Education, Faculty of
DSpace
UBCV
Ronaldson, Sharon Elizabeth
Doctor of Philosophy - PhD
University of British Columbia
This study was methodologically situated within two cycles of insider action research and informed by the blending of the philosophical underpinnings of the interpretive and the praxis paradigms. It was conducted by one nurse-educator-researcher exploring the perspectives of eleven undergraduate student nurses, who engaged with "Nursing Journeys: Virtual Reflective Centre", a researcher-developed virtual, simulation instrument designed to promote critical thinking, while enrolled in a first-year nursing course in a college in British Columbia over a 12- week semester. The study participants kept a reflective journal for the duration of the study and interviews were conducted at the end of the semester. While interviews and journal excerpts were the primary sources of data, participant-observation, field notes and online dialogue transcripts were also used as data collection techniques. The analytic strategy chosen for this study was grounded theory. This study also traced a self-reflective journey of practice as research in an attempt to develop a greater understanding of the teaching and learning process in educational cyberspace. The findings of the study suggested that participants were able to articulate their definition of critical thinking and use this definition to work through the case narratives while role-playing the various virtual characters. The study participants were also able to recognize that they were only beginning to understand critical thinking and that it was not necessarily learned and actualized in a linear, individual fashion. The findings of the study also suggested the facilitation of critical thinking was contingent on a pattern of a way of knowing: Cyber-textual Mediated Knowing and several other factors: time, trust, facilitation, reflection, purposeful decision making in design. Although NJVRC may have properties that have the potential to promote critical thinking, its cognitive dimension was significantly more developed than the affective dispositions of critical thinking. Finally , this study illustrated that the insider action research was a fitting methodology as it offered a systematic approach for educators to unravel the connections made between pedagogy, research and change. Its applicability as an appropriate methodology also served to support the emerging trend of moving nursing research toward an evidence-based model as the basis for advancing educational practices in nursing education.
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Untangling Critical Thinking in Educational Cyberspace B y Sharon El izabe th Rona ldson B . S . N . , Univers i ty o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , 1988 M . E d . , Univers i ty o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , 1995 A T H E S I S S U B M I T T E D I N P A R T I A L F U L F I L L M E N T O F T H E R E Q U I R E M E N T S F O R T H E D E G R E E O F D O C T O R O F P H I L O S O P H Y i n T H E F A C U L T Y O F G R A D U A T E S T U D I E S (Centre for the Cross Facul ty Inquiry) W e accept this dissertation as conforming to the required standards The Un ive r s i t y o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a M a r c h 2004 © Sharon E l i zabe th Rona ldson , 2004 A B S T R A C T Th i s study was methodo log ica l ly situated w i t h i n two cycles o f insider act ion research and informed b y the b lend ing o f the ph i losoph ica l underpinnings o f the interpretive and the praxis paradigms. It was conducted b y one nurse-educator-researcher exp lo r ing the perspectives o f e leven undergraduate student nurses, who engaged w i t h Nursing Journeys: Virtual Reflective Centre, a researcher-developed v i r tua l , s imula t ion instrument designed to promote c r i t i ca l th ink ing , w h i l e enrol led i n a first-year nurs ing course i n a col lege i n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a over a 12-week semester. The study participants kept a reflective jou rna l for the durat ion o f the study and interviews were conducted at the end o f the semester. W h i l e interviews and journa l excerpts were the p r imary sources o f data, participant-observation, f ie ld notes and onl ine dialogue transcripts were also used as data co l l ec t ion techniques. The analyt ic strategy chosen for this study was grounded theory. Th i s study also traced a self-reflective journey o f practice as research i n an attempt to develop a greater understanding o f the teaching and learning process i n educational cyberspace. The f indings o f the study suggested that participants were able to articulate their def in i t ion o f c r i t i ca l t h ink ing and use this def ini t ion to w o r k through the case narratives w h i l e ro le -p lay ing the various v i r tua l characters. The study participants were also able to recognize that they were o n l y beg inn ing to understand cr i t ica l th ink ing and that it was not necessari ly learned and actual ized i n a linear, i nd iv idua l fashion. The f indings o f the study also suggested the faci l i tat ion o f c r i t ica l t h ink ing was contingent on a pattern o f a w a y o f k n o w i n g : Cyber-textual Mediated Knowing and several other factors: t ime, trust, faci l i tat ion, reflection, purposeful dec is ion m a k i n g i n design. A l t h o u g h N J V R C m a y have properties that have the potential to promote cr i t ica l th ink ing , its cogni t ive d imens ion was s ignif icant ly more developed than the affective disposi t ions o f c r i t ica l th ink ing . F i n a l l y , this study il lustrated that the insider act ion research was i i a fi t t ing methodology as it offered a systematic approach for educators to unravel the connections made between pedagogy, research and change. Its app l icab i l i ty as an appropriate methodology also served to support the emerging trend o f m o v i n g nurs ing research toward an evidence-based m o d e l as the basis for advancing educational practices i n nurs ing education. 111 T A B L E O F C O N T E N T S Abstract 1 1 Table o f Contents i v L i s t o f Tables v L i s t o f F igures v i i Acknowledgemen t s v i i i Chapter O n e — D r i v i n g Forces Shap ing the N e e d for Research 1 1.1 M y Ph i lo sophy o f Teach ing 2 1.2 The Rat ionale for Insider A c t i o n Research 2 1.3 Purpose o f the Study 4 1.4 C r i t i c a l T h i n k i n g i n N u r s i n g 5 1.5 Pa rad igm Shifts i n N u r s i n g Educa t ion 6 1.6 E v o l u t i o n o f the Nature o f N u r s i n g K n o w l e d g e 7 1.7 Educa t iona l Cyberspace i n N u r s i n g Educa t ion 8 1.8 Layou t o f this Disser tat ion 9 1.9 Signi f icance o f the Study 10 1.10 L imi ta t ions o f the Study 12 1.11 D e f i n i t i o n o f Terms 12 1.12 S u m m a r y 13 Chapter T w o — M a k i n g Sense o f the Literature 15 2.1 C r i t i c a l T h i n k i n g 15 2.1.1 A Def in i t i on o f C r i t i c a l T h i n k i n g 16 2.1.2 Educa t iona l Paradigms i n N u r s i n g Educa t ion 18 2.1.3 Educa t iona l Cyberspace 21 2.2 D e s i g n and D e l i v e r y o f Educat ional Cyberspace 24 2.2.1 Educa t iona l Cyberspace D e l i v e r y Approaches 25 2.2.2 Purposeful D e c i s i o n M a k i n g 27 2.2.3 D e s i g n Pr inc ip les o f Educa t iona l Cyberspace 29 2. 3 A c t i o n Research 30 2 3.1 The H i s t o r i c a l and Ph i lo soph ica l Bas i s o f A c t i o n Research 31 2.3.2 The Typo log ie s o f A c t i o n Research 32 2.3.3 The Steps o f A c t i o n Research 33 2.3.4 T h e V a l i d a t i o n o f A c t i o n Research 34 2.3.5 The A p p l i c a t i o n o f A c t i o n Research i n N u r s i n g 36 2.4 S u m m a r y 38 Chapter Three—Crea t ing a Pedagogica l , S imu la t i on Instrument 40 3.1 O r i g i n a l Concept o f N u r s i n g Journeys: V i r t u a l Ref lec t ive Centre ( N J V R C ) 42 3.2 Desc r ip t ion o f N u r s i n g Journeys: V i r t u a l Ref lec t ive Centre 43 3.3 The D e s i g n o f N u r s i n g Journeys: V i r t u a l Ref lec t ive Centre 43 3.3.1 T h e Interface D e s i g n 45 3.3.2 The Lea rn ing Parad igm 45 iv 3.3.3 The A c c e s s to N J V R C 46 3.3.4 The Deve lopment o f the Characters and Case Narrat ives 46 3.3.5 The M e a n s to Interactivity 48 3.4 Eva lua t ion o f N V R C 49 3.5 Mod i f i ca t i ons to N J V R C 50 3.6 S u m m a r y 52 Chapter F o u r — A r r i v i n g at Cybe r -Tex tua l M e d i a t e d K n o w i n g 54 4.1 The M a j o r Research Paradigms 55 4.2 Si tuat ing Insider A c t i o n Research 56 4.4 Sett ing and Select ion o f Study Participants 57 4.5 Research Me thods 59 4.5.1 D a t a Sources 60 4.5.2 Da ta A n a l y s i s 63 4.6 Trustworthiness o f the Study 66 4.7 S u m m a r y 68 Chapter F i v e — U n r a v e l l i n g Connect ions between Themes and Patterns 69 5.1 U n r a v e l l i n g Connec t ions between Themes and Patterns 69 5.2 F ramework for Organ i s ing the F ind ings 70 5.2.1 Research Ques t ion 1 71 5.2.2 Research Ques t ion 2 77 5.2.3 Research Ques t ion 3 81 5.3 S u m m a r y 88 Chapter S i x — F r a m i n g A c t i o n Research 90 6.1 Conc lus ions and Implicat ions for Pract ice 91 6.1.1 Instructional D e s i g n o f N J V R C 92 6.1.2 A n o n y m i t y 93 6.1.3 T i m e : 93 6.1.4 Ref lec t ive Journal W r i t i n g 94 6.1.5 The R o l e o f the Educator 95 6.1.6 A Pattern o f a W a y o f K n o w i n g 96 6.2 L imi ta t ions o f the Study 96 6.3 Recommendat ions for Further Research 97 6.4 S u m m a r y 98 Chapter S e v e n — A Journey Beg ins w i t h a S ing le Step: Lessons Learned 100 7.1 Lessons Learned 100 7.2 S u m m a r y 104 References 106 A p p e n d i x A — S a m p l e o f Letter for Pe rmis s ion 129 A p p e n d i x B — S a m p l e o f Letter o f Information 131 A p p e n d i x C — S a m p l e o f R e p l y C a r d 133 A p p e n d i x D — S a m p l e o f Par t ic ipant ' s Consent F o r m 134 A p p e n d i x E—In te rv i ew Questions 136 v L I S T O F T A B L E S Table 2.1 Types o f A c t i o n Research 33 Table 5.1 Organisat ional F r amework for Repor t ing the Resul ts 71 v i L I S T O F F I G U R E S F igure 2.1 Steps o f Insider A c t i o n Research 35 F igure 3.1 O r i g i n a l N J V R C Homepage 44 F igure 3.2 W e b C T ™ L o g O n Page 46 F igure 3.3 N J V R C B u i l d i n g s 47 F igure 3.4 Cogn i t i ve Percept ion: P a i n Case Narra t ive 48 F igu re 3.5 N J V R C , V R 1 Cha t R o o m 49 F igure 3.6 N e w N J V R C Homepage 50 F igure 3.7 Ente r ing N J V R C 51 F igure 4.1 Diagrammat ic Representation o f m y M e t h o d o l o g y 57 F igure 4.2 E x a m p l e o f the C o d i n g Process 66 F igure 5.1 On l ine D ia logue Excerpts 76 v i i A C K N O W L E D G E M E N T S I w o u l d l ike to express m y sincere gratitude to the f o l l o w i n g members o f m y dissertation committee: D r . C a r l L e g g o , D r . M a r v i n W e s t r o m and D r . Barbara Paterson. I am indebted to each for their advice and assistance throughout this study. I w o u l d also l ike to express m y genuine appreciat ion to m y friends, M a u r e e n and K e v i n and colleagues, especia l ly T i n a Thor ton, Susan O ' S u l l i v a n and K a t h r y n D u k e , for their unending support and words o f encouragement. I w o u l d especia l ly l i ke to thank m y parents for in s t i l l i ng i n me the b e l i e f that I cou ld realise anything that I set out to do i n l i fe . V l l l C H A P T E R O N E — D R I V I N G F O R C E S S H A P I N G T H E N E E D F O R R E S E A R C H M y interest i n the central tenets o f educational cyberspace was first nurtured b y an experience at a conference seminar exp lor ing the use o f computer-mediated communica t ion . F o l l o w i n g a descript ion b y the presenter o f the var ious forms o f computer-mediated communica t ion ( C M C ) , I participated i n several activit ies i n v o l v i n g these forms o f communica t ion . A s a result, I envis ioned h o w C M C w o u l d transform nurs ing education, p rompt ing me to question the inherent value o f the current learning technologies I employed to enhance cr i t ica l th ink ing . I began to wonder h o w I cou ld incorporate this part icular learning technology into m y teaching practice to promote c r i t i ca l t h ink ing and assist undergraduate student nurses to more readi ly apply theory to practice. Concurrent ly , I real ized that without understanding the under ly ing theoretical pr inciples o f educational cyberspace; I w o u l d mere ly be app ly ing a learning technology without full considerat ion o f the impl ica t ions , and without the ab i l i ty to assess its success or l imitat ions. 1.1 My Philosophy of Teaching A c o m m o n theme identif ied i n the literature is that many educators, i n essence, teach w i t h i n their o w n preferred learning style as a matter o f comfort. Ref lec t ing upon m y early experiences w i t h teaching, I w o u l d agree. I have come to appreciate Pratt 's (1997) research related to perspectives o f teaching as a w a y to broaden m y understanding o f what it means to teach. M y teaching ph i losophy is grounded i n the be l i e f that it is a dynamic state, constantly e v o l v i n g and in fo rming m y practice. I regular ly strive to improve m y teaching practice b y seeking feedback from learners and peers, attending professional development seminars and reading about relevant subject matter. Through these informative processes I am cont inual ly ref ining m y teaching practice and g rowing as a nurse educator. M u c h o f m y ph i losophy is based on m y experiences as a l i fe long learner and m y evo lv ing v iews about pedagogy. I have four m a i n roles as a nurse educator, one as a content expert and others as mentor, as facili tator and as leader. It is m y a im to foster undergraduate student nurses' learning as a transformative experience. In m y v i e w , teaching is not o n l y about instructing or impar t ing informat ion to undergraduate student nurses. Rather, it is an integrative approach, b lending a learner-centred paradigm w i t h an opportunity to cultivate learning partnerships and 1 create an environment that is interactive and non-threatening. L e a r n i n g is a complex process that is i nd iv idua l and context-specific. A s a teacher, I a m cognisant o f these factors and strive to be f lexib le , accommodat ing m y practice accordingly . The theories o f learning upon w h i c h I p r i m a r i l y draw i n m y practice presuppose freedom and responsibi l i ty for teachers as w e l l as learners. I bel ieve that ind iv idua l s construct knowledge and abil i t ies through their interactions w i t h texts, other people, the environment and their o w n cr i t i ca l reflections. Construct iv is t pedagogy infers the leg i t imacy o f diverse sources o f knowledge , not o n l y the knowledge that the teacher constructs, but also that o f the knowledge constructed b y learners. I see knowledge as constructed through d i scovery and through shared experiences. Ideal ly, I want undergraduate student nurses to in t r ins ica l ly perceive a transit ion b y their active par t ic ipat ion i n the teaching-learning process. I strive to promote d ivers i ty and mul t ip le perspectives b y encouraging undergraduate student nurses to be respectful o f divergent v iews , to challenge exis t ing bodies o f knowledge and to c r i t i ca l ly quest ion h o w they have come to k n o w their w o r l d , i n d i v i d u a l l y and co l lec t ive ly . H o o k s (1994) remarks: Urging all of us to open our minds and hearts so that we can know beyond the boundaries of what is acceptable, so that we can think and rethink, so that we can create new visions, I celebrate teaching that enables transgressions—a movement against and beyond boundaries. It is that movement which makes education the practice of freedom, (p. 12) M y teaching is an act o f encouragement to promote learning, to inspire undergraduate student nurses to assume self-responsibi l i ty and to be active and cr i t i ca l learners. I bel ieve that knowledge is diverse and, contextual; not g iven, but produced inside one 's se l f and w i t h others. 1.2 The Rationale for Insider Action Research In today 's era o f s t r iv ing for excel lence and best practices i n teaching and learning, it is p ivo ta l for any profession to disseminate emerging knowledge to its members (Boyer , 1990; Drevdah l , S tackman, P u r d y & L o u i e , 2002; French , 2000, Stevens & Cass idy , 1999). "Emphas i s i ng good teaching means ga in ing pedagogical content k n o w l e d g e " (Drevdah l et a l . , 2002, p. 413). B o y e r (1990) v iews teaching as "the highest form o f understanding" (p.23) and places teaching at the ve ry core o f scholarship. Impl i c i t l y , his perspective broadens the tradit ional v i ews o f scholarship to encompass it as a fo rm o f research. D r e v d a h l et a l . (2002) 2 assert " m a k i n g sense o f teaching, begins w i t h a reflective posture toward knowledge creat ion" (p.416). A s a nurse-educator seeking to articulate m y assumptions and understand the conceptual theories appl icable to m y teaching, it is also purposeful to reflect upon m y practice more systematical ly (Kember , 2000; K e m m i s & McTagga r t , 1988; M c N i f f , 2002; Pa lmer , Burns , & B u l m a n , 1994; W e i m e r , 2000). The search for a methodologica l approach to explore m y teaching practices related to cr i t ica l th ink ing and educational cyberspace i n the educational and nurs ing literature led me to praxeology, reflective inqui ry , and act ion research. Re f l ec t iv i ty is a commona l i t y embedded w i t h i n these constructs. M y engagement w i t h act ion research stems f rom the passion to improve aspects o f m y teaching through cr i t i ca l ref lect ion and expanding m y role i n the research process. I w i l l be m o v i n g beyond that o f consumer or object o f research to that o f researcher " loca t ing [myself] and m y research w i t h i n , rather than outside the soc ia l w o r l d [I] a m s tudy ing" (Drevdah l et a l . , 2002, p. 416). I a m drawn to act ion research because o f its concept o f col laborat ion. I w i l l be able to w o r k co l labora t ive ly w i t h m y students, seeking input and act ing accord ing ly as I pursue m y inqu i ry and articulate m y tacit knowledge . I a m also d rawn to the r igour o f act ion research as it a l lows me to construct and generate theory from this tacit knowledge . Ca r r (1998) asserts that ref lect ion is central to the evolu t ion o f nurs ing knowledge . H o w e v e r , some journa l articles (A tk in s & M u r p h y , 1993; Greenwood , 1993) tend to discuss the details o f the process o f reflect ion, rather than illustrate its appl icat ion. A c t i o n research, especial ly insider act ion research, is recognised as a fi t t ing methodology to p rov ide a structured, d i sc ip l ined approach to systematical ly inquire , articulate and reflect about the teaching and learning process ( K e m m i s & M c T a g g a r t , 1988; N o f f k e & Stevenson, 1995). It is also appropriate to explore the constructs o f c r i t ica l t h ink ing and educational cyberspace. The insider act ion research m o d e l combines the roles o f educator and researcher (Cochran-Smi th & L y t l e , 1992; C o g h l a n & B r a n n i c k , 2001 ; C o g h l a n & Casey, 2001 , T i c h e n & B i n n i e , 1993). Insider act ion research involves a spiral set o f ac t iv i ty cyc les , i nc lud ing ident i fy ing, gathering, interpreting, act ing and reflecting, leading to further p lann ing and iterations o f the same cyc le . Educators w h o embrace the insider act ion research approach are already immersed i n the part icular si tuational context, and thus engage i n the explorat ion o f "what it means to make d i sc ip l ined - as opposed to intui t ive - statements about teaching" (Freeman, 1998, p. 9). D e w e y (1910) refers to this process as learning f rom practice and experience. A c c o r d i n g l y , the insider action researcher's perspective is val idated f rom findings 3 gathered through a systematic, praxis-oriented, and reflective inqu i ry (Cochran -Smi th & L y t l e , 1999). S c h o n (1983) describes two constituents o f the th ink ing process o f the reflective practitioner. The first takes place i n the midst o f teaching as Ref lec t ion- In - A c t i o n , and it usua l ly occurs as educators try to make sense o f their situation. In contrast, R e f l e c t i o n - O n - A c t i o n invo lves l o o k i n g back on experience i n light o f the outcomes. G r e e n w o o d (1993) argues that Re f l ec t i on -Befo re -Ac t ion (anticipatory reflection), is underrated as a c r i t i ca l constituent to the th ink ing process. She contends that th ink ing about intentions pr ior to act ion is just as significant; and that it avoids possible misinterpretation. The m o d e l proposed b y D r e v d a h l et a l . (2002) aligns w i t h both Greenwood ' s (1993) and Schon ' s (1983) concepts o f ref lect ivi ty. D r e v d a h l et a l . (2002) propose a three-phase m o d e l for reflective self-study. In the assessment phase, educator-researchers ascertain the presence o f an acceptable context i n w h i c h to conduct a reflective inqui ry . In the implementa t ion phase, educator-researchers underl ine the importance o f selecting a f i t t ing methodology and research design focusing o n process and va l ida t ion issues. F i n a l l y , dur ing the disseminat ion phase educator-researchers share their f indings w i t h members o f their communi ty . The study presented i n the f o l l o w i n g chapters also traces these three constituents o f m y th ink ing process w i t h i n a reflective framework drawn f rom the works o f D r e v d a h l et a l . (2002), G r e e n w o o d (1993) and Schon (1983). 1.3 Purpose of the Study The quest ion emerging f rom m y practice is h o w I, as a nurse-educator, enhance the development o f undergraduate student nurses' c r i t ica l t h ink ing i n educational cyberspace to assist them to more readi ly integrate theory i n practice, w h i l e also unrave l l ing the connections I make between pedagogy, research and change. The proposed solut ion is to develop a learning technology suitable to educational cyberspace. Spec i f i ca l ly , this study investigates the effects o f Nursing Journeys: Virtual Reflective Centre ( N J V R C ) , a researcher-developed, v i r tua l , pedagogical , s imula t ion instrument a imed to foster c r i t ica l t h ink ing b y exp lor ing the experiences o f e leven undergraduate student nurses over one semester o f engagement. E x p l i c i t l y , the f o l l o w i n g questions are addressed: • H o w does Nursing Journeys: Virtual Reflective Centre promote the development o f c r i t i ca l t h ink ing among undergraduate student nurses? 4 • H o w do undergraduate student nurses describe their experiences o f learning to think c r i t i ca l ly w h i l e engaged w i t h Nursing Journeys: Virtual Reflective Centre? • H o w do the b lend ing o f the theoretical underpinnings o f role-play, computer-mediated communica t ion and col laborat ive and problem-based learning promote the development o f c r i t i ca l t h ink ing among undergraduate student nurses? F o u r fundamental forces underpin recent changes i n nurs ing education: c r i t ica l t h ink ing as a learning outcome; paradigm shifts i n nurs ing curr icula ; the evolut ionary patterns o f nurs ing knowledge ; and f ina l ly , the introduct ion o f educational cyberspace i n higher education. 1.4 Critical Thinking in Nursing The accelerated growth o f med ica l technology and advances i n hea l ing makes it necessary for nurses to be adept cr i t ica l thinkers. C o m m i t t i n g to m e m o r y facts about disease processes, modif ica t ions i n client care and standards o f nurs ing is no longer sufficient as a teaching-learning strategy to adequately prepare undergraduate student nurses for today 's h i g h l y complex health care environment (Gordon , 2000; Mas t r i an & M c G o n i g l e , 1999; W e i s & G u y t o n - S i m m o n s , 1998; Y o u n g b l o o d & B e i t z , 2001). It has been established that c r i t ica l th ink ing is essential to nurs ing practice ( A l f a r o - L e F e v r e , 1998; Bake r , 1996; Haffer & Raingruber , 1998; Tanner, 1996). It is also w e l l documented that c r i t i ca l t h ink ing is complex , diverse, inconsis tent ly appl ied and inadequately represented i n the nurs ing education literature. M u c h o f the research is quantitative and employs measurement instruments that g ive rise to va l id i t y and re l i ab i l i ty issues i n their appl icat ion ( A n g e l , Duf fey , & B e l y e a , 2000; S i m p s o n & Cour tney, 2002). Notwi ths tand ing that c r i t ica l th ink ing , as a construct, is inconsis tent ly defined and measured, accredi t ing bodies for basic nurs ing education programs endorse the acquis i t ion o f c r i t i ca l t h ink ing as a competency o f a new graduate. Thus , nurse educators are accountable for demonstrating the assessment o f the development o f c r i t ica l th ink ing , both as a learning outcome throughout the cu r r i cu lum and, most importantly, at the t ime o f graduation (Registered Nurses A s s o c i a t i o n o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a [ R N A B C ] , 2000). The nature o f c r i t ica l t h ink ing is discussed i n greater detail i n Chapter Two. 5 1.5 Paradigm Shifts in Nursing Education A s cr i t ica l t h ink ing is an expected competency for nurses, there is a general assumption that nurs ing education should have a direct influence on this behaviour ( D a l y , 2001). Nurse educators have the challenge o f des igning innovat ive cur r icu la that w i l l foster c r i t i ca l th ink ing . There has been an increasing interest i n the fundamental pr inc ip les o f m a n y educational theories that has led to a subtle shift i n f raming cur r icu la w i t h i n a learning paradigm. T h i s parad igm emphasises l i fe - long learning, a learner-centred and active perspective, m o v i n g toward an integrative, constructivist approach to professional social isa t ion and away f rom the tradit ional pedagogy o f teacher-directed, behaviourist , didact ic and passive approaches to learning (Ben -Zur , Y a g e l , & Spitzer, 1999; D i e k e l m a n n & Rather, 1993; Do lence & N o r r i s , 1995; Reutter, F i e l d , C a m p b e l l & D a y , 1997). A learning paradigm underscores the interdependent relat ionship between theoretical and pract ical knowledge and facilitates socia l isa t ion and role development as a process rather than a prescript ive conformi ty to pre-determined soc ia l standards. A number o f scholars (Ba ron M c B r i d e , 1999; D e M a r c o , H a y w a r d & L y n c h , 2002; L i n d e m a n , 2000; Sk iba , 1997) support this parad igm shift. Peters (2000) posits that a constructivist epis temology appears congruent w i t h the learning parad igm and m a y offer an alternative pedagogical foundation to the tradit ional teaching pedagogy for nurs ing education. Construct iv is t approaches to teaching and learning have emerged from the works o f Bruner (1986, 1990), Piaget (1928, 1977), and V y g o t s k y (1978). T w o major strands o f this perspective are cogni t ive cons t ruc t iv ism and soc ia l cons t ruc t iv ism ( M c M a h o n , 1997). The central tenet o f cons t ruc t iv ism is founded on the premise that an i nd iv idua l acquires meaning through interaction w i t h others and the envi ronment—"Thus , knowledge is v i e w e d as contextual , w i t h meaning depending o n the s i tuat ion" ( H o o d & L e d d y , 2003 , p. 95). A series o f constructivist learning technologies to foster c r i t i ca l t h ink ing has been the focus o f numerous nurs ing education citations (Andrusyszyn , I w a s i w & Goldenburg , 1999; Chandle r & Hanrahan, 2000, Edwards , H u g o , Cragg , & Peterson, 1999; Geibert , 1998). The most prominent o f these studies include problem, case or inquiry-based learning; role-play; jou rna l wr i t i ng , and narrative. F ind ings f rom these studies offer variable, inconsistent and conf l ic t ing results. F r o m personal experience, undergraduate student nurses have d i f f icul ty descr ib ing c r i t i ca l th ink ing , especia l ly when app ly ing theory to practice. It is unclear to me whether the aforementioned learning technologies i n their current fo rm help undergraduate student nurses be c r i t i ca l thinkers i n practice. 6 1.6 Evolution of the Nature of Nursing Knowledge C o u p l e d w i t h a changing paradigm i n nurs ing education, trends i n nurs ing knowledge development have also fo l lowed an evolut ionary path. In Carper ' s (1978) semina l work , she identifies four fundamental patterns o f ways o f k n o w i n g embedded i n the construct ion o f nursing knowledge . These patterns are empi r i ca l , aesthetic, ethical and personal k n o w i n g . E m p i r i c a l k n o w i n g "encompasses p u b l i c l y verif iable, factual descriptions, explanations and predications based o n subjective or empi r i ca l group data" (Fawcett , Watson , N e u m a n , W a l k e r & Fi tzprat r ick , 2001 , pp. 115-116). Aesthet ic k n o w i n g "is that aspect o f k n o w i n g that connects w i t h deep meaning o f a si tuation and cal ls forth inner creative resources that transform experience" ( C h i n n & K r a m e r , 1999, p. 183). Personal k n o w i n g involves " a person 's ind iv idua l i sed and subjective ways o f learning, storing and retr ieving informat ion about the w o r l d " ( R e w , 1996, p. 96). E t h i c a l k n o w i n g emphasises "what ought to be done" ( C h i n n & K r a m e r , 1999, p. 5). W h i t e (1995) proposes an addi t ional pattern o f soc io-pol i t i ca l k n o w i n g as " i t addresses the wh e re i n . . . i n w h i c h to frame a l l other patterns o f k n o w i n g " (pp. 83, 85). C h i n n and K r a m e r (1999) describe k n o w i n g i n general as "ways o f pe rce iv ing and understanding the se l f and the w o r l d . . .Nurs ing ' s patterns o f k n o w i n g are interrelated and arise f rom the w h o l e experience" (pp. 1,7). U n d e r l y i n g their tacit belief, C h i n n and K r a m e r (1999) posit the improbab i l i ty o f ever a r r iv ing at [a] truth without col la tera l ly recognis ing other ways o f k n o w i n g as a reality. "Different ways o f k n o w i n g are not judged against one another . . .because each pattern adds o n l y one specif ic component, none alone is a sufficient source o f k n o w l e d g e " (Carper, 1978, p. 22). Sande lowsk i (1995a) infers that technology is also as a w a y o f k n o w i n g . "Techno logy is also a w a y i n w h i c h human beings come to k n o w reality, nature or the w o r l d " (p. 69). H o w e v e r , this v i e w has yet to attract m u c h scholar ly attention. H i s to r i ca l l y , e m p i r i c i s m and log ica l posi t iv is t ph i losophy have dominated nurs ing research. B e g i n n i n g i n the 1970s and increasing into the 1980s, nurse researchers integrated pr inc ip les o f natural ism and interpretivist phi losophy. Pos tmodern i sm began to emerge as a ph i losoph ica l framework i n the literature i n the mid-1990s ( H o o d & L e d d y , 2003). Conce ivab ly , nurse researchers m a y have argued that embracing and endorsing o n l y the pos i t iv is t ic paradigm w i t h open arms was to generate the empi r ica l w a y o f k n o w i n g and to obtain academic and scientif ic respectabili ty. Consequent ly , this narrow v i e w o f knowledge construct ion overshadows other paradigms better fitted to capture other ways o f k n o w i n g , thereby p rec lud ing knowledge o f other realities. "It c o u l d hence be surmised, that al though scientif ic knowledge is a necessary, 7 important and c r i t i ca l element o f nurs ing, it is important to acknowledge the aesthetic, personal , ethical and [socio-pol i t ica l , technological] knowledge too, because a l l are c ruc ia l to nurs ing" (Rutty, 1998, p, 246). W h a t c o m p e l l i n g force is at p l ay that has led nurse researchers to re-examine nurs l ing ' s ph i losoph ica l foundations o f k n o w i n g and methods o f inqu i ry? C o p n e l l (1998), Gastaldo and H o l m e s (1999) and L is te r (1997) suggest it is the attempt to f ind a balance between the object ivi ty and subjectivi ty and to endorse p lu ra l i sm. A no the r interpretation lies w i t h i n the effects o f examin ing research and practice and h o w each informs the other to produce new knowledge ( K i m , 1993; Reed , 1995; T h o m e & Hayes , 1995). 1.7 Educational Cyberspace in Nursing Education The literature o n c r i t i ca l th ink ing i n nurs ing educat ion seems to be comple te ly contained i n the study o f the face-to-face learning environment. A s educational cyberspace is b e c o m i n g a component o f the future o f higher education, i nc lud ing nurs ing education, it stands to reason that the impl ica t ions for p romot ing cr i t ica l th ink ing need to be explored. T h i s study just if ies the purpose o f m o v i n g beyond and extending the current body o f knowledge about teaching, learning, c r i t ica l th ink ing and educational cyberspace i n nursing. The early studies i n v o l v i n g educational cyberspace explore issues such as course del ivery , group process, student part icipat ion, acquis i t ion o f knowledge and satisfaction w i t h m e d i a ( D e A m i c i s , 1997; Leeseberg-Stamler, Thomas & M c M a h o n , 1999; Saranto, L e i n o - K i l p i & Isoaho, 1997; S imons , B a r o n , K n i c e l y & Richardson , 2001; Th ie le , A l l e n & Stucky, 1999). Often these studies outl ine advantages and disadvantages relat ing to the qual i ty o f educational cyberspace as an efficient learning m e d i u m . A d d i t i o n a l l y , a plethora o f studies compare educational cyberspace w i t h the tradit ional face-to-face c lass room setting resul t ing i n no significant difference i n learning outcomes. Th i s f ind ing m a y demonstrate the perpetuation o f adopting tradit ional pedagogy to stimulate learning i n educational cyberspace, yet this is scarcely a pathway to educational progress. Ca r r (1998) concludes " . . .v i r tual c lassrooms carry the r isk o f not o n l y main ta in ing what is posi t ive about tradit ional c lassroom learning, but repl icat ing what has been negat ive" (p. 36). L i k e w i s e , S k i b a (1997) notes: We in nursing must let the learning vision serve as the catalyst for change rather than technology. We in nursing need to examine our current use of information 8 technology in education rather than to have merely imposed technological techniques onto traditional methods of teaching, (p. 148) A more recent trend invo lves studies that focus on the effectiveness o f the dis t inct ive attributes o f learning technologies i n educational cyberspace i n relat ion to the p romot ion o f c r i t i ca l th ink ing (Andrusyszyn , et a l , 1999; D e M a r c o , H a y w a r d , & L y n c h , 2002; Ho le ton , 1998; Jenkins & T u r i c k - G i b s o n , 1999; Land i s , & W a i n w r i g h t , 1996; M u r r a y , 2000; N a i d u & O l i v e r 1996; W e i s & G u y t o n - S i m m o n s , 1998; W i t u c k i , H o d s o n , & M a l m , 1996; W o n g , W o n g & R i c h a r d , 1992). H o w e v e r , i n these studies, a homogeneous learning technology or s ingular pedagogical p r inc ip le are embedded i n the design. I contend that the integration o f heterogeneous learning technologies and mul t ip le pedagogical approaches—such as cogni t ive and soc ia l const ruct iv ism, computer-mediated communica t ion , col laborat ive and problem-based learning, and role p l a y — i n t o the design o f one v i r tua l , pedagogical , s imula t ion instrument, w i l l foster c r i t ica l th ink ing . It is w i t h this part icular v i e w I present this study o f Untangling Critical Thinking in Educational Cyberspace. 