@prefix vivo: . @prefix edm: . @prefix ns0: . @prefix dcterms: . @prefix skos: . vivo:departmentOrSchool "Education, Faculty of"@en ; edm:dataProvider "DSpace"@en ; ns0:degreeCampus "UBCV"@en ; dcterms:creator "Cheung, Man-Bing Steve"@en ; dcterms:issued "2011-08-06T17:23:13Z"@en, "1967"@en ; vivo:relatedDegree "Master of Arts - MA"@en ; ns0:degreeGrantor "University of British Columbia"@en ; dcterms:description """Students learning a foreign language are apt to apply their own linguistic habits to the new language. Actually many problems of foreign language learning arise out of the interference of the learner’s first language habits. Thus modern linguists believe that a given foreign language cannot be successfully taught in an identical way to a group of students with different linguistic backgrounds. While it is true that problems of the learning of a foreign language are various, and that each of them must be attacked with a different technique, the technique of Contrastive Analysis can be universally applied in foreign language teaching. Contrastive analysis of the source language and the target language has been proved fruitful by Professor Robert Lado formerly of the University of Michigan, especially in devising tests and preparing teaching materials. This thesis, which is based upon Professor Lado’s method, is a contrastive analysis of English and Chinese basic syntactical structures, and an attempt to establish a hierachy of difficulty so as to help teachers who teach English as a second language to Chinese students. The work is confined to the syntactical level. Other levels of the formal structure of language such as the phonological level, the morphophonemic level, and the semantic level, are beyond the scope of the purpose of the paper. The analysis is presented in the transformational approach demonstrated by Noam Chomsky in "A Transformational Approach to Syntax". (See Introduction) The thesis is divided into five sections. In each section, except Section 1, descriptions and contrastive analyses of the two languages are made so that conclusions can be reached and problems of Chinese speakers learning English can be predicted. Section 1 is an introduction which explains the use of contrastive analysis, and justifies the adoption of the transformational approach. Section 2 is an illustration, by generating sentences, of the English and Chinese Phrase Structure rules. Section 3 describes the Noun Phrases in both languages. Section 4 is a discussion of the personal pronoun, while Section 5 contains a classification of English and Chinese verbs. It is hoped that this paper will be of some value for teachers who are teaching English to Chinese speakers, and also that it will provide other teachers with some insight into the values of contrastive analysis in foreign language teaching."""@en ; edm:aggregatedCHO "https://circle.library.ubc.ca/rest/handle/2429/36536?expand=metadata"@en ; skos:note "A GRAMMATICAL CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS OF ENGLISH AND CHINESE BASIC STRUCTURES by MAN-BING STEVE CHEUNG B.A., New Asia College, Hong Kong, I960 A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS i n the Department of EDUCATION We accept t h i s thesis as conforming to the required standard THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA A p r i l , 1967 In presenting this thesis in p a r t i a l fu l f i lment of the requirements for an advanced degree at the Univers i ty of B r i t i s h Columbia, I agree that the Library shal l make i t f reely avai lable for reference and study I further agree that permission for extensive copying of th is thesis for scholar ly purposes may be granted by the Head of my Department or by his representatives It is understood that copying or publ i ca t ion of th i s thesis for f i n a n c i a l gain shal l not be allowed without my wri t ten permission. Department of Education The Univers i ty of B r i t i s h Columbia Vancouver 8 , Canada Date April. 1967 i i ABSTRACT S t u d e n t s l e a r n i n g a f o r e i g n language a r e apt t o a p p l y t h e i r own l i n g u i s t i c h a b i t s t o t h e new language. A c t u a l l y many problems o f f o r e i g n language l e a r n i n g a r i s e out o f the i n t e r f e r e n c e o f the l e a r n e r * s f i r s t language h a b i t s . Thus modern l i n g u i s t s b e l i e v e t h a t a g i v e n f o r e i g n language can-no t be s u c c e s s f u l l y t a u g h t i n an i d e n t i c a l way t o a group o f s t u d e n t s w i t h d i f f e r e n t l i n g u i s t i c backgrounds. W h i l e i t i s t r u e t h a t problems o f t h e l e a r n i n g o f a f o r e i g n language a re v a r i o u s , and t h a t each o f them must be a t t a c k e d w i t h a d i f -f e r e n t t e c h n i q u e , t h e t e c h n i q u e o f C o n t r a s t i v e A n a l y s i s can be u n i v e r s a l l y a p p l i e d i n f o r e i g n language t e a c h i n g . Con-t r a s t i v e a n a l y s i s o f t h e source language and t h e t a r g e t language has been proved f r u i t f u l by P r o f e s s o r R o b e r t Lado f o r m e r l y o f t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f M i c h i g a n , e s p e c i a l l y i n de-v i s i n g t e s t s and p r e p a r i n g t e a c h i n g m a t e r i a l s . T h i s t h e s i s , w h i c h i s based upon P r o f e s s o r Lado*s method, i s a c o n t r a s t i v e a n a l y s i s o f E n g l i s h and Chinese b a s i c s y n t a c t i c a l s t r u c t u r e s , and an attempt t o e s t a b l i s h a h i e r a c h y o f d i f f i c u l t y so as t o h e l p t e a c h e r s who t e a c h E n g l i s h as a second language t o Chinese s t u d e n t s . The work i s c o n f i n e d t o t h e s y n t a c t i c a l l e v e l . Other l e v e l s o f the f o r m a l s t r u c t u r e o f language such as t h e p h o n o l o g i c a l l e v e l , t h e morphophonemic l e v e l , and t h e semantic l e v e l ^ are beyond the scope o f t h e purpose o f t h e paper. The a n a l y s i s i s p r e -s e n t e d i n the t r a n s f o r m a t i o n a l approach demonstrated by i i i Noam Chomsky i n \"A T r a n s f o r m a t i o n a l Approach t o Synt a x \" . (See I n t r o d u c t i o n ) The t h e s i s i s d i v i d e d i n t o f i v e s e c t i o n s . I n each s e c t i o n , e x c e p t S e c t i o n 1, d e s c r i p t i o n s and c o n t r a s t i v e a n a l y s e s o f the two languages a re made so t h a t c o n c l u s i o n s can be re a c h e d and problems o f Chinese s p e a k e r s l e a r n i n g E n g l i s h can be p r e d i c t e d . S e c t i o n 1 i s an i n t r o d u c t i o n w h i c h e x p l a i n s t h e use o f c o n t r a s t i v e a n a l y s i s , and j u s t i -f i e s t he a d o p t i o n o f t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n a l approach. Sec-t i o n 2 i s an i l l u s t r a t i o n , by g e n e r a t i n g s e n t e n c e s , o f the E n g l i s h and Chinese Phrase S t r u c t u r e r u l e s . S e c t i o n 3 des-c r i b e s t h e Noun Ph r a s e s i n b o t h l a n g u a g e s . S e c t i o n 4 i s a d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e p e r s o n a l pronoun, w h i l e S e c t i o n 5 c o n t a i n s a c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f E n g l i s h and Chinese v e r b s . I t i s hoped t h a t t h i s paper w i l l be o f some v a l u e f o r t e a c h e r s who are t e a c h i n g E n g l i s h t o Chinese s p e a k e r s , and a l s o t h a t i t w i l l p r o v i d e o t h e r t e a c h e r s w i t h some i n s i g h t i n t o t h e v a l u e s o f c o n t r a s t i v e a n a l y s i s i n f o r e i g n language t e a c h i n g . i v CONTENTS 1. I n t r o d u c t i o n 1 2 . Phrase S t r u c t u r e R u l e s A. E n g l i s h Phrase S t r u c t u r e R u l e s 18 B. Chinese Phrase S t r u c t u r e R u l e s 31 C. A C o n s t r a s t i v e A n a l y s i s o f Some o f t h e K e r n e l S t r u c t u r e s o f E n g l i s h and Chinese 4-5 3. The NP A. The E n g l i s h NP 57 B. The Chinese NP 61 C. A C o n t r a s t i v e A n a l y s i s o f E n g l i s h and Chinese NP»s 65 4. P e r s o n a l Pronouns A. E n g l i s h P e r s o n a l Pronouns 67 B. Chinese P e r s o n a l Pronouns 76 C. A C o n s t r a s t i v e A n a l y s i s o f E n g l i s h and Chinese P e r s o n a l Pronouns Bl 5. The VP A. The Aux 82 a. Tense and Time $2 b. Modal 85 c. (have + en) 86 d. (be + i n g ) 87 e# A C o n t r a s t i v e A n a l y s i s o f E n g l i s h and Chinese Aux 91 - B. C l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f Verbs a. E n g l i s h V e r b s 93 V b. Chinese Verbs 102 c. A Contrastive Analysis of English and Chinese Verbs 109 A Selected Bibliography 115 1 1. Introduction This paper i s a contrastive analysis of English and Chinese basic structures for the use of high school teachers who teach English as a foreign language to Chinese students. It might also be used as reference f o r teachers teaching Chinese to English speakers. In ether case the reader i s assumed to have some basic t h e o r e t i c a l knowledge of h i s native language and adequate knowledge of the foreign lang-uage he i s teaching. I f he i s teaching his native language to foreign students, t h i s paper should provide him with some basic knowledge of the native language of his students. Modern l i n g u i s t s emphasize the:fact that a given second language cannot be successfully taught i f the teacher i g -nores the f i r s t language background of his students. This i s because, when a c h i l d i s learning his native language, he i s building up at the same time a set of habits that pre-vent him from responding to structures which do not occur i n h is language. In other words, i n learning a foreign language, problems often arise not only out of the basic d i f f i c u l t y of the target language, but also out of the interference of the learner's f i r s t language habits. More-over, most students seem to take i t f o r granted that the new language naturally follows a s t r u c t u r a l pattern i d e n t i -c a l to that of t h e i r native language. This i s espe c i a l l y true when the student has previously learned one or two other languages which are rather s i m i l a r to his native language. 2 Many language teachers r e a l i z e the importance of study-ing the l i n g u i s t i c backgrounds of t h e i r students i n order to achieve better r e s u l t s i n the classrooms, but very often they lack adequate techniques when confronted with actual problems. In most cases, i t i s due to the f a c t that they do not r e a l i z e the necessity of making, with t h e i r know-ledge, scientific comparisons of the structures of the two languages, and the appropriate application of the r e s u l t s of such comparisons i n preparing teaching materials and language learning experiments. This kind of s c i e n t i f i c comparison, or contrastive analysis, i s r e a l l y h e l p f u l i n solving problems i n foreign language learning. Contrastive analysis of English and other languages has been proved f r u i t f u l by many scholars, e s p e c i a l l y by Professor Robert Lado, formerly of the English Language Inst i t u t e at the University of Michigan, who has devised a large number of t e s t s on the basis of careful systematic comparison of one language with another.^ Contrastive analysis can be made on several l e v e l s . This paper w i l l be confined to s y n t a c t i c a l analysis of English and Chinese basic features. The method used i n contrasting the languages w i l l follow closely that suggested Robert Lado, \"A Comparison of the Sound Systems of English and Spanish,\" Hispania XXXIX (1956), p. 26 3 by Professor Lado i n his book L i n g u i s t i c s Across Cultures, which i s presented to trained foreign language teachers. Careful systematic descriptions of kernel sentences and t h e i r formatives w i l l be made. Then conclusions can be drawn, and a number of assumptions can be made which may help predict problems of Chinese speakers learning English. In preparing the necessary alignments of s y n t a c t i c a l items of both languages, an appropriate technique has been c a r e f u l l y chosen. The approach adopted w i l l be a f a i r l y new one known as Transformational Analysis. This kind of l i n g u i s t i c analysis coexists today with two others, namely, T r a d i t i o n a l Analysis and Structural Analysis. The reason fo r the adoption of the transformational approach i s j u s t i -f i a b l e . Here I would l i k e to discuss b r i e f l y these three types of grammars. a) T r a d i t i o n a l Grammar. The t r a d i t i o n a l grammarian has very high goals. His attitude i s sincere i n attempting to work out rules and d e f i n i t i o n s based upon the usage of mature users of the language so that less mature users of same language may have something to follow. However, the t r a d i t i o n a l grammarian f a i l s to understand that he i s not describing the language as i t i s , but ordering people to speak and write the way he thinks the language should be spoken and written. He advocates what i s c a l l e d \"standard* ^ Robert Lado, L i n g u i s t i c s Across Cultures (Ann Arbor, Mich.: The Univ. of Michigan Press, 1964). 