i n t h e n a t u r e o f h i s l a n d p o l i c y and c o n -c l u d e d t h a t i t was t h e a c t i o n s o f h i s s u c c e s s o r s , i n r e s p o n s e t o 53 s e t t l e r demands, t h a t h a d e n g e n d e r e d m o s t o f t h e d i s c o n t e n t . /And now t h e s i t u a t i o n was b e c o m i n g e v e n more a c u t e . The I n d i a n s w e r e l e a r n i n g t h e v a l u e o f t h e i r l a n d a t t h e same t i m e as t h e y r e a l i s e d t h a t t h e y were, r a p i d l y b e i n g hemmed i n on t h e i r l i m i t e d r e s e r v e s . The G o v e r n m e n t h a d a p p e a r e d b e f o r e many o f t h e I n d i a n s 275 o n l y as an o f f i c i a l w a n t i n g t o " a d j u s t " t h e i r l a n d , so t h e y c o u l d be f o r g i v e n f o r t h i n k i n g t h a t t h e o n l y p o l i c y t h a t t h e G o v e r n m e n t h a d t o w a r d s them was t o t a k e t h e i r l a n d . As some i n t e r i o r I n d i a n s p u t i t " f i r s t one c h i e f h a d come, t h e n a n o t h e r and a n o t h e r , a l l s a y i n g t h e same t h i n g a n d a l l a f t e r w a r d s c u t t i n g 54 and c a r v i n g t h e i r l a n d s . " P o w e l l was o f t h e o p i n i o n t h a t t h e f a c t t h a t t h e r e h a d n o t b e e n an I n d i a n w ar i n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a was " n o t b e c a u s e t h e r e . h a s beert no i n j u s t i c e t o . t h e I n d i a n s , 55 b u t b e c a u s e t h e I n d i a n s h a v e n o t b e e n s u f f i c i e n t l y u n i t e d . " O t h e r p e o p l e , b o t h i n s i d e a n d o u t s i d e t h e P r o v i n c e , w e r e a l s o b e c o m i n g aware o f t h e i n j u s t i c e o f t h e G o v e r n m e n t ' s I n d i a n l a n d p o l i c y . The G o v e r n o r G e n e r a l o f C a n a d a , L o r d D u f f e r i n , w r o t e t o t h e C o l o n i a l O f f i c e d r a w i n g a t t e n t i o n t o t h e f a c t t h a t s i n c e 1864 B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a h a d c a r r i e d . o u t l a n d a p p r o p r i a t i o n s w i t h o u t " r e f e r e n c e t o t h e c o n s e n t o r w i s h e s o f t h e o r i g i n a l o c c u p a n t s . " A l l t h e I n d i a n g r i e v a n c e s w e r e r e p e a t e d a n d D u f f e r i n u r g e d t h e C o l o n i a l S e c r e t a r y t o i n t e r v e n e as C a n a d a ' s r e p u t a t i o n f o r " j u s t a n d Humane", d e a l i n g s w i t h t h e I n d i a n s d e p e n d e d on a p r o p e r s e t t l e m e n t o f t h e d i s p u t e . 5 6 Two y e a r s l a t e r ; when D u f f e r i n v i s i t e d B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , he p o i n t e d o u t t o t h e G o v e r n -ment t h a t i t s a c t i o n s s i n c e D o u g l a s l e f t o f f i c e h a d p r o d u c e d an " u n s a t i s f a c t o r y f e e l i n g a m ongst t h e I n d i a n , p o p u l a t i o n " and t h a t 57 i t was t i m e t h a t t h e i r r i g h t s w e r e r e c o g n i s e d . The G o v e r n m e n t was a l s o u n d e r p r e s s u r e f r o m some e d i t o r i a l w r i t e r s t o c h a n g e i t s a t t i t u d e . N e w s p a p e r s i n t h e e a s t w e r e r e p o r t i n g o n t h e " h i g h h a n d e d i n j u s t i c e " w i t h w h i c h B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a t r e a t e d i t s 58 I n d i a n s , a n d e v e n l o c a l l y t h e r e w e r e e d i t o r i a l c a l l s f o r t h e Go v e r n m e n t t o s t o p b e h a v i n g i n . a way t h a t was b r i n g i n g d i s g r a c e 276 59 t o t h e P r o v i n c e . B u t t h e G o v e r n m e n t s t i l l b l a n d l y a r g u e d t h a t t h e c o l o n i a l G o v e r n m e n t h a d done i t s b e s t f o r t h e I n d i a n s , a n d P r e m i e r G e o r g e Walkem e v e n c l a i m e d t h a t t h e I n d i a n s h a d b e e n s a t i s f i e d u n d e r t h e o l d l a n d s y s t e m . 6 0 Walkem h a d s i g n e d a memorandum i n 1875 t h a t h i g h l y p r a i s e d p r e - c o n f e d e r a t i o n I n d i a n p o l i c y , and S p r o a t , who was l i v i n g w i t h t h e P r e m i e r a t t h e t i m e , was, i n h i s i g n o r a n c e , i m p r e s s e d w i t h t h e document. S u b s e q u e n t i n v e s t i g a t i o n 61 o f t h e f a c t s , h o w e v e r , d i s c l o s e d t h e t r u t h t o S p r o a t . The G o v e r n m e n t m e a n w h i l e c o n t i n u e d t o a c t as i f t h e I n d i a n s d i d n o t e x i s t . I n 1874 t h e P r o v i n c e p a s s e d a new L a n d A c t t h a t c o n s o l i -d a t e d a l l p r e v i o u s l e g i s l a t i o n on l a n d . The A c t was d i s a l l o w e d by t h e F e d e r a l G o v e r n m e n t b e c a u s e i t i n c l u d e d no r e f e r e n c e t o I n d i a n t i t l e o r r i g h t s t o l a n d a n d f a i l e d t o make any p r o v i s i o n f o r t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t a n d p r o t e c t i o n o f I n d i a n r e s e r v e s . I n s p i t e o f F e d e r a l o b j e c t i o n s , t h e A c t was a l l o w e d t o come i n t o e f f e c t a f t e r some i n c o n s e q u e n t i a l amendments h a d b e e n made. The P r o v i n c i a l G o v e r n m e n t r e m a i n e d u n d e r some p r e s s u r e t o c h a n g e i t s v i e w s and i n 1875 i t a p p o i n t e d a c o m m i t t e e t o i n v e s -t i g a t e I n d i a n l a n d s a n d r e s e r v e s . To a s s i s t t h e w o r k o f t h i s c o m m i t t e e t h e G o v e r n m e n t a l s o p u b l i s h e d t h e P a p e r s C o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e I n d i a n L a n d Q u e s t i o n , 1 8 5 0 - 1 8 7 5 . T h e s e p a p e r s w e r e made p u b l i c w i t h u n d e r s t a n d a b l e r e l u c t a n c e . F o r some t i m e t h e P r e m i e r r e f u s e d t o t a b l e t h e p a p e r s , t h e n t h e r e was some d e l a y a t t h e p r i n t e r s when i t was d i s c o v e r e d t h a t he h a d " m i s t a k e n l y " l a i d 6 2 b o g u s m a t e r i a l b e f o r e t h e House. T h i s r e l u c t a n c e i s u n d e r -s t a n d a b l e b e c a u s e t h e p a p e r s c o l l e c t i v e l y c o n s t i t u t e an i n d i c t m e n t o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a ' s I n d i a n l a n d p o l i c y . The c o m m i t t e e o f 277 i n v e s t i g a t i o n a c c o r d i n g l y a d v o c a t e d t h e a c c e p t a n c e o f t h e memorandum o f t h e C a n a d i a n M i n i s t e r o f t h e I n t e r i o r o f t h e p r e v i o u s November. I n t h i s memorandum D a v i d L a i r d h a d e s t a b l i s h e d t h e i n a d e q u a c i e s o f p a s t p o l i c i e s a n d t h e c o r o l l a r y t h a t a d h e r i n g t o t h e t h i r t e e n t h C l a u s e o f t h e Terms o f U n i o n w o u l d n o t be s u f f i c i e n t t o " s a t i s f y t h e f a i r a n d r e a s o n a b l e demands o f t h e I n d i a n s . " He t h e r e f o r e recommended t h a t . t h e P r o v i n c e s h o u l d be 6 3 r e q u i r e d t o t a k e n e c e s s a r y s t e p s t o r e d r e s s I n d i a n g r i e v a n c e s . As s o o n as t h e Walkem G o v e r n m e n t r e a l i s e d t h a t i t s own c o m m i t t e e was t a k i n g t h e F e d e r a l l i n e i t b e g a n t o f i l i b u s t e r t h e t a b l i n g o f i t s r e p o r t . Walkem and B e a v e n , who as members o f t h e c o m m i t t e e h a d r e f u s e d t o a t t e n d any o f i t s m e e t i n g s , now a r g u e d i n t h e House t h a t t h e r e p o r t was i n v a l i d b e c a u s e some members o f t h e c o m m i t t e e h a d f a i l e d t o a t t e n d t h e m e e t i n g s . Walkem a d d e d t h a t t h e I n d i a n s a l r e a d y h a d more t h a n e n o u g h l a n d b e c a u s e i n l a y i n g o u t t h e o r i g i n a l r e s e r v e s Cox h a d t h r o w n p i e c e s o f p a p e r i n t o t h e a i r on a w i n d y d a y and t h e s p o t s w h e r e t h e y l a n d e d m a r k e d t h e b o u n d a r i e s o f t h e r e s e r v e . The r e m a r k drew t h e a p p r o p -r i a t e l a u g h t e r f r o m h i s c o l l e a g u e s . F o r t h e P r e m i e r t h e I n d i a n l a n d q u e s t i o n was s o m e t h i n g t o j o k e a b o u t , b u t a p p a r e n t l y F e d e r a l I n d i a n p o l i c y was no l a u g h i n g m a t t e r . A t t h e m e e t i n g o f t h e House on 20 A p r i l 1875 t h e r e p o r t was r e f e r r e d b a c k t o t h e com-m i t t e e s o t h a t t h e G o v e r n m e n t c o u l d p u t " t h e C o m m i t t e e , i n p o s s e s s i o n o f any i n f o r m a t i o n i t m i g h t p o s s e s s b e a r i n g upon t h e 64 s u b j e c t . " Y e t t h e two m i n i s t e r s s t i l l r e f u s e d t o a t t e n d any m e e t i n g s a p a r t f r o m d r o p p i n g i n t o b r o w b e a t t h e o t h e r c o m m i t t e e members i n t o f o r g e t t i n g a b o u t t h e r e p o r t a l t o g e t h e r . On 21 A p r i l i t was a n n o u n c e d t h a t t h e House w o u l d be p r o r o g u e d a t 2:30 278 t h e f o l l o w i n g d a y . F o r t h e f i r s t t i m e i n h i s t o r y T r u t c h a r r i v e d on t i m e a n d , as L i e u t e n a n t - G o v e r n o r , d e c l a r e d t h e s e s s i o n c l o s e d b e f o r e t h e c o m m i t t e e ' s r e p o r t c o u l d be t a b l e d . 6 5 The Walkem G o v e r n m e n t was c l e a r l y n o t o f a m i n d t o l i s t e n t o any a d v i c e on i t s h a n d l i n g o f I n d i a n a f f a i r s . I t m i g h t be e x p e c t e d t h a t t h e s u b t l e t i e s o f t h e G o v e r n -ment's m a n i p u l a t i o n o f t h e House w o u l d p a s s u n n o t i c e d by t h e I n d i a n s , b u t , as S p r o a t r e p o r t e d , t h e I n d i a n s o f t h e P r o v i n c e w e r e " w i d e awake" and knew e x a c t l y w h a t was g o i n g on i n V i c t o r i a . The G o v e r n m e n t ' s h a n d l i n g o f t h e c o m m i t t e e o f i n q u i r y was f u l l y r e p o r t e d i n The C o l o n i s t and h a l f - b r e e d s i n V i c t o r i a r e a d t h e n e w s p a p e r s t o I n d i a n s who i n t u r n t r a n s m i t t e d t h e news f r o m t r i b e t o t r i b e " w i t h a r a p i d i t y t h a t o u t s t r i p s t h e m a i l . " The m i s s i o n -a r i e s a l s o p r o v i d e d t h e I n d i a n s w i t h i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t G o v e r n m e n t p o l i c i e s t o w a r d s t h e m . 6 6 Many I n d i a n s w e r e t h u s a b l e t o k e e p a b r e a s t o f a l l t h e s u b t l e v a r i a t i o n s i n P r o v i n c i a l I n d i a n p o l i c y . I n 1876 t h e P r o v i n c e came t o an a g r e e m e n t o f s o r t s w i t h t h e F e d e r a l G o v e r n m e n t on t h e I n d i a n l a n d q u e s t i o n . The b a s i s o f t h i s a c c o r d was W i l l i a m D u n c a n ' s s u g g e s t i o n t h a t I n d i a n l a n d s s h o u l d be e x a m i n e d by a C o m m i s s i o n and t h e n a l l o c a t e d a c c o r d i n g t o i n d i v i d u a l s i t u a t i o n s r a t h e r t h a n a s e t a c r e a g e . The D o m i n i o n G o v e r n m e n t h a d a p p a r e n t l y g i v e n up any i d e a o f e x t i n g u i s h i n g I n d i a n t i t l e , p a r t l y b e c a u s e o f t h e e x p e n s e t h a t w o u l d be i n v o l v e d and p a r t l y b e c a u s e O t t a w a a l r e a d y h a d t r o u b l e s e n o u g h w i t h t h e " s p o i l t c h i l d o f c o n f e d e r a t i o n " . As l o n g a s t h e I n d i a n s r e m a i n e d " c o n t e n t e d " t h e F e d e r a l G o v e r n m e n t was n o t d i s p o s e d t o r a i s e t h e 6 7 q u e s t i o n o f t h e i r r i g h t s t o t h e s o i l . Now t h a t t h e r e was an a r e a o f a g r e e m e n t some w e r e h o p e f u l t h a t t h e v e x e d l a n d q u e s t i o n 279 was o n t h e way t o w a r d s a s a t i s f a c t o r y s o l u t i o n . B u t t h e r e h a d b e e n no cha n g e o f G o v e r n m e n t i n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a a nd no r e a l c h a n g e i n ' g o v e r n m e n t a l a t t i t u d e . I t was p o r t e n t o u s t h a t t h e P r o v i n c e d e l e t e d t h e w o r d s " s p e e d y " a nd " f i n a l " a d j u s t m e n t o f t h e q u e s t i o n f r o m t h e i r v e r s i o n o f t h e t e r m s o f t h e C o m m i s s i o n . I n 1876 two C o m m i s s i o n e r s , one t o r e p r e s e n t t h e D o m i n i o n and a n o t h e r r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e P r o v i n c e , w e re a p p o i n t e d a n d , a f t e r some d e l a y by t h e l o c a l G o v e r n m e n t t h e t h i r d , j o i n t C o m m i s s i o n e r was s e l e c t e d . Two o l d Hudson's Bay Company men, A.C. A n d e r s o n and A r c h i b a l d M c K i n l a y , w e r e c h o s e n t o r e p r e s e n t C a n a d a and B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a r e s p e c t i v e l y . A n d e r s o n , h o w e v e r , was c o n s t r a i n e d t o a d d r e s s t h e P r o v i n c i a l G o v e r n m e n t " p o i n t e d l y " on a number o f o c c a s i o n s a b o u t t h e a p p o i n t m e n t o f t h e t h i r d member o f t h e 69 C o m m i s s i o n , , a nd t h e summer, t h e b e s t t i m e f o r f i e l d w o r k , h a d p a s s e d b e f o r e a d e c i s i o n was t a k e n . F i n a l l y a g r e e m e n t was r e a c h e d on t h e a p p o i n t m e n t o f G i l b e r t S p r o a t t o r e p r e s e n t b o t h G o v e r n -ments . S p r o a t was t h e p i v o t a l a n d mos t e n e r g e t i c member o f t h e J o i n t C o m m i s s i o n . He h a d r e t u r n e d t o B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a i n 1874 a f t e r an a b s e n c e o f n i n e y e a r s . H i s e a r l i e r w r i t i n g s , i n w h i c h he r e c o r d s h i s e x p e r i e n c e s d u r i n g h i s r e s i d e n c e a t A l b e r n i i n t h e e a r l y 1 8 6 0 ' s , r e v e a l h i m as a t h o u g h t f u l o b s e r v e r o f t h e I n d i a n s a n d t h e i r r e a c t i o n s t o t h e p r e s e n c e o f t h e E u r o p e a n . Now, as R e s e r v e C o m m i s s i o n e r , S p r o a t p r o v e d t o be l o n g - w i n d e d a nd o p i n i o n -a t e d , s e n d i n g a b l i z z a r d o f l e t t e r s t o O t t a w a . O t h e r o f f i c i a l s f o u n d S p r o a t ' s l e n g t h y l e t t e r s a n d r e p o r t s r a t h e r t e d i o u s . The D e p a r t m e n t o f t h e I n t e r i o r , f o r e x a m p l e , was i m p r e s s e d w i t h S p r o a t ' s a b i l i t y , b u t t h o u g h t h i m t o be "somewhat p r o l i x " when 280 70 he s e n t "a v o l u m e a s h i s f i r s t r e p o r t . " I n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a Walkem h u f f e d t h a t S p r o a t was " w h o l l y u n f i t f o r a n y t h i n g b u t 71 v e r b o s e , , v o l u m i n o u s , t i r e s o m e c o r r e s p o n d e n c e . " The j u d g e m e n t o f t h e P r o v i n c e ' s f i r s t m i n i s t e r n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g S p r o a t ' s l e t t e r s t o O t t a w a p r o v i d e a d e t a i l e d and g e n e r a l l y a c c u r a t e a c c o u n t o f t h e w o r k i n g o f t h e J o i n t C o m m i s s i o n and t h e c o n s i d e r -a b l e p r o b l e m s t h a t i t e n c o u n t e r e d . They a l s o r e v e a l S p r o a t ' s t e n d e n c y t o become more and more s y m p a t h e t i c w i t h t h e p r e d i c a m e n t o f t h e I n d i a n s a n d c o r r e s p o n d i n g l y c r i t i c a l o f t h e P r o v i n c i a l G o v e r n m e n t ' s d e a l i n g s w i t h them. I n f a c t he d e f e n d e d h i s l e n g t h y r e p o r t s on t h e g r o u n d s " t h a t g r e a t e v i l s h a v e b e e n c a u s e d i n t h e p a s t by l o o s e and c u r t a i l e d r e c o r d s o f many t r a n s a c t i o n s o f t h e 72 g o v e r n m e n t w i t h t h e I n d i a n s " . I t i s a l s o e v i d e n t t h a t S p r o a t was a g r e a t a d m i r e r o f D o u g l a s and h i s I n d i a n p o l i c y ; a nd he c o n c l u d e d , a l o n g w i t h many o t h e r s , t h a t t h e r e v e r s a l o f D o u g l a s ' s p o l i c i e s was a t t h e r o o t o f t h e c u r r e n t I n d i a n d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n . F r o m t h e b e g i n n i n g i t seemed t h a t t h e P r o v i n c i a l G o v e r n m e n t i n t e n d e d t o h i n d e r e v e r y a c t i o n t a k e n by t h e J o i n t C o m m i s s i o n . A f t e r d e l a y s on t h e a p p o i n t m e n t o f p e r s o n n e l V i c t o r i a b e g a n t o p r e v a r i c a t e on t h e q u e s t i o n o f t h e e x p e n s e s o f t h e C o m m i s s i o n . B e c a u s e i t c o n s i d e r e d I n d i a n a f f a i r s t o be a p u r e l y F e d e r a l m a t t e r , B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a was i n i t i a l l y u n w i l l i n g t o c o n t r i b u t e a n y t h i n g t o w a r d s t h e c o s t o f t h e R e s e r v e C o m m i s s i o n , b u t t h e a r g u m e n t d i d move on t o become one o v e r t h e r e l a t i v e s h a r e o f t h e e x p e n s e t h a t e a c h G o v e r n m e n t w o u l d b e a r . B e c a u s e o f t h e s e d e l a y s t h e C o m m i s s i o n was n o t a b l e t o s t a r t w ork among t h e t r o u b l e d t r i b e s o f t h e i n t e r i o r d u r i n g 1 8 7 6 , b u t h a d t o c o n f i n e i t s a c t i v -i t i e s t o t h e l o w e r m a i n l a n d and V a n c o u v e r I s l a n d . The C o m m i s s i o n -281 e r s r e a l i s e d t h e u r g e n c y o f t h e i r t a s k a n d f e l t t h a t t h e s e 7 3 d e l a y s w o u l d p r o d u c e a " p e r n i c i o u s e f f e c t " among t h e I n d i a n s . B u t S p r o a t was h o p e f u l t h a t t h e w o r k t h a t t h e C o m m i s s i o n d i d on t h e c o a s t d u r i n g t h e w i n t e r o f 1876-77 w o u l d b e g i n t o a l l a y t h e f e a r s o f t h e i n t e r i o r I n d i a n s . He u n d e r s t o o d t h a t w h a t e v e r t h e y 74 d i d o n t h e c o a s t w o u l d be known by t h e i n l a n d t r i b e s . The R e s e r v e C o m m i s s i o n b e g a n i t s work w i t h an e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e Musqueam r e s e r v e on P o i n t G r e y . H e r e , as a t e a c h p l a c e t h e y v i s i t e d , a c e n s u s was t a k e n so t h a t , f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e , r e s e r v e s w e r e b a s e d on some k n o w l e d g e o f t h e I n d i a n p o p u l a t i o n i n t h e l o c a l i t y . E x i s t i n g r e s e r v e s w e r e c o n f i r m e d a n d i n many p l a c e s e x t e n d e d a nd new r e s e r v e s w e r e a l s o e s t a b l i s h e d . I n d i a n s w e r e t o l d t h a t t h e C o m m i s s i o n w o u l d n o t i n t e r f e r e w i t h l a n d l e g a l l y h e l d by s e t t l e r s , b u t i t d i d t r y t o a r b i t r a t e i n p l a c e s w h e r e t h e r i g h t s o f s e t t l e r s a n d I n d i a n s c l a s h e d . The I n d i a n s o f t h e c o a s t w e r e a l s o i n f o r m e d t h a t t h e y w o u l d n o t be g i v e n l a n d t o l i e i d l e , e v e n t h o u g h t h e d a y a f t e r M c K i n l a y h a d made t h i s p o i n t t o t h e Musqueam he r e c o r d e d i n h i s d i a r y t h a t i t was a g r e a t p i t y t o s e e s o much f i n e f a r m i n g l a n d u n u s e d b e c a u s e i t 75 was i n t h e h a n d s o f w h i t e s p e c u l a t o r s . M c K i n l a y , as P r o v i n c i a l r e p r e s e n t a t i v e on t h e C o m m i s s i o n , was p a r t i c u l a r l y p r o n e t o d e l i v e r i n g h o m i l i e s t o t h e I n d i a n s on how t h e w h i t e man h a d i m -p r o v e d t h e l a n d and t h e b e n e f i t s o f f o l l o w i n g t h e s e t t l e r s ' 7 6 e x a m p l e . However, t h e C o m m i s s i o n e r s h a d b e e n e s p e c i a l l y i n s t r u c -t e d n o t t o make any a t t e m p t t o a l t e r r a d i c a l l y t h e h a b i t s o f t h e I n d i a n s , " o r t o d i v e r t them f r o m any l e g i t i m a t e p u r s u i t s o r 77 o c c u p a t i o n s " . W i t h i n t h e i r t e r m s o f r e f e r e n c e t h e members o f t h e J o i n t C o m m i s s i o n d i d t r y t o t r e a t t h e I n d i a n s o f t h e l o w e r 282 c o a s t w i t h a modicum o f l i b e r a l i t y a n d j u s t i c e . M e a n w h i l e i n t h e s o u t h e r n i n t e r i o r t h e I n d i a n s w e r e g r o w i n g more and more a n g r y . The d e l a y s i n t h e v i s i t o f t h e C o m m i s s i o n h a d o n l y i n c r e a s e d t h e i r d i s c o n t e n t . They h a d e x -p e c t e d t h e C o m m i s s i o n i n t h e summer o f 1876 and w e r e e x a s p e r a t e d when i t f a i l e d t o a p p e a r . I t was t o be l a t e i n J u n e 1877 b e f o r e t h e C o m m i s s i o n e r s a r r i v e d i n K a m l o o p s . A l r e a d y t h e P r o v i n c i a l G o v e r n m e n t was a g i t a t i n g t o h a v e t h e C o m m i s s i o n a b o l i s h e d . The P r o v i n c e c o m p l a i n e d t h a t t h e J o i n t C o m m i s s i o n was an e x c e s s i v e l y e x p e n s i v e way o f s e t t l i n g l a n d d i s p u t e s w i t h I n d i a n s a n d , i n any c a s e , o n l y t h o s e I n d i a n s p r e s e n t l y i n c o n t a c t w i t h s e t t l e r s n e e d e d t o h a v e r e s e r v e s a l l o c a t e d . T h r o u g h o u t t h e g r e a t e r p a r t o f t h e P r o v i n c e , w r o t e t h e P r o v i n c i a l S e c r e t a r y , t h e I n d i a n s were l i k e l y t o r e m a i n c o m p l e t e l y i s o l a t e d f r o m i n t e r c o u r s e w i t h t h e w h i t e s . E v e n i f t h i s w e r e t r u e , i t was e v i d e n t t h a t e x p e r i e n c e h a d s t i l l n o t t a u g h t t h e P r o v i n c e t h a t t h e l a n d q u e s t i o n s h o u l d be d e a l t w i t h b e f o r e i t became a p r o b l e m . The P r o v i n c e s u g g e s t e d t h a t i n f u t u r e r e s e r v e s s h o u l d be a l l o c a t e d by t h e I n d i a n S u p e r -i n t e n d e n t s , s u b j e c t t o t h e a p p r o v a l o f t h e C h i e f C o m m i s s i o n e r 78 o f L a n d s and W o r k s . B u t , a s S p r o a t r i g h t l y o b s e r v e d , i f d e c i s i o n s w e r e d e p e n d e n t o n t h e a p p r o v a l o f t h e C h i e f C o m m i s s i o n e r 79 o f L a n d s a n d Works n o t a s i n g l e r e s e r v e w o u l d be l a i d o u t . E a r l y i n J u n e t h e C o m m i s s i o n ' s t r i p t o t h e i n t e r i o r was s t i l l b e i n g d e l a y e d by d i s c u s s i o n s b e t w e e n V i c t o r i a a n d O t t a w a . T h e n , s u d d e n l y , t h e r e was a demand f o r a c t i o n . A member o f t h e P r o v i n c i a l G o v e r n m e n t came t o t h e C o m m i s s i o n e r s ' o f f i c e i n V i c t o r i a u r g i n g them t o l e a v e a t o n c e f o r t h e i n t e r i o r . A f t e r t h e i r e n f o r c e d i n a c t i v i t y t h e members o f t h e C o m m i s s i o n f o u n d t h i s 283 s u d d e n i m p e t u s f o r a c t i o n s u r p r i s i n g . I t l a t e r t r a n s p i r e d t h a t t h e G o v e r n m e n t was r e s p o n d i n g t o s e t t l e r s 1 f e a r s o f an 8 0 I n d i a n u p r i s i n g i n t h e i n t e r i o r . T h e r e i s c o n f l i c t i n g e v i d e n c e on w h e t h e r t h e I n d i a n s w e r e a c t u a l l y p l a n n i n g m i l i t a n t a c t i o n a g a i n s t t h e s e t t l e r s o f t h e s o u t h e r n i n t e r i o r i n t h e summer o f 1877. Many s e t t l e r s w e r e q u i t e s u r e t h a t t h e I n d i a n s w e r e o r g a n i s i n g an u p r i s i n g , w h i l e o t h e r s t h o u g h t t h a t t h e r e was no c a u s e f o r a l a r m . The U p p e r Thompson, Shuswap and Okanagan I n d i a n s h a d a l w a y s b e e n s e e n as a g r e a t e r t h r e a t t o t h e s e t t l e r s t h a n m o s t g r o u p s , so some o f t h o s e who p r e d i c t e d an o u t b r e a k w e re u n d o u b t e d l y p a n i c k y . B u t o t h e r q u i t e l e v e l - h e a d e d i n d i v i d u a l s , who w e r e c a r e f u l t o p o i n t o u t t h a t t h e y w e re n o t a l a r m i s t s , t h o u g h t t h a t t h e r e was s e r i o u s 81 c a u s e f o r c o n c e r n . G r o w i n g d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n o v e r t h e l a n d q u e s t i o n c e r t a i n l y r e a c h e d a p e a k among t h e Shuswap and Okanagan I n d i a n s d u r i n g 1877. I n t h e i r e x a s p e r a t i o n some I n d i a n s a r g u e d i n c o u n c i l s t h a t armed f o r c e was t h e o n l y way t o e x t r a c t c o n -c e s s i o n s f r o m an u n r e s p o n s i v e , G o v e r n m e n t . T h e r e was t a l k t h a t t h e I n d i a n s w e r e c o n t e m p l a t i n g l i n k i n g up w i t h t h e Nez P e r c e i n s u r g e n t s i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . I n d i a n s among t h e Shuswap c l a i m e d t o h a v e r e c e n t l y come f r o m C h i e f J o s e p h ' s camp and t h e y 82 g a v e a c c o u n t s o f t h e b a t t l e s t h a t t h e Nez P e r c e s h a d f o u g h t . O t h e r I n d i a n s w e r e s a i d t o be i n c o n t a c t w i t h a Spokane s e c t w h i c h a d v o c a t e d c o m p l e t e w i t h d r a w a l f r o m any k i n d o f c o n t a c t w i t h 8 3 t h e E u r o p e a n . T h e r e was a m e e t i n g o f I n d i a n s t o d i s c u s s p r o b -l e m s and t a c t i c s a t t h e h e a d o f Okanagan L a k e i n l a t e J u n e o r e a r l y J u l y . T h i s c o u n c i l was a n a t t e m p t t o c o n f e d e r a t e t h e Shuswap and Okanagan I n d i a n s , a l t h o u g h i t i s d o u b t f u l i f i t 284 p r o d u c e d a b s o l u t e u n a n i m i t y . An O k anagan c h i e f known t o A n d e r s o n f o r many y e a r s t o l d h i m t h a t t h e y o u n g men a t t h e m e e t i n g w e r e e a g e r t o f i g h t b u t t h a t t h e o l d e r c h i e f s a d v o c a t e d 84 c a u t i o n . What d o e s seem t o h a v e come o u t o f t h e m e e t i n g was a d e t e r m i n a t i o n t o p r e s e n t a u n i t e d f r o n t t o t h e R e s e r v e Com-m i s s i o n e r s who w e r e e x p e c t e d i n t h e a r e a . When t h e C o m m i s s i o n f i n a l l y a r r i v e d i n K a m l o o p s t h e y w e re e x p e c t i n g t o h a v e t o d e a l w i t h I n d i a n d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n , b u t t h e y w e r e " n o t p r e p a r e d f o r t h e d e p t h o f d i s a f f e c t i o n t h a t t h e y e n -c o u n t e r e d . On t h e i r a r r i v a l a t K a m l o o p s t h e C o m m i s s i o n e r s f o u n d t h e I n d i a n v i l l a g e t o be n e a r l y empty as m o s t o f t h e i n h a b -8 5 i t a n t s w e r e away a t t h e O k anagan m e e t i n g . S p r o a t , who s a i d t h a t he p r e f e r r e d t o g a t h e r h i s own e v i d e n c e r a t h e r t h a n t o r e l y o n t h e j u d g e m e n t o f o t h e r s i n I n d i a n m a t t e r s , c o n c l u d e d t h a t t h o s e o f f i c i a l s who f e l t t h a t t h e r e was no c a u s e f o r a l a r m w e r e m i s t a k e n . He t h o u g h t t h a t s e t t l e r s o f t e n d i d n o t know w h a t was g o i n g on r i g h t u n d e r t h e i r n o s e s among t h e I n d i a n s , and t h a t i f an a t t a c k was b e i n g p l a n n e d t h e I n d i a n s w o u l d h a r d l y be l i k e l y 8 6 t o i n f o r m l o c a l o f f i c i a l s o f t h e i r i n t e n t i o n s . W h i l e some s e t t l e r s u n d e r e s t i m a t e d t h e g r a v i t y o f t h e s i t u a t i o n , t h e R e s e r v e C o m m i s s i o n e r s w e r e s u f f i c i e n t l y i m p r e s s e d t o s e n d a d e s p e r a t e t e l e g r a m t o O t t a w a c l a i m i n g " I n d i a n s i t u a t i o n v e r y g r a v e f r o m K a m l o o p s t o . A m e r i c a n b o r d e r - g e n e r a l d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n - o u t b r e a k p o s s i b l e " . ^ I t was S p r o a t ' s o p i n i o n t h a t any o u t b r e a k t h a t o c c u r r e d w o u l d be t h e l o g i c a l o u tcome o f P r o v i n c i a l p o l i c i e s . An I n d i a n r i s i n g " w o u l d n o t be a r e v o l t a g a i n s t a u t h o r i t y , b u t t h e d e s p a i r -285 i n g a c t i o n o f men s u f f e r i n g i n t o l e r a b l e w r o n g , w h i c h t h e 8 8 P r o v i n c i a l G o v e r n m e n t w i l l t a k e no s t e p s t o remedy." O t t a w a c o n c l u d e d s i m i l a r l y . I t i s o b v i o u s , w r o t e t h e M i n i s t e r o f t h e I n t e r i o r , " t h a t t h e d i s c o n t e n t o f t h e I n d i a n s i s w h o l l y due t o ' t h e p o l i c y w h i c h h a s b e e n p u r s u e d t o w a r d s them by t h e l o c a l a u t h o r i t i e s " . A n d he a d d e d t h a t i n t h e e v e n t o f an I n d i a n w a r " t h e p e o p l e o f C a n a d a g e n e r a l l y w o u l d n o t s u s t a i n a p o l i c y t o w a r d s t h e I n d i a n s o f t h a t P r o v i n c e w h i c h i s , i n my o p i n i o n , 89 n o t o n l y u n w i s e a nd u n j u s t , b u t a l s o i l l e g a l . " P e a c e i n t h e i n t e r i o r was t e n u o u s f o r a t i m e , b u t e v e n t u a l l y t h e R e s e r v e C o m m i s s i o n e r s w e r e a b l e t o c o o l t h e s i t u a t i o n o f f . S p r o a t t r i e d t o c a l m t h e I n d i a n s by t e l l i n g them n o t t o b r o o d o v e r t h e p a s t b u t t o p r e p a r e t h e m s e l v e s f o r t h e f u t u r e . B e f o r e l e a v i n g V i c t o r i a he h a d s p o k e n t o D o u g l a s who r e c a l l e d t h a t he h a d a l w a y s b e e n v e r y c a r e f u l t o k e e p t h e Shuswap and Okanagan 90 I n d i a n s i n a g o o d humour. The C o m m i s s i o n t h e r e f o r e g ave t h e I n d i a n s t i m e t o e x p r e s s a l l t h e i r c o m p l a i n t s i n t h e i r own way. The C o m m i s s i o n e r s r e a l i s e d t h a t t h e I n d i a n s h a d d i f f e r e n t c o n c e p t s o f t i m e and method s o f n e g o t i a t i n g , a n d t h e y f e l t t h a t t h e r e was a m a r k e d c o n t r a s t b e t w e e n t h e a t t e n t i o n t h a t t h e y g a v e t o t h e I n d i a n s a n d t h e a b r u p t manner i n w h i c h t h e y w e r e t r e a t e d b y t h e 91 C o l o n i a l G o v e r n m e n t . B u t t h e u l t i m a t e t a c t i c o f t h e R e s e r v e C o m m i s s i o n was t o d i v i d e t h e Shuswap l e a d e r s , t h u s b r e a k i n g up t h e n a s c e n t " c o n f e d e r a t i o n " . The Roman C a t h o l i c m i s s i o n a r y , F a t h e r C . J . G r a n d i d i e r , h a d p e r s u a d e d t h e Adams L a k e b a n d n o t t o a t t e n d t h e c o u n c i l a t t h e h e a d o f O k a n a g a n L a k e b u t t o meet w i t h t h e C o m m i s s i o n i n s t e a d . So w h i l e t h e K a m l o o p s I n d i a n s w e r e away a t 286 t h e m e e t i n g a s e t t l e m e n t was r e a c h e d a t Adams L a k e and w i t h a n o t h e r g r o u p on t h e N o r t h Thompson R i v e r . T h e s e n o r t h e r n b a n d s 9 2 h a d a l w a y s b e e n among t h e m o s t i s o l a t e d o f t h e Shuswap I n d i a n s . When L o u i s , t h e K a m l o o p s l e a d e r , r e t u r n e d he was f u r i o u s w i t h t h e s e I n d i a n s f o r s e t t l i n g , b u t o t h e r c h i e f s w e r e b e g i n n i n g t o w a i v e r . M e s s a g e s w e r e c o n s t a n t l y p a s s i n g b e t w e e n t h e d i f f e r e n t b a n d s and a s e t t l e m e n t i n one p l a c e f a c i l i t a t e d n e g o t i a t i o n s i n 93 a n o t h e r . W i t h i n some b a n d s t h e r e w e r e d i v i s i o n s b e t w e e n y o u n g and o l d . Young I n d i a n s w e r e s a i d t o h a v e f e w e r b i t t e r m e m o r i e s and w e r e l e s s i n c l i n e d t o a r g u e a b o u t t h e p a s t . A t S p a l l u m c h e e n , n o r t h o f Okanagan L a k e , t h e p r e s t i g e o f an o l d c h i e f was d e s t r o y e d when h i s v i e w s on t h e l a n d q u e s t i o n w e r e r e j e c t e d b y o t h e r I n d i a n s 94 n e g o t i a t i n g w i t h t h e C o m m i s s i o n . By p l a y i n g o f f t h e o l d a g a i n s t t h e y o u n g a g r e e m e n t c o u l d o f t e n be r e a c h e d i n s i t u a t i o n s w h i c h a p p e a r e d i m p o s s i b l e . B u t S p r o a t c a u t i o n e d t h a t w h i l e l a n d g r i e v a n c e s m i g h t be s e t t l e d , m e m o r i e s o f b r u t a l and u n j u s t t r e a t -95 ment c o u l d n o t be e a s i l y e r a s e d . L e a v i n g K a m l o o p s , t h e C o m m i s s i o n e r s p r o c e e d e d t o Shuswap L a k e and t h e n t h r o u g h t h e O k a n a g a n v a l l e y a n d i n t o t h e S i m i l k a m e e n a r e a b e f o r e w i n t e r c a u g h t up w i t h them. The summer o f 1877 was t h e l a s t i n w h i c h t h e J o i n t C o m m i s s i o n was a c t i v e . I n 1878 p r e s s u r e f r o m t h e P r o v i n c i a l G o v e r n m e n t h a d t h e t h r e e - m a n Com-m i s s i o n d i s s o l v e d and S p r o a t c a r r i e d on a l o n e u n t i l 1880. Many I n d i a n s w o n d e r e d i f y e t a n o t h e r c h a n g e i n t h e manner o f d e a l i n g w i t h them meant t h a t o n c e a g a i n t h e i r n e e d s were'"to.be t r i f l e d w i t h . B u t a s s o l e C o m m i s s i o n e r S p r o a t c o n t i n u e d t o t r y a n d a c h i e v e a r e a s o n a b l e s e t t l e m e n t o f t h e l a n d q u e s t i o n . S p r o a t f e l t b o u n d t o s p e a k f o r t h e I n d i a n s b e c a u s e t h e y 287 h a d g r e a t d i f f i c u l t y i n m a k i n g e v e n t h e i r m o s t r e a s o n a b l e w i s h e s known " t h r o u g h an a t m o s p h e r e t h i c k w i t h p r e j u d i c e a n d 96 i n j u s t i c e . " He t o o k a g r e a t i n t e r e s t m t h e I n d i a n way o f l i f e a n d a r g u e d s t r o n g l y t h a t t h e i r "manners and c u s t o m s " h a d t o be u n d e r s t o o d b e f o r e r e s e r v e s c o u l d be s a t i s f a c t o r i l y a s s i g n e d t o them. He p o i n t e d o u t t h a t d i f f e r e n t p a r t s o f t r i b a l l a n d w e r e f r e q u e n t e d a t d i f f e r e n t t i m e s o f t h e y e a r and w e r e " l i n k e d t o t h e h e a r t s o f t h e p e o p l e b y many a s s o c i a t i o n s . " I t was t h e r e f o r e i m p o s s i b l e t o o p e n t h e c o u n t r y f o r s e t t l e m e n t w i t h -o u t i n t e r f e r i n g w i t h t h e I n d i a n mode o f l i f e . S p r o a t t h o u g h t t h a t t h i s p o i n t h a d n o t b e e n a p p r e c i a t e d by t h e r u l e r s o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a s i n c e D o u g l a s l e f t o f f i c e . The I n d i a n s o f t h e i n t e r i o r w e r e c o n s t a n t l y on t h e move a n d S p r o a t knew t h a t i t w o u l d be d a n g e r o u s t o t r y and c o n f i n e them t o l i m i t e d r e s e r v e s . - They l i k e d t o g a l l o p a b o u t t o v i s i t f r i e n d s a n d t o f i s h and h u n t w h e r e t h e y p l e a s e d . S p r o a t c o n c l u d e d t h e r e s e r v e s c o u l d n o t be a l l o c a t e d a s t h o u g h a s s i g n i n g l a n d t o O n t a r i o f a r m e r s : g i v i n g s o many a c r e s t o e a c h i n d i v i d u a l . Many i n t e r i o r I n d i a n s w e r e n o t s o much i n t e r e s t e d i n a c r e a g e a n d good a r a b l e l a n d as t h e " o l d ' p l a c e s o f . f u n ' up i n t h e m o u n t a i n s o r some p l a c e s o f f i s h i n g . . . w h e r e , a t c e r t a i n s e a s o n s , t h e y a s s e m b l e t o f i s h , d i g r o o t s a n d r a c e t h e i r h o r s e s . " S p r o a t s o m e t i m e s h a d I n d i a n s b e s e e c h i n g h i m t h a t i f t h e Queen c o u l d n o t g i v e them g o o d s o i l t h e n w o u l d s h e a t l e a s t g i v e them t h e r o c k s a n d s t o n e s o f t h e 97 " o l d l o v e d l o c a l i t i e s " now p o s s e s s e d by t h e w h i t e s . W h i l e he d i d n o t w a n t t o a l t e r r a d i c a l l y t h e I n d i a n s ' t r a d i t i o n a l way o f l i f e , i t was a l s o e v i d e n t t o S p r o a t t h a t many w e r e c h a n g i n g anyway. Among t h e Shuswap, f o r e x a m p l e , t h e r e h a d 288 b e e n g r e a t c h a n g e s s i n c e 1865 when N i n d r e p o r t e d t h a t t h e y "do n o t h i n g more w i t h t h e i r l a n d t h a n c u l t i v a t e a few s m a l l p a t c h e s 9 8 o f p o t a t o e s h e r e a nd t h e r e " . Now t h e y h a d l a r g e h e r d s o f 99 s t o c k , a n d g r a i n and r o o t c r o p s w e r e grown on mos t r e s e r v e s . As a r e s u l t o f N i n d ' s r e p o r t t h e I n d i a n s w e r e d e p r i v e d o f l a n d , b u t now t h a t t h e i r s t o c k numbers were i n c r e a s i n g t h e y r e q u i r e d more l a n d , p a r t i c u l a r l y a s o v e r s t o c k i n g i n t h e i n t e r i o r was a l r e a d y d e s t r o y i n g t h e n a t u r a l b u n c h g r a s s and r e p l a c i n g i t w i t h s a g e b r u s h . 1 0 0 S p r o a t a l s o p o i n t e d o u t f r e q u e n t l y t h a t i n t h e a r i d i n t e r i o r l a n d w i t h o u t w a t e r was u s e l e s s . . W h i l e P r o v i n c i a l l e g i s l a t i o n l a i d down m i n i m a l I n d i a n r i g h t s t o l a n d , t h e r e "was no m e n t i o n o f w a t e r r i g h t s . 1 0 " ' " T h e r e w e r e d e s u l t o r y a t t e m p t s t o d e a l w i t h t h e l a n d q u e s t i o n b u t n o t h i n g was done t o e n s u r e t h a t t h e I n d i a n s h a d a c c e s s t o w a t e r . E v e n as S p r o a t was w o r k i n g t o s o l v e some o f t h e s e p r o b l e m s h i s t i m e was r u n n i n g o u t . P u b l i c o p i n i o n was r a p i d l y b u i l d i n g up a g a i n s t t h e R e s e r v e C o m m i s s i o n . Many s e t t l e r s , b o t h on t h e c o a s t and i n t h e i n t e r i o r , t h o u g h t t h a t t h e C o m m i s s i o n was b e i n g t o o l i b e r a l t o w a r d s t h e I n d i a n s . S p r o a t h a d t o l d I n d i a n s t h a t i t was n o t p o s s i b l e t o t u r n t h e c o u n t r y " t o p s y t u r v y " t o s e t t l e 102 l a n d d i s p u t e s . I n s t e a d c o m p r o m i s e s h a d t o be r e a c h e d . B u t t h e s e t t l e r s a p p e a r e d t o be u n w i l l i n g t o c o m p r o m i s e . A l t h o u g h I n d i a n s w e r e n e v e r g i v e n as much l a n d b y t h e C o m m i s s i o n as t h e y 103 c o u l d h a v e p r e - e m p t e d i f t h e y w e r e w h i t e , . many s e t t l e r s com-p l a i n e d t h a t I n d i a n s w e r e b e i n g t r e a t e d t o o g e n e r o u s l y . I n t h e i n t e r i o r S p r o a t h a d t r i e d n o t t o i n t e r f e r e w i t h t h e i n t e r e s t s o f t h e s e t t l e r s , b u t t h e y s t i l l p r o t e s t e d b i t t e r l y when I n d i a n r e s e r v e s w e r e e s t a b l i s h e d a d j a c e n t t o t h e i r l a n d . One g r o u p o f 289 S o u t h Thompson R i v e r s e t t l e r s o b j e c t e d t o I n d i a n n e i g h b o u r s a s b e i n g "a c o n s t a n t s o u r c e o f a n n o y a n c e " b e c a u s e o f t h e i r t r e s p a s s i n g s t o c k and " t h e w e l l known t h i e v i n g p r o c l i v i t i e s o f t h e I n d i a n s t h e m s e l v e s . " F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e y w r o t e , t h e r o a d s " w i l l be c o n s t a n t l y h a u n t e d w i t h h o o t i n g s a v a g e s y e l p i n g c u r s a n d o t h e r f r i g h t f u l o b j e c t s , r e n d e r i n g t r a f f i c on i t e i t h e r 104 d a n g e r o u s o r i m p o s s i b l e . " I n a p e t i t i o n t o t h e G o v e r n m e n t t h e s e s e t t l e r s s a i d t h a t t h e r e s u l t o f h a v i n g an I n d i a n r e s e r v e a d j a c e n t t o t h e i r l a n d w o u l d be t h a t t h e i r p r o p e r t y "on t h e i m p r o v e m e n t o f w h i c h we h a v e e x p e n d e d u p w a r d s o f a d e c a d e o f o u r m o s t v i g o r o u s manhood, w i l l be c o n f i s c a t e d , f o r p r o p e r t y w i t h 105 s u c h s u r r o u n d i n g s w i l l be u t t e r l y v a l u e l e s s i n m a r k e t . " O t h e r s e t t l e r s p r o t e s t e d a b o u t I n d i a n s t r e s p a s s i n g on t h e i r l a n d . A man named W i l l i a m S m i t h who l i v e d n e a r t h e mouth o f t h e F r a s e r r i v e r w r o t e t o t h e I n d i a n S u p e r i n t e n d e n t t h a t t h e i r i s some I n d i a n s s e t t l e d on my P r e e m p t i o n and I c a n ' n o t g e t them o f f a l s o t h e i r d o g s a r e a b o t h e r i n g my S t o c k and S t e a l i n g e v e r t h i n g t h e y c a n g e t h o l d o f a n d t h e I n d i a n s a r e t r a m p i n g down my d y k e s and when I s a y any t h i n g t o them t h e y c a l l me a l l t h e mean names t h e y c a n t h i n k o f s o I t h i n k i t i s t i m e t h e y was moved o f f w i t h s t r i c k o r d e r s n o t t o come b a c k on t h e p l a c e any more. 106 O t h e r , more l i t e r a t e , c o m p l a i n t s w e r e r e c e i v e d . A r c h i b a l d Dodds, a C o w i c h a n s e t t l e r , c o n c l u d e d t h a t " t h e r e i s no l a w o r j u s t i c e 107 h e r e f o r a w h i t e man,, t h e I n d i a n h a s e v e r y t h i n g h i s way", and some wag i n t h e O k a nagan s a i d t h a t t h e o b j e c t o f t h e R e s e r v e C o m m i s s i o n was t o p u t t h e w h i t e s on r e s e r v e s . 