@prefix vivo: . @prefix edm: . @prefix ns0: . @prefix dcterms: . @prefix skos: . vivo:departmentOrSchool "Arts, Faculty of"@en, "Psychology, Department of"@en ; edm:dataProvider "DSpace"@en ; ns0:degreeCampus "UBCV"@en ; dcterms:creator "Mao, Geraldine Eleanor"@en ; dcterms:issued "2011-08-13T18:26:52Z"@en, "1967"@en ; vivo:relatedDegree "Master of Arts - MA"@en ; ns0:degreeGrantor "University of British Columbia"@en ; dcterms:description """The major purpose of this study was to relate the performance of Chinese Ss in Hong Kong on Piagetian tasks to two factors: first to a cognitive style variable, and secondly, to achievement motivation. It was hoped that the results from this study would provide some new interpretation to Goodnow's (1962) findings in Hong Kong. This study also provided an opportunity to determine if Piaget's results concerning the order of acquisition of tasks as well as levels of difficulty within tasks can be replicated with Ss from another culture. Finally, the performance of a comparable group of white Canadian children was compared to the Chinese Ss both in terms of achievement on the tasks and relationship between the tasks. It was hypothesized that performance on Piagetian tasks would correlate with scores on the CEFT and with scores on n Achievement. Furthermore, it was believed that the predictions made by Piaget regarding the order of achievement on the Conservation tasks as well as the levels of difficulty within the Water Level Test will be replicated with Ss from Hong Kong. Finally, it was expected that there would be no significant difference in performance between white and Chinese Ss. Thirty-nine Ss from Hong Kong were individually tested on the following tests: Conservation of Substance, Conservation of Weight, the Water Level Test and the CEFT. Group testing was employed for administering the TAT. Scores from a group of previously tested white Ss on Conservation of Substance, Conservation of Weight, the Water Level test and the CEFT were used for comparison with the Chinese Ss. Results for both white and Chinese Ss showed that there was no significant relationship between performance on the Conservation tasks and the CEFT. A significant but low relationship was obtained between performance on the Water Level test and the CEFT for both Chinese and white Ss. Thus, in terms of relationship between Piagetian tasks and the CEFT, the findings were similar for white and Chinese Ss. There was no significant difference in performance between Chinese and white Ss on Conservation of Weight, the Water Level Test, and the CEFT. However, the white Ss performed significantly better than the Chinese Ss on Conservation of Substance. The order of achievement on the Conservation tasks predicted by Piaget was replicated with the white Ss, but the order was not clear for the Chinese sample. Developmental levels of difficulty within the Water Level Test predicted by Piaget and Inhelder was supported by the findings for both white and Chinese Ss. No significant relationship was found for the Chinese Ss between performance on any of the Piagetian tasks and n Achievement. There was some indication of a low negative relationship between Conservation of Weight and n Achievement, but this failed to reach significance at the .05 level."""@en ; edm:aggregatedCHO "https://circle.library.ubc.ca/rest/handle/2429/36666?expand=metadata"@en ; skos:note "MOTIVATION, FIELD-DEPENDENCE, AND LEVEL OF COGNITIVE PERFORMANCE: AN EXPLORATORY STUDY WITH CHINESE CHILDREN by GERALDINE ELEANOR MAO B.A., U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , 1964 A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR: THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS i n t h e D e p a r t m e n t o f P s y c h o l o g y We a c c e p t t h i s t h e s i s as c o n f o r m i n g t o t h e r e q u i r e d s t a n d a r d THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA A p r i l , 1967 In p re sen t i ng t h i s t h e s i s in p a r t i a l f u l f i l m e n t of the requirements f o r an advanced degree at the U n i v e r s i t y of B r i t i s h Columbia, I agree that the L i b r a r y s h a l l make i t f r e e l y a v a i l a b l e f o r reference and study, I f u r t h e r agree that permiss ion f o r ex ten s i ve copying of t h i s t he s i s f o r s c h o l a r l y purposes may be granted by the Head of my Department or by h i s representat ives. . It i s understood that copying or p u b l i c a t i o n of t h i s t h e s i s f o r f i n a n c i a l gain s h a l l not be a l lowed wi thout my w r i t t e n pe rm i s s i on . Depa rtment The U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h Columbia Vancouver 8, Canada i ABSTRACT The major purpose of t h i s study was to r e l a t e the performance o f Chinese 5s i n Hong Kong on P i a g e t i a n tasks to two f a c t o r s : f i r s t to a c o g n i t i v e s t y l e v a r i a b l e , and secondly, to achievement mo t i v a t i o n . It was hoped that the r e s u l t s from t h i s study would provide some new i n t e r -p r e t a t i o n to Goodnow's (1962) f i n d i n g s i n Hong Kong. This study a l s o provided an opportunity to determine i f Piaget's r e s u l t s concerning the order o f a c q u i s i t i o n of tasks as w e l l as l e v e l s o f d i f f i c u l t y w i t h i n tasks can be r e p l i c a t e d with Ss from another c u l t u r e . F i n a l l y , the performance of a comparable group o f white Canadian c h i l d r e n was compared to the Chinese Ss both i n terms of achievement on the tasks and r e l a t i o n s h i p between the t a s k s . It was hypothesized that performance on P i a g e t i a n tasks would c o r r e l a t e with scores on the CEFT and with scores on n Achievement. Furthermore, i t was b e l i e v e d that the p r e d i c -t i o n s made by Piaget regarding the order of achievement on the Conservation tasks as w e l l as the l e v e l s of d i f f i c u l t y w i t h i n the Water Level Test w i l l be r e p l i c a t e d with S_s from Hong Kong. F i n a l l y , i t was expected that there would be no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e i n performance between white and Chinese 5s. T h i r t y - n i n e Ss from Hong Kong were i n d i v i d u a l l y t e s t e d on the f o l l o w i n g t e s t s : Conservation of Substance, Conser-vat i o n of Weight, the Water L e v e l Test and the CEFT. Group t e s t i n g was employed f o r a d m i n i s t e r i n g the TAT. Scores i i from a group of p r e v i o u s l y t e s t e d white 5s on Conservation of Substance, Conservation of Weight, the Water Level t e s t and the CEFT were used f o r comparison with the Chinese 5s. Results f o r both white and Chinese 5s showed that there was no s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p between performance on the Conservation tasks and the CEFT. A s i g n i f i c a n t but low r e -l a t i o n s h i p was obtained between performance on the Water Level t e s t and the CEFT f o r both Chinese and white 5s. Thus, i n terms of r e l a t i o n s h i p between P i o g e t i a n tasks and the CEFT, the f i n d i n g s were s i m i l a r f o r white and Chinese 5s. There was no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e i n performance be-tween Chinese and white 5s on Conservation of Weight, the Water Level Test, and the CEFT. However, the white Ss per-formed s i g n i f i c a n t l y b e t t e r than the Chinese Ss on Conserva-t i o n of Substance. The order of achievement on the Conserva-t i o n tasks p r e d i c t e d by Piaget was r e p l i c a t e d with the white 5s, but the order was not c l e a r f o r the Chinese sample. Developmental l e v e l s of d i f f i c u l t y w ithin the Water Level Test p r e d i c t e d by Piaget and Inhelder was supported by the f i n d i n g s f o r both white and Chinese Ss. No s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p was found f o r the Chinese Ss between performance on any of the P i a g e t i a n tasks and n Achievement. There was some i n d i c a t i o n of a low negative r e l a t i o n s h i p between Conservation of Weight and n Achieve-ment, but t h i s f a i l e d to reach s i g n i f i c a n c e at the .05 l e v e l . i i i TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ABSTRACT i TABLE OF CONTENTS i i i L I S T OF TABLES iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENT CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION 1 CHAPTER I I PROCEDURES 18 CHAPTER I I I RESULTS 33 CHAPTER IV DISCUSSION 43 CHAPTER V SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 60 BIBLIOGRAPHY . .. 64 APPENDIX 67 i v LIST OF TABLES D r a g e TABLE 1 . Age am.'. S-ex D i s t r i b u t i o n o f S s . 1 9 TABLE 2 . Age and 5ex D i s t r i b u t i o n o f Ss from S c h o o l 1 . 1 9 TABLE 3 . Age and Sex D i s t r i b u t i o n o f Ss from S c h o o l 2 . 2 1 TABLE 4 . Age and Sex D i s t r i b u t i o n o f S_s from S c h o o l 3 . 2 1 TABLE 5 . Types o f Responses C l a s s i f i e d i n t o D e v e l o p m e n t a l S t e p s w i t h t h e B o t t l e i n t h e I n v e r t e d v e r t i c a l P o s i t i o n 2 7 TABLE 6 . Typos o f Responses C l a s s i f i e d i n t o D e v e l o p m e n t a l S t e p s w i t h t h e B o t t l e i n t h e H o r i z o n t a l P o s i t i o n 2 7 TABLE 7 . Types of Responses C l a s s i f i e d i n t o D e v e l o p m e n t a l S t e p s w i t h t h e B o t t l e i n t h e T i l t e d P o s i t i o n 2 8 TABLE 8 . Age and Sex D i s t r i b u t i o n o f W h i t e Ss . . . . . . . . . 31 TABLE 9 . K e n d a l l Tau C o r r e l a t i o n s Between CEFT and C o n s e r v a t i o n o f S u b s t a n c e , C o n s e r v a t i o n o f Weight, T o t a l Con-s e r v a t i o n and Water L e v e l T e s t 3 2 TABLE 1 0 . K e n d a l l Tau C o r r e l a t i o n s Between CEFT and C o n s e r v a t i o n o f 5 u b s t a n c e , C o n s e r v a t i o n o f Weight, T o t a l Con-s e r v a t i o n and Water L e v e l Test, 3 3 TABLE 1 1 . K e n d a l l Tau C o r r e l a t i o n s Between n Achievement and C o n s e r v a t i o n o f 5 u b s t a n c e , C o n s e r v a t i o n o f Weight, T o t a l C o n s e r v a t i o n and t h e Water L e v e l T e s t . 3 5 TABLE 1 2 . D i s t r i b u t i o n o f Responses of C h i n e s e Ss on C o n s e r v a t i o n o f S u b s t a n c e and C o n s e r v a t i o n o f Weight 3 6 TABLE 1 3 . D i s t r i b u t i o n o f Responses of White 5s on C o n s e r v a t i o n o f S u b s t a n c e and W e i g h t . 3 6 V L i s t o f T a b l e s ( c o n t ' d ) T A B L E 1 4 . D i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h e Number o f C o r r e c t R e s p o n s e s f o r t h e B o t t l e i n t h e V e r t i c a l , H o r i z o n t a l and T i l t e d P o s i t i o n s 37 T A B L E 1 5 . D i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h e Number o f C o r r e c t R e s p o n s e s f o r t h e B o t t l e i n t h e V e r t i c a l , H o r i z o n t a l and T i l t e d P o s i t i o n s . 38 T A B L E 1 6 . D i s t r i b u t i o n o f R e s p o n s e s o f F . I , and F . D . C h i n e s e Ss by D e v e l o p m e n t a l S t e p s w i t h t h e B o t t l e i n t h e V e r t i c a l P o s i t i o n . 39 T A B L E 1 7 . D i s t r i b u t i o n o f R e s p o n s e s o f F . I . •and F . D . C h i n e s e 5s by D e v e l o p m e n t a l S t e p s w i t h t h e B o t t l e i n t h e H o r i z o n t a l P o s i t i o n . . . . . . . . 39 T A B L E 1 8 . D i s t r i b u t i o n o f R e s p o n s e s o f F . I . and F . D . C h i n e s e Ss by D e v e l o p m e n t a l S t e p s w i t h t h e B o t t l e i n t h e T i l t e d P o s i t i o n 39 T A B L E 1 9 . D i s t r i b u t i o n o f R e s p o n s e s f o r C h i n e s e and W h i t e Ss on C o n s e r v a t i o n o f S u b s t a n c e . , 40 T A B L E 2 0 . D i s t r i b u t i o n o f R e s p o n s e s f o r C h i n e s e and W h i t e 5s on C o n s e r v a t i o n o f W e i g h t 41 T A B L E 2 1 , Mean Number o f C o r r e c t R e s p o n s e s f o r C h i n e s e and W h i t e Ss 42 T A B L E 2 2 . Mean Number o f C o r r e c t R e s p o n s e s f o r C h i n e s e Ss f r o m S c h o o l 1, 2 and 3 on C o n s e r v a t i o n o f S u b s t a n c e , C o n s e r v a -t i o n o f W e i g h t , W a t e r L e v e l T e s t and t h e CEFT . 45 T A B L E 2 3 , D i s t r i b u t i o n o f R e s p o n s e s on\" C o n s e r -v a t i o n o f S u b s t a n c e f o r F . I . and F . D . Ss f r o m S c h o o l 1 and 2 . * 51 T A B L E 2 4 , D i s t r i b u t i o n o f R e s p o n s e on C o n s e r -v a t i o n o f S u b s t a n c e f o r F . I . and F . D , Ss f r o m 5 c h o o l 3 . 51 v i L i s t o f T a b l e s ( c o n t ' d ) TABLE 25. D i s t r i b u t i o n o f Responses on C o n s e r v a t i o n o f Weight f o r F . I . and F.D. 5_s from S c h o o l s 1 and 2 52 TABLE 26. D i s t r i b u t i o n o f Responses on C o n s e r v a t i o n o f Weight f o r F . I , and F.D. Ss from S c h o o l 3 . . . 5 3 v i i ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I w i s h t o e x p r e s s my deep a p p r e c i a t i o n t o D r . T. S t o r m and D r . J u a n P a s c u a l - L e o n e f o r t h e i r h e l p and g u i d a n c e t h r o u g h a l l t h e s t a g e s o f t h i s s t u d y . My s i n c e r e t h a n k s t o M a r g a r e t Qbana and P a t W a l d r o n f o r t h e i r e x p e r t t y p i n g and s e c r e t a r i a l work. CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION The major purpose of t h i s study i s to r e l a t e the per-formance of Chinese Ss i n Hong Kong on P i a g e t i a n tasks to two f a c t o r s : f i r s t , to a c o g n i t i v e s t y l e v a r i a b l e , and second to achievement m o t i v a t i o n . It i s hoped that the f i n d i n g s from t h i s study w i l l help towards c l a r i f y i n g unexpected r e -l a t i o n s h i p s found between d i f f e r e n t types of P i a g e t i a n tasks, and i n p a r t i c u l a r , to o f f e r new i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s to the r e -s u l t s obtained by Jacqueline Goodnow i n Hong Kong (1962). This study a l s o provides an opportunity to determine i f P i a g e t ' s r e s u l t s concerning the order of a c q u i s i t i o n of tasks, as w e l l as stages of responding w i t h i n tasks can be r e p l i c a t e d with Ss from another c u l t u r e . F i n a l l y , i n order to f i n d out i f the performance of Chinese Ss d i f f e r s from whites and i f so, i n what ways, a comparable group of white Canadian c h i l d r e n w i l l be compared on the same t a s k s . T h e i r performance w i l l be compared to the Chinese 5s both i n terms of achievement on the tasks, and r e l a t i o n s h i p between the t a s k s . In order to provide some background i n f o r m a t i o n to the study, s e v e r a l areas of r e l a t e d research w i l l be reviewed. Jacqueline Goodnow's (1962) study i n Hong Kong w i l l be ex-amined, followed by a review of the work of Witkin and h i s a s s o c i a t e s on c o g n i t i v e s t y l e -- i n p a r t i c u l a r , on f i e l d -dependency and f i c l d - i n d e p e n d e n c y . Following t h i s , the work - 2 -o f P a s c u a l - L e o n e , who r e l a t e s f i e l d - d e p e n d e n c y t o p e r f o r -mance o f P i a g e t i a n t a s k s w i l l be d i s c u s s e d . F i n a l l y , r e -s e a r c h on t h e a r e a of a c h i e v e m e n t m o t i v a t i o n as i t r e l a t e s t o f i e l d - d e p e n d e n c y w i l l be r e v i e w e d . Review o f L i t e r a t u r e R e s e a r c h e r s i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e work o f P i a g e t have been p r i m a r i l y c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e f o l l o w i n g a r e a s : r e p l i c a t i o n s t u d i e s t o s u b s t a n t i a t e P i a g e t ' s n o t i o n s o f t h e s t a g e s o f development and t h e o r d e r of a c q u i s i t i o n o f t h e v a r i o u s t a s k s ( K o f s k y , 1966; L o v e l l and Q g i l v i e , 1 9 6 1 ; E l k i n d , 1961) s t u d i e s t o r e l a t e p e r f o r m a n c e on P i a g e t i a n t a s k s and o t h e r measures o f I.Q. (Foigenbaum, 1963; E l k i n d , 1961; D e u t s c h e , 1957) and f i n a l l y , a t t e m p t s t o r e l a t e p e r f o r m a n c e on P i a g e t t a s k s t o m i l i e u d i f f e r e n c e s . In 1962, J a c q u e l i n e Goodnow c o n d u c t e d a s t u d y i n Hong Kong. Four samples o f boys, r a n g i n g from 10-13 y e a r s o f age, were