1.8 Layout of this Dissertation Establ ished practices require that dissertations be composed i n a part icular style. T h e use o f the first person is t yp ica l ly omit ted and the structure is d i v i d e d into three p r inc ipa l sections, the introduct ion, the development and the conc lus ion . I w i l l f o l l o w convent ion where the basic structure is concerned because it facilitates coherence o f thoughts and expression. H o w e v e r , I break from tradit ion b y us ing first person te rminology w i t h i n the text as other insider act ion scholars have p rev ious ly done. T h i s hopefu l ly serves as an effective veh ic le to communica te genuinely and effectively w i t h m y audience. Th i s dissertation is organised into seven chapters and describes two cycles o f an insider act ion research study. Interwoven w i t h i n this insider act ion research study is a reflective f ramework beg inn ing w i t h Greenwood 's (1993) not ion o f Re f l ec t i on -Be fo re -Ac t ion and extending through to Schon ' s (1983) concept o f Re f l ec t ion - In -Ac t ion and R e f l e c t i o n - O n - A c t i o n . The in i t i a l phase o f the reflective thought process, Re f l ec t i on -Be fo re -Ac t ion and the first action cyc le are summarised i n Chapters One, Two and Three. Chapter One outl ines the ident i f icat ion step o f the first act ion cyc le . It includes an ove rv i ew o f the context, rationale, purpose, s ignif icance and l imitat ions o f the study. Chapter Two presents the gathering and interpretation steps o f the first action cyc le . It includes a rev iew o f the literature relat ing to c r i t i ca l th ink ing , 9 educational cyberspace design and act ion research. Chapter Three completes the first cyc le and describes the act ion and reflect ion steps b y summar i s ing the developmental process o f creating the researcher-developed vi r tua l , pedagogical , s imula t ion instrument, Nursing Journeys: Virtual Reflective Centre ( N J V R C ) , used i n this study. The second phase o f the reflective thought process, Re f l ec t ion - In -Ac t ion , initiates the second cyc le and is summarised i n Chapters Four and Five. Chapter Four outlines the ident i f icat ion and gathering steps o f the second act ion cyc le . It includes the modif ica t ions to N J V R C , m y research phi losophy, the research methodology and des ign—inc lud ing the setting, sampl ing procedure and participants, data co l lec t ion and analysis procedures, and trustworthiness o f the procedures. The f indings o f the study—the interpretation step o f the second act ion c y c l e — are described i n Chapter Five. Chapters Six and Seven p rov ide the reader w i t h a descr ipt ion o f the f inal steps o f the second act ion research cycle—act , ref lect ion and re-plan. These chapters also represent the th i rd phase o f the reflective thought process, R e f l e c t i o n - O n - A c t i o n . Chapter Six outlines conclusions , impl ica t ions for practice, and recommendat ions for further research. Chapter Seven completes the second act ion cyc le w i t h a descr ipt ion o f the act ion and reflect ion steps, and summarises insights gained as a nurse-educator-researcher. The dissertation closes w i t h references and appendices. 1.9 Significance of the Study T h i s dissertation is wri t ten from the perspective o f both a nov ice insider act ion researcher and cu r r i cu lum developer. It is d rawn f rom m y observations, experiences, and research as a nurse-educator w o r k i n g w i t h undergraduate student nurses at a col lege i n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a . Th i s dissertation represents a summary o f f indings and reflections for further research. Present ing what I have discovered to date w i l l p rovide an opportuni ty for scholar ly discourse. M u c h o f the literature surrounding educational cyberspace i n nurs ing education addresses generic issues o f retention o f factual knowledge , satisfaction w i t h the med ia or compar ing educational cyberspace w i t h tradit ional face-to-face c lassroom teaching that results i n conclus ions o f no significant differences. T h i s pauci ty o f informat ion potent ia l ly l imi t s educators i n uncover ing other factors associated w i t h educational cyberspace. F e w studies explore cr i t ica l t h ink ing i n educational cyberspace. T h i s study also i l luminates the complexi t ies o f teaching and learning i n general, but par t icular ly learning to think c r i t i ca l ly i n educational cyberspace. Incorporat ing the themes and patterns that emerge f rom this study m a y transform the practices o f . 10 nurs ing education. U l t ima te ly , these findings m a y guide other nurse educators i n future decisions about teaching and learning i n educational cyberspace i n regard to c r i t i ca l th ink ing . " K n o w l e d g e developed through act ion research is grounded i n actual practice situations and a l lows for refinement o f basic knowledge developed through other methods o f i n q u i r y " (Hol ter & Schwarz -Barcot t , 1993, p. 303). W i t h the b lend ing o f heterogeneous learning technologies and mul t ip le pedagogical approaches under ly ing the design o f N J V R C , undergraduate student nurses m a y come to fu l ly appreciate the inherent value o f personal and col laborat ive learning i n the actual izat ion o f c r i t ica l th ink ing . A d d i t i o n a l l y , undergraduate student nurses can chal lenge the taken-for-granted v i e w and potent ia l ly reshape their preconceived w o r l d v i e w s o f nurs ing. The meri t or wor th o f such a new vi r tua l , pedagogical , s imula t ion instrument, designed i n an educational cyberspace environment offers endless opportunities. The case narratives evoke c r i t i ca l ref lect ion and value c lar i f ica t ion about aspects o f nurs ing practice and knowledge that are often omit ted i n textbooks. B y compos ing or creating meaning from what is famil iar , undergraduate student nurses can beg in to move toward be ing c r i t i ca l thinkers b y def ining patterns o f care, i n d i v i d u a l l y and col laborat ively , and deve lop ing ways to think and v i r tua l ly act i n a less stressful learning environment. It therefore becomes possible for undergraduate student nurses to be better prepared to care for, and w o r k w i t h , ind iv iduals and their f ami ly members i n the real i ty o f the health care system. W h i l e there is evidence o f nurses engaging i n insider act ion research, few studies h ighl ight nurs ing education as the p r imary soc ia l context. Th i s scarci ty o f research f indings m a y l i m i t nurse educators' ab i l i ty to be informed about educational innovat ion . M o s t important ly, the lack o f f indings delays a move b y nurse educators toward us ing an evidence-based research m o d e l as the basis for advancing educational knowledge and practices and becoming producers o f research. In c o m b i n i n g a m o v e toward an evidence-based research m o d e l and us ing insider act ion research, this approach m a y potent ial ly reduce the research-theory-practice gap (Hol ter & Schawarz-Barcot t , 1993; R o l f e , 1996). " . . .[I]t d i rect ly addresses the knot ty p rob lem o f the persistent failure o f research i n the socia l sciences to make a difference i n terms o f b r ing ing about actual improvement i n pract ice" (Somehk, 1995, p. 340). Habermas (1971) argues that seeking knowledge a lways serves some interest. Insider act ion research provides a pathway to personal meaning-making . Educators can use insider 11 act ion research to disclose the subtleties o f the teaching and learning process, to articulate a rationale for their o w n questions and h o w best to improve teaching and learning practices. It is t ime that I make "the intui t ive and unconscious k n o w i n g and mean ing" (Schmied ing , 1999, p. 1141) o f m y teaching practice more v i s ib le . 1.10 Limitations of the Study T h i s study is a small-scale project and is l im i t ed to one specif ic c lass room i n one col lege. T h e e leven study participants were not r andomly selected, but volunteered because o f their interest i n the project and possible affinity to their learning style and their registration i n the part icular nurs ing course. A d d i t i o n a l l y , to generalise the f indings o f this study to other settings is cha l lenging and it is up to the reader to draw his or her o w n conclus ions and inferences. H o w e v e r , the interplay o f the pedagogical pr inc ip les used i n the design and development o f N J V R C m a y be useful to draw upon across d isc ipl ines . F i n a l l y , one semester m a y too short to adequately assess the effects o f N J V R C to promote cr i t ica l th ink ing , a complex construct, i n educational cyberspace. 1.11 Definition of Terms Throughout m y dissertation, I introduce several terms to the reader. These terms are noted i n the literature under various classif ications. The f o l l o w i n g are the operational definit ions o f some special terms I have used i n this study: • Undergraduate student nurse - A n ind iv idua l w h o is enrol led i n a basic nurs ing undergraduate education program ( R N A B C , 2000). • B a s i c nurs ing undergraduate education - A n educational program that prepares undergraduate student nurses to wri te the nurs ing registration exam and to practice as a Regis tered Nurse ( R N A B C , 2000). • Insider act ion research - A systematic, d i sc ip l ined form o f reflective inqui ry , w h i c h enables educators to assume the role o f researcher, to improve practice and enhance student learning. Involves a c y c l i c process i n w h i c h research, act ion and evaluat ion overlap. It unites "the do ing and w o n d e r i n g " (Freeman, 1998, p. 3). 12 • C r i t i c a l th ink ing - A purposeful th ink ing process that embodies a cogni t ive and affective nature. "The ideal c r i t i ca l thinker is one w h o is habi tual ly inquis i t ive , we l l - in fo rmed , trustful o f reason, open-minded, f lexible , fa i r -minded i n evaluation, honest about facing personal biases, prudent i n m a k i n g judgements, w i l l i n g to reconsider, clear about issues, order ly i n complex matters, di l igent i n seeking relevant informat ion, reasonable i n the select ion o f cri teria, focused i n inqu i ry and persistent i n seeking results w h i c h are as precise as the subject and circumstances o f inqu i ry permi t" (Facione, Fac ione , & Sanchez, 1994, p. 345). • Ref lec t ion - A purposeful process o f introspective th ink ing about what one w i l l do, is do ing or about what one has done (Drevdahl , et a l . , 2002; Greenwood , 1993; Schon , 1983). • P rax i s - a process o f translating ideas into action, the act ion o f theory-based practice (ht tp: / /www.hyperdict ionary.com/dictonary) . • Educa t iona l Cyberspace - A vir tual rea lm where learners, teachers and content are connected v i a a computer. Cyberspace is a term co ined b y W i l l i a m G i b s o n (1984) that is c o m m o n l y referred to as the Net , the W e b or the Information Superhighway. Cyberspace is represented as a network o f computers that store data through w h i c h users can access informat ion (http://wordreference.com). • Lea rn ing Techno logy - A n instruct ional informat ion or communica t ion device , tool or so lu t ion used to advance knowledge and support pedagogica l practices (http://www.eddept.was.edu.au/t2000/ltdf.html). 1.12 Summary This chapter introduces the reader to Re f l ec t ion -Befo re -Ac t ion , the in i t i a l phase o f the reflective thought process. It also summarises the ident i f icat ion and gathering steps o f the first cyc l e o f this insider act ion research study. It begins w i t h an ove rv iew o f the factors that shape the need to conduct research and concludes w i t h a synopsis ou t l in ing the purpose, s ignif icance and l imita t ions o f the proposed research study. The identif ied issue presented i n this chapter, pertains to how, as a nurse-educator, I enhance the development o f undergraduate student nurses' c r i t ica l th ink ing i n educational cyberspace to assist them i n more readi ly integrate theory i n practice, 13 w h i l e I also unravel the connections I make between pedagogy, research and change. In the proceeding chapter, the reflective p rocess—Ref lec t ion-Before -Act ion—cont inues b y gathering and interpreting the relevant literature. A literature rev iew, i f presented w e l l , adds to an understanding o f a selected issue or p rob lem ( L o c k e , S i lve rman , Spirduso, 1998). It provides a summary and synthesis o f relevant literature va l ida t ing the rationale to pursue a scholar ly inqui ry . 14 C H A P T E R T W O — M A K I N G S E N S E O F T H E L I T E R A T U R E In l ine w i t h the spirit o f insider act ion research, the first step o f the action cyc le involves ident i fying the current situation and gaining an awareness o f the need for improvement o f aspects o f an educator's practice (Holter & Schwartz-Barcot t , 1993). In the preceding chapter, a synopsis is p rov ided o f m y dr ive to explore c r i t i ca l th ink ing i n educational cyberspace and to assume the role o f nurse-educator-researcher. In this chapter, Making Sense of the Literature, I describe the gathering and interpretation steps o f the first action research cyc le b y presenting a rev iew o f various areas o f literature that are pertinent to m y study. The search is l imi ted to cr i t ica l th inking , educational cyberspace design and act ion research. The purpose o f this chapter is to develop an interpretation o f the th ink ing i n each o f these areas, seeking to ga in a greater understanding o f what is k n o w n and not k n o w n , and to d iscover new possibi l i t ies , thereby l eg i t imis ing the rationale to pursue a scholar ly inqui ry . I first examine cr i t ica l th ink ing and h o w it has been the focus o f research. In the second and th i rd sections o f this chapter, I examine educational cyberspace design and act ion research. M u c h o f the rev iew is c r i t ica l i n nature for the purpose o f developing a research instrument and framework, w h i c h I describe i n detail i n Chapters Three and Four respectively. 2.1 Critical Thinking The number o f articles i n scholar ly journals and texts, i nc lud ing books specific to cr i t ica l t h ink ing i n nurs ing ( A l f a r o - L e F e v r e , 1995; M i l l e r & B a b c o c k , 1996; Rubenfe ld & Scheffer, 1995; S i m p s o n & Courtney, 2002) provide an unrelenting ver i f ica t ion o f the widespread interest i n c r i t ica l th ink ing . In nursing, B a k e r (1996), G l e n (1995), and Hendr icks -Thomas and Patterson (1995) identif ied the epis temological shift i n nursing education as an impetus for the interest i n c r i t i ca l th ink ing . D a l y (1998), F o w l e r (1998), Jones and B r o w n (1991), N e l m s and L a n e (1999), and Schank (1990) concurred but also stated that the catalyst to this interest p r imar i l y relates to a rap id ly changing and complex health care environment and the need for nurses to be master cr i t ica l thinkers. Sound nurs ing practice is founded upon sound th inking . Nurses are required to construct nurs ing care based on the needs o f clients, c l ient-by-cl ient ( D a l y , 1998). Ros s igno l (1997) extol led such observations b y c l a i m i n g , "nurs ing practice requires creative, personalised solutions to client circumstances"(p. 476). Pau l and Heas l ip (1995) further posited that fa i l ing to 15 understand that each client 's circumstance is unique might result i n " . . .practice performed automat ical ly without care, v ig i l ance and cr i t ic i sm"(p . 40). Three significant patterns emerge f rom the literature relevant to this study and these w i l l be discussed i n the f o l l o w i n g sections. 2.1.1 A Definition of Critical Thinking The first pattern reveals that there is no single accepted def in i t ion o f c r i t i ca l th ink ing apparent i n the literature. A c c o r d i n g l y , K a t o a k a - Y a h i r o and Say lo r (1994) and M c M i l l a n (1987) wrote that an overt omiss ion i n the research related to cr i t ica l th ink ing , " i s a c o m m o n def ini t ion o f c r i t i ca l t h i n k i n g " (p. 3). The D e l p h i report ( A m e r i c a n P s y c h o l o g i c a l Assoc i a t i on , 1990) p rov ided substantial insight about what c r i t ica l t h ink ing is and is not, yet the lack o f a consensual universal def ini t ion and the inconsistent appl icat ion o f c r i t ica l t h ink ing s t i l l pervades the nurs ing literature as a concern (Boychuk-Duchsche r , 2003; D a l y , 2001 ; G o r d o n , 2000; Rane-Szostak & Robers ton, 1996). The concept o f c r i t i ca l th ink ing has a m y r i a d o f conceptual and operational definit ions that range f rom be ing specif ic , p r i m a r i l y cogni t ive i n nature and l imi t ed i n scope, to broader definit ions embody ing both the cogni t ive and affective domains . T o add to the complex i ty surrounding cr i t i ca l th ink ing , several shared terms are also associated w i t h c r i t i ca l th ink ing . B r o o k f i e l d (1987) l isted cr i t ica l analysis, c r i t ica l awareness, c r i t i ca l consciousness, and cr i t ica l ref lect ion as terms used interchangeably w i t h c r i t i ca l t h ink ing i n discussions about cr i t ica l t h ink ing and i n instruments to measure this concept. S i m p s o n and Cour tney (2002) and G o r d o n (2000) observed that the terms such as p rob lem so lv ing , creative th ink ing , nurs ing process and c l i n i c a l dec i s ion m a k i n g are used synonymous ly w i t h c r i t i ca l th ink ing . D e w e y (1916) presented cr i t ica l t h ink ing as compr i s ing the suspension o f judgement and healthy scept ic ism. K u r f i s s (1988) asserted that c r i t i ca l t h ink ing was "an invest igat ion whose purpose is to explore a situation, phenomenon, question, or p rob lem to arrive at a hypothesis or conc lus ion about it that integrates a l l available informat ion and that can therefore be c o n v i n c i n g l y jus t i f i ed" (p.2). She v i ewed cr i t ica l th ink ing as a fo rm o f p rob lem so lv ing , w i t h p rob lem so lv ing be ing narrower i n scope. In contrast, M e y e r s (1991) stated that c r i t ica l th ink ing proceeds beyond p rob lem so lv ing . Rather than seeking a specific outcome, M e y e r s (1991) perce ived cr i t ica l t h ink ing as centred on ra is ing questions from a l l perspectives and cr i t iqu ing solutions. Ga r l and (1991) l isted elements o f c r i t ica l t h ink ing as i nc lud ing the ab i l i ty to: "differentiate between fact and op in ion , compare and contrast points o f v i e w , recognise and 16 evaluate author bias, rhetoric and faulty log ic , determine cause and effect, and the va l id i t y and re l i ab i l i ty o f the informat ion presented, and appreciate and tolerate ambigu i ty" (p. 447). Bi t tner and T o b i n (1998) and L i p m a n and Dea t r ick (1997) saw c l i n i c a l dec i s ion m a k i n g as a systematic process o f assessment, act ion, evaluat ion and judgement m a k i n g that contributes to the attainment o f a desired outcome. H o w e v e r , they aff irmed that to arrive at the desired outcome, embracing the use o f c r i t i ca l th ink ing is a requisite to c l i n i c a l dec i s ion mak ing . E n n i s (1985) saw cr i t i ca l t h ink ing as a "pract ical act ivi ty , reflective and reasonable th ink ing that is focused on what to bel ieve or d o " (p.45). S iege l (1980) be l ieved a c r i t i ca l attitude or spirit is necessary, i n addi t ion to cogni t ive abi l i ty , and includes the "wi l l ingness , commitment , and d ispos i t ion to develop the habits o f i n q u i r y " (p.9). M c P e c k (1981) inferred that c r i t i ca l t h ink ing involves both a "propensi ty and s k i l l to engage i n an ac t iv i ty w i t h reflective scept ic ism and that one must develop the d ispos i t ion to use those s k i l l s " (p.8). S i m i l a r l y , Wa t son and Glaser (1980) v i e w e d cr i t ica l t h ink ing as a "composi te o f attitudes, knowledge , and sk i l l s . . . . " ( p . l ) . At t i tude , according to Wat son and Glaser (1980), referred to a frame o f m i n d , an approach o f intel lectual cur ios i ty that recognises exis t ing problems. B r o o k f i e l d (1987) agreed and c l a imed that c r i t ica l t h ink ing is a process rather than an outcome. In this way , B r o o k f i e l d (1987) expla ined that a cr i t ica l thinker cont inual ly questions assumptions: A productive and positive activity, a process, not an outcome, manifested in various ways, according to context triggered by both positive and negative events, emotive as well as rational, a lived activity, not an abstract academic pastime, (pp. 5-7) B r o o k f i e l d (1987) ident i f ied the components o f c r i t ica l t h ink ing as " iden t i fy ing and chal lenging assumptions, cha l lenging the importance o f context, imag in ing and exp lor ing alternatives, and reflective scept ic ism. It is something w e a l l do, though its frequency, and the c red ib i l i ty w e grant it, vary from person to person" (p. 14). P a u l (1992) defined cr i t ica l t h ink ing as the "art o f th ink ing about your th ink ing w h i l e y o u are th ink ing i n order to make your th ink ing better..." (p.643) and suggested that it is based on a set o f intel lectual standards. " T h i n k i n g that does not embody elements o f reason or intel lectual standards is pseudo cr i t i ca l t h i n k i n g " (Paul , 1993, p. 47). P a u l (1993) v i e w e d cr i t ica l th ink ing as the "essential foundation for education because it is an essential foundation for adaptation to the 17 everyday personal , soc ia l and professional demands o f the twenty-first century and thereafter" (p. x i ) . A l t h o u g h these definit ions reflect d is t inguishing features, c o m m o n elements are also evident. C r i t i c a l t h ink ing can c lear ly be associated w i t h elements such as knowledge , beliefs, complex reasoning, in tui t ion, appl icat ion and env i s ion ing alternative frames o f references and possibi l i t ies (Da ly , 1998; S i m p s o n & Courtney, 2002). A variety o f tests have been developed to measure c r i t i ca l th ink ing , i n c l u d i n g the C a l i f o r n i a C r i t i c a l T h i n k i n g S k i l l s Test, the C o r n e l l C r i t i c a l T h i n k i n g Test, and the Wat son-Glaser C r i t i c a l T h i n k i n g A p p r a i s a l Test. H o w e v e r , questions have been raised about whether such instruments can measure the concept wi thout a concise def ini t ion, pos ing significant challenges i n their r e l i ab i l i ty and va l id i ty ( A n g e l et a l . , 2000). Pless and C l a y t o n (1993) further supported this not ion. These authors be l ieved, i n part, that standardised tests exc lus ive ly measure the cogni t ive doma in o f c r i t i ca l th ink ing , fa i l ing to recognise its affective counterpart. Numerous studies have been conducted that i nvo lve the measurement o f c r i t i ca l th ink ing . Gross , Takazawa , and Rose (1987), M i l l e r (1992), Nota r iann i (1991), Pascarel la , B o h r , N o r a and Terenz in i (1996), and Pepa, B r o w n and A l v e r s o n (1997) a l l measured c r i t i ca l t h ink ing and academic preparation. A d a m s , Stover and W h i t l o w (1999), Bauwens and Gerhard (1987), Berger (1984), M c C a r t h y , Schuster, Zehr and M c D o u g a l (1999) and P ro fe t t o -McGra th (1998) measured cr i t i ca l t h ink ing and curr icular impact. C r i t i c a l t h ink ing and academic success were investigated and measured b y Bauwens and Gerhard (1987), F reder ickson (1979), Gross et a l . , (1987) and M i l l e r (1992). M a n y o f these results o f these were m i x e d , inc luded inconsistent f indings, and often contradicted each other. V i d e b e c k (1997) proposed that one o f the contr ibut ing factors leading to these inconsistencies was the lack o f a universa l def in i t ion o f c r i t i ca l th ink ing . V i d e b e c k (1997) found that among a majori ty o f f if ty-five A m e r i c a n nurs ing programs targeted i n her study, most framed their def ini t ion o f c r i t i ca l t h ink ing f rom var ious sources and used both standardised and loca l ly -deve loped instrumentation to assess c r i t i ca l th ink ing . 2.1.2 Educational Paradigms in Nursing Education A second pattern emerging f rom the literature reveals a subtle shift o f educational paradigms i n nurs ing education. U n t i l recently, nurs ing cur r icu la and learning technologies have been a l igned w i t h a tradit ional , behaviourist paradigm, a separatist ph i losophy (D iecke lmann & Rather, 1993). In this v i e w , knowledge is v i e w e d as abstract and is first acquired through external processes rather than internal processes. The knowledge is then appl ied, w i t h the 18 assumption that the acquired knowledge can be appl ied i n any situation. Teachers impart knowledge w h i l e learners recal l what they have learned and f o l l o w instruct ion, l i m i t i n g the development o f c r i t i ca l th ink ing . In contrast, an integrative ph i losophy ( D i e c k e l m a n n & Rather, 1993) emphasises the interdependent relat ionship between knowledge and appl icat ion. A col laborat ive relat ionship exists between teacher and learner, broadening the development o f cr i t ica l th ink ing . Thus , knowledge is v i e w e d as contextual , "the ab i l i ty to use theory and/or knowledge effect ively across a var iety o f c l i n i c a l settings" (Bowers & M c C a r t h y , 1993, p. 107). The importance o f context was supported b y B e v i s (1993); Hals tead, Ra ins , B o l a n d and M a y (1996), L i n d e m a n (2000), and R o l f e (1998). In recent years, there has been an increasing interest among nurse educators i n the fundamental pr inciples o f many educational theories, par t icular ly cons t ruc t iv ism. Pedagogica l impl ica t ions o f const ruct iv ism include a natural aff ini ty w i t h l i f e long learning and cr i t ica l th inking—essent ia l competencies o f a graduate nurse (Peters, 2000; S i m o n , 2001 ; Sk iba , 1997). Cons t ruc t iv i sm is grounded i n the works o f prominent ind iv idua l s such as Bruner (1986, 1990), Piaget (1928), and V y g o t s k y (1978). The fundamental epis temologica l assumption o f cons t ruc t iv ism is that knowledge is a product o f h o w ind iv idua ls create mean ing f rom their experiences (B la i s , 1988; T o b i n & T ipp ins , 1993). The constructivist sense o f learning is not mere ly attending to, and approaching, the correct v i e w o f reali ty, but engaging and interacting w i t h the surrounding environment to create a personal w o r l d v i e w . Conceptua l ly , "construct ivis t ic theory suggests that one has to experience the w o r l d to k n o w i t " (Peters, 2000, p.167). Oermann (1997) stated that "c r i t i ca l t h ink ing is not developed through one lecture, nor one c l i n i c a l experience, instead, s k i l l i n th ink ing develops over t i m e . . . " (p. 25). Impl i c i t l y , "c r i t i ca l t h ink ing then becomes a da i l y experience" (El l io t t , 1996, p . 49), a w a y o f being. Construct ivis ts bel ieve that learners come to the learning si tuation w i t h p rev ious ly acquired knowledge f rom other learning experiences. T h i s pr ior knowledge affects what new knowledge learners w i l l construct f rom the new learning situation. Therefore, meaning-making , constructivists concur, is the ult imate a i m o f learning (Jonassen, D a v i d s o n , C o l l i n s , C a m p b e l l & H a a g , 1995). M e a n i n g - m a k i n g requires art iculat ion and reflect ion, both are proponents o f c r i t ica l th ink ing . A r t i c u l a t i o n and reflect ion i nvo lve internal, as w e l l as soc ia l , negotiat ion. " W e debate, wrestle and argue w i t h ourselves [and] w i t h each other ... meaning is the understanding that is der ived f rom these processes" (Jonassen et a l . , 1995, p. 12). Johnson and Johnson (1991) based the cooperative or the col laborat ive learning parad igm on a no t ion that power structure i n a 19 learning environment shifts toward a more active and egalitarian one from a compet i t ive , passive one. A c c o r d i n g to these authors, cooperative or col laborat ive learning fosters soc ia l interdependence. T h e y posi ted that i f ind iv idua ls w o r k e d together to achieve mutual goals, success is the outcome for a l l those i nvo lved . F a g i n (1992) and Senge (1990) mainta ined that col laborat ion among health professionals is as essential as c r i t i ca l th ink ing . Thus , it seems log ica l that nurs ing education fosters col laborat ive learning. A series o f constructivist learning technologies to foster c r i t ica l t h ink ing has been the focus o f numerous nurs ing education citations. The most prominent inc lude p rob lem, case or inquiry-based learning, role-play, journa l w r i t i n g and narrative. F ind ings f rom these studies offer variable, inconsistent and conf l ic t ing results. E x p l i c i t l y , the inconsistent and conf l ic t ing results are part ly due to the use o f differ ing sampl ing populat ions and methodologies . W h i t e , A m o s , and K o u z e k a n a n i (1999) conducted a m i x e d method study evaluat ing the effectiveness o f problem-based learning ( P B L ) . Twenty- four registered nurses ( R N s ) , part icipat ing i n a course us ing P B L , were asked to evaluate the course us ing a researcher-developed questionnaire designed to sol ic i t learning outcomes w i t h open-ended questions. The outcomes identif ied b y the study participants inc luded cr i t i ca l th ink ing , learning to learn, col laborat ion, and personal growth. Comparable results were suggested i n the study b y D e M a r c o et a l . (2002). These authors conducted a qualitative study evaluat ing the experiences o f senior-l eve l nurs ing students us ing case-based instruction. O v e r a 10-week term, participants w o r k e d through one hour, w e e k l y case-based learning experiences us ing smal l group work . Seven students were in terv iewed over the 10-week t ime frame. S i x thematic groupings emerged as distinct experiences and inc luded "cr i t ica l th ink ing , s t imulat ion o f th ink ing from a who le perspective, experimentat ion w i t h solutions, refraining problems, changed th ink ing , mul t ip le perspectives" (p. 169). In contrast, Magnussen , Ishida and Itano (2000) sought to measure the effects o f inqui ry-based learning ( I B L ) on c r i t i ca l th ink ing . The purpose o f the study was to determine i f I B L enhances cr i t ica l t h ink ing after the exposure to I B L . The n e w l y admitted undergraduate student nurses o f 1991 were the subjects o f this study. T h e y participated over a per iod o f four years, beg inn ing i n the spr ing 1991 semester un t i l the fa l l 1995 semester. The Watson-Glase r (1980) cr i t ica l t h ink ing appraisal was administered to the 228 participants dur ing their first semester and to 257 participants i n their f inal semesters o f the program. O f this number, 150 were paired 20 scores col lected f rom the same student. F ind ings resulted i n no statistical difference between the two scores, w i t h the except ion o f students w h o were i n i t i a l l y l o w at the onset. Jenkins and T u r i c k - G i b s o n (1999) examined ro le-play and cr i t i ca l th ink ing . U s i n g a quali tat ive approach, the authors surveyed a lumni over a three-year per iod . A l u m n i responses were general ly pos i t ive suggesting role-plays were effective i n p romot ing c r i t i ca l th ink ing and app ly ing knowledge gained to their practice. Y e t , Christ iaens and B a l d w i n (2002) cite l imitat ions to ro le -p lay that inc lude disengagement i n the ac t iv i ty as it is not perce ived as real or f ind ing role p l ay "embarrassing, in t imida t ing or outside o f his/her personal or cul tural comfort zone" (p. 251). T o overcome these l imita t ions , Christ iaens and B a l d w i n (2002) proposed c o m b i n i n g role-p l ay and cooperative learning. " W o r k i n g w i t h a partner makes it dif f icul t for students.. .to choose not to par t ic ipate . . .and [they] m a y feel less in t imida ted" (p. 251) . Support us ing c l i n i c a l narratives, s torytel l ing and jou rna l w r i t i n g emphasise the effectiveness o f the narrative and reflective practices approach as a learning technology to foster c r i t i ca l th ink ing (Baker , 1996; Cooper , 2000; Geanel los , 1996; Haffer & Raingruber , 1998; H e i n r i c h , 1992; Ironside, 1999a, 1999b; K i r k p a t r i c k , F o r d & Caste l loe , 1997; Swenson & S ims , 2000). A recent study conducted b y K h o k and C h u b e l i (2002) sought to determine the effectiveness o f reflective journa l w r i t i n g i n p romot ing the reflective th ink ing o f seventeen, fourth-year undergraduate student nurses i n a psychiatr ic c l i n i c a l practice placement over a s ix -month per iod. E m p l o y i n g a quali tat ive, contextual , explorat ive, descript ive research design, the authors' results were m i x e d . A c c o r d i n g l y , the authors suggested that self-evaluation led to intel lectual g rowth and self-awareness, ind ica t ing a posi t ive perception. H o w e v e r , reported negative perceptions were that reflective jou rna l w r i t i n g was t ime consuming and cha l lenging wi thout clear guidelines and expectations. The authors conc luded that jou rna l wr i t i ng does promote c r i t i ca l th ink ing and the use o f the developed guidel ines w i l l m i n i m i s e the negative perceptions. W h i l e it appears nurse educators have w i d e l y accepted the educational benefits o f c l i n i c a l narratives, s torytel l ing and journa l wr i t ing , research into these learning technologies is m i n i m a l and hampered b y the lack o f rel iable and w i d e l y accepted methods for assessing c r i t i ca l th ink ing . 2.1.3 Educational Cyberspace A third pattern emerging f rom the literature reveals educators turning to educational cyberspace. Recen t ly , newer informat ion technologies have emerged, resul t ing i n the expansion 21 o f learner control , more opportunities for dialogue i n asynchronous and synchronous modes, and an emphasis o n cr i t ica l t h ink ing sk i l l s . Lea rn ing technologies such as the Internet, interactive te levis ion, and advances i n te lecommunica t ion have created a more learner-centred environment for learning (Bates, 1995; Bischof f , B isconer , K o o k e r & W o o d s , 1996; G r a v e l e y & Ful le r ton , 1998; Land i s & W a i n w r i g h t , 1996; M a l l o w & G i l j e , 1999; N a i d u & O l i v e r , 1996; W a m b a c h , et. a l . , 1999). There are two major classif ications o f research that focus o n educational cyberspace i n nurs ing education. The first c lass i f icat ion is studies measuring the eff icacy o f the technology as a cogni t ive tool . The f indings o f this body o f research infer no significant difference i n learning outcomes between educational cyberspace and face-to-face learning environments ( D e A m i c i s , 1997; K n o w l e s , 2001 ; Leeseberg-Stamler et a l . , 1999; N a p h o l z & M c C a n s e , 1994; Saranto et a l . , 1997; S imons et a l . , 2001 ; Thie le et a l . , 1999). N o significant difference and inconsistent f indings are also prevalent i n the computer-assisted learning literature. F o r example , Gi lbe r t and K o l a c z (1993) explored the effectiveness o f computer-assisted instruct ion ( C A I ) w i t h small-group rev iew as a supplement to teaching calculat ions. The sample consisted o f 127 first-semester student nurses enrol led i n an associate nurs ing degree program. The subjects were r andomly assigned to either the C A I or small-group rev iew supplemental instruct ion groups. A faculty-constructed 20- i tem exam was administered to both groups after two weeks o f rece iv ing 50 minutes o f the supplemental instruction i n calculat ions. A n analysis o f covariance o f the scores o f both groups revealed no significant difference. W o n g et a l . , (1992) sought to explore the eff icacy o f computer-s imula t ion as a strategy for evaluat ing dec i s ion m a k i n g among undergraduate student nurses w h e n formulat ing care plans. A c o m m e r c i a l l y prepared computer-assisted s imula t ion was implemented i n a course for th i rd year student nurses and used over a per iod o f one semester. D a t a were col lected us ing a facul ty-developed eight-i tem questionnaire at the end o f the semester. S ix ty- four per cent o f the participants perceived the computer-s imulat ion as posi t ive . H o w e v e r , 7 5 % o f the participants found it t ime-consuming. A p p r o x i m a t e l y 5 0 % o f the participants perce ived it to be inferior to the tradit ional wri t ten method. Rouse (2000) examined the effectiveness o f computer-assisted learning i n teaching undergraduate student nurses about congenital heart disease. The study compared three groups o f students enrol led i n a paediatric nurs ing course. The first group o f students received a tradit ional lecture, w h i l e the second group was exposed to the computer-assisted learning strategy. The third group received a combina t ion o f both lecture and computer-22 assisted learning. Differences between the groups' pre and post-scores on a twenty- i tem mul t ip le -choice test were analysed us ing variance analysis procedures. The authors reported a significant improvement i n scores for a l l groups, no significant difference between the lecture group and the computer-assisted learning group but a significant difference i n the combina t ion group. The findings o f this study inferred that when used together, t radit ional learning and computer-assisted learning can prov ide an improvement i n learning over w h e n either is used separately. Impl i c i t l y , factors such as students' learning styles, learning paradigms, satisfaction and comfort level w i t h the educational cyberspace d i rec t ly affected these findings ( E a k i n , B r a d y & L u s k , 2001 ; E f fken & D o y l e , 2001 ; Ross & Tuov inen , 2001 ; Schweizer , 1999). Nevertheless, educational cyberspace provides some learners w i t h another avenue for learning. The feasibi l i ty o f technology as an interactive, col laborat ive learning tool is the second major c lass i f icat ion o f studies o f educational cyberspace. E m e r g i n g f rom the literature are c la ims that suggest computer-mediated communica t ion enhances the development o f c r i t i ca l t h ink ing i n educational cyberspace. Asynchronous computer-mediated communica t i on is ci ted as the most c o m m o n form o f communica t ion i n educational cyberspace. N a i d u and O l i v e r (1996) explored the potential i ty o f a computer-mediated communica t ion environment to introduce problem-based learning i n order to stimulate c r i t i ca l ref lect ion among student nurses. In a study cover ing a per iod o f 16 weeks, 80 fourth-year baccalaureate student nurses were assigned to four groups. E a c h case situation, based on a selected topic, required the student nurses to post their reflections o n the m a i l i n g list so that the group members c o u l d also share their opin ions . U s i n g factor analysis o f a l l students' transcripts, the authors found that students reflected and c r i t i ca l ly discussed the case w i t h peers, and identif ied possible solutions together w i t h i n the distributed learning environment. Student feedback also suggested that they va lued be ing able to read, to discuss their peers' opin ions and to w o r k together to identify solutions to the cases. A n d r u s y s z y n et a l . (1999) examined computer-conferencing i n a graduate nurse course as a means to support ref lect ion and meaningful interactions. The sample consisted o f ten graduate student nurses and three faculty members. A researcher-designed a 20- i tem Liker t - sca le evaluat ion form was used to obtain informat ion about student and faculty perceptions regarding computer conferencing, learning and the degree o f interaction between facul ty and student, and student and student. Descr ip t ive statistical methods were used. Student and facul ty responses indicated that computer conferencing fostered a learning environment and promoted posi t ive " soc i a l construct ion o f k n o w l e d g e " (p.5). E x p l i c i t l y , the authors suggest v i e w i n g their f indings 23 w i t h discret ion, as they were anecdotal i n nature. Despi te this warn ing , this study infers that asynchronous computer-mediated communica t i on 1 is a learning technology that can facilitate interaction and cr i t i ca l th ink ing . Studies focusing o n synchronous computer-mediated communica t i on focus o n the use o f mult i -user domains or mult i-object-oriented domains . M u l t i - U s e r D o m a i n s ( M U D s ) and M u l t i -Object-Oriented D o m a i n s ( M O O s ) are text-based, v i r tua l environments i n w h i c h synchronous communica t ion takes place between players logged o n at the same t ime, assuming a part icular role or character. The players use specific commands to wri te text that describes objects such as characters, rooms, and things that create space. The players interact w i t h , manipulate, or construct the story based o n the interaction. Or , they m a y s i m p l y talk w i t h each other i n the created spaces w i t h text. The commands also a l l ow players to d iscover w h o else is currently logged on, to name and describe themselves, to communica te w i t h other players, and to wr i te text convey ing non- l inguis t ic cues such as emotions, phys i ca l appearance and actions. Fander la i (1996), H o l e t o n (1998) L o o i (1999), L o o i and A n g (2000), and M u r r a y (2000) a l l c l a imed that the types o f activit ies that can be created for a M O O or M U D are l im i t ed o n l y b y the imaginat ion o f the teachers and learners. M o r e o v e r , Fander la i (1996) noted that the m e d i u m for w h i c h M O O s and M U D s are designed provides constructivist-supported learning environments, is interactive and requires a h i g h leve l o f th ink ing sk i l l s to p lay. O n l y n o w is empi r i ca l research i n the educational literature beg inn ing to document this new learning technology. I turn next to the literature o n instruct ional design, development and de l ivery o f educational cyberspace. 