@prefix vivo: . @prefix edm: . @prefix ns0: . @prefix dcterms: . @prefix skos: . vivo:departmentOrSchool "Arts, Faculty of"@en, "English, Department of"@en ; edm:dataProvider "DSpace"@en ; ns0:degreeCampus "UBCV"@en ; dcterms:creator "Dalton, Kathleen Ellen (Sister Mary Katherine)"@en ; dcterms:issued "2011-09-29T20:45:53Z"@en, "1964"@en ; vivo:relatedDegree "Master of Arts - MA"@en ; ns0:degreeGrantor "University of British Columbia"@en ; dcterms:description """Even a hasty perusal of Dr. W.E. Matters' Check List reveals the vast quantity of poetry published in Canada during the last half of the nineteenth century. This thesis is an attempt to explore and evaluate a crosscut of this poetry over a period of fifteen years, 1855-1880, and to establish the qualitative values in such a quantitative output. It is axiomatic that where there is movement there is life, and it is therefore reasonable to suppose that since the Confederation era was a particularly fluid period in Canadian growth, it called for a lively response. That there was such a response is evidenced in the various magazines and periodicals published during that time, with circulation wide enough to make it both convenient and profitable for any aspiring poets. And if there should be no especially aesthetic value to their poetry, at least they have recorded the aspirations and convictions of the average Canadian in the decade preceding and following Confederation. This aspect alone makes them worthy of consideration. Because of the quantity of material some selectivity was necessary. It seemed advisable to discuss only such poems as had some reference to Canada. The poems are, therefore, divided into three classes. After the Introductory Chapter which is devoted chiefly to an explanation and recreation of the Canadian scene at the time of Confederation, Chapter II deals with those poems Praising Canada's Beauty; Chapter III - those Praising Country as Country; Chapter Iv - those Miscellaneous-Mentioning Confederation. Chapter V is a brief evaluation only, since the poems are individually evaluated throughout. The study, confined as it is to a period between I855-I880, is obviously restricted, as it excludes many of the better, or better-known, poems particularly those of Charles; G.D. Roberts and Bliss Carman. N or was it deemed advisable to include the French Canadian poems of which there is a considerable number. The poems included have been analysed, more or less, and whatever may be their merit individually, they are, en masse, a significant contribution to Canadian Literature. Appendix I gives the musical setting for an adaptation of "My Own Canadian Home". Appendix II records in full "Our New Dominion". The Bibliography is chiefly a Check List, and includes a few works not recorded in Dr. W.E. Watters’ Check List."""@en ; edm:aggregatedCHO "https://circle.library.ubc.ca/rest/handle/2429/37706?expand=metadata"@en ; skos:note "CANADIAN CONFEDERATION POETRY 1855 - 1880' •by SISTER MARY KATHERINE (DALTON) B.A., MOUNT SAINT VINCENT COLLEGE, 1953 A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF Mas.ter of Arts i n the Department of English We accept t h i s thesis as conforming to the required standard THE- UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA'1 March, 1961+ I n p r e s e n t i n g t h i s t h e s i s i n p a r t i a l f u l f i l m e n t of the r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r an advanced degree at the U n i v e r s i t y of B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , I agree that the L i b r a r y s h a l l make i t f r e e l y a v a i l a b l e f o r , r e f e r e n c e and study* I f u r t h e r agree that p e r -m i s s i o n f o r e x t e n s i v e c o p y i n g of t h i s t h e s i s f o r s c h o l a r l y purposes may be granted by the Head of my Department or by h i s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s . I t i s u n d e r s t o o d that c o p y i n g or p u b l i -c a t i o n .of t h i s t h e s i s f o r f i n a n c i a l g a i n s h a l l not be a l l o w e d wi thout my w r i t t e n p e r m i s s i o n * . • Department of The U n i v e r s i t y of B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , Vancouver 85 Canada I I ABSTRACT E v e n a h a s t y p e r u s a l o f D r . W . E . M a t t e r s ' Check L i s t r e v e a l s t h e v a s t q u a n t i t y o f p o e t r y p u b l i s h e d i n C a n a d a d u r i n g t h e l a s t h a l f o f t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y . T h i s t h e s i s i s . an a t t e m p t t o e x p l o r e a n d e v a l u a t e a c r o s s -c u t o f t h i s p o e t r y o v e r a p e r i o d o f f i f t e e n y e a r s , 1855-1880, a n d t o e s t a b l i s h t h e q u a l i t a t i v e v a l u e s i n s u c h a q u a n t i t a t i v e o u t p u t . I t i s a x i o m a t i c t h a t where t h e r e i s movement t h e r e i s l i f e , a n d i t i s t h e r e f o r e r e a s o n a b l e t o s u p p o s e t h a t s i n c e t h e C o n f e d e r a t i o n e r a was a p a r -t i c u l a r l y f l u i d p e r i o d i n C a n a d i a n g r o w t h , i t c a l l e d f o r a l i v e l y r e s p o n s e . T h a t t h e r e was s u c h a r e s p o n s e i s e v i d e n c e d i n t h e v a r i o u s m a g a z i n e s a n d p e r i o d i c a l s p u b l i s h e d d u r i n g t h a t t i m e , w i t h c i r c u l a t i o n w i d e enough t o make i t b o t h c o n -v e n i e n t a n d p r o f i t a b l e f o r a n y a s p i r i n g p o e t s . A n d i f t h e r e s h o u l d be n o e s p e c i a l l y a e s t h e t i c v a l u e t o t h e i r p o e t r y , a t l e a s t t h e y have r e c o r d e d t h e a s p i r a t i o n s a n d c o n v i c t i o n s o f t h e a v e r a g e C a n a d i a n i n t h e decade p r e -c e d i n g a n d f o l l o w i n g C o n f e d e r a t i o n . T h i s a s p e c t a l o n e makes them w o r t h y o f c o n s i d e r a t i o n . I l l Because of the quantity of material some selectivity was necessary. I t seemed advisable to discuss only such poems as had some reference to Canada. The poems are, therefore, divided into three classes, After the Intro-ductory Chapter which i s devoted chiefly to an explanation and recreation of the Canadian scene at the time of Con-federation, Chapter II deals with those poems Praising Canada's Beauty; Chapter III - those Praising Country as Country; Chapter Iv - those Miscellaneous-Mentioning Con-federation. Chapter V i s a brief evaluation only, since the poems are individually evaluated throughout. The study, confined as i t i s to a period between I85>£-I880, i s obviously restricted, as i t excludes many of the better, or better-known, poems tparticularly those of Charles; G.D. Roberts and Bliss Carman. N or was i t deemed advisable to include the French Canadian poems of • which.there i s a considerable number. The poems included have been analysed, more or less, and whatever may be their merit individually, they are, en masse, a s i g n i f i -cant contribution to Canadian Literature. Appendix I gives the musical setting for an adapta-tion of \"My Own Canadian Home\". Appendix II records i n f u l l \"Our New Dominion\". 1 7 The Bibliography i s chiefly a Check L i s t , and includes a few works not recorded i n Dr. W.E. Matters 1 Check List« V ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I owe an acknowledgement of gratitude to Dr.Donald G. Stephens for his encouragement and guidance i n preparing this thesis; to Dr. W.E. Watters, without whose Check L i s t this work would have been an insuperable taskj to a l l the librarians* Mr. Basil Stuart-Stubbs of the University of British Columbia, and the others i n the Toronto Public Library, Queen's; University, McGill, Bibliothegue St. Sulpice, Dalhousie and Brown University, for their courtesy and co-operation. I also wish to thank the Superiors of my Congregation who made i t possible for me to v i s i t the various l i b r a r i e s for sources of material. TABLE OP CONTENTS' CHAPTER ' PAGE I. INTRODUCTION . 2 I I . POEMS CELEBRATING CANADA'S BEAUTY IO III.. PRAISING COUNTRY AS COUNTRY. 36 IV... MISCELLANEOUS-MENTIONING CONFEDERATION........ 60 V. EVALUATION 81 APPENDIX I. MUSICAL SETTING- My Own Canadian Home... 93 APPENDIX I I . SUPPLEMENTARY POEM 9^ CHECK LIST - BIBLIOGRAPHY. 96 INTRODUCTION \"Perhaps there i s no branch of literature with which the Canadian mind i s less acquainted than poetry; and i t i s hot without a good deal of s e l f - s a c r i f i c e that an author can venture to publish any work, however small.\" Precisely at the time that J. T. Breeze expressed these sentiments i n the introduction to his A- Collection of Poems published i n l865» the Reverend Edward Hartley was showing a l i k e concern: \"There i s probably no country i n the world where the claims of native literature are so l i t t l e f e l t and where every effort i n poetry has been met with so much coldness and indifference as i n I Canada.\" Yet, i n the face of such seeming apathy, Canadians wrote and published an astonishing amount of poetry during the last half of the nineteenth century. This i s ample evidence of a cultural awakening. And there were many opportunities and means of bringing this poetry before the public. Several publications were eager for contributions: The Canadian Monthly and National Review was founded i n l8?2 and continued for ten years; The Nation, o f f i c i a l organ of \"Canada F i r s t \" , appeared from 187^ to 1876. Under the stimulus of Confederation came also the New Dominion Monthly, Montreal, 1867-1879; Stewart's Literary Quarterly, St. John, 1867-1872; the Canadian Literary Journal, Toronto, 1870-1871; continued as the Canadian Magazine, 1871-1872; the Maritime I Edward Hartley Dewart, \"Introductory Essay\", Selections from Canadian Poets (Montreal, 1864), p.X. 3. Monthly, Halifax, 1&73-1875; and the Harp, Montreal, 1874-1882, organ of the Irish Canadian. The verses that flooded these magazines and other periodicals at the time of Confederation were an overflow of Canadian enthusiasm, and i f for the most part, they were undistinguished, they were significant in that they reflected the self-conscious attitude of the poets i n their desire to be Canadian as distinct from British or American. It i s especially under this aspect that Canadian poetry can be studied. But i t i s also to be hoped that i n a closer scrutiny at least some of the poems may disclose \"the understanding heart.\" For i f as Emerson says, \"The poet has a new thought; ... a whole new experience to unfold ... for the experience of each age requires a new confession ...\" then the abundance of poetic outburst during Canadian Confederation i s understandable. Exoteric as i s the poetry of this era, i t would seem to lay i t s e l f open for hasty perusal and hasty condemnation. And c r i t i c s have perused i t and condemned i t for i t s sentimentalism and i t s slavish adherence to the imagery and technique of the English Romantic poets of f i f t y years before, so that most of the late nineteenth century Canadian poets \"are known now only to the more 2 devoted student of Canadian le t t e r s . \" It must be admitted that the poetry of this period has marked Romantic characteristics - interest i n natural scenery, sentimental attitudes, subjectivism, idealism, liberalism, nationalism, 2 Norman Shrive, \"What Happened to Pauline,\" Canadian Literature, XIlKSumraer, 1962), 27. humaxri-tarianism, interest i n the past, interest i n common things, revolt against oppression, pictureque language, and b e l i e f i n the pot e n t i a l of man. Yet, i f there i s to be some appreciation of what the poets of Confederation were tr y i n g to express, there must also be an awareness of the contemporary tastes and norms which influenced them. Before casting them a l l aside as inconsequential, an honest survey should be made to determine how t h e i r poetry r e f l e c t s Canadian awareness of national destiny; how i t may be a \"new confession\" of a new age. I t may be asked, \"When does a poem become a suitable object for study\"? I f the answer i s - for delight - for s a t i s f a c t i o n - for appreciation of sound and meaning - then only the f i n e r poems would be worth scrutiny. But i s i t not legitimate to make a study of the poems of a d e f i n i t e era, not so much to explore t h e i r aesthetic value as to discover the source of the poetic urge. And i f the poem should be so devoid of a l l substance as to be outside the norm of l i t e r a r y a r t , may i t not s t i l l f i n d i t s significance i n what i t r e f l e c t s . I f there must be an \"Apologia\" for the poetry of the Confederation era, Edward Hartley Dewart supplies i t : ... When the poets of other countries sing of the birds and the flowers, the mountains and streams of those lands, whose histor y i s starred with deathless names, and r i c h with the mellow and hazy l i g h t of romance, every reference to those immortal types of beauty or grandeur commands sympathy and admiration. But l e t a Canadian bard presume to think that the wild-flowers which formed the garlands of h i s sunny childhood, the sweet song-birds that sang him to sleep i n infancy, or the magnificent lakes, forests and r i v e r s of h i s native land, are as worthy of being enshrined 5 i n l y r i c numbers, and capable of awaking memories of days as bright, associations as tender, and scenery as b e a u t i f u l , as ever was sung by hoary harper of the olden time, and he i s more l i k e l y to secure contempt than.sympathy or admiration. .*• There i s a large class of persons who could scarcely conceive i t possible that a Canadian l y r i c might have as deep and true f e e l i n g as those they have,most admired; or that a Canadian Poet might be as highly g i f t e d as some of the favorite names who are crowned with the wreath of unfading fame. And yet such things are not altogether inconceivable. B u t . i f a Milton or a Shakespeare was to arise among us, i t i s far from certain that h i s merit would be recognized. The mass of readers f i n d i t easier and safer to re-echo the approbation of others, - to praise those whom a l l praise,- than to form an i n t e l l i g e n t and independent judgment of t h e i r own. ... To those who are best acquainted with the poetry of Canada, the wonder i s , not that so l i t t l e has been achieved, but that so much poetry has been written i n spite of such unpropitious circumstances. ... But i f Memory cannot draw r i c h materials for poetry consecrated to fame, Hope unfolds the l o f t i e r i n s p i r a t i o n of a future bright with promise. I f we cannot point to a past r i c h with h i s t o r i c names, we have the i n s p i r i n g spectacle of a great country i n her youthful might, girding herself for a race for an honourable place among the nations of the world. In our grand and gloomy forests - i n our b r i l l i a n t skies and varied seasons -i n our magnificent lakes and r i v e r s - i n our hoary mountains; and f r u i t f u l v a l l e y s , external Nature unveils her most majestic forms to exalt and i n s p i r e the t r u l y poetic soul; ... -? Here i s an \"awareness of national destiny\", and the Reverend Dewart has answered not only the c r i t i c s of h i s day but those l a t e r c r i t i c s who decried the \"romanticism\" of Canadian poetry at t h i s period. I f the Old World's lakes and woods, i t s flowers and birds had inspired immortal poems, why not t h i s great New World with i t s \"grand and gloomy forests - b r i l l i a n t skies -magnificent lakes and r i v e r s - hoary mountains and f r u i t f u l valleys\"? After a l l , these had not been written about as yet. 3 - • Dewart, pp. XIV-XV 6 . \"Seranus\", i n the Preface to the Canadian Birthday Book throws more light on the contemporary scene:. ...Nature teaches to true Poets a pure and unerring morality of her own, I have thought that - i n our young and beautiful country, where we may assume a comparative immunity from low moral standards - i t would be safe to allow our writers to show us the f a l l or the leaf, the birth of the flower and the daily marvel of the sunset, both as they bear upon human l i f e and i t s experiences, and as they exist beautifully i n themselves. ^ But Reverend Dewart knew that the establishment of a nation's literature involves more than an appreciation of i t s beauty: ...shallow and reprehensible i s the idea, very widely entertained, that, because we can procure sufficient quantities of mental aliment from other lands, i t i s superfluous to make any attempt to build up a literature of our own. A national literature i s an essential element i n the formation of a national character. It i s not merely the record of a country's mental progress: i t i s the expression of i t s intellectual l i f e , the bond of national unity, and the guide of national energy. It may be f a i r l y questioned, whether the whole range of history presents the spectacle of a people firmly united p o l i t i c a l l y , without the subtle but powerful cement of a patriotic literature. On the other hand, i t i s easy to show, that, i n the older countries of the world, the names of distinguished poets, enshrined i n the national heart, are the watchwords of national union, and i t has become a part of the patriotism of the people to honor and love their memory. ...And what Is .more-to be deprecated than neglect of our most meritorious authors, i s the almost universal absence of interest and faith i n a l l indigenous l i t e r a r y productions, and the undisturbed satisfaction with a state of things that, rightly viewed, should be regarded as a national reproach. 