compared. The f i r s t group i n c l u d e d 148 E u r o p e a n s . The s e c o n d group i n c l u d e d 151 C h i n e s e from A n g l o - C h i n e s e s c h o o l s , ( i . e . , s c h o o l s f o r C h i n e s e p r i m a r i l y , where t h e l a n g u a g e o f i n s t r u c t i o n i s E n g l i s h ) . The t h i r d sample was made up o f C h i n e s e boys from low s o c i o - e c o n o m i c a r e a s who were r e c e i v i n g f u l l s c h o o l i n g . The f o u r t h sample i n c l u d e d 80 C h i n e s e boys who were a l s o from low s o c i o - e c o n o m i c a r e a s but who were r e c e i v i n g s e m i - s c h o o l i n g o n l y . A s u p p l e m e n t a r y group o f boys from s c h o o l s w i t h no s c i e n c e c o u r s e was a l s o i n c l u d e d . F i v e t e s t s were a d m i n i s t e r e d t o each s u b j e c t i n d i v i d u a l l y : Raven's P r o g r e s s i v e M a t r i c e s and f o u r P i a g e t i a n t a s k s i n c l u d i n g judgment o f w e i g h t and volume, judgment o f s p a c e , and a c o m b i n a t o r i a l p r o b l e m . Goodnow f o u n d t h a t t h e c o n s e r v a t i o n t a s k s , b o t h c o n s e r v a t i o n o f volume and s p a c e , t u r n e d o u t t o be more d i f f i c u l t t h a n e x -p e c t e d . F u r t h e r m o r e , she f o u n d an u n e x p e c t e d r e l a t i o n s h i p among t h e t a s k s . She f o u n d t h a t p e r f o r m a n c e on t h e P r o -g r e s s i v e M a t r i c e s was c l o s e l y r e l a t e d t o p e r f o r m a n c e on t h e c o m b i n a t o r i a l t a s k , and t h a t t h e p e r f o r m a n c e o f s u b j e c t s f r o m g r o u p s 2 and 3 was c l o s e s t t o t h a t o f t h e E u r o p e a n Ss on t h e s e t a s k s . However, p e r f o r m a n c e on t h e c o n s e r v a t i o n t a s k s a p p e a r e d t o be u n a f f e c t e d by w i d e d i f f e r e n c e s i n M a t r i c e s s c a r e s . She f o u n d t h a t on t h e c o n s e r v a t i o n t a s k s , t h e c h i l d r e n f r o m group 4 and t h e s u p p l e m e n t a r y Ss were v e r y c l o s e t o t h e E u r o p e a n c h i l d r e n i n p e r f o r m a n c e , b u t c h i l d r e n f r o m g r o u p s 2 and 3 p e r f o r m e d c o n s i s t e n t l y more p o o r l y -t h o s e f r o m group 3 b e i n g t h e l o w e s t i n p e r f o r m a n c e . In g e n e r a l , t h e E u r o p e a n s showed t h e h i g h e s t l e v e l o f p e r f o r -mance a c r o s s a l l t a s k s . (The group d i f f e r e n c e s r e p r e s e n t e d t r e n d s o n l y , and were not s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t ) . Goodnow, on t h e b a s i s o f a v a i l a b l e e v i d e n c e , s u g g e s t e d t h a t p e r f o r m a n c e on t h e c o n s e r v a t i o n t a s k s was s e n s i t i v e t o a c o m b i n a t i o n o f age and some s o r t o f p e r s o n a l m a t u r i t y (Goodnow, 1962, p. 8 ) . She f u r t h e r added t h a t t h e c o n s e r v a -t i o n t a s k s seemed t o g i v e r e s u l t s l i k e t h o s e o f p e r c e p t u a l c o n s t a n c y t a s k s , w i t h a t i e t o c h r o n o l o g i c a l and n o t m e n t a l age. She r a i s e d t h e q u e s t i o n o f what t h e d i f f e r e n c e between t h e c o n s e r v a t i o n and c o m b i n a t o r i a l t a s k s i m p l i e s c o n c e r n i n g t h e i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p among t a s k s , f o r t h e s e r e p r e s e n t two 4 main t h r e a d s i n P i a g e t ' s work, t h e f o r m e r b e i n g t h e c o r e o f ' c o n c r e t e o p e r a t i o n s ' , and t h e l a t t e r b e i n g an i m p o r t a n t p a r t o f t h e development o f ' f o r m a l o p e r a t i o n s ' . S i n c e Goodnow d i d not d i r e c t l y t e s t whether i t was i n f a c t a com-b i n a t i o n o f age and some s o r t o f p e r s o n a l m a t u r i t y t h a t c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e c o n s e r v a t i o n t a s k s b e i n g i n s e n s i t i v e t o wide d i f f e r e n c e s i n i n t e l l i g e n c e as measured by t h e M a t r i c e s c o r e , t h e q u e s t i o n i s as y e t u n r e s o l v e d . I t i s t h e p u r p o s e o f t h i s p a p e r t o at t e m p t t o i n v e s t i g a t e t h i s m a t t e r f u r t h e r , b a s i n g t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n on t h e r a t i o n a l e and t h e a v a i l a b l e e v i d e n c e from o t h e r w o r k e r s i n t h i s g e n e r a l a r e a . W i t k i n et o l . (1954), wrote t h a t e a r l y i n t h e i r work, t h e y c o n s i d e r e d t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e a r e a o f p e r c e p t i o n which t h e y have i d e n t i f i e d , might have t h e i r c o u n t e r p a r t i n i n t e l l e c t u a l f u n c t i o n i n g . They s t a t e : I n t e l l e c t u a l p roblems t h a t c a l l f o r a h i g h d e g r e e o f c r e a t i v e a c t i v i t y but do not i n v o l v e p e r c e p t i o n d i r e c t l y , o f t e n a l s o r e q u i r e t h a t ' p a r t be s e -p a r a t e d from t h e c o n t e x t i n which t h e y a r e embedded and b r o u g h t i n t o new r e l a t i o n s h i p s . (Wertheimer, 1 9 5 4 ) . I t i s l i k e l y , and t h i s i s o f c o u r s e s u b j e c t t o e x p e r i m e n t a l t e s t — t h a t i f a p e r s o n has t h i s b a s i c a b i l i t y t o break up a c o n f i g u r a t i o n i t w i l l be m a n i f e s t e d not o n l y i n s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d p e r c e p t u a l s i t u a t i o n , but i n p r o b l e m -s o l v i n g s i t u a t i o n s as w e l l . ( W i t k i n s et a l . 1954, p. 4 7 7 ) . The a u t h o r s quote t h e f i n d i n g s o f Woerner and L e v i n e (1950) who a d m i n i s t e r e d t e s t s t o a group o f 12 y e a r o l d s , and fo u n d a s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p between s c o r e s on a b a t t e r y o f p e r c e p t u a l t e s t s and s c o r e s on t h e W e c h s l e r 5 I n t e l l i g e n c e S c a l e f o r C h i l d r e n , p a r t i c u l a r l y h i g h c o r r e l a -t i o n s b e i n g f o u n d between t h e p e r c e p t u a l t e s t s and s c o r e s on t h e p e r f o r m a n c e s u b t e s t s . T h i s r a i s e d t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t a s p e c t s o f i n t e l l e c t u a l f u n c t i o n i n g which i n v o l v e an ' a n a l y t i c a l a b i l i t y ' , such as t h a t r e q u i r e d f o r good p e r f o r -mance on t h e p e r f o r m a n c e t e s t o f t h e WISC, may be c o n t r i b u -t i n g s i g n i f i c a n t l y t o t h e o v e r a l l r e l a t i o n s h i p f o u n d between i n t e l l i g e n c e and p e r c e p t i o n . A n a l y t i c a l f u n c t i o n i n g was d e f i n e d as; t h e a b i l i t y t o s e p a r a t e an i t e m from t h e f i e l d o r c o n t e x t of which i t i s a p a r t and which t h e r e f o r e e x e r t s a s t r o n g i n f l u e n c e upon i t ; t o 'break up' a f i e l d or c o n f i g u r a t i o n . The p e r s o n w i t h a more f i e l d - i n d e p e n d e n t way o f p e r c e i v i n g t e n d s t o e x p e r i e n c e h i s s u r r o u n d i n g s a n a l y t i c a l l y w i t h o b j e c t s e x p e r i e n c e d as d i s c r e t e from t h e i r b a c k g r o u n d s . The p e r s o n w i t h a more f i e l d - d e p e n d e n t way o f p e r c e i v -i n g t e n d s t o e x p e r i e n c e h i s s u r r o u n d -i n g s i n a r e l a t i v e l y g l o b a l f a s h i o n , p a s s i v e l y c o n f o r m i n g t o t h e i n f l u -ence of t h e p r e v a i l i n g f i e l d or c o n -t e x t . ( W i t k i n et a l . , 1962, p. 3 5 ) . W i t k i n h y p o t h e s i z e d t h a t t h e a b i l i t y t o s e p a r a t e an i t e m from i t s c o n t e x t i s e x p r e s s e d i n an i n d i v i d u a l ' s i n t e l l e c -t u a l a c t i v i t i e s as w e l l as i n h i s p e r c e p t i o n . To t e s t t h i s , he c o n d u c t e d an e x p e r i m e n t w i t h a group o f 10 y e a r o l d c h i l d r e n . W i t k i n f o u n d t h a t a s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p e x i s t e d between I.Q. s c o r e s as measured by t h e WISC, and t h e p e r c e p t u a l i n d e x , t h e l a t t e r b e i n g based on a b a t t e r y o f p e r c e p t u a l t e s t s o f f i e l d - d e p e n d e n c y , i n c l u d i n g t h e C h i l d r e n ' s Embedded F i g u r e T e s t ( C E F T ) . The r e s u l t s were s i g n i f i c a n t f o r bot h b o y s , ( '<' = .55, p <^ ..01) , and g i r l s , - 6 -(T= .76, p<^.01). F a c t o r a n a l y t i c a l s t u d i e s r e v e a l h i g h l o a d i n g s o f B l o c k D e s i g n , P i c t u r e C o m p l e t i o n , and O b j e c t Assembly, ( s u b - t e s t s on t h e WISC) on t h e same f a c t o r , namely, a n a l y t i c a l f i e l d a p p r o a c h . T h i s added f u r t h e r s u p p o r t t o th e n o t i o n t h a t t h e r e i s a g e n e r a l c o g n i t i v e s t y l e t h a t r u n s t h r o u g h p e r c e p t u a l and i n t e l l e c t u a l f u n c t i o n i n g . T h i s c o g n i t i v e s t y l e a l s o a p p e a r s t o u n d e r l i e t h e o b s e r v e d r e -l a t i o n between t h e f i e l d - d e p e n d e n c y i n d e x and p e r f o r m a n c e on s t a n d a r d t e s t s o f i n t e l l i g e n c e . One can deduce from t h i s t h a t p e r f o r m a n c e on o t h e r t e s t s o f i n t e l l i g e n c e , w h i c h , due t o t h e n a t u r e o f t h e i r c o n s t r u c t i o n , r e f l e c t , and a r e dependent on an a n a l y t i c a l mode of f u n c t i o n i n g f o r good p e r -formance w i l l a l s o show a c o r r e l a t i o n w i t h t h e f i e l d depen-dency i n d e x . T h e r e i s r e a s o n t o b e l i e v e t h a t c e r t a i n P i a g e t i a n t a s k s o f c o g n i t i v e a b i l i t y f a l l i n t o t e s t s o f t h i s c a t e g o r y . The work o f P a s c u a l - L e o n e (1966) s u p p o r t s t h i s c o n t e n t i o n . P a s c u a l - L e o n e (1966) b e l i e v e s t h a t a d i s t i n c t i o n between d e v e l o p m e n t a l l e v e l and p e r f o r m a n c e l e v e l s h o u l d be m a i n t a i n e d , and t h a t when a n a l y z i n g p e r f o r m a n c e on c e r t a i n P i a g e t i a n t a s k s , one s h o u l d t a k e i n t o a c c o u n t t h e f a c t t h a t , r e g a r d l e s s o f t h e d e v e l o p m e n t a l l e v e l a t t a i n e d , t h e r e a r e some ' c o g n i t i v e s t y l e ' v a r i a b l e s w i t h i n t h e s u b j e c t s c h a n g i n g t h e i r l e v e l o f p e r f o r m a n c e i n t u n e w i t h t h e k i n d of e x p e r i m e n t a l s i t u a t i o n s ( P a s c u a l - L e o n e , 1966, p. 2 ) . He a s s e r t s t h a t p e r f o r m a n c e on c e r t a i n P i a g e t i a n t a s k s i s dependent, i n f a c t , on two r e l a t e d but not i d e n t i c a l f a c t o r s , — b o t h t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l c a p a c i t y and t h e c o g n i t i v e - 7 -s t y l e o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l . He goes on t o s u g g e s t t h a t t h e c o g n i t i v e s t y l e i n q u e s t i o n i s t h e d i m e n s i o n o f f i e l d -d e p e n d e n c y and f i e l d i n d e p e n d e n c y . P a s c u a l - L e o n e b e l i e v e s t h a t b e c a u s e o f t h e p a r t i c u l a r n a t u r e o f t h e i r c o n s t r u c t i o n , many P i a g e t i a n t a s k s p r e s e n t a s i t u a t i o n t o t h e i n d i v i d u a l w h e r e , The i n f e r e n t i a l o r l o g i c a l b e h a v i o r o f o l d e r c h i l d r e n must a s s e r t i t s e l f , i n a g r e a t many o f P i a g e t i a n s i t u a -t i o n s , a g a i n s t t h e m i s l e a d i n g a p p e a r -ance o f t h e i m m e d i a t e l y g i v e n f i e l d . ( P a s c u a l - L e o n e , 1966, p. 1 ) . T h u s , ' i n t e l l e c t u a l l y n o r m a l ' f i e l d - d e p e n d e n t s u b j e c t s , when c o n f r o n t e d w i t h a P i a g e t i a n s i t u a t i o n w h i c h r e q u i r e s an a n a l y t i c a l f i e l d a p p r o a c h f o r good p e r f o r m a n c e , b u t w h i c h o t h e r w i s e t h e y s h o u l d i n t e l l e c t u a l l y h a n d l e , w i l l have a t e n d e n c y t o f a i l i n -d uced by t h e f i e l d d e p e n d e n t s t r u c -t u r e . ( P a s c u a l - L e o n e , 1966, p. 4 ) . S i m i l a r l y , t o g e t a good s c o r e on a t e s t o f f i e l d - d e p e n d e n c y , an i n d i v i d u a l must be a b l e t o i n h i b i t t h e m i s l e a d i n g r e -a c t i o n ( s c h e m a t a ) e l i c i t e d by t h e m i s l e a d i n g c u e s . . . a n d e x t r a c t t h e r e l e v a n t i n f o r m a t i o n . ( P a s c u a l -L e o n e , 1966, p. 3 ) . To t e s t t h i s h y p o t h e s i s , he c o n d u c t e d a s t u d y w i t h two g r o u p s o f s u b j e c t s : Group 1 c o n s i s t e d o f 39 male u n d e r g r a d -u a t e s f r o m B r o o k l y n C o l l e g e and Group 2 c o n s i s t e d o f 41 boy s w i t h mean age o f 10 coming f r o m a l o w e r m i d d l e c l a s s p u b l i c s c h o o l i n New Y o r k . Each s u b j e c t was g i v e n a b a t t e r y o f t w e n t y t e s t s . These i n c l u d e d , among o t h e r s , two P i a g e t i a n t a s k s — t h e Water L e v e l T e s t and t h e C o n s e r v a t i o n of Continuous Quantity Test. Four t e s t s of field-dependency, i n c l u d i n g Karp and Konsdadt's (1963) Chi l d r e n ' s Embedded Figure Test were a l s o administered. With the a d u l t group, he found that 11 5s who were below the median on the Rod and Frame Test, and thus c l a s s i f i e d as field-dependent, f a i l e d the Water Level Test, while no adults who were c l a s s i f i e d as f i e l d - i n d e p e n d e n t f a i l e d the t e s t . The r e -s u l t s of the c h i l d r e n showed high p o s i t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n s be-tween the P i a g e t i a n tasks and the CEFT. These c o r r e l a t i o n s were a l l s i g n i f i c a n t and i n the expected d i r e c t i o n . (p< .005) (one t a i l t e s t ) . These r e s u l t s o f f e r support to the hypothesis that Some P i a g e t i a n s i t u a t i o n s are s t r u c t u r a l l y s i m i l a r to f i e l d dependence s i t u a t i o n s and consequently the subject's performance on these F i e l d Dependence P i a g e t i a n tasks c o r r e l a t e h i g h l y with Witkin's F i e l d Dependent s i t u a t i o n s . (Pascual-Leone, 1966, p. 11). In view of the r e s u l t s obtained by Pascual-Leone supporting h i s hypothesis that a ' c o g n i t i v e s t y l e ' v a r i a b l e such as field-dependency i s i n f a c t r e l a t e d to performance on c e r t a i n P i a g e t i a n s i t u a t i o n s , one could t e n t a t i v e l y suggest that the unexpected f i n d i n g s on the conservation tasks i n Goodnow's study may have been due a l s o to t h i s same f a c t o r . Thus, subjects that were ' i n t e l l e c t u a l l y normal' as measured by the Matrices score but who performed poorly on the conservation tasks were perhaps a l s o those who f e l l i n t o the field-dependent end of the f i e l d depen-dent-independent continuum. In o r d e r t o p r o v i d e some e v i d e n c e f o r t h i s h y p o t h e s i s , t h i s s t u d y r e p o r t s t h e r e s u l t s o f t e s t i n g Ss i n Hong Kong on a number o f P i a g e t i a n t a s k s which r e q u i r e t h e Ss t o o v e r -come p e r c e p t u a l c u e s . The Ss were a l s o g i v e n t h e CEFT from which an i n d e x o f f i e l d - d e p e n d e n c y can be o b t a i n e d . I t i s h y p o t h e s i z e d t h a t a p o s i t i v e r e l a t i o n w i l l e x i s t between s c o r e s on t h e CEFT and s c o r e s on t h e P i a g e t i a n t a s k s : Ss who o b t a i n h i g h s c o r e s on t h e CEFT w i l l a l s o o b t a i n h i g h s c o r e s on t h e P i a g e t i a n t a s k s . A s e c o n d v a r i a b l e t h a t may be r e l a t e d t o p e r f o r m a n c e on P i a g e t i a n t a s k s and which c o u l d have c o n t r i b u t e d towards Goodnow's f i n d i n g s i s t h a t of a c h i e v e m e n t m o t i v a t i o n . The work o f C r a n d a l l and S i n k e l d a m (1964) on c h i l d r e n ' s a c h i e v