@prefix vivo: . @prefix edm: . @prefix ns0: . @prefix dcterms: . @prefix skos: . vivo:departmentOrSchool "Science, Faculty of"@en, "Zoology, Department of"@en ; edm:dataProvider "DSpace"@en ; ns0:degreeCampus "UBCV"@en ; dcterms:creator "Russell, Lorne James"@en ; dcterms:issued "2011-07-15T21:50:44Z"@en, "1967"@en ; vivo:relatedDegree "Master of Science - MSc"@en ; ns0:degreeGrantor "University of British Columbia"@en ; dcterms:description """This study was undertaken to determine the parasite complex of the whitetail deer of British Columbia, the frequency of these parasites, and the factors influencing parasitism of these deer. An examination of 69 whitetail deer and 7 mule deer was made for the presence of ectoparasites and endoparasites. Autopsies were performed at various intervals from July 1964 to May 1966. The whitetail deer examined were host to 25 species of parasites including 3 species of lice, 2 species of ticks, 2 louse flies, one bot fly, 4 cestodes, 1 trematode and 11 nematodes. The maximum number of species infesting a single deer was 11. The average number of species per whitetail deer was 5.9. With the exception of the nose bot the frequency of infestation of all species was found to be light. The 7 mule deer examined were host to 22 species of parasites. The maximum in a single deer was 13 and the average number of species per deer was 10.6. Mule deer shared the same ectoparasites as whitetail deer, but harboured much heavier infections of intestinal nematodes and cestodes. Tne bot fly Cepnenemyia jellisoni, the liver fluke Fascioloides magna and larval lungworms were the only parasites found to have any appreciable effect on host tissues. The presence of large numbers of cattle and horses on whitetail winter ranges has not brought about heavy parasite infestations in whitetail deer. The parasitism of whitetail deer was very light in spite of overcrowding of deer, overbrowsed ranges, malnutrition and extremes of climate."""@en ; edm:aggregatedCHO "https://circle.library.ubc.ca/rest/handle/2429/36002?expand=metadata"@en ; skos:note "THE PARASITES OF THE WHITETAIL DEER (Odocoileus v i r g i n i a n u s ochrourus) OF BRITISH COLUMBIA by Lome J . R u s s e l l B . S c , U n i v e r s i t y of B r i t i s h Columbia, 1962 A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF SCIENCE i n the Department of ZOOLOGY We accept t h i s t h e s i s as conforming t o the r e q u i r e d standard THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA. J u l y , 1967. i n p r e s e n t i n g t h i s t h e s i s i n p a r t i a l f u l f i l m e n t o f the r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r an advanced degree at the U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h C o lumbia, I agree t h a t the L i b r a r y s h a l l make i t f r e e l y a v a i l a b l e f o r r e f e r e n c e and s t u d y . I f u r t h e r agree t h a t p e r m i s s i o n f o r e x t e n s i v e c o p y i n g of t h i s t h e s i s f o r s c h o l a r l y purposes may be g r a n t e d by the Head o f my Department o r by h i s r e p r e s e n -t a t i v e s . I t i s u n d e r s t o o d t h a t c o p y i n g o r p u b l i c a t i o n o f t h i s t h e s i s f o r f i n a n c i a l g a i n s h a l l not be a l l o w e d w i t h o u t my w r i t t e n p e r m i s s i o n . • ~c D - : : k 1 rU 1 The Un i ve rs i pf.d'f B r i t i s h Columbia Vancouver 8, Canada A B S T R A C T T h i s s t u d y w a s u n d e r t a k e n t o d e t e r m i n e t h e p a r a s i t e c o m p l e x o f t h e w h i t e t a i l d e e r o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , t h e f r e q u e n c y o f t h e s e p a r a s i t e s , a n d t h e f a c t o r s i n f l u e n c i n g p a r a s i t i s m o f t h e s e d e e r . A n e x a m i n a t i o n o f 6 9 w h i t e t a i l d e e r a n d 7 m u l e d e e r w a s m a d e f o r t h e p r e s e n c e o f e c t o p a r a s i t e s a n d e n d o -p a r a s i t e s . A u t o p s i e s v / e r e p e r f o r m e d a t v a r i o u s i n t e r v a l s f r o m J u l y 1 9 6 4 t o M a y 1 9 6 6 . T n e w h i t e t a i l d e e r e x a m i n e d w e r e h o s t t o 25 s p e c i e s o f p a r a s i t e s i n c l u d i n g 3 s p e c i e s c f l i c e , 2 s p e c i e s o f t i c k s , 2 l o u s e f l i e s , o n e b o t f l y , 4 c e s t o d e s , 1 t r e m a -t o d e a n d 1 1 n e m a t o d e s . T h e m a x i m u m n u m b e r o f s p e c i e s i n f e s t i n g a s i n g l e d e e r w a s 1 1 . T h e a v e r a g e n u m b e r o f s p e c i e s p e r w h i t e t a i l d e e r w a s 5 . 9 . W i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f t h e n o s e b o t t h e f r e q u e n c y o f i n f e s t a t i o n o f a l l s p e c i e s w a s f o u n d t o b e l i g h t . T h e 7 m u l e d e e r e x a m i n e d w e r e h o s t t o 22 s p e c i e s o f p a r a s i t e s . T h e m a x i m u m i n a s i n g l e d e e r w a s 1 3 a n d t h e a v e r a g e n u m b e r o f s p e c i e s p e r d e e r w a s 1 0 . 6 . M u l e d e e r s h a r e d t h e same e c t o p a r a s i t e s a s w h i t e t a i l d e e r , b u t i i i h a r b o u r e d m u c n n e a v i e r i n f e c t i o n s o f i n t e s t i n a l n e m a -t o d e s a n d c e s t o d e s . T n e b o t f l y C e p n e n e m y i a n e l l i s o n i , t h e l i v e r f l u k e F a s c i o l o i d e s m a g n a a n d l a r v a l l u n g w o r m s w e r e t h e o n l y p a r a s i t e s f o u n d t o h a v e a n y a p p r e c i a b l e e f f e c t o n h o s t t i s s u e s . T h e p r e s e n c e o f l a r g e n u m b e r s o f c a t t l e a n d h o r s e s o n w h i t e t a i l w i n t e r r a n g e s h a s n o t b r o u g h t a b o u t h e a v y p a r a s i t e i n f e s t a t i o n s i n w h i t e t a i l d e e r . T h e p a r a s i t i s m o f w h i t e t a i l d e e r w a s v e r y l i g h t i n s p i t e o f o v e r c r o w d i n g o f d e e r , o v e r b r o w s e d r a n g e s , m a l n u t r i t i o n a n d e x t r e m e s o f c l i m a t e . i v TABLE OF CONTENTS Page A b s t r a c t T a b l e o f C o n t e n t s i v L i s t o f T a b l e s v Acknowledgments v i INTRODUCTION 1 O b j e c t i v e s 1 L i t e r a t u r e r e v i e w 4 METHODS 8 1. C o l l e c t i o n o f m a t e r i a l 8 2. Autopsy p r o c e d u r e s 10 3. I d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f p a r a s i t e s 17 4 . P r e s e r v a t i o n o f p a r a s i t e s 17 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE STUDY AREA 18 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE WHITETAIL DEER IN SOUTHEASTERN BRITISH COLUMBIA 21 RESULTS 24 1. G e n e r a l a s p e c t s o f p a r a s i t i s m 24 2. E c t o p a r a s i t e s ~ 27 3. E n d o p a r a s i t e s 37 4. P a r a s i t i s m o f mule deer 47 5. N u t r i t i o n a l s t a t e o f deer 51 DISCUSSION 53 SUMMARY 64 LITERATURE CITED 66 APPENDIX I 68 APPENDIX I I 70 V L I S T OF T A B L E S T a b l e P a g e I S p e c i e s a n d f r e q u e n c y o f p a r a s i t e s i n w h i t e t a i l d e e r 26 I I S p e c i e s a n d f r e q u e n c y o f p a r a s i t e s o f s e v e n m u l e d e e r 49 I I I N u t r i t i o n a l s t a t e o f 9 d e e r a u t o p s i e d A p r i l - M a y 1 9 6 6 52 v i ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would l i k e t o ext e n d my t h a n k s t o members o f th e Department o f Zoology a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h C o lumbia, who made t h i s s tudy p o s s i b l e . Dr. I . McT. Cowan suggested the study and p r o v i d e d i n i t i a l a d v i c e . Dr. H.D. F i s h e r , my s u p e r v i s o r , p r o v i d e d t h e n e c e s s a r y f a c i l i t i e s , f i n a n c i a l s u p p o r t , and h e l p f u l c r i t i c i s m -while w r i t i n g t h i s t h e s i s . Dr. J.R. Adams p r o v i d e d f a c i l i t i e s and a d v i c e on t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f p a r a s i t e s . I am g r a t e f u l t o my p a r e n t s and t o Mr. G e o f f Nagle and Mr. Doug S a d l e r f o r t h e i r h e l p i n t h e f i e l d , 1 I N T R O D U C T I O N O B J E C T I V E S T h e p a r a s i t e s o f t h e w h i t e t a i l d e e r h a v e b e e n f a i r l y w e l l d o c u m e n t e d i n e a s t e r n C a n a d a a n d i n t h e e a s t e r n a n d s o u t h e r n U n i t e d S t a t e s . F e w o v e r a l l s u r v e y s h a v e b e e n c a r r i e d o u t i n w e s t e r n N o r t h A m e r i c a a n d n o n e i n w e s t e r n C a n a d a . T n i s s t u d y w a s u n d e r t a k e n v / i t h s e v e r a l o b j e c t i v e s i n m i n d : 1. T o d e t e r m i n e t h e s p e c i e s a n d f r e q u e n c y o f p a r a s i t e s i n f e s t i n g t h e w h i t e t a i l d e e r o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a . 2. T o d e t e r m i n e t h e e f f e c t o f t h e s e p a r a s i t e s o n t h e i r h o s t . 3. T o e x a m i n e t h e i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e t w e e n p a r a s i t i s m a n d s u c h f a c t o r s a s : c l i m a t e , o v e r p o p u l a t e d a n d o v e r b r o w s e d r a n g e s , m a l n u t r i t i o n , a n d t h e e f f e c t s o f c a t t l e o n w i n t e r r a n g e s . 4. T o c o m p a r e t h e p a r a s i t i s m o f t w o s p e c i e s o f d e e r ( m u l e d e e r a n d w h i t e t a i l d e e r ) o c c u p y i n g t h e same w i n t e r r a n g e . 2 The w h i t e t a i l deer i s a very widely d i s t r i b u t e d animal i n North America and i t s parasites vary from one geographical area to another«, A knowledge of i t s parasites and t h e i r rates of i n f e s t a t i o n over the deer's en t i r e range may eventually shed more l i g h t on the factors which influence the parasitism of ungulates. Many factors seem to be involved. Extremes of climate may influence the a v a i l a b i l i t y of intermediate hosts, the s u r v i v a l of l a r v a l stages, and predispose deer to harsh conditions of s u r v i v a l . Deer i n a weakened condition may be more susceptible to heavy i n f e s t a t i o n by p a r a s i t e s . High d e n s i t i e s of deer increase the rate of contact between i n d i v i d u a l s , which may increase the spread of parasites. Overbrowsing of ranges by wild ungulates and c a t t l e r e s u l t i n malnutrition and increases the tendency for deer to graze -— which supposedly increases the chances of deer contacting heavy t r i c h o -strongyle i n f e s t a t i o n s . The a v a i l a b i l i t y of alternate wild ungulate hosts and domestic l i v e s t o c k may increase the parasitism of a p a r t i c u l a r species of ungulate. Predators act as d e f i n i t i v e hosts for some species of ungulate parasites and therefore number of predators may 3 i n f l u e n c e the numbers of some p a r a s i t e s of ungulates. The l a r g e s t c o n c e n t r a t i o n of w h i t e t a i l deer i n B r i t i s h Columbia occurs i n t h a t p o r t i o n of the Rocky Mountain trench extending from the United States border i n the south t o Columbia Lake i n the no r t h . This was the area chosen f o r t h i s study. A l l of the p r e v i o u s l y l i s t e d f a c t o r s i n f l u e n c i n g p a r a s i t i s m were present on East Kootenay ranges d u r i n g t h i s study. A l t e r n a t e w i l d ungulate hosts i n c l u d e moose, e l k , bighorn sheep, and mule deer. B i g game pop u l a t i o n s i n the East Kootenay are roughly estimated as: (Pearse and Bowden, 1966). Deer (mule and w h i t e t a i l ) 60,000 - 80,000 E l k 20,000 - 25,000 Mountain goat 15,000 - 20,000 Moose 7,000 - 8,000 Bighorn sheep 2,000 - 3,000 Bla c k bear 1,500 - 3,000 G r i z z l y bear 500 - 1,000 Caribou 200 — 400 Cougar 250 - 750 The numbers of bighorn sheep are based on estimates before the l a r g e d i e - o f f during the w i n t e r o f 1965-66. The above estimates merely show the unique v a r i e t y and abundance o f b i g game animals i n h a b i t i n g the East Kootenay d i s t r i c t of southeastern B r i t i s h Columbia. 