4 language. Therefore, d i a l e c t s are considered corrupted versions of the standard*. Under such a p r i n c i p l e a l l d i a l e c t speakers have to revise t h e i r native way of speak-ing and writing the language, not because i t i s ungram-matical i n t h e i r speech community, but because i t i s not spoken or written according to the * set;rules* l a i d down by a small group of people.3 I t i s not d i f f i c u l t to r e a l i z e that the approach used by the t r a d i t i o n a l grammarian to describe a language i s not s c i e n t i f i c , since i t cannot be open to anyone's v e r i f i c a t i o n . Moreover, the grammar i t s e l f contains quite a number of f a l s e notions. Evidence can be seen i n d e f i n i t i o n s l i k e \"A noun i s the name of a person, place, or thing.\" Such a d e f i n i t i o n i s inadequate when applied to defining words l i k e \"wisdom\", \"pain\", \" l i g h t n i n g \" which include notions more than those stated i n the foregoing d e f i n i t i o n . ^ Almost a l l t r a d i t i o n a l grammar books say that English has the present, past, and future tenses. But actually i f we look at the language c a r e f u l l y , we w i l l f i n d that what i s described as the future tense i s a structure e n t i r e l y d i f f e r e n t from that of the two other tenses. •> Thomas Pyles, The Origin & Development of the English Language (New York: Hancourt, Brace & World, 1964), pp. 213-6. 4- S.R. Levin, \"Comparing T r a d i t i o n a l & Structural Grammar,\" Readings i n Applied English L i n g u i s t i c s , ed. Harold B. Allen, (New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1964), pp. 46-53. 5 On the whole, t r a d i t i o n a l grammar i s based upon the \"good and bad\", \" r i g h t and wrong\", \"black and white\" type of p r i n c i p l e which i s quite against the modern l i n g u i s t i c s p i r i t i n the research of t r u t h . Therefore, t r a d i t i o n a l a n a l y s i s cannot be the best approach to describe any l i v i n g language. b) S t r u c t u r a l Grammar. Towards the beginning of the t h i r t i e s , there was born i n America a new f i e l d of l i n g u i s -t i c s which was based upon \"Behaviorism\" and \"Pragmatism\". I t was once c a l l e d \" D e s c r i p t i v e L i n g u i s t i c s \" , but i t i s now c a l l e d \" S t r u c t u r a l L i n g u i s t i c s \" . The s t r u c t u r a l l i n g u i s t b e l i e v e s that a grammar i s a systematic d e s c r i p t i o n of the spoken language only; i t never suggests how the language should be spoken. According to the theory of t h i s s c hool, every language has i t s own b a s i c s t r u c t u r e . So a method s u i t a b l e to describe one language may not be s u i t a b l e to describe another. Members of a c e r t a i n speech community understand one another because they have a l l acquired the mastery of the ba s i c s t r u c t u r e s of the language. The s t r u c t u r a l l i n g u i s t t h i n k s t h a t w r i t t e n forms are only a r b i t r a r y symbols devised to represent speech sounds. So a spoken sentence i s only a stream of utterances produced by the speech organs. A language can thus be analy-sed by means of a s c i e n t i f i c scheme i n t o sets of elements on four l e v e l s : the p h o n o l o g i c a l l e v e l , the morphological l e v e l , the morphophonemic l e v e l , and the syntactic l e v e l . 6 Structural grammar has i t s own f a l l a c i e s . The struct-u r a l l i n g u i s t thinks, ignoring the learner's background and need, that the student.learning a language should s t a r t f i r s t with a thorough phonemic study of the language before he can go on to the other structures; otherwise, he i s committing the f a u l t o f \"mixing l e v e l s \" . Such a r e s t r i c t i o n has created much argument and d i f f i c u l t y i n the f i e l d of l i n g u i s t i c learning and analysis. I t i s true that the s t r u c t u r a l l i n g u i s t has set l i n g -u i s t i c students free from the old nineteenth century type of h i s t o r i c a l l i n g u i s t i c studies, but he seems to have mixed up language and spoken language. Such a confusion has become a new obstacle i n l i n g u i s t i c learning. Moreover, even i n actual application s t r u c t u r a l grammar does not explain adequately ambiguities l i k e : 1) /They / were / entertaining women/ /They / were entertaining / women/ 2) /He / shot / the bi r d / i n the garden/ /He / shot / the b i r d i n the garden/ In the f i r s t sentence i n 1), the N women i s the \"subject\" of the verb \"were\", but i t i s the object i n the second sentence. Structural grammar describes the ambiguity only; i t never explains i t . - * S i m i l a r l y , s t r u c t u r a l grammar does not explain 5 Robert B. Lees, \"Transformation Grammars and the Fri e s Framework\", Readings i n Applied English L i n g u i s t i c s , ed. Harold B. A l l e n (New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1964), p. 139. 7 why the phrase \" i n the garden\" i n the f i r s t sentence i n 2) ref e r s to the subject, while i n the second i t refer s to the object. c) Transformational Grammar. During the f i f t i e s , f o l -lowing the American c r i t i c i s m of Pragmatism, l i n g u i s t s * concentration on s t r u c t u r a l l i n g u i s t i c s was diverted to generative grammar. In fa c t , s t r u c t u r a l l i n g u i s t i c s began to have a r i v a l after Noam Chomsky, a scholar of formal l o g i c and l i n g u i s t i c s , published his Syntactic Structures^ i n 195$ and delivered h i s paper e n t i t l e d ''A Transforma-7 t i o n a l Approach to Syntax\" i n the Third Texas Conference on Problems of L i n g u i s t i c s i n English held i n 195# at the University of Texas. The transformational l i n g u i s t considers that the s t r u c t u r a l i s t has made many mistakes i n analysing language i n a mechanical way, for language i s more than arbi t r a r y symbols and comprises a f i n i t e set of d e f i n i t e items which when combined can produce an i n f i n i t e set of sentences. A grammar i s not merely a description of what i s being spoken by native speakers of a certain language, but i s also a theory of the language which should be based upon the i n t u i t i o n of native speakers. This i n t u i t i o n may be Noam Chomsky, Syntactic Structures (The Hague: Mouton & Co., 1965). 7 Third Texas Conference on Problems of L i n g u i s t i c s i n English, ed. A. A» H i l l . (Austin, Texas: University of Texas Press, 1962). 8 formalized by rules which w i l l generate and give a struc-t u r a l description of a l l grammatical utterances of the language, and also explain ambiguities not f u l l y explained by s t r u c t u r a l grammar. This i n t u i t i o n i s acquired by everyone as he passes from infancy to childhood. The process involves factors of psychology, sociology and l i n g u i s t i c s . Therefore, the language student need not necessarily go through the s t r u c t u r a l i s t ' s four hypothet^-i c a l l e v e l s one by one i n fix e d order, which are useful only f o r l i n g u i s t i c observation. He can possibly begin with syntax i n the studying of a language, ignoring for the time being the other three l e v e l s . The native speaker may utter ungrammatical sentences of his language, but he has the capacity to correct basic errors by means of his i n t u i t i o n . Chomsky thinks that there are three kinds of grammar.^ The f i r s t kind of grammar describes only what i s being spoken among the native speakers, and thus deals with only the s u p e r f i c i a l structure of the language. Grammar l i k e t h i s reaches only what Chomsky c a l l s the \" l e v e l of observ-a t i o n a l adequacy\". Structural grammar belongs to t h i s category. The second kind of grammar has a higher goal. I t gives an account of how an i d e a l language may be pro-duced and a set of rules from which such an i d e a l language Noam Chomsky, Aspects of the Theory of Syntax (Massa-chusetts: The M.I.T. Press, 1965), pp. 18 - 30. 9 may be de r i v e d . Such a grammar, according to Chomsky, reaches the \" l e v e l of d e s c r i p t i v e adequacy\", and t r a d i -t i o n a l grammar i s an example of i t . The t h i r d k i n d of grammar aims at an achievement highest of a l l . With a set of r u l e s based on the n a t i v e speaker's 1 i n t u i t i o n , t h i s grammar attempts t o e x p l a i n a l l s t r u c t u r e s , i n c l u d i n g the deep s t r u c t u r e , of a language. I t i s a l s o a p p l i c a b l e to a l l languages. Chomsky considers that t h i s k i n d of grammar reaches the \" l e v e l of explanatory adequacy\", and tha t t r a n s f o r m a t i o n a l grammar belongs t o t h i s type of grammar. With t h e i r disadvantages i n language a n a l y s i s , n e i t h e r t r a d i t i o n a l grammar nor s t r u c t u r a l grammar i s s u i t a b l e f o r the purpose of my research. Transformational a n a l y s i s seems to be an i d e a l approach f o r me, since i t allows both languages to be described and contrasted w i t h each other under one p r i n c i p l e . Here I must say th a t t r a n s f o r m a t i o n -a l i s t s have been r e c o n s i d e r i n g some of t h e i r previous notions w i t h i n the past f o u r years, and some of t h e i r approaches have been changed. I s h a l l adopt techniques based l a r g e l y upon the e a r l i e r notions set f o r t h i n The T h i r d Texas Conference r e g a r d l e s s of the recent r e v i s i o n s , because I b e l i e v e that t h i s e a r l i e r model i s adequate f o r the purpose of my research. In order to ensure t h a t t h i s paper can be read more e a s i l y , I t h i n k the f o l l o w i n g d e s c r i p t i o n of transformat-i o n a l grammar and examples to i l l u s t r a t e how i t operates are necessary. 10 In analysing a sentence, transformational grammar sta r t s with the \" I n i t i a l String\". \"Phrase Structure\" rules and some \"Transformational Rules\" are then applied u n t i l we reach the \"Kernel String\" (K.S.). Transform-a t i o n a l rules may be obligatory or optional. For example, the rule of the a f f i x of the verb i s obligatory, while the rule of negation i s optional. This means that the former must be applied i n order to get a grammatical sentence, while the l a t t e r i s needed only to generate a negative sentence. A derived kernel s t r i n g cannot be read unless \"Morphophonemic Rules\" are applied. So transformational grammar actually consists of the following l e v e l s : 1) Phrase Structure; 2)Transformational Structure; and 3) Morphophonemic Structure. To i l l u s t r a t e the foregoing paragraph, here i s an example: e.g. The boy ate an apple. I n i t i a l s t r i n g : Sentence —•> NP (Noun Phrase + VP (Verb Phrase) (—•» stands f o r \"rewritten as\") By phrase structure rules: (See Chomsky's complete set of Phrase Structure rules at the end of \"Introduction\") NP + VP sing (English NP's can be either singular or p l u r a l . Here we have chosen the singular.) NP + Aux + VP sing 1 ( A l l English verbs contain Aux. Here Aux contains more than the usual meaning of \" a u x i l i a r y \" , that i s \" s h a l l \" , \" w i l l \" and \"may\"i \"be\", \"have\", etc.; i t consists of \"tense\" and \"number\", \"modal\", \"have + en\" and \"be + ing\". After Aux either \"be\" or \"VP^\" may occur. Here we have chosen VP X.) T + N + 0 + Aux + Y ? 1 (T stands for \"determiner\", N for \"noun\". 