@prefix vivo: . @prefix edm: . @prefix ns0: . @prefix dcterms: . @prefix skos: . vivo:departmentOrSchool "Graduate and Postdoctoral Studies"@en ; edm:dataProvider "DSpace"@en ; ns0:degreeCampus "UBCV"@en ; dcterms:creator "Dushnisky, Kelvin Paul Michael"@en ; dcterms:issued "2010-07-08T20:44:13Z"@en, "1987"@en ; vivo:relatedDegree "Master of Science - MSc"@en ; ns0:degreeGrantor "University of British Columbia"@en ; dcterms:description """This thesis advances a conceptual model of adaptive impact monitoring that is designed to overcome many of the criticisms plaguing conventional monitoring strategies. The potential for applying the adaptive model is demonstrated for the Peace River Site C dam proposed for northeastern British Columbia. Environmental impact assessment (EIA) has progressed considerably from its early biophysical orientation to a more comprehensive, interdisciplinary process concerned with the breadth of environmental and socio-economic impacts of development. Impact monitoring, an essential EIA component, has also progressed but in a less innovative fashion. Consequently, conventional monitoring strategies often contain significant deficiencies including insufficient use of past experience, poor monitoring design, and failure to recognize the learning opportunity offered by each project. Adaptive impact monitoring offers significant advantages over traditional strategies. An adaptive strategy is based on a series of impact hypotheses established and tested by an interdisciplinary design team and has two fundamental stages: design and evaluation. A review of the potential environmental impacts of hydroelectric production indicates that the reservoir impact paradigm is beginning to provide a comprehensive basis for assessing development effects. Although the Site C EIA adequately reflects the reservoir impact paradigm, it has three significant weaknesses. First, the potential impacts on downstream ecology and distant downstream users are ill-considered. Second, the potential for increased Site C fisheries parasitism is neglected. Finally, estimates of maximum sustainable yield for the Site C reservoir and Peace River fisheries are unreliable. While opportunities for future impact monitoring were recognized through the Site C panel hearings, they lacked flexibility. The potential impacts on downstream water temperature and fisheries resources are used to illustrate the applicability of the adaptive strategy and the advantages derived from collecting only relevant, statistically credible data to permit testing impact hypotheses in a cost-effective manner. On the basis of these findings, six major policy recommendations are provided for improving the effectiveness of impact monitoring and management for future resource developments."""@en ; edm:aggregatedCHO "https://circle.library.ubc.ca/rest/handle/2429/26251?expand=metadata"@en ; skos:note "A N ADAPTIVE IMPACT MONITORING AND MANAGEMENT STRATEGY FOR RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT PROJECTS by KELVIN PAUL MICHAEL DUSHNISKY B.Sc. (Hons), The University of Manitoba, 1985 A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF SCIENCE in T H E F A C U L T Y OF GRADUATE STUDIES DEPARTMENT OF INTERDISCIPLINARY STUDIES (Resource Management Science) We accept this thesis as conforming to the required standard T H E UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA September 1987 © Kelvin Paul Michael Dushnisky, 1987 In presenting this thesis in partial fulfilment of the requirements for an advanced degree at the University of British Columbia, I agree that the Library shall make it freely available for reference and study. I further agree that permission for extensive copying of this thesis for scholarly purposes may be granted by the head of my department or by his or her representatives. It is understood that copying or publication of this thesis for financial gain shall not be allowed without my written permission. Department of Interdisciplinary Studies (Resource Management Science) The University of British Columbia x 1956 Main Mall Vancouver, Canada V6T 1Y3 Date September 1987 DE-6(3/81) i i ABSTRACT This thesis advances a conceptual model of adaptive impact monitoring that is designed to overcome many of the criticisms plaguing conventional monitoring strategies. The potential for applying the adaptive model is demonstrated for the Peace River Site C dam proposed for northeastern Brit ish Columbia. Environmental impact assessment (EIA) has progressed considerably from its early biophysical orientation to a more comprehensive, interdisciplinary process concerned with the breadth of environmental and socio-economic impacts of development. Impact monitoring, an essential E I A component, has also progressed but in a less innovative fashion. Consequently, conventional monitoring strategies often contain significant deficiencies including insufficient use of past experience, poor monitoring design, and failure to recognize the learning opportunity offered by each project. Adaptive impact monitoring offers significant advantages over traditional strategies. A n adaptive strategy is based on a series of impact hypotheses established and tested by an interdisciplinary design team and has two fundamental stages: design and evaluation. A review of the potential environmental impacts of hydroelectric production indicates that the reservoir impact paradigm is beginning to provide a comprehensive basis for assessing development effects. Although the Site C E I A adequately reflects the reservoir impact paradigm, it has three significant weaknesses. First, the potential impacts on downstream ecology and distant downstream users are ill-considered. Second, the potential for increased Site C fisheries parasitism is neglected. Finally, estimates of maximum sustainable yield for the Site C reservoir and Peace River fisheries are unreliable. Whi le opportunities for future impact monitoring were recognized through the Site C i i i panel hearings, they lacked flexibility. The potential impacts on downstream water temperature and fisheries resources are used to illustrate the applicability of the adaptive strategy and the advantages derived from collecting only relevant, statistically credible data to permit testing impact hypotheses in a cost-effective manner. On the basis of these findings, six major policy recommendations are provided for improving the effectiveness of impact monitoring and management for future resource developments. IV TABLE OF CONTENTS A B S T R A C T i i L I S T O F T A B L E S vi L I S T O F F I G U R E S vi i A C K N O W L E D G E M E N T S vii i C H A P T E R 1. I N T R O D U C T I O N 1 I. Theore t i ca l F ramework 2 H. Case Study 3 I. T H E O R E T I C A L FRAMEWORK 5 C H A P T E R 2. E V O L U T I O N O F E I A A P P R O A C H E S 6 2.1 Leg is la t i on and Po l i c i es 6 2.2 A n E v o l v i n g Focus 10 2.2.1 P r i o r to 1970 10 2.2.2 Ea r l y to M id -1970s 10 2.2.3 M i d - 1 9 7 0 s to 1980 11 2.2.4 1980 to Present 13 C H A P T E R 3. M O N I T O R I N G A P P R O A C H E S I N E I A 17 3.1 T rad i t i ona l Pract ices 17 3.1.1 Cri t ic isms of Tradit ional Moni tor ing Practices 19 3.2 Recent Innovative Approaches 26 3.3 Adap t i ve M o n i t o r i n g 29 II. C ASE STUDY 38 C H A P T E R 4. A N O V E R V I E W O F T H E R E S E R V O I R I M P A C T P A R A D I G M 39 4.1 C l ima te and Se ismic i ty 39 4.2 Morphomet ry and Hydro logy 42 4.3 Water Qua l i t y 45 4.4 L o w e r Troph ic Leve l s 49 4.5 F i s h 54 C H A P T E R 5. E V O L U T I O N O F E I A A P P R O A C H E S IN B R I T I S H C O L U M B I A .... 61 5.1 E I A Legislat ive Authority in Bri t ish Columbia 61 5.1.1 Environment Management Act 63 5.1.2 Utilities Commission Act 64 5.2 The Importance of Legislat ive Authority to E I A 69 C H A P T E R 6. S I T E C E I A A N A L Y S I S 71 6.1 Context of the Site C Project 71 Project Ini t iat ion (1975-1976) 73 Project Ana lys i s (1977-1980) 73 Project Evaluation and Recommendations (1981-1983) 74 Cabinet Dec is ion to Present (1984-1987) 76 6.2 Si te C E I A 76 L a n d - U s e Impacts 77 Her i tage Resources 77 Terrain and M i n e r a l Resources 78 Genera l Outdoor Recreat ion 78 Fores t ry 79 Wi l d l i f e and Recreat ional Hunt ing 79 C l imate and Agr icu l ture 80 Water Qual i ty and Downstream Users 81 F isher ies Resources 89 C H A P T E R 7. S I T E C M O N I T O R I N G A N A L Y S I S 101 7.1 Mon i t o r i ng Opportuni t ies 101 7.1.1 Site C Mon i to r ing Program 101 7.1.2 Future Research and Des ign 103 C H A P T E R 8. P O T E N T I A L F O R SITE C A D A P T I V E M O N I T O R I N G 110 8.1 Downstream Water Temperature 110 8.1.1 Adapt ive Mon i to r ing App l ied 112 8.2 F isher ies Resources 117 8.2.1 Adapt ive Mon i to r ing App l i ed 121 C H A P T E R 9. C O N C L U S I O N S A N D R E C O M M E N D A T I O N S 128 9.1 M a j o r F ind ings 128 9.1.1 Theoret ica l F ramework 128 9.1.2 Case Study 130 9.2 Recommenda t ions 133 L I T E R A T U R E C I T E D 136 v i LIST OF TABLES Table I. A Comparison of Key Conventional and Adaptive Monitoring Characteristics 34 Table II. Projected Water Temperature Changes for the Main Body, Site C Reservoir 86 Table III. Projected Reservoir Water Temperatures Near the Site C Dam Compared to 1977 Peace River Temperatures at Site C 87 Table TV. B.C. Ministry of Environment's Estimates of Maximum Sustainable Fish Yield for the Peace River and Site C Reservoir 91 Table V. Summary of Factors Bearing on the Choice of Walleye for Initial Post-Impoundment Enhancement 99 vii LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1. Federal Environmental Assessment Review Process: Ini t ial Assessment Phase 8 Figure 2. The Common Relationship Between Project Development and Mon i to r ing 18 Figure 3. Adapt ive Mon i to r ing Des ign Steps '. 31 Figure 4. Adapt ive Mon i to r ing Evaluat ion 33 Figure 5. Generic Reservoir-Related Impacts on Cl imate 40 Figure 6. Generic Reservoir-Related Impacts on Morphometry and H y d r o l o g y 43 Figure 7. Generic Reservoir-Related Impacts on Water Quality 46 Figure 8. Generic Reservoir-Related Impacts on Lower Trophic Levels 50 Figure 9. Generic Reservoir-Related Impacts on F i sh 55 Figure 10. British Columbia Utilities Commission Energy Project R e v i e w Process 65 Figure 11. M a p of the Site C Study Area 72 Figure 12. Average Monthly 1976 Peace River Temperatures N e a r T a y l o r 88 v i i i ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The author was initially supported by a U B C Graduate Fellowship and subsequently by a N S E R C Postgraduate Scholarship, a Canadian Water Resources Association Graduate Scholarship, and an International Water Resources Association Graduate Scholarship. Professors Tony Dorcey and Les Lavkul ich consistently provided thoughtful direction while serving in the respective roles of thesis supervisor and program chairman. For this, and their limitless encouragement, I am most grateful. Special thanks are also extended to the fol lowing U B C professors for their insightful comments: K. J . Ha l l , T. G . Northcote, and J . D. Chapman. Mr . David Marmorek of E S S A Ltd. offered sound advice while serving in the capacity of external examiner. I also appreciate the assistance that I have received from various government personnel too numerous to mention here. I am indebted to my dear friend Dan R. Farr. Our periodic commiseration provided invaluable mental relief at the most necessary times. Final ly, and most importantly, my deepest gratitude is extended to my family and girlfriend. Their confidence and unfaltering support made the entire project possible. I have particularly benefited from the past experiences of my brother who, along with the rest of my family, serves as a continuing source of inspiration. CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1 Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is a process which attempts to identify, predict and assess potential development impacts before irrevocable decisions are made (E.C.E. , 1982). Monitoring is an essential E I A component. It describes the repetitive qualitative observation, or more preferably measurement, of environmental variables (Munro et al., 1986). By designing monitoring to test impact hypotheses, it can be used to establish cause-effect relationships between project-induced impacts and affected environmental components. A n adaptive monitoring approach allows for the adjustment of monitoring design if frequent data evaluation suggests that it is appropriate. From its formal introduction in the early 1970s, approaches to E I A have progressed considerably. E I A has evolved from a narrowly focused effort concerned solely with the geophysical effects of development to an interdisciplinary activity considering wider-ranging implications: geophysical, ecological, and socio-economic. However, a review of the E I A literature reveals a recurring dissatisfaction with the design, implementation and, consequently, the results of impact monitoring. If satisfaction with monitoring as an E I A component is to improve, it is necessary to examine its current deficiencies and provide opportunities for their resolution. Unfortunately, monitoring has matured in a less innovative fashion than have general approaches to E IA . While innovative conceptual approaches to impact monitoring exist, they are only at the initial stages of being applied in practice. This thesis examines one such approach, adaptive monitoring, and suggests opportunities for its use with regard to the proposed Peace River Site C hydroelectric development Its objectives are threefold: 1. To evaluate the E I A completed for the proposed Peace River Site C dam based on the current reservoir impact paradigm; 2. To evaluate the monitoring that was completed for the Site C E I A and the monitoring requirements arising from the Site C Panel hearings; and 2 3. To recommend opportunities for employing an adaptive impact monitoring strategy for future Site C investigations and illustrate its potential benefits. Based primarily on a series of literature reviews, file reviews and interviews the thesis is divided into two sections: (1). A Theoretical Framework and (2). A Case Study. I. T H E O R E T I C A L F R A M E W O R K (Chapters 2 - 3) Chapter 2 traces the evolution of E I A prior to its formal adoption in the early 1970s to the present. Accompanying a discussion of E I A legislation is a description of its evolving focus: from an early emphasis on geophysical impacts, to a recognition of the importance of socio-economic factors, to more recent applications of the principles of Adaptive Environmental Assessment and Management ( A E A M ) , (Holling, 1978). Chapter 2 provides an historical perspective on general E I A development that supports a discussion of both its evolution in British Columbia (Chapter 5) and the particular assessment undertaken for Site C (Chapter 6). Chapter 3 analyses monitoring approaches in E IA . It begins with a description and conceptual model of conventional monitoring practices. Major criticisms characteristic of many contemporary monitoring strategies are discussed: a poor reflection of environmental system understanding, an excessive collection of often statistically invalid data, and a failure to treat each project as a learning process. Two innovative approaches to impact monitoring that depart from conventional practices are then described. Both are based on the principles of A E A M and contribute significantly to the adaptive monitoring approach detailed at the end of the chapter. The adaptive monitoring discussion is based on a conceptual model emphasizing frequent data evaluation throughout the monitoring process. Its potential benefits are highlighted. Chapter 3 provides a necessary foundation for analysing the early monitoring completed for the Site C E I A and recommending opportunities for employing an adaptive monitoring approach for future investigations. 