@prefix vivo: . @prefix edm: . @prefix ns0: . @prefix dcterms: . @prefix skos: . vivo:departmentOrSchool "Education, Faculty of"@en ; edm:dataProvider "DSpace"@en ; ns0:degreeCampus "UBCV"@en ; dcterms:creator "La Bar, Caroline Mary"@en ; dcterms:issued "2010-06-03T19:15:50Z"@en, "1985"@en ; vivo:relatedDegree "Master of Arts - MA"@en ; ns0:degreeGrantor "University of British Columbia"@en ; dcterms:description """In this thesis it is argued that the constituents of practical reasoning are necessary for good teaching; as such, the study of practical reasoning would be a valuable addition to teacher education programs. Practical reasoning is basically reasoning about what should be done. In Chapter II a conception of practical reasoning developed by Jerrold Coombs is outlined. This conception, which includes a variety of abilities, dispositions and sensitivities, as well as knowledge about a number of concepts and distinctions, is used throughout chapters III and IV to illustrate its value in typical teaching activities. These typical teaching activities are divided into two categories, using a distinction conceived by Thomas Green. Green has described teaching as a "practical activity" which consists of perhaps hundreds of single different activies. He divides these activities into three categories: 1) logical acts (for example, explaining, concluding, inferring, giving reasons); 2) strategic acts (motivating, planning, evaluating, disciplining); and 3) institutional acts (taking attendance, keeping reports, consulting parents). Institutional acts, he says, are not necessary to the activity of teaching. However, both logical and strategic acts are "...indispensable to the conduct of teaching wherever and whenever it is found (Green, 1975, p. 5). Furthermore, he argues that "Teaching can be improved by improving either kind of activity, but it cannot be excellent without attention to both (ibid., p. 8)." In Chapter III, I have illustrated how practical reasoning would improve the logical acts of teaching and in Chapter IV I have argued that practical reasoning would improve the strategic acts. Chapter V includes a summary of the major argument and concludes with some suggestions about how to develop teachers practical reasoning abilities and dispositions."""@en ; edm:aggregatedCHO "https://circle.library.ubc.ca/rest/handle/2429/25435?expand=metadata"@en ; skos:note "PRACTICAL REASONING AND TEACHER EDUCATION by CAROLINE MARY LA BAR B.A., The U n i v e r s i t y Of B r i t i s h Columbia, 1976 A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS in THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES Department Of Education, C u r r i c u l u m And I n s t r u c t i o n We accept t h i s t h e s i s as conforming to the r e q u i r e d standard THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA A p r i l 1985 © C a r o l i n e Mary La Bar, 1985 In p r e s e n t i n g t h i s t h e s i s i n p a r t i a l f u l f i l m e n t of the requirements f o r an advanced degree a t the U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h Columbia, I agree t h a t the L i b r a r y s h a l l make i t f r e e l y a v a i l a b l e f o r r e f e r e n c e and study. I f u r t h e r agree t h a t p e r m i s s i o n f o r e x t e n s i v e copying of t h i s t h e s i s f o r s c h o l a r l y purposes may be granted by the head o f my department or by h i s or her r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s . I t i s understood t h a t copying or p u b l i c a t i o n o f t h i s t h e s i s f o r f i n a n c i a l g a i n s h a l l not be allowed without my w r i t t e n p e r m i s s i o n . Department of cCw j \\ . C U . V U . V Y V ^ \\ t \\ c ^ V J U A V O W The U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h Columbia 1956 Main Mall Vancouver, Canada V6T 1Y3 DE-6 (3/81) i i A b s t r a c t I n t h i s t h e s i s i t i s a r g u e d t h a t t h e c o n s t i t u e n t s o f p r a c t i c a l r e a s o n i n g a r e n e c e s s a r y f o r g o o d t e a c h i n g ; a s s u c h , t h e s t u d y o f p r a c t i c a l r e a s o n i n g w o u l d b e a v a l u a b l e a d d i t i o n t o t e a c h e r e d u c a t i o n p r o g r a m s . P r a c t i c a l r e a s o n i n g i s b a s i c a l l y r e a s o n i n g a b o u t w h a t s h o u l d b e d o n e . I n C h a p t e r I I a c o n c e p t i o n o f p r a c t i c a l r e a s o n i n g d e v e l o p e d b y J e r r o l d C o o m b s i s o u t l i n e d . T h i s c o n c e p t i o n , w h i c h i n c l u d e s a v a r i e t y o f a b i l i t i e s , d i s p o s i t i o n s a n d s e n s i t i v i t i e s , a s w e l l a s k n o w l e d g e a b o u t a n u m b e r o f c o n c e p t s a n d d i s t i n c t i o n s , i s u s e d t h r o u g h o u t c h a p t e r s I I I a n d I V t o i l l u s t r a t e i t s v a l u e i n t y p i c a l t e a c h i n g a c t i v i t i e s . T h e s e t y p i c a l t e a c h i n g a c t i v i t i e s a r e d i v i d e d i n t o t w o c a t e g o r i e s , u s i n g a d i s t i n c t i o n c o n c e i v e d b y T h o m a s G r e e n . G r e e n h a s d e s c r i b e d t e a c h i n g a s a \" p r a c t i c a l a c t i v i t y \" w h i c h c o n s i s t s o f p e r h a p s h u n d r e d s o f s i n g l e d i f f e r e n t a c t i v i e s . H e d i v i d e s t h e s e a c t i v i t i e s i n t o t h r e e c a t e g o r i e s : 1 ) l o g i c a l . a c t s ( f o r e x a m p l e , e x p l a i n i n g , c o n c l u d i n g , i n f e r r i n g , g i v i n g r e a s o n s ) ; 2 ) s t r a t e g i c a c t s ( m o t i v a t i n g , p l a n n i n g , e v a l u a t i n g , d i s c i p l i n i n g ) ; a n d 3 ) i n s t i t u t i o n a l a c t s ( t a k i n g a t t e n d a n c e , k e e p i n g r e p o r t s , c o n s u l t i n g p a r e n t s ) . I n s t i t u t i o n a l a c t s , h e s a y s , a r e n o t n e c e s s a r y t o t h e a c t i v i t y o f t e a c h i n g . H o w e v e r , b o t h l o g i c a l a n d s t r a t e g i c a c t s a r e \" . . . i n d i s p e n s a b l e t o t h e c o n d u c t o f t e a c h i n g wherever and whenever i t i s found (Green, 1975, p. 5) . Furthermore, he argues that \"Teaching can be improved by improving e i t h e r k i n d of a c t i v i t y , but i t cannot be e x c e l l e n t without a t t e n t i o n to both ( i b i d . , p. 8 ) . \" In Chapter I I I , I have i l l u s t r a t e d how p r a c t i c a l r e a s o n i n g would improve the l o g i c a l a c t s of t e a c h i n g and i n Chapter IV I have argued that p r a c t i c a l r easoning would improve the s t r a t e g i c a c t s . Chapter V i n c l u d e s a summary of the major argument and concludes with some sug g e s t i o n s about how to dev e l o p t e a c h e r s p r a c t i c a l r e a s o n i n g a b i l i t i e s and d i s p o s i t i o n s . i v Acknowledgements S i n c e r e thanks are due to my a d v i s o r , Dr. Le Roi B. D a n i e l s f o r h i s guidance and encouragement d u r i n g the course of w r i t i n g t h i s t h e s i s and to Dr. Margaret Arcus and Dr. George ~Tomk~ins f o r t h e i r h e l p f u l comments. Thanks are a l s o -extended t o S e l i n a Chew for t y p i n g the f i n a l d r a f t of the t h e s i s . T a b l e o f C o n t e n t s A b s t r a c t i i A c k n o w l e d g e m e n t i v C h a p t e r I 1 C h a p t e r I I . 7 C r i t e r i a f o r a s s e s s i n g t h e m i n o r p r e m i s e 9 C r i t e r i a f o r a s s e s s e n t t h e m a j o r p r e m i s e 1 0 S u m m a r y 2 0 C h a p t e r I I I 2 1 S o c i a l S t u d i e s 11 2 1 C o n s u m e r E d u c a t i o n 9 / 1 0 4 0 E n g l i s h 1 0 5 4 S u m m a r y 6 3 C h a p t e r I V 6 6 S t r a t e g i c A c t s a n d P r a c t i c a l R e a s o n i n g : R e s p e c t f o r P e r s o n s a n d C l a s s r o o m R u l e s 6 6 R e s p e c t f o r P e r s o n s a n d t h e C r i t i c a l S p i r i t 6 9 M a k i n g C l a s s r o o m R u l e s 7 6 S u m m a r y 8 9 C h a p t e r V 9 0 S u m m a r y o f t h e A r g u m e n t 9 0 R e c o m m e n d a t i o n s f o r C h a n g e i n T e a c h e r E d u c a t i o n 91 B i b l i o g r a p h y 9 8 1 CHAPTER I As a s o c i e t y , we p l a c e a very h i g h value on e d u c a t i o n . Indeed, i t seems t h a t we demand i n c r e a s i n g l y more from our e d u c a t i o n a l i n s t i t u t i o n s . D e s p i t e p e r i o d i c a t t a c k s on a l l l e v e l s of our e d u c a t i o n a l system, one of which i s c u r r e n t l y underway, i t seems that almost no one s e r i o u s l y suggests that e d u c a t i o n i s s u p e r f l u o u s or unworthy of a t t e n t i o n . I n s t e a d , most of the c r i t i c i s m takes the form of recommendations f o r a v a r i e t y of 'reforms.* Our commitment to e d u c a t i o n and the i n s t i t u t i o n s which advance i t remains i n t a c t . 4 While the popular p e r c e p t i o n appears to equate s c h o o l i n g with e d u c a t i o n , the d i s t i n c t i o n must not be b l u r r e d by those who are concerned with f u r t h e r i n g e d u c a t i o n . The 'reforms' i n s c h o o l i n g suggested by the l a y p e r s o n may w e l l be a n t i t h e t i c a l to g e n u i n e l y e d u c a t i o n a l aims. P r o p o s a l s that s c h o o l s s h o u l d p l a c e more emphasis on g i v i n g s t u d e n t s job s k i l l s t r a i n i n g , f o r example, may, i f implemented, s e r i o u s l y t r u n c a t e the e d u c a t i o n a l p r o c e s s . The time a l l o c a t e d to j o b . s k i l l s t r a i n i n g i s l i k e l y to be time taken from study of those s u b j e c t s meant to i n c r e a s e knowledge, understanding and a p p r e c i a t i o n of s i g n i f i c a n t i n s t i t u t i o n s , i d e a s , p r i n c i p l e s , and c u l t u r a l achievements. Though the aims of e d u c a t i o n are not the s u b j e c t of t h i s paper, i t i s at l e a s t r e a s o n a b l e to assume that there i s r e l a t i v e l y widespread consensus t h a t e d u c a t i o n should 2 prepare s t u d e n t s t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n the democratic s o c i e t y i n which we l i v e . Such a p p r e c i a t i o n i n c l u d e s , I assume, the above knowledge, understanding and a p p r e c i a t i o n . I f u r t h e r assume, then, that there i s g e n e r a l agreement among p r o f e s s i o n a l e d u c a t o r s , and at l e a s t some l a y p e r s o n s , that our s o c i e t y i s committed both to e d u c a t i o n and to a democratic form of government. Given t h i s commitment, i t would be d i f f i c u l t to deny the importance of t e a c h e r s to the e d u c a t i o n a l e n t e r p r i s e . A l s o , because s o c i e t y demands a g r e a t d e a l from s c h o o l s and, thus, of c o u r s e , from t e a c h e r s , i t seems obvious that the e d u c a t i o n of t e a c h e r s i s of utmost concern to a l l r e f l e c t i v e c i t i z e n s . Recommendations to 'reform' e d u c a t i o n are l i k e l y to be l a r g e l y i n e f f e c t i v e without a d d r e s s i n g the i s s u e of teacher e d u c a t i o n . T h i s paper i s an attempt to examine some fundamental a s p e c t s of t e a c h i n g which are p r e s e n t l y i n a d e q u a t e l y d e a l t with, i f at a l l , i n teacher e d u c a t i o n programs, w i t h the aim of s u g g e s t i n g some changes i n those programs. The changes to e x i s t i n g t e a c h e r e d u c a t i o n programs which w i l l be recommended i n c h a p t e r f i v e are grounded i n a c o n c e p t i o n of p r a c t i c a l r e a s o n i n g developed by J e r r o l d Coombs. P r a c t i c a l r e a s o n i n g , as he uses the term, i s r e a s o n i n g about what to do. Coombs acknowledges t h a t there are p h i l o s o p h i c a l d i s p u t e s about the p r e c i s e nature of p r a c t i c a l r e a s o n i n g but argues t h a t the i s s u e \". .. . should 3 b e d e c i d e d b y d e t e r m i n i n g w h i c h c o n c e p t i o n o f p r a c t i c a l r e a s o n i n g i s m o s t f r u i t f u l i n u n d e r s t a n d i n g , a n d i m p r o v i n g p r a c t i c a l r e a s o n i n g , g i v e n w h a t w e k n o w a b o u t h o w p e o p l e a c t u a l l y d o r e a s o n a b o u t w h a t t o d o (1982, p. 117).\" H i s c o n c e p t i o n , w h i c h i s e l a b o r a t e d i n s o m e d e t a i l i n c h a p t e r t w o , i n c l u d e s a n u m b e r o f a t t a i n m e n t s - a b i l i t i e s , s e n s i t i v i t i e s , d i s p o s i t i o n s a n d k n o w l e d g e - w h i c h h e b e l i e v e s a r e e s s e n t i a l f o r r a t i o n a l p r a c t i c a l j u d g m e n t . . I n c h a p t e r s t h r e e a n d f o u r , a n u m b e r o f t h e s e a t t a i n m e n t s w i l l b e d i s c u s s e d i n r e l a t i o n t o . s o m e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c t e a c h i n g a c t i v i t i e s . T h e s e c h a p t e r s b a s i c a l l y c o m p r i s e a n e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e f r u i t f u l n e s s o f C o o m b s ' c o n c e p t i o n o f p r a c t i c a l r e a s o n i n g w i t h r e s p e c t t o p r a c t i c a l c l a s s r o o m c o n c e r n s . I u s e T h o m a s G r e e n ' s a n a l y s i s o f t h e c o n c e p t o f t e a c h i n g f r o m h i s b o o k , T h e A c t i v i t i e s o f T e a c h i n g , a s a w a y t o s t r u c t u r e t h e d i s c u s s i o n . G r e e n d e s c r i b e s t e a c h i n g a s a p r a c t i c a l a c t i v i t y w h i c h c o n s i s t s o f p e r h a p s h u n d r e d s o f i n s t a n c e s o f d i f f e r e n t t y p e s o f a c t i v i t i e s . H e d i v i d e s t h e s e i n t o t h r e e c a t e g o r i e s . T h e f i r s t c a t e g o r y , t h e l o g i c a l a c t s , i n c l u d e s t h o s e r e l a t i n g p r i m a r i l y t o t h e e l e m e n t o f r e a s o n i n g o r t h i n k i n g i n t e a c h i n g . E x a m p l e s o f s u c h a c t s i n c l u d e e x p l a i n i n g , c o n c l u d i n g , g i v i n g r e a s o n s , a m a s s i n g e v i d e n c e , a n d d e f i n i n g . T h e s e c o n d c a t e g o r y , t h e s t r a t e g i c a c t s , i s c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e t e a c h e r ' s p l a n o r s t r a t e g y i n t e a c h i n g , t h e w a y m a t e r i a l i s o r g a n i z e d a n d s t u d e n t s a r e 4 d i r e c t e d . These a c t i v i t i e s i n c l u d e m o t i v a t i n g , e v a l u a t i n g , encouraging, d i s c i p l i n i n g , and q u e s t i o n i n g . The t h i r d c a t egory, the i n s t i t u t i o n a l a c t s , c o n s i s t s of those a s p e c t s of the t e a c h e r ' s work which a r i s e p r i m a r i l y because the s c h o o l i s an i n s t i t u t i o n . In t h i s c a t e g o r y f a l l such a c t i v i t i e s as t a k i n g attendance, a t t e n d i n g meetings, keeping r e p o r t s , and so on. Green r i g h t l y p o i n t s out t h a t the c a t e g o r i e s , although not very p r e c i s e l y d e f i n e d , are n o n e t h e l e s s u s e f u l i n g e t t i n g c l e a r e r about the a c t i v i t y of t e a c h i n g . The i n s t i t u t i o n a l a c t s , l o g i c a l l y speaking, are unnecessary to the a c t i v i t y of t e a c h i n g . Teaching can be c a r r i e d out i n other than i n s t i t u t i o n a l s e t t i n g s . The l o g i c a l and s t r a t e g i c a c t s , on the other hand, are i n d i s p e n s a b l e f o r any a c t i o n or a c t i v i t y to count as t e a c h i n g . While the l o g i c a l and s t r a t e g i c a c t s d i f f e r from each other i n important r e s p e c t s , both are c r u c i a l to t e a c h i n g and, i n f a c t , u s u a l l y take p l a c e s i m u l t a n e o u s l y . I t i s important to m a i n t a i n the d i s t i n c t i o n between the two, however, f o r the purpose of advancing d i s c u s s i o n on improving p e d a g o g i c a l p r a c t i c e . In Green's words, \"Teaching can be improved by improving e i t h e r k i n d of a c t i v i t y , but i t cannot be e x c e l l e n t without a t t e n t i o n tp both (1971, p. 8 ) . \" How then are the l o g i c a l and s t r a t e g i c a c t s to be d i s t i n g u i s h e d ? The answer, a c c o r d i n g to Green, i s p r i m a r i l y by the way the two are e v a l u a t e d . The l o g i c a l a c t s are 5 a p p r a i s e d on p u r e l y l o g i c a l grounds. . whether an e x p l a n a t i o n i s good or adequate can be deci d e d without c o n s i d e r i n g whether anyone l e a r n s from i t . In other words, i t can be as s e s s e d independently of i t s consequences f o r l e a r n i n g . An e x p l a n a t i o n w i l l be a good one i f i t accounts f o r what i s to be e x p l a i n e d . I f i t i s w e l l c o n s t r u c t e d and without l o g i c a l f a u l t , then i t i s a good e x p l a n a t i o n even when i t i s not understood by anyone except i t s a u t h o r . . . ( i b i d . , p. 7 ) . While the l o g i c a l a c t s of t e a c h i n g can be w e l l done even i f no one l e a r n s , t h i s i s not the case with r e s p e c t to the s t r a t e g i c a c t s . The s t r a t e g i c a c t s are e v a l u a t e d c h i e f l y by t h e i r consequences f o r l e a r n i n g . As t e a c h i n g t y p i c a l l y i s concerned with g e t t i n g someone to l e a r n something, i t cannot be ranked h i g h l y u n l e s s l e a r n i n g o c c u r s . Whereas the l o g i c a l a c t s r e q u i r e a knowledge of the \"laws of thought\" the s t r a t e g i c a c t s r e q u i r e a knowledge of \"the laws of l e a r n i n g and human growth.\" There are some s i t u a t i o n s which r e q u i r e a g r e a t e r emphasis on l o g i c than s t r a t e g y , while t h e r e are o t h e r s which r e q u i r e the r e v e r s e . The d i s t i n c t i o n between the l o g i c a l and s t r a t e g i c a c t s i s summarized, then, by how they are e v a l u a t e d - the s t r a t e g i c a c t s by t h e i r consequences f o r l e a r n i n g , the l o g i c a l a c t s independently of t h e i r consequences. In p r a c t i c e , of cou r s e , both k i n d s of a c t s occur t o g e t h e r . Green s t a t e s T h i s important d i f f e r e n c e between the l o g i c of t e a c h i n g and the s t r a t e g y of t e a c h i n g i s u s u a l l y obscured because, i n p r a c t i c e , the l o g i c a l a c t s of t e a c h i n g never occur, or at l e a s t they seldom occur, except i n the c o n t e x t of some t e a c h i n g 6 s t r a t e g y . Consequently, we almost never e v a l u a t e these d i f f e r e n t kinds of a c t s independently of one another ( i b i d . , p. 7 ) . With r e s p e c t to the d i s c u s s i o n which f o l l o w s i n chapters three and four of t h i s paper, the p o i n t about obscuraton of the d i s t i n c t i o n i s of note. While chapter t h r e e addresses the l o g i c a l a c t s , i t i s not p o s s i b l e to c o m p l e t e l y a v o i d r e f e r e n c e to the s t r a t e g i c a c t s . S i m i l a r i l y , while chapter four i s concerned with the s t r a t e g i c a c t s , o c c a s i o n a l r e f e r e n c e to the l o g i c a l a c t s i s r e q u i r e d . The argument f o r the va l u e of p r a c t i c a l r easoning i n improving p e d a g o g i c a l p r a c t i c e i s repeated i n summary form i n c h a p t e r f i v e . F o l l o w i n g t h i s summary, an attempt i s made to set out some s u g g e s t i o n s f o r i n c l u d i n g i n teacher e d u c a t i o n programs s t u d i e s which w i l l d e v e l o p persons' p r a c t i c a l r e a s o n i n g . 7 CHAPTER II The account of p r a c t i c a l r e a s o n i n g employed in t h i s paper was c o n c e i v e d by J e r r o l d Coombs. 1 Comprehensive and coherent e d u c a t i o n a l programs to teach a n y t h i n g must be based on a sound c o n c e p t i o n of what i s to be taught and d e f e n s i b l e reasons f o r t e a c h i n g i t . Coombs' account p r o v i d e s both of the above. T h i s work i s e l a b o r a t e d i n s u f f i c i e n t d e t a i l to make c l e a r the c o n s t i t u e n t a b i l i t i e s , d i s p o s i t i o n s and knowledge r e q u i r e d f o r r a t i o n a l p r a c t i c a l r e a s o n i n g as w e l l as the i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s between the c o n s t i t u e n t s . As such, i t p r o v i d e s a f o u n d a t i o n f o r d e v e l o p i n g m a t e r i a l s and s t r a t e g i e s f o r t e a c h i n g purposes. P r a c t i c a l r e a s o n i n g i s concerned with making d e c i s i o n s about what to do. Such rea s o n i n g occurs both at the i n d i v i d u a l l e v e l , i n which one makes a judgment about what one p e r s o n a l l y should do, and at the s o c i a l l e v e l , i n which one makes a judgment about what one's s o c i e t y or s o c i a l groups should do. At both l e v e l s , however, the r e a s o n i n g f o l l o w s the same b a s i c form - the judgment or c o n c l u s i o n 1 T h i s work i s p a r t of a r e p o r t submitted by J . Coombs, C. La Bar and I. Wright to the C o r r e c t i o n a l S e r v i c e of Canada. The c o n c e p t i o n of p r a c t i c a l r e a s o n i n g was, however, developed s o l e l y by Coombs and w i l l be c i t e d as Coombs (1982) throughout t h i s t h e s i s . T h i s chapter i s based e n t i r e l y on the c o n c e p t i o n i n c l u d e d i n the r e p o r t . ( 8 about what should be done i s reached u s i n g two d i s t i n c t types of reasons: 1) m o t i v a t i n g reasons, which take the form of v a l u e standards which the reasoner a c c e p t s , and 2) b e l i e f s about what a c t i o n s w i l l f u l f i l l the value s t a n d a r d s . Consider the f o l l o w i n g simple example. John, a mathematics teacher, must decide whether to spend h i s Tuesday evenings t a k i n g a French c o o k i n g c o u r s e , something he has long wished to do, or t a k i n g a computer course, something which he b e l i e v e s would h e l p him meet h i s o b l i g a t i o n to h e l p u n d e r - a c h i e v i n g students i n problem s o l v i n g . John b e l i e v e s t h a t he w i l l enjoy the cooking course immensely. He a l s o b e l i e v e s that he w i l l be b e t t e r prepared to h e l p h i s s t u d e n t s i f he takes the computer c o u r s e . A c c e p t i n g the value s t a n d a r d that t e a c h e r s are o b l i g a t e d to f a c i l i t a t e i n d i v i d u a l student l e a r n i n g when p o s s i b l e , even at the expense of denying h i m s e l f something long wished f o r , John d e c i d e s that he s h o u l d e n r o l i n the computer c o u r s e . H i s b e l i e f s about the consequences of a c t i n g on each of the a l t e r n a t i v e s , combined wi t h the value s t a n d a r d he a c c e p t s , p r o v i d e the two kinds of reasons from which h i s judgment or c o n c l u s i o n can be d e d u c t i v e l y i n f e r r e d . W r i t t e n f o r m a l l y , John's argument reads: Major premise: I ought to do t h a t which w i l l h e l p (Value standard) my students l e a r n r a t h e r than that which w i l l c o n t r i b u t e to my p e r s o n a l enjoyment. Minor premise: Taking a computer course w i l l h e l p ( B e l i e f ) my students l e a r n . 