0 ,read: as \"zero\", i s a singular marker.) T + N + 0 + Aux + ¥ + NP T 4f N + 0 + Aux + V + N P s i n g (We have chosen a singular NP again.) T ~+ N + 0 + Aux + V + T + N + 0 T + Nh + 0 + Aux + V + T + N + 0 (English nouns may be c l a s s i f i e d into sets having various c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of countability and noncountabil-i t y , humanness and nonhumanness, and abstract and concrete reference. We have chosen a count, human, concrete noun.) T + Nh + 0 + Aux + V + T •+ Nc + 0 (We have chosen a count, nonhuman, concrete noun.) T + Nh + 0 + Aux + VT + T + Nc + 0 (English verbs can be either copula, i n t r a n s i t i v e or t r a n s i t i v e . Here we have chosen a t r a n s i t i v e verb because there i s a NP after the verb as the object.) T + Nh + 0 •+ Aux + V t32 + T + Nc + 0 (V t22 ^ s a subclass of V^, c l a s s i f i e d according to types of N allowable i n either position, i . e . , either i n 12 the f i r s t or i n the second NP.) T + Nh + 0 + C + V t 3 2 + T + Nc + 0 (C stands f o r \"tense\" and \"number\".) The + Nh + 0 + C + Vt32 + T + Nc + 0 (English determiners can either be d e f i n i t e or i n -d e f i n i t e . Here we have chosen a d e f i n i t e T.) The + boy + 0 + C + V t 3 2 + an + Nc + 0 (We have chosen an i n d e f i n i t e T.) The + boy_ + 0 + C + V t 3 2 + an + apple + 0 The + boy_ + 0 + Past + V t 3 2 + an + apple + 0 English tenses can be either Past or Present. Here we have chosen Past.) The + boy + 0 + Past + eat + an + apple + 0 The + boy + 0 + eat + Past + an + apple + 0 (Here an obligatory transformational rule i s applied to move the verb a f f i x \"Past\" to the right position.) By morphophonemic rules, we arri v e at the kernel sentence: \"The boy ate an apple.\" By applying s i m i l a r rules we can also generate the formative sentence which underlies sentences l i k e \"The g i r l drew a picture\" and \"The man smoked a pipe\". The following set of English phrase structure rules was*- originated by Noam Chomsky i n his \"A Transformational Approach to Syntax\".9 ^ Third Texas Conference on Problems of L i n g u i s t i c s i n English, ed. A.A. H i l l (Austin: Univ. of Texas Press 1962). 1. Sentence NP + VP (Adv) fPred) 2. VP -~» Aux-< [ V P 1 i . V P X —> v ( i N P I) x [ P r e d J Vs i n env. Pred (become-' 4. V Vt i n env. NP V i i n env. ./# \\ I Advj J at three o'clock, i n the morning, etc 5. Adv --•>-< yesterday, every morning, etc. Advi 'in the house, at the t h e a t r e , e t c . 6. Adv^ — y { t h e r e , away, home, (NP 7. NP NP sing/ p l (be fNP . i n env. NP . + Aux4 ' s i n g s i n g , to to [become 8. Pred — Y\\ (be NP i n env. NP + Aux^ p l p l /become^ LAdj 9. Adj Very + Adj NP s i n g T + N + 0 10. N P p l — » T + N + S 14 f 11. N Nh Nc Nab i n env-< l V1 T — 0 12. V + -13. v t -i n env. N, 14- V T - - 4 [H 32 'vTa. vTc* V m,» V i n env \"Id \"Tel t f . N h ... Comp • v m . v T f 2. vTgl« vTg2 V Tx i n env. Prt 15. Prt • 16. T — 17. Aux • 18. C — 19. M — Nh -20. N c -ab 21. V i -22. V s -23. v t l V t2 V. t31 rt32 - - 4 out, i n , up, away .... a, the •—> C(M) (have + en) (be + i n -» Present, Past can, may, w i l l , s h a l l , must I, you, he, man, boy .... i t , table, book .... — * i t , s i n c e r i t y , .justice ... arr i v e , disappear, .... — * f e e l , seem, — * admire, f i n d , .... —•» t e r r i f y , astonish, .... •» f i n d , complete, .... * eat, smoke, .... 24. v T a > consider, believe, vIb. > know, recognize, . V T c — > ele c t , choose, ... vTd. —> keep, put, .... v T e - — * f i n d , catch, .... imagine, prefer, . vTg * avoid, begin, .... vT e l — • persuade, force, . vT f l—* want, expect, .... v T g i — * t r y , refuse VTx — » take, bring, .... 25. Adj. » old, sad The following set of Chinese Phrase Structure rules based upon Chomsky's theory of language. 1. Sentence (NP) + VP M»3} 1 2. VP (Aux) X. ( ( I n t e n s i f i e d + Adj' (•Verbal (Auxx) 3. Aux —> (M) fNP 1 ( I n t e n s i f i e r ) + V^ \"HAdj 16 r 6. v i (Adv) + V±1 ^ V i 2 + Adv-p Vi + LE 3 (Adv-p) + Vi. ('NP r Vt n +1NP + NP 1 7. VT ~ * X V t 2 + NP = V t 2 b + ({Agv-P} ) Adj V t 3a + N p + v t 3b + N P 1 Note: For i l l u s t r a t i o n of Vtg .... V t ? h , see Section 2B, #13, For i l l u s t r a t i o n of Vt-^ .... Vt^ f e, see Section 2B, #14. 8. Adv --4 JAdv-p Adv-t 9. NP --4 f NP \\ sing i NP Pi f NH + 0 10. NR — * (T) + (Cl . ) +< Nc sing sing x 11. NP _ — Pi 12. T — 4 (T (T) + ( C l p l ) +\\ ) + (T ) demon quan Nab Nh + (MEN)j Nc j C l . 13. C l — * \\ s i n S C 1 P I 14. M — 4 CHANG. KW*AI »will«, »be going t o 1 .... P — 4 LE »Past marker 1 15. be SHIH 16. I n t e n s i f i e r HEN 'very', T'AI 'too* .... 17. V TSAI 'on', *in», 'at' V 2 YU 'have'. V3 HSIEN 'seem', 'look l i k e ' . 18. V i x —>• LAI 'come*, GHU 'go* 19. V i 2 — 4 TSO-TSAI »sit on/in*, TSAN-TSAI * stand on 20. V i 3 HSIA-YU 'ra i n ' .... 21. V i ^ NEN-SHU 'study', YU-SHIH 'play* 22. Vt —VHSUEH 'learn', KEI 'give' .... 23. V t 2 — > BA ... DA ' h i t ' , BA ... MAI 'buy' 24. Vt^ SHUAN ... WEI 'elect', MING ... WEI 'name 25. Adj — * HAU 'good', KAO ' t a l l ' .... 26. Adv-p — •» CHE-R 'here', FONG-TZU-NEI ' i n the hous 27. Adv-t --4 TIN-TIN 'every day', CHAN-CHAN 'always' 28. T d e m o n CHE ' t h i s * , NEI 'that' .... Tquan ^ 'one', R 'two', SAN 'three' .... T q u a l H A U - T E 'good*, HUNG 'red' 29. C l s i n g -~• KO, KW'AI 'piece' .... C l p l PAN 'class', TSUH 'group' 30. Nh — » HAI-TZU 'boy', JEN 'man', WO «I».... Nc — » TSO-TZU 'table', FONG-TZU 'house' .... Nab MEI-LI 'beauty', TZI-WEI 'wisdom' .... 18 2.A. English Phrase Structure As shown above according to the theory of language description originated by Noam Chomsky and demonstrated i n \"A Transformational Approach to Syntax\", basic English sentences may be derived from a set of rules c a l l e d phrase structure rules (see page 12). This set of rules states that an English sentence (S) consists of a noun phrase (NP) and a verb phrase (VP); the rule can be represented by t h i s formula: S—•» NP + VP, where the arrow stands for \"may\": be rewritten as\". Therefore, i n the sentence \"The birds sing\", the NP i s \"The birds\" while the VP i s \"sing'.\". In English the NP may comprise a number of items, and so may the VP. In the previous sentence, for example, the NP i s \"The + birds\", whereas the VP \"sing\" can be enlarged by adding an adverb to i t , say, \"loudly\". We also note that here the subject i s p l u r a l , so actually the NP i s \"The + b i r d + p i . marker s\". Chomsky has given us a set of rules that w i l l gener-ate such basic structures; i n the following sections I s h a l l attempt to i l l u s t r a t e some of these rules by gener-ating some English sentences. 1. Basic structure: NP (Subject*) + VP (*be + Adverb*) e.g. The boy was here. Ady-p The boy 0 Past be here K.S. (a): The + box + 0 + P a s t + be + here By applying s i m i l a r rules we can also generate the formative sentence which underlies sentences l i k e \"He i s outside\", and \"The teacher i s i n the house.\" 20 2. Basic structure: NP ('Subject') + VP (»be» + Adjective') e.g. The l i o n i s hungry. NP NP sing T N 0 Nc VP Aux be Pred Adj The l i o n 0 Present be hungry K.S. (b): The + l i o n + 0 + Present + be + hungry By applying similar rules we can also generate the formative sentence which underlies sentences l i k e \"I am t i r e d \" , and \"Howard i s angry.\" 21 3. Basic s t r u c t u r e : NP ('Subject 1) + VP ('be + Pred') e.g. These men are teachers. S These man S Present be 0 teacher S K.S. ( c ) : These + man + S + Present + be + 0 + teacher + S By a p p l y i n g s i m i l a r : r u l e s we can..also generate the formative sentence which u n d e r l i e s sentences l i k e \"John i s a student\", and \"Mary i s a nurse.\" 22 4. Basic Structure: NP ('Subject*) + VP (»Vs» +'Adjective') e.g. The men f e e l sad. S The man S Present f e e l sad K.S. (d): The + man + S + Present + f e e l + sad By applying s i m i l a r rules we can also generate the formative sentence which underlies sentences l i k e \"John looked happy\", and \"The birds seem b e a u t i f u l . \" 23 5. Basic structure: NP ('Subject') + VP («Vs« + »NP») e.g. The boy became a man. The boy 0 Past become a man K.S. (e): The + boy + 0 + Past + become + a + man + 0 By applying similar rules we can also generate the formative sentence which underlies sentences l i k e \"He f e l t a fi n e fellow\", and \"John remained a coward.\" 24 6. Basic structure: NP (»Subject») + VP (»Vi» + fAdv-p») e.g. The birds come from the south. Adv-p The b i r d S Present come from the south K.S. ( f ) : The + b i r d + S + Present + come + from the south By applying s i m i l a r rules we can also generate the formative sentence which underlies sentences l i k e \"The men came from London\", and \"They went into the house.\" 7. Basic structure: NP ('Subject') + VP ['Vt' + 'NP' ('Object'J e.g. The student learned English. T N 0 The student 0 sing V T c T N 0 0 Nc 0 Past learn 0 English 0 K.S. (g): The + student + 0 + Past + learn + 0 + English + 0 By applying similar rules we can also generate the formative sentence which underlies sentences l i k e \"The man shot the t i g e r \" , and \"Birds eat worms.\" 26 6\\ Basic s t r u c t u r e : NP ('Subject') + VP [*Vt« + »NP» ('Indirect Object') + 'NP» ('Direct Object')'] e.g. The man gave the boy a book. This s t r u c t u r e contains such a t r a n s f o r m a t i o n as NP.TNP_ — » NPo^NP,. This r u l e i s o b l i g a t o r y . K.S. (h): The + man + 0 + Past + give + the + boy_ +.0 + a + book + 0 By app l y i n g s i m i l a r r u l e s we can a l s o generate the formative sentence which u n d e r l i e s sentences l i k e \"He gave me a car\", and \"The student brought me a pen.\" 27 B a s i c s t r u c t u r e : NP ('Subject*) + VP [»Vta' + »NP* (•Object*) + * Complement* (*NP»)] e.g. The boy c o n s i d e r e d the servant a f o o l . N P . A u x s i n g T N 0 Nh The boy 0 Past c o n s i d e r the servant 0 P VP be Pred NP NP . ^ ^ ^ s i n g T N 0 Nh st be a f o o l 0 28 This structure, as we can see, contains an embedding. In other words, v i r t u a l l y i t i s constituted of two kernel sentences: S-j_ — * The servant was a fool. — * The boy considered X. Sg S-^ involves some transformations. An obligatory rule of deletion must be applied to reach the given structure. Therefore, The + boy + 0 + Past + consider The + servant + 0 + Past + be + a + fool + 0 Apply T-del, we reach this structure: Final String ( i ) : The + boy + 0 + Past + consider + the + servant + 0 + Comp \"a + fool + 0\" By applying similar rules we can also generate the formative sentence which underlies sentences like \"I supposed him an honest man\" and \"The man thought her an angel\". 2 9 10. Basic s t r u c t u r e : NP ('Subject') + VP ['Vt^' + »NP» ('Object') + 'Complement' (»NP«)] e.g. The club e l e c t e d the man s e c r e t a r y . The club 0 Past e l e c t the man 0 Past be 0 secretary 0 L i k e t h e p r e v i o u s one, t h i s s t r u c t u r e a l s o c o n t a i n s an embedding. I t i s a l s o c o n s t i t u t e d o f two kernel; s e n t -e n c e s : S^ — 4 The man was the s e c r e t a r y . S 2 — 4 The c l u b e l e c t e d X Sg^S-L i n v ° l v e s some t r a n s f o r m a t i o n . An o b l i g a t o r y r u l e o f d e l e t i o n must be applied t o r e a c h t h e g i v e n s t r u c -t u r e . T h e r e f o r e , The + c l u b + 0 + P a s t + e l e c t X - - 4 The + man + 0 + P a s t + be + s e c r e t a r y + 0 A p p l y T - d e l , we r e a c h t h i s s t r u c t u r e : F i n a l S t r i n g ( j ) : The + c l u b + 0 + P a s t + e l e c t + t h e + man + 0 + Comp \" 0 + s e c r e t a r y + 0 \" By a p p l y i n g s i m i l a r r u l e s we can a l s o g e n e r a t e t h e f o r m a t i v e sentence w h i c h u n d e r l i e s s e n t e nces l i k e \"The peo p l e e l e c t e d him p r e s i d e n t \" and \"They made him k i n g . \" 2.B. Chinese Phrase Structure Chinese grammar i s simpler than English grammar i n that there i s no i n f l e c t i o n of any sort i n the language. Generally speaking, some Chinese structures are rather similar to those of English inword order. In the follow-ing sections we s h a l l see some Chinese features which are generated from the Chinese phrase structure rules derived from Chomsky's theory of language (see page 15). The Chinese sentences are so arranged as to match the English models analysed i n the previous section, so that the con-t r a s t i v e analysis can be followed more e a s i l y . 1. Basic structure: NP ('Subject') + VP (»V» + »Adv-p') it A) * i i 9u e.g. CHE. SHAO-HAI TSAI CHE-R tThg boy i s here) 7&i* CHE SHAO-HAI 0 TSAI CHE-R 'This' 'boy' »in/at' 'here' K.S. (a): CHE + SHAO-HAI + 0 + TSAI + CHE-R By applying s i m i l a r rules we can also generate the formative sentence which underlies sentences l i k e T'A TSAI HSUEH-SHAO, \"He i s i n school\", and WO TSAI CHIA, \"I am at home.\" 32 2. Basic structure: NP ('Subject*) + VP (»Adjective») ii fa z ® j e.g. CHE HZI-TZU NGO-LE (This l i o n i s hungry) CHE HZI-TZU NGO-LE *This* ' l i o n * *Hungry* K.S. (b): CHE + HZI-TZU + NGO-LE The rules also allow the choice of an i n t e n s i f i e r , to produce, for example, CHE HZI-TZU T*AI NGO-LE (»This l i o n i s too hungry*), or CHE HZI-TZU HEN NGO-LE (*This l i o n i s very hungry*). By applying similar rules we can also generate the formative sentence which underlies sentences l i k e LIU-MU JUAN \"The wood of the willow tree i s soft\", and KUA-R HEN MET.- LI \"Flowers are very b e a u t i f u l \" . 