@prefix vivo: . @prefix edm: . @prefix ns0: . @prefix dcterms: . @prefix skos: . vivo:departmentOrSchool "Education, Faculty of"@en ; edm:dataProvider "DSpace"@en ; ns0:degreeCampus "UBCV"@en ; dcterms:creator "Dykstra, Gerry"@en ; dcterms:issued "2010-04-01T22:36:20Z"@en, "1982"@en ; vivo:relatedDegree "Master of Arts - MA"@en ; ns0:degreeGrantor "University of British Columbia"@en ; dcterms:description """In this study a comparative evaluation of several views on art education that include social concerns is presented. These are expressed as concern for the aesthetic qualities of the contemporary man-made environment, the artistic heritage of the nation, the cultural values of ethnic and social groups and the moral responsibility of the individual in society. Views of four North American art educators are examined in relation to their concepts of society, education and art. In this examination emphasis is given to the identification of the different aspects of human experience such as the cognitive aspect, the linguistic aspect, the social aspect, the aesthetic aspect and the moral aspect. Because all these aspects of human experience relate to the objects of the man-made environment, the author presents an analysis of individual things and their functions in the context of human experience from the perspective of Neo-Calvinistic philosophy. Some fundamental concepts, basic to this philosophy, are conveyed in a historical survey that includes the development of Neo-Calvinism in the Netherlands and North America. The analysis of individual things is presented in terms of Dooyeweerd's theory of modal structure. This theory is part of the Philosophy of the Cosmonomic Idea, which was developed during the nineteen thirties and formed a major role in the development of a Neo-Calvinistic philosophical movement. In this theory it is argued that the aesthetic aspect functions in relation to all things, but that this relationship is not the same in every case. The primary function of each individual thing determines whether the aesthetic aspect has a subordinate or leading role in the object. Proceeding from this theory it is posited that art education in Neo-Calvinistic schools incorporate two different art curricula; a "free-art" curriculum that focuses on those objects in which the aesthetic aspect has the leading function, and another curriculum, called a "bound-art" curriculum, that stresses the study of the aesthetic aspect in subordination to the other functions of objects. The theory of modal structure also applies to the different social groups of society. Each group has its own primary function. This function gives direction to the aesthetic aspect of the individual objects belonging to the group. The social concerns in Neo-Calvinistic art education therefore are presented within context of the leading function of the different groups in society. The implications of the modal structure and the views of the art educators convened in this study are mentioned throughout the presentation of this thesis."""@en ; edm:aggregatedCHO "https://circle.library.ubc.ca/rest/handle/2429/23288?expand=metadata"@en ; skos:note "BASIC CONCEPTS FOR ART CURRICULA DEVELOPMENT IN NEO-CALVINISTIC EDUCATION by GERRY DYKSTRA B.A., C a l v i n C o l l e g e , M i c h i g a n , 1962 A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS i n THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES Department o f V i s u a l and P e r f o r m i n g A r t s i n Education.. F a c u l t y o f E d u c a t i o n We a c c e p t t h i s t h e s i s as c o n f o r m i n g t o the r e q u i r e d s t a n d a r d THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA June 1982 Cc^Gerry D y k s t r a , 1982 In presenting t h i s thesis i n p a r t i a l f u l f i l m e n t of the requirements for an advanced degree at the University of B r i t i s h Columbia, I agree that the Library s h a l l make i t f r e e l y available for reference and study. I further agree that permission for extensive copying of t h i s thesis for scholarly purposes may be granted by the head of my department or by his or her representatives. I t i s understood that copying or publication of t h i s thesis for f i n a n c i a l gain s h a l l not be allowed without my written permission. Department otU/U/AL AWZ> ?&£M/A/& A/Z7~$ /AS The University of B r i t i s h Columbia 1956 Main Mall Vancouver, Canada V6T 1Y3 D a t e - S ^ . E-6 f3/81^ ABSTRACT I n t h i s s t u d y a c o m p a r a t i v e e v a l u a t i o n o f s e v e r a l v i e w s on a r t e d u c a t i o n t h a t i n c l u d e s o c i a l c o n cerns i s p r e s e n t e d . These a r e e x p r e s s e d as c o n c e r n f o r the a e s t h e t i c q u a l i t i e s o f t h e contemporary man-made environment, t h e a r t i s t i c h e r i t a g e o f t h e n a t i o n , t h e c u l t u r a l v a l u e s o f e t h n i c and s o c i a l groups and t h e m o r a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y of t h e i n d i v i d u a l i n s o c i e t y . Views of f o u r N o r t h American a r t e d u c a t o r s a r e examined i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e i r c o n c e p t s o f s o c i e t y , e d u c a t i o n and a r t . I n t h i s e x a m i n a t i o n emphasis i s g i v e n t o the i d e n -t i f i c a t i o n o f the d i f f e r e n t a s p e c t s o f human e x p e r i e n c e such as t h e c o g n i t i v e a s p e c t , t h e l i n g u i s t i c a s p e c t , t h e s o c i a l a s p e c t , the a e s t h e t i c a s p e c t and t h e m o r a l a s p e c t . Because a l l t h e s e a s p e c t s o f human e x p e r i e n c e r e l a t e t o t h e o b j e c t s of the man-made environment, t h e a u t h o r p r e s e n t s an a n a l y s i s o f i n d i v i d u a l t h i n g s and t h e i r f u n c t i o n s i n t h e c o n t e x t o f human e x p e r i e n c e from the p e r s p e c t i v e o f N e o - C a l v i n i s t i c p h i -l o s o p h y . Some fundamental c o n c e p t s , b a s i c t o t h i s p h i l o s o p h y , a r e conveyed i n a h i s t o r i c a l s u r v e y t h a t i n c l u d e s t h e d e v e l o p -ment o f N e o - C a l v i n i s m i n t h e N e t h e r l a n d s and N o r t h A m e r i c a . The a n a l y s i s o f i n d i v i d u a l t h i n g s i s p r e s e n t e d i n terms o f Dooyeweerd's t h e o r y o f modal s t r u c t u r e . T h i s t h e o r y i s p a r t o f t h e P h i l o s o p h y o f t h e Cosmonomic Id e a , which was de v e l o p e d d u r i n g t h e n i n e t e e n t h i r t i e s and formed a major r o l e i n t h e development o f a N e o - C a l v i n i s t i c p h i l o s o p h i c a l movement. I n t h i s t h e o r y i t i s argued t h a t t h e a e s t h e t i c a s p e c t f u n c t i o n s i n r e l a t i o n t o a l l t h i n g s , but t h a t t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p i s not t h e same i n e v e r y c a s e . The p r i m a r y f u n c t i o n o f each i n d i v i -d u a l t h i n g d e t e r m i n e s whether t h e a e s t h e t i c a s p e c t has a s u b o r d i n a t e o r l e a d i n g r o l e i n t h e o b j e c t . P r o c e e d i n g from t h i s t h e o r y i t i s p o s i t e d t h a t a r t e d u c a t i o n i n N e o - C a l v i n i s -t i c s c h o o l s i n c o r p o r a t e two d i f f e r e n t a r t c u r r i c u l a ; a \" f r e e -a r t \" c u r r i c u l u m t h a t f o c u s e s on t h o s e o b j e c t s i n which t h e a e s t h e t i c a s p e c t has the l e a d i n g f u n c t i o n , and a n o t h e r c u r -r i c u l u m , c a l l e d a \"bound-art\" c u r r i c u l u m , t h a t s t r e s s e s t h e s t u d y of t h e a e s t h e t i c a s p e c t i n s u b o r d i n a t i o n t o t h e o t h e r f u n c t i o n s o f o b j e c t s . The t h e o r y o f modal s t r u c t u r e a l s o a p p l i e s t o the d i f f e r e n t s o c i a l groups of s o c i e t y . Each group has i t s own p r i m a r y f u n c t i o n . T h i s f u n c t i o n g i v e s d i r e c t i o n t o t h e a e s t h e t i c a s p e c t of t h e i n d i v i d u a l o b j e c t s b e l o n g i n g t o t h e group. The s o c i a l concerns i n N e o - C a l v i n i s t i c a r t e d u c a t i o n t h e r e f o r e a r e p r e s e n t e d w i t h i n c o n t e x t o f the l e a d i n g f u n c t i o n o f the d i f f e r e n t groups i n s o c i e t y . The i m p l i c a t i o n s o f t h e modal s t r u c t u r e and t h e v i e w s of t h e a r t e d u c a t o r s convened i n t h i s s t u d y , a r e mentioned t h r o u g h o u t the p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h i s t h e s i s . i v T a b l e of C o n t e n t s Page ABSTRACT i i LIST OF FIGURES v i i ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS v i i i INTRODUCTION 1 S o c i a l Concerns i n A r t E d u c a t i o n 1 E d u c a t i o n a l R e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s 6 Opening P r o c e s s 9 Design o f t h e Study 9 HISTORICAL FOUNDATIONS 11 Owattona P r o j e c t 11 The Bauhaus Idea 16 CONCEPTS OF SOCIETY FOR ART EDUCATION . 21 I n t h e W r i t i n g s o f L a u r a Chapman 2 2 I n t h e W r i t i n g s o f Edmund B. Feldman 25 I n t h e W r i t i n g s o f V i n c e n t L a n i e r . 31 In the W r i t i n g s o f June McFee 35 CONCEPTS OF ART EDUCATION 38 In t h e W r i t i n g s o f L a u r a Chapman 38 In t h e W r i t i n g s o f Edmund B. Feldman 42 I n the W r i t i n g s o f V i n c e n t L a n i e r 4 8 I n t h e W r i t i n g s o f June McFee 53 CONCEPTS OF ART 59 I n t h e W r i t i n g s o f L a u r a Chapman 6 0 In t h e W r i t i n g s of Edmund B. Feldman £64 I n t h e W r i t i n g s o f V i n c e n t L a n i e r 71 V I n t h e W r i t i n g s o f June McFee 77 ART EDUCATION IN RELATION TO DIFFERENT ASPECTS OF HUMAN EXPERIENCE. 83 A r t and the S o c i a l A s p e c t . 84 A r t and t h e L i n g u i s t i c A s p e c t • • • • 86 A r t and t h e C o g n i t i v e A s p e c t .' 87 A r t and the C u l t u r a l - H i s t o r i c a l A s p e c t 89 A r t and t h e P s y c h o l o g i c a l A s p e c t 90' A r t and the E t h i c a l A s p e c t : ,.. 92 A r t and the S p a t i a l A s p e c t . . 93 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ART EDUCATION AND GENERAL EDUCATION . . 93 NEO-CALVINISTIC THEORY OF MODAL ASPECTS AS A STARTING POINT FOR ART CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT 98 H i s t o r i c a l Background 98 I m p l i c a t i o n s f o r A r t C u r r i c u l u m Development .. 104 The P h i l o s o p h y o f the Cosmonomic Idea 108 Ground M o t i v e s o f Western Thought ^.10 THEORY OF MODAL ASPECTS 1 1 6 M u t u a l I r r e d u c i b i l i t y of A s p e c t s . 1 1 6 Order o f Modal A s p e c t s ^17 S u b j e c t and O b j e c t S i d e o f I n d i v i d u a l T h i n g s ........ 3^ 20 The I n t e r n a l M o d a l i t y S t r u c t u r e o f a Thing 121 A r t and i t s Q u a l i f y i n g F u n c t i o n H 2 4 The Meaning K e r n e l o f t h e A e s t h e t i c A s p e c t -^27 A COMPARISON OF CONCEPTS AND THEIR IMPLICATIONS FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF ART CURRICULUM IN v i NEO-CALVINISTIC EDUCATION 129 Common Concerns .. 129 P o i n t s o f R e f e r e n c e 134 THE THEORY OF MODAL ASPECTS AND ITS IMPLICATIONS FOR ART CURRICULA .. 135 The F r e e - a r t C u r r i c u l u m 135 The Bound-art C u r r i c u l u m 137 v i i L i s t of F i g u r e s Page F i g u r e 1. Diagram o f the M o d a l i t y S t r u c t u r e and t h e S u b j e c t F u n c t i o n s o f Man, A n i m a l , P l a n t and P h y s i c a l T hings 140 2. Diagram o f t h e F o u n d a t i o n a l and Q u a l i f y i n g F u n c t i o n o f a P i e c e o f F u r n i t u r e 141 3. Diagram o f the F o u n d a t i o n a l and Q u a l i f y i n g F u n c t i o n o f a Work of A r t 142 v i i i Acknowledgments Having come t o t h e c o m p l e t i o n o f t h e a r t e d u c a t i o n M a s t e r s program, I w i s h t o e x p r e s s my g r a t i t u d e t o a l l who have g u i d e d me a l o n g t h e way. I am g r e a t l y i n d e b t e d t o Dr. Graeme Chalmers who i n t r o d u c e d me t o the s o c i a l c o n c e r n s i n a r t e d u c a t i o n and p r o v i d e d t h e encouragement and h e l p t o complete t h i s s t u d y . I want t o thank Dr. James Gray f o r h i s p a t i e n c e w i t h me d u r i n g t h e p l a n n i n g s t a g e s o f t h e t h e s i s and h i s c o n s t r u c t i v e c r i t i c i s m . Dr. W a l t e r Werner I w i s h t o thank f o r h i s c h a l l e n g i n g q u e s t i o n s t h a t made me s t r i v e f o r c l a r i t y o f meaning. F o r the b a s i c p e r s p e c t i v e i n t h i s s t u d y I am p r i m a r i l y i n d e b t e d t o Dr. Evan Runner o f C a l v i n C o l l e g e , who i n t r o d u c e d me t o the P h i l o s o p h y o f the Cosmonomic Id e a . My f r i e n d s I acknowledge f o r t h e i r encouragement, i n t e r -e s t and c o n c e r n f o r t h i s p r o j e c t . F i n a l l y , I want t o e x p r e s s my deep a p p r e c i a t i o n t o my w i f e , L a i n i e , who always managed t o f i n d t i me t o do the t y p i n g f o r t h i s p r o j e c t and never f a i l e d i n g i v i n g her s u p p o r t and encouragement t o b r i n g t h i s t h e s i s t o c o m p l e t i o n . To my sons D a v i d , M i c h a e l and Raymond, who o f t e n wondered i f the n i g h t s r e q u i r e d f o r t h i s work would ever end, I d e d i c a t e t h i s t h e s i s as an e x p r e s s i o n o f my c o n c e r n f o r t h e i r a e s t h e t i c development. G.D. 1 INTRODUCTION \\ S o c i a l ConeeEnS'in A r t E d u c a t i o n The concern f o r the a e s t h e t i c q u a l i t y of our home and community environment has been p a r t of a r t programs s i n c e the beginning of the century. F i r s t these concerns found e x p r e s s i o n i n programs t h a t s t r e s s e d p r i m a r i l y p r a c t i c a l ends such as the development of c r a f t s k i l l s which c o u l d be used i n home making. L a t e r the scope of the. programs was extended to i n c l u d e community needs and a t t e n t i o n was g i v e n to the a e s t h e t i c q u a l i t i e s of parks, s t r e e t - f u r n i t u r e , b u l l e t i n b o a r d s , b u i l d i n g s and walkways. An example of t h i s l a t t e r o r i e n t a t i o n i s the Owattona P r o j e c t . M e l v i n Haggerty (1938), d i r e c t o r of the p r o j e c t , advocated the study of the elements of a r t , such as c o l o r , shape, t e x t u r e and s i z e , i n r e l a t i o n t o the d e s i g n of windows, c h a i r s , room-size rugs, l a n d s c a p i n g and other elements of the man-built environment. In c o n t r a s t to the b e l i e f t h a t a r t education meant the study of p a i n t i n g and s c u l p t u r e Haggerty was convinced t h a t : these simple and seemingly remote a c t i v i t i e s to the work of the p r o f e s s i o n a l a r t i s t i s the r e a l i t y upon which we must b u i l d an understanding of any a r t t h a t i s to be v i t a l i n education or t h a t i s to have any e x t e n s i v e s o c i a l v alue (p. 15). T h i s environmental concern of the ' t h i r t i e s gained new t h r u s t i n t h e 1 ' s i x t i e s when education was confronted w i t h the r e s u l t s of e c o l o g i c a l mismanagement and c h a l l e n g e d to j o i n the f i g h t a g a i n s t p o l l u t i o n . To f o s t e r v i s u a l and 2 environmental r e s p o n s i b i l i t y the schools would have to develop a r t programs t h a t showed \"concern f o r the a e s t h e t i c dimension, so t h a t we might have un t a r n i s h e d landscapes and a t t r a c t i v e c i t y scapes\" (Dobbs, 1974, p. 172). A c c o r d i n g to L a n i e r (1976) these programs were u s e f u l . He b e l i e v e s however, t h a t \"most of these programs - i f they can be judged by sampling - seem to r e s t r i c t any examination of p o l l u t i o n to the n e c e s s a r i l y s u p e r f i c i a l review of symptoms\" (p. 22). L a n i e r wants to go beyond the symptoms or \" r e s u l t s \" and i n v o l v e the a r t program wi t h the moral i s s u e s t h a t are a t the r o o t of the problems. In a d d i t i o n to concern about the environment a r t edu-c a t i o n became i n v o l v e d w i t h the a r t i s t i c h e r i t a g e and c u l t u r a l d i v e r s i t y of North America. Both Chapman (1978) and•McFee (1977) devote c o n s i d e r a b l e a t t e n t i o n to these two matters. C u l t u r a l awareness, t h a t i s the understanding of the students' own background, i s f o r McFee \"the most c r i t i -c a l p o i n t i n e d u c a t i o n i n m u l t i c u l t u r a l s o c i e t i e s \" (p. 10). Another view which r e c e i v e s i n c r e a s e d a t t e n t i o n i s art' as a v i s u a l language. T h i s i d e a appears to be accepted by most a r t educators who s t r e s s s o c i a l concerns, f o r example, L a n i e r , Chapman and McFee. Feldman (1976) summarizes the need f o r t h i s approach when he s t a t e s : Today w r i t t e n language s t e a d i l y recedes; the r a t i o of p r i n t e d words to p r i n t e d images grows s m a l l e r . My c o n t e n t i o n i s t h a t everyone must l e a r n to read images because our c u l t u r e i s i n c r e a s i n g l y r e p r e s e n t -3 ed and p e r c e i v e d i n v i s u a l terms (p. 2 00). What becomes e v i d e n t when we view the h i s t o r y of our f i e l d i s t h a t a r t education, w i t h emphasis on s o c i a l concerns, becomes more d i v e r s i f i e d . The e a r l i e r concerns f o r the im-provement of the v i s u a l q u a l i t i e s of home and community are now extended to the a r t i s t i c h e r i t a g e , c u l t u r a l d i v e r s i t y , moral judgment, and v i s u a l l i t e r a c y . The d i v e r s i t y of views presented by authors such as McFee, Feldman, Chapman and L a n i e r g i v e r i s e to s e v e r a l q u e s t i o n s about these views: q u e s t i o n s about j u s t i f i c a t i o n , p l a c e and r e l a t i o n s h i p i n education, and concerns about a d d i t i o n a l d i v e r s i f i c a t i o n . To g a i n some i n s i g h t i n t o these problems I w i l l d e l i n e a t e the c a t e g o r i e s of domains of human experience s t r e s s e d by the authors. The i n t e n t i o n w i l l be to e s t a b l i s h what these domains and t h e i r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s are i n comparison w i t h d i f f e r e n t s e t s of c a t e g o r i e s used i n other views on education. The Spectrum of Human Experience Short h i s t o r i c a l surveys of a r t e d u c a t i o n by E i s n e r (1972) and Chapman (1978) show t h a t a r t i n our schools has p r i m a r i l y been used f o r purposes such as moral education, s e l f f u l f i l l m e n t , v i s u a l p e r c e p t i o n , v o c a t i o n a l t r a i n i n g , p a t r i o t i s m , and not n e c e s s a r i l y f o r any i n t r i n s i c v a l u e . E i s n e r comments about t h i s l a c k of concern f o r a r t per se: S u r p r i s i n g l y t h i s o r i e n t a t i o n to a r t education i n the U.S. has been emphasized the l e a s t d u r i n g the course of i t s h i s t o r y as a g e n e r a l and p e r v a s i v e 4 theme i n the f i e l d , ... the subject-centered orien-tation has been the weakest (p. 59). The i n t r i n s i c value of art may not be denied by the authors discussed i n t h i s study. However, the i r program materials give evidence of somewhat limited concern. Chapman (1978) i n her suggested art a c t i v i t i e s concentrates primarily on three aspects; personal expression, the ar-t i s t i c heritage and art i n society. McFee (1977) focuses on the development of design and drawing i n art. However, she chooses drawing a c t i v i t i e s not as an end i n themselves but as a means to increase perception and general knowledge. .What has been true for the art programs i n general has also been true for programs i n Neo-Calvinistic schools. Art education served s o c i a l studies, the language arts, r e l i g i o u s studies, celebrations, etc. even.though the basic philosophy of these schools supports the idea that each domain of human experience has i t s own mode of operation and projects a unique dimension of r e a l i t y . This contrast i n emphasis between society and subject-centered educational programs i s also expressed by Eisner (1972) i n terms of contrasting contextualist and e s s e n t i a l i s t approaches to curriculum development i n art education. The former \" u t i l i z e s the p a r t i c u l a r needs of the students or the society\", the l a t t e r \"emphasizes the kinds of contributions to human experience and understanding that only art can pro-vide\" (Eisner, 1972, p. 2). The question i s ; to what extent i s i t possible to be one or the other? When Lanier (1976) 5 approaches t h e problem he i s q u i c k t o m i n i m i z e \" p u r e l y \" a e s t h e t i c e x p e r i e n c e and f e e l s i t s h o u l d be \"compared t o e a t i n g packaged cupcakes, w h i c h p r o v i d e no a p p r e c i a b l e n u t r i e n t s and do l i t t l e t o s a t i s f y hunger, but a r e consumed s o l e l y f o r the \"pure\" p l e a s u r e o f t h e i r f l a v o r \" (p. 1 9 ) . Y e t , r a t h e r s h o r t l y a f t e r t h i s s t a t e m e n t he w r i t e s ; \"Even i f u n d e r s t a n d i n g a e s t h e t i c e x p e r i e n c e r e q u i r e s us t o i s o l a t e i t s \" p u r e l y \" a e s t h e t i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , i t i s s t i l l q u i t e p r o p e r t o a s s e r t t h a t we ought o r ought a l s o a t t e n d t o o t h e r c o n c e r n s o r elements i n v o l v e d i n an a e s t h e t i c t r a n s -a c t i o n \" (p. 20) . . My i n t e n t i o n i s n o t t o defend e i t h e r t h e c o n t e x t u a l i s t o r e s s e n t i a l i s t p o s i t i o n , but t o e x p l o r e the r e l a t i o n s h i p o f the a e s t h e t i c domain and o t h e r a s p e c t s o f human e x p e r i e n c e i n o r d e r t o d e v e l o p a b a s i s f o r a r t c u r r i c u l u m i n N e o - C a l v i n -i s t i c s c h o o l s . The j u s t i f i c a t i o n o f a r t e d u c a t i o n i n t h e s e s c h o o l s has been e s t a b l i s h e d t h r o u g h t h e b e l i e f t h a t e d u c a t i o n must d e v e l o p t h e s t u d e n t s ' u n d e r s t a n d i n g i n a l l a s p e c t s o f r e a l i t y , i n c l u d i n g t h e a e s t h e t i c domain, s i n c e each a s p e c t i s a c r e a t e d d i m e n s i o n o f the t o t a l spectrum o f human e x p e r i e n c e . T h i s has meant t h a t u s u a l l y some form o f a r t e d u c a t i o n i s p r o v i d e d i n N e o - C a l v i n i s t i c e l e m e n t a r y and h i g h s c h o o l s . P r e s e n t l y , f u r t h e r developments i n t h e N e o - C a l v i n i s t i c p h i l o s o p h y make i t p o s s i b l e t o t a k e a n o t h e r l o o k a t a r t e d u c a t i o n . Of p a r t i c -u l a r i n t e r e s t f o r t h i s s t u d y i s t h e con c e p t t h a t each domain o f e x p e r i e n c e has i t s own c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and sphere o f 6 o p e r a t i o n , y e t a t the same time i s a l s o p r e s e n t i n t h e o t h e r domains and can dye, as i t were, a l l o t h e r e x p e r i e n c e s i n shades o f t h e same c o l o r . A t y p i c a l example o f t h i s i s the r a t h e r common phenomenon o f r e d u c i n g e v e r y l i f e e x p e r i e n c e t o an economic s i t u a t i o n . T h i s form o f measuring e v e r y t h i n g by one s t a n d a r d becomes e v i d e n t when a p a r t i c u l a r domain i s a c c e p t e d as a b s o l u t e and o t h e r s a r e n o t . On t h e o t h e r hand each domain i s a b l e t o c o n t r i b u t e new i n s i g h t s about o t h e r domains/ w h i c h i n t h e c o n t e x t o f t h i s s t u d y means t h a t a r t e d u c a t i o n does have a r e s p o n s i b i l i t y i n s o c i e t y t o make i t s u n i q u e c o n t r i b u t i o n s i n s o c i a l as w e l l as i n o t h e r a r e a s o f human e x p e r i e n c e . From a N e o - C a l v i n i s t i c p o s i t i o n i t makes sense t o e x p l o r e the n a t u r e o f the a e s t h e t i c domain i n , t h e c o n t e x t o f i t s many f u n c t i o n s i n l i f e , j u s t as i t makes sense t o s t u d y t h e p r o p e r t i e s o f water i n s c i e n c e c l a s s i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h i t s use as a means o f t r a n s p o r t a t i o n , r e c r e a t i o n , i r r i g a t i o n , d r i n k i n g , washing e t c . However, the a r t programs i n N e o - C a l v i n i s t i c e d u c a t i o n have n o t k e p t pace w i t h the developments o f N e o - C a l v i n i s t i c p h i l o s o p h y . A b r o a d e r p e r s p e c t i v e i s needed t h a t i n c o r p o r a t e s t h e con-c e p t s o f N e o - C a l v i n i s t i c p h i l o s o p h y t h a t a r e r e l e v a n t t o a r t e d u c a t i o n . Such a p e r s p e c t i v e now appears f e a s i b l e on t h e b a s i s o f t h e m a t e r i a l p r o v i d e d b o t h i n the l i t e r -a t u r e on a r t e d u c a t i o n i n g e n e r a l and i n the framework o f N e o - C a l v i n i s t i c p h i l o s o p h y . E d u c a t i o n a l R e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s A renewed i n t e r e s t i n a r t e d u c a t i o n and s o c i a l c o n c e r n s 7 came about during the ' s i x t i e s when educators were con-fronted with the needs of the minority groups, the p o l l u t i o n of t h i s environment and deterioration of the qua l i t y of l i f e . This concern for society i n education i s not new. Educators l i k e Broudy (1961) wrote some twenty years ago that one of the important tasks of the school i s exactly that, namely, to \"be the c r i t i c of society and a l l i t s i n s t i -tutions because i t stands for the good l i f e i n general rather than for a l o c a l version of i t \" (p. 95). Today authors l i k e Eisner and Lanier claim similar r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s for the 'school. In the early 'seventies Eisner (1972) wrote, \"schools ought to try to improve society and not just prepare people to f i t i n society as i t i s \" (p. 280); and Lanier (1976) comments, \"the central issue of education - i n what-ever f i e l d or on whatever l e v e l i t can be confronted - i s to c l a r i f y the ways i n which the s o c i a l , p o l i t i c a l and eco-nomic world works and how i t can be improved\" (p. 24). Even though d i f f e r e n t educators agree that the school has a respon-s i b i l i t y towards society, several questions are i n need of answers. Questions about the j u s t i f i c a t i o n of these pro-grams, the i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of s o c i a l concerns, and t h e i r underlying concepts of society and art, need to be considered. Aesthetic Education and Visual Literacy One view of art education that makes i t possible to come to grips with some of the problems i s the concept of aesthetic education. Aesthetic education has been described in d i f f e r e n t ways; yet one of i t s common features seems to 8 be t h a t the a e s t h e t i c e x p e r i e n c e can not be i d e n t i f i e d o n l y w i t h a r t o b j e c t s . The recommendations o f the NAEA Commission on A r t E d u c a t i o n (1977) s t a t e t h a t \" the s e a r c h f o r a e s t h e t i c e x p e r i e n c e t h r o u g h a c u l t i v a t e d form o f p e r -c e p t i o n i s n o t l i m i t e d t o works o f a r t . The forms o f n a t u r e as w e l l as the forms o f c u l t u r e a r e p r o p e r c a n d i d a t e s f o r a e s t h e t i c e x p e r i e n c e \" (p. 3 7 ) . S i m i l a r s t a t e m e n t s a r e made by Broudy (1974) who d i v i d e s t h e a e s t h e t i c e x p e r i e n c e i n t o two a s p e c t s , one o f w h i c h i s r e l a t e d t o the a p p r e c i a t i o n o f \"e m b e l l i s h m e n t o f a u t o m o b i l e s , f u r n i t u r e and c l o t h i n g \" , t h e o t h e r t o t h e a p p r e c i a t i o n \"of s e r i o u s a r t \" (p. 1 6 ) . F u r t h e r , A r n s t i n e (1966) comments as f o l l o w s , \" A e s t h e t i c e d u c a t i o n w h i c h i g n o r e d works of a r t would thus l o s e a v a l u a b l e r e -so u r c e . But a e s t h e t i c e d u c a t i o n w h i c h i g n o r e d e xamining t h e r e s t o f the w o r l d i n i t s a r t i s t i c d i m e n s i o n c o u l d o n l y r e s u l t i n a sharp d i s t o r t i o n o f b o t h a r t and the w o r l d \" (p. 7 3 ) . In a d d i t i o n t o the broadened v i e w o f a e s t h e t i c ex-p e r i e n c e , w h i c h made i t p o s s i b l e t o go beyond t h e a r t o b j e c t i n t o the environment, came t h e awareness t h a t i n communi-c a t i o n v e r b a l forms were becoming more and more r e p l a c e d by v i s u a l images. I n a r a t h e r s t r i k i n g manner t h e NAEA Commission (1977) e x p l a i n s t h e need f o r v i s u a l images as f o l l o w s : To know about s i m p l i c i t y , t e n d e r n e s s , speed, the tempo o f c i t y l i f e , t h e magic o f f a n t a s y i n d i s -c u r s i v e t h e o r e t i c a l terms i s t o know a s l e n d e r s l i c e o f t h e i r r e a l i t y . I t i s t o l o o k a t t h e w o r l d 9 t h r o u g h a l i m i t e d l e n s . A r t p r o v i d e s the s t r u c -t u r e s t h a t open new p e r s p e c t i v e s (p. 38). Both., t h e v i e w s o f a e s t h e t i c e d u c a t i o n and t h e i n c r e a s e d emphasis on v i s u a l forms i n communication g i v e b a s i c s u p p o r t t o a r t programs wh i c h s t r e s s s o c i a l c o n c e r n s . Opening P r o c e s s I n N e o - C a l v i n i s t i c v i e w s on e d u c a t i o n the r e s p o n s i b i l i -t y o f t h e s c h o o l i n s o c i e t y i s e x p r e s s e d t h r o u g h c a r e f o r f e l l o w man and t h e w o r l d i n w h i c h he l i v e s . U i t h i n t h i s con-c e p t i s an element t h a t emphasizes t h e need t o d e v e l o p o r open up new d i m e n s i o n s o f r e a l i t y . T h i s opening up p r o c e s s i s w i t n e s s e d i n e v e r y a s p e c t o f human e x p e r i e n c e t h r o u g h i t s h i s t o r y . R e f e r e n c e t o t h i s p r o c e s s i s u s u a l l y g i v e n i n terms l i k e ; from s i m p l e t o complex, from u n d i f f e r e n t i a t e d t o d i f f e r -e n t i a t e d , o r from e a r l i e r t o l a t e r . The n a t u r e o f t h i s p r o -c e s s i s seen i n two ways. I t r e l a t e s t o t h e development o f each i n d i v i d u a l a s p e c t o f human e x p e r i e n c e as w e l l as t o t h e development o f a c e r t a i n domain by t h e unique c o n t r i b u t i o n s o f a n o t h e r . I t . i s t h i s l a t t e r c o n c e p t t h a t s u p p o r t s t h e i n -volvement o f a r t e d u c a t i o n w i t h the v a r i o u s elements i n s o c i e t y . S o c i a l c o n c e r n s a r e t h e r e f o r e n ot o u t s i d e the scope o f t h e N e o - C a l v i n i s t i c s c h o o l s . On t h e c o n t r a r y , t h e s e con-c e r n s have always found s u p p o r t i n i t s p h i l o s o p h y . But. what t h i s means f o r a r t e d u c a t i o n has not been c l e a r l y d e f i n e d and i n t h i s s t u d y I i n t e n d t o work towards t h a t end. Design o f t h e Study In o r d e r t o d e v e l o p a b a s i s f o r a r t c u r r i c u l a i n Neo-10 C a l v i n i s t i c s c h ools I w i l l f i r s t d e l i n e a t e some of the h i s t o r i c a l and contemporary views on s o c i a l concerns i n a r t educa t i o n . T h i s survey w i l l i n c l u d e Haggarty's c o n t r i b u -t i o n s to the Owattona A r t Educat i o n P r o j e c t , Gropius' i d e a s about the Bauhaus, and the w r i t i n g s of Chapman, Feldman, L a n i e r and McFee with emphasis on t h e i r concepts of s o c i e t y , a r t and educ a t i o n . Secondly, I w i l l i d e n t i f y those aspects of human ex-p e r i e n c e t h a t are most prominent i n the a r t c u r r i c u l a pro-p o s a l s . P a r t i c u l a r a t t e n t i o n w i l l be gi v e n to what authors such as Chapman, Feldman, L a n i e r and McFee s t r e s s as the primary c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of the d i f f e r e n t a spects t h a t they i n c l u d e i n a r t education. F i n a l l y , I w i l l i n t r o d u c e , i n a s s o c i a t i o n with the views of Chapman, Feldman, L a n i e r and McFee, c e r t a i n concepts of the N e o - C a l v i n i s t i c p h i l o s o p h y t h a t focus on the r e l a t i o n -s h i p between a r t and the other aspects of human experience and determine what i m p l i c a t i o n s these concepts have f o r the development of a r t c u r r i c u l u m i n N e o - C a l v i n i s t i c e d u c a t i o n . The N e o - C a l v i n i s t i c view on s o c i a l concerns i n a r t educa t i o n w i l l be d i s c u s s e d w i t h i n the context of t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p between a r t and the other aspects of human experience. 