@prefix vivo: . @prefix edm: . @prefix ns0: . @prefix dcterms: . @prefix skos: . vivo:departmentOrSchool "Arts, Faculty of"@en, "Art History, Visual Art and Theory, Department of"@en ; edm:dataProvider "DSpace"@en ; ns0:degreeCampus "UBCV"@en ; dcterms:creator "Stuart, John Radcliffe"@en ; dcterms:issued "2010-07-17T22:36:00Z"@en, "1986"@en ; vivo:relatedDegree "Master of Arts - MA"@en ; ns0:degreeGrantor "University of British Columbia"@en ; dcterms:description """Since their appearance in 1793 John Flaxman's illustrations to Homer's Iliad and Odyssey have been associated with the ancient art that inspired their commission. In this thesis they are examined from a standpoint other than that adopted in the major literature. Besides sustaining Flaxman's own assertion that the designs were to be used for sculpture, their conception is related to outline designs submitted to his former emloyer of 12 years, industrialist Josiah Wedgwood. More significantly, their most conspicuous characteristics--their two-dimensional space, absence of colour, texture, and detail and most noticeably their rendering in simple outline—are, for the first time, placed in another context of considerable importance in the 18th Century. Line drawing and its multiple-production counterpart, line engraving, were the representational modes of choice in the transmission of essential ideas in a wide variety of disciplines including his own designs for Wedgwood. Exclusive of the connection with ancient art, simple line would have been regarded as the most suitable form of illustration for the epic poems which were being studied at the time as models of the essential human society. This thesis treats Flaxman's designs as one aspect of the effort to define universal truths and the related need to create conceptual models of them in the 18th Century. To establish the designs in this-j broader context, the first four chapters set out in succession: the search for, and representation of, the essential in the 18th Century; Flaxman's relationship to it with special reference to his education and 12 year association with Wedgwood; the production of the Homer designs themselves from his studies of art works he had seen and, the critical reviews of the illustrations and their subsequent adoption by other artists as sources of inspiration. The thesis concludes by critically analyzing Flaxman's achievement, reviewing his objectives for the series and relating the designs to industrial/workshop drawings by Flaxman and other contemporary artists."""@en ; edm:aggregatedCHO "https://circle.library.ubc.ca/rest/handle/2429/26612?expand=metadata"@en ; skos:note "FLAXMAN'S HOMER ILLUSTRATIONS by JOHN RADCLIFFE STUART B.A. The U n i v e r s i t y of B r i t i s h Columbia, 1977 A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS i n THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES (Department of F i n e A r t s ) We accept t h i s t h e s i s as conforming to the r e q u i r e d standard THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA February 1986 (c) John R a d c l i f f e S t u a r t , 1986 7 8 In p r e s e n t i n g t h i s t h e s i s i n p a r t i a l f u l f i l m e n t o f the requirements f o r an advanced degree a t the U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h Columbia, I agree t h a t the L i b r a r y s h a l l make i t f r e e l y a v a i l a b l e f o r r e f e r e n c e and study. I f u r t h e r agree t h a t p e r m i s s i o n f o r e x t e n s i v e copying o f t h i s t h e s i s f o r s c h o l a r l y purposes may be granted by the head o f my department or by h i s o r her r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s . I t i s understood t h a t copying or p u b l i c a t i o n o f t h i s t h e s i s f o r f i n a n c i a l gain s h a l l not be allowed without my w r i t t e n p e r m i s s i o n . Department of Fine A r t s The U n i v e r s i t y of B r i t i s h Columbia 1956 Main Mall Vancouver, Canada V6T 1Y3 Date February 14, 1986 ABSTRACT S i n c e t h e i r appearance i n 1793 John Flaxman's i l l u s t r a t i o n s t o Homer's I l i a d and Odyssey have been a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the a n c i e n t a r t t h a t i n s p i r e d t h e i r commission. I n t h i s t h e s i s t h e y are examined from a s t a n d p o i n t o t h e r t h a n t h a t adopted i n the major l i t e r a t u r e . B e s i d e s s u s t a i n i n g Flaxman's own a s s e r t i o n t h a t t h e d e s i g n s were t o be used f o r s c u l p t u r e , t h e i r c o n c e p t i o n i s r e l a t e d t o o u t l i n e designs s u b m i t t e d t o h i s former emloyer o f 12 y e a r s , i n d u s t r i a l i s t J o s i a h Wedgwood. More s i g n i f i c a n t l y , t h e i r most c o n s p i c u o u s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s - - t h e i r t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l space, absence o f c o l o u r , t e x t u r e , and d e t a i l and most n o t i c e a b l y t h e i r r e n d e r i n g i n s i m p l e o u t l i n e — a r e , f o r the f i r s t t i m e , p l a c e d i n an o t h e r c o n t e x t o f c o n s i d e r a b l e i m p o r t a n c e i n t h e 18th C e n t u r y . L i n e d rawing and i t s m u l t i p l e - p r o d u c t i o n c o u n t e r -p a r t , l i n e e n g r a v i n g , were the r e p r e s e n t a t i o n a l modes o f c h o i c e i n t he t r a n s m i s s i o n o f e s s e n t i a l i d e a s i n a wide v a r i e t y o f d i s c i p l i n e s i n c l u d i n g h i s own d e s i g n s f o r Wedgwood. E x c l u s i v e o f the c o n n e c t i o n w i t h a n c i e n t a r t , s i m p l e l i n e would have been r e g a r d e d as the most s u i t a b l e form o f i l l u s t r a t i o n f o r the e p i c poems w h i c h were b e i n g s t u d i e d a t t h e time as models o f t h e e s s e n t i a l human s o c i e t y . T h i s t h e s i s t r e a t s Flaxman's d e s i g n s as one a s p e c t o f the e f f o r t t o d e f i n e u n i v e r s a l t r u t h s and the r e l a t e d need t o c r e a t e c o n c e p t u a l models o f them i n t h e 18th Cen t u r y . To e s t a b l i s h the d e s i g n s i n t h i s - j b r o a d e r c o n t e x t , t h e f i r s t f o u r c h a p t e r s s e t out i n s u c c e s s i o n : t h e s e a r c h f o r , and ' r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f , the e s s e n t i a l i n t h e 18th C e n t u r y ; Flaxman's r e l a t i o n s h i p t o i t w i t h s p e c i a l r e f e r e n c e t o h i s e d u c a t i o n and 12 y e a r a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h Wedgwood; t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f the Homer d e s i g n s themselves from h i s s t u d i e s o f a r t works he had seen and, t h e c r i t i c a l r e v i e w s o f the i l l u s t r a t i o n s and t h e i r subsequent a d o p t i o n by o t h e r a r t i s t s as s o u r c e s o f i n s p i r a t i o n . The t h e s i s c o n c l u d e s by c r i t i c a l l y a n a l y z i n g Flaxman's a c h i e v e -ment, r e v i e w i n g h i s o b j e c t i v e s f o r the s e r i e s and r e l a t i n g t h e d e s i g n s t o i n d u s t r i a l / w o r k s h o p drawings by Flaxman and o t h e r contemporary a r t i s t s . TABLE OF CONTENTS Page A b s t r a c t i i L i s t of I l l u s t r a t i o n s v Acknowledgements x i Chapter I H i s t o r i c a l and P h i l o s o p h i c a l background: the e s s e n t i a l i n the 18th Century 1 Footnotes 15 II Flaxman's I n t r o d u c t i o n t o the E s s e n t i a l 19 Footnotes 47 II I The A c t u a l P r o d u c t i o n of the Designs 53 Footnotes 68 IV The Re c e p t i o n Received by the Engravings: C r i t i c a l comments by Flaxman's contemporaries and the use of designs by other a r t i s t s 70 Footnotes 88 V Flaxman's Achievement: C r i t i c a l A n a l y s i s of the designs and t h e i r p l a c e among i n d u s t r i a l drawings 92 Footnotes 109 B i b l i o g r a p h y 111 I l l u s t r a t i o n s 123 i-v LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 1 T h e t i s B r i n g i n g the Armour to A c h i l l e s Engraving, a f t e r Flaxman by Tomaso P i r o l i , I l i a d , 1805, P l a t e 31. 2 Anthony's O r a t i o n over the Dead Caesar, P e n c i l and grey wash. 22.3 X 34.1 cm. 3a S o s i a s P a i n t e r Red-Figure cup i n t e r i o r A c h i l l e s and P a t r o c l u s 3b S o s i a s P a i n t e r Red-Figure cup e x t e r i o r I n t r o d u c t i o n of H e r a c l e s to Olympus 4 Henry F l i t c r o f t : Pantheon Temple Stourhead, W i l t s h i r e England 5 W i l l i a m S u t h e r l a n d : The S h i p - B u i l d e r ' s A s s i s t a n t or Marine A r c h i t e c t u r e , 1755, P l a t e I I I S e c t i o n of a Ship. 6 The M a n u f a c t u r e r ' s Arms, 1784. The T r u s t e e s o f t h e Wedgwood Museum, B a r l a s t o n . S t a f f s . 7 John Flaxman, th e e l d e r : A r c h i t e c t u r e , M a r b l e , Lord Barnard, Raby C a s t l e , Durham. 117.7 cms high. 8a Ann R u s s e l l and her son Henry : monument Died 1780-81. A l l S a i n t s , Lydd, Kent. 8b A f i g u r e from The Tower of the Winds i n Athens. D e p i c t e d i n James S t u a r t and N i c h o l a s Revett: The A n t i q u i t i e s of Athens, 1762, V o l . I, Chapter I I I , P l a t e XVII. 9 B a r b a r a B o u r c h i e r : monument. D i e d 1784. S t Mary, Newent, G l o u c e s t e r s h i r e . 10 M r s . S a r a h M o r l e y : monument. D i e d 1784. G l o u c e s t e r C a t h e d r a l . 11 R e v e r a n d Thomas and Mrs. B a l l : monument, 1784-86. C h i c h e s t e r C a t h e d r a l . 12 Mrs. Siddons : Jasperware p o r t r a i t A f t e r Flaxman's model of 1782. 13 Flaxman's own design f o r the Chessmen. Probably 1783. L a t e r executed i n Jasperware by Wedgwood. 14 The Crowning of a K i t h a r i s t . Engraving from D' H a n c a r v i l l e ' s Cabinet of the Hon. W i l l i a m Hamilton, 1766-67, V o l . 3 . v 15 K i t h a r i s t Vase. Design by John Flaxman, 1786. 16 Peasant a s l e e p on the p l i n t h of a b u i l d i n g . Pen and ink, 5.8 x 10.5 cm. 17 B a t t l e o f t h e Nudes, a f t e r S i g n o r e l l i , Duomo, O r v i e t o . P e n c i l , 15.2 x 36.2 cms. 18 S i g n o r e l l i : B a t t l e of the Nudes ( d e t a i l ) Duomo, O r v i e t o . 19 B a t t l e of t h e Amazons, a f t e r antique r e l i e f i n the V a t i c a n . P e n c i l , 24x16.5 cms. • 20 Fury of Athamas, 1790-1794. Marble, 208.5 cms. h i g h . 21 W i l l i a m , 1 s t E a r l o f M a n s f i e l d : monument, 1793-1801. Westminster Abbey. 22 W i l l i a m C o l l i n s : monument: design: d e t a i l . Pen and ink and wash, 39.5 x 27 cms. (whole sheet) 23 W i l l i a m s C o l l i n s : monument, 1792-95 C h i c h e s t e r C a t h e d r a l . 24 Aurora v i s i t i n g Cephalus on Mount Ida, 1789-90. Marble, 184 cms. h i g h . 25 Aurora v i s i t i n g Cephalus on Mount Ida: i n o r i g i n a l s e t t i n g . P l a t e 7 from Thomas Hope, Household F u r n i t u r e , 1807. 26 He r c u l e s and Hebe, 1792. P l a s t e r , c o l o u r e d , 190.5 cms. h i g h . 27 M i n e r v a R e p r e s s i n g the F u r y o f A c h i l l e s . P r e l i m i n a r y p e n c i l , ink, and brown wash. 22.9 x 27 cm. Huntington L i b r a r y and A r t G a l l e r y . 28 T h e t i s and Eurynome R e c e i v i n g the In f a n t Vulcan. Engraving a f t e r Flaxman by Thomas P i r o l i . I l i a d , 1805, P l a t e 29. 29 V u l c a n and C h a r e s R e c e i v i n g T h e t i s . E n g r a v i n g a f t e r Flaxman by Thomas P i r o l i . I l i a d , 1805, P l a t e 30. 30 A c h i l l e s C o n t e n d i n g w i t h t h e R i v e r s . Engraving a f t e r Flaxman by Thomas P i r o l i . I l i a d , 1805, P l a t e 33. 31 The F u n e r a l P i l e of P a t r o c l u s Engraving a f t e r Flaxman by Thomas P i r o l i . I l i a d , 1805, P l a t e 35. 32 King of the L e s t r i g e n s S e i z i n g One of the Companions of U l y s s e s . Engraving a f t e r Flaxman by James Parker. Odyssey, 1805, P l a t e 15. v i 33 U l y s s e s and H i s Dog. Engraving a f t e r Flaxman by James Parker. Odyssey, 1805, P l a t e 26. 34 U l y s s e s T e r r e f i e d ( s i c ) by the Ghosts. Engraving a f t e r Flaxman by James Parker. Odyssey, 1805, P l a t e 17. 35 The D e p a r t u r e of B r i s e i s from t h e T e n t of A c h i l l e s . E n g r a v i n g a f t e r Flaxman by Thomas P i r o l i . I H a d , 1805, P l a t e 3. 36 The Embassy t o A c h i l l e s . E n g r a v i n g a f t e r Flaxman by Thomas P i r o l i . I l i a d , 1805, P l a t e 18. 37 M i n e r v a R e p r e s s i n g t h e F u r y of A c h i l l e s . E n g r a v i n g a f t e r Flaxman by W i l l i a m Blake. I l i a d 1805, P l a t e 2. 38 Hector's Body Dragged at the Car of A c h i l l e s . Engraving a f t e r Flaxman by Thomas P i r o l i . I l i a d , 1805, P l a t e 36. 39 Andromache F a i n t i n g on the W a l l . Engraving a f t e r Flaxman by Thomas P i r o l i . I l i a d , 1805, P l a t e 34. 40 U l y s s e s K i l l i n g the S u i t o r s Engraving a f t e r Flaxman by James Neagle. Odyssey, 1805, P l a t e 31. 41 Two p r e l i m i n a r y drawings f o r Minerva R e p r e s s i n g the Fury of A c h i l l e s , I l i a d 2. P e n c i l (top) : ink over p e n c i l (bottom) sheet 26.7 x 21 cm. Huntington L i b r a r y and A r t G a l l e r y . 42 P r e l i m i n a r y d r a w i n g (lower) f o r Minerva R e p r e s s i n g the Fury of A c h i l l e s , I l i a d 2. Ink over p e n c i l . Sheet 25.4 x 20.7 cm. Hungtington L i b r a r y and A r t G a l l e r y . 43 P r e l i m i n a r y drawing (lower) f o r Minerva Repressing the Fury of A c h i l l e s , I l i a d 2. P e n c i l , p a r t i a l l y erased. 44 P r e l i m i n a r y drawing f o r Minerva Repressing the Fury of A c h i l l e s , I l i a d 2. Ink over p e n c i l . 8.8 x 13.6 cm. 45 N a u s i c a a Throwing the B a l l . Engraving a f t e r Flaxman by James Parker. Odyssey, 1805, P l a t e 10. 46 The S i r e n s . E n g r a v i n g a f t e r Flaxman by James Parker. Odyssey, 1805, P l a t e 19. 47 The H a r p i e s G o i n g t o S e i z e t h e Daughters of Pandarus. Engraving a f t e r Flaxman by James Parker. Odyssey, 1805, P l a t e 29. v i i 48 P e n e l o p e C a r r y i n g t h e Bow of U l y s s e s t o t h e S u i t o r s . Engraving a f t e r Flaxxman by James Neagle. Odyssey, 1805, P l a t e 30. 49 A j a x D e f e n d i n g t h e Greek S h i p s a g a i n s t the T r o j a n s . E n g r a v i n g a f t e r Flaxman by Thomas P i r o l i . I l i a d , 1805, P l a t e 24. 50 Neptune R i s i n g from the Sea. Engraving a f t e r Flaxman by Thomas P i r o l i . I l i a d , 1805, P l a t e 22. 51 U l y s s e s F o l l o w i n g the Car of Nausicaa. Engraving a f t e r Flaxman by James Parker. Odyssey, 1805, P l a t e 11. 52 P l a t e from S i r W i l l i a m Hamilton, C o l l e c t i o n of Vases, I, 1791. 53 A c h i l l e s Dragging Hector's Body around the Walls of Troy Engraving by Domenico Cunego, 1766, a f t e r a p a i n t i n g by Gavin Hamilton. 54 P l a t e XXVII from the Rev. Mr. Spencer's P o l y m e t i s , 1747. 55 S e l f - P o r t r a i t , 1779. C o l l e g e of F u r t h e r E d u c a t i o n , Halesowen. 56 The M e e t i n g of H e c t o r and Andromache. Engraving a f t e r Flaxman by James Parker. I l i a d , 1805, P l a t e 14. 57 J u p i t e r Sending the E v i l Dream to Agamemnon. Engraving a f t e r Flaxman by Thomas P i r o l i . I l i a d , 1805, P l a t e 6. 58 I r i s A d vises Priam to Obtain the Body of Hector. Engraving a f t e r Flaxman by Thomas P i r o l i . I l i a d , 1805, P l a t e 38. 59 O t u s and E p h i a l t e s H o l d i n g Mars C a p t i v e . E n g r a v i n g a f t e r Flaxman by Thomas P i r o l i . I l i a d , 1805, P l a t e 11. 60 The Voyage of t h e A r g o n a u t s 1799 One o f 24 d e s i g n s engraved by Joseph Koch a f t e r d r a w i n g s by Asmus J a c o b C a r s t e n s . 61 Mrs. Mary Blackshaw (Mary L u s h i n g t o n ) : monument, 1798-99. St. Mary Lewishara, Kent. 62 Penelope's Dream Engraved a f t e r Flaxman by James Parker. Odyssey, 1805, P l a t e 7. 63 L e u c o t h e a P r e s e r v i n g U l y s s e s Engraved a f t e r Flaxman by James Neagle. Odyssey, 1805, P l a t e 9. v i i i 64 P r e p a r a t o r y study f o r the K l e i n e r Morgen by P h i l i p p O tto Runge. Pen over t r a c e s of p e n c i l . 65 Les Sabines, by Jacques-Louis David. (Mus6e du Louvre) 66 W a r r i o r s , by Jacques-Louis David. From sketchbook. (Mus6e des Beaux-Arts, L i l l e . ) 67 F i g h t f o r the Body of P a t r o c l u s Engraving a f t e r Flaxman by Thomas P i r o l i . I l i a d , 1805, P l a t e 26. 68a The S h i e l d of A c h i l l e s : drawing. (Henry E. Huntington, L i b r a r y and A r t G a l l e r y , San Marino, C a l i f o r n i a ) . 68b The b a t t l e scene i n 68a a l t e r e d to f i t the curved format of the A c h i l l e s S h i e l d . 69 S h i e l d of A c h i l l e s , 1821. S i l v e r g i l t , 94 cms diameter. Executed a f t e r Flaxman by P h i l i p R u n d e l l . 70 A c h i 1 l e d e p l o r e 1'enterrement de B r i s e i s , by F r a n c o i s Rude. P l a s t e r r e l i e f (Musee Rude, D i j o n ) . 71 A c h i l l e d e p l o r e 1'enterrement de B r i s e i s , by F r a n c o i s Rude. Pen and ink, 21.5 by 37 cm. (Mus£e des Beaux-Arts, D i j o n ) 72 Study a f t e r Flaxman's Odyssey, by A n t o i n e G r o s . From sketchbook, R.F. 29955, f.28v. Pen and brown i n k o v e r c h a l k , 16.3 by 22.5 cm. ( C a b i n e t des D e s s i n s Musee du L o u v r e ) . 73 Study a f t e r Flaxman's Odyssey, by Antoine Gros. From s k e t c h b o o k , R.F. 29955, f . 2 8 . Pen and brown i n k o v e r c h a l f , 16.3 by 22.5 cm. (Cabinet des Dessins, Musee du Louvre.) 74 S t u d i e s of Horses, and study a f t e r a p l a t e from Flaxman's Odyssey, by Antoine Gros. From sketchbook, R.F. 29955, f . 2 0 . Pen and brown i n k over chalk, 16.3 by 22.5 cm. (Cabinet des Dessins, Mus£e du Louvre) 75 J u p i t e r and T h e t i s by J-A-D Ingres P e n c i l , 32.5 by 24.2 cm (Mus£e Ingres, Montauban). 76 T h e t i s I n t r e a t i n g J u p i t e r t o Honor A c h i l l e s Engraved a f t e r Flaxman by W i l l i a m Blake. I l i a d , 1805, P l a t e 5. 77 The C o u n c i l of the Gods Engraved a f t e r Flaxman by Thomas P i r o l i . I l i a d , 1805, P l a t e 9. i x 78 Homere D e i f i e , by Ingres. Signed Black c h a l k , pen and ink wash, 21 by 31 cm. (Musee du Louvre, P a r i s ) . 79 'I T e l l You, I Know the World' by P h i l May i n F. Berkeley Smith, In London Town London 1907. 80 Design f o r a wine-cooler by Thomas S t o t h a r d (1755-1834). Pen and wash, 25.4 x 20.3 cm. B r i t i s h Museum. 81 Design f o r a wine c o o l e r a f t e r Thomas S t o t h a r d . Pen and wash, 30.4 x 20.9 cm. 82 Design f o r a wine-cooler (perhaps a f t e r W i l l i a m Theed, R.A. 1764-1817), Pen drawing, 26.7 x 24.7 cm. 83a Wine c o o l e r , maker's mark of P a u l S t o r r (1771-1844), London hall-mark f o r 1809. S i l v e r g i l t , h e i g h t 35.56 cm. C o l l e c t i o n of the Marquess of Ormonde. 83b D e t a i l of wine c o o l e r . x ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I wish t o express my a p p r e c i a t i o n t o s e v e r a l people who have a s s i s t e d i n b r i n g i n g t h i s t h e s i s t o c o m p l e t i o n . They are A i l e e n Dawson o f the B r i t i s h Museum; Dr. Ian F r a s e r , A r c h i v i s t the L i b r a r y , U n i v e r s i t y o f K e e l e , S t a f f o r d s h i r e ; Pamela Wood, Keeper o f A p p l i e d A r t and David P h i l l i p s , Keeper o f A r t , C i t y o f Nottingham, C a s t l e Museum; Frank Brookes o f J o s i a h Wedgwood and Sons, and Sharon R a t c l i f f e o f the Wedgwood Museum a t B a r l e s t o n . S p e c i a l thanks are due t o : Diana E. M. Cooper, L i b r a r i a n , U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h Columbia - F i n e A r t s D i v i s i o n , f o r her i n t e r e s t and enthusiasm; Dr. George Knox, who p r o v i d e d both p e r s p e c t i v e s on what was i n I t a l y t h a t would have been o f use to Flaxman and f r e e access t o h i s l i b r a r y o f books t h a t were o use t o me; and Dr. Rhodri Windsor Liscombe, w i t h o u t whose guidance, encouragement and p a t i e n c e t h i s t h e s i s would never have been s e t on paper. x i CHAPTER I Since t h e i r p u b l i c a t i o n i n 1793 John Flaxman's i l l u s t r a t i o n s to Homer have been o b j e c t s of admir a t i o n and study. Yet, i f con s i d e r e d e x c l u s i v e l y i n an a r t i s t i c context they are r e l a t i v e l y minor works. They are not imposing p a i n t i n g s , s c u l p t u r e , or a r c h i t e c t u r e . As yet they have not been, as Robert Rosenblum observed i n 1956, \"the s u b j e c t of a comprehensive s t u d y \" 1 and indeed such a study remains only p a r t i a l l y completed. A com-p l i c a t i o n i n p r e p a r i n g such a comprehensive study i s that when Flaxman produced h i s Homer designs the g r e a t e r p a r t of h i s working experience had been not i n the a r t i s t i c community but as a producer of designs and models f o r J o s i a h Wedgwood a lea d e r of l a r g e s c a l e commercial p o t t e r y production.2 C r i t i c a l d i s c u s s i o n s of Flaxman's engraved designs have c o n s i s t a n t l y p l a c e d them i n a r t i s t i c c o n t e x t s . T h i s began i n 1799 with Johann Goethe's a r t i c l e \"Uber d i e Flaxmanische Werk\" were p u b l i s h e d i n Propylaen.3 A.W. S c h l e g e l ' s \"Uber Zeichnungen zu Gedichten und John Flaxman's Umrissen\" appeared i n Athenaum the same y e a r . 4 In t h i s century, W.G. Constable i n c l u d e d a d i s c u s s i o n of them i n h i s John Flaxman 1755-1826.5 More r e c e n t l y G e r a l d B e n t l e y p r o v i d e d a \" B i b l i o g r a p h i c a l Study i n the E a r l y Engravings of Flaxman's C l a s s i c a l D e s i g n s . \" 6 In the Dover P u b l i c a t i o n s 1977 r e p r i n t of Flaxman's I l l u s t r a t i o n s to Homer Robert E s s i c k and J e n i j o y La B e l l e have pr o v i d e d b i o -g r a p h i c a l and b i b l i o g r a p h i c a l i n f o r m a t i o n i n a d d i t i o n to a commentary which d i s c u s s e s each p l a t e i n terms of what i t re p r e s e n t s , how the image presented v a r i e s from the Homeric I t e x t , p o s s i b l e sources f o r the image, and where p r e l i m i n a r y drawings f o r each image are now.7 David Bindman's John Flaxman was p u b l i s h e d as catalogue f o r John Flaxman RA an e x h i b i t i o n at the Royal Academy of A r t s i n London, 26 October - 9 December 1979.8 T h i s work put Flaxman's Homer designs i n the context of h i s l i f e ' s output. F i n a l l y David Irwin devoted an e n t i r e chapter to a l l of Flaxman's i l l u s t r a t i o n s (Chapter V pp.67 -122) i n h i s John Flaxman 1755-1826^ which c o n s i d e r s sources, d e r i v a t i v e s , methods and contemporary comments. As a matter of h i s t o r i c a l r e c o r d , i n the winter of 1792/3 when Flaxman drew the Homer i l l u s t r a t i o n s he was not an a r t i s t of e s t a b l i s h e d r e p u t a t i o n . He was a r e l a t i v e l y obscure a r t i s t whose most widely known work took the form of designs f o r J o s i a h Wedgwood's p o t t e r y f i r m . T h i s i n d u s t r i a l i s t ' s methods were capable of producing l a r g e numbers of items and he was thus i n constant need of new designs.10 Flaxman s o l d designs to the Wedgwood f i r m from 1775 u n t i l a f t e r the t u r n of the c e n t u r y . H Indeed, while Flaxman was i n I t a l y i n the e a r l y 1790's (with the a s s i s t a n c e of Wedgwood) he continued to send designs and c a s t s of a n c i e n t r e l i e f s c u l p t u r e s to Wedgwoodl2 and the Homer i l l u s t r a t i o n s were drawn i n the evenings a f t e r the day's more p r e s s i n g p r o j e c t s to augment Flaxman's otherwise meager income. Under these circumstances i t should come as no s u r p r i s e t hat the Homer i l l u s t r a t i o n s d e r i v e d d i r e c t l y from Flaxman's c u r r e n t o b s e r v a t i o n s i n Rome and e a r l i e r academic s t u d i e s . In 2 i l l u s t r a t i o n 31 of the I l i a d s e r i e s e n t i t l e d T h e t i s B r i n g i n g the Armour to A c h i l l e s , ( F i g u r e 1) f o r example, there are f i v e f i g u r e s . At the r i g h t the crouched woman i s i n a pose s t r o n g l y resembling the c e n t r a l f i g u r e i n the e a r l i e s t s u r v i v i n g sketch done by Flaxman as a boy of 13 ( F i g u r e 2 ) . The f i g u r e of a mourning man behind P a t r o c l u s ' b i e r i s an academic f i g u r e to be found i n any student a r t i s t ' s sketchbook. The supine P a t r o c l u s by c o n t r a s t resembles medieval tomb f i g u r e s , w h ile the s t a n d i n g T h e t i s i s r e m i n i s c e n t i n form of Roman f r i e z e f i g u r e s or perhaps a Greek vase f i g u r e . The members of the group are assembled to strengthen the idea of A c h i l l e s g r i e f . A s t r o n g d i a g o n a l l i n e descends from l e f t to r i g h t from the goddess T h e t i s with head bowed through A c h i l l e s ' body i n t e a r f u l embrace of the dead P a t r o c l u s to the f i g u r e of the woman unable to stand f o r her g r i e f . The e f f e c t resembles the f i g u r e of a m u s i c a l descending arpeggio and c r e a t e s a p e r s u a s i v e s e n t i m e n t a l appeal. T h i s o v e r t d e p i c t i o n of emotion and the a p p a r e n t l y v a r i e d sources f o r the f i g u r e s ' poses make the comments of contemporaries seem oddly i n a p p r o p r i a t e . U n i v e r s a l l y they regarded the Homer i l l u s t r a t i o n s , p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e i r p u r i t y of form and a u s t e r i t y of method, as t r u e a n c i e n t r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s s k i l l f u l l y t r a n s p o r t e d from the p a s t . George Romney, f o r example, remarked i n 1793 t h a t . . . ' t h e y are o u t l i n e s without shadow, but i n the s t y l e of a n c i e n t a r t . They are simple, grand, and pure... They look as i f they had been made i n the age, when Homer wrote.'13 i n 3 f a c t , the \" o u t l i n e s without shadow\" or l i n e a r s t y l e i s i t s e l f an anachronism - a r e p r e s e n t a t i o n a l mode of c l a s s i c a l not bronze age or Homeric G r e e c e . 1 4 Even t h i s a s i d e , when Flaxman used a n c i e n t Greek vase p a i n t i n g — with which he was f a m i l i a r through h i s study of both a n c i e n t p i e c e s and a r c h a e o l o g i c a l p u b l i c a t i o n s d e p i c t i n g v a s e s 1 4 — as an i n s p i r a t i o n f o r the form of h i s i l l u s t r a t i o n s the images he produced d i f f e r con-s i d e r a b l y from a n c i e n t p i e c e s . A u s e f u l comparison e x i s t s between a cup c. 500 BC by the S o s i a s P a i n t e r ( F i g u r e 3a) and Flaxman's I l i a d p l a t e 31 ( h e r e a f t e r Flaxman's Homer designs w i l l be r e f e r r e d to by e i t h e r I l i a d or Odyssey and the 1805 Longman e d i t i o n number). The cup e x h i b i t s many c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a n c i e n t Greek p a i n t i n g . In common with Flaxman's i l l u s t r a t i o n s t h i s s t y l e i n v o l v e d the a p p l i c a t i o n of dark l i n e s on a l i g h t e r ground.i5 But u n l i k e Flaxman's work there i s a tendency to f i l l the frame of the p i c t u r e with d e c o r a t i o n not r e l e v a n t to the s u b j e c t . The background i s darkened and, while there i s no landscape, there i s a s u b s t a n t i a l g r o u n d l i n e . The f i g u r e s wear h e a v i l y decorated c l o t h i n g and t h e i r f a c e s are i n s t r i c t p r o f i l e with s i n g u l a r l y E g y p t i a n l o o k i n g f r o n t a l eyes. F r e q u e n t l y the anatomy i s p o o r l y rendered such as P a t r o c l u s ' s grotesque f o o t and A c h i l l e s s p i n d l y arms and l e g s . There i s a l a c k of v a r i e t y i n pose (here demonstrated on the o u t s i d e of the cup F i g u r e 3b), and male f i g u r e s are o f t e n h e a v i l y bearded. On the other hand i n I l i a d 31, T h e t i s B r i n g i n g the Armour to A c h i l l e s f u l l y 40% of the p i c t u r e area i s l e f t undecorated. 4 There i s no landscape, shading or darkened background. The ground l i n e i s so ambiguous t h a t i t c o u l d be a p a r t of the frame of the p i c t u r e . Drapery i s r e l a t i v e l y undecorated. The r e n d e r i n g of anatomy i s s i g n i f i c a n t l y more competent and f i g u r e s are presented i n much more v a r i e d poses. P a t r o c l u s ' long l e g s obscure the mourning att e n d a n t ' s g e n i t a l area something seldom done i n a n c i e n t models. By f i l l i n g the open areas with d e c o r a t i o n s not r e l e v a n t to the s t o r y the S o s i a s p a i n t e r g i v e s the impression that he was simply attempting to cover the vase with d e c o r a t i o n . He presented a p i c t u r e that r e p r e s e n t s a s i n g l e moment i n time as one f i g u r e bandages the o t h e r . To form a p a r a l l e l case Flaxman might have i s o l a t e d A c h i l l e s g r i e v i n g over a dead P a t r o c l u s but i n s t e a d he d e p i c t e d a s e r i e s of events to g i v e a b e t t e r sense of the Homeric n a r r a t i v e . In t h i s s i n g l e image Flaxman reminds the viewer of the death of P a t r o c l u s and thus the l o s s of the armour he had borrowed from A c h i l l e s . I t was t h i s l o s s of the o l d armour that prompted the manufacture of the new that T h e t i s now d e l i v e r s . In a pose r e m i n i s c e n t of the Parthenon Athena or B r i t a n n i a , she p e r s o n i f i e s duty c a l l i n g A c h i l l e s back to the b a t t l e that ends i n Troy's d e f e a t . The dominant theme of the Flaxman's design, human g r i e f , i s drawn from the t e x t but the d e t a i l s of the p i c t u r e are Flaxman's i n v e n t i o n . Homer made no r e f e r e n c e to P a t r o c l u s ' f u n e r a l b i e r , the s t o o l beside i t , nor the female mourner.16 Flaxman d i d not produce a b s o l u t e l y f a i t h f u l t r a n s l a t i o n s of 5 the Homeric t e x t s from l i t e r a r y to p i c t o r i a l imagery. Rather as Mrs. Flaxman wrote from France to W i l l i a m Hayley i n 1802, her husband was r e c o g n i z e d as 'the best commentator of the great bard Homer.' 1 7 Today the s i g n i f i c a n c e of Mrs. Flaxman's remark i s obscure. The Homeric e p i c s , the o l d e s t great works of western l i t e r a t u r e , are not important i n modern edu c a t i o n . They are not, f o r example, r e q u i r e d r e a d i n g i n B r i t i s h Columbia s c h o o l s or u n i v e r s i t i e s . T h i s i n c l u d e s the C l a s s i c s Department at the U n i v e r s i t y of B r i t i s h Columbia where only one or the other i s r e q u i r e d , and that r e a d i n g may be i n t r a n s l a t i o n . 1 8 Such was not the case i n the 18th Century. Throughout the 18th Century the I l i a d and Odyssey were a fundamental p a r t of e d u c a t i o n . In a program \" c o n t r i v e d a c c o r d i n g to what i s commonly p r a c t i c e d i n England and f o r e i g n c o u n t r i e s ; and i s i n sundry p a r t i c u l a r s p r o p o r t i o n e d to the o r d i n a r y c a p a c i t i e s of c h i l d r e n under f i f t e e n years of age\" 1^ the Reverend Hoole recommended not only the '\"Father of Poetry\", Homer, [but a l s o ] P i n d a r , E u r i p i d e s , Sophocles and A r i s t o p h a n e s i n G r e e k . ' 2 0 E a r l i e r the Reverend R i c h a r d Holdsworth D.D., f e l l o w of S t . John's C o l l e g e , Oxford, from 1613 to 1637 had regarded as a p p r o p r i a t e Hesiod, h i s Theognis, Homer, Pi n d a r , T h e o c r i t u s , P l u t a r c h and a number of t r a g e d i e s and o r a t i o n s of L a t i n authors.21 These 17th Century educators a p p a r e n t l y s e t the d i r e c t i o n f o r the c u r r i c u l a throughout the f o l l o w i n g century. Sydney Smith reviewing R.L. Edgeworth's P r o f e s s i o n a l 6 E d u c a t i o n of 1809 wrote i n the Edinburgh Review i n an essay e n t i t l e d \"Too Much L a t i n and Greek,\" t h a t \"a Young Englishman goes to sc h o o l at s i x or seven years o l d ; and he remains i n a course of education t i l l twenty-three or twenty-four years of age. In a l l t h a t time s o l e and e x c l u s i v e o c c u p a t i o n i s l e a r n i n g L a t i n and Greek: he has s c a r c e l y a n o t i o n that there i s any other k i n d of e x c e l l e n c e . ' 2 2 For those who d i d not continue to higher forms t r a n s l a t i o n s of Homer were widely a v a i l a b l e . 