3. Basic s t r u c t u r e : NP ('Subject') + VP ('be* + »NP') e.g. CHE-SE JEN SHIH CHAO-HZI (These people are teachers) K.S. ( c ) : CHE-SE + JEN + SHIH + CHAO-HZI By app l y i n g s i m i l a r r u l e s we can al s o generate the formative sentence which u n d e r l i e s sentences l i k e \"T'A SHIH HSUEH-SHENG \"He i s a student\", and NIAO SHIH TUNG-WU \" B i r d s are l i v i n g c r e a t u r e s \" . 34 4. Basic s t r u c t u r e : NP (Subject) + VP (V + A d j e c t i v e ) e.g. T»A HSIEN KWAI-LE (He looked happy) K.S. (d) : TJA + 0 + HSIEN + KWAI-LE By applying s i m i l a r r u l e s we can a l s o generate the formative sentence which u n d e r l i e s sentences l i k e T*A-MEN CHUEH-TE MUN \"They f e l t sad\", and \"CHE HSIEN HEN MEI-L I \"This seems very b e a u t i f u l \" . 35 5. Basic structure: NP ('Subject*) + VP (*be* + »Adjective*) This structure denotes emphasis i n Chinese. e.g. CHE HZI-TZU SHIH NGO-LE (This l i o n i s r e a l l y hungry) K.S. (e): CHE + HZI-TZU + SHIH + NGO-LE By applying s i m i l a r rules we can also generate the formative sentence which underlies sentences l i k e CHE BAN SHU CHUN SHIH HEN-HAU \"This book i s r e a l l y very good\". \"CHO-TZU SHIH TAI KAO-LE \"This table i s r e a l l y too high\". 36 6. Basic structure: NP (Subject) + VP (V + NP) e.g. ¥0 YU I KO MET.-MET. (I have a s i s t e r ) Nh 0 ¥0 0 T C l Nh 0 quan YU I KO MEI-MEI 0 •have^a* tcl» • s i s t e r 1 K.S. ( f ) : 1 O + 0 + Y U + I + K O + MEI-MEI + 0 By applying si m i l a r rules we can also generate the formative sentence which underlies sentences l i k e I NEN YU SHIH-R KO YUEH \"A year has twelve months\" and ¥0 YU CH'IEN \"I have money\". 37 7. Basic s t r u c t u r e : NP ('Subject') + VP ('Adv-p' + 'Vi') i i >* % # 1 efe * £ e.g. CHE-SE NIAO TSUNG NAN-FONG LAI (These b i r d s come from the south) CHE-SE NIAO •These' ' b i r d ' TSUNG NAN-FONG LAI * from' 'south * •c ome' K.S. ( g ) : CHE-SE + NIAO + TSUNG NAN-FONG + LAI By a p p l y i n g s i m i l a r r u l e s we can al s o generate the formative sentence which u n d e r l i e s sentences l i k e CHE KO HSUEH-SHENG TSUNG SHANGHAI LAI \"This student c'ame from Shanghai\" and T'A TSUNG CHE-LI CHUE \"He went away from here\". 8. Basic structure: NP ('Subject*) + VP (»Vi* + »Adv-p* e.g. WO-MEN TSO TSAI I-TZU SHANG (We sat on/in chairs) K.S. (h): WO + MEN + TSO + TSAI + I-TZU + SHANG By applying s i m i l a r rules we can also generate the formative sentence which underlies sentences l i k e T*A TAP TSAI TI SHANG \"He f e l l to the ground\" and CHE KO JEN TSU TSAI CHE-R \"This man l i v e s here\". 9. Basic structure: VP (»Vi^» + »LE») e.g. HSIA -YU LE (It*s raining) S VP Verbal VI LE HSIA-YU LE •down* f r a i n f T p a r t i c l e * K.S. ( i ) : HSIA-YU + LE By applying similar rules we can also generate the formative sentence which underlies sentences l i k e CH'U- T*AI-YANG LE \"The sun i s coming out\" and HSIA K'O LE \"The class i s over\". 40 10. Basic structure: NP (Subject) + VP [(»Adv-p») + 'Vi,»] 4 ^ $k S& e.g. WO-MEN TSAI HSEUH-SHAO DU-SHU. (We study i n school) Verbal MEN WO • I ' MEN * p l u r a l * Adv-p TSAI HSUEH-SHAO DU-SHU • i n 1 'school' 'study' By applying similar rules we can also generate the formative sentence which underlies sentences l i k e WO TSAI CHE-R CH'IH, \"I eat here\" and T'A TSAI FAN-KWAN TZO-KUNG, \"He works i n a restaurant\". 41 11. B a s i c s t r u c t u r e : NP ('Subject*) + VP ['Vt-,' + NP ('Object')] e.g. WO-MEN HSUEH... CH'UNG-WEN (We l e a r n C h i nese) NP NP P l Nh MEN VP V e r b a l VT Vt. NP WO MEN HS NP s i n g Nc LJEH CH'UNG-WEN »!' ' p l u r a l ' ' l e a r n ' ' C h i n e s e ' K.S. ( k ) : WO + MEN + HSUEH + CH'UNG-WEN By a p p l y i n g s i m i l a r r u l e s we can a l s o g e n e r a t e t h e f o r m a t i v e sentence w h i c h u n d e r l i e s s e n t e n c e s l i k e LAO-WONG CH'IH TUNG-HSI \" O l d Wong i s e a t i n g something\" and T'A DA WO \"He h i t me\". 42 12. Basic s t r u c t u r e : NP ('Subject') + VP »Vt» + »NP» ('Indirect Object*) + NP ('Direct Object') e.g. CHE JEN KEI CHE SHAO-HAI I BUN SHU (This man gave the boy a book) demon CHE JEN 0 KEI ' t h i s ' 'man' 'give' C l . quan s i n g CHE SHAO-HAI 0 I BUN SHU ' t h i s ' 'boy' »a» »C1» 'book' K.S. ( 1 ) : CHE + JEN + 0 + KEI + CHE + SHAO-HAI + 0 + I + BUN + SHU By app l y i n g s i m i l a r r u l e s we can a l s o generate the formative sentence which u n d e r l i e s sentences l i k e WANG KEI T'A CH'IEN \"Wong gave him money\", and T'A TSIH WO TSIAO-PEN \"He sent me some photos\". 43 13. Basic s t r u c t u r e : NP ('Subject') + VP [»Vt 2 a f + 'NP» ^ » ^ ^ ( i 0 b j e c t , > v t 2 b + p (' A u X l' ) ] e.g. WO BA T'A DA LE (I h i t him) WO ' I ' 0 T'A 'him' ' h i t ' DA LE •Past Marker\"' K.S. (m): WO + 0 + BA + TVA + 0 + DA + LE By ap p l y i n g s i m i l a r r u l e s we can also generate the formative sentence which u n d e r l i e s sentences l i k e WONG BA T'A MA LE \"Wong scolded him\" and WO BA T'A CH'IH TIAO \" I ate i t up\". 44 14. Basic structure: NP ('Subject 1) + VP ['Vf + »NP» ('Object') + Vt + e.g. NEI-SE JEN SHUAN T*A WEI MI-SHU (Those people elected him secretary) NEI-SE JEN *Those* 'man' SHUAN T'A 0 WEI MI-SHU 0 'him* 'secretary* 1 * e l e c t * — 1 K.S. (n): NEI-SE + JEN + SHUAN + T_!A + 0 + WEI + MI-SHU + 0 By applying s i m i l a r rules we can also generate the formative sentence which underlies sentences l i k e T'A I CHE JEN WEI NEI KO JEN \"He took t h i s man for that man\" and T'A-MEN MING TZIH WEI MA \"They named i t »Horse»\". 45 2.C. Contrastive Analysis Part I 1. English K.S. (a): The + boy + 0 + Past + be + here T + Nh + 0 + Past + be + Adv-p i_ 1 2 3 4 Chinese K.S. (a): CHE + SHAO-HAI + 0 + TSAI + CHE-R T + Nh + 0 + V, + Adv-p 1 3 4 Features: 1. English: S — » 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 Chinese: S — -> 1 + 3 + 4 2. English: V4 must be an adverb of place. Chinese: J Meaning: English: 7\"] VStatement, l o c a t i o n a l Chinese: J D i s t r i b u t i o n : English: Restricted to fbe + lo c a t i o n ' . Chinese: Restricted to 'V^ + l o c a t i o n ' . Conclusion 1: Problems of Chinese speaker learning English. Production: 1. May omit 'be'. 2. May always use a preposition a f t e r 'be'. e.g. \"The boy was i n here\" meaning \"The boy was here\"f. Recognition and meaning: No sp e c i a l problem. 46 2. English K.S. (b): The + l i o n + 0 + Present + be + hungry T + Nc + 0 + Present + be + Adj 1 2 3 4 Chinese K.S. (b): CHE + HZI-TZU + NGO-LE T + Nc Adj i i 1 4 Features: 1. English: S —> 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 Chinese: S —•» 1 + 4 2. English: I n t e n s i f i e r can occur between \"2 + 3\" and 4-e.g. The l i o n i s very hungry. Chinese: I n t e n s i f i e r can occur before 4. e.g. CHE HZI-TZU T«AI NGO-LE \"This l i o n i s very hungry\" SHIH \"be\" i s always omitted. Meaning: English: \"I >Statement, descriptive Chinese: J Disbribution: English: Restricted to \"be + Adj\". Chinese: Restricted to ordinary descrip-t i v e type. Conclusion 2: Problems of Chinese speaker learning English. Production: 1. May omit \"be\". e.g. *I sick yesterday. 2. May use unnecessary i n t e n s i f i e r before 4« e.g. *very perfect 47 Recognition.and meaning: No spe c i a l problem. 3. English K.S. ( c ) : These + man + S + Present + be + teacher + S T + Nh + S + Present + be + 0 + Nh + S i_ 1 2 3 4 Chinese K.S. ( c ) : CHE-SE + JEN + SHIH + CHAO-HZI T + Nh + be + Nh 1 3 4 Features: English: S ~ 4 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 Chinese: S —> 1 + 3 + 4 I f any tense marker i s used af t e r 3> the sentence becomes ungrammatical. Meaning: English:') (Statement, i d e n t i f i c a t i o n a l and des-c r i p t i v e D i s t r i b u t i o n : English: Restricted to \"be + NP\" rules. Chinese: Restricted to \"SHIH + NP\" rules. Conclusion 3: Problems of Chinese speaker learning English. Production: 1. May omit tense. 2. M i l l have various kinds of tense problems, Recognition and meaning: No spe c i a l problem. 48 English K.S.(d): The + man + S + Present + f e e l + sad T + Nh + S + Present + Vs + Adj 1 2 3 4 Chinese: K.S. (d): T'A + 0 + HSIEN + KWAI-LE Nh + 0 + Vn . Adj i i -> 1 3 4 Features: 1. English: S — 4 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 Chinese: S —-» 1 + 3 + 4 2. English: I n t e n s i f i e r + Vs i s ungrammatical e.g. *He very f e e l s sad. Chinese: Intensifier'+ V^ + i s grammatical, e.g. T'A HAU HSIEN KWAI-LE Meaning: English:\") V Descriptive type Chinese: J D i s t r i b u t i o n : English: Restricted to Vs ru l e s . Chinese: Restricted to V-j rules. Conclusion 4* Problems of Chinese speaker learning English. Production: 1. May apply \" i n t e n s i f i e r \" + \"2 + 3\" to English. 2. May ignore 2. Recognition and meaning: No special problem. 49 5. E n g l i s h K.S. ( e ) : The + boy + 0 + Past + become + a + man + 0 T + Nh + 0 + Past + Vs + T + Nh + 0 i 1 i 1 1 2 3 4 Chinese: No equivalent s t r u c t u r e . Features: S — * 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 Meaning: N a r r a t i v e statement. D i s t r i b u t i o n : R e s t r i c t e d to a very small c l a s s of verbs. e.g., become, remain. Conclusion 5: Problems of Chinese speaker l e a r n i n g E n g l i s h . Production: 1. W i l l t h i n k t h a t there i s no d i f f e r e n c e between the f o l l o w i n g two s t r u c t u r e s : (a.) NP + Aux + Vs + NP (b.) NP + Aux + Vs + Adj A c t u a l l y (a) i s d i f f e r e n t from (b), f o r i n a f u l l e r grammar, Vs would have sub-classes, because Vs w i t h an a d j e c t i v e as i t s complement i n c l u d e s a l a r g e r number of verbs than \"Vs + NP\"; e.g., look, appear, t a s t e , grow. Thus, we can say \" I t looks good\", \"They grew troublesome\"; but not * \" I t looks an apple\" and *\"They grew boys\". Chinese students might pro-duce such non-English sentences. A l l Vs s t r u c t u r e s i n Chinese are transforms r a t h e r than k e r n e l s . 2. W i l l have d i f f i c u l t y i n d i s i n g u i s h i n g i t from \"be\" s t r u c t u r e s , e s p e c i a l l y i n t r a n s l a t i n g . Recognition and meaning: No s p e c i a l problem. 50 E n g l i s h K.S. ( f ) : The + b i r d + S + Present + come + from the south T + Nc + S + Present + V i + Adv-p 1 2 3 4 Chinese K.S. ( g ) : CHE-SE + NIAO + TSUNG-NAN-FONG + LAI T + Nc + Adv-p + Vi-, 1 4 3 Features: 1. E n g l i s h : S -~» 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 Chinese: S — -> 1 + 4 + 3 2. E n g l i s h : 4 occurs i n i t i a l l y ; when i t occurs h between 1 and (2 + 3), the phrase i s a d j e c t i v a l r a t h e r than a d v e r b i a l . Chinese: 4 occurs before 3, never i n i t i a l l y or f i n a l l y . Meaning: E n g l i s h : ' V Statement Chinese: > D i s t r i b u t i o n : E n g l i s h : R e s t r i c t e d to V i + Adv-p Chinese: R e s t r i c t e d t o Vi-^ Conclusion 6: Problems of Chinese speaker l e a r n i n g E n g l i s h . Production: 1. May have d i f f i c u l t y i n d i s c r i m i n a t i n g T!Birds from the south\" and \" B i r d s from the south.\" 2. May have d i f f i c u l t y i n handling 2. Recognition and meaning: May mistake a d j e c t i v e phrase f o r adverb phrase, 51 e.g. may -think \" B i r d s from t h e s o u t h come\" = \" B i r d s come from the s o u t h . \" E n g l i s h K.S. ( g ) : The + s t u d e n t + 0 + P a s t + l e a r n + E n g l i s h + 0 T + Nh + 0 + P a s t + V t c + Nc + 0 i 1 i — i 1 2 3 4 Chinese K.S. ( k ) : WO + MEN + HSUEH + CH'UNG-WEN Nh + MEN + V t , + Nc i i -L 1 3 4 F e a t u r e s : 1 . E n g l i s h : S — 4 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 C h i n e s e : S — 4 1 + 3 + 4 2. E n g l i s h \" % i s d i r e c t o b j e c t Chinese. Meaning: English'\") > N a r r a t i v e statement Chinese J D i s t r i b u t i o n : E n g l i s h \" ) s-4 i s o b l i g a t o r y C h inese j C o n c l u s i o n 7: Problems o f Chi n e s e speaker l e a r n i n g E n g l i s h . P r o d u c t i o n : 1 . May m i s t a k e V i f o r Vt e.g. He + P a s t + swim + a + p o o l + 0 (wrong) He + P a s t + swim + i n + a + p o o l + 0 ( r i g h t ) R e c o g n i t i o n and meaning: No s p e c i a l problem 52 8. E n g l i s h K.S. ( h ) : The + man + 0 + P a s t + g i v e + the + boy + 0 + a + book +0 T + Nh + 0 + P a s t + V t a + T + Nh + 0 + T + Nc +0 1 2 3 4 i Chinese K.S. (1): CHE + JEN + 0 + KEI + CHE + SHAO-HAI + I + BAN-SHU T + Nh + 0 + Vt-, + T + Nh + T + C l + Nc 1 3 4 5 F e a t u r e s : 1. E n g l i s h : S — * 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 C h i n e s e : S 1 + 3 + 4 + 5 2. E n g l i s h : ' I n d i r e c t o b j e c t 4 p r e c e d e s d i r e c t o b j e c t 5 C h i n e s e : Meaning: E n g l i s h : ^ N a r r a t i v e statement C h i n e s e : J I. D i s t r i b u t i o n : E n g l i s h : R e s t r i c t e d t o V t a r u l e s . C h i n e s e : R e s t r i c t e d t o Vt]_ r u l e s . C o n c l u s i o n 8: Problems o f Chinese speaker l e a r n i n g E n g l i s h . P r o d u c t i o n : May mix up t h i s s t r u c t u r e w i t h a p a s s i v e form i n C h i n e s e . e.g. T'A KEI ¥0 MA-LE •He* ' g i v e * 'me1 ' s c o l d 1 (\"He was s c o l d e d by me\") R e c o g n i t i o n and meaning: No s p e c i a l problem. 