2.2 Design and Delivery of Educational Cyberspace It is diff icul t to ascertain the exact date o f the adopt ion o f cyberspace as a v iable m e d i u m for learning. Y e t , the literature contains numerous citations offering its unparal le led propensi ty to revolut ionise higher education (Bates, 1995; H a r a s i m , H i l t z , Teles & Turoff , 1995; Kears ley , 2000). E a r l y jou rna l citations p r imar i l y feature the novel ty o f educational cyberspace, often leading educators to j u m p on the bandwagon ' (Thurmond , 2002). In these cases, technology appears to emerge as a p ivo ta l d r iv ing force toward cu r r i cu lum development rather than ' Computer-mediated communication refers to human communication via computers and includes many different forms. The term asynchronous is usually used to describe communication which data can be transmitted intermittently rather than in a steady stream or in real-time. Definition taken from http://www.webopedia.com 2 Computer-mediated communication refers to human communication via computers and includes many different forms. The term synchronous is usually used to describe communication which data can be transmitted in real-time rather than intermittently. Definition taken from http://www.webopedia.com 24 ph i losoph ica l and pedagogical pr inciples . Educators s i m p l y added content to the educational cyberspace environment attempting to simulate the face-to-face environment o n l y to capitalise on the potential o f educational cyberspace as a learning technology. Sternberger (2002) posi ted that "there is an assumption that, because word-process ing software can save documents i n hypertext mark-up language, a course i n [educational cyberspace] requires litt le preparat ion" (p. 170). Th i s imp l i ca t i on raised concerns among leaders i n educational cyberspace, i nc lud ing Bates (1995, 2000), B i l l i n g s (1999, 2000), Cheek, G i l l h a m and M i l l s (1998), H a r a s i m et a l . , (1995), and L a u r i l l a r d (1993). Wi thou t thoughtful ref lect ion on the choice o f the instruct ional f ramework or the de l ivery approach and their d is t inguishing features, op t imal learning can be jeopardised. Sternberger' (2002) summarised that "congruence between instruct ional methods and the med ia is a must for a successful des ign" (p. 170). The more recent articles reveal a shift toward purposeful dec i s ion m a k i n g as it relates to instructional design and de l ive ry o f educational cyberspace. It is t ime to m o v e beyond ask ing i f educational cyberspace is an acceptable m e d i u m to ask ing h o w best to use it ( M c B e a t h & Siragusa, 2000; Ross & Tuov inen , 2001). 2.2.1 Educational Cyberspace Delivery Approaches There are three de l ive ry approaches to educational cyberspace: the remote c lassroom, the systems-based independent study, and the ne twork-mul t i -media approach (Bates, 1995). O f the three prominent de l ive ry approaches o f educational cyberspace, the remote c lass room and the systems-based independent study approaches have been u t i l i sed extensively. The network mu l t imed ia approach i n educational cyberspace is i n its infancy. It is important, however , to note that each approach has a set o f dis t inct ive characteristics. C o m p a r i n g the approaches, it is apparent that each o f their perceived l imita t ions can also be v i e w e d as part icular strengths. In a remote c lassroom approach, cyberspace is used to re-create a v i r tua l alternate c lassroom for a sma l l group o f learners at a remote site v i a videoconference. The educator provides instruct ional mater ial i n real-time. Teach ing and learning i n the remote c lassroom is frequently i n concert w i t h activit ies i n a regular face-to-face c lassroom. The under ly ing strength o f this approach can be attributed to its ab i l i ty to increase access to educat ion and its 'real-time' ab i l i ty to del iver educational content to learners, geographical ly dispersed, w h o c o u l d otherwise not attend the univers i ty or col lege setting sponsoring the offered course. M o r e o v e r , it also provides the poss ib i l i ty for interaction among peers at each o f the different satellite sites 25 (Kears ley , 1986). W r i g h t and Cordeaux (1996) demonstrated that col laborat ive w o r k among learners was possible w h i l e us ing this approach. Lea rn ing is de l ivered to a group o f learners rather than to an ind iv idua l . The didact ic , lecture format is employed , resul t ing i n a more teacher-centred learning environment. T h i s approach can be cost ly, not par t icular ly user-fr iendly and create t ime delays w h i l e informat ion is be ing transmitted to the distant sites. Learners at the different sites often are required to sit i n specific seating arrangements as it is diff icul t to ' zoom in ' o n i nd iv idua l faces (Lochte , 1993). Despi te the l i ve , spontaneous nature o f the remote c lassroom, this m a y be perce ived as decreasing the f l ex ib i l i t y o f the 'any t ime, any place ' learning phenomenon o f educational cyberspace that the systems-based independent study or the networked mu l t imed ia approaches offer. The systems-based independent study approach ( S B I S ) , learners are free f rom the t ime and place restrictions o f the remote c lass room approach. Learners study independently at a t ime and place that suits their schedules. Learners are p rov ided w i t h a var ie ty o f instruct ional materials and access to an educator v i a telephone, facs imi le or electronic m a i l . E x p l i c i t l y , the strength o f the S B I S approach is its i nd iv idua l , learner-centred feature. It provides learners w i t h the ab i l i ty to control port ions o f the learning process. The approach removes the hindrances o f t ime and place, resul t ing i n the f l ex ib i l i t y o f learning 'any t ime and any place ' (Richey , 1986). The approach's instruct ional design and development approach are also v i s ib l e elements o f its ut i l i ty . U s i n g a team and a front-end (Bates, 1995) approach, careful attention is g iven to ensure that learners m o v e through the mater ial i n a self-directed manner. H i s to r i c a l l y , an objective and behaviouris t approach is f i rm ly established w i t h i n the systems-based independent approach. A s a result, learners w o r k e d pass ive ly through predetermined content, wi thout m u c h r o o m for personal meaning, col laborat ion and reflection. T h e predominant means o f interaction occurs between teacher and learner. T h i s type o f interaction often creates a sense o f socia l i so la t ion for the learner. Despi te the v a l i d i t y o f the p lann ing and evaluat ion approach taken at the onset o f the part icular project, f o l l o w i n g a systems-based independent study approach can be perceived as ve ry t ime consuming . The ne tworked mul t imed ia approach emerged i n the early 1990s from the convergence o f four learning technologies: the Internet, mul t imedia , computer-mediated communica t ion , and computer-assisted learning (Haras im et a l , 1995). Learners study both independently and co l labora t ive ly at a t ime and place that suits their schedules. Learners are p rov ided w i t h a variety o f instruct ional materials accessible v i a the Internet and interact w i t h peers v i a computer-26 mediated communica t ion . Learners can also access an educator v i a telephone, facs imile , electronic m a i l or computer-mediated communica t ion . The under ly ing strength o f the ne tworked m u l t i m e d i a approach is its col laborat ive, learner-centred approach, emphasis ing Laur i l la rd ' s (1993) interact ivi ty concept. It also capitalises on a constructivist and a resource-based perspective as opposed to the passive, didactic nature o f the remote c lass room approach (Dorr & Seel , 1997). Bates (1995, 2000) contends that lit t le attention has fal len o n the network m u l t i m e d i a approach because o f its emerging nature. 2.2.2 Purposeful Decision Making Previous literature on evaluat ion o f educational cyberspace, especia l ly dur ing the design and development phases, has focused predominant ly o n the summat ive fo rm o f evaluat ion (Manias , B u l l o c k & Bennett , 2000). W h i l e summative evaluat ion is essential to determine learning outcomes, informat ion gathered for formative evaluat ion greatly informs decisions made dur ing the design and development phases o f a learning technology for educational cyberspace (Alexander & Hedberg , 1994). Instructional design is a process that invo lves p lann ing for and evaluat ing factors that d i rect ly influence learning so it can be thoroughly facili tated (Bates, 2000; Re ise r & Dempsey , 2002; Schweizer , 1999). V e n e z k y and O s i n (1991) and Bates (2000) underscored the relevance o f a gu id ing dec i s ion-making framework or m o d e l to successful ly p lan and evaluate the design o f educational cyberspace. The educational literature is r i c h w i t h articles on instruct ional design models or gu id ing frameworks. U n d e r l y i n g each m o d e l or f ramework is va ry ing ph i losoph ica l and epis temologica l underpinnings (Kears ley , 2000). M a n y o f these models or frameworks f o l l o w a l inear approach to design. F o r example , R o m i s z o w s k i (1992) created a step-by step linear, systems approach to dec i s ion mak ing . Th i s is the most tradit ional , characterised as reflect ing a behaviouris t perspective. The focus is narrow and focuses so le ly o n content del ivery. Other models or frameworks offer an open and f lexible approach. L a u r i l l a r d (1993) proposed a conversat ional framework, framed w i t h i n a cogni t ive perspective. She argued that dec is ion m a k i n g should emphasise academic dialogue between teacher-learner and learner-learner. Bates (2000) presented a more hol i s t ic , constructivist framework. K e a r s l e y (2000) argued that a constructivist rather than an objective approach i n design and de l ive ry is better suited for educational cyberspace. Bates (2000) out l ined a pract ical , question-oriented f ramework ca l led A C T I O N S that consists o f seven categories. The first category is access i n w h i c h access ib i l i ty o f the part icular 27 learning technology is assessed. Asses s ing the cost o f the overa l l infrastructure o f the part icular learning technology is the intent o f the second category. C h o o s i n g the appropriate epis temological tradit ion, perspectives on teaching, theory o f learning and instruct ional design comprise the th i rd category, teaching and learning. The fourth category consists o f assessing the degree o f interact ivi ty and the user-friendly nature o f the learning technology. Organisat ional issues such as the development approach, de l ive ry method, student and faculty support and inst i tut ional context are the focus o f the fifth category. N o v e l t y and speed are the s ix and seventh categories, respectively. The a i m is to analyse the newness o f the learning technology and h o w q u i c k l y it can be implemented w i t h i n the infrastructure o f the organisat ion. Correspondingly , i n the nurs ing literature, there are articles related to purposeful dec is ion m a k i n g that address learning technologies for educational cyberspace design, development and del ivery . B i l l i n g s (2000) underscored the importance o f a dec i s ion m a k i n g framework as be ing h o w "an understanding o f the complex i ty o f teaching and learning i n [educational cyberspace] can be facili tated b y a framework that specifies the variables and their re la t ionships" (p. 60). B i l l i n g s (2000) developed a framework that spec i f ica l ly addresses instruct ional design for educational cyberspace. Th i s framework consists o f f ive concepts i nc lud ing outcomes, educational practices, faculty and learner support and the use o f technology. B i l l i n g s , Connors and S k i b a (2001) tested this f ramework to determine best practices. D a t a were col lected from 219 students enrol led i n educational cyberspace i n three universi t ies . The questionnaire consisted o f f if ty-two questions that were clustered into fourteen themes. F ind ings reported that convenience, accessibi l i ty , computer prof ic iency, active learning, interact ion and connect iv i ty w i t h faculty and peers were factors that enhanced a pos i t ive learning outcome i n educational cyberspace. C o m p a t i b i l i t y between appropriate pedagogical pr inc ip les and learning outcomes was also demonstrated. W i t h results f rom their research, B i l l i n g s et a l . (2001) developed a set o f standards that can determine best practices and can be used as a gu id ing framework i n educational cyberspace design. These f indings are consistent w i t h the th ink ing o f D e B o u r g h (2001), Koecker i t s , M a l k i e w i c z and Henderson (2000) and Sternberger (2002). Koecher i t s et a l . (2000) proposed that C h i c k e r i n g and Gamson 's (1987) ground-breaking seven pr inciples o f good practice i n undergraduate education can be easi ly appl ied to educational cyberspace. In redesigning a tradit ional face-to-face course into a dynamic and interactive course for educational cyberspace, Sternberger (2002) used both C h i c k e r i n g and Gamson 's (1987) seven pr inc ip les o f good practice 28 and Jeffries' (2000) hyper learning mode l . She conc luded that the process o f embedding pedagogical pr inc ip les into the infrastructure o f educational cyberspace supports op t imal learning. Centra l to that success was congruency between these pr inc ip les and the chosen media , a long w i t h careful attention to the divers i ty o f learners. S i m i l a r l y , D e B o u r g h (2001) conc luded that educational cyberspace bui l t on the tenets o f pedagogical p r inc ip l e s—such as cogni t ive apprenticeship, communica t ion , col laborat ion and coaching—supports pos i t ive learning outcomes. 2.2.3 Design Principles of Educational Cyberspace Research on infrastructure design pr inciples o f educational cyberspace is i n its infancy. H o w e v e r , there is a surpris ing amount o f consistency among authors. W h e n des igning the infrastructure o f educational cyberspace, the literature indicates that a factor c r i t ica l to op t imal learning is the incorporat ion o f "usabi l i ty des ign" (Henke, 1997, If 6). Barmen and M i l h e l m (1997) also suggested that educational cyberspace be descr ibed i n terms o f its des ign characteristics. B o y c e and W i n n i e (2000) proposed addi t ional cr i ter ia to be considered that includes factors such as branching capabil i t ies, user interface and naviga t ional design that presents informat ion i n a mul t i -d imens iona l format. "The presentation structure should be designed so as to reduce the effort required o f users to find the informat ion requi red" ( M c C o r m a c k & Jones, 1998, p. 77). It is important that content is clear, accurate, appropriate for the level o f the learner and f lows i n a log ica l manner. N a v i g a t i o n tools need to be s imple and consistently accessible, a l l o w i n g the learner to m o v e to internal and external sites w i t h ease (Butler , 1997; C o r n e l l & Mar t in s , 1997; M i l l s , 2000). H a w l e y and Desborough (1998), K h o i n y (1995), R i b b o n s (1998), and Y o d e r (1994) suggest that qual i ty affects student learning, interest and mot iva t ion . It is essential to also address the divergent learning style w i t h va ry ing v i sua l , textual and audio cues to accentuate learning, interest and mot iva t ion among learners (Cooper , 2000; R i b b o n s , 1998; W i n f i e l d , M e a l y , & Scheibe l , 1998). Wi thou t v i sua l impact o f shape, type size, aesthetically p leas ing colour , and contrast, educational cyberspace is uninteresting and demotivat ing. Co t r e l l and Eisenberg (1997), D e B r a (1996), and Jones and Farquhar (1997) also supported this pos i t ion . These authors asserted that text should be l im i t ed and hyper l inked i n order to avo id sc ro l l ing and reading pages and pages o f informat ion w h i l e increasing learner control and f lex ib i l i ty . The inc lus ion o f graphics and sound, i n combina t ion w i t h text, is also a 29 c o m m o n pr inc ip le (Cot re l l & Eisenberg , 1997; D e B r a , 1996). E x p l i c i t l y , the addi t ion o f static or dynamic images and sound must serve a clear instruct ional purpose. Furthermore, too m u c h textual or graphical informat ion m a y also s low download t ime, resul t ing i n less than op t imal learning (Campbe l l , 2000; M c C o r m a c k , & Jones, 1998). C o m m u n i c a t i o n and interact ivi ty are the most powerfu l tools that instruct ional designers of educational cyberspace have at their disposal . Connec t iv i ty invo lves connect ing learners w i t h other learners, learners w i t h the teacher, or teachers w i t h learners, v i a computer-mediated communica t ion (Kenner ly , 2001 ; V a n d e V u s s e & Hanson , 2000). L a c k o f socia l isa t ion is frequently offered as a c r i t i c i sm against the use o f educational cyberspace. H o w e v e r , Johnson and Johnson (1994) and H i l l ' s (1997) results indicated otherwise. T h i s is consistent w i t h C r a g g (1994) and B a c h m a n and Panzarine's (1998) f indings. These authors found that learners i n educational cyberspace formed strong bonds us ing computer-mediated communica t ion . Furthermore, the use o f educational cyberspace-based col laborat ive learning technologies has p roven to be one o f the most explored areas (Haras im et a l , 1995). H o w e v e r , the f indings demonstrate that incorporat ing computer-mediated communica t ion applicat ions does not guarantee product ive interactive dialogue (Burge, 1994; H a r a s i m , 1990; Jones & Farquhar, 1997; Jones & O k e y , 1995). A c t i v i t i e s need to be designed to el ic i t communica t i on and col laborat ion (Berge, 1995; R o h f e l d & Heimst ra , 1995). Lea rn ing i n educational cyberspace requires support, guidance and feedback. W i l s o n (1991) reported that learners w i t h more previous experience and a posi t ive d ispos i t ion towards educational cyberspace and computers i n general have significant less anxiety than learners w i t h litt le experience wi th , and a negative attitude toward, educational cyberspace. Thus , it can be assumed that w i t h adequate explanat ion and exposure to educational cyberspace and computers i n general, anxiety and negative attitude is lessened ( K h o i n y , 1995). M o s t o f the rev iewed literature is conceptual and anecdotal i n nature. L i t t l e research addresses the effects related to compat ib i l i ty and integration o f heterogeneous learning technologies and mul t ip le pedagogical approaches i n the design or de l ivery o f learning i n educational cyberspace. I turn n o w to the literature to examine act ion research i n order to discuss br ie f ly its h is tor ical or igins and its use i n nurs ing, jus t i fy ing it as a fi t t ing methodology for m y research study. 2. 3 Action Research There is no consensus on h o w best to explore undergraduate student nurses' learning to think c r i t i ca l ly i n educational cyberspace. A g rowing trend is to use act ion research, w h i c h is a 30 systematic and reflective inqu i ry that educators can use to study an area o f interest specific to their professional context. The action research process is emergent i n des ign and can result i n new learning, personal awareness and educational change. A s a methodology, it fuses the elements o f theory and practice. In research related to nurs ing education, educators have t radi t ional ly been seen as objects o f the research study or recipients o f its f indings, but rarely the actual researchers (Hyrkas , 1997). H y r k a s (1997) posi ted that educators w h o assume a role o f object o f the research study or recipients o f its f indings lead to w i d e n i n g the h is tor ica l gap that exists between theory and practice. F o r nurs ing education to increas ingly develop, Ho l t e r and Schwartz-Barcot t (1993), H y r k a s (1997) and R i d i n g , F o w e l l and L e v y (n.d.) argued this tradit ional approach m a y not a lways be p roven to be effective. A c t i o n research is accepted as an appropriate methodology to decrease this theory and practice gap (Hol ter & Schwartz-Barcot t , 1993; R o l f e , 1998). T h i s can be achieved because the basic assumption i n act ion research is that " o n l y members o f a commun i ty can explore and develop their o w n communi ty ' s functions i n the best possible w a y " (Hyrkas , 1997, p. 803). 2 3.1 The Historical and Philosophical Basis of Action Research Scholars John C o l l i e r (1945), K u r t L e w i n (1946) and Lawrence Stenhouse (1975) were inf luent ial i n founding act ion research. Stenhouse's (1975) ideo logy was further grounded i n the seminal w o r k o f Stephen K e m m i s (1993) and John E l l i o t t (1991) o n act ion research. K u r t L e w i n (1946) is credited as the i nd iv idua l w h o conceptualised this methodology as a col laborat ive p rob lem-so lv ing cyc le to advance organisations. It is K e m m i s (1993) & El l io t t ' s (1991) w o r k that is recognised as "the greatest impetus to the resurgence o f contemporary interest i n educational act ion research" ( K e m m i s , 1993, p. 180). A c t i o n research originated, i n part, f rom the Frankfurt S c h o o l where c r i t i ca l socia l theory was e v o l v i n g at a t ime w h e n p o s i t i v i s m was fa i l ing to provide answers to a l l empi r i ca l questions, p r i m a r i l y because o f its inherent reductionist nature. T h e members o f the Frankfurt S c h o o l contradicted this pos i t ion w i t h a proposal arguing a c l a i m that ind iv idua ls possess the ab i l i ty to reflect upon a situation and effect change dur ing the process o f research (Carr & K e m m i s , 1986). A m o n g contemporary act ion researchers, act ion research is v i e w e d as be ing context-bound, l i v e d , pragmatic and future-focused (Ca lhoun , 1994; Ca r son & Sumara, 1997; Har t & B o n d , 1995; K e m m i s & M c T a g g a r t ; 1988; Whi tehead , 1989). B o o m e r (1987) stated that act ion research is "deliberate, group or personal ly own[ed] and conducted, so lu t ion oriented 31 inves t iga t ion" (p. 8). Car r and K e m m i s (1986) expla ined act ion research as " a fo rm o f self-reflective enquiry undertaken b y participants i n socia l situations i n order to improve the rat ional i ty and just ice o f their o w n practices, their understanding o f these practices and the situation i n w h i c h the practices are carr ied out" (p. 162). W i t h i n these defini t ions, four basic themes emerge: empowerment , col laborat ion, acquis i t ion o f knowledge , and soc ia l change (Masters , 1995, f 6 ) . A c t i o n research draws upon the concept o f praxis and this is par t icular ly relevant to nurs ing education as this methodology is grounded i n main ta in ing the focus on practice i n real i ty rather than practice i n a control led environment. 2.3.2 The Typologies of Action Research Part o f the confusion I found i n searching act ion research literature is its associat ion w i t h various labels such as part icipatory research, col laborat ive inqui ry , teacher (insider) research, emancipatory research, and act ion learning, A c t i o n research is also associated w i t h var ious typologies . G r u n d y (1982) identif ied three modes o f act ion research as technical , pract ical and emancipatory. S i m i l a r l y , Ho l t e r and Schwartz-Barcot t (1993) recognised act ion research as a technical col laborat ive, a mutual col laborat ive or an enhancement approach. M c K e r n a n (1991) dis t inguished action research as a scient if ic- technical v i e w , a pract ical-del iberat ive v i e w or a cr i t ical -emancipatory v i e w . Impl i c i t l y , each o f these authors' f rameworks o f act ion research has its unique set o f pr inc ip les and approaches. The differences o f each o f the authors' perspectives are i n the under ly ing assumptions and wor ldv i ews . E a c h f ramework is a l igned w i t h three major ph i losoph ica l research paradigms, empi r i c i sm, interpretism and post -modernism. Masters (1995, f 32) p rov ided a useful ove rv iew o f act ion research i n relat ion to each o f the major paradigms and these are shown i n Tab le 2 .1 . E x p l i c i t to insider act ion research is its emphasis on educators ' researching their o w n practice w i t h i n their o w n classrooms to improve teaching and learning, evaluate strategies, and raise questions about under ly ing assumptions and values about teaching and learning. T h i s approach also prompts educators to reflect c r i t i ca l ly on their o w n practice (Cogh lan & Brann ick , 2001; W e b b , Tur ton & P o n t i n 1999). Impl ic i t to insider act ion research is its ab i l i ty to b r ing to the fore the tensions that are at the heart o f an educator's identif ied issue and to narrow the rift between theory and practice. T h i s is accompl ished b y situating the educator i n a dual role o f producer o f theory and immediate user o f that theory, increasing a broader understanding o f what is meant b y teaching and learning ( B o r g , G a l l & G a l l , 1993; Ca r son & Sumara, 1997; 32 M c T a g g a r t , 1994). Thus , it is a fitt ing methodologica l f ramework to address the research questions I out l ined i n Chapter One. Table 2.1 Types of Action Research Empiricism Intrepretism Post-Modernism Philosophical Base natural sciences historical -hermeneutics critical sciences The Nature of Reality single, measurable, fragmental multiple, constructed, holistic social, economic exists with problems of equity and hegemony Problem defined in advance defined in situation defined in the situation based on values clarification Relationship Between Knower and Known separate interrelated, dialogic interrelated, embedded in society Focus of Collaboration Theory technical validation, refinement, deduction mutual understanding, new theory, inductive mutual emancipation, validation, refinement, new theory, inductive, deductive Type of Knowledge Produced predictive descriptive predictive, descriptive Change Duration short lived Longer-lasting, dependent on individuals social change, emancipation The Nature of Understanding events are explained in terms of real causes and simultaneous effects events are understood through active mental work, interactions with external context, transactions between one's mental work and external context events are understood in terms of social and economic hindrances to true equality The Role of Value in Research Value-free Value-bounded related to values of equity Purpose of Research discovery of laws underlying reality understand what occurs and the meaning people make of phenomena uncover and understand what constrains equity and supports hegemony to free oneself of false consciousness and change practice toward equity Source: Masters (1995, f 32) 2.3.3 The Steps of Action Research A s p rev ious ly described, act ion research has evo lved into var ious typologies , however , a l l embrace an iterative process i n v o l v i n g several steps. The steps o f act ion research are continuous, c y c l i c a l i n nature and over lap (Carr & K e m m i s , 1986; E l l i o t , 1991; Patterson & Shannon, 1993). T h e y consist o f identif icat ion o f an issue, co l l ec t ion o f data, interpretation o f data, t ak ing act ion based on the interpreted data and reflection. D u r i n g the ident i f icat ion step, the insider act ion researcher identifies a question. The focus o f the co l l ec t ion step is to develop a 33 p lan to answer the quest ion and to implement it. In the next step, interpretation, the insider act ion researcher analyses the col lected data and observes for trends, patterns and reflects o n conclus ions . Character is t ical ly , based o n this reflect ion, a new p lan is created and the iterative cyc le begins anew. The question emerging f rom m y practice is h o w I, as a nurse-educator, can enhance the development o f undergraduate student nurses' c r i t i ca l t h ink ing i n educational cyberspace as a means to assist them to integrate theory i n practice. The proposed p lan is to describe the effects o f N u r s i n g Journeys: V i r t u a l Ref lec t ive Centre ( N J V R C ) , an innovat ive researcher-developed, v i r tua l , pedagogical , s imula t ion instrument, a imed at the p romot ion o f c r i t i ca l t h ink ing among undergraduate student nurses. The study consists o f two insider act ion research cycles . The focus o f the first cyc le originates w i t h the explorat ion o f the contr ibut ing factors that led to the creation and p i lo t testing o f a prototype o f N J V R C . The cyc le terminates w i t h a descr ipt ion o f required modif ica t ions to the prototype based o n the sought feedback from the two nurs ing faculty and one member f rom the instruct ional med ia department. A second insider act ion research cyc le is init iated w i t h the descr ipt ion o f m y experiences o f conduct ing, report ing and interpreting the f indings o f implement ing N J V R C on a larger scale w i t h i n m y classroom. It terminates w i t h a presentation o f conclus ions , impl ica t ions for practice and recommendat ions that explore opportunities for further discourse, p rompt ing another cyc le . F igure 2.1 outlines the steps o f the two act ion cycles o f insider act ion research I f o l l o w throughout this study. 2.3.4 The Validation of Action Research The manner i n w h i c h this methodology is perce ived today remains contentious, yet it has been a part icular form o f inqu i ry since the 1940s (Ca lhoun , 1994). A c t i o n researchers, grounded i n interpretism or post-modernism, argue that their w o r k is j udged i n tradit ional , empi r i ca l terms. H o w e v e r , "issues such as rep l icab i l i ty and general isabi l i ty are no longer seen as appropriate cri ter ia for act ion research" ( M c N i f f , 2002, p. 107). 34 \ N Cycle Two Plan II Cycle One Plan I Figure 2.1 Steps of Insider Action Research According to M c N i f f (2002), new criteria are required to assess action research reports. Intensifying this issue of developing new criteria is the perception that action research is viewed as either an object to be studied or as a lived practice. Winter (1989) suggested that regardless of form, action research reports should demonstrate six principles. These principles are: • Reflective critique—an account of a situation in which the writer demonstrates reflection on issues and processes and makes explicit interpretations, biases, assumptions and concerns upon his or her decisions. Winter (1989) explained that accounts can give rise to theoretical considerations and new research questions. • Dialectical critique—where reality is consensual and validated through language. Phenomena are therefore examined within context, focusing on elements that are perceived to be unstable and require change. • Collaborative resource—acknowledging that all participants in action research are co-researchers, acting and learning together. • Risk—accepting the possibility that change threatens or reveals preconceived ideas about practice and established ways of practising that are narrow in scope. 35 • P l u r a l structure—capturing the not ion o f m u l t i p l i c i t y o f v iewpoin ts , leading to mul t ip le possible actions and interpretation. A report acts as a support for further d iscuss ion rather than a f inal conc lus ion o f fact. • Theory , practice t ransformation—a process o f demonstrat ing a harmonious relationship between theory and practice. Theory informs practice and practice refines theory (pp. 43 -65). 