11 H i s t o r i c a l Foundations The Owattona P r o j e c t A r t i n those times was s t i l l wrapped up i n l i f e . I t s f u n c t i o n was to f i l l w i th beauty the forms assumed by l i f e .... A l l the works and a l l the joys of l i f e , whether dependent on r e l i g i o n , c h i v a l r y , t r a d e or l o v e , had t h e i r marked form. The task of a r t was to adorn a l l these concepts w i t h charm and c o l o r ; i t i s not d e s i r e d f o r i t s own sake, but to decorate l i f e w i t h the splendor which i t co u l d bestow (Huizenga, 1954, p. 244). With these words Huizenga (1954) r e f l e c t s on the r o l e of a r t i n s o c i e t y d u r i n g the f i f t e e n t h century i n Europe. T h i s was a s o c i e t y t h a t made no d i s t i n c t i o n between f i n e and a p p l i e d a r t , nor knew the d i f f e r e n c e between an a r t i s t and a craftsman, a s o c i e t y t h a t had not y e t t a s t e d the lo v e of a r t f o r i t s own sake. When d u r i n g the ' t h i r t i e s M e l v i n Haggerty s e t out to convert America to a c c e p t i n g \" a r t as a way of l i f e \" , he went back to the Middle Ages f o r i n s p i r a t i o n . The c i t y of F l o r e n c e became h i s model. T h i s c i t y had been b u i l t upon v i s i o n s t h a t Haggerty (1938) wanted to i n s t i l i n a l l members of l o c a l communities, students and a d u l t s a l i k e . His was a v i s i o n which aimed to prepare people who would \"do a l l work, however humble, e x c e p t i o n a l l y w e l l \" (p. 26). As i n the days of F l o r e n c e there was to be no d i s t i n c t i o n made between a r t i s t and craftsman. N e i t h e r was a r t allowed to withdraw 12 b e h i n d t h e d o o r s o f l o c a l musea, f o r Haggerty b e l i e v e d t h a t , \" v i s u a l a r t i s a common human need, grown out o f t h e u n i v e r s a l urge t o a c h i e v e a more g r a c i o u s and more s a t i s -f y i n g l i f e , t h a t a r t i s n o t something a p a r t from l i f e , but i n t e g r a l w i t h a l l i t s a c t i v i t i e s \" (p. 2 7 ) . The Owattona A r t E d u c a t i o n P r o j e c t was s t a r t e d i n t h e p u b l i c s c h o o l s o f Owattona, M i n n e s o t a , i n September, 1933. A c c o r d i n g t o E i s n e r i t \"was born d u r i n g the d e p r e s s i o n and, i n p a r t , sought t o p r o v i d e a t h e o r e t i c a l f o u n d a t i o n o f a r t e d u c a t i o n t h a t would s e c u r e i t a g a i n s t the v i c i s s i t u d e s o f t h e d e p r e s s i o n y e a r s \" ( E i s n e r , 1972, p. 54). A t t h a t time Haggerty was Dean o f t h e C o l l e g e o f E d u c a t i o n a t the U n i v e r s i t y o f M i n n e s o t a . As d i r e c t o r o f t h e p r o j e c t Haggerty emphasized t h e need t o make a r t e d u c a t i o n \" r e l e v a n t t o the t y p e o f d e c i s i o n s t h a t t h e average c i t i z e n might be c a l l e d upon t o make d u r i n g the c o u r s e o f h i s l i f e \" (p. 54). F o r t h i s r e a s o n the p r o j e c t f o c u s e d on \" d i s c u s s i o n s about d r a p e r i e s , room l a y o u t , l a n d s c a p i n g , f u r n i t u r e , d r e s s , a u t o -m o b i l e s and so f o r t h \" . These d e c i s i o n s \" i n p a r t r e q u i r e d a e s t h e t i c judgement ... t h a t t h e s c h o o l c o u l d h e l p p e o p l e make more e f f e c t i v e l y \" (p. 54). The program was d i v i d e d i n t o two major d i v i s i o n s . One d i v i s i o n d e a l t w i t h e d u c a t i o n i n the s c h o o l s , a n o t h e r w i t h a d u l t s i n t h e community. Each grade, from e l e m e n t a r y t h r o u g h h i g h s c h o o l , was p r o v i d e d w i t h some i n s t r u c t i o n i n a r t . P r i m e r s were w r i t t e n f o r t h e s t u d y o f c l o t h i n g , f u r n i -t u r e , house d e s i g n , and community p l a n n i n g . Summer c l a s s e s 13 were o f f e r e d f o r b o t h c h i l d r e n and t e a c h e r s . I n t h e communi-t y p u b l i c s e r v i c e s were p r o v i d e d t o promote a r t e d u c a t i o n on an i n f o r m a l b a s i s . L o c a l i n t e r e s t i n the P r o j e c t \"brought i n v i t a t i o n s t o d i s c u s s i t b e f o r e c l u b s f o r men and f o r women, bo t h o f wh i c h a r e numerous i n Owattona\" (p. 28). Through t h e s e d i s c u s s i o n s t h e P r o j e c t - a d m i n i s t r a t i o n hoped t o s t i m u -l a t e c o n c e r n f o r t h e v i s u a l environment and t o o b t a i n r e -q u e s t s f o r t h e i r a r t i n s t r u c t o r s t o v i s i t homes where aes-t h e t i c a d v i c e was d e s i r e d . The p u b l i c s e r v i c e s were s u c c e s s -f u l and \"many homes were v i s i t e d i n t h i s manner, and the problems t h e y p r e s e n t e d have been c a r e f u l l y a n a l y s e d and s t u d i e d f o r the s u g g e s t i o n s t h e y might a f f o r d t o t h e i n s t r u c -t i o n a l program i n the s c h o o l s \" (p. 28). I n e v e r y r e s p e c t t h e P r o j e c t was d e s i g n e d t o r e a c h young and o l d . That which m o t i v a t e d Haggerty t o i n c l u d e a l l members o f the community might be t r a c e d t o s e v e r a l c o n c e r n s . A c c o r d i n g t o E i s n e r (1974) one r e a s o n was the need f o r p u b l i c s u p p o r t a t the time o f t h e G r e a t D e p r e s s i o n when a r t budgets were s e v e r e l y c u t . I n Haggerty's w r i t i n g s we f i n d a d i f f e r e n t c o n c e r n ; a c o n c e r n f o r t h e q u a l i t y o f l i f e . I n h i s i n t r o d u c t i o n t o Enrichment o f the Common L i f e (1938) he p o r t r a y s man's e x i s t a n c e as r a t h e r d u l l , and monotonous w i t h l i t t l e d i v e r -s i t y and e x c i t e m e n t . \"For most o f u s\", he w r i t e s , \"the e x p e r i e n c e s o f l i f e a r e so c u t t o a s i n g l e p a t t e r n t h a t the common l i f e has come t o be thought o f as h a v i n g l i t t l e m e r i t \" (p. 9 ) . The cause o f t h i s s i t u a t i o n i s p r i m a r i l y 14 the machine and i t s e f f e c t on the work pro c e s s . For t h i s reason Haggerty advocates t h a t a l l students r e c e i v e a r t education to prepare them \" a g a i n s t the day of t h r e a t e n i n g boredom, d e p l e t i n g p l a y a c t i v i t i e s , the monotony of a machine-made day\" (p. 23), and enable them to make t h e i r homes and community a more enjoyable p l a c e i n which to l i v e . The means to the enrichment of l i f e through a r t con-s i s t e d of a p p l y i n g the elements of a r t , l i k e c o l o r , compo-s i t i o n , shape* e t c . i n a p p r o p r i a t e ways, and the use of the n a t u r a l world as a guide. The n a t u r a l world f o r Haggerty i s the c r a d l e of a l l c i v i l i z a t i o n s . Here are the r o o t s of humanity. Out of t h i s world man made a new environment, a manufactured world of things-; t h i n g s made wit h the r e s o u r -ces of the n a t u r a l world. These r e s o u r c e s Haggerty (1938) wants to ex p l o r e f o r t h e i r a r t i s t i c q u a l i t i e s and use them f o r the development of the man-made environment. A c l e a r example of h i s views are found i n the f o l l o w i n g statement: the n a t u r a l world i s woven through with c o l o r and rhythm, w i t h balance and harmony, with forms and spaces, w i t h l i g h t s and shadows t h a t c o n s t i t u t e a gr e a t r e s e r v o i r from which man may draw f o r e n r i c h -ment of the a r t i f i c i a l l i f e t h a t develops about him i s the cause of h i s e f f o r t to l i v e a f u l l y rounded and e f f i c i e n t e x i s t a n c e . They are a storehouse from which he may draw to ensure and to i n c r e a s e the durabl e s a t i s f a c t i o n s o f l i f e (p. 12). The r e s u l t s of t h i s approach may be d i f f i c u l t to t r a c e . 15 However, one t h i n g becomes obvious: i n a community, t h a t shares the views of Haggerty, and where a man may p l a n t a v i n e \"to thread i t s way over the rough cor n e r s of h i s garage\" (p. 1 4 ) , the b o x - l i k e s t r u c t u r e s of Mies van der Rohe would have a hard time to e x i s t . In c o n c l u s i o n i t may be s t a t e d t h a t Haggerty's p r o p o s a l s f o r a r t e d u c a t i o n omit the study of p a i n t i n g and s c u l p t u r e . In t h a t sense he i s more r e s t r i c t i v e than Chapman, Feldman, and McFee. F u r t h e r , he c e n t e r s the j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r a r t education around human needs f o r the enrichment of l i f e . Needs f e l t not o n l y by those who are a r t i s t i c a l l y o r i e n t a t e d but by everyone. In c o n t r a s t to t h i s , Chapman, Feldman, and McFee appear to j u s t i f y a r t education more on the b a s i s of the f u n c t i o n of a r t i n s o c i e t y . The r a t h e r dim view of the machine h e l d by Haggerty i s not shared by the other authors. Instead, they seem to accept the machine as p a r t of l i f e and i n c l u d e product or i n d u s t r i a l d e sign as an element i n t h e i r programs. Chapman (1978), f o r instance, advocates t h a t the g o a l s of a r t education should i n c l u d e the developement of \" s e n s i t i v i t y to s k i l l e d a r t i s a n s h i p and e x p r e s s i v e form i n both hand-made and i n d u s t r i a l products\" (p. 318). One aspect which r e a l l y stands out i n the Owattona P r o j e c t i s i t s a c t i v e s o c i a l involvement. In none of the contemporary programs i s s t r e s s p l a c e d on the need f o r the a r t i n s t r u c t o r to be d i r e c t -l y i n v o l v e d w i t h the community o u t s i d e the s c h o o l . Yet. f o r Haggerty t h i s involvement was b a s i c to the whole P r o j e c t . In s e t t i n g the g o a l s f o r the school programs Haggerty (1938) 16 states: We declined to answer these questions from books or by invoking theories. We t r i e d to be r e a l i s t i c , to get acquainted with the people, to study t h e i r ways of l i v i n g , to understand t h e i r i n s t i t u t i o n s of industry, of commerce, of education, or r e l i g i o n , t h e i r agencies of general culture (p. 28). For the development of art programs t h i s approach would seem to have certa i n merits i f one was to attempt to be respon-sive to community needs. In the f i r s t place, a community survey would provide information that could be used as con-crete material for the writing of units. Secondly, the school could build rapport with the home, the factory, the church, the o f f i c e , etc. Thirdly, the actual a r t work done i n the classroom can take on a greater sense of relevance for the students. However, for a school to emptoy s t a f f to survey the a r t i s t i c needs i n the community at large appears some-what outside i t s j u r i s d i c t i o n . The Bauhaus Idea Haggerty's ideas i n the ' t h i r t i e s r e f l e c t some of the struggles that took place during the nineteenth century i n England and Germany. During the e a r l i e r part of the Indus-t r i a l Revolution a reaction developed against the elimination of the craftsman's work and the poor qu a l i t y of machine pro-ducts. In some way a \"back to the guilds\" movement had taken root to defend the craftsmen and t h e i r trades. Most adamant for t h i s cause i n England was Morris, who, according to Naylor 17 ( 1 9 6 8 ) , \" l o a t h e d t h e v a l u e s o f t h e steam age\", and \" r e j e c t e d t h e machine on s o c i a l as w e l l as a e s t h e t i c grounds\" (p. 1 3 ) . A d d i t i o n a l t h r u s t t o the cause o f the c r a f t s m a n was g i v e n by M o r r i s 1 c l a i m t h a t \" a r t and b eauty need n o t be c o n f i n e d t o p a i n t i n g and s c u l p t u r e ; a l l men s h o u l d be a b l e t o f u r n i s h t h e i r homes w i t h p r o d u c t s c r e a t e d by a d e c o r a t i v e , n o b l e , p o p u l a r a r t \" (p. 12). S i m i l a r v o i c e s were r a i s e d i n Germany u n t i l t h e l a t e ' t w e n t i e s , when G r o p i u s , as d i r e c t o r o f t h e German Bauhaus S c h o o l o f D e s i g n , s t a r t e d t o d e v e l o p ways t h a t i n t e g r a t e d t h e c o n c e r n s o f t h e a r t i s t and c r a f t s m a n w i t h the p r o d u c t i o n methods o f t h e f a c t o r i e s . The Bauhaus, meaning \" c o n s t r u c t i o n -house,\" was a s p e c i a l s c h o o l o f d e s i g n f o r t a l e n t e d a r t i s t s and c r a f t s m e n . I t s b a s i c s were o f such a n a t u r e t h a t t h e y had ,. f a r - r e a c h i n g consequences f o r t h e development o f t h e man-made environment as w e l l as f o r e d u c a t i o n a l programs t h r o u g h o u t Europe and A m e r i c a : C h i l d r e n s h o u l d be i n t r o d u c e d r i g h t from th e s t a r t t o t h e p o t e n t i a l i t i e s o f t h e i r environment, t o the p h y s i c a l and p s y c h o l o g i c a l laws t h a t govern th e v i s u a l w o r l d , and t o the supreme enjoyment t h a t comes -from p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n t h e c r e a t i v e p r o c e s s of g i v i n g form t o one's l i v i n g space. Such e x p e r i e n c e , i f c o n t i n u e d i n d e p t h t h r o u g h o u t th e whole o f the e d u c a t i o n a l c y c l e , w i l l never be f o r g o t t e n and w i l l p r e p a r e the a d u l t t o c o n t i n u e t a k i n g an i n f o r m e d i n t e r e s t i n what happens around him ( G r o p i u s , 1968, 18 p. 5 0). These words w r i t t e n by G r o p i u s i n 1968, when he l i v e d i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , echo a statement made e a r l i e r i n h i s B l u e p r i n t o f an A r c h i t e c t ' s E d u c a t i o n . I n the \" B l u e p r i n t \" he had a d d r e s s e d h i m s e l f t o the e d u c a t i o n a l needs o f c h i l d -r e n i n s i m i l a r terms: Throughout t h e whole d u r a t i o n o f the s c h o o l , manual s k i l l and form p e r c e p t i o n a r e t o be t r a i n e d s i m u l -t a n e o u s l y by b u i l d i n g , ( w i t h a c t u a l m a t e r i a l s ) a s s e m b l i n g , m o d e l i n g , p a i n t i n g , f r e e - h a n d and g e o m e t r i c a l d r a w i n g . But t h i s i s i m p o r t a n t , no c o p y i n g , no e l i m i n a t i o n o f the urge t o p l a y ( G r o p i u s , 1966, p. 4 8 ) . Other i d e a s w h i c h G r o p i u s e x p r e s s e d i n h i s g o a l s f o r the Bauhaus i n c l u d e many elements r e l e v a n t t o a r t e d u c a t i o n i n g e n e r a l . F o r i n s t a n c e , he, l i k e Haggerty, f e l t t h a t t h e f u n c t i o n o f t h e a r t i s t was not t o be l i m i t e d t o p a i n t i n g and s c u l p t u r e , but s h o u l d r e l a t e t o e v e r y a s p e c t o f t h e man-made environment. I n c o n t r a s t w i t h Haggerty, however, he b e l i e v e d t h a t p a i n t i n g and s c u l p t u r e had t h e i r r i g h t f u l p l a c e and f u n c t i o n i n t h e o v e r a l l s t r u c t u r e o f t h e t o t a l e nvironment. To g i v e new meaning t o t h e a r t i s t ' s f u n c t i o n i n an i n d u s t r i a l s o c i e t y G r o p i u s d i d not advocate g o i n g back t o the g u i l d system, even though he i n c o r p o r a t e d some forms o f t h e g u i l d o r g a n i z a t i o n . R a t h e r , he p l a c e d b e f o r e a r t i s t s t h e c h a l l a n g e t o i n t e g r a t e t h e i r a r t i s t i c a b i l i t i e s w i t h the 19 b e n e f i t s o f the machine and the new t e c h n o l o g y . T h i s meant t h a t the a r t i s t was t o r e s e a r c h the p r o p e r t i e s o f m a t e r i a l s i n r e l a t i o n t o the p r o d u c t i o n p r o c e s s as w e l l as the forms t h i s p r o c e s s would a l l o w . The workshops, t h e r e f o r e , were a c c o r d i n g t o G r o p i u s (1966): e s s e n t i a l l a b o r a t o r i e s i n which the models f o r such p r o d u c t s were c a r e f u l l y e v o l v e d and c o n s t a n t l y improved. Evenyfchough t h e s e models were made by hand, the model d e s i g n e r s had t o be f u l l y a c q u a i n t e d w i t h the methods o f p r o d u c t i o n on an i n d u s t r i a l s c a l e (p. 1 5 ) . T h i s i n t e g r a t i o n o f t h e a r t i s t ' s work w i t h t h e mass produc-t i o n p r o c e s s was a f i r s t s t e p i n d e a l i n g w i t h the machine as a p o s i t i v e f a c t o r i n s o c i e t y . G r o p i u s never d e n i e d t h e r e a l advantages o f t h e machine; r a t h e r he was concerned w i t h t h e poor q u a l i t y o f the goods produced. H i s aim, t h r o u g h t h e work a t the Bauhaus, was t o improve t h e s e q u a l i t i e s . A n other v i e w which has i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r a r t programs t h a t s t r e s s e n v i r o n m e n t a l c o n c e r n s i s G r o p i u s ' i d e a t h a t t h e g r e a t d i v e r s i t y i n the v i s u a l environment s h o u l d n e v e r t h e -l e s s e x p r e s s c l e a r l y some u n i f y i n g element, c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f i t s c u l t u r e . To a c h i e v e t h i s he promoted th e need f o r c o - o p e r a t i o n between a r t i s t s and c r a f t s m e n . I n h i s famous m a n i f e s t o he w r o t e : The complete b u i l d i n g i s t h e f i n a l aim o f the v i s u a l a r t s . T h e i r n o b l e s t f u n c t i o n was once the d e c o r a t i o n o f b u i l d i n g s . Today t h e y e x i s t i n i s o l a t i o n , from w h i c h t h e y can be r e s c u e d o n l y t h r o u g h the c o n s c i o u s 20 c o - o p e r a t i v e e f f o r t o f a l l c r a f t s m e n . A r c h i t e c t s , p a i n t e r s and s c u l p t o r s must r e c o g n i s e anew the composite c h a r a c t e r o f a b u i l d i n g as an e n t i t y ( N a y l o r , 1968, p. 50). Y e t , t h i s c o - o p e r a t i o n i s not t o be l i m i t e d t o a r t i s t s b ut must a l s o i n c l u d e the businessman o r whoever th e c l i e n t may be, so t h a t the whole p l a n n i n g p r o c e s s r e f l e c t s t h e b a s i c s t r u c t u r e o f a d e m o c r a t i c s o c i e t y . I n G r o p i u s ' l a t e r comments on e d u c a t i o n he remarks: I f we had p r e s s e d l o n g ago f o r a more p r o f o u n d v i s u a l t r a i n i n g o f t h e average s c h o o l c h i l d , who though b o r n w i t h the a b i l i t y t o see, must be t r a i n e d t o d e v e l o p h i s a b i l i t y t o p e r c e i v e ; we might be n e a r e r t o m e e t i n g o f t h e minds when we have t o map o u t g e n e r a l s t r a t e g y f o r t h e appearance o f our common h a b i t a t nowadays ( G r o p i u s , 1968, p. 7 4 ) . I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o o b s e r v e t h a t G r o p i u s e x p r e s s e d v a r i o u s c o n c e p t s shared by contemporary w r i t e r s i n a r t e d u c a t i o n . B a s i c t o h i s g o a l s a r e c o n c e r n s f o r the m a i n t e -nance of a d e m o c r a t i c s o c i e t y . T h i s becomes apparent i n two ways: t h r o u g h h i s use o f t h e d e m o c r a t i c p r o c e s s i n d e c i s i o n making among a r t i s t s , c r a f t s m e n and c l i e n t s , and t h r o u g h t h e r e c u r r i n g theme o f u n i t y i n d i v e r s i t y . I n edu-c a t i o n he emphasizes t h e need f o r s t u d e n t s t o e x p e r i m e n t w i t h m a t e r i a l s i n a p l a y - l i k e f a s h i o n , and warns a g a i n s t ; t h e i m p o s i t i o n o f a d u l t s t a n d a r d s on t h e s t u d e n t ' s e x p l o r a t i o n s . The scope o f t h e a r t program i s t o i r d u d e d r a w i n g , p a i n t i n g , 21 c o n s t r u c t i o n and model making. As we see from the above quote (Gropius, 1968), st r o n g emphasis was p l a c e d on the development of p e r c e p t i o n . The d i r e c t i o n p r o v i d e d by Haggerty and Gropius are i n d i c a t i o n s t h a t a r t education does not need to be l i m i t e d to the study of the \" f i n e \" a r t s . Nor does i t have to be concerned o n l y w i t h the i n d i v i d u a l ' s needs. A r t education can be a p o s i t i v e f a c t o r i n the development of the man-made environment through the n u r t u r e of a e s t h e t i c awareness and c o - o p e r a t i v e p l a n n i n g . Concepts of S o c i e t y f o r A r t Education During the n i n e t e e n - t h i r t i e s d i s t r e s s i n g s o c i a l c o n d i -t i o n s s t i r r e d Haggerty to c h a l l e n g e the communities to r a i s e the q u a l i t y of l i f e through a r t education. Even .'though the s o c i a l c o n d i t i o n s have changed, the c h a l l e n g e remains. Today, the w r i t i n g s of Chapman, Feldman, L a n i e r and McFee g i v e evidence t h a t c o n s i d e r i n g the complexity of contemporary s o c i e t y a response to t h i s c h a l l e n g e can now take s e v e r a l d i r e c t i o n s . No longer do p o l i t i c a l boundaries separate homogeneous groups of people. Many n a t i o n s are composed of people w i t h d i f f e r e n t r a c i a l backgrounds, c u l t u r a l v a l u e s , r e l i g i o u s b e l i e f s and p o l i t i c a l a s p i r a t i o n s . To determine t h e r e f o r e what the r o l e of a r t education i n such a s o c i e t y ought to be can o n l y be e s t a b l i s h e d on the b a s i s of concepts t h a t express t h i s complexity. Words l i k e \" s o c i e t y \" o f t e n appear vague and ambiguous i n meaning. The f i r s t q u e s t i o n to ask t h e r e f o r e i s : What meaning do the v a r i o u s authors i n 22 t h i s s u r v e y a s c r i b e t o the term \" s o c i e t y \" ? Chapman's Concepts o f S o c i e t y Chapman (1978) s t a t e s \"the r o l e o f a r t i n a s o c i e t y o r c u l t u r e cannot be reduced t o p u r e l y a e s t h e t i c c o n s i d e r a t i o n s \" (p. 115). Or, a g a i n u s i n g t h e terms \" s o c i e t y \" and \" c u l t u r e \" s i d e by s i d e , w r i t e s \"as we have seen, a s o c i e t y o r c u l t u r e i s i d e n t i f i e d i n p a r t by t h e v i s u a l forms i t c r e a t e s \" (p. 120). S i n c e Chapman s e l e c t e d \" D e v e l o p i n g an Awareness o f A r t i n S o c i e t y \" as one o f her major components f o r a r t e d u c a t i o n , i t m ight be e x p e c t e d t h a t her c o n c e p t o f s o c i e t y w i l l become c l e a r t h r o u g h t h e m a t e r i a l s used i n t h i s compo-nent. I n her i n t r o d u c t o r y remarks she urges t h a t c h i l d r e n ought t o be aware o f v i s u a l forms \" i n our s o c i e t y and i n o t h e r c u l t u r e s as w e l l \" (p. 120). I n her s u g g e s t i o n s f o r s t u d e n t a c t i v i t i e s she i n c l u d e s t h e st u d y o f a r t works around the g l o b e i n c l u d i n g \" p r i n t m a k e r s i n Western c u l t u r e II i l i k e Durer, Rembrandt, Daumier, Goya and B l a k e , as w e l l as t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n s o f Japanese p r i n t m a k e r s \" (p. 258). F o r th e s t u d y o f s c u l p t u r e she s u g g e s t s t h a t c h i l d r e n be i n t r o -duced t o work c r e a t e d by \" c u l t u r a l groups t h a t they l e a r n about i n h i s t o r y and s o c i a l s t u d i e s i n c l u d i n g forms from non-Western and f o l k c u l t u r e s \" (p. 3 03). From t h e p r e c e d -i n g i t may be c o n c l u d e d t h a t Chapman does n o t equate \" s o c i e t y \" w i t h \" n a t i o n \" , evenr.though she a d d r e s s e s h e r s e l f t o t h e a r t e d u c a t o r s o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s and s t r e s s e s the development o f t h e s t u d e n t ' s awareness o f a r t i n h i s s o c i e t y . Y e t , t h i s would n o t be c o r r e c t s i n c e she a l s o uses t h e term \" s o c i e t y \" 23 i n r e f e r e n c e t o A m e r i c a . F o r example i n the f o l l o w i n g s t a t e -ment the words \"American\", \" s o c i e t y \" , and \"democracy\" a l l seem t o be used i n t h i s sense. \"Goals f o r American e d u c a t i o n s h o u l d r e f l e c t t h a t we l i v e i n a democracy. Whatever d e f i c i e n -c i e s we might see i n t h e o p e r a t i o n o f our s o c i e t y , few o f us would q u a r r e l w i t h the human v a l u e s a democracy i s i n t e n d e d t o muster\" (p. 117). F u r t h e r , t h e numerous examples o f \"our s o c i e t y \" i n Approaches t o A r t i n E d u c a t i o n a l s o i n d i c a t e t h a t Chapman uses t h i s term \\ i n a r e s t r i c t i v e s e n s e . The term \" c u l t u r e \" Chapman a l s o uses i n two ways; i n a b r o a d sense i t a p p l i e s t o A m e r i c a as a n a t i o n , and i n a narrow-e r sense i t denotes p a r t o f i t . A c c o r d i n g t o Chapman d i s t i n c t v i s u a l forms e s t a b l i s h t h e i d e n t i t y o f c u l t u r a l groups l i k e \"the M e x i c a n A m e r i c a n , A p p a l a c h i a n s , American I n d i a n s , and t h e A f r o - A m e r i c a n s \" (p. 1 0 ) . These groups a r e d i s t i n c t b u t a l s o s h a re t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e American c u l t u r e i n g e n e r a l . A c u l t u r e w h i c h i s o f t e n \" s a i d t o p l a c e l i t t l e v a l u e on a r t \" (p. 137). Where \" c h i l d r e n need t o become acquanted w i t h v a l u e s o t h e r t h a n t h o s e o f hedonism and m a t e r i a l i s m \" (p. 153). And where p e o p l e have a tendency t o combine elements o f d i f f e r -e n t p r o t o t y p e s i n t o one s i n g l e form. \"Where e l s e b u t i n America c o u l d we f i n d g a s o l i n e s t a t i o n s t h a t l o o k l i k e E n g l i s h c o t t a g e s , C h i n e s e temples o r S p a n i s h h a c i e n d a s ? \" (p. 100). Chapman s t a t e s t h a t f o r her t h i s form o f e c l e c t i c i s m i s one o f t h e most o u t s t a n d i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f American c u l t u r e . The v a l i d i t y o f t h i s e c l e c t i c i s m u n d o u b t e d l y can not be 24 d e n i e d . To c l a i m i t t y p i c a l o f the American c u l t u r e i n g e n e r a l may be d i f f i c u l t t o defend i n t i m e s when t h i r d - w o r l d f a r m e r s use American t r a c t o r t i r e s f o r t h e i r o x - c a r t s . A fundamental r e q u i r e m e n t f o r any c u l t u r a l group i s a g e n e r a l u n i t y o f t h e p e o p l e s 1 . v a l u e s and b e l i e f s . When changes t a k e p l a c e i n e i t h e r v a l u e s o r b e l i e f s \" t h e r e a r e c o r r e s p o n d i n g changes i n t h e v i s u a l q u a l i t i e s o f t h e forms t h i s c u l t u r e p r o d u c e s \" (p. 96). A l t h o u g h Chapman i n c l u d e s many r e f e r e n c e s i n her a r t program t o \" c u l t u r e \" and \" c u l t u r a l groups\", she does not r e s t r i c t t h e meaning o f s o c i e t y t o t h e s e c o n c e p t s . Some o f her m a t e r i a l r e l a t e s t o the development o f an awareness o f a r t i n s o c i e t y i n r e l a t i o n t o \" n a t i o n a l , s o c i a l , p o l i t i c a l , r e l i g i o u s and o c c u p a t i o n a l groups\" (p. 94). C h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h e s e groups i s t h e i r a p p a r e n t s i n g l e f u n c t i o n i n s o c i e t y and t h e i r a b i l i t y t o i n c l u d e members w i t h v a r i o u s \" c u l t u r a l \" backgrounds. The purpose o f s t u d y i n g t h e s e groups i s t o f a m i l i a r i z e t h e s t u d e n t s w i t h t h e i r a r t forms, l i k e b u i l d i n g s , f l a g s , emblems e t c . , i n o r d e r t o make them aware t h a t t h e i r \" s e l f - i m a g e i s shaped, i n p a r t , by i t s v i s i b l e r e l a t i o n s h i p t o t h e s e l v e s o f o t h e r s \" (p. 9 4 ) . I n c o n c l u s i o n , \" s o c i e t y \" , f o r Chapman, has t h e f o l l o w i n g meanings: i t u s u a l l y r e f e r s t o t h e American way o f l i f e when e x p r e s s e d as \"our s o c i e t y \" ; ' I t r e a c h e s beyond n a t i o n a l boun-d a r i e s when non-American a r t becomes st u d y m a t e r i a l f o r \" a r t i n s o c i e t y \" . I t i s o f t e n used i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h \" c u l t u r e \" . The s t u d y o f \" c u l t u r e \" r e f e r s t o t h e a n a l y s i s o f \" p a r t i c u l a r 25 t h i n g s i n terms o f f u n c t i o n a l p a t t e r n s ; t h a t i s , how a r t i -f a c t s , e v e n t s , and b e h a v i o r s s e r v e b a s i c human needs\" ; (p. 219). \" C u l t u r e \" e i t h e r r e l a t e s t o America as a whole or t o i t s p a r t s composed o f M e x i c a n s , A f r i c a n s , I r i s h and o t h e r groups. Another element i n \" s o c i e t y \" i s the s o c i a l group w h i c h i n c l u d e s tradesmen, m a n u f a c t u r e r s , p o l i t i c i a n s , f o o t b a l l p l a y e r s , m i n i s t e r s , t o name a few. None o f t h e \" c u l t u r a l \" o r \" s o c i a l \" groups i s c o n t a i n e d w i t h i n p a r t i c u l a r p h y s i c a l b o u n d a r i e s , nor do th e y i n d i v i d u a l l y i n c l u d e the t o t a l i t y o f l i f e . Together t h e y form a p a t t e r n o f c r o s s -r e l a t i o n s h i p s t h a t e x p r e s s g r e a t d i v e r s i t y w i t h i n some common bonds. Chapman's own words seem t o summarize the c o m p l e x i t y of \" s o c i e t y \" w e l l i n \" a l l o f us a r e , i n some r e s p e c t s , l i k e e v e r y o t h e r p e r s o n , l i k e some o t h e r p e r s o n , and l i k e no o t h e r p e r s o n \" (p. 9 2 ) . Feldmari^s^Concepts o f S o c i e t y The h i s t o r i c a l development o f man's forms o f s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n i s o f importance f o r the u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f F e l d -man ' s (1970) co n c e p t o f s o c i e t y . Through t h e c e n t u r i e s t h e s e forms have changed from t r i b a l and nomadic p a t t e r n s o f o r g a n i z a t i o n t o h i g h l y s o p h i s t i c a t e d c i v i l i z a t i o n s . T h i s p r o c e s s o f change from one p a t t e r n t o an o t h e r does n ot r e -l a t e t o the q u a l i t y o f group l i f e but, a c c o r d i n g t o Feldman, i s more l i k e t he d i f f e r e n t s t a g e s o f an i n d i v i d u a l who p a s s -es from c h i l d h o o d i n t o a d o l e s c e n c e . \" F l o u r i s h i n g ages o f c i v i l i z a t i o n a r e preceded by p a t i e n t ages o f c u l t u r a l i n c u -b a t i o n \" (Feldman, 1970, p. 134). C h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f the 26 e a r l i e r s t a g e s i s the i n d i v i d u a l ' s s u b o r d i n a t i o n t o t h e group, w i t h \" f r e e and open s h a r i n g o f e x p e r i e n c e s and pos-s e s s i o n s \" (p. 134). I n c o n t r a s t t o modern c i v i l i z a t i o n s t h e t r i b a l and nomadic s t a g e s d i d n o t have advanced d i v i s i -ons o f l a b o r and s p e c i a l i z a t i o n o f o c c u p a t i o n s . Nor d i d the e a r l i e r s t a g e s p l a c e emphasis on p e r s o n a l and i n d i v i d u a l needs. A c c o r d i n g t o Feldman, \"of t h e twenty o r t h i r t y t h o u -sand y e a r s t h a t man has been what he i s , o n l y t h e l a s t t h r e e thousand y e a r s have seen him emerge from the group d i s t i n c -t i v e l y as a p e r s o n \" (p. 1 ) . Feldman s u p p o r t s the i d e a t h a t t h e g o a l o f s o c i e t y i s t o d e v e l o p autonomous i n d i v i d u a l s . T h i s g o a l must be seen as a f u t u r e - d e v e l o p m e n t not as a p r e s e n t r e a l i t y , even though: There a r e s t r i k i n g and i n s p i r i n g examples i n contem-p o r a r y c u l t u r e o f p e r s o n s whose l i v e s r e p r e s e n t t r i -umphs o f i n d i v i d u a l i s m . However, a whole s o c i e t y o f i n d i v i d u a l s , a s o c i e t y o f p e r s o n s , t h a t i s who a r e f r e e i n the e m o t i o n a l and c r e a t i v e a r e a s o f t h e i r l i v e s does not e x i s t (p. 2 ) . The d i s t i n c t i o n between t h e terms \" c u l t u r e \" and \" s o c i e t y \" i s not always c l e a r i n Feldman's w r i t i n g s . The term \" s o c i e t y \" i s brought somewhat i n t o f o c u s i n h i s r e f e r -ences t o the \" s o c i e t i e s o f f i f t h - c e n t u r y Greece and \" f i f t h -t e e n t h - c e n t u r y I t a l y \" (p. 2 ) . I t s meaning i s here used i n t h e c o n t e x t o f n a t i o n a l and p o l i t i c a l i d e a s . Another i n -s t a n c e where Feldman i d e n t i f i e s \" s o c i e t y \" w i t h \" n a t i o n \" i s i n h i s statement about t h e s o c i a l p h i l o s o p h i e s w h i c h f o s t e r 27 p e r s o n a l freedom. He w r i t e s : One o f t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s i s t h a t c i v i l i z a t i o n has had c o m p a r a t i v e l y l i t t l e e x p e r i e n c e w i t h s o c i e t i e s w h i c h managed t o endure and m a i n t a i n o r d e r w h i l e p e r m i t t i n g t h e i r c i t i z e n s a wide range o f p e r s o n a l freedom !