Arts, Faculty of
Central, Eastern, and Northern European Studies, Department of
DSpace
UBCV
Kitching, Laurence Patrick Anthony
Master of Arts - MA
University of British Columbia
This thesis is based on the major plays of Bertolt Brecht; reference to his lyrics and critical writings is made where pertinent. The thesis examines the contradictions between Brecht's realistic assessment of human nature and his Marxist ideal of how man should be in order to change society. Brecht viewed society and the behaviour of the individual from two vantage points: the first was that of man who accepted society and conformed because he was concerned mostly with his own survival; the second was that of the Marxist critic, who claimed that the survival of the individual was unimportant, and that the traditional class structure had to be destroyed. Brecht pleaded idealistically for heroism and martyrdom in the service of the Marxist cause. On the other hand, he was sympathetic to the misfortunes of the common man, and realistically urged him to repudiate the necessity of heroic acts. Chapter I introduces the main problems of the thesis, and traces briefly their development throughout Brecht’s work. Chapter II discusses the problems of individualism in four of the "Erste Stϋcke". Man's search to discover his own values for existence ends in disappointment; his insistence on hedonistic and homosexual behaviour is a sign of his rejection of society and all traditional values. In only one of the works does the protagonist join society. The choice he has to make between security and revolution anticipates the dilemma of man in most of the later plays; he prefers conformity to individual freedom. The isolation of man, and the insufficiency of sensual pleasure reveal to the hedonists also that individualism is futile. The main characters in each of these plays are striking examples of Brecht’s experimentation with the figure of the anti-hero. Chapter III examines the implications of unheroic behaviour and capitulation in Mann ist Mann, and of conformity in Die Dreigroschenoper and Mahagonny. In the two operas, man is gradually forced to conform to the economic practices of bourgeois-capitalist society. In all three works, the individual's opportunism and willingness to capitulate to those in control, causes him to become evil and leads eventually to the dehumanizatlon of man. Chapter IV discusses Brecht’s insistence on the necessity of conformity to Marxist doctrine in the "Lehrstϋcke", Die heilige Johanna der Schlachthöfe and Die Tage der Commune. The individual finds that the ethics of the communist collective compel him to become evil. These plays mark the beginning of the Marxist Brecht’s conflict with the poet of human nature. In his attempt to accept Marxist doctrine without reservation, Brecht had to force himself consciously to overlook the shortcomings of Marxist practice. These plays stress that man must replace his belief in personal integrity with an unyielding faith in the ethics of the collective. Consequently, he must refuse to help or pity the suffering, and deliberately resort to revolutionary violence. Chapter V investigates Brecht's contradictory views about heroism in a number of the plays of exile and the later "Bearbeitungen”. His greater fidelity to his knowledge of human nature, and to his sympathy for the common man generally prevailed over his desire to show that man would accept Marxist doctrine and sacrifice himself for the cause. Most of these plays present unheroic, finely observed individuals who prefer to settle for the small pleasures of life rather than resist oppression in order to seek freedom or justice. The plays of exile reveal a less dogmatic Brecht, but still one who never ceased to emphasize the need for social change. He avoided depicting contemporary social evils in these dramas, and showed those of all time. Chapter VI assesses the varying emphases and the contradictions of Brecht’s thought. The chapter concludes that although Brecht insisted from first to last on the necessity of man's unheroic behaviour, his individuals did become more humane. There was no progression in his ideas concerning how man was to survive in traditional society or how he might achieve social change. The plays since the “Lehrstϋcke” revealed a shifting of emphasis from the dehumanization of the individual to the necessity of man's accepting personal responsibility for the welfare of his fellows. The real progression of Brecht was not in his thought, but in his art, in his ability to depict human nature in conflict with the injustices of all ages and societies.
REALISM AND IDEALISM IN THE MAJOR PLAYS OF BERTOLT BRECHT LAURENCE PATRICK ANTHONY KITCHING B. A., The U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h . C o l u m b i a , 1961 A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF ^MASTER OF ARTS i n t h e DEPARTMENT OF GERMAN a c c e p t t h i s t h e s i s a s c o n f o r m i n g t o t h e r e q u i r e d s t a n d a r d : THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA September, 196? In p r e s e n t i n g t h i s t h e s i s i n p a r t i a l f u l f i l m e n t o f the r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r an advanced degree a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , I agree t h a t the L i b r a r y s h a l l make i t f r e e l y a v a i l a b l e f o r r e f e r e n c e and s t u d y . I f u r t h e r a g r e e t h a t p e r m i s s i o n f o r e x t e n s i v e c o p y i n g o f t h i s t h e s i s f o r s c h o l a r l y p u r p o s e s may be g r a n t e d by t h e Head o f my Department o r by h i s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s . I t i s u n d e r s t o o d t h a t c o p y i n g o r p u b l i c a t i o n o f t h i s t h e s i s f o r f i n a n c i a l g a i n s h a l l not be a l l o w e d w i t h o u t my w r i t t e n p e r m i s s i o n The U n i v e r s i t y o r B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a i V a n c o u v e r 8, Canada Department i i T h i s t h e s i s i s based on t h e major p l a y s o f B e r t o l t B r e c h t ; r e f e r e n c e t o h i s l y r i c s and c r i t i c a l w r i t i n g s i s made where p e r t i n e n t . The t h e s i s examines t h e c o n t r a -d i c t i o n s between B r e c h t ' s r e a l i s t i c assessment o f human n a t u r e and h i s M a r x i s t i d e a l o f how man s h o u l d be i n o r d e r to change s o c i e t y . B r e c h t viewed s o c i e t y and t h e b e h a v i o u r o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l from two vantage p o i n t s s t h e f i r s t was t h a t o f man who a c c e p t e d s o c i e t y and conformed because he was c o n c e r n e d m o s t l y w i t h h i s own s u r v i v a l ; t h e second was t h a t o f t h e M a r x i s t c r i t i c , who c l a i m e d t h a t t h e s u r v i v a l o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l was u n i m p o r t a n t , and t h a t t h e t r a d i t i o n a l c l a s s s t r u c t u r e had t o be d e s t r o y e d . B r e c h t p l e a d e d i d e a l i s t i c -a l l y f o r h e r o i s m and martyrdom i n t h e s e r v i c e o f t h e M a r x i s t c a u s e . On t h e o t h e r hand, he was s y m p a t h e t i c t o t h e m i s -f o r t u n e s o f t h e common man, and r e a l i s t i c a l l y u r g ed him t o r e p u d i a t e the n e c e s s i t y o f h e r o i c a c t s . C h a p t e r I i n t r o d u c e s t h e main problems o f t h e t h e s i s , and t r a c e s b r i e f l y t h e i r development t h r o u g h o u t B r e c h t * s work. Ch a p t e r I I d i s c u s s e s t h e problems o f i n d i v i d u a l i s m i n f o u r of t h e " E r s t e S t u c k e " . Man's s e a r c h t o d i s c o v e r h i s own v a l u e s f o r e x i s t e n c e ends i n d i s a p p o i n t m e n t ; h i s i n s i s t -ence on h e d o n i s t i c and homosexual b e h a v i o u r i s a s i g n o f h i s r e j e c t i o n o f s o c i e t y and a l l t r a d i t i o n a l v a l u e s . I n o n l y . o n e o f t h e i w o r k s v d o e s t h e p r o t a g o n i s t j o i n s o c i e t y . The c h o i c e he has t o make between s e c u r i t y and r e v o l u t i o n a n t i c i p a t e s t h e dilemma o f man i n most o f t h e l a t e r p l a y s ; he p r e f e r s conform-i t y t o i n d i v i d u a l freedom. The i s o l a t i o n o f man, and t h e i n -i i i sufficiency of sensual pleasure reveal to the hedonists also that individualism i s f u t i l e . The main characters in each of these plays are striking examples of Brecht*s experimenta-tion with the figure of the anti-hero. Chapter III examines the implications of unheroic be-haviour and capitulation in Mann i s t Mann, and of conformity in Die Drelgroschenoper and Mahagonny. In the two operas, man i s gradually forced to conform to the economic practices of bourgeois-capitalist society. In a l l three works, the individual's opportunism and willingness to capitulate to those in control, causes him to become e v i l and leads eventual-l y to the dehumanizatlon of man. Chapter IV discusses Brecht*s insistence on the necessity of conformity to Marxist doctrine in the "Lehrsttfcke", Die'hel-llge Johanna der SchlachthSfe and Die Tage der Commune. The individual finds that the ethics of the communist collective compel him to become e v i l . These plays mark the beginning of the Marxist Brecht*s conflict with the poet of human nature. In his attempt to accept Marxist doctrine without reservation, Brecht had to force himself consciously to overlook the short-comings of Marxist practice. These plays stress that man must replace his belief in personal Integrity with an unyielding faith in the ethics of the collective. Consequently, he must refuse to help or pity the suffering, and deliberately resort to revolutionary violence. Chapter V investigates Brecht's contradictory views about heroism in a number of the plays of exile and the later "Be-i v . a r b e i t u n g e n M . H i s g r e a t e r f i d e l i t y t o h i s knowledge o f human n a t u r e , and t o h i s sympathy f o r t h e common man g e n e r a l l y p r e -v a i l e d o v e r h i s d e s i r e t o show t h a t man would a c c e p t M a r x i s t d o c t r i n e and s a c r i f i c e h i m s e l f f o r t h e cause. Most o f t h e s e p l a y s p r e s e n t u n h e r o i c , f i n e l y o b s e r v e d i n d i v i d u a l s who p r e f e r t o s e t t l e f o r t h e s m a l l p l e a s u r e s o f l i f e r a t h e r t h a n r e s i s t o p p r e s s i o n i n o r d e r t o seek freedom o r j u s t i c e . The p l a y s o f e x i l e r e v e a l a l e s s dogmatic B r e c h t , but s t i l l one who n e v e r ceased t o emphasize t h e need f o r s o c i a l change. He a v o i d e d d e p i c t i n g contemporary s o c i a l e v i l s i n t h e s e dramas, and show-ed t h o s e o f a l l t i m e . C h a p t e r V I a s s e s s e s t h e v a r y i n g emphases and t h e c o n t r a -d i c t i o n s o f B r e c h t * s t h o u g h t . The c h a p t e r c o n c l u d e s t h a t a l -though B r e c h t i n s i s t e d f r om f i r s t t o l a s t on t h e n e c e s s i t y o f man's u n h e r o i c b e h a v i o u r , h i s i n d i v i d u a l s d i d become more humane. There was no p r o g r e s s i o n i n h i s i d e a s c o n c e r n i n g how man was t o s u r v i v e i n t r a d i t i o n a l s o c i e t y o r how he might a c h i e v e s o c i a l change. The p l a y s s i n c e t h e M L e h r s t t l c k e w r e -v e a l e d a s h i f t i n g o f emphasis from t h e d e h u m a n i z a t i o n o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l t o t h e n e c e s s i t y o f man's a c c e p t i n g p e r s o n a l r e -s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r the w e l f a r e o f h i s f e l l o w s . The r e a l p r o -g r e s s i o n o f B r e c h t was n o t i n h i s t h o u g h t , but i n h i s a r t , i n h i s a b i l i t y t o d e p i c t human n a t u r e i n c o n f l i c t w i t h t h e i n -j u s t i c e s o f a l l ages and s o c i e t i e s . V TABLE OP CONTENTS Chapter I n t r o d u c t i o n 1-6 Chapter I I The F u t i l i t y o f I n d i v i d u a l i s m i n th e " E r s t e S t i i c k e " 7-18 C h a p t e r I I I The D e h u m a n i z a t i o n o f Man i n C a p i t a l i s t S o c i e t y 19-34 Chapter I V The D e h u m a n i z a t i o n o f Man i n the Communist C o l l e c t i v e 35-57 C h a p t e r The P l a y s o f E x i l e : The H e r o i c S a c r i f i c e — F u t i l i t y o r P o l i t i c a l N e c e s s i t y ? 58-91 C h a p t e r V I C o n c l u s i o n F o o t n o t e s B i b l i o g r a p h y R e f e r e n c e T a b l e 92-98 99-107 108-114 115 1 Chapter I INTRODUCTION Brec h t ' s sympathy f o r the l i t t l e man p o i n t s to the fundamental u n i t y of h i s work. H i s p l a y s have no heroes. In t h e i r p l a c e appear the u n h e r o i c i n d i v i d u a l and the a n t i -hero. Brecht r e j e c t e d the h e r o i c t r a d i t i o n as e a r l y as 1914- i n h i s schoolboy essay on the theme "Dulce et decorum es t pro p a t r i a mori". And i n 1955 > one year b e f o r e h i s death, the farmers i n Pauken und Trompeten-1- s t i l l s c o f f e d a t the s u g g e s t i o n that they should d i e f o r a cause which e n r i c h e d the r u l i n g c l a s s . The i d e a l s o f S c h i l l e r ' s t r a g i c hero seemed a l l too a b s t r a c t to Brecht i n 1920, when he wrote: I c h habe den "Don C a r l o s " , weiB G o t t , je und je g e l i e b t . Aber i n d i e s e n Tagen l e s e i c h i n S i n c l a i r s "Sumpf" d i e G e s c h l c h t e e i n e s A r b e i t e r s , der i n den S c h l a c h t h o f e n Chicagos zu Tod ge-hungert w i r d . Es h a n d e l t s i c h urn e i n f a c h e n Hunger, K a l t e , K r a n k h e i t , d i e einen Mann u n t e r -k r i e g e n , so s i c h e r , a l s ob s i e von Gott e i n g e -s e t z t s e i e n . D i e s e r Mann hat einmal eine k l e i n e V i s i o n von F r e i h e i t , wird dann mit Gummiknuppeln n i e d e r g e s c h l a g e n . Seine F r e i h e i t hat mit C a r l o s * F r e i h e i t n i c h t das mindeste zu tun, i c h weiB es: aber i c h kann C a r l o s * K n e c h t s c h a f t n i c h t mehr r e c h t e r n s t nehmen. 2 The American s o c i a l i s t i n f l u e n c e d Brecht g r e a t l y , as seems e v i d e n t from the f a c t t h a t two o f Brecht*s dramas were set i n S i n c l a i r ' s Chicago w i t h e x p l o i t e d workers and t y r a n n i c a l c a p i t a l i s t s . These a s p e c t s of S i n c l a i r ' s n o v e l appear i n the background of Im D l c k l c h t der Stadte, and merge w i t h a parody o f S c h i l l e r ' s romantic tragedy, Die Jungfrau von O r l e a n s . 2 i n Die h e i l l g e Johanna der Sch l a c h t h o f e . . The e a r l y Brecht*s compassionate o b j e c t i o n s to s o c i e t y ' s abuse o f the common man fused i n the mid nin e t e e n - t w e n t i e s w i t h h i s M a r x i s t view o f s o c i a l c o n d i t i o n s "von unten h e r H . ^ In the course of h i s more than t h i r t y p l a y s Brecht d i v i d e d s o c i e t y i n t o f o u r groups: the l a r g e s t was th a t o f the e x p l o i t e d , to which belonged a motley a r r a y o f workers, peasants and p r o s -t i t u t e s ; then came the r u l i n g c l a s s e s made up o f r o y a l t y , no-b i l i t y and the b o u r g e o i s - c a p i t a l i s t s . The p o l i c e and the m i l -i t a r y ensured the p h y s i c a l s u p p r e s s i o n o f the poor, while the ser v a n t s o f r e l i g i o n — t h e i r h i e r a r c h y ranged from e n l i g h t e n e d Popes to t i p p l i n g monks and s e c u l a r but s t a r r y - e y e d ^ S a l v a t i o n Army l a s s e s — g u a r a n t e e d s p i r i t u a l domination. Most o f Brecht*s a n t i - h e r o e s and Ma r x i s t h e r o i n e s a r e commoners; a few, such as G a l i l e i , Antigone and Joan Dark, belong to o t h e r groups. They a l l p o r t r a y s o c i a l c o n d i t i o n s i n a world which extends from China to London, from the days of L u k u l l u s to those o f S t a l i n . Every-where and i n every age Brecht f i n d s t h a t the t r a d i t i o n a l order and i t s i n j u s t i c e s must be a b o l i s h e d . H i s e a r l y p l a y s b e f o r e Mann i s t Mann as w e l l as those w r i t t e n i n e x i l e (1933-1948) are concerned mainly w i t h the i n d i v i d u a l ' s s t r u g g l e to s u r v i v e and to f i n d some measure of happiness.- In between these two groups are the works which d e p i c t c a p i t a l i s t s o c i e t y , Die h e l l l g e Johanna, Die D r e i g r o -schenoper, A u f s t l e g und F a l l der Stadt Mahagonny, and those which p o r t r a y the communist c o l l e c t i v e , Das Badener L e h r s t i i c k , Die MaBnahme and Die Mutter. In both these s o c i e t i e s man t r i e s 3 desperately to conform and to lose his I n d i v i d u a l i t y . In the early plays, Baal, Im Dickicht, and Leben Eduards des Zwelten von England, man passively seeks to discover himself i n the sensual; society and he mutually r e j e c t each other. The hedonist, alienated b y his homosexuality, accepts the ab-sence of God, r a i s e s no s o c i a l issues, but regrets h i s i n f i -n i t e i s o l a t i o n from h i s fellow. In contrast, i n the plays of e x i l e man's unwillingness to s a c r i f i c e h i s pleasures, his goods or his l i f e causes him to capitulate to the demands of those i n c o n t r o l . The economic laws of society force the i n d i v i d u a l to conform, and corrupt him i n the process. But Brecht does have protagonists who cannot be t o t a l l y dehumanized, even i f the majority of the l e s s e r characters, whether r i c h or poor, are callous or e v i l . His maternal f i g -ures are amongst the most humane and the most brutal of a l l hi s i n d i v i d u a l s ; they are the ones who have to make the great-est s a c r i f i c e s . Some, such as Mother Courage and Shen Te, are compelled to become monsters of moral i n s e n s i t i v i t y , but only because they do not have enough money to be kind. Brecht's heroic and unheroic maternal figures share h i s approval. They do enjoy some of h i s sympathy; they also reap h i s scorn. Gru-sche comes closest to h i s concept of how woman should be i n r e a l i t y . The heroic s a c r i f i c e s of Antigone and Jeanne d'Arc point to h i s Marxist i d e a l : the heroic martyr of s o c i a l change. These two protagonists are, however, fa r l e s s p l a u s i b l e than the highly r e a l i s t i c G a l i l e i ; i n comparison, they are so pure and noble that they resemble an idea more than actual persons; hence Brecht can s a c r i f i c e them f o r a cause as a b s t r a c t as they, the M a r x i s t promise. Brecht was c o n s t r a i n e d to make an a n t i - h e r o o f G a l i l e i , when he would have l i k e d him to be-come a h e r o i c martyr. I t was B r e c h t 1 s r e a l i s m , h i s f a s c i n a -t i o n f o r the se n s u a l , f o r the weaknesses o f man, which p r e -vented the M a r x i s t i d e a l i s t i n him from s a c r i f i c i n g G a l i l e i . In most of Brecht's p l a y s c a p i t a l i s t s o c i e t y appears as a f o r c e o f e v i l and the communist r e v o l u t i o n as a f o r c e f o r the eventual good of mankind. Br e c h t ' s second p l a y , Trommeln i n der Nacht, contained these themes as e a r l y as 1919* Brecht wanted to teach t h a t the s t r u c t u r e o f s o c i e t y was changeable; he urged the common man to r e c o g n i z e t h a t t h e r e was no neces-s i t y f o r s o c i a l i n j u s t i c e s . But how was man to a c t i f he was to s u r v i v e and a l t e r the s t r u c t u r e o f s o c i e t y ? ^ i t was char-a c t e r i s t i c of Brecht to g i v e answers which c o n t r a d i c t e d each o t h e r . Brecht, the poet o f human nat u r e , was concerned with showing r e a l i s t i c a l l y how man should not a c t i f he wished to s u r v i v e . On the oth e r hand, Brecht, the p o l i t i c a l i d e a l i s t , drew h e a v i l y on the te a c h i n g s and t h e o r i e s o f Marx, Engels and L e n i n to show how man should a c t i f he wished to reshape the world f o r the b e n e f i t o f a l l men. Brecht, the r e a l i s t , s t r e s s e d i n d i v i d u a l i s m and man's d e s i r e to s u r v i v e under even the worst c o n d i t i o n s . In c o n t r a s t , as a M a r x i s t i d e a l i s t , he emphasized the Importance of immediate change and urged man to p r a c t i c e s e l f - a b n e g a t i o n . He taught the n e c e s s i t y o f v i o l e n c e because he was convinced t h a t man, ' b a s i c a l l y good, but weak and p a s s i v e by nat u r e , p r e f e r r e d to t o l e r a t e i n j u s t i c e and 5 l i v e , r a t h e r than d i e In the s e r v i c e of an i d e a l . Brecht sought goodness i n the communist promise of a b e t t e r world because he b e l i e v e d i t was i m p o s s i b l e to f i n d t h i s goodness i n the c a p i t a l i s t world. He was aware t h a t the communist c o l -l e c t i v e debased^ man, but he chose to b e l i e v e that communist e v i l was j u s t i f i a b l e because i t negated the e v i l o f t r a d i t i o n -a l s o c i e t y and produced communist good. Brecht s u b s t i t u t e d the p o l i t i c a l e x p l o i t a t i o n of man f o r economic e x p l o i t a t i o n . The i n d i v i d u a l ' s p i t y and kindness l e d to h i s impoverishment o r death i n t r a d i t i o n a l s o c i e t y , and t h i s same goodness caused h i s l i q u i d a t i o n i n the communist c o l l e c t i v e . Brecht taught t h a t both s o c i e t i e s brought about the dehumanization of man; each f o r c e d the i n d i v i d u a l to i g n o r e h i s p e r s o n a l e t h i c a l ob-j e c t i o n s 'to e x p l o i t i n g o r e x e c u t i n g h i s f e l l o w . B recht c a r e f u l l y avoided c a l l i n g man's goodness a moral urge. He p r e f e r r e d to i n t e r p r e t i t as something i n d i v i d u a l r a t h e r than s o c i a l , as something i n s t i n c t i v e r a t h e r than l e a r n -ed. He thought t h a t p e r s o n a l m o r a l i t y was as i n e x p e d i e n t i n the communist c o l l e c t i v e as i t was disadvantageous i n c a p i t a l -i s t s o c i e t y . A l though Brecht developed g r e a t s k i l l i n the use of d i a -l e c t i c argument, he a l s o had a f a c i l e h a b i t o f b e i n g a b l e to compartmentalize and i g n o r e the more s e r i o u s r e a l i s t i c o b j e c -t i o n s to h i s M a r x i s t i d e a l i s m . ? In p a r t i c u l a r , Brecht i n t e n -ts t i o n a l l y overlooked i n the "Lehrstucke", Leben des G a l i l e i , A n tigone and Der P r o z e s s der Jeanne d'Arc t h a t he i d e a l i s t i c -a l l y demanded of the a c t i v i s t and the g i f t e d o r noble i n d i -6 v i d u a l w h a t he d i s c o u r a g e d i n h i s m o r e r e a l i s t i c f i g u r e s o f t h e l i t t l e m a n , s u c h a s K r a g l e r , n a m e l y , h e r o i c d e v o t i o n t o a n i d e a l . 7 Chapter I I THE FUTILITY OF INDIVIDUALISM IN THE "ERSTE STUCKE" Three o f B r e c h t ' s " E r s t e St i i c k e " , B a a l , lm D l c k l c h t der Stadte, and Leben Eduards des Zweiten von England, p r e s -ent the i n d i v i d u a l who t u r n s h i s back on s o c i e t y i n order to seek s e l f - f u l f i l l m e n t i n the p l e a s u r e s o f the senses. The g r a t i f i c a t i o n o f the e r o t i c i n s t i n c t becomes h i s o n l y pur-pose i n e x i s t e n c e . The f u r t h e r estranged he becomes from h i s f e l l o w s , however, the l e s s he i s a b l e to f i n d meaning i n h i s i n d i v i d u a l i s m . A number o f B r e c h t ' s e a r l y poems i n the H a u s p o s t l l l e share themes common to these dramas: I n d i f f e r e n c e to s o c i -ety and i t s e v i l s , a B a a l i a n oneness w i t h n a t u r e , and an a-bandonment to s e n s u a l i t y . The surrender to the p l e a s u r e urge seems, In the poems a l s o , a way o f p r o v i d i n g man w i t h a r e a -son to s u r v i v e i n an a p p a r e n t l y meaningless and unchangeable world. The r i v e r o c c u r s f r e q u e n t l y i n the poems and i n some of the songs i n the dramas 9 as a m o t i f o f man's l e t h a r g y and i n d i f f e r e n c e to s o c i a l e v i l s * In the poem "Vom Schwim-•men i n Seen und F l i i s s e n " (G, I, 65-66) man l i e s i n the wa-t e r on h i s back, watches the d r i f t o f the c l o u d s , and i s c a r -r i e d downstream by a s t r o n g c u r r e n t . He abandons h i m s e l f to the f l o w , i n s t i n c t i v e l y aware t h a t i f he r e s i s t e d , he would soon t i r e and s i n k . Whither the i r r e s i s t i b l e c u r r e n t i s sweeping him i s o f no concern as l o n g as h i s p a s s i v i t y a s s u r e s him p l e a s u r e . "Das S c h l f f " (G, I, 23), a poem o f a ship a t 8 s e a , i s a l s o a poem o f man c a s t l o o s e by God, moving aim-l e s s l y , y e t s u r e l y toward d e a t h , w i t h o u t an anchor i n r e l i -g i o n o r s o o i e t y ; here man i s t h e h e l p l e s s p l a y t h i n g o f what-e v e r f o r c e s a c t upon him. He r e m a i n s i n d i f f e r e n t , and s t i l l e x p e r i e n c e s a c e r t a i n p l e a s u r e w h i c h t h i s s u b m i s s i o n a f f o r d s . The f r e q u e n t r e c u r r e n c e i n the e a r l y poems and dramas o f the a n t i - a c t i v i s t s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e e a r l y B r e c h t c o n s i d e r e d sen-s u a l p l e a s u r e and t h e i n d i v i d u a l ' s p u r s u i t o f h a p p i n e s s more i m p o r t a n t t h a n t h e hazardous and a p p a r e n t l y i m p o s s i b l e t a s k o f c h a n g i n g s o c i a l e v i l s . By B r e c h t ' s own a d m i s s i o n 1 1 t h e f i g u r e o f K r a g l e r i n a n o t h e r e a r l y p l a y , Trommeln i n d e r Nacht, i l l u s t r a t e s such a v i e w . He r e p r e s e n t s the l i t t l e man opposed t o h e r o i c a c t s , t h e a n t i - h e r o who f i n d s i t e a s i e r t o j o i n s o c i -e t y f o r h i s own good, r a t h e r t h a n f i g h t f o r i n d i v i d u a l freedom and t h e good o f o t h e r s . An e a r l y poem from t h e H a u s p o s t i l l e , "Gegen V e r f t i h r u n g " , e x h o r t s man not t o make the s a c r i f i c e s demanded by s o c i e t y ' s r e l i g i o u s and m o r a l t e a c h i n g s ; man s h o u l d i n s t e a d e n j o y t h e p r e s e n t l i f e t o t h e f u l l b e f o r e d e a t h s u r p r i s e s him. The second s t a n z a r e a d s : ' " LaBt euch n i c h t b e t r t i g e n , DaB Leben wenig i s t . S c h l t t r f t es i n s c h n e l l e n Zugenl Es w i r d euch n i c h t genftgen Wenn i h r es l a s s e n m i i B t l G, I, 143-144 B r e c h t warns t h a t r e l i g i o n ' s p r o m i s e d reward o f g r e a t j o y i n l i f e h e r e a f t e r i s a hoax t o g e t man to a c c e p t p r e s e n t m i s e r y and e x p l o i t a t i o n ; t h e poem c a u t i o n s t h a t man w i l l a l s o be m i s -l e d i f he a c c e p t s s o c i e t y ' s argument t h a t i t i s h i s d u t y he-9 r o i c a l l y t o s a c r i f i c e h i m s e l f to p r e s e r v e the t r a d i t i o n a l o r d e r . Hence, the i n d i v i d u a l should devote h i m s e l f to a l i f e o f p l e a s u r e before a l l e l s e . The main c h a r a c t e r of Baal a c t s e x a c t l y as t h i s poem would have man behave. Baal breaks a l l t i e s w i t h s o c i e t y , and g i v e s h i m s e l f over completely to hedonism. L i k e Don Juan i n B r e c h t ' s a d a p t a t i o n o f M o l i e r e ' s Don Juan, he i s an a n t i -h e r o i c f i g u r e ; he r e b e l s s e x u a l l y a g a i n s t t r a d i t i o n a l s o c i e t y . Don Juan c o n s i d e r s i t h i s m i s s i o n to experience one amorous adventure a f t e r another. Baal does not. He seeks v a i n l y i n h i s o r g i e s an escape, i n i t i a l l y from h i s d i s g u s t w i t h s o c i e t y , and then from h i s h o r r o r of l i f e ' s l a c k o f meaning. U n l i k e Don Juan, Baal c o n s i d e r s the b r i e f n e s s o f sensual j o y a s i g n of the world's c r u e l t y p r e s e n t even w i t h i n h i m s e l f . H i s ex-treme e r o t i c i s m becomes a r e b e l l i o n a g a i n s t l i f e ' s apparent a b s u r d i t y : man renews h i m s e l f , and, i n so doing, condemns 1 o man to an e t e r n a l c y c l e o f p l e a s u r e and p a i n . The f l e e t i n g j o y s of the senses remain, however, h i s f l i m s y reason to a-v o i d as l o n g as p o s s i b l e the l i b e r a t i o n of death. The ever-changing c o l o u r s and c l o u d s of the sky, the coming and p a s s i n g o f the seasons, the flow o f the r i v e r s and the s h o r t d u r a t i o n of p h y s i c a l e c s t a s i e s are the e a r l y Brecht's f a v o u r i t e m o t i f s o f change. They remind Baal that n o t h i n g l a s t s u n l e s s i t i s the continuous " S t i r b und w e r d e " ^ which surrounds him. U n s a t i s f i e d by h i s search f o r happiness w i t h women, Baal had hoped to f i n d l a s t i n g p l e a s u r e w i t h Ekart i n a homosexual union . T h i s a t t r a c t i o n promised a t f i r s t to become h i s most 10 e n d u r i n g s o u r c e o f p l e a s u r e s but E k a r t b e t r a y s him w i t h a w a i t r e s s . B a a l ' s h o m o s e x u a l i t y i s a d e f i n i t e r e f u s a l t o a c -1 4 c e p t s o c i e t y on terms o t h e r t h a n h i s own. H i s a s o c i a l be-h a v i o u r a s s u r e s , however, h i s freedom from e x p l o i t a t i o n . But i n Im D i c k i c h t B r e c h t emphasizes even more t h a t i t I s im-p o s s i b l e f o r t h e i n d i v i d u a l t o o b t a i n f u l f i l l m e n t i n homosex-, u a l i t y . He shows t h a t Garga and S h l i n k t r a n s f e r s o c i e t y ' s p r a c t i c e o f economic e x p l o i t a t i o n onto a most p e r s o n a l l e v e l ; B r e c h t c l a i m s , a s i t were, t h a t t h e modern w o r l d s e t s man a-g a i n s t man even when he a t t e m p t s t o l i v e a p a r t f rom s o c i e t y ; i t s i n f l u e n c e i s i n e x o r a b l e . I n Leben Eduards B r e c h t c r e a t e d a n o t h e r p a i r o f homosex-u a l a n t i - h e r o e s . The d y i n g monarch, t h e Church, and t h e min-i s t e r s r e f u s e t o a l l o w Eduard t h e f u r t h e r company o f h i s l o v -e r , G a v e s t o n . But Eduard sees t h e o n l y r e a s o n f o r h i s e x i s t -ence i n t h e p l e a s u r e s o f t h i s a l l i a n c e . He r e f u s e s t o compro-mise h i s d e c i s i o n t o keep G a v e s t o n , and e n t e r s c i v i l war t o p r o t e c t t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p . G aveston soon r e a l i z e s t h a t s o c -i e t y w i l l n o t a l l o w him t o r e m a i n w i t h Eduard. R e s i g n e d t o th e e m p t i n e s s o f l i f e , he a c c e p t s d e a t h as a l i b e r a t i o n f r om l o n e l i n e s s and p e r s e c u t i o n s I c h r i i h r j e t z t k e i n e Hand mehr und l e g M i c h e i n f a c h i n den Boden da, damit N i c h t i c h b l e i b b i s ans Ende der Z e i t e n . S , I I , 45 Eduard avenges Gaveston, l o s e s t h e war, and must spend t h e r e s t o f h i s days i n p r i s o n . H i s imprisonment i s r e a l l y a s e l f - i m p o s e d martyrdom w h i c h shows t h e s e n s e l e s s n e s s o f h a v i n g r e f u s e d t o compromise h i s u r g e s and renounce G a v e s t o n . I n 11 t h e i r c a s e , man must d i e i f he seeks s a t i s f a c t i o n i n t h e r u l e o f i n s t i n c t ; i t t h r e a t e n s t o d e s t r o y t h e e s t a b l i s h e d s o c i a l o r d e r . Those i n c o n t r o l , t h e n o b l e s , d i c t a t e t h a t man may not a c t i n h i s own i n t e r e s t , t h e i r s o c i e t y comes f i r s t . B r e c h t was much i n t e r e s t e d i n v i o l e n c e and t h e u l t i m a t e s e n s e l e s s n e s s o f c e r t a i n forms o f p h y s i c a l s t r u g g l e : war, s p o r t , and s a d i s t i c h o m o s e x u a l i t y . He was p r o f o u n d l y a t -t r a c t e d by t h e element o f c o m p e t i t i o n , as f o r example i n b i -c y c l e r a c i n g and b o x i n g . I t i s a s though he a s k e d : "What does i t p r o v e t o win? I s t h e r e any more sense t o l i f e i n be-i n g t h e c o n q u e r o r , r a t h e r t h a n t h e conquered?" I n terms o f man's s u r v i v a l s t r u g g l e t h e s e q u e s t i o n s would r e a d : " I s i t t h e hero o r t h e u n h e r o i c f i g u r e who w i n s ? I s t h e i n d i v i d u a l b e t t e r o f f i f he r i s k s h i s l i f e f o r an i d e a l o r i f he compro-m i s e s t h a t I d e a l i n o r d e r t o e n j o y s e c u r i t y ? " B r e c h t p o r t r a y e d i n Im D i c k i c h t m a i n l y t h e s e n s e l e s s n e s s o f the s u r v i v a l s t r u g g l e and t o a l e s s e r e x t e n t t h e e v i l s o f c a p i t a l i s t s o c i e t y . T h i s drama d e s c r i b e d t h e somewhat i n t a n -g i b l e p l e a s u r e s o f a f i g h t a t the end o f w h i c h Garga appeared as an a n t i - h e r o f i g u r e , even though he "won" h i s c o n t e s t w i t h S h l i n k . B r e c h t c l a i m e d i r o n i c a l l y , t h a t t h e v i o l e n c e i n S c h i l lei°s D i e Rauber i n s p i r e d him t o p o r t r a y " e i n e n Kampf an s i c h " . B r e c h t t h u s wanted t o show t h a t t h e o n l y sense o f s t r u g g l e was t h e p l e a s u r e o f t h e f i g h t and the d i s c o v e r y o f t h e b e t t e r man. The b e t t e r man t u r n e d o u t t o be t h e a n t i - h e r o , who f o u g h t t o s u c c e e d , but w i t h o u t h a v i n g any p urpose i n s u r v i v i n g . B r e c h t 12 a d m i t t e d t h a t Im D i c k i c h t became a p l a y w h i c h r e f l e c t e d h i s d i f f i c u l t i e s i n d e p i c t i n g a m e a n i n g f u l c o n f l i c t w h i c h c o u l d p r o v e something. The work does suggest t h a t l i f e l o s e s a l l s i g n i f i c a n c e when i n s t i n c t t r a p s man i n a s a d i s t i c - m a s o c h i s t i c b a t t l e w i t h h i s f e l l o w . Garga i s a l w a y s aware o f h i s l o n e l i -n e s s ; he cannot be d i s t r a c t e d by t h e enjoyment o f h i s l o v e -h a t e e n c o u n t e r s w i t h S h l i n k . There i s no continuum o f p l e a s -u r e i n t h e i r c o n t e s t , f o r i t i s soon o v e r . Garga t a k e s the c o m p e t i t i o n s e r i o u s l y , i n t e r p r e t s i t a s a s t r u g g l e t o s u r v i v e , and l o s e s S h l i n k . D y i n g , the l a t t e r t e l l s Garga t h a t he knows why t h e i r s t r u g g l e was doomed: "Die u n e n d l i c h e V e r e i n z e l u n g des Menschen macht e i n e F e i n d s c h a f t zum u n e r r e i c h b a r e n Z i e l " (S, I , 3 0 7 ) . B i t t e r a t t h e i r f a i l u r e t o c o n t i n u e , he r e p r o a c h e s Garga: " S i e haben n i c h t b e g r i f f e n , was es war. S i e w o l l t e n mein Ende, a b e r i c h w o l l t e den Kampf" (S, I , 312) . Garga de-s i r e s u n h e r o i c a l l y t o s t a y a l i v e a t a l l c o s t s , y e t he has n e i -t h e r p e r s o n a l n o r s o c i a l a m b i t i o n s . He r e p r e s e n t s man c a s t l o o s e by s o c i e t y . He s a c r i f i c e s i n t e l l e c t u a l freedom, h i s f a m i l y , h i s f i a n c e e and t h e p l e a s u r e s o f t h e b a t t l e ; t h e v i c -t o r ' s t r i u m p h goes t o S h l i n k : "Es i s t n i c h t w i c h t i g , der S t a r k e r e zu s e l n , " says Garga c o l d l y , 'teondern d e r L e b e n d i g e " (S, I , 312) . He i s , p e r h a p s , B r e c h t * s most s t r i k i n g and un-u s u a l e xperiment w i t h t h e f i g u r e o f t h e a n t i - h e r o * I n c o n t r a s t t o B a a l and Eduard, K r a g l e r i n Trommeln i n d e r Nacht overcomes h i s u n w i l l i n g n e s s t o conform and j o i n s t h e m i d d l e - c l a s s . He r e p r e s e n t s a d i f f e r e n t a s p e c t o f B r e c h t * s 13 examination o f man's r e l a t i o n s h i p to s o c i e t y i K r a g l e r be-comes the a n t i - h e r o who c a p i t u l a t e s to a s u p e r i o r n e c e s s i t y . He v a l u e s the m a t e r i a l comforts o f the bourgeois more than the u n c e r t a i n promises o f a m i l i t a n t i d e a l i s m . He p r e f e r s to become a h y p o c r i t e r a t h e r than accept the misery and l o n e -l i n e s s o f the s o c i a l o u t c a s t s and the r e v o l u t i o n a r i e s . Krag-l e r r e p r e s e n t s perhaps b e t t e r than any o t h e r p r o t a g o n i s t the opportunism of the r e a l i s t i c , u n t h e o r e t i c a l , p r e - M a r x i s t Brecht. K r a g l e r , l i k e the d i s i l l u s i o n e d Beckmann i n B o r c h e r t ' s DrauBen v o r der Tur, r e t u r n s home from war o n l y to f i n d t h a t he i s mocked and no l o n g e r wanted. S o c i e t y has grown f a t on the s a c r i f i c e s of the l i t t l e man. K r a g l e r i d e n t i f i e s the f o r c e s o f e x p l o i t a t i o n and domination w i t h the s e l f - r i g h t e o u s w a r - p r o f i t e e r s o f the middle c l a s s . He r e b e l s a g a i n s t them when he l e a v e s h i s fiancee's engagement p a r t y . But h i s r e b e l -l i o n i s not d i r e c t e d towards changing s o c i a l conditions"; he t u r n s h i s back on those who c o n t r o l s o c i e t y and seeks the con-s o l a t i o n o f the a s o c i a l : p r o s t i t u t e s , a l c o h o l i c s , and malcon-t e n t s , whom Brecht would have the reader construe as i d e a l i s t i c 1 ? a c t i v i s t s i n h i s l a t e r M a r x i s t r e v i s i o n o f t h i s p l a y . I r o n i c -a l l y , K r a g l e r ' s d i s i l l u s i o n m e n t and h i s u n w i l l i n g n e s s to con-done the c y n i c a l p r o f i t e e r i n g o f the middle c l a s s prepare h i s e v e n t u a l acceptance of t h a t same group. He p e r c e i v e s t h a t a r e f u s a l to j o i n s o c i e t y and the attempt to manage as an out-s i d e r p r o v i d e him n e i t h e r w i t h a l i v e l i h o o d nor w i t h the op-p o r t u n i t y to marry Anna. H i s freedom to choose how he w i l l commit h i m s e l f t u r n s out to be an empty freedom, the g r e a t e r 14 h i s d e s i r e becomes t o e n j o y what o n l y t h e b o u r g e o i s can o f f e r . He f i n d s no sympathy w i t h h i s new f r i e n d s , t h e w o r k e r s . The t a v e r n owner, Glubb, t r i e s t o d e t e r m i n e t h e degree o f K r a g -l e r ' s d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n : " . . . d i r i s t eben e i n k l e i n e r U nrecht geschehen, da wachst Gras d r u b e r . . . " (S, I , 1 8 8 ) . K r a g l e r a d m i t s t h a t he i s not o f a r e b e l l i o u s n a t u r e , and r e a s o n s w e a k l y , t h a t i f he chooses t o a c c e p t d o m i n a t i o n and e x p l o i t a -t i o n , as he b e l i e v e s he must, i n j u s t i c e no l o n g e r e x i s t s . He s i n g s a r e v i s e d v e r s i o n o f " E i n Hund g i n g i n d i e KQche": E i n Hund g i n g i n d i e Kiiche Und s t a h l dem Koch e i n E i Da nahm d e r Koch s e i n H a c k e b e i l Und s c h l u g den Hund e n t z w e i . S, I , 187 I t s second s t a n z a w i t h t h e b u r i a l scene f o l l o w s . T h i s song s u g g e s t s t h a t K r a g l e r i s v e r y much aware o f t h e dangers o f the r e v o l u t i o n a r y u p r i s i n g w h i c h i s r a g i n g i n t h e s t r e e t s o u t -s i d e . A f t e r h i s song, he c o n c l u d e s p e s s i m i s t i c a l l y : Und darum, macht euch's bequem auf dem k l e i n e n S t e r n , es i s t k a l t h i e r und etwas f i n s t e r , ...und d i e Welt i s t zu a l t f u r d i e b e s s e r e Z e i t und d e r Himmel i s t schon v e r -m i e t e t . . . . S, I , 188-189 Such a r e s i g n e d and u n h e r o i c a t t i t u d e e x p l a i n s h i s r e f u s a l t o j o i n h i s drunken comrades i n the u p r i s i n g . He has a l -r e a d y l e a r n e d i n war t h a t no one w i l l thank him f o r r i s k i n g h i s l i f e a g a i n . Glubb mocks K r a g l e r ' s p a s s i v e stand t h a t i t i s u s e l e s s t o t a k e the b e t t e r m e n t o f h i s c o n d i t i o n i n t o h i s own hands. Glubb b e l i e v e s t h a t i f man does n o t r e s i s t domi-n a t i o n , o t h e r s w i l l most c e r t a i n l y c o n t r o l him i n s t e a d : "Na, dann l a B t euch b e h e r r s c h e n ! H a l t d i c h r u h i g , wenn s i e 15 d i r d i e Haut abziehen, A r t i l l e r i s t , sonst geht s i e entzwei, es i s t delne e i n z i g e " (S, I, 189). When K r a g l e r r e a l i z e s t h a t the d i s t r a u g h t Anna, s e a r c h i n g f o r him In the s t r e e t s , has chosen a f t e r a l l to r e t u r n to him, h i s d e c i s i o n i s made easy. Because s e c u r i t y i s more c e r t a i n w i t h her "businessman f a t h e r , he does not h e s i t a t e l o n g to d e s e r t the r e v o l u t i o n -a r i e s . H i s c y n i c a l r e t o r t to t h e i r a c c u s a t i o n that he i s f l e e i n g to s a f e t y r e v e a l s t h a t he now t h i n k s l i k e the middle c l a s s whom he e a r l i e r d e s p i sed when he r e t u r n e d from the war; he, too, has become a p h i l i s t i n e : "Fast e r s o f f e n s e i d i h r i n euren Tranen "tiber mich.... Mein F l e i s c h s o i l im R i n n s t e i n verwesen, daB eure Idee i n den Himmel kommt? Seid i h r besof-f e n ? . . . Ich hab*s b i s zum H a l s " (S, I, 203) . K r a g l e r * s out-b u r s t i s so v i o l e n t f o r s e v e r a l reasons. H i s war experiences have taught him t h a t i t i s u n j u s t o f the r i c h to expect the common man to d i e , not f o r h i s , but f o r t h e i r w e l f a r e . Now t h a t he has f i n a l l y managed to r e t u r n home, he wants to l i v e , not to d i e for the cause o f o t h e r s . He considers i t I s high-l y u n r e a l i s t i c o f the poor to ask him to r i s k h i s l i f e f o r the vague g a i n s o f a r e v o l u t i o n whose success i s a l r e a d y d o u b t f u l . K r a g l e r * s r a t i o n a l a t t i t u d e , v u l g a r i t y , and r e a l -i s t i c s e l f - i n t e r e s t i r o n i z e the concept of the hero, mock h i s sense of m i s s i o n , and demonstrate the a b s u r d i t y of both f o r the l i t t l e man. In 195** Brecht wrote r a t h e r d e f e n s i v e l y t h a t to p o r t r a y the s e c u r i t y i n c o n f o r m i t y i n Trommeln appeared to him i n 1920 the l e s s e r of two e v i l s , the o t h e r being a c o n v e n t i o n a l t r e a t -16 merit o f K r a g l e r as a hero who j o i n e d the r e v o l u t i o n : "Die Auflehnung gegen eine zu verwerfende l i t e r a r i s c h e Konven-t i o n f t i h r t e h i e r belnahe zur Verwerfung e i n e r groBen s o z i a -l e n Auflehnung" (S, I, 5). The word " b e i n a h e " 1 ^ cannot h i d e the f a c t t h a t Brecht d i d r e j e c t the u p r i s i n g and t h a t he was not a M a r x i s t a t the time. Concerned w i t h p o r t r a y i n g an an-t i - h e r o i c f i g u r e , and a s s e r t i n g h i s own r e j e c t i o n not j u s t of l i t e r a r y but a l s o s o c i a l conventions, Brecht had d e f i n i t e -l y recommended not sympathizing w i t h the S p a r t a c i s t s . The l a t e r M a r x i s t Brecht i d e a l i z e d what the e a r l i e r Brecht had viewed s c e p t i c a l l y . In 1954 Brecht was anxious to s t r e s s , perhaps too much t h a t the S p a r t a c i s t s were w i l l i n g to s a c r i -f i c e t h e i r l i v e s i n the r e v o l u t i o n , and that t h e i r g o a l was the improvement o f s o c i a l c o n d i t i o n s f o r people l i k e K r a g l e r . B r e c h t * s a p o l o g i a i s p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t e r e s t i n g , because i t ex-h i b i t s the b a s i c f e a t u r e o f many o f the works from Das Badener L e h r s t u c k onward; h i s defense r e v e a l s h i s d e s i r e to reshape human nature a c c o r d i n g to M a r x i s t t h e o r y . In c o n t r a s t to Trommeln, some of the p l a y s o f e x i l e u r g e n t l y demand r e v o l u -t i o n and advocate s e l f - s a c r i f i c e f o r the cause, but o t h e r s s t i l l f a v o u r K r a g l e r * s precedent: t o l e r a t i n g u n j u s t c o n d i -t i o n s i n o r d e r to guarantee one's s e c u r i t y and comfort. The i n d i v i d u a l * s c a p i t u l a t i o n to the r u l e o f the f o r c e s a g a i n s t him, and h i s u n h e r o i c d e s i r e to a v o i d the hazards of c o n f l i c t occur f o r the f i r s t time i n B r e c h t * s drama Trommeln. In K r a g l e r ' s a c t i o n s t h e r e i s a c e r t a i n wisdom o f compromise 17 and opportunism which a l s o c h a r a c t e r i z e s the unh e r o i c behaviour o f some p r o t a g o n i s t s i n the p l a y s o f e x i l e , such as Mother Courage and G a l i l e i . The h e d o n i s t i c i n d i v i d u a l i n the " E r s t e Stftcke" i s , however, i n d i f f e r e n t to the m a t e r i a l i n t e r e s t s o f mankind, i s u n w i l l i n g to compromise h i s p l e a s u r e urge, and a-bandons h i m s e l f to an u n p r o d u c t i v e , u n s a t i s f y i n g l e t h a r g y . B r e c h t * s homosexual f i g u r e s experience no c o n f l i c t of sensus v e r s u s r a t i o ; they e a g e r l y f o l l o w whatever course t h e i r pas-s i o n s d i c t a t e ; there i s no q u e s t i o n o f r e s i s t i n g them. A t f i r s t abused, and then ig n o r e d by s o c i e t y , these p r o t a g o n i s t s f a l l back e x c l u s i v e l y upon themselves; they possess n e i t h e r the d e s i r e to experience s o c i a l j u s t i c e , nor the w i l l to change c o n d i t i o n s . When they are compared to p r o t a g o n i s t s i n the l a t e r plays, i t i s c l e a r how B r e c h t ' s thought has developed. They r e p r e s e n t the o p p o s i t e o f the a g i t a t o r s i n the "Lehrstticke", f o r , i n a d d i t i o n to being unheroic i n d i v i d u a l s , they are a l s o a n t i - a c t i v i s t s . B a a l , Im D i c k i c h t , and Leben Eduards are Bre c h t ' s o n l y p l a y s w i t h the f i g u r e o f the o u t s i d e r . T h e r e a f t e r he por-t r a y e d man as a member o f bourgeois s o c i e t y o r the communist c o l l e c t i v e . Man's c h e e r l e s s i s o l a t i o n and the i n s u f f i c i e n c y o f sensual 1 9 p l e a s u r e emphasize the f u t i l i t y o f i n d i v i d u a l i s m . B a a l , E-duard, Gaveston, Garga and S h l i n k seek f u l f i l l m e n t a p a r t from s o c i e t y and a t the expense o f t h e i r f e l l o w s . The t r u t h o f t h e i r s i t u a t i o n i s t h a t they can f i n d a purpose f o r e x i s t e n c e 2 0 n e i t h e r i n the v a l u e s o f s o c i e t y nor i n t h e i r own. K r a g l e r * s dilemma i s , however, t h a t , o f man i n the l a t e r p l a y s . E i t h e r 18 he s a c r i f i c e s h i s i n d i v i d u a l freedom o r he defends i t by-r e s i s t i n g the r i c h . E i t h e r he d e c l a r e s h i s a l l e g i a n c e to them o r he s y m p a t h i z e s ^ w i t h the e x p l o i t e d . He has to choose between s e c u r i t y and r e v o l u t i o n . 19 Chapter I I I THE DEHUMANIZATION OF MAN i IN CAPITALIST SOCIETY The p a s s i v i t y o f e x p l o i t e d man and h i s c a p i t u l a t i o n to those who c o n t r o l s o c i e t y are important themes i n Mann 1 s t Mann and the operas Die Drelgroschenoper and A u f s t l e g und F a l l der Stadt Mahagonny. Here, as a l s o i n Trommeln, i n der Nacht, the p r o t a g o n i s t conforms to the economic p r a c t i c e s of s o c i e t y i n order to assure h i s s u r v i v a l and to promote h i s m a t e r i a l i n t e r e s t s . Galy Gay i n Mann 1 s t Mann c a p i t u l a t e s because h i s d e s i r e to p r o f i t has committed him to an extent he had not f o r e s e e n . He resembles those who c a p i t u l a t e i n the c a p i -t a l i s t s o c i e t y o f the operas, as w e l l as those i n Nazi Germany, and i n I t a l y o f the seventeenth c e n t u r y . H i s c o u n t e r p a r t s , the poor, the c o l l a b o r a t o r s and G a l i l e i , a r e as s h o r t s i g h t e d as he. He t h i n k s he can remain who he i s and as he i s by e x p l o i t i n g o t h e r s , but i n s t e a d , the o p p o s i t e o c c u r s : he i s e x p l o i t e d and has to g i v e up h i s p r i n c i p l e s and former way of l i f e . He had f a i l e d to e n v i s -age the e v e n t u a l l y dangerous, p e r s o n a l consequences of h i s i n i t i a l opportunism, not to mention the s o c i a l and p o l i t i c -a l consequences. He becomes the t o o l , the "menschliche Kampfmaschine" (S, I I , 3 2 7 ) o f the s o l d i e r s . In the operas the beggars, the robbers and the p r o s -t i t u t e s a l l hope to g a i n from conforming to the economic 2 0 p r a c t i c e s o f middle c l a s s s o c i e t y . T h e i r p a s s i v e a c c e p t -ance o f e x p l o i t a t i o n and i n j u s t i c e s e r ves, however, l i k e G a ly Gay's c a p i t u l a t i o n , to p r o l o n g and i n c r e a s e the e v i l s o f s o c i a l i n j u s t i c e s . T h e i r compromise of t h e i r emotions o f sympathy and t h e i r meek surrender o f t h e i r r i g h t s to freedom and j u s t i c e render s o c i a l change i m p o s s i b l e . In many o f h i s works Brecht d e p i c t s i n t e n s e economic e x p l o i t a t i o n which estranges s o c i a l c l a s s e s from each o t h e r as w e l l as i n d i v i d u a l s w i t h i n each o f these c l a s s e s from one another. Such e f f e c t i v e d i s s o c i a t i o n o f man l e a d s i n some cases to a c e r t a i n " d u a l i s m o f c h a r a c t e r . In Mann i s t Mann, f o r example, Galy Gay's d e n i a l o f h i s r e a l i d e n t i t y i n t r o d u c e s the d u a l or s p l i t p e r s o n a l i t y . The dua l person-a l i t y and the donning o f the mask a r e among Bre c h t * s f a v o r -i t e d e v i c e s to i n d i c a t e t h a t the dehumanization o f the i n -d i v i d u a l has taken p l a c e . At times Brecht combines the mo-t i f s o f the s p l i t p e r s o n a l i t y and the mask, as i n Der gute Mensen, where Shen Te changes from a good person to an e v i l p e rson i n o r d e r to p r o t e c t h e r s e l f . In Die Dreigrosohen-oper the i n d i v i d u a l a l s o shamelessly e x p l o i t s h i s f e l l o w .u man. He wishes to r e t a i n the i l l u s i o n o f being a r e s p e c t -a b l e member o f s o c i e t y , and i s a b l e to do so thanks to a convenient and c o n s c i o u s d i v i s i o n of h i s p e r s o n a l i t y ; he d i s t i n g u i s h e s between h i s honourable, s o c i a l l y a c c e p t a b l e , p r i v a t e i d e n t i t y , and a contemptible, a s o c i a l , b u s i n e s s 22 i d e n t i t y . In Mahagonny a s i m i l a r but more s u p e r f i c i a l p r e t e n s e e x i s t s ; i n both operas, however, there i s l i t t l e 21 which the i n d i v i d u a l would not e v e n t u a l l y s a c r i f i c e to a s -sure h i s ends. Galy Gay's p a s s i v i t y , s e r v i l i t y and d e s i r e to p l e a s e a r e s i g n s o f a pronounced opportunism. The g r e a t e r h i s chance to make a p r o f i t , the more w i l l i n g he i s to l e t him-s e l f be used f o r any purpose, and the more he becomes com-, m i t t e d to a t a s k which he i n i t i a l l y disapproved o f . The s o l d i e r s , P o l l y , J esse and U r i a h , immediately r e c -o gnize h i s weakness: "Das 1 s t e i n Mann, der n i c h t n e l n sa-gen kann" (S, I I , 186). They b r i b e and c a j o l e him i n t o im-p e r s o n a t i n g the l o s t J e r l a h J i p . H i s a m e n a b i l i t y to t h e i r scheme depends on how much they permit him to take advan-tage o f them. He f u l l y e x p l o i t s t h e i r predicament when they have to assemble f o r muster. Afterwards Galy Gay t e l l s the audience 2-^ o f h i s r e a d i n e s s to p r o s t i t u t e h i m s e l f f o r the sake o f g a i n : "Und es kommt auch nur darauf an i n der Welt, daB man...1st, wie d i e Leute einen haben w o l l e n , denn es i s t so l e i c h t " (S, I I , 202). I n r a t i o n a l i z i n g about h i s d e s i r e to make h i s " c u t " , he f a l l s to p e r c e i v e any danger i n h i s opportunism. He p u r p o s e l y remains i n the army camp to t u r n the s o l d i e r s ' disadvantage to h i s own account. When Widow Begbick asks him whether he i s c a l l e d Galy Gay, he says he i s not. H i s d e n i a l i s p a r t l y t r u e , f o r he i s eager to be someone e l s e i f i t i-srwbrth'vthe''effort. There i s a warning contained i n Widow Begbick's song of p a s s i v i t y and c a p i t u l a t i o n , the 22 " L i e d vom PluB der Dinge"; Wie o f t du auch den F l u B a n s i e h s t , der t r a g e D a h i n z i e h t , n i e s i e h s t du d a s s e l b e Wasser Nie k e h r t es, das h l n u n t e r f l i e B t , k e i n T r o p f e n von ihm Zu seinem Ursprung zurQck. S, I I , 204 ?h She s i n g s a s i m i l a r r e f r a i n t hree times d u r i n g the p l a y , each time to emphasize t h a t Galy Gay's t r a n s f o r m a t i o n has proceeded, and t h a t he has become too i n v o l v e d to t u r n back and assume h i s former i d e n t i t y . J e r i a h J i p has the same w i l l i n g n e s s as G a l y Gay to l e t h i m s e l f be misused i n r e t u r n f o r m a t e r i a l rewards. In Scene 7 Wang, the c h i e f p r i e s t o f a pagoda, transforms the c a p t i v e J e r i a h J i p i n t o a god i n order to make good the money which the s o l d i e r s have s t o l e n . J e r i a h J i p i s o n l y too ready to s t a y w i t h Wang and to d e c e i v e the brainwashed p i o u s i n r e t u r n f o r steaks and beer. At f i r s t h i s d e s i r e to eat seems to c o n f l i c t w i t h h i s l o y a l t y to h i s comrades, but once he sees the food, he f o r g e t s them. J i p i s o n l y one o f a host of B r e c h t 8 s c h a r a c t e r s who are always ready to s a c r i f i c e t h e i r p r i n c i p l e s f o r g a i n . H i s and Galy Gay's m a t e r i a l i s m i l l u s t r a t e the thought behind B r e c h t ' s maxim from Die Dreigroschenoper; " E r s t kommt das F r e s s e n , dann kommt d i e Moral" (S, I I I , 99). Galy Gay's i n t e r e s t i n the s a l e o f an elephant i s ex-p r e s s e d w i t h S h y l o c k i a n imagery: "Nun, wenn es so i s t . . . so wurde i c h gerne mein Stuck F l e i s c h herausschneiden" (S, I I , 223). Perhaps Brecht r e f e r s to the "pound o f f l e s h " 2 ^ 2 3 i n Shakespeare's The Merchant of V e n i c e ; i n any case, the comment and i t s a s s o c i a t i o n s emphasize Galy Gay's greed and opportunism. Galy Gay's eagerness to p r o f i t i s so e v i d e n t t h a t U r i a h can express c o n f i d e n t l y : " E i n e r 1st k e i n e r . . . . So e i n e r verwandelt s i c h e i g e n t l i c h ganz von s e l b e r . . . . Das kommt w e i l er n i c h t s zu v e r l i e r e n h a t " (S, I I , 217-218). Brecht c a u t i o n s here that the d i c t a t e s o f greed and s e l f - i n t e r e s t s i l e n c e man's e t h i c a l o b j e c t i o n s to e x p l o i t i n g o t h e r men. A r r e s t e d , t r i e d , and faced w i t h immediate e x e c u t i o n f o r h i s d e c e i t , Galy Gay c a p i t u l a t e s to the s o l d i e r s ' de-mands: "Ich b i n nicht.