@prefix vivo: . @prefix edm: . @prefix ns0: . @prefix dcterms: . @prefix skos: . vivo:departmentOrSchool "Arts, Faculty of"@en, "Asian Studies, Department of"@en ; edm:dataProvider "DSpace"@en ; ns0:degreeCampus "UBCV"@en ; dcterms:creator "Starrs, Roy"@en ; dcterms:issued "2010-03-16T20:41:44Z"@en, "1980"@en ; vivo:relatedDegree "Master of Arts - MA"@en ; ns0:degreeGrantor "University of British Columbia"@en ; dcterms:description """This thesis offers a critical analysis of the work of Shiga Naoya, one of the major creative writers of modern Japan. Shiga is presented primarily as the author of shi- shosetsu ("I-novels"), a distinctively Japanese genre that combines elements of fiction and autobiography. This "blurring" of the lines between fiction and non-fiction is shown to have been particularly disturbing to certain Western critics, and the present thesis attempts to answer these critics, first, by showing the solid basis of the shi-shosetsu in the Japanese literary tradition; second, by showing how the mixture of fiction and reality is an integral part of Shiga's art on both a technical and a thematic level; and, third, by pointing out the parallels to Shiga's practise in some recent literary trends of the West itself. In Chapter 1, Shiga's first published story, "Aru Asa" ("One Morning"), is used as an example of the shi-shosetsu in its simplest and barest form, and thus as an example of everything that certain Western critics dislike about this genre. Some of them, for instance, have accused the story of "triviality". In answer to this charge, I have shown how Shiga, by virtue of his masterful style and his depth of psychological insight, manages to turn even seemingly insignificant material into significant literature. "Aru Asa", in fact, already contains in microcosm the central problem to be explored throughout Shiga's most important later works: namely, the conflict between the protagonist's desire for individual freedom and self-expression on the one hand and, on the other, his longing for peace of mind and communion with others. The solution which Shiga eventually offered to this "problem of the ego" is first adumbrated in the story I consider in Chapter 2, "Kinosaki ni te" (At Kinosaki"). Here the protagonist receives a profound shock to his sense of self— a near fatal accident--but also is given some intimation of the way to ultimate psychic health: through self-surrender and union with nature. On the principle that the best way to define something is often by contrast with its opposite, I have also compared this work with a Tolstoy story, "Three Deaths", in order to bring out more clearly the special qualities of the shi-shosetsu. In the story I deal with in Chapter 3, "Takibi" ("Bonfire the Shiga protagonist is seen to have already attained some degree of union with nature. The narrative progression of the story, in fact, consists simply of a steady deepening of this lyrical, idyllic mood. To show that there are some analogies to Shiga's "naturally plotted" stories in the recent West, I compare "Takibi" with a Hemingway story, "Big Two-Hearted River". I also point out that the affinity between the two authors' use of imagery as "objective correlative" is by no means coincidental, in view of the influence of Japanese poetry on Hemingway through Ezra Pound and the Imagists. In the fourth and final chapter I deal with An'ya Koro (A Dark Night's Passing), which I regard as the culmination of Shiga's art on both a thematic and a technical level. In this work Shiga himself comes to grips with the essential nature of the shi-shosetsu, including the fiction/reality dialectic that is the crucial problem at its core, and it is here also that he relates this technical issue with the thematic issue I see as central to his work: the protagonist's longing for spiritual liberation. In An'ya Koro, in other words, the problem of the man and the problem of the writer some to be seen as ultimately the same problem, and in a way that could obtain only when the man is a writer of shi-shosetsu. I conclude my discussion with what, in my view, Shiga has to offer to the Western reader, as well as an appraisal of what I consider to be the improved climate for the reception of his work in the West."""@en ; edm:aggregatedCHO "https://circle.library.ubc.ca/rest/handle/2429/21938?expand=metadata"@en ; skos:note "e l AN ARTLESS ART: FICTION AND REALITY IN THE WORK OF .SHIGA NAOYA by ROY STARRS B.A. , The U n i v e r s i t y 'of B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , 1971 A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS i n THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES (Department o f A s i a n S t u d i e s ) We a c c e p t t h i s t h e s i s as c o n f o r m i n g t o t h e r e q u i r e d s t a n d a r d THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA A u g u s t 19 80 © Roy S t a r r s , 19 80 In p r e s e n t i n g t h i s t h e s i s in p a r t i a l f u l f i l m e n t o f the r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r an advanced degree at the U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h Co lumb ia , I ag ree that the L i b r a r y s h a l l make i t f r e e l y a v a i l a b l e f o r r e f e r e n c e and s tudy . I f u r t h e r agree t h a t p e r m i s s i o n f o r e x t e n s i v e c o p y i n g o f t h i s t h e s i s f o r s c h o l a r l y purposes may be g r a n t e d by the Head o f my Department o r by h i s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s . It i s u n d e r s t o o d tha t c o p y i n g o r p u b l i c a t i o n o f t h i s t h e s i s f o r f i n a n c i a l g a i n s h a l l not be a l l o w e d w i thout my w r i t t e n p e r m i s s i o n . Department o f A s i a n S t u d i e s The U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h Co lumbia 2075 Wesbrook Place Vancouver, Canada V6T 1W5 Date October 13,- 1980 ABSTRACT T h i s t h e s i s o f f e r s a c r i t i c a l a n a l y s i s o f t h e work o f S h i g a Naoya, one o f t h e m a j o r c r e a t i v e w r i t e r s o f modern J a p a n . S h i g a i s p r e s e n t e d p r i m a r i l y as t h e a u t h o r ? o f s h i - s h o s e t s u ( \" I - n o v e l s \" ) , a d i s t i n c t i v e l y J a p a n e s e g e n r e t h a t combines e l e m e n t s o f f i c t i o n and a u t o b i o g r a p h y . T h i s \" b l u r r i n g \" o f t h e l i n e s between f i c t i o n and n o n - f i c t i o n i s shown t o have been p a r t i c u l a r l y d i s t u r b i n g t o c e r t a i n W e s t e r n c r i t i c s , and t h e p r e s e n t t h e s i s a t t e m p t s t o answer t h e s e c r i t i c s , f i r s t , by s h o w i n g t h e s o l i d b a s i s o f t h e s h i - s h o s e t s u i n t h e J a p a n e s e l i t e r a r y t r a d i t i o n ; s e c o n d , by s h o w i n g how t h e m i x t u r e o f f i c t i o n and r e a l i t y i s an i n t e g r a l p a r t o f S h i g a ' s a r t on b o t h a t e c h n i c a l and a t h e m a t i c l e v e l ; and, t h i r d , by p o i n t i n g o u t t h e p a r a l l e l s t o S h i g a ' s p r a c t i s e i n some r e c e n t l i t e r a r y t r e n d s o f t h e West i t s e l f . I n C h a p t e r 1, S h i g a ' s f i r s t p u b l i s h e d s t o r y , \" A r u A s a \" (\"One M o r n i n g \" ) , i s u s e d as an example o f t h e s h i - s h o s e t s u i n i t s s i m p l e s t and b a r e s t f o r m , and t h u s as an example o f e v e r y t h i n g t h a t c e r t a i n W e s t e r n c r i t i c s d i s l i k e a b o u t t h i s g e n r e . Some o f them, f o r i n s t a n c e , have a c c u s e d t h e s t o r y o f \" t r i v i a l i t y \" . I n answer t o t h i s c h a r g e , I have shown how S h i g a , by v i r t u e o f h i s m a s t e r f u l s t y l e and h i s d e p t h o f p s y c h o l o g i c a l i n s i g h t , manages t o t u r n e v e n s e e m i n g l y i n -s i g n i f i c a n t m a t e r i a l i n t o s i g n i f i c a n t l i t e r a t u r e . \"Aru A s a \" , i n f a c t , a l r e a d y c o n t a i n s i n m i c r o c o s m t h e c e n t r a l p r o b l e m t o be e x p l o r e d t h r o u g h o u t S h i g a ' s most i m p o r t a n t l a t e r w o r k s : namely, t h e c o n f l i c t between t h e p r o t a g o n i s t ' s d e s i r e f o r i n d i v i d u a l f r e e d o m and s e l f - e x p r e s s i o n on t h e one hand and, on t h e o t h e r , h i s l o n g i n g f o r p e a c e o f mind and communion w i t h o t h e r s . The s o l u t i o n w h i c h S h i g a e v e n t u a l l y o f f e r e d t o t h i s \" p r o b lem o f t h e ego\" i s f i r s t a dumbrated i n t h e s t o r y I c o n s i d e r i n C h a p t e r 2 , \" K i n o s a k i n i t e \" (At K i n o s a k i \" ) . Here t h e p r o t a g o n i s t r e c e i v e s a p r o f o u n d shock t o h i s s e n s e o f s e l f — a n e a r f a t a l a c c i d e n t - - b u t a l s o i s g i v e n some ( i n t i m a t i o n o f t h e way t o u l t i m a t e p s y c h i c h e a l t h : t h r o u g h s e l f - s u r r e n d e r and u n i o n w i t h n a t u r e . On t h e p r i n c i p l e t h a t t h e b e s t way t o d e f i n e s o m e t h i n g i s o f t e n by c o n t r a s t w i t h i t s o p p o s i t e , I have a l s o compared t h i s work w i t h a T o l s t o y s t o r y , \" T h r e e D e a t h s \" , i n o r d e r t o b r i n g o u t more c l e a r l y t h e s p e c i a l q u a l -i t i e s o f t h e s h i - s h o s e t s u . I n t h e s t o r y I d e a l w i t h i n C h a p t e r 3 , \" T a k i b i \" ( \" B o n f i r e t h e S h i g a p r o t a g o n i s t i s s e e n t o have a l r e a d y a t t a i n e d some d e g r e e o f u n i o n w i t h n a t u r e . The n a r r a t i v e p r o g r e s s i o n o f t h e s t o r y , i n f a c t , c o n s i s t s s i m p l y o f a s t e a d y d e e p e n i n g o f t h i s l y r i c a l , i d y l l i c mood. To show t h a t t h e r e a r e some a n a l o g i e s t o S h i g a ' s \" n a t u r a l l y p l o t t e d \" s t o r i e s i n t h e r e c e n t West, I compare \" T a k i b i \" w i t h a Hemingway s t o r y , \" B i g Two-H e a r t e d R i v e r \" . I a l s o p o i n t o u t t h a t t h e a f f i n i t y between t h e two authors' 1/ u s e o f i m a g e r y as \" o b j e c t i v e c o r r e l a t i v e \" - i v -i s by no means c o i n c i d e n t a l , i n view of the i n f l u e n c e of Japanese poetry on Hemingway through E z r a Pound and the Imagists. In the f o u r t h and f i n a l chapter I d e a l w i t h An'ya Koro (A Dark Night's P a s s i n g ) , which I regard as the c u l m i n a t i o n of Shiga's a r t on both a thematic and a t e c h n i c a l l e v e l . In t h i s work Shiga h i m s e l f comes to g r i p s w i t h the e s s e n t i a l nature of the s h i - s h o s e t s u , i n c l u d i n g the f i c t i o n / r e a l i t y d i a l e c t i c t h a t i s the c r u c i a l problem at i t s c o r e , and i t i s here a l s o t h a t he r e l a t e s t h i s t e c h n i c a l i s s u e w i t h the thematic i s s u e I see as c e n t r a l to h i s work: the p r o t a g o n i s t ' s l o n g i n g f o r s p i r i t u a l l i b e r a t i o n . In An'ya Koro, i n other words, the problem of the man and the problem of the w r i t e r some to be seen as u l t i m a t e l y the same problem, and i n a way t h a t c o u l d o b t a i n o n l y when the man i s a w r i t e r o f s h i - s h o s e t s u . I conclude my d i s c u s s i o n with what, i n my view, Shiga has to o f f e r to the Western reader, as w e l l as an a p p r a i s a l of what I c o n s i d e r to be the improved c l i m a t e f o r the r e c e p t i o n o f h i s work i n the West. , S u p e r v i s o r - v -TABLE OF CONTENTS A b s t r a c t i i I n t r o d u c t i o n J % C h a p t e r 1 I l C h a p t e r 2 ; .\" 43 C h a p t e r 3 • 80 C h a p t e r 4 113 F o o t n o t e s w . . . . . 