9 C o n c l u s i o n : I ought to take a computer course ( P r a c t i c a l r a t h e r than c o n t r i b u t e to my p e r s o n a l judgment) enjoyment. Both premises, the value standard which he a c c e p t s , and h i s b e l i e f about the consequences of the proposed course of a c t i o n must be defended i f h i s judgment i s to be sound. In a d d i t i o n , of course, the argument must be d e d u c t i v e l y v a l i d , t h a t i s , the premises must l o g i c a l l y l e a d to the c o n c l u s i o n . John's dilemma i s r a t h e r l e s s c o m p l i c a t e d than many cases r e q u i r i n g p r a c t i c a l r e a s o n i n g . Often more than two a l t e r n a t i v e s present themselves, much more i n f o r m a t i o n r e l e v a n t to d e s c r i b i n g and e v a l u a t i n g the consequences of a l t e r n a t i v e courses of a c t i o n i s r e q u i r e d , and a number of v a l u e standards are i n v o l v e d and may c o n f l i c t . N onetheless, the b a s i c form of the r e a s o n i n g remains the same. The judgment about what ought to be done i s based on a value s t a n d a r d a c c e p t e d by the reasoner and b e l i e f s about what a c t i o n s w i l l f u l f i l l the v a l u e s t a n d a r d . C r i t e r i a f o r A s s e s s i n g the Minor Premise If p r a c t i c a l judgments are to be c o n s i d e r e d r a t i o n a l , c e r t a i n c r i t e r i a must be s a t i s f i e d ; s p e c i f i c a l l y , assuming t h a t the d e d u c t i o n i s v a l i d , both premises must be d e f e n s i b l e . Coombs has i d e n t i f i e d t h r e e c r i t e r i a by which to a s s e s s the minor premise, which i s always an e m p i r i c a l or d e f i n i t i o n a l c l a i m . The f i r s t c r i t e r i o n of r a t i o n a l i t y he terms \" f a c t u a l a c c uracy\"; c l e a r l y , r e a s o n i n g based on f a l s e 10 empir ica l claims cannot be sound. In the example c i t e d e a r l i e r , John's judgment that he ought to take the computer course would not be considered sound i f i t was found that his taking the course would not help h i s students l e a r n . The second c r i t e r i o n is \"ev ident ia l comprehensiveness\" which requires the reasoner to take into account a l l the information relevant to assessing the d e s i r a b i l i t y of the a l t e r n a t i v e s . Using John's case again, i f he d id not a scer ta in whether the computer course used hardware a v a i l a b l e at h i s school , h i s reasoning would not be sound. The t h i r d c r i t e r i o n is termed \"reasonable a l t e r n a t i v e inc lus iveness\"; i t charges the reasoner with cons ider ing a l l the a l t e r n a t i v e courses of ac t ion which might reasonably be taken in a p a r t i c u l a r circumstance. Once more, John might be chided for not cons ider ing , perhaps, a t h i r d a l t e r n a t i v e , one that might be even more h e l p f u l for h i s students -o f f er ing s p e c i a l t u t o r i a l s on Tuesday evenings, for instance. C r i t e r i a for Assessing the Major Premise The c r i t e r i a for assess ing the major premise, a value standard or p r i n c i p l e , are , in Coombs' words, \"more complex and more c o n t r o v e r s i a l . \" In general , two standards are used to carry out such assessments; both must be used together for an assessment to be r a t i o n a l l y de fens ib le . The two, the standard of greatest benefit and the standard of m o r a l i t y , 11 operate somewhat d i f f e r e n t l y i n i n d i v i d u a l judgments than they do i n s o c i a l judgments. In the former, the standard of g r e a t e s t b e n e f i t i s s a t i s f i e d i f the reasoner concludes that the course of a c t i o n chosen i s the a l t e r n a t i v e that would c o n t r i b u t e most to the r e a l i z a t i o n of the whole complex of v a l u e s which c h a r a c t e r i z e h i s r a t i o n a l l y p r e f e r r e d way of l i f e . The r a t i o n a l l y p r e f e r r e d way of l i f e i s an i d e a l , \"never f u l l y a t t a i n a b l e . \" Although d i f f e r e n t persons have d i f f e r e n t c o n c e p t i o n s of the good l i f e , t h e r e are c e r t a i n b a s i c v a l u e s which are necessary to anyone's c o n c e p t i o n because they are i n h e r e n t l y d e s i r a b l e . A c c o r d i n g to Coombs . . . the s o r t s of t h i n g s g e n e r a l l y taken to be b a s i c goods i n c l u d e s u r v i v a l , s e c u r i t y , h e a l t h , p l e a s u r e and j u s t treatment (Green, 1978). Rawls (1971) would add to t h i s l i s t r i g h t s , l i b e r t y , o p p o r t u n i t i e s , power, wealth and a sense of one's own worth. These he regards as primary goods because they i n c r e a s e the l i k e l i h o o d of success i n c a r r y i n g out one's i n t e n t i o n s and advancing one's ends whatever these ends might be ( i b i d . , p. 8 ) . The s t a n d a r d of g r e a t e s t b e n e f i t , then, i s made c o n c r e t e by these b a s i c goods. D i f f e r e n t persons' c o n c e p t i o n s of the good l i f e vary because they weigh the importance of these goods d i f f e r e n t l y . In making an i n d i v i d u a l p r a c t i c a l judgment, the reasoner must determine which a l t e r n a t i v e course of a c t i o n r e a l i z e s the g r e a t e s t amount of b a s i c goods, a c c o r d i n g to her c o n c e p t i o n of the good l i f e . As sketched above, the standard of g r e a t e s t b e n e f i t i s s e l f - r e f e r r i n g , whereas the standard of m o r a l i t y i s o t h e r -r e f e r r i n g , s e t t i n g l i m i t s on the way one can t r e a t other 1 2 persons. B a s i c a l l y i t r e q u i r e s the reasoner to t r e a t persons a c c o r d i n g to r u l e s which she would be w i l l i n g to have anyone adopt as a guide to the treatment of o t h e r s . Two p r i n c i p l e s make up t h i s s t andard: 1 ) I t cannot be r i g h t f o r me to take a given a c t i o n u n l e s s i t i s r i g h t f o r any person i n the same s o r t of c i r c u m s t a n c e s to perform that a c t i o n ; 2) I f the consequences of everyone's doing a c t i o n x i n a given c i r c u m s t a n c e would be unacceptable, then i t i s not r i g h t f o r anyone to do x in that c i r c u m s t a n c e . The s t a n d a r d of m o r a l i t y i s made c o n c r e t e by b a s i c moral r u l e s such as don't k i l l , don't cause p a i n , don't d i s a b l e , don't d e p r i v e of p l e a s u r e , don't d e p r i v e of freedom, don't break promises, don't cheat, don't d e c e i v e , don't break the law. A l l r a t i o n a l persons, whatever t h e i r p r e f e r r e d way of l i f e , w i l l want to a v o i d , other t h i n g s being e q u a l , being k i l l e d , d i s a b l e d or cheated by the a c t i o n s of o t h e r s . Reasoners should use the b a s i c moral r u l e s , not as a b s o l u t e guides to a c t i o n , but as i n d i c a t o r s to s i g n i f y t h a t proposed a c t i o n s r e q u i r e assessment from the moral p o i n t of view. Circumstances may demand t h a t one break a moral r u l e i n order to a v o i d b r e a k i n g another. C o n f l i c t among the b a s i c r u l e s must be r e s o l v e d by a p p l y i n g the two p r i n c i p l e s which form the standard of m o r a l i t y . The standards of g r e a t e s t b e n e f i t and m o r a l i t y a r e , of 1 3 c o u r s e , a p p l i e d more i n t e r a c t i v e l y i n s o c i a l p r a c t i c a l judgments than they are i n i n d i v i d u a l judgments. Because the standard of g r e a t e s t b e n e f i t must be a p p l i e d to a number of persons, not j u s t an i n d i v i d u a l , i t i s more d i f f i c u l t to i n t e r p r e t and apply. Coombs s t a t e s that I d e a l l y i t would be f u l f i l l e d to the h i g h e s t degree by th a t program of a c t i o n which most n e a r l y r e a l i z e s the r a t i o n a l l y chosen way of l i f e of every person i n the s o c i e t y . But programs of a c t i o n which r e a l i z e b a s i c goods f o r some may be d e s t r u c t i v e of b a s i c goods f o r o t h e r s because programs of a c t i o n have d i f f e r e n t i a l e f f e c t s and because the b a s i c goods, while common to a l l r a t i o n a l people are . . . a s s i g n e d d i f f e r e n t o r d e r s of importance by d i f f e r e n t persons. In making a s o c i a l judgment we must dec i d e whose goods are to be r e a l i z e d to what degree. ( i b i d . , p. 10). The d e c i s i o n about whose goods are to be r e a l i z e d to what degree i s r e s o l v e d not by a p p l y i n g the standard of g r e a t e s t b e n e f i t , but by a p p e a l i n g to the standard of m o r a l i t y , e s p e c i a l l y \"as i t i s embodied i n the p r i n c i p l e of j u s t i c e or j u s t d i s t r i b u t i o n . T h i s p r i n c i p l e s t a t e s t h a t , other t h i n g s being e q u a l , b e n e f i t s must be d i s t r i b u t e d e q u a l l y ( i b i d . , p. 10).\" Coombs argues t h a t the p r i n c i p l e of e q u a l i t y must be given c o n d i t i o n a l p r i o r i t y over the standard of g r e a t e s t b e n e f i t . T h i s can only be a p p l i e d by de t e r m i n i n g who i s to b e n e f i t , a q u e s t i o n to be s e t t l e d by the standard of m o r a l i t y . The a p p l i c a t i o n of the standards of g r e a t e s t b e n e f i t and m o r a l i t y i n s o c i a l judgments, he con c l u d e s , . . . d i r e c t us to choose t h a t a l t e r n a t i v e which r e a l i z e s the grea t e s t , common b e n e f i t s f o r persons. An a l t e r n a t i v e which p r o v i d e s g r e a t e r t o t a l b e n e f i t s but d i s t r i b u t e s them unequ a l l y may be chosen only i f the judger c o u l d s i n c e r e l y advocate 1 4 that a l t e r n a t i v e even i f he were i n the p o s i t i o n of the person l e a s t advantaged by i t s I being chosen. When a p o l i c y or p r a c t i c e r e s u l t i n g i n an unequal d i s t r i b u t i o n of goods i s j u s t i f i e d , the s t a n d a r d of m o r a l i t y r e q u i r e s t h a t , i n s o f a r as p o s s i b l e , each person has an equal o p p o r t u n i t y to secure the higher rewards ( i b i d . , p. 12). Coombs has a n a l y z e d the above c o n c e p t i o n of r a t i o n a l p r a c t i c a l r easoning i n t o a comprehensive l i s t of a b i l i t i e s , d i s p o s i t i o n s and s e n s i t i v i t i e s persons need to a c q u i r e i f they are to become p r o f i c i e n t at p r a c t i c a l r e a s o n i n g . The f o l l o w i n g l i s t p r e s e n t s the competencies. 1. S e n s i t i v i t y to s i t u a t i o n s i n which p r a c t i c a l r easoning i s r e q u i r e d . B a s i c a l l y t h i s i s a s e n s i t i v i t y to d e c i s i o n s or a c t i o n s which are l i k e l y to have consequences of such s i g n i f i c a n c e f o r o n e s e l f or o t h e r s as to warrant s e r i o u s r e f l e c t i o n b e f o r e a c t i n g . T h i s s e n s i t i v i t y has two a s p e c t s : 1.1 S e n s i t i v i t y to a c t i o n s or d e c i s i o n s a f f e c t i n g one's long term best i n t e r e s t s . T h i s s e n s i t i v i t y i s dependent upon s e v e r a l kinds of knowledge or awareness i n c l u d i n g : 1.1.1 Knowledge of what s o r t s of t h i n g s are b a s i c v a l u e s f o r human beings i n g e n e r a l . 1.1.2 Knowledge of what s o r t s of a c t i o n s are g e n e r a l l y c o n s i d e r e d dangerous, rash or imprudent. 1.1.3 Awareness of the nature of one's own long 1 5 term i n t e r e s t s . 1.2 S e n s i t i v i t y to m o r a l l y hazardous a c t i o n s , that i s , a c t i o n s which r e q u i r e assessment from the moral p o i n t of view. T h i s s e n s i t i v i t y a l e r t s persons to (1) a c t i o n s t h a t may have consequences f o r o t h e r s which the a c t o r c o u l d not accept i f they were to b e f a l l him and (2) a c t i o n s which may have unacceptable consequences were everyone to engage in them. Such s e n s i t i v i t y i s composed of a v a r i e t y of more s p e c i f i c attainments i n c l u d i n g the f o l l o w i n g : 1.2.1 Knowledge of b a s i c moral r u l e s such as: Don't k i l l . Don't d e p r i v e of p l e a s u r e . Don't cheat. Don't cause p a i n . Don't d e p r i v e of freedom. Don't d e c e i v e . Don't d i s a b l e . Don't break p r o m i s e s . 2 1.2.2 Knowledge of what g e n e r a l l y harms human beings e i t h e r p h y s i c a l l y or e m o t i o n a l l y . 1.2.3 P o s s e s s i o n of a wide range of moral concepts such as d e c e i v i n g , demeaning, i n d o c t r i n a t i n g , b e l i t t l i n g , e t c . 2. D i s p o s i t i o n to undertake p r a c t i c a l r e a s o n i n g when such i s r e q u i r e d . T h i s d i s p o s i t i o n r e q u i r e s at l e a s t the 2 T h i s statement of moral r u l e s i s adapted from t h a t found i n Bernard G e r t , The Moral R u l e s , (New York: Harper & Row, 1966). 1 6 f o l l o w i n g p r e r e q u i s i t e a b i l i t i e s and knowledge: 2.1 A b i l i t y to de l a y immediate g r a t i f i c a t i o n i n favour of s e c u r i n g one's long term i n t e r e s t s . 2.2 A b i l i t y to suspend judgment u n t i l r e f l e c t i o n has taken p l a c e . 2.3 Knowledge of the val u e of engaging i n p r a c t i c a l r e a s o n i n g . A b i l i t y and d i s p o s i t i o n to i d e n t i f y or c o n c e i v e of reasonable a l t e r n a t i v e s to the proposed course of a c t i o n . T h i s a b i l i t y l i k e l y depends i n p a r t on hav i n g : 3.1 Knowledge of v a r i o u s means f o r r e a l i z i n g c e r t a i n v a l u e s . 3.2 Knowledge of the importance of c o n s i d e r i n g reasonable a l t e r n a t i v e s . A b i l i t y and i n c l i n a t i o n to assemble, i n s o f a r as p r a c t i c a l l y p o s s i b l e , a l l the i n f o r m a t i o n r e l e v a n t to determ i n i n g the r e l a t i v e worth of each course of a c t i o n under c o n s i d e r a t i o n . Some of the c o n s t i t u e n t s of t h i s attainment i n c l u d e : 4.1 The d i s p o s i t i o n t o determine the consequences of the a l t e r n a t i v e a c t i o n s f o r r e a l i z i n g each of the b a s i c human concerns, i . e . , economic, h e a l t h , s a f e t y , r e c r e a t i o n a l , a e s t h e t i c , i n t e l l e c t u a l and moral concerns. 4.2 The a b i l i t y to f i n d sources of i n f o r m a t i o n i n l i b r a r i e s , government agencies and the l i k e . A b i l i t y t o a s s e s s the accuracy of the i n f o r m a t i o n c o n c e r n i n g the a l t e r n a t i v e c o u r ses of a c t i o n . Most of the s k i l l s a s s o c i a t e d with c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g are c o n s t i t u e n t s of t h i s a t t a i n m e n t . These i n c l u d e : 5.1 A b i l i t y to c l a r i f y the meaning of statements. 5.2 A b i l i t y to d e t e c t and a v o i d ambiguity i n a l i n e of r e a s o n i n g . 5.3 A b i l i t y to a s s e s s the v a l i d i t y of d e d u c t i v e arguments. 5.4 A b i l i t y to frame one's f i n d i n g s i n language that i s c l e a r and p r e c i s e . 5.5 A b i l i t y to a s s e s s the r e l i a b i l i t y of o b s e r v a t i o n statements. 5.6 A b i l i t y to judge whether an i n d u c t i v e c o n c l u s i o n i s warranted. T h i s i n c l u d e s the a b i l i t y to d e t e c t i n f o r m a l f a l l a c i e s i n the r e a s o n i n g of o t h e r s and a v o i d them i n one's own r e a s o n i n g . 5.7 A b i l i t y to d e t e c t hidden assumptions u n d e r l y i n g an argument. 5.8 A b i l i t y to d e t e c t and a v o i d inadequate d e f i n i t i o n s . 5.9 A b i l i t y to a s s e s s the a c c e p t a b i l i t y of a statement by an a l l e g e d a u t h o r i t y . 6. D i s p o s i t i o n to determine the accuracy of i n f o r m a t i o n about the a l t e r n a t i v e c o u r ses of a c t i o n . Subcomponents of t h i s d i s p o s i t i o n i n c l u d e : 6.1 D i s p o s i t i o n to e x e r c i s e the a b i l i t i e s l i s t e d i n (5) above. 18 6.2 D i s p o s i t i o n to be open-minded and i n t e l l e c t u a l l y honest, a c c e p t i n g c o n c l u s i o n s based on adequate reasons or evidence and w i t h h o l d i n g judgment when the evidence i s i n s u f f i c i e n t to warrant the c o n c l u s i o n . 6.3 D i s p o s i t i o n to demand as much p r e c i s i o n as the s u b j e c t matter p e r m i t s . 6.4 D i s p o s i t i o n to d e a l with the p a r t s of a complex s i t u a t i o n i n an o r d e r l y f a s h i o n . 7. A b i l i t y and d i s p o s i t i o n to as s e s s the moral a c c e p t a b i l i t y of the a l t e r n a t i v e c o u r s e s of a c t i o n . C o n s t i t u e n t s of t h i s attainment i n c l u d e : 7.1 Knowing that moral assessment i s guided by two p r i n c i p l e s : (a) I t cannot be r i g h t f o r me to do X u n l e s s i t i s r i g h t f o r any person i n the same s o r t of cir c u m s t a n c e s to do X. (b) I f the consequences of everyone's doing X i n a gi v e n c i r c u m s t a n c e would be unacceptable, then i t i s not r i g h t f o r anyone to do X i n that c i r c u m s t a n c e . 7.2 A b i l i t y and i n c l i n a t i o n to imagine f o r each a l t e r n a t i v e the consequences that would ensue i f everyone i n your c i r c u m s t a n c e were to engage i n the a c t i o n , and to r e j e c t the a c t i o n as wrong i f the imagined consequences are una c c e p t a b l e . 7.3 A b i l i t y and i n c l i n a t i o n to put o n e s e l f 1 9 i m a g i n a t i v e l y i n t o the c i r c u m s t a n c e s of another person to a p p r e c i a t e the consequences each a l t e r n a t i v e course of a c t i o n has f o r that person, and to r e j e c t the a c t i o n as wrong i f the imagined consequences are u n a c c e p t a b l e . 7.4 A b i l i t y and d i s p o s i t i o n to c o n s i d e r the views of o t h e r s c o n c e r n i n g the moral a c c e p t a b i l i t y of the a l t e r n a t i v e c o u r ses of a c t i o n . 7.5 Knowledge of how, i f at a l l , one d i f f e r s from people i n g e n e r a l with r e s p e c t to the t h i n g s that he or she regards as h a r m f u l . 8. A b i l i t y and d i s p o s i t i o n to o r g a n i z e i n f o r m a t i o n c o n c e r n i n g the a l t e r n a t i v e c o u r ses of a c t i o n i n such a way as to be a b l e to rank them with regard to the degree to which they r e a l i z e one's r a t i o n a l l y p r e f e r r e d p a t t e r n of v a l u e s . 9. Knowledge of the importance of c o n d u c t i n g p r a c t i c a l r e a s o n i n g i n accordance with the standards of m o r a l i t y and the standard of g r e a t e s t b e n e f i t . T h i s i n c l u d e s : 9.1 Understanding why a system of p u b l i c m o r a l i t y i s necessary i f we are to have the s o r t of s o c i a l o rder i n which one can l e a d a f u l f i l l i n g l i f e . 9.2 Understanding the d e s i r a b i l i t y of a s s e s s i n g one's a c t i o n i n r e l a t i o n to one's t o t a l p a t t e r n of v a l u e s r a t h e r than merely i n terms of one's immediate or s h o r t term d e s i r e s . 10. D i s p o s i t i o n t o a c t on the c o n c l u s i o n s reached as the 20 r e s u l t of r a t i o n a l p r a c t i c a l reasoning r a t h e r than on one's immediate d e s i r e s . Summary J e r r o l d Coombs' c o n c e p t i o n of p r a c t i c a l r e a s o n i n g , which w i l l be r e f e r r e d t o throughout t h i s paper, has been summarized i n t h i s c h a p t e r . T h i s c o n c e p t i o n has been e x p l i c a t e d i n s u f f i c i e n t d e t a i l to provide a framework f o r d e v e l o p i n g m a t e r i a l s and s t r a t e g i e s to teach the a b i l i t i e s , d i s p o s i t i o n s and knowledge r e q u i s i t e f o r r a t i o n a l p r a c t i c a l r e a s o n i n g . In the f o l l o w i n g two c h a p t e r s , I w i l l argue that the c o n s t i t u e n t s of p r a c t i c a l r easoning i d e n t i f i e d by Coombs are r e q u i r e d f o r both l o g i c a l and s t r a t e g i c t e a c h i n g a c t s . 21 CHAPTER III i The purpose of t h i s chapter i s to p r o v i d e ' support f o r the c l a i m that the l o g i c a l a c t s of t e a c h i n g would be improved i f t e a c h e r s were to develop the a b i l i t i e s , d i s p o s i t i o n s and s e n s i t i v i t i e s r e q u i r e d f o r r a t i o n a l p r a c t i c a l r e a s o n i n g . To t h i s end, s p e c i f i c examples w i l l be chosen from three B r i t i s h Columbia secondary c u r r i c u l u m guides and examined to show how p r a c t i c a l r e a s o n i n g would f a c i l i t a t e f u l f i l l m e n t of these o b j e c t i v e s . The examples used are taken from S o c i a l S t u d i e s , Consumer E d u c a t i o n , and E n g l i s h . Although B.C. c u r r i c u l u m guides have been used, each example has been chosen to r e f l e c t f a i r l y g e n e r a l concerns and thus would be l i k e l y to be found i n c u r r i c u l u m guides used i n other Canadian j u r i s d i c t i o n s . S o c i a l S t u d i e s 11 The example from the S o c i a l S t u d i e s chosen f o r d i s c u s s i o n here i s taken from the d r a f t S o c i a l S t u d i e s C u r r i c u l u m (May 20, 1982). As; i t i s a n t i c i p a t e d t hat t h i s c u r r i c u l u m w i l l be implemented i n the near f u t u r e , i t seems most s e n s i b l e to use i t r a t h e r than the 1968 Guide c u r r e n t l y being used by t e a c h e r s . Before l a u n c h i n g i n t o an examination of a s p e c i f i c example, i t i s necessary to o u t l i n e the g e n e r a l o r g a n i z a t i o n of the c u r r i c u l u m . There are four o v e r a l l g o a l s which s t a t e ' 22 i n g e n e r a l terms what students should know and understand on completion of the b a s i c program. These four g o a l s are meant to guide the s e l e c t i o n of each grade's g o a l s , which are sub-d i v i d e d i n t o c o n t e n t , understandings, s k i l l s and i n q u i r i e s . I t i s s t a t e d that content, understandings, s k i l l s and i n q u i r i e s are \". . . to be taught as p a r t of a p r o c e s s . Every e f f o r t should be made to i n t e g r a t e these f a c t o r s and not teach them i n i s o l a t i o n ( D r a f t S.S. C u r r i c u l u m , 1982, p. 7) . \" There a re two s i g n i f i c a n t p o i n t s , with r e s p e c t to pr e s e n t purposes, to be made about the i n t r o d u c t o r y g e n e r a l remarks made i n the C u r r i c u l u m Guide. F i r s t , each of the four o v e r a l l g o als s t a t e s that student knowledge and understanding should be developed \". . . through the e x e r c i s e of c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g and problem s o l v i n g s k i l l s . \" - A ' S k i l l s ' Appendix at the back of the guide breaks down problem s o l v i n g i n t o i t s component p a r t s . Although t h e r e i s no s e c t i o n t i t l e d ' c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g , ' t h e r e are s e c t i o n s on ' d e c i s i o n making' and ' e v a l u a t i n g i n f o r m a t i o n . ' A l l t h r e e of these s e c t i o n s o v e r l a p s u b s t a n t i a l l y with the account of p r a c t i c a l r e a s o n i n g presented i n Chapter I I . The second notable p o i n t to be made i s t h a t the expected l e a r n i n g outcomes, i n terms of knowledge, understandings and s k i l l s , are a l l meant to be a p p l i e d to a v a r i e t y of \" s i g n i f i c a n t i n q u i r i e s . \" Presumably, then, the i n q u i r i e s s e c t i o n i s seen to be of some importance, a f o c a l 23 p o i n t to which l e a r n i n g i s to be d i r e c t e d . The Guide s t a t e s : The i n q u i r i e s s e c t i o n i n c l u d e s sample q u e s t i o n s . These q u e s t i o n s w i l l r e q u i r e students to a p p l y and extend t h e i r knowledge, s k i l l s and u n d e r s t a n d i n g s . The q u e s t i o n s range from those which have a s o l u t i o n based on the a v a i l a b l e evidence t o those which are i s s u e s . An i s s u e may be d e f i n e d as a matter of i n t e r e s t about which t h e r e i s s i g n i f i c a n t disagreement. The disagreement can i n v o l v e matters of f a c t , matters of meaning or matters of value ( i b i d . , p. 5). In a d d i t i o n to the f a c t t h a t l e a r n i n g c o n t e n t , s k i l l s and understandings i s to be d i r e c t e d towards i n v e s t i g a t i o n of i n q u i r i e s , the f i n a l statement i n the above q u o t a t i o n i s of some import i n t h i s t h e s i s . I t i s p r e c i s e l y \"matters of f a c t , matters of meaning or matters of v a l u e \" with which p r a c t i c a l r easoning i s concerned. The example chosen f o r examination i s taken from the i n q u i r i e s column of Grade X I . 3 The focus of Grade XI S o c i a l S t u d i e s i s e n t i t l e d 3 The example was chosen a r b i t r a r i l y . There are many other ' i n q u i r i e s ' which c o u l d have been used f o r d i s c u s s i o n , even at the elementary l e v e l . The f o l l o w i n g ' i n q u i r i e s ' would have s e r v e d e q u a l l y w e l l . - Should a community be changed to p r o v i d e new systems? (Grade I I ) Should good a g r i c u l t u r a l l a n d be used f o r purposes other than food p r o d u c t i o n ? (Grade I I I ) - To what extent d i d n a t i v e people make wise use of t h e i r environment? (Grade IV) - Should immigrants to Canada be a s s i m i l a t e d ? (Grade V) How should people manage the use of n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e s ? (Grade VII) - Of what v a l u e i s b i l i n g u i s m and b i c u l t u r a l i s m t o Canada? (Grade V I I I ) - Is a l l s c i e n t i f i c r e s e a r c h b e n e f i c i a l ? (Grade IX) Was the use of f o r c e a g a i n s t the Metis i n 1885 j u s t i f i e d ? (Grade X) 24 \"People and World I s s u e s . \" The C u r r i c u l u m Guide s t a t e s that \"Students are expected to touch upon s i g n i f i c a n t developments to i d e n t i f y the f a c t o r s i n v o l v e d and to t r a c e t h e i r consequences now and in the f u t u r e . C r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g and problem s o l v i n g should be given prominence i n these a c t i v i t i e s . \" The s p e c i f i c i n q u i r y to be d i s c u s s e d i s \"Can or should governments p r o t e c t i n d u s t r i e s and workers a f f e c t e d by t e c h n o l o g i c a l change?