1 0 8 S p r o a t r e a l i s e d t h a t t h e r e was b o u n d t o be some o p p o s i t i o n o f i n t e r e s t b e t w e e n s t o c k r a i s i n g s e t t l e r s a nd s t o c k r a i s i n g 109 I n d i a n s i f t h e l a n d s o f t h e l a t t e r w e r e t o be d e f i n e d . B u t he 290 f e l t that objections l i k e those of the South Thompson s e t t l e r s were "the angry utterance of men steeped i n p r e j u d i c e . " 1 1 0 Many s e t t l e r s treated the Indians well, but when there was tension between the interests of the two.races, the s e t t l e r s a l l took a s i m i l a r p o s i t ion. They forgot the "obligation of regarding the Indians as equal before the law, i n practice, as well as theory." When s e t t l e r s thought that they had been badly treated by the Commission they began to abuse i t . They s t i r r e d up the newspapers and, because most of i t s members were "farming s e t t l e r s with the prejudices of t h e i r c l a s s " , 1 1 1 s e t t l e r s had a great influence on Government. Sproat began "to think that people here believe that the Indians have no r i g h t s , and that they cannot acquire them." 1 1 2 Sproat's assessment of the mood of the s e t t l e r s was generally accurate. Some disagreed with the majority opinion. The Inland Sentinel's sentiments were more admirable than i t s s p e l l i n g when i t urged that " i t i s far better to deal f a i r l y with those whom the creator f i r s t gave possession of the Great 113 Loan Land". But most s e t t l e r s put t h e i r own interests ahead of those of the Indians and they most assuredly had the ear of the Government. Both the E l l i o t t administration, which held o f f i c e from February 1876 to June 1878, and Walkem's Government, which both preceded and followed E l l i o t t ' s , were well tuned to the demands of s e t t l e r s . The votes of s e t t l e r s i n the i n t e r i o r could often be c r u c i a l to these Governments with t h e i r small majorities. As Sproat asked r h e t o r i c a l l y , "would a member or a minister, himself a s e t t l e r , disregard angry and prejudiced messages from his 291 n e i g h b o u r s , m e r e l y f o r t h e s a k e o f t h e Indians"." 1"" 1'' 1 E l l i o t t ' s C h i e f C o m m i s s i o n e r o f L a n d s a n d W o r k s , F o r b e s G e o r g e V e r n o n , t o l d S p r o a t t h a t he a g r e e d w i t h t h e C o m m i s s i o n e r ' s v i e w s o n t h e l a n d q u e s t i o n i n t h e O k a n a g a n , b u t o w i n g t o t h e a p p r o a c h o f h i s 115 e l e c t i o n i n t h e d i s t r i c t he c o u l d t a k e no a c t i o n . As f a r as S p r o a t was c o n c e r n e d t h e r e was l i t t l e t o c h o o s e b e t w e e n t h e two a d m i n i s t r a t i o n s on I n d i a n l a n d p o l i c y . Walkem h a d made t h e o r i g i n a l a g r e e m e n t t o e s t a b l i s h t h e R e s e r v e C o m m i s s i o n a nd s o E l l i o t t c a m p a i g n e d on t h e i d e a t h a t Walkem h a d made an e x t r a v a g a n t and e x p e n s i v e c o n c e s s i o n . What t h e I n d i a n s t h o u g h t a b o u t t h e C o m m i s s i o n , o r t h e a c t u a l c o s t o f i t s o p e r a t i o n s , w e r e i r r e l e v a n t as n e i t h e r t h e C o m m i s s i o n e r s n o r t h e I n d i a n s w e r e c o n s u l t e d . I t was t h e o l d s t o r y s a i d S p r o a t , " a n y t h i n g w i l l do f o r t h e - A- ..116 I n d i a n s . The a t t i t u d e a n d i n a c t i o n o f t h e s e t t l e r G o v e r n m e n t i n V i c t o r i a was a c o n t i n u i n g i m p e d i m e n t t o t h e C o m m i s s i o n ' s work. To meet w i t h t h e a p p r o v a l o f t h e P r o v i n c i a l G o v e r n m e n t , I n d i a n r e s e r v e s h a d t o c o n f o r m t o e v e r y l e t t e r o f t h e l a w , a t t h e same t i m e as a l l k i n d s o f l a x i t y was p e r m i t t e d w i t h s e t t l e r s ' p r e -e m p t i o n s . F o r i n s t a n c e , t h e C o m m i s s i o n was i n f o r m e d i n 1879 t h a t t h e G o v e r n m e n t w o u l d n o t r e c o g n i s e r e s e r v e s t h a t h a d n o t b e e n s u r v e y e d a c c o r d i n g t o t h e r e g u l a t i o n s l a i d down i n t h e L a n d Amendment A c t o f t h a t y e a r . A d h e r i n g t o t h e p r o v i s i o n s o f t h i s A c t w o u l d r e s u l t i n g r e a t l y i n c r e a s e d e x p e n d i t u r e b y t h e Com-m i s i o n a n d t h e A c t was a l s o t o a p p l y t o r e s e r v e s t h a t w e re 117 a l r e a d y e s t a b l i s h e d . I n t h e e n d n o t a s i n g l e r e s e r v e l a i d o u t b y t h e R e s e r v e C o m m i s s i o n was a p p r o v e d by t h e P r o v i n c i a l 118 C h i e f C o m m i s s i o n e r o f L a n d s a n d Work s . I n some p l a c e s a l l t h e 292 g o od l a n d h a d b e e n t a k e n up by s e t t l e r s b e f o r e t h e C o m m i s s i o n a r r i v e d , m a k i n g i t d i f f i c u l t t o f i n d l a n d f o r t h e I n d i a n s . I n o t h e r p l a c e s t h e P r o v i n c i a l G o v e r n m e n t a l l o w e d s e t t l e r s t o p u r -c h a s e l a n d a f t e r i t h a d b e e n r e s e r v e d f o r t h e I n d i a n s by t h e 119 . . . . . C o m m i s s i o n , a nd i n t h e i n t e r i o r w h i t e s c o n t i n u e d t o r u n t h e i r 120 c a t t l e on w i n t e r r a n g e l a n d s e t a s i d e f o r t h e I n d i a n s . When S p r o a t w r o t e t o G o v e r n m e n t o f f i c i a l s a b o u t s u c h c a s e s t h e y s i m p l y i g n o r e d h i s c o r r e s p o n d e n c e , , a l t h o u g h t h e y a l w a y s p a i d p r o m p t a t t e n t i o n t o any l e t t e r c o n t a i n i n g t h e c o m p l a i n t o f a s e t t l e r . One G o v e r n m e n t o f f i c i a l t o l d S p r o a t t h a t d r a w i n g Walkem's a t t e n t i o n t o a - l e t t e r o n I n d i a n b u s i n e s s " w a s . l i k e c a l l i n g h i s 121 a t t e n t i o n t o t h e p r e s e n c e o f a r a t t l e s n a k e . " When t h e R e s e r v e C o m m i s s i o n e r w r o t e t o t h e P r o v i n c i a l S e c r e t a r y r e g a r d i n g t h e l a n d f i a s c o i n t h e C o w i c h a n a r e a h i s l e t t e r was a n n o t a t e d w i t h f i n e l y r e a s o n e d comments s u c h as " i m p e r t i n e n c e " a n d " p r e s u m p t u o u s 122 a s s u r a n c e " . I t g r a d u a l l y dawned on S p r o a t • t h a t "no g o v e r n m e n t o f t h e p r o v i n c e w i l l e f f e c t u a l l y r e c o g n i s e t h a t t h e I n d i a n s h a v e any r i g h t s t o l a n d . I f i t i s p o s s i b l e t o d e p r i v e them o f t h e i r " . 12 3 l a n d , o r p r e v e n t them g e t t i n g a b i t o f l a n d , i t w i l l be done." U n d e r t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s i t m u s t h a v e b e e n v e r y d i f f i c u l t f o r h i m t o c o n v e y t o t h e I n d i a n s t h e p r o f e s s e d " a n x i o u s d e s i r e o f t h e 124 P r o v i n c i a l G o v e r n m e n t t o d e a l j u s t l y and r e a s o n a b l y w i t h them". S p r o a t h a d t o l d O t t a w a t h a t b a s i c a l l y t h e r e was l i t t l e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e two G o v e r n m e n t s , b u t a t t h e same t i m e he a d v i s e d t h e D o m i n i o n t h a t i t w o u l d be w i s e t o s e t t l e a l l I n d i a n m a t t e r s w h i l e E l l i o t t was i n o f f i c e . He w a r n e d t h a t o n c e Walkem and h i s two c r o n i e s , A s h a n d B e a v e n , g o t b a c k i n t o power t h e s i t u a t i o n w o u l d o n c e a g a i n become i m p o s s i b l e . They " w i l l do 293 a n y t h i n g t o e m b a r r a s s and d e f e a t t h e C o m m i s s i o n " , w r o t e S p r o a t 125 p r o p h e t i c a l l y . Walkem was c a l l e d upon t o f o r m a G o v e r n m e n t i n J u n e 18 78 as p u b l i c p r e s s u r e c o n t i n u e d t o mount a g a i n s t t h e R e s e r v e C o m m i s s i o n . S p r o a t n o t i c e d t h a t t h e c r i t i c i s m o f h i m was b e c o m i n g more b i t t e r . The Member o f P a r l i a m e n t f o r Y a l e , F r a n c i s James B a r n a r d , s a i d i n t h e HOuse o f Commons t h a t t h e R e s e r v e C o m m i s s i o n e r "seemed t o t h i n k a l l he h a d t o do was g i v e 126 t h e I n d i a n s w h a t e v e r l a n d he f a n c i e d " . De Cosmos w r o t e t o J o h n A. M a c d o n a l d a d v i s i n g h i m t h a t t h e s e r v i c e s o f S p r o a t o u g h t 127 t o be d i s p e n s e d w i t h . F i n a l l y S p r o a t r e s i g n e d u n d e r p r e s s u r e f r o m h i s p o s i t i o n as R e s e r v e C o m m i s s i o n e r e a r l y i n 1880. James F e l l , a V i c t o r i a b u s i n e s s m a n , w r o t e t o c o n g r a t u l a t e M a c d o n a l d as " i t was h i g h t i m e t h a t G.M. S p r o a t was b r o u g h t t o b o ok and p u t i n h i s p r o p e r p l a c e , and y o u h a v e j u s t done t h e r i g h t t h i n g , one 12 8 h e a d i s a l l t h a t i s r e q u i r e d . " S p r o a t h a d p a i d t h e p r i c e o f a l l o w i n g B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a ' s I n d i a n l a n d p o l i c y l a p s e i n t o f a i r t r e a t m e n t o f t h e I n d i a n s . By 1 8 8 0 , n o t o n l y h a d S p r o a t b e e n e l i m i n a t e d f r o m any r o l e i n I n d i a n p o l i c y , b u t a number o f t h e o l d g ang o f t h e e a r l y 1 870's w e r e b a c k i n o f f i c e . M a c d o n a l d was P r i m e M i n i s t e r o f C a n a d a a g a i n and now h a d t h e a d d i t i o n a l p o r t f o l i o o f M i n i s t e r o f t h e I n t e r i o r , w h i c h i n c l u d e d r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r I n d i a n A f f a i r s . Walkem was b a c k a s P r e m i e r o f t h e P r o v i n c e . E v e n T r u t c h was b a c k i n an o f f i c i a l c a p a c i t y , h a v i n g b e e n a p p o i n t e d D o m i n i o n a g e n t i n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a on r a i l w a y m a t t e r s . T r u t c h was a l s o t o " t a k e an a d v i s o r y i n t e r e s t i n I n d i a n m a t t e r s i n B r i t i s h 129 C o l u m b i a " . A c c o r d i n g l y M a c d o n a l d a s k e d h i m t o s u g g e s t a r e -p l a c e m e n t f o r S p r o a t a n d T r u t c h r e p l i e d t h a t h i s b r o t h e r - i n - l a w w o u l d make a g o o d R e s e r v e C o m m i s s i o n e r . So P e t e r O ' R e i l l y was 294 d u l y a p p o i n t e d . Some o l d a t t i t u d e s w e r e a l s o b e i n g e x p r e s s e d . T r u t c h a g r e e d w i t h t h o s e who h a d o p p o s e d S p r o a t ' s a c t i o n s . He s t i l l d i d n o t " c o n s i d e r i t o f s p e c i a l moment t o s e c u r e e x t e n s i v e t r a c t s o f l a n d f o r t h e I n d i a n s a n d t h o u g h t t h a t many I n d i a n r e s e r v e s e s t a b l i s h e d by S p r o a t w e r e " u n r e a s o n a b l y l a r g e " , o r , as T r u t c h was s o f o n d o f s a y i n g , " o u t o f a l l p r o p o r t i o n t o t h e 130 a c t u a l o r p r o s p e c t i v e r e q u i r e m e n t s o f t h e I n d i a n s " . T r u t c h l a t e r t o l d t h e P r i m e M i n i s t e r t h a t t h e r e s e r v e s l a i d o u t s i n c e 1871 h a d n e v e r b e e n u s e d by t h e I n d i a n s e x c e p t as h u n t i n g g r o u n d s 131 and n o r w e r e t h e y l i k e l y t o be u s e d . T h e r e f o r e T r u t c h a d v i s e d M a c d o n a l d t h a t i n f u t u r e t h e d e c i s i o n s o f t h e R e s e r v e C o m m i s s i o n e r s h o u l d be s u b j e c t t o c o n f i r m a t i o n b y t h e I n d i a n S u p e r i n t e n d e n t 132 and t h e C h i e f C o m m i s s i o n e r o f L a n d s a n d W o r k s , and t h i s s u g -133 g e s t i o n was a c c e p t e d by t h e D e p a r t m e n t o f I n d i a n A f f a i r s . O ' R e i l l y was a p p o i n t e d I n d i a n R e s e r v e C o m m i s s i o n e r i n s p i t e o f , o r p e r h a p s b e c a u s e o f , t h e f a c t t h a t t h e I n d i a n s h a d made s t r o n g c o m p l a i n t s a b o u t n e a r l y e v e r y r e s e r v e t h a t he l a i d o u t as a M a g i s t r a t e d u r i n g t h e c o l o n i a l p e r i o d . The N i c o l a r e s e r v e s w e r e a c a s e i n p o i n t . The r e s e r v e s i n t h e N i c o l a v a l l e y w e r e f i r s t e s t a b l i s h e d by O ' R e i l l y i n 1868. I m m e d i a t e l y one o f t h e N i c o l a c h i e f s c o m p l a i n e d t o . Rev. J . B . Good a t L y t t o n t h a t O ' R e i l l y h a d i g n o r e d h i s e x p r e s s e d w i s h e s a n d e x c l u d e d h i s f a v o u r i t e l i v i n g p l a c e , w i t h i t s b u r i a l s i t e s , w a t e r c o u r s e s a n d p o t a t o p a t c h e s , f r o m t h e r e s e r v e . G o v e r n o r M u s g r a v e was p e t i -134 t i o n e d o n t h e c a s e a n d he c o n s u l t e d O ' R e i l l y who c l a i m e d t h a t when he e s t a b l i s h e d t h e r e s e r v e he h a d b e e n i n s t r u c t e d t o d e a l l i b e r a l l y w i t h t h e I n d i a n s . I n f a c t t h e r e was no i n s t r u c t i o n t o 135 t h i s e f f e c t i n T r u t c h 1 s o r i g i n a l l e t t e r , a nd y e t O ' R e i l l y s a i d t h a t he h a d f o l l o w e d t h i s n o n - e x i s t e n t i n s t r u c t i o n when 136 l a y i n g o u t t h e N i c o l a r e s e r v e s . He a l s o a r g u e d , a g a i n q u i t e e r r o n e o u s l y , t h a t as Good h a d n e v e r b e e n t o N i c o l a L a k e he was . . 137 i n no p o s i t i o n t o comment on t h e m a t t e r . I n s h o r t , O ' R e i l l y saw no r e a s o n t o c h a n g e h i s o r i g i n a l o p i n i o n a b o u t t h e a d e q u a c y o f t h e r e s e r v e s t h a t he h a d e s t a b l i s h e d f o r t h e N i c o l a I n d i a n s . H a v i n g l a i d o u t t h e i r r e s e r v e s i n v i o l a t i o n o f t h e w i s h e s o f t h e N i c o l a I n d i a n s O ' R e i l l y t h e n , -as M a g i s t r a t e , l e v i e d h e a v y f i n e s a g a i n s t them when t h e i r c a t t l e w a n d e r e d on t o a s e t t l e r ' s 138 u n f e n c e d f i e l d o f g r a i n . W i t h t h i s man a s R e s e r v e C o m m i s s i o n e r t h e a l l o t m e n t o f l a n d t o t h e I n d i a n s o n c e a g a i n r e f l e c t e d s e t t l e r demands, o r as T r u t c h a n d O ' R e i l l y w e r e o f t e n p l e a s e d t o p u t i t , " t h e p u b l i c i n t e r e s t " . A t a m e e t i n g o f t h e L e g i s l a t i v e A s s e m b l y on 14 J a n u a r y 180 4 a r e s o l u t i o n was p a s s e d r e c o m m e n d i n g t o t h e D o m i n i o n G o v e r n m e n t t h a t i t r e a r r a n g e I n d i a n r e s e r v e s so t h a t u n u s e d 139 a g r i c u l t u r a l o r t i m b e r l a n d s c o u l d be t h r o w n open t o s e t t l e r s . The P r e m i e r o f t h e P r o v i n c e , W i l l i a m S m i t h e , s a i d t h a t t h e , p r e v i o u s C o m m i s s i o n e r s h a d a l l o c a t e d r e s e r v e s w i t h " r e c k l e s s e x t r a v a -14 0 g a n c e " . O ' R e i l l y , who was p e r s o n a l l y i n v o l v e d i n a number o f r a n c h i n g v e n t u r e s i n t h e P r o v i n c e , a g r e e d w i t h t h e s e o p i n i o n s . He s p e n t a l a r g e amount o f h i s t i m e r e v i s i n g t h e w ork t h a t S p r o a t h a d d one. R e s e r v e s w ere r e d u c e d and t h e commonages t h a t S p r o a t h a d e s t a b l i s h e d i n t h e i n t e r i o r f o r t h e I n d i a n s t o r u n s t o c k on. were-now t a k e n away f r o m them. O ' R e i l l y h a d two r e a s o n s f o r r e l i e v i n g t h e I n d i a n s o f t h e s e commonages: f i r s t t h a t t h e y made 141 no u s e o f s u c h a r e a s f o r s t o c k r a i s i n g , and s e c o n d t h a t t h e 296 I n d i a n s ' h o r s e s h a d e a t e n o u t t h e s e r a n g e s t o s u c h an e x t e n t 142 t h a t t h e y w e r e d e s t r o y i n g t h e g r a s s l a n d s . When he a l l o c a t e d new r e s e r v e s O ' R e i l l y ' s p r o c e d u r e s w e r e i n m a r k e d c o n t r a s t t o t h e m e t i c u l o u s c a r e w i t h w h i c h S p r o a t w o r k e d . I t was b a c k t o t h e e a r l i e r m e t h o d o f r u s h i n g i n t o a n a r e a , m a k i n g a d e c i s i o n w i t h l i t t l e o r no c o n s u l t a t i o n , i m p o s i n g i t on t h e I n d i a n s a n d t h e n w o n d e r i n g why t h e y w e r e d i s s a t i s f i e d . A t S o d a C r e e k , f o r e x a m p l e , a r e l u c t a n t C h i e f was t o l d t h a t he h a d b e t t e r t a k e w h a t l a n d was o f f e r e d t o h i m as t h e C o m m i s s i o n e r h a d t o l e a v e t h e 143 f o l l o w i n g d a y . T h i s p a r t o f t h e C a r i b o o was p r o v i n g p a r t i c u -l a r l y d i f f i c u l t t o s e t t l e as a l l t h e g o o d l a n d h a d a l r e a d y b e e n t a k e n up by s e t t l e r s . A t A l k a l i L a k e O ' R e i l l y g ave t h e I n d i a n s some l a n d t h a t h a d b e e n l e f t b y s e t t l e r s o n l y b e c a u s e i t was 144 i m p o s s i b l e t o i r r i g a t e . W i t h d e c i s i o n s l i k e t h e s e i t i s n o t s u r p r i s i n g t h a t t h e P r o v i n c i a l C h i e f C o m m i s s i o n e r o f L a n d s a nd Works now f e l t t h a t he c o u l d a p p r o v e t h e r e s e r v e s a l l o c a t e d by 145 t h e R e s e r v e C o m m i s s i o n e r , a n d t h e P r e m i e r was a b l e t o w r i t e t o O ' R e i l l y t h a t s i n c e he h a d assumed t h e p o s i t i o n "a much f a i r e r a n d more a c c u r a t e a p p r e c i a t i o n o f t h e d u t i e s a n d r e s p o n -146 s i b i l i t i e s o f t h e o f f i c e h a s b e e n d i s p l a y e d . " A p a r t f r o m t h e f a c t t h a t I n d i a n l a n d p o l i c y was now b a c k t o n o r m a l , t h e r e w e r e o t h e r i n d i c a t i o n s o f t h e s e t t l e r s ' d o m i n a n c e i n t h e 1 8 8 0 ' s . Sometime d u r i n g t h e d e c a d e t h e I n d i a n s w e r e o u t n u m b e r e d by t h e n o n - I n d i a n p o p u l a t i o n o f t h e P r o v i n c e . • D u r i n g t h e 188 0 ' s t h e I n d i a n p o p u l a t i o n h a d d e c l i n e d t o a b o u t 25,000. A c c o r d i n g t o t h e c e n s u s o f 1880 t h e . I n d i a n s w e r e s t i l l t h e m a j o r i t y o f a t o t a l p o p u l a t i o n o f 4 9 , 4 5 9 , b u t . b y 1891 t h e 147 I n d i a n s c o n s t i t u t e d l e s s t h a n one t h i r d o f a t o t a l o f 98,173.The I n d i a n P r o p o r t i o n o f t h e P o p u l a t i o n o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , 1 8 8 1 , 189.1 a n d 1901 Y e a r I n d i a n T o t a l 1881 1901 1891 25,661 35,203 (?)° 2 5 , 4 8 8 e a 4 9 , 4 5 9 b 9 8 , 1 7 3 d 1 7 8 , 6 5 7 e a. C a n a d a , C e n s u s o f C a n a d a , O t t a w a , 188 2, I V , p . 1 1 . T h i s f i g u r e i s p r o b a b l y more a c c u r a t e t h a n o t h e r s o f t h e p e r i o d a s i t r e f l e c t s t h e c a r e f u l e n u m e r a t i o n s o f t h e I n d i a n R e s e r v e C o m m i s s i o n i n some p l a c e s and t h e c o u n t s t a k e n by t h e n e w l y a p p o i n t e d I n d i a n A g e n t s . b. I b i d . , I V , p . 3 . c. C a n a d a , R e p o r t o f I n d i a n A f f a i r s 1 8 9 1 , p a r t 1, p . 2 5 3 . The c e n s u s o f C a n a d a f o r 1891 g i v e s no f i g u r e f o r t h e I n d i a n p o p u l a t i o n o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a . T h i s f i g u r e i s b a s e d p a r t l y on e s t i m a t e s a n d , l i k e m o s t e s t i m a t e s , i s p r o b a b l y t o o h i g h . I n 1873 P o w e l l h a d r e c k o n e d t h e I n d i a n p o p u l a t i o n o f t h e P r o v i n c e t o be 28,500 b u t t h o u g h t t h a t h i s e s t i m a t e was p r o b a b l y t o o l a r g e . See P o w e l l t o C h i e f C o m m i s s i o n e r o f L a n d s and W o r k s , 19 A p r i l 1 8 7 3 , B.C. P a p e r s , p . 1 1 5 . d. C a n a d a , C e n s u s 1 8 9 1 , I , p.36 6. e. C a n a d a , C e n s u s 1 9 0 1 , I , pp.285 and 2. I n 1894 t h e D e p a r t m e n t o f I n d i a n A f f a i r s h a d r e v i s e d i t s e s t i m a t e o f t h e I n d i a n p o p u l a t i o n downwards t o 25,618 ( C a n a d a , R e p o r t o f I n d i a n A f f a i r s 1894, p a r t 2, p.311) and by 1901 i t s e s t i m a t e o f 24,576 was much c l o s e r t o t h e c e n s u s f i g u r e ( C a n a d a , R e p o r t o f I n d i a n A f f a i r s 1 9 0 1 , p a r t 2, p.182.) 298 The c h a n g e d r a t i o o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n was t h e r e s u l t o f t h e n e a r l y d o u b l i n g o f t h e n o n - I n d i a n p o p u l a t i o n d u r i n g t h e 1 8 8 0 ' s b u t a l s o o f t h e c o n t i n u i n g d e c l i n e o f t h e I n d i a n p o p u l a t i o n . The r e v e r s a l o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n b a l a n c e h a d i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r t h e p ower r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e r a c e s . I n many a r e a s o f t h e P r o v i n c e t h e w h i t e s no l o n g e r h a d any f e a r o f an I n d i a n u p r i s i n g t h r e a t e n i n g t h e i r p r e s e n c e a n d t h e y w e r e c o r r e s p o n d i n g l y l e s s c o n c e r n e d a b o u t c o n c i l i a t i n g t h e I n d i a n s . The r a i l w a y , t h e r e a l l i n k w i t h C a n a d a , was c o m p l e t e d i n 1886 and h e l p e d t o c o n s o l i d a t e t h e s e t t l e r s ' g r a s p on t h e c o u n t r y . A number o f I n d i a n s f o u n d t e m p o r a r y e m p l o y m e n t on t h e r a i l w a y g a n g s , a l t h o u g h t h e y l o s t t h e s e j o b s when c o n s t r u c t i o n was c o m p l e t e d . R a i l w a y w o r k e r s a l s o s u b j e c t e d t h e I n d i a n s t o some o f t h e more u n s a v o u r y a s p e c t s o f w e s t e r n c i v i l i s a t i o n , b r i n g i n g d r u n k e n n e s s and p r o s t i t u t i o n t o t h o s e a r e a s i n w h i c h t h e y w o r k e d . The r a i l w a y and r a i l w a y l a n d a l s o i n t r o d u c e d a new i n g r e d i e n t i n t o t h e I n d i a n l a n d c o n f u s i o n . The C a n a d i a n P a c i f i c R a i l w a y r a n t h r o u g h I n d i a n l a n d i n a number o f p l a c e s w i t h o u t any c o m p e n s a t i o n b e i n g g i v e n t o t h e o c c u p i e r s by t h e P r o v i n c i a l Gov-148 . . e r n m e n t . By 1885 w h i t e p r o p e r t y o w n e r s h a d b e e n p a i d compen-s a t i o n f o r l a n d t a k e n up by t h e r a i l w a y , b u t t h e r i g h t s o f t h e 149 I n d i a n s t o s i m i l a r t r e a t m e n t h a d n o t b e e n c o n c e d e d . By t h e 1 8 8 0 ' s s e t t l e r s w e r e b e g i n n i n g t o p r o b e t h e f a r t h e s t c o r n e r s o f t h e P r o v i n c e . I n t h e f a r n o r t h w h i t e s w e re m o v i n g i n t o t h e C a s s i a r d i s t r i c t and t h e r e w e r e r e p o r t s o f e n - 150 c r o a c h m e n t on I n d i a n l a n d and m i s t r e a t m e n t o f t h e i n h a b i t a n t s , w h i l e i n t h e s o u t h e a s t e r n c o r n e r t h e K o o t e n a y w e r e l o s i n g l a r g e p a r t s o f t h e i r r a n g e t o s e t t l e r s . The U p p e r K o o t e n a y l i v e d 299 a d j a c e n t t o t h e b o r d e r w i t h t h e N o r t h West T e r r i t o r i e s a nd t r a d i t i o n a l l y t h e y h a d c r o s s e d t h e R o c k i e s f o r t h e a n n u a l b u f f a l o h u n t . B e c a u s e o f t h e i r k n o w l e d g e o f t h e P r a i r i e s , t h e K o o t e n a y , p e r h a p s more t h a n any o t h e r I n d i a n s i n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , c o u l d a p p r e c i a t e t h e d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n F e d e r a l and P r o v i n c i a l I n d i a n p o l i c i e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y a f t e r t h e i r t r a n s m o n t a n e n e i g h b o u r s , t h e B l a c k f e e t / s i g n e d a t r e a t y i n 1877. L i k e t h e p l a i n s I n d i a n s , t h e K o o t e n a y h a d s u f f e r e d f r o m a l o s s o f f o o d s u p p l y w i t h t h e d e c l i n e o f t h e b u f f a l o . By 1880 t h e i r h u n t i n g t r i p s a c r o s s t h e 151 m o u n t a i n s w e r e u n s u c c e s s f u l . So t h e K o o t e n a y w e r e t u r n i n g i n c r e a s i n g l y t o c a t t l e r a i s i n g a t t h e same t i m e as s e t t l e r s w e r e b e g i n n i n g t o c o v e t t h e i r l a n d . By 1884 i t was a p p a r e n t t o t h e I n d i a n a d m i n i s t r a t o r s t h a t r e s e r v e s s h o u l d be a l l o c a t e d t o t h e K o o t e n a y and so t h e R e s e r v e C o m m i s s i o n e r was s e n t o u t . O ' R e i l l y l a i d o u t t h e K o o t e n a y r e s e r v e s w i t h h i s c u s t o m a r y c l u m s i n e s s . He was u n a b l e t o t a k e a c e n s u s and so was n o t i n a 152 p o s i t i o n t o a s s e s s a c c u r a t e l y t h e n e e d s o f t h e I n d i a n s . The K o o t e n a y c h i e f , I s a d o r e , r e f u s e d t o a c c e p t O ' R e i l l y ' s a l l o c a t i o n s a n d was m o s t d i s s a t i s f i e d when t h e C o m m i s s i o n e r l e f t t h e a r e a as s e v e r a l . f a v o u r i t e c a m p i n g s p o t s h a d b e e n e x c l u d e d f r o m t h e 15 3 r e s e r v e s . L o c a l s e t t l e r s , h o w e v e r , c o m p l a i n e d t h a t t h e I n d i a n s h a d b e e n t r e a t e d t o o g e n e r o u s l y and W i l l i a m S m i t h e , as C h i e f C o m m i s s i o n e r o f L a n d s a n d W o r k s , w r o t e t o O ' R e i l l y t h a t " I c a n n o t b u t t h i n k t h a t i n K o o t e n a y y o u h a v e o v e r e s t i m a t e d t h e r e -q u i r e m e n t s o f t h e I n d i a n s and u n d e r e s t i m a t e d t h o s e o f t h e w h i t e s " . B u t L a w r e n c e H e r c h m e r , t h e C o m m i s s i o n e r o f t h e N o r t h West M o u n t e d P o l i c e , v i s i t e d t h e K o o t e n a y s i n 1887 a n d c o n c l u d e d t h a t t h e 155 r e s e r v e s e s t a b l i s h e d b y O ' R e i l l y w e r e " a l t o g e t h e r i n a d e q u a t e " . 300 The l o s s o f l a n d was a t t h e h e a r t o f K o o t e n a y d i s c o n t e n t . I n 1887 I s a d o r e ' s f o l l o w e r s e x p r e s s e d t h e i r d i s s a t i s f a c -t i o n w i t h t h e a u t h o r i t i e s when one o f t h e i r number, an I n d i a n named K a p u l a , was a r r e s t e d on s u s p i c i o n o f k i l l i n g two m i n e r s . Two y e a r s e a r l i e r t h e b o d i e s o f t h e two m i n e r s h a d b e e n f o u n d n e a r Deadman's C r e e k and i t was a ssumed, on v e r y l i t t l e e v i d e n c e , t h a t t h e y h a d b e e n m u r d e r e d by I n d i a n s . I s a d o r e ' s r e s p o n s e t o t h e a r r e s t o f K a p u l a was t o . u s e f o r c e t o r e l e a s e h i m f r o m j a i l , a l t h o u g h a l o c a l r e s i d e n t f e l t t h a t t h e K o o t e n a y w e r e more c o n c e r n e d a b o u t t h e i r l a n d t h a n t h e a r r e s t . 1 5 6 An a d h o c commis-s i o n was s e n t t o t h e K o o t e n a y s by t h e P r o v i n c i a l G o v e r n m e n t t o t r e a t w i t h t h e . I n d i a n s a n d a d e t a c h m e n t o f N o r t h West M o u n t e d P o l i c e f r o m L e t h b r i d g e was s e n t i n u n d e r I n s p e c t o r Sam S t e e l e . L a t e r S t e e l e was t o r e c a l l t h a t t h e K o o t e n a y w e r e g e n e r a l l y a l a w - a b i d i n g and d i s c i p l i n e d g r o u p , and he was e s p e c i a l l y i m p r e s s e d 157 • by I s a d o r e ' s c a p a c i t y f o r l e a d e r s h i p . The p r o v i n c i a l com-m i s s i o n c o n s i s t i n g o f P o w e l l , O ' R e i l l y and F o r b e s G e o r g e V e r n o n , came t o d e a l w i t h t h e f u n d a m e n t a l l a n d d i s p u t e . B u t t h e s e men h a d l e a r n t n o t h i n g f r o m e x p e r i e n c e . Though I s a d o r e and h i s b a n d w e r e away when t h e c o m m i s s i o n a r r i v e d , t h e r e s e r v e s w e r e r e v i s e d i n t h e i r a b s e n c e . The c o m m i s s i o n c o n f i r m e d O ' R e i l l y ' s e a r l i e r d e c i s i o n t h a t t h e p a r t o f J o s e p h P r a i r i e o c c u p i e d by I s a d o r e ' s b a n d h a d t o be r e l i n q u i s h e d t o C o l o n e l James B a k e r , a l o c a l r a n c h e r and Member o f t h e L e g i s l a t i v e A s s e m b l y . S t e e l e was i n s t r u c t e d t o a c q u a i n t I s a d o r e and h i s I n d i a n s w i t h t h e s e d e c i -15 8 s i o n s . The C o m m i s s i o n a l s o l e f t a message f o r I s a d o r e t e l l i n g h i m t h a t he h a d f a i l e d i n h i s " d u t y " by a l l o w i n g h i s men t o f r e e t h e m u r d e r s u s p e c t , and t h a t "When a c h i e f d o e s n o t do h i s d u t y , 301 159 a n o t h e r c h i e f i s p u t i n h i s p l a c e . " On h i s r e t u r n I s a d o r e was n o t p l e a s e d , e i t h e r w i t h t h e d e c i s i o n o f t h e C o m m i s s i o n o r w i t h t h e s e n t i m e n t s e x p r e s s e d i n t h e i r m e s s a g e . T h i s k i n d o f s h a b b y t r e a t m e n t o f t h e I n d i a n s and t h e i r l a n d was c o n t i n u i n g i n o t h e r p a r t s o f t h e P r o v i n c e . On t h e n o r t h e r n c o a s t t h e T s i m s h i a n w e r e a l s o c o m p l a i n i n g b i t t e r l y . O ' R e i l l y l a i d o u t r e s e r v e s f o r t h e c o a s t a l T s i m s h i a n and t h e N i s h g a d u r i n g t h e 1 8 8 0 ' s . A g a i n he d i d n o t a l l o w t i m e f o r t h e I n d i a n s t o c o n s i d e r and e x p r e s s t h e i r n e e d s o r f o r h i m s e l f t o 160 u n r a v e l t h e c o m p l e x i t i e s o f T s i m s h i a n l a n d t e n u r e . H i s a l l o -c a t i o n s t h e r e f o r e c r e a t e d more p r o b l e m s t h a n t h e y s o l v e d . I t i s s o m e t i m e s a r g u e d t h a t b e c a u s e t h e c o a s t I n d i a n s l i v e d l a r g e l y o f f t h e s e a t h e y w e r e l e s s c o n c e r n e d a b o u t t h e l a n d q u e s t i o n . B u t t h e T s i m s h i a n and t h e N i s h g a w e r e c e r t a i n l y w o r r i e d a b o u t t h e l o s s o f h u n t i n g l a n d s a n d f i s h i n g s i t e s . They a l s o r a i s e d t h e much more f u n d a m e n t a l q u e s t i o n o f I n d i a n t i t l e t o t h e l a n d . F o r t h e M e t l a k a t l a I n d i a n s t h e l a n d q u e s t i o n was a l s o t i e d i n w i t h t h e c o n f l i c t b e t w e e n Duncan and h i s f o l l o w e r s and t h e C.M.S. One r e a s o n f o r t h e move t o New M e t l a k a t l a i n A l a s k a i n 1887 was 161 I n d i a n d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n o v e r l a n d . When t h e T s i m s h i a n o b s t r u c -t e d a t t e m p t s t o s u r v e y t h e i r l a n d , t h e r i n g l e a d e r s o f t h e o p p o s i t i o n w e r e r e p e a t e d l y j a i l e d . F i n a l l y i n 1887 a D o m i n i o n -P r o v i n c i a l C o m m i s s i o n was s e n t up t h e c o a s t t o h e a r t h e I n d i a n s ' g r i e v a n c e s . The T s i m s h i a n h o p e d t h a t a t l a s t t h e r e w o u l d be some a c t i o n t a k e n , b u t t h e C o m m i s s i o n e r s , C l e m e n t F. C o r n w a l l r e p r e -s e n t i n g t h e D o m i n i o n and J o s e p h P. P l a n t a r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e P r o v i n c e , w e r e empowered o n l y t o h e a r a n d r e p o r t t h e I n d i a n s ' c o m p l a i n t s . 302 The C o m m i s s i o n e r s f e l t c o n s t r a i n e d t o "combat and d e n y " t h e 162 n o t i o n o f I n d i a n t i t l e "by s t a t i n g t h e l a w o n t h e s u b j e c t . " C o r n w a l l ' s o p i n i o n was t h a t t h e " I n d i a n i n h i s w i l d s t a t e h a s no i d e a o f p r o p e r t y i n o r t i t l e t o l a n d . " He h a s no c o n c e p t o f d e f i n i t e b o u n d a r i e s , s a i d C o r n w a l l , and h i s i d e a s r e g a r d i n g t e r r i t o r y a r e e x t r e m e l y v a g u e . I n f a c t " t h e b e a s t s o f t h e f i e l d h a v e as much o w n e r s h i p i n t h e l a n d as he h a s . " The C o m m i s s i o n e r t h o u g h t t h a t i t was i m p o r t a n t t o make t h e T s i m s h i a n u n d e r s t a n d t h a t t h e G o v e r n m e n t w o u l d g i v e a b s o l u t e l y no c o n s i d e r a t i o n t o t h e i d e a o f I n d i a n t i t l e , " b u t a t t h e same t i m e t o humour and s mooth them down and show t h e i n t e r e s t t a k e n i n them by t h e 16 3 G o v e r n m e n t . " B u t t h e T s i m s h i a n w e r e n o t t o be humoured. They t o l d t h e C o m m i s s i o n e r s t h a t t h e y w e r e n o t i g n o r a n t p e o p l e and t h a t t h e y knew t h e v a l u e o f t h e i r l a n d . • N o r w e r e t h e y i m p r e s s e d . when t h e y w e r e t o l d t h a t t h e l a n d b e l o n g e d t o t h e Queen. "We n e a r l y f a i n t e d when we h e a r d t h a t t h i s l a n d was c l a i m e d by t h e Queen", s a i d a K i n c o l i t h c h i e f , and a t N a s s H a r b o u r an o l d man w a n t e d t o h e a r t h e name o f t h e c h i e f who h a d g i v e n t h e l a n d t o t h e 16 4 Queen. I n r e s p o n s e t o v i g o r o u s a s s e r t i o n s o f I n d i a n t i t l e t h e C o m m i s s i o n e r s s a i d t h a t t h e I n d i a n s ' w o r d s w o u l d be r e p o r t e d t o t h e P r o v i n c i a l G o v e r n m e n t b u t t h a t t h e r e w o u l d be no r e c o g n i -t i o n o f t h e i r t i t l e t o t h e l a n d . A K i n c o l i t h man r e t o r t e d t h a t t h e y h a d h e a r d G o v e r n m e n t p r o m i s e s o f t e n e n o u g h b e f o r e ; t h i s t i m e t h e y h a d h o p e d t h a t t h e C o m m i s s i o n e r s h a d come empowered t o do ... 165 s o m e t h i n g . The c o a s t a l I n d i a n s w e r e a l s o c o n c e r n e d a b o u t E u r o p e a n e n c r o a c h m e n t on t h e i r f i s h i n g p r i v i l e g e s . C o m m e r c i a l f i s h i n g and c a n n i n g o p e r a t i o n s i n c r e a s e d d u r i n g t h e 1 870's and 1 8 8 0 ' s , and 303 w i t h them I n d i a n w o r r i e s t h a t t h e i r f a v o u r i t e f i s h i n g g r o u n d s w o u l d be d e p l e t e d . F o r t h e c o a s t I n d i a n s p r o t e c t i o n o f t h e i r f i s h i n g r i g h t s was as i m p o r t a n t as t h e r e s e r v a t i o n o f g r a z i n g and a r a b l e l a n d was t o t h e i n t e r i o r I n d i a n s , and t h e l a c k o f , e f f e c t i v e a c t i o n h a d made t h e c o a s t a l I n d i a n s as s u s p i c i o u s o f G o v e r n m e n t o f f i c i a l s as t h e I n d i a n s o f t h e i n t e r i o r . When O ' R e i l l y w e n t t o l a y o u t r e s e r v e s f o r t h e Seymour I n l e t I n d i a n s t h e y w e r e v e r y r e l u c t a n t t o p o i n t o u t t h e i r f i s h i n g p l a c e s b e c a u s e t h e y f e l t t h a t o n c e any w h i t e man knew a b o u t them o t h e r s w o u l d i n e v i t a b l y come a n d e x p l o i t them.''" 6 6 From t h e F r a s e r t o t h e N a s s t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f c a n n i n g o p e r a t i o n s meant t h a t t r a d i -16 7 t i o n a l I n d i a n f i s h i n g s i t e s w e r e s o u g h t a f t e r by w h i t e s . The 1887 C o m m i s s i o n t o t h e I n d i a n s o f t h e N o r t h w e s t c o a s t a l s o u n c o v e r e d a n o t h e r q u e s t i o n . Many T s i m s h i a n w e r e so d i s s a t -i s f i e d w i t h t h e G o v e r n m e n t t h a t t h e y r e f u s e d t o a c c e p t t h e n e w l y a p p o i n t e d I n d i a n A g e n t . The C o m m i s s i o n e r s , f o r t h e i r p a r t , c o n c l u d e d t h a t one r e a s o n f o r t h e t r o u b l e w i t h t h e T s i m s h i a n was t h a t t h e y h a d r e m a i n e d i s o l a t e d f r o m G o v e r n m e n t r e g u l a t i o n s and 16 8 c o n t r o l . E a r l i e r t h e F e d e r a l G o v e r n m e n t , p e r h a p s f o l l o w i n g 169 . . . T r u t c h ' s a d v i c e t o M a c d o n a l d , h a d d e c i d e d t o d i v i d e B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a i n t o I n d i a n A g e n c i e s a n d b y 1881 s i x A g e n t s h a d b e e n 170 a p p o i n t e d . T h e s e men w e re s u p p o s e d t o a d v i s e t h e I n d i a n s and p r o t e c t t h e i r i n t e r e s t s , b u t t h e y w e re a l s o i m p o r t a n t a g e n t s o f a c c u l t u r a t i o n . The C o w i c h a n A g e n t was h o p e f u l t h a t he w o u l d s o o n be a b l e t o b r e a k down t h e o l d c u s t o m s t h a t h i n d e r e d I n d i a n 171 " i m p r o v e m e n t " , and t h e West C o a s t A g e n t l e c t u r e d t h e I n d i a n s 172 f r e e l y "on t h e i r f o o l i s h n e s s a n d i g n o r a n c e " . The I n d i a n c u s t o m t h a t I n d i a n A g e n t s w e r e m o s t a n x i o u s t o 304 e r a d i c a t e was t h e p o t l a t c h . T hey f e l t t h a t t h e p o t l a t c h was a 173 " f o o l i s h , w a s t e f u l a n d d e m o r a l i s i n g c u s t o m " , and t h e i r o p i n i o n s w e r e s h a r e d by t h e m i s s i o n a r i e s who w e r e a l s o a g i t a t i n g t o h a v e t h e p o t l a t c h b a n n e d . F o r t h e m i s s i o n a r y t h e p o t l a t c h was t h e e s s e n c e o f h e a t h e n i s m . N e a r l y a l l t h e m i s s i o n a r i e s w o u l d h a v e a g r e e d w i t h Duncan when he h e l d t h a t t h e p o t l a t c h was "by f a r t h e m o s t f o r m i d a b l e o f a l l o b s t a c l e s i n t h e way o f t h e I n d i a n s b e c o m i n g C h r i s t i a n , o r e v e n c i v i l i s e d . 