@prefix vivo: . @prefix edm: . @prefix ns0: . @prefix dcterms: . @prefix skos: . vivo:departmentOrSchool "Arts, Faculty of"@en, "English, Department of"@en ; edm:dataProvider "DSpace"@en ; ns0:degreeCampus "UBCV"@en ; dcterms:creator "Simpson, Lana"@en ; dcterms:issued "2011-05-13T23:25:00Z"@en, "1971"@en ; vivo:relatedDegree "Master of Arts - MA"@en ; ns0:degreeGrantor "University of British Columbia"@en ; dcterms:description """The English family chronicle novel is a comparatively recent phenomenon. It occurred as a reflection of the controversies of nineteenth-century natural science over evolutionary development--directly, in Samuel Butler's The Way of All Flesh, and indirectly, as English novelists felt the influence of French naturalism. Because the emergence of the family chronicle novel is so closely bound up with naturalism, nowhere can we more clearly see the reaction to naturalism worked out than in the Victorian and Edwardian family chronicles. Very often, to understand the way in which a given novel is a family chronicle--that is, how the author has used the form for his own purposes--is to define the author's stance toward naturalism. In this thesis, I examine works of five chronicle writers--Butler, Hardy, Galsworthy, Bennett, and Lawrence-- and argue that a measure of the success of the works as family chronicles is the degree to which the artists succeed in overcoming the inherent limitations of the naturalist convention, even as they used the form bequeathed by it. I suggest that D. H. Lawrence's, The Rainbow is the most interesting of these family chronicles because he has used aspects of the art of Butler and Hardy, in order to create in opposition to Bennett and Galsworthy. He works with the underlying concerns of naturalism in order to transform them into a passionate denial of the determinist attitude implicit in naturalism."""@en ; edm:aggregatedCHO "https://circle.library.ubc.ca/rest/handle/2429/34580?expand=metadata"@en ; skos:note "BUTLER, HARDY, GALSWORTHY, BENNETT AND D. H. LAWRENCE AS WRITERS OF THE FAMILY CHRONICLE NOVEL: A STUDY OF TWO GENERATIONS OF POSSIBILITIES OF THE FORM LANA SLMPSON A Thesis Submitted i n P a r t i a l Fulfilment of The Requirements f o r the Degree of Master of Arts i n the Department of English We accept t h i s thesis as conforming to the required standard THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA September, 1 9 7 1 In presenting th i s thes is in pa r t i a l fu l f i lment o f the requirements for an advanced degree at the Un ivers i ty of B r i t i s h Columbia, I agree that the L ibrary sha l l make i t f r ee l y ava i l ab le for reference and study. I fur ther agree that permission for extensive copying of th i s thes i s for scho lar ly purposes may be granted by the Head of my Department or by his representat ives. It i s understood that copying or pub l i ca t ion of th i s thes i s fo r f i nanc ia l gain sha l l not be allowed without my wr i t ten permission. Department of The Univers i ty of B r i t i s h Columbia Vancouver 8, Canada Date ABSTRACT The E n g l i s h f a m i l y c h r o n i c l e n o v e l i s a c o m p a r a t i v e l y r e c e n t phenomenon. I t o c c u r r e d as a r e f l e c t i o n o f the c o n t r o v e r s i e s o f n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y n a t u r a l s c i e n c e over e v o l u t i o n a r y d e v e l o p m e n t — d i r e c t l y , i n Samuel B u t l e r ' s The Way o f A l l F l e s h , and i n d i r e c t l y , as E n g l i s h n o v e l i s t s f e l t the i n f l u e n c e o f French n a t u r a l i s m . Because the emergence of the f a m i l y c h r o n i c l e novel i s so c l o s e l y bound up w i t h n a t u r a l i s m , nowhere can we more c l e a r l y see the r e a c t i o n to n a t u r a l i s m worked out than i n the V i c t o r i a n and Edwardian f a m i l y c h r o n i c l e s . Very o f t e n , to understand the way i n which a g i v e n n o v e l i s a f a m i l y c h r o n i c l e — t h a t i s , how the author has used the form f o r h i s own p u r p o s e s — i s to d e f i n e the author's stance toward n a t u r a l i s m . In t h i s t h e s i s , I examine works o f f i v e c h r o n i c l e w r i t e r s — B u t l e r , Hardy, Galsworthy, Bennett, and L a w r e n c e — and argue t h a t a measure o f the success o f the works as f a m i l y c h r o n i c l e s i s the degree to which the a r t i s t s succeed i n overcoming the i n h e r e n t l i m i t a t i o n s o f the n a t u r a l i s t convention, even as they used the form bequeathed by i t . I suggest t h a t D. H. Lawrence*', s The Rainbow i s the most i n t e r e s t i n g o f these f a m i l y c h r o n i c l e s because he has used as p e c t s o f the a r t o f B u t l e r and Hardy, i n order to c r e a t e i n o p p o s i t i o n to Bennett and Galsworthy. He works w i t h the underlying concerns of naturalism i n order to transform them into a passionate denial of the determinist attitude i m p l i c i t i n naturalism. i v TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter I . . . . 1 Chapter I I . . . . Id Chapter I I I . . . . 33 Chapter IV . . . . 63 Chapter V . . . . SO Chapter VI . . . . 122 Chapter VII . . . . 144 H i s t o r i c a l Footnote . . . . 