^der, den i h r sucht. I c h kenne i h n gar n i c h t . Mein Name i s t J i p , i c h kann es beschwSren.... Ich b i n n i c h t G a l y Gay" (S, I I , 251-252). H i s c a p i t u l a -t i o n i s a precedent f o r a l a t e r c a p i t u l a t i o n In Mother Courage's " L i e d von der groBen K a p i t u l a t i o n " i n Scene k, o f Mutter Courage und i h r e K i n d e r . Because Mother Courage f e a r s l o s i n g the o p p o r t u n i t y to t r a d e , she v o l u n t a r i l y f o r -f e i t s her r i g h t to j u s t i c e ; the l o s s i s as n e g l i g i b l e to her as the l o s s o f h i s own i d e n t i t y i s to G a l y Gay. H i s w i l l i n g n e s s to c a p i t u l a t e and l e t h i m s e l f be e x p l o i t e d i s h i s l a s t desperate attempt to stay a l i v e , even i f i t should mean he must do whatever h i s s u p e r i o r s command. He r e a l i z e s too l a t e , t h a t h i s opportunism r e q u i r e s him to commit him-s e l f more than he was prepared t o . Now that he f e a r s death, i t i s not too g r e a t a s a c r i f i c e to renounce h i s independence and i d e n t i t y i n o r d e r b a r e l y to escape w i t h h i s l i f e : 24 Und I c h , d e r e i n e i c h und d e r andere i c h Werden ge b r a u c h t und s i n d a l s o b r a u c h b a r . Und hab* i c h n i c h t angesehen d i e s e n E l e f a n t e n Drfick i c h e i n Auge z u , was m ich b e t r i f f t Und l e g e ab, was u n b e l i e b t an m i r , und b i n Da angenehm. S, I I , 268 G a l y Gay i s made t o appear u n h e r o i c , f o r he sees no p o i n t i n s u f f e r i n g o r d y i n g f o r t h e sake o f p e r s o n a l i n t e g r i t y . He r e a s o n s t h a t h i s honour does n o t h e l p him e a t . L a t e r on, G a l i l e i t h i n k s t h e same way. The p a r a l l e l s between him and G a l y Gay a r e s t r i k i n g . Much t h a t c h a r a c t e r i z e s G a l y Gay a l s o a p p l i e s t o G a l i l e i . B r e c h t used t h e r i d i c u -l o u s and t h e s u b l i m e t o demonstrate t h a t "a man*s a man!?;26 G a l y Gay sees an e l e p h a n t , and t h a t p r o v e s h i s u n d o i n g ; G a l i l e i l o o k s a t t h e s t a r s , and t h e c o n t r o l l i n g f o r c e s o f h i s s o c i e t y r e s h a p e him, t o o . But b e h i n d t h e humour and c l o w n i n g o f Mann i s t Mann B r e c h t r e c o r d s h i s f e a r t h a t man's o p p o r t u n i s t i c s e r v i l i t y l e a d s u n a v o i d a b l y t o t y r a n n y ; i f man v a l u e s l i f e more th a n freedom and j u s t i c e , he w i l l a l w a y s c a p i t u l a t e t o t h o s e who dominate and e x p l o i t the masses. Mann i s t Mann a l s o t e a c h e s t h a t even though t h e r e i s no honour i n c a p i t u l a t i o n , t h e r e I s a c e r t a i n wisdom i n such an u n h e r o i c a c t , b u t i t i s t h i s wisdom o f t h e s e l f i s h w h i c h makes i t p o s s i b l e f o r d i c t a t o r s t o r u l e o ver man. The f i g u r e o f G a l y Gay a l s o a n t i c i p a t e s t h e f i g u r e o f t h e Young Comrade i n D i e MaBnahme as w e l l a s t h e f i g u r e o f t h e c o l l a b o r a t o r I n B r e c h t ' s l a t e r a n t i - f a s c i s t p l a y s and 27 poems. B r e c h t w i s h e s G a l y Gay's d e n i a l o f h i s a c t u a l i d e n t i t y t o s t a n d as a symbol o f t h e complete r e p u d i a t i o n 25 o f c o n s c i e n c e , e t h i c s , and s o c i a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y ; when man a c t s l i k e G a l y Gay, a l l human bonds are scorned. Galy Gay*s c a p i t u l a t i o n shows t h a t i n t o l e r a b l e c o n d i t i o n s become even worse when man suppresses h i s s e n s i t i v i t y and r e j e c t s h i s i d e a l s . Such an a c t l e a d s to the dehumanization o f man and to a g e n e r a l c o n d i t i o n of "entmenschter Mensch-2 8 h e i t " , the s a t i r i c p o r t r a y a l o f which was Bre c h t ' s i n t e n -t i o n i n the operas o f the l a t e 1920's. Brecht uses the song i n almost every one o f h i s p l a y s to p o r t r a y some aspect o f man 9s dilemma. S o l o s , duets and choruses i n both o p e r a s 2 ^ i r o n i c a l l y lament man's r e l u c t a n c e and l a c k o f means to h e l p h i s . f r i e n d s or the poor. The s i n g -e r s a r e r e a l i s t i c when they s a d l y a f f i r m t h a t man must ex-p l o i t o t h e r s i f he i s to s u r v i v e ; but when the s i n g e r s c l a i m to r e g r e t the way o f l i f e which they have found necessary t o adopt, they are o n l y being c y n i c a l . The songs i n the operas and Mann 1st Mann advocate man's p a s s i v e c o n f o r m i t y and h i s u n h e r o i c t o l e r a t i o n o f i n j u s t i c e - : they suggest t h a t c a p i t u l a t i o n i s necessary, i n some cases i n order to p r o f i t , i n o t h e r s to a v o i d a d e s t r u c t i v e c o n f l i c t w i t h the powe r f u l and the r i c h . I t seems c o n c l u s i v e to those who 30 must conform, t h a t a u t h o r i t y cannot be overthrown. They are unable to formulate a p o s s i b i l i t y o f s o c i a l change. Resigned to making the best o f t h i n g s they y i e l d and i m i -t a t e the e t h i c s o f bourgeois s o c i e t y . An i r o n i c s u b t i t l e to the Mahagonny o f 1930, p u b l i s h e d i n the second i s s u e o f 26 the Versuche, r e a d s : " . . . e i n Versuch i n der epischen Oper: eine S i t t e n s c h i l d e r u n g " , a p p l i e s w i t h equal m e r i t to Die 31 Dreigroschenoper. Each opera exposes the d u a l standard of e t h i c s and r u t h l e s s mutual e x p l o i t a t i o n o f a l l c l a s s e s . A s y l l o g i s m i n the B r e c h t i a n manner i n d i c a t e s the g o a l of a l l c h a r a c t e r s i n the operas: " A l l men want happiness"; 32 "Money buys happiness"; "Therefore a l l men want money". There are s e v e r a l s y l l o g i s m s , the c o n c l u s i o n s o f which are a c t e d out i n D i e Dreigroschenoper: "Money i s s t o l e n " ; "The 'Bftrger' has money"; "The r e f o r e the •Burger* s t e a l s money". C o n s i d e r i n g t h i s c o n c l u s i o n as the f i r s t premise i n the next s y l l o g i s m , one c o n t i n u e s : "The robber s t e a l s money"; and then t h e r e a r e two p o s s i b l e c o n c l u s i o n s : "The robber i s a •Burger 9";' and "The 'Burger* i s a robber". For Brecht, to have i s to have s t o l e n . In Die Dreigroschenoper whenever man needs money, he s t e a l s , d e c e i v e s and b e t r a y s h i s f e l l o w s . The b o u r g e o i s i e do not g e n e r a l l y appear to be robbers or s w i n d l e r s s i n c e they are membeis of a t r a d i t i o n a l l y r e s p e c t a b l e c l a s s . I t t u r n s out, though, t h a t a l l men of a l l c l a s s e s must neces-s a r i l y become e x t o r t i o n i s t s of some k i n d because t h e i r so-c i e t y i s founded on a p r i n c i p l e o f mutual e x p l o i t a t i o n . The d e s t i t u t e , s h i f t l e s s and c r i p p l e d are unmasked as imperson-a t o r s who beg f o r money w i t h the a i d o f v a r i o u s d e v i c e s and costumes. T h e i r p i t i a b l e appearance i s e s p e c i a l l y prepared to e x p l o i t the sympathy e i t h e r of k i n d people who have had to become i n c r e a s i n g l y callous'} o r o f the r i c h who a r e shocked 2 7 at the sight of the wretchedness to which they know they have contributed. Jonathan Jeremiah Peachum i s the manager-owner of the beggars' business "Bettlerfreund". It Is he who equips and exploits the beggars and the unemployed. In addition, there are the professional thieves who must work i n the robbing business of the gentleman Macheath, a pimp, bigamist, t h i e f , and murderer. The corruption of the p o l i c e and t h e i r f i n a n c i a l i n t e r e s t i n organized crime are evident i n the friendship of Macheath and the London Chief of P o l i c e , Tiger-Brown. The l a t t e r i s a manager of crime who accepts a percentage commission of Macheath's robberies and o f f e r s i n return an assurance of non-prosecution. Like the pseudo middle class businessmen Peachum and Macheath, Brown, too, keeps accounts, and records his business transactions i n a pretentiously honourable manner.. The p r o s t i t u t e s , Macheath, the Peachums, and Tiger-Brown have a dual i d e n t i t y and dual standards. They are e a s i l y able to keep t h e i r professional i d e n t i t y as s o c i a l l y unacceptable business people d i s t i n c t from t h e i r private i d e n t i t y as s o c i a l l y acceptable l a d i e s and gentlemen. Rather than regard t h e i r dual standards as paradoxical and themselves as h y p o c r i t i c a l , they r e a d i l y accept the convenience of a s p l i t character. The necessity of ex p l o i t i n g and cheating t h e i r fellow man i n no way tarnishes t h e i r image of themselves as l a d i e s or gentlemen. They contend that t h e i r r e a l iden-t i t y i s the l a t t e r . As gentlefolk they can seriously pre-tend to a f f i r m the"middle c l a s ^ ' v i r t u e s of chastity, decency, 28 honour, and r e s p e c t f o r the law. Thus t h e i r d ualism con-v e n i e n t l y s a n c t i o n s beggary, d e c e i t , b e t r a y a l , whoring, and manslaughter. These ' c r i m e a r e l u c r a t i v e s i n s - ^ and v i c e s which the businessman c a l l s v i r t u e s . The MProgrammheft", w r i t t e n f o r the B e r l i n e r Ensemble Premiere ( A p r i l 23 , I 9 6 0 ) , of Die Dreigroschenoper a t the Theater am Schiffbauerdamm i n c l u d e s some of B r e c h t * s notes e n t i t l e d : "Brecht tiber Die Dreigroschenoper". One of these notes reads: In einem T e r z e t t CErstem D r e i g r o s c h e n f i n a l e l wurde das Bedauern daruber ausgedruckt, daB d i e U n s i c h e r h e i t auf diesem P l a n e t e n es dem Menschen n i c h t mSglich macht, seinem n a t i i r l i c h e n Hang zur Gute und zu anstandigem Benehmen nachzugehen. The operas p r o c l a i m B r e c h t * s b e l i e f t h a t t h i s i n s e c u r i t y o f man i s r o o t e d i n the maintenance o f a c l a s s system. The r e l e n t l e s s mutual e x p l o i t a t i o n of man i n c a p i t a l i s t s o c i e t y breeds u n i v e r s a l acceptance of I n j u s t i c e and consequently an i n e s c a p a b l e misery. I n n e i t h e r Die Dreigroschenoper nor i n Mahagonny, how-ever, does B r e c h t show t h a t man cs n a t u r a l d i s p o s i t i o n to the good l e a d s to h i s economic impoverishment and e v e n t u a l down-f a l l , as i t promises to do i n Shen Te's case i n Der gute Mensch. A l l the c h a r a c t e r s i n the operas are i n v o l v e d i n a desperate s u r v i v a l s t r u g g l e which f o r c e s them to become s e l f i s h and c a l l o u s . Each c h a r a c t e r knows from experience t h a t the s l i g h t e s t a c t of good w i l l o r c h a r i t y endangers h i s p o s s e s s i o n s and h i s l i f e . Peachum and Macheath are the spokesmen f o r a l l . T h e i r accumulated wisdom r e g a r d i n g the 29 necessity and expediency of t h e i r "behaviour finds a pro-v e r b i a l summation i n each of the various songs. In the "Erstes Dreigroschenfinale" of which Brecht wrote above, Peachum considers the i m p o s s i b i l i t y of being "ein guter Mensch", and the necessity of being coarse and rapacious, as d i r e c t r e s u l t s of the existence of mass poverty and universal e x p l o i t a t i o n . Because conditions do not per-mit philanthropy, he r e j e c t s i t , as do Mrs. Peachum and P o l l y : "Ja, dann i s t ' s f r e i l i c h n ichts damit / Dann i s t das eben a l l e s K i t t " (S, I I I , 6l)S Again, because of con-d i t i o n s , i t appears only too obvious that man's honest ef-f o r t s f o r a better l i f e , h i s idealism,, and h i s noble qual-i t i e s w i l l cause him even greater poverty, and r e s u l t i n his u t t e r despair. The songs: "Die Ballade vom angenehmen Leben" (S, I I I , 85) and "Das Lied von der Unzulanglichkeit des menschlichen Strebens" ( S , I I I , 111P112) deplore that the only solution to the i n s e c u r i t y of the human condition l i e s i n wealth. Each song regrets that man i s l i t e r a l l y compelled to become inhuman—to become more and more e v i l and l e s s concerned about the moral probity of h i s behaviour. The importance of the "Salomo-Song" (S, I I I , 115-116) of Act III i n Die Dreigroschenoper Is not to be overlooked, f o r Brecht includes t h i s piece l a t e r i n a revised version i n Scene 9 of Mutter Courage. In Die Dreigroschenoper Jenny sings t h i s song, but neither she nor Peachum comments f u r -ther on i t s theme, the f u t i l i t y of v i r t u e and philanthropy. Brecht emphasizes t h i s much more i n Mutter Courage. Mother 30 Courage and the Dutch cook i n t r o d u c e the song as: "...das L i e d von Salomon, J u l i u s Casar und andere groBe G e i s t e r , denens n i c h t genxitzt h a t M (S, V I I , 184). T h e i r comments a f t e r each o f the stanzas i l l u s t r a t e the moral c o n f l i c t s — o r r a t h e r , the p o t e n t i a l ones which do not come a b o u t — o f the c h a r a c t e r s i n both operas. The s u t l e r and the cook s i n g " A l l e Tugenden s i n d namlich g e f a h r l i c h auf d i e s e r Welt...man hat s i e besser n i c h t und hat e i n angenehmes Leben... M (S, V I I , 185)- The c h a r a c t e r s i n the operas are always aware o f t h i s and never f a i l to suppress t h e i r emotions o f sym-pathy. The f a t e of S a i n t M a r t i n i n t h i s song i l l u s t r a t e s why H e i n r i c h and Jenny i n Mahagonny r e f u s e to come to the a i d o f t h e i r f r i e n d , the p e n n i l e s s P a u l Ackermann: mutual e x p l o i t a t i o n i n c a p i t a l i s t s o c i e t y f o r c e s them to c o n s i d e r c h a r i t a b l e a c t s s u i c i d a l . The cook—who has a t a v e r n i n Utrecht—comments I r o n i c a l l y : "Ja, da h e i B t s s e l b s t l o s s e i n und t e i l e n , was man hat, aber wenn man n i x h a t ? . . . J a , d i e S e l b s t l o s i g k e i t i s t eine s e l t e n e Tugend, w e i l s i e s i c h n i c h t r e n t i e r t " (S, V I I , 186). He abandons Mother Courage f o r the same reason t h a t H e i n r i c h and Jenny abandon t h e i r best t r i e n d : they are u n w i l l i n g to j e o p a r d i z e t h e i r own s e c u r i t y . Hence they f e e l t h a t compromising t h e i r l o y -a l t y i s the d e s i r a b l e a l t e r n a t i v e to doing good deeds. Man chooses "nur d i e S c h l e c h t l g k e i t e n " (S, I I I , 187) because t h e r e i s no p o s s i b i l i t y of changing s o c i e t y . In "Das zweite D r e i g r o s c h e n f i n a l e " Macheath and Jenny sc o r n the s u g g e s t i o n to be v i r t u o u s i n s p i t e o f c o n d i t i o n s . 31 They propose t h a t m i s e r y and p o v e r t y must be a v e r t e d by t h o s e i n c o n t r o l . They r e a s o n t h a t i f man i s w e a l t h y , he w i l l n o t have t o s u p p r e s s i n h i m s e l f the n a t u r a l u r g e t o be good. They c o n c l u d e t h a t man must become e v i l i f he i s p o o r : Der Mensch l e b t n ur von M i s s e t a t a l l e i n S . . * Denn wovon l e b t d e r Mensch? Indem e r s t t i n d -l i c h Den Menschen p e i n i g t , a u s z i e h t , a n f a l l t , abwurgt und f r i B t Nur d a d u r c h l e b t d e r Mensch, daB e r so grund-l i c h V e r g e s s e n kann, daB er e i n Mensch doch i s t . S, I I I , 100-101 But t h i s i s o b v i o u s l y v e r y s p e c i o u s l o g i c ; and B r e c h t i n -tended i t t o be so i n o r d e r t o p r o v e a p o i n t . He shows t h a t t h e c a p i t a l i s t who does have t h i s m a t e r i a l s e c u r i t y i s a s inhuman as t h e p o o r man. B r e c h t s t r e s s e s t h a t i t i s the system, b o u r g e o i s - c a p i t a l i s t s o c i e t y , w h i c h c a u s e s t h e d e h u m a n i z a t i o n o f a l l men, the r i c h and the p o o r a l i k e . T h i s i s one r e a s o n he w r o t e Mahagonny, t o show t h a t t h e op-p o s i t e o f what Jenny and Peachum b e l i e v e w i l l happen when the p o o r become r i c h . I n s t e a d o f the i d e a l s o c i e t y , Maha-gonny p o r t r a y s t h e u l t i m a t e d e p r a v i t y o f the c a p i t a l i s t -b o u r g e o i s system. B r e c h t * s f a v j u r i t e s t y l i s t i c d e v i c e was d i a l e c t i c . D i e D r e i g r o s c h e n o p e r examines the r e a s o n s f o r t h e d e h u m a n i z a t i o n o f man from t h e p o i n t o f v i e w o f t h e p o o r ; Mahagonny 0 the " G o l d s t a d t " ( S , I I I , 175), r e s t a t e s t h i s p r o b lem from t h e p o i n t o f v i e w o f the r i c h . I f a l l human r e l a t i o n s h i p s i n D i e D r e i g r o s c h e n o p e r depend on t h e p r o f i t t o be had from 32 " E l e n d a l s Ware" (S, I I I , 14-5), t h e s e r e l a t i o n s h i p s depend even more c r a s s l y i n Mahagonny on t h e p r o f i t from "Vergntt-g e n . . . a l s Ware" (S, I I I , 265). Whether man's m i s e r y o r h i s d e s i r e f o r p l e a s u r e i s e x p l o i t e d , a l l human r e l a t i o n s h i p s a r e n e c e s s a r i l y r e g a r d e d as a s o u r c e o f p r o f i t , and a r e d e l i b e r a t e l y e s t a b l i s h e d w i t h t h i s i n mind. T h i s p l a n n e d and a p p a r e n t l y i n e x o r a b l e I n j u s t i c e , i r o n i c a l l y r e f e r r e d t o as f a t e by Macheath and Brown i n D i e D r e i g r o s c h e n o p e r , r e a p p e a r s i n Mahagonny as man-made chaos, as c a p i t a l i s t so-c i e t y i n i t s most extreme form. Everyone's f r a n t i c s e a r c h f o r h a p p i n e s s i n t h e town o f Mahagonny p r e p a r e s f o r t h e p r o c l a m a t i o n o f a p r e d a t o r y s o c i e t y . The consequence o f t h i s s e a r c h i s an economic "Kampf a l l e r gegen a l l e " (S, I I I , 2 5 4 ) , i n w h i c h a l l men must s u p p r e s s t h e i r n a t u r a l goodness i n o r d e r t o s u r v i v e . I n Mahagonny i t i s "das g r o B t e V e r b r e c h e n " (S, I I I , 246) t o be u n a b l e to pay f o r one's p l e a s u r e . Mahagonny's way o f l i f e e n s u r e s t h a t no one w i l l g r a t u i t o u s l y h e l p h i s f e l -l o w man. Hence, as i n D i e D r e i g r o s c h e n o p e r , s u r v i v a l i s p o s s i b l e o n l y I n a s much as man "...so g r u n d l i c h v e r g e s s e n kann, daB e r e i n Mensch doch i s t " (S, I I I , 1 0 1 ) . The p r i m a c y o f t h i s s t r u g g l e f o r s e l f - p r e s e r v a t i o n i s ex-p r e s s e d i n Mahagonny i n the o f t e n sung r e f r a i n c o n c e r n i n g man's b r u t a l i t y and c a l l o u s n e s s ? Denn wi e man s i c h b e t t e t , . s o l i e g t man Es d e c k t e i n e n k e i n e r da zu Und wenn e i n e r t r i t t , dann b i n I c h es Und w i r d e i n e r g e t r e t e n , b i s t ' s duJ S, I I I , 210 33 In a l a s t p l a i n t i v e o u t c r y the assembled c i t i z e n s o f Mahagonny lament t h e i r u t t e r h e l p l e s s n e s s and estrangement from t h e i r f e l l o w s and from d i v i n e redemption: r, "KSnnen uns und euch und niemand h e l f e n " (S, I I I , 258). Where t h i s absence o f help i s acknowledged w i t h d e s p a i r i n Maha-gonny, i t i s p a r o d i e d i n Die D r e i g r o s c h e o p e r . Macheath 9s joyous c r y a t the appearance of the " r e i t e n d e r Bote" (S, I I I , 139) and a t the news o f h i s pardon: " G e r e t t e t , ge-r e t t e t J J a , i c h f t i h l e es, wo d i e Not am groBten, 1st d i e H i l f e am nachsten" (S, I I I , 139) s a t i r i z e s the sublime and the r i d i c u l o u s . Here Brecht wishes to d e r i d e the un-r e a l i s t i c s o l u t i o n o f the d i v i n e redemption?-' o f man and expose the f a l s e n e s s o f a t r i t e p r o v e r b . More important, however, the d i a l e c t i c a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h i s romantic s o l u t i o n — l i k e the l a s t l i n e o f Mahagonny quoted a b o v e — r e v e a l s B r e c h t " s sober c o n v i c t i o n t h a t man i n c a p i t a l i s t 36 s o c i e t y i s judged and doomed ( " g e r i c h t e t " y r a t h e r than redeemed, f o r man cannot a f f o r d to help h i s f e l l o w . The operas warn t h a t the more man a c c e p t s the c a p i t a l i s t way o f l i f e , the more depraved and r a p a c i o u s h i s e f f o r t s i n the s t r u g g l e f o r s u r v i v a l w i l l become. In Mann 1st Mann, Die Dreigroschenoper, and Mahagonny the i n d i v i d u a l becomes the v i c t i m o f a m a t e r i a l i s t s o c i e t y which he e i t h e r p a s s i v e l y a c c e p t s o r e n t h u s i a s t i c a l l y sup-p o r t s . T h i s i s t r u e o f Galy Gay, Macheath, Peachum, Brown and a l l the c h a r a c t e r s i n Mahagonny. Man's w i l l i n g n e s s to 34 suppress i n h i m s e l f the good and the humane i s encouraged by h i s s e l f - i n t e r e s t , opportunism and f e a r o f death. H i s dehumanization i s the i n e v i t a b l e outcome o f h i s c a p i t u l a -t i o n to p o l i t i c a l and economic determinism. 35 Chapter IV THE DEHUMANIZATION OP MAN IN THE COMMUNIST COLLECTIVE 3 7 The " L e h r s t i i c k e " t r e a t the c o n f l i c t between the com-p a s s i o n a t e i n d i v i d u a l and M a r x i s t dogma. These p l a y s t r y to prove the n e c e s s i t y o f r e v o l u t i o n and c l a i m t h a t o n l y the v i o l e n c e o f the communist c o l l e c t i v e can a b o l i s h the causes o f mankind's s u f f e r i n g . They teach t h a t expediency — w h a t e v e r best serves the i n t e r e s t s o f the r e v o l u t i o n — i s the s o l e c r i t e r i o n f o r the c o l l e c t i v e ' s e t h i c s . In order to m a i n t a i n p a r t y s o l i d a r i t y , the a c t i v i s t must g i v e up h i s i n -d i v i d u a l i d e n t i t y , suppress h i s n a t u r a l urge to do good, and accept M a r x i s t i d e a l i s m and the c o l l e c t i v e ' s g o a l s . I f he can do a l l three u n f a l t e r i n g l y , he i s a b l e to s u r v i v e . But i f he f o l l o w s the promptings o f h i s emotions of sympathy and r e j e c t s the inhuman^ e t h i c s o f the p a r t y , he i s e i t h e r l i q u i -dated, as i n Die MaBnahme, or e v e n t u a l l y succumbs to the t e r -r o r o f the b o u r g e o i s - c a p i t a l i s t s , as i n the l a t e r p l a y o f r e -v o l t , Die Tage der Commune. He must become inhuman to succeed. M a r x i s t theory seemed to Brecht to o f f e r the o n l y s o l u -t i o n to the problem of s o c i a l i n j u s t i c e s i n c a p i t a l i s t s o c i e -t y . He was i n t e n s e l y a t t r a c t e d by the theory's promise to c r e a t e i n a l a t e r age a j u s t s o c i e t y i n which the c o l l e c t i v e ' s v i o l e n c e and the need f o r p i t y and help would cease to be nec-e s s a r y . Brecht was aware of the naivete" o f such a promise, but 36 he preferred to believe i n a compensating present; he had rejected C h r i s t i a n r e l i g i o n ' s assurance of a "compensating Heaven"-^7 i n h i s teens. Nevertheless, his f a i t h i n a com-pensating present seems to indicate that he had retained the Christian's Credo, quia absurdum. Brecht was, however, equally aware that communist society could not recompense the i n d i v i d u a l f o r his s a c r i f i c e s during his l i f e t i m e . George Steiner shares a similar view: "Brecht believed i n the d i a l e c t i c a l process of history and i n the ine v i t a b l e accomplishment of the Marxist i d e a l . . . . He was too r e a l i s t i c not to know that the l i g h t on the horizon lay immensely far o f f and that there would be t e r r i b l e s uffering along the way...."^ Why did Brecht repeatedly make h i s protagonists become Marxist i d e a l i s t s , who s a c r i f i c e d even t h e i r l i v e s i f no v i s i b l e improvement of s o c i a l conditions were l i k e l y ? In the scene "Volksbefragung" from Furcht und Elend des D r l t -ten Reiches Brecht gave one of the clearest answers contained i n his work. An a c t i v i s t i n prison writes why he i s ready to die f o r the revolution: ICH HABE NUR MEINER KLASSE GEDIENT. WENN ES AUCH AUS-SIEHT, ALS OB ICH DAMIT NICHTS ER-REICHT HABE, SO IST DAS DOCH NICHT DIE WAHRHEIT ' UNSERE AUFGABE IST SEHR SCHWER, ABER ES IST DIE GROSSTE, DIE ES GIBT: DIE MENSCHHEIT VON IHREN UNTER-DRUCKERN ZU BEFREIEN. VORHER HAT DAS LEBEN KEINEN WERT, AUSSER DA-FUR, [ s i b ] S, VI, 4 0 7 - 4 0 8 In short, the welfare of mankind and the f a i t h i n Marxism's 37 e v e n t u a l success are reason enough f o r the a c t i v i s t to s a c r i -f i c e h i s l i f e . But when a r e a l i s t who i s u s u a l l y c y n i c a l a-bout most matters answers " i t i s n e c e s s a r y to b e l i e v e " , he i s b e i n g c o n t r a d i c t o r y . Brecht c e r t a i n l y r e c o g n i z e d that he 41 was " . . . e i n Mensch mit seinem Widerspruch", and he was a b l e to l i v e w i t h i t . Brecht found more so l a c e i n b e l i e v i n g Marx-i s t d o c t r i n e than i n a d m i t t i n g i t s shortcomings i n the r e a l w orld. Such compartmentalizing of t h e o r y and p r a c t i c e l e t him set a s i d e c r i t i c i s m which a s s a i l e d h i s c o n v i c t i o n t h a t o n l y Marxism c o u l d s o l v e mankind's problems. There i s another a s p e c t to B r e c h t 9 s f a l l a c y of wanting to c r e a t e a p e r f e c t s o c i e t y . He asked the a c t i v i s t to be s e l f l e s s and to p l a c e M a r x i s t i d e a l i s m before p e r s o n a l ma-t e r i a l i s m . Brecht was being pragmatic i n Die D r e i g r o s c h e n -oper when he o b j e c t e d : " E r s t kommt das F r e s s e n , dann kommt di e M o r a l " (S, I I I , 99); i n the "Lehrstticke", however, he r e v e r s e d h i s stand; i n these p l a y s h i s former demand to p l a c e m a t e r i a l i s m f i r s t became a p l e a f o r the n e c e s s i t y of s e l f l e s s -l y f o l l o w i n g M a r x i s t i d e a l i s m . Such a p l e a i s not so v e r y d i f f e r e n t from t h a t of the Black Straw Hats i n D i e h e i l i g e Johanna, when they urge the workers to p r a c t i c e C h r i s t i a n i d e a l i s m r a t h e r than be so m a t e r i a l i s t i c as to want steady j o b s . Yet, i t seems t h a t i n r e a l l i f e Brecht tended, l i k e Mother Courage and G a l i l e i , always to put the important ma-t e r i a l t h i n g s f i r s t . H i s A u s t r i a n p a s s p o r t , West German pub-42 l i s h e r , and Swiss bank account suggest t h a t the p e d e s t r i a n slowness and u n r e l i a b i l i t y o f the East German s o l u t i o n to the problems o f p o l i t i c a l and m a t e r i a l c o n d i t i o n s d i d not 38 s a t i s f y him; he needed the reassurance o f a f i n a n c i a l se-c u r i t y and p o l i t i c a l freedom t h a t t h i s communist c o l l e c t i v e d i d not o f f e r - h i m . Macheath proclaimed i n Die Dreigroschen -oper t h a t o n l y wealth c o u l d p r o v i d e s e c u r i t y : "Nur wer im Wohlstand l e b t , l e b t angenehm" (S, I I I , 8 5 ) ; and K a l l e , l o n g i n g f o r freedom, remarked d r y l y i n the F l u c h t l i n g s g e - r p sprSches "Der PaB i s t der e d e l s t e T e i l von einem Menschen." C e r t a i n weaknesses d e t r a c t from the p o l i t i c a l e f f e c t i v e -ness o f the "Lehrstucke". The p l a y s are i n t e n t i o n a l l y v e r y d i d a c t i c , l o g i c a l and t h e o r e t i c a l . T h i s causes the a c t i o n to appear u n r e a l and e x p l a i n s perhaps why the works l a c k e-m o t i o n a l a p p e a l . I t i s a l s o q u e s t i o n a b l e whether the r e c u r -r e n t i n s i s t e n c e on b r u t a l i t y and v i o l e n c e makes the p l a y s encouraging and a t t r a c t i v e . kk Brecht assumed i n these works the r<51e o f a teacher o f M a r x i s t d o c t r i n e , and t r i e d to e x p l a i n what the a c t i v i s t ' s e t h i c a l c o n v i c t i o n s should be, how he should a c t , and why the d e c i s i o n to use v i o l e n c e was j u s t i f i e d . In the p r o c e s s , how-ever, B r e c h t ' s concern f o r e l u c i d a t i n g such t h e o r e t i c a l a s -p e c t s o f Marxism prevented a r e a l i s t i c p o r t r a y a l o f c o n f l i c t and a c t i o n . T h i s imbalance w i t h the g r e a t e r emphasis on the a b s t r a c t d i d not l e n d the p l a y s the q u a l i t y o f p r o b a b i l i t y . H i s characters, i n c l u d i n g even those of Die Mutter, are improbable because they are shadow-like p e r s o n i f i c a t i o n s of M a r x i s t t h e o r y r a t h e r than a c t u a l human bein g s . Brecht t r i e s to o v e r s i m p l i f y man's complex nature; the I n d i v i d u a l must make the c o l l e c t i v e ' s e t h i c s h i s own, t h a t i s , s u b s t i t u t e 39 M a r x i s t expediency f o r the humane, and c o l d , hard reason J f o r h i s emotions of sympathy. The m a j o r i t y of B r e c h t 9 s l e s s e r p r o t a g o n i s t s i n the " L e h r s t i i c k e " are i n c r e d i b l e , p u p p e t - l i k e a c t i v i s t s who r a t i o n a l l y and u n q u e s t i o n i n g l y accept M a r x i s t i d e a l i s m . The main c h a r a c t e r of Die MaB-nahme i s , however, more r e a l i s t i c whenever he a c t s as a non-Marxist, as an i n d i v i d u a l . Four times h i s emotions o f sympathy urge him to make d e c i s i o n s independently o f the p a r t y ; each time he impedes the r e v o l u t i o n or endangers i t s success. When he p r a c t i c e s t o t a l s e l f - a b n e g a t i o n , he i s im-p r o b a b l e . Here B r e c h t 0 s adherence to theory usurped h i s u-s u a l l y v e r y r e a l i s t i c p o r t r a y a l s o f man's ind o m i t a b l e w i l l 46 to s u r v i v e . Having him executed seems u n l i k e l y because i t i s so d r a s t i c . (Brecht wanted an extreme case to demon-s t r a t e the n e c e s s i t y o f s u b o r d i n a t i n g the i n d i v i d u a l to the p a r t y ; s o l i d a r i t y and the r e v o l u t i o n were much more import-ant .) There i s another reason why B r e c h t 9 s d i d a c t i c works f a i l p o l i t i c a l l y . They l a c k the d i r e c t appeal and emotion-a l f e r v o u r o f p o l i t i c a l l i t e r a t u r e , such as speeches o r pam-47 p h l e t s . The p o l i t i c o - p h i l o s o p h i c a l system of M a r x i s t thought exerted tremendous r a t i o n a l appeal on Brecht; and he seems to be a r a t h e r u n f e e l i n g exponent o f i t s d o c t r i n e . Yet, he d i d not accept the system u n q u e s t i o n i n g l y , as a sim-p l e f a c t i n d i c a t e s : f o u r p l a y s (Das Badener Lehrsttick, Der J a s a g e r , Die MaBnahme, Die Mutter) t r e a t the d i s t r e s s i n g con-f l i c t between sympathy and reason which the i n d i v i d u a l expe-4-0 riences in trying to adopt the collective's ethics. Brecht quite r e a l i s t i c a l l y noted that the individual's decision to suppress his own highly inexpedient moral urges could only follow a profound inner struggle in which reason blotted out sympathy. Hence, i t i s possible to read these plays also as a record of Brecht's inner struggle to determine his own position. Die MaBnahme i s a monument to the victory he at-tained over his personal objections to the necessity of vio-lence. With his conflict deposited in a distant mental com-partment out of the way, he could ignore that his pessimistic solution—the execution of the sympathetic objector—detracted emotionally and p o l i t i c a l l y from his arguments for revolution. Another example of his a b i l i t y to disregard the p o l i t i c a l i n -effectiveness of his works i s his rendering of the Communist Manifesto into verse! This intensely private interest in Marxist theory rather than in actual Marxist practice suggests that Brecht intentionally indulged in such compartmentaliza-tlons as an exercise in self-assurance. It i s more plausible, however, that the abstract and poetic preoccupation with ques-tions of doctrine afforded him greater personal satisfaction than a r e a l i s t i c and p o l i t i c a l l y relevant treatment.would have offered. The HLehrstticke M teach that the collective's ethics must replace the sympathetic emotions of the individual. In a note to Die MaBnahme Brecht states: PQr