161 B i b l i o g r a p h y 178 - 1 -I n t r o d u c t i o n No modern J a p a n e s e w r i t e r o f c o m p a r a b l e s t a t u r e has b een as s o r e l y n e g l e c t e d i n t h e West as S h i g a Naoya J a . - j j ^ (1883-1971). A l t h o u g h most o f h i s m a j o r s t o r i e s were w r i t t e n i n t h e T a i s h o p e r i o d (1912-1926), and h i s s i n g l e g r e a t n o v e l a p p e a r e d i n 1937, i t was n o t u n t i l t h e 1970's t h a t any s u b -s t a n t i a l t r a n s l a t i o n and c r i t i c i s m o f h i s work was u n d e r t a k e n i n E n g l i s h . T h e r e i s , as y e t , no b o o k - l e n g t h c o l l e c t i o n o f h i s s h o r t s t o r i e s (though t h e r e i s i n French\" 1\") ; a mere hand-f u l o f them a r e s c a t t e r e d t h r o u g h o u t v a r i o u s a n t h o l o g i e s - -t h i s i n s p i t e o f t h e f a c t t h a t S h i g a has l o n g b een r e c o g n i z e d as one o f t h e g r e a t m a s t e r s o f t h e f o r m i n J a p a n . H i s one n o v e l - l e n g t h work, An'ya K o r o o a l s o r e c o g n i z e d t h e c e n t r a l p l a c e - 3 -o f t h i s g e n r e i n t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y l i t e r a t u r e o f h i s c o u n t r y , b u t he saw i t i n a more c o s m o p o l i t a n and l e s s b e l i t t l i n g l i g h t : The \" I - n o v e l \" o f modern J a p a n e s e l i t e r a t u r e i s a complex c r e a t i o n o f m i x e d a n c e s t r y r b r e d f r o m t h e F r e n c h n a t u r a l i s t n o v e l , f r o m t h e J a p a n e s e o c c a s i o n a l e s s a y s t y l e o f t h e M i d d l e Ages ( c a l l e d , r e v e a l i n g l y , \" f o l l o w i n g one's t h o u g h t s \" ) and f r o m t h e s e l f - w o r s h i p o f E u r o p e a n r o m a n t i c i s m . And, b e c a u s e o f t h e p e c u l i a r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f J a p a n e s e p o e t r y w h i c h I have men-t i o n e d b e f o r e , t h e \" I - n o v e l \" f o r m was a l s o made t o s e r v e t h e f u n c t i o n o f ^ f u l f i l l i n g p o e t i c needs t h r o u g h t h e v e h i c l e o f p r o s e . The i s s u e , i n f a c t , i s even l a r g e r t h a n t h a t o f t h e s h i - s h o s e t s u p e r s e , t h o u g h t h i s i s a v e r y w i d e l y p r a c t i s e d g e n r e . T h a t t h e p r o b l e m a t i c r e l a t i o n between f i c t i o n and r e a l i t y has p r e o c c u p i e d many o f J a p a n ' s g r e a t e s t modern n o v e l i s t s has b e en w e l l d e m o n s t r a t e d by Ueda Makoto i n h i s Modern J a p a n e s e W r i t e r s . I n h i s a n a l y s i s o f t h e l i t e r a r y t h e o r i e s o f e i g h t n o v e l i s t s , t h e f i r s t q u e s t i o n t h a t Ueda c o n s i d e r s i n e a c h c a s e i s t h e w r i t e r ' s v i e w o f t h e r e l a t i o n between l i f e and l i t e r a t u r e , and he shows t h a t i t i s a q u e s t i o n t h a t has e s p e c i a l l y e x e r c i s e d w r i t e r s i n modern J a p a n . As I s h a l l p o i n t o u t i n C h a p t e r 1, i t seems t o me, t h e n , t h a t F r a n c i s Mathy a t t e m p t s t o evade t h i s c e n t r a l i s s u e w h i c h must a r i s e i n any c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f S h i g a by o v e r -e m p h a s i z i n g t h e few more c o n v e n t i o n a l works o f f i c t i o n t h e a u t h o r w r o t e . To do s o , I w o u l d c l a i m , i s t o p r e s e n t a d i s -t o r t e d image b o t h o f S h i g a ' s a c t u a l a c c o m p l i s h m e n t as a w r i t e r and o f h i s a b i d i n g i n f l u e n c e on t h e l i t e r a t u r e o f h i s c o u n t r y . - 4 -S h i g a Naoya must s t a n d o r f a l l a s a w r i t e r o f s h i - s h o s e t s u ; t o t r y t o \" d r e s s him up\" i n more a c c e p t a b l y c o n v e n t i o n a l o r W e s t e r n g a r b i s a f u t i l e e x e r c i s e t h a t o n l y b e l i e s t h e t r u e n a t u r e o f t h e s u b j e c t . I n t h i s p r e s e n t a n a l y s i s , t h e n , I c o n c e n t r a t e e x c l u s i v e l y on S h i g a as a s h i - s h o s e t s u w r i t e r , and a t t e m p t t o t r a c e t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e theme I r e g a r d as c e n t r a l t o t h e s e \" a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l \" w o r k s : t h a t o f a man s e e k i n g t o f r e e h i m s e l f f r o m h i s own e g o t i s m by a c h i e v i n g t o t a l u n i o n w i t h n a t u r e . A t t h e same t i m e , I t r y t o a d d r e s s t h e c e n t r a l c r i t i c a l p r o b l e m w h i c h a r i s e s i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e s h i - s h o s e t s u , a p r o b l e m t h a t S h i g a h i m s e l f , as I s h a l l show, came u l t i m a t e l y t o d e a l w i t h i n h i s g r e a t n o v e l : t h e o n - g o i n g d i a l e c t i c between f i c t i o n and r e a l i t y . I n C h a p t e r 1 I u s e S h i g a ' s f i r s t p u b l i s h e d s t o r y , \" A r u A s a \" $ ^ (One M o r n i n g , 1 9 0 8 ) , as an example o f t h e S h i - s h o s e t s u i n i t s s i m p l e s t and b a r e s t f o r m and, c o n s e -q u e n t l y , as an example o f e v e r y t h i n g t h a t most o f f e n d s W e s t e r n c r i t i c s i n p a r t i c u l a r a b o u t t h i s g e n r e . My i n t e n t i o n i s t o show t h a t t h e v i e w s o f t h e s e c r i t i c s a r e h e a v i l y p r e -j u d i c e d by t h e v a l u e s o f t h e i r own c u l t u r e ; when S h i g a ' s works a r e v i e w e d t h r o u g h t h e e y e s o f a s y m p a t h e t i c n a t i v e c r i t i c s u c h as K o b a y a s h i H i d e o , f o r i n s t a n c e , t h e y seem a c u l m i n a t i o n o f a l l t h a t i s f i n e s t i n t h e J a p a n e s e l i t e r a r y t r a d i t i o n . On t h e l e v e l o f theme, I p o i n t o u t t h a t we c a n a l r e a d y d i s c e r n i n S h i g a ' s e a r l i e s t s t o r y t h e o u t l i n e s o f a - 5 -p r o b l e m t h a t w i l l r e c u r t h r o u g h o u t h i s s h i - s h o s e t s u w r i t t e n o v e r t h e n e x t t h i r t y y e a r s : how i s t h e p r o t a g o n i s t t o r e -s o l v e t h e t e n s i o n between t h e demands o f h i s own f i e r c e l y i n d e p e n d e n t ego and h i s l o n g i n g f o r p e a c e o f m i n d and com-munion w i t h o t h e r s ? The d e f i n i t i v e s o l u t i o n t o t h i s p r o b l e m f i n a l l y comes, as we s h a l l s e e , w i t h t h e c l i m a c t i c s c e n e o f h i s magnum op u s , p u b l i s h e d a l m o s t t h i r t y y e a r s a f t e r \" A r u A s a \" . I n C h a p t e r 2 I d e a l w i t h a more ma t u r e example o f S h i g a ' s a r t , a work t h a t i s , i n f a c t , one o f t h e most c e l e b r a t e d o f h i s s h o r t s t o r i e s : \" K i n o s a k i n i t e \" ffy o> \\? \\ (At K i n o s a k i , 1 9 1 7 ) . Here t h e S h i g a p r o t a g o n i s t r e c e i v e s a f a r more p r o f o u n d s h o c k t o h i s s e n s e o f s e l f t h a n i n t h e e a r l i e r s t o r y — a n e a r - f a t a l a c c i d e n t - - b u t a l s o he a l r e a d y s e n s e s t h e d i r e c t i o n he must t r a v e l t o a c h i e v e h i s u l t i m a t e l i b e r a t i o n : t o w a r d s s e l f - s u r r e n d e r and u n i o n w i t h n a t u r e . I n o r d e r t o d e f i n e more c l e a r l y t h e d i s t i n c t i v e n a t u r e o f t h e s h i - s h o s e t s u i n t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e w o r l d l i t e r a t u r e , I a l s o compare t h i s S h i g a s t o r y w i t h a s h o r t s t o r y by a g r e a t m a s t e r , o f t h e g e n r e as i t has b e en p r a c t i s e d t r a d i t i o n a l l y i n t h e West, L e o T o l s t o y . I t i s a f o r t u n a t e c o i n c i d e n c e t h a t t h e T o l s t o y s t o r y , \" T h r e e D e a t h s \" , has a s i m i l a r o v e r a l l c o n c e p t and s t r u c t u r e t o \" K i n o s a k i n i t e \" , t h o u g h , as we s h a l l s e e , i t a l s o p r e s e n t s some i n t e r e s t i n g p o i n t s o f c o n t r a s t . C h a p t e r 3 d e a l s w i t h a n o t h e r o f S h i g a ' s b e s t - k n o w n s t o r i e s , \" T a k i b i \" ^ ( B o n f i r e , 1 9 20). I n c o n t r a s t t o t h e two e a r l i e r s t o r i e s , t h e mood o f t h i s work i s c l o s e t o i d y l l i c as - 6 -t h e p r o t a g o n i s t i s shown l e a d i n g a q u i e t l i f e i n t h e m o u n t a i n s , e n j o y i n g a p l e a s a n t communion w i t h b o t h man and n a t u r e . Where-as i n C h a p t e r 2 I u s e a T o l s t o y s t o r y t o show how t h e t r a d i -t i o n a l W e s t e r n f o r m o f t h i s g e n r e d i f f e r e d f r o m S h i g a ' s s h i -s h o s e t s u , i n t h e p r e s e n t c h a p t e r I u s e a Hemingway s t o r y , \" B i g T w o - H e a r t e d R i v e r \" , t o show t h a t t h e r e a r e some c l o s e p a r a l l e l s t o S h i g a ' s p r a c t i s e i n t h e more r e c e n t West. I a l s o p o i n t o u t t h a t t h i s a p p a r e n t a f f i n i t y i s by no means e n t i r e l y c o i n c i d e n t a l , i n v i e w o f t h e c o n s i d e r a b l e J a p a n e s e i n f l u e n c e on t h e W e s t e r n \" I m a g i s t \" p o e t s , who i n t u r n i n f l u e n c e d s u c h f i c t i o n w r i t e r s as Hemingway. I n Chapter 4 t h e two l e v e l s o f my d i s c u s s i o n may be s e e n t o be b r o u g h t t o g e t h e r i n t h e a n a l y s i s o f A n 'ya K o r o , a work I r e g a r d as t h e c u l m i n a t i o n o f S h i g a ' s a r t ' on b o t h a t h e m a t i c and a t e c h n i c a l l e v e l . I t i s i n t h i s work, as I hope t o show, t h a t S h i g a h i m s e l f comes t o g r i p s w i t h t h e e s s e n t i a l n a t u r e o f t h e s h i - s h o s e t s u , i n c l u d i n g t h e f i c t i o n / r e a l i t y d i a l e c t i c t h a t i s t h e c r u c i a l p r o b l e m a t i t s c o r e , and ife i s h e r e a l s o t h a t he r e l a t e s t h i s \" t e c h n i c a l \" i s s u e w i t h t h e t h e m a t i c i s s u e I have s e e n as c e n t r a l t o h i s work up t o t h i s p o i n t : t h e p r o t a g o n i s t ' s l o n g i n g f o r s p i r i t u a l l i b e r a t i o n . I n A n 'ya K o r o , i n o t h e r words, t h e p r o b l e m o f t h e man and thaaproblem o f t h e w r i t e r come t o be s e e n as u l t i m a t e l y t h e same p r o b l e m , and i n a way t h a t c o u l d o b t a i n o n l y when t h e man i s a w r i t e r o f s h i - s h o s e t s u . I c o n c l u d e my d i s c u s s i o n w i t h a summation o f what, i n my v i e w , S h i g a has t o o f f e r t o t h e W e s t e r n r e a d e r , as w e l l as an a p p r a i s a l o f what I c o n s i d e r t o be t h e i m p r o v e d - 7 -c l i m a t e f o r t h e r e c e p t i o n o f h i s work i n t h e West. S h i g a Naoya was b o r n i n 1883 a t t h e v i l l a g e o f I s h i m a k i i n M i y a g i P r e f e c t u r e on t h e n o r t h e a s t c o a s t o f J a p a n , where h i s f a t h e r was p o s t e d a s a n employee o f t h e D a i - i c h i Bank. The f a t h e r , however, was an a m b i t i o u s and s u c c e s s f u l b u s i n e s s -man, a g r a d u a t e o f t h e new K e i o U n i v e r s i t y , and b e f o r e l o n g he r e t u r n e d t o To k y o , q u i t h i s j o b a t t h e bank and s e t o u t t o make a name f o r h i m s e l f i n t h e w o r l d o f h i g h f i n a n c e . E v e n t u a l l y he became t h e d i r e c t o r o f b o t h a r a i l w a y and an i n s u r a n c e company. S i n c e i t was a l s o t h e c a s e t h a t t h e S h i g a s had b e e n f o r g e n e r a t i o n s l e a d i n g s a m u r a i r e t a i n e r s o f t h e Soma c l a n , i t may w e l l be s a i d t h a t Naoya was b o r n i n t o a \"good\" f a m i l y , b o t h i n terms o f w e a l t h and o f s o c i a l s t a t u s . T h i s i s , i n d e e d , t h e most c r u c i a l f a c t a b o u t h i s e a r l y b i o g r a p h y , s i n c e i t e n a b l e d h i m t o a t t e n d t h e G a k u s h u i n o r \" p e e r s ' S c h o o l \" , where he f i r s t came i n t o c o n t a c t w i t h o t h e r w r i t e r s o f t h e S h i r a k a b a g r o u p , and, more i m p o r t a n t l y , s i n c e i t e n a b l e d him, t h r o u g h o u t t h e r e s t o f h i s l i f e , t o c o n c e n t r a t e e x c l u s i v e l y on h i s w r i t i n g , t u r n i n g o u t works a t a l e i s u r e l y p a c e w i t h o u t t h e n e c e s s i t y o f making a l i v i n g . A l t h o u g h S h i g a a t t e n d e d one o f t h e b e s t s c h o o l s and, l a t e r , t h e b e s t u n i v e r s i t y i n t h e c o u n t r y , he was n o t a p a r -t i c u l a r l y good s t u d e n t . I n f a c t , he had t o r e p e a t two y e a r s a t G a k u s h u i n and he d r o p p e d o u t o f Tokyo I m p e r i a l U n i v e r s i t y b e f o r e c o m p l e t i n g h i s c o u r s e o f s t u d i e s ( i n E n g l i s h - 8 -l i t e r a t u r e ) . T h i s i s s i g n i f i c a n t i n v i e w o f h i s l a t e r r e p u -t a t i o n as a \" p r i m i t i v e \" , a man who v a l u e d i n s t i n c t a n d e m o t i o n above i n t e l l e c t . N e v e r t h e l e s s , i t was a t s c h o o l , as I have m e n t i o n e d , t h a t S h i g a came i n t o c o n t a c t w i t h s e v e r a l o t h e r young men who had l i t e r a r y a m b i t i o n s , most i m p o r t a n t l y M u s h a n o k o j i S a n e a t s u , who w o u l d be S h i g a ' s c l o s e s t f r i e n d and s u p p o r t e r f o r t h e r e s t o f h i s l i f e . When t h i s g r o u p o f young men had a d v a n c e d t o g e t h e r t o Tokyo U n i v e r s i t y , t h e y p u b l i s h e d a l i t e r a r y m a g a z i n e c a l l e d S h i r a k a b a <%^> (White B i r g h ) . The m a g a z i n e , w h i c h r e m a i n e d i n c i r c u l a t i o n f r o m 1910 t o 1923, n o t o n l y p u b l i s h e d works by members o f t h e g r o u p i t s e l f b u t a l s o a t t e m p t e d t o i n t r o d u c e c o n t e m p o r a r y W e s t e r n l i t e r a t u r e and a r t t o J a p a n e s e r e a d e r s . By s e r v i n g b o t h o f t h e s e f u n c -t i o n s i t became a c u l t u r a l i n f l u e n c e o f c o n s i d e r a b l e i m p o r -t a n c e i n T a i s h o J a p a n . A t any r a t e , t h i s was t h e v e h i c l e t h r o u g h w h i c h S h i g a ' s s t o r i e s f i r s t became w i d e l y known. S t i l l , one must be wary o f any f a c i l e c a t e g o r i z a t i o n s o f him as a member o f t h e \" S h i