177 Bibliography . . . . l&O CHAPTER I The f a m i l y c h r o n i c l e i s a way o f r e c o u n t i n g experience t h a t i s probably as o l d as men's d e s i r e to understand t h e i r own l i v e s i n r e l a t i o n to the immediate p a s t . Aeschylus and Sophocles fas h i o n e d t r a g e d i e s w i t h i n the terms o f the h i s t o r i e s o f f a m i l i e s ; the w r i t e r s o f the Old Testament recounted t h e i r h i s t o r y as a s e r i e s o f f a m i l y c h r o n i c l e s ; Shakespeare not o n l y gave an account o f h i s t o r i c a l events i n h i s c h r o n i c l e p l a y s , but made the form serve as a com-p l e x r e a l i z a t i o n o f such a b s t r a c t i o n s as the n o t i o n o f k i n g s h i p . The u s e f u l n e s s o f the f a m i l y c h r o n i c l e s t r u c t u r e to the n o v e l i s t who wants to g i v e i m a g i n a t i v e o r d e r i n g to s o c i a l h i s t o r y i s obvious. I t allows f o r a p a t t e r n i n g o f events so as to e x p l a i n the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f succeeding genera-t i o n s i n terms o f the f i r s t ; the success o r f a i l u r e o f the c h a r a c t e r s at s o c i a l and i n d i v i d u a l f u l f i l l m e n t may be e i t h e r e x p l i c i t l y measured or i m p l i c i t l y r e v e a l e d through the j u x t a -p o s i t i o n o f g e n e r a t i o n s . The author's emphasis, of course, may f a l l i n any one o f s e v e r a l d i r e c t i o n s . He may s t r e s s the way the s o c i a l f o r t u n e s o f a f a m i l y r i s e or d e c l i n e , or the progress toward a pe r s o n a l f u l f i l l m e n t which i s l e s s contingent upon s o c i a l f o r c e s than upon i n h e r i t e d p e r s o n a l 2 -c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . At i t s best, the f a m i l y c h r o n i c l e allows f o r a complex p o r t r a y a l o f t h a t p e r e n n i a l concern o f the r e a l i s t n o v e l , the i n t e r a c t i o n of i n d i v i d u a l f u l f i l l m e n t and g e n e r a l s o c i a l c o n d i t i o n s . N e v e r t h e l e s s , the E n g l i s h f a m i l y c h r o n i c l e n o v e l i s a comparatively r e c e n t phenomenon. I t occurred as a r e f l e c -t i o n o f the c o n t r o v e r s i e s o f n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y n a t u r a l s c i e n c e over e v o l u t i o n a r y d e v e l o p m e n t — d i r e c t l y , i n Samuel B u t l e r ' s The Way o f A l l F l e s h , and i n d i r e c t l y , as E n g l i s h n o v e l i s t s f e l t the i n f l u e n c e o f French n a t u r a l i s m . N a t u r a l i s m — \" r e a l i s m with s c i e n t i f i c p r e t e n s i o n s , \" as i t has been d e f i n e d — w a s the l i t e r a r y movement which most thoroughly expressed the p r e v a i l i n g confidence i n the methods and use-f u l n e s s o f contemporary s c i e n c e . By and l a r g e , n a t u r a l i s m remained an a l i e n i n f l u e n c e i n E n g l i s h l i t e r a t u r e ; i t never became indigenous, even though i t s i n f l u e n c e upon E n g l i s h w r i t e r s — w h o , a f t e r a l l , had to come to terms with the same i s s u e s t h a t provoked n a t u r a l i s m i n F r a n c e — w a s enormous. We have few thoroughly n a t u r a l i s t n o v e l s i n E n g l i s h , and those t h a t we do h a v e — f o r example, George Moore's The Mummer's W i f e — a r e c a r e f u l l y and c o n s c i o u s l y c r e a t e d a f t e r French models. N a t u r a l i s m remained a s t r a i n i n E n g l i s h r e a l i s m which was e i t h e r an emulation ( p e r f e c t l y s u c c e s s f u l , i n A r n o l d Bennett's Ricevman Steps) o f the a r t i s t i c successes o f French n a t u r a l i s m , or e q u a l l y d e l i b e r a t e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n , m o d i f i c a t i o n , o r r e a c t i o n to the French sources. P r e c i s e l y because the emergence o f the f a m i l y c h r o n i c l e n o v el i s so c l o s e l y bound up w i t h n a t u r a l i s m , nowhere can we more c l e a r l y see the r e a c t i o n to n a t u r a l i s m worked out than i n the V i c t o r i a n and Edwardian f a m i l y c h r o n i c l e s . Very o f t e n , to understand the way i n which a g i v e n novel i s a f a m i l y c h r o n i c l e — t h a t i s , how the author has used the form f o r h i s own p u r p o s e s — i s to d e f i n e the author's stance toward n a t u r a l i s m . In t h i s t h e s i s , I s h a l l examine works o f f i v e c h r o n i c l e w r i t e r s — B u t l e r , Hardy,' Galsworthy, Bennett, and D. H. Lawrence—and argue that a measure o f the success o f the works as f a m i l y c h r o n i c l e s i s the degree to which the a r t i s t s succeed i n overcoming the inherent l i m i t a t i o n s o f the n a t u r a l i s t convention, even as they use the form bequeathed by i t . To i t s c h i e f t h e o r e t i c i a n , n a t u r a l i s m was as undebatable as a n a t u r a l f o r c e — i n d e e d , was the l i t e r a r y product o f e v o l u t i o n . In Le roman e x p e r i m e n t a l T Z o l a c o n f i d e n t l y a s s e r t e d : ...the experimental n o v e l i s a consequence o f the s c i e n t i f i c e v o l u t i o n of the century; i t c o n t i n u e s and completes p h y s i o l o g y , which i t s e l f l eans f o r support on chemistry and medicine; i t s u b s t i t u t e s f o r the study o f the a b s t r a c t and metaphysical man the study of the n a t u r a l man, governed by p h y s i c a l and chemical laws, and m o d i f i e d - 4 -by the i n f l u e n c e s o f h i s surroundings; i t i s i n one word the l i t e r a t u r e o f our s c i e n t i f i c age, as the c l a s s i c a l and romantic l i t e r a t u r e corresponded to a s c h o l a s t i c and t h e o l o g i c a l age.