e -ment b e h a v i o r i n s o c i a l s i t u a t i o n s and t h e i r p e r c e p t u a l f i e l d - d e p e n d e n c e showed t h a t c h i l d r e n who were a c h i e v e m e n t -o r i e n t e d i n s o c i a l s i t u a t i o n s d i s p l a y e d more p e r c e p t u a l f i e l d - i n d e p e n d e n c e t h a n t h o s e c h i l d r e n who e x h i b i t e d l e s s p r e o c c u p a t i o n w i t h a c h i e v e m e n t . The measures employed f o r p e r c e p t u a l dependency were the 10 l e a s t d i f f i c u l t i t e m s o f t h e W i t k i n Embedded F i g u r e T e s t . Achievement was a s s e s s e d by t e s t s d e a l i n g w i t h m a s t e r y o f f i n e motor s k i l l , t a s k p e r s i s t a n c e , t i m e a l o n e on t a s k s , and i n d e p e n d e n t a c h i e v e m e n t e f f o r t s . The a u t h o r s e x p l a i n e d t h e i r f i n d i n g s on t h e s u g -g e s t i o n t h a t t h e Embedded F i g u r e T e s t s i t u a t i o n c o n t a i n e d many ac h i e v e m e n t r e l a t e d cues and was l i k e l y t o e l i c i t d i f f e r i n g a c h i e v e m e n t m o t i v a t i o n i n t h e s u b j e c t s . Moreouer i t p r o v i d e d a t e s t i n g s i t u a t i o n i n which a \" s t a n d a r d o f e x c e l l e n c e i s a p p l i e d t o t h e competence o f an i n d i v i d u a l ' s - 10 -performance,\" t h i s being a d e f i n i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of achievement s i t u a t i o n s \" ( C r a n d a l l and Sinkeldam, 1964). To the extent that fantasy measures of achievement motiva-t i o n and a c t u a l measurements of achievement-oriented be-havior are p o s i t i v e l y r e l a t e d , one could i n f e r that there should a l s o e x i s t a p o s i t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p between fantasy measurements of achievement motivation, such as the TAT, and perceptual field-dependency. Furthermore, scores on these two v a r i a b l e s w i l l probably a l s o be r e l a t e d to scores on other t e s t s i n which both achievement motivation and f i e l d dependency play a r o l e . The work of Pascual-Leone (1966) has shown that p e r f o r -mance on c e r t a i n P i a g e t i a n tasks i s p o s i t i v e l y c o r r e l a t e d with performance on t e s t s of f i e l d dependency. However, there i s a l s o reason to suggest that these P i a g e t i a n tasks, j u s t as the Embedded Figure s i t u a t i o n , present a s i t u a t i o n to the i n d i v i d u a l which may e l i c i t d i f f e r e n t m o t i v a t i o n a l responses from d i f f e r e n t Ss. For i n s t a n c e , t e s t s of con-s e r v a t i o n are e s s e n t i a l l y t e s t s i n which the i n d i v i d u a l i s required to reason out the f a c t of i n v a r i a n c e of mass, weight, volume and space i n the f a c t of c o n f l i c t i n g p erceptual data i n which one s a l i e n t p erceptual f e a t u r e changes: f o r example, the p l a s t i c i n e i s changed from a b a l l i n t o a sausage. Thus, i n order to overcome the immediate per c e p t u a l i n f o r m a t i o n , the i n d i v i d u a l has to make the e f f o r t to think out f o r him-s e l f that changes i n one dimension are compensated f o r and c a n c e l l e d out by changes i n another dimension. Therefore the more motivated i n d i v i d u a l , who i s more w i l l i n g to stop - 11 -and take the t r o u b l e to reason things out, i n s t e a d of p a s s i v e -l y responding to the immediately given p e r c e p t u a l f i e l d , w i l l be more l i k e l y to perform w e l l on t e s t s such as these. The same argument can be a p p l i e d to t e s t s such as the Water L e v e l Test i n which the i n d i v i d u a l a l s o has to overcome misleading p e r c e p t u a l cues, i . e . , the walls of the b o t t l e , before he can a r r i v e at the c o r r e c t response. Furthermore, Piaget has s a i d i n h i s work that achievement on conservation- and other conceptual tasks i s contingent upon the a c t i v e i n t e r a c t i o n between the i n d i v i d u a l and the environment, where an a c t i v e searching out of the environment f a c i l i t a t e s the attainment of these concepts. It f o l l o w s t h e r e f o r e , that an i n d i v i d u a l who i s h i g h l y motivated to f i n d out about the world around him w i l l have more o p p o r t u n i t i e s to come i n t o contact and to manipulate objects around him and w i l l t h e r e f o r e a l s o have more o p p o r t u n i t i e s to l e a r n of conservation than one who i s not so motivated. The f i n d i n g s of Pascual-Leone (1966) has found that f i e l d - i n d e p e n d e n t 5_s perform b e t t e r than f i e l d dependent S_s on P i a g e t i a n tasks, and C r a n d a l l and Sinkeldam (1964) have found that c h i l d r e n showing high achievement-o r i e n t e d behavior are more f i e l d independent. On the b a s i s of these two findings-, one can t e n t a t i v e l y p r e d i c t that high achievers w i l l t h e r e f o r e probably perform b e t t e r on P i a g e t i a n tasks than those who show low achievement mo t i v a t i o n . The question a r i s e s as to how v a l i d i t i s to apply the TAT to a c u l t u r e that i s v a s t l y d i f f e r e n t from one f o r which i t was o r i g i n a l l y devised. However, an examination of Chinese c u l t u r e shows that i t i s a c u l t u r e that places a - 12 -v e r y s t r o n g emphasis on a c h i e v e m e n t , p a r t i c u l a r l y academic a c h i e v e m e n t , f o r t h i s has always been a t r a d i t i o n a l r o u t e o f s o c i a l m o b i l i t y . C h i n e s e h i s t o r y and f o l k - l o r e a r e f u l l o f s t o r i e s o f f a m i l i e s making s a c r i f i c e s j u s t so t h a t t h e i r sons c o u l d get a b e t t e r e d u c a t i o n , o f fame and f o r t u n e b e i n g heaped upon t h o s e who s u c c e e d a c a d e m i c a l l y . Thus, i n i t s emphasis on a c h i e v e m e n t and postponement of immediate g r a t i f i c a t i o n f o r l o n g r a n g e g o a l s , i t s v a l u e s a r e i n f a c t v e r y s i m i l a r t o t h o s e f o u n d i n N o r t h American c u l t u r e . A s e c o n d q u e s t i o n c o u l d a r i s e as t o whether the s i t u a t i o n s p r e s e n t e d i n t h e TAT p i c t u r e s a r e m e a n i n g f u l t o C h i n e s e s c h o o l c h i l d r e n . One c o u l d p o i n t out t h a t b e i n g a B r i t i s h Crown C o l o n y , and an i m p o r t a n t f r e e p o r t , Hong Kong i s ex-t r e m e l y c o s m o p o l i t a n , and Western i n f l u e n c e i s p e r v a s i v e . T h e r e i s t h e r e f o r e l i t t l e r e a s o n t o s u g g e s t t h a t t h e s c e n e s d e p i c t e d i n t h e TAT p i c t u r e s w i l l be u n f a m i l i a r t o t h e 5 s . However, t h e r e i s always t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t t h e t e s t may not be v a l i d . One way o f f i n d i n g out i s t o d e t e r m i n e i f any m e a n i n g f u l r e l a t i o n s h i p s e x i s t between a c h i e v e m e n t s c o r e s on t h e TAT and o t h e r t e s t s f o r t h e C h i n e s e sample. A f a i l u r e t o f i n d such r e l a t i o n s h i p s , however, may mean e i t h e r t h a t t h e r e a r e no r e l a t i o n s h i p s between a c h i e v e m e n t - m o t i v a t i o n and t h e t e s t s i n v o l v e d or t h a t t h e a c h i e v e m e n t s c o r e s a r e not v a l i d measures o f a c h i e v e m e n t m o t i v a t i o n i n C h i n e s e c h i l d r e n . A s t u d y such as t h i s a l s o p r o v i d e s an o p p o r t u n i t y t o see i f r e s u l t s o b t a i n e d by P i a g e t r e g a r d i n g t h e h i e r a r c h y o f d i f f i c u l t y between t a s k s (1962) as w e l l as t h e s t a g e s o f - 13 -d i f f i c u l t y w i t h i n each t a s k (1956) can be r e p l i c a t e d w i t h S_s from a n o t h e r c u l t u r e . To d e t e r m i n e t h i s , t h e p e r f o r -mance of 5s from Hong Kong on t h e P i a g e t i a n t a s k s was a n a l y z e d b o t h i n terms o f t h e h i e r a r c h y o f d i f f i c u l t y be-tween each t a s k as w e l l as t h e s t a g e s o f d i f f i c u l t y w i t h i n each t a s k . T h i s w i l l a l l o w us t o e x p l a i n t e n t a t i v e l y whether d i f f e r e n c e s i n c u l t u r e w i l l have any e f f e c t s on e i t h e r p e r f o r m a n c e on t h e d i f f e r e n t P i a g e t i a n t a s k or on t h e o r d e r and sequence o f d e v e l o p m e n t . F i n a l l y , i n o r d e r t o d e t e r m i n e i f t h e p e r f o r m a n c e o f C h i n e s e S_s d i f f e r s from w h i t e s , a group o f C a n a d i a n w h i t e c h i l d r e n was compared on e q u i v a l e n t t a s k s . The r e s u l t s from th e two groups were compared b o t h i n terms o f a c h i e v e m e n t w i t h i n t a s k s , and r e l a t i o n s h i p between t a s k s . T h i s a n a l y s i s w i l l e n a b l e us t o see i f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e P i a g e t i a n t a s k s o b t a i n e d b o t h by Goodnow and from t h i s s t u d y i s p e c u l i a r t o s u b j e c t s i n Hong Kong or whether t h e same r e l a t i o n s h i p s h o l d f o r w h i t e s a l s o . In t h e l i g h t o f t h e l i t e r a t u r e r e v i e w e d and t h e g e n e r a l p u r p o s e s of t h i s s t u d y , P i a g e t i a n t a s k s were s e l e c t e d t o p e r m i t c o m p a r i s o n s w i t h Goodnow's f i n d i n g s and t o a l l o w an a s s e s s m e n t o f t h e r o l e o f f i e l d - d e p e n d e n c y . T h i s r e q u i r e d t h a t t a s k s be s e l e c t e d t h a t d e r i v e some of t h e i r d i f f i c u l t y f r o m t h e p r e s e n c e of m i s l e a d i n g c u e s . Other t e s t s were s e l e c t e d t o p r o v i d e measures of f i e l d - d e p e n d e n c y and a c h i e v e m e n t m o t i v a t i o n t h a t c o u l d be r e l a t e d t o p e r f o r m a n c e on t h e P i a g e t i a n t a s k s . - 14 -The f o l l o w i n g t e s t s were c h o s e n f o r use i n t h i s s t u d y . The P i a g e t i a n t e s t s c hosen were: C o n s e r v a t i o n o f S u b s t a n c e , C o n s e r v a t i o n o f Weight and t h e Water L e v e l T e s t . These p a r -t i c u l a r t e s t s were s e l e c t e d b ecause good p e r f o r m a n c e on a l l t h r e e t a s k s r e q u i r e s t h e o v e r c o m i n g o f m i s l e a d i n g p e r -c e p t u a l c u e s . In C o n s e r v a t i o n o f S u b s t a n c e , t h e S_ i s r e -q u i r e d t o deduce t h e i n v a r i a n c e o f s u b s t a n c e i n t h e f a c e o f changes i n t h e shape o f t h e p l a s t i c i n e from a b a l l t o a s a u s a g e . In C o n s e r v a t i o n o f Weight, t h e 5_ must deduce t h e i n v a r i a n c e o f w e i g h t as t h e shape o f t h e p l a s t i c i n e i s b e i n g changed from a b a l l t o a pancake. F i n a l l y , i n t h e Water L e v e l T e s t , t h e S_ has t o overcome t h e m i s l e a d i n g cues o f t h e w a l l s and t h e bottom o f t h e b o t t l e b e f o r e he can a r r i v e at t h e c o r r e c t r e s p o n s e . P i a g e t has f o u n d t h a t c o n s e r v a t i o n o f s u b s t a n c e i s a c h i e v e d b e f o r e c o n s e r v a t i o n o f w e i g h t . Whether t h i s h i e r a r c h y o f d i f f i c u l t y between t h e s e t a s k s can be r e p l i c a -t e d w i t h Ss from a n o t h e r c u l t u r e , s p e c i f i c a l l y , 5_s from Hong Kong, r e m a i n s t o be d e t e r m i n e d . I t has a l s o been f o u n d t h a t i n t h e Water L e v e l T e s t , i t e m s v a r y i n d i f f i c u l t y de-p e n d i n g on t h e p o s i t i o n o f t h e b o t t l e i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e h o r i z o n t a l a x i s ( P i a g e t , 1 9 56). Because d i f f e r e n c e s i n d i f f i c u l t y i n i t e m s i n t t h e Water L e v e l T e s t have been g i v e n d e v e l o p m e n t a l i m p l i c a t i o n s , t h e i r r e p l i c a b i l i t y i n a n o t h e r c u l t u r e I s o f some i n t e r e s t ' ' \" . ^\"For a d e t a i l e d a n a l y s i s o f t h e Water L e v e l T e s t , see A p p endix 1. - 15 -Karp and K o n s t a d t ' s (1963) C h i l d r e n ' s Embedded F i g u r e T e s t (CEFT) was chosen as a measure o f f i e l d - d e p e n d e n c y . In t h i s t e s t , s i m p l e f i g u r e s a r e h i d d e n i n s i d e complex f i g u r e s , and t h e s u b j e c t s ' t a s k i s t o t r a c e t h e o u t l i n e and t o i d e n t i f y t h e s i m p l e f i g u r e w i t h i n each complex f i g u r e . The measure o f a c h i e v e m e n t m o t i v a t i o n s e l e c t e d was t h e T h e m a t i c A p p e r c e p t i o n T e s t ( T A T ) . T h r e e p i c t u r e s were chosen f o r use — 1, 13B, 8BM. The S i s asked a f t e r each p i c t u r e i s shown, t o c r e a t e i m a g i n a t i v e s t o r i e s i n r e s p o n s e t o t h e p i c t u r e . The c o n t e n t s o f t h e s t o r i e s a r e s c o r e d f o r need a c h i e v e m e n t (n A c h i e v e m e n t ) a c c o r d i n g t o t h e s c o r i n g c r i t e r i a o f M c C l e l l a n d , et a l . ( 1 9 5 8 ) . In terms o f t h e t e s t s d e s c r i b e d above, t h e h y p o t h e s e s f o r t h e s t u d y a r e as f o l l o w s : 1. The p e r f o r m a n c e o f C h i n e s e and w h i t e 5_s on P i a g e t i a n t a s k s o f C o n s e r v a t i o n of S u b s t a n c e , C o n s e r v a t i o n of Weight and The Water L e v e l T e s t w i l l c o r r e l a t e w i t h t h e i r p e r f o r m a n c e on t h e C h i l d r e n ' s Embedded F i g u r e T e s t . Those who o b t a i n h i g h s c o r e s on t h e C h i l d r e n ' s Embedded F i g u r e T e s t ( i . e . t h e l e s s f i e l d - d e p e n d e n t ) w i l l show a h i g h e r p r o p o r t i o n o f c o r r e c t r e s p o n s e s on t h e P i a g e t i a n t a s k s than t h o s e who o b t a i n low s c o r e s . 2; The p e r f o r m a n c e of C h i n e s e Ss on P i a g e t i a n t a s k s o f C o n s e r v a t i o n o f S u b s t a n c e , C o n s e r v a t i o n o f Weight, and the Water L e v e l T e s t w i l l c o r r e l a t e w i t h t h e i r p e r f o r m a n c e on n A c h i e v e m e n t , as measured by t h e TAT. - 16 -Those who o b t a i n h i g h s c o r e s on n A c h i e v e m e n t w i l l show a h i g h e r p r o p o r t i o n o f c o r r e c t r e s p o n s e s on t h e P i a g e t i a n t a s k s t h a n t h o s e who o b t a i n l o w s c o r e s . A g r e a t e r p r o p o r t i o n o f C h i n e s e and w h i t e 5s w i l l a c h i e v e C o n s e r v a t i o n o f S u b s t a n c e t h a n C o n s e r v a t i o n o f W e i g h t . F u r t h e r m o r e , no 5_ w i l l a c h i e v e C o n s e r v a -t i o n o f W e i g h t w i t h o u t a c h i e v i n g C o n s e r v a t i o n o f S u b s t a n c e as w e l l . C h i n e s e and w h i t e Ss w i l l show t h e same d e v e l o p m e n t a l s e q u e n c e o f r e s p o n s e f o r t h e Water L e v e l T e s t as s u g g e s t e d by P i a g e t and I n h e l d e r i n ' t h e C h i l d ' s C o n c e p t i o n o f S p a c e ' . The 5s w i l l show t h e h i g h e s t p r o p o r t i o n o f c o r r e c t r e s p o n s e s w i t h t h e b o t t l e i n t h e v e r t i c a l p o s i t i o n . The n e x t h i g h e s t p r o p o r t i o n o f c o r r e c t r e s p o n s e s w i t h t h e b o t t l e w i l l be a s s o c i a -t e d w i t h t h e b o t t l e i n t h e h o r i z o n t a l p o s i t i o n ; and t h e l o w e s t p r o p o r t i o n o f c o r r e c t r e s p o n s e s w i l l be a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e b o t t l e i n t h e t i l t e d p o s i t i o n . F o r each p o s i t i o n o f t h e b o t t l e on t h e W a t e r L e v e l T e s t , C h i n e s e Ss who o b t a i n l o w s c o r e s on t h e C h i l d r e n ' s Embedded F i g u r e T e s t w i l l show a h i g h e r p r o p o r t i o n o f more ' p r i m i t i v e ' r e s p o n s e s ; — t h a t i s , r e s p o n s e s c l a s s i f i e d as o c c u r i n g i n one o f t h e e a r l i e r d e v e l o p -m e n t a l s t a g e s , t h a n s u b j e c t s who o b t a i n h i g h s c o r e s . The p e r f o r m a n c e o f C h i n e s e Ss f r o m Hong Kong on P i a g e t i a n t a s k s o f C o n s e r v a t i o n o f S u b s t a n c e , C o n s e r v a -t i o n o f W e i g h t , and t h e Water L e v e l T e s t w i l l not d i f f e r s i g n i f i c a n t l y f r o m t h e p e r f o r m a n c e o f a - 17 -c o m p a r a b l e group o f w h i t e Ss on e q u i v a l e n t t a s k s . 