2 3 Thus the g r e a t e r m a j o r i t y of the young men d e s t i n e d f o r c a r e e r s i n the law, p o l i t i c s , the armed s e r v i c e s and the Church and even commerce, tr a d e , and i n d u s t r y had read c l a s s i c a l authors i n c l u d i n g Homer of whom a w r i t e r to the Gentlemen's Magazine i n 1793 wrote: 'In Homer nothing i s c a s u a l , nothing i d l e or i r r e l a t i v e , n i l m o l i t u r i n e p t e . Every e x p r e s s i o n i s pregnant with meaning.' 2 4 Homer was not read i n the l a t e 18th Century merely f o r entertainment or the i n t e l l e c t u a l d i s c i p l i n e of l e a r n i n g another language but presented as a model of human s o c i e t y . T h e o r i s t Robert Wood had w r i t t e n some years b e f o r e t h a t 'whatever h i s [Homer's] p l a n of i n s t r u c t i o n , e i t h e r moral or p o l i t i c a l , might have been ( f o r to deny t h a t he had any would he h i g h l y unreasonable), h i s c h o i c e of c h a r a c t e r s f o r the purpose never c a r r i e d him beyond Nature, and h i s own experience of l i f e ' . 2 5 Homer, i t was b e l i e v e d , 'had l i v e d i n the most e n l i g h t e n e d age, and possessed a l l advantages f o r improving h i s n a t u r a l t a l e n t s ' . 2 6 In that 'most e n l i g h t e n e d age' the Greeks of 7 Homer's s t o r i e s were seen to l i v e i n an age of wealth, m i l i t a r y prowess and refinement.27 ^nd y e t , as the passage i l l u s t r a t e d by Flaxman's T h e t i s B r i n g i n g the Armour to A c h i l l e s , I l i a d 31, i n d i c a t e d , human v a l u e s , not m a t e r i a l o b j e c t s , were the s u b j e c t . The Achaean Greeks had not d i s s i p a t e d t h e i r n a t i o n a l v i g o u r on the accumulation of m a t e r i a l wealth, a p o i n t not l o s t on those i n B r i t a i n who f e a r e d that the sudden p r o l i f e r a t i o n of consumer goods pro v i d e d by the I n d u s t r i a l R e v o l u t i o n would c o r r u p t s o c i e t y . In a 1774 'Essay on Luxury' appearing i n London Magazine 'luxury [was] s a i d to have poisoned the whole n a t i o n . ' 2 ^ F i v e years l a t e r the i dea was expanded to: 'But man, anxious to be unhappy, i n d u s t r i o u s to m u l t i p l y woe, and ingenious i n c o n t r i v i n g new plagues, new torments, to embitter l i f e , and . sour every present enjoyment, has i n v e r t e d the order of t h i n g s , has c r e a t e d wishes that have no connection with h i s happiness.'29 Human s o c i e t y was here seen as being p r o g r e s s i v e l y overburdened with new plagues and torments t h a t were obscur i n g the e s s e n t i a l nature of mankind. In the o l d e s t known extended d e s c r i p t i o n of any age the s o c i e t y of the I l i a d and Odyssey was l o g i c a l l y the l e a s t overburdened and thus the most e n l i g h t e n e d . Oddly, the enthusiasm of Homeric s o c i e t y was not tempered by an acknowledgement of i t s more mundane aspects (which may simply have gone unrecorded by Homer). In f a c t , Homer pro v i d e d as spare a p i c t u r e of h i s s o c i e t y as d i d Flaxman. R e f e r r i n g again to T h e t i s B r i n g i n g the Armour to A c h i l l e s , I l i a d 31 both poet and a r t i s t might w e l l have i n c l u d e d a background. The 8 Myrmidons may have been presented p o l i s h i n g armour, sharpening weapons, p r e p a r i n g food or e a t i n g or even j u s t s t a n d i n g about i n c a r e f u l l y d e t a i l e d m a t e r i a l surroundings. N e i t h e r Homer nor Flaxman p r o v i d e any such d e t a i l s but s i g n i f i c a n t l y the spare q u a l i t y of t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e d e p i c t i o n s of the I l i a d and Odyssey seem to have been reached by d i f f e r e n t means. Robert Wood b e l i e v e d that i t had been 'Homer's o b j e c t to p l e a s e as w e l l as i n s t r u c t ' . 3 0 AS S U c h , d e s c r i b i n g d e t a i l s f a m i l i a r i n the everyday l i f e of h i s l i s t e n e r s would have d i l u t e d the s t o r i e s ' v i g o r o u s n a r r a t i v e . A l t e r n a t i v e l y , a l a t e 18th Century audience would have seen e m b e l l i s h i n g d e t a i l i n Flaxman's designs as o b s c u r i n g Homer's p r e s e n t a t i o n of the e s s e n t i a l nature of man and human s o c i e t y . The concept of the e s s e n t i a l was not d e r i v e d e n t i r e l y from a p e r u s a l of Homer or even a n c i e n t authors. In a d d i t i o n t o Homer there was i n c r e a s e d i n t e r e s t i n the severe t r a g e d i e s of Aeschylus ( f i r s t t r a n s l a t e d i n t o E n g l i s h and French i n the 1770's), the ' i r o n age' works of Hesiod and P i n d a r , the Roman h i s t o r i a n L i v y and the Greek, P l u t a r c h , biographer of both Greeks and Romans.31 From the works of these authors was d e r i v e d a conception of man with uncorrupted manners and emotions of those l i v i n g c l o s e t o nature.32 Dante, Shakespeare, and the N i b e l u n g e n l i e d presented s i m i l a r v i s i o n s and i n t e r e s t i n them was s i m i l a r l y r e v i v e d . Recognizing the p o p u l a r i t y of these r e v i v e d authors and u s i n g Homer as a model, James MacPherson c r e a t e d the \"fake\" C e l t i c bard Ossian and p u b l i s h e d h i s F i n g a l 9 and Temora between 1760 and 1763. The books s u c c e s s f u l l y c r e a t e d c h a r a c t e r s and put them i n t o s i t u a t i o n s designed to accommodate the most n o s t a l g i c v i s i o n s of human s o c i e t y d e v i s e d by 18th Century w r i t e r s and r e a d e r s . L i f e i n the time of Ossian was 'simple, rugged, u n s o p h i s t i c a t e d and at the same time, moral, r a t i o n a l and touched with s e n t i m e n t ' . 3 3 With Macpherson conspicuous by h i s absence i n d i s c u s s i o n s r e g a r d i n g the a u t h e n t i c i t y of h i s work, Ossian was immediately h a i l e d as a great a n c i e n t work. MacPherson's c o n t r i v e d work was not unique. I t was p a r a l l e l e d by 18th Century landscape gardens, which were 'attempts to r e c r e a t e the l i t e r a r y landscape which had been sketched by Homer, e l a b o r a t e d and populated with l o v e - s i c k shepherds by T h e o c r i t u s and the other b u c o l i c poets, and given c l a s s i c e x p r e s s i o n by V i r g i l who t r a n s f e r r e d i t from S i c i l y t o more remote A r c a d i a and V a l e of Tempe'. 3 4 The shepherd might dwell i n such a r c h i t e c t u r a l whimsies as the Pantheon Temple at Stourhead ( F i g u r e 4 ) . Such concepts were fundamental to 18th Century thought. I t was b e l i e v e d that reason, a p p l i e d to c a r e f u l o b s e r v a t i o n s of nature, would r e v e a l u n i v e r s a l l y v a l i d t r u t h s , laws, and p r i n c i p l e s and by e x t e n s i o n nature and reason c o u l d be employed f o r the g e n e r a l b e n e f i t of mankind. Indeed, e x p l o r a t i o n and e x p o s i t i o n i n d i v e r s f i e l d s of i n t e r e s t c h a r a c t e r i z e d the 18th Century. Even d u r i n g Flaxman's l i f e and c a r e e r , d i s c o v e r y , d i s c u s s i o n and i n v e n t i o n extended over a broad range of endeavour: i n the f i e l d of s c i e n c e the d i s c o v e r y of s e v e r a l of the elements 10 i n c l u d i n g hydrogen i n 1766 by Cavendish, n i t r o g e n by R u t h e r f o r d i n 1772 and Oxygen i n 1774 by P r i e s t l y ; i n geography Cook's e x p l o r a t i o n of A u s t r a l i a i n 1770 and P a c i f i c i n 1778. These examples should not suggest that r e s e a r c h or i n q u i r i e s r e p r e s e n t e d only a p a s s i v e i n t e r e s t i n the accummulation of knowledge. The i s o l a t i o n of elements, f o r example, suggested to L a v o i s i e r t h e i r p r e v i o u s combination as when he e x p l a i n e d combustion i n 1777. G e n e r a l l y an i n c r e a s e d understanding of p r o p e r t i e s r e s u l t e d i n a g r e a t e r u t i l i z a t i o n of m a t e r i a l s i n the form of i n v e n t i o n s of s i g n i f i c a n t s o c i a l impact. Those i n v e n t i o n s i n c l u d e d : Watts p i s t o n steam engine i n 1769, M i l l e r ' s c i r c u l a r saw i n 1777, F r a n k l i n ' s b i f o c a l l e n s ( f o r e y e g l a s s e s ) i n 1780, H a r r i s o n ' s s t e e l pen i n 1780, and Murdock's gas l i g h t i n g i n 1792. The d i v e r s i t y of the contemporary i n t e l l e c t u a l arguments i s i n d i c a t e d by the t i t l e s of but a few works of the time ranging from Edmund Burke's P h i l o s o p h i c a l I n q u i r y i n t o the O r i g i n of our Ideas of the sublime and the B e a u t i f u l i n 1756, Adam Smith's I n q u i r y i n t o the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of N a t i o ns i n 1776, to David Hume's Dialogues concerning N a t u r a l R e l i g i o n i n 1779. Common to a l l these f i e l d s of 18th Century i n t e l l e c t u a l endeavour was the need to c r e a t e conceptual models. That need i t s e l f had been widely r e c o g n i z e d . In h i s A n a l y s i s of Beauty of 1753 W i l l i a m Hogarth, whose i n t e l l e c t u a l a s p i r a t i o n s g r e a t l y exceeded h i s a c t u a l accomplishments, wrote: 'The constant use made of l i n e s by mathematicians, as w e l l as p a i n t e r s , i n d e s c r i b i n g t h i n g s upon paper, hath e s t a b l i s h e d a co n c e p t i o n of them, as i f a c t u a l l y e x i s t i n g on the r e a l forms t h e m s e l v e s ' . 3 5 There are two ideas here. The f i r s t i s t h a t l i n e drawings were used ' i n d e s c r i b i n g t h i n g s upon paper.' Hogarth's obser-v a t i o n may have been extended f a r beyond h i s examples of mathematicians and a r t i s t s to i n c l u d e a l l s c i e n t i f i c and t e c h n i c a l endeavour where there was a need to reduce o b s e r v a t i o n s to g e n e r a l laws or i n the i n s t a n c e of i n v e n t i o n s , to v i s u a l i z e something t h a t had not p r e v i o u s l y e x i s t e d . For example, F i g u r e 5 i s a conceptual model of the h u l l of a s h i p which appeared i n W i l l i a m Sutherland's S h i p - B u i l d e r ' s A s s i s t a n t of 1755. I t i s not a p i c t u r e of an e x i s t i n g or even a proposed h u l l but r a t h e r an i l l u s t r a t i o n of how to l a y out a h u l l . S i m i l a r l y F i g u r e 6 i s a drawing by Flaxman f o r a m e d a l l i o n submitted to Wedgwood i n 1783. I t i s not a f i n i s h e d a r t i s t i c work but a d e s i g n e r s concept f o r a tradesman t o t r a n s l a t e i n t o p o t t e r y . H e rein l i e s Hogarth's second idea that the l i n e drawing must convey to the viewer the idea of the t h i n g drawn 'as i f a c t u a l l y e x i s t i n g on the r e a l forms themselves'. Thus the s h i p ' s h u l l , Flaxman's design and Hogarth's mathematical model ignore s o l i d i t y , c o l o u r , t e x t u r e and p e r s p e c t i v e but to the experienced viewer they convey s u f f i c i e n t i n f o r m a t i o n to e x p l a i n the e s s e n t i a l concept. A second common theme of 18th Century thought was the f e r v e n t b e l i e f of e n l i g h t e n e d men b e l i e v e d that endeavour should be d i r e c t e d to the general betterment of s o c i e t y . In the case of the S h i p - B u i l d e r ' s A s s i s t a n t , W i l l i a m S u t h e r l a n d , as the p r e f a c e i n d i c a t e s , 'endeavoured t o l a y e v e r y t h i n g down i n the most p l a i n and perspicuous manner, with a d e s i r e t o i n s t r u c t i n g young SHIPWRIGHTS, and those Gentlemen who are d e s i r o u s of being acquainted with these s u r p r i s i n g F a b r i c s . . . ; [with the hope] 'that every improvement made i n an A r t of such importance to s o c i e t y , adds a f a r t h e r s e c u r i t y to the power, s t r e n g t h and i n t e r e s t of these kingdoms'.36 S i m i l a r l y Robert Adam i n d e d i c a t i n g h i s Ruins of S p a l a t r o t o King George I I I po i n t e d out t h a t 'your Majesty's s i n g u l a r A t t e n t i o n to the A r t s of Elegance promises an Age of P e r f e c t i o n ' . 3 7 The i n d u s t -r i a l i s t J o s i a h Wedgwood, to whom Flaxman submitted many designs ( F i g u r e 6 f o r example), saw h i s p o s i t i o n i n s i m i l a r terras. In a passage repeated i n a number of h i s cat a l o g u e s , Wedgwood s t a t e d t h at he wanted 'to d i f f u s e a good t a s t e through the a r t s ' by the 'power of m u l t i p l y i n g c o p i e s of f i n e things'.38 Wedgwood c o n s t a n t l y searched f o r designs f o r Jasperware, i n s p i r e d by antique cameos. He d i d not, however, merely reproduce a n c i e n t p i e c e s . He wrote to h i s f r i e n d Erasmus Darwin, 'I onl y pretend to have attempted to copy the f i n e antique forms, but not with a b s o l u t e s e r v i l i t y . I have endea-voured to pr e s e r v e the s t y l e and s p i r i t , or i f you p l e a s e , the elegant s i m p l i c i t y of the antique forms'.39 Wedgwood's impression of the antique form h i s products emulated was formed i n no small measure by a r c h a e l o g i c a l p u b l i c a t i o n s many of which were i n h i s own l i b r a r y . 4 0 The candid statement r e g a r d i n g h i s products almost paraphrases the i n t r o d u c t i o n to the Comte de Caylus' R e c u e i l d ' a n t i q u i t e s egyptiennes, etrusques, et romaines ( P a r i s 1757) the purpose of which was 'to shed l i g h t on the past ... to a r r i v e at the s p i r i t of the antique r a t h e r than to copy antique d e t a i l s ' . 4 1 In the p u b l i c a t i o n s of W i l l i a m Hamilton C o l l e c t i o n of Vases, i l l u s t r a t e d e n t i r e l y with l i n e engravings, there was a d e l i b e r a t e attempt to remove d e t a i l and e x t r a c t the essence of an c i e n t d e s i g n . The p r e f a c e s t a t e s t h a t the work was c o n f i n e d 'to the simple o u t l i n e of the f i g u r e s of the Vases, which i s the e s s e n t i a l , and no unnecessary Ornaments or c o l o r i n g . . . [ a r e ] . . . introduced'.42 R e c a l l i n g F i g u r e 3 as an example, a n c i e n t vase p a i n t e r s o f t e n i n c l u d e d 'unneccessary Ornaments' or d e c o r a t i o n not a s s o c i a t e d with t h e i r p i c t o r i a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s of a n c i e n t s o c i e t y . In a d d i t i o n , the red and bl a c k f i g u r e d vases were, i n f a c t , c o l o r e d . The a r c h a e o l o g i c a l p u b l i c a t i o n s such as de Caylus and the Hamilton C o l l e c t i o n were f o r many, i n c l u d i n g Wedgwood and h i s a r t i s t s , the c h i e f source of knowledge of the m a t e r i a l remains of a n t i q u i t y . S i g n i f i c a n t l y they presented not an a c c u r a t e d e t a i l e d r e c o r d of the an c i e n t s o c i e t y but r a t h e r the antique as the l a t e 18th Century wanted t o see i t . 14 NOTES TO THE TEXT CHAPTER I 1 Robert Rosenblum, The I n t e r n a t i o n a l S t y l e of 1800 : A Study i n L i n e a r A b s t r a c t i o n (New York, 1956 and 1976), p. 114 f n . 2 Sources f o r the a s s o c i a t i o n of Wedgwood Flaxman seem to f a l l n a t u r a l l y i n t o two c a t e g o r i e s : those c e n t e r i n g pn the l i f e of Wedgwood, such as; E l i z a Meteyard, The L i f e of J o s i a h Wedgwood (London, 1865-66); K.E. F a r r e r , L e t t e r s of J o s i a h Wedgwood (London, 1903-06); the more recent A. F i n e r and G. Savage The S e l e c t e d L e t t e r s of J o s i a h Wedgwood (London, 1965); and Wolf Mankowitz, Wedgwood (New York, 1953) and those t r e a t i n g the works of Wedgwood a r t i s t s and t h e i r works as c o l l e c t o r ' s items, such as H.M. Buten, Wedgwood and A r t i s t s (Merion P e n n s y l v a n i a , 1960). 3 Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, \"Uber d i e Flaxmanischen werke,\" Propylaen, 1799, a l s o i n Werke, 47 (Weimar, 1896) pp. 245-46. 4 A.W. von S c h l e g e l , \"Uber Zeichnungen zu Gedichten und John Flaxmans Umrissen,\" Athenaum, 1799 a l s o i n Sammtliche Werke ( L e i p z i g , 1846), IX, pp. 102-57. 5 W i l l i a m George Constable, John Flaxman 1755-1826 (London, 1927). ^ G e r a l d B e n t l e y 'Notes on the E a r l y E d i t i o n s of Flaxman's C l a s s i c a l Designs', B u l l e t i n of the New York P u b l i c L i b r a r y , 68, (1964), pp. 277-307, 361-380. P u b l i s h e d s e p a r a t e l y as The E a r l y Engravings of Flaxman's C l a s s i c a l Designs, (New York, 1964). 7 Robert E s s i c k and J e n i j o y L a B e l l e , Flaxman's I l l u s t r a t i o n s to Homer, (New York, 1977). 8 David Bindman, John Flaxman, (London, 1979). Appeared p r e v i o u s l y as Werner Hofmann, David Bindman et a l . John Flaxman Mythologie und I n d u s t r i e , (Hamburg, 1979). 9 David Irwin, John Flaxman 1755-1826 (London, 1979) 1 0 Wedgwood's set of d i s h e s f o r Empress C a t h e r i n e c o n s i s t i n g of 952 p i e c e s contained 1244 d i f f e r e n t views f o r example. J o s i a h Wedgwood: the A r t s and Scie n c e s U n i t e d (1978) p. 50. For more on the Wedgwood f i r m ' s v o r a c i o u s a p p e t i t e f o r d esigns see David Irwin, N e o - C l a s s i c a l Design : i n d u s t r y p lunders a n t i q u i t y , A p o l l o ns 96 (October, 1972), pp. 289-297. 15 'An Account Book of John Flaxman, R.A.' ( B r i t i s h L i b r a r y Add. MS. 39784 BB), Edward Croft-Murray ( e d . ) , Walpole S o c i e t y XXVIII 1939-40 pp.79. The e n t r y f o r J u l y 8, 1803 i s as f o l l o w s \" J o s i a h Wedgwood Esq. A Monument sent by Goddard's Waggon ( s i c ) , C a s t l e and F a l c o n , A l d e r s g a t e S t r 73, 10, -. Meteyard, op. c i t . p. 504. W. Hayley, The L i f e of George Romney (London, 1809), p.203. Di s c u s s e d l a t e r ch. II See R.M. Cook, Greek P a i n t e d P o t t e r y (London, 1972), p a r t i c u l a r l y f o r technique ch.9, pp. 240 f f . In a d d i t i o n to Alexander Pope's r e n d i t i o n s of the I l i a d and Odyssey modern t r a n s l a t i o n s are a l s o u s e f u l and o f t e n more readable. Two such are : The I l i a d t r a n s E.V. Rieu (Harraondsworth, 1950) and The Odyssey t r a n s E.V. Rieu Harraondsworth, 1946) MSS, A r t I n s t i t u t e of Chicago, G u r l e y C o l l e c t i o n , Mrs. Flaxman to Hayley, 10 December [1802]. The U n i v e r s i t y of B r i t i s h Columbia 70th S e s s i o n (1984-85) Calendar, Vancouver, 1984 p.71. C h a r l e s Hoole, New D i s c o v e r y of the A r t of Teaching Schooles ( s i c ) 1660. Quoted by John R. Mulder, The Temple of Mind (New York, 1935), p. 25. Mulder i b i d p. 18. Mulder i b i d p. 30. Syndney Smith, 'Too Much L a t i n and Greek' (a review of R.L. Edgeworth, P r o f e s s i o n a l Education (1809) Edinburgh Review 1809 c i t e d i n H.C. Barnard A H i s t o r y of E n g l i s h E d u c a t i o n from 1760 (London, 1961) p. 17. An incomplete l i s t w i l l i n c l u d e : Ten Bookes ( s i c ) of Homers I l i a d e s ( s i c ) , t r a n s , out of the French by A r t h u r H a l l (London, 1581); Seven Bookes ( s i c ) of the I l i a d e s ( s i c ) of Homer P r i n c e of Poets Trans, a c c o r d i n g the Greeke ( s i c ) George Chapman (London, 1598); A c h i l l e s S h i e l d , t r a n s . George Chapman (London 1598); Homer P r i n c e of Poets t r a n s . George Chapman (London, 1610); The Whole Works of Homer, P r i n c e of Poets, i n h i s I l i a d e s ( s i c ) and Odysses ( s i c ) t r a n s . George Chapman (London, 1612); Homers Odysses ( s i c ) t r a n s . George Chapman (London, 1614); The Whole Works of Homer; P r i n c e of P o e t t s ( s i c ) i n h i s I l i a d s ( s i c ) and 16 Odysseys ( s i c ) t r a n s . George Chapman (London, 1616); The F i r s t Three Books of Homer's I l i a d t r a n s . Thomas Grantham (London, 1661); The T r a v e l s of U l y s s e s ; As they were r e l a t e d by h i m s e l f i n Homer's Nineth, Tenth, E l e v e n t h and T w e l f t h Books of h i s Odysses ( s i c ) to A l c i n o u s King of Phaeacia t r a n s . Thomas Hobbs Malmessby (London, 1673); and o c c a s i o n a l appearances of amateur t r a n s l a t o r s such as that of an u n i d e n t i f i e d person who submitted 'A T r a n s l a t i o n of a P a r t of the 22nd Book of Homer's I l i a d i n t o Blank verse made almost l i t e r a l l y , ' Gentlemen's Magazine Dec. 1797 p. 1052. 2 4 Gentlemen's Magazine, ( J u l y 1793) p. 623. 2 5 Robert Wood, An Essay on the O r i g i n a l Genius of Homer (1769; New York, 1971), p. 298. 2 6 Alexander Gerard, An Essay on Genius (1774; Munchen, 1966) p. 11. 2 7 J.V. Luce, Homer and the Homeric Age (London, 1975) p. 181. 2 8 London Magazine, XLII (October, 1774) p. 481. 2 9 London Magazine, XLVIII (1779) p. 537. 3 0 Robert Wood, op. c i t . , p. 30. 3 1 Hugh Honour, N e o - c l a s s i c i s m (Harmondsworth, 1968) p. 64. 3 2 I b i d . , p. 142. 3 3 I b i d . , p. 66. 3 4 I b i d . , p. 161. 3 5 W i l l i a m Hogarth, A n a l y s i s of Beauty (London, 1753) p. 37. 3 6 W i l l i a m S utherland, The S h i p - B u i l d e r ' s A s s i s t a n t , or Marine A r c h i t e c t u r e (London, 1755), p . i i i . 3 7 Robert Adam, Ruins of the P a l a c e of the Emperor D i o c l e t i a n at S p a l a t r o (London, 1764) p.IV. 3 8 Noted by David Irwin, op. c i t . , p. 19. 3 9 Wedgwood to Erasmus Darwin, 28 June 1789. 4 0 For more on t h i s p o i n t and i t s i m p l i c a t i o n s see David Irwin, ' N e o - c l a s s i c a l design: i n d u s t r y plunders a n t i q u i t y , ' A p o l l o ns 96: 289-297, October 1972. 17 Comte de Caylus, R e c u e i l d' a n t i q u i t ^ s £gyptiennes, 6trusques et romain ( P a r i s 1752-67) I pp. X l l f f . S i r W i l l i a m Hamilton, A n c i e n t Vases (1791-95) unpaginated p r e f a c e . 18 CHAPTER II Flaxman's contemporaries g e n e r a l l y b e l i e v e d t h a t h i s engravings of the I l i a d and Odyssey embodied the a r t i s t i c p r i n c i p l e s of 'the age when Homer wrote'. However, as has been suggested, Flaxman's designs bear only s u p e r f i c i a l resem-blance to a n c i e n t works. The apparent v a r i e t y of sources f o r the poses of the f i g u r e s , t h e i r more ac c u r a t e anatomy, the more c a r e f u l l y determined use of the p i c t u r e space, the d e p i c t i o n of c o n s e c u t i v e events and the d e l i b e r a t e d e p i c t i o n of Homeric s o c i e t y as an u n c l u t t e r e d conceptual model, r e v e a l an a r t i s t whose experience was much wider than any a n c i e n t a r t i s t ' s c o u l d p o s s i b l y have been. Flaxman's e a r l i e s t e x h i b i t e d works met with success. When only 11 years of age he won a F i r s t P r i z e from the S o c i e t y of A r t s f o r a medal modelled i n c l a y . In 1769 he gained another F i r s t P r i z e f o r a model i n c l a y and i n 1770 he won the S o c i e t y of A r t s Gold P a l e t t e f o r a f i g u r e of G a r r i c k . 1 Flaxman's p r e c o s i t y at m o d e l l i n g i s , i n p a r t at l e a s t , e x p l a i n e d by the m i l i e u of h i s f a t h e r ' s shop and b u s i n e s s . John Flaxman S e n i o r 2 opened h i s London premises i n New S t r e e t Covent Garden i n 1755 and l a t e r moved to the Strand c a r r y i n g on b u s i n e s s u n t i l a f t e r the t u r n of the century as a c a s t maker. He was d i r e c t l y i n v o l v e d i n the r e s t o r a t i o n and r e p a i r of c l a s s i c a l s c u l p t u r e and gems as w e l l as the making of p l a s t e r c a s t r e p r o d u c t i o n s of c l a s s i c a l s c u l p t u r e and gems that were being imported i n l a r g e numbers to England. H i s c l i e n t s thus ranged from a r t i s t s such as the s c u l p t o r s L o u i s 19 F r a n c o i s R o u b i l i a c and Pe t e r Scheeraakers, to the i n d u s t r i a l -i s t s Matthew Boulton and J o s i a h Wedgwood. Nor was Flaxman's f a t h e r merely a c a s t maker. He o c c a s s i o n a l l y executed o r i g i n a l works, such as the f i g u r e r e p r e s e n t i n g A r c h i t e c t u r e ( F i g u r e 7) i n a l a t e Baroque s t y l e , somewhat a f t e r the manner of h i s most i l l u s t r i o u s customers R o u b i l i a c and Scheeraakers. The deeply cut drapery f o l d s of A r c h i t e c t u r e along with i t s t o r s i o n and outward gaze are a n t i t h e t i c a l to the s t y l e h i s son would develop and employ f o r the Homer des i g n s . With only the a c t i v i t i e s around h i s f a t h e r ' s shop as teacher the younger Flaxman was dev e l o p i n g an a r t i s t i c s t y l e of h i s own. 3 He drew The Death of Caesar ( F i g u r e 2) at about the time he e x h i b i t e d the p r i z e winning models at the Free S o c i e t y of A r t i s t s . I t s theme i s c l a s s i c a l l y i n s p i r e d but i t s s t y l e i s l e s s d i s t i n c t l y c l a s s i c a l than the l a t e r Homer i l l u s -t r a t i o n s , even though, as a l r e a d y noted, there i s a s i m i l a r i t y between the c e n t r a l f i g u r e i n The Death of Caesar and the mourning woman i n the T h e t i s B r i n g i n g the Armour to A c h i l l e s , I l i a d 31 de s i g n . In f a c t , one might almost imagine i t being the same f i g u r e d e p i c t e d a few seconds l a t e r when c o l l a p s e d i n t o deeper g r i e f . The Death of Caesar p r o v i d e s an i d e a of Flaxman's a r t i s t i c development and knowledge at the age of 13 or 14 y e a r s . He was q u i t e capable of r e n d e r i n g anatomy i n remarkably v a r i e d and v i g o r o u s poses. He knew how to c r e a t e s p a t i a l p e r s p e c t i v e u s i n g o v e r l a p p i n g , shading, and v a r i e d f i g u r e s i z e and d e t a i l . 20 He knew how to d i r e c t the viewers a t t e n t i o n towards the c e n t r e of a c t i o n by having the f i g u r e s nearer the edge of the frame l e s s d e t a i l e d than those nearer the c e n t r e . Although he had at t h a t time no a r t i s t i c i n s t r u c t i o n other than i n h i s f a t h e r ' s shop Flaxman had w e l l developed a r t i s t i c s e n s i b i l i t i e s . He a p p r e c i a t e d the p i c t o r i a l and dramatic p o t e n t i a l of the s u b j e c t matter and had the mechanical means of s e t t i n g a design on paper. In h i s f a t h e r ' s shop Flaxman met two people who were to exe r t a s i g n i f i c a n t i n f l u e n c e upon h i s development. The f i r s t , the Reverend Anthony Stephen Matthew 4 entered John Flaxman S e n i o r ' s shop about 1768 and, f i n d i n g young Flaxman attempting to read a L a t i n t e x t , promised to g i v e the l a d something more s u i t a b l e . H i s wife H e n r i e t t a , who read Homer i n t r a n s l a t i o n to Flaxman, a l s o i n t r o d u c e d him to members of her 'blue s t o c k i n g ' l i t e r a r y group. B r i e f b i o g r a p h i c a l notes of some of them i n d i c a t e the i n t e l l e c t u a l h o r i z o n s that then opened to the young Flaxman. Anna L e t i t i a Barbauld had mastered French and I t a l i a n and had a knowledge of L a t i n and Greek and was l a t e r to operate a very s u c c e s s f u l school at Palgrave i n S u f f o l k . E l i z a b e t h C a r t e r spoke s i x modern languages but was best known as a s c h o l a r of a n c i e n t Greece with a great i n t e r e s t i n a n c i e n t h i s t o r y and geography. In 1739 she had p u b l i s h e d her own t r a n s l a t i o n from the French of M. Crousaz An Examination of Mr. Pope's Essay of Man. 5 Hester Chapone wrote, i n 1772, L e t t e r s on the Improvement of the Mind. 6 F i n a l l y , at the ce n t r e of a c t i v i t i e s was E l i z a b e t h Montagu who b o l d l y proclaimed, 'I never i n v i t e i d i o t s t o my house'. 7 She d i d e n t e r t a i n Horace Walpole, Dr. Johnson, Edmund Burke, David G a r r i c k and S i r Joshua R e y n o l d s . 8 The poet W i l l i a m Cowper wrote of E l i z a b e t h Montagu, 'I no longer wonder that Mrs. Montagu stands at the head of a l l that i s c a l l e d l e a r n e d . ' 9 Out of t h i s c i r c l e came Flaxman's f i r s t commission - a set of s i x sketches based on Homer f o r Jeremiah C r u t c h l e y , M.P. 1 0 The second person of s u s t a i n e d importance t o h i s c a r e e r t h a t Flaxman met i n h i s f a t h e r ' s shop was George Romney. The meeting took p l a c e i n 1775 soon a f t e r Romney had retu r n e d from a p e r i o d of study i n Rome. On at l e a s t one o c c a s i o n , Romney Flaxman and t h e i r mutual f r i e n d W i l l i a m Hayley, spent an af t e r n o o n and evening together i n 1783 l o o k i n g at the s c u l p t u r e i n Westminster Abbey. 1 1 S h o r t l y a f t e r Romney's death i n 1802, Flaxman, by then an e s t a b l i s h e d a r t i s t i n h i s own r i g h t , wrote to Hayley r e c a l l i n g t h a t Romney had ' f i r s t come to see my f a t h e r ' s c a s t s . I was a l i t t l e boy, and as he f r e q u e n t l y found me employed i n mo d e l l i n g , he would stand by me a long w hile together g i v i n g me encouragement i n a manner so o b l i g i n g and a f f e c t i o n a t e that he won my h e a r t , and confirmed my d e t e r -mination i n the p u r s u i t of s c u l p t u r e ' . 1 2 As l a t e as 1821, Flaxman t o l d Romney's son that h i s f a t h e r ' s e a r l i e r ' o r i g i n a l and s t r i k i n g c o n v e r s a t i o n ' continued to be of b e n e f i t to h i s s c u l p t u r a l works.13 Flaxman's words that Romney had ' f r e q u e n t l y found me employed i n m o d e l l i n g ' i n d i c a t e how the a s p i r i n g s c u l p t o r a c q u i r e d the s k i l l to produce the medal i n c l a y and 22 f i g u r e of G a r r i c k that won f o r him p r i z e s from the S o c i e t y of A r t s and a p l a c e f o r him i n the then one year o l d Royal Academy. Throughout the d u r a t i o n of Flaxman's years as student at the Royal Academy i n s t r u c t i o n was d i r e c t e d by Joshua Reynolds.14 The p r i n c i p l e s he used to d i r e c t the s t u d i e s of the many students there (then i n c l u d i n g a number of a r t i s t s who l a t e r won r e c o g n i t i o n : the p a i n t e r W i l l i a m Hamilton, s c u l p t o r Thomas Banks, the e l d e r John Bacon, James T a s s i e and Thomas Stothard)15 were enshrined i n the annual l e c t u r e s he addressed to the assembled members and students of the Royal Academy. The c o l l e c t e d l e c t u r e s are known as the D i s c o u r s e s on A r t . In h i s D i s c o u r s e s Reynolds set out a p l a n to be f o l l o w e d by the students and the o b j e c t i v e s to be pursued by the a r t i s t . To develop the r e q u i r e d s k i l l s , i n s t r u c t i o n at the Academy was to be given i n three stages - the rudiments of drawing, m o d e l l i n g and the use of c o l o u r , the examination of the works of past a r t i s t s , the p r o d u c t i o n of new works of a c c o r d i n g to the newly a c q u i r e d educated judgement.! 6 To accommodate the second stage the Academy became a r e p o s i t o r y of f i n e a r t i n the form i of borrowed works and, of p a r t i c u l a r r e l e v a n c e to Flaxman the a s p i r i n g s c u l p t o r , c a s t s of a n c i e n t s c u l p t u r e . 1 ? With the c r e a t i o n of the Royal Academy Reynolds e n v i s i o n e d a general a m e l i o r a t i o n of n a t u r a l B r i t i s h t a s t e and d e s i g n . I f an i n s t i t u t i o n such as the Royal Academy has 'an o r i g i n no highe r [than merely m e r c a n t i l e ] no t a s t e can ever be formed i n manufactures; but i f the high e r A r t s of Design f l o u r i s h , 23 these i n f e r i o r ends w i l l be answered of c o u r s e . ' 1 8 H i s i d e a was not simply t o p r o v i d e B r i t a i n ' s i n d u s t r i a l r e v o l u t i o n with a r t i s t i c a l l y aware and competent d e s i g n e r s . The goal he e n v i s i o n e d was much l o f t i e r . He d e c l a r e d , \"the wish of the genuine p a i n t e r . . . i s to 'improve' mankind 'by the grandeur of h i s i d e a s ' and to s t r i v e f o r fame, 'by c a p t i v a t i n g the imagina-t i o n ' . 