3 H. C A S E S T U D Y (Chapters 4 - 8 ) The case study draws from the theoretical background developed in the preceding section to examine the evolution of E I A in British Columbia and, in particular, to analyse the E I A and monitoring completed for Site C . In addition, and perhaps most importantly, the theoretical framework permits the application of the conceptual model of adaptive monitoring to Site C. Potential opportunities for the practical use of adaptive monitoring are illustrated. Chapter 4 provides an overview of the current reservoir impact paradigm. It focuses primarily on northern-temperate reservoirs and the aquatic impacts associated with hydroelectric development. Five main categories of impacts are described including those on climate, morphometry and hydrology, water quality, lower trophic levels and fish. A n understanding of the types of impacts currently known to occur with reservoir development is critical to evaluating the effectiveness of the Site C E I A in Chapter 6. It also supports the application of the adaptive monitoring model to specific Site C impacts in Chapter 8. In Chapter 5 two specific Acts authorizing E I A in British Columbia are described: the Environment Management Act and the Utilities Commission Act. The latter is discussed in greater detail since it provided the legislative authority for the Site C E I A and public hearings. A n example of an assessment completed under the Utilities Commission Act demonstrates the importance of legislative authority to E IA . Chapter 5 provides a foundation for the detailed analysis of the context of the Site C project and its E IA . Chapter 6 begins with a description of the context of the Site C project including the respective roles of the main actors involved. The twelve-year period from initial feasibility studies to the present is divided into four phases: Project Initiation (1975 - 1976), Project Analysis (1977 - 1980), Project Evaluation and Recommendations (1981 - 1983), and Cabinet Decision to Present (1984 - 1987). The E I A completed for Site C is then examined. Based on the reservoir impact paradigm, the effectiveness of the Site C E I A in utilizing current 4 environmental system understanding is evaluated. Whi le emphasis prior to Chapter 6 is placed on the geophysical and biophysical effects of development, this chapter also details potential Site C socio-economic impacts. Although it lies beyond the scope of this thesis, their diversity and complexity suggest that socio-economic impact monitoring would also benefit from an adaptive approach. In Chapter 7 attention is focused toward examining how well monitoring opportunities were identified through the Site C Panel hearings and report. It also analyses recommendations that were suggested for future monitoring research and design. As with Chapter 6, potential environmental and socio-economic impacts are both considered. However, emphasis is placed on the latter category of impacts as they provide an illustration for adaptive monitoring in the fol lowing chapter. Chapter 8 applies the adaptive monitoring principles developed in Chapter 3 to potential Site C impacts on downstream water temperature and fisheries resources. These impacts span the range of difficulty in impact prediction and both were recognized as requiring monitoring to obtain sufficient information to permit effective project management. Recommendations for utilizing adaptive monitoring in relation to the above impacts are provided and the potential advantages of so doing are illustrated. To conclude, Chapter 9 summarizes the major findings of both the theoretical and case study sections. Recommendations for improving impact monitoring strategies for both Site C and other resource development projects are provided. I. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 5 The term theoretical, in the context of this thesis, describes a concept without reference to its practical application. The theoretical framework provides a foundation for analysing the case study in the following section. First, it establishes the general evolution of E I A approaches. This supports a more detailed discussion of its role in Brit ish Columbia with particular reference to the Site C E IA . Second, the framework describes conventional monitoring practices and criticisms surrounding them and illustrates two recent, innovative approaches to impact monitoring. Finally, the framework offers a conceptual model of adaptive impact monitoring which is later applied to potential Site C impacts. 6 CHAPTER 2 EVOLUTION OF EIA APPROACHES 2.1 L E G I S L A T I O N A N D POL IC IES The intrcxiuction of the Canadian E I A process is one of the more innovative government initiatives introduced in recent times. E I A is innovative for two main reasons: (1). a decision-making process has been institutionalized to assess the impacts of development on geophysical, ecological, and socio-economic systems, and (2). in most jurisdictions public concerns in determining standards of environmental quality are recognized (Whitney and Maclaren, 1985). A combination of 1960's influences, including a heightened ecological awareness, resulted in the U.S. Congressional passage of the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) in 1969. A powerful legislative tool, NEPA requires evidence that environmental considerations have been taken into account in relation to both federal projects and private development involving federal property or funding (Doremus et al., 1978). This evidence must be submitted as an Environmental Impact Statement, the contents of which should include (1). a description and justification of the proposed action, and (2). an evaluation of the potential environmental impact (Fischer and Da vies, 1973). In 1971, the Canadian Federal Department of the Environment was established to ensure that federal departments and agencies considered the potential environmental impacts of proposed developments (Effer, 1984a). Its creation was facilitated by various factors including the U.S. adoption of NEPA, a political desire to pacify a vocal environmental movement, the increasing scale and complexity of public project developments, and the previously inadequate consideration of environmental and social concerns by existing project appraisal methods (O'Riordan and Sewell , 1981; Dorcey, 1984). A Federal Department of Environment task force, under the auspices of its first minister The Hon. Jack Davis, examined the NEPA policies and procedures and prepared a report that eventually led to the establishment of the 7 Canadian Environmental Assessment and Review Process (EARP) in 1973 (Lucas, 1981). EARP was initially established by a Cabinet order, and was strengthened by a second Cabinet directive in 1977. In 1979 the Government Organization Act reaffirmed the federal Minister of the Environment's responsibility for the E I A of federal projects, programs and activities (Hurtubise and Wolf , 1980). In 1984, following ten years of evolution and a Cabinet directed evaluation of EARP, process improvements were proclaimed by an Order-In-Counci l . The Order-In-Council replaces and is stronger than previous Cabinet directives, but does not possess the legislative authority of NEPA, its U.S. predecessor (Marshall, 1987). EARP's mandate is to ensure that the environmental and directly related social impacts of federal proposals are examined for potential adverse effects early in the planning process before irrevocable decisions are made. Federal proposals are categorized in four classes: (1). those undertaken directly by a federal initiating department (2). those having an environmental effect on an area of federal responsibility, (3). those for which the federal government has a financial commitment, or (4). those located on lands, including the offshore, under federal government administration ( C . C . R . E . M . , 1985). EARP procedures provide for both preliminary and, i f necessary, comprehensive project assessment and review. The initial assessment or screening stage involves an analysis of existing information, expert opinion and any additional studies that can be accomplished in the available time (Figure 1). It describes and evaluates the environmental consequences of the project and distinguishes those proposed actions without environmental consequence. Upon screening one of three decisions can result: 1. insignificant adverse effects or small mitigable effects, so project proceeds; 2. effects or ability to mitigate unknown, more detailed assessment required; or 3. significant environmental effects, comprehensive E I A required, F E A R O establishes a panel to review the project. • A n initiating department is defined as \"a federal department that has the decision-making authority for a proposal\" ( C . C . R . E . M . , 1985:9). 8 INITIAL ASSESSMENT PROPOSALS SCREENING AUTOMATIC EXCLUSION INSIGNIFICANT ADVERSE EFFECTS ADVERSE EFFECTS MITIGABLE ABILITY TO MITIGATE UNKNOWN EFFECTS UNKNOWN SIGNIFICANT ADVERSE EFFECTS SIGNIFICANT PUBLIC CONCERN AUTOMATIC REFERRAL INITIAL ENVIRONMENTAL EVALUATION PROJECT PROCEEDS ABANDON OR POSTPONE MODIFY AND RESCREEN Figure 1. Federal Environmental Assessment Review Process: I n i t i a l Assessment Phase (FEARO, 1987). 9 Should there be potential for significant adverse effects an E I A is prepared by the proponent and submitted for panel review. The comprehensive assessment and review stage describes the environmental consequences of development in sufficient detail to permit the panel to make a recommendation on the proposal (Effer, 1984a). During the panel review public comment is invited either informally through written or oral submission, or formally through written submissions and their subsequent defense at a public hearing. Final ly, the panel provides a recommendation on the acceptability of the proposal to the federal Minister of the Environment for a political decision whether or not to proceed with the project. If approval is granted it is usually with certain regulatory conditions as recommended by the review panel. EARP is administered through the Federal Environmental Assessment and Review Office (FEARO) and its Executive Chairman reports directly to the federal Minister of the Environment (Couch et al., 1983). Since 1984 F E A R O has administered research on ways to improve the scientific, procedural and technical basis for E I A through its appointed Canadian Environmental Assessment Research Counci l ( C E A R C ) . Provincial governments and their agencies derive their authority to carry out E IAs on projects involving provincial resources and financing from a variety of legal bases. Despite their obvious geographical, social, institutional and economic diversities, similarities exist with both the evolution and structure of provincial legal authorities ( C . C . R . E . M . , 1985). In 1975, Ontario was the nation's first province to pass an Environmental Impact Assessment Act. Quebec followed, amending the Environmental Quality Actin 1978 to include environmental assessment legislation. In 1980 Saskatchewan and Newfoundland also passed Environmental Assessment Acts. British Columbia strengthened E I A practices within existing statutes bypassing the 1980 Utilities Commission Act md 1981 Environment Management Act. Provincial statutes provide authority for E I A in Alberta and Nova Scotia, while Manitoba, Prince Edward Island and New Brunswick E I A processes are based on government policy directives. The Northwest and Yukon Territories fall under F E A R O administration. While 1 0 similarities exist in their evolution, provincial E I A policies neither lagged behind nor directly reflected federal legislation. Indeed, several provinces' E I A policies progressed beyond the federal government's EARP. British Columbia, for example, witnessed its first major assessment independent of federal policy in 1974 for a hydroelectric proposal on the Pend-d'Oreille River. The assessment was completed under comprehensive guidelines established by the provincial Environment and Land Use Committee Secretariat (Dorcey, 1987a) 2.2 A N E V O L V I N G F O C U S The evolution of E I A procedures may be conveniently grouped into four time periods: prior to 1970, early to mid-1970s, mid-1970s to 1980, and 1980 to present. 2.2.1 Prior to 1970 As evidenced by a lack of formal legislation or policy prior to 1970, environmental concern over development was not widespread. Economic and technological considerations, unencumbered by environmental interests, were the primary determinants of project feasibility. Economic cost-benefit techniques provided the principal tools for project assessment. 2.2.2 Early to Mid-1970s Largely in response to a vocal environmental movement E I A became institutionalized in the early 1970s. Initially E I A was dominated by a \"technocratic perspective\" (Boothroyd and Rees, 1984:2). Concentrating on biophysical science, the early focus of E I A was on the product rather than the planning process. It became apparent that a major difficulty that resulted from the E I A requirement of NEPA was that a corresponding E I A methodology did not exist. 2 Consequently, the E I A process was established as a hybrid of existing planning methods being applied in a variety of fields: urban, regional, and transportation studies; and • For a detailed examination of evolving E I A methodolgies please refer to McFfarg, 1969; Leopold etal., 1971; Dee etal., 1973; Coleman, 1977; Sondheim, 1978; Munn, 1979; and Wathern, 1984. 11 water resources management projects (Pushchak, 1985). E IAs were often lengthy statements on the environment, incorporating extensive baseline data often insignificant to future analysis. 3 Schindler (1976:509), in his highly acclaimed critique of contemporary E I A practices, concluded that the information collected through monitoring often resulted in \"...large, diffuse reports containing reams of uninterpreted and incomplete descriptive data 4 , and in some cases, [the construction of] \"predictive\" models, irrespective of the quality of the data base.\" Initially, social implications were not considered as significant and the overriding concern was with geophysical and ecological impacts in E IA . N o opportunities existed for public participation in project screening or evaluation. 2.2.3 Mid-1970s to 1980 A dissatisfaction with convoluted, superficial E IAs encouraged practitioners to produce more focused, relevant studies during this period. E IAs began to reflect interdisciplinary concerns, however, emphasis was still directed toward geophysical and ecological impacts. Indeed, efforts were made at improving the scientific credibility of E IAs based on the predictive nature of the physical sciences. Boothroyd and Rees (1984:2) explain it thus: The assumption was that complex environmental and social systems are completely knowable: given sufficient information, we should be able to discover the basic laws governing their behaviour, and from this both predict and manage the negative impacts of any development proposal. A n extension of the prediction approach based on the physical sciences was reflected in the systems analysis research conducted in the mid to late-1970s. Computer models were 3 - Baseline data can also be described as pre-project monitoring. They are collected for environmental variables likely to be affected with project development. 