Education, Faculty of
DSpace
UBCV
Sipsas, Joyce B.
Master of Arts - MA
University of British Columbia
The purpose of this study is to determine whether a sample of First Nations high school students holds the beliefs of an involuntary minority and to determine whether a curriculum which demonstrates that First Nations people can succeed will lead to an increase in the rejection of the beliefs of an involuntary minority, and an increase in self- esteem and pride in heritage. This study is a quasi- experimental design carried out in a natural setting. One experimental group and one control group from a Lower Mainland high school participated in the study. The experimental group consisted of 10 subjects and the control group consisted of 9 subjects. The groups, which were not randomly selected, were pre- and post- tested using the Culture-Free Self-Esteem Inventory by Battle (1981) and the Pride in Heritage Measure by Kehoe and Echols (1986). All subjects also participated in an interview, which consisted of 13 questions aimed at yielding responses indicating whether or not the subjects hold the beliefs of an involuntary minority. These interviews took place prior to, and following, the treatment. Subjects in the experimental group participated in a treatment, which consisted of a multicultural curriculum demonstrating that First Nations people can succeed. Due to the numerous threats to the design validity of the study, it is not possible to assess the efficacy of the treatment. However, pre-test measures did provide information about the measures and the sample. The self-esteem of the subjects was found to be in the intermediate range. The mean for 19 subjects was 17.7 out of a possible score of 25. Their mean on the Pride in Heritage Measure was 41.6 (n=19) out of a possible score of 48; thus, their score was high. The results of the interviews suggest that 13 subjects do hold the beliefs of an involuntary minority. Although many difficulties were encountered during the conduct of this study, it did accomplish some things. Furthermore, it may have contributed to the development of an interview schedule to determine whether or not individuals from a group known as an involuntary minority do in fact hold the beliefs attributed to an involuntary minority.
3056949 bytes
application/pdf
THE EFFECTS OF A MULTICULTURAL CURRICULUM ON FIRST NATIONS PRIDE IN HERITAGE, SELF-ESTEEM AND REJECTION OF THE BELIEFS OF AN INVOLUNTARY MINORITY by JOYCE B. SIPSAS B.A., The U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h Columbia, 1991 B.Ed., The U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h Columbia, 1992 A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS i n THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES Department o f E d u c a t i o n a l S t u d i e s we a c c e p t t h i s t h e s i s as c o n f o r m i n g t o t h e r e q u i r e d s t a n d a r d THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA October 1994 © Joyce B. S i p s a s , 1994 In presenting this thesis in partial fulfilment of the requirements for an advanced degree at the University of British Columbia, I agree that the Library shall make it freely available for reference and study. I further agree that permission for extensive copying of this thesis for scholarly purposes may be granted by the head of my department or by his or her representatives. It is understood that copying or publication of this thesis for financial gain shall not be allowed without my written permission. The University of British Columbia Vancouver, Canada 31 Qt)n>Vo^) DE-6 (2/88) ABSTRACT The purpose o f t h i s s tudy i s t o d e t e r m i n e whether a sample o f F i r s t N a t i o n s h i g h s c h o o l s t u d e n t s h o l d s t h e b e l i e f s o f an i n v o l u n t a r y m i n o r i t y and t o d e t e r m i n e whether a c u r r i c u l u m w h i c h demonstrates t h a t F i r s t N a t i o n s p e o p l e can s ucceed w i l l l e a d t o an i n c r e a s e i n t h e r e j e c t i o n o f t h e b e l i e f s o f an i n v o l u n t a r y m i n o r i t y , and an i n c r e a s e i n s e l f -esteem and p r i d e i n h e r i t a g e . T h i s s t u d y i s a q u a s i -e x p e r i m e n t a l d e s i g n c a r r i e d out i n a n a t u r a l s e t t i n g . One e x p e r i m e n t a l group and one c o n t r o l group from a Lower M a i n l a n d h i g h s c h o o l p a r t i c i p a t e d i n t h e s t u d y . The e x p e r i m e n t a l group c o n s i s t e d o f 10 s u b j e c t s and t h e c o n t r o l group c o n s i s t e d o f 9 s u b j e c t s . The groups, w h i c h were not randomly s e l e c t e d , were p r e - and p o s t - t e s t e d u s i n g t h e C u l t u r e - F r e e S e l f - E s t e e m I n v e n t o r y by B a t t l e (1981) and t h e P r i d e i n H e r i t a g e Measure by Kehoe and E c h o l s (1986). A l l s u b j e c t s a l s o p a r t i c i p a t e d i n an i n t e r v i e w , w h i c h c o n s i s t e d o f 13 q u e s t i o n s aimed at y i e l d i n g r e s p o n s e s i n d i c a t i n g whether or not t h e s u b j e c t s h o l d t h e b e l i e f s o f an i n v o l u n t a r y m i n o r i t y . These i n t e r v i e w s t o o k p l a c e p r i o r t o , and f o l l o w i n g , t h e t r e a t m e n t . S u b j e c t s i n t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l group p a r t i c i p a t e d i n a t r e a t m e n t , which c o n s i s t e d o f a m u l t i c u l t u r a l c u r r i c u l u m d e m o n s t r a t i n g t h a t F i r s t N a t i o n s p e o p l e can succeed. Due t o t h e numerous t h r e a t s t o t h e d e s i g n v a l i d i t y o f t h e s t u d y , i t i s not p o s s i b l e t o a s s e s s t h e e f f i c a c y o f t h e t r e a t m e n t . However, p r e - t e s t measures d i d p r o v i d e i n f o r m a t i o n about t h e measures and t h e sample. ii The s e l f - e s t e e m o f t h e s u b j e c t s was found t o be i n t h e i n t e r m e d i a t e range. The mean f o r 19 s u b j e c t s was 17.7 out o f a p o s s i b l e s c o r e o f 25. T h e i r mean on t h e P r i d e i n H e r i t a g e Measure was 41.6 (n=19) out o f a p o s s i b l e s c o r e o f 48; t h u s , t h e i r s c o r e was h i g h . The r e s u l t s o f t h e i n t e r v i e w s suggest t h a t 13 s u b j e c t s do h o l d t h e b e l i e f s o f an i n v o l u n t a r y m i n o r i t y . A l t h o u g h many d i f f i c u l t i e s were e n c o u n t e r e d d u r i n g t h e conduct o f t h i s s t u d y , i t d i d a c c o m p l i s h some t h i n g s . F u r t h e r m o r e , i t may have c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e development o f an i n t e r v i e w s c h e d u l e t o determine whether o r not i n d i v i d u a l s from a group known as an i n v o l u n t a r y m i n o r i t y do i n f a c t h o l d t h e b e l i e f s a t t r i b u t e d t o an i n v o l u n t a r y m i n o r i t y . iii TABLE OF CONTENTS A b s t r a c t i i Tab l e o f C o n t e n t s i v CHAPTER 1 I n t r o d u c t i o n 1 CHAPTER 2 Review o f t h e L i t e r a t u r e . 7 A D e f i n i t i o n and Comparison o f Immigrant and I n v o l u n t a r y M i n o r i t i e s 8 S c h o o l Performance o f Immigrant and Nonimmigrant Mexican-Descent S t u d e n t s 14 Low S c h o o l Performance as an A d a p t a t i o n 20 The S e l f - E s t e e m Through C u l t u r e Leads t o E x c e l l e n c e (SETCLAE) Program 24 A p p l i c a t i o n o f Ogbu 1s T h e o r e t i c a l Framework, M a t u t e - B i a n c h i ' s Study on H i s p a n i c s , Ogbu 1s Study on B l a c k s and Pa r k o ' s SETCLAE Program on A f r i c a n American C h i l d r e n t o F i r s t N a t i o n s 26 CHAPTER 3 Methodology 32 Hypotheses 32 Sample 33 Pr o c e d u r e 33 In s t r u m e n t s 33 t h e P r i d e i n H e r i t a g e Measure 33 th e C u l t u r e - F r e e S e l f - E s t e e m I n v e n t o r y 34 t h e i n t e r v i e w q u e s t i o n s 34 Treatment 36 De s i g n and A n a l y s i s 38 CHAPTER 4 Conduct and L i m i t a t i o n s o f t h e Study 39 S e l e c t i o n o f S u b j e c t s 39 Pr o c e d u r e 40 p r e - t e s t s 40 t r e a t m e n t i m p l e m e n t a t i o n 40 p o s t - t e s t s 42 L i m i t a t i o n s 42 CHAPTER 5 F i n d i n g s and D i s c u s s i o n 46 The C u l t u r e - F r e e S e l f - E s t e e m I n v e n t o r y 4 6 The P r i d e i n H e r i t a g e Measure 47 The i n t e r v i e w s • 4 8 Summary o f t h e R e s u l t s o f t h e I n t e r v i e w 4 9 Q u e s t i o n s CHAPTER 6 C o n c l u s i o n 63 R e f e r e n c e s 66 iv Appendix A 68 P r i d e i n H e r i t a g e Measure 69 C u l t u r e - F r e e S e l f - E s t e e m I n v e n t o r y 71 I n t e r v i e w Q u e s t i o n s 72 v 1 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION Two major concerns o f many Canadian e d u c a t o r s a r e t h e low l e v e l s o f achievement and t h e h i g h drop out r a t e among F i r s t N a t i o n s p e o p l e i n Canada (More, 1984) . There a re a number o f re a s o n s f o r t h e low l e v e l s o f achievement and h i g h drop out r a t e s . T h i s i s due, p r i m a r i l y , t o t h e h i s t o r i c a l and contemporary e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i c i e s o f t h e F e d e r a l government. These have i n c l u d e d r u t h l e s s a s s i m i l a t i o n , poor t e a c h e r s , poor s c h o o l s , i r r e l e v a n t c u r r i c u l u m and l a c k o f r e s p e c t f o r F i r s t N a t i o n s c u l t u r e s ( B u c k l e y , 1992). A n o t h e r p o s s i b l e r e a s o n f o r t h e low l e v e l s o f achievement and h i g h drop out r a t e s i s t h a t t h e v a l u e system o f many F i r s t N a t i o n s c u l t u r e s i s i n c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h a t o f t h e m a j o r i t y s c h o o l c u l t u r e . Ross (1992) has d e s c r i b e d a number o f e t h i c s o f F i r s t N a t i o n s c u l t u r e s which come i n c o n f l i c t w i t h t h e v a l u e s o f t h e m a j o r i t y c u l t u r e . F o r example, many F i r s t N a t i o n s c u l t u r e s a r e not p r e s c r i p t i v e about d a i l y r o u t i n e s . A t h i r d r e a s o n f o r t h e l a c k o f s u c c e s s may be t h a t F i r s t N a t i o n s p e o p l e h o l d t h e b e l i e f s o f an i n v o l u n t a r y m i n o r i t y . I n v o l u n t a r y m i n o r i t i e s - - " p e o p l e who were brought i n t o t h e i r p r e s e n t s o c i e t y t h r o u g h s l a v e r y , conquest o r c o l o n i z a t i o n " — b e l i e v e t h a t t h e economic, p o l i t i c a l and s o c i a l b a r r i e r s a g a i n s t them a re permanent and i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d (Gibson & Ogbu, 1991, p. 9 ) . Moreover, t h e y h o l d a n e g a t i v e d u a l frame 2 o f r e f e r e n c e as a r e s u l t o f comparing t h e m s e l v e s w i t h t h e dominant group i n t h e s o c i e t y i n which t h e y l i v e . In o t h e r words, when comparing t h e i r s o c i a l , p o l i t i c a l and economic s i t u a t i o n w i t h t h a t o f t h e m a j o r i t y group t h e y p e r c e i v e t h a t t h e y a r e worse o f f , and a t t r i b u t e t h e i r s i t u a t i o n t o t h e i r u n d e served o p p r e s s i o n . ( O g b u , 1991) F i r s t N a t i o n s p e o p l e , who have s u f f e r e d conquest, might share t h e b e l i e f s o f an i n v o l u n t a r y m i n o r i t y and t h u s r e c o g n i z e t h a t " i t r e q u i r e s more t h a n e d u c a t i o n , i n d i v i d u a l e f f o r t and h a r d work t o overcome t h e b a r r i e r s a g a i n s t them" (Ogbu, 1991, p. 14) . A l t h o u g h t h e y might b e l i e v e t h a t e d u c a t i o n i s a p r e r e q u i s i t e f o r s u c c e s s i n t h e j o b market, t h e y might not n e c e s s a r i l y b e l i e v e t h e y w i l l have t h e same o p p o r t u n i t y as t h e dominant group and immigrant m i n o r i t i e s t o r e c e i v e a good e d u c a t i o n . Immigrant m i n o r i t i e s , on t h e o t h e r hand, a r e p e o p l e who have come t o t h e i r p r e s e n t s o c i e t y v o l u n t a r i l y because t h e y b e l i e v e d t h e move would b r i n g g r e a t e r economic w e l l - b e i n g (Ogbu, 1991). They h o l d a p o s i t i v e d u a l frame o f r e f e r e n c e s i n c e a comparison o f t h e i r s i t u a t i o n i n t h e i r p r e s e n t s o c i e t y w i t h t h e one i n t h e i r homeland l e a d s them t o c o n c l u d e t h a t t h e y a r e b e t t e r o f f i n t h e i r p r e s e n t s o c i e t y . Moreover, u n l i k e t h e i n v o l u n t a r y m i n o r i t i e s , t h e y i n t e r p r e t t h e s o c i a l , p o l i t i c a l and economic b a r r i e r s a g a i n s t them as temporary and something t h a t can be overcome. The purpose o f t h i s s t u d y i s t o det e r m i n e whether a sample o f F i r s t N a t i o n s h i g h s c h o o l s t u d e n t s h o l d s b e l i e f s o f 3 an i n v o l u n t a r y m i n o r i t y and t o determine whether a c u r r i c u l u m which demonstrates t h a t F i r s t N a t i o n s p e o p l e can succeed w i l l l e a d t o an i n c r e a s e i n p r i d e i n h e r i t a g e and s e l f - e s t e e m , and an i n c r e a s e i n t h e r e j e c t i o n o f t h e b e l i e f s o f an i n v o l u n t a r y m i n o r i t y . I t needs t o be emphasized t h a t t h e most i m p o r t a n t r e a s o n f o r t h e l a c k o f s c h o o l s u c c e s s o f F i r s t N a t i o n s c h i l d r e n i s t h e e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i c i e s o f t h e F e d e r a l government. C o n f l i c t i n g v a l u e s and h o l d i n g t h e b e l i e f s o f an i n v o l u n t a r y m i n o r i t y are l e s s i m p o r t a n t as b a r r i e r s but an u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e s e v a l u e s and b e l i e f s may a s s i s t e d u c a t o r s i n r e d e s i g n i n g t h e i r programs t o i n c r e a s e t h e s c h o o l s u c c e s s o f F i r s t N a t i o n s c h i l d r e n . There i s ample e v i d e n c e t h a t F i r s t N a t i o n s s t u d e n t s do l e s s w e l l on measures o f achievement t h a n o t h e r s t u d e n t s . More (1984) examined f i f t e e n s t u d i e s c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e q u a l i t y o f e d u c a t i o n f o r F i r s t N a t i o n s s t u d e n t s . In e v e r y measure o f s t u d e n t achievement, i n e v e r y s t u d y r e v i e w e d , F i r s t N a t i o n s s t u d e n t s were b e h i n d t h e i r n o n - F i r s t N a t i o n s c o u n t e r p a r t s . Thomas, F i d d l e r , Hungley and Stem (1979) found t h a t t h e achievement l e v e l s o f F i r s t N a t i o n s s t u d e n t s a r e t y p i c a l l y two or t h r e e y e a r s b e h i n d t h e i r grade placement. Hunter & Stevens (1980) compared F i r s t N a t i o n s s t u d e n t s w i t h n o n - F i r s t N a t i o n s s t u d e n t s i n a Vancouver s t u d y and found t h a t 20% o f F i r s t N a t i o n s s t u d e n t s r e p e a t e d a grade, w h i l e o n l y 5% o f n o n - F i r s t N a t i o n s s t u d e n t s d i d so. Kehoe and E c h o l s (1986) conducted a needs assessment i n an e l e m e n t a r y s c h o o l i n Vancouver. An e x a m i n a t i o n o f r e a d i n g comprehension 4 s c o r e s showed t h a t 75% o f F i r s t N a t i o n s c h i l d r e n were below t h e 20t h p e r c e n t i l e f o r t h e i r grade and t h e n o n - F i r s t N a t i o n s c h i l d r e n were above t h e 65th p e r c e n t i l e f o r t h e i r grade. There i s a l s o ample e v i d e n c e o f a h i g h drop out r a t e . More (1984) found a drop out r a t e i n B r i t i s h Columbia o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y 80% compared t o a n o n - F i r s t N a t i o n s r a t e o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y 36%. A st u d y by t h e Department o f E d u c a t i o n i n Saskatchewan (1985) showed t h e annual drop out r a t e f o r F i r s t N a t i o n s s t u d e n t s t o be 43% compared t o 15% f o r n o n - F i r s t N a t i o n s s t u d e n t s . N i n e t e e n e i g h t y - n i n e f i g u r e s show t h a t 75% of F i r s t N a t i o n s s t u d e n t s i n A l b e r t a drop out b e f o r e t h e y r e a c h Grade 10. The re a s o n f o r t h i s , i t has been argued by some, i s t h a t " s t u d e n t s know t h e y don't need a h i g h s c h o o l d i p l o m a t o c o l l e c t w e l f a r e " ( B u c k l e y , 1992, p. 140). Moreover, among t h e P i e g a n , o n l y about 7% g r a d u a t e from h i g h s c h o o l ( B u c k l e y , 1992). The low l e v e l s o f achievement i n s c h o o l and t h e h i g h drop out r a t e s among t h e F i r s t N a t i o n s p e o p l e suggest t h a t something i s wrong w i t h t h e government's s e r v i c e s . B u c k l e y (1992) argues t h a t , o f t h e many broken p r o m i s e s made by t h e F e d e r a l government, b r e a k i n g t h e promise o f e d u c a t i o n i s t h e most s e r i o u s . The F e d e r a l government's p r o m i s e s t o p r o v i d e s c h o o l i n g and j o b s f o r F i r s t N a t i o n s p e o p l e have f a i l e d , and have c o n t r i b u t e d t o f e e l i n g s o f i n f e r i o r i t y and incompetence among t h e F i r s t N a t i o n s p e o p l e . F i r s t N a t i o n s c h i l d r e n have s u f f e r e d and do s u f f e r i n s c h o o l because o f many p o o r l y q u a l i f i e d t e a c h e r s i n r e s e r v e s c h o o l s , u n f a i r t r e a t m e n t by 5 t e a c h e r s and o t h e r s t u d e n t s , and a d i f f e r e n t s e t o f v a l u e s from t h e dominant c u l t u r e . T h i s has c o n t r i b u t e d t o low l e v e l s o f academic s u c c e s s which b a r s them from " a l l but t h e l o w e s t - p a y i n g j o b s , which not o n l y [keeps] them poor but [ p e r p e t u a t e s ] s t e r e o t y p e s o f incompetence and [ l o w e r s ] t h e i r s e l f - e s t e e m " ( B u c k l e y , 1992, p. 50) . One example o f an u n s u c c e s s f u l p l a n o c c u r r e d i n t h e 1950s and 1960s when the F e d e r a l government a t t e m p t e d t o educate F i r s t N a t i o n s c h i l d r e n i n towns, by b u s s i n g them t o s c h o o l . T h i s p l a n f a i l e d f o r many reaso n s i n c l u d i n g c h i l d r e n not b e i n g t a u g h t t h e i r c u l t u r e , b e i n g f o r b i d d e n t o speak t h e i r language, t a k e n away from t h e i r p a r e n t s , and t a u g h t under an u n f a m i l i a r s e t o f v a l u e s . F o r example, i n Canadian s c h o o l s c o m p e t i t i v e n e s s i s promoted and rewarded; however, c o m p e t i t i v e n e s s may not be p a r t o f t h e F i r s t N a t i o n s way o f l i f e , s h a r i n g i s (Ross, 1992; B u c k l e y , 1992). T h e r e f o r e , F i r s t N a t i o n s c h i l d r e n who are not accustomed t o c o m p e t i t i v e n e s s e n c o u n t e r d i f f i c u l t i e s i n t h e s c h o o l system. The consequences o f t h e f a i l u r e s t o educate F i r s t N a t i o n s s t u d e n t s are wide r a n g i n g . The government's u n r e a l i s t i c g o a l s , n e g a t i v e a t t i t u d e s towards, and low v i e w o f , F i r s t N a t i o n s p e o p l e have p r o b a b l y l e d t o t h e l a t t e r ' s f e e l i n g o f low s e l f - w o r t h and shame o f h e r i t a g e . A conquered group, F i r s t N a t i o n s p e o p l e share many o f t h e b e l i e f s h e l d by i n v o l u n t a r y m i n o r i t i e s . In o t h e r words, as a r e s u l t o f b e i n g d e n i e d e q u a l i t y o f o p p o r t u n i t y , t h e y have d e v e l o p e d low e d u c a t i o n a l and o c c u p a t i o n a l e x p e c t a t i o n s . 