1 9 Although h i m s e l f a p a i n t e r of f a s h i o n a b l e p o r t r a i t s , Reynolds d i r e c t e d a s p i r i n g a r t i s t s to H i s t o r y P a i n t i n g which he regarded the n o b l e s t of a l l forms. H i s t o r y P a i n t i n g had the advantage t h a t a s u b j e c t c o u l d be a 'general one' ( t h a t i s , of general a p p e a l ) , drawn from 'the great events of Greek and Roman f a b l e and h i s t o r y , which e a r l y education, and the usu a l course of re a d i n g , have made f a m i l i a r and i n t e r e s t i n g to a l l Europe'. Of s i m i l a r broad appeal were the c h i e f s u b j e c t s of B i b l i c a l h i s t o r y . 2 0 The methods and i n t e n t i o n s of the p o r t r a i t p a i n t e r and H i s t o r y p a i n t e r n e c e s s a r i l y d i f f e r e d . Reynolds attempted to c r e a t e an image that d e p i c t e d the appearance and evoked a r e c o l l e c t i o n of h i s s i t t e r . However, no contemporary whatever had seen the c h a r a c t e r s immortalized by Homer. Reynolds was aware of the problem when he recounted the s t o r y of P h i d i a s s c u l p t i n g a f i g u r e of J u p i t e r . ' P h i d i a s ' , he wrote, 'when he formed h i s J u p i t e r , d i d not copy an o b j e c t ever presented to h i s s i g h t ; but contemplated o n l y that image which he conceived i n h i s mind from Homer's d e s c r i p t i o n . ' 2 1 An a p p l i c a t i o n of the p r i n c i p l e i s demonstrated by Flaxman's v e r s i o n of A c h i l l e s 24 s h i e l d i n F i g u r e 1 T h e t i s B r i n g i n g the Armour to A c h i l l e s I l i a d 31 which i s a c o n v i n c i n g c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n of Homer's d e s c r i p t i o n . To draw p i c t u r e s from d e s c r i p t i o n s by a n c i e n t authors r e q u i r e d f a m i l i a r i t y with the t e x t s and some h i s t o r i c a l p e r-s p e c t i v e . These Royal Academy endeavored to i n s t i l l through i t s l i b r a r y and i t s P r o f e s s o r s of A n c i e n t L i t e r a t u r e and A n c i e n t H i s t o r y . During Flaxman's student p e r i o d these honorary p o s i t i o n s were h e l d r e s p e c t i v e l y be men of no l e s s a s t a t u r e than Samuel Johnson (1770-1784) and O l i v e r Goldsmith (1770-1 7 7 4 ) . 2 2 C o n s i d e r i n g Flaxman's l a c k of formal education, the f a c t t h a t Mrs. Matthew had read Homer to him must a l s o have been of great v a l u e . By i n c l u d i n g a n c i e n t l i t e r a t u r e and h i s t o r y i n the Royal Academy's course of s t u d i e s Reynolds assured t h a t h i s students had the means to a v o i d 'that r i d i c u l o u s s t y l e which has been p r a c t i s e d by some p a i n t e r s , who have given to G r e c i a n Heroes the a i r s and graces p r a c t i s e d i n the c o u r t of Lewis ( s i c ) the Fourteenth; an a b s u r d i t y almost as great as i t would have been to have dressed them a f t e r the f a s h i o n of that c o u r t . ' 2 3 These anachronisms appeared i n c r e a s i n g l y absurd as a n c i e n t a r t i f a c t s became more common i n c o l l e c t i o n s and were i l l u s t r a t e d i n a r c h a e o l o g i c a l p u b l i c a t i o n s . Yet, Reynolds was not simply seeking a r c h a e o l o g i c a l d e t a i l but r a t h e r a r e f l e c t i o n of c u r r e n t c o nceptions of the a n c i e n t world. 'We must have recourse to the A n c i e n t s as i n s t r u c t o r s , ' he wrote, 'to a t t a i n 25 to the r e a l s i m p l i c i t y of nature [as] they had probably l i t t l e or nothing to u n l e a r n , as t h e i r manners were n e a r l y approaching t h i s d e s i r e a b l e ( s i c ) s i m p l i c i t y ; w h ile the modern a r t i s t , b e f o r e he can see the t r u t h of t h i n g s , i s o b l i g e d to remove the v e i l , with which the f a s h i o n of the times has thought proper to cover h e r . ' 2 4 I t would seem that Reynolds not only thought the s i m p l i c i t y of the a n c i e n t world to have been a r e a l i t y , but that i t was a l s o a d e s i r a b l e a e s t h e t i c i d e a l . 'Truth of t h i n g s ' , the u n i v e r s a l l y v a l i d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of human beings and human s o c i e t y , was d i v o r c e d from f a s h i o n . When d e p i c t i n g human s o c i e t y the a r t i s t should 'get above a l l s i n g u l a r forms, l o c a l customs, p a r t i c u l a r i t i e s and d e t a i l s of every kind.'25 To d e p i c t the u n i v e r s a l l y v a l i d 'the h i s t o r i c a l p a i n t e r never e n t e r s i n t o the d e t a i l s of c o l o u r s , so n e i t h e r does he debase h i s conceptions with minute a t t e n t i o n to the d i s c r i m i n a t i o n s of Drapery. With him c l o a t h i n g ( s i c ) i s n e i t h e r woolen, nor l i n e n , nor s i l k , s a t t i n ( s i c ) , or v e l v e t : i t i s drapery; i t i s nothing more.'26 Always an exponent of l e a r n i n g from the best a r t i s t s , Reynolds suggested that 'The more e x t e n s i v e . . . your acquaintance i s with the works of these who have e x c e l l e d , the more e x t e n s i v e w i l l be your powers of invention.'27 i n h i s D i s c o u r s e s he p r a i s e d the c o n s i s t e n c y of the s t y l e s of Rubens and P o u s s i n , f o r example, by n o t i n g that both \"always preserved a p e r f e c t correspondence between a l l the p a r t s of t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e manners...\"28 As a form of e x e r c i s e he recommended h i s students 26 to \" c o n s i d e r with y o u r s e l f how a Michael Angelo or a R a f f a e l l e would have t r e a t e d (your) s u b j e c t : and work y o u r s e l f i n t o a b e l i e f t h a t your p i c t u r e i s to be seen and c r i t i c i s e d by them when completed.\" 2^ In developing t h e i r mechanical s k i l l s and s t u d y i n g the accomplishment of worthy a r t i s t s , the student a l s o c r e a t e d t h e i r own works. Reynolds o f f e r e d d i r e c t i o n i n t h i s regard too. He wrote t h a t 'the p a i n t e r ... i s to e x h i b i t d i s t i n c t l y , and with p r e c i s i o n , the general forms of t h i n g s . A f i r m and determined o u t l i n e i s one of the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the gre a t s t y l e i n p a i n t i n g . . . 3 0 Instead of copying the touches ( i . e . the brush s t r o k e s , e t c . ) of [the] great masters, copy only t h e i r c o n c e p t i o n s . ' 3 1 In h i s D i s c o u r s e s he r e p e a t e d l y pursued the theme of e x t r a c t i n g and i l l u s t r a t i n g from a s i t u a t i o n with a r t i s t i c p o t e n t i a l only the s i n g l e dominant i d e a . R e f e r r i n g to P l i n y ' s account of Euphranor's Statue of P a r i s with i t s , to him, confused theme, Reynolds wrote: 'A s t a t u e i n which you endeavor to u n i t e s t a t e l y d i g n i t y , , y o u t h f u l elegance, and s t e r n v a l o u r , must s u r e l y possess none of these to any eminent d e g r e e 3 2 ... the ex p r e s s i o n of a mixed p a s s i o n ... appears t o me out of the reach of our a r t . ' 3 3 D e t a i l s added to e m b e l l i s h a theme or make i t more s a t i s f y i n g by v i r t u e of i t s i n c r e a s e d complexity only 'serve to d i v i d e the a t t e n t i o n of the s p e c t a -t o r . ' 3 4 In the end, a p a i n t i n g should appeal 'not to the eye but to the mind' and so doing ' e n t i t l e s i t to the name of a L i b e r a l A r t , and ranks i t as a s i s t e r of p o e t r y . ' 3 5 27 Upon h i s g r a d u a t i o n from the Royal Academy of 1775 Flaxman attempted to set up a p r a c t i c e as a s c u l p t o r i n London. Com-mis s i o n s were modest i n number and s i z e : monuments to Ann R u s s e l l and her son Henry who d i e d , i n 1780-81, i n A l l S a i n t s at Lydd i n Kent (with angels perhaps i n s p i r e d by a p l a t e from S t u a r t and Revett A n t i q u i t i e s of Athens, 1762 ( F i g u r e s 8a and b r e s p e c t i v e l y ) ) ; i n memory of Barbara B o u r c h i e r , who d i e d i n 1784, ( i n S t . Mary, Newent, G l o u c e s t e r s h i r e ( F i g u r e 9 ) ) ; f o r Mrs. Sarah Morley, who a l s o d i e d i n 1784, ( G l o u c e s t e r C a t h e d r a l ( F i g u r e 10)), and f o r the Reverend Thomas and Mrs. B a l l (1784-86 i n C h i c h e s t e r C a t h e d r a l ( F i g u r e 11)). Thus to support h i m s e l f Flaxman was f o r c e d to r e l y upon h i s e s t a b l i s h e d r e l a t i o n s h i p with the J o s i a h Wedgwood p o t t e r y f i r m . Wedgwood q u i c k l y a p p r e c i a t e d Flaxman's a b i l i t i e s . The i n d u s t r i a l i s t wrote to h i s p a r t n e r Thomas Ben t l e y i n e a r l y 1775, soon a f t e r the young a r t i s t s t a r t e d s u b m i t t i n g designs, p r a i s i n g Flaxman as \"valuable\".36 The m a j o r i t y of Flaxman's Wedgwood designs were f o r the most famous of Wedgwood's products - jasperware. I t was (and remains) a p o t t e r y ware made i n i m i t a t i o n of the stone j a s p e r , cut s i n c e c l a s s i c a l times to produce cameos and p a r t i a l m e d a l l i o n s . In the cameos and jasperware the f i g u r e s appear c o n t r a s t e d i n c o l o u r to the ground. The s u b j e c t s were of great v a r i e t y i n c l u d i n g \" i l l u s t r i o u s moderns\" ( n o t a b l e people) such as the a c t r e s s Mrs Siddons ( F i g u r e 12) as w e l l as a chess s e t f o r which Flaxman was the p r i n c i p a l d e s i g n e r ( F i g u r e 13). 28 Wedgwood had more than one concern i n the p r o d u c t i o n of jasperware. Of utmost importance, the designs submitted t o him had to be capable of ex e c u t i o n i n jasperware. In the process he developed, a model was normally made of wax a p p l i e d to a s u p p o r t i n g plaque from which a p l a s t e r of p a r i s mould was made. That mould was f i l l e d with c l a y to form a f i g u r e which, when dry, was f i r e d . T h i s f i r i n g caused a one seventh r e d u c t i o n i n the s i z e of the c l a y f i g u r e . By r e p e a t i n g the process, a design, executed as a wax model the diameter of a dinn e r p l a t e , c o u l d be used f o r jasperware products ranging from s i x - s e v e n t h s the s i z e of the o r i g i n a l to items as smal l as buttons. The mould c o u l d at any stage be used to form the f i g u r e s which were a p p l i e d , l e a t h e r hard, to a c o l o u r e d body of an a r t i c l e such as a d i s h or vase. When the body and a p p l i e d d e c o r a t i o n were f i r e d they were permanently bonded. The a r t i s t ' s a p p r e c i a t i o n of the t e c h n i c a l problems addressed by the tradesmen who a c t u a l l y transformed the models i n t o jasperware was (and s t i l l i s ) fundamental. F i g u r e s made from wax models needed to be t h i c k enough f o r ease of h a n d l i n g d u r i n g the a p p l i c a t i o n to the body and yet t h i n enough to l e t the c o l o u r of the body enhance the modelled e f f e c t s . To produce s u c c e s s f u l jasperware p i e c e s , standards c o u l d not be r e l a x e d . Even a f t e r s u b m i t t i n g many designs t o Wedgwood, Flaxman produced models f o r jasperware which the p o t t e r found unuseable. Wedgwood wrote to Ben t l e y : \"Mr. Flaxman's model i s too f l a t i n s e v e r a l p a r t s ... In some t h i n g s the blue shade 29 which our ground i s so apt to c a s t through the t h i n p a r t s of the white may be of advantage to the s u b j e c t ... But when the naked p a r t of the F i g u r e i s penetrated with the c o l o u r of the ground, i t i s g e n e r a l l y i n j u r i o u s . See the poor Queen's nose and many other Cameos.\"37 A l s o of concern to Wedgwood, the jasperware needed t o be of a c o n s i s t e n t and d i s t i n c t i v e form even when a v a r i e t y of a r t i s t s and sources of i n s p i r a t i o n were used. He pro v i d e d books of engravings of a r c h a e o l o g i c a l m a t e r i a l s to h i s many a r t i s t s as he s t a t e d i n a l e t t e r to Ben t l e y concerning jasperware p i e c e s . 'I apprehend we s h a l l model them much cheaper than Flaxman and perhaps as w e l l i n other r e s p e c t s , p r o v i d e d we have F i n e P r i n t s or impressions from Gems to model from, but I wish you would g i v e Flaxman a head or two to model as i t may e x c i t e our modelers' [at E t r u r l a ] emulation and acquaint us with the p r i c e s f o r which those t h i n g s may be done i n Lon d o n . ' 3 8 T h i s l a s t comment r e v e a l s Wedgwood's t h i r d and o v e r r i d i n g c o n s i d e r a t i o n , the need to make a p r o f i t . Hence h i s products must be s a l e a b l e . Wedgwood wrote, t h i s time to Flaxman, of a design d e p i c t i n g the Judgement of P a r i s t h a t \" i t i s a b s o l u t e l y necessary\" t o drape nude f i g u r e s , f o r though \"so general i n the works of the a n c i e n t s , none e i t h e r male or female of the present g e n e r a t i o n w i l l take or apply them as f u r n i t u r e i f the f i g u r e s are n a k e d . \" 3 9 Wedgwood d i d indeed seek to e s t a b l i s h the c r e d i b i l i t y of h i s products with p o t e n t i a l customers. In h i s a d v e r t i s i n g 30 c a t a l o g u e s he proclaimed that h i s \"Painted E t r u s c a n Vases\" were \"copied from the antique with the utmost exactness: as they are to be found i n Dempster, G o r i , Caylus, P a s s e r i , but more e s p e c i a l l y i n the most c h o i c e and comprehensive c o l l e c t i o n of S i r W i l l i a m H a m i l t o n \" . 4 0 The works to which he was r e f e r r i n g (Thomas Dempster's De E t r u r i a R e g a l i (1723-1726), Antonio Francesco G o r i ' s Museum Etruscum (1737-1743), the comte de Cay l u s ' s R e c u e i l d ' A n t i q u i t e s Egyptiennes, Etrusques et Romaines (1752-1770), and P a s s e r i ' s La P e i n t u r e a 1'Encaustique (1775) were p a r t of the expanding corpus of p u b l i c a t i o n s of a n t i q u a r i a n i n t e r e s t being purchased by e d u c a t i o n a l i n s t i t u t i o n s such as the Royal Academy and by gentlemen who had been on the Grand Tour. Wedgwood had purchased them i n order that h i s a r t i s t s might d e r i v e i n s p i r a t i o n f o r works t h a t would then seem somewhat f a m i l i a r to h i s customers. The f a c t o r y l i b r a r y a l s o c o n t a i n e d d ' H a n c a r v i l l e ' s Cabinet of the Hon. W i l l i a m Hamilton (1766-1767) a p l a t e from which ( F i g u r e 14) pr o v i d e d the i n s p i r a t i o n f o r one of Flaxman's most popular Jasperware designs The Crowning of a K i t h a r i s t ( F i g u r e 15). De s p i t e h i s f a m i l i a r i t y with the p r o d u c t i o n process Flaxman d i d not work at the p o t t e r y u n l i k e most of Wedgwood's a r t i s t s and m o d e l l e r s . He chose t o remain i n London where he coul d m a intain h i s Royal Academy a s s o c i a t i o n s and b u i l d a p r a c t i c e as a s c u l p t o r . Although the jasperware designs represented the bulk of h i s work at the time, Wedgwood's cat a l o g u e s d i d not name the a r t i s t s who pro v i d e d designs and as a r e s u l t Flaxman c o u l d a c q u i r e n e i t h e r a r e p u t a t i o n nor important commissions. In a d d i t i o n , d e s p i t e the wide d i s t r i b u t i o n of h i s designs as jasperware, the commissions he r e c e i v e d from Wedgwood pro v i d e d i n s u f f i c i e n t income f o r Flaxman to accumulate the r e s o u r c e s to t r a v e l and study at f i r s t hand the a n t i q u i t i e s t h a t so o f t e n served as h i s i n s p i r a t i o n . The value of d i r e c t l y examining the remains of the a n c i e n t world must have been foremost i n Flaxman's mind. As e a r l y as 1771 a Mr. Freeman r e p o r t e d to Wedgwood that he had suggested to John Flaxman Sr. that he send h i s son to Rome to develop h i s t a l e n t s but Flaxman S e n i o r ' s b u s i n e s s was never a b l e to support such an expense.41 At about the same time, i n Flaxman's second year at Royal Academy, the coveted Gold Medal and i t s attendant t r a v e l l i n g p r i z e was awarded to Thomas E n g l e h a r t . A c c o r d i n g to Constable, Reynolds had 'used h i s i n f l u e n c e a g a i n s t F laxman.' 4 2 Reynolds may have found Flaxman annoyingly p r e c o c i o u s . The young a r t i s t ' s manner had been noted by Wedgwood i n u n f l a t t e r i n g terms. In a l e t t e r to p a r t n e r B e n t l e y i n 1775 he commented that i t was 'but a few years s i n c e [Flaxman] was a most supreme Coxcomb.' 4 3 In f a c t , Reynolds was never r e a l l y sympathetic towards s c u l p t o r s . Indeed, he r e s e r v e d h i s most s p e c i f i c s u ggestions f o r s c u l p t o r s u n t i l h i s tenth D i s c o u r s e , d e l i v e r e d 5 years a f t e r Flaxman had l e f t the Academy and then h i s comments were b r i e f . In the h i g h e s t or 'grand s t y l e ' of s c u l p t u r e the ornamental was r u l e d out, modern dress must never be used, a r c h i t e c t u r a l backgrounds i n p e r s p e c t i v e were 32 to be avoided, and there were to be no p i c t u r e s q u e c o n t r a s t s but r a t h e r a symmetrical b a l a n c i n g of p a r t s . 4 4 He might w e l l have been d e s c r i b i n g a two dimensional image r a t h e r than a t h r e e dimensional s c u l p t u r e . Reynolds remained unsympathetic to Flaxman's cause. When Flaxman attempted to o b t a i n funds to go to Rome i n 1784 he approached Reynolds with the i d e a that he, the eager young s c u l p t o r , with experience gained i n h i s f a t h e r ' s c a s t shop and t r a i n e d at the Royal Academy s c h o o l s which Reynolds s t i l l headed, c o u l d become a Rome-based s u p p l i e r of c a s t s to the Academy. Reynolds d e c l i n e d the o f f e r . 4 5 Undaunted, Flaxman and h i s wife Nancy e v e n t u a l l y l e f t f o r Rome i n the autumn of 1787 hoping to stay two y e a r s . They were a s s i s t e d by Romney who accepted Flaxman's o f f e r of c a s t s sent from Rome i n exchange f o r money p a i d before they l e f t , 4 6 by Nancy's p a r e n t s 4 7 and by Wedgwood who p a i d to have t h e i r heavy luggage sent on to Rome. 4 8 The Flaxman's cro s s e d to Dieppe, t r a v e l l e d through France and i n l a t e 1787 a r r i v e d i n Rome. During t h e i r journey Flaxman recorded i n j o u r n a l s and l e t t e r s h i s impressions of those t h i n g s he saw and b e l i e v e d he might l a t e r f i n d u s e f u l . H i s notes suggest that although much of what he was seeing was new to him, h i s r e a c t i o n s were u l t i m a t e l y based on a few f i r m p r i n c i p l e s . At V e r s a i l l e s , as he wrote i n a l e t t e r t o h i s parents, he c o n s i d e r e d that the t h e a t r e was 'wonderfully r i c h ' 4 ^ w h i le i n h i s own j o u r n a l he d e s c r i b e d i t as ' b a r b a r o u s . ' 5 0 Ornamentation might be p r e t t y 33 to look at but be c o u l d not f o r e s e e i t s being s u i t a b l e f o r h i s own work. In I t a l y he found the Baroque p a l a c e s i n T u r i n t a i n t e d with the 'bad t a s t e of a r c h i t e c t u r e which succeeded the age of Mich e l a n g e l o ' , t h e i r carved facades and i n t e r i o r s being 'as r i c h i n g o l d , s i l v e r and f i n e marble as they were poor i n t a s t e . ' 5 1 In s t r i k i n g c o n t r a s t were h i s r e a c t i o n s t o the Venus de M e d i c i and the Niobe he admired i n F l o r e n c e . Where the t h e a t r e i n V e r s a i l l e s was 'barbarous' these s c u l p t u r e s were done with 'wonderful a t t e n t i o n to nature without exaggera-t i o n , there [was] no a f f e c t a t i o n of s t y l e , b e a u t i f u l nature was chosen by the A r t i s t and copied with so much s p i r i t , judgment...' Where the Baroque p a l a c e s were ' r i c h i n gold s i l v e r and f i n e marble' and thus 'poor i n t a s t e ' the c l a s s i c a l works showed ' t r u t h of anatomy and o u t l i n e with a d e l i c a c y of ex e c u t i o n that when seen i n proper l i g h t the naked p a r t s seem capable of motion, the d r a p e r i e s are of f i n e c l o t h s , l i g h t , b e a u t i f u l l y disposed to c o n t r a s t the limbs and shew them, as w e l l as to add d i g n i t y to the f i g u r e s . ' 5 2 Flaxman a l s o sketched e x t e n s i v e l y . Of p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t here i s the v a r i e t y of the type and s t y l e of m o t i f s he s e l e c t e d . F i g u r e 16 i s a study from l i f e rendered i n a manner s u g g e s t i v e of the Homer designs with i t s pure o u t l i n e and p a r a l l e l h a t c h i n g i n the background. F i g u r e 17 i s Flaxman's sketch of a d e t a i l of S i g n o r e l l i ' s B a t t l e of the Nudes ( F i g u r e 18) i n the Duomo i n O r v i e t o . 5 3 The r e d u c t i o n of the o r i g i n a l to o u t l i n e with only s l i g h t shading and the e l i m i n a t i o n of the background has 34 given that sketch a two dimensional aspect that i s not s t r e s s e d i n S i g n o r e l l i ' s v e r s i o n . Flaxman has a l s o a l t e r e d and c o r r e c t e d the anatomy of the f i g u r e s . In a t h i r d s ketch, t h i s of an antique r e l i e f i n the V a t i c a n d e p i c t i n g the B a t t l e of the Amazons, ( F i g u r e 19), Flaxman has again reduced the f i g u r e s to s l i g h t o u t l i n e p e n c i l l i n e s . These sketches from v a r i e d sources, with f i g u r e s i n v a r i e d poses but with l i t t l e d e t a i l , are r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of Flaxman's attempts to accumulate images that c o u l d be reasembled i n new compositions. On h i s p e r e g r i n a t i o n s about I t a l y , Flaxman came i n t o c o n t a c t with a s e v e r a l members of the a r t i s t i c community. In a l e t t e r to h i s parents from 1790 he commented, 'I have been t r e a t e d with p a r t i c u l a r a t t e n t i o n by most of the a r t i s t s of the f i r s t eminence, both Englishmen and f o r e i g n e r s ' . 5 4 A number became such good f r i e n d s t h a t they c o n t r i b u t e d sketches to one of Flaxman's s k e t c h b o o k s . 5 5 Among them were C h a r l e s P e r c i e r who Flaxman d e s c r i b e d as 'a French a r c h i t e c t of the f i r s t t a l e n t ' . 5 6 The French landscape p a i n t e r Ducros c o n t r i b u t e d a w a t e r colour. The Flaxman's c i r c l e of f r i e n d s a l s o i n c l u d e d the I r i s h por-t r a i t - p a i n t e r Hugh Douglas H a m i l t o n , 5 7 the E n g l i s h H i s t o r y P a i n t e r Guy Head, and the I t a l i a n s c u l p t o r Antonio Canova. And he wrote a l e t t e r of i n t r o d u c t i o n f o r James P l a y f a i r , 5 8 the E n g l i s h a r c h i t e c t , to S i r W i l l i a m Hamilton, the B r i t i s h Ambassador to the Court at Naples, with whom Flaxman had been acquainted f o r some time. In 1790 Flaxman corresponded with Hamilton, as k i n g him f o r 'some few p a r t i c u l a r s of the Greek 35 s t o r i e s represented on these b e a u t i f u l Etrusean vases which you have added to your c o l l e c t i o n s i n c e I was l a s t at Naples and which I have so great a l o n g i n g to s e e . ' 5 9 H i s most important s c u l p t u r a l commission was the Fury of Athamas ( F i g u r e 20) which came on the recommendation of h i s f r i e n d Antonio Canova, and l e d to the commissions f o r the Homeric d e s i g n s . The p r e c i s e h i s t o r y of the Homeric commissions was recounted by Flaxman i n 1824 to h i s f r i e n d the a r c h i t e c t C h a r l e s Robert C o c k e r e l l who recorded t h e i r c o n v e r s a t i o n i n h i s d i a r y : Flaxman had r e c e i v e d L600 f o r the composition of Athamas i n 1790 but the marble, time and expenses ( s i c ) had c o s t so much that t h i s work \"had beggared him\" ( h i s own phrase) [;] he was glad being thus named to accept the p r o p o s i t i o n to execute the designs of Homer f o r Mr. [Hare-]Naylor. Flaxman composed the Dante at Mr. Hope's i n v i t a t i o n . 6 0 Indeed The Fury of Athamas had not been a f i n a n c i a l success but Flaxman had an u l t e r i o r motive. He wrote to Romney i n A p r i l of 1790 e x p r e s s i n g the hope that the work 'might e s t a b l i s h my r e p u t a t i o n as a s c u l p t o r ' . 6 ! In a l e t t e r , w r i t t e n to h i s parents i n October of the same year, he was even more s p e c i f i c : ' i f I ever expect to be employed on great works, i t i s but reasonable that I should show the world some proof of ray a b i l i t i e s , otherwise I cannot reasonably expect employment of that k i n d , ' 6 2 . In f a c t , i t was on Flaxman's i n s i s t e n c e t h a t the commission had grown from what Lord B r i s t o l wanted - a f i v e f o o t by e i g h t or nine f o o t b a s - r e l i e f based on an e x i s t i n g t e r r a c o t t a - to the f r e e s t a n d i n g f o u r f i g u r e group over seven f e e t t a l l 36 Flaxman f i n a l l y d e l i v e r e d . As he worked on the Athamas i t became obvious that h i s other a r t i s t i c a c t i v i t i e s c o u l d not support the c o s t s of p r o d u c t i o n . He was f o r c e d t o ask f o r more money but only L100 i n a d d i t i o n to the o r i g i n a l l y agreed upon L500 was forthcoming. By comparison, f o r the r a t h e r more s u c c e s s f u l Lord M a n s f i e l d monument of 1794 ( F i g u r e 21). Flaxman's s c u l p t o r ' s f ee alone was L 2 0 0 0 . 6 3 Flaxman was c e r t a i n l y aware of the importance of c o s t s . The concept f o r a monument f o r the poet W i l l i a m C o l l i n s ( F i g u r e 22) was abandoned f o r the l e s s expensive one Flaxman d e l i v e r e d ( F i g u r e 2 3 ) . 6 4 Lord B r i s t o l had a r e p u t a t i o n f o r being \" e c c e n t r i c and mean\" 8 5 and had t r e a t e d other a r t i s t s r a t h e r s h a b b i l y . For example, i n 1778 the a r c h i t e c t John Soane a r r i v e d i n Rome to begin a p e r i o d of study only to leave prematurely i n the f o l l o w i n g year l u r e d away by Lord B r i s t o l ' s promise of the commission f o r h i s new mansion at Ickworth. When Soane ret u r n e d Lord B r i s t o l f a i l e d to honour h i s p r o m i s e . 6 6 Soane was never to resume h i s I t a l i a n s t u d i e s . In Flaxman's case, i t would seem that Lord B r i s t o l was t a k i n g advantage of the s c u l p t o r ' s d e s i r e to e s t a b l i s h h i m s e l f to guarantee the completion of the p r o j e c t . For a l l h i s i n d i f f e r e n c e to Flaxman's f i n a n c i a l p l i g h t , Lord B r i s t o l d i d not h e s i t a t e t o p r a i s e the man or h i s work. A f t e r a l l , no l e s s a f i g u r e than Antonio Canova had suggested t h a t Flaxman was capable of d e l i v e r i n g e x c e l l e n t w ork. 6 7 Furthermore, Lord B r i s t o l mentioned i n a l e t t e r to Lady Erne 37 that he had sent a message to Flaxman's f a t h e r s a y i n g that the young man would ' r i s e t o be the f i r s t s c u l p t o r i n E u r o p e ' . 6 8 He hoped he was g e t t i n g Flaxman's g r e a t e s t work j u s t b e f o r e the s c u l p t o r ' s name became a household word. To have purchased such a major work, the product of three years work, f o r only 600 guineas would have demonstrated Lord B r i s t o l ' s b u s i n e s s acumen as w e l l as h i s r e f i n e d t a s t e s . Indeed, he p e r s o n i f i e d Reynolds' o b s e r v a t i o n that 'there i s a general d e s i r e among our N o b i l i t y to be d i s t i n g u i s h e d as l o v e r s and judges of the A r t s ' , 6 9 As i t t r a n s p i r e d The Fury of Athamas was an a r t i s t i c f a i l u r e , i n no s m a l l p a r t because i t i s r e a l l y only compre-h e n s i b l e when viewed from the one s i d e shown i n F i g u r e 20. But even then i t s dramatic impact i s subdued and the f a c e s of the f i g u r e s p a s s i o n l e s s . The p a r t i c i p a n t s seem c u r i o u s l y d i v o r c e d from the a c t i o n . One might imagine that as Flaxman t o i l e d on, without compensation, h i s enthusiasm was s i m i l a r l y d i v o r c e d from the work. Flaxman's r e l a t i o n s h i p with the Hare-Naylors, who com-missioned the Homer designs, c o u l d not have been more d i f f e r e n t . They were not simply f e l l o w v i s i t o r s to I t a l y but p e r s o n a l f r i e n d s . Mrs. Hare-Naylor embroidered a c a r p e t f o r the F l a x m a n s 7 0 and Flaxman's s i s t e r was the governess of the Hare-Naylor's f o u r sons.71 The Hare-Naylor's f i n a n c i a l s i t u a t i o n d i d not permit them to g i v e Flaxman an o u t r i g h t g i f t without at l e a s t the hope of a r e t u r n and had they o f f e r e d him a loan Flaxman 38 probably would have r e f u s e d . He had been very r e l u c t a n t to accept money from Romney to a s s i s t with expenses f o r h i s t r i p to Rome and only agreed to accept money i n exchange f o r c a s t s . 7 2 Flaxman had a l r e a d y demonstrated h i s t a l e n t s as a draughts-man. As e a r l y as 1788 he had r e l a t e d t h at 'my drawings have s u r p r i s e d some of the best E n g l i s h a r t i s t s here ( i n Rome), who thought they were copied from the s t o r i e s on Greek v a s e s ' . 7 3 Apparently even at t h i s time he was able to take s u b j e c t s from l i f e , a r t works a n c i e n t and modern, and e x p r e s s l y from Greek vases and produce from them o r i g i n a l drawings r e m i n i s c e n t of the l i n e drawings on a n c i e n t vases. F u r t h e r , h i s words 'copied from the s t o r i e s on Greek vases' suggest t h a t h i s drawings were being a s s o c i a t e d with passages from a n c i e n t l i t e r a t u r e . The t e x t s Mr. Hare-Naylor proposed t h a t Flaxman should i l l u s t r a t e , the I l i a d and Odyssey, a l s o o f f e r e d a promise of success s i n c e the e p i c n a r r a t i v e s had i n s p i r e d a number of s i g n i f i c a n t works i n the second h a l f of the 18th Century. In the course of i n v e s t i g a t i n g over 300 works based on s u b j e c t s from the I l i a d , Dora Wiebenson found that w h ile over 200 date from the p e r i o d 1750 to 1825 fewer than 40 are from the preceeding three c e n t u r i e s . 7 4 She i d e n t i f i e d two f a c t o r s t hat c o n t r i b u t e d to the sudden i n c r e a s e i n p o p u l a r i t y . The f i r s t f a c t o r i s a change i n a t t i t u d e of l i t e r a r y c r i t i c s toward the Homeric e p i c s . Before 1750, they censured \"Homer's common language, long d i g r e s s i o n s which l e f t h i s poems with l i t t l e formal s t r u c t u r e , h i s r e a l i s t i c and v u l g a r 39 d e s c r i p t i o n s , o r d i n a r y , u n i d e a l a c t i o n s and unheroic heroes, and the l a c k of a l l e g o r i c a l s t r u c t u r e of the poems\". 7 5 The v i g o u r of h i s n a r r a t i v e was ignored by l i t e r a r y c r i t i c and a r t i s t a l i k e such t h a t , on the r a r e o c c a s i o n s when Homeric s u b j e c t s were d e p i c t e d , emphasis was p l a c e d on d i d a c t i c purpose r a t h e r than a c c u r a t e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of the t e x t . The most notable s e r i e s of the e a r l i e r p e r i o d , e i g h t t a p e s t r y designs by Rubens ( c . 1630), focused on a d e p i c t i o n of the l i f e of A c h i l l e s not on a r e c o u n t i n g of the events of the T r o j a n War. Included are a Wrath of A c h i l l e s ( c f . Flaxman's Minerva Repressing the Fury of A c h i l l e s ( I l i a d 2, F i g u r e 37)) and the e a r l i e s t known Return of B r i s e i s (not i l l u s t r a t e d by Flaxman). The p a i n t e r has used Homer's w e l l known c h a r a c t e r s to present v i s u a l metaphors of two themes — the i n f l u e n c e of the gods upon men and the dominance of l o v e . 