7. The p e r f o r m a n c e o f C h i n e s e 5s f r o m Hong Kong on t h e C h i l d r e n ' s Embedded F i g u r e T e s t w i l l n o t d i f f e r s i g -n i f i c a n t l y f r o m t h e p e r f o r m a n c e o f a c o m p a r a b l e g r o u p o f w h i t e Ss on t h e same t a s k . CHAPTER I I PROCEDURE Sub.j e c t s A t o t a l o f 39 C h i n e s e p r i m a r y s c h o o l c h i l d r e n from t h r e e d i f f e r e n t s c h o o l s were s e l e c t e d as Ss. 5_s were a l l C h i n e s e - s p e a k i n g . As f a r as £_ was aware, none o f t h e Ss had any t e s t i n g e x p e r i e n c e s p r i o r t o t h e s t u d y . The d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h e S_s on age and sex i s summarized i n T a b l e 1. S c h o o l 1 was a p r i v a t e c o - e d u c a t i o n a l s c h o o l w i t h a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1000 s t u d e n t s . The m a j o r i t y o f t h e s t u d e n t s came from m i d d l e and upper m i d d l e s o c i o - e c o n o m i c b a c k g r o u n d s . Ss were s e l e c t e d from p r i m a r y 3 and 4 which c o r r e s p o n d s t o Grade 3 and 4 from a l i s t g i v e n t o E_ by t h e v i c e - p r i n c i p a l . Each s t u d e n t was g i v e n an academic r a t i n g o f e i t h e r low, m i d d l e or h i g h by t h e v i c e - p r i n c i p a l . S e l e c t i o n o f 5s was d e t e r m i n e d p r i m a r i l y by t h e need t o choose an e q u a l number of 5s f a l l i n g i n t o each academic c a t e g o r y . As f a r as p o s s i -b l e , an e q u a l number o f males and f e m a l e s were chosen as S_s. The d i s t r i b u t i o n o f 5_s on age and sex i s summarized i n T a b l e 2. S c h o o l 2 was a c h u r c h run s c h o o l s i t u a t e d i n a low income a r e a . The s c h o o l was p o o r l y e q u i p p e d and s t a f f e d , and was s i t u a t e d w i t h i n t h e c h u r c h i t s e l f . The s t u d e n t s came from low s o c i o - e c o n o m i c b a c k g r o u n d s . Many o f t h e s t u d e n t s were c h i l d r e n who c o u l d not pass t h e e n t r a n c e exams i n t o one o f t h e government run s c h o o l s , which were c o n s i d e r e d t o have h i g h e r academic s t a n d i n g . S e l e c t i o n o f Ss was based on t h e - 18 -19 -TABLE 1 Sex 8 Aqe 9 10 Male 9 9 0 Female 7 12 2 TABLE 2 Aqe and Sex D i s t r i b u t i o n o f Ss from S c h o o l 1 Sex Aqe 8 9 10 Male 6 3 0 Female 2 7 1 20 same c r i t e r i o n as i n School 1. The d i s t r i b u t i o n of Ss on age and sex i s summarized i n Table 3. School 3 was a p r i v a t e school which was s u b s i d i z e d by the government. The school was e f f i c i e n t l y run and w e l l equipped. The students i n t h i s school belonged to the middle, lower-middle, and lower socio-economic c l a s s e s . S e l e c t i o n of Ss was based on the same c r i t e r i o n as i n Schools 1 and 2. Due to i n s u f f i c i e n t time, only a small number of S_s were t e s t e d . The d i s t r i b u t i o n of Ss on age and sex i s summarized i n Table 4. General S e t t i n g A l l t e s t i n g was conducted i n Chinese. E_ was Chinese and b i - l i n g u a l and t h e r e f o r e did not experience any d i f f i c u l t y E found l i t t l e d i f f i c u l t y i n t r a n s l a t i n g the i n s t r u c t i o n s from E n g l i s h i n t o Chinese as the i n s t r u c t i o n s were r e l a t i v e l y simple and s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d . Ss appeared to understand the i n s t r u c t i o n s w e l l . E. emphasized to each 5_s at the beginning of t e s t i n g to be sure to ask i f there was anything i n the i n s t r u c t i o n s that wasn't c l e a r . In general, most of the Ss were eager to cooperate because the t e s t i n g s i t u a t i o n was a novel one f o r them. School 1 gave jE the use of the school l i b r a r y f o r t e s t i n g . However, students were c o n s t a n t l y passing by during t e s t i n g which r e s u l t e d i n s e v e r a l i n t e r r u p t i o n s . School 2 provided a small room i n the a t t i c f o r t e s t i n g , while School 3 provided a room f o r t e s t i n g which was away i n communicating the i n s t r u c t i o n s to the 5_s. Furthermore, - 21 TABLE 3 Aqe and Sex D i s t r i b u t i o n o f 5s from S c h o o l 2 Sex 8 9 10 Male 2 4 0 Female 5 3 1 TABLE 4 Aqe and Sex D i s t r i b u t i o n of 5s from S c h o o l 3 Sex Aqe 8 9 10 Male Female 1 2 2 - 22 -from t h e c l a s s r o o m s and t e s t i n g was not i n t e r r u p t e d by n o i s e or o t h e r d i s t r a c t i o n s . Both group and i n d i v i d u a l t e s t i n g were us e d . 5_s were t e s t e d i n d i v i d u a l l y i n two s e s s i o n s on t h e f o l l o w i n g t e s t s i n o r d e r of a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . D u r i n g S e s s i o n 1 C o n s e r v a t i o n o f S u b s t a n c e , C o n s e r v a t i o n o f Weight, t h e c l a s s i n c l u s i o n 2 t e s t and A b e l s o n F i g u r e s were g i v e n . The C h i l d r e n ' s Embedded F i g u r e T e s t and t h e Water L e v e l T e s t were g i v e n i n t h e se c o n d s e s s i o n . Each s e s s i o n l a s t e d about 20 m i n u t e s . Group t e s t i n g was used f o r t h e T h e m a t i c A p p e r c e p t i o n T e s t w h i c h was g i v e n a f t e r i n d i v i d u a l t e s t i n g was c o m p l e t e d . T e s t I n s t r u c t i o n s and S c o r i n g P r o c e d u r e , i n s t r u c t i o n s and s c o r i n g c r i t e r i a f o r each t e s t w i l l be d e s c r i b e d i n o r d e r o f t h e i r a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . As each S_s came i n t o t h e room he was t o l d by E_ t o s i t down i n a c h a i r w i t h a desk i n f r o n t . E_ s a t on t h e o t h e r s i d e o f t h e desk d i r e c t l y f a c i n g 5_. E_ i n f o r m e d 5_ t h a t E_ had some games f o r S_ and wanted S_ t o t r y them. E. a l s o t a l k e d t o each 5_ f o r a s h o r t w h i l e t o r e l a x him as E. was a t o t a l s t r a n g e r t o S_. E then i n t r o d u c e d t h e f i r s t i t e m by s a y i n g \"Now, l e t ' s t r y t h e f i r s t game\". C o n s e r v a t i o n o f S u b s t a n c e . E took two b l o c k s o f p l a s t i c i n e and made them i n t o two b a l l s about t h e s i z e o f w a l n u t s and handed one b a l l t o S_ and s a i d : I n s t r u c t i o n s and r e s u l t s f o r t h e C l a s s I n c l u s i o n T e s t and A b e l s o n F i g u r e s a r e not r e p o r t e d as t h e s e t e s t s were not d i r e c t l y r e l e v a n t t o t h e p u r p o s e s o f t h i s s t u d y . - 23 -\"See t h e s e two b a l l s , t h e y a r e made o f p l a s t i c i n e . Now I want you t o l o o k a t them c a r e f u l l y and t h e n t e l l me whe-t h e r you t h i n k one b a l l has more p l a s t i c i n e t h a n t h e o t h e r o r w h e t h e r you t h i n k t h e two b a l l s c o n t a i n t h e same amount o f p l a s t i c i n e . \" I f 5 r e p l i e d t h a t t h e y c o n t a i n e d t h e same amount JE went on t o t h e n e x t q u e s t i o n . I f 5_ r e p l i e d t h a t e i t h e r b a l l had more p l a s t i c i n e t h a n t h e o t h e r , E_ s u b t r a c t e d o r added o n t o e i t h e r b a l l u n t i l 5_ was s a t i s f i e d t h a t t h e y c o n t a i n e d t h e same amount o f p l a s t i c i n e . F_ t o o k c a r e t o keep t h e shape o f t h e p l a s t i c i n e i n t h e shape o f a b a l l a t a l l t i m e s . E_ t h e n s a i d t o 5_, \"Watch what I am g o i n g t o do t o my b a l l now\". E_ t h e n s t r e t c h e d o u t t h e p l a s t i c i n e i n h e r hand i n t o t h e shape o f a s a u s a g e and s a i d : \"Now, do you t h i n k t h a t you and I s t i l l have t h e same amount o f p l a s t i c i n e , o r do you t h i n k t h a t one o f us has more p l a s t i c i n e t h a n t h e o t h e r ? \" I f 5_ r e p l i e d t h e same amount, E_ a s k e d why. I f S_ r e p l i e d t h a t e i t h e r p e r s o n had more p l a s t i c i n e , £ a l s o a s k e d f o r t h e r e a s o n . A l l t h e S s ' r e s p o n s e s were r e c o r d e d . A f t e r some en c o u r a g e m e n t and p r a i s e , E_ went on t o t h e n e x t t e s t . The s c o r i n g c o n s i s t e d o f two p a r t s . The f i r s t p a r t was b a s e d on t h e c o r r e c t n e s s o f t h e r e s p o n s e w h i c h i n c l u d e d s u c h a n s w e r s as \" t h e y a r e t h e same\", \" t h e y a r e more o r l e s s t h e same\", \" b o t h have t h e same amount\", o r \" t h e y b o t h have t h e same amount o f p l a s t i c i n e \" . A c o r r e c t r e s p o n s e was g i v e n a s c o r e o f 1. The s e c o n d p a r t was b a s e d on t h e e x p l a -n a t i o n g i v e n f o r t h e answer i n r e s p o n s e t o E_'s i n q u i r y . A d e q u a t e e x p l a n a t i o n s were g i v e n a s c o r e o f 1 and i n c l u d e d 24 -such answers as \"yau s t a r t e d o f f w i t h t h e same amount\", \" n o t h i n g has been t a k e n away or added\", \"you o n l y made one f l a t t e r \" , \"you have j u s t changed t h e shape\". C o n s e r v a t i o n o f Weight. JE took two round b a l l s o f p l a s t i -c i n e about t h e s i z e o f a l a r g e w a l n u t , E. then s a i d : \"I am g o i n g t o w e i g h t t h e s e f i r s t j u s t t o check t h a t t h e y a r e t h e same w e i g h t . You know t h a t when t h i s n e e d l e i s s t r a i g h t up or a l m o s t s t r a i g h t t h e two p i e c e s weigh t h e same.\" Wit h t h e two p i e c e s on each s i d e of t h e b a l a n c e , E_ then a s k e d : \"Weigh t h e same?\" I f 5_ showed much h e s i t a t i o n or s a i d \"No\", E added: \"Are t h e y a l m o s t t h e same? A l i t t l e b i t d o e s n ' t m a t t e r t o t h i s game.\" When S_ a g r e e d t h a t t h e two p i e c e s were e q u a l i n w e i g h t , E. s a i d : \"Now I t a k e one p i e c e and make i t l i k e t h i s ( p r e s s i n g one p i e c e f l a t i n t o t h e shape of a p a n c a k e ) . Now i f I put t h e two p i e c e s on t h e s c a l e a g a i n , would t h e y weigh t h e same, or would one be h e a v i e r t h a n t h e o t h e r ? \" E_ t h e n asked ( i f a p p r o p r i a t e ) : \"Which one would be h e a v i e r ? Can you t e l l me why?\" I f 5 c o u l d not say why, JE took a s m a l l p i e c e away from t h e 3 f l a t shaped c l a y and asked a g a i n . The b a s i s f o r s c o r i n g t h e r e s p o n s e s was i d e n t i c a l t o t h a t used i n t h e C o n s e r v a t i o n o f S u b s t a n c e . The f i r s t p a r t 3 I n s t r u c t i o n s f o r t h e t e s t were based on t h o s e used by Goodnow ( 1 9 6 2 ) , t r a n s l a t e d i n t o C h i n e s e . - 25 -w a s based on t h e c o r r e c t n e s s o f t h e r e s p o n s e which i n c l u d e d such answers as \" t h e y weigh t h e same\", \" t h e r e i s no d i f f e r -ence i n w e i g h t \" , o r \" t h e y w e ight j u s t about t h e same\". A c o r r e c t r e s p o n s e was g i v e n a s c o r e o f 1. The s e c o n d p a r t was based on t h e e x p l a n a t i o n g i v e n f o r t h e r e s p o n s e . Ade-quat e e x p l a n a t i o n s were g i v e n a s c o r e o f 1 and i n c l u d e d such answers as \"you s t a r t e d o f f w i t h t h e same amount\", \" n o t h i n g has been t a k e n away or added\", or \"you have o n l y changed t h e s h ape\". C h i l d r e n ' s Embedded F i g u r e T e s t . The s t i m u l i from Karp and K o n d s t a d t (1963) C h i l d r e n ' s Embedded F i g u r e T e s t (CEFT) were use d . These i n c l u d e d a number o f f i g u r e s which a r e used f o r t r a i n i n g p u r p o s e s as w e l l as t h e t e s t f i g u r e s p r o p e r . The p r o c e d u r e f o l l o w e d i n t h e t e s t was based on t h a t d e s c r i b e d by Karp and K o n d s t a d t ( 1 9 6 3 ) . The o n l y m o d i f i c a -t i o n t o t h e p r o c e d u r e c o n c e r n e d t h e s t o p r u l e s f o r t h e t e s t . When t h e c h i l d d i d not g i v e any answer he was e n c o u r a g e d t o g i v e one. _E w a i t e d f o r at l e a s t 60 s e c o n d s a f t e r p r e s e n t a -t i o n of t h e i t e m b e f o r e s t o p p i n g t e s t i n g o f t h e i t e m . JE IE n e v e r w a i t e d f o r more than 90 s e c o n d s . F i n a l l y , b e cause t h e CEFT was g i v e n b e f o r e t h e Water L e v e l T e s t i n t h e same s e s s i o n , i t was i m p o r t a n t t h a t t h e 5_ d i d not l o s e a l l h i s m o t i v a t i o n due t o f r u s t r a t i o n . T e s t i n g w a s t h e r e f o r e - -s t o p p e d i f S_ f a i l e d f o u r c o n s e c u t i v e i t e m s on t h e HQU5E s e r i e s and a p p e a r e d t o E_ t o be uneasy or d i s c o u r a g e d be-c a u s e o f h i s f a i l u r e . The r e s p o n s e s were s c o r e d a c c o r d i n g t o t h e i n s t r u c t i o n s - 2 6 -g i v e n by Karp and K o n d s t a d t ( 1 9 6 3 ) . The s c o r e s were made up o f two s e p a r a t e s e r i e s : t h e 'TENT' and t h e 'HOUSE'. The s c o r e s f o r t h e 1TE\";T' s e r i e s r a n g e d from 0 - 11; and f o r t h e 'HOUSE' s e r i e s , t h e s c o r e s r a n g e d from 0 -14. The t o t a l s c o r e t h e r e f o r e r a n g e d from 0 - 2 5 . Water L e v e l T e s t E_ h e l d f l a t - b o t t o m e d f l a s k w i t h c o l o r e d l i q u i d i n hand and s a i d t o t h e 5_ watch t h i s f l a s k . I want you t o l o o k at t h e c o l o r e d water c a r e f u l l y . I am g o i n g t o t u r n t h e f l a s k s l o w l y , and I want you t o watch what happens t o t h e water c a r e f u l l y , as I t u r n t h e f l a s k . Are you r e a d y ? Now I w i l l b e g i n . E. t h e n began t o r o t a t e t h e f l a s k s l o w l y , s t a r t i n g from t h e v e r t i c a l u p r i g h t p o s i t i o n , t u r n i n g i t s l o w l y i n one d i r e c t i o n t h r o u g h 360 d e g r e e s u n t i l t h e f l a s k had t u r n e d a f u l l c i r c l e and was r e t u r n e d t o i t s o r i g i n a l p o s i t i o n . E_ made s u r e t h a t S_ c o u l d see t h e water l e v e l c l e a r l y as t h e f l a s k was b e i n g t u r n e d . E t h e n put t h e f l a s k down and p i c k e d up t h e b e a k e r s a y i n g , See t h i s b e a k e r ? T h e r e i s no water i n i t , and i t l o o k s l i k e t h e b e a k e r drawn i n y o u r b o o k l e t ( p o i n t i n g t o f i g u r e on f i r s t p a g e ) . Now, I want you t o p r e t e n d t h a t t h e r e i s some water i n t h e b e a k e r . Now, I want you t o draw a l i n e i n -s i d e t h i s b e a k e r on t h i s page t o show me where t h e water would be. I t d o e s n ' t m a t t e r how much water you want t o put i n s i d e t h e b e a k e r , so you can draw t h e l i n e anywhere i n s i d e t h e b e a k e r t h a t you want. When S_ had c o m p l e t e d t h i s , E_ c o n t i n u e d , Now, I would l i k e you t o put a c r o s s t o show me whether t h e water i s i n t h i s p a r t o f t h e b e a k e r ( p o i n t i n g t o below t h e water mark) or i n t h i s p a r t o f t h e b e a k e r ( p o i n t i n g t o above t h e water mark. - 27 -When t h i s was done, E_ s a i d , Now t u r n t h e page. Here's a n o t h e r b o t t l a ( p o i n t i n g t o b o t t . l e ) , I want you t o draw a l i n e t o show me where t h e water would be t h i s t i m e , and a f t e r you have done t h i s , I want you t o a g a i n put a c r o s s t o show me where t h e w a ter would be. A f t e r S_ had done t h i s , E_ c o n t i n u e d , I would l i k e you t o c o n t i n u e d o i n g t h i s f o r e v e r y b o t t l e i n t h e book u n t i l you come t o t h e l a s t page. I f t h e r e i s a n y t h i n g t h a t you do not u n d e r s t a n d , j u s t ask me. You can b e g i n r i g h t now. •Scoring f o r Water L e v e l T e s t A r e s p o n s e was s c o r e d as c o r r e c t and was g i v e n a s c o r e o f 1 i f t h e f o l l o w i n g two c r i t e r i a were s a t i s f i e d : a ) Degree