r a k a b a g r o u p \" . The impoajtance o f t h e g r o u p t o S h i g a l a y f a r more i n t h e f r i e n d s h i p and s u p p o r t i t p r o -v i d e d t h a n i n any d i r e c t i n f l u e n c e o f i t s l i t e r a r y t h e o r i e s on h i s work. As I hope t o show, S h i g a t h e w r i t e r was v e r y much h i s own man. T h e r e i s one o t h e r f a c t w h i c h must be m e n t i o n e d a b o u t S h i g a ' s marly b i o g r a p h y : h i s s t o r m y r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h h i s f a t h e r . N e e d l e s s t o s a y , as a h a r d - h e a d e d b u s i n e s s m a n t h e - 9 -f a t h e r was none t o o p l e a s e d w i t h h i s son's c h o i c e o f v o c a t i o n , p a r t i c u l a r l y s i n c e i t meant t h a t he w o u l d r e m a i n f i n a n c i a l l y d e p e n d e n t on h i s f a t h e r f o r much o f h i s l i f e . T h e r e were o t h e r s o u r c e s o f i r r i t a t i o n : Naoya's p r o t e s t s o v e r t h e p o l l u -t i o n c a u s e d by a c o p p e r mine h i s f a m i l y was a s s o c i a t e d w i t h ; h i s a f f a i r w i t h one o f t h e f a m i l y m a i d s and h i s d e t e r m i n a t i o n t o m a r r y h e r ; and, f i n a l l y , h i s m a r r i a g e i n 1914 w i t h o u t h i s . f a t h e r ' s c o n s e n t t o a c o u s i n o f M u s h a n o k o j i . D u r i n g t h e y e a r s 1913 t o 1915, however, S h i g a ' s s t a t e o f mind u n d e r w e n t a s i g n i f i c a n t c h a n g e , a change r e l f e c t e d , as we s h a l l s e e , i n h i s s t o r i e s \" K i n o s a k i n i t e \" and \" T a k i b i \" . H i s c l o s e b r u s h w i t h d e a t h on t h e one hand (he was h i t by a s t r e e t c a r i n Tokyo i n t h e summer o f 1913) and h i s i n c r e a s i n g s e n s e o f u n i o n w i t h n a t u r e on t h e o t h e r ( i n 1915 he went w i t h h i s new b r i d e t o l i v e amid t h e b e a u t i f u l m o u n t a i n s c e n e r y o f A k a g i i n C e n t r a l J a p a n) c h a n g e d h i s a t t i t u d e o f c o n f r o n t a t i o n and s e l f -a s s e r t i o n i n t o one o f l o n g i n g f o r harmony and p e a c e o f mind. W i t h t h i s new a t t i t u d e he was soon a b l e t o e f f e c t a r e c o n -c i l i a t i o n w i t h h i s f a t h e r , an e v e n t w h i c h i s m o v i n g l y d e s c r i b e d i n one o f h i s most c e l e b r a t e d s h i - s h o s e t s u Wakai jfo ^ ( R e c o n c i l i a t i o n , 1 9 17). W i t h t h i s r e c o n c i l i a t i o n t h e p r i n -c i p a l drama o f S h i g a ' s l i f e came t o an e n d , and he was a b l e t o s p e n d t h e r e s t o f h i s d a y s ( u n t i l h i s d e a t h a t t h e age o f e i g h t y - e i g h t i n 1971) i n t h e q u i e t e n j o y m e n t o f h i s f a m i l y , o f t h e w o r l d o f n a t u r e and o f t h e t r a d i t i o n a l F a r E a s t e r n a r t s . - 10 -W i t h t i m e , i n f a c t , S h i g a became an a l m o s t a r c h e t y p a l f i g u r e on t h e J a p a n e s e c u l t u r a l s c e n e , s e e m i n g more and more l i k e t h e r e i n c a r n a t i o n o f some e n l i g h t e n e d sage o f o l d . B u t , as a w r i t e ^ , one f i n a l g r e a t s t r u g g l e a w a i t e d h i m a f t e r h i s r e c o n c i l i a t i o n w i t h h i s f a t h e r : he had s t i l l t o f i n i s h h i s magnum o p u s , An'ya K o r o . T h i s was a l o n g and t o r t u o u s p r o c e s s : t h e f i r s t p a r t o f t h e n o v e l was p u b l i s h e d i n 1921, and i t was n o t u n t i l 1937 t h a t t h e l a s t i n s t a l m e n t a p p e a r e d , a f u l l t w e n t y - f i v e y e a r s a f t e r t h e work was begun. A f t e r t h e p u b l i c a t i o n o f t h i s one g r e a t n o v e l S h i g a w r o t e l i t t l e o f any c o n s e q u e n c e , t h o u g h he l i v e d a n o t h e r t h i r t y - f o u r y e a r s . T h i s f a c t a l o n e seems t o t e l l us much a b o u t t h e s p e c i a l r e -l a t i o n s h i p between a w r i t e r o f s h i - s h o s e t s u and h i s work. H a v i n g p o u r e d a l l o f t h e agony and t h e h a r d - e a r n e d wisdom o f h i s l i f e i n t o t h i s one work, i t seems t h a t S h i g a now f e l t he had b e s t m a i n t a i n a d i g n i f i e d s i l e n c e . - 11 -Chapter I Shiga Naoya may be regarded as f i r s t and foremost a shortstory writer. This i s not to deny the importance of his one novel, An'ya Koro (A Dark Night's Passing), upon which much of his high reputation i n Japan rests. Nor i s i t to deny the wide appeal of his most famous novella, Wakai (Reconciliation), that watakushishosetsu par excel-lence which has moved c r i t i c s to such effusive heights (or depths) i n describing i t s emotional impact. But the £act remains that Shiga was far more p r o l i f i c as a short-story writer than as a n o v e l i s t and, more s i g n i f i c a n t l y , that short stories such as \"Takibi\" (\"Bonfire\") and \"Kinosaki nite'i (\"At Kinosaki\") seem to embody, to a greater extent thati any of his other works, those q u a l i t i e s that most c r i t i c s , I think, would regard as \"quintessentially Shiga\". Furthermore, even his great novel i s rather episodic i n character, so that despite i t s considerable length, i t has been regarded by more than one c r i t i c , as we s h a l l see, as more a series of loosely related short stories than a t i g h t l y structured novel(and, indeed, i t was o r i g i n a l l y planned as such 1\"). One might add that Shiga took the major part of his working l i f e (about twenty-five years) to write his one novel. Needless to say, t h i s seems to imply that novel-writing did not come easy to him. - 12 -A l t h o u g h S h i g a w r o t e some s i x t y odd s h o r t s t o r i e s , t h e p r o b l e m o f w h i c h t o s i n g l e o u t as r e p r e s e n t a t i v e i s n o t a p a r t i c u l a r l y v e x i n g one. What S h i g a i s renowned f o r , above a l l , i s h i s s t y l e (and, as we s h a l l s e e , he h i m s e l f c o n s i d e r e d s t y l e t o be t h e q u i n t e s s e n c e o f t h e w r i t e r ' s a r t ) b u t , u n l i k e h i s most famous c o n t e m p o r a r i e s , T a n i z a k e and Akutagawa, he d i d n o t p o s s e s s a f a c i l e command o f a v a r i e t y o f s t y l e s . T h i s a l r e a d y t e l l s us much a b o u t t h e k i n d o f w r i t e r he was. I n h i s c a s e i n p a r t i c u l a r , t h e \" s t y l e i s t h e man\". S h i g a ' s own v i e w , w h i c h we s h a l l e x p l o r e i n more d e p t h l a t e r , was t h a t a w r i t e r ' s s t y l e a r o s e s p o n t a n e o u s l y f r o m t h e d e p t h s o f h i s b e i n g ; i t was t h e man's own b a s i c \"rhythm\" t h a t , i n t h e c a s e o f a g r e a t w r i t e r , communicated i t s e l f f o r c e f u l l y t o t h e r e a d e r t h r o u g h t h e w r i t t e n word. B e c a u s e s t y l e , t h e n , was s u c h a d e e p l y p e r s o n a l t h i n g , i t c o u l d n o t be c h a n g e d a t w i l l l i k e a s u i t o f c l o t h e s . I n k e e p i n g w i t h t h i s v i e w , S h i g a l e f t h i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c stamp on e v e r y t h i n g he w r o t e . T h i s i s n o t t o s a y t h a t a l l h i s works a r e m a s t e r p i e c e s , b u t t h e y do a l l m a n i f e s t , t o some e x t e n t , t h e u n m i s t a k e a b l e \" S h i g a s t y l e \" . As a r e s u l t , a l m o s t any o f them w o u l d s e r v e t o r e p r e s e n t t h i s p r i m a r y a s p e c t o f h i s a r t . As f o r c o n t e n t , t h e s t o r i e s may be d i v i d e d i n t o two b r o a d c a t e g o r i e s : t h o s e t h a t a r e : m o r e o r l e s s \" a u t o b i o -g r a p h i c a l \" ( t h e s h i - s h o s e t s u ) , c o m p r i s i n g by f a r t h e m a j o r i t y , and t h o s e t h a t a r e more i n v e n t e d o r \" f i c t i o n a l \" . W i t h t h i s c l a s s i f i c a t i o n , t h e r e a l r e a d y a p p e a r s t h e f i c t i o n / n o n -f i c t i o n o r f i c t i o n / r e a l i t y d i a l e c t i c w h i c h w i l l be a recurs? - 13 -r i n g theme i n my s t u d y o f S h i g a . B u t I w i s h t o say immed-i a t e l y t h a t t h e r e i s no v a l u e - j u d g m e n t i m p l i e d h e r e . I t seems t o me t h a t F r a n c i s Mathy, f o r i n s t a n c e , cbnly b e t r a y s h i s W e s t e r n p r e c o n c e p t i o n s a b o u t what c o n s t i t u t e s \"good l i t e r a t u r e \" by h i s r a n k i n g o f t h e \" f i c t i o n a l \" s t o r i e s above t h e \"auto-2 b i o g r a p h i c a l \" . I n h i s book, t h e f i r s t f u l l - l e n g t h s t u d y o f S h i g a i n E n g l i s h , Mathy g i v e s \" s t a r c o v e r a g e \" t o t h e f i c t i o n a l s t o r i e s i n a c h a p t e r c a l l e d \"A G o l d e n Ten\" and l a m e n t s t h a t S h i g a was u n a b l e t o w r i t e more b e c a u s e he was \"hampered by an 3 i m p o s s i b l e t h e o r y o f p r o s e f i c t i o n \" , i . e . , he g e n e r a l l y p r e -f e r r e d t o w r i t e i n \" s u c h a d e f e c t i v e g e n r e as t h e a u t o b i o -4 g r a p h i c a l n o v e l \" . F u r t h e r m o r e , i t seems t o me t h a t by o v e r -e m p h a s i z i n g t h e f i c t i o n a l s t o r i e s a t t h e e x p e n s e o f t h e a u t o -b i o g r a p h i c a l , Mathy d i s t o r t s o u r v i e w o f S h i g a ' s a c h i e v e m e n t as a w r i t e r , s i n c e t h e g r e a t m a j o r i t y o f h i s s t o r i e s a r e s h i - s h o s e t s u and s i n c e he i s known i n J a p a n m a i n l y as t h e m a s t e r o f t h i s g e n r e (and i t i s as s u c h t h a t he has e x e r c i s e d h i s enormous i n f l u e n c e on modern J a p a n e s e l i t e r a t u r e ) . A t any r a t e , i n t h e p r e s e n t s t u d y I have t r i e d t o a t t a i n a more a p p r o p r i a t e b a l a n c e by d e a l i n g a t g r e a t e r l e n g t h w i t h t h e a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l t h a n w i t h t h e f i c t i o n a l s t o r i e s . As I have s a i d , t h e r e i s a r e m a r k a b l e u n i t y t o S h i g a ' s e n t i r e o p u s . E v e n i n h i s f i r s t p u b l i s h e d s t o r y , \" A r u A s a \" (\"One M o r n i n g \" - 1908) , t h e r e a l r e a d y a p p e a r many o f t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c f e a t u r e s o f h i s s t y l e and c o n t e n t . I n f a c t , i t w o u l d be o n l y a s l i g h t e x a g g e r a t i o n t o say t h a t t h i s f i v e page p r o d u c t o f S h i g a ' s e a r l y manhood a l r e a d y c o n t a i n s t h e g r e a t e r p o r t i o n o f h i s l a t e r work i n m i c r o c o s m . \" A r u A s a \" i s t h e s i m p l e s t o r y o f a young man, S h i n t a r o , who has t r o u b l e g e t t i n g o u t o f bed one m o r n i n g . T h e - n i g h t b e f o r e he had p e r s i s t e d i n r e a d i n g a n o v e l u n t i l v e r y l a t e , d e s p i t e t h e p r o t e s t a t i o n s o f h i s g r a n d m o t h e r , who i s s h a r i n g t h e same bedroom. She had warned him t h a t a B u d d h i s t p r i e s t w o u l d be coming e a r l y t h e n e x t m o r n i n g t o c e l e b r a t e a mem-o r i a l s e r v i c e f o r h i s dead g r a n d f a t h e r , and t h a t t h e y would have t o r i s e l o n g b e f o r e t h e p r i e s t a r r i v e d t o g e t e v e r y t h i n g r e a d y . B u t S h i n t a r o had c o n t i n u e d r e a d i n g u n t i l t h e e a r l y h o u r s o f t h e m o r n i n g . Now, whenever h i s g r a n d m o t h e r comes t o g e t him up, he f a l l s b a c k t o s l e e p a g a i n . She grows i n -c r e a s i n g l y i r r i t a t e d , u n t i l f i n a l l y she i s n o t p o l i t e l y r e q u e s t i n g b u t s t e r n l y commanding h i m t o g e t up, and t o be q u i c k a b o u t i t . T h i s i n t u r n b r i n g s o u t t h e r e b e l i n S h i n t a r o , who d e f i a n t l y t e l l s h e r t h a t a l l h e r p e s t e r i n g has o n l y made i t more d i f f i c u l t f o r h i m t o g e t up. C a l l i n g h i m a \" d e v i l \" , h i s g r a n d m o t h e r s t a l k s a n g r i l y o u t o f t h e room. E v e n t h o u g h he i s no l o n g e r r e a l l y s l e e p y , S h i n t a r o ' s s t u b b o r n p r i d e now p r e v e n t s h i m f r o m g e t t i n g up. When h i s g r a n d m o t h e r r e t u r n s once more, she t r i e s a b i t o f \" p s y c h o l o g y \" on him: she b e g i n s f o l d i n g up h e r own hea v y m a t t r e s s and q u i l t s , e v e n t h o u g h , a t s e v e n t y - t h r e e , she s h o u l d n o t be p u t t i n g h e r s e l f t o s u c h a s t r a i n . B u t t h e c l e v e r S h i n t a r o s e e s t h r o u g h h e r s t r a t e g y and s t i l l r e f u s e s t o budge. F i n a l l y , h i s g r a n d m o t h e r becomes a n g r y and a c c u s e s him o f h a v i n g no s e n s e o f \" f i l i a l d u t y \" . \" I f f i l i a l d u t y means b e i n g a t t h e beck and c a l l o f an o l d l a d y \" , S h i n t a r o answers 5 r a t h e r s p i t e f u l l y , \" t h e n I want no p a r t o f i t . \" H i s g r a n d -mother r u s h e s o u t i n t e a r s . Now t h a t he has e n j o y e d t h i s c a t h a r t i c r e l e a s e o f a n i -m o s i t y , S h i n t a r o f i n a l l y f e e l s i n t h e mood t o g e t up. B u t he s t i l l has n o t e x h a u s t e d a l l h i s r e s e n t m e n t . W h i l e g e t t i n g d r e s s e d , he e n t e r t a i n s a n o t h e r s p i t e f u l t h o u g h t : p e r h a p s he w i l l go s k a t i n g t h e n e x t day on a l a k e where t h r e e s t u d e n t s drowned r e c e n t l y — s u r e l y t h i s w i l l make h i s g r a n d m o t h e r w o r r y a b o u t him. H i s g r a n d m o t h e r now e n t e r s t h e room a g a i n . R e l i e v e d t h a t S h i n t a r o i s now up, she t r i e s t o make p e a c e w i t h him by a s k i n g h i s a d v i c e a b o u t w h i c h w r i t i n g b r u s h e s t o o f f e r t o t h e p r i e s t when he comes. She m e e k l y o b e y s when he o r d e r s h e r t o p u t two b r u s h e s b a c k as n o t s u i t a b l e . W i t h t h i s f u r t h e r s a l v e t o h i s ego, S h i n t a r o i s t h o r o u g h l y a p p e a s e d . L e f t a l o n g a g a i n , he s u d d e n l y fee?ls l i k e l a u g h i n g . He c a n c e l s t h e i d e a o f t h e s k a t i n g t r i p and b e g i n s t o f o l d up h i s b e d d i n g n e a t l y and p u t i t away. Now c o m p l e t e l y \" r e c o n c i l e d \" , he e v e n f o l d s up h i s g r a n d m o t h e r ' s b e g d i n g . W h i l e d o i n g s o , t h o u g h , he i s s u d d e n l y overcome, \" i n t h e m i d s t o f l a u g h t e r \" , by an u n c o n t r o l l a b l e u r g e t o c r y . The t e a r s s t r e a m down h i s c h e e k s so many t h a t \"he c o u l d no l o n g e r s ee a n y t h i n g \" . B u t when f i n a l l y t h e t e a r s s t o p , he f e e l s \" r e f r e s h e d , p u r i f i e d \" . I n t h e f i n a l s c e n e o f t h e s t o r y , S h i n t a r o goes t o h i s y o u n g e r b r o t h e r and s i s t e r s i n t h e n e x t room, where he j o i n s i n t h e i r p l a y f u l j o k i n g . The s t o r y t h u s ends on an a p p r o -p r i a t e l y l i g h t n o t e , s i g n i f y i n g S h i n t a r o 1 s e u p h o r i a n o t j u s t a t h a v i n g b een p u r g e d o f some n e g a t i v e e m o t i o n s b u t , more i m p o r t a n t l y , a t b e i n g a b l e t o r e j o i n t h e c o m f o r t a b l e f a m i l y 7 c i r c l e , t h e a l l - i m p o r t a n t J a p a n e s e r e a l m o f amae. A l t h o u g h t h e s t y l e i n w h i c h \"Aru A s a \" i s w r i t t e n i s n o t q u i t e y e t t h e m a t u r e \" S h i g a s t y l e \" , we a l r e a d y c an d i s c e r n h e r e someof i t s m a j o r f e a t u r e s . G e n e r a l l y , t h e r e i s a k i n d o f s t r o n g , a u t h o r i t a t i v e t o n e t o t h e w r i t i n g w h i c h comes, no d o u b t , . f r o m t h e a l m o s t s t a c c a t o r h y t h m : s h o r t , c l i p p e d s e n -t e n c e s i n w h i c h no words a r e w a s t e d and f a c t s a r e s t a t e d s i m p l y and c l e a r l y . One i s g i v e n t h e s e n s e t h a t t h e words have been c h o s e n w i t h e x t r e m e c a r e , and t h e s e words a r e gen-e r a l l y o f a s i m p l e , b a s i c k i n d . T h e r e i s a v e r y s p a r s e u s e o f a d j e c t i v e s ; t h e l a n g u a g e i s n o t i n any way \" d e c o r a t i v e \" b u t r a t h e r e c o n o m i c a l , e f f i c i e n t . I t i s , as T a n i z a k i — 8 J u n i c h i r o has p o i n t e d o u t , an e s s e n t i a l l y \" m a s c u l i n e \" s t y l e (and T a n i z a k i c o n t r a s t s i t w i t h t h e \" f e m i n i n e \" s t y l e t h a t d e s c e n d s f r o m Lady M u r a s a k i and f i n d s i t s p r i n c i p a l modern e x p r e s s i o n i n h i s own w o r k s ) . I f we were t o lchok f o r i t s - 17 -e q u i v a l e n t i n E n g l i s h , p e r h a p s t h e c l o s e s t w o u l d be t h e e q u a l l y c e l e b r a t e d \"Hemingway s t y l e \" -- and t h e r e a r e , i n f a c t , some r e m a r k a b l e s i m i l a r i t i e s between t h e s t y l e s o f t h e s e two w r i t e r s , e v e n i n s u c h d e t a i l s a s t h e i r c h o i c e o f wo r d s . ^ S h i g a i s renowned above a l l f o r ' . h i s s t y l e ( i t i s u s e d , f o r i n s t a n c e , as a model o f i d e a l J a p a n e s e p r o s e i n s c h o o l s a c r o s s t h e c o u n t r y ) and s t y l e , a s I have s a i d , o c c u p i e s an a l l - i m p o r t a n t p o s i t i o n i n h i s own v i e w o f l i t e r a t u r e . I n a s i g n i f i c a n t e s s a y he w r o t e on t h e s u b j e c t , w h i c h m i g h t be c o n s i d e r e d a p e r s o n a l m a n i f e s t o o f h i s \"way\" a s a w r i t e r (I mean \"way\" i n t h e J a p a n e s e s e n s e o f do o r m i c h i , f o r i t be-comes a p p a r e n t t h a t w r i t i n g was as much a s p i r i t u a l d i s c i -p l i n e t o him as an a r t ) , S h i g a u s e s t h e E n g l i s h word \"rhythm\" t o d e s c r i b e t h a t q u a l i t y w h i c h he c o n s i d e r s t o be t h e q u i n -t e s s e n c e o f good w r i t i n g . T h i s i s n o t m e r e l y a m a t t e r o f t h e s k i l l f u l a r r a n g e m e n t o f words — i t i s , one m i g h t s a y , s o m e t h i n g communicated a l m o s t \"between t h e words\", a k i n d o f \" r e v e r b e r a t i o n \" f r o m t h e a u t h o r ' s \"mind and s p i r i t \" -- some-what a k i n , i t seems, t o t h e S h a v i a n c o n c e p t o f \" l i f e - f o r c e \" . Of n e c e s s i t y , t h e n , t h e a u t h o r must be n o t j u s t a t a l e n t e d a r t i s t b u t a l s o a h i g h l y d e v e l o p e d human b e i n g . (Perhaps t h i s v i e w d o e s much t o e x p l a i n t h e \" b i o g r a p h i c a l f i x a t i o n \" o f many J a p a n e s e S h i g a c r i t i c s — he was h i m s e l f , by a l l a c c o u n t s , an i m p r e s s i v e , a l m o s t c h a r i s m a t i c p e r s o n ) . A c c o r d -i n g t o S h i g a : \"One c a n a l w a y s t e l l f r o m o n e ' s own r e a c t i o n - 18 -on r e a d i n g a s t o r y how s t r o n g l y (or f e e b l y ) t h e a u t h o r ' s s e n s i -b i l i t y has p u l s a t e d w i t h t h i s r h y t h m w h i l e he w r o t e . A n d t h e medium u s e d i s a l m o s t i r r e l e v a n t , s i n c e t h e r h y t h m i s a l w a y s b a s i c a l l y t h e same: \" A l l e n c o u n t e r s w i t h t h e works o f s u p e r i o r men, w h e t h e r t h e i r d e e d s , t h e i r p r o n o u n c e m e n t s o r t h e i r w r i t i n g s , g i v e s us r e a l p l e a s u r e . . . G o o d words, good p a i n t i n g s , g o od books — a l l good works have t h i s e f f e c t upon us.\"\"*\" 1 The t r u e p l e a s u r e o f r e a d i n g , t h e n , i s t h e p l e a s u r e o f a k i n d o f s p i r i t u a l communion w i t h g r e a t men: \"Our e y e s a r e o pened t o w h a t e v e r q u a l i t i e s h i d d e n w i t h i n o u r s e l v e s we m i g h t 12 s h a r e w i t h them. Our mind and s p i r i t grow t a u t . . . \" T h i s \" q u a s i - m y s t i c a l \" v i e w o f t h e f u n c t i o n o f l i t e r a t u r e i s a l s o h i g h l y r e l e v a n t t o what i s p r o b a b l y t h e most r e c u r r e n t theme o f S h i g a ' s works and a theme w h i c h , as we have s e e n , \" i s a l -r e a d y adumbrated i n \" A r u A s a \" : t h e h e r o ' s s t r u g g l e t o overcome a l l s e n s e o f a l i e n a t i o n by a c h i e v i n g t o t a l communion w i t h h i s f e l l o w man, p a r t i c u l a r l y w i t h o t h e r members o f h i s f a m i l y , and w i t h n a t u r e a t l a r g e . W i t h h i s c o n c r e t e s e n s e o f \"rhythm\" as a k i n d o f n a t u r a l f o r c e t h a t c o u l d be t r a n s m i t t e d f r o m man t o man, S h i g a o b v i o u s l y saw l i t e r a t u r e i t s e l f as a v e r y p r a c t i c a l means f o r a c h i e v i n g t h i s communion. F u r t h e r m o r e , a c c o r d i n g t o S h i g a \"rhythm\" t r a n s c e n d s b o t h f o r m and c o n t e n t i n a work o f l i t e r a t u r e . He makes t h i s c l e a r i n h i s d i s c u s s i o n o f I h a r a S a i k a k u , t h e w r i t e r he a d m i r e d more t h a n any o t h e r o f t h e J a p a n e s e t r a d i t i o n : \" S a i k a k u ' s Ogeba and Oridome a r e w r i t t e n w i t h a c o o l , c l e a n d e t a c h m e n t and a s t r o n g r h y t h m . T h e i r s u b j e c t s a r e v a r i o u s t r i v i a l o c c u r r e n c e s i n t h e ' f l o a t i n g w o r l d ' ; and y e t t h e y have t h a t e f f e c t upon t h e r e a d e r w h i c h I m e n t i o n e d b e f o r e : a t i g h t e n i n g up o f o n e ' s 13 mind and s p i r i t . \" Thus a w r i t e r i s a b l e t o make g r e a t a r t e v e n o u t o f \" t r i v i a l \" s u b j e c t m a t t e r , p r o v i d i n g he commands a m a s t e r f u l s t y l e . A p p a r e n t l y , F r a n c i s Mathy does n o t see e y e - t o - e y e w i t h S h i g a on t h i s p o i n t . He f i n d s t h e s t y l e o f \" A r u A s a \" t o be \" s p l e n d i d \" b u t d o e s n o t f e e l t h a t t h i s s u f f i c i e n t l y c o m p e n s a t e s 14 f o r t h e \" t r i v i a l i t y \" o f i t s c o n t e n t s . I n p a r t i c u l a r , he i s i r r i t a t e d by t h e \"Immature s e l f - c e n t e r e d n e s s \" o f t h e h e r o , who i s \" n o t a l i t t l e boy, as h i s a c t i o n s and words w o u l d seem t o 15 x n d x c a t e , b u t a grown man o f t w e n t y - f i v e \" . S u r e l y t h i s i s t o o much l i k e a r g u i n g \"ad hominem\" — one d o e s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y have t o m a r a l l y a p p r o v e o f t h e h e r o ' s b e h a v i o u r t o a p p r e c i a t e t h e s t o r y as a s t o r y . I f t h i s were n o t s o , i t w o u l d be im-p o s s i b l e f o r t h e \" c o s m o p o l i t a n \" r e a d e r t o f r e e l y e n j o y t h e l i t e r a t u r e o f c u l t u r e s w i t h v a l u e s v e r y d i f f e r e n t f o h i s own -- and t h e r e w o u l d be no s u c h d i s c i p l i n e as \" c o m p a r a t i v e l i t e r a t u r e \" . I n t h e p r e s e n t c a s e , f o r i n s t a n c e , i t may seem i m p l a u s i b l e o r e v e n r e p r e h e n s i b l e t o t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y W e s t e r n r e a d e r t h a t a t w e n t y - f i v e y e a r - o l d man s h o u l d a c t so \" c h i l d -i s h l y \" t o w a r d s h i s g r a n d m o t h e r b u t , i n t h e c o n t e x t o f M e i j i J a p a n , where f a m i l y r e l a t i o n s were o p p r e s s i v e l y c l o s e and where young men l i v e d a t home u n t i l m a r r i e d , S h i n t a r o ' s be-h a v i o u r i s n o t t o be wondered a t . - 20 -B u t t h e r e i s a l a r g e r i s s u e a t s t a k e h e r e . I t seems t o me, i n f a c t , t h a t Mathy m i s s e s t h e v e r y e s s e n c e o f S h i g a ' s a c h i e v e m e n t . Here i s a w r i t e r who has t a k e n t h e s m a l l , seem-i n g l y i n s i g n i f i c a n t e v e n t s o f e v e r y d a y l i f e and t u r n e d them i n t o l i t e r a r y a r t o f a h i g h o r d e r . T r i v i a l i t y , a f t e r a l l , i s , l i k e b e a u t y , v e r y much i n t h e eye o f t h e b e h o l d e r . E v e r s i n c e Van Gogh d i d a s p l e n d i d p a i n t i n g o f a p a i r o f o l d s h o e s , modern a r t has t a u g h t us t h i s i f n o t h i n g e l s e . The p o i n t i s t h a t o n c e S h i g a has t u r n e d a \" t r i v i a l \" i n c i d e n t i n t o a s h o r t s t o r y , i t no l o n g e r seems t r i v i a l . L i k e t h e f a b l e d K i n g M i d a s , S h i g a has t h e g o l d e n t o u c h . B u t one must n o t be m i s l e d by a u t h o r i a l p r o n o u n c e m e n t s -- he a c c o m p l i s h e s h i s m i r a c l e s o f a lchemy n o t o n l y by t h e f o r c e o f h i s s t y l e o r \"rhythm\". He a l s o p o s s e s s e d c o n s i d e r a b l e powers o f i n s i g h t i n t o t h e human p s y c h e , and t h i s e n a b l e s him t o show us t h e d i s t u r b i n g f o r c e s a t work b e n e a t h t h e c a l m , s e e m i n g l y u n e v e n t f u l s u r f a c e o f e v e r y -day l i f e . On c l o s e r v i e w , t h e n , \" A r u A s a \" d o e s n o t seem so \" t r i v i a l \" a f t e r a l l . As I have a l r e a d y i n d i c a t e d , o n e o o f S h i g a ' s m a j o r themes i s p r e f i g u r e d i n t h i s s h o r t work: s e e n f r o m a \" s o c i a l \" p e r s p e c t i v e , i t i s t h e c o n f l i c t between a man's needs as an i n d i v i d u a l and h i s needs as p a r t o f a s o c i a l g r o u p . The whole i s s u e o f \" i n d i v i d u a l i s m \" was v e r y much i n t h e a i r i n t h e l a t e M e i j i p e r i o d . I n d i s c u s s i n g Natsume S o s e k i ' s famous t a l k , W a t a k u s h i no K o j i n s h u g i (My I n d i v i d u a l i s m ) , J a y R u b i n n o t e s \" t h e r e m a r k a b l e u p s u r g e i n i n d i v i d u a l i s m t h a t f o l l o w e d t h e - 21 -16 R u s s o - J a p a n e s e War o f 1904-1905.