4 - Dorcey (1986) defines descriptive knowledge as that describing the elements of an ecosystem versus functional knowledge which describes cause-effect relationships between elements or processes. developed in interdisciplinary workshop environments and were used as components of Adaptive Management strategies (Walters, 1975). Adaptive Management includes two approaches: manipulating existing facilities, or developing and analysing simulation models with similar characteristics to the proposed project, to obtain information on the potential effects of development; and/or observing the effects on the natural system as development proceeds so adaptive alterations can be imposed (Dorcey, 1987b). Adaptive management capitalizes on the reality that management decisions must be made. It involves testing specific project-related impact hypotheses by implementing management decisions and monitoring their results in a learn with development1 fashion (Dorcey and Ha l l , 1981). Adaptations to management policy can then be arranged to help meet overall project objectives. By the end of the 1970s it became apparent that despite the best efforts of qualified participants E I A was not meeting its initial expectations. While ecologists provided a much better understanding of complex natural systems, they were unable to offer a coherent theory of ecosystem behavior under stress (Boothroyd and Rees, 1984). Furthermore, biologists had difficulty both quantifying the natural system and correspondingly subjecting their data to rigorous analysis. In the mid-1970s social scientists began to express an interest and become involved in impact assessment processes (Boothroyd and Rees, 1984). E I A started to consider the impacts of project-related changes on community development and infrastructure, life-styles, and regional economic opportunities. This period witnessed the first comprehensive examination of socio-economic impacts, directly related to environmental impacts, in project E IAs. Both the Mackenzie Val ley Pipeline Inquiry (Berger, 1977) and the Lancaster Sound Offshore Dri l l ing Project, Northwest Territories, considered socio-economic impacts and invited public participation for their evaluation (Marshall, 1987). 2.2.4 1980 to Present The 1980s are witnessing more integrative approaches to E IA . Interdisciplinary teams linking scientists, project and government managers, and technicians are increasingly producing E IAs that transcend the earlier voluminous reports on the environment. The focus of E I A is progressively turning toward integrated project management equally addressing potential geophysical, ecological, and socio-economic impacts of development. However, the recent conceptual advances in E I A are only beginning to be reflected in practice. 5 Boothroyd and Rees (1984) suggest that a new E I A paradigm may be emerging, particularly in Canada. The new paradigm places E I A as a component of the development planning process rather than simply a regulatory response-to-proposal or scientific research activity. The development planning process is an evolving political activity by which society makes choices concerning resources management. The extent to which this wi l l develop is yet unknown. Rees (1980:373) cautions that: In short, since E A R P remains largely a reactive mechanism with a questionable record even in merely assessing the environmental consequences of individual undertakings, it cannot realistically be expected to assume successfully the lead role in what should be regional development planning. Despite a perceived federal commitment to EARP, and f irm NEPA legislation, there is widespread disenchantment surrounding the greater influence on project approval enjoyed by traditional institutional, political, and economic issues than ecological or social concerns identified through E I A . Pushchak (1985) describes a resistance to legislate E I A in Canada due to a desire to maintain flexibility to balance environmental concerns with political needs. The perceived benefits to government(s) of discretionary powers were enforced by the political difficulties experienced in the U.S. over the delay in the Trans-Alaska Pipeline development due to NEPA requirements bound in legislation. Initially delayed while E IAs and native land claims were settled, the 1973-74 oi l shock made it politically imperative for the U.S. to • For example the proposed Beaufort Sea Hydrocarbon Development E I A and subsequent monitoring program (to be discussed further in Chapter 3). 14 increase energy self-sufficiency by approving the pipeline. NEPA lacked flexibility so Congress, under public criticism, overrode it and obtained project approval (Jackson, 1976; Pushchak, 1985). Debate exists over the contentious issue of project exemption from a review process characteristic of all Canadian federal and provincial jurisdictions. Some jurisdictions utilize explicit 'exemption provisions', others, including the federal and British Columbia governments, make exemptions informally at the screening and terms of reference stage. The difficulty with Canadian discretionary power, as opposed to NEPA's rigid legislation, is well described by Emond (1985:71): ... EIA is a concept that is still not well accepted by government. The theory may be persuasive, but if the practice inconveniences a proponent and requires that decision-making be restructured, the pressure to dispense with EIA [by either formal or informal exemption] is almost irresistable. While the above EIA deficiencies require attention, it is important to remember that EIA is yet in its infancy, but has matured considerably over its relatively short, but continuing evolution (Slaymaker, 1987). Experience with EIA is providing an increasing awareness that instability is an inherent characteristic of any ecosystem. Thus it is only prudent to maintain flexibility to react to unexpected impacts or events. The concept of Adaptive Environmental Assessment and Management (AEAM) recognizes this fundamental ecosystem characteristic and has begun to be reflected in recent EIAs (Holling, 1978; Jones and Greig, 1985). A E A M principles are exploited in the development of an adaptive impact monitoring strategy and therefore require further discussion. A E A M challenges the assertion that more information necessarily leads to better decision-making. Rather, this approach argues that the main function of impact assessment is not cataloguing data on every conceivable impact but to more rigorously analyse potential critical impacts of development. It has two major components: (1). the orchestration of key scientists, managers and decision-makers in a series of interdisciplinary workshops; and (2). the use of dynamic systems modeling to \"...limit the scope of the environmental assessment to relevant factors affecting decisions\" and \"...help identify important gaps in data and understanding that must be filled before an important decision can be taken\" (Everitt, 1983:294). The latter is especially important to monitoring design and implementation. A series of modeling workshops provide the foundation for AE AM. They are facilitated by a workshop staff experienced in computer modeling, systems and policy analysis, and group dynamics (Holling, 1979). The first workshop, two to five days in duration, attended by all participants, defines the problem and establishes its limits or boundaries (scoping and bounding). The system under consideration is divided into a small number of usually disciplinary subsystems. Participants then enlist in groups and develop a submodel associated with their particular subsystem. Before each group fulfills their individual tasks a looking outward' exercise is performed where interdisciplinary communication is encouraged by \"...requiring each subgroup to specify the information it requires from each of the other subgroups, to make predictions concerning the indicators of relevance to that subsystem\" (Jones and Greig, 1985:31). A crude outline of the model is then developed and its information requirements are determined. By the end of the first workshop preliminary model testing may occur by subjecting it to various management actions (scenarios) and noting the response of model variables. It can then be adjusted according to group consensus (Everitt, 1983). Everitt further emphasizes that the model, while only a caricature of the real world, has a group perspective far superior to that of an individual. It also develops communication avenues and identifies information gaps and research priorities. Research required to fill information gaps and better operate the model is conducted prior to the second workshop. The information is then incorporated into the model and it is 16 tested more rigorously during the second and possibly additional workshops. Initial workshops focus on technical matters, subsequent workshops concentrate on communicating results to managers and decision-makers. Some workshop members may be involved in monitoring activities resulting from the assessment (Holl ing, 1979). Everitt (1983:296) summarizes the key factors of A E A M : a. Ecological and environmental knowledge is incorporated with economic and social concerns at the beginning of a strategic analysis rather than at the end of a design process; b. Since linked resource/social systems are dynamic rather than static and linear, techniques of simulation modelling, qualitative modelling, and policy design and evaluation are used to reflect these features; c. Scientists, managers, and policy people are involved and interact from the beginning and throughout the process of synthesis, analysis, and design so that learning becomes as much of a product as does problem solving; d. Direction, design, and understanding are in the hands of those from the region who analyze, select and endure policies rather than in the hands of a separate group of analysts who lack the knowledge of needs, the responsibility and the accountability; and e. Although prediction can be improved, A E A M recognizes that the uncertain and unexpected lie in the future of every design. Hence policies are designed both to explore opportunities and pitfalls as well as to fulf i l l immediate social needs. The principles of A E A M are fundamental to the adaptive monitoring strategy advanced in Chapter 3. CHAPTER 3 MONITORING APPROACHES IN EIA 17 3.1 T R A D I T I O N A L P R A C T I C E S As defined earlier, monitoring refers to the repetitive qualitative observation, or more preferably measurement, of environmental variables (Munro et al, 1986). While many variations exist, Figure 2 illustrates the common relationship between project development and monitoring; it also depicts the information requirements of each monitoring phase. Baseline monitoring is defined here as pre-impact studies conducted at the potential development site which are later contrasted with construction and operation monitoring to determine changes attributable to project development. Information for mitigation and compensation purposes is required throughout all stages of development. Similarly, experimental information, not necessarily related to project management may be desired. In general, the latter would advance the scientific understanding of the environment but would not necessarily contribute to immediate project management. Inspection information is necessary to ensure that project construction and operation comply with prescribed regulations. Rosenberg et al. (1981) suggest that current monitoring practices may be the most critical element of E I A because the information collected from monitoring determines the value of assessment techniques and the accuracy of impact predictions. It also indicates excessive impacts requiring immediate mitigation, and provides information for regulating project operation. Hol l ing (1978) describes the importance of monitoring for providing essential experience and data to advance the scientific basis for E IA. Current monitoring strategies can also provide useful case-history information to improve the basis for examining future developments. During and immediately following the 1972 U .N . Conference on the Human Environment (Stockholm Conference) substantial resources were devoted to monitoring design Project Development Stages Pre-Project Design A -f> Project Construction A -{> Project Operation A Monitoring Stages Information Requirements Baseline Monitoring -f> Construction Monitoring —[> Operation Monitoring - mitigation/compensation - experimentation mitigation/compensation experimentation inspection - mitigation/compensation - experimentation - inspection Figure 2. The Common Relationship Between Project Development and Monitoring. oo and operation (Sors, 1984). This effort was primarily aimed at the international level (e.g. Global Environmental Monitoring System), but there was optimism that consequent procedural improvements and increased understanding would facilitate the refinement of more regional, even local monitoring practices. Despite the \"considerable resources\" devoted to monitoring, Sors (1984:366) among others (Schindler, 1976; Munn, 1979; Rigby, 1985) stress that monitoring practices have failed to meet initial expectations. 3.1.1 Criticisms of Traditional Monitoring Practices Although there is currently a strong emphasis being placed on developing effective monitoring procedures, criticisms surrounding their design and implementation remain numerous. A principle factor contributing to the current dissatisfaction with monitoring is that in relation to its parent E I A process, a disproportionately small amount of attention has been afforded to better define and develop monitoring strategies (Rosenberg and Bodaly, 1986). Rather, early monitoring programs were very ambitious and consumed considerable resources but were designed without clear objectives and were therefore of limited value. The scientific and technical complexity of monitoring design has emerged gradually, and it is clear that the questions of what, where, when and how to monitor are more difficult to answer than was originally anticipated (Sors, 1984). These problems and the criticisms to follow, result from inadequate consideration being given to the fact that monitoring \"...is not an end in itself, but an essential step in the process of environmental management\" (The Rockefeller Foundation, 1977). While the relationship illustrated in Figure 2 is commonly followed, much too frequently serious deficiencies such as omitting baseline or operation monitoring occur. Comment Rosenberg et al. (1986:773): \"...there are few examples of e.i.a.'s for which both predictive and monitoring phases are available. Unfortunately the monitoring and assessment phase is usually deleted.\" The authors refer to the common problem of EIAs offering many pre-development impact predictions but failing to verify them through post-development 20 monitoring. Duinker (1985:125) concurs describing the \"dismal\" record of effects [construction and operation] monitoring in Canada. When monitoring is completed it is often plagued by one or more of the following criticisms. 1. Monitoring programs fail to adequately utilize past experience, such as existing case studies and, thus, do not reflect the current state of environmental system understanding. Holl ing (1979:5) describes a traditional myth of impact assessment: \"Each new assessment is unique.\" he adds \"In fact, all ecological systems face some common problems, and the ecological literature can throw some light on them.\" However, as Andrews (1978) suggests, there is insufficient use of the existing literature which results in poor environmental system understanding during monitoring design. Dorcey and Hal l (1981:9) describe the utilization of existing comparative case studies as \"desk analyses.