1 , 1 7 4 P r e s s u r e f r o m I n d i a n A g e n t s and m i s s i o n a r i e s i n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a p r o m p t e d t h e F e d e r a l G o v e r n m e n t t o p a s s a l a w p r o h i b i t i n g p o t l a t c h i n g . The t h i r d c l a u s e o f t h e 1884 A c t a m e n d i n g t h e 1880 I n d i a n A c t s t a t e d t h a t " e v e r y I n d i a n o r o t h e r p e r s o n who e n g a g e s i n o r a s s i s t s i n c e l e -b r a t i n g t h e I n d i a n f e s t i v a l known as t h e ' P o t l a t c h 1 ' o r i n t h e I n d i a n d a n c e known as t h e 'Tamanawas' i s g u i l t y o f a m i s d e m e a n o r 175 a n d s h a l l be l i a b l e t o i m p r i s o n m e n t " . T h i s A c t was a b l a t a n t e x p r e s s i o n o f t h e i d e a t h a t a c u l t u r e c o u l d be l e g i s l a t e d o u t o f e x i s t e n c e . The p o t l a t c h was s u c h an i n t e g r a l p a r t o f n o r t h w e s t c o a s t I n d i a n s o c i e t y t h a t t o e l i m i n a t e i t w o u l d a l m o s t be t o d e s t r o y t r a d i t i o n a l I n d i a n c u l t u r e . I n t h e e v e n t , t h e l a w p r o h i b i t i n g t h e p o t l a t c h p r o v e d v i r t u a l l y i m p o s s i b l e t o e n f o r c e . I n d i a n A g e n t s c o u l d n o t s i n g l e - h a n d e d l y a p p r e h e n d a l l t h e I n d i a n s who t o o k p a r t i n t h e c e r e m o n y , a l t h o u g h t h e r e w e r e o c c a s i o n a l a r r e s t s . I n 1889 t h e A l e r t Bay A g e n t , R.H. P i d c o c k , h a d a K w a k i u t l c h i e f named Hemasak c o n v i c t e d u n d e r t h e A c t a n d s e n t e n c e d t o s i x m onths i m p r i s o n m e n t . B u t C h i e f J u s t i c e B e g b i e , who h e a r d t h e a p p e a l , d i s c h a r g e d t h e I n d i a n on a t e c h n i c a l i t y a n d n o t e d i n h i s j u d g e m e n t t h a t t h e l a w b a n n i n g t h e p o t l a t c h was i m p r e c i s e . He p o i n t e d o u t t h a t i f t h e L e g i s l a t u r e 305 " d e s i r e d t o c r e a t e an o f f e n c e p r e v i o u s l y unknown t o t h e l a w 176 t h e r e o u g h t t o be a d e f i n i t i o n o f i t i n t h e s t a t u t e . " As s o o n as t h e a n t i - p o t l a t c h l a w was p a s s e d many I n d i a n s b e g a n t o p r o t e s t v i g o r o u s l y , w h i l e o t h e r s q u i e t l y d e t e r m i n e d t o c o n t i n u e t h e i r p o t l a t c h e s i n d e f i a n c e o f t h e l a w . O l d e r p e o p l e p a r t i c u l a r l y , r e s e n t e d t h i s a t t e m p t t o i n t e r f e r e w i t h t h e i r t r a d i t i o n a l c u s t o m s . The C o w i c h a n p e t i t i o n e d t h e P r i m e M i n i s t e r 177 t o r e p e a l t h e l a w , w h i l e t h e K w a k i u t l s i m p l y i g n o r e d e v e r y 178 e x h o r t a t i o n by t h e I n d i a n A g e n t t o g i v e up t h e c u s t o m . The 179 K w a k i u t l w e r e e s p e c i a l l y d e t e r m i n e d t o d e f y t h e l a w . When Bo a s v i s i t e d t h e N e w i t t y i n 1886 he h a d t o a s s u r e them t h a t he was n o t a G o v e r n m e n t a g e n t b e f o r e t h e y w o u l d a c c e p t h i m . Once t h e y w e re s u r e o f h i s i n t e n t i o n s , h o w e v e r , they-made i t c l e a r t h a t t h e y w o u l d n o t f o l l o w t h e o r d e r s t o g i v e up p o t l a t c h i n g a n d t h a t t h e y d e s p i s e d t h e I n d i a n a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , f r o m P o w e l l down, 180 f o r g i v i n g s u c h i n s t r u c t i o n s . I t w o u l d h a v e b e e n d e g r a d i n g and e c o n o m i c a l l y d i s a s t r o u s f o r many c h i e f s t o s t o p p o t l a t c h i n g w h i l e t h e y r e m a i n e d h e a v i l y i n d e b t . T h e n , a p a r t f r o m i t s c e r e m o n i a l a n d f e s t i v e f u n c t i o n s , t h e p o t l a t c h was a means o f r e -d i s t r i b u t i n g w e a l t h . As a K w a k i u t l g r o u p p o i n t e d o u t , t o c e a s e p o t l a t c h i n g w o u l d mean t h a t many p e o p l e w o u l d n o t h a v e e n o u g h t o 181 e a t . B u t m o s t o f a l l t h e cer e m o n y was f u n d a m e n t a l t o t h e s o c i a l o r g a n i s a t i o n o f t h e c o a s t I n d i a n s , a n d t h e y c o u l d s e e no v a l i d r e a s o n why i t s h o u l d be s u p p r e s s e d . A l t h o u g h t h e P o t l a t c h Law was v i r t u a l l y u n e n f o r c e a b l e i n t h e 1880's i t s e x i s t e n c e e x e m p l i f i e d t h e s e t t l e r a t t i t u d e t h a t I n d i a n c u l t u r e c o u l d be r e p r e s s e d by l e g a l e n a c t m e n t . B e c a u s e 306 o f t h e i r e f f o r t s t o e l i m i n a t e t h e p o t l a t c h t h e I n d i a n A g e n t s w e r e o f t e n s e e n as p o l i c e m e n r a t h e r t h a n as a d v i s o r s by t h e 182 I n d i a n s , b u t t h e A g e n t s o n l y r e f l e c t e d t h e v i e w o f many s e t t l e r s t h a t t h e I n d i a n s s h o u l d be p o l i c e d n o t a s s i s t e d . T r u t c h h a d t o l d t h e K i t l a k a t l a p e o p l e some y e a r s e a r l i e r t h a t " t h e d a y s a r e p a s t when y o u r h e a t h e n i s h i d e a s a n d c u s t o m s c a n 183 any l o n g e r be t o l e r a t e d i n t h i s l a n d . " D u r i n g t h e 1880's t h i s p o i n t was b e i n g d e m o n s t r a t e d i n many ways. I n 1888 t h e r e was an i n c i d e n t n e a r t h e f o r k s o f t h e S k e e n a R i v e r w h i c h i n d i c a t e d t h e t r e n d . The G i t k s a n h a d b e e n r e s t i v e f o r a number o f y e a r s and t h e r e h a d b e e n more t h a n one c l a s h w i t h E u r o p e a n s . I n 1888 a K i t w a n c o o l man k i l l e d a n o t h e r I n d i a n i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h I n d i a n c u s t o m . The m u r d e r e d man was a s o r c e r e r who was s a i d t o h a v e b e e n r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e d e a t h s o f a number o f p e o p l e . So K i t w a n c o o l J i m k i l l e d h i m , and J i m ' s b r o t h e r m a r r i e d t h e widow. A c c o r d i n g t o J i m ' s f a t h e r " i t was a l l s e t t l e d . " A p p a r e n t l y t h e I n d i a n A g e n t i n t h e a r e a a t f i r s t s a i d t h a t he w o u l d t a k e no a c t i o n b u t t h e n J i m was a s k e d t o come down t o t h e v i l l a g e o f K i t w a n g a w h e r e , t h r o u g h a m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g , he was s h o t by a 184 s p e c i a l c o n s t a b l e . The I n d i a n s w e r e i n c e n s e d a n d f o r a t i m e i t was t h o u g h t t h a t t h e y m i g h t a t t a c k t h e w h i t e s i n t h e a r e a . An a c c o u n t o f t h i s a f f a i r a p p e a r e d i n a l o c a l n e w s p a p e r u n d e r t h e 185 h e a d l i n e " B r i t i s h N o t I n d i a n Law M u s t P r e v a i l i n F u t u r e . " A n o t h e r i m p o r t a n t m e a s u r e o f t h e n a t u r e o f r a c e r e l a t i o n s i n a m u l t i r a c i a l s o c i e t y i s t h e e x t e n t t o w h i c h s e x u a l r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n t h e r a c e s a r e l e g i t i m i s e d b y m a r r i a g e . I n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a t h e p a t t e r n was i n d i c a t i v e o f s e t t l e r d o m i n a n c e . Mar-r i a g e s w i t h I n d i a n women w e r e l e s s f r e q u e n t t h a n s e x u a l e x p l o i t -307 a t i o n o r c o n c u b i n a g e o v e r an e x t e n d e d p e r i o d . A r o u n d t h e c o a s t a l t o w ns t h e p r o s t i t u t i o n o f I n d i a n women was s t i l l common and i n t h e i n t e r i o r s e t t l e r s o f t e n l i v e d w i t h I n d i a n women f o r l o n g p e r i o d s w i t h o u t f o r m a l i s i n g t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p . T h e r e w e r e c o n t i n u a l I n d i a n c o m p l a i n t s a b o u t w h i t e s m o l e s t i n g t h e i r women, and e v e n a f t e r a r e l a t i o n s h i p h a d become more p e r m a n e n t t h e I n d i a n woman o f t e n h a d no s e c u r i t y . I n t h e i n t e r i o r i t was n o t uncommon f o r de f a c t o I n d i a n w i v e s t o be c a s t a s i d e by s e t t l e r s i n f a v o u r o f E u r o p e a n b r i d e s . I n d i a n women and t h e i r h a l f - b r e e d c h i l d r e n w e r e f r e q u e n t l y l e f t u n p r o v i d e d f o r a f t e r t h e d e a t h o r m a r r i a g e o f a s e t t l e r w i t h whom t h e y h a d l i v e d f o r 186 s e v e r a l y e a r s . The I n d i a n R e s e r v e C o m m i s s i o n r e p o r t e d a c a s e a t t h e h e a d o f Okanagan L a k e w h e r e t h e I n d i a n s c o m p l a i n e d a b o u t a s e t t l e r named N e l s o n who h a d a s k e d an I n d i a n c o u p l e f o r t h e i r d a u g h t e r i n m a r r i a g e . He c o h a b i t e d w i t h t h e g i r l f o r a number o f y e a r s a n d h a d s e v e r a l c h i l d r e n by h e r , b u t he d i d n o t m a r r y h e r . F i n a l l y s h e was c a s t o u t o f t h e s e t t l e r ' s home, and when h e r f a t h e r r e m o n s t r a t e d w i t h N e l s o n he was b e a t e n up s o s e v e r e l y 187 t h a t he d i e d o f t h e wounds. The I n d i a n s h a d no r e d r e s s i n s u c h s i t u a t i o n s . S e t t l e r s t r e a t e d t h e t a k i n g and d e s e r t i n g o f I n d i a n 18 8 c o n c u b i n e s w i t h j o c u l a r g ood humour. By t h e e n d o f t h e 1880 ' s t h e " p a t t e r n o f d o m i n a n c e " was f i r m l y e s t a b l i s h e d . To t a k e two i m p o r t a n t e x a m p l e s - l a n d a n d t h e p o t l a t c h - t h e p o s s e s s i o n o f l a n d was f u n d a m e n t a l t o t h e c u l t u r a l s u r v i v a l o f a l m o s t a l l t h e I n d i a n s o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a and t h e p o t l a t c h p e r v a d e d n e a r l y e v e r y a s p e c t o f t h e l i f e o f 189 t h e c o a s t I n d i a n s . D u r x n g t h e f u r t r a d i n g p e r i o d b o t h h a d become i n c r e a s i n g l y s i g n i f i c a n t a s p e c t s o f I n d i a n c u l t u r e . The 308 p o s s i b i l i t y o f I n d i a n s p r o f i t i n g f r o m s e l l i n g f u r s i n c r e a s e d t h e v a l u e o f t h e i r h u n t i n g l a n d s and p r o b a b l y s h a r p e n e d t h e I n d i a n ' s n o t i o n o f t e r r i t o r i a l i t y . The w e a l t h b r o u g h t by t h e f u r t r a d e h a d f a c i l i t a t e d an i n c r e a s e i n t h e number a n d s i z e o f p o t l a t c h e s . B u t now, w i t h s e t t l e m e n t , t h e r e w e r e a t t e m p t s t o d e p r i v e t h e I n d i a n s o f . b o t h l a n d a n d t h e p o t l a t c h r i t u a l . To t h e s e t t l e r I n d i a n i m p r o v i d e n c e was e p i t o m i s e d by t h e i r u s e o f t h e l a n d , j u s t as t o t h e m i s s i o n a r y I n d i a n i m p r o v i d e n c e was e p i t o m i s e d b y t h e p o t l a t c h . So s e t t l e r s a n d m i s s i o n a r i e s p r e s - . s u r e d t h e G o v e r n m e n t t o e n a c t l e g i s l a t i o n t h a t w o u l d wean t h e I n d i a n s f r o m t h e s e a s p e c t s o f t h e i r t r a d i t i o n a l way o f l i f e . N a t u r a l l y some I n d i a n s r e s i s t e d a l l t h e s e e f f o r t s t o e x -t i n g u i s h t h e i r t r a d i t i o n s a n d a s l o n g as t h e y d i d , v e s t i g e s o f I n d i a n c u l t u r e r e m a i n e d . The K w a k i u t l i n p a r t i c u l a r s t i l l c l u n g " w i t h r e m a r k a b l e t e n a c i t y t o t h e i r c u s t o m s a nd o l d mode o f 190 ' • l i f e . " B u t t h i s was e s s e n t i a l l y a r e a r - g u a r d a c t i o n , f o r by t h e 1880 I s t h e E u r o p e a n , h a d t h e i n i t i a t i v e . The c u l t u r e o f many I n d i a n g r o u p s h a d a l r e a d y b e e n s e r i o u s l y d i s l o c a t e d and e v e n t u a l l y a l l I n d i a n s w o u l d e x p e r i e n c e t o some d e g r e e t h e d i s r u p t i v e i m p a c t o f t h e s e t t l e m e n t f r o n t i e r . Some I n d i a n s a t t e m p t e d t o a d a p t t o t h e new s i t u a t i o n . I n t h e i r d e a l i n g s w i t h t h e 1887 C o m m i s s i o n t o t h e n o r t h w e s t c o a s t t h e T s i m s h i a n h a d t a k e n t h e f i r s t s t e p s i n p o l i t i c a l a c t i o n . B u t t h e I n d i a n s o f t h e P r o v i n c e r e m a i n e d t o o d i v i d e d f o r t h i s t o be an e f f e c t i v e d e v e l o p m e n t . O t h e r I n d i a n s made e f f o r t s t o a d a p t t o t h e c h a n g e d e c o n o m i c s i t u a t i o n . A r o U n d B u r r a r d I n l e t some I n d i a n s w e r e e m p l o y e d as l o n g s h o r e m e n ; w h i l e a l o n g t h e c o a s t o t h e r s w e r e e m p l o y e d by t h e c a n n i n g c o m p a n i e s , some as f i s h e r m e n 309 and o t h e r s i n o c c u p a t i o n s i n t h e o f t e n u n h e a l t h y c o n d i t i o n s 191 o f t h e c a n n e r i e s . O f t e n s u c h e mployment was o n l y t e m p o r a r y and t h e s e m a r g i n a l o c c u p a t i o n s w e r e h a r d l y a d e q u a t e c o m p e n s a t i o n f o r t h e l o s s o f l a n d a n d f i s h i n g a r e a s . W i t h t h e t r a n s i t i o n f r o m t h e f u r t r a d e a n d t h e c o n s o l i d a -t i o n o f s e t t l e m e n t t h e I n d i a n h a d b e e n r e d u c e d f r o m an i n t e g r a l t o a p e r i p h e r a l r o l e i n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a ' s economy, and t h i s d e v e l o p m e n t l a r g e l y e x p l a i n s t h e c o r r o s i o n o f t r a d i t i o n a l I n d i a n c u l t u r e s a f t e r 1858. D u r i n g t h e f u r t r a d i n g p e r i o d I n d i a n s and E u r o p e a n s w e r e m u t u a l l y i n t e r d e p e n d e n t . E c o n o m i c a l l y e a c h r a c e d e p e n d e d o n , and b e n e f i t t e d f r o m , t h e p r e s e n c e and a c t i v i t i e s o f t h e o t h e r . The f u r t r a d e n u r t u r e d a n d s t i m u l a t e d I n d i a n c u l -t u r e t o s u c h an e x t e n t t h a t some a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s c l a i m t h a t t h e c l i m a x o f I n d i a n c u l t u r e , p a r t i c u l a r l y on t h e c o a s t , was r e a c h e d 192 a f t e r t h e a r r i v a l o f t h e w h i t e man. The I n d i a n s o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a met t h e f u r t r a d e , g r a p p l e d w i t h i t , a n d t u r n e d i t t o s e r v e t h e i r own e n d s . The e c o n o m i c r e c i p r o c i t y o f t h e two r a c e s r e s u l t e d i n a m i n g l i n g o f t h e two c u l t u r e s . B e c a u s e t h e i r way o f l i f e was n o t u n d e r any s e r i o u s t h r e a t f r o m t h e f u r t r a d e r s t h e I n d i a n s f e l t f r e e t o b o r r o w a d a p t i v e l y f r o m t h e a l i e n c u l t u r e . T h r o u g h o u t t h e 1 8 5 0 ' s , a l m o s t i m p e r c e p t i b l y a t f i r s t , b u t w i t h g a t h e r i n g momentum, t h e i n f l u e n c e o f t h e f u r t r a d e r s waned as n e w l y a r r i v e d s e t t l e r s b e g a n t o a s s e r t t h e m s e l v e s . D u r i n g t h e s e t r a n s i t i o n a l y e a r s , i n s t e a d o f a c o n t i n u i n g c o m m u n i t y o f i n t e r e s t , t h e r e was a g r o w i n g s e p a r a t i o n o f t h e two r a c e s . D i f -f e r e n t E u r o p e a n s w e r e a r r i v i n g , a n d t h e i r d i f f e r e n t i n t e n t i o n s w e r e r e f l e c t e d i n d i f f e r e n t a t t i t u d e s t o w a r d s t h e I n d i a n s . S e t t l e r s came t o t a k e up l a n d a n d t o d e v e l o p t h e f r o n t i e r i n a 310 way t h a t w o u l d n o t i n v o l v e t h e I n d i a n s . So t h e E u r o p e a n image o f t h e I n d i a n c h a n g e d . From a p r i m i t i v e p a r t n e r t h e I n d i a n became a s a v a g e o p p o n e n t i n t h e m i n d o f t h e w h i t e man. B o t h t h e s e t t l e r economy and t h e s e t t l e r v i e w o f t h e I n d i a n s r e i n f o r c e d . t h e s e p a r a t e n e s s o f " s a v a g e " a n d " c i v i l i s e d " man. I n 1858, w i t h u n e x p e c t e d s u d d e n n e s s , t h e f u r t r a d e was e n d e d and t h e s e t t l e m e n t f r o n t i e r was f o u n d e d . The t e n d e n c i e s o f t h e 1 8 5 0 ' s w e r e c o n f i r m e d a s t h e o l d r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e r a c e s was t e r m i n a t e d and t h e w h i t e man became an i m p o s i t i o n on t h e I n d i a n s . The c o m b i n e d , t h o u g h d i f f e r e n t , i m p a c t s o f g o l d m i n e r s , s e t t l e r s , m i s s i o n a r i e s and g o v e r n m e n t o f f i c i a l s b e g a n t o d i s r u p t t r a d i t i o n a l I n d i a n c u l t u r e s . The I n d i a n s w e r e l a r g e l y i r r e l e v a n t t o t h e a i m s o f t h e s e t t l e r s a nd s e t t l e r v i e w s w e r e r e f l e c t e d i n g o v e r n m e n t p o l i c y . Many s e t t l e r s t h o u g h t t h a t t h e I n d i a n s w e r e doomed and t h a t i t was t h e r e f o r e u n n e c e s s a r y t o be c o n c e r n e d a b o u t t h e i r f u t u r e . The m i s s i o n a r i e s s t r o v e t o e l i m -i n a t e t r a d i t i o n a l I n d i a n c u l t u r e and t o r e p l a c e i t w i t h a way o f l i f e b a s e d on E u r o p e a n v a l u e s . The I n d i a n s h a d b e e n a b l e t o m o u l d t h e f u r t r a d e t o t h e i r b e n e f i t , b u t s e t t l e m e n t was n o t m a l l e a b l e : i t was u n y i e l d i n g and a g g r e s s i v e . I t i m p o s e d i t s demands on t h e I n d i a n s w i t h o u t c o m p r o m i s e . B e c a u s e t h e , I n d i a n s w e r e e i t h e r i r r e l e v a n t o r a h i n d r a n c e t o them, t h e s e t t l e r s h a d no r e g r e t s a b o u t t h e d i s l o c a t i o n o r e l i m i n a t i o n o f I n d i a n c u l t u r e s . As t h e w h i t e s became more a g g r e s s i v e t o w a r d s I n d i a n c u l t u r e s many I n d i a n s f o u n d t h a t t h e y c o u l d n o t c o p e w i t h t h e p a c e o f c h a n g e . R e a l i s i n g t h a t t h e i r way o f l i f e was u n d e r a t t a c k many I n d i a n s became d e f e n s i v e and d e t e r m i n e d t o c o n s e r v e w h a t t h e y c o u l d o f t h e i r c u l t u r e r a t h e r t h a n b o r r o w i n g f r o m t h e E u r o p e a n . B u t t h e 311 w h i t e s w e r e r e l e n t l e s s . D u r i n g t h e 1870's and 1 8 8 0 ' s t h e s e t t l e m e n t f r o n t i e r was i r r e f u t a b l y e n t r e n c h e d . The d e v e l o p m e n t s o f t h e 1 8 6 0 ' s were c o n s o l i d a t e d , as more and more I n d i a n g r o u p s came i n t o c o n s t a n t c o n t a c t w i t h E u r o p e a n s . I n d i a n o b j e c t i o n s t o t h e t r e a t m e n t t h a t t h e y r e c e i v e d w e r e i g n o r e d and e v e n I n d i a n a t t e m p t s t o o r g a n i s e t o h e l p t h e m s e l v e s w e r e d i s c o u r a g e d . The s e p a r a t i o n o f t h e r a c e s was c o n t i n u e d . I s o l a t e d i n c o n f i n e d " r u r a l g h e t t o s " , m o s t I n d i a n s w e r e unwelcome i n t h e s o c i e t y o f s e t t l e r s . N o r d i d t h e s e t t l e r g o v e r n m e n t s w e l c o m e a t t e m p t s t o h a v e I n d i a n r i g h t s r e c o g n i s e d o r I n d i a n n e e d s s a t i s f i e d . The a c t i o n s o f t h e P r o v i n -c i a l G o v e r n m e n t c o n s t i t u t e d an a t t a c k o n t r a d i t i o n a l I n d i a n s o c i e t y and d i d n o t h i n g t o s u b s t i t u t e i t w i t h a new way o f l i f e . The h i s t o r y o f I n d i a n and E u r o p e a n - r e l a t i o n s a f t e r 1890, a t l e a s t u n t i l t h e I n d i a n r e s s u r g e n c e o f t h e m i d d l e o f t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y , was s i m p l y a r e a s s e r t i o n o f w h a t h a d a l r e a d y b e e n e s t a b l i s h e d by t h e c o n s o l i d a t i o n o f s e t t l e m e n t . The I n d i a n s c o n t i n u e d t o f i n d t h e w h i t e man's p o l i t i c a l s y s t e m u n r e s p o n s i v e . T h e i r c u r r e n t n e e d s w e r e i g n o r e d w h i l e t h e o l d c u l t u r e s w e r e e r o d e d away. U n t i l a b o u t 1930 t h e I n d i a n p o p u l a t i o n c o n t i n u e d t o d e c l i n e . F u t u r e C o m m i s s i o n s and c o m m i t t e e s pn t h e l a n d q u e s t i o n s i m p l y i n v o l v e d a r e p e t i t i o n o f t h e n o n - n e g o t i a t i o n s t h a t h a d a l r e a d y t a k e n p l a c e . The P o t l a t c h Law was l a t e r t o be e n f o r c e d more v i g o r o u s l y t h a n i t h a d b e e n i n t h e 1 8 8 0 ' s . The I n d i a n s c o n -t i n u e d t o be i r r e l e v a n t t o t h e m a i n s t r e a m o f t h e P r o v i n c e ' s d e v e l o p m e n t . By t h e l a t e 1 880's B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a was on t h e t h r e s h o l d o f i t s s e c o n d d e v e l o p m e n t boom, b u t " t h e G r e a t P o t l a t c h " was n o t one t o w h i c h t h e I n d i a n s w o u l d be i n v i t e d . NOTES I n t r o d u c t i o n 1. H a r o l d A. I n n i s , The F u r T r a d e i n C a n a d a ; a n I n t r o d u c t i o n t o C a n a d i a n E c o n o m i c H i s t o r y , T o r o n t o , 1 956, p. 386. 2. Diamond J e n n e s s , The I n d i a n B a c k g r o u n d o f C a n a d i a n H i s t o r y , C a n a d a D e p a r t m e n t o f M i n e s a n d R e s o u r c e s N a t i o n a l Museum o f C a n a d a B u l l e t i n n o . 8 6 , O t t a w a , 19 37; G e o r g e F.G. S t a n l e y , "The I n d i a n B a c k g r o u n d o f C a n a d i a n H i s t o r y " , C a n a d i a n H i s t o r i c a l A s s o c i a t i o n P a p e r s , 1 9 5 2 , pp. 1 4 - 2 1 . 3. I n n i s , The F u r T r a d e , p . 389; D o n a l d C r e i g h t o n , The E m p i r e o f t h e S t . L a w r e n c e , T o r o n t o , 1 9 7 0 , p p . 16 and 2 0 0 - 2 0 1 . 4. F r e d e r i c k J a c k s o n T u r n e r , The F r o n t i e r i n A m e r i c a n H i s t o r y , New Y o r k , e t c . , 1 9 6 2 , p. 1. 5. I b i d . , p. 15. See a l s o W i l b u r R. J a c o b s , D i s p o s s e s s i n g t h e A m e r i c a n I n d i a n I n d i a n s a n d W h i t e s o n t h e C o l o n i a l F r o n t i e r , New Y o r k , 1 9 7 2 , p. 149. 6. S e e , f o r e x a m p l e , G e o r g e F.G. S t a n l e y , " W e s t e r n C a n a d a a nd t h e F r o n t i e r T h e s i s " , The C a n a d i a n H i s t o r i c a l A s s o c i a t i o n R e p o r t s , 1 9 4 0 , p. I l l ; P a u l F. S h a r p , " T h r e e F r o n t i e r s : Some . C o m p a r a t i v e S t u d i e s o f C a n a d i a n , A m e r i c a n a nd A u s t r a l i a n S e t t l e m e n t " , P a c i f i c H i s t o r i c a l R e v i e w , X X I V , November 1 9 5 5 , p. 373. 7. B e r n a r d De V o t o , i n t r o d u c t i o n t o J o s e p h K i n s e y H oward, S t r a n g e E m p i r e , T o r o n t o , 1 9 6 5 , pp. 15-16. 8. M a r g a r e t A. Ormsby, B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a : a H i s t o r y , T o r o n t o , 1 9 7 1 . 9. F o r r e s t E. L a V i o l e t t e , The S t r u g g l e f o r S u r v i v a l , I n d i a n C u l t u r e s a n d t h e P r o t e s t a n t E t h i c i n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , T o r o n t o , 1 9 6 1 ; E. P a l m e r P a t t e r s o n I I , The C a n a d i a n I n d i a n : a H i s t o r y S i n c e 1 5 0 0 , Don M i l l s , 1 9 72. 10. J o h n N o r r i s , S t r a n g e r s E n t e r t a i n e d , a H i s t o r y o f E t h n i c ! G r o u p s i n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , V a n c o u v e r , 1 9 7 1 , pp. 54-62. T h i s c h a p t e r , i n t h e m i d s t o f a v e r y c o n f u s e d p a r a g r a p h o n I n d i a n l a n d p o l i c y , h a s James D o u g l a s l a y i n g o u t I n d i a n r e s e r v e s , a s i f b y some c o n d i t i o n e d r e f l e x , two y e a r s a f t e r he h a d r e t i r e d f r o m o f f i c i a l l i f e . 1 1 . I b i d , p. 1. 312 313 N o t e s , I n t r o d u c t i o n ( c o n t . ) 12. W i l s o n D u f f , The I n d i a n H i s t o r y o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , v o l . 1, t h e I m p a c t o f t h e W h i t e Man, A n t h r o p o l o g y i n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a M e m o i r no. 5, V i c t o r i a , 1964. O t h e r work h a s b e e n done i n a n , a s y e t , u n p u b l i s h e d f o r m . See G.E. S h a n k e l , "The D e v e l o p m e n t o f I n d i a n P o l i c y i n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a " , Ph.D. T h e s i s , U n i v e r s i t y o f W a s h i n g t o n , 1 9 4 5 ; R o b e r t E. C a i l , " D i s p o s a l o f Crown L a n d s i n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a " , M.A. T h e s i s , U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , 1956; and J e a n U s h e r , " W i l l i a m Duncan o f M e t l a k a t l a : a V i c t o r i a n M i s s i o n a r y i n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a " , Ph.D. T h e s i s , U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , 196 9. A p p a r e n t l y t h e l a s t two t h e s e s a r e i n t h e p r o c e s s o f p u b l i c a t i o n . 13. H.B. H a w t h o r n e , C.S. B e l s h a w and S.M. J a m i e s o n , The I n d i a n s o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a ; a S t u d y o f C o n t e m p o r a r y S o c i a l A d j u s t -ment, T o r o n t o , 1 9 5 8 , p. 4~8~. 14. P a t t e r s o n , The C a n a d i a n I n d i a n , p p . 2 8 , 3 7 , 38 and p a s s i m . 15. T.O. R a n g e r h a s p o i n t e d o u t t h a t t h e p r o b l e m s o f d e a l i n g w i t h t h e h i s t o r y o f one g r o u p on t h e b a s i s o f t h e w r i t i n g s o f a n o t h e r a r e by no means c o n f i n e d t o t h e s t u d y o f i n d i g e n o u s p e o p l e r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e i m p a c t o f E u r o p e a n c u l t u r e . S c h o l a r s who h a v e r e c o n s t r u c t e d t h e r o l e o f " i n a r t i c u l a t e p e a s a n t movements" i n E u r o p e h a v e n e c e s s a r i l y h a d t o r e l y on s o u r c e s f r o m o u t s i d e s u c h movements. See T.O. R a n g e r . R e v o l t i n S o u t h e r n R h o d e s i a 1896 - 1897 a S t u d y o f A f r i c a n R e s i s t a n c e , E v a n s t o n , 196 7, p. x. 16. R u t h B e n e d i c t , P a t t e r n s o f C u l t u r e , B o s t o n , / 1 9 5 9 / , p p . 1 7 3 -222; a n d c f . H e l e n C o d e r e , F i g h t i n g w i t h P r o p e r t y a S t u d y o f K w a k i u t l P o t l a t c h i n g a n d W a r f a r e 1792-1930 M o n o g r a p h s o f t h e A m e r i c a n E t h n o l o g i c a l S o c i e t y n o . 18, S e a t t l e a n d L o n d o n , 1966, p . 6 2 , f n . l ; P h i l l i p D r u c k e r a nd R o b e r t F. H e i z e r , To Make My Name Good; a R e - e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e S o u t h e r n K w a k i u t l P o t l a t c h , B e r k l e y a n d L o s A n g e l e s , 1 9 6 7, p. 112. NOTES CHAPTER I The M a r i t i m e F u r T r a d e 1. J o h n M e a r e s , V o y a g e s Made i n t h e Y e a r s 1788 and 1 7 8 9 , f r o m C h i n a t o t h e N o r t h West C o a s t o f A m e r i c a . . . , L o n d o n , 1790 , pp. 1 4 1 - 4 2 . 2. The s o u r c e s f o r t h i s a n d t h e f o l l o w i n g p a r a g r a p h a r e J u a n C r e s p i and Thomas de l a P e n a , D i a r i e s , 20 and 21 J u l y 1774, i n Geo. B u t l e r G r i f f e n ( e d . ) , Documents f r o m t h e S u t r o C o l l e c t i o n , P u b l i c a t i o n s o f t h e H i s t o r i c a l S o c i e t y o f S o u t h e r n C a l i f o r n i a , v o l . I I , p a r t 1, L o s A n g e l e s , 1 8 9 1 , p p . 121-23 and 1 8 7 - 9 4 ; P e r e z , D i a r y , 20 a n d 21 J u l y a n d 8 A u g u s t 1 7 7 4 , i n M a r g a r e t O l i v e J o h n s o n , " S p a n i s h E x p l o r a t i o n o f t h e P a c i f i c C o a s t by J u a n P e r e z i n 1 7 7 4 " , M a s t e r o f L e t t e r s T h e s i s , U n i v e r s i t y o f C a l i f o r n i a , B e r k e l e y , 1 9 1 1 , pp. 58-64 a n d 87. 3. I n 1775 J u a n F r a n c i s c o de l a B o d e g a y Q u a d r a p a s s e d up t h e c o a s t i n t h e s c h o o n e r S o n o r a . A l t h o u g h he d i s c o v e r e d and named B u c a r e l i Bay on t h e w e s t c o a s t o f P r i n c e o f W a l e s I s l a n d he d i d n o t make a l a n d f a l l b e t w e e n l a t i t u d e s 49 and 54°40' N. 4. C r e s p i , D i a r y , 8 A u g u s t 1 7 7 4 , i n G r i f f e n ( e d . ) , D o c u m e n t s , p. 2 0 1 . 5. J o h n L e d y a r d , A J o u r n a l o f C a p t a i n C o o k ' s L a s t V o y a g e t o t h e P a c i f i c O c e a n , and i n Q u e s t o f a N o r t h - W e s t P a s s a g e , b e t w e e n A s i a a nd A m e r i c a , P e r f o r m e d i n t h e y e a r s 1776, 1 7 7 7 , 1 7 7 8 , a n d 1 7 7 9 , C h i c a g o , 1 9 6 3 , p. 70. 6. James Cook a n d James K i n g , A V o y a g e t o t h e P a c i f i c O cean . . . P e r f o r m e d U n d e r t h e D i r e c t i o n o f C a p t a i n s C o o k , C l e r k e , a n d G o r e , i n H i s M a j e s t y ' s S h i p s t h e R e s o l u t i o n a n d t h e D i s c o v e r y . I n t h e Y e a r s , 1 7 7 6 , 1777, 1778, 1 7 7 9 , and 1 7 8 0 , L o n d o n , 17 8 4 , I I I , p. 437. 7. The f i g u r e s i n t h i s p a r a g r a p h and t h e p r e v i o u s one a r e b a s e d on a s e r i e s o f a r t i c l e s by F.W. Howay, "A L i s t o f T r a d i n g V e s s e l s i n t h e M a r i t i m e F u r T r a d e , 1 7 8 5 - 1 7 9 4 " , T r a n s a c t i o n s o f t h e R o y a l S o c i e t y o f C a n a d a , ( h e r e a f t e r c i t e d as TRSC) t h i r d s e r i e s , X X I V , s e c t i o n 2, 1 9 3 0 , p p . 111-34; "A L i s t o f T r a d i n g V e s s e l s i n t h e M a r i t i m e F u r T r a d e , 1 7 9 5 - 1 8 0 4 " , TRSC, t h i r d s e r i e s , XXV, s e c t i o n 2, 1 9 3 1 , pp. 117-49; "A L i s t o f T r a d i n g V e s s e l s i n t h e M a r i t i m e F u r T r a d e , 1 8 0 5 -1 8 1 4 " , TRSC, t h i r d s e r i e s X X V I , s e c t i o n 2, 1 9 3 2 , pp. 43-86; "A L i s t o f T r a d i n g V e s s e l s i n t h e M a r i t i m e F u r T r a d e , 1 8 1 5 - 1 8 1 9 " , TRSC, t h i r d s e r i e s , X X V I I , s e c t i o n 2, 1 9 3 3 , pp. 119-47; "A L i s t o f T r a d i n g V e s s e l s i n t h e M a r i t i m e F u r 314 315 N o t e s , C h a p t e r I ( c o n t . ) 7. ( c o n t . ) T r a d e , 1 8 2 0 - 1 8 2 5 " , TRSC, t h i r d s e r i e s , X X V I I I , s e c t i o n 2, 1 9 3 4 , p p . 1 1 - 4 9 . The p e r c e n t a g e s o f v e s s e l s m a k i n g more t h a n one v i s i t a r e p r o b a b l y a l i t t l e c o n s e r v a t i v e a s t h e r e c o r d s f o r some o f t h e s i n g l e s e a s o n v o y a g e s a r e o f d u b i o u s a u t h -e n t i c i t y . F o r t h e same r e a s o n t h e t o t a l f i g u r e i s o n l y a p p r o x i m a t e . F o r a more d e t a i l e d o u t l i n e o f t h e c o u r s e o f t h e m a r i t i m e f u r t r a d e s e e F.W. Howay, "An O u t l i n e S k e t c h o f t h e M a r i t i m e F u r T r a d e " , The C a n a d i a n H i s t o r i c a l A s s o c i - a t i o n R e p o r t , 1 9 3 2 , pp. 5-14. 8. G e o r g e D i x o n , A V o y a g e Round t h e W o r l d ; b u t more P a r t i c u -l a r l y t o t h e N o r t h - W e s t C o a s t o f A m e r i c a ; P e r f o r m e d i n 1 7 8 5 , 1786, 1787 and 1788, i n t h e K i n g G e o r g e a n d Queen C h a r l o t t e , C a p t a i n s P o r t l o c k a n d D i x o n , L o n d o n , 1 7 8 9 , pp. 1 99-200. A l t h o u g h D i x o n ' s name a p p e a r s o n t h e t i t l e p a g e o f t h i s w o r k , i t was a c t u a l l y w r i t t e n b y W i l l i a m B e r e s f o r d who was s u p e r -c a r g o o n t h e Queen C h a r l o t t e . 9. I b i d . , p. 2 0 1 . 10. I b i d . , p. 228. 1 1 . R o b e r t H a s w e l l , L o g , / J u n e 1189/, i n F r e d e r i c k W. Howay ( e d . ) , V o y a g e s o f t h e " C o l u m b i a " t o t h e N o r t h w e s t C o a s t 1787-1790 a n d 1 7 9 0 - 1 7 9 3 , B o s t o n , 1 9 4 1 , p. 96. 12. D i x o n , A V o y a g e , p p . 315-16. 13. G e o r g e D i x o n , Remarks on t h e V o y a g e s o f J o h n M e a r e s , E s q . i n a L e t t e r t o t h e G e n t l e m a n , L o n d o n , 1 8 9 0 , i n F.W. Howay ( e d . ) y The D i x o n - M e a r e s C o n t r o v e r s y . . . , T o r o n t o e t c . _ 1 9 2 9 / p. 30. 14. N a t h a n i e l P o r t l o c k , A V o y a g e Rouhd t h e W o r l d ; b u t more P a r t i c u l a r l y t o t h e N o r t h w e s t C o a s t o f A m e r i c a : P e r f o r m e d i n 1 7 8 5 , 1 7 8 6 , 178 7 and 1788 . . . , L o n d o n , 1789, p. 382. 15. Caamano, J o u r n a l , 19 J u l y 1 7 9 2 , J a c i n t o Caamano, "The J o u r n a l o f J a c i n t o Caamano", The B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a H i s t o r i c a l Q u a r t e r l y , ( h e r e a f t e r c i t e d a s BCHQ) I I , J u l y 1 9 3 8 , p. 2 1 5 . Cook h a d made s i m i l a r r e m a r k s a b o u t m o s t o f t h e N o o t k a I n d i a n s as e a r l y as 1778. See Cook, J o u r n a l , 12 A p r i l 1778, i n J . C . B e a g l e h o l e ( e d . ) , The J o u r n a l s o f C a p t a i n James Cook on h i s V o y a g e s o f D i s c o v e r y ; t h e V o y a g e o f t h e " R e s o l u t i o n " a n d " D i s c o v e r y " , 1 7 7 6 - 1 7 8 0 , C a m b r i d g e , 1 9 6 7 , p a r t 1, p. 301. 16. See f o r e x a m p l e F.W. Howay, W.N. Sage and H.F. A n g u s , B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a and t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , t h e N o r t h P a c i f i c S l o p e f r o m F u r T r a d e t o A v i a t i o n , T o r o n t o e t c . , 1 9 4 2 , p. 12. The p h r a s e h a s b e e n e c h o e d more r e c e n t l y b y M a r t i n R o b i n i n The Rush f o r S p o i l s t h e Company P r o v i n c e 1 8 7 1 - 1 9 3 3 , T o r o n t o , 1 9 7 2 , p. 13. 316 N o t e s , C h a p t e r I ( c o n t . ) 17. Howay, "An O u t l i n e S k e t c h " , p. 14. 18. H u b e r t Howe B a n c r o f t , H i s t o r y o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , S a n F r a n c i s c o , 1 890, p. 4. 19. F o r t h e P a c i f i c g e n e r a l l y t h i s v i e w h a s b e e n m o s t c l e a r l y s t a t e d b y A l a n M o r e h e a d , The F a t a l I m p a c t , an A c c o u n t o f t h e I n v a s i o n o f t h e S o u t h P a c i f i c 1 7 6 7 - 1 8 4 0 , New Y o r k , 1 966, p a s s i m . 20. R o b i n , The R u s h f o r S p o i l s , p. 30. 2 1 . C r e s p i , D i a r y , 21 J u l y 1 7 7 4 , i n G r i f f e n ( e d . ) , D o c u m e n t s , p. 192; Cook, J o u r n a l , 30 M a r c h 1 7 7 8 , i n B e a g l e h o l e ( e d . ) , J o u r n a l s , p a r t 1, p p . 29 7 and 302. C f . f o r e x a m p l e , R o b i n , The Rush f o r S p o i l s , p. 30. 22. Cook, J o u r n a l , 26 A p r i l 1 7 7 8 , i n B e a g l e h o l e ( e d . ) , J o u r n a l s , p a r t 1, p. 314. 23. P e r e z , D i a r y , 20 J u l y 1 7 7 4 , i n J o h n s o n , " S p a n i s h E x p l o r e r s " , p. 59 . 24. B e a g l e h o l e ( e d . ) , J o u r n a l s , p a r t 1, p. 302, f n . 2. 25. Cook, J o u r n a l , 18 A p r i l 1 7 7 8 , i n B e a g l e h o l e ( e d . ) , J o u r n a l s , p a r t 1, pp. 302-03. 26. The M e r c h a n t P r o p r i e t o r s t o M e a r e s , 24 December 1 7 8 7 , M e a r e s , V o y a g e s , a p p e n d i x n o . 1, u n p a g i n a t e d . 27. Cook, J o u r n a l , 18 A p r i l a n d 29 M a r c h 1 7 7 8 , i n B e a g l e h o l e ( e d . ) , J o u r n a l s , p a r t 1, p p . 302 and 296. 28. P e n a , D i a r y , 21 J u l y 1 7 7 4 , i n G r i f f e n ( e d . ) , D o c u m e n t s , p. 1 2 3 ; D i x o n , A V o y a g e , p p . 2 0 0 - 2 0 1 . 29. H a s w e l l , L o g , 19 A p r i l 1 7 8 9 , i n Howay ( e d . ) , V o y a g e s o f t h e " C o l u m b i a " , p. 81. 30. Cook, J o u r n a l , 22 A p r i l 1 7 7 8 , i n B e a g l e h o l e ( e d . ) , J o u r n a l s , p a r t 1, p. 306. C o o k ' s e x p e r i e n c e s u p p o r t s P h i l l i p D r u c k e r 1 s c o n t e n t i o n t h a t t h e N o o t k a c a r r i e d t h e c o n c e p t o f r e s o u r c e o w n e r s h i p t o an " i n c r e d i b l e e x t r e m e " , The N o r t h e r n a n d C e n t r a l N o o t k a n T r i b e s , S m i t h s o n i a n , I n s t i t u t i o n B u r e a u o f A m e r i c a n E t h n o l o g y B u l l e t i n 1 4 4 , W a s h i n g t o n , 1 9 5 1 , p. 247. 31 . L e d y a r d , A J o u r n a l , p. 72. 32. B o i t , J o u r n a l , 9 J u n e 1 7 9 5 , J o h n B o i t , The J o u r n a l o f a V o y a g e Round t h e G l o b e , 1795 and 1796 / i n t h e U n i o n ? MS, S p e c i a l C o l l e c t i o n s , t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a L i b r a r y , ( h e r e a f t e r c i t e d a s S C ) . 317 N o t e s , C h a p t e r I ( c o n t . ) 33. G e o r g e V a n c o u v e r , A V o y a g e o f D i s c o v e r y t o t h e N o r t h P a c i f i c O c e a n , a n d Round t h e W o r l d ; . . . P e r f o r m e d i n t h e y e a r s 1790, 1 7 9 1 , 1 7 9 2 , 1 7 9 3 , 1794 a n d 1795 i n t h e D i s c o v e r y S l o o p o f War a n d Armed T e n d e r Chatham u n d e r t h e command o f C a p t a i n G e o r g e V a n c o u v e r , L o n d o n , 1 7 9 8 , I , p. 348. 34. Edmund S. Meany ( e d . ) , A New V a n c o u v e r J o u r n a l on t h e D i s c o v e r y o f P u g e t Sound b y a Member o f t h e Chatham's Crew, S e a t t l e , 1 9 1 5 , p. 40. 35. C e c i l J a n e ( t r a n s . ) , A S p a n i s h V o y a g e t o V a n c o u v e r and t h e N o r t h - W e s t C o a s t o f A m e r i c a b e i n g t h e N a r r a t i v e o f t h e V o y a g e made i n t h e Y e a r 1792 by t h e . S c h o o n e r s " S u t i l " a n d " M e x i c a n a " t o E x p l o r e t h e S t r a i t o f F u c a , L o n d o n , 1 9 3 0 , p. 90. See a l s o V a n c o u v e r , A V o y a g e , I , p. 349. 36. A l e s s a n d r o M a l a s p i n a ( s i c ) , P o l i t i c o - S c i e n t i f i c V o y a g e s A r o u n d t h e W o r l d . . . f r o m 1 7 8 9 - 1 7 9 4 , t y p e s c r i p t , SC, I I , p. 244. 37. F.W. Howay, "The V o y a g e o f t h e Hope: 1 7 9 0 - 1 7 9 2 " The W a s h i n g t o n H i s t o r i c a l Q u a r t e r l y , ( h e r e a f t e r c i t e d a s WHQ) X I , J a n u a r y 1920, p. 28; Howay, "An O u t l i n e S k e t c h " , p. 8; P a u l C h r i s l e r P h i l l i p s , The F u r T r a d e , Norman, 1 9 6 1 , I I , p. 54. 38. See H u b e r t Howe B a n c r o f t , H i s t o r y o f t h e N o r t h w e s t C o a s t , San F r a n c i s c o , 1884, I , p p . 3 7 0 - 7 1 . 39. P e n a , D i a r y , 20 J u l y a nd 8 A u g u s t 1 7 7 4 , i n G r i f f e n ( e d . ) , D o c u m e n t s , p p . 121 a n d 132. Cook n o t e d t h a t t h e N o o t k a h a d a w o r d f o r i r o n a n d o t h e r m e t a l s , Cook, J o u r n a l , / A p r i l 1 7 7 8 / , i n B e a g l e h o l e ( e d . ) , J o u r n a l s , p a r t 1, p. 328. 40. T h i s k i n d o f p a t t e r n h a s b e e n d e l i n e a t e d f o r o t h e r a r e a s o f t h e P a c i f i c , s e e D o r o t h y S h i n e b e r g , They Came f o r S a n d a l w o o d , a S t u d y o f t h e S a n d a l w o o d T r a d e i n t h e S o u t h - W e s t P a c i f i c , M e l b o u r n e , 1 9 6 7 , p p . 145 and 150. 4 1 . Howay, "Voyage o f t h e Hope", p. 10. 42. I n g r a h a m , J o u r n a l , 12 J u l y 1 7 9 1 , Mark D. K a p l a n o f f ( e d . ) , J o s e p h I n g r a h a m ' s J o u r n a l o f t h e B r i g a n t i n e "Hope" on a V o y a g e t o t h e N o r t h w e s t C o a s t o f N o r t h A m e r i c a , B a r r e , M a s s . , 1 9 7 1 , p. 105. 43. F.W. Howay ( e d . ) , " W i l l i a m S t u r g i s : t h e N o r t h w e s t F u r T r a d e " , BCHQ, V I I I , J a n u a r y 1 9 4 4 , p. 22. 44. V a n c o u v e r , A V o y a g e , I , p. 349. 45. C P . C l a r e t F l e u r i e u , A V o y a g e Round t h e W o r l d , P e r f o r m e d d u r i n g t h e Y e a r s , 1 7 9 0 , 1 7 9 1 , and 1 7 9 2 , by E t i e n n e M a r c h a n d , L o n d o n , 1 8 0 1 , I , p . 449. 318 N o t e s , C h a p t e r I ( c o n t . ) 46. M e a r e s , V o y a g e s , p. 368, B u r n e y , J o u r n a l , . 24 A p r i l 1 7 7 8 , J o u r n a l o f t h e P r o c e e d i n g s o f H i s M a j e s t y ' s S l o o p D i s c o v e r y -C h a s . C l e r k e , Commander, 1 7 7 6 - 1 7 7 9 , p h o t o c o p y , P r o v i n c i a l A r c h i v e s o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , ( h e r e a f t e r c i t e d as P A B C ) . 47. J o h n D'Wolf, V o y a g e t o t h e N o r t h P a c i f i c a n d a J o u r n e y t h r o u g h S i b e r i a more t h a n H a l f a C e n t u r y Ago, C a m b r i d g e , 1 8 6 1 , p. 19. 48. M. C a m i l l e De R o q u e f e u i l , A V o y a g e Round t h e W o r l d , b e t w e e n t h e Y e a r s 1 8 1 6 - 1 8 1 9 , L o n d o n , 182 3, p. 87. 49. G.H. Von L a n g s d o r f f , V o y a g e s a nd T r a v e l s i n V a r i o u s P a r t s o f t h e W o r l d , d u r i n g t h e Y e a r s 1 8 0 3 , 1804, 1 8 0 5 , 1806 a n d 18 0 7 , C a r l i s l e , 1 8 1 7 , p. 413. 50. F l e u r i e u , A V o y a g e , I , p.. 4 2 2 . 51 . R o q u e f e u i l , A V o y a g e , p. 92. 52. See Howay, "An O u t l i n e S k e t c h " , p. 9; a n d C r i s t o n I . A r c h e r , "The T r a n s i e n t P r e s e n c e : A R e - A p p r a i s a l o f S p a n i s h A t t i t u d e s t o w a r d t h e N o r t h w e s t C o a s t i n t h e E i g h t e e n t h C e n t u r y " , B.C. S t u d i e s , n o . 18, 1 9 7 3 , p. 29. 53. Howay's own c o m p i l a t i o n s o f t h e v i s i t s o f t r a d i n g v e s s e l s p r o v i d e c o n t r a d i c t o r y e v i d e n c e a g a i n s t h i s c l a i m t h a t few v e s s e l s r e t u r n e d t o t h e c o a s t . See l o c . c i t . a nd c f . v. s u p r a . , p. 12. 54. J o h n H o s k i n s , Memorandum / A u g u s t 1 7 9 2 / , i n HoWay ( e d . ) , V o y a g e s o f t h e " C o l u m b i a " , p . 486; P u g e t , L o g , 27 A p r i l 1 7 9 3 , P e t e r P u g e t , L o g o f t h e P r o c e e d i n g s o f H i s M a j e s t y ' s Armed T e n d e r Chatham L i e u t e n a n t P e t e r P u g e t A c t i n g Commander 12 Day o f J a n u a r y 1 7 9 3 , m i c r o f i l m , U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a L i b r a r y , ( h e r e a f t e r c i t e d as U B C ) , p. 40. 