\" Content r e l a t e d to t h i s i n q u i r y i s \"the impact of t e c h n o l o g i c a l change and the expansion of knowledge on i n d i v i d u a l s and s o c i e t i e s . \" R e l a t e d understandings to be f o s t e r e d a r e : T e c h n o l o g i c a l change can a f f e c t a n a t i o n ' s a b i l i t y to compete i n world markets. T e c h n o l o g i c a l change can make t r a d i t i o n a l s k i l l s and products o b s o l e t e with s e r i o u s consequences f o r i n d i v i d u a l workers and i n d u s t r i e s who f a i l or are unable to a d j u s t . T e c h n o l o g i c a l change and i n c r e a s e d knowledge may markedly i n f l u e n c e a n a t i o n ' s p h y s i c a l environment, c u l t u r e , economy and government. The concept of the r i g h t s and r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s of the s t a t e and the c i t i z e n s change over time and with c i r c u m s t a n c e s . A l a r g e number of s k i l l s , i n c l u d i n g p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g , d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g , l o c a t i n g , a c q u i r i n g and. e v a l u a t i n g i n f o r m a t i o n are to be developed. To t e a c h the o b j e c t i v e s s t a t e d above r e q u i r e s that t e a c h e r s make d e c i s i o n s with r e s p e c t to m a t e r i a l s and methods. Although these types of d e c i s i o n s f i t , s t r i c t l y 2 5 speaking, i n Green's category of ' s t r a t e g i c a c t s ' \" and thus are not d i r e c t l y r e l e v a n t to t h i s d i s c u s s i o n , i t i s i m p o s s i b l e to t a l k i n any meaningful f a s h i o n about t e a c h i n g without at l e a s t b r i e f mention of them. I t i s q u i t e c o n c e i v a b l e t h a t students c o u l d come to know the content and 'understandings' l i s t e d above by s e v e r a l means which would not i n v o l v e any r e a s o n i n g on t h e i r p a r t whatsoever. However, i n q u i r i e s a c c o r d i n g to the C u r r i c u l u m Guide, r e q u i r e that a t t e n t i o n be p a i d to many of the components of Coombs' account of p r a c t i c a l r e a s o n i n g . For example, students c o u l d come to r e a l i z e the impact of t e c h n o l o g i c a l change on i n d i v i d u a l s i n s o c i e t i e s i n v a r i o u s ways. Teachers c o u l d d e l i v e r l e c t u r e s on the t o p i c , have students copy out notes and memorize the c o n t e n t , have students read v a r i o u s m a t e r i a l s or show f i l m s . But i f students are to engage in an ' i n q u i r y , ' none of the above w i l l s u f f i c e . In any case, the C u r r i c u l u m Guide seems to be c l e a r t h a t students are to do more than r e c a l l s p e c i f i c f a c t s about a v a r i e t y of t o p i c s . I f t e a c h e r s are to have students ; undertake the ' i n q u i r y ' chosen f o r d i s c u s s i o n here (and many ot h e r s i n the G u i d e ) , then they must r e a l i z e that d e c i s i o n s about 4 S t r a t e g i c a c t s of t e a c h i n g w i l l be d i s c u s s e d i n g r e a t e r depth i n Chapter IV. 26 m a t e r i a l s and methods are to be made in the l i g h t of that o b j e c t i v e . I t i s l o g i c a l l y i m p o s s i b l e f o r stu d e n t s to a r r i v e at an answer to the q u e s t i o n s u t i l i z i n g o n l y a l e c t u r e method. I n f o r m a t i o n r e l e v a n t to the i n q u i r y can be p r o v i d e d by l e c t u r e but, because t h i s i n q u i r y i s an \" i s s u e \" -a c c o r d i n g to the Guide, a matter about which t h e r e i s \" s i g n i f i c a n t disagreement\" - stu d e n t s must know how to e v a l u a t e the i n f o r m a t i o n . S i m i l a r l y , i t i s u n l i k e l y t h a t students c o u l d answer the q u e s t i o n s i f they have access to on l y one v i e w p o i n t . The nature of the i n q u i r y p r e c l u d e s e x c l u s i v e use of e x p o s i t o r y methods of t e a c h i n g and r e l i a n c e on a s i n g l e textbook. Although somewhat dated by now, the c o n c l u s i o n s reached by the N a t i o n a l H i s t o r y P r o j e c t i n 1968 are pro b a b l y s t i l l p e r t i n e n t . D e s p i t e a l l evidence to the c o n t r a r y , the gre a t m a j o r i t y of the Canadian s t u d i e s l e s s o n s we observed were trapped w i t h i n the pages of a s i n g l e textbook. S e v e n t y - f i v e per cent of the c l a s s e s i n our Survey were s t r u g g l i n g with one or other of the two most u n i v e r s a l l y condemned t e a c h i n g methods. In some cases, the students were \"bench-bound l i s t e n e r s , \" l i n e d up i n rows, s i t t i n g p a s s i v e l y , w h i l e a \" t a l k i n g textbook\" rhymed o f f m a t e r i a l t h a t they c o u l d have read and d i g e s t e d f o r themselves. More f r e q u e n t l y , they were going through the mechanical, question-answer r o u t i n e based on the d i s c r e t e , f a c t u a l r e c a l l of a few a s s i g n e d pages i n the textbook. Even i f the d e f i c i e n c i e s -in s u b j e c t matter were c o r r e c t e d through the development of new programs, very l i t t l e would be accomplished u n l e s s we a l s o o v e rhauled the t e a c h i n g methods now being used i n most of the Canadian s t u d i e s classrooms (Hodgetts, 1968, p. 116). 27 The nature of the i n q u i r y type of q u e s t i o n , then, suggests t h a t d e c i s i o n s with r e s p e c t to m a t e r i a l s and methods must be congruent with i n q u i r y methods, where t h i s phrase i s used to d e s c r i b e at l e a s t the f o l l o w i n g s t e p s : f e e l i n g of p e r p l e x i t y , c o n f u s i o n or doubt; i n t e l l e c t u a l i z i n g the d i f f i c u l t y or p e r p l e x i t y i n t o a problem to be s o l v e d ; using h y p o t h e s i s ( e s ) to i n i t i a t e and guide o b s e r v a t i o n and other o p e r a t i o n s i n c o l l e c t i n g f a c t s ; s t a t i n g a reasoned h y p o t h e s i s ; t e s t i n g the h y p o t h e s i s 5 (Dewey, 1933, p. 107). In the same v e i n , m a t e r i a l s must be chosen to r e f l e c t a v a r i e t y of v i e w p o i n t s on a given i s s u e . The t r a d i t i o n a l textbook, u n f o r t u n a t e l y , does not p r o v i d e the type of i n f o r m a t i o n a p p r o p r i a t e f o r d i s c u s s i n g i s s u e s or u n d e r t a k i n g i n q u i r i e s . David P r a t t (1975) i s most i n s t r u c t i v e i n t h i s r e g a r d . In an a r t i c l e e n t i t l e d \"The S o c i a l Role of School Textbooks i n Canada\" he argues t h a t the textbook can be a powerful i n f l u e n c e i n shaping s t u d e n t s ' a t t i t u d e s towards s o c i a l i s s u e s . In r e v i e w i n g s e v e r a l s t u d i e s of textbooks, he notes that t h e r e i s 5 Dewey's account of r e f l e c t i v e t h i n k i n g has been used here because much of the e d u c a t i o n a l l i t e r a t u r e on i n q u i r y and p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g has used i t as a s t a r t i n g p o i n t . Although t h i s l i t e r a t u r e o f t e n p r o v i d e s more e l a b o r a t e accounts, Dewey's i n c l u d e s the major l o g i c a l components of i n q u i r y . 28 . . c l e a r evidence of the tendency of textbooks to ignore important a s p e c t s of the h i s t o r y of non-white r a c i a l groups as w e l l as t h e i r contemporary s i t u a t i o n , and to minimize i n t e r r a c i a l c o n f l i c t except where the non-white race c o u l d be u n e q u i v o c a l l y c a s t i n the . r o l e of aggressor ( i b i d . , p. 105). With r e s p e c t to r e l i g i o u s i s s u e s , a C h r i s t i a n viewpoint i s normally adopted; to c l a s s , a middle c l a s s s t e r e o t y p e i s predominant. In g e n e r a l , s c h o o l textbooks \" . . . support a consensus, n o n - c o n t r o v e r s i a l , c o n v e n t i o n a l view of s o c i e t y ( i b i d . , p. 120).\" Although there has been some change in recent years i n that c o l l e c t i o n s of readings f o r high s c h o o l students have appeared, P r a t t concludes that In the long run, these changes may have l i t t l e e f f e c t on students' a t t i t u d e s , p a r t l y because i t i s e a s i e r to change t e x t s and programmes than to change t e a c h e r s , and p a r t l y because students' s o c i a l b e l i e f s are l a r g e l y determined i n the elementary s c h o o l , where l i t t l e change i n textbooks and programmes i s e v i d e n t ( i b i d . , p. 122) . If P r a t t ' s and Hodgetts' c o n c l u s i o n s are c o r r e c t , then t e a c h e r s attempting to develop i n students the necessary a b i l i t i e s f o r u n d e r t a k i n g i n q u i r i e s about s i g n i f i c a n t s o c i a l i s s u e s w i l l need edu c a t i o n of a d i f f e r e n t s o r t than they are p r e s e n t l y r e c e i v i n g . T h i s b r i e f d i g r e s s i o n i n t o the s t r a t e g i c a c t s of t e a c h i n g must be terminated i n order to r e t u r n to the main t o p i c of t h i s chapter - the l o g i c a l a c t s . The q u e s t i o n under d i s c u s s i o n here i s \"Can or should governments p r o t e c t i n d u s t r i e s and workers a f f e c t e d by t e c h n o l o g i c a l change?\" Teachers, i n order to h e l p students answer t h i s q u e s t i o n , 29 must f i r s t of a l l r e c o g n i z e that i t c o n s i s t s of two separate q u e s t i o n s - 'can governments p r o t e c t i n d u s t r i e s and workers' i s an e m p i r i c a l q u e s t i o n , whereas ' should governments p r o t e c t i n d u s t r i e s and workers' i s a normative q u e s t i o n . The answers to each w i l l r e q u i r e use of d i f f e r e n t types of j u s t i f i c a t o r y reasons. Let us d e a l f i r s t with the e m p i r i c a l q u e s t i o n . A s e r i o u s c o n s i d e r a t i o n of the q u e s t i o n 'can governments p r o t e c t i n d u s t r i e s and workers a f f e c t e d by t e c h n o l o g i c a l change' e n t a i l s the a b i l i t i e s and d i s p o s i t i o n s r e q u i r e d f o r c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g (attainments 5 and 6 of Coombs' account of p r a c t i c a l r e a s o n i n g ) . A d d i t i o n a l l y , number 4.2 - the a b i l i t y to f i n d sources of i n f o r m a t i o n i n l i b r a r i e s , government a g e n c i e s , and the l i k e , i s a l s o n e c e s s a r y . I t i s once the i n f o r m a t i o n i s found that one must apply c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g s k i l l s . To i l l u s t r a t e t h i s p o i n t , take, f o r example, attainment 5.1 - the a b i l i t y to c l a r i f y the meaning of statements. I t would seem, on the s u r f a c e , t h a t our q u e s t i o n i s a r e l a t i v e l y s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d one. However, i f one looks at the word ' p r o t e c t ' one sees that i t can mean more than one t h i n g . Webster's New C o l l e g i a t e D i e t i o n a r y (1975) g i v e s t h r e e separate meanings: 1) to cover or s h i e l d from i n j u r y or d e s t r u c t i o n ; 2) to save from c o n t i n g e n t f i n a n c i a l l o s s ; and 3) to s h i e l d or f o s t e r by a p r o t e c t i v e t a r i f f . Any of these three meanings makes sense i n the c o n t e x t of our q u e s t i o n . But i t i s n ecessary, f o r 3 0 c l a r i t y ' s sake, to s p e c i f y which meaning i s being used. Depending on the time a v a i l a b l e , one c o u l d s p e c i f y a l l t h r e e , two or j u s t one. The important p o i n t i s that d i f f e r e n t reasons w i l l be needed f o r each i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . In the example here, i t i s l i k e l y t h a t a d i c t i o n a r y w i l l be s u f f i c i e n t to c l a r i f y the meaning of the statement. In other s i t u a t i o n s , though, a more comprehensive a n a l y s i s of concepts w i l l be needed. P a r t i c u l a r l y with v a l u e - l a d e n terms - such as democracy, communism or freedom, a l l f r e q u e n t l y used in the S o c i a l S t u d i e s - i t i s of s u b s t a n t i a l importance to be c l e a r about meanings. I t i s of l i t t l e p e d a g o g i c a l value to h o l d a d i s c u s s i o n on the m e r i t s and demerits of communism i f i t i s not e n t i r e l y c l e a r to a l l p a r t i c i p a n t s what i s meant by the term. In a d d i t i o n , being c l e a r about meanings h e l p s a v o i d the use of some i n f o r m a l f a l l a c i e s i n one's own r e a s o n i n g and to d e t e c t them in the r e a s o n i n g of o t h e r s (attainment 5.6). To f u r t h e r i l l u s t r a t e the importance of c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g i n answering our q u e s t i o n , l e t us examine one other c o n s t i t u e n t a b i l i t y of c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g - 5.9, the a b i l i t y to a s s e s s the a c c e p t a b i l i t y of a statement by an a l l e g e d a u t h o r i t y . Most of the evidence s t u d e n t s can c o l l e c t to support or r e f u t e any c l a i m about whether or not governments can p r o t e c t i n d u s t r i e s and workers a f f e c t e d by t e c h n o l o g i c a l change w i l l be from sources such as textbooks, magazines, newspapers, books, government r e p o r t s , and so on. To 3 1 e v a l u a t e the i n f o r m a t i o n c o n t a i n e d w i t h i n these sources, students must be a b l e to d e c i d e to what extent these a u t h o r i t a t i v e sources are r e l i a b l e . Ennis (1969, p. 393) suggests the f o l l o w i n g c r i t e r i a f o r a r e l i a b l e a u t h o r i t y : 1) he has a good r e p u t a t i o n 2) the statement i s i n h i s f i e l d 3) he was d i s i n t e r e s t e d - t h a t i s , he d i d not knowingly stand to p r o f i t by the r e s u l t s of h i s statements (except that he may have stood to have h i s r e p u t a t i o n a f f e c t e d ) 4 ) h i s r e p u t a t i o n c o u l d be a f f e c t e d by h i s statement and he was aware of t h i s f a c t when he - made h i s statement 5) he s t u d i e d the matter 6) he f o l l o w e d the accep t e d procedures i n coming to h i s c o n c l u s i o n (although t h e r e are l e g i t i m a t e e x c e p t i o n s to t h i s requirement) 7) he was i n f u l l p o s s e s s i o n of h i s f a c u l t i e s . These c r i t e r i a are meant to be j o i n t l y a p p l i e d i n order to ass e s s the r e l i a b i l i t y of an a l l e g e d a u t h o r i t y . To compare c o n f l i c t i n g a u t h o r i t i e s n e c e s s i t a t e s c o n s i d e r a t i o n of a l l the c r i t e r i a combined with c o n s i d e r a t i o n of the s p e c i f i c c o n t e x t under c o n c e r n . There i s not, u n f o r t u n a t e l y , a simple, mechanical procedure to apply; r a t h e r , good judgment must be e x e r c i s e d . Lack of time and e x p e r t i s e r e q u i r e s both t e a c h e r s and students to r e l y on a u t h o r i t i e s f o r a l l s o r t s of i n f o r m a t i o n . And to a s s e s s t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n , i t seems apparent t h a t knowledge of the c r i t e r i a f o r a r e l i a b l e a u t h o r i t y i s e s s e n t i a l . 32 The d i s c u s s i o n of two c o n s t i t u e n t s of c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g - the a b i l i t y to c l a r i f y the meaning of statements and the a b i l i t y to assess the a c c e p t a b i l i t y of a statement by an a l l e g e d a u t h o r i t y - i s meant to i l l u s t r a t e the complexity of e v a l u a t i n g i n f o r m a t i o n . In examining only these two, however, the i n t e n t has not been to convey the impression that these two c o n s t i t u e n t s are the most c r u c i a l c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g a b i l i t i e s nor that they would s u f f i c e i n e v a l u a t i n g any communication f o r a c c u r a c y . J u s t as there are standards f o r a s s e s s i n g the a c c e p t a b i l i t y of a statement made by an a l l e g e d a u t h o r i t y , t h e r e are a l s o standards by which to a s s e s s the other c o n s t i t u e n t s . To judge whether an i n d u c t i v e c o n c l u s i o n i s warranted (attainment 5.6) r e q u i r e s knowledge of, i n p a r t , the c r i t e r i a f o r making a c c e p t a b l e g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s . To a s s e s s the r e l i a b i l i t y of an o b s e r v a t i o n statement (5.5) r e q u i r e s knowledge of the c r i t e r i a by which to e v a l u a t e the o b s e r v e r , the o b s e r v a t i o n c o n d i t i o n s , and the o b s e r v a t i o n statement i t s e l f ( N o r r i s , 1979). N e i t h e r students nor t e a c h e r s are l i k e l y to become aware of these standards u n l e s s they are e x p l i c i t l y taught. The d i s p o s i t i o n a l c o n s t i t u e n t s of p r a c t i c a l r e a s o n i n g w i l l r e q u i r e much more time to develop than the a b i l i t i e s . A teacher may be able to teach s t u d e n t s the c r i t e r i a by which to e v a l u a t e statements made by a u t h o r i t i e s i n a s i n g l e l e s s o n . However, to develop i n students the d i s p o s i t i o n to e x e r c i s e t h i s a b i l i t y i s a much more c o m p l i c a t e d t a s k . 33 D i s p o s i t i o n s of the s o r t o u t l i n e d by Coombs i n c l u d e c e r t a i n t e n d e n c i e s , as w e l l as knowledge and a b i l i t i e s . G i l b e r t Ryle (1949) d e s c r i b e s d i s p o s i t i o n s as the words commonly used to d e s c r i b e and e x p l a i n human behaviour. D i s p o s i t i o n a l concepts i n c l u d e both a b i l i t i e s and i n c l i n a t i o n s . However, to possess e i t h e r an a b i l i t y or an i n c l i n a t i o n does not imply that we a c t u a l l y e i t h e r use the a b i l i t y or a c t as we are i n c l i n e d to a c t . To say of someone that she i s a s k i l l f u l snooker p l a y e r i s t o a t t r i b u t e to her the a b i l i t y to p l a y snooker, but i t does not imply that she i s now p l a y i n g snooker. S i m i l a r l y , to say of someone that she i s l a z y i s to a t t r i b u t e to her the i n c l i n a t i o n to a v o i d work, but i t does not imply t h a t she i s now a v o i d i n g work. Thus, Ryle d i s t i n g u i s h e s between e p i s o d i c c o n c e p t s , which r e f e r to t h i n g s now happening, and d i s p o s i t i o n a l concepts, which p o i n t out a b i l i t i e s or i n c l i n a t i o n s , but which do not r e f e r to p a r t i c u l a r e p i s o d e s . P l a y i n g snooker and a v o i d i n g doing one's work are e p i s o d e s ; being a s k i l l f u l p l a y e r or be ing l a z y are d i s p o s i t i o n s . To a n alyze any d i s p o s i t i o n a l concept r e q u i r e s the use of h y p o t h e t i c a l statements - statements of the form ' i f x, then y.' To say that someone i s l a z y i s to say, roughly, ' i f she i s presented with the o p p o r t u n i t y f o r e f f o r t , then she a v o i d s t h a t e f f o r t . ' In R y l e ' s words: To possess a d i s p o s i t i o n a l p r o p e r t y i s not to be i n a p a r t i c u l a r s t a t e , or to undergo a p a r t i c u l a r change; i t i s to be bound or l i a b l e t o be i n a 34 p a r t i c u l a r s t a t e , or to undergo a p a r t i c u l a r change, when a p a r t i c u l a r c o n d i t o n i s r e a l i z e d ( i b i d . , 1949, p. 43). D i s p o s i t i o n s , then, are enduring c h a r a c t e r t r a i t s . To d e v e l o p enduring t r a i t s i n people we must do much more than p r e s e n t them with i n f o r m a t i o n . We f a c e , at the very l e a s t , the need to s h i f t the p a t t e r n of t h e i r h a b i t s t r u c t u r e s and must, i f nothing e l s e , i n v o l v e them i n repeated e x e r c i s e s of the a b i l i t i e s or repeated c i r c u m s t a n c e s i n which to s u b s t a n t i a t e the i n c l i n a t i o n s we b e l i e v e they should have. Some d i s p o s i t i o n s , such as being a s k i l l f u l snooker p l a y e r , are f a i r l y s p e c i f i c . The a b i l i t i e s and t e n d e n c i e s i n v o l v e d i n being a snooker p l a y e r are q u i t e determinate compared to the d i s p o s i t i o n s i n Coombs' account of p r a c t i c a l r e a s o n i n g . Look, f o r example, at attainment 6. D i s p o s i t i o n to determine the accuracy of i n f o r m a t i o n about the a l t e r n a t i v e c o u r ses of a c t i o n . Subcomponents of t h i s d i s p o s i t i o n i n c l u d e : 6.1 D i s p o s i t i o n to e x e r c i s e the a b i l i t i e s l i s t e d i n (5) above. (the c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g a b i l i t i e s ) 6.2 D i s p o s i t i o n to be open-minded and i n t e l l e c t u a l l y honest, a c c e p t i n g c o n c l u s i o n s based on adequate reasons or evidence and w i t h h o l d i n g judgment when the evidence i s i n s u f f i c i e n t to warrant the c o n c l u s i o n . 6.3 D i s p o s i t i o n to demand as much p r e c i s i o n as the s u b j e c t matter p e r m i t s . 6.4 D i s p o s i t i o n to d e a l with the p a r t s of a complex s i t u a t i o n i n an o r d e r l y f a s h i o n . But subsumed under these d i s p o s i t i o n s t h e r e i s probably a v a r i e t y of other s o r t s of a b i l i t i e s and knowledge r e q u i r e d . 35 D i s p o s i t i o n s such as these a r e , a c c o r d i n g to Ryle, not determinate , but \"determinable d i s p o s i t i o n a l words\" which \" s i g n i f y a b i l i t i e s , t e n d encies or pronenesses to do, not t h i n g s of one unique kind, but t h i n g s of l o t s of d i f f e r e n t kinds ( i b i d . , p. 118).