7 6 In the f i r s t h a l f of the 18th century d i d a c t i c purpose was subordinated to s p e c t a c u l a r v i s u a l image. In h i s v e r s i o n of the Wrath of A c h i l l e s (one of t h r e e designs f o r G o b e l i n s t a p e s t r i e s 7 7 (1721-1725)) Antoine Coypel separates mortals and goddess by p l a c i n g Minerva i n a c l o u d o n l y v i s i b l e to A c h i l l e s ; yet, c o n s i s t a n t with works of the p e r i o d , the c e n t r a l f i g u r e s i n the a c t i o n are l o c a t e d i n an expansive landscape completed with f o l i a g e , s h i p s i n a harbour and a f u l l y d e s c r i b e d m i l i t a r y encampment populated by many c o l o r f u l l y costumed f i g u r e s . The second f a c t o r i n the i n c r e a s e d p o p u l a r i t y of Homeric s u b j e c t s was the p u b l i c a t i o n of Tableaux tir£s de I ' I l i a d , de 40 I'0dyss6e d'Homere et de l ' E n e i d e de V i r g l l e , avec des observa- t i o n s g£nerales sur l e costume i n 1757. I t s author, the Comte de Caylus, c o n s i d e r e d at l e n g t h how and which scenes might be used to s u c c e s s f u l l y i l l u s t r a t e the e p i c s . T h i s a n a l y t i c a l work suggested, f o r example, that as B r i s e i s departure was a consequence of the same event t h a t p r e c i p i t a t e d A c h i l l e s ' wrath the two images should l o g i c a l l y appear t o g e t h e r . In a d d i t i o n , by p a i r i n g them, both the p u b l i c o f f i c i a l and the p r i v a t e domestic s i d e s of the hero's c h a r a c t e r c o u l d be exposed. Before de Caylus' Tableaux the s u b j e c t s had been a s s o c i a t e d o n l y once but a f t e r 1757 they were rendered together o f t e n . Among the a r t i s t s who d i d so were: G i a m b a t t i s t a T i e p o l o f o r h i s Valmarana s e r i e s p a i n t e d i n 1757 only a few months a f t e r the p u b l i c a t i o n of the Tableaux,78 Tobias S e r g e i i n the 1760's, 7 9 J.H. T i s c h b e i n i n the 1770's,80 Joseph-Marie V i e n , de Caylus' prot£g6, i n the 1780*s, 8 1 and Flaxman i n the 1790's. While each c o n t a i n s d e t a i l s i n s p i r e d by de C a y l u s , 8 2 Flaxman's ( I l i a d 2 and 3, F i g u r e s 37 and 35 r e s p e c t i v e l y ) are set a p a r t from a l l p r e v i o u s treatments as he r e v e a l e d A c h i l l e s c h a r a c t e r u s i n g fewer f i g u r e s i n simple f r i e z e - l i k e compositions with v i r t u a l l y no s e t t i n g . , Wiebenson a l s o r e c a l l s de Caylus' a c t i v i t i e s i n a movement \"which s t r e s s e d a r e t u r n to the c l a s s i c a l i d e a l s of 17th century French a r t , n o t a b l y to the a r t of Poussin.\"83 i t was from engravings of t h i s a r t i s t ' s works that Gavin Hamilton d e r i v e d the compositions f o r at l e a s t three of h i s works — 41 Hector's F a r e w e l l , Priam and A c h i l l e s and Andromache Mourning. A f o u r t h work A c h i l l e s Dragging Hector's Body around the Walls of Troy ( F i g u r e 53) i s based on an engraving by P l e t r o T e s t a a member of Poussin's c i r c l e i n Rome. Years b e f o r e Flaxman had borrowed a scene of the s u b j e c t from an antique gem i l l u s t r a t e d i n G o r i ' s Museum E t r u s c u m 8 4 to produce a Jasperware design f o r Wedgwood but he chose not to r e v i v e i t f o r the Homer commission. Instead, he used an engraving f o r Hamilton's p a i n t i n g as a model f o r h i s Hectors ( s i c ) Body Dragged at the Car of A c h i l l e s , I l i a d 36 ( F i g u r e 38). There was a l r e a d y a w e l l e s t a b l i s h e d market f o r d e p i c t i o n s of the a n c i e n t world with the steady flow of people through Rome on the Grand T o u r . 8 5 Flaxman h i m s e l f had found P i r a n e s i ' s images of Rome an added i n c e n t i v e to t r a v e l t h e r e . The t o u r i s t s were a c t i v e l y engaged i n c o l l e c t i n g a n t i q u i t i e s and d e p i c t i o n s of a n c i e n t a r t . Flaxman was w e l l acquainted with them, a c t i n g as a guide t o s i t e s of a n t i q u a r i a n i n t e r e s t with such frequency t h a t , as Mrs. Flaxman wrote to her s i s t e r , the v i s i t o r s 'almost h u r r i e d him o f f h i s l e g s ' . 8 6 T h i s c o n t a c t was not without e f f e c t . He wrote t o h i s f a t h e r 'I f i n d from what I see of the E n g l i s h n o b i l i t y and gentry here that the t a s t e i n c r e a s e s i n England f o r p l a s t e r c a s t s as w e l l as other a r t i c l e s of s c u l p -t u r e ' . 8 7 A c c o r d i n g l y he suggested t h a t Flaxman Sr. i n c r e a s e h i s stock of c a s t s . Flaxman, with Hare-Naylor, must have b e l i e v e d that newly c r e a t e d c l a s s i c a l l y i n s p i r e d designs would be an a t t r a c t i v e supplement to the c o l l e c t i n g p r o c l i v i t i e s of 42 the Grand T o u r i s t s p a r t i c u l a r l y i f the s u b j e c t matter were f a m i l i a r , the form a p p r o p r i a t e and the volumes a f f o r d a b l e . At t h i s j u n c t u r e , i t would seem a p p r o p r i a t e to note the circumstances that surrounded Flaxman's a s s o c i a t i o n with Thomas Hope and the s i g n i f i c a n c e of h i s Dante commission which entered i n t o h i s l a t e r d i s c u s s i o n s with C o c k e r e l l . Flaxman's a s s o c i a t i o n with Thomas Hope had begun some years b e f o r e the Dante designs were even c o n s i d e r e d . In the winter of 1789-90 Flaxman had been working on a group t i t l e d Aurora v i s i t i n g Cephalus on Mount Ida ( F i g u r e 24) which was o r i g i n a l l y t o be c a s t i n bronze but f i n a l l y executed i n marble.88 I t was to be the f o c a l p o i n t of a s o - c a l l e d Flaxman or S t a r room i n Hope's then newly f u r n i s h e d house i n Duchess S t r e e t i n London. A good i n d i c a t i o n of how the room was to be arranged with the s c u l p t u r e and other works i s shown i n the 1807 e d i t i o n of Hope's Household F u r n i t u r e ( F i g u r e 25). In 1792 Hope advanced Flaxman L341 of an a n t i c i p a t e d L700 f o r an as yet unexecuted r e c r e a t i o n of an a n c i e n t group to be based upon the Torso Belvedere89 a n c j to r e p r e s e n t the marriage of H e r c u l e s and Hebe. The work was never attemped, as intended, i n a marble comparable to that of the o r i g i n a l Torso Belvedere. Apparently Flaxman f e l t h i s design c o u l d not be s u c c e s s f u l l y t r a n s l a t e d i n t o stone.90 He may w e l l have been c o r r e c t . A conspicuous f a u l t i n the s u r v i v i n g p l a s t e r model ( F i g u r e 26) i s that the f i g u r e of Hebe i s so d i s p r o p o r t i o n a t e l y small that she appears to be a young g i r l r a t h e r than a b r i d e of H e r c u l e s . 43 At l e a s t two c o n s i d e r a t i o n s had prompted Hope to commission the Dante i l l u s t r a t i o n s . H i s i n t e n t i o n , on the one hand, was to g i v e engraved v e r s i o n s t o c l o s e f r i e n d s as g i f t s . T h i s i d e a of a very p e r s o n a l and expensive g i f t was not new. Wedgewood had provided Jasperware p o r t r a i t medalions of i n -d i v i d u a l s f o r s i m i l a r d i s p o s i t i o n while Flaxman was i n h i s employ.91 There had a l s o been an i n c r e a s e d i n t e r e s t i n Dante i n England. As r e c e n t l y as 1781 Thomas Warton had p u b l i s h e d h i s H i s t o r y of E n g l i s h Poetry i n which Dante's genius had been explo r e d and W i l l i a m Hayley had c o n s i d e r e d the poet's work i n Triumph of Temper and h i s Essay on E p i c Poetry. In the same year Henry Boyd pr o v i d e d the f i r s t E n g l i s h t r a n s l a t i o n of the D i v i n e Comedy.\" I t was t h i s t r a n s l a t i o n which was to p r o v i d e the E n g l i s h t e x t to Flaxman's i l l u s t r a t i o n s . J u s t as there had been l i t t l e l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m to which he c o u l d r e f e r there was a l s o very l i t t l e s p e c i f i c contemporary p i c t o r i a l imagery f o r Flaxman to use f o r i n s p i r a t i o n . P r i o r to Flaxman's undertaking the Dante Commission the most recent s e r i e s of i l l u s t r a t i o n s f o r the D i v i n e Comedy was the l a t e 15th Century c o l l e c t i o n by Sandro B o t t i c e l l i . 9 3 As these designs were a l s o rendered i n the l i n e they would have been of obvious i n t e r e s t t o Flaxman. However, the B o t t i c e l l i manuscript vanished i n the 16th Century only to reappear i n 1803 i n a S c o t t i s h c o l l e c t i o n . 9 4 while i t i s u n l i k e l y t h at Flaxman had access to t h i s I t a l i a n ' s work i t i s p o s s i b l e that both a r t i s t s c o n s u l t e d a common source, I t a l i a n l a t e G o t h i c i l l u m i n a t e d 44 manuscripts of the D i v i n e Comedy over t h i r t y of which s u r v i v e . y £ ) Rather unexpectedly, i n 1773, Reynolds became the f i r s t a r t i s t to e x h i b i t a Dante s u b j e c t at the Royal Academy, an U g o l i n o . S i m i l a r l y , when Antonio Z a t t a p u b l i s h e d an i l l u s t r a t e d e d i t i o n of the D i v i n e Comedy i n Venice i n 1757 i t was the f i r s t s i n c e 1 5 9 6. 9 6 The dearth or works a s s o c i a t e d s p e c i f i c a l l y with Dante to which Flaxman c o u l d r e f e r meant t h a t he was f o r c e d to r e l y upon h i s own r e s o u r c e s . Thus, perhaps f o r the l a c k of a v a i l a b l e p i c t o r i a l p r e c e n t s , the Dante designs became \" h i s most c o n s i s -t e n t l y o r i g i n a l s e r i e s of i l l u s t r a t i o n s . \" 9 7 To r e t u r n to the s u b j e c t of the Homer designs, from Flaxman's p o i n t of view the commission had conspicuous advant-ages. I t c o u l d e x p l o i t the a r t i s t i c s k i l l s he had p r e v i o u s l y demonstrated. In 1792, he a p p a r e n t l y regarded design (as opposed execution of s c u l p t u r e , f o r example) as h i s most h i g h l y developed s k i l l . A f t e r h i s d i s c u s s i o n s with C o c k e r e l l the a r c h i t e c t noted that ' I t i s a great happiness to an a r t i s t to be c a l l e d i n t o a c t i o n by someone who knows he a p p r e c i a t e s h i s p a r t i c u l a r f o r t e ' , 9 8 No l e s s i m p o r t a n t l y Flaxman was to apply these s k i l l s to a s t o r y with which he was long f a m i l i a r . Mrs. Matthew had read the Homer s t o r i e s i n t r a n s l a t i o n to him. H i s f i r s t commission had been f o r drawing of Homeric s u b j e c t s f o r Jeremiah C r u t c h l e y a f r i e n d of the Matthews. The m a t e r i a l s and l a b o r c o s t s would be small compared with Flaxman's s c u l p t u r a l works. The d u r a t i o n of the work on the Homeric i l l u s t r a t i o n s was to be c o n s i d e r a b l y shortened because the 45 f i n a l v e r s i o n s were to be engraved and presented f o r s a l e by someone e l s e , the engraver Thomas P i r o l i . E x p e d i t i n g P i r o l i ' s task, the designs were to be p u b l i s h e d as books of engravings d i s p e n s i n g with the need f o r s e c u r i n g the r i g h t s to an accom-panying t e x t on t r a n s l a t i o n . F i n a l l y , the chosen form, l i n e engraving, was, as S i r W i l l i a m Hamilton had noted i n h i s C o l l e c t i o n of Vases of 1791, an inexpen s i v e form of i l l u s t r a t i o n . For a l l those i n v o l v e d , Hare-Naylor, Flaxman, and P i r o l i , the p r o j e c t promised an e a r l y and s u c c e s s f u l c o n c l u s i o n . 4 6 NOTES TO THE TEXT CHAPTER I I 6 John Thomas, 'John Flaxman, R.A. (1755-1826)', J o u r n a l of the Royal S o c i e t y of A r t s , (9th December 1955), p.43 R.Gunnis, D i c t i o n a r y of B r i t i s h S c u l p t o r s (London 1953; and r e v i s e d e d i t i o n 1968) g i v e s as complete a biography as i s p o s s i b l e f o r John Flaxman Sr whose c a r e e r was almost completely overshadowed by h i s son's. Flaxman's s i s t e r - i n - l a w Maria Denman s a i d i n The B u i l d e r (24 January 1863) p. 60 that Flaxman r e c e i v e d no t r a i n i n g . T h i s c o n t r a d i c t s A l l a n Cunningham, L i v e s of the Most Eminent B r i t i s h P a i n t e r s S c u l p t o r s and A r c h i t e c t s , 2nd e d i t i o n . (London, 1830-1833) v o l . I l l p. 61. Noted by Irwin op. c i t . p. 213 f n 26. For the most complete c o n s i d e r a t i o n of Rev. and Mrs. Mathew see G e r a l d B e n t l e y , 'Patron of Flaxman and Blake,' Notes and Q u e r i e s , 203, 1958, pp. 168-178. George -Smith The D i c t i o n a r y of N a t i o n a l Biography ed. S i r L e s l i e Stephen and S i r Sidney Lee (London, 1938), v o l . I l l p.1104. I b i d . , v o l IV p.59. 7 I b i d . , v o l XIII p.688. 8 I b i d . , v o l XIII p.688. 9 I b i d . , v o l XIII p.689. 1 0 The f i r s t p a tron of Flaxman as a p r o f e s s i o n a l a r t i s t was probably Edward Knight s e n i o r c o u s i n of R i c h a r d Payne Knight. See E l l a Hendricks, 'The F i r s t p atron of John Flaxman' B u r l i n g t o n Magazine October 1984 pp. 618-625. Mr. C r u t c h l e y ' s s i x b l a c k chalk drawings are now l o s t . Irwin op. c i t . , p. 220, n. 51. 1 1 W i l l i a m Hayley, Memoirs (London 1823). I. p.309. 1 2 MSS, P i e r p o n t Morgan L i b r a r y , New York, Flaxman to Hagley, 24 August 1803. 1 3 J . Romney, Memoirs of George Romney (London 1830), p.203. 1 4 Sidney C. Hutchison The H i s t o r y of the Royal Academy 1768-1968 (London, 1968); James Northcote, Esq. The L i f e of S i r Joshua Reynolds (London, 1818) p. 164 f f . 47 1 5 Sidney C. Hutchison, 'The Royal Academy Schools, 1768-1830', Walpole S o c i e t y , XXXVIII, 1960-1962, p.134. 16 S i r Joshua Reynolds, D i s c o u r s e s on A r t ed. Robert R. Wark (San Marino, C a l i f o r n i a , 1959) D i s c o u r s e II 11.18ff. 1 7 Hutchison op. c i t . , p.102. 1 9 Reynolds, D i s c o u r s e I I I , 11. 23-27. 2 0 Reynolds, D i s c o u r s e IV, 11. 27-33. 2 1 Reynolds, D i s c o u r s e I I I , 11. 45-47. 2 2 Sidney C. Hutchison, The H i s t o r y of the Royal Academy 1768-1968 (London, 1968) p. 237. 2 3 * Reynolds, D i s c o u r s e I I I , 11. 242-246. 2 4 Reynolds, D i s c o u r s e I I I , 11. 256-265. 2 5 Reynolds, D i s c o u r s e I I I , 11. 103-105. 2 6 Reynolds, D i s c o u r s e IV, 11. 167-171. 2 7 Reynolds, D i s c o u r s e I I , 11. 97-99. 2 8 Reynolds, D i s c o u r s e V, 11. 312-316. 2 9 Reynolds, D i s c o u r s e I I , 11. 188-191. 3 0 Reynolds, D i s c o u r s e I I I , 11. 355-361. 3 1 Reynolds, D i s c o u r s e I I , 11. 184-185. 3 2 Reynolds, D i s c o u r s e V, 11. 70-75. 3 3 Reynolds, D i s c o u r s e V, 11. 45-52. 3 4 Reynolds, D i s c o u r s e IV, 11. 34-36. 3 5 Reynolds, D i s c o u r s e I I I , 11. 300-301. 3 6 Wedgwood to B e n t l e y 14 January 1775 i n E. Meteyard, L i f e of Wedgwood (London 1865-1866), II p. 321. 3 7 Wedgwood to Ben t l e y 9 J u l y 1776 i n Meteyard, op. c i t . , II p. 366. 3 8 Wedgwood to Bentley, 14 February 1776 i n Constable, op. c i t . , p. 10. 48 3 9 Wedgwood to Flaxman, 11 February 1790, i n Meteyard, op. c i t . , p. 589. 4 0 The whole i s s u e of i n d u s t r y drawing upon a n c i e n t works f o r i n s p i r a t i o n was co n s i d e r e d by David Irwin, \"Neo-c l a s s i c a l Design: Industry Plunders A n t i q u i t y \" , A p o l l o ns 96: pp.283-297. 4 1 Noted i n a l e t t e r Wedgwood t o B e n t l e y 7 September 1771 i n F i n e r and Savage op. c i t . , p. 114. * 4 2 Constable, op. c i t . , p.7. 4 3 Wedgwood to Ben t l e y 14 January 1775 i n Constable, op. c i t . , p. 8. 4 4 Joseph Burke, E n g l i s h A r t 1714-1800 (Oxford, 1976), p. 259. 4 5 Constable, op. c i t . , p. 7. 4 6 W i l l i a m Hayley, The L i f e of George Romney Esq. (London, 1809) p.313 and J . Romney, op. c i t . , p. 4 7 B r i t i s h L i b r a r y , MS. 39784, A., Flaxman account book e n t r i e s . 4 8 E. Meteyard op. c i t . , p. 506 i n c l u d e s a f a c s i m i l e of a l i s t w r i t t e n by Flaxman of the contents of a box of the Flaxmans sent by Wedgwood 'to the care of Mess, M i c a l i and Son Leghorn.' 4 9 B r i t i s h L i b r a r y , Add. MSS. 39780 f . 38v, Flaxman to h i s parent s , from P a r i s 1 October 1787. 5 0 David Irwin, John Flaxman 1755-1826 (London, 1979), p. 31. 5 1 I b i d . , p 31 a l s o David Irwin, 'Flaxman: I t a l i a n J o u r n a l s and Correspondence' B u r l i n g t o n Magazine, C l (1959) pp. 212-213. 5 2 Quoted at l e n g t h by David Irwin, 'Flaxman I t a l i a n J o u r n a l s and Correspondence' as i n p r e v i o u s f o o t n o t e p. 213. 5 3 The correspondence of these two images i s noted i n David Irwin, John Flaxman 1755-1826 (London, 1979), p. 41. 5 4 B r i t i s h L i b r a r y , Add. MS. 3 9 J 8 0 , f . 47v, Flaxman to parents, Rome, 26 January [-4790]. 49 John Murray L t d London, Flaxman sketchbook 435. Noted i n David Irwin, John Flaxman 1755-1826 (London, 1979), p. 49, 223 n.52 C o l l e c t i o n of Autograph l e t t e r s . . . A l f r e d M o r r i s o n . Hamilton and Nelson papers, I L e t t e r 237. B r i t i s h L i b r a r y , Add. MS. 39780, f . 179, Mrs. Flaxman to s i s t e r , [Rome], 22 J u l y 1788 wherein Hamilton i s d e s c r i b e d as Flaxman's 'best f r i e n d i n Rome.' Bo d l e i a n L i b r a r y , MSS. Autograph d. I I , f f . 319-20, Rome, 13 March 1792. Flaxman to S i r W i l l i a m Hamilton, undated [1790], p r i n t e d i n C o l l e c t i o n of Autograph l e t t e r s . . . A l f r e d M o r r i s o n . Hamilton and Nelson Papers (1893), I, L e t t e r 237. C h a r l e s Robert C o c k e r e l l , D i a r i e s , 27th November 1824. Flaxman t o Romney, Rome, 15 A p r i l 1790 i n J . Romney, op. c i t . , p 208. Flaxman to pare n t s , Rome, 7 October 1790 i n B r i t i s h L i b r a r y Add. MS. 39780 f . 50. Sarah Symmons, The S p i r i t of Despair: Patronage, P r i m i t i v i s m and the A r t of John Flaxman', B u r l i n g t o n Magazine, CXVII, 1975, p. 647. The r e j e c t e d v e r s i o n would have c o s t about L225. The d e l i v e r e d one d i d co s t L90 D. Irwin John Flaxman 1755-1826 (London 1979), p 63. I b i d . , p. 54. P i e r r e de l a R u f f i n i e r e du Prey i n h i s John Soane's Arch- i t e c t u r a l E ducation 1753-80 (New York, 1977) has suggested t h a t Lord B r i s t o l might have been j u s t i f i e d i n h i s u l t i m a t e r e j e c t i o n of Soane's d e s i g n . Du Prey p o i n t e d out that the d i s p o s i t i o n of rooms would have made the mansion an \"in c o n v e n i e n t hodgepodge\" due mostly to the \"tampering of the a r c h i t e c t - B i s h o p and h i s s e l f - o p i n i o n a t e d amanuen-s i s \" , p.285 In a d d i t i o n , the b u i l d i n g seems t o have been designed with no p a r t i c u l a r s i t e i n mind. p.286. L e t t e r from Flaxman to Romney 15 A p r i l 1790 i n John Romney, Memoirs of the L i f e and Work of George Romney (London, 1830) pp. 204-207. 50 Lord B r i s t o l to Lady Erne, 26 March 1792 i n W i l l i a m S C h i l d e Pemberton, The E a r l Bishop [1924] V o l , I I , p. 439. Reynolds, D i s c o u r s e I, 11. 30-32. Mrs G. Hare-Naylor to Mrs Flaxman 8 November 1794. B r i t i s h L i b r a r y Add. MS. 39781 f . 386. Irwin, op. c i t . , p. 138. W i l l i a m Hayley, The L i f e of George Romney, Esq. ( C h i c h e s t e r , 1809), p.313. Flaxman to Romney 25 May 1788 i n J . Romney op. c i t . , p. 204. Dora Wiebenson, \"Subjects from Homer's I l i a d i n N e o c l a s s i c a l A r t \" , A r t B u l l e t i n v.46, 1964; pp.23-37. I b i d . , p. 23. Kerry Downes, Rubens, (London, 1980), pp.90-2. Wiebenson, op. c i t . , p.25. The other two designs were a Hector's F a r e w e l l and A c h i l l e s ' Revenge. Michael Levey, \" T i e p o l o ' s Treatment of the C l a s s i c a l S t o r y at the V i l l a Valmarana; A Study i n E i g h t e e n t h -century Iconography and A e s t h e t i c s , \" J o u r n a l of the Warburg and C o u r t a u l d I n s t i t u t e s , 1957, pp.298-317 notes t h a t i n the B r i t i s h Museum there i s a copy of the Tableaux which c o n t a i n s the book-plate of Consul Joseph Smith to which T i e p o l o may have acc e s s . In a d d i t i o n , the book was r e g i s t e r e d as approved at P a r i s f o r p u b l i c a t i o n August 3.1, 1756 and thus T i e p o l o may mave had time to study i t . p.302 f o o t n o t e . H a r a l d B r i s i n g , \" S e r g e l s t e c h n i n g e r t i l l Homeros och V i r g i l i u s \" , T i d s k r i f t f o r Konstvetenskap, 1917 dates the designs to 1766-1767. p.139. Wiebenson, op. c i t . , p. 25. V i e n p a i n t e d f i v e other s u b j e c t s i n the s e r i e s . They were: Venus Wounded (Salon 1775), Hector Reproaching P a r i s (Salon 1779), Priam Departing f o r the Greek Camp (Salon 1783, A n g i e r s ) , Priam Return from the Greek Camp (Salon 1785) and Hector Departing (1786, Salon 1791, E p l n a l ) . Wiebenson, op. c i t . , pp. 25-27. 51 Wiebenson, op. c i t . , p.32. See Antonio Francesco G o r i , Museum Fl o r e n t i u m , I I , Gemmae antiquae, F l o r e n c e , 1731-1732, p. 60, p i . xxv, no. 1. Flaxman's Wedgewood plague i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n Roderick Cameron, \"Flaxman et Wedgwood\", L ' O e i l , May, 1959, p.54. U s e f u l d i s c u s s i o n s of the Grand Tourland i t s t o u r i s t are: W i l l i a m Edward Mead The Grand Tour i n the 18th Century (Boston and New York, 1914) and C h r i s t o p h e r H i b b e r t , The Grand Tour (New York, 1969) Mrs. Flaxman to her s i s t e r Maria Denman [Rome] 24 A p r i l 1792. B r i t i s h L i b r a r y Add. MS. 39780 f . 53. Flaxman to parents [Rome] 3 March 1792 B r i t i s h L i b r a r y Add. MS. 39780 f . 57. B r i t i s h L i b r a r y , Add. MS.39780, f,47v, Flaxman to par e n t s , Rome, 26 January 1790. Flaxman based t h i s two f i g u r e r e c o n s t r u c t i o n on a sug g e s t i o n of d ' H a n c a r v i l l e . MSS. B o d l e i a n L i b r a r y , Autog. d. 11,f.319, Flaxman to S i r W i l l i a m Hamilton, Rome, 13 March 1792. A f t e r A.W. von S c h l e g e l v i s i t e d Flaxman i n 1820's the German c r i t i c was promoted to i n c l u d e t h i s s u g g e s t i o n i n the 1828 e d i t i o n of h i s 1799 a r t i c l e . Schegel, op. c i t . , p.154. Robin R e i l l y and George Savage, Wedgwood the P o r t r a i t M e d a l l i o n s , (London, 1973), p.29. Flaxman's designs f o r the D i v i n e Comedy have a l s o been used by other a r t i s t s . See V i c t o r Chan, \"Blake, Goya, Flaxman, Romney, and F u s e l i : T r a n s c r i p t i o n s and Trans-formations of a Dantesque Image, A r t s Magazine, 55, May 1981, pp. 80-84. See Kenneth C l a r k , The Drawings by Sandro B o t t i c e l l i f o r Dante's D i v i n e Comedy (London, 1976). Tate G a l l e r y , Henry F u s e l i 1741-1825 (London, 1975), p. 102. C l a r k , op. c i t . , pp. 12 f f . Irwin, op. c i t . , p.95. Irwin, op. c i t . , p.95. C . R . C o c k e r e l l , D i a r i e s 27 November 1824. 52 CHAPTER I I I Flaxman's wife Nancy wrote to her s i s t e r May on December 15, 1792 r e l a t i n g t h at her husband was very busy in' the daytime with commissioned s c u l p t u r e s and 'at home i n the Evenings - he i s employ'd and that c l o s e l y too - i n making a compleat ( s i c ) set of drawings from Dantes Heaven, H e l l , and Purgatory, c o n s i s t i n g of one hundred and ten - from which engravings are Making f o r Mr. Hope, a f t e r there (or r a t h e r going on at the same time) are a set of drawings from Homer's i l i a d and Oddyssey ( s i c ) - c o n s i s t i n g of 60 most b e a u t i f u l S u b j e c t s and as b e a u t i -f u l l y t r e a t e d - which a l s o he makes d u p l i c a t e s f o r Mr. Udney an Englishman - on which a l s o he makes d u p l i c a t e d f o r Mr. Naylor (Husband of the l a t e Bishop of S t . Asaph's Daughter) the which are a l s o Engraving here as Mr. Naylor means to p u b l i s h them on h i s r e t u r n to England [;] he has promis'd to g i v e us h a l f a dozen copies'.1 How Flaxman a c t u a l l y s e t Mr. N a y l o r ' s '60 most b e a u t i f u l s u b j e c t s and as b e a u t i f u l l y t r e a t e d ' on paper forms the s u b j e c t of t h i s chapter. Mrs. Flaxman's l e t t e r served not only to i n t r o d u c e the Homer designs to her f a m i l y but a l s o Flaxman's p a t r o n s . The s c u l p t o r ' s e a r l i e r a s s o c i a t i o n with Thomas Hope has a l r e a d y been reviewed. Mr. Udney was probably Robert F u l l e r t o n Udney (1722-1902) 2 a London merchant who traded to the East I n d i e s . Both he and h i s b r o t h e r John (1727-1800), E n g l i s h Consul to Venice, were a v i d c o l l e c t o r s of a r t . John i s known to have s u p p l i e d h i s b r o t h e r with works ot a r t but what h i s conne c t i o n ( i f any) might have been with the Homer commission i s unknown. The s u r v i v i n g Homer designs u s u a l l y a s s o c i a t e d with Mr. Udney's name are those executed i n a shaded s t y l e (see F i g u r e 27) which i s markedly d i f f e r e n t from the simple l i n e engravings. In f a c t , t here seems to be no c o n c l u s i v e proof of t h i s c o n n e c t i o n . As an advanced c o l l e c t o r Robert Udney put an i d e n t i f y i n g ma rk3 on many of the works i n h i s c o l l e c t i o n , but t h i s does not appear on any of the Homer designs i n the shaded s t y l e . The t h i r d person i d e n t i f i e d i n Mrs. Flaxman's l e t t e r i s a \"Mr. Naylor (Husband of the l a t e Bishop of S t . Asaph's Daugh-t e r ) \" . I t was Mrs. Hare-Naylor who a p p a r e n t l y gave Flaxman the Homer commission. Georgianna S h i p l e y (Mrs. Hare-Naylor) daughter of Jonathan S h i p l e y , bishop of S t . Asaph, was accom-p l i s h e d i n modern languages, had s t u d i e d c l a s s i c s with her f a t h e r , and had p a i n t e d i n Reynolds's s t u d i o . While i n I t a l y she had devoted h e r s e l f to p a i n t i n g and had a l s o become a c l o s e f r i e n d of C l o t i l d a Tambroni, at the time, the famous female p r o f e s s o r of Greek. 4 Mrs. Hare-Naylor was a l s o a c o u s i n of the dowager Countess Spencer who was h e r s e l f to order a set of t h i r t y i l l u s t r a t i o n s which d e p i c t e d scenes from a l l seven s u r v i v i n g p l a y s of Aeschylus. Reducing Homer's e p i c poems wherein 'nothing i s c a s u a l , nothing i d l e or i r r e l a t i v e ' wherein 'every e x p r e s s i o n i s pregnant with meaning'5 to the 60 images capable of being engraved was a formidable achievement. Apparently the c h o i c e of what to i l l u s t r a t e was l e f t to Flaxman h i m s e l f . Mrs. 54 Flaxman's d e s c r i p t i o n 'a s e t of drawings from Homer's I l i a d and Oddyssey ( s i c ) - c o n s i s t i n g of 60 most b e a u t i f u l s u b j e c t s and as b e a u t i f u l l y t r e a t e d - ...'makes no mention of how the i n d i v i d u a l s u b j e c t s were to be chosen. There i s , f o r example, no i n d i c a t i o n t h at a viewer was to be a b l e to r e c r e a t e or i n f e r the e n t i r e s t o r i e s by Homer from the designs by Flaxman. In the end the s e l e c t i o n of s u b j e c t s was d i c t a t e d by the s t o r i e s to be i l l u s t r a t e d . Some whole books are represented by s i n g l e drawings. Although both the I l i a d and Odyssey are a s s o c i a t e d with the T r o j a n War, as s t o r i e s they develop along d i s t i n c t l y d i f f e r e n t l i n e s . The I l i a d recounts the events of 50 c o n s e c u t i v e days j u s t b e f o r e the end of the war. The s t o r y begins and moves c o n t i n u o u s l y to the end. T h i s sense of a p r o g r e s s i o n of events was w e l l r e c o g n i z e d i n the 18th Century as a p a r t i c u l a r c h a r a c t e r -i s t i c of poetry by such t h e o r i s t s as L e s s i n g who wrote: 'I m a i n t a i n the s u c c e s s i o n of time i s the department of the poet, as space i s that of the p a i n t e r ' . 6 Poetry by i t s very nature cannot present, f o r example, an instantaneous p i c t u r e of A c h i l l e s ' s h i e l d . L e s s i n g thus p r a i s e d Homer's mastery of poe t r y by w r i t i n g of the s h i e l d that ' i n more than a hundred s p l e n d i d l i n e s , [Homer] has d e s c r i b e d i t s m a t e r i a l s , i t s form, and a l l the f i g u r e s which f i l l e d i t s enormous s u r f a c e , so c i r c u m s t a n t i a l l y and c l o s e l y , that modern a r t i s t s have not found i t d i f f i c u l t to produce a drawing of i t corresponding i n a l l p o i n t s ' . 7 Flaxman d i d p r e c i s e l y t h a t i n I l i a d 31 T h e t i s B r i n g i n g the Armour to 55 A c h i l l e s . While Homer, the poet, d e s c r i b e d i n Book XVIII of the I l i a d the process by which the s h i e l d was made Flaxman, the a r t i s t , showed i t as a f i n i s h e d a r t i c l e but by doing so l o s e s the sense of p r o g r e s s i v e a c t i o n . Flaxman was abl e to r e c r e a t e the sense of p r o g r e s s i v e a c t i o n s i n p i c t o r i a l images by employing two d e v i c e s . The f i r s t i s c o n s i s t e n t with L e s s i n g ' s o b s e r v a t i o n t h a t ' i n great h i s t o r i c a l p i c t u r e s the s i n g l e moment i s almost always ex-tended...' 8 Flaxman f r e q u e n t l y i n c l u d e d i n s i n g l e designs events which occur c o n s e c u t i v e l y i n the Homeric poem. In the I l i a d 31 f o r example, the act of T h e t i s B r i n g i n g the Armour to A c h i l l e s i s combined with the moment A c h i l l e s f a l l s i n t o deepest g r i e f over the death of P a t r o c l u s . The second d e v i c e was to i n c l u d e i n i n d i v i d u a l drawings a l l u s i o n s t o past events and foreshadowings of the f u t u r e . The s e r i e s from I l i a d 29 t o 33 demonstrates t h i s . I l i a d 29 ( F i g u r e 28) d e p i c t s T h e t i s and Eurynome r e c e i v i n g the i n f a n t Vulcan. I l i a d 30, Vulcan and Chares R e c e i v i n g T h e t i s ( F i g u r e 29) r e a s s o c i a t e s the now grown Vulcan and T h e t i s as she requests new armour f o r A c h i l l e s . In I l i a d 31 T h e t i s p r e s e n t s the completed armour and c a l l s the g r i e v i n g A c h i l l e s t o arms. A c h i l l e s appears i n I l i a d 33 A c h i l l e s Contending with the R i v e r s ( F i g u r e 30) having re t u r n e d to b a t t l e i n the very armour T h e t i s had d e l i v e r e d i n I l i a d 31. Flaxman thus captured the sense of c o n s e c u t i v e a c t i o n that c h a r a c t e r i z e s the t e x t of the I l i a d . N e i t h e r d e v i c e c o u l d have been a p p r o p r i a t e f o r i l l u s t r a t i n g The Odyssey. 56 Homer's Odyssey recounts the adventures of Odysseus ( L a t i n U l y s s e s ) d u r i n g h i s 10 year voyage home to Greece a f t e r the f a l l of Troy. Spanning a decade, the s t o r y of n e c e s s i t y i s reduced to a few w e l l developed t a l e s which are separated temporally and p h y s i c a l l y . Flaxman responded to the e p i s o d i c nature of the s t o r y by f o c u s s i n g on a p a r t i c u l a r moment i n the i n d i v i d u a l adventure and avoided r e p r e s e n t i n g c o n s e c u t i v e events i n s i n g l e images. The r e s u l t i s a c o n c e n t r a t i o n on s i n g l e themes and images of g r e a t e r dramatic i n t e n s i t y . To compare treatments i n the I l i a d and Odyssey s e r i e s , i n the former A c h i l l e s ' b r u t a l s l a u g h t e r of d e f e n s e l e s s men and animals (with limbs bound) i s only r e c a l l e d by t h e i r presence on P a t r o c l u s ' f u n e r a l pyre i n I l i a d 35 The Fun e r a l P i l e of P a t r o c l u s ( F i g u r e 31 while i n the King of the L e s t r i g e n s s e i z i n g one of the companions of U l y s s e s , Odyssey 15, the b r u t a l g i a n t i s shown i n the much more u n s e t t l i n g image as he i s about to hack to p i e c e s a d e f e n s e l e s s or overpowered member of U l y s s e s ' crew ( F i g u r e 32). The r e s u l t of the d i f f e r i n g approach i s that none of the I l i a d designs seem to have as d i r e c t a s e n t i m e n t a l appeal as U l y s s e s and H i s Dog, Odyssey 26 ( F i g u r e 33), f o r example, or as a f f e c t i n g an image as U l y s s e s T e r r e f i e d ( s i c ) by the Ghosts, I l i a d 17 ( F i g u r e 34) where the s h r i e k s of the tormented go unheard by a l l but the t e r r i f i e d hero U l y s s e s . Pope had w r i t t e n of the c h a r a c t e r s i n Homer th a t 'no author has ever drawn so many, with so v i s i b l e and s u r p r i s i n g a v a r i e t y , or given us such l i v e l y and a f f e c t i n g impressions of 57 them. Every one has something so s i n g u l a r l y h i s own, t h a t no p a i n t e r c o u l d have d i s t i n g u i s h e d them more by t h e i r f e a t u r e s , than the poet has by t h e i r manners'. 