55. D'Wolf, V o y a g e , p. 18, f o r N e w i t t y s e e p. 17. 56. S a m u e l D o r r t o . E b e n e z e r D o r r , 16 A u g u s t 1 8 0 1 , E b e n e z e r D o r r , D o r r M a r i n e C o l l e c t i o n , 1 7 9 5 - 1 8 2 0 , MSS, PABC. 57. R i c h a r d J . C l e v e l a n d , V o y a g e s a nd C o m m e r c i a l E n t e r p r i s e s o f t h e Sons o f New E n g l a n d , New Y o r k , 1 8 6 5 , p. 9,4. 58. H a s w e l l , L o g , 25 A p r i l 1 7 9 2 , i n Howay ( e d . ) , V o y a g e s o f t h e " C o l u m b i a " , p. 323. 59. Howay ( e d . ) , " W i l l i a m S t u r g i s " , p. 20. 60. Cook, J o u r n a l , 18 A p r i l 1 7 7 8 , i n B e a g l e h o l e ( e d . ) , J o u r n a l s , p a r t 1, p. 302; a n d c f . B a n c r o f t , H i s t o r y o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , p. 4. 319 N o t e s , C h a p t e r I ( c o n t . ) 6 1 . R o q u e f e u i l , A V o y a g e , p. 97. 62. M e a r e s , V o y a g e s , p. 148. 63. D i x o n , A V o y a g e , p. 20 4. 64. I n g r a h a m , J o u r n a l , 2 S e p t e m b e r 1 7 9 1 , i n K a p l a n o f f ( e d . ) , I n g r a h a m ' s J o u r n a l , p. 146. 65. Howay, "An O u t l i n e S k e t c h " , p. 10. 66. I n g r a h a m , J o u r n a l , 2 S e p t e m b e r 1 7 9 1 , i n K a p l a n o f f ( e d . ) , I n g r a h a m ' s J o u r n a l , p. 147. 67. D'Wolf, V o y a g e , p. 18. 68. F l e u r i e u , A V o y a g e , 1, p. 283. 69. See f o r e x a m p l e M e a r e s , V o y a g e s , p. 120; and I n g r a h a m , J o u r n a l , 5 A u g u s t 1 7 9 1 , i n K a p l a n o f f ( e d . ) , I n g r a h a m ' s J o u r n a l , p. 126. 70.. I n g r a h a m , J o u r n a l , 11 A u g u s t 1 7 9 1 , i n K a p l a n o f f ( e d . ) , I n g r a h a m ' s J o u r n a 1 , p. 130; H o s k i n s , N a r r a t i v e , J a n u a r y 1 7 9 2 , i n Howay ( e d . ) , V o y a g e s o f t h e " C o l u m b i a " , p. 265. 71. C l e v e l a n d L o g , 27 J u n e 1 7 9 9 , R . J . C l e v e l a n d , L o g K e p t b y C a p t . R i c h a r d C l e v e l a n d , 10 J a n u a r y 1799 t o 4 May 1804, MS, SC. 72. C l e v e l a n d , L o g , 17 J u n e 1799. 73. M e a r e s , V o y a g e s , p. 128; D'Wolf, V o y a g e , p. 18; a n d H o s k i n s , N a r r a t i v e , J u l y 1 7 9 1 , i n Howay ( e d . ) , V o y a g e s o f t h e " C o l u m b i a " , p. 19 8. 74. Cook d i d n o t a n c h o r a t Y u q u o t ( c a l l e d F r i e n d l y Cove by E u r o p e a n s ) b u t a t S h i p Cove (now c a l l e d R e s o l u t i o n Cove) on t h e s o u t h w e s t t i p o f B l i g h I s l a n d . B u t i t seems l i k e l y t h a t t h e p e o p l e who h a d a summer v i l l a g e a t Y u q u o t w e r e t h e o n e s c o n t r o l l i n g t h e t r a d e w i t h t h e e x p e d i t i o n . 75. Cook, J o u r n a l , 18 A p r i l 1 7 7 8 , i n B e a g l e h o l e ( e d . ) , J o u r n a l s , p a r t 1, p. 302. 76. Cook, J o u r n a l , 1 A p r i l 1 7 7 8 , i n B e a g l e h o l e ( e d . ) , J o u r n a l s , p a r t _ l , p . 2 9 9 . See a l s o C h a r l e s C l e r k e , J o u r n a l / A p r i l 1 7 7 8 / , i n B e a g l e h o l e ( e d . ) , J o u r n a l s , p a r t 2, p. 1326. 77. I n g r a h a m , J o u r n a l , 2 A u g u s t 1 7 9 1 , i n K a p l a n o f f ( e d . ) , I n g r a h a m ' s J o u r n a l , p. 1 2 1 . 320 N o t e s , C h a p t e r I ( c o n t . ) 78. V a n c o u v e r , A V o y a g e , I , p p . 3 3 1 - 3 2 , 346 a n d 349; J a n e ( t r a n s . ) A S p a n i s h V o y a g e , pp. 7 4 - 7 5 ; M e n z i e s , J o u r n a l , 20 J u l y 1 7 9 2 , i n C.F. Newcombe ( e d . ) , M e n z i e s J o u r n a l o f V a n c o u v e r ' s V o y a g e A p r i l t o O c t o b e r 1 7 9 2 , A r c h i v e s o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a M e m o i r n o . V, V i c t o r i a , 1 9 2 3 , p. 88. 79. H o s k i n s , N a r r a t i v e , J a n u a r y 1792, i n Howay ( e d . ) , V o y a g e s o f t h e " C o l u m b i a " , p. 2 6 5 . 80. M e a r e s , V o y a g e s , p. 1 4 2 ; Magee, L o g , 31 May 179 3, / B e r n a r d Magee7/ L o g o r t h e J e f f e r s o n , p h o t o c o p y , SC. 81. E l i z a , J o u r n a l , 5 May 1 7 9 9 , / E l i z a ? J o u r n a l o f t h e E l i z a , F e b r u a r y - M a y 1 7 9 9 , p h o t o c o p y , SC, p. 45. A l t h o u g h t h i s m a n u s c r i p t i n c l u d e s a t i t l e p a g e a t t r i b u t i n g t h e a u t h o r s h i p o f t h e j o u r n a l t o S t u r g i s , i t i s c l e a r f r o m t h e t e x t t h a t he was n o t t h e a u t h o r . 82. E l i z a , J o u r n a l , 4 M a r c h 1 7 9 9 , p. 13. 83. P u g e t , L o g o f t h e Chatham, p. 52. 84. I n g r a h a m , J o u r n a l , 12 A u g u s t 1 7 9 1 , i n K a p l a n o f f ( e d . ) , I n g r a h a m ' s J o u r n a l , p . 132. 85. C o o k , J o u r n a l , 4 A p r i l 1 7 7 8 , i n B e a g l e h o l e ( e d . ) , J o u r n a l s , p a r t 1, p. 29 9. 86. S a m w e l l , J o u r n a l , 4 A p r i l 1 7 7 8 , i n B e a g l e h o l e ( e d . ) , J o u r n a l s , p a r t 2,. p. 1 0 9 3 . 87. K i n g , J o u r n a l , / A p r i l 1 7 7 8 / , i n B e a g l e h o l e ( e d . ) , J o u r n a l s , p a r t 2, p p . -1406-07. 88. B o i t , L o g , 18 J u n e 1 7 9 2 , i n Howay ( e d . ) , V o y a g e s o f t h e " C o l u m b i a " , p. 38 8. 89. / E l i z a / , Remarks on t h e V o y a g e o f E l i z a , 179 8-1799, p h o t o -c o p y , SC, p. 56. 90. H a s w e l l , L o g , 16 S e p t e m b e r 1 7 8 8 , i n Howay ( e d . ) , V o y a g e s o f t h e " C o l u m b i a " , p. 49. 9 1 . I n g r a h a m , J o u r n a l , 14 J u l y 1 7 9 1 , i n K a p l a n o f f ( e d . ) , I n g r a h a m ' s J o u r n a l , p. 10 8; Magee, L o g , / O c t o b e r 179 3 ? . 92. P u g e t , L o g , 12 A u g u s t 1 7 9 3 , P u g e t , L o g o f t h e Chatham, p. 77. 93. Caamano, J o u r n a l , A u g u s t 1 7 9 2 , Caamano, " J o u r n a l " , p. 278. 94. C l e v e l a n d , V o y a g e s , p. 91. 321 N o t e s , C h a p t e r I ( c o n t . ) 95. S.amwell, J o u r n a l , 25 A p r i l 1 7 7 8 , i n B e a g l e h o l e ( e d . ) , J o u r n a l s , p a r t 2, p. 1100. 96. Howay, "An O u t l i n e S k e t c h " , p . 9 ; a nd V o y a g e s o f t h e " C o l u m b i a " , p . x x v i i . 97. D i x o n , A V o y a g e , p. 2 1 5 . 98. H a s w e l l , L o g , 11 J u n e 1 7 8 9 , i n Howay ( e d . ) , V o y a g e s o f t h e " C o l u m b i a " , p. 98. 99. H o s k i n s , N a r r a t i v e , J u l y 1 7 9 1 , i n Howay ( e d . ) , V o y a g e s o f t h e " CoTumbia", p. 2 00. To h a v e h a d h i s h a i r c u t o f f w o u l d h a v e b e e n p a r t i c u l a r l y d e g r a d i n g f o r a n o r t h w e s t c o a s t I n d i a n as s h o r t h a i r s i g n i f i e d a s l a v e . 100. The v a r i o u s a c c o u n t s o f t h i s i n c i d e n t h a v e b e e n g a t h e r e d t o g e t h e r i n F.W. Howay, "The B a l l a d o f a B o l d N o r t h w e s t m a n : an I n c i d e n t i n t h e L i f e o f C a p t a i n J o h n K e n d r i c k " , WHQ, XX, A p r i l 1 9 2 9 , pp. 1 1 4 - 2 3 . 10 1 . F o r a d e s c r i p t i o n o f many o f t h e I n d i a n a t t a c k s on f u r t r a d e r s s e e F.W. Howay, " I n d i a n A t t a c k s upon M a r i t i m e F u r T r a d e r s o f t h e N o r t h - W e s t C o a s t , 1 7 8 5 - 1 8 0 5 " , The C a n a d i a n H i s t o r i c a l R e v i e w , V I , December 1 9 2 5 , pp. 287-309. 1 0 2 . The p o i n t h a s b e e n made i n t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e s o u t h P a c i f i c by S h i n e b e r g , They Came f o r S a n d a l w o o d , p. 199. 103. H o s k i n s , N a r r a t i v e , F e b r u a r y 1 7 9 2 , i n Howay ( e d . ) , V o y a g e s o f t h e " C o l u m b i a " , p. 2 6 9. 104. H o s k i n s , N a r r a t i v e , J a n u a r y 1 7 9 2 , i n Howay ( e d . ) , V o y a g e s o f t h e " C o l u m b i a " , p. 265. 105. P u g e t , L o g , 27 J u l y 1 7 9 3 , P u g e t , L o g o f t h e Chatham, p . 7 1 ; E d w a r d B e l c h e r , N a r r a t i v e o f a V o y a g e Round t h e W o r l d P e r f o r m e d i n H e r M a j e s t y ' s S h i p S u l p h e r , d u r i n g t h e Y e a r s 18 36-1842 . . . , L o n d o n , 1 8 4 3 , I , p. 1 1 1 . 106. F l e u r i e u , A V o y a g e , I , p. 477. 107. J e w i t t , J o u r n a l , 6 November 1 8 0 3 , J o h n J e w i t t , A J o u r n a l K e p t a t N o o t k a Sound . . • , B o s t o n , 1 8 0 7 , p. 13. 108. J e w i t t , J o u r n a l , 19 M a r c h 1 8 0 3 , J e w i t t , J o u r n a l , p. 3. 109. J e w i t t , J o u r n a l , 26 M a r c h 1 8 0 3 , J e w i t t , J o u r n a l , p. 5. 110. F l e u r i e u , A V o y a g e , I , p. 4 2 1 . 322 N o t e s , C h a p t e r I ( c o n t . ) 1 1 1 . I t i s s o m e t i m e s assumed t h a t m u s k e t s w e r e more e f f i c i e n t t h a n I n d i a n weapons a n d t h e r e f o r e t h a t t h e i r i n t r o d u c t i o n m u st h a v e made I n d i a n w a r f a r e more d e a d l y . See f o r e x a m p l e , A r c h e r , "The T r a n s i e n t P r e s e n c e " , p. 28. 112. I n t h i s c a s e t h e w o r d " N o o t k a " i s u s e d i n i t s b r o a d e s t s e n s e , a s t h e a t t a c k o n t h e T o n q u i n p r o b a b l y o c c u r r e d i n C l a y o q u o t S o u n d . The a t t a c k l e f t no s u r v i v o r s a nd t h e r e a r e , t h e r e f o r e , no e y e w i t n e s s a c c o u n t s . The m o s t r e l i a b l e a c c o u n t i s i n W. K aye Lamb ( e d . ) , J o u r n a l o f a V o y a g e t o t h e N o r t h w e s t C o a s t o f N o r t h A m e r i c a d u r i n g t h e Y e a r s 1 8 1 1 , 1812, 1 8 1 3 a n d 1 8 1 4 , b y G a b r i e l F r a n c h e r e , T o r o n t o , 1 9 6 9 , p p . 124-127. 1 1 3 . Howay l i s t s o n l y f i f t e e n i n c i d e n t s t h a t c o u l d p o s s i b l y be d e s c r i b e d as a t t a c k s o n v e s s e l s , a nd a t l e a s t f i v e o f t h e s e a r e h i g h l y d o u b t f u l c a s e s . See H o w a y , " I n d i a n A t t a c k s " , p a s s i m . 114. C f . P h i l l i p D r u c k e r , C u l t u r e s o f t h e N o r t h P a c i f i c C o a s t , San F r a n c i s c o , 1 9 6 5 , p. 1 9 2 . 115. S u r i a , J o u r n a l , _ 1 3 A u g u s t 1 7 9 1 , i n H e n r y R. Wagner ( e d . ) , J o u r n a l o f Thomas de S u r i a o f h i s V o y a g e w i t h M a l a s p i n s a t o t h e N o r t h w e s t C o a s t o f A m e r i c a i n 1 7 9 1 , G l e n d a l e , 1936, p. 274. 116. The S p a n i a r d , M o z i n o , who w r o t e w h a t m i g h t be c o n s i d e r e d t h e f i r s t e t h n o g r a p h y o f t h e N o o t k a Sound I n d i a n s , c l a i m e d t h a t M a q u i n n a ' s f a t h e r d i e d i n 1778. J o s e M a r i a n o M o z i n o , N o t i c i a s de N u t k a , an A c c o u n t o f N o o t k a Sound i n 1 7 9 2 , T o r o n t o and M o n t r e a l , 1 9 7 0 , p. 3 1 . T h e r e i s some e v i d e n c e t h a t t h i s M a q u i n n a d i e d i n 1 7 9 5 , i n w h i c h c a s e h i s name and p o s i t i o n was t a k e n o v e r by a n o t h e r i n d i v i d u a l . See B i s h o p , J o u r n a l , 5 O c t o b e r 1 7 9 5 , i n M i c h a e l Roe ( e d . ) , The J o u r n a l a nd L e t t e r s o f C a p t a i n C h a r l e s B i s h o p o f t h e N o r t h - W e s t C o a s t o f A m e r i c a , i n t h e P a c i f i c a n d i n New S o u t h W a l e s 1 7 9 4 - 1 7 9 9 , C a m b r i d g e , 1 9 6 7 , p p . .107-08. I t i s , t h e r e f o r e , p r o b a b l y u n t r u e t o s a y t h a t i t was t h e same M a q u i n n a who met Cook and V a n c o u v e r a n d c a p t u r e d t h e B o s t o n ; p o s s i b l y t h e y w e r e t h r e e d i f f e r e n t men. C f . Howay, " I n d i a n A t t a c k s " , p. 304. 117. See f o r e x a m p l e , Chatham, J o u r n a l , May 1 7 9 3 , H.M. S h i p C h atham, J o u r n a l K e p t o n B o a r d t h e Armed T e n d e r Chatham, t y p e s c r i p t , PABC. 118. J e w i t t , J o u r n a l , 24 November 1 8 0 3 , J e w i t t , J o u r n a l , p. 12. 119. P u g e t , L o g , 16 A p r i l 1 7 9 3 , P u g e t , L o g o f t h e Chatham, p p . 39-40. 323 N o t e s , C h a p t e r I ( c o n t . ) 120. E r n a G u n t h e r i s m i s t a k e n when she i d e n t i f i e s C unneah and K o y a h as t h e same p e r s o n . They w e r e d i f f e r e n t l e a d e r s l i v i n g a t o p p o s i t e e n d s .of t h e Queen C h a r l o t t e I s l a n d s . See E r n a G u i i t h e r , I n d i a n L i f e o n t h e N o r t h w e s t C o a s t o f A m e r i c a as S e e n b y t h e E a r l y E x p l o r e r s a n d F u r T r a d e r s d u r i n g t h e L a s t D e c a d e s o f t h e E i g h t e e n t h C e n t u r y , C h i c a g o a n d L o n d o n , 1 9 7 2 , pp. 127 and 134. 121 . C f . I n g r a h a m , J o u r n a l , 10 J u l y 1 7 9 1 , i n K a p l a n o f f ( e d . ) , I n g r a h a m ' s J o u r n a l , p. 1 0 2 , a n d E l i z a , J o u r n a l , 27 M a r c h 1799, p. 1 3 . 122. E l i z a , J o u r n a l , 2 7 M a r c h 1 7 9 9 , p . 2 8 . Kow owned t h e s e e r m i n e s k i n s b e f o r e S t u r g i s g l u t t e d t h e K a i g a n i m a r k e t w i t h them i n 1 8 0 4 , s e e Howay ( e d . ) , " W i l l i a m S t u r g i s " , p. 22. 123. M e a r e s , V o y a g e s , p p. 1 4 9 - 5 0 . 124.. S a m w e l l , J o u r n a l , 6 A p r i l 1 7 7 8 , i n B e a g l e h o l e ( e d . ) , p a r t 2, p. 1095. _ J o h n N i c o l / , The L i f e a n d A d v e n t u r e s o f J o h n N i c o l M a r i n e r , E d i n b u r g h a n d L o n d o n , 1 8 2 2 , p. 89. N i c o l was a member o f t h e c r e w o f P o r t l o c k ' s K i n g G e o r g e on t h e c o a s t i n 1786 a n d 1787. P u g e t , L o g o f t h e Chatham, p. 134. 125. Meany ( e d . ) , A New V a n c o u v e r J o u r n a l , p. 36. 126. P u g e t , L o g , 16 A p r i l 1 7 9 3 , P u g e t , L o g o f t h e Chatham, p. 40. 127. D i x o n , A V o y a g e , p. 225. 128. B i s h o p , J o u r n a l , 30 J u l y 1 7 9 5 , i n Roe ( e d . ) , J o u r n a l a n d L e t t e r s , p. 8 3 . 129. V a n c o u v e r , A V o y a g e , I , p. 377. 130. P u g e t , L o g o f t h e Chatham, p. 49. E u r o p e a n C a p t a i n s some-t i m e s t h o u g h t t h a t t h e y w e r e b e i n g o f f e r e d t h e d a u g h t e r o f a c h i e f . Caamano o n c e t h o u g h t t h a t he was b e i n g a c c o r d e d t h e p r i v i l e g e , b u t a s t h e H a i d a g i r l w o r e no l a b r e t i t i s u n l i k e l y t h a t s h e was o f h i g h r a n k . Caamano, J o u r n a l , J u l y 1 7 9 2 , Caamano, " J o u r n a l " , p . 216. 131 . P u g e t , L o g o f t h e Chatham, p. 50. 132. C f . R o b i n , The R u s h f o r S p o i l s , p. 30. 133. Howay, Sage a n d A n g u s , p. 13. I n s u p p o r t o f h i s c o n t e n t i o n Howay c i t e s The I n d i a n s o f C a n a d a , b u t on t h e page r e f e r r e d t o J e n n e s s i s d i s c u s s i n g t h e i m p a c t o f s e t t l e m e n t . H o w a y 1 s i s a t y p i c a l b a c k w a r d s e x t r a p o l a t i o n w h i c h s e e s t h e i m p a c t o f s e t t l e m e n t on t h e I n d i a n p o p u l a t i o n b e g i n n i n g w i t h t h e f u r t r a d e . See Diamond J e n n e s s , The I n d i a n s o f C a n a d a , N a t i o n a l Museum o f C a n a d a B u l l e t i n ^ 6 5 , O t t a w a , 1 9 6 0 , p . 2 6 1 . The p a g i n a t i o n o f t h i s e d i t i o n i s t h e same as t h e 19 34 e d i t i o n w h i c h Howay p r o b a b l y r e a d . 324 N o t e s , C h a p t e r I ( c o n t . ) 134. W i l s o n D u f f , The I n d i a n H i s t o r y o f B.C., p p . 57-58.. 135. J.A. W i k e , "The E f f e c t o f t h e M a r i t i m e F u r T r a d e o n N o r t h w e s t C o a s t I n d i a n S o c i e t y " , Ph.D. T h e s i s , C o l u m b i a U n i v e r s i t y , / 1 9 5 1 / , p. 9 2 . 136. See f o r e x a m p l e M a r i u s B a r b e a u , "Totem P o l e s : A By P r o d u c t o f t h e F u r T r a d e " , S c i e n t i f i c M o n t h l y , December 1 9 4 2 , pp. 5 07-14. 137. W i l s o n D u f f , " C o n t r i b u t i o n s o f M a r i u s B a r b e a u t o W est C o a s t E t h n o g r a p h y " , A n t h r o p o l o g i c a , V I , 1 9 6 4 , pp. 6 3-96; and P h i l l i p D r u c k e r , "The A n t i q u i t y o f t h e N o r t h w e s t C o a s t Totem P o l e " , J o u r n a l o f t h e W a s h i n g t o n Academy o f S c i e n c e s , X X X V I I I , December 1 9 4 8 , p p . 3 8 9 - 9 7 . 138. See f o r e x a m p l e , W i l l i a m R o b e r t B r o u g h t o n , A V o y a g e o f D i s c o v e r y t o t h e N o r t h P a c i f i c O c e a n . . . P e r f o r m e d i n H i s M a j e s t y ' s S l o o p P r o v i d e n c e , and h e r T e n d e r , i n t h e Y e a r s 1 7 9 5 , 1796, 1797 a n d 179 8, L o n d o n , 1 8 0 4 , p. 48. 139. T h e o d o r R o s e b u r y , M i c r o b e s and M o r a l s t h e S t r a n g e S t o r y o f V e n e r e a l D i s e a s e , New Y o r k , 1 9 7 1 , p. 267. 140. L e s s e q u i v o c a l s t a t e m e n t s h a v e b e e n made on t h i s p o i n t b u t n o t , u n f o r t u n a t e l y , s u p p o r t e d by any e v i d e n c e . See R o b e r t E. M c K e c h n i e . S t r o n g M e d i c i n e H i s t o r y o f H e a l i n g o n t h e N o r t h w e s t C o a s t , V a n c o u v e r , 1 9 7 2 , p. 75. 1 4 1 . ' See 1 f o r e x a m p l e , P e t e r P u g e t , A L o g o f t h e P r o c e e d i n g s o f H i s M a j e s t y ' s S h i p D i s c o v e r y G e o r g e V a n c o u v e r E s q u i r e -Commander K e p t by P e t e r P u g e t f r o m t h e 4 t h Day o f J a n u a r y 1791,. t o t h e 14 d a y o f J a n u a r y 1 7 9 3 , m i c r o f i l m , UBC, p. 134; and F l e u r i e u , V o y a g e , I , p. 438. An e x c e p t i o n t o t h e g e n e r a l i z a t i o n i s B i s h o p ' s c l a i m t h a t two t h i r d s o f t h e K a i g a n i p e o p l e h a d d i e d o f s m a l l p o x , a l t h o u g h he a l s o n o t e s t h a t t h e y w e r e s t i l l n umerous a t t h e t i m e o f h i s v i s i t . B i s h o p , J o u r n a l , 30 J u l y 1 7 9 5 , i n Roe ( e d . ) , J o u r n a l and L e t t e r s , p. 83. 142. Manby, J o u r n a l , 2 4 J u l y 179 2, Thomas Manby, A J o u r n a l o f V a n c o u v e r ' s V o y a g e , p h o t o c o p y , SC.. 14 3. Norma M c A r t h u r , I s l a n d P o p u l a t i o n s o f t h e P a c i f i c , C a n b e r r a , 1967, p.347 a n d p a s s i m . See a l s o G e o r g e H e n r y L a n e - F o x P i t t -R i v e r s , The C l a s h o f C u l t u r e s and t h e C o n t a c t o f R a c e s . . . , L o n d o n , 1 9 2 7 , p. 5 5 . 144. S e e , f o r e x a m p l e , Wayne S u t t l e s , " P o s t - C o n t a c t C u l t u r e Change Among t h e Lummi I n d i a n s " , BCHQ, X V I I I , 1 9 5 4 , p. 45. 325 N o t e s , C h a p t e r I ( C o n t . ) 145. W a r r e n L. Cook, F l o o d T i d e o f E m p i r e S p a i n a n d t h e P a c i f i c N o r t h w e s t , 1 5 4 3 - 1 8 1 9 , New Haven a n d L o n d o n , 1 9 7 3 , p . 1 2 9 . 146. Howay, Sage and A n g u s , B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , p. 12. 147. C f . W i k e , "The E f f e c t o f t h e M a r i t i m e F u r T r a d e " , p . 1 0 2 . NOTES CHAPTER I I The L a n d B a s e d F u r T r a d e 1. J o h n M c L o u g h l i n t o t h e G o v e r n o r , D e p u t y G o v e r n o r a n d C o m m i t t e e , 15 November 1 8 4 3 , Hudson's Bay Company A r c h i v e s ( h e r e a f t e r c i t e d a s HBCA), B- 2 2 3 / b / 3 0 , m i c r o f i l m , P u b l i c A r c h i v e s o f C a n a d a ( h e r e a f t e r c i t e d as P A C ) ; a l s o i n E.E. R i c h (ed.)', The L e t t e r s o f J o h n M c L o u g h l i n f r o m F o r t V a n c o u v e r t o t h e G o v e r n o r and C o m m i t t e e , S e c o n d S e r i e s , 1 8 3 9 - 1 8 4 4 , T o r o n t o , 1 9 4 3 , p. 118. 2. New C a l e d o n i a c a n b e r o u g h l y d e s c r i b e d as i n c l u d i n g t h e a r e a f r o m 51 t o a b o u t 57 . 3. S i m p s o n , J o u r n a l , i n F r e d e r i c k M e rk ( e d . ) , F u r T r a d e a n d E m p i r e , G e o r g e - S i m p s o n ' s J o u r n a l , Remarks C o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e F u r T r a d e i n t h e C o u r s e o f a V o y a g e f r o m Y o r k F a c t o r y t o F o r t G e o r g e a n d b a c k t o Y o r k F a c t o r y 1 8 2 4 - 1 8 2 5 ; . . . , C a m b r i d g e , M a s s . , 1 9 3 1 , p p . H 9 f f . 4. S i m p s o n t o W i l l i a m S m i t h , 17 November 1 8 2 8 , i n Merk ( e d . ) , F u r T r a d e and E m p i r e , p . 3 0 0 . 5. As a g r e e d t o i n t h e T r e a t y o f 2 8 F e b r u a r y 1 8 2 5 , J . S . G a l -b r a i t h , The Hudson's Bay Company as a n I m p e r i a l F a c t o r 1 8 2 1 -1 8 6 9 , B e r k e l e y and L o s A n g e l e s , 1957, p.134. 6. See f o r e x a m p l e G a l b r a i t h , H.B.C. as an I m p e r i a l F a c t o r , c h a p t e r 7, a n d E . E . R i c h , The H i s t o r y p f t h e Hudson's Bay Company 1 6 7 0 - 1 8 7 0 , v o l . 1 1 ; 1 7 6 3 - 1 8 7 0 , L o n d o n , 1 9 5 9 , c h a p t e r 23. 7. An e x c e p t i o n i s E.E. R i c h , " T r a d e H a b i t s a n d E c o n o m i c M o t i v a t i o n s among t h e I n d i a n s o f N o r t h A m e r i c a " , C a n a d i a n J o u r n a l o f E c o n o m i c s a n d P o l i t i c a l S c i e n c e , X X V I , F e b r u a r y 1 9 6 0 , pp. 3 5 - 5 3 . 8. S i r G e o r g e S i m p s o n , N a r r a t i v e o f a J o u r n e y A r o u n d t h e W o r l d d u r i n g t h e Y e a r s 1 8 4 1 a n d 1 8 4 2 , L o n d o n , 1 8 4 7 , I , p . 1 9 2 . 9. I b i d . , p. 188. 10. Duncan F i n l a y s o n t o J a m e s . H a r g r a v e , 10 M a r c h 1832, James H a r g r a v e , H a r g r a v e C o l l e c t i o n , MSS, PAC; a l s o i n G.P. de T. G l a z e b r o o k ( e d . ) , The H a r g r a v e C o r r e s p o n d e n c e 1 8 2 1 - 1 8 4 3 , Toronto', 1 938, p. 88. 1 1 . E.E. R i c h ( e d . ) , P a r t o f a D e s p a t c h f r o m G e o r g e S i m p s o n E s q r . G o v e r n o r o f R u p e r t s L a n d t o t h e G o v e r n o r & C o m m i t t e e o f t h e H u d s o n ' s Bay Company L o n d o n M a r c h 1, 1 8 2 9 . C o n t i n u e d and C o m p l e t e d M a r c h 24 a n d J u n e 5, 1 8 2 9 , T o r o n t o , 1947, p . 8 5 . 326 327 N o t e s , C h a p t e r I I ( C o n t . ) 1 2 . R i c h , H i s t o r y o f t h e .H.B.C-, I I , p. 639. 13. F o r t L a n g l e y , J o u r n a l , 21 S e p t e m b e r 1 8 2 7 , HBCA, B - 1 1 3 / a . 14. Work, J o u r n a l , 23 F e b r u a r y 1 8 3 5 , J o h n Work, J o u r n a l s , 1 8 2 3 - 1 8 5 1 , MSS, PABC. 15. F o r t S i m p s o n , J o u r n a l , 5 A u g u s t 1 8 3 9 , HBCA, B-20 1 / a . .16. Work, J o u r n a l , 23 A p r i l 1 8 3 5 . 17. F i n l a y s o n t o H a r g r a v e , 10 M a r c h 1 8 3 2 , H a r g r a v e , C o l l e c t i o n ; a l s o i n G l a z e b r o o k ( e d . ) , H a r g r a v e C o r r e s p o n d e n c e , p .88. 18. Work, J o u r n a l , 18 F e b r u a r y 1835. 19. G a l b r a i t h , H.B.C. a s an I m p e r i a l F a c t o r , p p . 1 3 8 - 3 9 . See a l s o C h a r l e s W i l k e s , N a r r a t i v e o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s E x p l o r i n g E x p e d i t i o n d u r i n g t h e Y e a r s 1 8 3 8 , 1 8 3 9 , 1 8 4 0 , 1 8 4 1 , 1 8 4 2 , L o n d o n , 1 8 4 5 , I V , p. 299. 20. F o r t S i m p s o n , J o u r n a l , 20 a n d 21 May 1 8 3 7 , HBCA, B - 2 0 1 / a . T h i s e v i d e n c e c o n v i n c i n g l y c o n t r a d i c t s H.G. B a r n e t t 1 s c l a i m t h a t a t F o r t S i m p s o n " V a l u e s w e r e a r b i t r a r i l y a s s e s s e d by t h e w h i t e t r a d e r s a n d t h e I n d i a n t o o k w h a t he c o u l d g e t " . See H . G . . B a r n e t t , " A p p l i e d A n t h r o p o l o g y i n 1 8 6 0 " , A p p l i e d A n t h r o p o l o g y , I , A p r i l - J u n e , 19 42, p . 20. 2 1 . Work, J o u r n a l , 25 S e p t e m b e r 1 8 3 5 . 22. T h a t i s t h e f o r m e r p a i d 5s f o r a l a r g e b e a v e r w h i l e t h e l a t t e r p a i d u p w a r d s o f 1 0 s . James D o u g l a s t o S i m p s o n , 18 M a r c h 1 8 38, HBCA, B-22 3 / b / 2 0 ; a l s o i n E.E. R i c h ( e d . ) , The L e t t e r s o f J o h n M c L o u g h l i n f r o m F o r t V a n c o u v e r t o t h e G o v e r n o r a n d Committee> F i r s t - S e r i e s , 1 8 2 5 - 1 8 3 8 , T o r o n t o , 1 9 4 1 , p . 2 8 1 . 23. Work, J o u r n a l , 2 3 F e b r u a r y 1 8 3 5 . 24. James E d w a r d F i t z g e r a l d , An E x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e C h a r t e r a n d P r o c e e d i n g s o f t h e Hudson's Bay Company, w i t h R e f e r e n c e t o t h e G r a n t o f V a n c o u v e r ' s I s l a n d , L o n d o n , 1 8 4 9 , p . 1 5 2 - 5 3 . 25. S i m p s o n t o G o v e r n o r a n d C o m m i t t e e , 25 November 1 8 4 1 , HBCA, D-4/59; A.C. A n d e r s o n , D i a r y , . J a n u a r y 1 8 3 4 , i n James R o b e r t A n d e r s o n , N o t e s , and Comments on E a r l y Days a nd E v e n t s i n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , W a s h i n g t o n a n d O r e g o n . . . , t y p e s c r i p t , PABC, p . 1 6 ; James M a c M i l l a n , J o u r n a l , 13 J u n e a nd 31 J u l y 1 8 2 9 , James M a c M i l l a n a n d A r c h i b a l d M c D o n a l d , F o r t L a n g l e y J o u r n a l , 27 J u n e 1827 - 30 J u l y 1 8 3 0 , MS, PABC. 328 N o t e s , C h a p t e r I I ( C o n t . ) 26. D o u g l a s a n d Work t o G o v e r n o r , D e p u t y G o v e r n o r a n d C o m m i t t e e , 6 November 1 8 47, HBCA, A - l l / 7 2 . 27. D o u g l a s t o G o v e r n o r , D e p u t y G o v e r n o r a nd C o m m i t t e e , 14 O c t o b e r 1 8 3 9 , HBCA, A - l l / 5 0 ; a l s o i n R i c h ( e d . ) , M c L o u g h l i n ' s L e t t e r s , S e c o n d S e r i e s , p . 2 1 6 . 28. T o l m i e , J o u r n a l , 21 J u n e 1 8 3 4 , W.F. T o l m i e , The J o u r n a l s o f W i l l i a m F r a s e r T o l m i e P h y s i c i a n a n d F u r T r a d e r , V a n c o u v e r , 1 9 6 3 , p . 2 9 0 . 29. C h a r l e s R o s s t o S i m p s o n , 10 J a n u a r y 1 8 4 4 , HBCA, D-5/10; C h a r l e s Ross t o D o n a l d R o s s , 10 J a n u a r y 1 8 4 4 , i n W. Kaye Lamb ( e d . ) , " F i v e L e t t e r s o f C h a r l e s R o s s , 1 8 4 2 - 1 8 4 4 " , BCHQ, V I I , A p r i l 1 9 4 3 , p . 1 1 0 . F o r t T a k u was a b a n d o n e d i n t h e same y e a r a n d t h e r e t h e I n d i a n s w e r e " e x t r e m e l y i n s c e n s e d by t h e d e s e r t i o n o f t h e i r e s t a b l i s h m e n t . " D o u g l a s t o D o n a l d R o s s , 12 M a r c h 1844, D o n a l d R o s s , P a p e r s , MS, PABC. 30. S i m p s o n t o G o v e r n o r a nd C o m m i t t e e , 25 November 1 8 4 1 , HBCA, D-4/59. 31 . F o r t S i m p s o n , J o u r n a l , 20 November 1 8 3 4 , HBCA, B-201/a. 32. M a c K e n z i e , J o u r n a l , 9 J u l y 1 7 9 3 , i n W. Kaye L a m b - ( e d . ) , The J o u r n a l s a n d L e t t e r s o f S i r A l e x a n d e r M a c K e n z i e , C a m b r i d g e , 1 9 7 0 , p . 2 8 7 . 33. See f o r e x a m p l e _ F - r a s e r t o G e n t l e m e n P r o p r i e t o r s o f t h e N o r t h W e st Company, / A u g u s t 1 8 0 6 / , i n W. K a y e Lamb ( e d . ) , The L e t t e r s a n d J o u r n a l s o f S i m o n F r a s e r , 1 8 0 6 - 1 8 0 8 , T o r o n t o , 1 9 6 0 , p . 2 3 2 . 34. S a m u e l B l a c k , J o u r n a l , 15 and 16 J u l y a n d 13 A u g u s t 1 8 2 4 , i n E.E. R i c h ( e d . ) , J o u r n a l o f a V o y a g e f r o m R o c k y M o u n t a i n P o r t a g e i n P e a c e R i v e r t o t h e S o u r c e s o f F i n l a y ' s B r a n c h a nd N o r t h W est Ward i n Summer 1824 /by Sam u e l B l a c k / , L o n d o n , 1 9 5 5 , p p . 1 1 2 , 116 a n d 1 6 1 - 6 2 . 35. A e m i l i u s S i m p s o n t o M c L o u g h l i n , 23 S e p t e m b e r 1830, HBCA; B - 2 2 3 / c ; a l s o i n R i c h ( e d . ) , M c L o u g h l i n ' s L e t t e r s , F i r s t S e r i e s , p. 3 1 1 . 36. F o r t S i m p s o n , J o u r n a l , 25 A u g u s t 1 8 3 9 , HBCA, B-20 1 / a . 37. A.C. A n d e r s o n t o S i m p s o n , 5 M a r c h 1 8 4 5 , HBCA, D-5/13. 38. R i c h ( e d . ) , P a r t o f a D e s p a t c h , p . 1 2 . 39. A u r e l K r a u s e , The T l i n g i t I n d i a n s R e s u l t s o f a T r i p t o t h e N o r t h w e s t C o a s t o f A m e r i c a a n d B e r i n g S t r a i t s , E r n a G u n t h e r ( t r a n s . ) , S e a t t l e a n d L o n d o n , 1 9 7 0 , pp.115 a nd 1 2 6 f f . K a l e r v o O b e r g , "The S o c i a l Economy o f t h e T l i n g i t I n d i a n s " , Ph.D. T h e s i s , U n i v e r s i t y o f C h i c a g o , 1 9 3 7 , p p . 1 0 4 - 1 0 5 . 329 N o t e s , C h a p t e r I I ( C o n t . ) 40. S i m p s o n , N a r r a t i v e , I , p . 2 1 0 . 4 1 . R i c h , H i s t o r y o f t h e H.B.C., I I , p . 637. 42. Ogden, R e p o r t o f t r a n s a c t i o n s a t S t i k i n e 1834, HBCA, A - l l / 5 0 ; a l s o i n R i c h ( e d . ) , M c L o u g h l i n ' s L e t t e r s , F i r s t S e r i e s , p p . 3 1 9 - 2 1 . See a l s o T o l m i e , J o u r n a l , 21 J u n e 1834, T o l m i e J o u r n a l s , p.2 85. 43. By w h i c h , i n t e r a l i a , t h e R u s s i a n A m e r i c a n Company l e a s e d t o t h e H udson's Bay Company t h e m a i n l a n d c o a s t a l s t r i p f o r 10 y e a r s f r o m 1 J u n e 1 8 4 0 , s e e G a l b r a i t h , H.B.C. as an I m p e r i a l F a c t o r , p . 1 5 4. 44. D o u g l a s t o M c L o u g h l i n , 10 O c t o b e r .1840, F o r t V a n c o u v e r , C o r r e s p o n d e n c e I n w a r d , 1 8 4 0 , MS, PABC. 45. M c L o u g h l i n t o S i m p s o n , 20 M a r c h 1 8 2 7 , i n M e r k ( e d . ) , F u r T r a d e a n d E m p i r e , p . 2 8 9 . 46. J o h n M c l e a n , N o t e s o f a T w e n t y F i v e Y e a r s S e r v i c e i n t h e H u d s o n ' s T e r r i t o r y , L o n d o n , 1 8 4 9 , I , p . 3 0 3 . 47. P e t e r Skene Ogden, N o t e s o f W e s t e r n C a l e d o n i a / 1 8 4 4 / , R o s s , P a p e r s . 48. See f o r e x a m p l e , F o r t B a b i n e , J o u r n a l , 19 J u n e 1 8 2 5 , HBCA, B - l l / a ; A.C. A n d e r s o n t o S i m p s o n , 5 M a r c h 1 8 4 5 , HBCA, D-5/13. 49. A.G. M o r i c e , The H i s t o r y o f t h e N o r t h e r n I n t e r i o r o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a F o r m e r l y New C a l e d o n i a / l 6 6 0 - 1 8 8 0 / , T o r o n t o , 19 04, p . 1 4 9 . : 50. W.H. M c N e i l l t o H.B.C. B o a r d o f Management, 26 A u g u s t 1 8 5 2 , F o r t S i m p s o n , C o r r e s p o n d e n c e O u t w a r d 20 November 1851 -2 November 1 8 5 5 , MSS, PABC. 5 1 . Ogden, N o t e s o n W e s t e r n C a l e d o n i a , R o s s , P a p e r s . 52. See The H u d s o n ' s Bay Q u e s t i o n / f r o m t h e " C o l o n i a l I n t e l l i -g e n c e r "/, L o n d o n , 1857, p.24. : 53. F r a n k E. R o s s , "The R e t r e a t o f t h e Hudson's Bay Company i n t h e P a c i f i c N o r t h - W e s t " , The C a n a d i a n H i s t o r i c a l R e v i e w , X V I I I , S e p t e m b e r 1937, p . 2 6 3 . 54. / H e r b e r t B e a v e r / , "The N a t i v e s o f t h e N o r t h W e s t C o a s t o f A m e r i c a " , E x t r a c t s f r o m t h e P a p e r s and P r o c e e d i n g s o f t h e A b o r i g i n e s P r o t e c t i o n S o c i e t y , I I , S e p t e m b e r 1 8 4 1 , p.140. 55. W i l l i a m B e a n t o J o h n T o d , 20 J u n e 1 8 4 0 , HBCA, B-37/a. 330 N o t e s , C h a p t e r I I ( C o n t . ) 56. F o r t L a n g l e y , J o u r n a l , 1 a n d 2 S e p t e m b e r 1 8 2 7, M a c M i l l a n a n d M c D o n a l d , F o r t L a n g l e y J o u r n a l . 57. Duncan F i n l a y s o n t o M c L o u g h l i n , 29 S e p t e m b e r 1 836, HBCA, B-223/b/12; a l s o i n R i c h ( e d . ) , M c L o u g h l i n ' s L e t t e r s , F i r s t S e r i e s , p.324. 58. W i l l i a m C o n n o l l y t o G e o r g e M c D o u g a l l , 28 J a n u a r y 1 8 3 0 , HBCA, B-18 8/b/7; R e p o r t o f W i l l i a m C o n n o l l y t o G o v e r n o r a n d C o u n c i l o f t h e N o r t h e r n D e p a r t m e n t , 4 M a r c h 1 8 3 0 , HBCA, D-4/123; s e e a l s o T o d t o E d w a r d E r m a t i n g e r , 18 F e b r u a r y 1 8 3 0 , E d w a r d E r m a t i n g e r , E r m a t i n g e r P a p e r s , t y p e s c r i p t , SC. 59. See f o r e x a m p l e F o r t C h i l c o t i n , J o u r n a l , 23 December and 2 J a n u a r y 1839 , HBCA., B-37/a. 60. F o r t C h i l c o t i n , J o u r n a l , 2 3 December 1 8 3 9 , HBCA, B-37/a. 61. Ogden, J o u r n a l , 22 J a n u a r y 1 8 2 8 , i n G l y n d w r W i l l i a m s ( e d . ) , P e t e r S k e n e Ogden's Snake C o u n t r y J o u r n a l s 1827-28 a nd 18 2 8 - 2 9, L o n d o n , 1 8 7 1 , p . 5 2 . 62. Work, J o u r n a l , 1 J u n e 1 8 3 5 . 63. R o s s , " R e t r e a t o f t h e H.B.C.", p . 2 6 3 . 64. M c L o u g h l i n t o G o v e r n o r , D e p u t y G o v e r n o r a n d C o m m i t t e e , 15 November 1 8 4 3 , HBCA, B-223/b/30; a l s o i n R i c h ( e d . ) , M c L o u g h l i n ' s L e t t e r s , S e c o n d S e r i e s , p . 1 1 8 . 65. M c L o u g h l i n t o S i m p s o n , 16 M a r c h 1 8 3 1 , HBCA,D-4/125; a l s o i n R i c h ( e d . ) , M c L o u g h l i n ' s L e t t e r s , F i r s t S e r i e s , p . 2 2 7 ; Tod t o E d w a r d E r m a t i n g e r , 10 A p r i l 1 8 3 1 , E r m a t i n g e r , P a p e r s . 66. M c L o u g h l i n t o G o v e r n o r , D e p u t y G o v e r n o r a n d C o m m i t t e e , 17 J a n u a r y 1 8 3 7 , HBCA,B-223/b/15; a l s o i n R i c h ( e d . ) , M c L o u g h l i n ' s L e t t e r s , F i r s t S e r i e s , p p . 1 8 5 - 8 6 . 67. M c L o u g h l i n t o G o v e r n o r , D e p u t y G o v e r n o r a n d C o m m i t t e e , 10 J u l y 1828 and _7 A u g u s t 1 8 2 8 / , HBCA, B-223/b/4; a l s o i n R i c h ( e d . ) , M c L o u g h l i n ' s L e t t e r s , F i r s t S e r i e s , pp.57 a n d 63 - 6 5 . 68. E r m a t i n g e r , J o u r n a l , 3 J u l y 1 8 2 8, i n F r a n k E r m a t i n g e r , " E a r l i e s t E x p e d i t i o n A g a i n s t P u g e t Sound I n d i a n s " , WHQ, I , J a n u a r y 1 9 0 7 , p . 2 8 . 69. Ogden t o Tod and D. Manson, 22 O c t o b e r 1 8 4 5 , q u o t e d i n M o r i c e , H i s t o r y o f t h e N o r t h e r n I n t e r i o r , p . 176. 70. E r m a t i n g e r , J o u r n a l , 13 J u l y 1 8 2 8 , F r a n k E r m a t i n g e r , " E a r l i e s t E x p e d i t i o n " , p. 17. 331 N o t e s , C h a p t e r I I ( C o n t . ) 71. M c L o u g h l i n t o G o v e r n o r , D e p u t y G o v e r n o r a nd C o m m i t t e e , 10 J u l y 1828 and 7 A u g u s t 1 8 2 8 , HBCA, B-223/b/4; a l s o i n R i c h ( e d . ) , M c L o u g h l i n ' s L e t t e r s , F i r s t S e r i e s , pp.57 and 63-65. 72. S i m p s o n t o A. C o l v i l l e , 20 May 1 8 2 2 , i n Merk (ed.) F u r T r a d e a nd E m p i r e , p . 1 7 9 . 73. G o v e r n o r a n d C o m m i t t e e t o M c L o u g h l i n , 28 O c t o b e r 1 8 2 9 , i n Merk (ed.) F u r T r a d e a nd E m p i r e , p . 3 1 8 ; E d e n C o l v i l l e t o S i r J.H. P e l l y , 15 O c t o b e r 1 8 4 9 , i n E.E. R i c h ( e d . ) , L o n d o n C o r r e s p o n d e n c e I n w a r d f r o m Eden C o l v i l l e , 1 8 4 9 - 1 8 5 2 , L o n d o n , 1956, p . 2 . 74. D o u g l a s t o A.C. A n d e r s o n , 20 A p r i l 1 8 4 1 , D o u g l a s t o Angus M c D o n a l d , 25 J a n u a r y 1 8 4 2 , a n d Ogden a n d D o u g l a s t o T o l m i e , 18 A p r i l 184 8, F o r t V a n c o u v e r , C o r r e s p o n d e n c e O u t w a r d MSS, PABC. 75. See M a r g a r e t A. Ormsby, " S i r James D o u g l a s " , i n D i c t i o n a r y o f C a n a d i a n B i o g r a p h y , M a r c L a T e r r e u r ( e d . ) , T o r o n t o , 1 972, X, p . 2 3 9 . The m a j o r a c c o u n t s o f t h i s a f f a i r a r e l i s t e d i n W.N. S a g e , S i r James D o u g l a s and B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , T o r o n t o , 19 30, p . 4 8 , f n . l . One a c c o u n t n o t m e n t i o n e d i s p r o v i d e d by J o h n T o d , H i s t o r y o f New C a l e d o n i a and t h e N o r t h w e s t C o a s t , p h o t o c o p y , PABC. 76. G e o r g e M c D o u g a l l t o J o h n S t u a r t , 29 December 1 8 2 3 , HBCA, B-119 / a . 77. F o r t M c L e o d , J o u r n a l , 3 November 1 8 2 3 , HBCA, B-11 9 / a . 78. F o r t M c L e o d , J o u r n a l , 1 J a n u a r y 1824, HBCA, B-11 9 / a . 79. H.G. B a r n e t t , " S o c i a l F o r c e s , P e r s o n a l C o n f l i c t s a n d C u l t u r a l C h a nge", S o c i a l F o r c e s , XX, December 1 9 4 1 , p p . 1 6 3 - 6 4 . 80. T o d , H i s t o r y , p. 25. 81. I b i d . , p . l 2 f f . 82. F o r t B a b i n e , J o u r n a l , 12 J u n e 1825, HBCA, B - l l / a . 83. ' T o d , H i s t o r y , p p . 8 8 f f . 84. S i m p s o n , N a r r a t i v e , I , p . 2 1 1 . 85. B r i t i s h a n d A m e r i c a n J o i n t C o m m i s s i o n f o r t h e S e t t l e m e n t o f t h e C l a i m s o f t h e Hud s o n ' s Bay and P u g e t ' s Sound A g r i c u l t u r a l C o m p a n i e s , M o n t r e a l a nd W a s h i n g t o n , 1 8 6 5 - 1 8 6 9 , V I I I , p . 64. 86. F o r t M c L e o d , J o u r n a l , 1 J a n u a r y 1824, HBCA, B-119/a. 332 N o t e s , C h a p t e r I I ( C o n t . ) 87. See M o r i c e , H i s t o r y o f t h e N o r t h e r n I n t e r i o r , p. 200. 88. A r t h u r S. M o r t o n , A H i s t o r y o f t h e C a n a d i a n West t o 1870-71 . . . , L e w i s G. Thomas ( e d . ) , T o r o n t o , 1 9 7 3 , p . 7 2 2 . 89. T h i s b e h a v i o u r h a s b e e n n o t e d i n o t h e r f r o n t i e r s i t u a t i o n s w h e r e E u r o p e a n s w e re s i m i l a r l y o u t n u m b e r e d . See H. A l a n C. C a i r n s , P r e l u d e t o I m p e r i a l i s m B r i t i s h R e a c t i o n s t o C e n t r a l A f r i c a n S o c r e t y 18 4 0-1890, L o n d o n , 1 9 6 5 , p. 46. 90. R o d e r i c k F i n l a y s o n , H i s t o r y o f V a n c o u v e r I s l a n d a n d t h e N o r t h w e s t C o a s t , S a i n t L o u i s U n i v e r s i t y S t u d i e s , S e r i e s B, v o l . I , S a i n t L o u i s , 1 9 4 5 , p p . -79-80. 9 1 . / R o d e r i c k F i n l a y s o n / , B i o g r a p h y o f R o d e r i c k F i n l a y s o n , / V i c t o r i a , 1 9 1 3 / , p. 17. 92. T o d , H i s t o r y , p.34. 93. The p o i n t s made i n t h i s p a r a g r a p h a r g u e a g a i n s t t h e c l a i m , made i n 1 9 2 7 , t h a t t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f f o r t s b y t h e Hudson's Bay Company c o n s t i t u t e d a c o n q u e s t o f t h e a r e a . C a n a d a , S e n a t e , A p p e n d i x t o t h e J o u r n a l s o f t h e , S e n a t e o f C a n a d a • . . 1926-27 S p e c i a l J o i n t C o m m i t t e e o f t h e S e n a t e a n d House o f Commons' A p p o i n t e d t o I n q u i r e i n t o t h e C l a i m s o f t h e A l l i e d I n d i a n T r i b e s o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a . . . . R e p o r t a n d E v i d e n c e , O t t a w a , 192 7, p . v i i . 94. M i n u t e s o f a C o u n c i l o f t h e N o r t h e r n D e p a r t m e n t , 10 J u l y 1 8 2 4 , i n R. H a r v e y F l e m m i n g ( e d . ) , M i n u t e s o f t h e C o u n c i l N o r t h e r n D e p a r t m e n t o f R u p e r t L a n d , 1 8 2 1 - 1 8 3 1 , T o r o n t o , 1940, pp. 9 4 - 9 5 . 9 5 . R o s s t o M r s . J o s e p h M a c D o n a l d , 24 A p r i l 1 8 4 3 , i n Lamb ( e d . ) , " F i v e L e t t e r s o f C h a r l e s R o s s " , p . 1 0 7 . 96. Work t o E d w a r d E r m a t i n g e r , 15 F e b r u a r y 1 8 4 1 , E d w a r d E r m a t i n g e r , L e t t e r s o f E d w a r d E r m a t i n g e r f r o m J o h n Work, W i l l i a m T o d , J a n e K l y n e M c D o n a l d and A r c h i b a l d M c D o n a l d , 2 J a n u a r y 1828 - 14 November 1856, t y p e s c r i p t , PABC. 97. Work t o Edward' E r m a t i n g e r , 1 J a n u a r y 1 8 3 6 , E r m a t i n g e r , L e t t e r s . 98. L o c . c i t . ; Harmon, J o u r n a l , 8 May 1 8 1 9 , i n W. K aye Lamb ( e d ) , S i x t e e n Y e a r s i n I n d i a n C o u n t r y , t h e J o u r n a l s o f D a n i e l W i l l i a m s Harmon, 1 8 0 0 - 1 8 1 6 , T o r o n t o , 1957, p p . 1 9 4 - 9 5 ; Ross Cox, A d v e n t u r e s on t h e C o l u m b i a R i v e r . . . , New Y o r k , 1 9 3 2 , p. 311. 99. Harmon, J o u r n a l , 10 O c t o b e r 1 8 0 6 , i n Lamb ( e d . ) , S i x t e e n Y e a r s i n I n d i a n C o u n t r y , p. 98. 333 N o t e s , C h a p t e r I I ( C o n t . ) 100. S i m p s o n , N a r r a t i v e , I , p . 2 3 1 . 1 0 1 . S i m p s o n t o G o v e r n o r , D e p u t y G o v e r n o r a n d C o m m i t t e e , 18 May 1 8 2 1 , i n E.E. R i c h ( e d . ) , J o u r n a l o f O c c u r r e n c e s i n t h e A t h a p a s k a D e p a r t m e n t b y G e o r g e S i m p s o n , 1820 and 1 8 2 1 , and R e p o r t , T o r o n t o , 1 9 3 8, p . 3 9 2 . 