53 9. E n g l i s h S t r i n g ( i ) : The + man + 0 + P a s t + c o n s i d e r + Comp (»a + f o o l + 0*) T + Nh + 0 + P a s t + V t a + Comp (»T + Nh + 0*) 1 2 3 5 t h e + s e r v a n t + 0 T + Nh + 0 i i 4 C h i n e s e : No e q u i v a l e n t b a s i c s t r u c t u r e . F e a t u r e s : 1. T h i s E n g l i s h s t r u c t u r e i n v o l v e s two k e r n e l s t r i n g s : NP + P a s t + V t a + X \"The man c o n s i d e r e d X\" N P-L + P a s t + be + NP 2 \"The s e r v a n t was a f o o l \" Hence, NP + P a s t + V t a + to:'- - + be + NP 2 + N?1 —» \"The man c o n s i d e r e d to.Me a f o o l t he s e r v a n t \" NP + P a s t + V t a + NP 2 + N P-L (to be i s deleted) \"The man c o n s i d e r e d a f o o l t h e s e r v a n t \" By o b l i g a t o r y t r a n s f o r m a t i o n a l r u l e : NP + P a s t + V t a + NP X + NP 2 By a f f i x - m o v i n g r u l e : NP + V t a + P a s t + N P-L + NP 2 We r e a c h : T + Nh + 0 + V t a + P a s t + T + Nh + 0 The man c o n s i d e r e d the s e r v a n t T + Nh + 0 a f o o l 2. The Comp may be d e r i v e d from e i t h e r a NP o r ( I n t e n s i f i e r ) + A d j \" . e.g. The man c o n s i d e r e d the s e r v a n t ( v e r y ) f o o l i s h . NP + P a s t + V t a + Comp »(Int) + A d j * + NP 5k By the same r u l e s , we a r r i v e a t : T + Nh + 0 + Vta + Past + T + Nh + 0 + (Int) + Adj .i i i i i 1 The man co n s i d e r e d the servant very f o o l i s h Meaning: Statement, r e p o r t i n g type. D i s t r i b u t i o n : \"Vta + NP + Comp\" remains \"Vta + Comp + NP\" when the NP i s long and complicated.\"*\"^ e.g. He regarded as i n s o l e n t anyone who ventured t o d i s a g r e e w i t h him. Co n c l u s i o n 9: Problems o f Chinese speaker l e a r n i n g E n g l i s h . P r o d u c t i o n : May t h i n k \" t o be\" between k and 5 i s the only p o s s i b l e c o r r e c t s t r u c t u r e . R e c o g n i t i o n and meaning: May i n t e r p r e t i n c o r r e c t l y . e.g. May t h i n k t h a t \"a f o o l \" i n the sentence \"The man con s i d e r e d the servant a f o o l \" i s i n a p p o s i t i o n t o \"the s e r v a n t \" . 10. E n g l i s h S t r i n g ( j ) : The + cl u b + 0 + Past + e l e c t + the + man + 0 + Comp T Nc + 0 + . P a s t + Vtc + T + Nh + 0 + Comp i 1 — i 1 1 2 3 k + s e c r e t a r y + 0') T + Nh + 0 i i 5 P a u l Roberts, E n g l i s h Syntax, (New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, 1 9 6 4 ) , p. 177. 55 C h i n e s e K.S. ( n ) : NEI -SE + JEN + SHUAN + T'A + 0 + WEI + MI-SHU + 0 T + Nh + Vt„ + Nh + 0 + V t o v + Nh + 0 • 3a ' x 3b i T 1 3a 4 3b 5 F e a t u r e s : 1. E n g l i s h : S — 4 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 C h i n e s e : S — » 1 + 3a + 4 + \"3b + 5 2. E n g l i s h : T h i s s t r u c t u r e i n v o l v e s two k e r n e l s t r i n g s : NP + P a s t + V t c + NPj_ +- X \"The c l u b e l e c t e d t h e man\" NP.^ + P a s t + be + NP 2 \"The man was s e c r e t a r y \" Hence, NP + P a s t + V t c + NP-j_ + /.to. + be + N P 2 --•> \"The c l u b e l e c t e d t h e manto.be s e c r e t a r y \" NP + P a s t + V t a + NP X + NP 2 (to be i s deleted) \"The c l u b e l e c t e d t h e man s e c r e t a r y \" C h i n e s e : T h i s s t r u c t u r e i s a k e r n e l . 3a . . . 3b i s a s p l i t f o r m . M e a n i n g : E n g l i s h \" ) VStatement, r e p o r t i n g C h i n e s e J D i s t r i b u t i o n : E n g l i s h : R e s t r i c t e d t o V t c r u l e s . C h i n e s e : 4 must be p l a c e d between 3a and 3 b. C o n c l u s i o n 10: P r o b l e m s o f C h i n e s e s p e a k e r l e a r n i n g E n g l i s h . P r o d u c t i o n : 1. May c o n s i d e r V t c a s p l i t f o r m . 2. May t h i n k \" V t c + t o be\" i s t h e o n l y c o r r e c t s t r u c t u r e , e .g. The c l u b c h o s e t h e man t o be t h e i r s e c r e t a r y . 56 Recognition and meaning: May interpret i n c o r r e c t l y . e.g. May think that \" t h e i r secretary\" i n the sentence \"The club chose the man t h e i r secretary\" i s i n apposition to \"the man\". 57 3.A. The English NP In t h i s fragment of English the rewrite rules for the NP are as follows: NP sing NP T + N + S P l Here i t i s necessary to further analyse N i n a narrower way 11 than done e a r l i e r i n t h i s paper. The rules can be as follows: An \" Neon -An \"con = concrete\" \"ab = abstract\" \"An = animate\" \"-An = inanimate\" \"Hu = human\" \"-Hu = nonhuman\" -An book, desk, pen .... Hu - -4 boy, g i r l , John, I .... -Hu — d o g , cat, ant .... Nab s i n c e r i t y , j u s t i c e ... a. We have learned previously that a kernel English sen-tence consists of a noun phrase plus a verb phrase (S—-> NP + VP). An English NP may be constituted of one single H Here I am following Chomsky*s l a t e r analysis of the NP demonstrated i n Aspects of the Theory of Syntax (Massa-chusetts: The M.I.T. Press, 1965). 58 word or a group of words. For instance, •the woman1, fan apple 1, 'those three books 1, •John*, and »I f are a l l NP*s. Vie also know now that the main structures i n English NP Ts are determiners,, nouns, and pronouns. b. The f i r s t item i n an NP i s the T. The symbol T stands for the wordydeterminer. In a detailed analysis of the T, we can represent i t by the following r u l e : T — » (T ) + (T ) + (T ) Art demon quan Note: Demon i s the abbreviation for the word \"demonstrative.\" quan \" \" \" \" \" \" \"quantity.\" Art \" \" \" \" \" \" \" a r t i c l e .\" def \" \" \" \" \" \" \" d e f i n i t e . \" Indef \" \" \" \" \" \" \" i n d e f i n i t e . \" A r t i c l e can be d e f i n i t e or i n d e f i n i t e or 0 . \"the\" i s a de f i n i t e a r t i c l e , while , T a \" i : \" a n \" , \"some\" are i n d e f i n i t e a r t i c l e s . Hence, fdef ' T ---K Indef > Art \\ In English \" t h i s , \"these\", \"that\" and \"those\" are examples of T ^ e m o n , while \"one\", \"three\", and \"some\" when occurring before N fs are examples of T quan. The second item i n an NP i s the noun. A noun can represent something animate or inanimate, or a name for an abstraction. Most concrete nouns can be singular or p l u r a l . Now, l e t us analyse the examples that we have mentioned previously i n t h i s section. the woman « — NP Art smg N con An def Hu an apple {— NP N sing Art i con ndef -An 0 60 those three books {— NP P i con T -An demon quan John <—NP sing I NP sing N ,con \"Art An 0 Hu 0 61 3.B. The Chinese NP The rewrite rules for the Chinese NP are as follows: (NP . NP — > J s i n g ' N P p l NP . ---• (T) + (CI . ) + sing T u ' v sing' NP p l --4 (T) + ( C l p l ) + English: N — > J N C \\ {Nabj (Nh Chinese: N —WNc [Nab b. General Feature: 1. English: Both Nh and Nc have p l u r a l forms. Chinese: Only Nhhas the p l u r a l marker. 2. English: The p l u r a l rule i s obligatory for expanding an NP ,. P i Hence! T +| Nc} Chinese: The p l u r a l rule i s optional for expanding an NP . Pi 66 Hence, (T) + (CI) + Nh ^[f_m^ 3. English: T includes T^ r t ( A r t i c l e , e.g. a, the) Chinese: There i s no structure equivalent to the English T A r t . 4. English: There i s no structure equivalent to the Chinese CI. Chinese: Though CI i s optional, i t i s usually placed i n an NP. Conclusion 11: Problems of Chinese speaker learning English. Art Production: 1. W i l l have d i f f i c u l t i e s i n handling T 2. W i l l substitute T f o r T. . . demon Art e.g., 'That boy i s here* f o r 'The boy i s here*. 3. May think CI occurs i n an English NP. e.g., May always say \"a copy of a book,\" and not r e a l i z e that a book i s adequate. 4. May consider the p l u r a l rule optional and there-fore omit the p l u r a l marker, e s p e c i a l l y i f the T (\"three) i s d e f i n i t e l y p l u r a l , e.g., quan the three book. 5. May apply the p l u r a l rule to Nab, e.g. *He has wisdoms. Recognition and Meaning: May make mistakes si m i l a r to those i n production. 67 4. P e r s o n a l Pronouns G e n e r a l l y speaking, pronouns are s u b s t i t u t e s f o r NP*s. For example, i n such sentences as \"The l i t t l e boy i s brave. He l i k e s adventures J' we have \"The l i t t l e boy\" as NP-^ , and \"He\" as NPg. F u r t h e r examination o f these two sentences t e l l s us t h a t the NP 2 stands f o r NPj_, so \"The l i t t l e boy\" —4 \"He\". The u n d e r l y i n g s t r u c t u r e o f \"He\" i n v o l v e s the meaning \"The l i t t l e boy\", a c c o r d i n g to the context. Such r e l a t i o n s h i p s go beyond a sentence grammar. A. E n g l i s h P e r s o n a l Pronouns E n g l i s h pronouns can be o f v a r i o u s k i n d s , and most o f them are transforms r a t h e r than b a s i c s t r u c t u r e s . For i n s t a n c e , \"I have a book\" — > \"my book\" —•> \"mine\" ( s i n g ) . \"I have books\" — £ \"my books\" --> \"mine\" ( p l . ) . Pronouns l i k e \"mine\", \"yours\", and \"ours\" are t r a d i t i o n a l l y known as \" p o s s e s s i v e pronouns\". Other pronouns such as \"demonstrative pronouns\" and \" r e l a t i v e pronouns\" c o n t a i n even more complicated t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s . T h e r e f o r e , here on l y \" p e r s o n a l pronouns\" w i l l be a n a l y s e d and compared w i t h Chinese p e r s o n a l pronouns. 1. Simple Speaker: I \" s u b j e c t i v e \" me \" o b j e c t i v e \" ( i . e . I + and \" o b j e c t i v e \" case marker, m.) T h i s s t r u c t u r e ( i . e . , Pronoun + m)involves marking NP ( o b j e c t ) — 4 NP + m when NP = Pronoun. The same r u l e 68 a p p l i e s when Pronoun f o l l o w s a p r e p o s i t i o n , e . g . , to me, wi t h them, e t c . I + 0 + m — 4 me you +J0J+ m — 4 you h e / s h e / i t + 0 + m h i m / h e r / i t I + S +m — 4 us h e / s h e / i t + S + m — 4 them e . g . I ate the soup. 0 0 Past eat the soup 0 Form: X + Aux + V + Y ~1 69 e.g. The t e a c h e r h e l p e d me. The t e a c h e r 0 P a s t h e l p I 0 Form: Z + Aux + V + X ~2 70 e.g. The tea c h e r gave me a book. The te a c h e r 0 Past g i v e a book 0 0 I.: 0 m Rule: N P - p N P 2 becomes NP^NP-^. T h i s r u l e i s o b l i g a t o r y . When the r u l e i s a p p l i e d , we reach t h i s s t r i n g : The + t e a c h e r + 0 + Past + gi v e + 0+ _ I + 0 + m + a. + book + 0 Form: Z + Aux + V + X + Y ~2 71 e.g. The teacher dined w i t h me. The teacher 0 Past dine w i t h 0 I 0+ m Form: Z + Aux + V + Prep. + X. 72 Hearer: You \" s u b j e c t i v e tr You + 0 + m — 4 you \" o b j e c t i v e tt e.g. You ate the soup. By app l y i n g s i m i l a r r u l e s as before we get the f o l l o w -i n g s t r i n g : 0 + You + 0 + Past + eat + the + soup + 0 Form: X± + Aux + V + Y e.g. I saw you. The teacher w i l l g ive you a book. The teacher w i l l dine w i t h you. And by a p p l y i n g s i m i l a r r u l e s as before, we get these s t r i n g s : The + teacher + 0 + Pres. + w i l l + give + 0 + you + 0 + m + a + book + 0 The + teacher + 0 + Pres. + w i l l + dine + w i t h + 0 + you i + m + 0 Forms: Z + Aux * V + X_ S NP' VP -2 73 Z + A u x + V + X _ 2 + Y Z + Aux + V + Prep + X_2 Speaker-Hearer: You and I — 4 We \" s u b j e c t i v e \" You + 0 + m and I + 0 + m --4 us \" o b j e c t i v e \" e.g. We ate the soup. By applying s i m i l a r r u l e s as before, except NP — 4 NP n we get the f o l l o w i n g s t r i n g : 0 + I + S + Past + eat + the + soup + 0 Form: X^ + Aux + V e.g. The teacher helped us. The teacher w i l l give us some books. The teacher w i l l dine w i t h us. By applying s i m i l a r r u l e s as before, we get the f o l l o w -i n g s t r i n g s : The + teacher + 0 + Pres. + w i l l + give + 0 + I + S + m + some + book + S. The + teacher + 0 + Pres. + w i l l + dine + Prep. + 0 + 1 + S + m Forms: Z + Aux + V + X 2 Z + A u x + V + X +Y Z + Aux + V + Prep + X_2 Non-Speaker-Hearer: he/she/it \" s u b j e c t i v e \" he/she/it + 0 + m —> him/he r / i t \" o b j e c t i v e \" e.g. He/She/It ate the soup. By ap p l y i n g s i m i l a r r u l e s as before, we get the f o l l o w i n g s t r i n g : 0 + He/She/It + 0 + Past + eat + the + soup + 0 74 Form: X /X /ln + Aux + V + Y 1 a l b l e.g. The t e a c h e r h e l p e d h i m / h e r / i t . The t e a c h e r w i l l g i v e h i m / h e r / i t a book. The t e a c h e r w i l l d i n e w i t h h i m / h e r / i t . By a p p l y i n g s i m i l a r r u l e s as b e f o r e , we get t h e f o l l o w -i n g s t r i n g s : The + t e a c h e r + 0 + P a s t + h e l p + 0 + h e / s h e / i t + 0 + m The + t e a c h e r + 0 + p r e s . + w i l l + g i v e + 0 + he/she/ i t + 0 + m + a + book +' 0 The + t e a c h e r + 0 + P r e s . + w i l l + d i n e + w i t h + 0 + h e / s h e / i t + 0 + m Forms: Z + Aux + V + X 2 / X a 2 / X b 2 Z + Aux + V + X 2 / X a 2 / x b 2 + Y Z + Aux + V + Prep. + X 2 / X f i 2 j X b 2 2. P l u s O t h e r s Same r u l e s as t h o s e used i n the f o r e g o i n g s e c t i o n a l s o g e n e r a t e t h e f o l l o w i n g pronouns Speaker: O t h e r s and I +' Ot h e r s and I He a r e r : You +\\0>. and o t h e r s you \" s u b j e c t i v e \" IS) You + 4 0 C + m and o t h e r s - -4 you \" o b j e c t i v e \" (S) S p e a k er-Hearer: S) — w e \" s u b j e c t i v e \" +j0| +-m —•> us \" o b j e c t i v e \" You + You +. 