@prefix vivo: . @prefix edm: . @prefix ns0: . @prefix dcterms: . @prefix skos: . vivo:departmentOrSchool "Education, Faculty of"@en, "Curriculum and Pedagogy (EDCP), Department of"@en ; edm:dataProvider "DSpace"@en ; ns0:degreeCampus "UBCV"@en ; dcterms:creator "Chappell, Vivian Marie"@en ; dcterms:issued "2010-07-13T03:02:03Z"@en, "1986"@en ; vivo:relatedDegree "Master of Arts - MA"@en ; ns0:degreeGrantor "University of British Columbia"@en ; dcterms:description """The purpose of this study was to determine if a relationship exists between the extent of stereotyping of mathematics as masculine in nature, and the non-participation of females in mathematics courses. Data from the 1985 B.C. Mathematics Assessment were used to determine the extent of stereotyping of mathematics as a male domain by Grade 7 and 10 students. Future mathematics plans of Grade 10 students were also examined. The data were analyzed using t-tests and Chi square tests of significance in order to determine if a relationship existed. While it was found that males stereotyped mathematics as a male domain significantly more than females at both grade levels, the results indicated that neither males nor females stereotyped mathematics as masculine at either grade level. When the extent of stereotyping of Grade 10 students was compared to their future mathematics plans in Grades 11 and 12, there was no significant difference between the extent of stereotyping of students who planned to take an academic mathematics course in Grade 11 and those who planned to take a non-academic course. When participation or non-participation in Grade 12 courses was examined, there was no significant difference in the extent of stereotyping between those students who planned to take a mathematics course and those who did not."""@en ; edm:aggregatedCHO "https://circle.library.ubc.ca/rest/handle/2429/26384?expand=metadata"@en ; skos:note "STEREOTYPING OF MATHEMATICS AS A MALE DOMAIN: A FACTOR I N FEMALES NON-PARTICIPATION I N MATHEMATICS By V i v i a n M a r i e C h a p p e l l B.Ed., R i v e r i n a C o l l e g e o f A d v a n c e d E d u c a t i o n , 1976 A THESIS SUBMITTED I N P A R T I A L FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS i n THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES D e p a r t m e n t o f M a t h e m a t i c s a n d S c i e n c e E d u c a t i o n a c c e p t t h i s t h e s i s a s c o n f o r m i n g t o t h e r e q u i r e d s t a n d a r d THE UNIVERSITY OF B R I T I S H COLUMBIA O c t o b e r , 1986 © V i v i a n M a r i e C h a p p e l l In p r e s e n t i n g t h i s t h e s i s i n p a r t i a l f u l f i l m e n t o f the requirements f o r an advanced degree a t the U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h Columbia, I agree t h a t the L i b r a r y s h a l l make i t f r e e l y a v a i l a b l e f o r r e f e r e n c e and study. I f u r t h e r agree t h a t p e r m i s s i o n f o r e x t e n s i v e copying o f t h i s t h e s i s f o r s c h o l a r l y purposes may be granted by the head o f my department o r by h i s o r her r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s . I t i s understood t h a t copying o r p u b l i c a t i o n o f t h i s t h e s i s f o r f i n a n c i a l g a i n s h a l l not be allowed without my w r i t t e n p e r m i s s i o n . Department o f Education The U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h Columbia 1956 Main Mall Vancouver, Canada V6T 1Y3 Date October % , 1986 ABSTRACT T h e s i s S u p e r v i s o r : Dr. D a v i d F. R o b i t a i l l e The p u r p o s e o f t h i s s t u d y was t o d e t e r m i n e i f a r e l a t i o n s h i p e x i s t s between t h e e x t e n t o f s t e r e o t y p i n g o f m a t h e m a t i c s a s m a s c u l i n e i n n a t u r e , and t h e n o n - p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f f e m a l e s i n m a t h e m a t i c s c o u r s e s . D a t a f r o m t h e 1985 B.C. M a t h e m a t i c s A s s e s s m e n t were u s e d t o d e t e r m i n e t h e e x t e n t o f s t e r e o t y p i n g o f m a t h e m a t i c s a s a male domain by Gra d e 7 and 10 s t u d e n t s . F u t u r e m a t h e m a t i c s p l a n s o f Grade 10 s t u d e n t s were a l s o e x a m i n e d . The d a t a were a n a l y z e d u s i n g t - t e s t s a nd C h i s q u a r e t e s t s o f s i g n i f i c a n c e i n o r d e r t o d e t e r m i n e i f a r e l a t i o n s h i p e x i s t e d . W h i l e i t was f o u n d t h a t m a l e s s t e r e o t y p e d m a t h e m a t i c s a s a male domain s i g n i f i c a n t l y more t h a n f e m a l e s a t b o t h g r a d e l e v e l s , t h e r e s u l t s i n d i c a t e d t h a t n e i t h e r m a l e s n o r f e m a l e s s t e r e o t y p e d m a t h e m a t i c s a s m a s c u l i n e a t e i t h e r g r a d e l e v e l . When t h e e x t e n t o f s t e r e o t y p i n g o f Grade 10 s t u d e n t s was compared t o t h e i r f u t u r e m a t h e m a t i c s p l a n s i n G r a d e s 11 a n d 12, t h e r e was no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e between t h e e x t e n t o f s t e r e o t y p i n g o f s t u d e n t s who p l a n n e d t o t a k e an a c a d e m i c m a t h e m a t i c s c o u r s e i n Grade 11 and t h o s e who p l a n n e d t o t a k e a no n - a c a d e m i c c o u r s e . When p a r t i c i p a t i o n o r n o n - p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n G rade 12 c o u r s e s was exami n e d , t h e r e was no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e e x t e n t o f s t e r e o t y p i n g between t h o s e s t u d e n t s who p l a n n e d t o t a k e a m a t h e m a t i c s c o u r s e and t h o s e who d i d n o t . i i CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES v ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS v i Chapter 1. BACKGROUND Review of Background L i t e r a t u r e 1 Statement of Problem 4 Hypotheses 5 O rgan i za t i on of the F o l l o w i n g Chapters 8 2 . REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE In t roduc t i on 9 Sex D i f f e r e n c e s in Mathematics Achievement 9 B i o l o g i c a l F a c t o r s I n f l u e n c i n g Mathematics Achievement 12 S o c i o c u l t u r a l F a c t o r s I n f l u e n c i n g Mathematics Achievement 13 P e r c e p t i o n s of Mathematics as a Male Domain 14 Sex D i f f e r e n c e s in Enro l lment 19 Summary 21 3 . METHOD OF STUDY In t roduc t i on 22 Research Design and Procedures 22 Instrument D e s c r i p t i o n 23 Test A d m i n i s t r a t i o n 23 i 11 S e l e c t i o n of Items fo r A n a l y s i s 24 S e l e c t i o n of Sample 28 D e s c r i p t i o n of Sample 29 I d e n t i f i c a t i o n of V a r i a b l e s 29 Data Man ipu la t i on 30 4 . FINDINGS S t a t i s t i c a l Procedures 32 S t a t i s t i c a l A n a l y s i s of Data* Measurement of the Extent of S t e r e o t y p i n g 32 Extent of S te reo t yp i n g by Gender: Grades 7 and 10 34 Comparison of S t e r e o t y p i n g Between Grades 7 and 10 35 Future Mathematics P l a n s : Grade 10 36 Extent of S t e r e o t y p i n g : Male Data Only 39 Extent of S t e r e o t y p i n g : Female Data Only 41 Academic/Non-academic Mathematics Courses 41 P a r t i c i p a t i o n in Mathematics Courses 45 Summary of F i n d i n g s P e r t i n e n t to Each Hypothes is 48 5 . SUMMARY AND DISCUSSION Research F i n d i n g s 52 R e s u l t s 52 Conc lus ions 55 L i m i t a t i o n s of the Study 56 Suggest ions f o r Fur ther Research 56 BIBLIOGRAPHY 58 lv LIST OF TABLES TABLE Page 4.1 Frequency D i s t r i b u t i o n of Composite Scores on Four Items 33 4.2 Comparison of Mean Composite Scores by Gender 35 4.3 Future Mathematics P