(p. 4) . The word \" c u l t u r e \" however, i s a l s o used t o d e s c r i b e n a t i o n s o r s t a t e s . F o r i n s t a n c e Feldman d i s t i n g u i s h e s between t h r e e d i f f e r e n t \" c u l t u r e s \" t h a t can be i d e n t i f i e d on t h e b a s i s o f t h e i r p o l i t i c a l p h i l o s o p h i e s . These c u l t u r e s i n c l u d e t h e a r i s t o c r a t i c , t h e t o t a l i t a r i a n and t h e d e m o c r a t i c . From h i s d e s c r i p t i o n s i t becomes c l e a r t h a t each o f t h e s e terms, l i k e a t o t a l i t a r i a n c u l t u r e o r a d e m o c r a t i c c u l t u r e , may be a p p l i e d t o a p a r t i c u l a r s t a t e o r n a t i o n . F o r i n s t a n c e , t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s i s a d e m o c r a t i c c u l t u r e i d e n t i f i e d by i t s \" r e c o r d o f 175 y e a r s , more o r l e s s , s u c c e s s f u l p o l i t i c a l c o m b i n a t i o n , i t s a b i l i t y t o welcome \"persons from many l a n d s \" , and i t s con-c e r n t o p r o v i d e ways f o r the i n d i v i d u a l t o r e a c h \"the h i g h e s t p o t e n t i a l o f h i s p e r s o n a l i t y \" j(p. 5) . A nother meaning element o f c u l t u r e i s used by Feldman when he r e f e r s t o the \" c u l t u r a l p e r s o n \" . C u l t u r e i n t h i s c o n t e x t does not i d e n t i f y w i t h p o l i t i c a l i d e a s b u t w i t h a r t . I t s meaning r e f l e c t s something o f H aggerty's i d e a t h a t a r t e n r i c h e s •thenicomfhori l i f e o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l . The c u l t u r e d p e r s o n f o r Feldman (1970) i s : Someone whose thought and d i s c o u r s e have been l i f t e d by a r t o u t o f t h e p r o s e o f t h e workaday w o r l d and 28 i n t o the p o e t r y o f h e i g h t e n e d thought and f e e l i n g . F o r such a p e r s o n , a r t i s an i n s t r u m e n t f o r l e a d i n g a r i c h e r s p i r i t u a l e x i s t e n c e t h a n would o t h e r w i s e be p o s s i b l e (p. 7 7 ) . A d i f f e r e n c e between Haggerty's and Feldman's concept o f t h e c u l t u r a l p e r s o n i s t h a t t h e development o f such a p e r s o n depends f o r Feldman (n.d.) on i t s e x i s t e n c e i n a p o l i t i c a l democracy o r a f r e e s o c i e t y . A f r e e s o c i e t y makes i t p o s s i -b l e t o e x e r c i s e \" c r e a t i v i t y t o r e a l i z e t h e p o t e n t i a l o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l \" (p. 2 ) . Haggerty does not make such p r e r e q u i s i t e s . C h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f Feldman's (1970) c u l t u r a l p e r s o n i s \" h i s a b i l i t y t o p e r c e i v e t h e wholeness o f l i f e i n p a r t i c u l a r f r a g -ments such as a r t p r o v i d e s \" (p. 78X . T h i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c i s a l s o e x p r e s s e d i n terms o f p e r c e i v i n g t h e macrocosm i n the microcosm. The i d e a o f t h e \"macrocosm i n the microcosm\" can be r e c o g n i z e d i n s e v e r a l o f Feldman's c o n c e p t s about s o c i e t a l , e d u c a t i o n a l , and human d e v e l o p m e n t a l s t a g e s . F o r i n s t a n c e , t h i s c o n c e p t becomes e v i d e n t i n h i s comparison between p r i m -i t i v e s o c i e t y and t h e d e v e l o p m e n t a l s t a g e s o f the c h i l d as w e l l as i n the s i m i l a r i t i e s n o t e d between a d e m o c r a t i c s o c i e t y and a c u l t u r e d p e r s o n . I n d e s c r i b i n g a c h i l d ' s con-c e p t o f space Feldman (1970) s t a t e s : \"The young c h i l d , o f c o u r s e , does not p o s s e s s t h e s e n s o r y a c u i t y o f a Stone Age h u n t e r , b u t he does share t h e same i d e a - o r l a c k o f an i d e a - o f space\" (p. 110). Other s t a t e m e n t s o f comparison between the i n d i v i d u a l ' s development and the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f 29 e a r l y c i v i l i z a t i o n a r e noted i n : The t r i b a l e x p e r i e n c e o f man has absorbed by f a r the g r e a t e r p o r t i o n o f h i s time on e a r t h . And the e d u c a t i o n o f c h i l d r e n c o r r e s p o n d s i n many ways to man's p r e h i s t o r i c and t r i b a l e x p e r i e n c e up t o and i n c l u d i n g t h e N e o l i t h i c R e v o l u t i o n (p. 133). Fo r t h i s r e a s o n Feldman b e l i e v e s t h a t \"we s h o u l d n o t s t a r t the e d u c a t i o n o f c h i l d r e n by t r a i n i n g them t o behave l i k e f u l l - b l o w n p r o d u c t s o f h i g h c i v i l i z a t i o n \" (p. 134). F u r t h e r , w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e d i f f e r e n c e between e l e m e n t a r y and secondary e d u c a t i o n he w r i t e s ; \"The d i s t i n c t i o n between e l e m e n t a r y and secondary e d u c a t i o n i s i n many ways t h e d i s -t i n c t i o n between p r i m i t i v e and c i v i l i z e d l i f e \" (p. 134). The term \" s o c i e t y \" r e l a t e s f o r Feldman n ot o n l y t o a p r o c e s s o f h i s t o r i c a l development, o r forms o f n a t i o n a l po-l i t i c a l systems, but i t a l s o i n d i c a t e s a s t r u c t u r e o f numerous groups. I n h i s p u b l i c a t i o n Becoming Human Through A r t (1970) he f o c u s e s h i s a t t e n t i o n on t h e s e groups and be-l i e v e s t h a t \" i n o r d e r t o 'get a l o n g ' i n our l a r g e and complex s o c i e t y , you have t o l e a r n what the main groups a r e , what h o l d s them t o g e t h e r , and how th e y work\" (p. 2 28). Some of the groups he mentions i n c l u d e c h u r c h groups, economic groups, g e o g r a p h i c groups, p o l i t i c a l groups, n a t i o n a l groups, f a m i l y groups and o c c u p a t i o n a l groups. What c o n c e r n s Feldman i s t he i n d i v i d u a l ' s u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e f u n c t i o n o f t h e s e groups, i n p a r t i c u l a r t h o s e t h a t c o n t r o l t h e mass media. The b e h a v i o r a l norms f o r t h e s e groups do n o t appear t o be 30 g e n e r a t e d so much from w i t h i n but a r e d e v e l o p e d t h r o u g h i n -f l u e n c e s from o u t s i d e : Where do our c i t i z e n s g e t t h e i r g u i d i n g i d e a s about i n t e r p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s , about how t o use l e i s u r e , about what i s w o r t h owning, about manhood and womanhood, about what the good l i f e f e e l s and l o o k s l i k e ? C l e a r l y from a d v e r t i s i n g (p. 57). Throughout Feldman's s u g g e s t i o n s f o r a r t a c t i v i t i e s i t be-comes e v i d e n t t h a t t h e s t u d y o f i n f o r m a t i o n and communications a r t i s e s s e n t i a l s i n c e t h i s t y p e o f a r t has a \" c o m p e l l i n g power\" f o r t h e \"modern t r i b e s m a n \" (p. 60). When Feldman i n 198 0 i n t r o d u c e d th e need f o r an a n t h r o -p o l o g i c a l c u r r i c u l u m t h a t would \" l i b e r a t e s t u d e n t s from a v a r i e t y o f r e s t r a i n t s o r c o n f i n e m e n t s \" (p. 7 ) , he r e c o g n i z e d the i m p o r t a n c e o f r a c i a l and e t h n i c groups t h a t t o g e t h e r , w i t h the s o c i a l groups mentioned above, make up t h e s t r u c t u r e o f c e r t a i n s o c i e t i e s . T h i s a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l c u r r i c u l u m has p a r t i -c u l a r s i g n i f i c a n c e f o r a r t t e a c h e r s i n a \" m u l t i - r a c i a l , m u l t i -e t h n i c s o c i e t y such as o u r s \" (p. 7 ) . I n summary, Feldman's c o n c e p t s about s o c i e t y may be s t a t e d as f o l l o w s . S o c i e t i e s go t h r o u g h s t a g e s o f development from p r i m i t i v e t o c i v i l i z e d . A p r i m i t i v e s o c i e t y i s not i n -f e r i o r b u t d i f f e r e n t , as a c h i l d i s d i f f e r e n t from an a d u l t . P o l i t i c a l systems exercise s o c i e t a l f o r m i n g powers w h i c h e i t h e r n o u r i s h o r h i n d e r th e development o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l ' s p o t e n -t i a l s . Democracy, and n o t t o t a l i t a r i a n i s m o r a r i s t o c r a c y , p r o v i d e s the e s s e n t i a l s t r u c t u r e f o r t h e i n d i v i d u a l p e r s o n t o 31 emerge. C u l t u r e i s a con c e p t t h a t e x p r e s s e s p o l i t i c a l s t r u c -t u r e s and a l s o r e l a t e s t o man's u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f r e a l i t y . I n case o f the l a t t e r i t c u l m i n a t e s i n t h e p e r c e p t i o n o f the macrocosm i n t h e microcosm t h r o u g h t h e w o r l d o f a r t . S o c i e t y i s made up o f d i f f e r e n t groups. One c a t e g o r y i n c l u d e s the s o c i a l groups l i k e f a m i l y , c h u r c h and b u s i n e s s , t h e o t h e r c a t e g o r y , t h e r a c i a l and e t h n i c groups. L a n i e r ' s Concepts o f S o c i e t y Amongst t h e v a r i o u s c o n c e p t s o f a r t e d u c a t i o n t h a t s t r e s s s o c i a l c o n c e r n s , v e r y few aim a t t h e improvement o f t h e q u a l i -t i e s o f l i f e as d i r e c t l y as do thos e o f L a n i e r (1970). S i n c e t h e l a t e ' s i x t i e s he has c h a l l e n g e d t h e s c h o o l s t o g e t r i d o f a r t programs t h a t p r o v i d e \" l i t t l e more than baggage o f s u c c e s s -f u l p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n a b u s i n e s s o r i e n t e d s o c i e t y \" (p. 7 3 ) r and t o make t h e i r programs r e l e v a n t t o the s t u d e n t s who must cope w i t h t h e s t r a i n s o f l i v i n g i n a complex s o c i e t y . F o r t h a t r e a s o n L a n i e r urges the development o f new a r t c u r r i c u l a w h i c h must g i v e \"the a r t c l a s s a sh a r e i n t h e p r o c e s s o f ex-p l o r i n g s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s and d e v e l o p i n g a l t e r n a t i v e models o f human b e h a v i o r i n a q u i c k l y c h a n g i n g and a t t h i s t i m e , q u i c k l y w o r s e n i n g s o c i a l environment\" (p. 73). The key t o t h e s e new c u r r i c u l a must n o t be t h e development o f g r e a t e r c r e a t i v i t y , o r t h e s t u d y o f a r t i s t i c s k i l l s f o r l e i s u r e t i m e , b u t t h e s t r u g g l e s o f humanity w i t h war, sex, r a c e , d r u g s , and p o v e r t y . To deal.: w i t h t h e s e i s s u e s L a n i e r f o c u s e s ; h i s a t t e n t i o n on t h e s o c i a l , economic and p o l i t i c a l domains o f l i f e . I f a r t programs can a s s i s t i n c l a r i f y i n g t he ways t h e s e 32 domains f u n c t i o n , L a n i e r b e l i e v e s the student w i l l be a b l e to work towards change. Sin c e these domains are p a r t of l i f e i n g e n e r a l they dor.not p r e s e n t a p a r t i c u l a r concept of s o c i e t y . Throughout L a n i e r ' s w r i t i n g s however, s e v e r a l statements are made which i d e n t i f y c e r t a i n elements of s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n . For i n -stance i n h i s e x p l a n a t i o n about a r t i s t i c p e r c e p t i o n and response, L a n i e r (1970) makes r e f e r e n c e to the i n f l u e n c e of \" c u l t u r a l and s u b - c u l t u r a l \" (p. 45) groups. T h i s i n f l u e n c e i s absorbed by an i n d i v i d u a l \"from the many s o c i a l m i l i e u s i n which he matures. For example i n e a r l i e r years young people of:_Italian-American a n c e s t r y would o f t e n r e v e a l an a p p r e c i a t i o n of I t a l i a n opera\" (p. 68). F u r t h e r L a n i e r s t a t e s t h a t each of us i s \" c o n d i t i o n e d to look a t the v i s u a l a r t s a c c o r d i n g to the a t t i t u d e towards the a r t s of the n a t i o n a l , socia-economic and e t h n i c groups i n which we mature\" (p. 4 5). One of the socio-economic groups t h a t L a n i e r i s con-cerned about i n p a r t i c u l a r , , i s the poor. In h i s a r t i c l e A r t and the disadvantaged (1970) he opposes the g e n e r a l idea t h a t the poor, because of t h e i r economic c o n d i t i o n are c u l t u r a l l y disadvantaged. He argues t h a t poverty, even though i t has n e g a t i v e a s p e c t s , does not e l i m i n a t e c u l t u r a l involvement. The poor produce t h e i r own c u l t u r e , a. c u l t u r e which \"while i t may be simple and u n s o p h i s t i c a t e d , f r e q u e n t l y embodies the same power and r i c h n e s s of image or phrase as middle-c l a s s a r t \" (p. I l l ) . What L a n i e r argues i s a d i f f e r e n t a t t i t u d e towards c l a s s d i s t i n c t i o n . ' He p r e f e r s to d i f f e r e n -33 t i a t e t h e s o c i a l groups by l i f e - s t y l e and n o t by t h e i r s t a t i o n i n a h i e r a r c h y o f economic l e v e l s . S i n c e t h e poor a r e not c u l t u r a l l y d i s a d v a n t a g e d L a n i e r does not see t h e need t o change th e s l u m - d w e l l e r ' s c u l t u r e t o t h a t o f a m i d d l e - c l a s s c i t i z e n ' s . He s u p p o r t s t h i s i d e a by a s k i n g : Why i s i t e s s e n t i a l as a c r i t e r i o n o f growth i n a e s t h e t i c r e s p o n s e t o a p p r e c i a t e t h e e x c e l l e n c e o f Shakespeare's p o e t r y and dramaturgy, o r c l a s s i c a l m u s ic, r o m a n t i c p o e t r y o r R e n a i s s a n c e o r hard-edge p a i n t i n g ? A r e t h e r e no a r t s i n w h i c h t h e poor and t h e i r c h i l d r e n now p a r t i c i p a t e and towards w h i c h they m a n i f e s t c r i t i c a l and d i s c r i m i n a t o r y r e s p o n s e s ? (p. 117). The d i v i s i o n o f s o c i e t y i n t o e t h n i c and s o c i o - e c o n o m i c groups i s r e c o g n i z e d by L a n i e r , y e t f o r the development o f a r t e d u c a t i o n t h e s e d i s t i n c t i o n s a r e not o f prime i m p o r t a n c e . What i s important, however, i s t h a t t h e s c h o o l t a k e s i t s r e s p o n s i b i l i t y t o b r i n g about change. I n h i s a d v i c e t o use t h e f i l m media as an i n s t r u m e n t t o communicate about s o c i a l i s s u e s , L a n i e r (1970) i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e c o n c e r n w i t h s o c i a l i s s u e s i s not a phenomenon o f t h e p r e s e n t time o n l y but t h a t i t i s s u p p o r t e d by a t r a d i t i o n r o o t e d i n t h e b e g i n n i n g s o f Western c i v i l i z a t i o n . He s t a t e s t h a t : E v o c a t i v e s t a t e m e n t s o f t h e a t r e have been d i r e c t e d towards c u r r e n t s o c i a l problems i n a l m o s t e v e r y e r a from A r i s t o p h a n e s t o the m o r a l i t y p l a y s o f m e d i e v a l t i m e s , and from M o l i e r e , Goethe and Chekhov t o G.B. 34 Shaw, O ' N e i l , Odets, A r t h u r M i l l e r and John Osborne. T h e a t r e has o c c a s i o n a l l y even p a r t i c i p a t e d d i r e c t l y i n p a r t i s a n s o c i a l a c t i o n , as i n the case o f the propaganda p l a y s performed by Red Army s o l d i e r s d u r i n g the R u s s i a n R e v o l u t i o n and by members o f t h e Chinese E i g h t h Route Army d u r i n g t h e i r l o n g march (p. 77). The i m p l i c a t i o n o f t h i s o b s e r v a t i o n i s t h a t the term \" s o c i e t y \" does..not n e c e s s a r i l y denote a p a r t i c u l a r n a t i o n but may r e f e r t o a p e r i o d o f time i n h i s t o r y when d i f f e r e n t n a t i o n s may share common problems. I t f u r t h e r emphasizes t h e c o n t i n u o u s need f o r s o c i a l change. T h i s c o n c e p t L a n i e r (1970) r e -e n f o r c e s w i t h h i s r e f e r e n c e t o Dewey. \"One r o l e o f p u b l i c e d u c a t i o n \" , he w r i t e s , \" i s t o t a k e p a r t i n r e f o r m i n g s o c i e t y \" . T h i s i s n o t a new i d e a but i s \" i n i t i a l l y i n the w r i t i n g s o f John Dewey_ and l a t e r w i t h Theodore Brameld, ... c l e a r l y and u n i q u i v o c a l l y e x p l a i n e d \" (p. 75). I n summary, L a n i e r ' s c o n c e p t o f s o c i e t y may be s t a t e d as f o l l o w s . The o r g a n i z a t i o n a l p a t t e r n o f s o c i e t y i n c l u d e s group, d i v i s i o n s w h i c h a r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d by economic w e l l -b e i n g o r t h e l a c k o f i t . C u l t u r a l development does n ot depend on economics. Low income groups have t h e i r own c u l -t u r a l e x p r e s s i o n s . Other group d i v i s i o n s a r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d by t h e i r h i s t o r i c a l background. These groups i n c l u d e t h o s e w i t h d i f f e r e n t o r i g i n s o f r a c e and n a t i o n a l i t y . S o c i e t y , t h r o u g h o u t t h e ages, i s i n f l u e n c e d by f o r c e s w h i c h te n d t o o p p r e s s t h e i n d i v i d u a l . These f o r c e s a r e p r e s e n t l y concen-t r a t e d i n t h e economic, p o l i t i c a l and s o c i a l elements o f 35 l i f e . McFee's Concepts o f S o c i e t y McFee (1974) p r e s e n t s a c o n c e p t o f s o c i e t y w h i c h i s c l e a r l y d e f i n e d i n a l l i t s meaning elements. She makes a d i s t i n c t i o n between t h r e e a s p e c t s , i n c l u d i n g ; s o c i e t y , c u l t u r e and s o c i a l c l a s s . The term \" s o c i e t y \" may be used i n two ways. I t r e f e r s t o groups o f p e o p l e who l i v e w i t h i n e s t a b l i s h e d b o u n d a r i e s and a r e o r g a n i z e d t h r o u g h a system o f government. S e c o n d l y , i t i n c l u d e s a l l groups t h a t a r e r e c o g n i z e d by \"a p a t t e r n o f i n t e r r e l a t i o n s among i t s members\" (p.. 31) . F o r example, Canada i s a s o c i e t y which i n -c l u d e s many s m a l l e r s u b - s o c i e t i e s l i k e s c h o o l s , c l u b s , o r g a n i z a t i o n s and p o l i t i c a l p a r t i e s . The key element i n t h i s term appears t o be t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n a l s t r u c t u r e w h i c h s e p a r a t e s one s o c i e t y from a n o t h e r . Members of l a r g e o r s u b - s o c i e t i e s may be drawn from d i f f e r e n t \" c u l t u r e s \" . The d i s t i n c t i o n between \" s o c i e t y \" and \" c u l t u r e \" i s c l a r i f i e d by McFee (1970) as f o l l o w s : A s o c i e t y can be made up o f one c u l t u r e o r many, w i t h each s u b - c u l t u r e d e v e l o p i n g a r t forms t h a t a r e some-what d i f f e r e n t from o t h e r s . Some s o c i e t i e s have a c o r e c u l t u r e t h a t i s shared-, i n p a r t by t h e sub-c u l t u r e s o f the s o c i e t y (p. 50). The c o n c e p t \"culture'.' and i t s meaning f o r a r t e d u c a t i o n r e c e i v e s a g r e a t d e a l o f a t t e n t i o n i n McFee 1s w r i t i n g s . Her c o n c e r n f o r the development o f an awareness o f c u l t u r a l d i f f e r e n c e s appears as a major g o a l i n her a r t program s u g g e s t i o n s . A c c o r d i n g t o McFee t h e s e c u l t u r a l d i f f e r e n c e s f i n d e x p r e s s i o n i n the a r t forms, t h e p a t t e r n s o f b e h a v i o u r and the p a r t i c u l a r v a l u e s shared by t h e group. I n P r e p a r a - t i o n f o r A r t (1970) she e x p l a i n s t h e con c e p t o f c u l t u r e as f o l l o w s : C u l t u r e c o n s i s t s o f t h e l e a r n e d , shared and s o c i a l l y t r a n s m i t t e d forms o f a d o p t i o n o f human b e i n g s t o the environment, which i n c l u d e s t h e h a b i t a t , o t h e r p e o p l e and t h e i r c r e a t i o n s . The c u l t u r e i n p a r t d i r e c t s how c h i l d r e n a r e t r a i n e d and how b e l i e f s and v a l u e s a r e m a i n t a i n e d from g e n e r a t i o n t o g e n e r a t i o n . C u l t u r e i n c l u d e s e d u c a t i o n , r e l i g i o n , s c i e n c e , a r t , f o l k l o r e and s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n (p. 26). T h i s d e f i n i t i o n was reduced c o n s i d e r a b l y i n her l a t e r w r i t i n g F o r i n s t a n c e i n A r t , C u l t u r e and En v i r o n m e n t : A C a t a l y s t f o r Te a c h i n g (1977) she s t a t e s t h a t \" c u l t u r e i s a p a t t e r n o f be-h a v i o r s , i d e a s and v a l u e s shared by a group\" (p. 272). A s i m i l a r d e f i n i t i o n i s found i n her a r t i c l e C u l t u r a l I n f l u - ences on A e s t h e t i c E x p e r i e n c e (McFee, 1980). The l a t t e r i n c l u d e s r e f e r e n c e s t o t h e m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f human p a t t e r n s o f b e h a v i o u r i n i d e a s and v a l u e s as th e y a r e e x p r e s s e d i n \"the d e s i g n o f t h e i r a r t works and i n the s t r u c t u r e o f t h e i r b u i l t e nvironment\" (p. 4 6 ) . The term \" c u l t u r e \" , l i k e \" s o c i e t y \" , may i n d i c a t e a l a r g e group o r a s m a l l e r sub-group. W i t h i n a c l a s s r o o m , f o r i n s t a n c e , c h i l d r e n may r e p r e s e n t v a r i e d sub-c u l t u r e s , y e t a t t h e same time share p a t t e r n s o f b e h a v i o u r , i d e a s and v a l u e s o f a l a r g e c u l t u r e . These s u b - c u l t u r e s a r e 37 a c c o r d i n g t o McFee (197 0) not n e c e s s a r i l y t o be i d e n t i f i e d w i t h groups who l i v e i n a p a r t i c u l a r r e g i o n and have d e v e l o p e d a c e r t a i n l i f e s t y l e , l i k e f o r example the Eskimos but can a l s o be r e c o g n i z e d by t h e i r d i f f e r e n t e t h n i c o r r e l i g i o u s v a l u e s . I n s u b - c u l t u r e s t h e \"people share th e c o r e c u l t u r e i n p a r t but a l s o have a n u c l e u s o f v a l u e s and b e l i e f s and ways o f b e h a v i n g t h a t s e t s them a p a r t (p. 28). What seems t o be a key t o the c o n c e p t o f c u l t u r e i s t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between c u l t u r e and d e s i g n . The d e s i g n a c t i v i -t i e s o f McFee's (1977) a r t program s t r e s s t h e s t u d y of \" order and v a r i e t y , s i m i l a r i t i e s and d i f f e r e n c e s \" (p. 126). T h i s i d e a c o r r e s p o n d s w i t h t h e s t r u c t u r e d o r d e r o f s o c i e t y and the v a r i a t i o n s o f c u l t u r e w i t h i n i t . E v i d e n c e of t h i s com-p a r i s o n i s found i n her s t atement t h a t \" c u l t u r e i s a l s o d e s i g n . Each i n d i v i d u a l i s exposed t o c u l t u r a l elements\" (p. 281). The \"elements o f c u l t u r e , b e l i e f systems, v a l u e s , r o l e s o f p e o p l e , language, and a r t a r e l i k e form, l i n e , c o l o r , and t e x t u r e i n v i s u a l d e s i g n \" (p. 281). I n a n o t h e r r e f e r e n c e t o t h e same comparison she w r i t e s : \"The s e a r c h f o r o r d e r and p r e d i c t a b i l i t y i n c u l t u r e goes on much as our need f o r o r d e r i n our v i s u a l environment\" (p. 281). B e s i d e s t h e c u l t u r a l groups, McFee r e c o g n i z e s th e im-p o r t a n c e o f s o c i a l groups w h i c h a r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d by t h e i r d i f f e r e n c e s i n p r i m a r i l y t h e i r economic s t a n d i n g . I n her d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e s e groups i t becomes e v i d e n t t h a t t h e o r i g i n a l c u l t u r a l l i f e s t y l e o f i t s members i s made sub-o r d i n a t e t o a l i f e s t y l e based on economic and o c c u p a t i o n a l 38 s u c c e s s . F o r i n s t a n c e members o f d i f f e r e n t e t h n i c groups share now a wide v a r i e t y o f r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s . The s t e r e o -t y p e Mexican-American no l o n g e r e x i s t s . A c c o r d i n g t o McFee (1977) \"more Mexican-American f a m i l i e s a r e now p r o f e s s i o n a l p e o p l e , m i d d l e c l a s s Americans i n t h e i r v a l u e s and l i f e s t y l e s , have more e d u c a t i o n , and many a r e l e s s t i e d t o f a m i l y and l o c a t i o n \" (p. 316). Concepts o f A r t E d u c a t i o n Concepts o f E d u c a t i o n i n t h e W r i t i n g s o f Chapman Chapman's g o a l o f e d u c a t i o n i s based on the i n d i v i d u a l ' s r e s p o n s i b i l i t y t o f u n c t i o n as a member o f a d e m o c r a t i c s o c i e t y . In her sta t e m e n t o f purpose f o r a r t e d u c a t i o n she w r i t e s : In a d e m o c r a t i c s o c i e t y , the power t o de t e r m i n e t h e q u a l i t y o f l i f e i s shared by a l l t h e p e o p l e , n ot j u s t one p e r s o n o r a s e l f - a p p o i n t e d few. The need f o r e n l i g h t e n e d c i t i z e n s l e a d s t o t h r e e p r i m a r y r e s p o n s i b i -l i t i e s o f g e n e r a l p u b l i c e d u c a t i o n and, by i m p l i c a t i o n , o f a r t e d u c a t i o n . G e n e r a l e d u c a t i o n p r o v i d e s f o r p e r s o n a l f u l f i l l m e n t , n u r t u r e s s o c i a l c o n s c i o u s n e s s , and t r a n s m i t s the c u l t u r a l h e r i t a g e t o each generation.. (Chapman, 1978, p. 1 9 ) . She summarizes t h i s p l a n i n p r a c t i c a l terms by s t a t i n g t h a t : \" s c h o o l programs s h o u l d be p l a n n e d i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e c h i l d , t h e s u b j e c t s t h a t c o m p r i s e t h e c u l t u r a l h e r i t a g e , and s o c i e t y \" (p. 1 9 ) . These t h r e e elements a r e f o r Chapman b a s i c t o b o t h g e n e r a l e d u c a t i o n and a r t e d u c a t i o n . W i t h i n t h i s t r i a n g u l a r p l a n two o f t h e t h r e e elements a r e s u b o r d i n a t e t o the o t h e r . 39 T h i s becomes e v i d e n t i n t h e diagrams t h a t Chapman proposes f o r the p l a n n i n g o f y e a r l y programs as w e l l as i n her con c e r n t o p r o v i d e a b a l a n c e d approach t h a t n e v e r t h e l e s s must g i v e g r e a t e r emphasis t o t h e development o f the s t u d e n t ' s p e r s o n a l f u l f i l l m e n t . \"Goals f o r p e r s o n a l f u l f i l l m e n t i n a r t s h o u l d be t h e c e n t r a l p a r t o f the a r t program i n a l l g r a d e s \" (. 369), she w r i t e s : However, s t u d i e s o f t h e a r t i s t i c h e r i t a g e and a r t i n s o c i e t y s h o u l d be g i v e n p r o p o r t i o n a l a t t e n t i o n by p l a n n i n g a c t i v i t i e s f o r p e r s o n a l development so the y a r e l i n k e d w i t h the a r t i s t i c h e r i t a g e o r w i t h t h e r o l e o f a r t i n s o c i e t y (p. 369). The b a s i c m a t e r i a l s f o r a r t e d u c a t i o n a r e t o be s e l e c t e d from the n a t u r a l and man-made environment. Chapman i s i n p a r t i c u l a r concerned about c e r t a i n p r a c t i s e s i n a r t e d u c a t i o n t h a t approach t h e v i s u a l w o r l d as i s o l a t e d phenomena. I n c o n t r a s t she s t r e s s e s the need f o r a c o n t e x t u a l approach. T h i s approach s t r i v e s t o produce and.