5 k S. Frances Harrison, Seranus (pseud), Canadian Birthday Book. (Toronto, 1887), p. 4 5 E. H. Dewart, pp. IX-X 7 At a time when Canada was struggling desperately to a t t a i n some form of p o l i t i c a l unity i t i s not surprising that a p a t r i o t i c theme runs through so many of the poems of t h i s period. For the most part, they may be divided into two categories: those which laud Canada as the land of the free, the land of plenty, a land whose geographic expanse offers opportunity for a l l who care to, a v a i l themselves of her largesse, and those which encourage or praise Confederation as Canada's answer to an i n f e r i o r c o l o n i a l status or to annexation with the United States. An understanding of the histor y of the time and of Canada's i n t e r n a l p o l i t i c a l problems i s necessary for an appreciation of the many and varied poems of t h i s period. The American Revolution started the idea of the union of B r i t i s h North America, and the American C i v i l War completed i t . Most of the advocates of a united B r i t i s h North America were inspired by both an admiration and a fear of the United States. Since that country had broken with B r i t a i n i t was growing l i k e a young giant, s t r i d i n g across the country. I f the l o s t colonies could thus become a great nation, why could not the remaining colonies unite and b u i l d another? I f they did not seek strength i n union, could they avoid, i n the end, being drawn under the Stars and Stripes? A survey of some of the problems facing Canadians, p a r t i c u l a r l y during the years 1855 to 1880, for t h i s i s the scope of t h i s study of Confederation Poetry, should point up the predominant motifs i n the poems written or published at t h i s time. 8 . F i r s t , the Act of Union which in l8kl had united Upper and Lower Canada had proved unworkable. The equal representation which i t gave to Canada East and Canada West alternately favored, f i r s t one and then the other. By I85O Canada West had the larger population. The cry \"Rep by Pop\" threatened to destroy the union, but the real trouble was the breakdown of the government under the weight of the union. Though i t was clear that French Canadian Nationalism and English Canadian Nationalism were two distinct and strong to be merged in one government, yet the two areas could not part completely. There were problems or revenue, of the building of railways and canals which had to be shared conjointly. Added to this was/thefeexpanding West beyond the Great Lakes across the Prairies to the Pacific Coast. The 1858 Gold Rush on the Fraser River i n Br i t i s h Columbia, and the influx of American settlers to the prairie lands made i t necessary for Canada to stake her claims. But this was possible only under a united Canada, and showed not only the impossibility of going back to mere division but the necessity to go on to establish a federal system. Public-minded Canadians l i f t e d their eyes to look beyond the limits of the province. They envisioned a much greater federal union - one stretching from sea to sea. But, potent, as these factors were in promoting Confederation, i t took the threat of American Invasion to convince the \" l i t t l e B r i t i s h colonies\" that they must seek strength i n union or some day be annexed. Fear has often been a great welder of nations, and the fear created by the American C i v i l War, l86l - l865» with i t s subsequent 9. Fenian raids, was perhaps the strongest force i n uniting British North America. Finally, after a series of Conferences, the Dominion of Canada was born, July 1, l867» The ensuing years were years of expansion, i n which there were the formation and annexing of new provinces, the building of the Intercolonial Railway, and the construction of a transcontinental railroad linking the Atlantic with the Pac i f i c . There was the rise and f a l l of p o l i t i c a l parties, and the resignation of the Conservatives i n 1873 as a result of the famous Pacific Scandal. These were exciting times. Great p o l i t i c a l storms, beckoning horizons, pride i n the new Dominion, a growing sense of independence, appreciation of new-found freedoms - a l l find a place i n the literature of these years. This i s not to say, however, that a l l the poetry i s confined to these topics. For every patriotic poem there are many more \"Temperance Odes\", and for every poem exulting i n the joy of expanding horizons there i s another praising the peace and contentment of domesticity. But since i t i s Confederation Poetry that i s being submitted for an appraisal, and since some selectivity i s necessary i n such a wide f i e i d , only those poems have been selected which pertain directly to Canada - those Celebrating Canada's Beauty; those Praising Country as Country; and those which allude to Confederation. 10. CHAPTER II POEMS CELEBRATING CANADA'S BEAUTY M. Emma Knapp voices the opinion of most of the Confederation poets who found joy and inspiration i n the varied beauties of the Canadian scene when she says: It i s with no vain desire to emulate the fine talents, and rare intellectual productions of the shining stars of Genius who are reflecting a glorious halo of radiance around the earth at the present time, or presumptuously claim for myself even the most humble place amid those who command the homage of an admiring world, that I offer this l i t t l e volume to the people of my native Province. '• . I would have them bear i n mind, that many of the verses were ... inspired only by thoughts of home and home-associations, and an admiration for a l l that i s romantic and lovely i n the wild scenery on the shore of Chignecto. In this vast solitude, commemorated by reminiscences of the past, there i s much to awaken feelings of sublimity; and with the burning eloquence of a Moore or Byron, and the wonderfully beautiful descriptive powers of a Longfellow or Bryant, I might have done a spot, so fraught with interest, f u l l justice... 6 This i s an open avowal that the interests were \"romantic\", and i t i s significant that Emma Knapp cites two British and two American poets of the romantic tradition. It would seem that though the book of her l y r i c s was published i n l8?2, many of the poems in i t had been written at an earlier period, even allowing for the fact that Canadian poetry remained predominantly romantic long after the decline of romanticism in both England and America. Too many prominent poets had intervened by 1872, for Emma Knapp not to have heard of their names: the Victorians - Browning, Tennyson, the Rosettis, Matthew Arnold, and 6 M. Emma Knapp, \"Introduction\", Lyrics of the Past and Other Poems (Saint John, 1872). 11 nearer home, Walt Whitman, who as early as 1855 aad. startled the li t e r a r y world with the publication of his ikeaves of Grass' » Longfellow and Bryant, Byron and Moore were writing at the turn of the century or during i t s early decades. That Emma Knapp should revert to them as the paragons of \"burning eloquence\" and \"beautiful descriptive powers\" indicate that the Canadian's idea of greatness was, generally speaking, s t i l l linked with the past and v/ith the older lands. The only thing Canadian was the scene. A View of Montreal From the Tower of a French Cathedral The f a i r Canadian ci t y , That rose upon my sight; With l o f t y spires and stately towers, I viewed with wrapt delight. And the broad and noble river, Where shone the sun's bright gleam, Reflecting a l l the glorious scene, -With mid-day's radiant beam. The view was beautiful and grand! And my mind turned to the past, -It seemed so strange that the city's site Was once a forest vast. Temples of Learning- Art's high domes, Arise on every hand; The heart with admiration owns It i s a favoured land. Where religion, wisdon, science Must consecrate the place; T i l l of the days long past and gone, We scarce can find a trace. ? 7 Knapp, pp. 141-142 12 Obviously, there i s nothing very distinctive about this sort of verse, although i t does indicate some feel for rhyme and rhythm, with sufficient deviation from the predominantly iambic to save i t from complete monotony. It i s not much more, however* than an observation expressed i h rhyme which could probably be better expressed i n prose. There i s a preponderance of the staid descriptive adjectives - \"lofty\", \"stately\", \"bright\", \"beautiful\", \"glorious\", \"radiant\", with the ever-present \" f a i r \" . Indeed, \" f a i r Canada\" i s repeated so often i n the poems of this period that there would seem to have been a tacit understanding among the writers that i t was the one f i t form of address for such a land. But, Emma Knapp has recorded a specific response, and i n spite of the inferior verse, i t i s possible to share with her a certain sense of wonder at the sight of a Canadian city hewn from \"a forest vast\". Written i n much the same vein i s a selection from Original Lyrics By A Canadian Rhymer: Canada Fair Canada, my native land, How my s p i r i t s t h r i l l to think of thee; Long may thy sons- a noble band -Enjoy the blessings of the free -For their watchword Liberty. And long may prosperity attend Thy onward march sublime, To every glorious thing a friend, Mayst thou lengthen out thy pime, 13, Engrave thy name on the golden r o l l of Time. Again, i t i s \" f a i r Canada\", but praise i s reserved more for her moral beauty - her g i f t s of freedom and of friendship. There i s a depth of feeling for this land of promise which contrasts with the rather anaemic manifestations of patriotism exhibited i n present-day Canada. It i s , however, a matter for conjecture as to whether the Rhymer's \"spirits\"' really \"thrilled'\" or whether he i s only carried away by \"romantic\" emotionalism. The \"glorious\", the \"golden\", the \"noble\", the \"sublime\" are again evident, and though there i s nothing to distinguish this poem from others of i t s type, s t i l l i t i s a genuine expression of admiration for this new land. Canada by James Joseph Gahan, i s a much more lengthy poem: Land of my love] Dear Canada my homei Land of majestic streams, and mountains grandJ My heart turns ever to thee, on a distant strand Land of legend! Land of heroes brave, I h a i l thee, first-born, of the sons of France May Freedom's arm be ever stretched to save, Thee, Canada, from Slavery's dark trancei This eulogy continues for twenty-one pages, and ends with: 0 CanadaJ Adopted land of mine Accept this humble tribute of my song -May Peace, dear.land, with Happiness be thine, And countless ages a l l thy joys prolong. 9 Q Original Lyrics By A Canadian Rhymer (Toronto, 1856). James Joseph Gahan, Canada (Quebec, 1877). Hi . The sentiments of the two previous poems are combined i n this one. There i s praise for everything, v i s i b l e and invisible,em-phasized by frequent exclamation. Canada i s synonymous with \"Freedom\". The concept of bigness, or challenge and adventure, i s caught i n the \"majestic streams and mountains grand\", but the diction, s t i l l romantic, inhibits the concept. Canada's unigue-ness called for a whole new array of adjectives. \"Majestic\" and \"grand\" had already done their duty i n the description of Old World scenes. Maple Leaves, a collection of poems, published i n I861+, abounds i n this sort of encomium: Ode to Canada Canada f a i t h f u l ! Canada f a i r ! Canada, beautiful, blooming and rareI Canada, happiest land of the earth! . Hail to thee, Canada! land of my birth! Land of swift rivers, sweet-gliding alongI Land of my pride, and land of my song! Canada prosperous! Canada true! Canada loyal, and-virtuous too! Canada happiest land of the earth! Hail thee, forever, sweet land of my birth! George Washington Johnson, Maple Leaves (Hamilton, 1864), p. 177. 1 5 My Own Canadian Home Though other hearts and other hands May love their own, and love them true; Though other homes i n other lands Possess a charm mine never knew; Italian skies may be more bright Than those of other climes may be, Yet never can another home Be half as dear as mine to me. Chorus: Then give me my Canadian home My cottage home beside the h i l l Where oft i n infancy I played -I loved i n youth, I love thee s t i l l -My native home! H Maple Leaves Land of the brave! Land of the Maple Leaf Land of the loyal! Land of heroes chief! Fair art thou Land, where mighty rivers run, Brightest and best of a l l beneath the sun. Proud i s the sky and green thy daisied sod. Though other skies boast milder skies than mine, They cannot boast more loyal sons than thine. What, though from every land beneath the sun? Our cause i s common, now - our country one Though English, Scotch or Irish, 'Swede or Pole, CANADIAN i s the name we give the whole, Save those - I blush to own that such there be -Who urge thy union with thy enemy. (Ehese I c a l l traitors, and shall c a l l them so, Until a f i t t e r name Is coined below. Then Hail! a l l Hail! my own Canadian home, Fair and forever may thy beauties bloom, 1 1 G. W. Johnson, p. iBk (see Appendix re- version and musical setting). 16. Thy meadows bright, thy lakes untinged with gore, And as thy a i r i s free, free fbrevermore. ^ This poem strikes a new note i n patriotism. Not only i s there the usual high praise for Canada's natural beauty and freedom, but also the boast of unity and loyalty coupled with open condemnation of those who would even consider union with the United States. This poem, together with another of Johnson's No Despot - No Slave, i s one of the few Canadian poems which express any h o s t i l i t y for America:• No Despot - No Slave Canadian hands Canadian s o i l shall t i l l Canadian hearts shall watch her welfare s t i l l ; Fair Freedom reigns, and shall forever reign From lake to lake, from mount to mighty main. Canadian skies are fairest, brightest, best; Canadian hearts no traitor's blood have pressed; Canadian eyes shall weep us when we roam Canadian l i p s shall greet us: - welcome home! And while the sun i s bright, yon forests f a i r , Yon meadows green, this i s Canadians' prayer; From Eire's shore to old Atlantic's waves, Give us no despot and no weeping slaves! I Dear native land, thine a i r i s s t i l l as free, As summer winds that fan the summer sea. 13 The allusion to \"weeping slaves\" and the constant repetition of 12 Johnson, p.7» 13 Johnson, pp. 178-179. 17 Canada's freedom i s intended, no doubt, to emphasize Canada's excellence as compared with that of her southern neighbor. Yet, this sentiment i s not overly popular with or evident i n most of the Canadian writers. Any overt criticism was reserved chiefly for those Canadians who advocated annexation. The Introduction to Raise the Flag states: Canada has been compelled to defend her frontiers i n open war i n 1775 and i n 1812-15, and from f i l l i b u s t e r s i n 1837 and 1838, and again i n 1866 and I87O. Every generation of our people for one hundred years has seen Canadian lives given up freely i n defence of her s o i l and institutions. Our territory has been diminished by unfair treaties; and trade regulations and restrictions, and fishery disputes have been used to retard our progress or coerce us into annexation. Yet with i t a l l , our poems are singularly free from unfriendliness. There i s no tone of aggression but a steadfast determination to trust i n God and stand for the right. The only tinge of bitterness that i s shown, here and there, i s towards those of our own people who lack faith i n our future. 1^ . The \"slave question\" was, however, of v i t a l concern to Canadians at this time, and i t i s not surprising to see i t mentioned i n one way or another i n Confederation poetry. The American C i v i l War, with a l l i t s attendant horror of brother fighting brother, or a country divided against i t s e l f on the question of slavery^was bound to cause some serious thinking i n a younger country about to formulate i t s own Constitutions. The Fathers of Confederation were to profit by the mistake the United State's had made i n giving too much power to the 14 \"Introduction\"j Raise the Flag and other Patriotic Canadian Songs and Poems(Toronto, 1 8 9 1 ) . \" 18 individual states, thus making such a war possible. Canada not only would choose a federal union i n preference to a legislative union but also would designate the major powers to a strong central government. During the C i v i l War, Canadians, for the most part, had been sympathetic towards the North which stood for freedom, but with the victory of the North, Canadians found their sympathy boomeranging. A strong military force just south of the border was now seen as a threat to Canadian freedom. The only answer to this was a unified Canada - Confederation. A l l this i s h i s t o r i c a l fact recorded with prosaic terseness. But what was the emotional impact of such a situation especially on the common man? Herein i s the value of the poetry of this period, and some debt of gratitude i s due to those who, however naively, have recorded their sentiments. In no poem of this genre are these sentiments more compactly expressed than i n The Genius of Canada. It i s also one of the few attempts to personify an abstraction. The Genius of Canada When the Genius of Canada came From over the western wave, •Neath southern skies She heard the cries Of every weeping slave. \" I ' l l seek the northern woods\", she cried \"Though bleak the skies may be, The maple dells Where freedom dwells Have a special charm for me. 19. \"For moral worth and manhood there Have found a favoring clime. I ' l l rear a race To shed a grace Gn the mighty page of time. \"And the arts shall flourish 'neath their care, And the palm of peace shall wave O'er a home of rest For the oppressed, And a refuge for the slave. Away to the northern woods she flew, And a lovely home she found, Where s t i l l she dwells •Mong quiet dells With her giant brood around. \"And these\", she says, \"are the hearts we mould In the land of lake and pine, Where the Shamrock blows And the English Rose And the Scottish thi s t l e twine.\" ^5 This poem, published i n Toronto nine years before Confederation, i s evidence that Canada was capable of evoking from the very beginning, a strong allegiance and a deep devotion* Again, an appreciation for the freedom and promise of this country i s emphasized by the covert reference to the plight of the slave i n the United States. With i t s regular rhyme scheme and i t s variations i n lin e length, this poem makes rather pleasant reading. It i s more restrained, and though there are the romantic characteristics of nationalism, revolt against oppression, idealism and picturesque language, there i s a 15 Alexander McLachlan, Lyrics by (Toronto, 1858), pp. 16-17. 