\" I t would seem that to develop the d i s p o s i t i o n a l a t t a i n m e n t s of p r a c t i c a l r e a s o n i n g would mean m a i n t a i n i n g a c l a s s r o o m atmosphere which was at a l l times conducive to what Harvey S i e g e l c a l l s the \" c r i t i c a l s p i r i t . \" S i e g e l d e s c r i b e s the c r i t i c a l s p i r i t as f o l l o w s : One who possesses the c r i t i c a l s p i r i t has a c e r t a i n c h a r a c t e r as w e l l as c r i t i c a l s k i l l s ; a c h a r a c t e r which i s i n c l i n e d to seek reasons; which r e j e c t s p a r t i a l i t y and a r b i t r a r i n e s s ; and which i s committed to the o b j e c t i v e e v a l u a t i o n of r e l e v a n t e v i d e n c e . A c r i t i c a l a t t i t u d e demands not simply an a b i l i t y to seek reasons, but a commitment to seek reasons; not simply an a b i l i t y to judge i m p a r t i a l l y , but a w i l l i n g n e s s to so judge, even when i m p a r t i a l judgment i s not i n one's s e l f -i n t e r e s t ( S i e g e l , 1980, pp. 5-6). There are numerous i m p l i c a t i o n s with r e s p e c t to t e a c h i n g methodology i n a classroom where the \" c r i t i c a . l s p i r i t \" p r e v a i l s . But i t i s o n l y by means of a c o n c e r t e d , and p r o b a b l y long-term e d u c a t i o n a l e f f o r t can one expect that students w i l l be d i s p o s e d to e x e r c i s e c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g a b i l i t i e s , t o be open-minded and i n t e l l e c t u a l l y honest. The normative q u e s t i o n , 'should governments p r o t e c t i n d u s t r i e s and workers a f f e c t e d by t e c h n o l o g i c a l change?', i s much more complex than i t s e m p i r i c a l c o u n t e r p a r t . In 36 a d d i t i o n to the c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g a b i l i t i e s , most of the other attainments i n Coombs' account of p r a c t i c a l reasoning p l a y a p a r t i n answering t h i s q u e s t i o n . However, to examine each of the ten attainments with r e s p e c t to our q u e s t i o n would r e q u i r e more space than i s a v a i l a b l e here. Instead, t h i s s e c t i o n w i l l d e a l with a s e l e c t e d sample to i l l u s t r a t e the p o i n t . C o n s i d e r , fo r example, attainment 1: S e n s i t i v i t y to s i t u a t i o n s i n which p r a c t i c a l r e a s o n i n g i s r e q u i r e d . B a s i c a l l y t h i s i s a s e n s i t i v i t y to d e c i s i o n s or a c t i o n s which are l i k e l y to have consequences of such s i g n i f i c a n c e f o r o n e s e l f or o t h e r s as to warrant s e r i o u s r e f l e c t i o n b e f o r e a c t i n g . T h i s attainment has two a s p e c t s - the s e l f - r e g a r d i n g and the o t h e r - r e g a r d i n g . I t i s the l a t t e r which i s most r e l e v a n t here. I t reads: S e n s i t i v i t y to m o r a l l y hazardous a c t i o n s , that i s , a c t i o n s which r e q u i r e assessment from the moral p o i n t of view. T h i s s e n s i t i v i t y a l e r t s persons to (1) a c t i o n s t h a t may have consequences f o r o t h e r s which the a c t o r c o u l d not accept i f they were to b e f a l l him and (2) a c t i o n s which may. have unacceptable consequences were everyone to engage i n them. Subsumed under t h i s attainment a r e : Knowledge of b a s i c moral r u l e s such a s : Don't k i l l . Don't d e p r i v e of p l e a s u r e . Don't cheat. Don't cause p a i n . Don't d e p r i v e of freedom. Don't d i s a b l e . Don't break promises. Knowledge of what g e n e r a l l y harms human beings e i t h e r p h y s i c a l l y or e m o t i o n a l l y . The q u e s t i o n 'should governments p r o t e c t i n d u s t r i e s and workers a f f e c t e d by t e c h n o l o g i c a l change' i s unarguably one that r e q u i r e s p r a c t i c a l r e a s o n i n g . Indeed, i t would seem 37 t h a t i t has been posed because, to answer i t , one must take i n t o account the consequences that would b e f a l l e i t h e r the g e n e r a l p o p u l a t i o n as ta x p a y e r s , i f the q u e s t i o n i s answered a f f i r m a t i v e l y , or the g e n e r a l p o p u l a t i o n as workers, i f the q u e s t i o n i s answered i n the n e g a t i v e . Note t h a t the q u e s t i o n would have to be broken down i n t o at l e a s t two p a r t s . In many i n s t a n c e s , the i n t e r e s t s of workers and those of i n d u s t r i e s w i l l l i k e l y be q u i t e d i f f e r e n t . L o o k ing at the attainment r e q u i r i n g knowledge of b a s i c moral r u l e s , i t i s l i k e l y t h a t s e r i o u s r e f l e c t i o n on the normative q u e s t i o n might i n v o l v e c o n s i d e r a t i o n of s e v e r a l moral r u l e s , s p e c i f i c a l l y , \"don't d e p r i v e of p l e a s u r e , \" \"don't cause p a i n , \" and \"don't d i s a b l e . \" Of these any sane government must be c o g n i z a n t i n making a d e c i s i o n to a c t , where the d e c i s i o n has p o t e n t i a l s e r i o u s impact on i t s c i t i z e n s . S i m i l a r l y , knowledge of what g e n e r a l l y harms human beings e i t h e r p h y s i c a l l y or e m o t i o n a l l y i s of g r e a t importance i n attempting to answer the q u e s t i o n . P r o t e c t i n g workers a f f e c t e d by t e c h n o l o g i c a l change may i n v o l v e i n s t a l l a t i o n o f , f o r example, s a f e t y equipment to prevent p h y s i c a l harm; p r o t e c t i n g i n d u s t r i e s a f f e c t e d by t e c h n o l o g i c a l change may mean p r o v i d i n g o u t r i g h t g r a n t s or tax i n c e n t i v e s to prevent the emotional (not to mention economic) harm caused by, f o r i n s t a n c e , being f o r c e d to go out of b u s i n e s s . Having touched on l y the s u r f a c e of t h i s complex 38 q u e s t i o n , i t seems a p p r o p r i a t e at t h i s p o i n t to mention attainment 2, the d i s p o s i t i o n to undertake p r a c t i c a l r e a s o n i n g when such i s r e q u i r e d . Two c o n s t i t u e n t s of t h i s attainment are p a r t i c u l a r l y r e l e v a n t here: the a b i l i t y to suspend judgment u n t i l r e f l e c t i o n has taken p l a c e and knowledge of the value of engaging i n p r a c t i c a l r e a s o n i n g . If t e a c h e r s are concerned with d e v e l o p i n g i n s t u d e n t s the a b i l i t y to d e a l with the c o m p l e x i t i e s i n h e r e n t i n the i n q u i r y q u e s t i o n s l i s t e d i n the C u r r i c u l u m Guide, they must attempt to h e l p students a c q u i r e both of these. I t i s c l e a r t h a t the q u e s t i o n under d i s c u s s i o n i n v o l v e s a l a r g e amount of i n f o r m a t i o n . I t i s i n t h i s r e g a r d that t e a c h e r s have a wide range of methods a v a i l a b l e to h e l p s t u d e n t s a c q u i r e or l o c a t e the necessary f a c t s . (Here a g a i n , the c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g a b i l i t i e s and d i s p o s i t i o n s mentioned e a r l i e r come i n t o p l a y ) . But our q u e s t i o n w i l l not l i k e l y have a simple 'yes' or 'no' answer. Much of the i n f o r m a t i o n brought to bear on the q u e s t i o n w i l l be d e c i s i v e i n f o r m u l a t i n g a course of a c t i o n v i s a v i s governments' p a r t i n p r o t e c t i n g i n d u s t r i e s and workers a f f e c t e d by t e c h n o l o g i c a l change. For example, students may d e c i d e that governments should p r o t e c t i n d u s t r i e s and workers and from t h i s , an obvious q u e s t i o n emerges - how? In answering t h i s q u e s t i o n , students w i l l need attainment 3, the a b i l i t y and d i s p o s i t i o n to i d e n t i f y or c o n c e i v e of reasonable a l t e r n a t i v e s to the proposed course of a c t i o n . Subcomponents 39 i n c l u d e : knowledge of v a r i o u s means f o r r e a l i z i n g c e r t a i n v a l u e s ; and knowledge of the importance of c o n s i d e r i n g reasonable a l t e r n a t i v e s . Suppose that students d e c i d e that governments should p r o t e c t , i n the sense of 'saving from c o n t i n g e n t f i n a n c i a l l o s s , ' workers a f f e c t e d by t e c h n o l o g i c a l change. T h i s judgment i s made from the po i n t of view of economic, and probably moral, v a l u e s . Perhaps other human concerns should a l s o be taken i n t o account ( h e a l t h and s a f e t y , f o r i n s t a n c e ) . Furthermore, suppose that students suggest t h a t t h i s should be done by governments g i v i n g workers some f i n a n c i a l compensation when they l o s e jobs because t h e i r s k i l l s a re o b s o l e t e . Upon f u r t h e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n (or guidance by. t e a c h e r s ) , s t u d e n t s may d i s c o v e r t h a t t h i s proposed s o l u t i o n i s unworkable f o r any number of reasons. Or they may r e a l i z e t h at f i n a n c i a l compensation would be best viewed as a s s i s t a n c e i n r e t r a i n i n g workers f o r other employment. As was the case i n d i s c u s s i o n of the e m p i r i c a l q u e s t i o n , i t i s not intended t h a t the above remarks suggest that those a t t a i n m e n t s p a r t i c u l a r i z e d are the onl y ones or the most s a l i e n t f o r the purpose of answering the q u e s t i o n . I n s t e a d , they are meant to exe m p l i f y the p o i n t that the t e a c h i n g of c e r t a i n types of- o b j e c t i v e s would be improved i f t e a c h e r s were to ga i n some e x p e r t i s e i n p r a c t i c a l r e a s o n i n g . I f students are meant to d e a l with i n q u i r i e s such as the one examined here, then they must come to l e a r n c e r t a i n 4 0 t h i n g s . As i t i s expected that teachers w i l l h e l p them to l e a r n c e r t a i n f a c t s , as w e l l as d e c i s i o n making and c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g s k i l l s , then t e a c h e r s need to know these f a c t s and s k i l l s f i r s t . In a d d i t i o n , t e a c h e r s must know the importance of r e a s o n i n g i n r e l a t i o n to the g e n e r a l g o a l s of e d u c a t i o n i n our s o c i e t y . Without such knowledge, t e a c h e r s are u n l i k e l y to be a b l e to f u l f i l l c u r r i c u l a r aims. Consumer E d u c a t i o n 9/10 Consumer Education 9/10 (1982) i s a p r e s c r i b e d course f o r a l l secondary s c h o o l students i n B r i t i s h Columbia. The C u r r i c u l u m Guide i s o r g a n i z e d very d i f f e r e n t l y from the S o c i a l S t u d i e s C u r r i c u l u m Guide c o n s i d e r e d i n the p r e v i o u s s e c t i o n . The d i s c u s s i o n that f o l l o w s here w i l l r e f l e c t t h i s d i f f e r e n c e . The Guide begins with a statement of the 'Philosophy' of Consumer E d u c a t i o n : Consumer ed u c a t i o n i s a l i f e long p r o c e s s , a p r o c e s s which develops the s k i l l s of c r i t i c a l o b s e r v a t i o n , i n t e l l i g e n t i n q u i r y and e f f e c t i v e d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g so t h a t i n d i v i d u a l s l e a r n to become informed, competent and engaged members of the community they l i v e i n . Such i n d i v i d u a l s w i l l be a b l e to develop p e r s o n a l g o a l s with a sense of s e l f - d i r e c t i o n , a d j u s t to meet changing c o n d i t i o n s , and accept r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r t h e i r a c t i o n s , t h e i r community and i t s environment. Consumer e d u c a t i o n , t h e r e f o r e , o f f e r s s t u d e n t s a framework f o r making sound, reasoned d e c i s i o n s and p r o v i d e s them with a r i c h and f u l l u n d e rstanding of the world i n which they l i v e , study and work. Consumer Educat i o n i s more than a c q u i r i n g i n f o r m a t i o n ; i t i s a l s o l e a r n i n g to use a problem-41 s o l v i n g process that i n v o l v e s a n a l y z i n g , s y n t h e s i z i n g and e v a l u a t i n g i n f o r m a t i o n i n order to make sound d e c i s i o n s . As s t u d e n t s go through the course c o n t e n t , they should be taught to r e c o g n i z e problems, to s o l v e these problems by s t a t i n g them c l e a r l y and simply, to i d e n t i f y the v a r i o u s i s s u e s i n v o l v e d , to gather i n f o r m a t i o n r e l a t e d to the problems and to i n t e r p r e t the i n f o r m a t i o n with regard to a l t e r n a t i v e s and s o l u t i o n s (p.7). The 'Philosophy' of Consumer E d u c a t i o n 9/10 has been quoted at l e n g t h because i t appears to r e f l e c t g e n e r a l aims very s i m i l a r to some of those i n Coombs' account of p r a c t i c a l r e a s o n i n g . But, i f one examines the g o a l s and l e a r n i n g outcomes of the c u r r i c u l u m , i t i s r e a d i l y apparent t h a t the emphasis i s on g a i n i n g knowledge about such t h i n g s as consumer l e g i s l a t i o n , p e r s o n a l r e c o r d keeping, banking, c r e d i t , c o n t r a c t s and debt management. Although such i n f o r m a t i o n i s i n d i s p e n s a b l e i n making wise consumer d e c i s i o n s , the emphasis on l e a r n i n g consumer ' f a c t s ' i s incongruent with the s t a t e d p h i l o s o p h y . However important t h i s d i s c r e p a n c y , though, i t i s not a p p o s i t e here to d i s c u s s i t i n d e t a i l . Rather, the focus w i l l be on another s i g n i f i c a n t problem with Consumer E d u c a t i o n 9/10, one t h a t i s more r e l e v a n t to the major argument of t h i s t h e s i s . In some r e s p e c t s , t h i s problem i s s i m i l a r to that posed i n the preceding, d i s c u s s i o n on t e a c h i n g the B.C. S o c i a l S t u d i e s c u r r i c u l u m - that i s , the c u r r i c u l u m guide r e q u i r e s t e a c h e r s to teach f o r a v a r i e t y of outcomes f o r which they are p r o v i d e d l i t t l e d i r e c t i o n . In t h i s case t e a c h e r s are a d v i s e d throughout to have 4 2 s t u d e n t s use a d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g model which i s i n s u f f i c i e n t l y d e s c r i b e d and only s i m p l i s t i c a l l y e x a m p l i f i e d . Although i t i s r e c o g n i z e d that one must take i n t o account the c a p a c i t i e s of s t u d e n t s i n c u r r i c u l u m d e s i g n , and these c a p a c i t i e s may d i f f e r from one l o c a l e to another, t h i s does not appear to be the e x p l a n a t i o n f o r the apparent d e f i c i e n c i e s of t h i s c u r r i c u l u m . N e i t h e r the c u r r i c u l u m guide nor the bulky accompanying resource manual o f f e r more than rudimentary guidance to t e a c h e r s on how to teach students what i s i n v o l v e d i n each s t e p of the d e c i s i o n making p r o c e s s . The f a c t o r s a f f e c t i n g consumer d e c i s i o n s , o u t l i n e d in schematic form i n the guide, are g i v e n e q u a l l y s h o r t s h r i f t i n the r e s o u r c e m a t e r i a l s . The c u r s o r y treatment given these important fundamentals s e r i o u s l y weakens the e n t i r e f a b r i c of the c u r r i c u l u m . The d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g p r o c e s s of Consumer Education 9/10 i n v o l v e s the f o l l o w i n g s t e p s : i d e n t i f y a reason f o r a d e c i s i o n ; r e c o g n i z e the p e r s o n a l v a l u e s that may a f f e c t a d e c i s i o n ; gather i n f o r m a t i o n and d i s c o v e r the c h o i c e s / a l t e r n a t i v e s ; l i s t a l t e r n a t i v e s ; set c r i t e r i a to e v a l u a t e a l t e r n a t i v e s and the consequences of the a l t e r n a t i v e s ; s e l e c t one a l t e r n a t i v e ; determine the best procedure to implement the d e c i s i o n ; implement the d e c i s i o n ; r e - e v a l u a t e the d e c i s i o n , the procedure and the r e s u l t (Consumer Ed u c a t i o n 9/10 T e a c h e r Resource Manual, V o l . 1, 1982, p. 8 ) . 4 3 I t i s s i g n i f i c a n t to note t h a t none of the above steps i s d e s c r i b e d i n s u f f i c i e n t d e t a i l to enable t e a c h e r s to h e l p students l e a r n to come to g r i p s with the c o m p l e x i t y of making s e r i o u s d e c i s i o n s . At the l e v e l of making d e c i s i o n s about which orange j u i c e to buy (an example from the c u r r i c u l u m ) , the s u p e r f i c i a l p r o c e s s may be adequate to make a c h o i c e . But, i f Consumer Ed u c a t i o n 9/10 i s to h e l p students \" . . . become w e l l - i n f o r m e d consumers who can make wise and s a t i s f y i n g d e c i s i o n s about the management of p e r s o n a l and community r e s o u r c e s \" and come to terms \". . . with l a r g e r i s s u e s such as economic d i s p a r i t y and environmental p r o t e c t i o n from a n a t i o n a l and g l o b a l p e r s p e c t i v e \" ( i b i d . , p. 6), then much more i s r e q u i r e d . I t may be u s e f u l at t h i s p o i n t to examine one of the steps i n the decision-making p r o c e s s i n order to i l l u s t r a t e some of the d i f f i c u l t i e s that might be encountered i n u s i n g t h i s - o v e r s i m p l i f i e d approach. Step f i v e of the d e c i s i o n -making process above s t a t e s \" s e t c r i t e r i a to e v a l u a t e a l t e r n a t i v e s and the consequences of the a l t e r n a t i v e s . \" In the orange j u i c e example mentioned e a r l i e r , t h i s s t e p i s probably q u i t e s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d . Students l i k e l y w i l l be a b l e to q u i c k l y set f o r t h the c r i t e r i a by which to compare Brand X with Brand Y, and even Brand Z. As f o r e v a l u a t i n g the consequences of buying Brand X over Brand Y or Z, i t seems reasonable to assume t h a t most students w i l l be a b l e to handle t h i s task with equal p r o f i c i e n c y . Other s i m i l a r 44 suggested d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g s i t u a t i o n s i n the c u r r i c u l u m a r e : \"you have j u s t won $500 i n a c o n t e s t . You must d e c i d e what you are going to do. with the money\" ( i b i d . , p. 21); \"Have students use the d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g p r o c e s s to d e c i d e whether to purchase an item with cash or c r e d i t which they or t h e i r f a m i l i e s are c o n s i d e r i n g buying ( i b i d . , p. 97).\" The above-mentioned a c t i v i t i e s are s i m i l a r to the orange j u i c e example to the. extent that they p r o v i d e s t u d e n t s with p r a c t i c e i n a p p l y i n g the d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g p r o c e s s to s i t u a t i o n s which are r e l a t i v e l y f r e e from the c o m p l e x i t i e s inherent i n many circ u m s t a n c e s where a c h o i c e has to be made. These s i t u a t i o n s d i f f e r from the orange j u i c e example o n l y i n that they r e q u i r e s l i g h t l y more r e f l e c t i o n and a l i t t l e more i n f o r m a t i o n . The consequences of making a d e c i s i o n to purchase w i t h c r e d i t r a t h e r than cash, f o r example, may be more s e r i o u s than those of p u r c h a s i n g the 'wrong' brand of orange j u i c e . Thus the model appears to s u f f i c e f o r d e c i s i o n s of t h i s magnitude and n a t u r e , as long as r e l e v a n t i n f o r m a t i o n i s c o l l e c t e d and a s s e s s e d . But the model i s a l s o i n t e n d e d to s u f f i c e f o r d e c i s i o n s of g r e a t e r magnitude and of a very d i f f e r e n t n a t u r e . Consider, f o r i n s t a n c e , the f o l l o w i n g a c t i v i t y i n T o p i c 7: The P r i c e System and A d d i t i o n a l E x t e r n a l Costs of P r o d u c t s . \"Use the d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g p r o c e s s to s o l v e the problem posed in q u e s t i o n 19 on page 34 of the p r e s c r i b e d t e x t ( i b i d . , p. 130).\" Question 19 reads: \"You a r e shopping i n a l o c a l s t o r e 4 5 with two f r i e n d s . You see one of them s t u f f a T - s h i r t i n s i d e h i s j a c k e t and leave the s t o r e . What should you do? Why? (Wood, 1982). Again, as with the example from the S o c i a l S t u d i e s d i s c u s s e d e a r l i e r , i t would seem that the q u e s t i o n p r e s e n t s us with a paradigm case r e q u i r i n g p r a c t i c a l r e a s o n i n g . But does the c u r r i c u l u m guide or the teacher r e s o u r c e manual or the textbook p r o v i d e t e a c h e r s or students with the necessary and a p p r o p r i a t e knowledge and a b i l i t i e s to make a r a t i o n a l d e c i s i o n ? I t would seem not. F i r s t , the q u e s t i o n posed f o r students i s c l e a r l y a moral one. But what s o r t of guidance does the c u r r i c u l u m o f f e r to enable t e a c h e r s to h e l p students l e a r n to d e a l with such thorny problems as whether l o y a l t y to f r i e n d s o v e r r i d e s a l l o w i n g someone to get away with s t e a l i n g ? 6 Step f i v e , \" s e t c r i t e r i a to e v a l u a t e a l t e r n a t i v e s and the consequences of the a l t e r n a t i v e s \" takes on a d i f f e r e n t complexion i n the c o n t e x t of t h i s d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g s i t u a t i o n . How are these c r i t e r i a t o be set by students or how are t e a c h e r s to h e l p s t u d e n t s i n s e t t i n g these c r i t e r i a ? At t h i s p o i n t i t i s necessary to look back at s t e p two 6 Perhaps the f a c t t h a t the q u e s t i o n i s i n c l u d e d i n a s e c t i o n t i t l e d \"The P r i c e System and A d d i t i o n a l E x t e r n a l Costs of Products\" h e l p s to e x p l a i n the d i f f i c u l t y ; that i s , the p o i n t of view i s economic whereas the q u e s t i o n i s c l e a r l y moral. 46 of the model. I t s t a t e s t h a t , a f t e r i d e n t i f y i n g a reason f o r a d e c i s i o n , one must \" r e c o g n i z e the pe r s o n a l v a l u e s that may a f f e c t a d e c i s i o n . \" T h i s s t e p , although t r i v i a l i n the orange j u i c e s i t u a t i o n , i s of s u b s t a n t i a l import i n the c u r r e n t example. How, then, does the c u r r i c u l u m d e a l with the s u b j e c t of val u e s ? The c u r r i c u l u m guide c o n t a i n s no d i s c u s s i o n of v a l u e s ; i t merely acknowledges, i n schematic form, t h a t v a l u e s and go a l s are among the p e r s o n a l f a c t o r s a f f e c t i n g consumer d e c i s i o n s . The Teacher Resource Manual, Volume 1, goes s l i g h t l y f u r t h e r i n that i t d e f i n e s v a l u e s i n a note a t the bottom of a student a c t i v i t y page. I t says \"Your v a l u e s are b e l i e f s t h a t you think are important to you. Your v a l u e s w i l l h e l p you determine your g o a l s ( i b i d . , p. 21).\" The student textbook, Looking at the Consumer, p r o v i d e s the lon g e s t d i s c u s s i o n of v a l u e s . I t d e f i n e s v a l u e s as \"the b e l i e f s and ideas one has (p. 8 ) . \" I t goes on to s t a t e t h a t v a l u e s are l e a r n e d by watching and i m i t a t i n g those people with whom one i n t e r a c t s . The author, John Wood, c o n t i n u e s : As you mature, you w i l l compare, judge, s e l e c t , and r e j e c t the v a l u e s of those with whom you come i n t o c o n t a c t , and you w i l l begin to form your own v a l u e s . At every stage you w i l l be t r y i n g out what you t h i n k i s the a c c e p t a b l e value to y o u r s e l f and s o c i e t y . In time you w i l l f i n d t h a t c e r t a i n a c t i o n s are t r e a t e d as r i g h t and d e s i r a b l e by s o c i e t y as a whole. These a c t i o n s w i l l tend to become the b a s i s of your v a l u e system . (1982, p. 9). Value c o n f l i c t i s viewed as a p e r s o n a l problem which \". . may be due to a c o n f l i c t between your f a m i l y ' s c u l t u r e , i t s 4 7 e t h n i c background, and i t s p o s i t i o n on the economic ladde r and what you p e r c e i v e as a p r e f e r r e d way of l i v i n g ( i b i d . , -p. 9 ) . \" L a t e r i n the t e x t , the d i s c u s s i o n of c o n f l i c t c o n t i n u e s as Wood examines s e t t i n g g o a l s , which he says \"are based on the va l u e s you t h i n k are important.\" An inner c o n f l i c t may develop i f \"the go a l s of your peer group . . c o n f l i c t w i t h your p e r s o n a l g o a l s . \" The ad v i c e given to those with such a c o n f l i c t i s \"You must make your own d e c i s i o n s and l i v e with the consequences ( i b i d . , p. 90).