einige ethische Begriffe, wie Gerechtigkeit, Frei-heit, Menschllchkeit usw., die in der "MaBnahme" vor-kommen, g i l t , was Lenin liber S i t t l i c h k e i t sagt: 4 1 "Unsere S i t t l i c h k e i t l e i t e n w i r aus den I n t e r e s s e n des p r o l e t a r i s c h e n K l a s s e n k a m p f e s a b . M S, I V , 314 The c o l l e c t i v e ' s e t h i c s i n D i e MaBnahme a r e t h e same as t h o s e o f the o t h e r t h r e e p r i m a r i l y M a r x i s t M L e h r s t - a c k e M : Das Badener L e h r s t u c k . P e r J a s a g e r , and D i e M u t t e r . B r e c h t had a l r e a d y shown i n t h e m a t e r i a l i s t s o c i e t y o f t h e c a p i t a l -i s t b o u r g e o i s (Trommeln, D i e D r e i g r o s c h e n o p e r , Mahagonny, D i e h e l l i g e Johanna) t h a t man was f a c e d w i t h an e t h i c a l d i -lemma. E i t h e r he compromised h i s p e r s o n a l i d e a l s o f k i n d n e s s , freedom and j u s t i c e , and a c c e p t e d t h e p r a c t i c e s o f t h e m i d d l e c l a s s o r he would s u f f e r impoverishment o r d e a t h . The i n d i -v i d u a l i n the communist c o l l e c t i v e o f t h e f o u r M L e h r s t u * c k e M under d i s c u s s i o n i s a l s o c o n f r o n t e d w i t h a s i m i l a r m o r a l d i -lemma. E i t h e r he a g r e e s t o renounce h i s p e r s o n a l a l t r u i s m i n o r d e r t o merge w i t h t h e c o l l e c t i v e , o r , he must w i l l i n g l y — o r u n w i l l i n g l y — a l l o w h i m s e l f t o be e x e c u t e d . B r e c h t shows i n t h e s e d i d a c t i c p l a y s t h a t t h e i n d i v i d u a l does consent t o h i s own l i q u i d a t i o n because he r e a l i z e s t h a t o n l y t h e v i o l e n c e o f communist s o l i d a r i t y can c r e a t e a new s o c i e t y where t h e r e w i l l be j u s t i c e f o r a l l . Das Badener L e h r s t f l c k , D i e MaBnahme, and D i e M u t t e r p o r t r a y t h e development o f an a c t i v i s t d e d i c a t e d t o t h e r e -v o l u t i o n . I n each o f t h e s e p l a y s and i n D i e h e i l i g e Johanna t h e w o r k e r l e a r n s t o shape h i s own d e s t i n y by becoming a c -q u a i n t e d w i t h t h e n a t u r e o f t h e Klassenkampf . A c t i v i s t s t e a c h him t h a t s o c i a l i n j u s t i c e s must n o t be a t t r i b u t e d t o d i v i n e o r p o l i t i c a l n e c e s s i t y ; r a t h e r , t h e y a r e c r e a t e d by 42 the capitalists. In "Rede an danische Arbeiterschauspieler 48 uber die Kunst der Beobachtung" Brecht speaks to the dis-contented but now enlightened workers: ...Habt ihr denn Nicht gehb'rt... In die entfernten DSrfer wurde gemeldet DaB des Menschen Schicksal der Mensch 1 s tI Darum Ford em wir... ...die Menschenwelt So zu zeigen wie sie i s t ; von den Menschen gemacht und veranderbar. The common man must reject his passive acceptance of the capitalist's terms, cease to compromise his material de-mands, and identify his ambitions with the aims of the Marxist cause. His discontent must become a purposeful 49 anger, which gives him the strength to rebel, to compro-mise everything but the aims of the party, and to sacrifice his own l i f e . Such ideal revolutionary figures appear in a poem written in exile, "Die handelnd Unzufriedenen": Sie waren geduldig nur im Kampf gegen die Unterdrttcker Vertraglich nur zu denen, die die Ausbeutung nicht ertrugen MCide nur des Unrechts. G, VI, 7? The question of solidarity occupied a key position in Brecht*s thought. He remarked in a discussion about the plebeians in Shakespeare's Coriplanus that man's resolve to rebel against the oppressors was d i f f i c u l t because i t was so crucial: "Bedenkt wie schwer sich Menschen zum Aufstand entschlieBent"^ 0 Lacking the support of solidarity, the subjected individual becomes resigned to his lot, consequently, he believes that a single effort to revolt Is useless. Pela-4 3 gea Wlassowa i n Die Mutter t h i n k s s i m i l a r l y when, t a l k i n g o f the f a c t o r y owner's e x p l o i t a t i o n o f the workers, she sta t e s ? "Nur e i h e s habe i c h n i c h t bemerkt, namlich daB man dagegen etwas h a t t e machen konnen* M (S, V, 37) • As l o n g as she cannot envisage a u n i t e d e f f o r t and the hope o f s u c c e s s f u l l y r e b e l l i n g , she co n t i n u e s to accept the i n -j u s t i c e s o f the r u l i n g c l a s s . Brecht c o n s i d e r s the i n d i -v i d u a l ' s p a s s i v e acceptance of e x p l o i t a t i o n as the b e t r a y a l o f a l l the workers' r i g h t s to enjoy equal s o c i a l and m a t e r i -a l o p p o r t u n i t i e s . The i n s i g n i f i c a n c e o f i n d i v i d u a l i d e n t i t y , the import-ance o f man's s o c i a l . r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s and the s o l i d a r i t y o f e f f o r t a r e new concepts i n B r e c h t ' s thought. They r e p l a c e h i s former concern f o r the i n d i v i d u a l and h i s p e r s o n a l s t r u g g l e to improve h i s own w e l f a r e . Compared to the e a r l y p l a y s , Brecht no l o n g e r b e l i e v e s t h a t the i n d i v i d u a l has to c a p i t u l a t e to h i s o p p r e s s o r s . S i n c e Galy Gay and Widow Beg-b i c k i n Mann i s t Mann were i n t e r e s t e d p r i m a r i l y i n s u r v i v i n g , they meekly behaved as the e x i g e n c i e s o f every s i t u a t i o n r e -q u i r e d . In the "Lehrsttfcke" Brecht r e j e c t s the worker's i n -d i f f e r e n c e to h i s oppr e s s o r s , but applauds the a g i t a t o r ' s unconcern f o r h i s p e r s o n a l f a t e ; i n the communist c o l l e c t i v e the s u r v i v a l o f the i n d i v i d u a l ranks secondary to the s o l i -d a r i t y and w e l f a r e o f a l l men. P a r t y s o l i d a r i t y r e q u i r e s t o t a l s e l f - a b n e g a t i o n o f the i n d i v i d u a l . He must i g n o r e the urge t o be k i n d as w e l l as suppress the d e s i r e to be rewarded f o r p e r s o n a l achievement. 4 4 The song "Lob d e r ' i l l e g a l e n A r b e i t " i n D i e MaBnahme t r e a t s t h i s v e r y p r o b l e m . The Chorus acknowledges t h e i n d i v i d u a l ' s r e l u c t a n o e t o a c c e p t t h e n e c e s s i t y o f anonymity: "Wer t a t e n i c h t v i e l f u r den Ruhm, ab e r wer / T u t ' s f u r das Schweigen" (S, I V , 267)7 By demanding t h a t t h e i n t e r e s t s o f t h e c o l l e c t -i v e come b e f o r e t h e i n d i v i d u a l ' s , B r e c h t i s n a i v e l y , y e t e a r n e s t l y , s a y i n g t h a t M a r x i s t t h e o r y must be s t r o n g e r t h a n , t h e r e a l i t y o f human n a t u r e . He f i r s t p r e s e n t e d t h i s ques-t i o n o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l ' s w i s h f o r r e c o g n i t i o n i n Scene 8, "Das Examen", and Scene 9 » "Ruhm und E n t e i g n u n g " , o f Das Badener L e h r s t u c k . There, t h e c r a s h e d f l i e r f a i l s t o sup-p r e s s h i s d e s i r e f o r fame,"^ whereas t h r e e o f h i s companions succeed i n d o i n g so. The Learned Chorus o b l i t e r a t e s t h e c r a s h e d f l i e r ' s name from human m e m o r y — s y m b o l i c a l l y l i q u i -d a t i n g him; he had p e r s i s t e d i n b e i n g t o o i n d i v i d u a l i s t i c ^ and, a s suc h , was no l o n g e r u s e f u l t o t h e c o l l e c t i v e . Das Badener L e h r s t u c k re-examines a c c o r d i n g t o M a r x i s t d o c t r i n e a q u e s t i o n w h i c h B r e c h t had t r e a t e d w i t h t h e f i g u r e o f G a l y Gay f i v e y e a r s e a r l i e r , namely, man's w i l l i n g n e s s t o assume a new I d e n t i t y by p e r m i t t i n g h i s sense o f v a l u e s t o be r e s h a p e d , whereby he becomes t h e i n s t r u m e n t o f an imper-s o n a l c a u s e . D i e MaBnahme t r e a t s t h i s p r o blem i n t h e ab-s t r a c t . Here B r e c h t has t h e a g i t a t o r s d e s c r i b e t h e r e n u n c i a -t i o n o f t h e i r i n d i v i d u a l i d e n t i t y and t h e s u p p r e s s i o n o f t h e i r emotions o f sympathy w i t h the e x p r e s s i o n : "...unsere G e s i c h t e r a u s l S s c h e n " (S, I V , 263). T h e r e a f t e r t h e y wear 54 masks t o s y m b o l i z e t h i s a c t o f v i r t u a l d e h u m a n i z a t i o n . 4 5 The w i l l i n g n e s s o f the a c t i v i s t t o renounce h i s i n d i v i d u a l i d e n t i t y p r o c e e d s from h i s a c c e p t a n c e o f t h e d o c t r i n e o f con s e n t CElnverstandnis H). The n e c e s s i t y o f t h i s c onsent i s demonstrated i n each o f t h e " L e h r s t t i c k e " . I n Das Badener L e h r s t u c k B r e c h t equates man's s e l f - a b n e g a t i o n w i t h t h e b e g i n n i n g o f u s e f u l n e s s t o the cause; when t h e i n d i v i d u a l c o n s e n t s t o e f f a c e h i m s e l f f u l l y , he has r e a c h e d h i s " k l e l n s t e GrSBe" (S, I I I , 30?) and can p a r t a k e i n t h e r e v o l u t i o n . F o r t h o s e who f o r e g o personal ma-t e r i a l i s m , a s do t h e t h r e e f l i g h t mechanics i n t h i s p l a y , c o n s e n t i s easy t o l e a r n . Each a s s u r e s h i m s e l f o f a c h i e v i n g more i n t h e c o l l e c t i v e t h a n do i n d i v i d u a l s i n d e p e n d e n t l y . Whoever cannot p r a c t i c e r e n u n c i a t i o n o r agree t o h i s i n d i -v i d u a l i n s i g n i f i c a n c e must be l i q u i d a t e d . B r e c h t s t a t e s f o r c e f u l l y I n Das Badener L e h r s t G c k and D i e MaBnahme t h a t t h e d o c t r i n e o f conse n t r e q u i r e s t h e a c t i v -i s t t o i g n o r e t h e s u f f e r i n g o f t h e e x p l o i t e d masses. He warns t h a t man must choke back h i s emotions o f sympathy a t t h e s i g h t o f m i s e r y , and i g n o r e t h e d e s i r e t o h e l p . The d e a t h s o f t h e J a s a g e r and t h e Young Comrade c a u t i o n t h a t man's f a i l u r e t o p r e v e n t by sheer f o r c e o f w i l l a c o n f l i c t between h i s s y m p a t h e t i c emotions and t h e c o l l e c t i v e ' s p o l i t i c a l r a -t i o n a l e w i l l i n e v i t a b l y r e s u l t i n h i s l i q u i d a t i o n ; h i s s u c c e s s i n p r e v e n t i n g t h i s c o n f l i c t r e s u l t s , however, i n t h e p a r t y ' s e t h i c s becoming t h e l a w o f " M i t l e i d l o s i g k e i t " I n b o t h P e r J a s a g e r and D i e MaBnahme B r e c h t s t r e s s e s t h a t t h e i n d i v i d u a l must be asked whether he c o n s e n t s t o t h e 46 collective's measures. Each protagonist gives the right answer by rationally and voluntarily agreeing to his own execution. On the surface, this kind of consent seems valu-able, because i t supports the i n f a l l i b i l i t y of the party's decisions^ But really, this consent is meaningless; Brecht states explicitly that i t makes no difference whether the Individual acknowledges the necessity of his own liquidation. He must accept i t : "Aber auch wenn er nicht einverstanden ist , muB er verschwinden, und zwar ganz" (S, IV, 305) • lb seems that Brecht hesitates overly much in admitting that the end justifies the means. The important innovation with Der Nelnsager~^ is the creation of a humane custom which permits man to help his fellows. But sympathy and help are possible in this play only because the mission of the teacher and pu-pils is no longer Intended as a parallel to the goal of the communist collective. Brecht was, however, truer to his con-viction of the necessity of refusing help in Der Jasager and Die MaBnahme. He was determined to show in both plays that the necessity of revolution could not be compromised by hu-manitarian considerations. It is revealing at this point to compare statements in Die MaBnahme and Die heillge Johanna about acts which the communist collective and Joan Dark call moral and honourable. In Die MaBnahme the chorus teaches that the activist can con-sider moral every expedient act: Mit wem saBe der Rechtliche nicht zusammen Dem Recht zu helfen? Welche Medizin schmeckte zu schlecht 47 Dem Sterbenden? Welche N l e d r i g k e i t b e g i n g e s t du n i c h t , urn Di e N i e d r i g k e i t a u s z u t i l g e n ? K S n n t e s t du d i e Welt e n d l i c h v e r a r i d e r n , woftlr WSrest du d i r zu gut? Wer b l s t du? V e r s i n k e i n Schmutz Umarme den S c h l S c h t e r , a b e r Andere d i e W e l t : s i e b r a u c h t e s l S, IV, 289-290 Such d i r e c t i v e s i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e r e i s no p o s s i b i l i t y o f a m o r a l c o n f l i c t t a k i n g p l a c e i n t h e a c t i v i s t . He has d e c i d e d t o s u p p r e s s i n h i m s e l f h i s m o r a l u r g e t o do good and c a n i g n o r e t h e s u f f e r i n g o f o t h e r s . Because he i s h e l d r e s p o n s i b l e o n l y t o t h e p a r t y , he does n o t c o n s i d e r h i m s e l f p e r s o n a l l y r e s p o n s i b l e f o r whatever he may have t o do. The j u s t end o f t h e communist c o l l e c t i v e n e g a t e s t h e i n j u s t i c e o f t h e means, hence, f o r t h e M a r x i s t t h e r e can be no ques-t i o n o f g u i l t , whether i n d i v i d u a l o r c o l l e c t i v e . E x p e d i e n c y 57 l e t h u s t h e a c t i v i s t ' s o n l y v i r t u e . Joan p r o c l a i m s i n s i m i l a r terms t h e e t h i c s o f t h e r e v o l u t i o n : Denn n i c h t s werde g e z S h l t a l s g u t , und sehe es aus w ie immer, a l s was W i r k l i c h h l l f t , und n i c h t s g e l t e a l s e h r e n h a f t mehr a l s was D i e s e Welt e n d g t f l t i g a n d e r t : s i e b r a u c h t e s . S, IV, 202 F o r h e r , t o o , t h e o n l y good and h o n o u r a b l e a c t s a r e t h e e x p e d i e n t ones. B r e c h t a v o i d s s a y i n g " m o r a l " a c t s . She u r g e s man t o do what t h e a c t i v i s t s i n D i e MaBnahme do; t h e y s u b s t i t u t e t h e b e l i e f i n M a r x i s t e t h i c s f o r t h e i r own m o r a l u r g e t o do good. T h e i r b e l i e f i n M a r x i s t e t h i c s f r e e s them f r o m remorse and s e l f - r e c r i m i n a t i o n . They a r e e a s i l y a b l e t o make t h e e x p e d i e n t ^ d e c i s i o n s r e q u i r e d by t h e r e v o l u t i o n , 48 p a r t i c u l a r l y i n r e f u s i n g t o h e l p t h e Young Comrade and exe-c u t i n g him i n s t e a d . These a r e m o r a l a c t s from the p o i n t o f v i e w o f t h e p a r t y "because t h e y a r e supposed t o b r i n g t h e M a r x i s t p r o m i s e c l o s e r t o f r u i t i o n . But what o f t h e s y m p a t h e t i c i n d i v i d u a l ? I s n o t h i s goodness m o r a l ? By whose terms i s I t moral? B r e c h t a g a i n a v o i d s c a l l i n g i t so. An u n u s u a l metaphor from D i e MaBnahme h e l p s e x p l a i n why. I n t h i s metaphor t h e a g i t a t o r s ' d e s i r e 59 t o h e l p t h e Young Comrade i s equated w i t h p r i m i t i v e a n i m a l i n s t i n c t : "Wie das T i e r dem T i e r e h i l f t / Wtinschten-auch w i r u n s , ihm zu h e l f e n . . . ( S , I V , 303-304). B r e c h t ' s com-p a r i s o n i s f a l l a c i o u s i n t h e r e s p e c t t h a t a n i m a l s do not p o s -6 0 ses t h e u r g e t o h e l p each o t h e r ; man does have i t , p r o v i d e d he i s n o t f o r c e d t o s u p p r e s s i t as t h e a g i t a t o r s a r e . T h i s • c o m p a r i s o n b r i n g s up two i m p o r t a n t p o i n t s . F i r s t l y , what B r e c h t i s r e a l l y s a y i n g i n t h i s metaphor i s t h a t p a r t y dogma p r e v e n t s man i n t h e communist c o l l e c t i v e from f o l l o w i n g h i s good i n s t i n c t s a s he would l i k e t o . B r e c h t b e l i e v e s t h a t man has o n l y good i n s t i n c t s ; he t h i n k s t h a t i t i s s o c i e t y , whether c a p i t a l i s t o r communist, w h i c h f o r c e s man t o become e v i l . S e c o n d l y , i n t h i s p a r t i c u l a r I n s t a n c e B r e c h t wants t o d i s c r e d i t t h e m o r a l urge by c a l l i n g i t a n i m a l . I n g e n e r a l , B r e c h t does n o t r e g a r d man's goodness as a m o r a l u r g e ; r a t h e r , he r e l e g a t e s i t t o a b i o l o g i c a l l e v e l ; he c o n s i d e r s t h a t i t i s an i n b o r n i n s t i n c t i v e q u a l i t y , 61 t h e m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f a n a t u r a l l a w , a s t h e a c t i o n s o f h i s m a t e r n a l f i g u r e s ( K a t t r i n and Grusche) s u g g e s t . I n B r e c h t ' s 49 p l a y s b o t h c a p i t a l i s t s o c i e t y and t h e communist c o l l e c t i v e make the i n d i v i d u a l (Joan Dark, t h e Young Comrade) s u f f e r o r e x e c u t e him f o r what he thought were good a c t s . Obvious-l y , what each o f them c o n s i d e r s good i s i n c o n s i s t e n t " w i t h 62 t h e g e n e r a l l y a c c e p t e d s t a n d a r d s o f goodness o r Tightness" o f e i t h e r s o c i e t y ; t h u s , from t h i s p o i n t o f v i e w Joan's a c t s , f o r example, cannot be c a l l e d m o r a l . B r e c h t d i d n o t c a l l man* s compassionate urge t o be k i n d and h e l p o t h e r s m o r a l because o f h i s s t r i c t l y s o c i o l o g i c a l ( M a r x i s t ) p o s i t i o n ; he c o u l d n o t a p p l y t h e s t a n d a r d o f c a p i t a l i s t o r communist e t h i c s t o t h i s u r g e , f o r he wished t o d i s t i n g u i s h between i t and what t h e y c a l l m o r a l . The c a p i t a l i s t s , a s B r e c h t c l a i m s i n D i e D r e i g r o s c h e n o p e r and D i e sieben Todsffnden d e r K l e l n b i i r g e r , ^ c a l l m o r a l o n l y t h a t b e h a v i o u r w h i c h p r o d u c e s p r o f i t ; t h e com-m u n i s t s i n t h e " L e h r s t u c k e " c o n s i d e r m o r a l o n l y t h a t w h i c h f u r t h e r s t h e p a r t y ' s ends. Man has t o l e a r n i n c a p i t a l i s t s o c i e t y and t h e communist c o l l e c t i v e t h a t he cannot be as he w i s h e s ; he has t o conform. A l l a c t s w h i c h e n a b l e him t o do so e a r n him t h e a p p r o v a l o f h i s r e s p e c t i v e s o c i e t y . I f he behaves a s t h e c o n t r o l l i n g f o r c e s o f h i s p a r t i c u l a r s o c i e t y e x p e c t him t o , he i s c a l l e d m o r a l . D i e h e l l i g e Johanna d e r S c h l a c h t h S f e b e l o n g s t o t h i s c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f t h e " L e h r s t u c k e " because i t a l s o t r e a t s t h e c o n f l i c t o f I n d i v i d u a l e t h i c s w i t h t h o s e o f M a r x i s m - L e n i n i s m . The g r a d u a l d i s i l l u s i o n m e n t and d e h u m a n i z a t i o n o f t h e C h r i s t -i a n i d e a l i s t J o a n Dark p o r t r a y s t h e n e c e s s a r y s t a g e s i n t h e 50 f o r m a t i o n o f a M a r x i s t a c t i v i s t . P e l a g e a Wlassowa i n D i e M u t t e r — a l s o a p r i m e r o f communist d o c t r i n e — u n d e r g o e s a development s i m i l a r t o J o a n ' s . I n b o t h p l a y s B r e c h t c l a i m s t h a t t h e c a p i t a l i s t - b o u r g e o i s e x p l o i t C h r i s t i a n t e a c h i n g s i n o r d e r t o p a c i f y t h e d i s c o n t e n t e d w o r k e r s and d i s t r a c t them f r o m t h e t r u e causes o f economic i n j u s t i c e s . J oan's v i e w s on t h e use o f f o r c e r e s e m ble t h o s e o f P e l a g e a . J o a n ' s r e f u s a l t o c o n s i d e r t h e use o f v i o l e n c e stems from a d e s p e r a t e a t t empt t o m a i n t a i n h e r e t h i c a l c o n v i c t i o n s and h e r f a i t h i n a b e n e v o l e n t God. She f e a r s t h a t i f she de-l i v e r s t h e l e t t e r t o t h e s t r i k i n g r e v o l u t i o n a r i e s , she might become t h e i n s t r u m e n t o f t h e a p p a r e n t l y n i h i l i s t i c and doomed s t r u g g l e o f t h e M a r x i s t s : Was S t e h t i n dem B r i e f ? I c h ko'nnt n i c h t s t u n Was m i t Gewalt g e t a n s e i n mtfBt und Gewalt e r z e u g t e . E i n s o l c h e r stund j a V o l l e r A r g i l s t gegen den Mitmenschen A u B e r h a l b a l l e r Abmachung D i e u n t e r Menschen g e w o h n l i c h i s t . N i c h t mehr zugeh6*rig, fande e r I n d e r n i c h t mehr v e r t r a u t e n Welt s i c h N i c h t mehr z u r e c h t . f i b e r seinem Haupte L i e f e n j e t z t d i e G e s t i r n e ohne d i e A l t e R e g e l . D i e WSrter A n d e r t e n ihm i h r e n S i n n . D i e Uns c h u l d V e r l i e B e i h n , d e r v e r f o l g t und v e r f o l g t w i r d . E r s i e h t n i c h t s mehr a r g l o s . So ko'nnt i c h n i c h t s e i n . Und drum geh i c h . s, iv, 159-160 Her t i m i d s t atement i s s i g n i f i c a n t because i t d e s c r i b e s ex-a c t l y t h e s i t u a t i o n o f t h e M a r x i s t . Joan's C h r i s t i a n i d e a l -i s m , and e m o t i o n a l p r o t e s t s t o t h e n e c e s s i t y o f v i o l e n c e , c o n t r a s t v i v i d l y w i t h t h e e n l i g h t e n e d pragmatism o f t h e s t r i k i n g w o r k e r s . T h e i r b e l i e f i n v i o l e n c e i s u n s h a k a b l e ; t h e y u r g e 51 t h e i r f e l l o w s t o r e s i s t t h e f a c t o r y owners and s t r i k e -b r e a k e r s even though t h e p o l i c e use machine-guns: HSrt a u f niemand, g l a u b t n i c h t s Aber p r i i f e t Jeden V o r s c h l a g Der z u r w i r k l i c h e n Anderung f i i h r t . Und v o r a l l e m l e r n t : DaB es n u r d u r c h Gewalt geht und Wenn i h r es s e l b e r macht. S, IV, 154 L i k e J o a n , P e l a g e a has r e l i g i o u s o b j e c t i o n s t o t h e use o f v i o l e n c e . She r e f u s e s t o p a r t a k e i n a d e m o n s t r a t i o n o f t h e w o r k e r s and t h e unemployed on May 1st because she i s r e -l u c t a n t t o a c t c o n t r a r y t o h e r b e l i e f i n a j u s t God: Du w e i B t , daB i c h an e i n e n G o t t im Himmel g l a u b e . I c h w i l l n i c h t s von Gewalt w i s s e n . . . . wenn i c h s t e r b e , mSchte i c h w e n i g s t e n s n i c h t s G e w a l t t a t i g e s g e t a n haben. S, V, 40 P e l a g e a * s f e a r a l s o stems from h a v i n g seen t h e p o l i c e use f o r c e t o q u e l l d i s t u r b a n c e s and r i o t s o f t h e w o r k e r s i n the' p a s t . Her r e s e r v a t i o n s a r e , however, g r a d u a l l y d i s p e l l e d and h e r u n c e r t a i n b e l i e f i n v i o l e n c e a s a panacea o f the i l l s o f t h e w o r k i n g c l a s s becomes r e v o l u t i o n a r y z e a l when h e r son i s i m p r i s o n e d f o r d e m o n s t r a t i n g f o r a j u s t c a u s e . J o a n abandons h e r r e l i g i o u s c o n v i c t i o n s when she d i s -c o v e r s t h e b r u t a l s u p p r e s s i o n o f t h e w o r k e r s and t h e f i n a n c i a l c o m p l i c i t y o f r e l i g i o u s i n s t i t u t i o n s , such a s h e r own "Schwar-ze S t r o h h u t e " , w i t h t h e c a p i t a l i s t m o n o p o l i e s . She l e a r n s t h a t i t i s i n t h e f i n a n c i a l i n t e r e s t o f b o t h groups t o con-t i n u e t h e p r e s e n t system o f s p i r i t u a l and economic domina-64 t l o n . She r e j e c t s t h e d e s i r e t o h e l p o t h e r s a f t e r she r e -a l i z e s , a n g r y , and c o n s c i o u s o f h e r f a i l u r e , t h a t i n s t e a d o f h e l p i n g t h e w o r k e r s , she has b e t r a y e d them. Her l a s t words: 5 2 "Es h i l f t n u r Gewalt, wo Gewalt h e r r s c h t , und /Es h e l f e n n u r Menschen, wo Menschen s i n d " (S, I V , 206) a f f i r m t h e n e c e s s i t y o f a d o p t i n g b r u t a l means t o combat b r u t a l i t y . The d e s c r i p t i o n i n D i e h e l l l g e Johanna o f M a u l e r ' s b r u t a l measures ("MaBnahmen") t o e s t a b l i s h h i m s e l f a s head o f t h e meat p a c k e r s 1 monopoly and t o re-open t h e s l a u g h t e r houses a n t i c i p a t e d B r e c h t ' s c h o i c e o f t h e t i t l e o f t h e l a t e r p l a y D i e MaBnahme. Ma u l e r announces h i s s o l u t i o n t o t h e w o r k e r s ' m i s e r y : Denn n u r d u r c h A u B e r s t e MaBnahmen, d i e h a r t e r s c h e i n e n ko'nnt en W e i l s i e e i n l g e t r e f f e n , z i e m l l c h v i e l e sogar K u r z : d i e m e i s t e n , b e i n a h a l l e Kann j e t z t g e r e t t e t werden d i e s System Von Kauf und V e r k a u f . . . S, I V , 186 The c a p i t a l i s t j u s t i f i e s extreme measures o f v i o l e n c e i n o r d e r t o m a i n t a i n t h e s t a t u s quo whereas t h e communists j u s t i f y t h e i r v i o l e n c e i n t h e " L e h r s t f l o k e " by t h e d e t e r -m i n a t i o n t o a b o l i s h t h e s t a t u s quo. Jo a n ' s s t a t e m e n t : "Es h e l f e n n u r Menschen, wo Men-schen s i n d " d e s c r i b e s t h e d e h u m a n i z a t i o n o f man b o t h i n c a p i t a l i s t s o c i e t y and i n t h e communist c o l l e c t i v e . Her words a l s o p o i n t t o a f u t u r e age, f o r t h e y suggest t h a t t h e r e n u n c i a t i o n o f p e r s o n a l e t h i c s i s temporary. Her d e c l a r a -t i o n i n c l u d e s t h e r e s e r v a t i o n t h a t man must be r e a l i s t i c and f i g h t an i g n o b l e o p p r e s s o r w i t h t h e o n l y e f f e c t i v e means: t h o s e o f t h e o p p r e s s o r . J o a n , t h e p a c i f i s t , renounces p a s -s i v i t y and l o o k s f o r w a r d t o a new s o c i a l i d e a l t o be r e a l i z e d by pragmatism and v i o l e n c e , t o t h e day when man's m o r a l u r g e 53 w i l l not b e t r a y him. J o a n i s u n s u c c e s s f u l i n h e r a t t e m p t s t o urge Mauler and t h e m o n o p o l i s t s to r e l i e v e p o v e r t y . Her f r u i t l e s s e f -f o r t s t o e x h o r t t h e r i c h and t h e p o o r a l i k e t o p r a c t i s e k i n d n e s s and C h r i s t i a n l o v e a r e i n t e n t i o n a l l y e x a g g e r a t e d by B r e c h t i n o r d e r t o demonstrate u n e q u i v o c a l l y t h e f u t i l i t y o f r e l i g i o n and s o c i a l r e f o r m . The i m p o s s i b i l i t y o f s o c i a l r e f o r m b e t t e r i n g t h e l o t o f t h e masses i n D i e h e l l i g e Johanna i s a f u r t h e r argument i n f a v o u r o f v i o l e n c e . T h i s s u g g e s t s a n o t h e r r e a s o n why t h e M a r x i s t s r e f u s e t o a l l e v i a t e t h e m i s e r y o f t h e e x p l o i t e d . Compassion can m i s t a k e n l y l e a d t o r e f o r m i n g s o c i e t y r a t h e r t h a n o v e r t h r o w i n g i t by r e v o l u t i o n . I n D i e MaBnahme r e f o r m i s s y m b o l i z e d by t h e Young Comrade's d e s i r e t o p r o v i d e b e t t e r shoes f o r t h e u n f o r t u n a t e barge p u l l e r s . Such a t t e m p t s t o l e s s e n man's s u f f e r i n g a r e synonymous w i t h t h e d e s i r e t o humanize t h e s t r i c t i d e o l o g y o f t h e p a r t y . T h i s i s c a l l e d r e v i s i o n i s m by t h e Marx-i s t s . They d i s c o u r a g e i t because t h e y f e a r t h a t i t d i s g u i s e s s o c i a l e v i l s I n s t e a d o f d e s t r o y i n g t h e system w h i c h causes them. B r e c h t f r e q u e n t l y u r g e s t h a t compassion become f u r i o u s a n ger i n t i m e s o f s u p p r e s s i o n , m i s e r y , and w a r . ^ A c t u a l l y , J o a n ' s r e v e r s a l from p i t y t o a n g e r when p r o c l a i m i n g t h e need f o r v i o l e n c e marks t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h i s theme i n B r e c h t ' s 66 work. B r e c h t a l s o d i s c o u r a g e s t h e i s o l a t e d a c t o f p i t y and t h e good deed because he w i s h e s t o emphasize t h e n e c e s s i t y o f v i e w i n g such a c t s i n terms o f t h e i r r e l e v a n c e t o a l l s o c i e t y . 