@prefix vivo: . @prefix edm: . @prefix ns0: . @prefix dcterms: . @prefix skos: . vivo:departmentOrSchool "Arts, Faculty of"@en, "French, Hispanic, and Italian Studies, Department of"@en ; edm:dataProvider "DSpace"@en ; ns0:degreeCampus "UBCV"@en ; dcterms:creator "Fleming, Jean Puleston"@en ; dcterms:issued "2010-02-05T01:16:47Z"@en, "1975"@en ; vivo:relatedDegree "Doctor of Philosophy - PhD"@en ; ns0:degreeGrantor "University of British Columbia"@en ; dcterms:description """Le Moen de Parvenir, one of the last works of Béroalde de Verville, a late XVIth century poet and prose writer, consists entirely of a lively and disconnected banquet conversation interwoven with an author/narrator's commentaries and asides to the reader. Through both its form and its content the book creates an atmosphere of profound disorder and of mocking irreverence. The resulting difficulty and apparent frivolity of the work have caused it to be disregarded by many critics. This study seeks to examine Le Moyen de Parvenir from a new perspective, using the elements of disorder and irreverence to discover the unity and purpose behind Béroalde's unusual presentation. To this end it is noted that the same disturbing elements also dominate a social phenomenon of the time: the popular festival. Archetypal festivals such as Carnival and the Feast of Fools, as well as the related fool-societies reveal a festive tradition which is characterized by special liberties and attitudes. These festive privileges include free speech, blatant sensuality, gratuitous actions, and mocking irreverence, all of which combine to create a traditional representation of chaos. Closer examination reveals that Béroalde's literary work and the social phenomenon have much in common. Both contain abundant feasting, wine and laughter in an uninhibited atmosphere. The disruption of everyday time and space, the confusion of identities, and the ambivalently mocking attitude present in the festival appear in several aspects of the text. These include the world created by the author, the relationship between the author and his reader, and the act of composition itself. Béroalde's characters also exploit the festive privilege of sacrilege, turning everyday objects of worship and respect upside-down and ridiculing them. They also use ridicule and laughter to overturn another mainstay of society, the social hierarchy. All members of society are made to display their particular follies. The guiding morality is physical pleasure, and the banqueters sharply condemn those who dc net, or who cannot, join in the spirit of celebration. In place of rigidity and repression Béroalde proposes a world of laughter and freedom. The festive elasticity of both the social and the literary frameworks created in his text demonstrate this proposal. The carnivalesque perspective also gives new meaning to the title of the book. Béroalde is shown to provide not enly a "moyen de parvenir" for the individual, but for the society as a whole, and even for the reader. Just as the festive occasion alters the everyday environment and permits the individual to release tensions which are usually held in check by reason or by social restrictions, so the atmosphere created in the book provides a similar opportunity for both characters and reader. Through recognition and acceptance of the irrational, emotional side of human nature, Bercalde demonstrates an understanding of the social purpose of festive disorder and its positive contribution to the health of the whole society. While Béroalde the artist uses the festive tradition to represent an aspect of life around him, Béroalde the humanist uses the same tradition to express his discoveries on human nature and on the nature of society. Thus through the medium of a carnivalesque banquet, the promise of the title is fulfilled, and the voice of a tolerant and conservative observer of the human comedy unveils his "secret" in Le Moyen de Parvenir."""@en ; edm:aggregatedCHO "https://circle.library.ubc.ca/rest/handle/2429/19628?expand=metadata"@en ; skos:note "T H E C A R N I V A L E S Q U E B A N Q U E T O F B E R O A L B F . C E V 1 R V I L L E ty J E A N P U 1 E S T C N F L E M I N G B . A . Colorado State University, 1966 ft.A. The University of Colorado, 1968 A thesis submitted in p a r t i a l f u l f i l m e n t of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Department of French We accept t h i s thesis as conforming to the required standard: T H E U N I V E R S I T Y C F B R I T I S H C C I U K B I A M A R C H , 1975 In presenting this thesis in partial fulfilment of the requirements for an advanced degree at the University of British Columbia, I agree that the Library shall make it freely available for reference and study. I further agree that permission for extensive copying of this thesis for scholarly purposes may be granted by the Head of my Department or by his representatives. It is understood that copying or publication of this thesis for financial gain shall not be allowed without my written permission. Department of French The University of British Columbia Vancouver 8, Canada Date March 4-. 197 5\" i ABSTRACT Le Ho^en de P a r v e n i r , one of the l a s t works of Eeroalde de V e r v i l l e , a l a t e XVIth century poet and prose w r i t e r , c o n s i s t s e n t i r e l y of a l i v e l y and disconnected banquet c o n v e r s a t i o n interwoven with an a u t h o r / n a r r a t o r ' s commentaries and a s i d e s to the reader. Through both i t s form and i t s content the book c r e a t e s an atmosphere of profound d i s o r d e r and of mocking i r r e v e r e n c e . The r e s u l t i n g d i f f i c u l t y and apparent f r i v o l i t y of the work have caused i t to be d i s r e g a r d e d by many c r i t i c s . T h i s study seeks to examine Le Mov.en de P a r v e n i r from a new p e r s p e c t i v e , using the elements of d i s o r d e r and i r r e v e r e n c e to d i s c o v e r the unity and purpose behind Beroalde's unusual p r e s e n t a t i o n . To t h i s end i t i s noted t h a t the same d i s t u r b i n g elements a l s o dominate a s o c i a l phenomenon of the time: the popular f e s t i v a l . A r c h e t y p a l f e s t i v a l s such as C a r n i v a l and the Feast of F o o l s , as w e l l as the r e l a t e d f c o l - s o c i e t i e s r e v e a l a f e s t i v e t r a d i t i o n which i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by s p e c i a l l i b e r t i e s and a t t i t u d e s . These f e s t i v e p r i v i l e g e s i n c l u d e f r e e speech, b l a t a n t s e n s u a l i t y , g r a t u i t o u s a c t i o n s , and i i mocking i r r e v e r e n c e , a l l of which combine to c r e a t e a t r a d i t i o n a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of chaos. C l o s e r examination r e v e a l s t h a t Be'roalde's l i t e r a r y work and the s o c i a l phenomenon have much i n common. Both c o n t a i n abundant f e a s t i n g , wine and l a u g h t e r i n an u n i n h i b i t e d atmosphere. The d i s r u p t i o n of everyday time and space, the c o n f u s i o n of i d e n t i t i e s , and the ambivalently mocking a t t i t u d e present i n the f e s t i v a l appear i n s e v e r a l aspects of the t e x t . These i n c l u d e the world c r e a t e d by the author, the r e l a t i o n s h i p between the author and h i s reader, and the act of composition i t s e l f . Be'roalde's c h a r a c t e r s a l s o e x p l o i t the f e s t i v e p r i v i l e g e of s a c r i l e g e , t u r n i n g everyday o b j e c t s of worship and r e s p e c t upside-down and r i d i c u l i n g them. They a l s o use r i d i c u l e and l a u g h t e r to overturn another mainstay of s o c i e t y , the s o c i a l h i e r a r c h y . A l l members of s o c i e t y are made to d i s p l a y t h e i r p a r t i c u l a r f o l l i e s . The g u i d i n g m o r a l i t y i s p h y s i c a l p l e a s u r e , and the banqueters s h a r p l y condemn those who dc net, or who cannot, j o i n i n the s p i r i t of c e l e b r a t i o n . In p l a c e o f r i g i d i t y and r e p r e s s i o n Be'roalde proposes a world of l a u g h t e r and freedom. The f e s t i v e e l a s t i c i t y of both the s o c i a l and the l i t e r a r y frameworks cre a t e d i n h i s t e x t demonstrate t h i s p r o p o s a l . The c a r n i v a l e s q u e p e r s p e c t i v e a l s o g i v e s new meaning to the t i t l e of the book. Beroalde i s shown to provide not enly a \"moyen de p a r v e n i r \" f o r the i n d i v i d u a l , but f o r the i i i s o c i e t y as a whole, and even for the reader. J u s t as the f e s t i v e o c c a s i o n a l t e r s the everyday environment and permits the i n d i v i d u a l to r e l e a s e t e n s i o n s which are u s u a l l y held i n check by reason or by s o c i a l r e s t r i c t i o n s , so the atmosphere created i n the book provides a s i m i l a r o p p o r t u n i t y f o r both c h a r a c t e r s and reader. Through r e c o g n i t i o n and acceptance c f the i r r a t i o n a l , emotional s i d e of human nature, Bercalde demonstrates an understanding of the s o c i a l purpose c f f e s t i v e d i s o r d e r and i t s p o s i t i v e c o n t r i b u t i o n to the h e a l t h cf the whole s o c i e t y . While Be'roalde the a r t i s t uses the f e s t i v e t r a d i t i o n to re p r e s e n t an aspect cf l i f e around him, Beroalde the humanist uses the same t r a d i t i o n to express h i s d i s c o v e r i e s on human nature and on the nature of s o c i e t y . Thus through the medium of a c a r n i v a l e s g u e banquet, the promise of the t i t l e i s f u l f i l l e d , and the voice of a t o l e r a n t and c o n s e r v a t i v e observer of the human comedy u n v e i l s h i s \" s e c r e t \" i n Le Mojen de P a r v e n i r . iv TABLE OF CONTENTS I. INTRODUCTION 1 I I . THE POPULAR F E S T I V E SPIRIT 19 I I I . THE CARNIVALESQUE ATMOSPHERE OF BEROALDE * S BANQUET 55 IV. FESTIVE SACRILEGE IN LE HOYEN DE PARVJNIR 116 V. SOCIETY AS CARNIVAL IN LE HOYEN DE PARVENIR 170 VI. CONCLUSION 235 SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY 246 1 CHAPTER I OTRODUCTIOW The c h a o t i c s t r u c t u r e , i r r e v e r e n t tcne and f a s t - p a c e d dialogue of Le .Woven de P a r v e n i r have pleased cr confused many readers s i n c e i t s p u b l i c a t i o n (c. 1610) and have e s t a b l i s h e d the s i n g u l a r r e p u t a t i o n of the author, Francois Beroalde de V e r v i l l e . One c r i t i c pronounces i t the \"oddest, queerest bock i n the world\", then s t a t e s t h a t he b e l i e v e s i t to be a m a s t e r p i e c e . 1 Another d e s c r i b e s the work as \"ferme'e sur elle-me^me, mais ccmme une c a r r o s s e a t r e n t e - s i x p o r t i e r e s \" , and f i n d s i t s i r r a t i o n a l q u a l i t i e s to be profoundly d i s t u r b i n g . 2 The apparent chaos w i t h i n the t e x t may have been i n f l u e n c e d by the profoundly unstable r e l i g i o u s , p o l i t i c a l and s o c i a l environment of the times during which the author l i v e d . But the way i n which the impression cf d i s o r d e r i s expressed a l s o c l o s e l y resembles the t r a d i t i o n a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of chaos found i n many 2 f e s t i v a l s of the time with which Beroalde wculd have been f a m i l i a r . The v o l a t i l e , c a r n i v a l e s g u e aspects c f the beck suggest a deeper a s s o c i a t i o n of the l i t e r a r y work and the s o c i a l phenomenon. T h i s study w i l l attempt t c d i s c o v e r and analyse such an a s s o c i a t i o n with the o b j e c t i v e of g i v i n g a new p e r s p e c t i v e on the content and purpose cf B e r c a l d e ' s c o n t r o v e r s i a l work. R e l i g i o u s d i s c o r d and p o l i t i c a l i n s t a b i l i t i y plagued Europe of the l a t e XVIth c e n t u r y . Eeroalde's own l i f e spanned the beginning and the end of the r e l i g i o u s vars i n France, and during t h i s time he was p e r s o n a l l y committed to f i r s t one, then the other of the two major r e l i g i o n s . Born A p r i l 27, 1556 i n t o the P r o t e s t a n t f a m i l y of Marie E l e t z and Matthieu B r o u a r d , . d i t B e r o a l d e , 3 he was c h r i s t e n e d F r a n c o i s . His f a t h e r , a r e s p e c t e d i n t e l l e c t u a l , d i r e c t e d a small s c h o o l f o r boys a t what i s now n° 2 b i s rue des E c c l e s i n P a r i s . Beroalde was a t t e n d i n g h i s f a t h e r ' s c l a s s e s i n company with Agrippa d'Aubigne and P i e r r e l ' E s t c i l e i n 1562 when the outbreak of the f i r s t war f o r c e d the f a m i l y to f l e e to Orleans. There Matthieu Brouard became l e c t u r e r of Hebrew under the p r o t e c t i o n of Ben^e de France. Be\"roalde*s mother died of the plague which swept through the c i t y s h o r t l y a f t e r they a r r i v e d , but F r a n c o i s and h i s f a t h e r s u r v i v e d and remained i n Orleans f o r four years, l e a v i n g only when the t h i r d c i v i l war f o r c e d them to move again. From 1568 to 1572 f a t h e r and son changed r e s i d e n c e s s e v e r a l times, and were 3 once again i n Orleans when the Saint-Eartholomew massacre occurred i n August, 1572. Late i n 1572 Beroalde went to Geneva, probably at the urging of h i s f a t h e r who f e l t t h a t h i s P r o t e s t a n t son would be s a f e r there than i n France, E v e n t u a l l y Matthieu Erouard himse l f came to Geneva where he was r e c e i v e d as bourgeois de Geneve. U n t i l h i s death i n 1576 Eeroalde's f a t h e r was a c l o s e f r i e n d of the s t e r n C a l v i n i s t , Th4cdcre de Eeze. Beroalde h i m s e l f remained i n Geneva u n t i l a t l e a s t 1578. H i s i n t e r e s t s during t h i s p e r i o d ranged from medical s t u d i e s to languages, horology and. alchemy. From 1578 to. 1583 Be'roalde did some w r i t i n g , part of which has been l o s t , and t r a v e l l e d between Lyons, Geneva, Anjou and P a r i s , f i n a l l y s e t t l i n g i n Tours. S e v e r a l of h i s works produced during t h i s p e r i o d were pub l i s h e d i n 1583, among them a p h i l o s o p h i c a l essay, L^Id^e i?® 2 l Si-ESkilSiiS which exposes h i s p o l i t i c a l views t o be those of a t o l e r a n t c o n s e r v a t i v e . A s c i e n t i f i c enguiry, Becherches de l a £ierre £hi 1 oso_pha 1 e, and poetry such as Les S o u ^ i r s amoureux and Stances de l a mort were p u b l i s h e d together with s e v e r a l other works under the t i t l e of Les ^££l!k§nsicns s g i r ituel3.es (1583). l a t e r , a f t e r he had become a r e s i d e n t of Tours, and perhaps f o r monetary reasons, he t r a n s l a t e d the Diane of Kontemaycr and a work ty Juste L i p s e , both p u b l i s h e d i n 1592. At t h i s time he was a l s o w r i t i n g h i s long novel i n f i v e p a r t s , Les Ayantures de F l o r i d e (1593-96), i n the f l o r i d s t y l e of Hontemayor. Although born and educated a P r o t e s t a n t , Beroalde renounced t h i s f a i t h and became a C a t h o l i c at a time between h i s f a t h e r ' s death i n 1576, and 1593, the year i n which he was named canon of S a i n t - G a t i e n at Tours. T h i s appointment ensured h i s f i n a n c i a l s e c u r i t y and allowed him to indulge his l i t e r a r y t a l e n t s f o r h i s own pleasure without being f o r c e d to use them f o r f i n a n c i a l gain. Very l i t t l e i s known about t h i s period of h i s l i f e , except that he was able to p u b l i s h s e v e r a l works. Among these are Le Ca b i n e t de Minerve (1596), a r e p u b l i c a t i o n of a few e a r l i e r poems and essays combined with new thoughts on v a r i o u s t o p i c s i n s p i r e d by the memories, readings and g e n e r a l o b s e r v a t i o n s of the author, and £a Serodokimasie (1600), a long poem w r i t t e n to a i d the campaign i n i t i a t e d by Henri IV to promote the d e c l i n i n g s i l k i n d u s t r y of Tours. A t r a n s l a t i o n , Le Soncje de Polyjahile (1600) from the work of the same name by Francesco Cclcnna, demonstrates Beroalde's f a m i l i a r i t y with the Renaissance concept of an i d e a l i z e d past surrounded by a r c h i t e c t u r a l p e r f e c t i o n and d e c o r a t i v e a l l e g o r i e s . Other works of h i s l a t e r p e r i o d are l e Voyage des P r i n c e s f o r t u n e z (1600), i n which the reader i s i n t r o d u c e d t o o r i e n t a l o c c u l t i s m through the a l l e g o r i c a l adventures of Eeroalde's mysterious p r o t a g o n i s t s , Le P a l a i s des Curieux (1612), which touches cn a v a r i e t y of d i s p a r a t e s u b j e c t s , such as etymology, alchemy and P l a t o n i c l o v e , and the c o n t r o v e r s i a l Le Mo_yen de 5 P a r v e n i r (1610?),* a bock which not only dominates Beroalde's l i t e r a r y r e p u t a t i o n , but a l s o c o l o u r s h i s moral r e p u t a t i o n . In t h i s work the a u t h o r / n a r r a t o r , who imagines himself at a banquet with over three hundred g a r r u l o u s guests, records the l i v e l y c o n v e r s a t i o n and f r e g u e n t l y r i b a l d anecdotes being t o l d around him, while adding h i s own commentaries and d i r e c t i n g a s i d e s to the reader. The p r e s e n t a t i o n c r e a t e s the immediate impression of d i s o r d e r as the c o n v e r s a t i o n grows i n t o a compendium cf g r a t u i t o u s a s s o c i a t i o n s , t a n g e n t i a l d i g r e s s i o n s , and p a r a d o x i c a l statements. The mention of Jean Bcdin as one cf those present f o r example (1:19) , s i s enough to d i r e c t the wandering n a r r a t i v e away from the i n t r o d u c t i o n c f the a r r i v i n g guests and i n t o a d i g r e s s i o n on the d e v i l , t a k i n g as a t r a n s i t i o n the f a c t t h a t Bodin had authored a beck cn demons. 6 From there the n a r r a t o r d i s c u s s e s the outward appearance of the d e v i l , and the t r i c k s l i t t l e d e v i l s p lay on chambermaids, before r e t u r n i n g a b r u p t l y to the guest l i s t . S h i f t i n g t r u t h s and p a r a d o x i c a l statements add to the c o n f u s i o n . Beroalde i n t r o d u c e s the guests as \"ces gens de bien\" (1:43) and l a t e r s t a t e s \" i l n'y a p o i n t i c i de gens de b i e n \" (11:186). He claims to speak only the t r u t h i n h i s book, under.penalty of death, but then says that even under such a penalty he expects to remain safe and sound: \"ce que 6 je vous dis est vray, 6 s ' i l n'est vray, je puisse mourir devant toute l a compagnie, demeurant aussi sain B sauf gue je fus jamais\" (1:74). In another passage one speaker threatens to take anachronistic revenge cn a companion f c r an affront which took place, next year: \" s i tout e s t o i t permis je vous battrois bien a ceste heure pour me vanger de l ' a f f r o n t que l'annee qui vient vous me f i s t e s en Grece\" (1:239). These examples i l l u s t r a t e the mood of the work which gives the impression of being in constant flu x , with truth being as variable as time and place. S t y l i s t i c d e t a i l s , surprising comparisons, exaggerations and constant wordplay add to the unpredictable, playful way i n which the bock develops. Beroalde compares the age of a l c v e l y young lady to that of \"un v i e i l bceuf\" (1:27), affirming that the comparison i s v a l i d since the g i r l was f i f t e e n cr sixteen years old. The word \"vestale\" i s f l i p p a n t l y altered to \"vesse\" (1:288), \"stoique\" becomes \"sotique\" (1:283) and \"en Suisse\" i s changed to \"en s o t t i s e \" (1:226). Other deta i l s such as an unusually long word, (pseudosevangeliqucl-ipapistoranabaptistiogiesuitanorbiterondepuritain, 11:201), exaggerated numerical pre c i s i o n , (trois mil quatre cens vingt & deux escus dix-sept sols une p i t e , 11:147), and numerous l i s t s of synonyms add a burlesque, and frequently irreverent, element to the text. The s t y l i s t i c and st r u c t u r a l e c c e n t r i c i t i e s of Le May_en 7 ^§ Rleries, as he pleads with Luther: \" . . . me.faire l a faveur g u ' i l n'y a i t p l u s personne damne, tous l e s d i a b l e s vous en p r i e n t , . . . d'autant g u ' i l y a desja tant de damnez en Enfer, gue l e s pauvres d i a b l e s couchent dehors.\" (11: 129-30) Other f a m i l i a r c h a r a c t e r s from the comic stage a l s o appear i n the anecdotes t o l d by the bangueters. .These stock c h a r a c t e r s , and the f a m i l i a r s i t u a t i o n s they r e c r e a t e r e c a l l the c o m p e t i t i v e , j o v i a l . w o r l d of the f a r c e and the c l o s e l y r e l a t e d f a b l i a u . 2 9 The g u l l i b l e cuckold, f r e g u e n t l y seen i n comic p r e s e n t a t i o n s , appears many times i n Le Mcy^en de P a r v e n i r , as does h i s u n f a i t h f u l w i f e . 3 0 The t e x t i s a l s o 8 0 r e p l e t e with l u s t y c l e r i c s , young and o l d , with pedants, imposters, and h y p o c r i t e s . 3 1 The f o o l s of the s o t i e s are amply represented as w e l l , both around the banguet t a b l e and in the t a l e s and anecdotes. A l l of these c h a r a c t e r s remain undeveloped, q u i c k l y drawn c a r i c a t u r e s s i m i l a r tc the c h a r a c t e r s i n the f a r c e s . Each i s given very l i t t l e time cr op p o r t u n i t y f o r development, s i n c e t h e i r f u n c t i o n i s to represent an idea or an a t t i t u d e which i s u s u a l l y presented b r i e f l y and humorously, then d i s c a r d e d . L i k e u n i n h i b i t e d f e s t i v a l p a r t i c i p a n t s , the guests i n Le Moyen de P a r v e n i r assemble i n a l i g h t - h e a r t e d mccd. The author s e t s t h i s mood by d e f i n i n g the meaning of p l a y i n the f i r s t chapter then a p p l y i n g i t to the guests. According t o Beroalde's d e f i n i t i o n , play f u n c t i o n s l i k e the mask and l i k e wine. I t removes i n h i b i t i o n s and allows the t r u e i n n e r being to manifest i t s e l f . Even a d e v i l c ould net hide h i s e s s e n t i a l nature i f a t p l a y : \" i l vous f e r o i t v o i r ses cornes\". At play, a person's defenses are r e l a x e d , and he can enjoy himself without f e a r : N'est-ce p o i n t au jeu ou l'ame se d i l a t e pour f a i r e v o i r ses concep t i o n s ? S i un d i a b l e j o u o i t avec vous i l ne se p o u r o i t f e i n d r e , i l vous f e r o i t v c i r ses cornes. Mais gu'est ce gue jouer? C'est se d e l e c t e r sans penser en mal. (1:4) The open d i s c l o s u r e of one's in n e r s e l f d e s c r i b e d above c l o s e l y resembles a d e s c r i p t i o n of the e f f e c t l a u g h t e r works on the i n h i b i t i o n s , a theory which Eeroalde i n c l u d e s i n the 81 Cabinet de M i n e r v e . 3 2 p l a y and games imply a c e r t a i n honesty and t r u s t i n g innocence, a c c o r d i n g to the n a r r a t o r of Le ®21£2 P a r v e n i r . As i f to i l l u s t r a t e t h i s p o i n t the guests are at play i n the k i t c h e n when f i r s t i n t r o d u c e d . In p r e s e n t i n g them at play, the author i m p l i e s that he i s d e p i c t i n g t h e i r e s s e n t i a l , i n n e r beings, s t r i p p e d c f h y p o c r i s y and i n a mood f o r innocent enjoyment: Ouy dea, j e vous ay oste de peine s i vous en e s t e s capables, S vous f e r a y remarquer ceux gui a s s i s t e r e n t en ce notable sympose, au moins j e vous en nommeray guelgues uns, s i je ne me souviens de tous: je vous envoyeray a l a c u i s i n e ou i l s sont, ou bien autre p a r t , a jouer, comme l e s sages de Grece, au f r a n c du guarreau avec l e s pages S l e s l a g u a i s . (1:17) When f i r s t i n t r o d u c e d , the honourable guests are p l a y i n g hopscotch, not only among themselves, but with the s e r v a n t s , i n true s a t u r n a l i a n f a s h i o n . 3 3 The behaviour of these guests r e v e a l s them to be from the same b o i s t e r o u s , l a r g e l y uneducated group which makes up the m a j o r i t y of the C a r n i v a l c r o w d . 3 4 T h e i r a c t i o n s , which c o n s i s t of e a t i n g , d r i n k i n g , making rude n o i s e s , t e l l i n g coarse t a l e s , and competing with each other f o r a t t e n t i o n , belong more to C a r n i v a l than to an i n t e l l e c t u a l symposium. Another l i n k between Le Moyen de P a r v e n i r and the f e s t i v a l i s provided by the event f o r which the guests have assembled; the o c c a s i o n i s a banguet, \" c e t admirable banguet\" (1:9), ce notable sympose\" (1:17). However i t i s not a t r a n q u i l r e p a s t , but i n s t e a d a s a t u r n a l i a n r e v e l , and 82 emphasis i s placed on the consuming, triumphant p h y s i c a l body of the t r a d i t i o n a l c a r n i v a l e s g u e f e a s t s . 3 5 T h i s banguet s e t t i n g a l l o w s the author of Le Mo_yen de Pa r v e n i r to dwell on the t a n g i b l e , p h y s i c a l d e l i g h t s of the f e a s t , emphasizing the appeal to the senses and a t the same time e x p l o i t the c a r e f r e e mood of the f e a s t . The c o l l e c t i v e f e a s t has played an important part i n c a r n i v a l e s g u e f e s t i v a l s s i n c e t h e i r ancient o r i g i n s when the f e s t i v a l depended on major a g r i c u l t u r a l events of the year. Though the t r a n s f e r of the f e s t i v a l to urban environments sometimes a l t e r e d i t s l i g h t l y , the e s e n t i a l i n g r e d i e n t s , one of which was the f e a s t , r e m a i n e d . 3 6 ft banguet c r e a t e s the comfortable s i t u a t i o n i n which man and h i s environment are p a r t i c u l a r l y compatible, f o r nature on t h a t o c c a s i o n , at other times harsh, i s seen at her most generous. The h e a v i l y laden banquet t a b l e r e p r e s e n t s a c e r t a i n human v i c t o r y over nature. P a r t i c i p a n t s i n such f e a s t s are t e m p o r a r i l y f r e e d from b a s i c a n x i e t i e s about t h e i r p h y s i c a l s u r v i v a l . They leave work and r e s o u r c e f u l accumulation c f goods behind i n order to consume the f r u i t s of t h e i r l a b o u r . An atmosphere of p l e n t y , r e m i n i s c e n t of a Golden Age such as the Land c f C o c k a i g n e 3 7 i s r e c r e a t e d by the abundance of food and drink o f f e r e d to the emancipated c e l e b r a n t s . Popular r e l i g i o u s f e s t i v a l s , v i l l a g e f a i r s , and other c a r n i v a l e s g u e c e l e b r a t i o n s i n XVIth century France s t i l l i n c l u d e d f e a s t i n g i n the f e s t i v i t i e s . 3 8 The banquet f o r members and guests was 83 a l s o an important event cn the s o c i a l calendar c f the f c o l -s o c i e t i e s , and they openly promoted a gastronomic value s y s t e m . 3 9 In the l e t t e r s of r e c e p t i o n sent out to s u c c e s s f u l candidates of the I n f a n t e r i e D i j o n n a i s e the new members are complimented on t h e i r p r a n d i a l v i r t u e s which make them compatible with the r e s t of the company. Candidates are p r a i s e d f o r such g u a l i t i e s as: Toutes l e s a l l e g r e s s e s de Machoires, f i n e s s e s , g a l a n t i s e , h a r d i e s s e , s u f f i s a n c e , & experience des dents g u i p o u r r o i e n t € t r e r e q u i s e s a un Hignon de Cabaret.*o In accordance with t r a d i t i o n , food and drink abound i n Le Moyen de P a r v e n i r , and the bangueters a l l p a r t i c i p a t e with u n i n h i b i t e d enthusiasm i n the c o l l e c t i v e a c t i v i t i e s c f e a t i n g and d r i n k i n g : \" I l n'y a persenne gui ne tasche a f a i r e son p r o f i t , 8 sur tout b o i v a n t 8 mengeant\" (11:238). With burlesgue enthusiasm t h e . n a r r a t o r p r a i s e s those guests who e x c e l l i n the a r t of d i n i n g . S o c r a t e s , he says, c a r r i e s out h i s \" d e v o i r des maschoires\" to high s a t i s f a c t i o n , and the \" A r c h i d i a c r e \" does so well t h a t he would deserve to .be Fope i f only he could o f f i c i a t e as w e l l before the a l t a r as he does at t a b l e : Je vous d i r a y gue S c c r a t e e s t o i t present a ce banguet ou i l f i t f o r t b i e n son d e v o i r des maschoires. A propcs de n o s t r e A r c h i d i a c r e , gui s'y scayt t r e s - b i e n e s c r i m e r , 8 vrament s ' i l t e n o i t a u s s i bien a cheval gu'a t a b l e , i l s e r o i t l e m e i l l e u r Escuyer de France, 8 bien p l u s , s ' i l o f f i c i o i t ou pouvoit o f f i c i e r autant parfaitement a un grand A u t e l gu'a une t a b l e , i l m e r i t e r o i t d ' e s t r e Pape. (1:17) 4 1 84 Amid the abundance c f food and drink present cn the t a b l e , the s u c c e s s f u l guest comes equipped with nimble jaws l i k e S ocrates i n the above passage. He i s q u i c k l y j o i n e d by the others as the n a r r a t o r ' s c o n c i s e d e s c r i p t i o n of the opening a c t i v i t y d i s c l o s e s : \"Nous nous mismes a e s t o f e r des maschoires\" (1:23). The bangueting i s c o n t i n u a l l y encouraged by the host of the banquet, \" l e Bon homme\", with such comments as, \"soyez l e s bien ventrus, l a panse f a i t 1'homme\" (1:138). He a l s o encourages by example:.\"et b i e n boivons S me donnez un p e t i t de c e s t e croute de paste, ce gue j'en f a i s pour espargner l e p a i n \" (11:133). One time he i s so busy preparing a d i s h of c r a y f i s h t h a t the n a r r a t c r must speak f o r him: \"Je l e d i r a i pour l u i , parce g u ' i l e s t empesche a f r i r e 1'esprit'd'un demi cent d ' e s c r e v i s s e s , a l a mode de Bourges\" (11:236). Throughout the t e x t there are many r e f e r e n c e s to the food and wine being consumed by the company.* 2 Images of the bangueting body permeate the vocabulary used i n the c o n v e r s a t i o n s . The v i c t o r i o u s , consuming body emerges i n Diogenes' speech: Vous lourdaux mes amis du foye, c o u s i n s de l a r a t t e 6 mignons des p e t i t e s t r i p e s f o i r e u s e s , ignorez-vous que d ' i c i a quelques s i e c l e s ce sympose ne s c i t s e l c n son merite tenu pour authentique, autant ou p l u s que t o u t e s l e s f a l a n d e r i e s grecques q ui vous f o n t bon ventre? (1:128) 85 Images of the i n n e r organs of the body i n t h i s passage (\" l e foye, l a r a t t e , des p e t i t e s t r i p e s f o i r e u s e s , bon ventre\") u n d e r l i n e the m a t e r i a l , c o r p o r a l aspect c f the f e a s t . Moreover, Diogenes uses these terms to address h i s f r i e n d s a f f e c t i o n a t e l y , \"mes amis du foye, e t c . \" , i m p l y i n g t h e i r c o m p l i c i t y i n the f e a s t i n g aspect of the symposium. , He a l s o d e s c r i b e s i n t e l l e c t u a l p l e a s u r e i n gastronomic terms. The imaginary s t o r i e s or \" f a l a n d e r i e s \" , of Greece please the audience l i k e a good meal:\". . . g u i vous f o n t bon ventre\". L i k e R a b e l a i s , the author of Le Moyen de P a r v e n i r combines the c r e a t i o n of h i s book with food and d r i n k . In the \"Prologue\" to Gargantua Rabelais d e s c r i b e s the act c f w r i t i n g h i s book: Car, a l a composition de ce l i v r e s e i g n e u r i a l , je ne p e r d i z ne emploiay oncgues pl u s , ny a u l t r e temps gue c e l l u y g u i e s t o i t e s t a b l y a prendre ma r e f e c t i o n c o r p o r e l l e , s c a v o i r est beuvant et mangeant. . . . L'odeur du v i n , 6 combien plus est f r i a n t , r i a n t , p r i a n t , plus c e l e s t e et d e l i c i e u s e gue d ' h u i l l e ! * 3 Beroalde a l s o p r e s e n t s the i d e a of the author who j o y o u s l y f e a s t s while w r i t i n g when he reminds the reader that respected a n c i e n t authors wrote while d r i n k i n g and l a u g h i n g . In the same s p i r i t as R a b e l a i s 1 d i s m i s s a l of s e r i o u s , plodding work as unpleasant \" o i l \" i n the above passage, Be'roalde s a t i r i z e s h i s contemporaries who so solemnly study the a n c i e n t books, books t h a t were w r i t t e n as the authors drank and laughed: \". . . vous donnez vous t a n t de peine a g r i f o n n e r l e p a p i e r , pour l e b a r b o u i l l e r de commentaires sur 86 tant de f o l i e s des poetes S o r a t e u r s , S f o u i l l a u c c f r e s gui l e s ont e s c r i t e s en boivant 6 se r i a n t \" (1:129). It was perhaps the \"Prologue\" of R a b e l a i s ' T i e r s L i v r e which i n s p i r e d Beroalde to write of the a n c i e n t imbibing authors. Those who become too i n v o l v e d i n the s e r i o u s , j c y l e s s s i d e of l i t e r a t u r e do not understand the work i n i t s proper c o n t e x t . An u n f o r t u n a t e f a t e awaits them: \" l i s deviennent animaux f a n t a s t i g u e s , & r e s v e u r s , c o n e l a plus p a r t de ncs scavans gui sont tant veaux, gue l e s d i a b l e s aux heures de r e c r e a t i o n en f o n t des contes pour r i r e \" (I: 129). In another passage Beroalde l i n k s the act c f composition with the consumption of food. The s t y l e cf t h i s book, i t s tendency to jump e r r a t i c a l l y from s u b j e c t to s u b j e c t , and the v a r i e t y of t o p i c s i t i n c l u d e s i n a d i s o r d e r l y f a s h i o n are compared to the d i n i n g h a b i t s of a c e r t a i n \"bon homme Guyon\": .. . On luy donnoit de t o u t ce g u ' i l luy f a l l o i t , g u ' i l m e t t o i t en son e s c u e l l e , pain, c h a i r , scuppe, potage, souppe, potage, v i n , s e r t , d e s s e r t ensemble; S on l u y d i s o i t , \"Pourguoy ne mangez-vous S b o i v e z d'ordre 8 a part? --Ha ha, d i s o i t - i l , l o u r d a u t mon amy p u i s g u ' i l s se doivent mesler au ventre, i l n'y a p o i n t de danger de luy envoyer tout d e s j a mesle',\" De mesme cecy d o i t e s t r e mesle en v o s t r e c e r v e l l e , i l l e vous f a u t b a i l l e r tout mesle; l e personnage g u i vous p r o d u i t en tout honneur ces s a i n c t s memoires de p e r f e c t i o n , a pense gue l e t e x t e ne v a l l o i t pas mieux gue l e commentaire, parguoy i l l e s a f a i t a l l e r ensemble. (1:36) In t h i s manner the reader i s somewhat i n e l e g a n t l y i n v i t e d to d i g e s t the work i n i t s present form, with nc regard f o r order. 87 Beroalde's c h o i c e of a banguet s e t t i n g i s not unigue. This framework appears i n many an c i e n t works and i s f r e g u e n t l y the o r g a n i z i n g s t r u c t u r e of works by Beroalde's contemporaries. His ch o i c e of a banguet s e t t i n g thus r e f l e c t s not only the l i t e r a r y vogue of the time, but has ample l i t e r a r y precedents, ancient Greek and Boman w r i t e r s f r e g u e n t l y used the symposium as a forum f o r dialogued d i s p l a y of i d e a s . Works by P l a t o , Xenophon, P l u t a r c h , P e t r o n i u s , Athenaeus, and Macrobius f o r example, a l l e x p l o i t the banguet s e t t i n g . * * I t became i n c r e a s i n g l y popular i n Beroalde's century t o l o o s e l y bind together a s e r i e s of t a l e s , anecdotes or imaginary dialogue w i t h i n a c o n v e r s a t i o n a l framework, i n part due to the p o p u l a r i t y c f the a n c i e n t s . Works by Marguerite de Navarre, Jacques Yver, N i c o l a s de C h o l i e r e s , Benigne P o i s s e n c t , and Guillaume Bouchet demonstrate t h i s tendency.* 5 Among the d i f f e r e n t s i t u a t i o n s i n which„a group of speakers c c u l d be gathered, the banguet was one of the most e f f e c t i v e . But Eeroalde expands h i s t a b l e and h i s c o n v e r s a t i o n s f a r beyond that cf his contemporaries. The symposium which takes p l a c e i n Le Mcyen de P a r v e n i r not only e x p l o i t s the open, malleable framework of p r a n d i a l l i t e r a t u r e which preceeds i t , b u t , i t pushes that framework even f a r t h e r . Not j u s t a few speakers, but n e a r l y f o u r -hundred cl a i m the a t t e n t i o n of the reader. T h e i r 88 c o n v e r s a t i o n i s c a r r i e d forward by i n e b r i a t e d momentum and c a p r i c i o u s wordplay r a t h e r than by the l o g i c a l development of ideas which c h a r a c t e r i z e s other works i n t h i s form. The a c t i v e , c o m p e t i t i v e atmosphere of Beroalde's symposium i s de s c r i b e d i n a passage which t e l e s c o p e s the a c t i o n of the banguet i n t o one sentence: Et gue f a i s o i e n t t a n t de bonnes gens de l o i s i r ? V o i r e , mais gue f i t - o n l a ? On p a r l a , on mangea, on beut, on f i t s t , on se t e u t , on f i t du b r u i t , on p r o t e s t a , on re n c o n t r a , on r i t , on b a a i l l a , on e n t e n d i t , on d i s t p u t a , on c r a c h a , on moucha, on s'estonna, cn s' e s b a h i t , on admira, on gaussa, on r a p c r t a , cn e n t e n d i t , on b r o i i i l l a , on s ' e s c l a i r c i t , on d e b a t t i t , on s'accorda, on t r i n c a l'un a l ' a u t r e , cn s'acccuda, cn c r i a t o u t bas, on se t e u t tout haut, on se mocgua, cn murmura, on s ' a v i s a , on se r e p r i t , on se contenta, cn passa l e temps, on douta, on redouta, on s ' a s s a g i t , cn d e v i n t , on p a r v i n t . (1:43) As can be seen i n t h i s passage, even though the framework c f Le Moyen de P a r v e n i r may be s i m i l a r t c that c f ether l i t e r a r y symposiums w r i t t e n or read i n the XVIth cen t u r y , the banquet of Le Moyen de P a r v e n i r has more i n common with an animated C a r n i v a l than with a t r a d i t i o n a l symposium. In the t r a d i t i o n of the S a t u r n a l i a , Beroalde's banquet provides a s e t t i n g conducive to spontaneous a c t i v i t y and f r e e t a l k , * 6 and i t does so aided by wine. Wine, a t r a d i t i o n a l i n g r e d i e n t i n the f e s t i v a l , f r e e s the ima g i n a t i o n and loose n s the tongue. I t lowers i n h i b i t i o n s and encourages a f o o l i s h n e s s not normally t o l e r a t e d . Wine flows l i b e r a l l y both at the banguet t a b l e and throughout the anecdotes i n the dialog u e of Le Moyen de P a r v e n i r , and i t s 89 e f f e c t s are f e l t i n the v o l a t i l e , u n i n h i b i t e d c c n v e r s a t i o n . I t s presence at the banquet and i t s r o l e i n the co n v e r s a t i o n s r e v e a l wine t o be a u n i f y i n g l e i t m o t i v and one cf the major elements i n the c r e a t i o n of the c a r n i v a l e s g u e atmosphere, i n Le Moy_en de. P a r ve n j.r. Since d r i n k i n g c o n s t i t u t e s one of the major a c t i v i t i e s at the banguet s e t by Beroalde, wine i s e s t a b l i s h e d as an important i n g r e d i e n t very e a r l y . I t i s the f i r s t d e t a i l attended to a f t e r the a r r i v a l of the guests. The meeting begins only a f t e r c e r t a i n p r e p a r a t i o n s have been made, and care of the wine i s one of these p r e p a r a t i o n s : \"quand nous fusmes assemble?, que tout f u t p r e s t , l e v i n dans l e s vaisseaux plongez en .l'eau f r a i s c h e pour se r a f r a i s c h i r , a u s s i le p r a c t i g u e autrement s e r o i t b o i r e a c l o c h e p i e d \" (1:13).,ft s p i r a l i n g d i g r e s s i o n cn the s u b j e c t of wine then covers three pages i n these opening paragraphs.* 7 T h i s s e t s the scene f o r the \"doctes tuveurs\" (1:16) who assemble around the banguet t a b l e and partake generously, r e i n f o r c i n g t h e i r f r a t e r n i t y with \" l a l i g u e u r arrousante, l a douce rosee de nature, l e sucre de l ' A u r c r e \" (I: 142) . C r i e s f o r more wine and e x h o r t a t i o n s t c d r i n k are heard throughout the book, c r e a t i n g the impression of a spontaneous, a u t h e n t i c b a c c h a n a l i a . The guests i n c i t e each ether to consume more: \" T a i s t o i pauvre cheval & beys\" (1:128), and u r g e n t l y request .more wine from anyone who w i l l b r i n g i t : \"Je te p r i e , page, l a g u a i s , novice, enfant de 90 choeur, leuron de 1' A n t e c h r i s t ; g u i gue tu s c i s , donne mcy a b o i r e \" (1:126). I n t e r j e c t i o n s such as these punctuate the t e x t , c o n s t a n t l y reminding the reader t h a t a d r i n k i n g bout i s i n pr o g r e s s . The speakers pause t o , c a t c h t h e i r breath i n the giddy c o n v e r s a t i o n , \"0 ca, j'ay assez p a r l e sans b o i r e , ca, page, b a i l i e m'en\" (11:253), and with each pause they r e f r e s h themselves with wine. They ask f o r mere fcod and dri n k , i n t e g r a t i n g the banguet i n t o t h e i r c o n v e r s a t i o n s : \"Eh bi e n , boivons, 8 me donnez un p e t i t de c e s t c r c u s t e de past£\" (11:133). 4 8 \"Erasmus\" uses a c a l l to drink as an excuse to q u i e t the others so t h a t he may speak: \" B c i v e z un t r a i t tout p l a i n , 8 me l a i s s e z d i r e ou j ' o u b l i e r a y t o u t \" (1:147). The host f r e q u e n t l y urges the company to d r i n k , admonishing them f o r t a l k i n g too much and n e g l e c t i n g t h e i r g l a s s e s : \"Nous ne boivons p o i n t ; h o l a ! Vous causez a s s e z \" (11:186). At another poin t he l o u d l y i n t e r r u p t s the party and s i l e n c e s P e t r o n i u s who i s about to speak: P e t r o n i u s v o u l u t d i r e sa r a t e l e e , mais i l rengaina son d i s c o u r s par l a bouche, pource que l e ben homme nostre hoste v i n t c r i a n t tout haut comme un b e l i e r esgare; \"ga enfans, §a ca Messieurs, c ' e s t assez c a u s l , i l f a u t se reposer & l ' l t a l i a n o sermonisme: boivons 8 f a i s o n s une pause aux d i s c o u r s \" . (I:137) At other times he i n t e r v e n e s to delay a d i s c u s s i o n u n t i l the gl a s s e s have been r a i s e d again, postponing a t c p i c with a c a l l to d r i n k : \"Bemettez-le a t a n t o s t gue nous aurons teu\" (1:142). 4 9 He a l s o c u t s s h o r t a d i s c u s s i o n d e c i s i v e l y i n the same manner: \"Or boivez pour d e c i d e r c e t t e a f f a i r e \" (11:70), 91 and g e n e r a l l y assures that wine i s not n e g l e c t e d amid the p r o d i g i o u s v e r b a l outpouring of the b a n g u e t . 