@prefix vivo: . @prefix edm: . @prefix ns0: . @prefix dcterms: . @prefix skos: . vivo:departmentOrSchool "Education, Faculty of"@en, "Language and Literacy Education (LLED), Department of"@en ; edm:dataProvider "DSpace"@en ; ns0:degreeCampus "UBCV"@en ; dcterms:creator "Cahill, Neta Simpkins"@en ; dcterms:issued "2009-12-15T21:57:50Z"@en, "2002"@en ; vivo:relatedDegree "Master of Arts - MA"@en ; ns0:degreeGrantor "University of British Columbia"@en ; dcterms:description """Negotiated interaction among language learners has. been well researched to identify learner strategies which surface in collaborative conversational interaction. However, most studies have been confined to populations who are learning English as a second language working with native English speakers or other nonnative speakers. This fails to take into account the scope of possibilities a more linguistically and culturally balanced perspective could reveal about negotiated interaction. This study explored negotiated interaction and language use between four American college students learning Japanese paired with four Japanese students learning English. Performing simultaneously as teacher and student in an informal conversational activity, each participant was equally responsible to attempt target forms and to present model forms of communication as cultural similarities and differences were explored together. Significant findings from the present study fell into three basic categories. First, the data revealed the actual distribution of English and Japanese in each dyad and determined the percentages of first or second language utterances for each participant, thus giving a clear representation of the amount and type of language being generated in the informal dialogs, and also revealing glaring imbalances both in quantities of input per participant and in language distribution between English and Japanese. The Japanese participants spoke considerably less than their American partners, and English far outweighed Japanese in its usage. Regarding negotiated interaction, comprehension checks, feedback requests, confirmation checks, and clarification requests, as well as language modification in the form of self-correction, other-correction, completion requests, .and other-completion utterances were tallied and compared, revealing an unexpectedly large number of self- and other-corrections in both languages, dominance of the American students in initiating conversations, and a large number of language specific feedback requests discussing grammar, pronunciation, and lexical gaps. Participants also shared their own perceptions of the learning and teaching experiences that took place in the dyads and expressed positive and enthusiastic responses, indicative of the intrinsic motivation this learning environment evoked and the value conversation partner programs may hold in second language acquisition."""@en ; edm:aggregatedCHO "https://circle.library.ubc.ca/rest/handle/2429/16728?expand=metadata"@en ; skos:note "NEGOTATING CULTURES: A CASE STUDY OF COLLABORATIVE CONVERSATIONS BETWEEN JAPANESE STUDENTS LEARNING ENGLISH PAIRED WITH AMERICAN STUDENTS LEARNING JAPANESE by Neta Simpkins C a h i l l B a c h e l o r s Degree i n Japanese R e g i o n a l S t u d i e s , U n i v . o f Washington, 1990 A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER i of ARTS i n THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES Department of Language and L i t e r a c y E d u c a t i o n (TEACHING ENGLISH AS A SECOND LANGUAGE) We accept t h i s thesis as conforming to the required standard The University of B r i t i s h Columbia December 2002 © Neta Simpkins C a h i l l , 2002 UBC Rare Books and Special Collections - Thesis Authorisation Form Page 1 of 1 In presenting t h i s thesis i n p a r t i a l f u l f i l m e n t of the requirements for an advanced degree at the University of B r i t i s h Columbia, I agree that the Library s h a l l make i t f r e e l y a v a i l a b l e for reference and study. I further agree that permission for extensive copying of t h i s thesis f o r sch o l a r l y purposes may be granted by the head of my department or by his or her representatives. It i s understood that copying or pu b l i c a t i o n of t h i s thesis for f i n a n c i a l gain s h a l l not be allowed without my written permission. The University of B r i t i s h Columbia Vancouver, Canada Department http://www.library.ubc.ca/spcoll/thesauth.htrnl 12/15/02 ABSTRACT N e g o t i a t e d i n t e r a c t i o n among language l e a r n e r s has. been w e l l r e s e a r c h e d t o i d e n t i f y l e a r n e r s t r a t e g i e s which s u r f a c e i n c o l l a b o r a t i v e c o n v e r s a t i o n a l i n t e r a c t i o n . However, most s t u d i e s have been c o n f i n e d t o p o p u l a t i o n s who are l e a r n i n g E n g l i s h as a second language w o r k i n g w i t h n a t i v e E n g l i s h s p e akers or o t h e r n o n n a t i v e s p e a k e r s . T h i s f a i l s t o t a k e i n t o account the scope of p o s s i b i l i t i e s a more l i n g u i s t i c a l l y and c u l t u r a l l y b a l a n c e d p e r s p e c t i v e c o u l d r e v e a l about n e g o t i a t e d i n t e r a c t i o n . . • T h i s s t u d y e x p l o r e d n e g o t i a t e d i n t e r a c t i o n and language use between f o u r American c o l l e g e s t u d e n t s l e a r n i n g Japanese p a i r e d w i t h f o u r Japanese s t u d e n t s l e a r n i n g E n g l i s h . P e r f o r m i n g s i m u l t a n e o u s l y as t e a c h e r and s t u d e n t i n an i n f o r m a l c o n v e r s a t i o n a l a c t i v i t y , each p a r t i c i p a n t was e q u a l l y r e s p o n s i b l e t o attempt t a r g e t forms and t o p r e s e n t model forms of communication as c u l t u r a l s i m i l a r i t i e s and d i f f e r e n c e s were e x p l o r e d t o g e t h e r . S i g n i f i c a n t f i n d i n g s from - the . p r e s e n t s t u d y f e l l i n t o t h r e e b a s i c c a t e g o r i e s . F i r s t , t h e d a t a r e v e a l e d the a c t u a l d i s t r i b u t i o n of E n g l i s h and Japanese i n each dyad and d e t e r m i n e d the p e r c e n t a g e s of f i r s t or second language u t t e r a n c e s f o r each p a r t i c i p a n t , thus g i v i n g a c l e a r r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of the amount and type of language b e i n g g e n e r a t e d i n the i n f o r m a l d i a l o g s , and a l s o r e v e a l i n g g l a r i n g i m b a l a n c e s both i n q u a n t i t i e s of i n p u t per p a r t i c i p a n t and i n language d i s t r i b u t i o n between . E n g l i s h and Japanese'.' The Japanese p a r t i c i p a n t s spoke . c o n s i d e r a b l y l e s s than' t h e i r American p a r t n e r s , and E n g l i s h f a r outweighed J a p a n e s e ( i n i t s usage. . Re g a r d i n g n e g o t i a t e d i n t e r a c t i o n , comprehension checks, feedback r e q u e s t s , c o n f i r m a t i o n checks, and c l a r i f i c a t i o n r e q u e s t s , as w e l l as language m o d i f i c a t i o n i n the form of s e l f - c o r r e c t i o n , o t h e r - c o r r e c t i o n , c o m p l e t i o n r e q u e s t s , .and o t h e r - c o m p l e t i o n u t t e r a n c e s were t a l l i e d and compared, r e v e a l i n g an u n e x p e c t e d l y l a r g e number of s e l f - and o t h e r -c o r r e c t i o n s i n b o t h languages, dominance . of the American •s t u d e n t s i n i n i t i a t i n g c o n v e r s a t i o n s , and a l a r g e number of language s p e c i f i c feedback r e q u e s t s d i s c u s s i n g grammar, p r o n u n c i a t i o n , and l e x i c a l gaps. P a r t i c i p a n t s a l s o shared t h e i r own p e r c e p t i o n s o f the l e a r n i n g and t e a c h i n g e x p e r i e n c e s t h a t took p l a c e i n t h e dyads and e x p r e s s e d p o s i t i v e and e n t h u s i a s t i c r e s p o n s e s , i n d i c a t i v e o f the i n t r i n s i c m o t i v a t i o n t h i s l e a r n i n g environment evoked and the v a l u e c o n v e r s a t i o n p a r t n e r programs may h o l d i n second language a c q u i s i t i o n . Table of Contents A b s t r a c t . • i i Tabl e o f Co n t e n t s . . . / l v, L i s t of T a b l e s v i i ,v-±-ii Acknowledgments . i_ 1. I n t r o d u c t i o n 1 1.1 The Purpose of t h i s Study 1 1.2 S y n o p s i s of the Remaining Ch a p t e r s . . . . . . 5 2. Review of E m p i r i c a l L i t e r a t u r e 7 2.1 N e g o t i a t i o n : B r o a d l y D e f i n e d . . , 7 2.1.1 N e g o t i a t i o n : i n Language L e a r n i n g . . . 9 2.2 Research i n N e g o t i a t e d I n t e r a c t i o n 10 2.2.1 Research I n v o l v i n g NNS-NS & 11 NNS-NNS P a r t i c i p a n t s 2.3 I n f o r m a l C o n v e r s a t i o n . .14 2.3.1 C o n v e r s a t i o n : A Means t o an End . . . . 14 2.3.2 N a t u r a l i s t i c L e a r n i n g : 16 Group and P a i r work 2.3.3 B e n e f i t s of U n s t r u c t u r e d C o n v e r s a t i o n . 17 2.3.4 C r i t i c i s m of U n s t r u c t u r e d C o n v e r s a t i o n .19 2.3.5 A P o s i t i v e A f f e c t i v e C l i m a t e .20 2.4 Broader S o c i o c u l t u r a l C o n s i d e r a t i o n s . . . . . 20 2.4.1 Language S o c i a l i z a t i o n Through . . . . 21 C o o p e r a t i v e M u l t i c u l t u r a l L e a r n i n g • 3. R a t i o n a l e of t h e P r e s e n t Study 25 3.1 N e g o t i a t e d \" I n t e r a c t i o n : Gaps i n Research . . . 27 3.2 Research Q u e s t i o n s 28 3.2.1 Research Q u e s t i o n #1 29 3.2.2 Research Q u e s t i o n #2 31 3.2.3 Research Q u e s t i o n #3 .31 3.3 Methodology 32 3.3.1 The S i t e : In P a r t n e r s h i p t o 32 Promote C u l t u r a l Exchange 3.3.2 P a r t i c i p a n t s 34 3.3.3 The I n v e s t i g a t o r . . 37 3.3.4 Data C o l l e c t i o n P rocedures 38 .3.4 Data A n a l y s i s 40 3.4 .1 A u d i o & V i d e o R e c o r d i n g s . 42 4. R e s u l t s and D i s c u s s i o n s o f Research Q u e s t i o n s : . . . 44 4.1 Examples Found i n the Data . 44 4.1.1 A d d i t i o n a l Communication S t r a t e g i e s . . 49 4.1.2 The Dominance of E n g l i s h i n D i s c u s s i o n s . 5 0 & the P e r c e p t i o n s o f Language A b i l i t i e s 5. S i g n i f i c a n t F i n d i n g s 59 5.1 Summary of R e s u l t s 59-5.2 I m p l i c a t i o n s f o r F u t u r e Research 62 5.3 I m p l i c a t i o n s f o r Tea c h i n g and L e a r n i n g . . . . 63 B i b l i o g r a p h y .' 70 Appendixes ' . . ' 7 4 A. Coding A b b r e v i a t i o n s and Te r m i n o l o g y 75 C. Samples of Coded T r a n s c r i p t i o n s . . . . . . . . 76 L i s t of Tables Table 1 P r o f i l e s of P a r t i c i p a n t s • . . 36 T a b l e 2 Japanese - E n g l i s h Data A n a l y s i s 67 T a b l e 3 I n i t i a t i n g N e g o t i a t i o n - Data A n a l y s i s 68 Table 4 M o d i f i c a t i o n - Data A n a l y s i s 69 vxxx Acknowledgments I would l i k e t o ta k e t h i s o p p o r t u n i t y t o e x t e n d my g r a t i t u d e t o the many who have h e l p e d me a l o n g t h e way, bo t h at home and a t UBC, over t h e p a s t few y e a r s s i n c e I r e t u r n e d t o f u r t h e r my l e a r n i n g i n language e d u c a t i o n . F i r s t , and fore m o s t , I thank my a d v i s o r , Dr. L i n g S h i , f o r her i n f i n i t e p a t i e n c e and u n d e r s t a n d i n g , and f o r . her . sage a d v i c e and her ever p r e s e n t p o s i t i v e o u t l o o k . My o t h e r committee• members, Dr. P a t r i c i a Duff and Dr. Margaret E a r l y , were a l s o i n c r e d i b l y s u p p o r t i v e and e n c o u r a g i n g b o t h as my p r o f e s s o r s e a r l i e r on i n the program, and then more r e c e n t l y as I s t r u g g l e d toward c o m p l e t i o n of my t h e s i s . I c o u l d not have managed w i t h o u t your k i n d n e s s and gu i d a n c e . L i k e w i s e , I have much a p p r e c i a t i o n f o r Dr. Lee Gunderson, and h i s e f f o r t s t o h e l p me get t h r o u g h some tough s p o t s . I am g r a t e f u l t o t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h Columbia, i t s s t a f f , s t u d e n t s , and i n s t r u c t o r s f o r p r o v i n g time and a g a i n t h a t an immense i n s t i t u t i o n i s s t i l l c a p a b l e o f b e i n g a p l e a s a n t , k i n d , and c a r i n g p l a c e . D e s p i t e the t h r e e hour d r i v e , I w i l l m iss coming up t o Canada and UBC. A l l . t h o s e who p a r t i c i p a t e d i n my r e s e a r c h and gave so f r e e l y of t h e i r t i me and e f f o r t s w i i l always be a p p r e c i a t e d and remembered, as w i l l my employer and my co- w o r k e r s , who demonstrated much f l e x i b i l i t y and . f o r t i t u d e d u r i n g my absences. I thank my mother and f a t h e r f o r the o t h e r e d u c a t i o n I r e c e i v e d i n t h i s l i f e t h r o u g h t h e i r examples and t h e i r l o v e , and I am g r a t e f u l t o my husband, Jim, f o r h i s unwavering u n d e r s t a n d i n g , encouragement, l o v e , and f r i e n d s h i p . • Thank you, Dinny, f o r b e i n g my dear, dear f r i e n d , as w e l l as my Vancouver home away from home. - CHAPTER ONE -1.0 INTRODUCTION 1.1 The Purpose of t h i s Study T h i s s t u d y e x p l o r e d n e g o t i a t e d i n t e r a c t i o n i n dyads whose p a r t i c i p a n t s were a t r e l a t i v e l i n g u i s t i c and c u l t u r a l p a r i t y t o each o t h e r , i n an e f f o r t t o a s s e s s how such p a r t n e r s would i n i t i a t e n e g o t i a t i o n sequences and mo d i f y output i n u n s t r u c t u r e d c o n v e r s a t i o n a l s i t u a t i o n s . A d d i t i o n a l l y , t h e b a l a n c e o f language usage (Japanese and E n g l i s h ) was examined, and i n s t a n c e s o f n e g o t i a t i o n and m o d i f i c a t i o n sequences were compared i n each language group and f o r each i n d i v i d u a l i n an e f f o r t t o dete r m i n e what, i f any, s i g n i f i c a n t n e g o t i a t i o n p a t t e r n s emerged. L a s t l y , p a r t i c i p a n t s were asked t o d i s c u s s and e v a l u a t e t h e i r own e x p e r i e n c e s and o p i n i o n s c o n c e r n i n g t h i s t y p e o f u n s t r u c t u r e d c o l l a b o r a t i v e language l e a r n i n g a c t i v i t y . N a t i v e Japanese speakers l e a r n i n g E n g l i s h were p a i r e d w i t h n a t i v e E n g l i s h s p e a k e r s l e a r n i n g Japanese t o d i s c u s s t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e c u l t u r e s and c o l l a b o r a t i v e l y t a k e t u r n s s t e e r i n g t h e i r way thr o u g h the i n t r i c a c i e s of c o n v e r s a t i o n a l i n t e r a c t i o n i n bo t h t h e i r f i r s t and second languages. P e r f o r m i n g s i m u l t a n e o u s l y as t e a c h e r and s t u d e n t , each p a r t i c i p a n t was e q u a l l y r e s p o n s i b l e t o attempt t a r g e t forms and t o p r e s e n t model forms of communication as c u l t u r a l s i m i l a r i t i e s and d i f f e r e n c e s were e x p l o r e d t o g e t h e r . I n f o r m a l d i a l o g s between the f o u r p a i r s of c o n v e r s a t i o n p a r t n e r s , were r e c o r d e d , coded, and a n a l y z e d f o r examples of n e g