54 I n t h e poem "Die N a c h t l a g e r " B r e c h t r e a s o n s t h a t f r i e n d l i -n e s s and h e l p a r e u s e l e s s and i n e f f e c t u a l because t h e y do not a b o l i s h s o c i a l e v i l s . G i v i n g a beggar some money t o f i n d a n i g h t ' s l o d g i n g may a i d t h e beggar, but i t i s w o r t h -l e s s i n terms o f b r i n g i n g t h e r e v o l u t i o n c l o s e r : A b e r d i e Welt w i r d d a d u r c h n i c h t a n d e r s D i e B e ziehungen z w i s c h e n den Menschen b e s s e r n s i c h d a d u r c h n i c h t Das Z e i t a l t e r d e r Ausbeutung w i r d d a d u r c h n i c h t v e r k f t r z t . G, I I I , 166 B r e c h t does n o t say: "Do n o t h e l p t h e beggar"; r a t h e r , he means: "Do n o t h e l p t h e p o o r i n t h i s m i n o r way o n l y ; l e a r n i n s t e a d t h a t t h e r e i s no s o c i a l n e c e s s i t y f o r t h e e x i s t e n c e 6? o f p o v e r t y . " "Die N a c h t l a g e r " has a c e r t a i n c a l m n e s s , a pronounced r e s i g n a t i o n w h i c h s u g g e s t s t h a t B r e c h t i s b e i n g more p e s s i m i s t i c t h a n M a r x i s t when he f e a r s t h a t man's p i t y w i l l a l w a y s be u n p r o d u c t i v e o f s o c i a l change. T h i s c o n t r a s t s w i t h J o a n Dark's anger: "Oh, f o l g e n l o s e G i i t e l U n m e r k l i c h e Gesinnungt / I c h habe n i c h t s g e a n d e r t " (S, IV, 202). Her e x c l a m a t i o n has none o f t h e p e s s i m i s m I n "Die N a c h t l a g e r " ; I t i s a m i l i t a n t o u t c r y t o a l l men t o s u p p r e s s a l l goodness, because i t i s b o t h u n p r o d u c t i v e and m i s l e a d i n g . The p a r t y i n Das Badener L e h r s t f f c k p r o m i s e s t h a t such p i t i l e s s n e s s and v i o l e n c e a s J o a n a d v o c a t e s a r e n o t t h e f i n a l answers t o c h a n g i n g th e w o r l d ; t h e f i n a l answer l i e s i n a b o l i s h i n g c o n d i t i o n s w h i c h c r e a t e t h e need b o t h f o r h e l p and f o r t e r r o r . How s u r p r i s i n g i t i s f o r J o a n t o l e a r n t h a t , p a r a d o x i c a l l y , t h i s can be a-c h l e v e d o n l y by r e l y i n g on v i o l e n c e . I n t h e pamphlet Fflnf S c h w l e r l g k e l t e n belm S c h r e l b e n d e r Wahrhelt (1934) B r e c h t ex-55 p l a i n s t h a t t h e n a t u r a l a t t r i b u t e o f goodness i s weakness. Man's k i n d n e s s cannot r e s i s t t h e abuse o f e x p l o i t a t i o n by the p o o r and unemployed; t h e y need more h e l p and p i t y t h a n t h e good p e r s o n c a n g i v e , as Shen Te was t o d e p l o r e i n t h e l a t e r p l a y Der gut e Mensch von Sezuan. D i e h e l l i g e Johanna and t h e " L e h r s t u c k e " b e l o n g t o -69 g e t h e r a s p a r a l l e l works o f c o n v e r s i o n and c o n v i c t i o n . The p r oblems o f p i t y , h e l p , c o n s e n t , and v i o l e n c e a r e b a s i c t o each o f t h e s e p l a y s . I n each, B r e c h t r e j e c t s t h e i n d i -v i d u a l ' s w i l l i n g n e s s t o h e l p , o r t h e d e s i r e f o r s o c i a l r e -form because he b e l i e v e s t h a t n e i t h e r a c h i e v e s s o c i a l change. I n f o u r o f t h e p l a y s t h e p r o t a g o n i s t l e a r n s o n l y when d y i n g t h a t he must adopt and c a r r y o u t t h e t e a c h i n g s o f M a r x i s t d o c t r i n e . I n Der J a s a g e r and D i e MaBnahme he has t o g i v e up h i s i n d i v i d u a l i d e n t i t y , and agree t o h i s own e x e c u t i o n f o r h a v i n g made t h e m i s t a k e o f w a n t i n g t o be k i n d i n an age o f c r u e l t y ; h i s p i t y i s u s e l e s s i n t h e s t r u g g l e . Because p i t y i n most men i s a n a t u r a l r a t h e r t h a n a s o c i a l u r g e , B r e c h t shows t h a t i t a l w a y s f a i l s t o c r e a t e a s o c i e t y i n w h i c h p i t y w i l l be s u p e r f l u o u s . The s y m p a t h e t i c i n d i v i d u a l ' s h e s i t a t i o n t o use v i o l e n c e i s one o f B r e c h t ' s f a v o r i t e l e i t m o t i f s . I t o c c u r s wherever he d e p i c t s t h e i n d i v i d u a l ' s g r a d u a l development from a h e l p -l e s s , e x p l o i t e d w o r k e r t o a d e t e r m i n e d p o l i t i c a l r e v o l u t i o n -a r y . I n D i e M u t t e r , P e l a g e a ' s h e s i t a t i o n t o s a n c t i o n v i o l e n c e becomes a f i r m d e c i s i o n t o r e v o l t a g a i n s t t h e c a p i t a l i s t b o u r -56 g e o i s . The a g i t a t o r s i n D i e MaBnahme h e s i t a t e t o k i l l t h e Young Comrade, u l t i m a t e l y do so, and t h e r e b y f u r t h e r t h e r e -7 0 v o l u t i o n . B r e c h t * s l a s t p l a y , D i e Tage d e r Commune, r e -s t a t e s t h e b a s i c p r e c e p t o f Marx and E n g e l s t h a t t h e m i d d l e c l a s s and t h e i r i n s t i t u t i o n s can be o v e r t h r o w n o n l y by v i o -l e n c e . Here and i n D i e h e l l i g e Johanna B r e c h t f o c u s e s on t h e f a i l u r e t o use v i o l e n c e ; he w i s h e s t o emphasize t h a t man must not f e a r d e b a s i n g h i m s e l f . The d e l e g a t e s i n D i e Tage d e r Commune argue t h e p r o s and cons o f u s i n g v i o l e n c e t o r e a l i z e t h e i r i d e a l s : RIGAULT: ...Und doch v e r l a n g e i c h n u r T e r r o r gegen T e r r o r , obwohl w i r a l l e i n das Recht a u f T e r r o r habenJ RUF: . . ...Wollen S i e l e u g n e n , daB d i e Anwendung von Gewalt auch den, d e r s i e anwendet, e r n i e d r l g t ? RIGAULT: N e i n , i c h l e u g n e es n i c h t . S, X, 417 The members o f t h e Paris Commune r e p e a t t h e m i s t a k e o f t h e Young Comrade i n D i e MaBnahme: t h e y d i e because t h e y c a n -n o t a g r e e t h a t t h e end j u s t i f i e s t h e means; t h e y r e f u s e t o s u p p r e s s t h e i r m o r a l o b j e c t i o n s t o a b r u t a l e x t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e i r s u p p r e s s o r s . T h e i r f a i l u r e r u t h l e s s l y t o dehumanize t h e m s e l v e s r e a f f i r m s B r e c h t * s c o n v i c t i o n t h a t a b s o l u t e e t h i c -a l p r i n c i p l e s a r e s e n s e l e s s i n an age when r e v o l u t i o n i s more n e c e s s a r y . D i e Tage d e r Commune i s s i g n i f i c a n t s i n c e i t r e -p r e s e n t s B r e c h t * s most mature t h i n k i n g about t h e s e p r o b l e m s . H i s argument has n o t changed; t h e message o f t h i s p l a y i s s t i l l t h a t o f t h e "Lehrstticke"» "Die Lehre d e r K l a s s i k e r / Das Abe des Kommunismus" (S, I V , 307). B r e c h t * s advocacy o f 57 t h e n e c e s s i t y o f v i o l e n c e remained so v i g o r o u s d u r i n g t h e t wenty y e a r s f r o m Das Badener L e h r s t u c k t o D i e Tage d e r Commune because he was a b l e t o r e t a i n an u n f a l t e r i n g be-l i e f i n t h e p r o m i s e o f M a r x i s t t h e o r y . 58 Chapter V THE PLAYS OF EXILE THE HEROIC S A C R I F I C E -FUTILITY OR POLITICAL NECESSITY? B r e c h t had r e p r e s e n t e d t h e urge t o do good as a danger-o u s , even f a t a l , weakness o f s i m p l e p e o p l e , such a s J o a n Dark, t h e J a s a g e r , the Young Comrade and t h e C o o l i e . He had shown t h a t i t was o n l y t h e n a i v e who a t t e m p t e d t o do good. Why o n l y t h e y ? They l a c k e d wisdom, c u n n i n g , s e l f - i n t e r e s t , and r a t i o n a l s e l f - c o n t r o l . These q u a l i t i e s e n a b l e d t h e i r more s o p h i s t i c a t e d f e l l o w s t o r e a l i z e t h a t , i n an age o f a d -v e r s i t y , t o p i t y and h e l p o t h e r s would i n e v i t a b l y r e s u l t i n t h e i r own d e t r i m e n t . Widow B e g b i c k , Peachum, as w e l l a s the A g i t a t o r s i n D i e MaBnahme were s u f f i c i e n t l y w i s e and r e a s o n -a b l e t o r e c o g n i z e the p e r s o n a l and m a t e r i a l d i s a d v a n t a g e s o f p h i l a n t h r o p y ; t h e y were a b l e t o s u p p r e s s t h e i r m o r a l u r g e s , and c a p i t u l a t e d t o t h e i n e x o r a b l e economic o r p o l i t i c a l n e c e s s i t i e s o f t h e i r s i t u a t i o n . But even t h e most r a t i o n a l o f B r e c h t ' s p r o t a g o n i s t s i n t h e p l a y s o f e x i l e , such a s Mother Courage and Shen Te, were u n a b l e t o be c o n s i s t e n t l y r e a l i s t i c . They found t h e m s e l v e s y i e l d i n g t o t h e i r emotions o f sympathy i n t i m e s o f extreme want o r c r u e l t y , and w i t h d i s a s t r o u s r e s u l t s . Because man was p u n i s h e d f o r good deeds, B r e c h t m a i n t a i n e d t h a t the com-p r o m i s e o f a l l c h a r i t a b l e i n t e n t i o n s , c a p i t u l a t i o n t o a s u -p e r i o r f o r c e , and t h e t o l e r a t i o n o f even t h e w o r s t e v i l s were s e n s i b l e and j u s t i f i a b l e . But he had c e r t a i n r e s e r v a t i o n s : 59 He condemned th e p a s s i v e a c c e p t a n c e o f a l l forms o f t y r a n n y when man became an o p p o r t u n i s t and e n s l a v e d h i m s e l f f o r t h e sake o f g a i n . He condoned the n e c e s s i t y o f s u f f e r i n g " ^ t h e most o u t r a g e o u s i n j u s t i c e s o n l y i f man was s t r u g g l i n g d e s-p e r a t e l y t o s u r v i v e . B r e c h t warned a l s o , t h a t t h e p a s s i v i t y and r e s i g n a t i o n o f b o t h t h e o p p o r t u n i s t i c and the n a i v e p e r -m i t t e d t h e u n s c r u p u l o u s t o r u l e u n c h a l l e n g e d by a l l o w i n g t h e s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e t o r e m a i n u n j u s t and unchanged. I n h i s l a t e r p l a y s , B r e c h t ' s i d e a s c o n c e r n i n g how man s h o u l d a c t seem t o c o n t r a d i c t what he thought i n e a r l i e r p l a y s . I n Mahagonny, D i e h e l l l g e Johanna and the " L e h r -s t f t c k e " , f o r example, he had viewed t h e s y m p a t h e t i c i n d i -v i d u a l ' s b e h a v i o u r d i s a p p r o v i n g l y ; h i s d i s a p p r o b a t i o n de-r i v e d f r om h i s M a r x i s t i d e a l o f e x p e d i e n c y ; whatever h e l p e d t o change s o c i e t y was j u s t i f i e d . A f t e r t h e communist p l a y s , B r e c h t t e n d s t o have a more s y m p a t h e t i c a t t i t u d e toward man's s u r v i v a l s t r u g g l e . He i s more compassionate because he i s l e s s c o n cerned w i t h c h a n g i n g t h e w o r l d t h a n w i t h p r o v i n g t h e need f o r change. There i s a n o t h e r r e a s o n f o r h i s p i t y . The d i f f i c u l t i e s and dilemma o f h i s p r o t a g o n i s t s were o f t e n h i s own; what he condemned i n o t h e r s i n h i s p l a y s , he a l s o con-demned on o c c a s i o n i n h i m s e l f , a s i s p a r t i c u l a r l y e v i d e n t i n h i s l y r i c s , a s f o r example i n " B a l l a d e von der B i l l i g u n g d e r W e l t " (G, I I I , 77-84), "Das zehnte S o n e t t " (G, I I , 147), and "BSser Morgen" (G, V I I , 11). B r e c h t ' s l e h r s t u c k e " p r o v e d t h e n e c e s s i t y o f l i q u i d a t i n g t h e good i n d i v i d u a l because he f a i l e d t o f u r t h e r t h e p r o g r e s s 60 o f t h e r e v o l u t i o n . I n no o t h e r work d i d B r e c h t condemn t h i s p o l i t i c a l i n e f f i c a c y o f man's k i n d n e s s so v i g o r o u s l y as i n D i e MaBnahme. ' But i t i s s t r i k i n g t h a t , a f t e r t h e " L e h r s t t i c k e " , i n t h o s e p l a y s o f e x i l e w r i t t e n a f t e r 1937* t h e m a j o r i t y o f B r e c h t * s c e n t r a l c h a r a c t e r s a r e i n d i v i d u a l s who a r e k i n d . T h e i r n a t u r e i s b a s i c a l l y good, and t h e i r most Important a c t s d e r i v e f r o m p i t y , m o t h e r - l o v e , and t h e l o v e o f mankind. B r e c h t p e r s i s t e d i n p o r t r a y i n g t h e good i n d i v i d u a l and h i s d i f f i c u l t i e s , because he wanted t o d emonstrate t h e need f o r s o c i a l change; c o n c e r n i n g t h i s , E r i c B e n t l e y w r i t e s : " B r e c h t i s one o f t h o s e a r t i s t s . . . w h o do not r e a l l y change t h e i r sub-j e c t f r o m one work t o t h e n e x t b u t , a l l t h e i r l i f e l o n g , w o r r y t h e same point."''' 2 Yet B r e c h t was no more a b l e i n l a t e r p l a y s t h a n I n the " L e h r s t i i c k e " t o show how t h e change was t o come a b o u t . He became drawn more t o p o r t r a y i n g human n a t u r e and the c o n f l i c t s and compromises t h a t were an i n e v i -t a b l e p a r t o f l i f e . The p l a y s o f e x i l e a r e p a r t i c u l a r l y concerned w i t h t h e good i n d i v i d u a l ' s r d l e i n s o c i e t y and h i s p o t e n t i a l e f f e c t i v e -n e s s as an agent o f s o o i a l good and p o l i t i c a l change. Many o f t h e s e p l a y s d e s c r i b e s i t u a t i o n s i n w h i c h t h e h e r o i s m and martyrdom o f t h i s i n d i v i d u a l a r e j u s t i f i a b l e , because t h e y a l t e r t h e s t r u c t u r e o f s o c i e t y . These works e x h i b i t B r e c h t ' s a m b i v a l e n t a t t i t u d e toward t h e f i g u r e o f t h e h e r o . He exag-g e r a t e d — a n d l a t e r r e g r e t t e d ^ — t h e a n t i - h e r o i c a t t i t u d e o f K r a g l e r i n Trommeln; he condemned t h e hero as a t y r a n t l u s t i n g 61 f o r fame, r i c h e s and power i n Das Verh5r des L u k u l l u s ; y e t he i d e a l i z e s t h e h e r o i c freedom f i g h t e r i n D i e Gewehre d e r F r a u C a r r a r . The c r i t e r i o n f o r B r e c h t ' s judgment o f t h e hero i s t h e e x t e n t t o w h i c h he b e n e f i t s s o c i e t y ; t h a t i s , B r e c h t c o n s i d e r s t h a t t h e n e c e s s i t y o f h e r o i s m i s p r o p o r -t i o n a l t o i t s u s e f u l n e s s . T e r t u l l i a i n Scene 6 o f Das V e r -h o r e x p l a i n s t o L u k u l l u s t h a t t h e j u d g e s , a l l o f them com-moners, pay most a t t e n t i o n t o "den Nutzen e i n e s Menschen" (S , V I I , 2 3 2 ) . A l s o , t h e y f i n d t h a t t h e t e s t i m o n y o f k i n g s and g e n e r a l s i s n o t as v a l u a b l e as t h e common man's i n a s s e s s i n g t h e s o c i a l w o r t h o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l ' s deeds. B r e c h t ' s r a t h e r M a r x i s t p o r t r a i t s o f t h e h e r o e s o f an-t i q u i t y , L u k u l l u s , Creon, and C o r i o l a n , were i n t e n d e d t o d e p i c t e f f i c i e n t mass m u r d e r e r s who have i n common a r u t h -l e s s d e s i r e f o r s e l f - a g g r a n d i z e m e n t i n wars o f conquest a s w e l l as a b o u n d l e s s contempt f o r t h e p l e b e i a n and h i s w e l -f a r e . These h e r o e s a r e v i v i d c o n t r a s t s t o t h e m a r t y r s Simone Machard, Jeanne d'Arc, and A n t i g o n e . I n t h e i r d e t e r m i n a t i o n t o defend F r a n c e and Thebes and save t h e i r p e o p l e , t h e s e h e r o i n e s r e s o l v e t o s a c r i f i c e t h e i r l i v e s , but n o t t h e i r be-l i e f s i n human d i g n i t y , j u s t i c e and freedom. ( T h e i r l a c k o f c o n c e r n f o r t h e i r own s u r v i v a l r e c a l l s t h e scene i n Das BadenerjLehrstUck i n w h i c h man humbly assumes h i s " k l e i n s t e GrSBe" (S, I I I , 307)tAagrees t o h i s own l i q u i d a t i o n i n o r d e r t o s e r v e t h e s t a t e b e s t ) . A l l o f B r e c h t ' s p o l i t i c a l h e r o i n e s b e l i e v e i n t h e ne-c e s s i t y o f r e s i s t a n c e and v i o l e n c e . He d e m o n s t r a t e s t h a t 62 t h e i r h e r o i c s t r u g g l e s and t h e i r martyrdom a r e t h e o n l y e f f e c t i v e means o f e n c o u r a g i n g and i n s p i r i n g t h e suppressed t o r i s e up and f r e e t h e m s e l v e s from t h e i r o p p r e s s o r s . None o f t h e s e h e r o i n e s i s t r a g i c , f o r each a c h i e v e s h e r end. The s u c c e s s o f each J u s t i f i e s h e r s e l f - s a c r i f i c e . The r e s i s t a n c e o f Simone and A n t i g o n e i n t h e i r n a t i o n a l i n t e r e s t i s i n t e n d e d a s a p a r a l l e l t o t h e a c t i v i s m o f t h e M a r x i s t r e v o l u t i o n a r i e s o f t h e M L e h r s t U c k e n . The d e s i r e t o w i n t h e freedom o f the s t a t e and t h e c i t y s t a t e c o r r e s p o n d s , t h e n , t o t h e n e c e s s i t y o f r e v o l u t i o n . I f Simone and A n t i g o n e a r e c o n c e i v e d o f a s M a r x i s t r e v o l u t i o n a r i e s , t h e y i n d i c a t e a c e r t a i n d e p a r t u r e o f B r e c h t from d o c t r i n e , w h i c h b e l i e v e s i n th e masses, r a t h e r than p a r t i c u l a r i n d i v i d u a l s a s t h e a g e n t s o f s o c i a l change. Jeanne d'Arc i s l e s s a l e g e n d a r y f i g u r e t h a n a M a r x i s t r e v o l u t i o n a r y i n m e d i e v a l g a r b . ? ^ As might be e x p e c t e d , B r e c h t s t r e s s e s t h e p o l i t i c a l r a t h e r t h a n r e -l i g i o u s s i g n i f i c a n c e o f Jeanne's maityrdom and s e l f - s a c r i f i c e . T h i s i s shown by h e r d e c i s i o n t o r e j e c t h e r r e c a n t a t i o n and become an example o f r e s i s t a n c e . She d e o i d e s t o do so upon l e a r n i n g t h a t t h e p e o p l e ' s p i t y f o r h e r has become r e v o l u -t i o n a r y anger now d i r e c t e d a g a i n s t t h e E n g l i s h o c c u p a t i o n -a r y f o r c e s . The v o i c e s she h e a r s a r e t h o s e o f t h e p e o p l e , n o t t h o s e o f a n g e l s . Her martyrdom I s j u s t i f i a b l e f o r B r e c h t because i t b e n e f i t s t h e common man. I n D i e Gewehre, B r e c h t i n t e r p r e t s t h e i n d i v i d u a l ' s goodness a s a b e t r a y a l o f t h e i n t e r e s t s o f t h e p e o p l e . F r a u C a r r a r ' s l o v e f o r h e r son Jua n i s made t o appear 63 e x a g g e r a t e d and s e l f i s h . ? 5 Her p a c i f i s m and n e u t r a l i t y a r e condemned, a r e even t r a i t o r o u s ? ^ because h e r m o t i v e s f o r k e e p i n g J u a n out o f t h e S p a n i s h C i v i l War a r e p u r e l y p e r -s o n a l and a r e e c l i p s e d by a g r e a t e r n a t i o n a l need. B r e c h t warned i n t h i s p l a y t h a t m o t h e r - l o v e i s t o t a l l y i r r a t i o n a l and b l i n d s a p e r s o n to h i s p o l i t i c a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s . He r e j e c t s F r a u C a r r a r ' s and t h e Church's p a c i f i s m because i t a l l o w s t h e k i l l i n g o f t h e S p a n i s h p e o p l e t o c o n t i n u e un-opposed; t h e argument t h a t F r a u C a r r a r i s a g a i n s t t h e f r e e -dom f i g h t e r s because she i s n o t f o r them, r e i t e r a t e s t h e message o f t h e " L e h r s t U c k e " : o n l y s o l i d a r i t y and v i o l e n c e can a b o l i s h v i o l e n c e . As n o t e d i n C h a p t e r I V , B r e c h t had demanded t h a t man's p i t y f o r t h e s u p p r e s s e d become anger w h i c h would a b o l i s h t h e c a u s e s o f t h e i r s u f f e r i n g . I n the p l a y s w h i c h j u s t i f y t h e h e r o i c s e l f - s a c r i f i c e and martyrdom, he shows t h a t l o v e , n o b l e i d e a l i s m and p a t r i o t i s m must be t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o an a n g e r w h i c h s p u r s t h e p r o t a g o n i s t t o r e s i s t o p p r e s s i o n . F r a u C a r r a r ' s l o v e f o r J u a n becomes t h e anger t o avenge h i s murder. Her sudden r e v o l u t i o n a r y i d e a l i s m i s , however, not j u s t a d e s i r e f o r revenge; she w i s h e s t o a s s u r e f o r a l l men t h e freedom t o l i v e p e a c e f u l l y w h i c h was d e n i e d h e r husband, h e r son, and now h e r s e l f . Simone's l o v e f o r Andre*, h e r b r o t h e r , and h e r p a t r i o t i s m , t o o , a r e t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o anger when she w i t n e s s e s t h e o p p o r t u n i s m and c a p i t u l a t i o n o f t h e town's l e a d e r s : the i n n k e e p e r Soupeau, Mayor Chavez and C a p t a i n F£tain. Her a c t s o f sabotage and t h e martyrdom o f 6k h e r punishment i n s p i r e a s i m i l a r s p i r i t o f p a t r i o t i c r e s i s t a n c e i n the r e f u g e e s and t h e po o r . A n t i g o n e ' s r e b e l l i o n a g a i n s t Creon stems from h e r l o v e f o r h e r b r o t h -e r and from h e r h o r r o r a t t h e c o u r s e o f h e r u n c l e ' s p o l i t -i c a l a m b i t i o n s . H i s c r u e l s l a y i n g and h u m i l i a t i o n o f P o l y n e i k e s d e e p l y wounds A n t i g o n e ' s sense o f human decency, o u t r a g e s h e r f a m i l y honour and o f f e n d s h e r r e s p e c t f o r t h e gods. Her p e r s o n a l c e n s u r e o f Creon and h e r s i s t e r ' s cow-a r d l y c a p i t u l a t i o n t o him i n s p i r e h e r w i t h t h e courage t o expose h i s t y r a n n i c a l r u l e and i n c i t e t h e p e o p l e o f Thebes a g a i n s t him. I n M u t t e r Courage and i n P e r k a u k a s l s c h e K r e i d e k r e i s , B r e c h t p o r t r a y s a n o t h e r t y p e o f s e l f - a b n e g a t i o n , t h e ma-t e r n a l s a c r i f i c e . K a t t r i n and Grusche s y m b o l i z e f o r him t h e m o t h e r - p r o t e c t o r ; t h e y a r e Mother-Love p e r s o n i f i e d . He was p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t r i g u e d by t h e f i g u r e o f t h e mother. Two p l a y s b e a r the word " M u t t e r " i n t h e i r t i t l e s . No l e s s t h a n e l e v e n p l a y s ? ? p r e s e n t t h e mother o r t h e m o t h e r - f i g u r e ; most o f t h e s e works t r e a t h e r l o v e and h e r e f f o r t s t o save h e r son, h e r n a t i o n o r mankind. B r e c h t ' s f a s c i n a t i o n f o r t h e m a t e r n a l f i g u r e ? ^ was due, p e r h a p s , t o h i s r e s p e c t f o r t h e e t e r n a l p r i n c i p l e o f motherhood, f o r t h e mother's i n s t i n c t i v e r e a d i n e s s t o s a c r i f i c e h e r s e l f I n t h e s t r u g g l e t o p r e s e r v e t h e human r a c e . A l s o , t h e mother s y m b o l i z e d f o r B r e c h t c e r t a i n e v e r r e s u r g e n t a s p e c t s o f woman's n a t u r e : compassion, u n s e l f i s h n e s s and m a t e r n a l goodness. These were dynamic, v i t a l f o r c e s w h i c h a s s e r t e d t h e m s e l v e s c o u r a g e o u s l y when man 65 needed h e l p most. The s u r v i v a l o f B r e c h t 9 s t h r e e g r e a t e s t women, Mother Courage, Shen Te, and Gr u s c h e , t e a c h e s t h a t i n t i m e s o f want and danger, such p o w e r f u l m a t e r n a l i n s t i n c t s must be e i t h e r r u t h l e s s l y s uppressed o r c u n n i n g l y p r o t e c t e d . But K a t t r i n does n ot p o s s e s s t h e s e l f - c o n t r o l and c u n n i n g ne-c e s s a r y t o deny h e r in n e r m o s t y e a r n i n g s . I t was n e c e s s a y f o r Mother Courage t o guard a g a i n s t emotions o f sympathy, not o n l y i n h e r s e l f , but i n K a t t r i n , t o o . She was w o r r i e d t h a t K a t t r i n , t h e commiserable v i c t i m o f man's b r u t a l i t y , p i t i e d t h e h e l p l e s s t o t h e e x t e n t where i t endangered h e r own e x i s t e n c e . She warned K a t t r i n : "...du b i s t s e l b e r e i n K r e u z : du h a s t e i n g u t e s H e r z " (S, V I I , 77), and: " S e i n i c h t zu g u t m f t t i g , K a t t r i n , s e i s n i e mehr....Halt d i c h immer r e c h t s t i l l ? ( S, V I I , 78). K a t t r i n once r i s k e d h e r l i f e t o r e s c u e a baby from a b u r n i n g house, but was f o r c e d t o r e t u r n t h e c h i l d t o i t s mother. I t i s K a t t r i n ' s f a t e n e v e r t o become a mother and t o remain a " K i n d e r n a r r " (S, V I I , 157)• M u t t e r Courage t e a c h e s t h a t man i s b e t t e r o f f w i t h o u t a b s o l u t e v i r t u e s (Scene 9)» but K a t t r i n ' s h e r o i c s e l f - s a c r i f i c e g i v e s the l i e t o t h i s l e s s o n . A l t h o u g h she d i e s , t h e townspeople a r e s p a r e d . Her courageous a c t c a n not be d i s c r e d i t e d j u s t because she i s a " K i n d e r n a r r " . She does something w h i c h no one e l s e d a r e s t o do, and she su c c e e d s . She r e s i s t s armed m i g h t , whereas t h e pea s a n t f a m i l y c a p i t u l a t e s t o t h e s o l d i e r s i n o r d e r t o save t h e i r a n i m a l s . Grusche's i n i t i a l u n w i l l i n g n e s s t o r e s c u e t h e abandoned 66 M i c h a e l c o n t r a s t s w i t h K a t t r i n ' s spontaneous and compassion-a t e s e l f - s a c r i f i c e . Grusche i s w e l l aware t h a t h e r p i t y . f o r t h e c h i l d w i l l r e q u i r e g r e a t s e l f - a b n e g a t i o n and expose h e r t o v e r y r e a l d a n g e r s . L i k e K a t t r i n , h e r l a t e r a c t i o n s a l s o demonstrate- t h a t she i s u n a b l e to r e p r e s s h e r m a t e r n a l l o n g -i n g s and l o v e f o r t h e h e l p l e s s . U n l i k e K a t t r i n , she does p o s s e s s t h e v e r y r e a l q u a l i t i e s o f s e l f - c o n t r o l and c u n n i n g n e c e s s a r y t o ensure not o n l y t h e s u r v i v a l o f t h e c h i l d but t a l s o h e r own. Thanks t o t h i s p rudence, Grusche i s B r e c h t ' s f i r s t m a t e r n a l f i g u r e who i s ,able b o t h t o h e l p o t h e r s and t o a c h i e v e s e l f - f u l f i l l m e n t . What a change from t h e " L e h r s t Q c k e " w h i c h m a i n t a i n e d t h a t man does not and must n o t h e l p t h e p i t i a b l e i n d i v i d u a l ! A l s o , t h e v a l i d i t y o f B r e c h t ' s i n s i g h t i n t h e e a r l y p l a y s and o p e r a s t h a t t h e i n d i v i d u a l must be more co n c e r n e d w i t h h i s own w e l f a r e t h a n w i t h compassion f o r o t h e r s i s p a r t l y r e f u t e d i n Der k a u k a s l s c h e K r e i d e k r e i s — even by t h e m a l e s — f o r G r u sche's fia n c e " Simon, h e r "husband" J u s s u p ( a B i b l i c a l J o s e p h ? ) , and t h e s y m p a t h e t i c Azdak a s s i s t Grusche when she needs h e l p most. Der k a u k a s l s c h e K r e i d e k r e i s s t a n d s a p a r t from a l l o t h e r p l a y s o f B r e c h t . I t s f o r t u i t o u s and f a i r y t a l e - l i k e c o n c l u s i o n i s an e x c e p t i o n t o h i s f r e q u e n t l y d i s a s t r o u s o r p e s s i m i s t i c e n d i n g s . I n no o t h e r drama do a l l t h e poor e x p e r i e n c e such a h e l p f u l form o f j u s t i c e a s h e r e . T h i s i s because B r e c h t was so i n t e r e s t e d e l s e w h e r e i n showing i n j u s t i c e and t e a c h -i n g t h a t b r u t a l , r e a l i s t i c means had t o be used t o a b o l i s h i t . T h i s p l a y i s a l s o t h e o n l y work I n w h i c h s e l f - a b n e g a t i o n 67 b e n e f i t s t h e p r o t a g o n i s t , t h e f i g u r e o f t h e mother. As a r e s u l t , Grusche r e p r e s e n t s t h e t r i u m p h o f t h e m a t e r n a l i n s t i n c t . Even though t h e i n d i v i d u a l ' s sympathy sometimes f a v o u r s t h e o p p r e s s e d and needy, the M a r x i s t B r e c h t c l a i m s ' ^ t h a t t h e a c t o f h e l p i s f u t i l e because i t o f f e r s o n l y temporary r e l i e f . I t cannot change a d v e r s e c o n d i t i o n s ; i t may p r o l o n g an a l r e a d y u n f o r t u n a t e s i t u a t i o n w h i c h no a c t o f l o v e o r k i n d n e s s can a l t e r . On t h e one hand, K a . t t r i n ' s s a c r i f i c e i s f u t i l e from t h e M a r x i s t p o i n t o f view^Shat i t does n ot b r i n g about s o c i a l change. B u t , on t h e o t h e r , B r e c h t j u s t i -f i e s h e r deed m o r a l l y i n terms o f t h e good i t a c c o m p l i s h e s . H i s f r e q u e n t p o r t r a y a l o f t h e m a t e r n a l s e l f - s a c r i f i c e r e v e a l s i t s q u a l i t y o f g r e a t n e s s . He c o n s i d e r e d t h i s g e s t u r e t h e most t r u t h f u l e x p r e s s i o n o f woman's s i n c e r i t y and l o v e . Her a c t i s a l s o g r e a t , because i t d e f e n d s t h e r i g h t t o l i f e o f o t h e r s i n s p i t e o f c o n d i t i o n s , w h i c h , a c c o r d i n g t o B r e c h t , make most men i g n o b l e and i n s i n c e r e . Simone, A n t i g o n e and Jeanne d'Arc a r e s t u d i e s i n t h e j u s t i f i c a t i o n o f martyrdom and t h e h e r o i c s e l f - s a c r i f i c e ; i n c o n t r a s t , t h e N e i n s a g e r , G a l i l e i , Keuner, Schweyk and Azdak a r e p o r t r a i t s o f t h e r e p u d i a t i o n o f martyrdom and h e r o i s m . Between t h e s e groups s t a n d B r e c h t ' s t e s t i m o n i e s t o t h e f u t i l i t y and g r e a t n e s s o f t h e m a t e r n a l s a c r i f i c e , Mother Courage and Shen Te. M u t t e r Courage r e p e a t s B r e c h t ' s argument c o n t a i n e d i n 68 D i e D r e i g r o s c h e n o p e r and Mahagonny t h a t man's h e a r t l e s s n e s s r e s u l t s from t h e . f a c t t h a t p i t y f o r o t h e r s i s i m p o s s i b l e because i t i s e c o n o m i c a l l y r u i n o u s f o r o n e s e l f . B r e c h t shows t h a t f o r y e a r s Mother Courage i s a b l e t o s t r a n g l e h e r u r g e t o h e l p ; she t r a n s f o r m s compassion i n t o p h i l o s o p h i c humour and f o r c e d i n d i f f e r e n c e . Her e x p e r i e n c e o f l i f e ' s s t r u g g l e has t a u g h t h e r t o r e f r a i n from making m a t e r i a l and p e r s o n a l s a c r i f i c e s f o r o t h e r s . F o r example, she would l i k e t o keep h e r o f f i c e r s ' s h i r t s i n o r d e r t o s e l l them l a t e r f o r a p r o f i t , but K a t t r i n and t h e C h a p l a i n , overcome w i t h p i t y f o r t h e wounded p e a s a n t s , compel h e r t o g i v e up t h e l i n e n f o r n o t h i n g . The sutler-woman does succeed i n i g n o r i n g t h e C h a p l a i n ' s p l e a t o r e s c u e a c h i l d and a n o t h e r p e r s o n from the b u r n i n g farmhouse. Her prudence does not l e t h e r f o r g e t h e r f i n a n c i a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y toward K a t t r i n and h e r s e l f . She b e l i e v e s t h a t she can n e v e r a f f o r d t o a s s i s t o t h e r s , whether she i s c a l l e d upon t o save th e l i f e o f one o f h e r own c h i