-^ T h i s manifesto o f French n a t u r a l i s m expresses a confidence not o n l y i n the g e n e r a l d i r e c t i o n o f contemporary s c i e n c e , but i n i t s d i r e c t b e n e f i t s to mankind, which i s unusual i n i t s optimism even f o r i t s time: We s h a l l e nter upon a c e n t u r y i n which man, grown more powerful, w i l l make use o f nature and w i l l u t i l i z e i t s laws to produce upon the e a r t h the g r e a t e s t p o s s i b l e amount o f j u s t i c e and freedom. There i s no n o b l e r , h i g h e r , nor grander end. Here i s our r o l e as i n t e l l i g e n t beings: to penetrate to the wherefore o f t h i n g s , to become s u p e r i o r t o these t h i n g s , and to reduce them to a c o n d i t i o n o f s u b s e r v i e n t machinery. W e l l , t h i s dream o f the p h y s i o l o g i s t and the experimental d o c t o r i s a l s o t h a t o f the n o v e l i s t , who employs the e x p e r i -mental method i n h i s study o f man as a simple i n d i v i d u a l and as a s o c i a l animal. T h e i r o b j e c t i s ours; we a l s o d e s i r e to master c e r t a i n phenomena o f an i n t e l l e c -t u a l and p e r s o n a l o r d e r , to be abl e to d i r e c t them. We are, i n a word, e x p e r i -mental m o r a l i s t s , showing by experiment i n what way a pa s s i o n a c t s i n a c e r t a i n s o c i a l c o n d i t i o n . The day i n which we g a i n c o n t r o l o f the mechanism o f t h i s p a s s i o n we can t r e a t i t and reduce i t , or at l e a s t make i t as i n o f f e n s i v e as p o s s i b l e . And i n t h i s c o n s i s t s the p r a c t i c a l u t i l i t y and high m o r a l i t y o f our n a t u r a l i s t i c works, which experiment on man, and which d i s s e c t p i e c e by p i e c e t h i s human machinery i n order t o set i t going through the i n f l u e n c e o f the en-vironment. When t h i n g s had advanced 5 -f u r t h e r , when we are i n p o s s e s s i o n of the d i f f e r e n t laws, i t w i l l o n l y be necessary to work upon the i n d i v i d u a l s and surroundings i f we wish to f i n d the best s o c i a l c o n d i t i o n . In t h i s way we s h a l l c o n s t r u c t a p r a c t i c a l s o c i o l o g y , and our work w i l l be a h e l p to p o l i t i c a l and economical s c i e n c e s . I do not know, I repeat, o f a more noble work, nor of a grander a p p l i c a t i o n . To be the master o f good and e v i l , to r e g u l a t e l i f e , to r e g u l a t e s o c i e t y , to s o l v e i n time a l l the problems o f s o c i a l i s m , above a l l , to g i v e j u s t i c e a s o l i d f o u n d a t i o n by s o l v i n g through experiment the q u e s t i o n s o f c r i m i n a l i t y — i s not t h i s being the most u s e f u l and the most moral workers i n the human workshop?2 Z o l a ' s view o f the s o c i a l f u n c t i o n o f the n o v e l i s t the n a t u r a l i s t n o v e l i s t , t h a t i s — m a y seem somewhat gr a n d i o s e . N e v e r t h e l e s s , i t i s not without precedent i n i t s b e l i e f i n the enormous s o c i a l importance o f the work o f a c o n s c i e n t i o u s r e a l i s t n o v e l i s t ; i t b u i l d s upon B a l z a c ' s P r e f a c e to La comedie humaine: Thus Walter S c o t t r a i s e d to the d i g n i t y o f the p h i l o s o p h y o f H i s t o r y the l i t e r a -t u r e which, from age to age, s e t s peren-n i a l gems i n the p o e t i c crown o f every n a t i o n where l e t t e r s are c u l t i v a t e d . He v i v i f i e d i t w i t h the s p i r i t o f the past; he combined drama, d i a l o g u e , p o r t r a i t , scenery, and d e s c r i p t i o n ; he fused the marvellous w i t h t r u t h — t h e two elements o f the times; and he brought p o e t r y i n t o c l o s e contact with the f a m i l i a r i t y o f the humblest speech. But as he had not so much dev i s e d a system as h i t upon a manner i n the ardour o f h i s work, o r as i t s l o g i c a l outcome, he never thought o f connecting h i s compositions i n such a way as to form a complete h i s t o r y o f - 6 -o f which each chapter was a n o v e l , and each n o v e l the p i c t u r e o f a p e r i o d . I t was by d i s c e r n i n g t h i s l a c k of u n i t y , which i n no way d e t r a c t s from the S c o t t i s h w r i t e r ' s g r e a t n e s s , t h a t I p e r c e i v e d at once the scheme and the p o s s i b i l i t y o f e x e c u t i n g i t . Though d a z z l e d , so to speak, by Walter S c o t t ' s amazing f e r t i l i t y , always h i m s e l f and always o r i g i n a l , I d i d not d e s p a i r , f o r I found the source o f h i s genius i n the i n f i n i t e v a r i e t y o f human na t u r e . Chance i s the g r e a t e s t romancer i n the world; we have on l y to study i t . French s o c i e t y would be the r e a l author; I should o n l y be the s e c r e t a r y . By drawing up an i n v e n t o r y . o f v i c e s and v i r t u e s , by c o l l e c t i n g the c h i e f f a c t s of the p a s s i o n s , by d e p c i t i n g c h a r a c t e r s , by choosing the p r i n c i p a l i n c i d e n t s o f s o c i a l l i f e , by composing types out o f a combination o f homogeneous c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , I might perhaps succeed i n w r i t i n g the h i s t o r y which so many h i s t o r i a n s have n e g l e c t e d : t h a t o f Manners.2 In h i s e s t i m a t i o n of the s o c i a l importance o f the n o v e l i s t , we see t h a t Z o l a needed o n l y to s u b s t i t u t e \" n a t u r a l law\" where Balzac s t i l l has the i d e a l s of t r u t h and beauty: The work, so f a r , was n o t h i n g . By adhering to the s t r i c t l i n e s o f a r e p r o -d u c t i o n a w r i t e r might be a more o r l e s s f a i t h f u l , and more o r l e s s s u c c e s s f u l p a i n t e r o f t y p e s o f humanity, a n a r r a t o r o f the