\" Wood's account of va l u e s and va l u e c o n f l i c t i n the p r e s c r i b e d t e x t f o r Consumer Ed u c a t i o n i s so naive as to be v i r t u a l l y u s e l e s s f o r h e l p i n g students make d e c i s i o n s . He a p p a r e n t l y i s not c o g n i z a n t of any p h i l o s o p h i c a l or e d u c a t i o n a l l i t e r a t u r e d i s c u s s i n g t h i s complex s u b j e c t . Yet i t i s l o g i c a l l y i m p o s s i b l e to teach d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g , or to make d e c i s i o n s , without s e r i o u s a t t e n t i o n to v a l u e s . How are tea c h e r s t o h e l p students to \"compare, judge, s e l e c t and r e j e c t \" v a l u e s without knowledge of what d i f f e r e n t kinds of va l u e s t h e r e are or without knowledge of what kinds of standards one might use to r e j e c t some and keep o t h e r s ? How are t e a c h e r s to h e l p students to \" s e t c r i t e r i a to e v a l u a t e a l t e r n a t i v e s and the consequences of the a l t e r n a t i v e s \" without r e c o u r s e to some r a t i o n a l examination of v a l u e s ? I f te a c h e r s and students are not aware t h a t v a l u e c l a i m s a re made from v a r i o u s p o i n t s of view ( p r u d e n t i a l , moral, economic, a e s t h e t i c , and so on), how are they to know what 48 kinds of reasons can be employed i n j u s t i f y i n g them? Co n s i d e r , b r i e f l y , Paul T a y l o r ' s important account of v a l u e s . He argues that the word 'values' r e f e r s to three s o r t s of t h i n g s : The v a l u e judgments and p r e s c r i p t i o n s a c c e p t e d by the person as being j u s t i f i e d (whether or not he has ever i n f a c t t r i e d to j u s t i f y them); the standards and r u l e s which the person would appeal to i_f he were asked to j u s t i f y h i s v a l u e judgments and p r e s c r i p t i o n s ; and a l l other standards and r u l e s which c o n s t i t u t e the value systems the person has adopted, c o n s c i o u s l y or u n c o n s c i o u s l y ( T a y l o r , 1969, p. 297). He c o n t i n u e s : Thus a person's v a l u e s i n c l u d e a l l the standards - and r u l e s which to g e t h e r make up h i s way of l i f e . They d e f i n e h i s i d e a l s and l i f e g o a l s (to f u l f i l l the standards; to f o l l o w the r u l e s ) . They are the standards and r u l e s a c c o r d i n g to which he e v a l u a t e s t h i n g s and p r e s c r i b e s a c t s , as w e l l as the standards and r u l e s he t r i e s to l i v e by, whether or not he i s aware of them (pp. 297-298). T a y l o r c l a s s i f i e s v a l u e s i n t o e i g h t b a s i c p o i n t s of view, c o r r e s p o n d i n g to the major s o c i a l i n s t i t u t i o n s and a c t i v i t i e s ; they are b a s i c i n the sense t h a t they are p r e s e n t i n a l l c i v i l i z e d c u l t u r e s to c a r r y on i t s c i v i l i z a t i o n . They are the moral, the a e s t h e t i c , the i n t e l l e c t u a l , the r e l i g i o u s , the economic, the p o l i t i c a l , the l e g a l , and the p o i n t of view of custom or e t i q u e t t e . To j u s t i f y a value judgment from any p o i n t of view i s to o f f e r reasons i n support of the judgment; and, of c o u r s e , the reasons must be good reasons. T a y l o r d i s t i n g u i s h e s the two kinds of r u l e s which together comprise the canons of r e a s o n i n g f o r the j u s t i f i c a t i o n of v a l u e judgments. He 4 9 s t a t e s , Rules of r e l e v a n c e p r o v i d e the c r i t e r i a by which we determine whether a reason o f f e r e d by someone i s j u s t i f y i n g a given v a l u e judgement i s r e l e v a n t . Rules of v a l i d i n f e r e n c e p r o v i d e the c r i t e r i a which determine whether a reason we have a l r e a d y found to be r e l e v a n t i s good (warranted, l e g i t i m a t e , v a l i d , l o g i c a l l y sound, i n t e l l e c t u a l l y a c c e p t a b l e ) , ( i b i d . , p. 109).\" To take a c e r t a i n p o i n t of view, then, i s to adopt c e r t a i n canons of reasoning - r u l e s of r e l e v a n c e and r u l e s of v a l i d i n f e r e n c e - to j u s t i f y our v a l u e judgments. I t i s t h i s s o r t of u n d e r s t a n d i n g about v a l u e s which st u d e n t s , and thus t e a c h e r s , need i n order to set c r i t e r i a to e v a l u a t e a l t e r n a t i v e s . If s t u d e n t s d e c i d e d t h a t i t i s r i g h t to say n o t h i n g when they see a f r i e n d s t e a l i n g from a s t o r e because 'the s t o r e owner can p r o b a b l y a f f o r d i t ' they should be made aware that they are o f f e r i n g an economic reason f o r a moral judgment. Such a reason may be r e l e v a n t , but i t i s not the most important f e a t u r e of the s i t u a t i o n . Without some understanding of how one goes about j u s t i f y i n g a v a l u e judgment, the incoherence of such an argument w i l l p robably pass u n n o t i c e d . Wood assumes t h a t a s t u d e n t ' s v a l u e system w i l l come to be based on a c t i o n s which . s o c i e t y t r e a t s as \" r i g h t and d e s i r a b l e . \" How t h i s comes about i s u n c l e a r . A f u r t h e r problem with t h i s o v e r s i m p l i f i e d account i s that, i t cannot h e l p t e a c h e r s or students examine the immoral a c t i o n s of t h e i r own s o c i e t y . Even i f an a c t i o n or p o l i c y i s t r e a t e d as r i g h t and d e s i r a b l e , can i t be shown to be so by any 5 0 r a t i o n a l means? Wood's concern with the i n f o r m a t i o n a l a s p e c t s of consumer e d u c a t i o n has b l i n d e d him to the s a l i e n t r o l e of v a l u e s i n consumer decis i o n - m a k i n g , l e a v i n g the emphasis on consumer f a c t s . His t e x t r e f l e c t s the same d i s c r e p a n c y between o v e r a l l p h i l o s o p h y and s p e c i f i c o b j e c t i v e s as does the c u r r i c u l u m of Consumer 9/10. Having s t r a y e d from our example at some l e n g t h , we w i l l r e t u r n to i t to see how Coombs' account of p r a c t i c a l r e a s o n i n g would serve b e t t e r as a model f o r t e a c h i n g decision-making than the r a t h e r p r i m i t i v e account advocated by the C u r r i c u l u m guide, the Teacher Resource Book and the student textbook. As i n the p r e v i o u s secton on the S o c i a l S t u d i e s , we w i l l examine only a few of the attainments of p r a c t i c a l r e a s o n i n g i n order to i l l u s t r a t e i t s e f f i c a c y . Consider again the p r e v i o u s l y c i t e d student q u e s t i o n : \"You are shopping i n a l o c a l s t o r e with two f r i e n d s . You see one of them s t u f f a T - s h i r t i n s i d e h i s j a c k e t and leave the s t o r e . What should you, do? Why?\" Suppose students have i d e n t i f i e d the a l t e r n a t i v e courses of a c t i o n and are now faced with s e t t i n g c r i t e r i a to e v a l u a t e them and the consequences of them ( s t e p f i v e ) . Teachers w i l l l i k e l y have d i f f i c u l t y here as the p r e s c r i b e d t e x t , the resource book and the C u r r i c u l u m Guide o f f e r no guidance. Attainment 4 of Coombs' account p r o v i d e s at l e a s t the b a s i s f o r e s t a b l i s h i n g c r i t e r i a by which to e v a l u a t e the consequences of a l t e r n a t i v e s . I t reads: 51 A b i l i t y and i n c l i n a t i o n to assemble, i n s o f a r as p r a c t i c a l l y p o s s i b l e , a l l the i n f o r m a t i o n r e l e v a n t to d e t e r m i n i n g the r e l a t i v e worth of each course of a c t i o n under c o n s i d e r a t i o n . T h i s attainment i n c l u d e s : the d i s p o s i t i o n to determine the consequences of the a l t e r n a t i v e a c t i o n s f o r r e a l i z i n g each of the b a s i c human concerns, i . e . , economic, h e a l t h , s a f e t y , r e c r e a t i o n a l , a e s t h e t i c , i n t e l l e c t u a l and moral concerns. T h i s attainment s u p p l i e s both t e a c h e r s and students with a framework f o r c o m p i l i n g standards by which to judge what should be done. In the example here t h e r e are p r o b a b l y o n l y two b a s i c human concerns, the economic and the moral, which are of r e l e v a n c e and the moral c l e a r l y o v e r r i d e s the economic. Attainment 7 i s even more p e r t i n e n t i n h e l p i n g s t u d e n t s to make a d e c i s i o n i n t h i s case. A b i l i t y and d i s p o s i t i o n to assess the moral a c c e p t a b i l i t y of the a l t e r n a t i v e c o u r s e s of a c t i o n . C o n s t i t u e n t s of t h i s attainment i n c l u d e : 7.1 Knowing that moral assessment i s guided by two p r i n c i p l e s : a) i t cannot be r i g h t f o r me to do x u n l e s s i t i s r i g h t f o r any person i n the same s o r t of circumstances to do x. b) i f the consequences of everyone's doing x i n a given circumstance would be unacceptable, then i t i s not r i g h t f o r anyone to do x i n t h a t c i r c u m s t a n c e . 7.2 A b i l i t y and i n c l i n a t i o n t o imagine f o r each a l t e r n a t i v e the consequences that would ensue i f everyone i n your circumstance were to engage i n the a c t i o n , and to r e j e c t the a c t i o n as wrong i f the imagined consequences are unacceptable. 7.3 A b i l i t y and i n c l i n a t i o n t o put o n e s e l f i m a g i n a t i v e l y i n t o the c i r c u m s t a n c e s of 52 another person to a p p r e c i a t e the consequences each a l t e r n a t i v e course of a c t i o n has f o r t h a t person, and to r e j e c t the a c t i o n as wrong i f the imagined consequences are u n a c c e p t a b l e . 7.4 A b i l i t y and d i s p o s i t i o n to c o n s i d e r the views of o t h e r s c o n c e r n i n g the moral a c c e p t a b i l i t y of the a l t e r n a t i v e c o u r ses of a c t i o n . Attainment 7 e x p l i c i t y s e t s out the r u l e s by which t o a s s e s s the moral a c c e p t a b i l i t y of a l t e r n a t i v e courses of a c t i o n . Suppose t h a t students b e l i e v e that one a l t e r n a t i v e i s to t a l k to the s h o p l i f t e r and c o n v ince her/him t h a t s t e a l i n g the T - s h i r t was wrong. Undoubtedly the s h o p l i f t e r was aware of t h i s when she/he s t o l e the T - s h i r t . Now s t u d e n t s are f a ced with the task of a t t empting to give reasons to the s h o p l i f t e r to convince her/him t h a t , i f the a c t was wrong, then i t should not have been done. An appeal to the s h o p l i f t e r ' s s e l f - i n t e r e s t (he might be caught and punished) i s l o g i c a l l y i r r e l e v a n t i n d i s c u s s i n g the moral a c c e p t a b i l i t y of a g i v e n a c t i o n . The two p r i n c i p l e s i n attainment 7.1, on the other hand, are r e l e v a n t . These two p r i n c i p l e s d e r i v e from a c o n c e p t i o n of m o r a l i t y which h o l d s t h a t a moral p r i n c i p l e i s a c c e p t a b l e i f , and o n l y i f , a l l the judgments which l o g i c a l l y d e r i v e from i t are a l s o a c c e p t a b l e ( S i n g e r , 1963). They encompass the p r i n c i p l e s of j u s t i c e , i m p a r t i a l i t y and e q u a l i t y and thus r u l e out f a v o u r i t i s m f o r any i n d i v i d u a l . In t h i s p a r t i c u l a r case, one can use the r o l e exchange t e s t (attainment 7.3) to see i f the s h o p l i f t e r would f i n d h i s / h e r a c t i o n r i g h t i f he/she was i n the p o s i t i o n of the s t o r e 5 3 owner. If the s h o p l i f t e r , by p u t t i n g h i m / h e r s e l f i n t o the ci r c u m s t a n c e s of the s t o r e owner, came to a p p r e c i a t e the consequences of the t h e f t f o r the s t o r e owner, he/she might come to view s h o p l i f t i n g as m o r a l l y unacceptable, and r e f r a i n from doing i t i n f u t u r e . In judging s h o p l i f t i n g as unacceptable i n t h i s c i r c u m s t a n c e , one must, to be c o n s i s t e n t , a l s o judge s h o p l i f t i n g as unacceptable i n a l l s i m i l a r c i r c u m s t a n c e s . Attainment 7.2, which i n v o l v e s a p p l y i n g the u n i v e r s a l consequences t e s t , c o u l d a l s o be u s e f u l i n i n f l u e n c i n g the s h o p l i f t e r to c o n s i d e r the moral a c c e p t a b i l i t y of h i s / h e r a c t i o n . Here one imagines what consequences c o u l d ensue i f everyone i n a p a r t i c u l a r c i r c u m s t a n c e engaged i n a p a r t i c u l a r a c t i o n . I f the imagined consequences are unacceptable, then the a c t i o n must be judged u n a c c e p t a b l e . The above d i s c u s s i o n i s not meant to imply t h a t a s i n g l e o c c u r r e n c e of a p p e a l i n g to the above-mentioned p r i n c i p l e s w i l l be s u f f i c i e n t to educate a person to have the a b i l i t y and d i s p o s i t i o n to as s e s s the moral a c c e p t a b i l i t y of a l t e r n a t i v e courses of a c t i o n i n a l l s i t u a t i o n s r e q u i r i n g i t . But e d u c a t i n g a person i n whatever f i e l d , s c i e n t i f i c , mathematical or moral, r a r e l y happens o v e r n i g h t . The s h o p l i f t i n g d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g e x e r c i s e i s not t y p i c a l of the a c t i v i t i e s suggested i n Consumer Ed u c a t i o n 9/10, alt h o u g h t h e r e are o t h e r s which r e q u i r e s i m i l a r 54 competencies. I t was chosen f o r examination here because i t i s the type of q u e s t i o n which, u n l i k e many o t h e r s , i s c o n s i s t e n t with the ph i l o s o p h y of the c u r r i c u l u m . As such, t e a c h e r s would not l i k e l y be ab l e to h e l p students r e s o l v e i t (and, as s t a t e d in the 'Philosophy,' \"accept r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r t h e i r a c t i o n s \" ) without d e v e l o p i n g at l e a s t some of the attainments of r a t i o n a l p r a c t i c a l r e a s o n i n g . E n g l i s h 10 The g o a l s and l e a r n i n g outcomes i n the secondary E n g l i s h c u r r i c u l u m are the same f o r grades e i g h t through twelve. Degree of emphasis and expected l e v e l s of achievement d i f f e r e n t i a t e one grade from another. The grade ten course w i l l be d i s c u s s e d i n t h i s s e c t i o n . The E n g l i s h 10 resource book f o r t e a c h e r s (1978) d i v i d e s the c u r r i c u l u m i n t o s i x s e c t i o n s : l i s t e n i n g and speaking, language, r e a d i n g , w r i t i n g , communications media, and l i t e r a t u r e . Each s e c t i o n i n c l u d e s o b j e c t i v e s c l a s s i f i e d i n t o l e a r n i n g e x p e r i e n c e s , knowledge and s k i l l s , and a t t i t u d e s . Many of the o b j e c t i v e s l i s t e d under knowledge and s k i l l s and l e a r n i n g e x p e r i e n c e s i n s e v e r a l of the s i x s e c t i o n s are encompassed, i n g e n e r a l terms, i n attainment f i v e ( c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g a b i l i t i e s ) of Coombs' account of p r a c t i c a l r easoning. D i s c u s s i o n here w i l l focus on one such o b j e c t i v e . L i k e the p r e v i o u s two s e c t i o n s i n t h i s c h a p t e r , 55 the concern i s with demonstrating t h a t , i f students are to a c q u i r e c e r t a i n knowledge, a b i l i t i e s or s k i l l s , then t e a c h e r s must have the knowledge, a b i l i t i e s or s k i l l s f i r s t . The o b j e c t i v e t o be analyzed i s subsumed under Goal four - \"develop i n s t u d e n t s a range of r e a d i n g and study s k i l l s . \" I t reads \"the students should understand what the w r i t e r may have i m p l i e d (at the i n f e r e n t i a l l e v e l of comprehension)( E n g l i s h 10; A Resource Book f o r Teachers, 1978, p. 69).\" The t e a c h e r ' s resource book i n c l u d e s two suggested a c t i v i t i e s under t h i s o b j e c t i v e . One i s a s h o r t re a d i n g from one p r e s c r i b e d textbook which d e a l s with the d i f f e r e n c e between the d e n o t a t i v e and the c o n n o t a t i v e use of words; i n f e r e n c e s are not mentioned at a l l . The second i s Read and d i s c u s s Chapter 1 \" C r i t e r i a f o r C r i t i c s \" i n order to show the importance of examining the c o m m u n i c a t i o n - s i t u a t i o n and making d i s t i n c t i o n s between r e p o r t s , i n f e r e n c e s , and judgments. \"The Way i t Seems\" (pp. 11-12) d e a l s with the making of i n f e r e n c e s . The \" A p p l i c a t i o n s \" (pp. 14, 16-17) g i v e p r a c t i c e i n making i n f e r e n c e s , ( i b i d . , p. 69) . \" C r i t e r i a , f o r C r i t i c s \" i s meant to g i v e students the standards by which they can l e a r n \"to d i s c r i m i n a t e f a c t from o p i n i o n and t r u t h from f i c t i o n i n a l l messages\" ( G l a t t h o r n , et a l . , 1971, p. 1) which they r e c e i v e . An a b b r e v i a t e d account of how one e v a l u a t e s the speaker ( i s he q u a l i f i e d i n the f i e l d ? has he a r e l i a b l e past record? does he have any s t r o n g b i a s e s t h a t c o u l d i n f l u e n c e h i s o p i n i o n s or 56 s t a t e m e n t s ? ) 7 i s p r o v i d e d . The next step, we are t o l d , i s to determine the speaker's purpose i n sending a p a r t i c u l a r message - to inform, persuade, amuse, i n c i t e to a c t i o n , and so on - ( G l a t t h o r n , et a l . , p. 3). The above two s t e p s , combined with a s s e s s i n g the o c c a s i o n and the medium of communication ( t e l e v i s i o n , newspapers) together make up the \"communication s i t u a t i o n . \" The \"communication form\" i s then d i s c u s s e d . The book c l a s s i f i e s communications i n t o t hree kinds of statements: r e p o r t s , i n f e r e n c e s and judgments. We are warned, however, that the c l a s s i f i c a t i o n system i s not p e r f e c t . F i r s t , i t i s not complete; many statements w i l l not f i t e x a c t l y i n t o any of these three c a t e g o r i e s . Second, t h i s c l a s s i f i c a t i o n i s not a i r t i g h t ; many statements can be p l a c e d i n two or t h r e e of the c a t e g o r i e s at the same time. F i n a l l y , i t i s a r b i t r a r y ; i t i s simply one way of c l a s s i f y i n g t h i n g s ( i b i d . , p. 17). The paragraph then c o n c l u d e s : D e s p i t e these l i m i t a t i o n s , however, the r e c o g n i t i o n of r e p o r t , i n f e r e n c e and judgment i s u s e f u l t o us i n becoming b e t t e r r e c e i v e r s . I t i s d i f f i c u l t to understand why the authors of t h i s textbook would advocate use of a c l a s s i f i c a t i o n system with the above r e c o g n i z e d l i m i t a t i o n s . I f t h e i r system i s o n l y one way, we might wonder why they d i d not choose a c l a s s i f i c a t i o n system w i t h fewer problems. T h e i r purpose, 7 Compare these standards e a r l i e r i n t h i s c h a p t e r . with those of E n n i s , o u t l i n e d 57 a f t e r a l l , i s to p r o v i d e students with a c l a s s i f i c a t i o n system which would f a c i l i t a t e the search f o r ' t r u t h . ' To t h i s end, they have attempted to supply standards to assess r e p o r t s , i n f e r e n c e s and judgments. As the c l a s s i f i c a t i o n system i s inadequate and the standards p r o v i d e d incomplete, the use of t h i s c h apter to teach students to reco g n i z e i n f e r e n c e s i s p e d a g o g i c a l l y i n d e f e n s i b l e . Furthermore, the authors' account of r e p o r t s , i n f e r e n c e s and judgments i s a l s o open to c r i t i c i s m . G l a t t h o r n , et a l . . (1971) d e f i n e an i n f e r e n c e as an \"informed guess,\" a \" t e n t a t i v e e x p l a n a t i o n , \" and \"a c o n c l u s i o n made about the unknown on the b a s i s of the known ( i b i d . , pp. 12-14).\" These d e f i n i t i o n s may s u f f i c e i n many ci r c u m s t a n c e s . In order to t e s t i n f e r e n c e s , the authors suggest t h a t we r e c o g n i z e t h e i r t e n t a t i v e nature by using q u a l i f y i n g terms such as 'probably', 'maybe,' or 'perhaps.' Again, i n many ci r c u m s t a n c e s , t h i s may be good a d v i c e . In the case of ded u c t i v e i n f e r e n c e s , however, we are assured that our i n f e r e n c e i s c o r r e c t i f the premises a re t r u e and the argument v a l i d . As t h e r e are no examples of d e d u c t i v e i n f e r e n c e s i n the textbook, perhaps one can s p e c u l a t e that the a u t h o r s are unaware that such i n f e r e n c e s e x i s t . A f u r t h e r problem with t h i s account of i n f e r e n c e s i s that i t does not acknowledge t h a t i n f e r e n c e s are o f t e n judgments. Most l i k e l y , t h i s problem a r i s e s because the au t h o r s ' n o t i o n of 'judgment' i s both c i r c u m s c r i b e d and confused. 58 A judgment, a c c o r d i n g to G l a t t h o r n , et a l . , i s \"an e x p r e s s i o n of an o p i n i o n ; a l a b e l p l a c e d upon a person or t h i n g t h a t r e v e a l s our f e e l i n g s of l i k i n g and d i s l i k i n g . \" Because they are \" i n d i v i d u a l and s u b j e c t i v e \" they are dangerous i f accepted as r e p o r t e d , i f they become \" s e l f -f u l f i l l i n g p r o p h e c i e s \" and because they \"have a tendency to become f i n a l ( i b i d . , p. 15).\" A judgment should not be responded to as a r e p o r t by t r y i n g to . . . v e r i f y i t s c o n t e n t s . And i n i t i a l l y you don't debate i t as some arguable i s s u e . I n s t e a d you begin by simply a c c e p t i n g i t as an e x p r e s s i o n of f e e l i n g . . . Once you have accepted the f e e l i n g , you can then ask y o u r s e l f whether the judgment i s d e f e n s i b l e ( i b i d . , p. 16). G l a t t h o r n , e_t a l . have confounded f e e l i n g s , o p i n i o n s and emotive language with judgments. Only the l a s t phrase of the above quote i n d i c a t e s that they are aware t h a t judgments are s u b j e c t to assessment. They suggest three q u e s t i o n s which can be used to a s s e s s judgments: \"Is i t supported by s o l i d f a c t s ? How knowledgeable i s the person making the judgment? Is he i m p a r t i a l , with nothing p e r s o n a l to gain from the judgment?\" Only the f i r s t of these q u e s t i o n s i s unarguably always a p p r o p r i a t e i n a s s e s s i n g judgments. Because G l a t t h o r n , et a l . have only i n c l u d e d judgments of p e r s o n a l t a s t e s i n t h e i r textbook, the l a t t e r two, f o c u s s i n g on a p p e a l s to a u t h o r i t i e s , are seen as s u i t a b l e . T h e i r examples are a l l of two s o r t s : those t h a t s t a t e t h i n g s l i k e \" a l l rock music i s t e r r i b l e \" and \"Scrape i s the best blade on the market;\" or d e s c r i p t i v e statements l i k e \"she s n a r l e d back at 59 him\" and \"the l o v e l y o l d lady s m i l e d s w e e t l y . . . \" Presumably they are unaware that t h e r e are c r i t e r i a , other than r e l i a n c e on a u t h o r i t i e s , by which one can judge whether or not rock music i s t e r r i b l e or razor blades are good. Furthermore, the c r i t e r i a f o r a s s e s s i n g these two judgments are q u i t e d i f f e r e n t . What i s perhaps most p r o b l e m a t i c with t h i s account of judgment and the accompanying i l l u s t r a t i v e examples i s the f a c t t h at i t t r i v i a l i z e s the whole e n t e r p r i s e of making judgments. A p p a r e n t l y , G l a t t h o r n , et_ a l . are not c o g n i z a n t of any other sense of judgment than the one they d e s c r i b e i n t h e i r textbook. But, by f o c u s s i n g on l a r g e l y i n s i g n i f i c a n t t y p e s of judgments such as those above, they have d i s t o r t e d by omission a more important sense of judgment. Moral judgments about what a c t i o n s are r i g h t or wrong or what sh o u l d be done in a p a r t i c u l a r c i r c umstance are based on more than \" f e e l i n g s of l i k i n g and d i s l i k i n g . \" Although i t i s q u i t e reasonable f o r someone to ' f e e l ' t h a t a c e r t a i n a c t i o n i s wrong, t h i s i s l i k e l y because the person has, i n f a c t , reasons f o r t h i n k i n g the a c t i o n wrong. Perhaps she cannot immediately g i v e the reasons, but, upon r e f l e c t i o n , she w i l l l i k e l y be a b l e to do so. Past e x p e r i e n c e and past r e a s o n i n g about a c t i o n s of the kind i n q u e s t i o n w i l l p r o b a b l y s u r f a c e d u r i n g the course of r e f l e c t i o n . A s s e s s i n g r e l i a b i l i t y of a u t h o r i t i e s may p l a y a p a r t i n a r r i v i n g a t a judgment but s t u d e n t s should be:aware t h a t r e l i a n c e on the views of 60 o t h e r s , even a u t h o r i t i e s i n a f i e l d , i s o f t e n more s u i t a b l e for a s s e s s i n g e m p i r i c a l c l a i m s and not moral judgments. Paul T a y l o r s u c c i n c t l y makes t h i s p o i n t . He s t a t e s : To c a l l an a s s e r t i o n a judgment i s . . . to i n d i c a t e that i t i s made as a r e s u l t of a pro c e s s of weighing the reasons f o r and a g a i n s t whatever i t i s that i s being a s s e r t e d . . . When we begin such a process, we en t e r upon a course of rea s o n i n g f o r the purpose of coming t o a d e c i s i o n about the value of something. We do t h i s when there has been some doubt i n our own mind or some d i s p u t e with o t h e r s about the matter. The pro c e s s of e v a l u a t i o n i s thus aimed a t d e c i d i n g an i s s u e , s e t t l i n g a q u e s t i o n , or r e s o l v i n g a doubt ( l o c . c i t . , pp. 49-50) To make and assess judgments i s to do more than simply to have a f e e l i n g of l i k i n g or d i s l i k i n g . Although i t i s l e g i t i m a t e to teach s t u d e n t s to r e c o g n i z e e v a l u a t i v e language when they see or hear i t , i t i s e d u c a t i o n a l l y at l e a s t q u e s t i o n a b l e to te a c h s t u d e n t s t h a t judgments are onl y f e e l i n g s and that they can be defended by a p p e a l i n g to a u t h o r i t i e s . Thomas Green suggests a p l a u s i b l e e x p l a n a t i o n f o r t h i s mistaken n o t i o n of judgment. Because