4 I t i s n o t my p u rpose t o go i n t o d e t a i l s o f p a r a s i t e l i f e c y c l e s , t h e i r m o r p h o l o g i c a l d e s c r i p t i o n , o r d e t a i l e d a n a l y s i s o f t h e i r e f f e c t on t h e h o s t . No attempt was made t o examine deer f o r t h e p r e s e n c e o f p r o t o z o a n p a r a s i t e s . Some or g a n systems had t o ba o v e r l o o k e d as t h e r e was a l i m i t t o t h e amount o f t i m e t h a t c o u l d be s p e n t e x a m i n i n g one a n i m a l . No o p p o r t u n i t i e s were a f f o r d e d t o autopsy w i n t e r - k i l l e d d e e r , a l t h o u g h deer i n poor s p r i n g c o n d i t i o n were sampled. L I T E R A T U R E R E V I E W There a r e v i r t u a l l y no p u b l i s h e d r e c o r d s o f t h e p a r a s i t e s o f w h i t e t a i l deer i n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , Cowan (1944) d i d n o t i n c l u d e t h e w h i t e t a i l d eer i n h i s s t u d y f \"The p a r a s i t e s , d i s e a s e s and i n j u r i e s o f game a n i m a l s i n B a n f f , J a s p e r and Kootenay N a t i o n a l P a r k s . \" Cowan (1951) r e c o r d s f i v e e c t o p a r a s i t e s , one l i v e r f l u k e , and one tapeworm c y s t o c c u r r i n g i n w h i t e t a i l deer i n s o u t h e a s t e r n B.C. These r e c o r d s p r o v i d e no i n d i c a t i o n o f t h e p r e v a l e n c e o f t h e s e p a r a s i t e s i n w h i t e t a i l d eer p o p u l a t i o n s . P e r s o n n e l o f t h e F e d e r a l Department o f A g r i c u l t u r e entomology l a b o r a t o r y a t Kamloops, B.C. have done an e x t e n s i v e amount o f work on B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a t i c k s b u t t h i s l a b o r a t o r y h a s few r e c o r d s o f t h e t i c k i n f e s t a t i o n s o f w h i t e t a i l d e e r . A few s t u d i e s o f the p a r a s i t e s o f w i l d u n g u l a t e s have been done i n w e s t e r n Canada: Cowan (1944, 1946, 1951), M a r t i n (1965). The most n o t a b l e o f t h e s e i s Cowan's s t u d y o f t h e p a r a s i t e s o f t h e c o a s t deer O d o c o i l e u s hemionus c o l u m b i a n u s . T h i s i s t h e o n l y p u b l i s h e d p a r a s i t e s u r v e y o f u n g u l a t e s i n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a i n w h i c h enough a n i m a l s have been a u t o p s i e d t o p r o v i d e a good p i c t u r e o f t h e r a t e s o f i n f e s t a t i o n o f t h e v a r i o u s s p e c i e s o f p a r a s i t e s . A number o f s u r v e y s have been made i n t h e n o r t h -w e s t e r n U n i t e d S t a t e s : Brown (1961), Senger and C a p e l i e (1959), De N i o and West (1942), L o n g h u r s t (1956). Senger and C a p e l i e (1959) d i s t i n g u i s h between t h e l o u s e f l i e s o f mule deer and w h i t e t a i l deer i n w e s t e r n Montana, b u t I am aware o f no p u b l i s h e d r e c o r d s comparing t h e o v e r a l l p a r a s i t i s m o f mule deer and w h i t e t a i l deer o c c u p y i n g t h e same w i n t e r r a n g e s . Anderson (1962) s t a t e s t h a t g e n e r a l l y where t h e s e tv/o s p e c i e s o f deer i n h a b i t t h e same range t h e y share t h e same p a r a s i t e s . A good d e a l o f work has been done on t h e p a r a s i t i s m o f w h i t e t a i l d eer i n e a s t e r n N o r t h A m e r i c a . Anderson 6 (1962) p r o v i d e s a f a i r l y e x t e n s i v e r e v i e w o f t h e l i t e r a t u r e and an e x c e l l e n t summary o f t h e h e l m i n t h and a r t h r o p o d p a r a s i t e s o f t h i s s p e c i e s . He a l s o r e v i e w s t h e h o s t d i s t r i b u t i o n , g e o g r a p h i c d i s t r i b u t i o n , and p a t h o g e n i c i t y o f i t s p a r a s i t e s . N o t a b l e among th e e a s t e r n s t u d i e s i s Cheatum's 1951 r e v i e w o f t h e e f f e c t s o f d i s e a s e and p a r a s i t e s i n r e l a t i o n t o w i n t e r m o r t a l i t y . Cheatum showed a h i g h e r i n c i d e n c e o f some s p e c i e s o f p a r a s i t e s i n w i n t e r - k i l l e d deer compared w i t h t h o s e c o l l e c t e d by gun. Numerous a u t h o r s have commented on t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between p a r a s i t i s m o f deer and c o n d i t i o n s o f o v e r c r o w d i n g o f r a n g e s , o v e r b r o w s i n g , and m a l n u t r i t i o n , Van V o l k e n b e r g and N i c h o l s o n (1943), Cowan (1946), Cheatum (1951), L o n g h u r s t (1956) t o m e n t i o n a few. A number o f a u t h o r s have n o t e d a v a r i a t i o n i n t h e r a t e o f p a r a s i t i s m between young and o l d deer ( O l s e n and Fenstermacher 1943). A s t u d y o f t h e p a r a s i t e s o f w h i t e t a i l d eer i n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a would p o s s i b l y i n c r e a s e t h e known l i s t o f p a r a s i t e s o f t h i s i m p o r t a n t game a n i m a l , p r o v i d e a b a s i s f o r c o m p a r i s o n w i t h o t h e r s t u d i e s , i n c r e a s e our knowledge o f some o f t h e i m p o r t a n t economic p a r a s i t e s , n o t a b l y t h e 7 s p i n o s e e a r t i c k and p a r a l y s i s t i c k , and might shed some l i g h t on some o f the e c o l o g i c a l f a c t o r s i n f l u e n c i n g p a r a s i t i s m o f d e e r . The stu d y would p r o v i d e an e x c e l l e n t o p p o r t u n i t y t o compare t h e p a r a s i t i s m o f two s p e c i e s o f deer o c c u p y i n g the same a r e a . 8 METHODS 1. COLLECTION OF MATERIAL C o l l e c t i n g began i n J u l y , 1964. D u r i n g t h i s f i r s t summer deer were o b t a i n e d from t h r e e s o u r c e s : (a) deer s h o t i n t h e f i e l d by m y s e l f (b) deer k i l l e d by m o t o r i s t s on t h e highway (c) deer b r o u g h t i n t o government r o a d c h e c k s by h u n t e r s . Complete a u t o p s i e s c o u l d be o b t a i n e d o n l y from deer s h o t i n t h e f i e l d . Road-checked deer had t o be examined a t t h e s i t e o f the check and e x a m i n a t i o n s were l i m i t e d t o th e l i v e r , l e g s , e x t e r n a l s u r f a c e , and head. The m a j o r i t y o f h u n t e r s were a n x i o u s t o r e t u r n home, hence e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e i r deer was e x t r e m e l y s u p e r f i c i a l . Deer k i l l e d on t h e highway v/ere h i t by m o t o r i s t s a t n i g h t , hence a deer c o u l d n o t be o b t a i n e d f o r autopsy p u r p o s e s u n t i l t h e f o l l o w i n g day, a f t e r t h e p o l i c e o r government crews had r e p o r t e d i t . The c o n d i t i o n o f t h e s e deer made i t d i f f i c u l t t o o b t a i n a c o m p l e t e a u t o p s y . A f t e r September .1964 no f u r t h e r a t t e m p t s were made t o autopsy h i g h w a y - k i l l e d a n i m a l s o r deer b r o u g h t i n t o government r o a d c h e c k s . 9 D u r i n g t h e f a l l o f 1964 t h e F i s h and W i l d l i f e B ranch examined deer b r o u g h t i n t o t h e r o a d c h e c k s f o r t h e p r e s e n c e o f s p i n o s e e a r t i c k s . C o n s e r v a t i o n O f f i c e r s were asked t o r e c o r d t h e p r e s e n c e o r absence o f t i c k s , and t h e numbers o f t i c k s p r e s e n t i n each e a r . The deer were c o l l e c t e d b o t h n o r t h and s o u t h o f K i m b e r l e y o v e r a g e n e r a l a r e a o f about 1200 s q . m i l e s . I t was n o t always p o s s i b l e t o choose i d e a l a r e a s from w h i c h t o o b t a i n d e e r . D u r i n g t h e l a t e s p r i n g and summer deer c o u l d be c o l l e c t e d o n l y from r a n g e s where t h e y were p a r t i c u l a r l y abundant hence r a n g e s w i t h h i g h d e n s i t i e s , o f l i v e s t o c k h ad t o be o v e r l o o k e d because o f t h e amount o f t i m e i n v o l v e d i n c o l l e c t i n g one d e e r . D u r i n g t h e w i n t e r many o f the h e a v i l y o verbrowsed r a n g e s were n o t a c c e s s i b l e b y c a r . A n average o f one hour was r e q u i r e d t o t r a n s p o r t a deer from t h e f i e l d t o t h e l a b . A l l deer were s h o t i n t h e neck.and g e n e r a l l y t h e f i r s t one e n c o u n t e r e d was t a k e n . D u r i n g J u n e , J u l y , and August, when t h e does were n u r s i n g fawns, b u c k s were s e l e c t e d . A l l deer were shot i n c l o s e p r o x i m i t y t o r o a d s s i n c e t h e e n t i r e c a r c a s s had t o be t r a n s p o r t e d t o t h e au t o p s y s i t e . 10 The numbers o f deer examined by month were as f o l l o w s : Month No. o f deer (mule deer i n b r a c k e t s ) March 10 (1) A p r i l 11 (3) May 12 (1) June 7 J u l y 7 August 9 September 11 (1)' November 3 (1) December 6 P a r t i c u l a r a t t e n t i o n was g i v e n t o t h a t p e r i o d from March t h r o u g h t o Jun e . The number o f or g a n systems a u t o p s i e d i s g i v e n i n appendix 1. 2 . AUTOPSY PROCEDURES A f t e r 10 a u t o p s i e s t h e f o l l o w i n g p r o c e d u r e was found t o be most s a t i s f a c t o r y and was adhered t o as c l o s e l y as p o s s i b l e . An average o f e i g h t h o u r s was spent i n t h e e x a m i n a t i o n o f each d e e r . Once t h e g e n e r a l p a t t e r n o f p a r a s i t i s m became e s t a b l i s h e d i t was p o s s i b l e t o spend more t i m e e x a m i n i n g o r g a n systems t h a t were l e s s f r e q u e n t l y p a r a s i t i z e d . I n o r d e r t o autopsy enough deer and because o f t h e r a p i d decay o f 11 the i n t e s t i n a l contents e i g h t t o ten hours seemed t o be about the maximum one could spend examining one animal hence some organ systems had t o be overlooked. No a t t e n t i o n was given t o the s p i n a l cord , rumen, r e t i c u l u m , or blood v e s s e l s other than the major a r t e r i e s l e a d i n g out from the h e a r t . To avoid excessive amounts of blood i n the l a b a l l deer were b l e d i n the f i e l d by severing the c a r o t i d a r t e r i e s . Deer were then t r a n s p o r t e d t o the l a b , where they were f i r s t weighed on a s p r i n g s c a l e . C o r r e c t i o n s were made f o r the l o s s of b l o o d . The abdominal and t h o r a c i c c a v i t i e s were then cut open along the m i d - v e n t r a l l i n e , the r i b cage on one s i d e was broken back to expose the e n t i r e t h o r a c i c c a v i t y . The surface of the v i s c e r a and w a l l s of the abdominal and t h o r a c i c c a v i t i e s were examined. Tapeworm c y s t s observed at t h i s p o i n t were c o l l e c t e d . The v i s c e r a were separated from t h e i r attachment along the s p i n a l column. The t r a c h e a , oesophagus and rectum were then t i g h t l y t i e d w i t h cord, the vagina and uterus removed and the remaining v i s c e r a t r a n s f e r r e d to a l a r g e washpail about 1/3 f u l l of s l i g h t l y s a l i n e water. 12 Embryos v/ere l a t e r removed from t h e u t e r u s and t h e i r sex, crown-rump l e n g t h , and h i n d f o o t l e n g t h r e c o r d e d . The w a l l s o f the abdominal and t h o r a c i c c a v i t i e s were examined once more. The l o w e r l e g s and head were t h e n removed from t h e c a r c a s s and s e t a s i d e f o r l a t e r e x a m i n a t i o n . The c a r c a s s was s k i n n e d and t h e h i d e f o l d e d and s e t a s i d e f o r l a t e r e x a m i n a t i o n , s i n c e i t was f o u nd t h a t t h e e c t o p a r a s i t e s remained on t h e h i d e f o r s e v e r a l d a y s . As t h e g a s t r o i n t e s t i n a l t r a c t r e q u i r e d t h e most ti m e and t h e e n d o p a r a s i t e s i n i t decay more q u i c k l y , t h i s o r g a n system v/as examined f i r s t . The omentum was removed and a t t a c h e d tapeworm c y s t s were c o l l e c t e d . The e n t i r e l e n g t h o f t h e l a r g e and s m a l l i n t e s t i n e was c u t f r e e f rom t h e a t t a c h i n g m e s e n t e r y . The aboraasum was d e t a c h e d and c u t a l o n g i t s e n t i r e l e n g t h . I t s c o n t e n t s v/ere t h e n s c r e e n e d w i t h w a t e r u s i n g a ten-mesh s c r e e n . The i n t e r n a l s u r f a c e o f t h e abomasum was s c r a p e d w i t h a d u l l s c a l p e l i n t o a l a r g e d i s s e c t i n g t r a y * R e s i d u e from t h e s c r e e n was t r a n s f e r r e d t o t h i s t r a y . Water was added and a l l o w e d t o s e t t l e . The m a j o r i t y o f t h e abomasal c o n t e n t s were f l o a t e d o f f by d e c a n t i n g . 