dramas o f p r i v a t e l i f e , an a r c h a e o l o g i s t o f s o c i a l f u r n i t u r e , a c a t a l o g u e r o f p r o f e s s i o n s , a r e g i s t r a r o f good and e v i l ; but to deserve the p r a i s e of which every a r t i s t must be ambitious, must I not a l s o i n v e s t i g a t e the reasons or cause o f these s o c i a l e f f e c t s , d e t e c t the hidden sense of t h i s v a s t assembly o f f i g u r e s , p a s s i o n s , and i n c i d e n t s ? And f i n a l l y , having s o u g h t — 7 -I w i l l not say having f o u n d — t h i s reason, t h i s motive power, must I not r e f l e c t on f i r s t p r i n c i p l e s , and d i s c o v e r i n what p a r t i c u l a r s s o c i e t i e s approach o r d e v i a t e from the e t e r n a l law o f t r u t h and beauty? In s p i t e o f the wide scope o f the pre-l i m i n a r i e s , which might o f themselves c o n s t i t u t e a book, the work, to be com-p l e t e , would need a c o n c l u s i o n . Thus d e p i c t e d , s o c i e t y ought to bear i n i t s e l f the reason o f i t s working. The law o f the w r i t e r , i n v i r t u e o f which he i s a w r i t e r , and which I do not h e s i t a t e to say makes him the equal, o r perhaps the s u p e r i o r , o f the statesman, i s h i s judgment, whatever i t may be, on human a f f a i r s , and h i s a b s o l u t e d e v o t i o n to c e r t a i n p r i n c i p l e s . M a c h i a v e l l i , Hobbes, Bossuet, L e i b n i t z , Kant, Montes-quieu are the s c i e n c e which statesmen apply.4 Thus, Z o l a borrowed from Balz a c and adapted h i s view o f the f u n c t i o n o f the n o v e l i s t as w e l l as h i s p l a n t o w r i t e a c y c l e o f nove l s so as to i l l u s t r a t e the f o r c e s o f e n v i r o n -ment as the determining f a c t o r s i n men's l i v e s . Z o l a , how-ever, added another d e t e r m i n a n t — t h a t which causes us to d i s t i n g u i s h between h i s s o r t of r e a l i s m ( t h a t i s , n a t u r a l i s m ) and B a l z a c ' s r e a l i s m . From h i s own ex c u r s i o n s i n t o s c i e n t i f i c l i t e r a t u r e , he added the n o t i o n o f h e r e d i t y as a determining f a c t o r o f equal importance to the f o r c e s o f environment. The c h i e f s c i e n t i f i c components o f Z o l a ' s t h e o r e t i c a l brew were Claude Bernard's I n t r o d u c t i o n k 1'etude de l a medecine experimentale« upon which Le roman experimental i s modelled so c l o s e l y t h a t \"one medical reader has termed i t a parody,\"5 and Prosper Lucas' T r a i t e p h i l o s o p h i q u e de l ' h e r e d i t e n a t u r e l l e • The r e s u l t was the pl a n f o r a vast n o v e l - c y c l e , Les Rougon-Macquart: 1 ' h i s t o i r e n a t u r e l l e et s o c i a l e d'une f a m i l i e sous l e Second Empire. I t i s the c h r o n i c l e o f the two f a m i l i e s stemming from a common pro-g e n e t r i x , A d e l a i d e Foucque, through her b r i e f marriage t o the gardener Rougon, and her l i a s o n w i t h the smuggler Macquart. The g e n e t i c a l l y determining f o r c e s are i n h e r i t e d a l c o h o l i s m and c r i m i n a l i t y — o n l y very d u b i o u s l y \" s c i e n t i f i c \" even i n Z o l a ' s day. In the major nov e l s o f the c y c l e , they tend ( m e r c i f u l l y ) t o fade i n t o the background. How much Z o l a broadened what Angus Wilson c a l l s the \" p e c u l i a r l y s i l l y \" f o r m u l a t i o n o f h i s f a m i l y c h r o n i c l e m a c h i n e r y — o r r a t h e r , how much he enhanced i t — i s e vident i n Nana. I t i s not Z o l a the author, but the j o u r n a l i s t i n the n o v e l who i s concerned w i t h the s p e c i f i c s o f g e n e t i c s i n an a r t i c l e read by the a r i s t o c r a t whom Nana, the A s t a r t e o f the Empire, w i l l debase: Muffat was r e a d i n g s l o w l y Fauchery's a r t i c l e , e n t i t l e d \"The Golden F l y , \" d e s c r i b i n g the l i f e o f a h a r l o t , des-cended from f o u r or f i v e g e n e r a t i o n s o f drunkards, and t a i n t e d i n her blood by a cumulative i n h e r i t a n c e o f misery and d r i n k , which i n her case has taken the form o f a nervous exaggeration o f the sexual instinct.£ Nana (who has e a r l i e r appeared as the u n a t t r a c t i v e c h i l d o f the la u n d r e s s , G e r v a i s e , i n L'Assommoir) i s i n t e r e s t -i n g not as the i n h e r i t r i x o f a given number o f t r a i t s , but r a t h e r as the symbolic scourge o f the gener a t i o n s o f misery and d e g r a d a t i o n from which she stems. The power o f the symbolic v a l u e w i t h which Z o l a endows her i n c r e a s e s toward the end o f the n o v e l . She l i e s d y ing o f smallpox as the crowds, whose d a r l i n g she once was, shout \"A Berlin'. A Be r l i n ' . \" on the day o f d e c l a r a t i o n o f the war which was to end, not i n the capture o f the enemy c a p i t a l , but i n n a t i o n a l h u m i l i a t i o n and s o c i a l chaos. That war and the ensuing consequences are the subject o f La Debacle: In L'•Assommoir we have to do with i n d i v i d u a l s ; i n Nana with s o c i e t y ; i n La Debacle, w i t h an e n t i r e n a t i o n . In L'Assommoir there are e x h i b i t e d t o us the v i c i o u s i n f l u e n c e s which beset the p r o l e t a r i a t , the leaven o f e v i l and uncleanness working amidst the haunts and hovels o f the degraded poor. In Nana the poi s o n spreads and eats i t s way l i k e a cancer i n t o the homes of those, who l i v e i n the great w o r l d . In La Debacle we see a c h i v a l r o u s and g a l