6 A m u l t i c u l t u r a l c u r r i c u l u m t h a t p r e s e n t s F i r s t N a t i o n s p e o p l e and bands t h a t have s u c c e s s f u l l y overcome s o c i a l , p o l i t i c a l and economic b a r r i e r s a g a i n s t them i s one s o u r c e w h i c h may i n s p i r e F i r s t N a t i o n s s t u d e n t s t o r e j e c t t h e b e l i e f s o f an i n v o l u n t a r y m i n o r i t y . I t c o u l d a l s o r a i s e t h e i r s e l f - e s t e e m and p r i d e i n h e r i t a g e t o see t h a t p e o p l e l i k e t h e m s e l v e s have become s u c c e s s f u l . 7 CHAPTER II REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE T h i s s t u d y w i l l f o c u s on t h e impact o f a m u l t i c u l t u r a l c u r r i c u l u m on F i r s t N a t i o n s s t u d e n t s ' s e l f - esteem, p r i d e i n h e r i t a g e and r e j e c t i o n o f t h e b e l i e f system o f an i n v o l u n t a r y m i n o r i t y . The c u r r i c u l u m p r e s e n t s s u c c e s s f u l F i r s t N a t i o n s p e o p l e and bands t a k i n g charge o f t h e i r own a f f a i r s . A s e a r c h o f t h e l i t e r a t u r e was conducted t o f i n d s t u d i e s on t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e p o s i t i v e a s p e c t s o f F i r s t N a t i o n s c u l t u r e t o F i r s t N a t i o n s s t u d e n t s and t h e i r s e l f - e s t e e m and p r i d e i n h e r i t a g e . No s t u d i e s on e i t h e r o f t h e s e two r e l a t i o n s h i p s were found. However, a s t u d y was found on a c u r r i c u l u m d e s i g n e d t o t e a c h A f r i c a n American c h i l d r e n t h e p o s i t i v e a s p e c t s o f t h e i r c u l t u r a l h e r i t a g e and t o i n c r e a s e t h e i r s e l f - e s t e e m and d e s i r e t o l e a r n (Parko, 1991). A l t h o u g h P a r k o ' s s t u d y f o c u s e s on A f r i c a n American c h i l d r e n , and not F i r s t N a t i o n s c h i l d r e n , some o f t h e f i n d i n g s a r e a p p l i c a b l e t o t h e p r e s e n t s t u d y s i n c e A f r i c a n American c h i l d r e n i n N o r t h A m e r i c a , l i k e F i r s t N a t i o n s c h i l d r e n , a r e i n v o l u n t a r y m i n o r i t i e s . Thus, t h e y t e n d t o share s i m i l a r a t t i t u d e s and resp o n s e s t o s c h o o l i n g and f a c e s i m i l a r b a r r i e r s i n s o c i e t y due t o t h e i r comparable s t a t u s i n s o c i e t y . The a t t i t u d e F i r s t N a t i o n s c h i l d r e n h o l d towards s c h o o l i s g e n e r a l l y n e g a t i v e as a r e s u l t o f t h e d i s c r i m i n a t i o n t h e y have s u f f e r e d i n s o c i e t y . H i s t o r i c a l l y , 8 F i r s t N a t i o n s p e o p l e have been t r e a t e d by s o c i e t y as i f t h e y were i n c a p a b l e o f s u c c e e d i n g i n s c h o o l and i n p r o f e s s i o n a l c a r e e r s . Decades o f u n j u s t t r e a t m e n t have l e d t o t h e F i r s t N a t i o n s ' i n t e r n a l i z a t i o n o f t h i s i n a c c u r a t e judgment o f t h e i r c a p a b i l i t i e s . In o t h e r words, t h e p e r c e p t i o n s h e l d by F i r s t N a t i o n s p e o p l e t h a t t h e y cannot succeed, stem from t h e f a c t t h a t t h e y a r e v i c t i m s o f d i s c r i m i n a t i o n . In a d d i t i o n t o Park o ' s s t u d y , t h r e e a r t i c l e s on i n v o l u n t a r y m i n o r i t i e s w i l l be r e v i e w e d . A l l t h r e e a r t i c l e s a re from t h e book M i n o r i t y S t a t u s and S c h o o l i n g : A Comparative Study o f Immigrant and I n v o l u n t a r y M i n o r i t i e s , by Gib s o n and Ogbu (1991). A D e f i n i t i o n and Comparison of Immigrant and Involuntary Minorities The i n t r o d u c t o r y a r t i c l e i n t h e book by Gi b s o n and Ogbu (1991) d i s c u s s e s t h e t h e o r e t i c a l framework. Ogbu b e g i n s w i t h t h e a s s e r t i o n t h a t t h e f o c u s on t h e s c h o o l e x p e r i e n c e s o f m i n o r i t y c h i l d r e n i s expanding t o i n c l u d e a c a d e m i c a l l y s u c c e s s f u l , i n a d d i t i o n t o u n s u c c e s s f u l c h i l d r e n . Ogbu a f f i r m s t h a t u n t i l r e c e n t l y t h e p r i m a r y f o c u s has c o n c e n t r a t e d on u n s u c c e s s f u l involuntary minority--"people who were brought i n t o t h e i r p r e s e n t s o c i e t y t h r o u g h s l a v e r y , conquest o r c o l o n i z a t i o n . They u s u a l l y r e s e n t t h e l o s s o f t h e i r former freedom, and t h e y p e r c e i v e t h e s o c i a l , p o l i t i c a l and economic b a r r i e r s a g a i n s t them as p a r t o f t h e i r u n deserved o p p r e s s i o n " (Ogbu, 1991, p. 9) 9 - - ( o r , nonimmigrant) c h i l d r e n . E x p l a n a t i o n s f o r t h e i r l a c k o f achievement i n s c h o o l have i n c l u d e d c u l t u r a l and language d i f f e r e n c e s and s o c i a l c l a s s v a r i a b l e s . Ogbu argues t h a t t h e s e e x p l a n a t i o n s a re i n s u f f i c i e n t because immigrant minority c h i l d r e n - -whose f a m i l i e s have "moved t o t h e i r p r e s e n t s o c i e t i e s because t h e y b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e move would l e a d t o more economic w e l l - b e i n g , b e t t e r o v e r a l l o p p o r t u n i t i e s o r g r e a t e r p o l i t i c a l freedom" (Ogbu, 1991, p. 8) --who share s i m i l a r d i f f i c u l t i e s ( c u l t u r a l , l i n g u i s t i c and s o c i a l c l a s s ) , t e n d t o be more s u c c e s s f u l i n s c h o o l . R a t h e r t h a n t r y i n g t o u n d e r s t a n d why m i n o r i t y c h i l d r e n p e r f o r m t h e way t h e y do i n s c h o o l , from t h e p e r s p e c t i v e o f t h e dominant group's p e r c e p t i o n s o f t h e i r own s o c i a l r e a l i t y , " i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o i n c o r p o r a t e t h e p e r c e p t i o n s and u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h a t t h e m i n o r i t i e s have o f t h e i r s o c i a l r e a l i t i e s and o f t h e i r s c h o o l i n g " (Ogbu, 1991, pp. 6-7) . Ogbu s u g g e s t s t h a t e x a m i n a t i o n o f a group's c u l t u r a l model i s n e c e s s a r y s i n c e i t i n d u c e s d i f f e r e n t b e h a v i o u r s which a re c o n n e c t e d t o some degree w i t h academic achievement o f i t s members. A l t h o u g h b o t h immigrant and i n v o l u n t a r y m i n o r i t i e s have s u f f e r e d and do s u f f e r d i s c r i m i n a t i o n and e n c o u n t e r many b a r r i e r s , immigrant m i n o r i t i e s ' h i g h e x p e c t a t i o n s o f l i f e i n t h e i r p r e s e n t s o c i e t y i n f l u e n c e t h e i r p e r c e p t i o n s and re s p o n s e s t o such t r e a t m e n t . More s p e c i f i c a l l y , t h e y t e n d t o i n t e r p r e t t h e s o c i a l , p o l i t i c a l and economic b a r r i e r s a g a i n s t them as temporary problems t h a t t h e y w i l l t r a n s c e n d w i t h 10 t i m e . I n a d d i t i o n , s i n c e s o c i e t y p e r c e i v e s ^ n d t r e a t s them as d e d i c a t e d and h a r d w o r k e r s , t h e y adopt t h e b e l i e f t h a t t h e y a r e c a p a b l e o f s u c c e e d i n g and t h u s a c t a c c o r d i n g l y . Moreover, when comparing t h e i r p r e s e n t s i t u a t i o n w i t h t h e one back home, immigrant m i n o r i t i e s p e r c e i v e t h a t t h e y a re b e t t e r o f f i n t h e p r e s e n t s o c i e t y , though t h e y may h o l d o n l y m a r g i n a l j o b s , t h a n t h e y would be i n t h e i r homeland. T h i s p o s i t i v e d u a l frame o f r e f e r e n c e c o n t r i b u t e s t o t h e i r b e l i e f t h a t t h e y can improve t h e i r s t a t u s i n t h i s s o c i e t y . They have a l s o d e v e l o p e d s t r a t e g i e s t o cope w i t h l i f e i n t h e i r p r e s e n t s o c i e t y . F o r i n s t a n c e , most have t h e o p t i o n o f r e t u r n i n g t o t h e i r homeland o r e m i g r a t i n g t o a n o t h e r s o c i e t y i f l i f e i n t h e i r p r e s e n t s o c i e t y i s not what t h e y hoped i t would be. An o t h e r f a c t o r which a i d s immigrant m i n o r i t i e s t o cope w i t h c u l t u r a l and language d i f f e r e n c e s i s t h e i r p r i m a r y c u l t u r a l d i f f e r e n c e s . T h i s term, c o i n e d by Ogbu (1982), r e f e r s t o t h e d i f f e r e n c e s i n c u l t u r e and language immigrant m i n o r i t i e s had b e f o r e a r r i v a l t o t h e i r p r e s e n t s o c i e t y . I n o t h e r words, t h e i r " s o c i a l i d e n t i t y e x i s t e d b e f o r e e m i g r a t i o n and was not d e v e l o p e d i n o p p o s i t i o n t o t h e s o c i a l i d e n t i t y o f t h e dominant group members o f t h e h o s t s o c i e t y " (Ogbu, 1991, p. 13). F i n a l l y , immigrant m i n o r i t i e s h o l d many p e r c e p t i o n s t h a t a i d them i n c o p i n g w i t h t h e b a r r i e r s a g a i n s t them and t h e y a l s o b e l i e v e t h a t t h e d i s c r i m i n a t i o n and p r e j u d i c e t h e y s u f f e r i s w o r t h t h e i r aim o f academic and employment s u c c e s s i n t h e i r p r e s e n t s o c i e t y . 11 I n v o l u n t a r y m i n o r i t i e s i n t e r p r e t t h e b a r r i e r s a g a i n s t them i n a d i f f e r e n t way from immigrant m i n o r i t i e s . F i r s t o f a l l , u n l i k e t h e imm i g r a n t s , t h e y do not have a r e f e r e n c e group o r homeland w i t h which t o compare t h e i r p r e s e n t s i t u a t i o n . I n s t e a d , they, compare t h e i r s i t u a t i o n w i t h t h a t o f t h e dominant group and c o n c l u d e t h a t t h e y a r e worse o f f . Co n s e q u e n t l y , as Ogbu (1991) s u g g e s t s , t h e y adopt a n e g a t i v e d u a l frame o f r e f e r e n c e as a r e s u l t o f t h e i r membership i n an o p p r e s s e d group. Thus, t h e y t e n d t o i n t e r p r e t t h e s o c i a l , p o l i t i c a l and economic b a r r i e r s a g a i n s t them as permanent and i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d . T h e i r n e g a t i v e d u a l frame o f r e f e r e n c e , adopted from t h e way s o c i e t y t r e a t s them, i n f l u e n c e s t h e i r p e r c e p t i o n s o f what i t t a k e s t o succeed i n s o c i e t y . Ogbu (1991) has p o s i t e d t h a t u n l i k e t h e immigrant m i n o r i t i e s , who b e l i e v e h a r d work and a good e d u c a t i o n w i l l h e l p them overcome t h e b a r r i e r s a g a i n s t them, i n v o l u n t a r y m i n o r i t i e s t e n d t o b e l i e v e t h a t more th a n an e d u c a t i o n and h a r d work and e f f o r t a re r e q u i r e d t o succeed s i n c e t h e b a r r i e r s t h e y f a c e are overwhelming. I n v o l u n t a r y m i n o r i t i e s b e l i e v e t h a t c o l l e c t i v e e f f o r t s are r e q u i r e d . These i n c l u d e c o l l e c t i v e s t r a t e g i e s , such as p r o t e s t s , i n an attempt t o change the^ c r i t e r i a f o r s c h o o l r e q u i r e m e n t s so t h e y w i l l be more b e n e f i c i a l t o them. Once a g a i n , u n l i k e t h e imm i g r a n t s , t h e i r c o p i n g s t r a t e g i e s a re not e f f e c t i v e , f o r t h e y do not have t h e o p t i o n o f r e t u r n i n g t o t h e i r homeland. 12 Ogbu (1991) f u r t h e r p o s t u l a t e s a n o t h e r d i f f e r e n c e between immigrant and i n v o l u n t a r y m i n o r i t i e s t h a t o f c u l t u r a l d i f f e r e n c e . Whereas immigrants are c h a r a c t e r i z e d by p r i m a r y c u l t u r a l d i f f e r e n c e s , i n v o l u n t a r y m i n o r i t i e s are c h a r a c t e r i z e d by secondary c u l t u r a l d i f f e r e n c e s . In o t h e r words, t h e i r d i s t i n c t c u l t u r e and language from t h e dominant group has emerged as a r e s u l t o f t h e i r o p p o s i t i o n t o t h e s o c i a l i d e n t i t y o f t h e dominant group, w h i c h t r e a t s them u n j u s t l y . C o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e y do not p e r c e i v e t h e language and c u l t u r e d i f f e r e n c e s i n s c h o o l and s o c i e t y as temporary b a r r i e r s w hich can be overcome, but r a t h e r as "symbols o f i d e n t i t y t o be m a i n t a i n e d " (Ogbu, 1991, p. 1 5 ) . The a f o r e m e n t i o n e d c u l t u r a l models o f t h e immigrant and i n v o l u n t a r y m i n o r i t i e s i n f l u e n c e t h e i r a t t i t u d e s towards s c h o o l and t h e development o f s t r a t e g i e s t o a c h i e v e t h e i r g o a l s (Ogbu, 1991). The immigrant m i n o r i t y p a r e n t s , who h o l d a p o s i t i v e d u a l frame o f r e f e r e n c e , b e l i e v e t h a t t h e y can s ucceed. They emphasize t h a t t h e i r c h i l d r e n must succeed i n s c h o o l s i n c e t h e y see e d u c a t i o n as a means f o r s u c c e s s i n t h e i r p r e s e n t s o c i e t y . P r e s s u r e i s p l a c e d on and s u p p o r t i s g i v e n t o t h e c h i l d r e n t o succeed, r e g a r d l e s s o f t h e b a r r i e r s t h e y must f a c e and overcome. In a d d i t i o n t o l i n g u i s t i c and c u l t u r a l b a r r i e r s , c h i l d r e n f a c e d i s c r i m i n a t i o n , and a d i f f i c u l t y a d j u s t i n g t o new l e a r n i n g s t y l e s and n o n v e r b a l communication (e.g., eye c o n t a c t , s p e a k i n g up i n c l a s s ) . N e v e r t h e l e s s , p a r e n t a l and community s u p p o r t t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e i r c o p i n g 13 s t r a t e g i e s , and an o p t i m i s t i c o u t l o o k , m o t i v a t e them t o e x c e l i n s c h o o l and t h e y g e n e r a l l y t e n d t o do so. I n v o l u n t a r y m i n o r i t i e s , on t h e o t h e r hand, t e n d t o have a n e g a t i v e d u a l frame o f r e f e r e n c e and c o p i n g s t r a t e g i e s t h a t do not always a l l o w them t o succeed. Moreover, p a r e n t s and t h e community do not p r e s s u r e or g i v e s u p p o r t t o t h e c h i l d r e n f o r h i g h academic achievement, as i n t h e immigrant group. The c h i l d r e n o f t h e immigrants have been s t i g m a t i z e d and t o l d t h e y are i n a d e q u a t e and unable t o succeed i n s c h o o l . Thus, t h e y have i n t e r n a l i z e d t h i s a c c u s a t i o n and p e r c e i v e t h a t i t r e q u i r e s more t h a n an e d u c a t i o n t o succeed i n s o c i e t y (Ogbu, 1991). As a r e s u l t , t h e y t e n d t o d e v e l o p p e s s i m i s t i c a t t i t u d e s about t h e i r a b i l i t y t o succeed. " Moreover, u n l i k e t h e immigrant m i n o r i t i e s ' a b i l i t y t o d i s t i n g u i s h what s t r a t e g i e s are needed t o overcome t h e b a r r i e r s a g a i n s t them, i n v o l u n t a r y m i n o r i t i e s i n t e r p r e t l e a r n i n g i n t h e dominant group's s c h o o l s as d e t r i m e n t a l t o t h e i r own c u l t u r e , language, and s o c i a l i d e n t i t y . When p l a c e d i n a p o s i t i o n o f h a v i n g t o choose between s u c c e s s i n s c h o o l and maintenance o f t h e i r c u l t u r e , language and s o c i a l i d e n t i t y , where l i t t l e s u p p o r t i s g i v e n by p a r e n t s and t h e community f o r h i g h academic achievement, t h e c h i l d r e n t e n d t o choose t h e l a t t e r . 