judgments are made i n the absence of complete knowledge, we can never be c e r t a i n t h a t they are c o r r e c t . He s t a t e s : the grounds of judgment are never c o n c l u s i v e , and t h e r e f o r e i t i s p e r f e c t l y p o s s i b l e f o r d i f f e r e n t men to g i v e d i f f e r e n t judgments on the same matter and even i n r e l a t i o n to the same grounds; and i t may a l s o be the. case t h a t such d i f f e r e n t judgments are e q u a l l y r e a s o n a b l e . T h i s p o i n t i s immensely important i n e d u c a t i o n . The f a c t t h a t reasonable men may d i f f e r i n matters of judgment i s c e r t a i n o f t e n c o n s t r u e d by t e a c h e r s as evidence that kinds of judgments are s u b j e c t i v e or t h a t , as opposed t o judgments of f a c t , they are 61 merely e x p r e s s i o n s of o p i n i o n ( i b i d . , p. 178) Apparently t h i s view i s h e l d by the authors of the textbook d i s c u s s e d above. The G l a t t h o r n , et a l . textbook has been d i s c u s s e d at l e n g t h i n order to demonstrate t h a t t e a c h e r s who must r e l y on such a source f o r i n f o r m a t i o n to teach students how to i d e n t i f y and assess i n f e r e n c e s i s to m i s l e a d both t e a c h e r s and s t u d e n t s . If t e a c h e r s were somewhat p r o f i c i e n t at the kinds of a b i l i t i e s o u t l i n e d i n Coombs' account of. c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g (attainment f i v e ) they would r e a l i z e t h a t t h i s textbook was completely u n s u i t a b l e f o r t e a c h i n g the o b j e c t i v e d i s c u s s e d above. T h i s same chapter i s recommended as a p r e p a r a t i o n f o r a n a l y z i n g b i a s i n newspaper r e p o r t i n g . The t e a c h e r s ' resource book a d v i s e s Note p a r t i c u l a r l y the s e l e c t i o n of d e t a i l s , the use of loaded language, and the i n t r u s i o n of value judgments (1978, p. 100). Again v a l u e judgments are confused with o p i n i o n s or a s s e r t i o n s of f e e l i n g s t h a t are not s u b j e c t to adequate j u s t i f i c a t i o n . T h i s approach may be adequate f o r t e a c h i n g students to be c a u t i o u s i n a c c e p t i n g a d v e r t i s i n g c l a i m s but i t i s d e f i c i e n t f o r t e a c h i n g s t u d e n t s to a n a l y z e b i a s i n newspaper r e p o r t i n g . Yet the i n t e n t of the c u r r i c u l u m appears to be that students l e a r n to analyze s o c i a l i s s u e s s e r i o u s l y . The t e a c h e r s ' r e s o u r c e book i n c l u d e s many sug g e s t i o n s f o r students to g i v e speeches, debate, argue and 62 w r i t e p o s i t i o n papers on such c o n t r o v e r s i a l t o p i c s as v i o l e n c e i n s p o r t s , environmental i s s u e s , as w e l l as on democracy, war and so on. In e f f e c t , many of t h e s e suggested a c t i v i t i e s are paradigm cases r e q u i r i n g p r a c t i c a l r e a s o n i n g . To debate t o p i c s such as \" s c i e n t i s t s must be a l l o w e d to experiment on humans\" ( i b i d . , p. 46) or \"the h u n t i n g or p o l a r bears should be banned\" ( i b i d . , p. 47) r e q u i r e s many of the attainments o u t l i n e d i n Coombs' account of p r a c t i c a l r e a s o n i n g . M i n i m a l l y , debates such as these would demand the f o l l o w i n g : 1. S e n s i t i v i t y to s i t u a t i o n s i n which p r a c t i c a l r easoning i s r e q u i r e d . B a s i c a l l y t h i s i s a s e n s i t i v i t y to d e c i s i o n s or a c t i o n s which are l i k e l y to have consequences of such s i g n i f i c a n c e to o n e s e l f or others as to warrant s e r i o u s r e f l e c t i o n b e f o r e a c t i n g . 3. A b i l i t y and d i s p o s i t i o n to i d e n t i f y or c o n c e i v e of reasonable a l t e r n a t i v e s to the proposed course of a c t i o n . 4. A b i l i t y and i n c l i n a t i o n to assemble, i n s o f a r as p r a c t i c a l l y p o s s i b l e , a l l the i n f o r m a t i o n r e l e v a n t to d e t e r m i n i n g the r e l a t i v e worth of each course of a c t i o n under c o n s i d e r a t i o n . 5. A b i l i t y to a s s e s s the accuracy of the i n f o r m a t i o n c o n c e r n i n g the a l t e r n a t i v e c o u r s e s of a c t i o n . 7. A b i l i t y and d i s p o s i t i o n t o assess the moral a c c e p t a b i l i t y . of the a l t e r n a t i v e c o u r s e s of a c t i o n . To h o l d a debate without a t t e n t i o n t o the j u s t i f i c a t i o n of arguments f o r and a g a i n s t the p o s i t i o n i s to reduce i t to the l e v e l of e x p r e s s i o n s of or a s s e r t i o n s about f e e l i n g s . Throughout the teacher r e s o u r c e book t h e r e a r e numerous 63 s u g g e s t i o n s f o r a c t i v i t i e s to teach s k i l l s of c r i t i c a l a n a l y s i s . None of the language textbooks p r e s c r i b e d , s i n g l y or i n c o n c e r t , nor the two n o n - f i c t i o n books that are meant to be used to teach these s k i l l s p r o v i d e adequate coverage of the standards by which one a s s e s s e s communications. Unless t e a c h e r s are aware of the c o m p l e x i t i e s and c r i t e r i a i n v o l v e d i n the e v a l u a t i o n of arguments, e m p i r i c a l , c o n c e p t u a l or v a l u e , they w i l l be unable to f u l f i l l the o b j e c t i v e s of the E n g l i s h c u r r i c u l u m . The components of p r a c t i c a l r easoning encompass the necessary c o m p l e x i t y and c r i t e r i a . If t e a c h e r s a c q u i r e d these a t t a i n m e n t s , the t e a c h i n g of E n g l i s h would be s u b s t a n t i a l l y improved. SUMMARY T h i s chapter has examined t h r e e secondary c u r r i c u l u m guides used i n B r i t i s h Columbia - S o c i a l S t u d i e s n , Consumer E d u c a t i o n 9/10 and E n g l i s h 10. D i s c u s s i o n has focussed on some of the components! of Coombs' account of p r a c t i c a l r e a s o n i n g i n order to i l l u s t r a t e i t s v a l u e i n the t e a c h i n g of these three s u b j e c t s . . In f a c t , i t has been claime d t h a t t e a c h e r s who have not l e a r n e d s p e c i f i c components w i l l be unable to teach these c u r r i c u l a with the p r e s c r i b e d r e s o u r c e s . Although these three s u b j e c t s were chosen f o r d i s c u s s i o n , t h i s does not mean t h a t these are the only s c h o o l s u b j e c t s that r e q u i r e p r a c t i c a l r e a s o n i n g . Rather, the i n t e n t was to use them as examples of how 64 t e a c h i n g c o u l d be improved i f t e a c h e r s were to become p r o f i c i e n t at p r a c t i c a l r e a s o n i n g . Thus, the c l a i m i s that a l l s u b j e c t s i n s c h o o l would be b e t t e r taught should t e a c h e r s become p r o f i c i e n t at p r a c t i c a l r e a s o n i n g . Furthermore, t h i s c o n t e n t i o n i s a l s o meant to encompass elementary school t e a c h e r s , even though the focus has been on secondary s c h o o l c u r r i c u l a . The elementary s o c i a l s t u d i e s c u r r i c u l u m i n B r i t i s h Columbia, f o r example, i s s i m i l a r to the secondary i n that i t has as one of i t s g o a l s that students should l e a r n t o d e a l with i s s u e s . An i s s u e i s d e f i n e d \"as a matter of i n t e r e s t about which there i s s i g n i f i c a n t disagreement. The disagreement can i n v o l v e matters of f a c t , matters of meaning or matters of value (1983, p. 7 ) . \" The ' S k i l l s ' appendix of the c u r r i c u l u m o u t l i n e s decision-making s k i l l s to be taught, many of which are s i m i l a r to some of the attainments of p r a c t i c a l r e a s o n i n g . i d e n t i f y problem or i s s u e ; i d e n t i f y p o s s i b l e a l t e r n a t i v e s o l u t i o n s or o b j e c t i v e s ; gather, a n a l y z e and i n t e r p r e t i n f o r m a t i o n r e g a r d i n g the a l t e r n a t i v e s ; e v a l u a t e the a l t e r n a t i v e s and e s t a b l i s h which should be accorded h i g h e r p r i o r i t y i n l i g h t of the i n f o r m a t i o n gathered and/or value p r e f e r e n c e s ; t e s t the p r i o r i t i e s and a n a l y z e the consequence of each; plan a course of a c t i o n ; e s t a b l i s h a group d e c i s i o n ; take some a c t i o n on the group's d e c i s i o n ; e v a l u a t e the group's d e c i s i o n ( i b i d . , p. 46). Although the l e v e l s of achievement to be expected from elementary s c h o o l s t u d e n t s are o b v i o u s l y lower than what can be expected from secondary s t u d e n t s , the a b i l i t i e s i n v o l v e d i n p r a c t i c a l reasoning are r e q u i r e d f o r f u l f i l l m e n t c u r r i c u l a r o b j e c t i v e s at both l e v e l s . 66 CHAPTER IV S t r a t e g i c A c t s and P r a c t i c a l Reasoning: Respect f o r Persons and Classroom Rules A c c o r d i n g to Green, there i s an i n c o n s i s t e n c y i n the idea t h a t t e a c h i n g c o u l d go on without both the s t r a t e g i c and l o g i c a l a c t s . Furthermore, he maintains t h a t t e a c h i n g \"cannot be e x c e l l e n t without a t t e n t i o n to both.\" (Green, 1971, p. 8 ) . \" In chapter t h r e e d i s c u s s i o n f o c u s s e d on improving the l o g i c a l a c t s ; i n c h a p t e r four d i s c u s s i o n w i l l c e n t r e on the s t r a t e g i c a c t s . More s p e c i f i c a l l y , i t w i l l be argued t h a t s t r a t e g i c a c t s r e l a t e d to i n t e r p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s i n the classroom must l o g i c a l l y be improved i f t e a c h e r s were to gain some e x p e r t i s e i n p r a c t i c a l r e a s o n i n g . As p o i n t e d out i n Chapter one, Green b e l i e v e s that the l o g i c a l and s t r a t e g i c a c t s of t e a c h i n g can be d i s t i n g u i s h e d p r i m a r i l y by how they are e v a l u a t e d . The l o g i c a l a c t s , he says, can be a s s e s s e d independently of t h e i r consequences f o r l e a r n i n g . In h i s words: An e x p l a n a t i o n w i l l be a good one i f i t accounts f o r what i s to be e x p l a i n e d . I f i t i s w e l l c o n s t r u c t e d and without l o g i c a l f a u l t , then i t i s a good e x p l a n a t i o n even when i t i s not understood by anyone except i t s author . . . whether reasons are good or adequate to support a c e r t a i n b e l i e f depend upon the l o g i c a l p r o p e r t i e s of the r e l a t i o n between the b e l i e f and i t s reasons, and not on the p s y c h o l o g i c a l f a c t that someone happens to accept the reasons ( i b i d , p. 7 ) . S t r a t e g i c a c t s , on the other hand, are e v a l u a t e d mainly by t h e i r consequences f o r l e a r n i n g . As t e a c h i n g . i s an 67 i n t e n t i o n a l a c t i v i t y , in which the aim i s to get someone to l e a r n something, then at l e a s t p a r t of ' s u c c e s s f u l ' t e a c h i n g must i n c l u d e whether or not students have l e a r n e d what the teacher aims to te a c h . In attempting to meet the aim, that i s t e a c h i n g someone something, a v a r i e t y of s t r a t e g i c a c t s i s employed. D i f f e r e n t kinds of a b i l i t i e s and knowledge are r e q u i r e d f o r the s t r a t e g i c a c t s than f o r the l o g i c a l a c t s of t e a c h i n g . Green s t a t e s that the former r e q u i r e \" c o n s i d e r a b l e knowledge of human behavior and m o t i v a t i o n \" and \"an acqu a i n t a n c e with the laws of l e a r n i n g and human growth\" while the l a t t e r r e q u i r e \"a knowledge of the laws of thought ( i b i d . , p. 8 ) . \" The l o g i c a l a c t s can be d i s p l a y e d i n a r a t h e r s h o r t p e r i o d of time, perhaps a l e s s o n , whereas the s t r a t e g i c a c t s w i l l l i k e l y be demonstrated, and can thus be e v a l u a t e d , o n l y over a longer p e r i o d . B r i e f mention was made i n chapter three of the s t r a t e g i c a c t s of choosing t e a c h i n g methodologies and c u r r i c u l u m m a t e r i a l s . J u s t as i t was found t h a t i t was im p o s s i b l e to d i s c u s s the l o g i c a l a c t s without some r e f e r e n c e to s t r a t e g i c a c t s , i t w i l l be i m p o s s i b l e a l s o to d i s c u s s s t r a t e g i c a c t s without o c c a s i o n a l r e f e r e n c e to l o g i c a l a c t s . They are l o g i c a l l y i n t e r t w i n e d . One f u r t h e r p o i n t remains to be made with r e s p e c t to the approach taken i n t h i s c h a p t e r . Some of the components 6 8 of Coombs' account of p r a c t i c a l r easoning w i l l be d i s c u s s e d i n r e l a t i o n to r e s p e c t f o r persons and classroom r u l e s i n order to i l l u s t r a t e the value of p r a c t i c a l r e a s o n i n g . The i n t e n t i o n i s to e x p l a i n how r a t i o n a l p r a c t i c a l r easoning would c o n t r i b u t e to improved p e d a g o g i c a l p r a c t i c e . In e f f e c t , the major concern i s with f a c i l i t a t i o n of student l e a r n i n g i n a m o r a l l y a c c e p t a b l e f a s h i o n . Green's account of the requirements f o r improving s t r a t e g i c a c t s i s l i m i t e d to t e a c h e r s a c q u i r i n g knowledge of human behaviour and m o t i v a t i o n as w e l l as acquaintance with \"laws of l e a r n i n g and human growth.\" As these requirements are phrased i n only the most g e n e r a l terminology, t h e r e i s l i t t l e room to advance my c e n t r a l argument. Although s e v e r a l of Coombs' components are l i k e l y encompassed i n Green's requirements, i t w i l l be more p r o d u c t i v e to examine i n t e r p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s i n the classroom by a d d r e s s i n g f i r s t , the p r i n c i p l e of r e s p e c t f o r persons and, second, the making of r u l e s . I t s h ould be p o i n t e d out that Green does not i n c l u d e i n h i s account of s t r a t e g i c a c t s any c a t e g o r y of a c t i v i t i e s c a l l e d ' i n t e r p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s . ' However, i f one examines the l i s t of examples of s t r a t e g i c a c t s he p r o v i d e s , 8 one can 8 Green's l i s t of s t r a t e g i c a c t s i n c l u d e s : m o t i v a t i n g , c o u n s e l l i n g , e v a l u a t i n g , p l a n n i n g , encouraging, d i s c i p l i n i n g and q u e s t i o n i n g 6 9 d i s t i n g u i s h two r a t h e r d i f f e r e n t t y pes. F i r s t , there are those a c t s which are q u i t e d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d to i n s t r u c t i o n a l aims. An example of t h i s type might be the s e l e c t i o n of q u e s t i o n s a p p r o p r i a t e f o r student a b i l i t i e s . A second type are those a c t s which are l e s s d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d to i n s t r u c t i o n a l a c t i v i t i e s but which have important consequences f o r l e a r n i n g . M o t i v a t i n g and encouraging students are examples of t h i s second type. I t i s t h i s second type of a c t i v i t i e s which I have termed i n t e r p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s . Respect f o r Persons and the C r i t i c a l S p i r i t In c h a p t e r t h r e e , b r i e f r e f e r e n c e was made to m a i n t a i n i n g a c l a s s r o o m ' atmosphere which was conducive to d e v e l o p i n g what S i e g e l (1980) d e s c r i b e s as the \" c r i t i c a l s p i r i t \" i n order that s t u d e n t s would develop the d i s p o s i t i o n to e x e r c i s e c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g a b i l i t i e s , to be open-minded and i n t e l l e c t u a l l y honest. S i e g e l i s concerned a l s o with the c r i t i c a l s p i r i t as i t r e l a t e s to e t h i c a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s a r i s i n g i n e d u c a t i o n a l c o n t e x t s . The manner of t e a c h i n g , the \" c r i t i c a l manner,\" r e i n f o r c e s the c r i t i c a l s p i r i t . A c c o r d i n g to S i e g e l , the c r i t i c a l manner means, f i r s t that the teacher always r e c o g n i z e s the r i g h t of the student to q u e s t i o n and demand reasons; and consequently r e c o g n i z e s an o b l i g a t i o n to p r o v i d e reasons whenever demanded. The c r i t i c a l manner thus demands of a teacher a w i l l i n g n e s s to s u b j e c t a l l b e l i e f s and p r a c t i c e s to s c r u t i n y , and so to allow students the genuine o p p o r t u n i t y to understand the r o l e reasons p l a y i n 70 j u s t i f y i n g thought and a c t i o n . The c r i t i c a l manner a l s o demands honesty of a t e a c h e r ; reasons p r e s e n t e d by a teacher must be genuine reasons, and a teacher must h o n e s t l y a p p r a i s e the power of those reasons. In a d d i t i o n , the teacher must submit h i s or her reasons to the independent e v a l u a t i o n of the student ( l o c . c i t . , p 11). C l e a r l y , the c r i t i c a l manner as d e s c r i b e d above i s c l o s e l y t i e d to the l o g i c a l a c t s of t e a c h i n g . However, there are s i g n i f i c a n t i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r the s t r a t e g i c a c t s . S i e g e l m a i n t a i n s t h a t t e a c h i n g ought to a c c o r d with the c r i t i c a l manner because, in h i s words, \". . . i t would be immoral to teach i n any other way ( i b i d . , p. 13).\" He j u s t i f i e s t h i s c l a i m by u s i n g the K a n t i a n n o t i o n of r e s p e c t f o r persons. As t e a c h i n g i n v o l v e s i n t e r a c t i o n between persons, i t must conform to the g e n e r a l requirements b i n d i n g a l l i n t e r p e r s o n a l i n t e r a c t i o n s . He s t a t e s .. . . w e must, i f we are to conduct our i n t e r p e r s o n a l a f f a i r s m o r a l l y , r e c o g n i z e and r e s p e c t the f a c t t h a t we are d e a l i n g with other persons who as such deserve r e s p e c t - t h a t i s , we must show r e s p e c t f o r persons. T h i s i n c l u d e s the r e c o g n i t i o n t h a t other persons are of equal moral worth, which e n t a i l s that we t r e a t other persons i n such a way t h a t t h e i r moral worth i s r e s p e c t e d . T h i s i n turn r e q u i r e s t h a t we r e c o g n i z e other persons' needs, d e s i r e s , and l e g i t i m a t e i n t e r e s t s to be as worthy as our own ( i b i d . , pp. 13-14). The above remarks are concerned with the g e n e r a l p r i n c i p l e of r e s p e c t f o r persons. S i e g e l then a p p l i e s t h i s g e n e r a l p r i n c i p l e to the t e a c h e r - s t u d e n t i n t e r a c t i o n . What does i t mean f o r a teacher to r e c o g n i z e the equal moral worth of students and to t r e a t s t udents with r e s p e c t ? Among other t h i n g s , i t means r e c o g n i z i n g the student's r i g h t to q u e s t i o n , to c h a l l e n g e , and to demand reasons and j u s t i f i c a t i o n s f o r what i s being taught. The teacher who f a i l s to r e c o g n i z e these r i g h t s of the student f a i l s to t r e a t the student with r e s p e c t , f o r t r e a t i n g the student with r e s p e c t i n v o l v e s r e c o g n i z i n g the student's r i g h t to e x e r c i s e h i s or her independent judgment and powers of e v a l u a t i o n ( i b i d . , p. 14). Before c o n t i n u i n g , i t may be u s e f u l to look at another i n f l u e n t i a l account of personhood, one t h a t , i n essence, agrees with S i e g e l ' s . R i c h a r d P e t e r s ' view i s that persons are \" c e n t r e s of v a l u a t i o n , d e c i s i o n , and c h o i c e (1966, p. 211).\" I n d i v i d u a l s w i l l l e a r n to t h i n k of themselves as persons only i f they l e a r n to t h i n k of themselves as autonomous beare r s of r i g h t s w i t h i n d i v i d u a l p o i n t s of view. He s a y s : The concept of being a person . . . i s d e r i v a t i v e from the v a l u a t i o n p l a c e d i n a s o c i e t y upon the d e t e r m i n i n g r o l e of i n d i v i d u a l p o i n t s of view. I n d i v i d u a l s w i l l only [ s i c ] tend to a s s e r t t h e i r r i g h t s as i n d i v i d u a l s , to take p r i d e i n t h e i r achievements, to d e l i b e r a t e c a r e f u l l y and choose ' f o r themselves' what they ought to do, and to develop t h e i r own i n d i v i d u a l s t y l e of emotional r e a c t i o n - i n other words they w i l l o n l y [ s i c ] tend to m a n i f e s t a l l the v a r i o u s p r o p e r t i e s which we a s s o c i a t e with being 'persons' - i f they are encouraged to do so ( i b i d . , p. 211). To a s c e r t a i n the degree to which t e a c h e r - s t u d e n t i n t e r a c t i o n s are guided by t h i s view of r e s p e c t f o r persons would r e q u i r e s u b s t a n t i a l e m p i r i c a l r e s e a r c h . I t seems rea s o n a b l y l i k e l y , however, t h a t l a c k of r e s p e c t f o r s t u d e n t s as persons, i n the moral sense of the term, does c h a r a c t e r i z e at l e a s t some c l a s s r o o m i n t e r a c t i o n s . Buxton and P r i c h a r d (1973), i n a study conducted i n the U.S. found t h a t , of the 815 students i n t h e i r sample, ten per cent 72 answered \" f r e q u e n t l y \" to the q u e s t i o n \"Have you ever been degraded or t r e a t e d with d i s r e s p e c t by a t e a c h e r ? \" w h i l e another f o r t y - f i v e per cent answered \"sometimes.\" A d d i t i o n a l l y , students p e r c e i v e d that t h e i r most v i o l a t e d r i g h t was teacher r e s p e c t f o r t h e i r o p i n i o n s . Because the sample was f a i r l y s m a l l , i t would not be a p p r o p r i a t e to g e n e r a l i z e the r e s u l t s found by Buxton and P r i c h a r d . However, i t seems reasonable to assume that the \" c r i t i c a l manner\" of t e a c h i n g i s not found i n many classrooms. Schools have been f r e q u e n t l y c r i t i c i z e d i n recent years f o r s t i f l i n g genuine i n q u i r y , f o r t h e i r concern with the one r i g h t answer. John Goodlad's massive study of s c h o o l i n g i s i n d i c a t i v e i n t h i s r e g a r d . Summarizing some of h i s f i n d i n g s i n an a r t i c l e e n t i t l e d \"What Some Schools and Classrooms Teach,\" Goodlad (1983) s t a t e s t h a t , i n the schools he and h i s c o l l e a g u e s s t u d i e d , independent, t h i n k i n g was not h i g h l y regarded. Students were r e q u i r e d to memorize i n f o r m a t i o n from the textbook or g i v e n to them by the teacher at the expense, of understanding the i m p l i c a t i o n s of t h a t i n f o r m a t i o n . \"Seeking ' r i g h t ' answers, conforming and r e p r o d u c i n g the known\" are viewed as a p p r o p r i a t e c l a s s r o o m b e h a v i o u r s . Goodlad a l s o comments that h i s data suggested l i t t l e p o s s i b i l i t y of s t u d e n t s \" d e v e l o p i n g p r o d u c t i v e and s a t i s f y i n g r e l a t i o n s w i t h o t h e r s based on r e s p e c t . . . ( i b i d . , p. 17).\" Of p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t here, though, i s h i s view of what might be a p a r t i a l e x p l a n a t i o n f o r the nature of today's c l a s s r o o m s . 73 And why should we expect t e a c h e r s to teach otherwise? T h i s i s the way they were taught i n sc h o o l and c o l l e g e ( i b i d . , p. 15). Unless t e a c h e r s were to dev e l o p the a b i l i t i e s and d i s p o s i t i o n s o u t l i n e d i n Coombs' account of p r a c t i c a l r easoning, the s i t u a t i o n d e s c r i b e d by Goodlad and by Buxton and P r i c h a r d c o u l d not be improved. The p r i n c i p l e of r e s p e c t for persons i n c l u d e s many of the components of p r a c t i c a l r e a s o n i n g . Tob ask the q u e s t i o n 'how should persons be t r e a t e d ? ' i s tantamount to a s k i n g the b a s i c q u e s t i o n of p r a c t i c a l reasoning, 'what should be done?' In a s k i n g the q u e s t i o n s e r i o u s l y , one i s committed t o cho o s i n g the best a l t e r n a t i v e course of a c t i o n open to o n e s e l f , on the b a s i s of good reasons. And, as p o i n t e d out i n chapter t h r e e , the canons of reasoning f o r the j u s t i f i c a t i o n of va l u e judgments are r u l e s of r e l e v a n c e and r u l e s of v a l i d i n f e r e n c e . Rules of v a l i d i n f e r e n c e are cov e r e d by component f i v e of Coombs' account and i n c l u d e those a b i l i t i e s r e q u i r e d t o assess the accuracy of i n f o r m a t i o n ( c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g a b i l i t i e s ) . Although assessment of the f a c t s of any p a r t i c u l a r s i t u a t i o n i s c r u c i a l t o r a t i o n a l p r a c t i c a l r e a s o n ing, i t i s the r u l e s of r e l e v a n c e which w i l l be d i s c u s s e d here. Given t h a t r e s p e c t f o r persons i s a moral p r i n c i p l e , i t seems a p p r o p r i a t e to c o n c e n t r a t e on those components which s p e c i f i c a l l y r e l a t e t o moral r e a s o n i n g . I t i s , i n f a c t , not too much to say t h a t moral reasoning i s e s s e n t i a l l y r e a s o n i n g about how persons are to be t r e a t e d . 