l a n t n a t i o n smitten to the e a r t h because o f the r o t t e n n e s s t h a t has eaten out i t s manhood and destroyed i t s strength.7 T h i s widening p e r s p e c t i v e e n t i r e l y subsumes a l i t e r a l -minded concern with h e r e d i t y , which becomes transformed i n t o something more potent, i f l e s s a n a l y s a b l e — a n almost mythic account o f the past e v i l s o f s o c i e t y as they r e t u r n i n the - 10 present, the h e r i t a g e o f the members o f modern s o c i e t y . Thus, from a not p a r t i c u l a r l y promising i n i t i a l p l a n , Z o l a went on to develop the c h r o n i c l e s t r u c t u r e o f the nov e l s so as to render not j u s t the h i s t o r y o f a f a m i l y , but the experience o f a modern s o c i e t y : The complicated scheme o f p h y s i c a l and mental i n h e r i t a n c e , which Z o l a set f o r t h i n the g e n e a l o g i c a l t r e e s he i s s u e d from time to time, became o f l e s s and l e s s s i g n i f i c a n c e as the work proceeded. N e v e r t h e l e s s the f a m i l y c h r o n i c l e framework had great use i n g i v i n g form and shape to the vast on-rush o f i d e a s with which Z o l a was f i r s t a s s a i l e d . Without i t s seeming l i m i t a -t i o n , he might never have dared to face h i s t a s k . Apart from i t s s u b j e c t i v e v a l u e , too, i t must be admitted that the v i s i o n o f a wandering brood, sprung from a t a i n t e d stem, burrowing and f i g h t i n g i t s way through the shaking s t r u c t u r e o f the g l i t t e r i n g Empire has a v i o l e n t and dramatic q u a l i t y which again and again r e t u r n s to s t r i k e the reader, when, absorbed i n the course o f some independent n a r r a t i v e , he would t h i n k h i m s e l f most remote from the f a m i l y drama.g In o t h e r words, Z o l a remains an i n t e r e s t i n g n o v e l i s t (as d i s t i n c t from j o u r n a l i s t or s o c i o l o g i s t ) i n h i s study of the \" r e c i p r o c a l e f f e c t of s o c i e t y on the i n d i v i d u a l and the i n d i v i d u a l on s o c i e t y . \" 9 And i n some i n s t a n c e s , he was a good n o v e l i s t on account o f h i s theory and not i n s p i t e o f i t . The s t a r k n e s s o f the \" e x p e r i m e n t a l \" method can have the h a p p i e s t r e s u l t s , as i n the formal symmetry o f the - 11 -b e a u t i f u l l y designed L'Assommoir (a p o s s i b i l i t y o f Z o l a ' s a r t , i n c i d e n t a l l y , which George Moore s u c c e s s f u l l y emulated when he so b e a u t i f u l l y rounded the p l o t o f E s t h e r Waters back upon i t s e l f , to end where the no v e l began). F u r t h e r , Z o l a s u c c e s s f u l l y r e s o l v e d o t h e r t e c h n i c a l problems of n o v e l - w r i t i n g . He had not \" i n v e n t e d \" h i s s u b j e c t m a t e r i a l . The b r o t h e r s Goncourt (whose Germinie Lacerteux i s o f t e n used to date the begin n i n g o f n a t u r a l i s m i n France) had, even without r e c o u r s e to c u r r e n t s c i e n t i f i c t h e o r i e s , decided t h a t the e a r l i e r conventions o f n o v e l - w r i t i n g had excluded too much o f modern experience: L i v i n g as we do i n the ni n e t e e n t h cen-t u r y , i n an age of u n i v e r s a l s u f f r a g e , o f democracy, o f l i b e r a l i s m , we asked o u r s e l v e s the q u e s t i o n whether what are c a l l e d \"the lower c l a s s e s \" had no r i g h t s i n the nove l ; i f that world beneath a world, the common people, must needs remain s u b j e c t to the l i t -e r a r y i n t e r d i c t , and h e l p l e s s a g a i n s t the contempt o f authors who have h i t h e r t o s a i d no word t o imply t h a t the common people possess a he a r t and s o u l . We asked o u r s e l v e s whether, i n these days o f e q u a l i t y i n which we l i v e , t h e r e are c l a s s e s unworth the n o t i c e o f the author and the reader, m i s f o r t u n e s too lowly, dramas too foul-mouthed, c a t a s t r o p h e s too commonplace i n the t e r r o r they i n s p i r e . We were c u r i o u s to know i f t h a t c o n v e n t i o n a l symbol o f a f o r g o t t e n l i t e r a t u r e , o f a vanished s o c i e t y , Tragedy, i s d e f i n i t e l y dead; i f , , i n a coun t r y where c a s t e s no longer e x i s t and a r i s t o c r a c y has no l e g a l 12 s t a t u s , t h e m i s e r i e s o f t h e l o w l y and poor would a p p e a l t o * p u b l i c i n t e r e s t , emotion, compassion, as f o r c i b l y as t h e m i s e r i e s o f t h e g r e a t and the r i c h ; i f , i n a word, t h e t e a r s t h a t a r e shed i n low l i f e have t h e same power t o cause t e a r s t o f l o w as t h e t e a r s shed i n h i g h l i f e . 1 0 But Z o l a d i d d e v e l o p t e c h n i q u e s o f d e a l i n g s u c c e s s f u l l y w i t h t h e i n a r t i c u l a t e c h a r a c t e r s which such an e x p a n s i o n o f t h e s u b j e c t m a t t e r o f t h e n o v e l i n v o l v e s . F i r s t , he makes use o f a s l i g h t l y more a r t i c u l a t e p r o -t a g o n i s t who i s h i m s e l f an a l i e n o b s e r v e r ( t h e r e b y , a t t h e l e a s t , g i v i n g t h e a u t h o r a f o r m a l r e a s o n f o r i n t e r p r e t i n g e v e n t s ) — f o r example, Jean i n L a T e r r e o r E t i e n n e i n G e r m i n a l . Second, he manages peopl e i n the mass e x t r a o r -d i n a r i l y w e l l . What he f o r s a k e s i n i n d i v i d u a l i t y by d e a l i n g w i t h p e o p l e i n a r a t h e r g e n e r a l i z e d way, he r e g a i n s by the t e n d e n c y o f h i s n o v e l s toward the e p i c . The e p i c q u a l i t y , i t i s t r u e , i s most apparent i n t h e sheer s i z e o f h i s e n t e r -p r i s e : \"The g r a n d i o s e s u g g e s t s t h e e p i c and i s a k i n t o t h e mythical.