13 The remaining m a t e r i a l was t r a n s f e r r e d to p e t r i d i s h e s and the c o n t e n t s were examined under a d i s s e c t i n g microscope, Larger nematodes and c e s t o d e s c o u l d e a s i l y be removed from the d i s s e c t i n g t r a y w i t h o u t the use o f a microscope. Three two-foot s e c t i o n s from the top, middle and bottom o f the s m a l l i n t e s t i n e were c l o s e l y examined f o r e n d o p a r a s i t e s . T h i s procedure was adopted a f t e r a good d e a l o f t r i a l and e r r o r . Each s e c t i o n was t r a n s f e r r e d to a d i s s e c t i n g t r a y p a r t i a l l y f i l l e d w i t h water. The sample of i n t e s t i n e was c u t along i t s e n t i r e l e n g t h . The i n t e r n a l s u r f a c e o f each s e c t i o n was scraped w i t h a d u l l s c a l p e l . Water was added t o f i l l the t r a y . The c o n t e n t s were allowed t o s e t t l e . The l i g h t e r i n t e s t i n a l m a t e r i a l was f l o a t e d o f f by d e c a n t i n g . The remaining 30 f e e t o f s m a l l i n t e s t i n e was c u t i n t o t h r e e - f o o t l e n g t h s . These s e c t i o n s were screened over a ten-mesh screen b y i n s e r t i n g a hose n o z z l e i n one end o f the s e c t i o n . When p a r a s i t e s were numerous t h i s procedure seemed q u i t e adequate f o r o b t a i n i n g l a r g e r nematodes and c e s t o d e s . In most cases the number o f nematodes c o u l d 14 be c o u n t e d , b u t when numerous t h e i r number had t o be e s t i m a t e d . The caecum was examined i n the same manner as t h a t o u t l i n e d f o r t h e abomasum. S i n c e i t was i m p o s s i b l e t o examine the whole caecum because o f t h e e x c e s s i v e amount o f c a e c a l c o n t e n t s a p o r t i o n f i v e i n c h e s on e i t h e r s i d e o f t h e j u n c t i o n o f t h e s m a l l i n t e s t i n e and caecum was t i e d o f f and removed. The l a r g e i n t e s t i n e was c u t a l o n g i t s e n t i r e l e n g t h . The c o n t e n t s and i n n e r l i n i n g were examined g r o s s l y . A sample o f t h e rumen c o n t e n t s was c o l l e c t e d and s c r e e n e d on a ten-mesh s c r e e n , t h e n t r a n s f e r r e d t o 5% f o r m a l i n f o r l a t e r e x a m i n a t i o n . The l i v e r was removed and i t s e x t e r n a l s u r f a c e examined. S o f t d a r k p a t c h e s were c u t open and any l i v e r f l u k e s i n t h e s e p o c k e t s were squeezed o u t . The number o f f l u k e s i n each p o c k e t was r e c o r d e d . D u r i n g e a r l y e x a m i n a t i o n s o f the l i v e r t h e d u c t s were c u t open w i t h a p a i r o f s c i s s o r s . T h i s p r o c e d u r e was u n s a t i s f a c t o r y and i n t h e l a t t e r h a l f o f t h e e x a m i n a t i o n s t h e l i v e r v/as s i m p l y s l i c e d w i t h a s h a r p k n i f e . 15 The s p l e e n was removed and examined s u p e r f i c i a l l y . I n c a s e s where the s p l e e n seemed t o be u n d u l y l a r g e t h i s f a c t was r e c o r d e d . The l u n g s v/ere examined i n a d i s s e c t i n g t r a y . The p e r i p h e r y v/as p a l p a t e d , and any h a r d lumpswere removed and examined s e p a r a t e l y . Bladderworms w i t h i n t h e l u n g t i s s u e c o u l d be d i s c o v e r e d by p a l p a t i n g and c o u l d be removed w i t h a p a i r o f s c i s s o r s . A l l a d u l t nematodes e n c o u n t e r e d were c o l l e c t e d . An e x a m i n a t i o n o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y one c u b i c i n c h o f l u n g t i s s u e from t h e p e r i p h e r y o r from s l i g h t l y d i s c o l o u r e d a r e a s was made f o r l a r v a l nematodes. The samples o f l u n g t i s s u e were t e a s e d a p a r t , t h e n t r a n s f e r r e d t o a l a r g e j a r . Water and a s m a l l amount o f b i c a r b o n a t e o f soda was added. The j a r was shaken v i o l e n t l y and c o n t e n t s a l l o w e d t o s e t t l e . The m a t e r i a l r e m a i n i n g a f t e r d e c a n t i n g was examined under t h e d i s s e c t i n g m i c r o s c o p e . The number o f l a r v a e was c o u n t e d o r i n h e a v i l y i n f e s t e d samples t h e number was e s t i m a t e d . The chambers o f t h e h e a r t and t h e l a r g e a r t e r i e s a t t a c h e d were c u t open and examined 0 The d o r s a l a o r t a was examined o v e r i t s e n t i r e l e n g t h and a p p r o x i m a t e l y one f o o t o f t h e c a r o t i d a r t e r i e s was opened. 16 The e x t e r n a l s u r f a c e o f t h e head was t h e n c l o s e l y examined f o r e c t o p a r a s i t e s . The e a r s were removed a t t h e i r b ase and t h e e a r c a n a l s and i n t e r n a l s u r f a c e o f th e e a r v/ere c l o s e l y examined. The n a s a l pharynx was opened v i a t h e h a r d p a l a t e and b o t f l y l a r v a e c o u n t e d . The r o o f o f t h e s k u l l was removed w i t h a meat saw and t h e b r a i n was e x t r a c t e d . The meninges o f t h e b r a i n and upper two i n c h e s o f the s p i n a l c o r d were examined f o r a d u l t and l a r v a l nematodes. The l o w e r l e g s were s k i n n e d t o t h e l e v e l o f t h e h o o f . The i n t e r n a l s u r f a c e o f the h i d e and tendon s h e a t h s o f t h e l e g were examined f o r nematodes. The h i d e was t h e l a s t o r g a n system examined. The g e n e r a l c o n d i t i o n o f t h e p e l a g e was n o t e d . Tumors, s c a r s , and b r u i s e s were r e c o r d e d . A t o t a l c o u n t was made o f a l l a d u l t t i c k s . Numbers o f l a r v a l t i c k s were s i m p l y c a t e g o r i z e d as v e r y l i g h t , l i g h t , moderate o r heavy. When s c a r c e , l i c e and l o u s e f l i e s c o u l d be c o u n t e d , o t h e r w i s e t h e y were c a t e g o r i z e d as f o r l a r v a l t i c k s . The g e n e r a l c o n d i t i o n o f each deer was r e c o r d e d . Body w e i g h t , amount o f body f a t , and amount o f v i s c e r a l 1 7 f a t were used as i n d i c e s o f g e n e r a l c o n d i t i o n . I n t h e l a t e s p r i n g t h e c o n d i t i o n o f t h e bone marrow o f t h e t i b i a was used as t h e b e s t i n d e x t o n u t r i t i v e c o n d i t i o n . 3. IDENTIFICATION OF PARASITES Mr. P. R. W i l k i n s o n o f t h e F e d e r a l Entomology L a b o r a t o r y a t Kamloops, B.C. a s s i s t e d i n t h e i d e n t -i f i c a t i o n o f t h e t i c k s . Dr. J . R. Adams i d e n t i f i e d t h e tapeworm c y s t s . A l l o t h e r p a r a s i t e s were i d e n t i f i e d by t h e a u t h o r a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a . S c i e n t i f i c j o u r n a l s and museum specimens o f u n g u l a t e p a r a s i t e s were u t i l i z e d . The i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f t h e nematodes and a d u l t c e s t o d e s s h o u l d be v e r i f i e d b y a competent p a r a s i t o l o g i s t f a m i l i a r w i t h t h e v a r i o u s s p e c i e s o f u n g u l a t e p a r a s i t e s . 4 . PRESERVATION OF PARASITES A l l e c t o p a r a s i t e s , bladderworms, f l u k e s and t i s s u e samples were p r e s e r v e d i n 7 0 % a l c o h o l . Tape-worms were r e l a x e d by c h i l l i n g i n t h e r e f r i g e r a t o r , t h e n f i x e d i n A.F.A. and l a t e r t r a n s f e r r e d t o 7 0 % a l c o h o l . Nematodes v/ere f i x e d i n A.F.A. i f s t i l l a l i v e and were t h e n t r a n s f e r r e d t o t h e p r e s e r v a t i v e . 18 C H A R A C T E R I S T I C S OF THE STUDY A R E A The Rocky M o u n t a i n t r e n c h i s bounded on t h e e a s t by t h e Rocky M o u n t a i n s , w h i c h r i s e v e r y a b r u p t l y from t h e v a l l e y f l o o r . To t h e west a s e r i e s o f low f o o t h i l l s g r a d u a l l y g i v e s way t o t h e P u r c e l l r a n g e , a p a r t o f t h e S e l k i r k M o u n t a i n s , From C o l u m b i a Lake s o u t h t h e t r e n c h i s d r a i n e d by t h e meandering Kootenay R i v e r . The v a l l e y f l o o r v a r i e s from about 5-16 m i l e s i n w i d t h and has an average e l e v a t i o n o f about 3000 f t . The a r e a i s i n f l u e n c e d by extremes o f c l i m a t e . Temperatures i n J u l y , A u g ust, and September may r e a c h 90-95 F. The w i n t e r s are c o l d , r a n g i n g from f r e e z i n g p o i n t t o z e r o w i t h t h e t e m p e r a t u r e o c c a s i o n a l l y d r o p p i n g as low as -25 t o -35F f o r s e v e r a l weeks a t a t i m e . A n n u a l p r e c i p i t a t i o n i s l i g h t , 15 i n c h e s b e i n g about t h e average and about 4 0 % o f t h i s b e i n g a c c o u n t e d f o r b y snow. Snow l e v e l s i n t h e v a l l e y v a r y a g r e a t d e a l , r a n g i n g from a few i n c h e s t o 2 ox* 3 f e e t . W i n t e r thaws o f t e n produce heavy c r u s t i n g c o n d i t i o n s . T h e w i n t e r s o f 1964-65 and 1965-66 b o t h s t a r t e d o u t w i t h heavy snow w h i c h d i d n o t p e r s i s t . N e i t h e r o f t h e s e w i n t e r s c o u l d be c o n s i d e r e d h a r s h . 19 The E a s t Kootenay d i s t r i c t i s composed o f f c u r b i o t i c a r e a s . The w h i t e t a i l deer o c c u p i e s p r i n c i p a l l y one o f t h e s e a r e a s : t h e Dry F o r e s t B i o t i c A r e a , (Munro and Cowan 1947) e x t e n d i n g from t h e v a l l e y f l o o r t o about 4500 f t . i n e l e v a t i o n . The numbers o f w h i t e -t a i l deer m i g r a t i n g above t h e 4500 f t . l e v e l i n t o t h e S u b - A l p i n e F o r e s t B i o t i c A r e a p r o b a b l y form a v e r y s m a l l p e r c e n t a g e o f t h e t o t a l p o p u l a t i o n . The e a s t boundary o f t h e Dry F o r e s t B i o t i c A r e a g i v e s way a b r u p t l y t o t h e S u b - A l p i n e F o r e s t B i o t i c A r e a on t h e r a p i d l y a s c e n d i n g f l a n k o f t h e Rocky M o u n t a i n s . On t h e s l o w l y a s c e n d i n g f o o t - h i l l s o f t h e P u r c e l l range t h e t r a n s i t i o n i s l e s s marked. T h i r t y t o 40 y e a r s ago t h i s a r e a was c o m p l e t e l y denuded o f a l l m e r c h a n t a b l e t i m b e r . L o g g i n g o p e r a t i o n s were f o l l o w e d by i n t e n s e f i r e s w h i c h have r e s u l t e d i n a v e r y s l o w s u c c e s s i o n . I n t h e l a s t 10 y e a r s many o f t h e s e b u r n e d o v e r a r e a s on t h e b e n c h l a n d s above t h e Kootenay R i v e r are g i v i n g way t o t h i c k s t a n d s o f d o u g l a s f i r , l o d g e p o l e p i n e , y e l l o w p i n e , and w e s t e r n l a r c h . The Kootenay R i v e r b o t t o m i s p r e d o m i n a n t l y w i l l o w , r e d o s i e r , b l a c k cottonwood, t r e m b l i n g aspen 20 and s p r u c e . The p r i n c i p a l browse s p e c i e s i n t h e Dry F o r e s t B i o t i c A r e a i n c l u d e : A m e l a n c h i e r sp., A r c t o s t a n p h y l o s u v a - u r s i , S h e p h e r d i a c a n a d e n s i s , S y m p h o r i c a r p o s a l b u s . P u r s h i a t r i d e n t a t a , S a l i x sp„, a n < ^ Cornus s t o l o n i f e r a . P r i n c i p a l g r a s e s i n c l u d e Bromus t e c t o r u m , Poa p r a t e n s i s , Poa compressa,, K o e l e r i a c r i s t a t a and F e s t u c a s c a b r e l l a . The p r i n c i p a l l a n d u s e s i n t h e Dry F o r e s t B i o t i c A r e a i n c l u d e c a t t l e r a n c h i n g , l o g g i n g and the C h r i s t -mas t r e e i n d u s t r y . L a r g e a r e a s o f l a n d are now b e i n g u t i l i z e d f o r t h e l a t t e r . 21 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE WHITETAIL DEER IN SOUTHEASTERN B.C. The w h i t e t a i l deer i n h a b i t i n g s o u t h e a s t e r B.C. b e l o n g t o t h e s u b s p e c i e s O d o c o i l e u s v i r g i n i a n u s o c h r o u r u s 0 The r e c e n t abundant p o p u l a t i o n o f deer was the r e s u l t o f c l e a r i n g f o r a g r i c u l t u r a l p u r p o s e s and t h e w i d e s p r e a d f o r e s t f i r e s o f t h e 1930's. The t o t a l p o p u l a t i o n o f deer i n t h e E a s t Kootenay i s e s t i m a t e d a t about 50,000 t o 80,000 a n i m a l s (Pearse and Bowden, 1966) o f w h i c h r o u g h l y h a l f are w h i t e -t a i l d e e r . Deer were p a r t i c u l a r l y abundant i n t h e summer and f a l l o f 1964. As a r e s u l t o f m o r t a l i t y d u r i n g t h e 1964-5 w i n t e r , deer were n o t as abundant i n t h e f o l l o w i n g summer. The a n n u a l w h i t e t a i l deer h a r v e s t b y h u n t e r s i n t h e a r e a i s about 7000 a n i m a l s . R e l a t i v e l y few deer are s h o t u n t i l t h e y are f o r c e d o n t o t h e w i n t e r r a n g e s by t h e f i r s t heavy s n o w f a l l s . Severe weather d u r i n g t h e w i n t e r and e a r l y s p r i n g i s p r o b a b l y t h e most i m p o r t a n t agent c o n t r o l l i n g p o p u l a t i o n s i z e s . P r e d a t o r s i n c l u d e t h e cougar and c o y o t e . The c o y o t e p o p u l a t i o n was h i g h d u r i n g the c o u r s e o f t h i s s t u d y . 