7 4 In order to understand and apply the p r i n c i p l e of r e s p e c t f o r persons, one would f i r s t need to a c q u i r e s e v e r a l of the components of Coombs' account of p r a c t i c a l r e a s o n i n g . Component 1.1.1, knowledge of what s o r t s of t h i n g s are b a s i c v a l u e s f o r human beings in g e n e r a l , i s c l e a r l y r e q u i r e d . Without t h i s knowledge, i t would be i m p o s s i b l e to d i s t i n g u i s h persons from non-human animals. Component 1.2 i s a l s o c e n t r a l . It r e q u i r e s : S e n s i t i v i t y to m o r a l l y hazardous a c t i o n s , that i s , a c t i o n s which r e q u i r e assessment from the moral p o i n t of view. T h i s s e n s i t i v i t y a l e r t s persons to (1) a c t i o n s that may have consequences f o r o t h e r s which the a c t o r c o u l d not accept i f they were to b e f a l l him and (2) a c t i o n s which may have unacceptable consequences were everyone to engage i n them. Such s e n s i t i v i t y i s composed of a v a r i e t y of more s p e c i f i c a t t a i n m e n t s i n c l u d i n g the f o l l o w i n g : 1.2.1 Knowledge of b a s i c moral r u l e s . 1.2.2 Knowledge of what g e n e r a l l y harms human beings e i t h e r p h y s i c a l l y or emot i o n a l l y . 1.2.3 P o s s e s s i o n of a wide range of moral co n c e p t s . . . To say t h a t using the p r i n c i p l e of r e s p e c t f o r persons r e q u i r e s the above s e n s i t i v i t y and knowledge i s almost t a u t o l o g o u s . The t a u t o l o g y i s , however, a r e v e a l i n g one. To d e c i d e , i n the s t r o n g sense, t h a t one ought to t r e a t X i n Y f a s h i o n l o g i c a l l y r e q u i r e s j u s t i f i c a t i o n from the moral p o i n t of view. S i m i l a r l y , to j u s t i f y a d e c i s i o n t h a t one ought to t r e a t X in a c e r t a i n way r e q u i r e s component 7. A b i l i t y and d i s p o s i t i o n to a ssess the moral a c c e p t a b i l i t y of the a l t e r n a t i v e courses of a c t i o n . C o n s t i t u e n t s of t h i s attainment i n c l u d e : 7.1 Knowing t h a t moral assessment i s guided by 75 two p r i n c i p l e s : (a) I t cannot be r i g h t f o r me to do X u n l e s s i t i s r i g h t f o r any person i n the same s o r t of circumstances to do X. (b) I f the consequences of everyone's doing X i n a given circumstance would be unacceptable, then i t i s not r i g h t f o r anyone to do X i n that c i r c u m s t a n c e . As p o i n t e d out i n chapter t h r e e , the two p r i n c i p l e s of moral assessment in attainment 7.1 d e r i v e from a view of m o r a l i t y which m a i n t a i n s that a moral p r i n c i p l e i s a c c e p t a b l e i f , and only i f , a l l the judgments l o g i c a l l y d e r i v e d from i t are a l s o a c c e p t a b l e ( S i n g e r , 1963). Encompassed i n them are the p r i n c i p l e s of j u s t i c e , i m p a r t i a l i t y and e q u a l i t y , r u l i n g out f a v o u r i t i s m f o r any i n d i v i d u a l . Attainments 7.2 and 7.3 can be used to c h a l l e n g e the a c c e p t a b i l i t y of a moral judgment about how o t h e r s are to be t r e a t e d through the u n i v e r s a l consequences t e s t and r o l e exchange t e s t , r e s p e c t i v e l y . These two t e s t s , d e s c r i b e d i n c h apter t h r e e , g i v e c o n c r e t e form to the two p r i n c i p l e s of moral assessment.. A h y p o t h e t i c a l example, though probably not an u n r e a l i s t i c one, may h e l p to i l l u s t r a t e how the above a t t a i n m e n t s would apply i n the classroom. Suppose a teacher was to make a s a r c a s t i c remark i n response to a student's n a i v e , but r a t h e r f o o l i s h , q u e s t i o n . In responding i n such a f a s h i o n , the teacher i s v i o l a t i n g the p r i n c i p l e of r e s p e c t f o r p ersons. Sarcasm may p r o v i d e amusement f o r the r e s t of the c l a s s , but i s l i k e l y to embarrass the ' o f f e n d i n g ' 76 student, l e a v i n g him with d i m i n i s h e d s e l f - r e s p e c t . T h i s course of a c t i o n cannot be c o n s i d e r e d m o r a l l y a c c e p t a b l e . Knowledge of the moral concept of 'demeaning,' (most teach e r s probably know the meaning, but may^be unaware that i t i s a moral c o n c e p t ) , combined with the a b i l i t y and d i s p o s i t i o n to assess the moral a c c e p t a b i l i t y of one's a c t i o n s would be h e l p f u l i n such a s i t u a t i o n . If t e a c h e r s were to become p r o f i c i e n t i n p r a c t i c a l r e a s o n ing, the above type of a c t i o n , and o t h e r s which v i o l a t e the p r i n c i p l e of r e s p e c t f o r persons, would be l e s s l i k e l y to occur, thus f a c i l i t a t i n g student m o t i v a t i o n f o r l e a r n i n g . In a d d i t i o n to the moral j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r t e a c h i n g i n the \" c r i t i c a l manner,\" f o r t r e a t i n g s tudents qua persons with r e s p e c t , i t i s at l e a s t r easonable to argue that such t e a c h i n g might a i d i n d e v e l o p i n g the student's d i s p o s i t i o n to a c t i n the same way. Here a g a i n , the c l o s e c o n n e c t i o n between l o g i c a l and s t r a t e g i c a c t s i s e v i d e n t . Making Classroom Rules I n t e r p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s i n the classroom are governed, at l e a s t i n p a r t , by teacher-made r u l e s . C e r t a i n minimum c o n d i t i o n s of order must o b t a i n i n order f o r e d u c a t i o n to take p l a c e . In a d d i t i o n t o t h i s i n s t r u m e n t a l need f o r r u l e s , however, teac h e r s must a l s o h e l p s t u d e n t s develop an understanding of what r u l e s are and why they are important i n p r o t e c t i n g the r i g h t s and i n t e r e s t s of i n d i v i d u a l s . Thus 77 the f o r m u l a t i o n of r u l e s to m aintain order i n the classroom, a s t r a t e g i c a c t , has important i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r student l e a r n i n g about r u l e s . Although many of the r u l e s governing behaviour in school are formulated by a d m i n i s t r a t o r s (no running i n the h a l l , f o r example) or by l e g i s l a t o r s (compulsory a t t e n d a n c e ) , the i n d i v i d u a l teacher has a f a i r degree of autonomy with r e s p e c t to what r u l e s s h a l l be e s t a b l i s h e d w i t h i n h i s or her c l a s s . It would seem, then, t h a t the f o r m u l a t i o n of c l a s s r o o m r u l e s i s an a c t i v i t y r e q u i r i n g p r a c t i c a l r e a s o n i n g . Teachers have a l t e r n a t i v e ways of answering the q u e s t i o n \"what should be done with r e s p e c t to -classroom r u l e s ? \" While a l a r g e number of a l t e r n a t i v e s i s c o n c e i v a b l e , only those which serve p a r t i c u l a r purposes and which are j u s t i f i a b l e ought to be chosen. Before d i s c u s s i n g the i s s u e of j u s t i f y i n g r u l e s , however, i t may be u s e f u l to c l a r i f y what s o r t s of r u l e s are of c o n c e r n . Kurt B a i e r has d i s t i n g u i s h e d s i x d i f f e r e n t senses i n which the word ' r u l e ' i s used. The s i x a r e : 1) r e g u l a t i o n s , which are i n f o r c e only a f t e r they have been p r o p e r l y adopted or l a i d down by someone; to be i n f o r c e , r e g u l a t i o n s presuppose the whole s o c i a l apparatus of rule-enforcement, i n c l u d i n g b e i n g supported by some s o r t of s a n c t i o n . 2) customs or mores, which are not l a i d down by any one i n p a r t i c u l a r ; mores vary from group to group, are taught to the young, and r e l y on s o c i a l p r e s s u r e s f o r t h e i r c o n t i n u a n c e . 3) maxims or p r i n c i p l e s , which are adopted by i n d i v i d u a l s to govern p e r s o n a l conduct; they do 78 not depend l o g i c a l l y f o r support upon s o c i a l p r e s s u r e s . 4) canons, which are f o r m u l a t i o n s of p r a c t i c a l wisdom; canons p r o v i d e simple v e r b a l a i d s to those t r y i n g to a c q u i r e a s k i l l . 5) r e g u l a r i t i e s or u n i f o r m i t i e s , which merely d e s c r i b e what i s r e g u l a r about something. 6) c o n s t i t u t i v e r u l e s , which c o n s t i t u t e the nature of a c e r t a i n r u l e determined a c t i v i t y ( B a i e r , 1965, pp. 68-71) Acc o r d i n g t o B a i e r , only the f i r s t and second usages, r e g u l a t i o n s and mores, are s o c i a l r u l e s ; t h a t i s , they imply the e x i s t e n c e of s o c i a l p r e s s u r e s i n support of the r u l e s . They d i f f e r , however, i n the f o l l o w i n g r e s p e c t s : R e g u l a t i o n s come i n t o e x i s t e n c e by being l a i d down, mores simply by coming to be supported; r e g u l a t i o n s change by being d e l i b e r a t e l y a l t e r e d by the person a u t h o r i z e d to do so, mores change when new types of conduct come to be e i t h e r backed or r e j e c t e d ; r e g u l a t i o n s come to an end by being a b o l i s h e d , mores by c e a s i n g to be supported . . while mores are supported by c o m p a r a t i v e l y i n d e t e r m i n a t e and unorganized p r e s s u r e s , those which support r e g u l a t i o n s are h i g h l y o r g a n i z e d and determinate ( i b i d . , p. 72). Only the f i r s t sense of r u l e , the r e g u l a t i o n sense, i s d i r e c t l y r e l e v a n t to the c e n t r a l q u e s t i o n of t h i s s e c t i o n (what cl a s s r o o m r u l e s should be e s t a b l i s h e d ? ) , a l t h o u g h the other senses are probably a l s o of concern t o t e a c h e r s i n c a r r y i n g out other a c t i v i t i e s . The second and t h i r d senses, mores and m a x i m s / p r i n c i p l e s r e s p e c t i v e l y , w i l l be d i s c u s s e d as they p e r t a i n to the c e n t r a l q u e s t i o n . Using the f e a t u r e s of r u l e s i d e n t i f i e d by B a i e r , i t 79 seems that t e a c h e r s are a u t h o r i z e d to make and e n f o r c e r u l e s , i n the r e g u l a t i o n sense. The problem i s to decide how to go about j u s t i f y i n g p a r t i c u l a r r u l e s . R.S. P e t e r s ' c l a i m that \" E i t h e r they are j u s t i f i a b l e by r e f e r e n c e to fundamental moral p r i n c i p l e s or they are c l e a r l y necessary f o r the p a r t i c u l a r purpose i n hand or to a v o i d the inconvenience with which i n s t i t u t i o n s are beset i f they lack them ( P e t e r s , 1966, p. 273)\" p r o v i d e s a s t a r t i n g p o i n t . Although P e t e r s has marked o f f three ways to j u s t i f y the e x i s t e n c e of r u l e s , i t would seem that the t h r e e are not e n t i r e l y d i s t i n c t . To be j u s t i f i a b l e , r u l e s must f a c i l i t a t e the achievement of p a r t i c u l a r purposes w h i l e , at the same time, a d h e r i n g to fundamental moral p r i n c i p l e s . 9 I t i s c o n c e i v a b l e that r u l e s c o u l d be e s t a b l i s h e d which would be o f f e n s i v e on moral grounds. To j u s t i f y r u l e s , then, both c r i t e r i a must be a p p l i e d . Few educators would disagree; that there a r e two primary purposes f o r e s t a b l i s h i n g c l a s s r o o m r u l e s . The f i r s t i s to e s t a b l i s h an a p p r o p r i a t e m i l i e u to promote student l e a r n i n g , the second i s to h e l p students develop understanding of 9 P e t e r s ' t h i r d c a t e g o r y , a v o i d i n g i n c o n v e n i e n c e , i s r e l a t i v e l y i n s i g n i f i c a n t f o r present purposes. Even the r u l e s e s t a b l i s h e d here, though, should not v i o l a t e fundamental moral p r i n c i p l e s . 8 0 r u l e s , i n order that they come to conduct t h e i r l i v e s i n accordance with s o c i e t a l r u l e s and p e r s o n a l l y h e l d moral p r i n c i p l e s . P r o f i c i e n c y i n p r a c t i c a l r easoning would enhance teacher a b i l i t y to formulate j u s t i f i a b l e r u l e s to serve both purposes. To c r e a t e a classroom m i l i e u conducive to l e a r n i n g r e q u i r e s c h o o s i n g among a l t e r n a t i v e courses of a c t i o n . V a r i o u s components of Coombs' account of p r a c t i c a l r e a s o n i n g are needed i n making these c h o i c e s . Component 1, s e n s i t i v i t y to s i t u a t i o n s i n which p r a c t i c a l r easoning i s r e q u i r e d , i s o b v i o u s l y necessary as i s component 2, d i s p o s i t i o n to undertake p r a c t i c a l r e a s o n i n g when such i s r e q u i r e d . ' 0 Although these p o i n t s may seem to be t r i v i a l , they are important enough to bear s t a t i n g . I t i s q u i t e c o n c e i v a b l e t h a t some t e a c h e r s may f e e l t h a t the i s s u e of c l a s s r o o m r u l e s i s not worthy of s e r i o u s r e f l e c t i o n . Attainment 3 i s a l s o necessary f o r those attempting to decid e which r u l e s w i l l p r o v i d e an a p p r o p r i a t e l e a r n i n g c l i m a t e . I t s t a t e s : A b i l i t y and d i s p o s i t i o n to i d e n t i f y or con c e i v e of reaso n a b l e a l t e r n a t i v e s to the proposed course of 1 0 Components 1 and 2 i n c l u d e s e v e r a l sub-components, which are not set out i n f u l l here but which are r e l e v a n t to the d i s c u s s i o n . They have been i n c l u d e d i n t o t o i n the p r e v i o u s s e c t i o n . 81 a c t i o n . T h i s a b i l i t y l i k e l y depends i n p a r t on having: '.' 3.1 Knowledge of v a r i o u s means of r e a l i z i n g c e r t a i n v a l u e s . 3.2 Knowledge of the importance of c o n s i d e r i n g reasonable a l t e r n a t i v e s . D e s p i t e the f a c t that knowledge r e l a t e d to v a r i o u s means of o b t a i n i n g a s u i t a b l e l e a r n i n g m i l i e u i s needed here, knowledge which i s not s p e c i f i c a l l y i n c l u d e d i n Coombs' account, the above component i s n o n e t h e l e s s of some import in t h i s d i s c u s s i o n . If t e a c h e r s are not d i s p o s e d to look at v a r i o u s means of a c h i e v i n g t h e i r purpose, they are l e s s l i k e l y to e s t a b l i s h e f f e c t i v e and j u s t i f i a b l e r u l e s / r e g u l a t i o n s . To promote student l e a r n i n g may r e q u i r e d i f f e r e n t approaches f o r d i f f e r e n t c l a s s e s , depending on such f a c t o r s as student m a t u r i t y and a b i l i t y , or the g e n e r a l s c h o o l c l i m a t e . One o p t i o n which i s seen as v i a b l e i n a c h i e v i n g an o r d e r l y c l a s s r o o m i s to e s t a b l i s h r u l e s to govern a l l conduct. But i f i t i s t r u e , as Duke argues, t h a t s c h o o l s may i n g e n e r a l have too many r u l e s , then the f o r m u l a t i o n of e x c e s s i v e numbers.of r u l e s may i n f a c t negate the purpose of f a c i l i t a t i n g l e a r n i n g . He c i t e s e v i d e n c e i n d i c a t ing t h a t students r e s e n t the overabundance of s c h o o l r u l e s devoted to c o n t r o l l i n g every aspect of t h e i r b e haviour. They f i n d such a c l i m a t e of c o n t r o l dehumanizing. An o r g a n i z a t i o n where e v e r y t h i n g from chewing gum to going to the bathroom i s s u b j e c t to r e g u l a t i o n h a r d l y seems conducive to the development of r e s p o n s i b l e young people (Duke, 1978, p. 121). o 2 Duke's remarks are important f o r three reasons. F i r s t , i t seems t h a t the f o r m u l a t i o n of a myriad of r u l e s runs counter to the purpose of promoting student l e a r n i n g and may i n s t e a d engender a l i e n a t i o n or resentment. Second, i t seems that many r u l e s may v i o l a t e the fundamental moral p r i n c i p l e of r e s p e c t f o r persons. T h i r d , r a t h e r than c o n t r i b u t i n g to student understanding about the aim of r u l e s and p r i n c i p l e s , the o p p o s i t e seems l i k e l y t o o c c u r . If t e a c h e r s wish to a c h i e v e t h e i r purposes, they must look beyond the a l t e r n a t i v e of e s t a b l i s h i n g r u l e s to govern a l l a s p e c t s of student behaviour. B r i e f mention of the p r i n c i p l e of r e s p e c t f o r persons was made above. Rules, to be j u s t i f i a b l e , must adhere to fundamental p r i n c i p l e s , i n c l u d i n g respect f o r persons, i n a d d i t i o n to a c h i e v i n g t h e i r purpose. Component 7 of Coombs' account of p r a c t i c a l r e a s o n i n g p r o v i d e s guidance i n t h i s r e g a r d . I t s t a t e s : A b i l i t y and d i s p o s i t i o n to assess the moral a c c e p t a b i l i t y of the a l t e r n a t i v e courses of a c t i o n . C o n s t i t u e n t s or t h i s attainment i n c l u d e : 7.1 Knowing that moral assessment i s guided by two p r i n c i p l e s : a) I t cannot be r i g h t f o r me to do x u n l e s s i t i s r i g h t f o r any person i n the same s o r t of c i r c u m s t a n c e s to do x. b) I f the consequences of everyone's doing x i n a given circumstance would be unacceptable, then i t i s not r i g h t f o r anyone to do x i n t h a t c i r c u m s t a n c e . C o n s t i t u e n t s 7.-2, 7.3 and 7.4 have been s t a t e d b e f o r e and w i l l not be repeated here. I t i s s u f f i c i e n t to note that these two p r i n c i p l e s , as p o i n t e d out e a r l i e r , encompass the 83 p r i n c i p l e s of j u s t i c e , i m p a r t i a l i t y and e q u a l i t y and are embodied c o n c r e t e l y i n the u n i v e r s a l consequences t e s t and r o l e exchange t e s t (attainments 7.2 and 7.3). Use of these t e s t s would enable teac h e r s to be more c e r t a i n that t h e i r judgments about the f o r m u l a t i o n of s p e c i f i c r u l e s are j u s t i f i a b l e . The r e g u l a t i o n of t o i l e t - g o i n g behaviour in s c h o o l i s probably the most obvious example of r u l e s which t r a n s g r e s s the p r i n c i p l e of r e s p e c t f o r persons. Buxton and P r i c h a r d (1973), i n a study c i t e d p r e v i o u s l y , , r e c e i v e d the f o l l o w i n g responses to the q u e s t i o n \"Have you been denied the use of the restroom when ne c e s s a r y ? \" : \" f r e q u e n t l y \" - t h i r t y per cent, \"sometimes\" - f o r t y - e i g h t per c e n t . Although i t i s undoubtedly t r u e that some students ask to go to the washroom i n order to a v o i d c lassroom work, i t would seem that other means of d e a l i n g with such m a l i n g e r e r s c o u l d be found. I t i s demeaning to r e g u l a t e normal b o d i l y f u n c t i o n s in such a f a s h i o n . Students must come to understand the p o i n t of r u l e s i n order to understand the importance of conforming with them. If s p e c i f i c r u l e s are p e r c e i v e d as a r b i t r a r y , s tudents w i l l not l i k e l y l e a r n to r e s p e c t r u l e s , nor to come to see t h a t they are o f t e n based on more g e n e r a l moral p r i n c i p l e s . Students should be aware t h a t some r u l e s are j u s t i f i e d on p u r e l y u t i l i t a r i a n grounds and t h a t i t i s prudent to conform to them (many mores and customs f i t h e r e ) , w h i l e o t h e r s are 8 4 j u s t i f i e d by i n v o k i n g h i g h e r order p r i n c i p l e s and that i t i s immoral not to obey them. Both types of r u l e s can be j u s t i f i e d more r e a d i l y than those which are meant merely to maintain the a u t h o r i t y of the t e a c h er. While i t may be e a s i e r , p a r t i c u l a r l y with younger c h i l d r e n , to encourage simple compliance with the t e a c h e r ' s r u l e s , such methods w i l l not develop student u n d e r s t a n d i n g of and r e s p e c t f o r r u l e s and p r i n c i p l e s , a necessary p r e r e q u i s i t e f o r a d u l t c i t i z e n s h i p i n a l i b e r a l d e mocratic s o c i e t y . Furthermore, r e s p e c t f o r persons r e q u i r e s t h a t students are e n t i t l e d to q u e s t i o n the e x i s t e n c e and purpose of r u l e s , and are e n t i t l e d to genuine answers to these q u e s t i o n s . I f t e a c h e r s were to become p r o f i c i e n t at the a b i l i t i e s i n c l u d e d i n Coombs' c o n c e p t i o n of p r a c t i c a l r e a s o ning, they would see the n e c e s s i t y of and be a b l e to p r o v i d e j u s t i f i a b l e answers to the q u e s t i o n s . The p r e c e d i n g remarks have brought the d i s c u s s i o n to the second major purpose f o r e s t a b l i s h i n g c l a s s r o o m r u l e s , the development of student understanding of and r e s p e c t f o r r u l e s . I t i s taken f o r g r a n t e d i n our s o c i e t y t h a t s t u d e n t s , as they mature, w i l l l e a r n t o govern t h e i r conduct i n accordance with r u l e s and p r i n c i p l e s . Yet i t i s not apparent that coherent e f f o r t s to d e v e l o p such u n d e r s t a n d i n g and r e s p e c t are widespread. Component 9.1 of Coombs' account i s r e l e v a n t here. I t reads: \"Understanding why a system of p u b l i c m o r a l i t y i s 85 necessary i f we are to have the s o r t of s o c i a l order i n which one can l e a d a f u l f i l l i n g l i f e . \" Although i t would be presumptuous to suggest that the above understanding c o u l d be e a s i l y taught, i t seems c l e a r that i t i s l o g i c a l l y r e q u i r e d f o r the development of student understanding of and r e s p e c t f o r r u l e s , i n both the r e g u l a t i o n and m a x i m / p r i n c i p l e senses. D e s p i t e the d i f f i c u l t i e s i n h e l p i n g students develop t h i s u nderstanding, some b r i e f e x p l i c a t i o n of i t i s r e q u i r e d . Depending on the nature of one's s o c i e t y , a system of p u b l i c m o r a l i t y c o u l d i n c l u d e B a i e r ' s f i r s t t h r e e senses of r u l e s , t h at i s , r e g u l a t i o n s , customs or mores, and maxims or p r i n c i p l e s . In our s o c i e t y , p u b l i c m o r a l i t y encompasses both r e g u l a t i o n s , i n the form of laws, and p r i n c i p l e s . Although i t i s arguable whether or not i t a l s o i n c l u d e s customs, i t i s not necessary to s e t t l e the p o i n t i n t h i s paper. I t i s n e c e s s a r y , however, to c o n s i d e r why students need to understand the importance of a system of p u b l i c m o r a l i t y . B a i e r argues t h a t customs and laws ( r u l e s , i n the r e g u l a t i o n sense) are j u s t i f i e d i n roughly the same way. He s t a t e s that L i v i n g o u t s i d e groups with a common way of l i f e would -be l i v i n g i n i n a s t a t e i n which, as Hobbes cl a i m e d , l i f e i s ' s o l i t a r y , poor, nasty, b r u t i s h and s h o r t , ' i f p o s s i b l e a t a l l . However, to remedy t h i s i t i s not necessary, as Hobbes c l a i m e d , to impose laws on men. Customs are enough to meet the need p o i n t e d out by Hobbes ( l o c . c i t . , p. 78). T h i s i n s t r u m e n t a l need f o r r u l e s , and other s o c i a l p r a c t i c e s 86 and i n s t i t u t i o n s , has been argued f o r f r e q u e n t l y by u t i l i t a r i a n s . A system of r u l e s , i n t h i s view, can be j u s t i f i e d on the grounds that i t e f f e c t i v e l y promotes the best i n t e r e s t s of s o c i e t y . B.J. Diggs summarizes the r u l e u t i l i t a r i a n p o s i t i o n as f o l l o w s : The assumption i s that men have v a r i o u s d e s t i n a t i o n s which they want to reach and the s o c i a l aim i s to p r o v i d e the system of i n s t i t u t i o n s which w i l l be most e f f e c t i v e i n h e l p i n g them al o n g . As men together d e v i s e such p u b l i c instruments as roads and b r i d g e s , which none alone c o u l d c o n s t r u c t , and then r e g u l a t e the use of these instruments f o r the \" p u b l i c good,\" so on t h i s view men together have developed such i n s t i t u t i o n s as \" p r o m i s i n g ,\" \"a system of p r o p e r t y , \" e t c . These i n s t i t u t i o n s may not have a r i s e n through d e l i b e r a t e d e s i g n , a l t h o u g h (there o f t e n seems to be the assumption t h a t ) i f an i n s t i t u t i o n or p r a c t i c e has a r i s e n , then i t must have been rewarding, and consequently, must have served some purpose. The i n s t r u m e n t a l c h a r a c t e r of these i n s t i t u t i o n s i s evidenced more d i r e c t l y , however, by the f a c t t h a t persons h o l d and d i s p o s e of p r o p e r t y , make promises, and, q u i t e g e n e r a l l y , engage i n the l i f e of t h e i r i n s t i t u t i o n s with g o a l s i n mind (Diggs, 1968, p. 229-230). The weakness i n t h i s p o s i t i o n , Diggs c o n v i n c i n g l y argues, i s t h a t the s i g n i f i c a n t d i s t i n c t i o n between a system of r u l e s designed to c o n t r i b u t e to some goal and a system of moral r u l e s has been n e g l e c t e d . Moral r u l e s , he s t a t e s , \"thus seem to be c o n c e i v e d as supports f o r and a n c i l l a r y to the p u b l i c i n s t i t u t i o n s which they presuppose ( i b i d . , p. 231).