\"\"*\"''\" But i n d i v i d u a l n o v e l s a r e a l s o e p i c i n t h e v e r y b r e a d t h o f t h e a u t h o r ' s s o c i a l c o n s c i o u s n e s s , i n the s e r i o u s n e s s o f h i s w i s h t o i n t e r p r e t modern e x p e r i e n c e i n o r d e r t h a t i t might be r e - o r d e r e d s u c c e s s f u l l y , i n h i s c o n f i d e n c e t h a t he i s a l i g n e d w i t h the s c i e n t i f i c p r o g r e s s o f h i s t i m e . When Z o l a ' s E n g l i s h d i s c i p l e , George Moore, s e l f -- 13 -c o n s c i o u s l y ushered n a t u r a l i s m i n t o E n g l i s h l i t e r a t u r e w i t h the p u b l i c a t i o n o f The Mummer's Wife, he n e i t h e r f e l t i t necessary t o c a r r y over the n a t u r a l i s t p r e - o c c u p a t i o n w i t h b i o l o g i c a l determinism nor the s o c i a l e p i c s c a l e o f Les Rougon-Macquart. F o r Moore, n a t u r a l i s m i t s e l f was a l i t e r -a r y t e c h n i q u e — a matter o f tone, and subject matter, and a e s t h e t i c d i s t a n c i n g . I t was not a s e r i o u s way o f coming t o terms w i t h r e a l i t y . When he wanted to work beyond i t s l i m i t s , he d i d not take p a i n s to t r a n s f o r m i t s l i m i t a t i o n s (which, indeed, he s c a r c e l y seemed to f e e l ) , but simply d i s c a r d e d the technique. But f o r a l l the f o l l o w i n g w r i t e r s except G a l s -worthy, the determinism o f which n a t u r a l i s m was the l i t e r a r y e x p r e s s i o n was a s e r i o u s i s s u e . Even as they used the t e c h -niques which Z o l a and oth e r French n a t u r a l i s t s had p e r f e c t e d , and the f a m i l y c h r o n i c l e forms which was the n a t u r a l e x p r e s s i o n o f the pr e o c c u p a t i o n with h e r e d i t a r y determinism, they worked out t h e i r r e s e r v a t i o n s about the n a t u r a l i s t s ' fundamental assumption: With l i v i n g beings as w e l l as inanimate ones, the c o n d i t i o n s o f the e x i s t e n c e o f each phe-nomenon are determined i n an ab s o l u t e manner. Samuel B u t l e r , o f course, r e a c t e d not to n a t u r a l i s m as a l i t e r a r y convention, but d i r e c t l y a g a i n s t the l i m i t i n g n o t i o n o f b i o l o g i c a l determinism which underlay i t . The Way o f A l l F l e s h i s an important n o v e l not j u s t because i t - 14 -i s the f i r s t f a m i l y c h r o n i c l e novel i n E n g l i s h — a n d of a l l those which I s h a l l d i s c u s s the one most thoroughly concerned w i t h the h e r e d i t y theme concomitant to the form—but a l s o because i t p o i n t s the way around the confines of n a t u r a l i s t determinism. Both Tess of the d ' U r b e r v i l l e s and Jude the Obscure con-t a i n the marks o f the controversy over b i o l o g i c a l determinism. Moreover, i n i t s p o r t r a i t of the pressures of modern urban l i f e , Jude the Obscure shows the i n f l u e n c e of n a t u r a l i s m . But Hardy s e i z e s upon the mechanics of b i o l o g i c a l determinism f o r h i s own purposes, which are qu i t e other than the sc o r i n g o f po i n t s i n the debate over n a t u r a l science. He uses the whole question of b i o l o g i c a l determinism i n a metaphoric way, sub-suming i t i n t o a Schopenhauerian p a t t e r n of metaphysical evo-l u t i o n , i n order to create a myth of modern experience. Determinism i n these two novels i s the modern guise o f t r a g i c f a t a l i s m . Among the Edwardian w r i t e r s of f a m i l y c h r o n i c l e s , John Galsworthy i s l e a s t concerned w i t h n a t u r a l i s m . I w i l l argue that The Forsyte Saga i s a f a i l u r e i n part because Galsworthy c o n s i s t e n t l y begs the questions about modern l i f e t hat n a t u r a l i s m poses, j u s t as he f a i l s to make meaningful use o f the h e r e d i t y theme which i s i m p l i c i t i n h i s m a t e r i a l . Where Galsworthy i s f u r t h e s t removed from the - 15 -n a t u r a l i s t s , A r n o l d Bennett i s c l o s e s t to them i n d e c l a r e d a l l e g i a n c e and s t y l e . But by the v e r y t a c t w i t h which he handles the q u e s t i o n s o f h e r e d i t y and environment, by u n i f y i n g them i n t o a s i n g l e c o n c e r n — t h e study o f a g i v e n environment at the p o i n t of e v o l v i n g away from i t s n a t i v e s t r e n g t h s — w e are discouraged from t h i n k i n g i n the n a t u r a l i s t terms o f environmental and h e r e d i t a r y determinism. What i n a n a t u r a l i s t n o v e l i s determined, seems ( l e s s por-t e n t o u s l y ) i n e v i t a b l e i n the Bennett f a m i l y c h r o n i c l e s . Of these authors, D. H. Lawrence r e a c t s most p r o f o u n d l y a g a i n s t any n o t i o n o f determinism such as i s i m p l i c i t i n n a t u r a l i s m . In the Lawrence c h r o n i c l e s , The L o s t & i r l and The Rainbow, we f i n d the most thorough working out o f an a n t i - n a t u r a l i s t stance which a l s o r e j e c t s the a n g l i c i z e d n a t u r a l i s m o f Arnold Bennett. But Lawrence, as a s e r i o u s i n n o v a t i n g a r t i s t u s i ng the f a m i l y c h r o n i c l e form i n o r i g i n a l ways, a l s o h e l d Galsworthy i n contempt. I t i s not too much to say t h a t Lawrence l e a r n e d from B u t