22 Wolves are s c a r c e i n t h e a r e a and hence a r e an i n s i g n i f i c a n t f a c t o r i n p r e d a t i o n o f d e e r . W h i t e t a i l deer share t h e same w i n t e r range w i t h mule d e e r , e l k , b i g h o r n sheep and moose; o f t h e s e c o m p e t i t i o n i s g r e a t e s t w i t h e l k . W h i t e t a i l deer and mule deer compete t o t h e g r e a t e s t e x t e n t on t h e h i g h e r b e n c h l a n d s . Between A p r i l and October v i r t u a l l y a l l o f t h e w h i t e t a i l w i n t e r r a n g e s are o c c u p i e d by h o r s e s and c a t t l e . A good p r o p o r t i o n o f t h e summer range where t i m b e r i s open enough t o p e r m i t g r a z i n g i s a l s o h e a v i l y g r a z e d by d o m e s t i c s t o c k . U n l i k e w h i t e t a i l deer i n t h e m a j o r i t y o f N o r t h A m e r i c a t h o s e i n h a b i t i n g t h e Kootenays show marked s e a s o n a l m i g r a t i o n s . By mid-May deer b e g i n t o move o f f t h e open b e n c h l a n d s o f t h e w i n t e r range and move o n t o h i g h e r summer range o r t e n d t o move i n t o t h e t h i c k Kootenay R i v e r bottom. A few de e r move back o n t o t h e w i n t e r r a n g e s v / i t h t h e f i r s t s n o w f a l l i n November, b u t t h e m a j o r i t y do n o t m i g r a t e o n t o open b e n c h l a n d s u n t i l mid-December. As soon as t h e f i r s t g r a s s e s appear i n t h e s p r i n g , f o r a p e r i o d o f about 23 3 weeks deer can be seen g r a z i n g i n l a r g e groups on open f l a t s . The r e p r o d u c t i v e p o t e n t i a l o f deer i n t h e a r e a i s q u i t e h i g h . Twenty-two embryos were c o u n t e d from 13 a d u l t d e e r . Nine o f t h e does b o r e t w i n s and 4 had s i n g l e embryos. Seven o f the 13 deer v/ere examined i n t h e s p r i n g o f 1966 and t h e s e c a r r i e d 4 embryos. 24 R E S U L T S 1. G E N E R A L A S P E C T OF P A R A S I T I S M T w e n t y - f i v e s p e c i e s o f p a r a s i t e s v/ere found on t h e 69 v / h i t e t a i l d eer examined. N i n e o f t h e s e were e c t o p a r a s i t e s and 16 were e n d o p a r a s i t e s . The e c t o p a r a s i t e s i n c l u d e d : 3 s p e c i e s o f l i c e , 3 s p e c i e s o f t i c k s , 2 l o u s e f l i e s , and one b o t f l y . The e n d o p a r a s i t e s i n c l u d e d : 4 c e s t o d e s , one t r e m a t o d e , and 11 nematodes. Only 3 o f t h e 25 s p e c i e s found e x h i b i t e d any marked e f f e c t s on t h e h o s t . The 3 s p e c i e s a f f e c t i n g t h e h o s t i n c l u d e : t h e b o t f l y l a r v a e Cephenemyia j e l l i s o n i , t h e l i v e r f l u k e F a s c i o l o i d e s magna, and t h e l a r v a l nematodes found i n t h e l u n g s . Other s p e c i e s m i g h t have produced h a r m f u l e f f e c t s i f t h e y had o c c u r r e d i n g r e a t e r numbers. Two s p e c i e s o f p a r a s i t e s were t h e l o w e s t number found on a s i n g l e w h i t e t a i l deer and 11 s p e c i e s were t h e h i g h e s t . The number o f v / h i t e t a i l d eer t h a t were h o s t t o 11 t o 2 s p e c i e s o f p a r a s i t e s i s l i s t e d h e r e u n d e r : 25 Number o f s p e c i e s Number o f deer o f p a r a s i t e s 11 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 2 2 7 13 13 1 7 7 3 The average number o f s p e c i e s o f p a r a s i t e s p e r deer f o r t h e TABLE 1 SPECIES AND FREQUENCY OF PARASITES IN WHITETAIL DEER S p e c i e s Number o f p o s s i b l e o c c u r r e n c e s Times o c c u r r e d Deer I n f e s t e d % D a m a l i n i a l i p e u r o i d e s & D„ p a r a l l e l a S o l e n o p o t e s f e r r i s i . p t o b i u s m e g n i n i Derrnacentor a l b i p i c t u s p e r m a c j i j i t o r a n d e r s o n i Cephenemvia j e l l i s o n i L i p o p t e r a d e p r e s s a & N e o l i p o p t e n a f e r r i s i F a s c i o l o i d e s magna T a e n i a h y d a t i g e n a & T» o m i s s a ( l a r v a e ) Thysanosoma a c t i n o i d e s M o n i e z i a s p . D i c t y o c a u l u s v i v i p a r u s P r o b o s t r o n g y l u s 1 a r y a e W e h r d i c k m a n s i a cervj.pedes S]cr-j abinema p a r v a O s t e r t a g i a o s t e r t a g i T r i c h o s t r o n g y l u s a x e i Mar s h a l l a g i a marsh a l i i . Haemonchus c o n t o r t u s N e m a t o d i r u s _ h e l v e t i a n u s T r i c h u r i s s p . C o o p e r i a sp. 60 60 67 34 28 46 65 68 53 53 65 38 69 50 53 53 53 53 52 48 48 44 12 5 23 4 30 60 9 35 3 1 24 28 29 8 6 5 1 1 1 1 1 73 20 7.4 68 14 65 95 13.8 51.4 5.8 1.9 40 74 42 15.4 11 9.5 1.9 1.9 2 2.1 2.1 to 0> 27 55 complete a u t o p s i e s was 5.9. The 20 v / h i t e t a i l deer a u t o p s i e d i n March, A p r i l and May 1966 had an average o f 7.3 s p e c i e s p e r d e e r . A p r i l and May v/ere found t o be t h e months o f h e a v i e s t p a r a s i t i s m and J u l y and August t h e months o f l i g h t e s t p a r a s i t i s m , The s p e c i e s and f r e q u e n c y o f p a r a s i t e s f o u n d i s summarized i n T a b l e 1. 2. ECTOPARASITES B i t i n g l i c e - D a m a l i n i a p a r a l l e l a and D a m a l i n i a ' l i p e u r o i d e s S i x t y w h i t e t a i l deer h i d e s were examined f o r t h e p r e s e n c e o f b i t i n g l i c e . F o r t y - f o u r o r 7 3 % were i n f e s t e d . I n f e s t a t i o n s v a r i e d f r om one o r two p e r a n i m a l t o s e v e r a l t h o u s a n d . The numbers o f l i c e were c l a s s i f i e d as: v e r y l i g h t ( l e s s t h a n 100 l i c e ) , l i g h t (200 t o 300), moderate (1 t o 5 p e r s q . i n . o f h i d e ) , heavy (5 t o 15 p e r s q . i n . o f h i d e ) , and v e r y heavy (15 t o 30 s q . i n . o f h i d e ) . The degree o f i n f e s t a t i o n o f t h e 44 deer was as f o l l o w s : 28 Degree o f i n f e s t a t i o n No. o f deer V e r y l i g h t L i g h t 13 13 9 6 3 Moderate Heavy V e r y Heavy Two s p e c i e s o f b i t i n g l i c e were f o u n d : D a m a l i n i a p a r a l l e l a and D. l i p e u r o i d e s . L i c e v/ere i d e n t i f i e d from 9 v / h i t e t a i l d e e r . Two o f t h e s e had mixed i n f e s t a t i o n s , two had D. l i p e u r o i d e s o n l y and f i v e had D. p a r a l l e l a o n l y . One hundred n i n e t e e n l i c e were examined from w h i t e t a i l d e e r . S e v e n t y -f o u r o f t h e s e were D. p a r a l l e l a and 4 5 D. l i p e u r o i d e s . L i c e showed a d e f i n i t e p r e f e r e n c e f o r t h e abdominal a r e a . Where immature l i c e o c c u r r e d i n l a r g e numbers t h e y were u s u a l l y c o n c e n t r a t e d a l o n g t h e w h i t e h a i r o f t h e abdomen. However, deer h a v i n g moderate t o v e r y heavy i n f e s t a t i o n s o f l i c e showed a d i f f e r e n c e i n a r e a o f c o n c e n t r a t i o n . On some deer a v e r y heavy c o n c e n t r a t i o n would be found i n t h e abdominal a r e a o n l y o r on t h e abdomen and neck o n l y . Other deer shov/ed a v e r y even d i s t r i b u t i o n o f l i c e o v e r a l l p a r t s o f t h e body. One deer had a v e r y 29 heavy, even d i s t r i b u t i o n o f l i c e o v e r t h e p o s t e r i o r h a l f o f t h e a n i m a l and v i r t u a l l y none on t h e a n t e r i o r h a l f . Even t h e h e a v i e s t i n f e s t a t i o n s o f l i c e had no appa r e n t e f f e c t on t h e host„ D u r i n g t h e s p r i n g many o f th e l i c e v/ere f i l l e d w i t h b l o o d . L i c e i n h a b i t i n g t h e head r e g i o n around the e a r s showed a g r e a t e r tendency t o f e e d on b l o o d . P h y s i c a l i r r i t a t i o n t o t h e deer v/as n o t a p p a r e n t , and t h e r e was no s i g n o f r u b b i n g on any o f t h e h i d e s . No r e l a t i o n was app a r e n t between t h e e x t e n t o f i n f e s t a t i o n and age o f t h e d e e r . L i c e showed a g r e a t s e a s o n a l v a r i a t i o n , b e i n g most abundant i n t h e l a t e w i n t e r and e a r l y s p r i n g . As t h e deer began t o improve i n c o n d i t i o n i n May and June and shed t h e w i n t e r c o a t , l o u s e p o p u l a t i o n s d e c l i n e d t o v e r y l o w l e v e l s . S e a s o n a l d i s t r i b u t i o n o f b i t i n g l i c e i n f e s t a t i o n s 30 Month N i l V e r y L i g h t Moderate Heavy V e r y L i g h t Heavy March 1 3 2 1 -A p r i l 1 2 3 3 1 May - 3 3 4 1 June 2 2 1 1 1 J u l y 2 3 1 1 -August 7 2 - . - . -September 2 - - - - -December 2 1 2 - 1 S u c k i n g Louse - S o l e n o p o t e s f e r r i s i Twelve o f 60 w h i t e t a i l deer examined were h o s t t o t h e s u c k i n g l o u s e S o l e n o p o t e s f e r r i s i . The 20% i n f e s t -a t i o n r a t e i s p r o b a b l y l o w e r t h a n t h e a c t u a l f i g u r e s i n c e t h e s u c k i n g l o u s e i s one o f t h e e a s i e s t p a r a s i t e s t o o v e r l o o k . A l l o f t h e i n f e s t a t i o n s were found between March 7 and May 30, 1966, A c o m p a r i s o n w i t h o t h e r s t u d i e s i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e 20% i n f e s t a t i o n r a t e f o u n d i n t h e s t u d y i s h i g h . The numbers o f s u c k i n g l i c e e n c o u n t e r e d on i n f e s t e d a n i m a l s v a r i e d from one t o 100, S u c k i n g l i c e v a r i e d more i n t h e i r c h o i c e o f s i t e on t h e deer t h a n b i t i n g l i c e . They d i d n o t show a marked p r e f e r e n c e f o r t h e abdominal a r e a . The m a j o r i t y o f s u c k i n g l i c e seemed t o p r e f e r t h e h e ad, neck, and e a r s and a v o i d e d t h e b a c k and s i d e s . 31 T h e s e l i c e s h o w e d t h e same s e a s o n a l v a r i a t i o n a s b i t i n g l i c e , t h e i r n u m b e r s b e i n g t h e h i g h e s t i n l a t e w i n t e r a n d e a r l y s p r i n g . N o n e w e r e f o u n d o n d e e r a u t o p s i e d b e t w e e n J u n e a n d F e b r u a r y . T h e h o s t e x h i b i t e d n o v i s i b l e e f f e c t a r i s i n g f r o m t h e p r e s e n c e o f t h e s e l i c e . S p i n o s e E a r T i c k - O t o b i u s m e g n i n i S i x t y - s e v e n w h i t e t a i l d e e r w e r e e x a m i n e d f o r t h e p r e s e n c e o f e a r t i c k s . F i v e d e e r o r 7.4% w e r e f o u n d i n f e s t e d o A t f i r s t t h e s p i n o s e e a r t i c k s e e m e d t o b e a v e r y r a r e p a r a s i t e i n t h e a r e a s i n c e 34 d e e r w e r e a u t o p s i e d b e f o r e o n e t i c k h a d b e e n f o u n d . H o w e v e r , i n D e c e m b e r 1965 t h r e e d e e r i n a r o w w e r e e x a m i n e d f r o m t h e P r e m i e r L a k e a r e a w i t h 122, 17, a n d 2 e a r t i c k s r e s p e c t i v e l y . I n F e b r u a r y 1966 s e v e r a l m o r e d e e r w e r e c o l l e c t e d f r o m t h i s a r e a a n d n o t o n e w a s f o u n d i n f e s t e d w i t h e a r t i c k s . I t a p p e a r s t h a t t h e s p i n o s e e a r t i c k i s n o t e a s i l y d e t e c t e d i n t h e e a r u n t i l a f t e r . t h e f a l l h u n t i n g s e a s o n , w h i c h w o u l d e x p l a i n t h e l o w i n c i d e n c e o f i n f e s t a t i o n s f r o m h u n t e r - c h e c k e d d e e r . I n 1955, 301 d e e r w e r e e x a m i n e d b y F i s h a n d Game B r a n c h p e r s o n n e l i n 32 t h e E a s t K o o t e n a y a n d o n l y f o u r w e r e f o u n d i n f e s t e d w i t h e a r t i c k s . A g a i n i n t h e f a l l o f 1964 a s p a r t o f t h i s s t u d y t h e F i s h a n d W i l d l i f e B r a n c h e x a m i n e d a b o u t 250 m o r e d e e r a n d f o u n d o n e a d u l t w h i t e t a i l d o e i n f e s t e d v / i t h 2 t i c k s . T h e e a r c a n a l s o f i n f e s t e d d e e r w e r e g e n e r a l l y c o m p l e t e l y b l o c k e d . F u r t h e r a u t o p s i e s w o u l d b e r e q u i r e d t o c o n f i r m t h e p e r i o d w h e n e a r t i c k s i n f e s t t h e d e e r a n d t h e l e n g t h o f t i m e t h e n y m p h s f e e d . T