2.3.5 The Application of Action Research in Nursing Nurses are increas ingly engaging i n act ion research to improve aspects o f nurs ing practice, education and management that contribute to the development o f the profession. O f the avai lable act ion research literature, nurs ing practice is the predominant context o f study; few studies focus on nurs ing education and management. H o w e v e r , the f o l l o w i n g studies are significant to understanding h o w insider act ion research influences teaching practices and fosters student learning i n nurs ing education. E m p l o y i n g act ion research to h ighl ight the effectiveness o f selected teaching practices, M c C a u g h e r t y (1991) recognised the need to develop a teaching approach that promotes reflect ion and experiential integration o f theory and practice among student nurses. The major feature o f the teaching approach is sma l l group discussion. In the act ion phase, M c C a u g h e r t y (1991) used a group compar i son method and met w i t h three to f ive students o f the experimental group over a forty-five minute per iod several t imes a week. In the reflect ive phase, M c C a u g h e r t y (1991) found that impromptu meetings w i t h these students suggested that this approach had value. W a l k e r , B a i l e y , B r a s e l l - B r i a n , and G o u l d (2001) evaluated problem-based learning, i n v o l v i n g four lectures and 17 students. Da ta were col lected over a sixteen-week per iod and findings indicate significant impl ica t ions . The authors d iscovered that exp la in ing the roles o f both students and the lecturer, and the purpose o f problem-based learning i n detail , was essential for op t ima l learning. M a i n t a i n i n g ongoing open l ines o f communica t i on is also c r i t i ca l to learning process. Coates and Chambers (1990) explored p ro f i l i ng as a w a y to improve c l i n i c a l competence among student nurses. Af te r ident i fy ing a need for a more rel iable w a y to assess c l i n i c a l competence, the authors designed a booklet consis t ing o f twenty- two competencies. T o promote student involvement , s ix students participated i n an assessment o f themselves o n a pre-selected day. The data col lec ted from the students' feedback suggested the strategy was useful, al though modif ica t ions to the language were required to increase clar i ty . T h i s ini t iated a second 36 cyc le o f act ion research. A different set o f students participated i n assessing their competencies over a longer per iod o f t ime, result ing i n findings s imi la r to the first cyc le . U s i n g act ion research to promote student learning, W a i - c h i C h a n and W a i - t o n g (2000) and D o n a l d s o n (1992) implemented and evaluated the use o f learning contracts to facilitate learning among undergraduate student nurses i n c l i n i c a l practice. In the first study, the authors recognised the need to integrate learning contracts as a means to foster self-directed and active learning, a m o v e f rom didact ic teaching. For ty-seven th i rd year undergraduate students and four c l i n i c a l facilitators participated i n this study set i n a mental health practice setting. S ince both c l i n i c a l facilitators and students were new to learning contracts, an informat ion session o n their use was conducted before the commencement o f the prac t icum. Included dur ing this informat ion session were guidelines for deve lop ing a learning contract. A week pr io r to the beg inn ing o f the prac t icum, students met w i t h the c l i n i c a l facili tator to rev iew and f inalise their learning contracts. A t mid te rm and at the end o f the prac t icum, student learning was assessed based o n the cri ter ia out l ined i n the learning contracts. U s i n g questionnaires and semi-structured interviews w i t h both students and c l i n i c a l facilitators col lected data. The findings indicated that the use o f learning contracts was an effective learning technology. Lea rn ing contracts increased the interactions between student and facilitator, developed self-direct ion and increased mot iva t ion among the students. H o w e v e r , the lack o f experience i n us ing learning contracts and the increased faculty w o r k l o a d were ident i f ied as cr i t ica l l imitat ions. In the second study, D o n a l d s o n (1992), act ing as researcher col lected data us ing a questionnaire, students' self-evaluations f rom her seven undergraduate student nurses i n a medica l -surg ica l setting and her researcher's notes. She found s imi l a r benefits and l imi ta t ions o f us ing learning contracts to that o f W a i - c h i C h a n and W a i - t o n g (2000). The benefits D o n a l d s o n (1992) identif ied inc luded an increase i n self-direct ion and student mot iva t ion . Participants also noted that guidance and preparation t ime i n developing a learning contract were p ivo ta l to an op t imal learning experience. A c o m m o n l imi ta t ion among both studies was increases i n faculty work load . Jasper (1994) implemented and evaluated a student-centred learning parad igm among twenty-two student nurses enrol led i n a graduate nurs ing program. Students and teacher were v i e w e d as equal partners i n the entire research process. A questionnaire was co-developed w h i c h addressed areas such as mot iva t ion and learning styles. The findings o f the study suggested that a student-centred approach was contingent upon clear expectations and ongo ing teacher feedback regarding students' perceived learning needs. S i m i l a r l y , R o l f e (1994) focused o n integrating a 37 student-centred evaluat ion process w h i l e a course was i n progress rather than accepting the perceived inadequacies o f t radit ional course evaluat ion del ivered at the end. T h e students were seen as equal partners and developed an evaluat ion framework from the start o f the course and implemented the results over the course o f the term. A l t h o u g h the research was contextual , R o l f e (1994) argued that the process o f student-centred evaluat ion is appl icable to any course. The findings indicated several advantages and significant under ly ing causes o f diff icul t ies were made expl ic i t . T h i s a l l owed the students and teacher to be aware o f the students' agenda and to mod i fy the cu r r i cu lum accordingly , thereby contr ibut ing to a more dynamic , g r o w i n g and l i v i n g cu r r i cu lum. 2.4 Summary This chapter continues to develop Ref l ec t ion -Befo re -Ac t ion , the in i t i a l phase o f the reflective thought process. It also summarises the gathering and interpretation steps o f the first cyc le o f this insider act ion research study. W h e n a literature r ev iew is presented w e l l it adds to an understanding o f a selected issue or p rob lem. There are several points relevant to this study that assist i n delineating the scope o f the literature. Firs t , the need for c r i t ica l th ink ing i n nurs ing is n o w perce ived as an expected outcome o f nurs ing education and is i n direct response to the increas ingly changing health care environment. T o this effect, ph i losoph ica l focus and deve lop ing pedagogical activit ies have shifted toward a learning, constructivist parad igm as a w a y to foster c r i t i ca l t h ink ing among undergraduate student nurses. Y e t , c r i t i ca l t h ink ing is s t i l l w i d e l y defined and explored p r i m a r i l y i n the context o f the face-to-face c lassroom arena. The majori ty o f research is quantitative and uses differ ing samples o f student nurses. Th i s makes it diff icul t to determine patterns o f definite conclusions . Reports on educational cyberspace and cr i t ica l t h ink ing have o n l y recently permeated the nurs ing literature. Y e t , I c o u l d not f ind any research that assessed the integration o f heterogeneous learning technologies and mul t ip le pedagogical approaches i n the design o f educational cyberspace. Second, notwithstanding that the literature o n instruct ional design and de l ive ry is anecdotal and conceptual i n nature, this r ev iew p rov ided me w i t h the necessary foundation to create a researcher-developed pedagogical , v i r tua l s imula t ion instrument a imed at the p romot ion o f c r i t i ca l t h ink ing among undergraduate student nurses i n educational cyberspace. In terms o f instruct ional design and development, the f indings suggest that the under ly ing pr inciples o f 38 interface design, coupled w i t h a fi t t ing learning epis temology and a learner-centred, constructivist perspective, are central to op t imal learning i n educational cyberspace. L i k e w i s e , addressing the various learning styles and the k i n d o f interact ivi ty manifested i n educational cyberspace influences the developmental breadth o f c r i t i ca l th ink ing . F i n a l l y , w h i l e there is no consensus among scholars o n h o w best to explore c r i t i ca l t h ink ing i n educational cyberspace, there is a g rowing trend toward act ion research. A c r o s s several soc ia l science d isc ip l ines , act ion research has been attaining m o m e n t u m and credence, emerging as a just i f iable process and method o f inqui ry . In nurs ing education, act ion research has been used p r i m a r i l y to assess and evaluate var ious learning technologies. W h i l e nurse educators are increas ingly engaged i n act ion research and m a k i n g major contributions to nurs ing knowledge , there are few w h o assume the role o f researcher. W i t h i n the context o f this study, reflective inqui r ies—par t icu la r ly f rom a praxis perspect ive—can o n l y propel the need for an evidence-based approach o f nurs ing education, or what B o y e r (1990) referred to as "appl ica t ion scholarship o f teaching" (p, 23). Jones (1995) interpreted Bawden ' s (1989) v i e w o f praxis as "praxis includes deliberate ac t ion b y w h i c h theory or ph i losophy becomes integrated into the socia l real i ty o f the practice envi ronment" (p. 127). Cent ra l to insider act ion research is the potency o f m a x i m i s i n g the meaningfulness o f reflect ion, deve lop ing a repertoire o f professional knowledge , i m p r o v i n g educational practices and fostering learning. In the next chapter, the first insider act ion research cyc le is comple ted w i t h an ove rv iew of the act ion and reflect ion steps, in i t ia t ing the second cyc le o f this insider act ion research study. In this chapter, the reader is introduced to Nursing Journeys: Virtual Reflective Centre. Chapter Three also ends the first phase of the reflective thought process, Re f l ec t ion -Befo re -Ac t ion . 39 C H A P T E R T H R E E — C R E A T I N G A P E D A G O G I C A L , S I M U L A T I O N I N S T R U M E N T In the preceding two chapters, Re f i ec t i on -Befo re -Ac t ion represented the ident i f icat ion o f an issue, h o w I as a nurse-educator enhance the development o f undergraduate student nurses' c r i t ica l th ink ing i n educational cyberspace, and the inf luencing factors that led to the dec i s ion to pursue a research study. T h e gathering and interpretation o f the relevant literature led to postulat ing the necessity to expand the boundaries o f the current body o f knowledge . S igni f icant ly , cr i t ica l t h ink ing is perceived as an expected outcome o f nursing education. T o this effect, the ph i losoph ica l focus and the development o f learning technologies have shifted toward a learning paradigm as a w a y to foster c r i t ica l th ink ing among undergraduate student nurses. Moreove r , act ion research has been attaining momen tum and credence, emerging as a just i f iable process and method o f inqu i ry to explore the effects o f these learner-centred learning technologies. Y e t , the context i n w h i c h these learning technologies are be ing explored is p r i m a r i l y the face-to-face c lassroom. Reports about educational cyberspace have o n l y recently permeated the nurs ing literature. The most prevalent learning technologies ut i l ised i n educational cyberspace are designed w i t h homogenous pedagogical pr inciples , often leading to m i x e d f indings related to their effectiveness i n p romot ing cr i t ica l th ink ing . Cus tomar i ly , the third chapter o f a dissertation is a descr ipt ion o f the proposed methodology and research design. Research methodology provides the researcher w i t h a sense o f the direct ion regarding h o w a study w i l l proceed ( M a r s h a l l & Rossman , 1989). M a s o n (1996) employs the analogy o f an "intellectual puzz le" (p.21) to describe the purpose o f research. The manner i n w h i c h scholar ly inqu i ry is conducted embodies the researcher's phi losophy, strategy and instruments employed i n the pursuit o f the research goal , and the quest for possible answer(s) to research question(s). B r i e f l y , the research questions as described i n Chapter One are: • H o w does Nursing Journeys: Virtual Reflective Centre promote the development o f c r i t i ca l t h ink ing among undergraduate student nurses? 40 • H o w do undergraduate student nurses describe their experiences o f learning to think c r i t i ca l ly w h i l e engaged w i t h Nursing Journeys: Virtual Reflective Centre? • H o w do the b lend ing o f the theoretical underpinnings o f role-play, computer-mediated communica t ion and col laborat ive and problem-based learning promote the development o f c r i t i ca l th ink ing among undergraduate student nurses? Ref lec t ing o n these questions, the immediate role o f a researcher is to des ign a methodologica l approach to solve the puzz le . I par t ia l ly transgress from this t radit ion and designate this c h a p t e r — C r e a t i n g a Pedagogical, Simulation Instrument—to an explanat ion o f the instrument as it p lays a central role i n this research study. The descr ipt ion o f the research design, i nc lud ing the setting and selection o f study participants and data co l l ec t ion analysis procedures, is summarised i n the next chapter, Chapter Four. Ref l ec t i on -Be fo re -Ac t ion continues to be the focus o f this chapter b y act ing and reflect ing upon the literature relevant to the design o f Nursing Journeys: Virtual Reflective Centre. The purpose o f this chapter is to describe the creation o f N J V R C f rom its early concept ion to its p re l imina ry evaluation. It includes descriptions o f the under ly ing instruct ional design, learning epistemologies, the characters, and the case narratives. T a i l o r i n g a pedagogical , v i r tua l s imula t ion instrument requires careful attention. A s I progress into the act ion and ref lect ion phases and near the end o f the first act ion research cyc le , I draw f rom the literature four insightful and v i t a l points that are character is t ical ly relevant i n the design of Nursing Journeys: Virtual Reflective Centre ( N J V R C ) . The first is that without purposeful dec i s ion-making about the choice o f a pedagogical f ramework or m o d e l and its d is t inguishing features, op t ima l learning experiences can be jeopardised. Second, the nature o f cr i t ica l th ink ing is complex and its multifaceted dimensions must be considered i n the assessment and overa l l design o f any learning technology. A c c o r d i n g l y , the k i n d o f interact ivi ty and epis temological learning perspective manifested i n educational cyberspace influences the developmental breadth o f c r i t ica l th ink ing . T h i r d , as B i l l i n g s (2000), E a k i n , B rady , and L u s k (2001), and K h o i n y (1995) suggested, the qualit ies inherent i n learning styles o f the intended target audience need to be also addressed i n the interface design o f any learning technology. F i n a l l y , a learning technology designed for educational cyberspace must also foster contextual learning, col laborat ion, effective communica t ion and creativity. 41 3.1 Original Concept of Nursing Journeys: Virtual Reflective Centre (NJVRC) The or ig ina l concept ion of Nursing Journeys: Virtual Reflective Centre ( N J V R C ) was der ived from the under ly ing pr inciples o f problem-based learning. Problem-based learning (PBL) is recognised as a learning technology that is constructivist and student-centred i n nature. PBL is also designed to facilitate c r i t ica l th ink ing (Boyce , 1995; D e M a r c o et a l . , 2002; D o w d & Dav idh i ze r , 1999). Problem-based learning a l lows learners to ac t ive ly solve problems that imitate real w o r l d experiences, enabl ing learners to integrate and apply their deve lop ing knowledge w i t h i n the safety o f the c lassroom (Ashbaugh & Kas ten , 1991; Er tmer & Russe l l , 1995). P r inc ip les o f problem-based learning seem to be the d r i v i n g force beh ind computer-assisted s imulat ions i n nurs ing education ( K h o i n y , 1995; M a l l o y & DeNata l e , 2001). Nevertheless, many computer-assisted s imula t ion programs are designed so that the i nd iv idua l interacts sole ly w i t h the content and the m e d i u m . C r i t i c a l t h ink ing and m a k i n g meaning then become a sol i tary ac t iv i ty (Manias et a l . , 2000; Ross & T u o v i n e n , 2001 ; Sternberger & M e y e r , 2001). A d d i n g the features o f M u l t i - U s e r D o m a i n s ( M U D s ) to N J V R C design expands its potential effectiveness i n support ing active learning, col laborat ion and cr i t i ca l th ink ing . Johnson and Johnson (1991) described cooperative or col laborat ive learning as a vehic le to create an egalitarian power structure w i t h i n the c lassroom. It is be l i eved that active learning, co-operative learning and cr i t ica l th ink ing are in t imate ly l i n k e d ( C o p p , 2002; M a c i n t o s h , M a c K a y , M a l l e t - B o u c h e r , & W i g g i n s , 2002; Y o u n g b l o o d & B e i t z , 2001). M u l t i - U s e r D o m a i n (MUD) is a game, fantasy-like environment housed on computers connected to the Internet. M U D s a l l ow many ind iv idua l s to share a c o m m o n vi r tua l space i n w h i c h they can communica te through text i n synchronous (real) t ime w i t h one another about their thoughts or act out a role i n a situation, imagined or real ( D y r l i , 1996; Fander la i , 1996). Var ia t ions on the M U D concept include M O O s (Mul t i -Objec t -Or ien ted v i r tua l environments) and M U S E s ( M u l t i - U s e r - S i m u l a t e d Envi ronments ) . In exp lo r ing several M U D s i n cyberspace, I noted that people develop vi r tual personas ( c o m m o n l y referred to as avatars), establish relationships w i t h others and make decisions based on past, present and future events they encounter w i t h i n the connected vi r tual communi ty . S imula ted events 'come al ive ' , permit t ing the people to create a character, ro le-p lay the character, and interact w i t h others to b u i l d a story and p l ay it out. W i t h i n the educational domain , M U D s are be ing considered as a v iab le learning technology that can emphasise "learning, b u i l d i n g , communica t ion , cooperating, exper iment ing and interacting soc ia l ly" ( D y r l i , 1996, p. 20). 42 3.2 Description of Nursing Journeys: Virtual Reflective Centre R e c o g n i s i n g these benefits, N J V R C evolved into an interactive v i r tua l health care centre designed to assist undergraduate student nurses w i t h the development and refinement o f their c r i t i ca l t h ink ing sk i l l s , a competency fundamental to nursing. N J V R C was designed as an adjunct to a theoretical nurs ing course and as a place where undergraduate student nurses c o u l d meet and engage i n v i r tua l dialogue w i t h their peers. The a i m o f N J V R C was to assist undergraduate student nurses to reinforce theoretical pr inc ip les and to practice co l lec t ing informat ion, examin ing assumptions, assessing the context, exp lo r ing poss ibi l i t ies , p lann ing priori t ies , evaluating nurs ing care and reflecting col laborat ively . In short, they c o u l d actualise and practice c r i t i ca l t h ink ing about course concepts and content through vi r tua l role-play. The under ly ing conceptual isat ion o f c r i t ica l t h ink ing chosen for N J V R C was strongly inf luenced b y Fac ione (1990) and P a u l (1993) because the central tenets o f these authors' v i ews i n v o l v e the contextual appl icat ion o f a set o f affective disposi t ions, cogni t ive sk i l l s and intel lectual standards to the reasoning process. N J V R C featured a number o f case narratives that were set w i t h i n various health care settings. E a c h case narrative represented a reconstruction o f a real-l ife si tuation that m a y be encountered b y undergraduate student nurses w h i l e i n the practice setting. Rea l - l i f e situations a l l ow undergraduate student nurses to identify, analyse, synthesise, reflect and establish l inks between theoretical concepts o f the c u r r i c u l u m and its appl icat ion to nurs ing practice (Benner, Tanner & Ches la , 1996). 3.3 The Design of Nursing Journeys: Virtual Refective Centre I i n i t i a l l y designed N J V R C as a single web page 3 that contained several h y p e r l i n k s 4 to case narratives that depicted real-l ife nurs ing events. Other l inks to chat r o o m s 5 were also added to the web page to promote textual dialogue and d iscuss ion among undergraduate student nurses about the case narratives. T o add a sense o f rea l i sm, undergraduate student nurses l ogged - in 6 to N J R V C chat rooms as the characters i n the case narratives, permi t t ing them to not o n l y discuss possible solutions but also to b u i l d and act out the story. F igure 3.1 represents the N J V R C or ig ina l home page template. 3 The starting point of a web site. It usually contains an index to other documents. Definition taken from http://www.webopedia.com 4 An element in an electronic file that connects to another electronic file. Definition taken from http://www.webopedia.com 5 A channel, or space where one can type text into a message box to engage in dialogue with others via the Internet. Definition taken from http://www.webopedia.com 6 A combination of information that authenticates identity allowing access Definition taken from http://www.webopedia.com 43 &$GQ$fy\& to Nurciri^oumsys, a virtual reflective ccHre (NJVRC)for student nurses to develop, strengthen arul refine their skill of criticalthinking end decision making, campetmcLes so fundamental to nursing, NJVRC ii 4 pltce where you cox mett in a syi^ chrorioui owironmerl (t that room) with other peers and engage in dialogue 4b out the process erf critic i l decision-making through role playing a given character within, chosen narativt/s. NJVRC, lhat you now will be entering, is divided into several areas. Each of the areas represents * virtual health etre setiir\g>ncc(nstzuctjtdfromreality. They are: AaitE Care Lonj Term Care Community Care Mental Health Care ChiWFamxty Care In each of these settings, you will be introduced to various characters md narratives. Each ruirttivt is a, nconstruction of a real-life situation that you may encounter in the practice setting. This will allow you and your peers to co-create and establish links between the theoretical concerts of Self and Others of the Collaborative Nur i^nf; Vmpptm Because each narrative represents oxuy a small point in time,you and your peers can develop the story line and move it in any direction you like, including introducing the presence of the others characters. Otruy imagination will limit creativity. It is the intent that you and your peers will weak through these different narratives as if you were the actual characters so that you build and reflect upon your developing critical decision making skills in a stress-free learning environment. You may be asked to reflect about your experiences with NJRVC asynchronous '^, (online discussion forum) and/or in your Self <ft Others class .May 5,2001 Ways of seeing, Ways of Learning in Cyberspace To enter NJVRC....F1W, click on the V J V R C link.. 1 Creativity and fun are strongly encouraged! Figure 3.1 Original NJVRC Homepage F r o m this or ig ina l template, N J V R C evo lved into a mul t ip le paged web site. In addi t ion to the under ly ing constructs o f M U D s and problem-based learning, other processes fo l lowed for the design and de l ivery o f N J V R C were adapted f rom instruct ional design frameworks from Bates (2000), L a u r i l l a r d (1993), and Sternberger (2002). The de l ivery approach o f N J V R C is framed w i t h i n the ne tworked mu l t imed ia m o d e l . The theoretical underpinnings o f ro le-play and experiential learning were also foundational constructs o f N J V R C . Bates (1995) described a framework that is functional i n nature and offers a hol is t ic , constructivist perspective, whereas L a u r i l l a r d (1993) emphasised cogni t ive development through dialogue as the focus for med ia selection. Sternberger (2002) out l ined a non-l inear approach w i t h i n four dimensions, i nc lud ing c r i t i ca l th ink ing . E v e n though the models are d is t inc t ive ly different, the authors underscored the relevance o f be ing guided b y a consistent theoretical, pedagogical f ramework or mode l w h e n des igning the infrastructure o f learning opportunities for educational cyberspace. "The m e d i u m for de l ive ry must p rov ide congruency between the learner, the instruct ional act ivi ty and the objectives" (Sternberger, 2002, p. 173). W e b C T ™ (Universa l Lea rn ing Techno logy , Inc, A n d o v e r , M A ) is an authoring courseware software that contains a set o f designer tools that assist teachers i n the design, development and de l ivery o f the v i sua l layout o f a course i n 44 educational cyberspace. W e b C T ™ was selected based o n its user-fr iendly format, compat ib i l i ty w i t h the college's authoring pla t form and student famil iar i ty . 3.3.1 The Interface Design The or ig ina l web page template was created us ing Netscape C o m p o s e r ™ , (http://www.netscape.com') a web page software editor that facilitates the placement o f text, graphics and the creation o f H T M L - b a s e d 7 hyper l inks i n documents, as I was famil iar w i t h its functions and commands . A l l pages were designed w i t h a suitable co lour scheme i n order to m i n i m i s e distraction. Graphics were created w i t h A d o b e I l l u s t r a t o r ™ (ht tp: / /www.adobe.com) for h i g h quali ty. The graphics were s ized appropriately to support easier down load ing (Campbe l l , 1999; M i l l s , 2000). The text, i nc lud ing the hypertext l inks , was c lear ly wri t ten, us ing an appropriate font style and size, faci l i tat ing easy navigat ion and access ib i l i ty throughout the site. A l l pages were designed for a standard 15" moni tor screen and a d i sp lay setting o f 1024x768 p ixe ls to m i n i m i s e the need for hor izonta l sc ro l l ing . Pop-up w i n d o w s w i t h embedded hyper l inks were used so the undergraduate student nurses c o u l d navigate to addi t ional explanations, yet remain oriented w i t h i n the central page. 3.3.2 The Learning Paradigm The predominant epis temology and learning perspective o f N J V R C is that o f subjective knowledge and cons t ruc t iv ism as undergraduate student nurses "bu i ld an internal representation o f knowledge , personal interpretation o f experience and....share mul t ip le perspective[s]" (Bednar, C u n n i n g h a m , D u f f y & Perry , 1992, p. 2 1 ; Gar r i son , 1995). W i t h i n a constructivist parad igm l ie two core assumptions. Firs t , learners ac t ive ly construct contextual meaning from what they learn and w i t h w h o m they learn, i n ways that contribute to their experience. "It is an active process i n w h i c h learners construct knowledge i n a w a y that makes personal sense" (Tipp ins , T o b i n & H o o k , 1993, p. 223; Peters, 2000). Second, that learning and k n o w i n g are adaptive and challenge the not ion that truth exists outside o f the m i n d o f the ind iv idua l . H o w e v e r , the epis temologica l perspective o f ob jec t iv i sm also plays a p ivo ta l role i n construct ion o f the learning situations, as there is a distinct body o f nurs ing knowledge that is independent o f the learner. C o g n i t i v i s m stresses the s ignif icance o f ind iv idua ls ' internal processes and the relat ionships o f h o w they perceive, interpret, store and reca l l informat ion. F r o m this perspective, 7 HTML is an acronym for Hyper Text Markup Language. HTML codes format a word processing document so it can read on a web browser. Definition taken from http://www.webopedia.com 45 it is an active process o f b u i l d i n g internal schema, learning h o w to categorise and interpret nurs ing knowledge and also h o w to access informat ion when needed. D e r r y (1989) referred to this as examples o f "schema bu i ld ing , pattern recogni t ion, and reflective self-instruction" (p. 3-6). 3.3.3 The Access to NJVRC W e b C T ™ , l ike other authoring courseware w i t h a password protect ion function, requires the user to l og o n w i t h a user identi ty and accompanying password to access a particular course. A user identity and password were created for each character. Undergraduate student nurses were g iven a list o f these identities and passwords i n order to assume different characters w i t h every engagement. F igure 3.2 represents W e b C T ™ ' s logon page. A significant advantage o f l ogg ing o n as an assumed character is anonymi ty that a l lows creat ivi ty to b los som (Fanderlai , 1996). Log in lo WebCT \ £ \ V e b C T W e b C T ID: [ n c e p c l a c o m p c e x j l 11 Password: 1 ," ,*„*,*„* * ,*,"„* | For help, return to the Entry Page. Figure 3.2 W e b C T ™ L o g O n Page 3.3.4 The Development of the Characters and Case Narratives T h e creat ion o f twenty characters and s ix case narratives depicted real heal th professionals and situations. In des igning M U D s or problem-based learning activit ies, it was important to construct the educational context w i t h rea l i sm to promote experiential and situated learning, enabl ing the opportunities for undergraduate student nurses to integrate theory w i t h practice. In this case, practice was represented as the vi r tual health care centre i n N J V R C E q u a l l y significant, the context needs to suit the targeted audience's learning needs ( E a k i n et a l , 2001 ; K h o i n y , 1995; W e i s & G u y t o n - S i m m o n s , 1998). In this regard, the cast o f characters inc luded representative health professionals, clients and f ami ly members that an undergraduate nurse w o u l d encounter i n the health care practice setting. E a c h had a unique name, personal and professional backgrounds, their o w n diverse health issues, med ica l histories, unique f ami ly 46 dynamics and ethnic backgrounds. The focal point o f each case narrative was drawn from the concepts and content o f the course i n w h i c h the undergraduate students were enrolled. W i t h i n N J V R C itself, there were five vi r tual spaces o f nurs ing practice. These inc luded acute care, ch i l d / f ami ly care, long-term care, commun i ty care and mental health care. E a c h vi r tual space was represented b y a graphic depic t ing a b u i l d i n g structure (see F igure 3.3). Once the undergraduate student nurse had read the ove rv i ew and instructions on the home page, he or she cou ld select one o f the f ive hyper l inked health care bui ld ings and navigate w i t h i n the chosen b u i l d i n g as one o f the twenty characters relevant to the part icular case narratives where the character resided. Figure 3.3 NJVRC Buildings Once inside the selected health care bu i ld ing , the undergraduate student nurse was instructed to read the case narrative or to seek addi t ional informat ion from the pop-up windows . The undergraduate student nurse cou ld also di rect ly go to the specific chat r oom to initiate communica t ion w i t h their peers w h o assumed the other vi r tual characters depicted i n the part icular case narrative. F igure 3.4 illustrates a prototype o f a case narrative i n N J V R C . In this case narrative, the focus was o n pa in management. P i , the registered nurse, is r ev i ewing Concept ia , the client 's chart. P i discovers that Concep t ia received an analgesic every four hours the previous evening but none dur ing the night. M e a n w h i l e , Concep t i a is wonder ing whether the scheduled appointment w i t h the physiotherapist can be postponed because o f the pa in she feels. The gu id ing questions are seen i n the figure as facil i tat ive prompts and created i n order to assist the students i n establishing a dialogue base. 47 ACTION MENU: Previous Next Contents Retrace Refresh Chat Pi is at die nurse's desk reviewing Conceptia's chart and discovers that Conceptia has not had any pain medication since early am. "Fromyesterday's MAR, Conceptia received Tylenol MS every four hours until evening and none during the night. 1 wonder hoy) her sleep pattern was?". % What additional data will Pi colled to validate the clinical impression of pain ? @ What standards of care -will Pi discuss with Conceptia to alleviate the adverse effects of analgesics? @ What standards of care will Fi provide to maintain Conceptia level of comfort? Meanwhile, the following thoughts are running through Conceptia's head in room VR1 " Where is that call bell I'm in excrutiatingpain!. There is no way lam getting out of bed today. Perhaps my scheduled appointment with Sutton can be postponed". Instructions: Players, log onto Chat VR1 and collaboratively role play through this clinical narrative. Continue unfolding another chapter of the story... You may want to consider the guiding questions as you engage m dialogue. Once you have ended your dialogue await a visit from Les and Sutton. Figure 3.4 Cognitive Perception: Pain Case Narrative 3.3.5 The Means to Interactivity A d d i n g an interactive, computer-mediated communica t ion appl icat ion, such as synchronous communica t ion , expanded the ways undergraduate student nurses constructed knowledge both i n d i v i d u a l l y and co l l ec t ive ly as they interact w i t h others. T h i s feature also increased the rea l i sm o f the situation presented b y the developed characters and case narratives. The strength o f computer-mediated communica t ion lies i n the central tenets o f socia l constructivist epis temology. U n d e r l y i n g this assumption is that learning is contextual, and that learning experiences are constructed col labora t ive ly through reflect ion and negotiation ( B r o w n , C o l l i n s & D u g u i d , 1998). U s i n g synchronous, computer-mediated communica t ion , each undergraduate student nurse cast out their assumed role and subsequently responded to the other characters as i f they were those characters w i t h i n the context o f the case narrative. The major disadvantage o f computer-mediated communica t ion is the lack o f b o d y and facial expressions and audible cues that no rma l ly occur dur ing face-to-face communica t ion . 48 The format o f tradit ional computer-assisted s imulat ions requires a learner to i nd iv idua l l y w o r k through a p rob lem using a step-by-step approach to an appropriate answer. U n l i k e the tradit ional computer assisted s imulat ions, N J V R C was designed so that undergraduate student nurses col laborated and were free to create the story depending o n h o w the enacted characters responded and role p layed w i t h each other. Subject iv i ty a l lows learners to make meaning and acknowledge mul t ip le perspectives (Bender, 1995; Boschmann , 1995; C a m p b e l l , 1999; D o l l , 1993; Lau r i l l a rd , 1993). A s Kur f i s s (1988) stated, " i n c r i t i ca l th ink ing , a l l assumptions are open to quest ioning, divergent v iews are aggressively sought and the inqu i ry is not biased i n favour o f a part icular outcome" (p. 2). F igure 3.5 illustrates V i r t u a l R o o m 1, where Concep t ia resides and P i is to enter. WebCT Chat — nursjour6/VR1 [Pi I_iffe54] Output Interaction: Box Enter your message below "31 v t iisiEa Users I .ringed On Pi I_iffe54 Conceptia Compter! 'Etim CZj^.Entry Chime fsend URL | i I Quit | Figure 3.5 NJVRC, VR1 Chat Room 3.4 Evaluation of NVRC In order to add cred ib i l i ty and authenticity to each o f the twenty characters and six case narratives, two faculty members from the nurs ing department, w h o were selected based on their expertise i n nurs ing, subjected them to c r i t i ca l scrut iny to assess content va l id i ty . Subsequent edi torial and content changes to the characters and case narratives ensued. One member o f the college's instruct ional technology department r ev iewed N J V R C interface design, branching and naviga t ion elements, a l l i n an effort to refine and make revis ions. The web pages, graphics, characters and case narratives were then up loaded 8 to the N J V R C site o n the W e b C T ™ server. The process of sending a file from one computer to another system. Definition taken from http://www.webopedia.com 49 The two faculty members f rom the nurs ing department expla ined that the characters and case narratives were perceived as real-l ife and the gu id ing questions were benef ic ia l i n the sense that they helped to c lar i fy preconceived assumptions and initiate dialogue and cr i t i ca l th ink ing . The naviga t ion w i t h i n the site was fa i r ly un i fo rm w i t h the except ion o f the direct access to N J V R C health care bui ld ings . The one member f rom the instruct ional m e d i a department reported that hav ing no direct access to N J V R C health care bui ld ings increased user frustration because they had to reread the overv iew, instructions and directions. T h i s member felt that the overv iew, instructions and directions to use N J V R C were somewhat clear, but suggested they be more s impl i s t i c i n nature and hyper l inked to the home page. The pop-up w i n d o w s were pract ical , but required more informat ion, more graphics and easier access w h e n m o v i n g f rom one w i n d o w to another. 