l d r e n o r anybody e l s e . On a n o t h e r o c c a s i o n , under the p r e s s u r e o f t i m e , she r e s i s t s f o r s e v e r a l p r e c i o u s m i n u t e s th e n e c e s s i t y o f s a c r i f i c i n g h e r wagon t o save S w i s s Cheese; s i n c e her b u s i n e s s depends oh t h i s v e h i c l e , she h e s i t a t e s ; she f e a r s t h a t p o v e r t y and s t a r v a t i o n w i l l be t h e l o t o f h e r s e l f and h e r c h i l d r e n i f she s e l l s t o Y v e t t e . A l t h o u g h she f i n a l l y does d e c i d e t o p a r t w i t h t h e wagon, she u n i n t e n t i o n a l l y i s saved from h a v i n g t o do so by t h e sound o f the s h o t s w h i c h k i l l S w i s s Cheese. S h o r t l y a f t e r w a r d , h e r song, MDas L i e d von d e r groBen K a p l t u l a t i o n " , i n d i c a t e s t h a t she resettles once 69 again to follow consistently her doctrine of expediency and p r o f i t . She prefers not to protest the i n j u s t i c e of her fine and the damage done to her vehicles "Warum, wenn Ich aufmuck, mSchts das Geschaft schadigen" (S, VII, 13*0. It i s i r o n i c a l that several years l a t e r , when reduced to begging f o r food, she and the cook sing another song, "Das Lied von Salomon... und andere groBe Geister, denens nicht geniitzt hat" (S, VII, 184-188), which advises man to r e j e c t the cardinal v i r t u e s , among them the urge to help the needyI It i s amusing that both Mother Courage and the cook claim to practice the v i r -tues of t h e i r song when r e a l l y , they are most successful i n r e j e c t i n g them: "...wenn wir anders waren...mochten wir v i e l l e i c h t satt sein..." (S, VII, 187). The fact i s , they are already "anders" and yet they are starving. Conditions are so bad that to stay a l i v e even without these v i r t u e s i s a herculean f e a t . On t h i s occasion Mother Courage has to make what i s perhaps the most poignant decision of her l i f e : to leave with the cook or to stay with K a t t r i n , to be callous and have enough to eat, or to be compassionate and r i s k star-vation. Mother Courage had warned the cook that K a t t r i n made her own already d i f f i c u l t l i f e even more d i f f i c u l t , because she was so compassionate: "Die l e i d e t am M i t l e i d " ( S , VII, 184). Nevertheless, i t i s t h i s apparently helpless daughter who f i n a l l y elicitssMother Courage's p i t y . Her willingness to remain with Kattrin,and her spontaneous sympathy contrast with the business-like p i t i l e s s n e s s ("...er hat ein Kopf ftlrs Geschaft..." S, VII, 182) of the cook: "Das war recht 70 u n v e r n t i n f t i g , M he s a y s , M i c h k o n n t s a b e r n i c h t a n d e rn. I c h b i n k e i n Unmensch, n u r , das W i r t s h a u s i s t e i n k l e i n e s " (S, V I I , 188). A c t u a l l y , he i s t h e m i r r o r - i m a g e o f Mother Courage h e r s e l f . She has a l s o had M e i n Kopf f u r s G e s c h a f t " , has been " k e i n Unmensch", has been r e a s o n a b l e about t h i n g s . But from Mother Courage's p r e s e n t p o i n t o f v i e w , he i s i n -human, and she knows she would be inhuman, t o o , i f she de-s e r t e d K a t t r i n . Her d e c i s i o n t o re m a i n w i t h h e r da u g h t e r and g i v e up t h e s e c u r i t y o f t h e cook's l i t t l e i n n i s h e r most humane a c t . I t r e p r e s e n t s a complete r e v e r s a l o f v a l u e s , a r e p u d i a t i o n o f h e r former c o n s i d e r a t i o n s o f e x p e d i e n c y . Her r e s o l u t i o n i s h e r o i c . Her s a c r i f i c e i s b o t h f u t i l e and g r e a t . F u t i l e , because h e r s i t u a t i o n r emains unchanged; th e s t r u g g l e o f e k i n g out a l i v i n g from t h e war i s a c h a l -l e n g e w h i c h she i s d e s t i n e d t o l o s e . G r e a t , because h e r cou r a g e , b l i n d o p t i m i s m , and m a t e r n a l compassion g i v e h e r the s t r e n g t h t o p l a c e f o r t h e f i r s t t i me human v a l u e s above m a t e r i a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s and even above h e r own s u r v i v a l . B r e c h t wrote M u t t e r Courage (1939) and Der gute Mensch (1938-1940) c o n c u r r e n t l y , a s t h e d a t e s o f c o m p o s i t i o n sug-g e s t . Hence, i t i s n o t s u r p r i s i n g t h a t t he two p l a y s b e a r c l o s e r e s e m b l a n c e s t o each o t h e r . I n M u t t e r Courage, The T h i r t y Y e a r s ' W a r — B r e c h t * s f a v o r i t e image o f t h e s u r v i v a l s t r u g g l e was w a r — i s p o r t r a y e d a s an economic u n d e r t a k i n g . An economic war i s a l s o t h e s e t t i n g o f P e r gute Mensch. I f Shen Te p e r s o n i f i e s a n a t u r a l law:, l o v e f o r mankind, h e r a l t e r ego, S h u i Ta, p e r s o n i f i e s a n o t h e r n a t u r a l l a w: 71 man's r u t h l e s s n e s s i n t h e s u r v i v a l s t r u g g l e . I n terms o f p i t y , Shen Te i s an e l e v a t e d ( g e s t e i g e r t e ) K a t t r i n , but w i t h a d u a l n a t u r e , t h e r a t i o n a l p a r t o f w h i c h c o r r e s p o n d s more c l o s e l y t o Mother Courage. The problems o f p i t y and l o v e w h i c h were so d i s a s t r o u s f o r K a t t r i n and Mother Courage p r o v e a l s o t o be Shen Te's u n d o i n g . Her l o v e f o r h e r n e i g h -b o u r s and h e r l o v e f o r Yang Sun t h r e a t e n h e r r u i n . Her l o v e f o r h e r u n b o r n c h i l d f o r c e s h e r t o defend b o t h i t and h e r s e l f , w i t h a m e r c a n t i l e s p i r i t i n f i n i t e l y more h e a r t l e s s t h a n t h a t o f Mother Courage} i n d e e d , a s S h u i Ta ( t h e "Tabak-k S n i g " ) , Shen Te i s t h e c a p i t a l i s t t e r r o r P i e r p o n t M a u l e r ( t h e " F l e l s c h k o n i g " ) r e i n c a r n a t e d . B o t h Mother Courage and Y v e t t e had warned a g a i n s t t h e c o n f u s i o n o f an o v e r p o w e r i n g l o v e ; t h e y i r o n i c a l l y c a l l e d t h i s l o v e a "Himmelsmacht" (S, V I I , 1 9 8 ) . Y v e t t e ' s h e l p l e s s l o v e f o r t h e cook, P f e i f e n p i e t e r , caused h e r t o end a s a p r o s t i t u t e . Mother Courage c a u t i o n e d K a t t r i n t h a t l o v e would e n s l a v e h e r , too ( S , V I I , 98). Because Shen Te l o v e s her n e i g h b o u r s and Sun, t h e y appear more h e l p l e s s t o h e r t h a n t h e y r e a l l y a r e . T h e i r need f o r h e r l o v e i s , however, p u r e l y economic. They r e c o g n i z e t h a t s i n c e h e r u r g e t o do good i s so s t r o n g , h e r r e a s o n i s p o w e r l e s s t o p r e v e n t h e r good deeds. S h u i Ta c h a r a c t e r i z e s l o v e a s t h e most f a t a l and e x p e n s i v e o f a l l weaknesses; o f t e n t h e spokesman f o r t h e M a r x i s t B r e c h t , he blames s o c i e t y f o r Sun's want and g r e e d : "Was 1 s t das f t i r e i n e W e l t ? / D i e L i e b k o s u n g e n gehen i n Wiirgungen u b e r " ( S , V I I I , 309). I f t h i s i s t r u e o f Sun, i t i s a l s o t r u e o f 72 Shen Te. Her d e c i s i o n to suppress her sympathetic emotions and become Shui Ta i l l u s t r a t e s once a g a i n Brecht's c o n v i c -t i o n t h a t i f man p i t i e s o t h e r s f o r v e r y l o n g , he b r i n g s on h i s own r u i n . Shui Ta a l s o i l l u s t r a t e s another a s p e c t o f B r e c h t ' s polemic i n Mutter Courage; t h a t s o c i a l and economic i n j u s t i c e s f o r c e man to become e v i l . The cook i n Mutter Courage p r o t e s t e d t h a t he was not inhuman, but c o n d i t i o n s f o r c e d him to be reasonable about matters. Shui Ta i s so r e a s o n a b l e t h a t a l l whom he e x p l o i t s c a l l him inhuman (Scene 10). Der gute Mensch shows t h a t i n the s t r u g g l e w i t h economic i n t e r e s t s , human i n t e r e s t s have to take second p l a c e . The p l a y teaches t h a t the c a p i t a l i s t s y s t e m — a s Brecht claimed to view i t h e r e — c o u l d never p r o v i d e the i d e a l s o c i e t y ^ i n which man's goodness would prove b e n e f i c i a l to h i s own w e l f a r e . I t i s s t r i k i n g t h a t Brecht f e l t human i n t e r e s t s would have to come b e f o r e economic i n t e r e s t s i n t h i s i d e a l s o c i e t y ; but t h i s was more the dream o f Brecht the M a r x i s t v i s i o n a r y than o f Brecht the r e a l i s t . As a r e a l i s t , he saw q u i t e c l e a r l y t h a t because the economic s o l u t i o n was more p r e s s i n g , a s o l u t i o n to the moral problem would have to w a i t . The d u a l i s m o f B r e c h t ' s p r o t a g o n i s t s , and t h e i r c o n f l i c t between good and e v i l are a product o f Brecht's own dilemma and d u a l i s m as a r e a l i s t i c o b server o f human nature and a p o l i t i c a l i d e a l i s t . U n d e r l y i n g Mutter Courage and Der gute Mensch i s a problem which d i s t u r b e d the M a r x i s t m o r a l i s t g r e a t l y . Man d i d not t r y to f i n d a s o l u t i o n to the causes 73 o f i n j u s t i c e ; i n s t e a d , he would r e p e a t e d l y t a k e p i t y on t h e s u f f e r i n g . The r e a l i s t B r e c h t knew t h a t man would remain t r u e t o h i s n a t u r e , but the M a r x i s t wanted man to s u b o r d i -n a t e human, n a t u r e t o p o l i t i c a l t h e o r y . I n the " E p i l o g " o f Der gute Mensch. B r e c h t d i s c u s s e d t h i s dilemma; he s t a t e d he c o u l d not r e s o l v e i t ; h i s remark i s o n l y p a r t l y t r u e . He wanted t h e a u d i e n c e t o t h i n k f o r t h e m s e l v e s . Of c o u r s e , t h e M a r x i s t B r e c h t had a s o l u t i o n , h i s p a t e n t one, but he had t o c l o s e h i s eyes t o t h e f a c t t h a t i t would cause a s much s u f f e r i n g a s S h u i Ta's, the c a p i t a l i s t ' s , s o l u t i o n : Was konnt d i e Losung s e i n ? . W i r k o n n t e n k e i n e f i n d e n , n i c h t e i n m a l f u r G e l d . S o l i es e i n a n d r e r Mensch s e i n ? Oder e l n e andre W e l t ? V i e l l e i c h t n u r andere G o t t e r ? Oder k e i n e ? W i r s i n d z e r s c h m e t t e r t und n i c h t n u r zum S c h e i n e t S, V I I I , 407 The t h e o r i s t would have l i k e d t h e s p e c t a t o r t o answer "Yes" t o each o f t h e s e q u e s t i o n s . I t i s t r u e t h a t n e i t h e r M u t t e r Courage nor P e r gute Mensch g i v e s any s p e c i f i c d i r e c t i o n s how t o a l t e r s o c i e t y , ^ y e t i t i s c l e a r , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n P e r g u t e Mensch, t h a t B r e c h t " s argument f o r r e v o l u t i o n a r y v i o l e n c e was the o n l y c o r r e c t i v e a c c e p t a b l e t o him. Shen Te's r e a s o n a c h i e v e s one o f h e r ends, but p r e c l u d e s a n o t h e r , h e r d e s i r e t o do good. Her dilemma was a l s o t h a t o f t h e p o l i t i c a l B r e c h t ; deep down, i t p a i n e d him t h a t man c o u l d a c c o m p l i s h t h e r e v o l u t i o n o n l y by f i r s t s u p p r e s s i n g h i s k i n d n e s s . H i s poem "An d i e Nachgeborenen" r e f l e c t s h i s c h a g r i n , t h a t h i s own good i n t e n t i o n s made him a monster: 74 "Ach w i r , / Die wir den Boden b e r e i t e n w o l l t e n f u r Freund-l i c h k e i t / Konnten s e l b e r n i c h t f r e u n d l i c h s e i n " (G, IV, 1*5). K a t t r i n , Shen Te, and Grusche are as humane as anybody i n B r e c h t * s world can be. And al t h o u g h Shen Te and Grusche have to d e c e i v e o t h e r s i n o r d e r to do the good, t h e i r v e r y human f a i l i n g s a r e atoned f o r by the goodness o f t h e i r i n -t e n t i o n s . T h e i r r e i n e M G t t e r l l c h k e i t i s a k i n to the " r e i n e M e n s c h l i c h k e i t " found i n I p h i g e n i e , about whom Goethe wrote: 82 " A l l e menschliche Gebrechen / Siihnet r e i n e M e n s c h l i c h k e i t " . To be sure, n e i t h e r Shen Te nor Grusche possesses I p h i g e n i e ' s a b i l i t y to b r i n g about a moral r e g e n e r a t i o n i n o t h e r s , but they do p o s s e s s — a n d o n l y whenever c o n d i t i o n s p e r m i t — a s i m i l a r power of s e l f - r e n u n c i a t i o n which a l l o w s them to a-ch i e v e t h e i r i d e a l : to be good, f r i e n d l y , and to pre s e r v e the l i v e s o f o t h e r s . In Schweyk lm zweiten W e l t k r i e g and Der kaukasische K r e i d e k r e i s , Brecht regards heroism from the vantage p o i n t of the common man®-^ who i s most concerned w i t h h i s own sur-v i v a l . L i k e the suppressed i n Das Verhor, B r e c h t ' s exagger-at e d f i g u r e s o f the unh e r o i c hero, Schweyk and Azdak, r e j e c t wars as power s t r u g g l e s i n s t i g a t e d by the r i c h and p a i d f o r by the poor. Schweyk i r o n i c a l l y m a i n t a i n s that m i l i t a r y l e a d e r s must g i v e up t h e i r ambitions because the l i t t l e man musters no enthusiasm f o r world conquest, and c o n s i d e r s even "das Heldentum" (S,X, 25) s u p e r f l u o u s . Instead, the l i t t l e 75 man p r e f e r s , l i k e Schweyk, the s i m p l e p l e a s u r e s o f food and d r i n k . B o t h Schweyk and Azdak l i v e i n an age o f war; t h e y know t h a t t o o f f e n d the m i l i t a r y i s to f a c e punishment o r d e a t h . Yet b o t h men manoeuvre t h e m s e l v e s p u r p o s e l y , as i t were, i n t o s i t u a t i o n s i n w h i c h i t i s l i k e l y t h a t t h e y may be e x e c u t e d . Schweyk's l o v e o f i r o n y l e a d s him t o mock the r i d i c u l o u s n e s s o f H i t l e r and t h e N a z i war machine t o such an e x t e n t t h a t B r e t t s c h n e i d e r a r r e s t s him. Azdak b e l i e v e s so s t r o n g l y t h a t a new age o f j u s t i c e and e q u a l i t y has come t h a t he w i l l i n g l y g i v e s h i m s e l f up a s an enemy o f t h e p e o p l e ; he has l e t t h e Grand Duke escape. B o t h Schweyk and Azdak f a c e judgment, t h e former by a group he d e s p i s e s , t h e l a t t e r by a c o u r t he e r r o n e o u s l y r e s p e c t s . What a r e t h e i r r e a s o n s f o r s e e k i n g t h e i r own d e s t r u c t i o n ? Schweyk would l i k e h i s c o u n t r y t o be r i d o f t h e N a z i s , but i t i s too dangerous o p e n l y t o oppose them; t h e r e f o r e , he r e s o r t s t o i r o n y , and o b t a i n s h i s p e r s o n a l s a t i s f a c t i o n i n t h i s way. He f e e l s he cannot come t o g r i e f . Long e x p e r i e n c e has ta u g h t him t h a t h i s d o u b l e t a l k , c h e e r f u l s u b s e r v i e n c e , and d i s a r m i n g s e l f - p r o s -t r a t i o n so e f f e c t i v e l y hoodwink t h e N a z i s t h a t t h e y d i s m i s s him as an i d i o t . The o n l y way, he s u g g e s t s , t o a v o i d i m p r i s -onment o r c o n s c r i p t i o n , i s t o c a p i t u l a t e . He r e l a t e s how he duped S c h a r f t i h r e r B u l l i n g e r : M I n s o l c h e n Z e i t e n muB man s i c h u n t e r w e r f e n . Es i s t (jbungssache. I c h hab ihm d i e Hand g e l e c k t " (S,X, 43). But why does h i s c o u n t e r p a r t , Azdak, g i v e h i m s e l f up t o 76 the s o l d i e r s ? I s he a masochist? To some extent, perhaps; but he i s , s u r p r i s i n g l y , a l s o a d i s a p p o i n t e d i d e a l i s t whose c o r r u p t p r a c t i c e s d u r i n g the v a r i o u s governments o f the p r i n c e s d e r i v e from h i s c o n v i c t i o n that h i s honourable be-h a v i o u r i n an age of tyranny would be waste and s t u p i d i t y . Azdak s u f f e r s g r e a t l y from the i n j u s t i c e s o f the o l d regime. Schauwa, the policeman, who r e p r e s e n t s t h i s i n j u s t i c e , i s a t h o r n i n Azdak"s s i d e . J u s t as Schweyk's o n l y weapon a g a i n s t the N a z i s i s mockery, A z d a k 0 s s o l e defence a g a i n s t Schauwa Is s c o r n . Azdak g i v e s h i m s e l f up, because b e i n g punished by a p e o p l e ' s c o u r t w i l l g i v e him the s a t i s f a c t i o n of knowing t h a t a golden age of j u s t i c e f o r the common man has a t l a s t , a r r i v e d . Azdak*s urgent d e s i r e to experience such j u s t i c e seems more p l a u s i b l e when compared to a s i m i l a r wish t h a t Brecht made i n an e a r l y (1926?) poem, "Das zehnte Sonett" (G, I I , 1 4 7 ) : Es I s t mir g l e i c h , ob d i e s e Welt mich l i e b t S e l t i c h h i e r wohn,. drang manches an mein Ohr Und i c h b e h a l t mir jede P e i g h e i t v o r Jedoch v e r d r l e B t es mich, daB es n i c h t GroBe g i b t . Und war e i n T i s c h und saBen GroBe d o r t I c h saBe g e m a l s Mindester am T i s c h Und war e i n F i s c h , i c h aB den Schwanz vom F i s c h Und k r i e g t * i c h n i c h t s , i c h ginge doch n i c h t f o r t . E i n Buch, das mir von solchem T i s c h e r z a h l t e ! Ach, gab's G e r e c h t i g k e i t J — und wenn s i e mir g l e i c h f e h l t e — So war i c h f r o h und t r a f e s i e s e l b s t mich. GIbt's a l l e s d i e s , und b i n i c h s e l b s t nur b l i n d ? Was i c h n i c h t g e m gesteh: gerade I c h Verachte s o l c h e , d i e im Ungliick s i n d . The poem i s i n c l u d e d i n i t s e n t i r e t y here because i t i s an 77 a s t o n i s h i n g l y f r a n k c o n f e s s i o n o f B recht*s thoughts and f e e l i n g s about I d e a l i s m and expediency. While suggesting p o s s i b l e reasons f o r the a c t i o n s of Schweyk, Azdak, and G a l i l e i , t h i s poem a l s o h e l p s to e s t a b l i s h t h a t each of these c h a r a c t e r s belongs to a continuum i n B recht's thought. T h e i r r e p u d i a t i o n o f h e r o i c a c t s p o i n t s to Brecht's l o n g -s t a n d i n g b e l i e f t h a t t h e r e i s no p o s s i b i l i t y of j u s t i c e i n the p r e s e n t age; a c c o r d i n g l y , Brecht m a i n t a i n s t h a t 'their opportunism and s e l f - p r o s t r a t i o n are v i n d i c a t e d . Azdak d i s c o v e r s , however, t h a t h i s optimism about the a r r i v a l o f the new age has clouded h i s judgment o f the m i l i t a r y ; they do not use the u p r i s i n g to overthrow the p r i n c e s . Rather, they have merely t r a n s f e r r e d t h e i r a l l e -g i a n c e from one p r i n c e to another, i n s t e a d o f to the commoners, as he had hoped. When he l e a r n s t h i s , he d e s p a i r s , h i d e s h i s head i n h i s hands, and shrewdly ponders h i s next move. I t i s a t t h i s p o i n t that Brecht a g a i n uses the m o t i f of d e n i a l o r r e c a n t a t i o n o f one's b e l i e f s . The m i l i t i a c h a l -l e n g e s Azdak, whereupon he r e v e r s e s h i s stand, c a l l s h i s song o f e q u a l i t y and freedom f a l s e , and d e n i e s b e l i e v i n g i n government by the p e o p l e . L a t e r , when N a t e l l a A b a s c h w i l i , the governor's w i f e , r e t u r n s , Azdak a g a i n r e f u s e s to r e s i s t the new regime; he p r e f e r s not to defend h i s s e c r e t i d e a l i s m : MAus. Aber i c h werd niemand den G e f a l i e n tun, menschliche Gr6*Be zu z e i g e n " (S, X, 275)• He makes a show o f consent to N a t e l l a A b a s c h w i l i ' s demands, c a l l i n g h i m s e l f "Eine w i l l -f a h r i g e [Person), d i e zu D i e n s t e n s t e h t " (S, X, 275). Instead 78 * o f r e m a i n i n g and a c c e p t i n g the new regime as do t h e s o l d i e r s , Azdak t r i e s t o r u n away. He does so, not because i t i s a-g a i n s t h i s e t h i c s t o s e r v e t h e regime he h a t e s , but be-cause he i s a f r a i d o f d e a t h : " I c h hab T o d e s f u r c h t " (S, X, 275)• Azdak has a c o u s i n i n G a l i l e i who a l s o f e a r s p h y s i c a l p a i n . I n b o t h f i g u r e s , B r e c h t p o r t r a y s t h e emotions o f c o w a r d i c e , e i t h e r t o d i s c r e d i t a p p a r e n t h e r o i s m , as i n the case o f Azdak, o r t o p r e v e n t h e r o i s m and martyrdom, a s w i t h G a l i l e i . A zdak r e a l i z e s t h a t i t i s o n l y a q u e s t i o n o f time b e f o r e t h e regime o f t h e Grand Duke w i l l e x e c u t e him f o r d i s p e n s i n g an a r b i t r a r y j u s t i c e a t t h e expense o f t h e w e a l t h y . Azdak i s n e i t h e r a s o c i a l r e f o r m e r , n o r a f i g h t e r f o r h i s p o e t i c v i s i o n o f a s o c i e t y r u l e d by t h e common man. He can see no b e n e f i t f o r h i m s e l f by r e m a i n i n g Judge. He has no i n -t e n t i o n o f s a c r i f i c i n g h i m s e l f f o r t h e p e o p l e who show so l i t t l e a b i l i t y and d e s i r e t o defend o r h e l p t h e m s e l v e s . He t e l l s Grusche t h a t he blames them f o r t h e i r own m i s f o r t u n e : " I h r s e i d b l S d . Es 1 s t n u r r e c h t , daB i h r ' s a u f den D e c k e l k r i e g t " ( S , X, 292). C o n s e q u e n t l y , he i s o n l y e x e r c i s i n g h i s common sense when he y i e l d s t o h i s f e a r o f d e a t h : "Denn i c h l e g den R i c h t e r r o c k ab, w e l l e r m i r zu h e i B geworden 1 s t . I c h mach" keinem den He l d e n " (S, X, 299) • I n Schweyk t h e r e i s a " d i c k e F r a u " who s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e p e o p l e t h e m s e l v e s a r e p a r t l y t o blame f o r t h e p r e s e n c e o f t h e N a z i t y r a n t s : " . . . m i r s i n m i t s c h u l d . I c h kennt m i r v o r -s t e l l n , daB man mehr machet a l s S l i b o w i t z t r i n k n und W i t z e " (S, X, 54). Her o b e s i t y i m p l i e s t h a t she i s n e i t h e r a 79 r e s i s t a n c e w o r k e r n o r someone who w o r r i e s v e r y much about H i t l e r . Naming her " d i e d i c k e Frau", B r e c h t as much as a s k s : "What i s t h e most l i k e l y r e a s o n she i s f a t i n w a r t i m e ? " I t i s o b v i o u s t h a t she, t o o , has c a p i t u l a t e d t o t h e i n v a d e r s . She does r e c o g n i z e t h e p a s s i v i t y o f the p e o p l e , but she does n o t h i n g t o oppose the N a z i s . Schweyk comments t h a t t h e o n l y form o f r e s i s t a n c e p o s s i b l e i s t o s u f f e r d o m i n a t i o n and q u i e t l y s u r v i v e : " V e r l a n g e n s n i c h t zu v i e l v o n s i c h . Es 1 s t schon v i e l , wenn man tiberhaupt noch da i s h e u t z u t a g . Da i s man l e i c h t so b e s c h e f t i g t m i t I e b e r l e b n , daB man zu n i x a n d e m kommt" (S,X, 5 * ) • B r e c h t i s a l s o i r o n i z i n g t h e f a c t t h a t i n t i m e s o f danger, man i s by n a t u r e o f t e n too l e t h a r g i c and t o o s e l f i s h t o r i s k any form o f p r o t e s t . A z d a k 1 s s e l f - p r o s t r a t i o n b e f o r e t h e r u l e r s i s a r e f u -t a t i o n o f h e r o i c r e s i s t a n c e a g a i n s t i m p o s s i b l e odds. Schweyk, t o o , p r o s t r a t e s h i m s e l f , but w i t h an i r o n y w h i c h i s h i s o n l y s u b s t i t u t e f o r o v e r t r e b e l l i o n . He cannot a f f o r d t o be h e r o i c . Not u n l i k e Azdak o r Schweyk i s Egge i n Keuner's l i t t l e s t o r y "MaBnahmen gegen d i e G e w a l t " . Egge a l s o sees the f u t i l i t y i n r e s i s t i n g a s u p e r i o r f o r c e . He makes a show o f c o n s e n t t o the a u t h o r i t i e s w h i l e c h e r i s h i n g a s i l e n t d i s a g r e e m e n t , u n t i l i t i s w i s e , t h a t i s , s a f e , to show any o p p o s i t i o n . B r e c h t i s i n s i s t e n t about t e a c h i n g such u n h e r o i c , s u b m i s s i v e b e h a v i o u r . A n o t h e r example i n Schweyk i s F r a u Kopecka. She t r i e s t o d e f e n d h e r honour a g a i n s t S c h a r f u h r e r B u l l i n g e r ' s a c c u s a t i o n s and i s s t r u c k down; l a t e r she shows she has l e a r n e d h e r l e s s o n , when she s i n g s i n the. " L i e d vom • K e l c h * " * M E h r e t r a g t n u r Schaden" (S, X, 121). 80 Schweyk and Azdak do not c o n t e m p l a t e s e l f - s a c r i f i c e o r r e s i s t a n c e . They a r e too r e a l i s t i c t o b e l i e v e t h a t t h e y c o u l d t h e r e b y b r i n g about s o c i a l change. They a l s o know t h a t t h e f o r c e s o f o p p r e s s i o n a r e t o o g r e a t , and t h a t the p e o p l e share t h e i r c o n v i c t i o n s o f t h e h o p e l e s s n e s s o f r e b e l l i o n . They i l l u s t r a t e B r e c h t * s p r a g m a t i c b e l i e f t h a t i t i s not f o r t h e s m a l l man t o be a h e r o , f o r he a l w a y s l o s e s . Egge t e a c h e s t h i s , t o o . I n Schweyk, B r e c h t p a r o d i e s the h e r o i c p r o t a g o n i s t who s a c r i f i c e s h i m s e l f f o r t h e w e l f a r e o f o t h e r s . The h e r o i c a c t becomes a comic, o r r a t h e r , r i d i c u -l o u s s a c r i f i c e . Schweyk i n t e r c e d e s i n t h e a f f a i r o f t h e b u t c h e r e d dog i n o r d e r t o save h i s f r i e n d s B a l o u n and F r a u Kopecka from N a z i b r u t a l i t y . From t h a t p o i n t on, h i s h e r o i s m i s made t o appear a b s u r d and g r o t e s q u e . War and m i l i t a r y government a r e common t o t h e s e two p l a y s and t h e Keuner s t o r y . B r e c h t s t r e s s e d t h a t a l l t h e l i t t l e man c o u l d do under such c o n d i t i o n s , was t o hope t h a t t i m e s would soon change. Such o p t i m i s m u n d e r l i e s Egge's s i l e n c e i n "MaBnahmen", a s w e l l a s i n the song, "Das L i e d v o n d e r Moldau", i n Schweyk. Egge, Azdak, and Schweyk have no d i f f i c u l t y d e c i d i n g whether t o r e s i s t o r c a p i t u l a t e . T h e i r r e a d y and even o u t -w a r d l y c h e e r f u l s e l f - p r o s t r a t i o n does n ot produce an i n n e r c o n f l i c t between what i s e x p e d i e n t and what i s h o n o u r a b l e ; t h e y do not b e t r a y an i d e a l o f h e r o i s m , because none o f them a c c e p t s t h e v a l i d i t y o f such a c o n c e p t . The p o t e n t i a l hero o r m a r t y r s h o u l d have a sense o f r e s p o n s i b i l i t y w h i c h e n a b l e s 81 him t o s t r u g g l e i d e a l i s t i c a l l y and u n s e l f i s h l y f o r a cause. N e i t h e r Schweyk n o r Azdak p o s s e s s e s cause o r r e s p o n s i b i l i t y beyond h i m s e l f . T h i s s i t u a t i o n changes p a r t l y w i t h G a l i l e i . B r e c h t w r o t e two German v e r s i o n s o f Leben des G a l i l e i , i n b o t h o f w h i c h G a l i l e i r e c a n t s . The e s s e n t i a l d i f f e r e n c e between t h e two i s t h e changed f o u r t e e n t h scene and B r e c h t * s d i f f e r e n t a t t i t u d e toward G a l i l e i , w h i c h changes from a p p r o v a l t o d i s a p p r o v a l . I n the f i r s t v e r s i o n , t h i s scene shows G a l -i l e i a s an u n h e r o i c hero and a champion o f t r u t h . I n t h e r e v i s e d f o u r t e e n t h scene i n t h e second v e r s i o n , G a l i l e i con-demns h i m s e l f a s a c r i m i n a l and a coward. I t seems t h a t i t was n o t u n t i l t h e e x p l o s i o n o f t h e a t o m i c bomb i n 19*5 t h a t B r e c h t r e a l i z e d t h e u n i v e r s a l i m p l i c a t i o n s o f G a l i l e i ' s r e c a n t a t i o n s "Der i n f e r n a l l s c h e E f f e k t d e r GroBen Bombe s t e l l t e den K o n f l i k t des G a l i l e i m i t d e r O b r i g k e i t s e i n e r Z e i t i n e i n neues, s c h S r f e r e s L i c h t " (S, V I I I , 201). B r e c h t r e a l i z e d t h a t h i s a p p r o v a l o f G a l i l e i ' s r e c a n t a t i o n c o u l d m i s t a k e n l y be i n t e r p r e t e d a s prdlse o f t h e s c i e n t i s t whose c a p i t u l a t i o n p e r m i t t e d h i s o p p r e s s o r s t o abuse h i s d i s c o v e r i e s . He b e l i e v e d t h a t he had made G a l i l e i b e t r a y a p o s s i b l e r e v o l u -t i o n and i g n o r e t h e w e l f a r e o f mankind by r e c a n t i n g . More t h a n t w e n t y - f i v e y e a r s e a r l i e r , B r e c h t had made a s i m i l a r m i s -judgment i n Trommeln i n d e r Nacht. D e s i r i n g t o p o r t r a y K r a g -l e r a s an a n t i - h e r o , B r e c h t had him t u r n h i s back on t h e Spar-t a c u s u p r i s i n g . B r e c h t w r i t e s i n b o t h c a s e s t h a t he had made g r a v e e r r o r s , t h a t i s , t h e M a r x i s t had.^-^ 82 The f i r s t t h i r t e e n scenes o f t h e p l a y remain e s s e n t i a l -l y unchanged. They show a G a l i l e i whose b e h a v i o u r i s con-s i s t e n t w i t h t h a t o f many o f B r e c h t * s l a t e r u n h e r o i c h e r o e s . B o t h Schweyk and Azdak, f o r example, were c h a r a c t e r i z e d i n t h e manner o f G a l i l e i s e v e r a l y e a r s a f t e r B r e c h t had w r i t t e n t h e f i r s t v e r s i o n o f Leben des G a l i l e i . Whatever was e x p e d i -ent i n h e l p i n g G a l i l e i a c h i e v e h i s end was a l s o j u s t i f i a b l e f o r Schweyk and Azdak: c u n n i n g , d e c e i t , s e l f - p r o s t r a t i o n , f a l s e c o n s e n t and o p p o r t u n i s m ; B r e c h t remained e q u a l l y r e a l -i s t i c i n h i s p o r t r a y a l o f t h e l a t t e r two. He approved o f G a l i l e i ' s u n h e r o i c b e h a v i o u r I n t h e e a r -l i e r v e r s i o n because i t was a c u n n i n g d e c e p t i o n o f h i s op-p r e s s o r s , and e n a b l e d him t o spread the t r u t h i n s p i t e o f them: " S e i n W l d e r r u f h a t t e ihm d i e M o g l i c h k e i t v e r s c h a f f t , e i n e n t s c h e i d e n d e s Werk zu s c h a f f e n . E r war w e i s e gewesen."