o t i a t i o n i n i n f o r m a l , non-s t r u c t u r e d i n t e r a c t i o n i n b o t h languages. P e r s o n a l e x p e r i e n c e and o b s e r v a t i o n s of s i m i l a r p a i r i n g s of s t u d e n t s i n c o n v e r s a t i o n programs over th e y e a r s , a l o n g w i t h a n e c d o t a l e v i d e n c e and s c o r e s of program e v a l u a t i o n s t o u t i n g the b e n e f i t s of such i n t e r a c t i o n s prompted me.to t a k e a c l o s e r l o o k a t the a c t u a l l e a r n i n g and t e a c h i n g t h e s e p a r t n e r s h i p s are c a p a b l e o f , as w e l l as' the s h o r t c o m i n g s such arrangements may have. However, d e s p i t e a w e a l t h o f r e s e a r c h e x p l o r i n g n e g o t i a t e d i n t e r a c t i o n i n i t s v a r i o u s n a t i v e speaker (NS) - n o n - n a t i v e speaker (NNS) or NNS-NNS arrangements, v e r y few s t u d i e s have l o o k e d i n t o n e g o t i a t i o n as i t p e r t a i n s t o t h i s p a r t i c u l a r s i t u a t i o n o r p o p u l a t i o n o f language l e a r n e r s . Such i n f o r m a t i o n would be v e r y s i g n i f i c a n t i n h e l p i n g language programs, f a c i l i t a t o r s , and second language l e a r n e r s t o a c h i e v e the maximum b e n e f i t s from one-on-one i n t e r a c t i o n i n a b a l a n c e d and p o s i t i v e manner. More r e l e v a n t a c t i v i t i e s c o u l d be a r r a n g e d , p r o t o c o l s or c u r r i c u l a c o u l d be b e t t e r d e v e l o p e d , and t h e e d u c a t i o n a l l e g i t i m a c y of programs which are o f t e n viewed as e x t r a c u r r i c u l a r or o n e - s i d e d i n ' f a v p r of ESL s t u d e n t s c o u l d be r e e v a l u a t e d and f u r t h e r promoted t o b e n e f i t b oth p a r t i c i p a n t s , t o a g r e a t e r degree. As i t s t a n d s now, many c o n v e r s a t i o n p a r t n e r o r community i n t e r a c t i o n programs may be m i s s i n g an o p p o r t u n i t y t o improve the s u c c e s s of t h e i r a c t i v i t i e s because few s t u d i e s have been conducted t o date t o p r o v i d e recommendations or proven g u i d e l i n e s f o r s u c c e s s . S i g n i f i c a n t f i n d i n g s from the p r e s e n t s t u d y f e l l i n t o t h r e e b a s i c c a t e g o r i e s . F i r s t , t h e da t a r e v e a l e d t h e a c t u a l d i s t r i b u t i o n of E n g l i s h and Japanese i n each dyad and d e t e r m i n e d t h e p e r c e n t a g e s of f i r s t o r second language u t t e r a n c e s f o r each p a r t i c i p a n t , t h u s g i v i n g a c l e a r r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e amount and t y p e o f language b e i n g g e n e r a t e d i n the i n f o r m a l d i a l o g s , and a l s o r e v e a l i n g g l a r i n g i m b a l a n c e s b o t h i n ' q u a n t i t i e s of i n p u t p e r p a r t i c i p a n t and i n language d i s t r i b u t i o n between E n g l i s h and Japanese. Without t h i s d a t a , i t would be v e r y d i f f i c u l t t o a s c e . r t a i n t h e t r u e l e v e l of. participât i o n and b a l a n c e o c c u r r i n g i n p a i r work, and t h e b e n e f i t s o r sh o r t c o m i n g s i n d i v i d u a l s may have been e x p e r i e n c i n g . The second r e l e v a n t \" c o n t r i b u t i o n t h i s s t u d y o f f e r s i s a c a r e f u l l o o k a t n e g o t i a t e d i n t e r a c t i o n as i t o c c u r r e d i n i n i t i a t i o n of n e g o t i a t i o n sequences t h r o u g h comprehension checks, feedback r e q u e s t s , c o n f i r m a t i o n c hecks, and c l a r i f i c a t i o n r e q u e s t s , as w e l l as language m o d i f i c a t i o n i n the form of s e l f - c o r r e c t i o n , o t h e r - c o r r e c t i o n , c o m p l e t i o n r e q u e s t s , and o t h e r - c o m p l e t i o n . A g a i n , th e a c t u a l number of t h e s e u t t e r a n c e s were f u r t h e r broken down i n t o c a t e g o r i e s r e p r e s e n t i n g Japanese and E n g l i s h i n b oth f i r s t and second languages. I t was hoped t h a t by u s i n g f a i r l y s t a n d a r d and w i d e l y a c c e p t e d c a t e g o r i e s f o r n e g o t i a t i o n (Doughty & P i c a , 1986; S h i , 1998) t h i s d a t a might c o n t r i b u t e t o the g r e a t e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of p a r t i c u l a r i n s t a n c e s of n e g o t i a t e d i n t e r a c t i o n . D i s t i n c t p a t t e r n s emerged i n the performance of s e l f -and o t h e r c o r r e c t i o n s which showed an u n u s u a l l y h i g h p r o p o r t i o n o f c o r r e c t i o n s when compared w i t h t h e r e s u l t s p r e s e n t e d i n a s t u d y by Chun, Day, Chenoweth, and Luppescu (1982) of i n f o r m a l c o n v e r s a t i o n s between NSs and NNSs. t h a t s t u d y c o n c l u d e d t h a t e r r o r c o r r e c t i o n s made by t h e NSs were r e l a t i v e l y r a r e , and u s u a l l y o c c u r r e d when t h e r e was a f a c t u a l e r r o r . Many of the c o r r e c t i o n s I o b s e r v e d were e x p l i c i t s e l f - o r o t h e r - c o r r e c t i o n s i n p r o n u n c i a t i o n , v o c a b u l a r y , and.grammar. The r e s u l t s of t h e p r e s e n t r e s e a r c h may be due i n p a r t t o the c o l l a b o r a t i v e a s p e c t of t h e s e dyads and the r e s u l t a n t r e d u c t i o n i n c o n c e r n f o r \" f a c e \" . Concern f o r e t i q u e t t e and ego may have been r e p l a c e d by a mutual d e s i r e t o b e n e f i t from the o t h e r ' s s t a t u s as e x p e r t w h i l e c o m m i s e r a t i n g w i t h one a n o t h e r ' s s t r u g g l e s as second language l e a r n e r s . L a s t l y , the t h i r d , and perhaps most i m p o r t a n t group o f f i n d i n g s i n t h i s study' came d i r e c t l y from the p a r t i c i p a n t s themselves as they r e l a t e d t h e i r unique and h i g h l y r e l e v a n t p e r s p e c t i v e s • o n the c o n v e r s a t i o n a l a c t i v i t y and the e x p e r i e n c e s and p e r c e p t i o n s t h e y remembered t h r o u g h t h e s t i m u l a t e d r e c a l l s e s s i o n s a f t e r w a r d s . There were many c o n s t r u c t i v e s u g g e s t i o n s t o improve the c o n v e r s a t i o n p a r t n e r p r o c e s s , and many p o s i t i v e comments about t h e e x p e r i e n c e . 1.2 Synopsis of the Remaining Chapters The f o l l o w i n g i s a b r i e f s y n o p s i s o f t h e r e m a i n i n g c h a p t e r s and t h e i r o r g a n i z a t i o n . Chapter 2 w i l l p r e s e n t a r e v i e w of e m p i r i c a l ' s t u d i e s d i v i d e d i n t o two c a t e g o r i e s : n e g o t i a t e d i n t e r a c t i o n , which i s f u r t h e r d i v i d e d i n t o NNS-NNS and NNS-NS g r o u p i n g s ; then i n f o r m a l c o n v e r s a t i o n a l a c t i v i t i e s w i l l be compared t o s t r u c t u r e d c o n v e r s a t i o n a l a c t i v i t i e s . The c h a p t e r w i l l end w i t h an o v e r v i e w o f b r o a d e r s o c i o c u l t u r a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s , as w e l l as an argument f o r the r e l e v a n c e of t h e p r e s e n t s t u d y . Chapter 3 p r e s e n t s the c u r r e n t s t u d y , f i r s t by o u t l i n i n g gaps i n p r e v i o u s r e s e a r c h , f o l l o w e d by the t h r e e main r e s e a r c h q u e s t i o n s which form the b a s i s of t h i s s t u d y . Next, the f o l l o w i n g items are a d d r e s s e d : the methodology, i n c l u d i n g i n f o r m a t i o n on the s i t e , p a r t i c i p a n t s , i n v e s t i g a t o r , and p r o c e d u r e s f o r d a t a c o l l e c t i o n . The d a t a a n a l y s i s w i l l t hen be i n t r o d u c e d a l o n g w i t h d e f i n i t i o n s o f c o d i n g markers, i n t e r r a t e r r e l i a b i l i t y , and examples of t r a n s c r i p t i o n s w i t h coding'. F i n d i n g s and d i s c u s s i o n f o l l o w i n Chapter 4 f o r each of the r e s e a r c h q u e s t i o n s . Chapter 5 p r e s e n t s a f i n a l summary of the r e s u l t s , t a b l e s , and i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r f u t u r e r e s e a r c h and p e d a g o g i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n s . - CHAPTER TWO -2.0 Review of Empirical L i t e r a t u r e The g o a l of t h i s s t u d y i s t o e x p l o r e n e g o t i a t e d i n t e r a c t i o n and language use between American s t u d e n t s l e a r n i n g Japanese p a i r e d w i t h Japanese s t u d e n t s l e a r n i n g E n g l i s h when th e y a re p l a c e d i n an i n f o r m a l s e t t i n g and encouraged t o a s s i s t each o t h e r i n a c q u i r i n g language and c u l t u r a l knowledge w h i l e i n t e r a c t i n g i n u n s t r u c t u r e d . c o n v e r s a t i o n s ' o f t h e i r own making u s i n g w h i c h e v e r languages t h e y p r e f e r . T h i s c h a p t e r w i l l examine t h e many d e f i n i t i o n s o f n e g o t i a t i o n , t h e n w i l l d i s c u s s v a r i o u s a s p e c t s of group or p a i r work i n f o r m a l and i n f o r m a l c o n v e r s a t i o n a l s i t u a t i o n s . A r e v i e w o f r e l e v a n t r e s e a r c h on n e g o t i a t e d i n t e r a c t i o n ' a m o n g NNS-NNS and NNS-NS, and c o n v e r s a t i o n a l a c t i v i t i e s , b o t h f o r m a l and i n f o r m a l , w i l l be p r e s e n t e d . L a s t l y , the e f f e c t s of groups o r p a i r s on f i n d i n g s w i l l be c o n s i d e r e d . 2.1 Negotiation : Broadly Defined The o r i g i n a l , term ' n e g o t i a t i o n ' , by d e f i n i t i o n has a s s o r t e d l a y i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s which add depth and r e l e v a n c e when r e f l e c t e d i n the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s a s s i g n e d t o ' n e g o t i a t i o n ' i n A p p l i e d L i n g u i s t i c s . A c c o r d i n g t o Webster's d i c t i o n a r y , the v e r b ' n e g o t i a t e ' means: t o communicate or c o n f e r w i t h a n o t h e r so as t o a r r i v e at a s e t t l e m e n t of some m a t t e r : meet w i t h a n o t h e r so as t o a r r i v e t h r o u g h d i s c u s s i o n at some k i n d o f agreement or compromise about something: come t o terms... t o d e a l w i t h (some m a t t e r or a f f a i r t h a t r e q u i r e s a b i l i t y f o r i t s s u c c e s s f u l h a n d l i n g ) :' manage, handle , conduct: t o a r r a n g e f o r or b r i n g about t h r o u g h c o n f e r e n c e and d i s c u s s i o n : work out o r ' a r r i v e a t or s e t t l e upon by meetings and agreements and compromise: t o i n f l u e n c e s u c c e s s f u l l y i n a d e s i r e d way by d i s c u s s i o n s and agreements and compromise: t o t r a n s f e r or a s s i g n t o a n o t h e r b y d e l i v e r y o r endorsement or b o t h i n r e t u r n f o r e q u i v a l e n t value... t o s u c c e s s f u l l y get over or a c r o s s (as a road) or up or down (as a h i l l ) o r t h r o u g h (as an o b s t a c l e ) : t o e n c o u n t e r and d i s p o s e of (as problem, c h a l l e n g e ) w i t h completeness and s a t i s f a c t i o n : t a c k l e s u c c e s s f u l l y : complete, accomplish... (Gove, 1986) . As the term ' n e g o t i a t i o n ' p e r t a i n s t o second language a c q u i s i t i o n , t h e r e are many a d d i t i o n a l nuances and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s t o c o n s i d e r , but the t a n g i b l e p e r s o n a l rewards a s s o c i a t e d w i t h s u c c e s s f u l l y overcoming a c h a l l e n g e , whether s m a l l or l a r g e , i n second language communication, s h o u l d not be f o r g o t t e n when the l i n g u i s t i c v e r n a c u l a r a p p l i e s the word t o a speech a c t ' o r grammar p o i n t . . 2.1.1 Negotiation : i n Language Learning S t a r t i n g from a broad, m a c r o l e v e l p e r s p e c t i v e , n e g o t i a t i o n o c c u r s w i t h i n c o n v e r s a t i o n a l s i t u a t i o n s p r a g m a t i c a l l y r e g a r d i n g s p e a k e r s ' b e l i e f s and background a t t i t u d e s , u n d e r s t a n d i n g of c o n t e x t , and f a m i l i a r i t y w i t h how language can be m a n i p u l a t e d and a p p l i e d . S e m a n t i c a l l y s p e a k i n g , n e g o t i a t i o n o f c o n t e n t and meaning has been i d e n t i f i e d t h r o u g h the use o f s p e c i f i c p a t t e r n s of r e q u e s t s and v a l i d a t i o n s . Syntax comes i n t o p l a y when speakers n e g o t i a t e o r exchange grammar r u l e s e i t h e r i m p l i c i t l y , o r e x p l i c i t l y , w h i l e m o r p h o l o g i c a l n e g o t i a t i o n i s e v i d e n t when sp e a k e r s d i s c u s s and r e p a i r language a t the l e v e l i n v o l v i n g word f o r m a t i o n and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . A c l o s e r l o o k a t language n e g o t i a t i o n r e v e a l s p r o c e s s e s i n which p h o n e t i c s and phonology a re adapted or c o r r e c t e d , i n c l u d i n g p r o n u n c i a t i o n and p a t t e r n s o f speech sounds. Taken as a whole, n e g o t i a t i o n i n SLA o f f e r s a broad range of i n v e s t i g a t i v e o p p o r t u n i t i e s (Nakahama, T y l e r , & van L i e r , 2001). 2.2 Introduction to Research i n Negotiated Interaction Research i n bo t h f o r m a l and i n f o r m a l l e a r n i n g e nvironments has shown n e g o t i a t e d i n t e r a c t i o n t o have a s i g n i f i c a n t , though v a r i e d , i n f l u e n c e on language a c q u i s i t i o n ( P i c a , Young, & Doughty, 1987; Nakahama e t a l . , 2001; S h i , 1998). N e g o t i a t i o n i n second language i n t e r a c t i o n has broad r e l e v a n c e and can be viewed w i t h a wide spectrum of i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s r a n g i n g from the m i c r o s c o p i c end of the s c a l e w i t h s p e c i f i c s t o do w i t h p r o n u n c i a t i o n t o a w i d e r , m a c r o s c o p i c p o s i t i o n i n v o l v i n g g e n e r a l s t e e r i n g o f c o n v e r s a t i o n a l t o p i c s , tone, and t u r n t a k i n g (Nakahama e t a l . , 2001). The f o l l o w i n g i s a r e v i e w of the l i t e r a t u r e p e r t a i n i n g t o n e g o t i a t e d i n t e r a c t i o n d i v i d e d i n t o NNS-NS and NNS-NNS c a t e g o r i e s based on t h e arrangement and backgrounds of p a r t i c i p a n t s i n each s t u d y . S e c t i o n 2.3 w i l l l o o k ' a t r e s e a r c h i n f o r m a l and i n f o r m a l c o n v e r s a t i o n a l s e t t i n g s . 