\" s t u d y a r t o b j e c t s i n r e l a t i o n t o s i m i l a r o b j e c t s i n o t h e r c u l t u r e s . I t f u r t h e r emphasizes t h e e x t e n s i o n o f meaning t h e s e o b j e c t s might have i n o t h e r a r e a s o f l i f e . Chapman wants t o go beyond t h e ex-p l o r a t i o n o f m a t e r i a l s and t h e st u d y o f v i s u a l q u a l i t i e s . I n e x p l o r i n g t h e c i t y , f o r i n s t a n c e , she s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e st u d y o f p o e t r y , s t o r i e s and songs be i n c l u d e d . T h i s con-c e r n f o r t h e i n t e g r a t i o n o f a r t w i t h o t h e r s u b j e c t s stems from a b a s i c c o n c e p t t h a t t h e g o a l s o f a r t e d u c a t i o n a r e n o t a t t a i n e d by the development o f a p r o d u c t i o n p r o c e s s o n l y . 40 The making o f a r t i s f o r Chapman not s u f f i c i e n t . A nother i l l u s t r a t i o n o f what Chapman c l a s s i f i e s as \"an extended e x p e r i e n c e \" i s g i v e n i n r e f e r e n c e t o the p r o d u c t i o n o f Halloween masks. Chapman q u e s t i o n s t h e v a l i d i t y o f such an assignment u n l e s s t h e s t u d y o f o t h e r masks, f o r example tho s e on d i s p l a y i n museums, o r o t h e r s used i n f e s t i v a l s , a r e a l s o i n c l u d e d . F u r t h e r , she s u g g e s t s t h e st u d y o f masks as a means o f d i s g u i s e . I n a d d i t i o n a t t e n t i o n s h o u l d be g i v e n t o a range o f o t h e r \" a r t i s t i c t e c h n i q u e s t h a t a r e used t o c r e a t e an atmosphere o f f e a r and mystery\" (Chapman, 1980, p. 7 ) . What Chapman a d v o c a t e s i s a s t u d i o approach where each p r o d u c t i s s u p p o r t e d by t h e stu d y o f a broad spectrum o f r e l a t e d e l ements. B a s i c t o t h e \"extended meaning\" r e q u i r e m e n t f o r a r t p r o d u c t i o n i s Chapman's aim t o r e c o g n i z e t h e c o g n i t i v e a s p e c t i n a r t e d u c a t i o n . I n her a r t i c l e R e search Means S e a r c h A g a i n , Chapman (1979) l i s t s s e v e r a l f a c t o r s w h i c h she f e e l s have l e d t o t h e g e n e r a l i d e a t h a t a r t i s not an academic s u b j e c t . One f a c t o r has been t h a t a r t i s i d e n t i f i e d w i t h f e e l i n g and not w i t h r e a s o n . Another i s t h a t we seem t o v a l u e \"knowledge about\" a r t l e s s t h a n \" d i r e c t e x p e r i e n c e i n \" (p. 6) a r t . Chapman q u e s t i o n s t h e v a l i d i t y o f t h e s e i d e a s and argues t h a t wherever two c o n c e p t s appear t o p o l a r i z e , as i n \" o b j e c t i v i t y \" and \" s u b j e c t i v i t y \" ' the o p p o s i t e s c o u l d a l s o be seen as \" f u s e d , i n t e r d e p e n d e n t , complementary, o r i n dynamic e q u i l i b r i u m \" (p. 6 ) . I n d e s c r i b i n g her own p o s i t i o n about \"knowing\" and \" d o i n g \" i n a r t e d u c a t i o n Chapman (1979) 41 s t a t e s t h a t : Although I am p e r s o n a l l y committed to the importance of \"making a r t \" as an i n t e g r a l p a r t of the education of t e a c h e r s and i n the school c u r r i c u l u m , I b e l i e v e t h a t we have so r o m a n t i c i z e d c h i l d h o o d and the r o l e o f the a r t i s t , and so d e - i n t e l l e c t u a l i z e d the study of a r t and a r t education, t h a t u n w i t t i n g l y we r e i n f o r c e the popular judgement t h a t a r t and t e a c h i n g a r t i s easy, undemanding, without i n t e l l e c t u a l content (p. 6). To n u r t u r e the c o g n i t i v e element i n a r t education Chapman s t r e s s e s the need f o r h i s t o r i c a l comparison and c r o s s - c u l t u r -a l e v a l u a t i o n of a r t o b j e c t s . T h i s approach of c r o s s - c u l t u r -a l e v a l u a t i o n i n t r o d u c e s students to d i v e r s i t y i n a r t and a t the same time makes them aware of how a s i m i l a r a r t i s t i c problem may be s o l v e d i n d i f f e r e n t ways. Chapman (1978) pro-videsc-examples of c r o s s - c u l t u r a l e v a l u a t i o n s i n the study u n i t s of a r t i n s o c i e t y and the a r t i s t i c h e r i t a g e . The key concept i n t h i s approach i s ' \" e c l e c t i c i s m \" . Chapman makes r e f e r e n c e to the e c l e c t i c approach i n her i n t r o d u c t i o n to Approaches to A r t i n E d u c a t i o n (1978) by s t a t i n g t h a t : \" A r t programs should be ? e c l e c t i c ; they should r e f l e c t major t r a d i t i o n s of a r t i s t i c thought and p r a c t i s e i n Western c u l -t u r e s as w e l l as c r o s s - c u l t u r a l i n s i g h t s drawn from anthro-pology\" (p. 5) . In summary, Chapman develops her concepts of a r t edu-c a t i o n on the i n d i v i d u a l ' s need to be a p a r t i c i p a n t i n the de t e r m i n a t i o n process f o r the v i s u a l q u a l i t i e s of the man-42 made environment. To e q u i p t h e i n d i v i d u a l f o r t h i s r e s p o n -s i b i l i t y t h e s c h o o l must p r o v i d e a r t e d u c a t i o n t h a t f o c u s e s on p e r s o n a l f u l f i l l m e n t and t h e development o f an awareness about the a r t i s t i c h e r i t a g e and the r o l e o f a r t i n s o c i e t y . The g r e a t d i v e r s i t y i n a r t r e q u i r e s t h a t e d u c a t i o n a l p r o -grams r e f l e c t t h e major t r a d i t i o n s o f i t s own c u l t u r e , as w e l l as o t h e r s . W i t h i n t h i s ^ e c l e c t i c approach b o t h p r a c t i c a l and t h e o r e t i c a l c o n c e p t s must be e x p l o r e d . The p r o d u c t i o n of a r t o b j e c t s i s o f i m p o r t a n c e . However, a r t e d u c a t i o n has miss e d i t s purpose i f p r o d u c t i o n i s s e p a r a t e d from the s t u d y o f r e l a t e d meaning elements i n o t h e r c u r r i c u l u m a r e a s . Concepts o f E d u c a t i o n i n t h e W r i t i n g s o f Feldman The main f o c u s o f Feldman's purposes f o r a r t e d u c a t i o n i s t h e development o f t h e s t u d e n t ' s u n d e r s t a n d i n g about man. To r e a c h t h i s g o a l a l l l e a r n i n g must be d i r e c t e d t o the stu d y of man's a r t works from t h e p a s t and t h e p r e s e n t . Human p o t e n t i a l s and l i m i t a t i o n s r e v e a l e d t h r o u g h t h e s e works a r e to be made p a r t o f t h e s t u d e n t ' s l i f e . E d u c a t i o n t h e r e f o r e i s n o t meant t o be p r a c t i c a l i n the sense t h a t i t w i l l p r o v i d e s k i l l s t h a t can be used i n a v o c a t i o n . Nor i s e d u c a t i o n aimed a t t r a i n i n g s t u d e n t s t o f u n c t i o n as r e s p o n s i b l e c i t i z e n s i n a d e m o c r a t i c s o c i e t y . R a t h e r , e d u c a t i o n i s a means t o d i s c o v e r who man i s j and a p r o c e s s t h r o u g h w h i c h t h e s e l f h o o d o f t h e s t u d e n t emerges. A r t e d u c a t i o n t h e r e f o r e p r o v i d e s t h e s k i l l s t o e n a b l e t h e i n d i v i d u a l t o c r e a t e a r t o b j e c t s w h i c h e x p r e s s p e r s o n a l i n v o l v e m e n t w i t h r e a l i t y . R e a l i t y , a c c o r d i n g t o Feldman, o f t e n c r e a t e s t e n s i o n s and a n x i e t i e s f o r the i n d i v i -43 d u a l . Through t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f a r t o b j e c t s t h e s e t e n s i o n s may be i d e n t i f i e d and d e a l t w i t h . \"Doing\" i n a r t becomes a coming t o terms w i t h e x i s t e n c e . Feldman (1970) s t a t e s h i s conc e p t o f a r t e d u c a t i o n i n terms o f humanism a s : The humanist would cause a r t t o be c r e a t e d i n d i r e c t l y and i n c i d e n t i a l l y , as i t i s p r a c t i s e d i n o r g a n i c c u l -t u r e s o f p r i m i t i v e men, f o r example. And i n such c u l -t u r e s , we a r e fond o f s a y i n g , t h e r e i s no a r t i f i c i a l s e p a r a t i o n between a r t and l i f e . P e o p l e s i m p l y become aware o f p e r s o n a l o r s o c i a l needs t h a t a r t can s a t i s f y (p. 175). The s t r e s s i n a r t e d u c a t i o n i s t h e r e f o r e n o t on t h e d e v e l o p -ment o f t h e a e s t h e t i c q u a l i t i e s o f an a r t p r o d u c t b u t on t h e d o i n g , making o r w i t n e s s i n g o f \"something i n o r d e r t o come t o terms w i t h e x i s t e n c e \" (p. 178). In h i s c o n c e p t o f a r t e d u c a t i o n , Feldman (1970) d i s -t i n g u i s h e s between f o u r b a s i c c a t e g o r i e s . These c a t e g o r i e s i n c l u d e the c o g n i t i v e , t h e l i n g u i s t i c , t h e media and t h e c r i t i c a l . Each c a t e g o r y may be s t u d i e d i n d e p e n d e n t l y o r i n t e g r a t e d w i t h a n o t h e r . The o r d e r o f t h e s e c a t e g o r i e s has been chosen t o accommodate c l a s s r o o m p r a c t i c e s . I n c l a s s -room language t h e c a t e g o r i e s a r e l i s t e d a s : \"Some Things To See, Some Problems, Some P o s s i b i l i t i e s and What You Can Do\" (p. 212). The f o c u s o f t h e c o g n i t i v e c a t e g o r y i s the stu d y o f a r t h i s t o r y . T h i s s t u d y i s not t o be i d e n t i f i e d w i t h t h e a c c u -m u l a t i o n o f f a c t s i n c h r o n o l o g i c a l o r d e r . Feldman (1970) 44 d i s p u t e s t h e u s e f u l n e s s o f such an approach. What he does a d v o c a t e i n s t e a d , i s t h e \" a c q u i r i n g o f f a c t s , i n f o r m a t i o n o r knowledge about man t h r o u g h a r t \" (p. 181). He s u g g e s t s t h a t f o r t h i s purpose s t u d y m a t e r i a l s be grouped i n r e l a t i o n t o the i n d i v i d u a l o r s o c i a l groups. S o c i a l groups i n c l u d e the f a m i l y , t h e peer groups, b u s i n e s s , t h e c h u r c h community and groups o f w o r k e r s . B u i l d i n g s used by t h e d i f f e r e n t groups form a t h i r d element i n t h e scope o f c o g n i t i v e s t u d i e s . Feldman (1970) uses as examples f o r t h e c o g n i t i v e s t u d i e s p r i m a r i l y N o r t h American and European a r t works. I n h i s p r o m o t i o n o f A n t h r o p o l o g i c a l and H i s t o r i c a l C o n c e p t i o n s o f A r t C u r r i c u l a (1980), however, t h e r e f e r e n c e m a t e r i a l s a r e expanded t o i n c l u d e \"the a n t h r o p o l o g i s t ' s d i s c u s s i o n o f a r t i s t i c o r i g i n s - n o t j u s t d i s c u s s i o n but a l s o t h e p r e s e n -t a t i o n o f a c t u a l a r t i f a c t s , t h e s o - c a l l e d p r i m i t i v e a r t o b j e c t s \" (p. 8 ) . A f t e r s t u d e n t s have been i n t r o d u c e d t o t h e d i f f e r e n t a r t forms about i n d i v i d u a l s , s o c i a l groups and the man-made environment, Feldman (1970) i n t r o d u c e s t h e s t u d y o f t h e language o f a r t . T h i s s t u d y e x p l o r e s t h e v a r i o u s v i s u a l elements l i k e l i n e , c o l o r , shape, l i g h t and d a r k , u n i t y , b a l a n c e , rhythm, p r o p o r t i o n ; and m a t e r i a l s l i k e wood, s t o n e , b r i c k and c o n c r e t e i n r e l a t i o n t o a r c h i t e c t u r e . I n l a t e r w r i t i n g s Feldman (1976) e x t e n d s t h e l i n g u i s t i c c a t e g o r y t o i n c l u d e t h e s t u d y o f - \" h i s t o r y o f a r t , i c o n o l o g y , a r t c r i t i c i s m and a e s t h e t i c s \" , w h i c h t o g e t h e r \" c o n s t i t u t e w e l l -e s t a b l i s h e d ways o f r e a d i n g v i s u a l language\" (p. 199). 45 In the media category the use of m a t e r i a l s f o r two and three dimensional a r t o b j e c t s i s emphasized. T h i s category i n c l u d e s the study of drawing, p a i n t i n g , c o l l a g e , s c u l p t u r e and a r c h i t e c t u r e . A d d i t i o n a l a t t e n t i o n i s giv e n to the process of modeling, c a r v i n g and c a s t i n g . The l a s t category of c r i t i c a l study i s d e f i n e d by Feldman (1970) as \" t a l k - spoken or w r i t t e n - about a r t \" (p. 348). T h i s t a l k i s not a d i s c u s s i o n based on c r i t i c a l p r i n c i p l e s p r o v i d e d by the teacher, but a d e s c r i p t i o n of the work of a r t . T h i s d e s c r i p t i o n may not n e c e s s a r i l y be \"the exact e q u i v a l e n t o f what you see\" (p. 349)j n e v e r t h e l e s s , the student through t h i s d i s c u s s i o n becomes engaged with a system of s i g n s and symbols, t h a t \"can extend h i s i n s i g h t s to the business of l i v i n g \" (p. 189). The important f a c t o r i s t h e r e -f o r e not the knowledge of c r i t i c a l terms but the r e c o g n i t i o n by the student o f c e r t a i n meaning aspects i n a p a r t i c u l a r work of a r t t h a t can be made p a r t of the student's l i f e . The r o l e of the teacher i n t h i s category i s to be a \" m o d e l - c r i t i c \" . As such he must guide the d i s c u s s i o n s and c h a l l e n g e the students w i t h c e r t a i n q u e s t i o n s about the a r t work. The emphasis must be on \"how\" to d i s c u s s and d e s c r i b e a work of a r t ; not on \"what\" i s presented. The process i s of prime importance. Through \"demonstrating the c r i t i c a l a c t \" (Feldman, 1973, p. 55) the author b e l i e v e s the students ought to become \" r e f l e c -t i v e and syste m a t i c about the way they analyze, e x p l a i n and judge man-made phenomenon i n the v i s u a l environment\" (p. 55). A key element i n a l l f o u r c a t e g o r i e s i s the author's 46 concept of knowledge. For Feldman knowledge \"about\" some-t h i n g i s of l i t t l e importance. What i s important i s i f t h a t knowledge can b r i n g about change i n the student's l i f e and b e h a v i o r a l p a t t e r n s . Where educa t i o n i s concerned w i t h a c q u i r i n g knowledge as i n p o s s e s s i n g i n f o r m a t i o n , Feldman b e l i e v e s the s c h o o l i s m i s s i n g the g o a l . Most i n f o r m a t i o n \" w i l l be shown f a l s e or w i l l be s u b s t a n t i a l l y m o d i f i e d by the time each student graduates\" (Feldman, 1970, p. 85). In c o n t r a s t the author s t r e s s e s \"the s t y l e r a t h e r than the content of l e a r n i n g \" (p. 85). Ways of l e a r n i n g are to be the concern i n education. One of these ways i s a e s t h e t i c . T h i s mode of l e a r n i n g i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by f o u r elements i n c l u d i n g : p e r c e i v i n g , doing, knowing and s h a r i n g . No r e a l l e a r n i n g can be expected when one of these elements i s s t r e s s e d without the o t h e r s . In support of t h i s concept Feldman argues as f o l l o w s : We do not always r e a l i z e the i m p l i c a t i o n s of what we do or the a p p l i c a t i o n s of what we know. Education can become the r i t u a l i s t i c r e p e t i t i o n of what we have done or been t o l d without our p o s s e s s i n g knowledge t h a t i s i n any way our own. Consequently i t i s necessary to combine i n t e l l e c t u a l e f f o r t w i t h per-forming e f f o r t i f something worthy of the name l e a r n i n g i s to r e s u l t (p. 88). For a r t e d u c a t i o n t h i s means t h a t the a r t o b j e c t s embody knowledge which the students ought to make p a r t of t h e i r l i v e s . Feldman (1970) e x p l a i n s t h i s t r a n s f e r of knowledge 47 i n a d i s c u s s i o n about a Pharaoh ka f i g u r e . Such a d i s c u s -s i o n w i l l r a i s e q u e s t i o n s about m o r t a l i t y t h a t \"are common to the human c o n d i t i o n ; i n one form or another, t h i s know-ledge must be gained by a l l men, no matter when or where they l i v e \" (p. 90). Secondly, i t a l s o means t h a t knowledge i s developed through a r t p r o d u c t i o n , a, process marked by decision-making w i t h r e s p e c t t o the use of m a t e r i a l s , c h o i c e of s u b j e c t matter and s e l e c t i o n of s t y l e . For Feldman the a e s t h e t i c mode of l e a r n i n g i s a complex process which does not separate knowing and doing. N e i t h e r must t h i s mode of l e a r n i n g be r e s t r i c t e d to the study of a r t . I t must move beyond a r t to touch the e t h i c a l a spect of the student's l i f e : When we t a l k about a r t w i t h c h i l d r e n , we t a l k about a l t e r n a t i v e s of f e e l i n g and doing: we t a l k about the p o s s i b l e meaning of what they have done and s a i d . That i s how we can e s t a b l i s h a model of e t h i c a l d i s c o u r s e . Without becoming i n v o l v e d i n the f r e q u e n t l y counterpro-d u c t i v e business of a d u l t admonition and m o r a l i z i n g , we can meet c h i l d r e n on t h e i r e t h i c a l grounds, the grounds of t h e i r c r e a t i v e c h o i c e s (p. 101). In summary, Feldman's concept o f ed u c a t i o n i s based on the need to know who man i s . A means to t h i s end i s the study of a r t . T h i s study c o n s i s t s of fo u r b a s i c c a t e g o r i e s which i n c l u d e the c o g n i t i v e , the l i n g u i s t i c , the media, and the c r i t i c a l . A r t educ a t i o n must emphasize the development of a process of l e a r n i n g . T h i s process, c a l l e d the a e s t h e t i c mode of l e a r n i n g , i n t e g r a t e s knowledge and performance. .!-:._; 48 The aim o f a r t e d u c a t i o n i s t o p r o v i d e the s t u d e n t s w i t h a means t o change t h e i r l i v e s on a b a s i s o f e t h i c a l d e c i s i o n s d e r i v e d from t h e s t u d y o f a r t o b j e c t s . Concepts o f E d u c a t i o n i n the W r i t i n g s o f L a n i e r A t the c o r e o f L a n i e r ' s c o n c e p t s oh a r t e d u c a t i o n i s h i s c o n c e r n f o r human m o r a l i t y . T h i s a s p e c t o f human ex-p e r i e n c e , w h i c h a c c o r d i n g t o L a n i e r (1976) d e a l s w i t h t h e \" r e l a t i o n a l p roblem c o n c e r n i n g two o r more p e o p l e \" (p. 2 2 ) , p r o v i d e s t h e d i r e c t i o n f o r the development o f a r t programs t h a t r e l a t e t o problems concerned w i t h war, r a c e , p o v e r t y , o p p r e s s i o n , sex and drug s . These problems w h i c h a r e t h e r e s u l t o f improper . p a t t e r n s o f human r e l a t i o n s h i p s i n t h e s o c i a l , economic and p o l i t i c a l a s p e c t s o f l i f e , can be changed. They can be changed i f e d u c a t i o n i s a l s o w i l l i n g t o do i t s p a r t i n what L a n i e r (1974) c a l l s \"the development o f a c r i t i -c a l c o n s c i o u s n e s s \" , and an \"i n f o r m e d awareness o f t h o s e s o c i a l f o r c e s w h i c h o p p r e s s our l i v e s , c o n f i n e our growth and d e f i l e our;dreams and an a d d i t i o n a l awareness o f what we can do t o combat them\" (p. 23). T h i s c o n c e r n f o r t h e improvement o f the q u a l i t y o f l i f e t h r o u g h a r t e d u c a t i o n i s s u p p o r t e d by L a n i e r ' s (1972) i d e a t h a t a r t e d u c a t i o n must f o s t e r an \" i n -t e n s e and knowledgeable\" r e s p o n s e i n t h e i n d i v i d u a l t o \"the whole spectrum o f t h e v i s u a l a r t s \" (p. 1 9 ) . Such a g o a l cannot be a c h i e v e d t h r o u g h l i m i t i n g t h e a r t programs t o s t u d i o p r a c t i s e , but r e q u i r e s t h e br o a d e r approach o f aes-t h e t i c e d u c a t i o n , a,n approach w h i c h the a u t h o r proposes s i n c e i t p r o v i d e s a \" s t r o n g c e n t r a l c o n c e p t p r e s e n t l y needed\" 49 ( L a n i e r , 1975, p. 28). L a n i e r ;(198 0) does n o t deny t h e need f o r s t u d i o work, b u t s t u d i o work o n l y f o r t h o s e s t u d e n t s who want t o become a r t i s t s . The making o f a r t c a n n o t a c c o r d i n g t o t h e a u t h o r , \" p r o v i d e l e a r n i n g about a r t and a e s t h e t i c e x p e r i e n c e i n a n y t h i n g near an adequate measure\" (p. 20). A l s o , v i s u a l images \"are n o t o r i o u s l y i n a c c u r a t e c o n v e y o r s o f i n f o r m a t i o n and i d e a s , even o f emotions\" ( L a n i e r 1976, p. 27). A e s t h e t i c e d u c a t i o n u s u a l l y r e f e r s t o t h e s t u d y o f a r t i s t s , a r t h i s t o r y and a r t c r i t i c i s m . F o r L a n i e r (1975),,, however, t h e co n c e p t e x p r e s s e s \" t h o u g h t f u l n e s s about t h e n a t u r e and f u n c t i o n o f one's own a e s t h e t i c r e s p o n s e s \" (p. 33). To a v o i d c o n f u s i o n L a n i e r l a t e r i n h i s a r t i c l e S i x Items on t h e Agenda f o r t h e l i g h t i e s (198 0) i n t r o d u c e d t h e term a e s t h e t i c l i t e r a c y , a term w h i c h i n d i c a t e s a d i s t i n c t i o n between a e s t h e t i c e d u c a t i o n and a t the same time makes r e f e r -ence t o L a n i e r ' s proposed methodology. By d e f i n i t i o n t h e co n c e p t o f a e s t h e t i c l i t e r a c y proposes t o : expand t h e i n d i v i d u a l ' s knowledge o f t h e a v a i l a b l e a e s t h e t i c a l l y e v o c a t i v e o b j e c t s and e v e n t s i n t h e s u r r o u n d i n g w o r l d and how they a r e p r o c e s s e d t o . produce e x p e r i e n c e t h a t i s v a l u e d i n t r i n s i c a l l y (p. 1 9 ) . When L a n i e r i n t r o d u c e d t h e c o n c e p t o f a e s t h e t i c l i t e r -acy i t appeared t h a t he had abandoned h i s p l e a f o r the de-j velopment o f a \" c r i t i c a l c o n s c i o u s n e s s \" about t h e problems o f war, r a c e , p o v e r t y , sex and d r u g s . However, i n h i s l a t e r 50 s t a t e m e n t s about t h e purpose o f a r t e d u c a t i o n (p. 19) he does not e l i m i n a t e t h e need f o r t h i s development but t r e a t s i t as a r e q u i r e m e n t t h a t w i l l need f u t u r e a t t e n t i o n and whi c h ought t o be p a r t o f a l l the s c h o o l s u b j e c t s . The means t o d e v e l o p a e s t h e t i c l i t e r a c y i s a d i a l o g u e c u r r i c u l u m . Such a c u r r i c u l u m s h o u l d , a c c o r d i n g t o t h e a u t h o r , f o l l o w somewhat t h e approach used i n the t e a c h i n g o f American o r Canadian l i t e r a t u r e : , P u p i l s would e x p e r i e n c e t h e a r t works ( ( d i r e c t l y i f you w i l l ) j u s t as t h e y do i n E n g l i s h c l a s s . More s p e c i f i c a l l y , t h ey would c o n c e n t r a t e on what f u n c t i o n t h e a r t work performed f o r t h e a r t i s t who made i t or f o r t h e s o c i e t y i n w h i c h i t was made, and what q u a l i t i e s i n our own r e a c t i o n a l b i o g r a p h i e s and i n work i t s e l f cause us t o respond t o i t as we do (p. 2 0 ) . The d i a l o g u e c u r r i c u l u m p r o v i d e s an a l t e r n a t i v e f o r L a n i e r 1 s e a r l i e r p r o p o s a l o f t h e f i l m - a r t s c u r r i c u l u m t h a t was t o f o c u s on t h e improvement o f s o c i e t y t h r o u g h a p o p u l a r media. Because o f the a u t h o r 1 s v i e w s about t h e s u p e r i o r r o l e o f v e r b a l communication and h i s c o n c e r n f o r s o c i a l problems, the f i l m - a r t s approach was s e l e c t e d . When L a n i e r changed, from what E i s n e r (1972) c a l l s a \" c o n t e x t u a l i s t p o s i t i o n \" t o an \" e s s e n t i a l i s t p o s i t i o n \" (p. 2 ) , the need f o r a f i l m - a r t s c u r r i c u l u m was n b t l o n g e r r e l e v a n t . L a n i e r (1975) e x p l a i n s h i s change o f d i r e c t i o n as f o l l o w s : F o r some y e a r s now, I have b e l i e v e d and have been p r e a c h i n g much t h e same p o s i t i o n , a l t h o u g h t h e worthy 51 g o a l towards w h i c h I have w i s h e d t o d i r e c t our a t t e n t i o n i s a s o c i a l one r a t h e r t h a n an i n d i v i d u a l one. My c a n d i d a t e f o r the d i r e c t i n g i d e a i n a r t e d u c a t i o n p r o -grams has been t o use a r t as a means t o c l a r i f y t h e ways i n which t h e s o c i a l , economic, and p o l i t i c a l w o r l d works and how i t can be improved. T h i s i s , o f c o u r s e , a r t i n the s e r v i c e o f s o c i a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y . I s t i l l b e l i e v e i n i t and w i l l c o n t i n u e t o p r e a c h i t , b ut I am c o n v i n c e d such e f f o r t i s f u t i l e .... C o n s e q u e n t l y , I w i l l c o n c e n t r a t e f o r t h e moment on an i n t e r m e d i a t e and e s s e n t i a l i s t s t e p : t h e development o f a s t r o n g c e n t r a l c o n c e p t r e l a t e d t o a r t c o n c e r n s (p. 28). In 198 0 L a n i e r a d v o c a t e s t h e development o f a e s t h e t i c l i t e r -a t u r e as such an \" i n t e r m e d i a t e \" s t e p when he s t a t e s : \" I w i l l be s a t i s f i e d i f we move towards a e s t h e t i c l i t e r a c y : t h e l a r g e r i s s u e s o f s o c i a l l i t e r a c y w i l l have t o w a i t f o r the p r e s s u r e o f h i s t o r y \" ( L a n i e r , 1980, p. 1 9 ) . Impo r t a n t i n L a n i e r ' s c u r r i c u l u m approach, e i t h e r f o r th e f i l m - a r t s o r t h e d i a l o g u e p r o c e s s , i s t h a t t h e s t u d e n t s s t a r t where t h e y a r e a t and a r e not s u b j e c t e d t o a program w h i c h t h e t e a c h e r p e r s o n a l l y t h i n k s e s s e n t i a l . L a n i e r s u p p o r t s t h i s approach on the b a s i s o f the f a c t t h a t s t u d e n t s need no i n t r o d u c t i o n t o e i t h e r s o c i a l problems o r a e s t h e t i c e x p e r i e n c e s s i n c e b o t h a r e p a r t o f t h e s t u d e n t ' s l i f e b e f o r e f o r m a l s c h o o l i n g . S t a r t i n g p o i n t s f o r the d i a l o g u e c u r r i c u l u m -may be found i n t h e n a t u r a l environment o r t h e p o p u l a r a r t s l i k e comic s t r i p s , c l o t h i n g , b i l l b o a r d s , p o s t e r s and t e l e v i s i o n . 52 L a n i e r (1975) s t r e s s e s t h i s p o i n t by s t a t i n g t h a t : We can d e v e l o p c u r r i c u l u m and t e a c h i n g s t r a t e g i e s w h i c h a r e c a p a b l e o f moving the p u p i l from a l r e a d y e x i s t i n g a e s t h e t i c i n v o l v e m e n t s w i t h t h e n a t u r a l e nvironment, the f o l k a r t s and t h e p o p u l a r a r t s , t o the f i n e a r t s t h a t s p e c i a l p r o v i n c e o f t h e a r t t e a c h e r (p. 31). Throughout L a n i e r ' s w r i t i n g s t h e emphasis seems t o be t o t m o v e v a r t e d u c a t i o n away from th e t r e n d s o f a r t p r o d u c t i o n and t h e s t u d y o f the \"museum-arts\". E v i d e n c e t o t h a t e f f e c t i s n o t i c e d p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h e scope o f t h e a r t c u r r i c u l u m and t h e s e l e c t i o n o f s t u d y m a t e r i a l s he recommends. N e i t h e r i s f o c u s e d on t h e \" f i n e a r t s \" . Y e t , L a n i e r does not deny the u s e f u l n e s s o f t h e f i n e a r t s f o r a r t e d u c a t i o n . What c o n c e r n s him, however, i s t h a t s t u d e n t s s h o u l d not be c o n f r o n t e d w i t h s t u d y m a t e r i a l t h a t i s \"highbrow\" and a l i e n t o them. On the a s s u m p t i o n t h a t most s t u d e n t s do not become a c q u a i n t e d w i t h Shakespeare, Rembrandt, o r Bach a t home, L a n i e r (1975) s u g g e s t s t h a t a r t e d u c a t i o n b e g i n s w i t h t h e p o p u l a r a r t s and from t h e r e i n c r e a s e s \"the scope and q u a l i t y o f v i s u a l ex-p e r i e n c e s \" (p. 2 8 ) . To make t h e t r a n s i t i o n from t h e p o p u l a r t o the f i n e a r t s , the a u t h o r uses an example from t h e t e a c h i n g o f music. I n t h e t e a c h i n g o f music: t h e p u p i l c o u l d d e v e l o p an a p p r e c i a t i o n o f Bach, Beethoven and Brahms by u n d e r s t a n d i n g s i m i l a r i t i e s i n some m u s i c a l q u a l i t i e s t o t h e music o f MacDavies o r B r o w n s v i l l e S t a t i o n (p. 31). 