^? Keuner had emphasized i n t h e a n e c d o t e "Von den T r a g e r n des W i s s e n s " (1930) t h a t t h e s c h o l a r c o u l d n o t a f f o r d t o be v i r t u -ous i n t h e t r a d i t i o n a l sense, r a t h e r , he s h o u l d be u n h e r o i c : "Wer das W i s sen t r a g t , h at von a l i e n Tugenden nur e i n e : daB oo e r das W i s s e n t r a g t . . . . " And t h i s was t h e f i r s t G a l i l e i ' s g r e a t v i r t u e . B r e c h t reasoned i n 1939 t h a t G a l i l e i ' s p os-s i b l e a l t e r n a t i v e — r e f u s i n g t o r e c a n t and d y i n g a s a m a r t y r - o f t r u t h — w o u l d have been f u t i l e h e r o i s m . B r e c h t had recommended i n 1934 i n FUnf S c h w i e r l g k e l t e n beim S c h r e i b e n d e r W a h r h e i t t h a t i n an age o f r u t h l e s s d o m i n a t i o n man had t o d i s c o v e r t h e t r u t h and s p r e a d i t i n s e c r e t , i f i t was t o p r o v i d e any e f f e c -t i v e r e s i s t a n c e a g a i n s t t y r a n t s . Hence, t h i s f i r s t v e r s i o n 83 i o f Leben des G a l i l e i i s c o n s i s t e n t w i t h B r e c h t * s r e a l i s t i c v i e w s c o n c e r n i n g t h e i n e f f i c a c y and waste o f h e r o i s m and s e l f - s a c r i f i c e ' i n t h e s e r v i c e o f an a b s t r a c t i d e a l . B r e c h t J u s t i f i e d G a l i l e i ' s r e c a n t a t i o n I n the e a r l i e r v e r s i o n ; he approached G a l i l e i ' s dilemma from the p o i n t o f v i e w o f t h e suppressed i n d i v i d u a l ' s s t r u g g l e to s u r v i v e and ensure h i s i n t e r e s t s . T h i s r e a l i s t i c p o r t r a y a l o f the i n d i v i d u a l ' s b e h a v i o u r a l s o e x p l a i n s B r e c h t ' s sympathy f o r t h e p l i g h t o f Shen Te, Schweyk and Azdak. Such an emphasis on t h e Importance o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l was t o t a l l y abandoned i n t h e l a t e r v e r s i o n o f t h e f o u r t e e n t h scene o f Leben des G a l i l e i . Here, B r e c h t judged G a l i l e i ' s s i t u a t i o n from a d u a l a s p e c t s w i t h a M a r x i s t ' s c o n c e r n f o r the n e c e s s i t y o f po-l i t i c a l r e v o l u t i o n , a s w e l l a s w i t h a h u m a n i s t i c c o n c e r n f o r i t h e f a t e o f mankind, i f knowledge i s p l a c e d i n t h e hands o f t h o s e who w i l l abuse i t . The l a t e r G a l i l e i no l o n g e r e n j o y s t h e s y m p a t h e t i c u n d e r s t a n d i n g w h i c h B r e c h t r e s e r v e d f o r t h e u n h e r o i c s e l f -p r o s t r a t i o n o f t h e e a r l i e r G a l i l e i and o f Azdak; b o t h Azdak and t h e l a t e r G a l i l e i r e f u t e t h e i r i d e a l i s m because t h e y a r e a f r a i d o f p h y s i c a l p a i n and d e a t h : " I c h habe w i d e r r u f e n , " a d m i t s G a l i l e i , " w e l l i c h den k b ' r p e r l i c h e n Schmerz f u r c h t e t e " (S, V I I I , 1 8 3 ) . Why does B r e c h t have t h e l a t e r G a l i l e i r e -c a n t f o r f e a r o f t o r t u r e ? The i m p l i c a t i o n s o f h i s r e c a n t a -t i o n have changed and so has h i s m o t i v a t i o n f o r t h i s a c t . B r e c h t b e l i e v e d t h a t he had t o make an example o f G a l i l e i ' s I r r e s p o n s i b i l i t y . He c o u l d n ot have done so, i f G a l i l e i ' s 84 r e c a n t a t i o n had remained an a c t o f c u n n i n g , t h e purpose o f w h i c h was, i n t h e f i r s t v e r s i o n , t o g a i n t i m e and w r i t e the D i s c o r s i . He needed an excuse t o d i s c r e d i t G a l i l e i as a man and a s a s c i e n t i s t ; a c c o r d i n g l y , he made G a l i l e i a p h y s i c a l coward. G a l i l e i i d e a l i s t i c a l l y s u g g e s t s t h a t he c o u l d have h e r o i c a l l y s a c r i f i c e d h i m s e l f f o r s o c i a l j u s t i c e , freedom o f r e s e a r c h and t r u t h , had h i s r e a s o n been s t r o n g e r t h a n h i s s e n s e s . He knows t h a t a t one t i m e t h e r e was much p o p u l a r d e s i r e f o r r e v o l u t i o n , a d e s i r e w h i c h c o u l d have been e x p l o i t e d by h i s martyrdom. I n c o n t r a s t , Azdak i s too r e a l i s t i c t o become a m a r t y r f o r t h e cause o f j u s t i c e ; he a l s o e n j o y s l i f e t o o much t o want t o s a c r i f i c e h i m s e l f f o r t h e i n t a n g i b l e . G a l i l e i cannot a g r e e w i t h Andrea t h a t h a n d i n g o v e r t h e D i s c o r s i m i t i g a t e s h i s b e t r a y a l o f h i s f r i e n d s , p r o f e s s i o n and t h e w e l f a r e o f humanity. The book comes too l a t e , f o r s c i e n c e i s no l o n g e r a f o r c e o f p o l i t i c a l change. B r e c h t ' s comment i n S c h r l f t e n zum T h e a t e r : " . . . d i e ganze A s t r o n o m i c i s t u n p o l i t i s c h g e w o r d e n . . ( I V , 270) s u g g e s t s t h a t he had c o m p l e t e l y o v e r l o o k e d the p o l i t i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e o f s c i e n c e i n t h e f i r s t v e r s i o n o f Leben des G a l i l e i . B r e c h t a s k s something o f G a l i l e i t h a t he a s k s o f none o f h i s o t h e r c h a r a c t e r s : t o be m o r a l l y r e s p o n s i b l e t o a l l o f humanity f o r h i s a c t o f c o w a r d i c e . G a l i l e i ' s r e c a n t a -t i o n was m o r a l l y J u s t i f i a b l e f o r B r e c h t i n t h e f i r s t v e r s i o n , b u t n o t i n t h e second. G a l i l e i must now be condemned because h i s m o t i v e f o r r e c a n t i n g i s t h e s e l f i s h one o f w i s h i n g t o 85 p r e s e r v e h i s c o m f o r t and s e c u r i t y . H i s s e a r c h and s t r u g g l e t o f i n d t h e t r u t h a r e Judged i n a new l i g h t : he has pursued knowledge f o r i t s own sake, p u r e l y f o r h i s p e r s o n a l p l e a s u r e and g a i n . B r e c h t * s r e a p p r a i s a l o f G a l i l e i b r i n g s i n t o f o c u s t h e c o n t r a d i c t i o n s between G a l i l e i ' s thought and b e h a v i o u r . G a l i l e i p a r a d o x i c a l l y a p p e a r s as t r u t h f u l a s he i s d i s h o n e s t , and a s courageous as he i s c o w a r d l y . He c l a i m s from th e v e r y b e g i n n i n g t o be v i t a l l y i n t e r e s t e d i n making t h e l i v e s o f t h e common p e o p l e e a s i e r ; t h e y s h o u l d be f r e e d from s p i r i t -u a l and p o l i t i c a l t r a d i t i o n s w h i c h e n s l a v e them t o a l i f e o f m i s e r y . On t h e o t h e r hand, he d e s p i s e s them f o r t h e i r s t u -p i d i t y . They a r e u n a b l e t o o u t w i t t h e i r o p p r e s s o r s and l e a d a c o m f o r t a b l e l i f e . He seems t o t a k e o n l y an i n t e l l e c -t u a l p l e a s u r e i n e n v i s a g i n g t h e r e b e l l i o n o f t h e p e o p l e , f o r he condemns t h e i r r e v o l u t i o n a r y d e m o n s t r a t i o n s o f t h e " F a s t -n a c h t " scene. He p r e s e n t s an e t h i c w h i c h he does n o t l i v e by. He knows t h a t h o n e s t y , courage and t h e l o v e o f m a n k i n d — t h e a b s o l u t e v i r t u e s o f M u t t e r C o u r a g e — w i l l c o s t him h i s p l e a s u r e s and h i s l i f e . He e x p e c t s Mucius t o u p h o l d t h e t r u t h : "...wer s i e Cdie Wahrheit} weiB und s i e e i n e LQge ne n n t , d e r 1 s t e i n V e r b r e c h e r " (S, V I I I , 1 2 0 ) . But he h i m s e l f , who p r e t e n d s t o have i n v e n t e d t h e t e l e s c o p e , r e -mains s i l e n t e i g h t y e a r s and must f i n a l l y c a l l h i m s e l f a c r i m i n a l when he r e c a n t s . B e f o r e h i s m e e t i n g w i t h S a r t i i n Scene 14, G a l i l e i had been opposed t o h e r o i c a c t i o n s . 86 Y e t , f o r the sake o f t r u t h , he was w i l l i n g c o u r a g e o u s l y t o b r a v e t h e c h o l e r a i n V e n i c e , and d e f y t h e I n q u i s i t i o n by r e m a i n i n g i n F l o r e n c e . N e v e r t h e l e s s , h i s v i r t u e s and h i s v i c e s s e r v e b o t h t h e t r u t h a s w e l l a s h i s own p l e a s u r e s . G a l i l e i ' s s e l f - d e n u n c i a t i o n i s a p r o d u c t o f B r e c h t ' s t h e o r y bound M a r x i s t i d e a l i s m . G a l i l e i ' s p o l i t i c a l i d e a s a r e i n c o n s i s t e n t w i t h h i s r e a l i s t i c o p p o r t u n i s m i n t h e p r e c e d i n g t h i r t e e n s c e n e s . H i s t y p i c a l l y M a r x i s t S e l b s t -k r l t l k i s n o t a t a l l c o n s i s t e n t w i t h h i s forme r r e p u d i a t i o n o f t h e n e c e s s i t y o f h e r o i s m : " U n g l U c k l l c h das Land, das H e l d e n n o t i g h a t " (S, V I I I , 168). Now G a l i l e i b e l i e v e s i n t h e v a l u e o f t h e h e r o i c s e l f - s a c r i f i c e , and p l a c e s i t i n t h e s e r v i c e o f a p o l i t i c a l i d e a . He was, however, c a s t i n t h e same mould a s Schweyk and Azdak; t h e y y i e l d e d when t h e dangers t o t h e i r w e l l - b e i n g were g r e a t e s t . ( H i s s t a y i n g i n V e n i c e d u r i n g t h e p l a g u e was more an o b s e s s i o n w i t h r e s e a r c h t h a n a d e s i r e , t o s a c r i f i c e h i m s e l f t o f i n d t h e t r u t h ) . G a l i l e i ' s s e l f - d e n u n c i a t i o n i s spoken n o t by t h e v o i c e o f r e a s o n , but by t h e v o i c e o f p a r t y dogma. H i s s e l f - a n n i h i l a -t i o n i s e x a c t l y , what t h e M a r x i s t s demand o f t h e p e r s o n who v a l u e s h i s own i n d i v i d u a l i s m and s u r v i v a l more t h a n t h e s o c i a l good: "CDie S e l b s t k r i t i k ] s o i l s c h o n u n g s l o s s e i n , t e l l s e i n e h e i l s a m e , s c h o c k t h e r a p e u t l s c h e Wirkung haben, n o t -f a l l s a b e r auch b i s z u r m o r a l i s c h e n S e l b s t v e r n i c h t u n g und D l s k r e d i t i e r u n g f t i h r e n " . ^ The r e a l i s t B r e c h t knew t h a t man would compromise t h e t r u t h t o save h i s s k i n . B r e c h t c o n t r a d i c t s t h i s r e a l i s m when, as a M a r x i s t , he f o r b i d s 87 t h e compromise o f G a l i l e i ' s s o c i a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y . G a l i l e i i s r educed t o b e i n g B r e c h t ' s mouthpiece f o r a d e n u n c i a t i o n o f t h e p r i n c e s , l a n d e d g e n t r y and t h e Church who use r e l i g i o n 9 0 t o d r u g t h e masses. G a l i l e i wants r e v o l u t i o n and n o t r e -form; he a r g u e s t o o much l i k e B r e c h t i n D i e h e i l i g e Johanna I and t h e " L e h r s t i i c k e " ; he b e l i e v e s t h a t s c i e n c e , t r u t h and r e a s o n c a n r e p l a c e m y s t i c i s m and f a i t h . Yet B r e c h t ' s be-l i e f i n a compensating p r e s e n t was h e l d i n t a c t more by h i s f a i t h i n dogma t h a n by h i s r e a s o n . P r i o r t o h i s r e c a n t a t i o n , G a l i l e i b e l i e v e d t h a t r e a s o n c o u l d b r i n g about s o c i a l change o f I t s own a c c o r d . H i s l o v e o f t h e t r u t h and h i s p a s s i o n f o r astronomy make him somewhat " b l i n d " i n more t h a n a l i t e r a l sense. He t h i n k s t h a t o t h e r s w i l l a g r e e t o see t h i n g s as he does, i f he p r e s e n t s them w i t h h i s p r o o f . H i s n a i v e l y i d e a l i s t i c b e l i e f i n t h e i r -r e s i s t i b l e a t t r a c t i o n o f r e a s o n p r e v e n t s him from r e c o g n i z i n g t h e v e r y r e a l i s t i c and w h o l l y r a t i o n a l a t t i t u d e o f t h e Church toward s e c u l a r I n t e r e s t s . He a c t u a l l y b e l i e v e s t h a t t h e l e a d e r s o f t h e Church w i l l admit t h e y a r e i n e r r o r , a c c e p t h i s d i s c o v e r i e s , and consent t o the i n e v i t a b l e l o s s o f t h e i r power and p o s s e s s i o n s . D u r i n g h i s s e l f - d e n u n c i a t i o n , however, G a l i l e i i s more r e a l i s t i c about changes h i s remarks i m p l y t h a t v i o l e n c e i s t h e answer, not r e a s o n ; h e r e he recommends p o l i t i c a l means t o a c h i e v e p o l i t i c a l ends. B r e c h t f a i l e d t o see t h e naivete" and t h e p o s s i b l e l o g i c a l e x t e n s i o n o f h i s t h o u g h t , when he had G a l i l e i ex-c l a i m s "Wlssen v e r s c h a f f e n d u b e r a l l e s f u r a l l e , t r a c h t e t 88 s i e Cdie W i s s e n s c h a f t) Z w e i f l e r zu machen aus a l l e w (S, V I I I , - 185)• Suoh a remark i l l u s t r a t e s B r e c h t ' s l o v e o f t h e o r i z i n g . Was he so n a i v e t o b e l i e v e t h a t i n t h e M a r x i s t S t a t e a l l p e o p l e w i l l be a l l o w e d t o s hare and p r o f i t i n t h e knowledge o f a l l s u b j e c t s ? Of c o u r s e n o t ; t h i s i s a n o t h e r example o f h i s f a c i l e s e p a r a t i o n o f M a r x i s t t h e o r y from M a r x i s t r e a l i t y . A l s o , he does not t h i n k h i s sentence t o an end when he says t h a t s c i e n c e must make s c e p t i c s o f everybody; d i d he i n c l u d e t h e M a r x i s t who must u n q u e s t i o n i n g l y f o l l o w p a r t y dogma i n o r d e r t o make t h e communist p r o m i s e come t r u e ? I t seems . t h a t B r e c h t p r e f e r r e d t o i g n o r e t h a t he was a s k i n g t h e M a r x i s t t o b e l i e v e e x a c t l y what he f o r b a d e t h e C h r i s t i a n . B r e c h t * s i d e a l i s t i c demand t h a t G a l i l e i s h o u l d become a - h e r o - m a r t y r i s i n c o n s i s t e n t w i t h h i s r e a l i s t i c p i c t u r e o f human n a t u r e i n t h i s p l a y and i n o t h e r s . The m a j o r i t y o f B r e c h t ' s p r o t a g o n i s t s a r e p a s s i v e ; t h e y a c c e p t t h e i r f a t e . B r e c h t was r e a l i s t i c i n n o t making G a l i l e i the s e l f l e s s m a r t y r and t h e h e r o i c hero t h a t he would have perhaps l i k e d him t o become. A man who i n s i s t e d on h i s p l e a s u r e s , who was so u n w i l l i n g to renounce them t h a t he was r e a d y t o d e c e i v e t h e R e c t o r o f Padua w i t h " h i s M t e l e s c o p e , c r a w l b e f o r e t h e M e d i c i - f o r t h e sake o f g a i n , r u i n h i s d a u g h t e r ' s h a p p i n e s s , c a p i t u l a t e t o t h e I n q u i s i t i o n , and deny the t r u t h , such a man would have been u n c o n v i n c i n g a s a M a r x i s t h e r o . G a l i l e i i s a c t u a l l y more e f f e c t i v e t e a c h i n g t h e n e c e s s i t y o f t h e m a r t y r t h a n becoming one h i m s e l f . B e s i d e s , t h e r e a l i s t B r e c h t knew t h a t man's answer t o t h e c h a l l e n g e o f h e r o i s m would l i k e l y be d e t e r m i n e d by h i s emotions and m a t e r i a l i n t e r e s t s , 89 not by h i s Idealism. . The plays of e x i l e present an increasing divergence of Brecht*s views about the necessity of heroism and martyrdom. From Die Gewehre onward, h i s sympathy f o r the i n d i v i d u a l i n h i s struggle to survive became more and more pronounced. At the same time, however, Brecht developed a growing con-cern f o r the s o c i a l and p o l i t i c a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s of the i n d i v i d u a l . He believed that every man had great pote n t i a l as an agent of good and s o c i a l change. He began to suggest that heroism was very necessary on both the s o c i a l and p o l i t i c a l l e v e l . He j u s t i f i e d the heroic s e l f - s a c r i f i c e when the heroine*s death inspired the people and unleashed revolution. Martyrdom was desirable because i t could a l t e r society. Brecht was also preoccupied with the maternal s a c r i f i c e f o r other human beings. His concentration on the behaviour of the maternal figure i n times of war revealed mother-love, compassion, goodness and selflessness which promised to pre-serve mankind. By showing that the i n d i v i d u a l did help others and would s a c r i f i c e h e r s e l f to save them, Brecht i n s i s t e d even more vehemently than In the "LehrstCcke" that s o c i a l change had to come. Where the Marxist had e a r l i e r refused to allow man h i s sympathetic emotions, the r e a l i s t now permitted t h e i r expression; and a f t e r K a t t r i n * s death, the i n d i v i d u a l f i n a l l y ceased to be executed f o r good deeds. The dehumaniza-t i o n of mankind was not as universal as Brecht had e a r l i e r 90 claimed that i t was. Although Shen Te had to forgo being kind, the : motherly gir l Grusche could safely achieve her goal. Brecht's realistic attitude toward man's difficulties and material interests was made obvious by depicting the individual as an unheroic figure. His treatment of the behaviour of the first Galilei and Schweyk was consistent with the portrayal of Kragler as an anti-hero twenty-five years earlier. Their anti-heroism was the product of a very rational attitude. Brecht had dramatized this reasoned repudiation of the heroic self-sacrifice elsewhere, too, in particular with Galy Gay, Mother Courage, Sahweyk and the Neinsager. Although the Marxist Brecht tried to argue for the heroism of the activist, the realist had the students in Der Neinsager t e l l the teachers "Was der Knabe sagt, 1st verntinftig, wenn es auch nicht heldenhaft 1st" (S, IV, 245). Brecht later tried to excuse this anti-heroism in Azdak and Galilei by depicting them as the victims of their own emotions. What the realist permitted the l i t t l e man, the Marxist refused the more gifted individual. Galilei became a com-plex of contradictions, teaching one thing and doing another himself. He became a symbol of Brecht himself, and of the recurrent dilemma in the dramas. He showed the struggle of the Marxist and the realist Brecht in an unresolved conflict with each other. The political Brecht claimed to be right, but the poet of human nature allowed Galilei to reply almost like Galy Gay?1 "Ich muB Jetzt essen" (S, VIII, 188). 91 Each tried to behave as was demanded by the superior force to which they capitulated, but each remained true to human nature. It was Brecht's strength to portray man's weaknesses; i t was his weakness to insis t on man's strength. But i t was the tension between these forces within Brecht which contin-ually stimulated his creative genius. 9 2 C h a p t e r VI CONCLUSION A f i d e l i t y t o d i v e r g i n g v i e w s c h a r a c t e r i z e s t h e fu n d a -. m e n t a l dilemma o f B r e c h t . As a M a r x i s t he b e l i e v e d t h a t s o c i e t y was c h a n g e a b l e , but a s a r e a l i s t he f e a r e d t h a t hu-man n a t u r e was n o t . Man i n B r e c h t * s work i s l e s s i n t e r e s t -i n g from the p o i n t o f v i e w o f what B r e c h t wants him t o become p o l i t i c a l l y , t h a n from the p o i n t o f v i e w o f what he i s . From Das Badener L e h r s t f i c k onward B r e c h t ' s p l a y s p o r t r a y man's d i f -f i c u l t i e s when he chooses between p r o t e c t i n g h i s own i n t e r e s t s and h e l p i n g t h e w r e t c h e d , o r between p u r s u i n g h i s own f u l f i l l -ment and s a c r i f i c i n g h i m s e l f f o r a p o l i t i c a l i d e a l . Whether t h e y s t r u g g l e t o s u r v i v e , o r t o reshape s o c i e t y , B r e c h t ' s main c h a r a c t e r s o f t e n have a h a r d time a c t i n g a s the n e c e s s i t y o f t h e i r p a r t i c u l a r s i t u a t i o n r e q u i r e s . E x p e d i e n c y i s a v i r t u e w h i c h man can p r a c t i c e o n l y I f he i s a b l e t o i g n o r e h i s p e r -s o n a l e t h i c s , o r , a s B r e c h t p r e f e r r e d to say, t o master h i s i n b o r n t endency t o do good. Indeed, t h e i n d i v i d u a l ' s good-n e s s i s d i a l e c t l c a l l y i n t e r p r e t e d i n b o t h c a p i t a l i s t s o c i e t y and i n t h e communist c o l l e c t i v e a s a h a r m f u l weakness. I t e i t h e r d e s t r o y s him i n b o t h s o c i e t i e s , o r d i s t r a c t s him from p u r s u i n g h i s own w e l f a r e i n c a p i t a l i s t s o c i e t y and t h a t o f mankind i n t h e communist c o l l e c t i v e . Wherever B r e c h t d e p i c t s t h e i n d i v i d u a l ' s s u c c e s s i n s u p p r e s s i n g h i s emotions o f sym-p a t h y , t h e d e h u m a n i z a t i o n o f man i n t h e c a p i t a l i s t o r t h e com-m u n i s t w o r l d i s p r e s e n t e d , a s f o r example i n Mahagonny and P e r 93 gute Mensch or in Das Badener Lehrstuck and Die MaBnahme. Both the r e a l i s t i c , c r i t i c a l assessment of tradition, and the Marxist idealism of Brecht are expressed In his desire to teach the common man that there i s no necessity for the ex-tensive economic injustices of capitalist society. Brecht knew that unjust acts were unavoidable in the communist col-lective, but he could accept them, in theory at least, because he believed they were necessary to make the communist promise come true. Where the early Brecht attempted to destroy soci-ety 1 s traditional illusions about the necessity of the hero and his social order, the later Brecht tried to educate his audience to apply the underlying principles of the scientific method, reason and doubt, to what they believed was unchange-able. But he objected i f his carefully tended belief in the Marxist promise of better things to come were subjected to a similar c r i t i c a l examination and also shown to be changeable. Brecht maintained that he could make the theatre better serve the cause of social Justice by purging the spectator of 92 his prejudices and ignorance rather than of his pity and fear/ Usually, Brecht supplied Marxist prejudices as a substitute. He shocked the audience even more than his predecessors, Bftchner, Kleist, Hebbel and Hauptmann, with the figure of the anti-hero. The hero was for Brecht "...a r e l i c in the museum of the moral past." 93 His anti-hero rejects society's religious and ethic-a l values as empty and unjust; his definite refusal to die teaches f i r s t l y , that he cannot and w i l l not try alone to change the traditional order, and secondly, that a better solution than 94 d e m a n d i n g t h e i n d i v i d u a l ' s s e l f - s a c r i f i c e m u s t b e f o u n d . I r o n i c a l l y , B r e c h t r e q u i r e d t h e a c t i v i s t t o become a h e r o a n d u r g e d h i m t o b e l i e v e t h a t i t w a s h o n o u r a b l e a n d n e c e s s a r y t o d i e f o r t h e c o m m u n i s t c a u s e . O n l y B r e c h t ' s M a r x i s t h e r o -i n e s a r e w i l l i n g t o d i e t o r e a l i z e a n i d e a l . I n c o n t r a s t , h i s a n t i - h e r o e s a r e g e n e r a l l y q u i t e r a t i o n a l a b o u t t h e i r s i t -u a t i o n ; t h e y p r e f e r m o r e r e a l i s t i c a l l y t o s u r v i v e , a n d d e v o t e t h e m s e l v e s t o w h a t e v e r p l e a s u r e s l i f e a f f o r d s . T h e y i l l u s -t r a t e B r e c h t ' s v i e w t h a t i t i s n o t f o r t h e l i t t l e man t o b e h e r o i c , b e c a u s e he a l w a y s l o s e s . M o s t o f B r e c h t ' s l a t e r c h a r a c t e r s c h o s e t o l i v e i n a s o c i -e t y w h i c h s o u g h t t o s u b j e c t t h e m ; a f e w o f t h e e a r l y p r o t a g o -n i s t s became o u t s i d e r s . The i n h u m a n i t y o f t h o s e who d e t e r -m i n e d m a n ' s d e s t i n y a p p e a r e d i n m o s t o f B r e c h t ' s p l a y s a s e -c o n o m l c a n d p o l i t i c a l d o m i n a t i o n : b u s i n e s s , w a r a n d t y r a n n y . H i s f i d e l i t y t o h i s r e a l i s t i c k n o w l e d g e o f how man d i d a c t , a n d h i s l o y a l t y t o h i s i d e a l i s t i c n o t i o n o f how man s h o u l d h a v e a c t e d i n s u c h a w o r l d , a r e r e f l e c t e d i n t h e a c t i o n s a n d c o n f l i c t s o f h i s p r o t a g o n i s t s . I n t h r e e o f t h e " E r s t e S t u c k e " , f o r e x a m p l e , t h e i n d i v i d u a l r e b e l l e d a g a i n s t s o c i e t y a n d d e -v o t e d h i m s e l f t o a l e t h a r g i c h e d o n i s m . The r e c u r r e n t m o t i f o f t h e a n t i - h e r o ' s h o m o s e x u a l i t y s y m b o l i z e d B r e c h t * s r e j e c t i o n o f m i d d l e c l a s s s o c i e t y . I n t h e " L e h r s t u c k e " a n d some o f t h e l a t e r p l a y s , D i e G e w e h r e a n d D i e T a g e d e r Commune, a c t i v i s t s a t t e m p t e d t o r e n e w a n d c o n t r o l s o c i e t y ; h e r e B r e c h t t r i e d t o a l t e r m a n ' s n a t u r e t o s u i t M a r x i s t t h e o r y . I n t h e p l a y s o f e x i l e B r e c h t a g a i n d e v o t e d h i s a t t e n t i o n t o i n d i v i d u a l s , b u t 95 t o more r e a l i s t i c and u n h e r o i c f i g u r e s , s u c h as G a l i l e i , Schweyk and Azdak. Where t h e e a r l i e r c h a r a c t e r s r e f u s e d t o conform, t h e s e l a t e r ones found i t w i s e r t o be e x p e d i e n t and c a p i t u l a t e d t o t h e i r o p p r e s s o r s . They were s a t i s f i e d w i t h t h e p o s s i b l e — s i m p l e p l e a s u r e s and p a r t i a l s e l f - f u l -f i l l m e n t ; t h e y d i d not s t r i v e f o r a p e r s o n a l i d e a l o f s o c i a l freedom (Schweyk), j u s t i c e ( A z d a k ) , o r i n t e l l e c t u a l l i b e r t y ( G a l i l e i ) . The more B r e c h t I n s i s t e d on a M a r x i s t s o l u t i o n , t h e more t h e e t h i c s o f communist c o n t r o l r e s e m b l e d t h o s e o f h i s exag-g e r a t e d and d i s t o r t e d c a p i t a l i s t s . B r e c h t j u s t i f i e d the s u p p r e s s i o n o f man's n a t u r a l goodness; he l o g i c a l l y p r o t e c t -ed h i s b e l i e f i n M a r x i s t v i o l e n c e by c o n s i d e r i n g i t a H e g e l -i a n n e g a t i o n o f n e g a t i o n : communist e v i l was. t o t r i u m p h o v e r c a p i t a l i s t e v i l t o produce s o c i a l j u s t i c e i n a compen-s a t i n g p r e s e n t — l a t e r ont I n t h i s r e s p e c t , t h e " L e h r s t u c k e " a r e t h e a n t i t h e s i s o f D i e D r e i g r o s c h e n o p e r and Mahagonny. S o c i a l i n t e r e s t s must r e p l a c e i n d i v i d u a l i n t e r e s t s , s e l f -l e s s n e s s s e l f i s h n e s s , and M a r x i s t s e l f - a b n e g a t i o n c a p i t a l i s t s e l f - a g g r a n d i z e m e n t . B r e c h t 1 s a n x i o u s n e s s t o see man i n c o n t r o l o f h i s own d e s t i n y l e d him t o c o n t r a d i c t h i s more r e a l i s t i c r e s e r v a t i o n s c o n c e r n i n g the n e c e s s i t y o f h e r o i s m and martyrdom. The r e a l i s t B r e c h t knew t h a t some men were too i g n o r a n t o f t h e causes o f i n j u s t i c e t o be a b l e t o a b o l -i s h them. O t h e r s were e i t h e r i n d i f f e r e n t t o s o c i a l e v i l s , l o v e d l i f e t o o much, o r were too s e n s i b l e t o r i s k what t h e y v a l u e d so g r e a t l y f o r t h e p r o m i s e o f so l i t t l e i n r e t u r n . But t h e M a r x i s t m o r a l i s t f e l t t h a t p e o p l e had t o 9 6 h e l p t h e m s e l v e s , and t h a t t h e y would do so, i f encouraged and i n s p i r e d . Thus B r e c h t found h i m s e l f u n w i l l i n g l y t e a c h i n g t h e n e c e s s i t y o f t h e h e r o i c m a r t y r , when r e a l l y , i t was i d e o l o g i c -a l i n d o c t r i n a t i o n o f t h e masses w h i c h was n e c e s s a r y . 