5 0 alongside the obvious importance of wine p h y s i c a l l y present on the banguet t a b l e , i t f r e g u e n t l y r e c u r s as a t o p i c of t a b l e c o n v e r s a t i o n , i n d i c a t i n g i t s high p r i o r i t y i n the minds of the bangueters. Wine sometimes appears as the t o p i c f o r i n c o n s e q u e n t i a l or fatuous v e r b a l exchanges: . . . vas c h a t o i i i l l e r ce f l a c c o n de v i n , S me d i s s ' i l e s t masle ou f e m e l l e . — O u y da, i l y a malse S fem e l l e de v i n ; l e blanc e s t l e masle. (11:247) Mais encor, nostre maistre vous gui sqavez gue l e pain e s t plus ancien gue l e v i n , d'ou v i e n t gu'estant l e pain en l a bouche, i l est long temps \"a se demener ck & l a , avant que t r o u v e r l e chemin de l a v a l l e e , & l e v i n tout i n c o n t i n e n t l e trouve? — C e mystere n'est pas de vostre r e l i g i o n : C'est pour ce g u ' i l y a plus d ' e s p r i t en une p i n t e de v i n , g u ' i l n'y a en un b c i s s e a u de b l e d . (1:15 ) 5 1 C r i e s f o r more wine and e x h o r t a t i o n s to d r i n k are a l s o complemented by commentaries on the s e n s u a l d e l i g h t s cf d r i n k i n g . As the banguet b e g i n s , the promise of f u t u r e pleasure gleams p r o p h e t i c a l l y from the b o t t l e s arranged on the banguet t a b l e : \" l e s vaisseaux e s t o i e n t dignement arrengez s e l o n l e u r merite, ne plus ne moins gue l e s vers des S y b i l e s , 5 2 couvrans sous l e u r s a i n c t e cabale l e s plus savoureuses i n t e l l i g e n c e s du bien f u t u r . \" (1:15). The \" b i e n f u t u r \" becomes more t a n g i b l e as the guests i n d u l g e not only i n consuming the beverage, but i n d e s c r i b i n g the p l e a s u r e s to be d e r i v e d from d r i n k i n g wine, One speaker wishes to 92 prolong the p l e a s u r e by extending h i s p a l a t e to exaggerated p r o p o r t i o n s . He expresses t h i s wish through a play cn the word fialais ( p a l a c e - p a l a t e ) : Ne s g a i s - t u p o i n t gue depuis gue l e v i n a j o i n t l ' e p i g l i o t t e i l n'est plus f a v o r a b l e ; i l convient, pour bien s o u h a i t e r en cet a f f a i r e , d e s i r e r a v o i r l e p a l a i s a u s s i long gue c e l u y de P a r i s , . . . a f i n que l a l i q u e u r arrousante, l a douce rosee de nature, l e sucre de l ' A u r o r e , on s e n t i t une vraye rage de bien, t a n d i s g u ' e l l e p a s s e r o i t par ces c o u l i s i n f r a c t u e u x . (1:142) The \"vraye rage de b i e n \" d e s c r i b e d by t h i s speaker i s put i n t o other words by the n a r r a t o r who a l s c speaks of the pleasure he d e r i v e s from the a c t of i m b i b i n g : \"Scavez-vous bien pourguoi j'ayme t a n t a b o i r e ? c ' e s t pcurce gue j'ay une b e l l e joye guand i l me p l e u t dans l e v e n t r e . \" (1:145). Unlike the animals, p l e a s u r e prompts man to d r i n k even when not t h i r s t y : Hercules. Pourguoy es t - c e gu'un asne ne b c i t pas s ' i l n'a s o i f ? C a l v i n . F a i t e s v o s t r e p r o p o s i t i o n v i v e . H e r c u l e s . Je ne m'esbahis s i tu f u s h e r e t i g u e ; va, je te l e d i r a y , c ' e s t pource q u ' i l ne b c i t que de l ' e a u ; que s ' i l b e u v o i t du v i n , i l b o i r o i t a tous momens, comme un bon T h e o l o g i e n . . . ( I I : 2 8 - 2 9 ) 5 3 The immediate s a t i s f a c t i o n of the senses provided by wine recommends i t h i g h l y to the pleasure seeking r e v e l l e r s i n Le Moyen de P a r v e n i r . The p h y s i c a l need i n d i c a t e d by t h i r s t i s not a necessary f a c t o r , nor i s a s p e c i a l o c casion necessary, as the f o l l o w i n g r i d d l e i l l u s t r a t e s : \"En guel temps l e v i n e s t i l m e i l l e u r ou bon? D i t t e s Messieurs. — C ' e s t , d i t l'un guand on a grand s o i f ; \" l ' a u t r e , \"C'est en e s t e . — V o i r e , d i t f r e r e flnselme. 93 c ' e s t en hyver au s o i r guana* on s ' e s t bien x o u t i aupres de f e u . \" A l b e r t l e Grand. — V o u s n'y estes pas, c'est guand on l e b o i t , gue l'on l e j e t t e a pcignee dans l e corps.\" (1:141-2 )5 * The p l e a s u r e s of wine are o f t e n mentioned along with those of l a u g h t e r . The two are d e s c r i b e d as \" l e s orgues de l a l i e s s e \" (I:108). Both are e s s e n t i a l elements of C a r n i v a l and add to the f e s t i v e atmosphere. D r i n k i n g and.laughter are two of the four \" c a r d i n a l v i r t u e s \" of t h i s ccmpany: \"L a i s s o n s ces Theologiens avec l e u r s v e r t u s T h e c l c g a l e s ; guant a nous, suivons l e s guatre C a r d i n a l e s , g u i sont, B i r e , Banger, B o i r e , & Dormir. T e l l e s sont nos.vertus.\" (1:299) 5 5 These f e s t i v e v i r t u e s ( l a u g h t e r , e a t i n g , and d r i n k i n g ) a l s o enumerated by the f o o l - s o c i e t y of D i j o n , 5 6 abound i n Le Moyen de P a r v e n i r . The host e x p r e s s l y combines l a u g h t e r and wine i n a burlesgue t r a v e s t y of l e g a l jargon, urging the company to a v a i l themselves of t h e i r r i g h t f u l p l e a s u r e s : En d e p i t de t o u t e s s o r t e s de s o t s , boivons, r i o n s , ce sont des a c c i d e n s de concomitance, l i a s c n s de compagnies, r e l a t i o n s l e g i t i m e s , conseguences d ' u s u f r u i c t , c ' e s t nostre part guand nous y sommes; & de f a i t r i r e c ' e s t ce g u i contente l e p l u s , 5 g u i couste l e moins; s ' i l en e s t o i t a i n s i de b o i r e , le ben v i n ne c o u s t e r o i t gueres. (1:140) In t h i s i n v i t a t i o n to d r i n k and laugh there i s an attempt to j u s t i f y enjoyment of them both; the p s e u d o l e g a l i s t i c jargon, \"accidens de concomitance, l i a s c n s de compagnies, r e l a t i o n s l e g i t i m e s , conseguences d ' u s u f r u i c t \" , emphasizes i n a comic f a s h i o n the l e g i t i m a t e r i g h t the guests have to wine and 94 l a u g h t e r . 5 7 The t i p p l e r s a l s o a s s o c i a t e wine with e r o t i c p l e a s u r e s , suggesting i t s a p h r o d i s i a c p r o p e r t i e s . The ardent f i s h w i v e s , c o l o u r f u l l y d e s c r i b e d by the host, are l u s t y winebibbers: \"Voyez,, je vous p r i e , l e s p o i s s o n i e r e s , l e s g u e l l e s pour a v o i r t o u s j o u r s l a main en l»eau, S feu au c u l , ont l e s joue's v e r m e i l l e s , e l l e s sent g a i l l a r d e s , aimant l e ben v i n , t o u s j o u r s estans en a p p e t i t . \" (1.1:71) Another speaker d i p s i n t o the c a r n i v a l e s g u e fund of r i b a l d e x p r e s s i o n s and s t a t e s c o a r s e l y : \" V o i r e , v i n chauffe S cas f r c t t ^ 5 8 ne tendent gu»a pauvrete\"S9 ( i i ; 3 3 ) . Not only i s imbibing a major banguet a c t i v i t y , and the pleasure i t b r i n g s a source of c o n v e r s a t i o n , but the v i r t u e s to be found i n t h i s element encourage d r i n k i n g and supply yet another s u b j e c t of d i s c u s s i o n . The speakers c l a i m that i t enhances the i n d i v i d u a l both p h y s i c a l l y and s p i r i t u a l l y . The n a r r a t o r urges h i s f r i e n d s , i n c l u d i n g the reader to seek good h e a l t h i n wine: \"Or mes c h e r s amis que j'aime de toute ma f r e s s u r e . . . vivoris 8 boivons selon nos merites, i l ne nous faudra p o i n t de b e s i d e s sur l e s a u r e i l l e s pour en destourner l e rhume, ny de c o t t o n dans l e nez pour l'empescher.\" (1:85). Wine, l i k e l a u g h t e r , i s s a i d to promote w e l l - b e i n g : \" l e r i r e pour l'ame, & l e v i n pour l e corps\" (1:140). wine can even help cure the body: \"Ceux g u i sont un peu malades, & se r e n f o r c e n t a b c i r e 6 a manger g u a r i s s e n t ; a u s s i l'on ne meurt que de f a u t e de boire & 95 manger, 8 bref de s ' a b s t e n i r de f a i r e l e s vertus C a r d i n a l e s . \" (Il:120).«o Good h e a l t h i s not the only v i r t u e the speakers a t t r i b u t e to wine; they suggest that through wine one can als o improve the i n t e l l e c t , f o r t r u t h i s found i n wine. A v a r i a t i o n on the theme of i n vino V e r i t a s appears i n the f i r s t d i s c u s s i o n of wine: Ayez de bons f l a c c o n s , pour y tro u v e r par l e u r moyen l a v e r i t e , comme f i t Democrite, gui enda l a trouva au fonds du p u i t s . Ie Boy a v o i t f a i t f a i r e un p u i t s , g u i resp o n d o i t Ii une v i e i l l e c a r r i e r e , cu Democrite a l l o i t souvent se r a f f r a i s c h i r . En ce p u i t s on r a f f r a i s c h i s o i t l e v i n du Roy; Democrite s'en apperceut, 8 a l i a avant d ' e s t r e aveugle j o l i m e n t prendre l e bon v i n g i s a n t en f l a c c o n s dans I'eau du p u i t s , 6 trouva gue c ' e s t c i t l a verite que l e v i n v a l l o i t mieux gue l' e a u . ( 1 : 1 5 ) 6 1 The \" t r u t h \" d i s c o v e r e d i n t h i s account i s not the a l l -encompassing t r u t h which i s d i v i n e knowledge or wisdom, 6 2 but i n s t e a d , i n a very l i m i t e d meaning of the word, t h i s t r u t h merely e s t a b l i s h e s a r e l a t i v e value of wine. T r u t h and wine are connected i n two other passages; each time \" t r u t h \" i s used i n a d i f f e r e n t c o n t e x t , but the r e s u l t i n g statement always promotes d r i n k i n g . Wine, i t i s suggested, a l s o possesses the power to fce of s p i r i t u a l b e n e f i t t o the consumer. E a r l y i n the t e x t , wine i s endowed with p r o p h e t i c q u a l i t i e s through comparison with \" l e s vers des S y b i l e s \" , 6 3 and i n v e s t e d with a sense cf mystery, understood only by the i n i t i a t e s . The n a r r a t o r , i n tones of s e l f - p a r o d y , pretends to be above the common 96 people, r e f e r r i n g to them as \"bonnes gens, gui ne scavent pas l e s mysteres mysterieux du v i n , comme ncus a u t r e s philosophes\" (1:16). T h i s mock h e r o i c stance, \"nous autres philosophes\", parodies the a t t i t u d e cf the a l c h e m i s t s , a s t r o l o g e r s , and others who seek an e s o t e r i c , r e v e a l e d t r u t h . C r i t i c i s m of hermetic c h a r l a t a n s can be found elsewhere i n Le Moyen de P a r v e n i r as well as i n other c f Beroalde's works.** These enigmatic suggestions of s p i r i t u a l g u a l i t i e s lead to more developed statements i n which the v i r t u e s a t t r i b u t e d to wine g i v e i t a mock . r e l i g i o u s aura. The author f a c e t i o u s l y a s s o c i a t e s wine with C a t h o l i c i s m and water with heresy: \" B o i r e du v i n , c'est e s t r e bon C a t h c l i g u e , 5 mettre trop d'eau e s t se s e n t i r de l ' h e r e s i e , ne b o i r e gue de l'eau , & a v o i r l e v i n en haine, e st pure h e r e s i e ncyable, approchant de l'atheisme.\" (1:62). T h i s kind o f a s s o c i a t i o n i s what one would expect from the c a r n i v a l e s g u e parodies such as \"Le Sermon de b i e n - b o i r e \" , \" L * I n v i t a t o r e bachigue\", or during t r a v e s t i e s of the r e l i g i o u s s e r v i c e s performed during the Feast of F o o l s . 6 5 According to the n a r r a t o r i n Le Moyen de P a r v e n i r , d r i n k i n g i s thus f u l l y approved, even encouraged by the C a t h o l i c church. As f o r the P r o t e s t a n t s , the reader must assume that the words of C a l v i n are meant to i n d i c a t e h i s s e c t ' s a t t i t u d e on the s u b j e c t of wine: \" C a l v i n : Ne sgavez vous pas gue je boy S mange s i peu g u ' i l me f a u t e s t r e en repos pour p a s t u r e r ? a v i s e z , j e ne mange 97 pas t a n t gue beaucoup de personnes, 8 s i tout l e v i n du monde e s t o i t l a , je n'en b c i r o i s pas l e q u a r t . \" (11:156). Use of i r o n i c understatement, \" j e n'en b c i r o i s pas l e quart\", humorously r e v e a l s the reformer's l e a n i n g s . Eoth a t t i t u d e s r e f l e c t the same assessment of the t o p i c : Indulge! Dri n k i n g thus has. the a p p r o v a l of the r e l i g i o u s s e c t s represented at the banguet, and a l l guests are encouraged to drink \"en bon Theologien\". Only the r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of the sober o u t s i d e world disapprove, but they are dismissed as h e r e t i c s because of t h e i r p r e f e r e n c e f o r water, the element of s o b r i e t y : \"ne b o i r e gue de l'eau, 8 a v o i r l e v i n en haine, est pure h e r e s i e noyable\" (1:62). Those who do not partake could never j o i n i n the i n e b r i a t e d whirlwind of the banguet, but these sober s o u l s are banished to the s t r a i g h t -s i d e d world o u t s i d e . In another passage, the legendary rowdy, fiercules taunts C a l v i n f o r being too sober: \" t u v e n i s t i s o b r i u s ad evertendam rempublicam\" (11:29). In t h i s case E e r c u l e s seems to r e f e r to C a l v i n ' s r e p u t a t i o n o u t s i d e the banguet r a t h e r than h i s present behaviour. S o b r i e t y has no place i n the world e s t a b l i s h e d i n s i d e t h e i r h a l l , because i t would upset the c a r n i v a l w i t h i n . The f a i t h f u l convene i n s i d e , i n s p i r e d and c a r r i e d away by the o b j e c t of t h e i r p r a i s e s . The eulogy sometimes approaches the i n t o n a t i o n of a l i t a n y , and the act of r a i s i n g a g l a s s a c q u i r e s the value c f a sacrament: \"C'est l e bon v i n de Madame gui me f a i t a i n s i d i r e , 0 l i g u e u r 98 prophetigue, benigne humeur gui nous f a i t d c c t e s , r a d o u c i s nos a d v e r s i t e z , S r e s j o u l s l e s coeurs g u i ont faute de c o n s o l a t i o n s a l u t a i r e \" ( 1 : 3 1 0 ) . 6 6 The i n v o c a t i o n of wine as a p a c i f y i n g agent, \"benigne humeur qu i nous f a i t doctes, r a d c u c i s ncs a d v e r s i t e z . . . \", repeats the message of the seeming non s e g u i t u r outburst by the n a r r a t o r i n h i s i n t r o d u c t o r y statements: Qui a pensez vous, este cause de l a guerre de Troye, du s i e g e de Babylon, de l a r u i n e de Thebes, de l a venue de 1 * A n t e c h r i s t , £ de t a n t d f a u t r e s malheurs dont l e s vrayes & fausses h i s t o i r e s nous amusent? B o u t e i l l e s cassees, 6 v i n respahdu. (1:16) Lack of wine r e s u l t e d , a c c o r d i n g to t h i s informant, i n war and other examples of human d i s c o r d . The i m p l i c a t i o n s are c l e a r ; wine c o n t r i b u t e s to the cause of human peace, and thus i s a p o s i t i v e and v a l u a b l e substance. The p a c i f y i n g powers of wine are i n f a c t put to the t e s t w i t h i n the banguet i t s e l f . Anger and the t h r e a t c f v i o l e n c e , always c l o s e t o the s u r f a c e i n the l i b e r a t i o n cf a c a r n i v a l e s g u e environment,* 7 t h r e a t e n the present banguet. Although wine may be p a r t l y r e s p o n s i b l e f o r the v o l a t i l i t y cf the company's emotions, at the same time i t se r v e s another important f u n c t i o n as a p a c i f i e r . Rage sc overcomes one c h a r a c t e r , A l c i b i a d e s , that he l o s e s the power to a r t i c u l a t e p r o p e r l y : \"Non, ou je me contamine, je m'abomine, je d e t e s t e , je t r a n t e m i l l e , j e p r e c i p i t e , j * h o r r i b l e , j e . . . ..\" (1:288). Unable to continue, he ends the u t t e r a n c e , 99 presumably because the words, which were a l r e a d y scrambled, no longer came at a l l , His anger p a r a l y z e s h i s power cf speech. Another c h a r a c t e r however, calms him and o f f e r s wine as a cure: \"0 t a i s e z , t a i s e z vous. F a i c t e s l e b c i r e , g u ' i l ne s o i t enrag4\". Wine thus helps to soothe h i s anger and r e c a l l h i s senses. Another a l t e r c a t i o n , t h i s time between U l d r i c and Scot, i s a l s o s u b j e c t e d t o the c u r a t i v e e f f e c t s of wine. U l d r i c l o s e s h i s temper and c a l l s Scot an ign o r a n t l i a r : \"Vous en avez menti, au r e s p e c t de Dieu\" (1:156). The hostess attempts to g u e l l the outburst by e x h o r t i n g them to d r i n k : \"Quoy, gu*est-ce l a , v o i r e , & f a u t - i l gue l e s gens doctes v i v e n t a i n s i ? Boivez 5 vous accordez\"_ (1:156). U l d r i c i s calmed by her sugg e s t i o n and r e t i r e s to h i s d r i n k , promising to be q u i e t : \"Or s o i t ce q u i en pourra e s t r e , je me tay, & vous en l a i s s e t o u t f a i r e , je m'en v c i s me c o n s o l e r avec l e f l a c o n , je vous f a y juge de tout Madame\" (1:156). Thus wine, which f r e e s the i n h i b i t i o n s and r e l e a s e s the passions can al s o serve t o soothe emotions, g u i e t tempers and c o n s o l i d a t e the f e e l i n g s of f r i e n d s h i p . As mentioned above, l a u g h t e r i s sometimes c l o s e l y a s s o c i a t e d with wine, but on i t s own adds to the cacophony of f e s t i v e sound. Laughter and f e s t i v e n o i s e are a l s o present at the banquet and add to the impression of c a r n i v a l . One chapter i s a p p r o p r i a t e l y e n t i t l e d \"Bisee\", an e p i t h e t w e l l - s u i t e d to the mood cf the symposium. 100 Democrites, the l a u g h i n g p h i l o s o p h e r , i s one of the f i r s t of the famous guests to be i n t r o d u c e d (I:15). Outbursts cf l a u g h t e r are o f t e n heard as the merrymakers express t h e i r amusement during the f e a s t . I n t e r j e c t i o n s such as \"Ha, he h i h i e e e\" (11:128), and \"Ha ha he, ga c a \" (11:191), e t c . , punctuate the d i a l o g u e . 6 8 The reader i s c o n s t a n t l y reminded of a laughing C a r n i v a l crowd, not only by these noisy p e a l s of l a u g h t e r f r e g u e n t l y i n t e r j e c t e d i n t o the n a r r a t i v e , but by the author's d e s c r i p t i o n of the guest's a c t i v i t e s : \"Toute l a compagnie s'esmeut a r i r e , 8 nous nous trcuvasmes jcyeux S a l e g r e s comme une b e l l e troupe de jeunes ou nouveaux Cardinaux\" (1:206). The company i s h i g h l y amused by Socrates at another p o i n t , and they do not attempt to r e s t r a i n t h e i r l a u g h t e r : Tout l e monde jusgues aux Anges 5 aux serpens, sans l e s p i e r r e s S c a i l l o u x qui en c r e v e r e n t , se mit a r i r e s i f o r t , que l a mule du Cure s a i n t Eustache en f o i r a de s i pure joye, que l a v i e en f a i l l i t par l e fcndement. (1: 221-22) The l o s s of p h y s i c a l c o n t r o l as an extreme r e s u l t of laughter was a documented p h y s i o l o g i c a l r e a c t i o n at the t i m e . 6 9 In t h i s t e x t i t adds to the impression cf u n c o n t r o l l a b l e and i n e b r i a t e d h i l a r i t y i n the symposium. Laughter a l s o e n t e r s i n t o the banguet as a s u b j e c t cf c o n v e r s a t i o n . The d i a l o g u e touches on the v i r t u e s c f l a u g h t e r and d e s c r i b e s them i n terms s i m i l a r t c the p r a i s e o f f e r e d to w i n e . 7 0 The c u r a t i v e e f f e c t s of l a u g h t e r , l i k e 101 those a t t r i b u t e d to wine, were h i g h l y regarded by some a u t h o r i t i e s in Beroalde's t i m e . 7 1 Whether Eeroalde, as a medical doctor, was f a m i l i a r with academic theory on t h i s i s s u e , or i f the a s s o c i a t i o n came to him from popular s o u r c e s , 7 2 he i n c l u d e s anecdotes i n which l a u g h t e r i s a remedy: A i n s i gue Madame e s t o i t tres-malade, & gue l'on p e n s c i t g u ' e l l e e x p i r a s t , e n v i r o n l a minuict on v i n t a p p e l l e r monsieur l e Docteur, gue se j e t t e du l i c t ; c r a - t ' i l une coustume de dormir sans chemise . . . . II se le v e en s u r s a u t , S pour a l l e r s e c o u r i r Madame i l met sur ses espaules l e manteau de son v a l l e t , premier trouve, . . Le manteau ne l u i p a s s o i t pas l e nc m b r i l , & ce personnage e n t r a en l a chambre, ou P r e s t r e s , Gentilhommes, Dames S au t r e s e s t c i e n t . A son ent r e e , tout chacun se mit a r i r e , . . . S Madame gui r e v i n t a ce b r u i t eut l a mesme v i s i o n gue l e s a u t r e s , s'en p r i t s i f o r t a r i r e g u ' e l l e f i t un pet 5 f u t gua r i e . (11:125) An a i l i n g m i n i s t e r i s a l s o cured when a humorous remark at h i s bedside prompts him to laugh: \"Ce bon M i n i s t r e se p r i n t s i f o r t a r i r e , g u ' i l f u t tout guery . . .\" (1:54). The recovery of these persons i l l u s t r a t e s the p o s i t i v e value of l aughing, and thus encourages by example the t o r r e n t s c f b o i s t e r o u s l a u g h t e r which c a r r y along the n a r r a t i v e . Throughout the book f e s t i v e noise i s present., Eesides the o u t b u r s t s of spontaneous l a u g h t e r , the c h a r a c t e r s i n t e r r u p t each other arid n o i s i l y c a l l a t t e n t i o n to themselves. The c o n v e r s a t i o n i s b o i s t e r o u s and c o m p e t i t i v e ; they even go so f a r as t o eguate speech with l i f e , s a y i n g that he who d r i n k s must stop speaking, f o r the s i l e n c e i s 102 l i k e f l i r t i n g with death. One c o u l d almost say the banguet i s b u i l t on the precept Je jjarJLe, done j e s u i s : \"Va te promener, 8 me d i s l a r a i s o n g ui f a i t gue l'on b o i t l e s uns aux au t r e s . — C ' e s t pcurce gue c e l u i gui b o i t perd l a p a r o l e , 8 devant g u ' i l l u i avienne, i l p r i e gue l'on l ' a s s i s t e s ' i l l u i s u r v e n c i t danger, t a n d i s g u ' i l e s t a i n s i e n t r e l a v i e 8 l a mort, comme une ame q u i s o r t de P u r g a t o i r e , ou gui pense y a l l e r . (1: 225) The v e r b a l c o mpetition causes Erasmus t c complain: \" I l y a plus de cinguante ans gue j e n'avois tant p a r l e sans e s t r e e s c o u t l \" (1:146). Sometimes v o i c e s are r a i s e d above the l e v e l of the d i n to a t t r a c t a t t e n t i o n . The host uses t h i s technigue: \". . . Le bon homme nos t r e haste v i n t c r i a n t tout haut comme un b e l i e r esgare, 'Qa enfans, 9a ca Messieurs, c ' e s t assez cause . . .\" (1:137). At other times v o i c e s are lowered, to pass on a p r i v a t e communication. 7 3 The v a r i a n c e i n p i t c h amid the hubbub reminds the reader that the banguet i n progress has an a c o u s t i c dimension., _ Other sounds a l s o i n t e r r u p t the banguet, some of which are d i s t i n c t l y c a r n i v a l e s q u e : A i n s i que je demandois a b o i r e , v c i l a un grand b r u i t . — Q u o i , dismes nous, e s t l a l e r e s u l t a t de guelque Pape qui se f a i t , ou l e Tedeum d'un f a i t tout ncuveau? Non, ce d i t C a l e p i n , c ' e s t que l'on v i e n t de couper l e cou a Caresme, 8 nous en ouions l e b r u i t qui en r e t e n t i t de l ' E g l i s e n o s t r e Dame de P a r i s a Nantes. (11:251) The noise heard above the l a u g h t e r and the noisy c o n v e r s a t i o n evokes the Shr o v e t i d e season, f c r i t i s s a i d to be t h a t of a c a r n i v a l e s g u e e x e c u t i o n , \"on v i e n t de couper l e 103 cou a Careseme\". A l l of the above elements, d i s l o c a t e d time and space, masquerading c h a r a c t e r s , food, wine and f e s t i v e n c i s e c o n t r i b u t e to the c a r n i v a l e s g u e atmosphere of Ee\"rcalde's banguet. Upon c l o s e r i n s p e c t i o n the impression cf a f e s t i v a l i s s u b s t a n t i a t e d by numerous d e t a i l s . The r e g u l a r i t y of time i s i n t e n t i o n a l l y d i s r u p t e d , l e n d i n g a vague, i n d e f i n i t e g u a l i t y to the banquet. The p l a c e i s a l s o obscured, even though i t i s c l e a r l y separated from t h e . o u t s i d e world. The author himse l f steps i n and out of the l o o s e n a r r a t i v e , posing as both c r e a t o r and p a r t i c i p a n t , f r e g u e n t l y reminding the reader of h i s g u i d i n g presence and of the c r e a t i v e process. The f i g u r e s of a f e s t i v e gueen and king or cf a Mere Sotte and a pere bon temjjs are present i n Eeroalde's Madame Sophie and l e £ere s p i J E i t u e l . The u n i n h i b i t e d behaviour of the guests a l s o i m p l i e s a f e s t i v a l cr a f c o l -s o c i e t y meeting i n p r o g r e s s . A g r e a t v a r i e t y of c h a r a c t e r s are i n t r o d u c e d wearing t h e i r i d e n t i t i t e s l i k e C a r n i v a l masks or costumes of the popular t h e a t r e , and s u p e r n a t u r a l c r e a t u r e s a l s o mingle among the r e v e l l e r s . T r a d i t i o n a l l y part of the f e s t i v a l , the banguet emphasizes the m a t e r i a l aspect of the body and p r o v i d e s an excuse f o r f e s t i v e c o n v e r s a t i o n . The conspicuous presence of wine, both cn the t a b l e and i n the c o n v e r s a t i o n , a l s o adds to the c a r n i v a l e s g u e atmosphere. In a d d i t i o n to these f a c t o r s the b o i s t e r o u s l a u g h t e r and f e s t i v e noise of the company serve 104 to complete the impression of a l i b e r a t e d c e l e b r a t i o n which Beroalde presents to h i s reader. In order to d i s c o v e r how the f e s t i v e atmosphere serves Beroalde's purpose, the f o l l o w i n g chapter w i l l t u rn to the content of the c o n v e r s a t i o n around the t a b l e . . S p e c i f i c a l l y , i t w i l l c oncentrate on the a t t i t u d e of i r r e v e r e n c e and s a c r i l e g e which Le Mo^en de P a r v e n i r shares with f e s t i v e events l i k e the F e a s t of F o o l s , C a r n i v a l and the a c t i v i t i e s of the f o o l - s o c i e t i e s . 105 CHAPTER I I I : NOTES 1 No attempt has been made to modernize q u o t a t i o n s from the t e x t ; t h e r e f o r e accents, s p e l l i n g and punctuation as they stand i n the t e x t are resp e c t e d . 2 See above pp. 42-45. 3 Beroalde mentions a change from the estoeuf to the b a l l e i n Le P a l a i s des c u r i e u x (1612), as i f i t were a f a m i l i a r s u b j e c t , but does not gi v e any more d e t a i l s about i t . E. H. Clouzot , i n \"La Date du Moyen de P a r v e n i r \" , (Revue des Etudes R a b e l a i s i e n n e s , 9 ~{19\"l l77 \"1-437 Clouzot documents the event to which Beroalde r e f e r s : \" l ' e t e u f . . . e t a i t une b a l l e de c u i r remplie de bourre t r e s serrde dont on se s e r v a i t au jeu de paume, l ' a n c ^ t r e de notre t e n n i s moderne. Sa f a b r i c a t i o n o c c u p a i t un c e r t a i n nombre d ' o u v r i e r s appeles e s t e u f i e r s groupes en c o r p o r a t i o n . E s t - i l done v r a i gu'a un moment donn^ une gues t i o n de mode a i t s u b s t i t u e a c e t t e b a l l e c l a s s i g u e une b a l l e plus mclle et boulverse a i n s i l e s t r a d i t i o n s de ce jeu g u a s i - n a t i o n a l e ? Le f a i t e s t parfaitement exact. I l . s e t r c u v e r e l a t e dans l e r e c i t de voyage d'un A n g l a i s , Robert D a l l i n g t o n , g u i , aux environs de l'annee 1598, v i n t passer guelgues temps a P a r i s . . . .'Vous observez gue l e u r s b a l l e s sont en coton; mode g u ' i l s ont adopt! depuis sept ans: auparavant, e l l e s e t a i e n t en c u i r comme chez nous.* . . . c ' e s t done vers 1591 que s ' e s t i n t r o d u i t c e t t e mode n c u v e l l e dans l e s r e g i e s du jeu de paume.\" Despite the accuracy of t h i s o b s e r v a t i o n the date i n question i s not a u n i v e r s a l l y r e c o g n i z e d event, and the mention of a changeover to \"raolles b a l l e s \" as a ref e r e n c e p o i n t by which to l o c a t e Beroalde's banguet symposium i n time r e t a i n s i t s tone of parody through exaggerated p r e c i s i o n . * Time i s p l a y f u l l y d i s r u p t e d i n another passage which concerns the p u b l i c a t i o n of t h i s book, see 11:260, c i t e d below p. 62. s A date of p u b l i c a t i o n was not n e c e s s a r i l y i n c l u d e d cn the f r o n t i s p i e c e of bocks p u b l i s h e d during B e r c a l d e ' s time, and the l a c k of a date would not i n d i c a t e a d e l i b e r a t e omission. In t h i s case however, the \"date\" of p u b l i c a t i o n i s p u r p o s e f u l l y mentioned, demonstrating t h a t the p r e c i s e d e t a i l s are w i l l f u l l y withheld. 6 See above p. 60. 7 V.L. S a u l n i e r , \"Etude\", p. 309, assumes a 106 r e l a t i o n s h i p between Le Ro^en de P a r v e n i r and the numerous conferences h e l d around 1577 during which the question cf the E u c h a r i s t was d i s c u s s e d . S e v e r a l were held i n S w i t z e r l a n d where Beroalde was r e s i d i n g at t h a t time. J . P a l l i s t e r , World View, p. 104, a l s o imagines a r e l i g i o u s g a t h e r i n g , but she b e l i e v e s i t may be a papal symposium. R. Cohen, R h e t o r i c , p. 27, suggests a papal assembly. The C o u n c i l of Trent i s mentioned i n the t e x t (1:110, 11:70), g i v i n g weight to these t h e o r i e s . 8 S a u l n i e r , pp. 295-95, a l s o notes the s i m i l a r i t y between Le Mo^en de P a r v e n i r and the medieval Turba £ i i i i°S° £ l i O£ilSi a work c o n s i s t i n g of the c o n v e r s a t i o n a t an a l c h e m i c a l symposium: \"On s a i t que ce l i v r e , gui s ' o f f r e comme une a d a p t a t i o n abregee du S_yngde de l a Philoscj3hie de Pythagoras, f i g u r e un congres d ' a l c h i m i s t e s , presentes sous l e s noms des philosophies g r e c s antiques . . . d ' a i l l e u r s deformes par l e u r s t r a n s c r i p t i o n s s u c c e s s i v e s de grec en arabe et en l a t i n . . . .'On touche l a du d c i g t , c c n c l u t W. Ganzenmiiller, l ' e f f o r t f a i t pour e t a b l i r un r a p p o r t (des d o c t r i n e s alchimigues) avec l a . p h i l o s c p h i e grecgue, rapport gui demeure i c i tout a. f a i t s u p e r f i c i e l , l i m i t e aux noms, en e f f e t ce gue chague philosophe expose n'a r i e n a f a i r e avec ses propres d o c t r i n e s ! * Le procede de Eeroalde n ' e s t - i l pas une t r a n s p o s i t i o n burlesgue du mime prcce'de en un l i v r e dent toute l a p r e s e n t a t i o n n'est gue p a r o d i e ? \" . Many of the speakers i n Le Moyen de P a r v e n i r are famous a l c h e m i s t s : P a r a c e l s u s , L u l l e , Geber, Agrippa, Eeroalde was known to have an i n t e r e s t i n alchemy and had w r i t t e n a t r e a t i s e cn the s u b j e c t , Les Recherches de l a P i e r r e £hilo££_phale, 1583. 9 See H e i n r i c h Schneegans (St r a s s b u r g : Trubner, 1894), Geschicte der Grotesken S a t i r e , p. 289. He b r i e f l y notes a resemblance between Beroalde's s t y l e and that of Mere J c l l e but does not e l a b o r a t e . 1 0 D U T i l l i o t , w i f o i r e s , p u b l i s h e d s e v e r a l i n v i t a t i o n s to banquets of the I n f a n t e r i e D i j c n n a i s e , f o r example \" I n v i t a t i o n pour se t r o u v e r a l'Assembl^e de l ' I n f a n t e r i e D i j o n n a i s e \" , pp. 83-85: Je v i e n s de l a part de l a Mere, Mere aux Foux, S Sages prospere, Vous d i r e gue depuis long-terns, E l l e n'a vu son cher Bon-Tems, V o i c i l e jour g u i nous ^ v e i l l e , Qui l'entend ne f a u t gu'une o r e i l l e ; Le bon Pere est s i curieux De rendre ses Enfans heureux, Q u ' i l ne veut pas gue l ' c n l e u r vende, Chapon, P e r d r i x , Canard, n i viande, 107 Quelle g u ' e l l e s o i t a ce j u r , C r a i n t e de perdre son amour, Plus q u ' i l f a u t a ce que sa t a b l e S o i t en t c u t e s o r t e agreable . . . . 1 1 Beroalde had t r a n s l a t e d two cf these p a s t o r a l n o v e l s . La Diane (1592) by Jorge de Montemayor, and Le Scn.ce d§ „Il£EiI§ (1 600) by Francesco Colonna. He a l s o wrote a long novel i n the same s t y l e , Les flyantures de F l o r i d e , which appeared i n s i x volumes from 1593-1596. 1 2 See a l s o 1:194, \"Epanimondas\" r e t u r n s to the t a b l e . 1 3 i§ Moyen de F a r y e n i r , ed. Paul L a c r o i x ( P a r i s : G o s s e l i n , 184l7,~p. 2~ n o t e \" \" 1 4 Royer, (Index, p. 311) h e s i t a n t l y suggests that \"nostre pere se P u i s s e t u e r \" i s a pun on \"nostre pere s p i r i t u e l \" , a s p e c u l a t i o n repeated by S a u l n i e r , \"Etude\", p. 155. 1 5 Sound c l u s t e r s such as \"a l i c a m e n t - a l i m e n t e z \" and \" a l l e g r e s s e - v i t e s s e \" occur i n the f o l l o w i n g q u o t a t i o n from the I n f a n t e r i e D i j o n n a i s e . T h i s and s i m i l a r documents a l s o r e f l e c t the burlesque tone of Be'roalde's convocation i n numerous examples of exaggeration and s t r i n g s of s i m i l a r words. \"Les S u p e r l a t i g u e s & M i r e l i f i g u e s Lcppinans de L ' I n f a n t e r i e d i j o n n a i s e ; A tous Foux, flrchifoux, Lunatigues, Eventez, Minimes, Crochus, Almanachs vieux & ncuveaux, ei gui en voudra; S a l u t S gard; Sante', Escus, Ducats, P i s t o l l e s , Jacobus & autres Especes. Etant imbus, 5 alicament a l i m e n t e z de l a viande s o l i d e , S a u t r e s especes pansadices s e l o n l e terns, 5 dignement informez de l a l e g e r e t ^ des sens, moeurs, a l l e g r e s s e & v i t e s s e des machoires, h a r d i e s s e , f r i a n d i s e , g a l a n t i s e , s u f f i s a n c e & experience des dents.\" Du T i l l i o t , His2i£es, p. 77. 1 6 See f o r example the opening monologue i n the Jeu J u P r i n c e des Sots by Gringore : \" S c t z l u n a t i g u e s , Sotz e s t o u r d i s , Sotz sages, Sotz de v i l l e s , de c h a s t e a u l x , de v i l l a g e s , Sotz r a s s o t e z , Sotz n y a i s , Sotz s u b t i l z , Sotz amoureux, Sotz p r i v i e z , Sotz sauvages, S c t z vieux, ncuveaux, et Sotz de toutes ages, , . . Sott e s dames et S o t t e s d a m o i s e l l e s , S o t t e s v i e i l l e s , S o t t e s jeunes, n c u v e l l e s , . . . Le Mardy Gras jouera l e P r i n c e aux H a l l e s \" . Oeuyres comgletes de Gringore, ( P a r i s : Jannet, 1858), pp. 201-2. ~ 1 7 C i t e d by Du T i l l i o t , Hemoires, p. 83. (buse r e f e r s to a dim-witted person.) 108 1 8 Du T i l l i o t , p. 66. 1 9 In the \" S o t t i e des Trcmpeurs\" a l l those i n v i t e d are urged to spare no t r o u b l e i n a t t e n d i n g the c e l e b r a t i o n : \" S ' i l y a c l o s t u r e / Qui vous garde gue i c y ne povez pas, / Abbatez t o u t , rompez, f a i c t e s ouverture, / Et acccurez plus v i s t e gue l e pas\". Ancien Theatre v. 2, p. 244. Words spoken by the Roy des Sots i n the s o t i e of h i s name, i l l u s t r a t e the mandatory q u a l i t y of the i n v i t a t i o n sent cut to these devoted to him, p. 223: Pourguoy, sus peine de l'amende, Soyent en present ou absens Maintenant viennent tous, sans Delay ne e s t a t demander, Ne procureur pour eulx mander, Car a i n s i me p l a i s t e s t r e f a i c t , Ou aultrement de l e u r f o r f a i c t Les f a i r e griefment pugnir. Pensez doncgues tous de v e n i r Devant que e n c o u r i r mon i r e . 20 Du T i l l i o t , Wemoires, pp. 88-9, i n c l u d e s a sonnet addressed t o the Mere F o l l e of D i j o n , prcbably i n the e a r l y XVIIth century. I t i n d i c a t e s the s o r t of r e s p e c t t h i s f i g u r e i n s p i r e d : Mere, l e s e u l o b j e t de notre I n f a n t e r i e , Par g ui l e s sages Foux r e s p i r e n t a l ' e n v i , Autant que l e S o l e i l dans l'Olympe r e l u i t , A i n s i p u i ssent durer S ton l o s S ta v i e ! Que tous ces vieux Suppots, qui vers t o i se r a l l i e n t P u i s s e n t s ' e t e r n i s e r dans l ' o u b l i e u s e n u i t ! Que l 'on n'entende r i e n r e t e n t i r gue l e b r u i t , De trompette 8 Tambour de l a Mere-Folle! Bref, b r e f , cher Nourrisson d'Apollon 8 Minerve, Pour gui l e s sages Foux du s i e c l e se r e v e i l l e n t , Les T u t e l a i r e s Dieux p u i s s e n t f a v c r i s e r , Toujours vos beaux d e s s e i n s , 8 chez vous l e s graces Puissent sympatiser, 8 t o u j o u r s t r o u v e r p l a c e s , Et tous vos voeux e h f i n t o u j o u r s a u t o r i s e r ! 21 See the above sonnet, l i n e s 7-8. The Enfans de Bon^ Temj>s, a f o o l - s o c i e t y of Geneva, perfomed s o t i e s i n 1523 and 1524 i n which Mere Sotte and Bon Tem^s are mother and f a t h e r f i g u r e s . See Enid~Welsf6rd, The Fool,\"pp. 226-28. 22 Du T i l l i o t , Memoires, pp. 90, 105, 107. 109 2 3 Lg Moyen de E a r v e n i r , G a m i e r e d i t i o n ( P a r i s : G a r n i e r , n.d.), p. 192, note 2. 2 4 Royer i n c l u d e s an index of names c i t e d i n h i s e d i t i o n of Le Moy_en de P a r v e n i r , 11:277-303. 2 5 Ancient authors i n p a r t i c u l a r i n c l u d e d famous personnages i n t h e i r symposia, see below, note 45. The medieval Turba £hilosojphorum c i t e d by S a u l n i e r a l s o imagines the c o n v e r s a t i o n of a congress of famous a l c h e m i s t s , see above, note 8. 2 6 see a l s o 1:302, 303. 2 7 Roger C a i l l o i s , Les Jeux et l e s hommes ( P a r i s : G a l l i m a r d , 1958), pp. 42-3. 2 8 See f o r example, Le M i r a c l e de Theo_phile, Ed. Robert Harden (New York: Appletoh~Century\"crofts7~ 1961~) , pp. 57-84. Three X l l l t h century anecdotes about pacts with the d e v i l are a l s o found i n Mens a Philosojohica a t t r i b u t e d to Michael S c o t t , t r a n s . Arthur S. Way (London: Macmillan, 1936), pp. 7-8. 2 9 P e t i t de J u l l e v i l l e , La Comjdie et l e s moeurs en France au mo_yen-acje (1886; r p t . Geneva: S l a t k i n e , 1968), pp. 54-55. He confirms the l i n k between the f a b l i a u x and the f a r c e s : \" L ' i n f l u e n c e des f a b l i a u x sur l e s f a r c e s e s t i n c o n t e s t e e . L ' e s p r i t des deux genres e s t sensiblement l e m&me. Le f a b l i a u r aconte vivement dans un rythme c o u r t et dans un s t y l e a i s e , une aventure p l a i s a n t e ; l a f a r c e s'empare du m£me f a i t , et, dans l e meme s t y l e e t l a mime mesure, e l l e met en di a l o g u e e t en scene ce gue l e f a b l i a u a v a i t r a c o n t e . Ajoutons, ce g u i e s t frappant, gue l'epcgue cu l'on cesse de composer des f a b l i a u x e s t pr4cisement c e l l e ou l'on commence a 4 c r i f e l e s f a r c e s ; l e X H I e s i e c l e e t l e XlVe appartiennent aux f a b l i a u x ; l e XVe s i e c l e et l e XVIe aux f a r c e s . \" 3 0 see f o r example 1:257,268; 11:60, 78, 217, 221. 3 1 See f o r example 1:7-8, 77, 173, 182, 244, e t c . 3 2 \"Qui r i t , i l d i l a t e son e s p r i t , son coeur s'ouvre, et, ses pensees se manifestans, p a r c i s t comme en l'age de d e s i r a b l e innocence, sans f a r d et sans dcnner occasion de s i n i s t r e jugement . . . . E n r i a n t de coeur f r a n c , cn f a i t v o i r ce g u ' i l y a de bon en ce p e t i t c a b i n e t d ' a f f e c t i o n , . R i r e desirablement, c ' e s t e s t r e en une d i l a t a t i o n de courage, r a v i comme au c i e l en comble de l i e s s e . \" C i t e d by 110 S a u l n i e r , \"Etude\", p. 279. 3 3 The S a t u r n a l i a n f e s t i v a l i s remembered f o r i t s annual o v e r t u r n i n g of the s o c i a l h i e r a r c h y . See above pp. 25-26. 3 4 During C a r n i v a l and r e l a t e d f e s t i v a l s such as the Feast of Fools the i n v e r s i o n of the s o c i a l h i e r a r c h y e l e v a t e d the lower c l a s s e s to ephemeral p o s i t i o n s c f a u t h o r i t y . I t was t h i s group which then l e f t t h e i r i m p r i n t on the s t y l e of the f e s t i v a l . 3 5 See above Chapter I I , p. 33. 3 6 E. 0. James, Seasonal F e a s t s , p. 134, s t a t e s t h a t i n ancient Greece . . . \"a f e s t i v a l was i n very t r u t h a f e a s t , as indeed i t o f t e n s t i l l i s i n the more r u s t i c and remote pa r t s of Greece, f e a s t i n g being combined with music, dancing, games and merrymaking . . James a l s o observes, p. 319, t h a t \" i n the f o l k f e a s t s the a n c i e n t r i t u a l performed with such deadly earnestness i n the F e r t i l e Crescent before i t passed i n t o peasant Europe by.way'of the Eastern Mediterranean, the Danube and the A t l a n t i c l i t t o r a l , s u r v i v e d i n Masguerades, dances, and customs, p a r t l y s e r i o u s and p a r t l y f r i v o l o u s , but r e t a i n i n g the e s s e n t i a l f e a t u r e s and s t r u c t u r e of the e a r l i e r observances. In the process cf d i f f u s i o n i t l o s t much of i t s e a r l i e r s t e r n r e a l i t y and more s i n i s t e r elements, becoming the o c c a s i o n f o r popular r e l a x a t i o n , dancing, games, f e a s t i n g , c a r n i v a l and r e v e l r y i n a s e r i o - c o m i c . v e i n . \" 3 7 See the f a b l i a u \"Ie Pays de Cockaigne\", i n Fabliaux et contes des £o|tes f r a n ^ a i s des XI, XII, X I I I , XIV, et XVe sieclesT D.M7 M i o ~ ~ e d . \"(Pari s:~WarIe,~ 1 8 0 8 7 , v. \"~pp7~175-81. ~And \"Het L u i l e k k e r l a n d \" (\"The Land of Cockaigne\"), a p a i n t i n g by Peter Breughel (1567). 3 8 Bakhtin mentions the many v i l l a g e f a i r s c e l e b r a t e d i n the XVIth c e n t u r y , B a b e l a i s , p. 79. One has only to remember the f a i r s of Lyon during which R a b e l a i s sold h i s w r i t i n g s , and the wedding banguets, one of which i s turned i n t o a c a r n i v a l e s g u e t h r a s h i n g scene by R a b e l a i s , Le Cjuart Liy.£e» XV ( G a m i e r ed., I I , 8 1-84). F e a s t i n g was~alsc~an important p a r t of the a c t i v i t i e s of the f c c l - s c c i e t i e s i n the XVIth century. ' 3 9 A c e r t a i n gentleman i s reguested to appear before the I n f a n t e r i e D i j o n n a i s e and i f he comes armed, they hope i t w i l l only be with banguet a c c e s s o r i e s : S ' i l v i e n t g u ' i l n'apporte poin t d'armes, 111 Car l e s Foux c r a i g n e n t l e s a l l a r m e s , S i ce n'est avec bons jambons, Patez, b o u t e i l l e s , 8 F l a c c o n s . (Du T i l l i o t , p. 86). 4 0 Du T i l l i o t , Memoires, p. 72. He a l s o i l l u s t r a t e s the emphasis placed on banqueting a b i l i t i e s i n another passage, p. 74: \". . . La l e g e r e t e des sens, mceurs, a l l e g r e s s e de machoires, v i t e s s e , h a r d i e s s e , g a l a n t i s e , f r i a n d i s e , s u f f i s a n c e 8 experience t a n t des dents gu'autres memtres\". 4 1 A mock h e r o i c treatment of e a t i n g and d r i n k i n g appears a l s o i n the documents of the I n f a n t e r i e E i j o n n a i s e c i t e d by Du T i l l i o t , p. 81. A candidate i s p r a i s e d f c r h i s \" F a i t s heroiguez, sa dexterit<£ au maniment des Armes Bachigues . . . « » . 42 There are s e v e r a l d i r e c t r e f e r e n c e s to the banguet i n p r o g r e s s , and many s p e c i f i c mentions of the food and wine being consumed; see f o r example 1:8,17,23,42,145,216; II : 132,162,236,259, et £assim. .. 4 3 Rabelais, Garcjantua, ( Gamier ed. , I , 9). See a l s o i S T i e r s L i y r e \"Prologue\", (I, 398-99): \"Icy beuvant ^e d e l i b e r e , je d i s c o u r s , je r e s o u l z et c c n c l u d s . Apres l ' e p i l o g u e je r i z , j ' e s c r i p z , je compose, je boy. Ennius beuvant e s c r i v o i t , e s c r i v a n t b e u v o i t . Aeschylus . . Beuvoit composant, beuvant composoit. Homere jamais n ' e s c r i v i t a jeun. Caton jamais n ' e s c r i v i t gue apres boyre.\" 4 4 P l a t o (Sym£osium, c. 384-369 B.C.) recounts i n dialogue form the c o n v e r s a t i o n and events at a banguet; among other w e l l known men of the time present i s S o c r a t e s , a l s o a prominent giiest at Beroalde's banguet. , Xenophon (SyiEosium, c. 350 B.C.) was a l s o i n s p i r e d by the memory c f S o c r a t e s ' behaviour a t a banguet. The guest l i s t i s composed mainly of h i s t o r i c a l personnages. P l u t a r c h (Sjmjaosiacs, c. 46-120 A.D.) wrote an imaginary p r a n d i a l c o n v e r s a t i o n between wise men, some of them famous t h i n k e r s who l i v e d t h ree c e n t u r i e s before the author. P e t r o n i u s , d. 65 A.D., composed the S a t i r i c o n which i n c l u d e s the famous \"Dinner with T r i m a l c i o \" . The fragment c o n t a i n i n g the f e a s t scene could have i n s p i r e d Beroalde i f he had access to a copy.of i t . (The work was not o f f i c i a l l y d i s c o v e r e d u n t i l 1633.) Athenaeus (Dei£noso£hists, c, 200 AD.) g i v e s a lengthy r e c o r d of banguet c o n v e r s a t i o n touching on every aspect c f the l i f e of h i s time. Macrobius ( S a t u r n a l i a , c. 4C0 A.D.) r e l a t e s the c o n v e r s a t i o n which takes place at an imaginary banquet held d u r i n g the S a t u r n a l i a n f e s t i v a l . Though h i s guests do not behave i n s a t u r n a l i a n f a s h i o n as do Beroalde's, they g i v e v a l u a b l e i n f o r m a t i o n on the customs 112 surrounding t h a t f e s t i v a l . 4 5 The l o o s e l y woven framework was used by many authors of the XVIth century. Marguerite de Navarre (LJHeptamjron, 1559) causes her speakers to gather due t c a ~ f l c c d ~ w h i c h i n t e r r u p t s t h e i r v a r i o u s journeys; Jacques Iver (Le Printemjjs, 1572) groups h i s speakers i n a country chSteau. E-lnigne Poissenot (L^Este, 1583) imagines a c o n v e r s a t i o n c f students, N i c o l a s de C h o l i e r e s (Les Matinees, 1585; Les i2£§Sz^iB^§s» 1587) s t r u c t u r e s h i s works around a s e r i e s cf morning and a f t e r - d i n n e r c o n v e r s a t i o n s , and Guillaume Bouchet (Les S e r i e s , 1584-98) re c o r d s the evening c o n v e r s a t i o n s of a group of bourgeois i n P o i t i e r s . 