53 In c o n c l u s i o n , L a n i e r ' s c o n c e p t o f a r t e d u c a t i o n has as a main o b j e c t i v e t h e improvement o f human r e l a t i o n s h i p s i n c o n t e x t o f t h e s o c i a l , economic and p o l i t i c a l d i m e n s i o n s of.' l i f e . Hence, even a f t e r an \" e s s e n t i a l i s t s t e p f o r t h e moment',\" he remains a c o n t e x t u a l i s t . A second g o a l i s t h e development o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l ' s u n d e r s t a n d i n g about t h e n a t u r e and f u n c t i o n o f h i s own a e s t h e t i c r e s p o n s e s . T h i s g o a l i s worked out t h r o u g h t h e means o f a d i a l o g u e c u r r i c -ulum p a t t e r n e d a f t e r the methods used i n t e a c h i n g l i t e r a t u r e . A l l a r t c u r r i c u l a must t a k e t h e i r s t a r t i n g p o i n t s i n the needs and e x p e r i e n c e s o f the s t u d e n t s and aim a t the improve-ment o f t h e q u a l i t y o f t h e i r l i f e . Concepts of E d u c a t i o n i n the W r i t i n g s o f McFee McFee*s g o a l s f o r a r t e d u c a t i o n i n s c h o o l s may be de-s c r i b e d i n terms o f t h e development o f an awareness about th e f u n c t i o n o f a r t i n s o c i e t y and t h e i n d i v i d u a l ' s l i f e . T h i s v i e w i s r o o t e d i n t h e c o n c e p t t h a t man i s b a s i c a l l y a s o c i a l b e i n g whose l i f e - s t y l e i s n u r t u r e d by f o r c e s i n the dominant c u l t u r e , o r as p a r t o f a s u b - c u l t u r e o r a m i x t u r e o f b o t h . Human problems en c o u n t e r e d i n t h e s e c u l t u r e s may be changed t h r o u g h a r t . A c c o r d i n g t o H u r w i t z (1977) McFee's g o a l s a r e : The improvement o f human u n d e r s t a n d i n g . A l t h o u g h she does not d e s c r i b e the g o a l o f s o c i e t y as he sees i t , she i s h o p e f u l t h a t problem s o l v i n g l e a r n e d i n t h e c o n t e x t o f a r t w i l l become c r e a t i v i t y d e d i c a t e d t o the s o l u t i o n o f human problems (p. 82). A r t e d u c a t i o n must t h e r e f o r e d e a l w i t h the s t u d e n t ' s needs 54 w h i c h a r i s e i n t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e s o c i a l p a t t e r n s o f human behav i o r : i n s o c i e t y . To i d e n t i f y t h e s e needs the a u t h o r does not b e g i n w i t h common human problems such as war and p o v e r t y , but f o c u s e s on the contemporary problems o f t h e i n d u s t r i a l i z e d American s o c i e t y , a s o c i e t y p o p u l a t e d by p e o p l e from many d i f f e r e n t c u l t u r e s . McFee r e c o g n i z e s t h a t s e v e r a l needs a r e d e v e l o p e d t h r o u g h c u l t u r a l d i v e r s i t y and t h e changes t h a t a r e b roughtabout t h r o u g h i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n . B o t h elements, c u l t u r a l d i v e r s i t y and t h e p r o c e s s o f i n d u s -t r i a l i z a t i o n , a r e used by t h e a u t h o r as d i r e c t i v e s f o r b u i l d -i n g a r t c u r r i c u l a . I n a p l u r a l i s t i c s o c i e t y McFee (1974) b e l i e v e s t h a t a r t e d u c a t i o n \"needs t o be d e v e l o p e d a t b o t h t h e d i v e r s e and u n i v e r s a l l e v e l s \" (p. 8 5 ) . D i v e r s e i n a sense t h a t i t d e a l s w i t h the c u l t u r a l a r t h e r i t a g e o f the American B l a c k , the N a t i v e American, t h e I t a l i a n , o r the New E ngland w h i t e Anglo-Saxon. The u n i v e r s a l i s used here i n the sense of i t t o u c h i n g on e v e r y a r t form which p l a y s a major r o l e i n s o c i e t y i n c l u d i n g media, a r c h i t e c t u r e , p a i n t i n g and s c u l p t u r e . I n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e elements o f d i v e r s i t y and u n i v e r s a l i t y McFee proposes t h a t we d e v e l o p a r t programs wh i c h h e l p the s t u d e n t s \" t o r e t a i n and r e s p e c t t h e i r own c u l -t u r e a t t h e same time t h a t we g i v e them the c h o i c e o f a c c e p t -i n g and a p p r e c i a t i n g a l l t h e v i s u a l a r t s \" (p. 85). I n a d d i t i o n t o c u l t u r a l c o n c e r n s , a r t programs s h o u l d d e a l w i t h t h e problems o f u r b a n i z a t i o n , anomie ( i n a b i l i t y o f i n d i v i d u a l o r group t o r e l a t e t o t h e norms o f t h e dominant s o c i e t y ) , t h e i n c r e a s e o f l e i s u r e t i m e , the i n f l u e n c e o f mass 55 media and the man-made environment. Of the l a t t e r McFee (1974) s t a t e s : \" I f we i g n o r e environmental design i n educa-t i o n , we are p e r p e t u a t i n g anarchy - or easy submission to communality\" (p. 1 2 ) . In c o n n e c t i o n w i t h the study of the environmental design the author sees a need f o r students t o : r e c o g n i z e the importance of the a e s t h e t i c dimension i n the economic and p o l i t i c a l dimensions of c i v i c a f f a i r s , i n urban and r u r a l renewal, c o n s e r v a t i o n , c i t y p l a n n i n g and neighborhood development (p. 9 5 ) . Besides the study of c u l t u r a l d i v e r s i t y i n s o c i e t y , the man-made environment and the f u n c t i o n of economic and p o l i t i c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s which p l a y a r o l e i n the development of t h i s environment, McFee (1977) s t r e s s e s the importance of p r o v i d i n g the students w i t h means \"to assess t h e i r own v a l u e s , to see whether t h e i r p e r s o n a l s t y l e s and p r e f e r e n c e s are what they most enjoy or j u s t what they are accustomed t o \" (p. 9 2 ) . T h i s assessment appears to have two f u n c t i o n s . I t p r o v i d e s the students w i t h al\\sense of b e l o n g i n g through p l a c i n g t h e i r v a l u e s i n the context of a c u l t u r a l group. Secondly, i t makes the adoption p o s s i b l e of other v a l u e s i n cases where t h i s i s d e s i r e d . McFee wants to p r o v i d e s e c u r i t y on the one hand by r e l a t i n g v a l u e s through a r t to a c u l t u r a l h e r i t a g e . On the o t h e r hand she wants to make p r o v i s i o n f o r m o b i l i t y between s o c i a l groupings to accommodate the needs of those who are changing t h e i r l i f e s t y l e due to p r o s p e r i t y or v o c a t i o n . 56 i n d i v i d u a l s t u d e n t s t o know how t o c r e a t e a r t f o r themselves and f o r o t h e r s . Through a r t p r o d u c t i o n McFee (1977) b e l i e v e s t h a t s t u d e n t s can g i v e e x p r e s s i o n t o t h e i r p e r s o n a l f e e l i n g s and i d e a s \" i n an u n f a m i l i a r s y m b o l i c way\" (p. 165), so t h a t i t has p r i m a r i l y meaning f o r t h e m s e l v e s . Or t h e y w i l l have t o work \" u n t i l t h e y can g e t t h e i r message a c r o s s as c l e a r l y and w i t h as much e m o t i o n a l and v i s u a l impact as t h e y want\" (Py 169). McFee 1s r a t i o n a l e f o r a r t e d u c a t i o n i s t o p r o v i d e s t u d e n t s w i t h a means t o e v a l u a t e and u n d e r s t a n d the v a l u e s t h a t g i v e form, t o the l i f e s t y l e s o f d i f f e r e n t s o c i a l g r o u p i n g s . Her c o n c e r n s a r e i n p a r t i c u l a r w i t h t h e m i n o r i t y groups l i k e t h e Mexican-Americans, and the e c o n o m i c a l l y and s o c i a l l y d e p r i v e d . Through a r t e d u c a t i o n she hopes \" t o e q u i p c h i l d r e n o f v a r i e d c u l t u r a l backgrounds t o cope i n t h e main stream o f t h e s o c i e t y w i t h o u t c a u s i n g them t o d e v a l u a t e t h e i r own c u l t u r a l back-ground\" (McFee, 1977, p. 1 0 ) . The r e a s o n why she t h i n k s t h i s i s p o s s i b l e i s because a r t \" t r a n s m i t s v a l u e s and a t t i t u d e s , and i d e n t i f i e s c u l t u r a l meanings\" .(McFee, 1974, p. 95). Another f u n c t i o n t h a t a r t e d u c a t i o n s h o u l d f u l f i l l i s the development o f p e r c e p t u a l awareness. McFee (1974) i s k e e n l y aware o f t h e g r e a t emphasis i n e d u c a t i o n on t h e use o f words and t h e development o f c o n c e p t u a l s k i l l s . These s k i l l s she wants t o supplement w i t h s k i l l s i n u n d e r s t a n d i n g v i s u a l n o n - v e r b a l images. V i s u a l images f u n c t i o n a t a d i f f e r -e n t l e v e l than words, and i n t h e i r p e c u l i a r way p r o v i d e i n -s i g h t about r e a l i t y . I n s u p p o r t o f her p r o p o s a l the a u t h o r 57 r e f e r s t o c u l t u r a l s t u d i e s t h a t have shown \" t h a t c h i l d r e n from Western c i v i l i z a t i o n use c o n c e p t s f a r more than p e r c e p t s \" (McFee, 1974, p. 15). The s i x y e a r o l d p r e - s c h o o l y o u n g s t e r i n America and Mexico a r e f i r s t s i m i l a r i n t h e i r use o f p e r -c e p t u a l q u a l i t i e s : As t h e y grow >. o l d e r the M exican c h i l d i n c r e a s e s h i s s e n s i t i v i t y t o p e r c e p t u a l s u b t l e t i e s o f c o l o r and forms; t h e American m i d d l e c l a s s urban c h i l d i s be-coming more a b s t r a c t i n h i s t h i n k i n g p r o c e s s (p. 15). To change t h i s s i t u a t i o n McFee i n c l u d e s the development o f p e r c e p t u a l s k i l l s i n her a r t program. These s k i l l s a r e be-s i d e t h e i r f u n c t i o n as a means t o u n d e r s t a n d i n g , a l s o r e c o g -n i z e d as i m p o r t a n t elements i n t h e s t u d y o f the man-made en-v i r o n m e n t . The d i f f e r e n c e between ''concept\" and \" p e r c e p t \" w i l l b e e d i s c u s s e d l a t e r w i t h i n t h e c o n t e x t o f McFee's v i e w s on a r t . The a u t h o r ' s c o n c e r n f o r t h e environment appears t o stem from th e problems caused by t h e p r o c e s s o f u r b a n i z a t i o n . McFee (1974) does n o t agree t h a t a r c h i t e c t s , d e s i g n e r s and e n g i n e e r s s h o u l d be s o l e l y r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e development o f t h e p u b l i c domain. R a t h e r , she argues \"that each c i t i z e n ought t o be a b l e t o p r o v i d e i n p u t based on r e s p o n s i b l e a e s t h e t i c c r i t i c i s m . \"We cannot a l l o w p e o p l e t o grow up as v i s u a l and a e s t h e t i c i l l i t e r a t e s and e x p e c t them t o be aware o f t h e i r a e s t h e t i c r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s as c i t i z e n s \" (p. 88). The means t h a t McFee has chosen t o a t t a i n t h e g o a l s o f a r t e d u c a t i o n i n c l u d e t h e t e a c h i n g o f d r a w i n g , d e s i g n , t h e 58 c r e a t i o n o f a r t , t h e s t u d y o f t h e environment, and t h e f u n c t i o n o f a r t i n c u l t u r e . The f i r s t two elements may be seen as s e l f - e v i d e n t components o f any p r o c e s s t h a t s t r e s s e s p r o -d u c t i o n . Y e t , f o r McFee drawing and d e s i g n a r e i n c l u d e d f o r s p e c i a l r e a s o n s . Drawing i s t h e p r o c e s s t h a t must d e v e l o p t h e s t u d e n t ' s p e r c e p t u a l a b i l i t i e s . I t i s abmeans t o g a i n u n d e r s t a n d i n g ; a form o f v i s u a l t h i n k i n g . I t opens up an a s p e c t o f r e a l i t y t h a t words cannot d e s c r i b e . McFee (1977) comments t h a t a d e t a i l e d d r awing \" i s much c l o s e r t o the r e a l i -t y o f our v i s u a l e x p e r i e n c e than even the most d e t a i l e d d e s c r i p t i o n \" (p. 19). The s t u d y o f d e s i g n i s chosen t o emphasize two f u n c t i o n s i n a r t e d u c a t i o n . I t makes s t u d e n t s aware o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between c o l o r , shape, t e x t u r e and c o m p o s i t i o n ; and shows i n i t s p r o c e s s many s i m i l a r i t i e s w i t h the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f c u l t u r e . The a u t h o r e x p r e s s e s t h i s i d e a as f o l l o w s : The elements o f c u l t u r e , b e l i e f systems, v a l u e s , r o l e s o f p e o p l e , language and a r t a r e l i k e form, l i n e , c o l o r and t e x t u r e i n v i s u a l d e s i g n . You change any one p a r t and t h e system o f r e l a t i o n s h i p among the p a r t s a r e m o d i f i e d . The s e a r c h f o r o r d e r and p r e d i c t a b i l i t y i n c u l t u r e goes on much as our need f o r o r d e r i n our v i s u a l environment (p. 281). A key phrase i n McFee's d e s i g n a c t i v i t i e s i s o r d e r and v a r i e t y . T h i s concept she a l s o used i n r e f e r e n c e t o c u l t u r e i n s t a t e -ments such as \" w h i l e t h e r e i s a d a p t i o n t o c u l t u r e t h e r e i s a l s o s t a b i l i t y and sameness o f c u l t u r e \" (p. 288), and \" j u s t 59 as we can l e a r n t o see more i n d e s i g n by r e c o g n i z i n g s i m i -l a r i t i e s and d i f f e r e n c e s , so we can b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d t h e dynamics o f a r t and l i f e among, v a r i o u s p e r i o d s and p e o p l e s \" (p. 272). What becomes e v i d e n t i n McFee 1s use o f drawing and d e s i g n i s t h e i r f u n c t i o n i n t h e a n a l y s i s o f the b u i l t e nvironment and t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f c u l t u r a l development. The t h i r d element o f the c u r r i c u l u m f o c u s e s on t h e s t u d y o f a r t s k i l l s r e l a t e d t o use o f m a t e r i a l s , s e l e c t i o n o f p r o p e r symbols t o e x p r e s s i d e a s , , h a n d l i n g o f t o o l s and e v a l u -a t i o n o f a r t p r o d u c t s . These s k i l l s a r e needed t o \" e x p r e s s t h e persons' own f e e l i n g s , i d e a s , u n d e r s t a n d i n g s , p e r c e p t i o n s and r e l a t i o n s h i p s \" , and t o \"communicate t o o t h e r s , t o s t r e s s i d e a s , t o c l a r i l y i s s u e s , t o i l l u s t r a t e meanings and r e l a t i o n -s h i p s \" (McFee, 1977, p. 154). I n c o n t r a s t t o the s t u d y o f d r a w i n g and d e s i g n , t h i s t h i r d element o f t h e c u r r i c u l u m f o -cuses on t h e s t u d e n t and not on the environment and-:society. I n summary, McFee's con c e p t o f a r t e d u c a t i o n emphasizes the development o f t h e s t u d e n t ' s u n d e r s t a n d i n g about th e a e s t h e t i c q u a l i t i e s o f t h e man-made environment and how t h e s e q u a l i t i e s may be improved. W i t h i n the a r t program a t t e n t i o n must be g i v e n t o t h e c u l t u r a l h e r i t a g e o f the community, and the s t u d y o f d e s i g n . T h i s s t u d y o f d e s i g n i s t o be c h a r a c t e r -i z e d by the c o n c e p t s o f o r d e r and v a r i e t y . The o v e r - a l l aim o f the a r t program i s t o be the development of the s e l f and the w e l l - b e i n g o f o t h e r s . Concepts o f A r t 60 Concepts o f A r t i n the W r i t i n g s o f L a u r a Chapman In Approaches t o a r t i n e d u c a t i o n (1978) Chapman vie w s a r t as b o t h a means t o s e l f e x p r e s s i o n and as t h e communication o f v a l u e s . The c o n j o i n t g o a l s i n t h i s v i e w a r e based on t h e a u t h o r ' s i d e a s t h a t a r t f u n c t i o n s i n two modes o f human e x p e r i e n c e \" e x p r e s s i o n and r e s p o n s e \" , w h i c h a r e \" i n t e r d e p e n d e n t \" (p. 118). To t r a n s l a t e what t h i s means f o r e d u c a t i o n Chapman f o c u s e s on t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f a r t , why i t i s needed, and how i t i s produced and can communicate v a l u e s . As a f i r s t s t e p i n a r t e d u c a t i o n Chapman e x p l o r e s a range o f c o n c e p t s t h a t i d e n t i f y b a s i c f e a t u r e s i n a r t . These c o n c e p t s i n c l u d e a r t t e r m i n o l o g y . They a r e the t o o l s f o r t h e \" u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f a r t and f o r communicating a r t t o c h i l d r e n \" (p. 22). By means o f t h e s e c o n c e p t s d i s c u s s i o n s about p r o -d u c t i o n and re s p o n s e can t a k e p l a c e . I n c l u d e d i n t h e a r t f e a t u r e s a r e c o n c e p t s r e l a t e d t o form, medium, d e s i g n , sub-j e c t m a t t e r and s t y l e . The p a r t i c u l a r a r t forms s e l e c t e d f o r s t u d y a r e d r a w i n g , p a i n t i n g , p r i n t making and g r a p h i c d e s i g n , photography, f i l m and t e l e v i s i o n , s c u l p t u r e , c r a f t s and p r o d u c t d e s i g n , a r c h i t e c t u r e , c e r e m o n i a l and h o l i d a y a r t s and e n v i r o n m e n t a l d e s i g n . These a r t f e a t u r e s and forms a r e n o t meant t o be a l l i n c l u s i v e , b u t were chosen t o g i v e some 7 d i r e c t i o n f o r the c o n t e n t o f a r t e d u c a t i o n . B e s i d e s t h e r e c o g n i t i o n o f a r t f e a t u r e s and a r t forms the a u t h o r s t r e s s e s the need t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e a r t i s t i c p r o c e s s . T h i s p r o c e s s , w h i c h i n c l u d e s v a r i o u s s t a g e s , i s 61 t h e same f o r t h e s t u d e n t and t h e p r o f e s s i o n a l a r t i s t . I n c l u d e d i n t h e s t a g e s a r e t h e i n c e p t i o n o f an i d e a , t h e e l a b o r a t i o n and r e f i n e m e n t o f t h e i d e a , and t h e e x e c u t i o n i n a medium. These s t a g e s do n o t o c c u r i n a c e r t a i n sequence but f o l l o w t h e o r d e r o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l 1 s method o f c r e a t i n g a r t . I n r e f e r e n c e t o t h e use o f the a r t i s t i c p r o c e s s Chapman (1978) s t a t e s t h a t : We w i l l re-examine each phase o f t h e a r t i s t i c p r o c e s s t o i l l u s t r a t e how a r t i s t s d i f f e r i n t h e i r s o u r c e s o f i n s p i r a t i o n l e a d i n g t o the i n c e p t i o n o f an i d e a ; i n t h e i r means o f e l a b o r a t i n g an i d e a and t h e i r way o f u s i n g media. The a n a l y s i s i s o r g a n i z e d t o show t h a t many o f t h e co n c e r n s and methods o f work o f a d u l t a r t i s t s can be used by c h i l d r e n - p r o v i d e d o f c o u r s e t h a t t h e t e c h n i q u e s a r e adapted t o the i n t e r e s t and a b i l i t i e s o f c h i l d r e n (p. 4 6 ) . The i d e a s and v a l u e s t h a t the a r t i s t s e x p r e s s i n t h e i r work a r e n o t p e r c e i v e d w i t h o u t g u i d a n c e . Chapman (197 9) does not b e l i e v e t h a t a r t speaks f o r i t s e l f . On t h e con-t r a r y , she s t a t e s t h a t \" i f a r t c o u l d f u l l y speak f o r i t s e l f / a r t e d u c a t i o n would be un n e c e s s a r y and r e s e a r c h i n a r t e d u c a t i o n would be p o i n t l e s s \" (p. 6 ) . F o r e d u c a t i o n t h i s -means t h a t p e r c e p t u a l s k i l l s must be t a u g h t . S k i l l s pecu-l i a r t o p e r c e i v i n g and r e s p o n d i n g t o a r t . S k i l l s o t h e r t h a n t h o s e used i n r e a d i n g and s c i e n c e . Chapman s t r e s s e s t h e p o i n t t h a t e q u a l time s h o u l d be g i v e n t o the development o f p e r c e p t u a l s k i l l s and t o t h e c r e a t i n g o f a r t . T h i s i d e a 62 i s r o o t e d i n her b a s i c p r e s u p p o s i t i o n t h a t a r t f u n c t i o n s i n the e x p r e s s i v e and r e s p o n s i v e modes o f human e x p e r i e n c e . Chapman d i s t i n g u i s h e s t h r e e phases i n p e r c e p t i o n : p e r c e i v i n g o b v i o u s and s u b t l e q u a l i t i e s , i n t e r p r e t i n g q u a l i t i e s as s o u r c e s o f f e e l i n g , and j u d g i n g the s i g n i f i -cance o f p e r c e p t u a l e x p e r i e n c e . These phases a r e each made up o f s e v e r a l elements. What t h e a u t h o r wants t o emphasize i n e d u c a t i o n i s the need f o r the s t u d e n t t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e p r o c e s s o f how t o g e t a t t h e meaning o f a r t , and not the t e a c h e r ' s e x p l a n a t i o n . Chapman (1978) w r i t e s : What we hope t o d e v e l o p i s n e i t h e r a r e t r e a t t o p e r s o n a l p r e f e r e n c e nor a b l i n d a c c e p t a n c e o f p r e -judgements by o t h e r s ; what we hope t o d e v e l o p i s s k i l l i n making c r i t i c a l judgements (p. 89),/ S k i l l s i n ' p e r c e i v i n g t h e v i s u a l e v i d e n c e i n t h e work, i n i n t e r p r e t i n g the p o s s i b l e meaning o f t h e work, and i n j u d g i n g t h e k i n d and degree o f v a l u e the work might h o l d f o r o u r s e l v e s and o t h e r s (p. 90). When Chapman uses t h e term \" a r t \" she u s u a l l y r e f e r s t o the \" f i n e a r t s \" as w e l l as t h e v a r i o u s o b j e c t s i n t h e man-made environment. Even though she r e c o g n i z e s a d i s t i n c t i o n between a r t and a r t i f a c t s she does not use t h i s d i s t i n c t i o n as a n e c e s s a r y means f o r c l a s s i f i c a t i o n . F o r i n s t a n c e , i n her a c t i v i t i e s s uggested f o r t h e development o f p e r s o n a l f u l f i l l m e n t t h r o u g h a r t she r e f e r s p r i m a r i l y t o the \" f i n e a r t s \" ; a r t s t h a t a r e found i n museums; the stu d y o f p r i n t s and r e p r o d u c t i o n s and t h e r e a d i n g o f books about a r t i s t s . 63 On the o t h e r hand when she i n t r o d u c e s t h e r o l e o f a r t i n contemporary s o c i e t y , she p r e f e r s t o use t h e word \" a r t i f a c t \" . F o r Chapman (1978) t h e \"term a r t i f a c t r e f e r s t o any o b j e c t t h a t i s i n t e n t i o n a l l y shaped o r s e l e c t e d f o r human purpose\" (p. 93). Examples o f t h e s e o b j e c t s i n c l u d e k i t c h e n u t e n s i l s , t o o l s , f l a g s , b u s i n e s s s i g n s , c o n t a i n e r s , b u i l d i n g s and f u r n i t u r e . However,the word \" a r t \" i s a l s o used t o denote \" a r t i f a c t s \" . T h i s becomes e v i d e n t i n s t a t e m e n t s l i k e : C o n s i d e r t h e d i f f e r e n t a r t forms t h a t can be used t o e x p r e s s n a t i o n a l i d e n t i t y ; f l a g s , o f f i c i a l s e a l s , stamps, c u r r e n c y , c i v i c b u i l d i n g s and irionuments, u n i f o r m s f o r government employees and so on (p. 32). Chapman p r e s e n t s s e v e r a l r e a s o n s why a r t p r o d u c t i o n t a k e s p l a c e . These r e a s o n s seem t o f a l l i n two c a t e g o r i e s . A c c o r d i n g t o Chapman (1978) each a r t form o f f e r s a d i s t i n c t p o s s i b i l i t y f o r e x p r e s s i n g an i d e a o r s o l v i n g a problem. Her c o n c e r n f o r t h e s t u d e n t t o u n d e r s t a n d and c r e a t e a r t appears t o c o i n c i d e w i t h t h e need t o e x p r e s s i d e a s , w h i l e the p r o d u c t i o n o f a r t i f a c t s r e l a t e s t o problem s o l v i n g i n d a i l y l i v i n g . U l t i m a t e l y a l l a r t a r i s e s o u t o f human needs, heeds e x p e r i e n c e d i n \"the p e r s o n a l , s o c i a l , p h y s i c a l , p o l i t i c a l , r e l i g i o u s , e d u c a t i o n a l and economic\" (p. 32) a s p e c t s o f l i f e . I n s o c i e t y t h e s e needs may be t r a c e d t o the r e q u i r e m e n t f o r \" f o o d , c l o t h i n g and s h e l t e r , t h e q u e s t f o r i n d i v i d u a l and group i d e n t i t y and t h e d e s i r e t o c e l e b r a t e i m p o r t a n t l i f e e v e n t s ' (p. 93). F o r the i n d i v i d u a l t hey a r e r e l a t e d t o p e r s o n a l f u l f i l l m e n t and communication. The 64 v a r i o u s a r t forms w i l l meet t h e s e needs when th e y \" h e l p t o draw p e o p l e t o g e t h e r and t o f o s t e r communication\" ( (p. 79) because b a s i c a l l y a l l a r t i s s o c i a l i n f u n c t i o n . In c o n c l u s i o n , Chapman (1981) a d v o c a t e s t h a t a r t must be t r e a t e d as a \" s u b j e c t \" . We a r e t o \" r e t a i n the i d e a t h a t a r t i s a s u b j e c t r e q u i r i n g s t u d y \" (p. 2 4 ) . T h i s s t u d y i n v o l v e s two modes o f e x p e r i e n c e ; p e r c e p t i o n and p r o d u c t i o n . E i t h e r mode can be a n a l y s e d and s t a t e d i n terms o f t e a c h -a b l e components. The t a s k o f a r t e d u c a t i o n i s t o p r o v i d e t h e s t u d e n t w i t h s k i l l and i n s i g h t about the p r o c e s s o f p e r c e p t i o n and p r o d u c t i o n . The a u t h o r f u r t h e r emphasizes t h a t a r t e x p r e s s e s human v a l u e s . These v a l u e s a r e not a l -ways s e l f e v i d e n t but can be se a r c h e d o u t t h r o u g h a p r o c e s s of r e s p o n d i n g . The p r o c e s s o f r e s p o n d i n g i s \"an a c t i v e , c r e a t i v e p r o c e s s i n i t s own r i g h t \" . I t f o c u s e s m a i n l y on d i s c o v e r i n g meanings i n a work o f a r t and may be \" c u l t i v a t e d by i n s t r u c t i o n \" (p. 64). Concepts o f A r t i n t h e W r i t i n g s o f Edmund Burke Feldman The n a t u r e o f a r t a c c o r d i n g t o Feldman ought t o be de t e r m i n e d i n c o n t e x t o f man's c u l t u r a l developments from p r i m i t i v e t i m e s t h r o u g h t h e p r e s e n t age. Each s t a g e i n t h i s development has i t s unique q u a l i t i e s . P r i m i t i v e s t a g e s a r e not i n f e r i o r b ut d i f f e r e n t j u s t as a c h i l d i s d i f f e r e n t from an a d u l t . P r i m i t i v e a r t l i k e w i s e i s not i n f e r i o r b u t d i f f e r e n t . A c c o r d i n g t o Feldman t h e e a r l y s t a g e s o f c h i l d development today r e f l e c t many elements o f p r i m i t i v e l i f e s t y l e s . F o r t h i s r e a s o n he s t r e s s e s the 65 need t o i n c l u d e p r i m i t i v e a r t s t u d i e s i n a r t e d u c a t i o n . C h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h i s a r t i s \" t h a t i t i s not c r e a t e d t o be s t o r e d and e x h i b i t e d i n museums\", b u t i t i s \"made t o be worn, h a n d l e d , waved and c a r r i e d ; i t f u n c t i o n s i n a mixed-media c o n t e x t \" (Feldman, 1970, p. 6 ) . A l s o , t r i b e s m e n \"make i t and use i t and o f t e n d i s c a r d i t \" (p. 7 ) . The c h i l d t o d a y , l i k e t h e \" t r i b e s m e n \" , \"may be f u l f i l l e d s i m p l y by t h e a c t o f making\" (p. 7 ) . The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t h a t Feldman r e c o g n i z e s as i m p o r t a n t i n the p r i m i t i v e a r t s t y l e a r e t h e spontaneous p r o d u c t i o n o f a r t o b j e c t s t o f i l l a need w h i c h a r i s e s t h r o u g h w o r k i n g o r p l a y i n g t o g e t h e r , and the a b i l i t y t o p a r t w i t h t h e o b j e c t s when no l o n g e r needed. A c c o r d i n g t o Feldman t h e d i s t i n c t i o n s between p r i m i t i v e and contempo-r a r y a r t appear t o be p r i m a r i l y a t t i t u d i n a l . Tribesmen a r e not aware o f \" c r e a t i n g a r t i n our sense o f the term\" (p. 6 ) . They a r e more concerned \" w i t h t h e m a g i c a l , c u l t i s h , o r r e l i g i o u s e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f u s e f u l o b j e c t s \" (p. 6).and n o t w i t h t h e development o f s t y l e o r p e r s o n a l e x p r e s s i o n . On t h e b a s i s o f e v i d e n c e p r o v i d e d by a r t h i s t o r i a n s and a r c h e o l o g i s t s , Feldman (1970) has e s t a b l i s h e d c r i t e r i a f o r a r t s t y l e s . Each s t y l e i s r e c o g n i z e d on a b a s i s o f \"common v i s u a l , e x p r e s s i v e , t e c h n i c a l o r t h e m a t i c f e a t u r e s \" (p. 2 6 ) . I n a d d i t i o n each s t y l e must be \"an example o f a s e t o f a r t i s t i c t r a i t s t h a t seem t o r e c u r t o g e t h e r i n many p a r t s o f the w o r l d a t many t i m e s and t h a t a r e u s u a l l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a p a r t i c u l a r s t a g e o f c u l t u r e \" (p. 2 6 ) . I n c o n t r a s t t o t h e f u n c t i o n o f p r i m i t i v e a r t , contem-66 p o r ary a r t has become a commodity. During the Middle Ages the a r t i s t was p a i d \" f o r h i s work done to o r d er\" (p. 17). Today, the a r t i s t s ' work i s measured by \" f l u c t u a t i n g v a l u e s \" (p. 17). A c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of contemporary a r t i s a l s o the continuous search f o r new s t y l e s . Feldman a t t r i b u t e s t h i s to the f a c t o r t h a t a r t i s \" u n w i t t i n g l y modeled a f t e r the i d e a of s c i e n c e as a never ending quest f o r new knowledge\" (p. 20). He p o i n t s out, however, t h a t new a r t s t y l e s , c o n t r a r y to s c i e n t i f i c developments do \"not supplant or make an o l d s t y l e o b s o l e t e \" (p. 20). P e c u l i a r to modern a r t i s a l s o a d i v i s i o n between \" f i n e a r t s \" and the \" u s e f u l a r t s \" . Feldman r e g r e t s the f a c t t h a t contemporary c u l t u r e i s not \" e s p e c i a l l y concerned about the types of v i s u a l a r t t h a t i n f l u e n c e s d a i l y a c t i v i t y \" (p. 21). In response to t h i s weakness he recommends t h a t we broaden the students: 1 , con-cept about the scope of a r t and develop t h e i r p e r c e p t i o n of form and meaning i n \" p i c t u r e s \" , as w e l l as, \" i n every aspect of p e r s o n a l and s o c i a l l i f e \" (p. 22). Present day a r t i s c omplicated and needs to be e x p l a i n e d . For t h i s reason Feldman advocates i n s t r u c t i o n i n v i s u a l l i t e r a c y . V i s u a l communication a c c o r d i n g to the author i s i n s e v e r a l ways l i k e a v e r b a l language. I t can be used w i t h -out the knowledge of grammar or s p e l l i n g and f u n c t i o n s on the b a s i s of i n n a t e knowledge. The \" r e a d i n g \" of images, l i k e a v e r b a l language however, can a l s o be o rganized i n grammatical terms'.;, Feldman (1976) makes the f o l l o w i n g statement about \"reading\" words and images: 67 Today, words do not resemble the ideas or o b j e c t s they stand f o r . We read them, f i r s t by recognizihgx them as symbols of r e a l i d e a s or t h i n g s ; second by n o t i n g t h e i r arrangement i n space, t h a t i s , t h e i r s e q u e n t i a l p o s i -t i o n ; and t h i r d by i n t e r p r e t i n g the r e l a t i o n s h i p between the symbolic meanings of the words and t h e i r s e q u e n t i a l or s y n t a c t i c meanings based on t h e i r p o s i -t i o n s i n a word s t r i n g or sentence. Now re a d i n g images e n t a i l fundamentally the same o p e r a t i o n : we have to at t e n d to v i s u a l s i g n s . That i s , i f our eyes are open we are o b l i g e d to n o t i c e l i n e s , shapes, c o l o r s , tex-t u r e s and l i g h t i n t e n s i t i e s . Then we have to r e c o g n i z e these as sign s combined i n t o forms; we n o t i c e how they are arranged i n space. F i n a l l y we read a t o t a l image by examining the r e l a t i o n s between i t s form-symbols and t h e i r s p a t i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n ( i n t e r p r e t a t i o n or comprehension) i(p. 197) . Felman views a r t b a s i c a l l y as a means to an end. \" A r t has always had a f u n c t i o n over and above the q u a l i t i e s of p u r e l y v i s u a l appeal\" he w r i t e s . I t has \"always been a c a t a l y s t . That i s i t has always promoted the i n t e r a c t i o n between people and people or people and t h i n g s \" (Feldman, 1978 , p. 6 , 7 ) . For the i n d i v i d u a l t h i s means t h a t a r t can f u n c t i o n as a means to s o l v e problems. Feldman (1970) does not want to make a problem of a r t but b r i n g problems i n t o the open through a r t . For students' a r t \"ought to be the e x p r e s s i o n of t h e i r problem\" (p. 34). Secondly, a r t func-68 t i o n s as a means o f communication f o r t h e i n d i v i d u a l , Communication i n the sense t h a t i t i s an e x t e n s i o n o f t h e s e l f , an o p e n i n g up o f the s e l f t o o t h e r s , a c o m p l e t i o n c o f the s e l f . A r t f u n c t i o n i n g as \"communication\" r e q u i r e s a re s p o n s e from o t h e r s . Through t h i s r e s p onse t h e i n d i v i d u a l engages i n a d i a l o g u e . Feldman appears t o i d e n t i f y t h i s form o f communication as a means o f s o c i a l i n t e g r a t i o n when he s t a t e s : \"when you do i n f a c t respond t o my e x p r e s s i o n you e l i m i n a t e a t l e a s t some o f my u n c e r t a i n t y \" (p. 31). A t h i r d i n d i v i d u a l need t h a t a r t s a t i s f i e s i s t h e \" p e r f e c t i o n i s t i m p u l s e \" . T h i s i m p u l s e urges t h e i n d i v i d u a l t o complete a p r o d u c t t o a c e r t a i n q u a l i t y b e f o r e i t i s r e c o g n i z e d as f i n i s h e d . Feldman (1970) seems t o use b o t h t h e need f o r s e l f e x p r e s s i o n and the p e r f e c t i o n i s t i m p u l s e t h r o u g h a r t as a means t o f i n d human f i l f i l l m e n t o r what he c a l l s \"complete-nes s \" (p. 47) . In s o c i e t y t h e needs f o r a r t e x p r e s s themselves most s t r o n g l y i n a r c h i t e c t u r e and community d e s i g n , t h e communi-c a t i o n o f group norms and t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f t o o l s f o r d a i l y l i v i n g . Of t h e s e needs t h e a u t h o r g i v e s s p e c i a l a t t e n t i o n t o the communication o f group