l a n s : Course by Gender 37 4.4 S t e r e o t y p i n g by Future Mathematics P l a n s : A l l Data 38 4.5 S t e r e o t y p i n g by Future Mathematics P l a n s : Male Data 40 4.6 S t e r e o t y p i n g by Future Mathematics P l a n s : Female Data 42 4.7 Academic/Non-academic Courses by Degree of S t e r e o t y p i n g 44 4.8 P a r t i c i p a t i o n in Mathematics Courses by Degree of S t e r e o t y p i n g 47 v ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I w i s h t o thank t h e members o f my t h e s i s c o m m i t t e e , Dr. D a v i d F, R o b i t a i l l e , Dr. James M. S h e r r i l l a n d Dr. L e R o i D a n i e l s f o r t h e i r g u i d a n c e . I t h a s been a p l e a s u r e t o be a s s o c i a t e d w i t h them. In a d d i t i o n , I w o u l d l i k e t o thank Dr. M a r s h a l l A r l i n f o r h i s a s s i s t a n c e i n d e c i s i o n m a k i n g f o r t h e s t a t i s t i c a l a n a l y s l s . I w o u l d l i k e t o thank my hus b a n d , B r i a n , f o r h i s c o n t i n u a l s u p p o r t , e n c o u r a g e m e n t and h i g h e x p e c t a t i o n s ; t o q u o t e , \" o f c o u r s e you can w r i t e t h i s i n f i v e weeks!\" And I w o u l d a l s o l i k e t o thank my d a u g h t e r s , T i f f a n y a n d P h i l i p p a , who have s u p p l i e d p r a c t i c a l i n s i g h t s i n t o t h e s t e r e o t y p i n g o f c o u r s e s and c a r e e r s , and who have s u r v i v e d t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f h a v i n g a mother p e r m a n e n t l y f i x e d i n f r o n t o f a computer t e r m i n a l . v i i CHAPTER ONE BACKGROUND REVIEW OF BACKGROUND LITERATURE Women a r e p r e s e n t l y u n d e r - r e p r e s e n t e d i n t h e f i e l d o f m a t h e m a t i c s and i n m a t h e m a t i c s - r e l a t e d o c c u p a t i o n s . ( K a m l n s k i , 1982) E v i d e n c e o f d i f f e r e n t i a l p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n m a t h e m a t i c s h a s been documented a t b o t h t h e u n d e r g r a d u a t e an d g r a d u a t e l e v e l s . ( E r n e s t , 1976; Fox, 1976; B e l t z n e r , Coleman, and Edwards, 1976; T o b i a s , 1978) F o r example, i n th e U n i t e d S t a t e s women c o n s t i t u t e 45% o f t h e t o t a l u n d e r g r a d u a t e p o p u l a t i o n , b u t o n l y 15% o f t h e m a j o r s i n m a t h e m a t i c s a r e women. ( T o b i a s , 1978, p.70) In Canada i n 1976, women h e l d 31% o f t h e d e g r e e s i n g e n e r a l , b u t o n l y 24% o f t h e d e g r e e s i n m a t h e m a t i c s . ( B e l t z n e r e t a l . , 1976, p. 275) B a k e r (1983) r e p o r t e d t h a t o n e - h a l f t h e u n d e r g r a d u a t e m a j o r s i n s c i e n c e i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s a r e f e m a l e . P o s t g r a d u a t e d e g r e e s o b t a i n e d by women i n d i c a t e d d i f f e r e n t r e p r e s e n t a t i o n ; f o r example, o n l y 10% o f d o c t o r a l d e g r e e s i n p h y s i c a l s c i e n c e a n d 23% o f d e g r e e s i n b i o l o g i c a l s c i e n c e were awarded t o women. Fewer g i r l s t h a n b o y s e n r o l l i n h i g h s c h o o l m a t h e m a t i c s c o u r s e s i n B r i t a i n , t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s and Canada. ( E r n e s t , 1976; S e l l s , 1978; Fennema, W o l l e a t , 2 P e d r o , and B e c k e r , 1981; A r m s t r o n g , 1981; P a l l a s a n d A l e x a n d e r , 1983) K e e v e s (1973) r e p o r t e d r e s u l t s f r o m t h e F i r s t I n t e r n a t i o n a l M a t h e m a t i c s S t u d y t o t h e e f f e c t t h a t t h e r e were c l e a r sex d i f f e r e n c e s i n p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n m a t h e m a t i c s c o u r s e s i n most o f t h e 10 c o u n t r i e s s t u d i e d . In O n t a r i o , R a p h a e l , McLean and W a h l s t r o m (1984) r e p o r t e d t h a t t h e p e r c e n t o f b o y s e n r o l l e d i n Grade 13 m a t h e m a t i c s c o u r s e s e x c e e d e d t h a t o f g i r l s . In B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a r e s u l t s o f t h e 1977 a n d 1981 M a t h e m a t i c s A s s e s s m e n t s i n d i c a t e d t h a t f e m a l e s were u n d e r - r e p r e s e n t e d i n most e l e c t i v e c o u r s e s i n m a t h e m a t i c s a t t h e s e n i o r s e c o n d a r y l e v e l . ( R o b i t a i l l e a n d S h e r r i l l , 1977; R o b i t a i l l e , 1981) The u n d e r - r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f f e m a l e s i n m a t h e m a t i c s c o u r s e s and c a r e e r s h a s been a t t r i b u t e d t o male s u p e r i o r i t y i n m a t h e m a t i c s a c h i e v e m e n t : i . e . f e m a l e s d i d not do a s w e l l i n m a t h e m a t i c s a s m a l e s a n d t h e r e f o r e d i d n o t e n t e r m a t h e m a t i c s c o u r s e s o r c a r e e r s i n e q u a l numbers. (Benbow an d S t a n l e y , 1982) F o u r e x t e n s i v e a s s e s s m e n t s o f a c h i e v e m e n t p e r f o r m e d between 1960 and 1980 i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s p r o v i d e d s u p p o r t f o r t h i s argument: P r o j e c t T a l e n t , 1960; N a t i o n a l L o n g i t u d i n a l S t u d y o f M a t h e m a t i c a l A b i l i t i e s , 1962-1967; N a t i o n a l A s s e s s m e n t o f E d u c a t i o n a l P r o g r e s s , 1979; Women i n M a t h e m a t i c s s u r v e y , 1978. In B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , p r o v i n c i a l M a t h e m a t i c s A s s e s s m e n t d a t a i n d i c a t e d s i m i l a r d i f f e r e n c e s . ( R o b i t a i l l e and S h e r r i l l , 1977; R o b i t a i 1 l e , 1981) 3 Two broad c a t e g o r i e s of t h e o r i e s e x i s t to e x p l a i n the sex d i f f e r e n c e in mathematics achievement: one that a t t r i b u t e s the d i f f e r e n c e to b i o l o g i c a l f a c t o r s and one that suggests s o c i o c u l t u r a l f a c t o r s are r e s p o n s i b l e . Maccoby and J a c k l i n (1974) and Benbow and Stan l e y (1980) proposed that the sex d i f f e r e n c e in mathematics achievement was a r e s u l t of males b e i n g g e n e t i c a l l y s u p e r i o r . They a t t r i b u t e d the g e n e t i c s u p e r i o r i t y to i n h e r i t e d s p a t i a l a b i l i t y . Evidence s u p p o r t i n g the sex d i f f e r e n c e in s p a t i a l a b i l i t y was r e p o r t e d by Broverman, K l a i b e r , Kobayaski, and Vogel (1968) and H a r r i s (1975). S t a f f o r d (1961) produced r e s u l t s which i n d i c a t e d that s p a t i a l a b i l i t y i s i n h e r i t e d . Ernest (1976) argued that the r e l a t i o n s h i p between s p a t i a l a b i l i t y and mathematics achievement was not c l e a r . McGee (1979) p o i n t e d out that the d i f f e r e n c e in s p a t i a l a b i l i t y does not appear u n t i l adolescence, and may be learned r a t h e r than i n h e r i t e d . Wood (1976) and Sherman (1977a) argued ag a i n s t the b i o l o g i c a l b a s i s f o r male s u p e r i o r i t y by q u o t i n g s u c c e s s f u l i n t e r v e n t i o n s t u d i e s which reduced the sex d i f f e r e n c e in achievement. Other r e s e a r c h e r s p o i n t e d out that the small d i f f e r e n c e i n s p a t i a l a b i l i t y does not account f o r the large d i f f e r e n c e found in achievement. ( E r i c k s o n , E r i c k s o n , and Haggerty, 1980) 4 The d i f f i c u l t y o f d e t e c t i n g a g e n e t i c d i f f e r e n c e i n m a t h e m a t i c a l a b i l i t y l e d many r e s e a r c h e r s t o