2.2.1 Research Involving NNS-NS & NNS-NNS Participants A broad 'global'.' approach t o c a t e g o r i z i n g c o n t e n t and d i s c o u r s e sequences was one of s e v e r a l t a c t i c s q u a n t i t a t i v e l y documented i n a r e c e n t c o m p a r a t i v e a n a l y s i s o f i n f o r m a t i o n gap a c t i v i t i e s and c o n v e r s a t i o n a l i n t e r a c t i o n , which s e p a r a t e d , i d e n t i f i e d , and t a l l i e d s p e c i f i c ' t r i g g e r s / f o r r e p a i r n e g o t i a t i o n s . \" G l o b a l t r i g g e r s i n v o l v e d elements such as a n a p h o r i c r e f e r e n c e , d e i x i s , i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f an e n t i r e u t t e r a n c e , and elements t h a t can cause a r e a n a l y s i s o f more than one t u r n \" (Nakahama e t a l . , 2001, pp. 384-385). Far removed from the e f f e c t s of g l o b a l and r e p a i r n e g o t i a t i o n , n e g o t i a t i o n of the f i n e r p o i n t s o f p r o n u n c i a t i o n can a l s o be examined. The f o l l o w i n g i s an example o f a p r o n u n c i a t i o n t r i g g e r and r e p a i r from the Nakahama et a l . s t u d y (2001, p.385): . Sumiko (NNS) : Preschool...? [ p r E s k u l ] R i t a (NS) : • Pre-school...? [ p r i s k u l ] Sumiko: P r e - s c h o o l . [ p r i s k u l ] Even i n a NS-NNS c o m b i n a t i o n , one can assume t h a t the p r e s s u r e i s c o n s i d e r a b l y l e s s than a s t u d e n t would f e e l i f s i n g l e d out by a t e a c h e r i n f r o n t o f the c l a s s f o r c o r r e c t i o n . The r e s u l t s of the Nakahama e t ' a l . s t u d y r e v e a l e d t h a t i n c o n v e r s a t i o n a l a c t i v i t i e s , an average of 76% of a l l r e p a i r n e g o t i a t i o n s employed g l o b a l t r i g g e r s , v e r s u s more s p e c i f i c i n d i c a t o r s \" such as p r o n u n c i a t i o n , m o r p h o s y n t a c t i c , and l e x i c a l t r i g g e r s . However, t h i s p e r c e n t a g e dropped t o 25.6% i n t h e i n f o r m a t i o n gap a c t i v i t i e s , o s t e n s i b l y due t o dominant need of t h a t a c t i v i t y t o compare and g a t h e r s p e c i f i c and c o - r e l a t i o n a l : d a t a , as r e p r e s e n t e d by a 55% average of l e x i c a l t r i g g e r s . NSs and NNSs i n t e r a c t i o n was examined by Chun, Day, Chenoweth, and Luppescu (1982) the c o n c l u s i o n was made t h a t e r r o r c o r r e c t i o n s by the NSs were r e l a t i v e l y r a r e , and u s u a l l y o c c u r r e d when t h e r e was a f a c t u a l e r r o r , then d i s c o u r s e and v o c a b u l a r y were r e v i s e d , though grammar was r a r e l y c o r r e c t e d . Data was g a t h e r e d from a v a r i e t y o f a d u l t s u b j e c t s w i t h v a r y i n g degrees of E n g l i s h f l u e n c y as t h e y conducted i n f o r m a l r e c o r d e d c o n v e r s a t i o n s w i t h n a t i v e E n g l i s h , s p e a k i n g f r i e n d s o u t s i d e o f t h e c l a s s r o o m . There were no r e s t r i c t i o n s on t h e t o p i c s f o r d i s c u s s i o n , and the NNS were r e s p o n s i b l e f o r c o n d u c t i n g the t a p i n g . Twenty p a i r s were r e c o r d e d t w i c e , f o r about twenty minutes each t i m e , then the 15 hours of d i s c o u r s e was a n a l y z e d t o d etermine th e number of NNS e r r o r s and t h e p e r c e n t a g e of e r r o r c o r r e c t i o n s NSs made when s p e a k i n g w i t h t h e i t NNS f r i e n d s . The f i n d i n g s showed t h a t o n l y 8.9% o f NNSs' e r r o r s were c o r r e c t e d . I t i s a l s o s i g n i f i c a n t t o note t h a t the pe r c e n t a g e of e r r o r s t h a t were c o r r e c t e d d e c r e a s e d from 13.4% f o r b e g i n n i n g l e v e l s t u d e n t s t o o n l y 3.0% f o r s t u d e n t s w i t h advances ESL a b i l i t i e s , and t h a t most e r r o r c o r r e c t i o n s were r e l a t e d t o f a c t u a l i n f o r m a t i o n and t h a t t h i s c o u l d be. due t o the p o s s i b l e c o n s t r a i n t s of s o c i a l e t i q u e t t e r e g a r d i n g the i m p r o p r i e t y o f c o r r e c t i n g a r e l a t i v e s t r a n g e r ' s m i s t a k e s . However, a comparison s t u d y between NNS-NNS peer group and NS (teacher)-NNS by S h i (1998) examined n e g o t i a t e d i n t e r a c t i o n f e a t u r e s such as comprehension checks, feedback r e q u e s t s , c l a r i f i c a t i o n r e q u e s t s , and c o n f i r m a t i o n c h e c k s , as w e l l as i n s t a n c e s of speech m o d i f i c a t i o n , i n c l u d i n g e r r o r ' c o r r e c t i o n , t o a s c e r t a i n t h e l e v e l s and t y p e s o f n e g o t i a t e d i n t e r a c t i o n and t h e i r f r e q u e n c i e s . Three NS(teacher)-NNS groups and NNS-NNS peer group d i s c u s s i o n s were a u d i o t a p e d , t r a n s c r i b e d , a n a l y z e d , and compared. The r e s u l t s i n d i c a t e d t h a t w h i l e NS(teacher-NNS i n s t a n c e s of n e g o t i a t i o n were not as f r e q u e n t as i n t h e peer groups, t h e t e a c h e r - l e d i n t e r a c t i o n s p r o v i d e d more a c c u r a t e language m o d e l i n g o f E n g l i s h than t h e NNS-NNS groups and a l s o p r o v i d e d more i n depth and extended i n s t a n c e s o f n e g o t i a t i o n . Student feedback i n d i c a t e d t h a t v a l u e was p l a c e d on b oth methods of i n t e r a c t i o n , and t h a t s t u d e n t s p e r c e i v e d b o t h a c t i v i t i e s t o be m e a n i n g f u l and p r o d u c t i v e f o r l e a r n i n g languages. Based on t h e s e f i n d i n g s , the next q u e s t i o n t h a t begs t o be e x p l o r e d i s whether NSs who a r e not t e a c h e r s , but have a v e s t e d i n t e r e s t i n s h a r i n g languages w i t h NNSs, would a c h i e v e s i m i l a r t y p e s of n e g o t i a t e d i n t e r a c t i o n as t h e t e a c h e r l e d groups i n S h i ' s . s t u d y (1998), o r whether t h e y would f a l l i n t o the p a t t e r n of NS-NNS i n t e r a c t i o n t h a t Chun et a l . (1982) ob s e r v e d . 2.3 Informal Conversation Spontaneous c o l l a b o r a t i v e c o n v e r s a t i o n a l i n t e r a c t i o n p r o v i d e s an o p p o r t u n i t y f o r second language development and c u l t u r a l exchange i n a more n a t u r a l environment, w i t h reduced a f f e c t i v e f a c t o r s and g r e a t e r • i n d i v i d u a l autonomy ( R i c h a r d s , 1980). The f o l l o w i n g s e c t i o n s w i l l examine r e s e a r c h which has t a k e n a c l o s e r l o o k a t i n f o r m a l and f o r m a l c o n v e r s a t i o n a l i n t e r a c t i o n and the r e s u l t a n t e f f e c t s on n e g o t i a t i o n . 2.3.1 Conversation : A Means to an End The s i g n i f i c a n c e of t h e v e r b a l a c t i v i t y i d e n t i f i e d as n e g o t i a t e d i n t e r a c t i o n i s f u n d a m e n t a l l y d e r i v e d from t h e b e l i e f t h a t language, whether n a t i v e or n o n - n a t i v e , i s a h u m a n i s t i c , s o c i a l l y d r i v e n t o o l f o r communication (Di P i e t r o , 1987). The need t o exchange i n f o r m a t i o n i s a c a t a l y s t f o r human c o n v e r s a t i o n ; however, communication i n the form of c o n v e r s a t i o n a l i n t e r a c t i o n i s not o n l y a b e n e f i t d e r i v e d from l e a r n i n g languages but i s p u r p o r t e d t o be a s i g n i f i c a n t i n f l u e n c e on t h e language development i t s e l f . V y g o t s k y a s s e r t s t h a t second language l e a r n e r s a c t u a l l y d e v e l o p . s p e c i f i c c o g n i t i v e p r o c e s s e s , or regulation, t h r o u g h c o n v e r s i n g w i t h o t h e r i n d i v i d u a l s , thus d i r e c t l y a f f e c t i n g development and performance i n the t a r g e t language (Vygotsky, 1978, 1986). A d d i t i o n a l s t u d i e s by C a r o l l and Swain (1992, 1993), and van L i e r (198.8) have e x p l o r e d t h i s concept f u r t h e r t o a s s e s s c o r r e c t i v e feedback and c o l l a b o r a t i o n p r o c e s s e s between n o v i c e s and e x p e r t s i n the t a r g e t language ( L a n t o l f , 2000). A l j a a f r e h and L a n t o l f (1994) i d e n t i f i e d t h i s s o c i o c u l t u r a l approach t o l a n g u a g e 1 development as \"the st u d y o f how m e d i a t i o n a l means are a p p r o p r i a t e d by the i n d i v i d u a l as a r e s u l t o f d i a l o g i c i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h o t h e r i n d i v i d u a l s (p.467).\" The a u t h o r s then went on t o c o n c l u d e t h a t such m e d i a t i o n i s c r i t i c a l f o r feedback t o be r e l e v a n t as a form o f r e g u l a t i o n ( A l j a a f r e h & L a n t o l f , 1994, p. 480), v a l i d a t i n g the importance o f s m a l l group o r p a i r work, as t h e f o l l o w i n g r e s e a r c h p o i n t s out. 2.3.2 N a t u r a l i s t i c Learning through Group and Pair work P e d a g o g i c a l l y s p e a k i n g , Brown (1994) d e f i n e s group or p a i r work as a \" m u l t i p l i c i t y of t e c h n i q u e s i n which two or more s t u d e n t s are a s s i g n e d a t a s k t h a t i n v o l v e s c o l l a b o r a t i o n and s e l f - i n i t i a t e d language\" (p.173). Numerous s t u d i e s t o u t the b e n e f i t s o f group or p a i r work i n the c l a s s r o o m as an o p p o r t u n i t y f o r i n c r e a s e d p r o d u c t i o n and p a r t i c i p a t i o n on the p a r t o f i n d i v i d u a l s t u d e n t s (Long & P o r t e r , 1985). In an e f f o r t t o a c h i e v e a n a t u r a l l i n g u i s t i c environment, B r u m f i t m a i n t a i n s t h a t \" t h e use of p a i r and group work i s t h e o n l y a v a i l a b l e b a s i s f o r n a t u r a l i s t i c b e h a v i o r , i n c o n v e r s a t i o n a l i n t e r a c t i o n i n ' class...\" (1984, p.87). Furthermore, i n o r d e r t o d e v e l o p t r u l y n a t u r a l language, such c o n v e r s a t i o n s must o c c u r outside o f t h e c l a s s r o o m t h r o u g h o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r community and s o c i a l i n v o l v e m e n t , which n o u r i s h t a r g e t language exposure and development i n an i n f o r m a l s e t t i n g ( R i v e r s , 1983) . . . •-K l e i n (1986) argues t h a t f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h , i n n a t u r a l i s t i c language l e a r n i n g i s e s s e n t i a l t o f u l l y u n d e r s t a n d second•'language a c q u i s i t i o n . S t u d i e s of spontaneous l e a r n i n g may r e v e a l p r o c e s s e s s p a r e d t h e i n h e r e n t s i d e e f f e c t s of c o n t r i v e d l i n g u i s t i c s i t u a t i o n s found i n t y p i c a l c l a s s r o o m a c t i v i t i e s . F urthermore, K l e i n s u g g e s t s the p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t l e a r n e r s may even h a r b o r an u n d e r l y i n g r e s i s t a n c e t o f o r m a l i z e d i n s t r u c t i o n which f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h i n n a t u r a l i s t i c language s e t t i n g s c o u l d r e v e a l . However, r e a l i t y d i c t a t e s t h a t many l e a r n e r s o f a second language may not have the o p p o r t u n i t y t o engage i n spontaneous and' n a t u r a l c o n v e r s a t i o n s w i t h n a t i v e s p e a k e r s due t o g e o g r a p h i c a l and c u l t u r a l i s o l a t i o n , i n which case t h e f o r m a l c l a s s r o o m s e t t i n g may be the o n l y r e a l i s t i c avenue of l e a r n i n g a v a i l a b l e (Johnson, 1992). Johnson goes on t o p o s i t : ' • ... because n a t u r a l i s t i c and tutored learning are not completely d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e , and because both kinds of learning occur i n s i d e and outside of classrooms and schools, there is l i t t l e reason that research conducted in informal environments should be valued as more basic and thus more important than research conducted in formal s i t u a t i o n s (p. 12).. 2.3.3 Benefits of Unstructured Conversations W h i l e the statement by Johnson i n t h e p r e v i o u s s e c t i o n r e f l e c t s a p o s i t i o n t h a t has been f a i r l y s t a n d a r d i n SLA r e s e a r c h , the st u d y by Nakahama e t a l . (2001) a l s o r e v e a l e d c o m p e l l i n g e v i d e n c e t o i n d i c a t e t h a t b oth t h e q u a l i t y and q u a n t i t y of n e g o t i a t i o n sequences and o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r language use were g r e a t e r i n u n s t r u c t u r e d c o n v e r s a t i o n s . T h e i r d i s c o u r s e a n a l y s i s compared the c o n v e r s a t i o n a l a c t i v i t i e s of NS-NNS dyads b o t h q u a l i t a t i v e l y and q u a n t i t a t i v e l y as th e y n e g o t i a t e d meaning i n b o t h a s t r u c t u r e d i n f o r m a t i o n gap a c t i v i t y and a r e l a t i v e l y u n s t r u c t u r e d c o n v e r s a t i o n a l a c t i v i t y . The d i a l o g s were d e s i g n e d t o approximate n a t u r a l c o n v e r s a t i o n i n an attempt t o a s c e r t a i n the t y p e s of l e a r n i n g o p p o r t u n i t i e s a v a i l a b l e and t h e means by which n e g o t i a t i o n may t a k e p l a c e w i t h i n such a c t i v i t i e s . • The c o n v e r s a t i o n gap a c t i v i t y was a t y p i c a l problem s o l v i n g t a s k i n v o l v i n g two p i c t u r e s c o n t a i n i n g s i m i l a r i t i e s and d i f f e r e n c e s t h a t p a r t i c i p a n t s were asked t o v e r b a l l y compare. The f i n d i n g s not o n l y s u p p o r t the v a l u e o f f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h o f n a t u r a l i s t i c c o n v e r s a t i o n , but a l s o m a i n t a i n t h a t c o n t r o l l e d a c t i v i t i e s , such as t h e i n f o r m a t i o n gap p r e s e n t e d , r e s u l t i n s h o r t e r and l e s s complete u t t e r a n c e s when compared t o t h e r i c h e r , more complex d i s c o u r s e s o b t a i n e d from u n f e t t e r e d c o n v e r s a t i o n s (Nakahama, T y l e r , & van L i e r , 2001). Such r e s e a r c h not o n l y p o i n t s t o the b e n e f i t s - o f i n f o r m a l c o n v e r s a t i o n i n second language e d u c a t i o n , but v a l i d a t e s the need f o r language l e a r n e r s and e d u c a t o r s t o seek a c c e s s t o a u t h e n t i c i n t e r a c t i o n and e x t r a c u r r i c u l a r exposure i n the t a r g e t language, i n a d d i t i o n t o expounding on o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r spontaneous l e a r n i n g i n the c l a s s r o o m . 2.3.4 C r i t i c i s m of Unstructured Conversations Another p e r s p e c t i v e on i n f o r m a l c o n v e r s a t i o n s between NSs and NNSs can be found i n the a f o r e m e n t i o n e d r e s e a r c h by Chun et a l . (1982) i n which t h e a u t h o r s c o n c l u d e t h a t e r r o r c o r r e c t i o n s by the NSs were r e l a t i v e l y r a r e , and u s u a l l y o c c u r r e d when t h e r e was a f a c t u a l e r r o r , then d i s c o u r s e and v o c a b u l a r y were r e v i s e d , though grammar was r a r e l y c o r r e c t e d . The r e s e a r c h e r s went on t o p o i n t out the p o s s i b l e c o n s t r a i n t s o f s o c i a l e t i q u e t t e r e g a r d i n g the i m p r o p r i e t y of c o r r e c t i n g a r e l a t i v e s t r a n g e r ' s m i s t a k e s and c a u t i o n e d r e s e a r c h e r s t o t a k e c a r e w i t h l a b o r a t o r y formed dyads used s o l e l y f o r the purpose o f g e n e r a t i n g d a t a , as t h e language o b t a i n e d may not be \" n a t u r a l \" i n the sense d e s i r e d . The q u e s t i o n a l s o remains, what do the NNSs a c t u a l l y l e a r n from t h e s e c o r r e c t i o n s ? 