0land o t h e r s and I +. S) 0 i . — ^ , w e \" s u b j e c t i v e \" S3 0tand o t h e r s and I +30.+ m —•> us \" o b j e c t i v e \" Non-Speaker-Hearer: he/she/it +J0 Is and others they \"subjective\" Others and he/she/it +J0/+ m —•> them \"objective\" s 76 4.B. Chinese P e r s o n a l Pronouns Chinese p e r s o n a l pronouns have no case d i s t i n c t i o n s . One i m p o r t a n t d i f f e r e n c e , the f a c t t h a t a d j e c t i v e s can be p l a c e d b e f o r e a Chinese p e r s o n a l pronoun, must be mentioned, a l t h o u g h i t w i l l not be a n a l y s e d h e r e . The f o l l o w i n g show t h e g e n e r a t i o n o f Chinese p e r s o n a l pronouns. 1. Simple Speaker: WO \" I , me\" e.g. WO CH'IH TONG \" I \" \" e a t \" \"soup\" 77 e.g. LAOZE BONG WO \"The teacher helped me\" LAOZE 0 \"Teacher\" 0 BONG WO 0 \"help\" \"me\" 0 Form: Z + V + X e.g. LAOZE GEI WO I-BUN SHU \" t e a c h e r \" \" g i v e \" \"me\" \" a \" \"book\" 78 NP NP s i n g s i n g Vt Nh 0 T CI Nc 1 CI s i n g GEI WO 0 I BUN SHU • g i v e * 'me' 0 * a f CI 'book* LAOZE 0 • t e a c h e r * 0 Form: Z + V + X + Y Note: There i s no p r e p o s i t i o n i n C h i n e s e , so no change f o r case form as a f t e r p r e p o s i t i o n s i n E n g l i s h . H e a r e r : NI/NIN \"you\" Note: NIN i s t h e p o l i t e form i n C h i n e s e . Speaker-Hearer: WO-MEN \"we\", \"us\" Non-Speaker-Hearer: T*A \"he/she\", \"him/her\" 2. P l u s O t h e r s Speaker: WO-MEN \"we\", \"us\" H e a r e r : NI-MEN/NIN \"you\"; n o t e : NIN-MEN i s not used. Speaker-Hearer: WO-MEN \"we\", \"us\" 79 Non-Speaker-Hearer: T*A-MEN \" t h e y \" , \"them\" Same r u l e s w i l l a l s o g e n e r a t e the Chinese p e r s o n a l pronouns i n the f o l l o w i n g s e n t e n c e s , e.g. NI/NIN \"you\" T»A \"he/she'^ CH'IH TONG \" e a t \" \"soup\" r N l / N I N LAOZE GEI J \"you\" { I-BUN SHU \" t e a c h e r \" \" g i v e \" | T»A | \" a \" \"book\" /'he/her\". f N I / N I N \"you\" T'A \"him / h e r \" J LAOZE BONG \" t e a c h e r \" \" h e l p \" V WO-MEN NI-MEN/NIN \"you\" T*A-MEN \" t h e y \" LAOZE GEI \" t e a c h e r \" \" g i v e \" CH'IH TONG \" e a t \" \"soup\" fWO-MEN ^ \"us\" NI-MEN \"you\" ^ SHU \"book\" T 1A-MEN V\"them\" J LAOZE BONG \"teacher\" \"help\" fWO-MEN \"us\" NI-MEN/NIN \"you\" T1A-MEN \"them\" 81 4.C. C o n t r a s t i v e A n a l y s i s P a r t III G e n e r a l forms o f p e r s o n a l pronouns i n b o t h l a n g u a g e s : E n g l i s h : X 1+ Aux + V.+ Y Z + Aux + V + IC,, except i n t h e envirnment o f H e a r e r : i.e.\"\" \"you\" C h i n e s e : X + V + Y Z + V + X G e n e r a l F e a t u r e : E n g l i s h : Case i n f l e c t i o n s e x c ept i n t h e envirnment o f H e a r e r , t h a t i s , \"you\". C h i n e s e : No case i n f l e c t i o n s . C o n c l u s i o n 12: Problems o f Chinese speaker l e a r n i n g E n g l i s h , P r o d u c t i o n : 1. W i l l have d i f f i c u l t i e s i n remembering t h e case c o u n t e r p a r t s o f d i f f e r e n t pronouns. 2. W i l l have d i f f i c u l t i e s - in h a n d l i n g s u b j e c t -p r e d i c a t e agreement. 3. May t h i n k \"Adj + I\" c o r r e c t , e.g. *The b i g he R e c o g n i t i o n and meaning: No s p e c i a l problems. 6*2 5. The VP A. The Aux a. Tense and Time. The VP i n E n g l i s h can be r e w r i t t e n as 1 The VP i n Chinese can be r e w r i t t e n as f ( A d j > (Aux,) J We can now a n a l y s e s t e p by s t e p t h e s e VP's. \"Aux\", t h e symbol f o r \" a u x i l i a r y \" , i s t h e f i r s t i t e m i n t h e r u l e s i n b o t h l a n g u a g e s . Thus we w i l l d e a l w i t h i t f i r s t . I n E n g l i s h Aux can be r e w r i t t e n as C (\"Tense\" and \"number\") — M (\"Modal\") — (have + en) — ( b e + i n g ) . Items w i t h i n p a r e n t h e s e s a r e o p t i o n a l i n t h e grammar. I n C h i n e s e , Aux can be (Aux), o p t i o n a l as t h e f i r s t i t e m o f t h e s t r i n g , and/or ( A u x ^ ) , o p t i o n a l as t h e l a s t i t e m o f t h e s t r i n g . Aux i s r e w r i t t e n as (M) ( \" o p t i o n a l , M o d a l \" ) ; Aux^ i s r e w r i t t e n as (P) ( \" o p t i o n a l , P a r t i c l e \" ) . P a r t i c l e s used a f t e r C hinese v e r b s are \" t e n s e m a r k e r s \" , o r \" t e n s e morphemes\". U n l i k e E n g l i s h , no t e n s e morphemes can be added t o M, so Chinese needs no C b e f o r e M, nor does the language need a \"number marker\" i n t h e Aux o r Aux-,. 83 As we see t h a t both M and P are o p t i o n a l i n C h i n e s e , we u n d e r s t a n d t h a t t e n s e morphemes i n Chinese do not n e c e s s -a r i l y o c c u r ; even when t h e y do t h e y need not f u n c t i o n con-s i s t e n t l y t o g i v e meanings o f \" t e n s e \" . F o r i n s t a n c e , i n E n g l i s h , \" l e a v e + P a s t \" i s always p a s t t e n s e (= l e f t ) , w h i l e i n C h i n e s e , \"CHYU + LE\" i s sometimes p a s t and some-t i m e s something e l s e , depending upon t h e c o n t e x t . Even \"CHYU\" i t s e l f can be p a s t when the t i m e f o r a c t i o n i s de-no t e d by an adverb o f t i m e . Both E n g l i s h and Chinese have two t e n s e s : p r e s e n t and p a s t . We may have r e a d o t h e r grammar books which speak o f more t h a n two t e n s e s , a d d i n g , f o r i n s t a n c e , t h e f u t u r e t e n s e and t h e p e r f e c t t e n s e . However, modern l i n g u i s t s note t h a t t h e f u t u r e , p e r f e c t , and s i m i l a r s t r u c t u r e s a r e o f p h r a s a l c o n s t r u c t i o n , and t h e r e f o r e t r e a t e d d i f f e r e n t l y and s e p a r a t e l y from t h e p r e s e n t and t h e p a s t t e n s e s . The f o l l o w i n g examples w i l l i l l u s t r a t e some uses and the s t r u c t u r e s o f t h e two t e n s e s i n b o t h l a n g u a g e s . E n g l i s h : The boy e a t s r i c e . The + boy + 0 + P r e s e n t + S + eat + 0 + r i c e i i < 1 i The boy a t e r i c e . The + boy + 0 + P a s t + 0 + eat + 0 + r i c e + 0 T Z i — i zzr~ i ZZZT i C h i n e s e : SHAO HAI CH'IH FAN SHAO-HAI + 0 + CH'IH + FAN i i 'boy* ' e a t 1 ' r i c e * 84 English: The boys eat r i c e . The + boy + S + Present + 0 + eat + 0 + r i c e + 0 The boys ate r i c e . The + boy + S + Past + 0 + eat + 0 + r i c e + 0 i 1 i 1 i 1 Chinese: SHAO-HAI (MEN) CH»IH FAN SHAO-HAI + (MEN) + CH*IH FAN i i »boy» fpl» 'eat* 'r i c e * English: The boy comes. The + boy + 0 + Present + S + come The boy came. The + boy + 0 + Past + 0 + come Chinese: SHAO-HAI LAI SHAO-HAI + 0 + Present + LAI i 1 i 1 fboy* 'come1 SHAO-HAI LAI LE SHAO-HAI + 0 + Past + LAI i 1 •boy* 'come* English: The boys come. The + boy + S + Present + 0 + come The boys came. The + boy_ + S + Past + 0 + come Chinese: SHAO-HAI (MEN) LAI SHAO-HAI + (MEN) + Present + LAI i _ 'boy* »pl» fcome t SHAO-HAI (MEN) LAI LE SHAO-HAI + (MEN) + Past + LAI i 1 i i •boy1 fpl» 'come* 85 b. M o d a l . I n E n g l i s h , w i t h t h e k i n d o f r u l e we have been u s i n g t o t h i s p o i n t , M can be r e w r i t t e n o n l y a s : can, may, w i l l , s h a l l , must. -Each, except must, has a p a s t form: c o u l d , m i g h t , would, s h o u l d . A l l modals do not show t h e S form on t h e s u r f a c e s t r u c t u r e . To i l l u s t r a t e t h e k i n d o f work t h e modal does, we can r e p r e s e n t such s e n t e n c e s as \"The boys w i l l come\" and \"The boy would come\" w i t h t r e e s o f d e r i v a t i o n as f o l l o w s : NP VP-. NP n Aux P i N Nh The boys S P r e s e n t 0 P r e s e n t 0 w i l l VP. V V i come Nh Pa s t 0 w i l l V i The boy 0 P a s t 0 w i l l come 86 In Chinese, M —> CHIANG, KW'AI, YEAO ... and many-others. Unlike English, a Chinese modal can be any word that denotes time of action. The following tree of d e r i -vation w i l l show the function of the Chinese modal i n a sentence such as HAI-TZU YEAO LAI LE (The boys w i l l come.) HAI-TZU »boy» c. (have + en) The t h i r d item i n Aux i n English i s ('have + en'). In a sentence such as \"The students have eaten\", there are two words i n the VP, 'have eaten*. But i f we repre-sent t h i s VP with the rewrite rules that we have been using, i t actually consists of the following u n i t s : Pres + P l u r a l + have + en + eat. The \"en + e a t \" i s what i s c a l l e d the past p a r t i c i p l e . Many English verbs have the same forms for the past p a r t i c i p l e and the past tense, \"en\" here i s used as a signal of the past p a r t i c i p l e , so \"en + a r r i v e \" —-» \"arrived\", \"en + walk\" —•» \"walked\"-, and \"en + go\" — 4 \"gone\" on the surface l e v e l . 87 Now we come t o a more i m p o r t a n t p o i n t , and t h a t i s \"en + v e r b \" s h o u l d f o l l o w \"C + have\" and the f o r m u l a i s always \"C + have + en + v e r b \" . K e r n e l sentences l i k e \"John had spoken\", \"They had gone\", \"Mary has a r r i v e d \" a l l con-t a i n t h e element \"have + en\". An o b l i g a t o r y r u l e t r a n s f e r s t h e a f f i x e s ( e . g . , -ed o r -£> f o r C, and -en) t o t h e c o r r e c t p o s i t i o n s . I n Chinese t h e r e i s no \"have + en\" s t r u c t u r e . The s i m p l e p a s t i s alw a y s used whether t h e a c t i o n i s completed j u s t now o r l o n g ago. e.g. He came ,T'A LAI LE He has come. — f h e T 'come* f p a r t * He a t e . ]^>T»A CH'IH LE He has e a t e n . • h e 1 * e a t f Tpart» d. (be + i n g ) L i k e \"have\" and \"en\", \"be\" and \" i n g \" always go t o -g e t h e r . I n t h e k e r n e l sentence \"He i s e a t i n g \" , t h e VP i s \" i s e a t i n g \" , w h i c h i s r e p r e s e n t e d by t h i s f o r m u l a : P r e s e n t + 0 + be + i n g + e a t . The same a f f i x - m o v i n g r u l e a p p l i e s , \" i n g + V\" forms a r e c a l l e d p r e s e n t p a r t i c i p l e s , and a l l p r e s e n t p a r t i c i p l e s a r e c o m p l e t e l y r e g u l a r i n form. The VP*s i n t h e f o l l o w i n g s e n t e n c e s a l l c o n t a i n \"be + i n g \" : I am r e a d i n g . He i s l a u g h i n g . Henry was s l e e p i n g . I n Chinese t h e \"TSAI - V\" i s a s t r u c t u r e t h a t has some semantic e q u i v a l e n c e t o t h e E n g l i s h \"be + i n g \" . \"TSAI\" BB always goes before the verb. Let us look at t h i s sentence: ¥0 TSAI K'AN-SHU \" I am reading\", and compare i t w i t h \"WO YEAO K'AN-SHU \" I w i l l read a book\". ¥e have these two s t r i n g s : WO TSAI K'AN-SHU •I» ' i n ' 'read' WO YEAO K* AN-SHU <• •I» ' w i l l ' 'read' Both TSAI and YEAO i n d i c a t e something about the time of a c t i o n , and occur i n s i m i l a r p o s i t i o n s . They ob v i o u s l y belong to the same s t r u c t u r e i n the Aux. They are both modals. Now l e t us look at these sentences: He i s laughing. T'A TSAI SHAO was to to He 1 S w r i t i n g . T'A TSAI SE-TZU was He i s e a t i n g . T'A TSAI CH'IH was We see tha t j u s t l i k e E n g l i s h \"be + i n g \" , \"TSAI + V\" s t r u c t u r e s are al s o r e g u l a r i n Chinese, but contain no tense morpheme at a l l . F i n a l l y , i t i s p o s s i b l e i n E n g l i s h to have a VP con-t a i n i n g a l l the elements of Aux. For in s t a n c e , i n the VP \"should have been reading\", we have \"C + M + have + en + be + i n g + V i \" . This can be i l l u s t r a t e d by the f o l l o w i n g example. - Nh + 0 + M + V±1 Nh + 0 + M + Vi-j_ 89 e.g. The boy should have been reading. NP VP NP . ^ ^ ^ s i n g T.N 0 Nh The boy 0 Kernel s t r i n g : The + boy + 0 + Past + 0 + s h a l l + have + en + be + ing + read By T-Affix r u l e , we reach: The + boy_ + 0 + s h a l l + Past + 0 + have + be + en + read + ing M have + en be + ing V i Past 0 Past 0 s h a l l have + en be + ing read By morphophonemic rule, we arrive at; The boy should have been reading. 