9 Reynolds had advised the a r t i s t to c o n c e n t r a t e on one p a r t i c u l a r aspect of c h a r a c t e r i n a p a i n t i n g but the nature of Flaxman's p r o j e c t allowed him to present a person i n a v a r i e t y of d i f f e r e n t s i t u a t i o n s each r e v e a l i n g some f a c e t of the c h a r a c t e r ' s p e r s o n a l i t y . An example i s the goddess T h e t i s . Her c h a r a c t e r i s e s t a b l i s h e d by the v a r i o u s s i t u a t i o n s i n which Flaxman p r e s e n t s her. She appears as a f o n d l i n g mother while r e c e i v i n g the i n f a n t Vulcan i n I l i a d 29 ( F i g u r e 28), humbled as she asks Vulcan's a s s i s t a n c e i n I l i a d 30 ( F i g u r e 29) and d u t i f u l l y c a l l i n g A c h i l l e s to arms i n I l i a d 31 ( F i g u r e 1). Flaxman added f u r t h e r v a r i e t y by having T h e t i s k n e e l , s i t and stand i n the r e s p e c t i v e designs to b e t t e r d i s p l a y the three d i f f e r e n t aspects of her c h a r a c t e r . By d i s p l a y i n g them i n three d i f f e r e n t designs Flaxman f o l l o w e d Pope's i d e a that 'one may indeed,make a hero as v a l i a n t as A c h i l l e s , as pious as AEneas, and as prudent as U l y s s e s . but i t i s a mere chimaera to imagine a hero that has the v a l o u r of A c h i l l e s , the p i e t y of AEneas, and the prudence of U l y s s e s , at one and the same time'.10 When Flaxman was r e q u i r e d to present the two Homeric heroes Pope had mentioned, A c h i l l e s and U l y s s e s , he l e f t the viewer with images that c l e a r l y d i s t i n g u i s h e d aspects of t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e c h a r a c t e r s . As drawn by Flaxman, A c h i l l e s the hero of the I l i a d appears i n a r a t h e r i n s i p i d , pensive pose i n I l i a d 58 3, The Departure of B r i s e i s from the Tent of A c h i l l e s ( F i g u r e 35), as the p r i n c e of p r i n c e s i n I l i a d 18, The Embassy to A c h i l l e s ( F i g u r e 36), p r o s t r a t e d with t e a r f u l g r i e f I l i a d 31, T h e t i s B r i n g i n g the Armour to A c h i l l e s , and as the brave w a r r i o r I l i a d 33, A c h i l l e s Contending with the R i v e r s . He a l s o p r e s e n t s the darker s i d e of A c h i l l e s by d e p i c t i n g him i n u n c o n t r o l a b l e rage i n I l i a d 2, Minerva Repressing the Fury of A c h i l l e s ( F i g u r e 37) and d e s e c r a t i n g Hector's body, not once but twice, i n I l i a d 36 Hector's Body Dragged At the Car of A c h i l l e s ( F i g u r e 38) and I l i a d 34 Andromache F a i n t i n g on the Wall ( F i g u r e 39). Even Homer d e s c r i b e d these a c t s - a s 'unseemly d e e d , ' 1 1 and A c h i l l e s ' s i n c l u s i o n of human s a c r i f i c e s of P a t r o c l u s f u n e r a l pyre as ' e v i l d e e d s . ' 1 2 The Oxford C l a s s i c a l D i c t i o n a r y c h a r a c t e r i z e s A c h i l l e s as a 'magnificent b a r b a r i a n . ' Flaxman's designs p r e s e n t him as somewhat more b a r b a r i c than m a g n i f i c e n t and c e r t a i n l y not the ' v a l i a n t ' hero Pope f a n c i e d h i m . 1 3 U l y s s e s ' 1 4 c h a r a c t e r i s e x p l o r e d more f u l l y i n no fewer than 18 of the 34 designs of the Odyssey s e r i e s . He i s not merely a w a r r i o r who r e l i e d e x c l u s i v e l y upon h i s p h y s i c a l prowess but r a t h e r overcomes the t h r e a t of the S i r e n s by c a r e f u l l y p l a n n i n g ahead (Odyssey 19), escapes the Cyclops by h i s c l e v e r n e s s and l e a d e r s h i p (Odyssey 14), and wins to h i s cause the r e s i d e n t s of f o r e i g n lands by h i s diplomacy (Odyssey 12). U l y s s e s i s indeed the exemplar f o r a l l men.15 Having fought through the T r o j a n war and s u r v i v e d h i s voyage home he appears i n only one design of tremendous v i o l e n c e and that when he s l a u g h t e r s the 59 s u i t o r s , i n Odyssey 31, U l y s s e s K i l l i n g the S u i t o r s ( F i g u r e 40), at the c l i m a t i c c o n c l u s i o n of h i s r e t u r n home. As he endeavoured to r e l a t e the Homeric s t o r i e s and the c h a r a c t e r s of t h e i r c h i e f f i g u r e s , Flaxman was e v i d e n t l y i n s p i r e d by p a r t i c u l a r passages. The g r i s a i l l e sketch i n F i g u r e 27 i n c l u d e s the Homeric t e x t and a t r a n s l a t i o n perhaps by Flaxman h i m s e l f . I 6 H i s i n t e r e s t i n the o r i g i n a l Greek t e x t s had been s u f f i c i e n t to prompt him to purchase a l e x i c o n i n 1790.17 Although i n England there had been a v a r i e t y of t r a n s l a t i o n s , i n c l u d i n g the W i l l i a m Cowper v e r s i o n s p u b l i s h e d i n 1791 when Flaxman was i n Rome, the Alexander Pope t r a n s l a t i o n remained the most a t t r a c t i v e . In the Gentleman's Magazine, to which Flaxman had submitted a l e t t e r r e g a r d i n g Roman costume,! 8 a c o n t r i b u t o r had compared the notes i n the t r a n s l a t i o n s by Cowper and Pope. Cowper's were not 'without a c o n s i d e r a b l e share of j u d i c i o u s sentiment and e x p l a n a t i o n ' while 'Mr. Pope has many w e l l w r i t t e n notes [which] are c h i e f l y h i s t o r i c a l ' . 1 9 The a d j e c t i v e ' h i s t o r i c a l ' may be somewhat m i s l e a d i n g . The t o p i c s covered o f t e n i n c l u d e d i s c u s s i o n s of the nature of p o e t r y and i t s l i m i t a t i o n s . Pope wrote: \"The q u e s t i o n i s , how f a r a poet, i n pursuing the d e s c r i p t i o n of image of an a c t i o n , can a t t a c h h i m s e l f to l i t t l e c ircumstances, without v u l g a r i t y or t r i f l i n g ? What p a r t i c u l a r are proper, and e n l i v e n the image; or what are i m p e r t i n e n t , and c l o g i t ? i n t h i s matter p a i n t i n g i s to be c o n s u l t e d , and the whole regard had to those circumstances, which c o n t r i b u t e to form a f u l l , and yet not confused i d e a of a thing.\"20 The q u e s t i o n s c o n s i d e r e d here seem f a m i l i a r when compared with Reynold's t h e o r e t i c a l statements. Reynolds' t o l d h i s students 60 that the a r t i s t should 'get above a l l s i n g u l a r forms, l o c a l customs, p a r t i c u l a r i t i e s and d e t a i l s of every k i n d ' . 2 1 Mere embellishment c o u l d only serve 'to d i v i d e the a t t e n t i o n ' . 2 2 I t s appeal to the mind r a t h e r than the eye e n t i t l e d p a i n t i n g 'to the name of a L i b e r a l A r t ' and to a rank 'as a s i s t e r of p o e t r y ' . 2 3 Although Mrs. Flaxman d i d not s p e c i f y t h at the p u b l i s h e d v e r s i o n s of her husband's designs f o r the I l i a d and Odyssey were to be l i n e engravings, there seemed to be no doubt t h a t t h i s was to be the u l t i m a t e form. From the e a r l i e s t sketches to the f i n a l v e r s i o n s (those most c l o s e l y resembling the p u b l i s h e d engravings) the designs are recorded as l i n e drawings. Flaxman r a r e l y i n t r o d u c e d shading, backgrounds, f i g u r e s or the i n t r i c a t e d e c o r a t i o n common on an c i e n t vases only to remove them i n l a t e r s k etches. He u s u a l l y s t a r t e d with a b a s i c i d e a f o r each scene and developed i t . The e v o l u t i o n of Minerva Repressing the Fury of A c h i l l e s , I l i a d 2 ( F i g u r e 37) demonstrates the process Flaxman f o l l o w e d i n the p r o d u c t i o n of a design s i n c e there s u r v i v e s e v e r a l p r e l i m i n a r y sketches and the g r i s a i l l e r e n d e r i n g ( F i g u r e 27) f o r i t . In the l e a s t complete of the sketches ( F i g u r e 41) the f i g u r e of A c h i l l e s i s somewhat more c l e a r l y d e f i n e d than the other f i g u r e s , which are i n d i c a t e d only by the s c a n t e s t o u t l i n e s . In another sketch on the bottom of the same sheet a seated f i g u r e has been added and Minerva descending from the r i g h t has been more c l e a r l y d e l i n e a t e d while A c h i l l e s remains the most 61 c l e a r l y d e f i n e d f i g u r e . As Flaxman approached a f i n a l s o l u t i o n he proceeded to t e s t a v a r i e t y of poses f o r A c h i l l e s b e f o r e f i n a l l y choosing the one he regarded as most a p p r o p r i a t e ( F i g u r e 42). Another sketch ( F i g u r e 43) r e v e a l s that he c o n s i d e r e d having A c h i l l e s l o o k i n g over h i s l e f t shoulder at the descending Minerva. In a v e r s i o n which i s ap p a r e n t l y r e l a t e d to g r i s a i l l e s k e tch i n F i g u r e 27 A c h i l l e s appears to be almost s t r i d i n g out of the p i c t u r e plane toward the viewer ( F i g u r e 44). H i s arm i s r a i s e d and h i s sword h a l f drawn i n f r o n t of h i s c h e s t . N e i t h e r of these poses were seemed s u i t a b l e f o r i n c l u s i o n i n the f i n a l engraved s e r i e s , perhaps because Flaxman c o n s i d e r e d them to be too three d i m e n s i o n a l . In the f i n a l engraved v e r s i o n ( F i g u r e 37) A c h i l l e s stands, h i s fa c e turned to the other f i g u r e s and away from Minerva, and h i s le g s wide spread but p a r a l l e l to the p i c t u r e plane. A l s o h i s arm i s r a i s e d above h i s head i n a way that s t r e s s e s the two dimensional q u a l i t y of the composition. The s e r i e s of sketches f o r Minerva Repressing the Fury of A c h i l l e s f u r t h e r suggests t h a t Flaxman composed the p i c t u r e by accumulating and ar r a n g i n g i n d i v i d u a l cameo-like f i g u r e s i n p o s i t i o n s t h a t would balance the whole composition. By f o l l o w i n g t h i s method he co u l d and d i d a r r i v e at l e a s t the two d i f f e r e n t f i n a l v e r s i o n s a l r e a d y mentioned: the engraved, with three seated and two sta n d i n g f i g u r e s on the l e f t , and the g r i s a i l l e , with two seated and three s t a n d i n g f i g u r e s on the l e f t . Both e x h i b i t a common f a u l t t h a t seems to be inhe r e n t i n h i s com-p o s i t i o n a l method. I n d i v i d u a l elements of many designs seem 6 2 c u r i o u s l y separated from each other and sometimes even u n r e l a t e d to the a c t i o n s d e p i c t e d . For example, although t h e i r presence c o n t r i b u t e s to the balance of the composition i n the engraved v e r s i o n of Minerva Repressing the Fury of A c h i l l e s , the two stan d i n g f i g u r e s on the r e a r l e f t do not seem to be at a l l a f f e c t e d by A c h i l l e s ' f u r y . S i m i l a r l y , the seated f i g u r e nearest A c h i l l e s i s gazing b l a n k l y i n t o space. Yet Flaxman's agglomerative process was not i n v a r i a b l y suc-c e s s f u l . When most s u c c e s s f u l l y a p p l i e d i t allowed him to i n t e g r a t e f i g u r e s i n t o an a t t r a c t i v e composition. In Nausicaa Throwing the B a l l , Odyssey 10 ( F i g u r e 45), f o r example, the f i g u r e s are arranged to present a balanced but v a r i e d composition i n which a l l the f i g u r e s are i n v o l v e d i n the a c t i o n . By c o n t r a s t , The S i r e n s , Odyssey 19 ( F i g u r e 46) has the appearance of two u n r e l a t e d scenes p l a c e d together on the same p l a t e . On the l e f t the three s i r e n s s i t amidst the bones of t h e i r v i c t i m s and on the r i g h t U l y s s e s i s being lashed to the mast of h i s boat. T h i s composition i s one of the l e a s t s u c c e s s f u l of a l l the designs because i n order to balance a grouping of three f i g u r e s with a s h i p and a crew Flaxman was f o r c e d to d e p i c t the l a t t e r i n a much s m a l l e r s c a l e . According to the c o n v e n t i o n a l system of p e r s p e c t i v e a viewer would assume that the boat was i n the f a r d i s t a n c e . Flaxman's r i g o r o u s attempt t o exclude the three dimensional i n h i s other Homer designs makes The S i r e n s p l a t e seem out of p l a c e i n the s e r i e s . 63 Although the f i r s t e d i t i o n s of the Homer engravings had only l i n e r e f e r e n c e s to the t e x t s of Pope and Homer, the 1805 Longman e d i t i o n i n c l u d e d the passages from Pope and the viewer was l e f t to i n f e r t h a t t h i s t e x t was r i g o u r o u s l y f o l l o w e d . Yet many v a r i a t i o n s from both the v e r s i o n s of Homer and Pope do occur. The Homeric t e x t , f o r example, c l e a r l y i m p l i e s t h a t there were only two S i r e n s (12:167). Flaxman i n s t e a d d e p i c t e d t h r e e . He a p p a r e n t l y c o n s i d e r e d a group of three f i g u r e s presented a more s a t i s f a c t o r y e f f e c t as i t r e c u r s i n h i s d e p i c t i o n s of the Daughters of Pandarus, Odyssey 29 ( F i g u r e 47) and i n Penelope C a r r y i n g the Bow of U l y s s e s to the S u i t o r s Odyssey 30 ( F i g u r e 48). Flaxman was not above a l t e r i n g s p e c i f i c d e t a i l s . For I l i a d 24, Ajax Defending the Greek Ships a g a i n s t the T r o j a n s ( F i g u r e 49) the t e x t reads: ' F u l l Twelve the B o l d e s t , i n a Moment F e l l , Sent by great Ajax to the shades of H e l l . ' Pope's Homers I l i a d B15 L i n e 904 Some 48 l i n e s b e f o r e Pope had set the scene with the l i n e 'No room to p o i s e the lance or bend the bow' suggesting that the a r c h e r at Ajax's back i s Flaxman's c o n t r i b u t i o n to the d e s c r i p t i o n of the b a t t l e , added as a u s e f u l component i n the c o m p o s i t i o n a l balance of h i s d e s i g n . A t h i r d i n s t a n c e of Flaxman's a l t e r a t i o n of the t e x t u a l d e s c r i p t i o n appears i n I l i a d 22 showing the c h a r i o t of Neptune R i s i n g from the Sea drawn by f o u r horses r a t h e r than the two i n d i c a t e d by Homer ( F i g u r e 50). Pope d i d not s p e c i f y t h e i r number. 64 While t a k i n g care with the compositions of the Homer designs, Flaxman was a l s o i n t e r e s t e d i n making them a p p e a l i n g to the people i n Rome and at home i n England who were a c q u i r i n g a r c h a e o l o g i c a l books. Dora Wiebenson has suggested t h a t an 'obvious way f o r an a r t i s t to l i n k h i s own work with archaeo-l o g i c a l p u b l i c a t i o n s . . . w a s to i m i t a t e t h e i r t e c h n i q u e . ' 2 4 The use of l i n e engraving, common i n the a r c h a e o l o g i c a l p u b l i c -a t i o n s , seems to have been not o n l y a source f o r technique but f o r s p e c i f i c d e t a i l s . Items such as p i e c e s of f u r n i t u r e seem to have been i n s p i r e d by examples found on a n c i e n t p o t t e r y and s c u l p t u r e or, perhaps more l i k e l y , the engravings made of such a n t i q u i t i e s . David Irwin has thus a s s o c i a t e d , the c a r t and composition of Odyssey 11, U l y s s e s F o l l o w i n g the Car of Nausicaa ( F i g u r e 51) with a p l a t e from S i r W i l l i a m Hamilton's C o l l e c t i o n of Vases... of 1791 ( F i g u r e 52). I t i s u n l i k e l y t h at an a r c h a e o l o g i c a l book such as Hamilton's C o l l e c t i o n of Vases would have s u p p l i e d Flaxman with the i n s p i r a -t i o n f o r h i s v e r s i o n of Hector's Body Dragged at the Car of A c h i l l e s , I l i a d 36 ( F i g u r e 38). The t h r e e - q u a r t e r p o s i t i o n of the c h a r i o t , i t s r e a r p l a r f o r m , and the e l e v a t e d p o s i t i o n of Hector's l e g s do not appear s i m u l t a n e o u s l y i n any known a n c i e n t work.25 They do appear, however, i n both P i e t r o T e s t a ' s 17th Century engraved A c h i l l e s Dragging Hector and Gavin Hamilton's p a i n t i n g A c h i l l e s Dragging Hector's 3ody around the Walls of T r o y . 2 6 ( F i g u r e 53) The l a t t e r work was most commonly known through the d i s t r i b u t i o n of a 1766 engraving by Domenico Cunego. 65 As the Flaxmans lodged i n h i s house while they were i n Rome, i t seems more than p o s s i b l e t h a t Flaxman was f a m i l i a r with the c o m p o s i t i o n a l d e t a i l s of the work. 2 7 H i s main task was to reduce i t to a form c o n s i s t a n t with the r e s t of the Homer s e r i e s . He d i d so by d r a s t i c a l l y r educing d e t a i l , most n o t a b l y i n the background, t u r n i n g A c h i l l e s to d r i v e the c h a r i o t ( n e c e s s i -t a t e d by the e l i m i n a t i o n of the d r i v e r ) and r e p o s i t i o n i n g of the c h a r i o t to present more of a s i d e view. Of much g r e a t e r i n t e r e s t than p a r t i c u l a r d e t a i l s i s Flaxman's a d a p t a t i o n of elements of the l i n e engraving technique to s u i t h i s own purpose. A d e v i c e f r e q u e n t l y encountered i n archaeo-l o g i c a l books i l l u s t r a t e d with l i n e engravings i s h a t c h i n g , t h a t i s c l o s e l y spaced p a r a l l e l l i n e s , such as those i n F i g u r e 54 an i l l u s t r a t i o n from Spence's Polymetis of 1747. Here the h o r i z o n t a l h a t c h i n g p r o v i d e s a background. Flaxman had long used the technique i n a s i m i l a r manner i n sketches, i n c l u d i n g the s e l f p o r t r a i t ( F i g u r e 55) done some 15 years b e f o r e the Homer de s i g n s . But i n the Homer i l l u s t r a t i o n s the h a t c h i n g i s used i n a much more s o p h i s t i c a t e d manner. In I l i a d 31, T h e t i s B r i n g i n g the Armour to A c h i l l e s ( F i g u r e 1), f o r example, the h a t c h i n g i s put to three d i s t i n c t l y d i f f e r e n t purposes. I t r e p r e s e n t s the s t r u c t u r e of the l e g of the bed, d e f i n e s p e r s -p e c t i v e by i n d i c a t i n g t h a t the bedding l i e s f a r t h e r back i n the p i c t u r e space than A c h i l l e s l e g and, by e x t e n s i o n , that the l e g s of the mourner st a n d i n g behind the bed are i n f a c t behind i t , and f i n a l l y as a c o m p o s i t i o n a l a i d by p a r t i a l l y 66 f i l l i n g the v o i d under the bed. These techniques to i n d i c a t e volume, p e r s p e c t i v e and to accomplish a more s u c c e s s f u l com-p o s i t i o n , are repeated with f u r t h e r v a r i a t i o n s elsewhere. In I l i a d 14, The Meeting of Hector and Andromache, a s t a i r c a s e i s i m p l i e d by h o r i z o n t a l h a t c h i n g which n e a t l y o f f s e t the v e r t i c a l i t y of the nanny's r a t h e r columnar dress ( F i g u r e 56). In I l i a d 6, J u p i t e r Sending the E v i l Dream to Agamemnon ( F i g u r e 57) and 38 I r i s A d v i s e s Priam to o b t a i n the Body of Hector ( F i g u r e 58) Flaxman has d e f i n e d the shape of the heavens with curved h a t c h i n g and i n I l i a d I I , Otus and E p h i a l t e s H o l d i n g Mars C a p t i v e ( F i g u r e 59) he has, with but a few l i n e s , c r e a t e d s e a t s f o r Otus and E p h i a l t e s so that they are not l e f t i n mid-space. At the same time no d i s t r a c t i n g background d e t a i l i s i n t r o d u c e d . In I l i a d 29, T h e t i s and Eurynome R e c e i v i n g the I n f a n t Vulcan ( F i g u r e 28) areas are covered with h a t c h i n g a p p a r e n t l y with the purpose of b a l a n c i n g the compositions without any more f i g u r e s or s t r u c t u r e s . 67 NOTES TO THE TEXT CHAPTER I I I 1 G e r a l d B e n t l e y , The E a r l y Engravings of Flaxman's C l a s s i c a l Designs (New York, 1964), pp. 17-18. \" BM Add. MSS 39780 f . 197. 2 10 12 Irwin, op. c i t . , p.68 3 F r i t s Lugts, Les Marques de C o l l e c t i o n s (the Hague, 1956) entry 2248. 4 George Smith, The D i c t i o n a r y of N a t i o n a l Biography (Oxford, 1938), e n t r y f o r F r a n c i s Hare-Naylor. 5 Gentlemen's Magazine, ( J u l y 1793) p. 623. 6 G o t t h o l d Ephraim L e s s i n g , Laokoon and How the A n c i e n t s Represented Death (London 1914), p.103. 7 I b i d , p.107. 8 I b i d , p.104. 9 Alexander Pope, The P o e t i c a l Works of Alexander Pope (London, 1841) p.204). Pope, I b i d , p.364. 1 1 Homer, I l i a d , Book 22, 1.395. Homer, I l i a d , Book 23, 1.176. 1 3 Oxford C l a s s i c a l D i c t i o n a r y ed. N.G.L. Hammond and H.H. S c u l l a r d (Oxford, 1977), p.5. 1 4 For an expanded a n a l y s i s of the c h a r a c t e r of U l y s s e s and h i s appearance i n a r t works see W.B. S t a n f o r d and J.V.Luce, The Quest f o r U l y s s e s (London, .1974). 1 5 S t a n f o r d and Luce, I b i d , p.194. 1 6 T h i s i s c e r t a i n l y not Pope's a p p r o p r i a t e passage as Robert R. Wark, Drawings by John Flaxman i n the Hungtington C o l l e c t i o n (San Marino C a l i f o r n i a , 1970) has p o i n t e d out i n h i s note f o r p l a t e 16. 1 7 B r i t i s h Museum, Add. MSS. 39784, E., f . 21, account-book entry, 1790. 68 Gentlemen's Magazine V o l 51 (1781) p. 65 p r i n t e d with f o u r i l l u s t r a t i o n s . Gentlemen's Magazine, (November, 1793), p.981. Alexander Pope, ' P o s t s c r i p t to the Odyssey' The P o e t i c a l Works of Alexander Pope (London, 1841), p 474 Reynolds, D i s c o u r s e I I I , 11.103-105. Reynolds, D i s c o u r s e I I I , 11. 296. Reynolds, D i s c o u r s e I I I , 11.300-301. Dora Wiebenson, 'Subjects from Homer's I l i a d i n N e o c l a s s i c a l A r t , ' A r t B u l l e t i n , Volume 46 (1964) pp 34. Wiebenson, i b i d , p.29. Dora Wiebenson, i b i d . , r e f e r s to t h i s work as A c h i l l e s Vents h i s Rage on Hector. David Irwin, 'Gavin Hamilton A r c h a e o l o g i s t , Painter\"\" and D e a l e r ' A r t B u l l e t i n , Volume (1962) p.94 r e f e r s to i t by the t i t l e used here. Irwin does not mention any p o s s i b l e a s s o c i a t i o n with the T e s t a work. Irwin, 1979, op. c i t . , p.48. 69 CHAPTER IV In 1811, a f t e r reading some f a v o u r a b l e comments by German c r i t i c s r e g a r d i n g the Dante designs, Flaxman i n t i m a t e d to the t h e o l o g i a n Henry Crabb-Robinson t h a t he wished the Germans had something b e t t e r upon which to e x e r c i s e t h e i r c r i t i c a l t a l e n t s . * T h i s response was probably not simply an e x p r e s s i o n of Flaxman's modesty but r a t h e r a r e f l e c t i o n of the d i s p a r i t y between the u l t i m a t e purpose he foresaw f o r h i s l i n e drawings and the nature of the c r i t i c a l p r a i s e . He had undertaken the commissions f o r i l l u s t r a t i o n s to make enough money to continue with h i s Fury of Athamas but to h i s amazement, i n a d d i t i o n to the immediate f i n a n c i a l reward, h i s l i n e i l l u s t r a t i o n s brought him c r i t i c a l a c c l a i m , an i n t e r n a t i o n a l r e p u t a t i o n as an a r t i s t , s c u l p t u r a l commissions, and i n d i r e c t l y i n 1810, e l e c t i o n as P r o f e s s o r of S c u l p t u r e at the Royal Academy i n London. Moreover, the i l l u s -t r a t i o n s v/ere adopted by e s t a b l i s h e d a r t i s t s and students a l i k e as sources of i n s p i r a t i o n w e l l i n t o the V i c t o r i a n age. The f i n a n c i a l d i f f i c u l t y i n which Flaxman found h i m s e l f was eased with the completion of the Homer des i g n s . How e f f e c t i v e they were i n supplementing h i s income may be gauged i f the r a p i d i t y with which Flaxman drew them i s r e l a t e d to the amount of money he earned. Nancy Flaxman wrote to W i l l i a m Hayley on J u l y 22, 1793 and informed him of the completion of the engravings of a l l the I l i a d , Odyssey and Dante d e s i g n s . 2 G e r a l d B e n t l e y has suggested that the dates i n d i c a t e d i n the f i r s t e d i t i o n s of the Odyssey and I l i a d ( r e s p e c t i v e l y February 1, 1793 and June 1, 1793) probably r e c o r d when each s e t of engravings was com-70 p l e t e d . 3 By the l a t t e r date Flaxman had a l s o f i n i s h e d the 46 drawings f o r Mr. Udney. 4 Thus Flaxman had produced no fewer than 174 designs f o r engraving (28, p l u s a t i t l e page f o r the Odyssey; 32, p l u s a t i t l e p a g e f o r the I l i a d ; and 110, p l u s a t i t l e p a g e f o r the Dante) and 46 drawings r e l a t e d t o , but a p p a r e n t l y not exact c o p i e s of, the Homer designs i n about 8 months. He must have been undertaking the designs at a r a t e of about one a day. T h i s estimate i s probably c o n s e r v a t i v e . Mrs. Flaxman's l e t t e r to Hayley mentions t h a t by then the engraver's work was completed from her husband's de s i g n s . Again C o c k e r e l l recorded that Flaxman r e c a l l e d he had been p a i d 1 guinea each f o r the Dante s e r i e s of 111 d e s i g n s , and 4 Crowns each f o r the 46 Udney drawings f o r a t o t a l of no l e s s than L227 - 13 - . C o n s i d e r i n g the Flaxman's f i n a n c i a l d i f -f i c u l t i e s t h a t came as a r e s u l t of The Fury of Athamas and h i s sm a l l investment i n labour, time and m a t e r i a l s upon them, the Homer designs must have seemed i n c r e d i b l y p r o f i t a b l e . Hare-Naylor a l s o d i d moderately w e l l . He s o l d the p l a t e s f o r the I l i a d s e r i e s t o Longman f o r twice as much as the engravings ( o r i g i n a l drawings) had c o s t him i n I t a l y . Mr. Hare-Naylor made at l e a s t L100 by the books i n I t a l y b e f o r e h i s s a l e of the p l a t e s of the I l i a d ' . 5 Even though the Hare-Naylors made more money from the Homer designs than Flaxman, they remained good f r i e n d s . I n d i c a t i n g t h e i r continued c l o s e n e s s , Flaxman i n c l u d e d p o r t r a i t s of t h e i r f o u r sons i n h i s monument to the Reverend Dr. Joseph Warton executed from 1800 to 1804. 6 71 Years l a t e r when Mrs. Hare-Naylor wrote a novel, the t i t l e of which was Theodosius or the E n t h u s i a s t , she asked Flaxman to design a s e r i e s of i l l u s t r a t i o n s f o r i t . 7 Tomaso (Thomas) P i r o l i the t h i r d of those d i r e c t l y i n v o l v e d i n the completion of the Homer commission a l s o d i d w e l l . G e r a l d B e n t l e y has suggested that i n a d d i t i o n to the income d e r i v e d d i r e c t l y from the Hare-Naylor p l a t e s some of the e d i t i o n s came from unauthorized p l a t e s u l t i m a t e l y t r a c e a b l e to P i r o l i ' s shop. 8 S e v e r a l months a f t e r the Homer and Dante commissions had been completed Flaxman wrote to Hayley that the purpose of the engravings was to show 'how any s t o r y may be represented i n a s e r i e s of compositions on p r i n c i p l e s of the a n c i e n t s , of which as soon as I r e t u r n to England I i n t e n d t o g i v e specimens i n scupture of d i f f e r e n t k i n d s , i n groups of b a s - r e l i e f s , s u i t e d to a l l purposes of sacred and c i v i l a r c h i t e c t u r e . ' 9 Flaxman's immediate aim was to f u l f i l Hare-Naylor's commission by r e p r e -s e n t i n g the I l i a d and Odyssey i n a s e r i e s of compositions. But, i n h i s own mind, the designs were to perform at l e a s t two subsequent f u n c t i o n s . F i r s t , they were, i n essence, to serve as working drawings f o r a s c u l p t o r (Flaxman h i m s e l f as i t happened) t o t r a n s l a t e i n t o another a r t i s t i c medium. They were thus a k i n to Flaxman's designs f o r Wedgwood. Second, the r e s u l t a n t b a s - r e l i e f s were to e s t a b l i s h Flaxman as an a r t i s t amongst people who would purchase s c u l p t e d v e r s i o n s of the 72 images f o r t h e i r houses or i n s t i t u t i o n a l b u i l d i n g s i n which they had the ch o i c e of d e c o r a t i v e elements. In s t r i k i n g c o n t r a s t t o Flaxman's emphasis on the design's f u t u r e u s e f u l n e s s , was t h e i r c r i t i c a l r e c e p t i o n . Where Robert Adam hoped h i s Ruins of S p a l a t r o would promise 'an Age of P e r f e c t i o n ' , 1 0 J.C. F i o r i l l o thought Flaxman's i l l u s t r a t i o n s ushered i n that age. He wrote 'a s h i n i n g s t a r has r i s e n i n England's a r t i s t i c heaven. May h i s (Flaxman's) a r r i v a l announce the dawn of a marvellous p e r i o d of a r t . ' 1 1 When the a r c h i t e c t Robert Smirke saw Flaxman's c l a s s i c a l designs he too immediately made an a s s o c i a t i o n between the l i n e engravings and the l i n e drawings of a n c i e n t Greek a r t . Although he thought Flaxman's works had a 'forced s i m p l i c i t y ' , t h i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c , he suggested, was 'very proper to the designs when t r e a t e d a f t e r the manner of antique d e s i g n s . ' 1 2 Goethe made analogous o b s e r v a t i o n s i n h i s 1799 a r t i c l e which d e a l t l a r g e l y with Flaxman's Dante drawings. He d e s c r i b e d Flaxman's economy of means i n the Dante drawings as 'naivety' and commented on h i s ' g i f t of adopting the innocence of the o l d e r I t a l i a n S c h o o l . ' 1 3 Flaxman's f r i e n d George Romney was d e l i g h t e d to r e p o r t that the Homer engravings were ' o u t l i n e s without shadow, but i n the s t y l e of a n c i e n t a r t . They are simple, grand, and pure... They look as i f they had been made i n the age, when Homer w r o t e . ' 1 4 The v a l i d i t y of Flaxman's p l a c e i n d i s c u s s i o n s of a n c i e n t a r t was questioned on the b a s i s of the q u a l i t y of the engraved 73 l i n e by George Cumberland i n h i s Thoughts on o u t l i n e s c u l p t u r e , and the system t h a t guided the a n c i e n t a r t i s t s i n composing t h e i r f i g u r e s and groups i n 1796. He mentioned 'the very t a s t e f u l Homer and Aeschylus by Mr. Flaxman' and the then r e c e n t l y p u b l i s h e d S i r W i l l i a m Hamilton's C o l l e c t i o n of Engravings ... of h i s second c o l l e c t i o n but c r i t i c i z e d the engravings i n the l a t t e r because they had ' o u t l i n e s t h i c k and t h i n a l t e r -n a t e l y ' and not the u n i f o r m l y t h i c k l i n e s he had c o r r e c t l y observed on a n c i e n t vases. The l a s t Hamilton volume, he wrote, '... seems to have given the death's blow to a l l hope of ever s e e i n g a f a i t h f u l t r a c i n g of any o u t l i n e design on c o p p e r p l a t e ' . Cumberland upheld the view t h a t to be t r u l y i n the a n c i e n t s t y l e l i n e width should not vary. In h i s (Cumberland's) o p i n i o n , Flaxman had missed t h i s most important c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of a n c i e n t drawing.15 P a r a d o x i c a l l y , the Homer i l l u s t r a t i o n s were a l s o c r i t i c i z e d f o r too c l o s e l y resembling a n c i e n t a r t . The d i a r i s t Joseph F a r i n g t o n wrote i n December 1795 that the designs were ' s t r i c t l y formed on the Greek model... each circumstance being dopied from some a u t h o r i t y . ' 1 6 In January 1797 he recorded t h a t the E n g l i s h p a i n t e r John Hoppner b e l i e v e d that the designs 'were a l l borrowed and p u r l o i n e d from a v a r i e t y of t h i n g s which he (Flaxman) has seen. He (Flaxman) has nothing o r i g i n a l about him'.17 indeed the r a t h e r obvious correspondence of Flaxman's U l y s s e s f o l l o w i n g the Car of Nausecaa Odyssey 11 and one from Hamilton's C o l l e c t i o n of Engravings has a l r e a d y been noted. 