of d e v i a t i o n from t h e h o r i z o n t a l a x i s . A r e s p o n s e t h a t was + 0 - 6 ° from t h e h o r i z o n t a l was c o n s i d e r e d as c o r r e c t . b) L o c a t i o n o f w a t e r . A c r o s s t h a t was p l a c e d below t h e water l i n e t o i n d i c a t e t h e l o c a t i o n of t h e w ater was c o n -s i d e r e d as c o r r e c t . Each S_ was g i v e n a t o t a l s c o r e d e p e n d i n g on t h e number o f c o r r e c t r e s p o n s e s o b t a i n e d . T h i s r a n g e d from 0 - 13. In o r d e r t o d e t e r m i n e t h e b o u n d a r i e s between each s t a g e o f t h e d e v e l o p m e n t a l sequence s u g g e s t e d by P i a g e t and I n h e l d e r (1956), t h e f o l l o w i n g c r i t e r i a i n terms o f d e g r e e s o f d e v i a t i o n , d i r e c t i o n o f d e v i a t i o n ( p o s i t i v e or n e g a t i v e ) from t h e h o r i z o n t a l , and t h e l o c a t i o n o f t h e water were a p p l i e d . These c r i t e r i a g e n e r a t e a s e r i e s of \" s t e p s \" . These \" s t e p s \" can be d e v e l o p m e n t a l l y o r d e r e d , but do not c o n s t i t u t e by t h e m s e l v e s , \" s t a g e s \" i n t h e s e n s e g i v e n t o t h i s word by P i a g e t ( F l a v e l l , 1963, p. 1 9 ) . These f o r m a l c r i t e r i a o r s t e p s have been d e s c r i b e d f o r e v e r y c l a s s o f i t e m b e l o n g i n g t o t h e Water L e v e l T e s t and a r e summarized i n T a b l e s 5, 6 and 7. - 2 8 -TABLE 5 Types o f Responses C l a s s i f i e d i n t o D e v e l o p m e n t a l ^ S t e p s w i t h t h e B o t t l e i n t h e I n v e r t e d V e r t i c a l P o s i t i o n S t e p 1 2 3 4 5 Degree o f d e v i a t i o n from t h e h o r i z o n t a l 0-6 0-6 71-90 6-70 0-6 L o c a t i o n o f water (above or below water l i n e ) above below above or below above or below below Ste p 1 r e s p o n s e s a r e t h e most ' p r i m i t i v e ' d e v e l o p m e n t a l l y . S t e p 5 r e s p o n s e s c o n s t i t u t e t h e c o r r e c t r e s p o n s e . TABLE 6 Types o f Responses C l a s s i f i e d i n t o D e v e l o p m e n t a l S t e p s w i t h t h e B o t t l e i n t h e H o r i z o n t a l P o s i t i o n S t e p 1 2 3 4 Degree o f d e v i a t i o n from t h e h o r i z o n t a l 71-90 0-70 7-70 0-6 L o c a t i o n o f water (above or below water l i n e ) e i t h e r s i d e o f t h e water l i n e above below below S t e p 1 r e s p o n s e s a r e t h e most ' p r i m i t i v e ' d e v e l o p m e n t a l l y . S t e p 4 r e s p o n s e s c o n s t i t u t e t h e c o r r e c t r e s p o n s e . 29 -TABLE 7 Types o f Responses C l a s s i f i e d i n t o D e v e l o p m e n t a l S t e p s w i t h t h e B o t t l e i n t h e T i l t e d P o s i t i o n S t e p s 1 2 3 4 5 6 a b Degree o f d e v i a t i o n :31-70 31-70 from t h e h o r i z o n t a l '. a b a b 31-70 31-70 31-70 31-70 71-90 7-30 0-6 S i g n o f d e v i a t i o n + (+ or -) + - + - ± + ± T i l t e d . ' D i r e c t i o n U p r i q h t l e f t 1 t i l t e d ; o f r i q h t I t i l t e d i j B o t t l e I n v e r t e d l e f t t i l t e d ' y r i q h t ' t *£_ L o c a t i o n o f water (above o r below water above above below below below below l i n e ) S t e p 1 r e s p o n s e s are t h e most ' p r i m i t i v e ' d e v e l o p m e n t a l l y . S t e p 6 r e s p o n s e s c o n s t i t u t e t h e c o r r e c t r e s p o n s e . - 30 E v e r y r e s p o n s e was c l a s s i f i e d i n t o one o f t h e d e v e l o p -m e n t a l s t e p s r e l a t i v e t o t h e p o s i t i o n o f t h e b o t t l e . In m e a s u r i n g b o t h t h e a n g l e and d i r e c t i o n (+ or -) o f the r e s p o n s e from t h e h o r i z o n t a l t h e measures were t a k e n always from t h e l e f t t o t h e r i g h t of t h e l i n e ^ . T h e m a t i c A p p e r c e p t i o n T e s t . S c h o o l 1. Ss were b r o u g h t t o a l a r g e room i n which a p r o j e c t o r and s c r e e n was s e t up f o r group t e s t i n g . Ss were s e a t e d and were the n t o l d t h a t t h e y were t o be shown some s l i d e s on t h e s c r e e n . JE began by s a y i n g : T h i s i s a t e s t o f y o u r i m a g i n a t i o n . T h r e e p i c t u r e s w i l l be p r o j e c t e d on t h e s c r e e n . You w i l l have about 30 s e c o n d s t o l o o k at each p i c t u r e and t h e n about 5 m i n u t e s t o w r i t e a s t o r y about i t . When you w r i t e t h e s t o r y , I want you t o t r y t o answer f o u r q u e s t i o n s . I am g o i n g t o r e a d t h e q u e s t i o n s one by one s l o w l y , and I want you t o w r i t e them down on t h e f i r s t page o f y o u r b o o k l e t . Remember t o t r y and answer a l l t h e s e q u e s t i o n s when you w r i t e each s t o r y . These q u e s t i o n s need not be answered i n any p a r t i c u l a r o r d e r . The q u e s t i o n s a r e as f a l l o w s : What i s h a p p e n i n g i n t h e p i c t u r e ? What i s t h e boy t h i n k i n g ? What would t h e boy l i k e t o happen? What w i l l happen? T h e r e a r e no r i g h t or wrong answers so you can make up any s o r t o f s t o r y about t h e p i c -t u r e t h a t you want t o . The more v i v i d and d r a m a t i c , t h e b e t t e r . Remember t h i s i s a t e s t o f y o u r i m a g i n a t i o n . Do not m e r e l y d e s c r i b e t h e p i c t u r e , make up a s t o r y about i t , and make i t as i n t e r e s t i n g as p o s s i b l e - f e e l f r e e t o make up any k i n d o f s t o r y at a l l . You may s t a r t w r i t i n g as soon as you l i k e a f t e r t h e p i c t u r e i s p r o j e c t e d . The l i g h t w i l l be F o r a d e t a i l e d d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e d e v e l o p m e n t a l s t a g e s d e s c r i b e d by P i a g e t ( P i a g e t and I n h e l d e r , 1956) and t h e way i n which t h e y r e l a t e e m p i r i c a l l y t o t h e s e s e t s o f d i f f e r e n t s t e p s , see A p p e n d i x . See Appendix 1 a l s o f o r t h e method by which r e s p o n s e s were c l a s s i f i e d i n t o t h e s e d i f f e r e n t s t e p s . - 31 -t u r n e d on a f t e r 30 s e c o n d s . T r y t o s t a r t w r i t i n g at once, o t h e r w i s e you may not have enough time t o do a c o m p l e t e j o b . Are t h e r e any q u e s t i o n s ? P l e a s e ask me now i f t h e r e i s a n y t h i n g t h a t you a r e not c l e a r a b o u t . No q u e s t i o n s w i l l be answered a f t e r we s t a r t . A l s o p l e a s e do not say a n y t h i n g when t h e p i c t u r e s a r e shown. 5_s were g i v e n more t h a n 5 m i n u t e s t o w r i t e t h e s t o r i e s , as i t was f o u n d t h a t i n g e n e r a l , i t took l o n g e r t o w r i t e t h e C h i n e s e c h a r a c t e r s , and t h e S_s b e i n g i n grade 2 or 3, o f t e n had d i f f i c u l t y i n remembering how t o w r i t e out a c h a r a c t e r . T h i s slowed down t h e r a t e o f w r i t i n g . S c h o o l s 2 and 3 These s c h o o l s were u n a b l e t o p r o v i d e E_ w i t h a s i n g l e room l a r g e enough t o t e s t a l l t h e c h i l d r e n at once. As a r e s u l t , t e s t i n g was c o n d u c t e d i n groups o f t h r e e i n t h e s m a l l room i n which i n d i v i d u a l t e s t i n g was done. The p r o -c e d u r e employed was s i m i l a r t o t h a t used i n t e s t i n g S c h o o l 1, w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n t h a t t h e E_ h e l d up each TAT c a r d i n f r o n t o f t h e t h r e e Ss and t h e n gave them a p p r o x i m a t e l y 5 m i n u t e s t o w r i t e out each s t o r y . I n s t r u c t i o n s g i v e n were t h e same as t h o s e f o r S c h o o l 1. R e l e v a n t changes were made o n l y r e g a r d i n g t h e p r o j e c t i o n o f t h e p i c t u r e s . 5s were t o l d i n s t e a d , t h a t t h e y were t o be shown t h r e e p i c t u r e s c o n s e -c u t i v e l y by t h e _E and t h a t t h e y c o u l d b e g i n w r i t i n g t h e i r s t o r i e s as soon as each p i c t u r e was shown. S c o r i n g . Each TAT s t o r y was s c o r e d f o r n Achievement a c c o r d i n g t o t h e s c o r i n g system d e v i s e d by M c C l e l l a n d , A t k i n s o n , C l a r k and L o w e l l ( A t k i n s o n , 1 9 5 8 ) . White S s . S c o r e s were a v a i l a b l e from a p r e v i o u s l y t e s t e d 32 -sample o f w h i t e C a n a d i a n Ss from P r o v i n c i a l s c h o o l s i n V a n c o u v e r f o r some o f t h e t e s t s employed w i t h C h i n e s e Ss, The t e s t s which were common t o t h e two groups o f Ss were: C o n s e r v a t i o n o f S u b s t a n c e , C o n s e r v a t i o n o f Weight, and t h e CEFT. S c o r e s o f t h e s e 5_s on t h e s e t e s t s were used i n c o m p a r i s o n t o s c o r e s o f t h e C h i n e s e S_s on t h e same t e s t s . The C a n a d i a n Ss were from p r e d o m i n a n t l y m i d d l e c l a s s homes. The d i s t r i b u t i o n o f Ss on age and sex i s summarized i n T a b l e B. T A B L E 8 Age and Sex D i s t r i b u t i o n o f White Ss Sex A g e 9 8 ID Male 8 8 4 Female 5 7 1 CHAPTER I I I RESULTS The r e s u l t s o f t h e s t u d y a r e examined as t h e y r e l a t e t o t h e h y p o t h e s i s p r e s e n t e d i n t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n . H y p o t h e s i s I ; R e l a t i o n s h i p between p e r f o r m a n c e on P i a g e t i a n t a s k s and CEFT C h i n e s e ; T h e r e was a low c o r r e l a t i o n between t h e S_s s c o r e s on t h e CEFT and C o n s e r v a t i o n o f S u b s t a n c e t a u = .16, p = . 0 8 ) . However, t h i s was not s i g n i f i c a n t at t h e .05 l e v e l . No c o r r e l a t i o n was f o u n d between t h e S_s' s c o r e s on t h e CEFT and C o n s e r v a t i o n o f Weight ( t a u = .08, n . s . ) . A low c o r r e l a t i o n was f o u n d between t h e S _ s ' t o t a l C o n s e r v a t i o n s c o r e s (sum o f s c o r e s on C o n s e r v a t i o n of S u b s t a n c e and Con-s e r v a t i o n o f Weight) and CEFT s c o r e s ( t a u =.166, o_ = . 0 8 ) . But a g a i n , t h i s was not s i g n i f i c a n t at t h e .05 l e v e l . A s i g n i f i c a n t p o s i t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n ( t a u = .346, £.-><*'. .001). was f o u n d between p e r f o r m a n c e on t h e CEFT and p e r f o r m a n c e on t h e Water L e v e l T e s t . The K e n d a l l Tau c o r r e l a t i o n s be-tween p e r f o r m a n c e on t h e CEFT and p e r f o r m a n c e on t h e P i a g e -t i a n t a s k s a r e p r e s e n t e d i n T a b l e 9. TABLE 9 K e n d a l l Tau ^ C o r r e l a t i o n s between CEFT and C o n s e r v a - t i o n o f 5 u b s t a n c e , C o n s e r v a t i o n o f Weight, T o t a l ' C o n s e r v a t i o n and Water L e v e l T e s t C h i n e s e Sample C o n s e r v a t i o n C o n s e r v a t i o n T o t a l Water of 5 u b s t a n c e o f Weight C o n s e r v a t i o n L e v e l T e s t P = .08 n . s . p = ;08 P < .001 rPFT ——• • tau=+*l6 t a u = +.08 t a u ~ + . l 6 6 tau=+. ( 1 TENT' 0--11 8, .4 9. .2 8 .6 7 . 4 F) T('HOUSE' 1 ) 0--14 6, .5 7. .4 5 .4 5. 6 * Only t h e t i l t e d b o t t l e s were used t o compute t h e mean number of c o r r e c t r e s p o n s e s T a b l e 22 shows t h a t 5_s from S c h o o l 3 p e r f o r m e d u n e x p e c t e d l y p o o r e r on t h e C o n s e r v a t i o n t a s k s t h a n 5_s from S c h o o l s 1 and 2. But, on t h e o t h e r t a s k s , p e r f o r m a n c e o f 5_s from a l l t h r e e s c h o o l s r e m a i n e d c l o s e . T h i s f i n d i n g s u g g e s t e d t h a t i t was t h e p e r f o r m a n c e o f 5s from S c h o o l 3 which r e s u l t e d i n t h e s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e between w h i t e and C h i n e s e 5_s on C o n s e r v a t i o n of S u b s t a n c e . The p e r f o r m a n c e o f w h i t e Ss on C o n s e r v a t i o n o f S u b s t a n c e was t h e r e f o r e compared t o t h e p e r f o r m a n c e of C h i n e s e Ss from S c h o o l s 1 and 2 o n l y on t h e same tas'k. No s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e was found between th e - 46 -p e r f o r m a n c e o f t h e two g r o u p s . (X = 2.7, n . s . ) . On t h e whole, i t can be s a i d t h a t t h e f i n d i n g s o f t h e s t u d y were g e n e r a l l y c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e h y p o t h e s e s t h a t t h e r e s h o u l d be no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e i n p e r f o r -mance between w h i t e and C h i n e s e S_s on t h e P i a g e t i a n t a s k s or t h e CEFT. The r e s u l t s from t h i s s t u d y a r e s i m i l a r t o t h o s e o b t a i n e d by Goodnow (1962) i n Hong Kong. Goodnow fo u n d more s i m i l a r i t i e s t h a n d i f f e r e n c e s between t h e p e r f o r m a n c e o f w h i t e and C h i n e s e Ss on P i a g e t i a n t a s k s o f C o n s e r v a t i o n o f Space,Weight and Volume. However, she a l s o f o u n d t h a t on e v e r y t a s k t h e l e v e l o f p e r f o r m a n c e o f t h e w h i t e S_s was h i g h e r t h a n t h e C h i n e s e S s . The gap i n p e r f o r m a n c e between Ss from S c h o o l s 1, 2 and Ss from S c h o o l 3 r e q u i r e d e x p l a n a t i o n . Ss from S c h o o l s 1 and 2 came from p r e d o m i n a n t l y m i d d l e and u p p e r -m i d d l e c l a s s e n v i r o n m e n t s , w h i l e Ss from S c h o o l 3 came from l o w e r c l a s s homes. The d i f f e r e n c e s i n e n v i r o n m e n t between c h i l d r e n from l o w e r c l a s s and m i d d l e c l a s s homes i n a p l a c e such as Hong Kong i s v a s t . T h e r e a r e many v a r i a b l e s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h s o c i o - e c o n o m i c b a c k g r o u n d which may a c c o u n t f o r t h e p o o r e r p e r f o r m a n c e o f t h e s e 5s on t h e C o n s e r v a t i o n t a s k . V e r b a l a b i l i t y i s one such f a c t o r . The C o n s e r v a t i o n t a s k s r e q u i r e t h a t t h e c h i l d v e r b a l i z e h i s r e s p o n s e and j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r i t , w h i l e the Water L e v e l T e s t does n o t . I t i s a l s o p o s s i b l e t h a t p e r s o n a l i t y or o t t i t u d i n a l t r a i t s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h l o w e r c l a s s l i f e i n Hong Kong a c c o u n t f o r t h e p e r f o r m a n c e o f Ss i n S c h o o l 3. - 47 -C h i l d r e n from l o w e r c l a s s homes have t o f e n d f o r them-s e l v e s at a v e r y e a r l y age, and l e a r n t h e ' r e a l i t i e s o f l i f e ' much s o o n e r than m i d d l e c l a s s c h i l d r e n . Because o f t h i s , t h e s e c h i l d r e n may have a. s t r o n g e r t e n d e n c y t o l o o k f o r ' t r a p s ' o r ' t r i c k s ' i n any s i t u a t i o n . On a t a s k such as C o n s e r v a t i o n t h e y may be more i n c l i n e d t o view i t as one t h a t c o n t a i n e d a ' t r a p ' t o c h a l l e n g e t h e i r i n t e l l e c t . S i n c e t h e two p i e c e s of p l a s t i c i n e a p p e a r e d t o be ' o b v i o u s l y ' e q u a l , t h e c h i l d may choose i n s t e a d t h e u n o b v i o u s r e s p o n s e — t h a t of i n e q u a l i t y . O b v i o u s l y no f i n a l e x p l a n a t i o n o f t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n p e r f o r m a n c e between S_s from t h e s e s c h o o l s can be p r o v i d e d h e r e . I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o n o t e t h a t t h i s f i n d i n g i s c o n s i s t e n t t o Goodnow's (1962) r e s u l t s . Goodnow fo u n d t h a t C h i n e s e 5s i n Hong Kong from low s o c i o - e c o n o m i c homes who were r e c e i v i n g f u l l s c h o o l i n g s c o r e d t h e l o w e s t on t h e C o n s e r v a t i o n t a s k s . The s e c o n d a r e a o f i n t e r e s t was i n t h e c r o s s - c u l t u r a l r e p l i c a b i l i t y o f P i a g e t ' s r e s u l t s - b o t h i n terms o f d e v e l o p m e n t a l l e v e l s o f d i f f i c u l t y w i t h i n a s p e c i f i c t a s k and t h e h i e a r c h y o f d i f f i c u l t y between t a s k s . T h e r e was good r e p l i c a b i l i t y r e g a r d i n g t h e d e v e l o p m e n t a l l e v e l s o f