14 School Performance of Immigrant and Nonimmigrant Mexican-Descent Students H i s p a n i c s t u d e n t s i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s g e n e r a l l y do l e s s w e l l i n s c h o o l t h a n any o t h e r group i n t h e Southwest (except f o r F i r s t N a t i o n s ) . I t i s i m p o r t a n t t o n o t e , however, t h a t not a l l c h i l d r e n o f Mexican-descent are u n s u c c e s s f u l i n s c h o o l . M a t u t e - B i a n c h i ' s (1986) f i e l d w o r k i n a C a l i f o r n i a community f o c u s e d on t h e v a r i a t i o n s i n academic s u c c e s s among Me x i c a n - d e s c e n t c h i l d r e n . The a u t h o r found t h a t a r e l a t i o n s h i p e x i s t s between s t u d e n t s o f c e r t a i n e t h n i c i d e n t i t i e s and academic achievement. In o t h e r words, t h e more r e c e n t Mexican i m m i g r a n t s , who i d e n t i f y as M exicans, t e n d t o p e r f o r m w e l l above t h e Chicano s t u d e n t s . M a t u t e - B i a n c h i a s s e r t s t h a t s t u d e n t s i d e n t i f y w i t h one o f t h e f i v e f o l l o w i n g subgroups --Mexicano, M e x i c a n - O r i e n t e d , Mexican American, Chicano, C h o l o - - which i n f l u e n c e s t h e i r academic performance. Ogbu and M a t u t e - B i a n c h i (198 6) propose t h a t t h a t which d i s t i n g u i s h e s t h e two m i n o r i t y g r o u p s -immigrant M e x i c a n - d e s c e n t and i n v o l u n t a r y , o r nonimmigrant, M e x i c a n - d e s c e n t - - i s "the p e r c e p t i o n o f t h e i r economic p o s i t i o n i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s as a s u b o r d i n a t e s t i g m a t i z e d m i n o r i t y and t h e i r r e sponses t o t h e l e g i t i m a t i n g r a c i s t i d e o l o g i e s d i r e c t e d a g a i n s t them" (p. 218). Whereas b o t h groups have s u f f e r e d d i s c r i m i n a t i o n and o p p r e s s i o n , t h e i r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f , and responses t o , t h i s d i s c r i m i n a t i o n a r e d i f f e r e n t . Immigrant Mexicanos' r e s p o n s e s , f o r i n s t a n c e , are 15 l i k e l y t o i n c l u d e p e r c e p t i o n s o f academic s u c c e s s as a p r e r e q u i s i t e f o r c o m p e t i t i o n i n t h e American j o b market and as a s t r a t e g y t o overcome t h e temporary b a r r i e r s i n s o c i e t y . I n v o l u n t a r y C h i c a n o s , on t h e o t h e r hand, a r e not l i k e l y t o p e r c e i v e academic s u c c e s s as a s t r a t e g y f o r g a i n i n g a d u l t s u c c e s s s i n c e , h i s t o r i c a l l y , academic achievement has not been s u f f i c i e n t . The M e x i c a n - d e s c e n t p o p u l a t i o n , as M a t u t e - B i a n c h i e x p l a i n s , i s a heterogeneous one w i t h s e v e r a l d i s t i n c t subgroups w i t h i n t h e p o p u l a t i o n t h a t has undergone d i v e r s e e x p e r i e n c e s o f l i f e i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . As a r e s u l t o f some members 1 achievements r e g a r d i n g g r e a t e r s u c c e s s and m o b i l i t y over o t h e r s , c l a s s d i f f e r e n c e s have emerged. These are d i s t i n c t i o n s i n c u l t u r a l models, e t h n i c i d e n t i f i c a t i o n and d i f f e r e n c e s between immigrant and i n v o l u n t a r y M e x i c a n -descent m i n o r i t i e s . M a t u t e - B i a n c h i 1 s e t h n o g r a p h i c s t u d y (1983 t o 1985) a t " F i e l d " H i g h S c h o o l i n an a g r i c u l t u r a l community i n C a l i f o r n i a , f o c u s e d on t h e d i f f e r e n c e s between s u c c e s s f u l immigrant and u n s u c c e s s f u l i n v o l u n t a r y M e x i c a n - d e s c e n t m i n o r i t y s t u d e n t s . From her s t u d y , she d e r i v e d t h e f i v e e t h n i c i d e n t i t y groups w i t h which s t u d e n t s a s s o c i a t e t h e m s e l v e s , and s e v e r a l p a t t e r n s o f s c h o o l p e r f o r m a n c e . One o f t h e Mexican e t h n i c i d e n t i t y subgroups i s t h e Recent Mexican Immigrant o r Mexicano group. S t u d e n t s who i d e n t i f y w i t h t h i s group c l a i m t h a t Mexico i s t h e i r home and t h a t t h e i r i m m i g r a t i o n t o t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s was p r i m a r i l y f o r 16 economic o p p o r t u n i t i e s . A l t h o u g h t h e y are not t h e most s u c c e s s f u l Mexican-descent s t u d e n t s , they are more s e r i o u s about t h e i r work, more w e l l - b e h a v e d , d i l i g e n t , and p o l i t e t h a n o t h e r s t u d e n t s i n t h e s c h o o l . The second subgroup i s t h e M e x i c a n - O r i e n t e d . Most o f t h e s t u d e n t s who i d e n t i f y w i t h t h i s group a r e b i l i n g u a l and use E n g l i s h and S p a n i s h i n t e r c h a n g e a b l y . Many o f t h e s e s t u d e n t s a r e i n t h e c o l l e g e p r e p a r a t o r y t r a c k i n h i g h s c h o o l . They are a l s o t h e most a c t i v e i n M e x i c a n - d e s c e n t s c h o o l c l u b s and are h i g h a c h i e v e r s . They m a i n t a i n a s t r o n g i d e n t i t y as Mexicanos a l t h o u g h t h e y have l i v e d i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s f o r most o f t h e i r l i v e s . Both o f t h e s e two subgroups can t h u s be c h a r a c t e r i z e d as immigrant m i n o r i t y groups. The t h i r d subgroup i s t h e Mexican American, a group i n w hich t h e s t u d e n t s are much more American o r i e n t e d t h a n e i t h e r o f t h e two p r e v i o u s groups. Some o f t h e most a c t i v e and s u c c e s s f u l M e x i c a n - d e s c e n t s t u d e n t s i n t h e s c h o o l can be i d e n t i f i e d as members o f t h i s group. T h i s group i s t h e l e a s t l i k e l y o f t h e M e x i c a n - d e s c e n t s t u d e n t s t o i d e n t i f y w i t h any e t h n i c group. They a r e n e i t h e r e n t i r e l y immigrant nor i n v o l u n t a r y m i n o r i t i e s . The f o u r t h subgroup i s t h e C h i c a n o . S t u d e n t s i d e n t i f y i n g w i t h t h i s group ( a p p r o x i m a t e l y 40% o f t h e s c h o o l ' s M e x i c a n - d e s c e n t p o p u l a t i o n ) t e n d t o be E n g l i s h -s p e a k i n g and are a t l e a s t second g e n e r a t i o n Mexicans i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . They are much l e s s l i k e l y t o be a c t i v e l y i n v o l v e d i n s c h o o l a c t i v i t i e s o r e n r o l l e d i n c o l l e g e 17 p r e p a r a t o r y c o u r s e s . Many t e a c h e r s d e s c r i b e t h e s e s t u d e n t s as d e v o t e d t o t h e Chicano group y e t d e f i a n t and a p a t h e t i c t o the s c h o o l c u l t u r e . Even though s t u d e n t s i n t h i s group may d e c l a r e t h e i r d e s i r e t o do w e l l i n s c h o o l , t h e i r a t t i t u d e s and b e h a v i o u r i n d i c a t e o t h e r w i s e . The f i n a l subgroup found by M a t u t e - B i a n c h i i s t h a t o f Me x i c a n - d e s c e n t s t u d e n t s who i d e n t i f y w i t h t h e C h o l o . I t i s th e s m a l l e s t i n number o f t h e f i v e subgroups. S t u d e n t s i n t h i s group a r e o f t e n i n v o l v e d i n gangs and e x h i b i t a symbol o f i d e n t i t y w hich i s n e i t h e r "Mexican" nor "American". Moreover, t h e y are low a c h i e v e r s and t h e l e a s t s u c c e s s f u l i n academic p u r s u i t s o f a l l Me x i c a n - d e s c e n t s t u d e n t s i n s c h o o l . The l a s t two subgroups d e s c r i b e d can be c h a r a c t e r i z e d as i n v o l u n t a r y m i n o r i t y groups. Many o f t h e Mexican-descent s t u d e n t s i n M a t u t e - B i a n c h i 1 s ethnography a t " F i e l d " H i g h S c h o o l are a c a d e m i c a l l y s u c c e s s f u l . However, t h e m a j o r i t y o f t h e s e s u c c e s s f u l s t u d e n t s i d e n t i f y t h e m s e l v e s w i t h t h e f i r s t t h r e e subgroups; none o f t h e Chicano o r Cholo s t u d e n t s were e n r o l l e d i n c o l l e g e p r e p a r a t o r y c o u r s e s . Thus, academic s u c c e s s i s more l i k e l y t o p r e v a i l among t h e immigrant m i n o r i t y M e x i c a n -d e s c e n t s t u d e n t s (Mexicano, Mexican American and M e x i c a n -O r i e n t e d ) , whereas poor academic performance i s more l i k e l y t o be found among t h e i n v o l u n t a r y m i n o r i t y M e x i c a n - d e s c e n t s t u d e n t s (Chicano and C h o l o ) . T h i s d i f f e r e n c e i n achievement can be e x p l a i n e d by t h e s t u d e n t s ' " p e r c e p t i o n o f them s e l v e s and o t h e r s and o f t h e 18 v a l u e o f t h e i r i n v e s t m e n t i n e d u c a t i o n " ( M a t u t e - B i a n c h i , 1986, p. 234). While t h e more s u c c e s s f u l s t u d e n t s a re achievement- and g o a l - o r i e n t e d and b e l i e v e t h a t h i g h achievement i n h i g h s c h o o l i s n e c e s s a r y f o r s u c c e s s as an a d u l t , t h e more u n s u c c e s s f u l s t u d e n t s do not b e l i e v e t h a t academic achievement w i l l a s s i s t them i n g a i n i n g b e t t e r employment and s u c c e s s i n t h e f u t u r e . These s t u d e n t s see t h e m a r g i n a l o c c u p a t i o n s h e l d by t h e i r p a r e n t s w h i c h i n f l u e n c e s them t o adopt t h e b e l i e f t h a t t h e y , t o o , w i l l e x p e r i e n c e s i m i l a r j o b c e i l i n g s . Moreover, s i n c e most o f t h e p a r e n t s o f s t u d e n t s i n t h e Chicano and Cholo groups were t y p i c a l l y u n s u c c e s s f u l i n s c h o o l t h e m s e l v e s , due t o s o c i e t a l b a r r i e r s and d i s c r i m i n a t i o n t h e y , u n l i k e o t h e r p a r e n t s , t e n d not t o emphasize academic achievement f o r t h e i r c h i l d r e n . As p a r t o f t h e s t u d y , Chicano s t u d e n t s were asked many q u e s t i o n s i n c l u d i n g how p e o p l e become u n s u c c e s s f u l a d u l t s . T h e i r r e s p o n s e s i n d i c a t e "the e x t e n t t o which t h e y may have i n t e r n a l i z e d c o n v e n t i o n a l n o t i o n s w h i c h l i n k s u c c e s s and f a i l u r e t o i n d i v i d u a l e f f o r t s " ( M a t u t e - B i a n c h i , 1986, p. 235). F o r i n s t a n c e , some s t u d e n t s s a i d Mexicans do not have t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o go on t o p o s t - s e c o n d a r y s t u d i e s o r t h e y f a c e p r e j u d i c e because t h e y a re not l i k e d . Such r e s p o n s e s i n d i c a t e t h a t i n v o l u n t a r y m i n o r i t i e s such as Ch i c a n o s and Cholos t e n d not t o be o p t i m i s t i c about t h e i r f u t u r e s . I n f a c t , t h e y had more d i f f i c u l t y e x p l a i n i n g s t r a t e g i e s f o r f u t u r e s u c c e s s t h a n f o r f a i l u r e . They p e r c e i v e d c e r t a i n b a r r i e r s i n s o c i e t y a g a i n s t them, such as ' p r e j u d i c e , as 19 permanent and i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d . I n v o l u n t a r y m i n o r i t i e s ' r e s p o n s e s t o s o c i e t a l b a r r i e r s may i n c l u d e t h e f o r m a t i o n o f a c o l l e c t i v e s o c i a l i d e n t i t y i n o p p o s i t i o n t o t h a t o f t h e dominant group. The s t r a t e g i e s o f t h o s e who a s s o c i a t e w i t h o p p o s i t i o n a l c o l l e c t i v e s o c i a l i d e n t i t i e s t e n d t o emphasize a t t e m p t s at c h a n g i n g t h e r u l e s . Such b e h a v i o u r , however, works t o m a i n t a i n t h e i r s t a t u s as a s t i g m a t i z e d m i n o r i t y group. T h e r e f o r e , t h e i r p e r c e p t i o n o f t h e m s e l v e s as a s t i g m a t i z e d group w i t h few o p p o r t u n i t i e s as a d u l t s i n f l u e n c e s them t o b e l i e v e t h a t s c h o o l w i l l not make a d i f f e r e n c e . Immigrant m i n o r i t i e s , on t h e o t h e r hand, p e r c e i v e t h a t i n d i v i d u a l e f f o r t and h a r d work i n s c h o o l w i l l e n a b l e them t o s u cceed. They t e n d t o b e l i e v e , u n l i k e t h e i n v o l u n t a r y m i n o r i t i e s , t h a t academic s u c c e s s i s a n e c e s s a r y c r e d e n t i a l f o r overcoming t h e b a r r i e r s i n s o c i e t y . M a t u t e - B i a n c h i c o n c l u d e s t h a t t h e r e i s a r e l a t i o n s h i p between s t u d e n t p e r c e p t i o n s o f f u t u r e o p p o r t u n i t i e s , p a s t e x p e r i e n c e s o f t h e i r f a m i l i e s , and s t r a t e g i e s i n r e s ponse t o t h e s e p e r c e p t i o n s and s c h o o l s u c c e s s and f a i l u r e . F i n a l l y , M a t u t e - B i a n c h i proposes t h a t because i n v o l u n t a r y m i n o r i t y s t u d e n t s t e n d not t o be exposed t o s u c c e s s f u l a d u l t s (both i n academics and i n employment), i t i s t h e s c h o o l ' s r e s p o n s i b i l i t y t o p r o v i d e t h e s e s t u d e n t s w i t h examples o f s u c c e s s f u l r o l e models. 20 Low School Performance as an Adaptation Ogbu 1s e t h n o g r a p h i c s t u d y i n S t o c k t o n , C a l i f o r n i a , from 1968 t o 1970, f o c u s e d on t h e s c h o o l e x p e r i e n c e and performance o f b l a c k Americans, an i n v o l u n t a r y m i n o r i t y group, who t e n d t o do l e s s w e l l a c a d e m i c a l l y t h a n immigrant m i n o r i t i e s . Ogbu d e s c r i b e s how b l a c k Americans have d e v e l o p e d an i d e n t i t y and c u l t u r a l model t o cope w i t h t h e i r o p p r e s s i o n . Upon c o n d u c t i n g i n t e r v i e w s w i t h p a r e n t s o f s c h o o l - a g e d c h i l d r e n , Ogbu found t h a t , a l t h o u g h b l a c k American c h i l d r e n t e n d not t o be v e r y s u c c e s s f u l i n s c h o o l , t h e p a r e n t s d e s i r e t h e i r c h i l d r e n t o o b t a i n a good e d u c a t i o n because t h e y b e l i e v e i t i s n e c e s s a r y f o r t h e i r f u t u r e employment. Y e t , s c h o o l dropout among b l a c k s e x i s t s , and a t a h i g h e r r a t e , t h a n among w h i t e s . T h i s r e a l i t y e x i s t s f o r v a r i o u s r e a s o n s some o f which are d i s c u s s e d below. In i n t e r v i e w s h e l d w i t h s c h o o l o f f i c i a l s i n S t o c k t o n , t h e e x p l a n a t i o n s g i v e n f o r t h e poor academic performance among b l a c k s t u d e n t s i n c l u d e d s o c i a l c l a s s d i f f e r e n c e s , r u r a l b ackground and l e v e l s o f E n g l i s h p r o f i c i e n c y . They c l a i m e d t h a t b l a c k s t u d e n t s do not p e r f o r m as w e l l i n s c h o o l as w h i t e s t u d e n t s because o f t h e i r l ower c l a s s backgrounds and t h e l o c a t i o n o f t h e i r s c h o o l s i n l o w e r - c l a s s n e i g h b o r h o o d s . Second, p r i n c i p a l s a t t r i b u t e d t h e lower s c h o o l performance t o th e r u r a l background o f t h e f a m i l i e s and t h u s t o t h e i r low-l e v e l academic a s p i r a t i o n s . F i n a l l y , t h e y a t t r i b u t e d t h e low e r s c h o o l performance t o t h e i r low l e v e l o f E n g l i s h 21 p r o f i c i e n c y . H aving i d e n t i f i e d t h e s e f a c t o r s as causes f o r low academic s u c c e s s among b l a c k s , s c h o o l o f f i c i a l s i n t h e 1960s i n i t i a t e d e d u c a t i o n programs t o i n c r e a s e academic s u c c e s s among t h i s i n v o l u n t a r y m i n o r i t y group. However, t h e s e programs f a i l e d because t h e s t r a t e g i e s used by t h e s c h o o l s were i n a p p r o p r i a t e . S i n c e t h e above t h r e e e x p l a n a t i o n s f o r lower academic s u c c e s s were i n s u f f i c i e n t and i n a c c u r a t e , so were t h e s t r a t e g i e s used i n t h e s e programs. Ogbu s u g g e s t s an a l t e r n a t i v e e x p l a n a t i o n f o r t h e paradox o f h i g h a s p i r a t i o n and low s c h o o l performance o f b l a c k s t u d e n t s . He c l a i m s one s h o u l d t r a c e t h e h i s t o r i c a l r o o t s o f b l a c k s i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s i n o r d e r t o be a b l e t o e x p l a i n t h e i r performance i n s c h o o l . I n o t h e r words, one needs t o examine t h e o r i g i n o f t h e problem — t h e i n v o l u n t a r y i n c o r p o r a t i o n o f b l a c k s i n American s o c i e t y and t h e i r subsequent t r e a t m e n t as s u b o r d i n a t e s which p u t s them i n a c a s t e l i k e p o s i t i o n . D e t a i l e d e x p l a n a t i o n s o f t h e c u l t u r a l and s t r u c t u r a l consequences o f b l a c k s t a t u s a re o f f e r e d . F i r s t o f a l l , Ogbu d i s c u s s e s t h e g e n e r a l l y i n f l e x i b l e s t a t u s m o b i l i t y o f b l a c k s . B l a c k s have h i s t o r i c a l l y r e c e i v e d i n f e r i o r e d u c a t i o n which p r e p a r e d them f o r t h e l e a s t d e s i r a b l e j o b s . F u r t h e r m o r e , even when b l a c k s overcame t h e b a r r i e r s i n t h e s c h o o l system a g a i n s t them, and completed h i g h s c h o o l , t h e y d i d not have t h e same o p p o r t u n i t y as w h i t e s t o compete f o r b e t t e r j o b s due t o j o b c e i l i n g s . Hence, t h e i r r e sponses t o t h e v a l u e o f e d u c a t i o n were, and a r e , i n f l u e n c e d by t h i s . 22 A second consequence i s t h e c u l t u r a l and i n t e l l e c t u a l d e r o g a t i o n o f b l a c k s by w h i t e s . Because many b l a c k s l i v e i n poor neighbourhoods where many are on w e l f a r e , t h e y a r e accu s e d o f not p a y i n g t a x e s ; however, t h e y pay t a x e s l i k e everyone e l s e . Moreover, b l a c k s on w e l f a r e a re acc u s e d o f not r e a r i n g t h e i r c h i l d r e n t o be s e l f - s u p p o r t i v e . A t h i r d c u l t u r a l consequence i s t h e c o n t i n u o u s c o n f l i c t between b l a c k s and w h i t e s , and b l a c k s and s c h o o l s over employment, e d u c a t i o n , h o u s i n g , crime and j u s t i c e . The r e s o l u t i o n s o f some o f t h e s e c o n f l i c t s , w hich t e n d t o y i e l d l e s s f a v o r a b l e r e s u l t s f o r t h e b l a c k s , have i n d u c e d f e e l i n g s o f d i s t r u s t o f w h i t e p e o p l e and s c h o o l s , and t h e many o t h e r i n s t i t u t i o n s w h i t e s c o n t r o l . The f i n a l c u l t u r a l and s t r u c t u r a l consequence i s t h e response o f b l a c k s r e g a r d i n g t h e i r u n f a i r t r e a t m e n t . A l t h o u g h b l a c k s o f t e n e x p r e s s t h e i r d e s i r e t o get ahead i n s o c i e t y by o b t a i n i n g a good e d u c a t i o n and w o r k i n g h a r d , t h e y p e r c e i v e t h a t t h i s i s not enough. In o t h e r words, u n l i k e immigrant m i n o r i t i e s , t h e y do not t h i n k t h a t t h e y can overcome s o c i a l , p o l i t i c a l and economic b a r r i e r s w i t h a good e d u c a t i o n . I n s t e a d , t h e y have d e v e l o p e d a l t e r n a t i v e s t r a t e g i e s because t h e y b e l i e v e t h a t t h e d i s c r i m i n a t i o n a g a i n s t them i s i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d and permanent. Some o f t h e i r s u r v i v a l s t r a t e g i e s f o r c o p i n g w i t h t h e s e d i f f i c u l t i e s i n c l u d e c o l l e c t i v e s t r u g g l e s (as e x p l a i n e d i n t h e f i r s t s e c t i o n o f t h e r e v i e w o f l i t e r a t u r e ) , h u s t l i n g , p r o t e s t i n g , and b o y c o t t i n g . Moreover, b l a c k p e o p l e have d e v e l o p e d an 23 i d e n t i t y and c u l t u r a l frame o f r e f e r e n c e i n o p p o s i t i o n t o t h e dominant c u l t u r e . Ogbu s u g g e s t s t h a t i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e e d u c a t i o n b a r r i e r s , b l a c k s t u d e n t s c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e i r low s c h o o l performance by t h e i r p e r c e p t i o n s , i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f , and re s p o n s e s t o s c h o o l i n g . More s p e c i f i c a l l y , even though b l a c k p a r e n t s , as do w h i t e p a r e n t s , d e s i r e a good e d u c a t i o n f o r t h e i r c h i l d r e n t o be a b l e t o o b t a i n good j o b s , t h e i r e f f o r t s t o r e a c h t h e s e a s p i r a t i o n s do not match t h e i r w i s h e s . S o c i e t a l b a r r i e r s and t r e a t m e n t by t h e dominant group b r a n d them as incompetent, i n f e r i o r and i n a d e q u a t e , t h u s making i t i m p o s s i b l e f o r them t o o b t a i n good j o b s . From h i s i n t e r v i e w s w i t h b l a c k s t u d e n t s , Ogbu c o n c l u d e d t h a t b l a c k c h i l d r e n p e r c e i v e t h a t t h e y do not have t h e same chances as w h i t e c h i l d r e n t o compete f o r good j o b s . T h e r e f o r e , t h e y do not see t h e same v a l u e i n e d u c a t i o n as do t h e i r w h i t e c o u n t e r p a r t s . Moreover, a l t h o u g h b l a c k p a r e n t s i n S t o c k t o n t e l l t h e i r c h i l d r e n t o a v a i l t h e m s e l v e s o f a good e d u c a t i o n , "even v e r y young b l a c k c h i l d r e n b e g i n t o r e a l i z e t h a t f o r b l a c k p e o p l e . . . t h e c o n n e c t i o n between s c h o o l s u c c e s s and one's a b i l i t y t o get ahead i s weak" (Ogbu, 1991, p. 280). The s u r v i v a l s t r a t e g i e s t a k e n by b l a c k s t u d e n t s , as d e s c r i b e d e a r l i e r (e.g., h u s t l i n g ) , a l s o c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e i r low academic s u c c e s s . F u r t h e r m o r e , b l a c k s t u d e n t s e v e n t u a l l y equate s c h o o l i n g t o w h i t e s o c i e t y s i n c e w h i t e s t e n d t o e x c e l i n s c h o o l and o b t a i n b e t t e r j o b s . The r e s u l t o f t h i s e q u a t i o n i s an o p p o s i t i o n t o b o t h . They become d i s i n t e r e s t e d 0 3 24 i n s c h o o l i n g because t h e y p e r c e i v e i t as "wh i t e man's knowledge" and th e y i n t e r p r e t o b e y i n g t h e t e a c h e r as o b e y i n g w h i t e p e o p l e ' s o r d e r s , j u s t as t h e i r f o r e f a t h e r s were f o r c e d t o do i n t h e days o f s l a v e r y . I n e v i t a b l y , t h e y have come t o d i s t r u s t w h i t e s o c i e t y and s c h o o l s . The Self-Esteem Through Culture Leads to Academic Excellence (SETCLAE) Program The S e l f - E s t e e m Through • C u l t u r e Leads t o Academic E x c e l l e n c e (SETCLAE) c u r r i c u l u m was d e s i g n e d t o t e a c h c h i l d r e n t h e " p o s i t i v e a s p e c t s o f t h e i r c u l t u r a l h e r i t a g e ; and s i m u l t a n e o u s l y , i n c r e a s e t h e i r s e l f - e s t e e m and hence t h e i r d e s i r e t o l e a r n " (Parko, 1991, p. 1) . The s t u d y by Parko (1991) took p l a c e i n t h e 1989-1990 s c h o o l y e a r i n f o u r M e t r o p o l i t a n A t l a n t a s c h o o l s , — t w o e l e m e n t a r y and two m i d d l e s c h o o l s . A l l t h e s t u d e n t s o f t h e s e f o u r s c h o o l s p a r t i c i p a t e d i n t h e program which c o n s i s t e d o f a s e l f - e s t e e m measure, t h e SETCLAE s t u d e n t p r o f i l e (SETCLAESP) , c u r r i c u l u m g u i d e and l e s s o n p l a n s f o r s t u d e n t s , p a r t - t i m e c o n s u l t a n t s e r v i c e s , e nrichment m a t e r i a l s , and workshops f o r p a r e n t s and t e a c h e r s (Parko, 1991, p. 6) . Two o f t h e s c h o o l s were randomly s e l e c t e d as c o n t r o l groups w h i l e t h e o t h e r two s c h o o l s were used as e x p e r i m e n t a l groups. S t u d e n t s from a l l f o u r s c h o o l s were p r e - and p o s t - t e s t e d u s i n g t h e P i e r s - H a r r i s S e l f Concept S c a l e f o r C h i l d r e n . Scores were t h e n compared u s i n g an e x p e r i m e n t a l / c o n t r o l d e s i g n . 