\" Desk analyses exploit the results of previous monitoring efforts to help f i l l information gaps and contribute to the effective design of future monitoring programs. One of the fundamental difficulties with monitoring design is selecting and quantifying specific biotic conditions while allowing for natural variability in time and space (Hinds, 1984). Comparative case studies-especially those in the same geographical region-would greatly facilitate choosing variables for analysis and designing a monitoring strategy to measure how they are affected by development. Adequate desk analyses, using existing development information, would increase environmental system understanding during monitoring design. It would also improve the overall cost-efficiency of monitoring design and implementation by reducing duplication of effort. Although useful insights can be gained, Rosenberg etal. (1986) caution against placing too much confidence in analogy—comparative case studies—due to often overriding factors of site-specificity. Hol l ing (1979:4) adds that the ecological effects of development are not uniform, \"Different areas react in different ways.\" thus increasing the uncertainty surrounding analogy. In addition to the insufficient use of existing information and consequential poor 21 reflection of environmental system understanding, Beanlands and Duinker (1983) report that there has been little regard to the incorporation of ecological principles in E IA . This lack of ecological perspective in E I A was partially a result of the little experience available to draw upon in drafting initial legislation and policies. Furthermore, there was initially little incentive to incorporate ecological principles in E I A for two reasons: (1). its objectives and the roles of participants were so poorly defined that there was little interest in technical details, and (2). \"...it is generally accepted that decisions on project approval are often based on social, political and economic factors, and secondarily on environmental concerns\" (Beanlands, 1985:4). He further argues that the major impediments to improved ecological consideration in E I A and monitoring are (1). Technical - the limits of ecological knowledge, natural system variation, a tendency to only refer to familiar, previously-managed systems, a focus on the population level, and a lack of supporting research; and (2). Polit ical - the arm's length philosophy of government-industrial proponent relations, the intertia of bureaucracy and resistance to immediate change, and financial and manpower constraints. 2. Poor monitoring design often results in two deficiences. A. excessive data collection, much of which is of little use to managers or decision-makers because their needs were not considered from the outset. Poor monitoring design often results in studies being produced that are \"...generally lengthy descriptions of the existing biological system\" (Valiela, 1984:143). Whi le scientifically interesting, such studies rarely answer questions important to impact and project management. This is primarily because monitoring strategies are not designed from the outset to answer specific management questions or to test specific impact hypotheses. Hol l ick (1981) states that there is a mismatch between the needs of the proponent and those of the reviewers. As a result excessive data, often insignificant to future analysis, is collected. Hirsch (1980) agrees, adding that more functional and relevant studies are required describing the important components and processes comprising environmental ecosystems. 22 B. statistically invalid data collection due to a lack of consideration of spatial-temporal controls, analytical techniques and methods of data analyses. Similar to the problem with data irrelevance, statistically invalid data is often collected largely because the question of what is necessary to maintain statistical credibility is not posed during monitoring design, implementation and operation. Similarly, the question of what is required of the data for future statistical analyses is ill-considered. The question of what degree of statistical power is necessary to test impact hypotheses must be addressed to ensure that the data collected will contribute to subsequent analyses so that monitoring effort is not extended unnecessarily. A fundamental difficulty results from trying to differentiate development-related impacts from natural system variability. To do so, both time-series (temporal) and spatial controls are necessary. Baseline monitoring—data collection prior to development—provides one source of temporal control. Hilborn and Walters (1981:266) argue that most EIAs involve one or two years of fieldwork prior to development which is \"...not nearly enough time to observe the natural variability in the system. Baseline studies must be of a much longer duration.\" Furthermore, baseline monitoring is often not designed in relation to construction and operation monitoring. Hence, rather than strengthening the statistical validity of the baseline monitoring, construction and operation monitoring measure entirely unrelated variables. This results in the cost-ineffective compilation of unnecessary descriptive data. In an analysis of the data collected for numerous reservoir impact assessments Rosenberg et al. (1981) state that often no control conditions were established, no accounts were made to explain variance in baseline data, and sampling site selection was often determined by convenience at the expense of ecological rationale. Furthermore, physical and biological data were often collected at 'grossly' different times which precluded the possibility of even correlation. The deficiencies in designing statistically credible monitoring programs become especially important since, as Hammond et al. (1983) suggest, scientific statements are usually probabilistic while policy decision-makers prefer singular, discrete choices from fixed, mutually exclusive alternatives. Although such requirements can seldom, i f ever, be fulfi l led, it emphasizes the need to provide information that is at least statistically defensible. Furthermore, both the relevance and statistical credibility of the data collected play major roles in determining the monitoring program's cost-effectiveness. Hinds (1984:13) explains it thus: \"...where many years of effort and expense may be involved. If a biologically significant change cannot be determined to be real, the monitoring effort is a failure.\" 3. Monitoring strategies are neither designed to treat each project as a learning process nor to improve the basis for examining future developments. Another major deficiency of current monitoring practices is the failure to use the results of each project through desk analyses to improve the basis for future developments. Currently, a principal reason for the inadequate use of past experience in monitoring design is that past performance is rarely evaluated or documented (Beanlands and Duinker, 1983; A I M Ecological Consultants Ltd. , 1985). In addition to facilitating future monitoring design, the information derived from previous monitoring efforts can improve capabilities in impact prediction, assessment, and mitigation. Clearly, the failure to treat each project as a learning process and take advantage of past experience results in an unnecessary duplication of monitoring effort with each new development. The Adaptive Management principles discussed in Chapter 2 provide considerable opportunities to treat each project as a learning process. Particularly useful is the technique of manipulating existing facilities or projects to simulate effects that wi l l be caused by the proposed development on equivalent temporal and spatial scales. Impacts can be assessed and extrapolated. Even i f not perfectly transferable—due to site-specific factors—they wi l l give a very good indication of potential impacts and their magnitude. Such experimental approaches are especially beneficial in relation to \"all-or-none\" projects such as hydroelectric developments 24 because their scale and the complexity of the system affected often limit the effectiveness of simulation modeling, comparative studies, or limited development (Valiela, 1984:157). Monitoring is often perceived as being prohibitively costly. Buffington (1978) indicates that environmental monitoring consumed approximately seven to eight-hundred mil l ion dollars in the U.S. alone in 1977. He does not contrast this figure to total project expenditures. However, Munn (1979) suggests that the total preparation of an E I A (including monitoring, but excluding screening of alternatives and design) probably absorbs about 0.1% of the capital cost of a project. In contrast, engineering fees and project design may require up to 10% of the total project cost. Thus, the cost of monitoring does not appear exhorbitant. However, Duinker (1985) describes the large amount of debate within the Canadian E I A community over who should fund, carry out and review project monitoring. While there is little argument that the proponent should fund pre-project approval E I A studies, the financial burden of operation monitoring is much disputed. Proponents are reluctant to fund research primarily oriented toward increasing scientific knowledge. Therefore, a principal difficulty that is impossible to resolve completely, but essential to recognize while developing monitoring strategies is the diverse, often opposing perspectives held by those who design, fund, and subsequently use the results of monitoring programs. The major participants usually include industrial proponents (including provincial utilities), government regulators, scientists, and consultants. Industrial Proponents (including Provincial Utilities) Mi l le r (1984) asserts that many proponents' standard set of operating procedures, policies, deadlines and long-range plans wi l l cause certain preconceptions to be reflected in the way they direct and respond to the E I A and its monitoring component. Beanlands and Duinker (1983) add that proponents wi l l normally only establish monitoring programs when required to under permit/licence conditions, as a reference base to determine adequate compensation, as a basis to dispute project over-regulation, or perhaps most importantly, to expeditiously facilitate project 25 approval. The inclusion of long-term monitoring strategies, beyond those required to pacify government regulators in the initial E I A are neglected. Understandably, proponents are reluctant to fund monitoring to obtain information that they feel is simply improving scientific knowledge. Government Regulators Beanlands and Duinker (1983:22) state that \"Government administrators tend to view environmental impact assessment as the fulfillment of required procedures as set by policy or legislation.\" Terms of reference for the study are often lists of tasks with insufficient consideration of scientific direction or performance standard requirements. Unfortunately, analysis of technical/scientific quality is only considered when the monitoring is completed and submitted for review. Government regulators tend to focus on a wide range of issues and make value judgements, particularly when confronted with alternatives (Turnbull, 1983). They especially value operational monitoring for assessing the efficacy of mitigation, and for inspection purposes. Government regulators are responsible for representing the general public interest during monitoring design and implementation. Scientists Despite their apprehension to become involved in E I A due to time and political constraints, scientists are often consulted in the preparation of E I A guidelines. These constraints, however, usually preclude the adoption of acceptable science in E IA . Scientists view monitoring as a means of hypothesis testing or verification of impact predictions; both of which lead to increased understanding of the effects of development on the environment. As opposed to government regulators, scientists tend to focus on specific sets of variables and their relationships, and discredit value judgements as being unscientific (Turnbull, 1983). Mi l le r (1984) adds that the scientific usefulness of the final report (EIA) is reflected in the acceptable presentation of quality data in a sound analytical framework. Unfortunately, such stringent requirements are infrequently established during monitoring design. Consultants Most often consultants, retained by proponents, have the task of preparing E IAs . They must translate vaguely stated direction into short-term lab and field studies. Under proponent scrutiny, they must minimize their efforts to that required for project approval, while ensuring that the data collected are acceptable so that project delay does not result. Thus, a compromise is necessary between the approval required by the government, the time and budgetary constraints imposed by the proponent and the \"...scientific and technical standards they [consultants] would l ike to adopt to ensure acceptance within a process that is essentially a peer review\" (Beanlands andDuinker, 1983:22). The difficulty in establishing effective monitoring strategies is further aggravated by the fact that E I A is a relatively young discipline (only institutionalized for approximately 15 years). Thus, although new and innovative impact monitoring strategies have evolved, there are always associated time lags between the development of new ideas to their assimilation in common practice and incorporation into formal guidelines. 3.2 R E C E N T I N N O V A T I V E A P P R O A C H E S Two innovative approaches to impact monitoring which remedy many of the above criticisms have recently emerged: the Beaufort Environmental Monitoring Project (BEMP) and Environmental Effects Monitoring (EEM). Both utilize the principles of A E A M described in section 2.2, and the concept of valued ecosystem components (VEC) . Beanlands and Duinker (1983) define V E C s as resources that are important to local human populations or are of national or international significance, and i f affected, wi l l be important in evaluating the impacts of development and in focusing management policy. E E M is a conceptual strategy for impact monitoring developed by Environment Canada. The E E M concept was recently evaluated in a series of workshops attended by government managers and technicians, industry representatives, and consultants. E E M provides draft 27 guidelines and policies for Environment Canada that: 1. are relevant to operational, middle and senior managers within Environment Canada; 2. provide technical direction for the design of E E M programs within Environment Canada; 3. provide management direction on the establishment and management of E E M programs within Environment Canada; and 4. improve Environment Canada's role as an advocate and advisor in E E M when reviewing EISs, intervening at Panel hearings, advising other government departments on the design and management of E E M programs, establishing baseline information needs, etc. (Conover, 1987:408). E E M , l ike the B E M P , has considerable potential for advancing the state of impact monitoring. Unl ike the B E M P , however, E E M 1 has not been applied in practice. The B E M P has and, thus, provides the following illustration of recent innovative approaches to impact monitoring. Beaufort Environmental Monitoring Project The B E M P was initiated in 1983 and continues to \"...provide I N A C [Indian and Northern Affairs Canada] and Environment Canada with the technical basis for design, operation and evaluation of a comprehensive and defensible environmental research and monitoring program to accompany phased hydrocarbon development in the Beaufort Sea\" ( L G L Ltd. et al., 1985:xx). It considered a multitude of potential environmental issues while realizing a limited financial budget. The B E M P : 1) addresses those impacts that could be most significant i f they occurred; 2) is based on the best current understanding of industrial development scenarios and ecological processes; 3) has the capability to respond to changing industrial development scenarios and new information regarding ecological processes in the region; and 4) represents the majority viewpoint of a broad range of disciplinary specialists with the necessary experience • For a detailed discussion of the E E M concept please refer to Conover (1987). 