d i f f i c u l t y w i t h i n t h e Water L e v e l T e s t f o r b o t h w h i t e and C h i n e s e S s . Both groups o b t a i n e d t h e h i g h e s t number o f c o r r e c t r e s p o n s e s w i t h t h e b o t t l e i n t h e v e r t i c a l p o s i t i o n . The next h i g h e s t number o f c o r r e c t r e s p o n s e s was o b t a i n e d w i t h t h e b o t t l e i n t h e h o r i z o n t a l p o s i t i o n and t h e l o w e s t number o f c o r r e c t r e s p o n s e s was a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e b o t t l e i n t h e t i l t e d p o s i t i o n s . - 48 -According to Piaget and Inhelder (1956), task d i f f i -c u l t y i n the Water L e v e l Test i s a f u n c t i o n of the p o s i -t i o n of the b a t t l e i n r e l a t i o n to the h o r i z o n t a l a x i s . Task d i f f i c u l t y i n c r e a s e s from the b o t t l e being i n the v e r t i c a l to the h o r i z o n t a l to the t i l t e d p o s i t i o n . On the b a s i s of t h i s , one would expect the highest p r o p o r t i o n of c o r r e c t responses to be a s s o c i a t e d with the b o t t l e i n the v e r t i c a l p o s i t i o n , t h i s being the e a s i e s t task. The lowest p r o p o r t i o n of c o r r e c t responses w i l l be a s s o c i a t e d with the most d i f f i c u l t task - that of the b o t t l e i n a t i l t e d p o s i t i o n . The f i n d i n g s from t h i s study give f u r t h e r e m p i r i c a l support from a d i f f e r e n t subject population to Piaget's and Inhelder's a n a l y s i s of the Water Level Test. The f i n d i n g s were also c o n s i s t e n t with the r e s u l t s ob-t a i n e d by Smedslund (1962). Within each s p e c i f i c p o s i t i o n of the b o t t l e , F.D. Chinese Ss were found to produce a greater number of developmentally more p r i m i t i v e responses than F.I. 5_s. This f i n d i n g lends f u r t h e r support to the notion that a c o r r e l a t i o n e x i s t s between performance on the CEFT and performance on the Water Level Test. C a t e g o r i z a t i o n of responses i n t o developmental steps represents a q u a n t i t a -t i v e mode of a n a l y s i s and allows f o r a f i n a r d i f f e r e n t i a -t i o n of performance of the F.I. and F.D. Ss than by using the c r i t e r i a of c o r r e c t and i n c o r r e c t only. This a n a l y s i s showed that F.D. Ss not only had a higher number of i n c o r r e c t responses than F.I. Ss but that these Ss were a l s o f u r t h e r away developrnentnlly from the c o r r e c t r e -sponses than F.I. Ss. - 49 -The Sequence p r e d i c t e d by P i a g e t (1962) r e g a r d i n g C o n s e r v a t i o n o f S u b s t a n c e and C o n s e r v a t i o n o f Weight was r e p l i c a t e d w i t h t h e w h i t e sample. P i a g e t p r e d i c t e d t h a t a c h i e v e m e n t on C o n s e r v a t i o n o f Weight i m p l i e d a c h i e v e m e n t on C o n s e r v a t i o n o f S u b s t a n c e . The r e s u l t s showed t h a t o n l y one out o f f i f t e e n w h i t e Ss who a c h i e v e d C o n s e r v a t i o n o f Weight was w i t h o u t C o n s e r v a t i o n of S u b s t a n c e . However t h e sequence f o r t h e C h i n e s e S_s was not as c l e a r . S i n c e t h e number o f 5_s t e s t e d was s m a l l , and s i n c e t h e m a j o r i t y o f C h i n e s e Ss showed n e i t h e r C o n s e r v a t i o n o f S u b s t a n c e nor C o n s e r v a t i o n of Weight, i t i s d i f f i c u l t t o t e s t t h e hypo-t h e s i s t h a t C o n s e r v a t i o n o f S u b s t a n c e p r e c e d e s C o n s e r v a t i o n o f Weight f o r t h i s g r o u p . F i v e out o f t h e 11 C h i n e s e Ss v>'..:i showed C o n s e r v a t i o n of Weight were w i t h o u t C o n s e r v a -t i o n o f S u b s t a n c e . T h i s f i n d i n g a l s o c a l l s i n t o q u e s t i o n t h e v a l i d i t y o f t h e C o n s e r v a t i o n t e s t s as a d m i n i s t e r e d t o t h e C h i n e s e Ss as a r e f l e c t i o n o f t h e c o g n i t i v e s t r u c t u r e s assumed by P i a g e t t o u n d e r l y C o n s e r v a t i o n , s i n c e t h e d e v e l o p m e n t a l p r i o r i t y o f C t i o n o f 5 u b s t a n c e t o C o n s e r v a t i o n o f Weight has been r e p e a t e d l y f o u n d ( e . g . S t a c e y , 1967, Smedslund, 1964) and i s one o f t h e more s t a b l e and d e p e n d a b l e P i a g e t i a n phenomena. In view o f t h i s f i n d -i n g , a l l t h e o t h e r r e s u l t s r e p o r t e d here which r e l a t e C o n s e r v a t i o n p e r f o r m a n c e o f C h i n e s e Ss t o o t h e r v a r i a b l e s s h o u l d be r e g a r d e d as e s p e c i a l l y t e n t a t i v e . The f i n d i n g s t h a t t h e r e were no s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n -s h i p s between p e r f o r m a n c e on P i a g e t i a n t a s k s o f C o n s e r v e -- 50 -t i o n o f S u b s t a n c e and Weight and s c o r e s on t h e CEFT f o r b o t h w h i t e and C h i n e s e 5s was i n c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e r e s u l t s o b t a i n e d by P a s c u a l - L e o n e (1966) who p r e d i c t e d and f o u n d a h i g h l y s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p between p e r f o r m a n c e on t h e CEFT and on b o t h C o n s e r v a t i o n t a s k s . S e v e r a l f a c t o r s may have c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e f i n d i n g s i n t h i s study.. We have s u g g e s t e d above t h a t t h e f a i l u r e o f d a t a from C h i n e s e S_s t o g i v e a c l e a r i m p l i c a t i o n r e l a t i o n s h i p between C o n s e r -v a t i o n o f S u b s t a n c e and Weight i s an i n d i c a t i o n t h a t t h e C o n s e r v a t i o n t a s k s as a d m i n i s t e r e d h e r e may not g i v e r e s u l t s c o m p a r a b l e t o p r e v i o u s s t u d i e s . A n o t h e r p o s s i b l e s o u r c e o f e r r o r may have been t h e . f a c t t h a t o n l y one i t e m was g i v e n t o each C h i n e s e 5_ on b o t h C o n s e r v a t i o n o f 5 u b s t a n c e and C o n s e r v a t i o n o f Weight, p r o v i d i n g a l e s s r e l i a b l e measure. F u r t h e r m o r e , a l t h o u g h t h e w h i t e Ss were g i v e n t h r e e i t e m s i n each C o n s e r v a t i o n t a s k , o n l y t h e s c a r e s from t h e f i r s t i t e m were used f o r c o m p a r i s o n w i t h t h e C h i n e s e S s . In P a s c u a l - L e o n e ' s (1966) s t u d y , t h r e e i t e m s were g i v e n i n each C o n s e r v a t i o n t a s k . The f i n d i n g s from h i s s t u d y a r e p r o -b a b l y more r e l i a b l e t h an t h o s e from t h i s s t u d y . A n o t h e r p a s s i b l e f a c t o r which may have a c c o u n t e d f o r t h e l a c k o f r e l a t i o n s h i p was r e v e a l e d when t h e p e r f o r m a n c e o f F . I . and F.D. C h i n e s e S_s from t h e t h r e e d i f f e r e n t s c h o o l s were compared. Because o n l y f i v e S_s were from S c h o o l 2, t h e r e s u l t s from t h i s s c h o o l were grouped w i t h t h o s e o f S c h o o l 1. The d i s t r i b u t i o n o f r e s p o n s e s on C o n s e r v a t i o n o f S u b s t a n c e f o r F . I . and F.D. Ss. from S c h o o l s 1 and 2 i s g i v e n i n T a b l e 23. - 51 -TABLE 23 D i s t r i b u t i o n of Responses on Conservation of Substance f o r F.I, and F.D. 5s from Schools 1 and 2 Conservation of Substance Present Absent F.I. 9 4 F.D. 3 7 Table 23 shows that nine out of t h i r t e e n F.I. Ss from Schools 1 and 2 gave c o r r e c t responses on Conservation of Substance; while three out of ten F.D. Ss gave c o r r e c t r e -sponses on t h i s same task. The d i f f e r e n c e i n performance was found to be s i g n i f i c a n t ( F i s h e r ' s Exact P r o b a b i l i t y , p .05). The d i s t r i b u t i o n of responses on Conservation of Sub-stance f o r F.I. and F.D. S_s from School 3 i s given i n Table 24. TABLE 24 D i s t r i b u t i o n of Responses on Conservation of Substance f o r F.I, and F.D. Ss from School 3 Conservation of Substance Present Absent F.I. 0 5 F.D. 1 8 Table 24 shows that none of c i ' X . F.I. Ss from School 3 gave a c o r r e c t response on Conservation of Substance, - 52 -w h i l e one out o f n i n e F.D. 5s gave a c o r r e c t r e s p o n s e on the same t a s k . No s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e was f o u n d be-tween t h e p e r f o r m a n c e o f F ; I . and F.D, 5_s from S c h o o l 3 on C o n s e r v a t i o n o f S u b s t a n c e ( F i s h e r ' s E x a c t P r o b a b i l i t y , p . 6 ) . The low l e v e l o f p e r f o r m a n c e i n S c h o o l 3, r e g a r d -l e s s o f f i e l d i n d e p e n d e n c e may have been p a r t l y r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e l a c k o f s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p between p e r f o r -mance on C o n s e r v a t i o n o f S u b s t a n c e and t h e CEFT. The p e r f o r m a n c e o f F . I . and F.D. Ss from S c h o o l s 1 and 2 and S c h o o l 3 on C o n s e r v a t i o n o f Weight was a l s o s e p a r a t e l y compared. The d i s t r i b u t i o n o f r e s p o n s e s on C o n s e r v a t i o n o f Weight f o r F . I . and F.D. Ss from S c h o o l s 1 and 2 i s g i v e n i n T a b l e 25. TABLE 25 D i s t r i b u t i o n o f Responses on C o n s e r v a t i o n o f Weiqht f o r F. I. and F.D. Ss from S c h o o l s 1 and 2 C o n s e r v a t i o n o f Weiqht P r e s e n t Absent F . I . 6 7 F.D. 1 9 No s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e i n p e r f o r m a n c e between F . I . and F.D.. Ss from S c h o o l s I and. 2 was found ( F i s h e r ' s E x a c t P r o b a b i l i t y , p = .09). The d i s t r i b u t i o n o f r e s p o n s e s on C o n s e r v a t i o n o f W'ei.ght f o r F . I . and F.D. 5s from S c h o o l 3 i s g i v e n i n T a b l e 26. - 53 -TABLE 26 D i s t r i b u t i o n o f Responses on C o n s e r v a t i o n o f Weight f o r F . I , and F.D. 5s from S c h o o l 3 C o n s e r v a t i o n o f Weight P r e s e n t Absent F . I . 2 4 F.D. 1 8 No s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e i n p e r f o r m a n c e between F . I . and F.D. Ss from S c h o o l 3 was f o u n d ( F i s h e r ' s E x a c t P r o b a b i l i t y , p = . 3 ) . T h e r e was some i n d i c a t i o n o f d i f f e r e n c e i n p e r f o r m a n c e between F . I . and F.D. S i s from S c h o o l s 1 and 2 on C o n s e r v a t i o n o f Weight, a l t h o u g h t h i s was not s i g n i f i c a n t a t t h e .05 l e v e l . T h e r e i s some b a s i s t h e r e f o r e , f o r s u g g e s t i n g t h a t a g a i n , i t may have been t h e l a c k of d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n i n p e r f o r m a n c e between F . I . and F.D. S_s from S c h o o l 3 on bo t h C o n s e r v a t i o n t a s k s t h a t r e s u l t e d i n no s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n -s h i p s between C o n s e r v a t i o n of 5 u b s t a n c e and Weight and t h e CEFT f o r t h e C h i n e s e Ss. An e x a m i n a t i o n of t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between p e r f o r m a n c e o f w h i t e Ss on C o n s e r v a t i o n o f S u b s t a n c e and C o n s e r v a t i o n o f Weight w i t h s c o r e s on t h e CEFT r e v e a l e d t h e f o l l o w i n g . A l -though t h e r e was no s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p between p e r -formance on each o f t h e C o n s e r v a t i o n t a s k s s e p a r a t e l y and s c o r e s on t h e CEFT, ( t a u = +.14, n.s.; t a u = -.09, n . s . ) ; a s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p was o b t a i n e d between t h e t o t a l C o n s e r v a t i o n s c o r e and t h c CEFT s c o r e s ( t a u = +.19, p . 0 5 ) . - 54 -One p o s s i b l e e x p l a n a t i o n f o r t h i s f i n d i n g may be t h a t b e c a u s e t h e p o s s i b l e range o f s c o r e s on bo t h C o n s e r v a t i o n o f S u b s t a n c e and Weight r a n g e d o n l y from 0 - 2 , t h i s r e -duced t h e e x t e n t t o which Ss c o u l d be d i f f e r e n t i a t e d on t h e s e t a s k s , which i n t u r n , r e s t r i c t e d b o t h t h e p o s s i b i l i t y and t h e s i z e o f a c o r r e l a t i o n w i t h a n o t h e r v a r i a b l e . How-e v e r , when s c o r e s on t h e s e two t a s k s were combined, t h e range was i n c r e a s e d t o 0 - 4, and t h i s a l l o w e d f o r g r e a t e r d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n o f t h e S_s on t h e s e t a s k s , r e s u l t i n g i n a h i g h e r c o r r e l a t i o n w i t h a n o t h e r v a r i a b l e . S i n c e o n l y t h e s c o r e s from t h e f i r s t o f t h e t h r e e t a s k s g i v e n i n each C o n s e r v a t i o n t a s k wore used i n com-p u t i n g t h e c o r r e l a t i o n between C o n s e r v a t i o n s c o r e s , and t h e CEFT f o r t h e w h i t e 5s, t h i s a g a i n r a i s e d t h e q u e s t i o n o f t h e r e l i a b i l i t y of t h e C o n s e r v a t i o n s c o r e s . To c l a r i f y t h i s , each 5. was g i v e n a new C o n s e r v a t i o n o f S u b s t a n c e and C o n s e r v a t i o n o f Weight s c o r e , based on t h e J5' s p e r f o r m a n c e on a l l t h r e e i t e m s i n each t e s t . The r e l a t i o n s h i p between C o n s e r v a t i o n o f S u b s t a n c e and Weight based on t h e s e s c o r e s .nd p e r f o r m a n c e on t h e CEFT was i n v e s t i g a t e d . A low but s i g n i f i c a n t p o s i t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n was o b t a i n e d between p e r -formance o f w h i t e Ss on C o n s e r v a t i o n o f S u b s t a n c e and t h e CEFT. ( t a u = +.20, p .05). A p o s i t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n was fo u n d between p e r f o r m a n c e on C o n s e r v a t i o n o f Weight and t h e CEFT. However, t h i s j u s t f a i l e d t o be s i g n i f i c a n t a t t h e .05 l e v e l ( t a u = +.17, p = .085). The f i n d i n g s showed t h a t u s i n g t h e C o n s e r v a t i o n s c o r e s based on t h r e e i t e m s i n each t e s t i n c r e a s e d c o r r e l a t i o n w i t h t h e CEFT f o r b o t h t e s t s . - 55 -Though t h e p r e d i c t e d s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p s were not o b t a i n e d w i t h b o t h w h i t e and C h i n e s e Ss, t h e r e were some i n d i c a t i o n s t h a t t h e e x p e c t e d r e l a t i o n s h i p s may have been o b t a i n e d i f more i t e m s had been g i v e n on t h e C o n s e r v a -t i o n t a s k s . T h i s would have i n c r e a s e d b o t h t h e r e l i a b i l i t y and t h e r a n g e o f t h e t e s t and t h e c h a n c e s o f f i n d i n g s i g -n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p s would have been h i g h e r . T h i s p o s s i -b i l i t y was c o n f i r m e d w i t h t h e r e s u l t s o f t h e w h i t e S s . F u r t h e r m o r e , i f t h e p e r f o r m a n c e o f t h e C h i n e s e S_s from 5 c h o o l 3 had not been so u n e x p e c t e d l y low, t h e r e s u l t s f o r t h e C h i n e s e S_s may have been i n l i n e w i t h t h e p r e d i c t i o n s a l s o . P a s c u a l - L e o n e (1966) s u g g e s t e d t h a t p e r f o r m a n c e on c e r -t a i n P i a g e t i a n t a s k s which a r e w i t h i n t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l c a -p a c i t y o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l w i l l be d e t e r m i n e d i n p a r t by t h e v a r i a b l e o f f i e l d - d e p e n d e n c y . One would e x p e c t on t h e b a s i s o f t h i s t h a t p e r f o r m a n c e on t e s t s which a r e more d i f f i c u l t , and which may be, i n f a c t , beyond th e i n d i v i d u a l ' s i n t e l l e c -t u a l c a p a c i t y , w i l l not be as s t r o n g l y i n f l u e n c e d by t h i s d i m e n s i o n . A h i g h e r c o r r e l a t i o n w i l l t h e r e f o r e be o b t a i n e d between C o n s e r v a t i o n o f S u b s t a n c e and t h e CEFT t h a n t h a t between C o n s e r v a t i o n o f Weight and t h e CEFT. The t r e n d s from'.both C h i n e s e and w h i t e samples were c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h i s p r e d i c t i o n . Both groups o b t a i n e d h i g h e r c o r r e l a t i