25 As p r e s c r i b e d i n t h e c u r r i c u l u m , c l a s s e s were d i v i d e d i n t o "harambee" groups (which i s S w a h i l i f o r ' l e t us work t o g e t h e r ' ) and A f r i c a n group names chosen. The c u r r i c u l u m m a t e r i a l s , d e s i g n e d f o r s t u d e n t s t o l e a r n c o o p e r a t i v e l y , s t r e s s e d p r o blem s o l v i n g , c o o p e r a t i o n , A f r i c a n and A f r i c a n -A merican h i s t o r y and c u l t u r e (Parko, 1991, p. 7 ) . The e d u c a t i o n a l outcomes were e v a l u a t e d by t e s t s and q u e s t i o n n a i r e s . R e s u l t s o f t h e s t a t i s t i c a l a n a l y s i s v a r i e d from grade l e v e l t o grade l e v e l . F o r i n s t a n c e , r e s u l t s i n d i c a t e d t h a t s t u d e n t s ' p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n Grades 3-7, i n t h e SETCLAE program, had a s i g n i f i c a n t p o s i t i v e e f f e c t on t h e s t u d e n t s ' s e l f - e s t e e m . Yet, s t u d e n t s i n k i n d e r g a r t e n t o Grade 2 showed no s i g n i f i c a n t e f f e c t . F o r k i n d e r g a r t e n c h i l d r e n , t h e d a t a c o l l e c t e d may have been i n a c c u r a t e s i n c e i t appeared t h a t some s t u d e n t s d i d not u n d e r s t a n d t h e d i r e c t i o n s and marked more t h a n one r e s p o n s e . Moreover, whereas SETCLAE d i d produce s i g n i f i c a n t e f f e c t s on t h e s e l f - e s t e e m o f o l d e r c h i l d r e n (Grades 3-7), i t d i d not appear t o have an e f f e c t on any o f t h e s t u d e n t s ' academic achievement, except f o r Grade 2 where t h e c o n t r o l group o u t p e r f o r m e d t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l group. T h e r e f o r e , t h i s shows t h a t a c o r r e l a t i o n between s e l f - e s t e e m and academic achievement i s complex and not always found. The SETCLAE program was p o s i t i v e o v e r a l l and t h e m a j o r i t y o f t e a c h e r s (81%) agreed t h a t " l e a r n i n g about A f r i c a n H e r i t a g e i s a good way t o enhance A f r i c a n - A m e r i c a n s t u d e n t s ' s e l f - e s t e e m " (Parko, 1991, p. 14). Student 26 r e s p o n s e s t o q u e s t i o n n a i r e s a l s o show t h a t SETCLAE made them f e e l b e t t e r about t h e m s e l v e s , and proud t o be b l a c k . Moreover, when t h e program t e r m i n a t e d a t t h e end o f t h e s c h o o l y e a r , t h e c h i l d r e n e x p r e s s e d t h e i r d e s i r e t o l e a r n more about t h e i r h e r i t a g e . Though s e l f - e s t e e m i n c r e a s e d w i t h t h i s program, achievement d i d not n e c e s s a r i l y i n c r e a s e . R e s e a r c h (Purkey, 1970 i n P i e r s , 1984) s u g g e s t s t h a t d e s p i t e a s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e two, t h e r e i s no i n d i c a t i o n whether h i g h achievement causes h i g h s e l f - e s t e e m or whether h i g h s e l f - e s t e e m causes h i g h achievement. Even though t h i s s t u d y g e n e r a l l y found h i g h e r achievement w i t h h i g h e r s e l f - e s t e e m ' (except i n Grade 2 ) , more r e s e a r c h i n t h i s a r e a i s r e q u i r e d . Parko recommends t h a t i f t h e program were t o c o n t i n u e f o r one more y e a r t h e e f f e c t s o f h i g h e r s e l f -esteem on achievement might be more a p p a r e n t . Application of Ogbu 1s Theoretical Framework, Matute-Bianchi 1s Study on Hispanics, Ogbu's Study on Blacks and Parko's SETCLAE Program on A f r i c a n American Children to F i r s t Nations The t h e o r e t i c a l framework by Ogbu i s i n s i g h t f u l on t h e d i f f e r e n c e s between an i n v o l u n t a r y and an immigrant m i n o r i t y . A l t h o u g h v a r i a n c e s i n academic performance e x i s t among i n v o l u n t a r y (and immigrant) m i n o r i t i e s , t h e case s t u d i e s by M a t u t e - B i a n c h i and Ogbu p r o v i d e d a t a which s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e b e l i e f systems adopted by m i n o r i t i e s c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e i r academic performance. F i r s t N a t i o n s p e o p l e i n Canada can be 27 c h a r a c t e r i z e d as i n v o l u n t a r y m i n o r i t i e s s i n c e , a c c o r d i n g t o Ogbu's d e s c r i p t i o n o f i n v o l u n t a r y m i n o r i t i e s , t h e y were brought i n t o t h e i r p r e s e n t s o c i e t i e s t h r o u g h conquest, and t h e y r e s e n t t h e l o s s o f t h e i r former freedom. Moreover, t h e y t e n d t o e x h i b i t s i m i l a r p e r c e p t i o n s o f , and r e s p o n s e s t o , t h e s o c i a l , economic and p o l i t i c a l b a r r i e r s a g a i n s t them as B l a c k s and H i s p a n i c s (Chicanos and Cholos) do (Ogbu, 1991). L i k e b l a c k s i n S t o c k t o n and Chicanos and C h o l o s , t h e y do not have a homeland w i t h which t o compare t h e i r p r e s e n t s i t u a t i o n ; t h u s t h e y compare i t w i t h t h a t o f t h e dominant s o c i e t y . C o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e y d e v e l o p a n e g a t i v e d u a l frame o f r e f e r e n c e s i n c e t h e y see t h a t t h e y are worse o f f t h a n t h e dominant group, and t h e y p e r c e i v e t h e b a r r i e r s a g a i n s t them as permanent and i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d . L i k e o t h e r i n v o l u n t a r y m i n o r i t i e s (e.g., b l a c k s , C h i c a n o s , Cholos) t h e y t e n d not t o b e l i e v e t h a t a good e d u c a t i o n i s enough t o overcome t h e b a r r i e r s i n s o c i e t y , but t h a t c o l l e c t i v e s t r u g g l e s are n e c e s s a r y . F i n a l l y , F i r s t N a t i o n s p e o p l e have no homeland t o r e t u r n t o i f t h e i r s i t u a t i o n does not improve. One f a c t o r c o n t r i b u t i n g t o i n v o l u n t a r y m i n o r i t i e s ' low academic s u c c e s s and p e r c e p t i o n s o f i n a b i l i t y t o succeed i s t h e way s o c i e t y t r e a t s , and has t r e a t e d , them --as s u b o r d i n a t e s . F i r s t N a t i o n s p e o p l e have e x p e r i e n c e d d i s c r i m i n a t i o n and have had unequal o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r decades. The t r e a t m e n t o f F i r s t N a t i o n s p e o p l e as i n f e r i o r has been e x h i b i t e d by o t h e r Canadians, government p o l i c i e s , t h e e d u c a t i o n system and o t h e r i n s t i t u t i o n s . A l t h o u g h t h e 28 e x p e r i e n c e s o f F i r s t N a t i o n s p e o p l e , and a l l m i n o r i t i e s - - b o t h immigrant and i n v o l u n t a r y - - are d i f f e r e n t , t h e y t e n d t o be s i m i l a r i n t h e a s p e c t s mentioned above. Both Ogbu's and M a t u t e - B i a n c h i ' s a r t i c l e s do not emphasize enough t h a t v a r i a n c e s e x i s t . One must be c a u t i o u s not t o s t e r e o t y p e a l l immigrant and i n v o l u n t a r y m i n o r i t y a d u l t s and c h i l d r e n as p o s s e s s i n g t h e a t t r i b u t e s or h o l d i n g t h e b e l i e f systems d i s c u s s e d above. However, r e s e a r c h (Gibson, 1976; M a t u t e -B i a n c h i , 1986; Ogbu, 1974; Kramer, 1991; B a r r i n g t o n , 1976; Shimahara, 1991) shows t h a t p a t t e r n s do e x i s t between t h e h i s t o r y o f a m i n o r i t y group, i t s contemporary s t a t u s and i t s p a t t e r n o f s c h o o l performance. T h e r e f o r e , t h e aim i s t o d i s c o v e r why t h e p a t t e r n e x i s t s and how t o break i t so t h a t i n v o l u n t a r y m i n o r i t y c h i l d r e n w i l l b e g i n t o r e a c h h i g h e r l e v e l s o f s u c c e s s i n s c h o o l and l a t e r i n t h e work f o r c e . Ogbu's d i s c u s s i o n s do not p r o v i d e any s o l u t i o n s on how t o improve i n v o l u n t a r y m i n o r i t i e s low s u c c e s s r a t e i n s c h o o l . M a t u t e - B i a n c h i (1986) however, o f f e r s a s u g g e s t i o n . She p u r p o r t s t h a t i t i s t h e s c h o o l ' s r e s p o n s i b i l i t y t o p r o v i d e i n v o l u n t a r y m i n o r i t y s t u d e n t s w i t h examples o f s u c c e s s f u l r o l e models s i n c e t h e y t e n d not t o be exposed t o them. Though t h i s i s a s t a r t , she f a i l s t o mention t h a t s o c i e t y , t o o , has a r e s p o n s i b i l i t y t o p r o v i d e s u c c e s s f u l r o l e models. She goes on t o suggest t h a t t h e r e i s a s t r o n g r e l a t i o n s h i p between Mexican s t u d e n t s who have a s t r o n g p o s i t i v e Mexicano i d e n t i t y and t h e i r academic achievement. In o t h e r words, she 29 c o n c l u d e s t h a t i f c h i l d r e n are proud o f t h e i r h e r i t a g e t h e y are more l i k e l y t o be s u c c e s s f u l i n s c h o o l . Thus, th e main t h e o r e t i c a l d i f f e r e n c e between M a t u t e - B i a n c h i and Ogbu i s : Ogbu argues t h a t b o t h s o c i e t y and i n v o l u n t a r y m i n o r i t i e s t h e m s e l v e s are t o be h e l d r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e i r low s u c c e s s r a t e , whereas M a t u t e - B i a n c h i argues t h a t t h e i d e n t i t y c l a i m e d by s t u d e n t s i s l a r g e l y r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e i r s u c c e s s i n s c h o o l . I n o t h e r words, M a t u t e - B i a n c h i says t h a t a l t h o u g h t h e d i s c r i m i n a t o r y t r e a t m e n t f a c i n g i n v o l u n t a r y m i n o r i t y s t u d e n t s may impede t h e i r s c h o o l e x p e r i e n c e , t h e s t r e n g t h o f t h e i r i d e n t i t y i n t h e i r c u l t u r e p l a y s a major r o l e i n t h e i r s u c c e s s . In g e n e r a l , she argues t h a t s t u d e n t s who i d e n t i f y s t r o n g l y w i t h t h e i r c u l t u r e have a h i g h e r r a t e o f s u c c e s s t h a n t h o s e who do n o t . Ogbu, however, does not argue e x a c t l y a l o n g t h e s e l i n e s . R a t h e r , he argues t h a t t h e s o c i e t a l b a r r i e r s s t u d e n t s f a c e , and c o n s e q u e n t l y t h e p e r c e p t i o n s t h e y adopt r e g a r d i n g t h e i r a b i l i t y t o succeed, c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e i r academic s u c c e s s . Ogbu 1s argument opposes M a t u t e - B i a n c h i ' s when he c l a i m s t h a t i n v o l u n t a r y m i n o r i t y s t u d e n t s , s t r o n g l y i d e n t i f y i n g w i t h t h e i r c u l t u r e , g e n e r a l l y t e n d not t o want t o succeed i n s c h o o l f o r f e a r o f b e i n g accused o f not b e i n g f a i t h f u l t o t h e i r c u l t u r e b u t , r a t h e r , f a i t h f u l t o t h e " w h i t e man's c u l t u r e " (Ogbu, 1991) . The c u r r i c u l u m o f t h e p r e s e n t s t u d y w i l l t h u s p r e s e n t p o s i t i v e a s p e c t s and s u c c e s s f u l r o l e models o f t h e F i r s t N a t i o n s c u l t u r e i n an attempt t o i n c r e a s e (a) t h e F i r s t 30 N a t i o n s s t u d e n t s ' s e l f - e s t e e m , (b) p r i d e i n t h e i r h e r i t a g e and (c) t h e f e e l i n g t h a t t h e y can succeed i n b o t h t h e i r academic p u r s u i t s and p e r s o n a l a s p i r a t i o n s . The f i n d i n g s from P a r k o ' s r e s e a r c h a r e r e l e v a n t f o r t h e p r e s e n t s t u d y . Analogous t o t h e c u r r i c u l u m used i n t h e SETCLAE program, whi c h p r e s e n t s p o s i t i v e a s p e c t s o f A f r i c a n and A f r i c a n -A merican h i s t o r y and c u l t u r e , t h e p r e s e n t m u l t i c u l t u r a l c u r r i c u l u m p r e s e n t s s u c c e s s f u l F i r s t N a t i o n s p e o p l e , and p o s i t i v e a s p e c t s o f t h e F i r s t N a t i o n s c u l t u r e . Two o f t h e hypotheses f o r t h e p r e s e n t study are t h a t m u l t i c u l t u r a l c u r r i c u l u m w i l l i n c r e a s e s t u d e n t s ' s e l f - e s t e e m , and p r i d e i n h e r i t a g e . P a r k o ' s s t u d y p r o v i d e s s u p p o r t f o r t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p . More s p e c i f i c a l l y , as a l r e a d y d i s c u s s e d , c h i l d r e n i n Grades 3 t o 7, i n c r e a s e d t h e i r s e l f - e s t e e m w i t h p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n t h e SETCLAE program. S e l f - e s t e e m i n c h i l d r e n from k i n d e r g a r t e n t o Grade 2, d i d not i n c r e a s e ; however, t h i s may be due t o a l a c k o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g on t h e i r b e h a l f on how t o f i l l out t h e P i e r s - H a r r i s S e l f Concept S c a l e . T h i s c o u l d have been a c o n t r i b u t i n g f a c t o r on t h e s e r e s u l t s where t h e s e young c h i l d r e n were concerned. I n ' a d d i t i o n , q u e s t i o n n a i r e r e s u l t s from t h e e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e SETCLAE program i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e knowledge A f r i c a n -A merican s t u d e n t s g a i n e d about " A f r i c a and A f r i c a n - A m e r i c a n h i s t o r y and c u l t u r e made them f e e l b e t t e r about t h e m s e l v e s . . . [and] p r o u d t o be b l a c k " (Parko, 1991, p. 23) . F i n a l l y , w h i l e P a r k o ' s s t u d y d i d not p r o v i d e s u p p o r t f o r a r e l a t i o n s h i p between s e l f - e s t e e m and achievement, i t i s not a 31 h y p o t h e s i s o f t h i s s tudy t o f i n d an i n c r e a s e i n achievement as s e l f - e s t e e m i n c r e a s e s . 32 CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY T h i s s t u d y i s a q u a s i - e x p e r i m e n t a l d e s i g n c a r r i e d out i n a n a t u r a l s e t t i n g . Hypotheses (1) There w i l l be a s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e between p r e - and p o s t - t e s t s c o r e s on t h e C u l t u r e - F r e e S e l f - E s t e e m I n v e n t o r y ( B a t t l e , 1981) among s t u d e n t s who w i l l r e c e i v e t h e m u l t i c u l t u r a l c u r r i c u l u m t r e a t m e n t . No s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e w i l l be e x p e c t e d between t h e p r e - and p o s t - t e s t s c o r e s on t h e s e l f - e s t e e m i n v e n t o r y among s t u d e n t s who w i l l not r e c e i v e t h e t r e a t m e n t . (2) There w i l l be a s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e between p r e - and p o s t - t e s t s c o r e s on t h e P r i d e i n H e r i t a g e Measure ( E c h o l s and Kehoe, 1986) among s t u d e n t s who w i l l r e c e i v e t h e m u l t i c u l t u r a l c u r r i c u l u m t r e a t m e n t . No s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e w i l l be e x p e c t e d between p r e - and p o s t - t e s t s c o r e s on t h e p r i d e i n h e r i t a g e measure among s t u d e n t s who w i l l not r e c e i v e t h e t r e a t m e n t . The q u e s t i o n "do t h e s u b j e c t s i n t h i s s t u d y h o l d t h e b e l i e f s a t t r i b u t e d t o an i n v o l u n t a r y m i n o r i t y " , w i l l be i n v e s t i g a t e d t h r o u g h an i n t e r v i e w . Sample T h i s s t u d y w i l l i n c l u d e one e x p e r i m e n t a l group and one c o n t r o l group from two c l a s s r o o m s i n a secondary s c h o o l i n 33 t h e Lower M a i n l a n d . Each group w i l l c omprise a p p r o x i m a t e l y 20 F i r s t N a t i o n s s t u d e n t s i n Grades 8 t o 10. A s e a r c h w i l l be c o n d u c t e d i n t h e Lower M a i n l a n d f o r a s c h o o l w i t h a l a r g e F i r s t N a t i o n s s t u d e n t p o p u l a t i o n . Procedure Instruments. S t u d e n t s i n b o t h t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l and c o n t r o l groups w i l l be r e q u i r e d t o complete two measures and t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n an i n t e r v i e w . One o f t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e s i s t h e C u l t u r e -F r e e S e l f - E s t e e m I n v e n t o r y by B a t t l e (1981) and t h e o t h e r one i s t h e P r i d e i n H e r i t a g e Measure by Kehoe and E c h o l s (1986) (see Appendix A f o r t h e i n s t r u m e n t s ) . The open-ended i n t e r v i e w c o n s i s t s o f 13 e x p l o r a t o r y f o c u s e d q u e s t i o n s and i t w i l l be c o n d u c t e d i n p r i v a t e w i t h each s u b j e c t . The Pride i n Heritage Measure. The P r i d e i n H e r i t