9 ^ I r o n -i c a l l y , B r e c h t 1 s p o r t r a y a l o f G a l i l e i as a human b e i n g was so r e a l i s t i c , t h a t l a t e r , t h e M a r x i s t B r e c h t found i t impos-s i b l e t o r e c a s t him a s a p o l i t i c a l m a r t y r . G a l i l e i was too s e l f - i n t e r e s t e d and t o o c a l c u l a t i n g t o become a s a c r i f i c i a l f i g u r e f o r M a r x i s t p r o g r e s s . L i k e Montaigne, he c o u l d say: " I c h b i n e i n Mensch: m i r i s t n i c h t s M e n s c h l i c h e s f r e m d . " 9 5 B r e c h t n e v e r d i d s o l v e h i s dilemma t h a t man's weaknesses, h i s l o v e o f p l e a s u r e , o r u r g e t o h e l p s u f f e r i n g i n d i v i d u a l s , a l w a y s i n t e r f e r e d w i t h t h e s u c c e s s f u l p r o s e c u t i o n o f M a r x i s t i d e a l s . B r e c h t a d a p t e d S o p h o c l e s ' A n t i g o n e and Anna Seghers' Der P r o -z e s s d e r Jeanne d'Arc f o r two s e e m i n g l y p a r a d o x i c a l r e a s o n s . On t h e one hand, he c o u l d n o t overcome h i s r e a l i s t i c o b j e c -t i o n s t o c r e a t i n g an i r r a t i o n a l h e r o . On t h e o t h e r , he need-ed a h e r o i c m a r t y r t o show how r e v o l u t i o n c o u l d be e m o t i o n a l -l y i n s p i r e d , r a t h e r t h a n r a t i o n a l l y d i s c o u r a g e d a s i n D i e Tage d e r Commune. I n t h e p l a y s o f e x i l e , p a r t i c u l a r l y t h o s e f rom M u t t e r Courage on, B r e c h t g r a d u a l l y gave up p o r t r a y i n g p r e s e n t s o c i a l e v i l s and d e p i c t e d i n s t e a d t h o s e o f a l l t i m e . He found no so-l u t i o n f o r contemporary i s s u e s i n t h e p r e s e n t , he found none i n t h e p a s t . But he d i d s t r e s s i n t h e l a t e r p l a y s much more e f f e c t i v e l y t h a n i n t h e " L e h r s t Q c k e " , t h a t man had t o s u p p r e s s h i s goodness, overcome even h i s p e r s o n a l i n t e r e s t s , h i s r e s i g -97 n a t i o n t o s o c i a l e v i l s , and r e c o g n i z e t h a t he had t o r e s i s t i n j u s t i c e i n o r d e r t o a b o l i s h i t . But i n h i s emphasis on r e s i s t a n c e B r e c h t was b e i n g more t h e o r e t i c a l t h a n p r a 6 t i c a l , f o r , a s he t a u g h t I n two o f h i s l a s t p l a y s , Schweyk and Der k a u k a s l s c h e K r e l d e k r e i s , man must use h i s c u n n i n g and w i t , n o t h i s b l o o d , t o overcome o r a v o i d e v i l . B r e c h t a l s o found i t u n a p p e a l i n g t o d r a m a t i z e and p r a i s e t h e a c h i e v e m e n t s and problems o f t h e communist hero i n e s t a b -l i s h e d M a r x i s t s o c i e t y o f t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y . R a t h e r , he was a t t r a c t e d more by t h e i n d i v i d u a l ' s m o r a l and p h y s i c a l -. s t r u g g l e t o come t o terms w i t h a s o c i e t y w h i c h had t o be changed. To d e s c r i b e an e t h i c a l c o n f l i c t and i t s r e s o l u t i o n l e f t B r e c h t f r e e r t o r e c o r d human n a t u r e ; h e r e he c o u l d be c r i t i c a l , i r o n i c , g i v e c o n t r a s t i n g v i e w s , i m p l y how t h e i n d i v i d u a l s h o u l d have a c t e d and w h i c h p o l i t i c a l s o l u t i o n he sh o u l d have chosen. Of c o u r s e , i t was a l w a y s t h e M a r x i s t s o l u t i o n w h i c h B r e c h t d e s i r e d , but t h e r e a l i s t and t h e t e a c h e r i n him r e f u s e d t o a l l o w the M a r x i s t t o p o r t r a y a p o l i t i c a l U t o p i a . B r e c h t chose t o b e l i e v e t h a t once t h e r e v o l u t i o n had been a c c o m p l i s h e d man would behave a s he s h o u l d . T e a c h i n g how man s h o u l d a c t to b r i n g the r e v o l u -t i o n about was more i m p o r t a n t t h a n p r a i s i n g him f o r h a v i n g done so. But t h e i r o n y o f B r e c h t * s work i s t h a t , he found g r e a t e r s a t i s f a c t i o n i n showing how man s h o u l d s u r v i v e t h a n i n t e a c h i n g how man s h o u l d change s o c i e t y . That i s , B r e c h t p r e f e r r e d t o p o r t r a y t h e a n t i - h e r o r a t h e r t h a n t h e h e r o . B r e c h t d i d o f f e r a few v i s i o n s o f t h e f u t u r e , but as was c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f h i s e v a s i v e n e s s , t h e y had, a h i s t o r i c a l s e t -t i n g ; he d e p i c t e d t h e i n d i v i d u a l * s n o b l e s e n t i m e n t s and s e l f -98 l e s s n e s s , and t h e j u s t i c e o f communist s o c i e t y a f t e r a d i c t -a t o r s h i p o f t h e p r o l e t a r i a t ceased t o be n e c e s s a r y . He was, p e r h a p s , l e s s s u c c e s s f u l w i t h t h i s i n t h e f r a m e - s t o r y o f P e r k a u k a s i s c h e K r e i d e k r e i s t h a n he was i n d e s c r i b i n g t h e g o v e r n -ment o f t h e common man i n C o r i o l a n and P i e Tage d e r Commune. Each o f t h e s e p l a y s showed g r a p h i c a l l y h i s c o n v i c t i o n t h a t s o c i e t y was c h a n g e a b l e , but t h a t human n a t u r e (Grusche, C o r i -o l a n , t h e Communards) was"not. Because o f t h i s dilemma, and because he wished t o t e a c h man t o t h i n k f o r h i m s e l f how t o a l t e r s o c i e t y , B r e c h t showed how man s h o u l d not a c t , he showed why man f a i l e d . He emphasized man's r e s p o n s i b i l i t y t o s o c i e t y , b u t he a l s o suggested t h a t man a s s u r e h i s own c o m f o r t s f i r s t . The r i d d l e o f B r e c h t i s most f a i r l y s o l v e d by t h e answer t h a t he b e l i e v e d i n n e i t h e r , and he b e l i e v e d i n b o t h . 99 FOOTNOTES 1'The t i t l e and d a t e o f c o m p o s i t i o n o f B r e c h t ' s p l a y s a r e g i v e n i n a r e f e r e n c e t a b l e on p.115* A l l e x c e r p t s from t h e p l a y s a r e t a k e n from: B e r t o l t B r e c h t , S t f i c k e , Suhrkamp, F r a n k f u r t , 1955-1961, v o l s . I - X I I . Q u o t a t i o n s from t h e p l a y s a r e f o l l o w e d by th e a b b r e v i a t i o n S, volume number ( i n Roman n u m e r a l s ) , and page number ( i n A r a b i c n u m e r a l s ) . S i m i l a r l y , a l l e x c e r p t s from B r e c h t ' s poems a r e t a k e n from; B e r t o l t B r e c h t , G e d l c h t e , Suhrkamp, Fr a n k -f u r t , I 9 6 O - I 9 6 5 , v o l s . I - I X . Q u o t a t i o n s from t h e poems a r e f o l l o w e d by t h e a b b r e v i a t i o n G, the volume number, and the page number. 2 C f . B r e c h t ' s r e v i e w o f Don C a r l o s i n "Augsburger T h e a t e r k r i t i k e n " , i n t h e newspaper " V o l k s w i l l e " , A p r i l 15, 1920, i n " Z w e i t e s S o n d e r h e f t B e r t o l t B r e c h t " , S i n n und Form, R t t t t e n und L o e n i n g , B e r l i n , 1957, P' 216. ^ C f . "Rede a n l a B l i c h d e r V e r l e i h u n g des L e n i n [ S t a l i n ] P r e i s e s " , V ersuche 15, Suhrkamp, B e r l i n , 1957, p« 146. ^ C f . E. B e n t l e y , ed., Seven P l a y s by B e r t o l t B r e c h t , Grove P r e s s , New York, 19&1, P- x x v i i . 5w. H. S o k e l , The W r i t e r i n E x t r e m i s , McGraw H i l l , New Y o r k , Paperback e d i t i o n , 1964, p. 232: " . . . t h e n a t u r e o f answers i s t h e p o s i n g o f q u e s t i o n s . . . . " 6 C f . C h a p t e r IV, p. 56. ? C f . M. E s s l l n , B r e c h t , Doubleday Anchor, Garden C i t y , 1961, p. 71. ^The "Lehrsttieke" ares Das Badener Lehrstuok vom Eln- v e r s t a n d n i s , Der J a s a g e r und Der N e l n s a g e r , D i e MaBnahme, D i e M u t t e r ("...im S t i l d e r L e h r s t u c k e g e s c h r i e b e n . . . . " S, V, 118), D i e Ausnahme und d i e R e g e l , and D i e H o r a t l e r und d i e K u:datler. 9 c f . " L i e d vom F l u B d e r D i n g e " i n Mann i s t Mann, S, I I , 204; 231-232; 243-244; 249- See a l s o C h a p t e r I I I , pp. 21-22. ^°Compare t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f Bernhard Blum'e: "Motive d e r FrQhen L y r i k B e r t o l t B r e c h t s : I Der Tod lm Wasser", M o n a t s h e f t e , March I 9 6 5 , v o l . L V I I , No. 3, PP» 103-104. 1 ]-See S, I , 7. •*-2Cf. W. H. S o k e l , A n t h o l o g y o f German E x p r e s s i o n i s t Drama, Doubleday A n c h o r , Garden C i t y , N. Y., 1963, p« x x v i i . 100 - ^ j . w. von Goethe, "Selige Selisucht", i n Goethes Werke, ed. E. Trunz, Wegner, Hamburg, 1952,A v o l . 4, p. 19. ^W. H. Sokel, Anthology, pp. x x v i i i - x x i x . 1 5 S e e S, I, 10-11. l 6 C f . footnote 15. 17see S, I, ?.. -^Schweyk i r o n i z e s the use of t h i s word i n a long speech to BrettSchneider which startsjr "So ein Wort wie 'beinah' i s (sic) o f t eine Tauschung... M (S, X, 23). !9cf. "A Prologue to Brecht's Baal", by Hugo von Hofmanns-t h a l , t r a n s l . A. Schwarz, Tulane Drama Hevlew, v o l . 6, no. 1, p 2 0 C f . R.- Ley, The Marxist Ethos of Bertolt Brecht and i t s Relation to Exis t e n t i a l i s m ; a Study of the Writer i n the S c i e n t i f i c Age, Ph. D. Diss., Rutgers, The State University, 1963, pp. 288-290. 2 1 I n his r e v i s i o n (1953?) of Trommeln Brecht deleted c e r t a i n key speeches which indicated that Kragler had to sup-press h i s sympathy for the revolutionaries i f he was to save himself. Compare the following editions: B. Brecht, Trommeln i n der Nacht, Propylaen Verlag, B e r l i n , Cn. d. 1925?3 , 3. A u f l p. 89, and S, I, p. .199. op Cf Ji. Brecht, "Anmerkungen zur 'Dreigroschenoper'", S, I I I , 146-149. 23Mann 1st Mann i s the f i r s t of the "Erste Stilcke" to use the song as a means of d e l i b e r a t e l y interrupting and com-menting on the action or the dialogue. Brecht uses t h i s technique to make the audience consciously aware of the action;-on stage. This i s the f i r s t play i n which Brecht develops c e r t a i n aspects of the l a t e r formulated theories of epic theatre; c f . S, I I , 319-326. ^ C f . footnote 9* 25w. Shakespeare, The Complete Works, Books, Inc., New York, 1948, p. 224. 2 ^ C f . the t i t l e of E. Bentley's t r a n s l a t i o n , Seven Plays, p. 69. 2 ? C f . Furcht und Elend des D r i t t e n Relches (S, VI); "An die Gleichgeschalteten" (G, IV, 76); "Lied des Speichel-l e c k e r s " (G, V, 167). 101 ^ S e e S, IV, 14. songs should be c o n s i d e r e d i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h B r e c h t * s a t t a c k on the t r a d i t i o n a l c o n c e p t i o n o f the opera ( c u l i n a r y , s e n s u a l l y i n t o x i c a t i n g evening e n t e r t a i n m e n t ) . He r e j e c t e d the Gesamtkunstwerk and i t s i l l u s o r y f u n c t i o n . He f e l t t h i s a r t form was abused by those who wished to ma i n t a i n and p r e s e r v e the s t a t u s quo i n s o c i e t y . He be-l i e v e d they were opposed to i n n o v a t i o n s i n opera and drama. Kurt W e i l l ' s parody of the opera's t r a d i t i o n a l m u s i c a l form was a f u r t h e r s i g n o f h i s and Brecht's open b e l l i g e r e n c y t o -ward a l l o p p r e s s i v e , s e l f - i n t e r e s t e d and u n j u s t a u t h o r i t i e s i n the a r t i s t i c world and i n s o c i e t y . Cf. "Anmerkungen zur 'Dreigroschenoper'", S, I I I , 141-160; and "Anmerkungen zur Oper ' A u f s t i e g und F a l l der Stadt Mahagonny'—Oper—aber Neuerungenl", S, I I I , 259-2?6. 3 0 R e s istance i n or d e r to change o r to overthrow s o c i e t y was not c o n s i d e r e d by the p r o t a g o n i s t s i n the " E r s t e Stticke" because o f the domination o f i n s t i n c t and because they had chosen to become o u t s i d e r s . A l a t e r s e r i e s o f p l a y s , the "Lehr s t u c k e " (1929-1934), echoes the anguished c r y o f the Ma r x i s t convert Brecht to change the i n t o l e r a b l e c l a s s o r d e r ; i n these p l a y s , r e s i s t a n c e and r e v o l u t i o n mark the swing o f the pendulum to a g g r e s s i v i t y and to a r e j e c t i o n o f a l l compromise made p u r e l y i n the i n t e r e s t o f s e l f - e n r i c h m e n t . 31cf. B r e c h t , S, I I I , 159: "'Die Dreigroschenoper* g i b t e i n e D a r s t e l l u n g der b t i r g e r l i c h e n G e s e l l s c h a f t (und n i c h t nur * l u m p e n p r o l e t a r i s c h e r Elemente')." 32m h i s poems and p l a y s , Brecht o f t e n p r o v i d e s the two premises o f a s y l l o g i s m or g i v e s a t h e s i s and an a n t i t h e s i s and has the rea d e r supply the c o n c l u s i o n o r s y n t h e s i s him-s e l f . T h i s i s the case w i t h the two stanza poem "Der S c h n e i -der von Ulm (Ulm 1592)" (G, IV, 28), to which the reader a u t o m a t i c a l l y adds the m i s s i n g c o n c l u s i o n . Cf. Hans Mayer, "Anmerkung zu e i n e r Szene", T h e a t e r a r b e i t , Suhrkamp, B e r l i n , 2nd ed., 1961, pp. 249-253. 33Brecht r e t u r n e d to a trenchant s a t i r e o f these s i n s In the b a l l e t "Die gieben Todstinden der K l e i n b t i r g e r " (1933) (G, I I I , 131-152), w i t h the s p l i t p e r s o n a l i t y o f Anna. Her v i r t u e s , which i n r e a l i t y are v i r t u e s , a r e d i a l e c t i c a l l y r e -v e r s e d i n the b a l l e t , and f o r the business-minded bourgeois a r e d e a d l y s i n s because they do not produce p r o f i t and e v e n t u a l l y l e a d to one's s t a r v a t i o n . 3*Cf. the "Programmheft" f o r the Premiere o f Die D r e i -groschenoper on A p r i l 23, i960 by the B e r l i n e r Ensemble am Schiffbauerdamm, p. 16. 102 3^cf. Faust I, l i n e 4611; c f . also the f i n a l scene and canonization of Joan Dark i n Die h e i l l g e Johanna. 3 6cf. footnote 35« 3?cf. footnote 8. 38i n Brecht's "Lehrstiicke" the party's ethics are i n -human only from the i n d i v i d u a l ' s point of view, not from the a c t i v i s t ' s . Here the Marxist ethic considers humane and moral whatever eventually creates j u s t i c e . But whose j u s t i c e i s this? The Marxist i d e a l of j u s t i c e . Brecht considers that Marxist violence i s humane because i t makes possible what i s good fo r the communist c o l l e c t i v e . This view i s evident from one short poem: "Unrecht i s t menschlich / Menschlicher aber / Kampf gegen Unrecht" (G, I I , 199)? Cf. also pp. 46-50 of chap-ter IV. 39cf. G. Steiner, The Death of Tragedy, H i l l and Wang, New York, 1963, p. 129-^°Cf. G. Steiner, The Death of Tragedy, p. 345. But as an astute r e a l i s t Brecht did have some misgivings. His i n -tensely personal l y r i c s openly display these reservations. For example, the "Ballade von der B l l l i g u n g der Welt" (G, I I I , 77) treats Brecht's doubt concerning h i s advocacy of communist measures; stanzas three and twenty-eight are outspoken s e l f -accusations. 41 Cf. C. F. Meyer, Gesammelte Werke, Rascher, Zurich, 1943, v o l . V, p. 258. ^ 2 C f . M. E s s l i n , Brecht, p. x. ^3B. Brecht, Prosa II--Geschichten 2 , ed. H. Ramthun, Suhrkamp, Frankfurt, 1965, P' 151* 44 Per Jasager, Per Nelnsager, Die Horatier und die Kurla-t i e r and Pie Ausnahme und die Regel were written f o r school c h i l d r e n . Brecht also intended that the children act the plays. Pie MaBnahme was written f o r workers, although Brecht's inten-t i o n to have them act i n i t seems to have been the r e s u l t of a ce r t a i n shortsightedness on h i s part, namely, the Neue Muslk B e r l i n refused to produce i t ; c f . S, IV, 309- Brecht intended the figures of the a c t i v i s t s i n these plays to serve as Ideal, uncomplicated examples o f how the i n d i v i d u a l could best serve the i n t e r e s t s of the cause: as anonymous expendables to be manipulated at w i l l . ^ c f . M. E s s l i n , Brecht, p. 246. ^"As E s s l i n points out, l i q u i d a t i o n was, on the contrary, very probable, as l a t e r S t a l i n i s t purges proved. Cf. E s s l i n , Brecht, p. 233. 103 ^ S i m i l a r l y , K l e i s t ' s Hermannsschlacht—abstractly a portrayal of K l e i s t ' s hate for Napoleon and the French, and of h i s own hopes for a vigorous resurgence of German Nation-a l i s m — f a i l s as a p o l i t i c a l piece. On the other hand, Georg Btichner's explosive and denunciatory pamphlet which clamoured for revolution, Der hesslsche Landbote, overflows with indigna-ti o n and reaches out with the hard-hitting directness a p o l i t -i c a l work must have i f i t i s to convince and win i t s readers. I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g that Buchner, more so than Brecht, revealed a more r e a l i s t i c grasp of the genre, subject matter and tone which the writer should use i n order to urge s o c i a l and p o l i t -i c a l change. The doc t r i n a i r e Brecht believed, however, that f a i t h and convictions based on ideology rather than on short l i v e d emotions, such as i n s p i r a t i o n or hate, would be more e f f e c t i v e i n the long, hard struggle to achieve the Marxist i d e a l . ^ 8B. Brecht, Sch r l f t e n zum Theater, ed. W. Hecht, Suhr-kamp, Frankfurt, 1963, v o l . V, pp. 257-258. ^ B . Brecht, Schr. z. Th., I I , 208-209-5°Cf. B. Brecht, "Die D i a l e k t i k auf dem Theater", Ver-suche 15. Heft 37, p. 80 . 5 l M I c h wurde nicht genug geriihmt", S, I I I , 304. 52»wir sind niemand", S, I I I , 305-53«...zu eigentumlich...», S, I I I , 311-5^The mask was Brecht 9s favourite symbol of e v i l and c r u e l t y . It i s worn by c a p i t a l i s t s , tyrants, and sol d i e r s or the members of the communist c o l l e c t i v e . Shen Te, f o r example, wears the mask of e v i l to become Shui Ta; the s o l d i e r s and the governor I n Der kaukaslsche Kreidekreis also wear t h i s disguise. In the poem "Maske des Bosen" (G, IV, 7) the mask takes on the aspect of unnaturalness as i t does with Shui Ta. 5 % . Mayer, Bertolt Brecht und die Tradition, Neske, Pf u l l i n g e n , 1961, p. 73-5°This play also a n t i c i p a t e s the thought of Die Horatier und die K u r l a t i e r where Brecht stresses si m i l a r themes, such as the necessity of reason, cunning, and expediency. I t also takes up a question treated at length i n Chapter V, namely, the r e j e c t i o n of the—from the Marxist point of view—useless heroic act of dying f o r the sake of preserving one's honour or meaningless t r a d i t i o n . 5?See S, IV, 265-266. 104 5 8H. Mayer, B e r t o l t B r e c h t , p. 70. •59Later, i n D i e Tage d e r Commune, B r e c h t c o n s i d e r s h e l p i n g o t h e r s a n o b l e deed. 6°Cf. f o o t n o t e 34 and the d i s c u s s i o n o f t h i s problem on page 28 o f C h a p t e r I I I , 63-The New Testament, Romans, I I , 14. ^ 2 W e b s t e r ' s New World D i c t i o n a r y , N e l s o n , F o s t e r and S c o t t , T o r o n t o , I 9 6 0 , C o l l e g e E d i t i o n , " p. 956. 6 3 c f . f o o t n o t e 33. 6 ^ C f . B. B r e c h t , "Zu 'Die h e i l l g e Johanna d e r S c h l a c h t -h S f e ' " , S c h r . zum Th.-., ,11, l 4 0 f f . ^ E i g h t e e n o f B r e c h t ' s t h i r t y - f i v e p l a y s ( v o l s . I - X I I , S u h r ^ a m p , F r a n k f u r t e d i t i o n ) d e a l s p e c i f i c a l l y w i t h wars, and r e v o l u t i o n s from v a r i o u s p e r i o d s o f h i s t o r y . B r e c h t was sure t h a t man was b a s i c a l l y good by n a t u r e ; t h a t i n t i m e s o f h a r d s h i p and war, i t was a n a t u r a l l a w f o r man's goodness t o a s s e r t i t s e l f i n an e f f o r t t o h e l p and p r e s e r v e mankind. ^ T w e n t y y e a r s l a t e r i n K l e i n e s Organon f i i r das T h e a t e r o f 1948, B r e c h t i n s i s t e d t h a t t h e t h e a t e r p u b l i c l e a r n t h i s t o o : " S i e f d i e Zuschauer] s e i e n u n t e r h a l t e n . . . m i t dem Zorn, i n den das M i t l e i d m i t den U n t e r d r i i c k t e n n u t z l l c h s i c h v e r -wandeln kann...." Versuche 12, Suhrkamp, B e r l i n , p. 118. ^ ? C f . W. J e n s , Deutsche L i t e r a t u r d e r Gegenwart, P i p e r V e r l a g , S t u t t g a r t , 1962, 4 t h rev. ed., pp. 126-128. Here J e n s a n a l y z e s t h i s poem i n terms o f t h e pr o b l e m o f t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y s o c i a l c r i t i c i s m . ^ 8 B . B r e c h t , " F i i n f S c h w i e r i g k e i t e n beim S c h r e i b e n d e r W a h r h e i t " , Der 21. V e r s u c h , V e r s u c h e 9, p. 88. 6 9 H . Mayer, B e r t o l t B r e c h t , p. 7 8 . 7°Brecht c a l l e d h i s l a t e r d r a m a t i c works " B e a r b e i t u n g e n " ( c f . S, X I ; S, X I I ) ; t h e y a r e a d a p t a t i o n s o f p l a y s b o t h c l a s s i c -a l and modern. ^ B r e c h t saw f i n e d i f f e r e n c e s i n man's p a s s i v e a t t i t u d e toward d o m i n a t i o n . He d i s t i n g u i s h e d between man's a c c e p t a n c e o f t y r a n n y and man's s u f f e r i n g t y r a n n y . F o r B r e c h t , a c c e p t -ance i m p l i e d t h e a c t o f c h o i c e w h i c h came fr o m l o n g h a b i t , r e s i g n a t i o n o r a p p r o v a l (as w i t h Mother C o u r a g e ) , whereas s u f f e r i n g s i g n i f i e d a r e j e c t i o n based on s i l e n t d i s a p p r o v a l , a s w i t h H e r r Egge. 105 ?2E. Bentley, Seven Plays, "Introduction", p. x l i . 7 3See S, I, 6-7. 7*Cf. W. Zimmermann,.Brechts "Leben des G a l i l e i " , PSdagogischer Verlag Schwann^ Dusieldorf, 1965» P» 52. ? 5 T h i s theme of a mother's fear of l o s i n g her son i n war recurs frequently i n Brecht's works i n Mutter Courage and i n the poem of the "Fischweib" i n Das Verhor, f o r example. "^In Die Gewehre Brecht opposes pacifism, yet i n Mutter Courage and i n Das Verhor he argues vehemently i n favour of pacifism; the polemic thrust of each play i s , however, for or against pacifism, depending on which attitude serves the in t e r e s t of the common man better i n h i s p a r t i c u l a r age and . s i t u a t i o n . 77pie h e l l l g e Johanna, Der Jasager, Die Mutter, Die Gewehre, Mutter Courage, Das Verhor, G a l i l e i , Der gute Mensch, Die Geslchte, Der kaukaslsche Kreldekrels, Der Prozess. 78The beginning of h i s i n t e r e s t i n the mother-figure seems to coincide with the b i r t h of h i s own c h i l d r e n and h i s , marriage to Helene Weigel i n the l a t e nineteen-twenties. 79cf. Chapter IV, pp. 53-54. RO Brecht never stated i n so many words what t h i s i d e a l society would be l i k e . In Die Dreigroschenoper he had one of the victims of c a p i t a l i s t society exclaim that economic i n t e r e s t s would most c e r t a i n l y have to come f i r s t ; Macheath sang: Erst kommt das Pressen, dann kommt die Moral. Erst muB es moglich sein auch armen Leuten Vom groBen B r o t l a l b s i c h i h r T e i l zu schneiden-(S, I I I , 99). And Mother Courage f e l t that v i r t u e s would become superfluous i n the "good" society: "In einem guten Land brauchts keine Tugenden, a l l e Menschen konnen ganz gewohnlich sein, mittelge-schelt und meinetwegen F e i g l i n g e " (S, VII, 89-90). O J-Cf. F. Durrenmatt, F r l e d r i c h S c h i l l e r , Arche, Z i i r i c h , A p . 39-8 2 C f . Goethe, J . W. v., Werke, hrsg. im Auftrage der GroB-herzogin Sophie von Sachsen, H. Bohlau, Weimar, 1887-1912, Bd .4, p. 277-83cf. footnote 3. ^ T h e f i r s t version, Die Erde bewegt sich, was written i n 1938 and 1939; the second German version Leben des G a l i l e i was completed a f t e r 19*7 when Brecht and Charles Laughton re-vised the f i r s t version and translated i t into English; the second German version was f i r s t published i n 1955 i n Versuche 14, 106 Suhrkamp, B e r l i n ; a t h i r d v e r s i o n f o r the stage a l s o e x i s t s : c f . E s s l i n , Brecht, pp. 301-302. Cf. a l s o K.-D. Pe t e r s e n , B e r t o l t B r e c h t , Leben und Werk, E i n B u c h e r v e r z e i c h n i s , S t a d t b u c h e r e i , Dortmund 1 9 6 6 , p. 29, p. 33• 8 5 S e e S, I, 5 -8; S, V I I I , 201. 8 6 S e e S, V I I I , 201. 8 ? C f . Schr. z. Th., IV, 224. 8 8 B r e c h t , Versuche 2, p, 2 0 . An adapted form o f t h i s statement appears i n the p r o c l a m a t i o n o f the communist's e t h i c s o f expediency i n Die MaBnahme: "Wer f u r den Kommunis-mus kampft / Hat von a l i e n Tugenden nur e i n e : / DaB er f u r den Kommunismus kampft*! (S, IV, 2 6 6 ) . SBZ von A b i s Z. E i n Taschen- und Nachschlagebuch , liber d i e Sowjetlsche Besatzungszone Deutschlands, h r s g . vom Bundesministerium f u r gesamtdeutsche Fragen, 10. uberarb. u. erw. A u f l . , Deutscher Bundes-Verlag, Bonn, 1966, p. 264. 90see S, V I I I , 185. 91see S, I I , 283: "Ja, es i s t sehr w i c h t i g , daB i c h esse." 92otto Mann, B. B.—Mass oder Mythos?, W. Rothe V e r l a g , H e i d e l b e r g , 1958, p. 19. In t h i s polemic, Otto Mann o v e r s t a t e s h i s case, and, because o f h i s p e r s p e c t i v e , f a i l s to be t r u e to his own knowledge of Brecht;'§ intentions and c r i t i c a l writings. F u r t h e r , he does the works o f Brecht an i n j u s t i c e . Mann i n t e n -t i o n a l l y examines Br e c h t ' s p l a y s from a p o i n t o f view which Brecht r e j e c t e d — t h a t o f adherence to a r i s t o t e l i a n dramatic p r i n c i p l e s — w h i c h i s guaranteed to d i s c r e d i t Brecht as a d r a m a t i s t i n the t r a d i t i o n a l sense. But not being a r i s t o t e l i a n was one o f Bre c h t * s reasons f o r success. Mann w r i t e s on page 24: "Wir w o l l e n sehen, was von A i s c h y l o s b i s zu Gerhart Haupt-mann zu einem Drama gehorte, und i i b e r p r u f e n , wie weit Brecht im L i c h t e d i e s e r U b e r l i e f e r u n g a l s Dramatiker b e s t e h t . " Care-f u l not to mention B r e c h t ' s r e j e c t i o n o f a r i s t o t e l i a n p r i n c i p l e s , . Mann demonstrates t h a t Brecht does not emulate Greek and German C l a s s i c a l drama. Brecht i s a poor " n e o - c l a s s i c i s t " and not a " D i c h t e r " , because f o r Mann, he f a l l s to p r o v i d e e x p o s i t i o n and to develop c h a r a c t e r by means o f events and dialogue;, he does not show a noble o r middle(class t r a g i c hero, who, s u b j e c t to h i s t r a g i c f l a w o r an i n e x o r a b l e e x t e r n a l f a t e , expresses the n o b i l i t y and grandeur o f s o u l In g r e a t human pathos and extreme s u f f e r i n g . In a d d i t i o n , Brecht p o r t r a y s types i n s t e a d o f f i n e l y drawn i n d i v i d u a l s ; these types are r e p r e s e n t a t i v e i n exaggerated r e a l i s t i c manner of the c l a s s e s he hates, i n the case o f the middle c l a s s . Mann sees i n Brecht o n l y the s k i l l f u l and accomplished servant o f the t h e a t r e . Many o f h i s statements a r e untenable upon c o n s u l t a t i o n o f the p l a y s . Mann wrote t h i s " a t t a c k " ( E s s l i n , Brecht, p. 330) i n o r d e r to d i s -c r e d i t a communist poet who hated the middle c l a s s , mocked i t s weaknesses, and exposed i t s e v i l s . 107 9^G. S t e i n e r , The Death o f Tragedy, p. 3*2. S^See Ch a p t e r I V , p. 39• 95cf. B. B r e c h t , V e r s u c h e 15, H Z u 'Leben des G a l i l e i ' M , Suhrkamp, B e r l i n , 1957* p- 133* 108 BIBLIOGRAPHY I . Works by B e r t o l t Brecht: Breoht, B., D i a l o g e aus dem Messingkauf, Suhrkamp, F r a n k f u r t , 1964. Die Geschafte des Herrn J u l i u s Casar, Ro-wohlt, B e r l i n , 1964. F l i i c h t l i n g s g e s p r a c h e , Suhrkamo, F r a n k f u r t , 1962. Gedlohte. Suhrkamp, F r a n k f u r t , 1960-1965, v o l s . 1-9. Gedichte und L i e d e r aus Stiicken, Suhrkamp, F r a n k f u r t , 1963. H a u s p o s t i l l e , Suhrkamp, F r a n k f u r t , 1958. Kalend erge sc h i cht en, Rowohlt, B e r l i n , 1962. 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Mennemeier, P., " B r e c h t — M u t t e r Courage und i h r e K i n d e r " , Das d e u t s c h e Drama von Barock b i s z u r Gegen-• w a r t , ed. B. v. Wiese, A. B a g e l , D i i s s e l d o r f , T958, v o l . 2. R e i c h e r t , H. W., "Hauptmann's F r a u W o l f f and B r e c h t * s M u t t e r Courage", German Q u a r t e r l y , XXXIV, 4, Nov. 1961, pp. 438-448. Rohrmoser, G., " B r e c h t — D a s Leben des G a l i l e i " , Das de u t s c h e Drama von Barock b i s z u r Gegenwart, ed. B. v. Wiese, A. B a g e l , D i i s s e l d o r f , 1958, v o l . 2. Wood, F., " G e r t r u d von Le F o r t and B e r t o l t B r e c h t : Counter R e f o r m a t i o n and t h e A t o m i c Bomb", S t u d i e s i n German L i t e r a t u r e , ed. K. Hammer, L o u i s i a n a S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y , S t u d i e s , Baton Rouge, 1963, H u m a n i t i e s S e r i e s #13, pp. 136-149. I I I . 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Zimmermann, Werner, Brechts "Leben des G a l i l e i " , Padagogischer V e r l a g Schwann, D u s s e l d o r f , 1965. 115 REFERENCE TABLE B e r t o l t B r echt's P l a y s : T i t l e s and Dates o f Composition i n the Suhrkamp ( F r a n k f u r t ) E d i t i o n Vol. I Baal 1918 Trommeln i n der Nacht 1919 Im D i c k i c h t der Stadte 1921-1924 Vol. II Leben Eduards des Zweiten von England, 1923/24 Mann 1st Mann 1924/25 Das E l e f a n t e n k a l b 1924/25 Vol. I l l Die Dreigroschenoper 1928 .;Aufstleg und F a l l der Stadt Mahagonny 1928/29 Das Badener L e h r s t u c k vom E l n v e r s t a n d n l s 1929 Vol. IV Die h e l l l g e Johanna der S c h l a c h t h S f e 1929/30 Der Jasager und Der Nelnsager 1929/30 Die MaBnahme 1930 Vol. V Die Mutter 1930-1932 Die Ausnahme und d i e Regel 1930 Die H o r a t l e r und d i e K u n a t l e r 1934 Vol. VI Die Rundkopfe und d i e S p i t z k o p f e 1932-1934 Furcht und Elend des D r l t t e n Reiches 1935-1938 V o l . VII Die Gewehre der Prau C a r r a r 1937 Mutter Courage und i h r e Kinder 1939 Das Verhor des L u k u l l u s 1939 Vol. VIII Leben des G a l i l e i 1938/39, 1947-1954 Per gute Mensch von Sezuan 1938-1940 Vol. IX Herr P u n t l l a und s e i n Knecht M a t t l 1940-1941 Per aufhaltsame A u f s t l e g des A r t u r o Ul 1941 P i e G e s c h l c h t e der Simone Machard 194l-l§43 Vol. X Schweyk im zweiten W e l t k r i e g 1941-1944 Per kaukaslsche K r e i d e k r e i s 1944/45 P i e Tage der Commune 1948/49 Vol. XI P i e Antigone des Sophokles 1947 Per Hofmeister 1950 C o r l o l a n 1952/53 Vol. XII Per Prozess der Jeanne d'Arc zu Rouen 1431 1952 Pon Juan 1952 Pauken und Trompeten 1955
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Germanic Studies
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Realism and idealism in the major plays of Bertolt Brecht
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