20 different approach, and there i s an absence of most of the stereotyped adjectives of address. I t i s understandable how; such a poem could be written at this time. The l850's were prosperous years; i n Canada* The depression with i t s subsequent discontent and \"annexation\"' scare, brought on by Britain's repeal of the Corn Laws i n 1846, had happily subsided. Canadian trade had received a new impetus; with the repeal of the Navigation Acts i n 1849 and the 1854 Reciprocity Agreement with the United States. Canada was exhibiting a new v i t a l i t y . Railroad construction was underway, business was booming, and l i f e in a vigorous, young country promised to be exciting and rewarding. It even looked good beside i t s older, prosperous neighbor. Added to these attractive features was the natural beauty of the country i t s e l f , and the joy of being one of the \"giant brood\". Evidently, environment does mould a people. In this \"hyper-borean\" land there w i l l be a people whose \"hearts\" have been moulded from \"lake and pine\". It i s a \"favoring clime\" for rearing men of \"moral worth\" who w i l l \"...shed a grace/On the mighty page of time.1! This alignment of the natural beauty of the country with the moral beauty of i t s people i s typical of most of the early Canadian poets, and bears out the conviction of \"Seranus\"!. ...\"Nature teaches to true Poets a pure and unerring morality of her own...'? Canadian, however, as a l l this may be, there i s s t i l l the old link with the 21. Old World - the Shamrock, Rose and T h i s t l e . No such bond, however, i s claimed i n Lays of Canada, Dominion Day I d y l l : No broader streams than ours - no purer s k i e s , -No r i c h e r s o i l to y i e l d the yellow g r a i n , No s t a t e l i e r t rees to crown the mountain's brow, -No r i c h e r golden robes to c l o t h e the furrowed p l a i n . The s n a r l i n g wolf that prowls around the door Where s q u a l i d hunger d w e l l s , we know not here , Our ready f i e l d s await but w i l l i n g hands, And he that t o i l s i n s p r i n g s h a l l reap r i c h autumn's cheer . Our seas - our boundless lakes - our c r y s t a l streams, Each y i e l d s the ransom of a m i g h t y - k i n g ; And count less a rgos ies bear wealth away, , The l u x u r y of d i s t a n t lands to homeward b r i n g . T h i s i s a land of p l e n t y with beauty unsurpassed - \"no broader streams\" \"no purer s k i e s \" ; \"no r i c h e r s o i l \" ; \"no s t a t e l i e r t r e e s \" ; \"no r i c h e r golden r o b e s \" . L i k e The Genius of Canada, t h i s poem i s an attempt to wri te i n f i g u r e . The \" s n a r l i n g wolf that prowls around the door/Where s q u a l i d hunger d w e l l s \" has i m p l i c a t i o n s of \" O l d World\" squalor , or the hungry American s l a v e , i n contrast with t h i s country of \"ready f i e l d s \" awai t ing only \" w i l l i n g hands\" . And, \" . . . h e t o i l s i n s p r i n g s h a l l reap r i c h autumn's cheer\" i s more than an exhorta t ion to sow a few seeds i n the s p r i n g and reap the f r u i t s i n the autumn. Rather i s i t a c a l l to get on the \"bandwagon\"- to throw i n one 's l o t 16 Rev. Duncan Anderson, Lays of Canada and Other Poems(Montreal, 22. with this new country, now in i t s springtime, but giving promise of a r i c h harvest. It i s an enthusiastic response to the c a l l of Canada's beauty and abundant resources. The metre, predominantly iambic pentameter, and the rhyme scheme abcb, place this poem i n the ballad tradition. The f i n a l line of each stanza, however, has an extra foot. This longer line not only breaks the monotony of the ballad rhythm but also succeeds i n sustaining the imagery of richness and abundance. As i n The Genius of Canada, a greater sincerity i s apparent than i n those poems which employ flamboyant forms of address. The diction may savor of romanticism, and there are Keatsian overtones i n the \"golden robes\" and \"rich autumn's cheer\". Nevertheless, there i s a distinctly Canadian flavour to \"the Yellow grain\" and \"ready fields\"; to \"the furrowed plain\" and \"boundless lakes\". To the question, \"What i s the poem about?\" the answer must be that i t i s about Canada, not because i t i s systematically described, but because i t induces i n the imagination i t s sights and sounds - the result of a series of images and of a certain interplay of figure and image, i f not too s k i l f u l , at least adequate to project a picture of those things which are characteristic of Canada's lush beauty. The f i r s t stanza i s concerned with emphasizing the uniqueness of Canada's claims. The repetition of \"No\" establishes beyond controversy the superlative quality of that country's \"streams\", 23. \"skies\", \" s o i l \" , \"trees\", and \"golden-robed plain\". Then, too, the imagery i s somewhat augmented by the connotative power of words and phrases - the suggestion of hidden treasure or an aurelian gleam conveyed by such words as \"richer\", \"yellow\", \"crown\", \"golden\". The second stanza emphasizes Canada's promise of fruition by comparison with less-favoured lands, through the \"lupine\" 1 metaphor. The metaphor i s productive of clear visual imagery. The fact that \"The snarling wolf that prowls around the door,/Where squalid hunger dwells...\" i s not known here, indicates Canada's sufficiency. There i s a return to the imagery of stanza one, whereby the aura of \"rich autumn's cheer\" glows brighter for having been juxtaposed with \"squalid hunger\". The third stanza enlarges on the imagery of the f i r s t , presenting a picture of matured beauty and realized hopes. Canada's wealth i s interchanged with that of other lands. The \"countless argosies\" has connotations of overflowing wealth, so that the poet sustains to the end the image of richness - of abundance. This same brief analysis applied to an excerpt from \"Serahus r \" Canadian Birthday Book may yield some further appreciation of these \"lesser\" Confederation poets: Yet Mother England that new land i s f a i r , Her shores p i l e agate and her sands run gold Her mountains gleam with garnet, and her capes With amethystine pansy-purple spar; And rosy dykes or white traverse the gray Of that old limestone l i v i n g i n her c l i f f s . Her rivers are the fairest i n the world - . I challenge this - the brightest i n the world. Most sparkling blue, and altogether clear. Her trees drop manna and her blossoms joy Of her contented poor, her happy rich On f i r s t reading, this poem could be glossed over an inconsequential. But a closer scrutiny discloses much hidden ar t i s t r y . Since a poet i s ordinarily concerned with providing a particular experience and e l i c i t i n g a particular kind of pleasurable response, i t i s , therefore, natural that he employ the devices at his disposal, and i f he succeeds i n not merely using beautiful language but i n stamping that language with \"beauty\" because i t arises from i t s eminent sui t a b i l i t y to his mission, then surely his creation i s worthy of consideration. An amalgam, then, of the elements l i s t e d - of language, figure and image, of tone or mood - may establish this poem, at least i n part, as a l y r i c gem. Fi r s t , the poet has abandoned the usual regular rhyme, and has chosen to gain the effect of the repetition device by means of all i t e r a t i o n , assonance, and consonance. The poem begins with an apostrophe to \"Mother England\" so that the subsequent eulogy i s objectively related. A distinct tone and mood i s evident, the result 17 S. Frances Harrison, Canadian Birthday Bo6k(Toronto, 1 8 8 7 ) , p. 1 6 6 . 25. of a completely different approach to Canada's beauty. The poem furnishes excellent examples of a l l i t e r a t i o n in \"gold\", \"gleam\", and \"garnet\"; i n \"pansy-purple\", and \"limestone l i v i n g \" . Assonance, another form of repetition, i s quite judiciously distributed through one or several lines as illustrated i n : Her shores p i l e agate and her sands run gold, Her mountains gleam with garnet and her capes With amethystine pansy-purple spar; And rosy dykes or white traverse the gray Of that old limestone l i v i n g i n her c l i f f s . The long \" i \" i n \"dykes\", \"white\", and \"limestone\" provides assonance of a rather obvious sort. But the similar vowel sound of \"gleam\" and \"amethystine\" may not be so apparent. The poem also i l l u s t r a t e s how the effect of assonance, can be augmented by a repetition not only of vowel and consonant which links \"garnet\" and \"spar\" i n the third and fourth lines reappears with the repetition of \"sparkling\" i n the ninth l i n e , And \"harvests\".and \"are\" i n the eleventh l i n e . The repetition of consonants alone- consonance - can be found i n the repeated \" r \" sounds of Utrees\" and \"drop\" or the recurrent \"n\" and \"nd\" sound of \"land\", \"sands\" i n the opening five lines of the poem, and \"manna\", \"and1,1 of line ten. But repetition i s only one of many ways i n which a poet can use the sound of words to gain the effect he seeks. The ease or d i f f i c u l t y with which certain words or combinations or words are pronounced can affect the \"tempo\" of poetic lines i n various ways. The difference 26.. between so-called long and short vowels, between musical and clipped consonants, between frontal and \"hard-palate\"' consonants, can be exploited to create certain general effects* For example, the line: Most sparkling, blue, and altogether clear, seems to take longer to speak than the next l i n e : Her trees drop manna and her blossoms joy-simply because the f i r s t line i s more d i f f i c u l t to pronounce rapidly.. The shorter vowels and musical consonants of the second line flow into one another and produce the effect of ease and opulence as against the cold, g l i t t e r of rivers \"sparkling, blue\" - certainly a most appro-priate and s k i l f u l effect i n a land of contrasts such as Canada. The sound of words alone, however, does not suffice i n determining the excellence of a poem. Effects are more often than not created by the meaning, connotative and denotative, which the words convey. Thus i t would seem that the \"beauty\" and appropriateness of the language of this poem arises from i t s s u i t a b i l i t y to the poet's mission, the creation of a poem which reveals certain aspects of Canada's beauty, and evokes from the reading a pleasurable response. A brief study of the word choice immediately reveals that the poet sees Canada chiefly i n terms of colour, and i t i s indisputable that colours carry connotations and set a tone. The poem i s a flash of colour - the heaped-up variegated agatej the flowing gold; the red gleam of garnet; the violet-purple spar; the rosy fissures contrasting 27. with the grey limestone; the blue r i v e r s ; and by implication, the white and pink of the manna and the blossoms. I t may not have been p a r t i c u l a r l y revealing to have noted that the poem opens with an apostrophe to \"Mother England\", but neither i s i t irrelevant since i t provides a s t r u c t u r a l p r i n c i p l e which aids i n enhancing the meaning which a l l these Images supply. On a l i t e r a l l e v e l , the poet has merely addressed \"Mother England\" and revealed to her, selected aspects of Canada's resources. On a connotative l e v e l , the poet has seen the spectacle of a new country, resplendent i n her r i c h beauty and r e f l e c t i n g the ultimate richness of l i f e , and has asked that t h i s experience be shared by others. The wonder of the changing seasons has always been the source of poetic i n s p i r a t i o n . Euphemia Bellmore, i n her poem, \"Spring\", has caught the surge of joy as a Canadian spring succedes a t y p i c a l l y severe winter. ... Gone are the howling winter bla s t s That long have swept the landscapes o'er, Sweet Spring, with balmy breeze i n v i t e s ' The opening bud and blushing flower. Through Canada's f a i r and f e r t i l e p l a i n s , Ooze gently on the murmuring r i l l s , And basking 'neath the sunbeam's smile, Behold the.green and verdant h i l l s . Al thousand welcomes, lovely Spring, Smiling o'er h i l l and p l a i n In a l l thy budding, blushing bloom, 28. We h a i l thee to our land again. This could be springtime i n any land except for \"the howling winter blasts\" which precede i t . For, though other lands may have even more severe winters than Canada, they do not know the suddenness of a \"sweet Spring\"' inviting \"the opening bud and blushing flower\". Again, only Canada has such contrasts. The experience i s new though the diction i s \"old-world\". There i s the ever-recurring \" f a i r \" , the t r i t e \"balmy breeze\", \"murmuring r i l l s \" and \"verdant h i l l s \" ; but there i s , besides, an element of glad surprise, as though Spring were unexpected i n such a land, and for that reason a l l the more welcome. And, there i s no niggardliness. In accord with a l l the other profuse outpourings of nature's g i f t s , Spring bears a wealth of \"budding, blushing bloom\". It i s a . . . \"lovely Spring,/ Smiling o'er h i l l and plain\". Not only i s this the season of spring; i t i s also the springtime of a new land with a l l the promise of youth and l i f e . By contrast, i t might be expected that winter i n such a land would be depressing. On the contrary, winter comes i n for more than i t s share of praise as the season which i s particularly 18 Euphemia Bellmore, Book of Poems (Toronto, 1874), pp. 21-22. 29. \"Canadian.\" The \"Sleighing Song\" which appeared i n The Canadian Monthly, January, l8?6, expresses sentiments typical of the general tone of merriment and exultation i n the great outdoors, as part of a Canadian winter. To the music of the trees, Borne along the evening breeze, To the sleigh bell's cheery chime, Bringing forth i t s tuneful time, Merry, merry, on we go, O'er the crisp and gli t t e r i n g snow. No more on the briar and tree, Bird doth warble joyously. L i s t ! Though hushed i t s witching strain, Echoes s t i l l the sweet refrain — Earth; 0 earth, so glad and f a i r ! Sing, Oh heart! why dream of care? Oh! diamond-dusted h i l l s Oh! glassy, glistening r i l l s , Oh! ye snowy-bowered glades, Oh! ye laughing forest shades, As we swiftly glide along Break ye forth i n gladsome song. \" 1 ° The rhymed couplet can be for this poem a genuine element, used with calculated effect. Together with the predominantly trochaic meter, i t gives the impression of speed, and the rythmic gliding of the horse and sleigh. The diction i s particularly appropriate to the overall 'effect of joyous abandon. There i s the \"music of the trees\", ''the sleigh-bell's cheery chime\", \"hushed\" bird-song, and \"echoes\" 19 \"Sleighing Song\": by F.E.P.P., The Canadian Monthly and National Review, January, 1876, p. 25. 30. to delight the ear; \"glittering snow\", diamond-dusted h i l l s \" , \"glassy, glistening r i l l s \" , \"snowy-bowered glades\" to delight the eye. Winter in Canada i s presented as a joyous, fresh experience. In spite of the romantic imagery, the diction has connotations peculiarly appropriate to a Canadian winter scene. The mono-syllabic words— sleigh, bells, chime, crisp, earth, .glad, f a i r , h i l l s , r i l l s , glide, song, snow—set the tone and mood of the poem. It i s impossible to read i t with anything but a racy pace. The a l l i t e r a t i v e \"diamond-dusted\", and the \" g l \" of glittering, glistening, glades, glide, glad, gladsome, are evocative of brightness and joy. This same glad response to l i f e permeates the poem \"Canada\" published i n The Canadian Monthly and National Review, July, l 8 7 5 « I know a land i n the glowing West, Which my youthful heart loved f i r s t and best; A land which seemed to my raptured eyes, As a last sweet likeness of Paradise— Where birds and flowers were bright and gay, And a l l nature joined i n my happy.play, Where the blushing morn and the balmy a i r Seemed ever breaking a thankful prayer; And a s p i r i t dwelt i n the young moon's light And guarded with beauty each summer night. Ah, would 'neath the dear old roof I might stand, And feast my eyes on that pleasant land, On the meadow reach where the \"scarlet cup\" Seems drinking the dazzling sunshine up. Where Ontario's waters in calmness l i e •Neath the azure blue of the boundless sky, And the war-birds flashed the blue-birds play, Through the long bright hour of the summer day; While some youth springs down from the glowing land. And the light s k i f f darts from the yellow sand. 51. And then when the light snow f a l l s thr* the a i r , And winter sets i n , ohI how bright and clear! When the sleigh-bells ring their joyous song, When the days are short and the nights are long, When the dear toboggan i s drawn thro * the street, And moccasins pulled over dainty feet, When swiftly we f l y down some terrible slope, With nothing to stop the toboggan, I hope!— G can there on earth be more glorious fun? Is any land better? say? under the sun. 2 ^ The poet i s reliving, with delight, earlier joys evoked by the contrasting beauty of a Canadian summer and winter. There i s evidence, i n spite of a general adherence to old forms and t r i t e comments, of sincere admiration for Canada, and a desire for apt expression. There i s an attempt to create specific pictures of the Canadian seasons. In summer there i s the meadow ...\"where the scarlet cup/ Seems drinking the dazzling sunshine up\"; the \"youth\" springing \"down from the glowing land\", and a \"light s k i f f \" darting \"from the yellow sand\". By contrast, i n winter, there i s the \"light snow\" and \"sleigh-bells\", \"toboggan\" and \"moccasins\". The rhetorical question, \"Is any land better? ... under the sun.