a g e Measure (Kehoe and E c h o l s , 1986) c o n s i s t s o f e i g h t s t a t e m e n t s which i n d i c a t e v a r i o u s f e e l i n g s F i r s t N a t i o n s p e o p l e may h o l d toward t h e i r F i r s t N a t i o n s c u l t u r e . The measure i n c l u d e s s t a t e m e n t s l i k e " I am p r o u d t o be F i r s t N a t i o n s " and "a F i r s t N a t i o n s way o f l i f e i s t h e k i n d o f l i f e I would l i k e t o l i v e " . P a r t i c i p a n t s i n d i c a t e t h e i r r e s p o n s e s on a s i x - p o i n t continuum (agree v e r y much, agree somewhat, agree s l i g h t l y , and d i s a g r e e s l i g h t l y , d i s a g r e e somewhat, d i s a g r e e v e r y much). The Culture-Free Self-Esteem Inventory. The C u l t u r e - F r e e S e l f - E s t e e m I n v e n t o r y ( C u l t u r e - F r e e SEI) d e v e l o p e d by B a t t l e (1981) measures ah i n d i v i d u a l ' s 34 p e r c e p t i o n o f s e l f . B a t t l e a s s e r t e d t h a t assessment o f s e l f -w o r t h i s n e c e s s a r y s i n c e an i n d i v i d u a l ' s p e r c e p t i o n o f s e l f a f f e c t s h i s / h e r b e h a v i o u r . B a t t l e conducted more t h a n t h i r t y s t u d i e s o v er a s i x - y e a r p e r i o d f o r t h e development o f t h e C u l t u r e - F r e e SEI. He a f f i r m e d t h a t p s y c h o l o g i s t s , e d u c a t o r s and r e s e a r c h e r s found t h e C u l t u r e - F r e e SEI t o be a v a l i d and r e l i a b l e measure o f s e l f - w o r t h . The s c a l e c o n t a i n s 30 i t e m s , and measures an i n d i v i d u a l ' s p e r c e p t i o n o f s e l f i n f o u r a r e a s : g e n e r a l s e l f , s o c i a l , s c h o o l , _ and p a r e n t s . The t e s t - r e t e s t r e l i a b i l i t y c o n d ucted w i t h a sample o f 274 boys and g i r l s e n r o l l e d i n Grades 7, 8 and 9, y i e l d e d c o r r e l a t i o n s from 0.79 t o 0.92. Moreover, B a t t l e s t a t e d t h a t c o n t e n t v a l i d i t y was b u i l t i n t o t h e C u l t u r e - F r e e SEI by " (1) d e v e l o p i n g a c o n s t r u c t d e f i n i t i o n o f s e l f - e s t e e m , and (2) by w r i t i n g items i n t e n d e d t o c o v e r a l l a r e a s o f t h e c o n s t r u c t " ( B a t t l e , 1981, p. 14). I n t h i s s t u d y , t h e P r i d e i n H e r i t a g e Measure and t h e C u l t u r e - F r e e SEI w i l l be u t i l i z e d as dependent v a r i a b l e s . Interview Questions. The t h i r t e e n i n t e r v i e w q u e s t i o n s t o be used b e f o r e and a f t e r t h e t r e a t m e n t were f o r m u l a t e d a f t e r a t h o r o u g h e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e l i t e r a t u r e d i s c u s s i n g t h e b e l i e f s h e l d by an i n v o l u n t a r y m i n o r i t y . Some o f t h e q u e s t i o n s were adopted from p r e v i o u s s t u d i e s o f i n v o l u n t a r y m i n o r i t i e s (e.g., M a t u t e - B i a n c h i , 198 6; Ogbu, 1991) w h i l e o t h e r s f o r m u l a t e d were based on t h e r e v i e w o f t h e l i t e r a t u r e . 35 F o r example, one o f t h e q u e s t i o n s i s "Do you t h i n k a F i r s t N a t i o n s p e r s o n w i t h a dip l o m a has t h e same chance as a n o n - F i r s t N a t i o n s p e r s o n i n g e t t i n g a good j o b ? " . I f t h e s u b j e c t s answer "no", t h a t i s an i n d i c a t i o n t h a t t h e y b e l i e v e t h e b a r r i e r s a g a i n s t them i n s o c i e t y a re permanent and i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d . I f t h e s u b j e c t s answer "yes", t h a t i s an i n d i c a t i o n t h a t t h e y do not h o l d t h e b e l i e f s o f an i n v o l u n t a r y m i n o r i t y on t h i s p a r t i c u l a r i s s u e . A n o t h e r q u e s t i o n i s "How do p e o p l e become s u c c e s s f u l a d u l t s ? " T h i s q u e s t i o n was adopted from M a t u t e - B i a n c h i 1 s (1986) s t u d y w i t h M e x i c a n - d e s c e n t s t u d e n t s . She found t h a t t h e C h i c a n o s and Cholos had d i f f i c u l t y e x p l a i n i n g s t r a t e g i e s f o r s u c c e s s because t h e y were p e s s i m i s t i c about t h e i r f u t u r e s . Thus, i f t h e s u b j e c t s i n t h e p r e s e n t s t u d y say " I don't know", t h a t w i l l be an i n d i c a t i o n t h a t t h e y h o l d t h e b e l i e f s o f an i n v o l u n t a r y m i n o r i t y . Perhaps t h e y have not tho u g h t about how t h e y c o u l d become s u c c e s s f u l a d u l t s , s i n c e t h e y do not see t h a t as a p o s s i b i l i t y . On t h e o t h e r hand, i f t h e s u b j e c t s o f f e r r e s p o n s e s such as " t o complete h i g h s c h o o l , be r e s p o n s i b l e " , t h a t w i l l i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e y do not h o l d t h e b e l i e f s o f an i n v o l u n t a r y m i n o r i t y and t h a t t h e y have thought about what i t t a k e s t o succeed, s i n c e t h e y see s u c c e s s as a p o s s i b i l i t y i n t h e f u t u r e . The 13 i n t e r v i e w q u e s t i o n s a re d e s i g n e d t o y i e l d r e s p o n s e s which i n d i c a t e whether o r not t h e s u b j e c t s h o l d t h e b e l i e f s a s c r i b e d t o an i n v o l u n t a r y m i n o r i t y . The i n t e r v i e w q u e s t i o n s w i l l a l s o a l l o w t h e r e c o g n i t i o n o f what s t r a t e g i e s , 36 i f any, t h e s u b j e c t s employ i n an attempt t o overcome t h e s o c i e t a l b a r r i e r s a g a i n s t them. Treatment. A f t e r a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f t h e two p r e - t e s t s c a l e s and c o m p l e t i o n o f t h e i n t e r v i e w s , s t u d e n t s i n t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l group w i l l p a r t i c i p a t e i n a m u l t i c u l t u r a l c u r r i c u l u m w h i c h l a s t s f o r t h r e e c l a s s p e r i o d s over t h r e e s c h o o l days. The f i r s t p a r t o f t h e t r e a t m e n t i s a l e c t u r e w h i c h p r e s e n t s s u c c e s s f u l F i r s t N a t i o n s p e o p l e and bands. The aim i s t o e s t a b l i s h o r r e a f f i r m t h e b e l i e f t h a t F i r s t N a t i o n s p e o p l e can be s u c c e s s f u l . I t o f f e r s examples o f s u c c e s s f u l e n t e r p r i s e s , bands and p e o p l e , i n a l l p r o v i n c e s a c r o s s Canada. F o r i n s t a n c e , i t p r e s e n t s i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e F i r s t N a t i o n s p e o p l e i n Manitoba who more t h a n e v e r b e f o r e , are o b t a i n i n g p o s t - s e c o n d a r y degrees. More s p e c i f i c a l l y , i t s t a t e s t h a t i n 1988 t h e r e were 500 F i r s t N a t i o n s t e a c h e r s and numerous F i r s t N a t i o n s p e o p l e t r a i n i n g as n u r s e s , c o n s e r v a t i o n o f f i c e r s and e n g i n e e r s . T h i s l e s s o n i s meant t o be p r e s e n t e d as a l e c t u r e f o l l o w e d by a d i s c u s s i o n about t h e F i r s t N a t i o n s p e o p l e t a k i n g charge o f t h e i r own a f f a i r s and s u c c e e d i n g . The second p a r t o f t h e t r e a t m e n t i n c l u d e s two v i d e o s (Ready F o r Take O f f and R e b u i l d i n g t h e A b o r i g i n a l Economy), whi c h i l l u s t r a t e a few o f t h e thousands o f s u c c e s s f u l b u s i n e s s e s r u n by F i r s t N a t i o n s p e o p l e or bands. A work sheet r e l a t i n g t o t h e i n f o r m a t i o n i n t h e v i d e o s i s p r e s e n t e d . I t i s t o be completed by t h e s u b j e c t s w h i l e t h e y are v i e w i n g 37 t h e v i d e o s . When t h e v i d e o s are completed, t h e work sheet and t h e i n f o r m a t i o n p r e s e n t e d i n t h e two v i d e o s a re t o be d i s c u s s e d and r e v i e w e d . The f i n a l p a r t o f t h e t r e a t m e n t i n v o l v e s a more a c t i v e l e a r n i n g r o l e on t h e p a r t o f t h e s t u d e n t s . Here, t h e s t u d e n t s p e e r - t e a c h examples o f s u c c e s s f u l F i r s t N a t i o n s p e o p l e and b u s i n e s s e s . The t e a c h i n g m a t e r i a l w h i c h p r o v i d e s t h i s knowledge c o n s i s t s o f a t t r a c t i v e f l a s h c a r d s w i t h a b r i e f d e s c r i p t i v e p a r a g r a p h and a p i c t u r e (from magazine o r newspaper c l i p p i n g s ) o f t h e F i r s t N a t i o n s b u s i n e s s , p e r s o n o r band b e i n g p r e s e n t e d . F o r example, one o f t h e f l a s h c a r d s p r e s e n t s a young F i r s t N a t i o n s h i g h s c h o o l g r a d u a t e who has been s e l e c t e d t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n an i n t e r c u l t u r a l exchange t o P o r t u g a l . Yet a n o t h e r p r e s e n t s a F i r s t N a t i o n s p e r s o n who has c o n d u c t e d more th a n 30 Broadway shows. S t u d e n t s i n t h e c o n t r o l group w i l l c o n t i n u e t h e i r r e g u l a r c o u r s e o f st u d y as p r e s c r i b e d i n t h e S o c i a l S t u d i e s C u r r i c u l u m . Upon c o m p l e t i o n o f t h e m u l t i c u l t u r a l c u r r i c u l u m w i t h t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l group, a l l s t u d e n t s w i l l a g a i n be r e q u i r e d t o complete t h e p r i d e i n h e r i t a g e and s e l f - e s t e e m s c a l e s . I t w i l l t a k e a p p r o x i m a t e l y 10 minutes t o a d m i n i s t e r each s c a l e . In a d d i t i o n , a l l s t u d e n t s w i l l a g a i n be r e q u i r e d t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n an i n t e r v i e w which w i l l l a s t a p p r o x i m a t e l y 15 m i n u t e s . 38 Design and Analysis The dependent v a r i a b l e s w i l l be p r e - and p o s t - t e s t s c o r e s on t h e s e l f - e s t e e m and p r i d e i n h e r i t a g e s c a l e s . The independent v a r i a b l e w i l l be a t r e a t m e n t v a r i a b l e ( i n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e m u l t i c u l t u r a l c u r r i c u l u m ) . A l l s u b j e c t s ' s c o r e s on t h e s e l f - e s t e e m and p r i d e i n h e r i t a g e s c a l e s , p r e -and p o s t - t e s t i n g , w i l l be compared u s i n g t - t e s t s . I n a n a l y s e s , t h e d i f f e r e n c e s between t h e means w i l l be c o n s i d e r e d s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t i f t h e p r o b a b i l i t y o f t h e t v a l u e i s l e s s t h a n .05. 39 CHAPTER IV CONDUCT AND LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY Selection of Subjects S e l e c t i o n o f t h e sample f o r t h i s s t u d y ' began w i t h an i n v e s t i g a t i o n t o f i n d a s c h o o l i n t h e Lower M a i n l a n d w i t h a h i g h F i r s t N a t i o n s s t u d e n t p o p u l a t i o n . Many u n a n t i c i p a t e d d i f f i c u l t i e s were e n c o u n t e r e d i n f i n d i n g a sample o f 40 F i r s t N a t i o n s s t u d e n t s i n j u n i o r h i g h s c h o o l (20 f o r t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l group and 20 f o r t h e c o n t r o l g r o u p ) . No s c h o o l was found where t h e r e were two mainstream c l a s s r o o m s w i t h a p p r o x i m a t e l y 20 F i r s t N a t i o n s s t u d e n t s p e r c l a s s r o o m . S i n c e no s c h o o l was found u s i n g t h i s c r i t e r i a , c o n s i d e r a t i o n was g i v e n t o f i n d i n g a s c h o o l w i t h an a l t e r n a t i v e program f o r F i r s t N a t i o n s s t u d e n t s i n o r d e r t o o b t a i n t h e sample s i z e r e q u i r e d f o r t h e s t u d y . F i n a l l y , a s c h o o l was found i n Vancouver, where a F i r s t N a t i o n s a l t e r n a t i v e program w i t h a l a r g e enough sample s i z e e x i s t e d . Upon d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e p r o p o s a l f o r t h e st u d y w i t h t h e a l t e r n a t i v e program t e a c h e r , I was o p t i m i s t i c about t h e f u t u r e o f t h i s s t u d y s i n c e he showed g r e a t i n t e r e s t i n and en t h u s i a s m w i t h t h e p r o p o s a l . He wrote a l e t t e r o f su p p o r t t o t h e Vancouver S c h o o l Board i n f a v o u r o f t h i s s t u d y and committed h i m s e l f t o t e a c h i n g t h e m u l t i c u l t u r a l c u r r i c u l u m t o t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l group. 40 The t e a c h e r s a i d t h a t t h e program c o n s i s t e d o f 38 F i r s t N a t i o n s s t u d e n t s who c o u l d - p a r t i c i p a t e , upon conse n t , i n t h e s t u d y . Due t o a b s e n t e e i s m o f t h e s t u d e n t s , o n l y 23 t o o k p a r t i n t h e p r e - t e s t p e r i o d . Moreover, due t o a t t r i t i o n , o n l y 19 s t u d e n t s p a r t i c i p a t e d i n t h e s t u d y . The r e a s o n s f o r such a low number o f s u b j e c t s were u n a n t i c i p a t e d and u n c o n t r o l l a b l e . Procedure Pre-tests. S t u d e n t s i n b o t h t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l and c o n t r o l groups completed two q u e s t i o n n a i r e s and p a r t i c i p a t e d i n an i n t e r v i e w . The two q u e s t i o n n a i r e s (The C u l t u r e - F r e e S e l f -Esteem I n v e n t o r y and t h e P r i d e i n H e r i t a g e Measure) were a d m i n i s t e r e d t o a l l t h e s u b j e c t s at t h e same t i m e . I t t o o k a p p r o x i m a t e l y 10 minutes t o complete each one. I n a d d i t i o n , each o f t h e s u b j e c t s p a r t i c i p a t e d i n an i n t e r v i e w w h i c h t o o k p l a c e e i t h e r a t t h e back o f t h e c l a s s r o o m or i n an o f f i c e . There was no d e f i n i t e o r d e r t o t h e i n t e r v i e w s ; as soon as one s u b j e c t f i n i s h e d t h e i n t e r v i e w a n o t h e r was c a l l e d i n . Each i n t e r v i e w l a s t e d a p p r o x i m a t e l y 10 t o 15 m i n u t e s . A l l o f t h e i n t e r v i e w s were completed w i t h i n f o u r s c h o o l days. Treatment Implementation. The t r e a t m e n t c o n s i s t e d o f t h e M u l t i c u l t u r a l C u r r i c u l u m which p r e s e n t s s u c c e s s f u l F i r s t N a t i o n s p e o p l e and bands. A f t e r a m e e t i n g w i t h t h e c l a s s r o o m t e a c h e r t o d i s c u s s t h e s t u d y and t h e p r o c e d u r e s , i t was agreed t h a t i t would be b e s t i f t h e t e a c h e r t a u g h t t h e c u r r i c u l u m , s i n c e he was most f a m i l i a r w i t h t h e s t u d e n t s . In a d d i t i o n , i t was agreed t h a t 41 t h e c u r r i c u l u m be t a u g h t t h e week f o l l o w i n g t h e p r e - t e s t s over t h r e e c o n s e c u t i v e s c h o o l days, l a s t i n g t h r e e c l a s s p e r i o d s ( a p p r o x i m a t e l y t h r e e h o u r s ) . However, due t o c e r t a i n u n a n t i c i p a t e d c i r c u m s t a n c e s i t was not t a u g h t u n t i l f i v e weeks l a t e r on a F r i d a y a f t e r n o o n . The re a s o n f o r t h i s d e l a y i s not c l e a r . I t was l e f t up t o t h e c l a s s r o o m t e a c h e r t o t e a c h t h e c u r r i c u l u m t h e week f o l l o w i n g t h e p r e - t e s t s . One o f t h e re a s o n s f o r t h e d e l a y was t h e une x p e c t e d i l l n e s s o f t h e t e a c h e r . Moreover, s i n c e t h e s c h o o l y e a r was d r a w i n g t o a c l o s e and ti m e was l i m i t e d , t h e st u d y had t o compete w i t h o t h e r s c h o o l c u r r i c u l u m commitments. As a r e s u l t , t h e c u r r i c u l u m was not t a u g h t as o r i g i n a l l y p l a n n e d . I n s t e a d o f b e i n g t a u g h t over t h r e e p e r i o d s and t h r e e s c h o o l days, i t was t a u g h t on a F r i d a y a f t e r n o o n i n l e s s t h a n two h o u r s . The e x p e r i m e n t a l group had been randomly s e l e c t e d p r i o r t o t h e t e a c h i n g o f t h e c u r r i c u l u m by drawing names from an en v e l o p e . However, s i n c e o n l y 10 s t u d e n t s were p r e s e n t t h e day o f t h e t r e a t m e n t , t h e c l a s s r o o m t e a c h e r chose t o use t h o s e 10 s t u d e n t s f o r t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l group. The s t u d e n t s who were absent from s c h o o l t h a t F r i d a y a f t e r n o o n made up t h e c o n t r o l group. The m u l t i c u l t u r a l c u r r i c u l u m was n e i t h e r t a u g h t i n i t s e n t i r e t y , nor was t h e importance o f t h e i n f o r m a t i o n i n t h e l e s s o n s emphasized. In a meeting w i t h t h e c l a s s r o o m t e a c h e r f o l l o w i n g t h e c o m p l e t i o n o f t h e s t u d y , i t was d i s c o v e r e d t h a t o n l y h a l f o f t h e p r e s c r i b e d t i m e was spent on t h e c u r r i c u l u m . In a d d i t i o n , no d i s c u s s i o n t o o k p l a c e f o l l o w i n g t h e v i e w i n g o f t h e v i d e o s and not enough t i m e 42 was a l l o t t e d f o r p e e r - t e a c h i n g or f o r d i s c u s s i n g t h e l e c t u r e m a t e r i a l . The t e a c h e r t a u g h t t h e c u r r i c u l u m because "[he] wanted t o get t h i s t h i n g done and by t h e way [he] had committed [ h i m s e l f ] t o i t so [he] b e t t e r j u s t do i t " . The f i d e l i t y o f t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f t h e c u r r i c u l u m was s e v e r e l y compromised. Post-tests. The p o s t - t e s t s were conducted t h e Monday o f t h e week f o l l o w i n g t h e t r e a t m e n t . A l l o f t h e s t u d e n t s who i n i t i a l l y p a r t i c i p a t e d i n t h e p r e - t e s t were a g a i n r e q u i r e d t o complete t h e same two q u e s t i o n n a i r e s and t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n an i n t e r v i e w . Due t o a t t r i t i o n , t h e sample s i z e dropped t o 19 from an o r i g i n a l 23. I t t o o l f o u r days t o complete t h e p o s t -t e s t measures and i n t e r v i e w s because o f a t t e n d a n c e . Limitations The l i m i t a t i o n s i n t h e p r e s e n t s t u d y a re numerous. F i r s t o f a l l , s i n c e n o n p r o b a b i l i t y s a m p l i n g was used t o o b t a i n t h e s u b j e c t s f o r t h i s s t u d y , t h e sample i s not r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f a l a r g e r p o p u l a t i o n , and t h u s t h e g e n e r a l i z a b i l i t y o f t h e r e s u l t s from t h i s s t u d y i s l i m i t e d . A l s o , t h e sample used i n t h i s s t u d y might not have been r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f F i r s t N a t i o n s s t u d e n t s i n Grades 8 t o 10, because t h e y were i n a s p e c i a l program which d i f f e r s from mainstream programs. The F i r s t N a t i o n s c u l t u r e i s t a u g h t and s t u d e n t s a r e encouraged t o f e e l p r oud o f t h e i r c u l t u r e . A f t e r c a r e f u l d e l i b e r a t i o n o f t h e s p e c i a l c i r c u m s