\" Persons who c o n c e i v e of moral r u l e s i n t h i s way tend to see them as e x t e r n a l to themselves, o n l y as r e s t r a i n t s on t h e i r behaviour. In e f f e c t , t h i s view promotes a n e g a t i v e m o r a l i t y , d e s c r i b e d by Diggs as a \" p o l i c e \" view, with moral r u l e s seen o n l y as \" p r o t e c t i v e d e v i c e s . \" 87 T h i s u t i l i t a r i a n j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r a system of p u b l i c m o r a l i t y i s , i n my view, not the k i n d of understanding demanded by l i f e i n a l i b e r a l democratic s o c i e t y . Diggs suggests that moral r u l e s can be i n t e r n a l i z e d i n a more p o s i t i v e way, one which i s more a k i n to Coombs' r a t i o n a l p r a c t i c a l reasoner. Diggs d e s c r i b e s h i s c o n c e p t i o n of a moral community i n the f o l l o w i n g way: When the idea of such a community i s a t t a i n e d and made to govern p r a c t i c e . . . then the moral r u l e s \"Do not l i e , \" \"Do not s t e a l , \" e t c . , w i l l appear i n a new l i g h t . One who a c t s under such an idea w i l l teach these r u l e s n e i t h e r as p r i m a r i l y n e g a t i v e and r e s t r a i n i n g , nor p r i m a r i l y as supports or p r o t e c t i o n s f o r p a r t i c u l a r i n s t i t u t i o n s . For al t h o u g h he may view the r u l e s i n these ways, he w i l l regard them p r i m a r i l y as a f f i r m i n g i n so many d i f f e r e n t ways the fundamental p r i n c i p l e \" L i v e under the idea of law.\" The p r i n c i p l e may be s t a t e d n e g a t i v e l y , i n the form \"Do not make an e x c e p t i o n of o n e s e l f , \" but h i s primary aim in t e a c h i n g the r u l e s w i l l be to r a i s e one to the c o n c e p t i o n of a moral community. Since such a community p o t e n t i a l l y i n c l u d e s a l l men, p a r t of the c h a l l e n g e may be to f i n d p a r t i c u l a r i n s t i t u t i o n s i n which the c o n c e p t i o n may be r e a l i z e d ( i b i d . , p. 236). Moral r u l e s , regarded i n t h i s way, are not i n s t r u m e n t a l l y j u s t i f i e d but r e s t on more fundamental moral p r i n c i p l e s such as r e s p e c t f o r persons and the two g e n e r a l i z a t i o n p r i n c i p l e s in component 7.1 of Coombs' c o n c e p t i o n of p r a c t i c a l r e a s o n i n g . M i c h a e l S c r i v e n puts the p o i n t another way when he d i s t i n g u i s h e s between a s t r o n g and a weak m o r a l i t y . In h i s words, \"Weak m o r a l i t y i n v o l v e s the r e c o g n i t i o n of the r i g h t s of • ot h e r s but no p o s i t i v e i n t e r e s t i n f u r t h e r i n g t h e i r w e l f a r e other than by such r e c o g n i t i o n ; s t r o n g 88 m o r a l i t y i n v o l v e s i d e n t i f i c a t i o n with the i n t e r e s t s of others (1966, p. 232).\" H i s view of a moral system r e s t s upon the p r i n c i p l e of equal c o n s i d e r a t i o n , from which a l l other moral p r i n c i p l e s can be developed. For students to come to understand and r e s p e c t r u l e s , they must l e a r n to d i s t i n g u i s h between i n s t r u m e n t a l r u l e s , and moral r u l e s and p r i n c i p l e s . I f they are not help e d to l e a r n the p o i n t of r u l e s , i f they are not helped to l e a r n that r u l e s a re not the a r b i t r a r y whims of some a u t h o r i t y , they are u n l i k e l y to l e a r n to do more than f o l l o w r u l e s m e c h a n i c a l l y , or through f e a r of punishment. Simple compliance with r u l e s i s not the d e s i r e d end, but r a t h e r understanding i n enough depth to ensure that one knows which r u l e s to apply i n new c i r c u m s t a n c e s and the reasons t h e r e f o r e . Using B a i e r ' s t e r m i n o l o g y , r u l e s i n the r e g u l a t i o n sense should be formulated so as to f a c i l i t a t e the development of p e r s o n a l l y h e l d m a x i m s / p r i n c i p l e s that are congruent with fundamental moral p r i n c i p l e s such as respe c t f o r persons, j u s t i c e , i m p a r t i a l i t y and e q u a l i t y . R e g u l a t i o n s , too, should adhere to moral p r i n c i p l e s i f they are to serve the two c h i e f purposes of t e a c h e r s . The a b i l i t i e s , knowledge and d i s p o s i t i o n s i n c l u d e d i n Coombs' account of p r a c t i c a l r e a s o n i n g are e s s e n t i a l not onl y f o r teacher d e c i s i o n making about r u l e s , but are e s s e n t i a l a l s o f o r d e v e l o p i n g student u n d e r s t a n d i n g about moral r u l e s and p r i n c i p l e s and how they operate i n our p r a c t i c a l judgments. 89 Summary In t h i s c h a p t e r , some of the components of Coombs' account of p r a c t i c a l r e a s o n i n g were examined i n r e l a t i o n to Green's category of s t r a t e g i c t e a c h i n g a c t s . I t was argued t h a t i n t e r p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s i n the cl a s s r o o m would be improved, and l e a r n i n g f a c i l i t a t e d , i f t e a c h e r s were to become p r o f i c i e n t i n p r a c t i c a l r e a s o n i n g . Two a s p e c t s of i n t e r p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s were discussed,, the p r i n c i p l e of respe c t f o r persons and the f o r m u l a t i o n of cl a s s r o o m r u l e s , i n order to i l l u s t r a t e the va l u e of p r a c t i c a l r e a s o n i n g . It was not c l a i m e d that p r o f i c i e n c y i n p r a c t i c a l r e asoning o b v i a t e s the need f o r knowledge about human behaviour and m o t i v a t i o n . Rather the j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r t r e a t i n g students i n a p a r t i c u l a r way, qua persons, r e s t s on reasoning, the i n v o c a t i o n of moral p r i n c i p l e s , and the purpose of t e a c h i n g . Other r e l a t e d s t r a t e g i c a c t s , such as the enforcement of r u l e s and the choosing of a p p r o p r i a t e s a n c t i o n s f o r r u l e - b r e a k e r s were not d i s c u s s e d , although i t can be argued that s i m i l a r c o n s i d e r a t i o n s would be r e l e v a n t . Whereas the c e n t r a l p o i n t of the cha p t e r was that the s t r a t e g i c a c t s of t e a c h i n g would be improved i f te a c h e r s were to develop t h e i r p r a c t i c a l r e a s o n i n g c a p a c i t i e s , i t was maintained that s t u d e n t s must be helped t o develop these c a p a c i t i e s as w e l l . 9 0 CHAPTER V SUMMARY OF THE ARGUMENT T h i s paper has attempted to make a case f o r i n c l u s i o n of the study of p r a c t i c a l reasoning i n teacher e d u c a t i o n programs. J e r r o l d Coombs' .conception of p r a c t i c a l r easoning was d e s c r i b e d i n some d e t a i l i n chapter two i n order to make c l e a r the numerous attainments r e q u i r e d f o r r a t i o n a l p r a c t i c a l judgment. These a t t a i n m e n t s , which i n c l u d e a v a r i e t y of a b i l i t i e s , s e n s i t i v i t i e s and d i s p o s i t i o n s , are l i s t e d at the end of the chapter and are r e f e r r e d to throughout c h a p t e r s three and f o u r . Chapter three comprised an examination of the f r u i t f u l n e s s of Coombs' c o n c e p t i o n of p r a c t i c a l r e a s o n i n g with r e s p e c t to the l o g i c a l a c t s of t e a c h i n g . Using examples from three secondary c u r r i c u l u m guides i n B r i t i s h Columbia -S o c i a l S t u d i e s , Consumer Educat i o n and E n g l i s h - i t was argued t h a t the o b j e c t i v e s f o r student l e a r n i n g which t e a c h e r s are to f u l f i l l l o g i c a l l y cannot be a c h i e v e d without those t e a c h e r s having some competence i n p r a c t i c a l r e a s o n i n g . In Chapter f o u r , the s t r a t e g i c t e a c h i n g a c t s were d i s c u s s e d i n r e l a t i o n to p r a c t i c a l r e a s o n i n g . S p e c i f i c a l l y , a case was made that i n t e r p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s i n the cla s s r o o m would be improved and, c o n c o m i t a n t l y , l e a r n i n g 91 f a c i l i t a t e d i f t e a c h e r s were to a c q u i r e the a t t a i n m e n t s i d e n t i f i e d by Coombs. D i s c u s s i o n focussed on two a s p e c t s of i n t e r p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s i n the classroom - f i r s t , the fundamental moral p r i n c i p l e of r e s p e c t f o r persons and second, at a more co n c r e t e l e v e l , the making of c l a s s r o o m r u l e s . I t was argued t h a t , on both l o g i c a l and moral grounds, t e a c h i n g would be improved i f t e a c h e r s were to g a i n some e x p e r t i s e i n p r a c t i c a l r e a s o n i n g . RECOMMENDATIONS FOR CHANGE IN TEACHER EDUCATION If the case made in c h a p t e r s t h r e e and four i s a t a l l c o n v i n c i n g , then i t would appear that teacher e d u c a t i o n programs must be a l t e r e d to i n c l u d e s t u d i e s which w i l l f a c i l i t a t e development of the attainments of p r a c t i c a l r e a s o n i n g . While the r a t i o n a l p r a c t i c a l reasoner may w e l l be an i d e a l , the a b i l i t i e s , s e n s i t i v i t i e s , d i s p o s i t i o n s and knowledge i d e n t i f i e d by Coombs are s u f f i c i e n t l y e x p l i c a t e d to serve as a guide to educators i n d e s i g n i n g m a t e r i a l s and s t r a t e g i e s f o r d e v e l o p i n g persons' p r a c t i c a l r e a s o n i n g . Which m a t e r i a l s and s t r a t e g i e s w i l l be e f f i c a c i o u s w i l l , of c o u r s e , r e q u i r e s u b s t a n t i a l r e s e a r c h . To await c o n c l u s i v e evidence on which are the best m a t e r i a l s and . s t r a t e g i e s , however, seems unduly c a u t i o u s . We may not yet know the best method to teach r e a d i n g but t h i s does not prevent us from t r y i n g a v a r i e t y of approaches. One f u r t h e r l i m i t a t i o n remains to be a r t i c u l a t e d . As 92 p o i n t e d out e a r l i e r , the r a t i o n a l p r a c t i c a l reasoner i s an i d e a l , not com p l e t e l y a t t a i n a b l e . To suggest changes i n teacher e d u c a t i o n programs which are so r i g o r o u s as t o be a l s o u n a t t a i n a b l e would run counter to common sense. Hence, the s u g g e s t i o n s t h a t f o l l o w are not so f a r r e a c h i n g or s t r i n g e n t as to be i m p r a c t i c a l . They c o u l d f e a s i b l y be i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o e x i s t i n g teacher e d u c a t i o n programs, assuming t h a t the a p p r o p r i a t e commitment was p r e s e n t . Some a s p e c t s of teacher e d u c a t i o n programs, while important, w i l l not be d i s c u s s e d here. For example, i t i s obvious that s u b j e c t matter competence i s a requirement f o r t e a c h e r s , as i s some exposure to the s o c i a l s c i e n c e s , which p r o v i d e understanding of the c u l t u r a l c o n t e x t i n which s c h o o l s o p e r a t e . As w e l l , the study of psychology, to i n c r e a s e u nderstanding of human development and l e a r n i n g , i s a l s o e s s e n t i a l . These elements of teacher e d u c a t i o n are a l r e a d y a p a r t of most programs and! are not of d i r e c t r e l e v a n c e t o the present d i s c u s s i o n . C u r r i c u l u m and i n s t r u c t i o n c o u r s e s , a l r e a d y present i n most programs are a l s o needed. In my view, however, these c o u r s e s should have a d i f f e r e n t emphasis. In a d d i t i o n to i n t r o d u c i n g p r e s e r v i c e t e a c h e r s to d i f f e r e n t i n s t r u c t i o n a l approaches, m a t e r i a l s and c u r r i c u l u m models, such c o u r s e s should a l s o s t r e s s those n e g l e c t e d a s p e c t s of t e a c h i n g which l e a d t o f u l f i l l m e n t of the n o n - f a c t u a l o b j e c t i v e s of the c u r r i c u l u m - those o b j e c t i v e s which were d i s c u s s e d as l o g i c a l a c t s i n chapter 93 t h r e e . Although we have p a i d l i p s e r v i c e to d e v e l o p i n g s t u d e n t s ' c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g a b i l i t i e s , we have not p r o v i d e d t e a c h e r s with the a p p r o p r i a t e p r e p a r a t i o n and resources to do so. C u r r i c u l u m and i n s t r u c t i o n courses should a l s o h e l p p r o s p e c t i v e t e a c h e r s to use and adapt e x i s t i n g resources to meet these e d u c a t i o n a l o b j e c t i v e s . The type of c u r r i c u l u m and i n s t r u c t i o n course sketched above would be meant to change classroom p r a c t i c e to conform with the m a t e r i a l covered i n a compulsory study of c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g , p h i l o s o p h y of e d u c a t i o n , and, f o r want of a b e t t e r l a b e l , the value domain. Because these l a b e l s are somewhat ambiguous, a b r i e f account of each i s o f f e r e d which i s intended to c l a r i f y what i s meant i n each case. The demarcation of each a r e a , as d e s c r i b e d below, i s somewhat a r t i f i c i a l as i t i s l i k e l y t h a t some a s p e c t s of each would a r i s e i n a l l three a r e a s . The study of c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g should i n c l u d e c o n s i d e r a t i o n and development of those a b i l i t i e s and d i s p o s i t i o n s o u t l i n e d i n a t t a i n m e n t s f i v e and s i x of Coombs' account of p r a c t i c a l r e a s o n i n g . Such m a t e r i a l may be viewed by some as too e s o t e r i c and thus unnecessary or i m p r a c t i c a l . Yet the U.S. C o l l e g e Board, i n a recent document e n t i t l e d Academic P r e p a r a t i o n f o r C o l l e g e : What Students Need to Know and be Able to Do, has l i s t e d r e a s o n i n g competency as e s s e n t i a l to a l l e f f e c t i v e work i n postsecondary i n s t i t u t i o n s . Many of the r e a s o n i n g a b i l i t i e s i d e n t i f i e d by 94 the Board are i n c l u d e d i n Coombs' account. At a more i c o n c r e t e l e v e l , four years ago the massive C a l i f o r n i a S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y (nineteen campuses, t h r e e hundred thousand students) i n s t i t u t e d a requirement t h a t a l l students must complete a c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g course f o r g r a d u a t i o n . The even l a r g e r community c o l l e g e system has now e s t a b l i s h e d a s i m i l a r requirement. T h i s requirement, p a r t of C a l i f o r n i a S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y C h a n c e l l o r ' s O f f i c e E x e c u t i v e Order 338 d e f i n e s c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g as f o l l o w s : I n s t r u c t i o n i n c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g i s to be designed to a c h e i v e [ s i c ] an understanding of the r e l a t i o n s h i p of language to l o g i c , which should l e a d to the a b i l i t y to a n a l y z e , c r i t i c i z e , and advocate i d e a s , to reason i n d u c t i v e l y and d e d u c t i v e l y , and to reach f a c t u a l or judgmental c o n c l u s i o n s based on sound i n f e r e n c e s drawn from unambiguous statements of knowledge or b e l i e f . The minimal competence to be expected at the s u c c e s s f u l c o n c l u s i o n of i n s t r u c t i o n i n c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g should be the a b i l i t y to d i s t i n g u i s h f a c t from judgment, b e l i e f from knowledge, and s k i l l s i n elementary i n d u c t i v e and d e d u c t i v e p r o c e s s e s , i n c l u d i n g an understanding of the formal and i n f o r m a l f a l l a c i e s of language and thought( CT News,Sept. 1984, p. 1). Again, t h e r e i s s u b s t a n t i a l o v e r l a p with the a b i l i t i e s o u t l i n e d i n attainment f i v e of Coomb.s' c o n c e p t i o n of p r a c t i c a l r e a s o n i n g . While there are undoubtedly problems which must be overcome in implementing a requirement of t h i s s o r t , they are not insurmountable i f s u i t a b l e r e s o l v e i s p r e s e n t . Such courses are being taught i n a v a r i e t y of postsecondary i n s t i t u t i o n s and t h e r e i s now a l a r g e v a r i e t y of r e s o u r c e s a v a i l a b l e to teach them. In a d d i t i o n to c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g , p h i l o s o p h y of 95 e d u c a t i o n should be s t u d i e d . There i s a v a r i e t y of t o p i c s which might c o n c e i v a b l y be covered under t h i s r u b r i c . One common approach, f o r example, i s the survey course i n the h i s t o r y of e d u c a t i o n a l ideas - the study of the works of the 'great e d u c a t o r s . ' Although such c o u r s e s are c e r t a i n l y of v a l u e , they are u n l i k e l y to develop the attainments which are demanded by the a c t i v i t i e s of t e a c h i n g as d e s c r i b e d i n c h a p t e r s three and f o u r . More e f f e c t i v e , from t h i s p e r s p e c t i v e , would be a focus on the a n a l y s i s of concepts which are c r u c i a l i n ed u c a t i o n - these might i n c l u d e concepts l i k e e d u c a t i o n , s c h o o l i n g , t e a c h i n g , l e a r n i n g , t r a i n i n g , s o c i a l i z i n g , i n d o c t r i n a t i o n , knowledge, and so on. A v a r i e t y of moral concepts p e r t i n e n t to e d u c a t i o n ( d i s c i p l i n e , punishment, a u t h o r i t y , freedom, autonomy, e q u a l i t y ) are of import too. E d u c a t i o n i s , a f t e r a l l , fundamentally a moral e n t e r p r i s e . As w e l l as c o n s i d e r a t i o n of p i v o t a l concepts and t h e i r p l a c e i n e d u c a t i o n a l p r a c t i c e , p r e - s e r v i c e t e a c h e r s must come to understand the d i s t i n c t i o n among c o n c e p t u a l , e m p i r i c a l and normative c l a i m s and q u e s t i o n s and the r o l e of each i n re a s o n i n g about a s p e c t s of e d u c a t i o n a l p r a c t i c e . F i n a l l y , i f we wish to develop p r e s e r v i c e t e a c h e r s ' p r a c t i c a l r e a s o n i n g , we must engage them i n examination of what I termed e a r l i e r the value domain. Because normative q u e s t i o n s i n e d u c a t i o n a r i s e c o n t i n u a l l y , we must b r i n g t e a c h e r s t o the understanding t h a t , l i k e e m p i r i c a l 96 q u e s t i o n s , they can be d i s c u s s e d i n a r a t i o n a l manner. R e q u i s i t e to t h i s understanding i s some c o n s i d e r a t i o n of value t h e o r y . Paul T a y l o r ' s book, Normative D i s c o u r s e , would be most s a l i e n t f o r t h i s purpose, i n my view. T a y l o r i s concerned with the l o g i c of e v a l u a t i n g and p r e s c r i b i n g . In o u t l i n i n g h i s concerns i n the p r e f a c e to h i s boo'k, he p r o v i d e s what c o u l d be a b r i e f d e s c r i p t i o n of the type of study I b e l i e v e would be needed. T a y l o r says: I am concerned with the f o l l o w i n g q u e s t i o n s : What i s i t to e v a l u a t e something? What i s i t to p r e s c r i b e an a c t to someone? How can we j u s t i f y our e v a l u a t i o n s and p r e s c r i p t i o n s ? ( l o c . c i t . , p. v i i ) . He o f f e r s an account of what we are doing when we make and j u s t i f y e v a l u a t i o n s and p r e s c r i p t i o n s - e s s e n t i a l l y , the, c o n s t i t u e n t s of normative d i s c o u r s e . In order to understand what i t means to be r a t i o n a l , T a y l o r takes on two t a s k s : f i r s t , the key concepts used i n c a r r y i n g on normative d i s c o u r s e are made c l e a r and, second, the r u l e s of reas o n i n g which govern the j u s t i f i c a t i o n of normative a s s e r t i o n s are made e x p l i c i t . R e f l e c t i o n on T a y l o r ' s v a l u e theory should p r o v i d e p r e - s e r v i c e t e a c h e r s with a much needed p e r s p e c t i v e on e d u c a t i o n as a fundamentally moral u n d e r t a k i n g . As such, i t behooves them to grasp the nature of moral judgments and the s t a n d a r d s by which they are j u s t i f i e d . E d u c a t i o n i s beset by normative q u e s t i o n s ; to p r o v i d e answers to such q u e s t i o n s as 'what s h a l l be taught?' 'to whom?' ' i n what manner?' r e q u i r e s u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the c r i t e r i a we use to make and j u s t i f y our p r a c t i c a l judgments. 97 I have not suggested that the study of c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g , p h i l o s o p h y of e d u c a t i o n , and the va l u e domain, as sketched above, i s s u f f i c i e n t to develop a l l the a b i l i t i e s , d i s p o s i t i o n s , s e n s i t i v i t i e s and knowledge of the r a t i o n a l p r a c t i c a l reasoner. In f a c t , Coombs , i n a recent paper, has argued t h a t , while i t i s p o s s i b l e to teach some of the r e l e v a n t concepts and d i s t i n c t i o n s at l e a s t p a r t l y by d i d a c t i c means, much more i s necessa r y . He says . . i t seems l i k e l y that good judgment i n using these concepts and d i s t i n c t i o n s can be developed o n l y by p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n forms of s o c i a l l i v i n g i n which good judgment i s e x e m p l i f i e d and rewarded (1984, p. 19). The task of c r e a t i n g forms of s o c i a l l i v i n g i n which good judgment i s e x e m p l i f i e d and rewarded i s beyond the purview of t eacher e d u c a t i o n programs. The su g g e s t i o n s I have made, then, are seen as the minimum that teacher e d u c a t i o n programs should r e q u i r e of p r o s p e c t i v e t e a c h e r s . The i n t e l l e c t u a l and moral dimensions of the a c t i v i t i e s of t e a c h i n g demand at l e a s t t h a t . 98 BIBLIOGRAPHY B a i e r , K. The Moral P o i n t of View: A R a t i o n a l B a s i s of E t h i c s . New York: Random House, 1965. B e l l , J . and Roe, M. A c t i o n E n g l i s h 4. 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"@en ; edm:hasType "Thesis/Dissertation"@en ; edm:isShownAt "10.14288/1.0055091"@en ; dcterms:language "eng"@en ; ns0:degreeDiscipline "Education"@en ; edm:provider "Vancouver : University of British Columbia Library"@en ; dcterms:publisher "University of British Columbia"@en ; dcterms:rights "For non-commercial purposes only, such as research, private study and education. Additional conditions apply, see Terms of Use https://open.library.ubc.ca/terms_of_use."@en ; ns0:scholarLevel "Graduate"@en ; dcterms:title "Practical reasoning and teacher education"@en ; dcterms:type "Text"@en ; ns0:identifierURI "http://hdl.handle.net/2429/25435"@en .