o n s between C o n s e r v a t i o n o f S u b s t a n c e and t h e CEFT t h a n C o n s e r -v a t i o n o f Weight and t h e CEFT. R e s u l t s f o r b o t h w h i t e and C h i n e s e Ss on t h e Water L e v e l T e s t s u p p o r t e d t h e p r e d i c t i o n t h a t a s i g n i f i c a n t - 56 -c o r r e l a t i o n e x i s t s between p e r f o r m a n c e on t h e Water L e v e l T e s t and s c o r e s on t h e CEFT. S i g n i f i c a n t c o r r e l a t i o n s were o b t a i n e d f o r b o t h t h e w h i t e and t h e C h i n e s e S s . How-e v e r , t h e c o r r e l a t i o n f o r both groups was low. The o r i g i n a l h y p o t h e s i s , t h e r e f o r e , was c o n f i r m e d f o r t h e Water L e v e l T e s t but not f o r t h e C o n s e r v a t i o n t a s k s . T h i s may r e f l e c t o n l y t h e g r e a t e r r e l i a b i l i t y o f t h e Water L e v e l s c o r e s , which a r e based on 12 i t e m s . I t may r e f l e c t d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e n a t u r e o f t h e t a s k s and t h e c r i t e r i a r e q u i r e d t o be met f o r c o r r e c t p e r f o r m a n c e . In b o t h t h e CEFT and t h e Water L e v e l T e s t , t h e S_ i s r e q u i r e d t o e x t r a c t t h e r e l e v a n t i n f o r m a t i o n f r o m a number of m i s l e a d i n g cues - t h e c o l o r s and t h e l i n e s i n t h e com-p l e x f i g u r e i n t h e CEFT, t h e w a l l s and t h e p o s i t i o n o f t h e b o t t l e i n t h e Water L e v e l T e s t . However, t h e r e i s no one s p e c i f i c s t i m u l u s cue which i s p r e d o m i n a n t l y m i s l e a d i n g and which t h e i n d i v i d u a l has t o c o n t e n d w i t h b e f o r e he can a r r i v e at t h e c o r r e c t r e s p o n s e . F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e m i s l e a d i n g cues i n b o t h t e s t s do not change d u r i n g t h e c o u r s e of t h e e x p e r i m e n t . In t h e C o n s e r v a t i o n t a s k , on t h e o t h e r hand, one p e r c e p t u a l cue i s dominant, t h e shape o f t h e p l a s t i c i n e . F u r t h e r m o r e , t h i s p e r c e p t u a l cue i s changed d u r i n g t h e e x p e r i m e n t , and t h e 5_ i s r e q u i r e d t o r e a s o n out i n v a r i a n c e o f s u b s t a n c e and w e i g h t i n t h e f a c e of t h i s p a r t i c u l a r p e r -c e p t u a l change. Thus, t h e C o n s e r v a t i o n t a s k s d i f f e r from b o t h t h e CEFT and t h e Water L e v e l T e s t w i t h r e g a r d t o t h e n a t u r e o f t h e p e r c e p t u a l cues p r e s e n t i n t h c t e s t s i t u a t i o n . F u r t h e r -more, i n t h e CEFT and Water L e v e l T e s t t h e c h i l d i s not - 57 -r e q u i r e d t o v e r b a l i z e h i s r e s p o n s e s . In t h e CEFT, he has t o p o i n t out t h e s i m p l e f i g u r e and i n t h e Water L e v e l T e s t he i s r e q u i r e d t o draw t h e water l i n e . However, i n t h e C o n s e r v a t i o n t a s k s , t h e S_ not o n l y has t o r e a s o n out t h e f a c t o f i n v a r i a n c e , he i s f u r t h e r asked t o v e r b a l i z e t h e j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r i t . T h e r e f o r e , i n terms o f t h e c r i t e r i o n used f o r s c o r i n g , a r e s p o n s e as c o r r e c t , t h e C o n s e r v a t i o n t a s k s a g a i n d i f f e r , from both t h e Water L e v e l T e s t and t h e CEFT. Because o f t h e g r e a t e r s i m i l a r i t y between t h e Water L e v e l T e s t and t h e CEFT i n t h e s e r e s p e c t s , t h i s s i m i l a r i t y may have r e s u l t e d i n a h i g h e r c o r r e l a t i o n between t h e Water L e v e l T e s t and t h e CEFT t h a n between t h e C o n s e r v a t i o n t a s k and t h e CEFT. No s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p was f o u n d between p e r f o r -mance on P i a g e t i a n t a s k s and i n Achievement s c o r e s . One p o s s i b l e e x p l a n a t i o n f o r t h i s l a c k o f r e l a t i o n s h i p may a g a i n s i m p l y be b e c a u s e some o f t h e t e s t s were beyond t h e i n t e l l e c -t u a l c a p a c i t y o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l and t h e r e f o r e d i f f e r e n c e s i n a c h i e v e m e n t m o t i v a t i o n would make no d i f f e r e n c e t o p e r f o r -mance on t h e s e t a s k s . T h i s would l e n d one a g a i n t o p r e d i c t t h a t p e r f o r m a n c e on t h e e a s i e r t a s k s would show a h i g h e r c o r r e l a t i o n w i t h n a c h i e v e m e n t s c o r e s , but t h a t t h e c o r r e l a -t i o n w i l l break down w i t h t h e more d i f f i c u l t t a s k s . The r e s u l t s showed t h a t t h e c o r r e l a t i o n between C o n s e r v a t i o n o f S u b s t a n c e and n Achievement s c o r e s wa* l o w e r ( t a u = -.045) th a n t h a t between C o n s e r v a t i o n o f Weight and n Achievement s c o r e s ( t a u = - . 1 8 4 ) . T h i s f i n d i n g i s i n c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e r e a s o n i n g above. The r e l a t i o n s h i p between p e r f o r m a n c e on t h e h o r i z o n t a l i t e m s i n t h e Water L e v e l T e s t ( t h e e a s i e r - 58 -t a s k s ) and n a c h i e v e m e n t s c o r e s , and p e r f o r m a n c e on t h e t i l t e d i t e m s ( t h e more d i f f i c u l t t a s k ) was examined. A h i g h e r c o r r e l a t i o n was o b t a i n e d between p e r f o r m a n c e on t h e h o r i z o n t a l i t e m s and n Achievement ( t a u = .194) t h a n be-tween t i l t e d i t e m s and n a c h i e v e m e n t ( t a u = - . 0 2 2 ) . T h i s f i n d i n g l e n d s s u p p o r t t o t h e p r e d i c t i o n . The e v i d e n c e f o r t h i s e x p l a n a t i o n o f t h e l a c k o f c o r r e l a t i o n between n Achievement and t h e P i a g e t i a n t a s k t h e n , i s i n c o n s i s t e n t . I t may be t h a t t h e p r o c e d u r e and methods f o r e l i c i t i n g and t h e s c o r i n g f o r n Achievement a r e not a p p l i c a -b l e t o t h c C h i n e s e . T h i s would p r o v i d e a n o t h e r p o s s i b l e r e a s o n f o r t h e f a i l u r e t o f i n d a s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p between n Achievement and p e r f o r m a n c e on t h e P i a g e t i a n t a s k s . However, H a y a s h i , Tamatsa and Havu (1962) have e s -t a b l i s h e d t h a t n Achievement as measured by t h e TAT s i g n i f i -c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t i a t e s between t h e p e r f o r m a n c e o f low and h i g h ego ' i n v o l v e m e n t ' s i t u a t i o n s w i t h J a p a n e s e S_s from Tokyo. T h e r e i s , t h e r e f o r e , some c r o s s - c u l t u r a l e v i d e n c e t o s u g g e s t t h a t t h c i n s t r u m e n t f o r m e a s u r i n g a c h i e v e m e n t m o t i v a t i o n i s an a p p r o p r i a t e one. On t h e o t h e r hand, a r e v i e w o f t h e r e l e v a n t l i t e r a t u r e showed t h a t as y e t . No s t u d y w i t h w h i t e S_s has been c o n d u c t e d r e l a t i n g p e r f o r m a n c e on P i a g e t i a n t a s k s ond n Achievement s c o r e s . T h e r e f o r e , t h e r e i s no d i r e c t e v i d e n c e t h a t s'uch a r e l a t i o n s h i p e x i s t s . Thus, t o l o o k f o r a r e l a t i o n s h i p i n a c u l t u r e which i s d i f f e r e n t from t h a t f o r which both t e s t s were d e v i s e d , may have been p r e m a t u r e . F o r a l l t h u s e r e a s o n s , t h i s - 59 -f i n d i n g s h o u l d be r e g a r d e d as e s p e c i a l l y i n c o n c l u s i v e . A l t h o u g h t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p o b t a i n e d between P i a g e t i a n t a s k s and t h e CEFT o f f e r some s u p p o r t f o r t h e h y p o t h e s i s t h a t p e r f o r m a n c e on P i a g e t i a n t a s k s c o r r e l a t e d w i t h s c o r e s on t h e CEFT, t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s o b t a i n e d were not s t r o n g . Even when a c o r r e l a t i o n was f o u n d i t was o n l y a low one, t h e r e s u l t s r e l a t i n g n Achievement s c o r e s and P i a g e t i a n t a s k s o f f e r e d no support' f o r t h e h y p o t h e s i s t h a t p e r f o r -mance on n.Achievement c o r r e l a t e s w i t h p e r f o r m a n c e on P i a g e t i a n t a s k s . In view o f t h e g e n e r a l r e s u l t s , t h e r e was l i t t l e b a s i s f o r o f f e r i n g t h e s e h y p o t h e s e s as a l t e r n a t i v e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s t o Goodnow's f i n d i n g (1962) i n Hong Kong. However, i f t h e u n e x p e c t e d f i n d i n g t h a t p e r f o r m a n c e on t h e CEFT c o r r e l a t e d more w i t h p e r f o r m a n c e on t h e Water L e v e l T e s t t h a n w i t h p e r f o r m a n c e on t h e C o n s e r v a t i o n t a s k i s t a k e n t o be r e l i a b l e , a n o t h e r p a s s i b l e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n t o Goodnow's f i n d i n g can be s u g g e s t e d . However, t h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i s r e l e v a n t t o o n l y p a r t s o f Goodnow's r e s u l t s . The r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e P i a g e t i a n t a s k s t h a t Goodnow used was s i m i l a r t o t h a t between t h e P i a g e t i a n t a s k s used i n t h i s s t u d y . In b o t h C o n s e r v a t i o n o f Weight and Volume, one s a l i e n t p e r c e p t u a l f e a t u r e was dominant and m i s l e a d i n g ; and i n C o n s e r v a t i o n o f Space, S u b s t a n c e and Weight, t h e S_ was r e q u i r e d t o r e a s o n out t h e f a c t o f i n v a r i a n c e and t o v e r b a l i z e t h e j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r t h e r e s p o n s e . However, i n t h e c o m b i n a t i o n a l t a s k , t h e S_ d i d not have t o overcome a s p e c i f i c m i s l e a d i n g p e r c e p t u a l c u e . F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e r e - 60 -was no change i n t h e p e r c e p t u a l s t i m u l i d u r i n g t h e c o u r s e o f t h e e x p e r i m e n t . F i n a l l y , t h e 5. was not r e q u i r e d t o v e r b a l i z e t h e j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r t h e r e s p o n s e . In t h e Raven's P r o g r e s s i v e M a t r i c i e s , t h e i n d i v i d u a l was r e q u i r e d t o c l a s s i f y and group o b j e c t s a c c o r d i n g t o p r i n c i p l e s . I n d i v i d u a l s were a l s o r e q u i r e d t o f i t o b j e c t s i n t o t h e i r a p p r o p r i a t e s p a c e s on fur'' -boards. Thus, i n t h i s t e s t , t h e r e was no one p e r c e p t u a l cue which was dominant and m i s l e a d i n g ; t h e r e was no change i n s t i m u l i d u r i n g t h e ex-p e r i m e n t ; and no v e r b a l i z a t i o n was r e q u i r e d from t h e _5, Thus, t h e Raven's P r o g r e s s i v e M a t r i c e i s more s i m i l a r t o t h e C o m i n a t i o n a l t a s k s t h a n t o t h e C o n s e r v a t i o n t a s k s , i n -terms of i t s s t i m u l u s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , t h e t e s t i n g s i t u a -t i o n , and t h e r e s p o n s e r e q u i r e d o f t h e _5. T h i s may have a c c o u n t e d i n p a r t f o r t h e c o m b i n a t i o n a l t a s k b e i n g s e n s i -t i v e t o M a t r i c e s s c o r e and not t h e C o n s e r v a t i o n t a s k s . Whether t h i s h y p o t h e s i s i s i n f a c t f e a s i b l e , and h o l d s t r u e f o r o t h e r groups as w e l l , r e m a i n s t o be d e t e r m i n e d em-p c r i c a l l y . CHAPTER V SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION The major p u r p o s e o f t h i s s t u d y was to* r e l a t e t h e p e r f o r m a n c e o f C h i n e s e Ss i n Hong Kong on P i a g e t i a n t a s k s t o two f a c t o r s : f i r s t , t o a c o g n i t i v e s t y l e , v a r i a b l e , and s e c o n d l y t o a c h i e v e m e n t m o t i v a t i o n . I t was hoped t h a t t h e r e s u l t s from t h i s s t u d y would o f f e r some i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s t o Goodnow's (1962) f i n d i n g s i n Hong Kong. T h i s s t u d y a l s o p r o v i d e d an o p p o r t u n i t y t o d e t e r m i n e i f P i a g e t ' s r e s u l t s c o n c e r n i n g t h e o r d e r o f a c q u i s i t i o n o f t a s k s , as w e l l as l e v e l s o f d i f f i c u l t y w i t h i n t a s k s can be r e p l i c a t e d w i t h Ss f r o m a a n o t h e r c u l t u r e . F i n a l l y , t h e p e r f o r m a n c e o f a com-p a r a b l e group o f w h i t e C a n a d i a n c h i l d r e n was compared t o t h e C h i n e s e 5s both i n terms o f a c h i e v e m e n t on t h e t a s k s and r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e t a s k s . I t was h y p o t h e s i z e d t h a t p e r f o r m a n c e on P i a g e t i a n t a s k s would c o r r e l a t e w i t h s c o r e s on t h e CEFT and b o t h s c o r e s on n A c h i e v e m e n t . F u r t h e r m o r e , i t was b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e r e -s p o n s e s p r e d i c t e d by P i a g e t r e g a r d i n g t h e o r d e r o f a c h i e v e -ment on t h e C o n s e r v a t i o n t a s k s as w e l l as t h e l e v e l s o f d i f f i c u l t y w i t h i n t h e Water L e v e l T e s t w i l l be r e p l i c a t e d w i t h Ss f r o m Hong Kong. F i n a l l y , i t was e x p e c t e d t h a t t h e r e would be no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e i n p e r f o r m a n c e between w h i t e and C h i n e s e S s . T h i r t e e n Ss from t h r e e d i f f e r e n t s c h o o l s i n Hong Kong were t e s t e d i n d i v i d u a l l y on t h e f o l l o w i n g t e s t s : C o n s e r v a -t i o n o f S u b s t a n c e , C o n s e r v a t i o n o f Weight, t h e Water L e v e l T e s t , and t h e CEFT. Group t e s t i n g was used f o r n d m i n i s t e r -- 61 -- 62 -i n g t h e TAT» S c a r e s from a group o f p r e v i o u s l y t e s t e d w h i t e Ss on C o n s e r v a t i o n o f S u b s t a n c e , C o n s e r v a t i o n o f Weight, t h e Water L e v e l T e s t and t h c CEFT were used f o r c o m p a r i s o n w i t h t h e C h i n e s e S s . R e s u l t s f o r b o t h w h i t e and C h i n e s e S_s showed t h a t t h e r e was no s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p between p e r f o r m a n c e on t h e C o n s e r v a t i o n t a s k s and t h e CEFT. However, c o r r e l a -t i o n between C o n s e r v a t i o n of S u b s t a n c e and t h e CEFT was h i g h e r f o r b o t h w h i t e and C h i n e s e S s . A s i g n i f i c a n t but low c o r r e l a t i o n was o b t a i n e d between p e r f o r m a n c e on t h e Water L e v e l T o s t and t h c CEFT on b o t h w h i t e and C h i n e s e S s . Thus, i n terms o f r e l a t i o n s h i p s between P i a g e t i a n t a s k s and t h e CEFT, t h e f i n d i n g s were s i m i l a r f o r w h i t e and C h i n e s e S_s . Th e r e was no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e i n p e r f o r m a n c e between C h i n e s e and w h i t e 5_s on C o n s e r v a t i o n o f Weight, the Water L e v e l T e s t and t h e CEFT, though t h e w h i t e Ss o b t a i n e d h i g h e r s c o r e s on n i l t h c t e s t s compared. The w h i t e Ss p e r f o r m e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y b e t t e r on C o n s e r v a t i o n o f S u b s t a n c e than t h e C h i n e s e 5s. The o r d e r o f a c h i e v e m e n t on t h e C o n s e r v a t i o n t a s k s p r e d i c t e d by P i a g e t was r e p l i c a t e d w i t h t h e w h i t e 5s, but t h a o r d e r was not c l e a r f o r t h e C h i n e s e sample. D e v e l o p m e n t a l l e v e l s o f d i f f i c u l t y w i t h i n t h e Water L e v e l T e s t p r e d i c t e d by P i a g e t and I n h e l d c r were s u p p o r t e d by t h e f i n d i n g s f o r b o t h w h i t e and C h i n e s e S s . No s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p s were found f o r t h e C h i n e s e Ss between p e r f o r m a n c e on any P i a g e t i a n t a s k a n d n - 63 -A c h i e v e m e n t . T h e r e was some i n d i c a t i o n o f a low n e g a t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p between C o n s e r v a t i o n o f Weight and n A c h i e v e -ment but t h i s f a i l e d t o r e a c h s i g n i f i c a n c e a t t h e .05 l e v e l . Due t o t h e f a c t t h a t o n l y one i t e m was g i v e n i n each C o n s e r v a t i o n t a s k , t h c s c o r e s from t h e s e t e s t s may not have been r e l i a b l e . T h e r e f o r e , any f i n d i n g r e l a t e d t o the. C o n s e r v a t i o n t a s k s s h o u l d be r e g a r d e d as o n l y t e n t a t i v e . I f more i t e m s had been g i v e n on t h e C o n s e r v a t i o n t a s k s , t h e f i n d i n g s might have been i n t e r p r e t e d w i t h more c o n f i d e n c e . S i m i l a r l y , b e c a u s e t h e a s p e c t o f t h e s t u d y r e l a t i n g n Achievement t o P i a g e t i a n t a s k s was h i g h l y e x p l a n a t o r y i n n a t u r e t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s o f t h e r e s u l t s were m a i n l y i n c o n c l u s i v e . . BIBLIOGRAPHY A t k i n s o n , John W. (ed.) M o t i v e s i n F a n t a s y , A c t i o n and S o c i e t y . D. Von N o s t r a n d Co. I n c . , 1958. B e i l i n , H. P e r c e p t u a l c o g n i t i v e c o n f l i c t i n t h e development o f an i n v a r i a n t a r e a c o n c e p t . J . exp. C h i l d P s y c h o l . , 1964, 1, No. 3. B e n d i g , A.W. P e r s o n a l i t y v a r i a b l e s r e l a t e d t o i n d i v i d u a l p e r f o r m a n c e on a c o g n i t i v e t a s k . J . gen. P s y c h o l . , 1959, 60, 205-268. B r u n e r , J . 