3.5 Modifications to NJVRC. F o l l o w i n g these suggestions, the first task was to make the necessary modif ica t ions to N J V R C . I redesigned the interface to incorporate the feedback and developed new characters and case narratives, for a total o f twenty-eight characters and twelve case narratives. The same members o f the nurs ing faculty and instructional med ia department w h o had examined the first prototype ve rs ion o f N J V R C then examined the modif ica t ions w i t h the same degree o f scrut iny as i n the in i t i a l phase o f refinement. Subsequent development and revis ions to N J V R C were done us ing D r e a m w e a v e r ™ (ht tp: / /www.macromedia .com). D r e a m w e a v e r ™ is a web page editor that was more useful than Netscape Compose r ™ because it permit ted me to be more creative i n the design o f N J V R C . I was introduced to this software after the o r ig ina l design o f N J V R C infrastructure was complete. The new homepage (see F igure 3.6) contained four hypertext l inks to the var ious characters (Cast o f Characters), each o f the f ive v i r tua l spaces o f nurs ing practice, and the chat rooms (Enter N J V R C ) . The home page also inc luded an ove rv iew (Abou t N J V R C ) and expl ic i t instructions (Direct ions) on h o w to use N J V R C . 50 x'htual Reflective Centre JUL'ill sill IJ V I R T U A L R E F L E C T I V E C E N T R E Enter mtoNJVIC i Done A Internet F i g u r e 3.6 N e w N J V R C H o m e p a g e U p o n entering N J V R C , the undergraduate student nurse v iews a screen containing a shift report and informat ion o n the whereabouts o f the character he or she is to role-play. F r o m this point , the undergraduate student nurse points the mouse over the part icular health care bu i ld ing and c l i cks the mouse (see Figure 3.7). Th i s act ion takes the undergraduate student nurse to the case narrative and the part icular chat r o o m to beg in a story. 51 Nursing Journeys Virtual Reflective Centre H U M »Eater i i t t NJVRC Good Morning this is Cinda with a report of the last 24 hows. Tag Iiatele, in VR2 Chronic Care (building 4), will be cared by Sundeen. Dr. Futer-Oki will in today to explain to Tag and Corele tie pathophysiology of a C V A Lee Mone, in YR I Chronic Care (building 4), will be cared by Jordie. Lee is very anaous about living with diabetes. Cam wonders about diet management. Chaska has been asked to see Cam and Lee today. Camle in YR2 Acute Care (building 1), will be cared by Sam Hart is coming to visit today and I have asked Tino to come and stop by. Tula, in V R 1 Mental Health (building 5), will be cared by Amonte today. Notia has now becomed involved Conceptia, in V R 1 , Acute Care (building 1) will be cared by Pi today. Sutton is to review the use of a walker with Conceptia. Les wants to be there to also understand how to use the walker. Cran, in V R 1 Community Care (building 2), will be cared by Karty today. Dysan is coming to review the principles of admimstering eye drops to Crut and his daughter, May. Have a pleasant day. NOW click on the appropriate building to begin the story. I ' Backto NJVRC Home I F i g u r e 3.7 E n t e r i n g N J V R C 3 . 6 Summary T h i s chapter completes the first insider action research cyc le and the first phase o f the reflective thought process, Ref l ec t ion -Befo re -Ac t ion . Th i s phase entails a process o f th ink ing about intentions pr ior to action (Greenwood , 1993). In this chapter, the reader was introduced to the process I undertook to arrive at the decis ion to assume a nurse-educator-researcher role, improve m y practice as a form o f scholar ly inqui ry , and develop an appropriate instrument to pursue this goal . Prepared w i t h a broader perspective on cr i t i ca l th ink ing and educational cyberspace, and equipped w i t h a w e l l designed but unevaluated research instrument, the stage was set to carry out a research study. The importance o f a pedagogical framework as a guide for developing, designing and evaluating a learning technology i n educational cyberspace is the focus o f this chapter. Lea rn ing technologies that are w e l l designed for educational cyberspace are bui l t us ing a pedagogical 52 framework. D e s i g n begins w i t h selecting the appropriate f ramework or m o d e l to meet the ident i f ied learning outcome. The design of Nursing Journeys: Virtual Reflective Centre is guided b y the eff icacy o f three pedagogical f rameworks adapted from Bates (2000), L a u r i l l a r d (1993) and Sternberger (2002). B a s e d o n these authors' v i ews , several k e y ideas were stressed: create an interactive learning technology, emphasise active learning and col laborat ion, and humanise educational cyberspace b y addressing diverse ways o f learning. Th i s chapter also inc luded descriptions o f the under ly ing epis temological learning paradigms, the instructional , interface design, the case narratives and characters, and the subsequent modif ica t ions o f N J V R C . The next chapter, Chapter Four, initiates the second phase of the reflective th ink ing process, Ref lec t ion-In- A c t i o n . It also describes the in i t i a l s teps—identify and gather—of the second cyc le o f this insider act ion research study. The literature r ev iew p rov ided m e w i t h the necessary foundational pr inciples to develop, and design a pedagogica l , s imula t ion instrument. The literature rev iew also conf i rmed that the insider act ion research was a fi t t ing methodologica l approach for me to f o l l o w . Included i n Chapter Four is an ove rv i ew of the research design for selecting the context and study participants, data co l l ec t ion and analysis used i n this study and the methods used to ensure the va l id i ty , accuracy and qual i ty o f the research findings. It begins w i t h an ove rv iew o f m y research phi losophy. 53 C H A P T E R F O U R — A R R I V I N G A T C Y B E R - T E X T U A L M E D I A T E D K N O W I N G The focus o f the introductory three chapters o f this dissertation is to describe the reflective practice o f Re f l ec t i on -Befo re -Ac t ion phase embedded w i t h i n the first o f two insider act ion research cycles . A s prev ious ly summarised i n Chapter One, Re f l ec t ion -Befo re -Ac t ion entails a process o f th ink ing about intentions pr ior to act ion (Greenwood, 1993). It is dur ing this phase that I identif ied the contr ibut ing factors that led to the jus t i f ica t ion for i m p r o v i n g m y practice, pursu ing this goa l as a research study w i t h i n the context o f m y o w n classroom, and the need to create and evaluate a learning technology suitable for educational cyberspace. F r o m the members o f the nursing faculty and instructional media ' responses, it appears that, w i t h several modif ica t ions to the N J V R C interface design, it m a y be an appropriate pedagogical , s imula t ion instrument to explore cr i t ica l th ink ing i n educational cyberspace. Progress ing to the second phase o f the reflective thought process, the emphasis i n R e f l e c t i o n - i n - A c t i o n phase is to think consc ious ly and conscient ious ly about the reasons behind actions w h i l e i n the mids t o f these actions (Drevdah l et a l . , 2002 ; Schbn, 1983, 1987). I beg in the second phase o f the reflective thought process b y ini t ia t ing the first three steps—re-plan, identify and ga ther—of the second insider act ion research cyc le . The p lan is to implement and evaluate N J V R C as an instrument i n a research study a imed at exp lo r ing its significance i n the p romot ion o f c r i t ica l th ink ing among undergraduate student nurses. The purpose o f this chapter is to g ive a detailed descr ipt ion o f h o w I arr ived at Cyber-Textual Mediated Knowing, the p re l iminary theoretical mode l . The chapter begins w i t h a b r i e f ove rv iew o f m y research perspective i n relat ion to the major research paradigms and introduces the research design, the setting and select ion o f study participants and the analytic strategy for data co l lec t ion and analysis. The steps to ensure the trustworthiness o f the findings are also out l ined. It is general ly acknowledged i n the research literature, that decisions about a research methodology should be informed b y the under ly ing ph i losophy to w h i c h a researcher subscribes and the nature o f the research questions ( M a s o n , 1996; S i m m o n s , 1995). A s expla ined i n the preceding chapter, a research methodology provides the researcher w i t h direct ion on h o w to conduct a study ( M a r s h a l l & Rossman , 1989). The literature rev iew conf i rmed that insider action 54 research was a fi t t ing methodolog ica l approach for me to address the proposed research questions out l ined i n Chapter One. The second task was to frame m y research methodology. 4.1 The Major Research Paradigms A research parad igm is a conceptual f ramework or a set o f beliefs that guides action about the w a y i n w h i c h data about a phenomenon should be gathered, analysed and used (Patton, 1990; S immons , 1995). B u r r e l l and M o r g a n (1979) state "to be located i n a part icular paradigm is to v i e w the w o r l d i n a part icular w a y " (p.24). F o r the researcher it is c r i t i ca l to d is t inguish the subtleties o f his or her paradigm. Three major research paradigms are ident i f ied i n the l i tera ture—empir ical , interpretive and post-modern ( D e n z i n & L i n c o l n , 1994; H o o d & L e d d y , 2003). E a c h is guided b y three paradigmatic questions: W h a t is the nature o f reali ty? (ontologica l question); what is the nature o f knowledge? (epis temological question); and what is the process of t ransforming things be l ieved into things k n o w n ? (methodological question). The empi r i ca l parad igm is also c o m m o n l y referred to as the analytic , posi t iv is t or quantitative paradigm and represents the most established o f the three paradigms that guide research, p r i m a r i l y i n the phys ica l and natural sciences domain . E m p i r i c i s m involves a b e l i e f that real i ty is static and is observed, predicted, control led and repeated f rom a scientif ic , experimental perspective. Separation f rom the phenomena under study is preferred so that object ivi ty can be maintained. Proponents advocate theoretical reduct ion as an important goa l o f research and that parts o f real i ty can be separated from the who le w h i l e cause and effect relationships among the parts can be revealed. Proponents also accept that knowledge exists apart f rom the beliefs o f ind iv idua l s ( D e n z i n & L i n c o l n , 1994; H o o d & L e d d y , 2003). A s the nature o f many soc ia l science d isc ip l ines evo lved , nurs ing be ing no exception, there has been m u c h d iscuss ion regarding the appropriateness o f the empi r i ca l paradigm for the soc ia l sciences (Glesne & Peshk in , 1992; L a c e y , 2000; M e r r i a m , 1998; Mer tens , 1998). M a n y labels also refer to another dominant research paradigm—the interpretivist approach. These inc lude terms such as naturalistic, constructivist , hermeneutic, phenomenolog ica l and qualitative approaches. The central tenet o f interpret ivism is that reali ty is dynamic and cont inua l ly evo lv ing . Interpretivists bel ieve that the ind iv idua l s w h o are active i n the research process soc ia l ly construct reali ty. A d d i t i o n a l l y , interpretivists v i e w the who le as more than the sum o f its parts. A phenomenon is studied, as a who le , i n a natural setting and f rom a subjective perspective and there is no detachment f rom real i ty to exp la in its different 55 dimensions . The emphasis is o n process, and knowledge is considered contextual and value-bound ( D e n z i n & L i n c o l n , 1994; H o o d & L e d d y , 2003). Where advocates o f the empi r i ca l paradigm bel ieve i n object ivi ty and fol lowers o f the interpretive parad igm aff i rm subjectivity, proponents o f pos t -modern ism—or the c r i t i ca l praxis p a r a d i g m — v i e w real i ty as hav ing mul t ip le meanings that m a y conf l ic t instead o f hav ing " a single, transcendent mean ing" (Reed, 1995, p. 71). Lather (1991) asserted that the post-modern approach "increases awareness o f the contradictions distorted or h idden b y everyday understandings, and i n do ing so it directs attention to the possibi l i t ies . . ."(p. 52). Inherent to this paradigm is that theory and practice are interrelated i n a hermeneutic and dialect ic process. K n o w l e d g e is both der ived from, and guides, practice. Ref lec t ion has the potential to enhance self-awareness o f domina t ing influences, leading to change. K n o w l e d g e is therefore shaped b y his tor ica l , cul tural and soc io-po l i t i ca l influences. Post-modernists bel ieve i n p lu ra l i sm and v i e w knowledge as unpredictable and a imed at contradict ing the status quo ( H o o d & L e d d y , 2003; M c N i f f , 2002). D i s sens ion is purposeful for p r o v o k i n g alternative meanings (Holmes & W a r e l o w , 2000; Lather, 1991). 4.2 Situating Insider Action Research Insider act ion research is a means o f ga in ing personal insight into the process o f teaching and learning i n an educator's o w n classroom. A s discussed i n chapters one and two, there are several reasons ci ted i n the literature w h y educators should participate i n insider act ion research. One o f its p r imary benefits is that it contributes to advancing the current b o d y o f knowledge and supports educators i n b e c o m i n g producers o f knowledge rather than so le ly consumers o f research. K n o w l e d g e development displaces "concern over the truth o f one's f indings to concern over the pract ical s ignif icance o f the f indings" (Reed, 1995, p . 72). M o s t s ignif icant ly , insider act ion research can result i n new student learning and p romot ion o f educational change (Carr & K e m m i s , 1986; Ca r son & Sumara, 1997; M c N i f f , 2002; Parsons & B r o w n , 2002). M y research approach can be described as insider act ion research, framed w i t h i n a b lend ing o f the central tenets o f the interpretive and the praxis paradigms. Ph i lo soph ica l ly , I v i e w real i ty as subject ively constructed. Individuals create the soc ia l w o r l d ; therefore, there are mul t ip le realities. I sought to interpret these mul t ip le realities among eleven undergraduate student nurses b y exp lor ing the effects o f N J V R C on the p romot ion o f c r i t ica l th ink ing i n educational cyberspace. I also bel ieve that research must be pract ical and have immediate 56 appl icat ion. K n o w l e d g e is shaped b y his tor ical , cul tural and soc io-po l i t i ca l influences and is der ived f rom and guides practice. Immersed i n m y classroom, I s imul taneously observed and acted o n reflective observations, tacit knowledge and input f rom the study participants. A c c o r d i n g l y , this process enacted educational change. F igure 4.1 summarises the methodologica l underpinnings o f this research study. Paradigm Setting Participants Instrumentation Data Source Analysis Field Notes Figure 4.1 Diagrammatic Representation of my Methodology 4.4 Setting and Selection of Study Participants The groundwork for this study took place i n a col lege i n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a . Pe rmis s ion was sought f rom the col lege to conduct research and recruit study participants. A letter, addressed to the head o f the col lege and the nurs ing department, requested permiss ion to access the inst i tut ion and invi te par t ic ipat ion i n the research ( A p p e n d i x A ) . A meet ing was set up to meet w i t h both parties to further exp la in the details o f the research. Pe rmis s ion was granted, contingent upon ethical approval obtained from the U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h Co lumbia ' s ethics committee. T i c h e n and B i n n i e (1993) identif ied poss ible ethical issues w i t h the insider act ion 57 research mode l that is set i n an educational context. O f part icular importance pertains the recruitment process and to the co l lec t ion o f informat ion dur ing the progress o f a graded course. Prospect ive study participants need to be aware that their par t ic ipat ion is ent irely voluntary and they are free to wi thdraw at any t ime, wi thout penalty to grades or progress i n a course. A s w e l l , r ecogn iz ing the hazards o f e l ic i t ing data f rom the undergraduate student nurses w h i l e the course was i n process, I revised the research design to contain o n l y one interview, w h i c h w o u l d be conducted at the end o f the semester and after the submiss ion o f f inal grades. The univers i ty ' s ethics committee subsequently approved this rev i s ion . T h i s dec i s ion replaced the or ig ina l p lan o f schedul ing one in terview at mid-semester and another at the end o f the semester. Once the ethical approval was obtained, the twenty-two undergraduate student nurses enrol led i n a first year nurs ing course were inv i ted to participate. I w o u l d facilitate this part icular course. D u r i n g the second week o f the semester an informat ion session was he ld where the purpose o f the research was defined and explained. Deta i l s about the students' role as study participants, i nc lud ing that par t ic ipat ion was voluntary and wi thd rawa l c o u l d occur at any t ime wi thout penalty. M y o w n role as researcher was also reviewed. Mat ters referring to co l lec t ion , t ranscription, storage o f the raw data and confident ial i ty were also discussed. I expla ined that a code name w o u l d be used to ensure anonymi ty and this identifier w o u l d be recorded on a l l documentat ion. A t the end o f the informat ion session, a rep ly card (see A p p e n d i x C ) and a letter ou t l in ing a l l the details o f the study covered i n the informat ion session (see A p p e n d i x B ) were distributed i n class. I had o r ig ina l l y suggested us ing a convenience sample o f eight students for this study. H o w e v e r , twelve o f the twenty-two rep ly cards indica t ing interest i n par t ic ipat ing i n the study were returned, seven indicated no interest and three replies were not returned. I met w i t h interested study participants i n d i v i d u a l l y to once again rev iew the research i n detail . The research was verba l ly defined and expla ined to each participant. Deta i l s related to the part ic ipat ion, co l lec t ion , transcription, storage o f the raw data and conf ident ia l i ty were also discussed. Study participants were also made aware that they w o u l d not be asked to identify themselves dur ing the interview, w h e n journa l wr i t ing , or w h i l e engaged i n the onl ine discussions w i t h their peers. S tudy participants were also made aware that the interviews w o u l d take place once their grades were submitted to the registrar i n order to adhere to the ethical standards o f the research study. Study participants were also made aware o f h o w the findings o f 58 the study were to be used. A signed wri t ten consent form (see A p p e n d i x D ) was obtained f rom each o f the twelve study participants pr ior to the commencement o f the research. A t the end o f the meet ing, the study participants were g iven a journa l , coded w i t h their personal identifier, and were asked to beg in recording their experiences over the semester w h i l e engaged w i t h N J V R C . E a c h study participant also received a c o p y o f the s igned consent form. Before the interviews were scheduled to begin , one study participant wi thdrew from the research study. N o n e o f this part icular study part icipant 's j ou rna l excerpts, onl ine dialogue or behaviours gained from participant-observations were used as f indings for this research study. 4.5 Research Methods M u c h o f the literature on insider act ion research does not adequately exp la in h o w data is col lected and analysed. The analytic strategy I chose for this research is c o m m o n l y referred to as grounded theory analysis (Glaser , 1978; Glaser & Strauss, 1967; Strauss, 1987; Strauss & C o r b i n , 1990). Grounded theory shares a salient feature w i t h insider act ion research i n that it is emergent i n nature. In grounded theory, real i ty is soc ia l ly constructed and it a ims to provide interpretive explanations o f events as they occur (Rolfe , 1996). The co l l ec t ion and interpretation o f data therefore occurs s imultaneously. Th i s permits the gap between theory and practice to be made more expl ic i t , advancing practice and, i n this case, enhancing student learning (Sheldon, 1998). Grounded theory seeks to induc t ive ly b u i l d theory about a phenomenon us ing analysed themes and patterns that have been grounded i n systematical ly gathered data (Strauss & C o r b i n , 1990). " O n e does not beg in w i t h a hypothet ical theory and then prove i t " ( B a c k m a n & K y n g o s , 1999, p . 148). T h i s approach can also be used to generate a new point o f v i e w about an exis t ing phenomenon (Smi th & B i l e y , 1997; Strauss & C o r b i n , 1990). In this approach o f gathering data, theory is percept ib ly generated through a cont inual interplay between co l l ec t ion and analysis o f data. T h i s is referred to as "the method o f constant compar i son" (Glaser & Strauss, 1967, p. 101-116). Constant compar i son drives the researcher to focus o n the theory that is emerging from the data, rather than ass imi la t ing new informat ion into a pre-exis t ing theory. T h i s does not mean that pre-exis t ing theory is not relevant. A s Strauss and C o r b i n (1990) recommended, theoretical sensi t ivi ty is the "attribute o f hav ing insight, the ab i l i ty to give mean ing to data, the capaci ty to understand, and the capabi l i ty to separate the pertinent f rom that w h i c h is not" (p.42). Th i s contributes to conceptual ly denser and well- integrated descriptions o f the data be ing grounded. 59 Theoret ica l sensi t ivi ty also helps the researcher main ta in an attitude o f scept ic ism about the pre-exis t ing v i ews . Select ive sampl ing is a process that includes choos ing participants before data co l lec t ion begins and co l lec t ing data w i t h i n a certain t ime frame (Schatzman & Strauss, 1973). Y e t , " i f data are col lec ted w i t h i n a certain t ime frame and not analysed s imultaneously, it is diff icul t to determine the theoretical shape and to recognise saturation" ( B a c k m a n & K y n g o s , 1999, p. 149). Select ive sampl ing often proceeds to theoretical sampl ing (Sande lowsk i , 1995b). The p r inc ip le o f theoretical sampl ing includes a process o f alternating between data co l l ec t ion and data analysis. T h e process seeks informat ion about concepts that are repeatedly present or notably absent i n the data "and are o f sufficient importance to be g iven the status o f categories" (Strauss & C o r b i n , 1990, p. 176). Th i s process terminates o n l y w h e n theoretical saturation is ach ieved— w h e n new data conf i rm what has already been found and does not b r ing any new aspects to the research (Strauss & C o r b i n , 1990). I used selective and theoretical sampl ing (Strauss & C o r b i n , 1990) as the study progressed. 4.5.1 Data Sources T h i s study employed a variety o f data gathering sources, i n c l u d i n g participant-observation, interviews, j ou rna l wr i t i ng and artefacts (online dialogue excerpts) i n order to strengthen the trustworthiness o f the research findings through mul t ip le sources (Bogdan & B i k l e n , 1998; M c N i f f , 2002; T o m a l , 2003). Da ta sources were gathered over a per iod o f one semester w h i l e the study participants engaged w e e k l y w i t h Nursing Journeys: Virtual Reflective Centre ( N J V R C ) . The entire class also engaged w i t h N J V R C , because it was a set component o f the course. E a c h week I assigned the study participants to specific characters o f N J V R C and case narratives. Th i s step was to ensure that o n l y the study participants ' on l ine dialogue w o u l d be col lected, avo id ing the poss ib i l i ty o f co l lec t ing data from the non-participants. E v e r y week, study participants had the opportunity to ' p l a y ' a client, a health professional or a f ami ly member and w o r k through the var ious case narratives. One o f the p r ima ry data co l lec t ion techniques used i n an insider act ion research study includes interviews for co l lec t ing data that is descriptive and narrative i n nature. Se idman (1998) stated that " i f a researcher's g o a l . . .is to understand the meaning people i n v o l v e d i n education make o f their experiences, then in te rv iewing provides a necessary, i f not a lways comple te ly sufficient, avenue o f i n q u i r y " (p.4). Interviews served to el ic i t the participant 's personal stories 60 w h i l e engaged w i t h N J V R C . Stories provide the audience w i t h a g l impse o f the w o r l d as perceived b y the narrator. " G o o d stories are c o m p e l l i n g and ...open up new poss ibi l i t ies for understanding. The best stories are the ones w e learn from, l inger i n our memor ies and are often revis i ted for what they can teach us, for the insights they offer. . ." ( B u l l o u g h & Baughman , 1998, p. 487). In terv iewing begins w i t h the supposi t ion that the v i ews o f others are meaningful , discernible and expl ic i t (Patton, 1990). Since I c o u l d not d i rec t ly perceive the study part icipants ' thoughts, feelings and convic t ions , I needed to ask questions that sought their perspectives regarding their experiences w i t h N J V R C . Glesne and P e s h k i n (1992) and Mer tens (1998) ident i f ied three forms an in terview m a y take. These three forms an in terview m a y take include structured, semi-structured or unstructured. A structured in terv iew is one that fo l lows a s imi la r format for each participant. In a semi-structured interview, a researcher m a y ask the same questions o f each participant, but also has the freedom to alter the sequence or probe for more informat ion. The a i m o f an unstructured in terview is to e l ic i t as m u c h informat ion as possible about a part icular event, topic or phenomenon f rom the participants. The most c r i t ica l element to any in terview, according to M i s h l e r (1986) is to ask the right k i n d o f questions i n the right k i n d o f format. The in terview guide i n this research was composed o f open-ended questions as out l ined i n A p p e n d i x E . Open-ended questions a l l ow participants to g ive freer responses (Glesne, 1999; Re i s sman , 1993; T o m a l , 2003). Quest ions a imed to determine what, w h e n and h o w the study participants experienced cr i t i ca l t h ink ing i n educat ional cyberspace w h i l e engaged w i t h N J V R C . A total o f eleven semi-structured one-hour interviews were conducted after the study part icipants ' grades were submitted. The interviews took place i n a private and quiet office at a mutua l ly agreeable t ime. The interviews were recorded on audio-tape and conducted b y first p r o v i d i n g each participant w i t h a context statement, "Thank y o u for par t ic ipat ing i n m y study, before w e begin , let me r e v i e w . . . " and an opportunity to c lar i fy any misunderstanding about his or her role. Spec ia l attention was p laced on establishing rapport and a non-threatening environment. D u r i n g this stage o f the in terview, I demonstrated respect for the study participants, us ing a non-judgemental perspective and established a confident ial environment. It w o u l d appear f rom the nature and detai l o f the experiences be ing reported that I was successful i n establishing an appropriate environment. 61 In i t ia l ly , I asked the study participants to articulate their definit ions o f c r i t i ca l t h ink ing and h o w they v i e w e d the implementa t ion o f this def ini t ion w h i l e engaged i n Nursing Journeys: Virtual Reflective Centre. T o gain a greater descr ipt ion o f this process, I asked each participant to describe a meaningful learning experience w h i l e engaged i n N J V R C . F r o m this point, the course o f the in terv iew was guided b y the context o f the study participants ' story. Interview prompts and probes were also open-ended and used w h e n appropriate to elucidate the study participants' descr ipt ion or evoke further response to the question. In addi t ion to the ind iv idua l interviews, jou rna l w r i t i n g also served as a p r imary data source. S tudy participants kept a reflective journa l throughout the semester. Journal w r i t i n g served to capture significant personal narratives o f the undergraduate student nurses. A n inherent strength o f journa l w r i t i n g is self-expression and, as M a l l o n (1984) pointed out, it has a bu i l t - i n audience. In this w a y , jou rna l wr i t i ng can serve as a purposeful tool for c r i t i ca l reflection. A s noted i n the previous section, the study participants were g iven a journa l , coded w i t h their personal identifier, and were asked to beg in recording their experiences over the semester w h i l e engaged w i t h N J V R C . A b r i e f descr ipt ion o f the journal 's purpose was wri t ten on the opening page o f each journa l . T o m i n i m i s e the r isk o f breaching the study participants ' confidential i ty, every undergraduate student nurse i n the course kept a reflective journa l . A l l o c a t e d t ime was g iven i n class at the end o f each engagement w i t h N J V R C to wri te i n the journa l . M y personal jou rna l was more comprehensive and mos t ly kept o n a computer disk. It contained several folders and files relat ing to m y experiences as a graduate student, nov ice researcher, nurse-educator, and ideas about the design o f learning technologies and educational cyberspace and field notes. Hand-wr i t ten documents and memos were p laced a long w i t h the d isk i n a three-ring binder. Other sources o f data co l lec t ion u t i l i sed i n this study inc luded part icipant-observation and artefacts, such as the onl ine dialogue transcripts. Part icipant-observat ion is a method i n w h i c h a researcher ac t ive ly participates i n the setting w h i l e s imul taneously observ ing i n order to gain access to data ( T o m a l , 2003). Part icipant-observat ion is par t icular ly useful where self-reporting f rom study participants m a y distorted through biases such as Hawthorne effect, the impact o n the study part icipants ' k n o w i n g that they are part o f a research study (Pol i t & Hungle r , 1998). The advantage o f part icipant-observation is to gain data that m a y be unattainable us ing other data sources. H o w e v e r , this approach has m a n y l imitat ions such as d i f f icu l ty i n ga in ing access to a group (Pol i t & Hungler , 1998; T o m a l , 2003). The benefit o f be ing already immersed i n this class 62 as the course facili tator lessened this l imi ta t ion . Th i s observat ional t ime a l lowed me to capture the study participants ' patterns o f engagement w i t h N J V R C . In total, I conducted ten hours o f participant observation. F o l l o w i n g L o f l a n d and L o f l a n d ' s (1995) recommendations, I jot ted d o w n notes consis t ing o f k e y terms or phrases encountered dur ing the sessions o f engagement w i t h N J V R C . These notes were then referenced to complete fu l l f i e ld notes. These f ie ld notes were recorded soon after the class was completed to create a perception o f what was be ing observed and expressed. M a y k u t and Morehouse (1994) jus t i f ied this data co l lec t ion technique and stated, "the keen observations and important conversations one has i n the f ie ld cannot be fu l ly u t i l i sed i n a r igorous analysis o f the data unless they are wri t ten d o w n " (p.73). M y f ie ld notes contained descriptions o f the setting, study part icipants ' habits, in formal discussions, quotations and i l lustrations. D a t a were coded and entered into the comparat ive analysis process i n the same manner as the in terv iew data. A f inal data source col lec ted i n this study was the artefact, or the product that emerged as the study participants engaged i n N J V R C . A c c o r d i n g to H o d d e r (1995) and T o m a l (2003) artefacts act as phys i ca l i tems that trace elements o f behaviour that can prov ide significant insights; these m a y differ f rom those obtained through interviews, jou rna l w r i t i n g and participant-observation. O n l i n e dialogue transcripts were used to capture the study participants' patterns o f appl ica t ion o f their c r i t ica l th ink ing abil i t ies. T o ensure that the onl ine dialogue transcripts were saved after each engagement w i t h N J V R C and not destroyed dur ing a possible technical interruption, they were saved i n a b a c k u p 9 f i le, downloaded to a d i sk and appropriately coded w i t h the date and the study participants' personal identifier. T o m i n i m i s e any ethical d i lemmas , the saved onl ine dialogue transcripts were not analysed unt i l the submiss ion o f the study part icipants ' grades. 4.5.2 Data Analysis A s the in terview data was one o f the p r imary sources o f data co l lec t ion , I began w i t h this source. R e i s s m a n (1993) recommended beg inn ing the analysis process b y t ranscr ibing the entire in terview, i nc lud ing words , emotions, and pauses onto paper. A professional transcriber was engaged to transcribe the interviews for this study. T o facilitate analysis o f the transcribed in terview data, I used three cod ing processes: open coding , ax ia l cod ing , and selective cod ing A precautionary process of copying a file to a second medium, such as a disk. Definition taken from http://www.webopedia.com 63 (Strauss & C o r b i n , 1990). The ideas that emerged from one in terv iew were also explored and compared w i t h other study participants at subsequent interviews. The m a i n themes beh ind these ideas were coded i n an iterative and constant comparat ive process, c luster ing into recognisable l i nked categories. Categories are emergent patterns that m a y be a descript ion, observat ion or interpretation o f the under ly ing phenomena (Strauss & C o r b i n , 1990). Th i s cod ing process was also appl ied to the other data sources, searching for units o f informat ion, relat ionships and patterns. T h i s i n v o l v e d seeking s imilar i t ies and differences among the data. The overa l l goa l was to organise the data i n order to best describe the undergraduate student nurses' experiences o f engagement w i t h N J V R C . I began b y organis ing and assembling the data col lected b y date, data co l lec t ion method, research questions and in terview questions. O p e n cod ing is the part o f the analysis that focuses o n ident i fying, naming or l abe l l ing the data and where the a i m is to d iscover abstract categories (Strauss & C o r b i n , 1990). D u r i n g open cod ing , I first read each in te rv iew transcript to ga in an appreciat ion o f the text as a whole . I then re-examined the data l ine-by- l ine and assigned in i t i a l category labels to the ideas and units o f informat ion. These units o f in format ion ranged i n length from a term or a short phrase, to a paragraph i n length. I repeated the process w h e n I read the remain ing in terv iew transcripts, the study part icipants ' j ou rna l entries, m y f ie ld notes and the onl ine dialogue transcripts, cont inua l ly us ing the constant compar i son strategy. The intent o f ax ia l cod ing is to establish connect ion between the categories that emerge f rom the open cod ing process (Strauss & C o r b i n , 1990). D u r i n g ax ia l cod ing , I began to identify s imi la r units o f informat ion i n successive in terview transcripts. I used Microsof t ' s ™ ' f i n d ' feature to identify these terms and upon identif icat ion, the units o f informat ion were then colour-coded. The colour-coded system was also used w h e n searching for s imilar i t ies i n jou rna l entries, m y f ie ld notes and jou rna l and onl ine dialogue transcripts. These units o f informat ion were then assigned to major categories. Select ive cod ing is the process o f choos ing one category to be the core category and relat ing a l l other major categories to that part icular category (Strauss & C o r b i n , 1990). W i t h the selective cod ing process, the a i m is to integrate and p u l l together the deve lop ing analysis, and develop a single s toryl ine (Strauss & C o r b i n , 1990). D u r i n g selective cod ing , I arr ived at the core category and was able to relate the other major categories to this core category. The literature was also sampled select ively throughout the analysis to assist i n support ing the emerging major 64 themes, categories and patterns. The f o l l o w i n g example illustrates the appl ica t ion o f the cod ing process and the ar r ival of the theoretical mode l , Cyber-Textual Mediated Knowing. D u r i n g the in terview process, I directed the study participants to focus o n their experiences o f role-play. K e y words f rom the study part icipants ' v i ews inc luded th ink ing about knowledge , ro le -p lay ing knowledge , ask ing about knowledge , and not be ing afraid o f knowledge . D o n o v a n (1995) suggested that to m i n i m i s e the inadvertent super imposing o f participants ' perceptions upon those o f the researcher, care should be taken to emp loy the actual words , sayings and phrases employed b y the participants. Knowledge emerged as a theme, a unit of informat ion noted dur ing the open cod ing and the constant compar i son process. Literature was used concurrent ly to validate emerging themes. F o r example, Jenkins and Tur i ck -Gibson ' s (1999) f indings suggested that ro le-p lay stimulates knowledge development. Th i s enabled me to develop a degree o f theoretical sensi t ivi ty and attempt to understand the study part icipants ' experiences as they understood it. Several study participants expressed that ro le -p lay ing assisted them to validate their degree o f knowledge , and also helped them establish a personal percept ion o f other health care professionals ' roles, i nc lud ing the fami ly ; thus gain ing a mul t i -d imens iona l perspective. Other study participants expressed that a knowledge base was essential. A n o n y m i t y was also ident i f ied was a benefit, as it decreased judgement or in t imida t ion f rom peers w h i l e engaged w i t h N J V R C . Several study participants also expressed the need to incorporate the other character's responses dur ing ro le-p lay and reflect o n what to say before typ ing their reply. Wi thou t this reflection, they stated that m i scommun ica t i on occurred and learning was hindered. The study participants ' inferred that knowledge was int imately l i nked to k n o w i n g . Knowing, therefore, was i n d i v i d u a l l y and col labora t ive ly learned. D u r i n g the ax ia l cod ing process, knowing was further identif ied as constructed k n o w i n g , conta ining properties s imi la r to that o f a con t inuum and label led as from self- constructor of knowledge to others as co -constructors of knowledge. D u r i n g the selective cod ing process constructed knowing emerged as a core category and one of the five manifestations of knowing that established the p re l iminary theoretical m o d e l , Cyber-Textual Mediated Knowing. The cod ing process of this example is d isp layed i n F igure 4.2. Further details of the cod ing process o f each of the core categories of knowing are described i n Chapter Five. 65 Units of Information "To actually think for myself. "In order to understand on a deeper level you have to have that knowledge. It makes you realise what you do know and what you don't know" "It reduced the anxiety levels by talking over a computer screen. 