i n v e s t i g a t e p r o b a b l e s o c i o c u l t u r a l f a c t o r s w h i c h may a f f e c t m a t h e m a t i c s a c h i e v e m e n t . Fennema and Sherman (1977) r e p o r t e d t h a t t h e sex d i f f e r e n c e i n m a t h e m a t i c s a c h i e v e m e n t d i s a p p e a r e d when d i f f e r e n c e s i n m a t h e m a t i c s b a c k g r o u n d were c o n t r o l l e d . The f a i l u r e o f g i r l s t o e n r o l l i n m a t h e m a t i c s c o u r s e s l e d t o t h e i r lower a c h i e v e m e n t i n m a t h e m a t i c s . Fennema a n d Sherman c o n t i n u e d t h e i r s t u d y by c o l l e c t i n g i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t f a c t o r s w h i c h m i g h t a f f e c t g i r l s ' p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n m a t h e m a t i c s c o u r s e s . F a c t o r s t h e y i d e n t i f i e d a s s i g n i f i c a n t were l a c k o f c o n f i d e n c e c o n c e r n i n g m a t h e m a t i c s a n d p e r c e p t i o n s o f m a t h e m a t i c s a s a male domain. The s t e r e o t y p i n g o f m a t h e m a t i c s a s m a s c u l i n e a p p e a r e d t o a f f e c t r e l e v a n t a t t i t u d e s , s u c h a s m a t h e m a t i c s a n x i e t y and l a c k o f c o n f i d e n c e i n m a t h e m a t i c s . In a l a t e r s t u d y , Fennema e t a l . ( 1981) r e p o r t e d t h a t c h a n g i n g a t t i t u d e s t o w a r d m a t h e m a t i c s a s a male domain, a n d o t h e r a t t i t u d e s t o w a r d m a t h e m a t i c s i n c r e a s e d t h e p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f g i r l s i n m a t h e m a t i c s c o u r s e s . STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM The u n d e r - r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f women i n m a t h e m a t i c s a n d m a t h e m a t i c s - r e l a t e d o c c u p a t i o n s a p p e a r s t o be d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d t o t h e low e n r o l l m e n t o f g i r l s i n h i g h s c h o o l m a t h e m a t i c s c l a s s e s . In t h e 1977 and 1981 B.C. M a t h e m a t i c s 5 A s s e s s m e n t s , l t was r e p o r t e d t h a t f ewer g i r l s t h a n b o y s e n r o l l e d i n s e n i o r m a t h e m a t i c s c o u r s e s i n B.C. h i g h s c h o o l s . The 1985 B.C. M a t h e m a t i c s A s s e s s m e n t i n c l u d e d a Gender and M a t h e m a t i c s s c a l e , and q u e s t i o n s c o n c e r n i n g f u t u r e m a t h e m a t i c s p l a n s s i m i l a r t o t h e p r e v i o u s a s s e s s m e n t s . U s i n g some o f t h e d a t a o b t a i n e d f r o m t h e 1985 m a t h e m a t i c s a s s e s s m e n t , t h i s s t u d y a t t e m p t e d t o i n v e s t i g a t e t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between g i r l s ' a nd b o y s ' a t t i t u d e s t o w a r d m a t h e m a t i c s and t h e i r s u b s e q u e n t e n r o l l m e n t i n m a t h e m a t i c s c o u r s e s . Two g e n e r a l q u e s t i o n s were c o n s i d e r e d . Do g i r l s p e r c e i v e m a t h e m a t i c s a s m a s c u l i n e i n n a t u r e ? Do g i r l s who p e r c e i v e m a t h e m a t i c s a s m a s c u l i n e i n n a t u r e a v o i d t h e s t u d y o f m a t h e m a t i c s when i t becomes an o p t i o n a l s u b j e c t ? I f a c o r r e l a t i o n c o u l d be f o u n d between t h e s t e r e o t y p i n g o f m a t h e m a t i c s a s m a s c u l i n e and f u t u r e m a t h e m a t i c s p l a n s i t w o u l d o f f e r d i r e c t i o n f o r p l a n s t o i n c r e a s e t h e i n v o l v e m e n t o f f e m a l e s i n m a t h e m a t i c s - r e l a t e d o c c u p a t i o n s . HYPOTHESES In o r d e r t o r e s e a r c h t h e g e n e r a l q u e s t i o n s , t w e l v e h y p o t h e s e s were d e v e l o p e d . The g e n e r a l i n t e n t o f t h e f i r s t s i x h y p o t h e s e s was t o t e s t w h e t h e r m a l e s a n d f e m a l e s i n g r a d e 7 and 10 s t e r e o t y p e m a t h e m a t i c s a s a m a s c u l i n e domain. F u r t h e r h y p o t h e s e s were t h e n d e v e l o p e d t o t e s t w h e t h e r s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s e x i s t i n t h e e x t e n t o f s t e r e o t y p i n g o f m a t h e m a t i c s a s m a s c u l i n e between t h o s e s t u d e n t s who p l a n t o t a k e a c a d e m i c m a t h e m a t i c s c o u r s e s and t h o s e s t u d e n t s who p l a n t o t a k e n o n - a c a d e m i c c o u r s e s . F i n a l l y , h y p o t h e s e s were d e v e l o p e d t o t e s t w h e t h e r s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s e x i s t i n t h e e x t e n t o f s t e r e o t y p i n g o f m a t h e m a t i c s a s m a s c u l i n e between t h o s e s t u d e n t s who p l a n t o t a k e m a t h e m a t i c s i n Grade 12 when i t i s an e l e c t i v e s u b j e c t and t h o s e s t u d e n t s who do n o t p l a n t o t a k e m a t h e m a t i c s i n Grade 12. 1. M a l e s i n Grade 7 s t e r e o t y p e m a t h e m a t i c s a s a male doma i n. 2. F e m a l e s i n Grade 7 s t e r e o t y p e m a t h e m a t i c s a s a male doma i n. 3. M a l e s i n Grade 10 s t e r e o t y p e m a t h e m a t i c s a s a mal e doma i n . 4. F e m a l e s i n Grade 10 s t e r e o t y p e m a t h e m a t i c s a s a male doma i n. 5. T h e r e i s no d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e e x t e n t t o w h i c h m a l e s and f e m a l e s s t e r e o t y p e m a t h e m a t i c s a s a male domain i n Grade 7. 6. T h e r e i s no d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e e x t e n t t o w h i c h m a l e s and f e m a l e s s t e r e o t y p e m a t h e m a t i c s a s a male domain i n Grade 10. 7 7. There i s no d i f f e r e n c e in the extent of s t e r e o t y p i n g of mathematics as a male domain between s t u d e n t s who p l a n to e n r o l l i n non-academic mathematics courses i n Grade 11 and students who plan to e n r o l l in academic mathematics courses in Grade 11. 8. There i s no d i f f e r e n c e in the extent of s t e r e o t y p i n g of mathematics as a male domain between males who p l a n to e n r o l l in non-academic mathematics courses i n Grade 11 and males who p l a n to e n r o l l in academic mathematics courses in Grade 11. 9. There i s no d i f f e r e n c e in the extent of s t e r e o t y p i n g of mathematics as a male domain between females who p l a n to e n r o l l in non-academic mathematics courses i n Grade 11 and females who p l a n to e n r o l l i n academic mathematics courses i n Grade 11. 10. There i s no d i f f e r e n c e in the extent of s t e r e o t y p i n g of mathematics as a male domain between students who p l a n to e n r o l l in a mathematics course in Grade 12 and s t u d e n t s who do not p l a n to e n r o l l i n a mathematics course i n Grade 12. 11. There i s no d i f f e r e n c e in the extent of s t e r e o t y p i n g of mathematics as a male domain between males who p l a n to e n r o l l in a mathematics course in Grade 12 and males who do not p l a n to e n r o l l i n a mathematics course in Grade 12. 