norms. The i n f o r m a t i o n and commu-n i c a t i o n a r t s used t o communicate t h e s e norms, f u n c t i o n as v i s u a l \" p e r s u a d e r s \" a c c o r d i n g t o Feldman. Whether we e n j o y the a r t s o f v i s u a l communication o r no t , we must concede t h a t t hey a r e e f f e c t i v e . Not o n l y do they i n f l u e n c e our b e h a v i o r i n a thousand ways, but t h e y a l s o c o n s t i t u t e a s u b s t a n t i a l p o r t i o n 69 of our v i s u a l environment (p. 5 7 ) . S i n c e t h e s e a r t forms have the a b i l i t y t o i n f l u e n c e human b e h a v i o r Feldman t h i n k s i t n e c e s s a r y t h a t s t u d e n t s \"must l e a r n t o make i n t e l l i g e n t d i s c r i m i n a t i o n among examples o f communication a r t s , n e i t h e r condemning nor a c c e p t i n g e v e r y -t h i n g , b u t r e c o g n i z e t h e wide range o f q u a l i t y i n h i s type of a r t \" (p. 6 0 ) . How t h e s e d i s c r i m i n a t i o n s a r e made depends on t h e t e c h n i q u e o f a r t c r i t i c i s m t h a t i s used, and upon c u l t u r a l p a t t e r n s and v a l u e s . Feldman (197 0) s u g g e s t s \" f o u r s t a g e s o f a r t c r i t i c i s m -d e s c r i p t i o n , a n a l y s i s , i n t e r p r e t a t i o n and e v a l u a t i o n \" (p. 349)• The f i r s t s t a g e c o n c e n t r a t e s on the s t u d e n t s l i s t -i n g what i s seen. The second s t a g e has them d e s c r i b e r e l a t i o n -s h i p s o f shapes, c o l o r , t e x t u r e , space and volume. The t h i r d i n v o l v e s making a summary o f t h e i d e a o r co n c e p t w h i c h the work p r e s e n t s . And the l a s t s t a g e r e q u i r e s s t u d e n t s t o con€ s i d e r a p h i l o s o p h y t h a t was chosen t o p r o v i d e the c r i t e r i a f o r v a l u e judgements. As examples o f t h e f o u r t h s t a g e Feldman mentions t h a t F o r m a l i s m , E x p r e s s i v i s m , and Instrumen-t a l i s m might each g e n e r a t e d i f f e r e n t c r i t e r i a . By e xamining h i s suggested study m a t e r i a l s f o r t h e development o f v i s u a l l i t e r a c y i t becomes e v i d e n t t h a t Feldman r e c o g n i z e s the f o l l o w i n g a r t forms; p a i n t i n g , s c u l p t u r e , a r c h i t e c t u r e , f i l m , c r a f t s and communication a r t s . How t h e s e forms a r e produced depends on t h e i n d i v i d u a l ' s knowledge about the v i s u a l elements such as l i n e , c o l o r and shape. S e c o n d l y , i t depends on s k i l l s i n d e s i g n and an awareness o f t h e v a r i o u s 70 a r t s t y l e s . Both knowledge and s k i l l s are mediated by c u l t u -r a l i n f l u e n c e s . The understanding of a r t i s a c c o r d i n g to Feldman f i r s t of a l l r e l a t e d to the use of \"common sense\" based on the many experiences w i t h v i s u a l m a t e r i a l s s i n c e b i r t h : An o t h e r way to get a t a r t i s : you can study the con-c e p t s , or v i s u a l elements a r t i s t s use; you can study the way a r t i s t s p l a n , or design, t h e i r work; you can study the f a m i l i e s , or s t y l e s of a r t ; and you can study what happens i n the mind d u r i n g the a c t of see-i n g a work of a r t (p. 247). In c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h these suggestions Feldman (1970) p r o v i d e s many examples of a r t works produced by w e l l known a r t i s t s (pp.246-298). Among o t h e r s he i n c l u d e s works of Frank L l o y d Wright, Mies Vander Rohe, Le C o r b u s i e r , Paul Klee, Franz Marc, Andrew Wyeth, Rembrandt, Alexander C a l d e r , Bruno L u c h e s s i , M i c h e l a n g e l o , V i c e n t Van Gogh and Jackson P o l l o c k . In c o n c l u s i o n Feldman's concepts of a r t may be summar-i z e d as f o l l o w s . A r t has always been a p a r t of human experience from p r e - h i s t o r i c times on. Throughout h i s t o r y the develop-ment of d i f f e r e n t a r t s t y l e s can be r e c o g n i z e d . Each s t y l e has i t s own unique q u a l i t i e s and p l a c e w i t h i n the developmental process of c u l t u r e s and the l i f e of- the i n d i v i d u a l . A r t i s a means to an end. I t s f u n c t i o n i s p r i m a r i l y to communicate id e a s about i n d i v i d u a l and communal needs and to p r o v i d e s o l u t i o n s f o r s h e l t e r and t o o l p r o d u c t i o n . The meanings of a r t can be determined through everyday experiences, as w e l l as 71 t h r o u g h t h e s t u d y o f t h e a r t c p r o c e s s c u s e d by well-known a r t i s t s and t h e t e c h n i q u e s o f a r t c r i t i c i s m . I n a r t educa-t i o n t h e o b j e c t i v e s must i n c l u d e t h e development o f v i s u a l l i t e r a c y r e l a t e d t o a broad scope o f a r t forms from p a i n t i n g t o b u i l d i n g s , from p o s t e r s t o garbage cans. Concepts o f A r t i n the W r i t i n g s o f V i n c e n t L a n i e r . ! I n L a n i e r ' s r e c e n t w r i t i n g s t h e f i n e a r t s o f p a i n t i n g , s c u l p t i n g and p r i n t - m a k i n g appear o f l i t t l e s i g n i f i c a n c e . R e f e r e n c e about t h e s e a r t s u s u a l l y i n d i c a t e t h e i r l i m i t e d f u n c t i o n i n s o c i e t y , t h e i r e l i t i s t q u a l i t i e s and t h e i r l a c k o f r e c o g n i t i o n o u t s i d e g a l l e r i e s and museums I n c o n t r a s t t h e a u t h o r f o c u s e s h i s a t t e n t i o n on t h e p o p u l a r a r t s o f ad-v e r t i s i n g , c l o t h i n g , b u i l d i n g and f i l m p r o d u c t i o n . T h i s p r e -f e r e n c e t o broaden t h e scope o f a r t i s e v i d e n t i n s t a t e m e n t s l i k e ; \"the v i s u a l a r t s which among o t h e r s t i m u l i provoke a e s t h e t i c e x p e r i e n c e , must today i n c l u d e f a r more than g i l t framed o i l o r ped e s t a l j e d marble i n t h e museum\" ( L a n i e r , 1975, p. 29) r- and, \"we must admit t o the domain o f a r t a spectrum o f o b j e c t s and e v e n t s u n h a l l o w e d by g a l l e r y o r museum s t a t u s \" (p. 3 3 ) . I n h i s a r t i c l e , S i x Items on the Agenda f o r t h e E i g h t i e s (1980) L a n i e r opposes t h e i d e a t h a t o n l y the \" f i n e \" a r t s d e s e r v e a p l a c e i n e d u c a t i o n . \" A l l t h a t the n e g l e c t o r d i s d a i n o f t h e p o p u l a r a r t s a c c o m p l i s h e s \" , he w r i t e s , \" i s t o c l a i m the p r e f e r e n c e o f our s o c i a l c l a s s and e d u c a t i o n a l background\" (p. 1 7 ) . Even though L a n i e r (1975) s t r e s s e s the imp o r t a n c e o f t h e p o p u l a r a r t s he does n ot deny the f u n c t i o n o f t h e f i n e a r t s . The f i n e a r t s compose f o r L a n i e r t h e t h i r d 72 element i n a d e v e l o p m e n t a l sequence. I n h i s d i s c u s s i o n s on a e s t h e t i c l i t e r a c y t h e a u t h o r r e c o g n i z e s t h r e e s t a g e s o f a e s t h e t i c e x p e r i e n c e . The n a t u r a l environment w i t h i t s \" g i a n t redwood o r b l u e - g r e e n ocean\" (p. 30) forms t h e s t a r t -i n g p o i n t o r f i r s t s t a g e . S i n c e t h i s \" a e s t h e t i c e x p e r i e n c e , and v i s u a l a e s t h e t i c e x p e r i e n c e as one a s p e c t o f i t , i s a l -r e a d y e n j o y e d by t h e i n d i v i d u a l b e f o r e e n t e r i n g s c h o o l \" (p. 2 9 ) , a r t e d u c a t i o n i s n o t an e n t i r e l y new d i m e n s i o n i n the s t u d e n t ' s l i f e and can b u i l d on p r e - s c h o o l a e s t h e t i c e x p e r i e n c e . The second s t a g e i s the r e c o g n i t i o n o f t h e p o p u l a r a r t s i n home and community, and the t h i r d s t a g e f o c u s e s on t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g and enjoyment o f the f i n e a r t s . W i t h i n t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e s e t h r e e s t a g e s o f a e s t h e t i c ex-p e r i e n c e t h e a u t h o r ' s o p p o s i t i o n t o t h e f i n e a r t s i s n o t a d e n i a l o f t h e i r p l a c e i n s o c i e t y b u t a r e a c t i o n a g a i n s t a p r a c t i s e i n a r t e d u c a t i o n w h i c h r e v e r s e s t h e o r d e r o f t h e second and t h i r d s t a g e o r o m i t s t h e second s t a g e a l l t o g e t h e r . i The need f o r a r t p r o d u c t i o n i n s c h o o l L a n i e r (1972) d i s m i s s e s f o r s e v e r a l r e a s o n s . F i r s t o f a l l he b e l i e v e s t h a t s t u d i o a c t i v i t i e s a r e o n l y r e l e v a n t t o thos e s t u d e n t s who a r e i n c l i n e d t o become p r o f e s s i o n a l a r t i s t s . S i n c e \"the number o f p e o p l e i n t h i s c a t e g o r y as compared t o t h e l a r g e mass o f t h e s c h o o l p o p u l a t i o n i s so s m a l l as t o make t h i s v a l u e one o f minor i m p o r t a n c e \" (p. 1 6 ) . Se c o n d l y , he argues t h a t \"making t h i n g s w i t h a r t m a t e r i a l s \" i s o f l i t t l e b e n e f i t t o t h e m a j o r i t y o f s t u d e n t s s i n c e t h i s form o f p r o d u c t i o n \"on any l e v e l but t h e most s o p h i s t i c a t e d p l a n e , t e a c h e s us 73 l i t t l e about how t o r e a d an a r t work. A t b e s t i t might t e l l us something about how an a r t i s t c r e a t e s and about t h e m a t e r i a l s a r t i s t s use\" ( L a n i e r s , 1980, p. 20). T h i r d l y , L a n i e r (1975) does n ot c o n s i d e r i t n e c e s s a r y f o r t h e i n d i v i -d u a l t o make a r t i n o r d e r t o e n j o y and u n d e r s t a n d i t ; j u s t as one does n ot \"have t o p l a y f o o t b a l l \" (p. 32) t o a p p r e c i a t e a game. I n s t e a d o f f o c u s i n g t h e a t t e n t i o n i n a r t e d u c a t i o n on p r o d u c t i o n L a n i e r emphasises the need t o d e v e l o p the i n d i v i -d u a l ' s a b i l i t y t o e x p e r i e n c e a r t . S e v e r a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h i s e x p e r i e n c e may be i d e n t i f i e d . The a u t h o r d e s c r i b e s i t as \"a mode o f i n t e l l e c t u a l a c t i v i t y , as v i s u a l problem s o l v i n g ( L a n i e r , 1972, p. 1 6 ) . He f u r t h e r s t a t e s t h a t i t i s \"the l a r g e r more b a s i c r e sponse o f wh i c h our r e a c t i o n t o t h e f i n e a r t s i s b u t one s p e c i a l i n s t a n t \" ( L a n i e r , 1980, p. 17). These s t a t e m e n t s a r e made by t h e a u t h o r i n c o n t e x t o f r e f e r e n c e s t o Dewey's A r t as E x p e r i e n c e . Another c h a r a c t e r i s t i c r e l a t e s t o the d i f f e r e n c e among the a r t s . L a n i e r (1978) does n o t o n l y make a d i s t i n c t i o n between a e s t h e t i c e x p e r i e n c e and o t h e r ex-p e r i e n c e s , he f u r t h e r i d e n t i f i e s d i f f e r e n c e s between t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f t h e v i s u a l a r t s and the a r t s o f drama, f i l m and dance. The d i f f e r e n c e i s t h a t t h e v i s u a l a r t s \"do not p r o v i d e c h a n g i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p s o f ele m e n t s , a s s o c i a t i o n , and c o n t e n t . A r t i s l i t e r a l l y \" f r o z e n music\" i n t h a t the elements p r e s e n t e d t o the p e r c i p i e n t a r e not them s e l v e s s e q u e n t i a l o ver t i m e \" (p. 7 5 ) . The e x p e r i e n c e o f a r t i s f u r t h e r dependent on v e r b a l e x p l a n a t i o n . L a n i e r does n ot s u p p o r t the i d e a t h a t a r t i s 74 an o t h e r language. I t i s never adequate i n meaning by i t -s e l f . L a n i e r (1978) s t a t e s , \"the v i s u a l a r t s much more than o t h e r a r t s depend on e n c u l t u r a t i o n , p r e c i s e l y because t h e y do n o t communicate e f f i c i e n t l y \" (p. 7 9 ) . I n s u p p o r t o f t h i s v i e w he mentions the f o l l o w i n g : What i s r a t h e r s t a r t l i n g i n t h i s q u e s t i o n o f a r t as communication i s t h a t a l l o f us t e n d t o f o r g e t t o what degree our u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e meaning o f a work o f a r t i s d e r i v e d from p r i o r v e r b a l i n f o r m a t i o n . C a p t i o n s o r t i t l e s , c a t a l o g u e s , d e s c r i p t i o n s , c r i t i c ' s r e v i e w s , a r t h i s t o r y c o u r s e l e c t u r e s o f books - even what p a r e n t s o r f r i e n d s have t o l d us - p r o v i d e t h e d a t a w h i c h we l a t e r assume i s c a r r i e d by t h e image a l o n e . I t would seem t h a t , i n our word o r i e n t e d s o c i e t y , i t i s v i r t u a l l y i m p o s s i b l e t o meet a work o f a r t w i t h o u t v e r b a l p r e p a -r a t i o n (p. 7 7 ) . B e s i d e s a c o n c e r n f o r t h e b r o a d e n i n g o f t h e scope o f a r t , the q u a l i t i e s o f a r t r e l a t e d t o p r o d u c t i o n and e x p e r i e n c e , and the l i m i t a t i o n s o f a r t as a means f o r communication, L a n i e r f o c u s e s a t t e n t i o n on the p r o c e s s o f p e r c e p t i o n . The p e r c e p -t i o n o f a work o f a r t i s s p e c i a l , i t i s unique and ought n ot t o be i d e n t i f i e d w i t h p e r c e p t i o n i n g e n e r a l . L a n i e r (1980) s t r e s s e s t h i s p o i n t when he s t a t e s t h a t ; \" a e s t h e t i c p e r c e p -t i o n i s s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t from o t h e r a c t s o f p e r c e p t i o n \" (p. 1 8 ) . However, t o d e l i n e a t e t h i s d i f f e r e n c e appears r a t h e r d i f f i c u l t s i n c e \"human e x p e r i e n c e i s not e x c l u s i v e l y a e s t h e t i c 75 and ... e x t r a - a e s t h e t i c c o n s i d e r a t i o n s i n f l u e n c e our a e s t h e t i c p e r c e p t i o n s \" ( L a n i e r , 1978, p. 7 9 ) . Some i n d i c a t i o n s about the nature of a e s t h e t i c p e r c e p t i o n are d e s c r i b e d by L a n i e r as f o l l o w s : The p e r c i p i e n t apprehends the p a r t i c u l a r c l u s t e r of s t i m u l i , t r a n s a c t i o n a l l y generates r e l e v a n t meanings which appear to be self-consummatory - or a t l e a s t p r i m a r i l y n o n - u t i l i t a f . i o n - and p a r t i a l l y emotive i n nature, and a t the c o n c l u s i o n of the p e r c e p t i o n i s aware of having undergone an experience q u a l i t a t i v e l y d i f f e r e n t from, and u s u a l l y more i n t e n s e than, o r d i n a r y experiences (p. 72). A p a r t i c u l a r e x t r a - a e s t h e t i c c o n s i d e r a t i o n t h a t r e c e i v e s a t t e n t i o n i n L a n i e r ' s w r i t i n g s i s the p e r c e p t i o n of elements i n a work of a r t t h a t i n f l u e n c e s human behavior. Even though the author does not perhaps r e c o g n i z e a r t as a means of communication independent of c u l t u r a l p r e c o n d i t i o n i n g , he does agree t h a t a r t i n f l u e n c e s behavior, i n p a r t i c u l a r the popular a r t s of f i l m , t.v. and a d v e r t i s i n g . In a \" d i s c u s s i o n about the e f f e c t i v e n e s s of the f i l m media the author supports h i s views by quoting Panofsky who wrote: Whether we l i k e i t or not, i t i s the movies t h a t mold;-the o p i n i o n , the t a s t e , the language, the d r e s s , the behavior and even the p h y s i c a l appearance of a p u b l i c comprising more than 60 per cent of the p o p u l a t i o n of the e a r t h ( L a n i e r , 1970, p. 100). F i v e years l a t e r , s i m i l a r views were expressed i n statements 76 about th e f u n c t i o n o f a r t e d u c a t i o n \"as a means t o c l a r i f y t h e ways i n w h i c h t h e s o c i a l , economic and p o l i t i c a l w o r l d works.and how i t can be improved\" ( L a n i e r , 1975, p. 2 8 ) . T h i s v i e w t h a t a r t can p l a y a r o l e i n the change o f human b e h a v i o r t a k e s a d i f f e r e n t d i r e c t i o n however, i n l a t e r w r i t i n g s . I n S i x Items on t h e Agenda f o r the E i g h t i e s , L a n i e r (1980) s t a t e s h i s o b j e c t i o n s t o t h e v i e w t h a t an improved environment, f o r i n s t a n c e , w i l l improve human b e h a v i o r . On the b a s i s o f ex-a m i n i n g h i s t o r i c a l e v i d e n c e he f i n d s t h i s v i e w u n a c c e p t a b l e . The F l o r e n t i n e s amongst \" m a g n i f i c e n t a r c h i t e c t u r e and s c u l p t u r e \" (p. 18) burned S a v o n a r o l a a t t h e s t a k e . Herman G o e r i n g , \"one of t h e most a v i d a r t l o v e r s and a r t c o l l e c t o r s o f our t i m e \" (p. 1 8 ) , committed h i s l i f e t o war and d e s t r u c t i o n . F u r t h e r , p r e s e n t day a r t i s t s as a group a r e not \" d i s c e r n i b l y more m o r a l i n t h e i r g e n e r a l b e h a v i o r than t h e r e s t o f us\" (p. 1 8 ) . The l a t t e r comments seem t o suggest t h a t L a n i e r r e c o g n i z e s t h e i n f l u e n t i a l elements i n t h e p o p u l a r a r t s , p a r t i c u l a r l y m o t i o n p i c t u r e s , but n o t i n t h e f i n e a r t s o f p a i n t i n g , s c u l p t u r e and a r c h i t e c t u r e . I n c o n c l u s i o n , L a n i e r ' s c o n c e p t s o f ' a r t do not appear t o c e n t e r around t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f a r t forms, t h e elements o f d e s i g n , t h e a r t i s t i c p r o c e s s , the needs f o r e x p r e s s i o n and c r i t i c i s m , o r t h e improvement o f t h e man-made environment. H i s f o c u s i s p r i m a r i l y c o n c e n t r a t e d on t h e a e s t h e t i c e x p e r i e n c e . He i d e n t i f i e s the s t a r t i n g p o i n t s o f t h i s e x p e r i e n c e i n t h e n a t u r a l environment, the p o p u l a r a r t s , and the f i n e a r t s . He f u r t h e r i d e n t i f i e s t h e e x t e n t t a n d l i m i t a t i o n s o f the e x p e r i e n c e 77 due t o i n h e r e n t q u a l i t i e s o f t h e work o f a r t . I n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h t h e s e q u a l i t i e s he e x p l o r e s t h e p r o c e s s o f p e r c e p t i o n and t h e p o s s i b l e r e s p o n s e o f the i n d i v i d u a l . Concepts o f A r t i n t h e W r i t i n g s o f June K. McFee The w o r l d o f a r t i s f o r McFee (1974) n ot something s e p a r a t e from d a i l y human e x p e r i e n c e , n o t something t h a t may be e n j o y e d l i k e a r e f r e s h i n g d r i n k a f t e r work, but r a t h e r \"a phenomenon o f human b e h a v i o r t o be found wherever form, l i n e , c o l o r a r e used t o c r e a t e symbols f o r communication and to q u a l i t a t i v e l y change t h e n a t u r e o f e x p e r i e n c e \" (p. 80). A r t i s a l l around us. I t cannot be s e p a r a t e d from \" o t h e r a s p e c t s o f l i f e ; i t i s an i n t e g r a l p a r t o f l i f e \" (McFee, 1977, p. 115). As i n d i v i d u a l s we may r e c o g n i z e v a r i o u s a r t forms and have p r e f e r e n c e f o r one form o r a n o t h e r , y e t we seldom r e a l i z e t h a t \" a r t f u n c t i o n s i n a l l our l i v e s most o f the t i m e \" (p. 6 ) . The scope o f a r t i n c l u d e s c l o t h i n g , household goods, c i t i e s , b u i l d i n g s , t e l e v i s i o n , movies, magazines, books, ad-v e r t i s i n g as w e l l as p a i n t i n g s , s c u l p t u r e s . a n d c e r a m i c s . F o r McFee \" a r t \" e q u a l s \" m a t e r i a l culture'.'\" McFee does n ot seem t o make q u a l i t a t i v e d i s t i n c t i o n s between the f i n e a r t s and t h e p o p u l a r o r commercial a r t s . R a t h e r she i d e n t i f i e s t h r e e a c t i v i t i e s i n t h e p r o d u c t i o n p r o -c e s s t h a t r e f l e c t s i m i l a r i t i e s among a r t i s t s , d e s i g n e r s and c r a f t s p e r s o n s . These a c t i v i t i e s a r e d e s c r i b e d as f o l l o w s : A l l a r t i s i n some degree d e s i g n e d o r composed so a l l a r t i s t s a r e i n some degree d e s i g n e r s . A l l d e s i g n e d o b j e c t s communicate v a l u e s and f e e l i n g s , so a l l d e s i g n -78 e r s a r e i n some degree a r t i s t s . C r a f t s - p e r s o n s e x p r e s s v a l u e s and q u a l i t i e s and d e s i g n t h e s t r u c t u r e o f t h e i r p r o d u c t s , so they a r e b o t h a r t i s t s and d e s i g n e r s (p. 154). McFee thus p o i n t s t o c e r t a i n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f a r t , namely t h a t i t communicates v a l u e s and f e e l i n g s ; i s d e s i g n e d o r composed i n a c e r t a i n way, and may be thought o f as \" a r t \" , \" d e s i g n \" , o r \" c r a f t \" . A r t o b j e c t s enhance human e x p e r i e n c e and a r e \"a communication system\" (McFee, 1977, p. 7 ) . McFee's c o n c e p t o f a r t as a communication system s t r e s s e s a d i f f e r e n c e between v i s u a l language and v e r b a l language i n c o n t r a s t t o w r i t e r s such as Feldman and L a n i e r who seem t o emphasize more th e s i m i l a r i t i e s t han the d i f f e r e n c e between t h e s e two forms o f communication. McFee b e l i e v e s t h a t \" t h e r e a r e s e v e r a l key d i f f e r e n c e s between l e a r n i n g t o communicate w i t h language symbols and l e a r n i n g t o communicate w i t h v i s u a l ones\" (p. 332). V i s u a l communication depends on t h e i n d i -v i d u a l 1 s a b i l i t y t o make images, symbols o r p e r c e p t s , as w e l l as on the s k i l l s n e c e s s a r y t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e s e images. To d e v e l o p t h e s e s k i l l s McFee s t r e s s e s t h e need f o r d r a w i n g i n a r t e d u c a t i o n . L i n g u i s t i c forms o f communication need d i f f e r -ent, s k i l l s . Instead^, o f images, words convey the meaning. On the b a s i s o f word r e c o g n i t i o n t h e i n d i v i d u a l forms c o n c e p t s and not p e r c e p t s . F o r McFee th e i n d i v i d u a l ' s u n d e r s t a n d i n g and communication about r e a l i t y t a k e s p l a c e p r i m a r i l y t h r o u g h t h e p r o c e s s o f p e r c e p t u a l i z i n g and c o n c e p t u a l i z i n g . E d u c a t i o n must s t r e s s b o t h p r o c e s s e s . S i n c e on: 79 One hand p e o p l e l e a r n t o i n t e r a c t w i t h t h e i r environment m a i n l y by c o n c e p t u a l i z i n g .... t h e y o p e r a t e by t r a n s -a c t i n g between p o i n t s , t h a t i s , by u s i n g m e n t a l p r o c e s s e s . But t h e y p r o c e s s t h e i n f o r m a t i o n t h r o u g h c o n c e p t s . On t h e o t h e r hand, p e o p l e a n a l y z e e x p e r i e n c e by p e r c e p t u a l -i z i n g . - c r e a t i n g m e n t a l v i s u a l images o f what t h e y see (p. 336). As a communication system a r t f u n c t i o n s i n s e v e r a l a s p e c t s of s o c i a l b e h a v i o r . F i r s t o f a l l McFee (1974) v i e w s a r t i n t h i s c o n t e x t as a means t o \" m a i n t a i n v a l u e s , a t t i t u d e s , and sense o f r e a l i t y from one g e n e r a t i o n t o a n o t h e r \" . I t f u r t h e r p r o v i d e s \" c h a r a c t e r , i d e n t i t y t o groups o f p e o p l e , i n d i v i d u a l s , i n s t i t u t i o n s t h r o u g h m u t u a l l y u n d e r s t o o d symbols - t h e s t y l e s o f a r c h i t e c t u r e and costume\" (p. 81). S e c o n d l y , i n c o n t r a s t t o t h e p u r s u i t o f a r t f o r a r t ' s sake McFee s t r e s s e s t h e need to use a r t f o r t h e improvement o f the q u a l i t y o f l i f e . I n New D i r e c t i o n s . . i n A r t - E d u c a t i o n (1974), she s t a t e s t h a t : W i t h o u t d e p r e c i a t i n g t h e need f o r a r t as a v e r y p e r s o n a l i n d i v i d u a l i z e d , and i n t r o s p e c t i v e p a r t o f human e x p r e s s i o n , we need t o t u r n t h e c o i n o v e r and a l s o d e v e l o p t h e capa-c i t y t o use a r t as a humanizing f o r c e i n i m p r o v i n g t h e q u a l i t y o f l i f e on t h i s e a r t h (p. 1 1 ) . Of p a r t i c u l a r c o n c e r n f o r the a u t h o r i s t h e q u a l i t y o f urban l i f e . McFee n o t i c e s t h r e e problem a r e a s w i t h i n t h e urban s e t t i n g t h a t may b e n e f i t from a r t i s t i c e v a l u a t i o n and m o d i f i -c a t i o n . These problem a r e a s i n c l u d e t h e s c a r c i t y o f r e s o u r c e s , o v e r p o p u l a t i o n and i n t e r d e p e n d e n c e . W i t h r e s p e c t t o a l l 80 t h r e e a r e a s McFee s t r e s s e s t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f the s c h o o l . A r t e d u c a t i o n must d e v e l o p t h e s t u d e n t ' s awareness about t h e d e s i g n e d environment. I t must c o n c e n t r a t e on q u a l i t y improve-ment, r e - u s e o f e x i s t i n g b u i l d i n g s , a n d r e s p o n s i b l e use o f space. The a u t h o r ' s p a r t i c u l a r c o n c e r n f o r t h e st u d y o f space i s r e l a t e d t o t h e problems o f o v e r - p o p u l a t i o n and t h e use o f r e s o u r c e s . T h i s s t u d y c o v e r s f o u r a r e a s i n c l u d i n g ; \" I - s p a c e , shared spaces, c l u s t e r spaces and t h e network between spaces\" (p. 218). The aim o f t h i s t y p e o f st u d y i s t o make t h e i n d i -v i d u a l aware o f how space, \" f e e l s , what i t l o o k s l i k e , and how i t i s used\" (p. 219). I n a summary statement about en-v i r o n m e n t a l s t u d i e s i n g e n e r a l McFee remarks: As our environment and r e s o u r c e s d e c r e a s e and our numbers i n c r e a s e , we may n o t be a b l e t o a f f o r d t h e l u x u r y o f e i t h e r i s o l a t i o n o r a b s o r p t i o n i n t o t h e c i t y . We a l l w i l l need t o u n d e r s t a n d our own needs, t h o s e o f o t h e r i n d i v i d u a l s , and a l l groups t o make our l i v e s t o g e t h e r w o r k a b l e and y e t p r e s e r v e the amounts o f I-space and shared space needed (p. 270). The l a t t e r p a r t o f t h i s s t atement r e l a t e s t o t h e problem o f i n t e r d e p e n d e n c e . McFee p o i n t s o u t t h a t i n urban development t h e i n d i v i d u a l must work t o g e t h e r w i t h many o t h e r s , who, as members o f d i f f e r e n t groups l i k e d e s i g n e r s , town p l a n n e r s , t r a f f i c c o n t r o l e r s , c o n t r a c t o r s and t a x p a y e r s share i n the r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f community p r o j e c t s . F o r t h i s r e a s o n t h e a u t h o r i n c l u d e s i n t h e t a s k o f a r t e d u c a t i o n t h e development o f t h e s t u d e n t ' s c a p a c i t y \" t o make a unique environment f o r 81 t h e m s e l v e s t h a t does not d e s t r o y t h e unique environment o f t h e i r n e i g h b o r s \" (McFee, 1974, p. 1 1 ) . As a common element which can be a p p l i e d i n t h e use o f a r t f o r t h e improvement of the environment, the communication o f v a l u e s and i d e a s , the e x p r e s s i o n o f p e r s o n a l c o n c e r n s , and t h e development o f a c o n s c i o u s n e s s about an i n t e r d e p e n d e n t s o c i e t y , McFee chose the c o n c e p t o f d e s i g n . T h i s c o n c e p t , which she d e s c r i b e s as \"the o r d e r o r o r g a n i z a t i o n t h a t makes the p a r t s o f something work t o g e t h e r as a whole\" (McFee, 1977, p. 89), i s c h a r a c t e r -i z e d by o r d e r and v a r i e t y . Order r e l a t e s t o sameness, v a r i e t y t o d i f f e r e n c e . \"Sometimes we want a g r e a t d e a l o f v a r i e t y w i t h j u s t enough o r d e r t o make t h e v a r i e t y show up\" McFee s t a t e s . \"Other t i m e s we need as much o r d e r as p o s s i b l e t o f i n d our way q u i c k l y and e f f i c i e n t l y \" (p. 90). The concept of d e s i g n i s f o r McFee b o t h r e l e v a n t i n a r t p r o d u c t i o n and i n t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e s . How a r t i s p e r c e i v e d by t h e i n d i v i d u a l depends on s e v e r a l f a c t o r s . The most i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r s a r e t h e \" p s y c h o - c u l t u r a l \" r e a d i n e s s o f t h e v i e w e r and t h e \" q u a l i t y and n a t u r e o f t h e work and the degree o f c u l t u r a l congruence between the a r t i s t and the v i e w e r \" (McFee, 1980, p. 51). McFee i s c o n v i n c e d t h a t some \" b a s i c human p r o c e s s e s o f i n f o r m a t i o n h a n d l i n g \" make i t p o s s i b l e t o have c r o s s - c u l t u r a l e x p e r i e n c e s . These e x p e r i e n c e s w i l l be l i m i t e d i n scope u n l e s s a r t e d u c a t i o n h e l p s \" c h i l d r e n and young p e o p l e l e a r n t o u n d e r s t a n d o t h e r p e o p l e ' s a r t \" t h r o u g h exposure t o \" f a r more, th a n the a r t o b j e c t o r event i t s e l f \" (p. 52). 82 In summary McFee i d e n t i f i e s a r t with every o b j e c t i n the man-made environment. The p r o d u c t i o n process of these o b j e c t s i s an i n t e g r a t i o n of v a l u e e x p r e s s i o n s , s t r u c t u r e and d e s i g n . A r t o b j e c t s are produced to f i l l p e r s o n a l and s o c i a l needs. P r e s e n t l y g r e a t e r emphasis ought to be g i v e n to the s o c i a l needs. McFee focuses on three s o c i a l needs t h a t are r e l e v a n t f o r a r t education, namely the problem of u r b a n i z a t i o n , over p o p u l a t i o n and interdependence. These needs are r o o t e d i n concerns about s c a r c i t y of r e s o u r c e s and p r e s e r v a t i o n of i n d i v i d u a l i t y w i t h i n s o c i a l groups. A r t i s a communication system f o r the i n d i v i d u a l and f o r s o c i e t y . I t i s d i f f e r e n t from language s i n c e i t i s based on images or p e r c e p t s and not on concepts. The i n d i v i d u a l ' s a b i l i t y t o understand these p e r c e p t s depends l a r g e l y on c u l t u r a l back-ground. W i t h i n the preceding concepts of s o c i e t y , education and a r t , s e v e r a l aspects of human experience are i n c l u d e d . For example Feldman makes r e f e r e n c e to the p s y c h o l o g i c a l and e t h i c a l aspect. McFee shows concern f o r the c u l t u r a l and h i s t o r i c a l q u a l i t i e s of the a e s t h e t i c experience. Chapman i n t r o d u c e s methods f o r the development of c o g n i t i v e s k i l l s , and L a n i e r s t r e s s e s the need to n u r t u r e the l i n g u i s t i c dimension of a r t . The f o l l o w i n g m a t e r i a l i s a comparative survey of the d i f f e r e n t a spects of human experience t h a t the f o u r authors r e c o g n i z e as elements i n the a e s t h e t i c experience. 