t a n c e o f t h e s t u d e n t s i n t h i s a l t e r n a t i v e program i t was d e c i d e d t o go 43 ahead and use these students as the sample since i t was the only sample of F i r s t Nations students found that was l a r g e enough to take part i n the study. In a d d i t i o n , although the subjects were randomly assigned to the c o n t r o l group and the experimental group, the groups were a l t e r e d the day the treatment took p l a c e . On the day of the treatment, 9 of the 19 subjects were absent from school; t h e r e f o r e , the teacher chose to r e a s s i g n the subjects to experimental and c o n t r o l groups. He assigned the students who were present to the experimental group and the ones who were absent to the c o n t r o l group. Because of time c o n s t r a i n t s (the school year was drawing to a c l o s e ) , he could not reschedule the treatment f o r another day. Another l i m i t a t i o n to the study i s subject a t t r i t i o n . During the i n i t i a l meeting w i t h the classroom teacher to discu s s the proposal of the study, i t was discovered t h a t the c l a s s c o n s i s t e d of 38 students. However, only 23 subjects were present during the week of the p r e - t e s t s . Moreover, four more students were l o s t during the study and by the end ( a f t e r the p o s t - t e s t s ) only 19 subjects had f u l l y p a r t i c i p a t e d i n the i n v e s t i g a t i o n . Another l i m i t a t i o n to the study i s the t h r e a t regarding l a c k of m o t i v a t i o n . More s p e c i f i c a l l y , s ince the c u r r i c u l u m was taught on a F r i d a y afternoon near the end of the school year, the s t a t e of mind of the subjects i n the experimental group might have a f f e c t e d t h e i r m otivation to l e a r n . A l s o , because the treatment and p o s t - t e s t s took place so l a t e i n 44 t h e s c h o o l y e a r , some o f t h e s u b j e c t s were more p r e o c c u p i e d w i t h c o m p l e t i n g t h e i r assignments from t h e i r r e g u l a r c o u r s e work r a t h e r t h a n p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n t h e m u l t i c u l t u r a l c u r r i c u l u m and p o s t - t e s t s . As one s u b j e c t i n d i c a t e d "the o n l y day I come t o s c h o o l t h i s week, t o c a t c h up on my homework and we have t o do t h i s ? " ; " t h i s " r e f e r r i n g t o c o m p l e t i n g t h e two measures and p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n t h e i n t e r v i e w . A f u r t h e r l i m i t a t i o n t o t h e st u d y i s e x p e r i m e n t e r e f f e c t s . S i n c e t h e r e s e a r c h e r c o n d u c t i n g t h e i n t e r v i e w s and a d m i n i s t e r i n g t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e s -was not o f F i r s t N a t i o n s d e s c e n t , t h e s u b j e c t s might not have f e l t as c o m f o r t a b l e e x p r e s s i n g t h e i r s i n c e r e b e l i e f s , e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e i n t e r v i e w . The s u b j e c t s ' t r u e f e e l i n g s might have been d i s g u i s e d . A few o f t h e s u b j e c t s i n d i c a t e d , d u r i n g t h e i n t e r v i e w s , t h a t F i r s t N a t i o n s p e o p l e u n d e r s t a n d each o t h e r b e t t e r because t h e y go t h r o u g h t h e same problems, whereas w h i t e p e o p l e do not u n d e r s t a n d . In a d d i t i o n t o t h e r e s e a r c h e r ' s n a t i o n a l i t y d i f f e r i n g from t h e s u b j e c t s ' , t h e e d u c a t i o n l e v e l o f t h e r e s e a r c h e r might have had an i n f l u e n c e on t h e s u b j e c t s ' r e s p o n s e s d u r i n g t h e i n t e r v i e w s , p a r t i c u l a r l y t o t h e q u e s t i o n s c o n c e r n i n g s c h o o l and c a r e e r g o a l s . A n o t h e r l i m i t a t i o n o f t h e st u d y was t h e s h o r t p e r i o d o f ti m e a l l o t t e d f o r t h e t r e a t m e n t . A f i n a l l i m i t a t i o n t o t h e stu d y i s s u b j e c t e f f e c t s . Demand c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s p l a y e d a p a r t on more t h a n one o c c a s i o n d u r i n g t h e i n t e r v i e w s i n t h e 45 p r e - t e s t p e r i o d . F o r i n s t a n c e , a f t e r a few s u b j e c t s gave t h e i r r e s p o n s e s t h e y asked " i s t h a t what you're l o o k i n g f o r ? " . A t t h a t moment th e y were i n f o r m e d t h a t t h e r e i s no wrong answer and t h a t t h e r e s e a r c h e r wants t o know what t h e b e l i e f s and o p i n i o n s o f each s u b j e c t a r e . 46 CHAPTER V FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION T h i s s t u d y e n c o u n t e r e d so many t h r e a t s t o t h e d e s i g n v a l i d i t y t h a t i t i s not p o s s i b l e t o a s s e s s t h e e f f i c a c y o f t h e t r e a t m e n t . However, t h e stu d y may have p r o v i d e d some u s e f u l i n f o r m a t i o n and s u g g e s t i o n s f o r f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h . One ob v i o u s p o s s i b i l i t y f o r f u t u r e r e s e a r c h would be t o conduct t h e s t u d y as o r i g i n a l l y i n t e n d e d . The p r e - t e s t measures o f s e l f - e s t e e m and p r i d e i n h e r i t a g e d i d p r o v i d e i n f o r m a t i o n about t h e measures and t h e sample. The p r e - i n t e r v i e w s may p r o v i d e t h e b e g i n n i n g s o f an i n t e r v i e w s c h e d u l e w h i c h c o u l d p r o v i d e i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e degree t o whi c h i n d i v i d u a l s h o l d t h e b e l i e f s o f an i n v o l u n t a r y m i n o r i t y . Culture-Free SEI. B a t t l e (1981) has c a t e g o r i z e d t h e s c o r e s o b t a i n a b l e on th e C u l t u r e - F r e e SEI. The f o l l o w i n g i s h i s c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f s c o r e s , where t h e t o t a l p o s s i b l e s e l f - e s t e e m s c o r e i s 25. Norms a r e a v a i l a b l e f o r t h e C u l t u r e - F r e e SEI f o r J u n i o r H i g h S c h o o l s t u d e n t s (Grades 7-9) . The mean on t h e C u l t u r e - F r e e SEI f o r 274 s u b j e c t s i n J u n i o r H i g h S c h o o l was 19.5. 23+ 20-22 14-19 11-13 10-.. v e r y h i g h h i g h i n t e r m e d i a t e low ... v e r y low 47 The p r e - t e s t means f o r a l l s u b j e c t s i n t h i s s t u d y (n=19) was 17.7. When compared w i t h B a t t l e ' s sample o f J u n i o r H i g h S c h o o l s t u d e n t s t h e s e l f - e s t e e m o f t h e F i r s t N a t i o n s s t u d e n t s was i n t h e i n t e r m e d i a t e range. Pride i n Heritage Measure. The maximum p o s s i b l e s c o r e on t h e P r i d e i n H e r i t a g e Measure i s 48. The p r e - t e s t means s c o r e f o r a l l s u b j e c t s (n=19) was 41.6. Kehoe and E c h o l s (1986) d e v e l o p e d t h e measure as p a r t o f t h e i r e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e Urban N a t i v e I n d i a n E d u c a t i o n C e n t r e i n Vancouver. Kehoe and E c h o l s r e p o r t e d t h e p e r c e n t a g e s o f s t u d e n t s r e s p o n d i n g p o s i t i v e l y o r n e g a t i v e l y f o r each i t e m . F o r purposes o f comparison t h e p e r c e n t a g e s w i l l be r e p o r t e d f o r t h i s s t u d y as w e l l . I n o r d e r t o be pr o u d o f t h e i r h e r i t a g e i t i s i m p o r t a n t t h a t t h e s t u d e n t s know something about t h e i r h e r i t a g e . S e v e n t y - t h r e e p e r c e n t o f t h e a d u l t s t u d e n t s i n d i c a t e d t h e y knew q u i t e a l o t about t h e i r h e r i t a g e . S e v e n t y - e i g h t p e r c e n t o f t h e h i g h s c h o o l s t u d e n t s i n d i c a t e d t h e y knew q u i t e a l o t about t h e i r h e r i t a g e . N i n e t y - s e v e n p e r c e n t o f t h e a d u l t s t u d e n t s i n d i c a t e d t h e y would l i k e t o know more about t h e i r c u l t u r e compared t o 90% o f t h e h i g h s c h o o l s t u d e n t s . At t h e same t i m e 99% o f t h e a d u l t s t u d e n t s s t a t e d t h e y were not ashamed of t h e i r c u l t u r e w h i l e 90% o f t h e h i g h s c h o o l s t u d e n t s s t a t e d t h e same t h i n g . A p p r o x i m a t e l y 95% o f t h e a d u l t s t u d e n t s compared t o 90% o f t h e h i g h s c h o o l s t u d e n t s s a i d t h e y were pr o u d t o be a member of t h e F i r s t N a t i o n s c u l t u r e . E i g h t y -f o u r p e r c e n t o f t h e a d u l t s t u d e n t s and t h e same p e r c e n t a g e o f 48 h i g h s c h o o l s t u d e n t s d i s a g r e e d w i t h t h e s u g g e s t i o n t h a t t h e F i r s t N a t i o n s c u l t u r e has l i t t l e t o o f f e r s o c i e t y . The same p e r c e n t a g e o f a d u l t s t u d e n t s and h i g h s c h o o l s t u d e n t s agreed t h a t a F i r s t N a t i o n s way o f l i f e i s t h e k i n d o f l i f e t h e y would l i k e t o l i v e . F i n a l l y , o n l y 18% o f t h e a d u l t s t u d e n t s and 2 6% o f t h e h i g h s c h o o l s t u d e n t s i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e y had been i n s i t u a t i o n s where t h e y d i d not want t o say t h e y were a member o f t h e F i r s t N a t i o n s c u l t u r e . The p r i d e i n h e r i t a g e s c o r e s o f b o t h groups are h i g h . T h i s s u g g e s t s t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t a l t e r n a t i v e programs w h i c h have as one o f t h e i r g o a l s t h e development o f p r i d e i n h e r i t a g e a r e s u c c e s s f u l . However, t h e r e i s no n o r m a t i v e d a t a f o r making compar i s o n s . Interviews. The r e s u l t s o f t h e i n t e r v i e w s suggest t h a t 13 o f t h e s u b j e c t s gave between 7 and 11 responses i n d i c a t i n g t h e y h e l d t h e b e l i e f s o f an i n v o l u n t a r y m i n o r i t y . S i x s u b j e c t s gave between one and s i x responses i n d i c a t i n g t h e b e l i e f s o f an i n v o l u n t a r y m i n o r i t y . I t was a r b i t r a r i l y d e c i d e d t h a t t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s i n t h e f i r s t group were h i g h i n t h e i r b e l i e f s and t h e second group low. The f o l l o w i n g d i s c u s s i o n , f o c u s i n g on t h e i n f o r m a t i o n g a i n e d from t h e i n t e r v i e w s , s u g g e s t s t h a t a t l e a s t 13 s u b j e c t s do h o l d t h e b e l i e f s o f an i n v o l u n t a r y m i n o r i t y . A summary o f t h e r e s u l t s o f t h e i n t e r v i e w q u e s t i o n s i s o f f e r e d on t h e f o l l o w i n g pages. 49 Summary of the Results of the Interview Questions What do you hope t o do when you f i n i s h h i g h s c h o o l ? 16 gave re s p o n s e s such as "go t o c o l l e g e , u n i v e r s i t y , become a d o c t o r , become a l a w y e r " 3 s a i d " I don't know" What k i n d s o f j o b s (do you know o f t h a t ) e x i s t f o r a d u l t s ? The answers t o t h i s q u e s t i o n were coded as a m b i v a l e n t and here a r e t h e r e s p o n s e s : " s u p e r m a r k e t w o r k e r s ; j a n i t o r s ; c o n s t r u c t i o n ; a l t e r n a t i v e program w o r k e r s ; s o c i a l w o r k e r s ; c o u r t w o r k e r s ; c a s h i e r s ; w a i t r e s s e s ; s h e l t e r w o r k e r s ; c o u n s e l o r s ; b i n g o o p e r a t o r s ; g o i n g - b a c k - t o -s c h o o l ; McDonalds; auto mechanics". What i s your c a r e e r g o a l ? Do you t h i n k you w i l l r e a c h i t ? 8 s a i d " I don't know"' t o b o t h p a r t s o f t h e q u e s t i o n 2 s a i d " I w i l l t r y but I am h a v i n g d i f f i c u l t y w i t h my s c h o o l work 9 s a i d " I don't know, I hope so" t h e s e s u b j e c t s a l s o gave some s t r a t e g i e s r e g a r d i n g what s t e p t h e y w i l l t a k e t o r e a c h t h e i r c a r e e r g o a l s . Do you t h i n k a h i g h s c h o o l d i p l o m a w i l l e n a b l e you t o o b t a i n a b e t t e r job t h a n no h i g h s c h o o l diploma? 19 s a i d "yes" 5. Do you t h i n k a F i r s t N a t i o n s p e r s o n w i t h a d i p l o m a has t h e same chance as a n o n - - F i r s t N a t i o n s p e r s o n i n g e t t i n g a good job? 17 s a i d "no, but h i s / h e r chance s h o u l d be t h e same " 2 s a i d "yes" 6. I s s c h o o l an i m p o r t a n t p a r t o f your l i f e ? 15 s a i d "yes" 3 s a i d " i t w i l l become i m p o r t a n t when I am o l d e r " 1 s a i d "no" 7. What do F i r s t N a t i o n s k i d s t h i n k o f o t h e r F i r s t N a t i o n s k i d s who do w e l l i n s c h o o l ? 17 s a i d " I am p e r s o n a l l y proud o f them, but o t h e r s t e a s e them 1 s a i d " F i r s t N a t i o n s k i d s do not do w e l l i n s c h o o l " 50 8. a. Do your p a r e n t s make you do homework? 5 s a i d "yes" 14 s a i d "no" b. Do your p a r e n t s encourage you t o complete h i g h s c h o o l ? 19 s a i d "yes" b l . D i d your p a r e n t s complete h i g h s c h o o l ? 10 s a i d " n e i t h e r o f my p a r e n t s has completed h i g h s c h o o l " 6 s a i d "one o f my p a r e n t s has completed h i g h s c h o o l " 3 s a i d "both o f my p a r e n t s have completed h i g h s c h o o l " c. Do t h e y t e l l you t h a t w i t h a good e d u c a t i o n you have t h e same chance as a n o n - F i r s t N a t i o n s p e r s o n t o o b t a i n a good job? 19 s a i d "they have not r e a l l y d i s c u s s e d t h i s w i t h us" 9. Do o t h e r F i r s t N a t i o n s k i d s t h i n k s c h o o l i s i m p o r t a n t f o r s u c c e s s i n t h e f u t u r e ? The answers t o t h i s q u e s t i o n were coded as a m b i v a l e n t and here are t h e r e s p o n s e s : "no, t h e y have o t h e r t h i n g s t o do; drugs a l c o h o l and f a m i l y problems get i n t h e way o f s c h o o l " . 10. How do p e o p l e become s u c c e s s f u l a d u l t s ? The answers t o t h i s q u e s t i o n were coded as a m b i v a l e n t and here a r e t h e r e s p o n s e s : "be r e s p o n s i b l e ; work h a r d ; I don 11 know". 11. A r e a l l k i d s t r e a t e d e q u a l l y i n s c h o o l ? a. by t e a c h e r s ? b. by o t h e r s t u d e n t s ? 15 s a i d " i n t h e a l t e r n a t i v e program a l l s t u d e n t s a r e t r e a t e d e q u a l l y by t e a c h e r s and s t u d e n t s , however, i n t h e r e s t o f t h e s c h o o l F i r s t N a t i o n s k i d s a r e i g n o r e d by t e a c h e r s and h a r a s s e d by o t h e r s t u d e n t s " 3 s a i d " a l l k i d s are t r e a t e d e q u a l l y " 12. Do you t h i n k t e a c h e r s l i k e F i r s t N a t i o n s k i d s as much as non- F i r s t N a t i o n s k i d s ? 17 s a i d " F i r s t N a t i o n s and a l t e r n a t i v e program t e a c h e r s l i k e a l l k i d s t h e same; some o t h e r t e a c h e r s do not l i k e F i r s t N a t i o n s k i d s as much" 2 s a i d "yes" 13. Do you t h i n k F i r s t N a t i o n s k i d s l i k e t h e i r t e a c h e r s as much as n o n - F i r s t N a t i o n s k i d s ? 17 s a i d " F i r s t N a t i o n s k i d s l i k e t h e t e a c h e r s i n t h e a l t e r n a t i v e program but not t h e o t h e r t e a c h e r s ; non-F i r s t N a t i o n s k i d s l i k e t h e i r t e a c h e r s more" 2 s a i d " a l l k i d s l i k e t h e i r t e a c h e r s t h e same" 51 I n i t i a l l y some o f t h e responses do not seem t o be c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h e b e l i e f s o f i n v o l u n t a r y m i n o r i t i e s . F o r example, 16 o f t h e responses t o t h e q u e s t i o n "What do you hope t o do when you f i n i s h h i g h s c h o o l ? " seemed a t y p i c a l o f an i n v o l u n t a r y m i n o r i t y . The answers t h e s u b j e c t s gave f o r t h i s q u e s t i o n i n c l u d e d "go t o c o l l e g e , o r u n i v e r s i t y , become a l a w y e r , d o c t o r , v e t e r i n a r i a n , p o l i c e o f f i c e r " . These r e s p o n s e s i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e s u b j e c t s have h i g h a s p i r a t i o n s ; however, a f t e r comparing t h e i r s c h o o l marks and a t t e n d a n c e r e c o r d s w i t h t h e responses t h e y gave, i t was found t h a t t h e i r h i g h a s p i r a t i o n s a re accompanied w i t h low s c h o o l performance and poor a t t e n d a n c e . T h i s paradox o f h i g h a s p i r a t i o n s and low academic achievement i s t y p i c a l o f i n v o l u n t a r y m i n o r i t i e s (Ogbu, 1991). Of t h e 19 s u b j e c t s , 13 had h i g h a s p i r a t i o n s but low s c h o o l p erformance. Ogbu (1991) s u g g e s t s , t h e way "the system" c u r r e n t l y t r e a t s and has t r e a t e d F i r s t N a t i o n s p e o p l e i n t h e p a s t , as w e l l as t h e i r p e r c e p t i o n s and re s p o n s e s t o t h e i r s c h o o l i n g , can account f o r t h i s p a t t e r n . Some o f t h e res p o n s e s t o t h e i n t e r v i e w q u e s t i o n s g i v e n by t h e t h i r t e e n s u b j e c t s e x h i b i t i n g t h e b e l i e f s o f an i n v o l u n t a r y m i n o r i t y w i l l be used t o i l l u s t r a t e t h i s p o i n t . When asked what t h e y hoped t o do when t h e y f i n i s h e d h i g h s c h o o l , some s u b j e c t s a r t i c u l a t e d t h a t t h e y wanted t o become l a w y e r s , v e t e r i n a r i a n s , n u r s e s , P.E. t e a c h e r s , d o c t o r s and p o l i c e o f f i c e r s . However, when asked "Do you t h i n k you w i l l r e a c h your g o a l and what s t e p s w i l l you have t o t a k e t o r e a c h i t ? " 52 t h e r e s p o n s e s were not v e r y p r o m i s i n g . E i g h t o f t h e s u b j e c t s s a i d t h e y d i d not know i f t h e y would r e a c h t h e i r g o a l nor d i d t h e y know how t o go about d o i n g i t . Two o f them s a i d t h e y would t r y but t h e y were h a v i n g d i f f i c u l t y w i t h t h e i r s c h o o l work. Not knowing how t o go about r e a c h i n g t h e i r g o a l s i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e y have e i t h e r not thought about i t , because t h e s e g o a l s seem out o f r e a c h , or t h e y do not know where t o o b t a i n i n f o r m a t i o n about how t o r e a c h t h e i r g o a l s . F i r s t N a t i o n s c h i l d r e n might not have thought about how t o go about r e a c h i n g t h e i r g o a l s because s o c i e t y and s c h o o l s might not have t o l d them how t o r e a c h t h e i r g o a l s . They might not have t o l d them because t h e y have low e x p e c t a t i o n s o f F i r s t N a t i o n s c h i l d r e n . S o c i e t y and i t s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s may not e x p e c t t h a t F i r s t N a t i o n s p e o p l e are c a p a b l e o f c o m p l e t i n g u n i v e r s i t y o r becoming p r o f e s s i o n a l s (e.g., v e t e r i n a r i a n s , t e a c h e r s ) . The F i r s