\" I n t h e r e a l m o f l i t e r a -t u r e , \" n a t u r a l i s t f i c t i o n , w i t h i t s e m p h a s i s o n t h e l i b e r a t i o n o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l , was g a i n i n g i n p o p u l a r i t y . \" And S o s e k i t o o , b o t h i n h i s p u b l i c t a l k and i n h i s n o v e l s , was c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e \" t e n s i o n between a p r o u d commitment t o modern, r a t i o n a l i s t i c i n d i v i d u a l i s m and t h e l o n g i n g f o r e m o t i o n a l s u b -18 mergence i n t h e g r o u p . \" I n h i s t a l k , f o r i n s t a n c e , he c o n -t r a s t s h i s own i n d e p e n d e n t s t a n c e w i t h t h e \" f e u d a l i s t i c \" c l i q u i s h n e s s o f J a p a n e s e l i t e r a r y g r o u p s . B u t he a l s o a d m i t s 19 t o s u f f e r i n g t h e \" l o n e l i n e s s o f i n d i v i d u a l i s m \" . Such Meijii> - - 20 w r i t e r s a s S o s e k i and M o r i O g a i . Mo d o u b t saw \" i n d i v i d -u a l i s m \" a s an e s s e n t i a l i n g r e d i e n t o f t h e W e s t e r n c u l t u r e t h e y were so b u s i l y t r y i n g t o i m p o r t t o J a p a n . I n h i s i n s i s t e n c e on h i s own r i g h t s a s an i n d i v i d u a l , S h i g a t o o was c e r t a i n l y a p r o d u c t o f h i s t i m e . B u t , u n l i k e t h e o l d e r w r i t e r s , he d o e s n o t a p p r o a c h i n d i v i d u a l i s m as an i n t e l l e c t u a l p r o b l e m — he i s n o t c o n c e r n e d , f o r i n s t a n c e , w i t h how i t c o n f l i c t s w i t h t r a d i t i o n a l J a p a n e s e c u l t u r a l v a l u e s i n t h e a b s t r a c t ; r a t h e r i t i s f o r him a p e r s o n a l p r o b -lem t o be worked o u t i n h i s d a y - t o - d a y r e l a t i o n s w i t h h i s f a m i l y . I t i s a m a t t e r o f h i s w i l l t o a c t a c c o r d i n g t o h i s own d e e p e s t i n s t i n c t s and f e e l i n g s , a s o p p o s e d t o h i s f a m i l y ' s w i l l t h a t he c o n f o r m t o t h e i r s t a n d a r d s o f b e h a v i o u r . (In t h e same way he r e j e c t e d t h e t e a c h i n g s o f t h e C h r i s t i a n l e a d e r U c h i m u r a Kanzo n o t so much on i d e o l o g i c a l as on p e r s o n a l g r o u n d s — when t h e y t h r e a t e n e d t o i n t e r f e r e w i t h what he - 22 -considered to be the \"natural^ free expression of his sexual 21 i n s t i n c t s . ). Thus Shiga did not suffer from any vague, quasi-metaphysical sense of al i e n a t i o n such as his more i n -t e l l e c t u a l contemporary, Akutagawa Ryunosuke, gave as his 22 reason for committing suicide; and, since he was not con-cerned with any \"larger\" p o l i t i c a l or philosophical issue, once he was completely \"reconciled\" with his family, he was able to spend the rest of his long l i f e i n a r e l a t i v e l y tran-q u i l state of mind (and, i r o n i c a l l y , waiting very l i t t l e ) . To those who would accuse Shiga of having too \"narrow\" a scope as a writer, one might quote some eloquent words of his greatest apologist, the \"dean of Japanese c r i t i c s \" , Kobayashi Hideo; \"Empty thought can go anywhere, my own feet can tread only a small b i t of ground. We think of eternal l i f e , I must shortly die. I cannot have many friends, I can-not have many lovers. The things to which I can give assent from my very e n t r a i l s add up to but a t i n y sum, the people I can love and hate can number no more than the few immed-i a t e l y beside me. This i s the state of l i f e for me, and i t i s for everyone...The fact that the writer does not depart from his own l i f e means that he gives i t his assent, and i t 23 alone.\" The distinguished scholar Nakamura Hajime has de-voted a good part of a lengthy volume to demonstrating the 24 esse n t i a l \"down-to-earthness\" of the Japanese world-view, but i t i s doubtful whether anyone has expressed i t better than Kobayashi i n th i s b r i e f passage. Shiga himself has put - 23 -what we may r e g a r d as h i s \" w r i t e r ' s c r e d o \" e v e n more s u c c i n c t -l y : \"A s u p e r f i c i a l e x p e r i e n c e o f r a r e and s e n s a t i o n a l e v e n t s i s o f l i t t l e v a l u e t o t h e w r i t e r . I t i s more i m p o r t a n t f o r 25 him t o e x p e r i e n c e e v e n s m a l l t h i n g s d e e p l y . \" U n f o r t u n a t e l y , i t seems t h a t f o r W e s t e r n r e a d e r s i t i s d i f f i c u l t t o a c c e p t S h i g a ' s \" s m a l l t h i n g s \" f o r what t h e y a r e . E v e n t h o s e more s y m p a t h e t i c t o h i s work t h a n Mathy a r e f o r e v e r t r y i n g t o make s o m e t h i n g o u t o f i t t h a t i t c l e a r l y i s n o t . Edward S e i d e n s t i c k e r f o r i n s t a n c e , w o u l d have us s e e t h e t y p i c a l S h i g a s t o r y as a k i n d o f modern-day v e r s i o n o f t h e \" u t a m o n o g a t a r i \" o f t h e H e i a n p e r i o d , \" p o e m - t a l e s \" s u c h as t h e I s e M o n o g a t a r i i n w h i c h \"a f i c t i o n a l o r n o n - f i c t i o n a l g r o u n d was p r o v i d e d f o r a s u c c e s s i o n o f l y r i c s . The g r o u n d i t s e l f was u s u a l l y f o r m l e s s and o f s l i g h t l i t e r a r y v a l u e . I t b u t s e r v e d t o s e t o f f t h e l y r i c s . . . S o i t i s w i t h S h i g a . The t r i v i a l i t y o f t h e a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l b a c k g r o u n d i s t o be f o r -g i v e n t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t i t o f f e r s a s e t t i n g f o r t h e moments o f l y r i c a l a w a r e n e s s . The whole i s t o be j u d g e d as a u n i f i e d 2 6 work o f f i c t i o n no more t h a n i s an ' u t a m o n o g a t a r i ' . \" W h i l e t h i s may be r e g a r d e d as a v a l i a n t a t t e m p t on t h e p a r t o f a s y m p a t h e t i c W e s t e r n c r i t i c t o r e s c u e S h i g a f r o m t h e c h a r g e o f \" t r i v i a l i t y \" , i t i s d o u b t f u l w h e t h e r , a t l e a s t i n t h e e y e s o f h i s J a p a n e s e a d m i r e r s , S h i g a i s i n need o f b e i n g r e s c u e d . T r i v i a l i t y , as I have s a i d , i s i n t h e eye o f t h e b e h o l d e r . And, i n d i s m i s s i n g S h i g a ' s ' t r i v i a l and a n n o y i n g r e m i n i s c e n c e \" as m e r e l y t h e \" p r o s y s e t t i n g \" f o r a few \"moments o f p o e t r y \" , - 24 « i t seems t h a t S e i d e n s t i c k e r w o u l d throw o u t t h e baby w i t h t h e b a t h w a t e r -- t h e \" a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l b a c k g r o u n d \" i s , a f t e r a l l , t h e s u b s t a n c e o f t h e works. I t i s an a b s u r d n o t i o n anyway t h a t any a u t h o r w o u l d w r i t e l o n g s t r e t c h e s o f p r o s e m e r e l y t o s e t o f f a-few \"moments o f p o e t r y \" -- many o f S h i g a ' s s t o r i e s , i n f a c t , i n c l u d i n g \"Arus A s a \" have no s u c h d i s t i n -g u i s h a b l e \" p o e t i c moments\". I f S h i g a ' s i n t e n t i o n s h a d b een so s i n g l e - m i n d e d l y l y r i c a l , s u r e l y he w o u l d have w r i t t e n p o e t r y . T a k i n g q u i t e an o p p o s i t e t a c k i s W i l l i a m S i b l e y , who c a l l s on t h e \" b i g i d e a s \" o f F r e u d i a n p s y c h o a n a l y s i s t o t r y t o make S h i g a ' s \" s m a l l t h i n g s \" seem l a r g e r t h a n t h e y a r e . To S i b l e y , f o r i n s t a n c e , \" A r u A s a \" i s n o t s i m p l y t h e s t o r y o f a w i l l f u l young man who i s r e l u c t a n t t o g e t o u t o f bed one m o r n i n g ( s u r e l y n o t an u n h e a r d - o f e a s e l ) ; t h e h e r o ' s i r r a s -c i b i l i t y t o w a r d s h i s g r a n d m o t h e r has d e e o l y O e d i p a l o r i g i n s t h a t c a n be u n d e r s t o o d o n l y i n t h e t o t a l c o n t e x t o f S h i g a ' s l i f e and work (and, o f c o u r s e , t h e l i f e and work o f Dr. F r e u d ) . S i b l e y c o n c e d e s t h a t , on i t s own, \" A r u A s a \" i s a \" s l i g h t s t i o r y \" t h a t \" r e p r e s e n t s J a p a n e s e p e r s o n a l f i c t i o n ( s h i -27 s h o s e t s u ) a t i t s most l i m i t e d . \" I n h i s v i e w , we c a n b e g i n 2 8 t o make s e n s e o f t h e \" s e e m i n g l y p o i n t l e s s d e t a i l \" o f t h i s s t o r y o n l y a f t e r we have s u b j e c t e d t h e \" S h i g a Hero\" as he a p p e a r s t h r o u g h o u t t h e a u t h o r ' s e n t i r e opus t o t h o r o u g h p s y c h o -a n a l y s i s . S i b l e y i s n o t t o o c l e a r on what we s h a l l d i s c o v e r t h e n , b u t i t seems t o have s o m e t h i n g t o do w i t h t h e h e r o ' s c r y i n g s p e l l . I t a p p e a r s t o me t h a t he g i v e s i n o r d i n a t e em-p h a s i s t o S h i n t a r o ' s t e a r s : \" I s i t , we wonder, a sudden g r i e f f o r h i s dead g r a n d f a t h e r t h a t h as e l i c i t e d h i s t e a r s ? Remorse f o r h i s t r e a t m e n t o f h i s g r a n d m o t h e r ? Or p e r h a p s he has been u p s e t by a b r i e f r e f e r e n c e t o h i s f a t h e r w h i c h she makes a t one p o i n t , p r o v o k i n g a t f i r s t a p a r t i c u l a r l y i l l - t e m p e r e d o u t b u r t s on t h e h e r o ' s p a r t . M o s t o f t h o s e who r e a d \" A r u A s a \" when i t was f i r s t p u b l i s h e d i n S h i r a k a b a d i d n o t , p r e s u m a b l y , make much s e n s e o f i t . I n d e e d , t h e y c o u l d n o t , w i t h o u t some ' i n s i d e ' knowledge o f t h e a u t h o r ' s l i f e and p e r s o n a l i t y on w h i c h t h e y m i g h t draw t o c o m p l e t e t h e s t o r y . And so t h e y may w e l l have f e l t j u s t i f i e d i n n o t , f i n a l l y , c a r i n g t o o much 29 what i t i s t h a t makes t h e h e r o c r y . \" To me t h i s i s a p r i m e example o f t h e k i n d o f r e d u c t i o ad absurdum t h a t f o l l o w s i n e v i t a b l y f r o m t h e \" r e d u c t i v e \" a p p r o a c h t o l i t e r a t u r e : f i r s t S i b l e y assumes t h a t S h i g a has h i d d e n s o m e t i d b i t s o f p s y c h o -a n a l y t i c a l i n s i g h t \"between t h e l i n e s \" and t h e n he r e b u k e s t h e a u t h o r f o r h a v i n g h i d them t o o s u c c e s s f u l l y . He w o u l d r e d u c e \"A r u A s a \" t o a kindcof p s y c h o a n a l y t i c a l d e t e c t i v e s t o r y i n w h i c h t h e mai n c l u e , t h e h e r o ' s t e a r s , c a n be u n d e r s t o o d o n l y i n t h e t o t a l c o n t e x t o f t h e h e r o ' s \" c a s e h i s t o r y \" Xand t h i s , o f c o u r s e , i s p l a y i n g an u n f a i r t r i c k on t h e r e a d e r ) . As a m a t t e r o f f a c t , i f t h e r e was any one p r i n c i p l e t h a t S h i g a ad-h e r e d t o as a w r i t e r , i t was t h a t he n e v e r w i t h h e l d i n f o r m a -t i o n f r o m t h e r e a d e r — i n one famous i n s t a n c e , he r e p r i m a n d e d Akutagawa f o r \" t r i c k i n g t h e r e a d e r \" i n j u s t t h i s way i n h i s s t o r y \"The M a r t y r \" , w h e r e i n t h e \" s u r p r i s e f a c t \" t h a t t h e \" h e r o \" i s a c t u a l l y a g i r l i s n o t r e v e a l e d u n t i l t h e v e r y end 30 (a l a 0. H e n r y ) . I t seems t o me t h a t , i n t h e p r e s e n t c a s e t o o , t h e r e i s no m y s t e r y a t a l l a b o u t \"what i t i s t h a t makes t h e h e r o c r y \" . I n f a c t , i t i s p e r f e c t l y t r a n s p a r e n t t o anyone who i s n o t t o o p r e o c c u p i e d w i t h u n e a r t h i n g p s y c h o l o g i c a l p r o f u n d i t i e s t o n o t i c e what i s a c t u a l l y h a p p e n i n g i n t h e s t o r y . I f we l o o k a t t h e p a s s a g e i n w h i c h S h i n t a r o ' s \" c r y i n g s p e l l \" i s d e s -c r i b e d , we see t h a t S h i g a d o e s , i n f a c t , g i v e us a s t r o n g h i n t as t o t h e c a u s e o f t h e young man's o u t b u r s t : i t eomes o v e r him ' s p o n t a n e o u s l y \" w h i l e he i s f o l d i n g up h i s g r a n d m o t h e r ' s b e d d i n g . H e r e , i n S h i g a ' s f i r s t s t o r y , we a l r e a d y have a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c example o f t h e k i n d o f c o n c r e t e n e s s o f t a c t i -t i l i t y f o r w h i c h he i s famous — and w h i c h d e r i v e s , u l t i m a t e l y , f r o m h i s \" p o e t i c \" o r e v e n \" m y s t i c a l \" s e n s e o f t h e i n t i m a t e communion o f \" s u b j e c t i v e \" man w i t h \" o b j e c t i v e \" w o r l d . S h i n t a r o does n o t b e g i n t o c r y u n t i l he a c t u a l l y t o u c h e s s o m e t h i n g b e l o n g i n g t o h i s g r a n d m o t h e r -- w h i c h , i n S h i g a ' s \" a n i m i s t i c \" w o r l d , i s f i l l e d w i t h h e r \" p r e s e n c e \" . iDt i s t h i s i m m e d i a t e p h y s i c a l c o n t a c t w i t h h i s \" grandmother\" w h i c h awakens h i s i n -t e n s e t h o