\" i s sufficient avowal that Canada's beauty i s considered incomparable. One of the most p r o l i f i c exponents of Canadian charms was Mrs. 2 0 \"Canada\" by E.S.T., The Canadian Monthly and National Review, 32 Leprohon (Miss Rosanna Mullins). Her poems appealed to the popular taste, and as long as Mr. John Lovell edited the Literary Garland, she was one of i t s leading contributors. Indeed, a surprising number of periodicals both i n Canada and elsewhere considered her production among their most attractive features. But, i n form, she i s completely imitative. \"Our Canadian Woods i n Early Autumn\", with i t s internal rhyme scheme, bears a marked resemblance to Shelley 1s \"The Cloud\", without, however, i t s force or graphic imagery. I have passed the day 'mid the forest gay, In i t s gorgeous autumn dyes, Its tints as bright and as f a i r to the sight As the hues of our sunset skiesj And the sun's glad rays veiled by golden haze, Streamed down 'neath i t s arches grand, And with magic power made scene and hour Like a dream of Faerie Land. The emerald sheen of the maple green Is turned to deep, rich red; And the boughs entwine with the crimson vine That i s climbing overhead; While lik e golden sheaves, the saffron leaves Of the sycamore strew the ground, 'Neath the birches old, clad i n shimmering gold, Or the ash with red berries crowned. Though the bird's sweet song, that the summer long Hath flowed so sweet and clear Through the cool, dim shades of our forest glades, No longer charms the ear, A witching spell, that w i l l please as well As his glad notes, may be found In the solemn hush, or the leaves' soft rush, As they quickly strew the ground. 33 For, though they t e l l of summer's farewell, Gf their own decay and doom, Gf the wild storm-cloud and the snow's cold shroud, And the days of winter's gloom, The heart must yie l d to the power they wield, -Alike tender, soothing, gay -The beauties that gleam and that reign supreme In our woods, this autumn day. ^ There are clear overtones throughout this poem, of resignation, a quiet acceptance of l i f e ' s i n e v i t a b i l i t i e s . Obviously, Hrs. Leprohon has found i n the autumn woods, subject matter for meditation on death: \"decay and doom\"; \"wild storm-cloud\"; \"snow's cold shroud\"; \"winter's gloom\". There i s \"the solemn hush\" and \"the leaves' soft rush\" but the \"heart must yield to the power they wield\". This i s another example of a poet finding i n the Canadian scene the perfect experience for the expression of mood and conviction. Another poem, \"To Canada\" which appeared i n The Saturday Reader, February, 1866, combines praise of Canada's beauty with a declaration of loyalty. Dear land of the lake and the forest, Green Valley and pine covered h i l l ; The land of the broad r o l l i n g river, And softly meandering r i l l ! Thou beautiful land of the maple, Thy love i s enshrined i n each heart; 21 Rosanna Eleanor (Mullins) Leprohon, The Poetical Works of Mrs. Leprohon(Montreal, l88l), pp. 4-9-51 • And tender and fond are the feelings Thy grandeur and beauty impart. Yes! strong are the links of affection That bind thy brave children to thee; And bold are the s p i r i t s and fearless, That guard thee, f a i r land of the free! G, long may thou prosper and flourish, And bloom with the vigour of youth; May thy shores be the bulwark of freedom— The shrine of religion and truth. And long may the flag of our fathers Float proudly o'er forest and dome— The glory, the pride.and the aegis Of every Canadian home. And ever may peace and contentment Within thy green borders abide; While the streams of thy commerce expanding Flow on i n a rich golden tide. But should the stern trumpet of battle Awake thee to warfare again, Then woe to the ruthless invader That dares thy free s o i l to profane. Then the flag of our fathers unfolding, We'll meet the rash foe on the strand, To combat and conquer l i k e freemen, And die for our beautiful land. The chief value of this poem as a concensus of the time l i e s more in what i t does not say than i n what i t says. It would seem reasonable to expect that the journals and newspapers of 1866 would 22 \"To Canada\" by S. M., The Saturday Reader, February 24, 1866. 35. be overflowing with articles and poems relevant to Confederation. Yet, on the very eve of this great event, when Canada's p o l i t i c a l leaders are preparing for the London Conference, Canadian writers are placidly preoccupied i n singing the praises of Canada's beauty, with l i t t l e or no thought to the p o l i t i c a l issue. It i s significant that for the average Canadian of this time, patriotism i s closely linked with allegiance to the \"old flag\". Freedom w i l l be fought for, i f necessary, but under \"the flag of our fathers\". 36. CHAPTER III PRAISING COUNTRY AS COUNTRY Closely linked to the poems praising Canada's beauty are those dedicated to the praise of the country as country. They are marked by a particular exuberance and a confident assurance of Canada's manifest destiny. Though there seems to be no evidence of American influence, an interesting pa r a l l e l may be drawn between these f i r s t manifestations of a Canadian national pride and the braggodacios of Walt Whitman, both finding expression at the same time. Canada's \" l i t t l e poets\" were no match for this American giant, but i t may be worth nothing that though Canada was a hundred years younger than her neighbor, she did not lack those patriots who were equally as confident as was Walt Whitman of America, that Canada was destined to a place i n the sun. There i s a constant reminder that Canada, not having known either slavery or war, i s the \"land of the free\" with a decided advantage over the United States. A l l these sentiments are embodied in a poem by Nicholas Flood Davin: Columbia growls. We care not, we, We are young and strong and free The storm-defying oak's great sap Swells i n the twig. A breath of power s t i r s round us from each sea, And, big with future greatness, Our hearts beat high and bold, Like glowing seas that smite the c l i f f s to dust. You cannot make us blench, The sons of freemen we, we must be free. 37 A nation's destiny i s bright Within our eyes, Deep-mirrored i n heroic w i l l ; The future years lik e Banquo's issue pass A crown i s there, No tinsel crown of Kings, no bauble; A people's sovereign w i l l , , , » Awake! the dawn i s tripping on the h i l l s ; The day's at hand I see a nation young, mature, and free, Step down the mountain side To take her proud place i n the fields of time, And thou art she! 3^ These excerpts from a longer poem are representative passages i l l u s t r a t i n g the surge of youthful independence which swept post-Gonfederation Canada. The usual cry of allegiance to the old world and the \"Old Flag\" i s gone. \"Columbia growls/ V/e care not. . .\" strikes a new note. In place of the \"tins e l crown of Kings\" i s a \"people's sovereign w i l l . \" This i s implicitly the cry of republicanism. There i s a new loyalty to a new country. The metaphors i n which the f i r s t stanza i s cast imply power, strength and l i f e - \"The storm-defying oak's great sap/ Swells i n the twig\"...\"Our hearts beat high and bold./ Like glowing seas that smite the c l i f f s to dust.\" And, \"big with future greatness\" i s , by Nicholas Flood Davin, An Epic of the Dawn and other Poems(Regina, N. W. T., 1888), pp. 138-l5l7~^ i : 38. implication, an attempt at the birth symbol, a variation of the darkness-light symbol i n \"the dawn i s tripping on the h i l l s . \" The f i n a l stanza makes an easy transition into another of Nicholas Flood Davin's poems, Young Canada. \"I see a nation, young, mature, and free,/ Step down the mountain side.\" i s the vision of a young giant -A youthful giant, golden-haired With fearless forehead, eye of blue And large and clear i t s frosty depths With f i r e within i t s dark'ning hue. His spear which dwarfs the tallest pine, Is bound around with yellow grain, His shield i s rich i n varied scenes, To right and l e f t loud roars the main. He dreameth of unborn times; With manhood's thoughts his mind i s braced; He'll teach the world a lesson yet, And with the mightiest must be placed. The voice dies o'er the dews of morning, Which round him g l i t t e r while shadows flee, Bright concord beams from shore to shore. Glad union peals from to sea to sea'. ^ Here i s the same enthusiasm i n verse as that expressed i n the preface of Susanna Hoodie's Roughing It i n the Bush, I 8 7 I : Canada i s no longer a child, sleeping i n the arms of nature, dependent for her very existence on the fostering care of her i l l u s t r i o u s mother. She has outstripped infancy, and i s i n f u l l enjoyment of a strong and vigorous youth. . . None of the writers, however, seem too sure whether Canada i 6 a 2k Davin, 133-135 39 youth or a maid. Not only Susanna Moodie mixes her metaphors but also Nicholas Flood Davin, who sees his maiden country \"step down the mountain side\" and exults \"And thou are she.\" By a strange metamor-phosis this same vision becomes a \"youthful giant, golden-haired\" with \"his spear\" and \"his shield.\" Such uncertainty contrasts with the tone of confident assurance which pervades these praises of Canada. Obviously, these poems are but patriotic outbursts, though they give evidence of the author's hope, shared with a number of his compatriots, of being \"the national poet\" for which Canada was waiting. Another poem of Nicholas Flood Davin, i n the same collection, i s Forward. The three stanzas given here are again i l l u s t r a t i v e of the aggressive character of post-Confederation verse: Who sneers she's but a colony No national s p i r i t there; Race differences, faction's feuds Her flag to tatters tear. . . . Nor race, nor creed, the patriot's sword, Nor faction blunts today. \"Forward for Canada!\"'s the word, And, eager for the fray. . . . Our purpose now fires every eye, Rebellion foul to slay, 'Forward for Canada!'\"s the cry, And a l l are one today. 25 Of a l l the aspects of the period of depression which followed 25 Davin, 136-137. 40. Confederation one of the most galling was the steady flow of thousands of Canadians across the border. In many areas there was at best a restrained satisfaction with the individual benefits accruing to Confederation. Such verse as Forward f i t s into this pattern as a sort of propaganda boost. It i s not so much a spontaneous expression of admiration for Canada as a battle cry i n defiance of the prevalent pessimism. It i s the old cry of \" i n unity there i s strength.\" William Douw Ligh t a l l , an even more p r o l i f i c writer than Nicholas Flood Davin, presents the new self-confident Dominion through a dialogue of a \"Young Man\" and a \"Seer.\" The prevalent uncertainty i s caught i n the t i t l e The Confused Dawn. Young Man What are the Vision and the Cry That haunt the new Canadian soul? Dim grandeur spreads we know not why O'er mountain, forest, tree and knoll, And murmurs indistinctly f l y , -Some magic moment sure i s nigh ,0 Seer, the curtain r o l l . Seer The Vision, mortal, i t i s this -Dead mountain, forest, knoll and tree Awaken a l l , endued with b l i s s , A native-land- 0 think! - to be -Thy native land - and ne'er amiss, Its smile shall l i k e a.lover's kiss From henceforth seem to thee. kl The Cry thou couldst not understand Which runs through that new realm of light, From Breton's to Vancouver's strand O'er many.a lovely landscape bright, It i s their waking utterance grand. The great refrain, \"A1.Native Land.\" Thine be the ear, the sight, ^6 Here, i t i s the thought of a \"native land\" which absorbs the poet. This i s the \"magic moment\" and the \"Vision\" and the \"Cry\". But, to the youth, the vision i s as yet a \"dim grandeur\" and the cry i s but indistinct murmurs. It i s for the seer, the s p i r i t of timelessness, to \" r o l l \" back the \"curtain\" and present the r e a l i t y . The death and rebirth symbol i s evident i n \"Dead mountain, forest, knoll and tree/ Awaken a l l endued with b l i s s / . . . \"' This, then, i s to be the heritage of the young - a native land. A distinguishing characteristic of W. D. Lighthall's verse i s the complete absence of reference to Britain. Canada stands or f a l l s on her own merits. One of his most effective poems i s Canada Not Last, The t i t l e i s seemingly a less pretentious variant of the \"Canada F i r s t \" theme prominent i n the 1870*s. The f i n a l stanza presents Lighthall at his best. Much of the dream-like quality of 26 Canadian Poems and Lays:Selections of Native Verse, arr. and ed. by Wm. Douw Lighthall(London, I893), pp.18-19. kz. Lampman's poetry or Carman's haunting melody i s evident. If there i s any such thing as an (objective correlative\"; for Lighthall's contemplative mood, he seems to have found i t i n the haze-enveloped dream-world of a b r i l l i a n t Canadian autumn, juxtaposed with the vision of \"Rome, Florence, Venice\" - redolent of \"The glory that was Greece/ And the grandeur that was Rome.\" Rome, Florence, Venice - noble, f a i r , and quaint, They reign i n robes of magic round me here; But fading blotted dim, a picture faint, With spell more silent, only pleads a tear. Plead not! Thou hast my heart, 0 picture dim! I see the fields, I see the autumn hand Of God upon the maples! Answer Him V/ith weird, translucent glories, ye that stand Like s p i r i t s i n scarlet and i n amethyst! I see the sun break over you; the mist On h i l l s that l i f t from iron bases grand Their heads superb! the dream, i t i s my native land. If 20& century c r i t i c s , i n their denunciation of \"romanticism\", have spared Archibald Lampman, surely they could accord the same \"indulgence\" to Lighthall. This i s a fine stanza devoid of the mawkishness prevalent i n so many patriotic poems. Why Lighthall should have stopped two lines short of a sonnet i s open to conjecture, but the rhyme scheme of the f i r s t eight lines seems to indicate that he had contemplated a Shakespearean sonnet. Whether 27 William Douw Lighthall, Canadian Poems and Lays Selections of Native Verse (London, l893)j pp. 19-21. that was h i s intent or not, he s t r i k e s a note of o r i g i n a l i t y by completing the poem i n rhymed couplets. Such deviation from the normal rhyme scheme abab, i s accompanied by variations i n stress, and the loc a t i o n of pauses at various points i n the poem. The predominant iambic meter builds up to the emphatic spondee \"Plead not\", with a sudden caesura, and i s again broken i n the enjambent \"Like s p i r i t s i n s c a r l e t . . . \" The anapest slows up the pace of the l i n e creating with the run-on l i n e a greater fe e l i n g of freedom and wide-ranging strength appropriate to \" s p i r i t s \" standing \" i n scarlet and i n amethyst.\" Besides such prosodic achievements the poet has combined substance and language i n a way calculated to evoke a mood at once dream-like and a l e r t . The tone i s quiet, sustained by the long vowels o's, a's, e*s, and the musical consonants, m's, l ' s , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n the f i r s t f i v e l i n e s i n which the picture created i s \"dim.\" The robes are of \"magic. . . /fading blotted dim. . . \"; the picture i s \" f a i n t \" and the \" s p e l l more s i l e n t . \" Then, suddenly, the v i s i o n c l e a r s , and the physical d e t a i l s - the \" f i e l d s \" , the \"autumn hand/ Of God upon the maples\" become more v i v i d . F i e l d s and maples are concrete images - r e a l i t y breaking through the \"mist\", though the maples and the f i e l d s \"Answer Him/ With weird, translucent g l o r i e s . . .\" \"Weird\" and \"translucent\" carry connotations more trance-like than dream-like, but suddenly, there comes the \"sun\". This i s r e a l i t y . The \"mist\" i s l i f t i n g from the h i l l s . The dream i s r e a l i z e d - \" i t i s my native land.\" The Reverend Edward Dewart i n Songs of L i f e , a c o l l e c t i o n of h i s poem$, emphasizes Canada's expanse, and l i k e so many of h i s contemporaries, stresses the l i b e r t y enjoyed with t h i s \"free Dominion.\" Two stanzas of h i s Ode to Canada are in d i c a t i v e of the sentiment of the whole poem. God bless our noble Canada! Our broad and free Dominion! Where law and l i b e r t y have sway -Not one of a l l her sons today Is tyrant's serf or pinion. F l i n g out our banners, to the breeze, And proudly greet the world With words of amity and peace; For never on more halcyon seas Was Freedom's f l a g unfurled, ^o The same note of confidence rings through: The Canadian Farmer's Song Let the c i t i e s broad long and loud Of t h e i r palaces f a i r and grand; In the country wide, spread on every side, Are the works of our Father's hand. Though our fate may seem, to some i d l e r ' s dream, A, toilsome and weary l o t . Yet peace and health are the p r i c e l e s s wealth That are found fncthe settlerlsveotV---' i We are freemen>godel?- notla-slave ever stood 28 Edward Hartley Dewart, Songs of L i f e (Toronto, 1869), pp. 191-194 45. On our l o v e d Canadian s o i l -No tyrant's power can withhold for an hour The fruits of our honest t o i l . ^9 These poems, as those of Nicholas Flood Davin's, indicate that desire for a united and strong nation, part of the high excitement which permeated Canada during the first years of Confederation. There was a recognized need for solidarity of purpose and a distinctive national spirit. Speaking of this period in Canadian history, Desmond Pacey says in his Creative Writing in Canada: \"There was, then, recognition of the fact that a nation does not achieve greatness by a merely material expansion. Never before had Canadians been as ready as in these first three decades after Confederation to welcome a native literary movement, and this public responsiveness undoubtedly had something to do with the marked increase in the quantity and quality of literature during the period. ... As the West was settled and new provinces added to the Dominion, as the railway pushed gradually across the continent, periodicals and books came from the presses 30 testifying to the new spirit abroad in the land.\" Dewart's poems 29 Dewart, pp. 201-202. 30 Desmond Pacey, Creative Writing in Canada(Toronto, 19&L), p. 36. 46. axe part of \"this public responsiveness\" and though his poetry lacks distinction, s t i l l i t bears witness to the s p i r i t of the times. One of the longest poems embodying a l l the sentiments of post-Confederation writing was published i n pamphlet form ten years before Confederation. It i s anonymous and i s entitled \"0 Country/ Happy New Year\" The Carrier's Poem, \"Dedicated to/The Patrons of/ The Ottawa Citizen\" Our Native Land! with heart and hand, We strike a chord for thee, Whose every note shall wildly float, And t e l l that we are free. We'11 sound i t wide o'er land and tide, From Freedom's broad domain To Europe's thrones where crumpled bones Speak of the tyrant's reign; From the trackless bourne of that distant world, Where the sun's bright rays recline To where morning light by the waves i s curled, And St. Lawrence onward i s swiftly whirled To the ocean's r o l l i n g brine, -Is the Land we love, - ' t i s the land of Peace! Tho! never at duty's.call Did her heart's allegiance to honor cease Or her rights.to a foeman e'r release Or yield to a stranger's t h r a l l . Then follows a l i s t of Canada's excellences, and what the verse lacks i n poetic art i s compensated for by emphasis: 'Tis a Land of Bibles! ... 