h e W i n t e r T i c k - D e r m a c e n t o r a l b i p i c t u s T w e n t y - t h r e e o r 68% o f t h e 34 w h i t e t a i l d e e r e x a m i n e d d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d w h e n t h e w i n t e r t i c k i s a c t i v e w e r e f o u n d i n f e s t e d w i t h l a r v a e , n y m p h s o r a d u l t s . T h e f i r s t l a r v a e w e r e f o u n d o n D e c e m b e r 9, 1965 a n d M a y 10 w a s t h e l a t e s t d a t e w h e n a d u l t s w e r e s t i l l p r e s e n t . T h e n u m b e r s o f a d u l t t i c k s r a n g e d f r o m o n e t o 60. T h e a v e r a g e n u m b e r o f a d u l t t i c k s f o r i n f e s t e d d e e r w a s 6. O f 90 a d u l t D. a l b i p i c t u s c o u n t e d o n 15 d e e r , 21 w e r e c o l l e c t e d a n d c l a s s i f i e d . E i g h t o f t h e s e w e r e m a l e s a n d 13 w e r e f e m a l e s . O f t h e 13 f e m a l e s e x a m i n e d o n l y 3 e x h i b i t e d a n y d e g r e e o f 33 engorgement. Of t h e 60 a d u l t t i c k s found on one d e e r , about 1/3 showed some degree o f engorgement. Twelve o f t h e 19 a d u l t deer examined and 11 o f t h e 15 y e a r l i n g s were i n f e c t e d w i t h w i n t e r t i c k s , so t h a t h o s t age was not r e l a t e d t o degree o f i n f e s t a t i o n . L a r v a l w i n t e r t i c k s showed a p r e f e r e n c e f o r t h e d o r s a l s u r f a c e from neck t o rump, w h i l e a d u l t t i c k s p r e f e r r e d t h e e x t e r n a l p o r t i o n o f t h e e a r s , the. head and p e r i p h e r y o f t h e anus. Deer e x h i b i t e d a s m a l l r e d so r e a t t h e s i t e o f each f e e d i n g t i c k , o t h e r w i s e no v i s i b l e e f f e c t s on t h e deer were n o t e d . The P a r a l y s i s T i c k - Dermacentor j m d e r s o n i T w e n t y - e i g h t w h i t e t a i l deer were examined i n t h e s p r i n g when t h e p a r a l y s i s t i c k i s n o r m a l l y p r e s e n t . Four deer o r 14% o f t h o s e examined were f o u n d i n f e s t e d w i t h D. a n d e r s o n i . S i x a d u l t t i c k s were f o u n d . Three o f t h e s e were f e m a l e s , o n l y one o f w h i c h was engorged. T h i s t i c k was a t t a c h e d a t t h e base o f t h e ear and was f u l l y engorged. E i g h t deer were examined i n t h e s p r i n g o f 1965 and 20 i n t h e s p r i n g o f 1966. A l l 6 t i c k s v/ere found between A p r i l 5 and 21, 1966. The 4 w h i t e t a i l 34 deer found i n f e s t e d came from as many w i d e l y s e p a r a t e r a n g e s . The one engorged female p r o d u c e d a s m a l l r e d a r e a around t h e s i t e o f a t t a c h m e n t , o t h e r w i s e no e f f e c t s v/ere n o t e d . The B o t F l y - Cephenemyia j e l l i s o n i F o r t y - s i x w h i t e t a i l d eer were examined f o r t h e p r e s e n c e o f b o t f l y l a r v a e between October and J u l y when t h i s p a r a s i t e i s a c t i v e . T h i r t y o f t h e s e deer o r 6 5 % v/ere i n f e s t e d w i t h Cephenemyia j e l l i s o n i l a r v a e The h i g h e s t number found i n a s i n g l e deer was 45. Three hundred and seven b o t f l y l a r v a e , o r an average of 10.2/deer were c o u n t e d i n the 30 i n f e s t e d d e e r . Bot f l y i n f e s t a t i o n s p r o b a b l y v a r y c o n s i d e r a b l y from y e a r t o y e a r . Y e a r Number o f Average number deer examined b o t s / d e e r 1965 13 12.9 1966 14 9 The f i r s t b o t f l y l a r v a e were o b s e r v e d December 9 1965. No l a r v a e c o u l d be found i n r o a d - c h e c k e d deer a u t o p s i e d i n September. By t h e end o f June t h e m a j o r i t y o f t h e deer seem t o be f r e e o f b o t s . The l a t e s t o c c u r r e n c e was J u l y 7, 1965 when a y e a r l i n g w h i t e t a i l s t i l l had 14 i n t h e naso-pharynx. No d i f f e r e n c e s were d e t e c t a b l e between r a t e s o f i n f e s t a t i o n i n y e a r l i n g and a d u l t d e e r . S i x t e e n y e a r l i n g s had 160 b o t f l y l a r v a e and 14 a d u l t deer had 147. B o t s d i d n o t appear t o be h i g h l y damaging t o t h e membranes o f t h e naso-pharynx. Only a v e r y s l i g h t r e d mark was n o t i c e a b l e a t the s i t e o f a t t a c h m e n t . ' However, t h e p r e s e n c e o f even 2 o r 3 b o t s i n t h e r e t r o p h a r y n g e a l pouches r e s u l t e d i n t h e s e p o c k e t s b e i n g many t i m e s t h e i r normal s i z e . When deer were i n f e s t e d w i t h 20 t o 50 b o t s t h e n a s a l c a n a l s were o f t e n p l u g g e d s o l i d . I n heavy i n f e s t a t i o n s b o t s o c c u p i e d t h e upper p o r t i o n o f t h e t r a c h e a around t h e g l o t t i s . These deer must have had d i f f i c u l t y i n b r e a t h i n g , e s p e c i a l l y i f chased by p r e d a t o r s . 36 The Louse F l i e s - L i p o p t e n a d e p r e s s a and N e o l i p o p t e n a f e r r i s i The l o u s e f l y was t h e commonest p a r a s i t e e n c o u n t e r e d , 9 5 % o r 60 o f t h e 63 deer examined b e i n g i n f e s t e d . Louse f l i e s were c o l l e c t e d and c l a s s i f i e d f rom 13 w h i t e t a i l d e e r . Two s p e c i e s were i d e n t i f i e d , L i p o p t e n a d e p r e s s a and N e o l i p o p t e n a f e r r i s i . L. d e p r e s s a was by f a r t h e commonest s p e c i e s e n c o u n t e r e d . Of 342 l o u s e f l i e s examined o n l y 22 v/ere N. f e r r i s i . The 22 R' f e r r i s i were c o l l e c t e d from 3 deer i n August 1964, a l l o f wh i c h were a l s o i n f e s t e d w i t h L. d e p r e s s a . Louse f l y i n f e s t a t i o n s were c l a s s i f i e d a s : v e r y l i g h t (1 - 5 0 ) , l i g h t (50 - 2 0 0 ) , moderate (200 - 5 0 0 ) , o r heavy (more t h a n 5 0 0 ). The v e r y l i g h t i n f e s t a t i o n s c o u l d be c o u n t e d , o t h e r s had t o be e s t i m a t e d . The degree o f i n f e s t a t i o n o f the 60 deer was as f o l l o w s : V e r y l i g h t L i g h t Moderate Heavy P r e s e n t (road-checked 37 14 6 N i l d e er) 3 37 No d i f f e r e n c e i n r a t e s o f i n f e s t a t i o n w i t h age were n o t e d and l o u s e f l i e s had no a p p a r e n t e f f e c t on t h e i r h o s t . Louse f l y i n f e s t a t i o n s were h e a v i e s t i n l a t e summer and e a r l y f a l l when t h e a d u l t f l i e s nad j u s t emerged and s l o w l y became l i g h t e r u n t i l May and June when t h e y were d i f f i c u l t t o f i n d . S e a s o n a l D i s t r i b u t i o n o f Louse F l y I n f e s t a t i o n s V e r y Month N i l l i g h t L i g h t Moderate . Heavy March 1 4 2 -A p r i l - 9 1 - -May - y 2 -June 1 6 - - -J u l y 1 2 3 1 • -August 1 3 1 2 -September - 2 4 - -December 1 . 1 1 3 3. ENDOPARASITES L i v e r F l u k e - F a s c i o l o i d e s magna S i x t y - f i v e v / h i t e t a i l l i v e r s were examined. Nine l i v e r s o r 13.8% c o n t a i n e d t h e g i a n t l i v e r f l u e F a s c i o l o i d e s magna. A t o t a l o f 7y f l u k e s , an average o f 8.7 p e r i n f e c t e d deer was c o l l e c t e d . The h i g h e s t number o f f l u k e s t a k e n from a s i n g l e deer was 20, on two o c c a s i o n s . 38 No s e a s o n a l v a r i a t i o n s were n o t e d i n the r a t e s o f i n f e c t i o n . S e a s o n a l D i s t r i b u t i o n o f L i v e r Flvtke I n f e c t i o n s Month No. de e r examined No. deer i n f e c t e d March 7 1 A p r i l 10 2 May 11 2 June 7 N i l J u l y 7 N i l August y • N i l September 10 1 November 2 1 December 6 2 S i x o f t h e 36 a d u l t s examined and 3 o f t h e 28 y e a r l i n g s were i n f e c t e d hence age o f t h e h o s t and t h e r a t e o f i n f e c t i o n d i d n o t appear t o be r e l a t e d . T i s s u e damage t o the l i v e r by f l u k e s was v e r y a p p a r e n t . C a p s u l e s c o n t a i n i n g f l u k e s were f i l l e d w i t h a t h i c k g r e y i s h b l a c k exudate and some c o n t a i n e d a h a r d g r a n u l a r m a t e r i a l . Lymph nodes s u r r o u n d i n g t h e l i v e r were b l a c k i n c o l o u r and lymph nodes t h r o u g h o u t t h e body were o f t e n d i s c o l o u r e d . A t l e a s t 1/3 o f t h e l i v e r o f 2 deer i n f e c t e d v / i t h 20 f l u k e s was c o m p l e t e l y t a k e n up v/ i t h c y s t w a l l s . The m a j o r i t y o f l i v e r f l u k e c a p s u l e s c o n t a i n e d 2 f l u k e s , some c o n t a i n e d as many as 39 An a c t u a l e f f e c t o f l i v e r f l u k e s on t h e c o n d i t i o n o f t h e deer v/as n o t a p p a r e n t . Lungworm - D i c t y o c a u l u s v i v i p a r u s Only one s p e c i e s o f a d u l t nematode was found i n t h e l u n g s , t h i s v/as t h e t h r e a d lungworm D i c t y o c a u l u s v i v i p a r u s . The l u n g s o f 65 w h i t e t a i l deer were examined and 24 o r 4 0 % were i n f e c t e d . No heavy i n f e c t i o n s were e n c o u n t e r e d , t h e h i g h e s t number o f worms i n one deer b e i n g 27. The average number o f worms p e r i n f e c t e d deer was 4.7. A s m a l l amount o f y e l l o w mucus u s u a l l y s u r r o u n d e d t h e a r e a o f t h e b r o n c h i o l e v/here t h e nematodes were s i t u a t e d . T h i r t e e n o f t h e 29 y e a r l i n g s examined and 1 1 o f th e 36 a d u l t s examined were i n f e c t e d . N i n e t y - t w o nematodes were c o l l e c t e d from t h e y e a r l i n g s and o n l y 2 1 from t h e a d u l t s ; t h u s y e a r l i n g s seem t o be more s u s c e p t i b l e t o t h i s p a r a s i t e . No s e a s o n a l v a r i a t i o n s were n o t e d i n t h e r a t e s o f i n f e c t i o n . F i f t e e n o f t h e 24 i n f e c t e d deer were c o l l e c t e d from 3 s p e c i f i c l o c a l i t i e s . The r e m a i n i n g 9 were 40 w i d e l y d i s t r i b u t e d . None o f t h e 10 deer c o l l e c t e d between December l f 1965 and May 30, 1966 from t h e Q u a r t z R i d g e a r e a , w h i c h s u p p o r t s one o f t h e h e a v i e s t w i n t e r c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f deer were i n f e c t e d w i t h t h i s nematode. The t h r e a d lungworm had no a p p a r e n t e f f e c t on t h e w h i t e t a i l d eer examined. Lungworms - l a r v a l nematodes The l u n g s o f 38 w h i t e t a i l deer were examined f o r t h e p r e s e n c e o f l a r v a l nematodes. T w e n t y - e i g h t o r 74% were found i n f e c t e d . These l a r v a e a re p r o b a b l y p r o t o s t r o n g y l e s . No a d u l t p r o t o s t r o n g y l e s were found i n t h e e x a m i n a t i o n s . The numbers o f l a r v a e i n a c u b i c i n c h sample o f l u n g t i s s u e were c o u n t e d , o r e s t i m a t e d when numbers were e x c e s s i v e . I n f e c t i o n s o f l a r v a e v a r i e d from 1 0 / c u . i n . o f l u n g t i s s u e t o 2 0 0 0 / c u . i n . I n f e c t i o n s were c l a s s i f i e d as f o l l o w s : L i g h t - up t o 2 0 0 / c u . i n . Moderate - 200 t o 1 0 0 0 / c u . i n . Heavy - more t h a n 1 0 0 0 / c u . i n . 41 The degree o f i n f e c t i o n o f t h e 28 deer i s l i s t e d b e l o w : Degree o f i n f e c t i o n No. o f deer L i g h t Moderate Heavy 18 9 1 Twelve a d u l t s and 16 y e a r l i n g s were found i n f e c t e d w i t h nematode l a r v a e . Lungs c o n t a i n i n g l a r v a l nematodes o f t e n showed y e l l o w , brown, d i s c o l o u r e d a r e a s . An e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e s e d i s c o l o u r e d p a t c h e s d i d n o t i n e v e r y c a s e i n d -i c a t e t h e p r e s e n c e o f l a r v a e . One s e t o f l u n g s h a v i n g a heavy i n f e c t i o n o f l a r v a e had a v e r y g r a n u l a r s u r f a c e . Bladderworms - T a e n i a h y d a t i g e n a and T a e n i a o m i s s a S i x t y - e i g h t w h i t e t a i l d eer were examined f o r t h e p r e s e n c e o f tapeworm c y s t s . T h i r t y - f i v e o r 51.4% c o n t a i n e d c y s t s . The average number o f c y s t s p e r deer was 1.6. The maximum number found i n one deer was 18. Two s p e c i e s o f bladderworms were found i n t h e e x a m i n a t i o n o f 47 c y s t s . T w e n t y - e i g h t were T. h y d a t i g e n a and 19 v/ere T. o m i s s a . The two s p e c i e s seemed t o show a p r e f e r e n c e i n t h e s i t e o f attachment i n t h e body c a v i t y . S i t e o f attachment T. o m i s s a T. h y d a t i g e n a M e d i a s t i n u m Lung t i s s u e L i v e r t i s s u e Omentum 7 8 1 2 1 2 2 5 16 1 Mesocolon I n f e c t i o n s o f bladderworms were l i g h t and had no ap p a r e n t e f f e c t on t h e d e e r . No d i f f e r e n c e s were n o t e d i n t h e r a t e s o f i n f e c t i o n between y e a r l i n g s and a d u l t d e e r . A d u l t C e s t o d e s - Thysanosoma a c t i n o i d e s and M o n i e z i a sp. F i f t y - t h r e e d eer were examined f o r a d u l t tapeworms and 4 o r 7.5% v/ere found i n f e c t e d . A l l tapeworms were found i n t h e abomasum o r f i r s t 3 f e e t o f t h e s m a l l i n t e s t i n e . Tapeworms i n t h e abomasum were h i g h l y c o i l e d . T h i r t e e n Thysanosoma a c t i n o i d e s were found i n one d e e r . A s i n g l e T. a c t i n o i d e s was f o u n d i n 2 o t h e r deer and a s i n g l e M o n i e z i a sp. v/as found i n t h e s m a l l i n t e s t i n e o f y e t a n o t h e r d e e r . Three y e a r l i n g s and one a d u l t c o n t a i n e d c e s t o d e s . 