1 was not afraid to make a mistake or say something that was wrong "And I was asking those questions based on her answers" "1 began trying to get into the character and was analysing the feedback coming back to me an d how appropriate it was" Open Coding Axial Coding Selecting Coding thinking about knowledge understanding about knowledge not afraid of knowledge building knowledge as self asking with knowledge role play with knowledge building knowledge with others constructed knowing F i g u r e 4.2 E x a m p l e o f the C o d i n g Process 4.5 Trustworthiness of the Study L i n c o l n and G u b a (1985) used the term trustworthiness to account for c red ib i l i ty and accountabil i ty. T w o m a i n sources used i n this study were t r iangulat ion and member checks. A source o f trustworthiness i n insider act ion research is obtained w h e n there are mul t ip le data sources (Bogdan & B i k l e n , 1998; M c N i f f , 2002; T o m a l , 2003)—this is often ca l led tr iangulat ion. Tr iangula t ion is a c o m m o n l y endorsed method used to illustrate a more complete contextual portrayal o f the phenomenon under study (Nagle & M i t c h e l l , 1991; S h i h , 1998). Tr iangula t ion min imises the r isk o f distortions that can occur w h e n o n l y one data source is employed . The tr iangulat ion o f qualitative data m a y also, to some extent, serve to ameliorate 66 concerns about the Hawthorne effect. A c c o r d i n g to Fetterman (1998), " t r iangulat ion a lways improves the qual i ty o f data and the accuracy o f research f ind ings" (p.95). T h i s study has used several data sources that complement each other and that increase the va l id i ty , qual i ty and accuracy o f the research findings. A number o f measures were taken i n order to guard against researcher bias. It is important to recognise that I had a unique pos i t ion w i t h i n this research study and that m y attitudes, perceptions and beliefs w o u l d add another perspective. It was m y role as researcher to be open and make these attitudes, perceptions and beliefs v i s ib le , through reflective practice, w h i l e also be ing cognisant that the study part icipants ' understandings were not be ing overshadowed. Ano the r strategy to reduce bias is member checks ( L i n c o l n & G u b a 1985; M a y k u t & Morehouse , 1994; M i l e s & Huberman , 1994). M a y k u t and Morehouse (1994) define member checks as ver i f ica t ion whether the researcher "has produced a recognisable rea l i ty" (p. 147) i n the study part icipant 's v i e w . D u r i n g the in terview process, an on-go ing member check was conducted when I asked i f m y paraphrasing or summarisat ion was accurate. I f I had been inaccurate, the participant w o u l d c lar i fy the inaccuracy and I w o u l d then repeat the paraphrasing or summarisat ion process. Once the in terview was complete, I summarised the who le in terview us ing k e y phrases that I had recorded dur ing the in terv iew i n order to frame m y summary. A t this t ime, the study participants were again asked i f m y summary o f their v i e w s was correct. In order to satisfy requirements o f r igour, adherence to the s ix cri teria identif ied b y W i n t e r (1989), as described i n Chapter Two, were mainta ined throughout the study. A n audit t rai l ( L i n c o l n & G u b a , 1985) was also formed. Interview and onl ine dialogue transcripts, journals , and f ie ld notes were mainta ined throughout the invest igat ion. The cod ing process was checked pe r iod ica l ly w i t h members o f m y doctoral committee. M e m b e r checks also p rov ided the study participants opportunities to comment on "the accuracy o f descriptions, explanations and interpretations" ( M i l e s & Huberman , 1994, p . 48). A t the end o f the analysis , the core category and related categories that emerged from the cod ing process were also checked i n fo l low-up interviews w i t h each o f the study participants v i a electronic communica t ion . L i n c o l n and G u b a (1985) c l a i m e d that shar ing f indings w i t h study participants o f the study helps to validate the data co l lec t ion and analysis process. E a c h o f the study participants agreed w i t h the descriptions o f the core category and related categories. 67 4.6 Summary T h i s chapter introduced the reader to Ref l ec t ion - In -Ac t ion , the second phase o f the reflective thought process. It also summarised the ident i f icat ion and gathering steps o f the second cyc le o f this insider act ion research study. It began w i t h an ove rv i ew o f the factors that shaped m y research phi losophy, the setting and the select ion o f the study participants, and the method used to col lect and analyse the data, and then conc luded w i t h a summary o f the steps undertaken to ensure trustworthiness o f the f inding. Insider act ion research is a fi t t ing methodologica l f ramework because educators can trace their self-reflective l i v e d journeys o f analysing their beliefs and values w h i l e ga in ing a greater understanding o f the teaching and learning process, enhancing their o w n teaching as a form o f research. A n educator can also assume an active role o f researcher, s imul taneously act ing o n observations and input accordingly , enacting change. Insider act ion researchers can potent ia l ly produce theories f rom their tacit knowledge , result ing i n the advancement the current b o d y o f knowledge o f education. Grounded theory, as the p r inc ipa l analytic strategy, is a systematic set o f procedures to arrive at a theory about basic socia l processes. The a i m o f this induct ive approach is to discover the under ly ing soc ia l factors that best shape the phenomenon be ing investigated. T h i s study uncovered themes and patterns about what it meant to c r i t i ca l ly th ink w h i l e undergraduate student nurses were engaged w i t h Nursing Journeys: Virtual Reflective Centre i n educational cyberspace. In the next chapter, Chapter Five, the results o f the study are out l ined. Chapter Five completes the Ref l ec t ion - In -Ac t ion , the second phase o f the reflective thought process w i t h a descr ipt ion o f the interpretation step o f the second cyc le o f this insider act ion research study. W h i l e sound interpretations are offered, der ived f rom the research f indings, m y goal is to provide a thick, fu l l descr ipt ion o f the self-reflective journeys and experiences o f undergraduate student nurses w h i l e engaged w i t h N J V R C , i n order to stimulate further ref lect ion and scholar ly discourse. The appl icab i l i ty o f the interpretations o f the research f indings to s imi la r educational settings rests so le ly w i t h the reader and his or her part icular educational situation. 68 C H A P T E R F I V E — U N R A V E L L I N G C O N N E C T I O N S B E T W E E N T H E M E S A N D P A T T E R N S A s I continue w i t h the second phase o f the reflective thought process, Re f l ec t ion - In -Ac t ion , I progress to the interpretation step o f the second cyc le o f this insider act ion research study. W h i l e I r emain focused o n unrave l l ing and interpreting the connections between pedagogy, research and change, I a m s imul taneously learning more about the effects o f Nursing Journeys: Virtual Reflective Centre o n the p romot ion o f c r i t ica l t h ink ing i n educational cyberspace through the explora t ion o f the experiences o f eleven undergraduate student nurses. Chapter Four p rov ided a synopsis o f the research design for selecting the context and the study participants, the data co l lec t ion and analysis procedures used i n this study. The methods used to ensure the va l id i ty , accuracy and qual i ty o f the research f indings were also described. A n essential aspect i n the d isseminat ion and ut i l i sa t ion o f research f indings is a wel l -wr i t t en research report ( B a c k m a n & K y n g a s , 1999). Descr ip t ive language is often ci ted as a w a y o f p r o v i d i n g the reader w i t h c lar i ty and an in-depth v i e w o f the entire research process ( T o m a l , 2003). It is important to note that data are o n l y u t i l i sed to demonstrate h o w a theory is produced (Sande lowsk i , 1998) "and that it was indeed constructed f rom this data" ( B a c k m a n & K y n g a s , 1999, p. 151). The purpose o f this chapter is to report the analysis and interpretation o f the data col lec ted for this study i n a clear and comprehensive manner. 5.1 Unravelling Connections between Themes and Patterns A s presented i n Chapter Two, Carper (1978) ident i f ied nurs ing knowledge as be ing compr i sed o f four interrelated and fundamental patterns o f k n o w i n g . These patterns o f k n o w i n g inc lude , empi r ica l , aesthetic, personal and ethical. Carper (1978) argued, "understanding these patterns is essential for the teaching and learning o f nu r s ing" (p. 13). In keeping w i t h Carper 's (1978) th ink ing about understanding patterns o f k n o w i n g as a k e y to u n l o c k i n g the nature o f nurs ing knowledge , this study identif ied a pattern o f a w a y o f k n o w i n g unique to educational cyberspace. 69 As a result o f e m p l o y i n g a grounded theory process, Cyber-Textual Mediated Knowing emerged as a p re l iminary theoretical mode l o f a pattern o f a w a y of k n o w i n g . Cyber-Textual Mediated Knowing i nvo l ve d a process that consc ious ly shapes knowledge . It evo lved w h e n ind iv idua l s were immersed i n a cyberspace w o r l d , interacted as v i r tua l characters w i t h others as v i r tua l characters, and perce ived a true sense o f a phys ica l presence. C o u p l e d w i t h this sense o f a phys ica l presence and a deve lop ing sound knowledge base, a mediated dialogue was init iated. U n l i k e other verbal dialogues, these dialogues were textual and ind iv idua l s perce ived the no t ion of conversat ion through compos ing text. As indicated prev ious ly , the findings presented here are der ived from onl ine dialogue transcripts, in terview transcripts, study part icipants ' journals and m y f ie ld notes. Literature was used concurrent ly to validate emerging themes and patterns. T i m e , trust, faci l i ta t ion, authenticity, anonymity , empowerment , confidence, part ic ipat ion, communica t ion , ref lect ion, learning and knowledge are identif ied as major themes important i n the study participants ' experience w i t h N J V R C that were extracted from the data. Knowing appears as a prevalent pattern that bonds these themes, emerging as a core category o f the p re l iminary theoretical mode l . A subsequent analysis of data identif ied that there are f ive d is t inguishing manifestations of knowing. These are represented as proficient knowing, authentic knowing, intrinsic knowing, constructed knowing, and interactive knowing and g ive rise to f ive discernible process-oriented patterns. These patterns are also ident i f ied w i t h support ing data that establish the p re l imina ry theoretical m o d e l , Cyber-Textual Mediated Knowing. These patterns are ident i f ied as from chaos to competency, from virtual experience to experiencing reality, from critical thinker as active learner to reflective thinker as discovered learner, from verbal communication to textual dialogue and from self-constructor of knowledge for others to co-constructors of knowledge. E a c h manifestat ion o f knowing and related process-pattern i s expla ined i n greater detai l i n the next section. 5.2 Framework for Organising the Findings The themes and patterns are organised w i t h i n a f ramework b y referring back to the questions that guided this insider act ion research study and as i l lustrated i n Table 5.1. A s indicated i n Table 5.1, several o f the themes and patterns are interrelated and apply for more than one research question. F o r the purpose o f c lear ly summar i s ing the f indings, each theme and pattern w i l l o n l y be described once. 70 Table 5.1 Organisational Framework for Reporting the Results Research Questions Themes Patterns How does Nursing Journeys: Virtual Reflective Centre promote the development of critical thinking among undergraduate student nurses? How do undergraduate student nurses describe their experiences of learning to critically think while engaged with Nursing Journeys: Virtual Reflective Centre! How does the blending of the theoretical underpinnings of role-play, computer-mediated communication and collaborative and problem-based learning promote the development of critical thinking among undergraduate student nurses? Knowledge Reflection Anonymity Facilitation Trust Time Participation Communication Authenticity Trusting Confusing Empowering Frustrating Reflective Communicative Authentic Knowledge Time Anonymity Resources Critical thinking Reflection Learning Participation Presencing Communication Authenticity From Critical Thinker as Active Learner to Reflective Thinker as Discovered Learner From Verbal Communication to Textual Dialogue From Virtual Experience to Experiencing Reality From Chaos to Competency From Self Constructors of Knowledge to Others as Co-Constructors of Knowledge From Critical Thinker as Active Learner to Reflective Thinker as Discovered Learner From Virtual Experience to Experiencing Reality From Chaos to Competency From Self Constructors of Knowledge to Others as Co-Constructors of Knowledge From Critical Thinker as Active Learner to Reflective Thinker as Discovered Learner From Verbal Communication to Textual Dialogue From Virtual Experience to Experiencing Reality From Self Constructors of Knowledge to Others as Co-Constructors of Knowledge 5.2.1 Research Question 1 • H o w does Nursing Journeys: Virtual Reflective Centre promote the development o f c r i t i ca l th ink ing among undergraduate student nurses? Intrinsic Knowing is identif ied as one of the f ive core categories that produced Cyber-Textual Mediated Knowing. Intrinsic knowing is a process b y w h i c h the study participants characterised the m o d e l l i n g of c r i t ica l th ink ing w h i l e engaged w i t h Nursing Journeys: Virtual Reflective Centre. Intrinsic knowing is recognised b y the study participants as acknowledg ing the presence o f c r i t i ca l t h ink ing as a s k i l l developed through active learning. M o s t important ly, intrinsic knowing is recognised by the study participants as an essential p r inc ip le i n becoming a 71 cr i t i ca l thinker. Wi thou t acqui r ing intrinsic knowing, the study participants expressed that the development o f their no t ion o f c r i t ica l t h ink ing was hindered. D u r i n g the in terview process, I directed the study participants to focus o n their experiences o f c r i t ica l t h ink ing w h i l e engaged w i t h N J V R C . K e y words f rom the study participants ' v i ews inc luded, be ing aware o f poss ibi l i t ies , not tak ing things for granted, m a k i n g a best decis ion , be ing analyt ical and intui t ive, and th ink ing about knowledge . "In order to understand on a deeper level you have to have that knowledge. It makes you realise what you do know and what you don't know" (Transcript 17, p . l ) . Th i s statement is congruent w i t h C o p p (2002), K n o w l e s (1980) and Sk iba ' s (1997) v i ews that learners w h o take an active role open their minds to new poss ibi l i t ies . Al l the study participants acknowledged hav ing a w o r k i n g def in i t ion o f c r i t i ca l th ink ing . F r o m the transcribed interviews, c r i t ica l t h ink ing was predominate ly defined as a cogni t ive s k i l l that was either product or process oriented. One participant interpreted c r i t i ca l t h ink ing as hav ing a set o f cogni t ive sk i l l s and affective attributes: "It is a process ...analytical, intuitiveness, having a broad spectrum of knowledge about what you are talking about, what the problem is. Having an open mind" (Transcript 6, p. 1). F i v e study participants characterised c r i t i ca l t h ink ing as that o f a r r iv ing at a part icular solut ion, a product. F o r example, Part icipant 12 characterised c r i t i ca l th ink ing as: Gathering all the information that you've been taught and making a decision based on that knowledge and thinking on your feet. (Transcript 12, p. 1) Part icipant 16 defined c r i t i ca l t h ink ing as: You think about what you do before you do it really carefully in order that if there is a decision to be made, a good decision will be made. And it's analysing and using your knowledge. (Transcript 16, p. 1) Part icipant 19 identif ied c r i t i ca l t h ink ing as: Take your knowledge that you've learned, experience that you have and intuition and use all those facets to make a decision, a best decision. And to formulate without someone telling you what the answer is. (Transcript 19, p . l ) 72 Participant 5 described c r i t i ca l th ink ing w h i l e engaged w i t h N J V R C as: Actively being able to analyse the data you've got to come up with a solution or an answer that, that incorporates all the information so that it's a reasonable answer with the data. (Transcript 5, p. 1) Part icipant 4 defined c r i t i ca l th ink ing as: To look at something with the information that I have been given to make my own decision about it. To actually think for myself. (Transcript 4, p. 1) These definit ions suggest that these study participants were i nc l ined to v i e w cr i t i ca l th ink ing i n a manner that c lose ly represented K u r f i s s ' (1988) def ini t ion. K u r f i s s (1988) defined cr i t i ca l th ink ing as "an invest igat ion whose purpose is to explore a situation, phenomenon, question, or p rob lem to arrive at a hypothesis or conc lus ion about it that integrates a l l avai lable informat ion and that can therefore be c o n v i n c i n g l y jus t i f i ed" (p.2). In contrast, f ive study participants characterised c r i t i ca l th ink ing as that o f an intel lectual process-oriented act ivi ty . Part icipant 1 characterised c r i t i ca l t h ink ing as: Where you don't look at just, at just, how do you say, just at its surface. You look beyond it and you think of other things that come around it, every angle, at every perspective. (Transcript 1, p. 1) S i m i l a r l y , participant 17 described cr i t ica l th ink ing as "getting underneath" (Transcript 17, p . 1). Part icipant 11 expla ined that c r i t ica l th ink ing was "not just taking things for granted...question why something is the way it is " (Transcript 11, p. 1), and participant 14 stated, "to put things together, make the connections between symptoms, diagnosis. It's a thinking process that involves praxis and theory and being able to put those two together so that you can care for a client in a better way" (Transcript 14, p. 1). Part icipant 18 v i e w e d cr i t i ca l th ink ing as: It's taking the knowledge that you have and really using that knowledge..., and reflecting on the decision that you make. (Transcript 18, p . 1) These definit ions suggest that these study participants were i nc l ined to v i e w cr i t ica l t h ink ing i n a w a y that c lose ly a l igned w i t h Brookf ie ld ' s (1987) def in i t ion o f c r i t ica l th ink ing as a process rather than an outcome. In this way , B r o o k f i e l d (1987) expla ined that a cr i t ica l thinker 73 cont inua l ly questions assumptions as " a product ive and pos i t ive act ivi ty . [It is] a process, not an outcome, manifested i n var ious ways , according to context triggered b y both posi t ive and negative events, emotive as w e l l as rat ional , a l i v e d act ivi ty, not an abstract academic pas t ime" (pp. 5-7). S tudy participants indicated that they perceived themselves as c r i t i ca l thinkers. A l l study participants be l ieved they practised actual is ing their def in i t ion o f c r i t ica l t h ink ing w h e n role p l a y i n g as the v i r tua l characters and w o r k i n g through the case narratives. S igni f icant ly , the study participants d iscovered that, through reflection, they were able to acknowledge they were s t i l l be ing led b y their preconceived assumptions, especial ly i n the beg inn ing engagement sessions w i t h N J V R C . Af ter successive sessions, these study participants were also able to recognise that they were o n l y beg inn ing to understand cr i t ica l t h ink ing as a complex construct and that it was not necessari ly learned and actualised i n a l inear, i n d i v i d u a l fashion. Study participants began ask ing more questions to c lar i fy or to unearth h idden meaning w h i l e v i r tua l ly engaged w i t h peers. "[NJVRC] helped me understand what kinds of questions needed to be asked in order for the individual to respond accordingly'1 (Journal 4 p. 3). "And I was asking those questions based on her answers" (Transcript 4, p. 5). B r o o k f i e l d (1987) expla ined that a c r i t i ca l th inker grows b y cont inua l ly quest ioning assumptions. In that respect, I noted: Behaviours noted in the online dialogue transcripts and journal excerpts show study participants increasingly reflecting and developing some of the affective dispositions associated with critical thinking. They are clarifying the intent o f messages and recognising when assumptions are being used. (Field Notes, June 2, 2003) Part icipant 19 observed, " / began trying to get into the character and was analysing the feedback coming back to me and how appropriate it was" (Journal 19, p. 1). A s Part icipant 1 stated: When I was playing a family member, I was asking more questions to the reasons given. I didn't settle for a poor answer. When I played a health professional, I've become more aware of things like why is this person in denial, why does he refuse care, what does he fear. (Journal 1, p. 3, 4) I started to see and be open to the perspectives from all sides. (Journal 11, p.3) 74 I also noted: I discover that N J V R C did not directly fail to promote the affective dispositions of critical thinking. However, without the students deliberately taking the time to write out their experiences in their journals, these dispositions were underdeveloped. Reflection can serve as a means to propel the particular to the foreground, against the background o f the general. In reviewing the journal excerpts more closely there are embedded terms, phrases and explanation o f the affective dispositions of critical thinking (see Figure 5.1). Indirectly, the results of keeping a journal allowed study participants to flourish and become critical thinkers and not just think critically. "Knowing is doing is being" (Davis and Sumara, 1997, 106). (Field Notes, M a y 31, 2003) The f o l l o w i n g onl ine dialogue transcript (Figure 5 . 1 ) between Part icipant 18 and a peer, Part icipant 19, a long w i t h the corresponding jou rna l excerpts illustrates both study participants ' ref lect ion o n their learning and h o w their affective disposi t ions o f c r i t i ca l t h ink ing matured. 75 Participant 18 reflects: I began to look at a health challenge from the client's perspective. In this scenario, Cran, the client had glaucoma and feared going blind. I really played it on. I mean to lose your vision would be really huge. I had to know a bit about glaucoma but also a bit of how people with glaucoma might react.. .And a bit about communication and then bring it all together. And I picked up on communication techniques my peer used that were ineffective. I challenged the nurse, my peer, by saying "how can you possibly understand?" The nurse began to work through Cran's feelings, let her vent. (Journal 18, p.4-5) Karty K o z » H o w are you feeling today Karty K o z » A R e you experiencing any pain and I cut my upper lip. Cran L u t » I tripped on my table on the way to the ^ Cran L u t » I am very scared. Karty K o z » Lets get you back in bed so I can assess the cut on your lip and then we should assess the room for you Cran Lut»Alright Karty K o z » I t will be okay I will be here working with you Cran L u t » I wasn't expecting when I went to the eye doctor for him to tell me I have glaucoma. I thought I only needed a new prescription. Karty K o z » I understand that the frustration and shock of finding out you have a condition that you must maintain and deal with now Cran L u t » H o w can you possibly understand! Karty K o z » I know of some support groups if you would like to join. Or we can sit and talk together about your feelings Cran Lut»Well I am feeling very anxious but I don't know if I would feel comfortable sharing those feelings in a support group. Karty Koz»would you like to read some literature about glaucoma to help you understand the condition more? Cran Lut»Yes , I think that might be helpful. My biggest fear is not being able to see and losing my independence. I live alone and am very independent. I don't want to rely on other people. Karty Koz»Unfortunately that may become a possibility for you. You will of course still be able to live at home with the help of occupation therapists they can help you rearrange your home and teach you techniques that will help you maintain an independent lifestyle 7 \ Cran Lut»It sounds like quite an adjustment / \ Participant 19 reflects: I liked that I was able to have to explain a condition and answer a real person's questions and concerns. Really made me think deeply and bring up all my knowledge. I was challenged by my peer, actually taken by surprised by the comment "how can you possibly understand?". I thought I was attending and listening well. I realised I had to more appropriate ways to communicate and that I was only thinking that therapy was the only solution and not identifying Cran's fear as the main concern. At the end of class, I asked who played Cran and thanked my peer for the challenge. (Journal 19, p. 3-6) F i g u r e 5.1 O n l i n e D i a l o g u e E x c e r p t s 76 Several study participants reported that the maintenance o f a jou rna l fostered self-awareness. Ref lec t ion enhances the affective d imens ion o f c r i t i ca l t h ink ing and, thus, intrinsic knowing evolves. The signif icance o f reflect ion is w e l l documented i n the literature ( A t k i n s & M u r p h y , 1993; M e z i r o w , 1981; Poi r ie r , 1997; Schon , 1983, 1987; v a n M a n e n , 1977). These authors seem to agree that the technical rat ional approach assists an i n d i v i d u a l to think cr i t ica l ly . W h e n this approach is used alone it suppresses ind iv idua ls ' ab i l i ty to be c r i t i ca l thinkers. Th i s f ind ing indicates that intrinsic knowing can be further conceptual ised as a con t inuum and label led as from Critical Thinker as Active Learner to Reflective Learner as Discovered Learner. 5.2.2 Research Question 2 • H o w do undergraduate student nurses describe their experiences o f learning to c r i t i ca l ly think w h i l e engaged w i t h Nursing Journeys: Virtual Reflective Centre? Proficient Knowing is identif ied as a second core category that produced Cyber-Textual Mediated Knowing. Proficient knowing is a process b y w h i c h the study participants ' characterised their overa l l experience w h i l e engaged w i t h Nursing Journeys: Virtual Reflective Centre. Proficient knowing is recognised b y the study participants as hav ing a sound knowledge base o f nurs ing theory, confidence i n app ly ing this knowledge and effective computer sk i l l s to successful ly engage as the v i r tua l characters o f N J V R C . D u r i n g the interview process, I directed the study participants to focus o n their experiences w h i l e engaged w i t h N J V R C . In the beg inn ing classes, most o f the study participants i n i t i a l l y expressed their apprehensiveness about us ing N J V R C because o f a lack o f confidence i n their knowledge base. K e y words from the study participants ' v i ews inc luded lost, frustrated, s truggling, impatient, self-doubt and chal lenging. Part icipant 18 acknowledged "lack of knowledge base made it difficult to play all the characters to their fullest" (Journal 18, p.6). Part icipant 12 echoed s imi la r comments about the perceived lack o f confidence w i t h knowledge . "In the beginning, I did not have enough to really feel comfortable and role playing as in a conversation and air (Transcript 12, p. 2). Wi thou t developing a degree o f proficient knowing, the study participants expressed that learning was hindered. P a u l (1995) postulated that knowledge and th ink ing are inseparable entities. " O n e has to have content [knowledge] to c r i t i ca l ly t h ink" ( L o v i n g & W i l s o n , 2000, p. 70). In order for meaningful learning to occur , learners need to recognise the s ignif icance and re levancy o f the learning process. A d u l t learners are usua l ly goal and app l icab i l i ty oriented ( K n o w l e s , 1990; M a y e r 2001). F o u r study participants also expressed a 77 lack o f seriousness b y others i n the first two sessions. One study participant was quite specific and d i d not perceive N J V R C as meaningful at the onset o f engagement: To be honest with you, in the beginning I didn't even take it seriously. I only got into it within the last three weeks. But eventually, I was more confident in my knowledge base and I could talk and see the benefits of Nursing Journeys. Before then I didn't even know what I was doing. (Transcript 14, p.4j I also noted: Some students seem to participate in this activity simply for the sake of participating and with no interest in learning. Contributing factors to consider are that I have not adequately addressed learning styles completely. Perhaps NJVRC is not a helpful learning technology and is not congruent with these students preferred learning styles. Perhaps, I have made a great assumption that the directions on the homepage are sufficient. Are the directions on the home page not specific enough? Something to review. In the interim, during the next class, I will give more of a detailed verbal explanation of the purpose of NJVRC. Although, I can't ignore the technological glitches we experienced today contributed to this not knowing how to proceed. (Field notes, January 30, 2003) C o u p l e d w i t h a perce ived lack o f confidence i n their knowledge and the l imi t ed s k i l l o f self-direct ion, four study participants also expressed that their computer sk i l l s were m i n i m a l . Techno log i ca l i l l i t e racy i n educational cyberspace is not a new phenomenon. W i t h i n the literature, learners are often reported as hav ing technologica l i l l i t e racy and that this is a perceived disadvantage ( B i l l i n g , Connors & Sk iba , 2001 ; M o r r i s , B u c k - R o l l a n d & Gagne, 2002; Thie le , A l l e n & Stucky, 1999). T i m e also appeared as a contr ibut ing factor i n the development o f proficient knowing. Part icipant 18 suggested there was "Not enough time. It was confusing at the beginning and didn't leave enough time to really get into it" (Journal 18, p . l ) . Part icipant 18's j ou rna l excerpt also revealed that w i t h addi t ional t ime "7 could see how it [NJVRC] could enhance my critical thinking skills" (Journal 18, p. 1). I also noted: 78 After spending a few minutes at the beginning of the past two class sessions with N J V R C to clarify students' concerns, students seem to be more relaxed and 'getting in to it'. Engagement was extended for 90 minutes instead of the original scheduled time o f 60 minutes. Silence filled the classroom. Students' eyes were affixed to the monitors. Sounds permeated the room only toward the end of the session. Some students were asking "who played so and so", I had to think on the spot" or "that was interesting". (Field Notes, February 27, 2003) These experiences underscore the importance o f p r o v i d i n g adequate t ime and cont inuing guidance i n b e c o m i n g acquainted w i t h the newer learning technologies, enabl ing knowledge to evolve . T h i s supports the findings o f B u l l e n (1998), M o r r i s , et a l . (2002), W e i s & G u y t o n -S i m m o n s ( 1 9 9 8 ) . Trust i n rece iv ing credible informat ion or lack thereof also appeared as another factor h inder ing learning and cr i t i ca l th ink ing . A s Part icipant 11 expla ined: / think also if another person was to give you, if you didn't know a lot about a certain diagnosis and they were to give you incorrect information but you thought they were right then you might, it might be something you kind of carry with you as incorrect information. (Journal 11, p.2) Several study participants described "stepping out o f the ro le" momenta r i ly as an effective strategy to overcome this perceived mistrust. If I really didn't understand where to go, and so did my partner, I would step out and say look [or type] I don't get this, let me look something up for a moment or I would put my discretely raise hand up and ask you [facilitator]. (Transcript 6, p. 3) I also noted: Some study participants are coming more frequently to the computer class with their notes from class and their textbooks. Post-its ™ are affixed to selected pages. Other study participants are transcribing points from the case narrative on a piece of paper while others are minimising the pop-up windows with the detailed descriptions o f the case narrative to use as references. Whispered consultations occur with a peer sitting to their 79 left or to their right to ask a quick question or help them remember a medical term. Hands would also be raised for facilitator guidance. Their questions were mostly to validate whether their thought process or the content was appropriate. Two students asked i f we could begin next class with an oral debriefing o f the case narratives. I consider this request with much trepidation and decide at this time not to follow it through. On the one hand, this form of group reflection can enhance critical thinking among the students. However, it may also aid in developing fixed ideas among the students, especially since every student has not worked through all the case narratives at this point. In giving them what they may perceive as 'right answers', it defeats the purpose of N J V R C . In future applications of N J V R C , this may be a possibility. (Field Notes, March 13, 2003) B y the end o f the semester, the study participants expressed satisfaction w i t h the purpose o f N J R V C . K e y words expressed b y study participants were fun, reflective, creative, interesting, interactive, and rewarding. "I think it was a very good learning experience to get everything that we learned in class and actually applied it ourselves" (Transcript 4, p . 