90 In Chinese, i t i s p o s s i b l e to have a VP co n t a i n i n g a l l elements of the Aux since there are only two of them. e.g. T'A MING-T'IEN CHE SHIH-HAUH HUI TAO-LE (He w i l l have a r r i v e d by t h i s time tomorrow) Aux T'A 0 MING-TIEN CHE-SHIH-HAUH- H'UI TAO LE •he' ! 0 ' 'tomorrow' ' w i l l \" c o m e ' 'past' Kernel S t r i n g : TVA + 0 + MING-TIEN CHE SHIH-HAUH + HUI TAO-LE By morphophonemic r u l e , we a r r i v e a t : T'A MING-TIEN CHE SHIH-HAUH HUI TAO LE 91 e. C o n t r a s t i v e A n a l y s i s P a r t IV Aux a. R u l e s : E n g l i s h : Aux —-» C - (M) - (have + en) - (be + i n g ) C h i n e s e : Aux (M) - (P) b. G e n e r a l F e a t u r e s : 1. E n g l i s h : Tense i s o b l i g a t o r y and i s a t t a c h e d t o t h e f i r s t Aux, i f one i s chosen. C h i n e s e : Tense i s o p t i o n a l and f o l l o w s t h e v e r b a l w a y s . 2. E n g l i s h : Modals a r e can, may, w i l l , s h a l l , must. C h i n e s e : Modals can be any words d e n o t i n g time o f a c t i o n . 3. E n g l i s h : The p a s t p a r t i c i p l e i s r e s t r i c t e d t o \"have + en\" r u l e . C h i n e s e : No s i m i l a r s t r u c t u r e . k. E n g l i s h : When \"be\" i s u sed as an Aux, \" i n g \" must a l s o be a p p l i e d t o the v e r b . C h i n e s e : 'TSAI + V e r b a l * i s a s t r u c t u r e s i m i l a r t o \"be + i n g \" . 5. E n g l i s h : Elements l i k e \"M, have, be\" may c o n t a i n t e n s e . C h i n e s e : No t e n s e markers may be added t o modals. C o n c l u s i o n 13: Problems o f C h i n e s e speaker l e a r n i n g E n g l i s h , P r o d u c t i o n : 1. W i l l make m i s t a k e s o f v a r i o u s k i n d s i n t e n s e s . 2. May have d i f f i c u l t i e s i n h a n d l i n g modals and t h e i r 92 p a s t forms\", e s p e c i a l l y \" s h a l l , s h o u l d \" , \" w i l l , would\". 3. W i l l have d i f f i c u l t i e s i n \"have + en\". 4. W i l l have d i f f i c u l t i e s i n t h e \"C + M + be + i n g \" form. e.g. He w i l l be l e a v i n g . 5. W i l l not u n d e r s t a n d t h a t the e x p r e s s i o n o f f u t u r e time may have any o f t h e s e forms: He i s l e a v i n g . He w i l l l e a v e . He i s about t o l e a v e . R e c o g n i t i o n and meaning: 1. W i l l make m i s t a k e s i n t e n s e s . 2. W i l l make m i s t a k e s i n modals. 3. W i l l f a i l t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e \"C + M + be + i n g \" forms. 4. W i l l have d i f f i c u l t i e s i n i n t e r -p r e t i n g \"have + en\" forms. 93 B. C l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f Verbs a. E n g l i s h V e r b s . We now come t o t h e l a s t p a r t o f t h e VP, and t h a t i s t h e n u c l e a r v e r b . Chomsky s e p a r a t e s be from a l l o t h e r v e r b s . F o r t h e purpose o f comparison, we w i l l use t h e term \" c o p u l a \" (Vcop) i n the t r a d i t i o n a l sense t o i n c l u d e be, and Vs o f the g i v e n r u l e s . The f o l l o w i n g examples w i l l i l l u s t r a t e t h e f u n c t i o n s o f the Vcop, t h e V i , and t h e V t . O b v i o u s l y :be does not behave l i k e t h e VP^ ( i . e . , t he V s ) c l a s s . F o r i n s t a n c e , V t has t o conform t o t h i s r u l e : V t + NP, w h i l e the V i can s t a n d a l o n e . The v e r b be i s r e s -t r i c t e d t o t h i s r u l e : G e n e r a l l y , be + NP d i f f e r s from V t + NP i n t h e s e ways: be + NP: t h e NP here i s a complement, and the two NP*s have t h e same r e f e r e n c e i n t h e a c t u a l w o r l d . The whole s t r u c t u r e i s n o n - p a s s i v a b l e , i . e . , i t cannot undergo t h e p a s s i v e t r a n s f o r m . V t + NP: the NP here i s an \" a c t i o n - r e c e i v e r \" ; t h e two NP fs do not have t h e same r e f e r e n c e . The whole s t r u c t u r e a l l o w s t h e p a s s i v e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n : NP, + V t + NP 0 NP 9 + be + en + V t + by + NP, Aux + be 94 I n E n g l i s h , be + Adv^ i s d i f f e r e n t from V i + Adv-^ i n t h e s e ways: be + Adv-^: Adv^ i s o b l i g a t o r y . I t cannot be d e l e t e d . V i + Adv^: Adv^ here i s o p t i o n a l . I t can be d e l e t e d . E n g l i s h be agrees w i t h number and p e r s o n o f t h e sub-j e c t , and has an Aux, i . e . , must show t h e p r e s e n t o r t h e p a s t form, and may have a modal, have + en, be + i n g . 1) e.g. I + 0 + P r e s e n t + be + 0 + Adv-p i i i i I am h e r e . You + 0 + P r e s e n t + be + 0 + Adv-p You are h e r e . The boy/He/She/It + 0 + P r e s e n t + be + 0 + Adv-p The boy/He/She/It i s h e r e . 2) e.g. I + 0 + P a s t + be + 0 + Adv-p J 1 i i I was h e r e . You + 0 + P a s t + be + 0 + Adv-p You were h e r e . The boy/He/She/It + 0 + P a s t + be + 0 + Adv-p The boy/He/She/It was h e r e . 3) I f t h e s u b j e c t i s p l u r a l , t h e v e r b form i n t h e p r e s e n t i s always a r e : e.g. I + S + P r e s e n t + be + S + Adv-p We are h e r e . You + S + P r e s e n t + be + S + Adv-p You are h e r e . The boy/He/She/It + S + P r e s e n t + be + S + Adv-p The bojs/They are h e r e . The boy/He/She/It + 0 + P a s t + be + 0 + Adv-p _i i _ H e / S h e / l t was h e r e . . I f t h e s u b j e c t i s p l u r a l , t h e ve r b form i n the p r e s e n t i s a l w a y s ^ a r e : ^esent + be + S + Adv-p h e r e . You + S + P r e s e n t + b>~ V i . e.g. NP + V i s i n g 1 0 + Nh + 0 + P a s t + V i He He He d i e d , l e f t , came. 2.a. V i — » V i 2 + P r t . T h i s symbol \" P r t \" ( P a r t i c l e ) s t a n d s f o r a s m a l l group o f words such as on, i n , o u t , up, down, w i t h , e t c . t h a t f r e q u e n t l y combine w i t h a v e r b t o make what i s e s s e n t i a l l y a t w o - p a r t v e r b . e.g. NP . + P a s t + V i 0 + P r t s i n g 2 0 + Nh + 0 + P a s t + V i . + P r t He cut i n . He stepped o u t . He gave up. b. V i ---» V i 2 + NP e.g. N P s i n g + P a s t + V i 2 + NP s i n g 0 + N + 0 + P a s t + V i ? + T + Nab + 0 J 1 i i i i He t o o k p a r t . 98 I t t o o k p l a c e He s l e p t a deep s l e e p . I I I . T r a n s i t i v e Verbs ( V t ) 1. The V t always t a k e s an NP as i t s o b j e c t . Most s t r u c -t u r e s o f t h i s t y p e can undergo t h e p a s s i v e t r a n s f o r m . NP + V t + NP 2 -~» NP 2 + be + en + V t + by_ + NP X e ' S - N P l s i n g + C + V t + NP 2 s i n g - > N P 2 s i n g + C + be + en + V t + by. + NP X s i n g T + Nh + 0 + P a s t + shoot + T + Nc + 0 The man shot t h e t i g e r . T + Nc + 0 + P a s t + be + en + shoot + by_ I 1 I L I I The t i g e r was sho t by T + Nh + 0 t h e man. 2 . N o n - P a s s i v a b l e Type T h i s i s a minor group o f V t T s t h a t cannot undergo the p a s s i v e t r a n s f o r m . e - S - N P s i n g + A u x + V t + N P s i n g T + Nh + 0 + C + V t + T + N c + 0 T + Nh + 0 + P r e s e n t + V t + T + Nc + 0 0 + I + 0 + P r e s e n t + Vt + T + Nc + 0 0 + I + 0 + P r e s e n t + Vt + a + dog + 0 0 + I + 0 + P r e s e n t + have + a + dog + 0 i ~ i. i i i i I have a dog. Other examples: The d r e s s c o s t t e n d o l l a r s . The t a b l e weighs s i x pounds. 99 3. O b j e c t - D e l e t e d Type ( o n l y a few v e r b s may d e l e t e t he o b j e c t ; u s u a l l y t h e o b j e c t i s ob v i o u s ) e.g. NP . + C + V t + (NP . ) & sxng s i n g ' T + Nh + 0 + P a s t + V t + (T + Nc + 0) 0 + Nh + 0 + Pa s t + Vt + (T + Nc + 0) I L I 1 1 I He i n v e s t i g a t e d ( t h e case.) 4. Pseudo-Object Type (a v e r y s m a l l group) e ' g - N P s i n g + C + V t + N P s i n g + A d v \" P T + N h + 0 + C + V t + T + N h + 0 + Adv-p 0 + Nh + 0 + Pa s t + V t + 0 + N h + 0 + Adv-p He walked h e r home. 5. Two-Word Type (a l a r g e group) V t V t + P r t e.g. NP . + C + V t + NP . to s i n g s i n g T + Nh + 0 + C + V t + P r t + T + Nc + 0 0 + Nh + 0 + P a s t + Vt + P r t + T + Nc + 0 He t o o k o f f the c o a t . V t + P r t may become a s p l i t form -- V t + NP + P r t . Hence, t h e above s t r u c t u r e = NP + C + V t + NP + P r t . e ' S - N P s i n g + C + V t + N P 8 i n g T + Nh + 0 + C + V t + T + N c + 0 + P r t 0 * Nh + 0 + P a s t + V t + T + N c + 0 + P r t He t o o k t he coat o f f . Note: 1. When NP 2 \" t h e o b j e c t \" i s l o n g and c o m p l i c a t e d , *NP-j_ + Vt + NP 2 + P r t i s u n g r a m m a t i c a l i n E n g l i s h . e.g. *NP . + C + V t + NP . + wh-NP + Cop + & s i n g s i n g ^ Adj + P r t T + Nh + 0 + C + V t + T + N c + C f +wh-NP . r r s i n g + C + be + 0 + Adj + P r t *0 + Nh + 0 + P a s t + V t + T + N c + 0 + He too k t h e c o a t wh-Nc + 0 + P a s t + be + 0 + Adj + P r t whi c h was t h i c k o f f . T h i s s t r u c t u r e i s u n g r a m m a t i c a l . 2. When NP^ \" t h e o b j e c t \" i s a p r o p e r name o r a p e r -s o n a l pronoun, \"NP^ + Vt + P r t + NP 2 i s not gram-m a t i c a l . e.g. *NP . + C + Vt + P r t + NP . s i n g s i n g T + N h + 0 + C + V t + P r t + T + Nc + 0 *0 + Nh + 0 + P a s t * Vt + P r t + 0 + Nc + 0 He t o o k o f f i t . T h i s s t r u c t u r e i s u n g r a m m a t i c a l . P r e p o s i t i o n a l Type ( d i f f e r e n t from No. 5 because a pronoun o b j e c t remains a f t e r t h e p r e p o s i t i o n ) . e - S ' N P s i n g + C + Vt + Prep + N P s i n g T + N h + 0 + C + V t + Prep + T + Nh + 0 0 + Nh + 0 + P a s t + V t + Prep + T + Nh + 0 I T » . i „ j h i s f r i e n d . He w a i t e d f o r < h i m He l o o k e d f o r | a J OM 101 7. I n d i r e c t O b j e c t Type e.g. NP . + C + Vt + NP. . + NP_ . s i n g l s i n g 2sing T + N h + 0 + C + V t + T + N c + 0 + T + N h + 0 0 + Nh + 0 + P a s t + V t + T + Nc + 0 + 0 + Nh + 0 i i i 1 J 1 i 1 •He* •gave 1 l a * f b o o k f ^ e * . T h i s s t r i n g , a f t e r some t r a n s f o r m a t i o n a l r u l e s a r e applied, becomes: 0 + Nh + 0 + P a s t + V t + T + N c + 0 + t o + I L 1 L I 1 He gave a book t o 0 + Nh + 0 me. A l s o , NP + V t + NP 2 + N P -L where \" t o \" i s d e l e t e d and NP 2 i s moved. e.g. NP . + C + V t + NP 9 . „ + NP, . „ to s i n g 2 s i n g l s i n g T + N h + 0 + C + V t + T + N h + 0 + T + N c + 0 0 + Nh + 0 + P a s t + V t + 0 + N h + 0 + T +Nc + 0 i 1 i J i i i i He gave me a book. 102 b. C h i n e s e Verbs C h i n e s e v e r b s have no i n f l e c t i o n s o f any s o r t . ModaIs,and t e n s e markers a re o n l y e x t r a words added t o v e r b s . F o r the purpose o f comparison, I s h a l l a g a i n use the term Vcop i n t h e t r a d i t i o n a l sense t o d e s c r i b e some o f the Chinese v e r b s , w h i c h w i l l be c l a s s i f i e d as f o l l o w s : 1. Copula Verbs (Vcop): SHIH \"be\", ( I n t e n s i f i e r ) + A d j , TSAI \"be + i n / o n / a t \" , HSIEN \"seem/look\", YU \" t o have\". 1. a. Vcop SHIH \"be\" SHIH i s r e s t r i c t e d t o t h i s r u l e : However, SHIH can be used i n almost any sentence i f emphasis i s i n t e n d e d . G e n e r a l l y , SHIH + NP i s d i f f e r e n t from V t + NP i n t h e s e ways: SHIH + NP: t h e NP i s a complement; th e whole s t r u c t u r e i s n o n - p a s s i v a b l e . Vt + NP: t h e NP f u n c t i o n s as o b j e c t ; the whole s t r u c t u r e a l l o w s t h i s p a s s i v e t r a n s f o r -m a t i o n : NP + Vt + NP NP + BE I + NP.. + V t + (P) 1 2 2 1 Both * V t + Adj and * V i + Adj are ungr a m m a t i c a l i n C h i n e s e , e x c e p t when V t i s a s p l i t form as s t a t e d i n r u l e 14: + Adj i s o b v i o u s s i n c e a NP must o c c u r between t h e s p l i t SHIH +< But t h e d i f f e r e n c e between SHIH + A d j and V t 2 a + NP + V t 2 b 103 p a r t s o f t h e V t , and t h e r e i s no s p l i t form o f SHIH. »'SHIH + NP + A d j \" i s not g r a m m a t i c a l , nor i s \"NP ( ' o b j e c t ' ) + SHIH + A d j \" . b. SHIH + NP e-g- NP . „ + SHIH + NP . & s i n g s i n g Nh + 0 + SHIH + Nh + 0 T'A SHIH SHIH-SHENG 'He' 'be' * s t u d e n t * (He i s a s t u d e n t ) c. SHIH + Adj e.g. NP'. + SHIH + Adj T + Nc + 0 + SHIH + Adj CHE B l SHIH HAU-TE • T h i s * 'pen' »be» 'good' ( T h i s pen i s good) 2. Vcop — » I n t e n s i f i e r + A d j , e.g. HEN + Adj N P c ^ n o - + I n t e n s i f i e r + Adj faXXlg Nh + 0 + I n t e n s i f i e r + A d j i i T'A HEN MEI-LI 'she* 'very* ' b e a u t i f u l * (she i s v e r y b e a u t i f u l ) 3. Vcop ---> TSAI \"be + i n / o n / a t \" , e.g. TSAI + Adv-p N s i n g + TSAI + Adv-p Nh + 0 + TSAI + Adv-p 10 TSAI CHIA »I» ' a t / i n ' 'home' ( I am home.) 104 T'A TSAI CHE-R *he» »at» »here» (He i s here.) 4. Vcop HSIEN \"seem, l o o k l i k e \" , e.g. HSIEN + NP NP . „ + HSIEN + NP e. s i n g s i n g Nh •+ 0 + HSIEN + Nh + 0 • i i 1 T'A HSIEN HSUEH-SHENG •he* tseem l 1 s t u d e n t * (He seems a s t u d e n t . ) HAI-TZU HSIEN T*A •boy* »look l i k e * *he* (The boy l o o k s l i k e him.) I I . I n t r a n s i t i v e Verbs \" V i \" 1. Simple Form e.g. NP . + V i + Aux s i n g Nh + 0 + V i + P T*A LAI-LE •He* »came» »le» (He came.) T*A HZIH-LE »He* »die» »le» (He d i e d . ) 2 . Compound Form 1) Vi be , NP Rules: English: Aux + be +/Adj Adv ( Prep. Phrasej Chinese: (Aux) + SHIH +i A d J J U P J Features: 1. English:] V Both \"be\" and \"SHIH\" are V »s Chinese:J c oP 2. English: \"be\" occurs in these environments: C + (M) + be X Chinese: \"SHIH\" occurs in these environments: (M) + SHIH + X This structure contains no tense and number.