4 6 L u c i a n , S a t u r n a l i a , p. 95, g i v e s an example of f e s t i v e f r e e t a l k . The god Cronus reproaches the P r i e s t (the author) f o r an i n d i s c r e e t g u e s t i o n : \" I f i t were net f e s t i v a l - t i m e , my man, and i f you weren't allowed to get drunk and cheek your masters with impunity, you would have found out t h a t I'm allowed to be angry at any r a t e — a s k i n g such gu e s t i o n s and showing no r e s p e c t f o r a g r e y - h a i r e d old god l i k e me!\" 4 7 1:13-16. 4 8 See a l s o 1:145, \". . . Je d e s i r e me refectienner d'un peu de viande & de l i g u e u r \" . 4 9 See a l s o 11:120, \"Boivons un bon coup, puis ncus sgaurons c e l a \" . 5 0 Other reminders of the wine being consumed by the banguet guests are s c a t t e r e d throughout the t e x t , 1:140, \"boivons, lavons l e cou par dedans\"; 1:141, \"A c e l a i l beut\"; 1:145, \"Boivons e t gay\"; 11:251, \" A i n s i gue je demandois a b o i r e \" ; see a l s o 1:155, 1:202, e t c . 5 1 A p o i n t l e s s d i s c u s s i o n about the wine consumed at a previous banquet given by Seneca covers a page c f d i a l o g u e , 1:142. Another d i s c u s s i o n covers the r e l a t i v e merits of wine and water: \". . . Quand un homme entre ou l'on d i s n e , l e g u e l est l e plus e x c e l l e n t s i on l u i present de l'eau ou du v i n ? \" The guests c o n s i d e r t h i s problem s e r i o u s l y , and i t i s even suggested t h a t i t was debated by the C o u n c i l of Trent: \"0 l a b e l l e p r o p o s i t i o n ! 0 l e beau problesme n o t a b l e , g u i f u t debattu au Concile de t r o i s d i x a i n e s ! \" (11:70). 5 2 S y b i l e s : a n c i e n t prophetesses. 5 3 \" B o i r e en T h e o l o g i e n \" i s an e x p r e s s i o n d e f i n e d by 113 Bakhtin ( R a b e l a i s , p. 216) as an example cf debasing t r a v e s t y ; i t means \"a good d r i n k i n g bout\". 5 4 Another s h o r t exchange i l l u s t r a t e s the o l f a c t o r y pleasure wine b r i n g s : \"Vous n'avez point p a r l e de l'odeur du vin? —N'importe, pource g u ' i l ne peut f a i l l i r de s e n t i r ton\" ( I I : 24 8) . 5 5 See a l s o 11:120, \". . . L'on ne meurt gue de f a u t e de b o i r e & manger, 8 b r e f de f a i r e l e s vertus C a r d i n a l e s \" . Sf> In the \" I n s t i t u t i o n de M a i t r e Jean Fachcn\" c i t e d by Du T i l l i o t , M^moires, p. 8 1, the new member i s welcomed only a f t e r having taken a pledge: \" P r o t e s t a t i o n par l u i f a i t e sur l e Chaperon de bien v i v r e , b o i r e , manger 8 r i r e \" . 5 7 See a l s o R a b e l a i s ' d e d i c a t i o n to the readers of Gargantua, (Gamier ed., I, 3) : Mieulx e s t de r i s que de larmes e s c r i p r e , Pour ce que r i r e e s t l e propre de l'homme. 5 8 Royer e d i t i o n . Glossary (11:315), \"cas: au sens l i b r e \" . . .. 5 9 See Le Moyen de P a r v e n i r , G a m i e r e d i t i o n , p. 17, note 1, \"pauvret£: f a i r e 1'amour\". Eeroalde w h i m s i c a l l y t r a c e s the etymology of t h i s e x p r e s s i o n , 1:63. . Beroalde promotes the h e a l t h - g i v i n g powers cf wine i n another of h i s works, Le P a l a i s des Curieux, 1612: \"Je veux enseigner un beau s e c r e t a ceux gui ne sgavent pas: Mettez du s e l bien net dans de bon v i n . . .ce v i n e s t l e plus exguis p r e s e r v a t i f gue l ' o n puisse imaginer contre l a peste . . .\", p. 514. Wine was promoted as conducive to gocd health much e a r l i e r i n the h i s t o r y of p r a n d i a l l i t e r a t u r e a l s o . A X l l l t h century guide to bangueting a t t r i b u t e d to Michael S c o t t , Mensa PhilosojDhica, ( t r a n s . Arthur S. Way) quotes ancient a u t h o r i t i e s i n the promotion cf wine. Quoting Isaac, an A r a b i c - s p e a k i n g Jewish s c h o l a r of the Xth century and R a s i s , an Arab medical s c h o l a r a l s o of the Xth century, S c o t t concludes t h a t by wine \" h e a l t h and s t r e n g t h are prolonged\", p. 7-8. 6 1 Rabelais mentions the d i s c o v e r y of t r u t h at the bottom of a w e l l t w i c e , Pantagruel, x v i l l ( G a m i e r ed., I, 315), and Le T i e r s L i y r e , XXXVI \"(I,~552) , but Eeroalde has added the element of wine^ 6 2 The theme i n vino y e r i t a s i s a l s o e x p l o i t e d by Rabelais i n h i s Cinguilme L i y r e , XXXVI (Gamier ed., I I , 111 425-26). He uses \" t r u t h \" i n a broad sense: \"En f i n des degrez rencontrasmes un p o r t a l de f i n Jaspe . . . En l a face duguel e s t o i t en l e t r e s Ionigues d'cr t r e s p e u r , e s c r i t e c e t t e sentence . . . 'en v i n v e r i t e ' . \" The t r u t h a l l u d e d to i s u n i v e r s a l and p h i l o s p h i c , u n l i k e the reduced \" t r u t h \" found i n Beroalde's wine; the l a t t e r seems to be mocking the adage, i n vino V e r i t a s . 6 3 C i t e d above, p. 92 8 * See 1:161, 165, 223 and 11:147. In Ie P a l a i s des Curieux (1612), p. 293, Be'roalde lashes out a g a i n s t i g n o r a n t a l c h e m i s t s : \" E t c ' e s t a f i n gue l a v a n i t e de ces doctes g ui gastent toute notre c a b a l e , ne p a r o i s s e , S gue l e u r fcestise ne s o i t descouverte, . i l s t i e n n e n t l e u r s s e c r e t s cachez, l e s g u e l s ne sont p o i n t s , ou bien seront guelgues v e t i l l e s importunes, r a p e t a s s e e s des anciennes f c l i e s des premiers f o u s . . . . Vous c o g n o i s t r e z aysement l e s hommes de t e l l e s f e c e s , ce s e r o i t dommage de d i r e f a r i n e \" . He a l s o s t a t e s i n the same work, p. 191, t h a t he h i g h l y r e s p e c t s the honest and competent a l c h e m i s t s . 6 5 P e t i t de J u l l e v i l l e , La Comedie et l e s moeurs en France au moyen-age, (1886; r p t . Geneva: S l a t k i n e , 1968), p T 7 5 . 6 6 Another passage a l s o i n c l u d e s terms of d i v i n e a d o r a t i o n : \" A l l e z a l ' e s c o l e , S sgachez, apprenez, entendez S notez, comme Monsieur de Beze me l ' a a p p r i s , gue l a guatriesme c l e f fondamentale des t r c i s c l e f s communes, e s t l a d i v i n e , douce, humaine 6 s a i n c t e harmonie, est l a bonne c l e f de l a cave; c ' e s t l a s a i n c t e et harmcnieuse c l e f , c ' e s t l a f i d e l l e et p a r f a i t e \" (1:113). 6 7 See above pp. 37-38. 6 8 Other such o u t b u r s t s can be found throughout the t e x t , f o r example, 1:106, 11:158. 6 9 Laurent Joubert, Le T r a i t e du R i s ( P a r i s : N. Chesneau, 1579) , d i s c u s s e s the p h y s i o l o g i c a l e f f e c t s c f laught e r and devotes a chapter to \"D'ou v i e n t gu'cn p i s s e , f i a n t e , S sue a f o r c e de r i r e \" , p. 127 f f . A l s o p. 139. 7 0 Beroalde g i v e s a mock s c i e n t i f i c d e s c r i p t i o n of the e f f e c t l a u g h t e r has on the company: '.'Nous rismes s i f c r t S a propos, gue l e b o y a u c u l i e r se d i l a t a n t en l a voye du s p h i n t e r g u i se r e l a s c h a . . . \" (11:154). The tone a l s o r e c a l l s R a b l e a i s ' a t t i t u d e towards l a u g h t e r : see above, notes 44 and 57. 115 7 1 J o u b e r t , T r a i t e , p. 330, c i t e s cases i n which la u g h t e r cures p a t i e n t s : i n a chapter devoted to the s u b j e c t , \"Quel bien apporte l e B i s , 8 s i guelgue malade paut g u e r i r a f o r c e de r i r e \" . He concludes, \"comme l ' e t r e joyeus, 8 prompt a r i r e , s i g n i f i e un bon n a t u r e l , 8 purete de sang, a i n s i par c o n t r e , c e l a aide a l a sante du c c r s 8 de l ' e s p r i t \" ; he a l s o guotes, \" l e t r a e s s a i n c o n s e i l de M a r s i l e F i c i n , ou i l e x o r t e ces amis en c e t t e s o r t e : 'Vive's joyeusement, d i t - i l . Ie c i e l vous ha crees fasson de r i r e . . . , I l vous conservera a u s s i par v c t t r e liesse.»\" Joubert a l s o c i t e s Q u i n t i l i e n cn t h i s s u b j e c t , p. 7: \"On ha vu des malades g u e r i r par ce s e u l remede\". 7 2 The theme of l a u g h t e r as a remedy was a l s o widespread i n popular l i t e r a t u r e . See f o r example the f a b l i a u x , \" L e V i l a i n Mire\", B e c u e i l general et complet des f a b l i a u x des XIII et XIVe s i j i c l e s , finatcle de Mcntaiglon and Gaston Baynaud, eds. , ( P a r i s : L i b r a i r i e des b i b l i o p h i l e s , 1878) I I I , 156-69. 7 3 1:148, c i t e d above, p. 66. 116 CHAPTER IV FESTIVE SACRILEGE IN LE MOYEN DE PARVENIR Carni v a l e s g u e c e l e b r a t i o n s of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance were c h a r a c t e r i z e d by s a c r i l e g i o u s mockery and u n i n h i b i t e d s e l f - i n d u l g e n c e . The f r e e and audacious f e s t i v e s a c r i l e g e was an e x p r e s s i o n of the u n o f f i c i a l aspect c f r e l i g i o n , and provided a c o n t r a s t to the for m a l , \" o f f i c i a l \" r e l i g i o n which i n s p i r e d awe, re s p e c t and obedience i n everyday l i f e . The solemn ceremonies, the f e a r - p r c v c k i n g d e s c r i p t i o n s of H e l l , and the e x h o r t a t i o n s to s u f f e r pain and depravations on ea r t h i n p r e p a r a t i o n f o r f u t u r e Paradise were a l l overturned d u r i n g the f e s t i v a l . At t h a t time, e v e r y t h i n g having to do with the formal r e l i g i o n was i r r e v e r e n t l y i n v e r t e d to the accompaniment of mocking l a u g h t e r . P a r a d o x i c a l as i t may appear on the s u r f a c e , t h i s t r a d i t i o n a l i n v e r s i o n of r e l i g i o n was deeply rooted i n a 117 profound f a i t h . C a r n i v a l e s g u e s a c r i l e g e was p a r t of a c a r e f u l l y balanced t e n s i o n , and a c t u a l l y served to r e i n f o r c e the o f f i c i a l r e l i g i o n by p r o v i d i n g a kind of s o c i a l s a f e t y va l v e . 1 T h i s concept i s formulated by the defender of the Feast of F o o l s guoted e a r l i e r i n t h i s study, who compares humans to wine b a r r e l s which would burst without the p e r i o d i c a l r e l e a s e of pressure provided by f e s t i v e \" f o l i e \" : \"Or nous sommes de vieux vaisseaux S des tonneaux mal r e l i e z , gue l e v i n de l a sagesse f e r o i t rompre s i nous l e l a i s s i o n s b o u i l l i r a i n s i par une devotion c c n t i n u e l l e au s e r v i c e D i v i n . \" 2 He then c o n c l u d e s . t h a t a f t e r the f e s t i v a l , the c e l e b r a n t s can r e t u r n to everyday l i f e and worship \"avec plus de joye S de f e r v e u r \" . The s p i r i t of f e s t i v e s a c r i l e g e i n evidence during the Feast of F o o l s and other c e l e b r a t i o n s d e s c r i b e d e a r l i e r 3 c a r r i e s over i n t o popular speech and i n t o l i t e r a t u r e . Informal language i s f i l l e d with examples of such s a c r i l e g e i n the form of blasphemous e g u i v o c a t i c n s , t r a v e s t i e s of the S c r i p t u r e s and wordplay on the names of s a i n t s . * The same s p i r i t a l s o animates many l i t e r a r y works which are e i t h e r d i r e c t l y or i n d i r e c t l y a s s o c i a t e d with C a r n i v a l . They i n c l u d e f o r example the many l i t e r a r y accounts c f the b a t t l e between C a r n i v a l and l e n t , 5 the mock r e l i g i o u s r i t e s i n the Soman de Re n a r t , 6 the blasphemous r e j e c t i o n cf Heaven by the young hero i n Aucassin e t N i c o l e t t e , 7 and the l i b e r t i e s c f the sermons jo_yeux. 8 118 F r e q u e n t l y , the agent of sacred i n v e r s i o n i s d e p i c t e d as an e c c l e s i a s t i c , and t h i s person's f a i l u r e to l i v e up to his holy vows of s e l f - d e n i a l and c h a s t i t y b r i n g s r i d i c u l e upon the sa c r e d way of l i f e he r e p r e s e n t s as well as upon h i m s e l f . The u n f a i l i n g l a u g h t e r which t h i s s t e r e o t y p e d e c c l e s i a s t i c provokes seems to a r i s e not only from the pleasure i n h e r e n t i n mocking the s a c r e d , but a l s o from a strong a v e r s i o n f e l t by the common people f o r these tren and women pledged to a p a s s i v e and chaste e c c l e s i a s t i c l i f e : \"A preacher who inveighed a g a i n s t the e c c l e s i a s t i c a l s t a t e was sure of being applauded. . . There i s no more e f f e c t i v e means of r e v i v i n g a t t e n t i o n when the congregation i s dropping o f f to s l e e p , or s u f f e r i n g from heat or c o l d . Everybody i n s t a n t l y becomes a t t e n t i v e and c h e e r f u l . 1 , 9 Thus the comic r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of a monk d i s p l a y i n g h i s base g u a l i t i e s and breaking h i s sacred vows was met with laughing approval i n many f a b l i a u x , f a r c e s and s a t i r i c a l works. Marot's \" F r e r e L u b i n \" , R a b e l a i s ' \" F r e r e Jean\"/ and.many cf Beroalde's worldly e c c l e s i a s t i c s i s s u e from t h i s c u r r e n t c f c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n . 1 0 The p o r t r a i t of r e l i g i o u s l i f e which begins t c emerge from Le Moyen de P a r v e n i r i s drawn l i g h t l y and with humour, emphasizing the human element i n r e l i g i o n . In order to examine the treatment of\" the sacred i n Le Moyen de P a r v e n i r , t h i s study w i l l f i r s t f o c u s on Beroalde's use c f 1 19 t r a d i t i o n a l l y i n v e r t e d forms: t r a v e s t i e s of the S c r i p t u r e s or of r e l i g i o u s r i t e s , amusingly i r r e v e r e n t occurrences i n the church, and r i d i c u l e of the c l e r g y . The elements of t r a d i t i o n a l i n v e r s i o n i n Le Moyen de lS£v§fiiE» while not presented i n an o r d e r l y manner, are e a s i l y i d e n t i f i a b l e . These examples of b l a t a n t i r r e v e r e n c e set the mood of f l i p p a n t s a c r i l e g e which i s r e t a i n e d throughout. One of the most obvious e x p l o i t a t i o n s of the t r a d i t i o n of f e s t i v e s a c r i l e g e i s the use of t r a v e s t i e d S c r i p t u r e s . In these examples the sacred t e x t i s . p l u n g e d from the sublime to the r i d i c u l o u s by a d i r e c t r e v e r s a l c f meaning; B i b l i c a l passages are turned to parody and appear to promote the \" v i c e s \" they were meant_to f o r b i d . A verse from the gospel of St. . Matthew i s r e v e r s e d , urging the opposite of C h r i s t i a n f o r g i v e n e s s : \". . . s e l c n gue l ' E v a n g i l e s'enseigne aux gens d ' E g l i s e : s i cn vcus frappe en une joue, b a i l l e z une b e l l e 8 f o r t e jouee en l ' a u t r e \" (11:107). 1 1 A f t e r t h i s statement, \"Luther\" r e i n f o r c e s the r e v i s e d i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , c i t i n g the r e l i g i o u s b r o t h e r s , as a u t h o r i t i e s : \"Quand j ' e s t o i s d ' E g l i s e , je l ' o y o i s a i n s i i n t e r p r e t e r , i n t e r f r a t r e s , £§nes guos es t l ' i n t e l l i g e n c e des E s c r i t u r e s \" (II:107). A l s o i n parody cf the S c r i p t u r e s well-known C h r i s t i a n commandments are i r r e v e r e n t l y reversed i n order to accommodate a more worldly m o r a l i t y : \"Pere et mere honoreras, a f i n d ' a v o i r bien de l ' a r g e n t . L'ceuvre de c h a i r n'accompliras gu'avec l e s b e l l e s seulement. Faux 120 tesmoinage ne d i r a s gu'en mariage seulement\" (1: 269), 1 2 D e l i b e r a t e m i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of a B i b l i c a l . t e x t taken out of context a l s o d r a s t i c a l l y a l t e r s the meaning c f a t e x t while not a c t u a l l y changing the words. The n a r r a t o r shews that he i s w e l l aware of the s a c r i l e g e i n v o l v e d i n t h i s p r a c t i c e when he s t a t e s that he cannot t e l l a c e r t a i n anecdote c o n t a i n i n g an i n v e r s i o n of the S c r i p t u r e because i t would be blasphemous; of c o u r s e , while e x p l a i n i n g what i t i s he must not say, the t a l e i s out: S i je n'avois peur de blasphemer, j e d i r o i s guelgue chose des^ c i n q R e l i g i e u s e s gui f u r e n t b a i l l e e s a gouverner a f r e r e N o t o n v i l l e , gui l e s engrossa t o u t e s , 8 comme on l ' e n t a n c o i t i l d i t , \"Quingue S c, Tu m'as b a i l i e c i n g t a l e n s , j'en ay gaigne c i n g a u t r e s \" . (11:53)13 . k phrase from G e n e s i s , 1:28, \"soyez feconds, m u l t i p l i e z , r e m p l i s s e z l a t e r r e . , .\", i s a l s o taken out cf context and then used to promote amorous indulgence and the n a t u r a l c y c l e of l i f e . The new i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of the phrase manages to combine f e s t i v e s a c r i l e g e and the popular a v e r s i o n f o r monks: Voi r e ne f a u t i l pas b i e n s ' e s b a t t r e , 5 p r i n c i p a l l e m e n t a jeux auxguels i l c o n v i e n t : c'est i l pas d i t : C r o i s s e z , m u l t i p l i e z 6 r e m p l i s s e z l a t e r r e ! Et gu'est-ce s i n o n q u ' i l e s t e n j o i n t par nature aux p e t i t s d e c r o i s t r e , aux f o r t s 8 de bon aage competant de m u l t i p l i e r , & aux v i e i l l a r d s de se l a i s s e r mcurir pour emplir l a t e r r e ? Et c e l a a u s s i a p p a r t i e n t a ceux g u i veulent f a i r e l e s vieux, a ces i d i o t s vcuez c a f a r d s 8 i n u t i l e s , gui ne f o n t gue s c a n d a l i z e r l e bon monde de Dieu. (11:13) In the l a t t e r p a r t of t h i s statement, the vehement d i s a p p r o v a l of those who keep t h e i r vows of c h a s t i t y , and 121 r e p r e s s s e n s u a l i t y , expresses the same kind c f h o s t i l i t y which i s d i r e c t e d towards those sober s o u l s whc dc not cr cannot j o i n the C a r n i v a l . 1 4 A l i g h t e r example of s c r i p t u r a l r e v e r s a l f e a t u r e s a brash youhg monk who i s caught with a young g i r l p e r p e t u a t i n g the monkish r e p u t a t i o n of concupiscence. When upbraided by h i s s u p e r i o r s , l i k e Frere N o t o n v i l l e above (p, 120), t h i s young man quotes the B i b l e . By combining a verse from I s a i a h (40:6) with h i s vow of poverty he manages to j u s t i f y h i s behavior while i n v e r t i n g the r u l e s of h i s order: La n u i c t passee i l y eut un moine dur, gay, S g a l l a n d , gui f u t s u r p r i s avec une garce, j'ay q u a s i d i t avec une grace, i l n'y a que t r a n s p o s i t i o n de l e t t r e s ; i l s ' e s t c i t esbatu avec e l l e , cum commento, 5 l a sauce. Ses s u p e r i e u r s l u i remonstrerent q u ' i l a v c i t o f f e n c e . En s'excusant i l demonstra que non, d i s a n t q u ' i l s ' e s t o i t , s e l o n l a pauvrete de l'Ordre ccuche sur un boiteau de f o i n , quia omnis caro feonum, toute c h a i r e s t f o i n : c oncluez. (1:73) 1 5 • In the same manner,, Beroalde's speakers i n v e r t r e l i g i o u s t e x t s i n L a t i n . These t r a v e s t i e d L a t i n phrases from the l i t u r g y or the S c r i p t u r e s r e c a l l the s p i r i t of the Feast of Fools during which the lower c l e r g y parodied the L a t i n t e x t s and phrases which governed t h e i r d a i l y l i f e . As mentioned a b o v e , 1 6 the Feast of F o o l s began with a verse i n L a t i n taken from the .Magnificat, \"Beposuit potentes de sede et e x a l t a v i t humiles\", which was chanted and subsequently a p p l i e d l i t e r a l l y . L i k e R a b e l a i s who e x p l o i t e d t h i s technique before h i m , 1 7 Beroalde sometimes i n v e r t s a L a t i n 122 t e x t f o r comic e f f e c t and to i l l u s t r a t e the ignorance of the c l e r g y . Various speakers r e p o r t the speech they have heard from c e r t a i n e c c l e s i a s t i c s : Le cog de n o s t r e p a r r o i s s e voulant d i r e a l ' E v e n g i l e g l o r i a t i b i Domini, f a i s o i t l e docteur S d i s o i t , g l o r i a §111 E°iiil§•\"111T106) ia Ce L a t i n e s t p a r e i l a c e l u i du V i c a i r e de Chamberi, g u i l i s o i t l ' E v a n g i l e des c i n g p a i n s ; S au l i e u de d i r e , \"Ut guisgue a c c i p i a t modicum,\" i l d i t : \" A c c i p i a t modium. \" (11:232) >« Other examples are provided by the ingenuousness of the people who confuse the meaning of a language they do net understand with t h e i r own f a m i l i a r vocabulary. In t h i s way sacred t e x t i s brought i n t o focus cn a lower, t a n g i b l e l e v e l , and i n the t r a n s p o s i t i o n the passage a c g u i r e s a t i n t of i r o n y , when an o l d ser v a n t woman m i s i n t e r p r e t s the K j r i e as \"o c u l r i d e \" (11:213) , she t r a n s f e r s the sublime to the r i d i c u l o u s . S i m i l a r l y a young mother f i n d s a name f o r her f a t h e r l e s s son through a m i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of the S c r i p t u r e during mass: . . . Jaguette du Hans . . . f i t un enfant sans s§avoir l e nom ny l e surnom du pere, degucy e l l e e s t c i t f o r t d olente; son enfant f u t nomine Adam; un jour g u ' e l l e e s t o i t au sermon e l l e ouyt l e prescheur g ui s ' e f f i l o i t d ' a l l e g u e r l ' e s c r i t u r e , S d i s o i t , \"Adam ubi es?\"c e s t e f i l l e t t e s o r t i t t o u t i n c o n t i n e n t de l a t r e s - a i s e de s ^ a v o i r l e surnom de son f i l s : on l u y a v o i t d i t gue l e s prescheurs s ^ a v o i e n t t o u t , parguoy e l l e nemma depuis son f i l s Adam de b i a i s . (1:143) 2<> Along with the L a t i n l i t u r g y , the C h r i s t i a n s a i n t s were t r a v e s t i e d . The c u l t of the s a i n t s , which by the l a t e XVth 123 century had succeeded i n making the s a i n t s r e a l and f a m i l i a r personages i n the contemporary r e l i g i o n , 2 1 a l s o helped to remove them from a p o s i t i o n of awe and mystery i n the minds of the people even o u t s i d e the f e s t i v a l . T h i s kind c f f a m i l i a r i t y when no longer r e s t r i c t e d to f e s t i v e o c c a s i o n s was bound to cloud the d i v i s i o n between the sacred and the profane i n some minds. Beroalde c i t e s the case cf a peasant woman, who while r e c e i v i n g the l a s t r i t e s r e v e a l s her naive concept of the s a i n t s : \". . . l a femme se mcurcit, & l e P r e s t r e l u i d i s o i t g u ' e l l e a l l o i t en P a r a d i s , ou e l l e v e r r o i t l e s bons s a i n c t s , avec l e s g u e l s e l l e s e i o i t : *A ha, d i t e l l e , i l n»est gue d ' e s t r e parmi l e monde gu'cn c o g n o i s t ' \" (11:113). Sacred and profane elements become so c l o s e through the c u l t of the s a i n t s t h a t even some members of the c l e r g y who come from humble backgrounds, cannot c l e a r l y d i s t i n g u i s h between the venerated s p i r i t s and l i v i n g persons. A credulous p a r i s h p r i e s t at once concludes t h a t the s t a t u e s of the s a i n t s , i n company with the f i g u r e of the d e v i l under St. M i c h a e l , have descended from t h e i r p l a c e s i n the church to eat the goose which he had s t o l e n and hidden t h e r e . A c t u a l l y , i n h i s absence, h i s v a l e t and chambermaid have l e d t h e i r f r i e n d s i n f o r a f e a s t and then greased the mouths and hands of the s t a t u e s and put them near the remains of the meal. Upon h i s r e t u r n the i g n o r a n t and c o r r u p t p r i e s t \" f o r g i v e s \" a l l of the s a i n t s as he might a wayward 124 parishoner, a l l but the d e v i l : I l e n tra en l ' E g l i s e , 6 voyant tant de s a i n c t s autour de son c o f f r e a l'oye, H 0 ho, d i t i l , & g u i , tous l e s d i a b l e s , vous a mis l a ? \" E s t a n t approche S l e s voyans a i n s i , gras par l e musle S l e s mains, S l a c u i s s e en l a gorge du d i a b l e , l a l u i a r r a c h a , d i s a n t , \" V i l a i n que t u es, j e ne me s o u c i pas des a u t r e s , mais t c i , j'en aimerois mieux e s t r a n g l e r gue tu l ' e u s s e s , 6 da, j f e n t a s t e r a i \" : comme i l l a s a v o u r c i t , i l se va souvenir de sa f a u t e , s i g u ' i l sonna l e s c l o c h e s pour appeler l e peuple a ce grand m i r a c l e . (11:109) F a m i l i a r i t y with the s a i n t s a l s o l e d to the more conscious impiety of c o r r u p t i n g t h e i r names by coarse puns. The phrase \" t o honor St. Hamik\" came to mean going to see a m i s t r e s s , and St. V i t u s was a p h a l l i c r e f e r e n c e . 2 2 T h i s c a s u a l impiety with s a i n t s ' names appears i n Le Mo^en J e Parvenir i n a p h a l l i c r e f e r e n c e to the \"verges de S t . Benoist\" ( 1 : 6 4 ) , 2 3 and i n a d e l i b e r a t e c o r r u p t i o n of S a i n t Luke's name to \"Seigneur Luxu\" (11:218). 2* To make someone i n t o \"un v r a i S a i n t Christophe de Pasgues f l e u r i s \" (1:142) meant to make a f o o l of them, 2 S and St. G i l l e s i s l i n k e d to cowardly behaviour, \" F a i r e G i l l e s \" (I:120) meaning to turn and run away. 2 6 The d e r i v a t i o n of the e x p r e s s i o n , \" f a i r e G i l l e s \" , provokes a d i s c u s s i o n on what i t would be l i k e t o l e a d a s a i n t l y l i f e . The prospect i s roundly derided i n t h i s c o n v e r s a t i o n of Beroalde's shrewd and worldly guests who c o n s i d e r the e l e v a t e d a t t i t u d e of a s a i n t and h i s v o l u n t a r y r e j e c t i o n of m a t e r i a l wealth and p h y s i c a l comforts to be pure f o l l y , nothing more. \" S c a l i g e r \" begins the d i s c u s s i o n : 125 . . . pourquoy e s t - c e que quand quelqu'un s'en est fuy on d i t \" i l a f a i t g i l l e s ? \" P r o t a goras. C»est pource que s a i n c t G i l l e s s ' e n f u i t de son p a l s , & se cacha de peur d'estre f a i t Roy. Epaminondas. 0 de par plus de c i n g cens m i l l e cornes de coguu, j ' a i m e r o i s mieux n'estre point tant s a i n c t ; j * ai u i e r o i s mieux e s t r e Roy gu'hermite. Et guoy i l y a tant de gens g u i se donnent au D i a b l e , p c i l S t o u t , pour devenir grands; S y en a d'autres g u i sous l e v o i l e de r e l i g i o n , f a i s a n t un a f f r o n t a l a Fortune c o n t r i s t e n t l e bonheur! Foin j e ne passeray p o i n t o u t r e , j e ne me rendray jamais en communaute gue de P r i n c e s 5 grands Seigneurs, d*autant gue je n'ay po i n t l e coeur a l a gaymanderie. J'en scay bon gre a ce bon C o r d e l i e r f r e r e Hugonis g u i au commencement de 1'establissement des Capucins se f a s c h o i t de l e u r f u t u r e pauvrete, 6 t o u t en c o l e r e nous d i t : \" S i nous gui avons l e d i a b l e au corps ne pcuvcns v i v r e , gue f e r o n t en f i n ces pauvres gens?\" (1:120-21) Other s a c r i l e g i o u s comments i n Le Mcyen de P a r v e n i r r e f l e c t a c a r n i v a l e s g u e image of the a f t e r l i f e . The o f f i c i a l images of Heaven and H e l l , whether re p r e s e n t e d on church walls or i n the sermons, d e p i c t the former as a place c f s t a t i c b l i s s and the l a t t e r as a f i e r y p i t of h o r r o r and p a i n . 2 7 Beth are a w e - i n s p i r i n g and c l e a r l y beyond human c o n t r o l . The v i v i d p o r t r a y a l of the Underworld i n p a r t i c u l a r e x p l o i t s the u n i v e r s a l f e a r of the unknown, of death, darkness and e v i l . During C a r n i v a l however, there i s a c o l l e c t i v e e f f o r t to counter the f e a r by c o m i c a l l y i n v e r t i n g the o f f i c i a l images of H e l l and of e v i l . The d i a b l e r i e s f o r example, i n t r o d u c e d e v i l s on the stage, but only as harmless buffoons, and the s p e c t a t o r s e n t h u s i a s t i c a l l y p a r t i c i p a t e i n the c o l l e c t i v e r e l i e f provided by laug h t e r which overcomes the f e a r . 2 8 S i m i l a r l y , the d e v i l s who f i g u r e i n Le Mcjen de 126 P a r v e n i r are e s s e n t i a l l y harmless and comic c r e a t u r e s . Patterned cn human dimensions, they are not at a l l t e r r i f y i n g . The f i r s t mention of a d e v i l f o r example, supposes him r e l a x i n g at p l a y , candid and harmless: \" S i un d i a b l e j o u o i t avec vous i l ne se p o u r r o i t f e i n d r e , i l vous f e r o i t v o i r ses cor n e s \" ( 1 : 4 ) . Other images of the i n f e r n a l i n h a b i t a n t s p i c t u r e them l a u g h i n g : \". . . l a plus p a r t de nos sgavans . ....sont tant veaux, gue l e s d i a b l e s aux heures de r e c r e a t i o n en f o n t des contes pour r i r e \" ( 1 : 1 2 9 ) , and merry l i k e \" F r o s t i b u s \" , who i s allowed to enter and speak with the bangueting company because he i s \"bon D i a b l e \" and comes i n \"gay S g a i l l a r d \" ( I I : 128) . :. The d e v i l s are not without malice, but they are mischievous r a t h e r than f i e n d i s h l y e v i l . T y p i c a l of the deeds a t t r i b u t e d to them i s t h a t c f kneeling beside chambermaids and encouraging them to g o s s i p during mass, but doing so with great care, \"de peur de se pccher l e s yeux\" s i n c e they r e p u t e d l y had eyes on t h e i r knees ( 1 : 1 9 - 2 0 ) . T h i s reduces them to grotesque l i t t l e c r e a t u r e s whcse p h y s i c a l bodies l u d i c r o u s l y r e s t r i c t t h e i r a c t i v i t e s . Another prank of the d e v i l i s to mischievously t r i c k a peasant i n t o s p o i l i n g h i s bed ( 1 : 2 1 9 ) . The d e v i l f i g u r e s prominently i n i n f o r m a l vocabulary a l s o , and t h i s i n v o c a t i o n of the d e v i l i n i n f o r m a l language p a r a l l e l s the act of j e e r i n g him f a m i l i a r l y during the d i a b l e r i e s . Saying the name of the d e v i l i n c o n v e r s a t i o n c r 127 d i r e c t l y i n s u l t i n g the \" d e v i l s \" c a v o r t i n g on the stage both c o n s t i t u t e a d i r e c t c o n f r o n t a t i o n with a source of t e r r o r , but under these c o n d i t i o n s the i n d i v i d u a l kncws he w i l l emerge v i c t o r i o u s and laughing with the comfort of being surrounded by others who share h i s experience. Doubtless the i n v o c a t i o n of the d e v i l i n f a m i l i a r speech was done at f i r s t with a s t r o n g f e e l i n g of t r a n s g r e s s i o n , but as i t passed i n t o the popular idiom i t l o s t some of i t s s t r e n g t h through overuse. Such e x p r e s s i o n s as \"gue D i a b l e \" (1:170), \"pauvre D i a b l e \" (11:131), \"de par l e D i a b l e \" (11:34), \"tous l e s D i a b l e s \" (11:109), f r e g u e n t l y punctuate the dialogue i n Le Moyen de Pa r v e n i r . The ex p r e s s i o n i s sometimes softened, from \" d i a b l e \" to \" d i a n t r e \" , and the way t h i s euphemism i s employed i n d i c a t e s t h e r e i s s t i l l some sense c f t r a n s g r e s s i o n i n the word d i a b l e . one c h a r a c t e r o b j e c t s to the weakening of the word to \" d i a n t r e \" because i t f l a t t e r s the d e v i l . He a f f i r m s that the d e v i l should be d i r e c t l y invoked: \"Ne l e f l a t t e z p o i n t , nommez l e Diable tout a f a i t \" (1:172). T h i s speaker r e c o g n i z e s t h a t r e l u c t a n c e to say \" d i a b l e \" b e l i e s a f e a r and r e s p e c t a s s o c i a t e d with t h a t name. T h i s i s the f e a r and awe which the f e s t i v e s p i r i t seeks to overcome. The glimpses of H e l l which Beroalde al l o w s h i s reader do not evoke an Underworld of unspeakable h o r r o r . S u f f e r i n g and t o r t u r e i n f a c t are not even mentioned. Instead, the main inconvenience seems to be that i t i s overcrowded. 128 According t c \" F r o s t i b u s \" there i s h a r d l y room f o r the d e v i l s themselves: \" i l y a d e s i a tant de damnez en I n f e r , gue l e s pauvres d i a b l e s couchent dehors\" (11:129-30). Play and laughter e x i s t i n that i n f e r n a l environment as w e l l . As mentioned above (p. 26), the i n h a b i t a n t s have time to r e l a x , \"heures de r e c r e a t i o n \" , which they spend t e l l i n g funny s t o r i e s (1:129). Thus both the Underworld and i t s i n h a b i t a n t s are taken down from t h e i r menacing p o s i t i o n s and made f a m i l i a r and laughable. The o f f i c i a l image of P a r a d i s e i s a l s o a l t e r e d to more f a m i l i a r p r o p o r t i o n s . I t i s a naive peasant who brings the l o f t y concept down to e a r t h , f o r he imagines Heaven only as an extension of h i s t e r r e s t i a l l i f e . The d i s t a n c e c r e a t e d by awe of the s u p e r n a t u r a l i s e n t i r e l y missing as he makes plans f o r h i s a c t i v i t i e s i n P a r a d i s e : Le pauvre bon homme des champs e s t c i t au l i t de l a mort, l e P r e s t r e l u i p r e s c h o i t l a r e s u r r e c t i o n , a f i n g u ' i l n'eut p o i n t de r e g r e t a c e t t e v i e , 5 s u i v a n t son propos l u i d i s o i t , gu'apres l e jugement i l n'y a u r o i t p l u s ny montagne ny v a l l e e . \"0 c, d i t l e p a i s a n , i l sera done beau c h a r f o y e r \" . (11:112) Th i s man's wife judges the advantages cf Heaven i n e g u a l l y f a m i l i a r and t e r r e s t i a l terms: Un peu apres a u s s i l a femme se mcurcit, S l e P r e s t r e l u i d o i t g u ' e l l e a l l o i t en P a r a d i s , ou e l l e v e r r o i t l e s bons s a i n c t s , avec l e s g u e l s e l l e s e r o i t : \"a ha, d i t e l l e , i l n'est gue d ' e s t r e parmi l e monde gu'en c o g n o i s t \" . (11:112-13) The s t a t i c and b e a u t i f u l c e l e s t i a l world p a i n t e d by 129 o f f i c i a l d o c t r i n e a c t u a l l y seems to bore some cf the pecple, who dare to v o i c e t h e i r o p i n i o n under the p r o t e c t i o n c f f e s t i v e p r i v i l e g e . R e j e c t i o n of the o f f i c i a l P a r a d i s e f o r a more worldly concept d i s a g r e e s with o f f i c i a l church dogma, for i t c o n c e n t r a t e s on earthbound joys and a l l o w s c e l e b r a n t s to escape from sobering thoughts of the A f t e r l i f e . An outstanding example of i r r e v e r e n t i n v e r s i o n c f t h e . o f f i c i a l P a r a d i s e i s found i n the X l l l t h century c h a n t e - f a b l e , Aucassin et N i c o l e t t e i n which Aucassin expresses contempt f o r the C h r i s t i a n Paradise f u l l of o l d p r i e s t s and maimed beggars. He p r e f e r s ah e x t e n s i o n of h i s a r i s t o c r a t i c world which he b e l i e v e s must be i n H e l l . 2 9 One speaker i n Le Moyen de £S£venir i s even more audacious. He compares God's world to man's and f i n d s the l a t t e r b e t t e r : \"Oe sgay g u ' i l y a un autre u n i v e r s gue Dieu a f a i t : mais nous, i d e s t , ncs peres, l e s hommes S femmes, en avons bien f a i t un autre plus accompli . . .\" (1:164).*o Inv o c a t i o n of the d e i t y a l s o r i n g s with a c e r t a i n amount of c a r n i v a l e s g u e l a u g h t e r . The power cf prayer i r o n i c a l l y b r i n g s a c e r t a i n c h i e f almoner the i n v e r s e of what he asks. When t o l d t h a t he has u n f o r t u n a t e l y c o n t r a c t e d \" l a v e r o l e \" , he c r i e s out to h i s d i a g n o s t i c i a n : \"Helas Maistre Gaspard mon ami, j ' a v o i s t o u s j c u r s prie' ce ben Dieu g u ' i l m'en gardast\", to which h i s companion r e p l i e s with i r o n y : \"Aussi a i l f a i t . Monsieur, i l vous a gard^ de l a plus f i n e \" (1:143). Another prayer i s a l s o i r o n i c a l l y 130 answered: Tesmoin l e t r i s t e Augurel g u i se mit en une E g l i s e pour p r i e r Dieu, g u i l u i donnast l a p i e r r e p h i l e s o p h a l e . . . I I y f u t jusgues a l ' a u t r e midi sonne, g u ' i l se d e p i t a f o r t , et va d i r e \"Dieu donne moi du bran!\" Et v o i l a un ois e a u g u i l u i va esmentir dans l a touche. \"A ha, d i t i l , je n'avois plus gue c e t i n s t a n t gue je n'ay pas bien r e n c o n t r e . \" (11:93) Oaths solemnly taken before God as a witness were taken s e r i o u s l y , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n a s u p e r s t i t i o u s age, but f e s t i v e s a c r i l e g e touched on these oaths as w e l l . A s t r o n g sense c f t r a n s g r e s s i o n s t i l l hung about them however, as can be sensed i n the f o l l o w i n g anecdote. \"Crouet\" has s t o l e n a k e t t l e from \" C o l i n \" who brings the.case before the judge. \"Bodion\", the judge, asks f o r a sworn statement and \"Erouet\" braves the l o s s of h i s s o u l f o r the k e t t l e : Bodion l u i commande de j u r e r sur sa part de p a r a d i s , s ' i l a ce chaudron; l u i q u i n'y p r e t e n d c i t p o s s i b l e r i e n , j e ne d i pas au chaudron, se met en e s t a t de j u r e r : comme i l j u r o i t , l e bon C o l i n luy d i s o i t tout bas, en l e t i r a n t par l e bra s , \"He, compere, ne jure pas; he, compere, tu perds ton ame\"; 8 Drouet l u i r e s p o n d i t en l ' o r e i l l e , \"Et toy, ton chaudron.\" (11:20) In another anecdote a wife urges her husband to swear f a l s e l y before a judge that he d i d not owe the p l a i n t i f f any money. Beroalde's guests c y n i c a l l y agree t h a t he should take the f a l s e oath, and then \"buy\" back h i s l o s t s o u l by g i v i n g some of h i s d i s h o n e s t l y earned money to the peer: Le juge f i t j u r e r maistre N i c o l a s pour s§avoir l a v e r i t e ; ce pauvre bonne personne d'homme n ' e s c i t 8 se f a i g n c i t ; sa femme e s t o i t d e r r i e r e , g u i l u i d i s o i t : \"Jure, v i l a i n , j u r e , p u i s g u ' i l y a a gaigner; tu j u r e s 131 s i souvent que tu ne gaignes r i e n . \" — S ' i l eust jure gu'eust-ce e s t e ? Menot. I l eut gaigne' l e s d i x - s e p t f r a n c s g u i l u i eussent f a i t p r o f i t ; 6 i l en eut dcnne c i n g cu s i x s o l s aux pauvres, 8 c e l a l ' e u t g a r e n t i de l a perte de sen ame. (11:21) I r r e v e r e n c e before God does not, however, reach the l e v e l of t h a t shown the d e v i l , who i s m a t e r i a l i z e d and r i d i c u l e d , nor does i t match the i r r e v e r e n t f a m i l i a r i t y with which the s a i n t s were t r e a t e d , n e i t h e r God nor C h r i s t appear i n c a r i c a t u r e d form i n Le Moyen de P a r v e n i r , and although the vocabulary c o n t a i n s e x p r e s s i o n s such as \" j e p r i e Dieu\" or \"remercier Dieu\" (11:99), these e x p r e s s i o n s i n d i c a t e r e s p e c t r a t h e r than d a r i n g as i n the use cf a phrase such as \"de par l e d i a b l e \" . T h i s a t t i t u d e concurs with the s p i r i t c f Medieval and Renaissance f e s t i v e s a c r i l e g e which was u s u a l l y , content to i n v e r t the sacred through r i d i c u l i n g the r i t e s and r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of the church r a t h e r than through an attempt to i n v e r t the d e i t y as w e l l . 3 1 S t r o n g l y blasphemous oaths, such as the Burgundian, \"Je r e n i e D i e u \" , 3 2 are net u t t e r e d i n Le Moyen de P a r v e n i r , i n d i c a t i n g t h a t the author p r e f e r s to keep the s a c r i l e g e f a i r l y l i g h t . Church r i t e s and customs s u f f e r the same i r r e v e r e n t i n v e r s i o n as the S c r i p t u r e s and the o f f i c i a l images cf Heaven and H e l l . The d i s t a n c e c r e a t e d between the people and the s acred by the formal and solemn aspect cf r e l i g i o n i s breached by l a u g h t e r i n Le Moyen de P a r v e n i r , j u s t as i t was 132 during the burlesgue mass of the Feast of F o o l s or during the sermons joy_eux. Beroalde c o n t i n u e s the t r a d i t i o n c f f e s t i v e i n v e r s i o n i n many anecdotes and comments which i l l u s t r a t e a c o m i c a l l y e g u i v o c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p between the o f f i c i a l r i t e s and the laughing people. One anecdote i s s t r o n g l y r e m i n i s c e n t of a ceremony held during the Feast of F o o l s i n which an ass i s e i t h e r i n t r o d u c e d i n t o the church or h i s braying i s i m i t a t e d i n the mock mass. 3 3 In Le Moy_en de P a r v e n i r i t i s chance which i n t r o d u c e s the animal i n t o the church, but the event evokes the same image of amusing s a c r i l e g e . I t occurs on a Sunday, when many people are gathered i n the church f o r mass; a t h i r s t y mule happens by, brazenly e n t e r s , and plunges i t s \" h o r r i f i g u e musle\" i n t o the basin of holy water. The t a l e i s t o l d with obvious d e l i g h t i n the a c t of d e s e c r a t i o n : . . . s'approachant de l ' E g l i s e , e l l e receut une odeur debonnaire de l'eau b e n i t e , qui l ' a t t i r a n t par l a conduite magnetigue de sa saveur, l a f i t en de*pit des chevaucheurs e n t r e r en l ' E g l i s e : i l e s t c i t Dimanche, heure de Sermon cu grand monde e s t o i t convenu, 8 nonobstant ce peuple S r e s i s t a n c e des baudcuineux, l a mule dure de t e s t e , 8 oppressee d \" a l t e r a t i o n , donna jusgues au b e n o i s t i e r , ou e l l e mit 8 enfonga sen h o r r i f i q u e musle. (11:25) The unthinkable impiety of t h i s act d u r i n g a solemn c e l e b r a t i o n i s shown by the congregation's r e f u s a l to b e l i e v e i t could be a r e a l mule. They take i t f o r a v i s i o n , a t r a n s p o r t e r of p e n i t e n t s o u l s , prompting the banqueters (and the reader) to s m i l e i n d u l g e n t l y at t h e i r g u l l i b i l i t y : Le peuple g u i v o i d l ' e f f r o n t e r i e de ce maudit animal, . 133 pense gue ce s o i t un s p e c t r e , portant guelgues ames j a d i s h e r e t i g u e s , mais ores p e n i t e n t e s , g u i viennent chercher l e doux r e f r i g e r a t o i r e des b i e n -heureux ( l a i s s e z - l a boire) 8 deja chacun p e n s o i t g u ' i l se s e o i t quelgue esmotion ( l a i s s e z b o i r e l a mule) cu autre acte m e r v e i l l e u x de commotion s p i r i t u e l l e : mais l a beste f u t modeste, s i gu'ayant legitimement b i e n beu, s e l o n sa v a c a t i o n , se r e t i r a sans autre ceremonie. (11:25) Whether C a t h o l i c mass or P r o t e s t a n t s e r v i c e , the solemn c e l e b r a t i o n of the f a i t h c e n t r e s around the sermon; thus that d i s c o u r s e n a t u r a l l y became an o b j e c t of f e s t i v e i r r e v e r e n c e . During the Feast of F o o l s and on other f e s t i v e o c c a s i o n s , mock sermons e n l i v e n e d the atmosphere. The s a t i r i c a l tone of t h e s e ' i r r e v e r e n t monologues can a l s o be found i n the sermons joyeux of the comic t h e a t r e . 