8 12. There i s no d i f f e r e n c e in the extent of s t e r e o t y p i n g of mathematics as a male domain between females who p lan to e n r o l l in a mathematics course in Grade 12 and females who do not p lan to e n r o l l in a mathematics course in Grade 12. ORGANIZATION OF THE FOLLOWING CHAPTERS A rev iew of the l i t e r a t u r e r e l a t i n g to sex r o l e s t e r e o t y p i n g of mathematics as a male domain i s p resented in Chapter Two. The d e s c r i p t i o n of the method of s tudy , i n c l u d i n g a d e s c r i p t i o n of the s u b j e c t s , i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of the v a r i a b l e s , and data m a n i p u l a t i o n , i s p resented in Chapter Three. A s t a t i s t i c a l a n a l y s i s of the r e s u l t s and the f i n d i n g s f o r each of the hypotheses proposed are p resen ted in Chapter Four . Chapter F i v e con ta i ns a d i s c u s s i o n of the r e s u l t s and i nc l udes s e c t i o n s on i m p l i c a t i o n s and l i m i t a t i o n s of the study as we l l as sugges t ions f o r f u tu re r e s e a r c h . 9 CHAPTER TWO REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE INTRODUCTION T h i s rev iew of r e l a t e d l i t e r a t u r e i nc l udes f i v e s e c t i o n s . The f i r s t s e c t i o n d i s c u s s e s l i t e r a t u r e concerned w i th sex d i f f e r e n c e s in mathematics achievement. Next are two s e c t i o n s b r i e f l y r ev iew ing l i t e r a t u r e which p e r t a i n s to b i o l o g i c a l and s o c i o c u l t u r a l f a c t o r s a s s o c i a t e d w i th mathematics achievement. L i t e r a t u r e concerned w i th the pe rcep t i on of mathematics as a male domain i s d i s c u s s e d nex t . The l a s t s e c t i o n of l i t e r a t u r e rev iew i s sex d i f f e r e n c e s in en ro l lmen t . The chapter conc ludes w i th a summary of the main t rends of research in t h i s a r e a . SEX DIFFERENCES IN MATHEMATICS ACHIEVEMENT Four ex tens i ve assessments of mathematics achievement in the Un i ted S t a t e s a l l repor t male s u p e r i o r i t y in mathematics achievement. Jacobs (1978) rev iewed r e s u l t s ob ta ined from P r o j e c t T a l e n t , 1969, which t e s t e d achievement of s tuden ts in Grades 9 to 12. R e s u l t s i n d i c a t e d that boys tended to do b e t t e r in mathematics than g i r l s by Grade 12. In a smal l fo l lowup study in 1975, s tuden ts in Grades 9 to 11 were t e s t e d and the r e s u l t s were 10 s i m i l a r a l though the d i f f e r e n c e between males and females had decreased . ( Jacobs , 1978, p.2) The Na t iona l Long i t ud ina l Study of Mathematical A b i l i t i e s , 1962-1967, rev iewed in Jacobs (1978) found that the sex d i f f e r e n c e favoured g i r l s at the comprehension l eve l and boys at a p p l i c a t i o n and a n a l y s i s l e v e l s . The Na t i ona l Assessment of Educa t iona l P rog ress (1979) repo r ted no d i f f e r e n c e in mathematics achievement at age 9 , s l i g h t d i s p a r i t y at age 13, and by 17 the gap in achievement was more n o t i c e a b l e . Carpenter (1984) repo r ted the r e s u l t s of the 1982 N . A . E . P . and compared them to the 1978 assessment. The r e s u l t s showed v i r t u a l l y no change from 1978 to 1982. The Women in Mathematics survey (Armstrong, 1981) found boys d i d b e t t e r than g i r l s at Grade 12, p a r t i c u l a r l y in h igher order c o g n i t i v e s k i l l s in mathemat ics. A study of co l l ege -bound s tudents (Na t iona l Co l lege-Bound S e n i o r s , 1981) repo r ted males sco red s l i g h t l y h igher SAT averages in mathemat ics. Benbow and S tan ley (1982) , in t h e i r Study of Ma themat i ca l l y P recoc ious Youth (SMPY), repo r ted that in a l l s i x SMPY t a l e n t searches a la rge sex d i f f e r e n c e f avou r i ng males was found on the SAT-M, a t es t of mathematical reason ing a b i l i t y . Baker (1983) compared the SAT sco res of male and female undergraduates and found males had s i g n i f i c a n t l y h igher sco res than females . 11 In Canada s i m i l a r r e s u l t s have been found. A 1978 study of mathematics achievement of schoo l s in A l b e r t a repo r ted boys performed b e t t e r than g i r l s on a l l t o p i c s t e s t e d and the d i f f e r e n c e s became more pronounced as grade l e v e l i n c r e a s e d . Boys d i d b e t t e r on the knowledge ques t i ons and a great deal b e t t e r on comprehension and a p p l i c a t i o n . (O l son , Sawada, and S igu rdson , 1979, p . l ) Another study by G iesbrech t (1980) , of Saskatchewan secondary s t u d e n t s , produced r e s u l t s showing a s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e in mathematics achievement in favor of ma les . An examinat ion of raw sco res showed that males d i d b e t t e r at every grade l eve l w i th d i f f e r e n c e s i n c r e a s i n g w i th grade 1 eve 1. In B r i t i s h Columbia, the 1977 p r o v i n c i a l Mathematics Assessment data i n d i c a t e d s i m i l a r d i f f e r e n c e s . At Grade 8 o v e r a l l achievement of g i r l s was s i m i l a r to boys but at Grade 12 boys scored h i g h e r . ( R o b i t a i l l e and S h e r r i l l , 1977) In 1981, a second p r o v i n c i a l Mathematics Assessment was per formed. D i f f e r e n c e s in achievement were s m a l l , g e n e r a l l y in favour of boys and i n c r e a s i n g from Grade 4 to Grade 12. These d i f f e r e n c e s tended to be at the h igher c o g n i t i v e l e v e l . ( R o b i t a i l l e , 1981) The 1985 p r o v i n c i a l Mathematics Assessment a l s o repo r ted smal l achievement d i f f e r e n c e s in favour of boys . ( R o b i t a i l l e and O 'Shea, 1985) 12 In g e n e r a l , these and o ther s t u d i e s have produced s i m i l a r r e s u l t s . In elementary school there appeared to be l i t t l e d i f f e r e n c e in mathematics achievement between boys and g i r l s . A f t e r elementary school i f there was a d i f f e r e n c e i t was in favor of boys and tended to appear in the l a s t few years of h igh s c h o o l . (Keeves, 1973; S e l l s , 1978; Maccoby and J a c k l i n , 1974; A s t i n , 1974; Wood, 1976; E r n e s t , 1976; A i k e n , 1976; Fennema and Sherman, 1977; Armstrong, 1981; Benbow and S t a n l e y , 1982; P a l l a s and A lexander , 1983) BIOLOGICAL FACTORS INFLUENCING MATHEMATICS ACHIEVEMENT In an attempt to e x p l a i n d i f f e r e n c e s in mathematical achievement between boys and g i r l s , p a r t i c u l a r l y at h igher c o g n i t i v e l e v e l s , a b i o l o g i c a l b a s i s was hypo thes i zed . D i f f e r e n c e s in s p a t i a l a b i l i t y , the a b i l i t y to t rans form v i s u a l images m e n t a l l y , were i n v e s t i g a t e d . Male s u p e r i o r i t y at c e r t a i n s p a t i a l v i s u a l i z a t i o n tasks was repo r ted by S t a f f o r d (1961) , Maccoby and J a c k l i n (1974) , Hyde, G e i r i n g e r , and Yen (1975) , Ernest (1976) and H a r r i s (1975) . Broverman et a l . (1968) a t t r i b u t e d t h i s d i f f e r e n c e in s p a t i a l a b i l i t y to sex hormone e f f e c t s . Restak (1979) a t t r i b u t e d the d i f f e r e n c e s to developmental d i f f e r e n c e s in b r a i n l a t e r a l i z a t i o n . S t a f f o r d (1961) repo r ted ev idence that s p a t i a l a b i l i t y i s i n h e r i t a b l e . Benbow and S tan ley (1980) a l s o repo r ted 13 r e s u l t s i n d i c a t i n g m a l e s h a d s u p e r i o r s p a t i a l a b i l i t y w h i c h was i n h e r i t e d . In l a t e r r e s e a r c h no d i f f e r e n c e s were r e p o r t e d between b o y s a n d g i r l s on t e s t s o f s p a t i a l v i s u a l i z a t i o n . (Fennema and Sherman 1977; Sherman 1979; A r m s t r o n g 1981; B a k e r , 1 9 8 3 ) . Murphy (1978) c o n c l u d e d t h a t t h e e x t e n t o f t h e d i f f e r e n c e s d e t e c t e d a p p e a r e d t o depend on t h e t e s t u s e d , as t h e r e s u l t s were f a r f r o m c l e a r . L e d e r (1982) and E r i c k s o n e t a l . (1980) a l s o p o i n t e d o u t t h a t t h e d i f f e r e n c e d e t e c t e d i n s p a t i a l a b i l i t y was s m a l l a n d d i d n o t a c c o u n t f o r t h e l a r g e d i f f e r e n c e i n m a t h e m a t i c s a c h i e v e m e n t . SOCIOCULTURAL FACTORS INFLUENCING MATHEMATICS ACHIEVEMENT V a r i o u s s o c i o c u l t u r a l f a c t o r s have been r e s e a r c h e d a s a c a u s e o f t h e s e x d i f f e r e n c e i n m a t h e m a t i c s a c h i e v e m e n t . E r n e s t (1976) e x a m i n e d d i f f e r e n c e s i n a t t i t u d e s t o m a t h e m a t i c s b u t f o u n d no s e x d i f f e r e n c e s . T o b i a s (1978) r e p o r t e d a n x i e t y a b o u t m a t h e m a t i c s was a f a c t o r i n m a t h e m a t i c s a v o i d a n c e . She a l s o r e p o r t e d t h a t more f e m a l e s s u f f e r e d f r o m m a t h e m a t i c s a n x i e t y t h a n m a l e s . However T o b i a s a n d W e i s b r o d (1980) i n v e s t i g a t e d m a l e s and f e m a l e s w i t h t h e same l e v e l o f a n x i e t y and f o u n d t h a t t h e m a l e s c o n t i n u e d t o t a k e m a t h e m a t i c s w h i l e t h e f e m a l e s d i d n o t . 