'Tis a Land of Laws! .... 47. 'Tie a L a n d o f S c i e n c e ! . . . ! T i s a L a n d o f A r t s ! ; . . • T i s a L a n d o f S c h o o l s ! So much f o r t h e p a s t a n d t h e p r e s e n t : T h u s o f t h e p a s t . T u r n now w i t h me, A n d i n t h e f u t u r e l e t u s s e e What y e t r e m a i n s : : no p a l t r y l i n e Our r i g h t f u l l i m i t s c a n d e f i n e , T h i n k n o t , C a n a d i a n s ! t h i n k no more A s y o u h a v e a l w a y s t h o u g h t b e f o r e , T h o s e n a r r o w b o u n d s , f r o m G e o r g i a n B a y T o where S t . L a w r e n c e r o l l s away, Y o u r l i n e s a r e s e t . N o , n o , - t h a t s p a c e C o n t a i n s w i t h i n i t s s m a l l embrace , I n c l u d i n g l a k e s a n d s t r e a m s a n d i s l e s , A b o u t t h r e e h u n d r e d t h o u s a n d m i l e s I n s q u a r e c o n t e n t ; b u t t h o s e a r e n o t Our b o u n d a r i e s a l o n e ; n o t e ' e n a j o t O f s u c h a s f i l l o u r r i g h t f u l c l a i m , A n d w h i c h s h o u l d b e a r o u r n a t i o n ' s name: T h i s p a n e g y r i c r e a c h e s t h e c l i m a x o f n a r c i s s i s m i n : G a z e f o r a moment o n t h a t p l a n W h i c h Heaven p r o p i t i o u s made f o r man, T o e l e v a t e f r o m N a t u r e ' s b i r t h Our L a n d , t o be t h e f i r s t o n E a r t h . *> P r o b a b l y t h e most n a i v e o f a l l t h e poems o f t h i s g e n r e i s M a r g a r e t G i l C u r r i e ' s T h e Wonder o f C I t i s a shame, I ' v e o f t e n t h o u g h t -A d r e a d f u l p i t y , s t i l l I s a y -31 T h e C a r r i e r ' s Poem, D e d i c a t e d t o t h e P a t r o n s o f t h e O t t a w a , P a m p h l e t ( J a n u a r y , 1857)• 48. That C :— i s not known abroad As London of America. Or, better s t i l l , *t might be compared With Athensi Nineveh or Rome; For such i l l u s t r i o u s geniuses Hail glorious C- as their home. But as you stand with breath suppressed, With gaping mouth and l i f t e d hand, Let sober thought at once suggest , ? He came from C re wondrous land. One of the better known and more widely accepted poets of this era i s Mrs. Leprohon(Miss R. E. Mullins). The Introduction to her The Poetical Works of Mrs. Leprohon i s a declaration of the sincere hope that she and her contemporaries are helping to lay the foundation of a recognized Canadian literature. When i n after ages, the literature of Canada comes to be written, i t i s to be hoped that among the mighty sons and daughters of genius now unknown, or as yet unborn, some room w i l l be kept for the brave and loving pioneers who gave the people of their best, and sang the songs of duty and patriotism and hope, ere l i f e i n our young land had ceased to be a struggle. ... But i f those who come after, thus favored by circumstances, surpass their predecessors i n li t e r a r y s k i l l or power, not less deserving are the latter who, with l i t t l e prospect of reward, bore the burden and the heat of the day. This early stage i n a nation's literature had, indeed, an interest and a value of i t s own, which only meet with due appreciation from a judicious and grateful posterity. If i t has not the ric h , warm splendor of . 32 Margaret G i l l Currie, Gabriel West and Other Poems (Frederickton, 1866), pp. 124-125. 49 the later morning, i t has the welcome promise of the dawn, and a tender beauty of its own. Though the selections of Mrs. Leprohon's poems given here could come under the classification of those celebrating Canada's beauty, s t i l l they carry connotations beyond the praise of that beauty evident to the senses. This external beauty speaks to her of an inner beauty which evokes loyalty and admiration, and leads to praise of Canada as a country. Thus does the poet see Canada^ as symbolized by The Maple Tree. Well have Canadians chosen thee As the emblem of their land, Thou noble, spreading maple tree Lord of the forest grand; Through a l l the changes time has made, Thy woods so deep and hoar Have given their homesteads pleasant shade And beauty to their shore. In Autumn's hours of cheerless gloom, How glowing i s the dye Of the crimson robe thou dost assume, Though i t only be to die; . Like the red men who long years ago, Reposed beneath the shade, And wore a smiling l i p and brow On the pyre their foes had made. Warmly we pray no deed of harm May fright thy peaceful shade, May'st thou ne'er see in war's alarm Contending.foes arrayed,. 50. But, smiling down on peasants brave, On honest tranquil t o i l Thy branches ever brightly wave, Above a happy s o i l . 33 This intense loyalty to Canada i s evident i n practically a l l of Mrs. Leprohon's poems, in Looking Forward, written for her small son, a sort of reverie i n which she wonders what he w i l l do, and how he w i l l act i n manhood, she s t i l l expresses her love for Canada: Let love of God and love of thy kind, Like tendrils around i t closely wind; Blending those feelings of purest worth , With love for Canada, land of thy birth. ? Winter i n Canada i s somewhat of an attempt at a dramatic monologue. It seems that someone has disparaged Canadian weather i n Mrs. Leprohon's presence. The scolding tone of her reply would, however, hardly recommend the poem as an immigration lure. Nay, t e l l me not that, with shivering fear, You shrink from the thought of wintering here, That the cold intense of our winter time Is severe as that of Siberian clime, And, i f wishes could waft you across the sea, 33 Eosanna Eleanor (Mullins) Leprohon, The Poetical Works of Mrs. Leprohon(Montreal, l88l), pp. 59-60. 34 Leprohon, p. 85. 51. You, tonight i n your English home would be. What! dare to r a i l at our snowstorms, why Not view them with poet's or a r t i s t ' s eye? Watch each pearly flake at i t falls.from above, Like snow plumes from some spotless dove, Clothing a l l objects i n ermine rare, More sure than the bright robes which moharchs wear. Only tarry t i l l Spring on Canadian shore And you'll r a i l at our winters, then, no more, New health and fresh l i f e through your veins shall grow, Spite of piercing winds - spite of ice and snow, And I'd venture to promise, i n truth, my friend, 'Twill not be the last that with us you'll spend. \" Seemingly, Mrs. Leprohon was giving the magazines and her reading public the products for which they were willing to pay, but nowhere does her poetry challenge interpretation or analyzation. The best that can be said for her poems i s that they are a sincere expression of her regard for her native land, and indicate the general patriotic frame of mind which conduced to the furthering of Confederation. Paradoxically, some of the most patriotic poems and those which capture a truer vision of Canada are those which make no reference either to patriotism or to Canada. Among the chief contributors of poems of this category are Charles Sangster and Charles Mair. These are also the better-known poets of this era. Charles Sangster, a 52. native Canadian, i s considered Canada's chief pre-Confederation poet. This may be poor praise by the norms of present-day criticism, but Sangster i s , nevertheless, capable of describing the Canadian landscape more graphically than any other poet of the pre-Confederation period. One of his most enthusiastic poems i s Sonnet XIII from Sonnets, Written i n the O r i l l i a Woods, August l859» I've almost grown a portion of this place; I seem familiar with each mossy stone; Even the nimble chipmunk passes on, And, looks, but never scolds me. Birds have flown And almost touched my hand; and I can trace The wild bees to their hives. I've never known So sweet a pause from labor. But the tone Of a past sorrow, l i k e a mournful r i l l Threading the heart of some melodious h i l l , Or the complainings of the whippoorwill, Passes through every thought, and hope, and aim. It has Its uses; for i t cools the flame Of ardent love that burns my being up- , Love, l i f e ' s c e l e s t i a l pearl, diffused through a l l i t s cup.\" This sonnet i s a deviation from the regular Petrarchan form of octet and sestet, or the Shakespearean quatrains and f i n a l couplet. It i s also worth noting the points at which Sangster chooses to depart from uniform metre. One of the important sources of the variety attained i s the location of pauses at various points i n the poem. 36 Charles Sangster, \"Sonnets, Written i n the O r i l l i a Woods, August, l859\"» Hesperus, and Other Poems and Lyrics (Montreal, i860), 53 The opening lines are divided into three distinct thoughts by the placement of, three complete internal pauses. The f i r s t two thoughts mark definite observations of this particular spot i n a Canadian woods. There i s no attempt, however, to dwell objectively on these aspects of nature. \"Each mossy stone\" i s there for the poet's sake; \"the nimble chipmunk ... never scolds\" him; the birds have \"almost touched\" his hand. This brief meditation i s , then, but a prelude to the purely subjective theme of the poem. \"I've never known/ So sweet a pause from labor\" i s a transitional l i n e . The mood of a certain Canadian woods i s i n accord with that of the poet. Nature i s i n sympathy with him. In the peace and friendliness of the woods and i t s small creatures he finds the perfect objective correlative for expressing the cooling of \"the flame of ardent love.\" This i s a deeper and different aspect of Canadian nature. Of course, i t carries overtones of Byron's \"bleeding heart\", but nowhere does i t descend to the maudlin. The subjective \" I \" i s lost i n the universal experience - that nature has the power to sooth and soften emotional stress. This sonnet has no clear-cut proposal and resolution. Sangster merely gives the composition of place, and then proceeds to show how nature i s one with him i n sympathy. The hesitant, meditative mood 54. created i n the f i r s t part of the poem by the run-on.lines and caesuras, suddenly sweep into a more racy metre, accentuated by the three end rhymes, \" r i l l \" ; \" h i l l \" ; \"whippoorwill\"; concluding with the longer line \"Passes through every thought, and hope, and aim.\" The thought i s summarized i n the last three lines, unlike the Shakespearean sonnet, which sums up the resolution i n a f i n a l C o u p l e t . Nowhere i s the thought subordinated to the rhyme. \"Aim\" ends one thought; \"flame\" belongs to the f i n a l thought. And yet, closer anal-ysis shows that everything Sangster has been saying i s only a lead-up to the f i n a l l i n e . This f i n a l line makes a conspicuous departure from the prevailing iambic pentameter. The word \"Love\" interrupts the regular flow o f the preceding lines. It forces a pause, bringing i n an unexpected break i n a line which contains the major point, the effective conclusion of the entire poem. The universality of \"love\" and i t s proper hierarchic place at the apex, i s contained i n \"celes t i a l pearl\" and \"diffused.\" The same \"Love\" which a t once tortures and consoles the poet i s born i n heaven and permeates a l l creation. This sets up an interesting ambivalence. The same \"Love\" which i s the cause of the poet's suffering i s also the cause o f his consolation. What begins, seemingly, as a nature poem, ends as a metaphysical. There i s no doubt that Sangster \"thrilled\"'to the Canadian 55. scene, that he i s the f i r s t Canadian poet to strike near the' national heart. His inspiration rose beyond the idea of a mere p o l i t i c a l union. The publication i n 1856 of his The St. Lawrence and the Saguenay, and Other Poems established a prominent place for him i n Canadian literature, but i t was i n his later publication i n i860 of Hesperus and Other Poems and Lyrics that he showed a deeper insight into nature and her moods. Among his patriotic poems, \"A Song for Canada\" did much to foster the national sentiment that seven years later culminated i n Confederation. One of his poems which received wider acclaim than any other by a Canadian poet at that time i s \"The Rapid\". This l y r i c i s vivid, and i t s language and rhythm combine for a perfect imitation of the swirl and sweep of the rushing Canadian rivers: A l l peacefully gliding, The waters dividing, The indolent batteau moved slowly along, The rowers, lighthearted, From sorrow long parted, Beguiled the dull moments with laughter and song; \"Hurrah for the Rapid! that merrily, merrily Gambols and leaps on i t s tortuous way; Soon we w i l l enter i t , cheerily, cheerily, Pleased with i t s freshness, and with with i t s spray.\" . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 37 Charles Sangster, Hesperus and Other Poems and Lyrics (Montreal, Kingston, i860), pp. 94-95. 56. Twelve years after the publication of Sangster*s The St. Lawrence and the Saquenay, and Other Poems, Charles Mair published Dreamland and Other Poems thus adding another national voice to that of Sangster's. What has already been said regarding Sangster's involvment with nature i n Sonnet XIII applies equally well to a variety of Mair's poems. In Wood Notes Mair records the effect on him of a particular Canadian woods: The moss i s green upon the tree, The leaves are green upon the spray, And I w i l l rest beneath the shade, And watch their ceaseless revelry. Know ye the wild anemone? 'Tis blooming here alone for me, — The l i l i e s and the blue-bells too, And violets gemmed with drops of dew. Awake ye woods, unwonted strains! They wake indeed afar and near. . The wild blood dances through my veins, And glorious breathings meet mine ear. The sounds, the voices and the throng Of joyful birds, the whisper low Of tree and stream entrance me long, And t h r i l l my being as they flow. 38 Like Sangster, Charles Mair's best poems come out of an experience which i s characteristic of Canadian l i f e . But, whereas a Canadian woods could \"cool the flame\" for Sangster, i t has the opposite effect on Mair. \"The wild blood dances through my veins,/ And glorious breathings meet mine ear.\" If knowledge i s received according 38 Charles Mair, Dreamland and Other Poems (Montreal, 1868), pp. 127-131. 57 to the mode of the knower, then i t would seem that nature i s observed and interpreted according to the temperament of the poet. It i s the spring of the year, the spring of the poet's manhood, and the spring of a new country. The whole tone of the poem i s one of awakening. It i s , however, framed and remote. There i s no attempt to involve the reader. It shows the influence of Wordsworth who declared \"Life i s energy of love,\" and, l i k e most of Wordsworth's nature poems, shows a concern, not so much with the description of the scene as the sensation i t has generated. Another of Charles Mair's better poems i s August. The landscape and the very season i t s e l f are distinctively those of Canada, and are accurately observed. Dull August! Maiden of the sultry days, And Summer's latest born! When a l l the woods Grow dim with smoke, and smirch their l i v e l y green With haze of long-continued drought begot; When every f i e l d grows yellow, and a plague Of thirst dries up i t s herbage to the root, So that the cattle grow quite ribby-lean On woods stalks whose juices a l l are spent; When every fronded fern i n mid-wood hid Grows sick and yellow with jaundice heat, Whilst those on h i l l s i d e s glare with patchy red; When streamlets die upon the lichened rocks, And leave the bleaching pebbles shining bare, And every mussel shell agape and parched, And small snail-craft quite emptied of their crews; • 39 Mair, pp. 119-124 58. Such a poem prompts a re-consideration of the persistent criticism that a l l the poetry i n Canada at this time was derivative, and was overwhelmingly \"romantic\" i n tone. Surely some distinction should be made between realism of treatment and realism of intention. Even a poet of the \"Romantic School\" can s t i l l treat his subject r e a l i s t i c a l l y , and this poem i s an example of such treatment. No effort i s made to gloss over the burned-out, parched land after a hot Canadian summer. August offers a distinct contrast to a l l the lush growth and l i v e l y promise of a Canadian spring as i n Wood Notes. Rhyme has been abandoned, and each word seems to have been chosen with consummate care and s k i l l . The symbolism of the plague with i t s accompanying thirst and fever i s sustained throughout the poem. \"Every f i e l d grows yellow; \"juices are a l l spent\" i n \"woody stalks\". \"Every fronded fern .../ Grows sick and yellow with jaundice heat/ Whilst those on h i l l s i d e s glare with patchy red\"; \" ... streamlets die ... /And leave the bleaching pebbles shining bare/ And every mussel shell agape and parched.\" What i s represented here may be no more tangible than a state of mind, yet i t remains the indispensable substance of the poet's creation, no less than does Keat's \"Ode to Autumn\" which this poem resembles i n form and diction, or Shelley's \"Ode to the West Wind\" with i t s comparable \"fever\" imagery. Thus the impressions of August i n 59 Canada conveyed expressly by the imagery are augmented by the connotative power of individual words and phrases. The poem i s August personified, presented as a none too pleasing picture - dull and spend. It may be the declining years of Charles Mair. The springtime of youth i s gone, and the golden summer days are over. If so, a Canadian August i s for the poet a particular experience. On a l i t e r a l level, the poet has merely addressed August i n terms which reveal selected aspects characteristic of that month. On a connotative level, Mair has seen the r i c h promises of summertime fade and wither under a blazing autumn sun, and through his fever-stricken imagery, he comments on the disillusionments of l i f e . Thus, at a l l times, Canada offered to Charles Mair a variety of scene and season i n which he found the inspiration for the expression of his every mood and experience. 