28 in research and environmental management in the Beaufort Sea ( L G L Ltd. et al., I985:xx). Fol lowing the A E A M interdisciplinary framework, an initial B E M P workshop convened in 1983. Through it, and a series of discipline-specific technical meetings, a computer simulation model was developed and refined. A conceptual model formed the foundation for developing the simulation model, and also provided a framework for establishing a set of impact hypotheses. Impact hypotheses are sets of statements linking development activities with their associated environmental effects. Everitt et al. (1986:253) describe their three primary components: 1. The action (development activity) - that which is the potential cause of an effect. 2. The valued ecosystem component (VEC) or indicator - that which is the measure of the effect. 3. The linkages - that set of statements that link the action to the V E C . Impact hypotheses are determined by tracing through a set of linkages from development activity to V E C . 2 They offer two principal advantages: (1). the reasons for the prediction are explicitly stated in the hypothesis, and (2). they provide a consistent framework for comparison with other developments if adequate information is available (Sonntag, 1987). A second workshop rigorously evaluated the impact hypotheses which provided the basis for monitoring design. The systematic evaluation proceeded through five steps: Step 1. Clarification of the Hypotheses: achieving consensus within the working group over the structure of hypotheses and, i f necessary, restating the hypotheses and/or their associated linkages. Step 2. Documentation of Existing Knowledge: the following information was collected for all linkages constituting the hypotheses: a. evidence for and against, b. uncertainties, c. other potentially useful information, and d. description of model projections (when appropriate). • For a more detailed description and examples of impact hypotheses determination please refer to L G L Ltd. et al. (1985). 29 Step 3. Conclusion: based on Step 2 working group participants arrived at one of four conclusions. They were that a given impact hypothesis: a. was extremely unlikely and not worth testing, b. was possible, but too difficult to detect, c. required more information prior to monitoring plan development, or d. should be tested with a detailed monitoring program. Step 4. Monitoring and Research: i f either conclusion c. or d. were reached in Step 3 a discussion focussing on the linkages of the hypotheses was initiated. In order to design a monitoring plan to test the impact hypotheses the discussion addressed the following questions: a. what do we monitor ? b. what do we want to know ? c. what do we actually measure to achieve a. and b. ? d. what information wi l l we get from these measurements ? e. how does this achieve our goal of what we want to know ? Step 5. Documentation: a recorder from each working group was responsible for ensuring that documentation of discussions surrounding the impact hypotheses were submitted daily ( L G L Ltd. et al., 1985). Monitoring, defined as the repetitive measurement of variables designed to detect changes directly or indirectly related to development, was used to test impact hypotheses ( L G L Ltd. et al., 1985). The B E M P was not established to address all of the fundamental knowledge gaps existing in association with Beaufort development, but rather to identify and implement the monitoring and research necessary for effective environmental management. Following a recent workshop (December, 1986), Duval (1987) suggests that the B E M P - - i n its fourth year of operation—has proven very successful in achieving its goals. Indeed it provided a foundation for a similar program studying potential development impacts on the Mackenzie River, N . W. T. (Mackenzie Environmental Monitoring Program, 1985). Although the above description of the B E M P is incomplete, it does illustrate the project's innovative use of adaptive principles. 3.3 A D A P T I V E M O N I T O R I N G The following adaptive approach is based on the principles of A E A M and borrows significantly from the B E M P framework. Unt i l the application of the B E M P , monitoring strategies were either reactive or proactive with little flexibility to change. Adaptive monitoring encourages 3 0 adjusting monitoring practices should frequent data evaluation suggest that it is appropriate. The development of an adaptive monitoring strategy requires the participation of an interdisciplinary monitoring design team. The membership of the team wi l l vary with the project under consideration, but should include representation from all of the parties involved with project development: government managers and technicians, industry representatives, the affected general public, and consultants. A n interdisciplinary setting facilitates disciplinary specialists gaining an appreciation of another's view of the problem and encourages a more comprehensive coverage of the potential impacts of development. The most appropriate monitoring team members wi l l likely include those involved in the project E I A since they wi l l be most familiar with the potential project-related impacts. Once assembled, the interdisciplinary team can begin to develop an adaptive monitoring strategy. Adaptive monitoring has two fundamental stages: Adaptive Monitoring Design and Adaptive Monitoring Evaluation. Figure 3 illustrates the steps required for Adaptive Monitoring Design. The sequence of adaptive monitoring design steps wi l l vary with the project being considered and the background information that exists describing the local environment. These steps advance the monitoring strategy from an initial identification of V E C s to the development and evaluation of impact hypotheses and specific monitoring programs designed for their testing. Included is the desk analysis (review) of comparative case studies to facilitate the monitoring design process. Experimental design and statistical requirements for impact hypothesis testing must be clearly identified (steps 4 , 5 , and 8). The identification of potential mitigation options relevant to each impact hypothesis is also necessary. Upon completion of the design steps (Figure 3), adaptive monitoring to test impact hypotheses can be initiated. Once it has begun, the second fundamental requirement of an 1. Identification of Valued Ecosystem Components (VEC) 2. Review of probable industrial development scenarios and comparative case studies 3. Identification of impact hypotheses relating development activities to VECs 4. Definition of the study area 5. Definition of the temporal horizon for monitoring 6. Preliminary screening of impact hypotheses for validity, relevance, and credibility 7. Selection of impact hypotheses to be monitored 8. Establish monitoring requirements for impact hypotheses testing 9. Identification of potential mitigation options available relevant to the respective impact hypotheses 10. Initiation of adaptive monitoring Figure 3. Adaptive Monitoring Design Steps (after LGL Ltd. et a l . , 1985). 3 2 adaptive monitoring strategy is required: Adaptive Monitoring Evaluation (Figure 4). The following four questions are reiterated throughout all stages of monitoring: 1. Are the data being collected relevant ? 2. Are the data being collected statistically valid ? 3. D o the data provide sufficient information to permit the application of mitigation measures ? 4. Should monitoring continue (more information is necessary to test the hypothesis), should it be modified (a different type of information is required), or should it be terminated (sufficient information exists to test the hypothesis or it is no longer desirable to do so) ? The frequency of adaptive monitoring evaluation wi l l be determined by the interdisciplinary design team and wi l l vary with the respective impact hypotheses being tested. Table I compares some key characteristics of conventional and adaptive monitoring strategies. In so doing, it demonstrates the potential benefits of an adaptive approach. Principal among them is the use of comparative case studies to gather information on the potential effects of development and their implications for monitoring design. The interdisciplinary nature of adaptive monitoring design encourages a comprehensive evaluation of impact hypotheses. Furthermore, by coupling those who wi l l collect and analyse the data with those who must use it for project management, the monitoring design team can ensure the monitoring strategy's relevance. This is particularly important since otherwise there is a tendency to fol low the intuitive notion that all learning is valuable. This can lead to monitoring effort being expended collecting data of scientific interest which may be irrelevant to project management (Walters, 1986). \"Ecosystems are highly complex...posing a variety of choices for ecological monitoring measurements\" (Hinds, 1984:12). As Larkin (1984:1124) suggests, we cannot \"...count on long-term, large-scale, beforehand studies to reveal all.\" Ecosystem complexity coupled with our lack of understanding of ecological systems often results in the improper choice of variables and/or poor design for their monitoring. Both support the need for a flexible, Project Development Stages Monitoring Stages Information Requirements Pre-Project Design A -£> Project Construction -£> Project Operation A Monitoring Evaluation Questions 1. Are the data being collected relevant ? 2. Are the data being collected statistically valid ? 3. Is there sufficient information to apply mitigation measures ? 4. Should monitoring be continued, modified, or terminated ? V Baseline Monitoring -O Construction Monitoring—j> Operation Monitoring mitigation/compensation experimentation mitigation/compensation experimentation inspection - mitigation/compensation - experimentation - inspection Figure 4. Adaptive Monitoring Evaluation. 34 Table I. A Comparison of Key Conventional and Adaptive Monitoring Characteristics. C O N V E N T I O N A L A D A P T I V E developed by a core group of scientists/consultants developed by an interdisciplinary design team inflexible adapted when necessary comprehensive baseline, often excessively descriptive • baseline limited to that required to test impact hypotheses often completed for variables insignificant to later analyses conducted only for variables necessary to test impact hypotheses evaluation only after development, rare assessment of program effectiveness • frequent data evaluation to ensure data relevance and statistical validity, comprehensive evaluation following monitoring program completion often not cost-effective cost-effective 3 5 adaptive approach to impact monitoring. Should frequent data evaluation determine that the information being collected is irrelevant, monitoring efforts could be ceased or altered. Ecologically, such flexibility would improve the chances of selecting and quantifying the appropriate biotic conditions for testing impact hypotheses. A n adaptive approach also offers statistical advantages. Individuals designing the monitoring program, collecting the data, and subsequently analysing it would be combined in an interdisciplinary arena. This would promote the recognition of each other's requirements and limitations. Adaptive monitoring emphasizes the importance of considering two major factors influencing the credibility of the data collected: sampling design and the subsequent statistical analyses of the data. During the earliest stages of monitoring design it is crucial to recognize that the method of data collection limits the range and types of statistical analyses that can be used; conversely, the use of a particular method of analysis necessitates the appropriate methods of data collection. Thus, the accuracy and precision of sampling techniques along with their detection limits have significant implications for future data analyses. Similarly, the number, frequency, size, and spatial-temporal controls surrounding data sampling must be considered in relation to future statistical analyses. Skalski and McKenz ie (1982) agree, suggesting that failing to do so often results in the collection of data that are inadequate for the quantitative assessment of relatively small changes. Equally cost-ineffective, failure to consider sampling design in conjunction with future statistical analyses can result in excessive monitoring—more data is collected than is necessary. Adaptive monitoring is designed to overcome these difficulties by considering sampling design and the requirements of future statistical analyses in concert, prior to the initiation of data collection. Frequent data evaluation would then ensure that experimental design requirements, established in the monitoring design stage, were being met to permit testing impact hypotheses. Should data evaluation suggest that the information being collected is not sufficient to permit confident statistical analyses, then monitoring effort may need to be increased to improve the power of the statistical test. Should it be revealed that the data is irrelevant to impact hypotheses testing then monitoring would be 3 6 terminated for the variable under consideration. Monitoring effort would then be conserved or diverted elsewhere i f necessary. Construction and operation monitoring would enhance the usefulness of baseline monitoring since all three stages would be designed to test respective impact hypotheses. This would improve the ability to differentiate project-related impacts from the effects of natural variability. Financially an adaptive approach encourages cost-effectiveness by ensuring that monitoring effort is only exerted to collect statistically credible information relevant to future analyses: testing impact hypotheses. As Rigby (1982) and Bankes and Thompson (1980) suggest, it is better to initially focus on several very significant potential project impacts than to be all inclusive. Recognizing limited budgets, a smaller, well-defined monitoring program could permit the necessary sampling effort to verify or reject an impact hypothesis while a larger, less-intensive program may not. Focusing monitoring effort to test impact hypotheses also provides a convenient stopping rule. Monitoring for a particular hypothesis can cease when sufficient information exists to permit its testing. Thus effort is not wasted gathering excessive amounts of data. If the earlier described diversity of perspectives held by practitioners confounds reaching consensus on the focus of monitoring efforts, then it enforces the need for an adaptive approach. Combining participants in an interdisciplinary arena would encourage drawing out differing perspectives and increase the general understanding of each others' interests and reasoning. Testing impact hypotheses would contribute to improved scientific understanding, thus satisfying scientists and consultants. Doing so in a cost-effective manner would please both proponents and government agencies responsible for funding monitoring efforts. Therefore, adaptive monitoring provides considerable opportunites for achieving symbiosis between parties with fundamentally opposing objectives. Finally, adaptive monitoring strategies are designed to treat each project as a learning process to improve the basis for examining future developments. This is ensured by a comprehensive evaluation, and the subsequent documentation of impact monitoring efforts Such documentation would provide a foundation for improving