14 PERCEPTIONS OF MATHEMATICS AS A MALE DOMAIN Fennema et a l . (1981) hypo thes ized that the pe rcep t i on of mathematics as mascul ine may be r e s p o n s i b l e fo r the f a i l u r e of g i r l s to p a r t i c i p a t e in mathemat ics. The development of s te reo typed sex r o l e s and s te reo typed career c h o i c e s may c o n t r i b u t e to t h i s p e r c e p t i o n . The sex r o l e s te reo types which develop de f i ne males as v e r b a l l y and p h y s i c a l l y aggress ive and females as dependent, pass i ve and conforming. (Kagan, 1964; W i l l i a m s , Bennet t , and B e s t , 1975) Competence in i n t e l l e c t u a l and academic s k i l l s are a l s o cons ide red an e s s e n t i a l component of the m a l e ' s sex r o l e i d e n t i t y , but not the f e m a l e ' s . (Kagan, 1964; S t e i n and B a i l e y , 1973; Res tak , 1979) Some of the e f f e c t s of s t e r e o t y p i n g can be seen in the development of sex - t yped pe r cep t i ons of ca reer c h o i c e s . The ca ree r cho i ces of many g i r l s appear to be l i m i t e d to a narrow range of sex - s te reo t yped c a r e e r s . These can be c l a s s i f i e d i n t o three groups: the mother ing r o l e , i n c l u d i n g t eache r , nu rse , s o c i a l worker ; w i f e , i n c l u d i n g a s s i s t a n t , s e c r e t a r y , l abora to ry t e c h n i c i a n ; and d e c o r a t i v e , r e c e p t i o n i s t , f l i g h t a t t endan t , and p u b l i c r e l a t i o n s s p e c i a l i s t . ( A s t i n , 1974; I g l i t z i n , 1977; T o b i a s , 1978; F r i e z e , 1978; Pedro , Wo11 e a t , and Fennema, 1980) 15 R e s u l t s o f r e s e a r c h i n d i c a t e t h a t s e x t y p i n g o f s u b j e c t s , p a r t i c u l a r l y between m a t h e m a t i c s and s c i e n c e ; a n d E n g l i s h and s o c i a l s t u d i e s a l s o o c c u r s . Fennema e t a l . (19 8 1 ) r e p o r t e d r e s u l t s w h i c h i n d i c a t e d t h a t m a t h e m a t i c s was r e g a r d e d a s a male s u b j e c t by b o t h s e x e s . A p o s s i b l e r e a s o n f o r p e r c e i v i n g m a t h e m a t i c s a s m a s c u l i n e i n n a t u r e i s t h e s t e r e o t y p i n g o f m a t h e m a t i c i a n s a s m a s c u l i n e , even i n t h e c a s e o f f e m a l e m a t h e m a t i c i a n s . E n t w h i s t l e and Duckworth (Stamp, 1979) d e s c r i b e d t h e p e r s o n a l i t y f a c t o r s f o r m a t h e m a t i c i a n s a s i n t e l l i g e n c e , d o m i n a n c e , t o u g h - m i n d e d n e s s , i n t e l l e c t u a l s e l f - s u f f i c i e n c y and c o n t r o l . T h e s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a l l r e l a t e t o t h e m a s c u l i n e s e x r o l e i d e n t i t y . Female m a t h e m a t i c i a n s a r e o f t e n s t e r e o t y p e d a s \" s i x f o o t , g r e y h a i r , tweed s u i t a nd o x f o r d s \" ( B a d g e r , 1981, p . 605) When m a s c u l i n i t y - f e m i n i n i t y r a t i n g s a n d m a t h e m a t i c a l a b i l i t y have been r e s e a r c h e d t h e r e s u l t s t e n d t o be c o n t r a d i c t o r y and d e p e n d e n t on t h e s c a l e u s e d t o measure m a s c u l i n i t y - f e m i n i t y . He 1 son ( B a d g e r , 1981) s t u d i e d woman m a t h e m a t i c i a n s and f o u n d t h a t t h e y d i d n o t r a t e h i g h e r t h a n a v e r a g e on m e a s u r e s o f m a s c u l i n i t y - f e m i n i t y , d o minance, a s s e r t i v e n e s s o r a n a l y t i c a l a b i l i t y . E l t o n and Rose (1967) r e p o r t e d no s i g n i f i c a n t c o r r e l a t i o n between m a s c u l i n e i n t e r e s t s a nd h i g h m a t h e m a t i c a l a b i l i t y . Lambert (1960) f o u n d m a t h e m a t i c s m a j o r s s c o r e d a s \"more f e m i n i n e \" t h a n n o n - m a t h e m a t i c s m a j o r s . He too k a s e c o n d sample b e c a u s e 16 t h i s r e s u l t was s u f f i c i e n t l y s u r p r i s i n g . The r e s u l t s of h i s second sample were the same. On the other hand, M i l l s (1981) found some ev idence fo r a p o s i t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p between mascu l ine t r a i t s and va lues and mathematics a b i l i t y . M i l t o n (1957) a l s o repo r ted a p o s i t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p between the mascu l ine sex r o l e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n and p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g a b i l i t y . Fur ther c l u e s to the pe rce i ved mascul ine cha rac te r of mathematics are p rov ided by the mascu l ine o r i e n t a t i o n of problems in mathematics t e s t s and tex tbooks . ( M i l t o n , 1959; Graf and R idde l 1, 1972; Leder , 1974; C h r i s t o p o l o s and Borden, 1978) M i l t o n (1959) s t u d i e d the e f f e c t of a l t e r i n g the content of problems to make them l e s s app rop r i a te to the mascu l ine r o l e . H is r e s u l t s i n d i c a t e d when content was made re l evan t to females , males no longer outperformed them. Leder (1982) repo r ted s i m i l a r r e s u l t s . Pa ren ta l a t t i t u d e s toward mathematics as mascul ine may a f f e c t the a t t i t u d e s of c h i l d r e n . A s t i n (1974) repo r ted pa ren ts encouraged boys more o f ten than g i r l s in academic s t u d i e s . Lev ine (1976) repo r ted that pa ren ts encourage sons to study mathematics even when i t i s d i f f i c u l t f o r them wh i l e g i r l s are o f ten encouraged to drop i t . The r e s u l t s of o ther s t u d i e s a l s o i n d i c a t e d a r e l a t i o n s h i p between g i r l s ' a t t i t u d e s toward mathematics and p a r e n t s ' a t t i t u d e s toward mathemat ics. ( E r n e s t , 1976; Fennema and Sherman, 1977; Stamp, 1979; Sherman, 1982; Kamlnsk l , 1982) 17 Teachers'\" a t t i t u d e s t o w a r d m a t h e m a t i c s a l s o d e t e r m i n e p u p i l s ' a t t i t u d e s t o w a r d m a t h e m a t i c s . ( B r a s s e l l , P e t r y , and B r o o k s , 1980) E r n e s t (1976) r e p o r t e d t h a t 41% o f t e a c h e r s s u r v e y e d t h o u g h t b o y s d i d b e t t e r i n m a t h e m a t i c s , none t h o u g h t g i r l s d i d b e t t e r . He p r o p o s e d t h a t a P y g m a l i o n e f f e c t may be t a k i n g p l a c e ; b o y s p e r f o r m b e t t e r b e c a u s e t e a c h e r s e x p e c t them t o be b e t t e r . R o w e l l (1971) f o u n d t e n t a t i v e e v i d e n c e t o s u p p o r t t h