74 When comparing Flaxman's o u t l i n e s and A.J. Ca r s t e n ' s l i n e i l l u s t r a t i o n s t o Les Argonautes (1799) C a r s t e n ' s engraver Koch wrote t h a t as t h i s work was more ' p a i n t e r l y ' than Flaxman's i t would be p r e f e r r e d by connoisseurs ( F i g u r e 60).18 Goethe more c o r r e c t l y suggested t h a t Flaxman's c l a s s i c a l l y i n s p i r e d designs had made Flaxman 'the i d o l of a l l the d i l e t t a n t e . ' 1 9 Having been nominated t h e i r i d o l Flaxman might have expected the d i l e t t a n t e to make him t h e i r most sought a f t e r i l l u s t r a t o r . Instead commissions a r i s i n g as a d i r e c t of the engraved designs seem to have been few. Prompted by the g e n e r a l l y e n t h u s i a s t i c e a r l y acceptance of the Homer and Dante designs he p u b l i s h e d , i n 1795, Compositions from the Trag e d i e s of Aeschylus with Tomaso P i r o l i engraving the 30 p l a t e s . The simple l i n e Flaxman used f o r c l a s s i c a l l y i n s p i r e d compositions was a s s o c i a t e d with him to the extent t h a t i n at l e a s t one i n s t a n c e he l o s t a commission. In 1804 i t was suggested that he i l l u s t r a t e S i r Walter S c o t t ' s Lay of the L o s t M i n s t r e l . S c o t t d e c l i n e d to engage Flaxman, reasoning t h a t he was 'too c l a s s i c a l to stoop to body f o r t h my G o t h i c b o r d e r e r s ' who might resemble 'the antique of Homer's heroes r a t h e r than the i r o n race of S a l -vator',20 Had i t been o f f e r e d Flaxman may have d e c l i n e d such a commission. In 1807 Hayley was only a b l e t o persuade Flaxman to i l l u s t r a t e h i s e d i t i o n of M i l t o n ' s L a t i n poems because he was a c l o s e p e r s o n a l f r i e n d . Flaxman p r o t e s t e d t h a t : 'I have a l r e a d y s t a t e d my o b j e c t i o n s to make designs f o r the d e c o r a t i o n of p r i n t e d books - that I never have made any f o r such purposes t h a t i t i s a branch of a r t i n which I am not l i k e l y to succeed f o r want of p r a c t i c e , and the p r o d u c t i o n s i n which w i l l be regarded with a j e a l o u s eye by those to whom that department belongs'.21 Flaxman c l e a r l y had l i t t l e i n t e r e s t i n a c a r e e r as a book i l l u s t r a t o r . When he p u b l i s h e d h i s s e r i e s of Compositions from the Works and Days and Theogony of Hesiod i n 1817 the ch o i c e s of s u b j e c t s and the smal l income from t h e i r s a l e were h i s . Rather than p u r s u i n g commissions f o r i l l u s t r a t i o n upon the Flaxmans' r e t u r n to England i n 1794, he r e e s t a b l i s h e d h i s p r a c t i c e as a s c u l p t o r hoping f o r g r e a t e r p e r s o n a l r e c o g n i t i o n than h i s i n d i v i d u a l e f f o r t s had r e c e i v e d seven years b e f o r e . His ambition was to c a p i t a l i z e on h i s designs by t r a n s l a t i n g them i n t o stone. T h e i r s u i t a b i l i t y suggested to Lord B r i s t o l t h a t r e l i e f s based on the Homer designs would be a p p r o p r i a t e f o r d e c o r a t i n g the Rotunda of Ickworth House, which was to house the Fury of Athamas. I r o n i c a l l y , however, the a c t u a l p r o d u c t i o n of the r e l i e f s was not accomplished by Flaxman but by the C a r a b e l l i b r o t h e r s i n 1800 and 1803. S i m i l a r l y , when, i n 1809, Flaxman designed anew a f r i e z e on the s u b j e c t s of Anc i e n t and Modern Drama f o r Covent Garden Theatre the a c t u a l p r o d u c t i o n of the r e l i e f s was accomplished by John C h a r l e s R o s s i , protege' of i t s a r c h i t e c t Robert Smirke. As he worked, R o s s i i s r e p o r t e d to have spoken 'of the l i t t l e power Flaxman has i n working upon marble of stone. H i s power i s c o n f i n e d t o de s i g n i n g and modelling'.22 T h i s view was somewhat r e s t r i c t i v e . 76 Long b e f o r e 1809 Flaxman had proven h i m s e l f more than j u s t a d esigner and modeller. H i s major work the monument f o r the tomb of W i l l i a m , f i r s t E a r l of M a n s f i e l d ( F i g u r e 21) had been i n s t a l l e d i n Westminster Abbey i n 1801. The Fury of Athamas upon which he had pinned h i s hopes f o r r e c o g n i t i o n was v i r t u a l l y unknown. I t had been captured by French troops and f o l l o w i n g i t s e v entual i n s t a l l a t i o n i n Lord B r i s t o l ' s country house ( a f t e r h i s death, as i t happened) remained out of the view of the general p u b l i c . Moreover, i t was never engraved. T y p i c a l l y , however, h i s f i r s t p r o j e c t s a f t e r h i s r e t u r n to London had been more modest than e i t h e r of these. The monument to Mrs. Mary Blackshaw (Mary Lushington) ( F i g u r e 61) f o r example was begun i n 1798 and completed the f o l l o w i n g year. I t i s not, a d i r e c t t r a n s l a t i o n of a Homer design i n t o stone and y e t , when con s i d e r e d i n t h e i r context, v a r i o u s of the elements are f a m i l i a r : the frame surrounding the f i g u r e s i s formed with a wide moulding comprised of c o n c e n t r i c a r c s r e m i n i s c e n t of the a r c i n g p a r a l l e l l i n e h a t c h i n g Flaxman used to r e p r e s e n t the heavens i n I l i a d 6, J u p i t e r Sending the E v i l Dream to Agamemnon ( F i g u r e 57);, the g r i e v i n g f i g u r e p o s i t i o n e d over the l i d of a sarcophagus r e c a l l s A c h i l l e s i n a semiprone p o s i t i o n over the dead P a t r o c l u s i n I l i a d 31, T h e t i s B r i n g i n g the Armour to A c h i l l e s ( F i g u r e 1); the f i g u r e s are disposed i n a manner that c r e a t e s a composition resembling Odyssey 7, Penelope's Dream ( F i g u r e 62);and the winged angel i s analogous to the Minerva f i g u r e with d r a p e r i e s a f l u t t e r to i n d i c a t e f l i g h t . For t h i s new composition, rendered 77 as a bas r e l i e f , Flaxman was not r e q u i r e d to study l i v e models, contemporary or a n c i e n t works or engravings from them. H i s own c l a s s i c a l l y i n s p i r e d designs p r o v i d e d the components. Once p u b l i s h e d as engravings, the designs were no longer Flaxman's p r i v a t e quarry f o r f i g u r a l m o t i f s . They f e l l r a t h e r i n t o the catagory of p a t t e r n books, a k i n to Hamilton's C o l l e c t i o n of Vases ... or the engraved sources Wedgwood kept f o r the i n s p i r a t i o n of h i s a r t i s t s . 2 3 The s u i t a b i l i t y of Flaxman's designs f o r a d a p t a t i o n i n t o new works was r e c o g n i z e d by a r t i s t s of a l l ages. The young German p a i n t e r P h i l i p Otto Runge even suggested t h a t now that he had Flaxman's i l l u s t r a t i o n s he need no longer r e f e r to c o p i e s of E t r u s c a n vases f o r i n s p i r a t i o n . 2 4 Flaxman's Leucothea P r e s e r v i n g U l y s s e s , Odyssey 9 ( F i g u r e 63) has been suggested as a p o s s i b l e source f o r the c e n t r a l f i g u r e i n Runge's Morning ( F i g u r e 64).25 with the p e r s p e c t i v e of an e s t a b l i s h e d a r t i s t Jacques L o u i s David was r e p o r t e d to have s a i d somewhat p r o p h e t i c a l l y of the then newly p u b l i s h e d Aeschylus and Homer desi g n s , \"Cet ouvrage f e r a f a i r e des tableaux.\"26 David h i m s e l f proved h i s own f o r e s i g h t . In a sketchbook (now i n the Mus£e des Beaux-Arts i n L i l l e ) f i l l e d i n the 1790's he worked out c o m p o s i t i o n a l d e t a i l s f o r h i s Les Sabines.27 p o r t h i s work ( F i g u r e 65) he drew f i g u r e s of a w a r r i o r ( F i g u r e 66) which are v a r i a t i o n s of the c e n t r a l c h a r a c t e r ( A c h i l l e s ) i n Flaxman's design from I l i a d 33, A c h i l l e s Contending with the R i v e r s ( F i g u r e 30). S i m i l a r l y , the composition f o r Les Sabines was drawn from the F i g h t f o r the Body of P a t r o c l u s I l i a d 26 78 ( F i g u r e 67). David e l a b o r a t e d the image by adding many i n d i v i d u a l combatants to the soon to c l a s h armies and by p r o v i d i n g an a r c h i t e c t u r a l background. David's Les Sabines, based upon components taken from the Homer engravings, a p p a r e n t l y i n t r i g u e d the s c u l p t o r as the f i n i s h e d scheme was to reappear i n a subsequent Flaxman d e s i g n . In 1810 Flaxman began work on the design of a S h i e l d of A c h i l l e s t o be drawn from the d e s c r i p t i o n given by Homer i n Book XVIII of the I l i a d . 2 7 Design alone took e i g h t years, i n p a r t at l e a s t , because of the care Flaxman took i n r e l a t i n g v i s u a l image to t e x t . Included was a r a t h e r two dimensional v e r s i o n of David's b a t t l e scene drawn f i r s t on a s t r a i g h t ground l i n e ( F i g u r e 68) and then f i t t e d to the c i r c u l a r format of the s h i e l d ( F i g u r e 69). For twenty-four drawings of d e t a i l s and f i v e models i n c l u d i n g the f i n a l one the f i r m of R u n d e l l , B r i d g e and R u n d e l l , goldsmiths t o r o y a l t y , p a i d Flaxman 600 g u i n e a s . 2 8 The s i l v e r - g i l t o r i g i n a l was purchased by King George IV ( i n c e l e b r a t i o n of h i s s u c c e s s i o n to the throne i n 1820) and s i l v e r v e r s i o n s by the Duke of York (now i n the Huntington A r t G a l l e r y i n San Marino), the Duke of Northumberland and the E a r l of Lonsdale. Each s h i e l d c o n tained over 600 ounces of s i l v e r and represented many hours of work of Ru n d e l l s i l v e r smiths. There are a l s o p l a s t e r and bronze v e r s i o n s . In h i s biography Cunningham r e c o r d s that Flaxman was ' j u s t l y proud' of t h i s 'magnificent' p i e c e which was 'considered by many as one of the a r t i s t ' s most s u c c e s s f u l w o r k s . ' 2 9 79 To r e t u r n to the theme of the i n f l u e n c e of Flaxman's engravings on French a r t i s t s , Sarah Symmons contends t h a t , \" I t was i n France that h i s work provoked the most f r u i t f u l i m i t a t i o n and r e s e a r c h throughout the n i n e t e e n t h century. From David to Degas Flaxman's o u t l i n e s r e t a i n e d t h e i r importance and the a r t i s t h i m s e l f was always an o b j e c t of admiration.\"30 one such was F r a n c o i s Rude who was commissioned, d u r i n g h i s e x i l e a f t e r Waterloo, to the decorate the e x t e r i o r of the Chateau de Tervueren i n B r u s s e l s . 3 1 As a s c u l p t o r h i m s e l f he r e a l i z e d the p o t e n t i a l of Flaxman's l i n e engravings f o r t r a n s l a t i o n i n t o bas r e l i e f s . H i s A c h i l l e s d e p l o r e 1'enterrement de B r i s e i s ( F i g u r e 70) was d e r i v e d from the Departure of B r i s e i s from the Tent of A c h i l l e s ( F i g u r e 3 5 ) ( I l i a d 3 ) . A p r e p a r a t o r y sketch f o r the r e l i e f c l e a r l y shows that while i n s p i r e d by Flaxman's work Rude d i d not t r a c e h i s f i g u r e s but r a t h e r chose to c r e a t e anew adopting s i m i l a r poses and gestures and s i g n i f i c a n t l y a v i s u a l means a k i n to Flaxman's l i n e ( F i g u r e 71). In a d d i t i o n , by r e a r r a n g i n g the f i g u r e s and drawing c l o s e r them together, Rude was able to e l i m i n a t e the apparent d i v i s i o n of the l e f t and r i g h t s i d e s of the o r i g i n a l i n which Flaxman had l e s s s u c c e s s f u l l y u n i t e d the s i d e s by adding h o r i z o n t a l h a t c h i n g . I f the r e l i e f was Rude's, the f i g u r e s and v i s u a l means Rude used to e s t a b l i s h h i s c o n c e p t i o n were Flaxman's. The second a r t i s t , Antoine Gros, concentrated not on a l t e r i n g Flaxman's compositions to f i t h i s own purpose but r a t h e r on i n d i v i d u a l f i g u r e s . 3 2 In h i s sketchbooks Gros f o l l o w e d 80 a procedure s i m i l a r t o that of Flaxman by assembling on a s i n g l e sheet i n d i v i d u a l f i g u r e s from a v a r i e t y of sources. However, i n s t e a d of adopting the work of a v a r i e t y of other a r t i s t s Gros drew f i g u r e s with some p a r t i c u l a r q u a l i t y from a number of the Homer des i g n s . F i g u r e 72 f o r example d i s p l a y s f i v e f i g u r e s t r a c e d from Flaxman's Odyssey s e r i e s . A l l f i v e are s t a n d i n g , draped f i g u r e s with heads bowed forward. S i m i l a r l y i n f i g u r e 73. Gros has accumulated three g e s t u r i n g f i g u r e s with f l u t t e r i n g drapery. The c o n t r a s t between these s t u d i e s of types and Gros's standard means of p i c t o r i a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n i s d r a m a t i c a l l y demonstrated i n F i g u r e 74 where one of a s e r i e s of seated f i g u r e s i s rendered on a page below a remarkably vigourous shaded study of a horse. These l i n e drawings would seem to have been t r a c e d with great care i n an e f f o r t to f i x impressions of p a r t i c u l a r types of f i g u r e s i n Gros' mind without h i s r e s o r t i n g t o time consuming s t u d i e s of l i v e models or other a r t i s t s works. The t h i r d French a r t i s t a s s o c i a t e d with Flaxman's work was, of course, Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres.33 H i s p e r s o n a l l i b r a r y as preserved i n the Mus£e Ingres i n Montauban c o n t a i n s s i x of the p u b l i s h e d works of Flaxman i n c l u d i n g the i l l u s t r a t i o n s t o the I l i a d , Odyssey, and D i v i n e Comedy. From these Ingres drew i n s p i r a t i o n . Soon a f t e r the t u r n of the e i g h t e e n t h century he had been c o n s i d e r i n g a new work J u p i t e r and T h e t i s . The concept he s e t t l e d upon and developed i n t o the f i n a l work ( F i g u r e 75) appeared soon a f t e r 1805 as d i d c o i n c i d e n t a l l y a new e d i t i o n of the Homer engravings p u b l i s h e d i n London by 81 Longman. To supplement the o r i g i n a l 34, f i v e new designs by Flaxman had been added i n c l u d i n g T h e t i s E n t r e a t i n g J u p i t e r to Honor A c h i l l e s ( I l i a d 5) ( F i g u r e 76). Symmons has i n f e r r e d from the resemblance of Flaxman's and Ingres' s u p p l i a n t T h e t i s f i g u r e s , with sinuous necks and heads t i l t e d back, that Ingres probably a c q u i r e d one of these new Longman Odyssey's and drew h i s T h e t i s from i t . To complete the composition Ingres c o n t r a s t e d t h i s s o f t , contoured T h e t i s f i g u r e with a more muscular, angular, and dominating male f i g u r e analogous to J u p i t e r i n The C o u n c i l of the Gods, I l i a d 9 ( F i g u r e 77). Ingres' own hard edge s t y l e may a l s o have d e r i v e d from h i s a p p r e c i a t i o n of Flaxman's i l l u s t r a t i o n s . 3 4 In h i s methodical p r o d u c t i o n of a new p a i n t i n g Ingres f r e q u e n t l y made notes about h i s a t t i t u d e s toward i t . Of T h e t i s ' appearance he wrote: 'La beaute s' a s s o c i e a l a jeunesse...La gorge des d e e s e s 3 5 l a nature de d e s s i n pour b l a n c ' 3 6 and d i r e c t l y to the p o i n t 'La beaute dans l e s ouvrages de l ' a r t e s t l a premiere chose [,] e l l e d o i t dominer sur t o u t [ ; ] l a c o u l e u r blanche e s t a d o p t e e comme l a p l u s b e l l e pour l e s a n c i e n s [ . ] ' 3 7 The very whiteness upon which Ingres f i x e d h i s a t t e n t i o n and which he b e l i e v e d most a p p r o p r i a t e f o r the s u b j e c t i s perhaps the most conspicuous q u a l i t y of Flaxman's engraved de s i g n s . The E n g l i s h a r t i s t d e f i n e d h i s f i g u r e s on the white f i e l d of the p i c t u r e with t h i n b l a c k l i n e s . Ingres rendered h i s f i g u r e s by p a i n t i n g them i n l i g h t , c o n s i s t a n t tones on a c o n t r a s t i n g ground a p p a r e n t l y so h i s p a i n t i n g s would g i v e a comparable impression of p r e c i s i o n . 82 The r e l a t i v e m e r i t s of the two a r t i s t s were c o n s i d e r e d i n L ' A r t i s t e i n 1833. Flaxman's Dante, Homer, and Aeschylus were s a i d to possess: \"...une grande purete; une grande f i n e s s e , une t r e s grande s o i n . Nul d e s s i n p l u s que c e l u i de Flaxman n ' exige absolument toutes ces qualit£s; l a s6v£rite' des l i g n e s , l a s i m p l i c i t y des contours font l e grand c a r a c t e r e de ses compositions; l a moindre a l t e r a t i o n de ces graves et purs p r o f i l s en f e r a i t de r i d i c u l e s s i l h o u e t t e s d' ombres c h i n o i s . \" 3 8 Having p l a c e d the c o n s t r a i n t upon the use of Flaxman's designs - t h a t i f they are s u b j e c t e d to the l e a s t a l t e r a t i o n they become r i d i c u l o u s s i l h o u e t t e s - l i t t l e wonder that when Flaxman's use of l i n e and Ingres' use of c o l o u r are compared Flaxman was upheld as having the b e t t e r i n s t i n c t s . The w r i t e r noted : \"Ingres, dont l e genie n'est pas sans de nombreux r a p p o r t s avec l e s i e n , a compris a u s s i de meme q u ' i l n' a v a i t r i e n a demeler avec l a c o u l e u r ; mais i l n' a pas eu l e bon i n s t i n c t , comrae Flaxman, de renoncer k l a p e i n t u r e et de s' en t e n i r au d e s s i n , au bas - r e l i e f , k l a s t a t u a i r e . \" 3 y As much as p r a i s i n g Flaxman, the author i m p l i e s that the s c u l p t o r ' s method of d e s i g n i n g with l i n e was best a p p l i e d to bas r e l i e f or s t a t u t o r y . Ingres, the p a i n t e r , was to show h i s agreement many years l a t e r . In the year Flaxman d i e d , 1826, Ingres r e c e i v e d a commission f o r h i s f i r s t v e r s i o n of L'Apotheose d'Homere. At t h i s time he must have been somewhat ambivalent i n h i s f e e l i n g s about the s c u l p t o r ' s importance. Although i t was c o n s i d e r e d f o r i n c l u s i o n , Flaxman's p o r t r a i t does not appear i n t h i s work. Only a f t e r 83 many years r e f l e c t i o n on h i s own work d i d Ingres i n c l u d e Flaxman i n a second work on the same theme Homere D 6 i f i 6 . T h i s semi-a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l work was completed only two years b e f o r e the p a i n t e r ' s death i n 1867. In i t were p o r t r a i t s of those people Ingres judged to have c o n t r i b u t e d to the continued p o p u l a r i t y of Homer and thus to the c r e d i b i l i t y of h i s s u b j e c t . The personages i n c l u d e d Longinus, 1st Century A.D. author of On the Sublime a work which threw r e a l l i g h t on what c o n s t i t u t e d l i t e r a r y g reatness, M m e D a c i e r t r a n s l a t o r of Homer i n t o French, and Flaxman the a r t i s t whose designs had p r o v i d e d readers with images to complement the Homeric t e x t s . The only v i s u a l works Ingres presented as r e c o g n i z a b l e s p e c i f i c sources i n Homere D£if± 6 are Flaxman's c l a s s i c a l o u t l i n e s adapted to form the f r i e z e of the b u i l d i n g i n the background ( F i g u r e 78). As a r e s u l t of the r e c o g n i t i o n he r e c e i v e d when he r e t u r n e d home to England, Flaxman found h i m s e l f i n a p o s i t i o n to be of d i r e c t i n f l u e n c e over more, p a r t i c u l a r l y young, a r t i s t s than he was on the c o n t i n e n t , where he was known almost e x c l u s i v e l y through the d i s t r i b u t i o n of h i s engraved designs. In 1797 he was e l e c t e d a s s o c i a t e of the Royal Academy and three years l a t e r a f u l l Royal Academician. He was i n v i t e d to g i v e evidence to a House of Commons Committee c o n s i d e r i n g the purchase of the E l g i n m a r b l e s . 4 0 In 1810 John Flaxman R.A. became the Academy's f i r s t P r o f e s s o r of S c u l p t u r e , 4 ! which r e q u i r e d him to present s i x l e c t u r e s a year. 84 John Flaxman's L e c t u r e s on S c u l p t u r e ... As d e l i v e r e d b e f o r e the P r e s i d e n t and Members of the Royal Academy, 4 2 p u b l i s h e d i n 1829 g i v e h i s p e r s p e c t i v e s on a r t , the a c q u i s i t i o n of a r t i s t i c s k i l l s and the c o n s t r u c t i o n of new works. \"We must a v a i l o u r s e l v e s of the s t u d i e s and p r a c t i c e of the most c e l e b r a t e d a r t i s t s , ' 4 3 he wrote. H i s own s t u d i e s of the a n c i e n t works with which h i s contemporaries had a s s o c i a t e d with h i s own o u t l i n e i l l u s t r a t i o n s had l e d him to b e l i e v e that the crudeness of a n c i e n t s c u l p t u r e or b a r b a r i c s c u l p t u r e was a t t r i b u t a b l e to a l a c k of s c i e n t i f i c knowledge i n the form of anatomy, geometry, mathematics, p r o p o r t i o n e t c . 4 4 The d e f i c i e n c i e s of these e a r l i e s t works were r e s o l v e d through the a p p l i c a t i o n of the two s c i e n c e s a r i t h m e t i c and geometry: 'by a r i t h m e t i c , the p r o p o r t i o n s of the human f i g u r e and other animals are reckoned, and the q u a n t i t i e s of bodies, s u p e r f i c i e s , or l i g h t and shade a s c e r t a i n e d ; geometry g i v e s l i n e s and diagrams f o r the motions, o u t l i n e , and drapery of the f i g u r e , r e g u l a t e d by the harmony of agreeable p r o p o r t i o n s , or the o p p o s i t i o n of c o n t r a s t * . 4 5 For i n d i v i d u a l f i g u r e s he r e c a l l e d a d i a l o g u e of S o c r a t e s where he notes that the p h i l o s o p h e r and P a r r h a s i u s agree that 'the good and e v i l q u a l i t i e s of the s o u l may be represented i n the f i g u r e of man by p a i n t i n g ' . 4 6 Subsequently he expressed the p r i n c i p l e i n h i s own words: 'Expression d i s t i n g u i s h e s the s p e c i e s of a c t i o n i n the whole and i n a l l the p a r t s ; i n the f a c e s , f i g u r e s , limbes ( s i c ) , and e x t r e m i t i e s ' . 4 7 When assembling i n t o a new composition f i g u r e s c r e a t e d with every f e a t u r e c o n t r i b u t i n g to an e x p r e s s i o n 85 of the c h a r a c t e r ' s s o u l the a r t i s t should again be m i n d f u l of a n c i e n t a r t : 'The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of G r e c i a n composition, i n the best ages, are s i m p l i c i t y and d i s t i n c t n e s s ... Where the s t o r y does not r e q u i r e much a c t i o n , i t i s t o l d by g e n t l e movements, and the f i g u r e s , whether grouped or s i n g l e , have a s u f f i c i e n t p o r t i o n of p l a i n back-ground l e f t about them to show the general l i n e s with the forms of the limbs and d r a p e r i e s p e r f e c t l y i n t e l l i g i b l e . ' 4 8 For the p r o d u c t i o n of a new work the i n s t a n t d e p i c t i n g 'every a c t i o n i s more p e r f e c t as i t comprehends an i n d i c a t i o n of the past, with a c e r t a i n t y of the end, i n the moment c h o s e n ' . 4 9 Of p a r t i c u l a r r e l e v a n c e to h i s intended purpose f o r the Homer designs i s a comment on basso r e l i e v o . He wrote, 'The s p e c i e s of s c u l p t u r e i s not intended to be seen i n many views l i k e the e n t i r e group; but i t has t h i s advantage, that more groups then one may be on the same back-ground, and sometimes a s u c c e s s i o n of events i n the same s t o r y ; a g r e a t e r f o r c e i s given to harmony, or c o n t r a s t of l i n e s by the number of groups and f i g u r e s as w e l l as the p r o j e c t i o n of t h e i r shadows.' 5 0 The c r i t i c a l a c c l a i m Flaxman accrued from the i l l u s t r a t i o n s was not maintained i n England, being r e p l a c e d d u r i n g h i s l i f e t i m e by a r e p u t a t i o n as a s c u l p t o r . To f o l l o w G e r a l d B e n t l e y ' s f i g u r e s only 656 c o p i e s of the Longman Homer i l l u s t r a t i o n s were s o l d between 1805 and 1828. 51 By the l a t t e r p a r t of the 19th Century a l l Flaxman's works were reviewed almost a p o l o g e t i c a l l y . For example, E.S. Roscoe wrote, '[Flaxman's] works appeal to the 86 c u l t u r e d minds of a very s m a l l number ...'52 ^ the tu r n of the 20th century Flaxman's v i s u a l means of i l l u s t r a t i o n had been reduced t o the form s u i t a b l e f o r cartoons such as the one by P h i l May represented by F i g u r e 79. When compared with Flaxman's designs of a century b e f o r e the l i n e engraving, heavy d r a p e r i e s , p a r a l l e l h a t c h i n g , minimal background presence of p h y s i c a l types r a t h e r than i n d i v i d u a l s are f a m i l i a r but Flaxman's s e r i o u s i n t e n t has been r e p l a c e d by s o c i a l s a t i r e . 87 NOTES TO THE TEXT CHAPTER IV 1. Henry Crabb-Robinson, D i a r i e s , V o l . I 17th January 1811. 2. Mrs. Flaxman to Hayley Rome 22 J u l y 1793 F i t z w i l l i a m Museum, Flaxman l e t t e r box no.3. 3. G e r a l d E. Ben t l e y J r . , The E a r l y Engravings of Flaxman's C l a s s i c a l Designs, (New York, 1964), p. 31 4. I b i d . p. 18 fo o t n o t e 8 notes that Flaxman recorded \"Sent by Hawkins McKinnon & Com: to Mr. Udney 46 drawings from the I l i a d & Odyssey at 4 Crowns each 184 — \" i n h i s Account book f o r 1792-1794 ( B r i t i s h Museum, Add. Mss 39784 F, f . 32) 5. C h a r l e s Robert C o c k e r e l l , D i a r i e s . Manuscript i n R.I.B.A. Drawings C o l l e c t i o n . 27 November 1824. 6. David Irwin, John Flaxman: 1755-1826 (London, 1979), p.138. 7. George Smith, The D i c t i o n a r y of N a t i o n a l Biography (Oxford, 1938), entry f o r F r a n c i s Hare-Naylor. 8. B e n t l e y , op. c i t . , pp. 13-14, 31. 9. Flaxman to Hayley Rome 26 October 1793. MSS. F i t z w i l l i a m Museum, Flaxman l e t t e r - b o x no.4. 10. Robert Adam, Ruins of the p a l a c e of the Emperor D i o c l e t i a n at S p a l a t r o i n Dalmatia (London, 1764), p. i v . 11. J.D. F i o r i l l o , G e s c h i c h t e der zeichnender Kunste (Gottingen 1798-1808), V, p.851. In Irwin, op. c i t . , p.67. 12. F a r i n g t o n , D i a r y , unpublished entry , 19 December 1795. In Irwin, op. c i t . , 84. 13. Goethe, op. c i t . , p.245. 14. W i l l i a m Hayley, The L i f e of George Romney, (London, 1809), p.203. 15. Irwin, op. c i t . , p.84. 16. F a r i n g t o n , D i a r y , unpublished entry , 19 December 1795. In Irwin, op. c i t . , 84. 88 17. F a r i n g t o n , D i a r y , e d i t . G r e i g , I, p.184, 12 January 1797. In Irwin, op. c i t . , 84. 18. Koch l e t t e r , dated Rome 16 January 1799, i n Otto R. von L u t t e r o i t t i , J.A. Koch ( B e r l i n , 1940), p.142. 19. Goethe, op. c i t . , p.245. 20. S i r Walter S c o t t , L e t t e r s , e d i t H.J.C. G r i e r s o n (London, 1932-1936), I, pp.226-227. 21. L e t t e r Flaxman to Hayley, London, 6 November 1807. B r i t i s h L i b r a r y , Add. MSS. 39780, f.98. 22. F a r i n g t o n , D i a r y unpublished e n t r y 19 J u l y 1809 i n Irwin, op. c i t . , p.172. 23. David Irwin, N e o c l a s s i c a l Design: Industry plunders A n t i q u i t y , A p o l l o , XCVI, 1972, pp.289ff. 24. P h i l l i p Otto Runge: H i n t e r l a s s e n S c h r i f t e n , Hamburg (1840), V o l . II p. 31. Runge to h i s b r o t h e r D a n i e l , 23 August 1800. 25 Bindman, op. c i t . , p.177. 26. Quoted Jeanne Doin 'John Flaxman ( I ) ' , Gazette de Beaux-Arts, V [1911], 4me pe r i o d e , p.233. 27. B r i a n Ivon-Jones, 'The A c h i l l e s S i l v e r - g i l t S h i e l d ' , A p o l l o ns 97 [ A p r i l 1973] p.447. 28. B r i t i s h Museum, Add. MSS. 39783 a volume c o n t a i n i n g c o r r e s -pondence of Maria Denman f281 i n Robert R. Work B r i t i s h S i l v e r i n the Huntington C o l l e c t i o n (San Marino C a l i f o r n i a , 1978) number 58. 29. A l l a n Cunningham L i v e s of the Most eminent B r i t i s h P a i n t e r s S c u l p t o r s and A r c h i t e c t s 2nd e d i t i o n , 6 v o l s . London 1830-3 i n Irwin, op. c i t . , p.196. 30. Sarah Symmons, 'French c o p i e s a f t e r Flaxman's O u t l i n e s ' B u r l i n g t o n Magazine, 115 [Sept 1973] pp.591-599. T h i s passage p.596. 31. Now destroyed. I b i d . , p.595. 32. I b i d . , p.596. 33. Sarah Symmons, 'J.A.D. Ingres: The apothe o s i s of Flaxman' B u r l i n g t o n Magazine v o l 121 [November 1979] pp.721-725. 34. I b i d . , p.722. 89 35. Quoted by D a n i e l T e r n o i s , Ingres, ( P e t i t P a l a i s , P a r i s [1967-1968]), p.76, No. 51 i n Symmons, i b i d . , p.722. 36. Montaubon, Mus6e Ingres, Inv. No. 8671786. i n Symmons, i b i d . , p.722. 37. Montaubon, Mus6e Ingres, Inv. No. 8671793. i n Symmons, i b i d . , p.722. 38. L'Oeuvre Complet de John Flaxman,' L ' A r t i s t e , Tome V. 2 1 e l i v r a i s o n [1833], p.260. 39. I b i d . p.260. 40. P u b l i s h e d as: Report from the S e l e c t Committee of the House of Commons on the E a r l of E l g i n ' s C o l l e c t i o n e t c I London, 1816 J. Flaxman's evidence pp.70-80. 41. Sidney C. Hutchison, The H i s t o r y of the Royal Academy 1768-1968 [London 1968], p.233. 42. John Flaxman, L e c t u r e on S c u l p t u r e ... As d e l i v e r e d b e f o r e the P r e s i d e n t and Members of the Royal Academy. With a b r i e f memoir of the author. London, 1829. L a t e r p u b l i s h e d as John Flaxman, L e c t u r e s on S c u l p t u r e ... Second e d i t i o n . To which are now f i r s t added, an i n t r o d u c t o r y l e c t u r e and two addresses to the Royal Academy on the death of T. Banks, i n 1805, and A. Canova, i n 1822, with and Address on the death of Flaxman by S i r R. Westmacott. London, 1838. New e d i t i o n London, G. B e l l and sons, 1881. 43. I b i d . , (1881), P-215. 44. I b i d . , (1881), P- l O l f f . 45. I b i d . , (1881), P- 160. 46. I b i d . , (1881), P-133. 47. I b i d . , (1881), p. 151. 48. I b i d . , (1881), P-157. 49. I b i d . , (1881), P. 151. 50. I b i d . , (1881), P-153. 51. G e r a l d Bentley op . c i t . , 52. E.S. Roscoe, 'The Career and Works of Flaxman' Magazine of A r t V4 [1881], p.368. 90 A plaque on the house where P h i l i p W i l l i a m May was born reads: \"A great b l a c k and white a r t i s t ... A f e l l o w of i n f i n i t e j e s t \" . H i s s t y l e ranged from l i n e t o h e a v i l y shaded f i g u r e s . See David C u p p l e d i t c h , P h i l May, The A r t i s t and H i s Wit (London, 1981), p.125. 