l e r and Hardy ways to c r e a t e i n o p p o s i t i o n to such w r i t e r s as Bennett and Galsworthy. A l l o f these authors (however p r o b l e m a t i c a l l y i n the case o f B u t l e r , however h a m f i s t e d l y i n the case o f Galsworthy) have a common p u r p o s e — t o show E n g l i s h s o c i e t y i n the process o f e v o l v i n g away from a l o c a l i z e d , l a r g e l y - 16 -a g r a r i a n past i n t o the c e n t r a l i z e d urban c u l t u r e o f i n d u s t r i a l i s m . The e v o l u t i o n i n t o modernity i s what these c h r o n i c l e s of i n d i v i d u a l f a m i l i e s r e p r e s e n t . Hardy and Lawrence i n c o r p o r a t e i n t o t h e i r works a f e l t response to the human consequences o f that e v o l u t i o n , i n the r e l a t i o n -s h i p s between men and women. I t i s perhaps f o r t h a t r e a s o n — t h a t they have the most i n t r i c a t e concern f o r the r e l a -t i o n s h i p between i n d i v i d u a l l i v e s and g e n e r a l s o c i a l c h a n g e — th a t the Hardy and Lawrence c h r o n i c l e s seem the most important t o us. And i t i s p r e c i s e l y because Lawrence so p e r f e c t l y adapts the c h r o n i c l e form to h i s a r t i s t i c pur-poses, makes i t seem u n i q u e l y h i s own as he renders a complex and i n t e r e s t i n g account o f the e v o l u t i o n o f a f a m i l y i n t o modernity, t h a t The Rainbow i s o f a l l these f a m i l y c h r o n i c l e n o v e l s i n E n g l i s h at once the most f u l l y a chieved work o f a r t and the most i n t e r e s t i n g as a f a m i l y c h r o n i c l e . - 17 -Footnotes - Chapter I x Emile Z o l a , \"The Novel as S o c i a l Science,\" The Modern T r a d i t i o n : Backgrounds of Modern Lit e r a t u r e , , ed. Richard Ellmann and Charles F e i d e l s o n , J r . ( N e w York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1965), p. 279. 2 I b i d . , pp. 279-SO. Honore de Balzac, \" S o c i e t y as H i s t o r i c a l Organism,\" Modern T r a d i t i o n , p. 24&\\ ^ I b i d . , pp. 24^-9. Harry L e v i n , The Gates of Horn: A Study of F i v e French R e a l i s t s (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 19^6), p. 307. 6 ' i Emile Z o l a , Nana, t r a n s . John C. Lapp (New York: Harper, 1957), p. 234. 7 ' ' Emile Z o l a , La T e r r e T t r a n s . Ernest Dowson, I n t r o . Harry Thurston PecklNew York: L i v e r i g h t , 1924 [l&95\"]), I n t r o d u c t i o n , v i . A ' Angus Wilson, Emile Z o l a : An I n t r o d u c t o r y Study of H i s Novels (London: Seeker and Warburg, 1952), p. 93. ^ Z o l a , \"Novel as S o c i a l Science,\" Modern T r a d i t i o n . p. 27S. Edmond and J u l e s de Goncourt, \" C l i n i c a l Realism,\" Modern T r a d i t i o n , p. 270. 1 1 E l l i o t M. Grant, Zola* s\"Germinal\": A C r i t i c a l and H i s t o r i c a l Study ( L e i c e s t e r Univ. Press, 1962), p. 23. 12 Z o l a , \"Novel as S o c i a l Science,\" Modern T r a d i t i o n , p. 276. Zola i s quoting Bernard. IS -CHAPTER I I In h i s study o f Z o l a , L e v i n comments t h a t : . . . i t was not u n t i l 18*59, with the argument over Darwin's O r i g i n s o f Sp e c i e s . t h a t i t became c o n c e i v a b l e to view man as wholly a product of n a t u r a l h i s t o r y . i Maurice, i n La Debacle, j u s t i f i e s war as a forum f o r the \" s u r v i v a l o f the f i t t e s t . \" But the humanly abhorrent aspect o f Darwinian t h e o r y had a l r e a d y been p o i n t e d out by the a n a r c h i s t Souvarine t o E t i e n n e , i n Germinal: E t i e n n e was now s t u d y i n g Darwin. He had read fragments, summarised and p o p u l a r i s e d i n a f i v e - s o u volume; and out o f t h i s i l l - u n d e r s t o o d r e a d i n g he had gained f o r h i m s e l f a r e v o l u t i o n a r y i d e a o f the s t r u g g l e f o r e x i s t e n c e , the le a n e a t i n g the f a t , the strong people devouring the p a l l i d middle c l a s s . But Souvarine f u r i o u s l y a t t a c k e d the s t u p i d i t y o f the S o c i a l i s t s who accept Darwin, t h a t a p o s t l e o f s c i e n t i f i c i n e q u a l i t y , whose famous s e l e c t i o n was o n l y good f o r a r i s -t o c r a t i c p h i l o s o p h e r s . H i s mate per-s i s t e d , however, w i s h i n g to reason out the matter, and e x p r e s s i n g h i s doubts by an h y p o t h e s i s : supposing the o l d s o c i e t y were no l o n g e r to e x i s t , swept away to the crumbs; w e l l , was i t not to be f e a r e d that the new world would grow up again, s l o w l y s p o i l t by the same i n j u s t i c e s , some s i c k and o t h e r s f l o u r -i s h i n g , some s k i l f u l and i n t e l l i g e n t , f a t t e n i n g on e v e r y t h i n g , and ot h e r s i m b e c i l e and l a z y , becoming s l a v e s again? But before t h i s v i s i o n o f - 1 9 -e t e r n a l wretchedness, the engine-man shouted out f i e r c e l y t h a t i f j u s t i c e was not p o s s i b l e with man, then man must di s a p p e a r . For every r o t t e n .