2.3.5 A Positive A f f e c t i v e Climate B e s i d e s p r o m o t i n g i n c r e a s e d i n d i v i d u a l s t u d e n t o utput and i n t e r a c t i o n , s t u d i e s have shown t h a t group o r p a i r work s i g n i f i c a n t l y reduces the n e g a t i v e a f f e c t i v e f a c t o r s which can impede l e a r n i n g and s e l f - e x p r e s s i o n (Long & P o r t e r , 1985, p. 211). T h i s more i n t i m a t e environment i s l e s s i n t i m i d a t i n g than p e r f o r m i n g i n f r o n t o f a c l a s s f u l l of s t u d e n t s w i t h t h e a u t h o r i t y f i g u r e , t h e t e a c h e r , measuring and j u d g i n g e v e r y u t t e r a n c e . In a dyad composed o f NS/NNS-NNS/NS, n e i t h e r has t h e upper hand or i s more o f an e x p e r t than the o t h e r . Both have comparable s t r e n g t h s and weaknesses, and the stigma of s p e a k i n g out.and p o s s i b l y f a l t e r i n g i s u s u a l l y l e s s f r i g h t e n i n g . I n a d d i t i o n t o ready a c c e s s t o co m p r e h e n s i b l e i n p u t and i n t e r a c t i o n , m o t i v a t i o n has been shown t o be g r e a t e r , and more language p r a c t i c e o p p o r t u n i t i e s a re a v a i l a b l e i n p a i r or s m a l l group work (Long & P o r t e r , 1985; S t e v i c k , 1996) . 2.4 Broader Sociocultural Considerations U n i v e r s i t i e s and c o l l e g e s . t h r o u g h o u t t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s a t t r a c t and r e c r u i t i n t e r n a t i o n a l s t u d e n t s i n an e f f o r t t o p r o v i d e g r e a t e r e d u c a t i o n a l o p p o r t u n i t i e s , t o promote g l o b a l i z a t i o n and d i v e r s i t y of i d e a s , and t o g e n e r a t e revenue. Most s c h o o l s p r o v i d e or ar r a n g e f o r the ESL i n s t r u c t i o n n e c e s s a r y t o b r i n g s t u d e n t s . u p t o a l e v e l o f p r o f i c i e n c y t h a t w i l l a l l o w them t o f u n c t i o n e f f e c t i v e l y i n mainstream c o u r s e s . U n t i l such p r o f i c i e n c y i s a t t a i n e d , i n t e r n a t i o n a l s t u d e n t s o f t e n f i n d themselves s e q u e s t e r e d i n ESL c l a s s r o o m i s o l a t i o n w i t h the burden o f a s s i m i l a t i o n r e s t i n g on t h e i r s h o u l d e r s . In the meantime, r e g u l a r s t u d e n t s go on about t h e i r c o l l e g e l i f e , m i s s i n g the chance t o i n t e r a c t w i t h and l e a r n from t h e s e s t u d e n t s next door. 2.4.1 Language S o c i a l i z a t i o n Through Cooperative M u l t i c u l t u r a l Learning C u l t u r e and language are i n t e r t w i n e d . i n a s y m b i o t i c b a l a n c e of power. To remove th e c u l t u r a l component from a language s t u d y e l i m i n a t e s the v e r y fib'er which c r e a t e s t h e t e x t u r e and depth o f communication. Without c u l t u r a l c o n t e x t s , words become mere l i n k s - i n a c h a i n , m e c h a n i c a l and i m p e r s o n a l . Brown s t a t e s , \"A s i n g l e sentence can seldom be f u l l y a n a l y z e d . • w i t h o u t c o n s i d e r i n g i t s c o n t e x t . We use language as s t r e t c h e s of d i s c o u r s e . We s t r i n g many sentences t o g e t h e r i n c o h e s i v e u n i t s such t h a t s e n t e n ces bear i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p . . . \" (p. 189). Without c o n t e x t , he goes on t o say, i t would be d i f f i c u l t t o communicate c l e a r l y due t o p o t e n t i a l a m b i g u i t y , whether i n speech or i n w r i t i n g . C o n t e x t i s c r u c i a l . I t i s more than s i m p l y a c a u s a l v a r i a b l e . S o c i o c u l t u r a l s t u d i e s - have h i g h l i g h t e d t h i s p o i n t by f o c u s i n g on t a s k and a c t i v i t y s e t t i n g s ; on c o n t e n t and meaning; on t a s k accomplishment; on s o c i a l p r e c u r s o r s t o i n d i v i d u a l c o g n i t i o n ; and on e n c u l t u r a t i o n (Ochs & S c h i e f f e l i n , 1984, D u f f , 1995). Furthermore, g r e a t e r a p p r e c i a t i o n i s now b e i n g g i v e n t o m u l t i c u l t u r a l s e t t i n g s as v a l u a b l e environments f o r s u c c e s s f u l language s o c i a l i z a t i o n ( B a r r o n , 1991). C o l l i n B a r r o n q u e s t i o n s , \". . . i f i t i s f e l t w o r t h w h i l e t o i n c l u d e the c u l t u r e o f t h e t a r g e t language, i s i t not j u s t as' w o r t h w h i l e t o i n c l u d e the (L2) s t u d e n t s ' c u l t u r e ( B a r r o n , 1991, p. 174)?\" • As f o r t h e b e n e f i t s of m u l t i c u l t u r a l e nvironments f o r n o n - n a t i v e s p e a k e r s ' language a c q u i s i t i o n , H a r k l a u s t a t e s : The evaluation of mainstream classrooms as spoken language a c q u i s i t i o n environments rests not only on input received, but on opportunities for output and the e n t i r e process of i n t e r a c t i o n . The productive use of an L2 and feedback from native speakers is also a major component in the process of second language a c q u i s i t i o n ( H a r k l a u , 1994, p.249) . C o o p e r a t i v e a c t i v i t i e s p r o v i d e the i d e a l environment f o r m u t u a l l y b e n e f i c i a l l e a r n i n g t o t a k e p l a c e . A c c o r d i n g t o McGroarty, \"Research on . c o o p e r a t i v e l e a r n i n g i n s e t t i n g s of l i n g u i s t i c d i v e r s i t y c o r r o b o r a t e s the advantages of c o o p e r a t i v e i n s t r u c t i o n shown i n s e t t i n g s where a l l s t u d e n t s speak t h e same language (1992, p. 5 9 ) . \" McGroarty goes on t o s t a t e t h a t , \"... r e p a i r sequences, where l e a r n e r s n e g o t i a t e meaning between t h e m s e l v e s , were f r e q u e n t ...\" (p. 62), and t h a t a s t u d y w i t h S p a n i s h s p e a k i n g s t u d e n t s showed t h a t \"... academic use of the p r i m a r y language h e l p s s t u d e n t s master E n g l i s h (p. 6 3 ) . \" A d d i t i o n a l r e s e a r c h by D e l p i t (1988) and De l a l u z Reyes (1992) reminds us t h a t i n o r d e r f o r c o o p e r a t i v e l e a r n i n g t o f l o u r i s h , t e a c h e r s and f a c i l i t a t o r s must pos s e s s a commitment t o d i v e r s i t y , as w e l l as thorough t r a i n i n g i n a p p r o p r i a t e t h e o r y and t e c h n i q u e s i n o r d e r t o a c h i e v e t h e d e s i r e d r e s u l t s f o r a l l . s t u d e n t s . S t u d i e s by A l b r e c h t s e n e t a l . , (1980), have measured n a t i v e speaker r e a c t i o n t o n o n n a t i v e speech and have demonstrated the i r r i t a t i n g e f f e c t s of c e r t a i n L2 communication s t r a t e g i e s , i n c l u d i n g i n t e r l a n g u a g e and a c c e n t . Hadley (1993) i n s i s t s t h a t many American s t u d e n t s s i m p l y a re not w e l l c o n d i t i o n e d t o d e a l w i t h f o r e i g n p e o p l e o r c u l t u r e s . E t h n o c e n t r i c i t y breeds i g n o r a n c e , and f o r . t h a t v e r y r e a s o n , c r o s s - c u l t u r a l exchange and d i s c u s s i o n i s c r i t i c a l f o r b r o a d e n i n g awareness and p r o v i d i n g a much needed o p p o r t u n i t y f o r i n t e r . c u l t u r a l i n t e r a c t i o n . - CHAPTER THREE -3.0 Rationale of the Present Study Few s t u d i e s have e x p l o r e d t h e b e n e f i t s and c h a l l e n g e s of a more b a l a n c e d , two-way approach t o second language n e g o t i a t i o n i n which p a r t n e r s a r e a t a p p r o x i m a t e l y e q u a l s t a g e s o f development, i n each o t h e r ' s language and c u l t u r a l e xposure, thus b e i n g c a p a b l e of p e r f o r m i n g d u a l r o l e s , b oth as e x p e r t s and as l e a r n e r s (Kachru, 1994). With t h i s g o a l i n mind, I w i l l now p r e s e n t t h e u n d e r p i n n i n g s o f the c u r r e n t s t u d y s t a r t i n g w i t h gaps i n c u r r e n t r e s e a r c h p e r t a i n i n g t o t h i s t o p i c , f o l l o w e d by the t h r e e main r e s e a r c h q u e s t i o n s I chose t o e x p l o r e , an e x p l a n a t i o n o f t h e i r r e l e v a n c e , t h e methodology employed, f o l l o w e d by the data a n a l y s i s , f i n d i n g s , t a b l e s , and d i s c u s s i o n . The purpose o f t h i s s t u d y i s t o e x p l o r e beyond the t y p i c a l ESL b i a s t h a t e x i s t s i n most second language s t u d i e s by f o c u s i n g on n e g o t i a t e d i n t e r a c t i o n i n dyads whose p a r t i c i p a n t s a r e a t r e l a t i v e l i n g u i s t i c and c u l t u r a l p a r i t y t o each o t h e r . I n f o r m a l one hour l o n g d i a l o g s between f o u r p a i r s of c o n v e r s a t i o n p a r t n e r s , each s t u d y i n g the o t h e r ' s language and c u l t u r e , have been recorded,-coded, and a n a l y z e d f o r examples o f c r o s s - l i n g u i s t i c n e g o t i a t i o n and i n t e r a c t i o n . N a t i v e Japanese speakers l e a r n i n g E n g l i s h were teamed w i t h n a t i v e E n g l i s h s p e a k e r s l e a r n i n g Japanese t o d i s c u s s t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e c u l t u r e s and c o l l a b o r a t i v e l y t a k e t u r n s s t e e r i n g t h e i r way th r o u g h t h e i n t r i c a c i e s o f c o n v e r s a t i o n a l i n t e r a c t i o n i n ' b o t h t h e i r f i r s t and second languages. P e r f o r m i n g s i m u l t a n e o u s l y as t e a c h e r and s t u d e n t , each p a r t i c i p a n t was e q u a l l y 1 r e s p o n s i b l e t o attempt t a r g e t forms and t o ' p r e s e n t model forms of communication as c u l t u r a l s i m i l a r i t i e s and d i f f e r e n c e s , were e x p l o r e d t o g e t h e r . S t u d e n t s ' i n p u t , p e r c e p t i o n s , and feedback were an i n t e g r a l p a r t of t h i s r e s e a r c h and were i n c l u d e d i n t h e p r o c e s s from s t a r t t o f i n i s h , r e s u l t i n g i n an a c t i v i t y w i t h i n t r i n s i c a l l y m o t i v a t e d p a r t i c i p a n t s s h a r i n g i n c o n t e x t u a l i z e d and p e r s o n a l l y r e l e v a n t language exchange. S c r e e n i n g p a r t i c i p a n t s f o r second language competencies was i n t e n d e d t o p r o v i d e a more l e v e l p l a y i n g f i e l d w i t h l e s s o f an a f f e c t i v e ' f i l t e r t o i n t e r f e r e w i t h n a t u r a l communication. However, once t h i s s t u d y was underway, i t i became o b v i o u s t h a t a more thorough e v a l u a t i o n of p a r t i c i p a n t s a c t u a l language a b i l i t i e s was needed t o a c h i e v e t h e d e s i r e d b a l a n c e of language s k i l l s . 3.1 Negotiated Interaction : Gaps i n Research Research c o n t i n u e s t o examine v a r i o u s a s p e c t s o f n e g o t i a t e d i n t e r a c t i o n among language l e a r n e r s t o i d e n t i f y commonalties and r e l e v a n t l e a r n e r s t r a t e g i e s which s u r f a c e s p e c i f i c a l l y i n c o l l a b o r a t i v e c o n v e r s a t i o n a l i n t e r a c t i o n . T a c t i c s which have been i d e n t i f i e d and s t u d i e d i n c l u d e the use of r e p e t i t i o n , feedback r e q u e s t s , c o n f i r m a t i o n c h e c k s , and c o r r e c t i o n s , t o name a few. However, most r e s e a r c h has been c o n f i n e d t o p o p u l a t i o n s who are l e a r n i n g E n g l i s h as a second language. O f t e n t h e s e p a r t i c i p a n t s come from d i v e r s e and d i s p a r a t e l i n g u i s t i c and c u l t u r a l o r i g i n s . Such d i v e r s i t y , w h i l e b e n e f i c i a l i n i t s own r i g h t , f a i l s t o t a k e i n t o account the scope of p o s s i b i l i t i e s a more l i n g u i s t i c a l l y and c u l t u r a l l y b a l a n c e d p e r s p e c t i v e c o u l d r e v e a l about n e g o t i a t e d i n t e r a c t i o n . S c h o l a r l y e v i d e n c e s u p p o r t s t h e premise t h a t second language l e a r n e r s d e r i v e m u l t i p l e b e n e f i t s from c o n v e r s a t i o n a l exposure t o and n e g o t i a t e d i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h \" e x p e r t s \" , or n a t i v e - s p e a k e r s , i n the t a r g e t language ( E l l i s , 1994; Gass & V e r o n i s , 1984; Izumi & B i g e l o w , 2000; Izu m i , B i g e l o w , F u j i w a r a , & Fearnow, 1999; Long, 1983, 1985, 1996; P i c a , 1988;. Ohta, 2001; P i c a , Young, & Doughty,. 1987; Swain,- 1985; Young, 1984) . D e s p i t e t h e s e d i s c o v e r i e s , t h a t fundamental essence of language, communication of meaning, i s o f t e n o v e r l o o k e d o r un d e r v a l u e d , whether i n r e s e a r c h o r i n c l a s s r o o m i n s t r u c t i o n (Chun, Chenoweth, & Luppescu, 1982; Kachru, 1994; K l e i n , 1986). S t u d i e s c o n t i n u e . t o l e a n toward the mechanics of language a c q u i s i t i o n , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n somewhat a r t i f i c i a l c l a s s r o o m s e t t i n g s , r a t h e r t h a n n a t u r a l l y o c c u r r i n g speech a c t s i n c a s u a l , l e s s c o n t r o l l e d s i t u a t i o n s (Nakahama e t a l . , 2001). 3.2 Research Questions D e s p i t e many a r t i c l e s and s t u d i e s e x p l o r i n g p a i r work, i n f o r m a l c o n v e r s a t i o n s and n e g o t i a t i o n i n SLA, v e r y few s t u d i e s ' w e n t beyond t h e NS-NNS or NNS-NNS c o m b i n a t i o n s t o i n c l u d e m u t u a l l y c o m p a t i b l e language exchange. I t i s the aim o f t h i s s t u d y t o examine t h e i n s t a n c e s o f n e g o t i a t e d i n t e r a c t i o n i n dyads w i t h somewhat comparable language s k i l l s t o determine the b a l a n c e between the two languages as w e l l as t h e sp e a k e r s , how t h i s i s n e g o t i a t e d , and a l s o what l i n g u i s t i c and s o c i o c u l t u r a l exchanges a re e v i d e n t as ex p r e s s e d d u r i n g the s t i m u l a t e d r e c a l l s e s s i o n s . The f o l l o w i n g t h r e e r e s e a r c h q u e s t i o n s form the b a s i s o f t h i s t h e s i s and w i l l be examined t o dete r m i n e t h e i r s i g n i f i c a n c e i n language l e a r n i n g a p p l i c a t i o n s . The q u e s t i o n s a r e as f o l l o w s : 1) How do conversation par tners f a m i l i a r with each other's languages i n i t i a t e negotiation sequences and modify t h e i r own, or the other's language output in informal conversation? 2) What is the balance of Japanese and English.being spoken, and how is t h i s r e f l e c t e d in the negotiation and modification sequences? 3) - What were the p a r t i c i p a n t s ' perspectives on t h i s conversational a c t i v i t y and how did they remember and describe t h e i r experiences and perceptions of learning and teaching through the stimulated r e c a l l sessions afterward? 