both the effectiveness and overall cost-efficiency of future impact monitoring strategies. The above advantages of adaptive monitoring are primarily derived from its ability to overcome the earlier described criticisms of conventional monitoring programs. II. CASE STUDY 38 The preceding theoretical framework provides a basis for the following analysis of the proposed Site C dam case study. It begins with a general overview of the impacts often associated with hydroelectric development. The evolution of E I A in British Columbia is then described, followed by an evaluation of the E I A and monitoring completed for Site C . Finally, the advantages of applying adaptive monitoring to specific Site C impacts are demonstrated. CHAPTER 4 AN OVERVIEW OF THE RESERVOIR IMPACT PARADIGM 39 The development of major hydroelectric projects is a relatively recent phenomenon. Hoover Dam, built in 1936 on the Colorado River in the American Southwest, was the world's first. Their popularity did not grow suddenly: by 1960 there were still only 13 dams over 150 m high. By 1980 the number of large dams globally had escalated to 65 and are expected to exceed 110 with as many more in planning by 1990 (Brooks, 1987). Thus, long-term experience with reservoirs is limited. This inexperience is exacerbated by the common lack of post-development monitoring and audits described in the preceding chapter. There exists, however, a reservoir impact paradigm which provides a basic framework for assessing the potential effects of reservoir development. The reservoir impact paradigm is the current, generally accepted body of knowledge describing the potential impacts of reservoir development on the environment. To follow is an overview of the reservoir impact paradigm in relation to northern-temperate hydroelectric production. It provides a basis for subsequently evaluating the E I A completed for the proposed Site C dam. The discussion is generally limited to the geophysical, biochemical, and ecological effects of development. Reservoir impacts are described under the broad headings of climate and seismicity, morphometry and hydrology, water quality, lower trophic levels, and fish. 4.1 C L I M A T E A N D SE ISMIC ITY The climatic effects of reservoir development have not been researched extensively and are generally considered to be very site-specific and localised (Bandler, 1986). Figure 5 illustrates the generic reservoir-related impacts on climate. In general, induced climatic changes are proportional to reservoir size (Baxter, 1977). With increasing size water bodies tend to absorb and dissipate heat at a decreasing rate (Marmorek et al., 1986). Water has a high energy storage capacity and maintains surface Changes i n f r e e z e - t h a w p a t t e r n s Changes i n number of f r o s t f r e e days I n c r e a s e d p r e c i p i t a t i o n A l t e r humid M o d e r a t i o n of l o c a l temperatures A l t e r e d wind speeds and d i r e c t i o n ; a l t e r e d s n o w d r i f t i n g p a t t e r n s I n c r e a s e d c l o u d c o v e r A l t e r e d heat r e t e n t i o n i n r e s e r v o i r Reduced t e r r e s t r i a l r e l i e f , i n c r e a s e d wind f e t c h d i s t a n c e Increased ayepotranspirat Ion R e s e r v o i r c r e a t i o n P r o j e c t development Figure 5. Generic Reservoir-Related Impacts on Climate (Marmorek et a l . , 1986). temperature during times of radiation loss (Thurber Consultants Ltd. , 1979a). Consequently, reservoir development can result in the modification of local temperatures: decreasing air temperatures in the spring and increasing them in the fall. Such modification can delay the beginning and end of the growing season (frost-free days) and significantly affect local agricultural operations. Another major climatic impact of reservoir creation is the effect on wind speed and direction. Critical to the estimation of the impact is the degree of confinement (i.e. river valley vs. plains) of the proposed study area. Generally, reservoir flooding reduces vegetation and terrain relief and increases wind fetch distances thus increasing wind speed and possibly altering its direction. Such a phenomenon would result in increased wave action, water mixing and nutrient cycl ing, snow drifting, and windchil l in exposed areas. Reservoir creation may also result in increased evaporation rates. Evaporation depends upon a number of factors including a supply of energy to vaporize the water and turbulent motion to carry the vapor into the atmosphere (Ripley, 1987). The previously indicated potential for greater wind speed contributes to the potential for increased evaporation. Contrasting reservoir to natural riverine conditions leads to the logical conclusion that a reservoir's much greater surface area would permit increased evaporation relative to a river. The argument is not as simple when contrasting reservoir to pre-flooding crop or forested conditions. Cropped and forested lands provide a greater surface area than a horizontal water surface thus permitting higher evaporation rates. This is countered by the higher albedo of vegetation and stomata regulation of evapotranspiration. Conflicting evaporation trends for vegetation compared to open water exist in the literature (Thurber Consultants Ltd., 1979a). Increased evaporation rates may result in fog and cloud formation, increased precipitation, and altered local humidity (Marmorek et al, 1986). A l l of these factors could adversely affect local agricultural operations, especially crop drying conditions. A potential geophysical impact of reservoir development is that on local seismicity. Baxter (1977) suggests that the stress induced by the weight of impounded water, even in large reservoirs, is too small to exert any geophysical effects alone. Rather, the effect is likely due to increases in the groundwater pressure in rock fissures encouraging slippage or the addition of a critical increment to pre-impoundment stresses. The latter implies that reservoirs have potential for releasing existing stresses as well as creating new ones (Goldsmith and Hildyard, 1984). However, the seismic activity that occurs is usually small and it is very difficult to attribute any seismic shocks to impoundments. 4.2 M O R P H O M E T R Y A N D H Y D R O L O G Y When a reservoir is produced by damiriing a river both its shape and hydrology are usually irregular in contrast to natural lakes. Figure 6 illustrates some generic impacts of impoundment on morphometry and hydrology. Reservoirs, especially those with a dendritic morphometry, generally experience a high degree of shoreline development (ratio of length of shoreline to the circumference of a circle of the same area as a natural lake), (Baxter, 1977). This characteristic of impoundments provides significant potential for pronounced shoreline erosion and sedimentation processes (Northcote, 1987). Immediately upon flooding, reservoir shorelines begin to be eroded by waves, currents, and ice in northern-temperate regions. Erosion can often cause very severe bank sloughing and consequently substantial amounts of vegetation (including trees) and shoreline materials can be deposited into the reservoir. Erosion rates depend upon reservoir morphometry, runoff, currents, turbulent water f low, shoreline soil and rock characteristics, and stream channel slopes (Carstens and Slovik, 1980). Shoreline erosion wi l l continue in northern-temperate reservoirs until bedrock underlying backshore materials is exposed and restabilization can occur (Newbury and McCul lough, 1984). In high latitudes with shorelines consisting of muskeg overlying permafrost, the changes may be especially extensive and prolonged as the permafrost melts (Baxter, 1977). Changes i n wind and wave action Increased evaporation Changes i n sedimentation and erosion Changes i n i c e regime Changes in morphometry Changes i n r e s e r v o i r water lev e l Changes in stream hydrology and estuarine processes Reservoir operation Project development Blockages C o n s t r u c t i o n Figure 6. Generic Reservoir-Related Impacts on Morphometry and Hydrology (Mantorek et a l . , 1986). 4 4 Once eroded, sediment is transported in suspension, as bed load (rolling or sliding along the reservoir bottom), or as a combination of both transporting mechanisms. The extent of sediment movement depends upon a number of factors including particle size, shape, adhesion, and specific gravity with respect to current velocity and reservoir morphometry (Baxter and Glaude, 1980). When inflowing water owes its greater density to suspended sediments, underflow known as turbidity currents result upon its meeting reservoir water. Turbidity currents can carry sediments for extended distances into a reservoir (Baxter, 1977). Sediment retention (from both internal and external loading) depends upon several factors including flushing rates, morphometry, and operating procedures. Reservoir erosion and sedimentation rates are very difficult to quantify due to the extreme variability of the above contributing factors. A reservoir's morphometry also affects its flushing rate. However, Baxter (1977) suggests that the retention time of water in reservoirs is short and is likely to be more greatly affected by inflow and discharge factors than processes such as thermal circulation and wind-generated currents. Reservoir operation significantly affects water levels, ice regimes, productivity, shoreline plant succession, erosion and sedimentation processes. Reservoirs constructed for hydroelectric generation are usually f i l led during periods of high flow and drawn upon (drawdown) in dry periods. Drawdown depends upon the reservoir storage capacity in relation to generation requirements. It can vary from 1 or 2 m up to 20 - 40 m for run-of-the- river reservoirs depending upon the ratio of water demand to storage capacity (Langford, 1983). In some cases, such as for Lake Winnipeg, Manitoba, regulation has caused a reduction in seasonal water level fluctuations (Hecky et al., 1984). Ice regimes could be affected by fluctuating water levels delaying fall freeze-up and inducing earlier spring break-ups. Decreased reservoir levels upon drawdown could also result in water freezing to a greater depth in winter. Furthermore, changing levels could increase ice scouring of the shoreline and 45 consequently contribute to sediment loading. Reservoir discharges also significantly affect downstream hydrologic processes. Normally, winter river flow is relatively low, followed by a dramatic increase in water volume after spring melt, followed by intermediate summer levels. Fol lowing impoundment, for most northern-temperate reservoirs, the peak flow wi l l occur in winter (peak electricity demand) with relatively lower flows in the spring, summer, and fall (Berkes, 1981). A long with downstream water velocity, river width and depth are characteristics that may be affected by impoundment. 4.3 W A T E R Q U A L I T Y Reservoir construction and operation have serious implications for both impounded and downstream water quality (Figure 7). The quality of reservoir water is a function of the quality of the waters feeding it and the changes that occur to it as a result of impoundment. Both vary with time. The quality of inflowing waters depends upon both natural factors (climate, topography, soils, etc.) and human-induced factors (resource development, waste discharges, etc.). Water quality changes within the reservoir vary with the character of water movement, the nature of flooded soils and vegetation, biological activity, and climate (Canadian B io Resources Consultants Ltd. , 1979a), (henceforth C . B . R . C . Ltd.). The potential impoundment impacts on water quality wi l l be discussed in relation to physical and chemical changes. Physical Impacts The main temperature change resulting from impoundment is that from a uniformly distributed, diurnally fluctuating river to a seasonally stratified lake. The temperature regime of a reservoir depends upon numerous factors: climate, reservoir depth, physical configuration, surface area, flushing rate, amount of shade, transparency, riverine temperature inputs, and depth of intake and discharge structures. Commonly, especially for deep reservoirs, a thermocline exists between the epilimnion (warmer) and the hypolimnion (cooler) waters. Reservoir operation Altered chemical c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s (e.g., major ions, n u t r i e n t s , heavy metals, etc. A l t e r e d downstream w a t e r q u a l i t y Reservoir operation and construction Reservoir creation Figure 7. Generic Reservoir-Related Impacts on Water Quality (Marmorek et a l . , 1986). 4^ ON 47 markedly affects thermal stratification depending upon the depth of discharge outlets. They are often in the hypolimnion which results in cold water release thus expanding the epilimnion and lowering the thermocline. Increasingly, discharge outlets are being placed at varying depths to minimize adverse downstream temperature and chemical changes (Langford, 1983). Furthermore, variable level outlets permit water discharge from both the hypolimnion and epilimnion levels of the reservoir to maintain stratification if so desired. For relatively shallow reservoirs that usually experience complete mixing, or those with a fast flushing rate, thermal temperature gradients may not exist. The previously illustrated problem of high suspended sediment levels resulting from flooding and erosion also affects reservoir temperature by reducing transparency and increasing reflective backscatter of solar irradiance (Hecky et al., 1984). Similar to the turbidity currents described under sedimentation effects, temperature-related density currents also exist in reservoirs. Density currents result when inflowing water has a different temperature, and therefore density, than water existing in the reservoir. The inflowing water does not immediately mix with the reservoir water but moves downstream and laterally above it (overflow), below it (underflow), or within it (interflow) depending upon the differences in density (Baxter, 1977). Various models exist permitting reservoir temperature prediction. They generally depend upon whether the reservoir wi l l stratify or remain uniformly well mixed (C .B .R .C . Ltd. , 1979a). Among other things, reservoir transparency is affected by suspended sediments and organic particulate matter resulting from flooding and erosion. In addition, organic matter production within the reservoir w i l l contribute to its increased turbidity. Reservoir turbidity is difficult to predict due to the diversity and complexity of contributing factors: reservoir flushing rate, turbidity of inflowing streams, flooding and shoreline erosion processes, morphometry, reservoir mixing and currents, etc. Water color is also affected by the leaching and decomposition of inundated soils and vegetation resulting from impoundment. This effect may be minimized for reservoirs with relatively short retention times (C .B .R .C . Ltd. , 1979a). Chemical Impacts The macronutrients nitrogen and phosphorus are contributed to reservoir waters from a variety of natural and human-induced sources. Leaching from flooded agricultural and forested soils is principal among them. The decomposition of submerged vegetation; agricultural, forest and urban storm runoff; and riverine inputs also contribute (C .B .R.C. Ltd. , 1979a). If the nutrient load is low and the reservoir flushing rate is high the effects may be small. However, i f the loading is high and the retention time is long, the chemistry of the impoundment water may be significantly altered (Baxter, 1977). Dissolved oxygen (D.O.) levels in a reservoir are balanced by the consumption of chemical and biological constituents (chemical and biological oxygen demand) against uptake from the atmosphere, inflowing