u g h dormant l o v e f o r h e r , t h u s o b l i t e r a t i n g a l l t r a c e s o f t h e a n i m o s i t y he had f e l t t o w a r d s h e r j u s t a few moments b e f o r e . What c a u s e s h i s t e a r s i s n o t so much r e m o r s e (the \" S h i g a h e r o \" , as we s h a l l s e e , does n o t w aste t i m e f e e l i n g g u i l t y a b o u t \" d o i n g what comes n a t u r a l l y \" ) b u t a s i m p l e f e e l i n g o f r e l i e f t h a t an u n p l e a s a n t n e g a t i v e e m o t i o n has been r e p l a c e d by a p o w e r f u l p o s i t i v e e m o t i o n — i n o t h e r w o rds, a s i m p l e r e l e a s e o f t e n s i o n . One does n o t h e e d t o be a t r a i n e d p s y c h o a n a l y s t t o s e e t h a t t h e r e a l \"message\" o f t h e h e r o ' s t e a r s i s s i m p l y t h a t he l o v e s h i s g r a n d m o t h e r v e r y much. S h i g a ' s s t o r i e s may w e l l be d e s c r i b e d , as t h e y have been by J a p a n e s e l i t e r a r y h i s t o r i a n s , as s h i n k y o s h o s e t s u ( l i t e r a l l y , \" s t a t e o f mind\" s t o r i e s ) b u t i t i s i m p o r t a n t t o e m p h a s i z e t h a t t h e \" s h i n k y o \" i s a l l i n t h e \" s h o s e t s u \" . N o t h i n g e x t r a n e o u s t o t h e s t o r i e s i s n e c e s s a r y f o r o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f them. No d o u b t i t i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o o b s e r v e how l a t e r S h i g a h e r o e s a r e p r e f i g u r e d by t h e h e r o o f h i s f i r s t s t o r y , b u t t h i s s h o u l d - o t p r e v e n t us f r o m a c c e p t i n g \" A r u A s a \" as a s t o r y i n i t s own r i g h t , however \" s i m p l e \" o r however much o f a \" s m a l l t h i n g \" i s i s . L o ng b e f o r e i t came i n t o vogue i n t h e West, t h e J a p a n e s e u n d e r s t o o d t h e b e a u t y o f \" m i n i m a l a r t \" . The power o f t h i s b e a u t y has been h a u n t i n g l y e v o k e d by K o b a y a s h i H i d e o i n h i s l y r i c a l e s s a y on t h e No p l a y , Taema: \" M u s i c and d a nce and s o n g a r e r e d u c e d t o t h e b a r e s t e s s e n t i a l s . The m u s i c i s l i k e a c r y , t h e dance i s l i t t l e more t h a n a w a l k , and t h e s o n g i s l i k e 3 1 o r d i n a r y p r a y e r . I t i s enough. What e l s e i s n e e d e d ? \" S i m i l a r l y S h i g a ' s i s an a r t o f ^ b a r e s t e s s e n t i a l s \" . H i s \" s m a l l t h i n g s \" a r e t o be a p p r e c i a t e d i n a l l t h e i r s i m p l e , i m m e d i a t e - 28 -r e a l i t y , i n the i r \"suchness\" (sono mama) to use a Buddhist term, l i k e the frog i n Basho's haiku, l i k e the rocks i n a Zen temple garden or, to take a more contemporary example, l i k e the simple images of family l i f e i n the films of Ozu Yasujiro. As soon as the reader begins to analyze, to i n t e l -l e c t u a l i z e , to look for deep symbolic or psychological meanings, he has immediately \" l o s t i t \" , as the Zen masters say. Obviously t h i s puts the c r i t i c (and the graduate student) i n a rather d i f f i c u l t p o s i t ion. Kobayashi Hideo, as I have said, has undoubtedly been Shiga's most successful apologist, and i t i s s i g n i f i c a n t that he himself i s more of an i n t u i t i v e poet or philosopher than an \"orthodox\" a n a l y t i c a l c r i t i c i n the Western sense -- his impressionistic, oracular pronounce-ments, though highly suggestive, are often far more d i f f i c u l t to fathom than the writings they are meant to elucidate. Nevertheless, i t i s Kobayashi's understanding of the t r a d i -t i o n a l Japanese aesthetic s e n s i b i l i t y , as revealed i n the essay just quoted, that enables him to appreciate Shiga's work so deeply. \"Aru Asa\", then, i s the simple story of a young man's al t e r c a t i o n and eventual r e c o n c i l i a t i o n with his grandmother. But i t i s intere s t i n g to note that i t anticipates i n t h i s , as we s h a l l see, the basic pattern of the \"action\" i n many of Shiga's l a t e r s t o r i e s , including his two major works (both i n length and i n q u a l i t y ) : Wakai (Reconciliation and An'ya Koro (A Dark Night's Passing). The cause of the r i f t between the S h i g a h e r o and- h i s f a m i l y i s n o t a l w a y s so c l e a r o r s t r a i g h t -f o r w a r d as i n \" A r u A s a \" , t h o u g h i t g e n e r a l l y has t o do w i t h h i s b e i n g more w i l l f u l and \" s e l f - o r i e n t e d \" t h a n J a p a n e s e s o c i e t y p e r m i t s ; b u t , i n a l l t h e s e s t o r i e s , what S h i g a em-p h a s i z e s more t h a n a n y t h i n g i s t h a t t h e h e r o must a l l o w h i s f e e l i n g s t o r u n t h e i r \" n a t u r a l \" c o u r s e b e f o r e a \" r e c o n c i l i a -t i o n \" i s p o s s i b l e . I n t h e p r e s e n t s t o r y , we o b s e r v e t h a t , once he has been a n g e r e d by h i s g r a n d m o t h e r ' s p e s t e r i n g , S h i n t a r o ' s mood becomes c o n c i l i a t o r y o n l y a f t e r he has thrown a few i n s u l t s h e r way and she has humbled h e r s e l f by a s k i n g h i s a d v i c e . We may a g r e e w i t h F r a n c i s Mathy t h a t t h i s i s \" c h i l d i s h \" b e h a v i o u r b u t , n e v e r t h e l e s s , i t i s c o n v i n c i n g l y human and, t h e r e f o r e , \" n a t u r a l \" . As Ueda Makoto has p o i n t e d o u t i n an e x c e l l e n t e s s a y on S h i g a ' s a e s t h e t i c s , \" n a t u r a l b e a u t y \" i s a p r i m a r y q u a l i t y i n S h i g a ' s c o n c e p t o f t h e \" i d e a l 32 n o v e l \" . B u t t h i s does n o t b e l o n g o n l y t o m o u n t a i n s and t r e e s — i t i s , above a l l , a human b e a u t y : \"An i m p r e s s i o n o f n a t u r a l b e a u t y comes f r o m o b s e r v i n g a man who c o n d u c t s h i m s e l f h o n e s t l y , i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h h i s i n m o s t f e e l i n g s . Such a man w o u l d n o t r e p r e s s h i s t r u e f e e l i n g s i n t h e i n t e r e s t o f s o c i a l c o n v e n t i o n . . . H e w o u l d f o l l o w t h e d i c t a t e s o f h i s i n n e r m o s t s e l f e v e n i f t h a t w o u l d l e a d t o an e x p l o s i v e c l a s h w i t h h i s f a t h e r o r e v e n t o t h e d e a t h o f h i s w i f e . A man f i g h t i n g f o r h i s s u r v i v a l was b e a u t i f u l , b e c a u s e he was, i f n o t h i n g e l s e , 33 p u r e i n h i s m o t i v e s . \" I t i s n o t n e c e s s a r y , as I have s a i d , f o r t h e r e a d e r t o m o r a l l y a p p r o v e o f a h e r o i n o r d e r t o d e r i v e - 30 -a e s t h e t i c s a t i s f a c t i o n f r o m h i s p o r t r a y a l . And h e r e , i n \" A r u A s a \" , we have o u r f i r s t t a s t e o f S h i g a ' s \" a m o r a l i t y \" : t h e \" n a t u r a l \" — raw g u t f e e l i n g s , i n t u i t i o n s , i n s t i n c t s — c o u n t s f a r more t h a n t h e \" m o r a l \" -- a mere i n t e l l e c t u a l a b s t r a c t i o n . B u t now, i n seeming t o come p e r i l o u s l y c l o s e t o c o n f u s i n g S h i g a h i m s e l f w i t h t h e S h i g a h e r o , we a p p r o a c h what i s p e r h a p s , a t l e a s t f r o m a W e s t e r n v i e w p o i n t , t h e c e n t r a l c r i t i c a l p r o b -lem o f h i s work: i t s s t a t u s as \" f i c t i o n \" . I n t h e c a s e o f \" A r u A s a \" , t h e a u t h o r h i m s e l f , a t f i r s t , seemed t o have h i s d o u b t s . I n h i s d i a r y e n t r y o f J a n u a r y 14, 1908, he n o t e s t h a t , h a v i n g w r i t t e n d u r i n g t h e m o r n i n g a b o u t a q u a r r e l he had had w i t h h i s g r a n d m o t h e r t h e p r e v i o u s d a y , he c a l l e d t h e p i e c e : \"A N o n - S t o r y , Grandmother\" ( \" H i - S h o s e t s u , S o b o \" ) \\ i 3 4 S i g n i -f i c a n t l y , t h o u g h , S h i g a l a t e r c h a n g e d h i s mind a b o u t t h e s t a t u s o f t h i s work as \"non-f i c t c b o n \" . I n a commentary on i t w r i t t e n 35 i n 1928, he d e s c r i b e s i t as h i s f i r s t \" s h o r t s t o r y \" . One may s p e c u l a t e t h a t , i n t h e meantime, h i s v i e w o f what c o n s t i -t u e s a work o f f i c t i o n o r a s h o s e t s u had b r o a d e n e d o r , p e r h a p s , 3 6 had become more t r a d i t i o n a l l y J a p a n e s e . The young S h i g a was, a f t e r a l l , an a v i d r e a d e r o f Chekhov, T o l s t o y and F i k a u b e r t and was l i k e l y t o be i n f l u e n c e d by W e s t e r n c o n c e p t s o f f i c t i o n . As he m a t u r e d i n h i s a r t he n a t u r a l l y d e v e l o p e d t h e c o n f i d e n c e t o s e t h i s own a e s t h e t i c s t a n d a r d s . \" A r u A s a \" i s t h e f i r s t i n a l o n g l i n e o f S h i g a ' s s h i -s h o s e t s u ( \" I - n o v e l s \" o r \" p e r s o n a l f i c t i o n s \" ) , s t o r i e s c l o s e l y - 31 -b a s e d on t h e e v e n t s o f h i s own l i f e and f e a t u r i n g a h e r o more o r l e s s i d e n t i f i a b l e as h i m s e l f . C e r t a i n W e s t e r n c r i t i c s a r e h e s i t a n t o r e v e n r e f u s e t o a c c e p t s u c h works as \" l e g i t i m a t e \" f i c t i o n . Edward S e i d e n s t i c k e r d e s c r i b e s t h e s h i - s h o s e t s u as \"unformed r e m i n i s c e n c e \" and as a \" f o r m o f a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l j o t t i n g t h a t may s c a r c e l y seem t o d e s e r v e t h e name f i c t i o n a t 37 a l l . \" F r a n c i s Mathy makes t h e same p o i n t i n r e g a r d t o 3 8 \"Aru A s a \" : \"The p i e c e i s h a r d l y more t h a n a s k e t c h . . . \" and he l a m e n t s t h a t t h e a u t h o r i w a s 'hampered by an i m p o s s i b l e 39 t h e o r y o f p r o s e f i c t i o n \" r a l t h o u g h o c c a s i o n a l l y \" S h i g a was a b l e t o t r a n s c e n d t h e a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l mode and f i n d o b j e c t i v e 40 f i c t i o n a l symbols t o e x p r e s s h i s i n n e r s t a t e s . \" E v e n a J a p a n e s e c r i t i c , Nakamura M i t s u o , has s a i d t h a t he was \"tempted\" t o d e s c r i b e Shiga,\" s n o v e l , An' y a K o r o as \"non-O i i t e r a t u r e \" . ^ What t h e s e c r i t i c s o b j e c t t o i s n o t , o f c o u r s e , t h e p r e -s e n c e i n f i c t i o n o f a u t o b i o g r a p h y p e r s e . Many o f t h e most c e l e b r a t e d W e s t e r n n o v e l s o f t h i s c e n t u r y a r e v e r y l a r g e l y a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l — J o y c e ' s P o r t r a i t o f t h e A r t i s t as a Young Man, P r o u s t ' s A l a R e c h e r c h e du Temps P e r d u , L a w r e n c e ' s Sons and L o v e r s — one c o u l d go on a l m o s t i n d e f i n i t e l y . B u t i t seems t h a t , t o t h e W e s t e r n eye a t l e a s t , t h e s e works a p p e a r more c o n s c i o u s l y s t r u c t u r e d f o r a e s t h e t i c e f f e c t , more f i n e l y s h a p e d i n t o \"works o f f i c t i o n \" t h a n t h e J a p a n e s e s h i - s h o s e t s u 4 — w h i c h S e i d e n s t i c k e r , f o r i n s t a n c e , c a l l s \" t h e u n s h a p e n S n e s \" . - 32-But t h i s s e n s e o f \" f o r m a l s t r u c t u r e \" , i t seems t o me, i s e x a c t l y what S h i g a w i s h e d t o a v o i d . H i s l o v e o f t h e \" n a t u r a l \" made him eschew a n y t h i n g t h a t smacked o f f a b r i c a t i o n ( k o s h i r a e m o n o , t o u s e t h e word by w h i c h t h e f a t h e r o f t h e s h i -s h o s e t s u , Tayama K a t a i , d e n o u n c e d a c e r t a i n W e s t e r n n o v e l ^ a ) — i n c l u d i n g t h e f o r m a l p l o t - s t r u c t u r e o f c o n v e n t i o n a l f i c t i o n . (We have a l r e a d y m e n t i o n e d h i s a v e r s i o n t o some o f Akutagawa's w e l l - p l o t t e d s t o r i e s . ) Nor i s he a l o n e i n t h i s p r e d e l i c t i o n f o r t h e \" s t o r y l e s s n o v e l \" , ( h a n a s h i no n a i s h o s e t s u ) t o u s e 43b t h e t e r m Akutagawa h i m s e l f a p p l i e d t o S h i g a ' s work. I n f a c t , he has a v e r y s u b s t a n t i a l p a r t o f t h e J a p a n e s e l i t e r a r y t r a d i t i o n b e h i n d him. The contempt f o r \" p o p u l a r \" f i c t i o n t h a t m e r e l y \" t e l l s a s t o r y \" i n t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l s e n s e has a v e n e r a b l e l i n e a g e i n b o t h C h i n a and J a p a n -- i t i s , i n f a c t , emb o d i e d i n t h e v e r y word s h o s e t s u . As H e r b e r t F r a n k e p o i n t s o u t i n h i s i n t r o d u c t i o n t o a c o l l e c t i o n o f C h i n e s e s t o r i e s : \"The C h i n e s e t e r m f o r n o v e l l a s , H s i a o - s h u o ( s h o s e t s u i n J a p a n e s e ) , ' l i t t l e t a l e s ' , c o n t a i n s a c e r t a i n u n d e r t o n e o f d i s p a r a g e m e n t . N a r r a t i v e p r o s e , and i n d e e d e v e r y s o r t o f l i g h t f i c t i o n , was n o t g e n e r a l l y r e g a r d e d as a b r a n c h o f s e r i o u s l i t e r a t u r e , and, u n l i k e p o e t r y o r t h e f o r m a l e s s a y , i t was n o t a f i e l d i n w h i c h l i t e r a r y a m b i t i o n c o u l d l e a d on 44 t o fame and s o c i a l p r e s t i g e . \" The s t e r n s t r i c t u r e s o f C o n f u c i u s no d o u b t had much t o do w i t h t h i s . L i k e P l a t o i n 45 a famous p a s s a g e o f t h e R e p u b l i c t h e C h i n e s e p h i l o s o p h e r t o o k a d i m v i e w o f t h e f i c t i v e i m a g i n a t i o n , a b j u r i n g any t a l k - 33 -4 6 of \"miracles, acts of violence, troubles, and ghosts.