3.2.1 Research Question #1 How do conversation partners f a m i l i a r with each other's languages i n i t i a t e negotiation sequences and modify t h e i r own, or the other's language output in informal conversation? C o n v e r s a t i o n a l s i t u a t i o n s can v a r y c o n s i d e r a b l y depending on the p a r t i c i p a n t s and t h e i r backgrounds, the s e t t i n g , and the m o t i v a t i o n s prompting v e r b a l i n t e r a c t i o n s . Knowing, what t o say and how t o say i t can a t t i m e s be d i f f i c u l t f o r speakers i n a f i r s t language. Add t o t h i s t h e c o m p l e x i t i e s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h second language use and t h e m y r i a d o f i n t r i c a c i e s i n v o l v e d i n n e g o t i a t i n g n o n - n a t i v e c u l t u r a l , s o c i a l , and b e h a v i o r a l p a t t e r n s ; and t h e importance o f c o l l a b o r a t i v e e f f o r t s toward s u c c e s s f u l communication between NS and NNS i s p r o f o u n d l y e v i d e n t . A c c o r d i n g t o Ramirez, D e v e l o p i n g o r a l p r o f i c i e n c y i n a second language i n v o l v e s a b r o a d range of competencies a s s o c i a t e d w i t h d i f f e r e n t c o n v e r s a t i o n a l s i t u a t i o n s , t o p i c s , and r u l e s f o r t a l k i n g . O r a l .communication i n c l u d e s b o th t r a n s a c t i o n a l uses o f language r e l a t e d t o t h e exchange of i n f o r m a t i o n and i n t e r a c t i o n a l purposes connected w i t h t h e s o c i a l f u n c t i o n s of speech. C o n v e r s a t i o n s are governed by a number of d i s c o u r s e r u l e s e n a b l i n g s p eakers t o s h i f t t o p i c s , r e p a i r problems a s s o c i a t e d w i t h miscommunication, and m a i n t a i n i n t e r a c t i o n a l sequences (Ramirez, 1995, p. 232) . 3.2.2 Research Question #2 What is the balance of Japanese and English being spoken, and how is t h i s r e f l e c t e d in the negotiation and modification sequences? 3.2.3 Research Question #3 What were the p a r t i c i p a n t s ' perspectives on t h i s conversational a c t i v i t y and how did they remember and describe t h e i r experiences and perceptions of learning and teaching through the stimulated r e c a l l sessions afterward? In e v e r y dyad, t h e language p r o d u c t i o n a t the end o f each hour t h e c o n v e r s a t i o n a l i n t e r a c t i o n s were l o n g e r , more complex, and more f r e e f l o w i n g , as t h e p a r t n e r s began t o get t o know each o t h e r a b i t more' and f e l t more ~ c o m f o r t a b l e . S i x out of e i g h t of the p a r t i c i p a n t s a d m i t t e d t o f e e l i n g q u i t e a p p r e h e n s i v e b e f o r e t a p i n g the d i a l o g s , but a l l commented d u r i n g the d e b r i e f i n g s e s s i o n s t h a t t h e y e n j o y e d the exchange and would l i k e t o do i t a g a i n . Three d i s p l a y e d new knowledge.that they had g a i n e d and r e t a i n e d s i n c e t h e i r i n i t i a l c o n v e r s a t i o n p a r t n e r meeting. S e v e r a l v a l u a b l e s u g g e s t i o n s were made by the . p a r t i c i p a n t s . For example, i t was recommended•that p a r t n e r s , b e g i n g e t t i n g t o know each o t h e r i n an i n f o r m a l , s o c i a l g a t h e r i n g f i r s t i n o r d e r to' seek each o t h e r out f o r p a i r i n g and t o break the i c e w i t h l e s s p r e s s u r e t o pe r f o r m . A l s o , t h r e e p a r t i c i p a n t s suggested t h a t some s p e c i f i c t o p i c s be p r o v i d e d f o r d i s c u s s i o n t o h e l p move t h e c o n v e r s a t i o n s a l o n g . A l l e i g h t p a r t i c i p a n t s v o i c e d a s t r o n g a p p r e c i a t i o n f o r the o p p o r t u n i t y t o share languages and c u l t u r e s and a l l e x p r e s s e d a s t r o n g d e s i r e c o n t i n u e i n a c o n v e r s a t i o n p a r t n e r arrangement. 3.3 Methodology The f o l l o w i n g s e c t i o n s d e s c r i b e the l o c a t i o n and environment where t h i s s t u d y was conducted, i t s p a r t i c i p a n t s and how they were det e r m i n e d , the i n v e s t i g a t o r ' s p e r s p e c t i v e s , and.the d a t a c o l l e c t i o n p r o c e d u r e s and how th e y were a p p l i e d . 3.3.1 The S i t e : In Partnership xto Promote C u l t u r a l Exchange The language s c h o o l a t t h i s American community c o l l e g e has l o n g r e c o g n i z e d the v a l u e o f i n f o r m a l c o n v e r s a t i o n a l o p p o r t u n i t i e s , both i n r e g a r d s t o i t s ESL s t u d e n t p o p u l a t i o n , as w e l l .as t o the community a t l a r g e i n an e f f o r t t o c u l t i v a t e c u l t u r a l d i v e r s i t y , d i a l o g , and u n d e r s t a n d i n g . The language s c h o o l has devel o p e d numerous s u c c e s s f u l a c t i v i t i e s and programs t o p r o v i d e i t s s t u d e n t s o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r i n f o r m a l i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h n a t i v e E n g l i s h s p e a k e r s , and the C o n v e r s a t i o n P a r t n e r Program, which has been a c t i v e l y promoted on campus f o r more than e i g h t y e a r s , e x e m p l i f i e s t h i s approach t o l e a r n i n g . A l o n g s i m i l a r l i n e s , T h i s c o l l e g e d e s c r i b e s i t s m i s s i o n i n the f o l l o w i n g words: \"To meet t h e d i v e r s e , l i f e l o n g e d u c a t i o n a l needs o f our community and de v e l o p t h e p o t e n t i a l of our s t u d e n t s ... F o s t e r i n g and development of v a l u e s which promote open-mindedness, awareness, s e n s i t i v i t y and r e s p e c t f o r d i f f e r e n c e s a re encouraged and w i l l be s u p p o r t e d ( C o l l e g e C a t a l o g , 2001-2).\" In a d d i t i o n t o meeting t h e needs of the community, t h i s c o l l e g e has been a c t i v e l y p r omoting and r e c r u i t i n g i n t e r n a t i o n a l s t u d e n t s and i n t e r n a t i o n a l programs f o r more than twenty y e a r s . The c u r r e n t f u l l - t i m e s t u d e n t p o p u l a t i o n i s over 6000, w i t h 180 i n t e r n a t i o n a l s t u d e n t s e n r o l l e d from 86 c o u n t r i e s . The c u r r e n t c o n v e r s a t i o n p a r t n e r program promotes the v a l u e of d i v e r s i t y a t a l l l e v e l s o f l a n g u a g e a b i l i t y and r e c o g n i z e s the b e n e f i t s t o bo t h f i r s t - and second-language speakers as th e y n e g o t i a t e meaning and compare c u l t u r e s t h r o u g h c o o p e r a t i v e l e a r n i n g . CC s t u d e n t s l e a r n t o work thr o u g h t h e many s t r u g g l e s i n h e r e n t i n l i n g u i s t i c and c r o s s - c u l t u r a l communication d i f f i c u l t i e s , w h i l e g a i n i n g g r e a t e r a p p r e c i a t i o n f o r d i v e r s i t y and t h e . c h a l l e n g e s f a c i n g thei.r i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o u n t e r p a r t s . Whenever p o s s i b l e , e f f o r t s a re made t o p a i r s t u d e n t s who are s t u d y i n g each o t h e r ' s languages and c u l t u r e s , as w e l l as. t o t a k e c a r e i n matching p e r s o n a l i t i e s and g o a l s t o t h e b e s t o f our a b i l i t y . 3.3.2 Participants The p a r t i c i p a n t s i n t h i s r e s e a r c h b e l o n ged t o the f o l l o w i n g c a t e g o r i e s and demographics: • A l l were b e g i n n i n g l e v e l o r h i g h b e g i n n i n g l e v e l second language s t u d e n t s , w i t h l i m i t e d e x p e r i e n c e t r a v e l i n g or l i v i n g i n 'the c o u n t r y o f t h e t a r g e t language i • Four were Japanese n a t i o n a l s c u r r e n t l y l i v i n g i n the U.S. and l e a r n i n g E n g l i s h as a second language (ESL) a t a c o l l e g e based i n t e n s i v e language i n s t i t u t e • Four were n a t i v e E n g l i s h speakers l e a r n i n g Japanese as a f o r e i g n language (JFL) • An e q u a l number of males and females i n each language s e t was sought i n o r d e r t o form gender d i v e r s e p a i r i n g ; however, the e l i g i b l e r e spondents were p r e d o m i n a t e l y male -in the JFL group and p r e d o m i n a t e l y female i n the ESL group. The make up of the p a i r s was as f o l l o w s : Male JFL + Male ESL Male JFL + Female ESL Male J F L + Female E S L Male J F L + female E S L W h i l e gender b i a s or e f f e c t may have i n f l u e n c e d t h e d a t a , i t was not i n t e n d e d t o be a foc u s of t h i s s t u d y . However, f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h comparing the e f f e c t s o f gender on n e g o t i a t e d i n t e r a c t i o n among second language l e a r n e r s i s needed and s h o u l d be e x p l o r e d f u r t h e r . L i k e w i s e , age and economic s t a t u s was not g i v e n c o n s i d e r a t i o n a t t h i s t i m e . As a n t i c i p a t e d g i v e n the c u r r e n t makeup o f c o n v e r s a t i o n p a r t n e r s , a t the host . i n s t i t u t i o n , t he a p p l i c a n t s who v o l u n t e e r e d t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n t h i s s t u d y f e l l w i t h i n t h e range o f 18 t o 27 y e a r s o f age and had s k i l l s and e x p e r i e n c e comparable t o a t l e a s t one year of s u c c e s s f u l c o l l e g e s t u d y i n the t a r g e t language. P a r t i c i p a n t s a l s o had a t l e a s t some l i m i t e d - c u l t u r a l e x p e r i e n c e o r knowledge of Japan and the U.S. A p p l i c a n t s w i t h more th a n one y e a r immersion i n the t a r g e t language c o u n t r y were, c o n s i d e r e d o v e r - q u a l i f i e d and were not i n c l u d e d i n the s t u d y . A p p l i c a n t s were screen e d f o r the minimum language r e q u i r e m e n t s mentioned above, then were-randomly matched. PARTICIPANTS' INFORMATION NAME (PSEUDONYM) COUNTRY AGE & SEX LANG. EDUC. TIME ABROAD TARGET LANG. IN DYADS: NATIONALITY M/F 1-12 TERC. TOTAL: 'SACHI' JAPAN 18 F 6YR. 3 MO. 3 MONTHS 'BRETT' USA 20 M 0 1 YR. 4 WEEKS 'YASU' 1 JAPAN 20 M 6 YR. 6 MO. 6 MONTHS 'PETE' I USA 23 M 1 YR. 1 YR. 0 'RIE' JAPAN 25 F 6 YR. 3 MO. 3 MONTHS 'SAM' USA 23 M 0 2 YR. 5 WEEKS 'ASUKA' JAPAN 21 F 6 YR. 6 MO. 10 MONTHS •TIM' USA 21 M 0 1 YR. 4 WEEKS 3.3.3 The Investigator I t i s i m p o r t a n t t o c l a r i f y my r o l e s a t the language s c h o o l and the c o l l e g e , as w e l l as t o e x p l a i n the p e r s p e c t i v e I have t a k e n i n t h i s r e s e a r c h . At the time o f t h i s w r i t i n g I am the d i r e c t o r o f the language s c h o o l , as w e l l as the Japanese language i n s t r u c t o r f o r the c o l l e g e , though none o f t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s were s t u d e n t s of mine a t the time o f t h i s s t u d y . With over t w e l v e y e a r s ' e x p e r i e n c e t e a c h i n g ESL and'JFL, I have l o n g pondered and e x p l o r e d the o p p o r t u n i t i e s a v a i l a b l e f o r the two s t u d e n t p o p u l a t i o n s I work most c l o s e l y w i t h t o team up and l e a r n from each o t h e r . By a d m i n i s t e r i n g the c o n v e r s a t i o n p a r t n e r program, I have had many o p p o r t u n i t i e s t o observe s t u d e n t p a i r s t e a c h i n g and l e a r n i n g from each o t h e r , and have w i t n e s s e d f i r s t h a n d the en t h u s i a s m and dynamic l e a r n i n g t h a t can t a k e p l a c e . I n a d d i t i o n , I have r e v i e w e d the q u a r t e r l y p a r t i c i p a n t e v a l u a t i o n s o f the c o n v e r s a t i o n p a r t n e r program f o r . many y e a r s and have c o n s i s t e n t l y been i m p r e s s e d by the numbers o f and t y p e s o f p o s i t i v e r e s p o n s e s . A common c h a l l e n g e I f a c e e v e r y q u a r t e r i s f i n d i n g enough v o l u n t e e r s t o r e p l a c e t h e many who s t a y w i t h t h e i r , p a r t n e r s q u a r t e r a f t e r q u a r t e r , sometimes over s e v e r a l y e a r s . P e r s o n a l l y , I have a l s o been f o r t u n a t e t o have had a wide v a r i e t y of l e a r n i n g environments i n which t o s t u d y Japanese m y s e l f , and found the most r e w a r d i n g and p r o d u c t i v e means of o b t a i n i n g language and c u l t u r e by f a r t o be t h r o u g h a v e r y b a l a n c e d and mutual exchange w i t h a Japanese f r i e n d who was e q u a l l y m o t i v a t e d t o l e a r n E n g l i s h . Our language a b i l i t i e s were comparable, and our many i n t e r e s t s • s i m i l a r , so we c o n s c i o u s l y devoted o u r s e l v e s t o h e l p i n g each o t h e r w i t h our second languages and f o c u s e d on a c t i v e l y l e a r n i n g whenever we w e r e , t o g e t h e r . For a l l o f t h e s e reasons I have chosen t o conduct the f o l l o w i n g r e s e a r c h i n the hopes t h a t . i t might encourage l i k e s t u d i e s and g r e a t e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h i s r e l a t i v e l y untapped r e s o u r c e , as w e l l as p r o v i d e much needed d a t a t o d e t e r m i n e t h e t r u e e x t e n t o f l e a r n i n g and exchange t h a t t a k e s p l a c e . 3.3.4 Data C o l l e c t i o n Procedures The g o a l s and p e r s p e c t i v e s o f t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s were s i g n i f i c a n t , g i v e n t h a t t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s were a l r e a d y s t r i v i n g t o l e a r n and u n d e r s t a n d each o t h e r ' s languages and c u l t u r e s . T h e r e f o r e , the p a r t i c i p a n t s were i n v o l v e d i n the r e s e a r c h from b e g i n n i n g t o end t h r o u g h t h e use o f s e l f -g e n e r a t e d c o n v e r s a t i o n t o p i c s and s t i m u l a t e d r e f l e c t i o n based on r e v i e w i n g and d i s c u s s i n g the v i d e o w i t h t h e r e s e a r c h e r i n d i v i d u a l l y , i n a d d i t i o n t o o b s e r v a t i o n s , , a u d i o , and v i d e o r e c o r d i n g s . Each dyad met once f o r a one hour c o n v e r s a t i o n , t h e n each p a r t i c i p a n t spent i a p p r o x i m a t e l y one and a h a l f hours a l o n e w i t h the r e s e a r c h e r i n s t i m u l a t e d r e c a l l r e v i e w i n g the' v i d e o . None of the p a r t i c i p a n t s had met t h e i r dyad p a r t n e r s p r i o r t h e v i d e o t a p e d i n t e r a c t i o n . A u d i o r e c o r d i n g s were p a r t of e v e r y m e e t i n g , whether with, c o n v e r s a t i o n p a r t n e r s or i n d i v i d u a l i n t e r v i e w s . However, o n l y t h e c o n v e r s a t i o n p a r t n e r t a p e s were c o m p l e t e l y t r a n s c r i b e d and coded. V i d e o r e c o r d i n g s were made once f o r each s e t o f p a r t n e r s i n o r d e r t o document body language, g e s t u r e s , and any w r i t t e n cues. P h y s i c a l g e s t u r e s a r e a s i g n i f i c a n t f a c t o r i n communication and t o r e l y p u r e l y on a u d i o t r a n s c r i p t i o n s f o r e v i d e n c e o f n e g o t i a t e d meaning, .comprehension, and e r r o r c o r r e c t i o n i s tantamount t o t r y i n g t o f u l l y u n d e r s t a n d a movie w i t h eyes c l o s e d . The f o c u s of t h i s s t u d y was not g e s t u r e s , but t h e v i s u a l r e c o r d o f t h e i r i n t e r a c t i o n s p r o v i d e d s o c i o l i n g u i s t i c a l l y r i c h e r d a t a . V i d e o t a p e s were compared t o t h e a u d i o t r a n s c r i p t i o n s and g e s t u r e s or a c t i o n s were n o t e d on t h e t r a n s c r i p t s . 