- morphemes. 3. English] V Both \"be\" and \"SHIH\" structures are ChineseJ not passivable. 4. English: There are three kinds of \"be\": \"be\" as an Aux; \"be\" as a Vcop; \"be\" as a struc-ture word to mark passive. 5. SHIH may be used as an Aux before the Vi and the Vt to denote emphasis. It i s never used to mark passive. 5. be + NP English: \"be\" may occur before any NP. Chinese: SHIH may occur before any NP. 6. be + Adj English: \"be\" may occur before any Adj. Chinese: \"SHIH\" may occur before any Adj. 110 7. be + Adv English: Adv i s restricted to Adv-p and Adv-t. Chinese: \"SHIH + Adv\" i s ungrammatical. Conclusion 14: Problems of Chinese speaker learning English. Production: 1. May make mistakes in tenses and in number concord. 2. May mistake \"He i s in here\" for \"He i s here\". 3. May use be before verbs incorrectly, e.g. *The boy is play b a l l . 4. May be confused when coming across . . \"be + 0 + NPp]_\"» e.g. Mountain climbing i s many things to many people. 5. May have di f f i c u l t y with be in passive transformations. 6. May omit be due to the interference of \"Intensifier + Adj\" and \"TSAI + Adv-p\" structures in Chinese. Recognition: May have d i f f i c u l t y in distinguishing be as an Aux, be as a Vcop, and be as part of the passive form. B. Vcop become, remain, seem, etc. a. Vcop + NP —-» become/remain Features: English: This sort of Vcop behaves differently from \"be\", but i t involves the meaning of \"be\". e.g. \"The boy remained silent\" involves the meaning of \"The boy was silent\". Chinese: No equivalent structure. I l l b. Vcop + NP — * seem (NP { UdjJ Feature: Engli sh ~) I\"seem\" and \"HSIEN\" are similar features. Chinese j Both may occur before a NP and an Adj. They have similar meaning. Conclusion 15: Problems of Chinese speaker learning English. Production: NP] 1. May mix up become/remain +< \\ with \"be\" structures. (Adj. 2. May lack confidence in using this class of Vcop. Meaning: Remain +JNP I can be a problem. lAdj] 2. Vi Feature: 1. English] > The Vi*s in both languages can be Chinese 1 used alone without any word following them. 2. English: An Vi can be one single word. It can also comprise two or more words. Chinese: An Vi can be one single word. It can also be a combination of one word with another word or some other words. Conclusion 16: Problems of Chinese speaker learning English. Production: 1. M i l l have d i f f i c u l t i e s in handling Vi»s that consist of more than one word. 2. May produce a sentence like *He went madly\" meaning \"He went mad.\" 3. May misplace the adverb, e.g. ?The birds from the south 112 came. 1 meaning 'The b i r d s came from th e s o u t h ' and 'He s t e p p e d s l o w l y o u t ' meaning 'He s t e p p e d out s l o w l y . ' R e c o g n i t i o n and meaning: 1. W i l l have d i f f i c u l t i e s i n i n t e r p r e t i n g p h r a s a l V i ' s . 2. May t h i n k \" t a k e \" i n V i ' s l i k e \" t a k e p a r t \" and \" t a k e p l a c e \" t r a n s i t i v e , t h a t i s , u n d e r s t a n d th e phrase l i t e r -a l l y . 3. May m i s u n d e r s t a n d th e f u n c t i o n o f \" i t \" i n V i ' s l i k e \"make i t \" and\"beat i t \" . 3. Vt Form: Vt + NP \" o b j e c t \" F e a t u r e s : 1. E n g l i s h : Some V t ' s a r e n o n - p a s s i v a b l e . C h i n e s e : A l l V t ' s are p a s s i v a b l e . 2. E n g l i s h : \"be\" must be used when the p a s s i v e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n a l r u l e i s a p p l i e d . C h i n e s e : SHIH \"be\" i s not r e q u i r e d i n any p a s s i v e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n . 3. E n g l i s h : Sometimes the o b j e c t may be d e l e t e d . C h i n e s e : The o b j e c t can always be d e l e t e d p r o v i d e d t h a t t h e r e i s a p r e v i o u s c o n t e x t . 4. E n g l i s h : Vt l i k e \" t a k e o f f + NP\" \"hang up + NP\" may become \" t a k e + NP + o f f \" and \"hang + NP + up\" i f t h e NP i n each case i s not l o n g and c o m p l i c a t e d . A l s o s p l i t the v e r b and the P r t when t h e o b j e c t i s a pronoun, e.g. t a k e i t o f f . C h i n e s e : S p l i t V t ' s a r e found i n the \"BA + 113 + NP + V t + ( P ) \" s t r u c t u r e . The word o r d e r i s f i x e d . 5. E n g l i s h : The p o s i t i o n o f t h e p r e p o s i t i o n i n Vt — * Vt + prep i s f i x e d . *\"Vt + NP + prep\" i s u n g r a m m a t i c a l . e.g. *\"He l o o k e d a j o b f o r \" . C h i n e s e : No e q u i v a l e n t s t r u c t u r e . 6. E n g l i s h : I n d i r e c t o b j e c t s may o c c u r immedi-a t e l y a f t e r t h e V t , o r a f t e r the d i r e c t o b j e c t , ' t o * must be used when i t o c c u r s a f t e r t h e d i r e c t o b j e c t . So b o t h *Vt + NP 2 \" I n d i r e c t o b j . \" + N P-L \" D i r e c t o b j . \" and \" V t + N P-L + t o + NP 2\" are r i g h t . C h i n e s e : The i n d i r e c t o b j e c t always f o l l o w s the V t i m m e d i a t e l y . C o n c l u s i o n 17: Problems o f C h i n e s e speaker l e a r n i n g E n g l i s h . P r o d u c t i o n : 1. May d e l e t e a r e q u i r e d o b j e c t . 2. May a p p l y p a s s i v e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n a l r u l e s t o a non-p a s s i v a b l e s e n t e n c e . 3. W i l l . h a v e t r o u b l e w i t h \"be\" i n p a s s i v e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s . 4. W i l l have t r o u b l e i n d e a l i n g w i t h \"Vt-adv\" and \" V t - p r e p \" . 5. May a p p l y \"Vt + NP 2 \" I n d . o b j . \" + NP 1 \" D i r e c t o b j \" . t o a sentence t h a t r e q u i r e s \"Vt + NP-,^ + t o + NP 2\". e.g. \"He r e t u r n e d him t h e book\", meaning \"He r e t u r n e d the book t o him\". 114 R e c o g n i t i o n and meaning: W i l l have d i f f i c u l t y i n d i s t i n -g u i s h i n g the su b j e c t d i f f e r e n c e s i n : 1. \" I have been there b e f o r e \" and \" I have been t o l d b e f o r e \" . 2. \"The food was good\" and \"The food was eaten\". 3. \" I have been g i v e n much money s i n c e l a s t summer\" and \" I have been g i v i n g away much money s i n c e l a s t sum-mer\" . 115 A Selected Bibliography Contrastive Analysis Bernstein, Gertrude. \"Reproduction and Recognition of Eng l i s h Speech Sounds as Affe c t e d by the Native Languages of I n t e r n a t i o n a l Students,\" Unpub.: Ohio State Univ. M.A. d i s s . , 1957. C a r r o l l , John B. \" L i n g u i s t i c R e l a t i v i t y , Contrastive Analysis, and Language Learning,\" IRAL (1963), 1.1-20. Dingwall, W i l l i a m Orr. \"Diaglossic Grammar,\" Unpub.: Georgetown Univ. Ph.D. d i s s . , 1964. . \"Transformational Generative Grammar and Contrastive Analysis,\" Language Learning XIV: 3-4, (1964) 147-60. Dykstra, Gerald. \"Perspectiive on the Teacher's Use of Contrast,\" Language Learning VI: 3-^ (1956) 1-6. F r i e s , Charles C. Teaching and Learning E n g l i s h as a Foreign Language. Ann Arbor, Mich.: Univ. of Michigan Press, 1945. Joos, Martin. Acoustic Phonetics. (Language Monographs, no. 23.) Baltimore: L i n g u i s t i c Society of America, 1948. Lado, Robert. L i n g u i s t i c s Across Cultures. Ann Arbor, Mich.: Univ. of Michigan Press, 1957. . \"A Comparison of the Sound Systems of E n g l i s h and Spanish,\" Hispania, The American Association of Teachers of Spanish and Portu-guese, XXXIX, (1956). Pulgram, Ernst, (ed.). Applied L i n g u i s t i c s i n Language Teaching. (Monograph Series on Languages and L i n g u i s t i c s , 6.)Washington, D.C.: Georgetown Univ. Press, 195^ . Reed, David W., Robert Lado and Yao Shen. \"The Importance; of the Native Language i n Foreign Language Learning: Part I - The System of S i g n i f i c a n t Sound,\" Language Learning (1948) 17-23. Upshur, J.A. \"Language P r o f i c i e n c y Testing and the Contrastive Analy-s i s Dilemma,\" Language Learning XII:2, (1962) 123-27. 116 English A l l e n , Harold B. (ed.). Readings i n Applied L i n g u i s t i c s , second e d i t i o n . New York: Appleton-Century-Croft, 1964. Baugh, Albert C r o l l . A History of the English Language, second e d i t i o n . New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1957. Chomsky, Noam. Syntactic Structures. The Hague: Mouton and Co., 1957. \"A Transformational Approach to Syntax,\" Third Texas Conference on Problems of L i n g u i s t i c s i n English, ed. H i l l A.A. Austin, Texas: Univ. of Texas Press, 1962. . Aspects of the Theory of Syntax. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The M.I.T. Press\", 1965. Francis, W. Nelson. The English Language: An Introduction. New York: W.W. Norton Company, 1965. . The Structure of American English. New York: Ronald Press, 1958. F r i e s , Charles C. L i n g u i s t i c s : The Study of Language. New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, Inc., 1964. . The Structure of English. New York: Harcourt, Brace, and World, Inc., 1952. Gleason, H.A., J r . L i n g u i s t i c s and English Grammar. New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1965* Hockett, Charles F. A Course i n Modern L i n g u i s t i c s . New York: Macmillan Company, 1958. Jespersen, Otto. Growth and Structure of the English Lang-uage. Garden City, New York: Doubleday and Co., 1948. Koutsoudas, Andreas. Writing Transformational Grammars: An Introduction. New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1966. Nida, Eugene Albert. A Synopsis of English Syntax. Norman, Okla.: Summer Ins t i t u t e of L i n g u i s t i c s , I960. Roberts, Paul. English Syntax. New York: Harcourt, Brace, and World, 1964. Sapir, Edward. Language: An Introduction to the Study of Speech. New York: Harcourt, Brace, and World, 1921. Sledd, James. A Short Introduction to English Grammar. Chicago: Scott, Foresman Company, 1959. 117 Thomas, Owen. Transformational Grammar and the Teacher of E n g l i s h . New York: H o l t , Rinehart, and Winston, 1965. Thomas, Owen. \"Generative Grammar: Toward U n i f i c a t i o n and S i m p l i f i c a t i o n , \" E n g l i s h J o u r n a l , L I (February, 1962), 94-99, 113. Thomas, P y l e s . The O r i g i n and Development of the E n g l i s h Language. New York: Harcourt, Brace and World, 1964. Twaddell, W i l l i a m Freeman. The E n g l i s h Verb A u x i l i a r i e s . Providence, R.I.: Brown U n i v e r s i t y Press, I960. Zandvoort, Reinard Willem. A Handbook of E n g l i s h Grammar. London: Longmans, Green, 1957. Chinese Chou, Fa Kao /f] . A Study of Chinese Grammar ^ JUtS\" 7^ ^Tf ' T a i W a n : T h e Chinese Culture Press, 1955. L i , Chi %^~b. A P r o v i s i o n a l System of Grammar f o r Teaching Chinese. Berkeley: Univ. of C a l i f o r n i a at Berkeley Press, i 9 6 0 : L i , T s i n H s i ^ 7 $~ » L i u , Shih Ju $\\ # 4%. Chinese Grammar Lessons >% > & ? % 5kh tt • Shanghai: Shang Wu Press, 1955. / 1 k & ~ L i u , Fu J E 1 ] / / • A General D i s c u s s i o n of Chinese Grammar dz ^ ^'AMjm- P i p i n g : Univ. of Peking Press, 1919. ' Lang, Chiin Chang • Chinese Grammar S i n Yang, 1956. 1 ^ * ^ /A> Lu, Shu Hsiang $7 ^ X^/l^ . An Out l i n e of Chinese Grammar ' S h a n g h a i : Shang Wu Press, 1954. Wang, L i . A Syntax of Modern Chinese lM 5 $ A$ Peking: Chung Kua Book Store, 1955. — J . ^ / U ' w ^ v ^ . . The Theory of Chinese Syntax x& Peking: Chung Kua Book Store, 1955. 1 Yang, Po Chun \\)J^ . A General A n a l y s i s of Chinese Grammar ran 2r - S ^ f i Shanghai: Shang Wu Press, 1930? 9xf T^jm Yang, H s i ^ A n ^ ffijfc . Modern Chinese J p ^ ^ f ' - C h u n S "@en ; edm:hasType "Thesis/Dissertation"@en ; edm:isShownAt "10.14288/1.0104523"@en ; dcterms:language "eng"@en ; ns0:degreeDiscipline "Education"@en ; edm:provider "Vancouver : University of British Columbia Library"@en ; dcterms:publisher "University of British Columbia"@en ; dcterms:rights "For non-commercial purposes only, such as research, private study and education. Additional conditions apply, see Terms of Use https://open.library.ubc.ca/terms_of_use."@en ; ns0:scholarLevel "Graduate"@en ; dcterms:title "Grammatical contrastive analysis of English and Chinese basic structures"@en ; dcterms:type "Text"@en ; ns0:identifierURI "http://hdl.handle.net/2429/36536"@en .