e h y p o t h e s i s t h a t i f t e a c h e r s e x p e c t e d b o y s t o a c h i e v e more, t h e y d i d . E v i d e n c e o f d i f f e r e n t i a l t r e a t m e n t o f male and f e m a l e s t u d e n t s i n m a t h e m a t i c s c l a s s r o o m s was r e p o r t e d by Bean <1976). B e c k e r (1981) f o u n d t h a t t e a c h e r s i n t e r a c t w i t h m a l e s more t h a n f e m a l e s i n b o t h blame and p r a i s e c o n t a c t s . Fennema (1977) i n d i c a t e d t h a t m a l e s were g i v e n more o p p o r t u n i t y t o r e s p o n d t o h i g h l e v e l c o g n i t i v e q u e s t i o n s . B e c k e r (1981) f o u n d t h a t d i f f e r e n c e s i n t e a c h e r r e s p o n s e s i n d i r e c t l y b e n e f i t t e d male s t u d e n t s b o t h i n t h e i r l e a r n i n g o f m a t h e m a t i c s and f u t u r e c o u r s e c h o i c e s . H e l l e r a n d P a r s o n s (1981) r e p o r t e d , however, no sex d i f f e r e n c e s were f o u n d i n p a t t e r n s o f t e a c h e r e v a l u a t i v e f e e d b a c k . Duval (1980) s t u d i e d g r a d i n g p r a c t i c e s l o o k i n g f o r a f f e c t s o f t e a c h e r b i a s a g a i n s t f e m a l e s . R e s u l t s i n d i c a t e d t h a t i f t e a c h e r s b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e s t u d y o f m a t h e m a t i c s was i n a p p r o p r i a t e f o r f e m a l e s t h e y r e i n f o r c e d p e r c e p t i o n s o f m a t h e m a t i c s a s m a s c u l i n e . L e v i n e (1976) f o u n d t h a t g i r l s a r e e n c o u r a g e d t o c o n t i n u e t h e i r m a t h e m a t i c s s t u d i e s o n l y 18 I f t h e y e x p r e s s e d g r e a t i n t e r e s t i n t h e s u b j e c t . S i m i l a r r e s u l t s were f o u n d i n s t u d i e s by Thomas and S t e w a r t ( 1 9 7 1 ) , Haven ( 1 9 7 2 ) , and L u c h i n s ( 1 9 8 1 ) . T h e r e i s some c o n t r a d i c t i o n between r e s u l t s o f some s t u d i e s o f p e r c e p t i o n s o f m a t h e m a t i c s a s m a s c u l i n e d u r i n g a d o l e s c e n c e . S t e i n and S m i t h e l l s (1969) p r o d u c e d e v i d e n c e t h a t s t e r e o t y p i n g o f m a t h e m a t i c s a s a male domain i s not s t r o n g u n t i l a d o l e s c e n c e . On t h e o t h e r hand, Fennema and Sherman (1977) f o u n d t h a t g i r l s s t e r e o t y p e d m a t h e m a t i c s a s a male domain l e s s a s t h e y became more m a t u r e . In a s t u d y by B r u s h (1979) most s t u d e n t s i n d i c a t e d t h a t m a t h e m a t i c s was an a p p r o p r i a t e s u b j e c t f o r b o t h s e x e s t o s t u d y a l t h o u g h f e m a l e s were much more adamant t h a n m a l e s . The i n f l u e n c e o f sex r o l e i d e n t i t y on a c h i e v e m e n t e f f o r t s i n t h e t r a d i t i o n a l l y s e x - t y p e d s u b j e c t s , m a t h e m a t i c s and E n g l i s h , was s t u d i e d by K a c z a l a ( 1 9 8 1 ) . She f o u n d t h a t s e x r o l e i d e n t i t y a f f e c t s g i r l s ' a t t i t u d e s t o w a r d m a t h e m a t i c s and t h e d e g r e e t o w h i c h t h e y v a l u e i t . S i m i l a r l y , L e v i n e (1976) r e p o r t e d a d e c r e a s e i n g i r l s ' i n t e r e s t i n m a t h e m a t i c s and a s h a r p i n c r e a s e i n s o c i e t a l p r e s s u r e a g a i n s t women i n m a t h e m a t i c s d u r i n g t h e s t u d e n t s ' s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l y e a r s . Fox (1976) r e p o r t e d s i m i l a r r e s u l t s i n d i c a t i n g c o n f l i c t between t h e f e m i n i n e s e x r o l e and a c h i e v e m e n t i n m a t h e m a t i c s . Sherman (1982) f o u n d t h a t g i r l s who a t t e m p t e d 4 y e a r s o f m a t h e m a t i c s p e r c e i v e d m a t h e m a t i c s a s more o f a male 19 domain t h a n t h o s e who a t t e m p t e d l e s s m a t h e m a t i c s . She p r o p o s e d t h a t t h e g i r l s who e l e c t e d n ot t o t a k e m a t h e m a t i c s d i d s o b e c a u s e t h e y have r e s o l v e d s e x r o l e c o n f l i c t by r e n o u n c i n g a m b i t i o n . T h o s e who c o n t i n u e d i n m a t h e m a t i c s c o n t i n u e d t o p e r c e i v e i t a s a m a s c u l i n e p u r s u i t a n d c o n t i n u e d t o s u f f e r f r o m s e x r o l e c o n f l i c t . SEX DIFFERENCES IN ENROLLMENT Sex d i f f e r e n c e s i n e n r o l l m e n t i n m a t h e m a t i c s c o u r s e s have been w e l l documented. A s t u d y o f t h e m a t h e m a t i c s b a c k g r o u n d o f C a l i f o r n i a f r e s h m e n by S e l l s (1978) and r e p l i c a t e d by E r n e s t (1976) r e v e a l e d t h a t a s i g n i f i c a n t l y l a r g e r p r o p o r t i o n o f t h e men h a d f o u r y e a r s o f s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l m a t h e m a t i c s t h a n women. The 1977-78 NAEP s t u d y r e p o r t e d a t h r e e - t o - t w o r a t i o o f 17 y e a r o l d m a l e s t o 17 y e a r o l d f e m a l e s who h a d t a k e n more t h a n t h r e e y e a r s o f m a t h e m a t i c s . (NAEP 1979 p.29) G i e s e (1983) u s i n g d a t a f r o m 113 s c h o o l d i s t r i c t s f o r 1981/82 i n t h e s t a t e o f M i c h i g a n , f o u n d 45% o f t h e b o y s and 36% o f t h e g i r l s i n Grade 12 were s t u d y i n g m a t h e m a t i c s . Haven (1972) s u r v e y e d t h e c o l l e g e - b o u n d s t u d e n t s who too k t h e C o l l e g e E n t r a n c e E x a m i n a t i o n B o a r d A c h i e v e m e n t T e s t and i n d i c a t e d 56% o f t h e g i r l s t o o k m a t h e m a t i c s i n Grade 12, a s compared t o 84% o f t h e b o y s . 20 The O n t a r i o r e s u l t s f r o m t h e S e c o n d I n t e r n a t i o n a l M a t h e m a t i c s S t u d y r e p o r t e d by R a p h a e l e t a l . (1984) i n d i c a t e d b o y s were e n r o l l e d i n s i g n i f i c a n t l y more m a t h e m a t i c s c o u r s e s t h a n g i r l s . In B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , t h e 1981 M a t h e m a t i c s A s s e s s m e n t ( R o b i t a i l l e , 1981), r e p o r t e d t h a t f e m a l e s were u n d e r - r e p r e s e n t e d i n most e l e c t i v e c o u r s e s i n m a t h e m a t i c s a t t h e s e n i o r s e c o n d a r y l e v e l . They c o n s t u t u t e d 40% o f t h e A l g e b r a 12 p o p u l a t i o n , 30% o f C o m p u t i n g S c i e n c e 11, 30% o f Geometry 12, 10% o f T r a d e s M a t h e m a t i c s 11 and 60% o f t h e Consumer M a t h e m a t i c s 11. The S e c o n d I n t e r n a t i o n a l M a t h e m a t i c s S t u d y , i n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a ( R o b i t a i l l e , O'Shea, and D i r k s , 1982) f o u n d t h a t g i r l s made up 5 1 % o f t h e Grade 12 p o p u l a t i o n b u t o n l y 43% o f t h e e n r o l l m e n t i n A l g e b r a 12. G i r l s f o r m e d 65% o f t h e g r o u p w h i c h t o o k no m a t h e m a t i c s b e y o n d Grade 10, w h i c h was t h e l a s t y e a r m a t h e m a t i c s was a c o m p u l s o r y c o u r s e a t t h a t t i m e . The d i f f e r e n c e s i n c o u r s e e n r o l l m e n t become e v e n more p r o n o u n c e d when m a t h e m a t i c s - r e l a t e d c o u r s e s a r e c o n s i d e r e d . The B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a S c i e n c e A s s e s s m e n t (Hobbs, B o l d t , E r i c k s o n , Q u e l c h , and S i e b e n , 1978) f o u n d t h a t b o y s e n r o l l i n more s c i e n c e c o u r s e s t h a n g i r l s . A l t h o u g h t h e r e a r e more g i r l s e n r o l l e d i n b i o l o g y c o u r s e s , t h e p e r c e n t a g e s e n r o l l e d i n t h e p h y s i c a l s c i e n c e s a r e s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t , e g . 