3 * Eeroalde i n c l u d e s a d i s c o u r s e from t h e , p u l p i t s i m i l a r to a sermon joyeux by i t s r e v e r s a l of the usual message and. i t s parody of the o f f i c i a l sermon. The m i n i s t e r of Strasbourg who d e l i v e r s t h i s sermon urges the people i n c o n t r a d i c t o r y terms to continue the c a r n i v a l e s g u e a c t i v i t i e s c f d r i n k i n g , dancing, and c a r r o u s i n g . Each e x h o r t a t i o n terminates with a tongue-in-cheek p l e a f o r moderation: Quand vous dancez i l semble gue vous v o u l i e z j e t t e r v o s t r e t e s t e aux cieux 8 vos jambes aux d i a b l e s , dancez modestement; guand vous b o i v e z , vous g a r g o u i l l e z comme pourceaux; hee pauvres gens enyvrez vous, mais gue se s o i t sobrement; j u r e z pieusement, - maudissez fl a t t e u s e m e n t , b a t t e z mignardement, 8 p a i l l a r d e z chastement, vous dormant au d i a b l e avec honneur, 8 vous esjouyssez de tous s u j e t s sans en abuser. ( I r l U O - ^ l ) This process of i n v e r s i o n b r i n g s the pious aspect of the sermon down to the popular f e s t i v e l e v e l by t u r n i n g the 134 moral code u s u a l l y promoted by the Church i n t o a mockery c f c o n t r a d i c t i o n s . Another anecdote a s s e r t s a c a r n i v a l e s g u e p r e f e r e n c e f o r i r r a t i o n a l i t y i n s t e a d of r i g i d l o g i c and reasoned behaviour. A p a r i s h of simple v i l l a g e r s have t h e i r m i n i s t e r dismissed because he advocated p i e t y and s o b r i e t y , and condemned t h e i r \" f o o l i s h \" ways: \" g u i sans cesse l e u r r e p r o c h o i t l e u r ignorance 5 indecence de moeurs, l e u r reprochant g u ' i l n ' i a v o i t ne rime n i r a i s o n en l e u r s a f f a i r e s \" (1:174). .These p a r i s h i o n e r s r e c e i v e a new clergyman who meets with t h e i r approval because they see i n him the r i g h t amount of f o l l y : \"Monsieur, vous e s t e s agreable a tous ncs a u t r e s , tant pource gue vous e s t e s b e l homme, gue p r i n c i p a l e m e n t a cause g u ' i l n ' i a n i rime n i r a i s o n a tout v c s t r e f a i t \" (I: 175). The time spent i n r e q u i r e d i n a c t i v i t y during the sermon a l s o merits s a t i r i c a l comments. One speaker . complains cf boredom, \" l a plus longue heure du jour e s t c e l l s du sermon\", and suggests a l l e v i a t i n g the problem by enjoying a gccd meal during the sermon. The f l a g r a n t i r r e v e r e n c e i s heightened by h i s tongue-in-cheek admission t h a t he has r e j e c t e d the idea of working at t h a t hour because he i s a good P r o t e s t a n t and thus must adhere s t r i c t l y t o the r u l e s : \"pour l ' a c c o u r c i r cu a p p e t i s s e r sans perte de temps, e s t de desjeuner t a n d i s gu'on presche; l e prescheiir aura f a i t , S ennuye p l u s i e u r s personnes, gue vous n'aurez pas eu l e l o i s i r d ' a c h e v e r ; S puis a t e l l e heure, je ne voudrois t r a v a i l l e r , tant je s u i s 135 bon reforme\" (11:234). A s i m i l a r l y impious viewpoint i s r e f l e c t e d i n another example of a t r a v e s t i e d worship s e r v i c e in Le Moyen de P a r v e n i r . The anecdote focuses cn the i n d i f f e r e n c e and the ignorance d i s p l a y e d both i n the p u l p i t and i n the congregation as the \"Cure' de Busangcis\" addresses his p a r i s h i o n e r s : Je vous p r e s c h e r o i s a u j o u r d ' h u i , mais ncus n'avcns pas l e l o i s i r : t o u t e s f o i s j e vous d i r a y un bout de sermon gue nous d i v i s e r o n s en t r o i s p a r t i e s . La premiere, je l'entens S vous ne l'entendez pas. La seconde, vous l'entendez S je ne l'entens pas. La t r o i s i e m e , n i vous n i moy ne l'entendons. La premiere gue j'entens & gue vous n'entendez pas, c' e s t gue vous f a c i e z r e b a s t i r l e p r e s b y t e r e . l a seconde gue vous entendez S gue je n'entens pas, c' e s t gue vous entendez gue je chasse ma chambriere, S je ne l ' e n t e n s pas. La t r o i s i e m e gue vous n i moy n'entendons, est l ' E v a n g i l e d 'aujcurd 'hui. Adieu. (1:171) The laughing i r r e v e r e n c e of Be'roalde's c h a r a c t e r s extends to the r i d i c u l e of other r e l i g i o u s customs a l s o . The id e a of Lenten f a s t i n g f o r example, i s turned to a time of r i o t o u s bangueting and c a l l e d \" l e p e t i t e x e r c i c e de l a r e l i g i o n \" . The custom i s d e s c r i b e d i n the host's account cf his l a s t Lenten f e a s t : Or 9a j'ay appose & c o n t r o c l l e l a j u s t e dispense huguenctigue, a i n s i gue nous f a i s i o n s a P a r i s l e caresme passe*, guand en p l e i n e taverne ncus f a i s i o n s l e p e t i t e x e r c i c e de l a r e l i g i o n . — Q u ' e s t - c e a d i r e c e l a ? — V o u s g u i sgavez tous l e s misteres s a c r e z e s t e s vous s i beste gue vous ne sgavez pas c e c i , veu g u ' i l se p r a c t i g u e en de bons c l o i s t r e s ? C'est gue nous clouons, barrons, bouclons & fermons bien l a porte, guand (comme ceux de l a R e l i g i o n ) nous voulons manger de l a c h a i r aux jour deffendus: t e l est l e p e t i t e x e r c i c e , d'autant gue l e grand e s t a l l e r au presche. (1:138) 136 The t o p i c of \" l e p e t i t e x e r c i c e \" , the s e c r e t i v e bangueting p r a c t i s e d during Lent, r e c u r s as the c o n v e r s a t i o n progresses. One < of Beroalde's guests, P i g h i u s , l i k e n s the p r a c t i c e to the Geneva P r o t e s t a n t s ' s e c r e t i v e c e l e b r a t i o n c f C a r n i v a l : \"Je m'en souviens, nous e s t i c n s a Geneve, S f o l a t r a n s en nostre l o g i s a caresme prenant en cac h e t t e , comme on f a i t en ce p a i s , l o r s gu'en caresme l'on f a i t l e p e t i t e x e r c i c e \" (11:153). Luther, musing on h i s former days as a monk, admits that he too observed \" l e p e t i t e x e r c i c e \" (11:191). In a statement which expresses the a t t i t u d e of a t y p i c a l guest, a j u g g l i n g of words c a s u a l l y r e v e r s e s the s p i r i t of the l e n t e n law of abstinence i n order to urge indulgence: \"mes amis ne mangez point de c h a i r l e s ,jo u r s deffendus, mais jeusnez, 8 puis toute n u i c t f a i t e s bonne chere, avec de bonne c h a i r morte & v i v e , l e s n u i t s ne sont poi n t des j o u r s , partant p o i n t deffendus\" (1:138). The C a t h o l i c c o n f e s s i o n too provides m a t e r i a l f o r la u g h t e r . One worldly e c c l e s i a s t i c agrees to conduct a grotesgue c o n f e s s i o n a l f o r an e x p i r i n g hcund at the' reguest of i t s fond and wealthy master: \"Or 9a, mon ami chie n , voulez vous pas mourir en ch i e n de bien?\" 8 l u i pressant l ' o r e i l l e l e chien huchoit assez haut, \"Ouan, ouan, .ouan. — Demandez vous pas pardon a vo s t r e maistre de 1'avoir trompee mangeant l e g i b i e r g u e l g u e s f o i s ? — Ouan, ouan, an, an.\" (11:159) A f t e r more i n the same v e i n , the dog i s absolved, the monk handsomely rewarded, and the sacred r i t e turned i n t o a 137 mockery. 3 S One p e n i t e n t f i n d s t h a t the r i t e cf c o n f e s s i o n e x c i t e s i n s t e a d of deters the s i n cf l u s t , as the p a r i s h p r i e s t c o n f e s s i n g him d e s c r i b e s the s i n of l u x u r e i n d e t a i l : Ce compagnon un cure c o n f e s s o i t un jour un M a i s t r e des r e g u e s t e s , 6 l u i p a r l o i t du peche\" de luxure, l ' e n i n t e r r o g e a n t s e l o n l e s l o i s de B e n e d i c t i ; 3 6 S ccmme i l l u i en p a r l o i t exactement, M. Ie maistre des Reguestes l u i d i t ; \"Mon Confesseur, mon ami, je vous p r i e ne me p a r l e z p l u s de c e l a , vous me f a i t e s a r s e r . \" (11:179) The sacrament of marriage seems tc have been made only to be broken. As c i t e d above, the Gospel i s reversed to accommodate m a r i t a l i n f i d e l i t y : . \"Faux tesmcignage ne d i r a s gu'en mariage s e u l e m e n t \" . 3 7 The holy aspect of the marriage sacrament i s s l y l y d i s p l a y e d as i r r e l e v a n t during the ingenuous o b s e r v a t i o n t h a t \" l e mariage du l i a b l e \" , or u n o f f i c i a l union, p r o d u c e s . c h i l d r e n j u s t as dees \" l e mariage de par Dieu\": \". . . ceux gui ne se marient gu'au mariage du D i a b l e , ne se l a i s s e n t pas d ' a v o i r des enfans\" ( I I : 1 1 9 ) . 3 8 F i n a n c i a l concerns are put above the sacrament when one speaker recommends avoidance of o f f i c i a l marriage and e x t o l l s u n o f f i c i a l l i a i s o n s such as those enjoyed by the \" l i b r e s E c c l e s i a s t i g u e s \" who are able t c partake of the pleasures of marriage while escaping the f i n a n c i a l burden (1:109). T h i s statement again underscores the antagonism between the s e c u l a r man and the e c c l e s i a s t i c , and opens the d i s c u s s i o n to Beroalde's p o r t r a y a l of e c c l e s i a s t i c s . C onventional f e s t i v e s a c r i l e g e which c o m i c a l l y i n v e r t s the church l i t u r g y and dogma i s j o i n e d by an e g u a l l y strong 138, mockery of those e n t r u s t e d with e c c l e s i a s t i c o f f i c e s . T h i s t r a d i t i o n a l r i d i c u l e appears i n Le Hcyen de P a r v e n i r i n i r r e v e r e n t r e f e r e n c e s to the Pope or other high o f f i c i a l s and even more f r e g u e n t l y , i n s a t i r i c a l exposures cf the lower c l e r g y ' s £§cadillos. The u n f l a g g i n g i n t e r e s t i s perhaps due to a combination of v i c a r i o u s f e s t i v e s a c r i l e g e and of the d i s c o v e r y of human weakness i n those who are supposed to s e t a pious example f o r the l a y s o c i e t y to f o l l o w . Beroalde's laughing exposure of the f a i l i n g s c f var i o u s e c c l e s i a s t i c s and t h e o l o g i a n s c o n s t i t u t e s a major part of h i s book, and he hi m s e l f s t a t e s t h a t h i s . w r i t i n g s w i l l cease to e x i s t when human c o r r u p t i o n i s brought to an end. The human c o r r u p t i o n he d e s c r i b e s i n the f o l l o w i n g passage o r i g i n a t e s mainly with e c c l e s i a s t i c s : . . . en v e r i t e ces e s c r i t s c e s s e r o n t S ne seront plus guand l e s v i c e s c e s s e r o n t , & gue t c u t e s s c r t e s de gens ne f e r c n t plus de f c l i e . L'ambition & l ' i m p i e t e des grands, l ' i g n o r a n c e des P r e s t r e s , l e s prescmpticns des M i n i s t r e s , l e descrdre des Koines, l ' e n v i e des Chanoines, l a fausse s c i e n c e des Dccteurs, l e s usures des Huguenots, l e s p i p e r i e s des P a p i s t e s , 6 t o u t e autre c o n t r a d i c t i o n gue f a i t n a i t r e ces beaux Commentaires . ..(11:165) Some r e f e r e n c e s to the c l e r g y have no purpose ether than the immediate humour of the i r r e v e r e n c e , such as i n the f o l l o w i n g u n f l a t t e r i n g a s s o c i a t i o n : \". . . i l ne peut a v o i r en un corps deux c u l s , non plus gue deux Papes a Rome\" (1:39). In ot h e r s , the f a c e t i o u s n e s s has more substance. The Pope a l l e g e d l y d e l i v e r s a h y p o c r i t i c a l promise to a group c f 139 p e t i t i o n e r s , p l e d g i n g to grant t h e i r r e g u e s t , \"moyennant gue l e s annees a u r o i e n t v i n g t S guatre mois\" (11:93). A s i m i l a r v e r b a l h y p o c r i s y shows through another e c c l e s i a s t i c vestment cf a c e r t a i n \"Monsieur de l u s s o n \" who s i d e s t e p s the i s s u e of p u t t i n g h i s own sermon i n t o . p r a c t i c e . His fcrmer s e c r e t a r y , a l s o a guest at the banguet, reminds him of the event: V o i r e , Monsieur, i l y eust un pauvre gui c u i t v c s t r e sermon guand vous p r e s c h a s t e s , gue g u i a u r o i t deux robbes g u ' i l en donnast une au pauvre: l e pauvre tout console vous b y c i t avec grande a t t e n t i o n , estant merveilleusement a i s e ; apres gue vous f u s t e s retcurne au l o g i s , l e pauvre v o u s v i n t v o i r , vous f i t une ample & grande reverence, vous racontant g u ' i l a v c i t f o r t p r o f i t e a v c s t r e e x o r t a t i o n , dont i l se c o n s o l o i t du t o u t . \"Je s u i s bien a i s e , d i c t e s vous, men f i l s , gue vous soyez s i bon C r e t i e n . — M a i s Monsieur, d i t i l , vous avez d i t gue g u i aura deux robes en denne une au pauvre, je vous s u p p l i e me donner l a plus meschante gue vous ayez. -r-o ho luy d i t e s vous, as tu este au commencement du s e r m o n ? — H o n , d i t i l , Monsieur. --A ha, r e p l i q u a s t e s vous, s i vous e u s s i e z este au commencement du sermon vous e u s s i e z ouy, i n i l l c tempore, c'est a d i r e en ce temps l a ; je p r e s c h c i s gue c e l a se f a i s o i t en ce l a j a d i s , S non pour l e present. (1:93-4) This h y p o c r i t i c a l clergyman b a f f l e s the i g n o r a n t pauper with a b i t of L a t i n and then n e a t l y r e v e r s e s the essence of h i s message from the p u l p i t . A sudden exposure of w o r l d l i n e s s i n those whose thoughts should be d i r e c t e d elsewhere had shocked and d e l i g h t e d the people f o r many generations before Beroalde, and he r e c o g n i z e s t h a t the convention i s already t r i t e . In an example of s e l f mockery, he has one cf h i s speakers c r i t i c i z e the overuse of c l e r i c a l t a l e s , charging t h a t i t stems from l a c k o f anything b e t t e r to say: 140 Je vous p r i e ne p a r l o n s ny en bien ny en aial des E c c l e s i a s t i g u e s , l a i s s o n s l e s l a sans l e s draper comme le s h e r e t i g u e s qui ne sgavent f a i r e un bon conte s ' i l n'y a quelque Moine, P r e s t r e ou M i n i s t r e sur l e mestier: s i bi e n je v o u l o i s d i r e sur l e s rangs; vous v o i l a bien a h u r i pour une p a r o l e . (1:110-111) These words have l i t t l e e f f e c t on the c o n v e r s a t i o n however, and another speaker q u i c k l y jumps i n to j u s t i f y commentaries on the c l e r g y a f f i r m i n g that the assembly does not mean to cause a dis t u r b a n c e , but only intends to c o r r e c t f a u l t s where they occur: \" n u l ne p a r l e ceans pour s c a n d a l i s e r ains pour e d i f i e r S c o r r i g e r s ' i l e s t be s o i n \" . In the same passage, yet another v o i c e concurs: \"Or l a avant n'espargnons personne, a u s s i bien tous cnt f a i l l i \" (1:111). L a t e r , \"Assuerus\" s t a t e s that the c l e r g y are used as the whipping boy f o r the s i n s of others j u s t as i f \". . . b a t t a n t l e c h i e n devant l e l i o n \" (1:311). Be then p r a i s e s the c l e r g y : \" c ' e s t gue nous galopercns l e s E c c l e s i a s t i g u e s , gui sont p a r f a i c t s en l e u r v i e , a f i n d ' i n t i m i d e r l e s ames par l e s choses g u ' i l s d i r o n t \" , and terminates the j u s t i f i c a t i o n with a f a c e t i o u s statement i n which he e x p l a i n s t h a t s i n c e the e c c l e s i a s t i c s are o b v i o u s l y innocent of any blame, they w i l l c h a r i t a b l y allow themselves to be used i n the present anecdotes: . . . dongues ces bens messieurs f i l s a i s n e z de l a s a i n c t e maison, ne prendront poin t en mauvaise part gu'on tourne l a parabole sur eux, a f i n gue l e u r c h a r i t e s o i t recogneue, & gu'estans innocens, i l s veulent bien e s t r e accusez, S c h a s t i e z de ce q u ' i l s n'ont pas f a i t ; a f i n que l e s coeurs v i c i e u x ayent hente, S se c c r r i g e n t voyant l a bonte de ceux gui porte n t l e u r s i n i g u i t e z . (1:311) 141 Thus by t o u t i n g an e l e v a t e d purpose behind h i s l i v e l y p o r t r a y a l of moral f a i l i n g s the author uses the v i r t u e c f e d i f i c a t i o n as a j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r the s u b j e c t matter of h i s work. Convention p o r t r a y s e c c l e s i a s t i c s as l a z y , g l u t t o n o u s ; and concupiscent, and Beroalde does not d i s a p p o i n t h i s reader. Throughout the t e x t gluttonous p r i e s t s and monks abound, such as the one mentioned above who s t e a l s the g o o s e . 3 9 S e v e r a l d e s c r i p t i v e e x p r e s s i o n s emphasize t h i s s t e r e o t y p e d image; \" r i g o l e r comme un pere\" i s used t c mean l a v i s h f e a s t i n g , and to d r i n k \"comme un bon Th e o l o g i e n \" (11:133) i s . t o consume great g u a n t i t i e s . C o n t r a r y to the proverb \" l ' h a b i t ne f a i t pas l e . moine\", Eeroalde's c e l e b r a n t s f i n d t h a t the monk's robe i s indeed capable c f d r a s t i c a l l y a l t e r i n g human c h a r a c t e r , and u s u a l l y f o r the worse: \". . . prenez l e plus simple homme du monde, . j e t t e z luy un f r o c sur l e s es p a u l e s , vous l e v e r r e z i n c o n t i n e n t d e v e n i r hagard,. hardy S e f f rente\"\" (1:106). But Beroalde g i v e s a reason f o r t h e i r behaviour; i t i s the repr e s s e d , u n n a t u r a l l i f e these men are fo r c e d t c adept. A mild-mannered young man turns i n t o a n . i n s o l e n t r e b e l j u s t a f t e r e n t e r i n g a monastery. The f a t h e r of the young man i n guestion i s c a l l e d i n by the s u p e r i o r s , and the son e x p l a i n s h i s behaviour by example: I I va prendre un p e t i t mouton mignon gui e s t o i t au preau, & l'envelopa de son f r o c , puis v i n t a son pere, & l uy monstra; ce mouton b o n d i s s o i t , s a u t o i t , f a i s o i t 142 l'enrage. \"Et bien mon pere que d i t e s vous de c e l a ? J ' e s t o i s j a d i s un mcuton comme c e s t u i - l a , aujourd'huy j'ay l e f r o c q u i me f a i t a i n s i p e t i l l e r , 8 bon j o u r , pourvoyez y.\" (1:107) A g r a p h i c , v e r t i c a l i n v e r s i o n plunges the c l e r g y from t h e i r d i v i n e l y i n s p i r e d holy vows down t c i d l e n e s s and disobedience, then f u r t h e r down to union with the d e v i l : . i l n»y a gens q u i s o i e n t p l u s sur l e u r c u l gue moines & gens b e n i s , m i n i s t r e s S S9avans, g u i e s t u d i e n t a s s i s , & qui au l i e u de c o n s e r v e ! l e s s a i n c t e s ordres gui l e u r ont e s t e c o n f e r e r , l e s g u i t t e n t S abandonnant l ' o r d r e de Dieu se rangent aux ordres du d i a b l e , gui l e u r confere grace d * e s t r e plus r i b a u x gue jamais, S plus p u t a i n gue l e s autres gens. (1:278) The sexual l i c e n c e of the e c c l e s i a s t i c s i s a l s o d i s p l a y e d , emphasizing t h e i r f a i l u r e t c observe the c h a s t i t y vow. An abbess l e e r i n g l y recounts her many a f f a i r s to a young nun (11:10). Another high ranking churchwcman a l s o ignores her vow of c h a s t i t y . She i n t e r c e p t s a message from a l o c a l abbot to t h r e e of the nuns i n . h e r charge by pretending i t i s f o r h e r s e l f , while a l l the time she i s w e l l aware that i t i s not, f o r she i s loved by the bishop, and a mere abbot would not dare to make advances: \" e l l e s c a v o i t bien gue ce n ' e s t o i t pas pour e l l e , d'autant gu'un Abbe n'eut pas ose entreprendre sur l e s b r i s e e s de l'Evesgue de Lomtiers g u i l ' a y m o i t \" (11:6). Many t a l e s and comments r e v e a l p r i e s t s l i v i n g openly with t h e i r common law wives, \"ces sages et prudens P r e s t r e s gui nomment l e u r b r e v i a i r e l e u r femme\" (1:52). The domestic 143 normalcy of the s i t u a t i o n i s humorously i l l u s t r a t e d by the comment of one p r i e s t ' s \" w i f e \" as she stands before the oven: \"Helas! Encore - s i ce n ' e s t o i t nos messes, je ne sgay que je f e r i o n s \" (1:291). These women a l s o assume the s o c i a l s t a t u s of t h e i r churchman: \". . . e l l e s se t i e n n e n t s i b i e n pour femmes, que s i c e l l e s d e s . V i c a i r e s t r e u v e n t c e l l e s des messieurs, e l l e s l e u r f e r o n t honneur, S c e l l e s des Chanoines su i v e n t l a d i g n i t e 8 rang de l e u r monsieur\" (1:291). One banquet guest recounts an anecdote i l l u s t r a t i n g the extent cf such e c c l e s i a s t i c h a b i t s ; a young i n i t i a t e e x p l a i n s t h a t he does not yet have a \"w i f e \" because he has not yet been o f f i c i a l l y i n s t a t e d : Je m'en rapporte a l ' a n t i g u e de Mair-mcutier, gui se p l a i g n o i t gue tous ses moines e s t o i e n t p a i l l a r d s 8 avoient des garces; 8 voyant passer un jeune d i s p o s gui t r a v e r s o i t vers l a b o u l a n g e r i e , \"Je gage, d i t i l , gue. mesme ce p e t i t r u s t r e en a une\"; i l l ' a p p e l a , 8 moineau d'approcher; i l . l u i ' d i t : \"Avez vous pas a u s s i une garce comme l e s autres? —Non, monsieur, d i t i l f a i s a n t une grande reverence, je ne s u i s pas encor i n s a c r i s . \" (1:278) The banguet c o n v e r s a t i o n a l s o touches cn churchmen who covet the wives of t h e i r p a r i s h i o n e r s . The p a r i s h p r i e s t c f Sa i n c t Clement r e v e a l s h i m s e l f to be a s p i r i t u a l a n c e s t o r cf H o l i e r e ' s T a r t u f f e by h i s comments on the e n t i c i n g a t t i r e of the l o c a l women: \"en da, ny.moi, ny mes V i c a i r e s ne sommes pas Anges, c e l a nous t e n t e \" ( 1 1 : 1 4 5 ) . A 0 Some churchmen are more dar i n g and a c t i v e l y pursue the l o c a l wives. A Pr o t e s t a n t m i n i s t e r t w i s t s a r u l e to conform to h i s wishes, 144 much l i k e the wayward monks mentioned a b o v e , 4 1 t c give h i s a c t i o n s an a i r of l e g a l i t y : I l y a v o i t un c e r t a i n Monsieur de l a Tour, M i n i s t r e en ce P o i c t o u , l e g u e l par hazard, comme l e l i a b l e est s u b t i l a s e d u i r e l e s enfans de Dieu, ayant advise une b e l l e femme gu i ne luy a p p a r t e n o i t pas, S g u i a v o i t pere S mere, i l l a c o n v o i t a s u i v a n t l ' i n t e n t i c n du canon 17. Du 1174. C c n c i l e , gui demonstre gue l a f i l l e d'autruy n'est p o i n t defendue, parguoy i l l a besogna t c u t e v i v e . (1:104) Magdelaine, one of the bangueters, t e l l s cf a c e r t a i n l i c e n t i o u s cure of Toulouse who courted a l o c a l wife: \"Quand je t e n o i s e s c o l e d ' e s c r i r e a Toulouse, avec l e s chanoines de S.Sernin, d'entre l e s q u e l s i l y en a v o i t un gui e s t o i t Cure l a aupres & e n t r e t e n o i t l a premiere femme de men mari, l a g u e l l e e s t o i t b e l l e \" (1:256). Other churchmen d e s c r i b e d i n Le Moyen de P a r v e n i r f i n d t h e i r feminine p a r i s h i o n e r s l e s s w i l l i n g . A f t e r a l i v e l y s c e n a r i o , one hapless p a r i s h p r i e s t f i n d s himself s i t t i n g e n t i r e l y naked on a r a f t e r i n the good wife's house with her husband and a l l of the. p a r i s h s t anding below gazing c u r i o u s l y upwards. The husband, p o i n t i n g to the emtarassed clergyman, c r i e s , \"Jamais je ne vy un t e l Jan avec mes poules\" (11:50), and the neighbors, who pretend not to recognize the m a l e f a c t o r , give him a scund b e a t i n g . In another t a l e which i s wound through the d i a l o g u e , a p r i e s t i s o u t w i t t e d by a young wife who r e s i s t s h i s advances, then appears to y i e l d , only t o t r i c k him out cf f c u r measures ef 145 g r a i n . A l l of t h i s takes p l a c e with her husband's s m i l i n g approval ( I I : 50-60) . The worldly sons and daughters of the church are a l s o aware of the power of money, and many succumb to i t s a t t r a c t i o n . One b r i g h t young c l e r i c r e c o g n i z e s the e f f i c a c i t y of b r i b e r y i n church a f f a i r s and g u i c k l y persuades a church o f f i c i a l to give him a b e n e f i c e ever tvio other c a n d i d a t e s , not by answering B i b l i c a l q u e s t i o n s , but by s e t t i n g gold on the examining t a b l e . The s e n i o r churchman i s overjoyed: \"Eh b i e n mon bon amy, . ,. . i l f a u t gue tu ayes l e benefice;.vrayment vous estes decte, vcus e s t e s en danger d'estre un jour Pape . . .\" (1:116) E c c l e s i a s t i c s are a l s o accused of simony, b a r t e r i n g the sacred f o r personal g a i n . On t h i s l a s t p o i n t , the tone darkens and the broad, i n d u l g e n t laughter begins to fade. I t i s as though a c y n i c a l smile r e p l a c e s the author's laugh as one speaker, \"Quelgu'un\", s p e c i f i e s that the s e r i o u s problem i s not that money i s paid out f o r b e n e f i c e s , but r a t h e r t h a t p r i e s t s are t a k i n g money f o r the d i s t r i b u t i o n cf the sacrements: Vous P r e l a t s . . . scachez gue ce volume e s t f a i t pour vous j e t t e r l a p a i l l e en l ' o e i l , a f i n gue vous a b a t i e z l a Simonie, \"He bien, d i r o n t - i l s , on ne b a i l l e r a plus d'argent pour l e s B e n e f i c e s , on n'entendra plus l e s E s c r i t u r e s . \" Ce n'est pas l a l e mal, i l f a u t f a i r e des P r e s t r e s gui ne prennent p o i n t d'argent pour d i s t r i t u e r l e s Sacremens S autres o p e r a t i o n s E c c l e s i a s t i c s . (1:174) Th i s statement seems t o be a d i r e c t and urgent plea f c r 146 reform, which i n the process a t t r i b u t e s a more s e r i o u s purpose to the book. However, the f u t i l i t y of such a laudable attempt i s demonstrated by the r e c e p t i o n t h i s idea r e c e i v e s . I t i s as i f the author turns on h i s own i d e a l i s t i c i n t e n t i o n s of c o r r e c t i n g c o r r u p t i o n by exposing i t i n h i s w r i t i n g s , and mocks h i m s e l f . Immediately f o l l o w i n g t h i s eloguent outburst denouncing simony, Soc r a t e s breaks i n with a n e a r l y i n c o h e r e n t t h r e a t of v i o l e n c e : \"Or l a , fende2, frappez, t i r e z , f a i t e s de b e l l e s defonceades d'entendement. Cent m i l l e p e t i t s D i a b l o t i n s de de^a & dela des monts gui vous extravagent, vous p u i s s e n t casser des noix, gue l a gorge vous coupe l e cou, i l n ' i a n i rime ne r a i s o n en v o s t r e f a i t \" . Thus the suggestion of reform i s overwhelmed by v i o l e n t t h r e a t s and nonsense. One l a s t mention cf reform i n t h i s passage i l l u s t r a t e s the f u t i l i t y of such an attempt. F o l l o w i n g , S o c r a t e s ' outburst and a d i g r e s s i o n cn i r r a t i o n a l i t y a speaker evokes the image of a q u i x o t i c reformer, \"monsieur l e Cotnmissaire, qui e s t e s venu reformer l e s pavez qui usent t r o p de s o u l i e r s \" (1:175), which leaves the reader with the impression t h a t the outraged \"Quelgu'un\" who deplores simony i s j u s t such a s t a r r y - e y e d reformer. The development of t h i s passage demonstrates the f a t e of the reform movement. The w e l l - i n t e n t i o n e d , s u g g e s t i o n f o r moderate e c c l e s i a s t i c a l reform which wculd suppress simony p r e c i p i t a t e s S o c r a t e s ' v i o l e n t , i r r a t i o n a l o u t b u r s t . T h i s i n turn generates a d i g r e s s i o n on i r r a t i o n a l i t y and leads to T 4 7 the f i n a l s a t i r i c a l image of f u t i l e r e f c r m : reforming cobblestones which wear cut the s c l e s c f shoes. In the p r o g r e s s i o n of t h i s passage Beroalde demonstrates that even modest and w e l l - i n t e n d e d s u g g e s t i o n s cannct be viewed d i s p a s s i o n a t e l y because i n a time when r e l i g i o u s thought i s h i g h l y p o l a r i z e d even j u s t i f i e d a l t e r a t i o n s i n the system u l t i m a t e l y worsen the s i t u a t i o n . . T h i s p a t t e r n of o p t i m i s t i c suggestion f o r r e l i g i o u s reform f o l l o w e d by negative r e a c t i o n i s repeated i n another c o n v e r s a t i o n by Beroalde's guests. In a passage gucted e a r l i e r 4 2 the author announces that h i s book was prompted ty the e x i s t e n c e of v i c e i n the s o c i e t y , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n r e l i g i o u s s o c i e t y . Here, as i n other p l a c e s , 4 3 he sugggests that the purpose of Le Moyen de P a r v e n i r i s to expose, and thereby help to c o r r e c t , s o c i a l e v i l s . However, the i n d i g n a n t monologue i n t h i s passage i s f o l l o w e d by the r e p l y of \"Hotoman\" i n which the author's e f f o r t s f o r refcrm are compared to the w e l l - i n t e n t i o n e d but naive attempts of a monk to c o r r e c t a worldly worshipper: Hotoman. Vous me f a i t e s souvenir de ce moine de S. Denys en France, g u i v o u l u t f a i r e l'entendu, voyant maistre T h i e r r y de Hery a genoux, tourne vers l a f i g u r e de Charles huictieme. Le Moine l u i d i t , \"Monsieur men ami, vous f a i l l e z , ce n'est pas l'image d'un S a i n c t gue c e l l e devant g u i vous p r i e z . — J e l e scay b i e n , d i t - i l , je ne s u i s pas s i beste gue vous; je cognois gue c'est l a r e p r e s e n t a t i o n du Hoy C h a r l e s V I I I , pour l'ame duguel je p r i e , parce g u ' i l a apporte l a v e r o l e en France; ce q u i m'a f a i t gaigner s i x cu sept m i l l e l i v r e s de r e n t e . \" Ce Moine-la p e n s o i t e s t r e bien sgavant. ( I I : 165) 148 The f u t i l i t y of the author's i n t e n t tc c o r r e c t through exposure i s emphasized by the s m i l i n g i r o n y c f the f i n a l comment, \"ce Moine-la pensoit e s t r e bien scavant\". The mocking r e c e p t i o n which g r e e t s c a l l s f o r r e l i g i o u s reform i n Le Hoyen de P a r v e n i r suggests a disenchantment with the i d e a of reform i n g e n e r a l . T h i s idea i s n a t u r a l i n an age which had heard the i d e a l i s t i c arguments cf P r o t e s t a n t and C a t h o l i c l e a d e r s , and had then s u f f e r e d the conseguences of the deadly s e r i o u s r e l i g i o u s z e a l o t r y of both the Ref o r m i s t s and the Counter-Reformists. The misery r e s u l t i n g from the r e l i g i o u s wars (1562-1598) as well as the s e v e r i t y with which both s i d e s attempted t o r e g u l a t e the l i v e s of the people begin t o make the former C a t h o l i c l a x i t y seem by f a r the l e s s e r e v i l . A complaint of r e c e n t u n d e s i r a b l e changes runs through the book as a c o n t i n u i n g l e i t m o t i v , and the speakers u s u a l l y a t t a c h the blame e i t h e r d i r e c t l y or i n d i r e c t l y to attempted r e v i s i o n of the r e l i g i o u s system. T h i s complaint, i n t r o d u c e d i n the second sentence of the f i r s t c h a p t e r , a l l u d e s to the wars and other t r o u b l e s brought on by \"ces i n v e n t e u r s de ncuveautez'?, cr the r e l i g i o u s r e f o r m e r s . 4 4 The t r o u b l e s a t t r i b u t e d t c these misguided reformers a r e . r e p o r t e d with burlesque extravagance; they are blamed f o r a l l i l l s , i n c l u d i n g \"guerres\", \"maux\", and \" v e r o l e s \" : . confuz s b i e n t l e s i n v e n t e u r s de nouveautez, g u i gastent l a jeunesse, & contre l e s bonnes ccustumes t r o u b l e n t nos jeux. . . . Beaucoup de maux sont avenus 149 a cause de ce changement, gui t r o u b l e r a 1 ' i n t e l l i g e n c e des h i s t o i r e s , 8 gauchira toute l a mappe-monde. Vcyez combien desja sont venus de t r o u b l e s , guerres, maux, v e r o l e s 8 t e l l e s p e t i t e s mignardises g u i c h a t o u i l l e n t merveilleusement l e s personnes pour l e s f a i r e r i r e . (1:4) Among other statements d e p l o r i n g the changes i n r e l i g i o u s custom i s one which wryly notes that the f a i t h c f the French, once so f i r m , i s c u r r e n t l y being profoundly shaken: . . . A u t r e f o i s j'eusse j u r e sur mes ceufs de Pasgues, g u ' i l n'y a v o i t p o i n t de moyen de t r o u b l e r l a foy des Fran g o i s ; mais aujourd'hui je ne m'esbahi plus de r i e n . S i je s g a v o i s gue vous d e u s s i e z f a i r e p r o f i t de ce gue je d i r a i , nous autres v i e i l l e s gens ne prencns pas p l a i s i r a. p a r l e r pour neant, 8 gue vous ne m'accusassiez de ce gue je d i r a i , je vous a l l e g u e r o i s guelgue chose de r a r e 8 notable, Certes je desplore l a pauvre E g l i s e Romaine g u i se demolit, 8 sur tout pour un point 8 un acte gui se commet en France, (11:94) He conti n u e s t h i s statement to i m p l i c a t e \"messieurs du grand p a r t i \" (the C a t h o l i c s ) * s f o r the t r o u b l e , laments the f a c t that there are no longer any good C a t h o l i c s , and then f o r e s e e s the d e c l i n e of the Church: \", . . Adieu mere s a i n c t e E g l i s e \" (11:95). The i r o n y cf t h i s passage i s coloured with humour (\"j'eusse j u r e sur mes oeufs de Pasgues, g u ' i l n'y a v o i t p o i n t de moyen de t r o u b l e r l a f e y des F r a n g o i s . . .\") which l i g h t e n s the p e s s i m i s t i c c o n c l u d i n g sentence d e p l o r i n g the demise cf the French C a t h o l i c Church. Comtemporary c o r r u p t i o n of the true f a i t h i s d e s c r i b e d again near the end of the book i n a passage which charges 150 that there are no more s i n c e r e worshippers; these who appear to take r e l i g i o n s e r i o u s l y are e i t h e r f o o l s or h y p o c r i t e s : . . s i ce n'est s o t t i s e , gue c' e s t pour l a commodite': tenement gue piet£, s a i n c t e t e , j u s t i c e , aumosne S t o u t e s t e l l e s v e r t u s , ou a c t i o n s g u i en dependent, ne sont p r a c t i g u e e s gue par l e d e s i r gui tend a l a commodite, sous l e v o i l e d ' h i p o c r i s i e \" (11:233). The.way tc advance i s to e x p l o i t r e l i g i o n as do these h y p o c r i t e s . They have found a way to e x p l o i t God hi m s e l f f o r t h e i r s e l f i s h ends, \" l e moyen de se f a i r e du bien au despens du pauvre homme\" (11:233). One of Beroalde's speakers maintains that r e l i g i o n i s only a cover f o r the wars that these depraved men wage to f u r t h e r t h e i r own ambitions. . He r e f e r s to them as \"ceux gui sous ombre de r e l i g i o n f o n t l a guerre pour m a i n t e n i r l e u r ambition\" (11:175). At times the author i s content to g e n t l y r i d i c u l e r e l i g i o u s z e a l o t s of both s i d e s , as i n the d e s c r i p t i o n of a great debate on t r i v i a i n which both P r o t e s t a n t m i n i s t e r s and C a t h o l i c monks appear f o o l i s h : \". . . i l y a v c i t grand debat entre l e s Moines 6 l e s M i n i s t r e s pour d e c i d e r , g u i e s t o i t l e mieux d i t , C'est demie v i e gue d'e s t r e s c u l , cu c'est demie v i e gue de r i r e ; sur guoy i l s se confondoient, comme h e r e t i g u e s \" (1:79-80). At other times, he l o s e s patience with them. C i t i n g the l o s s e s of the P r o t e s t a n t s at the St. Bartholomew Day massacre and the f i g u r a t i v e l o s s e s of the C a t h o l i c s due to the S a t i r e M i n i p j ^ e , n e explodes 151 with an exasperated \"au Diable l e . c o u i l l o n g u i demeurera de ces s o r t e s de gens gui gastent t o u t \" (11:133). He al s o q u i e t l y concludes t h a t t h e r e are f a r b e t t e r t h i n g s t c dc i n t h i s world than to go to war over r e l i g i o u s theory. A f t e r the account of a r i d i c u l o u s \" t h e o l o g i c a l \" debate i n Geneva a s e n s i b l e bangueter surmises: \"Et puis f a i c t e s l a guerre pour c e l a ; a l l e z vous b a t t r e , a l l e z vous damner pour t e l l e s gens; j * a i m e r o i s mieux a l l e r t r a v a i l l e r a ma journee 8 f a i r e un p e t i t de bon f r u i t en ce monde\" (11:208). T h i s a t t i t u d e i s p e r f e c t l y c o n s i s t e n t with a comment i n l e P a l a i s des curieux i n which Beroalde puts the r e l i g i o u s debate i n t o p e r s p e c t i v e : \"Je voy aujourd'hui l e s c a t h o l i g u e s 8 l e s protestans g u i debatent, s i ce sent .Dccteurs c»est l e u r e s t a t : i l l e s f a u t l a i s s e r f a i r e , 8 en t i r e r p l a i s i r . . .\". * 6 In order to defame a f e l l o w guest, one speaker l i n k s him i g n o m i n i o u s l y to both the reform and the d e v i l a t the same time: \"Quel satan 8 reformateur es t u ? \" (11:15). In the same v e i n , another i n c i d e n t r e v e a l s the r e f o i m e r , Luther, to be i n league with the d e v i l . . A d d r e s s i n g l u t h e r on f a m i l i a r terms, \"'mon Luther, mon c a p i t a i n e , men ami\", a' d e v i l named F r o s t i b u s e n t e r s the banguet h a l l , comes up to the reformer, and d i r e c t l y addresses that bangueter i n the presence of the oth e r s , e x p l a i n i n g how r e l i g i o n can be used to f u r t h e r s a t a n i c plans f o r the world: En guelgue p a i s cu i l y a une des guatre r e l i g i o n s 152 e s t a b l i e , je f a i s d e c l a r e r h e r e t i g u e comme frcmage de Milan ceux q u i n'en sent p o i n t , 5 p u i s on l e s g r i l l e , S c e l a v i e n t bien a mon goust, d'autant gue. l e frcmage g r i l l e e s t plus vcluptueux au p a l a i s gue l ' a u t r e . (11:129) The a t t i t u d e of the bangueters towards r e l i g i o n i s to accept e i t h e r C a t h o l i c i s m or P r o t e s t a n t i s m , and then to get cn with the pleasure, of l i v i n g . As the examination of Le Moyen de P a r v e n i r continues, t h i s a t t i t u d e gains i n importance. T h i s i d e a of t o l e r a n c e , and even cf i n d i f f e r e n c e , i s apparent i n the s e l e c t i o n of the guests, for only those who have a l r e a d y chesen a r e l i g i o n are admitted. Others must remain o u t s i d e : \". ... S f u t d i t gue gui que ce f u s t q u i h e u r t e r o i t demeurercit dehors, s ' i l n ' e s t o i t de l'une ou de l ' a u t r e r e l i g i o n , ex ££ofessc\" (11:131). F r o s t i b u s i s a f r a i d to stay very long f o r f e a r cf becoming e i t h e r \" h e r e t i g u e ou P a p i s t e \" (11:130), for h i s work i s b e t t e r done i n the gray zone of c o n f l i c t between the two. There i s no room at Beroalde's banguet f o r these who agonize over the d e c i s i o n , l i k e the Doctor of Oxford, \"gui n'est pas encor r e s o l u s ' i l se d o i t f a i r e C a t h c l i g u e cu Huguenot\" (II:236) . T h i s c o n s c i e n t i o u s and confused person asks the advice of the company on t h i s matter, but they send him away with a mocking message: \" a f i n de l u i donner guelgue contentement, on l u i f i t une paraphrase apostrophique pour son desjeuner, q u ' i l s'en s o u l a t s ' i l peut\" (11:237). T h i s doctor's major f a i l i n g i s that he takes the matter f a r t c o 153 s e r i o u s l y , and i s thus the p e r f e c t v i c t i m f o r the grim-faced f a n a t i c s whom B&roalde abhors. Reported changes of r e l i g i o u s a f f i l i a t i o n f o r f r i v o l o u s reasons, however, do not upset the bangueters who accept amorous or gastronomic motives f o r c o n v e r s i o n as normal. C e r t a i n Huguenots have become C a t h o l i c , while monks have turned to P r o t e s t a n t i s m , and the reason, a c c o r d i n g to the commentator, has nothing to do with t h e o l o g y : \". . . Ce gue ceux cy en ont f a i t e s t pour se mieux entendre en garces\" (1:181). T h i s speaker c o n t i n u e s on t h i s theme t o i n c l u d e another c o n v e r s i o n , t h i s one f o r gastronomic reasons: \"Quant au J u i f i l l ' a f a i t pour a v o i r conge de manger du l a r d S du s a l e , a f i n de t r o u v e r l e v i n m e i l l e u r \" (I: 181) . In g e n e r a l the banguet d i a l o g u e expresses a f e e l i n g c f h o s t i l i t y towards s e r i o u s Reformers and the Counter-Reformers, because they n e e d l e s s l y ban l a u g h t e r and innocent pleasure from the l i v e s of o t h e r s . T h i s a t t i t u d e i s s t r o n g l y s t a t e d i n a vehement i n v e c t i v e a c c u s i n g r e l i g i o u s dogmatists of h a i r - s p l i t t i n g , impudence, l a c k of g e n e r o s i t y and a determination to drag others down with them i n t o melancoly: , vous Messieurs g u i f a i t e s des consci e n c e s a prendre mouches, 8 vieux affamez de vaine reputanation? Goulus de f o l l e g l o i r e , g u i vous demange? L'impudence a l'ombre de l»eau lemanigue ou T i b e r i n e , t a n d i s gue vous vous tuez l e coeur 6 l e corps a c h a r r i e r l e s ames vers l a m elancholie, tachant a u s s i de nous f a i r e payer l a v o i c t u r e guand l e d i a b l e vous empcrtera, qui sechez de p a i l l a r d e envie dont vous regorgez, comme l e savon des l e u r e s des gueux* 7 q u i b i e n t sur l e grand t r i m a r d . (I:128) These strong terms denounce the d i r e c t i o n which r e l i g i o u s r e v i s i o n has taken. Those who guide the movement assume monstrous forms. They are so i n t e n t on t h e i r own personal g l o r y that they f o r g e t human p r o p o r t i o n s and t u r n l i f e around them i n t o a sad a f f a i r : \"vous vous tuez l e cceur S l e corps a c h a r r i e r l e s ames vers l a m e l a n c h o l i c \" . One c h a r a c t e r , who has the name of that a n c i e n t d r i n k e r , Hercules, c r i t i c i z e s the sober, humourless a t t i t u d e of the P r o t e s t a n t s by accusing C a l v i n of u p s e t t i n g the country with his s o b r i e t y : \"Tu v e n i s t i s o b r i u s ad evertendam remputlicam\" (11:29), he says to the severe reformer cf Geneva. The innocent p l a y f u l n e s s of the bangueters' environment would indeed be upset by an a p o s t l e of s o b r i e t y and s e r i o u s thought, and t h e i r h o s t i l e r e a c t i o n to such a p o s s i b i l i t y i s understandable. Two other speakers, De Beze and Aeneas S y l v i u s , both authors of l i b e r t i n e works i n t h e i r youths, admit i n Beroalde's t e x t t h a t they l e f t f r i v o l i t y , joy and love behind when they began to take r e l i g i o n more s e r i o u s l y . 4 8 T h i s c o n v e r s a t i o n i s i n i t i a t e d by the \"melancoligue\" k i l l - j o y , Genebrad, who addresses the two authors: \"Eh bien, l e u r d i t i l , vous avez bien f a i t des f o l i e s estans jeunes, vous . avez e s c r i t d'amour 5 de l u b r i c i t e gue p l u s i e u r s ont tourne en sens reprcuve': i l e s t vray gue l e s bien d o c t e s , S gui ne sont p o i n t pedans ont trouve vos e s c r i t s bons, mais i l y a v o i t de l ' e c c e s \" (11:252). A f t e r t h i s condemnation both authors d i s c l a i m 1 5 5 t h e i r y o u t h f u l works: — V a , d i t S i l v i u s , n ' e s t o i s - j e pas jeune S f o l e t , despost de l a braguette, S r e l e v e de g e n t i l l e s e , guand j ' e s c r i v o i s mes g a l l a n t e r i e s ? Mais depuis, j'ay condamne tout c e l a , 6 l e desavcue. — Et moy, d i t De Beze, j e n'ay gue f a i r e de m'en excuser, je s u i s g e n t i l homme, a ce gue je d i s S comme je l'ay t o u s j o u r s tesmoigne guand l e s N o t a i r e s m'ont demande ou e s c r i t mes g u a l i t e z . Et b i e n , j'ay este g a l l a n t en jeunesse, a u s s i j ' e s t o i s P r i e u r , d e l i b e r e comme un a s s i e u r de meuriers; mais depuis gue je f u Reforme, je retranche t o u t e s mes f o l i e t t e s joyeuses: 5 tout a i n s i gu'un bienheureux J c s u ^ , je f i s une b e l l e c i r c o n c i s i o n de mes oeuvres j u v e n i l e s f a i c t e s a l a Cat h o l i g u e . (11:252) As they are f i n i s h i n g t h i s p r o t e s t a t i o n of good f a i t h however, the author n o t i c e s t h a t t h e i r c o n f e s s i o n i s undercut by la u g h t e r around them: \"Tandis g u ' i l s d i s o i e n t c e l a , je voyois l e s compagnons de Genebrad gui se mocgucient . . .\" (11:253). The sober, s e r i o u s s i d e of r e l i g i o n i s not allowed to p r e v a i l . Beroalde's condemnation of j o y l e s s s o b r i e t y and mi s d i r e c t e d p r o s e l y t i z i n g . i s i l l u s t r a t e d v i v i d l y i n one cf the most s t r i k i n g t a l e s in.Le Moyen de P a r v e n i r . It i n v o l v e s a r e l i g i o u s f a n a t i c , d e p i c t e d as a wandering p e n i t e n t , and his unfortunate v i c t i m , a v i l l a g e woman. The pe n i t e n t a r r i v e s i n a v i l l a g e , announces h i s r e l i g i o u s o p i n i o n s , and asks one of the v i l l a g e r s to beat him i n order tc help e x p i a t e h i s s i n s : \"Madame, e s t a n t trebuche en extremite de creuse devotion, j'ay bonne envie d'estre f c u e t t e realement S de f a i t par guinze matinees c o n s e c u t i v e s ; s ' i l vous p l a i s t 156 me f a i r e ce bien d'en prendre l a peine, je vous dcnneray douze beaux escus, 6 un escu pour l e s verges\" (1:63). T h i s woman r e f u s e s , but a neighbor, Madame Laurence, agrees to the task. Then every morning a t seven o'clock the p e n i t e n t a r r i v e s and i s beaten f o r h a l f an hour. The author i n t i m a t e s t h a t Madame Laurence, who c a r r i e s out the punishment, would ra t h e r have another kind of r e l a t i o n s i p with the p e n i t e n t , for she i s a woman of l i b e r t i n e m o r a l s . 