waters, and photosynthesis from aquatic plants (Langford, 1983). In reservoirs with a thermocline, oxygen stratification often parallels temperature. In the epilimnion, algal photosynthesis coupled with wind and wave action maintains high D.O. levels. In the hypolimnion, aerobic decomposition can result in anoxic conditions. With no mixing the deoxygenated layer increases in both depth and volume if there is sufficient organic matter to consume appreciable amounts of oxygen. D.O. mixing follows the seasonal overturn pattern characteristizing the reservoir. It is thus significantly affected by reservoir operation which can dramatically affect thermoclines as discussed in the previous section. Extended ice cover reduces mixing and contact with atmospheric oxygen sources and can result in decreased D.O. levels. Anoxic hypolimnion conditions also permit the accumulation of reduced substances such as sulfide, and ferrous ions which can cause disagreeable odors and taste in drinking water. Total hardness also determines the quality of water for domestic use. Wi th impoundment, increased water hardness can result from the erosion and solution of minerals in flooded soils. Both of these effects wi l l be minimized i f relatively fast reservoir flushing rates occur. Potential mercury and other heavy metal implications wi l l be discussed in relation to 49 reservoir f ish populations in section 4.5. Along with impacts on the reservoir itself, impoundment wi l l significantly affect downstream water quality. Similar to reservoir implications both physical and chemical properties wi l l be affected. Conversely, many of the downstream effects experienced from impoundment are the opposite of those produced in the reservoir above them. Heat, sediment, and nutrients retained by the reservoir are lost to the stream (Baxter and Glaude, 1980). One significant effect of water discharge downstream is the phenomenon of gas supersaturation which occurs in two ways. First, turbines may force gas into solution by mixing air and water under great pressure. Second, water plunging over spillways into deep basins can carry air bubbles to a considerable depth where hydrostatic pressures may also be great enough to force gas into solution (Baxter, 1977). As wi l l be demonstrated in the following sections, gas supersaturation has important biological implications. During reservoir construction the introduction of toxic substances including oils, greases, and related chemicals, along with sewage, can appreciably affect water quality. In addition to chemical impacts such as oxygen depletion, they may cause direct mortality to both fish and fish prey species (Renewable Resources Consulting Services Ltd. , 1979), (henceforth simply R .R .C .S . Ltd.). Effer (1984b) suggests, however, that the assimilative capacity of both the inflowing river and reservoir would require major chemical inputs to appreciably alter water chemistry. The biological implications of impoundment impacts on reservoir and downstream water quality wi l l be discussed in the following sections. 4.4 L O W E R T R O P H I C L E V E L S Reservoir development fundamentally affects the physiological, structural, and behavioral characteristics of lower trophic level organisms (Figure 8). Reservoir habitat is markedly Reduced productivity in later years Altered species composition and abundance Trophic surge A l t e r a t i o n of benthic and planktonic habitat Reservoir creation I n s t a b i l i t y of physical habitat Changes i n chemical habitat A l t e r e d p r o d u c t i v i t y and community s t r u c t u r e in srreams Reservoir operation Project development Figure 8. Generic Reservoir-Related Impacts on Lower Trophic Levels (Marmorek et a l . , 1986). different from that in the original river. Northern-temperate rivers rarely experience thermal stratification or oxygen depletion due to their turbulent nature. Biologically, riverine plankton populations are generally low since they are continually swept away. Benthic populations are more abundant. Generally, reservoirs and rivers depend upon different primary sources of energy: standing water communities rely mainly on photosynthesis, stream communities depend upon the heterotrophic metabolization of organic materials. Therefore, when a river is dammed two events may be expected to result. First, lotic benthos wi l l be replaced by lentic species. And second, plankton populations wi l l proliferate and the importance of photoautrophic activity wi l l increase (Baxter, 1977). A fundamental postulate of the reservoir impact paradigm is that impoundment wi l l result in a trophic surge, or short-term increase in productivity, followed by consequent changes in community structure (C.S.E.B. , 1985). As previously discussed, nutrients are released into a reservoir through the leaching and decomposition of soil and vegetation following flooding. Phosphorus and nitrogen are especially important since they are often limiting factors in productivity (Grimard and Jones, 1982). The increase in nutrient availability coupled with an enlargement of aquatic habitat can greatly stimulate primary productivity. Phytoplankton production is limited to the photic zones-the epilimnion, littoral, and sub-littoral zones depending upon turbidity. Reservoir flushing rates significantly affect phytoplankton community species composition: high flushing rates promote species with short life cycles (Marmorek et al., 1986). Permanent phytoplankton communities develop in most reservoirs with sufficient water retention times (Langford, 1983). Generally, several years after impoundment, nutrient levels in the reservoir decline as nutrients are assimilated, lost to bottom sediments, and lost to outflow. After the initial nutrient pulse is exhausted phytoplankton production usually decreases to a point below that of natural lakes (Marmorek et al., 1986). This period of trophic decline is affected by human activities in the watershed. For example, 52 nutrient-rich runoff from agricultural operations may result in its delay and reduced magnitude. Aquatic macrophytes wi l l also be affected by reservoir development. Hynes (1970) divides them into three classes: those rooted in the substrate, free-floating forms and attached forms fixed to solid objects such as rocks. Changes in current velocity, light penetration, sedimentation, and chemical factors such as nutrients and p H may eliminate species specially adapted to riverine habitats (Geen, 1974). The development of rooted macrophytes following impoundment also depends upon the type of substrate, shoreline erosion, and the effects of drawdown. The extent to which macrophytes inhabit the sub-littoral zone is primarily determined by light penetration. In oligotrophic reservoirs floating species such as duckweed (Lemna spp.) may develop and be maintained throughout al l regions. In more eutrophic, turbid reservoirs algal blooms can limit macrophyte production in deeper waters (Langford, 1983). Macrophytes rooted in the substrate are negatively affected by shoreline erosion. Conversely, Little and Jones (1979) describe methods for controlling shoreline erosion by introducing and maintaining suitable macrophytes in the drawdown zone. When drawdown is prolonged, aquatic macrophytes in the littoral zone can be eliminated either by heating and desiccation in the summer or freezing and desiccation in the winter, depending upon the use of the reservoir. For many northern-temperate reservoirs the latter is particularly important as drawdown is most pronounced during times of peak electricity demand in the winter months. In response to greater phytoplankton levels zooplankton populations also usually increase following impoundment. The abundance and diversity of zooplankton species is also greatly affected by increased aquatic habitat and influx from upstream sources (Langford, 1983). Fol lowing impoundment, plankton-feeding zooplankton including cladocerans, rotifers, and copepods, especially the latter, usually dominate (Duthie and Ostrofsky, 1975). A contradiction exists in the literature as some sources report that zooplankton production is greater in the upper sections of a reservoir (Zhadin and Gerd, 1973), cited in R .R .C .S . L td . (1979), while others including Martin and Stroud (1975) suggest that it is greater near the dam. 53 The effects of impoundment on zoobenthos have been studied extensively. Generally, reservoir creation eliminates most of the naturally occurring riverine species due to siltation, altered substrate types, reduced current velocity, and other changes in the physical and chemical environment. Baxter (1977) suggests that chironomids wi l l l ikely be the first colonizers of a newly flooded area. They are well adapted for the task: they can reach the area as winged adults or larvae, they have a high fecundity (r-selected organisms), and some species are tolerant to the low D.O. levels likely to characterize new impoundments. Lyakov (1973), cited in R .R .C .S . L td . (1979), identified three major stages of benthic invertebrate development following impoundment. The first is the alteration of the former biotic community where aquatic invertebrates adapted only to moving water would be substantially reduced. This stage results primarily from reduced currents, siltation, and the alteration of substrate type. The second phase witnesses a marked increase in chironomid and oligochaete populations. The final stage which may require up to ten years to achieve, involves the establishment of permanent, more stable benthic populations. Benthic invertebrates usually undergo a succession from organisms favoring eutrophic conditions to those preferring relatively oligotrophic environments, which corresponds to the natural reservoir maturation process. However, as illustrated for trophic decline periods, reservoir maturation is greatly affected by human influences in the watershed. For example, seasonal agricultural runoff into a reservoir can result in nutrient pulses which greatly prolong the eutrophication stage. Reservoir drawdown wi l l significantly affect benthic communities. Generally, drawdown occurs too quickly for benthos to follow the receding water level. Thus, as Langford (1983) suggests, drawdown zones are sparsely populated and only periodically recolonized. Reservoir creation also affects downstream lower trophic level populations. The impacts can be both positive and negative. Negative effects usually result when reservoir discharges are reduced or are only taken from the hypolimnion. This correspondingly limits the amount of nutrients and fauna released downstream. D.O. levels, temperature, and other chemical and physical characteristics can also be adversely affected. Positive effects of reservoir development occur when cool, clear, well-oxygenated, nutrient-rich waters are released below generating facilities (Marmorek et al., 1986). Benthic communities downstream of a dam are affected, at least partially, by three factors: (1). the alteration of the temperature regime, (2). the alteration of substrate surfaces, and (3). the outflow of organic matter, particularly phytoplankton and zooplankton, from the impoundment (R.R.C.S. Ltd., 1979). 4.5 F I S H The general sequence of biological events that occur following impoundment can be summarized as follows: 1. the decay of flooded vegetation [especially i f the area is not properly cleared] and leaching of soils releases nutrients into the reservoir; 2. the nutrient pulse is assimilated by bacteria, phytoplankton and zooplankton production; 3. rising fish prey species populations are reflected in increased fish production; 4. after a period of years (usually 4 - 30), fish production decreases as a result of the loss of nutrients to bottom sediments or outflow. The resulting long-term productivity is usually approximately 50% of the initial levels ; and 5. a shift in fish species composition from early populations of predatory game fish to coarse fish often results (R.R.C.S. Ltd. , 1979). These general trends w i l l be discussed in fuller detail. Figure 9 illustrates the potential impacts of impoundment on fish. Reservoir creation alters fish habitat and prey populations which consequently changes fish community structure. Resident riverine (rheophilic) species decline or disappear and are replaced by lacustrine (limnophilic) species as the reservoir fills and matures. A principal contributor to the common initial increase in fish productivity is the availability of large numbers of zooplankton resulting from greater primary production. As previously discussed, however, this is a relatively short-term phenomenon. Increased cover provided by flooded 55 A l t e r e d habitat and f i s h foods Altered growth races Changes i n f i s h numbers Re s t r i c t i o n of f i s h movements Increased p u b l i c access Reservoir creation R e s e r v o i r o p e r a t i o n R e s e r v o i r c o n s t r u c t i o n Figure 9. Generic Reservoir-Related Impacts on Fish (Marmorek et a l . , 1986). 5 6 vegetation also contributes to greater fish yields in new impoundments (Baxter, 1977). Negative changes to fish habitat may also result with impoundment. Spawning habitat may be lost and areas suitable for spawning may be exposed during drawdown resulting in the death of eggs or young fish. Ha l l (1971) states that in many stratified reservoirs fish are restricted to the epilimnion for much of the summer by food and oxygen availability. Baxter (1977) indicates that substantial fish kil ls can result from anoxic hypolimnetic waters quickly mixing with the epilimnion as a result of a change in weather conditions. Furthermore, increased fish concentrations in the upper water levels can result in large-scale mortalities with reservoirs using epilimnion turbine intakes. Impoundment affects fish growth rates depending upon their adaptability to changing food sources and competition from other fish species. Furthermore, depending upon the location within the reservoir, fish growth rates are affected by fluctuating water levels producing turbid habitats with low primary productivity and consequently reduced prey species populations (Marmorek et al., 1986). Fish growth rates in large reservoirs may vary considerably owing to the absence or presence of suitable food resources. Reservoir creation may also alter the diversity and abundance of fish parasites. In addition, mercury and other heavy metal bioaccumulation may result. Both impacts can seriously affect fish stocks. The latter has only been incorporated into the reservoir paradigm relatively recently (Abernathy and Cumbie, 1977; Bodaly et al., 1984a; Marmorek et al., 1984). Bodaly et al. (1984b) describe the collapse of the lake whitefish (Coregonus clupeaformis) commercial fishery on Southern Indian Lake (SLL), Manitoba. Prior to impoundment, catch was almost entirely (99%) comprised of light colored, export (A) grade fish, only lightly parasitized with muscle cysts of Triaenophorus crassus. In the four years following impoundment heavily parasitized, continental (B) grade whitefish increased to 12 - 72% of total summer catch. Baxter (1977) suggests that increased parasitism can be 57 encouraged by larger numbers of zooplankton acting as intermediate hosts and altered fish feeding habits. Exacerbating the SIL parasite problem, fish muscle mercury levels also increased. Indeed, walleye (Stizostedion vitreum vitruem) and northern pike (Esox lucius) mercury levels exceeded the Canadian marketing standard of 0.5 ppm and approached or surpassed U.S. levels of 1.0 ppm fol lowing impoundment. Hypotheses explaining causes of mercury bioaccumulation in new impoundments emphasize either increasing amounts of potentially available mercury due to the flooding of soils and vegetation, or increasing retention of naturally transported mercury