102. I t h a s b e e n p o i n t e d o u t t h a t s u c h m a r r i a g e s w o u l d h a v e l i t t l e i m p a c t on a b o r i g i n a l p e o p l e l i k e t h e T s i m s h i a n who h a v e m a t r i l i n e a l exogamous c l a n s , as t h e c h i l d w o u l d t a k e t h e i n h e r i t a n c e o f i t s m o t h e r . See L e o n a r d Broom e t . a l . , " A c c u l t u r a t i o n : an E x p l o r a t o r y F o r m u l a t i o n . . . ," A m e r i c a n A n t h r o p o l o g i s t ( h e r e a f t e r c i t e d as A A ) , L V I , 1 9 5 4 , p. 9 8 0 , a n d V i o l a E. G a r f i e l d , T s i m s h i a n C l a n a n d S o c i e t y , W a s h i n g t o n , 1 9 3 9 , p . 2 3 1 . 10 3. Work, J o u r n a l , 25 A u g u s t 1835. 104. M a r i u s B a r b e a u , " O l d P o r t S i m p s o n " , The B e a v e r , o u t f i t 2 7 1 , S e p t e m b e r 1 9 4 0 , p . 2 2 . 105. F o r t S i m p s o n , J o u r n a l , 5 and 7 O c t o b e r 1 8 3 9 , HBCA, B-201/a. 106. F o r t M c L e o d , J o u r n a l , 6 F e b r u a r y 1 8 2 4 , HBCA, B-11 9 / a . 107. S i m p s o n t o G o v e r n o r , D e p u t y G o v e r n o r a n d C o m m i t t e e , 18 May 1 8 2 1 , i n R i c h ( e d . ) , J o u r n a l o f O c c u r r e n c e s , p . 3 5 6 . 108. G r e a t B r i t a i n , P a r l i a m e n t , House o f Commons, R e p o r t f r o m t h e S e l e c t C o m m i t t e e on t h e Hudson's Bay Company; t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e P r o c e e d i n g s o f t h e C o m m i t t e e , M i n u t e s o f E v i d e n c e , A p p e n d i x and E v i d e n c e , L o n d o n , 1 8 5 7 , p . 9 2 . 109. F o r t S i m p s o n , J o u r n a l , 25 A p r i l 1 8 3 9 , HBCA, B - 2 0 1 / a ; R o d e r i c k F i n l a y s o n t o M c L o u g h l i n , 11 J a n u a r y 1 8 4 5 , HBCA, B-226/b. 110. Work, J o u r n a l , 20 F e b r u a r y 1 8 3 5 . 111 . Duncan Cameron t o D o n a l d M a s o n , 11 November 1 8 4 4 , q u o t e d i n M o r i c e , H i s t o r y o f t h e N o r t h e r n I n t e r i o r , p p . 216 - 1 7 . 112. L e t t e r o f M c L e o d , /182 3/, J o h n M c L e o d , C o r r e s p o n d e n c e I n w a r d , J u l y 1826 - F e b r u a r y 1 8 3 7 , L e t t e r B o o k , t y p e s c r i p t , PABC. 113. D o u g l a s t o G o v e r n o r , D e p u t y G o v e r n o r a n d C o m m i t t e e , 18 O c t o b e r 1 8 3 8 , HBCA, B - 2 2 3 / b / 2 0 ; a l s o i n R i c h ( e d . ) , M c L o u g h l i n ' s L e t t e r s , F i r s t S e r i e s , p. 238. 114. S c o u l e r , J o u r n a l , 31 J u l y a n d 3 A u g u s t 1 8 2 5 , i n D r . J o h n S c o u l e r , "Dr.. J o h n S c o u l e r ' s J o u r n a l o f a V o y a g e t o N.W. A m e r i c a " , The Q u a r t e r l y o f t h e O r e g o n H i s t o r i c a l S o c i e t y , V I , J u n e 1 9 0 5 , p p . 1 9 3 - 9 4 . 334 N o t e s , C h a p t e r I I ( C o n t . ) 115. J o h n S c o u l e r , " O b s e r v a t i o n s o f t h e I n d i g e n o u s T r i b e s o f N.W. C o a s t o f A m e r i c a " , The J o u r n a l o f t h e R o y a l G e o g r a p h i c a l S o c i e t y o f L o n d o n , X I , 18 4 1 , p . 2 1 9 ; J o h n Dunn, H i s t o r y o f t h e O r e g o n T e r r i t o r y a n d B r i t i s h N o r t h A m e r i c a n F u r T r a d e ; . . .~, L o n d o n , 1844, p p . 2 9 3 - 9 4 . 116. S i m p s o n , J o u r n a l , i n Merk ( e d . ) , F u r T r a d e a nd E m p i r e , p . 9 9. 117. S i m p s o n , N a r r a t i v e , I , p . 2 0 7 ; J o s e p h M c G i l l i v r a y , R e p o r t o f F o r t A l e x a n d r i a 182 7, HBCA, B-5/e; F o r t L a n g l e y , J o u r n a l , 7 S e p t e m b e r 182 7, M a c M i l l a n and M c D o n a l d , F o r t L a n g l e y J o u r n a l . 118. D o u g l a s t o S i m p s o n , 18 M a r c h 1 8 3 8 , HBCA, B-223/b/20; a l s o i n R i c h ( e d . ) , M c L o u g h l i n ' s L e t t e r s , F i r s t S e r i e s , p . 2 7 1 . 119. B e a v e r t o B e n j a m i n H a r r i s o n , 19 M a r c h 1 8 3 8 , i n Thomas J e s s e t t ( e d . ) , R e p o r t s a nd L e t t e r s o f H e r b e r t B e a v e r 1 8 3 6 - 1 8 3 8 , C h a p l a i n t o t h e Hudson's Bay Company and M i s s i o n a r y t o t h e I n d i a n s a t F o r t V a n c o u v e r , P o r t l a n d , 19 59, p . 8 8 . 120. T o l m i e , J o u r n a l , 18 A u g u s t 1 8 3 3 , T o l m i e , J o u r n a l s , p . 2 27. On t h e t e n d e n c y o f I n d i a n s t o g e n e r a l l y e x a g g e r a t e m i s f o r t u n e s e e L e w i s O. Saum, The F u r T r a d e r a nd t h e I n d i a n , S e a t t l e and L o n d o n , 1 9 6 3 , p . 1 5 9 . 1 2 1 . M c L o u g h l i n t o G o v e r n o r , D e p u t y G o v e r n o r a nd C o m m i t t e e , 1 A u g u s t 1 8 3 8, i n R i c h ( e d . ) , M c L o u g h l i n ' s L e t t e r s , F i r s t S e r i e s , p . 2 1 7 ; T o d , H i s t o r y , p . 8 6 . 122. Saum, The F u r T r a d e r , p . 1 1 . 123. F o r an e a r l y a n d v e r y d e t a i l e d a c c o u n t o f , a p o t l a t c h s e e . Magee, L o g , 9 J u l y 1794. F o r o t h e r r e f e r e n c e s s e e M o z i n o , N o t i c i a s , p . 3 3 ; H o s k i n s , N a r r a t i v e , J a n u a r y 1 7 9 2 , i n Howay ( e d . ) , V o y a g e s o f t h e " C o l u m b i a " , p . 2 6 5 ; J e w i t t , J o u r n a l , 12 November 1 8 0 3 , J e w i t t , J o u r n a l , p . 1 2 ; Dunn, H i s t o r y , p.282; / P e t e r Skene Ogden?/, T r a i t s o f A m e r i c a n I n d i a n L i f e a n d C h a r a c t e r , b y a F u r T r a d e r , L o n d o n , 1 8 5 3 , p p . 6 5 - 6 7 . T h i s l a s t s h o u l d h a v e b e e n n o t i c e d by Saum as t h e w o r k i s f r e -q u e n t l y c i t e d by h i m i n o t h e r c o n t e x t s . 124. C o d e r e , F i g h t i n g w i t h P r o p e r t y , p p . 8 9 - 9 7 ; J u n e M c C o r r a i c k C o l l i n s , " G r o w t h o f C l a s s D i s t i n c t i o n s a n d P o l i t i c a l A u t h o r i t y among t h e S k a g i t I n d i a n s d u r i n g t h e C o n t a c t P e r i o d " , AA, L I I , J u l y - S e p t e m b e r 1 9 5 0 , p . 3 3 6 ; P h i l l i p D r u c k e r , "Rank, W e a l t h a nd K i n s h i p i n N o r t h w e s t C o a s t S o c i e t y " , AA, X L I , J a n u a r y - M a r c h 19 39, p . 6 3 ; Homer G. B a r n e t t , The C o a s t S a l i s h o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , E u g e n e , 1 9 55, p.256. 125. C f . R o b e r t ' F . Murphy a n d J u l i a n H. S t e w a r d , " T a p p e r s a nd T r a p p e r s : . P a r a l l e l P r o c e s s i n A c c u l t u r a t i o n " , E c o n o m i c D e v e l o p m e n t a n d C u l t u r a l C hange, I V , J u l y , 1956, p . 3 5 3 ; I n n i s , The F u r T r a d e , p . 1 8 . 335 N o t e s , C h a p t e r I I ( C o n t . ) 126. F o r t M c L e o d , J o u r n a l , 7 J a n u a r y 1823, HBCA, B - l l / a . 127. M a r i u s B a r b e a u and W i l l i a m B e y n o n , U n p u b l i s h e d F i e l d N o t e s , ( S e l e c t i o n s f r o m t h e " T s i m s h i a n f i l e " ) n o s . 67 and 8 9 a , t y p e s c r i p t , i n t h e p o s s e s s i o n o f W i l s o n D u f f , D e p a r t m e n t o f A n t h r o p o l o g y , U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a . 128. C o l l i n s , " G r o w t h o f C l a s s D i s t i n c t i o n s " , p . 3 3 1 . 129. H e r b e r t C. T a y l o r J n r . and W i l s o n D u f f , "A P o s t C o n t a c t S o u t h w a r d Movement o f t h e K w a k i u t l " , R e s e a r c h S t u d i e s o f t h e S t a t e C o l l e g e o f W a s h i n g t o n , X X I V , 1956, p a s s i m . 130. Diamond Jennes.s, The S e k a n i I n d i a n s o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , C a n a d a D e p a r t m e n t o f M i n e s and R e s o u r c e s B u l l e t i n n o . 84, O t t a w a , 1 9 3 7 , p . 4 4 . 1 3 1 . R i c h ( e d . ) , P a r t o f a D e s p a t c h , p. 19. 132. R a l p h L i n t o n ( e d . ) , A c c u l t u r a t i o n i n S e v e n A m e r i c a n I n d i a n T r i b e s , G l o u c e s t e r , M a s s . , 1 9 6 3 , p . 5 0 1 f f . 1 3 3 . E d w a r d H. S p i c e r ( e d . ) , P e r s p e c t i v e s i n A m e r i c a n I n d i a n C u l t u r e C h a n g e , C h i c a g o a n d L o n d o n , 1 9 6 1 , p p . 5 1 8 - 2 0 . 134. Broom e t . a l . " A c c u l t u r a t i o n " , p.9 85. NOTES CHAPTER I I I The T r a n s i t i o n a l Y e a r s , 1849 - 1858 1. D o u g l a s t o G o v e r n o r , D e p u t y G o v e r n o r a n d C o m m i t t e e , 18 O c t o b e r 1 8 3 8 , HBCA, B-223/b/20; a l s o i n R i c h ( e d . ) , M c L o u g h l i n ' s L e t t e r s , F i r s t S e r i e s , p . 2 4 2 . 2. F i t z g e r a l d t o B. Hawes, 9 J u n e 1 8 4 7 , G r e a t B r i t a i n , C o l o n i a l O f f i c e , O r i g i n a l C o r r e s p o n d e n c e , V a n c o u v e r I s l a n d , 1 8 4 6 - 1 8 6 7 , CO.305/1, m i c r o f i l m , UBC, ( h e r e a f t e r c i t e d a s CO.305). 3. R i c h , H i s t o r y o f t h e H B C , I I , p . 7 6 1 . 4. M u i r , D i a r y , 16 a n d 27 J u n e 1 8 5 0 , A n d r e w M u i r , P r i v a t e D i a r y , Commencing 9 November 1848 t o 5 A u g u s t 1 8 5 0 , MS, PABC. M u i r i s p o s s i b l y an u n r e l i a b l e w i t n e s s a s he was c u r r e n t l y w a g i n g a b i t t e r f e u d w i t h t h e Company o v e r w o r k i n g c o n d i t i o n s i n t h e F o r t R u p e r t c o a l m i n e s and w o u l d n o t be l i k e l y t o m i s s a n o p p o r t u n i t y t o s l a n d e r h i s e m p l o y e r . 5. B l a n s h a r d t o J o h n S e b a s t i a n H e l m c k e n , 6 A u g u s t 1 8 5 0 , V a n c o u v e r I s l a n d , G o v e r n o r ( B l a n s h a r d ) , C o r r e s p o n d e n c e O u t -w a r d , 1 8 4 9 - 1 8 5 1 , MSS, PABC. 6. H e l m c k e n t o D o u g l a s , 28 M a r c h 1 8 5 1 , HBCA, A - l l / 7 3 . 7. D o u g l a s t o S i m p s o n , 24 F e b r u a r y 1 8 5 1 , HBCA, D-5/30. A c o r r e s p o n d e n t o f H e l m c k e n ' s c o n c l u d e d on t h e b a s i s o f t h e d o c t o r ' s l e t t e r s t h a t F o r t R u p e r t was " t h e L u n a t i c A s y l u m o f t h e C o a s t . " D.D. W i s h a r t t o H e l m c k e n , 17 A u g u s t 1850, J . S . H e l m c k e n , P a p e r s , MSS, PABC. 8. See f o r e x a m p l e , F o r t M c L o u g h l i n , J o u r n a l , 10 O c t o b e r 182 3, HBCA, B-120/9. 9. See M e a r e s , V o y a g e s , p.19 3. 10. B e a r d s m o r e ' s s t a t e m e n t r e g a r d i n g t h e F o r t R u p e r t m u r d e r s , / 1 8 5 0 / , HBCA, A - l l / 7 3 ; J.H. P e l l y t o E a r l G r e y , 14 J a n u a r y 18527 HBCA, A-8/6. 1 1 . B l a n s h a r d t o F a i r f a x M o r e s b y , 27 J u n e 1 8 5 1 , V a n c o u v e r I s l a n d , G o v e r n o r , C o r r e s p o n d e n c e O u t w a r d . 12. D o u g l a s t o S i m p s o n , 20 M a r c h 1 8 5 0 , HBCA, D-5/27. 1 3 . B l a n s h a r d t o H e l m c k e n , 6 A u g u s t 1 8 5 0 , V a n c o u v e r I s l a n d , G o v e r n o r , C o r r e s p o n d e n c e O u t w a r d . 336 337 N o t e s , C h a p t e r I I I ( C o n t . ) 14. H e l m c k e n t o B l a n s h a r d , 17 J u l y 1 8 5 0 , V a n c o u v e r I s l a n d , C o u r t s , M a g i s t r a t e s C o u r t , F o r t R u p e r t , R e p o r t s t o G o v e r n o r B l a n s h a r d , 2 and 17 J u l y 1 8 5 0 , H e l m c k e n , P a p e r s . 15. F o r M o r e s b y ' s v i e w s o n t h e q u e s t i o n o f p u n i s h m e n t s e e B a r r y M. Gough, The R o y a l Navy a nd t h e N o r t h w e s t C o a s t o f /America, 1 8 10-1914: a S t u d y o f B r i t i s h M a r i t i m e A s c e n d e n c y , V a n c o u v e r , 1 9 7 1 , p . 9 2 . B e c a u s e o f h i s s p e c i f i c c o n c e r n s t h e a u t h o r e m p h a s i s e s t h e p o l i c y o f t h e n a v a l commander, b u t , as G o v e r n o r , B l a n s h a r d m u s t b e a r a l l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y . 16. B l a n s h a r d t o H e l m c k e n , 6 A u g u s t 1 8 5 0 , V a n c o u v e r I s l a n d , G o v e r n o r , C o r r e s p o n d e n c e O u t w a r d . 17. C e r t a i n l y D o u g l a s was o f t h e o p i n i o n t h a t t h e N e w i t t y " c o u l d n o t s u r r e n d e r t h e c r i m i n a l s " . D o u g l a s t o A r c h i b a l d B a r c l a y , 16 A p r i l 1 8 5 1 , HBCA, A - l l / 7 3 . 18. D o u g l a s t o B a r c l a y , 3 S e p t e m b e r 1 8 5 1 , HBCA, A - l l / 7 3 . 19. C f . Gough, R o y a l N a v y , p . 90; and "The Power t o C o m p e l : W h i t e -I n d i a n C o n f l i c t i n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a d u r i n g t h e C o l o n i a l P e r i o d , 1 8 4 9 - 1 8 7 1 " , t y p e s c r i p t o f a p a p e r g i v e n a t t h e C a n a d i a n H i s t o r i c a l A s s o c i a t i o n A n n u a l M e e t i n g , J u n e 1 972, p.10. 20. F o r t R u p e r t , J o u r n a l , 11 May 1 8 4 9 , HBCA, B-185/9; H e l m c k e n t o B l a n s h a r d , 17 J u l y 1 850, H e l m c k e n , P a p e r s . 2 1 . B l a n s h a r d t o M o r e s b y , 27 J u n e 1 8 5 1 , V a n c o u v e r I s l a n d , G o v e r n o r , C o r r e s p o n d e n c e O u t w a r d ; Gough, R o y a l N a v y , p . 9 2 . 22. Work t o D o n a l d R o s s , 27 November 1 8 5 0 , R o s s , P a p e r s . 2 3 . D o u g l a s t o B l e n k i n s o p , 27 O c t o b e r a n d 13 November 1 8 5 0 , HBCA, B-226/b. 24. D o u g l a s t o B a r c l a y , 16 A p r i l 1 8 5 1 , HBCA, A - l l / 7 3 . 25. D o u g l a s t o B l e n k i n s o p , 13 November 1 8 5 0 , HBCA,B-226/b. 26. Work t o D o n a l d R o s s , 27 November 1 8 3 0 , R o s s , P a p e r s . 27. G r e y t o B l a n s h a r d , 20 M a r c h 1 8 5 1 , G r e a t B r i t a i n , C o l o n i a l O f f i c e , D e s p a t c h e s t o V a n c o u v e r I s l a n d , 1 8 4 9 - 1 8 6 7 , MSS, PABC. I n 1853 t h e R o y a l Navy e s t a b l i s h e d new p o l i c y g u i d e -l i n e s f o r t h e u s e o f f o r c e a g a i n s t I n d i a n s b y s h i p ' s commanders, s e e Gough, R o y a l N a v y , p . 9 2 . 28. B l a n s h a r d t o M o r e s b y , 2 8 J u n e 1 8 5 1 , V a n c o u v e r I s l a n d , G o v e r n o r , C o r r e s p o n d e n c e O u t w a r d . 338 N o t e s , C h a p t e r I I I ( C o n t . ) 29. D o u g l a s t o B a r c l a y , 1 S e p t e m b e r 1850 a n d 21 M a r c h 1 8 5 1 , HBCA, A - l l / 7 2 ; a n d D o u g l a s t o S i m p s o n , 21 May 1 8 5 1 , HBCA, D-5/30. 30. D o u g l a s t o S i m p s o n , 12 M a r c h 1 8 4 9 , HBCA, D-5/24. 31. P e l l y t o G r e y , 14 J a n u a r y 1 8 5 2 , HBCA, A-8/6. 32. See f o r e x a m p l e , A d m i r a l J o h n M o r e s b y , Two A d m i r a l s S i r F a i r f a x M o r e s b y J o h n M o r e s b y a R e c o r d o f a H u n d r e d Y e a r s , L o n d o n , 1 9 1 3 , p . 1 0 3 ; R.C. Mayne, F o u r Y e a r s i n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a a n d V a n c o u v e r I s l a n d . . . , L o n d o n , 1 8 6 2 , p.54; E d w a r d C r i d g e , C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f James D o u g l a s W r i t t e n f o r H.H. B a n c r o f t i n 1 8 7 8 , MS, PABC; C h a r l e s F r e d e r i c k M o r i s o n , R e m i n i s c e n c e s o f t h e E a r l y Days o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a 1 8 6 2 -1876 by a P i o n e e r o f t h e N o r t h West C o a s t , t y p e s c r i p t , PABC, p . 1 5 a ; E v e n i n g E x p r e s s , 10 M a r c h 1864. 33. D o u g l a s t o B l e n k i n s o p , 27 O c t o b e r 1 8 5 0 , HBCA, B-226/b. 34. D o u g l a s t o J o h n P a k i n g t o n , 21 J a n u a r y 1 8 5 3 , CO.305/4. F o r o t h e r a c c o u n t s o f t h e o p e r a t i o n s e e D o u g l a s t o B a r c l a y , . 20 J a n u a r y 1 8 5 3 , D o u g l a s t o T o d , 7 J a n u a r y 1 8 5 3 , H B C A , A - l l / 7 4 ; D o u g l a s , D i a r y , 3 a n d 7 J a n u a r y 1 8 5 3 , James D o u g l a s , P r i v a t e P a p e r s , 1 8 3 5 - 1 8 7 7 , MSS a n d t y p e s c r i p t s , PABC; D o u g l a s t o A u g u s t u s K u p e r , 8 November 1 8 5 2 , V a n c o u v e r I s l a n d , G o v e r n o r , C o r r e s p o n d e n c e O u t w a r d . 35. L o c . c i t . 36. N e w c a s t l e t o D o u g l a s , 12 A p r i l 1 8 5 3 , G r e a t B r i t a i n , C o l o n i a l O f f i c e , D e s p a t c h e s t o V a n c o u v e r I s l a n d . 37. D o u g l a s t o H e n r y L a b o u c h e r e , 6 S e p t e m b e r 1 8 5 6 , CO.305/7; D o u g l a s t o W i l l i a m S m i t h , 6 S e p t e m b e r 1 8 5 6 , HBCA, A - l l / 7 6 . 38. L a b o u c h e r e t o D o u g l a s , 13 November 1 8 5 6 , G r e a t B r i t a i n , C o l o n i a l O f f i c e , D e s p a t c h e s t o V a n c o u v e r I s l a n d . 39. D o u g l a s t o L a b o u c h e r e , 24 F e b r u a r y 1857, CO.305/8; D o u g l a s t o S m i t h , 18 F e b r u a r y 1 8 5 7 , H B C A , A - l l / 7 6 . 40. M e r i v a l e t o J o h n S h e p h e r d , 19 November 1 8 5 6 , HBCA, A-8/8. 41. D o u g l a s t o B a y n e s , 17 A u g u s t 1 8 5 9 , CO.305/11. 42. D o u g l a s t o B a r c l a y , 2 November 1 8 5 3 , HBCA, A - l l / 7 4 . 43. D o u g l a s t o N e w c a s t l e , 28 J u l y 1 8 5 3 , CO.305/4. 44. D o u g l a s t o B a r c l a y , 2 November 1 8 5 3 , HBCA, A - l l / 7 4 . 339 N o t e s , C h a p t e r I I I ( C o n t . ) 45. See m i n u t e s on D o u g l a s t o N e w c a s t l e , 28 J u l y 1 8 5 3 , CO.305/4; and N e w c a s t l e t o D o u g l a s , 15 O c t o b e r 1 8 5 3 , G r e a t B r i t a i n , C o l o n i a l O f f i c e , D e s p a t c h e s t o V a n c o u v e r I s l a n d . 46. D o u g l a s t o G r e y , 31 O c t o b e r 1 8 5 1 , CO.305/3. 47. D o u g l a s t o L a b o u c h e r e , 20 O c t o b e r 1 8 5 6 , CO.305/7. 48. D o u g l a s t o L a b o u c h e r e , 13 J u n e 1 8 5 7 , CO.305/8. 49. D o u g l a s t o C a p t a i n James P r e v o s t , 19 O c t o b e r 1 8 5 7 , V a n c o u v e r I s l a n d , G o v e r n o r , C o r r e s p o n d e n c e O u t w a r d . 50. D o u g l a s t o S m i t h , 6 S e p t e m b e r 1 8 5 6 , HBCA, A - l l / 7 6 . 5 1 . Ogden t o S i m p s o n , 10 M a r c h 1 8 4 9 , HBCA, D-5/24. 52. D o u g l a s t o G o v e r n o r , D e p u t y G o v e r n o r a n d C o m m i t t e e , 18 O c t o b e r 1 8 3 8, HBCA, B-223/b/20; a l s o i n R i c h ( e d . ) , M c L o u g h l i n ' s L e t t e r s , F i r s t S e r i e s , p . 2 4 2 . 53. Andrew C o l v i l e t o P a k i n g t o n , 24 November 1 8 5 2 , HBCA, A-8/7. 54. B a n c r o f t , H i s t o r y o f B.C., pp. 206 and 2 1 1 ; R o b i n , The Rush f o r S p o i l s , p.14. 55. G a l b r a i t h , H.B.C. as an I m p e r i a l F a c t o r , p . 2 8 5 . 56. B a r c l a y t o D o u g l a s , December 1 8 4 9 , F o r t V i c t o r i a , C o r r e s p o n -d e n c e I n w a r d , 1 8 4 9 - 1 8 5 9 , f r o m t h e Hudson's Bay Company, • L o n d o n t o James D o u g l a s , MS, PABC. 57. A n n i e Deans t o h e r c o u s i n s , 13 A u g u s t 1 8 5 6 , A n n i e D e a n s , C o r r e s p o n d e n c e O u t w a r d , 1 8 5 3 - 1 8 6 8 , MSS, PABC. 58. E v e n i n g E x p r e s s , 10 M a r c h 1864. F o r d e t a i l s o f t h e c o n f l i c t b e t w e e n S t a i n e s a n d D o u g l a s s e e H o l l i s G. S l a t e r , "Rev. R o b e r t J o h n S t a i n e s , P r i e s t , P e d a g o g u e , a nd P o l i t i c a l A g i -t a t o r " , BCHQ, X I V , O c t o b e r 1 9 5 0 , p p . 1 8 7 - 2 4 0 . 59. G r e a t B r i t a i n , P a r l i a m e n t , H a n s a r d ' s P a r l i a m e n t r y D e b a t e s , T h i r d S e r i e s , C L I , L o n d o n , 1 8 5 8 , p . 1 1 2 1 . 60. A n n i e Deans t o h e r b r o t h e r a n d s i s t e r , 29 F e b r u a r y 1 8 5 4 , D e a n s , C o r r e s p o n d e n c e O u t w a r d . 6 1 . C h a r l e s W i l s o n , D i a r y , 8 A u g u s t 1 8 5 8 , i n G e o r g e F.G. S t a n l e y ( e d . ) , M a p p i n g t h e F r o n t i e r C h a r l e s W i l s o n ^ s D i a r y o f t h e S u r v e y o f t h e 4 9 t h P a r a l l e l , 1 8 5 8 - 1 8 6 2 , w h i l e S e c r e t a r y o f t h e B r i t i s h B o u n d a r y C o m m i s s i o n , T o r o n t o , 1 9 7 0 , p p . 2 9 - 3 0 . See a l s o G e o r g e Duncan F o r b e s M a c D o n a l d , B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a and V a n c o u v e r I s l a n d . . . , L o n d o n , 1 8 6 2 , p . 2 7 1 ; a n d G e o r g e 340 N o t e s , C h a p t e r I I I ( C o n t . ) 61. C o n t . H i l l s ( B i s h o p o f C o l u m b i a ) , D i a r y , 26 December 1 8 6 1 , MSS, A r c h i v e s o f t h e V a n c o u v e r S c h o o l o f T h e o l o g y . 6 2 . C h a r l e s A l f r e d B a y l e y , E a r l y L i f e o n V a n c o u v e r I s l a n d , t y p e s c r i p t , PABC, p . 2 . 63. Tod t o E d w a r d E r m a t i n g e r , 29 J u n e 1 8 3 6 , E r m a t i n g e r , P a p e r s . 64. D o u g l a s t o P e l l y , 5 December 1 8 4 8 , HBCA, A - l l / 7 2 . 65. D o u g l a s a n d Work t o G o v e r n o r a n d C o m m i t t e e , 7 December 1846, HBCA, A - l l / 7 2 . 66. D e s p a t c h f r o m S i m p s o n t o Hu d s o n ' s Bay Company, 24 J u n e 1 8 4 8 , CO.305/1. 67. /P.H. S h e r i d a n / , P e r s o n a l M e m o i r s o f P.H. S h e r i d a n G e n e r a l U n i t e d S t a t e s Army, New Y o r k , 1 8 5 8 , I , p . 8 8 . 68. D o u g l a s t o S i m p s o n , 4 A p r i l 1 8 4 5 , HBCA, D-5/13. 69. D o u g l a s t o S m i t h , 6 November 1 8 5 5 , HBCA, A - l l / 7 5 . 70. D o u g l a s t o James T i l t o n , 6 November 1 8 5 5 , V a n c o u v e r I s l a n d , G o v e r n o r , C o r r e s p o n d e n c e O u t w a r d . 7 1 . D o u g l a s t o W i l l i a m M o l e s w o r t h , 8 November 1 8 5 5 , CO.305/6. 72. D o u g l a s t o B a y n e s , 17 A u g u s t 1 8 5 9 , CO.305/11. 73. D o u g l a s t o S i m p s o n , 24 F e b r u a r y 1 8 5 1 , HBCA, D-5/30. G r a n t d i d r e t u r n t o t h e C o l o n y f o r a few months i n 1853. F o r an a c c o u n t o f h i s c a r e e r s e e W i l l a r d E. I r e l a n d , " C a p t a i n W a l t e r C a l q u h o u n G r a n t : V a n c o u v e r I s l a n d ' s F i r s t I n d e n -d e n t S e t t l e r " , BCHQ, X V I I , J a n u a r y - A p r i l 1 9 5 3 , p p . 8 7 - 1 2 1 . 74. D o u g l a s t o B a r c l a y , 3 S e p t e m b e r 1 8 4 9 , HBCA, A - l l / 7 2 . 7 5 . D o u g l a s t o B a r c l a y , 1 S e p t e m b e r 1850 a n d 21 May 1 8 5 1 , HBCA, A - l l / 7 2 a n d 73. 76. D o u g l a s t o B a r c l a y , 15 J u n e 1854, HBCA, A - l l / 7 5 . 77. D o u g l a s t o G r e y , 15 A p r i l 1 8 5 2 , CO.305/3. 78. D o u g l a s t o T o d , 7 J a n u a r y 1 8 5 3 , HBCA, A - l l / 7 4 . 79. D o u g l a s t o L a b o u c h e r e , 5 May 1 8 5 7 , CO.305/8. 80. D o u g l a s t o B a r c l a y , 13 J u l y 1 8 5 4 , HBCA, A - l l / 7 5 . 341 N o t e s , C h a p t e r I I I ( C o n t . ) 81. D o u g l a s t o N e w c a s t l e , 8 A u g u s t 1 8 6 0 , CO.305/14. 82. C H . Mason ; t o D o u g l a s , 26 A u g u s t 1-857, CO. 305/8. A p p a r e n t l y t h e W a s h i n g t o n g o v e r n m e n t a l s o made i t a c a p i t a l o f f e n c e f o r n o r t h e r n I n d i a n s t o l a n d on A m e r i c a n t e r r i t o r y , D o u g l a s t o M c N e i l l , 21 S e p t e m b e r 1 8 5 7 , F o r t V i c t o r i a , C o r r e s p o n d e n c e O u t w a r d , 21 December 1856 - 25 J a n u a r y 1858, L e t t e r s S i g n e d b y James D o u g l a s , MSS, PABC. 83. D o u g l a s t o S m i t h , 18 F e b r u a r y 1 8 5 7 , HBCA, A - l l / 7 6 . 84. D o u g l a s t o A d m i r a l W.H. B r u c e , 7 M a r c h 1 8 5 6 , V a n c o u v e r I s l a n d , G o v e r n o r , C o r r e s p o n d e n c e O u t w a r d . 85. D o u g l a s t o B a r c l a y , 27 A p r i l 1 8 5 2 , HBCA, A - l l / 7 3 . 86. D o u g l a s t o N e w c a s t l e , 28 J u l y 1 8 5 3 , CO.305/4. 87. D o u g l a s t o B a y n e s , 17 December 185 9 , CO.305/11. 88. D o u g l a s t o N e w c a s t l e , 16 May 1 8 5 4 , V a n c o u v e r I s l a n d , • D e s p a t c h e s t o H e r M a j e s t y ' s P r i n c i p a l S e c r e t a r y o f S t a t e f o r t h e C o l o n i e s , 1 8 5 1 - 1 8 5 9 , MSS, PABC. I n I n s t a n c e s w h e r e d e s p a t c h e s a r e m i s s i n g f r o m t h e CO.305 r e c o r d s t h i s s o u r c e , w h i c h i s D o u g l a s ' s l e t t e r b o o k c o p i e s o f h i s d e s p a t c h e s , h a s b e e n u s e d . See a l s o Ormsby, B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , p . 1 2 9 . 89. M i n u t e s o f t h e C o u n c i l o f V a n c o u v e r I s l a n d , 21 J u n e 1 8 5 5 , CO.305/6; Douglas t o S i r G e o r g e G r e y , 7 M a r c h 1856, CO.305/7; R o b e r t S w a n t o n t o Thomas B a n n i s t e r , 4 J a n u a r y 1 8 5 6 , G r e a t B r i t a i n , C o l o n i a l O f f i c e , D e s p a t c h e s t o V a n c o u v e r I s l a n d . 90. M a c D o n a l d , B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , p. 80. 9 1 . G r e a t B r i t a i n , P a r l i a m e n t , House o f Commons, R e p o r t o f t h e S e l e c t C o m m i t t e e o n t h e Hudson's Bay Company, p p . 1 9 4 - 9 5 . 92. D o u g l a s t o S m i t h , 11 December 1 8 5 5 , HBCA, A - l l / 7 5 . 9 3 . D o u g l a s t o L o r d J o h n R u s s e l l , 21 A u g u s t 1 8 5 5 , CO.305/6. 94. Gough, "The P o w e r t o C o m p e l " , p a s s i m . 95. D o u g l a s t o B a r c l a y , 22 December 1 8 5 0 , HBCA, A - l l / 7 2 a nd CO. 3 0 5 / 3 . 96. B a r r y M. G o u g h , " " T u r b u l e n t F r o n t i e r s ' a nd B r i t i s h E x p a n s i o n : G o v e r n o r James D o u g l a s , t h e R o y a l N a v y , and t h e B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a G o l d R u s h e s " , P a c i f i c H i s t o r i c a l R e v i e w , X L I , F e b r u a r y 19 72, p.18. 97. On t h e s i n g l e o c c a s i o n t h a t n a v y men w e n t up t o t h e g o l d f i e l d s b e c a u s e o f c o n f l i c t b e t w e e n m i n e r s and I n d i a n s t h e d i s p u t e was s e t t l e d b e f o r e t h e y a r r i v e d , i b i d . , p p . 2 3 - 2 4 . 342 N o t e s , C h a p t e r I I I ( C o n t . ) 98. I b i d . , p . 18. 99. G i l b e r t M a l c o l m S p r o a t , S c e n e s a nd S t u d i e s o f S a v a g e L i f e , L o n d o n , 1 8 6 8 , p . 5 5 . 100. D o u g l a s t o B a r c l a y , 3 S e p t e m b e r 1 8 4 9 , HBCA, A - l l / 7 2 . 1 0 1 . B a r c l a y t o D o u g l a s , December 1 8 4 9 , F o r t V i c t o r i a , C o r r e s -p o n d e n c e I n w a r d . 102. An a n a l y s i s o f t h e F o r t V i c t o r i a T r e a t i e s i n r e l a t i o n t o w h a t i s known a b o u t S o n g h e e s e t h n o g r a p h y h a s b e e n made b y W i l s o n D u f f , "The F o r t V i c t o r i a T r e a t i e s " , B.C. S t u d i e s , n o . 3 , F a l l 1 9 6 9 , pp.52 and p a s s i m . 10 3. D o u g l a s t o B a r c l a y , 18 M a r c h 1 8 5 2 , HBCA, A - l l / 7 3 . ^ 104. F o r t h e t e x t s o f t h e s e t r e a t i e s s e e Hu d s o n ' s Bay Company, L a n d O f f i c e , V i c t o r i a , R e g i s t e r o f L a n d P u r c h a s e s f r o m t h e I n d i a n s , 1 8 5 0 - 1 8 5 9 , MS, PABC. E d i t e d v e r s i o n s a r e c o n t a i n e d i n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , P a p e r s C o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e I n d i a n L a n d Q u e s t i o n , 1 8 5 0 - 1 8 7 5 , V i c t o r i a , 1 8 7 5 , ( h e r e a f t e r c i t e d as B.C. P a p e r s ) , p p . 5-11. 105. D o u g l a s t o B a r c l a y , 16 May 1 8 5 3 , HBCA, A - l l / 7 4 . 106. D o u g l a s t o B a r c l a y , 3 S e p t e m b e r 1 8 4 9 , HBCA, A - l l / 7 2 . 107. The p o i n t i s made b y D u f f , " F o r t V i c t o r i a T r e a t i e s " , p . 24. See D o u g l a s t o B a r c l a y , 16 May 1 8 5 0 , HBCA, A - l l / 7 2 . B l a n s h a r d was a w a r e t h a t t h e I n d i a n s w e r e p a i d a t a 300 p e r c e n t m a r k - u p , B l a n s h a r d t o G r e y , 18 F e b r u a r y 1 8 5 1 , CO.305/3. 108. D o u g l a s t o B a r c l a y , 16 May 1 8 5 0 , HBCA, A - l l / 7 2 . 109. P e m b e r t o n t o B a r c l a y , 1 S e p t e m b e r 1 8 5 4 , D o u g l a s t o B a r c l a y , 26 A u g u s t 1854, HBCA, A - l l / 7 5 . 110. M i n u t e s o f t h e C o u n c i l o f V a n c o u v e r I s l a n d , 25 M a r c h 1 8 5 9 , CO.305/10; P e a r s e t o C o l o n i a l S e c r e t a r y , 1 F e b r u a r y 1 8 6 5 , B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , C o l o n i a l C o r r e s p o n d e n c e , MSS, PABC, ( h e r e -a f t e r c i t e d a s C C ) , f i l e 9 10; Day and S o n , L i t h o g r a p h e r s t o t h e Queen, Map o f V i c t o r i a a n d P a r t o f E s q u i m a l t D i s t r i c t , L o n d o n , 1 8 6 1 . 111. I n h i s l e t t e r t o B a r c l a y o f 26 A u g u s t 1 8 5 4 , HBCA, A - l l / 7 5 , D o u g l a s r e p o r t e d t h a t t h e I n d i a n s h a d o f f e r e d t h e t e n a c r e s t o h i m f o r s a l e , b u t t h a t he h a d d e c l i n e d t h e o f f e r . The p o s s i b i l i t y r e m a i n s t h a t t h e l a n d was s u b s e q u e n t l y p u r c h a s e d f r o m t h e S o n g h e e s , a l t h o u g h I h a v e f o u n d no e v i d e n c e o f s u c h a s a l e . 343 N o t e s , C h a p t e r I I I ( C o n t . ) 112. D o u g l a s t o L y t t o n , 14 M a r c h 1859, G r e a t B r i t a i n , C o l o n i a l O f f i c e , O r i g i n a l C o r r e s p o n d e n c e , B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , 1858-1 8 7 1 , CO.60/4, m i c r o f i l m , UBC, ( h e r e a f t e r c i t e d as CO.60) 113. D o u g l a s t o H a r g r a v e , 5 F e b r u a r y 1 8 4 3 , H a r g r a v e , C o l l e c t i o n . 114. D o u g l a s t o N e w c a s t l e , 7 J u l y 1860, CO.305/4; D o u g l a s t o L y t t o n , 14 M a r c h 1 8 58, CO,60/4; D o u g l a s t o S m i t h , 30 O c t o b e r 1857, HBCA, A - l l / 7 6 . 1 1 5 . D o u g l a s t o B a r c l a y , 17 A u g u s t 1 8 5 0 , HBCA, A - l l / 7 2 . 116. D o u g l a s t o B a r c l a y , 2 8 December 1 8 5 1 , HBCA, A - l l / 7 3 . 117. D o u g l a s t o N e w c a s t l e , 8 J u n e 1 8 5 3 , CO.305/4. 118. The H a i d a c h i e f h a d a s p e c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h G o v e r n o r D o u g l a s . Edenshaw was d e s c e n d e d f r o m t h e c h i e f named Cunneah who h a d e x c h a n g e d names w i t h C a p t a i n W i l l i a m D o u g l a s i n t h e e a r l y y e a r s o f t h e m a r i t i m e f u r t r a d e . C o n s e q u e n t l y Edenshaw and t h e G o v e r n o r o f V a n c o u v e r I s l a n d s h a r e d t h e same name. See H i l l s , J o u r n a l , 23 May 1 8 5 3 , W i l l i a m H e n r y H i l l s , J o u r n a l on B o a r d H.M.S. P o r t l a n d a n d V i r a g o 8 A u g u s t 1852 - 8 J u l y 1 8 5 3 , m i c r o f i l m , UBC; and M e a r e s , V o y a g e s , p . 3 6 5 . 119. D o u g l a s t o S m i t h , 27 November 1 8 5 7 , HBCA, A - l l / 7 6 . 120. D o u g l a s t o L a b o u c h e r e , 15 J u l y 1 8 5 7 , CO.305/8. 12 1 . ' ^ D o u g l a s t o S m i t h , 26 May 1 8 5 7 , HBCA, A - l l / 7 6 . 122. D o u g l a s t o S i m p s o n , 17 J u l y 1 8 5 7 , HBCA, D-5/44. 123. D o u g l a s t o S m i t h , 19 A p r i l 1 8 5 8 , HBCA, A - l l / 7 4 . 124. M i n u t e by F r e d e r i c k P e e l on D o u g l a s t o N e w c a s t l e , 28 F e b r u a r y 1 8 5 3 , CO.305/4. 125. S e e , f o r e x a m p l e , . L y t t o n t o D o u g l a s , 14 A u g u s t 1 8 58, G r e a t B r i t a i n , C o l o n i a l O f f i c e , D e s p a t c h e s t o V a n c o u v e r I s l a n d . 12 6. W. C a l q u h o u n G r a n t , " D e s c r i p t i o n o f V a n c o u v e r I s l a n d , by i t s F i r s t C o l o n i s t " , J o u r n a l o f t h e R o y a l G e o g r a p h i c a l S o c i e t y , X X V I I , 1 8 5 7 , p.3 2 0 . 127. B r i t i s h a n d A m e r i c a n J o i n t C o m m i s s i o n , I I , p . 5 5 . NOTES CHAPTER I V The Image o f t h e I n d i a n 1. A n d e r s o n , N o t e s a n d Comments, p . 1 7 0 . 2. C u r t i n h a s p r e f a c e d h i s s t u d y o f The Image o f A f r i c a w i t h a s i m i l a r r e m a r k . P h i l i p D. C u r t x n , The image o f A f r i c a , B r i t i s h I d e a s and A c t i o n , 1 7 8 0 - 1 8 5 0 , M a d i s o n , 1964, p . v i i . 3. S t r a n g e , J o u r n a l , 6 J u l y 1 7 8 6 , James S t r a n g e , James S t r a n g e ! s J o u r n a l a n d N a r r a t i v e o f t h e C o m m e r c i a l E x p e d i t i o n f r o m Bombay t o t h e N o r t h - W e s t ' C o a s t o f A m e r i c a . . . , M a d r a s , 1 9 2 9 , p . 2 2 . 4. I n s t r u c t i o n s t o F r a n c i s c o A n t o n i o M o u r e l l e , 9 S e p t e m b e r 1 7 9 1 , i n E l i z a b e t h D a y l t o n ( t r a n s . ) , O f f i c i a l Documents R e l a t i n g t o S p a n i s h a n d M e x i c a n V o y a g e s o f N a v i g a t i o n , E x -p l o r a t i o n a n d D i s c o v e r y , Made i n N o r t h A m e r i c a i n t h e 1 8 t h . C e n t u r y , m i c r o f i l m , UBC, p.14. 5. M e a r e s , V o y a g e s , p . 2 5 7 . 6. P u g e t , L o g , 4 May 1 7 9 3 , P u g e t , L o g o f t h e Chatham,p.45. I am n o t p a r t i c u l a r l y c o n c e r n e d h e r e w i t h t h e d e b a t e a b o u t w h e t h e r o r n o t t h e n o r t h w e s t c o a s t I n d i a n s a t e human f l e s h . A r e c e n t p u b l i c a t i o n h a s l i s t e d a number o f c o n t e m p o r a r y s o u r c e s i n s u p p o r t o f t h e c o n t e n t i o n t h a t t h e N o o t k a , a t l e a s t , p r o b a b l y w e r e c a n n i b a l s ( s e e C o o k , F l o o d T i d e o f E m p i r e , p.190 a n d f n . 1 0 7 ) , a l t h o u g h on i n v e s t i g a t i o n some o f t h e r e f e r e n c e s t u r n o u t t o be somewhat i n c o n c l u s i v e . I t i s a l s o i n t e r e s t i n g t h a t t h e Cook e x p e d i t i o n , a f t e r a month a t N o o t k a , c o u l d f i n d "no c e r t a i n p r o o f " t h a t t h e I n d i a n s w e r e c a n n i b a l s ; S a m w e l l , J o u r n a l , 3 A p r i l 1 7 7 8 , i n B e a g l e h o l e ( e d . ) , J o u r n a l s , p a r t 2, p . 1 0 9 2 . However, t h e e s s e n t i a l p o i n t h e r e i s n o t w h e t h e r c a n n i b a l i s m a c t u a l l y e x i s t e d , b u t t h e e a s e w i t h w h i c h many E u r o p e a n s assumed t h a t i t d i d . 7. James K i n g , J o u r n a l , / A p r i l 1 7 7 8 / , i n B e a g l e h o l e ( e d . ) , J o u r n a l s , p a r t 2, p p . 1 4 0 6 - 0 7 . 8. F l e u r i e u , A V o y a g e , I , p . 4 7 7 . 9. V a n c o u v e r , A V o y a g e , I I , p . 2 8 0 . 10. Manby, J o u r n a l , 24 A p r i l 1 7 9 2 . 1 1 . B i s h o p , J o u r n a l , 11 S e p t e m b e r 1 7 9 5 , i n Roe ( e d . ) , J o u r n a l a n d L e t t e r s , pp. 97-98. 344 345 N o t e s , C h a p t e r I V ( C o n t . ) 12. S a m w e l l , J o u r n a l , 31 M a r c h 1 7 7 8 , i n B e a g l e h o l e ( e d . ) , J o u r n a l s , p a r t 2, p . 1 0 9 0 . 13. S e e , f o r e x a m p l e , C o o k , J o u r n a l , 26 A p r i l 1 7 7 8 , i n B e a g l e h o l e ( e d . ) , J o u r n a l s , p a r t 1, p . 3 2 2 ; Manby, J o u r n a l , 24 J u l y 1 7 92. 14. V a n c o u v e r , A V o y a g e , I , p . 2 6 9 . 15. Cook, J o u r n a l , 26 A p r i l 1 7 7 8 , i n B e a g l e h o l e ( e d . ) , J o u r n a l s , p a r t 1, p . 3 2 2 ; M a l a s p i n a , P o l i t i c o - S c i e n t i f i c V o y a g e s , I I , p.222;; F l e u r i e u , A V o y a g e , I , p . 4 0 3 . 16. M o z i n o , N o t i c i a s , p . 6 0 . 17. H a s w e l l , L o g , / J u n e 1 7 8 9 / , H o s k i n s , N a r r a t i v e , / J u l y a n d A u g u s t 1 7 9 1 / , B o i t , Log7 8 J u l y 1 7 9 1 , i n H o w a y ~ ( e d . ) , V o y a g e s o f t h e " C o l u m b i a " , p p . 2 0 8 , 235 and 372; Caamano, J o u r n a l , 1 7 9 2 , Caamano, " J o u r n a l " , p . 2 0 5 ; Chatham, J o u r n a l , J u n e a n d S e p t e m b e r 1 7 9 3 ; V a n c o u v e r , A V o y a g e , I I , p . 3 4 3 ; B i s h o p , J o u r n a l , 16 J u n e 1 7 9 5 , i n Roe ( e d . ) , J o u r n a l a n d L e t t e r s , p . 6 3 . 18. I n h e r B.A. E s s a y , F r a n c i s P i n e h a s a d v a n c e d t h e p r o p o s i t i o n t h a t t h e r o l e a n d i n f l u e n c e o f H a i d a women h a d b e e n u n d e r -r e p o r t e d b y m a l e i n f o r m a n t s a n d e t h n o g r a p h e r s . See F r a n c i s P i n e , "The Power a n d A u t h o r i t y o f H a i d a Women", B.A. E s s a y , U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , 1 9 7 3 , p a s s i m . However, t h e e v i d e n c e f r o m t r a d e r s ' j o u r n a l s c o u l d be u s e d t o s u p p o r t t h e o p p o s i t e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n : t h a t m a l e o b s e r v e r s t e n d e d t o e x a g g e r a t e t h e r o l e o f women when t h e y saw them a c t i n g i n r o l e s t h a t w e r e u n f a m i l i a r . 19. Cook, F l o o d T i d e o f E m p i r e , p . 6 0 . 20. D i x o n , A V o y a g e , p . 2 0 6 . 2 1 . Cook, F l o o d T i d e o f E m p i r e , p . 6 0 . 22. H a s w e l l , L o g , 16 M a r c h 1 7 8 9 , i n Howay ( e d . ) , V o y a g e s o f t h e " C o l u m b i a " , p . 5 9 . 23. C l e v e l a n d , V o y a g e s , p . 1 0 8 . 24. C h a r l e s R o s s t o S i m p s o n , 1 O c t o b e r 1 8 4 2 , HBCA, D-5/7. 25. Lamb ( e d . ) , J o u r n a l s a n d L e t t e r s o f M a c K e n z i e , p . 6 5 . 26. T o l m i e , J o u r n a l , 10 December 1 8 3 4 , T o l m i e , J o u r n a l s , p. 297; s e e a l s o T o d t o E d w a r d E r m a t i n g e r , 29 J u n e 1 8 3 6 , E r m a t i n g e r , P a p e r s ; M c L e a n , N o t e s , I I , p . 2 6 1 ; a nd Saum, The F u r T r a d e r , p. 5. 346 N o t e s , C h a p t e r I V (Cont.) 27. T h i s c o n c l u s i o n was a l s o r e a c h e d by Saum, The F u r T r a d e r , p.11. 28. A l e x a n d e r C. A n d e r s o n , "Notes on t h e I n d i a n T r i b e s o f B r i t i s h N o r t h A m e r i c a , and t h e N o r t h w e s t C o a s t " , The H i s -t o r i c a l M a g a z i n e , V I I , M a r ch 1863, p.80. 29. /Ogden?/, T r a i t s , pp.5-6. I n an a r t i c l e on t h e p r o b l e m o f t h e a u t h o r s h i p o f t h i s book Howay a r g u e s c o n v i n c i n g l y , a l t h o u g h n o t w i t h a b s o l u t e f i n a l i t y , t h a t t h e " F u r T r a d e r " o f t h e t i t l e page was Ogden. See F.W. Howay, " A u t h o r s h i p o f T r a i t s o f I n d i a n L i f e " , The O r e g o n H i s t o r i c a l Q u a r t e r l y , XXXV, March 1934, pp.42-49. 30. I b i d . , pp. 21,188 and p a s s i m . F o r o t h e r examples o f t h e r e j e c t i o n o f n o b l e s a v a g i s m s e e F l e u r i e u , V o yage, I , p.479; and Cox, A d v e n t u r e s , p.v. 31. I b i d . , pp.152-53. 32. I b i d . , p.160. 33. A l e x a n d e r R o s s , A d v e n t u r e s o f t h e F i r s t S e t t l e r s on. t h e O r e g o n o r . C o l u m b i a R i v e r : . . . , London, 1849, pp.99-100. 34. F o r o t h e r examples s e e Saum, The F u r T r a d e r , pp.197-98. 35. I b i d . , p.176. 36. I b i d . , p.59. 37. S c o u l e r , " O b s e r v a t i o n s " , p.218. 38. See, f o r example, Dunn, H i s t o r y , p.283; C h a r l e s Ross t o Simpson, 10 J a n u a r y 1844, i n Lamb ( e d . ) , " F i v e L e t t e r s " , p.115; and Saum, The F u r T r a d e r , p.118. 39. Simpson t o S m i t h , 17 November 182 8, i n Merk ( e d . ) , F u r T r a d e and E m p i r e , p.300. 40. T o l m i e , J o u r n a l , 9 May 1833, T o l m i e , J o u r n a l s , p.175. 41. C u r t i n , The Image o f A f r i c a , p p . 6 1 f f . 42. A l e x a n d e r C. A n d e r s o n , " N o t e s " , p.80. 43. /Ogden?7/ T r a i t s , p . 79. 44. D o u g l a s , D i a r y , 3 A p r i l 1840, James D o u g l a s , D i a r y o f a T r i p t o t h e N o r t h w e s t C o a s t , 22 A p r i l - 2 O c t o b e r 1840, MS, PABC. 347 N o t e s , C h a p t e r I V ( C o n t . ) 45. Tod,. H i s t o r y , p . 6 3 . 46. W i l k e s , N a r r a t i v e , I V , p . 3 1 1 . 47. See Saum, The F u r T r a d e r , pp.37 a n d 115. 48. D u g a l d M a c T a v i s h t o M r s . M a c T a v i s h , 19 O c t o b e r 1 8 3 9 , i n G l a z e b r o o k ( e d . ) , H a r g r a v e C o r r e s p o n d e n c e , p . 3 0 7 . 49. James T e i t , The Thompson I n d i a n s o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , M e m o i r s o f t h e A m e r i c a n Museum o f N a t u r a l H i s t o r y , F r a n z B o a s ( e d . ) , n.p., 1 9 0 0 , p p . 2 6 9 - 7 0 . 50. W i l s o n D u f f , The U p p e r S t a l o I n d i a n s o f t h e F r a s e r V a l l e y , A n t h r o p o l o g y i n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a M e m o i r , no . 1, V i c t o r i a , 1 9 5 2 , p . 9 6 . : 5 1 . R. B y r o n J o h n s o n , V e r y F a r W est I n d e e d a Few Rough E x p e r i e n c e s on t h e N o r t h - W e s t P a c i f i c C o a s t , L o n d o n , 1 8 7 2 , p p . 8 5 - 8 6 . 52. James R o b e r t A n d e r s o n , N o t e s a n d Comments, p . 1 1 2 . 53. B o a s , D i a r y , 18 J u l y 1 8 8 8 , i n R o n a l d P. R o h n e r ( e d . ) , The E t h n o g r a p h y o f F r a n z B o a s L e t t e r s and D i a r i e s o f F r a n z Boas W r i t t e n o n t h e N o r t h w e s t C o a s t f r o m 1886 t o 1 9 3 1 , C h i c a g o and L o n d o n , 19 6 9 , p . 