60. CHAPTER IV MISCELLANEOUS »'MENTIONING CONFEDERATION It i s understandable that many of the poems: i n this section •would scarcely merit the classification of \"poetry 1 1. The subject matter i s , for the most part, topical, and does not lend i t s e l f to l o f t y musings. But i t was an exciting time i n Canadian history, and, for those who had the urge or the vision, there was much to write about. There was vast expansion, with railways opening up the country across the prairies to the Pacific Coast. There was ample subject matter - wheat farms, Indians, cowboys, buffalo, Mounted Police. There were the ever-lively p o l i t i c a l issues. The country was caught up i n these enthusiasms, and anyone who could write was encouraged to do so. Indeed, the \"well-meaning friends\" who were so often responsible for the encouragement, were probably more kind than discriininating. Nevertheless, they rendered at least one service to Canada, for these \"poems\" have caught the s p i r i t and sentiment of a v i t a l \"moment\" i n Canadian history. In the Preface to Pencillings By the Way, the author \"P. J. B.\" gives an exemplification of a l l these various aspects: I assure you, gentle reader, i t i s with no ordinary sensation of fear, mingled with confidence, that I venture to present to the appreciating reading class of our new Dominion this l i t t l e poetical rosary of scenes pencilled during a vacation v i s i t , which so importunately crowd i n upon my memory at a l l times that I have concluded the best way I can 61 dismiss them,, without any offence, i s to send them home i n the coat of Esau, trusting with a l l the solicitude of Rachel that they may receive the blessing, i f not of criticism, at least of consid-eration, from the hands of kind friends, who may not perceive i n my rude manner of expression the voice of a poet; yet, may fe e l the good intention of one, who would not s e l l the memory of his coun-try for the mess of practical routine that daily surrounds him. ...I do i t merely to satisfy the wish of a few friends, who are anxious to see me ventilate my intellect i n the shape of some l i t e r -ary effusion. ^0 A typical verse from the small volume i s \"Chebucto\": The boat, up the basin to Sackville i s sailing, A l l freighted with beauty and music so gay:-How oft have I pensively leaned o'er i t s r a i l i n g And thought I saw; Halifax running away: As i f she awoke from a mental distraction, And ran a l l her might to catch Commerce and Artj: Hut tripped, l i k e a child, into Confederation, . And, sorry too late, she now hangs on her s k i r t . ^ \"P. J. B.\" had made a. commentary on Chebucto i n the Preface already quoted:\"I must add, that this l i t t l e effusion i s but a poor expression of Chebucto scenery, which might equally compare i n many respects with that of the much talked-of Hudson. There i s no wealthy metropolis, certainly, hanging upon i t s skirts to P. J. B., \"Preface\", Pencillings By the ¥ay(Montreal, 1 8 6 8 ) . P. J. B., p. Ik. 62 entice the fashionable tourist to dream away the sultry weeks of summer in painful luxuryj yet, there i s a l i t t l e world of pictur-esqueness hanging about Chebucto i n a l l i t s wild luxuriance, un-attended by any dissipating circumstances, and which i s equalled only by the unparalleled hospitality of i t s inhabitants.\" It would seem that the Maritimers had acquired a defensive attitude quite early in Canadian history, an attitude which has been shared by the rest of Canada, i n varying degrees, up to the pre-sent time. But the more enthusiastic Canadians of the Post-Confederation period probably f e l t , l i k e Wordsworth, that \"Bliss was i t i n that dawn to be alive...\" It was, indeed, a most opportune time for the aspiring poet, for, i n post-Confederation Canada, i t was more important that the verse be written by a Canadian than that i t be poetry. In keeping with this exuberant s p i r i t , Robert Awde, in Our Fair Dominion, gives a roll i c k i n g war song to the tune of \"Marching through Georgia.\" The bugle sounds a c a l l to armsi our gallant corps reply; We're ready for the great North WestI we'll make the rebels f l y . Hurrah for Canada our homei we'll fight u n t i l we die, To keep intact our f a i r Dominion. 63. Chorus Hurrah! hurrah! for Britain's old renown; Hurrah! hurrah! for country, Queen and Crown; Tho' Fenian hordes with Riel may join, we'll put rebellion down, And keep intact our f a i r Dominion. We are the heirs of wealth untold, from East to Western sea, And proud that we, of a l l earth's sons, are freest of the free. Already dawns the morning of the future yet to be, The glory of our f a i r Dominion. ^ Obviously, the creation of the new Dominion had not meant severing tie s with Britain. The direct reference to the Fenian invasions i s an oblique admission of the chief psychological reason which had compelled the four B r i t i s h colonies to seek strength i n union. . Another important reason for Confederation - the need to strengthen the economy of the country - i s indicated i n another of Awde's poems, Dominion Day. We bask i n the sunshine of freedom today, And sing \"Our Dominion forever!\" United to each and to England we pray The changes of time may ne'er sever. ... Some of us are noisy - i n speech somewhat free; Yet, count him a foe that would sever -As subjects of Britain most loyal are we, And wish to remain so forever. On Confederation we somewhat rely, By mutual concessions to l i v e ; And from one another we're hoping to buy 42 Robert Awde, Jubilee, Patriotic, and Other Poems(Toronto, 188?), pp. 23-24. 64. Whatever each Province can give. Our notions of trade, even crude tho' they look, Have brought out this point, i n our thinking, 'Tis better to lead the horse out to the brook, Than cart a l l his water for drinking. As England receives a l l our surplus of food, To feed a l l her thousands, ' t i s clear, 'Twould give us less trouble, and do us more good, To have them located out here. To this end our people have voted N. P., To give manufacture protections, And thus do we hope by industry to see The last of hard times and dejection; When Canada, great, but not standing alone, And union a realized fact, j Shall form a grand outpost to strengthen the throne, And keep our allegiance intact. 3 The depression of 1873 came at a most d i f f i c u l t time for Canada, when substantial revenues and credits were needed to subsidize an expensive program of expansion, particularly i n railway construction. That same year saw the defeat of John A. Macdonald, as the result of the Pacific Scandal. Failure of the new Liberal government to draw up a reciprocity agreement with the United States threw Canada back on her own resources, and offered Macdonald the opportunity to r a l l y to the Conservative party those industrial groups whose expectation of favors from the Liberals had been disappointed. It was a chance to ^3 Awde, pp. 1 8 - 2 0 65 promote a change of policy towards the United States and to show that country that i f i t had refused reciprocity of trade, i t must accept reciprocity of t a r i f f s . \"National Policy\" became the slogan i n the p o l i t i c a l campaign, and swept the Conservatives back into power i n the 1878 election. Though the National Policy proved to be no elixer for a l l the Canadian i l l s , s t i l l i t did express the desire of Canadians to build a vigorous and independent national economy as the very life-blood of a successful Confederation. It i s this, s p i r i t which prompted much of the Confederation verse, as a sort of propaganda vehicle. Railway expansion was recognized as an absolute necessity i n building a unified nation, and was subject matter for more than a few of the poems. In The Poems of John C. Colgan \"The Iron Horse\" i s i n praise of the C. P. R. ... Then happy Canada! your l o t i s blest; The shortest throughfare from east to west And eastern fabrics of the choicest brand Will swell the commerce of this happy land. Your precious mines and flowing wells of o i l On every side reward the sons of t o i l . Exhaustless forests, f i l l e d with pine and oak, Invite the hardy woodman's f e l l i n g stroke To lay those giant kings.of nature low. And clear the virgin s o i l for wheat to grow. 66. Let Grit and Tory both unite their force To speed the progress of the Iron Horse. With resolution brave l e t a l l agree And stretch his iron bands from sea to sea. Linked with your mother by those virtues three; Firm faith, bright hope and heavenly charity, Or linked to Sam for better or for worse By iron r a i l and smoking Iron Horse. ^ The last stanza i s delivered with a strain of wry humour. To leave the security of \"Mother Britain\" for a marriage with \"Sam\" does not seem a very desirable prospect for Canada, even i f i t should mean economic security. This prevailing sentiment of John Colgan i s expressed i n some of his other poems. In \"Farewell to the Observer\" he says: Two Sons of Mars prefer their claim, Who fought on many a f i e l d of fame And foiled the Yankee Fenian scheme Of Annexation; And who would fight through f i r e and flame For Confederation. ^ But he seems to reach the peak of national fervor i n A Word in Season. Shun the Tory, Grit and Fenian, Who would blast our young dominion , With a secret plan, God Himself i s love and union, kk • John C. Colgan, The Poems of John C. Colgan (Toronto, 1873), p.10. k5 Colgan, p. 12. 67. Serve Him best you can. Think with love and veneration, How that grand Confederation Joined us a l l i n one; Practise Christian toleration, Every sect and clan. Let the maple leaf and beaver Be our union beadge forever, Peace our constant aim; Show our friends across the river We are free as they. Let them see there's no disunion In our happy young dominion, No intestine wars. Then a f i g for a l l their minions, And their stripes and stars. Take a humble ploughman's warning Mind your business night and morning Let the world wag; Keep the lamp of freedom burning. Round our native flag . Such sentiments must have had a strong public appeal, and were probably as powerful i n influencing public opinion and national policy as were the editorials of the day. Since any p o l i t i c a l fiasco was sufficient to c a l l forth another poem, i t i s understandable that the \"Great Pacific Scandal\" would not be passed up. The engineering problems entailed i n Colgan, pp. 2 2 - 2 3 . 6 9 . c o n s t r u c t i n g a r a i l r o a d to the P a c i f i c coas t , paled i n t o i n s i g n i f i c a n c e i n comparison with the p o l i t i c a l and f i n a n c i a l obstacles to be overcome\". The work of c o n s t r u c t i o n was to be a p r i v a t e e n t e r p r i s e , and two groups entered i n t o competi t ion f o r the c o n t r a c t . One was formed i n Toronto under the presidency of Senator D. L . Macpherson; the other was formed i n Monreal under S i r High A l l a n , who e n l i s t e d the support of American c a p i t a l i s t s . In order to ensure the r e t u r n of the Conservatives to power, s ince the L i b e r a l s were adverse to the c o n s t r u c t i o n of the proposed r a i l w a y , A l l a n contr ibuted some $350,000 f o r campaign funds . But the success of the Conservatives was s h o r t - l i v e d . In s p i t e of the f a c t that the government immediately set to work to reorganize A l l a n ' s Company so that the Toronto group could be brought i n and American c o n t r o l e l i m i n a t e d , the L i b e r a l s s e i z e d upon the opportuni ty i n the s e s s i o n of 1873 to l a y charges of b r i b e r y against Macdonald. Though he denied that there was any corrupt bargain and that such c o n t r i b u t i o n s of money were simply normal p o l i t i c a l opera t ions , p u b l i c sentiment was aroused and a vote of censure i n Parliament brought the f a l l of the government. The L i b e r a l s took o f f i c e . The e l e c t i o n s of 1874 i n which the Conservatives were defeated, were e x c i t e d l y descr ibed i n the \"Globe'* as \" the Thermopylae of Canadian v i r t u e . \" 70 \"Alphonso S t i l l e t o ' s Poetization of the Incipient Stage of the Great Pacific Scandal\" i s an exemplification of public indignation and of outraged ''Canadian virtue\". Twenty-nine pages precede the short excerpt included here: \"It means that for pelf The men who ruled Canada sought, and would place Our country i n debt, and themselves i n disgrace!\" ... Glad would I be To come, and to learn of the whole that transpired, Which causes Canadians thus, to have ired. And, f i r s t , may I t e l l you Canadians sought To build a great Railroad, v/hich by them was thought, Should run from Atlantic, their boundary East, And reach the Pacific, ere i t should have ceased. Macpherson declared, that Canadians should Build a l l of the road i f they possibly could. ... These quasi-Canucks'doubtless thought the Sir Hugh? To build such a road were a sorrowful few. He, hence, had recourse to the land of the Stars, To help the slow coaches, give place to the cars. We only need prove that a Government few Would s e l l to Americans what they should keep Within their own fold for Canadian sheep. The problem of railways was closely connected with a successful Confederation. British Columbia had l a i d down the terms of a railroad 47 Alphonzo S t i l l e t t o ' s Poetization of the Incipient Stage of the \"Great Pacific Scandal1.', pamphlet, 29 pages(Montreal, 1874). 71. as condition for joining Confederation. But even the desire for western settlement had not outweighed the growing h o s t i l i t y toward the project which the \"Globe\" attacked as \"a rash and may be disastrous step at the dictation of a handful of people 2,500 miles Lb away.\" Obviously, such a lengthy poem as the one just quoted shows that the average man was interested. One o f the longest poems, however, dealing with every aspect of Canadian l i f e i n this particular era i s Canada F i r s t an Appeal to A l l Canadians.by A Toronto'Boy. Some explanation of the Canada F i r s t movement may be in order here. In the seventies there arose the 'Canada F i r s t ' movement, whose object i t was to unite Canadians on a basis of moral idealism and cultural fervour. Its founder, William Foster, described i t as 'an intellectual movement', as a 'direct product, i n some measure of that higher culture which the universities and colleges of our land are steadily promoting', and for a few years i t enjoyed wide support. There was, then, recognition of the fact that a nation does not achieve greatness by a merely material expansion. Never before had Canadians been as ready as i n these f i r s t three decades after Confederation to welcome a native li t e r a r y movement, and this public responsiveness undoubtedly had something to do with the marked increase i n the quantity and quality of literature during the period. 9 The poem i s divided into sections and i s printed i n a 16 page pamphlet. 48 Edgar Mclnnis, Canada A-Political and Social History (Toronto, 1958), p. 329. 49 Desmond Pacey, Creative Writing i n Canada(Toronto, 1961), p. 36. 72. The foUowing are a few excerpts pertinent to Canadian independence and expansion. Let Eighteen-eighty, close Colonial l i f e , And Canada a nation now become! We court no bitter feelings, war, or s t r i f e , But we must have an Independent Home. A colony, a Nation ne'er can be And proud ambition rises with our years, Our aim i s noble, 't i s this land to see A Greater Britain, founded without tears. The older nations of the earth may ask, \"Why than, should Canada desire to change? Why cut the British cords? Why cease to bask In Britain's glorious sunshine? This seems strange?\" Not stranger, than i n str i p l i n g grown a man, Thoughts, yearnings, ri s e , that urge him far to roam, 'Twas ever thus since f i r s t the world began; -Strong natures seek an Independent Home. Thus, Canada a manly course would steer; To treat direct with nations now would choose; On equal footing meet them as their peer, Nor henceforth, rights and claims by proxy lose. Then grand Great Britain! l e t this son go free* To raise a new Republic to his name; The faults and f o l l i e s of Columbia, he Will shun, and rise to strength, to wealth and fame. Such an appeal for complete independence from Britain i s evidence that individual Canadians were often far i n advance of their government's policies, since i t was not un t i l the Halibut Treaty of 1923 that Canada was permitted to sign any document independently of Britain. 7 3 . The appeal.continues: Nor deem that Annexation i s involved; Our hearts on Independence, set are sure! We love our home, as ours, and are resolved On Independence, - Annexation's cure. We cannot love the s o i l we never trod, Yet kindly think of our forefather's land; But Canada's our own; each lake, brook, sod, H i l l , vale, f a l l s , river, wood and rocky strand. A comparison with the freedom and prosperity of the United States i s more than mildly s a t i r i c : The question must be asked, -\"What i s our age?\" \"Is the Republic elder of the:two?