3.4 Data Analysis The f o l l o w i n g a r e the e i g h t c o d i n g i n s c r i p t i o n s u t i l i z e d i n t h i s s t u d y , t h e r e d e f i n i t i o n s , and sample u t t e r a n c e s based on the r e s e a r c h and c o d i n g a p p l i e d by S h i (1998). Example 1 Coding Abbreviations & Terminology (Note: examples and terminology taken from S h i , 1998, pp. 60-68) Initiating N&gotiation: CC = Comprehension Checks (\"Do you understand me?\") FB = Feedback Requests (\"Is t h i s your idea, Kim?\") CF = Confirmation Checks (\"Lower?\") (Often r e p e a t s info., i n q u e s t i o n form...) CR = C l a r i f i c a t i o n Requests (\"What's that?\") , Modification : sc = Se l f - c o r r e c t i o n (Makes a d j u s t m e n t s t o own output) oc = Other-correction (Makes a d j u s t m e n t s t o a n o t h e r ' s output) pr = Completion Requests (\"and in some...\") (Incomplete sentence w i t h t h e e x p e c t a t i o n t h a t a n o t h e r w i l l ' f i l l i n the b l a n k s ' ) op = Other-completion ( F i l l s i n t h e b l a n k s , o r gaps, f o r anot h e r ) P r i o r t o commencing the c o d i n g , a s e c t i o n was chosen at random from the complete t r a n s c r i p t i o n s and an i n t e r c o d e r r e l i a b l i l i t y of 89% was a t t a i n e d w i t h a n o t h e r r e s e a r c h e r i n the SLA f i e l d . 3.4.1 Audio & Video Recordings Four a u d i o r e c o r d i n g s of c o n v e r s a t i o n p a r t n e r m e e t i n g s , each one hour i n l e n g t h , c o m p r ised t h e b u l k of the d a t a f o r t r a n s c r i p t i o n . Japanese segments were t r a n s c r i b e d i n t o romanized a l p h a b e t t o a l l o w a c c e s s t o more r e a d e r s . The t r a n s l a t i o n s of the Japanese p o r t i o n s of t h e d i a l o g s a r e shown i n b r a c k e t s . ' , Four v i d e o segments (one per p a i r ) were v i s u a l l y t r a n s c r i b e d f o r g e s t u r e s and body language, and t h o s e a c t i v i t i e s t h a t p e r t a i n e d t o code s w i t c h i n g and n e g o t i a t i o n , and s p e c i f i c t e a c h i n g o r l e a r n i n g a c t i v i t i e s were noted'on the a u d i o t r a n s c r i p t s . Japanese f i r s t and second language u t t e r a n c e s and E n g l i s h f i r s t and second language u t t e r a n c e s were t a l l i e d from the a u d i o tape t r a n s c r i p t i o n t o determine what amounts o f the languages were b e i n g spoken and by whom. Coding of n e g o t i a t e d sequences was based upon the number and t y p e o f comprehension checks, feedback r e q u e s t s , c o n f i r m a t i o n c hecks, and c l a r i f i c a t i o n r e q u e s t s , and language m o d i f i c a t i o n was coded by s e l f - c o r r e c t i o n , o t h e r -c o r r e c t i o n , c o m p l e t i o n r e q u e s t s , and o t h e r c o m p l e t i o n (see Example #1)* u t t e r e d by e i t h e r p a r t n e r , i n e i t h e r language, c o m p r i s i n g n e g o t i a t e d i n t e r a c t i o n and c o l l a b o r a t i v e d i s c o u r s e . These were then compared - f i r s t . l a n g u a g e Japanese, v e r s u s f i r s t language E n g l i s h - t o d e t e r m i n e i f any p a t t e r n s emerged. There was a t o t a l of e i g h t i n d i v i d u a l meetings w i t h p a r t i c i p a n t s , one a p i e c e , t o view and d i s c u s s t h e v i d e o t a p e s . P a r t i c i p a n t s were asked t o s t o p t h e tape a t any time t o comment, and a l s o t o note any s p e c i f i c t e a c h i n g or l e a r n i n g a c t i v i t i e s t h e y i d e n t i f i e d . I would a l s o s t o p the tape p e r i o d i c a l l y t o q u e s t i o n the p a r t i c i p a n t s about c e r t a i n s i t u a t i o n s . The p a r t i c i p a n t s were a l s o asked t o r e f l e c t on the a c t i v i t y and share t h e i r t h o u g h t s . These s e s s i o n s were a u d i o taped and s t i m u l a t e d r e c a l l t e c h n i q u e s were employed t o attempt t o a s s e s s the p a r t i c i p a n t s ' p e r c e p t i o n of l e a r n i n g . A l l names have been changed t o a f f o r d p r i v a c y t o the p a r t i c i p a n t s . - CHAPTER FOUR -4.0 Results and Discussions of the Research Questions : 1) How do conversation partners f a m i l i a r with each other's languages i n i t i a t e negotiation sequences and modify t h e i r own, or the other's language output in informal conversation? 2) What is the balance of Japanese and English being spoken, and how is t h i s r e f l e c t e d in the negotiation and modification sequences? 3) What were the p a r t i c i p a n t s ' perspectives on t h i s conversational a c t i v i t y and how did they remember and ' describe t h e i r experiences and perceptions of learning and teaching through the stimulated r e c a l l sessions afterward? 4.1 Examples Found i n the Data A l t e r a t i o n s from second language t o f i r s t language o r back a g a i n , termed code s w i t c h i n g , was f i r s t i d e n t i f i e d i n the t r a n s c r i p t i o n s , then the c i r c u m s t a n c e around each i n s t a n c e was a s s e s s e d t o determine i f r and what type' of n e g o t i a t i o n was t a k i n g p l a c e ( S h i , 1998). For example, i n the f o l l o w i n g e x c e r p t , b o t h s p e a k e r s s w i t c h from E n g l i s h t o Japanese i n an e f f o r t t o c l a r i f y a l e x i c a l gap. The t r a n s l a t i o n of the Japanese appears i n b r a c k e t s and i s denoted by the [*] : Example 2: Discussion about w r i t i n g one's own music ( P l e a s e r e f e r t o Example #1 f o r e x p l a n a t i o n s of c o d i n g a b b r e v i a t i o n s and t e r m i n o l o g y . ) 250 R i e : Or, ... my words. CF 251 Sam: My words...? c r 252 R i e : I write.... 253 Sam: Oh! FB 254* R i e : How do you say... Kashi? Uta no Kashi? [ L y r i c s ? . Song's l y r i c s ? ] 255* Sam: Uhhh, Wakarimasen. [I don't know.] c r 256 R i e : (Gestures w r i t i n g w i t h hand) Shhh.. op 257 Sam: W r i t e - H a n d w r i t i n g ! Compose, compose CF 258 R i e : Corn-compose? sc/oc259 Sam/Rie Compose (Compose...) Compose. CF 2 60 R i e : My compose. No? oc 261 Sam: Yeah, you compose, sc 262 R i e : My compose... M y s e l f oc 263 Sam: Yeah, YOU compose. Urn I compose... As can be seen from the example above, a major breakdown i n communication was b e i n g e x p e r i e n c e d a t t h i s p o i n t . During the s t i m u l a t e d r e c a l l s e s s i o n , R i e stopped the tape and shared t h a t i n . an e f f o r t t o g a i n a c c e s s t o t h e i n f o r m a t i o n as q u i c k l y as p o s s i b l e , she had t r i e d s w i t c h i n g t o Japanese i n the hopes her p a r t n e r might be f a m i l i a r w i t h t h e v o c a b u l a r y and u n d e r s t a n d h e r . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , Sam d i d not know the Japanese word, b u t . chose t o respond i n Japanese w i t h wakar.imasen [I don't know]. The n e g o t i a t i o n c o n t i n u e d on i n E n g l i s h u n t i l t h r o u g h the use of g e s t u r e s and r e p e t i t i o n the p o i n t was f i n a l l y u n d e r s t o o d . Rather than embarrassment, b o t h p a r t i c i p a n t s c l a i m e d t o have e n j o y e d the p r o c e s s of f i g u r i n g out what t h e o t h e r was t r y i n g t o say. T h i s l e a d s me t o b e l i e v e t h a t c o n t r a r y t o the c l a i m s by Hadley (1993), n e i t h e r p a r t i c i p a n t was s e r i o u s l y annoyed or h i n d e r e d by t h e communication breakdown. In f a c t , i t was seen as an o p p o r t u n i t y by Sam, who c l a i m e d he remembered t h i n g s b e t t e r when he and h i s p a r t n e r had t o s t o p and \" f i g u r e t h i n g s out\".' N e g o t i a t i o n r e l a t i n g t o p r o n u n c i a t i o n a l s o comes i n t o p l a y as the \" f i n e t u n i n g \" o f t h e language. W h i l e e r r o r s i n p r o n u n c i a t i o n can cause a complete breakdown i n communication, and a t ti m e s be f r u s t r a t i n g t o both speaker and l i s t e n e r , o f t e n the e r r o r i n p r o n u n c i a t i o n i s d i f f i c u l t f o r t h e second language l e a r n e r t o d e t e c t , even w i t h i n t e n t i o n a l e f f o r t s toward s e l f - m o n i t o r i n g ( Y u l e , Hoffman, & Damico, 19.87), as the f o l l o w i n g s h o r t e x c e r p t from Yasu and Pete's c o n v e r s a t i o n w i l l i l l u m i n a t e . I n t h e s e t y p e s of s i t u a t i o n s , h a v i n g one-on-one c o l l a b o r a t i v e i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h a n a t i v e speaker i s i n v a l u a b l e . Example 3: Discussion about casual greetings. ( P l e a s e r e f e r t o Example #1 f o r e x p l a n a t i o n s o f c o d i n g a b b r e v i a t i o n s and t e r m i n o l o g y . ) FB 192 Yasu; How about 'fwine' CF 193 Pete : Why? CF 194 Yasu : Fwine... (Wine?) Fwine... I'm fine... oc 195 Pete : Oh, FINE ! F i n e , f i n e , f f f f i n e . sc 196 Yasu : F i n e ! oc 197 Pete : Yeah. I know 'F's a r e , F's and R's are hard f o r Japanese..:' F's... How are you? F i n e . I t ' s u s u a l l y p o l i t e , i f the y ask you something, l i k e , \"How are you?\"'you say, \" F i n e , how 'bout you? \" Does t h a t make sense? (Yeah) sc 198 Yasu : F i n e , what's up, what up, (laughs) Another example, t h i s one t a k e n from S a c h i and B r e t t ' s d i s c u s s i o n , shows b o t h l e x i c a l , and p r o n u n c i a t i o n c o r r e c t i o n s o c c u r r i n g s i m u l t a n e o u s l y i n the m o d i f i c a t i o n n e g o t i a t i o n r e g a r d i n g the Japanese word nannen [how many-ye a r s ] ( l i n e s 334-339): Example 4: Discussion about length of time in the US. ( P l e a s e r e f e r t o Example #1 f o r e x p l a n a t i o n s of c o d i n g a b b r e v i a t i o n s and t e r m i n o l o g y . ) 333 B r e t t : Same? Yeah. I t g e t s e a s i e r , I t h i n k . FB So how long... Nan sen*... eetou, benkyou shimasu ka . [What (sen)? Umm, do you stu d y ? ] oc 334 S a c h i : Nannen. [How many y e a r s . ] sc 335 B r e t t : Nannen... Nansai... [How many years... • old...] CF 336 S a c h i : Nanse? • CF 337 B r e t t : How many y e a r s ? oc 338 S a c h i : Nannnen sc 339 B r e t t : Nannen? Nannen. Okay. Nannen... Working t o g e t h e r w i t h a n a t i v e speaker who may a l s o be s t r u g g l i n g w i t h t h e complementary second language i s an i d e a l o p p o r t u n i t y f o r bo t h p a r t n e r s t o l e a r n from each o t h e r and d e v e l o p l i s t e n i n g s k i l l s c a p a b l e o f d e t e r m i n i n g the L2's sound d i s t i n c t i o n s . A c c o r d i n g t o Y u l e e t a l . , (1987), t h e s e must f i r s t be r e c o g n i z e d f o r p r o p e r p r o n u n c i a t i o n t o d e v e l o p . ' C o r r e c t i n g and e x p e r i m e n t i n g w i t h p r o n u n c i a t i o n i n and o f i t s e l f i s a c h a l l e n g i n g , and a t t i m e s , e m b a r r a s s i n g , s e l f - c o n s c i o u s endeavor wrought w i t h f e e l i n g s of f o o l i s h n e s s as second language l e a r n e r s fumble t o f i n d awkward sounds. As r e f l e c t e d i n the examples above, w i t h l o w e r e d a f f e c t i v e f i l t e r s , the p r o c e s s may even become f u n , w i t h the r i g h t c o n v e r s a t i o n p a r t n e r and language c o m b i n a t i o n . 4.1.1 Additional Communication Strategies Other, communication s t r a t e g i e s which were o f t e n employed, though not s p e c i f i c a l l y coded i n t h i s s t u d y i n c l u d e d p a r a p h r a s i n g and a p p r o x i m a t i o n , i n which an i n c o r r e c t form was i n t e n t i o n a l l y employed as a h i n t t o e x p l a i n the d e s i r e d v o c a b u l a r y i t e m , word c o i n a g e , and c i r c u m l o c u t i o n (T'arone, 1981). Tarone goes on t o i d e n t i f y the s t r a t e g y of \" b o r r o w i n g \" from one's f i r s t language e i t h e r i n d i r e c t word f o r word t r a n s l a t i o n , , o r i n a language s w i t c h . R i e attempted such a s w i t c h i n Example #2 of my d a t a on page 44 i n l i n e 254 when she i n s e r t e d the Japanese word kashi i n t o her E n g l i s h sentence when she c o u l d not remember th e word ' l y r i c ' . . In Example #4, l i n e 333, B r e t t a t t e m p t e d a word f o r word s w i t c h mid sentence from E n g l i s h t o Japanese. In most c a s e s , the s w i t c h e s were not a b r u p t and p r e m e d i t a t e d u t t e r a n c e s , but r a t h e r seemed t o be almost a c c i d e n t a l o r u n c o n s c i o u s b o r r o w i n g from e i t h e r language when c o n v e n i e n t or opportune. 4.1.2 The Dominance of English i n Discussions and the Perceptions of Language A b i l i t i e s In a l l but one r e c o r d e d c o n v e r s a t i o n , E n g l i s h dominated the d i s c u s s i o n s . In the one - c o n v e r s a t i o n t h a t was we i g h t e d more h e a v i l y toward Japanese w i t h s i x t y - t h r e e p e r c e n t , i t seemed t o be more a m a t t e r o f p e r s o n a l i t i e s d i c t a t i n g t he b a l a n c e r a t h e r than language s k i l l . A q u i t e shy.Japanese female, Y o s h i e , was randomly matched w i t h B r e t t , a v e r y o u t g o i n g young American male w i t h good Japanese language • s k i l l s . ' When Y o s h i e met t o go over t h e v i d e o t a p e , she commented b e f o r e the tape was s t a r t e d t h a t her p a r t n e r had \" p e r f e c t Japanese!