1 0 2 . 54. " See B l a n s h a r d ' s t e s t i m o n y , G r e a t B r i t a i n , House o f Commons, R e p o r t f r o m t h e S e l e c t C o m m i t t e e on H.B.C., pp.2 86 and 292; A l e x a n d e r C a u l f i e l d A n d e r s o n , The D o m i n i o n a t t h e West. A . B r i e f D e s c r i p t i o n Of t h e P r o v i n c e o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , i t s C l i m a t e a n d R e s o u r c e s , V i c t o r i a , 1 8 7 2 , pp.80,98 and 100; C.W. B a r r e t t - L e n n a r d , T r a v e l s i n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , w i t h t h e N a r r a t i v e o f a Y a c h t V o y a g e Round V a n c o u v e r ' s I s l a n d , L o n d o n , 1 8 6 2 , p . 4 0 ; B r o w n , J o u r n a l , 23 M a r c h 1866, / R o b e r t B r o w n / , - The L a n d o f t h e Hydahs a S p r i n g J o u r n e y due N o r t h . . . S p r i n g o f 1 8 6 6 , MS, PABC; J o h n K e a s t L o r d , The N a t u r a l i s t i n V a n c o u v e r I s l a n d a n d B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , L o n d o n , 1866, I I , p p . 2 2 6 f f ; M a t t h e w M a c f i e , V a n c o u v e r I s l a n d a n d B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , t h e i r H i s t o r y , R e s o u r c e s a n d P r o s p e c t s , L o n d o n , 1 8 6 5 , p . 4 2 8 ; Mayne, F o u r Y e a r s i n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , p . 2 4 2 . 55. The B r i t i s h C o l o n i s t , 30 November 1 8 6 9 , S i m i l a r f e e l i n g s w e r e w i d e l y h e l d i n N o r t h A m e r i c a . A c o n t r i b u t o r t o The A t l a n t i c M o n t h l y c l a i m e d t h a t t h e w i d e s p r e a d i d e a t h a t I n d i a n manage-ment i n C a n a d a was s u p e r i o r t o t h a t o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s c o u l d be e x p l a i n e d b y t h e f a c t t h a t t h e A m e r i c a n I n d i a n s w e r e " b o l d a n d f i e r c e h u n t e r s o f t h e b u f f a l o " and t h e r e f o r e d i f f i c u l t t o d e a l w i t h i n c o m p a r i s o n w i t h t h e " q u i e t and g e n t l e s a v a g e s o f a c o l d c l i m a t e a n d a f i s h d i e t " . The A t l a n t i c M o n t h l y , X L I , M a r c h 1 8 7 8 , p p . 3 8 5 - 8 6 . 348 N o t e s , C h a p t e r I V ( C o n t . ) 56. See C a i r n s , P r e l u d e t o I m p e r i a l i s m , p . 1 7 ; and C u r t i n , The Image o f A f r i c a , p p . 4 0 8 - 0 9 . A t l e a s t one w r i t e r o n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a d u r i n g t h e . s e t t l e m e n t p e r i o d was aware o f t h i s c o m p a r i s o n , s e e M a c f i e , V a n c o u v e r I s l a n d , p . 4 28. 57. The f u r t r a d e r s a l s o saw t h e s e l e a s t a d m i r a b l e I n d i a n s as t h e m o s t l i k e l y c a n d i d a t e s f o r c i v i l i z a t i o n , s e e Saum, The F u r T r a d e r , p . 228. 58. W i l l i a m D o w n i e , H u n t i n g f o r G o l d R e m i n i s c e n c e s o f P e r s o n a l E x p e r i e n c e and R e s e a r c h i n t h e E a r l y Days o f t h e P a c i f i c C o a s t . . . , San F r a n c i s c o , 1 8 9 3 , p . 2 1 6 . 59. R e a r A d m i r a l P h i p p s H o r n b y t o J . P a r k e r ( A d m i r a l t y ) , 29 A u g u s t 1 8 4 9 , HBCA, A-8/6L 60. C f . P h i l i p M ason, P a t t e r n s o f D o m i n a n c e , L o n d o n , e t c . , 1 9 7 0 , p .324. 61. T h i s a t t i t u d e i s c l e a r l y s e e n i n t h e s e t t l e r s ' d i f f e r i n g a t t i t u d e s a nd b e h a v i o u r t o w a r d s t h e M a o r i s i n New Z e a l a n d and t h e A b o r i g i n e s i n A u s t r a l i a , a nd T.O. R a n g e r h a s p o i n t e d o u t s i m i l a r d i f f e r e n c e s i n s e t t l e r o p i n i o n a b o u t t h e S h o n a a n d N d e b e l e p r i o r t o t h e r e v o l t s o f 1896-97 i n S o u t h e r n R h o d e s i a . R a n g e r , R e v o l t i n S o u t h e r n R h o d e s i a , c h a p t e r 1, p a r t i c u l a r l y p.36. See a l s o C a i r n s , P r e l u d e t o I m p e r i a l i s m , p . 1 1 4 . 62. - R o b e r t M. B a l l a n t y n e , Handbook t o t h e New G o l d F i e l d s : . . . , E d i n b u r g h , 1858, p . 7 8 ; M a c D o n a l d , B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , p p . 1 2 8 - 2 9 ; Mayne, F o u r Y e a r s i n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , p . 7 3 ; M o r i s o n , R e m i n i s c e n c e s , p.78; D o y c e , B. N u n i s J n r . , The G o l d e n F r o n t i e r ; t h e R e c o l l e c t i o n s o f Herman F r a n c i s R e i n h a r t , 1 8 5 1 - 1 8 6 9 , A u s t i n , 1 9 6 2 , p . 1 4 3 ; S p r o a t , S c e n e s a n d S t u d i e s , pp.2 3 and 99; W i l s o n , J o u r n a l , 23 M a r c h 1859^ i n S t a n l e y ( e d . ) , M a p p i n g t h e F r o n t i e r , p. 4 6; K u p e r t o Moresby,. 26 J u l y 1 8 5 2 , CO.305/3. 63. James G. Swan, A l m o s t o u t o f t h e W o r l d S c e n e s f r o m W a s h i n g t o n T e r r i t o r y t h e S t r a i t o f Juan, de F u c a 1 8 5 9 - 1 8 6 1 , W i l l i a m A. K a t z ( e d . ) , Tacoma, 1 9 7 1 , pp.97-9 8. 64. D o u g l a s A l e x a n d e r L o r i m e r , " B r i t i s h A t t i t u d e s t o t h e N e g r o , 1 8 3 0 - 1 8 7 0 , Ph.D. T h e s i s , U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , 1 9 7 2 , pp.146-47 and p a s s i m ; Mason, P a t t e r n s o f D o m i n a n c e , p. 22. 65. C u r t i n , The Image o f A f r i c a , p . 2 9 , d e s c r i b e s p s e u d o -s c i e n t i s t s a s t h o s e who a r e " m i s l e d by a l i t t l e l e a r n i n g i n t o w i l d s p e c u l a t i o n s w h i c h t h e b e s t s c i e n c e , e v e n i n t h e i r t i m e , w o u l d n o t s u s t a i n o n t h e b a s i s o f r e a s o n a n d e v i d e n c e . " 66. J o h n S e b a s t i a n H e l m c k e n , R e m i n i s c e n c e s , w r i t t e n i n 1 8 9 2 , t y p e s c r i p t , PABC, I I , p . 8 2 . 349 N o t e s , C h a p t e r I V ( C o n t . ) 67. B a y l e y , E a r l y L i f e on V a n c o u v e r I s l a n d , p . 2 . 6 8. L o c . c i t . 69. B r o w n , _ J o u r n a l , 1 9 _ A u g u s t 1 8 6 4 , R o b e r t B r o w n , J o u r n a l o f t h e V/aVicouver7 I / s l a n d / E x p l o r i n g E x p e d i t i o n v o l s . I t o V, 7 J u n e t o 14 S e p t e m b e r 186 4, MS, PABC. 70. G r a n t , " D e s c r i p t i o n " , p p . 3 0 3 - 0 4 . 71. M a c D o n a l d , B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , p . 1 6 0 . 72. S e e , f o r e x a m p l e , S p r o a t , S c e n e s and S t u d i e s , p .272; a n d M a c D o n a l d , B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , p . 1 3 2 ; The B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a n , 2 December 1865. 73. J.W. Boddam-Wetham, W e s t e r n W a n d e r i n g s a R e c o r d o f T r a v e l i n . t h e E v e n i n g L a n d , L o n d o n , 1 8 7 2 , p . 2 8 7 . 74. M a c D o n a l d , B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , p . 1 2 5 . 75. C f . C u r t i n , The Image o f A f r i c a , p . 2 3 . 76. S p r o a t t o P h i l i p V a n k o u g h n e t , D e p u t y S u p e r i n t e n d e n t G e n e r a l o f I n d i a n A f f a i r s , 26 November 187 9 , C a n a d a , D e p a r t m e n t o f I n d i a n A f f a i r s , R e c o r d G r o u p 1 0 , B l a c k S e r i e s , W e s t e r n C a n a d a , ( h e r e a f t e r c i t e d a s IABS) v o l . 3 6 1 2 f i l e 3756, MSS,, PAC. 77. M a c f i e , V a n c o u v e r I s l a n d , p p . 4 8 4 - 8 5 . 78. H i l l s , J o u r n a l , 7 May 1 8 5 3 , H i l l s , J o u r n a l on B o a r d H.M.S. P o r t l a n d a nd V i r a g o . 79. S p r o a t t o S u p e r i n t e n d e n t G e n e r a l o f I n d i a n A f f a i r s , 9 J a n u a r y 1 8 7 8 , I A B S , v o l . 3 6 5 7 , f i l e 9 1 9 3 . 80. B r o w n , J o u r n a l , 10 J u n e 1 8 6 4 , B r o w n , J o u r n a l o f ' V / a n c o u v e r / , I / s l a n d / E x p l o r i n g E x p e d i t i o n . 8 1 . The T i m e s , 5 A u g u s t 1858. 82. The B r i t i s h C o l o n i s t , 3 J u n e 1859. 83. B a l l t o C o l o n i a l S e c r e t a r y , 2 May 1 8 6 0 , B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , G o l d C o m m i s s i o n e r , L y t t o n , C o r r e s p o n d e n c e O u t w a r d , 1859-1 8 7 0 , MSS, PABC; s e e a l s o The B i s h o p o f C o l u m b i a , A T o u r o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , L o n d o n , 1 8 6 1 , p . 1 8 . 84. Mayne, J o u r n a l , 5 A p r i l 1 8 6 0 , R i c h a r d C h a r l e s Mayne, J o u r n a l o f A d m i r a l R i c h a r d C h a r l e s Mayne> 1 8 5 7 - 1 8 6 0 , MS, PABC; R o b i n W. W i n k s , The B l a c k s i n C a n a d a a H i s t o r y , M o n t r e a l e t c . , 1 9 7 1 , p . 2 7 8 . 350 N o t e s , C h a p t e r I V ( C o n t . ) 85. S e e , f o r e x a m p l e , J o h n Domer, New B r i t i s h G o l d F i e l d s , A G u i d e t o B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a and V a n c o u v e r I s l a n d . . . , L o n d o n , n . d . , p.24. 86. Emmerson, B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , and V a n c o u v e r I s l a n d . V o y a g e s , T r a v e l s and A d v e n t u r e s , Durham, 1 8 6 5 , p p . 5 1 - 5 2 . 87. M a c f i e , V a n c o u v e r I s l a n d , p.4 3 1 ; Mayne, F o u r Y e a r s i n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , p p . 2 5 8 - 6 0 ; M a c D o n a l d , B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , p.156; 88. Newton H. C h i t t e n d e n , - O f f i c i a l R e p o r t o f t h e Queen C h a r l o t t e I s l a n d s f o r t h e G o v e r n m e n t o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , V i c t o r i a , 1 884, p.19. 89. Mayne, F o u r Y e a r s i n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , p . 2 5 9 . 90. G r a n t , " D e s c r i p t i o n " , pp.296 and 308-310. 91. I b i d . , p . 3 0 9 . 92. C h i t t e n d e n , O f f i c i a l R e p o r t , p . 1 8 . 93. G r a n t , " D e s c r i p t i o n " , p . 2 9 6 ; B a r r e t t - L e n n a r d , T r a v e l s , p . 4 1 . 94. M a c D o n a l d , B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , p . 7 0 . 95. C h i t t e n d e n , O f f i c i a l R e p o r t , p.14. 96. W.C. G r a n t , "Remarks on V a n c o u v e r I s l a n d , P r i n c i p a l l y Con-c e r n i n g T o w n s i t e s and N a t i v e P o p u l a t i o n " , J o u r n a l o f t h e R o y a l G e o g r a p h i c a l S o c i e t y , X X X I , 1 8 6 1 , p . 2 1 1 . 97. B a r r e t t - L e n n a r d , T r a v e l s , p p . 4 4 - 4 5 ; M o r i s o n , R e m i n i s c e n c e s , p.58. 98. Domer, New B r i t i s h G o l d F i e l d s , p . 24; W i l l i a m Carewe H a z l i t t , B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a and V a n c o u v e r I s l a n d ; . . . , L o n d o n , 1858, p . 1 8 7 . 99. C f . G r a n t , " D e s c r i p t i o n " , p.301 and M a c D o n a l d , B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , p . 1 5 3 . G r a n t c l a i m e d t h a t t h e I n d i a n s " p a s s t h e g r e a t e r p o r t i o n o f t h e i r t i m e i n a s o r t o f t o r p i d s t a t e , l y i n g i n s i d e b e s i d e t h e i r f i r e s " , a n d t h e a s s e r t i o n was r e p e a t e d b y M a c D o n a l d i n a l m o s t i d e n t i c a l w o r d s . 100. B o a s , D i a r y , 6 S e p t e m b e r 1 8 6 6 , i n R o h n e r ( e d . ) , E t h n o g r a p h y o f B o a s , p.54. 351 N o t e s , C h a p t e r I V ( C o n t . ) 1 0 1 . G i l b e r t M a l c o l m S p r o a t , "The West C o a s t I n d i a n s i n V a n c o u v e r I s l a n d " , T r a n s a c t i o n s o f t h e E t h n o l o g i c a l S o c i e t y o f L o n d o n , new s e r i e s , I V , 1 8 6 7 , p . 2 5 3 . See a l s o P a l m e r , R e p o r t , p . 7 . 102. J . R u s s e l l H a r p e r , P a u l K a n e ' s F r o n t i e r I n c l u d i n g " W a n d e r i n g s o f an A r t i s t among t h e I n d i a n s o f N o r t h A m e r i c a " by P a u l K a n e , A u s t i n a n d L o n d o n , 1 9 7 1 , p . 1 0 8 . 103. See M a s on, P a t t e r n s o f D o m i n a n c e , p . 1 9 9 ; P e t e r L o e w e n b e r g , "The P s y c h o l o g y o f R a c i s m " i n G a r y B. N a s h and R i c h a r d W e i s s ( e d s . ) , The G r e a t F e a r Race i n t h e M i n d o f A m e r i c a , • New Y o r k e t c . , 1 9 7 0 , p . 1 8 7 . 104. C u r t i n , The Image o f A f r i c a , p . 3 2 4 . 105. D u n c a n , J o u r n a l , 17 F e b r u a r y 1858, W i l l i a m D u n c a n , P a p e r s , m i c r o f i l m , UBC ( h e r e a f t e r c i t e d as WDP), C.2154. 10 6. S e e , f o r e x a m p l e , / C h u r c h M i s s i o n a r y S o c i e t y / , M e t l a h k a t l a Ten Y e a r s ' Work Among t h e T s i m s h e e a n I n d i a n s , / L o n d o n / , 1 8 6 9 , p p , 1 6 - 1 7 ; /Eugene S t o c k / , M e t l a k a h t l a a n d t h e N o r t h P a c i f i c M i s s i o n o f t h e C h u r c h M i s s i o n a r y S o c i e t y , L o n d o n , 1 8 8 1 , p . 1 9 ; a n d Mayne, F o u r Y e a r s i n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , p . 2 8 5 . 107. The C h r i s t i a n G u a r d i a n , 6 A p r i l 1 8 5 9 . 108. The C h u r c h M i s s i o n a r y I n t e l l i g e n c e r , J u l y 1 8 5 6 , p.167. 109. Roy H a r v e y P e a r c e , The S a v a g e s o f A m e r i c a a S t u d y o f t h e I n d i a n a n d t h e I d e a o f C i v i l i z a t i o n , B a l t i m o r e , 1 9 6 5 , pp.4-6 a n d 4 8 - 4 9 . : [ 110. J o h n Emmerson, B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , p . 3 5 . 1 1 1 . Mason, P a t t e r n s o f D o m i n a n c e , p . 3 5 . 112. N. de B e r t r a n d L u g r i n , The P i o n e e r Women o f V a n c o u v e r I s l a n d 1 8 4 3 - 1 8 6 6 , V i c t o r i a , 192 8, p . 7 7 ; H e l m c k e n , R e m i n i s c e n c e s , I I I , p . 8 0. 1 1 3 . M a s on, P a t t e r n s o f D o m i n a n c e , p . 3 5 . 114. L o u i s H a r t z h a s a r g u e d t h a t f r a g m e n t c u l t u r e s " h e i g h t e n c o n s e n s u s by s h r i n k i n g t h e E u r o p e a n s o c i a l u n i v e r s e " , L o u i s H a r t z , "A C o m p a r a t i v e S t u d y o f F r a g m e n t C u l t u r e s " , i n Hugh D a v i s Graham a n d T e d R o b e r t G u r r , V i o l e n c e i n . A m e r i c a : H i s t o r i c a l a n d C o m p a r a t i v e P e r s p e c t i v e s , New Y o r k , e t c . , T 9 69, p . 1 0 7 . I n V a n c o u v e r I s l a n d a nd B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a h u m a n i t a r i a n i s m , w h i c h t e n d e d t o m i l i t a t e a g a i n s t o v e r t r a c i s m , was n o t a s w e l l d e v e l o p e d as i t was i n t h e p a r e n t s o c i e t y ; t h e r e w e r e t h e r e f o r e more p e o p l e o f l i k e m i n d i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e I n d i a n s t h a n t h e r e w e r e i n B r i t a i n . NOTES CHAPTER V G o l d M i n e r s a n d S e t t l e r s 1. The B r i t i s h C o l o n i s t , 19 F e b r u a r y 1 8 6 1 . 2. D o u g l a s t o S m i t h , 21 A p r i l 1 8 5 8 , HBCA, A - l l / 7 6 . 3. D o u g l a s t o S m i t h , 18 May 1 8 5 8 , HBCA, A - l l / 7 6 . 4. R i c h , H i s t o r y o f t h e H B C , I I , p . 7 6 1 . 5. Ormsby, B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , p . 1 3 0 . 6. Q u o t e d i n A r c h i e B i n n s , P e t e r Skene Ogden: F u r T r a d e r , P o r t l a n d , 1 9 6 7 , p . 3 3 7 . 7. D o u g l a s t o S t a n l e y , 19 May 1 8 5 8 , CO.305/9. 8. L y t t o n t o D o u g l a s , 16 J u l y 1 8 5 8 , CO.305/9. 9. As R a l p h L i n t o n h a s d e f i n e d i t d i r e c t e d c u l t u r e c h a n g e o c c u r s i n " t h o s e s i t u a t i o n s i n w h i c h one o f t h e g r o u p s i n c o n t a c t i n t e r f e r e s a c t i v e l y a n d p u r p o s e f u l l y w i t h t h e c u l t u r e o f t h e o t h e r . " See L i n t o n (ed.) A c c u l t u r a t i o n , p . 5 0 2 . S p i c e r h a s , more r e c e n t l y , w r i t t e n t h a t " t h e d i s t i n c t i o n w h i c h L i n t o n saw b e t w e e n d i r e c t e d a n d n o n - d i r e c t e d s i t u a t i o n s r e m a i n s b a s i c t o any a t t e m p t t o d e v e l o p g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s i n t h e f i e l d o f a c c u l t u r a t i o n . " The d i s t i n c t i o n i s f u n d a m e n t a l b e c a u s e " i t makes c l e a r t h e two m o s t g e n e r a l c l a s s e s o f c o n t a c t s i t u a t i o n . " S p i c e r ( e d . ) , P e r s p e c t i v e s , p . 5 1 9 . 10. L o c . c i t . 1 1 . A n n i e Deans t o h e r c o u s i n , 4 J u l y 1 8 5 8, D e a n s , C o r r e s p o n -d e n c e O u t w a r d . 12. D o w n i e , H u n t i n g f o r Gold', p. 202. 13. D o u g l a s t o L a b o u c h e r e , 6 A p r i l 185 8, CO.305/9. 14. M a t t h e w B e g b i e t o D o u g l a s , 3 F e b r u a r y 1 8 5 9 , CC, f i l e 1 4 2 a . 15. D o u g l a s t o W i l l i a m B r o o k e r , B r i t i s h C o n s u l i n San F r a n c i s c o , 23 J u n e 1 8 5 8 , V a n c o u v e r I s l a n d , G o v e r n o r , C o r r e s p o n d e n c e O u t w a r d . 16. D o u g l a s t o L a b o u c h e r e , 29 December 1 8 5 7 , CO.305/8. 352 353 N o t e s , C h a p t e r V ( C o n t . ) 17. The T i m e s , 25 December 1858. 18. N u n i s ( e d . ) , The G o l d e n F r o n t i e r , p . 1 2 0 . 19. I b i d . , p p . 1 2 5 - 2 7 . The p a r t y h a d h a d a s k i r m i s h w i t h I n d i a n s b e f o r e c r o s s i n g t h e l i n e i n t o B r i t i s h t e r r i t o r y . I t w o u l d seem t h a t E u r o p e a n s w e r e q u i t e c a p a b l e o f p u n i s h i n g one g r o u p o f I n d i a n s f o r t h e s u p p o s e d c r i m e s o f a n o t h e r . T h i s was t h e k i n d o f m i s d i r e c t e d r e t a l i a t i o n t h a t t h e w h i t e s a c c u s e d t h e I n d i a n s o f . 20. When t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f an I n d i a n war came t o t h e a t t e n t i o n o f C h a r l e s W i l s o n o f t h e B o u n d a r y C o m m i s s i o n he w r o t e i n h i s d i a r y " h u r r a ! f o r a l i t t l e o u t o f d o o r w o r k , & e x c i t e -ment, & s e e i f V i c t o r i a C r o s s e s c a n be e a r n e d i n A m e r i c a as w e l l as I n d i a . " W i l s o n , D i a r y , 30 A u g u s t 1858, i n S t a n l e y ( e d . ) , M a p p i n g t h e F r o n t i e r , p . 3 2 . 21. D o u g l a s t o C a p t a i n F r e d e r i c k M o n t r e s s o r , 24 A u g u s t 1858, V a n c o u v e r I s l a n d , G o v e r n o r , C o r r e s p o n d e n c e O u t w a r d . 22. A c c o u n t s o f t h e s e e v e n t s a r e t o be f o u n d i n t h e D a i l y V i c t o r i a G a z e t t e , 2 0 , 24, 2 5 , 26, 28 A u g u s t and 1 S e p t e m b e r 1858; and O v i d . A l l a r d t o D o u g l a s , 20 A u g u s t 1858, CC, f i l e 10. 23. B a l l a n t y n e , Handbook, p. 1 8 . 24. D a i l y V i c t o r i a G a z e t t e , . 2 0 A u g u s t 1858. 25. Domer,.New B r i t i s h G o l d F i e l d s , p . 5 1 . 26. D a l l y V i c t o r i a G a z e t t e , 20 A u g u s t 1858. 27. A l l a r d t o D o u g l a s , 20 A u g u s t 1858, CC, f i l e 10. 28. B e g b i e t o D o u g l a s , 25 A p r i l 1 8 5 9 , CC, f i l e 142b. 29. A l l a r d t o D o u g l a s , 20 A u g u s t 1858, CC, f i l e 10; The T i m e s , 1 December 1858. 30. Mayne, F o u r Y e a r s i n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , p . 5 0 ; The T i m e s , . 1 December 1858; R i c h a r d H i c k s t o D o u g l a s , 26 O c t o b e r 1 8 5 8 , CC, f i l e 767. 31. W i l l i a m Cox t o W.A.G. Y o u n g , 6 A p r i l " 1 8 6 2 , CC, f i l e 377. 32. D a i l y V i c t o r i a G a z e t t e , 26 A u g u s t 1858; B u s h b y , J o u r n a l , 22 M a r c h 1 8 5 9 , D o r o t h y B l a k e y S m i t h ( e d . ) , "The J o u r n a l o f A r t h u r Thomas B u s h b y , 1 8 5 8 - 1 8 5 9 " , BCHQ, X X I , J a n u a r y - O c t o b e r 1 9 5 7 - 1 9 5 8 , p . 1 5 0 ; J . D e s p a r d P e m b e r t o n , F a c t s and F i g u r e s R e l a t i n g t o V a n c o u v e r , I s l a n d and B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a . . . , L o n d o n , 1860, p . 1 3 2 . 354 N o t e s , C h a p t e r V: ( c o n t . ) 33. D o u g l a s t o L a b o u c h e r e , 15 J u l y 1 8 5 7 , CO.305/8. 34. A l l a r d t o D o u g l a s , 2 6 A u g u s t 185 8, CC, f i l e 10; M a t t h e w B. B e g b i e , " J o u r n e y i n t o t h e I n t e r i o r o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a " , . J o u r n a l o f t h e R o y a l G e o g r a p h i c a l S o c i e t y , X X X I , 1 8 6 1 , p . 2 4 3 ; Cox t o Brew, 6 A p r i l 1 8 5 9 , i n Howay ( e d . ) , E a r l y H i s t o r y o f t h e F r a s e r M i n e s , A r c h i v e s o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a M e m o i r no. V I , V i c t o r i a , 1 9 2 6 , p . 1 0 1 ; Mayne t o C a p t a i n G.H. R i c h a r d s , 7 J u l y 1 8 5 9 , CO.60/5; D o u g l a s t o L y t t o n , 25 A p r i l 18 5 9 , CO.60/4; M a n s o n , J o u r n a l , 20 M a r c h 1860, W i l l i a m M anson, F o r t K a m l o o p s , J o u r n a l , J a n u a r y 1859 - November 1862, t y p e s c r i p t , PABC. 35. B e g b i e t o D o u g l a s , 25 A p r i l .1859, CC, f i l e 142b. 36. H e n r y B a l l t o C o l o n i a l S e c r e t a r y , 12 May 1 8 6 0 , CC, f i l e 95. 37. W i l s o n D u f f , The U p p e r S t a l o , p . 4 1 . 38. G r e a t B r i t a i n , P a r l i a m e n t , H a n s a r d , t h i r d s e r i e s , L o n d o n , 1 8 5 8 , C L I , p . 1 0 9 9 . The.hope was e x p r e s s e d by E d w a r d B u l w e r L y t t o n who h a d r e c e n t l y b e e n S e c r e t a r y o f S t a t e f o r t h e C o l o n i e s . 39. D o u g l a s t o S t a n l e y , 10 J u n e 1858, CO.60/1. 40. H. R i c h a r d s t o B a y n e s , 2 6 A u g u s t 1 8 5 9 , CC, f i l e 1 2 1 2 a ; s e e a l s o Cox t o Y o u n g , 16 F e b r u a r y 1 8 6 1 , C C , • f i l e 375; P e t e r O ' R e i l l y t o Y o u n g , 28 J u n e 1 8 6 2 , CC, f i l e 1 2 8 1 . 41 . B r o w n , J o u r n a l , 24 J u l y 1 8 6 4 , B r o w n , J o u r n a l o f V / a n c o u v e r / I / s l a n d / , E x p l o r i n g E x p e d i t i o n . 42. M a c f i e , V a n c o n v e r I s 1 a n d , p p . 4 6 1 - 6 2 . 43. See S p r o a t , S c e n e s and S t u d i e s , p . 2 8 1 . 44. G r a n t , " D e s c r i p t i o n " , p . 2 8 7 . 45. James T e i t , The Shuswap M e m o i r o f t h e A m e r i c a n Museum o f N a t u r a l H i s t o r y , F r a n z B o a s ( e d . ) , n.p., 1 9 0 9 , p . 5 9 8 ; and T e i t , The Thompson, pp.338 a n d 357. 46. S p r o a t t o S u p e r i n t e n d e n t G e n e r a l o f I n d i a n A f f a i r s , 18 A p r i l 1 8 7 9 , I A B S , v o l . 3 6 6 8 , f i l e 1 0 , 3 4 5 . 47. /Thomas M o r e / , M o r e ' s U t o p i a a nd a D i a l o g u e o f C o m f o r t , L o n d o n , 1 9 5 5 , ( E v e r y m a n ' s L i b r a r y E d i t i o n ) , p . 7 0 . 48. J o h n L o c k e , Two T r e a t i s e s o f C i v i l G o v e r n m e n t , L o n d o n , 1966, ( E v e r y m a n ' s L i b r a r y E d i t i o n ) , p p . 1 2 9 - 4 1 . 355 N o t e s , C h a p t e r V ( C o n t . ) 49. M. d e V a t t e l , The Law o f N a t i o n s ; o r P r i n c i p l e s o f t h e Law o f N a t u r e A p p l i e d t o t h e C o n d u c t a n d A f f a i r s o f N a t i o n s a n d S o v e r e i g n s , L o n d o n , 176 0, Book 1, p . 9 1 . 50. The B r i t i s h Columbian', 1 J u n e 1 869. 51 . S p r o a t , S c e n e s a n d S t u d i e s , p p . 7 - 8 . 52. W i l l i a m B a n f i e l d t o C o l o n i a l S e c r e t a r y , 23 F e b r u a r y 1 860, CC, f i l e 1 0 7 . 53. W. D o w n i e , " E x p l o r a t i o n s i n J a r v i s I n l e t a n d D e s o l a t i o n S o u n d , B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a " , J o u r n a l o f t h e R o y a l G e o g r a p h i c a l S o c i e t y , X X X I , 1 8 6 1 , p.254. I r o n i c a l l y Downie was w r i t i n g a b o u t t h e B a b i n e L a k e a r e a . 54. B e l l t o J o h n Thompson, 27 F e b r u a r y 1 8 5 9 , James B e l l , C o r r e s -p o n d e n c e O u t w a r d , 1 8 5 9 , MS, PABC. 55. O b s e r v e r s c l a i m e d t h a t t h e r e was c o n s i d e r a b l e l a n d s p e c u -l a t i o n i n t h e two c o l o n i e s , s e e , f o r e x a m p l e , D o w n i e , H u n t i n g f o r G o l d , p . 2 6 3 ; M a c D o n a l d , B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , p.66. The D a i l y P r e s s , 17 M a r c h 1 8 6 2 , w r o t e t h a t f o u r f i f t h s o f p r e - e m p t e d l a n d was h e l d i n v i o l a t i o n o f t h e p r e - e m p t i o n r e g u l a t i o n s . 56. D o u g l a s t o F r e d e r i c k Seymour, 9 May 1864, CO.60/22; A.C. E l l i o t t t o A r t h u r N. B i r c h , 15 J u l y 1 864, CC, f i l e 5 1 5 ; W.H. F r a n k l y n t o C o l o n i a l S e c r e t a r y , 24 J u n e 1 8 6 4 , CC, f i l e 5 9 9 ; J . B . L a u n d e r s t o C o l o n i a l S e c r e t a r y , 3 J u n e 1 8 6 5 , CC, f i l e 969; R i c h a r d C l e m e n t Moody t o C r e a s e , 22 O c t o b e r 1 8 6 3 , S i r H e n r y P.P. C r e a s e , P a p e r s , MSS, PABC. 57. D o u g l a s L. O l i v e r , The P a c i f i c I s l a n d s , New Y o r k , 1 9 6 1 , p.157. 58. M.P.K. S o r r e n s o n h a s d e m o n s t r a t e d , f o r e x a m p l e , t h a t i t was l o s s o f l a n d a n d n o t d e f e a t i n w a r s t h a t was t h e m a j o r c a u s e o f M a o r i d e p o p u l a t i o n . M.P.K. S o r r e n s o n " L a n d P u r c h a s e M e t h o d s a n d T h e i r E f f e c t on M a o r i P o p u l a t i o n , 1 8 6 5 - 1 9 0 1 " , J o u r n a l o f t h e P o l y n e s i a n S o c i e t y , L XV, S e p t e m b e r 1 9 5 6 , p.184 and p a s s i m . 59. E l l i o t t t o B i r c h , 15 J u l y 1 8 6 4 , CC, f i l e 5 1 5 . 60. B r o w n , J o u r n a l , 24 J u l y 1 8 6 4 , B r o w n , J o u r n a l o f t h e V / a n c o u v e r / I / s l a n d / E x p l o r i n g E x p e d i t i o n . 61. A.R. G r e e n a n d E.C. W a d d i n g t o n t o Y o u n g , 7 M a r c h 186 4, CC, f i l e 3 2 1 ; H e r b e r t G a s t o n t o Y o u n g , 5 May 1868 a n d G a s t o n t o H a n k i n , 30 A u g u s t 1 8 7 0 , CC, f i l e 6 37. 356 N o t e s , C h a p t e r V (Cont.) 62. H o l b r o o k t o M u s g r a v e , 7 J a n u a r y 1870, CC, f i l e 778 ( 2 ) . 63. The B r i t i s h C o l o n i s t , 5 May 1863. 64. I t was s u b s e q u e n t l y d i s c o v e r e d t h a t a f e r r y m a n named T i m S m i t h , s t a t i o n e d f u r t h e r down r i v e r , had b een k i l l e d t h e p r e v i o u s day. 65. C h a r t r e s Brew t o C o l o n i a l S e c r e t a r y , 23 May 1864, CC, f i l e 193; M o r i s o n , R e m i n i s c e n c e s , pp.10-11. 66. B e g b i e t o Seymour, 30 September 1864, CC, f i l e 142g. 67. Seymour t o C a r d w e l l , 9 September 1864, CO.60/19. 68. The B r i t i s h C o l o n i s t , 13 May 1864. 69. The B r i t i s h C o l o n i s t , 12 May 1864. 70. The B r i t i s h C o l o n i s t , 1 J u n e 1864. 71. The B r i t i s h C o l o n i s t , 2 J u n e 1864. 72. B u t e I n l e t M a s s a c r e , M i n u t e s and V o l u n t e e r s R o l l o f P u b l i c M e e t i n g V i c t o r i a , 1864, MSS, PABC; C f Nanaimo C h i e f t o A r t h u r Kennedy, 31 May 1864, CC, f i l e 594. 73. The B r i t i s h C o l o n i s t , 2 J u n e 1864. 74. Tod t o Edward E r m a t i n g e r , 1 June 1864, E r m a t i n g e r , P a p e r s . 75. G r a n t , " D e s c r i p t i o n " , p.304. 76. Thomas E l w y n t o Young, 13 A u g u s t 1859, CC, f i l e 52 4. 77. J o h n B o w l e s G a g g i n t o Young, 11 J a n u a r y 1861, CC, f i l e 620 78. R i c h a r d G o l l e d g e t o A c t i n g C o l o n i a l S e c r e t a r y , 18 A u g u s t 1864, CC, f i l e 647; s e e a l s o J.D.B. O g i l v y t o Seymour, 6 F e b r u a r y , 1865, CC, f i l e 1267. 79. M o r i s o n , R e m i n i s c e n c e s , p.10. 80. R.C. L u n d i n Brown, K l a t s a s s a n , and O t h e r R e m i n i s c e n c e s o f M i s s i o n a r y L i f e i n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , LondorT, 1873, p . 172, 81. The B r i t i s h C o l o n i s t , 19 F e b r u a r y 1861. 82. The B r i t i s h C o l o n i s t , 26 O c t o b e r 1860. 83. B e g b i e t o D o u g l a s , 11 A p r i l 1860, CC, f i l e 142c. 357 N o t e s , C h a p t e r V ( C o n t . ) 84. F i f e r t o D o u g l a s , 25 A u g u s t 1 8 6 0 , CC, f i l e 558. 85. The B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a n , 20 J a n u a r y 1864. 86. The V i c t o r i a G a z e t t e , 28 A p r i l 1 859. 87. D o u g l a s t o N e w c a s t l e , 7 J u l y 1 8 6 0 , CO.305/14. 88. The V i c t o r i a G a z e t t e , 22 M a r c h 1859. 89. V a n c o u v e r I s l a n d , A C o l l e c t i o n o f t h e P u b l i c G e n e r a l S t a t u t e s o f t h e C o l o n y o f V a n c o u v e r I s l a n d P a s s e d i n t h e Y e a r s 1859, i 8 6 0 , 1 8 6 1 , 1862 a n d 1863, V i c t o r i a , 1864, p .37. T h i s A c t r e p l a c e d a n e a r l i e r one p a s s e d b y t h e C o u n c i l o f V a n c o u v e r I s l a n d on 3 A u g u s t 1854. 90. F r e d e r i c k Whymper, T r a v e l a n d A d v e n t u r e i n t h e T e r r i t o r y o f A l a s k a . . . and i n V a r i o u s O t h e r P a r t s o f t h e N o r t h P a c i f i c , L o n d o n , 1 8 6 8 , f n , p . 3 6 . 91. The B r i t i s h C o l o n i s t , 8 M a r c h 1860. 92. S e e , f o r e x a m p l e , The V i c t o r i a G a z e t t e , 25 J u n e 1858. 93. F r a n c i s P o o l e , Queen C h a r l o t t e I s l a n d s , a N a r r a t i v e o f D i s c o v e r y a nd A d v e n t u r e i n t h e N o r t h P a c i f i c , L o n d o n , 1 8 7 2 , p . 3 1 3 . 94. S p r o a t , S c e n e s a n d S t u d i e s , p . 9 2 . 95. N u n i s ( e d . ) , The G o l d e n F r o n t i e r , p . 1 4 3 . 96. The V i c t o r i a G a z e t t e , 24 F e b r u a r y 1859. 9 7 . The B r i t i s h C o l o n i s t , 6 S e p t e m b e r 1 8 6 1 . 98. The B r i t i s h C o l o n i s t , 26 F e b r u a r y 1859. 99. The B r i t i s h C o l o n i s t , 8 J a n u a r y 1 8 5 9 . 100. S e e , f o r e x a m p l e , The B r i t i s h C o l o n i s t , 5 F e b r u a r y 1859. 1 0 1 . D o u g l a s t o L y t t o n , 9 F e b r u a r y 1 8 5 9 , CO.305/10. 102. V a n c o u v e r I s l a n d , House o f A s s e m b l y , M i n u t e s , 25 J a n u a r y 1 8 5 9 , MSS, PABC. 103. D o u g l a s t o S p e a k e r a n d G e n t l e m e n o f t h e House o f A s s e m b l y , 5 F e b r u a r y 1 8 5 9 , CO.305/10. 104. V a n c o u v e r I s l a n d , House o f A s s e m b l y , M i n u t e s , 15 F e b r u a r y 1859, 358 N o t e s , C h a p t e r V ( C o n t . ) 105. The V i c t o r i a G a z e t t e , 17 F e b r u a r y 1859. 106. V a n c o u v e r I s l a n d , House o f A s s e m b l y , M i n u t e s , 8 F e b r u a r y 1859. 107. V a n c o u v e r I s l a n d , House o f A s s e m b l y , M i n u t e s , 15 F e b r u a r y 1 8 5 9 . 108. V a n c o u v e r I s l a n d , House o f A s s e m b l y , M i n u t e s , 3 M a r c h 1859. 109. D a l l y P r e s s , 26 M a r c h 18 6 2 . 110. The B r i t i s h C o l o n i s t , 1 a n d 14 May 1862. 111. R.C.L. Brown t o D o u g l a s , 18 F e b r u a r y 1 8 6 3 , CC, f i l e 214. 112. D u f f , I n d i a n H i s t o r y o f B.C., p . 4 3 . S u c h a s s e s s m e n t s o f t h e i m p a c t o f s m a l l p o x a r e b a s e d on e s t i m a t e s o f t h e p r e - 1 8 6 2 p o p u l a t i o n w h i c h c o u l d be i n a c c u r a t e . I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o n o t e t h a t i n one a r e a w h e r e t h e r e was a c o u n t o f t h e I n d i a n p o p u l a t i o n t h a t "seems q u i t e r e m a r k a b l e i n i t s a c c u r a c y and d e t a i l " b e f o r e 1862 t h e p o p u l a t i o n d e c l i n e was much l o w e r t h a n one third. The r a t e o f d e c l i n e among t h e S t a l o f o r t h e y e a r s 1839-1879 was 17.2 p e r c e n t , a l t h o u g h t h e f i g u r e i s g i v e n w i t h t h e p r o v i s o t h a t i t i s p r o b a b l y t o o l o w . S e e , D u f f , The U p p e r S t a l o , p p . 2 8 - 2 9 . 113. I n t h e f o l l o w i n g r e f e r e n c e s t o I n d i a n s h a v i n g b e e n v a c c i n a t e d , t h e numbers m e n t i o n e d a r e g i v e n i n b r a c k e t s . The B r i t i s h C o l o n i s t , 2 6 A p r i l 1 8 6 2 , ( 2 0 0 ) ; The B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a n , 14 May 1 8 6 2 , ( 3 , 0 0 0 ) ; D a i l y P r e s s , 27 M a r c h and 27 A p r i l 1 8 6 2 , (30 and 5 0 0 ) ; B a l l t o C o l o n i a l S e c r e t a r y , 6 J u n e 18 6 2 , CC, f i l e 96, ( 1 7 9 0 ) ; E l l i o t t t o Y o u n g , 10 December 1 8 6 2 , CC, f i l e 5 1 3 , ( c o n s i d e r a b l e n u m b e r ) ; M a n s o n , J o u r n a l , 4, 5, 6 and 7 A u g u s t 1 8 6 2 , ( l a r g e n u m b e r s ) ; M o f f a t t t o H.B.C. B o a r d , V i c t o r i a , 19 A u g u s t 1 8 6 2 , H a m i l t o n M o f f a t t , L e t t e r B o o k , F o r t R u p e r t , F o r t S i m p s o n and F o r t K a m l o o p s , 1 8 5 7 - 1 8 6 7 , MS, PABC, (more t h a n 1 0 0 ) ; R o b s o n , D i a r y , .7, 8, a n d 11 A p r i l 1 862, E b e n e z e r R o b s o n , P a p e r s , MSS, PABC, (77,35 a n d 5 0 ) ; H i l l s ( B i s h o p o f C o l u m b i a ) , D i a r y , 23 J u n e 1862 _30 o r 40) ; / S o c i e t y f o r t h e P r o p a g a t i o n o f t h e G o s p e l / , R e p o r t o f t h e I n c o r p o r a t e d S o c i e t y f o r t h e P r o p a g a t i o n o f t h e G o s p e l i n F o r e i g n P a r t s , 186 3, L o n d o n , 1 8 6 3 , p . 5 7 , ( 1 0 0 ' s ) . 114. S p r o a t , S c e n e s a n d S t u d i e s , p p . 3 ^ 4 . 115. Mayne, J o u r n a l , 5 A p r i l 1860. 116. S p r o a t , "The W e s t C o a s t I n d i a n s " , p . 2 4 4 . 117. S p r o a t , "The W est C o a s t I n d i a n s " , p . 2 5 4 . 359 N o t e s , C h a p t e r V ( C o n t . ) 118. G a g g i n t o Y o u n g , 28 J a n u a r y 1 8 6 0 , CC, f i l e 619. 119. C o d e r e , F i g h t i n g a nd P r o p e r t y , C h a p t e r 4 and p a s s i m . 120. See L a d y D u f f e r i n , J o u r n a l , 31 A u g u s t 1 8 7 6 , D u f f e r i n , My C a n a d i a n J o u r n a l , p . 2 0 9 . 1 2 1 . I am p a r t i c u l a r l y i n d e b t e d t o W i l s o n D u f f o f t h e D e p a r t m e n t o f A n t h r o p o l o g y , The U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , f o r t h i s i n s i g h t . He h a s p o i n t e d o u t t h a t h i s own w o r k on H a i d a a r t a nd t h e r e s e a r c h o f S u s a n R e i d (a Ph.D. c a n d i d a t e i n t h e D e p a r t m e n t o f A n t h r o p o l o g y ) on K w a k u i t l w i n t e r r i t u a l a n d p o t l a t c h i n g l e n d s u p p o r t t o t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n t h a t t h e s e g r o u p s w e r e r e s p o n d i n g t h r o u g h t h e medium o f t h e i r own c u l t u r a l f o r m s t o t h e p r e s e n c e o f E u r o p e a n s . NOTES CHAPTER V I The M i s s i o n a r i e s 1. Duncan t o H o n o r a b l e D a v i d L a i r d , May 1 8 7 5 , C h u r c h M i s s i o n a r y A r c h i v e s , m i c r o f i l m , UBC ( h e r e a f t e r c i t e d as CMSA), C.2/0. 2. J o n a t h e n S. G r e e n , J o u r n a l o f a T o u r o n t h e N o r t h West C o a s t o f A m e r i c a i n ~ t h e Y e a r 1829 . . . , New Y o r k , 1 9 1 5 , p . 1 0 3 . 3. Ogden t o M c L e o d , 25 F e b r u a r y 1 8 3 7 , " O l d L e t t e r s f r o m H u d s o n ' s B a y Company O f f i c i a l s a n d E m p l o y e e s f r o m 1 8 2 9 - 1 8 4 0 " , WHQ, I I , A p r i l 1 9 0 8 , p . 2 6 0 . 4. B e a v e r t o B e n j a m i n H a r r i s o n , 27 M a r c h 1 8 3 8 , i n J e s s e t t ( e d . ) , R e p o r t s and L e t t e r s , p.10 2. 5. M c L o u g h l i n t o G o v e r n o r , D e p u t y G o v e r n o r a n d C o m m i t t e e , 1 5 November 1 8 3 6 , HBCA,B-223/b/12; a l s o i n R i c h ( e d . ) , M c L o u g h l i n ' s L e t t e r s , F i r s t S e r i e s , p . 1 6 2 . 6. B e a v e r t o C h u r c h o f E n g l a n d P r o t e s t a n t M a g a z i n e , 1 F e b r u a r y 1 8 4 1 , i n H e r b e r t B e a v e r , " E x p e r i e n c e s o f a C h a p l a i n a t F o r t V a n c o u v e r , 1 8 3 6 - 1 8 3 8 " , R.C. C l a r k ( e d . ) , The O r e g o n H i s t o r i c a l Q u a r t e r l y , >XXXIX, M a r c h 1 9 3 8 , p . 2 3 . 7. / B e a v e r / , "The N a t i v e s o f t h e N o r t h West C o a s t " , p . 1 3 8 . 8. B e a v e r t o G o v e r n o r and C o m m i t t e e ( o f t h e Hudson's Bay Company), 10 O c t o b e r 1837, HBCA, B-223/b/19; a l s o i n J e s s e t t ( e d . ) , R e p o r t s & L e t t e r s , p . 5 7 . 9. L o c . c i t . 10. L o c . c i t . 1 1 . S i m p s o n , J o u r n a l , 1824, i n M erk ( e d . ) , F u r T r a d e and E m p i r e , p . 108. 12. D o u g l a s t o G o v e r n o r , D e p u t y G o v e r n o r and C o m m i t t e e , 5 O c t o b e r 1 8 3 8 , HBCA, B - 2 2 3 / b / 2 1 ; a l s o i n J e s s e t t ( e d . ) , R e p o r t s & L e t t e r s , p . 1 4 8 . 13. B e a v e r t o C h u r c h o f E n g l a n d P r o t e s t a n t M a g a z i n e , 1 F e b r u a r y 1 8 4 1 , i n B e a v e r , " E x p e r i e n c e s " , p .30. 360 361 N o t e s , C h a p t e r V I ( C o n t . ) 14. E l i z a t o c o n d e de R e v i l l a g i g e d o , 7 J u l y 1 7 9 2 , i n D a y l t o n ( t r a n s . ) , O f f i c i a l D o c u m e n t s . 15. M o r i c e , H i s t o r y o f t h e N o r t h e r n I n t e r i o r , p . 2 3 4 . 16. C f . Ormsby, B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , p .168. 17. A.G. M o r i c e , H i s t o r y o f t h e C a t h o l i c C h u r c h i n W e s t e r n C a n a d a , f r o m L a k e S u p e r i o r t o t h e P a c i f i c , 1 6 5 9 - 1 8 9 5 , T o r o n t o , 1910, I I , p . 2 98. 18. D o u g l a s t o L e m p f r i t , 26 May 1 8 5 2 , V a n c o u v e r I s l a n d , G o v e r n o r , C o r r e s p o n d e n c e O u t w a r d . 19. D o u g l a s t o G r e y , 28 M a r c h 1 8 5 2 , CO.305/3. 20. T o l m i e , J o u r n a l , 10 November 1 8 3 3 , T o l m i e , J o u r n a l s , p . 2 4 9 . 2 1 . M c L e a n , N o t e s , I , p . 2 6 3 . F o r an a c c o u n t o f S p o k a n G a r r y and K u t e n a i P e l l y s e e A l v i n M. J o s e p h y J n r . , The Nez P e r c e I n d i a n s a n d t h e O p e n i n g o f t h e N o r t h w e s t , New Haven and L o n d o n , 1 9 6 5 , p p . 8 5 - 8 7 . 22. S e e , f o r e x a m p l e , Wayne S u t t l e s , "The P l a t e a u P r o p h e t Dance among t h e C o a s t S a l i s h " , S o u t h w e s t e r n J o u r n a l o f A n t h r o -p o l o g y , X I I I , Autumn 1 9 5 7 , p.38 8; Diamond J e n n e s s , The C a r r i e r I n d i a n s o f t h e B u l k l e y R i v e r t h e i r S o c i a l a n d R e l i g i o u s L i f e , S m i t h s o n i a n I n s t i t u t i o n B u r e a u o f A m e r i c a n E t h n o l o g y A n t h r o p o l o g i c a l P a p e r , n o . 2 5 , W a s h i n g t o n , 1 9 4 5 , p. 5 4 7 ; M o r i c e , H i s t o r y o f t h e N o r t h e r n I n t e r i o r , p. 234. F o r a d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e l i t e r a t u r e o f t h e p r o p h e t d a n c e a n d o f t h e q u e s t i o n o f w h e t h e r i t was an i n d i g e n o u s c u l t o r t h e c o n s e q u e n c e o f a c c u l t u r a t i o n s e e H i l a r y E i l e e n R u m ley, " R e a c t i o n s o f C o n t a c t a nd C o l o n i z a t i o n : an I n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f R e l i g i o u s a n d S o c i a l Change among t h e I n d i a n s o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a " , M.A. T h e s i s , U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , 1 9 7 3 , p . 3 0 f f . 23. G e o r g e H i l l s , A Sermon P r e a c h e d a t t h e F a r e w e l l S e r v i c e C e l e b r a t e d i n S t . James C h u r c h , P i c a d i l l y , o n W e d n e s d a y , Nov. 1 6 , 1859 . . . , w i t h an A c c o u n t o f t h e M e e t i n g H e l d on t h e Same Day a t t h e M a n s i o n o f t h e C i t y o f L o n d o n , i n A i d o f t h e C o l u m b i a M i s s i o n , L o n d o n , 1 8 5 9 , p . 8 . 24. Sermon o f J o h n W e s l e y p r e a c h e d 11 J u n e 1 7 3 8 , i n J o h n M a r t i n C r e e d a nd J o h n S a n d w i t h B o y s S m i t h , R e l i g i o u s T h o u g h t o f t h e E i g h t e e n t h C e n t u r y , I l l u s t r a t e d f r o m W r i t e r s o f t h e P e r i o d , C a m b r i d g e , 1934, p . 1 5 9 . 25. F o r t h i s r e a s o n , a n d b e c a u s e o f D u n c a n 1 s i m p o r t a n c e i n t h e h i s t o r y o f I n d i a n m i s s i o n s i n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , h i s m i s s i o n t o t h e T s i m s h i a n w i l l be e x a m i n e d i n some d e t a i l . 