91 CHAPTER V Having examined the i n t e l l e c t u a l context, h i s t o r y and i n f l u e n c e of the Homer designs, i t i s necessary to a p p r a i s e Flaxman's achievement i n producing a s e r i e s of images t h a t to t h i s day r e t a i n t h e i r c a p t i v a t i n g f r e s h n e s s and v i g o u r . L u c i d l y conceived and u n c l u t t e r e d by s u p e r f l u o u s d e t a i l , the engravings not only i l l u m i n a t e Homer and h i s s t o r i e s , but a l s o e x p l o r e the nature of man. Indeed, they seem to be documents r e c o r d i n g a s o c i e t y with an o b j e c t i v e , s c i e n t i f i c p r e c i s i o n t h a t i s f a r removed from the a n c i e n t d e c o r a t i v e a r t by which they were p a r t l y i n s p i r e d . Instead the l i n e engravings form a compendium of the Homeric e p i c s and, i n the s p i r i t of i n t e l l e c t u a l enquiry t h a t c h a r a c t e r i z e d 18th Century thought, seemingly present the essence of humanity without the d i s t r a c t i o n of i t s m a t e r i a l substance. John Flaxman's 1792 Homer designs embodied h i s experience accumulated d u r i n g h i s f i r s t 15 years i n h i s f a t h e r s ' c a s t and model shop, f o u r years at the Royal Academy, 12 years as a designer f o r J o s i a h Wedgwood (a l e a d e r i n the development of i n d u s t r i a l methods of mass p r o d u c t i o n ) , and f i v e years study i n I t a l y . D e s p i t e the prominence of commercial c o n s t r i c t i o n s c r i t i c i s m of the engravings has c entred on t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p with the work of a n c i e n t and contemporary a r t i s t s . That i n t e r -p r e t a t i o n , however, overlooks h i s more p r o s a i c and p r a c t i c a l approach. While i n Wedgwood's employ, Flaxman had developed h i s l i n e a r s t y l e as both a means of c r e a t i v e e x p r e s s i o n , and of t e c h n i c a l communication to the i n d u s t r i a l i s t and h i s p o t t e r s , 92 p a r a l l e l i n g the w e l l - e s t a b l i s h e d use of drawing/engraving i n the 18th Century as the medium f o r t r a n s m i t t i n g e s s e n t i a l i d e a s . I t i s i n t h i s context that Flaxman's Homer i l l u s t r a t i o n s e s s e n t i a l l y belong, having been completed r a p i d l y by an accom-p l i s h e d i n d u s t r i a l d e signer and intended f o r t r a n s l a t i o n i n t o o ther a r t i s t i c media. Flaxman's g o a l , as he i n d i c a t e d to Hayley, was to 'show how any s t o r y may be represented i n a s e r i e s of compositions on p r i n c i p l e s of the a n c i e n t s . ' 1 The e x p r e s s i o n 'on p r i n c i p l e s of the a n c i e n t s ' d i d not p r e c l u d e the i n c l u s i o n of anything t h a t c o u l d be adapted to present an appearance a p p r o p r i a t e f o r the Homeric e p i c s . H i s a d a p t a t i o n s and i n n o v a t i o n s were many: , a l t e r a t i o n s of the focus and d e t a i l of the s t o r i e s , i n c l u s i o n of c o m p o s i t i o n a l schemes unknown to Homer's time; novel d e v i c e s i n h i g h a r t such as the h o r i z o n t a l h a t c h i n g (more u s u a l l y employed i n 18th Century books of engravings of a n c i e n t a r t ) ; t a k i n g of 'short c u t s ' such as the e x c l u s i o n of h e a v i l y decorated d r a p e r i e s (even though a n c i e n t vases o f t e n show i t ) ; and, l a s t but not l e a s t , s e l e c t i o n of the engraving process, a mass p r o d u c t i o n method, i t s e l f unknown i n Homer's time. C l e a r l y , t o Flaxman, \"on p r i n c p l e s of the a n c i e n t s \" d i d not mean d e t a i l e d r e p r o d u c t i o n of a n c i e n t compositions. He was n e i t h e r simply adopting a n c i e n t or e a r l y I t a l i a n a r t as models nor attempting to c r e a t e a s e r i e s of images c o n t r i v e d to be i n d i s t i n g u s h a b l e from a n c i e n t work. Runge, commenting i n a l e t t e r of 1800, observed, 'My God, I have never seen t h i s k i n d of t h i n g b e f o r e 93 i n my l i f e ; the drawings on E t r u s c a n vases completely p a l e by comparison'. 2 indeed, the Homer i l l u s t r a t i o n s were q u i t e u n l i k e the E t r u s c a n designs, i n no s m a l l p a r t because Flaxman had employed the methods and p r i n c i p l e s u t i l i z e d by h i s own contemporaries f o r the c l e a r e x p r e s s i o n of e s s e n t i a l i d e a s . By comparison, i n the s c u l p t u r a l s i d e of h i s p r a c t i c e Flaxman c l e a r l y d i s t i n g u i s h e d the d i f f e r e n t purposes to which shaded p i c t o r i a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s and l i n e diagrams should be put. The conceptual scheme f o r a monument to the poet W i l l i a m C o l l i n s i n F i g u r e 22 c o n t a i n s a study i n pen and ink and wash of the f i g u r e s to be represented i n a bas r e l i e f , and a l i n e drawing i n pen and ink without shadow. At the top i s a p i c t u r e , 'a g r a p h i c d e s c r i p t i o n . . . capable of suggesting a mental image' 3 of the f i n i s h e d r e s u l t . At the bottom i s a diagram, 'an i l l u s -t r a t i v e f i g u r e g i v i n g an o u t l i n e or general scheme of an o b j e c t and i t s v a r i o u s p a r t s . ' 4 The d i s t i n c t i o n i s i n s t r u c t i v e . As the notes on the sheet d e s c r i b e , the top, with i t s e n l i v e n i n g d e t a i l , and shading was i n c l u d e d to g i v e h i s patrons a good id e a of what the f i n i s h e d r e l i e f would look l i k e and what each f i g u r e would r e p r e s e n t . By c o n t r a s t , the lower drawing, done i n Flaxman's own l i n e a r shorthand, shows only the r e l a t i v e p o s i t i o n s of the v a r i o u s p a r t s of the work. U n l i k e the r e n d e r i n g at the top of the sheet the bottom sketch i s only s u g g e s t i v e , l e a v i n g the p r o v i s i o n of d e t a i l to the i m a g i n a t i o n of the viewer. In a s i m i l a r f a s h i o n , Flaxman's Homer designs do not convey s u f f i c i e n t i n f o r m a t i o n f o r the viewers of them to c r e a t e 94 a mental image of c h a r a c t e r s he r e p r e s e n t s . Whereas Reynolds, f o r example, p o r t r a y e d people who had a c t u a l l y been seated b e f o r e him, n e i t h e r Flaxman nor anyone e l s e of h i s time had ever seen the people or gods d e s c r i b e d by Homer. The p o r t r a y a l of Homer's c h a r a c t e r s thus n e c e s s i t a t e d the use of d e t a i l s not from the t e x t s but r a t h e r from the a r t i s t ' s e x perience. Yet, Flaxman d i d not p r o v i d e d e t a i l . H i s d e p i c t i o n s were only s u g g e s t i v e , the f i n a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n being l e f t to the i m a g i n a t i o n of the viewer. By e x t e n s i o n , i t would be i m p o s s i b l e f o r any viewer to r e c o n s t r u c t Homer's s t o r i e s by s t u d y i n g Flaxman's v i s u a l images. S t r i c t l y speaking Flaxman f a i l e d i n h i s attempt to 'show how any s t o r y ( i n p a r t i c u l a r the I l i a d and Odyssey) may be represented i n a s e r i e s of c o m p o s i t i o n s . . . ' 5 And y e t , as Reynolds noted, Homer was p a r t of 'the u s u a l course of r e a d i n g . ' For those a l r e a d y f a m i l i a r with the s t o r i e s , l i t e r a t e people, Flaxman's engraved designs c o u l d become a p l e a s a n t d i v e r s i o n as a k i n d of s e c u l a r Book of Hours. The images d i s p l a y , as the c a p t i o n s i n d i c a t e , A c h i l l e s ' f u r y , Penelope c o n f r o n t i n g the s u i t o r s , Argus' death or the King of the L e s t r i g e n s k i l l i n g a man, and the informed viewer i s s t i m u l a t e d to r e c a l l the t e x t u a l context. To a 20th century viewer, the d e p i c t i o n of events that o c c u r r e d t w e n t y - f i v e hundred years ago might seem to be pure escapism, a k i n to t a k i n g a s t r o l l through a great E n g l i s h N e o - C l a s s i c a l garden such as Stourhead with i t s c l a s s i c a l l y i n s p i r e d topography and a r c h i t e c t u r e ( F i g u r e 4 ) . But escapism, 95 a 20th Century word, i s f r e q u e n t l y a s s o c i a t e d with a c t i v i t i e s t h a t seem f r i v o l o u s or u n r e a l . I t s a p p l i c a t i o n here would not r e f l e c t a l a t e 18th Century p o i n t of view. For 18th Century observers, Homer was being s t u d i e d as a model f o r contemporary s o c i e t y . Robert Wood had w r i t t e n of Homer that 'whatever h i s pl a n of i n s t r u c t i o n , e i t h e r moral or p o l i t i c a l , might have been ( f o r t o deny that he had any would be h i g h l y unreasonable), h i s ch o i c e of c h a r a c t e r s f o r the purpose never c a r r i e d him beyond Nature, and h i s own experience of l i f e . ' 6 Homer demonstrated a moral p o s i t i o n by i n c l u d i n g such c h a r a c t e r s as the ever f a i t h f u l Penelope. He even opened the s t o r y of the I l i a d by r e c o u n t i n g how a plague had b e f a l l e n the Greeks because t h e i r k i n g , Agamemnon, had re f u s e d to g i v e up the p r i e s t Chryses' daughter f o r ransom and thus offended the plague causing god A p o l l o . When c o n s i d e r i n g the I l i a d and Odyssey as p o l i t i c a l models, a reader cannot but n o t i c e that throughout both t a l e s of war, v i o l e n c e and upheaval the s t r u c t u r e of Homeric s o c i e t y remained secure. Gods always ranked be f o r e k i n g s , k i n g s b e f o r e heroes and heroes be f o r e o r d i n a r y men. U l y s s e s , the g r e a t e s t Homeric hero, the exemplar f o r a l l men, p r e v a i l s by overcoming the u p s t a r t s u i t o r s and r e s t o r i n g the o l d ord e r . I t i s of i n t e r e s t that i n Flaxman's i l l u s t r a t i o n s Gods are t y p i c a l l y d e p i c t e d p h y s i c a l l y above ki n g s who are, i n t u r n , above heroes who are, i n t u r n , shown above common men. In Homeric s o c i e t y human r e l a t i o n s h i p s are simple and d i r e c t and i t s h i e r a r c h i e s are maintained and f r e q u e n t l y demonstrated. Flaxman's designs 96 r e f l e c t these p a r t i c u l a r i t i e s of Homeric s o c i e t y . Had he l i v e d longer Wood might have regarded the engraved books of Flaxman's designs as v i s u a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s of Homer's moral and p o l i t i c a l i n s t r u c t i o n s . The evidence f o r Flaxman having i n t e n t i o n a l l y i n c l u d e d a p o l i t i c a l statement i n the Homer designs can only be regarded as c i r c u m s t a n t i a l . I t has been observed t h a t he showed l i t t l e i n t e r e s t i n p o l i t i c s i n the 1790's 7 but i t would be i n c o r r e c t t o assume t h a t he was p o l i t i c a l l y unaware. In h i s own i n v e n t o r y of p e r s o n a l . i t e m s taken to Rome he noted t h a t \"amongst the Books are none e i t h e r R e l i g o u s ( s i c ) or P o l i t i c a l \" . 8 These e x c l u s i o n s may simply r e p r e s e n t the prudent removal of m a t e r i a l which might have been c o n s i d e r e d c o n t r o v e r s i a l i n the f o r e i g n lands he was about to v i s i t . However, by 1794, as the Flaxmans prepared to leave Rome, h o l d i n g c e r t a i n p o l i t i c a l p o s i t i o n s c o u l d be dangerous. France was i n the midst of a r e v o l u t i o n a r y war that was a c t u a l l y accomplishing what the T r o j a n war had f a i l e d to a t t a i n , namely, the overthrow of the very s t r u c t u r e of s o c i e t y . The Flaxmans thus chose to a v o i d even the p o s s i b i l i t y of a c c i d e n t a l l y s t r a y i n g i n t o the main areas of c o n f l i c t by l e a v i n g I t a l y v i a Venice and t r a v e l l i n g north through Innsbruck, Augsburg and K a s s e l . 9 Flaxman was only to t r a v e l again i n France, b r i e f l y . In 1802 he v i s i t e d P a r i s t o see the works of a r t Napoleon had l o o t e d from conquered c o u n t r i e s . During t h a t v i s i t he had the o p p o r t u n i t y to meet David, but Flaxman r e f u s e d 97 f e e l i n g t h a t , as a r e s u l t of h i s p a r t i n the R e v o l u t i o n , the Frenchman's hands had been \"dyed beyond p u r i f i c a t i o n . \" 1 0 By the time Flaxman had f i n i s h e d the Homer designs, h i s o b j e c t i v e s f o r them were much more mundane than as instruments of p o l i t i c a l i n s t r u c t i o n . In l a t e 1793 he i n t i m a t e d i n a l e t t e r to h i s c l o s e f r i e n d Hayley that he intended to e x p l o i t the designs i n the form of \" s c u l p t u r e of d i f f e r e n t k i n d s \" . 1 1 T h i s suggests t h a t , as he worked on them, Flaxman came to c o n c e i v e of the Homer designs as working drawings to be used not only by an engraver to t r a n s l a t e i n t o h i s chosen medium but by Flaxman h i m s e l f to t r a n s l a t e i n t o a v a r i e t y of s c u l p t u r a l forms. Some of the designs were indeed rendered i n other media but t y p i c a l l y by other a r t i s t s . I t would appear that Flaxman had not a n t i c i p a t e d t h a t once p u b l i s h e d as l i n e engravings the i l l u s t r a t i o n s c o u l d be as u s e f u l a source of i n s p i r a t i o n by other a r t i s t s as he had hoped they would be f o r him. I t i s p a r a d o x i c a l t h a t the a c t u a l works t h a t so a t t r a c t e d these other a r t i s t s were executed not by Flaxman but by a s e r i e s of engravers. In the 1805 Longman e d i t i o n 1 2 f o u r engravers are represented: Tomaso P i r o l i , the engraver of the f i r s t e d i t i o n s , James Neagle, James Parker and W i l l i a m Blake who engraved the Flaxman compositions newly c r e a t e d f o r the 1805 e d i t i o n . The engraver of each image i s i d e n t i f i e d at the lower r i g h t hand corner of the p l a t e . The Blake engravings o f f e r much g r e a t e r v a r i a t i o n i n l i n e width, extending from the use of dotted l i n e s f o r some d e t a i l s of musculature ( I l i a d 2, F i g u r e 98 37) to heavy ragged l i n e s f o r h o r i z o n t a l h a t c h i n g . He has a l s o represented shadow u s i n g not h o r i z o n t a l h a t c h i n g but a l i n e whose width i s s e v e r a l times that of the narrowest. Neagle and Parker together completely re-engraved the Odyssey f o r the 1805 Longman e d i t i o n and Parker engraved three of the new designs f o r the I l i a d . Both men used v a r i a t i o n s i n l i n e width comparable to Blake's I l i a d a d d i t i o n s . Although the e f f e c t achieved by Blake and to a l e s s e r extent by Neagle and Parker i s perhaps more s u b t l e , even p r e t t y , i t was not as a r c h e o l o g i c a l l y c o r r e c t as P i r o l i ' s . The l i n e s of engraving from P i r o l i ' s s t u d i o maintained a more constant width. He and h i s a s s o c i a t e s were e i t h e r more c o n s e r v a t i v e or perhaps more conscious of the p o t e n t i a l p l a c e of the Flaxman Homer designs i n a l i b r a r y of contemporary a r c h a e o l o g i c a l t e x t s . L i n e drawing was, indeed, i n t i m a t e l y a s s o c i a t e d with the a n c i e n t s but i t was a l s o the v i s u a l language of c h o i c e i n the 18th Century f o r the t r a n s m i s s i o n of e s s e n t i a l i d e a s , f o r i n s t r u c t i o n i n a wide v a r i e t y of f i e l d s i n c l u d i n g a r t , t e c h n i c a l and s c i e n t i f i c d i s c i p l i n e s . T h i s had been noted by Hogarth i n h i s A n a l y s i s of Beauty p a r t i c u l a r l y with r e f e r e n c e t o the use of l i n e t o diagram mathematical problems.13 Flaxman h i m s e l f saw l i n e i n a s i m i l a r context when he wrote 'geometry g i v e s l i n e s and diagrams f o r the motion, o u t l i n e and drapery of the f i g u r e ...'14 Once mass produced as engravings, the form i n which they were most widely known and i n f l u e n t i a l , Flaxman's o u t l i n e s were at once removed i n k i n d from one-off a r t i s t i c 99 works or diagrams. Those 2 l a t t e r r e q u i r e d p e r s o n a l study, but, by v i r t u e of t h e i r d i s t r i b u t i o n as engravings, the Homer designs c o u l d become instruments of i n s p i r a t i o n and i n s t r u c t i o n of e s t a b l i s h e d a r t i s t s and students a l i k e without the n e c e s s i t y of examining the o r i g i n a l drawings. The use of the Homer designs as a means of a c q u i r i n g a r t i s t i c s k i l l s p l a c e d them i n the category of books of i n s t r u c t i o n . T h e i r a s s o c i a t i o n with a n c i e n t work q u i c k l y e s t a b l i s h e d t h e i r c r e d i b i l i t y and once an a r t i s t such as David demonstrated t h e i r s u i t a b i l i t y i n the p r o d u c t i o n of new works they a l s o became an e s s e n t i a l a d d i t i o n t o the s t u d i o s of h i s s t u d e n t s . During the p e r i o d between the l a t e 1790's when David c r e a t e d Les Sabines and 1865, when Ingres as a mature p a i n t e r used Flaxman's designs as sources of imagery f o r h i s Homere D e i f i ^ , t here had been a s i g n i f i c a n t change i n the way l i n e engravings were viewed. Even though Les Sabines was based upon h i s own work Flaxman a p p a r e n t l y found i t s composition and d e t a i l s u f f i c i e n t l y f r e s h and v i g o r o u s to use them as the b a s i s of h i s own design f o r the S h i e l d of A c h i l l e s of 1810 to 1818. Some 50 years l a t e r when Ingres used the Homer designs to form the background of h i s Homere Delfl6 they had become a p a r t of the f o l k imagery, c r e a t e d i n an age beyond the memory of working a r t i s t s , and now forming not a b a s i s f o r new work but r a t h e r p r o v i d i n g images s u i t a b l e f o r the background. By u s i n g them, Ingres s y m b o l i c a l l y e s t a b l i s h e d the c r e d i b i l i t y of h i s s u b j e c t 100 and of h i m s e l f , an a r t i s t s whose t r a i n i n g was based i n the n e o - c l a s s i c a l t r a d i t i o n . When a r t i s t s such as David, Ingres, Rude and Gros began to use the Homer designs to c r e a t e new works, the images were f u l f i l l i n g a p a r t i c u l a r aspect of an o b j e c t i v e o f t e n expressed throughout Flaxman;s l i f e t i m e : t h a t e f f o r t should be d i r e c t e d toward the c u l t i v a t i o n of s o c i e t y . The engravings d i d , as Wedgwood hoped f o r h i s own work, d i f f u s e \"a good t a s t e through the a r t s \" by the \"power of m u l t i p l y i n g c o p i e s of f i n e t h i n g s \" . 1 5 A f t e r Flaxman's death, the E n g l i s h p a i n t e r G.F. Watts (1817-1904) was to suggest that the w a l l s of s c h o o l s be adorned with the o u t l i n e s f o r the betterment of young s t u d e n t s . 1 6 In 1927 W i l l i a m George Constable ended h i s biography of Flaxman with the wish that a r t i s t s and manufacturers might be brought as c l o s e together as they had been when Flaxman worked f o r Wedgwood. 1 7 The same might be s a i d of the Homer d e s i g n s . In h i s own l e c t u r e s b e f o r e the Royal Academy Flaxman was to note some years a f t e r the completion of the Homer designs t h a t i n a n c i e n t Greece p a i n t i n g and s c u l p t u r e had been ' s t u d i e d by the n o b l e s t and best educated persons; they were improved by the accumulation of s c i e n c e ; they were employed to e x c i t e and c e l e b r a t e v i r t u e and e x c e l l e n c e ; and, f i n a l l y , to e x a l t the mind of the beholder to the contemplation of d i v i n e q u a l i t i e s and a t t r i b u t e s . ' 1 8 i n Flaxman's mind, works of a r t i n major forms were to e l e v a t e the t a s t e of the 'noblest and best educated persons'. The I l i a d and Odyssey were, of course, being s t u d i e d 101 i n Flaxman's time f o r v i r t u a l l y the same reasons. Thus, to best e f f e c t an a m e l i o r a t i o n of t a s t e , the episodes from Homer's e p i c s , then acknowledged the g r e a t e s t l i t e r a r y works of the a n c i e n t world, should have been d e p i c t e d i n p a i n t i n g s or s c u l p -t u r e s , the h i g h e s t forms of v i s u a l a r t of the a n c i e n t and contemprorary world. The form used, simple l i n e , was however, fundamentally u n l i k e these v i s u a l forms. In the context of a n c i e n t a r t simple l i n e was most c l o s e l y a s s o c i a t e d with the c r a f t t r a d i t i o n s of Greek red and b l a c k f i g u r e p o t t e r y . P i e c e s of t h i s p o t t e r y were intended f o r everyday domestic use r a t h e r than f o r profound contemplation or i n t e l l e c t u a l improvement. Flaxman h i m s e l f had become i n t i m a t e l y f a m i l i a r with the l i n e form d u r i n g the years he submitted designs to Wedgwood ( F i g u r e 6 ) . These drawings were never intended f o r profound contemplation but r a t h e r f o r the shop use of Wedgwood's p o t t e r s . In h i s Homer designs Flaxman combined a r e p r e s e n t a t i o n a l form of a n c i e n t c r a f t and contemporary i n d u s t r i a l t r a d i t i o n s and unwit-t i n g l y f u r t h e r e d the c u l t u r a l o b j e c t i v e s of high a r t s . T h i s i d e a of u n i t i n g the t r a d i t i o n s of c r a f t and the o b j e c t i v e s of high a r t that Flaxman e x h i b i t e d i n the Homer designs was to reappear as a g u i d i n g p r i n c i p l e i n the 19th and 20th C e n t u r i e s . A pamphlet p u b l i s h e d i n 1919 e n t i t l e d Program of the S t a t e Bauhaus i n Weimar s e t s out the o b j e c t i v e s of the Bauhaus Sc h o o l . I t reads i n p a r t : \"Art comes i n t o being above a l l methods; i t cannot be taught as such, although the c r a f t can. A r c h i t e c t s , p a i n t e r s , s c u l p t o r s are craftsmen i n the 102 o r i g i n a l sense of the word; consequently a l l students are expected to a c q u i r e a thorough t r a i n i n g i n the workshops and on the p r a c t i c e and work s i t e s , s i n c e t h i s i s the i n d i s p e n s a b l e b a s i s of a l l c r e a t i v e a c t i v i t y \" . 1 9 The w o r k s i t e s c i t e d were those e n v i s i o n e d by the new d i r e c t o r of the s c h o o l , Walter Gropius. He had formulated the c u r r i c u l u m to s t r e s s the search f o r s o l u t i o n s t o contemporary problems i n such areas as housing, urban p l a n n i n g , and h i g h - q u a l i t y , u t i l i t a r i a n mass-production. S i g n i f i c a n t l y , the s o l u t i o n s were to u n i t e the fundamentals of c r a f t t r a d i t i o n with a s o c i o - c u l t u r a l o b j e c t i v e , i n p a r t i c u l a r an a m e l i o r a t i o n of l i v i n g c o n d i t i o n s i n post World War I Germany. Although not planned beforehand, Flaxman's path to the a r t i s t i c competence that he d i s p l a y e d i n the Homer designs p a r a l l e l e d the Bauhaus c u r r i c u l u m . He was 37 years o l d when he undertook the commission. Of those years, the f i r s t 15 had been spent i n h i s f a t h e r ' s shop where he l e a r n e d the p r i n c i p l e s of m o d e l l i n g and s c u l p t u r e . The products of the shop were made to the s p e c i f i c a t i o n s of a c l i e n t e l e t h a t i n c l u d e d the s c u l p t o r s R o u b i l l i a c and Scheemakers. He progressed to a more formal t r a i n i n g at the Royal Academy where i t was impressed upon the students t h a t i t was the \"wish of the genuine p a i n t e r [to] improve mankind\".20 From the time of h i s graduation from the Royal Academy i n 1775 u n t i l 1792 when he began the Homer i l l u s -t r a t i o n s he had worked f o r Wedgwood (from 1775 to 1787 almost e x c l u s i v e l y ) . The i n d u s t r i a l i s t had expressed a wish \"to d i f f u s e a good t a s t e through the a r t s \" by the s a l e of h i s 103 m a s s - d i s t r i b u t e d p r o d u c t s ; ^ 1 however, i t i s d o u b t f u l that i t was Flaxman's i d e a l i s m that made him a t t r a c t i v e to Wedgwood. When Wedgwood wrote to h i s p a r t n e r B e n t l e y t h a t he was \"gla d Flaxman i s as v a l u a b l e an a r t i s t \" — as he soon proved be — there i s no i n d i c a t i o n of what q u a l i t i e s prompted the p r a i s e . 2 2 Yet, the v a r i e d nature of the work he was doing f o r Wedgwood suggests an answer. Flaxman was exe c u t i n g with equal f a c i l i t y , p o r t r a i t s from l i f e (such as of Mrs Siddons ( F i g u r e 12)), designs based upon the antique (such as The Crowning of a K i t h a r i s t ( F i g u r e 14)), and o r i g i n a l designs to f i l l a p a r t i c u l a r commission (The Manufacturer's Arms ( F i g u r e 6 f o r example)). He was v a l u a b l e because he co u l d f u n c t i o n e q u a l l y w e l l as an a r t i s t or as a modeller. He was m o d e l l i n g with the eye of an accomplished a r t i s t , and, perhaps more important, he was c r e a t i n g designs i n a form t h a t c o u l d be r e a d i l y u t i l i z e d by the craftsmen who were making the moulds which formed the c l a y components t h a t c o n s t i t u t e d Jasperware. With Flaxman's designs no i n t e r m e d i a t e r e n d e r i n g s were necessary between a r t i s t ' s p r e s e n t a t i o n and shop use. Co n s i d e r a b l e e f f o r t might be expended r e n d e r i n g an a r t i s t ' s concept i n t o working drawings f o r the use of a craftsman i n a shop. Such i s demonstrated by the a c t i v i t i e s of R u n d e l l , B r i d g e and R u n d e l l , the f i r m of s i l v e r s m i t h s , from whom Flaxman r e c e i v e d the commission f o r the S h i e l d of A c h i l l e s and whose smiths executed v a r i o u s other of h i s d e s i g n s . 2 3 F i g u r e 80 re p r e s e n t s a design (now i n the B r i t i s h Museum) f o r a wine-cooler 104 by Flaxman's Royal Academy classmate and long time f r i e n d Thomas S t o t h a r d . 2 4 I t i s an i m p r e s s i o n i s t i c sketch that i n c l u d e s comparatively l i t t l e d e t a i l . In an album of s i l v e r p l a t e designs i n the V i c t o r i a and A l b e r t museum i s a r e n d e r i n g ( F i g u r e 81) a f t e r the S t o t h a r d o r i g i n a l . I t was prepared f o r Rundell B r i d g e and R u n d e l l probably by one of t h e i r employees who was w e l l acquainted with s i l v e r s m i t h i n g . 2 5 The draughtsman has transformed the o r i g i n a l concept by s e t t i n g down more p r e c i s e l y the d e t a i l s t h a t were to cover the f i n i s h e d p i e c e . O r i g i n a l designs were a l s o produced by R u n d e l l , B r i d g e and R u n d e l l . In an e f f o r t to o b t a i n complete c l a r i t y of concepts, designs were rendered i n a s t i l l more p r e c i s e manner. F i g u r e 82 r e p r e s e n t s another design f o r a wine c o o l e r perhaps a f t e r W i l l i a m Theed R.A. 2 6 head of the Rundell design department. I t was c r e a t e d e x p r e s s l y f o r the use of the s i l v e r s m i t h s themselves and a c c o r d i n g l y was reduced to simple pen l i n e without any shading. While c l a r i t y i n the p r e s e n t a t i o n of the o u t l i n e s of f i g u r e s and animals i n the r e l i e f and f l o r a l forms beneath the rim was s t r e s s e d , p e r s p e c t i v e was compromised to a degree c l e a r l y e v i d e n t when the design i s compared with the f i n i s h e d c o o l e r ( F i g u r e 83). In s i l v e r , the r e l i e f covers the curved s u r f a c e and the extreme l e f t and r i g h t are not v i s i b l e from a s i n g l e view p o i n t . On paper i t appeared to have been a p p l i e d to a f l a t p a n e l . More drawings to c l a r i f y the p o i n t that a f l a t d e s i gn was to be a p p l i e d to a curved s u r f a c e were c l e a r l y unnecessary vbecause the convention of the two-dimensional l i n e 105 drawing conveyed s u f f i c i e n t i n f o r m a t i o n f o r the modeller or s i l v e r s m i t h to produce a f i n i s h e d t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l p i e c e . S i g n i f i c a n t l y , Flaxman's designs f o r Jasperware, the Homer i l l u s t r a t i o n s and s i l v e r w a r e were s i m i l a r i n t h e i r common purpose. None were c r e a t e d to be a f i n i s h e d work i n i t s e l f but to be i n t e r p r e t e d and rendered i n another medium. The t e c h n i c a l problems a s s o c i a t e d with the p r o d u c t i o n and s a l e of the u l t i m a t e form were to be s o l v e d by someone e l s e , or, i n the case of bas r e l i e f s , by Flaxman, i n the c a p a c i t y of a s c u l p t o r at some u n s p e c i f i e d time i n the f u t u r e . To be most u s e f u l f o r the p o t t e r , engraver or s i l v e r s m i t h h i s designs needed to be presented i n a form which s p e c i f i e d d e t a i l c l e a r l y and unambiguously so t h a t as l i t t l e a d a p t a t i o n as p o s s i b l e was r e q u i r e d . The problems a s s o c i a t e d with p r e s e n t i n g l i n e drawings on f l a t sheets f o r r e n d e r i n g on curved o b j e c t s had long been known to Flaxman through h i s work f o r Wedgwood. Although the sample of designs executed by h i s hand and d e l i v e r e d to Wedgwood i s u n f o r t u n a t e l y s m a l l , 2 7 i t i s nonetheless s i g n i f i c a n t . F i g u r e 6, drawn while Flaxman was s t i l l i n Wedgwood's employ, shows both t h a t the designer was s u b m i t t i n g work to the i n d u s t r i a l i s t i n a s t y l e which foreshadowed t h a t of the Homer i l l u s t r a t i o n s , and a l s o that the design Wedgwood was a c c e p t i n g from h i s a r t i s t was c o n s i s t e n t with i n d u s t r i a l shop drawing i n use through the p e r i o d . I f , as Constable i m p l i e s , Flaxman c o n s t i t u t e d the b r i d g e between the a r t s and i n d u s t r y i t would seem that the t r a f f i c of i d e a s flowed through him i n both d i r e c t i o n s . Flaxman 106 took to Wedgwood h i s s k i l l as a modeller, h i s knowledge of an c i e n t work, and h i s w i l l i n g n e s s to design i n a manner t h a t c o u l d be adapted i n t o . p r o d u c t s r e m i n i s c e n t of a n c i e n t work. Wedgwood's design requirements f o r c e d Flaxman to take back a s t y l e of g r a p h i c r e p r e s e n t a t i o n that c o u l d be a p p l i e d with equal f a c i l i t y to the manufacture of Jasperware, engravings and s i l v e r p l a t e . Flaxman's f r i e n d C o c k e r e l l wrote e n t h u s i a s t i c a l l y of the i l l u s t r a t i o n that they are \"the works by which he w i l l l i v e ... c l e a r l y the f r u i t of Flaxman's l i f e as an a r t i s t are those works.\"28 S t r i c t l y speaking Flaxman never d i d transform the Homer i l l u s t r a t i o n s i n t o the s c u l p t u r e he envisaged and thus d i d not achieve the d i c t i o n a r y d e f i n i t i o n of a r t i s t as \"one who c u l t i v a t e s one of the f i n e a r t s , which p l e a s e by p e r f e c t i o n of execution\".29 j n f a c t , f o r h i s c o n t r i b u t i o n to the Homer commission, the a c t u a l p r o d u c t i o n of the designs, he f u l f i l l the d e f i n i t i o n of a designer r a t h e r than an a r t i s t : \"one who makes an a r t i s t i c design or p l a n of c o n s t r u c t i o n : s p e c i f i c a l l y one who makes designs or p a t t e r n s f o r the manufacturer or co n s t r u c t o r \" . 3 0 I f Flaxman's Homeric i l l u s t r a t i o n s are con s i d e r e d only from the standpoint of h i s contemporaries, that i s , i n the context of what they regarded as the g r e a t e s t of human s o c i e t i e s , the a s s o c i a t i o n with a n c i e n t a r t i s i n e v i t a b l e . But i t i s only when the l i n e drawings are con s i d e r e d i n the l i g h t of h i s s t a t e d purpose f o r them — the p r e l i m i n a r y stage i n the p r o d u c t i o n 107 of s c u l p t u r a l works i n a form a k i n to i n d u s t r i a l drawings s u i t a b l e f o r submission to Wedgwood or R u n d e l l , B r i d g e and Rundell — t h a t h i s r e a c t i o n to h i s contemporaries' i n t e r p r e t a t i o n and p r a i s e can be e x p l a i n e d . H a i l e d as c a p t u r i n g the essence of a n c i e n t work, Flaxman r e g r e t t e d t h a t the c r i t i c s were j u d g i n g h i s c r e a t i v i t y on the b a s i s of a p r o j e c t never f u l l y r e a l i z e d . 108 Footnotes Chapter 5 MSS F i t z w i l l i a m Museum, Flaxman l e t t e r - b o x no. 4, Flaxman to Hayley, Rome, 26 October 1793. P.O. Runge, H l n t e r l a s s e n e S c h r l f t e n (Hamburg 1841), I, p. 54. The S h o r t e r Oxford E n g l i s h D i c t i o n a r y ed C.T. Onions (Oxford, 1975) v.II p.1580 no. 4. I b i d V.I p.539, no.2. See note 1 Chapter V. Robert Wood, An Essay on the O r i g i n a l Genius of Homer (1769; New York, 1971), p.298. Hugh Honour, N e o c l a s s i c i s m (Harmondsworth, 1968), p.71. Meteyard, op. c i t . , p. 506 i n c l u d e s a copy of t h i s i n v e n -t o r y . I t l i s t s as w e l l as p e r s o n a l e f f e c t s \"Some C l a s s i c a l Books\" and a r t i s t s ' s u p p l i e s . Irwin, op. c i t . , p. 224 fn73, notes \"Augsburg f o r example i s mentioned i n B r i t i s h L i b r a r y , Add. MS. 39781, f . 382, unnamed correspondent to Mrs. Flaxman (4 November 1794) and K a s s e l i n same volume, f . 386, Mrs. G. Hare-Naylor to Mrs Flaxman, 8 November 1794.\" Honour, op. c i t . , p.71. Flaxman to Hayley Rome 26 October 1793. Reproduced by Dover P u b l i c a t i o n s as Flaxman's I l l u s t r a t i o n s t o Homer (New York, 1977) with an i n t r o d u c t i o n and commentary by Robert E s s i c k and J e n i j o y La B e l l e . W i l l i a m Hogarth, A n a l y s i s of Beauty (London, 1753), p.37. John Flaxman, L e c t u r e s on S c u l p t u r e (London, 1881) p.160. Noted by David Irwin, John Flaxman 1755-1826 (London, 1979), p. 19. George F r e d e r i c Watts, Works (1912), V o l . I l l , p. 109. W.G. Constable, op. c i t . , p.77. Flaxman, op. c i t . , 1881, p.179. 109 Hans Wingler, Graphic Work From the Bauhaus (London, 1965), p. 18. Reynolds D i s c o u r s e I I I , 11. 