5). A s Part icipant 5 stated "What I liked is that it [NJVRC] gave me the time to think, I had confidence in using my knowledge" (Transcript 5, p. 2). Part icipant 1 expla ined that w i t h the verbal guidance, repeated sessions and the addi t ional t ime o f engagement: You're not being placed under pressure, where you know if someone is watching you. You're just on your own thinking, like you've got the freedom to learn. It's, I think it's a positive learning experience. Valuable. I mean I initially, intimidated by computers, I'm so bad at computers, but not now. (Transcript 1, p , 19-20) Part icipant 18 discussed the overa l l benefits o f N J V R C as " y o u can develop the scenario as y o u go along. Y o u are i n control o f your learn ing" (Journal 18, p.6). Part icipant 6 summarised the experience as " a preparation and the actualisation o f put t ing together theory and pract ice" (Journal 6, p.2). S i m i l a r l y , Part icipant 12 stated " i t [ N J V R C ] rea l ly makes y o u think o n your feet for the appropriate words and what to do i n the g iven s i tuat ion" (Journal 12, p. 1). " A b l e to learn and think c r i t i ca l ly without be ing judged b y other peers. A b l e to simulate poss ible experiences I m a y have" (Journal 11, p.8). Part icipant 19 stated, " i t bui l t confidence. It was also frustrating i n certain parts. I f I were to title m y experience, it w o u l d be Enhancement o f a B a s i c L e a r n i n g " (Transcript 19, p. 16). 80 It was good, comfortable, very enlightening in terms of knowledge. I learned a lot. And, improving my communication. If I were to title my experience, it would be 'Improving One's Critical Thinking Skills through Nursing Journeys'. (Transcript 14, p. 15) D u r i n g ax ia l cod ing the data indicated that proficient knowing evo lved . It was further conceptual ised as a con t inuum and label led from chaos to competency. T h i s f ind ing supports research b y Benner (1984), B i l l i n g s et a l . , (2001), K n o w l e s (2001), M e z i r o w (1981) and Tanner (1989) about h o w experience, knowledge , confidence and mean ing-mak ing improve and develop w i t h t ime. 5.2.3 Research Question 3 • H o w do the b lend ing o f the theoretical underpinnings o f role-play, computer-mediated communica t ion and col laborat ive and problem-based learning promote the development o f c r i t i ca l th ink ing among undergraduate student nurses? Constructed Knowing is identif ied as a third core category that produced Cyber-Textual Mediated Knowing. Constructed knowing is a process b y w h i c h the study participants ' characterised the benefits o f va l ida t ing their deve loping knowledge w h i l e engaged w i t h Nursing Journeys: Virtual Reflective Centre. Constructed knowing was recognised b y the study participants as b u i l d i n g a knowledge base o f nurs ing theory i n d i v i d u a l l y and w i t h others i n a safe, stress-free environment o f N J V R C . Wi thou t acquir ing constructed knowing, the study participants expressed that learning and cr i t ica l t h ink ing were hindered. D u r i n g the in terview process, I directed the study participants to focus o n the elements o f N J V R C foundational design, especia l ly role-play. K e y words used b y the study participants inc luded th ink ing about knowledge , ro le -p lay ing knowledge , ask ing about knowledge , not be ing afraid o f knowledge . N i n e study participants noted that ro le -p lay ing assisted them to validate their degree o f knowledge . Jenkins and T u r i c k - G i b s o n ' s (1999) f indings suggested that ro le-play stimulates knowledge development. M o s t o f the study participants also reported that ro le-play helped them establish a personal perception o f other health care professionals ' roles, and that o f the fami ly , thus ga in ing a mul t i -d imens iona l perspective. Parsons and M i t c h e l l (2002) and Rogers and Frieberg's (1994) v i ews o f experiential learning support this f inding. A c c o r d i n g to Rogers and Fr ieberg (1994), experiential learning is equivalent to personal change and growth. 81 I could understand the character's feeling of denial, fear, agitation and difficulty in coping with this CHC [chronic health challenge] especially when he does not think it is anything important. This helped me understand that not everyone perceives the same. (Journal 1, p. 4) Part icipant 4 also stated that "I also realised that as a patient it's very frustrating to be talking to a health care professional who doesn't have a clear understanding of what you are experiencing" (Journal 4, p. 19). A n o n y m i t y also appeared as a contr ibut ing factor i n the development o f constructed knowing. Seven study participants expressed anonymi ty as a benefit i n that it helped decrease judgement or in t imida t ion from peers. The f o l l o w i n g statement b y one participant described what anonymi ty meant: "it reduced the anxiety levels by talking over a computer screen. I was not afraid to make a mistake or say something that was wrong''' (Journal 17, p.6). Part icipant 16 suggested that anonymi ty was also benef ic ia l b y stating, "7 thought it was better that way. So then you're not, you're not concerned about what are they going to think about me" (Transcript 16, p. 5). There are a number o f authors who have indicated that anonymity is advantageous (Rosenorm & K o f o e d , 1998; Shaw, M c T a v i s h , H a w k i n s , Gustafson & Pingree , 2000). N J V R C also p rov ided undergraduate student nurses w i t h a safe environment to practice the integration o f theoretical concepts o f nurs ing wi thout p r o v o k i n g the anxiety that is often heightened i n the face-to-face learning environments. Part icipant 18 stated she d id not enjoy ro le-play i n the face-to-face c lassroom. "In those situations I get a lot more nervous and I can't think as well. So for me it's easier to do it on a computer where there's no pressure and Ifind I can think faster for me "(Transcript 18, p . 9). Chris t iaens and B a l d w i n (2002) suggested that on o f the l imita t ions o f ro le-p lay is the disengagement i n the act ivi ty. Learners w h o d i d not perceive the experience as real or found role p l ay "embarrassing, in t imida t ing or outside o f his/her personal or cul tural comfort zone" (p. 251) d i d not participate. Other perceived benefits that the study participants der ived from be ing anonymous as a vi r tual character w h i l e engaged w i t h N J V R C inc luded increased autonomy, col laborat ion and developed purposeful communica t ion . S i x study participants expressed the need to incorporate the other characters' responses dur ing role-play and reflect o n what to type before typ ing their reply. "I was using a lot of...from the communication class we're taught questions to ask. And I was asking those questions based on her answers" (Transcript 4, p. 5). Part icipant 19 c la imed , "I began 82 trying to get into character and was analysing the feedback coming back to me and how appropriate it w a s " (Transcript 19, p . 3). I also noted: In the beginning classes, when students would ask for facilitator guidance, often it would be to clarify the intent o f N J V R C or ask for the correct answers. N o w , the request for guidance is to consult about the direction she/he wants to take the story. The decision to take the story in one direction or another is based on several factors, their knowledge base, the character they are playing and most importantly, the virtual character with which they interact. (Field Notes, March 27, 2003) Wi thou t this reflection, study participants stated that constructed knowing, c r i t i ca l t h ink ing and learning were hindered. The study participants inferred that constructed knowing evo lved b y both i nd iv idua l and col lec t ive processes. W i t h other units o f information, constructed knowing was further conceptual ised as a cont inuum, from self-constructor of knowledge to others as co-constructors of knowledge. Th i s f inding is consistent w i t h reports b y D e B o u r g h (2001), G o k h a l e (1995) and M a s t r i a n and M c G o n i g l e ' s (1999). These authors inferred that col laborat ive learning i n educational cyberspace promotes learning and cr i t i ca l th inking . D e B o u r g h (2001) emphasised that col laborat ion is an essential s k i l l for successful nurs ing practice and "col laborat ive learning bui lds c o m m u n a l knowledge through conversat ion" (B lumenfe ld , M a r x , S o l o w a y & K r a j c i k , 1996, p. 39). Authentic Knowing is identif ied as a fourth core category that produced Cyber-Textual Mediated Knowing. Authentic knowing is a process b y w h i c h the study participants ' characterised their feelings o f v i r tua l i ty w h i l e engaged w i t h Nursing Journeys: Virtual Reflective Centre. Authentic knowing is recognised b y the study participants as hav ing the ab i l i ty to imagine be ing fu l ly immersed i n educational cyberspace and pract is ing nurs ing care as i f i n a face-to-face context. The i r experience was real , meaningful , and relevant. D u r i n g the interview process, I directed the study participants to focus on the elements o f N J V R C foundational design, especia l ly the case narratives and characters. The study participants felt that their v i r tual experiences were authentic replicas o f real or real-l ife experiences. Th i s f inding supported D e M a r c o et a l . (2002), H a p p e l l , 1998, and Shulman's (1986) results that 83 indicate that, i n problem-based learning, cases must be personal ly relevant and realist ic to be meaningful to the student. F i v e study participants also described 'being there' or be ing immersed i n the case narrative and p l ay ing a character as i f it were a real si tuation and not imaginary. T h i s experience was a strong determinant i n authentic knowing development. "I was able to think and talk on the spot...be spontaneous...I felt that I was actually talking to someone" (Transcript 16, p. 1). "It made the experience of being a diabetic pt's (patient's) family member more real, not simulated through a computer screen. It gave me a window into a person's thought process" (Journal 14, p. 1 -2). "I learned that you really need to know your stuff before I (sic) can actually work with a client. It's like clinical" (Transcript 4, p.6). "My character allowed me to understand that it takes a lot of technique and understanding to deal and calm a patient with dementia" (Journal 12, p. 2). "It gave me some good examples on what I could do if in that position" (Journal 19, p. 2). Ano the r participant described educational cyberspace: / think I kind of needed to be there in order to say OK, what needs to be done next here? What or what should I not be doing.. .1 mean when you read a story...you need to picture [it] in your head and play it out. (Transcript, 4, p. 7) Part icipant 19 reflected upon one experience as: // definitely was different than a class setting because I felt like I was playing a real doctor in a sense and had a real patient. So it felt more real life even though it was through a computer, Ifelt the responsibility of a doctor and my patient was challenging me compared as to when in class, everybody just sort of agrees with you at times. (Transcript 19, p. 3) T i m e was also a contr ibut ing factor i n the development o f authentic knowing. Part icipant 19 emphasised "taking time and you feel like you are truly experiencing the reality of the experience. Finally actual application" (Journal 19, p.6). Wi thou t this active percept ion o f ' b e i n g there' i n a vi r tua l situation, the study participants reported that authentic knowing was not achieved. E igh t study participants also expressed the idea that engaging as the different characters and w o r k i n g through the case narratives helped them be more focused, more confident and prepared for c l i n i c a l nurs ing practice. T h e y reported that N J V R C reinforced what they had 84 learned i n class. A c c o r d i n g l y , the study participants perceived they were contextual ly app ly ing content w i t h i n the g iven case narratives. Part icipant 5 stated "definitely, I feel more prepared for clinical" (Transcript 5, p.2). "Instead ofjust kind ofputting people into situations [in clinical], this [NJVRC] introduces you to a situation you may encounter [in clinical]" (Transcript 17, p. 13). "And in using virtual journey's I kind of got experience" (Transcript 16, p. 3). Part icipant 6 summarised authentic knowing as: I think working through the virtual case studies as an actual character is one element that really helps you to apply the abstract knowledge to something that is based on reality but you're not quite there yet. It's [NJVRC] like a nice stepping stone. (Transcript 6, p.7) These comments are congruent w i t h B r o w n , C o l l i n s , and D u g u i d ' s (1998) v i ews that "knowledge is situated, be ing i n part a product o f the act ivi ty , context and culture i n w h i c h it is developed and used" (p. 32). W i t h these units o f information, authentic knowing also evo lved and was further conceptual ised as cont inuum, labe l l ing it as f rom virtual experience to experiencing reality. These experiences corroborate f indings that v i r tua l environments, as a spatial metaphor, often overlap w i t h the phys i ca l environment and thus create a sense o f presence that is essential (Dede, 1995; D i l l e n b o u r g , 2000; E n l u n d , 2001 ; T o w e l l & T o w e l l , 2001). Interactive Knowing is identif ied as a fifth core category that produced Cyber-Textual Mediated Knowing. Interactive knowing is a process b y w h i c h the study participants characterised their communica t ion w h i l e engaged w i t h Nursing Journeys: Virtual Reflective Centre. C o m m u n i c a t i o n is an integral element to nurs ing, as nurses seek to connect w i t h ind iv idua l s and understand their l i v e d experience. Interactive knowing was recognised b y the study participants as hav ing a mediated conversat ion w i t h another i nd iv idua l w i t h wri t ten words , rather than w i t h spoken words , to successfully engage w i t h N J V R C . D u r i n g the in terview process, I directed the study participants to focus on the elements o f N J V R C foundational design, especia l ly the synchronous communica t ion . K e y words related to this concept expressed b y the study participants inc luded speaking, discussing, t a lk ing or d ia loguing . Part icipant 6 summarised interactive k n o w i n g as "taking what I think a conversation is to a completely different lever (Transcript 6, p.9). I also noted: 85 It is interesting that the study participants, including myself, describe that we are actually talking or conversing when using computer-mediated communication. This is a text-based form of communication. We write to speak to others and yet not realise it completely. It seems as though unconsciously mental images o f individuals dialoguing are set up in my mind and I [am] immersed in conversation by way o f the keyboard. (Field Notes June 13, 2003) E igh t study participants stated that one benefit o f synchronous communica t ion was that feedback was immediate and thus reflect ion ensued. Part icipant 11 expla ined, "talking with a peer helped me validate my own knowledge and thought" (Journal 11, p.6). Ano the r participant reflected upon the effects o f computer-mediated communica t ion as be ing able to "talk to my peers and having them askme questions... helps me understand what I don't know and what I do know''' (Journal l , p . 5). Part icipant 17 judged the u t i l i ty o f synchronous communica t ion function as: gave me practice on how to communicate effectively. Talking to the virtual patient requires me to think about the exact word to describe the procedure of administering medications and more importantly analyse iffthe patient] understands. (Journal 17, p.2) The use o f synchronous communica t ion for educational purposes is re la t ively new ( A o k i , 1995; Bened ik t & C h i s k o w s k i , 1995; D a y & Batson , 1995; D i l l e n b o u r g , 1999; Harr i s , 1995; Reed , 2000). Consequent ly , synchronous communica t ion is often cr i t ic ised as a form o f computer-mediated communica t ion ( C M C ) that does not promote ref lect ion and cr i t ica l th inking . A contr ibut ing factor to this c r i t i c i sm is that there are often several simultaneous threads o f conversations that m o v e too rapidly , so that participants have no t ime to reflect, frame questions or compose responses ( A o k i , 1995). Howeve r , the data i n this study indicated otherwise. A l l the study participants expressed that synchronous communica t ion d i d have its l imitat ions, but the inab i l i ty to reflect or to c r i t i ca l ly think were not ident i f ied as l imita t ions . "[NJVRC] helped me understand what kinds of questions needed to be asked in order for the individual to respond accordingly" (Journal 4 p. 3). Part icipant 18 pointed out, "Ipicked up on communication techniques that may be effective as well as ineffective" (Journal 18, p . 5). S i m i l a r l y , Part icipant 12 c la imed , "I realised that it is important to explain in words a family member will understand''' (Journal 12, p . 3). Part icipant 6 described a v i e w o f synchronous C M C as "Ifound it... difficult because I wanted to say more and I didn't want to keep typing. So but it was good as well, because you ... had to shorten 86 instead of... babbling" (Transcript 6, p.5). A contr ibut ing factor was l i m i t i n g the ratio o f ind iv idua l s i n each vi r tual r oom. Three study participants expressed that interactive knowing was constrained w h e n addi t ional characters j o i n e d the v i r tua l chat rooms. The ebb and f l o w o f the conversat ion was easier to main ta in and reflect upon w i t h o n l y two ind iv idua l s engaging i n dialogue at once. Crea t iv i ty was identif ied as a contr ibut ing factor i n enhancing the development o f interactive knowing. Crea t iv i ty was essential w h e n attempting to act out a feel ing or a non-verbal cue i n educational cyberspace. F o r the most part, study participants were unaware o f the convent ional text cues, such as capital letters indica t ing shouting or emoticons to emphasise emotions. T w o study participants expressed that the style o f wr i t i ng , w h i c h their peers ut i l i sed, was a benefit because it demonstrated perceived feelings or emotions. "I knew that when the typing was really fast, that meant they were anxious... repeating the same sentence before I had a chance to respond, so I asked" (Transcript 16, p. 10). Part icipant 17 interpreted the repetit ive typ ing as needing to be a listener. "Just being a good listener instead of fust talking all the time or always typing... letting the patient actually ask questions... talking with the patient instead of talking to the patient" (Transcript 17, p.8). I also noted: Some study participants playing characters who could not verbalise, one played a character that was short of breath and the other played one that was aphasic began replying with the y or n key. Confused at the beginning, but with guidance by me, the study participants playing a health professional realised the importance of close-ended communication. They began composing their statements so that their peers would respond with yes or no. (Field Notes, March 27th, 2003) Factors that hindered interactive knowing were the lack o f intonat ion and v i sua l cues and this f inding is also consistent w i t h i n the literature ( M u r p h y & C o l l i n s , 1997; Suler , 1997). U s i n g o n l y text can contribute to misunderstandings and the lack o f intonat ion and v i sua l dependence o n non-verbal and b o d y language was frequently reported as l imi ta t ions o f C M C . Part icipant 6 stated "getting to know someone, you get a lot of information that way just by observing. It's difficult over the computer too because you can't see all that" (Transcript 6, p. 2)." Without person to person contact, you can't see how the other person reacts" (Journal 1, p. 5). Part icipant 5 expla ined, "you miss non-verbal cues that can say a lot in a conversation, even change your response" (Journal 5, p.8). H o w e v e r , Part icipant 16 and 6 also identif ied a benefit to the lack o f non-verbal cues. "I think it's 87 really neat not to have these non-verbal things going on so you can really concentrate on what you are saying and what it's like when you are receiving'' (Transcript 6, p. 7). Part icipant 16 c l a imed : / had to verbalise everything, which is good because I got a lot of practice verbalising... like putting into words what I was teaching. But I wasn't able to show and I would have liked to do that. (Transcript 16, p. 2) Other factors that hindered the development o f interactive knowing were keyboard input and the speed o f response. Synchronous communica t ion requires substantial typ ing sk i l l s to communica te effect ively ( A o k i , 1995). Part icipant 11 d isc losed that "I was frustrated because the other player was very impatient, not letting me think through and then type...it would have been better if that person would have just sat back for a minute and given me an opportunity to respond. After all everyone has their own pace in thinking and typing" (Transcript 11, p.4). The study participants inferred that interactive knowing evo lved f rom transforming oral speech to a textual form. Interactive knowing was further conceptual ised as a con t inuum and label led as f rom verbal communication to textual dialogue. These descriptions are consistent w i t h those o f H a r a s i m et a l . (1995), H o l e t o n (1998), L a w l e y , (1992), L i n d e r and N a i d u (1999), and R e e d (2000) w h o asserted that computer-mediated communica t i on ( C M C ) has significant effects on the patterns o f tradit ional forms o f communica t ion . Interactive knowing through synchronous C M C forms a new functionali ty for verbal communica t ion , leading to the no t ion o f possible new modes o f interaction, especia l ly that o f compos ing text talks. 5.3 Summary T h i s chapter has summarised the interpretation step o f the second cyc le o f this insider act ion research study. It also completes the second phase o f the reflective thought process, Re f l ec t i on - In -Ac t ion phase. R e f l e c t i o n - i n - A c t i o n involves th ink ing consc ious ly and conscient ious ly about the reasons behind actions w h i l e i n the midst o f these actions (Drevdah l et a l . , 2002; Schon , 1983, 1987). T h i s reflective phase introduced the reader to the process I undertook to arrive at the dec is ion to use insider act ion research, framed w i t h i n an interpretive and praxis paradigm, b y descr ib ing m y experiences o f conduct ing the study, report ing and f ina l ly interpreting the f indings. 88 As indicated, the f indings presented here are der ived f rom onl ine dialogue transcripts, in terview transcripts, study part icipants ' journals and m y f ie ld notes. The results also represent answers to the research questions posed i n this study. Grounded theory, as the p r inc ipa l analytic strategy, is a systematic set of procedures to arrive at a theory about basic soc ia l processes (Strauss & C o r b i n 1990). The a i m o f this induct ive approach is to d iscover the under ly ing soc ia l factors that best shape the phenomenon be ing investigated. Knowing emerged as a commona l i t y among themes dur ing the open cod ing and the constant compar i son process. Literature was used concurrent ly to validate emerging themes and patterns. A subsequent analysis o f data identifies f ive d is t inguishing manifestations of knowing— Proficient Knowing, Authentic Knowing, Personal Knowing, Constructed Knowing, and Interactive Knowing. These manifestations of k n o w i n g g ive rise to f ive discernible process-oriented patterns and these are also identif ied w i t h the support ing themes that establish a theoretical mode l , Cyber-Textual Mediated Knowing. These patterns inc lude: f rom Chaos to Competency; f rom Virtual Experience to Experiencing Reality; f rom Critical Thinker as Active Learner to Reflective Thinker as Discovered Learner, f rom Verbal Communication to Textual Dialogue; and f rom Self-Constructor of Knowledge to Others as Co-Constructors of Knowledge. In the next chapter, the second cyc le o f this insider act ion research continues w i t h an ove rv iew of the act ion and reflect ion steps. Chapter Six also introduces the reader to a summary of R e f l e c t i o n - O n - A c t i o n b y ou t l in ing conclusions , impl ica t ions for practice and recommendat ions for further discourse and research. R e f l e c t i o n - O n - A c t i o n , invo lves purposeful ly l o o k i n g back o n experience i n l ight o f the study's f indings and the overa l l research process (Drevdah l et a l . , 2002; Schon, 1983, 1987). It begins w i t h a summary o f the conclus ions and impl ica t ions for practice der ived from the study's f indings. 89 C H A P T E R S I X — F R A M I N G A C T I O N R E S E A R C H In Chapter One, this inquiry began with a question: "How can I, as a nurse educator, enhance the development of undergraduate student nurses' critical thinking in educational cyberspace?" Subsequently, the research question also prompted a closer examination of the underlying assumptions of teaching, learning, and the research process. Implicitly, this question underscores the relevance o f articulation and reflection. This dissertation traced three constituents of my thinking process within a reflective framework based upon the views of Drevdahl et al. (2002), Greenwood (1993) and Sch6n(1983, 1987). The focus of the first three chapters of this dissertation was to describe the reflective practice of Reflection-Before-Action that was embedded within the first of two insider action research cycles. A s previously summarised, Reflection-Before-Action entails a process of thinking about intentions prior to action (Greenwood, 1993). It is during this phase that I identified the contributing factors that led to the justification of improving my practice, pursuing this goal as a research study within the context of my own classroom, and the need to create and evaluate a learning technology suitable for educational cyberspace. The interest in using educational cyberspace in nursing evolved from consistently observing undergraduate student nurses' difficulties in applying theory to practice. The study began with a desire to use educational cyberspace to promote undergraduate student nurses' abilities to critically think and lessen the challenges of linking theory to practice. This led to the development of Nursing Journeys: Virtual Reflective Centre ( N J V R C ) . The emphasis of Chapters Four and Five of this dissertation was to summarise the reflective practice of Reflection-In-Action that was embedded within the second cycle of this insider action research study. Reflection-In-Action attributes conscious and conscientious thinking about the rationales behind actions while in the midst of these actions (Drevdahl et al., 2002; Schon, 1983, 1987). It is during this phase that I identified a fitting research methodology, conducted, analysed and reported the findings of this study. A s a result, this inquiry has attempted to qualify the effects o f N J V R C in promoting critical thinking by exploring the experiences among eleven undergraduate student nurses. 90 A s I progress to the th i rd phase o f the reflective thought process, the emphasis is o n R e f l e c t i o n - O n - A c t i o n . T h i s phase involves purposeful ly l o o k i n g back o n experiences i n l ight o f these experiences (Drevdah l et a l . , 2002; Schon , 1983, 1987). A l t h o u g h the ins ider act ion research approach is often conducted to improve one's practice, it is essential that the larger commun i ty be informed o f the knowledge generated through such inquir ies ( A n g e n 2000; B o y e r , 1990; Drevdah l , et a l , 2002; M c N i f f , 2003; T o m a l , 2003). The purpose o f this chapter is to describe the act ion and ref lect ion steps, the f inal steps o f the second cyc le o f this insider action research study. It presents the conclusions , impl ica t ions for practice and recommendat ions for further research. A n expl ica t ion o f personal ly gained insights f rom conduct ing this reflective inqu i ry w i l l be the focus o f the conc lud ing chapter, Chapter Seven, o f this dissertation. 6.1 Conclusions and Implications for Practice T h i s insider act ion research study has explored the experiences among eleven undergraduate student nurses ar is ing from their engagement w i t h a v i r tua l pedagogical , s imula t ion instrument, Nursing Journeys: Virtual Reflective Centre. B a s e d o n the findings described i n Chapter Five, there are several potential conclus ions that suggest that N J V R C is an effective instrument to promote cr i t ica l th ink ing . There were a series o f interconnected factors integral to the p romot ion o f c r i t i ca l t h ink ing among undergraduate student nurses w h i l e engaged w i t h N J V R C . These pr inc ipa l factors are identif ied as the instruct ional design o f N J V R C , anonymity , reflective jou rna l wr i t ing , the role o f the educator, trust, t ime and a distinct pattern o f a w a y o f k n o w i n g . B y the end o f the semester, study participants were able to articulate their def in i t ion o f c r i t i ca l t h ink ing and use this def ini t ion to w o r k through the case narratives w h i l e ro le -p lay ing the var ious v i r tua l characters w i t h their peers. S tudy participants were also able to recognise that they were o n l y beg inn ing to understand cr i t ica l t h ink ing as a complex construct and that it was not necessari ly learned and actualised i n a linear, i nd iv idua l fashion. The study participants expressed that they were challenged to d iscover their o w n taken-for-granted v iews , to shape new perspectives and to reinforce previous learned knowledge . A d d i t i o n a l l y , the study participants learned to w o r k col laborat ively , recognise the signif icance o f context, explore alternative perspectives and co-create new knowledge . 91 6.1.1 Instructional Design of NJVR C Creat ing the case narratives and the v i r tua l characters f rom a real i ty perspective was perce ived as advantageous. S tudy participants were able to freely develop the story-l ine and respond accordingly . Engag ing as these v i r tua l characters and w o r k i n g through the case narratives also aided the study participants i n the mastery o f theoretical concepts and the p romot ion o f c r i t ica l th ink ing . Th i s is congruent w i t h the v i ews o f B r o w n , C o l l i n s , and D u g u i d (1998) that "knowledge is situated, be ing i n part a product o f the act ivi ty , context and culture i n w h i c h it is developed and used" (p. 32). The imp l i ca t ion o f this f ind ing suggests that learning technologies should be designed to encourage and foster the development o f asking questions rather than mere ly p r o v i d i n g prescribed answers. The use o f synchronous communica t ion for educational use is a re la t ive ly new phenomenon ( A o k i , 1995, Benedik t & C h i s k o w s k i , 1995; D a y & Batson , 1995; D i l l e n b o u r g , 1999; Har r i s , 1995; Reed , 2000) that is often cr i t ic ised as a form o f C M C that does not promote ref lect ion and cr i t ica l th ink ing . Synchronous communica t ion increases thought disrupt ion among participants w h e n there are several dyadic conversations occur r ing at the same t ime w i t h i n a single v i r tua l space, m a k i n g it cha l lenging to f o l l o w the conversat ion ( A o k i , 1995; Schwie r & Balbar , 2002). The f indings o f this study established an alternative perspective. S tudy participants expressed the idea that synchronous communica t ion o f N J V R C d i d have its l imita t ions but the inab i l i ty to reflect or to c r i t i ca l ly th ink were not identif ied as l imita t ions . A contr ibut ing factor that fostered the ab i l i ty to reflect and to c r i t i c a l l y think was the pa i r ing o f undergraduate student nurses i n their o w n vir tual space. T h i s strategy enabled the study participants to interact s imul taneously w i t h theoretical concepts and their peers. T h i s feature o f N J V R C also aided i n the opportunity to focus and negotiate the meaning through these interactions, creating the potential for a deeper and longer last ing learning. H o w e v e r , keyboard input and the speed i n responding appeared as significant l imi ta t ions that hindered cr i t ica l th ink ing and reflect ion among some study participants. T o help reduce this hindrance, exp l ic i t instructions and directions about the nature o f synchronous communica t ion is warranted. It appears reasonable to suggest that the effectiveness o f N J V R C to develop such results was der ived f rom purposeful dec i s ion-making i n design and the integration o f heterogeneous learning technologies and mul t ip le pedagogical approaches. The i m p l i c a t i o n o f this f inding is that wi thout purposeful dec i s ion-making on the choice o f a pedagogica l f r amework—such as the 92 blend ing o f cogni t ive and socia l cons t ruct iv ism and its d is t inguishing features—optimal learning experiences can be jeopardised. A d d i t i o n a l l y , the integration o f experient ial , active, p rob lem-based and col laborat ive learning pr inciples framed w i t h i n a constructivist approach, accompanied b y synchronous mediated communica t ion , complemented and reinforced each other, p roduc ing a successful pedagogical innovat ion for educational cyberspace that was m u c h larger than the sum o f its parts. 6.1.2 Anonymity The effects o f anonymi ty i n educational cyberspace are m i x e d . A h e r n and Dur ing ton (1995) and L e a and Spears (1991) demonstrated that anonymi ty reduces group salience, interaction and part icipat ion. In contrast, R a y b o u r n (1997), R o s e n o r m and K o f o e d , (1998) and Shaw et a l . (2000) found that anonymi ty fostered a balance o f par t ic ipat ion control among ind iv idua ls . A n o n y m i t y a l l owed the ind iv idua ls to communica te i n ways that were perce ived as more cha l lenging i n a face-to-face context. The study participants o f this insider act ion research study demonstrated that anonymi ty was a benefit w h i l e engaged as the v i r tua l characters o f N J V R C . Th i s resulted i n the study participants feel ing less judged or in t imidated b y their peers. Other perceived benefits der ived f rom be ing anonymous inc luded increas ing autonomy, i m p r o v i n g col labora t ion and deve lop ing purposeful communica t ion . N J V R C also p rov ided undergraduate student nurses w i t h a safe environment to practice the integration o f theoretical concepts o f nurs ing wi thout p r o v o k i n g the anxiety that is often heightened i n the face-to-face learning environments. T h e imp l i ca t ion o f this f inding suggests that N J V R C has the potential to encourage empowerment among undergraduate student nurses. 6.1.3 Time It is clear f rom the study participants' responses that the experience o f N J V R C was general ly posi t ive , especia l ly toward the end o f the semester. T i m e appeared as a significant contr ibut ing, and also hinder ing, factor that shaped the study participants ' experiences w h i l e engaged i n N J V R C . In the early sessions, the study participants met w i t h a sense o f be ing overwhe lmed b y their inexperience w i t h N J V R C . Despi te incorporat ing descript ive explanations about the purpose o f N J R V C and h o w to navigate the home page, the j ou rna l excerpts and in terv iew data indicated that this informat ion was not adequate. The under ly ing theme i n many o f the study part icipants ' comments suggested that self-directness was a new concept. Ano the r mi t iga t ing factor was a presumptive b e l i e f that hav ing just comple ted a face-to-face theoretical 93 class r e v i e w i n g specific content related to nurs ing care, the study participants w o u l d have the necessary knowledge to engage as the N J V R C ' s v i r tua l characters and w o r k through the part icular case narratives w i t h certainty. The imp l i ca t i on o f this f inding underscores the importance o f p r o v i d i n g adequate t ime a long w i t h detailed explanations, supporting the conclus ions o f B u l l e n (1998), M o r r i s et a l . (2002), and W e i s and G u y t o n - S i m m o n s (1998). A c c o r d i n g to these authors, exp l ic i t explanations and cont inued guidance a id learners i n becoming acquainted w i t h newer learning technologies and promot ing self-direct ion. A d d i t i o n a l l y , w i t h adequate t ime, experience and practice, learners are able to better synthesise, reflect and develop an understanding o f theoretical concepts. A s the study participants' confidence i n their knowledge base evo lved and matured over the semester, so d i d the appl ica t ion o f this knowledge o f nurs ing theory w h i l e engaged w i t h N J V R C . Research b y B i l l i n g s et a l . (2001), K n o w l e s (2001), M e z i r o w (1981), and Tanner (1989) supports the conc lus ion that relevant mean ing-making improves and develops w i t h t ime. 6.1.4 Reflective Journal Writing A l t h o u g h N J V R C m a y have properties that have the potential to promote c r i t i ca l th ink ing , its cogni t ive d imens ion was s ignif icant ly more developed than the affective d imens ion associated w i t h c r i t i ca l th ink ing . The literature described the cogni t ive d imens ion o f c r i t i ca l th ink ing as a series o f sk i l l s , i n c lud ing interpreting, analysing, synthesising, m a k i n g inference and defending the process o f induct ive and deductive reasoning. B e i n g open-minded, truth seeking, inquis i t ive , f lexib le , reasonable, and self-confident are disposi t ions related to the affective d imens ion o f c r i t i ca l t h ink ing (Da ly , 1998; P a u l & Heas l i p , 1995; S i m p s o n & Cour tney, 2002) . Fac ione , Fac ione and Sanchez (1994) argued that, wi thout internal is ing these disposi t ions, the engagement i n the process o f c r i t ica l t h ink ing is impai red . Shaping the affective d imens ion o f c r i t ica l t h ink ing was dependent upon the act o f ref lect ion through journa l wr i t ing . Journal wr i t ing , as p rev ious ly identif ied, has an inherent strength o f self-expression and serves as a purposeful tool for reflect ion (Baker , 1996; H e i n r i c h , 1992; K h o k & C h u b e l i , 2002), and the act o f reflective wr i t i ng "i l luminates reali ty" (Shor & Freire , 1987, p . 