362 N o t e s , C h a p t e r V I ( C o n t . ) 26. F o r t h e d e t a i l s o f Duncan's e a r l y l i f e s e e U s h e r , " W i l l i a m Duncan o f M e t l a k a t l a " , p p . 6 - 2 6 . 27. M o r r i s Z a s l o w c l a i m s t h a t Duncan's humble o r i g i n s a n d l a c k o f f o r m a l e d u c a t i o n made h i m an a t y p i c a l c a n d i d a t e f o r t h e C.M.S.; s e e M o r r i s Z a s l o w , "The M i s s i o n a r y as S o c i a l R e f o r m e r : t h e C a s t o f W i l l i a m D u n c a n " , J o u r n a l o f t h e C a n a d i a n C h u r c h H i s t o r i c a l S o c i e t y , V I I I , S e p t e m b e r 1 9 6 6 , p . 5 2 . I n f a c t many m i s s i o n a r i e s came f r o m s u c h a b a c k g r o u n d , s e e W.N. G u n s o n , " E v a n g e l i c a l M i s s i o n a r i e s i n t h e , S o u t h S e a s , 1 7 9 7 - 1 8 6 0 " , Ph.D. T h e s i s , A u s t r a l i a n N a t i o n a l U n i v e r s i t y , 1959, p . l 2 f f ; and J u d i t h B i n n e y , The L e g a c y o f G u i l t a L i f e o f Thomas K e n d a l l , A u c k l a n d , 1 9 68, p . 2 . : 28. S e e , f o r e x a m p l e , Duncan, J o u r n a l , 27 November 1853 a n d 15 O c t o b e r 1854, WDP, C.2154. 29. B i n n e y , The L e g a c y o f G u i l t , p. 3. 30. D u n c a n , J o u r n a l , 9 M a r c h 1 8 7 3 , WDP, C.2155. 31 . D u n c a n , J o u r n a l , 4 O c t o b e r 1854, WDP, C.2154. 32. D u n c a n , J o u r n a l , 26 A p r i l 1 854, WDP, C.2154. 33. B e r n a r d S m i t h , E u r o p e a n V i s i o n a n d t h e S o u t h P a c i f i c 1 7 6 8 -1850 a S t u d y i n t h e H i s t o r y o f A r t and I d e a s , L o n d o n , 196 0, p . 1 0 9 . 34. L e t t e r o f James P r e v o s t , The C h u r c h M i s s i o n a r y I n t e l l i g e n c e r , J u l y 1 8 5 6 , p p . 1 6 7 - 6 8 . 35. Duncan, J o u r n a l , 15 A p r i l 1857, WDP, C.2154. 36. S p e e c h o f Duncan t o a m i s s i o n a r y m e e t i n g , E v e n i n g E x p r e s s , 10 J u n e 1 8 6 3 . 37. D u n c a n , J o u r n a l , 3 S e p t e m b e r 1 8 5 7 , WDP, C.2154. 38. D u n c a n , J o u r n a l , 29 S e p t e m b e r 1 8 5 7 , WDP, C.2154. 39. D u n c a n , C.2154; J o u r n a l , 7 O c t o b e r and 30 November 1857, WDP, an d Duncan t o V e n n , 6 O c t o b e r 1 8 57, CMSA, C.2/0 40. D u n c a n , J o u r n a l , 14 J a n u a r y 1 8 5 8 , WDP, C.2154. 41. D u n c a n , R e c o r d , J o u r n a l , 12 O c t o b e r 185 8, The C h u r c h M i s s i o n a r y J u n e 1 8 5 9 , p . 1 8 1 . 42. D u n c a n , J o u r n a l , 16 November 1 8 5 9 , CMSA, C.2/0. 43. D u n c a n , J o u r n a l , 17 F e b r u a r y 1 8 5 8 , WDP, C.2154. 363 N o t e s , C h a p t e r V I ( C o n t . ) 44. D u n c a n , J o u r n a l , 16 O c t o b e r 1 8 5 7 , WDP, C.2154. 45. D u n c a n , J o u r n a l , 17 F e b r u a r y 1 8 5 8 , WDP, C.2154. 46. Duncan t o L a i r d , May 1 8 7 5 , CMSA, C.2/0. 47. D u n c a n , J o u r n a l , 14 J a n u a r y 1 8 5 8 , WDP, C.2154. 48. L o c . c i t . 49. D u n c a n , J o u r n a l , 17 F e b r u a r y 1 8 5 8, WDP, C.2154. 50. L o c . c i t . 5 1 . S p e e c h o f Duncan t o m i s s i o n a r y m e e t i n g , E v e n i n g E x p r e s s , 10 J u n e 1 8 6 3 . 52. C f . C a i r n s , P r e l u d e t o I m p e r i a l i s m , p . 3 3 . 53. D u n c a n , J o u r n a l , 17 May 1 8 5 8 , WDP, C.2154. 54. D u n c a n , J o u r n a l , 13 J u n e 1 8 5 8 , WDP, C.2154. 55. Duncan t o C r i d g e , 7 F e b r u a r y 1 8 6 0 , CC, f i l e 395. 56. D u n c a n , _ J o u r n a l , 19 November. 1 8 5 9 , i n / C h u r c h M i s s i o n a r y S o c i e t y / , M e t l a h k a t l a , p . 3 9 . 57. B a p t i s m a l R e g i s t e r , 1 8 6 1 - 1 8 6 2 , WDP, C.2159. 58. D u n c a n , J o u r n a l , 1 J u l y 1 8 5 9 , i n / C h u r c h M i s s i o n a r y S o c i e t y / , M e t l a h k a t l a , p . 5 3 . 59. Duncan t o L a i r d , May 1 8 7 5 , CMSA, C.2/0. 60. F o r t S i m p s o n , J o u r n a l , 5 J u n e 1859 and f o l l o w i n g e n t r i e s , HBCA, B-201/9. 6 1 . F o r t S i m p s o n , J o u r n a l , 11 O c t o b e r 1 8 56, HBCA, B-201/9. 62. Duncan t o D o u g l a s , 25 O c t o b e r 1 8 6 0 , CC, f i l e 498. 63. Duncan t o CMS, 25 J u l y 186 4, CMSA, C.2/0. 64. See Z a s l o w , "The M i s s i o n a r y as S o c i a l R e f o r m e r " , p . 5 4 . 65. D u n c a n , J o u r n a l , 14 J a n u a r y 1 8 5 8 , WDP, C.2154. 66. Duncan r e c k o n e d t h a t 500 o f t h e F o r t S i m p s o n T s i m s h i a n c a u g h t s m a l l p o x , Duncan t o C.M.S., 6 M a r c h 1 8 6 3 , CMSA, C.2/0; Duncan t o D o u g l a s , 6 M a r c h 1 8 6 3 , CC, f i l e 498. 364 N o t e s , C h a p t e r V I ( C o n t . ) 67. L o c . c i t . 68. See U s h e r , " W i l l i a m Duncan o f M e t l a k a t l a " , p . 4 4 f f ; J e a n U s h e r , "Duncan o f M e t l a k a t l a : t h e V i c t o r i a n O r i g i n s o f a M o d e l I n d i a n Community", i n W.L. M o r t o n ( e d . ) , T h e . S h i e l d o f A c h i l l e s , A s p e c t s o f C a n a d a i n t h e V i c t o r i a n A g e , T o r o n t o a n d M o n t r e a l , 1 9 6 8 , p p . 2 9 3 - 9 7 . U s h e r d o e s n o t , h o w e v e r , p r o v i d e any e v i d e n c e t h a t Duncan was p a r t i c u l a r l y i n f l u e n c e d b y V e n n ' s t h e o r i e s a p a r t f r o m t h e g e n e r a l p o i n t t h a t Venn was s e c r e t a r y o f t h e C.M.S. w h i l e Duncan was t r a i n i n g a t H i g h b u r y ( s e e U s h e r , " W i l l i a m Duncan o f M e t l a k a t l a " , p.67) n o r i s t h e r e a n y e v i d e n c e i n . D u n c a n ' s e a r l y j o u r n a l s t h a t Venn was h i s m e n t o r . 69. U s h e r , "Duncan o f M e t l a k a t l a " , p . 3 0 7 . 70. See D u n c a n , J o u r n a l , 14 December 1 8 5 8 , CMSA, C.2/0. 71. C f . U s h e r , " W i l l i a m Duncan o f M e t l a k a t l a " , p . 1 3 5 . 72. I b i d . , p . 1 3 6 . 73. Duncan t o L a i r d , May 1 8 7 5 , CMSA, C.2/0. 74. Duncan t o C.M.S., 28 A p r i l 1 8 6 2 , CMSA, C.2/0. 75. L o c . c i t . 76. Duncan t o C.M.S., 6 M a r c h 1 8 6 3 , CMSA, C.2/0. 77. D u n can t o L a i r d , May 1 8 7 5 , CMSA, C.2/0. 78. See U s h e r , "Duncan o f M e t l a k a t l a " , i n M o r t o n ( e d . ) , p.296. 79. I b i d . , p . 3 0 3 . -80. R o b e r t D o o l a n t o C.M.S., 14 J u l y 1 864, CMSA, C.2/0; Rev. E d w a r d C r i d g e t o C.M.S., 27 S e p t e m b e r 1 8 6 7, CMSA, C.2/0. 81. U s h e r , "Duncan o f M e t l a k a t l a " , i n M o r t o n (ed.) S h i e l d o f A c h i l l e s , p . 3 0 3 ; D u n c a n , J o u r n a l , 17 November 1 8 6 3 , WDP, C.2155. 82. C f . L a V i o l e t t e , S t r u g g l e f o r S u r v i v a l , p . 2 7 ; and U s h e r , " W i l l i a m Duncan o f M e t l a k a t l a " , p p . 2 8 3 - 8 4 . 83. U s h e r , "Duncan o f M e t l a k a t l a " , i n M o r t o n ( e d . ) , S h i e l d o f A c h i l l e s , p . 3 0 6 . 84. Owen t o C.M.S., 9 O c t o b e r 1 8 6 7 , CMSA, C.2/0. 85. The C h u r c h M i s s i o n a r y I n t e l l i g e n c e r , May 1 8 7 2 , p . 1 5 3 ; C o l u m b i a M i s s i o n , R e p o r t o f t h e C o l u m b i a M i s s i o n , L o n d o n , 1866, p .34. 365 N o t e s , C h a p t e r V I ( C o n t . ) 86. D o o l a n , J o u r n a l , 29 J a n u a r y 1 8 6 6 , CMSA, C.2/0; D o o l a n t o ; C.M.S., 14 J u l y 1 8 6 4 , CMSA, C.2/0; Seymour t o B u c k i n g h a m , 27 S e p t e m b e r 1 8 6 7 , CO.60/29; s p e e c h o f D u f f e r i n d e l i v e r e d a t V i c t o r i a , 20 S e p t e m b e r 1 8 7 6 , i n H e n r y M i l t o n ( e d . ) , S p e e c h e s a nd A d d r e s s e s o f t h e R i g h t H o n o u r a b l e F r e d e r i c k T e m p l e H a m i l t o n E a r l o f D u f f e r i n , L o n d o n , 1 8 8 2 , p . 2 1 1 ; L a d y D u f f e r i n , J o u r n a l , 29 A u g u s t 1 8 7 6 , L a d y D u f f e r i n , My C a n a d i a n J o u r n a l 1 8 7 2 - 1 8 7 8 , G l a d y s C h a n t l e r W a l k e r ( e d . ) , Don M i l l s , 1 9 6 9 , p.2 0 6 ; G e o r g e D a v i s , M e t l a k a h t l a a T r u e N a r r a t i v e o f t h e Red Man, C h i c a g o , 1 9 0 4 , p . 7 5 . 87. Duncan t o C.M.S., 29 J a n u a r y 1 8 7 4 , CMSA, C.2/0. 88. The C h u r c h M i s s i o n a r y I n t e l l i g e n c e r , A p r i l 1860. p . 9 0 ; s e e a l s o J e a n U s h e r , " A p o s t l e s a n d A b o r i g i n e s : ' t h e S o c i a l T h e o r y o f t h e C h u r c h M i s s i o n a r y S o c i e t y " , S o c i a l H i s t o r y , V I I , A p r i l 1 9 7 1 , p . 4 2 f f ; H e n r y V e n n , R e t r o s p e c t a n d P r o s p e c t o f t h e O p e r a t i o n s o f t h e C h u r c h M i s s i o n a r y S o c i e t y , L o n d o n , 1 8 6 5, p. 5. 89. D u n c a n , J o u r n a l , 18 November 185 3 a n d 21 M a r c h 1854, WDP, C.2154. 90. D u n c a n , J o u r n a l , 25 J u n e 1 8 5 7 , WDP, C.2154; The B r i t i s h C o l o n i s t , 9 J u n e 186 3. 91. Duncan t o C.M.S., 4 December 1 8 7 0 , CMSA, C.2/0. 92. Owen t o C.M.S., 9 O c t o b e r 1 8 6 7 , CMSA, C.2/0. 93. Seymour t o B u c k i n g h a m , 30 November 1 8 6 8 , CO.60/33. 94. Duncan t o C.M.S., 23 J a n u a r y 1 8 6 4 , CMSA, C.2/0. 95. C l e m e n t C o r n w a l l t o S u p e r i n t e n d e n t G e n e r a l o f I n d i a n A f f a i r s , 8 December 1 8 8 7 , I A B S , v o l . 3776, f i l e 37, 373-2; M o r i s o n , R e m i n i s c e n c e s , p .28; O s k a r T e i c h m a n n ( e d . ) , A J o u r n e y t o A l a s k a i n t h e Y e a r 1 8 6 8 : b e i n g a D i a r y o f t h e L a t e E m i l T e i c h m a n n , New Y o r k , 196 3, p . 1 1 8 . 96. A n d e r s o n , The D o m i n i o n a t t h e W e s t , p p . 95-96. 97. T r u t c h t o t h e O f f i c e r A d m i n i s t r a t i n g t h e . G o v e r n m e n t , 22 J u n e 1 8 6 9 , CC, f i l e 954; s e e a l s o I.W. P o w e l l t o S u p e r i n t e n d e n t G e n e r a l o f I n d i a n A f f a i r s , 26 A u g u s t 1 8 7 9 , C a n a d a , R e p o r t . o f t h e D e p u t y S u p e r i n t e n d e n t G e n e r a l o f I n d i a n A f f a i r s , 1 8 7 9 , / O t t a w a / , n . d . , p . 1 1 7 . 98. T o m l i n s o n t o T r u t c h , 25 J a n u a r y 1 8 7 0 , CMSA, C.2/0. 99. T o m l i n s o n t o A r c h d e a c o n Woods, 31 O c t o b e r 1 8 7 1 , CMSA, C.2/0. 366 N o t e s , C h a p t e r V I ( C o n t . ) 100. R e p o r t o f t h e C o l u m b i a M i s s i o n , 1 8 6 9 , p . 7 9 . 1 0 1 . J o h n B o o t h Good, The U t m o s t Bounds P i o n e e r J o t t i n g s o f F o r t y Y e a r s M i s s i o n a r y R e m i n i s c e n c e s o f t h e O u t West P a c i f i c C o a s t , 1 8 6 1 - 1 9 0 0 , t y p e s c r i p t , PABC, u n p a g i n a t e d . 102. R e p o r t o f t h e C o l u m b i a M i s s i o n , 1 8 67, p . 6 7 . 10 3: R e p o r t o f t h e C o l u m b i a M i s s i o n , 1 8 6 8, P- 35. 104. R e p o r t o f t h e C o l u m b i a M i s s i o n , 1 8 6 7, P- 80. 105. Good, U t m o s t B o u n d s , u n p a g i n a t e d ; R e p o r t o f t h e C o l u m b i a M i s s i o n , 1 8 7 4 , p . 1 3 . 10 6. M i s s i o n s de l a C o n g r e g a t i o n d e s M i s s i o n a i r e s O b l a t s de M a r i e TmmacuTee, P a r i s , 1 8 6 2 , I , p . 1 0 1 . 107. Rev. L e o n F o u q u e t t o D o u g l a s , 11 A p r i l 1 8 6 4 , CC, f i l e 584; B i r c h t o C a r n a r v o n , 25 O c t o b e r 1866, CO.60/25. 108. A. L o u i s t o t h e H o n o u r a b l e H.L. L a n g e v i n , 29 S e p t e m b e r 1 8 7 1 , C a n a d a , P a r l i a m e n t , B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a R e p o r t o f t h e Hon. H.L. L a n g e v i n , C.B. M i n i s t e r o f P u b l i c W o r k s , O t t a w a , 1 8 7 2 , p . 1 5 9 ; See a l s o F o u q u e t t o D o u g l a s , 11 A p r i l 1864, CC, f i l e 584. 109. S p r o a t t o t h e M i n i s t e r o f t h e I n t e r i o r , 7 December 1876, I A B S , v o l . 3 6 1 1 , f i l e 3356 ( 5 ) . F o r an a c c o u n t o f t h e Roman C a t h o l i c " s y s t e m " s e e D u f f , I n d i a n H i s t o r y o f B.C., p . 9 1 ; M o r i c e , H i s t o r y o f t h e C a t h o l i c C h u r c h , p p . 3 5 1-52; a n d E d w i n M. L e m e r t , "The L i f e a n d D e a t h o f an I n d i a n S t a t e " , Human O r g a n i z a t i o n , X I I I , F a l l 1 9 5 4 , p p . 2 3 - 2 7 . F o r some c r i t i c i s m s o f L e m e r t ' s a r t i c l e s e e J a c q u e l i n e J u d i t h K e n n e d y , "Roman C a t h o l i c M i s s i o n a r y E f f o r t a nd I n d i a n A c c u l t u r a t i o n i n t h e F r a s e r V a l l e y 1 8 6 0 - 1 9 0 0 " , B.A. E s s a y , U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , 1 9 6 9 , p p . 7 9 - 8 6 . 110. See L e m e r t , "The L i f e a n d D e a t h o f a n I n d i a n S t a t e " , p p . 2 3 and 25. 1 1 1 . Thomas C r o s b y , Among t h e An-ko-me-nums o r F l a t h e a d T r i b e s o f I n d i a n s o f t h e P a c i f i c C o a s t , T o r o n t o , 1 9 0 7 , p p . 1 0 4 - 0 5 . 112. Thomas C r o s b y , Up a n d Down t h e N o r t h P a c i f i c C o a s t by Canoe a n d M i s s i o n S h i p , T o r o n t o , 1914, pp.65-6 6. 113. Duncan t o C.M.S., 12 J u l y 1 8 6 5 , CMSA, C.2/0; s e e a l s o W.H. C o l l i s o n , I n t h e Wake o f t h e . W a r Canoe . . . , L o n d o n , 1 9 1 5 , p p . 1 0 8 - 1 1 . 114. Good, U t m o s t B o u n d s , u n p a g i n a t e d . 367 N o t e s , C h a p t e r V I ( C o n t . ) 1 1 5 . H i l l s , ( B i s h o p o f C o l u m b i a ) , D i a r y , 7 J u n e 1 8 6 1 . 116. B a r r e t t - L e n n a r d , T r a v e l s , p p . 1 4 9 - 5 0 ; Boddam-Wetham, W e s t e r n W a n d e r i n g s , p p . 3 0 4 - 0 5 . 117. Duncan t o C.M.S., 29 M a r c h 1 8 7 6 , CMSA, C.2/0. 118. B a l l t o C o l o n i a l S e c r e t a r y , 28 December 1 8 6 9 , CC, f i l e 1 0 1 ( a ) . 119. The C h u r c h M i s s i o n a r y I n t e l l i g e n c e r , November 1 8 58, p . 2 4 5 . 120. C. B r y a n t t o R o b s o n , 4 O c t o b e r 1 8 7 0 , R o b s o n , P a p e r s . 121 . B o a s , D i a r y , 13 J u l y 1 8 8 8 , i n R o h n e r ( e d . ) , E t h n o g r a p h y o f B o a s , p . 1 0 0 ; s e e a l s o K r a u s e , T h e T l i n g i t , p . 2 1 5 . 122. D o u g l a s t o N e w c a s t l e , 18 O c t o b e r 1 8 5 9 , CO.60/5. 123. Seymour t o B u c k i n g h a m , 27 S e p t e m b e r 1 8 6 7 , CO.60/29. 124. See f o r e x a m p l e R e p o r t o f t h e C o l u m b i a M i s s i o n , 1 8 6 3 , p.18. 125. Duncan t o C.M.S., 14 May 1 8 6 1 , CMSA, C.2/0. 126. Memorandum o f D u n c a n , 22 J u n e 1 8 6 0 , and Duncan t o D o u g l a s , 25 O c t o b e r 1 8 6 0 , CC, f i l e 4 98; Duncan t o C.M.S., 24 A u g u s t 1 8 6 0 , CMSA, C.2/0. 127. S p e e c h o f Duncan t o a m i s s i o n a r y m e e t i n g , The B r i t i s h C o l o n i s t , 9 J u n e 186 3, and E v e n i n g E x p r e s s , 10 J u n e 186 3; A.C. G a r r e t t , R e m i n i s c e n c e s ^ t y p e s c r i p t , PABC, p.16. 128. Duncan t o C.M.S., 14 May 1861 a n d 8 F e b r u a r y 1 8 7 1 , CMSA, C.2/0. 129. The B r i t i s h C o l o n i s t , 13 M a r c h , 1860. 130. Boas t o h i s p a r e n t s , 31 O c t o b e r 1 886, i n R o h n e r ( e d . ) , E t h n o g r a p h y o f B o a s , p . 5 1 ; Whymper, T r a v e l s a n d A d v e n t u r e s , p . 4 0 . 13 1 . D u n c a n t o Seymour, 10 S e p t e m b e r 1 8 6 8, CC, f i l e 4 9 8 , a l s o i n CO.60/33. 132 . D u n c a n , J o u r n a l , 7 O c t o b e r 1 8 5 7 , WDP, C.2154. 133. Duncan t o Seymour, 10 S e p t e m b e r 1 8 6 6 , CC, f i l e 4 9 8, a l s o i n CO.60/33. 134. C f . R o b e r t F. B e r k h o f e r J n r . , S a l v a t i o n a n d t h e S a v a g e , an A n a l y s i s o f P r o t e s t a n t M i s s i o n s a n d t h e A m e r i c a n I n d i a n R e s p o n s e , 1 7 8 7 - 1 8 6 2 , K e n t u c k y , 1 9 6 5 , p p . 6 9 , 1 0 6 - 0 7 , a n d 122. NOTES CHAPTER V I I Go v e r n m e n t A d m i n i s t r a t o r s 1. T r u t c h , R e p o r t on t h e L o w e r F r a s e r I n d i a n R e s e r v e s , 2 8 A u g u s t 1 8 6 7 , J o s e p h T r u t c h , P a p e r s , MSS and t y p e s c r i p t s , SC; a l s o i n B.C. P a p e r s , p . 4 2 . Some o f t h e m a t e r i a l a n d p a r t o f t h e a r g u m e n t r n t h i s c h a p t e r h a v e a l r e a d y a p p e a r e d i n R o b i n F i s h e r , " J o s e p h T r u t c h a n d I n d i a n L a n d P o l i c y " , B.C. S t u d i e s , n o . 1 2 , W i n t e r 1 9 7 1 - 7 2 , p p . 3 - 3 3 . 2. L y t t o n t o D o u g l a s , 31 J u l y 185 8, G r e a t B r i t a i n , C o l o n i a l O f f i c e , D e s p a t c h e s t o V a n c o u v e r I s l a n d . 3. D o u g l a s t o L y t t o n , 11 O c t o b e r 1 8 5 8, CO.60/1; D o u g l a s , a d d r e s s t o House o f A s s e m b l y , 12 A u g u s t 1 856, V a n c o u v e r I s l a n d , House o f A s s e m b l y , M i n u t e s . 4. D o u g l a s t o N e w c a s t l e , 18 O c t o b e r 1 8 5 9 , CO.60/5. 5. D o u g l a s t o L y t t o n , 14 M a r c h 1 8 5 8 , CO.60/4. 6. L o c . c i t . a n d C a r n a r v o n t o D o u g l a s , 11 A p r i l 1 8 5 9 , G r e a t B r i t a i n , C o l o n i a l O f f i c e , D e s p a t c h e s t o B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , 1 8 5 9 - 1 8 7 1 , MSS, PABC. 7. D o u g l a s t o L y t t o n , 11 O c t o b e r 1 8 5 8 , CO.60/1. 8. D o u g l a s t o N e w c a s t l e , 22 M a r c h 1 8 6 0 , CO.60/7. 9. D o u g l a s t o S t a n l e y , 15 J u n e 1 8 5 8 , CO.60/1; D o u g l a s t o New-c a s t l e 9 O c t o b e r 1 8 6 0 , CO.60/8. 10. D o u g l a s t o S t a n l e y , 15 J u n e 185 8, CO.6 0/1. 1 1 . D o u g l a s . t o C o l o n e l H a w k i n s , 1 J u l y 1 8 6 1 , V a n c o u v e r I s l a n d G o v e r n o r , C o r r e s p o n d e n c e O u t w a r d 27 May 1859 - 9 J a n u a r y 1864 P r i v a t e O f f i c i a l L e t t e r B o o k , MS, PABC. 12. T.W. D a v e n p o r t , " R e c o l l e c t i o n s o f an I n d i a n A g e n t " , The Q u a r t e r l y o f t h e O r e g o n H i s t o r i c a l S o c i e t y , V I I I , December 1 9 0 7 , p . 3 5 5 . 13. D o u g l a s t o N e w c a s t l e , 21 May 1 8 6 3 , CO.305/20. 14. N e w c a s t l e t o D o u g l a s , 22 J u l y 1 8 5 9 , G r e a t B r i t a i n , C o l o n i a l O f f i c e , D e s p a t c h e s t o V a n c o u v e r I s l a n d . 368 369 N o t e s , C h a p t e r V I I ( C o n t . ) 15. P r e v o s t t o B a y n e s , 18 J u l y 1 8 6 0 , R i c h a r d s t o B a y n e s , 7 A u g u s t 1 8 6 0 , B a y n e s t o S e c r e t a r y o f t h e A d m i r a l t y , 10 S e p t e m b e r 1 8 6 0 , G r e a t B r i t a i n , A d m i r a l t y C o r r e s p o n d e n c e , I I , . 1 8 5 8 - 1 8 6 0 , MSS, PABC. 16. R i c h a r d s t o B a y n e s , 31 A u g u s t 1 8 5 9 , CC, f i l e 1 2 1 2 a . 17. D o u g l a s t o B a y n e s , 1 November 1 8 5 9 , G e o r g e C a r y t o A c t i n g C o l o n i a l S e c r e t a r y , 1 November 185 9 , G r e a t B r i t a i n , A d m i r a l t y C o r r e s p o n d e n c e , I I . 18. D o u g l a s t o B a n f i e l d , 27 A p r i l 1 8 5 9 , V a n c o u v e r I s l a n d , G o v e r n o r , C o r r e s p o n d e n c e O u t w a r d . 19. J.W. P i k e t o R e a r A d m i r a l Denman, 27 S e p t e m b e r 1864, CC, f i l e 1 2 1 0; The B r i t i s h C o l o n i s t , 4 M a r c h 1864. 20. S p r o a t , S c e n e s and S t u d i e s , p. 76. 21. / A l f r e d W a d d i n g t o n / , J u d i c i a l M u r d e r , / V i c t o r i a , 1 8 6 0 / , p . l . 22. T.L. Wood t o A c t i n g C o l o n i a l S e c r e t a r y , 24 November 1864, CC, f i l e 54. 2 3 . The B r i t i s h C o l o n i s t , 3 J u l y 1 8 6 3 . 24. D o u g l a s t o N e w c a s t l e , 18 O c t o b e r 1 8 5 9 , CO.60/5. 25. D o u g l a s t o M e r i v a l e , 29 O c t o b e r 1 8 5 8 , V a n c o u v e r I s l a n d , G o v e r n o r , C o r r e s p o n d e n c e O u t w a r d ; D o u g l a s t o L y t t o n , 19 F e b r u a r y 1859, CO. 60/4. 26. L y t t o n t o D o u g l a s , 11 A p r i l 1 8 5 9 , CO. 3 0 5 / l O Y - ^ ^ 27. L y t t o n t o D o u g l a s , 20 May: 1 8 5 9 , G r e a t B r i t a i n , C o l o n i a l O f f i c e , D e s p a t c h e s t o B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a ; a l s o i n B.C. P a p e r s , p . 1 8 . 28. T h e r e w o u l d a p p e a r t o b e some d i s c r e p a n c y b e t w e e n D o u g l a s ' s c l a i m t h a t he h a d c o n t i n u e d t h e p r a c t i c e o f p u r c h a s i n g I n d i a n l a n d u n t i l 1859 ( D o u g l a s t o N e w c a s t l e , 25 M a r c h 1 8 6 1 , CO.305/17; a l s o i n B.C. P a p e r s , p.19.) and t h e f a c t t h a t t h e l a s t o f t h e t r e a t i e s was made a t Nanaimo i n 1854. H i s r e f e r e n c e t o 1 8 5 9 , h o w e v e r , p r o b a b l y r e l a t e s t o a l a n d p u r c h a s e made b y W i l l i a m B a n f i e l d , a g o v e r n m e n t I n d i a n a g e n t , f r o m t h e I n d i a n s o f B a r c l a y S o u n d . See d e e d o f l a n d p u r c h a s e , 6 J u l y 1 8 5 9 , H u d s o n ' s Bay Company, R e g i s t e r o f L a n d . 29. D o u g l a s t o L y t t o n , 14 M a r c h 1 8 5 9 , CO.60/4; a l s o i n B . C . P a p e r s , p . 1 7 . 370 N o t e s , C h a p t e r V I I ( C o n t . ) 30. L y t t o n t o D o u g l a s , 24 A u g u s t 185 8, G r e a t B r i t a i n , C o l o n i a l O f f i c e , D e s p a t c h e s t o B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a ; a l s o i n G r e a t B r i t a i n , P a r l i a m e n t , P a p e r s R e l a t i v e t o t h e A f f a i r s o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , p a r t I , cmd. 2 476, p . 4 7 . 31. D o u g l a s t o T o l m i e , 6 S e p t e m b e r 1 856, F o r t V i c t o r i a , C o r -r e s p o n d e n c e O u t w a r d , 1 8 5 0 - 1 8 5 8 , L e t t e r s S i g n e d by James D o u g l a s , (Unbound L e t t e r s ) , MSS, PABC. 32. D o u g l a s t o L y t t o n , 25 May 1 8 5 9 , CO.315/10; The B r i t i s h C o l o n i s t , 4 J u l y 1 859. 33. L o c . c i t . 34. The B r i t i s h C o l o n i s t , 30 J u n e a n d 5 J u l y 1 860; V a n c o u v e r I s l a n d , House o f A s s e m b l y , M i n u t e s , 28 J u n e a n d 3 J u l y 1860. 35. P e t i t i o n o f House o f A s s e m b l y t o N e w c a s t l e , e n c l o s u r e i n D o u g l a s t o N e w c a s t l e , 25 M a r c h 1 8 6 1 , CO.305/17. 36. T r e a s u r y t o S i r F r e d e r i c k R o g e r s , 25 S e p t e m b e r 1 8 6 1 , CO.305/18. 37. N e w c a s t l e t o D o u g l a s , 19 O c t o b e r 1 8 6 1 , G r e a t B r i t a i n , C o l o n i a l O f f i c e , D e s p a t c h e s t o V a n c o u v e r I s l a n d ; a l s o i n B.C. P a p e r s , p. 20. 38. L o c . c i t . T h i s s u g g e s t i o n was made i n s p i t e o f t h e f a c t t h a t t h e E m m i g r a t i o n O f f i c e h a d p o i n t e d o u t t o t h e C o l o n i a l O f f i c e t h a t w i t h o u t a n I m p e r i a l g u a r a n t e e a l o a n c o u l d o n l y b e r a i s e d on " d i s a d v a n t a g e o u s t e r m s " . F.W. M u r d o c k t o R o g e r s , 12 J u n e 1 8 6 1 , CO.315/18. 39. W i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f T r e a t y n o . 8, i n i t i a l l y made b y t h e F e d e r a l G o v e r n m e n t i n 1 8 9 9 , and e x t e n d e d i n 19 00 t o i n c l u d e t h e B e a v e r s , a n d i n 1910 t o i n c l u d e t h e S l a v e s , b o t h g r o u p s o c c u p y i n g t h e n o r t h e a s t e r n c o r n e r o f t h e P r o v i n c e . C a n a d a , I n d i a n T r e a t i e s a n d S u r r e n d e r s , O t t a w a , 1 9 1 2 , I I I , p p . 2 9 0 - 3 0 0 ; D u f f , The I n d i a n H i s t o r y o f B.C., p p . 7 0 - 7 1 . 40. D o u g l a s t o L y t t o n , 5 November 185 8, CO.60/1, a l s o i n B.C. P a p e r s , p . 1 4 . 41 . Y o u n g t o R i c h a r d C l e m e n t Moody, 9 J u n e 1 8 6 2 , B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , C o l o n i a l S e c r e t a r y , O u t w a r d C o r r e s p o n d e n c e , S e p t e m b e r 1860 -May 1 8 7 2 , L e t t e r s t o t h e L a n d s a n d Works D e p a r t m e n t , MSS, PABC; a l s o i n B.C. P a p e r s , p . 2 4 . 42. Cox t o Moody, 31 O c t o b e r 1 8 6 2 , CC, f i l e 377; a l s o i n B.C. P a p e r s , p . 2 6 . 43. S e e , f o r e x a m p l e , Moody t o Cox, 6 M a r c h 1 8 6 1 , Good t o Moody, 5 M a r c h 1 8 6 1 , P a r s o n s t o T u r n b a l l , 1 May 1 8 6 1 , B.C. P a p e r s , p p . 2 1 - 2 2 . 371 N o t e s , C h a p t e r V I I ( C o n t . ) 44. Y o u n g t o C h i e f C o m m i s s i o n e r o f L a n d s a n d W o r k s , 11 May 1 8 6 3 , C C , - f i l e 331. 45. D o u g l a s t o Moody, 27 A p r i l 1 8 6 3 , B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , C o l o n i a l S e c r e t a r y , O u t w a r d C o r r e s p o n d e n c e t o L a n d s and Works D e p a r t -ment; a l s o i n B.C. P a p e r s , p . 2 7 . 46. Moody t o D o u g l a s , 28 A p r i l 1 8 6 3 , CC, f i l e 9 3 5. 47. C i r c u l a r L e t t e r f r o m C o l o n i a l S e c r e t a r y , 5 A p r i l 1 8 6 1 , CC, f i l e 326. 48. Moody t o C r e a s e , 22 O c t o b e r 1 8 6 2 , B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , C o l o n i a l S e c r e t a r y , C o r r e s p o n d e n c e O u t w a r d , MSS, PABC, v o l . 4. 49. Y o u n g t o Cox, 6 O c t o b e r 1 8 6 2 , B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , C o l o n i a l S e c r e t a r y , C o r r e s p o n d e n c e O u t w a r d , v o l . 4. 50. P r o c l a m a t i o n o f James D o u g l a s , 4 J a n u a r y 1 8 6 0 , B r i t i s h C o lum-b i a , L i s t o f P r o c l a m a t i o n s 1 8 5 8 , 1 8 5 9 , 1 8 6 0 , 1 8 6 1 , 1 8 6 2 , 1 8 6 3 , a n d 1864, n.p., n . d . , u n p a g i n a t e d ; B a l l t o M c L e a n , 21 M a r c h 1 8 6 0 , B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , G o l d C o m m i s s i o n e r , L y t t o n , C o r r e s p o n d e n c e O u t w a r d . 5 1 . D o u g l a s t o N e w c a s t l e , 18 F e b r u a r y 1 8 6 0 , CO.60/7. 52. O ' R e i l l y t o Moody, 8 December 1 8 5 9 , and O ' R e i l l y t o Y o u n g , 24 December 1 8 5 9 , C C , f i l e 1277. 53. D o u g l a s t o Moody, 27 A p r i l 1 8 6 3 , B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , C o l o n i a l S e c r e t a r y , O u t w a r d C o r r e s p o n d e n c e t o L a n d s and Works D e p a r t -ment; a l s o i n B.C. P a p e r s , p . 2 7 . 54. Y o u n g t o C h i e f C o m m i s s i o n e r o f L a n d s a n d W o r k s , 2 6 J u n e 1 8 6 2 , CC, f i l e 328. 5 5 . Moody t o C o l o n i a l S e c r e t a r y , 27 May 1 8 6 2 , CC, f i l e 9 3 1 ; a l s o i n B.C. P a p e r s , p . 2 3 . 56. Y o u n g t o Moody, 18 J u n e and 2 J u l y 1 8 6 2 , B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , C o l o n i a l S e c r e t a r y , O u t w a r d C o r r e s p o n d e n c e t o L a n d s and Works D e p a r t m e n t ; a l s o i n B.C. P a p e r s , p p . 2 4 - 2 5 . 57. Memo by D o u g l a s o n Moody t o C o l o n i a l S e c r e t a r y , 27 May 1862, CC, f i l e 9 3 1 . 58. M i n u t e s o f t h e m e e t i n g o f t h e L e g i s l a t i v e C o u n c i l , 21 J a n u a r y 1 8 6 4 , B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , J o u r n a l s o f t h e L e g i s l a t i v e C o u n c i l o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , New W e s t m i n s t e r , 1 8 6 4 , p . 2 . 59. H e l m c k e n , R e m i n i s c e n c e s , I V , p . 9 3 ; C r i d g e , C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f James D o u g l a s ; s e e a l s o P r e v o s t t o B a y n e s , 31 A u g u s t 185 8, CO.60/2. 372 N o t e s , C h a p t e r V I I ( C o n t . ) 60. E v e n i n g E x p r e s s , 10 M a r c h 1864. 61. James L e n i h a n t o S u p e r i n t e n d e n t G e n e r a l o f I n d i a n A f f a i r s , 7 November 18 7 5 , C a n a d a , R e p o r t o f t h e D e p u t y S u p e r i n t e n d e n t o f I n d i a n A f f a i r s , 1 8 7 5 , / O t t a w a / , n . d . , p.54. 62. M a c f i e , V a n c o u v e r I s l a n d , p . 3 2 2 . 63. The B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a n , 21 May 1864. 64. Kennedy t o C a r d w e l l , 23 A u g u s t 186 4 , CO.305/23. 65. Seymour t o C a r d w e l l , 4 O c t o b e r 1864, CO.60/19. 66. Memo o f K e n n e d y on J o h n C o m p a n i o n t o K e n n e d y , J u l y 1 8 6 5 , CC, f i l e 3 4 3 . 67. K e n n e d y t o C a r d w e l l , 1 O c t o b e r 186 4 , CO.305/23. 68. L o c . c i t . 69. A d d r e s s o f Seymour t o t h e L e g i s l a t i v e C o u n c i l o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , 12 December 1 8 6 4 , B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , J o u r n a l s o f t h e L e g i s l a t i v e C o u n c i l , p p . 4 - 5 . 70. Seymour t o C a r d w e l l , 31 A u g u s t 186 4 , CO.60/19. 71 . E n c l o s u r e i n Seymour t o C a r d w e l l , 31 A u g u s t 186 4 , CO.60/19. 72. Seymour t o C a r d w e l l , 23 S e p t e m b e r 1 8 6 4 , CO.60/19. 73. Seymour t o C a r d w e l l , 7 J u n e 1 8 6 5 , CO.60/22. 74. E n c l o s u r e s i n Seymour t o C a r d w e l l , 31 A u g u s t 1864 and 7 J u n e 1 8 6 5 , CO.60/19 and 2 1 ; Seymour t o C a r n a r v o n , 19 F e b r u a r y 1867, CO.60/27. 75. E n c l o s u r e i n Seymour t o C a r d w e l l , 31 A u g u s t 186 4 , CO.60/19. 76. Seymour t o C a r n a r v o n , 19 F e b r u a r y 1 8 6 7 , CO.60/27. 77. N o r h a v e t h e two C o l o n i e s b e e n g i v e n much a t t e n t i o n by I m p e r i a l h i s t o r i a n s . I n The C a m b r i d g e H i s t o r y o f t h e B r i t i s h E m p i r e , f o r i n s t a n c e , t h e h i s t o r y o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a b e f o r e 1871 i s d e a l t w i t h i n t h r e e p a g e s . See J . H o l l a n d Rose e t . a l . ( e d s . ) , The C a m b r i d g e H i s t o r y o f t h e B r i t i s h E m p i r e , v o l . V I C a n a d a a n d N e w f o u n d l a n d , C a m b r i d g e , 1 9 3 0 , p p . 4 1 9 - 2 1 . 78. The B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a n , 21 December 1864. 79. L y t t o n t o D o u g l a s , 29 May 1 8 5 9 , G r e a t B r i t a i n , C o l o n i a l O f f i c e , D e s p a t c h e s t o B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a ; a l s o i n G r e a t B r i t a i n , P a p e r s R e l a t i v e t o B.C., p a r t I I , p . 9 2 . 373 N o t e s , C h a p t e r V I I ( C o n t . ) 80. L a V i o l e t t e , The S t r u g g l e f o r S u r v i v a l , p. 1 0 1 . U n f o r t u -n a t e l y L a V i o l e t t e d o e s n o t c i t e any o f t h e " s e v e r a l h i s t o r i c a l s t u d i e s " w h i c h he c l a i m s h a v e e s t a b l i s h e d t h i s p o i n t ; and he i n t r o d u c e s an e l e m e n t o f c o n f u s i o n by s a y i n g (on p.101) t h a t t h e l a n d p o l i c y o f t h e I m p e r i a l G o v e r n m e n t e f f e c t i v e l y r e s t r a i n e d l o c a l o f f i c i a l s b u t t h e n (on p.104) t h a t " t h e C o l o n i a l O f f i c e . . . was q u i t e p o w e r l e s s t o e x e r c i s e l o c a l c o n t r o l . " 8 1 . G r e a t B r i t a i n , H a n s a r d , 3 r d s e r i e s , C L I , P.1108. 82. M i n u t e b y P e e l o n D o u g l a s t o N e w c a s t l e , 28 F e b r u a r y 1 8 5 3 , CO.305/4. 83. D o u g l a s t o N e w c a s t l e , 14 S e p t e m b e r 1 8 6 3 , CO.60/16. 84. T r u t c h t o C h a r l o t t e T r u t c h , 23 J u n e 1850 , J o s e p h T r u t c h , P a p e r s , MSS and t y p e s c r i p t s , SC, f o l d e r A l . b . 85. T r u t c h , D i a r i e s , 1 8 5 9 - 1 8 6 4 , MS, PABC, p a s s i m . 86. T r u t c h t o M a c d o n a l d , 14 O c t o b e r 1 8 7 2 , S i r J o h n A. M a c d o n a l d , P a p e r s , MSS, PAC, v o l . 2 7 8. 87. T r u t c h t o S e c r e t a r y o f S t a t e f o r t h e P r o v i n c e s , 16 November 18 7 1 , B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , L i e u t e n a n t - G o v e r n o r , D e s p a t c h e s t o O t t a w a , 14 A u g u s t 1871 t o 26 J u l y 1 8 7 5 , MSS, PABC. 88. D o u g l a s t o C o l o n e l H a w k i n s , 1 J u l y 1 8 6 1 , V a n c o u v e r I s l a n d , G o v e r n o r , C o r r e s p o n d e n c e O u t w a r d , P r i v a t e O f f i c i a l L e t t e r B ook. 89. B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , R e p o r t a n d J o u r n a l b y t h e H o n o r a b l e t h e C h i e f C o m m i s s i o n e r o f L a n d s a n d W o r k s , o f t h e P r o c e e d i n g s i n C o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e V i s i t o f H i s E x c e l l e n c y t h e L a t e G o v e r n o r Seymour t o t h e N o r t h - W e s t C o a s t , i n H i s M a j e s t y ' s S h i p S p a r r o w h a w k , V i c t o r i a , 1 8 6 9 , p . 3 . 90. T r u t c h t o S e c r e t a r y o f S t a t e f o r t h e P r o v i n c e s , 2 6 S e p t e m b e r 1 8 7 1 , B.C. P a p e r s , p . 1 0 1 . 9 1 . L e t t e r f r o m " B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a n " , The V i c t o r i a G a z e t t e , 16 J a n u a r y 1860. A l e t t e r t o h i s b r o t h e r i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e one i n t h e G a z e t t e was w r i t t e n by T r u t c h u n d e r a nom-de-plume . See T r u t c h t o J o h n T r u t c h , 20 J a n u a r y 1 8 6 0 , T r u t c h , P a p e r s , f o l d e r A l . f . 92. N i n d t o C o l o n i a l S e c r e t a r y , 17 J u l y 1 8 6 5 , B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , C o l o n i a l S e c r e t a r y , C o r r e s p o n d e n c e r e . I n d i a n R e s e r v e s 1 8 6 1 -1 8 6 5 , 1 8 6 8 - 1 8 6 9 , 1 8 7 4 - 1 8 7 7 , MSS, PABC; a l s o i n B.C. P a p e r s , p . 2 9 . 374 N o t e s , C h a p t e r V I I ( C o n t . ) 93. T r u t c h t o C o l o n i a l S e c r e t a r y , 20 S e p t e m b e r 1 8 6 5 , CC, f i l e 9 4 2 ; a l s o i n B.C. P a p e r s , p . 3 0 . 94. Good t o T r u t c h , 26 S e p t e m b e r 1 8 6 5 , B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , C o l o n i a l S e c r e t a r y , O u t w a r d C o r r e s p o n d e n c e t o L a n d s a n d Works D e p a r t m e n t . Seymour was a b s e n t f r o m t h e C o l o n y o n a t r i p t o E n g l a n d f r o m S e p t e m b e r 1865 t o November 1866. 95. M o b e r l y t o T r u t c h , 22 December 1 8 6 5 , CC, f i l e 1 1 4 5 ; a l s o i n B.C. P a p e r s , p. 33. 96. T r u t c h t o C o l o n i a l S e c r e t a r y , 17 J a n u a r y 1866, CC, f i l e 944; a l s o i n B.C. P a p e r s , p p . 3 2 - 3 3 . 97. The G o v e r n m e n t G a z e t t e , 6 O c t o b e r 1866. T h e r e i s no i n d i c a -t i o n o f how f a r b a c k f r o m t h e r i v e r t h e o r i g i n a l r e s e r v e s w e n t , a l t h o u g h a t K a m l o o p s C o x ' s o r i g i n a l d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e r e s e r v e n o t e d t h a t i t e x t e n d e d b a c k t o t h e m o u n t a i n s . See Cox t o Moody 31 O c t o b e r 1 8 6 2 , CC, f i l e 377; a l s o i n B.C. P a p e r s , p . 2 6 . 98. M i n u t e s o f t h e M e e t i n g o f t h e L e g i s l a t i v e C o u n c i l , 11 F e b r u a r y 1 8 6 7 , B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , J o u r n a l s o f t h e L e g i s l a t i v e C o u n c i l , p. 16. 99. T r u t c h , R e p o r t on t h e L o w e r F r a s e r I n d i a n R e s e r v e s , 28 A u g u s t 1867,CC, f i l e 9 5 1 ; a l s o i n B . C . P a p e r s , p . 4 2 . 100. Young t o T r u t c h , 6 November 1867, C o l o n i a l S e c r e t a r y , O u t w a r d C o r r e s p o n d e n c e t o L a n d s and Works D e p a r t m e n t ; a l s o i n B.C. P a p e r s , p . 4 5 . 1 0 1 . B.W. P e a r s e t o T r u t c h , 21 O c t o b e r 1868, CC, f i l e 9 53; a l s o i n B.C. P a p e r s , p. 5 3 . 102. F o r a more d e t a i l e d d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e s e p o i n t s s e e F i s h e r , " J o s e p h T r u t c h a n d I n d i a n L a n d P o l i c y " , B.C. S t u d i e s , p p . 1 2 - 1 8 . 103. B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , A p p e n d i x t o t h e R e v i s e d S t a t u t e s o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , 1 8 7 1 , . . . , V i c t o r i a , / 1 8 7 1 / , p p . 9 3 - 9 4 . 104. R e p o r t o f t h e G o v e r n m e n t o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a o n t h e S u b j e c t o f I n d i a n R e s e r v e s , 17 A u g u s t 18 7 5 , B . C . P a p e r s , a p p e n d i x , p . 4 . 105. T r u t c h t o A c t i n g C o l o n i a l S e c r e t a r y , 22 O c t o b e r 1866, CC, f i l e 9 4 7. 106. B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , A p p e n d i x t o R e v i s e d S t a t u t e s , p . 8 7 . 107. Brew t o M c C o l l , 6 A p r i l 1 8 6 4 , CC, f i l e 1 0 3 0 ; a l s o i n B.C. P a p e r s , p . 4 3 . 375 N o t e s , C h a p t e r V I I ( C o n t . ) 108. T r u t c h t o O ' R e i l l y , 5 A u g u s t 1 8 6 8 , CC, f i l e 1 2 8 9 ; a l s o i n B.C. P a p e r s , p . 5 0 . 109. D o u g l a s t o P o w e l l , 14 O c t o b e r 1 8 7 4 , S i r James D o u g l a s , C o r r e s p o n d e n c e O u t w a r d , 1 8 7 4 , MS, PABC. D o u g l a s a d d e d t h a t " T h i s l e t t e r may b e r e g a r d e d a n d t r e a t e d a s a n o f f i c i a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n . " 110. See L a V i o l e t t e , The S t r u g g l e f o r S u r v i v a l , p. 16. 1 1 1 . The B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a n , 2 4 O c t o b e r 1866. 112. The B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a n , 2 December 1865 113. The B r i t i s h C o l o n i s t , 21 M a r c h 1863. 114. The B r i t i s h C o l o n i s t , 8 M a r c h 1 8 6 1 . 115. The B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a n , 28 J u n e 1 8 6 2 . 116. The B r i t i s h C o l o n i s t , 19 May 1869. 117. R e s o l u t i o n by t h e H o n o r a b l e Mr. R.T. S m i t h , 3 May 1864, B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , J o u r n a l s o f t h e L e g i s l a t i v e C o u n c i l , p . 4 1 . 118. T r u t c h t o Y o u n g , 19 November 186 7, B.C. P a p e r s , p.46. 119. P e t i t i o n f r o m t h e l o w e r F r a s e r C h i e f s , e n c l o s u r e i n F r . P. D u r i e u t o Seymour, 6 December 1 8 6 8 , CC, f i l e 5 0 3 . 120. B a y n e s t o D o u g l a s , 4 S e p t e m b e r 1 8 6 0 , G r e a t B r i t a i n A d m i r a l t y C o r r e s p o n d e n c e ; R i c h a r d s t o B a y n e s , 21 A u g u s t 1859, CC, f i l e 1 2 1 2 a . 1 2 1 . E v e n i n g E x p r e s s , 11 O c t o b e r 1864. T h i s a c t i o n was a u t h o r i z e d b y R e a r - A d m i r a l J . Denman and a p p r o v e d by G o v e r n o r K e n n e d y . See K ennedy t o C a r d w e l l , 14 O c t o b e r 1864, and e n c l o s u r e s , CO.305/23. 122 . The B r i t i s h C o l o n i s t , 17 O c t o b e r 1864. 1 2 3 . B a x t e r t o h i s b r o t h e r , 10 J u n e 1 8 6 4 , S u t c l i f f e B a x t e r , C o r r e s p o n d e n c e O u t w a r d , MS, PABC. 124. Seymour t o C a r d w e l l , 9 S e p t e m b e r 1 8 6 4 , CO.60/19. 125. B e g b i e t o Seymour, 30 S e p t e m b e r 1864, CC, f i l e 1 4 2g. 126. Seymour t o C a r d w e l l , 8 J u n e 1 8 6 5 , CO.60/22. 127. C a r d w e l l t o Seymour, 16 J u l y 1 8 6 4 , G r e a t B r i t a i n , C o l o n i a l O f f i c e , D e s p a t c h e s t o B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a . 376 N o t e s , . C h a p t e r V I I ( C o n t . ) 128. Seymour t o B u c k i n g h a m , 30 November 1 8 6 8 , CO.60/33. 129. G r a n v i l l e t o Seymour, 7 M a r c h 1 8 6 9 , G r e a t B r i t a i n , C o l o n i a l O f f i c e , D e s p a t c h e s t o B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a . 130. Seymour t o C a r d w e l l , 8 May 1 8 6 5 , CO.60/21. 13 1 . The B r i t i s h C o l o n i s t , 12 F e b r u a r y 1 869. 132. M u s g r a v e t o G r a n v i l l e , 29 J u n e 1 8 7 0 , CO.60/38. 133. T r u t c h , memorandum, e n c l o s u r e i n M u s g r a v e t o G r a n v i l l e , 29 J a n u a r y 1 8 7 0 , B.C. P a p e r s , a p p e n d i x , p p . 1 0 - 1 3 . 134. The B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a n , 9 J u l y 1 864. 135. P o w e l l t o A t t o r n e y - G e n e r a l , 12 J a n u a r y 1 8 7 4 , B.C. P a p e r s , p . 1 2 6 . 136. B a l l t o C r e a s e , 18 A u g u s t 1 8 6 8 , C r e a s e , P a p e r s . 137. P o w e l l t o T r u t c h , 21 J u n e 1 8 7 3 , B.C. P a p e r s , p . 1 1 6 . 138. T r u t c h , memorandum, e n c l o s u r e i n M u s g r a v e t o G r a n v i l l e , 29 J a n u a r y 1 8 7 0 , B.C. P a p e r s , a p p e n d i x , p . 1 1 . 139. D o u g l a s t o N e w c a s t l e , 25 M a r c h 1 8 6 1 , CO.305/17. 140. T r u t c h t o S e c r e t a r y o f S t a t e f o r t h e P r o v i n c e s , 26 S e p t e m b e r 1 8 7 1 , B.C. P a p e r s , p. 100. 1 4 1 . P o w e l l t o P r o v i n c i a l S e c r e t a r y , 4 F e b r u a r y 1 8 7 3 , B.C. P a p e r s , p . 1 1 2 . 142. J o h n A s h t o P o w e l l , 5 F e b r u a r y 1 8 7 3 , B.C. P a p e r s , p . 1 1 2 . 143. T r u t c h t o S e c r e t a r y o f S t a t e f o r t h e P r o v i n c e s , 2 6 S e p t e m b e r 1 8 7 1 , B.C. P a p e r s , p p . 9 9 - 1 0 1 . 144. L o c . c i t . 