-society t h e r e must be a massacre, u n t i l the l a s t c r e a t u r e was exterminated. (Germinal,, pp. 454-5) As has o f t e n been observed, Darwinism d i d not j u s t f o s t e r s o c i a l theory, but had i t s e l f a r i s e n from i t : The grand i d e a l which Darwin d i d r e a l l y o r i g i n a t e was not the i d e a o f descent with m o d i f i c a t i o n , but the i d e a o f n a t u r a l s e l e c t i o n — t h e s u r v i v a l o f the f i t t e s t . . . . D a r w i n ' s t h e o r y of n a t u r a l s e l e c t i o n was e s s e n t i a l l y an e x t e n s i o n to the animal and vegetable world o f l a i s e z - f a i r e economics and was suggested by Thomas M a l t h u s l s u t h e o r y o f popula-t i o n . ...Nature, so to speak, s e l e c t s the best i n d i v i d u a l s out o f each g e n e r a t i o n to l i v e ; and not o n l y so, but as these favored i n d i v i d u a l s t r a n s m i t t h e i r f a v o r a b l e q u a l i t i e s to t h e i r o f f s p r i n g , a c c o r d i n g to the f i x e d laws o f h e r e d i t y , i t f o l l o w s t h a t the i n d i v i d u a l s composing each s u c c e s s i v e g e n e r a t i o n are g e n e r a l l y b e t t e r s u i t e d to t h e i r surroundings than t h e i r f o r e f a t h e r s . 2 To people o f o p t i m i s t i c temper, the p o s s i b i l i t i e s i m p l i e d i n the r e - a p p l i c a t i o n o f Darwinism to s o c i a l t heory were p r a c t i c a l l y endless: Once i t had been shown t h a t what Huxley c a l l e d the \" M i l t o n i c h y p o t h e s i s \" of s p e c i a l c r e a t i o n was untenable, and Darwinism ceased to draw f i r e from churchmen o f every f a i t h , V i c t o r i a n s welcomed the new t h e o r y as a b r i n g e r o f g l a d t i d i n g s . England was growing r i c h e r year by year, and enjoying budget 20 -s u r p l u s e s i n s p i t e of d i m i n i s h i n g t a x a -t i o n . Her machinery was the wonder o f the world and her p a r l i a m e n t a r y govern-ment a model f o r the i m i t a t i o n o f e n l i g h t -ened f o r e i g n e r s . No one c o u l d doubt t h a t progress would go on i n d e f i n i t e l y . In such a world, impregnated wi t h the sense o f m a t e r i a l p r o g r e s s , e v o l u t i o n seemed o n l y a g e n e r a l i z a t i o n o f everyday l i f e ; and the concept of g r a d u a l change, grad u a l p r o g r e s s , e s p e c i a l l y s u i t e d the B r i t i s h temper.3 '~, ' But one o f Darwin's e a r l y r e a d e r s , Samuel B u t l e r , had doubts about the wider a p p l i c a t i o n s o f the theory o f n a t u r a l s e l e c t i o n not a l t o g e t h e r d i s s i m i l a r from the r e v u l s i o n which Z o l a ' s c h a r a c t e r expresses: F u r t h e r r e f l e c t i o n and s e v e r a l r e -readings o f the O r i g i n o f S p e c i e s made B u t l e r d i s s a t i s f i e d w i t h the Darwinian t h e o r y o f N a t u r a l S e l e c t i o n . Perhaps h i s own fancy about the machines gave him the c l u e to the weakness of Darwinism —what he u l t i m a t e l y came to c a l l \"the Deadlock i n Darwinism.\" The deadlock was simply t h a t machines, having no purposes of t h e i r own, c o u l d not evolve; and s i n c e animals and p l a n t s were t r e a t e d by Darwin as i f they were machines, Darwinian e v o l u t i o n was i m p o s s i b l e . N a t u r a l S e l e c -t i o n might c o n c e i v a b l y a i d us to under-stand which forms s u r v i v e d , but i t could never t e l l us how these forms had come to be. N a t u r a l S e l e c t i o n was an undoubted f a c t ; i t c o u l d never be a theory or a cause.4 B u t l e r o f f e r e d a counter-theory, based i n p a r t on the work o f Lamarck and o t h e r n a t u r a l i s t s whose view of e v o l u t i o n was l e s s m e c h a n i s t i c than Darwin's. T h i s was, t h a t the - 21 e v o l u t i o n o f an organism was—however i n e x p l i c a b l y , and however l i m i t e d by the c i r c u m s c r i p t i o n s o f e n v i r o n m e n t — based upon i n d i v i d u a l e f f o r t , o r w i l l to change. In s h o r t , B u t l e r was at pains to rescue man from the c o n d i t i o n o f being \"wholly a product o f n a t u r a l h i s t o r y . \" F u r t h e r , he wrote a novel i n i l l u s t r a t i o n of h i s d e n i a l o f m e c h a n i s t i c determinism which, without being i n f l u e n c e d by French n a t u r a l i s m as a l i t e r a r y movement, was the f l a t d e n i a l o f the r i g o r o u s s c i e n t i f i c determinism u n d e r l y i n g i t . I t i s not too much to say t h a t the r e a c t i o n to French n a t u r a l i s m i n the E n g l i s h n o v e l began even before i t was a r e c o g n i z e d f o r c e : The Way o f A l l F l e s h thus may be con-s i d e r e d the graphic i l l u s t r a t i o n of those i d e a s which are b a s i c i n a l l B u t l e r ' s works. The o r i g i n a t i o n o f e v o l u t i o n i n a sense o f need and exer-c i s e o f w i l l t o f i l l t h a t need, the i n h e r i t a n c e o f memory and s t i m u l a t i o n o f t h a t memory by a s s o c i a t e d i d e a s , the i d e a o f i n t e l l e c t as an e v o l u t i o n a r y makeshift and o f unconscious memory as the consummation o f i n t e l l e c t , were repeated, embellished, and expanded from work to work. In h i s r e t u r n to the Lamarckian h y p o t h e s i s assuming the e x i s t e n c e and f u n c t i o n of w i l l i n c r e a t i o n , we mark B u t l e r ' s c h i e f p o i n t o f departure from Darwinism. The d i s t i n c t i o n between Darwin's the o r y and B u t l e r ' s i s o f importance because i t corresponds to a d i f f e r e n c e between the E n g l i s h r e a l i s t s and the French n a t u r a l i s t s . The l a t t e r r e f l e c t the determinism i m p l i c i t i n Darwinism; to 22 -them the i n d i v i d u a l i s the r e s u l t a n t o f h e r e d i t y and e n v i r o n m e n t — p r e - d e s -t i n a t i o n i s a s c i e n t i f i c f a c t . E n g l i s h r e a l i s m , on t h e c o n t r a r y , i n g e n e r a l r e f l e c t s the freedom o f the w i l l which, i l l u s i o n or not, i s b a s i c i n our sense o f experience.