found in sediment. Bodaly et al. (1984a) further submit that the flooding of vegetation and soil organic matter promotes bacterial production which may in turn increase inorganic mercury methylation, converting it into its organic form and permitting bioaccumulation. Due to the complexity of the impact, mercury and other heavy metal bioaccumulation in fish species is very difficult to predict with any degree of certainty. Reservoir operation also affects fish abundance and diversity. Unfavorable temperatures, D.O. levels, and entrainment can have the respective consequences of thermal stress, suffocation, and stranding or elimination of fish from the reservoir (Marmorek et al., 1986). Rosenberg et al. (1987) also describe the following two potential impacts as a result of the SIL, Manitoba, impoundment. First, fish stocks depending upon sight for feeding may be disadvantaged as a result of increased turbidity within the reservoir (as stated earlier, turbidity levels wi l l depend upon the suspended solid levels in the original river and the problems created by shoreline erosion in the reservoir). Second, stock migrations—lake whitefish in this case—could result in less fish being available for commercial fishery enterprises. Another major impact of reservoir operation on fish communities is drawdown. As described earler, drawdown can expose spawning areas and result in high egg and juvenile fish mortalities. It can also result in considerable zooplankton and benthic fish prey species loss in littoral regions. Furthermore, drawdown reduces macrophyte populations which provide cover and spawning habitat for fish populations. Baxter (1977) offers three forms of mitigation against the negative impacts of drawdown: (1). the construction of sub-impoundments which retain water when 58 the level in the main reservoir drops, (2). floating fish-nesting platforms, and (3). drawdown regimes designed not to expose the littoral zone at critical times. Drawdown may not always have entirely negative impacts on the total fish population. Langford (1983) describes the process of deliberate drawdown, a management technique used to reduce stocks of undesirable fish species or thin out unwanted aquatic vegetation. The littoral zone is critically important for fish production. As illustrated in the preceding section zooplankton and benthic organisms, major sources of fish food, are usually most abundant in shallow littoral zones where aquatic plants proliferate and provide suitable habitat. Littoral areas also support aquatic macrophytes required by some species, such as northern pike, for successful spawning. Finally, littoral vegetation provides cover for both juvenile and adult fish stocks. Reservoir development generally increases the amount of littoral zone available for fish development relative to natural riverine conditions. Again, however, this is often countered by the negative effects of drawdown. Reservoir operation also affects downstream fish populations with both positive and negative consequences. Most impacts relate to discharge effects on river flow (increased and decreased), temperature, D.O. and nitrogen levels, siltation, nutrients, and prey species. As described earlier, many of the downstream effects of impoundment are the opposite of those in the reservoir. For example, while sedimentation problems may exist in the reservoir, they act as efficient traps so discharges may be relatively clear. Furthermore, as Edwards (1984) suggests, reservoirs produce and discharge organic particles (phytoplankton and zooplankton) which provide food sources for fish populations. Benthos and terrestrial and aquatic insects also spill over from the reservoir and are important fish food resources. Reservoir discharges may, however, create the earlier described problem of gas supersaturation. If a fish takes in water that is supersaturated with gases, the excess gas may come out of solution, lodge in various parts of the fish's body and result in death or injury. The degree of supersaturation required to cause mortality depends on the age and species of fish affected (Baxter, 1977). The obstruction of fish migration by dams poses serious problems for the upstream movement of anadramous species along with the downstream movement of smolts (juveniles). Baxter (1977), using Pacific salmon (Oncorhynchus spp.) for an example, suggests the former is probably the more serious. Since some salmon species spend as little as two years in the sea, the blockage of a river for even as short a time as required for reservoir construction could eliminate their population from the river. Even partial blockages could disrupt their olfactory and tactile homing devices by which they are guided to spawning grounds. Furthermore, as Idler and Clements (1959), cited in Baxter (1977) suggest, the salmons' energy reserve is slightly more than sufficient to carry them to their destination. They may not be able to afford to expend extra energy wandering in a region of slack water above a dam. Other migrating species may also be adversely affected by stream blockages. Most diadromous fish move downstream during one phase of the life-cycle and upstream in another. Catadromous species, such as eels, show the reverse pattern from salmon species (Langford, 1983). Fish ladder construction is a well-developed form of mitigation but its success has not been established in all cases (Baxter, 1977). Due to the complexity of factors determining the effects of impoundment on upstream and downstream conditions it is exceedingly difficult to predict the net effect on fisheries resources (Mundie and Bell-Irving, 1986). For example, decreased downstream turbidity may increase primary production which wi l l l ikely increase the available food supply and improve fishes' ability to discover it; however, it wi l l also make it easier for predators to find the fish. Cooler downstream temperatures—resulting from hypolimnion discharges—may improve chemical and other habitat conditions for cold-water species. Concurrently, however, it may decrease the number of benthic food organisms whose numbers may further decline as a result of short-term variations in water levels (Baxter, 1977). The difficulty in assessing impacts is thus apparent. The reservoir impact paradigm has progressed considerably from its initial experience with hydroelectric development and is continually evolving. Thus, potential exists for overcoming its remaining uncertainties with the systematic monitoring and documentation of future hydroelectric development impacts. The reservoir impact paradigm provides a basis for evaluating the comprehensiveness of the EIA completed for the proposed Site C dam. CHAPTER 5 EVOLUTION OF EIA APPROACHES IN BRITISH COLUMBIA 61 This chapter outlines the legislative authority for E I A in British Columbia. It traces the evolution of provincial environmental assessment and management and provides a description of two specific Acts: the Environment Management Act and the Utilities Commission Act. This permits a comparison with the general evolution of E I A processes described in Chapter 2. Furthermore, coupled with Chapter 4, this chapter provides a basis for evaluating the Site C E I A and monitoring program in Chapters 6 and 7. Chapter 5 concludes with an illustration of an assessment carried out under the Utilities Commission Act to demonstrate the importance of legislative authority to E I A . 5.1 E I A L E G I S L A T I V E A U T H O R I T Y IN BRIT ISH C O L U M B I A In 1971, vocal public concerns for the environment resulted in the establishment of an Environment and Land Use Committee (ELUC) under the Environment and Land Use Act ( R S B C 1979). A committee of Cabinet, E L U C was chaired by the Minister of Lands, Forests and Water Resources and included representatives of all major natural resource using departments. The Committee's objectives were to establish programs to foster public concern and awareness about the environment; to minimize and, where possible, prevent negative impacts of resource and land-use development; and to report to Cabinet on environmental and land-use issues ( C . C . R . E . M . , 1985). E L U C was authorized to override any other provincial Act or regulation (Dorcey, 1987a). A secretariat was added to E L U C in 1973 to facilitate coordination between government departments. N o formal regulations have yet appeared under the Environment and Land Use Act, however, the secretariat established a systematic, four-stage process for assessing the impacts of major projects such as hydroelectric dams, transmission lines, mines, and highways. The stages consist of a review of project justification, a broad evaluation of alternative development sites, a detailed evaluation of chosen sites, and a provision for impact mitigation and compensation (Dorcey, 1987a). The sector guidelines outline procedures for proponents to coordinate their project planning with an assessment of the potential environmental, social and economic impacts of development. Complying with the guidelines greatly enhances the proponent's chances of collecting and assembling the appropriate information to secure government approval for their proposal ( C . C . R . E . M . , 1985). Formal guidelines for mitigation and compensation and cost/benefit analyses were also developed during the secretariat's existance along with an interagency review system for major projects. They continue to be used despite the secretariat's disbandment in 1980 (Roberts, 1987). Prior to 1980~and only for water resource developments~the Water Act ( R S B C 1979 C.429) was the single legislative authority for providing public hearings to consider project assessments. These hearings were conducted by, and at the discretion of, the Water Comptroller and placed primary emphasis on the quantity of available water supply. As it was not a legal requirement, comparatively little attention was given to assess the environmental and social implications of development in determining whether to grant a water licence. However, environmental and social implications were addressed for developments with considerable associated public concern, such as the comprehensive E I A completed for the Revelstoke Dam in 1976, or when written submissions were received by the provincial Comptroller of Water Rights. The Water Act does not include formal monitoring requirements. Bankes and Thompson (1981) describe numerous deficiencies with the 1976 Revelstoke Dam public hearings that were held under the auspices of the Water Comptroller by authority of the Water Act. Foremost is the fact that the expertise of the Water Comptroller and his staff were primarily in the field of engineering. Thus their environmental and socio-economic expertise was questionable. Other criticisms contributing to a general mood of disenchantment revolve around the hearing procedures: intervenors were neither funded nor allowed sufficient time for preparation, inadequate environmental information was provided for public review, and important issues were deferred for future consideration and resolution. 6 3 Furthermore, the only avenue for public participation was through a complex series of official committees that were not obligated to recognize public concerns. Final ly, emphasis was placed on impact monitoring during the review phase but no system was subsequently developed to fol low the process through. Thus, the monitoring programs that were established through a committee process had no mechanism to feedback into project planning, construction, or operation (Phillips and Langford, 1987). In the early 1980s, recognizing both the potential for a series of future energy projects and the public dissatisfaction with existing review procedures, the B .C . government introduced two comprehensive pieces of legislation: the Environment Management Act ( R S B C 1981) and the Utilities Commission Act ( R S B C 1980 C.60). Together these Acts are very widely encompassing: \"...the Utilities Commission Act applies to energy projects, and the Environment Management Act can be applied to any other project\" (Dorcey, 1986:152). 5.1.1 Environment Management Act The Environment Management Act uniquely provides direct statutory reference to E I A as a requirement when the Minister of Environment considers that activities may have negative environmental effects that cannot be assessed with available information ( C . C . R . E . M . , 1985). The E I A must consider both detrimental and beneficial impacts upon water quality, air quality, land use, water use, aquatic ecology, terrestrial ecology and other impacts as specified in the terms of reference. Measures to mitigate negative and maximize positive effects are also to be included. The Act empowers the Minister of Environment to order the delay or cessation of operations in progress which could seriously affect the environment. It authorizes the minister to hold inquiries on any matter within his/her jurisdiction and provides for the establishment of an Environmental Appeal Board to address appeals to decisions based on environmental legislation ( C . C . R . E . M . , 1985). In addition, the Act facilitates the development of 64 management plans to integrate environmental priorities and interests of both the Ministry of Environment (MOE) and other concerned ministries. Formal monitoring guidelines are not provided by the Act nor are comprehensive monitoring strategies required. 5.1.2 Utilities Commission Act The Utilities Commission Act provides a policy that integrates approaches to approval procedures for energy projects and energy removal from the province (B.C. Ministry of Energy, Mines and Petroleum Resources, 1982). The Act establishes the British Columbia Utilities Commission ( B C U C ) as the body responsible for the regulation of public utilities, including B .C . Hydro; the review and certification of energy projects; and the review and certification of proposals to remove energy resources from the province. The Minister of Energy, Mines and Petroleum Resources (EMPR) administers the Utilities Commission Act. Certification of energy projects includes the issuance of Energy Project Certificates, specifying the terms and conditions of construction, prior to the initiation of development. In addition, Energy Operation Certificates, specifying operational requirements which include compliance monitoring, must be issued prior to the commencement of project operation (B.C. Ministry of Energy, Mines and Petroleum Resources, 1982). However, as Bankes and Thompson (1980) suggest, no contractually enforceable obligations exist to ensure that information is fed back to government departments and agencies that may be responsible for impact management. Figure 10 illustrates the B C U C energy project review process. Prior to the formal initiation of the review, consultation usually occurs between the proponent—primarily B .C. Hydro for hydroelectric development—and provincial government agencies. The purpose of these meetings is to determine, generally, government's major concerns with the proposed development. They are especially important to the proponent since they are interested in meeting regulations so as not to unnecessarily delay construction. Having the project approved 65 Energy Project Review Certification Procedures J, i PRELIMINARIES TO APPLICATION Preliminary project description and proposed studies WATER LICENCE/POLLUTION CONTROL PERMIT APPLICATION As appropriate APPLICATION FOR AN ENERGY PROJECT CERTIFICATE Reviewed lor compliance with regulations 1 MINISTER(S) Disposition decision 19 (D (a) ENERGY PROJECT CERTIFICATE Regulated energy protects reviewed in public neanng Dy 3.C.U.C. 19(1) (b) CERTIFICATE OF PUBLIC CONVENIENCE AND NECESSITY Public utility projects regulated by B.C.U.C. TERMS OF REFERENCE ISSUED FOR PUBLIC HEARING 19 (1)