t N a t i o n s s t u d e n t s may have adopted t h e b e l i e f t h a t t h e y are incompetent and t h u s p e r c e i v e s u c c e s s i n s c h o o l and a p r o f e s s i o n a l c a r e e r i s out o f t h e i r r e a c h . Moreover, s i n c e t e a c h e r s may b e l i e v e and behave i n ways which i n d i c a t e t h a t F i r s t N a t i o n s s t u d e n t s are i n a d e q u a t e , t h e y might not make i n f o r m a t i o n a v a i l a b l e t o them about how t o r e a c h t h e i r g o a l s . And, s i n c e most of t h e p a r e n t s o f t h e s u b j e c t s who gave t h e s e responses d i d not complete h i g h s c h o o l , t h e y are unable t o a d v i s e t h e i r c h i l d r e n on how t o go about r e a c h i n g t h e i r g o a l s . F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e s u b j e c t s ' h i g h a s p i r a t i o n s do not c o r r e s p o n d w i t h t h e i r academic achievement or s c h o o l 53 a t t e n d a n c e r e c o r d s . F o r i n s t a n c e , one o f t h e s u b j e c t s , who i n d i c a t e d he wanted t o go t o u n i v e r s i t y and become a la w y e r o r a v e t e r i n a r i a n , had f a i l e d f o u r out o f e i g h t c o u r s e s i n Grade 8 and was a l r e a d y f a i l i n g t h r e e o f h i s c o u r s e s i n Grade 9. In a d d i t i o n , h i s at t e n d a n c e r e c o r d s f o r t h e l a s t t e rm o f th e p r e s e n t s c h o o l y e a r ( A p r i l - J u n e 1994) i n d i c a t e t h a t he has m i s s e d 150 c l a s s e s t h i s term a l o n e . T h i s case i s t y p i c a l among t h e s u b j e c t s i n t h e stu d y , 12 o f whom have f a i l i n g g rades and poor a t t e n d a n c e r e c o r d s w h i l e s t a t i n g t h e y want t o become l a w y e r s , v e t e r i n a r i a n s , t e a c h e r s , p o l i c e o f f i c e r s , d o c t o r s o r n u r s e s . When asked what k i n d s o f job s e x i s t f o r a d u l t s , r e s p o n s e s t o t h i s q u e s t i o n i n c l u d e d "supermarket w o r k e r s , j a n i t o r s , c o n s t r u c t i o n , a l t e r n a t e program w o r k e r s , s o c i a l w o r k e r s , c o u r t w o r k e r s , c a s h i e r s , w a i t r e s s e s , s h e l t e r w o r k e r s , c o u n s e l o r s , b i n g o o p e r a t o r s , McDonald's, go i n g - b a c k -t o - s c h o o l , auto mechanics". The responses g i v e n by t h e s u b j e c t s a re i n d i c a t i v e o f t h e job s t h e y a re f a m i l i a r w i t h from t h e a d u l t s w i t h whom t h e y a re i n c o n t a c t . I t may a l s o be t h a t t h e i r f a m i l y members are engaged i n t h e l o w - s t a t u s o c c u p a t i o n s mentioned by t h e s u b j e c t s . Moreover, t h e respo n s e s g i v e n by s u b j e c t s t h a t i n c l u d e " s h e l t e r w o r k e r s , c o u n s e l o r s , s o c i a l w o r k e r s " suggest t h a t t h e y a r e i n c o n t a c t w i t h p e o p l e i n t h e s e o c c u p a t i o n s . T h e i r p e r c e p t i o n s about a d u l t o c c u p a t i o n s ( o t h e r t h a n t h e p r o f e s s i o n a l o c c u p a t i o n s t h e y mentioned) show t h a t t h e y a re f a m i l i a r w i t h j o b s t h a t do not n e c e s s a r i l y r e q u i r e h i g h s c h o o l c o m p l e t i o n . Thus, when 54 asked i n t h e p r e v i o u s q u e s t i o n how t o go about p u r s u i n g t h e i r c a r e e r g o a l s , most were unable t o answer s i n c e t h e y p r o b a b l y do not p e r s o n a l l y know anyone h o l d i n g t h e h i g h s t a t u s o c c u p a t i o n s t h e y a s p i r e t o h o l d and t h u s cannot ask anyone f o r a d v i c e . When asked how p e o p l e become s u c c e s s f u l a d u l t s (adopted from M a t u t e - B i a n c h i , 1986) r esponses ranged from "be r e s p o n s i b l e and work h a r d " t o " I don't know". F o r i n s t a n c e , one o f t h e s u b j e c t s s a i d she does not know s i n c e no one i n her f a m i l y has g r a d u a t e d from h i g h s c h o o l or has become s u c c e s s f u l . The o n l y one she knew, i n f a c t , who had g r a d u a t e d from h i g h s c h o o l was her c l a s s r o o m t e a c h e r . T h e r e f o r e , w i t h o u t knowing how t o become s u c c e s s f u l , i t i s v e r y d i f f i c u l t f o r t h e s e s u b j e c t s t o become s u c c e s s f u l t h e m s e l v e s . Even t h e s u b j e c t s who gave answer l i k e "work h a r d " do not n e c e s s a r i l y use t h e "work h a r d " s t r a t e g y , as seen from t h e grades and a t t e n d a n c e r e c o r d s on t h e i r r e p o r t c a r d s . Perhaps t h e y do not work h a r d i n s c h o o l because t h e y do not p e r c e i v e s u c c e s s as a p o s s i b i l i t y i n t h e i r f u t u r e s i n c e s o c i e t y t e l l s them t h a t t h e y are i n a d e q u a t e . As M a t u t e - B i a n c h i (198 6) s t a t e s , i n v o l u n t a r y m i n o r i t y s t u d e n t s do not d i s c u s s t h e f u t u r e or t h i n k about t h e f u t u r e a t l e n g t h because t h e y f o c u s on t h e p r e s e n t or t h e immediate f u t u r e . There i s no doubt t h a t "the d a i l y s t r u g g l e s and c o n s t r a i n e d r e a l i t i e s t h e s e s t u d e n t s and t h e i r f a m i l i e s f a c e " do not a l l o w them t o t h i n k and p l a n f o r t h e f u t u r e ( M a t u t e - B i a n c h i , 1986, p. 236) . 55 When asked i f t h e i r p a r e n t s make them do homework and encourage them t o complete h i g h s c h o o l , f i v e s u b j e c t s s a i d t h a t t h e i r p a r e n t s make them do homework. F o r t h e r e s t , i t i s t h e i r r e s p o n s i b i l i t y . A l l s a i d , however, t h a t t h e i r p a r e n t s do encourage them t o complete h i g h s c h o o l , so t h a t t h e y might f i n d a good j o b or because t h e y , t h e p a r e n t s , d i d not complete h i g h s c h o o l . Moreover, i n n i n e cases no one i n t h e i r f a m i l y has completed h i g h s c h o o l y e t . However, as Ogbu (1991) e x p l a i n s , s i n c e t h e p a r e n t s have not completed h i g h s c h o o l t h e y do not push t h e i r c h i l d r e n as much as t h e immigrant m i n o r i t y p a r e n t s do. Thus, t h e p a r e n t s , t o o , have f a c e d many s o c i e t a l b a r r i e r s , w h i c h d i d not a l l o w them t o complete h i g h s c h o o l . Three o f t h e s t u d e n t s i n t h e p r e s e n t s t u d y e x p r e s s e d f e e l i n g s t h a t t h e y s h o u l d not have t o complete h i g h s c h o o l because t h e i r p a r e n t s d i d n o t . A d i f f e r e n c e was found between t h o s e who had fewer re s p o n s e s i n d i c a t i n g t h e b e l i e f s o f an i n v o l u n t a r y m i n o r i t y and t h o s e who had more such r e s p o n s e s . Of t h e 13 s u b j e c t s r e s p o n d i n g l i k e i n v o l u n t a r y m i n o r i t i e s (7-11 r e s p o n s e s ) , n e i t h e r p a r e n t o f 10 o f them completed h i g h s c h o o l . Of t h e o t h e r t h r e e s u b j e c t s o n l y one o f t h e i r p a r e n t s had completed h i g h s c h o o l . Of t h e s i x s u b j e c t s who gave fewer (one t o s i x ) res p o n s e s i n d i c a t i n g t h e b e l i e f s o f an i n v o l u n t a r y m i n o r i t y , b o t h p a r e n t s o f t h r e e s u b j e c t s f i n i s h e d h i g h s c h o o l and one p a r e n t o f each o f t h e o t h e r t h r e e s u b j e c t s c o mpleted h i g h s c h o o l . T h e r e f o r e , a t r e n d i s seen between t h e s u b j e c t s who h o l d t h e b e l i e f s o f an i n v o l u n t a r y m i n o r i t y and whether t h e i r 56 p a r e n t s have g r a d u a t e d from h i g h s c h o o l . Low e d u c a t i o n l e v e l s r e p r o d u c e t h e m s e l v e s among F i r s t N a t i o n s p e o p l e s i n c e s o c i e t a l b a r r i e r s impede t h e i r academic s u c c e s s and c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e i r b e l i e f t h a t t h e s o c i e t a l b a r r i e r s a r e t o o overwhelming and permanent and t h a t whatever t h e y do w i l l not make a d i f f e r e n c e . A p o s t hoc comparison was made between t h e s e s u b j e c t s who had more res p o n s e s (7-11) i n d i c a t i n g t h e b e l i e f s o f an i n v o l u n t a r y m i n o r i t y and t h o s e s u b j e c t s who had fewer r e s p o n s e s (one t o s i x ) . A t - t e s t was c o m p l e t e d t o d e t e r m i n e i f t h e r e was any d i f f e r e n c e between t h e two groups on s e l f - e s t e e m or p r i d e i n h e r i t a g e . No s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s were found. When asked whether a F i r s t N a t i o n s p e r s o n w i t h a h i g h s c h o o l d i p l o m a has t h e same chance as a n o n - F i r s t N a t i o n s p e r s o n i n o b t a i n i n g a good j o b , 17 o f t h e r e s p o n s e s were "no, but i t s h o u l d be t h e same" (onl y two s u b j e c t s s a i d "yes") . One s u b j e c t s a i d "you c a n ' t see t o o many F i r s t N a t i o n s p e o p l e w i t h good j o b s , most are on w e l f a r e " . A n o t h e r s a i d " I t ' s h a r d f o r "us" t o get j o b s because o f t h e way we a r e . Some pe o p l e a r e r a c i s t " . O v e r a l l , t h e words r a c i s m and r a c i s t came up i n most i n t e r v i e w s . I t was e x p r e s s e d 12 t i m e s t h a t s i n c e most employers are r a c i s t , F i r s t N a t i o n s p e o p l e have an une q u a l chance o f o b t a i n i n g a good j o b . W i t h t h e p e r c e p t i o n t h a t so many s o c i e t a l b a r r i e r s e x i s t f o r F i r s t N a t i o n s p e o p l e i t i s u n l i k e l y t h a t t h e s e s u b j e c t s b e l i e v e t h a t t h e y can succeed. T h e r e f o r e , i t i s e v i d e n t t h a t t h e F i r s t N a t i o n s s u b j e c t s , i n t h i s s t u d y , have adopted t h e b e l i e f t h a t t h e y 57 are not as competent as n o n - F i r s t N a t i o n s p e o p l e , a r e t r e a t e d u n f a i r l y and do not have th e same o p p o r t u n i t i e s as n o n - F i r s t N a t i o n s p e o p l e . F u r t h e r m o r e , c o n t r a d i c t o r y messages a r e s e n t t o F i r s t N a t i o n s c h i l d r e n . On t h e one hand t h e i r p a r e n t s and t e a c h e r s encourage them t o complete h i g h s c h o o l . On t h e o t h e r hand, as a r e s u l t o f t h e s e v e r a l s o c i e t a l b a r r i e r s , t h e y p e r c e i v e t h a t even w i t h a good e d u c a t i o n t h e y do not have t h e same chance as n o n - F i r s t N a t i o n s p e o p l e i n o b t a i n i n g good jo b s (Ogbu, 1991) . The r e s u l t i s t h a t t h e y s t a r t t o q u e s t i o n t h e r e a l v a l u e o f s c h o o l . When asked what F i r s t N a t i o n s k i d s t h i n k o f o t h e r F i r s t N a t i o n s k i d s who do w e l l i n s c h o o l , 17 r e s p o n d e n t s s a i d t h a t t h e y , p e r s o n a l l y , are proud o f them, but t h a t o t h e r s t e a s e them and make fun o f them. One s u b j e c t s a i d " i t ' s w e i r d h a v i n g an o l d e r p e r s o n w i t h good marks, most a r e t o o busy g e t t i n g drunk". T h i s shows t h a t i t i s not t y p i c a l o f F i r s t N a t i o n s k i d s t o a c h i e v e h i g h i n s c h o o l . At a f i r s t g l a n c e i t may be easy t o blame th e v i c t i m s f o r t h e i r underachievement; y e t t h e r o o t o f t h e problem i s embedded h i s t o r i c a l l y i n t h e u n j u s t t r e a t m e n t o f F i r s t N a t i o n s p e o p l e and o f t h e s t i g m a t h e y have a c q u i r e d from s o c i e t y , which l e a d s t o t h e i r u nderachievement. Moreover, 17 res p o n d e n t s answered t h a t o t h e r s t e a s e F i r s t N a t i o n s c h i l d r e n who do w e l l i n s c h o o l , but t h a t t h e y , p e r s o n a l l y , are proud o f them. I t appears t h a t i n p r i v a t e F i r s t N a t i o n s k i d s do l o o k up t o t h e h i g h a c h i e v e r s and 58 admire them, but i n f r o n t o f t h e i r p e e r s t h e y t e a s e them. Ogbu (1991) found, t h a t t h e B l a c k s t u d e n t s i n S t o c k t o n , C a l i f o r n i a , who d i d w e l l i n s c h o o l were acc u s e d o f r e j e c t i n g t h e i r own c u l t u r e and " d o i n g t h e w h i t e man t h i n g " . Thus, t h e y equated s c h o o l knowledge w i t h w h i t e man's knowledge. The same r e a l i t y e x i s t s f o r some o f t h e F i r s t N a t i o n s s u b j e c t s i n t h i s s t u d y . I t i s not a c c e p t a b l e by some o f them t o do w e l l i n s c h o o l , because s c h o o l knowledge i s assumed t o be o p p o s i n g knowledge. Some s u b j e c t s s t a t e d t h a t many F i r s t N a t i o n s k i d s choose t o s k i p s c h o o l and spend t i m e w i t h t h e i r f r i e n d s because t h e y f e e l t h a t when t h e y do come t o s c h o o l most o f t h e i r t e a c h e r s , i n mainstream c l a s s e s , do not u n d e r s t a n d them. T h e r e f o r e , some b e l i e v e t h a t o b e y i n g t h e i r t e a c h e r s i s equated w i t h o b e y i n g w h i t e p e o p l e ' s o r d e r s , and t h a t i s a waste o f t i m e s i n c e w h i t e p e o p l e do not u n d e r s t a n d what t h e y are g o i n g t h r o u g h . When asked i f s c h o o l i s an i m p o r t a n t p a r t o f t h e i r l i v e s 15 r e s p o n d e n t s s a i d "yes", w h i l e t h r e e s a i d i t w i l l be i m p o r t a n t when t h e y get o l d e r . Though most s a i d yes, e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e i r academic r e c o r d s suggest t h a t t h e y a re not d o i n g w e l l i n s c h o o l . Once a g a i n , t h e y a re not concerned about t h e f u t u r e . They p e r c e i v e s c h o o l as not v e r y v a l u a b l e s i n c e t h e y have adopted t h e b e l i e f t h a t t h e i r chances f o r s u c c e s s i n t h e f u t u r e a re low. As M a t u t e - B i a n c h i (1986) e x p r e s s e d , t h e i r u n c e r t a i n t y about t h e f u t u r e makes them more l i k e l y t o c o n c e n t r a t e on t h e immediate f u t u r e and t h e p r e s e n t . T h e r e f o r e , ' t h e y t e n d not t o see t h e b e n e f i t s o f 59 s c h o o l i n t h e s h o r t term and s i n c e t h e y do not c o n c e n t r a t e on the l o n g term, t h e y see s c h o o l as i r r e l e v a n t ; When asked i f o t h e r F i r s t N a t i o n s c h i l d r e n t h i n k s c h o o l i s i m p o r t a n t f o r s u c c e s s i n t h e f u t u r e most o f t h e s u b j e c t s i n d i c a t e d t h a t some do but most do n o t . Most o f them s a i d t h a t o t h e r F i r s t N a t i o n s c h i l d r e n do not t h i n k s c h o o l i s i m p o r t a n t because t h e y have o t h e r t h i n g s t o do. Many s a i d t h a t t h e i r p e e r s a re "too busy g e t t i n g h i g h " o r " s i t t i n g a t home r e l a x i n g " . One g i r l s a i d t h a t h er f r i e n d d i d not t h i n k s c h o o l was i m p o r t a n t because a l l she wants i s a p l a i n s i m p l e j o b . S e v e r a l o t h e r s u b j e c t s s a i d t h a t t h e i r f r i e n d s say t h e y can make more money i n " w e i r d " ways. One s u b j e c t s a i d h i s f r i e n d makes more money i n one n i g h t t h a n a t e a c h e r makes i n an e n t i r e week. Nine s u b j e c t s mentioned dru g s , a l c o h o l and f a m i l y problems g e t t i n g i n t h e way o f s c h o o l . These f i n d i n g s are c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h o s e Ogbu d e s c r i b e s . Ogbu (1991) c l a i m s t h a t "the c h i l d r e n t e n d t o d i v e r t most o f t h e i r e f f o r t s away from sch o o l w o r k i n t o nonacademic a c t i v i t i e s . . . h u s t l i n g p r e s e n t s an a t t r a c t i v e a l t e r n a t i v e s t r a t e g y t o s c h o o l i n g " (281). Once a g a i n , t h e r e a s o n f o r t h i s i s t h a t F i r s t N a t i o n s p e o p l e have h i s t o r i c a l l y been t o l d t h a t t h e y a re not a b l e t o do w e l l i n s c h o o l o r h o l d p r o f e s s i o n a l o c c u p a t i o n s and have t h u s i n t e r n a l i z e d t h i s a c c u s a t i o n . The q u e s t i o n , "are a l l k i d s t r e a t e d e q u a l l y i n s c h o o l ? " b rought up some u n p l e a s a n t memories f o r some s u b j e c t s and anger i n o t h e r s . F i f t e e n s a i d t h a t i n t h e a l t e r n a t i v e program t h e y get t r e a t e d e q u a l l y ; however i n t h e r e s t o f t h e 60 s c h o o l (some have been i n t h e mainstream program o r have a One or two c l a s s e s w i t h o t h e r t e a c h e r s ) some f e e l i g n o r e d . One g i r l s a i d she r e c e i v e s s p e c i a l t r e a t m e n t i n her mainstream E n g l i s h c l a s s ; t h e t e a c h e r e x p l a i n s t h i n g s t o h e r s e v e r a l t i m e s as i f she does not u n d e r s t a n d . E i g h t s t u d e n t s s a i d t h a t t h e y had been c a l l e d d i s g u s t i n g names (e.g., s t u p i d chugs, wagon b u r n e r s , w e l f a r e bums) and get p e n n i e s thrown a t them. One s u b j e c t s a i d t h a t w h i l e l i v i n g and a t t e n d i n g s c h o o l i n Saskatchewan, t h e c l a s s was g i v e n a homework assignment t h a t i n c l u d e d t h e words "savage I n d i a n " on i t . When i t was brought t o her p a r e n t s ' a t t e n t i o n t h e y approached t h e s c h o o l p r i n c i p a l w i t h t h e i r c o n c e r n , and a c c o r d i n g t o t h i s s u b j e c t n o t h i n g was done about i t . I n f a c t , t h e g i r l was b e i n g t e a s e d so much, f o l l o w i n g t h i s i n c i d e n t , t h a t she was f o r c e d t o t r a n s f e r t o ano t h e r s c h o o l . The next q u e s t i o n y i e l d e d some s i m i l a r r e s p o n s e s . When asked i f t e a c h e r s l i k e F i r s t N a t i o n s c h i l d r e n as much as non-F i r s t N a t i o n s c h i l d r e n , one s u b j e c t s a i d t h a t a t a s c h o o l she used t o a t t e n d she f e l t l i k e t h e " b l a c k sheep". Seventeen o f t h e s u b j e c t s s a i d t h a t F i r s t N a t i o n s t e a c h e r s and t e a c h e r s i n th e a l t e r n a t i v e program l i k e a l l s t u d e n t s t h e same, whereas some o t h e r s do n o t . As one s u b j e c t a r t i c u l a t e d "here (meaning i n t h e a l t e r n a t i v e program) t e a c h e r s l i k e a l l k i d s t h e same but u p s t a i r s ( i n t h e mainstream s c h o o l ) N a t i v e k i d s get t r e a t e d l i k e n o t h i n g " . Thus, once a g a i n i t i s e v i d e n t t h a t F i r s t N a t i o n s s t u d e n t s are v i c t i m s o f d i s c r i m i n a t i o n and are f r e q u e n t l y h u m i l i a t e d i n s c h o o l . 