4 9 However, the mas o c h i s t i c atonement continues as c o n t r a c t e d u n t i l i t i s over: \"Le temps 6 l a f e s s e r i e accomplie, l e f e s s e paya f o r t bien l a fesseuse 6 s'en a l i a . \" From the l i g h t tone cf the n a r r a t i v e , which stops to comment on the woman's wayward c h a r a c t e r , and i n d u l g e s i n wordplay such as \" f e s s e r i e - f e s s e -f e s s e u s e \" , t h i s t a l e appears to.be yet another of Eeroalde's r i b a l d n a r r a t i v e s which r e f l e c t the c a r n i v a l e s g u e atmcsphere cf the banguet, and the p e n i t e n t j u s t another of the odd c h a r a c t e r s who people the pages of Le Mg_yen de P a r v e n i r . The n a r r a t i v e continues amicably i n t h i s v e i n , s e t t i n g Madame Laurence on her way through the f o r e s t t c an amorous t r y s t with a monk of St. Denys, and c o m i c a l l y d e s c r i b i n g how she loves him: \" e l l e 1 'aimoit de bon fo y e , de bon coeur, . . . de bonne c u i s s e , S de bon ventre\" (1:65), but then events take a d i f f e r e n t course. She comes upon the p e n i t e n t who i s wa i t i n g f o r her with a s t e r n , r e p r o a c h f u l l c o k : Cest homme q u i a v o i t eu l a f e s s e e au p r i x . d e son argent v i n t a e l l e , S l u i d i t , \"Mettez pied a t e r r e ; \" S l u i f a i s a n t une reverence de basse t a i l l e , avec un v i s a g e 157 dechiguete de mines remonstrantes, passemente de r i d e s de r e p r e h e n s i o n s , l a p r i t 8 l'empoigne, 8 s ' a s s i t s u r une p i e r r e de chemin, l a met sur son g e n c u i l l e l e c u l a. mont, l a trousse comme une p e t i t e f i l l e q u i va a l ' e s c o l e chez un monstrueux, 8 l a fesse a nud avec de bonnes 8 sanglantes verges sur son c u l de d e r r i e r e : e l l e n'en v i d r i e n , 8 en ce s t e a c t i o n l u i repcussa f o r t 6 ferme l e fondement. . . . Apres l a fessade accomplie, l e jeune homme remit Madame Laurence sur l a beste, . . . recommandant l'ame de Laurence a l a bonne grace. La pauvre t t e r e v i n t avec grand f r a y e u r 8 se mit au l i c t , ou e l l e ne f u t que c i n q j o u r s , f i n i s l e s q u e l s e l l e mourut comme une vache g u i t r e p a s s e . Hee q u e l l e f e s s e e ! Quel a p p l i c a t e u r de stigmates s e n s u e l s ! 0 L i a b l e s i c e l a me p l a i r o i t , j ' a i m e r o i s mieux gue t e l s f c i i e t t e u r s , f o i i e t t e z , f o u e t t a n s a t t e n d i s s e n t a n a i s t r e apres l e jugement. Or l e foQtt4 f o i i e t t a r d c c n d u i s i t l a f c u e t t e e de b e l l e s b e n e d i c t i o n s , en l u y d i s a n t , \"Adieu ma douce amie, c i apres soyez sage, bien-heureuses sent l e s personnes b i e n - f o i i e t t a n t e s , 8 bien f o i i e t t e e s . \" (1:66-67) The n a r r a t i v e s t y l e r e t a i n s i t s bantering tone, with as i d e s from the author (\"Hee q u e l l e f e s s e e ! \" ) , grctesgue comparisons ( \" e l l e mourut comme une vache g u i t r e p a s s e \" ) , and whimsical wordplay (\"fouetteurs, f c f i e t t e z , f o u e t t a n s \" e t c . ) . However, the a c t i o n c o n s i s t s of more than a burlesgue parody of innocent exuberance. The grim-faced wanderer not only p r a c t i c e s s e l f - m o r t i f i c a t i o n , but f o r c e s h i s s e l f -c a s t i g a t i o n on o t h e r s , a c t u a l l y k i l l i n g Madame Laurence i n order to \"cure\" her. The n a r r a t o r expresses h i s o p i n i o n c f such f a n a t i c s i n i r o n i c understatement, s a y i n g t h a t he wishes t h a t such \"whipped, whipping whippers\" would wait to be born u n t i l a f t e r Judgement Day. Though expressed i n a d i f f e r e n t manner, , t h i s a t t i t u d e echoes . the r e p u l s i o n expressed i n the outburst of i n v e c t i v e a g a i n s t reformers guoted e a r l i e r . s<> That i n v e c t i v e , d i r e c t e d a t r e l i g i o u s 158 e n t h u s i a s t s who concentrate on the dark, j o y l e s s s i d e c f r e l i g i o n c o u l d have been made f o r the grim p e n i t e n t . Other examples a l s o i l l u s t r a t e the somber s i d e of r i g i d p i e t y . The c o l d , otherworldy a t t i t u d e c f a p r i e s t whc t r i e s to console a r e c e n t l y widowed woman prevents any,exchange c f human warmth and compassion f o r her l e s s . To him the death of her husband i s su p e r f l u o u s next to the f a c t t h a t the man died with the proper r i t e s : \"He bien, madame ccmbien vous devez vous c o n s o l e r , S remercier Dieu de ce gue monsieur vostre mari est mort bon C a t h o l i g u e , g u ' i l a eu l e s d r o i t s de l ' E g l i s e ! Soyez joyeuse de c e l a , madame ma chere dame . . .\" (11:99). An anonymous v o i c e then asks: \"Que pensa c e s t e pauvre dame?\". The answer i s d i r e c t and l a c o n i c : \"Que ce F r e s t r e f u t i n s e n s l \" (11:100). Both .cf these cases (the pen i t e n t , the recent widow) evoke a conclu d i n g comment from an o u t s i d e observer who p o i n t s out the c o l d and r i g i d s i d e of r e l i g i o n which i s demonstrated by the n a r r a t i v e . T h i s severe, u n f e e l i n g aspect of r e l i g i o n c o n t r a s t s s h a r p l y with the warm, j o y f u l atmosphere of the banguet where g u i l t and s i n are f o r g i v e n and f o r g o t t e n i n favour of innocent p l e a s u r e s . In these passages Beroalde r e j e c t s inhuman p i e t y and promotes a robust enthusiasm f o r l i f e . A negative r e a c t i o n appears again i n response to a c a l l for reform within the Church. In t h i s case the \" o f f e n s i v e \" p r a c t i c e s c o u l d be con s i d e r e d r e l a t i v e l y harmless, but the would-be reformer i s h i g h l y i n s e n s e d : \" I t gue tous l e s m i l l e 159 d i a b l e s , pourguoi endurez vous gue l'on d i e l a messe paresseuse, l a messe seche, 8 ce gui e s t bien plus j o l i , gue l e s P r e s t r e s ayent des amies sans fraude?\" (11:98). The r e a c t i o n t c t h i s complaint i s quick and a n g r y . 5 1 It seems to come from one who has grown impatient with the excesses committed i n the name of reform: \" A l l e z , monsieur, a l l e z dormir, vous n'estes pas assez sage pour renverser ncs bonnes coustumes . ...\".(11:98).. The angry r e j e c t i o n of reform i s the e x p r e s s i o n cf a c o n s e r v a t i v e m e n t a l i t y which i s at the core of Le Moyen de Parvenir. While the o l d ways may have t h e i r i m p e r f e c t i o n s , the new ones have proven to be.worse. The would-be reformer above i s accused of l a c k i n g the wisdom to o v e r t u r n e s t a b l i s h e d p r a c t i c e s . The many complaints i n Le Mcyen de P a r v e n i r about the attempts to r e v i s e r e l i g i o u s customs suggest that no one has been wise enough yet tc a l t e r the t r a d i t i o n a l system s u c c e s s f u l l y . In f a c t , the r e s u l t s of the attempts to suppress \" o f f e n s i v e \" h a b i t s such as those i n the passage immediately above (11:98), are the permanent p e r v e r s i o n of the f a i t h . The l o g i c a l extension of t h i s idea i s to promote r e t e n t i o n of the o l d customs along with the i m p e r f e c t i o n s . Confronted with the humourless s e v e r i t y cf the Reformers and the Counter-Reformers and the l a x i t y of manners and morals under the o l d system, the author emphasizes the advantages cf the o l d ways. His argument c o n c e n t r a t e s on one aspect c f 160 reform i n p a r t i c u l a r : r e p r e s s i o n o f sexual energy. Both P r o t e s t a n t and C a t h o l i c a t t i t u d e s are c r i t i c i z e d . The Prot e s t a n t a t t i t u d e i s r e f l e c t e d i n a comment on the moral s t r i c t n e s s i n Geneva: \". . . Comme ceux de Geneve g u i veulent gue ceux g u i vont demeurer en l e u r v i l l e , ayent l e t t r e s d ' h a b i t a t i o n authentiguee, 6 t o u t e f o i s i l s ne veulent pas gu'on h a b i t e \" 5 2 (1:230). A f t e r the C o u n c i l cf Trent, e f f o r t s to c u r t a i l c o r r u p t i o n i n the r e l i g i o u s orders grew s t r o n g e r . The vow of c h a s t i t y , one cf the mcst obvious and most v u l n e r a b l e t c f a i l u r e , began to be more s t r i c t l y e nforced. Some of the speakers i n Le Meyen de P a r v e n i r are in favour of s t r i c t e r enforcement (for example the one who complains that \"des P r e s t r e s ayent des amies sans fraude\", 11:98), but h i s o p i n i o n i s ov e r r i d d e n by ot h e r s who f e e l that i t only exchanges one s i t u a t i o n f o r something more onerous. The problem i s , they e x p l a i n , that when the n a t u r a l v i t a l i t y i s f r u s t r a t e d , the energy i n g u e s t i c n i s channeled i n t o dangerous thoughts; i t i s spent sear c h i n g out v i c e s i n ot h e r s , u s i n g the Reformation or Counter-Reformaticn as a cover: . . . sgachez gue C l o i s t r i e r s g ui n'aiment p o i n t l e s femmes, sont t o u s j o u r s apres a r e l e s c h e r guelgue v i e i l l e h e r e s i e , sous ombre de d e g c i s e r sur l a re f o r m a t i o n , p a r l a n t des v i c e s g u ' i l s imputent aux au t r e s , l e s g u e l s sont p l u s t o l e r a b l e s gue l e s l e u r s . He b i e n , s'accomoder avec femmes n'est pas tant de mal, gue de t r o u b l e r l a C h r e s t i e n t e . (1:297). The same idea i s expressed again by a speaker who l i n k s f e r v e n t preaching to se x u a l r e p r e s s i o n : 161 . . . un homme de c o n s c i e n c e , ayant fcule\" sous soy l a concupiscence, S enfonce l e f o r t de Satan, cu i l aura escrase l a t e n t a t i o n , e l l e s'en f e r a t e n e m e n t a l l e e g u ' i l aura l e s femmes en horreur, tant g u ' i l en a i t a f f a i r e , S c ' e s t a l c r s g u ' i l f e r a rage de pr e s c h e r . (1:318) A p a r a l l e l e x i s t s between comments such as these and the t a l e of how the d e v i l l o s t the a b i l i t y t c reproduce i n the normal manner, and thus was f o r c e d to reproduce by the head. In t h i s t a l e a s c u l p t o r i s commissioned tc do a scene of St. Michael with the vanquished d e v i l . Hot knowing much about church d o c t r i n e , he commits \" h e r e s i e \" , f o r h i s r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of the nude d e v i l i s too l i t e r a l f o r the church f a t h e r s to accept. The s c u l p t o r ' s work i s c r i t i c i z e d as a \"chose moult honteuse a v o i r aux yeux d e l i c a t s de ces pudigues f i l l e s \" (1:122). A meeting i s held during which i t i s decided to d e p r i v e the s t a t u e of the o f f e n d i n g p a r t s . A l a t i n i z e d order i s sent down: \"Coupibus c c i i i l l i b u s r a s i b u s du c u l i b u s a D i a b o l u s \" (1:123), and the act i s c a r r i e d out, but the r e s u l t s have unfortunate e f f e c t s on the \" d i a b o l i c race\", and on mankind. T h i s i n c i d e n t , claims the speaker, i s the cause of the h e r e s i e s which p r e s e n t l y i n f e s t the world, because once deprived of the a b i l i t y to reproduce normally, the d e v i l s ' s e x u a l energy i s d i v e r t e d and sent to the head, and they now engender dangerous thoughts i n the minds of men and women: Mais de c e c i . . . e s t avenu un grand malheur; c'est gue t e l s D iables ne peuvent plu s r i e n engendrer par l e 162 bas, p a r t a n t i l s engendrent a c e s t e heure par l e haul t c u t e s l e s meschantes o p i n i o n s 8 h e r e s i e s g u ' i l s vous f o n t c o n c e v o i r en vcs t e s t e s . (1:123-4) The bangueters concur. Instead c f t w i s t i n g s e x u a l energy i n t o unhealthy p r a c t i c e s and melancoly thoughts, they give i n d u l g e n t approval t o those, l i k e the two ycung monks below, who f i n d a harmless n a t u r a l o u t l e t f o r t h e i r exuberance and v i t a l i t y . These exemplary monks meet two young g i r l s i n an i n n , and as arranged, the g i r l s f e l l o w them u p s t a i r s where they a l l enjoy themselves \"en h a b i l i t e , gayete, vigueur 8 fermete de nature\" and not from \" i n f i r m i t e \" : . . 8 se p l a c e r e n t avec toute h u m i l i t e aupres des f r e r e s g u i l e s a t t e n d o i e n t , non tcuchez de l ' i n f i r m i t e n a t u r e l l e , (aussi ce n'est pas de t e l b i a i s gue l'on peche comme c e r t a i n s malotrus de Dccteurs veulent prouver, pour deguiser l e u r puante ambition, ou t r i s t e a v a rice) mais en h a b i l i t e , gayete, vigueur, 8 fermete' de nature, . . ..(1:309) 5 3 The a t t i t u d e expressed i n the above passage r e j e c t s the viewpoint of the r i g i d reformers and i n s t e a d conforms to the i n d u l g e n t and n a t u r a l methods of r e e s t a b l i s h i n g balance promoted by the popular f e s t i v a l s . The n a t u r a l and healthy joys of the body are s e t i n o p p o s i t i o n to the unnatural r e p r e s s i o n and r i g i d i t y which f o s t e r s s i n s of a more s e r i o u s order. The author s t r e s s e s t h i s methed as the n a t u r a l s o l u t i o n , r e j e c t i n g h y p o c r i t i c a l r e p r e s s i o n and recommending \" l a b e l l e e g a l i t e 6 p r o p o r t i o n gue Dieu a ordennee\": I l y a p l u s i e u r s pauvres 8 guelgues jeuneurs d'amour cu de f o r c e , g u i ne boivent p o i n t , 8 d'autres boivent pour 163 eux, & p i s s e n t a u s s i pour eux. I l y a i n f i n i e s nonains, p l u s i e u r s moines, guelgues f i l l e s de b i e n , gui n'osent, ou ne peuvent, ou ne trouvent a l e f a i r e , & i l y en a gui suppleent a t e l defaut; S notez en c h a r i t e gue s i l e s l c i x e s t o i e n t f i d e l l e s , 8 g u ' i l n'y eut point tant de c o n t r a i n t e s , S d ' h y p o c r i s i e s , gue t e l s excez n'adviendront pas; 6 je vous p r i e de prendre garde a ce gue, s i vous reto u r n e z a vos charges,\" tout s c i t remis a l a b e l l e e g a l i t e S p r o p o r t i o n gue Dieu a ordonnee, a ce gue par vos i n s o l e n c e s i l n'y a i t plus tant de causes de pechez 6 de p u n i s s i o n s . \" (11:192) It i s b e t t e r to l e t the o l d system be, and to e i t h e r p a r t i c i p a t e i n the C a r n i v a l or a t l e a s t s i t back and l i s t e n to a few harmless t a l e s of d e l i n g u e n t monks, than tc turn to melancoly thoughts of theology which lead to abuses: . . . l ' h e r e s i e . . . Sera e s t e i n t e comme feu de p a i l l e sur l ' e a u , guand on aura t o u s j o u r s guelgue ccnte de Moine q u i f e r a r i r e , au l i e u de s ' a l l e r amuser melancoliguement a e s g r a t i g n e r l a Th e o l o g i e pour en abuser. (1:308) The pragmatic a t t i t u d e expressed i n these g u o t a t i o n s echoes the \" s a f e t y v a l v e \" philosophy formulated i n defense of the excesses of the Feast of F o o l s . 5 * Voices of compromise and reason i n Le Mo_yen de P a r v e n i r express the same understanding of a human need to r e l e a s e energy through f r i v o l i t y and l a u g h t e r . Beroalde presents a v a r i e t y of a t t i t u d e s on the r e l i g i o u s q u e s t i o n i n Le Mojren de P a r y e n i r . Seme vo i c e s present the t r a d i t i o n a l c a r n i v a l e s g u e i n v e r s i o n s of the sacred, others c a l l f o r s e r i o u s r e l i g i o u s reform, and s t i l l others s a t i r i c a l l y r e f u t e the would-be reformers with accounts of the Reform and Counter-Reform movements' 164 f a i l u r e s . F i n a l l y , t h e r e i s a c a l l f o r the r e t u r n to the o l d ways i n which there i s room f o r human f r i v o l i t y , s e l f -indulgence and f e s t i v e s a c r i l e g e . A s i m i l a r a t t i t u d e permeates Beroalde's p r e s e n t a t i o n of. lay s o c i e t y , which w i l l be examined i n the f o l l o w i n g chapter. As i n r e l i g i o u s matters, r e p r e s s i o n and r i g i d i t y i n s e c u l a r areas become the o b j e c t s of mocking l a u g h t e r , and the k i l l - j o y s who re p r e s e n t the a n t i - c a r n i v a l world s i m i l a r l y assume the t r a d i t i o n a l r o l e of f e s t i v e scapegoats. 165 CHAPTER IV: NOTES 1 See above pp. 40-42. 2 See above p. 41. 3 See above pp. 31-32 f o r examples. 4 Huizinga, Waning, p. 163, comments on the f a m i l i a r i t y with which the s a i n t s were t r e a t e d : \"The v e n e r a t i o n of the s a i n t s has i t s place among the more outward m a n i f e s t a t i o n s of f a i t h . I t i s s u b j e c t to the i n f l u e n c e s of popular fancy r a t h e r than of theology, and they sometimes deprive i t c f i t s d i g n i t y \" . M i k h a i l Bakhtin, R a b e l a i s , pp. 190-92, notes the freguent t r a v e s t y of s a i n t s 1 names i n the \" u n o f f i c i a l \" language of R a b e l a i s ' speakers. 5 See f o r example, B. M. Meon, ed. La B a t a i l l e de Karesme et de Charnage i n F a b l i a u x , i v , 8 0-99. Gregoire L o z i n s k i , La B a t a i l l e de Caresme e t de Charnage, ( P a r i s : Champion, 1933), l i s t s s e v e r a l l i t e r a r y i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s of the \" b a t t l e \" between C a r n i v a l and Lent, i n c l u d i n g E l L i b r o de buen amor by Juan Ruiz (c. 1350), Le D i a b l e de l a c h a i r et de Carmetrant by Jean M c l i n e t (1485), and Le Testament de Carmetrant by Jehan d'Abundance (c. 1540). See a l s o Careme prenant by Benoet du Lac (1595), l i s t e d by P e t i t de J u l l e v i l l e i n R e p e r t o i r e , pp. 43-44, who d e s c r i b e s i t as a \"tragicomedie f a c e t i e u s e en guatre langues touchant p l u s i e u r s abus de ce temps\". 6 See Le Roman de Renart, Branches X-XI, ed. Mario Roques, ( P a r i s : Champion, 1960), p. 75: Dans p r e s t r e s , i l e s t l a f e s t e as fous S i f e r a on demain des chous Grant d e p a r t i e a Bahieus, A l l e z et s i ' v e r r e z l e s geus. Chambers, Stacje, V o l . I, p. 289, s t a t e s : \"The Roman de Renard i s witness to the e x i s t e n c e of such a f e a s t , the Feast of Fools with jeux and t i p p l i n g at Bayeux about 1200.\" See a l s o John F l i n n , The Roman de Renart, ( U n i v e r s i t y cf Toronto P r e s s , 1963) , pp. 78-89, who a l s o notes the resemblance between the Feast of F e e l s and Eranche XII c f the Roman de Renart. 7 Aucassin e t N i c o l e t t e , c r i t i c a l e d i t i o n by Hermann Sucher (New~York: G7~E. S t e c h e r t S Co., 1936), pp. 8-9. 8 See above p. 96. 166 9 Huizinga, J a n i n g , pp.,172-3. He continues to s t a t e that \"The s o u l of the masses , not yet completely c h r i s t i a n i z e d , had never a l t o g e t h e r f o r g o t t e n the a v e r s i o n f e l t by the savage f o r the man who may not f i g h t and must remain c h a s t e . \" 1 0 See f o r example the c h a r a c t e r of \" F r e r e L u b i n \" drawn by Clement Marot i n B a l l a d e I I I , Oeuvres d i v e r s e s , c r i t i c a l e d i t i o n by C A . Mayer, (london: Athlone F r e s s , 1966), pp. 142-3. 1 1 hSL §ainte B i b l e , S t . Matthew (5:39) \"Eh b i e n ! Mci je vous d i s de ne pas t e n i r t e t e au mechant: au contra i r e , guelgu'un te d o n n e - t - i l un s o u f f l e t sur l a joue d r o i t e , t e n d s - l u i encore l ' a u t r e . \" 1 2 Exodus (20:12) \"Honore ton pere et t a mere, a f i n d ' a v o i r longue v i e sur t e r r e gue Yahve ton Dieu te donne.\" (20:16) \"Tu ne p o r t e r a s temoinage mensonger contre ten p r o c h a i n . \" The remaining verse adapted by Beroalde i s e i t h e r invented by the author or modeled a f t e r verse 20:9 or 20:14 of Exodus which are: \". . . l e septieme jour . . . tu n' f e r a s aucun ouvrage . . ..\", and \"Tu ne commettras pas d ' a d u l t e r e . \" 1 3 S t . Matthew (25:20) \" C e l u i gui a v a i t regu l e s c i n g t a l e n t s s'avanga et presenta c i n g a u t r e s t a l e n t s : 'Seigneur, d i t - i l , t u m'as confie' c i n q t a l e n t s : v o i c i c i n g a u t r e s t a l e n t s gue j ' a i gagnes.'\" 1 4 See above pp. 36, 67-68. 1 5 I s a i a h (40:6) \"Une voix ordonne: ' C r i e ! ' et je r e p o n d i s : 'Que c r i e r a i - j e ? ' — ' T o u t e c h a i r e s t comme 1'herbe et sa d e l i c a t e s s e e s t c e l l e de l a f l e u r des champs. (40:7) L'herbe seche l a f l e u r se fane lorsgue l e s c u f f l e de Yahve passe sur e l l e . ( o u i , l e peuple, c'est l'herbe.) (40:8) L'herbe seche, l a f l e u r se fane, mais l a p a r c l e de nctre Dieu demeure t o u j o u r s . * 1 6 See above p. 27. 1 7 B a k h t i n , R a b e l a i s , p. 86, remarks t h a t R a b e l a i s i n c o r p o r a t e s L a t i n phrases i n t o the speech of h i s c h a r a c t e r s to help c r e a t e an atmosphere of f a m i l i a r i t y and f e s t i v e i r r e v e r e n c e ; v e n i t e apotemus r e p l a c e s v e n i t e adorejus f o r example, and \" s i t i o \" one of C h r i s t ' s l a s t words cn the c r o s s , i s used by an i n e b r i a t e d d r i n k e r to ask f o r more wine. 167 1 8 \" G l o r i a t i b i Domini\" (glory be t c God) i s changed to \" g l o r i a e d i t homines\" ( g l o r y produces man). 1 9 T h i s t r a v e s t y i s taken from the sermon on the mount recounted i n St. Matthew (15:19) and St. John (14:9). The crowd assembled to hear the sermon i s i n v i t e d to share the l i t t l e food t h a t there i s , and i t i s found t c be ample f a r e . The play on words i n Ie Moyen de Pa r v e n i r i s between \"modicum\", a scanty amount, and \"medium\", a f u l l measure. zo Genesis (3:9) \"Yahve' Dieu appela l'homme: 'Ou es-tu?' d i t - i l . \" 21 Huizinga, Wanincj, p. 161 s t a t e s that the s a i n t s were seen as r e a l and f a m i l i a r people, and th a t the church s t a t u e s were even dressed i n costumes of the time and reg i o n . 2 2 See above note 4, and Bakhtin, R a h e l a i s , p. 87. Henri Estienne, L^Aplogie pour Hercdcte, ( P a r i s : Liseux, 1879) I, 171-17\" \"complains of '\"ceux gui ap p l i c g u e r e n t a l e u r s chansons de p a i l l a r d i s e e t l a s a i n c t e e s c r i t u r e , et l e s docteurs a n c i e n s \" . 2 3 See Royer, Glossary i i : 3 5 5 . 2 4 T h i s passage mocks both the s a i n t and the p a r a t o l e of the p r o d i g a l son (St. Luke, 12): \". . . L'enfant prodigue . . se nommoit l e Seigneur Luxu, comme vous voyez en ses p o r t r a i t s , S.Luc XII, c ' e s t a d i r e , S i r e cu seigneur luxu\". (11:218-19) 2 5 \" S t . Chris t o p h e de Pasgues f l e u r i s : c ' est un ane\", Royer Glossary (11:318). 26 the e x p r e s s i o n \" f a i r e g i l l e s \" perhaps o r i g i n a t e s i n the behaviour of a seventh century s a i n t cf that name who f l e d from the honours the king wished to bestow upon him. 2 7 The concept of Heaven and H e l l i n the mind of the f a i t h f u l i s c l e a r l y d e s c r i b e d by Fr a n c o i s V i l l o n i n the \"Ballade pour p r i e r Nostre Dame\", i n Le Testament ( P a r i s : Champion, 1932)), pp. 40-41: \"Femme je s u i s pauvrette et ancienne Qui r i e n s ne sgay; oncgues l e t t r e ne l u s . Au moustier voy dont s u i s p a r c i s i e n n e P a r a d i s p a i n t , ou sont harpes et l u s , Et ung enter ou dampnez sent b c u l l u s ; L'ung me f a i t paour, I'autre joye et l i e s s e . \" These images are a l s o c r y s t a l l i z e d by H. Bosch i n h i s 168 p a i n t i n g s , (c. 1500), \"The Last Judgement\" and \"The Garden of E a r t h l y D e l i g h t s \" . 2 8 See above pp. 38-39. 2 9 see above note 6. 3 0 Henri E s t i e n n e , Herodote, I, 185, d e s c r i b e s a s i m i l a r i r r e v e r e n c e : \"Je n'ay p o i n t parle* de ceux g u i abusent v i l a i n e m e n t de ce passage. Caelum c c e l i Domino, terram autem d e c i t f i i i i s hominum (c'es t a d i r e , Les cieux sont au Seigneur: mais i l a donnet l a t e r r e aux f i l s des hommes), pour n i e r l a providence de Dieu par l a g u e l l e i l gouverne l e s hommes et to u t e s choses gui sont en ce monde, s e l o n son bon p l a i s i r . . . . 'Nous voudrions bien gue Dieu guardast son pa r a d i s pour soy, et g u ' i l ncus l a i s s a s t demeurer i c i a nostre a i s e . ' \" 3 1 S t u d i e s by Fr a z e r show t h a t i n v e r s i o n by p u b l i c r e v i l i n g and execution of the d e i t y , who i n h a b i t e d the person of the ki n g , d i d take p l a c e i n seme p r i m i t i v e c u l t u r e s , and developed i n t o mere mocking of temporal a u t h o r i t i e s l a t e r . F r a z e r , Scapegoat, pp. 1, 5, 59. 3 2 H u i z i n g a , Waning, p. 257, c i t e s the Eurgundian , \"Je r e n i e Dieu\", as one of the s t r o n g e s t oaths, 3 3 see above Chapter I I , note 7. 3 4 See P e t i t de J u l l e v i l l e , \"Catalogue des monologues et des sermons joyeux\" i n H ^ e r t o i r e , pp. 259-292. 3 5 c f . Eutebeuf, L i Testament de 1J.Asne, i n which the a v i d i t y of a p r i e s t leads him to c o r r u p t sacred r i t e s i n a s i m i l a r manner. 3 6 Jean B e n e d i c t i . La Somme des _peches et l e remede cPiceux (Lyon: C h a r l e s Pesnot, 1584). T h i s work was known for i t s d e t a i l e d d e s c r i p t i o n s of var i o u s kinds of s i n s . See Le Moyen de P a r v e n i r , G a r n i e r ed., p. 309, note 4. 3 7 see above pp. 119-120. 3 8 See a s i m i l a r passage, II:169. 3 9 see above pp. 123-24. 4 0 c f . Le T a r t u f f e ( P a r i s : L arcusse, 1965), Acte I I I , scene i i i , 1.970: \"Mais madame, apres t o u t , je ne s u i s pas un ange.\" 169 4 1 See above pp. 120-21. 4 2 See above p. 138, (11: 165). 4 3 See a l s o II:163. 4 4 Paul L a c r o i x , i n h i s e d i t i o n of Le M cjen de P a r v e n i r ( P a r i s : G o s s e l i n , 1841), i d e n t i f i e s the \" i n v e n t e u r s de nouveautez\" with \" l e s m i n i s t r e s p r o t e s t a n t s \" , p. 1, note 4. 4 5 G a m i e r e d i t i o n , p. 286, note 1. 4 6 1§ P a l a i s des Curieux, p. 53 8. 4 7 This passage i s ex p l a i n e d i n the G a m i e r e d i t i o n , p. 86, note 3: \"Les gueux machent du savon pour mieux simuler l ' e p i l e p s i e par l'ecume gui s o r t a i t de l e u r bouche.\" 4 8 Aneas S y l v i u s , who became Pope Pius I I , wrote Eemedio amoris i n h i s youth. Theodore de Eeze was the author of J u y e n a l i a , a c o l l e c t i o n of bacchic and l i c e n t i o u s epigrammes p u b l i s h e d i n an expurgated e d i t i o n i n 1576. See the G a m i e r e d i t i o n , p. 101, note 2 and p. 400, note 1. 4 9 \"Laurence l e trouvant gras 5 f r a i s , eust t i e n voulu g u ' i l l ' e u s t f o i i e t t e e de verges de s a i n c t B e n c i s t . . .\" (I: 64) . 5 0 See above p. 153. 5 1 Royer l i s t s t h i s e n t i r e passage under one speaker. The La c r o i x and G a m i e r e d i t i o n s however, separate them i n t o two statements from d i f f e r e n t speakers, which seems more l o g i c a l . (See L a c r o i x and G a m i e r e d i t i o n s , pages 285 and 288 r e s p e c t i v e l y . ) 5 2 See Royer Gl o s s a r y , 11:333: \" h a b i t e r : au sens l i b r e \" . 5 3 S e n s u a l i t y i s encouraged i n another passage which emphasizes that s e x u a l a c t i v i t y i s good and n a t u r a l , net e v i l and i n s p i r e d by the d e v i l (1:243-44). 5 4 See above p. 41. 170 CHAPTEB V SOCIETY AS CARNIVAL IN LE MOYEN DE PARVENIR The many v o i c e s heard i n Le Moyen de P a r y e n i r f r e g u e n t l y e x p l o i t t r a d i t i o n a l f e s t i v e p r i v i l e g e s i n order to mock and r i d i c u l e t h e i r contemporaries, p a r t i c u l a r l y those above them i n the s o c i a l h i e r a r c h y . T h i s i s u s u a l l y accomplished by p r e s e n t i n g c e r t a i n i n d i v i d u a l s she are respected i n everyday l i f e f o r t h e i r s o c i a l p o s i t i o n , wealth, p o l i t i c a l power, or e l e v a t e d p e r s o n a l g u a l i t i e s , and then e i t h e r p o i n t i n g out incongruous weaknesses or making degrading a s s o c i a t i o n s i n order to provoke the laughter cf a t h i r d person (observer, l i s t e n e r or reader) as witness c f t h e i r s o c i a l descent. E n l i s t i n g the mocking laughter cf others a g a i n s t a v i c t i m i s a c i v i l i z e d form o f aggression, one so e f f e c t i v e t h a t t c employ i t a g a i n s t important people could be dangerous unless under the p r o t e c t i v e s a n c t i o n s c f f e s t i v e p r i v i l e g e . T h i s a g g r e s s i v e humour provides an o u t l e t 171 for h o s t i l i t i e s as d e s c r i b e d by Sigmund Freud i n h i s a n a l y s i s of wit and jokes i n s o c i e t y : Since we have been o b l i g e d to renounce the e x p r e s s i o n of h o s t i l i t y by deeds-:- held back by the p a s s i o n l e s s t h i r d person, i n whose i n t e r e s t i t i s that p e r s o n a l s e c u r i t y s h a l l be preserved—we have, j u s t as i n the case of sexual a g g r e s s i v e n e s s , developed a new technigue o f i n v e c t i v e , which aims at e n l i s t i n g t h i s t h i r d person a g a i n s t our enemy. Ey making our enemy s m a l l , i n f e r i o r , d e s p i c a b l e or comic, we achieve i n a roundabout way the enjoyment of overcoming h i m — t o which the t h i r d person, who has made no e f f o r t s , bears witness by h i s l a u g h t e r . 1 Laughter motivated i n t h i s way a r i s e s not only from a f e e l i n g of s u p e r i o r i t y , but from the s u b j e c t ' s sudden f a l l from an e l e v a t e d stance to m e d i o c r i t y . 2 In C a r n i v a l , degradation and l a u g h t e r work together to accomplish the i n v e r s i o n of the s o c i a l h i e r a r c h y and the r i d i c u l e cf c e r t a i n i n d i v i d u a l s . An a f f r o n t may take p l a c e e i t h e r l i t e r a l l y or v e r b a l l y , s i n c e the forms of f e s t i v e a g g r e s s i o n vary. They may i n c l u d e b e a t i n g s i n the manner of s l a p s t i c k comedy and attempts to p h y s i c a l l y degrade or h u m i l i a t e the v i c t i m , while a t other times the v i c t i m ' s s o c i a l r e p u t a t i o n i s lowered. T h i s may occur e i t h e r through h i s own a c t i o n s which expose him as l e s s v i r t u o u s than he would have others b e l i e v e , or through defaming a c c u s a t i o n s and i n s u l t s d i r e c t e d at him by another c h a r a c t e r . Amid the b o i s t e r o u s l a u g h t e r there are c e r t a i n v o i c e s , s i m i l a r to those who plead f o r r e l i g i o u s reform mentioned above, 3 who p l a i n t i v e l y c a l l f o r j u s t i c e , reform, and human 172 kindness, but they are covered by laug h t e r and by other v o i c e s , d a r k l y s a t i r i c a l i n tone, who announce the f a i l u r e cf attempts to mend the s o c i a l system or to improve human nature. Instead of d w e l l i n g on the need f o r i n s t i t u t i o n a l reform or merely be w a i l i n g the e v i l which men do, these speakers r e j e c t any r i g i d approach to s o c i a l problems and encourage a r e t u r n to c a r n i v a l e s g u e f l e x i b i l i t y which promotes a n a t u r a l r e s o l u t i o n of t e n s i o n s . Through the experience of f e s t i v e freedoms, people can be shown both the l i m i t a t i o n s and joys of l i v i n g i n human s o c i e t y . T h i s chapter seeks to determine the ways i n which Eeroalde uses the p r i n c i p l e o f c a r n i v a l e s g u e freedom as a s o c i a l i z i n g mechanism, f i r s t to probe the i r r a t i o n a l element, i n human nature and then to d i s c o v e r the best way to i n t e g r a t e t h i s element i n t o human r e l a t i o n s h i p s . The m a t e r i a l of t h i s chapter w i l l be presented . i n two p a r t s . The f i r s t w i l l examine three forms of s o c i a l a g g r e s s i o n a s s o c i a t e d with f e s t i v e l i b e r t i e s ( v i o l e n c e , p h y s i c a l h u m i l i a t i o n and defamation of c h a r a c t e r ) which appear i n Le Moyen de P a r v e n i r . The second part w i l l analyse how t h i s aggression f u n c t i o n s as a s o c i a l i z i n g f o r c e a g a i n s t d i f f e r e n t groups and i n d i v i d u a l s i n s o c i e t y who do not conform to the openly s e l f - i n d u l g e n t and laughing s p i r i t which u l t i m a t e l y p r e v a i l s at Beroalde's banguet as i t does i n C a r n i v a l . Among the forms which f e s t i v e a g g r e s s i v i t y assumes the most conspicuous i s the t r a d i t i o n a l l y sanctioned v i o l e n c e . * 173 It e x i s t s i n the c a r n i v a l e s g u e environment both as an accomplished a c t i o n and as a v e r b a l t h r e a t t c c a r r y cut such a c t i o n . A l s o i n c l u d e d i n t h i s category i s the expressed wish to c a s t a v i c t i m down to the Underworld where pain and misery await him. F e s t i v e b e a t i n g s d i f f e r v a s t l y from v i o l e n c e f o r p r o f i t or vengeance s i n c e a p a r t i c u l a r l y ambivalent a t t i t u d e which i s both p l a y f u l and h o s t i l e accompanies them. While the p h y s i c a l abuse o f t e n r e s u l t s i n reducing the v i c t i m to a pas s i v e s t a t e where he i s inca p a b l e of r e t a l i a t i n g , i t i s accomplished while laughing. Even the battered v i c t i m i s la u g h a b l e , l i k e the v i c t i m s of beatings i n the f a r c e s . In Le Moyen de P a r v e n i r t h i s v i o l e n t yet laughable h o s t i l i t y f i r s t appears i n the author's r e l a t i o n s h i p with h i s reader, and then extends to the guests' r e l a t i o n s h i p s with each other. The most v i v i d accounts of v i o l e n c e , however, occur i n the t a l e s and anecdotes which are s e t i n the world o u t s i d e the banguet. The author exposes a v i o l e n t aspect of h i s own nature e a r l y i n the t e x t as he threatens the o v e r l y c u r i o u s reader with b o d i l y i n j u r y : \" S i vous me pressez je vous defcnceray t r o i s ou guatre ruades t o u t e s , brodees de cremoisy. . .\" (1:4). L a t e r i n a passage which r e c a l l s the t e a s i n g abuse and misfortune which B a b e l a i s sometimes c a l l s down upon readers who doubt h i s words, 5 Beroalde wishes the in c r e d u l o u s reader f u r t h e r \"incommoditez\": Que s i guelgues mauvais o p i n i a s t r e s , i n c r e d u l e s . 174 h e r e t i g u e s , s t u p i d e s , c o n s c i e n t i e u x , f a u s s o n n i e r s , cu autre r i b a u d a i l l e ne me veut c r o i r e , je p a r l e a vous gui e s t e s de t e l l e g u a l i t e ; 8 vous dy gue s i vous ne me croyez, que je veux S gu'en guise de perscnne demy-s a i n c t e , chacun pour soy, vous p u i s s i e z r e c e v o i r une bonne secouade d'estrapade gui vous dure une semaine, redoublant t o u s j o u r s pour mignarder v o s t r e Constance, ou une gesne de rage de fondement, ou une c u i s s o n de c a r n o s i t e i n t o l l e r a b l e , ou un c h a t o u i l l e m e n t de f i n e s gouttes, ou p a s s i o n c o l i q u e , v o i r e tout ensemble avec toutes a u t r e s s o r t e s d'incommoditez a l a s a u l c e d'allemagne, t a n t a v o s t r e regueste je vous dcnne remede, S ne vous s c a n d a l i s i e z s i en l'exces de mes c h a r i t e z , je vous so u h a i t e avec s i bonne S s a i n c t e a f f e c t i o n , t e l 8 s i grande b i e n . \" (1:54-55) Beroalde then o f f e r s the c h a s t i z e d reader h i s beck as a c o n s o l a t i o n , but then i r o n i c a l l y d i s c l o s e s i t s ambiguous value. The r e a d e r ' s c o n d i t i o n , he says, ; w i l l be the same, b e t t e r , or worse f o r having read the book: \" A i n s i ce mal vous r e u s s i r a en bien, a cause gue vcus scuvenant de ce l i v r e en vos r i g u e u r s , vous y aurez r e c o u r s , S vous vous en t r o u v e r e z ou de mesme, ou mieux, ou p i s , au grand advantage du s a l u t de v o s t r e ame, s i vous en scavez bien user\" (1:55). another t h r e a t begins with a f l a t t e r i n g remark t c the a p p r e c i a t i v e reader, and then develops i n t o a p e t u l a n t menace: \"ga i c y , bons amis du coeur, gens d e c i l e s gui savourez l e bien gue Dieu donne, voyez, c e t t e analogie d'harmonie p a r f a i c t e : s i quelgu'un ne prend p l a i s i r a* ce banguet, 8 aux beautez g u ' i l a p r o d u i c t e s , g u ' i l se f a s s e f o u e t t e z . . . \" (1:59). 6 He not only t h r e a t e n s h i s imagined c r i t i c s with b o d i l y i n j u r y , but e x p r e s s l y wishes them thrown down tc H e l l as a r e p r i s a l , a l l of which he expresses with humour. In one 175 passage he expands on the t o p i c o f the d e v i l ' s costume and then suddenly t u r n s on an imagined d i s b e l i e v i n g reader, l a u g h i n g l y sending him down to H e l l , o s t e n s i b l y to l o c a t e a d e v i l and b r i n g him back f o r proof of c o n t r a d i t i o n : \". ,. . 6 s i vous ne me croyez, a l l e z en Enfer m'en g u e r i r un vestu a l a n o u v e l l e mode, 8 me l e monstrez tout v i f 8 habille\", 8 puis me dementez\" (1:19). T h i s t e a s i n g l y humcrcus antagonism e x e m p l i f i e s the ambivalence of c a r n i v a l e s g u e a g g r e s s i o n . I t a s s a u l t s the v i c t i m v i g o u r o u s l y , but i t does sc while laughing, thus managing to s u s t a i n an atmosphere which i s both p l a y f u l and h o s t i l e . Beroalde r e t a i n s t h i s ambivalent a t t i t u d e throughout the book, warning h i s c r i t i c s towards the end t h a t \"tout ce g u i est i c i avance, e s t tenu pour t r e s - v r a y sans g u ' i l y f a i l l e , ou s o i t receu d'y c o n t r e d i r e ; 8 s i guelgu'un y c o n t r e d i t , g u ' i l s ' a i l l e f a i r e c a n e n i s e r en Enfer\" (II:214). Although the undercurrent of v i o l e n c e a t the banguet i s held to o c c a s i o n a l t h r e a t s and i n s u l t s , and never develops i n t o a c t u a l p h y s i c a l c o n f l i c t , the banquet guests d i s p l a y a c e r t a i n amount of h o s t i l i t y among themselves. I n c i d e n t s i n which \" A l c i b i a d e s \" , \" U l d r i c \" , and \" S o c r a t e s \" lose t h e i r tempers are c i t e d above. 7 In each case t h e i r rage passes g u i c k l y however, a f t e r c o l o u r i n g the atmosphere with p o t e n t i a l v i o l e n c e . There seems to be an unwritten agreement to r e f r a i n from v i o l e n c e at the banguet t a b l e as i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n the dialog u e between \"Mogenes\" and 176 \"Alexandre\": Diogenes: Tout e s t permis i c i , nous sommes p a i r S compagnon, on d o i t f a i r e S d i r e i c i tout ce gu'cn peut & pense. Alexandre: Vous y p e r d r i e z , pauvre homme pcurce gue s i tout e s t o i t permis je vous b a t t r o i s bien a ceste heure pour me vanger de l ' a f f r o n t gue l'annee gui v i e n t vcus me f i s t e s en Grece. (1:239) T h i s exchange i n d i c a t e s t h a t \"Alexandre\" i s r e s t r a i n i n g v i o l e n t f e e l i n g s within h i m s e l f because he i s not permitted to a t t a c k \"Diogenes\". Words thus take the place of p h y s i c a l c o n t a c t , and the d e s i r e to a t t a c k the v i c t i m i s s a t i s f i e d by v e r b a l t h r e a t s or e x p r e s s i o n s such as \"va, prens . une e s c h e l l e , 5 t'en va a tous l e s d i a b l e s \" (1:13), \" l e L i a b l e t'emportera\" (1:170), or \"va a tous l e s D i a b l e s S ncus l a i s s e \" (II: 129) . While the author and the banguet speakers manage to avoid p h y s i c a l v i o l e n c e and c o n f i n e t h e i r h o s t i l i t i e s to v e r b a l a s s a u l t s , the c h a r a c t e r s who people the many t a l e s and anecdotes are not so r e s t r a i n e d . Carnivalesgue beatings, i n j u r i e s and even k i l l i n g s are l a u g h i n g l y c a r r i e d out cn v i c t i m s who s p r i n g up again r e i n v i g o r a t e d , or whose demise i s obscured by comic e f f e c t s , a n d absurd c i r c u m s t a n c e s . 8 Even in the case of the s e v e r e l y c h a s t i z e d \"Madame Laurence\" d e s c r i b e d e a r l i e r , 9 t h e r e i s . an attempt to undercut the s e r i o u s consequences with humour. Her death takes on burlesgue overtones due to the i n c o n g r u i t i e s which are a s s o c i a t e d with i t : \"La pauvrette r e v i n t avec grand f r a y e u r , S se mit au l i c t , ou e l l e ne f u t gue c i n g j o u r s , f i n i s 177 l e s g u e l s e l l e mourut comme une vache gui t r e s p a s s e \" (1:66). The j u x t a p o s i t i o n of the a f f l i c t e d woman and a dying cow produces a l u d i c r o u s e f f e c t . I t does, not allow the reader to see the dying person as a t r u l y human being, a r o u s i n g sympathy and p i t y . Instead she i s d e p i c t e d as a p h y s i c a l l y comic o b j e c t , and the death scene becomes l u d i c r o u s . A f u r t h e r i n c o n g r u i t y i s produced by the way i n which the s o u l leaves her body. I t was common b e l i e f that the soul escaped upwards from the mouth of the deceased, but i n t h i s s i t u a t i o n the. e x i t i s e x p l i c i t l y and humorously reversed: \" V o i l a comme l a pauvre Laurence a change d ' a i r , & a v o i t a sa. mort une m e r v e i l l e n o t a b l e , une chose e s m e r v e i l l e u s e : C'est gue son ame s o r t i t de son corps par l ' e n d r o i t 1 0 p r o p o r t i o n n e l & semblable a c e l u y par l e g u e l t c u t e s l e s autres ames s'en vont\" (1:67). P l a y f u l puns and exaggeration negate the b r u t a l i t y done a l o n g - s u f f e r i n g wife of Geneva by her o f f i c e r husband. The c r u e l beatings exceed whatever punishment she may deserve f o r nagging him. In f a c t the beatings e x i s t more for the sake of wordplay t h a t f o r vengeance. Poised a m b i v a l e n t l y between animosity and l a u g h t e r t h i s account of c a r n i v a l e s g u e v i o l e n c e i l l u s t r a t e s the p o s s i b i l i t i e s cf i n t e r p r e t i n g orders l i t e r a l l y : Cest o f f i c e r a v o i t une femme assez fascheuse, S gui l e tourmentoit: i l l a b a t t i t p l u s i e u r s f o i s S a dur; dont e l l e se c o n t r i s t a , & menaga son mari du C o n s i s t o i r e , gui e s t l e p u r g a t o i r e des Huguenots. Hemis g u ' i l f u t au c o n s i s t o i r e , i l y a l i a ; & on l u i remcnsta gue c e l a 178 n ' e s t o i t pas beau de b a t t r e sa femme. ' l l l e e s t o i t b a t t a b l e , d i t - i l . • ' A l l e z , a l l e z , l u i d i t l e d i s e u r . . . r e t i r e z vous, 8 g u ' i l y a i t de l a mesure en vos a c t i o n s , 8 gu'on n'cye plus p a r l e r de vcus!' I l r e t i n t f o r t b i e n ce conge-, 8 guelgues j o u r s apres sa femme soy f a i s a n t f o r t e du C o n s i s t c i r e , se mit a f a i r e l a meschante, 8 i l l a b a t t i t : mais avec guoy? Avec une aulne, . . . 