\" This s t r i c t Confucian attitude seems to have been imported, along with much else, into ;--Japan. The great works of f i c t i o n of the Heian period, as we a l l know, were written by women, while the men were occupied with the more \"serious\" business of writing Chinese-style poems and essays. Lady Muraskaki i s obviously responding to the charge of \" f a l s i t y \" often leveled against the novel i n her day when she puts her famous \"defense of f i c t i o n \" into the mouth of Brince Genji: \"The Chronicles of Japan and the rest are a mere fragment of the whole truth. I t i s your romances that f i l l i n the d e t a i l s . . . There are differences i n the degree of seriousness. But to dismiss them as l i e s i s i t s e l f to depart from the truth... 47 He now seemed bent on establishing the uses of f i c t i o n . \" Murasaki's arguments f a i l e d to convince the l i t e r a r y e s t a b l i s h -ment, though. U n t i l the a r r i v a l of the great c r i t i c Motoori Norinaga i n the eighteenth century, even her own masterpiece was rendered acceptable to Buddhists and Confucians, i f at a l l , only by being contorted to f i t various a l l e g o r i c a l interpretations. Meanwhile, the \"mainstream\" t r a d i t i o n of Japanese l i t e r a t u r e continued to consist of d i a r i e s , zuihitsu (fandom essays), haibun (poems mixed with prose) and so on. (A l i t e r a t u r e , i n other words, of the \"personal\" or l y r i c rather than ) and s a y s t h a t \" t h i s v e r y ' t i g h t -e n i n g up' e n a b l e s t h e s e n t e n c e t o c o n v e y i t s i m p r e s s i o n s w i t h 47 a l l t h e more c l a r i t y . \" As a f u r t h e r i l l u s t r a t i o n o f t h i s p o i n t he q u o t e s S h i g a ' s g r a p h i c d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e a c t i v i t y o f t h e b e e s : \" H a c h i wa hame no awai k a r a s u r i n u k e t e d e r u t o h i t o m a z u genkan no yane n i o r i t a . Soko de hane y a s h o k k a k u o m a e a s h i y a u s h i r o a s h i de t e i n e i n i t o t o n o e r u t o s u k o s h i a r u k i m a w a r u y a t s u mo a r u ga sugu h o s o n a g a i hane o r y o h o e s h i k -- 57 -k a r i t o h a t t e buuun t o t o b i t a t s u . T o b i t a t s u t o k y u n i h a y a k u 48 n a t t e t o n d e y u k u . \" (\"Pushing t h e i r way o u t f r o m between t h e b o a r d s t h e y w o u l d pause on t h e r o o f o f t h e e n t r a n c e w a y . Some wo u l d walk a r o u n d f o r a moment a f t e r t h e y had a r r a n g e d t h e i r w i n g s and f e e l e r s w i t h t h e i r f r o n t and h i n d l e g s , and immed-i a t e l y t h e y t o o w o u l d s p r e a d t h e i r s l e n d e r w i n g s t a u t and t a k e o f f w i t h a h e a v y d r o n i n g . Once i n t h e a i r t h e y moved q u i c k l y 49 away.\" ) \"Here t h e b e e s ' movements\", s a y s T a n i z a k i , \" a r e d e s -c r i b e d p r e c i s e l y as one w o u l d see them t h r o u g h c l o s e o b s e r v a -t i o n . The r e a d e r f e e l s t h a t he i s a c t u a l l y s e e i n g e a c h m o t i o n b e c a u s e a l l waste has b een e l i m i n a t e d i n t h e d e s c r i p t i o n ; any 50 word t h a t i s n o t a b s o l u t e l y n e c e s s a r y has b een l e f t o u t . \" R e s p o n d i n g t o T a n i z a k i ' s a n a l y s i s , T a n i k a w a T e t s u z o , p e r -haps more i n c o n s o n a n c e w i t h S h i g a ' s own way o f t h i n k i n g , em-p h a s i z e s t h a t t h e power o f S h i g a ' s w r i t i n g d e r i v e s n o t m e r e l y f r o m h i s t a l e n t f o r \" c l o s e o b s e r v a t i o n \" b u t a l s o f r o m h i s deep s e n s i t i v i t y t o w a r d s t h e n a t u r a l w o r l d and e v e n f r o m h i s p e r -s o n a l s t r e n g t h o f c h a r a c t e r : I f e e l a s p e c i a l i n t e r e s t i n t h e p a s s a g e w h i c h d e s c r i b e s t h e r a t ' s d e a t h . What i s shown h e r e i s S h i g a ' s power as a r e a l i s t — I mean n o t m e r e l y h i s powers o f d e s c r i p -t i o n b u t t h e power o f h i s h e a r t t o g a z e u n f l i n c h i n g l y V, and w i t h o u t r e g r e t a t any s c e n e w h a t s o e v e r . F u r t h e r m o r e , S h i g a h a s t h e s o r t o f temperament t h a t i s more t h a n u s u a l l y t e s p o n s i v e t o s u c h s c e n e s . I n t h i s c a s e a l s o he s a y s f i n a l l y : 'I f e l t l o n e l y and unhappy. 1 B u t h a v i n g s a i d t h i s , he does n o t t u r n h i s e y e s away f r o m t h e s c e n e . One c a n f i n d t h i s k i n d o f example e v e r y w h e r e i n S h i g a . He i s t h e same i n r e g a r d t o t h e human h e a r t . He s e e s what he must s e e , he f e e l s what he must f e e l ; he does n o t , l i k e t h e f a i n t - h e a r ^ d , t u r n h i s e y e s away o r t r y t o c o v e r t h i n g s up.\" - 58 -Erom t h e comments o f t h e s e m a j o r J a p a n e s e c r i t i c s , t h e n , we may t a k e i t t h a t \" K i n o s a k i n i t e \" i s r e g a r d e d , on g r o u n d s o f s t y l e a l o n e , as a m a s t e r p i e c e o f t h e s h i - s h o s e t s u g e n r e , and t h u s may f a i r l y s t a n d t o r e p r e s e n t t h i s g e n r e i n any com-p a r a t i v e s t u d y o f i t w i t h , s a y , t h e modern W e s t e r n s h o r t s t o r y . I t i s f o r t u n a t e , t h e n , t h a t t h e r e happens t o be a h i g h l y \" r e p r e s e n t a t i v e \" W e s t e r n s t o r y b u i l t a r o u n d l a r g e l y t h e same i d e a a s S h i g a ' s b u t w r i t t e n v e r y much i n t h e E u r o p e a n manner: T o l s t o y ' s \" T h r e e D e a t h s \" (and who c o u l d r e p r e s e n t t h e W e s t e r n f i c t i o n a l t r a d i t i o n b e t t e r t h a n T o l s t o y ? ) I t w i l l t e l l us much, I t h i n k , a b o u t t h e d i s t i n c t i v e n a t u r e and s p e c i a l m e r i t s o f the/..;shi-shosetsu g e n r e t o compare t h e way i n w h i c h t h e s e two d i f f e r e n t w r i t e r s h a n d l e a b a s i c a l l y s i m i l a r s t o r y c o n c e p t . The q u e s t i o n o f \" i n f l u e n c e d s h o u l d be q u i c k l y d i s p o s e d 52 o f . A l t h o u g h S l i g a was a g r e a t a d m i r e r o f T o l s t o y , i t i s u n l i k e l y t h a t t h i s i s a c a s e o f \" d i r e c t i n f l u e n c e \" . As I have a l r e a d y q u o t e d him as s a y i n g , S h i g a b a s e d t h e s t o r y on e v e n t s he had a c t u a l l y e x p e r i e n c e d . I t i s one o f t h e o b v i o u s v i r t u e s o f \" a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l \" w r i t e r s i n g e n e r a l t h a t t h e y a r e f a i r l y immune t o any k i n d o f d i r e c t i n f l u e n c e . Whether S h i g a was \" i n d i r e c t l y \" i n f l u e n c e d t o make a s t o r y o u t o f t h e e v e n t s he w i t n e s s e d b e c a u s e he had r e a d t h e T o l s t o y s t o r y i s a r a t h e r e s o t e r i c q u e s t i o n , and one t h a t i s anyway more o f b i o g r a p h i -c a l t h a n o f c r i t i c a l i n t e r e s t . - 59 -T o l s t o y ' s s t o r y , a s i t s t i t l e i m p l i e s , i s s t r u c t u r e d , l i k e \" K i n o s a k i n i t e \" , a r o u n d t h r e e s e p a r a t e d e a t h s : t h a t o f a w e a l t h y l a d y , t h a t o f an o l d p e a s a n t and t h a t o f a young t r e e . The s t o r y i s d i v i d e d i n t o f o u r numbered p a r t s . I n t h e f i r s t p a r t , we a r e i n t r o d u c e d t o t h e l a d y , t r a v e l l i n g f r o m R u s s i a t o I t a l y by s t a g e c o a c h w i t h h e r h u s b a n d , h e r d o c t o r and h e r m a i d s e r v a n t . The g r o u p has s t o p p e d a t a p o s t - s t a t i o n and h e r e t h e d o c t o r a d v i s e s t h e h u s b a n d n o t t o c o n t i n u e w i t h t h e j o u r n e y , a s h i s w i f e w i l l s u r e l y d i e a l o n g t h e way. The h u s -band t r i e s t o p r e v a i l upon h i s w i f e t o t u r n b a c k , b u t s h e , a c t i n g l i k e a r a t h e r p e t u l a n t , s p o i l e d c h i l d , i n s i s t s t h a t , i f o n l y she c a n e e a c h t h e warm c l i m a t e o f t h e s o u t h , h e r t u b e r -c u l o s i s w i l l v a n i s h . I n t h e s e c o n d p a r t we a r e t a k e n i n s i d e t h e d r i v e r s ' room a t t h e p o s t - s t a t i o n and h e r e i n t r o d u c e d t o U n c l e T h e o d o r e , an o l d d r i v e r who i s a l s o , l i k e the. l a d y , d y i n g o f t u b e r c u -l o s i s . I n s h a r p c o n t r a s t t o t h e l a d y , however, he a c c e p t s h i s coming d e a t h w i t h c a l m s t o i c i s m , e v e n a p o l o g i z i n g t o t h e woman o f t h e house f o r t h e i n c o n v e n i e n c e h i s i l l n e s s h a s c a u s e d h e r . When a young d r i v e r a s k s f o r h i s b o o t s , s i n c e he w i l l no l o n g -e r be n e e d i n g them, t h e o l d man a c c e d e s w i t h o u t c o m p l a i n t , a s k i n g o n l y t h a t t h e y o u t h buy a g r a v e s t o n e f o r him when he i s dead. In t h e t h i r d p a r t i t i s a b o u t h a l f a y e a r l a t e r and t h e s c e n e i s t h e w e a l t h y l a d y ' s house i n R u s s i a . She d i d n o t go - 60 -on t o I t a l y a f t e r a l l and now we w i t n e s s r Q u o t e d i n S e i d e n s t i c k e r , \" K o b a y a s h i H i d e o \" i n T h i s C o u n t r y , J a p a n (Kodansha, 1979) p. 181 32. Ueda, Modern J a p a n e s e W r i t e r s , p. 99 33. i b i d . 34. see S t e p h e n K o h l , S h i g a N aoya: a C r i t i c a l B i o g r a p h y ( U n i v . o f W a s h i n g t o n Ph.D. d i s s e r t a t i o n , 1974) p. 21 35. i b i d . , p. 20 36. The word \" s h o s e t s u \" encompasses a f a r b r o a d e r r a n g e o f works t h a n t h e word \" n o v e l \" . 37. S e i d e n s t i c k e r , S t u d i e s i n J a p a n e s e C u l t u r e , p. 217 38. Mathy, S h i g a , p. 44 • 39. i b i d . , p. 41 40. i b i d . , 41. Nakamura M i t s u o , S h i g a N a o y a - r o n (Tokjso: Chikuma Shobo, 1966) , p. 91 42. S e i d e n s t i c k e r , J a p a n Q u a r t e r l y , v o l . x i , no. 1, 1964 43a S e i d e n s t i c k e r , T h i s C o u n t r y , J a p a n , p. 100 43b see Ueda, p. 131 - 164 -44. H e r b e r t F r a n k e , I n t r o d u c t i o n , The G o l d e n C a s k e t : C h i n e s e N o v e l l a s o f Two M i l l e n i a , t r a n s . C h r i s t o p h e r L e v e n s o n (New Y o r k : H a r c o u r t , B r a c e and W o r l d , 19 64) p. 3 45. P l a t o , R e p u b l i c , Book X 46. F r a n k e , N o v e l l a s o f Two M i l l e n i a , p. 16 47. M u r a s a k i S h i k i b u The T a l e o f G e n j i , t r a n s . Edward S e i d e n -s t i c k e r (New Y o r k : A l f r e d K n o p f , 1977) pp. 437-38 48. D o n a l d Keene, W o r l d W i t h i n W a l l s (New Y o r k ; H o l t , R i n e h a r t and W i n s t o n , 1976) p. 211 49. i b i d . , p. 211 50. S i b l e y , S h i g a H e r o , p. 260 51. Keene, W o r l d W i t h i n W a l l s , p. 392 52. i b i d . , p. 371 53. i b i d . , p. 573 54. I v a n M o r r i s , Modern J a p a n e s e S t o r i e s ( R u t l a n d , Vermont: C h a r l e s T u t t l e , 1962) p. 12-13 55. i b i d . , p. 13 56. T a u b o u c h i Shoyo, \"The E s s e n c e o f t h e N o v e l \" , t r a n s . D o n a l d Keene i n Modern J a p a n e s e L i t e r a t u r e (New Y o r k : Grove P r e s s , 1 9 5 6 ) , pp. 57-58 57. M o r r i s , Modern J a p a n e s e S t o r i e s , p. 15 58. i b i d . , p. 16 59. I t o S e i , \"Natsume S o s e k i — H i s P e r s o n a l i t y and Works\", i n E s s a y s on Natsume S o s e k i ' s Works (T o k y o : M i n i s t r y o f Edu-c a t i o n , 1970) p. 5 60. i b i d . , pp. 15-16 61. Q u o t e d T s u r m t a K i n y a i n \"Akutagawa Ryunosuke and I -N o v e l i s t s \" , Monumenta N i p p o n i c a , v o l . xxv, n o s . 1-2 (1970), p. 14 62. i b i d . , j p . 25 V 63. S e i d e n s t m c k e r , \"The 'Pure' and t h e 'In-Between' i n Modern J a p a n e s e T h e o r i e s o f t h e N o v e l \" , i n T h i s C o u n t r y , J a p a n pp. 98-111 64. S e i d e n s t i c k e r , S t u d i e s i n J a p a n e s e C u l t u r e , p. 212 65. Q u o t e d i n S e i d e n s t i c k e r , T h i s C o u n t r y , J a p a n , p. 102 66. S e i d e n s t i c k e r , S t u d i e s i n J a p a n e s e C u l t u r e , p. 217 67 i b i d . 