43 Deer Legworm - Wehrdickmansia c e r v i p e d e s The l o w e r l e g s o f 69 w h i t e t a i l d e e r were s k i n n e d and examined f o r t h e p r e s e n c e o f t h e deer legworm. The m a j o r i t y o f t h e s e nematodes were s i t u a t e d d i r e c t l y under t h e s k i n . Worms s i t u a t e d a l o n g t h e tendon s h e a t h s o f t h e l e g were more d i f f i c u l t t o l o c a t e and hence t h e numbers o f worms r e c o r d e d w i l l be m i n i m a l . Twenty-nine deer o r 4 2 % were found i n f e c t e d . The r a t e s o f i n f e c t i o n v a r i e d from one t o 48 w i t h an average o f 7 p e r i n f e c t e d d e e r . A d u l t s were m a r k e d l y more i n f e c t e d t h a n y e a r l i n g s . Only 6 y e a r l i n g deer v/ere h o s t t o t h i s p a r a s i t e and i n t h e 6 c a s e s n o t more t h a n one worm c o u l d be found. One hundred n i n e t y - n i n e nematodes were c o l l e c t e d f r om t h e 23 a d u l t d e e r examined. The deer legworm d i d n o t show a p r e f e r e n c e f o r e i t h e r t h e f r o n t o r h i n d l e g s . N i n e t y - f o u r nematodes were c o l l e c t e d from f r o n t l e g s and 104 from t h e h i n d l e g s . No nematodes were found on t h e i n t e r n a l s u r f a c e o f th e h i d e on t h e r e m a i n d e r o f the body. 44 T h i s nematode was commonest i n t h e l a t e summer and e a r l y f a l l . I n f e c t i o n s d e c r e a s e d i n t h e s p r i n g months. D u r i n g March and A p r i l numerous d i s i n t e g r a t e d worms were fou n d . No s k i n l e s i o n s , lameness, o r d e f o r m i t i e s c o u l d be a t t r i b u t e d t o t h i s p a r a s i t e as r e p o r t e d i n o t h e r s t u d i e s , De N i o and West (1942) a l t h o u g h th e r a t e s o f i n f e c t i o n were low. The Pinwcrm - skr.j abinema p a r v a Of 52 deer examined 8 o r 15.4% were i n f e c t e d w i t h t h e pinworm S k r j abinema p a r v a . I n f e c t i o n s v a r i e d from one t o a p p r o x i m a t e l y 300 nematodes. The caecum was t h e f a v o r e d s i t e and i n heavy i n f e c t i o n s t h i s nematode o c c u r r e d i n t h e r e c t u m and o c c a s i o n a l l y a l o n g th e l a r g e i n t e s t i n e . F i v e a d u l t s and 3 y e a r l i n g s were i n f e c t e d . No pinworms were found d u r i n g J u l y and A u g ust. I n f e c t i o n s were e v e n l y d i s t r i b u t e d t h r o u g h o u t t h e r e m a i n i n g months. Any e f f e c t s w h i c h t h i s p a r a s i t e m i g h t have on i t s h o s t were n o t a p p a r e n t . 45 Stomach-worms - O s t e r t a g i a o s t e r t a g i T h i s v e r y s m a l l nematode was f o u n d i n 6 o f 53 abomasums examined. Only 21 worms were c o l l e c t e d f rom t h e 6 i n f e c t e d deer and 8 was t h e g r e a t e s t number i n one h o s t . The a c t u a l numbers o f nematodes would be c o n s i d e r a b l y h i g h e r s i n c e t h i s i s a v e r y d i f f i c u l t p a r a s i t e t o l o c a t e . Cowan (1951) r e p o r t s t h e h e a v i e s t i n f e c t i o n s o f stomach-worms i n J u l y and August. The i n f e c t i o n s found i n t h i s s t u d y o c c u r r e d t h r o u g h o u t t h e y e a r w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f J u l y and A u g ust. I t i s d o u b t f u l t h a t t h i s p a r a s i t e would have any e f f e c t on t h e h o s t even i f i t had been found i n l a r g e numbers. T r i c h o s t r o n g y l u s a x e i F i v e o f t h e 53 abomasums examined c o n t a i n e d t h i s m i n u t e nematode. I t i s o n l y 3 - 4 mm. l o n g and can s c a r c e l y be seen w i t h t h e eye. Because o f i t s s m a l l s i z e i t was p r o b a b l y more p r e v a l e n t t h a n t h i s s t u d y i n d i c a t e s . Only 11 worms were c o l l e c t e d from t h e 5 i n f e c t e d d e e r . The h i g h e s t number c o l l e c t e d from one deer was 4. Three o f t h e i n f e c t i o n s o c c u r r e d i n December, one i n March and one i n A p r i l . The 5 i n f e c t e d 46 deer i n c l u d e d 3 a d u l t s and 2 y e a r l i n g s . Mar s h a l l a g i a mar s h a l l i One female o f t h i s s p e c i e s v/as c o l l e c t e d from t h e abomasum o f a 3 y e a r o l d w h i t e t a i l on A p r i l 17, 1966. Stomach-v/orm - Haemonchus c o n t o r t u s One male was c o l l e c t e d from t h e abomasum o f a y e a r l i n g w h i t e t a i l on A p r i l 4, 1966. T h i s nematode i s e a s i l y seen v / i t h t h e eye and i f i t had o c c u r r e d a t a l l f r e q u e n t l y i t would have been e a s i l y d e t e c t e d . Tnread-necked S t r o n g y l e - Nematodirus h e l v e t i a n u s One male was c o l l e c t e d from t h e s m a l l i n t e s t i n e o f an o l d deer on March 31, 1966. B e c k l u n d and Senger (1967) r e p o r t e d t h i s p a r a s i t e as o c c u r r i n g i n Rocky M o u n t a i n b i g h o r n sheep i n Montana. Whipworm - T r i c h u r i ' s sp. One female was c o l l e c t e d from t h e j u n c t i o n o f t h e s m a l l i n t e s t i n e and caecum o f a y e a r l i n g deer on March 7, 1966. T h i s worm was washed o u t o f t h e caecum and was e a s i l y o b s e r v e d on t h e 10-mesh s c r e e n . 4 7 M i s c e l l a n e o u s O ne m a l e n e m a t o d e t e n t a t i v e l y i d e n t i f i e d a s C o o p e r i a s p . w a s c o l l e c t e d f r o m t h e s m a l l i n t e s t i n e o f a y e a r l i n g d e e r o n A p r i l 4, l y 6 6 . F i v e o r 6 u n i d e n t -i f i e d f e m a l e n e m a t o d e s w e r e c o l l e c t e d f r o m t w o o t h e r d e e r . T h e s e w o r m s c o u l d n o t h e a s s i g n e d t o a n y o f t h e a b o v e s p e c i e s . 4. P A R A S I T I S M OF MULE DEER » O d o c o i l e u s h e m i o n u s h e m i o n u s A t o t a l o f 22 s p e c i e s o f p a r a s i t e s w a s f o u n d i n t h e s e v e n m u l e d e e r e x a m i n e d . T h e m a x i m u m c o l l e c t e d f r o m a s i n g l e d e e r w a s 1 3 s p e c i e s . T n e a v e r a g e f o r t h e 5 c o m p l e t e a u t o p s i e s w a s 1 0 . 6 s p e c i e s p e r d e e r . O n l y o n e s p e c i e s N e m a t o d i r e l l a l o n g i s p i c u l a t a f o u n d i n m u l e d e e r d i d n o t o c c u r i n t h e w h i t e t a i l d e e r . F i v e s p e c i e s S o l e n o p o t e s f e r r i s i , D e r m a c e n t o r a l b i p i c t u s . M a r s h a l l a g i a roar s h a l l i , N e m a t o d i r u s h e l v e t i a n u s , a n d M o n i e z i a s p . w e r e f o u n d m o r e f r e q u e n t l y i n m u l e d e e r t h a n w h i t e t a i l d e e r . T h e e f f e c t s o f t h e v a r i o u s s p e c i e s o f p a r a s i t e s w e r e s i m i l a r t o t h o s e f o r w h i t e t a i l d e e r a n d h a v e 48 been d i s c u s s e d e l s e w h e r e . The sample s i z e o f mule deer was t o o s m a l l t o note any age o r s e a s o n a l v a r i a t i o n s i n p a r a s i t i s m . i 49 T A B L E I I S P E C I E S AND F R E Q U E N C Y OF P A R A S I T E S OF S E V E N M ULE DEER S p e c i e s N u m b e r P o s s i b l e O c c u r r e n c e s Average Times Number O c c u r r e d p e r Deer D a m a l i n i a l i p e u r o i d e s & D. p a r a l l e l a S o l e n o p o t e s f e r r i s i O t o b i u s m e g n i n i Dermacentor a l b i p i c t u s Dermacentor a n d e r s o n i Cephenemyia j e l l i s o n i L i p o p t e n a d e p r e s s a T a e n i a h y d a t i g e n a & T. o m i s s a Thysanosoma a c t i n o i d e s M o n i e z i a sp. D i c t y o c a u l u s v i v i p a r u s Lungworm - l a r v a e W e h r d i c k m a n s i a c e r v i p e d e s S k r j abinema p a r v a O s t e r t a g i a o s t e r t a g i 6 6 6 6 5 6 6 7 5 5 7 5 7 5 5 4 5 1 5 3 6 3 4 1 3 1 3 1 3 2 L i g h t 150 1 40 4 18 V e r y L i g h t 3.5 4 4 1 1 5 0 0 / i n ? l u n g 1 35 11 50 T r i c h o s t r o n g y l u s a x e i 5 1 2 M a r s h a l l a g i a m a r s h a l l i 5 3 5 Nematodirus h e l v e t i a n u s 6 6 250 N e m a t o d i r e l l a l o n g i s p i c u l a t a 5 1 2 T r i c h u r i s sp. 5 1 2 51 5. NUTRITIONAL STATE OF DEER DURING LATE WINTER AND EAR.LY SPRING By t h e l a t t e r p a r t o f A p r i l 1966 i t was n o t e d t h a t deer were showing s i g n s o f poor c o n d i t i o n . Body w e i g h t s and amount o f body f a t were v e r y low. Many deer o b s e r v e d i n t h e f i e l d were l i s t l e s s . S e v e r a l mule deer were o b s e r v e d w i t h drooped neck and e a r s . An attempt was made on t h e l a s t 9 deer a u t o p s i e d t o a s s e s s t h e n u t r i t i o n a l s t a t e by e x a m i n i n g t h e f a t c o n t e n t o f t h e bone marrow o f the t i b i a , Cheatum (1951). TABLE I I I NUTRITIONAL STATE OF 9 DEER AUTOPSIED, APRIL - MAY 1966 S p e c i e s Sex Age Body Weight l b s . Date C o l l e c t e d F a t C o n t e n t Bone Marrow C o n d i t i o n P a r a s i t e Load W h i t e t a i l F 10 mos 57 A p r i l 19/66 70% F a i r L i g h t W h i t e t a i l M 10 mos 82 A p r i l 21/66 70% i F a i r V e r y l i g h t W h i t e t a i l F 10 mos 48 A p r i l 24/66 1.5% Poor Moderate W h i t e t a i l F 4 y r s 115 A p r i l 26/66 1.5% Poor L i g h t W h i t e t a i l F 6 y r s 130 May 2/66 1.5% Poor Moderate W h i t e t a i l F 10 mos 72 May 4/66 7 0 % F a i r L i g h t W h i t e t a i l F 10 mos 66 May 10/66 50% F a i r L i g h t W h i t e t a i l F 10 mos 73 May 17/66 1.5% Poor L i g h t W h i t e t a i l • M 6 y r s 152 May 30/66 9 0 % V e r y Good r L i g h t ro 53 D I S C U S S I O N The v / h i t e t a i l deer i s v / i d e l y d i s t r i b u t e d i n N o r t h A m e r i c a and i s h o s t t o a l a r g e number o f p a r a s i t e s . Many o f t h e s e are c o n f i n e d t o d e f i n i t e g e o g r a p h i c a l a r e a s , so t h a t t h e p a r a s i t e complex o f deer v a r i e s v / i d e l y from one a r e a t o a n o t h e r . Anderson (1963), i n h i s r e v i e w o f t h e h e l m i n t h and a r t h r o p o d p a r a s i t e s o f t h e w h i t e t a i l d e e r , r e c o r d s 66 s p e c i e s o f p a r a s i t e s t o w h i c h i t i s h o s t . Anderson makes no r e f e r e n c e t o 4 o f t h e 25 s p e c i e s found i n t h e p r e s e n t s t u d y . These i n c l u d e t h e bladderv/orm T a e n i a o m i s s a , t h e pinworm S k r j abinema p a r v a , and the t r i c h o s t r o n g y l e s T r i c h o - s t r o n g y l u s a x e i and M a r s h a l l a g i a m a r s h a l l i . The l a t t e r 3 s p e c i e s have been r e c o r d e d i n mule deer p r e v i o u s l y i n w e s t e r n N o r t h A m e r i c a . A number o f t h e s p e c i e s o f p a r a s i t e s found on deer i n t h i s s t u d y are c l e a r l y w e s t e r n i n d i s t r i b u t i o n : Dermacentor a n d e r s o n i . Thysanosoma a c t i n o i d e s , N e o l i p o p t e n a f e r r i s i , L i p o p t e n a d e p r e s s a and Cephenemyia j e l l i s o n i . C l i m a t e and t h e a v a i l a b i l i t y o f a l t e r n a t e h o s t s p r o b a b l y p l a y a major r o l e i n t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h e above p a r a s i t e s . The w h i t e t a i l deer does n o t seem t o be a f a v o u r -a b l e h o s t f o r the p a r a l y s i s t i c k . Only one a t t a c h e d engorged t i c k was found. I have had o c c a s i o n t o examine a number o f g r i z z l y and b l a c k b e a r s d u r i n g t h e s p r i n g . P a r a l y s i s t i c k s a re common