8 l a f r o t t a des 8 ventre sur ses habillemens. (11:214-15) A f t e r the second beating the wife complains again, and the husband i s once more reprimanded, but he excuses himsel f by c l a i m i n g to have followed i n s t r u c t i o n s t c the l e t t e r : \"Monsieur, je ne l u i ay f a i t gue ce gue vous m'avez commande, je l ' a y battue par mesure\" (11:215). Be i s sent away with the s u g g e s t i o n t o c o r r e c t her i n another way: \" A l l e z , d i t l e E r e s i d a n t C l e r c , remonstrez l u i avec l ' E s c r i t u r e s a i n c t e , ou bien on vous mettra leans\" (11:216). Again t a k i n g the advice l i t e r a l l y , \" i l l a b a t i t , mais ce f u t avec un gros Nouveau Testament convert de b c i s 8 ferre'\". Gnce again he i s s c o l d e d and sent away with another order: \"en f i n l u i f u t prononce a peine de p u n i t i o n c o r p o r e l l e , g u ' i l n'eut p l u s a c h a s t i e r sa femme gue de l a langue\" (11:216). He a l s o f o l l o w s the l e t t e r of t h i s command and not the s p i r i t : \"A jan, i l n'y f a i l l i t pas, d'autant gue guand e l l e l e fascha, i l p r i t une.langue de boeuf fumee, dont i l l a b a t t i t t a n t , gue l e d i a b l e eut l e c u l , 8 l e C o n s i s t c i r e l a t e s t e , 8 l e u r a l l e z demander g u ' i l s en ont f a i t ( II: 216) . The blows the wife r e c e i v e s resemble the f a r c i c a l t h r a s h i n g s of C a r n i v a l . There i s l i t t l e attempt t c d e s c r i b e the pain cr 179 to g i ve r e a l i s t i c d e t a i l s about the a f f a i r because the beatings e x i s t only to i l l u s t r a t e the l i t e r a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of the c o u r t ' s o r d e r s . One would not be s u r p r i s e d to hear c f the wife's sudden recovery, as happens i n the f o l l o w i n g case, but s i n c e t h i s wife's f a f e i n t e r e s t s the author as l i t t l e as the pain she endures, the c u r i o u s reader i s f l i p p a n t l y advised to f i n d out f o r h i m s e l f what happens to her, (\"S l e u r a l l e z demander g u ' i l s en. cut f a i t \" ) . Another unfortunate woman who antagonizes her husband a l s o becomes the o b j e c t c f v i o l e n t p h y s i c a l abuse, but her punishment by i n j u r y and \"death\" i s f o l l o w e d by subseguent \" r e s s u r r e c t i o n \" . T h i s episode f i t s i n t o the t r a d i t i o n a l p a t t e r n of c a r n i v a l e s g u e v i o l e n c e i n which the v i c t i m r e v i v e s l i k e Guignol of the puppet t h e a t r e . In Le Mcj^en de Pa r v e n i r e i t h e r the v i c t i m ' s demise i s glo s s e d over with comic d e t a i l , as i n the case of \"Laurence\" and c f the wife of Geneva, cr there i s a guick recovery as i n the case below: . La femme du pauvre Aeschines, . . . par d e s p i t de son mari ne v o u l c i t manger l e s pois gu'un h un: son mari v o u l o i t q u ' e l l e l e s mangeast en guantite', e l l e ne l e v o u l o i t pas; par guoy son mari l a b a t t i t , dont depuis e l l e f i t l a malade, 8 en f i n l a mcrte. A! Dame, on l a porta en t e r r e , S comme on l u i j e t t a l a t e r r e sur l e s genoux, e l l e eut f r a y e u r , 8 comme demandant pardon, se mit a c r i e r ; •Je l e s mangeray t r o i s a t r o i s . ' Les P r e s t r e s g ui l ' o u i e n t , & l e s autres pensant g u ' e l l e l e s voulut manger a i n s i , s ' e n f u i r e n t . (11:176) The comic res o u r c e s employed abcve are those of the f a r c e ; the r i d i c u l o u s s i t u a t i o n (\"par d e s p i t de son mari ne 180 v o u l o i t manger l e s p o i s gu*un a un\") i s coupled with comic o v e r r e a c t i o n (the beating and f e i g n e d death) and the f i n a l misunderstanding (\"Je l e s mangeray t r o i s S t r c i s \" ) . The v i o l e n c e e x i s t s mainly f o r l a u g h t e r ' s sake and t h e r e f o r e recedes i n t o the background as i n t e r e s t i s focused on the humorous h i g h l i g h t s . 1 1 F o l l o w i n g v i o l e n c e , the second form cf f e s t i v e a ggression i s a p h y s i c a l degradation or h u m i l i a t i o n of the v i c t i m . Based on the body, the attack almost i n v a r i a b l y i m p l i e s some kind of exchange of head and anus. Sometimes fo r example, f u n c t i o n s normally a s s o c i a t e d with the head, such as t h i n k i n g and p e r c e p t u a l i n t e r a c t i o n with the o u t s i d e world, exchange p o s i t i o n and f u n c t i o n s with the lower p a r t s cf the body. Much of the s c a t o l o g i c a l expressions and degrading i n s u l t s i n Le Moyen de P a r v e n i r can be ranged under t h i s category of f e s t i v e a g g r e s s i o n . The exchange of the head and the buttocks i s a t r a d i t i o n a l gesture of debasement and r i d i c u l e meant to c o m i c a l l y i n s u l t the r e c e i v e r and i n c i t e l a u g h t e r from other observers. In a study of r i t u a l l a u g h t e r S. Reinach r e f e r s to i t as \"Baubo's gesture'?, i n memory of a legendary o l d innkeeper who performed t h i s gesture i n f r o n t of the i l l and g r i e v i n g goddess, Demeter. In her astonishment at such a u d a c i t y , the goddess momentarily f o r g e t s the l e s s cf her daughter and laughs, thus c u r i n g her i l l n e s s . 1 2 It i s a l s o with t h i s gesture t h a t the S y b i l of Panzcust terminates her 181 i n t e r v i e w with Panurge i n B a b e l a i s \" T i e r s L i - S I f ! . » 3 j n j , e Moyen de Pa r v e n i r an aging vendor performs t h i s c o m i c a l l y d e f i a n t gesture i n f r o n t of a group of men who are mocking her: Nous l u i demandasmes, 'Madame, avez vcus des b r i d e s a veaux? --I1 f a u t v o i r , messieurs, s ' i l vous p l a i s t ; ' . A l a f i n e s t a n t montee sur une e s c a b e l l e , S ayant l e dos vers nous, e l l e nous d i t , 'Messieurs, j'ay de mauvais enfans q u i l e s ont b r c u i l l e e s 6 demanchees, s i gue j e ne l e s peiix t r o u v e r toutes e n t i e r e s , • 8 d i s a n t c e l a , avec une souplesse prompte & premeditee va l e v e r ses robes 6 sa chemise, 8 nous m a n i f e s t i e r son gros c u l ample & f e s s u , nous d i s a n t ; »Au mcins, messieurs, v c i l a l e s mords.' (11:243)' . , . Freguently the p h y s i c a l h u m i l i a t i o n i n v o l v e s two persons, one of whom (the victim) i s e x p l i c i t l y i n v e r t e d i n r e l a t i o n to the other. Beroalde recounts s e v e r a l anecdotes in which one or more c h a r a c t e r s i n a d v e r t e n t l y f i n d s h i m s e l f i n t h i s c o m i c a l l y degrading p o s i t i o n . One such i n c i d e n t , perhaps i n s p i r e d by a s i m i l a r account i n Jean Eouchet's S e r e e s , 1 * concerns a husband and wife, a chamberpot, and a crab a l l humorously combined to embarass the c o u p l e . I t begins as the wife r i s e s d u r i n g the ni g h t and goes to the chamberpot i n the dark. U n f o r t u n a t e l y the crab which was intended f o r a coming meal has escaped and crawled i n t o the chamberpot, and as the woman takes a p o s i t i o n over i t , the crab r a i s e s i t s claw and takes hold of her. The husband who attempts to see the problem i n the darkness i s s e i z e d by the nose and held i n an e m b a r r a s s i n g l y . i n v e r t e d p o s i t i o n i n r e l a t i o n to h i s wife, u n t i l they are r e l e a s e d by the 182 servants who d i s c o v e r them: Cela e st s i s e n s i b l e g u ' e l l e s'en e s c r i a s i haut g u ' e l l e e s v e i l l a son mary, gui l u i demanda g u ' e l l e a v o i t : \"Helas! D i t e l l e , je s u i s perdue\"; e l l e s o u p i r o i t 8 n ' o s o i t l e d i r e , t o u t e s f o i s l a douleur l u i f i t d e c l a r e r que guelgue f a n t a i s i e l a mcrdoit au bord de son cas; monsieur ayant f a i t apporter de l a ch a n d e l l e , 6 veu l ' e f f e t e's p a r t i e s n a t u r e l l e s de sa femme, \"pay, ma mie, pay, d i t i l , j e l u y f e r a y bien l a s c h e r p r i s e , je scay l e s e c r e t , i l ne fa u t gue s o u f l e r c o n t r e \" ; i l se mit a s o u f l e r , 8 l e cancre l e v a n t l ' a u t r e bras l'empoigna a l a leu r e d'aupres du nez. I I f a i s o i t beau v o i r c e s t e remembrance, i l a v o i t l e nez bien pres du c e l a de sa femme, i l pouvcit bien v o i r s i d'autres y e s t o i e n t , i l n'eut pas este cogu sans son a d v i s . Le v a l e t de chambre gui s u r v i n s avec des ciseaux coupa l e s deux bras du cancre, 8 mit monsieur 8 madame en l i b e r t e \" . (1:246-47) In another i n s t a n c e , the highwayman, Eersaut, and h i s men h u m i l i a t e a group of t r a v e l i n g p r i e s t s i n a s i m i l a r manner: Bersaut passant au dessous de l a Eennerie, r e n c c n t r a une nuee de P r e s t r e s g u i venoient d'un gaiganage; l u i bien accompagn4 l e s environne, 8 l e u r demanda d'ou i l s venoient; P r e s t r e s estonnez ne sgavoient presgue gue d i r e , t a nt i l s a v o i e n t peur. \"Cr ca ca, d i t Eersaut a un page, pied a t e r r e \" 8 au ben homme de Cure' de Barace gui e s t o i t f o r aage\", \"Sus bon homme, c u l bas, l a , destachez vos chausses;\" i l p e n s c i t d e v o i r e s t r e e s c o u i l l e . Quand l e s chausses f u r e n t b a i s s e e s , l e page au commandement de son maistre attacha l e d e r r i e r e de l a chemise aux r e i n s ; adonc i l f i t b a i s s e r l e Cure', comme quand on jcue au frapemain cu a l a fausse compagnie: p u i s , \"(Ja enfans, a l ' o f r a n d e \" Tous l e s autres P r e s t r e s v i n d r e n t b a i s e r l e c u l , 8 mirent l e u r argent au chapeau du page. l a ceremonie accomplie, i l l e u r demanda, \"Eh bien, enfans, me c c g n o i s s e z vcus? — Ouy, vous es t e s l e bon monsieur Eersaut. — A l l e z , d i t i l , a l l e z , 6 f a i c t e s v o s t r e d e v o i r scyez gens de b i e n . \" (11: 156-57) Many of the v e r b a l i n s u l t s which punctuate Le Mcyen de Pa r v e n i r are de r i v e d from v a r i a t i o n s on the embarrassingly i n v e r t e d body. T y p i c a l of such d i s r e s p e c t f u l remarks i s one 183 c h a r a c t e r ' s i n s u l t i n g taunt to another: \" S i vos t r e nez e s t o i t en mon c u l , vous ne v e r r i e z gue des f e s s e s \" (1:224) cr \"Frappez de v o s t r e nez en mon c u l \" (1:317). There i s no need to c i t e the many other e x p r e s s i o n s f o r they resemble these i n tone and c o n t e n t . 1 5 C o r r e l a t i v e to the h u m i l i a t i o n produced by p h y s i c a l i n v e r s i o n of the body i s s c a t o l o g i c a l degradation which a l s o serves to embarrass or i n s u l t the v i c t i m . Drawing a t t e n t i o n to the v i c t i m ' s p h y s i c a l need to e l i m i n a t e waste, cr a s s o c i a t i n g him with excrement i n some other way i s one of the most p r i m i t i v e of comic degradations. The dung-throwing and f a m i l i a r s c a t o l o g i c a l t a u n t s of C a r n i v a l serve as prototypes f o r the many examples of t h i s degradation i n Le Moyen de P a r v e n i r . 1 6 . . . . Beroalde's guests a f f i r m the u n i v e r s a l human dependence on the body's d i g e s t i v e system, s t r e s s i n g a kind of human e g u a l i t y through body f u n c t i o n s . \" S t a d i u s \" informs \"Le Mo r t e l \" of a need common to a l l those who posses a mortal body: \"0 pauvre animal m c r t e l mon amy, ne s g a i s tu pas b i e n gu'ayans un corps i l f a u t g u ' i l se vuide . . .\" (11:162). Such a s s o c i a t i o n s make d i g n i t y or detachment i m p o s s i b l e , and su b j e c t everyone to the f a m i l i a r l a u g h t e r of o t h e r s . T h i s r i d i c u l e a l s o e f f e c t s a kind of p h y s i c a l \" i n v e r s i o n \" due to the s h i f t i n emphasis. The d i f f e r e n c e between the thought, speech or moral, a t t i t u d e of the su b j e c t and the automatic p h y s i c a l f u n c t i o n s he performs i s p a r a l l e l e d by a s p a c i a l 184 d i v i s i o n between those f u n c t i o n s as w e l l , f o r the more a b s t r a c t and r e f i n e d f u n c t i o n s are c r e d i t e d to the head and heart l o c a t e d i n the upper body, while the lower p a r t s of the body, i n c l u d i n g the d i g e s t i v e t r a c t and the anus, perform the automatic p h y s i c a l f u n c t i o n s . T h i s sudden change i n the l e v e l of a t t e n t i o n from moral t c p h y s i c a l serves to h u m i l i a t e the v i c t i m and to provoke l a u g h t e r from the observers. 1 7 In Le Mojjen de P a r v e n i r the same s c e n a r i o i s repeated i n two anecdotes, both t a k i n g p l a c e . i n an u n f a m i l i a r and u n l i t house i n which two f r i e n d s have stepped f o r the n i g h t . In one case i t i s \" P l a t o \" and h i s f r i e n d \" P e r d i a c \" (1:187), and i n the other i t i s two of the king's gentlemen (11:227). One of the f r i e n d s a r i s e s during the night and goes to what he b e l i e v e s to be the chamber pot; i n v a r i a b l y , i t i s h i s f r i e n d ' s bedstead, and the r e s u l t i n g , a c c i d e n t accomplishes the l a t t e r ' s degradation, \" l ' u n s o n g e c i t g u ' i l se n c y c i t S l ' a u t r e songeoit g u ' i l p i s s o i t \" (11:227), begins the comedy of e r r o r s . The s l e e p e r who dreams he i s drowning awakes, misjudges the s i t u a t i o n , and m e l o d r a m a t i c a l l y bids f a r e w e l l to the world, unaware that h i s e l e v a t e d stance should be one of h u m i l i a t i o n i n s t e a d : he begins \" h a l e t a n t , 5 s ' e s v e i l l a n t , S se trouvant tout m o u i l l e , se p r i t a c r i e r : 'Helas, i l e s t done vray! 0 a d i e u , tous mes amis de ce monde' (11:227). A s i m i l a r mistake i n judgement a l s o makes P e r d i a c the o b j e c t cf mockery, although the laughing witnesses to h i s case 185 i n c l u d e not only the reader, but a group of young l a d i e s as well (I: 188) . , S i m i l a r l y , s c a t o l o g i c a l degradation provides m a t e r i a l for a v a r i e t y of i n s u l t s i n Ie Moyen de P a r v e n i r , ranging from d i r e c t and crude e x p r e s s i o n s such as \"gue l a merde vous puisse b a i s e r \" (1:218), to supposedly u n i n t e n t i o n a l but i n s u l t i n g v e r b a l s l i p s , \"merde en vcs l i p e s , \" i n place cf \"melancoligue\" (1:135) , and i n c l u d e more co n t o r t e d statements, \" c ' e s t un e s t r o n gui vous puisse s e r v i r de masgue a Caresme-presnant\" ( 1 : 2 5 3 ) . 1 6 I t i s t h i s procedure that Beroalde uses t o l a u g h i n g l y debase h i s own p u b l i s h e r : \" A i n s i ceux gui ont i m p r i n t c e c i , sont commissaires d'excremens. C e c i e s t l a f i a n t e de mon e s p r i t , . . . .\" (11:162). Even the reader does not escape t h i s degradation. The author i n t i m a t e s a r a t h e r vaguely stated \" s e c r e t \" , and then informs him that, \" i l m'est eschappe de vous d i r e c e l a , l e Diable me l ' a t i r e du c u l , pour l e mettre en v o s t r e bouche . . . » (11:133). The lower p a r t s of the body are sometimes shown i n c o n t r o l of the e n t i r e person, dominating h i s mind and w i l l . In the manner of Bergscn's , \"mechanigue plague sur l e v i v a n t \" , 1 9 an image which presents the body's domination cf the w i l l , the beauty and d i g n i t y of no one i n Le M£yj=n de Parvenir escapes p o t e n t i a l connection with debasing b c d i l y f u n c t i o n s such as d e f e c a t i o n or f l a t u l a t i o n . Beroalde o f f e r s the reader the s p e c t a c l e of a formal a r i s t o c r a t i c dinner at 186 which an embarrassed churchman t r i e s d e s p e r a t e l y yet u l t i m a t e l y f a i l s to c o n t r o l h i s bladder (11:90). In another passage an important Church o f f i c i a l s u f f e r s a g r o s s i n d i g n i t y : \"mais gui f u t c e l u i q u i r i t t a n t , g u ' i l en f i a n t a en ses chausses? — C e f u t mon compere l e C a r d i n a l mcine\" (11:153). An anecdote a l s o d e p i c t s a s e r v i n g g i r l , Hargot, who becomes so tense while t r y i n g t c r e p r e s s an urge to f l a t u l a t e i n the presence of her employers t h a t she crushes i n her hand the egg she was about to serve them, and f a i l s to c o n t r o l her urge as well (11:105). At the same time there i s an e f f o r t t c emphasize the body's lower p a r t s and f u n c t i o n s by mock encomium; the p r a i s e l a v i s h e d on \"monsieur l e C u l \" e x e m p l i f i e s t h i s tendency: Or mon b e l ami, sans c u l on ne f a i t r i e n , sgavez-vcus pas gue c ' e s t l a base S l e vray m i l i e u du corps, l e mignon de l'ame, dautant gue s ' i l ne se pcrte b i e n , S gue ses a f f a i r e s soiertt incommodees, e l l e s'en d e s p l a i s t S s ' e n f u i t par l a ; je pa r l e - pour l e s doctes. Or done, d o c t e s , venez i c i succer l a moelle de d o c t r i n e , venez apprendre l e s beaux s e c r e t s , sans vous amuser a b r i d e r l e s chevaux au rebours, i d est l e u r mettant l e mords au c u l ; tout ce gui se f a i t en ce monde e s t pour exercer monsieur l e Cul . . .. (1:19*4-95). One speaker i n s i s t s t h a t there i s a s i x t h sense: \"C'est le sens du c u l \" (1:132) and others speak out to defend what they b e l i e v e to be t h i s l i t t l e a p p r e c i a t e d , but necessary pa r t of the b o d y . 2 0 A c t i o n s of the lower body are a l s o i d e a l i z e d by a ps e u d o - s c h o l a r l y f a n t a s y r e m i n i s c e n t of 187 Fantagruel's f l a t u l e n t c r e a t i v i t y : 2 1 . . . Quand l a t e r r e e s t en chaleur S f o r t e rage d'engendrer, i l se fa u t bien garder de l a i s s e r tomber des pets, tesmoin D i o s c o r i d e e s c r i t en veau, au l i v r e des herbes n o u v e l l e s , l e g u e l d i t gue l e s plantes ont des odeurs d i f f e r e n t e s s e l o n t e l s a c c i d e n s , 6 mesmes l e s beautez S douceurs des f l e u r s en sent d e r i v e e s , comme l ' a bien remargue Paracelse en ses Mineurs; S a f i n gue je vous en embouche, je vous mets devant l e nez c e s t e b e l l e f l e u r , l a couronne i m p e r i a l e , g u i nasgu i t d'une vesse que f i t une grand 1 Dame e s t a n t f i l l e S b e l l e ; apres a v o i r mange des c o n f i t u r e s musquees e l l e f i t une c a p r i o l l e gui causa ce b e l a c c i d e n t . (1:23-24) S c a t o l o g i c a l a s s o c i a t i o n s are a l s o employed to r i d i c u l e r espected o b j e c t s and a b s t r a c t concepts as w e l l as persons. The e l e v a t e d and a b s t r a c t c o n n o t a t i o n s of the word l i b e r t y a l s o undergo a degrading a s s o c i a t i o n i n the address c f \"Messire G i l l e s \" to the company as he compares l i b e r t y to the odour of the p r i v y : \". . . 0 b e l l e s pensees, gra c i e u s e s c e r v e l l e s , nous sommes i c i comme chez l e Rcy Assuerus, l a l i b e r t e nous s e r t de guide, comme l a senteur pour a l l e r au r e t r a i c t , chacun d i t 6 f a i t i c i ce g u ' i l veut 5 peut\" (I:120). The works of the poet B a l f are degraded i n t h i s way by Ronsard who c h a r a c t e r i z e s B a l f ' s w r i t i n g s by speaking cf them along with p r i v y p a p e r : 2 2 Tu es un bea u f a i s e u r de mines, je c u i d o i s d i r e de mimes, tu es un grand Docteur, tu nous en veux conter, & encor l ' e s c r i r e ; va va, j'ay plus use de papier a me to r c h e r l e c u l gue tu n'en as employe a e s c r i r e t o u t ce gue t u pensois s c a v o i r . (11:15) A s i m i l a r a s s o c i a t i o n degrades Papal E u l l s . Far from being t r e a t e d with reverence, they are c a s u a l l y put i n t o the category of p o t e n t i a l swabs, along with the minutes of the 188 C o n s i s t o r y meeting and notes from the r e l i g i o u s Chapter: Je vous d i r a i l a r a i s o n pourguoy l e s Turcs ne se torchent p o i n t l e c u l de p a p i e r ; c ' e s t de peur gue ce papier s o i t une b u l l e du tape, ou guelgue r e l a t i o n de c o n s i s t o i r e , ou c o n c l u s i o n de C h a p i t r e , deguci s i cn s ' e s t o i t e f f l a i r e ' l e fondement, sans doute on a u r o i t l e s hemorroides. (II:102) The author of Le Moyen de P a r v e n i r a l s o muses on the probable f a t e of h i s book: \"Avisez-y, doctes, parce gue souvent vos l a b e u r s , vos bons l i v r e s sent employez a f a i r e des c o r n e t s d'espices, ou des mouchcirs de c u l , S ne peut advenir p i s a c e s t u i - c i . . .\"(11:163).. Gn s e v e r a l o c c a s i o n s he impresses upon the reader the s c a t o l o g i c a l g u a l i t y of the book as though p a r r y i n g any c r i t i c i s m of i t i n advance. Should anyone c a l l i t s c a t o l o g i c a l , he w i l l be c o r r e c t , f c r Beroalde c l a i m s that \" l e D i a b l e me l ' a t i r e du c u l \" (11:133), and \" c e c i est l e f i a n t e de men e s p r i t \" (11:162). In the c l o s i n g verse, he uses a homonymic pun es t r o n c s ^ e s t r o n s , i n s o l i c i t i n g s c a t o l o g i c a l c c n t r i b u t i o n s from the reader towards the completion of the work: Vous g u i avez mine d' e s t r e horns, Et g u i semblez e s t r e hemroasses: Apportez guatre gros e*s t r o n c s , A f i n que l'oeuvre se p a r f a c e . (II:261) Together with v i o l e n t a t t a c k s and p h y s i c a l degradation, the f e s t i v e a ggression and burlesgue mockery i n Le Mc-jen de Pa r v e n i r assumes . a t h i r d form. T h i s u s u a l l y takes place as an a t t a c k on the v i c t i m ' s r e p u t a t i o n . The i n t e l l e c t u a l , 189 moral, and s p i r i t u a l q u a l i t i e s which e l e v a t e the c h a r a c t e r of some men and women above ot h e r s are turned upside-down and shown to be f o l l y , s e l f - i n d u l g e n c e , cr h y p c c r i s y . Again, no one i s immune, and i n f a c t the more e l e v a t e d the a t t i t u d e or s o c i a l p o s i t i o n of the v i c t i m , the mere applauded i s h i s h u m i l i a t i o n . The reason f o r which f e s t i v e aggression t u r n s a g a i n s t these people i s not n e c e s s a r i l y because they are part of the upper c l a s s e s who misuse t h e i r power i n everyday l i f e . Instead, the \"crime\" these v i c t i m s commit t c provoke mocking revenge i s one of s o c i a l r i g i d i t y . T h i s phenomenon i s d e s c r i b e d by Bergson i n Le R i r e : \"Un v i c e scuple s e r a i t moins f a c i l e a r i d i c u l i s e r gu'une vertu i n f l e x i b l e . C'est l a r a i d e u r gui est suspecte a l a s o c i e t e . 1 , 2 3 These persons i n Le Moyen de P a r v e n i r who adopt r i g i d postures are g u i c k l y p u l l e d down to more \"human\" postures e i t h e r by t h e i r own a c t i o n s which r e v e a l them to be r i d i c u l o u s l y n e a r - s i g h t e d or h y p o c r i t i c a l , or through the c o m i c a l l y defaming a l l e g a t i o n s of other c h a r a c t e r s . A money-mad p u b l i s h e r of Geneva r e v e a l s how h i s obsession with wealth has warped h i s sense cf human p r o p o r t i o n . Even when h i s l i f e i s c l o s e to ending, h i s g u i d i n g p a s s i o n , a v a r i c e , prevents him from r e a l i z i n g t h a t d e s p i t e h i s wealth and \"important\" work, he i s mortal l i k e other men: \"Ha, mon amy, d i t i l au C h yrurgien, s i je viens a mourir de c e s t e maladie, je perdray plus de m i l l e f l o r i n s a c e s t e f o i r e de F r a n c f c r t \" (11:250). In another moment cf 190 c r i s i s feminine modesty and d i g n i t y i s g u i c k l y exposed as only a pose. The i n c i d e n t begins when a s o l d i e r e n t e r s the home of a canon duri n g a house-to-house m i l i t a r y s e a r c h . D i s c o v e r i n g the lady of the house and her maid a s l e e p , he c r i e s l o u d l y , \"Par l a double rouge c r e s t e du cog, je fo u t e r a y tout ceans de par l e Roy\". The servant d r a m a t i c a l l y throws h e r s e l f between the man and her m i s t r e s s : \"Helas, monsieur, pour Dieu ne f a i t e s r i e n a madame, e l l e se trcuve s i mal, je vous p r i e d ' a v o i r p a t i e n c e \" . At t h i s the lady i n question p u l l s back the c u r t a i n and s h a t t e r s the image cf her c r e a t e d by the g i r l ' s defense: \" V o i r e , mamie, & dea, pourguoi non moy a u s s i bien gu'a\" vous, puis que c ' e s t de par l e Roy?\" (II: 18) . Defaming e p i t h e t s and d e s c r i p t i o n s a l s o turn the honour and r e p u t a t i o n s of many c h a r a c t e r s i n t o laughing matter i n Le Moyen de P a r v e n i r . Wise men, such as the c e l e b r a t e d s c h o l a r Erasmus (\"ce f o u de Flamand\" 1:145), are shown as f o o l s or h y p o c r i t e s , and the p h i l o s p h e r , Socrates i s a l s o l a b e l l e d a f o o l (11:221). An emissary from the d e v i l d e t r a c t s from the honour of the reformer, Luther, by addressing him on i n t i m a t e terms: \"mon Luther, men c a p i t a i n e , mon ami\" (11:129), while proud husbands are derided with the u l t i m a t e i n s u l t : c u c k c l d . Another derogatory v e r b a l i n s u l t f r e g u e n t l y used to r i d i c u l e a v i c t i m i s the b e s t i a l e p i t h e t . \"Ceste c a n a i l l e des sages\" (1:171) and \"ces grosses bestes de prescheurs\" (1:132) r e f e r 191 r e s p e c t i v e l y to i n t e l l e c t u a l s and members c f the c l e r g y , while a l l of womankind i s condescendingly d e s c r i b e d as \"l ' a n i m a l de s o c i e t 4 \" , (1:288). The p s y c h o l o g i c a l s a t i s f a c t i o n accomplished by these i n s u l t s comes frcm exposing the v i c t i m as the opposite of what he pretends to be. T h i s i s always a degradation of h i s s u p e r i o r or i n d i f f e r e n t a t t i t u d e , changing i t t c an i n f e r i o r or dependant one through t r a n s f e r e n c e of the i d e a l to the pe t t y , the honest to the dish o n e s t , the i n t e l l e c t u a l to the p h y s i c a l , and so f o r t h . The t h r e e general c a t e g o r i e s of c a r n i v a l i z e d a g g r e s s i o n d e s c r i b e d above, v i o l e n c e , p h y s i c a l h u m i l i a t i o n , and moral dishonour, provide the b a s i c p a t t e r n s f o r the laughing and aggressive s o c i a l i n t e r a c t i o n i n l e Mo;yen de P a r v e n i r . The remainder of t h i s chapter w i l l examine the way i n which these p a t t e r n s are used t o . i n v e r t the s o c i a l h i e r a r c h y , to e g u a l i z e human r e l a t i o n s h i p s , and u l t i m a t e l y , tc s o c i a l i z e those who dev i a t e from the f e s t i v e group. The f i r s t element i n t h i s p r e s e n t a t i o n of Beroalde's approach w i l l be the d i s p l a y of s o c i a l i n e q u a l i t i e s . Most of these i n e g u a l i t i e s are f u n c t i o n s o f the c l a s s s t r u c t u r e , and the v a l i d i t y cf t h a t , s t r u c t u r e , otherwise known as the s o c i a l h i e r a r c h y , i s ab o l i s h e d by emphasizing u n i v e r s a l human t r a i t s (body f u n c t i o n s , f o l l y , death) which c r o s s c l a s s b a r r i e r s . F i n a l l y Beroalde's speakers attack s o c i e t y group by group, a process which leads to the promotion of a common m o r a l i t y based on 192 the predominance of innocent and u n i v e r s a l l y a c c e s s i b l e sensual p l e a s u r e s . Beroalde s t a t e s t h a t he intends h i s beck tc c o n t a i n a comprehensive p o r t r a i t of the s o c i a l i n j u s t i c e around him, a f f i r m i n g t h a t Le Moyen de P a r v e n i r \". . . n'est e s c r i t gue pour l a j u s t e demonstration de ce g u i e s t ; d'autant gue l ' c n void i c i l a b e s t i s e des Grands de ce temps, l a s c t t i s e des h a b i l e s gens, l'impudence des doctes, 6 l a meschancete des a u t r e s \" ( I I : 1 6 3 ) . 2 4 To t h i s end Ber c a l d e ' s banguet host urges the guests to accomplish the task before them and s a t i r i c a l l y expose the i l l s of the world: \"Uscns nostre temps avec l a ponce de b i e n seance, ou l e grez de sagesse, & que cependant nostre s a t i r e s o i t p e r p e t u e l l e , pour d e c o u v r i r l e s a f f a i r e s du mauvais monde\" (1:154). He claims t h a t t h e i r e f f o r t s w i l l be a p p r e c i a t e d by \" l e s bonnes gens gui gemissent sous l a t i r a n n i e des gro s \" f o r whom the book i s wr i t t e n . T h i s audience o f e x p l o i t e d good people w i l l see the t r u t h i n Le Moyen de P a r v e n i r : \" i l s verront en nos d i s c o u r s comme nous descouvrons l e tombeau de l a v e r i t e \" (1:154). Many of the s p e c i f i c s o c i a l i n j u s t i c e s mentioned o r i g i n a t e i n the c l a s s s t r u c t u r e . Eeroalde d e s c r i b e s the l i t t l e c o n s i d e r a t i o n masters have f o r t h e i r s ervants i n one passage. The servants are c o l d i n the winter and,too hot i n the summer, because they are always given t h e i r master's cut cf season c l o t h i n g : \" v o i l a comment l e u r bien va a rebours\", he concludes (11:250). He a l s o notes the r e l a t i v e sexual 193 freedom of the upper c l a s s e s whose amorous e x p l o i t s are condoned with honour i n c o n t r a s t to the d i s a p p r o v a l c a s t upon the same a c t i v i t i e s of the lower c l a s s e s . In the former case, l o v e a f f a i r s are c a l l e d \" g a l a n t i s e \" , while i n the l a t t e r they are \" a d u l t e r e , ou p a i l l a r d i s e , ou r a p t \" : C»est gue l e s grands, & ceux 8 c e l l e s qui ont des Juges l e u r s amis, s i d'avanture vont s'excercer l e bout autre p a r t , ou f a i r e amitonner l ' o u v e r t u r e s p e c u l a t i v e apres nature, c e l a l e u r e s t j o l i m e n t impute a f a i r e 1»amour en tout honneur & g a l a n t i s e : mais s i c * e s t guelgue pauvre d i a b l e , c e l a sera d i t a d u l t e r e ou p a i l l a r d i s e , ou r a p t ; & p u i s vous f i e z a ces J u s t i n i a n s de tcus l e s d i a b l e s . (I:294) S o c i a l i n e g u a l i t i e s of the everyday world are brought i n t o focus i n Le Moyen de P a r v e n i r i n order t h a t they might b e . s a t i r i c a l l y d i s c r e d i t e d . T h i s i s accomplished i n c e r t a i n passages by s t r e s s i n g the u n i v e r s a l i t y of the human c o n d i t i o n , and r i d i c u l i n g the pretense of - s u p e r i o r i t y upcn which the i d e a o f a s o c i a l h i e r a r c h y r e s t s . These arguments f r e q u e n t l y emphasize the u n i v e r s a l i t y of body f u n c t i o n s which are common to a l l members of s o c i e t y . One f a n t a s y i l l u s t r a t i n g t h i s approach r e p r e s e n t s a b i z a r r e c l a s s -s t r u c t u r e d s i t u a t i o n and i s narr a t e d with bcth i r c n y and burlesgue humour. The r i d i c u l o u s i m p o s s i b i l i t y c f r e s t r i c t i n g s e x u a l r e p r o d u c t i o n to the upper c l a s s by c a r e f u l l y r a t i o n i n g g e n i t a l i a becomes even more l u d i c r o u s through d e t a i l s of how t h i s was enfo r c e d . The passage ends with a tongue-in-cheek e x p l a n a t i o n of why some great l o r d s resemble v a l e t s : 194 Lubec e s t une v i l l e f o r t bien p c l i c e e , S ou i l n'y a poi n t de pauvres, S l a r a i s o n occasicnnee en e s t de ce que toutes l e s personnes ne f o n t comme i c y , S sur tout pour l e commun: de s o r t e que ceux 6 c e l l e s qui n a i s s e n t de bas l i e u ou de p e t i t e s gens n'ont r i e n entre l e s jambes, l e s masles qu'un p e t i t tuyau i n s e n s i b l e , 8 l e s f e m e l l e s qu'un p e t i t p e r t u i s a p i s s e r y ayant es e n d r o i t s formels de c e r t a i n e s c i c a t r i c e s a r e s s o t t e s q u e l l e s on peut a p p l i q u e r l e s o u t i l s n a t u r e l s de generati o n s ' i l en e s t besoin; & t e l s membres sent conservez par l a Republigue avec grande d i l i g e n c e & s o i n ; . . . De ces o u t i l s l o r s g u ' i l en e s t n e c e s s i t e on l e s l o u e , parquoi on l e s a p p e l l e banniers g u i servent a l a commodite des gens de basse c o n d i t i o n , pour a v o i r des enfans 8 f a i r e des s e r v i t e u r s , de peur gue l'engence s'en perde, . . , Que s ' i l a v i e n t gue ceux gui l e s demandent s o i e n t s i nec e s s i t e u x g u ' i l s devenissent gueux, on l e u r r e f u s e : par a i n s i veu l' e s g a r d de c e t t e bonne p o l i c e , i l n'y a p o i n t de ca g n a r d i e r s ; mesne, ce g u i est bien u t i l e , l e s v a l e t s ne l e s chambrieres n'en ont p o i n t ; i l e s t vray gue g r a t i s on l e u r p r e s t e en l e s mariant apres a v o i r bien s e r v i , 6 a u s s i b i e n souvent avant gue l e s marier monsieur & madame l e u r p r e s t e n t l e s l e u r s par p l a i s i r , ce g ui e s t chose g u i f a i t moult bon v o i r ; . . . i l advient a cause de ces p r e s t s , g u ' i l y a des grands sei g n e u r s g ui ressemblent a des v a l e t s . (1:280-81) Another e q u a l i z e r of the s o c i a l ranks i s v i v i d l y i l l u s t r a t e d by the danse macabre, a performance.frequently seen on the stage or i n p i c t u r e s c f the XVth and XVIth c e n t u r i e s . ? 5 I t f e a t u r e s \"le.mort\", who grasps the hand cf an a c t o r r e p r e s e n t i n g a rank, p r o f e s s i o n , or stage i n l i f e , and p u l l s him i n t o the dance. Soon a s e r i e s of people f i l l the stage, a l l l i n k e d together by hands and by the same movements, thus demonstrating t h a t nc one i s above the l e v e l l i n g experience of death. In h i s f i r s t r e f e r e n c e to the daE§§ l a c a b r e , Eeroalde s t r e s s e s the v u l n e r a b i l i t y c f powerful c i v i l a u t h o r i t i e s before the g r e a t e s t e g u a l i z e r . In c o n t r a s t to t h e i r favoured p o s i t i o n s on e a r t h , f i n a l j u s t i c e 195 i s done as these once powerful men are l e d downward to the Underworld, and not upward t o P a r a d i s e : \"Da, da, i l est bon, s ' i l n'y a v o i t gue l e s gens de j u s t i c e g u i a l l a s s e n t en p a r a d i s ! Et c'est l e c o n t r a i r e , S je l'ay veu en l a Dance Macabree de Fubourg, ou l e s P r e s i d e n s , C o n s e i l l e r s , Avocats, Procureurs, S c l e r c s , sont par l e s sergents c o n d u i t s en e n f e r , & t'en guette (11:82-83). Neither good lo o k s nor youth, q u a l i t i e s which enhance s o c i a l p r e s t i g e , make any impression on the impl a c a b l e common enemy as Beroalde shows i n an encounter between Death and the young man: . a Dole a l a dance Macaber, i l y a l a Mort gui p a r l e a un beau jeune homme, S l u i d i t , A, galan, galan. Que tu es f r i n g a n , S ' i l t e f a u t - i l meurre. Et i l respond: Et, mort arrogan, Prens tout men argean, Et me l a i s s e queurre. (11:257-58) The u n i v e r s a l i t y of f o l l y , another f a m i l i a r c a r n i v a l e s q u e theme, a l s o p l a c e s a l l men and women i n the same category r e g a r d l e s s of c l a s s or personal t r a i t s ; The reader of Le Moyen de P a r v e n i r i s t o l d that the whole world i s i n f a c t a land of f o o l s : \"A ce gue je voy l e pays des sots n'est pas une i s l e , c ' e s t l e mende mesme, 6 hers d ' i c e l u y \" (11:86). T h i s o b s e r v a t i o n i s r e i n f o r c e d i n a dialogue which connects h y p o c r i s y and f o l l y : Madame. Que d i t e s - v c u s l a ? --Je demandois s ' i l y a v o i t des bordeaux en v c s t r e pays, madame. 196 Madame. Non, dea i l n'y en a p o i n t , mais i l y a des maisons d'hcnneur, ou l ' o n se r e s j o u y t avec l e s dames, 8 guelgues dames d'honneur deputees pour c e l a en t i r e n t r e n t e s pour n o u r r i r des Moines. — C ' e s t done en ce p a y s - l a ou Moine s i g n i f i e l a r r o n , comme. en l ' i s l e des s o t s sot s i g n i f i e monsieur; 8 de f a i t s i je vous d i r o i s : \"Bon jour, s e t , \" ce s e r o i t autant gue vous d i r e , \"Bona d i e s , monsieur.\" Savonarola. Mais l ' i s l e des s o t s est par t o u t , 8 c e l l e des feus e s t au d e l a . (11:168) A monologue on the u n i v e r s a l i t y of f o l l y which c l a i m s the a t t e n t i o n of the bangueters extends the r e i g n of f o l l y net only to d i f f e r e n t p r o f e s s i o n s , but a c r o s s i n t e r n a t i o n a l boundaries: Je vous d i r a y pourtant, vous demandant excuse, g u ' i l y aura i c y assez de place pour tous l e s fous, pourveu gu'on l e s y mette l'un apres l ' a u t r e . En Allemagne l e s Allemans y mettront l e u r s f o u s , en France l e s Frangois, en A n g l e t e r r e l e s A n g l o i s , En Espagne l e s E s p a g n c l s , en Souisse l e s I t a l i e n s , en Turguie l e r e s t e ; 8 p u i s gue l'on f a s s e s i grande chere gu'on voudra, s c i t en d r o i t , s o i t en musigue, s o i t en canon, s o i t en T h e o l o g i e , s o i t en gendarmerie ou marchandise, cu medecine, cu t c u t e t e l l e a u t r e s o r t e gue vous imaginerez . . ,... (11:199) Along with the e f f o r t to e g u a l i z e the s c c i a l h i e r a r c h y through demonstration of u n i v e r s a l human t r a i t s , Ee'roalde a l s o i n v e r t s the s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e group by group. Before d e s c r i b i n g the treatment of r o y a l t y , the a r i s t o c r a c y , and others lower on the s o c i a l l a d d e r , there i s a s p e c i a l category of persons who f i r s t become o b j e c t s of attack i n Le Mo_yen de P a r v e n i r . These are the famous guests present a t the banguet. As noted a b o v e , 2 6 they are i d e n t i f i e d by the names of famous statesmen, churchmen, s c h o l a r s and o t h e r s . There i s , however, a great discrepancy between e x p e c t a t i o n s r a i s e d by the famous names and the a c t u a l performance of the 197 banqueters. From the beginning t h e i r behaviour shows them to be f o o l i s h and crude. C l a s s b a r r i e r s which separate them from the serv a n t s are o v e r t l y destroyed as a l l ccncerned j o i n i n an u n s o p h i s t i c a t e d game of hopscotch i n the k i t c h e n . 2 7 E a r l y d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e i r a c t i v i t i e s f u r t h e r damages t h e i r r e p u t a t i o n s . \" P l i n y \" behaves i n a p a r t i c u l a r l y u n d i g n i f i e d manner; \"Demosthenes\", supposedly a g r e a t o r a t o r , speaks l i k e a peasant and expounds on t r i v i a , and \" A r i s t o t l e \" , the great l o g i c i a n , behaves i r r a t i o n a l l y : P l i n e s'avanga s e l o n l a rente d'honneur g u i luy e s t o i t deue, a i n s i g u ' i l p a r o i s s o i t par un c o n t r a c t passe par dessous l e s ponts de Rome; c ' e s t un homme notable & de p r i x , i l e s t l e premier inventeur de p i s s e r honorablement contre l e s m u r a i l l e s des a u t r e s . Tandis gue l'on murmuroit l e recevant, v c i c y a r r i v e r l e bon Demosthene. \"J'y fusmes, dismes nous, j'en fusmes bien a i s e , dautant q u ' i l e s t c e r t a i n que j'apprendrons beaucoup de bonnes choses, comme desja i l y pa r u t . \" Fn ent r a n t i l se mit a d i s c o u r i r , & nous enseigna gue c' e s t gu'honeste homme, l e d e f i n i s s a n t a i n s i g u ' i l se trouve au Talmud; honneste personne e s t c e l l e gui ayant f i a n t l se torche l e c u l avec un t o r c h o i r l e tenant de l a main gauche. A r i s t o t e d e p i t de n ' a v c i r trcuve c e s t e b e l l e d e f i n i t i o n se noya . . ..(1:20-21) The guests are .introduced as members cf an e x c l u s i v e f r a t e r n i t y which i s dedic a t e d to the p u r s u i t o f knowledge; they are a l l \"ames g u i avoie n t serment a l a Sophie\", \"enfans de l a s c i e n c e \" , \"des sages\" (1:5), and \" s c i e n t i f i g u e s personnes & d i s c r e t t e s \" (I:4 2). I t appears that they are to be considered as a group of d i g n i f i e d l e a r n e d men, gathered together f o r a noble purpose. However, t h e i r f o p p i s h and f l a t u l e n t behaviour upon a r r i v a l c a s t s an e a r l y doubt upon 198 t h e i r q u a l i t y : Chacun y e n t r a n t a v i s a a son debvoir, par ce moyen nous exercames un notable c o n f l i c t de reverences, dent l e s petardes s e n t o i e n t j e ne sgay quoy de l a musique ancienne 8 p r a t i q u a n t m i l l e v e t i l l e s d ' h u m i l i t e z , avec une f r i p o n n e e s c o p e t e r i e de langage c o u r t i s a n n i f ie* fismes p l u s i e u r s b e l l e s entrees 8 rencontres ..(I:9) These famous p h i l o s p h e r s , statesmen, and sages are thrown down from t h e i r legendary, p e d e s t a l s and brought to the common, m a t e r i a l l e v e l . On egual ground with the l e a s t c e l e b r a t e d member of s o c i e t y , the guests enjoy food and wine l i k e common men and women. In s p i t e cf statements of the symposium's e l e v a t e d purpose the notable company does net assume an a i r of d i s i n t e r e s t e d wisdom, but i s i n s t e a d i n t e n s e l y i n v o l v e d i n petty d e t a i l s of the c a r n i v a l atmosphere around them. T h e i r e n e r g e t i c behaviour r e f l e c t s the u n f e t t e r e d and d i s r e s p e c t f u l atmosphere i n which these c h a r a c t e r s move. E a t i n g , d r i n k i n g , and the babble c f r i b a l d or i n c o n s e g u e n t i a 1 d i s c o u r s e c o n s t i t u t e the major a c t i v i t y of the bangueters. The famous p e r s o n a l i t i e s eveked are a l s o shown to be f o o l s l i k e anyone e l s e , i l l u s t r a t i n g the motto of the f o o l - s o c i e t i e s : \" s t u l t o r u m numerus e s t i n f i n i t u s \" . S o c r a tes, a freguent speaker l o s e s a l l c l a i m to the great r e s p e c t he i n s p i r e d , i n Renaissance s c h o l a r s and i n s t e a d i s shown to be among the most f o o l i s h i n a mad world; \"achevez\", one speaker urges him, \" j e vous p r i e , S o c r a t e s , comme l e plus f o u \" (1:221). The guests are sometimes d e s c r i b e d i n degrading b e s t i a l 199 terms. In one passage addressed t o the reader, e n j o i n i n g him to honour t h i s work and those i n i t , the guests are compared to chickens i n a coop: \". . . 8 prenez garde a ce gue cet honneur s o i t d i s t r i b u e honnestement aux s c i e n t i f i g u e s personnes 8 d i s c r e t t e s gui sont en ce banguet, comme poules en mue\" (1:42). T h e i r s t a t e of awareness i s given a canine q u a l i t y : \" I l s a v o i e n t l e s yeux ouverts comme chiens g u i chassent aux puces\" (I:43), and t h e i r laughter i s a l s o b e s t i a l : \" . . . Toute l a b e l l e compagnie se p r i t a r i r e comme un trouppeau de fenesseaux\" ( I I : 1 3 ) . 2 8 At other times the author plays on the double meaning of bSte to endow h i s guests with an a i r of a n i m a l i s t i c s t u p i d i t y : \". . . Je f a i s p a r l e r l e s b e s t e s \" (11:258). Thus the famous p e r s o n a l i t i e s who have d i s t i n g u i s h e d themselves as p o l i t i c a l and i n t e l l e c t u a l l e a d e r s are brought down i n t o the common f o l d and even lower. Reversal of the s o c i a l h i e r a r c h y i s a f a m i l i a r convention i n C a r n i v a l . Through t h i s procedure the c l a s s s t r u c t u r e i s t e m p o r a r i l y dismantled as f i g u r e s cf a u t h o r i t y are s t r i p p e d of power, p r e s t i g e , and v i r t u e to become the o b j e c t s of mocking l a u g h t e r . In place of the d i g n i t y and respec t which i d e a l l y d e f i n e the r u l i n g a r i s t o c r a c y , the opposite extremes are r e v e a l e d . Reason i s r e p l a c e d by f o l l y , noble postures are turned to r i d i c u l e , and b o d i l y f u n c t i o n s dominate the mind and w i l l . The, presence cf a popular mentality can be detected i n the f o l l o w i n g anecdotes which 200 take advantage of the c a r n i v a l e s g u e t r a d i t i o n c f sanctioned revenge on a u t h o r i t y . The weapon i s n e i t h e r reason nor f o r c e , but l a u g h t e r . In Le Moyen de P a r v e n i r , the e s t a b l i s h e d a u t h o r i t i e s c f the o u t s i d e world are e i t h e r absent, cr present only i n t r a v e s t i e d forms which p r o j e c t them as f o o l i s h or common. J u s t i n i a n , a mad Soman emperor, 2 9 e x e m p l i f i e s the e a r t h l y r u l e r . He i s i n t e r c h a n g e a b l e with the f e e l , as are a l l emperors, a c c o r d i n g to the t e x t : \". . . l'empereur J u s t i n i a n gui gouverne encor l e monde fou, e s t devenu feu durant sa v i e , par a i n s i l e s feus sont Empereurs S e converse\" (11:257). T h i s r u l e r ' s name i s a l s o l i n k e d t c f o l l y through a pun on J u s t i n i a n and n i a i s ; the composed a d j e c t i v e , \" J u s t i n i a i s e m e n t \" (1:155), i s used i n context as a syncnym fo r \" f o o l i s h l y \" . Another speaker a l l u d e s t o the rumoured madness of the Spanish Emperor, Charles V: \"Vous me f a i c t e s souvenir, d'un voyage gue nous fismes en Espagne l'annee gue l'Empereur d e v i n t f o u \" ( 1 1 : 6 9 ) . 