5 . The c o u r s e of c o g n i t i v e growth. Amer. P s y c h o l o g i s t , 1964, 19, 1-15. C h i l d , J . L . , F r a n k , K i t t y F., and Storm, T, S e l f r a t i n g s and TAT: t h e i r r e l a t i o n s t o each o t h e r and t o c h i l d h o o d b a c k g r o u n d s . J . P e r s . , 1956, 25, 96-114 . C r o n d a l l , V . J . and 5 i n k o l d a m . C h i l d r e n ' s dependent and a c h i e v e m e n t b e h a v i o r s i n s o c i a l s i t u a t i o n s and t h e i r p e r c e p t u a l f i e l d - d e p e n d e n c e . J . P e r s . , 1964, 32, 1-22. C r a n d a l l , V . J . A c h i o v o m e n t . C h i l d P s y c h o l . , 1963, E l k i n d , D. Q u a n t i t y c o n c e p t i o n i n j u n i o r and s e n i o r h i g h s c h o o l s t u d e n t s . C h i l d Develpm., 1961, 32, 551-560, F l a v e l l , J.H. The d e v e l o p m e n t a l P s y c h o l o g y o f Jean P i a g e t D. Van N o s t r a n d Comp. I n c . , 1963. G l i d e w e l l , J.C. P a r e n t a l A t t i t u d e s and C h i l d B e h a v i o r . C h a r l e s C. Thomas, P u b l i s h e r , 1961. Goodnow, J a c q u e l i n e A. A t e s t o f m i l i e u d i f f e r e n c e s w i t h some of P i a g e t ' s t a s k s . P s y c h o l . Monog., 1962, 76, 1-22. Goodnow, J a c q u e l i n e A., and Bethon, C. P i a g e t ' s t a s k s , t h c e f f e c t s of s c h o o l i n g and i n t e l l i g e n c e . C h i l d Develpm., 1 9 6 6 , 3 7 , 573-582. H a r r i s , D.B., C h i l d r e n ' s Drawings as Measures o f I n t e l l e c -t u a l M a t u r i t y , H a r c o u r t , B r a c e and W o r l d , I n c . , 1963. Hunt, J.M. P i a g e t ' s o b s e r v a t i o n s as a s o u r c e o f h y p o t h e -s i s c o n c e r n i n g m o t i v a t i o n . M _ e j r r i l l - P a l m e r Q u a r t e r l y . 1963, 263-275. - 64 -- 65 -J a c k s o n , D.N., M o s s i c k , 5., Myers, C. E v a l u a t i o n o f group and i n d i v i d u a l forms o f embedded f i g u r e s as mea-s u r e s o f f i e l d i n d e p e n d e n c e , Educ. and P s y c h o l , Msrmt.. 1964, 24,177-191. Ke s s e n , W. and Kuhlman, C l e m e n t i n e (e d s . ) Thoughs i n t h e Young C h i l d , r e p o r t o f a c o n f e r e n c e an i n t e l l e c -t u a l development w i t h p a r t i c u l a r a t t e n t i o n t o t h e work o f Jean P i a g e t . Monogram. S o c i e t y R e s e a r c h i n C h i l d Develpm.. 1962, 27, K o f s k y , E. A s c a l o g r n m s t u d y o f c l a s s i f y i n g d e v e l o p m e n t . C h i l d Develpm.. 1966, 37, 191-204. L o v e l l , K., M i t c h e l l , E. An e x p e r i m e n t a l s t u d y o f t h e growth of some l o g i c a l s t r u c t u r e s . B r i t . J . P s y c h o l . , 1962, 53, 175-188. L o v e l l , K. and O g i l v i e , E. A s t u d y o f t h e c o n s e r v a t i o n o f s u b s t a n c e i n t h e j u n i o r s c h o o l c h i l d , B r i t . J . Educ. P s y c h o l . . 196'], 3H, 109-118. L o v e l l , K. and O g i l v i e , E. Growth o f c o n c e p t o f volume i n j u n i o r s c h o o l c h i l d r e n . J . C h i l d P s y c h o l . a n d P s v c h i a t . . 1961, 2, 118-126. L o v e l l , K. and O g i l v i e , E. A s t u d y o f t h e C o n s e r v a t i o n o f Weight i n t h e j u n i o r s c h o o l c h i l d . B r i t . J . Educ. P s y c h o l . . 1961,-31, 138-144. M c C l e l l a n d , D.C. S t u d i e s i n M o t i v a t i o n . A p p l e t o n - C e n t u r y -C r o f t s , I n c . , 1955. P a s c u a l - L e o n e , J . P i n g o t ' s p e r i o d o f c o n c r e t e o p e r a t i o n s and W i t k i n s f i e l d dependence. A s t u d y on c o l l e g e s t u d e n t s nnd c h i l d r e n . U n i v . o f B r i t . C o l u m b i a , 1966. P i a g e t , J . The C h i l d ' s C o n c e p t i o n o f Numbers. R o u t l e d g e nnd Kagan P a u l , 1952. P i a g e t , J . The o r i g i n o f I n t e l l i g e n c e i n t h e C h i l d . R o u t l e d g e and Kagan P a u l , 1953. P i a g e t , J . and I n h o l d e r , B. The C h i l d ' s C o n c e p t i o n o f Space. R o u t l e d g e and Kngan P a u l , 1956. Smedslund, J . The e f f e c t o f o b s e r v a t i o n on c h i l d r e n ' s r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e sp;v,. .1 o r i e n t a t i o n o f o water s u r f a c e . J . Genet. P s y c h o l . . 1962, 63, 101-102. - 66 -Smedslund, J . C o n c r e t e r e a s o n i n g . A s t u d y o f i n t e l l e c t u a l d e v e l o p m e n t . 5oc. Res, i n C h i l d Develpm. Monoq. 1964, 29, 1-39. Storm, J . C h r i s t i n e . A c r o s s - c u l t u r a l c o m p a r i s o n o f Weight and Number C o n s e r v a t i o n . U n p u b l i s h e d M . A . t h e s i s U n i v . c f B r i t , C o l u m b i a , 1967. Tuddenham, R.D. Jean P i a g e t and t h e w o r l d o f t h e c h i l d . Amer. P s y c h o l . , 1966, 21, 207-217. W i t k i n , H.A. c_t _ 1 . P e r s o n a l i t y Through P e r c e p t i o n , H a r p e r and B r o s . , 1954. W i t k i n , H.A. et, a_l. P s y c h o l o g i c a l D i f f e r e n t i a t i o n . John W i l e y and Sons I n c . , 1962. - 67 -APPENDIX 1 The Water L e v e l T e s t i s used by P i a g e t and I n h e l d e r t o i n v e s t i g a t e t h e development o f a h o r i z o n t a l a x i s . T h i s development i s a n a l y z e d i n terms o f s t a g e s o f development of t h e r e s p o n s e . D u r i n g S t a g e 1, t h e c h i l d i s u n a b l e t o r e p l i c a t e t h e water as a p l a n e s u r f a c e . At S t a g e I I , s p a t i a l o r i e n t a t i o n i s d e t e r m i n e d . \"By t h e p a r t i c u l a r c o n f i g u r a t i o n r e p r e s e n t e d , r a t h e r t h a n by an e x t e r n a l s y s t e m o f r e f e r e n c e \" ( P i a g e t and I n h e l d e r , 1956, p. 3 8 2 ) . Stage II i s f u r t h e r d i v i d e d i n t o s u b - s t a g e s . At S t a g e 11A, t h e c h i l d draws t h e water l i n e w i t h o u t r e g a r d t o any e x t e r n a l r e f e r e n c e s y s t e m . H i s r e s p o n s e i s g u i d e d by t h e base o f t h e j a r and he draws t h e water l i n e as p a r a l l e l t o t h i s . At S t a g e I I B , t h e c h i l d r e a l i z e s t h a t t h e water i s no l o n g e r n e c e s s a r i l y p a r a l l e l t o t h e base o f t h e j a r . However, he s t i l l c a n n o t c o o r d i n a t e h i s p r e d i c t i o n s w i t h any f i x e d e x t e r n a l r e f e r e n c e system ( i . e . t h e h o r i z o n t a l p l a n e on which t h e j a r s t a n d s ) . T h e r e -f o r e , when t h e j a r i s i n a t i l t e d p o s i t i o n , he i s not a b l e t o draw t h e water l i n e as h o r i z o n t a l . The c h i l d t h e n r e a c h e s a t r a n s i t i o n a l s t a g e between Stage IIB and 111A. Here t h e c h i l d i s a b l e t o p r e d i c t t h e l e v e l of t h e l i q u i d when t h e j a r i s i n v e r t e d or l y i n g on i t s s i d e , but not when t h e j a r i s i n a t i l t e d p o s i t i o n . F i n a l l y , S t a g e I I I i s r e a c h e d . At t h i s s t a g e , t h e c h i l d i s a b l e t o r e l a t e h i s r e s p o n s e s t o an e x t e r n a l f i g u r e o f r e f e r e n c e , namely, t h e h o r i z o n t a l p l a n e on which t h e j a r s t a n d s . He b e g i n s t o - 68 -A ppendix 1 ( c o n t ' d ) draw t h e w a t e r l i n e as p a r a l l e l t o t h e h o r i z o n t a l p l a n e r e g a r d l e s s o f t h e p o s i t i o n o f t h e j a r . S t a g e I I I i s f u r t h e r de'.. i d e d i n t o f i v e s u b - s t a g e s . The f i r s t s t a g e l a s t s from 7-8-9, d u r i n g which the p r i n c i p l e o f a h o r i z o n t a l a x i s comes g r a d u a l l y t o be a p p l i e d t o s i t u a t i o n s . At about age 9, s u b -s t a g e 111B b e g i n s , b r i n g i n g w i t h i t , f u l l u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e n o t i o n o f t h e h o r i z o n t a l a x i s . I t f o l l o w s from P i a g e t and I n h c l d c r ' s (1956) a n a l y s i s t h a t w i t h i n t h e Water L e v e l T e s t , t h e e a s i e s t t a s k was a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e b o t t l e i n t h e v e r t i c a l p o s i t i o n , t h e more d i f f i c u l t t a s k was a s s o c i a t e d w i t h th e b o t t l e i n t h e h o r i z o n t a l p o s i t i o n and t h e most d i f f i c u l t t a s k b e i n g a s s o -c i a t e d w i t h t h e b o t t l e i n a t i l t e d p o s i t i o n . In o r d e r t o g i v e a. c l e a r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e v a l u e o f t h c r e s p o n s e s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h each d e v e l o p m e n t a l s t a g e , the r e s p o n s e s f o r each p o s i t i o n o f t h e b o t t l e were examined s e p a r a t e l y . D e v e l o p m e n t a l s t e p s were d e r i v e d based on t h e work of P a s c u a l - L e o n e (1967), which were e m p i r i c a l l y r e l a t e d t o but were not i d e n t i c a l t o , t h e d e v e l o p m e n t a l s t a g e s o f P i a g e t and I n h o l d e r . These d e v e l o p m e n t a l s t e p s p r o v i d e f o r a d e t a i l e d a n a l y s i s o f t h e r e s p o n s e s . B o u n d a r i e s were e s -t a b l i s h e d i n terms o f d e g r e e and d i r e c t i o n o f d e v i a t i o n from t h e h o r i z o n t a l a x i s between each d e v e l o p m e n t a l s t a r . The a n g l e o f d e v i a t i o n from t h e h o r i z o n t a l was measured from t h e l e f t t o t h c r i g h t of t h e water l i n e . A c r o s s was used t o d e note t h e l o c a t i o n o f t h e w a t e r . - 69 -B o t t l e i n t h e V e r t i c a l P o s i t i o n D e v e l o p m e n t a l 5 t e p s P i a g e t 1 s S t a g e Age at which s t a g e f i r s t appears B o t t l e o f d e v i a - S i g n o~ P o s i - t i o n f r o m D e v i a -t i o n H o r i z o n t a l t i o n S tep 0. These r e s p o n s e s a r e t h e most p r i m i t i v e de-v e l o p m e n t a l l y . The c h i l d i s u n a b l e t o g r a s p t h e n o t i o n o f a water s u r f a c e . S t a g e 0 3-4 Step 1. The c h i l d r e a l i z e s t h e e x i s t e n c e o f a water s u r f a c e . However, hfe does not know t h a t t h e water f a l l s t o t h e bottom o f t h e c o n t a i n e r . He b e l i e v e s t h e water l i n e t o be p a r a l l e l t o t h e base o f t h e c o n t a i n -e r S t a g e I 5-6 0-6 Step 2. The c h i l d r e a l i z e s t h a t t h e water f a l l s t o t h e bottom o f t h e c o n t a i n e r . He b e l i e v e s t h e water l i n e t o S t a g e be p a r a l l e l t o t h e base o f II A t h e c o n t a i n e r . 7-8 0-6 Step '3. The c h i l d r e a l i z e s t h a t t h e water l e v e l does not; have t o be p a r a l l e l t o t h e S t a g e bottom of t h e c o n t a i n e r II B 8-9 71-90 + S t e p 4. The c h i l d r e a l i z e s t h a t t h e water l e v e l does not have t o be p a r a l l e l t o t h e S t a g e bottom o f t h e c o n t a i n e r .11 B 1-9 7-70 Step 5. The c h i l d draws t h e w a t e r l i n e p a r a l l e l t o t h e h o r i z o n t a l p l a n e , w i t h t h e water l o c a t e d at t h e S t a g e bottom o f t h e c o n t a i n e r . I l l T h i s i s t h e c o r r e c t r e s p o n s e . 9-10 1 0-6 - 70 -B o t t l e i n the H o r i z o n t a l P o s i t i o n Developmental Steps P i a g e t 1 s Stage Age at which stage f i r s t appears B o t t l e P o s i -t i o n of d e v i a -t i o n from H o r i z o n t a l Sign of Devia-t i o n Step 0. The c h i l d i s unable to grasp the Stage 0 3-4 J rQj; | notion of a water j ' j s u r f a c e . Step 1. The c h i l d draws the water l i n e p a r a l l e l to the base of the container ;tage I 5-6 71-90 Step 2. The c h i l d r e a l i z e s the water l i n e need not be p a r a l l e l to the bot-tom of the c o n t a i n e r . However, he does not r e a l i z e that the wa-t e r f a l l s to the bottom of the con-t a i n e r . Stage II 7 A 7-70 0-6 5tep 3. The c h i l d r e a l i z e s that the water f a l l s to the bottom of the con-t a i n e r . Stage A Stage B I I I I 7-70 Step 4. The c h i l d draws the water l i n e p a r a l l e l to the h o r i z o n t a l plane with the water l o -cated at the bottom of the cont ain er. This i s \" t h e c o r r e c t response. Stage I I I 9-10 0-6 - 71 -B o t t l e i n the T i l t e d P o s i t i o n Developmental Stars P i a g e t 1 s Stage Age at which stage f i r s t appears B o t t l e of d e v i a - Sign of P o s i - t i o n from Devia-t i o n H o r i z o n t a l t i o n St-ep 0. The c h i l d i s unable to grasp the notion of a water surface Stage 0 3-4 Step 1. l i e v e s to be p bottom He does that th to the contain The c h i l d be-the water l i n e a r a l l e l to the of the b o t t l e . not r e a l i z e e water f a l l s bottom of the er. Stage I 5-6 31-70 31-70 31-70 7 ^ / r -7 31-70 Step 2, The c h i l d r e a l i z e s that the water need not be p a r a l l e l to the bot-tom of the container. He does not r e a l i z e however, that the water f a l l s to the bottom of the con-t a i n e r . Stage II A 31-70 %>: 31-70 31-70 31-70 Step 3L The c h i l d r e a l i z e s , t h a t the water f a l l s to the bottom of the con-t a i n e r . Stage II A Stage II B 8-9 31-70 31-70 • - - O t -r~K. y 31-70 4-1 - 72 -Developmental 5teps Piaget's Age at B o t t l e Devia- Sign Stage which P o s i - t i o n from Devia-stage t i o n H o r i z o n t a l t i o n f i r s t appears Step 4, These responses represent a r e s o l u t i o n of the tendency to draw p a r a l l e l to the v e r t i c a l or h o r i z o n t a l walls of the c o n t a i n e r Stage, II 8-9 B 7X7 7 4 71-90 71-90 71-90 71-90 Step 5. These responses a l s o represent a r e s o l u -t i o n of the tendency to draw p a r a l l e l to the v e r t i c a l or the h o r i z o n -t a l walls of the contain-er. But they are c l o s e r to the h o r i z o n t a l axis than step 4 responses. Stage II 8-9 B Stage 9-10 III 7-30 7-30 -7-30 + 2^ 7-30 Step 6. The c h i l d draws the water l i n e p a r a l l e l to the h o r i z o n t a l plane with the water l o c a t e d at the bottom of the c o n t a i n e r . This i s the c o r r e c t response Stage III 9-10 0-6 y. -\\ 0-6 + \\ — 0-6 + 1,1^ \" 0-6 "@en ; edm:hasType "Thesis/Dissertation"@en ; edm:isShownAt "10.14288/1.0104558"@en ; dcterms:language "eng"@en ; ns0:degreeDiscipline "Psychology"@en ; edm:provider "Vancouver : University of British Columbia Library"@en ; dcterms:publisher "University of British Columbia"@en ; dcterms:rights "For non-commercial purposes only, such as research, private study and education. Additional conditions apply, see Terms of Use https://open.library.ubc.ca/terms_of_use."@en ; ns0:scholarLevel "Graduate"@en ; dcterms:title "Motivation, field-dependence , and level of cognitive performance : an exploratory study with Chinese children"@en ; dcterms:type "Text"@en ; ns0:identifierURI "http://hdl.handle.net/2429/36666"@en .