on b o t h t h e s e a n i m a l s . The w h i t e t a i l deer does n o t appear t o be a s i g n i f i c a n t agent i n t h e s p r e a d o f t h i s e c o n o m i c a l l y i m p o r t a n t p a r a s i t e . The r e m a i n d e r o f t h e w e s t e r n - d i s t r i b u t e d p a r a s i t e s show a s i m i l a r r a t e o f i n f e s t a t i o n t o t h a t i n o t h e r a r e a s . Of t h e s p e c i e s o f p a r a s i t e s found i n t h i s s t u d y t h a t o c c u r a c r o s s N o r t h A m e r i c a , t h e r e i s l i t t l e a p p a r e n t d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e d e n s i t y o f i n f e c t i o n s . The bladderworm and g i a n t l i v e r f l u k e showed a s i m i l a x -f r e q u e n c y o f i n f e c t i o n t o t h a t i n o t h e r s t u d i e s . T r i c h u r i s sp. appears t o be a r a r e p a r a s i t e o f deer i n a l l a r e a s o f N o r t h A m e r i c a . The t h r e a d lungworm D i c t y o c a u l u s v i v i p a r u s was n o t a p r e v a l e n t p a r a s i t e and t h e s e f i n d i n g s s u p p o r t Anderson's v i e w t h a t : 55 \"... f i n d i n g s i n O n t a r i o t e n d t o s u p p o r t t h o s e o f O'Roke 1936 and Gdble 1941 who n o t e d t h a t o n l y a few specimens were e v e r r e c o v e r e d from a s i n g l e deer and t h a t t h i s s i t u a t i o n i s i n marked c o n t r a s t t o t h a t found i n sheep and c a t t l e where masses o f t h e worms may p r a c t i c a l l y o c c l u d e some o f t h e a i r p a s s a g e s . \" I n f e c t i o n s o f g a s t r o i n t e s t i n a l nematodes were e x t r e m e l y l i g h t i n w h i t e t a i l deer and t h i s study a g r e e s w i t h the g e n e r a l v i e w s t a t e d by Anderson t h a t : \"There a r e no r e c o r d s i n d i c a t i n g t h e y ( t r i c h o s t r o n g y l e s ) a re s e r i o u s pathogens o f O d o c o i l e u s v i r g i n i a n u s . \" The s u c k i n g l o u s e S o l e n o p o t e s f e r r i s i i s d e s c r i b e d as a r a r e p a r a s i t e o f deer t h r o u g h o u t N o r t h A m e r i c a , (Anderson 1963; S c a n l o n , 1960). I t was common i n s o u t h e a s t e r n B.C. w i t h 20% o f t h e deer i n f e s t e d . T h i s r l o u s e may be more f r e q u e n t t h a n o t h e r s t u d i e s i n d i c a t e s i n c e i t i s e a s i l y o v e r l o o k e d i n making e x a m i n a t i o n s f o r e c t o p a r a s i t e s . Anderson (1963) r e p o r t s t h a t t h e w i n t e r t i c k Dermacentor a l b i p i c t u s i s r a r e l y f o u n d on O n t a r i o d e e r ; s i m i l a r l y W h i t l o c k (1939) d i d n o t f i n d t h i s p a r a s i t e on M i c h i g a n d e e r . The w i n t e r t i c k was common on deer i n t h i s s t u d y b u t was n o t found i n h i g h c o n c e n t r a t i o n s . 5 6 A c o m p a r i s o n o f t h i s s t u d y w i t h Cowan's 1946 s t u d y o f t h e p a r a s i t e s o f the c o a s t deer O d o c o i l e u s hemionus co l u m b i a n u s shows a number o f v a r i a t i o n s between t h e s p e c i e s p r e s e n t and t h e d e n s i t y o f i n f e c t i o n s . Cowan's p a r a s i t o l o g i c a l d a t a was t a k e n from a random sample o f 40 w i l d deer and 25 a d d i t i o n a l deer examined i n t h e i r e n t i r e t y . Nine s p e c i e s o f p a r a s i t e s r e p o r t e d i n f e c t i n g c o a s t deer were n o t found on w h i t e t a i l d e e r : t h e C a l i f o r n i a t i c k I x o d e s c a l i f o r n i c u s , t h e threadworm C a p i l l a r i a , t h e t h r e a d - n e c k e d s t r o n g y l e N e m a t o d i r e l l a l o n g i s p i c u l a t a , t h e caecum worm Oesophagostomum venulosum, t h e threadworm S e t a r i a c e r v i , t h e bloodworm E l a e o p h o r a Schneideri, t h e tapeworm M o n i e z i a b e n e d e n i , t h e h y d a t i d c y s t E c h i n o c o c c u s g r a n u l o s u s , and t h e t a p e -worm c y s t C y s t i c e r c u s o v i s . F i v e s p e c i e s o f p a r a s i t e s found on w h i t e t a i l deer were n o t r e c o r d e d by Cowan f o r c o a s t d e e r . These i n c l u d e : t h e p a r a l y s i s t i c k Dermacentor a n d e r s o n i , t h e s p i n o s e e a r t i c k O t o b i u s m e g n i n i , t h e f r i n g e d tapeworm Thysanosoma a c t i n o i d e s , t h e bladderworm o f T a e n i a o m i s s a , and t h e t r i c h o s t r o n g y l e M a r s h a l l a g i a m a r s h a l l i . 57 S e v e n t y - t h r e e p e r c e n t o f t h e w h i t e t a i l deer i n t h i s s t u d y and 73% o f t h e c o a s t deer were i n f e s t e d w i t h b i t i n g l i c e b u t no i n f e s t a t i o n s were comparable t o t h e enormous numbers found by Cowan on c o a s t d e e r . . The number o f v / h i t e t a i l deer i n f e s t e d w i t h l o u s e f l i e s exceeded t h e 90% l e v e l , as f o r c o a s t d e e r . The h e a v i e s t i n f e s t a t i o n o f l o u s e f l i e s i n t h i s s t u d y was about 400, compared w i t h r e c o r d s f o r t h e c o a s t deer o f up t o 2500. These d i f f e r e n c e s c o u l d be due t o v a r i a t i o n s i n l o u s e f l y p o p u l a t i o n s from y e a r t o y e a r . Tne s u c k i n g l o u s e o c c u r r e d i n 5% o f c o a s t deer examined compared w i t h 20% f o r w h i t e t a i l d e e r . I n f e c t i o n s o f e n d o p a r a s i t e s were l i g h t compared t o the c o a s t d e e r . Cowan found t h e t h r e a d lungworm D i c t y o c a u l u s v i v i p a r u s one o f t h e most s e r i o u s p a r a s i t e s o f t h e c o a s t d e e r . The t h r e a d lungworm o c c u r r e d i n such s m a l l numbers i n w h i t e t a i l deer t h a t i t c o u l d n o t be c o n s i d e r e d a s e r i o u s p a r a s i t e . Cowan r e c o r d e d i n f e c t i o n s o f 200 o r more legworms p e r deer compared w i t h a maximum o f 48 i n t h i s s t u d y . The c o a s t deer i s h e a v i l y i n f e c t e d w i t h O s t e r t a g i a sp. and Oesophagostomum venulosum, whereas i n f e c t i o n s o f i n t e s t i n a l nematodes i n w h i t e t a i l deer v/ere l i g h t . 58 The f a c t o r s i n v o l v e d i n t h e p r e s e n c e , absence o r d e n s i t y o f p a r a s i t e i n f e s t a t i o n s from one l o c a l i t y t o a n other are n o t c l e a r l y u n d e r s t o o d . C l i m a t i c d i f f e r e n c e s between Vancouver I s l a n d and t n e i n t e r i o r o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a are p r o b a b l y t h e most i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r a c c o u n t i n g f o r the demonstrated d i f f e r e n c e s i n p a r a s i t i s m . S o u t h e a s t e r n B.C. has a g r e a t e r extreme o f c l i m a t i c c o n d i t i o n s . Summers are h o t and d r y , w i n t e r s o f t e n c o l d w i t h deep snow. The c o a s t has a wet, moderate c l i m a t e w h i c n may promote b e t t e r s u r v i v a l o f t h e l a r v a l s t a g e s , o r i n t e r m e d i a t e h o s t s i n t h e c a s e o f S e t a r i a c e r v i , B l a e o p h o r a Schneider1 and M o n i e z i a b e n e d e n i . Tne s p i n o s e e a r t i c k and p a r a l y s i s t i c k do n o t seem t o f l o u r i s h i n a wet e n v i r o n m e n t w h i c h may a c c o u n t f o r t h e i r absence i n c o a s t d e e r . Deer d e n s i t i e s on Vancouver I s l a n d are h i g h e r t h a n s o u t h -e a s t e r n B.C., w h i c h may h e l p t o promote t h e s p r e a d o f p a r a s i t e s . However, w i n t e r r a n g e s i n s o u t h e a s t e r n B.C. a r e h e a v i l y u t i l i z e d when b i g h o r n sheep, e l k and c a t t l e a r e c o n s i d e r e d . Anderson (1962) s t a t e s : 59 \" G e n e r a l l y s p e a k i n g , where O d o c o i l e u s hemionus and O d o c o i l e u s v i r q i n i a n u s o c c u r t o g e t h e r , t h e y seem t o share the same p a r a s i t e s . \" The mule deer and w h i t e t a i l deer compared i n t h i s s tudy s h a r e d t h e same e c t o p a r a s i t e s h u t t h e y d i d n o t share t h e same i n t e s t i n a l p a r a s i t e s . I n t h e s p r i n g o f 1966, f i v e mule deer were sho t f o r the purpose o f comparing t h e i r p a r a s i t e s w i t h t h o s e o f w h i t e t a i l d eer u s i n g t h e same w i n t e r r a n g e . A l t h o u g h t h e s e 2 deer occupy t h e same ra n g e s t h e r e i s a degree o f e c o l o g i c a l p r e f e r e n c e shown i n t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e c h o i c e o f h a b i t a t . Mule deer p r e f e r h i g h e r b e n c h l a n d s and i f snow i s n o t deep t h e y w i l l spend t h e w i n t e r on h i g h , open r o c k y h i l l s i d e s . The w h i t e t a i l deer occupy t h e l o w e r b e n c h -l a n d s and r i v e r b o t t o m s . I n t h e e a r l y s p r i n g mule deer come down o f f t h e h i l l s i d e s t o g r a z e on new s p r i n g g r a s s and i t i s a t t h i s t i me t h a t the two s p e c i e s can be o b s e r v e d f e e d i n g t o g e t h e r . The number o f mule deer a u t o p s i e d was s m a l l b u t s e v e r a l d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e p a r a s i t i s m o f t h e two s p e c i e s v/ere n o t i c e a b l e . Louse f l i e s were s c a r c e on mule d e e r . Only 13 l o u s e f l i e s were found on the 5 d e e r . The mule deer seems t o be a much b e t t e r h o s t f o r t h e w i n t e r t i c k . A t o t a l o f 202 60 a d u l t t i c k s were c o l l e c t e d from t h e 5 mule deer compared t o 90 a d u l t t i c k s c o l l e c t e d from 15 v / h i t e t a i l d e e r . S u c k i n g l i c e were p r e s e n t on a l l 5 mule deer and t h e two h e a v i e s t i n f e s t a t i o n s , 300 and 400 l i c e r e s p e c t i v e l y , o c c u r r e d on t h i s s p e c i e s . Only 20% o f t h e w h i t e t a i l deer examined were h o s t t o the s u c k i n g l o u s e and 100 was t h e maximum number found on a w h i t e -t a i l d e e r . I n t e s t i n a l p a r a s i t e s showed t h e l a r g e s t v a r i a t i o n i n i n f e c t i o n between t h e 2 s p e c i e s o f d e e r . P a r a s i t e s were common i n t h e s m a l l i n t e s t i n e o f mule deer and v i r t u a l l y n o n - e x i s t e n t i n a l l w h i t e t a i l deer examined. One specimen o f M a r s h a l l a g i a mar s h a l l i , one Nematodirus h e l v e t i a n u s and no tapeworms M o n i e z i a sp. o c c u r r e d i n t h e w h i t e t a i l d e e r . Tne above 3 p a r a s i t e s were common i n t h e 5 mule d e e r . I n f e c t i o n s o f Nematodirus h e l v e t i a n u s averaged 250 worms p e r mule d e e r . Many o f t h e f a c t o r s c o n s i d e r e d c o n d u c i v e t o i n c r e a s -i n g t h e s t a t e o f p a r a s i t i s m o f u n g u l a t e s were p r e s e n t i n s o u t h e a s t e r n B.C. d u r i n g t h i s s t u d y . Few a r e a s i n N o r t h A m e r i c a o c c u p i e d by w h i t e t a i l deer o f f e r t h e v a r i e t y o f a l t e r n a t i v e n o s t s : moose, e l k , b i g h o r n sheep, mule d e e r , c a t t l e , and h o r s e s a l l r e l a t i v e l y abundant and u t i l i z i n g t he same r a n g e s . C o n d i t i o n s o f 61 o v e r c r o w d i n g o f deer and e l k were e v i d e n t on many o f the r a n g e s , a l t h o u g h f i g u r e s on t h e numbers p e r u n i t a r e a a re n o t a v a i l a b l e . Large numbers o f c a t t l e and w i l d u n g u l a t e s have r e s u l t e d i n o v e r g r a z i n g and o v e r -b r o w s i n g . D u r i n g t h e w i n t e r o f 1965-66 a l a r g e d i e - o f f o f b i g h o r n sheep occurred, i n t h e E a s t Kootenay. Poor r a n g e s were c o n s i d e r e d t o be t h e major cause o f t h i s d i e - o f f . The above c o n d i t i o n s p l u s t h e extremes o f c l i m a t e r e s u l t i n a s t a t e o f m a l n u t r i t i o n w h i c h was e v i d e n t i n deer i n t h e l a t t e r p a r t o f A p r i l . L a r g e numbers o f mule deer and w h i t e t a i l deer b e g i n g r a z i n g on open f l a t s as soon as t h e s p r i n g g r a s s e s and f o r b s appear. These open f l a t s are t h e a r e a s most h e a v i l y u t i l i z e d by c a t t l e from A p r i l t o O c t o b e r . Van V o l k e n b e r g and N i c h o l s o n (1943) f e l t t h a t t r i c h o s t r o n g y l e were p i c k e d up by deer f o r c e d t o g r a z e on s h o r t p a s t u r e g r a s s e s because o f s h o r t a