83 A r t E d u c a t i o n i n R e l a t i o n t o Other A p e c t s o f Human E x p e r i e n c e I n t h e p u b l i c a t i o n s o f Chapman, Feldman, L a n i e r and McFee i t becomes e v i d e n t t h a t t h e s e a u t h o r s a r e concerned w i t h s e v e r a l elements a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a e s t h e t i c e x p e r i e n c e s o t h e r than t h o s e commonly known as \" p u r e l y \" a e s t h e t i c i n c h a r a c t e r . F o r i n s t a n c e they a r e a l l concerned w i t h the r e l a t i o n s h i p between a r t e d u c a t i o n and the s t u d e n t ' s s o c i a l e nvironment. These c o n c e r n s , however, a r e b u t some o f s e v e r a l t h a t t h e a u t h o r s emphasize i n t h e i r p r o p o s a l s f o r the development o f a r t programs. The f o l l o w i n g i s a s u r v e y o f the d i f f e r e n t c o n c e r n s e i t h e r s h a red by t h e a u t h o r s o f i n d i -v i d u a l l y s t r e s s e d by a s i n g l e a u t h o r . The need, i n a r t e d u c a t i o n , t o go beyond t h e s t u d y o f t h e e s s e n t i a l elements o f a r t i s x s t r e s s e d by the a u t h o r s i n v a r i o u s ways. McFee (1980) i n her a r t i c l e C u l t u r a l I n f l u e n c e s on A e s t h e t i c E x p e r i e n c e s t a t e s t h a t : To u n d e r s t a n d a r t c r o s s - c u l t u r a l l y - t o have an a e s t h e t i c e x p e r i e n c e beyond r e s p o n d i n g t o the f o r m a l q u a l i t i e s o f d e s i g n (use o f form, l i n e , c o l o r and t e x t u r e ) one needs t o u n d e r s t a n d how t h e a r t f i t s w i t h i n t h e c u l t u r a l v a l u e systems, how i t e x p r e s s e s s p e c i f i c q u a l i t i e s as seen by t h o s e p e o p l e t o m a i n t a i n and enhance t h e i r c u l t u r e (p. 4 8 ) . Chapman (1978) a l s o emphasizes t h a t \"the r o l e o f a r t i n s o c i e t y c a n n o t be r e d u c e d t o p u r e l y a e s t h e t i c c o n s i d e r a t i o n s \" (p. 115). T h i s v i e w i s shared by Feldman (197 8) who b e l i e v e s t h a t 84 \" a r t has always had a f u n c t i o n o v e r and above i t s q u a l i t i e s o f p u r e l y v i s u a l a p p e a l \" (p. 6 ) . A l s o , L a n i e r (1976), who does not deny t h a t a r t can be e x p e r i e n c e d f o r i t s own sake, s t r e s s e s t h e need t o f o c u s on o t h e r a s p e c t s i n t h e a e s t h e t i c e x p e r i e n c e . He writes.: Even i f u n d e r s t a n d i n g a e s t h e t i c e x p e r i e n c e r e q u i r e s us t o i s o l a t e i t s \" p u r e l y \" a e s t h e t i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , i t i s s t i l l q u i t e p r o p e r t o a s s e r t t h a t we ought o r ought a l s o a t t e n d t o o t h e r c o n c e r n s o r elements i n v o l v e d i n an a e s t h e t i c t r a n s a c t i o n (p. 20). The \" o t h e r c o n c e r n s o r elements i n v o l v e d i n an a e s t h e t i c t r a n s a c t i o n \" appear t o r e l a t e t o a t l e a s t seven a s p e c t s o f human e x p e r i e n c e , namely; the s o c i a l , t h e l i n g u i s t i c , t h e h i s t o r i c a l - c u l t u r a l , t h e p s y c h o l o g i c a l , the e t h i c a l , and the s p a t i a l . C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e s e a s p e c t s a r e not n e c e s s a r i l y t h e same f o r each a u t h o r . Some a u t h o r s a l s o i d e n t i f y c h a r a c -t e r i s t i c s w h i c h o t h e r s r e c o g n i z e as a s e p a r a t e a s p e c t . The i n t e n t i o n o f t h i s s u r v e y i s t o f o c u s on the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t h a t each a u t h o r i d e n t i f i e s as elements o f the d i f f e r e n t a s p e c t s t h a t make up t h e \" e x t r a - a e s t h e t i c c o n s i d e r a t i o n \" . A r t and t h e S o c i a l A s p e c t I n t h i s s u r v e y the s o c i a l a s p e c t w i l l be d e f i n e d i n terms o f t h e a u t h o r ' s c o n c e p t s about the s o c i a l o r d e r o f s o c i e t y . Of t h e f o u r a u t h o r s , L a n i e r (1970) i s t h e l e a s t c oncerned w i t h group o r c l a s s d i s t i n c t i o n s . H i s co n c e r n s a r e p r i m a r i l y l i m i t e d t o t h e poor and t h e i r l i f e s t y l e . F o r a r t e d u c a t i o n he s t r e s s e s the need t o r e c o g n i z e the 85 unique a e s t h e t i c e x p e r i e n c e o f the poor and s t a t e s t h a t : The c l a s s i c a l s o c i o l o g i c a l i d e a o f upward s o c i a l m o b i l i t y toward a f i x e d d e s i r a b l e norm must be r e p l a c e d by a n o n - h i e r a r c h i c a l continuum o f l i f e s t y l e s (p. 110). The need f o r r e c o g n i t i o n o f s o c i a l group d i s t i n c t i o n s i n a r t e d u c a t i o n i s s t r e s s e d by t h e o t h e r a u t h o r s f o r s e v e r a l r e a s o n s . Feldman (1970) c o n s i d e r s t h e r e c o g n i t i o n o f group d i s t i n c t i o n s i m p o r t a n t as an a d d i t i o n a l element i n th e development o f s e l f u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h r o u g h a r t . He s t r e s s e s t h e s t u d y o f group a r t i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e f a m i l y , t h e c h u r c h , the n a t i o n , and groups of \"housewives, t e e n a g e r s , a u t o m o b i l e d r i v e r s , o l d e r v o t e r s , u n m a r r i e d women, s p o r t f a n s , p e o p l e w i t h average income ... and so on\" (p. 226). Each group, Feldman b e l i e v e s , has c e r t a i n v a l u e s f o r t h e i n d i v i d u a l t o c o n s i d e r . \"Learn what groups o f p e o p l e a r e l i k e - t h r o u g h l i f e and t h r o u g h a r t , \" he w r i t e s , so you may, \" d e c i d e whether t o make them your own\" (p. 126). Chapman (1978) i d e n t i f i e s s o c i a l groups on the b a s i s o f a r t forms w h i c h \" e s t a b l i s h o r m a i n t a i n the i d e n t i t y o f groups\" (p. 94). The groups she r e c o g n i z e s i n c l u d e t h o s e r e l a t e d t o t h e n a t i o n a l , s o c i a l , p o l i t i c a l , r e l i g i o u s and o c c u p a t i o n a l elements o f l i f e . A c c o r d i n g t o t h e a u t h o r t h e i n d i v i d u a l ' s s e l f image i s d e v e l o p e d t h r o u g h i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w i t h the a r t forms o f t h e groups; i n c l u d i n g , t o o l s ? , c l o t h i n g , f l a g s , stamps, j e w e l r y o r b u i l d i n g s . I n McFee's (1977) w r i t i n g s s o c i a l groups a r e r e c o g n i z e d p r i m a r i l y on b a s i s o f t h e i r s o c i o - e c o n o m i c ( 86 s t a n d i n g . She s t a t e s t h a t , \"economic and o c c u p a t i o n a l s u c c e s s o r f a i l u r e combined w i t h t h e degree o f r a c i a l and s e x u a l a c c e p t a n c e i n t o upper o c c u p a t i o n s s e t s p e o p l e i n t o s o c i a l g roups\" (p. 312). The key c o n c e p t i o n i n t h e s e group v a r i a t i o n s i s n o t r e l i g i o u s , n a t i o n a l o r r a c i a l d i f f e r e n c e s , but d i f f e r -ences i n l i f e s t y l e . Some p a r t i c u l a r groups i d e n t i f i e d by th e a u t h o r a r e , the urban w o r k i n g - c l a s s , t h e m i d d l e - c l a s s , t h e u p p e r - m i d d l e - c l a s s and t h e u p p e r - c l a s s (p. 317). In c o n c l u s i o n , t h e s o c i a l groups show t h r o u g h t h e i r a r t forms v a r i a t i o n s o f \" v a l u e s , a t t i t u d e s and b e l i e f s \" (McFee, 1977, p. 312) t h a t t h e a u t h o r s r e c o g n i z e as v a l u a b l e f o r t h e s t u d e n t ' s u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f s o c i e t y and development o f s e l f - i d e n t i t y . A r t and t h e L i n g u i s t i c A s p e c t The a u t h o r s a r e concerned w i t h two elements i n t h e l i n g u i s t i c a s p e c t o f a r t . Chapman and McFee f o c u s on t h e communicative element o f t h e a r t o b j e c t , and Feldman andi' L a n i e r s t r e s s the i n d i v i d u a l ' s e x p e r i e n c e o f a r t i s t i c images. Chapman (1978) r e l a t e s the communicative element t o t h e e n t i r e man-made environment. F o r her t h i s environment i s \"not m e r e l y a p h y s i c a l e n t i t y b u t a system o f communication\" (p. 115). Fo r example, she s t a t e s t h a t \" h i g h f e n c e s , w i r e g a t e s and s i l v e r s t r i p s on windows a r e e x p r e s s i o n s o f our need t o f e e l s a f e \" (p. 9 9). McFee (1977) s t r e s s e s a s i m i l a r i d e a when she i n d i -c a t e s t h a t a r c h i t e c t u r e , c i t i e s , c o l o r , m a t e r i a l s , s t r e e t s , p a r k s and open spaces a l l \" c a r r y t h e message o f p e o p l e ' s v a l u e s and i d e a s \" as w e l l as \"communicate t h e i r f u n c t i o n \" (p. 1 0 ) . 87 Feldman, i n c o n t r a s t t o Chapman and McFee, i s more concerned w i t h how t h e i n d i v i d u a l f e a d s t h e images; w h i c h assumes t h a t t h e environment p r e s e n t s i n f o r m a t i o n t h a t needs t o be r e a d . He s t r e s s e s t h e i d e a t h a t a r t e d u c a t o r s t a k e on a \" r o l e v i s -a - v i s man-made images t h a t i s analogous t o t h e r o l e o f t h e t e a c h e r o f r e a d i n g and l i t e r a t u r e \" (Feldman, 1976, p. 144). The a u t h o r bases h i s co n c e r n s on the need o f the i n d i v i d u a l t o d e a l w i t h t h e i n f l u e n c e o f t h e media, i m p r e s s a r i o s , the p r o d u c e r s o f f i l m s , r e c o r d s , a d v e r t i s e m e n t s , books, magazines, b u i l d i n g s a n d t o o l s . L a n i e r (1980) who makes development o f a e s t h e t i c l i t e r a c y t h e main f o c u s o f a r t e d u c a t i o n , d i f f e r s i n h i s approach from Feldman i n t h a t he emphasizes t h e under-s t a n d i n g o f \"how we respond t o works o f a r t o r o t h e r a e s t h e t i c e v o c a t i v e s t i m u l i \" (p. 20). H i s c o n c e r n i s n o t so much de-velopment o f \" r e a d i n g s k i l l s \" b u t t h e e v a l u a t i o n o f the sub-j e c t i v e r e s p o n s e t o v i s u a l images. I n c o n c l u s i o n , Feldman and L a n i e r b o t h r e c o g n i z e s i m i l a -r i t i e s between t h e r e a d i n g p r o c e s s o f w r i t t e n language and v i s u a l images. I n c o n t r a s t t o t h i s McFee makes a d e f i n i t e d i s t i n c t i o n between t h e s e two modes o f communication. She i d e n t i f i e s 1 , t h e p r o c e s s o f r e a d i n g w r i t t e n language w i t h con-c e p t u a l i z i n g , - and t h e p r o c e s s o f r e a d i n g v i s u a l images w i t h p e r c e p t u a l i z i h g c The l a t t e r i s o f a d i f f e r e n t n a t u r e than the former. A r t and t h e C o g n i t i v e A s p e c t When L a n i e r (1980) i n t r o d u c e d h i s co n c e r n s about aes-h\" t h e t i c l i t e r a c y h i s aim was t o \"ensure t h a t they (the.: 88 students) can negotiate any v i s u a l stimulus from a tree to a chair to \"Guernica\" with some poten t i a l a f f e c t i o n and at least adequate knowledge\" (p. 21). The form of knowledge was not i d e n t i f i e d i n that p a r t i c u l a r a r t i c l e . However, i n Means and Meaning (1970) he presents a model for \"Decoding Factors i n Individual Art Experience\" (p. 45). In t h i s model he stresses \"knowledge about\" the v i s u a l image. Included i n th i s concept are three elements; personality data, physio-l o g i c a l data and s o c i a l - c u l t u r a l data. Feldman (1970), l i k e Lanier, i s also concerned with \"knowledge about\" a r t but does not want to separate possession of information from performance. The key concept i n Feldman's view on knowledge i s that possession of information i s of l i t t l e use unless t h i s information becomes action. For t h i s reason he recog-nizes art education as the unique \"mode of learning that naturally and organically unites knowing and doing\" (p. 99). Chapman's (1978) views of knowledge are related to \"know -how\" and the process of analysis. In the f i r s t case she develops her ideas i n r e l a t i o n to the a r t i s t i c process and distinguishes three d i f f e r e n t phases including, the incep-ti o n of an idea, elaboration and refinement, and execution i n a medium (p. 61). In the l a t t e r case, which stresses the development of \" s k i l l s i n perceiving, interpreting and c r i t i c i s i n g a r t \" (p. 90), she distinguishes four approaches; the inductive, the deductive, the empathic and the i n t e r -active. McFee's (1977). concept of knowledge makes a d i s t i n c -t i o n between knowledge based on written or spoken forms of 89 communication, and knowledge o b t a i n e d t h r o u g h v i s u a l images. The l a t t e r i s unique i n i t s own way and i d e n t i f i e d as p e r -c e p t i o n . I n her model on p a t t e r n s o f c o g n i t i o n McFee r e l a t e s t h e p r o c e s s o f p e r c e p t u a l i z i n g t o c o n c e p t u a l i z a i n g and views them as two d i f f e r e n t modes o f knowledge. The p r o c e s s o f p e r c e p t i o n i s d e l i n e a t e d by t h e a u t h o r i n a n o t h e r model whi c h can be used i n e i t h e r t h e s t u d y o r making o f a r t , (p. 325). I n c o n c l u s i o n the emphasis o f - t h e a u t h o r s appears t o be on t h e p r o c e s s o f p e r c e p t i o n , t h e knowing - about a r t , and the know - how o f a r t i s t i c p r o d u c t i o n . A r t and t h e C u l t u r a l - h i s t o r i c a l A s p e c t Concerns f o r t h e c u l t u r a l - h i s t o r i c a l a s p e c t o f the a r t s f i n d s g r e a t e s t r e c o g n i t i o n i n t h e w r i t i n g s o f Chapman, Feldman and McFee. L a n i e r (198 0) r e c o g n i z e s the need f o r the s t u d e n t s t o \"know about a l l v i s u a l a r t s o f p a s t and p r e s e n t and o f o t h e r c u l t u r e s and our own\" (p. 1 9 ) , but does not make i t one o f h i s main c o n c e r n s . Chapman (1978) on t h e o t h e r hand, makes t h e s t u d y o f a r t i s t i c h e r i t a g e one o f her t h r e e p r i o r i t i e s i n a r t e d u c a t i o n . The emphasis i n t h i s s t u d y i s on the e x p l o r a t i o n o f t h e museum a r t s . The a u t h o r i n d i c a t e s t h a t s t u d e n t s ought t o be g i v e n \"as many o p p o r t u n i t i e s as p o s s i b l e t o see works o f a r t , t o v i s i t museums, and g a l l e r i e s , and t o meet l o c a l a r t i s t s , c r a f t s w o r k e r s , d e s i g n e r s and a r c h i t e c t s \" (p. 154). A s i m i l a r c o n c e r n i s e x p r e s s e d by Feldman. However, he i n c l u d e s a l s o t h e st u d y o f t h e a r t i s -t i c e x p r e s s i o n s o f p r i m i t i v e c u l t u r e s . I n t h e s e p r i m i t i v e 90 forms he r e c o g n i z e s the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t h a t a r e a l s o n o t i c e d i n t h e a r t p r o d u c t i o n o f y o u n g s t e r s . F o r Feldman the d e v e l o p -mental, s t a g e s o f t h e s t u d e n t a r e a r e f l e c t i o n o f t h e c u l t u r a l developments from p r i m i t i v e t i m e s t o the p r e s e n t age. Feldman (1980) f u r t h e r emphasizes the need f o r s t u d e n t s , who l i v e i n a s o c i e t y o f p e o p l e from many p a r t s o f the w o r l d , t o be conr f r o n t e d w i t h \" a r t i s t i c a c t i v i t i e s as a means o f s t u d y i n g p e o p l e s , s o c i e t i e s and c u l t u r e s \" (p. 7). McFee, who a l s o makes the s t u d y o f a r t i n r e l a t i o n t o c u l t u r e one o f her p r i -o r i t i e s , does not appear t o s t r e s s the u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the h i s t o r i c a l background as much as Feldman. Her f o c u s i s upon the p r e s e n t d i v e r s i t y o f e t h n i c , r a c i a l and s o c i a l groups i n s o c i e t y . F o r McFee (1977) \"each i n d i v i d u a l i s a c u l t u r e c a r r i e r \" (p. 280), and as such t h i s i n d i v i d u a l r e p r e s e n t s a c e r t a i n s o c i a l group. The aim o f a r t e d u c a t i o n i s t o make s t u d e n t s aware o f the i n f l u e n c e o f the c u l t u r a l groups t h a t a r e p a r t o f t h e i r l i v e s , and f u r t h e r i n t r o d u c e them t o d i f f e r -e n t c u l t u r a l v a l u e s t h a t might be adopted s i n c e , a c c o r d i n g t o t h e a u t h o r , \" b e i n g c u l t u r e bound i s not n e c e s s a r i l y r i g h t and good\" (p. 294). What becomes e v i d e n t i n t h e w r i t i n g s o f Chapman, Feldman and McFee i s t h a t s t u d e n t s must be aware o f t h e i r c u l t u r a l and h i s t o r i c a l r o o t s . F u r t h e r , the i n d i v i d u a l must be p r o v i d e d w i t h c u l t u r a l o p t i o n s w h i c h w i l l make i t p o s s i b l e t o d e v e l o p a d i f f e r e n t l i f e s t y l e i f so d e s i r e d . A r t and the P s y c h o l o g i c a l A s p e c t The a u t h o r s s t r e s s s e v e r a l elements o f the p s y c h o l o g i c a l 91 a s p e c t i n r e l a t i o n t o a r t e d u c a t i o n . Chapman (1978) f o r i n -s t a n c e uses a r t a c t i v i t i e s based on t h e d e v e l o p m e n t a l s t a g e s o f t h e c h i l d . These s t a g e s i n c l u d e the p r e - s c h o o l , early-e l e m e n t a r y , p r e a d o l e s c e n t and j u n i o r h i g h s c h o o l d i v i s i o n s . The i n s t r u c t i o n s f o r t h e s e a r t a c t i v i t i e s a l s o i n c l u d e s u g g e s t i o n s f o r m o t i v a t i o n . F o r example t h e a u t h o r s t a t e s t h a t , \" b e g i n n i n g i n k i n d e r g a r t e n , a d d i t i o n a l m o t i v a t i o n f o r p r i n t making s h o u l d be based on o b s e r v a t i o n , i m a g i n a t i o n , p e r s o n a l f e e l i n g and t h e d e s i r e t o communicate t o o t h e r s \" (p. 2 53). I n a d d i t i o n Chapman i n c l u d e s i n t h e s o u r c e s f o r a r t p r o d u c t i o n t h e use o f \" f a n t a s y , i m a g i n a t i o n and t h e i n n e r l i f e o f f e e l i n g \" (p. 4 9 ) . McFee (1977) d e v e l o p e d her s u g g e s t i o n s f o r t h e t e a c h i n g o f drawing and a r t f o r o n e s e l f , on a b a s i s o f p s y c h o l o g i c a l r e s e a r c h t h a t f o c u s e d on how t h e i n d i v i d u a l i s i n f l u e n c e d by t h e v i s u a l environment. She s t a t e s t h a t ; \" f o r t h i s book we f o c u s on the f i n d i n g s o f some o f th o s e p s y c h o l o g i s t s who d e a l w i t h how p e o p l e l e a r n from t h e i r environment as i t r e l a t e s t o a r t \" (p. 323). Her a c t i v i t i e s a r e t h e r e f o r e riot p r e s e n t e d i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h t h e d e v e l o p m e n t a l s t a g e s o f t h e s t u d e n t i n a c h r o n o l o -g i c a l c o n t e x t but w i t h a c o n c e r n f o r t h e r e c o g n i t i o n o f d e t a i l s , f o l l o w e d by t h e stu d y o f space and p e r s p e c t i v e and from t h e r e on t o t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f emotions. Feldman (1970) i d e n t i f i e s t h e p s y c h o l o g i c a l a s p e c t w i t h t h e i n d i v i -d u a l ' s p e r c e p t i o n o f a problem. He s t a t e s t h a t \" d i s t u r b a n c e , doubt, d i s e q u i l i b r i u m o r c o n f l i c t w i t h i n ... l e a d s t o t h e awareness o f a problem\" (p. 32). Out o f t h i s d i s t u r b a n c e 92 t h e i n d i v i d u a l ' s n eed a r i s e s t o p r o d u c e a r t . F o r Feldman, t h e r e f o r e , t h e r o o t o f a r t i s t i c p r o d u c t i o n i s l o c a t e d i n t h e p s y c h o l o g i c a l l i f e o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l . L a n i e r (1975) makes few r e f e r e n c e s t o t h e p s y c h o l o g i c a l a s p e c t . I n c o n -j u n c t i o n w i t h h i s c o n c e p t s a b o u t t h e a e s t h e t i c e x p e r i e n c e he d i s c u s s e s t h e \" s t i m u l i \" (p. 29) t h a t g i v e r i s e t o t h i s e x p e r i e n c e , s t i m u l i w h i c h i n c l u d e t h e n a t u r a l e n v i r o n m e n t , t h e p o p u l a r a r t s and t h e f i n e a r t s . I n summary, t h e a u t h o r s r e c o g n i z e t h e p s y c h o l o g i c a l a s p e c t i n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t a l s t a g e s o f t h e l e a r n i n g p r o c e s s , t h e s u b j e c t i v e f e e l i n g s o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l a s s o u r c e f o r a r t i s t i c p r o d u c t i o n , and t h e s t i m u l u s - r e s p o n s e e l e m e n t o f t h e a e s t h e t i c e x p e r i e n c e . A r t and t h e E t h i c a l A s p e c t R e f e r e n c e s t o t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between a r t and e t h i c s a r e f o u n d m a i n l y i n t h e w r i t i n g s o f F e l d m a n and L a n i e r . F e l dman (1970) b e l i e v e s t h a t t h r o u g h a r t , e i t h e r i n d i s c u s s i o n o r p r o d u c t i o n , t h e s t u d e n t s r e v e a l t h e i r m o r a l c h o i c e s . He s t a t e s t h a t \"we c a n o b s e r v e t h e e t h i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t o f c h i l d r e n i n t h e i r a e s t h e t i c b e h a v i o r . T h a t i s t h e i r a r t i s t i c e x p r e s s i o n and t h e i r a r t a p p r e c i a t i o n r e v e a l e m e r g i n g c o n c e p t s o f what seems t o them good\" (p. 101). The a u t h o r e m p h a s i z e s t h e need i n a r t e d u c a t i o n t o p r e s e n t t h e a d o l e s c e n t w i t h an o p p o r t u n i t y t o examine a l t e r n a t e l i f e s t y l e s \" (p. 1 2 6 ) , i n o r d e r t o make e t h i c a l c h o i c e s t h a t a r e a c c e p t a b l e t o s o c i e t y . L a n i e r (1976) c h a l l e n g e s a r t e d u c a t o r s t o \" t r a n s c e n d , p u r e l y a e s t h e t i c con-c c e r n s and move i n t h e d i r e c t i o n o f c r i t i c a l m o r a l commitment\"• 93 (p. 1 9 ) . T h i s commitment' must g i v e e x p r e s s i o n t o works of a r t t h a t \" d e a l w i t h those fundamental economic,, p o l i t i c a l , and s o c i a l f o r c e s whose o p p r e s s i v e impact on our l i v e s has become i n c r e a s i n g l y o v e r t \" (p. 22). The t h r u s t o f L a n i e r ' s c o n c e r n s a r e t h e r e f o r e n o t toward the p r e s e n t a t i o n o f m o r a l o p t i o n s , but toward the exposure o f s o c i a l i n j u s t i c e s . A r t and the S p a t i a l A s p e c t I n her c o n c e r n f o r the s t u d y o f the m a n - b u i l t environment McFee (1977) p r o v i d e s the most e x t e n s i v e a n a l y s i s o f t h e use of space. She i d e n t i f i e s f o u r d i f f e r e n t a r e a s f o r s t u d y t h a t i n c l u d e \" I - s p a c e s , shared s p a c e s , c l u s t e r spaces and networks between spaces\" (p. 218). The f o c u s i n t h e s e s t u d i e s i s on the s o c i a l and c u l t u r a l f a c t o r s t h a t o p e r a t e i n t h e i n d i v i d u a l ' s i d e a s o f space. McFee b e l i e v e s t h a t \"we l e a r n our h a b i t s f o r u s i n g space from our s o c i a l and m a t e r i a l c u l t u r e , much as we l e a r n a language from p e o p l e w i t h whom we grow up\" (p. 346). A r t E d u c a t i o n and i t s R e l a t i o n s h i p t o D i f f e r e n t A s p e c t s of Human E x p e r i e n c e i n G e n e r a l E d u c a t i o n The p r e c e e d i n g s u r v e y i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e a u t h o r s i n t h i s s t u d y e x t e n d t h e framework o f a r t e d u c a t i o n w e l l beyond s t u d i o p r o d u c t i o n . T h i s b r o a d e r framework has i n t r o d u c e d q u e s t i o n s about the r e l a t i o n s h i p between a r t e d u c a t i o n and g e n e r a l e d u c a t i o n . The f o l l o w i n g i s a p r e s e n t a t i o n o f some vie w s h e l d by e d u c a t o r s w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h a t r e l a t i o n s h i p . I n h i s a r t i c l e The a r t s i n g e n e r a l e d u c a t i o n Foshay (1974) t r i e s t o e s t a b l i s h t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between a r t and 94 g e n e r a l e d u c a t i o n on the b a s i s o f a method wh i c h was deve l o p e d f o r t h e e v a l u a t i o n o f a e s t h e t i c r e s p o n s e . He s u g g e s t s t h e use o f Broudy's f o r m u l a t i o n o f the a e s t h e t i c r e s p o n s e w h i c h i n c l u d e s f o u r a s p e c t s : t h e \" f o r m a l , t e c h n i c a l , sensuous and e x p r e s s i v e \" (p. 25) as a means t o i n v e s t i g a t e \"what i s o r d i n a r i l y t h o u g h t o f as academic s u b j e c t m a t t e r \" (p. 2 9 ) . What Foshay proposes here i s n o t t h e study-~of a r t s u p p o r t e d by i n f o r m a t i o n from other..'subjects, b u t t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f an a e s t h e t i c method o f i n v e s t i g a t i o n t o the s t u d y o f t h e o t h e r s u b j e c t s i n t h e g e n e r a l s c h o o l program. The Report on t h e NAEA Commission (1977) s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between a r t and g e n e r a l e d u c a t i o n c o n s i s t s o f the use o f \" a e s t h e t i c c o n t e n t w i t h i n n o n - a r t s d i s c i p l i n e s such as mathematics, s c i e n c e , s o c i a l s t u d i e s and language a r t s \" (p. 56). T h i s c o n t e n t must be o f a e s t h e t i c q u a l i t y . F o r example i n s o c i a l s t u d i e s i t i s p o s s i b l e \" t o make t h e s t u d e n t a c r i t i c a l a n a l y s t o f t h e a e s t h e t i c c o n d i t i o n s o f our environment,\" o r t o make t h e i n d i v i d u a l \"knowledgeable about t h e s o c i a l s i g n i f i c a n c e o f the a r t s i n a v a r i e t y o f c u l t u r a l and p o l i t i c a l c o n t e x t s \" (p. 56). The main c o n c e r n i n t h i s approach i s t o make t h e v i s u a l a r t s a c o n t r i b u t i n g f a c t o r i n t h e i n s t r u c t i o n o f o t h e r d i s c i p l i n e s . The c o n t e n t o f t h e a r t program does n ot change i n t h i s case e x c e p t t h a t p a r t i c u l a r u n i t s may be p r e s e n t e d d u r i n g s o c i a l o r language c l a s s e s . F o r Chapman (197 8) t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between a r t and g e n e r a l e d u c a t i o n c o n s i s t s o f common pur p o s e s . She r e c o g -95 nazes t h r e e major purposes w h i c h g i v e d i r e c t i o n t o e v e r y sub-j e c t i n the s c h o o l c u r r i c u l u m i n c l u d i n g a r t . These purposes a r e based on t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s o f the s c h o o l t o p r o v i d e \" p e r s o n a l f u l f i l l m e n t , n u r t u r e s o c i a l c o n s c i o u s n e s s and t r a n s m i t t h e c u l t u r a l h e r i t a g e t o each g e n e r a t i o n \" (p. 1 9 ) . F o r a r t e d u c a t i o n t h i s means t h a t t h e s t u d e n t s must be en-couraged t o a t t a i n \" p e r s o n a l f u l f i l l m e n t t h r o u g h a r t e x p e r i e n c e \" , be n u r t u r e d i n \"an a p p r e c i a t i o n o f the a r t i s t i c h e r i t a g e \" and d e v e l o p \"an awareness of the r o l e o f a r t i n s o c i e t y \" (p. 19) < , A nother approach i s p r o v i d e d by McFee (1980) i n her a r t i c l e C u l t u r a l I n f l u e n c e s on A e s t h e t i c E x p e r i e n c e . I n t h i s a r t i c l e the a u t h o r i s concerned w i t h \" c r o s s - c u l t u r a l a e s t h e -t i c s \" (p. 45) and i n t r o d u c e s s e v e r a l w r i t e r s who have d e v e l o p e d models w h i c h show what f a c t o r s i n f l u e n c e a r t . F o r i n s t a n c e , Jones' model which i n c l u d e s t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between a r t and the m o r a l , r e l i g i o u s , economic and p o l i t i c a l a s p e c t s , c l a i m s t h a t \"a comprehensive u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e a e s t h e t i c r e s p o n s e would i n c l u d e an awareness o f the e f f e c t s o f a l l t h e s e i n -f l u e n c e s \" (p. 5 1 ) . T h i s s u g g e s t s t h a t knowledge o f o t h e r d i s c i p l i n e s i s r e q u i r e d t o u n d e r s t a n d a r t . F u r t h e r , McFee a l s o makes r e f e r e n c e t o the p h i l o s o p h i c a l i n q u i r i e s o f Rader and J e s s u p (1976) who r e c o g n i z e the a e s t h e t i c a s p e c t as one o f s e v e r a l modes o f human b e h a v i o r i n c l u d i n g the b i o l o g i c a l , t h e r e l i g i o u s , t h e m o r a l , t h e c o g n i t i v e , the economic and p o l i t i c a l . The a u t h o r s compare t h e s e modes o f human b e h a v i o r t o : s t r a n d s w h i c h r e g u l a r l y appear i n a c t u a l l i f e , though 96 i n v a r y i n g p r o p o r t i o n s , i n a s i n g l e c o m p osit t e x t u r e . A l l t y p e s o f b e h a v i o r a r e found t o g e t h e r i n human l i v i n g . We s e p a r a t e them o n l y t o r e c o g n i z e more c l e a r l y and t o emphasize more s t r o n g l y t h e i r i n t e r r e l a t i o n s and i n t e r -dependence (Rader and J e s s u p , 1976, p. 177). The i n t e r d e p e n d e n c e o f t h e d i f f e r e n t a s p e c t s i s e x p r e s s e d by the a u t h o r s under headings such as \"The Relevance o f Economic V a l u e s t o A r t \" and \"How A r t Ser v e s Economic I n t e r e s t s \" (p.p. 296-302). I t i s f u r t h e r e x p r e s s e d i n \"The A r t i s t s as H i s t o -r i a n \" and The H i s t o r i a n as A r t i s t \" (pvp. 23-247). What con-c e r n s Rader and J e s s u p p r i m a r i l y i n the r e l a t i o n s h i p between the v a r i o u s a s p e c t s i s the need t o m a i n t a i n a sense o f b a l a n c e and wholeness. \"An i n d i v i d u a l whose l i f e seems e x c l u s i v e l y o r d i s p r o p o r t i o n a t e l y a b s orbed i n one i n t e r e s t , \" t hey w r i t e , \"we r e g a r d him as abnormal\" (p. 177). In summary t h e c o n c e p t s about t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between a r t e d u c a t i o n and g e n e r a l e d u c a t i o n p r e s e n t e d here a r e but a few. However, t h e y i d e n t i f y s e v e r a l p o s s i b i l i t i e s . F i r s t o f a l l the meaning and f u n c t i o n o f n o n - a e s t h e t i c a s p e c t s may be i d e n t i f i e d t h r o u g h t h e use o f a e s t h e t i c a n a l y s i s (Foshay). S e c o n d l y , a r t programs may be d e v e l o p e d on t h e b a s i s o f t h e same purposes as t h e o t h e r s u b j e c t s i n the g e n e r a l c u r r i c u l u m (Chapman). F u r t h e r , n o n - a e s t h e t i c a s p e c t s such as t h e s o c i a l and p o l i t i c a l appear t o c o n t a i n a e s t h e t i c elements which can be i n c l u d e d i n t h e a r t c u r r i c u l u m o r p r e s e n t e d as s e p a r a t e u n i t s w i t h i n t h e program o f t h e o t h e r s u b j e c t s (NEAE). F i n a l l y , s i n c e t h e a e s t h e t i c a s p e c t i s i n t e r d e p e n d e n t and 97 i n t e r r e l a t e s w i t h o t h e r a s p e c t s , a r t programs may be de v e l o p e d on a baas o f m u t u a l i t y o r r e c i p r o c i t y w i t h the o t h e r a s p e c t s . I n t h i s c a s e t h e d i f f e r e n t s u b j e c t s p r o v i d e i n s i g h t about a r t ; and a r t c o n t r i b u t e s t o t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e o t h e r subjects., (Rader and J e s s u p ) . I n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e l a s t c oncept t h e f o l l o w i n g o b s e r -v a t i o n can be made about t h e f o u r a u t h o r s i n t h i s s t u d y . A r t e d u c a t i o n seems t o be used more o f t e n t o c o n t r i b u t e t o the u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f o t h e r a s p e c t s than i s the o p p o s i t e c a s e . Chapman, Feldman and McFee a l l use a r t t o i d e n t i f y s o c i a l g r o u p i n g s and c u l t u r a l d i f f e r e n c e s . L a n i e r a l s o uses a r t t o de v e l o p s o c i a l c o n s c i o u s n e s s . T h i s emphasis on t h e a n a l y s i s o f a r t f o r i n f o r m a t i o n about o t h e r a s p e c t s i s c o n t r a s t e d by two i n s t a n c e s t h a t i n d i c a t e t h e use o f o t h e r a s p e c t s f o r the b e n e f i t o f a r t . One i n s t a n c e i s p r e s e n t e d by L a n i e r i n h i s c o n c e r n f o r t h e use o f a t e a c h i n g method t h a t i s used i n the t e a c h i n g o f l i t e r a t u r e , t h e o t h e r i s McFee's use o f c u l -t u r a l f a c t o r s i n t h e stu d y o f space. The f o l l o w i n g m a t e r i a l , r i s a f u r t h e r e x p l o r a t i o n o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between a r t and o t h e r a s p e c t s o f human e x p e r i e n c e . The i n t e n t i o n i s t o p r o v i d e a c o n c e p t u a l model f o r a r t edu-c a t i o n t h a t can be used i n t h e s t u d y o f a e s t h e t i c p e r c e p t i o n and a r t p r o d u c t i o n . T h i s model w i l l be d e v e l o p e d on t h e b a s i s o f a N e o - C a l v i n i s t i c framework w h i c h r e c o g n i z e s a br o a d scope o f o t h e r a s p e c t s o f human e x p e r i e n c e t h a t r e l a t e t o a r t ; as w e l l as t h e r e c i p r o c i t o r y n a t u r e o f t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p . 