68. Ueda Makoto, L i t e r a r y and A r t T h e o r i e s i n J a p a n ( C l e v e l a n d P r e s s o f W e s t e r n R e s e r v e U n i v . , 1967) pp. 224-25 69. Q u o t e d i n S i b l e y , S h i g a H e r o , p. 1 70. A r i s t o t l e , P o e t i c s , C h a p t e r 7 71. On t h e p r i n c i p l e s o f r e n g a , see E a r l M i n e r ' s r e c e n t J a p a n e s e L i n k e d P o e t r y ( P r i n c e t o n U n i v . p r e s s , 1979) 72. Q u o t e d i n S e i d e n s t i c k e r , T r a d i t i o n and M o d e r n i z a t i o n i n J a p a n e s e C u l t u r e , p. 426 73. Q u o t e d i n S i b l e y , S h i g a Hero,, p. 1 74. i b i d . 75. Ueda, Modern J a p a n e s e W r i t e r s , p. 106 C h a p t e r 2 1. See, f o r i n s t a n c e , T a n i k a w a T e t s u z o ' s f u l s o m e p r a i s e i n h i s S h i g a Naoya no S a k u h i n ( v o l . 2 ) , (Tokyo: M i k a s a Shobo, 1942) p. 92 - 166 -2. T a n i z a k i J u n i c h i r o Zenshu (Tokyo: Chuo K o r o n s h a , 1958) x x i p. 90 3. S h i g a Naoya, \" A t K i n o s a k i \" , t r a n s , Edward S e i d e n s t i c k e r i n Modern J a p a n e s e L i t e r a t u r e (New Y o r k : Grove P r e s s , 1956) P.. 273 4. i b i d . 5. i b i d . 6. i b i d . , p. 274 7. i b i d . 8. i b i d . 9. i b i d . 10. i b i d . , p. 273 11. i b i d . , p. 274 12. i b i d . 13. i b i d . , p. 275 14. i b i d . 15. i b i d . 16. i b i d . 17. i b i d . , p. 276 18. i b i d . , p. 277 19. i b i d . 20. i b i d . 21. i b i d . 22. i b i d . 23. i b i d . 24. i b i d . 25. i b i d . 26. T a n i k a w a , S h i g a Mo S a k u h i n , p. 9 2 - 167 -27. i b i d . 28. Mathy, S h i g a , p. 173 29. Leo T o l s t o y , What i s A r t ? ( O x f o r d U n i v . P r e s s , 1929) p. 228 30. Mathy, S h i g a , pp. 64-65 31. F.R. L e a v i s , \" R e a l i t y and S i n c e r i t y \" , i n h i s A S e l e c t i o n From S c r u t i n y (Cambridge U n i v . P r e s s , 1968) p . 252 32. i b i d . 33. i b i d . 34. i b i d . , p. 276 35. Q u o t e d i n W i l l i a m B a r r y , H e r a l d s o f R e v o l t ( P o r t W a shing-t o n , New Y o r k : K e n n i k a t P r e s s , 1971) p. 237 36. i b i d . 37. K o b a y a s h i Z e nshu I : 12-13. t r a n s . S e i d e n s t i c k e r , T h i s C o u n t r y , J a p a n , p . 156 38. Y o s h i d a S e i - i c h i , \" S h o s e t s u no Bunsho\" i n Bunsho t o B u n t a i (Tokyo: M e i j i S h o i n , 1963) p . 46. My t r a n s l a t i o n . 39. i b i d . 40. i b i d . , p. 47 41. i b i d . 42. i b i d . 43. F o r an a c c o u n t o f T a n i z a k i ' s d e b a t e w i t h Akutagawa on t h i s s u b j e c t , see Ueda, Modern J a p a n e s e W r i t e r s , pp. 71-72 44. Y o s h i d a , Bunsho t o B u n t a i , p. 48 45. T a n i z a k i , Zenshu, x x i , 18 46. i b i d . 47. i b i d . - 168 -i b i d . t r a n s . S e i d e n s t i c k e r , Modern J a p a n e s e L i t e r a t u r e , p. 273 t r a n s . S i b l e y , S h i g a H e r o , p. 76 t a n i k a w a , S h i g a no S a k u h i n , p. 92. My t r a n s l a t i o n . The e n t i r e \" S h i r a k a b a g r o u p \" a r e sometimes c h a r a c t e r i z e d as \" T o l s t o y a n i d e a l i s t s \" . Be t h a t as i t may, S & i g a had a l i f e l o n g a d m i r a t i o n f o r t h e works o f t h e R u s s i a n m a s t e r L e o T o l s t o y , \" T h r e e D e a t h s \" (1859) i n N i n e S t o r i e s t r a n s . L o u i s e and A y l m e r Maude (London: O x f o r d U n i v . p r e s s ) , pp. 305-306 i b i d . r a p. 307 i b i d . , p. 308 i b i d . , p . 291 i b i d . , p. v i i i Q u o t e d i n Mathy, S h i g a , p. 161 i b i d . , p. 160 T o l s t o y , N i n e S t o r i e s , p. 307 Wayne B o o t h , The R h e t o r i c o f F i c t i o n ( U n i v . o f C h i c a g o P r e s s , 1966) p. 3 Keene, Modern J a p a n e s e L i t e r a t u r e , p. 27 2 i b i d . , p. 276 i b i d . i b i d . E.M. F o r s t e r , A s p e c t s o f t h e N o v e l (London: Edward A r n o l d , 1927) pp. 73-80 B a r r y , R e v o l t , p. 237 See a b o v e , p. 3 9 - 169 -69. Keene, Modern J a p a n e s e L i t e r a t u r e , p. 273 70. i b i d . p. 275 71. i b i d . , p. 277 72. S i b l e y , S h i g a H e r o , p. 227 73. Ueda, L i t e r a r y and A r t T h e o r i e s i n J a p a n , p. 150 74. i b i d . 75. i b i d . 76. i b i d . 77. Keene, Modern J a p a n e s e L i t e r a t u r e , p. 273 78. i b i d . , p. 27 5 89. i b i d . , p. 277 80. i b i d . 81. Ueda, L i t e r a r y and A r t T h e o r i e s , p. 150 82. Mathy, S h i g a , p. 28 83. S i b l e y , S h i g a H e r o , p. 231 84. S h i g a Naoya, A Dark N i g h t ' s P a s s i n g , t r a n s . Edwin M c C l e l l a n (Tokyo: Kodansha, 1976) p. 375 85. Keene, Modern J a p a n e s e L i t e r a t u r e , p. 277 86. S h i g a , A Dark N i g h t ' s P a s s i n g , pp. 400-401 87. F o r K o b a y a s h i ' s v i e w on t h i s , see S e i d e n s t i c k e r , T r a d i t i o n and M o d e r n i z a t i o n i n J a p a n e s e C u l t u r e , p. 427 C h a p t e r 3 1. Q u o t e d i n Beongcheon Yu, Akutagaway: an I n t r o d u c t i o n ( D e t r o i Wayne S t a t e U n i v . p r e s s , 1972) p. 79 2. i b i d . 3. i b i d . - 170-i b i d . i b i d . S h i g a Naoya, \" T a k i b i \" , i n Kozo no Kamisama ( T e k y o : Iwanami S h o t e n , 1928) p. 173. My t r a n s l a t i o n . i b i d . Q u o t e d i n Ueda, Modern J a p a n e s e W r i t e r s , p. 86 S h i g a , Kozo no Kamisama, p. 175 i b i d . i b i d . , p. 176 i b i d . i b i d . , p. 179 i b i d . i b i d . , p. 180 i b i d . , p. 181 S h i g a , A Dark N i g h t ' s P a s s i n g , p. 290 See, f o r example, D.C. H o l t o m ' s a c c o u n t o f t h e r o l e o f f i r e i n S h i n t o r i t u a l i n h i s The N a t i o n a l F a i t h o f J a p a n (New Y o r k : P a r a g o n Book R e p r i n t C o r p . , 1965) p. 29 Norman F r i e d m a n , \"Symbol\", i n P r i n c e t o n E n c y c l o p e d i a o f P o e t r y and P o e t i c s , e d . A l e x P r e m i n g e r ( P r i n c e t o n U n i v . P r e s s , 1974) p. 834 S h i g a , Kozo no Kamisama, p. 182. i b i d . , p. 183 i b i d . , pp. 183-4 i b i d . , p. 184 i b i d . , p. 185 i b i d . , p. 187 i b i d . - 171 -27. i b i d . , p. 188 28. i b i d . 29. See Mathy, S h i g a , p. 161 30. S h i g a , Kozo no Kamisama, p. 188 31. O x f o r d E n g l i s h D i c t i o n a r y , ( O x f o r d U n i v . P r e s s , 1971) p. 2210. Q u o t i n g L e w i s Meth. R e a s o n . P o l i t i c s v . 118: \" I n e v e r y n a r r a t i v e , t h e r e i s a c e r t a i n c o n n e x i o n o f e v e n t s , w h i c h i n a work o f f i c t i o n , i s c a l l e d a p l o t . \" 32. See p. 5 above 33. F o r r e p e t i t i o n as a \" n o n - l o g i c a l \" u s e o f l a n g u a g e , see E l i z a b e t h W e l l s , \" S t a t i s t i c a l /Analysis o f t h e P r o s e S t y l e o f ' B i g T w o - H earted R i v e r ' \" i n J a c k s o n B enson, The S h o r t S t o r i e s o f E r n e s t Hemingway: C r i t i c a l E s s a y s (Durham: Duke U n i v . P r e s s , 1975) p . 131: \" I t i s most o f t e n c o n -s i d e r e d t o be t h e l a n g u a g e o f t h o s e i n c a p a b l e o f c a u s e -a n d - e f f e c t r e a s o n i n g . . . \" 34. See a b o v e , p. 36 35. Q u o t e d i n Edmund W i l s o n , E i g h t E s s a y s , (New Y o r k : D o u b l e d a y , 1954) pp. 93-94 36. Comte de B u f f o n , D i s c o u r s s u r l e S t y l e (1353) § 7 . M.H. Abrams, A G l o s s a r y o f L i t e r a r y Terms (New Y o r k : H o l t , R i n e h a r t and W i n s t o n , 1 9 7 1 ) , p. 137 38. Q u o t e d i n A.E. H o t c h n e r , P a p a Hemingway (New Y o r k : Random House, 1966) p. 199 39. See B e n s o n , Hemingway, p. x i 40. S c o t t D o n a l d s o n , By E o r c e o f W i l l : t h e L i f e and A r t o f - 172 -E r n e s t Hemingway (New Y o r k : V i k i n g P r e s s , 1977) p. 242 Hemingway, G r e e n H i l l s o f A f r i c a (New Y o r k : S c r i b n e r ' s , 1935) p. 70 See E a r l M i n e r , The J a p a n e s e T r a d i t i o n i n B r i t i s h and A m e r i c a n L i t e r a t u r e ( P r i n c e t o n U n i v . P r e s s , 1958) E s p e c i a l l y c h a p t e r s v - v i Benson, Hemingway, p. 307 i b i d . Q u o t e d i n D o n a l d s o n , W i l l , p . 247 Ben s o n , Hemingway, p. 30 9 See a b o v e , p. 63 Quoted i n B e n s o n , Hemingway, p. 3 07 R a l p h Freedman, The L y r i c a l N o v e l ( P r i n c e t o n , New J e r s e y : P r i n c e t o n U n i v . P r e s s , 1963) Ben s o n , Hemingway, p. 157 Hemingway, A f r i c a , F o r e w o r d Hemingway, A M o v e a b l e F e a s t (New Y o r k : S c r i b n e r ' s , 1964) P r e f a c e F r a s e r S u t h e r l a n d , The S t y l e o f I n n o c e n c e ( T o r o n t o : C l a r k e , I r w i n , 1972) p. 83 Benson, Hemingway, p. 275 i b i d . R o b e r t Weeks, ed. , Hemingway: a C o l l e c t i o n o f C r i t i c a l . E s s a y s (Englewood C l i f f s , N . J . : P r e n t i c e - H a l l , 1962) Benson, Hemingway, p. 309 i b i d . - 173 -59. See J u l i a n S m i t h ' s a r t i c l e , \"Hemingway and t h e T h i n g L e f t Out\" i n Benson, Hemingway, p. 136 60. D o n a l d s o n , W i l l , p. 245 61. Benson, Hemingway, p. 39 62. i b i d . , p. 131 63. i b i d . , p. 297 64. Weeks, Hemingway, p. 106 65. Hemingway, \" C r o s s - C o u n t r y Snow\" i n I n Our Time (New Y o r k : S c r i b n e r ' s , 1925) p. 107 » 66. Benson, Hemingway, p. 154 67. Keene, Modern J a p a n e s e L i t e r a t u r e , p. 277 68. Hemingway, \" B i g Two-Hearted R i v e r \" i n I n Our Time, p. 14 2 69. i b i d . , p. 156 70. Mathy, S h i g a , pp. 29-30 71. S h i g a , Kozo no Kamisama, p. 176 72. On Hemingway's o b s e s s i o n w i t h d e a t h , s e e D o n a l d s o n , W i l l p. 282. C h a p t e r 4 1. Quoted i n Mathy, S h i g a , p. 83 2. i b i d . 3 . i b i d . , p. 92 4. i b i d . , p. 101 5. i b i d . , pp 99 and 157 6. i b i d . , p. 157 7. S h i g a Naoya, A Dark N i g h t ' s P a s s i n g , t r a n s . E d w i n M c C l e l l T o k y o : Kodansha, 1976) p. 16 - 174 -8. i b i d . , p. 17 9. i b i d . , p. 18 10. i b i d . 11. i b i d . , pp. 19-20 12. i b i d . , p. 25 13. i b i d . 14. i t i d . , p. 26 15. i b i d . 16. i b i d . , pp. 26-27 17. i b i d . , p. 27 18. i b i d . 19. i b i d . , p. 28 20. i b i d . , p. 3 0 21. i b i d . , p. 26 22. i b i d . 23. i b i d . , p. 29 24. i b i d . , p. 30 25. i b i d . 26. i b i d . , p. 81 27. i b i d . , p. 101 28. i b i d . , p. 104 29. i b i d . , p. 115 30. i b i d . , p. 123 31. See Mathy, S h i g a , p. 43 32. S h i g a , A Dark N i g h t ' s P a s s i n g , p. 125 33. \" i b i d . 34. i b i d . \" 1 7 5 -35. i b i d . , P- 146 36. i b i d . 37. i b i d . , P- 148 38. i b i d . 39. i b i d . , P- 150 40. i b i d . , P- 158 41. x b i d . , P- 172 42. i b i d . 43. i b i d . , P- 186 44. i b i d . , P- 375 45. i b i d . , P- 186-87 46. i b i d . , P- 184 47. i b i d . , P- 193 48. i b i d . , P- 194 49. i b i d . , P- 181 50. i b i d . , P- 174 51. i b i d . , P- 178 52. On t h i s p o i n t , see Ueda, Modern J a p a n e s e W r i t e r s , p. 53. S h i g a , A Dark N i g h t ' s P a s s i n g , p. 178 54. i b i d . , P- 185 55. i b i d . 56. i b i d . , P- 201 57. i b i d . , P- 202 58. i b i d . , P- 271 59. i b i d . , P i 312 60. i b i d . , PP . 311-12 61. i b i d . , P- 337 62. i b i d . , p. 338 63. i b i d . 64. i b i d . , p. 341 65. i b i d . , p. 341 66. i b i d . 67. i b i d . , p. 251 68. i b i d . 69. i b i d . 70. i b i d . , 352 71. i b i d . , p. 354-55 72. i b i d . , p. 356 73. i b i d . 74. i b i d . 75. i b i d . , p . 357 76. i b i d . , p. 358 77. i b i d . 78. i b i d . , p. 357 79. i b i d . , p. 364 80. i b i d . , p. 369 81. i b i d . , p. 381 82. i b i d . , p. 392 83. i b i d . , pp. 383-84 84. i b i d . , p. 399 85. i b i d . 86. i b i d . , p. 398 87. i b i d . , p. 400 .88. i b i d . , pp. 400-01 - 177 -89. D a i s e t z T e i t a r o S u z u k i , E s s a y s i n Zen Buddhism i n 3 v o l s . (New Y o r k : Samuel W e i s e r , 1971) 80. 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Modern J a p a n e s e W r i t e r s and t h e N a t u r e o f L i t e r a t u r e S t a n f o r d U n i v . P r e s s , 1976 - 180 -. L i t e r a r y and A r t T h e o r i e s i n J a p a n C l e v e l a n d : W e s t e r n R e s e r v e U n i v . , 1967 Weeks, R o b e r t . Hemingway: a C o l l e c t i o n o f C r i t i c a l E s s a y s E n glewood C l i f f s , N . J . : P r e n t i c e - H a l l , 1962 W i l s o n , Edmund. E i g h t E s s a y s New Y o r k : D o u b l e d a y , 1954 Y o s h i d a , S e i - i c h i . Bunsho t o B u n t a i T o k y o : M e i j i S h o i n , 1963 "@en ; edm:hasType "Thesis/Dissertation"@en ; edm:isShownAt "10.14288/1.0100240"@en ; dcterms:language "eng"@en ; ns0:degreeDiscipline "Asian Studies"@en ; edm:provider "Vancouver : University of British Columbia Library"@en ; dcterms:publisher "University of British Columbia"@en ; dcterms:rights "For non-commercial purposes only, such as research, private study and education. Additional conditions apply, see Terms of Use https://open.library.ubc.ca/terms_of_use."@en ; ns0:scholarLevel "Graduate"@en ; dcterms:title "An artless art : fiction and reality in the work of Shiga Naoya"@en ; dcterms:type "Text"@en ; ns0:identifierURI "http://hdl.handle.net/2429/21938"@en .