g e o f browse. A r e v i e w o f t h e l i t e r a t u r e l e a d s one t o b e l i e v e t h a t t h e c o m b i n a t i o n o f a l l t h e above f a c t o r s s h o u l d be c o n d u c i v e t o p r o d u c i n g a heavy s t a t e o f p a r a s i t i s m . The p a r a s i t i s m o f w h i t e t a i l deer was n o t heavy i n s o u t h e a s t e r n B.C. d u r i n g t h i s s t u d y . W h i l e a maximum s t a t e o f p a r a s i t i s m v/as rea c h e d i n t h e s p r i n g , o n l y t h e e c t o p a r a s i t e s showed any major i n c r e a s e . The s l i g h t i n c r e a s e i n t r i c h o s t r o n g y l e s i n t h e l a t e w i n t e r and s p r i n g was i n s i g n i f i c a n t . I t i s h a r d t o a t t r i b u t e t h e i n f e s t a t i o n s o f e c t o p a r a s i t e s t o m a l n u t r i t i o n and p o or range f a c t o r s . L i c e r e a c h e d a maximum o f abundance i n the s p r i n g , b u t deer i n poor c o n d i t i o n d i d n o t i n e v e r y c a s e h a r b o u r heavy i n f e s t a t i o n s o f l i c e . S e v e r a l deer had f a i r l y heavy i n f e s t a t i o n s o f l i c e i n December. The w i n t e r p e l a g e may have some i n f l u e n c e on l o u s e p o p u l a t i o n s s i n c e numbers o f l i c e become n e g l i g i b l e as soon as the w i n t e r c o a t i s shed. However, i t i s more p r o b a b l e t h a t h o s t c o n d i t i o n a f f e c t s t h e numbers o f l i c e . The nose b o t and 2 s p e c i e s o f t i c k s have l i f e c y c l e s t h a t produce t h e i r most h a r m f u l e f f e c t s a t t h e t i m e when deer are i n t h e i r weakest c o n d i t i o n . Whether more b o t s and t i c k s a re a b l e t o r e a c h m a t u r i t y on weakened deer i s a m a t t e r o f c o n j e c t u r e . Deer i n poor s p r i n g c o n d i t i o n d i d n o t n e c e s s a r i l y show heavy b o t o r t i c k i n f e s t a t i o n s . The s p i n o s e e a r t i c k and l o u s e f l i e s a r e b o t h s c a r c e on d eer i n t h e s p r i n g . 63 B o t h w h i t e t a i l deer and mule deer seem t o have e q u a l o p p o r t u n i t i e s t o become i n f e c t e d v/ith t r i c h o — s t r o n g y l e s and c e s t o d e s , y e t mule deer were i n f e c t e d and w h i t e t a i l deer were n o t . W h i l e a c e r t a i n degree o f e c o l o g i c a l p r e f e r e n c e i s shown between the. two deer i t does not seem t o be c l e a r c u t enough t o account f o r t h e d i f f e r e n c e s i n p a r a s i t i s m . W h i t e t a i l deer i n many a r e a s i n t h e s p r i n g can be o b s e r v e d g r a z i n g on t h e same s i t e s u t i l i z e d by mule d e e r . T r i c h o s t r o n g y l e s and c e s t o d e s f l o u r i s h i n mule deer b u t not i n w h i t e -t a i l d e e r . C a t t l e appear t o c o n t r i b u t e l i t t l e t o t h e p a r a s i t i s m o f w h i t e t a i l deer b u t may be a s i g n i f i c a n t f a c t o r c o n t r i b u t i n g t o t h e t r i c h o s t r o n g y l e i n f e c t i o n s f o u n d i n t h e mule deer s i n c e t h e s e p a r a s i t e s are c o n s i d e r e d p r i m a r i l y c a t t l e p a r a s i t e s . Compared w i t h t h e e f f e c t s o f m a l n u t r i t i o n , p a r a s i t e s would seem t o c o n t r i b u t e l i t t l e t o t h e m o r t a l i t y o f w h i t e t a i l deer i n s o u t h e a s t e r n B.C. No o p p o r t u n i t i e s were p r e s e n t e d t o autopsy w i n t e r - k i l l e d d e e r ; however, w h i t e t a i l d eer i n poor s p r i n g c o n d i t i o n showed no s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r r a t e o f p a r a s i t i s m . 6 4 SUMMARY • T h e w h i t e t a i l d e e r o f s o u t h e a s t e r n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a i s h o s t t o a b o u t 2 5 s p e c i e s o f p a r a s i t e s . T h e s e i n c l u d e 1 1 n e m a t o d e s , 4 c e s t o d e s , o n e t r e m a t o d e , 3 t i c k s , 3 l i c e , 2 l o u s e f l i e s a n d o n e b o t f l y . O n l y 3 p a r a s i t e s p r o d u c e d m a r k e d e f f e c t s o n t h e h o s t t i s s u e s ; t h e b o t f l y C e p h e n e m y i a j e l l i s o n i , t h e g i a n t l i v e r f l u k e F a s c i o l o i d e s m a g n a , a n d t h e l a r v a l l u n g w o r m s . I n s p i t e o f t h e l a r g e n u m b e r s o f a l t e r n a t e w i l d a n d d o m e s t i c h o s t s , e x t r e m e s o f c l i m a t e , o v e r -b r o w s e d r a n g e s , m a l n u t r i t i o n , a n d t h e s p r i n y g r a z i n g h a b i t o f w h i t e t a i l d e e r p a r a s i t i s m w a s r e l a t i v e l y l i g h t . T h e t r i c h o s t r o n g y l e s N e m a t o d i r u s h e l v e t i a n u s a n d M a r s h a l l a g i a m a r s h a l l i , t h e c e s t o d e M o n i e z i a s p . , a n d t h e w i n t e r t i c k D e r m a c e n t o r a l b i p i c t u s s h o w a p r e f e r e n c e f o r m u l e d e e r , o r a r e a b l e t o s u c c e e d m o r e r e a d x l y o n t h i s h o s t o n r a n g e s w h e r e b o t h u t i l i z e t h e same h a b i t a t . 65 5. T h e d e n s i t y o f i n f e s t a t i o n s o f p a r a s i t e s w a s n o t c o n s i d e r e d h e a v y e n o u g h , t o c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e m o r t a l i t y o f d e e r . 6. C a t t l e a p p e a r t o h a v e l i t t l e e f f e c t o n t h e p a r a s i t e c o m p l e x o f w h i t e t a i l d e e r i n t h e a r e a s t u d i e d . 66 LITERATURE CITED A n d e r s o n , R . C . 1 9 6 2 . T h e h e l m i n t h a n d a r t h r o p o d p a r a s i t e s o f t h e w h i t e - t a i l e d d e e r ( O d o c o i l e u s V i r g i n i a n u s ) : P r o c . F i r s t N a t i o n a l W h i t e - t a i l e d D e e r D i s e a s e S y m p o s i u m , A t h e n s , G e o r g i a , 1 6 2 - 1 7 4 . A n d e r s o n , R . C . 1 9 6 2 . T h e h e l m i n t h a n d a r t h r o p o d p a r a s i t e s o f t h e w h i t e - t a i l e d d e e r ( O d o c o i l e u s v i r g i n i a n u s ) : a g e n e r a l r e v i e w . T r . R o y a l C a n a d . I n s t . 3 4 ( 1 ) : 5 7 - 9 2 . B e c k l u n d , W.W. a n d S e n g e r , C M . 1 9 6 7 . P a r a s i t e s o f O y i s c a n a d e n s i s c a n a d e n s i s i n M o n t a n a , w i t h a c h e c k -l i s t o f t h e i n t e r n a l a n d e x t e r n a l p a r a s i t e s o f t h e R o c k y M o u n t a i n b i g h o r n s n e e p i n N o r t h A m e r i c a . J . P a r a s i t o l , 5 3 ( 1 ) : 1 5 7 - 1 6 5 . B r o w n , E.R. 1 9 6 1 . T h e b l a c k - t a i l e d d e e r o f w e s t e r n W a s h i n g t o n . B i o l o g i c a l B u l l e t i n N o , 1 3 , W a s h i n g t o n S t a t e Game D e p t . C h e a t u m , E . L . 1 9 4 9 a . B o n e m a r r o w a s a n i n d e x o f m a l n u t r i t i o n i n d e e r . New Y o r k S t a t e C o n s e r v a t i o n i s t . 3 ( 5 ) : 1 9 - 2 2 . C h e a t u m , E . L . 1 9 5 1 . D i s e a s e i n r e l a t i o n t o w i n t e r m o r t a l i t y o f d e e r i n New Y o r k . J o u r n . W i l d l i f e M g t . 1 5 ( 2 ) : 2 1 6 - 2 2 0 . C o w a n , I . M c T . 1 9 4 6 . P a r a s i t e s , d i s e a s e s , i n j u r i e s , a n d a n o m a l i e s o f t h e C o l u m b i a n b l a c k - t a i l e d d e e r , O d o c o i l e u s h e m i o n u s c o l u m b i a n u s ( R i c h a r d s o n ) i n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a . C a n a d . J . R e s e a r c h (D) 2 4 ( 3 ) : 7 1 - 1 0 3 . C o w a n , I . M c T . 1 9 5 1 . T h e d i s e a s e s a n d p a r a s i t e s o f b i g game m a m m a l s o f w e s t e r n C a n a d a . P r o c . 5 A n n . Game C o n v e n t , 2 5 - 2 8 A p r i l , V a n c o u v e r , C a n a d a , p . 3 7 - 6 4 . D e N i o , R.M. a n d R.M. W e s t . 1 9 4 2 . T h e f o o t - w o r m d i s e a s e i n d e e r i n t h e N o r t h e r n R o c k y M o u n t a i n R e g i o n . J„ F o r e s t r y . 4 0 : 5 4 0 - 5 4 3 . 6 7 G o b l e f F.C. 1941. T i s s u e changes i n w h i t e - t a i l e d deer accompanying n a t u r a l i n f e c t i o n s o f lungworms ( g e n e r a l P r o t o s t r o n g y l u s and D i c t y o c a u l u s ) . J o u r n . W i l d l i f e Mgt. 5: 141-158. L o n g h u r s t , W.M. 1956. P o p u l a t i o n dynamics o f d e e r . Study o f deer h e r d r e v e a l s i n t e r n a l p a r a s i t e s and s t a r v a t i o n are most i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r s c o n t r i b u t i n g t o m o r t a l i t y o f d e e r . C a l i f o r n i a A g r i c u l t u r e 1 0 ( 7 ) : 9-10, 12, 14. O l s e n , O.W. and F e n s t e r m a c h e r , R. 1943. The h e l m i n t h s o f N o r t h American deer w i t h s p e c i a l r e f e r e n c e t o t h o s e o f w h i t e - t a i l e d deer i n M i n n e s o t a . Tech. B u l l . ( 159). Minn. A g r i c . E x p e r . S t a . 20 pp. P e a r s e , P.H. and Bowden, G. 1966. B i g game h u n t i n g i n t h e E a s t Kootenay, P r i c e P r i n t i n g L t d . , 39 pp. Senger, C M . and C a p e l i e , K . J . 1959, Louse f l i e s from mule and w h i t e - t a i l e d deer i n w e s t e r n Montana. J . P a r a s i t o l . 45: 32 s u p p l . Van V o l k e n b e r g , H.L. and N i c h o l s o n , A . J . 1943. P a r a s i t i s m and m a l n u t r i t i o n o f deer i n Texas. J o u r n . W i l d l i f e Mgt. 7: 220-223. W h i t l o c k , S.C 1939. The p r e v a l e n c e o f d i s e a s e and p a r a s i t e s o f w h i t e t a i l d e e r . T r . 4 N o r t h Am. W i l d l i f e Conf., 244-249. 68 APPENDIX I Number o f Deer Examined T o t a l number o f deer examined 76 T o t a l number o f v / h i t e t a i l deer examined 69 Number o f v / h i t e t a i l deer examined a t r o a d c h e c k s 6 Number o f w h i t e t a i l deer examined from r o a d k i l l s 4 Number o f v / h i t e t a i l deer examined w h i l e h u n t i n g 6 Number o f v / h i t e t a i l deer s h o t i n f i e l d 53 Number o f complete a u t o p s i e s o f w h i t e t a i l d eer 55 Number o f p a r t i a l a u t o p s i e s o f w h i t e t a i l d eer 14 Number o f mule deer s h o t i n f i e l d 7 Number o f complete a u t o p s i e s o f mule deer 5 Number o f p a r t i a l a u t o p s i e s o f mule deer 2 The 14 p a r t i a l l y examined w h i t e t a i l s i n c l u d e d 6 r o a d - c h e c k e d d e e r , 2 h i g h w a y - k i l l e d deer and 6 deer s h o t d u r i n g t h e f a l l h u n t i n g season. The l a t t e r 6 deer were n o t s h o t i n c l o s e p r o x i m i t y t o r o a d s and hence t h e e n t i r e a n i m a l c o u l d n o t be b r o u g h t b a c k t o t h e l a b . Organ Systems A u t o p s i e d Organ System No. o f deer examined (Mule d e e r i n b r a c k e t s ) Lungs 71 (7) L i v e r 72 (7) H e a r t 61 (6) E a r s 73 (6) N a s a l pharynx 63 (6) Legs 76 (7) B r a i n 53 (5) Hide 70 (6) Abomasum 58 (5) 69 S m a l l i n t e s t i n e 57 (5) Caecum 53 (5) Rectum 54 (5) Large i n t e s t i n e 53 (5) Body C a v i t y 75 (7) Omentum 62 (7) R e t i c u l u m 7 B l a d d e r 2 B l o o d smears 17 Rumen samples 47 (5) Age and Sex C o m p o s i t i o n o f Deer Examined No. o f deer No. males No. fe m a l e s 2 39 37 35 13 9 4 4 7 2 F i f t y p e r c e n t o f the deer examined were under 2 y e a r s o f age. O l d e r d e e r , e s p e c i a l l y o l d males, were seldom seen between t h e months o f June and December w h i l e t h e y were on t h e i r summer r a n g e s . Y e a r l i n g s were easy, t o c o l l e c t i n May, June and J u l y because o f t h e i r tendency t o wander and c o n g r e g a t e around s l o u g h s . Age Fawn ( l e s s t h a n 5 mos.) 1- 1*3 2- 2*5 3 4 5 5+ A d u l t 7 0 APPENDIX II - SAMPLE AUTOPSY SHEET AUTOPSY SHEET Host: Number: Date Collected: Sex: Age: Location: Time Collected: Collected by: Time Post Mortem Before Examination: ORGANS EXAMINED PARASITES Type Number Location F i x a t i v e Remarks "@en ; edm:hasType "Thesis/Dissertation"@en ; edm:isShownAt "10.14288/1.0104298"@en ; dcterms:language "eng"@en ; ns0:degreeDiscipline "Zoology"@en ; edm:provider "Vancouver : University of British Columbia Library"@en ; dcterms:publisher "University of British Columbia"@en ; dcterms:rights "For non-commercial purposes only, such as research, private study and education. Additional conditions apply, see Terms of Use https://open.library.ubc.ca/terms_of_use."@en ; ns0:scholarLevel "Graduate"@en ; dcterms:title "Parasites of the whitetail deer (odocoileus virginianus ochrourus)."@en ; dcterms:type "Text"@en ; ns0:identifierURI "http://hdl.handle.net/2429/36002"@en .