1972). The wri ter can "make sense or meaning out o f the experience and incorporate this experience into one's v i e w o f the se l f and the w o r l d " (Baker , 1996, p. 19). Th i s explora t ion assists i n developing an attitude o f inqu i ry and a w a y o f ' b e i n g ' a c r i t ica l thinker. Since j ou rna l w r i t i n g was a means to col lect data for this study, the imp l i ca t ion o f this f inding suggests that jou rna l w r i t i n g needs to 94 become an integral feature o f N J V R C . Asynchronous debriefings w o u l d represent a v i r tua l place where ind iv idua l s cou ld post their thoughts about their experience or pose questions for others to reflect upon or seek addi t ional feedback. These debriefings c o u l d be he ld at the end o f every engagement w i t h N J V R C . Essent ia l ly , these debriefings become a mechan i sm to continue discuss ing learning outcomes o f the particulars o f the case narrative or roles i n greater detail w h i l e focusing on he lp ing the undergraduate student nurses to uncover their beliefs and values about nursing, people, health and heal ing. F o r asynchronous debriefings to be effective, educators need to be v i r tua l ly present i n educational cyberspace and assume a role o f facilitator. 6.1.5 The Role of the Educator The case narrative contained embedded internal and external l i nked resources as a supplement and an aid i n re inforcing previous learned knowledge and fostering self-direct ion. H o w e v e r , not a l l study participants accessed or re l ied on these resources, especia l ly i n the beg inn ing engagements w i t h N J V R C . A s prev ious ly noted, self-direct ion was a new concept to m a n y study participants. A s a consequence, trust i n the educator's knowledge superseded trust i n sel f -knowledge or the knowledge o f others. Trust i n se l f and others ' contributions s ignif icant ly increased w i t h t ime. P a u l (1995) postulated that knowledge and th ink ing are inseparable entities. "One has to have content [knowledge] to c r i t i ca l ly think" ( L o v i n g & W i l s o n , 2000, p. 70). The imp l i ca t ion o f this f inding highl ights the need for educators to be v i r tua l ly present i n educational cyberspace. M o r e important ly, this necessitates that educators assume the role o f facilitator. One aspect o f h o w undergraduate student nurses learn to understand nurs ing is through facil i tat ive interaction w i t h those w i t h i n its profession (Benjamin , 1988). Fac i l i t a t ion keeps learners focused and organised. A n educator's role is to assist i n teasing out the under ly ing he ld assumptions i n an appl ied sense, m a k i n g learners' tacit knowledge more expl ic i t , d i scover ing the power o f quest ioning, w h i l e p r o v i d i n g them w i t h va l ida t ion . B r o o k f i e l d (1987, p. 31) c l a imed that "Posi t ive triggers" b u i l d confidence i n undergraduate student nurses. Fac i l i t a t ion can also legit imate the inherent value o f a l l learners' contr ibutions as equal ly significant. B y internal is ing this perspective undergraduate student nurses can be empowered and nurs ing practice can be renewed and transformed, instead o f remain ing c i rcumscr ibed . 95 6.1.6 A Pattern of a Way of Knowing The findings o f the study suggest the faci l i tat ion o f c r i t i ca l t h ink ing was contingent on a dist inct pattern o f a w a y of k n o w i n g . Cyber-Textual Mediated Knowing is expl icated as a feasible w a y o f k n o w i n g that inf luenced the p romot ion o f c r i t ica l t h ink ing i n educational cyberspace among undergraduate student nurses. Interwoven w i t h i n this p re l imina ry theoretical m o d e l were the f ive manifestations o f k n o w i n g ident i f ied as proficient k n o w i n g , authentic k n o w i n g , intr insic k n o w i n g , constructed k n o w i n g and interactive k n o w i n g . E a c h manifestat ion evo lved f rom one o f f ive process-oriented patterns. These process-oriented patterns were characterised as f rom chaos to competency; f rom vi r tua l experience to exper iencing reali ty; f rom cr i t ica l thinker as active learner to reflective thinker as d iscovered learner; f rom verbal communica t i on to textual dialogue; and from self-constructor o f knowledge to others as co-constructors o f knowledge . Cyber-Textual Mediated Knowing is potent ia l ly more f l u id and involves a process that consc ious ly shapes knowledge . It evolves w h e n ind iv idua l s are immersed i n a cyberspace w o r l d , interact as v i r tual characters w i t h others as vi r tual characters and perceive a sense of phys i ca l presence. C o u p l e d w i t h this sense o f phys i ca l presence and a deve lop ing sound knowledge base, a dia logue is init iated. Through this mediated d ia logue—a textual fo rm o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n — ind iv idua l s perceive the no t ion o f convers ing through compos ing text. A s a result, they negotiate meaning and experience, simulate and reflect upon real w o r l d issues as real- l i fe v i r tual ind iv idua l s , becoming cr i t i ca l thinkers w h o co-create knowledge . Thus, Cyber-Textual Mediated Knowing can be perce ived as an agency to create knowledge and an agency i n w h i c h to experience knowledge i n educational cyberspace. The emergence o f this pattern o f a w a y o f k n o w i n g causes me to reconsider what constitutes k n o w i n g . A d d i t i o n a l l y , this pattern o f a w a y of k n o w i n g potent ia l ly makes a significant contr ibut ion to the wide r b o d y o f educational knowledge that is wor thy o f scholar ly discourse. 6.2 Limitations of the Study G i v e n the smal l number o f self-selected study participants, a loca l i sed context, and a specif ied t ime frame, f rom w h i c h data were col lected, this study y i e lded l imi t ed results. T o generalise the f indings o f this study to other settings and to draw conclus ions and inferences is the responsib i l i ty o f the reader. H o w e v e r , the interplay o f the pedagogica l pr inc ip les used i n the 96 design and development o f N J V R C m a y be useful for those w i t h i n other d isc ip l ines to draw upon. 6.3 Recommendations for Further Research There are four specif ic areas from this study that warrant ongoing explorat ion. , It w o u l d be useful to k n o w the effects o f N J V R C on promot ing c r i t i ca l t h ink ing w i t h the addi t ional integration o f the theoretical underpinnings o f a graphical v i r tua l learning environment to further conceptualise reality. G r a p h i c a l and manipulated objects—such as m e d i c a l charts, or graphs that can be read or wri t ten i n , and cl ient teaching tools that can be actual ly v i e w e d — w o u l d a id ind iv idua l s i n v i sua l i s ing and enacting N J V R C more authentical ly as a real- l i fe s imulated w o r l d . S u c h a study w o u l d enable undergraduate student nurses to continue to integrate theory i n practice i n a safe environment w h i l e ga in ing more self-confidence i n m a k i n g the transi t ion to the c l i n i c a l nurs ing practice setting. W i t h reference to the sample size and t ime frame, it w o u l d be useful to examine the effects o f N J V R C on a larger p o o l o f undergraduate student nurses. Part icipants i n this study were undergraduate student nurses registered i n one first year nurs ing course, efforts should be made to study s imi la r cohorts o f undergraduate student nurses i n other nurs ing programs. There also appears to be a need for research that is longi tudina l i n nature. A s indicated, participants i n this study were i n their first year o f nurs ing and o n l y beg inn ing to develop their c r i t ica l th ink ing . F o l l o w i n g these study participants throughout the durat ion o f their p rogram as they engage with Nursing Journeys: Virtual Reflective Centre cou ld serve to facilitate further assessment o f the effects o f N J V R C and h o w cr i t ica l th ink ing evolves i n the c l i n i c a l nurs ing practice setting. T h i s study w o u l d substantiate Cyber-Textual Mediated Knowing as a just i f iable w a y k n o w i n g that is part icular to educational cyberspace. F i n a l l y , the f indings show that that insider act ion research methodology assisted i n intent ional ly and systematical ly assessing teaching practice and changing v i ews o f teaching, learning and research. Therefore, a longi tudinal study that investigates the long-term influences o f internal is ing the central tenets o f insider act ion research w o u l d be benef ic ia l to educators and the f ie ld o f education. It offers the opportunity to reflect upon the value o f the insider act ion research approach as a means to broaden evidence-based teaching as a v iab le m o d e l o f research. 97 6.4 Summary This chapter introduced the reader to R e f l e c t i o n - O n - A c t i o n , the f inal phase o f the reflective thought process. It also summarised the act ion and ref lect ion steps o f the second cyc le o f this insider act ion research study. It began w i t h an ove rv iew o f the conclus ions and impl ica t ions for practice obtained from this study's f indings. It conc luded w i t h a d iscuss ion o f possible recommendations for further research. Th i s study illustrates that teaching and learning i n educational cyberspace is a complex process and not a s imple repl icat ion o f the face-to-face c lassroom. It also establishes that Nursing Journeys: Virtual Reflective Centre should be g iven considerable regard b y nurse educators as a w a y o f p romot ing cr i t ica l th ink ing i n educational cyberspace and ove rcoming some o f the l imita t ions that undergraduate student nurses encounter w h e n integrating theory i n practice. W i t h ongoing modif ica t ions to its interface design and the advances i n v i r tua l graphic reality, N J V R C has the potential to simulate the health care environment and continue to promote cr i t ica l th ink ing . N J V R C cannot replace the real experiences that undergraduate student nurses encounter i n a face-to-face health care environment, but offers an alternative to pract ical appl ica t ion o f theoretical concepts w h e n c l i n i c a l nurs ing opportunities are l imi t ed or w h e n c l i n i c a l educators are not available. The f indings o f this study cannot be generalised to other d isc ip l ines . H o w e v e r , the pedagogical pr inciples and learning technologies used i n the design and development o f N J V R C m a y serve as a mode l useful to those i n other fields o f study. Educators i n other d isc ipl ines p romot ing c r i t i ca l t h ink ing as a learning outcome can compose case narratives and characters that depict the part icular realities o f that d i sc ip l ine . Learners can then potent ia l ly create meaning f rom what is unfamil iar and beg in to move toward def ining patterns o f k n o w i n g — i n d i v i d u a l l y and col laborat ively . A l t h o u g h N J V R C has features w i t h the potential to promote cr i t ica l t h ink ing and a posi t ive learning experience among undergraduate student nurses, its creation i n v o l v e d more than the implementa t ion o f various learning technologies. It was also contingent upon mul t ip le pedagogical approaches, ongo ing evaluat ion o f its interface design i n response to learner needs, t ime, trust, the role o f the educator and a distinct appl ica t ion o f a w a y k n o w i n g , Cyber-Textual Mediated Knowing. In the next chapter, Chapter Seven, the second cyc le o f this insider act ion research study is comple ted w i t h an ove rv i ew o f the re-planning step that u l t imate ly prompts a th i rd action 98 cyc le or an entire new insider act ion research study. In this chapter, the reader is introduced to personal insights acquired throughout this reflective study. Chapter Seven also ends the f inal phase o f the reflective thought process, R e f l e c t i o n - O n - A c t i o n . 99 C H A P T E R S E V E N — A J O U R N E Y B E G I N S W I T H A S I N G L E S T E P : L E S S O N S L E A R N E D As I near the end o f the second cyc le o f this insider research act ion study and complete the f inal phase o f the reflective thought process, R e f l e c t i o n - O n - A c t i o n , I am reminded o f D r e v d a h l et al.'s (2002) assertion that "mak ing sense o f teaching, begins w i t h a reflective posture toward knowledge creation" (p.416). In the preceding chapter, I attempted to contribute to the g r o w i n g b o d y o f knowledge o n teaching and learning b y presenting conclus ions , impl ica t ions for practice and recommendat ions for further research w i t h respect to Nursing Journeys: Virtual Reflective Centre, that were based on observations and interpretation o f the f indings o f this study. The purpose o f this chapter is to describe the lessons learned w h i l e assuming the role o f nurse-educator-researcher i n the act ion research study. Re -p l ann ing is the f inal step o f any act ion cyc le ( K e m m i s & M c T a g g a r t , 1988; Nof fke & Stevenson, 1995). The focus o f this step is to deliberately ident ify the strengths and l imitat ions o f the phenomenon under invest igat ion, p rompt ing a new cyc le . Nea r ing the comple t ion o f the second act ion cyc le o f this insider act ion research, I present insights generated from the experience as a nurse-educator-researcher conduct ing an act ion research study that w i l l u l t imately lead to further p lann ing and iterations o f another cyc le . 7.1 Lessons Learned I have learned that teaching is not an inheri ted behaviour and educators must study, practice and learn from their teaching experiences. "Teaching to help learners develop cr i t ica l th ink ing is s i m p l y teaching better" ( L o v i n g & W i l s o n , 2000, p. 74). Insider act ion research provides a pathway to personal mean ing-making and improved practice (Cochran -Smi th & L y t l e , 1992; C o g h l a n & Brann ick , 2001). T h i s perspective suggests that educators ' careful study o f the condi t ions and context o f their w o r k w i l l help them learn and change, pract is ing i n ways that fit their unique teaching settings (Cochran-Smi th & L y t l e , 1992; M c N i f f 2002). I have used the insider act ion research approach to disclose the subtleties o f the teaching and learning process, to articulate a rationale for m y o w n questions, and to determine h o w best to improve m y practice. I bel ieve I have made "the intui t ive and unconscious k n o w i n g and mean ing" (Schmied ing , 1999, p . 1141) o f m y teaching practice more v is ib le . 100 A s educators continue to explore new learning technologies i n both the face-to-face and educational cyberspace classrooms, they characteris t ical ly pause for reflection. Y e t , they often pause wi thout e x p l i c i t l y art iculat ing the knowledge that is i m p l i c i t w i t h i n their actions. I have learned that engaging i n reflect ion and art iculat ion dur ing each o f the f ive steps o f the two act ion cycles o f this research study has enabled me to re-conceptualise the interrelationships between cur r i cu lum, learning, teaching and research. I have discovered that any such reflective inqu i ry requires an understanding that se l f is f lu id , dynamic , and a lways transforming (Bu ley -Me i snne r , 1990; D a v i s , 1995; M e z i r o w , 1981; R ichardson , 1994). A c c o r d i n g l y , s e l f is s imul taneously a personal vo ice and a subject o f discourse. I found the greatest benefit f rom an insider act ion research approach is i n the involvement and ownership o f the research process. The significance of framing this action research project from a praxis paradigm is that it allowed me and continues to allow me to really look at my teaching from many perspectives. It is a process of evaluation and self-renewal. It is really allowing me to explore what is happening in my classroom, involving my students and seeing how my students are learning. It is an important source o f learning and is a way o f giving a voice to how I live and breath teaching and learning. I have become more interested in pedagogical aspects o f teaching and learning. I more motivated to find ways to build and cross the bridges between theory and practice. I not only integrated my research findings but am beginning to share those findings with others members o f my professional community. (Journal Excerpt, July 11, 2003) Th i s revelat ion is most important to me; as i n insider act ion research one o f the voices is that o f the educator-researcher and there is a certain degree o f r i sk i n v o l v e d i n reveal ing that vo ice . The importance o f ownership and the benefits o f assuming the role o f educator-researcher are w e l l documented i n the literature (Pearcey & Draper , 1996;Tichen & B i n n i e , 1993). D u r i n g m y engagement w i t h insider action research I developed confidence as a beg inn ing nurse-educator-researcher and real ised that I had more than a preferred learning style and in tu i t ion to guide m y practice. A c o m m o n theme identif ied i n the literature is that m a n y educators tend to teach w i t h i n their o w n preferred learning style and in tui t ion — as a matter o f comfort. Ref lec t ing upon m y ear ly experiences w i t h teaching, I w o u l d concur w i t h this c l a i m . H o w e v e r , as I m o v e d through each act ion cyc le , ref lect ion became intentional and systematic, synthesising Brookf ie ld ' s (1987) no t ion o f change. "Change is regarded as the fundamental reality, forms and 101 structures are perce ived as temporary, relationships are he ld to i n v o l v e developmental transformations and openness is w e l c o m e d " (p. 13). Ano the r lesson learned is that I also have d iscovered a greater understanding o f m y educational values through l i v i n g them (Davis & Sumara, 1997; Whi tehead , 1989) i n m y teaching. The elements o f m y teaching ph i losophy are more consc ious ly actualised. T h i s is evident i n experiences such as i n the integration o f m y evolut ionary ideas o f educational cyberspace, m y or ig ina l concept ion o f N J R V R C , the pedagogica l design o f N J V R C and the cont inual modif ica t ions i n direct response to the undergraduate student nurses' active involvement . M y perspectives o n teaching and learning are n o w guided b y more than just the preferred learning style, in tu i t ion, content and m y comfort l eve l , but rather b y evidence-based research. I a m also more cognisant o f the role o f learning partnerships I described i n Chapter One. I recognise h o w col laborat ion w i t h , and immediate feedback from, m y students have m o v e d me to acknowledge their v i e w s more readi ly. A s a result, the learning environment became f lexib le and responsive. In this study, I made regular adjustments to m y teaching as to match w i t h students' learning needs. These adjustments were di rect ly attributed to what I learned w h i l e engaged i n an insider act ion research process. F o r example, the students v o i c e d a need for addi t ional t ime o f engagement w i t h N J V R C . A c c o r d i n g l y , the engagement t ime w i t h N J V R C was extended to one and h a l f hours. A d d i t i o n a l l y , the students v o i c e d a need for group debriefings. A c c o r d i n g l y , fo l low-up group d iscuss ion took place at the end o f class. I recognised the s ignif icance o f reflect ing and act ing on this new informat ion throughout the course, rather than so le ly us ing this informat ion as a vehic le to improve the next course offering and m y teaching practice. A s noted i n an excerpt o f m y f ie ld notes described i n Chapter Five, I designed c lar i f ica t ion sessions after the first two in i t i a l sessions to m i n i m i s e the students' frustrations w i t h N J V R C . It p roved to be a posi t ive strategy. After spending a few minutes at the beginning of past two classes sessions with N J V R C to clarify students' concerns, students seem to be more relaxed and 'getting in to it'. Engagement was extended for 90 minutes instead o f the original scheduled time o f 60 minutes. Toward the end of the semester, a perceived sense of a focused silence filled the classroom. Students' eyes were affixed to the monitors and less giggling occurred. Verbal engagement permeated the room only toward the end of the session. Some students were 102 asking "who played so and so", "that was interesting", or "I had to think". (Field Notes, February 27, 2003) The most p ivo ta l lesson learned is that for me, cu r r i cu lum has n o w become a dynamic form, a l l o w i n g unforeseen possibi l i t ies rather than be ing restricted to pre-determined outcomes. In a famil iar w a y , Grumet (1988) beaut i ful ly characterises cu r r i cu lum as a waterfal l , an exemplary metaphor for m y n e w l y framed v i e w o f cu r r i cu lum: Curriculum is a moving form. That is why we have trouble capturing it, fixing it in language, lodging it in our matrix. Whether we talk about it as history, as syllabi, as classroom discourse, as intended learning outcomes, or as experience, we are trying to grasp a moving form, to catch it at the moment that it slides from being the figure, the object and goal of action, and collapses into the ground for action, (p. 172) The imp l i ca t i on o f these insights is that learning through ref lect ion enabled me to g row from experiences throughout this entire study. A s prev ious ly discussed, G r e e n w o o d (1993) and S c h o n (1983, 1987) exp la in that reflect ion makes th ink ing more c r i t i ca l and focused o n one 's actions before, dur ing and after they have occurred. I found that the insider act ion research approach was the impetus for m y increas ingly intentional and systematic reflective practice that led to quest ioning assumptions, changes and improvement i n m y teaching. U l t ima te ly , this practice led to enhancing student learning. M o r e o v e r , ar t iculat ion and intentional reflection have n o w become an int r ins ic part o f m y practice. B o y e r (1990) and D r e v d a h l et a l . (2002) assert that academia needs to embrace the no t ion that teaching is a scholar ly form o f research. " B y c la r i fy ing and m a k i n g expl ic i t the practices o f teaching, researchers can add to the b o d y o f knowledge" (Drevdah l et a l . , 2002, p. 418). Therefore, I bel ieve that w h e n educators are supported to promote professional and personal growth through intentional and systematic reflective practice, engagement w i l l become a natural d ispos i t ion and practice w i l l improve . Furthermore, teaching as scholarship w i l l be further enhanced and leg i t imised as a form o f research. I identify w i t h Habermas ' (1971) v i e w that knowledge always serves some interest. I hope that the example o f engaging w i t h this approach w i l l inspire other educators to become researchers i n their o w n right, i n order to create new knowledge , improve their practice and student learning, and advance the art and science o f teaching and learning. 103 7.2 Summary A s I close the chapter, I revisi t the title o f this dissertation. H a v e I Untangled Critical Thinking in Educational Cyberspace? A s M c N i f f (2002) affirms "act ion researchers do not a i m for c losure . . .but to exp la in fu l ly the process o f learning so [we] can learn f rom the account" (p. 90). Th i s study has untangled, perhaps o n l y a strand, o f the complex concept o f c r i t ica l t h ink ing i n educational cyberspace. It offers opportunity to reflect upon the value o f the insider act ion research approach as a means to broaden evidence-based teaching as a v iab le mode l o f research i n nurs ing education. Moreove r , this inqu i ry offers opportuni ty to reflect upon a possible n e w l y framed pattern o f a w a y o f k n o w i n g for op t imal learning i n educational cyberspace. It has also shown the changing nature o f m y teaching practice, m y role as nurse-educator-researcher and m y e v o l v i n g v i ews about pedagogy. Internalising these v iews , i n the l ight o f the research experience, I have g r o w n as an educator. T h i s research study represents the beginnings o f a long jou rney exp lor ing educational cyberspace. A n y journey begins w i t h a s ingle step and I bel ieve I have taken quite a leap. True to the inherent reflective c y c l i c a l nature o f insider act ion research, this research project raises new possibi l i t ies for me to consider for the future, i nc lud ing for example: • H o w does the integration o f the theoretical underpinnings o f graphical-based vi r tual learning enhance the effectiveness o f N J V R C to promote c r i t i ca l t h ink ing among undergraduate student nurses? • W h a t are the experiences among undergraduate student nurses us ing group reflect ion and journa l w r i t i n g post N J V R C engagement to promote c r i t i ca l th inking? • W h a t are the experiences among one group o f undergraduate student nurses us ing N J V R C throughout their nurs ing program? • H o w does engaging w i t h N J V R C influence undergraduate student nurses ' t ransit ion to, or performance i n , the c l i n i c a l nurs ing practice environment? These research questions can become the impetus o f a new insider act ion research cyc le or an entirely new act ion research project as I continue m y pursuit to improve m y teaching practice and m o v i n g forward i n further untangl ing cr i t ica l t h ink ing i n educational cyberspace. 104 F i n a l l y , this reflective study illustrates that the insider act ion research is a fi t t ing methodology to transform one educator's tacit knowledge into generated theories. It offers a systematic approach for educators to unravel the connections made between pedagogy, research and change. Its app l icab i l i ty as an appropriate methodology also serves to support and legi t imise the emerging trend o f m o v i n g research toward an evidence-based m o d e l as the basis for advancing educational practices i n nurs ing educat ion and acknowledges Boyer ' s (1990) v i e w o f teaching as a fo rm o f research. 105 References A d a m s , M.H. , Stover, L .M. , & W h i t l o w , J .F . 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Nursing and Health Care, 15 (3), 128-132 . Y o u n g b l o o d , N . , & B e i t z , J . M . (2001). D e v e l o p i n g cr i t ica l t h ink ing w i t h active learning strategies. Nurse Educator, 26(1), 3 9 - 4 2 . 128 A p p e n d i x A — S a m p l e o f Letter for Pe rmi s s ion Permission Letter to Conduct Study Dear C o l l e g e President: M y name is Sharon Rona ldson . I a m a graduate student i n the faculty o f education at the U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a . I a m wr i t i ng to request pe rmiss ion to conduct a research study, as part o f m y doctoral program, i n your insti tution. In addi t ion, I a m also requesting pe rmiss ion to invi te eight undergraduate student nurses to participate i n this inqui ry . I have chosen Langara Co l l ege as this study's ph i losoph ica l underpinnings demonstrate congrui ty w i t h your m i s s i o n statement. T h i s is about educational innovat ion , advanc ing knowledge o f teaching practices and i m p r o v i n g i n student learning. B e l o w is a b r i e f summary: The research study is entit led 'Untangling Critical Thinking in Educational Cyberspace". It is. me thodo log ica l ly situated i n insider action research and in formed b y the interpretive and post-modern paradigms. Insider act ion research is a systematic i nqu i ry that educators can use to study an area o f interest specific to their professional context. The purpose o f this research is to explore the development o f undergraduate student nurses' c r i t ica l t h ink ing abil i t ies w h i l e engaged w i t h an instruct ional unit N u r s i n g Journeys: V i r t u a l Ref lec t ive Centre ( N J V R C ) i n educational cyberspace as part o f the n o r m a l cu r r i cu lum o f N u r s i n g 1141. Spec i f i ca l ly , the research addresses the f o l l o w i n g in i t i a l questions: 1. H o w does Nursing Journeys: Virtual Reflective Centre promote the development o f cr i t ica l t h ink ing among undergraduate student nurses? 2. H o w do the b lend ing o f the theoretical underpinnings o f role-play, computer-mediated communica t ion and col laborat ive and problem-based learning promote the development o f c r i t ica l t h ink ing among undergraduate student nurses? 3. H o w do undergraduate student nurses describe their experiences o f learning to c r i t i ca l ly th ink w h i l e engaged w i t h Nursing Journeys: Virtual Reflective Centre? The f indings o f this study w i l l p rovide addi t ional knowledge about c r i t i ca l th ink ing , educational cyberspace and learning. It has impl ica t ions for cu r r i cu lum and teacher knowledge development i n nurs ing education programs. E t h i c a l approval w i l l be obtained through the U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h Co lumbia ' s E th ics Commit tee . The eight participants w i l l be recruited through the use o f an informat ion letter (see attached). Cr i t e r i a for i nc lu s ion include hav ing experience w i t h the constructs o f c r i t ica l th ink ing and educational cyberspace. Informed consent w i l l be obtained pr ior to the commencement o f the study. O v e r the course o f the semester, participants w i l l engage w i t h an instruct ional unit, N u r s i n g Journeys: V i r t u a l Ref lec t ive Centre, for one hour per week, for twelve week as part o f your no rma l activit ies o f N u r s i n g 1141. In addi t ion to the twelve hours o f onl ine par t ic ipat ion dur ing 129 A p p e n d i x B — S a m p l e o f Letter o f Information Information Letter to Participants Dear Student Nurse : M y name is Sharon Rona ldson . I am a graduate student i n the faculty o f education at the U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a . I am car ry ing out a research project for m y doctoral dissertation and requesting volunteers to agree to be in terv iewed and keep a j ou rna l about their learning experiences i n order to assist me i n learning more about c r i t i ca l t h ink ing i n educational cyberspace. T h e purpose o f this research is to explore the development o f undergraduate student nurses' c r i t i ca l t h ink ing abil i t ies w h i l e engaged w i t h an instruct ional unit entit led N u r s i n g Journeys: V i r t u a l Ref lec t ive Centre i n educational cyberspace that is part o f the no rma l cu r r i cu lum o f N u r s i n g 1141. Spec i f i ca l ly , the research addresses the f o l l o w i n g questions: • H o w w i l l the use o f N u r s i n g Journeys: V i r t u a l Ref lec t ive Centre promote the development o f c r i t ica l t h ink ing among undergraduate student nurses? • H o w w i l l the b lend ing o f the theoretical underpinnings o f role-play, computer-mediated communica t ion and problem-based learning promote the development o f cr i t ica l t h ink ing i n educational cyberspace? • H o w w i l l undergraduate student nurses describe their experiences o f learning to c r i t i ca l ly th ink w h i l e engaged w i t h N u r s i n g Journeys: V i r t u a l Ref lec t ive Centre i n educational cyberspace? The f indings o f this study w i l l p rovide addi t ional knowledge about c r i t i ca l th ink ing , educational cyberspace and learning. It has impl ica t ions for cu r r i cu lum and teacher knowledge development i n nurs ing education programs. O v e r the course o f one semester, participants w i l l engage w i t h an instruct ional unit, N u r s i n g Journeys: V i r t u a l Ref lec t ive Centre, for one hour per week for twelve weeks as part o f the no rma l learning activit ies o f N u r s i n g 1141. Participants w i l l be asked to keep a journa l and participate i n a taped in terview descr ibing your experiences over this t ime per iod. The journa l wr i t i ng ac t iv i ty should take no longer than 30 minutes per week for the twelve weeks to complete. The in terview w i l l be one to two hours i n length and take place at Langara Co l l ege at a mutua l ly agreeable t ime and date i n a meet ing r o o m that provides p r ivacy . The journa l w i l l be rev iewed and the in terview w i l l be scheduled at the end o f the semester once the grades for N I 141 are submitted to the registrar. The onl ine transcripts w i l l also be col lected as data at the end o f the semester and analysed once grades are submitted. Participants w i l l not be required to identify themselves anywhere dur ing the taped in terview or i n the on l ine discussions. A l l in format ion w i l l be identif ied o n l y b y code number and be kept str ict ly confidential and securely stored i n a l ocked f i l i ng cabinet as per the universi ty 's p o l i c y . Af t e r the analysis, the documents, i nc lud ing the tapes w i l l continue to be securely stored i n a l ocked f i l i ng cabinet. The results w i l l be i n the fo rm o f a research report so that i nd iv idua l 131 A p p e n d i x C — S a m p l e o f R e p l y C a r d Reply Card • I can be i n v o l v e d i n your research study about cr i t ica l t h ink ing i n educational cyberspace. • I can not be i n v o l v e d i n your research study about cr i t ica l th ink ing i n educational cyberspace. Y o u m a y c a l l me at . The best t ime to phone is Y o u m a y emai l me at (name) 133 A p p e n d i x E— Interview Questions Interview Questions In opening the interview, the researcher w i l l ask the participant to te l l his or her o w n story us ing the f o l l o w i n g framework. Introduction Firs t , the participants w i l l be asked to te l l something about themselves Focus questions m a y be: • H o w do y o u define c r i t i ca l th inking? • H o w do y o u describe your experience w h i l e engaged w i t h N J V R C ? • H o w do y o u perceive that N J V R C promoted the development o f c r i t i ca l th inking? • T e l l me about a specific learning experience i n N J V R C • what was fami l ia r to y o u about the situation? • what assumptions contributed to the w a y y o u responded to the situation? • what was important and what was not? • what was go ing on i n this situation that m a y have influence the outcome? • were there any other possible explanations for what was happening i n the situation? • what made y o u sure o f your interpretation o f the situation? • w h y was it important to intervene? • what informat ion was miss ing? • h o w d i d y o u go about getting that information? • what factors inf luenced your responses? • what had y o u taken for granted i n the situation? 136 • Its s ignif icance to your development o f c r i t i ca l th ink ing . • W h a t d i d this experience mean to y o u at that t ime? • W h a t does this experience mean to y o u n o w as a learner, as a student nurse, a c r i t ica l thinker? • W h a t part icular aspect o f N J V R C do y o u bel ieve assisted y o u i n the development o f c r i t ica l th inking? • h o w w o u l d describe the influence o f role p lay? • H o w d i d the case narrative that y o u were engaged i n assist y o u i n apply ing , analysing, synthesising or evaluating what y o u k n e w about its focus? • T e l l me about your experiences o f d ia loguing w i t h a peer • W h a t are the benefits o f developing your c r i t i ca l t h ink ing abil i t ies us ing an instruct ional too l , l i ke N J V R C • W h a t are the l imita t ions o f deve lop ing your c r i t i ca l th ink ing abil i t ies us ing an instruct ional tool , l i ke N J V R C ? • Jot d o w n a list o f 5 words descr ib ing your experience w h i l e engaged w i t h N J V R C . W h a t l inks can y o u make among the words you've listed? • I f y o u were to title your experience what w o u l d it be? C o n c l u s i o n Is there anything else y o u w o u l d l ike to te l l me about your experience? 137
Thesis/Dissertation
eng
Cross-Faculty Inquiry in Education
Vancouver : University of British Columbia Library
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Untangling critical thinking in educational cyberspace
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