3 0 In a statement t h a t would have been dangerous f o r an author who had net shrouded himself i n the v a r i e g a t e d c o l o u r s of the f o o l , Eeroalde makes a condescending r e f e r e n c e to the French k i n g , c h a r a c t e r i z i n g him as a sympathetic person, but one who i s unable to govern due to h i s ignorance and s u s c e p t i b i l i t y to unwise c o u n s e l o r s , \"ces meschans escommuniez q u i fo n t t a n t mettre de daces & imposts sur l e peuple au desceu du Roy, l e pauvre homme qui ne l'entend pas . . .\" (1:48). 201 T r a d i t i o n a l f o o l - k i n g s are mentioned i n Le Mgjen de P a r v e n i r a l s o , and t h e i r presence, even i f onl y i n b r i e f r e f e r e n c e s , adds t o the theme of i n v e r t e d r o y a l t y . These mad, mock r u l e r s are the \"Hoy des veaux\" (11:242) and the \"Roy des gueux\" (1:130,199). Though undeveloped, these e p i t h e t s c a l l to mind the t r a d i t i o n a l i n v e r s i o n of a u t h o r i t y simply by r e p e t i t i o n of the mock t i t l e s . A s i m i l a r r e f e r e n c e not only b r i n g s t o mind the f o o l - k i n g , but d e r i s i v e l y p u l l s contemporary r o y a l t y f u r t h e r down by r e v e r s i n g the words i n the t i t l e and i r r e v e r e n t l y c h a r a c t e r i z i n g r u l e r s as \"ces gueux de Ro i s \" (1:199). La Heine des j g i s - p i l e e s , the mad gueen of the comic t h e a t r e , i s mentioned on two o c c a s i o n s (1:122,127). A p p l i c a t i o n of t h i s t i t l e tc a lady of the cou r t , \"Madame des Manigances\", i n v e r t s a r i s t o c r a t i c d i g n i t y by j u x t a p o s i n g the lady and the fool-gueen, even though the reason f o r the remark has nothing to do with the former's behaviour. She gains the t i t l e because \" . . . a l a c c u r t e l l e e s t o i t plus chichement h a b i l l e e gue l e s a u t r e s \" (1:127). Another t r a d i t i o n a l a t t a c k on the r u l e r d i v e r t s a t t e n t i o n from the king as a s u p e r i o r being t c the image cf him s u f f e r i n g the same d i c t a t e s and i n d i g n i t i e s of the body as commoners. S e v e r a l r e f e r e n c e s d e p i c t the king t a k i n g mercury treatments, the usual remedy f o r s y p h i l i s . 3 1 The r e v e l a t i o n o f the king's d i s e a s e not only i l l u s t r a t e s that 202 he i s p h y s i c a l l y v u l n e r a b l e l i k e anyone e l s e , but focuses a t t e n t i o n on the lower p a r t s of the body, thus f o l l o w i n g the patter n of i n v e r s i o n d e s c r i b e d a b o v e . 3 2 One speaker, while re c o u n t i n g matters having t o do with Tours, mentions that the king was a l s o i n th a t c i t y : \". . . a Tours, ou pour l o r s e s t o i t l e Roy g u i v e n o i t de f i x e r l e Mercure\" (11:135). The same f a c t comes out i n a l a t e r passing comment: \"Quand l e Roy venoit de f i x e r l e Mercure, i l v i n t en c e s t b e l l e maison\" ( I I : 1 4 8 ) . 3 3 Charles VIII i s s u b j e c t to a s i m i l a r a s s o c i a t i o n i n another anecdote. 3* The gueen i s a l s o s u b j e c t to a t t a c k s of f e s t i v e i n v e r s i o n through defamation of c h a r a c t e r and attempts to show her dominated by l u s t . The v i r t u e c f the gueenly t i t l e undergoes a downward change of s t a t u s as a lady of the s t r e e t s v i g o r o u s l y d e c l a r e s her own hcncur t c be abcve that of the Queen of Egypt, ft bystander recounts the i n c i d e n t : Aussi j e me souviens gue l'annee gue j ' e s t c i s Recteur de 1»Universite de P a r i s , . Je vy pendre une maguerelle de bourg de Four, l a r a i s o n e s t o i t g u ' e l l e se b a t t o i t avec une autr e g u i l u i d i t , \"Ha, chienne, tu veux i c y f a i r e de l a Royne d'Egypte. — T u as menty, d i t e l l e , je s u i s femme de b i e n . \" ( 1 : 2 0 2 ) 3 5 Ingenuous i n s u l t s a l s o uncrown the r u l i n g c l a s s , a t t r i b u t i n g common minor v i c e s to them with a f a m i l i a r nod of c o m p l i c i t y . A peasant woman compares her husband t c the king and sees no d i f f e r e n c e : \"Foy de d a m o i s e l l e , d i s o i t ma mere pensant ses pourceaux, mon mari e s t a u s s i noble gue l e Roy, i l aime bien a ne r i e n f a i r e , 6 se donner du p l a i s i r \" 203 (11:203). In another i n c i d e n t , a simple peasant, f l a t t e r e d with the p a t r o n i z i n g a t t e n t i o n s of the Queen, ingenuously a s s a u l t s the r o y a l d i g n i t y by assuming that the Queen l i k e others has come to seek the amorous favou r s of the l o c a l canon: Madame l a Royne de France, . . . a l l a n t a Chartres en voyage, pour a v o i r l i g n e e , S s u i v a n t un beau chemin f a i t expres, parce g u ' e l l e a l l o i t a pie d , e l l e s ' a s s i t pour se reposer, gue v o i c i passer une b e l l e grande paisanne des champs, g u i cheminoit comme un p r e s t r e Breton; l a Royne l ' a r r e s t e , S l u i d i t , \"Bon jo u r , mamie, ou a l l e z vous? --Oe vay a Chartres, madame. —Que f a i r e ? —^Vendre du l a i t & des herbes. D'ou e s t e s vous, mamie? --Je s u i s d ' i c y aupres, madame. — E s t e s vous mariee? —Ouy, madame, Dieu mercy S l a voutre. Mais, madame, ne vous d e s p l a i s e , d i t t e s mci s ' i l vous p l a i s t g u i vous estes? — J e s u i s l a Royne, mamie. --A ha a, madame l a Royne, excusez moi s ' i l vous p l a i s t , s i je ne vous ay f a i t l'enneur gue je devas: mais, madame l a Royne, vous a l l e z a p i e d ; 8 ou a l l e z vous, madame l a Royne, mais ne vous d e p l a i s e ? --Je vay a C h a r t r e s , mamie, pour a l l e r en ces t e b e l l e E g l i s e p r i e z Dieu, a ce g u i l u i p l a i s e gue j'aye des enfans. — H e l a s , madame l a Royne, ne l a i s s e z pas de vous en r e t o u r n e r , ce grand Chanoine gui l e s f a i s c i t e s t inert, on n'y en f a i t p l u s . \" (11:241.) The l a d i e s and, gentlemen of the c o u r t , as well as members of the minor a r i s t o c r a c y , r e c e i v e the same treatment as r o y a l t y . One of a c e r t a i n duke's servants muses cn a v i o l e n t f a t e f o r h i s master: \". . . je voudrois gue l e Cue mon bon maistre f u t en l a gueule du loup 5 gue j'en eusse l a peau p l e i n e d'escus, gros so u p p i e r , j'entens l a peau du loup \" (1:130-31). Other commentaries are content to malign the n o b i l i t y by exposing-them as f o o l s , such as \"monsieur de Vendosme\" whose c o n d i t i o n i s di s c u s s e d by a decter and the p r i o r : 204 . . . Monsieur de Vendosme, q u i e s t a n t malade 5 degouste v o u l o i t manger du r i s : ce que d i s a n t a son medecin i l l u i accorda; l e P r i e u r adjousta g u ' i l eut bien vculu gu'on y eut mis du s a f r a n : \" E i e n , d i t l e medecin, mais i l n'y en fa u t g u e r e . — N o n , r e s p c n d i t l e P r i e u r , i l me f e r o i t mal,\" Et de f a i t je vy un jour un che v a l g u i en e s t o i t t r o p charge, i l en d e v i n t f e u . Estimez vous pour c e l a gue ce Seigneur f u t f o l ? — n o n pas du to u t , mais i l t e n o i t un peu de l a febve ..\"36 (11:115) I f not by f o l l y , the noble c l a s s i s degraded by d i r e c t i n s u l t s . A p r o v i n c i a l lady i s n a i v e l y i n s u l t e d by one of her farmer's daughters: \"La f i l l e de ce mestayer appcrta des prunes a nostre femme, gui l u i d i t ; 'II n'en f a l l o i t p o i n t , mamie. — C ' e s t v o s t r e . g r e s s e , madameselle, pren e z - l e s s ' i l vous p l a i s t , a u s s i bien ncs pourceaux n'en veulent p o i n t . ' \" (11:71-72) The lady complains to the farmer's wife who only i n s u l t s her f u r t h e r by c o n f i r m i n g the g i r l ' s s t o r y . A s i m i l a r kind of ingenuously i n s u l t i n g o f f e r i n g i s recounted in the u n a p p e t i z i n g anecdote of the v a l e t who absent-mindedly s p i t s i n h i s master's wine before s e r v i n g i t (I I : 253) .37 Continuing down the s o c i a l ladder, the next t c be di s l o d g e d from t h e i r e l e v a t e d p o s i t i o n s are those i n d i v i d u a l s and groups of i n d i v i d u a l s who have power and a u t h o r i t y i n c i v i l matters. These are the men who are charged with i n t e r p r e t i n g and e n f o r c i n g the laws of the country: the governors, judges, lawyers, and even c o n s t a b l e s . Many of these o f f i c i a l s provoke f e a r and hatred by t h e i r c o r r u p t i o n and abuse of power. Curing C a r n i v a l 205 however, the people have a momentary revenge, and those i n d i v i d u a l s who normally have sweeping power over the l i v e s of those around them become the h e l p l e s s o b j e c t s cf sanctioned mockery. The many cases of such mockery i n Le Moyen de P a r v e n i r again demonstrate the accord between Beroalde's work and the c a r n i v a l t r a d i t i o n . The husband h u m i l i a t e d by the a c t i c n s of a crab i n a chamberpot, 3 8 happens to be a governor, and t h i s p o s i t i o n cf power heightens h i s f a l l . Those who occupy the s e n i o r pests of C h a n c e l l o r and P r e s i d e n t of the realm are a l s c r i d i c u l e d . They are dismissed as f o o l s who d r i v e o t hers to f o l l y : T o u t e s f o i s j e vous p r o t e s t e gue s ' i l y a v o i t autant d'honneur gu'aux f o l i e s d ' e s t r e C h a n c e l i e r ou premier P r e s i d e n t , ou de t e l l e , autre g u a l i t e de f e u s gui f o u s s o i e n t l e s a u t r e s f o u s , i l n'y a u r o i t gueres de bons e s p r i t s g u i ne f i s s e n t p a r c i s t r e , gue, guisgue abundat i n suo sensu, c ' e s t a d i r e , chacun e s t , s e r a , ou e s t d i t , ou deviendra, s ' i l ne l ' e s t , feu par l a t e s t e . (I:166) But even worse than those who govern, are those who are a s s o c i a t e d with the c o u r t s . The p e r v e r s i t y of judges and t h e i r a s s o c i a t e s i s emphasized by the author's mock h e s i t a t i o n to even write about them, a l l e g i n g them f a r more dangerous than churchmen: \". ... . encor l e s e c c l e s i a t i g u e s sont t r a i c t a b l e s , i l s ne f o n t gue excommunier, c e l a va S v i e n t comme eau c l a i r e ; mais ces gens de j u s t i c e f o n t tache d ' h u i l e , gue l e d i a b l e y a i t p a r t . Mon ami, l a i s s o n s - l e s , achevons ces contes\" (II:17). Despite t h i s warning, he does write about them however, t a k i n g obvious p l e a s u r e i n t h e i r 206 c a r n i v a l e s g u e h u m i l i a t i o n s . In a passage c i t e d above they are shown being l e d not to P a r a d i s e , but down i n t o H e l l as a f i n a l v i n d i c a t i o n of the p e o p l e . 3 9 Even the lowly c o n s t a b l e , whose duty i t was to lead p r i s o n e r s to j a i l , merits a punishment of t h i s s o r t : \". . . i l e s t vray gue guand un sergent se meurt son ame va d r o i t entre l e s mains de Proserpine Reine d'Enfer\" (11:213). Another group i n the s o c i a l system which commands re s p e c t , i f not f e a r , i n everyday l i f e i s made up of the s c h o l a r s , academicians, p h i l o s o p h e r s , s c i e n t i s t s and poets who comprise the i n t e l l i g e n t s i a . T h i s group i s f r e g u e n t l y the t a r g e t of s o c i a l i n v e r s i o n which c a s t s them i n t o r i d i c u l e f o r both p e r s o n a l and p r o f e s s i o n a l f a i l i n g s . Although f a r l e s s e x a l t e d than a king* these men enjoyed a p o s i t i o n of p r e s t i g e i n the s o c i e t y and assumed a s u p e r i o r a t t i t u d e v i s - i | - v i s the l e s s educated. The e n v i a b l y p r i v i l e g e d p o s i t i o n of the p r o f e s s i o n a l s c h o l a r i s noted by one of Beroalde's speakers. A f t e r a s c h o l a r , \"Durandus\", makes a s a c r i l e g i o u s pun, \"Marot\" complains, \" S i j ' a v o i s d i t c e l a je s e r o i s gaste, a i n s i t o u t est permis aux d c c t e u r s \" (1:114). Again, l i k e t h a t of C a r n i v a l , the .dominant a t t i t u d e i n Le Mo_yen de P a r v e n i r i s a popular, u n s o p h i s t i c a t e d d e l i g h t i n the h u m i l i a t i o n of the p r i v i l e g e d i n t e l l e c t u a l s . The n a r r a t o r e s t a b l i s h e s that he i s not one of t h i s group, \" j e ne s u i s pas de ces p e t i t s dcctcreaux, dent i t e s t e s c r i t , J'ay une t e s t e de Docteur a d i s n e r \" (1:58). He i s 207 also proud that h i s book i s not pedantic l i k e e t h e r s : \". , . vous ne t r o u v e r e z p o i n t en cecy du truandage de pedentisme, comme es autres, p l a i n e s du ravedage de f c l l e d o c t r i n e g ui n'apporte p o i n t a d i s n e r \" (1:51). The l i n k he e s t a b l i s h e s between hi m s e l f and the common people a g a i n s t the i n t e l l e c t u a l s i s strengthened by h i s i n s i s t e n c e on us i n g French i n p l a c e o f L a t i n which the common people do not understand: \"Bisons en bon Frang o i s sans gue r i e n nous eschappe\" (I:140). Elsewhere he s t a t e s : \"Par d e s p i t , je di r a y mon h i s t o i r e en langage gue tout l e monde entendra . . .\" (1:178). However, the p e r s i s t e n c e with which he d e n i g r a t e s learned men, both with c a r n i v a l e s g u e mockery and i n more s e r i o u s c r i t i c i s m , leads the reader to suspect that Beroalde's own o b s e r v a t i o n on those who c r i t i c i z e o t h ers can be a p p l i e d to hi m s e l f , f o r he too i s an i n t e l l e c t u a l : \"Ordinairement ceux gui mesdisent de P r e s t r e s ou de M i n i s t r e s , en ont este, S ce g u ' i l s en d i s e n t de mal, e s t pour f a i r e c r o i r e g u ' i l s en sont e s l o i g n e z \" (11:189). It i s perhaps the s c h o l a r i n him t h a t makes Beroalde devcte so much of h i s n a r r a t i v e t o them. l i k e Eeroalde, l e a r n e d men are o f t e n churchmen as w e l l , and j u s t as i n h i s c a p a c i t y as churchman he i s abl e to see the f a i l i n g s of the r e l i g i o u s l i f e , he i s a l s o able to e f f e c t i v e l y c a r i c a t u r e the weak po i n t s i n the l i v e s c f i n t e l l e c t u a l s . Beroalde adopts a t r a d i t i o n a l c a r n i v a l e s g u e approach to s c h o l a r s i n much cf 208 h i s work r and i n t h i s he assumes the r c l e of the common man who regards the sage as f o o l i s h , l a z y and w i l l f u l l y incomprehensible. One way of mocking the sage i s to portray him as a f o o l , the opposite of what he a s p i r e s to be. T h i s may be done by a simple e p i t h e t , j u x t a p o s i n g two c o n t r a s t i n g terms, \"sage/fou\", as i s f r e g u e n t l y seen i n the comic t h e a t r e and the f o o l - s o c i e t i e s . * o S c h o l a r s i n Le Moyen de P a r v e n i r are repe a t e d l y l a b e l l e d with t h i s t r a d i t i o n a l oxymoron. They are r e f e r r e d to as \"messieurs l e s gens de l e t t r e s , gui sont s i tres-sgavans g u ' i l s en sent tout s o t s \" (1:7); they are made to look so b e s t i a l and f o o l i s h t h a t even the d e v i l s laugh at them: \". . . l a plus p a r t de nos scavans . . . sent tant veaux, gue l e s d i a b l e s aux heures de r e c r e a t i o n en font des contes pour r i r e \" ( I : 1 2 9 ) . 4 1 One exasperated speaker uses the formula to p u l l the l e a r n e d men down from t h e i r p e d e s t a l s , and then f l i p p a n t l y .wishes them even f u t h e r down cn the v e r t i c a l plane by sending them to the D e v i l : \" c e s t e c a n a i l l e de sages nous f e r a devenir f e u s , au D i a b l e 1*importunity de ces pedans!\" (I:170). Not only are the learned men degraded by d i r e c t i n s u l t s and e p i t h e t s which accuse them of incompetence, but they themselves appear i n c a r i c a t u r e d form t c i l l u s t r a t e the i n v e r s i o n of t h e i r r e p u t a t i o n s . I t i s as though these personages have been given a r c l e to play i n a s o t i e . They enter draped i n the robes of wisdom, but soon r e v e a l the 209 v a r i e g a t e d costume of the f o o l beneath. Beroalde r e v e a l s the key to t h i s p a t t e r n of i n v e r s i o n as he muses, \"pensez l a b e l l e chose gue c ' e s t de mettre.des igncrans au rang des doctes, c'est pour a v o i r de b e l l e s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s \" (1:173). T h i s s u g g e s t i o n i s brought to l i f e by s e v e r a l examples. E a r l y i n the t e x t , learned men attempt to e x p l a i n the cause of the d i s a s t r o u s times which have b e f a l l e n the country; t h e i r answers r e v e a l them to be t o t a l l y i l l o g i c a l i n t h e i r reasoning, and e g u a l l y as i r r a t i o n a l i n the r e s u l t i n g e x p l a n a t i o n s . T h e i r p a t t e r n of thought reads l i k e a f a r c i c a l cog.-|-I2|ne_: Voyez combien desja en sont venus de t r o u b l e s , g uerres, maux, v e r o l e s & t e l l e s p e t i t e s mignardises g u i c h a t o u i l l e n t malheureusement l e s perscnnes pour l e s f a i r e r i r e . Tant de sages q u i e s t u d i e n t aux avantures a t t r i b u e n t t e l s e f f e c t s a d'autres causes, comme au retranchement des d i x j o u r s , * 2 depuis quoy on n'a f a i t vendanges que par r e n c o n t r e de s a i s c n , aux p u l l u l a t i o n s d ' h e r e s i e s , depuis l e s q u e l l e s l e s bosses n'ont peu e s t r e p l a t t e s , aux r e v o l t e s des grands gui sent oc c a s i o n gue f i l l e t t e s ont hante l e s c l o i s t r e s , S l e s menagers l e s tavernes, aux haussement des t a i l l e s , durant guoy l e s v i e i l l e s gens ne f o n t gue r e c h i g n e r , & i n f i n i t e z a u t res s o t i s e s , . . . . (1:1) An account of an academic debate held by s i g n language i n Geneva lowers a sage f a r beneath the l e v e l of a b s t r a c t ideas and shows h i s thoughts to be only t h r e a t s of p h y s i c a l v i o l e n c e . 4 3 In t h i s debate one of the c o n t e s t a n t s i s a m i l l e r dressed i n \"une robbe m i n i s t r a l e 8 un bonnet c o n s i s t o r i a l \" . He assumes the pose of a P r o t e s t a n t i n t e l l e c t u a l f o r the o c c a s i o n . The other i s a s^avant i n 210 r e s i d e n c e at Geneva, They d i s p u t e on a p l a t f o r m i n f r o n t cf an audience, and a f t e r a few questions the sage concedes defeat. \"Adonc l e sgavant t o u t r a v i en admiration se r e t i r a , puis d i t g u ' i l a v a i t trcuve l e p l u s docte homme du mcnde:.& tant gue ce b r u i t a dure\", l ' e s c o l e de Geneve a este' en r e p u t a t i o n \" (11:207). S c h o l a s t i c argument must have seemed j u s t so much hocus-pocus to the average man, and even t c the c y n i c a l l y shrewd observer. In t h i s case i t turns out to be e x a c t l y t h a t , f o r when the m i l l e r i s taken a s i d e and asked to e x p l a i n the proceedings, he confirms any doubts that the debate had high or complex meaning: V o i r e , c ' e s t un f i n homme, i l m'a menace de m'arracher l e s deux yeux, & m'enlever l e nez, 6 je l u i ay mcnstre' l e poing avec guoi je 1'assommerois; & comme i l m'a veu en c o l e r e , i l m'a presente une pomme pour m'appaiser comme un e n f a n t , je l u i ay f a i t v o i r que je n'avois que f a i r e de l u i , & que j ' a v o i s du pain qui v a l l o i t mieux. (11:207) The \"debate\" had a c t u a l l y been only a s t r i n g c f i n s u l t s and t h r e a t s to do b o d i l y harm to the other. In lowering himself to the l e v e l of common i n s u l t s , the sage r e v e a l s himself to be the i n v e r s e of the image expected of him. P r e t e n t i o u s language and academic jargon provide another way to mock the l e t t e r e d c l a s s . The language used ty poets, academicians, t h e o l o g i a n s and a l c h e m i s t s becomes the o b j e c t of parody. Again, the author looks at i t from the i n s i d e , as one who knows how r i d i c u l o u s and clumsy s c h o l a s t i c s t y l e can become i n the grasp of some who use i t . He views i t from the o u t s i d e , however, posing as an 211 uneducated member of s o c i e t y who cannot understand the jargon, the f a u l t y L a t i n , nor the complex language, and judges i t a l l to be p r e t e n t i o u s and r i d i c u l o u s . \" A l l o n s v i s t e \" , the host urges, \" l a scuppe se mange, je p i n d a r i s e , je c u i d o i s d i r e on mange l a souppe\" ( 1 : 8 ) . At another moment one speaker announces, \" j ' e n t r e en f u r e u r poetigue\", followed by a doggerel rhyme (11:242). A ser v a n t g i r l ' s i m i t a t i o n of a verse by Ronsard to Cassandre humorously mocks the poet and h i s work. I t a l s o i l l u s t r a t e s the way the uneducated i n t e r p r e t poetry: \"L'autre jour nostre servante c h a n t o i t un a i r de Ronsard, ou i l y a, D'un g o s i e r , Sc. I l l e d i s o i t : 'D'un g o s i e r , mange l e u r i e r , j'cy c r i e r dans l e c o f f r e ma Calandre.'\" (11:232).** The h i g h l y r e f i n e d , jgrecieux manner cf speaking which developed i n a r i s t o c r a t i c c i r c l e s and c e r t a i n p o e t i c groups during the l a t e XVIth century a l s o becomes the c b j e c t c f parody i n Le Hoyen de P a r v e n i r . T h i s complex and r e f i n e d l i n g u i s t i c s t y l e i s c a t e g o r i z e d as \" p o e t i c \" , and i t i s a poet, J o d e l l e , * 5 who i n i t i a t e s the i n v e r s i o n . By c r i t i c i z i n g the a r t i f i c i a l language of another guest who i s a l s o a poet he t r a n s f e r s the d e s c r i p t i o n of the language t c a c c r p c r a l plane and exaggerates the p r e t e n t i o u s tone .to make i t appear r i d i c u l o u s . Another speaker, \" T a c i t e \" , i n t e r r u p t s t c s o f t e n t h i s c r i t i c i s m of the \"poet\" by admi t t i n g t h a t while he i s u n n e c e s s a r i l y i n d i r e c t , he means w e l l : J o d e l l e , Quand je vous oy a i n s i p a i l l a r d e r s ur 212 v c s t r e outrecuidance de bien d i r e , i l m'est ad v i s gue vous me p i s s e z aux o r e i l l e s ; gue d i a b l e ne p a r l e z vous d r o i t sans a l l e r a i n s i leschonnant l e s f r i p p c n n e r i e s du sot langage. Je pense vous oyant, e s t r e aupres du beau s a i n c t Jean, r a c o n t a n t comme i l f u t a l a chasse, \"Nous apperceusmes l e Lepcre g ui s ' e s t o i t manifeste\": mais pource g u ' i l se r e i n t e g r a , ncus ne l e peusmes apprehender.\" C'est comme ces Eadaux de P a r i s a l a b a t a i l l e de S e n l i s , g u i ayant l e u r s hastens a f e u sur l e haut de l ' e s c h i n e , demandoient: \"Ou est l'a d v e r s e p a r t i e , e l l e ne comparoistre pas?\" Enccr l a Gcibaude p a r l a mieux venant a monsieur l e Gouverneur pour s'excuser de l a taxe ou l'on l ' a v o i t employee pour l e s f o r t i f i c a t i o n s : \"Monseigneur, j e s u i s une pauvre femme en veuvesse, je vous p r i e a v o i r p i t i e S compcncticn de moy, on m'a tr o p c a u t e r i s e e pour l e s f o r n i c a t i o n s . \" T a c i t e . L a i s s e z d i r e nostre poete: gue voulez^ vcus, l e bon preud'hcmme i l s a v a t t e n o s t r e langage, t o u t e f o i s i l d i t bien, mais i l va un peu de coste'. (II:9) The author mocks the language and incompetence cf academicians i n an e a r l y comment, s t a t i n g t h a t they are not to be given much a t t e n t i o n , although they w i l l be seen about t h e i r r i d i c u l o u s work. \"Mais j e vous p r i e ne .vous amusez pas a ces messieurs l e s gens de l e t t r e s , gui sent s i t r e s -sgavans g u ' i l s en sont tout s o t s . Vous l e s v e r r e z h a l l e b a r d a n s avec de grands lambeaux de L a t i n e f f a r c u c h a n s l e s f a u v e t t e s \" (1:7-8). In an a s i d e to s c h o l a r s a f t e r he has in c l u d e d a L a t i n phrase i n the t e x t , the author says: \"S dea je p a r l e aux doctes s ' i l s l e peuvent entendre\" (11:250), thus i n s i n u a t i n g t h a t they would not be a b l e t c understand L a t i n . T r a v e s t i e d b i t s of s c h o l a s t i c l a t i n are heard from time to time i n oth e r c o n v e r s a t i o n s as w e l l , sometimes as i n the f o l l o w i n g example where rhyming nonsense words suggesting a v a r i a t i o n on cornu (cuckold) r e p l a c e the L a t i n : 213 • \" c o r n i f e t u , c o r n i f e t u , mon amy,' c'est a d i r e , gucd d i f f e r t u r , non a u f e r t u r \" ( I I : 2 3 1 ) . 4 7 T h i s p a r t i c u l a r example e l i c i t s a response from another speaker: \"Comme vous p a r l e z L a t i n \" (11:231). The o p i n i o n t h a t s c h o l a s t i c L a t i n h i n d e r s r a t h e r than f a c i l i t a t e s the f o r m u l a t i o n and communication c f ideas i s expressed ty a personnage r e f e r r e d t c as \" N i c . Nan.\" In response to a c r i t i c i s m by \"Ramus\": Ramus. Que ne d i t t e s - v o u s c e l a en L a t i n ? Raphelangius se moguera encores de vous t a n t vous es t e s s o t . Nic. Nan. C'est assez, mon bon maistre; j'ay, ccmme d i s o i t Ambroise Pare', assez de L a t i n t o u t f a i t , mais je n'en s g a u r o i s f a i r e gu'a f i n e f o r c e . Au D i a b l e l e L a t i n , i l m'a tout enmusigue l a f e s s u r e de 1'entendoire, S p a r f o i s je s u i s vrayement un grand s ot. (I I : 175) Beroalde conveys by example the d u l l and ponderous medium i n which these men work. The p r e t e n t i o n and o b s c u r i t y which penetrates t h e i r language c o n t r a s t s s t r a n g e l y with the l i v e l y and n a t u r a l d i a l o g u e i n most of the book. In an i l l u s t r a t i o n of belaboured s c h o l a s t i c s t y l e the n a r r a t o r addresses h i s p u b l i c i n a harangue overloaded with dependant c l a u s e s , unnessesary r e p e t i t i o n , and e l a b o r a t e d e t a i l , a l l of which leads to a f i n a l d e s c r i p t i v e image of the wisdcm being passed along as akin t o a pound of b u t t e r : . . La vraye matiere, S l a j u s t e g u i n t e essence dont l e magifigue usage est t e l , gue l'on v i e n t en l'obtenant a bout de toutes e n t r e p f i s e s , on o b t i e n t , en l' a y a n t , ce qu'on pourchasse, & on f a i t ce gu'cn veut. Parguoy vous avez en sommes succintement tout du long, proportionnement au p e t i t pied 6 sans a l l e g c r i e , l e s elemens, p r i n c i p e s , fondemens, r a i s o n s , r e s o l u t i o n s , e v i d e n c e s , puissances 6 causes de p a r v e n i r tout du long a 1'usage de Geneve, imprime a Rome, & 214 sans r i e n r e g u e r i r , comme une g n i l l e de beurre f r a i s . (1:166-67) Beroalde i s pleased t o be able to o f f e r h i s work to the people i n the language which they can understand, thus r e v e r s i n g the a l i e n a t i o n f o s t e r e d by s c h o l a r s between the people and knowledge. He even suggests keeping t h i s knowledge from the s c h o l a r s i n an urgent monologue which erupts i n t o a c o l o u r f u l i n v e c t i v e a g a i n s t those who hoard and abuse s c i e n c e ; . s u c h men are degraded by comparison with f o o l s , animals, and c r i m i n a l s : CE LIVRE EST LE CENTRE DE TOUS LES LIVRES; v c i l a l a paro l e s e c r e t t e g u i d o i t e s t r e descouverte au temps . d ' H e l i e , a i n s i que d i s e n t l e s A l c h e m i s t e s ; tenez l e f o r t cach4 S vous gardez des pates pelues de ces enf a r i n e z , *** g u i gcurmandent l a sc i e n c e 8 l ' e m p l i s s e n t d'abbus: estrangez vous de ces p i f r e s presomptueux, g u i voyans l e s bonnes personnes d e s i r e u s e s de se c a l f e u t r e r l e cerveau d'un peu de bonne l e c t u r e 8 p r o f i t a b l e s'en s c a n d a l i s e n t : chassez ces escorcheurs de l a t i n , ces e s c a r t e l e u x de sentences, ces -maguereaux de passages poetiques q u ' i l s p r oduisent 8 p r c s t i t u e n t a tous venans; gardez-vous de ces e n t r e l a r d e u r s de Th e o l o g i e a l e g o r i q u e , de ces effondreux d'argumens, 8 de tous ceux gui a i g u i s e n t l e s remonstrances sur l a meule d ' h y p o c r i s i e ; fuyez t e l l e s bestes, 6 ne l e u r communiguez p o i n t ce rare t h r e s o r , a i n s l e commettez a gens de bien, comme gens de bien cnt p r i s l a peine de l e vous donner, non pour en abuser . . . . (1:51-52) Some of the mockery i s d i r e c t e d s p e c i f i c a l l y a t the al c h e m i s t s , with whom Beroalde a l s o had f i r s t hand a c g u a i n t a n c e . s o In an example of p h y s i c a l i n v e r s i o n a l c h e m i s t s are r i d i c u l e d as \"ces t r i s t e s enfumez . desguels l e c u l p a r o i s t pour mieux s c u f f l e r \" (1:165), c r are dismissed as f o o l s , \"fous de haute a l k i m i e \" (1:223), and 215 t h e i r t rue m o t i v a t i o n i s exposed as a v a r i c e or l u s t . Examples of garbled a l c h e m i c a l jargon parody the e s o t e r i c terms used by those seekers of the P h i l o s o p h e r ' s Stcne. A l c h e m i c a l . e x p r e s s i o n s such as \" g u i n t e s s e n t i e l l e m e n t \" , \" l a cinguieme essence n e c e s s a i r e \" , \" s o p c r i f e r e n t e s \" confuse the tex t during such parodies (I:161). F i n a l l y , they are made to mock themselves: \"Je r e v i e n s a ceste p i e r r e \" , says an u n i d e n t i f i e d a l c h e m i s t , \"d'autant gue je s u i s alguemiste, a u s s i l e s alguemistes ont l a p i e r r e en l a t e s t e \" (II: 147) . C r i t i c i s m of unworthy a l c h e m i s t s can be found elsewhere i n Be'roalde's w r i t i n g s as w e l l , although nowhere i s i t t r e a t e d with the comic tone of Le Moyen de P a r v e n i r . 5 1 The laughing e g u a l i z a t i o n of the s o c i a l h i e r a r c h y does not stop with the s a t i r i c a l exposure of the famous guests, the p o l i t i c a l e l i t e , and the i n t e l l e c t u a l s . There i s i n f a c t hardly a group i n s o c i e t y which i s not touched by some form of mockery. For example the medical p r o f e s s i o n , with which Beroalde again was a s s o c i a t e d , i s humorously berated. The most t y p i c a l degradation i n t h e i r case i s cne suggested by the s c a t o l o g i c a l d i a g n o s t i c procedures of the p r o f e s s i o n . In these comments the reader's a t t e n t i o n i s d i r e c t e d from the purpose of the d i a g n o s i s to the m a t e r i a l the doctor must examine: \". . . Comme l e s Medecins g u i regardent 6 espluchent . l e s e j e c t i o n s des a u t r e s \" (1:21); they are s i m i l a r l y a s s o c i a t e d i n a passing comment: \". . . l a merde, c e l a eut bien s e r v i aux medecins\" (11:147). Sometimes they 216 are r i d i c u l e d i n other ways, such as i n the f o l l o w i n g case i n which an aged peasant plays a joke on a surgeon: l e c h i r u r g i e n v i t un v i e l paysan gui se p l a i g n o i t d'une douleur en l a joue', \"C, luy d i t - i l , v i e n , je te l a g u a r i r a y , je t ' a r r a c h e r a y l a dent gui te f a i t mal. --Pargoy vous ne s c a u r i e z . --Pardienne s i f e r a y . --Je gage demi escu gue non, l e v c i l a . --Je gage gue s i . — O r , a l l o n s . \" Quand i l s f u r e n t en l a boutigue, & gue l e p a t i e n t sur l a c h a i r e , l e b a r b i e r se met a regarder en sa bcuche, 8 n'y trouva aucune dent; \"Et gu'est-ce, d i t - i l , gue c e l a ? — C ' e s t gue j'ay gaigne, d i t l e pied g r i s , i l y a p l u s de dix ans gue je n'ay pas une dent.\" (II:84) N e i t h e r are the tradesmen n e g l e c t e d ; they tco are denounced as dishonest and unworthy, then c o m i c a l l y i n v e r t e d . In some examples complaints are i s s u e d against a range of p r o f e s s i o n s at once. Everyone i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by the opposite of h i s p r o f e s s i o n ' s i d e a l v i r t u e : \". . L ' i n f i d e l i t e des marchands, l a deslcyaute des gens de J u s t i c e , l e s impostures des Medecins, l e s v o l l e r i e s des F i n a n c i e r s , l a tromperie des a r t i s a n s , l a p e r f i d i e des Precepteurs . . . Toutes ces s o r t e s ne sont pas gens de b i e n \" (1:215). With the l e v e l l i n g of s o c i a l c l a s s d i s t i n c t i o n s human r e l a t i o n s h i p s are a l s o e q u a l i z e d . Everyone i s humorously revealed to be e q u a l l y s u s c e p t i b l e to p r e t e n t i o u s p o s t u r i n g , to devious self-advancement and p a r t i c u l a r l y tc the demands and l i m i t a t i o n s of the human body. Once t h i s u n i v e r s a l e q u a l i t y i s e s t a b l i s h e d , a new permissive m o r a l i t y emerges, f o l l o w i n g the p a t t e r n of f e s t i v a l , as these u n i v e r s a l human g u a l i t i e s are being e s t a b l i s h e d , the a t t i t u d e c f B e r c a l d e ' s 217 p r a n d i a l group becomes more a p p a r e n t l y t h a t c f a C a r n i v a l crowd. C o n s i s t e n t l y , r i g i d i t y i s the o b j e c t c f a t t a c k , and the weapon of r i d i c u l e i s employed ag a i n s t those who d e v i a t e from the f e s t i v e norm of f l e x i b i l i t y and open g r a t i f i c a t i o n cf d e s i r e s . The treatment of two opposing a t t i t u d e s towards sexual indulgence t y p i f i e s the s o c i a l i z i n g method behind the l a u g h t e r and mockery. The two o p i n i o n s , r i g i d r e p r e s s i o n cf the body and l i b e r a t e d i n d u l g e n c e , are most c l e a r l y presented i n the many comments and t a l e s about women, si n c e women i n Le Moyen de P a r v e n i r are d e p i c t e d e i t h e r as prudes or p r o s t i t u t e s , i l l u s t r a t i n g the extreme of each a t t i t u d e . If a woman has a r e p u t a t i o n as a \"femme de b i e n \" , she i s derided as f o o l i s h and c o l d , but i f she takes a l o v e r she l o s e s any c l a i m t o moral v i r t u e and f i n d s h e r s e l f the o b j e c t of d e r i s i o n and mockery. I f she i s d i s c r e t e about body f u n c t i o n s , she i s mocked, but i f d e p i c t e d performing them she i s c o m i c a l l y degraded. The commentary presents both the p e r v e r s i o n s of those who r e p r e s s t h e i r s e n s u a l i t y and humorous cases of f a i l u r e to suppress n a t u r a l impulses. In an e f f o r t t o separate themselves from b o d i l y f u n c t i o n s , some women d e s c r i b e d i n Eeroalde's anecdotes adopt a r e s e r v e d and d i s c r e t e a t t i t u d e . T h i s a t t i t u d e , which seeks to a v o i d not only sexual a c t i v i t y , but other f u n c t i o n s of the body such as d i g e s t i o n and e l i m i n a t i o n c r e a t e s an a l i e n a t i o n between mind and body which C a r n i v a l seeks to 218 heal. Those who attempt to place themselves above p h y s i c a l n e c e s s i t i e s are q u i c k l y brought down to the common l e v e l . They are reminded, as i s \"Le M o r t e l \" a b o v e , 5 2 that t h e i r bodies f u n c t i o n l i k e a l l o t h e r s , human or even animal. Two of the bangueters d i s c u s s feminine prudery, and speculate on whether women would l i k e t c be r i d of the o f f e n d i n g p a r t s c f t h e i r bodies: \"Vrament v o i r e , pensez-vcus g u ' e l l e s s e r o i e n t a i s e s s i e l l e s n'avoient p o i n t de c u l ? \" ( 1 1 : 1 6 9 ) . 3 3 Other banqueters r e l a t e s a t i r i c a l l y t h a t there are schools i n Geneva t h a t help women overcome the shame of such f u n c t i o n s . (1:180), and th a t i n Alsace, f a r from f e e l i n g h u m i l i a t e d by such f u n c t i o n s , the women gather together to perform them i n p u b l i c : \" . . . & c' e s t au Vendredi gue e l l e s s'assemblent au matin toutes par bandes. . . E sel o n l e u r dignite* s'en vont en p i s s e r i e comme on va a l a f o i r e \" (1:179). The r e s u l t c f t h e i r a c t i v i t y takes on fabulous p r o p o r t i o n s , r e m i n i s c e n t c f the c r e a t i o n of Pyrenean hot s p r i n g s by Pantagruel's u r i n e : 5 * Estant a r r i v e e s ces femmes au l i e u de l a pis s c u e r e cu p i s s o t e r i e , e l l e s se di s p o s e n t comme l e s montagnes d'A n g l e t e r r e chacune ou e l l e e s t , y gardant d i g n i t e z , p r e r o g a t i v e s £ honneur, a i n s i qu'ez actes p u b l i c s S not a b l e s , ne plus ne moins que se mettent l e s c h e v a l i e r s en l e u r rang l e jour de l e u r ceremonie; en ce s t e commodite abondamment, jcyeusement 6 a l a copieuse Benigne decharge des r e i n s , e l l e s vuident l e u r s v e s s i e s & p i s s e n t t a n t gue ce s t e r i v i e r e en e s t f a i t e S co n t i n u e e , 6 de l a l e s Alemans, Flamans & An g l a i s font v e n i r la. bonne eau pour f a i r e l a b i e r e , l a plus double S de plus haut goust. (1:180) 219 A l i e n a t i o n from the body f i n d s i t s most t y p i c a l e x pression i n the image of a proud young woman r i g i d l y warding o f f any a s s o c i a t i o n between h e r s e l f and p h y s i c a l f u n c t i o n s . Such a t t i t u d e s are inc o m p a t i b l e with the f e s t i v e m o r a l i t y of the book and are e i t h e r humorously a l t e r e d cr d i s c r e d i t e d by mockery. One young woman at t e n d i n g a wedding c e l e b r a t i o n i s even a f r a i d to dance or t c approach the refreshment t a b l e f o r f e a r of dishonour: \"toutes l e s autres dancoient, S e l l e p o i n t , S ne s ' c s c i t apprccher de l a e o l a t i o n pour f a i r e de l a merde avec l e s dens comme l e s a u t r e s \" (1:135). She i s not allowed t c maintain t h i s p o s i t i o n however, and i s t r i c k e d i n t o great i n t i m a c i e s with a w i l y \" c o u s i n \" (1:135-36). The author mocks the a t t i t u d e of another young woman as she p r u d i s h l y t r i e s to p r o t e c t h e r s e l f from any suggestion which might a s s o c i a t e her with a n i m a l i s t i c g u a l i t i e s . He d e s c r i b e s her condescendingly as \"..... Conscience, b e l l e c o u r t i s a n n e , gui ne v o u l o i t pas gue ma p e t i t e chienne f u t une c r e a t u r e , 8 ne l u i p l a i s o i t pas d'es t r e animal: 'Hoy, d i s o i t e l l e , Bichcnne n'est p o i n t c r e a t u r e , 6 je ne s u i s p o i n t a n i m a l ' \" (1:266). The n a r r a t o r c l e a r l y f i n d s her d i s d a i n f u l d i s t i n c t i o n n a i v e l y amusing. In Le Moyen de P a r v e n i r the' women who attempt to r e s t r a i n themselves s e x u a l l y i n order tc maintain t h e i r r e p u t a t i o n of \"femme de b i e n \" are r i d i c u l e d . Such women are accused c f s t u p i d i t y : \"ces s o t t e s femmes de bien'? (1:257), of f r i g i d i t y : \"vrament e l l e n'aime poin t l e d e s d u i t , a u s s i 220 je ne prens pas p l a i s i r d ' a v o i r a f f a i r e a e l l e \" (1:254), and even of i n s a n i t y : \" . . . l a f i l l e de n c s t r e Juge, l a g u e l l e est s i p u c e l l e gue son pucelage l u i monte s i f o r t en l a t e s t e g u ' e l l e en est f c l l e \" (11:184). s s Such women are f r e g u e n t l y i l l - h u m o u r e d : Qu'est-ce gue peut f a i r e une femme de bien gue du b r u i t en une maiscn? E l l e s ne f o n t gue r e c h i g n e r , e l l e s sont ennemies de tout e x e r c i c e vertueux: b r e f ces tant femmes de b i e n seront pour d i x escus de mesnage en une maison, S y f e r o n t pour cent escus de v i l e n n i e s , tant e l l e s sont seches de c o u r t o i s i e . Depuis gu'une femme a j u r e , \"Par l a merci-Dieu je s u i s femme de bien de men corp s ! \" On n'en s g a u r o i t plus c h e v i r , on ne l u i cse pl u s r i e n d i r e . (11:35) They are a l s o h y p o c r i t i c a l as other accounts r e v e a l . Following the account of a p r i e s t ' s maid who b i t t e r l y complains that she has been raped by three men of the town, the honourable wife of a s o l i d c i t i z e n c o l d l y d i s p l a y s an a t t i t u d e of s t u d i e d h y p o c r i s y : . . . l a f i l l e se p l a i g n o i t g u ' e l l e a v o i t este' a i n s i devergondee; 6 on l e c o n t o i t a guelgues honnestes femmes: en l a compagnie e s t o i t l a femme d'un P r e s i d e n t , gui oyant ce conte de t a n t de f o i s , r e s p o n d i t S d i t : \"flu D iable s o i t l a carogne tant e l l e e s t c i t a i s e ! Cela n ' a d v i e n d r o i t pas s i t o s t a une femme de b i e n . \" (1:319) As f o r the o p p o s i t e group of women, those who c a n d i d l y take pleasure i n t h e i r b o d i e s , they are a l l c l a s s i f i e d i n s u l t i n g l y under the ge n e r a l l a b e l of p r o s t i t u t e . T h i s i n s u l t i s an a g g r e s s i v e a c t , attempting to degrade the woman's p u b l i c image. While the way t c i n s u l t a man i s through an a f f r o n t to h i s v i r i l i t y , a woman i s attacked ty accusing her of l a x sex u a l mores. T h i s d i s t i n c t i o n i s noted 221 by one of the s peakers: \"Pouquoy e s t - c e gue quand cn nomme un homme sot i l s'estime coquu? & s i on a p p e l l e une femme vesse, e l l e pensera e s t r e p u t a i n ? \" ( I I : 168-69)* A name-c a l l i n g match between husband and wife shews that each i s aware of the other's v u l n e r a b i l i t y : \"'Ha p u t a i n , f i t - i l . 'Fa coguu,' f i t - e l l e . 'Ha ha,» f i t - i l . 