\" When I asked her i f she had had t o slow down or use s i m p l e language t o a s s i s t B r e t t i n h i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g , she adamantly s a i d no, she had n o t . However, a f t e r v i e w i n g t h e t a p e , Y o s h i e was, s u r p r i s e d t o observe t h a t she had i n d e e d a d j u s t e d her language s i g n i f i c a n t l y t o accommodate her p a r t n e r , and t h a t h i s language,''though good, was hot p e r f e c t . T h i s s i t u a t i o n r e v e a l s the p o s s i b l e p i t f a l l s o f p a i r work i f one or t h e o t h e r p a r t n e r i s e x t r e m e l y shy or o u t g o i n g , and t h e imp o r t a n c e o f c a r e f u l l y m a t ching p a r t n e r s f o r common i n t e r e s t s and p e r s o n a l i t i e s , i f p o s s i b l e . In the o t h e r t h r e e dyads, d e s p i t e e f f o r t s t o s c r e e n f o r language s k i l l , t h e r e was s ' t i l l a l a r g e d i s p a r i t y between the c a p a b i l i t i e s of the J.F.L s t u d e n t s when compared t o the ESL s t u d e n t s . As c o u l d be seen i n Example #2 above, E n g l i s h was the medium of exchange, w i t h Japanese s p r i n k l e d i n here or t h e r e . A placement t e s t o r language i n t e r v i e w would be a h e l p f u l way t o more a c c u r a t e l y e s t a b l i s h the JFL and ESL s k i l l l e v e l s and f i n d b e t t e r matches f o r language exchange. The f o l l o w i n g e x c e r p t r e f l e c t s an i n t e r e s t i n g mix of E n g l i s h and Japanese l e s s o n s i n which b o t h p a r t n e r s are a c t i n g e x p l i c i t l y as t e a c h e r s of t h e i r f i r s t language. In t h i s example, r a t h e r than l i m i t i n g t h e samples t o s h o r t e x c e r p t s w i t h a b s t r a c t ' u t t e r a n c e s o f n e g o t i a t i o n , i n an e f f o r t t o r e p r e s e n t the a c t u a l c o n t e x t and f l o w of the d i s c u s s i o n , a l o n g e r , c o n t i n u o u s segment of c o n v e r s a t i o n has been p r o v i d e d . Coding appears a l o n g t h e l e f t margin i n b o l d t e x t . A d d i t i o n a l comments and d i s c u s s i o n f o l l o w t h i s d i a l o g and r e f e r t o the l i n e numbers shown on t h e l e f t . I n l o n g e r u t t e r a n c e s , t h e s p e c i f i c a r e a r e l a t i n g t o the_ c o d i n g has been u n d e r l i n e d f o r c l e a r i d e n t i f i c a t i o n - . Example 5: Tim (B) and Asuka (A) discuss travel & music ( P l e a s e r e f e r t o Example #1 f o r e x p l a n a t i o n s o f c o d i n g a b b r e v i a t i o n s and t e r m i n o l o g y . ) FB 19B So, i s t h i s your f i r s t t i m e i n America? 20A I f o r g o t , when I was, when I was a child... I don't know what age, but maybe t h r e e or f o u r , I had, I had . . . H a w a i i . • 21 B Oh, wow ! sc 22 A Hawai ni ikimashita, ne. Un. [ ( I ) went t o H a w a i i , yeah.] 23 B Wakarimashita. [Got i t . ] H a w a i i ah, has takusan Nihonjin. [many Japanese] se 24A Ah, unn. Yeah, yeah, yeah. A c t u a l l y , I had a two t i m e , I had. a go... t o H a w a i i two t i m e s and the pr second t i m e s i s r e a l l y eh, nani... saikin? [What? L a t e l y ? ] op 25 B L a t e l y 26 A Yeah, yeah, yeah. So desu yo. [That's r i g h t ! ] I was s u r p r i s e d about a l o t o f American can speak Japanese. CF 27 B Oh, i n i n Ha w a i i ? .28 A Yeah... FB 29 B Oh, wow. Um, soooo Amerika ni nani ga... benkyou... [In America what... study...?] oc 30 A Ah, Amerika de nani wo benkyou shi ni k i t e i r u ka? [What d i d I come t o st u d y i n America?] 31B Hai. [Yes.] 32 A Ah, I see, soo, a c t u a l l y , I wanna be a singer... but I can s i n g a song i n English.... CF 33 B You want t o s i n g i n E n g l i s h ? 34 A Yeah, so I want t o know E n g l i s h ' s - a l l of mean, s c and uh, I have I wanna get knowledge o f E n g l i s h , or something. 35 B But I t h i n k s i n g i n g E n g l i s h i s d i f f e r e n t t h a n • s p e a k i n g E n g l i s h . 36 A Oh, r e a l l y ! Oh. FB 37B Yeah. W e l l , t h e same w i t h Japanese, r i g h t ? You know. L i k e t h e pace, and how you h o l d t h i n g s up... Umm. What k i n d of k i n d of Japanese music do you l i k e ? 38 A R & B, CF 39 B R & B? Yeah 40 A Yeah. I l i k e . 41B Do you l i k e ah Draganash? Dragonash? p r 42 A Hmmm? I don't know but... C F 4 3 B You don't know Dragonash? C R 4 4 A Onegai... [ P l e a s e ( t e l l me)!] 45 B They're, t h e y ' r e k i n d a l i k e h i p hop. Japanese, t h e y used t o p l a y r o c k n r o l l , but now hip.hop. I don't know, I've o n l y h e a r d them a c o u p l e o f t i m e s . Umm, soo, how would you... I f I was t o l i k e speak Japanese... Urn, I guess I want t o b r u s h up some of my s k i l l s . I t ' s been a w h i l e s i n c e I've FB s t u d i e d , s o , urn,how would I , FB how would I l i k e , uh, i f I was s t a y i n g somewhere, l i k e , a r e you s t a y i n g a t a h o s t p r f a m i l y , o r . . 46 A R i g h t now? CF Uh, me? At dorm. CF 47 B Uh, you're s t a y i n g a t t h e dorms. Say, l i k e , I v i s i t e d Japan, and I went t o your house, t h i s i s j u s t a h y p o t h e t i c a l s i t u a t i o n , l i k e , how would I thank you f e r l e t t i n g me s t a y a t your house? L i k e , l i k e , say you l i v e w i t h a h o s t f a m i l y , you know, l i k e f o r one month, j u s t v i s i t i n g , and you would say, 'Thank you f o r l e t t i n g me s t a y a t your FB house, you know, how would you say t h a t i n Japanese? 48 A Eetoo, [Umm] p r 49 B Or l i k e 'thank you f o r your, ah, k i n d n e s s , o r t a k i n g c a r e o f me, k i n d of... pr/CR50A Ahhhh, ahh, I don't know t h a t many... CR 51 B Would you j u s t say Doomo arigatou? [Thank you?] s c 52 A Yeah, un, Doomo arigatou gozaimasu, So! Taihen osewa ni narimashita. Yeas, yeah, thank you v e r y , much. R i g h t ! You've t a k e n good c a r e of me.] CR 53 B Taihen... [Very...] Say t h a t more s l o w l y . 54 A Taihen... s c 55 B Taihen... 56 A Osewa ni [...cared for...] CR 57 B Osewan... Can you w r i t e t h a t down? \"Cause, i t ' s i t ' d be e a s i e r i f I c o u l d see i t . You c o u l d w r i t e i t i n hiragana. I can r e a d hiragana. CF 58 A Hiragana? Okay. ( w r i t e s ) Yeah. T h i s i s thank you f o r your, e v e r y t h i n g . p r 59 B So, taihen, t h a t ' s l i k e a l i k e a., CC 60 A ' You know? 61 B 'So much', or or l i k e , yeah j u s t kinda' l i k e , 'overwhelming', so i t ' s k i n d a l i k e s a y i n g CR osewa ni what's osewa? 62 A Yeah, yeah, yeah! 'Take c a r e ' . CC 63 B And then narimashita i s 'become'? K i n d o f . op ,64 A Yeah,' yeah, k i n d o f ummm. Yeah, 'become'. Um. T h i s i s v e r y p o l i t e . Yeah, yeah, yeah, ( w r i t i n g ) In Tim and Asuka's c o n v e r s a t i o n , l i n e 22 g i v e s an, i n t e r e s t i n g example o f s e l f c o r r e c t i o n t h r o u g h code s w i t c h i n g . Asuska was unsure o f her E n g l i s h , so t o be s a f e she gave the statement a g a i n i n Japanese.. T h i s was a c c e p t a b l e and a c t u a l l y d e s i r a b l e from her p a r t n e r ' s p e r s p e c t i v e g i v e n h i s own i n t e r e s t i n l e a r n i n g and u s i n g Japanese, as h i s Japanese r e p l y i n l i n e 23 e x h i b i t s . Perhaps encouraged by h i s p a r t n e r ' s w i l l i n g n e s s t o f a l t e r and s t r u g g l e , Tim then a t t e m p t s a more d i f f i c u l t c o n s t r u c t i o n i n Japanese, and though he f a i l e d t o g e n e r a t e a g r a m m a t i c a l l y complete sentence, h i s meaning was c l e a r l y u n d e r s t o o d by Asuka. There was l e s s shame i n u s i n g b o t h languages and t h e chance of b e i n g u n d e r s t o o d was do u b l e d w i t h the a c c e p t a b i l i t y o f u s i n g e i t h e r E n g l i s h o r Japanese. T h i s c r o s s - l i n g u i s t i c c o l l a b o r a t i o n was e v i d e n t a g a i n i n l i n e s 24 & 25, 29 & 30, and i n the l o n g e r exchange from l i n e s 47-64. In a d d i t i o n t o code s w i t c h i n g , , t h e above examples a l s o h i g h l i g h t the e x p l i c i t language t e a c h i n g and l e a r n i n g t h a t was t a k i n g p l a c e . S p e c i f i c language q u e s t i o n s were posed r e g a r d i n g both Japanese language usage ( l i n e s 47, 57, 61) and E n g l i s h ( l i n e 2 4 ) . Though n e i t h e r . p a r t i c i p a n t s a r e language . t e a c h e r s , b o t h a re f u l l y c a p a b l e of e x p l a i n i n g and c o n v e y i n g the r e q u e s t e d i n f o r m a t i o n s a t i s f a c t o r i l y . Example 6: Discussion about music & language ( P l e a s e r e f e r t o Example #1 f o r e x p l a n a t i o n s of c o d i n g a b b r e v i a t i o n s and t e r m i n o l o g y . ) 99 Pete FB 100 101 Yasu : Pete : FB 102 Yasu: C F / p r l 0 3 Pete: op 104 Yasu: 105 Pete: 106 107 FB/pr FB 108 109 110 FB 111 ! Yasu: Pete : Yasu : Pete : Pete: Yasu : Okay, okay, I go t c h a , g o t c h a . A l o t o Japanese s i n g e r s , are s t a r t i n g t o use l o t of E n g l i s h , l i k e Japanese s i n g e r s , rap-pop-whatever, (rapper) t h e y ' r e u s i n g E n g l i s h , l i k e , i n the songs. Yes. Do you understand? ' A l i t t l e b i t . Yeah, yeah, some p a r t s , urn... l i k e Tada Hikako, I l i s t e n t o t h a t a l o t so I , l i k e , know when she's s p e a k i n ' E n g l i s h a whole l o t , so. Why... don't... don't you underst a n d ? Why don't I understand....? Japanese r a p p e r s ' .... Ddddzzzddd Too f a s t sometimes. Not good pronunciation... Yeah... No, the E n g l i s h i s easy t o un d e r s t a n d , sometimes (laughs) but sometimes t h e y go t o o f a s t and t h e r e are o t h e r p a r t s , Japanese I guess. So, what e l s e do you do? Just... I l i k e Japanese song. Do you l i k e Japanese song? (Pete nods 'yes') What k i n d of...? ...Can you s i n g ? I've o n l y l i s t e n e d t a .... A s m a l l amount. L i k e , s m a l l ... (Small?) Yeah, s m a l l , i n s t e a d of like.... Can I s i n g (laughs) Oh, no! Oh, no. I'm w h i t e . No, um, - I c a n ' t s i n g . Do you remember t h a t ? CR 112 Pete: . Do I remember what? 113 Yasu: The ... ss you l i s t e n e d song. , CF 114 Pete: L i s t e n e d song? No. (No?) No. (laughs) J u s t p r e t t y much o l d songs, l i k e aaa remember \" S u k i y a k i \" ? That's about i t ! FB 115 Yasu: Ahh, \" S u k i y a k i \" ! Can you s i n g ? 116* Pete: Uh, I don't want t o ! (laughs) \" S u k i y a k i \" , yeah, t h a t ' s about i t . . . I t ' s , l i k e , o n e I know f a i r l y w e l l . Yeah. Sensei used t o p l a y i t a lot... FB 117 Yasu: Do you know who s s , who s i n g s some song? \"Sukiyaki\"... 117 Pete: Yeah, H i r o Sakamura! 118 Yasu: Oh!!! Yeah! (laughs) T h i s i s an example o f a c o n v e r s a t i o n t h a t does not e x h i b i t e x p l i c i t Japanese or E n g l i s h language i n s t r u c t i o n , but t h e r e i s - a l i v e l y c u l t u r a l exchange t a k i n g p l a c e i n which b o t h p a r t n e r s demonstrate an i n t e r e s t i n each o t h e r and- a d e s i r e t o l e a r n more about each o t h e r t h r o u g h a p r o l o n g e d c o n v e r s a t i o n ( l i n e s 100, 108, 111), as w e l l as e x p l i c i t q u e s t i o n s p e r t a i n i n g t o language i n g e n e r a l ( l i n e s 106 & 11.1) . When a s t i m u l a t i n g t o p i c was d i s c u s s e d , i n each dyad the i n h i b i t i o n ' s seemed t o l e s s e n and i n t r i n s i c m o t i v a t i o n would t a k e o v e r . There was l e s s c a r e or c o n c e r n g i v e n t o g r a m m a t i c a l a c c u r a c y and a more t y p i c a l n a t i v e speaker type of exchange t a k i n g p l a c e w i t h r a p i d t u r n t a k i n g and exuberance. C o n v e r s a t i o n s a l s o extended over l o n g e r p e r i o d s of time (Swain, 1985) . - CHAPTER FIVE -5.0 Significant. Findings The t a b l e s p r e s e n t e d at the end of t h i s c h a p t e r are r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f the t y p e s - a n d terras of n e g o t i a t i o n sequences. ,Table #2 i l l u s t r a t e s t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of E n g l i s h and Japanese usage, and r e f l e c t s who was s p e a k i n g and t o what degree. T a b l e #3 shows the i n s t a n c e s o f i n i t i a t e d n e g o t i a t i o n ( p l e a s e r e f e r back t o c o d i n g examples i n Chapter 3, page 41) . T a b l e #4 r e p r e s e n t s - the numbers and t y p e s of speech m o d i f i c a t i o n t h a t were documented, and a l s o shows the number of u t t e r a n c e s i n each language. Samples of d i a l o g s from each dyad are a l s o i n c l u d e d i n the appendixes f o r r e f e r e n c e . 5.1 Summary of Results As a p r e l i m i n a r y l o o k i n t o l i n g u i s t i c and c u l t u r a l n e g o t i a t e d i n t e r a c t i o n i n dyads p a i r e d w i t h an e f f o r t t o b a l a n c e language a b i l i t i e s and c u l t u r a l i n t e r e s t s , t h e r e s u l t s of t h i s s t u d y support the b a s i c assumptions put f o r t h by Nakahama e t a l . , (2001), and Swain, (1985), t h a t i n c o n v e r s a t i o n a l a c t i v i t i e s of t h i s t y p e , t he fo c u s i s on \" o v e r a l l d i s c o u r s e , o r t e x t u a l coherence, t h e c r e a t i o n o f shared schema and frame, the m a i n t a i n i n g o f f a c e and the b u i l d i n g of r a p p o r t , and the exchange ,of i n f o r m a t i o n (Nakahama et a l . , '2001, p.388).\" I t i s a c h a l l e n g e t o f i n d b a l a n c e d a b i l i t i e s a c r o s s d i f f e r e n t languages and c u l t u r e s and my s t r o n g e s t c r i t i q u e . of t h i s r e s e a r c h would be t h a t d e s p i t e a t t e m p t i n g t o conduct a non-ESL b i a s e d s t u d y (Kachru, ,1994), ESL remained the - predominant language and i n f l u e n c e i n t h r e e out o f f o u r dyads. More complete s c r e e n i n g o f a b i l i t i e s and p e r s o n a l i t i e s i s needed t o a c h i e v e the d e s i r e d b a l a n c e , as w e l l as a more e x t e n s i v e p o p u l a t i o n o f p a r t i c i p a n t s -S w i t c h i n g languages most f r e q u e n t l y o c c u r r e d when t h e r e was a breakdown i n communication t h a t r e q u i r e d c o n c e r t e d n e g o t i a t i n g e f f o r t s / o r , o c c a s i o n a l l y , f a m i l i a r words were s l i p p e d i n and.\"borrowed\" (Tarone, 1981). A f f e c t i v e f a c t o r s appeared t o be reduced, based ,on p a r t i c i p a n t s ' comments, once the d i a l o g s got underway,,and a l l p a r t i c i p a n t s s t a t e d t h a t t h e y f e l t t h e y had had a . w o r t h w h i l e and p o s i t i v e l e a r n i n g e x p e r i e n c e . There was p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t i n c o n t i n u i n g t h e p a r t n e r s h i p s beyond' t h i s s t u d y i n f o r m a l l y . Spontaneous c o l l a b o r a t i v e c o n v e r s a t i o n a l i n t e r a c t i o n p r o v i d e s an o p p o r t u n i t y f o r second language development and c u l t u r a l exchange i n a more, n a t u r a l environment w i t h reduced a f f e c t i v e f a c t o r s and g r e a t e r i n d i v i d u a l autonomy ( R i c h a r d s , 1980), p r o v i d e d the p a r t i c i p a n t s are a t comparable s t a g e s of language a b i l i t y . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , as seen i n t h e r e v i e w of l i t e r a t u r e , many s t u d i e s p a i r NS w i t h NNS i n a one-way exchange t h a t may i n a d v e r t e n t l y i n t i m i d a t e t h e second language l e a r n e r . L i k e w i s e , NNS are o f t e n p a i r e d w i t h NNS of e i t h e r the same or d i f f e r e n t language backgrounds, w i t h n e i t h e r b e i n g f l u e n t i n the t a r g e t language, thu s r e d u c i n g the r o l e o f \" e x p e r t \" t o an unknown l e v e l of e x p e r t i s e and a c c u r a c y (Gass & V e r o n i s , 1985; Doughty & P i c a , 1986). A l l t h e s e c o n f i g u r a t i o n s can l e a d t o a d i s c o n c e r t i n g , degree of b i a s , whether i t be ESL d o m i n a t i n g c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f o t h e r second languages, or i n an u n b a l a n c e d d i s t r i b u t i o n o f power/knowledge w i t h r e g a r d t o p a r t i c i p a n t s t h e m s e l v e s (Kachru, 1994). In a d d i t i o n , a tremendous r e s o u r c e and o p p o r t u n i t y f o r d u a l exchange i s o f t e n o v e r l o o k e d , e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , where s t u d i e s . h a v e r e v e a l e d a s e r i o u s d e f i c i e n c y i n f o r e i g n language s k i l l s and w o r l d knowledge•among American s t u d e n t s (Hadley, 1993; S t e w a r t , 1985). P a r t i c i p a n t s i n c o n v e r s a t i o n dyads t h a t b a l a n c e l i n g u i s t i c and c u l t u r a l knowledge have an added d i m e n s i o n of communication a v a i l a b l e t o them. NS-NNS p a i r i n g s are r e l a t i v e l y l i m i t e d i n scope, c o m p a r a t i v e l y (Chun et a l . , 1982). T h i s ' i s p a r t i c u l a r l y t r u e as i t p e r t a i n s t o n a t i v e E n g l i s h s p e a k e r s i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . A c c o r d i n g t o Hadley, \"American s t u d e n t s ' i n a d e q u a t e knowledge of the w o r l d i s r e f l e c t e d not o n l y i n t h e i r l a c k o f f o r e i g n language s k i l l s , but i n t h e i r g e n e r a l i g n o r a n c e of b a s i c i n f o r m a t i o n about o t h e r n a t i o n s and' p e o p l e s (p. 355) .\" NNSs of E n g l i s h are a b l e t o g a i n v a l u a b l e language s k i l l s and knowledge of American c u l t u r e t h r o u g h c o n v e r s a t i o n a l i n t e r a c t i o n . Through c r o s s - c u l t u r a l d i s c u s s i o n s and n e g o t i a t i o n o f b i l i n g u a l c o n v e r s a t i o n s , n a t i v e s p e a k e r s from b o t h s i d e s are g i v e n a unique o p p o r t u n i t y t o l e a r n about a n o t h e r c u l t u r e . \"Other p e o p l e ' s v i e w s , v a l u e s , t r a d i t i o n s , f e e l i n g s , c u l t u r e s , a r e a s - v a l u a b l e as our own.\" (Brown, 1990, p. 14) . 5.2 Implications fo r Future Research G i v e n th e p o p u l a r i t y of t h e s e c o n v e r s a t i o n p a r t n e r programs, and t h e many s t u d i e s which s u p p o r t the v a l u e of i n f o r m a l c o n v e r s a t i o n a l i n t e r a c t i o n , more s t u d i e s are needed t o p r o v i d e t a n g i b l e i n c e n t i v e s f o r s c h o o l s , communities, and i n s t i t u t i o n s t o a c t i v e l y promote and p r o v i d e t h e s e o p p o r t u n i t i e s , not j u s t t o ESL l e a r n e r s , but t o n a t i v e E n g l i s h s p e a k e r s as w e l l , as a way t o improve our exposure t o o t h e r c u l t u r e s and languages (Hadley,1993). F u t u r e r e s e a r c h i s needed t o examine and compare the t y p e s of n e g o t i a t e d i n t e r a c t i o n a c r o s s a b r o a d e r range of p a r t i c i p a n t s , t o i n c l u d e groups and p a i r s who are c a p a b l e of u t i l i z i n g b o t h languages and c u l t u r a l knowledge t o dete r m i n e c o n c l u s i v e l y , i f i n d e e d , t h e r e i s a s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e i n language l e a r n i n g outcomes based on language backgrounds and c o m b i n a t i o n s . An e t h n o g r a p h i c s t u d y of t h i s t o p i c would a l s o p r o v i d e i m p o r t a n t i n f o r m a t i o n i n t h e case o f l o n g term c o n v e r s a t i o n p a r t n e r i n t e r a c t i o n and t h e a s s o c i a t e d c u l t u r a l and l i n g u i s t i c i m p l i c a t i o n s o v er time and would be a v a l u a b l e a d d i t i o n t o t h i s growing body o f knowledge. More s t u d i e s w i t h more p a r t i c i p a n t s and more language c o m b i n a t i o n s a t a l l s k i l l l e v e l s ' a r e needed t o t r u l y u n d e r s t a n d a l l t he i n t r i c a c i e s o f n e g o t i a t e d i n t e r a c t i o n i n language a c q u i s i t i o n . 5.3 Implications f o r Teaching and Learning Languages S t u d i e s of n e g o t i a t i o n , b o t h p e d a g o g i c a l l y and o u t s i d e the c l a s s r o o m , have much t o o f f e r the f i e l d second language a c q u i s i t i o n , m u l t i c u l t u r a l a r e n a s , and s t u d e n t s t h e m s e l v e s , who would g r e a t l y b e n e f i t from h e a r i n g the r e s u l t s o f such s t u d i e s i n a medium t h a t would be more a c c e s s i b l e .to them. Such r e s e a r c h would p r o v i d e much needed d a t a about what t y p e s o f l e a r n i n g a r e r e a l l y a v a i l a b l e t h r o u g h i n f o r m a l n e g o t i a t e d c o n v e r s a t i o n i n s m a l l groups or p a i r s ; and i t can c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e development of t e a c h i n g p r a c t i c e s which can more s u c c e s s f u l l y c a p t u r e and r e p r e s e n t t h e r e a l w o r l d around us and our s t u d e n t s . I f r e s e a r c h l e g i t i m i z e s and p u b l i c i z e s t h e b e n e f i t s of c o n v e r s a t i o n programs l i k e t h e one p r e s e n t e d i n t h i s s t u d y , more s c h o o l s and programs w i l l f i n d ways t o a l l o c a t e the n e c e s s a r y .funding, s u p p o r t , and s t a f f i n g t o make c o l l a b o r a t i v e c o n v e r s a t i o n a l o p p o r t u n i t i e s a v a i l a b l e t o mo r e . s t u d e n t s . American s t u d e n t s w i l l have more o p p o r t u n i t i e s to. i n t e r a c t w i t h p o p u l a t i o n s from v a r i e d c u l t u r a l and l i n g u i s t i c backgrounds, and i n t e r e s t i n f o r e i g n language s t u d y and c r o s s - c u l t u r a l \" e x p e r i e n c e s here i n t h e US c o u l d be n u r t u r e d and d e v e l o p e d . P e d a g o g i c a l l y s p e a k i n g , f a c i l i t a t o r s o f c o n v e r s a t i o n programs need t o have p r a c t i c a l , p r o v e n t a c t i c s and t o o l s t o put t o use i n t h e i r programs i n o r d e r t o h e l p s t u d e n t s s u c c e s s f u l l y and c o m f o r t a b l y a c c e s s each o t h e r ' s l i n g u i s t i c and c u l t u r a l g i f t s . I n f o r m a l c o n v e r s a t i o n , as t h i s , s t u d y demonstrated, i s f r a u g h t w i t h v a r i a b l e s . A g u i d e d , y e t s t i l l r e l a t i v e l y u n s t r u c t u r e d p r o t o c o l f o r p a r t n e r s c o u l d be e s t a b l i s h e d t o h e l p b a l a n c e the language exchange o p p o r t u n i t i e s so one p a r t n e r i s not being' t a k e n advantage of or b e i n g l e f t out o f t h e i n t e r a c t i o n . S cheduled o r t i m e d o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r each language t o be used c o u l d r e l i e v e some of the p r e s s u r e s t u d e n t s f e l t and e x p r e s s e d r e g a r d i n g s k i l l comparisons and p e r c e p t i o n s o r p o t e n t i a l problems i n b a l a n c i n g shy v e r s u s o u t g o i n g p e r s o n a l i t y t y p e s . Use o f aud i o and v i d e o r e c o r d i n g d e v i c e s a re a l s o a n o t h e r way t o ext e n d the l e a r n i n g o p p o r t u n i t i e s . - The s t u d e n t s i n t h i s s t u d y e x p r e s s e d a s t r o n g i n t e r e s t i n v i e w i n g t h e i r own performances on v i d e o t a p e , as w e l l as a p p r e c i a t i n g the o p p o r t u n i t y t o r e v i e w t h e items t h e y had d i s c u s s e d w i t h t h e i r p a r t n e r s . Yasu a c t u a l l y r e q u e s t e d a copy o f the tape because he s a i d he wanted t o \"take i t home and p r a c t i c e \" ! T h i s i s a s t u d e n t who has s t r u g g l e d i n h i s ESL c l a s s e s and has e x h i b i t e d v e r y few outward s i g n s of i n t e r e s t i n l e a r n i n g E n g l i s h i n the c l a s s r o o m environment, y e t was v e r y engaged and i n i t i a t e d numerous feedback r e q u e s t s when g i v e n t h e chance t o speak w i t h a peer i n f o r m a l l y . In c o n c l u s i o n , b e f o r e embarking on a c o n v e r s a t i o n p a r t n e r program, t e a c h e r s and a d m i n i s t r a t o r s s h o u l d be aware of the r i s k s as w e l l as t h e time commitment. S c h o o l s must t a k e c a r e t o p r o t e c t t h e i r s t u d e n t s and p r o v i d e s a f e and s u p e r v i s e d meeting a r e a s , as w e l l as t o guard a g a i n s t language e x p l o i t a t i o n . Though t h i s s t u d y p r e s e n t e d d a t a c o l l e c t e d from mixed gender dyads, i n p r a c t i c e , t h e language s c h o o l and c o l l e g e campus where t h i s r e s e a r c h took p l a c e does not mix genders when ma t c h i n g c o n v e r s a t i o n p a r t n e r s . There are ample o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r male and female s t u d e n t s t o i n t e r a c t s o c i a l l y on or o f f campus i f ' t h e y w i s h . E x p e r i e n c e and i n f o r m a t i o n s h a r e d by o t h e r c o n v e r s a t i o n program f a c i l i t a t o r s has been the b a s i s f o r t h i s d e c i s i o n a t t h e language s c h o o l . However, once a g a i n more r e s e a r c h i s needed t o a s s e s s t h e r i s k s , l i a b i l i t i e s , and b e n e f i t s b e f o r e educated d e c i s i o n s can be made. JAPANESE - ENGLISH DATA ANALYSIS: 'NAME' TOTAL UTTERANCES BY DYAD TOTAL UTTERANCES (INDIVIDUAL) TOTAL UTTERANCES (JAPANESE) TOTAL J. UTTERANCES (INDIVIDUAL) TOTAL UTTERANCES (ENGLISH) TOTAL E. UTTERANCES (INDIVIDUAL) IN DYADS: IN BOTH J & E # % BY DYAD # % BY DYAD # % 'SACHI' (F) (JAPAN) 1423 27.8% 2013 62.3% 590 31.2% 'BRETT' (M) (USA) 5124 3701 72.2% 3233 63.1% 1220 37.7% 1891 36.9% 1301 68.8% 'YASU' (M) (JAPAN) 1599 35.8% 112 50.9% 1487 35.0% 'PETE' (M) (USA) 4467 2868 64.2% 220 4.9% 108 49.1% 4247 95.1% 2760 65.0% 'RIE' (F) (JAPAN) 1667 36.1% 271 70.8% 1396 33.0% •SAM' (M) (USA) 4615 2948 63.9% 383 8.3% 112 29.2% 4232 91.7% 2836 67.0% 'ASUKA' (F) (JAPAN) 2152 38.9% 481 60.0% 1671 35.4% TIM' (M) (USA) 5529 3377 61.1% 802 14.5% 321 40.0% 4727 85.5% 3056 64.6% INITIATING NEGOTIATION - DATA ANALYSIS: 'NAME* INITIATING UTTERANCES BY DYAD IN BOTH J & E TOTAL UTTERANCES COMPREHENSION CHECKS TOTAL UTTERANCES FEEDBACK REQUESTS TOTAL UTTERANCES CONFIRMATION CHECKS TOTAL UTTERANCES CLARIFICATION REQUESTS IN DYADS: # # J - E # J - E # J - E # J - E •SACHI' (F) (JAPAN) 24 35.8% 2 0 - 2 3 1 - 2 14 2 - 12 15 6 - 9 •BRETT' (M) (USA) 43 64.2% 7 3 - 4 11 0 - 11 17 6 - 11 9 3 - 6 'YASU' (M) (JAPAN) 39 40.2% 2 0 - 2 13 0 - 13 13 3 - 10 11 1 - 10 'PETE' (M) (USA) 58 59.8% 6 2 - 4 15 1 - 14 19 5 - 14 18 5- 13 'RIE' (F) (JAPAN) 24 34.3% 3 0 - 3 5 1 - 4 9 3 - 6 7 2 - 5 'SAM' (M) (USA) 46 65.7% 5 3 - 2 14 2 - 12 16 3 - 13 11 3 - 8 'ASUKA* (F) (JAPAN) 42 30.4% 10 4 - 6 9 3 - 6 15 5 - 10 8 3 - 5 'TIM' (M) (USA) J 9 6 69.6% 15 5 - 10 39 9 - 30 24 8 - 16 18 6- 12 MODIFICATION - DATA ANALYSIS: 'NAME' MODIFYING UTTERANCES BY DYAD IN BOTH J & E TOTAL UTTERANCES SELF-CORRECTION TOTAL UTTERANCES OTHER-CORRECTION TOTAL UTTERANCES COMPLETION REQUESTS TOTAL UTTERANCES OTHER-COMPLETION IN DYADS: # # J - E # J - E # J - E # J - E 'SACHI' (F) (JAPAN) 26 33.8% 5 0 - 5 4 4 - 0 8 1 - 7 9 9 - 0 'BRETT' (M) (USA) 51 66.2% 15 13 - 2 7 0 - 7 16 4 - 12 13 1 - 12 'YASU' ' (M) (JAPAN) 53 50.0% 17 1 . - 16 8 8 - 0 14 3 - 11 14 11 - 3 'PETE* (M) (USA) 53 50.0% 9 6 - 3 21 0 - 21 11 4 - 7 12 0 - 12 'RIE* (F) (JAPAN) 27 37.0% 16 0 - 16 3 3 - 0 7 0 - 7 1 1 - 0 'SAM' (M) (USA) 46 63.0% 7 7 - 0 10 0 - 10 11 2 - 9 18 0 - 18 •ASUKA' (F) (JAPAN) 87 42.2% 54 3 - 51 15 15 -0 8 1 - 7 10 9 - 1 'TIM' (M) (USAI 119 57.8% 37 34 - 3 21 0 - 21 49 15 - 34 12 0- 12 Bibliography A l j a a f r e h , A l i , & L a n t o l f , James P. 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P a y i n g a t t e n t i o n t o p r o n u n c i a t i o n : The r o l e o f s e l f - m o n i t o r i n g i n p e r c e p t i o n . TESOL Q u a r t e r l y , 21, 765-768. APPENDIXES C o d i n g A b b r e v i a t i o n s & T e r m i n o l o g y (Note: All examples and terminology taken from Shi, 1998, pp. 60-68) Initiating Negotiation: C C = C o m p r e h e n s i o n C h e c k s (\"Do you understand me?\") F B = F e e d b a c k R e q u e s t s (\"Is this your idea, Kim?\") C F = C o n f i r m a t i o n C h e c k s (\"Lower?\") (Often repeats info, in question form...) C R = C l a r i f i c a t i o n R e q u e s t s (\"What's that?\") Modification: s c = S e l f - c o r r e c t i o n (Makes adjustments to own output) o c = O t h e r - c o r r e c t i o n (Makes adjustments to another's output) p r = C o m p l e t i o n R e q u e s t s (\"and in some... \") (Incomplete sentence with the expectation that another will 'fill in the blanks') o p = O t h e r - c o m p l e t i o n (Fills in the blanks, or gaps, for another) FB 66 BRETT Do you have a c o n v e r s a t i o n p a r t n e r r i g h t now? Someone you speak E n g l i s h with r e g u l a r l y ? 67 SACHI Yeah, but I d i d n ' t I d i d n ' t met her. Because I, a c t u a l l y I I don't l i k e the, pr l i k e a nani, f e e l like... op 68 BRETT Kind of, not not personal? CR 69 SACHI Nan to iu ka naa. op 7 0 BRETT I t ' s kind of almost, you're not f r i e n d s , maybe? Or i t ' s not l i k e a r e a l c o n v e r s a t i o n ? 71 SACHI Yes, but I l i k e with f r i e n d s . Urn. 72 BRETT Yeah sc 73 SACHI So, nanka, yakusoku? Yakusoku means promise CF7 4 BRETT Promise. sc 75 SACHI Yakusoku koto ga sugoi... I don't l i k e . 7 6 BRETT Ah, okay. 77 SACHI Sooo, nanka... I have a p r e s s u r e . 78 BRETT Yeah, l i k e you have to be t h e r e at a FB c e r t a i n time. Um, so what would make i t e a s i e r f o r you to um have more E n g l i s h c o n v e r s a t i o n ? 7 9 SACHI I don't know. 8 0 BRETT Maybe becoming f r i e n d s with... 81 SACHI Yes, maybe... 82 BRETT L i k e making i t not not an e d u c a t i o n a l t h i n g , but kind of l i k e a s o c i a l t h i n g , 83 SACHI Yes. Good. 292 SAM I haven't spoken Japanese i n so long, 293 RIE Ah, But you can speak good Japanese! PB 294 SAM So, What do you l i k e t o eat? 295 RIE Urranmin, I l i k e Japanese snack. CF 296 SAM Yeah? L i k e sembei? 297 ce RIE Not sembei. Unn. Ofu? You know, Ofu? And b l a c k sugar. You know b l a c k sugar? CF 2 98 SAM Ahh, Kuro-kuro kurozato! 299 RIE Black sugar... Soo, so sol Kurozato! op 300 SAM Kurozato ami ! 301 RIE Kurozato no naka ni white ofu? CR 302 SAM Ofu? 303 RIE Ofu. Hai. CF 304 SAM Madam*? 305 RIE No, dry... CF 306 SAM Kaki ? 307 RIE Nooo, urn I don't know, I don't know how to e x p l a i n , but very, very good! 308 SAM Yeah, I love ku-kurozato ami! 309 RIE R e a l l y ? R e a l l y ? R e a l l y ? I mol FB 310 SAM What about l i k e r e a l food, though? 311 RIE I don't know... Un. Yappa ah... pr 312 SAM Tabemono... 313 RIE Japanese foodo. Mmmm. I miss very muci "@en ; edm:hasType "Thesis/Dissertation"@en ; vivo:dateIssued "2003-05"@en ; edm:isShownAt "10.14288/1.0078229"@en ; dcterms:language "eng"@en ; ns0:degreeDiscipline "Language and Literacy Education"@en ; edm:provider "Vancouver : University of British Columbia Library"@en ; dcterms:publisher "University of British Columbia"@en ; dcterms:rights "For non-commercial purposes only, such as research, private study and education. Additional conditions apply, see Terms of Use https://open.library.ubc.ca/terms_of_use."@en ; ns0:scholarLevel "Graduate"@en ; dcterms:title "Negotating cultures : a case study of collaborative conversations between Japanese students learning English paired with American students learning Japanese"@en ; dcterms:type "Text"@en ; ns0:identifierURI "http://hdl.handle.net/2429/16728"@en .