38% o f m a l e s and 17% o f f e m a l e s i n s e n i o r g r a d e s a r e e n r o l l e d i n s e n i o r p h y s i c s c o u r s e s . 21 SUMMARY Male and f e m a l e sex r o l e i d e n t i t i e s d e v e l o p e a r l y . C h i l d r e n ' s p e r c e p t i o n s o f t h e s e s e x r o l e s c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e i r p e r c e p t i o n s o f c a r e e r o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r t h e s e x e s . Most g i r l s s e e t h e p o s s i b l e r o l e s f o r women a s l i m i t e d t o t h r e e c a t e g o r i e s : w i f e , m other and d e c o r a t i o n . Many c a r e e r s a r e s e e n a s n o t s e x - a p p r o p r i a t e f o r f e m a l e s and m a t h e m a t i c s i s one o f t h e s e . M a t h e m a t i c s i s p e r c e i v e d a s m a s c u l i n e i n n a t u r e , a s a r e m a t h e m a t i c i a n s . T h e r e a r e s o c i a l i z a t i o n f a c t o r s w h i c h c o n t r i b u t e t o t h i s a t t i t u d e . The f a m i l y and s c h o o l e n v i r o n m e n t s communicate d i f f e r e n t i a l e x p e c t a t i o n s t o b o y s and g i r l s t h r o u g h d i f f e r e n t i a l t r e a t m e n t and e n c o u r a g e m e n t . P a r e n t s , t e a c h e r s and p e e r s i n f l u e n c e g i r l s t o p e r c e i v e m a t h e m a t i c s a s more a p p r o p r i a t e f o r b o y s . T h e s e a t t i t u d e s c o n t r i b u t e t o c o n f l i c t between g i r l s ' w i s h e s t o a c h i e v e a c a d e m i c a l l y , and t h e i r d e s i r e t o c o n f o r m t o t h e f e m i n i n e sex r o l e . E v i d e n c e e x i s t s t h a t t h e r e a r e more b o y s e n r o l l e d i n m a t h e m a t i c s c o u r s e s t h a n g i r l s . B oys t e n d t o t a k e more m a t h e m a t i c s c o u r s e s and m a t h e m a t i c s - r e l a t e d c o u r s e s t h a n g i r l s i n s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l . T h i s d i f f e r e n c e h a s been r e p o r t e d i n B r i t a i n , t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s and a l s o i n Canada. 22 C H A P T E R T H R E E METHOD OF STUDY INTRODUCTION The purpose of t h i s research study was to exp lo re the r e l a t i o n s h i p between s t u d e n t s ' pe r cep t i ons of mathematics as mascu l ine in nature and t h e i r f u tu re p l ans to e n r o l l in mathematics c o u r s e s . In May 1985, the B r i t i s h Columbia Mathemat ics Assessment was admin is te red to a l l Grade 4 , 7 and 10 s tuden ts in B r i t i s h Columbia , and a 10% sample of Grade 8 ' s . Some of the data c o l l e c t e d from the assessment were used as the b a s i s f o r t h i s s tudy . RESEARCH DESIGN AND PROCEDURES An attempt was made to d i s c o v e r and c l a r i f y r e l a t i o n s h i p s between the extent of s t e r e o t y p i n g of mathematics as mascu l ine by g i r l s and boys , and fu tu re p l a n s to e n r o l l in mathematics courses in Grades 11 and 12. D i f f e r e n c e s in the s t e r e o t y p i n g of mathematics by males and females in Grades 7 and 10 were examined. Future mathematics p l ans of Grade 10 s tuden ts were a l s o examined. INSTRUMENT DESCRIPTION The p u r p o s e o f t h e B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a M a t h e m a t i c s A s s e s s m e n t was t o p r o v i d e d e c i s i o n - m a k e r s w i t h f a c t u a l and c u r r e n t I n f o r m a t i o n c o n c e r n i n g t h e t e a c h i n g and l e a r n i n g o f m a t h e m a t i c s . The a s s e s s m e n t i n s t r u m e n t c o n s i s t e d o f f o u r f o r m s (Form Q, Form R, Form S, and Form T) f o r e a c h g r a d e l e v e l . O n l y t h e d a t a f r o m Form S, f o r G r a d e s 7 a n d 10, were u s e d i n t h e p r e s e n t s t u d y s i n c e Form S i n c l u d e d t h e Gender and M a t h e m a t i c s s c a l e . Form R i n c l u d e d S c a l e R, t i t l e d M a t h e m a t i c s i n S c h o o l , and Form T i n c l u d e d S c a l e T, t i t l e d C a l c u l a t o r s and C o m p u t e r s . Form Q i n c l u d e d o p e n - e n d e d q u e s t i o n s d e s i g n e d t o g a i n i n f o r m a t i o n on how s t u d e n t s a p p r o a c h measurement a n d p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g q u e s t i o n s . Form S c o n s i s t e d o f t h r e e s e c t i o n s , a 1 5 - i t e m a t t i t u d e s c a l e , 16 i t e m s c o n c e r n i n g s t u d e n t b a c k g r o u n d i n f o r m a t i o n , and a 5 0 - i t e m a c h i e v e m e n t s u r v e y . TEST ADMINISTRATION Between May 21-24, 1985, e a c h s t u d e n t i n G r a d e s 4, 7 an d 10, w r o t e one o f t h e f o r m s o f t h e 1985 M a t h e m a t i c s A s s e s s m e n t . Form Q was d i s t r i b u t e d on t h e b a s i s o f one p e r c l a s s o r one f o r e v e r y 25 s t u d e n t s . The r e m a i n d e r o f t h e s t u d e n t s r e c e i v e d Form R, Form S, o r Form T i n a p p r o x i m a t e l y e q u a l numbers. The f o r m s were o r d e r e d R, S, T, R, S, T... f o r d i s t r i b u t i o n t o t h e s c h o o l s . 24 SELECTION OF ITEMS FOR ANALYSIS The Gender and M a t h e m a t i c s s c a l e i n Form S c o n t a i n e d 15 i t e m s . The i t e m s a r e l i s t e d b e l o w . 1. Men make b e t t e r s c i e n t i s t s and e n g i n e e r s t h a n women. 2. G i r l s have more n a t u r a l a b i l i t y i n m a t h e m a t i c s t h a n b o y s . 3. Boys n e e d t o know more m a t h e m a t i c s t h a n g i r l s . 4. A woman n e e d s a c a r e e r J u s t a s much a s a man d o e s . 5. My f a t h e r e n j o y s d o i n g m a t h e m a t i c s . 6. My mother e n j o y s d o i n g m a t h e m a t i c s . 7. My f a t h e r i s u s u a l l y a b l e t o h e l p me w i t h my m a t h e m a t i c s homework i f I ask him t o h e l p . 8. My mother i s u s u a l l y a b l e t o h e l p me w i t h my m a t h e m a t i c s homework i f I ask h e r t o h e l p . 9. My mother t h i n k s t h a t l e a r n i n g m a t h e m a t i c s i s i m p o r t a n t f o r me. 10. My f a t h e r t h i n k s t h a t l e a r n i n g m a t h e m a t i c s i s i m p o r t a n t f o r me. 11. My f a t h e r w a n t s me t o do w e l l i n m a t h e m a t i c s . 12. My mother w a n t s me t o do w e l l i n m a t h e m a t i c s . 13. G i r l s c a n do b e t t e r t h a n b o y s i n m a t h e m a t i c s . 14. My mother i s u s u a l l y v e r y i n t e r e s t e d i n h e l p i n g me w i t h m a t h e m a t i c s . 15. My f a t h e r i s u s u a l l y v e r y i n t e r e s t e d i n h e l p i n g me w i t h m a t h e m a t i c s . 