\" At least ' t i s shown by History's true page, That Canada, though young, i s scarcely new. Yet see the contrast, and l e t Britain say Is she quite blameless of our low estate; On one side progress, wealth and powerful sway;. On ours - well - on the theme we won't dilate. But monarchy has blame, and British gold Has flowed into our elder brother's hands What has our fealty earned, when a l l i s told? It leaves us child-like s t i l l i n swadding bands. Not to our lands have emigrants i n shoals, Flocked from the British Isles to swell our ranks; Of those we get some poor, infrequent doles; The best pass through, and leave no cash nor thanks. This i s the general tenor of the poem, but one particular stanza il l u s t r a t e s that the concept of independence within a Commonwealth Ik. under the Crown was not even embryonic. And casting off thy rule, with thy consent, We would i n peace, with mutual blessings part. Suggest no king - we'll choose a President -As a Republic, we our race would start. Sections II and III follow with approximately fifty-one stanzas relating Canada's glories, natural beauty and accomplishments, followed by an appeal to change a l l the names of c i t i e s that are the same as those of the Old World. The f i n a l stanza of this section i s humourously s a t i r i c : Go change thy name; no longer ape the GreatI Change a l l those names or dread the vain bird's doom, We must in kindness thy false pride berate, -Jack-daw, absurdly tailed i n peacock's plume. The appeal for national poets i n Section IV only emphasizes the irony of the Canadian situation - that there was no great poetry to be put at the service of such strong conviction. The Poets; of the Nation must appear! We want our ballads - none are written yet! Canadian l i l t s and songs, the youthful ear Ne'er hears when nurse or mother soothes her pet. A l l these sentiments are part of the \"Canada F i r s t \" campaign which the poet weaves throughout each section and with which he concludes the poem. Canada, f i r s t ! the feeble cry we hear; Despise i t not, the next shall be a shout! A new-born nation shall at once appear; Though feeble, i t s importance never doubt. 75 And now, with earnest, hopeful, warm appeal, To a l l Canadians, who their country prize, We close this effort for Canadian weal; UniteJ Combine! The Nation organize. Native and foreign-born, combine1, unite! A\": patriotic stand shall win our claim; E o l l up your numbers for the National fight; Let \"The Dominion\" justify i t s name! ^0 It may be that such a poem was more inspirational than would appear at the present day. For just as there are abuses which resist the zeal of reformers but which are amended at the f i r s t breath of laughter, so might an enthusiastic, patriotic poem l i k e this one, dispel the general apathy where many an editorial had fai l e d . Some of the poems of this type are, however, on a somewhat higher poetic plane. The same love of country and desire for a united Canada are there, but the tone i s more subdued. One such poem i s Dominion Day I d y l l : Time was when man to man we stood i n s t r i f e ; Sword clashed on sword, crimsoned with ghastly gore, And orphans mourned, and widows wailed their dead, While weeping earth strewed leaves her slaughtered children o'er. 50 Canada F i r s t an Appeal To A l l Canadians by A Toronto Boy, Pamphlet 16 pages(Toronto, 1880). 76 Long years have passed and smoothed those furrows down That rugged hands once raised to hide the slain; But now we battle on a bloodless f i e l d , And strive to build one mighty land from main to main. Our fathers build those monuments of stone, To t e l l what France had lost and England won; Their children we- l e t us a nobler raise, Founded on land and sea - the fairest 'neath the sun. From Labrador to f a i r Vancouver's Isle, From Erie's shore, far as the Arctic; seas, One banner's folds waves o'er Canadian homes, One arm defends our rights.and guards our l i b e r t i e s . ^ There i s evidence here of a more conscious art and of disciplined emotion. The uniformity of the abcb rhyme scheme and the iambic pentameter lin e i s relieved by the f i n a l Alexandrine i n each stanza. The poem i s developed chiefly by comparison and contrast, beginning with a scene of slaughter and mourning, and building up to the point of comparison between early Canada and the \"now\". The present struggle i s no less real though no longer bloody. The f i r s t battles were fought with swords for the conquest of a country; those being fought now are by moral persuasion for the preservation of a nation. \"Monuments of stone\" bear witness to the valour of \"our fathers\", but \"their children\" would build a \"nobler\" monument - a wide, free nation. 51 Rev. Duncan Anderson, Lays of Canada, and Other Poems(Montreal, 1890), pp. 24-32. 77 Words are chosen with economy and judgment, and there i s evidence that the sound i s meant to be \"an echo of the sense\". The clashing swords are crimsoned, but, by implication, so are the leaves that f a l l i n autumn upon the graves of the dead - \"While weeping earth strewed leaves her slaughtered children o'er.\" The melancholic mood i s created not only by the pathetic fallacy of the \"weeping earth\" but more especially by the long vowels- e's and o's, the connotations of \"mourned\" and \"wailed\" and by the Alexandrine. The a l l i t e r a t i o n i n \"widows wailed .../While weeping earth strewed leaves...\" adds emphasis, and seems to have come i n response to the poet's mood as a natural result of striving after accurate expression. The transition to the present i s rather s k i l f u l l y executed not so much by the statement of the \"long years\" as by the reference to the levelling of the grave mounds. Then the poem builds up to the climactic statement - the monuments of stone have crumbled but the monument of a prosperous united nation w i l l not. The f i n a l stanza resolves the problem - a nation, i f i t i s to expand and endure, must be united under \"one banner's folds\" and under one government. \"One arm defends our rights and guards our l i b e r t i e s . \" The comparative restraint of such a poem i s probably a more accurate expression of the general concern for Canadian unity than 78 i s the more boisterous effusion of much of the verse of this time. This desire for a nation united i n heart as well as i n government i s reiterated i n various poems. William Douw Lighthall has included one i n his selection of Canadian Poems and Lays: Shall we not have one race, shaping and welding the nation? Is not our country too broad for the schisms which shake petty lands? Yea, we shall join i n our might, and keep sacred our firm Federation, Shoulder to shoulder arrayed, hearts open to hearts, hands to hands.52 There are a number of \"Anthems\" and \"Songs\" i n a collection entitled Sawney's Letters and Cariboo Rhymes. \"The New Dominion\" serves as an example: Gt land of the maple and beaver, we love To hear thy praises afar; Federation thy strength, Dominion thy name, Thou bright and new shining star; May wisdom, strength and power combine, To make thee a giant so grand, While from ocean to ocean thy empire extends, Hail, Dominion, our own fatherland! Chorus Hail, New Dominion, thou glorious and free! Soon may thy empire span from sea to sea! Dear Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Red River And Columbis a l l i e d with you, With Canada joined, say who can e'er sever A country and flag firm and true; Thy sister Columbia, whose resources are many, Would improve 'neath thy fostering hand, Then, say come with us, thou land of the West, 52 William Douw Lighthall, Canadian Poems and LaysSelections of Native verse(Montreal, From '85), p. 19. 79. We'll make one great fatherland. 53 The cajoling attitude towards \"Columbia\" Contrasts with that of some of the p o l i t i c a l malcontents who would just as soon have excluded \"Columbia\" from Confederation as support the plan for the requested railroad. Al selection of Confederation poems would not be complete without at least one of those dedicated to D'Arcy McGee. The part he played i n Confederation as one of i t s \"Fathers\" i s too well-known to need explanation. In Memoriam. D'Arcy McGee Well mayst thou, mourn, f a i r CanadaJ Well mays'st thy hot tears f a l l , As on his bier, with downcast eyes, thou spread'st the funeral p a l l ; For i n thy dear adopted son, there dwelt a mighty power To grapple with thy enemies i n danger's trying hour. Yes! loved McGee! though never more the music of thy voice Shall t h r i l l us with i t s melody and bid our hearts rejoice; Yet, under this Dominion, long thy name shall be a spell 53 James Anderson, Sawney's Letters and Cariboo Rhymes, Words and Music by W. W. H i l l (Toronto, I895), p. 80 To children's children through the land thy grand heart loved so well. ^ 4 What greater tribute could be paid Confederation?. Not only was i t the theme of song and verse, but i t could claim the loyalty and the l i f e of a man li k e D'Arcy McGee. 5 4 H. S:. Battersby, Home Lyrics (London, I876), 1 , 87-88.. 81. •CHAPTER V_- EVALUATION The story of Confederation i s incontestably dramatic and peculiarly Canadian. It i s the story of how a handful of colonists gradually worked out a solution to the problem of freedom and control. But, just what relation i s there between this historical event and the poetic output of Canada during the period l855- l880? Desmond Pacey says: \"The relation between a society and i t s literature are hypothetical and obscure, and no simple arrangement of cause and effect can be discerned or proven. Perhaps the nearest we can come to a formulation of the relationship i s to declare that a state of high excitement within the community, together with some powerful stimulus from outside, i s l i k e l y to result i n the creation of a vivid and vigorous body of writing. These conditions ... were present i n Canada as a whole during the f i r s t 55 years of her existence as a federated nation.\" Excluding such better-known post-Confederation.poets as Bliss Carman, Charles G. D. Roberts, or Isabella Valency Crawford, as well as the French-Canadian poets, whose works f a l l outside the scope of this thesis, what i s there to be said for the many \" l i t t l e poets\" whose verses found their way into the journals, newspapers, school texts and song books of Canada, and i n some cases, into the journals of other lands. Did they create a \"vivid and vigorous body of writing\" or were there extenuating circumstances which imposed constraint or 55 Desmond Pacey, Creative Writing i n Canada(Toronto, 1 9 6 l ) , P« 35* 82. prevented the f u l l flowering of genius? In a discussion of \"The Sixties Group\" i n Poetry i n Canada, R. E. Rashley says: It was the misfortune of the pioneer poets that their world never realized i t s e l f i n a large unified physical form, nor, as the chance of history f e l l , i n a social or philosophical form. The• physical and commercial forces which created the settlements went on to destroy their importance. The colonies had not realized their p o s s i b i l i t i e s as individual organizations before i t became apparent that the colonial organizations were i n themselves inadequate to the defence and development of the areas which they could control and, i n 1867, a national concept was implemented. ... being a late arrival i n the world, Canada i s not required to work out i t s own modulations from one movement to another. When one mode of expression has served i t s purpose there are models for the new easily available, ^o This i s one view of the \"pioneer poets\" which would imply that they were victims of their colonial status. It also poses the question of the imitative or derivative qualities of their poetry. Before considering the validity of these arguments, however, i t may be well to see what other opinions have been propounded. In Canada and Its Provinces published i n 1913» there i s an estimate of Alexander McLachlan, certainly one of the most popular poets of his time: . . . McLachlan1s love of men and of nature won him many admirers, but, while his verse appeals to the heart, every poem he penned has serious flaws due to a lack of sel f - c r i t i c i s m . Had he devoted much of the time he gave to composition to studying the masters of English verse, he might have achieved something really fine i n poetry, but his work as i t stands i s commonplace and defective and adds nothing to Canadian literature, 56 R. E. Rashley, Poetry i n Canada:The F i r s t Three Steps(Toronto, 1958) p. 62. Quoted by permission of the publishers, The Ryerson Press. 83. even though, from the great heart of the poet and the mind eager to enjoy nature and to cause others to enjoy i t •with him, he w i l l continue to find readers among those who care much for feeling and l i t t l e for art. ->7 Interestingly enough,, the Reverend Hartley Dewart, i n his \"Introductory Essay\" to Selections from Canadian Poets, written at the time McLachlan's poetry was being published, takes p r a c t i -cally the opposite view. Writing about both Charles Sangster and Alexander McLachlan,. Dewart says: Among those who have most courageously appealed to the reading public, and most largely enriched the poetic literature of Canada', the f i r s t place -is due to Charles Sangster. The r i c h -ness and extent of his contributions, the originality and des-criptive power he displays, the variety of Canadian themes on which he has written with force and elegance, his passionate sympathy with the beautiful in Nature, and the chivalrous and manly patriotism which finds an utterance i n his poems, f u l l y vindicate his claim to a higher place i n the regard of his \"countrymen, than he has yet attained. Alexander McLachlan has also evinced that he possesses; i n a high degree the g i f t of song. In the opinion of many, he i s the sweetest and most intensely human of a l l our Canadian bards. In elaborate elegance and wealth of descriptive power, i n the success with which he has treated Canadian themes, and i n some-thing of Miltonic stateliness and originality of style, Sangster has certainly no equal i n this country. But i n strong human sympathy, i n subtle appreciation of character, i n deep natural pathos, and i n those gushes of noble and manly feeling which awaken the responsive echoes of every true heart, McLachlan i s equally peerless. That they should be so l i t t l e known to the reading public of Canada i s a matter of sincere regret. Taking into consideration the subtle delicacy of thought and elevation of style which distinguishes much of his poetry, i t i s not d i f f i c u l t to understand why Sangster should be comparatively Canada and Its Provinces: A History of the Canadian People and Their Institutions By One Hundred Associates, ed. Adam Shortt, A.G.DoughtylToronto, I9I3J, XII, p.57I. 8k unappreciated by the great mass of readers; but that the sentiments of sympathy with humanity i n a i l conditions, and the protests against every form of injustice and pre-tension, so simply and earnestly expressed i n McLachlan's poetry, should secure so few; admirers, i s a fact that, i n spite of a l l possible explanations, i s by no means credi-table to the taste or intelligence of Canada. 58 T h i s i s , obviously, unmitigated praise, without even a hint of the adverse criticism evident in the later assessment. Dewart goes on to say: \"Enough, however, has already been achieved, to be an earnest of the better things for the future pledge . . . i t w i l l not always be Winter with Canadian poetry. Should the soft Spring breath of kindly appreciation warm the c h i l l y atmosphere, flowers of greater luxuriance and beauty would soon blossom forth, to beautify and en-rich our literature. I f these anticipations are not realized, i t i s not because there i s anything i n the country i t s e l f uncongenial to poetry.\" ^ Nor can i t be alleged that Canada lacked discriminating c r i t i c s . A l l poetry was not necessarily labelled \"good\" just because i t was Canadian. The author of Leisure Hours, A Selection of Short Poems came i n for some scathing commentary i n the July 16, 1870 edition of \"Canadian Illustrated News\": \"The author of this l i t t l e pamphlet $8 Edward Hartley Dewart, \"Introductory Essay\", Selections from Canadian Poets(Montreal,l861+), p. XVII. ^ Dewart, p. XVII 85. (38 pages) of weak and watery rhyme, t e l l s us i n his preface that the pieces' are the pencillings of a minor.' We are glad to learn this, and sincerely trust that when Mr. Lanigan reaches man's estate he w i l l devote himself to more useful employment than the jingling of silly-sentences together to be called Poems. 'When I was a child I spoke as a child, 'etc., but babyhood i s intolerable when i t outlives the •teens'.\" What, then, would be the most-just appraisal of the poets of the last half of the nineteenth century. It would seem that the early twentieth century assessment i s already implicitly contained i n Dewart's lament - \"so few admirers.\" but the fact remains that \" i t i s not because there i s anything i n the country i t s e l f uncongenial to poetry\", and confirms Rashley's statement that the Canadian poets of this era were \"victims of their colonial status.\" This leads to the question of \"imitation and derivation\", and presents another aspect from which to evaluate these lesseB Canadian poets. A number of considerations i n relation to this question may be proposed. F i r s t , should their poems be placed alongside those of their American contemporaries - \"weighed i n the balance, and found wanting\"? Or should they be considered i n reference to the beginnings of a 86 country? What sort of patriotic poetry(and patriotic verse i s seldom good verse) was being written in American colonial days? One i l l u s t r a t i o n may serve as an example. Nearly one hundred years, before Confederation, when America was emerging into nationhood, Philip Freneau wrote \"To the Memory of the Brave Americans\": At Eutaw Springs; the valiant died;; The limbs with dust are covered o'er -Weep on, ye springs, your tearful tide; How. many heroes are no morej. They saw, their injured country's woe;; The flaming town„ the wasted f i e l d ; Then rushed to meet the insulting foe; They took the spear - but l e f t the shield. Led by thy conquering genius, Greene, The Britons they compelled to f l y ; None\" distant viewed the f a t a l plain, None grieved, i n such a cause to die -But, l i k e the Parthian, famed of old, Who, flyi n g , s t i l l their arrow; threw;, These routed Britons, f u l l as bold, Setreated, and retreating slew. Now rest i n peace, our patriot band; Though far from nature's limits thrown, We. trust they find a happier land, . A brighter sunshine of their own. 60 The American Tradition i n Literature, ed. iSculley Bradley et a l . (New; York, 1956), I,p. 308. 