'A a,' f i t - e l l e . \" ' (I: 256) . Beroalde's speakers f r e q u e n t l y s p r i n k l e t h e i r c o l o u r f u l d i a l o g u e s on the t o p i c of women with t h i s i n s u l t . Once the a f f r o n t has been unleashed, however, the a t t i t u d e towards these women i s s u r p r i s i n g l y i n d u l g e n t . Though t h i s i n s u l t i s o f t e n a p p l i e d to women i n Le Moyen de P a r v e n i r , i t begins to l o s e some of i t s s t r e n g t h as the a t t i t u d e s of the n a r r a t o r and the guests become c l e a r e r . Husbands are to blame f o r the wandering of t h e i r wives, argues one speaker who d e s c r i b e s the second wife o f a bad husband to i l l u s t r a t e the p o i n t . Though at f i r s t a v i r t u o u s woman, the husband's behaviour soon made her no b e t t e r than any other woman: \".. . . l a second e s t o i t une des plus femmes de bien de l a t e r r e , 5 e l l e ne f u t pas s i t o s t avec l u i , gue l ' a s t r e de c e t homme ne l a rangea au p o i n c t des s o e u r s \" 5 6 (1:258) Women manage t o a s s e r t themselves , by a v a i l i n g themselves of p l e a s u r e s . of the body. One newly wedded husband proudly recounts h i s promiscuous e a r l i e r days, but d i s c o v e r s t h a t h i s new wife's c a r e e r already equals h i s . The morning a f t e r the wedding many women come tc t h e i r house, 222 b r i n g i n g with them hearth cakes. The wife asks what t h i s can mean, and he r e p l i e s t h a t \" c ' e s t o i t un adieu gue l u i d i s o i e n t t c u t e s l e s femmes, f i l l e s S garces g u ' i l a v o i t a c c o l e e s \" . She s c o l d s him f o r not having t o l d her sooner: \"He da, d i t e l l e , vous avez grand t o r t gue vous ne me l'avez d i t , j'en eusse a v e r t y tous ceux gui me l ' c n t f a i t , i l s m'eussent apporte du v i n , nous eussions eu a b o i r e S a manger pour d ' i c y a Pasques\" (11:187). Many ether t a l e s c f amorous adventures d e p i c t the triumph of women who are not a f r a i d to admit e r o t i c a t t r a c t i o n s . Even though these women must endure the i n s u l t s and mockery of t h e i r s o c i e t y , the author t a c i t l y approves of t h e i r a c t i o n s , s i n c e they are obeying nature r a t h e r than p u t t i n g r e s t r i c t i o n s on i t . The most f o o l i s h are those who a b s t a i n . T a l e s of f o r g i v i n g husbands i l l u s t r a t e the way conjugal r e l a t i o n s h i p s can f a r e when not .too t i g h t l y r e s t r i c t e d by unnatural c o n s t r a i n t s and antagonism. Boom f o r human joys and weaknesses i s found i n the f o l l o w i n g passages. They show warmth i n s t e a d of d i s t r u s t and hatred between the sexes. A wife on her s i c k b e d f e a r f u l l y confesses t h a t she.has been u n f a i t h f u l , but her husband's quick t h i n k i n g r e a c t i o n i s the opposite of what one would expect:. \"Mon ami, je vous ay t o u s j o u r s e s t e o b e i s s a n t e & douce, je c r o i gue vous ne vous p l a i g n e z point de mci? — N o n , mamie, r e s j o u y s s e z vous 6 revenez au monde. — 0 men ami, j e s u i s f o r t dolente & ennuyee d'une faute gue je vous ay f a i t e ; mon cher mari, j e ne vous en ay f a i t gu'une, j e vous p r i e de me l a p a r d e n n e r . — L a s , mamie, prenez courage, i l n'y a r i e n que bi e n . — M a i s , men 223 ami, l a faute e s t grande. --C'est tout un, je l a vous pardonne. - - H e l a s , mon ami, ce p e t i t gargon n'est pas de v o s t r e f a i t , c ' e s t P o u l e t gui me l e f i t l e jour g u ' i l t a i l l a n ostre t r e i l l e l'annee passee. — 0 c, mamie, S d i t e s moi, e s t o i t i l nostre jcurnee? — O u y , mon ami. --0 b i e n , o b i e n , mamie, c'est tout un: puis q u ' i l e s t o i t a n o s t r e journee, 6 gue nous l'avcns paye, l ' e n f a n t e s t a nous, d'autant que ce q u ' i l f a i s o i t e s t o i t pour nous; reposez en paix & ne vcus a f f l i g e z p l u s . \" (11:209) Another husband r e v e a l s t h a t he i s pleased with the f a c t that h i s wife i s \"un peu p u t a i n \" because i t means he i s t r e a t e d b e t t e r , and with good humour: Mais a propcs de p u t a i n s , i l f a u t que je vous f a s s e un conte de ma femme q u i e s t o i t un peu p u t a i n : e l l e n ' e s t o i t pas de ces enormes put a i n s q u i en font mestier, mais de ces femmes de bien qui ent un ami d'honneur. E t bien j ' e s t o i s t o u s j o u r s l e maistre, on me c r a i g n o i t ; quand je v e n o i s de l a v i l l e , ma femme v e n c i t a moi, me t a s t o i t l a t e s t e : \"Vous e s t eschauffe', mon f i l s . Mon ami, i l f a u t un peu prendre de v i n ; v o i c i monsieur t e l , gui vous e s t o i t venu v o i r , i l prendra l a p a t i e n c e avec vous.\" Et bien j ' e s t o i s mignarde. Et gui p l u s e s t , mes servantes 6 mes v a l l e t s l e f a i s o i e n t un p e t i t ; c e l a e s t o i t cause gue je l e s t r o u v c i s t e u s j e u r s a l a maison a f a i r e l e u r besogne; s i c e l a n'eut p o i n t este', i l s fussent a l l e z au l o i n chercher p r o v i s i o n , aux despens de tout ce g u ' i l s m'eussent peu desrober. T e l s sont l e s j u s t e s &• bons f r u i c t s de l'hcnneste S chaste p a i l l a r d i s e , dont l e s e f f e c t s ne succedent gu'aux ames p a c i f i g u e s 8 q u i ont du courage. (11:190-91) These t a l e s reverse i n s u l t s and r e s t r a i n t s by t u r n i n g them i n t o l a u g h t e r , and by c r e a t i n g a c a p a c i t y f c r self-meekery. They i n f u s e an i n d u l g e n t e l a s t i c i t y i n t o human r e l a t i o n s h i p s i n a manner not u n l i k e the permissive indulgence granted by C a r n i v a l . Regardless of sex, s o c i a l group, or p o s i t i o n i n the h i e r a r c h y , c e r t a i n c h a r a c t e r f l a w s b r i n g r i d i c u l e upon t h e i r 224 owners and provoke the i m p l i c i t l a u g h t e r of the f e s t i v e group. These passages u s u a l l y f o l l o w the well-worn theme c f tromrieur trompe, i n which a c h a r a c t e r s e t s a devious t r a p fo r another, but u l t i m a t e l y f i n d s h i m s e l f caught i n i t i n s t e a d . * 5 7 A group of greedy canons are ou t w i t t e d by a generous, though worldly-wise p r i e s t who had o f f e r e d to give them a b o t t l e of wine to c e l e b r a t e S a i n t Genevieve's Day. The canons decide to take advantage of the o f f e r and send an enormous b o t t l e t c be f i l l e d : Les compagnons estans a l a v e i l l e du jour propose', envoyerent un gros v a l l e t a monsieur l e P e n i t e n c i e r , l e p r i e r g u ' i l luy p l e u s t , s e l o n sa prcmesse, l e u r dcnner l a b o u t e i l l e de v i n ; a i n s i d i t on. Or i l s avoient f a i t p r o v i s i o n d'une opulente b o u t e i l l e , g ui ne t e n c i t gueres moins gue c e l l e des Capucins, ou i l e n t r o i t presgue un guart de v i n . (11:230) Thinking g u i c k l y , the precentor sends the v a l e t to f i n d the maid who i s to f i l l the b o t t l e , and then s l i p s a stcne i n t o the bottle,.When the v a l e t .returns the precentor t e l l s him to r i n s e the b o t t l e to b e . f i l l e d . The v a l e t does so, but when he shakes the b o t t l e , the stone s h a t t e r s i t . The precentor expresses mock sympathy, and has the maid b r i n g a p a r t i c u l a r b o t t l e to r e p l a c e i t . However, the replacement only holds a t h i r d of a p i n t ! The o l d p r i e s t f i l l s i t and sends the v a l e t o f f with a mocking message to the canons: • \" A l l e z , d i t - i l , i l s en auront une autre f c i s c o r n i f e t u , c o r n i f e t u , mon amy\", c ' e s t a d i r e , quod d i f f e r t u r , non a u f e r t u r . \" s 8 225 The theme of tiompeur^trcmpe a r i s e s again i n another n a r r a t i v e i n which a h y p o c r i t i c a l and mercenary hostess r e c e i v e s a j u s t reward f o r her s e r v i c e s t o a guest with strange powers. I t begins as an o l d man asks her f o r a ni g h t ' s l o d g i n g , but being of a m i s e r l y nature, she r e f u s e s , using her husband's d i s a p p r o v a l as an excuse. The man gees on u n t i l he meets another housewife. The second woman r e c e i v e s him b e t t e r : \" i l f u t receu f c r t honcrablement, S bien t r a i c t e de l a pauvre femme gui l e mit en un ton l i t , c e s t e bonne femme!\" In the morning he thanks h i s hostess p r o f u s e l y and she renews the o f f e r of h o s p i t a l i t y . Ee then grants her a favour through magical powers: Madame, je vous rends graces i n f i n i e s de tant de bien S d'amitie, j e p r i e l e bon Dieu g u ' i l l u i p l a i s e vous b e n i r , s i gue l a premiere besogne gue vous f e r e z aujourd'huy l u i s o i t t a n t agreable gue ne p u i s s i e z tout l e jour f a i r e a u t r e chose.\" II p a r t i t : 6 e l l e g ui n'y p e n s o i t p o i n t , l'ayant recommande' a Dieu, se f i t apporter un peu de buee g u ' e l l e a v o i t estendu l e jour precedent, & se mit a p l o y e r son l i n g e , S tant ploya, S encor tant p l o y a , gue t a n t plus e l l e p l o y o i t plus i l y a v o i t a p l o y e r , S p l o y o i t t o u s j o u r s : t e l l e m e n t g u ' e l l e a v o i t de grands monceaux de toutes s o r t e s de l i n g e g u i m u l t i p l i o i t au touchement de ses mains. Par hazard c e l l e g ui a v o i t r e f u s ^ l e bon homme v i n t g u e r i r guelgue chose chez l a Gousson, B l a voyant empeschee l u i d i t : \"He b i e n , ma mie l a Gousson, gue f a i c t e s vous?\" Dame, e l l e l u i conta t o u t e d'avanture & cause de ce grand bien: adonques l ' a u t r e f u t bien estonnee S f o r t t r i s t e d ' a v o i r l a i s s e passer une t e l l e cemmodite; parguci sans f a i r e semblant, e l l e s'en va E p u i s se mit au chemin cu e l l e p e n s o i t t r o u v e r ce personnage; S su i v a n t par a v i s son t r a i n , ayant sceu en s'en enquestant q u ' i l e s t o i t a l l e vers V i e i l l e - v i l l e , e l l e f a i s o i t mine de c u e i l l i r des herbes pour sa vache; pui s l ' a y a n t apperceu e l l e f a i t de l'estonnee; e l l e s'apprcche de l u i , S l u i d i t : \"Helas, Monsieur, que j e s u i s a i s e de vous a v o i r trouve, que f a i c t e s vous i c y a vous morfendre? En da, l e bon Dieu a bi e n change mon mari, S je ne l e sga v o i s 226 pas; guand je l u i d i s h i e r gue je vous a v o i s e s c c n d u i t , i l me cuida v e n i r meschef tant i l me tanca. Je lcue l e bon Dieu de son amendement; je vcus p r i e ne l e prendre p o i n t en mauvaise p a r t , mais de nous f a i r e ce bien de ve n i r ce s o i r l o g e r chez ncus. (1:183-4) He agrees to r e t u r n with her, spends the n i g h t , and grants her the same p a r t i n g favour i n the morning. She prepares to r e c e i v e a l a r g e , f r e e p i l e of l i n e n , and sends the maid to f e t c h the d i r t y laundry so t h a t the m u l t i p l i c a t i o n may begin. However, she i s soon d i s a p p o i n t e d . La chambriere ayant tout apporte', v c i l a gue l a Page voulant mettre l a main a l' o e u v r e , s ' a v i s a d ' a l l e r p i s s e r a f i n de ne se desbaucher p o i n t : a i n s i tcute en haste e l l e s o r t en sa c o u r t ou e l l e s ' a c r o u p i t pour p i s s e r : mais ce f u t i c y une e f f i c a c e t e r r i b l e , d'autant g u ' e l l e commenca p i s s e r i e , g ui continua tout l e jo u r . Jan, e l l e a v o i t d i t g u ' e l l e a u r o i t f o r c e l i n g e , mais e l l e c oula f o r c e eau, S f i t ce r u i s s e a u g ui passe au p i e d des Loges, & va jusgues aux Indes. Although humorous r e v e r s a l s and r e v e l a t i o n s provide most of the m a t e r i a l on the s u b j e c t of s o c i a l i n t e r a c t i o n i n Le Mojren de P a r v e n i r , there are some speakers who do net laugh i n d u l g e n t l y at human f a i l i n g s , but appear to take them s e r i o u s l y . T h i s same a t t i t u d e was heard i n r e l a t i o n to e c c l e s i a s t i c a l w rongdoings. 5 9 They j u s t l y c l a i m t h a t people are s e l f i s h l y a g g r e s s i v e and i r r a t i o n a l , s a c r i f i c i n g t h e i r own i n t e g r i t y and the wel l - b e i n g of others i n the s t r u g g l e to get ahead: n . . . c' e s t p i t i e absolue, gue pour e s t r e grand & gaigner, i l f a u t r u i n e r l a vertu S l e pr o c h a i n . 0 g u e l l e misere! Que l e s hommes sont d i a b l e s aux hommes! Quicongue ne c r o i r a p o i n t g u ' i l y a i t de d i a b l e s , g u i a i l l e au P a l a i s S a l a Court\" (1:152). T h i s p l a i n t i v e voice 227 continues to deplore the l a c k of c h a r i t y people grant each other i n a world where r u t h l e s s competition r e i g n s , and where d e s p i t e the energy expended, f a u l t s i n the s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e s t i l l remain: \" a i n s i p l u s i e u r s sent r i c h e s du malheur des a u t r e s , desguels jamais l a f a u t e n'est cachee cu diminuee ou destournee, a i n s m u l t i p l i e e abendamment\" (I: 154) . Despite the t r u t h and s i n c e r i t y of the statement, t h i s v o i c e r e c e i v e s l i t t l e support .from the o t h e r s , and h i s t i r a d e i s powerless to e f f e c t any change i n the banguet atmosphere. Instead i t i s swept away by the l a u g h t e r which surrounds i t . In f a c t , one speaker observes, i t i s f a r b e t t e r to c o n f r o n t the world as a f o o l , s i n c e i t i s very rare and unfortunate to see a f o o l condemned to be hanged. Those who f i n d themselves i n s e r i o u s t r o u b l e are the c l e v e r people: \". . . a i n s i gue ces beaux e s p r i t s S tant h a b i l e s gens gui se f o n t pendre\" (11:164). For t h i s reason Eeroalde concludes t h a t he h i m s e l f would l i k e t c be c o n s i d e r e d a f o o l : He bien, a propos de vous, messieurs, vcus d i r e z gue je s u i s fou; je voudrois l e pouvoir d e v e n i r ; pource que s i t o s t que je l e s e r o i s , je s e r o i s exempt du feu s i cn me d i s o i t h e r e t i q u e ; d e l i v r e de p r i s o n , s i je d e v o i s ; non s u j e c t au C o n s i s t o i r e ou a l a M e r c u r i a l e , cu a l a reprimende. (11:257) In summary, Beroalde's t e x t demonstrates a f e s t i v e a t t i t u d e towards the r e l e a s e of h o s t i l e a g g r e s s i o n s , f i r s t c l o t h i n g them i n l a u g h t e r and then using them as a 228 s o c i a l i z i n g f o r c e . V i o l e n c e , p h y s i c a l h u m i l i a t i o n and moral dishonour' are c a r r i e d out with h o s t i l e , though humorous ambivalence. These forms of f e s t i v e aggression work to accomplish the l e v e l l i n g of s o c i a l ranks and the d e f l a t i o n cf i n d i v i d u a l p r e t e n s i o n s of s u p e r i o r i t y . Everyone i s r e v e a l e d to be of the same s e l f - c e n t e r e d m o r a l i t y so that a l l may i n d u l g e openly and without g u i l t . The most u n i v e r s a l human g u a l i t y i s the p h y s i c a l body, which u n i t e s a l l members cf s o c i e t y through common p h y s i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and needs. The f u n c t i o n s , l i m i t a t i o n s and d e s i r e s of the body are f a m i l i a r to a l l . The m a t e r i a l aspect of the body (eating, d r i n k i n g , e l i m i n a t i n g ) which appears i n the f e s t i v a l i s welcomed e n t h u s i a s t i c a l l y , and the tody i s f r e e l y i n d u l g e d i n Beroalde's banguet. The u n i v e r s a l l y l i m i t i n g f a c t o r of p h y s i c a l death reminds the p a r t i c i p a n t s that p h y s i c a l p l e a s u r e s cannot be enjoyed f o r e v e r , and should be e x p l o i t e d immediately. There i s a p a r t i c u l a r l y t o l e r a n t a t t i t u d e . towards s e x u a l indulgence and innocent f o l l y i n Le Moyen de P a r v e n i r a l s o . T h i s a t t i t u d e i m p l i e s a l i b e r a t i o n of both mind - and body which i s net permitted o u t s i d e of a f e s t i v e c o n t e x t . Throughout the banqueters* c o n v e r s a t i o n there are warnings t h a t the f e s t i v e freedoms which provide f o r the necessary r e l e a s e of s o c i a l t e n s i o n s are being threatened. As i n the case of r e l i g i o u s reform, the author again seems wary of any s o c i a l a t t i t u d e s which imply r i g i d i t y because 229 the way cf l i f e they promote has a tendency t c escape the c o n t r o l of those who i n i t i a t e them and merely r e p l a c e an imperfect system by a more r e p r e s s i v e cne. I n s t e a d , he recommends f l e x i b l e c a r n i v a l e s g u e s o l u t i o n s to problems caused by s o c i a l t e n s i o n : the n a t u r a l cures f o r s o c i a l i l l s , he suggests, are laug h t e r and a r e t u r n to t a n g i b l e , s e n s u a l p l e a s u r e s . 230 CHAPTER V: NOTES 1 Sigmund Freud, Jokes and t h e i r R e l a t i o n to the yE £ 2£scious (New York: Norton, 1960), p. 103. 2 Henri Bergson, Le R i r e ( P a r i s : P.U.F., 1940), p. 95, notes A. Bain's a n a l y s i s of the cause of l a u g h t e r : \" l e r i s i b l e n a i t r a l t 'quand on nous pre'sente une chcse, auparavent respectee, comme mediocre et v i l e ' \" . 3 See above pp. 145-47. * See above pp. 38-38. 5 See R a b e l a i s ' \"Prologue\" t o Pantagruel, i n Oeuyres com_2letes ( P a r i s : . G a m i e r , 1962), v. I, pp. 219. 6 Beroalde c a l l s misfortune down upon h i s c r i t i c s i n another passage: \"Moines, P r e s t r e s , M i n i s t r e s Sc. Pr e s i d e n s , C o n s e i l l e r s , Avocats, Sc. Marchands, O u v r i e r s , A r t i s a n s , Sc. De guelgue e s t a t , g u a l i t e S c o n d i t i o n g u ' i l s s o i e n t , g u i d i r o n t mal des meraoires du Moyen de P a r v e n i r , seront a t t a i n t s S convaincus de tous crimes que l a s o t t i s e embrasse, que 1'impudence couve, S l ' h y p c c r i s i e n c u r r i t , Sc.\" (11:76). 7 See above pp. 98-99. a B a k h t i n , pp. 199-206, c i t e s the beatings of the \"Chicanous\" and the marriage banguet t h r a s h i n g s i n Seigneur Basche's c a s t l e as examples of t h i s ambivalent v i o l e n c e . See Rabe l a i s , Le Cjuart L i v r e , X I-XIII and XIV-XVI (G a m i e r ed., I I , 67-74 and 79-88)7 9 See above pp. 155-57. , to \"i»anus\", Garnier e d i t i o n , p. 44, note 1. 1 1 The p a i n f u l i n j u r i e s a baron s u f f e r s are s i m i l a r l y g l o s s e d over by l a u g h t e r , because the anecdote i s t o l d only f o r the comic d e t a i l s (11:104-5). 1 2 Salomon Reinach, \"Le R i r e r i t u e l \" , i n C u l t e s , jnjthes et r e l i g i o n s ( P a r i s : Ernest Leroux, 1912), V o l . IV, pp., 115-16. Reinach a l s o c i t e s an i n c i d e n t d e s c r i b e d by P l u t a r c h i n which a group of p a t r i o t i c women r e p e l l both an a t t a c k i n g enemy and a t i d a l wave by performing t h i s gesture: \"he'rcs e t 2 3 1 f l o t s r e c u l e r e n t , epouvantes\", p. 117, Eakhtin, R a b e l a i s , p. 373, d i s c u s s e s t h i s gesture and observes that the g r e e t i n g of an observer with the bu t t o c k s i n place of the face has long been a p r e v a l e n t i n s u l t , and i s \"one c f the most common uncrowning gestures throughout the world\", 1 3 \"Ces p a r o l l e s d i c t e s , se r e t i r a en sa t e s n i e r e , e t sus l e perron de l a porte se r e c o u r s a , robbe, c o t t e et chemise jusgues aux e s c e l l e s , et l e u r s monstroit sen c u l \" . Le T i e r s L i y r e , XVIII (Gamier ed. , I, 473). 1 4 Herbert S e i c h e , Ie Moyen de Pa r v e n i r yon Eeroalde de V e r v i l l e , p. 31, t r a c e s t h i s i n c i d e n t t c Guillaume Bcuchet*s Serees, part 6. 1 5 See f o r example, 1:206, 245 c r 1 1 : 4 7 1 . 1 * See above p. 32. 17 Bergson, Le R i r e , p. 39, s t a t e s , \"Est comigue tout i n c i d e n t g u i a p p e l l e notre a t t e n t i o n sur l e pbysigue d'une personne a l o r s gue l e moral e s t en cause\". i s F u r t h e r examples can be found i n the t e x t : 1:21, 113, 167, 304, and 1 1 : 1 3 3 , 161, 200, 203, e t c . 1 9 See Bergson, Le R i r e , pp. 29-39 and p.,43. 2 0 The n a r r a t o r f o r example, claims i t as the mark cf hi s e g u a l i t y with the other guests: \" Je m'assis a u s s i b i e n gu'un a u t r e , dautant gue j'ay un c u l , j o i n t gue sans c u l nul ne p o u r r o i t a v o i r seance entre gens d'henneur\" ( 1 : 2 2 ) , and another guests reminds h i s l i s t e n e r s of i t s n e c e s s i t y : \"Seriez-vous bien a i s e gue l ' o n vous o s t a s t l e c u l pcurce g u ' i l e s t puant, S l e sera jusgu'a l a mort? Vous s e r i e z un bel homme sans c u l ! \" ( 1 1 : 7 6 ) . 21 c f . R a b e l a i s , P a n tagjc u e l , XXVII ( G a m i e r ed,, I, 352). In which Pantagruel's f l a t u s c r e a t e s l i t t l e men and women. 22 These c h a r a c t e r s are probably intended t c be Jean-Antoine B a i f (1532-89) and P i e r r e de Ronsard (1524-85), humanists and poets of the P l e i a d e group. 2 3 Bergson, Le R i r e , pp. 105-6. 2 4 T h i s passage i s s i m i l a r to a complaint made to the c l e r g y , ( 1 1 : 1 6 5 ) , guoted above p. 138. 232 2 5 Jchan Huizinga, Waning, p..141, d e s c r i b e s the Danse Macabre as a s o c i a l e g u a l i z e r : \"While i t reminded the s p e c t a t o r s of the f r a i l t y and the v a n i t y of e a r t h l y t h i n g s , the death-dance at the same time preached s o c i a l e q u a l i t y as the Middle Ages understood i t . Death l e v e l l i n g the v a r i o u s ranks and p r o f e s s i o n s \" . 2 6 See above p. 76. 2 7 1:76, c i t e d above p. 81. 2 8 \"Fenesseaux\" i s i n t e r p r e t e d as faons i n the G a m i e r e d i t i o n of Le Moyen de P a r v e n i r , p. 229, note 2. 2 9 The speaker i s probably r e f e r r i n g to J u s t i n i a n , the c o n t r o v e r s i a l Roman emperor (527-565). 3 0 Charles V of Spain (1500-1558) r e l i n g u i s h e d the crown and r e t i r e d to a monastery where i t was rumoured, perhaps without f o u n d a t i o n , t h a t he had gone mad. See the G a m i e r e d i t i o n , p. 267, note 1. 31 T h i s may be a d i r e c t a l l u s i o n to the French king, F r a n c i s I, who r e p o r t e d l y s u f f e r e d from s y p h i l i s . See Bakhtin, p. 113. 3 2 See above p. 185. 33 i t i s noted i n the G a m i e r e d i t i o n t h a t \"Mercure\" r e f e r s not only to the treatment f o r s y p h i l i s , but a l s o to the Mercure de France, a j o u r n a l which began to appear i n 1605. T h i s does not s i g n i f i c a n t l y a l t e r the o r i g i n a l i m p l i c a t i o n however, but does make i t more ambivalent. 3* see 11:165. 35 The Queen of Egypte, perhaps C l e o p a t r a , i s s l i g h t e d i n another passage. She asks a c c u r t i e r h i s o p i n i o n cf women, and i n h i s g e n e r a l e v a l u a t i o n he r e p l i e s : \"Puis g u ' i l vous p l a i s t , Madame, par l a mordong t c u t e s femmes sont p u t a i n s . — 0 ho, d i t l a Reine, S moy? --A ha, Madame, Vous est e s l a Reine\" ( 1:72). 36 Madness was a s s o c i a t e d with both s a f f r o n and with beans at the time, thus the mention of \" s a f r a n \" and of \" l a febve\" i n t h i s passage i s used to suggest the man's insane c o n d i t i o n . 3 7 see f o r example the anecdotes of the four l a d i e s c f the c o u r t i n s u l t e d by a mere magistrate, and c f Rodrigue, an 233 i l l - m a n n e r e d £icaro who i n s u l t s the king, and i s handsomely rewarded, 11:255 and 1:149-51 r e s p e c t i v e l y . 3 8 See above, pp. 181-82. 39 see above p. 195, (11:82-83). 4 0 See f o r example above. Chapter I I I , note 17, f o r r e f e r e n c e s to \"wise f o o l s \" . 4 1 See a l s o 1:39, \"un sage c o n s e i l l e bien un f o u \" , and 1:208, \"vous e s t e s s i sage que vous en e s t e s f o u \" . 4 2 T h i s r e f e r s to the s h o r t e n i n g c f the J u l i a n c alendar by ten days i n 1581. See the G a m i e r e d i t i o n , p. 1, note 3. 4 3 c f . The debate between Fanurge and Thomaste, the E n g l i s h academician, i n R a b e l a i s ' P a n t a g r u e l , XIX, i n which Panurge's gestures are a l l obscene. ( G a m i e r ed., I, 319-21) . 4 4 See \"Chanson\" i n Les Amours de Cassandre, Oeuvres Completes (Paris:Gallimard,~195077~VolT I,~p7~103~ D'un g o s i e r masche-laurier J'oy c r i e r Dans L y c o f r o n ma Cassandre Qui p r o p h e t i z e aux Troyens Les moyens Qui l e s r e d u i r o n t en cendre. . . . 4 5 Etienne J o d e l l e , poet and playwright (1532-1573). 4 6 c f . R a b e l a i s , Pantagruel, VI, ( G a m i e r ed., I, 244-47), i n which Pantagruel meets a Limousin s c h o l a r speaking the pseudo-Latin of contemporary s c h o l a r s . 4 7 See below, note 58. 4 8 S i m i l a r parodies can be found on pages 1:50, 227, and 242-3. 4 9 C a r n i v a l clowns and stage f c o l s o f t e n f l o u r e d t h e i r f a c e s as part of t h e i r costume. See Welsford, Hasgue, p. 14, note 1. so Be*roalde s t u d i e d alchemy and had w r i t t e n a t r e a t i s e on the s u b j e c t , Recherches de l a £ierre £bilcscj:hale (1583) . 5 1 See above Chapter I I I , note 65. 231 52 See above p. 183, (11:162). 5 3 Men are a l s o taunted with t h i s a l t e r n a t i v e . See above note 20, (11:76). 5 * R a b e l a i s , Pantacjruel, ch. XXXIII (Garnier ed., I , 383) . ss Even a remote contact with a woman whc i s a v i r g i n at the age of t w e n t y - f i v e and a h a l f i s demonstrated t c be m o r t a l l y dangerous to a young Gascon who has been wounded: \"Le pauvre Gascon se v i n t f a i r e penser a Tours de sa morsure, playe 8 c o n t u s i o n ; mais i l ne l u i s e r v i t de r i e n , parce g u ' i l en mourut, d'autant gue l ' a p p a r e i l gui f u t mis sur sa b l e s s u r e , a v o i t e s t e a p p l i g u e sur l a chemise d'une f i l l e , g u i e s t o i t p u c e l l e a v i n g t - c i n g ans 8 demi, 8 gue de l a mesne on a v o i t f a i t l e c h a r p i s g u i a v o i t mis l e feu par t o u t \" (11:29-30) . 5 6 See Royer, G l o s s a r y , 11:131, \"soeur: garce\". The o p i n i o n expressed i n t h i s statement, that a wife's behaviour depends on the treatment she r e c e i v e s from her husband, repeats the advice Panurge r e c e i v e s from Hippcthadee when he i n g u i r e s about h i s p r o s p e c t i v e wife. R a b e l a i s , Le T i e r s L i y r e , XXX (Garnier ed., I, 528). 5 7 Bergson, who analyzes t h i s comic s i t u a t i o n , c l a s s i f i e s the \"dupeur-dupe\" or \" v o l e u r - v o l e - \" under the r u b r i c of i n v e r s i o n , n o t i n g t h a t i t i n v o l v e s an exchange c r \" i n t e r v e r s i c n \" of r o l e s and c i r c u m s t a n c e s : \" I I s ' a g i t t o u j o u r s , au fond, d'une i n t e r v e r s i o n de r d l e s , e t d'une s i t u a t i o n gui se retoufne c o n t r e c e l u i g u i l a c r e e \" . Le E i r e , p. 72. ss The p r e c e n t o r ' s words, \" c o r n i f e t u . . .\", suggest an i n s u l t by the s i m i l a r i t y with cornu, or \"cuckold\", as w e l l as r i m i n g with the mocking L a t i n phrase which means rcughly, \" t h a t which has been put i n t o p i e c e s cannot be c a r r i e d away\". 5 9 see above p. 145. 235 CHAPTER VI CONCLUSION Be'roalde's Le Moyen de P a r v e n i r c r e a t e s an impression of profound d i s o r d e r and e b u l l i e n t i r r e v e r e n c e . T h i s impression i s p r o j e c t e d both by the kind of world developed i n Beroalde's work and by h i s p r e s e n t a t i o n of i t . While these d i s t r a c t i n g g u a l i t i e s have confused or annoyed many readers of Le Moyen de P a r v e n i r , they seem tc us tc be cf primary importance in.understanding the work. In attempting to d i s c o v e r the nature of the d i s o r d e r and i r r a t i o n a l i t y i n Le Moyen de P a r v e n i r the s o c i o - l i t e r a r y s t u d i e s of Chambers, Welsford, Barber and Bakhtin provided the i n i t i a t i v e f o r a comparative study between the l i t e r a r y work and the s o c i a l phenomenon of the popular f e s t i v a l which i t most c l o s e l y resembles. An examination of the Feast of F e e l s , C a r n i v a l and the f o o l - s o c i e t i e s r e v e a l s . a f e s t i v e , t r a d i t i o n c h a r a c t e r i z e d by the s p e c i a l l i b e r t i e s of f r e e speech, 236 b l a t a n t s e n s u a l i t y and g r a t u i t o u s a c t i o n s . Through these f e s t i v e freedoms, a t r a d i t i o n a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of chacs i s expressed. Symbolic of the f r e e and mocking f e s t i v e s p i r i t , the f i g u r e of the f o o l who i s present throughout Le Mc_yen de P a r v e n i r as i n f e s t i v a l p e r s o n i f i e s the s p e c i a l freedoms. A c l o s e r a n a l y s i s o f the f e s t i v a l r e v e a l s i t s p a r a d o x i c a l l y p o s i t i v e s o c i a l r o l e , showing that a p e r i o d of l e g a l i z e d f o l l y a c t u a l l y strengthens the s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e . F e s t i v a l l i b e r t i e s and a f e s t i v e a t t i t u d e a l s o b e n e f i t the i n d i v i d u a l by h e l p i n g him to maintain an.emotional and mental balance. The r e l a t i o n s h i p between Le Moyen de P a r v e n i r and the f e s t i v a l begins with the elements which c o n t r i b u t e to the g e n e r a l atmosphere. S i m i l a r to C a r n i v a l and t c the Feast cf F o o l s , Beroalde's banguet takes plac e i n a s p e c i a l f e s t i v e atmosphere i n which time and space l o s e t h e i r everyday meaning and i n which the border between r e a l i t y and i l l u s i o n d isappears. The d e l i b e r a t e d i s r u p t i o n of temporal and s p a c i a l r e f e r e n c e s i s i n d i c a t i v e of a break with the u s u a l r u l e s of l o g i c and reason i n Le Mo_yen de P a r v e n i r . In t h i s i r r e g u l a r atmosphere suspended i n time and space Eeroalde places hundreds of v o i c e s belonging t c l i v i n g and dead personages as w e l l as to a l l e g o r i c a l or s u p e r n a t u r a l c r e a t u r e s . They move i n and out o f . t h e dialogue l i k e masked r e v e l l e r s i n a C a r n i v a l parade. Wine, f e a s t i n g and peals c f laughter complete the f e s t i v e atmosphere. Beroalde's c h a r a c t e r s e x p l o i t t r a d i t i o n a l f e s t i v e 237 p r i v i l e g e s to i n d u l g e i n a d r i n k i n g bout accompanied by l i b e r a t e d t a b l e t a l k . In the d i a l o g u e everyday o b j e c t s c f worship, r e s p e c t or f e a r are turned upside-down and r i d i c u l e d . The B i b l e i s i r r e v e r e n t l y parodied, Church r i t e s are mocked, and e c c l e s i a s t i c s are humorously c h a r a c t e r i z e d as i g n o r a n t , greedy and l i c e n t i o u s . While the l a t t e r are excused f o r these human, even f e s t i v e s i n s by the bangueters, there i s sharp condemnation of those who take r e l i g i o n too s e r i o u s l y . These sober s c u l s are denounced and f i r m l y excluded from B e r c a l d e ' s banguet where lau g h t e r and joy dominate. In a d d i t i o n to r e l i g i o n Beroalde's s a t i r e also touches on another mainstay of s o c i e t y , the s o c i a l h i e r a r c h y . Those at the top of that v e r t i c a l s t r u c t u r e are humorously brought down to a common l e v e l through f e s t i v e v i o l e n c e , h u m i l i a t i o n and dishonour. Everyone i s shown to be of the same s e l f -centered m o r a l i t y and to be e g u a l l y s u s c e p t i b l e t c f u n c t i o n s and a p p e t i t e s of the body. By the same token, they are a l l e g u a l l y d e s e r v i n g of g u i l t l e s s and joyous s e l f - f u l f i l m e n t . Again Beroalde d i s p l a y s a p a r t i c u l a r l y harsh judgement c f those a u t h o r i t i e s and z e a l o t s who would condemn and suppress such warranted enjoyment. In p l a c e of the p e r s o n a l r e p r e s s i o n and s o c i a l t u r m o i l brought on by the r i g i d i t y of those i n power, whether earnest reformers or c o r r u p t o f f i c i a l s , B ercalde proposes the e l a s t i c i t y of f e s t i v a l which c r e a t e s an e s s e n t i a l l y 238 harmless chaos based cn l a u g h t e r and freedom. The good-natured chaos p r o j e c t e d by the book i s thus shown to be a p u r p o s e f u l c r e a t i o n based on Beroalde's acguaintance with t r a d i t i o n a l f o o l s and f e s t i v a l s and on. h i s sympathetic understanding of the i r r a t i o n a l f a c t o r s i n human nature. Faced with the i r r a t i o n a l i t i e s of human s o c i e t y and with i n d i v i d u a l f a i l i n g s , Beroalde's r e a c t i o n i s to accept the d i s o r d e r and a g g r e s s i o n by s t r e s s i n g the c r e a t i v i t y of chaos and l a u g h t e r . In t h i s way he develops a p o s i t i v e and o p t i m i s t i c outlook on l i f e . The c a r n i v a l e s g u e p e r s p e c t i v e a l s o g i v e s new meaning to the t i t l e of Be'roalde's work. The t i t l e suggests t h a t the way to succeed, or p a r v e n i r , w i l l be d i s c u s s e d i n t h i s book, and t h i s promise i s r e i n f o r c e d i n many passages .throughout the t e x t c l a i m i n g t h a t one can f i n d \" l e moyen de p a r v e n i r \" w i t h i n i t s pages. At f i r s t one i s i n c l i n e d to j o i n the c r i t i c s who complain t h a t the book has been.badly misnamed, 1 or that the author i s mocking the reader, f o r the means to succeed vary widely. But a f t e r c l o s e r examination, the t i t l e seems a p t l y f o rmulated, s i n c e Beroalde not only p r o v i d e s a \"moyen de p a r v e n i r \" f o r the i n d i v i d u a l , but a l s o f c r s o c i e t y as a whole. For the i n d i v i d u a l the \" s u c c e s s \" promised i s e s s e n t i a l l y t h a t of s e l f - f u l f i l m e n t . The way to succeed i s by adopting the c a r n i v a l e s g u e a t t i t u d e towards l i f e demonstrated i n the t e x t . Beroalde's work o f f e r s the 239 opportunity to indulge i n an u n i n h i b i t e d r e l e a s e of i n n e r passions and of t e n s i o n s which are u s u a l l y held i n check by reason and by s o c i a l r e s t r i c t i o n s . J u s t as upon f e s t i v e o ccasions the i n d i v i d u a l i s allowed to throw o f f i n h i b i t i o n s and to e x t e r i o r i z e the n a t u r a l , emotional being within h i m s e l f , the reader of l e Moyen de P a r v e n i r i s i n v i t e d to p a r t i c i p a t e i n Beroalde's l i t e r a r y r e c r e a t i o n cf t h i s event. The word jgarvenir does not n e c e s s a r i l y imply m a t e r i a l wealth or s o c i a l s t a t u s i n h i s t e x t , although they are net discounted as means to an end. Instead, the common goal c f Beroalde's many c h a r a c t e r s i s the attainment c f an e m o t i o n a l l y l i b e r a t e d mental s t a t e i n which the human being can f u l f i l h i m s e l f to the g r e a t e s t extent. T h i s goal i s a t t a i n e d by being n a t u r a l , with nc p r e t e n s i o n s , no i n h i b i t i o n s , and no compunction to delay s e l f - g r a t i f i c a t i o n . Beroalde's c h a r a c t e r s are e m o t i o n a l l y and s e n s u a l l y open to the world and do not allow themselves to be c o n s t r a i n e d by r e l i g i o u s or s o c i a l r e g u l a t i o n s which demand a b s t r a c t commitments and s o b r i e t y . They eat, d r i n k , and laugh h e a r t i l y , but remain detached from the great i s s u e s which tore France a p a r t i n Beroalde's time: r e l i g i o n and c i v i l war. The c a r n i v a l e s g u e a t t i t u d e which Beroalde proposes c a r r i e s with i t immense p s y c h o l o g i c a l b e n e f i t s . I n t r c d u c t i c n of the i r r a t i o n a l i n t o one's p s y c h o l o g i c a l framework permits a r e s i g n e d acceptance of what one cannct change and a w i l l 240 to a p p r e c i a t e the s m a l l , but a t t a i n a b l e , j o ys of l i f e . One cf the speakers summarizes t h i s a t t i t u d e i n the .following way: \" i l n'est gue de f a i r e grand chere S de r e s j o u y r , c'est v i v r e c e l a \" (11:54). The formula i s not u n l i k e the c a l l to enjoy l i f e and the a d v i c e to r e t a i n a c e r t a i n detachment which i s found i n R a b e l a i s ' d e f i n i t i o n s cf \"pantagruelisme\". R a b e l a i s a d v i s e s h i s a s p i r i n g \" E a n t a g r u e l i s t e s \" to \" v i v r e en paix, joye, sante', f a i s a n s tous jours grande chere\", and urges them to adopt a \" c e r t a i n e gayete d ' e s p r i t c o n f i c t e en raespris des choses f o r t u i t e s \" . 2 The many v o i c e s heard i n Beroalde's c o n v e r s a t i o n echo t h i s \" p a n t a g r u e l i s t i c \" i d e a l which i s a l s o t h a t of the f e s t i v a l . The promise of the author to provide the reader with a \"moyen de p a r v e n i r \" i s doubly f u l f i l l e d as Beroalde presents his reader with examples of the c a r n i v a l e s g u e a t t i t u d e , and then he attempts to plunge him i n t o . t h e u n s t a b l e , i r r a t i o n a l world of the f e s t i v a l . The i n c o h e r e n t s t y l e and e r r a t i c progress of the t e x t b r i n g the reader i n t o the environment by throwing him o f f balance i n the same ways i n which the u n f a m i l i a r s e t t i n g and a l t e r e d r e g u l a t i o n s d i s o r i e n t C a r n i v a l p a r t i c i p a n t s . Once i n t r o d u c e d i n t o Be'roalde's world, the reader i s f u r t h e r made t c f e e l a p a r t of the banguet proceedings by the author's numerous asi d e s addressed d i r e c t l y t o him. Then the f a s t tempo of the c o n v e r s a t i o n , the c o g ^ i - i - l i s * 3 . d i a l o g u e s , the l i v e l y t a l e s , and f i n a l l y the e n t i r e atmosphere of l i b e r a t e d s e n s u a l i t y 241 combine to simulate a f e s t i v e experience f o r the reader. Beroalde's i n t e n t i s to draw the reader c l o s e r tc the a c t i o n as though pushing him i n t o the u n i n h i b i t e d C a r n i v a l crowd. The reader i s surrounded by a l a r g e group of i n d i v i d u a l s a l l gone s l i g h t l y mad, f o r Be'roalde's n a r r a t o r and the banguet guests represent t h a t i r r a t i o n a l , s e l f - i n d u l g e n t s i d e cf human nature d i s p l a y e d i n the t r a d i t i o n a l f o o l . By emphasizing the \" f o o l i s h \" aspects of human nature and by p u l l i n g the reader and the c h a r a c t e r s c l o s e r together, Beroalde demonstrates t h a t the reader need not be ashamed of the f o o l and g l u t t o n w i t h i n h i m s e l f . Enid Welsford summarizes t h i s s p e c i a l r o l e c f the f e e l i n terms that c l a r i f y the r e l a t i o n s h i p between Beroalde's personages and the r e a d e r : The F o o l i s an unabashed g l u t t o n and coward and knave, he i s - - a s we s a y — a n a t u r a l ; we laugh at him and enjey a pleasant sense of s u p e r i o r i t y ; he looks at us oddly and we suspect that he i s our a l t e r ego; he winks a t us and we are d e l i g h t e d a t the d i s c o v e r y t h a t we a l s o are g l u t t o n s and cowards and knaves. The rogue has f r e e d us from shame. Hore than t h a t , he has persuaded us t h a t wasted a f f e c t i o n , thwarted ambition, l a t e n t g u i l t are mere d e l u s i o n s to be laughed away. 3 By a l l o w i n g people to play the f o o l and i n d u l g e the sensual being within each of them, a new f l e x i b i l i t y i s i n t r o d u c e d i n t o t h e i r l i v e s . They are permitted t c l i b e r a t e t h e i r \" n a t u r a l \" s e l v e s without shame, and to laugh at the n a t u r a l n e s s i n others without malice. Instead cf condoning attempts to repress the a g g r e s s i v e , s e l f i s h , and o f t e n 242 i r r a t i o n a l aspect of human nature, Beroalde advocates the n a t u r a l r e l e a s e of t h i s energy through t r a d i t i o n a l l y s a n c t i o n e d excess. In t h i s way f r u s t r a t e d energy can be turned i n t o harmless a g g r e s s i o n and l a u g h t e r i n p l a c e c f d e s t r u c t i v e h o s t i l i t i e s . B e r c a l d e ' s a t t i t u d e not only helps the i n d i v i d u a l towards f u l f i l m e n t , but i t works to b e n e f i t s o c i e t y as a whole. Through l e Moyen de Pa r v e n i r Eeroalde demonstrates an understanding of the s o c i a l purpose cf f e s t i v e d i s o r d e r which the medieval defender of the Feast of Fools e x p l a i n s i n h i s r e f e r e n c e to human beings as \"de gros tcnneaux mal r e l i e z \" . 4 The a t t i t u d e which Beroalde promotes prov i d e s a \"moyen de p a r v e n i r \" f o r the e n t i r e s o c i a l system. F e s t i v e r e l e a s e and c h a o s . p a r a d o x i c a l l y serve to s t a b i l i z e the very s o c i e t y they seem to i n v e r t , f o r they f u n c t i o n as a kind cf s o c i a l s a f e t y v a l v e . Be'roalde expresses n o s t a l g i a f o r a time i n the past d u r i n g which the church and s t a t e were strong enough to allow the people f e s t i v e l i b e r t i e s i n s t e a d c f t i g h t e n i n g r e g u l a t i o n s on thought, speech, and a c t i o n . He v o i c e s alarm a t the l o s s c f an e l a s t i c i t y which was present i n former days. In the t r a d i t i o n of f e s t i v a l , B e r c a l d e ' s v e r s i o n of that past \"Golden Age\" i s a c a r n i v a l e s g u e g a t h e r i n g . Through the medium of f e s t i v a l , the promise cf the t i t l e i s f u l f i l l e d , as the vo i c e o f a t o l e r a n t and c o n s e r v a t i v e observer of the human comedy u n v e i l s h i s \" s e c r e t \" i n Le Moyen de P a r v e n i r . Eeroalde's u l t i m a t e 243 message converges with the f i n a l p o s i t i o n adopted by h i s contemporary, Michel de Montaigne, who al s o advocates a t o l e r a n t and c o n s e r v a t i v e a t t i t u d e towards a f f a i r s c f church and s t a t e as an a l t e r n a t i v e to dangerous s o c i a l h o s t i l i t y and i n s t a b i l i t y . 5 T h i s c o n c l u s i o n a l s o helps to r e i n t e g r a t e Le Moyen de P a r v e n i r with Beroalde's other works, notably with h i s p h i l o s o p h i c a l t r e a t i s e , L^Idee de l a J i j u b l i g u e (1583), i n which t o l e r a n c e and conservatism dominate. While Beroalde o f f e r s the wisdom of the f e s t i v e t r a d i t i o n as the way to succeed i n maintaining the emotional balance of the i n d i v i d u a l and the p o l i t i c a l s t a b i l i t y of the s o c i e t y , t h i s concept a l s o expands beyond the context c f Le Moy_en de P a r v e n i r . By r e c o g n i z i n g the importance c f ac c e p t i n g the i r r a t i o n a l and of i n t e g r a t i n g i t i n t o toth one's personal outlook and i n t o s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s , Beroalde r e v e a l s a philosophy which has wider a p p l i c a t i o n s . Through h i s f e s t i v e outlook he sees a way to ccpe with the i r r a t i o n a l i t i e s of human nature and with the u n c e r t a i n t i e s of the human c o n d i t i o n . In c o n c l u s i o n , i t i s through r e c o g n i t i o n of hew Beroalde the humanist and the a r t i s t used the popular f e s t i v e t r a d i t i o n to express h i s impression of l i f e around him that the value of these o b s e r v a t i o n s becomes c l e a r e r . He has fused the s o c i a l phenomena of f e s t i v a l . a n d the c u l t of f o o l s with h i s own d e s i r e t o comment on s o c i e t y t c form a c o l o u r f u l and v i b r a n t t a p e s t r y which comes i n t o sharper 2<4 4 focus when viewed through the p e r s p e c t i v e of C a r n i v a l . As an a r t i s t , he has found a way to d e a l with the i l l u s i v e aspects of l i f e such as i r r a t i o n a l i t y and u n c e r t a i n t y . Through h i s attempts t c express t h i s s i d e of human l i f e he j o i n s other w r i t e r s , both before and a f t e r him, who share h i s preoccupations. The f e s t i v e themes and p a t t e r n s r e v e a l e d i n Le Mo^en de P a r v e n i r may a l s o open up new p e r s p e c t i v e s on many other works whose authors choose to meet the a b s u r d i t i e s of l i f e with an open mind, a sense of humour, and above a l l with the ambivalent yet e f f e c t i v e wisdom cf the f o o l . 245 CHAPTEB VI: NOTES 1 See above pp. 8-9. 2 See Pantagruel, XXXIV, (Garnier ed., I, 387) and Le T i e r s L i v r e , \"Prologue\" ( I I , 11-12). 2 w e l s f o r d , F o o l , p. 322. * See above p. \"41. 5 See i n p a r t i c u l a r \"De 1\"Experience\", in E s s a i s , L i v r e I I I , ch. 13, ( P a r i s : G a r n i e r , 1962), V o l . I I , 516-578. 246 SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY A. Primary Sources: Works by Eeroalde c o n s u l t e d i n t h i s study l „ h o J.ogie poetigue de Beroalde de V e r v i l l e . Ed. V.L. S a u l n i e r . P a r i s : Baumont, 1945. l e s Apprehensions s p i r i t u e l 1 e s . P a r i s : T. Jcuan, 1583. 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"@en ; edm:hasType "Thesis/Dissertation"@en ; edm:isShownAt "10.14288/1.0100053"@en ; dcterms:language "eng"@en ; ns0:degreeDiscipline "French"@en ; edm:provider "Vancouver : University of British Columbia Library"@en ; dcterms:publisher "University of British Columbia"@en ; dcterms:rights "For non-commercial purposes only, such as research, private study and education. Additional conditions apply, see Terms of Use https://open.library.ubc.ca/terms_of_use."@en ; ns0:scholarLevel "Graduate"@en ; dcterms:title "The carnivalesque banquet of Béroalde de Verville"@en ; dcterms:type "Text"@en ; ns0:identifierURI "http://hdl.handle.net/2429/19628"@en .