25 Of t h e 15 i t e m s , s i x were n o t c o n s i d e r e d f o r d a t a a n a l y s i s . The o m i t t e d i t e m s were q u e s t i o n s c o n c e r n i n g p a r e n t a l enjoyment o f m a t h e m a t i c s , p a r e n t a l a b i l i t y t o a s s i s t w i t h m a t h e m a t i c s homework and p a r e n t a l d e s i r e f o r s t u d e n t t o do w e l l i n m a t h e m a t i c s . The n i n e i t e m s s e l e c t e d ( 1 , 2, 3, 4, 9, 10, 13, 14, a n d 15) were e x a m i n e d . I t was f e l t t h a t f i v e o f t h e i t e m s s e l e c t e d d i d n o t f i t w i t h t h e r e m a i n i n g f o u r . A f a c t o r a n a l y s i s o f t h e n i n e s e l e c t e d i t e m s was c o n d u c t e d t o p r o v i d e s t a t i s t i c a l e v i d e n c e o f t h e v a l i d i t y o f t h e a u t h o r ' s h y p o t h e s i s a b o u t t h e r e b e i n g more t h a n one f a c t o r r e p r e s e n t e d by t h e n i n e i t e m s . F a c t o r a n a l y s i s was u s e d t o s e a r c h f o r c l u s t e r s o f i t e m s w h i c h c o r r e l a t e d w i t h one a n o t h e r . The f o u r i t e m s 1, 2, 3 a n d 13, c o n c e r n i n g a t t i t u d e t o w a r d m a t h e m a t i c s a s a male domain g r o u p e d t o g e t h e r a s one f a c t o r w i t h an E i g e n v a l u e o f 1.37 f o r Grade 7 and an E i g e n v a l u e o f 1.21 f o r G rade 10. Items 14 and 15 a l s o g r o u p e d t o g e t h e r w i t h an E i g e n v a l u e o f 1.57 f o r b o t h Grade 7 and Grade 10. I t was f e l t t h a t t h e s e i t e m s were n o t r e l a t e d t o measurement o f s t e r e o t y p i n g o f m a t h e m a t i c s a s a male domain and s i n c e t h e y d i d n o t g r o u p w i t h t h e o t h e r i t e m s t h e s e were e x c l u d e d f r o m f u r t h e r d a t a a n a l y s i s . Items 9 and 10 were e x c l u d e d on t h e b a s i s t h a t t h e y d i d n o t s h a r e any s i g n i f i c a n t c o m m u n a l i t y w i t h t h e r e s t o f t h e d a t a ; t h a t i s t h e y d i d n o t g r o u p w i t h 26 any o ther i tems. Moreover, i tems 9 and 10 were a t tempt ing to measure the s t u d e n t s ' pe rcep t i on of t h e i r mothers ' and f a t h e r s ' a t t i t u d e s to mathematics ra the r than pe r cep t i ons of mathematics as a male domain. Item four was exc luded s i n c e i t was not mathematics s p e c i f i c . The four i tems s e l e c t e d from Sca le S were 1, 2 , 3 , and 13. These items were used as c r i t e r i a f o r a n a l y s i s of sex r o l e s t e r e o t y p i n g of mathematics by s tudents in Grades 7 and 10. The ques t i ons r e q u i r e d that the student choose one of the f o l l o w i n g f i v e responses on a L i k e r t s c a l e : S t rong l y D i s a g r e e , D i sag ree , Undec ided, Agree, and S t rong l y Agree. In the second s e c t i o n of Form S, Student Background In fo rma t ion , ques t ions 10 and 11 were des igned to i n v e s t i g a t e the fu tu re mathematics p l ans of s t uden t s . The two ques t i ons are as f o l l o w s : 10. Which mathematics courses do you p lan to take in Grade 11? (Mark a l l that a p p l y . ) A. None B. Math 10 C. A lgebra 11 D. Trades Math 11 E. Bus iness and Consumer Math 11 F. Computer Sc ience 11 G. A lgeb ra 12 H. Geometry 12 I. P r o b a b i l i t y and S t a t i s t i c s 12 27 11. Which mathematics courses do you p lan to take in Grade 12. (Mark a l l that a p p l y . ) A . None B. A lgebra 11 C. Trades Math 11 D. Bus iness and Consumer Math 11 E. Computer Sc ience 11 F. A lgebra 12 G. Geometry 12 H. P r o b a b i l i t y and S t a t i s t i c s 12 For Grade 11 mathematics courses s tudents had n ine c h o i c e s and cou ld i n d i c a t e more than one. Students had e igh t c h o i c e s of Grade 12 mathematics courses and aga in cou ld choose more than one. For those s tudents e n r o l l e d in Grade 10 in 1984-85 and p o t e n t i a l l y g radua t ing in 1986-87, a Grade 11 mathematics course i s necessary to meet g radua t ion requ i rements , but may be taken in Grade 11 or Grade 12. I f they completed a Grade 11 course by the end of Grade 11, then Grade 12 i s the on ly year in the B r i t i s h Columbia p u b l i c school system in which enro l lment in mathematics i s o p t i o n a l . Sec t i on 3 of Sca le S was the 50- i tem achievement su rvey . Data from the achievement survey were not used in t h i s s tudy . 28 SELECTION OF SAMPLE The Educat iona l Research I n s t i t u t e of B r i t i s h Columbia (ERIBC) was r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t es t d i s t r i b u t i o n , c o l l e c t i o n , mark ing , and cod ing of responses . Approx imate ly 28 000 Grade 7 s tuden ts p a r t i c i p a t e d in the assessment and about 2800 cases were s e l e c t e d randomly as the sample f o r t h i s s tudy . More than 24 000 Grade 10 s tuden ts p a r t i c i p a t e d , and approx imate ly 2400 cases were randomly s e l e c t e d . The Form S ( d i s t r i b u t e d to approx imate ly o n e - t h i r d of the s tuden ts ) data were separa ted from the other da ta and p l a c e d in a computer f i l e f o r data a n a l y s i s . The sample s i z e was 859 Grade 1 0 ' s and 822 Grade 7 ' s . In some s c h o o l s , in some school d i s t r i c t s , Sca le S had not been completed or s tuden ts had been urged not to f i l l i n the responses to those i tems. T h i s occur red because c e r t a i n members of the teach ing p r o f e s s i o n f e l t that ques t i ons concern ing gender might promote the development of s t e r e o t y p i n g in s t uden t s . T h i s l ed to the e x i s t e n c e of cases where none or on ly a few of the Sca le S responses had been completed. These cases were de le ted as the data were be ing p l a c e d in the computer f i l e . There were approx imate ly 30-50 such cases In each of Grades 7 and 10. Cases which were incomplete were a l s o de le ted s i n c e i t was necessary to ob ta in responses f o r a l l four ques t i ons which were to be used in the s tudy . 29 DESCRIPTION OF SAMPLE The f i n a l sample f o r Grade 7 c o n s i s t e d of 709 c a s e s . S ince a l l Grade 7 s tuden ts in B r i t i s h Columbia wrote the Mathematics Assessment, and the 10% sample of Grade 7 s tuden ts which ERIBC coded on tape was randomly chosen, these s u b j e c t s cou ld be s a i d to be r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of the whole popu la t i on of Grade 7 / s in B r i t i s h Columbia . The f i n a l sample f o r Grade 10 c o n s i s t e d of 698 c a s e s . Approx imate ly 24 000 Grade 10 s tuden ts completed the Mathematics Assessment and again ERIBC coded a 10% random sample on the computer tape . The cases who had completed Sca le S were removed from the main f i l e and p l aced in a data f i l e . The sample was cons ide red r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of the t o t a l popu la t i on of Grade 10 s tuden ts . IDENTIFICATION OF VARIABLES V a r i a b l e s s e l e c t e d f o r the study were: the degree to which female and male s tuden ts s te reo type mathematics as a male domain, and the type and number of mathematics courses the s tuden ts p lanned to e n r o l l i n f o r Grades 11 and 12. Degree of s t e r e o t y p i n g was i d e n t i f i e d as a separa te v a r i a b l e f o r each of the four i tems c o n s i d e r e d . A composite score on the four i tems was c a l c u l a t e d f o r each student from the L l k e r t s c a l e . 30 S ince i t was p o s s i b l e f o r s tuden ts to choose more than one course f o r Grade 11 and f o r Grade 12, i t was necessary to cons ide r each mathematics course in which the s tudent p lanned to e n r o l l as a separa te v a r i a b l e . For the sake of b r e v i t y , the f o l l o w i n g courses w i l l be r e f e r r e d to by the b racke ted a b b r e v i a t i o n : Mathematics 10 , 141-160. "@en ; edm:hasType "Thesis/Dissertation"@en ; edm:isShownAt "10.14288/1.0096929"@en ; dcterms:language "eng"@en ; ns0:degreeDiscipline "Mathematics Education"@en ; edm:provider "Vancouver : University of British Columbia Library"@en ; dcterms:publisher "University of British Columbia"@en ; dcterms:rights "For non-commercial purposes only, such as research, private study and education. Additional conditions apply, see Terms of Use https://open.library.ubc.ca/terms_of_use."@en ; ns0:scholarLevel "Graduate"@en ; dcterms:title "Stereotyping of mathematics as a male domain : a factor in females non-participation in mathematics"@en ; dcterms:type "Text"@en ; ns0:identifierURI "http://hdl.handle.net/2429/26384"@en .