87. As a patriotic poem, this has no more, probably less to commend i t for inclusion i n an anthology than has \"Dominion Day I d y l l * by Anderson. Yet The American Tradition i n Literature has this to say for Philip Freneau: Judged i n his own time by his p o l i t i c a l opponents! as a \"writer of wretched and insolent doggerel\", an \"incendiary journalist\" 1, Philip Freneau was.neverthe-less our second important poet. His double role as poet and \"political journalist in the transitional age of the Revolution i s consistent with the contra-dictions of his poetry. Freneau was neo-classical by training and taste yet romantic i n essential s p i r i t . He was also at once a s a t i r i s t and senti-mentalist . . . a poet of Reason yet the celebrant of \"lovely Fancy\" . . . As a poet Freneau heralded American l i t e r a r y independence; his close obser-vation of nature(before Bryant) distinguished his treatment of indigenous wild l i f e and other native American subjects. . . . Freneau did not establish trends, but he represented qualities that were to be characteristic of the next half century. He has been called the \"Father of American Poetry\"1, and i t i s ultimately.in a hi s t o r i c a l estimate that Freneau i s important . . . he i s worthy of study-as a cross-section of an intensely significant period i n our p o l i t i c a l and l i t e r a r y history rather than as an i n t r i n s i c a l l y wise p o l i t i c a l theorist or a profound creator of poetic beauty. 61 61 The American Tradition, pp. 30U-306 8 8 . There i s no attemps here to apologize for Philip Freneau. He has grown in stature from his own day when he was considered only a \"writer of wretched and insolent doggerel.\" He i s taken for what he i s - a transitional poet - and as such he finds his place i n American literature. . On the contrary, i t i s regrettable that there has been a tendency for Canadian l i t e r a r y c r i t i c s to downgrade the very poets who performed a comparable service for Canadian literature. One of the chief objections i s that their poetry shows the influence of the Romantic and Victorian poets - Wordsworth, Byron, Tennyson. To this objection, another early American poet, William Gullen Bryant, may serve as a refutation. He i s considered the most revered spokesman of his age. Yet, many of his poems, particularly his early ones, reflect the influence f i r s t of the neo-classicists, then of the \"graveyard school\" and f i n a l l y of the romanticists. This has i n no way, however, diminished his stature o*1 deprived, him of a permanent place in the history of American literature. It i s encouraging to find later, and even recent Canadian c r i t i c s and poets spurning the earlier i n f e r i o r i t y approach, and affirming that Canadian poetry of the late nineteenth century and even that of the earlier Loyalist period needs no apologies. 89 Ray Palmer Baker has this to say: \"Though the Loyalist poets never achieved a r t i s t i c independence, several of them occasionally hi t upon lines which are superior to those of a l l their contemporaries except Freneau. In s a t i r i c force and pathos they surpass the achievements of their antagonists. The most remarkable aspect of their 62 poetry i s a passionate love of their native land.\" And speaking of Sangster, he says: \"More sensitive and more richly endowed, with sp i r i t u a l insight, he occasionally reaches heights that the author of Evangeline and Hiawatha never achieves. Lacking education and opportunity for development, he inevitably f a l l s beneath the New England poet i n scholarship and taste. Nevertheless, i n a small way, his place i n Canada corresponds with that of Longfellow i n the United States.\" 6 5 Again, such praise i s not for lack of perspicacity. Regarding Sangster's volume The St. Lawrence and the Saguenay. Baker agrees with the Criterion which c r i t i c i z e d i t adversely. He says: \"With rare good sense, however, the Criterion, standing apart from the majority of periodicals, remarked that i f Sangster had burned three-quarters of the contents and printed the remainder, he would have had an excellent 62 Ray Palmer Baker, A, History of English-Canadian Literature to the ConfederationCambridge, 1920), p. 179 63 Baker, p. 165. 90. volume.\" A more recent c r i t i c a l assessment has been made i n the \"Introduction Note\"1 to Canadian Poems edited by Louis Budek and Irving Layton: Enough poetry has been written i n Canada by now to permit the cutting of more than one swath through i t . Canadian poetry represents a recent and short branch of English poetry - the l i f e of Charles Mair spans almost the whole period, from 1838-192? - and i n general our poetry parallels the movement of Br i t i s h literature from Victorianism to the \"modern period. The weakness of late nineteenth century poetry and the excesses of modern poetry are to be found in Canada as well as elsewhere. We do not need to apolo-gize for Victorian moralism and sentimentality as a par-ticu l a r Canadian vice i n the eighties and nineties, nor for the l y r i c a l exhaustion which followed. . . * a l l these signs of the times exist i n England and America as well as i n Canada. . . . the reading and recognition of poets s t i l l follow national lines . ... But the domestic cultivation of literature i s s t i l l necessary. In the United States, American poets are mainly read; i n England, British poets. I f we are to have a l i t e r a r y l i f e i n Canada- we must pay attention to our own literature. The world w i l l of course steal our Shakespeare ( i f we had one), but i t w i l l ignore our Herricks and our Lovelaces. °5 For the most part, Canadians have ignored their Herricks and their Lovelaces, or i n many cases have considered them only transplanted Britishers* Baker contends;, on the contrary, that, \"Despite the large contribution of Scotland , . . the elements which have determined the progress of Canadian Literature Baker, p. 160. ' \"Introductory Note\", Canadian Poems 1850-1952, ed. Louis Dudek, Irving Layton.(Toronto, I9i>2), p. 20. 91. have been distinctively American.\" He claims further:: Although the literature of Canada u n t i l the Confederation was that of the United States, and the background consequently i s the same, the p o l i t i c a l relations of the Dominion have obscured the issue. It i s everywhere assumed as a matter of course that the foundations were l a i d by Englishmen. This assumption i s untenable: they were l a i d by men whom generations' i n the New World had made American i n habit and thought...Canada has never been a direct intellectual colony of England. Until the Confederation the literary forces potent i n Massachusetts continued unimpaired i n the North. The literature of the United States was the literature of Canada. 6? Ray Palmer Baker, i t would seem, did not consider this as complimentary to Canadian Literature for he goes on to say, \"Until I867 i t was American i n i t s lack of color, i t s lack of imagination, and i t s lack of a r t i s t r y . Since then i t has been 68 Canadian.\" But i t isn't so easy to dispose of a l l pre-Confederation and Confederation poetry. There may be some basis for Mr. Baker's assumptions i n regard to Canadian prose but the poems of this era are Canadian i n thought and sentiment. In spite of their short-comings, they cannot be ignored for they are the emotional 66 Baker, p. 183. 67 Baker, pp. 183-184. 68 Baker, p. I87. 92 response and reaction of Canadians to their native land. They are sincere attempts.to record the awe and admiration and loyalty f e l t for \"this f a i r Canada*\" They show to what extent the beauty of the Canadian landscape and seascape are worthy of song. They are the f i r s t faint beatings of the national heart of Canadian poetry. In a Canadian Tradition i n Literature i t i s to be hoped that the \"unsung\" poets of the Confederation w i l l find a place. 9 3 . APPENDIX I My Own Canadian Home E.. G. .Nelson Morley McLaughlin Tho' oth-er skies may be as bright, And oth-er lands as to r i V l r ' i- i fir J' J j f a i r ; Tho1 charms of oth-er climes in-vite, My wand'ring foot-steps 3C there;. Yet there i s one the peer of a l l , Be- neath bright heaven's \\ 1 j J J ¥ ± dome; Of thee I sing, 0 hap-py land, My own Ca-na-dian home. This i s presumably an adaptation of the poem as written by G. W. Johnson, and was sung i n Canadian schools at least into the 1 9 2 0 * s . 9*. APPENDIX II The following poem by Andrew Spedon was too lengthy to be included i n the chapter on specific Confederation poems, but since i t exemplifies Canadian patriotism at i t s peak, i t i s here given i n f u l l . Our New Dominion Canadian Patriotic Song A l l h a i l our New Dominion, Which spreads from sea to sea! A l l h a i l our glorious Union Of hearts both brave and free, On rivers, vales, and mountains, On lakes and lovely i s l e s , On forests, fields and fountains, The Queen of Nature smiles. Chorus: Then shout the nation's chorus, And h a i l the UNION-DAY Three cheers for loyal Canada, Hip, hip, hurra, hurra! Where stood the settler's shanty, The stately mansion stands, And fields adorned with plenty, Were hewn from forest lands. We send an invitation, And h a i l with helping hand, Th* oppress*d of every nation, To this, our happy land. Chorus - Then shout, etc. We fondly love to cherish The name of fatherland, Whose glories cannot perish, Like footmarks on the sand; 95. Yet s t i l l i n kindred union, We proudly love to claim Our British-born Dominion, Besides, an honor•d name. Chorus - Then shout, etc. No tyrant rules our nation, No slavery taints our s o i l ; But men of every station Are free-born sons of t o i l ; The f r u i t s of honest labor Adorn our f e r t i l e land, Each man's a brother-neighbor, Who helps with willing hand. Chorus - Then shout, etc. We will, maintain our station, Yet strive to l i v e i n peace, With every other nation, In hopes that war may cease; But i n our country's danger United we shall stand, To crush the foreign stranger, Who dares to touch our land. Then shout the nation's chorus, . And h a i l the UNION-DAY Three cheers for loyal Canada, Hip hip, hurra, hurra! Hurrah! hurrah! hurrah! 1 Andrew Spedon, The Canadian Minstrel (Montreal, I 8 7 O ) , pp. 8 -9 . 96. SELECTED CHECK LIST of Books of Canadian Poetry 1855 - l880 Anderson, Rev. Duncan. Lays of Canada, and Other Poems, Montreal, Lovell, 1890. (BVaU) Anonymous Canada F i r s t : Ah Appeal to A l l Canadians by A Toronto Boy. Hunter, Rose' and Co., 1880. (OTP) The Carrier's Poem. Dedicated to The Patrons, The Ottawa Citizen (January 1, 1857). (OTP) Original Lyrics by a Canadian Rhymer. Toronto, pub. by author, IE56. (OTP) Raise the Flag, and Other Patriotic Canadian Songs and Poems. Toronto, Rose, 1891. (Brown U) Arion (pseud), Alphonso St i l l e t o ' s Poetization of the Incipient Stage of the Great Pacific Scandal and of the Celebrated Speech of Lord Dufferin i n Reply to a Health Toast at a Dinner Given by the Halifax Club. Montreal, \"Witness\" Printing House, 1874. (Brown U) Awde, Robert, Jubilee, Patriotic, and Other Poems. Toronto, William Briggs, 1887. (BVaU) B., P.. J . Pencillings By the Way, during a Vacation V i s i t i n Chebucto. By a Student Who i s a Native of Halifax. P. J. B. Montreal, John Lovell, 1868. (Brown U)'? Baldwyn, Augusta, Poems. Montreal, Lovell, 1859. (BVaU) . 97. Battersby, H. S. Home Lyrics. London, Ward, Lock, and Tyler, Warwick House, Paternoster Row, 1876. (Brown U) Bellmore, Euphemia, Book of Poems. Toronto, Dudley and Burns, 187k, (Brown U) Blair, John J r . Poems Serious, Sentimental, Patriotic, and Humorous. St. Catherines, Ont., Meek, 1875.. (BVaU) Breckenridge, Rev. James, Poems. Toronto, Dredge, i 8 6 0 . (OTP) Breeze, James T. Memories of My Youth: A, Collection of Poems By J. T. Breeze, Picton, C. W. Napanee, C. W., William Kennedy, I 8 6 5 . Pamphlets (OTP) Original Canadian Literature: The Miscellaneous Works of The Canadian Poet, J . T. Breeze, Brockville. Brockville, Wm. O'Brien, 1868. (OTP) The Dominion of Canada: The Great Institution of Our Country, A Poem On The Grand Trunk Railway. Montreal, I867. (OTP) Canadian Poems. Port Hope, \"British Canadian\" Office, 1866. (OKQ) The Fenian Raid11 The Queen's Own! Poems On The Events Of The Hour. Napanee, 1866. (QMSS) Gartwright, Rev. Conway Edward, Lena. A. Legend of Niagara and Other Poems. Dublin, McGee, i 8 6 0 . (BVaU) Chandler, Amos Henry. Lyrics, Songs and Sonnets. Toronto, Hunter, Rose and Co., 1880. (BVaU) 98. Clement, Claude. Thoughts i n Verse. By Claude Clement and Others, Who saw the Doings at Y v i l l e . ( V i l i f i c a t i o n of Protestant Bishop who seemed to be leaning towards Catholicism). Toronto? l855« (Brown U) Colgan, John C. The Poems of John C. Colgan. Toronto, Hunter, Rose and Co., l8?3. (BVaU) C u r r i e , Margaret G i l . Gabriel West and Other Poems. Fredericton, Cropley, 1866. (BVaU) Davin, Nicholas Flood. Eos; An Epic of the Dawn, and Other Poems. Regina, Leader Co., 1889. (BVaU) Dawson, Rev. Aeneas MacDonell. Dominion Day, Caractacus, Malcolm and Margaret. Poems. Ottawa, C. W.. Mitchell, 1886. (NSHD) Dewart, Rev. Edward Hartley. Selections from Canadian Poets. With Occasional C r i t i c a l and Biographical Notes. Montreal, John Lovell, 1864. (BVaU) Songs of L i f e . A Collection of Poems. Toronto, Dudley and Burns, 1869. (BVaU) Drury, Susie. Maple Leaves. By Susie D. (pseud). London, Ont., Daily Free Press, 1871. (OKQ) Dudek, Louis. Canadian Poems. .' 1850-1952. ed. Louis Dudek and Layton. Toronto, Contact Press, 1952. (BVaU) 99 Dunn, Mrs. C. A. Fugitive Pieces. Woodstock, Ont., Author, l867« (BVaU) Edgar, James David.- This Canada of Ours, and Other Poems. Toronto, Briggs, 1893. (BVaU) Elmore, Blanche. Poems. Detroit, Wilson-Smith, (18—?). (OTP) Fraser, John. A. Tale of the Sea, and Other Poems. Montreal, Dawson, 1870. (BVaU) Gahan, James Joseph. Canada. Quebec, P. G. DeLisle, l8?7. (OTP) Garvin, John William. Canadian Poets, ed. by . Toronto, McClelland, 1916. (BVaU) Gay, James. Canada's Poet; Yours Always James Gay. Poet Laureate of Canada and Master of A l l Poets,...London, Field and Tuer, 1884. (BVaU) Gerrard, George. The Consolation. A Poem. Toronto, Hunter, Eose and Co., 1881. (BVaU) Glendenning, Alexander. Rhymes. ... Vol. 1. London, Ont., Free Press, 1871. (OKQ) Greaves, Arthur. Bubbles From the Deep. Sonnets and Other Poems, Dramatic and Personal. Philadelphia, Author, 1873. (OTP) Harrison, Susie Frances. The Canadian Birthday Book. Comp. by Seranus(pseud) Toronto, Blackett Eobinson, 1887. (BVaU) Haynes, James. Poems. Quebec, Hunter, Eose and Co., 1864. (BVaU) 100. Hayward, Mrs. Caroline. The Battles of the Crimea, with Other Poems. Port hope, Ansley, 18*55. (BVaU) Heavysege, Charles. Jephthah's Daughter (and Twenty Sonnets). Montreal, Dawson, 1865. (BVaU) The Owl. Montreal, 1864. (BVaU) Herbert, Sarah. The Aeolian Harp; or Miscellaneous Poems. By Sarah . Herbert and Mary E. Herbert. Halifax, Fuller, 1857. (BVaU) Houliston, George B. Poems. . . . Three Rivers, Quebec. 1889? (Brown U) Hunt, Robert. The Canadian Colonists Welcome to His Royal Highness, the Prince of Wales; or. New Songs to Old Tunes, with Thirty-nine Acrostics. Montreal, Becket, i860. (NSHD) Johnson, George Washington. Maple Leaves. Hamilton, Author, 1864. (OTP) Kirby, William. The U. E. A Tale of Upper Canada in XII Cantos(Anon) Niagara, \"Mail,\" l859« (BVaU) Knapp, M. Emma. Lyrics of the Past, and Other Poems. Saint John, McMillan, 1872. (Brown U) Laidlaw, Thomas. In the Long Ago; or The Days of the Cattle B e l l . N. p., 18—? (OTP) Lanigan, George Thomas. National Ballads of Canada. Imitated and Translated from the Originals by \"All i d \" ' (pseud). Montreal, John Lovell, I865. (OTP) 101. Lanigan, John Alphonsus. Leisure Hours. A- Selection of Short Poems and Miscellaneous Scraps. 2nd ed. Buffalo, Author, l8?0. (• 1st ed., 1869.) (NSHD) Lawson, Thomas. The Poetical Works of Thomas Lawson. Halifax, Halloway, 1888. (NSHD) Leprohon, Rosanna Eleanor (Mullins). The Poetical Works of Mrs. Leprohon (Miss R. E. Mullins). Montreal, John Lovell, l88l. (BVaU) Lighthall, William Douw. Songs of the Great Dominion. Voices from the Forests and Waters, the Settlements and Cities of Canada. Selected and Ed. by . London, Scott, 1889. (BVaU) Liston, James Knox. Poetry for the Dominion of Canada. Consisting of Songs of the Canadian Winter, Songs of the Morning Stars, Shouts of the Sons of God, The Ahtemundane State. Toronto, Adam Stevenson, 1868. (OTP) McBride, Robert. Poems S a t i r i c a l and Sentimental on Many Subjects Connected With Canada. .London, Ont., Dawson, I869. (OTP) McDougall, Margaret(Dixon). Verses and Rhymes by the Way. By Nora Pembroke (pseud). Pembroke, Mitchell, 1880. (BVaU) McGee, Thomas D'Arcy. Canadian Ballads, and Occasional Verses. Montreal, John Lovell. I858. (BVaU) 102. The Poems of Thomas D'Arcy McGee. New York, Sadlier and Co., 1869. (BVaU) McLachlan, Alexander. The Emigrant, and Other Poems. Toronto, Rollo and Adam, l86l. (BVaU) Lyrics. Toronto, Armour, 1858. (BVaU) McLennan, William. Songs of Old Canada. Translated by . Montreal, Dawson, 1886\"* (BVaU) Mair, Charles. Dreamland and Other Poems. Montreal, Dawson, 1868. (BVaU) Matthews, Richard F. Poems. London, Ont., Dawson, 1866. (BVaU) Mil l s , Phebe A. Vesper Chimes. Halifax, Macnab, l8?2. (BVaU) Murdoch, William. Poems and Songs. Saint John, Barnes, i860. (BVaU) Murray, George. How Canada Was Saved. Toronto, Copp Clark, 187\"+. (NSHD) ( Deals with Dollard 1660) Newell, Rev. John Robert. The Times, and Other Poems. Toronto, Hunter, l88l. (OKQ) Nicholl, M. A. Lays From the West. By \" S t e l l \" — M. A. Nicholl. Winnipeg, Manitoba Free Press, 1884. (BVaU) Nobody Knows Who. Poems. By Nobody Knows Who (pseud). Southampton, Forbes and Pittman, I857. (BVaU) Sangster, Charles. Hesperus, and Other Poems and Lyrics. Montreal, John Lovell, i860. (BVaU) The St. Lawrence and the Saguenay, and Other Poems. Kingston, 103. Creighton and D u f f , 1856. 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Rashley, R. E. Poetry i n Canada: The F i r s t Three Steps. Toronto, The Ryerson Press, I9!>B. 105. The American Tradition i n Literature, ed. Sculley, Bradley et a l . New York, 1956. "@en ; edm:hasType "Thesis/Dissertation"@en ; edm:isShownAt "10.14288/1.0104891"@en ; dcterms:language "eng"@en ; ns0:degreeDiscipline "English"@en ; edm:provider "Vancouver : University of British Columbia Library"@en ; dcterms:publisher "University of British Columbia"@en ; dcterms:rights "For non-commercial purposes only, such as research, private study and education. Additional conditions apply, see Terms of Use https://open.library.ubc.ca/terms_of_use."@en ; ns0:scholarLevel "Graduate"@en ; dcterms:title "Canadian confederation poetry, 1855-1880"@en ; dcterms:type "Text"@en ; ns0:identifierURI "http://hdl.handle.net/2429/37706"@en .