61 The l a s t q u e s t i o n , whether F i r s t N a t i o n s c h i l d r e n l i k e t h e i r t e a c h e r s as much as n o n - F i r s t N a t i o n s c h i l d r e n , y i e l d e d answers wh i c h c o u l d i n d i c a t e F i r s t N a t i o n s c h i l d r e n l i k e t h e i r t e a c h e r s based on how t h e i r t e a c h e r s t r e a t them. F o r i n s t a n c e , one s u b j e c t answered "no, we l i k e t h e t e a c h e r s here ( i n t h e a l t e r n a t i v e program) because t h e y u n d e r s t a n d , we don't l i k e t h e t e a c h e r s u p s t a i r s because t h e y a r e r a c i s t " . S i x t e e n r e s p o n d e n t s gave s i m i l a r answers e x p r e s s i n g t h e i r a m i t y f o r t h e t e a c h e r s i n t h e a l t e r n a t i v e program and t h e i r d i s l i k e f o r t h e t e a c h e r s i n t h e r e s t o f t h e s c h o o l . Most o f them t h i n k t h a t t h e n o n - F i r s t N a t i o n s c h i l d r e n l i k e t h e i r t e a c h e r s more. In t h e a l t e r n a t i v e program t h e y a r e not s t i g m a t i z e d but i n t h e mainstream s c h o o l t h e y a re o f t e n made t o f e e l i n a d e q u a t e and are p a t r o n i z e d (as seen i n t h e res p o n s e s o f some s t u d e n t s ) . Many reas o n s can be o f f e r e d t o e x p l a i n t h e re s p o n s e s g i v e n i n t h e p r e s e n t s t u d y by t h e F i r s t N a t i o n s s u b j e c t s . However, upon c a r e f u l e x a m i n a t i o n one can see t h a t t h e i r p e r c e p t i o n s o f s c h o o l and o p p o r t u n i t y f o r s u c c e s s a re s i m i l a r t o t h o s e o f o t h e r i n v o l u n t a r y m i n o r i t y y o u t h (Ogbu, 1991; Pa r k o , 1991; M a t u t e - B i a n c h i , 1986; Gib s o n , 1976). As Ogbu (1991) s u g g e s t s , t h e c u l t u r a l and s t r u c t u r a l consequences o f t h e s t a t u s o f F i r s t N a t i o n s p e o p l e , i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e s t u d e n t s ' p e r c e p t i o n s , i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f , and re s p o n s e s t o s c h o o l i n g (as a r e s u l t o f t h e d i s c r i m i n a t i o n t h e y have s u f f e r e d ) , c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e i r low academic s u c c e s s . A l t h o u g h i t i s not e n t i r e l y t h e "system" a t p r e s e n t t h a t i s a t f a u l t , i t i s a l s o t h e h i s t o r i c a l d e g r a d a t i o n and d i s c r i m i n a t i o n F i r s t N a t i o n s p e o p l e by s o c i e t y which c o n t r i b u t e s t o t h e 1 o f achievement i n s c h o o l among F i r s t N a t i o n s s t u d e n t s . 63 CHAPTER VI CONCLUSION One o f t h e purposes o f d o i n g a t h e s i s i s t o g a i n r e s e a r c h e x p e r i e n c e . The c o m p l e t i o n o f t h i s s t u d y t a u g h t me t h e p r o c e s s o f d o i n g a stu d y and a l l o f t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s one can e n c o u n t e r w h i l e c o n d u c t i n g a s t u d y . The s t u d y t e n t a t i v e l y s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e s u b j e c t s i n t h i s s t u d y h o l d many o f t h e b e l i e f s o f an i n v o l u n t a r y m i n o r i t y . P r e v i o u s r e s e a r c h (Gibson, 1976; M a t u t e - B i a n c h i , 1986; Ogbu, 1974; Kramer, 1991; B a r r i n g t o n , 1976; Shimahara, 1991) i n d i c a t e s t h a t i n v o l u n t a r y m i n o r i t i e s h o l d a t l e a s t some o f t h e f o l l o w i n g b e l i e f s . F i r s t o f a l l , t h e y may h o l d a n e g a t i v e d u a l frame o f r e f e r e n c e s i n c e t h e y see t h a t t h e y a r e worse o f f t h a n t h e dominant group. Second, t h e y may i n t e r p r e t t h e s o c i a l , p o l i t i c a l and e c o n o m i c a l b a r r i e r s a g a i n s t them as permanent and i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d . T h i r d , t h e y may have i n t e r n a l i z e d t h e a c c u s a t i o n t h a t t h e y a r e i n a d e q u a t e and t h u s p e r c e i v e t h a t a good e d u c a t i o n i s not s u f f i c i e n t t o succ e e d i n s o c i e t y . As a r e s u l t , t h e y may have d e v e l o p e d a p e s s i m i s t i c o u t l o o k about t h e i r a b i l i t y t o succeed. F i n a l l y , as a r e s u l t o f d i s c r i m i n a t i o n , t h e y p e r c e i v e t h a t t h e y do not have t h e same o p p o r t u n i t y as o t h e r s t o advance i n s o c i e t y . The r e s p o n s e s o f t h e s u b j e c t s i n t h i s s t u d y were c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e b e l i e f s o f i n v o l u n t a r y m i n o r i t i e s . 64 A second accomplishment o f t h e study. may have been t h e development o f an i n t e r v i e w s c h e d u l e t o det e r m i n e whether or not i n d i v i d u a l s h o l d t h e b e l i e f s o f an i n v o l u n t a r y m i n o r i t y . G i v e n t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s t h e r e i s no way o f knowing whether t h e t r e a t m e n t would be e f f e c t i v e i n 'enhancing s e l f - e s t e e m and p r i d e i n t h e i r h e r i t a g e o r i n c a u s i n g t h e s t u d e n t s t o r e j e c t t h e b e l i e f s o f an i n v o l u n t a r y m i n o r i t y . T h i s cannot be c o n c l u d e d due t o t h e n a t u r e o f t h e sample and t h e i n a d e q u a t e t e a c h i n g o f t h e m u l t i c u l t u r a l c u r r i c u l u m . The sample s c o r e d v e r y h i g h on t h e P r i d e i n H e r i t a g e measure on t h e p r e - t e s t . They may have had h i g h p r i d e i n h e r i t a g e b e f o r e e n t e r i n g t h e a l t e r n a t i v e program or t h e a l t e r n a t i v e program may have d e v e l o p e d t h e i r p r i d e i n h e r i t a g e . One o f t h e g o a l s o f t h e a l t e r n a t i v e program was development o f p r i d e i n h e r i t a g e . The r e - e x e c u t i o n o f t h i s s t u d y , w i t h more c o n t r o l over t h e l i m i t i n g f a c t o r s , i s v i t a l . There i s e v i d e n c e from t h e i n t e r v i e w s and t h e s t u d e n t s ' academic and a t t e n d a n c e r e c o r d s t h a t t h e i r e d u c a t i o n a l achievement i s b e i n g impeded. Perhaps, as Ogbu (1991) and o t h e r s ( M a t u t e - B i a n c h i , 1986; Gib s o n , 1976; Shimahara, 1991; Parko, 1984), c l a i m , t h e d i s c r i m i n a t o r y t r e a t m e n t and o p p r e s s i o n f e l t by F i r s t N a t i o n s p e o p l e b o t h h i s t o r i c a l l y , and i n t h e p r e s e n t , have c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e i r p e r c e p t i o n s t h a t t h e b a r r i e r s t h e y f a c e i n s o c i e t y a r e permanent and i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d . These p e r c e p t i o n s t e n d t o impede t h e i r b e l i e f t h a t t h e y can be h i g h a c h i e v e r s i n s c h o o l and succeed i n s o c i e t y . These f a c t o r s , and perhaps o t h e r s , impede t h e academic achievement o f F i r s t 65 N a t i o n s s t u d e n t s ; hence, t h e importance o f t h e i n f o r m a t i o n d i s c u s s e d i n t h e p r e s e n t s t u d y . I f t h e pr o p o s e d m u l t i c u l t u r a l t r e a t m e n t , when c a r r i e d out a p p r o p r i a t e l y , has an e f f e c t on t h e s t u d e n t s ' r e j e c t i o n o f t h e b e l i e f s o f an i n v o l u n t a r y m i n o r i t y , i n c r e a s e i n p r i d e i n h e r i t a g e and s e l f -esteem, a s t e p towards F i r s t N a t i o n s s t u d e n t s ' h i g h a s p i r a t i o n s and s u c c e s s w i l l have been made. 66 REFERENCES B a r r i n g t o n , J . M. (1976) . Cultural Adaptation and Maori Education: The African Connection. Comparative E d u c a t i o n Review. 2J2(1), 1-10. B a t t l e , J . (1981). C u l t u r e - F r e e SEI S e l f - E s t e e m I n v e n t o r i e s f o r C h i l d r e n and A d u l t s . Washington: S p e c i a l C h i l d P u b l i c a t i o n s . B u c k l e y , H. (1992) . From Wooden Plows t o W e l f a r e : Why I n d i a n P o l i c y F a i l e d i n t h e P r a i r i e P r o v i n c e . M o n t r e a l : M c G i l l - Q u e e n ' s U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s . C h e s l e r , M. A. (1976). Contemporary Sociological Theories of Racism. In P. A. K a t z , Towards t h e E l i m i n a t i o n o f Racism. New York: Pergman P r e s s . (pp. 21-71). Department o f E d u c a t i o n . (1985) . The I n n e r C i t y Drop Out Study. R e g i n a , Saskatchewan: Department o f E d u c a t i o n . G i b s o n , M. A. (1976). E t h n i c i t y and S c h o o l i n g : A C a r i b b e a n Case Study. Ph. D. d i s s . U n i v e r s i t y o f P i t t s b u r g h . G i b s o n , M. A. & J . U. Ogbu. (1991) . M i n o r i t y S t a t u s and S c h o o l i n g : A Comparative Study o f Immigrant and I n v o l u n t a r y M i n o r i t i e s . New York: G a r l a n d P u b l i s h i n g . Hunter, S. & R. Steve n s . (1980). A Demographic Study o f N a t i v e I n d i a n S t u d e n t s i n Vancouver. Vancouver: Vancouver S c h o o l Board. Kehoe, J . & F. E c h o l s . (1986). A P r e l i m i n a r y R e p o r t t o t h e P r i n c i p a l and S t a f f o f E l e m e n t a r y S c h o o l . U n p u b l i s h e d paper. '• U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h C o lumbia. Kramer, B. J . (1991). Education and American Indians: The Experience of the Ute Indian Tribe. In M. G i b s o n & J . Ogbu, M i n o r i t y S t a t u s and S c h o o l i n g : h Comparative Study o f Immigrant and I n v o l u n t a r y M i n o r i t i e s . New York: G a r l a n d P u b l i s h i n g . (pp. 287-307) . M a t u t e - B i a n c h i , M. E. (1986). S i t u a t i o n a l E t h n i c i t y and Patterns of School Performance among Immigrant and Nonimmigrant Mexican-Descent Students. I n M. Gi b s o n & J . Ogbu, M i n o r i t y S t a t u s and S c h o o l i n g : A Comparative Study o f Immigrant and I n v o l u n t a r y M i n o r i t i e s . New York: G a r l a n d P u b l i s h i n g . (pp. 205-247). More, A. (1984) . Okanagan-Nicola I n d i a n Q u a l i t y o f E d u c a t i o n Study. P e n t i c t o n : Okanagan I n d i a n s L e a r n i n g I n s t i t u t e . 67 Ogbu, J . U. (1974). The Next G e n e r a t i o n : An Ethnography o f E d u c a t i o n i n an Urban Neighborhood. New York: Academic P r e s s . Ogbu, J . (1991) . Immigrant and Involuntary M i n o r i t i e s in Comparative Perspective. In M. G i b s o n & J . Ogbu, M i n o r i t y S t a t u s and S c h o o l i n g : A Comparative Study o f Immigrant and I n v o l u n t a r y M i n o r i t i e s . New York: G a r l a n d P u b l i s h i n g . (pp. 3-33). Ogbu, J . (1991). Low School Performance as an Adaptation: The Case of Blacks in Stockton, C a l i f o r n i a . I n M. Gib s o n & J . Ogbu, M i n o r i t y S t a t u s and S c h o o l i n g : A. Comparative Study o f Immigrant and I n v o l u n t a r y M i n o r i t i e s . New York: G a r l a n d P u b l i s h i n g . (pp. 249-285) . Park o , M. (1991) . E v a l u a t i o n o f t h e S e l f - E s t e e m Through C u l t u r e Leads t o Academic E x c e l l e n c e (SETCLAE) Program (1989-90). Department o f Re s e a r c h and E v a l u a t i o n , A t l a n t a P u b l i c S c h o o l s . A t l a n t a , G e o r g i a . P i e r s , E. V. (1984). P i e r s - H a r r i s C h i l d r e n ' s S e l f - C o n c e p t S c a l e R e v i s e d Manual. Los A n g e l e s , C a l i f o r n i a : Western P s y c h o l o g i c a l S e r v i c e s . Ross, R. (1992) . Dancing With A Ghost. Markham, O n t a r i o : Octopus Books. Shimahara, N. K. (1991) . Social M o b i l i t y and Education: Burakumin in Japan. In M. Gibson & J . Ogbu, M i n o r i t y S t a t u s and S c h o o l i n g : A Comparative Study o f Immigrant and I n v o l u n t a r y M i n o r i t i e s . New York: G a r l a n d P u b l i s h i n g . (pp. 205-247). Thomas, W. C , S. T. F i d d l e r , W. Hungley and M. Stem. (1979). Onchaninahas S c h o o l : An E v a l u a t i o n o f t h e Onchaninahas S c h o o l a t t h e Saddle Lake Reserve. Saddle Lake, A l b e r t a : Saddle Lake T r i b a l C o u n c i l . APPENDIX A P r i d e i n H e r i t a g e Measure C u l t u r e - F r e e S e l f - E s t e e m I n v e n t o r y I n t e r v i e w Q u e s t i o n s 69 T i t l e : The E f f e c t s o f a M u l t i c u l t u r a l C u r r i c u l u m on F i r s t -N a t i o n s ' P r i d e i n H e r i t a g e , S e l f - E s t e e m and R e j e c t i o n o f t h e . B e l i e f s o f an I n v o l u n t a r y M i n o r i t y . Investigators: Joyce S i p s a s ( r e s e a r c h f o r M a s t e r ' s T h e s i s ) John Kehoe ( s u p e r v i s i n g p r o f e s s o r ) 822-5287 You a r e b e i n g asked t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n a s t u d y w h i c h w i l l measure t h e e f f e c t s o f a m u l t i c u l t u r a l c u r r i c u l u m on F i r s t N a t i o n s p e o p l e s ' p r i d e i n h e r i t a g e , s e l f - e s t e e m and f e e l i n g t h a t t h e y can succeed. The study asks p a r t i c i p a n t s t o respond t o two measures 1. A measure o f your s e l f - e s t e e m . 2. A measure o f your p r i d e i n your h e r i t a g e . You have t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o withdraw from t a k i n g t h e measures a t any t i m e w i t h o u t i n f l u e n c i n g your c l a s s s t a n d i n g , but p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n t h e c u r r i c u l u m i s mandatory because i t i s p a r t o f t h e c o u r s e o f s t u d y . A l l r e s p o n s e s t o t h e measures w i l l be kept c o n f i d e n t i a l - - y o u r answers w i l l be coded by number and your name w i l l not be r e c o r d e d . I t w i l l t a k e a p p r o x i m a t e l y t e n minutes t o complete t h e measures, and i f you do complete them we w i l l assume you a r e c o n s e n t i n g t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n t h e s t u d y . The r e s u l t o f t h e stu d y w i l l a s s i s t s o c i a l s t u d i e s c u r r i c u l u m w r i t e r s i n d e v e l o p i n g c u r r i c u l u m . Pride i n Heritage Directions P l e a s e check t h e column t h a t d e s c r i b e s how you f e e l about t h e f o l l o w i n g s t a t e m e n t s . P l e a s e check o n l y one column f o r each o f t h e 8 s t a t e m e n t s . T h i s i s not a t e s t , and t h e r e are no " r i g h t " o r "wrong" answers. 1. I know q u i t e a l o t about my F i r s t N a t i o n s c u l t u r e . 2. I am pr o u d t o be a member o f my c u l t u r e . 3. I am not i n t e r e s t e d i n l e a r n i n g about my c u l t u r e . 4. Other Canadians c o u l d l e a r n a l o t from t h e F i r s t N a t i o n s way o f l i f e . 5. I am ashamed o f my c u l t u r e . 6. A F i r s t N a t i o n s way o f l i f e i s t h e k i n d o f l i f e I would l i k e t o l i v e . 7. The F i r s t N a t i o n s c u l t u r e has v e r y l i t t l e t o o f f e r s o c i e t y . 8. I have been i n s i t u a t i o n s where I d i d not want t o say I was a member o f t h e F i r s t N a t i o n s c u l t u r e . AGREE DISAGREE Very Somewhat S l i g h t l y S l i g h t l y Somewhat Very Much Much Directions Please mark each statement in the following way: If the statement describes how you usually feel, make a check mark ( y ) in the "yes" column. If the statement does not describe how you usually feel, make a check mark ( • ) in the "no" column. Please check only one column (either "yes" or "no") for each of the 30 statements. This is not a test, and there are no "right" or "wrong" answers. Yes No 1. I wish I were younger • • 2. Boys and girls like to play with me • • 3. I usually quit when my school work is too hard • • 4. My parents never get angry at me. • • 5. I only have a few friends • • 6. I have lots of fun with my parents • • 7. I like being a boy /1 like being a girl • • 8. I am a failure at school • • 9. My parents make me feel that I am not good enough . . . • • 10. I usually fail when I try to do important things • • 11. I am happy most of the time • • 12. I-have never taken anything that did not belong to me. . . • • 13. I often feel ashamed of myself. • • 14. Most boys and girls play games better than I do • • 15. I often feel that I am no good at all • • 16. Most boys and girls are smarter than I am • • 17. My parents dislike me because I am not good enough . . . • • 18. I like everyone I know • Q 19. I am as happy as most boys and girls • • 20. Most boys and girls are better than I am • • 21. I like to play with children younger than I am • • 22. I often feel like quitting school • • 23. I can do things as well as other boys and girls • • 24. I would change many things about myself if I could. . . . • • 25. There are many times when I would like to run away from home • • 26. I never worry about anything • • 27. I always tell the truth • • 28. My teacher feels that I am not good enough • • 29. My parents think I am a failure. . • • 30. I worry a lot • • Copyright ©1981. by Special Child Publications. All rights reserved. Reorder from: Special Child Publications, P.O. Box 33548, Seattle, Washington 98133. 72 INTERVIEW QUESTIONS 1. What do you hope t o do when you f i n i s h h i g h s c h o o l ? 2. What k i n d s o f job s (do you know o f t h a t ) e x i s t f o r a d u l t s ? 3. What i s your c a r e e r g o a l ? Do you t h i n k you w i l l r e a c h i t ? 4. Do you t h i n k a h i g h s c h o o l d i p l o m a w i l l e n a b l e you t o o b t a i n a b e t t e r j o b t h a n no h i g h s c h o o l diploma? 5. Do you t h i n k a F i r s t N a t i o n s p e r s o n w i t h a d i p l o m a has th e same chance as a n o n - F i r s t N a t i o n s p e r s o n i n g e t t i n g a good job? 6. I s s c h o o l an i m p o r t a n t p a r t o f your l i f e ? 7. What do F i r s t N a t i o n s k i d s t h i n k o f o t h e r F i r s t N a t i o n s k i d s who do w e l l i n s c h o o l ? 8. a. Do your p a r e n t s make you do homework? b. Do your p a r e n t s encourage you t o complete h i g h s c h o o l ? b l . D i d your p a r e n t s complete h i g h s c h o o l ? c. Do t h e y t e l l you t h a t w i t h a good e d u c a t i o n you have t h e same chance as a n o n — F i r s t N a t i o n s p e r s o n t o o b t a i n a good job? 9. Do o t h e r F i r s t N a t i o n s k i d s t h i n k s c h o o l i s i m p o r t a n t f o r su c c e s s i n t h e f u t u r e ? 10. How do p e o p l e become s u c c e s s f u l a d u l t s ? 11. Are a l l k i d s t r e a t e d e q u a l l y i n s c h o o l ? a. by t e a c h e r s ? b. by o t h e r s t u d e n t s ? 12. Do you t h i n k t e a c h e r s l i k e F i r s t N a t i o n s k i d s as much as non- F i r s t N a t i o n s k i d s ? 13. Do you t h i n k F i r s t N a t i o n s k i d s l i k e t h e i r t e a c h e r s as much as n o n - F i r s t N a t i o n s k i d s ?
Thesis/Dissertation
eng
Education
Vancouver : University of British Columbia Library
For non-commercial purposes only, such as research, private study and education. Additional conditions apply, see Terms of Use https://open.library.ubc.ca/terms_of_use.
Graduate
The effects of a multicultural curriculum on First Nations pride in heritage, self-esteem and rejection of the beliefs of an involuntary minorit
Text