23-26. See note 15 above. Wedgwood to Bent l e y , 14 January 1775. Quoted by Meteyard, op. c i t . , V o l . I I , p. 321. See Chapter IV note. A l s o Mary Henderson, \"The B e r e s f o r d Hope S i l v e r \" A p o l l o ns 99 January 1974 pp.34-37, wherein the B e r e s f o r d Cup i s a t t r i b u t e d to Flaxman; John F. Hayward, \"Run d e l l , B r i d g e and Ru n d e l l , A u r i f i c e s Regis P a r t I \" Antiques 99 (June 1971), pp. 860-865, P a r t II Antiques 100 ( J u l y 1971), pp.110-115; N.M. Penzer, \"Some Royal P l a t e of the Regency by Paul S t o r r \" , A p o l l o 62 September 1955 p.66 has s p e c i f i c data on Flaxman's T h e o c r i t u s Cup and C h a r l e s Oman, \"A Problem of A r t i s t i c R e s p o n s i b i l i t y : The f i r m of R u n d e l l , B r i d g e and R u n d e l l \" , A p o l l o ns 83 (March 1966) pp.174-183, which d i s c u s s e s R u n d e l l , B r i d g e and Rund e l l working methods as they r e l a t e to an ablum of s i l v e r p l a t e designs (now i n the V i c t o r i a and A l b e r t Museum) t i t l e d Designs f o r p l a t e by John Flaxman, e t c . Sto t h a r d ' s s i l v e r designs i n c l u d e d The W e l l i n g t o n S h i e l d . C h a r l e s Oman, E n g l i s h S i l v e r s m i t h s ' Work (London, 1965) reproduces S t o t h a r d ' s design i n l i n e ( P l a t e 205) and i n c l u d e s a photograph of the s h i e l d ( P l a t e 206). Oman, o p . c i t . , p.80. Bryan's D i c t i o n a r y pf P a i n t e r s and Engravers ed. George C. Williamson (London, 1921), V o l . V p.164 notes t h a t W i l l i a m Theed 1764-1817 was a great f r i e n d of Flaxman, submitted designs to Wedgwood and from 1803 worked f o r Run d e l l and Brid g e \" f o r whom he prepared the drawings t h a t the engravers might work on t h e i r p l a t e . \" A l i s o n K e l l y , The St o r y of Wedgwood (London, 1975) r e l a t e s t h a t i n 1828 Wedgwood's 'stock of ware, o l d moulds and models was s o l d f o r L16,000' p.51. There may have been Flaxman drawings amongst t h i s m a t e r i a l but more l i k e l y when moulds or models were made from a design the drawings were simply d i s c a r d e d . C.R. C o c k e r e l l , D i a r i e s , 27th November 1824. The S h o r t e r Oxford E n g l i s h D i c t i o n a r y ed. C.T. Onions (Oxford, 1975) V. I p . I l l n o . I I I . 1. I b i d . , p.528 no.2. 110 Selected Bibliography T i t l e s f o r Works Centering on Flaxman Books Bindman, David, John Flaxman, London: Thames and Hudson, 1979 which i s the E n g l i s h e d i t i o n of Hofmann, Werner, David Bindman et a l . John Flaxman Mythologie und I n d u s t r i e Hamburg, 1979. C h r i s t i e , Manson and Woods, Catalogue of the small but v a l u a b l e L i b r a r y of Books ... of John Flaxman, Esq., R.A. D e c , London, 12 June 1828. C h r i s t i e , Manson and Woods, Catalogue of a v a l u a b l e assemblage of Engravings by a n c i e n t and modern Masters •.. the p r o p e r t y of the l a t e John Flaxman, Esq., R.A. D e c , London, 1 J u l y 1828. C h r i s t i e , Manson and Woods, Maria Denman Sal e Catalogue, London, 1862. C h r i s t i e , Manson and Woods, Catalogue of the remaining Works of John Flaxman, R.A., London, 26 A p r i l 1876. Constable, W.G., John Flaxman, 1775-1826, London: U n i v e r s i t y of London Press L t d . , 1927. Flaxman, John, 1755-1826, Oeuvre de Flaxman (compositions g r a v i e s par R e V e i l ) , P a r i s : R e v e i l , 1836. NC 1115 F64 1835 Flaxman, John, Homer Hesiod Aeschylus, London: Longman, Hurst, Rees and Orme, 1805-1831. Flaxman, John, Compositions by John Flaxman RA from the Poem of Dante A l i g h i e r i , C o n t a i n i n g H e l l , Purgatory and P a r a d i s e , London: Longman, Hurst, Rees and Orme, 1807. Flaxman, John, Compositions From the Tra g e d i e s of Aeschylus Designed by John Flaxman, Engraved by Thomas P i r o l i , The o r i g i n a l drawings i n the p o s s e s s i o n of ths ( s i c ) Countess Dowager Spencer Rome, 1793. Flaxman, John, The I l i a d of Homer engraved from compositions of John Flexman, London: Longman, Hurst, Rees and Orme, 1805. Irwin, David, John Flaxman, 1755-1826, London, C a s s e l l L t d . , 1979. i l l Wark, Robert R., Drawings by John Flaxman i n the Huntington C o l l e c t i o n , San Marino C a l i f : Henry E. Huntington L i b r a r y and A r t G a l l e r y , 1970. NC 242 F57 W3 1970 Whinney Margaret and Rupert Gunnis, The C o l l e c t i o n of Models by John Flaxman R.A. at U n i v e r s i t y C o l l e g e , London: a catalogue and i n t r o d u c t i o n . London, 1967. A r t i c l e s B e n t l e y , G e r a l d Eddes, \"Notes on the E a r l y E d i t i o n s of F l a x -man's C l a s s i c a l Designs,\" B u l l e t i n of the New York P u b l i c L i b r a r y V o l . 68 May 1964 no.5 pp. 277-307, 361-388. ( P u b l i s h e d s e p a r a t e l y as The E a r l y Engravings of F l a x - man's C l a s s i c a l Designs New York: The New York P u b l i c L i b r a r y , 1964). Z 881 N4 Cameron, R., \"Flaxman et Wedgwood,\" O e i l , #53 May 1959 pp.48-55. Nl 04 Croft-Murray E., \"An Account Book of John Flaxman R.A.,\" Walpole S o c i e t y Vol.28 [1939-1940] pp.51-101. Nl W3 Gaunt, W i l l i a m , \"A Set of Drawings by John Flaxman,\" Con- n o i s e u r , Bd 153 1963 S 250-254. Nl C75 G i l l o w , Norah, \"Some Flaxman Drawings at York,\" Preview, XXVI Apr., 1973 pp.915-19. n l B95 Irwin, David, \"Flaxman: I t a l i a n J o u r n a l s and Correspondence,\" B u r l i n g t o n Mag. Cl[1959] pp.212-17. Roscoe, E.S., \"The Career and Works of Flaxman,\" Magazine of A r t , V4 (1881). Nl M22 Symmons, Sarah, \"French Copies a f t e r Flaxman's O u t l i n e s , \" B u r l i n g t o n Magazine, V o l . 115 Sept. 1973. Nl B95 Symmons, Sarah, \"J.A.D. Ingres: the ap o t h e o s i s of Flaxman,\" B u r l i n g t o n Magazine, V o l . 121 Nov. 1979. Nl B95 112 Symmons, Sarah, \"The S p i r i t of Despair: Patronage, P r i m i t i v i s m and the A r t of John Flaxman,\" B u r l i n g t o n Magazine, V o l . 117 Oct. 1975. Nl B95 Teniswood, C.F., \"Flaxman as Designer,\" The A r t J o u r n a l , 1872. Nl A5 Teniswood, C.F., \"Memorials of Flaxman,\" The A r t J o u r n a l , 1867 & 1868. Nl A5 Thomas, John, \"John Flaxman, R.A.,\" J o u r n a l of the Royal S o c i e t y of A r t s , CIV, 1955. AP 4 R7 Watson, F r a n c i s , \"Flaxman: the B i c e n t e n a r y of an E n g l i s h Neo-C l a s s i c i s t , \" A r c h i t e c t u r a l Review, Bd 118 Sept. 1955. NA 1 A69 Whinney, Margaret, \"Flaxman and the Ei g h t e e n t h Century,\" J o u r n a l of the Warburg and Co u r t a u l d I n s t i t u t e s , Vol.19 J u l y 1956 pp.269-282. N 1 L65 Wick, P e t e r , A. \"Flaxman as a Draughtsman,\" Proceedings of the Wedgwood I n t e r n a t i o n a l Seminar. Bd 3, 1958. W i l l i a m , I o l o A. \"An I d e n t i f i c a t i o n of some e a r l y drawings by John Flaxman,\" B u r l i n g t o n Magazine, C H , 1960, pp.246-250. Nl B95 T i t l e s f o r the Central Issues Books Adam, Robert (1728-1792), The works i n A r c h i t e c t u r e of Robert and James Adam, Londres: Aax d£pens des auteurs, 1778-1822. NA 997 A4 A4 1778a Adam, Robert, Ruins of the pal a c e of the Emperor D i o c l e t i a n at S p a l a t r o , London: P r i n t e d f o r the Author, 1764. NA 320 A5 A g o s t i n i , Leonardo, Le gemme a n t i c h e f i g u r a t e , Roma: G.B. B r u s s o t t i , 1686. NK 5565 A3 113 Bland, David, A h i s t o r y of Book I l l u s t r a t i o n , London: Faber and Faber, 1958. NC 960 B62 Boase, T.S.R., E n g l i s h A r t 1800-1870, Oxford: Clarendon P r e s s , 1959. N 6761 09 Bolgar, R.R., The C l a s s i c a l H e r i t a g e and I t s B e n e f i c i a r i e s , New York, Evanston and London: Harper Torchbooks, 1964. CB 245 B 63 B o l t o n , A r t h u r Thomas, The A r c h i t e c t u r e of Robert and James Adam, (1758-1794) London: Country L i f e , 1922. NA 997 A4 B6 V 1-2 Booker, Peter J e f f r e y , A H i s t o r y of E n g i n e e r i n g Drawing, London: Chatto and Windus, 1963. T 353 B69 1963 Burke, Edmund 1729?-1797, A P h i l o s o p h i c a l I n q u i r y i n t o the Sublime and the B e a u t i f u l , New York: Garland Pub., IU71. N 62 B8 1759a Burke, Joseph, E n g l i s h A r t 1714-1800, Oxford: Clarendon P r e s s , 1976. N 6761 09 V.9 Buten, Harry M., Wedgwood and A r t i s t s , Merion, P e n n s y l v a n i a : Buten Museum of Wedgwood, 1960. NK 4335 B73 Cumberland, George, Thoughts and O u t l i n e , S c u l p t u r e and the System that guided the A n c i e n t A r t i s t s i n Composing t h e i r F i g u r e s and Groups, London, 1796. D e l i e b , E r i c , The Great S i l v e r Manufactory, Matthew Boulton and the Birmingham s i l v e r s m i t h s , 1760-1790. London: S t u d i o V i s t a P u b l i s h e r s , 1971. NK 7143 D425 1971 Duff, W., 1732-1815, An Essay on O r i g i n a l Genius, 1767. G a i n e s v i l l e F l a . : S c h o l a r s ' F a c s i m i l e s and R e p r i n t s , 1964. BF 412 D78 1767a Du Fresnoy, C h a r l e s Alphonse, The A r t of P a i n t i n g , t r a n s , by W i l l i a m Mason with annotations by S i r Joshua Reynolds, D u b l i n : P r i n t e d f o r a Whitestone et a l . , 1783. ND 1130 D8 1783 114 F a r r a r , Lady K a t h e r i n e Euphemia ( E d i t . ) . L e t t e r s of J o s i a h Wedgwood, 3 Volumes, London: Women's P r i n t i n g S o c i e t y , 1903-1906. F i n e r Ann and George Savage, The S e l e c t e d L e t t e r s of J o s i a h Wedgwood, London: Cory, Adams and MacKay, 1965. NK 4335 W4 F r i e d l a n d e r , Walter, David to D e l a c r o i x , Cambridge, Mass.: 1952. ND 547 F75 Gerard, Alexander (1728-1795), An Essay on Genius, New York: Garland Pub., 1970. BF 412 G5 1774a Hamilton, S i r W i l l i a m 1730-1803, C o l l e c t i o n of engravings from a n c i e n t vases mostly of pure Greek workmanship d i s c o v e r e d ... i n 1789-90. Naples: W. T i s c h b e i n , 1791-95. NK 4624 H25 V . l - 3 Hawley, Henry, Neo- C l a s s i e i s m , S t y l e and M o t i f with an essay by R6my G. S a i s s e l i n C l e v e l a n d : the C l e v e l a n d Museum of A r t , 1964. N 6410 H34 Hayley, W i l l i a m , The L i f e of George Romoney Esq., London: T. Payne, 1809. ND 497 R7 H4 1809 FAD M0RG Hi b b e r t , C h r i s t o p h e r , The Grand Tour, London: Weidenfeld and N i c o l s o n , 1969. D 907 H56 1969 HIghet, G i l b e r t , The C l a s s i c a l T r a d i t i o n , N.Y. and London: Oxford U Pr e s s , 1949. PN 883 H5 1949 Hutchison, Sidney, C , The H i s t o r y of the Royal Academy 1768- 1968, London: Chapman and H a l l , 1968. N 1100 H78 1968 Irwin, David, E n g l i s h N e o c l a s i c a l A r t , Greenwich C o n n e c t i c u t : New York Graphic S o c i e t y , 1966. N 6766 17 J e w i t t , L. Lewellynn, L i f e of J o s i a h Wedgwood, London: V i r t u e B r o t h e r s and Co., 1865. NK 4210 W4 J6 1865 115 Johansen, K. F r i i s , The I l i a d i n E a r l y Greek A r t , Copenhagen: Munksgaard, 1967. NK a4646 F713 1967 K e l l y , A l i s o n , The S t o r y of Wedgwood, London: Faber and Faber, 1962. NK 4335 KA 1962 K l i n g e n d e r , F r a n c i s D., A r t and the I n d u s t r i a l R e v o l u t i o n E d i t e d and Revised by A r t h u r E l t o n , Chatham England: W i n i f r e d K l i n g e n d e r and Evely n , Adams and MacKay L t d , 1968. N 8218 1968 Luce, J.V., Homer and the Homeric Age, London: Thames and Hudson, 1975. PA 4037 L68 1975 L e s s i n g , G o t t h o l d Ephraim, Laokoon and How the A n c i e n t s Repre-sented Death (1766), London: G B e l l and Sons L t d . , 1914. N 64 L7 1914 Mankowitz, Wolf, Wedgwood, New York: E.P. Dutton and Co., Inc., 1953. NK 4335 M3 1953 Mead, W i l l i a m Edward, The Grand Tour i n the 18th Century, Boston and New York! Houghton M i f f l i n Company, 1914. D 917 M4 1914 Meteyard, E l i z a 1816-1879, The L i f e of J o s i a h Wedgwood, from h i s p r i v a t e correspondence and f a m i l y papers 77~. London: Hurst and B l a c k e t t , 1865-66. NK 4210 W4 M6 1865 Mulder, John R., The Temple of the Mind: Education and L i t e r a r y Taste i n Seventeen-Century England, New York: Pegasus Backgrounds i n E n g l i s h L i t e r a t u r e , Western P u b l i s h i n g Company, Inc., 1935. PR 438 T3 M84 1969 Northcote, James Esq. R.A., The L i f e of S i r Joshua Reynolds, London: Henry Colburn, 1818. ND 497 R4 N8 1818 Oman, C h a r l e s , E n g l i s h S i l v e r s m i t h s ' Work, London: Her Majesty's S t a t i o n e r y O f f i c e , 1965. NK 7143 V492 1965 116 P r e s s l y , Nancy L., The F u s e l i C i r c l e i n Rome, E a r l y Romantic A r t of the 1770's, New Haven C o n n e c t i c u t : Y a l e Center f o r B r i t i s h A r t , 1979. R e i l l y , Robin and George Savage, Wedgwood - the P o r t r a i t M e d a l l i o n s , London: B a r r i e and Jen k i n s L t d . , 1973. NK 4335 R454 1973 Rosenblum, Robert, Transformations i n La t e E i g h t e e n t h Century A r t , P r i n c e t o n , 1967. Sharpe, W i l l i a m 1724-1783, A d i s s e r t a t i o n Upon Genius, 1755, Delmar N.Y.: S c h o l a r ' s F a c s i m i l e s and R e p r i n t s , 1973. BF 412 S45 1755a Smith, J.T., Nol l e k e n s and H i s Times, 2 V o l s , London, 1828, E d i t . W. Whitten London, 1920. Spence, Joseph 1699-1768, Polymetus New York: Garland Pub., 1971. N S613 S7 1755a S t a n f o r d , W.B. and J.V. Luce, The Quest f o r U l y s s e s , London: Phaidon Press L i m i t e d , 1974. NX 652 D3 S72 1974 S t i l l m a n , Damie, The D e c o r a t i v e Work of Robert Adam, London: Ale c T i r a n t i , 1966. NK 1535 A3 S8 S t u a r t , James and N i c h o l a s Revett, The A n t i q u i t i e s of Athens, London: John Haberkorn, 1762; The A n t i q u i t i e s of Athens V o l . I I , London: John N i c h o l s , 1787; The A n t i q u i t i e s of Athens V o l . I I I , London: John N i c h o l s , 1794. ( A l l three volumes r e p u b l i s h e d New York and London: Benjamin Blom, 1968). NA 280 S913 Swarbrick, John, Robert Adam and h i s B r o t h e r s , London: B.T. B a t s f o r d , 1915. NA 997 A4 S85 Reynolds, S i r Joshua, D i s c o u r s e s on A r t , Robert R. Wark (e d . ) , San Marino C a l i f o r n i a : Henry E. Huntington, L i b r a r y and A r t G a l l e r y , 1959. Whitney, L o i s , P r i m i t i v i s m and the Idea of Progress i n E n g l i s h Popular L i t e r a t u r e of the E i g h t e e n t h Century. B a l t i m o r e : The Johns Hopkins P r e s s , 1934. PR 448 P7 W5 117 Wood, Robert 1717-1771, An Essay on the O r i g i n a l Genius of Homer, New York: Garland Pub., 1971. PA 4037 A2 W7 1775a Young, Edward 1683-1765, C o n j e c t u r e s on O r i g i n a l Composition, 1759, New York: Garland Pub., 1970. PR 3664 C43 R4 1970:3 Yarwood, Doreen, Robert Adam, London: J.M. Dent and Sons L t d . , 1970. NA 997 A4 Y3 1970b A r t i c l e s Crookshank, Anne, \"The Drawings of George Romney,\" B u r l i n g t o n Magazine, 99 February 1957. Nl B95 Irwin, David, \"Gavin Hamilton: A r c h a e o l o g i s t , P a i n t e r , and De a l e r , \" A r t B u l l e t i n , LCIV June, 1962 pp.87-102. Nl A4 Praz, Mario, \"Herculaneum and European T a s t e , \" American Magazine of A r t , Dec. 1939. Spencer, T.J.B., \"Robert Wood and the Problem of Troy i n the Ei g h t e e n t h Century,\" J o u r n a l of the Warburg and C o u r t a u l d I n s t i t u t e , 1957 pp.75-105. Nl L65 Thomas J . Wedgwood ceramic p o r t r a i t s , Connoisseur, 98: 29-35 JI*36. Nl C75 Watson, F r a n c i s , \"Canova and the E n g l i s h , \" A r c h i t e c t u r a l Review, 122 Sept. 1955. NA 1 A69 Wiebenson, Dora, \"Subjects from Homer's I l i a d i n N e o - C l a s s i c a l A r t , \" A r t B u l l e t i n , V o l . XLVI March 1964 pp23-37. Nl A4 Wind, Edgar, \"Borrowed A t t i t u d e s i n Reynolds and Hogarth,\" J o u r n a l of the Warburg and C o u r t a u l d I n s t i t u t e , Vol.2 (1938-1939). Nl L65 118 T i t l e s f o r S p e c i f i c Peripheral Issues Books E i t n e r , Lorenz, N e o c l a s s i c i s m and Romanticism, 1750-1850, Sources and Documents Vol.1 Enlightenment/Revolution, Englewood C l i f f s , New J e r s e y : P r e n t i c e H a l l Inc., 1970. N 6425 N4 E35 1970 V . l Hammelmann, Hanns, e d i t e d and completed by TSR Boase, Book I l l u s t r a t o r s i n Eighteenth-Century England, New Haven and London: Ya l e U. Press, 1975. NC 978 H28 1975 Hurd, R i c h a r d Bp of Worcester 1720-1808, L e t t e r s on C h i v a l r y and Romance, 1762, New York: Garland Pub., 1971. PN 56 C53 H8 1962a Knight, Douglas, Pope and the H e r o i c T r a d i t i o n , A C r i t i c a l Study of h i s I l i a d , New Haven: Ya l e U. P r e s s , 1951. PA 4025 A2 P65 1951 Lees-Milne, James, The Age of Adam, London et a l . : BT B a t s f o r d L t d . , 1947. NA 997 A4 L4 Malcolmson, Robert W., Popular R e c r e a t i o n s i n E n g l i s h S o c i e t y , Cambridge: Cambridge U. P r e s s , 1973. DA 485 M217 1973 C2 v Panofsky, Dora and Erwin, Pandora's Box; The Changing Aspects of a M y t h i c a l Symbol, New York: Pantheon Books Inc., 1956. N 7760 P e l l e s , G e r a l i n e , A r t A r t i s t s and S o c i e t y , O r i g i n of a Modern Dilemma, P a i n t i n g i n England and France, 1750-1850, Englewood C l i f f s N.J., 1963. ND 466 P4 Penny, N i c h o l a s , Church Monuments i n Romantic England, New Haven and London: Ya l e U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1977. NB 1860 P44 1977 Physick, John, Designs f o r E n g l i s h S c u l p t u r e 1680-1860, London: Her Magjesty's S t a t i o n e r y o f f i c e , 1969. NB 464 P45 1969 P i r a n e s i , G i o v a nni B a t t i s t a , II Teateo d'Ercolano, Roma, n e l l a Stamperia Salmoni, 1783. N 5775 P57 119 Plumb, J.H., The P u r s u i t of Happiness, A View of L i f e i n Georgian England, New Haven: Y a l e Center f o r B r i t i s h A r t , 1977. N 6766 P58 1977 P r e s s l y , W i l l i a m L., James Barry the A r t i s t as Hero, London: Tate G a l l e r y P u b l i c a t i o n s Department, 1983. N 6797 B38 P72 1983 Pyke, E . J . , A B i o g r a p h i c a l D i c t i o n a r y of Wax M o d e l l e r s , Oxford: at the Clarendon P r e s s , 1973. NK 9580 P939 1973 Ray, Gordon N., The I l l u s t r a t i o n and the Book i n England from 1790 to 1914, New York: the P i e r p o n t Morgan L i b r a r y , 1976. NC 978 R37 1976 Redgrove, Samuel, A D i c t i o n a r y of A r t i s t s of the E n g l i s h S chool, London: G. B e l l and Sons, 1878. N 6796 R45 1878 Rowe, Robert, Adam S i l v e r 1765-1795, London: Faber and Faber, 1965. NK 71A43 R6 1965 S l y t h e , R. Margaret, The A r t of I l l u s t r a t i o n , 1750-1900, London: The L i b r a r y A s s o c i a t i o n , 1970. NC 960 S59 1970 Steegman, John, V i c t o r i a n Taste, A Study of the A r t s and A r c h i t e c t u r e from 1830 to 1870, London: Thomas Nelson and Sons L t d , 1970. N 6767 S8 1970 Steegman, John, The Rule of Taste, London: MacMillan and Co. L i m i t e d , 1936. N 6766 S7 Rothenberg, Jacob, The A c q u i s i t i o n and R e a c t i o n t o the E l g i n Masrbles, New York: Garland P u b l i s h e r s , 1977. NB 92 Warton, Joseph, An Essay on the Genius and W r i t i n g of Pope (1757), New York: Garland P u b l i s h e r s , 1970. Wark, Robert R., B r i t i s h S i l v e r i n the Huntington C o l l e c t i o n , San Marino: Huntington L i b r a r y , 1978. NK 7143 H45 1978 120 Watson, J . Steven, The Reign of George I I I , 1760-1815, Oxford: Clarendon P r e s s , 1960. DA 505 W2 Waterhouse, E l l i s Kirkham, Three Decades of B r i t i s h A r t , 1740- 1770, P h i l a d e l p h i a : American P h i l o s o p h i c a l S o c i e t y , 1965. N 6766 W3 Weinglass, David H. (ed), The C o l l e c t e d E n g l i s h L e t t e r s of Henry F r e s e l i , Millwood N.Y. et a l . : Kraus I n t e r n a t i o n a l P u b l i c a t i o n s , 1987. ND 853 F85 A3 1982 Whinney, Margaret, S c u l p t u r e i n B r i t a i n 1530 to 1830, Har-mondsworth: Penguin books Inc., 1964. NB 464 W5 Wilson, John, The P a i n t i n g of the P a s s i o n s i n Theory, P r a c - t i c e , and C r i t i c i s m i n L a t e r 18th Century France, Ph.D. d i s s e r t a t i o n Iowa, U n i v e r s i t y , 1976. ND 548 W 54 1981 A r t i c l e s Craven, W. \" H o r a t i o Greenough's Statue of Washington and P h i d i a s ' Olympian Zeus,\" A r t Q u a r t e r l y , Vol.26 #4 (1963) p.435. Nl A63 F r i e d l a n d e r , Walter, \"Notes on the A r t of W i l l i a m Blake A Romantic M y s t i c Completely E x h i b i t e d . \" A r t News, 18 Feb. 1939. Gombrich, E.H., \"Debate on P r i m i t i v i s m i n A n c i e n t R h e t o r i c , \" J o u r n a l of the Warburg and C o u r t a u l d I n s t i t u t e s , V o l . 29, 1966, pp.24-38. Nl L65 V.29 Knowlson, James R., The Ideas of Gesture as a U n i v e r s a l Language i n the XVIIth and XVIII C e n t u r i e s , J o u r n a l of the H i s t o r y of Ideas, 26, 1965. B l J54 V.26 Rogerson, Brewster, \"The A r t of P a i n t i n g the P a s s i o n s , \" J o u r n a l of the H i s t o r y of Ideas, 14, 1953. B l J54 V.14. Schorsch, A n i t a , \"Mourning A r t : A N e o c l a s s i c a l R e f l e c t i o n i n America,\" American A r t J o u r n a l , V o l . V I I I . 121 Smart, A l a s t a i r , \"Dramatic Gesture and E x p r e s s i o n i n the Age of Hogarth and Reynolds,\" A p o l l o , 1965. Nl A255 V81/82 Snodgrass, A.M., \" H i s t o r i c a l Homerica S o c i e t y , \" J o u r n a l of H e l l e n i c S t u d i e s , V o l . 94, 1974. DF 10 J8 Uphaus, Robert W. \"The Ideology of Reynolds D i s c o u r s e s on A r t , \" Eighteenth-Century S t u d i e s , V o l . 12 #1, F a l l 1978. W i l l s , G e o f f r e y , \" E a r l y Signs of N e o - C l a s s i c i s m and the Gout Grec,\" A p o l l o , Vol.96 Oct. 1972. Nl A255 122 124 3a S o s i a s P a i n t e r Red-Figure cup i n t e r i o r A c h i l l e s and P a t r o c l u s 3b S o s i a s P a i n t e r Red-Figure cup e x t e r i o r I n t r o d u c t i o n of H e r a c l e s to Olympus 125 126 5 W i l l i a m S u t h e r l a n d : The S h i p - B u i l d e r ' s A s s i s t a n t or Marine A r c h i t e c t u r e , 1755, P l a t e I I I S e c t i o n of a Ship. 6 The M a n u f a c t u r e r ' s Arms, 1784. The T r u s t e e s o f t h e Wedgwood Museum, B a r l a s t o n . S t a f f s . 128 7 John Flaxman, th e e l d e r : A r c h i t e c t u r e , M a r b l e , Lord Barnard, Raby C a s t l e , Durham. 117.7 cms h i g h . 129 8a Ann R u s s e l l and her son Henry : monument Died 1780-81. A l l S a i n t s , Lydd, Kent. 8b A f i g u r e from The Tower of the Winds i n Athens. Depicted i n James S t u a r t and N i c h o l a s Revett: The A n t i q u i t i e s of Ajthens, 1762, V o l . I, Chapter I I I , P l a t e XVII. 130 9 B a r b a r a B o u r c h i e r : monument. D i e d 1784. S t Mary, Newent, G l o u c e s t e r s h i r e . 131 1 1 R e v e r a n d Thomas and Mrs. B a l l : monument, 1784-86 C h i c h e s t e r C a t h e d r a l . 132 Mrs. Siddons : Jasperware p o r t r a i t , after Flaxman's model of 1782. Flaxman's own design for the Chessmen. Probably 1783. Later executed i n Jasperware by Wedgwood. 133 The Crowning o f a K i t h a r i s t . E n g r a v i n g from D 1 H a n c a r v i l l e C a b i n e t o f the Hon. W i l l i a m H a m i l t o n , 1 7 6 6 - 6 7 , V o l . 3 . 134 135 S i g n o r e l l i : B a t t l e of the Nudes ( d e t a i l ) Duomo, O r v i e t o . 136 20 Fury of Athamas, 1790-1794. Marble, 208.5 cms. h i g h . 137 138 22 W i l l i a m C o l l i n s : monument: design: d e t a i l . Pen and ink and wash, 39.5 x 27 cms. (whole sheet) 139 140 24 A u r o r a v i s i t i n g Cephalus on Mount I d a , 1739-90. M a r b l e , 184 cms. h i g h . H e r c u l e s and Hebe, 1792. P l a s t e r , c o l o u r e d , 190.5 cms. h i g h . 142 27 M i n e r v a R e p r e s s i n g t h e F u r y of A c h i l l e s . P r e l i m i n a r y p e n c i l , ink, and brown wash. 22.9 x 27 cm. Huntington L i b r a r y and A r t G a l l e r y . 143 28 T h e t i s and Eurynome R e c e i v i n g the I n f a n t V u l c a n . E n g r a v i n g a f t e r Flaxman by Thomas P i r o l i . I l i a d , 1805, P l a t e 29. 1IB SAID, AND ON THK CHIlii' IH'.S03n>S AMAIN, INCIU'.ASH WITIr GOKJ', AND SWlli.l.lNC, WITH Till'. SI.AIS. 30 A c h i l l e s C o n t e n d i n g w i t h the R i v e r s . Engraving a f t Flaxman by Thomas P i r o l i . I l i a d , 1805, P l a t e 33. 31 The F u n e r a l P i l e of P a t r o c l u s Engraving a f t e r Flaxman' by Thomas P i r o l i . I l i a d , 1805, P l a t e 35. 32 King of the L e s t r l g e n s S e i z i n g One of the Companions of U l y s s e s . Engraving a f t e r Flaxman by James Parker. Odyssey, 1805, P l a t e 15. Odysily Plate 26 ULYSSES 1- HIS D O G . j 33 U l y s s e s and H i s Dog. Engraving a f t e r Flaxman by James | Parker. Odyssey, 1805, P l a t e 26. 149 OiVstjtUttn ,< ULYSSKS TKKREFIKD BY THE GHOSTS. 34 U l y s s e s T e r r e f i e d ( s i c ) by the Ghosts. Engraving' a f t e r Flaxman by James Parker. Odyssey, 1805, P l a t e 17. 35 36 The Embassy t o A c h i l l e s . E n g r a v i n g a f t e r Flaxman by Thomas P i r o l i . I l i a d , 1805, P l a t e 18. W T I I I . K H . w . r iTNSMi - : . vrn i> A I T K A R D T H K U I . I T r a u x r , K L A D I : , M I X K R V A S W I F T !ir.SCEM>Pft I' l lOM A l l O V K . Ibgw't lUmnt lliul I llinf His. 37 M i n e r v a R e p r e s s i n g the F u r y o f A c h i l l e s . E n g r a v i n g a f t e r Flaxman by W i l l i a m Blake. I l i a d 1805, P l a t e 2. Hector's Body Dragged a t the Car of A c h i l l e s . Engravin a f t e r Flaxman by Thomas P i r o l i . I l i a d , 1805, P l a t e 36. Iliad Piatt 34 A N D R O M A C H E F A I N T I N G O N T H E W A L L . 39 Andromache F a i n t i n g on the Wall. Engraving a f t e r Flaxman by Thomas P i r o l i . I l i a d , 1805, P l a t e 34. Odjuty PUlt 31 U J . Y S S K S I C I I - M U G T H K S U I T O R S . I—1 (JI HA8TK It RKTLTOT, ULYS8KB MADK B K l ' I . Y , WniLK YET TH* AVXILIAlt 8 I U T T 3 THIS HASH SWTl.Y. 4 0 U l y s s e s K i l l i n g the S u i t o r s Engraving a f t e r Flaxman James Neagle. Odyssey, 1805, P l a t e 31. by Two p r e l i m i n a r y drawings f o r Minerva R e p r e s s i n g the Fury of A c h i l l e s , I l i a d 2. P e n c i l (top) : ink over p e n c i l (bottom) sheet 26.7 x 21 cm. Huntington L i b r a r y and A r t G a l l e r y . 157 P r e l i m i n a r y d r a w i n g (lower) f o r Minerva R e p r e s s i n g the Fury of A c h i l l e s I l i a d 2. Ink over p e n c i l . Sheet 25.4 x 20.7 cm. Hungtington L i b r a r y and A r t G a l l e r y . 158 P r e l i m i n a r y drawing (lower) f o r Minerva Repressing the Fury of A c h i l l e s , I l i a d 2. P e n c i l , p a r t i a l l y erased. 159 44 P r e l i m i n a r y drawing f o r Minerva R e p r e s s i n g the Fury of A c h i l l e s , I l i a d 2. Ink over p e n c i l . 8.8 x 13.6 cm. 160 F O K T U F R O M UKH SNOWY HAND NAUSICAA T I I K E W , TlfK YARIOVB B A M . ,TIIK H A L L KKKO.VKOUS K L E W . IWpn aow'l n^rOry II-*- L w L5J. N a u s i c a a T h r o w i n g the B a l l . Engraving a f t e r Flaxman by James Pa r k e r . Odyssey, 1805, P l a t e 10. Odjjsty PUtt 19 THE S I K K N S . 46 The S i r e n s . E n g r a v i n g a f t e r Flaxman by James Parker. Odyssey, 1805, P l a t e 19. WINOIJ HAIU'IES S N A T C I l f l T i l ' UNOL'ARUBJ* C 1 I A K O K A W A Y . VnjV. llnrri CMyfln B. 3<1. I.iar f»3 . The H a r p i e s G o i n g t o S e i z e the Daughters of Pandarus. Engraving a f t e r Flaxman by James Parker. Odyssey—1805 P l a t e 29. 48 P e n e l o p e C a r r y i n g the Bow of U l y s s e s t o the S u i t o r s . Engraving a f t e r Flaxxman by James Neagle. Odyssey, 1805, P l a t e 30. AJAX DEFENDING THE GKEF.K SHIPS AGAINST THE TROJANS. IU1.1. TWKLYK TJIK HOI.OUST. IN A MOMT.NT FELL, SKNT 1)1 GHKAT AJAX TO THE SHADES Of UELL. 49 A j a x D e f e n d i n g t h e Greek S h i p s a g a i n s t the T r o j a n s . ! E n g r a v i n g a f t e r Flaxman by Thomas P i r o l i . I l i a d , 1805, j P l a t e 24. 50 Neptune R i s i n g from the Sea. Engraving a f t e r Flaxman by Thomas P i r o l i . I l i a d , 1805, P l a t e 22. I 51 i U l y s s e s F o l l o w i n g the Car of Nausicaa. Engraving a f t e r Flaxman by James Parker. Odyssey, 1805, P l a t e 11. 52 P l a t e from S i r W i l l i a m Hamilton, C o l l e c t i o n of Vases, I, 1791. 53 A c h i l l e s Dragging Hector's Body around the Walls of Troy Engraving by Domenico Cunego, 1766, a f t e r a p a i n t i n g by Gavin Hamilton. 168 170 56 The M e e t i n g of H e c t o r and Andromache. Engraving a f t e r Flaxman by James Parker. I l i a d , 1805, P l a t e 14. 57 J u p i t e r Sending the E v i l Dream to Agamemnon. Engraving a f t e r Flaxman by Thomas P i r o l i . I l i a d , 1805, P l a t e 6. Wat Plan 38 i 5 8 59 Otus and E p h i a l t e s Holding Mars C a p t i v e . Engraving a f t e r Flaxman by Thomas P i r o l i . I l i a d , 1805, P l a t e The Voyage of the A r g o n a u t s 1799 One of 24 d e s i g n s engraved by Joseph Koch a f t e r d r a w i n g s by Asmus J a c o b C a r s t e n s . Mrs. Mary Blackshaw (Mary L u s h i n g t o n ) : monument. 1798-99. S t . Mary Lewisham, Kent. — \" 175 63 L e u c o t h e a P r e s e r v i n g U l y s s e s Engraved a f t e r Flaxman by James Neagle. Odyssey, 1805, P l a t e 9. 178 179 W a r r i o r s , by Jacques-Louis David. From sketchbook. (Musee des Beaux-Arts, L i l l e . ) 180 Plan 26 THE FIGHT FOR THE BODY OF fATROCLCS. T H E T R O J A N S SK1ZK T I I K S L A I N 67 F i g h t f o r the Body of P a t r o c l u s Engraving a f t e r Flaxman ! by Thomas P i r o l i . I l i a d , 1805, P l a t e 26. I 6 8a The S h i e l d o f A c h i l l e s : d r a w i n g . (Henry E. H u n t i n g t o n L i b r a r y and A r t G a l l e r y , San M a r i n o , C a l i f o r n i a ) 182 S h i e l d of A c h i l l e s , 1821. S i l v e r g i l t , 94 cms diameter. Executed a f t e r Flaxman by P h i l i p R u n d e l l . 183 70 A c h i l l e d e p l o r e 1 ' e n t e r r e m e n t de B r i s e i s . by F r a n c o i s Rude. P l a s t e r r e l i e f (Mus6e Rude, D i j o n ) . A c h i l l e d e p l o r e 1 ' e n t e r r e m e n t de B r i s e i s . by F r a n c o i s R u d e ^ Pen and ink, 21.5 by 37 cm. (Musc§e des Beaux-Arts, Study a f t e r Flaxman's Odyssey, by A n t o i n e G r o s . From sketchbook, R.F. 29955, f.28v. Pen and brown i n k o v e r c h a l k , 16.3 by 22.5 cm. ( C a b i n e t des Dessins Mus6e du Louv r e ) . 185 7 3 Study a f t e r Flaxman's Odyssey, by A n t o i n e Gros. From sketchbook, R.F.29955, f . 2 8 . Pen and brown i n k o v e r c h a l k , 1 6 . 3 by 2 2 . 5 cm. ( C a b i n e t des D e s s i n s , Musee du Louvre.) 186 S t u d i e s of Horses, and study a f t e r a p l a t e from Flaxman's Odyssey, by Antoine Gros. From sketchbook, R.F. 29955, f . 2 0 . Pen and brown i n k over chalk, 16.3 by 22.5 cm. (Cabinet des De s s i n s , Musee du Louvre) 187 75 J u p i t e r and T h e t i s by J-A-D Ingres, P e n c i l , 32.5 by 24.2 cm (Mus£e Ingres, Montauban). 188 WadPUtei T H E T I S E N T R E A T I N G JUPITER T O H O N O R A C H I L L E S . TIH'S THETIS BI'OKK B I T J O V E IS S I M t N C E IIK1.I) T H E S A d l E l ) C O l T S r i L S OF HIS 11RIIAST COSCKAI/IJ . T h e t i s I n t r e a t i n g J u p i t e r t o Honor A c h i l l e s Engraved a f t e r Flaxman by W i l l i a m Blake. I l i a d . 1805. P l a t e 5. 77 The C o u n c i l of the Gods Engraved a f t e r Flaxman by Thomas P i r o l i , , I l i a d , 1805, P l a t e 9. 191 'I T e l l You, I Know the World' by P h i l May i n F. B e r k e l e y Smith, In London Town London 1907. 192 Design f o r a w i n e - c o o l e r by Thomas S t o t h a r d R.A. Pen and Wash, 25.4 x 20.3 cm. B r i t i s h Museum. 1' Design f o r a wine-cooler (perhaps a f t e r W i l l i a m Theed, R.A. 1764-1817), Pen drawing, 26.7 x 24.7 cm. 194 83a Wine-cooler, maker's mark of Paul Storr (1771-1844), London Hall-mark for 1809. S i l v e r g i l t , height 35.56 cm. C o l l e c t i o n of the Marquess of Ormonde. 83b De ta i l of wine-cooler i n 83a. 195 "@en ; edm:hasType "Thesis/Dissertation"@en ; edm:isShownAt "10.14288/1.0097171"@en ; dcterms:language "eng"@en ; ns0:degreeDiscipline "Fine Arts"@en ; edm:provider "Vancouver : University of British Columbia Library"@en ; dcterms:publisher "University of British Columbia"@en ; dcterms:rights "For non-commercial purposes only, such as research, private study and education. Additional conditions apply, see Terms of Use https://open.library.ubc.ca/terms_of_use."@en ; ns0:scholarLevel "Graduate"@en ; dcterms:title "Flaxman's Homer illustrations"@en ; dcterms:type "Text"@en ; ns0:identifierURI "http://hdl.handle.net/2429/26612"@en .