145. Seymour t o C a r d w e l l , 23 S e p t e m b e r 1864, CO.60/19; The B i s h o p o f C o l u m b i a , A T o u r o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , p . 2 3 . 146. D u f f , The U p p e r S t a l o I n d i a n s , p. 8 1 . 147. B e r k h o f e r , S a l v a t i o n a n d t h e S a v a g e , p . x . NOTES CHAPTER V I I I The C o n s o l i d a t i o n o f S e t t l e m e n t : t h e 1 8 7 0 ' s a n d 188 0 ' s 1. A r c h i b a l d Dodds t o A t t o r n e y G e n e r a l , 11 J u n e 1 8 7 4 , B.C. P a p e r s , p . 1 3 3 . 2. T r u t c h t o M a c D o n a l d , 16 J u l y 1 8 7 2 , M a c D o n a l d P a p e r s , v o l . 278; I.W. P o w e l l t o S u p e r i n t e n d e n t G e n e r a l o f I n d i a n A f f a i r s , 4 F e b r u a r y 1 8 7 5 , C a n a d a , P a r l i a m e n t , " A n n u a l R e p o r t o f t h e D e p a r t m e n t o f t h e I n t e r i o r f o r t h e Y e a r E n d e d 3 0 t h J u n e 1 8 7 4 , S e s s i o n a l P a p e r s , n o . 8 , O t t a w a , 1 8 7 5 , p. 64; P e t i t i o n o f t h e C h i e f s o f D o u g l a s p o r t a g e , o f t h e l o w e r F r a s e r , and o t h e r t r i b e s o f t h e m a i n l a n d t o B u t e I n l e t , 14 J u l y 1 8 7 4 , I A B S , v o l . 3 6 1 2 , f i l e 3 7 79; a l s o i n B.C. P a p e r s , p . 1 37. 3. The f i r s t o f t h e numbered t r e a t i e s was s i g n e d a t L o w e r F o r t G a r r y on 3 A u g u s t 1 8 7 1 . See P e t e r A. Cumming and N e i l H. M i c k e n b e r g ( e d s . ) , N a t i v e R i g h t s i n C a n a d a , T o r o n t o , 1 9 7 2 , p p . l 2 1 f f . F o r some a c c o u n t o f t h e " n e g o t i a t i o n s " t h a t p r e c e d e d t h e s i g n i n g o f some o f t h e s u b s e q u e n t t r e a t i e s s e e , A l e x a n d e r M o r r i s , The T r e a t i e s o f C a n a d a w i t h t h e I n d i a n s o f M a n i t o b a a n d N o r t h - W e s t T e r r i t o r i e s I n c l u d i n g t h e N e g o t i a t i o n s o n w h i c h t h e y w e r e B a s e d , a nd o t h e r I n f o r m a t i o n R e l a t i n g T h e r e t o , T o r o n t o , 1 8 8 0 , p a s s i m . 4. T h i s p o l i c y h a d n o t , h o w e v e r , b e e n f o l l o w e d c o n s i s t e n t l y i n t h e a r e a s t h a t became t h e D o m i n i o n o f C a n a d a i n 1 8 6 7 . The n u m b e r e d t r e a t i e s o n t h e p r a i r i e s w e r e b a s e d on t h e R o b i n s o n - H u r o n a n d R o b i n s o n - S u p e r i o r T r e a t i e s o f U p p e r C a n a d a s i g n e d i n 1850. (See Cumming and M i c k e n b e r g , N a t i v e R i g h t s i n C a n a d a , p . 1 2 4 ) . B u t I n d i a n t i t l e t o p a r t s o f U p p e r C a n a d a and a l l o f L o w e r C a n a d a a n d t h e M a r i t i m e - C o l o n i e s h a d n o t b e e n e x t i n g u i s h e d by t r e a t y . 5. B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , L e g i s l a t i v e C o u n c i l , D e b a t e on t h e S u b j e c t o f C o n f e d e r a t i o n , R e p r i n t e d f r o m t h e G o v e r n m e n t G a z e t t e E x t r a o r d i n a r y o f M a r c h , 1 8 7 0 , V i c t o r i a , / 1 8 7 0 / , p p . 1 4 6 - 4 7 . The mover o f t h e s e c o n d m o t i o n , J o h n R o b s o n , was p a r t i c u l a r l y c o n c e r n e d t o s e e t h a t t h e C a n a d i a n s y s t e m o f a p p o i n t i n g I n d i a n a g e n t s t o c o n s i d e r I n d i a n i n t e r e s t s s h o u l d be e x t e n d e d t o B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a . By d o i n g t h i s , s a i d R o b s o n , "We s h o u l d s e t t h e I n d i a n m i n d a t r e s t a n d l e t them s e e t h a t c o n f e d e r a -t i o n w i l l be a g r e a t e r b o o n t o them t h a n t o t h e w h i t e p o p u l a -t i o n . " 6. I b i d . , p p . 1 5 7 - 5 9 . 377 378 N o t e s , C h a p t e r V I I I ( C o n t . ) 7. /Another s t u d e n t o f t h e s u b j e c t h a s come t o t h e . same c o n -c l u s i o n on t h e b a s i s o f t h e s i m i l a r i t y b e t w e e n C l a u s e t h i r t e e n a n d T r u t c h ' s memorandum o f 1 8 7 0 . See C a i l , " D i s p o s a l o f Crown L a n d s i n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a " , p . 3 2 7 . 8. B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , B r i t i s h N o r t h A m e r i c a A c t , 1 8 6 7 , Terms o f U n i o n w i t h C a n a d a , R u l e s a n d O r d e r s o f t h e L e g i s l a t i v e A s s e m b l y . . . , V i c t o r i a , 1 8 8 1 , p . 6 6 . 9. Memo o f D a v i d L a i r d , 2 November 187 4 , B.C. P a p e r s , p . 1 5 2 . 10. T r u t c h t o M a c D o n a l d , 14 O c t o b e r 1 8 7 4 , M a c D o n a l d , P a p e r s , v o l . 278. 1 1 . J o h n A s h , P r o v i n c i a l S e c r e t a r y , t o James L e n i h a n , 12 O c t o b e r 1 8 7 4 , C a n a d a , D e p a r t m e n t o f . I n d i a n A f f a i r s , B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a E a r l y C o r r e s p o n d e n c e , 1 8 7 3 - 1 8 7 6 , R e c o r d G r o u p 1 0 , v o l . 1 0 0 1 , MSS, PABC; a l s o i n B.C. P a p e r s , p . 1 4 8 ; s e e a l s o L o r d D u f f e r i n t o C a r n a r v o n , 4 December 1874, G r e a t B r i t a i n , C o l o n i a l O f f i c e , O r i g i n a l C o r r e s p o n d e n c e , C a n a d a , CO.42/730, m i c r o -f i l m , PAC. 12. B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , J o u r n a l s o f t h e L e g i s l a t i v e A s s e m b l y o f t h e P r o v i n c e o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a . ; '. , V i c t o r i a , 1 8 7 2 , p. 6 5 , and 1 8 7 5 , p p . 4 4 - 4 5 . 13. The V i c t o r i a D a i l y S t a n d a r d , 21 A p r i l 1 875. 14. S p r o a t t o S u p e r i n t e n d e n t G e n e r a l , 2 6 J u l y 1 8 7 9 , I A B S , v o l . 3 6 6 9 , f i l e 1 5,136. 15. S p r o a t t o S u p e r i n t e n d e n t G e n e r a l , 10 November 1 8 7 9 , I A B S , v o l . 3 6 6 9 , f i l e 1 0 , 6 9 1 . 16. The V i c t o r i a D a i l y S t a n d a r d , 26 November 1 8 7 8 ; De Cosmos t o M a c D o n a l d , . 29 S e p t e m b e r 1 8 7 9 , M a c D o n a l d , P a p e r s , v o l . 2 9 3 . 17. A.C. A n d e r s o n , W i l l i a m D u n c a n , R o d e r i c k F i n l a y s o n , W i l l i a m J . M a c D o n a l d , J.W. McKay, A r c h i b a l d M c K i n l a y , W.F. T o l m i e , C h a r l e s V e r n o n , C a p t a i n James P r e v o s t t o G e o r g e A. Walkem, 25 S e p t e m b e r 1 8 7 9 , I A B S , v o l . 3 6 6 9 , f i l e 1 0 , 6 9 1 . 18. P o w e l l t o S u p e r i n t e n d e n t G e n e r a l , 28 S e p t e m b e r 1 8 7 9 , I A B S , v o l . 3 6 6 9 , f i l e 1 0 , 6 9 1 . 19. P h i l l i p V a n k o u g h n e t , D e p u t y S u p e r i n t e n d e n t o f I n d i a n A f f a i r s t o M a e d o n a l d , 22 S e p t e m b e r 1 8 7 8 , I A B S , v o l . 3 6 6 9 , f i l e 1 0 , 6 9 1 . 20. S p r o a t t o S u p e r i n t e n d e n t G e n e r a l , 5 and 10 S e p t e m b e r 1 8 7 9 , I A B S , v o l . 3 6 6 9 , f i l e 1 0 , 6 9 1 . 2 1 . E n c l o s u r e i n S p r o a t t o S u p e r i n t e n d e n t G e n e r a l , 18 O c t o b e r 1879, I A B S , v o l . 3 6 6 9 , f i l e 1 0 , 6 9 1 . 379 N o t e s , C h a p t e r V I I I ( C o n t . ) 22. T h i s d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n " d o m i n a n c e " and " p a t e r n a l i s m " i s made by M a son, P a t t e r n s o f D o m i n a n c e , p . 8 3 . 23. The V i c t o r i a D a i l y S t a n d a r d , 26 November 1878. 24. M a e d o n a l d t o T r u t c h , 30 O c t o b e r 1 8 7 2 , J o s e p h T r u t c h , C o r -r e s p o n d e n c e w i t h S i r J.A. M a e d o n a l d , 1 8 7 1 - 1 8 9 1 , MSS, PABC. 25. D o u g l a s t o M a r t h a D o u g l a s , 28 S e p t e m b e r 1 8 7 2 , D o u g l a s , P r i v a t e P a p e r s . 26. S p r o a t t o M i n i s t e r o f t h e I n t e r i o r , 27 A u g u s t 1 8 7 7 , I A B S , v o l . 3 6 5 3 , f i l e 8702. 27. B o a s t o h i s p a r e n t s , 2 November 1 8 8 6 , i n R o h n e r ( e d . ) , E t h n o g r a p h y o f B o a s , p . 5 1 . 28. S p r o a t t o E.A. M e r e d i t h , D e p u t y M i n i s t e r o f t h e I n t e r i o r , 9 A p r i l 1 8 7 7 , I A B S , v o l . 3 6 4 1 , f i l e 7 567. 29. L e n i h a n t o M a r q u e s s o f L o r n e , 24 J u n e 1 8 8 2 , I A B S , v o l . 7 7 0 1 , f i l e 17,514 ( 1 ) . 30. S p r o a t t o M i n i s t e r o f t h e I n t e r i o r , 27 A u g u s t 1 8 7 7 , I A B S , v o l . 3 653, f i l e 8 702; S p r o a t t o S u p e r i n t e n d e n t G e n e r a l , .30 O c t o b e r 1 8 7 7 , I A B S , v o l . 3 6 1 2 , f i l e 3756 ( 2 2 ) . 31 . P o w e l l t o M a e d o n a l d , 28 J a n u a r y 1 8 8 0 , M a e d o n a l d , P a p e r s , v o l . 364. 32. E l l i o t t t o S p r o a t , 27 S e p t e m b e r 1 8 7 7 , I A B S , v o l . 3 6 5 1 , f i l e 8 5 40. 33. S p r o a t t o V a n k o u g h n e t , 27 November 1 8 7 8 , I A B S , v o l . 3 6 7 0 , f i l e 1 0,776. 34. T r u t c h t o M a e d o n a l d , 14 O c t o b e r 1 8 7 2 , M a e d o n a l d , P a p e r s , v o l . 2 7 8. 35. P o w e l l t o M i n i s t e r o f I n d i a n A f f a i r s , 27 J u l y 1 8 7 4 , CO.42/730. 36. T r u t c h t o L a i r d , 30 J a n u a r y 1 8 7 4 , P e t e r O ' R e i l l y , P a p e r s , MS, PABC. 37. L a i r d t o T r u t c h , 8 J u l y 1 8 7 4 , O ' R e i l l y , P a p e r s . I t i s a l s o w o r t h n o t i n g t h a t t h e B o a r d o f Management was o r i g i n a l l y s u g g e s t e d by M a e d o n a l d , who f r e q u e n t l y c o r r e s p o n d e d w i t h T r u t c h . B u t by 1874 t h e L i b e r a l s w e r e i n o f f i c e i n O t t a w a and t h e c h a n g e i n G o v e r n m e n t p a r t l y a c c o u n t s f o r t h e c h a n g e i n a t t i t u d e t o w a r d s t h e management o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a ' s I n d i a n p o l i c y . 380 N o t e s , C h a p t e r V I I I (Cont.) 38. R e p o r t o f t h e Government o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a on t h e s u b j e c t o f I n d i a n r e s e r v e s , 17 A u g u s t 1878, B.C. P a p e r s , a p p e n d i x , p. 9 . 39. P o w e l l t o B e a v e n , 31 J u l y 1874, B.C. P a p e r s , p.134. 40. S p r o a t t o V a n k o u g h n e t , 9 A p r i l 1879, IABS, v o l . 3684, f i l e 12,836. 41. See B.C. P a p e r s , pp.134-35. 42. B e a v e n t o P o w e l l , 10 A u g u s t .1875, B.C. P a p e r s , p.135. 43. P o w e l l t o S u p e r i n t e n d e n t G e n e r a l , 4 F e b r u a r y 1875, Canada, P a r l i a m e n t , " R e p o r t o f t h e D e p a r t m e n t o f t h e I n t e r i o r : 1974", p. 64. 44. P o w e l l t o S u p e r i n t e n d e n t G e n e r a l , 1 O c t o b e r 1875, Canada, R e p o r t o f I n d i a n A f f a i r s 1875, p.44. 45. L e n i h a n t o S u p e r i n t e n d e n t G e n e r a l , 7 November 1875, Canada, R e p o r t o f I n d i a n A f f a i r s 1875, p.53. 46. P e t i t i o n o f C h i e f s o f D o u g l a s p o r t a g e , o f l o w e r F r a s e r , and o t h e r t r i b e s o f t h e m a i n l a n d t o B u t e I n l e t , 14 J u l y 1874, IABS, v o l . 3 6 1 2 , f i l e 3779; a l s o i n B.C. P a p e r s , p.137. 47. Nanaimo C h i e f s t o T r u t c h , May 1872, B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , P r o v i n c i a l S e c r e t a r y , C o r r e s p o n d e n c e , MS, PABC. .48. A l e x i s t o L e n i h a n , 15 May 1875, A s h t o L e n i h a n , 26 May 1875, Canada, D e p a r t m e n t o f I n d i a n A f f a i r s , B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , E a r l y C o r r e s p o n d e n c e , v o l . 1001. 49. T r u t c h t o S e c r e t a r y o f S t a t e f o r t h e P r o v i n c e s , 24 J u n e 1872, B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , L i e u t e n a n t - G o v e r n o r , D e s p a t c h e s t o O t t a w a . 50. F a t h e r C . J . G r a n d i d i e r t o t h e e d i t o r o f t h e V i c t o r i a S t a n d a r d , 28 A u g u s t 1874, B.C. P a p e r s , pp.145-46. 51. Memo o f L a i r d , 2 November 1874, B.C. P a p e r s , p.153. 52. P o w e l l t o M i n i s t e r o f I n d i a n A f f a i r s , 27 J u l y 1874, CO.42/730. 53. P o w e l l t o S u p e r i n t e n d e n t G e n e r a l o f I n d i a n A f f a i r s , 4 F e b r u a r y 2 1875, Canada, " R e p o r t o f t h e D e p a r t m e n t o f t h e I n t e r i o r 1874", pp.63-64. 54. R e s e r v e C o m m i s s i o n e r s t o S u p e r i n t e n d e n t G e n e r a l , 2 3 F e b r u a r y 1877, Canada, I n d i a n R e s e r v e C o m m i s s i o n , C o r r e s p o n d e n c e , Memorandums e t c . , 1877-1878, MSS, PABC. 381 N o t e s , C h a p t e r V I I I ( C o n t . ) 55. Memo o f L a i r d , 2 November 187 4 , B.C. P a p e r s , p . 1 5 3 . 56. D u f f e r i n t o C a r n a r v o n , 4 December 1 8 7 4 , CO.42/730. 57. S p e e c h o f D u f f e r i n a t G o v e r n m e n t H o u s e , V i c t o r i a , 20 S e p t e m b e r 1 8 7 6 , i n M i l t o n ( e d . ) , S p e e c h e s o f D u f f e r i n , p p . 2 0 9 - 2 1 1 . 58. The B r i t i s h C o l o n i s t , 27 A p r i l 1 8 7 5 . 59. The B r i t i s h C o l o n i s t , 24 December 1 8 7 5 . 60. V i c t o r i a D a i l y S t a n d a r d , 21 A p r i l 1 8 7 5 . 61. R e p o r t o f t h e Go v e r n m e n t o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a o n I n d i a n R e s e r v e s , 17 A u g u s t 1 8 7 5 , B.C. P a p e r s , a p p e n d i x , p p . 1 - 9 ; S p r o a t t o V a n k o u g h n e t , 9 A p r i l 1 8 7 9 , I A B S , v o l . 3 6 8 4 , f i l e 1 2 , 8 3 6. 62. The B r i t i s h C o l o n i s t , 9 May 1 875. 63. Memo o f L a i r d , 2 November 1 8 7 4 , B.C. P a p e r s , p p . 15 1 - 5 5 . 64. B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , J o u r n a l s o f t h e L e g i s l a t i v e A s s e m b l y 1 8 7 5, p.44. 65. See T h e . B r i t i s h C o l o n i s t , 21 a n d 2 8 A p r i l a n d 9 May 1 8 7 5 ; P o w e l l t o L a i r d , 26 A p r i l 1 8 7 5 , I A B S , v o l . 3 6 2 1 , f i l e 4 825. 66. S p r o a t t o L a i r d , 30 S e p t e m b e r 1876, I A B S , v o l . 3 6 3 7 , f i l e 7 1 3 1 . 67. D a v i d M i l l s t o S p r o a t , 3 A u g u s t 1 8 7 7 , C a n a d a , I n d i a n R e s e r v e C o m m i s s i o n C o r r e s p o n d e n c e . 68. S h a n k e l , "The D e v e l o p m e n t o f I n d i a n P o l i c y i n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a " , p p . 1 2 4 - 2 5 . 69. A n d e r s o n t o M i n i s t e r o f t h e I n t e r i o r , 17 A u g u s t 1 8 7 6 , I A B S , v o l . 3 6 3 3 , f i l e 6425 ( 1 ) . 70. M e r e d i t h t o P o w e l l , 18 O c t o b e r 1 8 7 6 , I s r a e l Wood P o w e l l , P a p e r s , MSS, PABC. 71. Walkem t o M a c d o n a l d , 1 M a r c h 1 8 7 9 , M a c d o n a l d , P a p e r s , v o l . 2 9 3 . 72. S p r o a t t o M i n i s t e r o f t h e I n t e r i o r , 22 M a r c h 1 8 7 7 , I A B S , v o l . 3 6 4 5 , f i l e 7937. 73. A n d e r s o n t o M i n i s t e r o f t h e I n t e r i o r , 29 S e p t e m b e r 1 8 7 6 , I A B S , v o l . 3 6 3 3 , f i l e 6425 ( 1 ) . 74. S p r o a t t o L a i r d , 30 S e p t e m b e r a n d 27 November 1 8 7 6 , I A B S , v o l , 3 6 3 7 , f i l e 7131 and. v o l . 3 6 1 1 , f i l e 3756 ( 1 ) . 382 N o t e s , C h a p t e r V I I I ( C o n t . ) 75. M c K i n l a y , D i a r y , 9 a n d 10 November 1 8 7 6 , A r c h i b a l d M c K i n l a y , D i a r y , 1 8 7 6 - 1 8 7 7 , MS, PABC. 76. M c K i n l a y , D i a r y , 20 November 1876. 77. C a n a d a , R e p o r t o f I n d i a n A f f a i r s 1 8 7 6 , p . x v i . 78. E l l i o t t t o M i n i s t e r o f t h e I n t e r i o r , 27 J a n u a r y 1 8 7 7 , I A B S , v o l . 3 6 4 1 , f i l e 7567. 79. S p r o a t t o S u p e r i n t e n d e n t G e n e r a l , 13 O c t o b e r 1877, I A B S , v o l . 3 6 4 1 , f i l e 7567. 80. S p r o a t t o S u p e r i n t e n d e n t G e n e r a l , 30 J u n e 1 8 7 7 , I A B S , v o l . 3 6 5 0 , f i l e 8497. 81. S e e , f o r e x a m p l e , J o h n T a i t a n d J.A. M a r a t o I n d i a n Commis-s i o n e r s , 15 J u l y 1 8 7 7 , I A B S , v o l . 3 6 5 1 , f i l e 8540. 82. M c K i n l a y , D i a r y , 17 A u g u s t 1877. 83. S p r o a t t o S u p e r i n t e n d e n t G e n e r a l , 27 A u g u s t 1 8 7 7 , I A B S , v o l . 3 6 5 3 , f i l e 8 701. 84. A n d e r s o n t o M e r e d i t h , 21 J u l y 1 8 7 7, I A B S , v o l . 3 6 5 1 , f i l e 8540. 85. R e p o r t o f R e s e r v e C o m m i s s i o n , 16 J u l y 1 8 7 7 , B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , P r o v i n c i a l S e c r e t a r y , C o r r e s p o n d e n c e . 86. S p r o a t t o S u p e r i n t e n d e n t G e n e r a l , 27 A u g u s t 1 8 7 7 , I A B S , v o l . 3 6 5 3 , f i l e 8 7 0 1 . 87. S p r o a t a n d A n d e r s o n t o M i n i s t e r o f t h e I n t e r i o r , 13 J u l y 1 8 7 7 , C a n a d a , I n d i a n R e s e r v e C o m m i s s i o n , C o r r e s p o n d e n c e . 88. S p r o a t t o V a n k o u g h n e t , 26 November 1 8 7 9 , I A B S , v o l . 3 6 1 2 , f i l e 3756 ( 2 ) . 89. M i l l s t o S p r o a t , 3 A u g u s t 1 8 7 7 , C a n a d a , I n d i a n R e s e r v e C o m m i s s i o n , C o r r e s p o n d e n c e . 90. R e p o r t o f S p r o a t , 1 December 1 8 7 7 , I A B S , v o l . 3 6 1 2 , f i l e 3 7 5 6 ( 1 6 ) . 91 . S p r o a t t o S u p e r i n t e n d e n t G e n e r a l , 2 7 A u g u s t 1 8 7 7 , I A B S , v o l . 3 6 1 1 , f i l e 3 7 5 6 ( 1 2 ) . 92. See James T e i t , T h e / S h u s w a p , p p . 4 6 7 - 6 8 . 93. S p r o a t t o M i n i s t e r o f t h e I n t e r i o r , 16 J u l y 1 8 7 7 , I A B S , v o l . 3 6 5 1 , f i l e 8540. 383 N o t e s , C h a p t e r V I I I ( C o n t . ) 94. R e s e r v e C o m m i s s i o n , J o u r n a l , 23 A u g u s t 1877, C a n a d a , D e p a r t -ment o f I n d i a n A f f a i r s , J o u r n a l o f P r o c e e d i n g s o f t h e C o m m i s s i o n f o r t h e S e t t l e m e n t o f t h e I n d i a n R e s e r v e s i n t h e P r o v i n c e o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , R e c o r d G r o u p 10, v o l . 1 8 2 8 , MS, PAC. 95. S p r o a t t o S u p e r i n t e n d e n t G e n e r a l , 2 7 A u g u s t 1877, I A B S , v o l . 3 6 1 1 , f i l e 3 7 5 6 ( 1 2 ) . 96. S p r o a t t o S u p e r i n t e n d e n t G e n e r a l , 10 November 1879, I A B S , v o l . 3 6 6 9 , f i l e 1 0 , 6 9 1 . 97. S p r o a t t o S u p e r i n t e n d e n t G e n e r a l , 26 O c t o b e r 1 8 7 8 , I A B S , v o l . 3 6 1 2 , f i l e 3756 ( 1 ) ; S p r o a t t o M i l l s , 27 A u g u s t 1877, I A B S , v o l . 3 6 5 3 , f i l e 8 705. 98. N i n d t o C o l o n i a l S e c r e t a r y , , 17 J u l y 1 8 6 5 , B.C. P a p e r s , p. 29. S p r o a t , p e r h a p s a l i t t l e i n g e n u o u s l y , assumed t h a t N i n d ' s e a r l i e r d e s c r i p t i o n was a c c u r a t e a t t h e t i m e . 99. E n c l o s u r e i n S p r o a t t o S u p e r i n t e n d e n t G e n e r a l , 6 F e b r u a r y 1878, I A B S , v o l . 3 6 5 7 , f i l e 9 3 60. 100. S p r o a t t o S u p e r i n t e n d e n t G e n e r a l , 16 November 1 8 7 9 , I A B S , v o l . 3 703, f i l e 17,626 (2) . 1 0 1 . S p r o a t t o P r o v i n c i a l S e c r e t a r y , 22 A p r i l 1 8 7 8, B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , P r o v i n c i a l S e c r e t a r y , C o r r e s p o n d e n c e . 102. S p r o a t t o S u p e r i n t e n d e n t G e n e r a l , 26 O c t o b e r 1 8 7 8 , I A B S , v o l . 3 6 1 2 , f i l e 3 756. 103. R e p o r t o f S p r o a t , 1 December 1 8 7 7 , I A B S , v o l . 3 6 1 2 , f i l e 3756 (16) . 104. P e t i t i o n i n A.M. B r y a n t o C h i e f C o m m i s s i o n e r o f L a n d s a n d W o r k s , 29 S e p t e m b e r 1877, I A B S , v o l . 3668, f i l e 1 0 , 3 4 4 ( 2 ) . 105. P e t i t i o n o f W h i t f i e l d C h a s e , A l e x a n d e r M c B r y a n , D.G. M a c P e r s o n , and C.E. W i l l i a m s , 24 J a n u a r y 1878, B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , S e s s i o n a l P a p e r s 18 78, p . 4 5 1 . 106. S m i t h t o P o w e l l , 22 May 1 8 7 5 , C a n a d a , I n d i a n A f f a i r s , B r i t i s h " C o l u m b i a E a r l y C o r r e s p o n d e n c e . 107. L e t t e r o f D o d d s , e n c l o s u r e i n M o r l e y t o P r o v i n c i a l S e c r e t a r y , 23 May 1 8 7 7 , B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , P r o v i n c i a l S e c r e t a r y , C o r r e s -p o n d e n c e . 108. S p r o a t t o S u p e r i n t e n d e n t G e n e r a l , 3 O c t o b e r 1877, I A B S , v o l . 3 612, f i l e 3756 (2) . 109. S p r o a t t o V a n k o u g h n e t , 26 November 1 8 7 9 , I A B S , v o l . 3 6 1 2 , f i l e 3756 (2) . 3 8 4 Notes, Chapter VIII (Cont.) 110. Sproat to Superintendent General, 9 January 1878, IABS, vo l . 3657, f i l e 9193. 111. Sproat to Superintendent General, 30 October 1877, IABS, v o l . 3612, f i l e 3756(22). 112. Sproat to Superintendent General, 26 November 1878, IABS, v o l . 3670, f i l e 10,769. 113. The Inland Sentinel, 10 June 1880. 114. Sproat to Superintendent General, 13 October 1877, IABS, v o l . 3641, f i l e 7567. 115. Sproat to Superintendent General, 26 November 1878, IABS, v o l . 3670, f i l e 10,769. 116. Sproat to Meredith, 9 A p r i l 1877, IABS, v o l . 3641, f i l e 7567. 117. Edward Mohun to Chief Commissioner of Lands and Works, 23 June 1879, B r i t i s h Columbia, Lands Department, Correspondence, 1872-1890, MSS, PABC. 118. See B r i t i s h Columbia, Sessional Papers 1885, V i c t o r i a , n.d., pp. 392-402. 119. Sproat to Superintendent General, 1 May 1879, IABS, vol.3686, f i l e 13,253; Powell to Superintendent General, 5 November 1886, Canada, Report of Indian A f f a i r s 18 86, part 1, p.96. 120. Sproat to Superintendent General, 16 November 1879, IABS, v o l . 3703, f i l e 17,626(2). 121. Sproat to Vankoughnet, 9 A p r i l 1879, IABS, vol.3684, f i l e 12,836. 122. Pencil notes on Sproat- to- P r o v i n c i a l Secretary, 7 May 1878, B r i t i s h Columbia, P r o v i n c i a l Secretary, Correspondence. 123. Sproat to Vankoughnet, 9 A p r i l 1879, IABS, v o l . 3684, f i l e 12,836. 124. Sproat to Minister of In t e r i o r , 26 October 1876, IABS, v o l . 3633, f i l e 6425 (1) . 125. Sproat to Laird, 30 September 1876, IABS, vol.3637, f i l e 7131. 126. Canada, Parliament, O f f i c i a l Reports of the Debates of the House of Commons of the Dominion of Canada, 1880, v o l . IX, Ottawa, 1880, p.1633. 127. De Cosmos to Maedonald, 29 September 1879, Maedonald, Papers, v o l . 293. 385 N o t e s , C h a p t e r V I I I ( C o n t . ) 128. F e l l t o M a e d o n a l d , 25 J a n u a r y 1 8 8 0 , M a e d o n a l d , P a p e r s , v o l . 3 6 4 , 129. V a n k o u g h n e t t o T r u t c h , 11 F e b r u a r y 1 8 8 0 , I A B S , v o l . 3 7 1 0 , f i l e 17,514 ( 2 ) . 130. T r u t c h t o M a e d o n a l d , 6 November 1880 , M a e d o n a l d , P a p e r s , v o l . 279. 1 3 1 . T r u t c h t o M a e d o n a l d , 15 J a n u a r y 1 8 8 4 , M a e d o n a l d , P a p e r s , v o l . 280. 132.. T r u t c h t o M a e d o n a l d , 19 May 1 8 8 0 , I A B S , v o l . 3 7 1 1 , f i l e 19,581. 133. V a n k o u g h n e t t o Walkem, 22 J u l y 1880, B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , L a n d s D e p a r t m e n t , C o r r e s p o n d e n c e . 134. Good t o M u s g r a v e , 19 December 1870 , B.C. P a p e r s , p p . 8 6 - 8 7 . 135. See T r u t c h t o O ' R e i l l y , 5 A u g u s t 1 8 6 8 , B.C. P a p e r s , p . 5 0 . The g e n e r a l a d v i c e i n t h i s l e t t e r was t o a l l o c a t e t e n a c r e s p e r f a m i l y . 136. O ' R e i l l y t o C o l o n i a l S e c r e t a r y , 4 M a r c h 1 8 7 1 , CC, f i l e 1292; a l s o i n B.C. P a p e r s , p . 9 1 . 137. O ' R e i l l y t o C o l o n i a l S e c r e t a r y , 12 J a n u a r y 1 8 7 1 , CC, f i l e 1 2 9 2 ; a l s o i n B.C. P a p e r s , p . 8 8 ; c f . Good t o C o l o n i a l S e c r e t a r y , 3 F e b r u a r y 1 8 7 1 , B.C. P a p e r s , p p . 8 9 - 9 0 . 138. P o w e l l t o P r o v i n c i a l S e c r e t a r y , 3 S e p t e m b e r 1 8 7 7 , B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , P r o v i n c i a l S e c r e t a r y , C o r r e s p o n d e n c e . 139. B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , J o u r n a l s o f t h e L e g i s l a t i v e A s s e m b l y 1884, p. 3 1 . 140. S m i t h e t o O ' R e i l l y , 29 November 1 8 8 4 , B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , S e s s i o n a l P a p e r s 18 85, ( R e t u r n o f I n d i a n L a n d s ) , p . x v i . 1 4 1 . O ' R e i l l y t o S u p e r i n t e n d e n t G e n e r a l , 23 November 1 8 8 9 , and O ' R e i l l y t o C h i e f C o m m i s s i o n e r o f L a n d s and W o r k s , 12 November 1 8 8 9 , C a n a d a , I n d i a n R e s e r v e C o m m i s s i o n e r , O u t g o i n g C o r r e s -p o n d e n c e , 1 8 7 2 - 1 8 9 2 , R e c o r d G r o u p 1 0 , v o l . 1 2 7 4 , MSS, PAC. 142. O ' R e i l l y t o S u p e r i n t e n d e n t G e n e r a l , 5 December 1 8 8 8 , C a n a d a , I n d i a n R e s e r v e C o m m i s s i o n , O u t g o i n g C o r r e s p o n d e n c e . 1 4 3 . O ' R e i l l y t o S u p e r i n t e n d e n t G e n e r a l , 22 S e p t e m b e r 1 8 8 1 , C a n a d a , R e p o r t o f I n d i a n A f f a i r s 1 8 8 1 , p a r t 1, p . 1 8 1 . 144. M c K i n l a y t o T o l m i e , . 22 May 1 8 8 1 , A r c h i b a l d M c K i n l a y , C o r r e s -p o n d e n c e O u t w a r d , 1 8 7 1 - 1 8 8 5 , MSS, PABC. 145. B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , S e s s i o n a l P a p e r s , 1885, pp. 403-10. 386 Notes, Chapter VIII (Cont.) 146. Smithe to O'Reilly, 29 November 1884, B r i t i s h Columbia, Sessional Papers 1885, (Return of Indian Lands), p.xvi. 147. See table below. 148. Sproat to Superintendent General, 24 May 1879, IABS, v o l . 3692, f i l e 14,171; Sproat to Superintendent General, 3 December 1878, IABS, v o l . 3670, f i l e 10,831, Canada, Report of Indian A f f a i r s 1885, p.xvi. 149. Powell to Superintendent General, 2 November 1885, Canada, Report of Indian A f f a i r s 1885, part 1, p.117. 150. V i c t o r i a Daily Standard, 24 January 1880. 151. William Fernie to Powell, 30 June 1880, IABS, v o l . 3719, f i l e 22,673. Apparently t h i s development affected the Kootenay i n the late 1870's because Powell reported i n 1873 that they were s t i l l obtaining buffalo meat from the P r a i r i e s ; Powell to Minister of the I n t e r i o r , 3 November 1873, IABS, v o l . 3738, f i l e 20,013(1). 152. O'Reilly to Chief Commissioner of Lands and Works, 10 December 1884, Canada, Indian Reserve Commission, Outgoing Correspondence. 153. Powell to Superintendent General, 18 November 1886, IABS, vol., 3738, f i l e 28,013(1A); Colonel James Baker to Attorney General, 27 A p r i l 1887, Macdonald, Papers, v o l . 325. 154. Smithe to O'Reilly, 29 November 1884, B r i t i s h Columbia, Sessional Papers 1885, (Return of Indian Lands), p.xvi. 155. Herchmer to Thomas White, 5 July 1887, Macdonald, Papers, v o l . 325. 156. Arthur Fenwick to Powell, 15 March 1887, IABS, v o l . 3738, f i l e 28,013(IA). 157. Colonel S.B. Steele, Forty Years i n Canada Reminiscences of the Great North-West . . . , Toronto and London, 1918, pp. 250^51. 158. Loc. c i t . 159. F. ,.G. Vernon, Powell and O'Reilly to Isadore, 10 October 1887, Canada, Report of Indian A f f a i r s 1887, p.xcv. 160. B r i t i s h Columbia, Metlakatla Inquiry, 1884, Report of the Commissioners together with the Evidence, V i c t o r i a , 1885, p.xxvi; Report of Commissioners to Northwest Coast Indians, 30 November 1887, Port Simpson Indians to Members of the Land Commission, 8 October 1887, B r i t i s h Columbia, "Papers Relating 387 N o t e s , C h a p t e r V I I I ( C o n t . ) 160. C o n t . t o t h e C o m m i s s i o n A p p o i n t e d t o E n q u i r e i n t o t h e S t a t e a n d C o n d i t i o n o f t h e I n d i a n s o f t h e N o r t h w e s t C o a s t o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a " , S e s s i o n a l P a p e r s , V i c t o r i a , 1 8 8 8 , p p . 4 2 6 - 4 5 9 , 462 a n d p a s s i m ; G a r f e i l d , T s i m s h i a n C l a n and S o c i e t y , p. 176. 161. D a v i d L e a s k t o W i l l i a m S e b r i g h t G r e e n , 11 December 1886, F.W. C h e s s o n , P a p e r s , 1 8 6 9 - 1 9 0 5 , x e r o x c o p i e s , G l e n b o w H i s t o r i c a l L i b r a r y a nd A r c h i v e s , C a l g a r y . 162. R e p o r t o f C o m m i s s i o n e r s t o t h e N o r t h w e s t C o a s t I n d i a n s , 30 November 1 8 8 7 , B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , S e s s i o n a l P a p e r s 1888, p . 4 1 8 . 163. C o r n w a l l t o S u p e r i n t e n d e n t G e n e r a l , 8 December 1 8 8 7 , I A B S , v o l . 3776, f i l e 3 7 , 3 7 3 ( 2 ) . 164. R e p o r t o f t h e C o m m i s s i o n e r s t o t h e N o r t h w e s t C o a s t I n d i a n s , 30 November 1 8 8 7 , B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , S e s s i o n a l P a p e r s 1 8 8 8 , pp. 438 a n d 434. 165. I b i d . , p p . 439-40. 166. O ' R e i l l y t o S u p e r i n t e n d e n t G e n e r a l , 2 9 O c t o b e r 1 8 8 2 , C a n a d a , R e p o r t o f I n d i a n A f f a i r s 1 8 8 2 , p a r t 1, p . 1 0 9 . 167. S p r o a t t o W. B u c k i n g h a m , D e p u t y M i n i s t e r o f t h e i n t e r i o r , 6 November 187 8, I A B S , v o l . 3662, f i l e 9 7 5 6 ( 1 ) ; P o w e l l t o S u p e r i n t e n d e n t G e n e r a l , 21 S e p t e m b e r 1 8 8 1 , I A B S , v o l . 3766, f i l e 3 2 , 8 76. 168. R e p o r t o f t h e C o m m i s s i o n e r s t o t h e N o r t h w e s t C o a s t I n d i a n s , 30 November 1 8 8 7 , B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , S e s s i o n a l P a p e r s 1 8 8 8 , pp. 4 2 0 - 2 5 . 169. T r u t c h t o M a c d o n a l d , 6 J u l y 1 8 8 0 , I A B S , v o l . 3 7 0 1 , f i l e 17,514 ( 2 ) . 170. C a n a d a , R e p o r t o f I n d i a n A f f a i r s 1 8 8 1 , p . l x i . The s i x a g e n c i e s w e r e C o w i c h a n , W est C o a s t , K w a w k e w l t h , F r a s e r R i v e r , K a m l o o p s , and O k a n a g a n . I n 188 3 two more w e r e a d d e d : L i l l o o e t a n d N o r t h w e s t C o a s t . See D u f f , T n d i a n . H i s t o r y o f B.C., p . 6 3 . 1 7 1 . C a n a d a , R e p o r t o f I n d i a n A f f a i r s 1 8 8 1 , p . 1 6 0 . 172. C a n a d a , R e p o r t o f I n d i a n A f f a i r s 1 8 8 3 , p a r t 1, p.44. 1 7 3 . W.H. Lomas t o P o w e l l , 27 F e b r u a r y 1 8 8 4 , I A B S , v o l . 3 6 2 8 , ' f i l e 6244 (1) . 174. D u n can t o L a i r d , May 1 8 7 5 , CMSA, C.2/0. 388 N o t e s , C h a p t e r V I I I ( C o n t . ) 175. C a n a d a , Law S t a t u t e s , " / A n A c t F u r t h e r t o Amend 'The I n d i a n A c t , 1 8 8 0 ' " , 47 V i c t . Chap. 27 , S t a t u t e s o f C a n a d a , 1884. 176. E n c l o s u r e i n H. M o f f a t t t o S u p e r i n t e n d e n t G e n e r a l , 30 A u g u s t 1 8 8 9 , I A B S , v o l . 3 6 28, f i l e 6 2 4 4 ( 1 ) ; s e e a l s o L a V i o l e t t e , The S t r u g g l e f o r S u r v i v a l , pp. 5 9 - 6 3 . 177. E n c l o s u r e i n P o w e l l t o S u p e r i n t e n d e n t G e n e r a l , 26 F e b r u a r y 1 8 8 7 , I A B S , v o l . 3 6 28, f i l e 6 2 4 4 ( 1 ) . 178. P i d c o c k t o P o w e l l , 13 S e p t e m b e r 18 8 6 , I A B S , v o l . 3 6 28, f i l e 6 2 4 4 ( 1 ) . 179. See C o d e r e , F i g h t i n g w i t h P r o p e r t y , p . 8 6 f f . 180. B o a s t o h i s p a r e n t s , 7 O c t o b e r 1 8 8 6 , i n R o h n e r ( e d . ) , E t h n o g r a p h y of- B o a s , pp. 33-36. 18 1 . P e t i t i o n o f t h e I n d i a n s o f M a m a l i l a c a l a t o L i e u t e n a n t -G o v e r n o r , Hugh N e l s o n , 10 A u g u s t 1 8 8 9 , I A B S , v o l . 3 6 28, f i l e 6244 ( 1 ) . 182. L o c . c i t . 1 8 3 . K i t h r a h t l a ( K i t k a t l a ) I n d i a n s b e f o r e L i e u t e n a n t - G o v e r n o r , 3 A u g u s t 1 8 7 2 , O ' R e i l l y , P a p e r s . 184. W e e - t u c k - a h - y e t s ( f a t h e r o f K i t w a n c o o l J i m ) t o P r o v i n c i a l S e c r e t a r y e n c l o s u r e i n A.E. G r e e n t o P r o v i n c i a l S e c r e t a r y , 18 J u l y 1 8 8 8 , B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , P r o v i n c i a l S e c r e t a r y , C o r r e s -p o n d e n c e . 185. C l i p p i n g e n c l o s e d i n R e p o r t o f a C o m m i t t e e o f t h e E x e c u t i v e C o u n c i l , 18 O c t o b e r 1888, I A B S , v o l . 3802, f i l e 4 9 ,774. 186. Memo o f B e g b i e e n c l o s e d i n P o w e l l t o S e c r e t a r y o f S t a t e f o r t h e P r o v i n c e s , 8 M a r c h 1 8 7 3 , I A B S , v o l . 3599, f i l e 1520. 187. R e s e r v e C o m m i s s i o n J o u r n a l , 12 S e p t e m b e r 1 8 7 7 , C a n a d a , I n d i a n A f f a i r s , J o u r n a l o f t h e R e s e r v e C o m m i s s i o n . 188. See C r e a s e t o O ' R e i l l y , / 1 8 6 8 / , O ' R e i l l y , P a p e r s . 189. C f . G a r f i e l d , T s i m s h i a n C l a n a n d S o c i e t y , p. 216. 190. F r a n z B o a s , "Census a n d R e s e r v a t i o n s o f t h e K w a k i u t l N a t i o n " , B u l l e t i n o f t h e A m e r i c a n G e o g r a p h i c a l S o c i e t y , X I X , 1 8 8 7 , p . 2 3 2 . 19 1 . H. M o f f a t t t o P r o v i n c i a l S e c r e t a r y , 3 J u n e 1 8 8 9 , B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , P r o v i n c i a l S e c r e t a r y , C o r r e s p o n d e n c e , 192. S e e , f o r e x a m p l e , D u f f , I n d i a n H i s t o r y o f B.C., p . 5 3 . BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. MANUSCRIPT SOURCES A n d e r s o n , A.C. C o r r e s p o n d e n c e O u t w a r d , 1 8 6 8 - 1 8 7 1 . MSS, P r o v i n c i a l A r c h i v e s o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a . A n d e r s o n , A l e x a n d e r C a u l f i e l d . D i a r y a s an I n d i a n R e s e r v e C o m m i s s i o n e r , 3 November - 10 December 1876. MS, P r o v i n c i a l A r c h i v e s o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a . A n d e r s o n , A l e x a n d e r C a u l f i e l d . H i s t o r y o f t h e N o r t h w e s t C o a s t . T y p e s c r i p t , S p e c i a l C o l l e c t i o n s , U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a L i b r a r y . A n d e r s o n , James R o b e r t . N o t e s a n d Comments on E a r l y Days a n d E v e n t s i n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , W a s h i n g t o n and O r e g o n . . . . T y p e s c r i p t , P r o v i n c i a l A r c h i v e s o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a . A t k i n s , E.A. H i s t o r y o f t h e C h i l c o t i n War. T y p e s c r i p t , P r o v i n c i a l A r c h i v e s o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a . B a l l , H e n r y M a y n a r d . J o u r n a l , 18 A u g u s t 186 4 - 2 7 O c t o b e r 1865. MS, P r o v i n c i a l A r c h i v e s o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a . B a r k l e y , C h a r l e s W i l l i a m . A J o u r n a l o f t h e P r o c e e d i n g s on B o a r d t h e L o u d o u n / I m p e r i a l E a g l e / C h a r l e s W i l l i a m B a r k l e y E s q u r . Commander, 24 November 1786 - 11 J u n e 1 7 8 7 . MS, P r o v i n c i a l A r c h i v e s o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a . B a r k l e y , F r a n c i s . R e m i n i s c e n c e s , 18 36. MS, P r o v i n c i a l A r c h i v e s o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a . B a r t l e t t , J o h n . Remarks on B o a r d t h e S h i p M a s s a c h u s e t t s C a p t . J o a b P r i n c e f r o m B o s t o n , t o w a r d s C a n t o n . T y p e s c r i p t , S p e c i a l C o l l e c t i o n s , U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a L i b r a r y . B a x t e r , S u t c l i f f e . C o r r e s p o n d e n c e O u t w a r d , 10 J u n e 1 8 6 4 . 'MS, P r o v i n c i a l A r c h i v e s o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a . B a y l e y , C h a r l e s A l f r e d . E a r l y L i f e on V a n c o u v e r I s l a n d . T y p e s c r i p t , P r o v i n c i a l A r c h i v e s o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a . B e l l , J ames. C o r r e s p o n d e n c e O u t w a r d , 1 8 5 9 . MS, P r o v i n c i a l A r c h i v e s o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a . B o i t , J o h n . T h e _ J o u r n a l o f a V o y a g e Round t h e G l o b e , 1795 and 1796 / i n t h e U n i o n / . P h o t o c o p y , S p e c i a l C o l l e c t i o n s , U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a L i b r a r y . 389 390 B o l d u c , J . B . Z . M i s s i o n o f t h e C o l u m b i a L e t t e r a n d J o u r n a l o f F a t h e r J . B . Z . B o l d u c M i s s i o n a r y o f t h e C o l u m b i a , T.E. J e n n i n g s ( t r a n s ) . T y p e s c r i p t , U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a L i b r a r y . B o l d u c , J . B . Z . M i s s i o n o f t h e C o l u m b i a S e c o n d L e t t e r and J o u r n a l o f F a t h e r J . B . Z . B o l d u c M i s s i o n a r y o f t h e C o l u m b i a , T.E. J e n n i n g s ( t r a n s . ) . T y p e s c r i p t , U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a L i b r a r y . B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a . C o l o n i a l C o r r e s p o n d e n c e ( I n w a r d C o r r e s p o n d e n c e t o t h e C o l o n i a l G o v e r n m e n t ) . MSS, P r o v i n c i a l A r c h i v e s o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a . B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , C o l o n i a l S e c r e t a r y . C o r r e s p o n d e n c e O u t w a r d , 1 8 6 0 - 1 8 7 0 . MSS, P r o v i n c i a l A r c h i v e s o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a . B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , C o l o n i a l S e c r e t a r y . C o r r e s p o n d e n c e r e . I n d i a n R e s e r v e s , 1 8 6 1 - 1 8 6 5 , 1 8 6 8 - 1 8 6 9 , 1 8 7 4 - 1 8 7 7 . MSS, P r o v i n -c i a l A r c h i v e s o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a . B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , C o l o n i a l S e c r e t a r y . O u t w a r d C o r r e s p o n d e n c e , S e p t e m b e r 1860 - May 1 8 7 2 , L e t t e r s t o t h e L a n d s and Works D e p a r t m e n t . MSS, P r o v i n c i a l A r c h i v e s o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a . B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , G o l d C o m m i s s i o n e r , L i l l o o e t . C o r r e s p o n d e n c e O u t w a r d , 1 8 6 2 - 1 8 6 8 . MSS, P r o v i n c i a l A r c h i v e s o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a . B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , G o l d C o m m i s s i o n e r , L y t t o n . C o r r e s p o n d e n c e O u t w a r d , 1 8 5 9 - 1 8 7 0 . MSS, P r o v i n c i a l A r c h i v e s o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a . B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , G o l d C o m m i s s i o n e r , Rock C r e e k . C o r r e s p o n d e n c e O u t w a r d , 1 8 6 1 - 1 8 6 2 . MSS, P r o v i n c i a l A r c h i v e s o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a . B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , L a n d s D e p a r t m e n t . C o r r e s p o n d e n c e , 1 8 7 2 - 1 8 9 0 . MSS, P r o v i n c i a l A r c h i v e s o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a . B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , L a n d s and Works D e p a r t m e n t . C o r r e s p o n d e n c e O u t w a r d , 1 8 6 1 - 1 8 7 1 . MSS, P r o v i n c i a l A r c h i v e s o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a . B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , L e g i s l a t i v e C o u n c i l . M i n u t e B o o k , 24 J a n u a r y 1864 - 1 May 1868. MS, P r o v i n c i a l A r c h i v e s o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a . B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , L i e u t e n a n t G o v e r n o r . C o r r e s p o n d e n c e O u t w a r d , 1 8 7 1 -1876. MSS, P r o v i n c i a l A r c h i v e s o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a . B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , L i e u t e n a n t G o v e r n o r . D e s p a t c h e s t o O t t a w a , 14 A u g u s t 1871 - 26 J u l y 1875. MSS, P r o v i n c i a l A r c h i v e s o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a . 391 B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , P r o v i n c i a l S e c r e t a r y . C o r r e s p o n d e n c e , 1 8 7 2 -1 8 9 0 . MSS, P r o v i n c i a l A r c h i v e s o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a . B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , Supreme C o u r t . 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Indian-European relations in British Columbia : 1774 - 1890
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