98 N e o - C a l v i n i s t i c Theory o f Modal A s p e c t s as a S t a r t i n g P o i n t f o r A r t C u r r i c u l u m V a r i o u s c o n c e p t s o f a r t e d u c a t i o n e x p r e s s e d by Chapman, Feldman, L a n i e r and McFee, and c e r t a i n elements i n Neo-C a l v i n i s t i c p h i l o s o p h y a r e marked by common c o n c e r n s . F i r s t o f a l l the f o u r a r t e d u c a t o r s and t h e N e o - C a l v i n i s t p h i l -o s ophers s h a r e the i d e a t h a t t h e a e s t h e t i c e x p e r i e n c e i s not l i m i t e d t o \" f i n e \" a r t s . S e c o n d l y , i n each case a t t e n t i o n i s g i v e n t o the b a s i c c o n c e p t s o f a r t such as l i n e , shape, c o l o r , s t y l e , medium o r d e s i g n w i t h o u t s t r e s s i n g t h e need t o make the s t u d y o f t h e s e elements t h e s i n g l e aim i n a r t e d u c a t i o n . T h i r d l y , t h e y a l l i d e n t i f y v a r i o u s a s p e c t s o f human e x p e r i e n c e as an i n t e g r a l p a r t o f the a e s t h e t i c e x p e r i e n c e . These common conc e r n s a r e not n e c e s s a r i l y i d e n t i c a l i n meaning f o r each a u t h o r , y e t th e y do p r o v i d e c e r t a i n s t a r t i n g p o i n t s t h a t can be used f o r the development o f a r t c u r r i c u l a . The f o l l o w i n g i n c l u d e s a p r e s e n t a t i o n o f background m a t e r i a l r e l a t e d t o c o n c e p t s o f N e o - C a l v i n i s t i c p h i l o s o p h y used i n t h i s s t u d y . S e c o n d l y , t h e N e o - C a l v i n i s t i c t h e o r y o f modal a s p e c t s i s d i s c u s s e d and p r e s e n t e d as a s t a r t i n g p o i n t f o r a r t c u r r i c u l a development. The modal a s p e c t s r e f e r t o modes o f b e i n g . That i s th e y r e f e r t o how c o n c r e t e t h i n g s , e v e n t s , a c t i o n s p r o c e s s e s a r e e x p e r i e n c e d . Modal a s p e c t s b e l o n g t o t h i n g s , t h e y a r e not the t h i n g t h e m s e l v e s . T h i r d l y , a t t e n t i o n i s g i v e n t o t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s o f t h i s t h e o r y f o r a r t c u r r i c u l a i n N e o - C a l v i n i s t i c e d u c a t i o n . H i s t o r i c a l Background 99 The P r o t e s t a n t R e f o r m a t i o n d i d not me r e l y seek t o c l e a n s e t h e c h u r c h and d e l i v e r i t from d o c t r i n a l e r r o r s , but i t a l s o sought t h e r e s t o r a t i o n o f t h e whole o f l i f e ( V a n T i l , 1959, p. 1 9 ) . These words r e f l e c t the broad i n t e r e s t s t h a t c h a r a c -t e r i z e t h e v / r i t i n g s o f John C a l v i n . C a l v i n (1509-1564) was a Reformer who not o n l y made c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o t h e o l o g y , b u t a l s o t o v a r i o u s o t h e r r e a l m s o f s o c i e t y such as p o l i t i c s and e d u c a t i o n . M c N e i l l ( 1 9 6 6 ) i n h i s d i s c u s s i o n about C a l v i n ' s h i s t o r i c a l i m p o r t a n c e s t a t e s t h a t : A l l modern Western h i s t o r y would have been unrecog-n i z a b l y d i f f e r e n t w i t h o u t t h e p e r p e t u a l p l a y o f C a l v i n ' s i n f l u e n c e . H i s t e a c h i n g s a f f e c t e d i n ways s t i l l n o t f u l l y c l e a r the p o l i t i c a l and economic development of the West (p. 234). M c N e i l l f u r t h e r s t a t e s w i t h r e s p e c t t o C a l v i n ' s c o n c e r n about t h e a r t s , \" i n n o t h i n g , perhaps, has C a l v i n been more m i s j u d g e d than i n t h e v i e w t h a t he l a c k e d any a e s t h e t i c sense\" (p. 231). S i n c e C a l v i n ' s t i m e h i s i n f l u e n c e has been r e c o g n i z e d p a r t i c u l a r l y i n c o u n t r i e s such as S w i t z e r l a n d , F r a n c e , Germany, t h e N e t h e r l a n d s , S c o t l a n d , E n g l a n d , I r e l a n d and the U n i t e d S t a t e s . F o r t h i s s t u d y the p r i m a r y c o n c e r n i s t h e development o f C a l v i n ' s i d e a s i n the N e t h e r l a n d s and i n N o r t h A m e r i c a . One-of t h e major proponents o f C a l v i n ' s i d e a s i n the N e t h e r l a n d s d u r i n g t h e l a t t e r p a r t o f the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y 100 was Abraham Kuyper (1837-1920). Kuyper, who was t r a i n e d i n t h e o l o g y , became i n v o l v e d w i t h p o l i t i c s t h r o u g h t h e e d i t o r -s h i p o f a d a i l y paper, w h i c h was t h e o f f i c i a l o rgan o f a p o l i t i c a l p a r t y . L a t e r Kuyper became t h e l e a d e r of' t h i s p o l i t i c a l p a r t y , was e l e c t e d a member o f t h e Dutch p a r l i a m e n t and s e r v e d h i s c o u n t r y as prime m i n i s t e r from 1901 t i l l 1905. I n 1898 he was c o n f e r r e d t o D o c t o r a t e o f Laws d u r i n g h i s v i s i t t o P r i n c e t o n U n i v e r s i t y , where under a u s p i c e s o f the L.P. Stone Foundation, he d e l i v e r e d s i x l e c t u r e s on C a l v i n i s m . These l e c t u r e s , a l s o known as \"Stone L e c t u r e s \" , p r o v i d e key elements i n the development o f a p h i l o s o p h y t h a t r e c o g n i z e s t h a t C a l v i n ' s c o n c e r n s f o r b i b l i c a l d i r e c t i v e s r e l a t e d t o l i f e . c The f i r s t c o n c e p t t h a t Kuyper (1953) s t r e s s e s i n t h e Stone L e c t u r e s i s t h a t C a l v i n i s m i s a l i f e - s y s t e m , an a l l -embracing l i f e - s y s t e m w h i c h \" i s n o t t o be i n v e n t e d nor f o r -m u l a t e d by o u r s e l v e s , but i s t o be t a k e n and a p p l i e d as i t p r e s e n t s i t s e l f i n h i s t o r y \" (p. 1 2 ) . Kuyper i s q u i c k t o p o i n t o u t t h a t t h i s l i f e - s y s t e m i s not t o be r e s t r i c t e d t o an \" e x c l u s i v e l y e c c l e s i a s t i c and t h e o l o g i c a l c h a r a c t e r \" (p. 23) b u t i t must be based on a three-way r e l a t i o n s h i p , i n c l u d i n g man's r e l a t i o n s h i p t o God, t o h i s f e l l o w man and t o the w o r l d . The f i r s t r e l a t i o n s h i p between God and man i s based on b i b l i c a l p r i n c i p l e s w h i c h i n t u r n g i v e d i r e c t i o n t o man's r e l a t i o n s h i p t o h i s f e l l o w man and t o t h e w o r l d . Kuyper s t a t e s \" t h a t i t i s the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f our r e l a t i o n t o God w h i c h dominates e v e r y g e n e r a l l i f e - s y s t e m \" 101 (p. 2 4 ) . The r e l a t i o n s h i p between man and feilowman i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by t h e b e l i e f t h a t \"we s t a n d as e q u a l s b e f o r e God and c o n s e q u e n t l y e q u a l as man t o man\" (p. 27). The t h i r d r e l a t i o n s h i p f o c u s e s on the i n d i v i d u a l ' s \" a t t i t u d e towards the w o r l d \" (p. 2 8 ) . F o r Kuyper t h i s a t t i t u d e i s e x p r e s s e d i n terms o f \" s e r v i n g God i n the w o r l d i n e v e r y p o s i t i o n i n l i f e \" . T h i s s e r v i c e i s not t o be r e n d e r e d under the dominion o f t h e c h u r c h but t h r o u g h t h e r e c o g -n i t i o n \" t h a t the l i f e o f t h e w o r l d i s t o be honored i n i t s independence, and t h a t we must, i n e v e r y domain, d i s -c o v e r t h e t r e a s u r e s and d e v e l o p t h e p o t e n c i e s h i d d e n by God i n n a t u r e and i n human l i f e \" (p. 31). A second c o n c e p t w h i c h Kuyper s t r e s s e s i s sphere s o v e r e i g n t y . T h i s c o n c e p t f o c u s e s on t h e e s s e n t i a l c h a r a c -t e r i s t i c s o f each a s p e c t o f human experience.. Kuyper w r i t e s f o r example t h a t , \" r e l i g i o n and a r t have each a l i f e - s p h e r e o f t h e i r own; t h e s e may a t f i r s t be s c a r c e l y d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e from each o t h e r and t h e r e f o r e c l o s e l y i n t e r t w i n e d , b u t , w i t h a r i c h e r development, t h e s e two spheres n e c e s s a r i l y s e p a r a t e \" (p. 148). Kuyper b e l i e v e s t h a t the v a r i o u s domains o f l i f e each have a p a r t i c u l a r f u n c t i o n . These f u n c t i o n s a r e not always e v i d e n t , but appear i n time t h r o u g h a p r o c e s s o f c u l t u r a l development. F o r i n s t a n c e , t h e h i s t o r y o f Western a r t seems t o i n d i c a t e t h a t what i s p r e s e n t l y known as museum-art \" d i d n ot g e t f u l l y r e c o g n i z e d as a c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t w i t h i t s own s p e c i f i c c h a r a c t e r ... u n t i l t h e 102 v a r i o u s European 1 ' a r t pour 1 ' a r t movements i n the l a s t q u a r t e r o f t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y p reached, p r a c t i s e d and d r a m a t i z e d i t \" ( S e e r v e l d , 1980, p. 113). B e f o r e t h a t t i me the a r t s were p r i m a r i l y used f o r the purposes of the c h u r c h , the s t a t e , o r the g r a t i f i c a t i o n o f the a r t i s t o c r a t s . Kuyper argues t h a t t h e p a r t i c u l a r f u n c t i o n and c h a r a c t e r i s -t i c s o f a r t cannot be i d e n t i f i e d as l o n g as i t s e r v e s th e purpose of t h e s t a t e o r t h e c h u r c h . He s t a t e s t h a t i n the p a s t the sphere o f a r t \"was e n g r a f t e d i n a dependent sense upon the e c c l e s i a s t i c a l t r e e \" (p. 162). But, hec.continues, \" a r t l i k e s c i e n c e cannot a f f o r d t o t a r r y a t her o r i g i n , b u t must ever d e v e l o p h e r s e l f more r i c h l y a t the same time p u r g i n g h e r s e l f o f whatever had been f a l s e l y i n t e r m i n g l e d w i t h t h e e a r l i e r p l a n t \" (p. 163). I n comparison w i t h former days Kuyper i n d i c a t e s t h a t today \" a r t r e v e a l s o r d i n a n c e s o f c r e a t i o n w h i c h n e i t h e r s c i e n c e , nor p o l i t i c s , nor r e l i g i o u s l i f e , n or even r e v e l a t i o n can b r i n g t o l i g h t \" (p. 163). Sphere s o v e r e i g n t y a l s o a p p l i e s t o t h e s t r u c t u r e o f s o c i e t y . Each s o c i a l group such as t h e government, the c h u r c h , o r t h e f a m i l y has a c c o r d i n g t o Kuyper a p a r t i c u l a r f u n c t i o n and r e s p o n s i b i l i t y . T h i s f u n c t i o n i s e x p r e s s e d i n terms o f t h e t a s k o f each group. Through the p r o c e s s o f c u l t u r a l development s o c i a l groups d i f f e r e n t i a t e and t a s k s a r e d i v i d e d . F o r example, i n t r i b a l c u l t u r e s t h e t a s k s o f s e v e r a l groups were c o n c e n t r a t e d i n one p e r s o n . The f u n c t i o n s o f t h e head o f s t a t e , the supreme judge, the p r i e s t and t h e b u s i n e s s manager may a l l be c o n c e n t r a t e d 103 i n t h e t r i b a l c h i e f . I n contemporary s o c i e t y each o f t h e s e f u n c t i o n s i s the r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f d i f f e r e n t p e r s o n s o r s o c i a l groups. Kuyper's c o n c e p t o f sphere s o v e r e i g n t y and the s t r u c t u r e o f s o c i e t y might somewhat be compared w i t h the s t r u c t u r e o f an eco-system. I n an eco-system the l a n d , the c l i m a t e , t h e p l a n t s and t h e a n i m a l s a l l have t h e i r n i c h e o r s u i t a b l e p o s i t i o n . I n a s i m i l a r way Kuyper b e l i e v e s each s o c i a l group has i t s p a r t i c u l a r p o s i t i o n i n s o c i e t y . The g e n e r a l c o n c e p t o f sphere s o v e r e i g n t y p r e s e n t e d by Kuyper was l a t e r adopted f o r f u r t h e r e l a b o r a t i o n by the P h i l o s o p h y o f t h e Cosmonomic Idea. Kuyper's i d e n t i f i c -a t i o n o f t h e d i f f e r e n t spheres had l e f t many q u e s t i o n s . Not c l e a r l y d e f i n e d were the p a r t i c u l a r t a s k s o r f u n c t i o n s o f t he s c i e n c e s , r e l i g i o n and a r t . N e i t h e r was t h e v r e s p o n -s i b i l i t y and the r e l a t i o n s h i p o f the d i f f e r e n t s o c i a l groups d e l i n e a t e d beyond t h o s e o f t h e c h u r c h , t h e s t a t e , t h e f a m i l y , and t h e s c h o o l . I n re s p o n s e t o t h e s e problems t h e P h i l o s o p h y o f t h e Cosmonomic Idea p r o v i d e s f u r t h e r a n a l y s i s o f t h e s t r u c t u r e o f s o c i e t y and t h e p r i m a r y t a s k s o f t h e d i f f e r e n t s o c i a l groups. I n a d d i t i o n t h e P h i l o s o p h y o f t h e Cosmondunic Idea p r e s e n t s a t h e o r y o f modal a s p e c t s w h i c h f o c u s e s on the r e l a t i o n s h i p between man, the n a t u r a l environment, the man-made environment, and s o c i e t y . I n t h i s s t u d y the concept of sphere s o v e r e i g n t y w i l l be p r e s e n t e d w i t h i n c o n t e x t o f the t h e o r y o f m o d a l i t i e s t o d e l i n e a t e the r e l a t i o n s h i p be-tween t h e v a r i o u s a s p e c t s o f human e x p e r i e n c e and a r t . 104 I m p l i c a t i o n s f o r A r t C u r r i c u l a Development The Stone L e c t u r e s (Kuyper, 1953) i n c l u d e , b e s i d e s t h e l e c t u r e on C a l v i n i s m as a l i f e - s y s t e m , f o u r o t h e r l e c t u r e s about r e l i g i o n , p o l i t i c s , s c i e n c e and a r t . I n t h e l e c t u r e on a r t , Kuyper s t a t e s h i s views about a r t i n r e l a t i o n s h i p t o the t h r e e p a r t s o f the C a l v i n i s t i c l i f e -system as f o l l o w s . F i r s t o f a l l Kuyper r e c o g n i z e s \" a r t as one o f t h e r i c h e s t g i f t s o f God t o mankind\" '(p. 143) . A g i f t t h a t i s \"no f r i n g e t h a t i s a t t a c h e d t o t h e garment and no amusement t h a t i s added t o l i f e but a most s e r i o u s power i n our p r e s e n t e x i s t e n c e \" (p. 151). A r t i s p a r t o f t h e life->system. F u r t h e r , Kuyper f o c u s e s on t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p betv/een a r t and o t h e r s u b j e c t s by s t r e s s i n g t h a t a r t be used, b u t n o t abused. Kuyper was concerned about a b a l a n c e d approach f o r t h e development o f the s c i e n c e s and a r t . \"Encroachment on t h e domain o f o t h e r s i s always unlawful,\" he s t a t e s . \"Our human l i f e w i l l o n l y then a t t a i n i t s n o b l e r harmony when a l l i t s f u n c t i o n s c o o p e r a t e i n j u s t p r o p o r t i o n t o our g e n e r a l development\" (p. 152). W i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e f u n c t i o n o f a r t i n c o n t e x t o f the C a l v i n i s t i c c o n c e p t o f c r e a t i o n , Kuyper s t r e s s e s t h a t a r t must remind \"us i n i t s p r o d u c t i o n o f the b e a u t i f u l t h a t was l o s t and o f a n t i c i -p a t i n g i t s p e r f e c t coming l u s t e r \" (p. 155). The r e l a t i o n s h i p between man and f e l l o w man i n t h e C a l v i n i s t i c l i f e - s y s t e m has i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r a r t e d u c a t i o n , from th e p o i n t o f v i e w t h a t i t emphasizes the e q u a l i t y o f man. T h i s c o n c e p t o f e q u a l i t y has i n f l u e n c e d t h e demo-105 c r a t i z a t i o n o f t h e d i f f e r e n t spheres o f l i f e , i n c l u d i n g the enjoyment and p r o d u c t i o n o f a r t . Kuyper s t a t e s , \" a r t i s t i c r e f i n e m e n t t h u s f a r r e s t r i c t e d t o a few f a v o r e d c i r c l e s now tends t o g a i n ground among br o a d e r m i d d l e c l a s s e s \" . T h i s i n c r e a s e d i n v o l v e m e n t of i n d i v i d u a l s w i t h the a r t s i s r e c o g n i z e d by Kuyper \"as the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f an a c c o m p l i s h e d c i v i l i z a t i o n \" (p. 142). Kuyper welcomes the development o f a r t e d u c a t i o n even though he i s w e l l aware t h a t f o r many i n d i v i d u a l s p a i n t i n g w i l l be \" l i t t l e more than d a u b i n g \" . Y e t , he b e l i e v e s t h a t \"the e x u b e r ant f e e l i n g o f h a v i n g a share i n t h e p r i v i l e g e s o f a r t i s so overwhelming, t h a t t h e s c o r n of t h e a r t i s t i s p r e f e r r e d t o t h e abandonment of a r t - t r a i n i n g e d u c a t i o n \" (p. 142). The r e l a t i o n s h i p between man and n a t u r e shows two elements t h a t have i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r a r t e d u c a t i o n . F i r s t o f a l l t h e n a t u r a l w o r l d w h i c h \"once was b e a u t i f u l b u t by the c u r s e has become undone\" (p. 155), i s not t o be the example f o r a r t i s t i c i m i t a t i o n . Kuyper approaches the r e l a t i o n s h i p between a r t and n a t u r e much as a s c i e n t i s t who s t r i v e s t o change c e r t a i n n a t u r a l phenomenon f o r the improvement of l i f e . The n a t u r a l w o r l d i s t o be the s t a r t -i n g p o i n t f o r a r t i s t i c e x p r e s s i o n and not a model f o r i m i t a t i o n . However, the a u t h o r a l s o s t a t e s t h a t \\ . \" a r t w h i c h does not watch the forms o f n a t u r e , nor l i s t e n s t o i t s sounds, but a r b i t r a r i l y l i k e s t o hover over i t , d e t e r i o r a t e s i n t o a w i l d p l a y o f f a n t a s y \" (p. 154). The i m p l i c a t i o n s o f t h i s c oncept c o u l d mean t h a t a N e o - C a l v i n -106 i s t i c a r t s t y l e s t r e s s e s n e i t h e r \" r e a l i s m \" nor \" n o n - f i g u r a -t i v e \" a r t . Out o f t h i s f i r s t c o n c e p t w h i c h makes the n a t u r a l domain something o t h e r than t h e a e s t h e t i c domain f o l l o w s a second c o n c e p t , a c o n c e p t t h a t s t r e s s e s t h e need t o d i s -t i n g u i s h between the a e s t h e t i c q u a l i t i e s o f n a t u r e and t h o s e o f a work o f a r t . T h i s means t h a t t h e c r i t e r i a f o r a r t e v a l u a t i o n must be r o o t e d i n t h e a e s t h e t i c domain and not i n t h e r e a l i t y o f n a t u r a l phenomena. K u y p e r 1 s co n c e p t o f sphere s o v e r e i g n t y has i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r g e n e r a l e d u c a t i o n as w e l l as a r t e d u c a t i o n . Sphere s o v e r e i g n t y s t r e s s e s t h e need t o r e c o g n i z e t h e p a r t i c u l a r t a s k o f each s o c i a l group i n c l u d i n g t h e s c h o o l . The s c h o o l o r t h e e d u c a t i o n a l community i s , a c c o r d i n g t o Kuyper, th e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f t h e p a r e n t s and n o t o f t h e c h u r c h o r t h e s t a t e . Kuyper argues t h i s p o i n t o f v i e w on t h e b a s i s t h a t t h e c h i l d r e n b e l o n g t o t h e p a r e n t s , who a r e r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e i r u p b r i n g i n g . The s c h o o l i n a sense i s t h e e x t e n s i o n o f t h e home. The t a s k o f t h e s c h o o l i n g e n e r a l e d u c a t i o n i s t o n u r t u r e t h e i n d i v i d u a l ' s awareness and u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e v a r i o u s a s p e c t s o f l i f e i n t h e c o n t e x t o f a c o n c e p t u a l framework t h a t r e f l e c t s t h e b a s i c b e l i e f s o f t h e p a r e n t s . These b e l i e f s a r e t o be e x p r e s s e d i n terms o f a l i f e - s y s t e m , t h a t i n c l u d e s t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s between God, man and t h e w o r l d . The r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f t h e s t a t e , the c h u r c h , o r the b u s i n e s s community i n g e n e r a l e d u c a t i o n i s , a c c o r d i n g t o Kuyper, of a l i m i t e d n a t u r e . These s o c i a l groups as such 107 a r e n o t r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e e d u c a t i o n a l community s i n c e t h e y have t h e i r own t a s k and p o s i t i o n i n s o c i e t y . T h e i r r e l a t i o n -s h i p t o t h e e d u c a t i o n a l community i s t o remain s u b o r d i n a t e i n c h a r a c t e r t o t h e f u n c t i o n o f the s c h o o l as such. A r t e d u c a t i o n w i t h i n t h e c o n t e x t o f sphere s o v e r e i g n t y , has i t s own p o s i t i o n i n t h e e d u c a t i o n a l program. I t s t a s k a c c o r d i n g t o Kuyper i s n o t t o t e a c h t h e o l o g y o r m o r a l i t y . Kuyper argues t h i s p o i n t o f v i e w by s t a t i n g t h a t \" e v e r y t h i n g t h a t has been c r e a t e d was, i n i t s c r e a t i o n , f u r n i s h e d by God w i t h an unchangeable law o f i t s e x i s t e n c e \" (p. 53). Y e t , t h e i n f l u e n c e o f o t h e r spheres on a r t cannot be d e n i e d s i n c e no development t a k e s p l a c e i n i s o l a t i o n , and, as s t a t e d by Rader and J e s s u p (1976) \"the a e s t h e t i c i n t e r e s t when l e s s p u r e \" , w i l l t a k e \" o n e c c o l o r a t i o n from o t h e r i n t e r -e s t s \" (p. 190). However, what Kuyper wants t o change i s t h e l i m i t a t i o n s p l a c e d on a r t i s t i c p r o d u c t i o n due t o r e q u i r e m e n t s o f u t i l i t a r i a n ends. Kuyper wants t o f r e e a r t from the i n f l u e n c e o f t h e c h u r c h , the s t a t e o r b u s i n e s s community i n o r d e r t o d e t e r m i n e i t s e s s e n t i a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and f u n c t i o n . I n p r a c t i c a l terms i t appears t h a t Kuyper a d v o c a t e s an a r t -f o r - a r t - s a k e program i n e d u c a t i o n . However, t h e a n a l y s i s o f a r t i n the P h i l o s o p h y o f t h e Cosmonomic Idea (Dooyeweerd, 1957, V o l . 3, pp. 109-142) p r o v i d e s a d i f f e r e n t d i r e c t i o n . I n summary K u y p e r 1 s c o n c e p t o f sphere s o v e r e i g n t y p o i n t s t o t h e p a r t i c u l a r t a s k and f u n c t i o n o f e v e r y domain i n l i f e . Each s o c i a l group has i t s own sphere of r e s p o n -s i b i l i t y i n s o c i e t y . The t a s k o f t h e s e groups as w e l l as 108 the p r i m a r y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e v a r i o u s a s p e c t s o f human e x p e r i e n c e , i n c l u d i n g t h e a e s t h e t i c a s p e c t , were not formu-l a t e d by Kuyper \" i n t o a t h e o r y o f u n i v e r s a l scope\" (Kalsbeek, 1975, p. 94). The development of such a t h e o r y became p a r t o f t h e P h i l o s o p h y o f t h e Cosmonomic Idea. The remainder o f t h i s s t u d y w i l l by way o f t h i s p h i l o s o p h y f o c u s on t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between a r t and t h e o t h e r d i s c i p l i n e s . The P h i l o s o p h y o f t h e Cosmonomic Idea Kuyper, who d e v e l o p e d h i s w o r l d v i e w based on John C a l v i n ' s w r i t i n g s , d i d not p r e s e n t t h e fundamental p r i n c i -p l e s o f t h i s v i e w \" i n t o a c o h e r e n t , s y s t e m a t i c C h r i s t i a n p h i l o s o p h y t h a t c o u l d s e r v e as the t h e o r e t i c a l framework f o r a C h r i s t i a n s c h o l a r l y e n t e r p r i s e i n the n a t u r a l s c i e n c e s , t h e s o c i a l s c i e n c e s and t h e l i t e r a r y d i s c i p l i n e s \" ( K a l s b e e k , 1975, p. 1 8 ) . T h i s t a s k was u n d e r t a k e n by Herman Dooyeweerd a decade a f t e r t h e d e a t h o f Kuyper, and e x p r e s s e d i n terms o f the P h i l o s o p h y o f the Cosmonomic Id e a , o r t h e P h i l o s o p h y o f t h e Law-Idea. In 1926, Dooyeweerd was a p p o i n t e d t o t h e .. law f a c u l t y o f t h e F r e e U n i v e r s i t y a t Amsterdam, a p o s i t i o n he h e l d t i l l h i s r e t i r e m e n t i n 1965. I n 1958 h i s o u t s t a n d -i n g work was p u b l i s h e d i n E n g l i s h under th e t i t l e A New C r i t i q u e o f T h e o r e t i c a l Thought. Because, o f t h i s voluminous work Dooyeweerd i s r e c o g n i z e d as \"the most o u t s t a n d i n g r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f t h e N e o - C a l v i n i s t c s c h o o l o f p h i l o s o p h y \" ( K a l s b e e k , 1975, p. 22). The N e o - C a l v i n i s t i c s c h o o l o f p h i l o s o p h y r e c e i v e d i t s s t a r t i n the A s s o c i a t i o n f o r C a l v i n i s t i c P h i l o s o p h y . T h i s 109 a s s o c i a t i o n was e s t a b l i s h e d i n 1935. Dooyeweerd was the e d i t o r o f i t s academic j o u r n a l , P h i l o s o p h i a Reformato. The purpose o f t h e a s s o c i a t i o n was t o encourage r e s e a r c h i n the v a r i o u s s c i e n c e s on t h e b a s i s o f a g e n e r a l framework p r e s e n t e d i n t h e P h i l o s o p h y o f t h e Cosmonomic Id e a . Dooyeweerd s t a t e d i n 1935: I am s t r o n g l y c o n v i n c e d t h a t f o r the f r u i t f u l w o r k i n g o u t o f t h i s p h i l o s o p h y , i n a g e n u i n e l y s c i e n t i f i c manner, t h e r e i s needed a s t a f f o f f e l l o w - l a b o u r e r s who would be i n a p o s i t i o n i n d e p e n d e n t l y t o t h i n k t h r o u g h i t s :basic i d e a s i n t h e s p e c i a l s c i e n t i f i c f i e l d s ( K a l s b e e k , 1975, p. 27). I n r e s p o n s e t o t h i s c h a l l e n g e some o f the e a r l i e r c o n t r i -b u t i o n s i n c l u d e d works i n t h e o r y o f h i s t o r y and m e d i e v a l s t u d i e s , p h i l o s o p h i c a l e t h i c s , h i s t o r y o f a r t , l e g a l t h e o r y , n e o c a p i t a l i s t economic t h e o r y and p r a c t i c e , h i s t o r i c i s m and r e l a t i v i s m i n modern t h o u g h t , phenomenology, and f o u n d a t i o n s o f p h y s i c s (p. 2 7 ) . The s u p p o r t e r s o f the a s s o c i a t i o n a r e not a l l o f t h e same mind and c r i t i c i s m o f the p h i l o s o p h y does n ot appear t o be l a c k i n g . I n c l u d e d i n t h e s e c r i t i c i s m s a r e q u e s t i o n s about Dooyeweerd 1s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f Greek thou g h t , h i s a n a l y s i s o f Thomas A q u i n a s ' i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f r e a l i t y as c r e a t i o n , a n d h i s use o f u n b i b l i c a l m o t i f s i n the o n t o l o g y . N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e P h i l o s o p h y o f t h e Cosmonomic Idea has r e c e i v e d a t t e n t i o n i n v a r i o u s p a r t s o f the w o r l d . I n F r a n c e the F r e n c h Reformed S o c i e t y , t h r o u g h i t s q u a r t e r l y La Revue Reformee, \"has made c o n s i d e r a b l e c o n t r i b u t i o n t o 110 the s pread o f t h i s p h i l o s o p h y i n t h e F r e n c h s p e a k i n g w o r l d \" (p. 2 8 ) . Some o f t h e b e s t c r i t i c a l s t u d i e s o f Dooyeweerd have come from South A f r i c a . I n N o r t h America r e s e a r c h i n c o n t e x t o f t h e p h i l o s o p h y i s promoted t h r o u g h C a l v i n C o l l e g e and the I n s t i t u t e f o r C h r i s t i a n S t u d i e s i n Tor o n t o . I n t h i s s t u d y Dooyeweerd's a n a l y s i s o f t h e f u n c t i o n o f a r t i n r e -l a t i o n t o o t h e r a s p e c t s o f human e x p e r i e n c e w i l l be p r e s e n t e d as a s t a r t i n g p o i n t f o r t h e development o f a r t c u r r i c u l a i n N e o - C a l v i n i s t i c e d u c a t i o n . Ground M o t i v e s o f Western Thought The p r e s e n t a t i o n o f one o r two i s o l a t e d elements o f a comprehensive t h e o r e t i c a l framework always w a r r a n t s c a u t i o n , s i n c e the meaning o f t h e p a r t s i s always dependent on t h e i r r e l a t i o n t o t h e whole. To keep i n p e r s p e c t i v e the elements of Dooyeweerd's p h i l o s o p h y t h a t a r e used i n t h i s s t u d y , c e r t a i n fundamental m o t i v a t i o n s o r d r i v i n g f o r c e s , which the a u t h o r r e c o g n i z e s as i n f l u e n t i a l i n t h e development o f thought p a t t e r n s i n the Western W o r l d , need t o be i d e n t i f i e d . Dooyeweerd (1957) b e l i e v e s t h a t c e r t a i n ground m o t i v e s \" g i v e c o n t e n t t o t h e c e n t r a l main s p r i n g o f t h e e n t i r e a t t i t u d e o f l i f e and thought\" (p. 61, V o l . 1 ) . These ground m o t i v e s might be compared t o f o r c e s t h a t d i r e c t o r shape t h e p a t t e r n s of t h ought. Dooyeweerd d i s t i n g u i s h e s f o u r ground m o t i v e s r e l a t e d t o t h e development o f Western c i v i l i z a t i o n . The f i r s t ground m o t i v e i s the Greek f o r m r m a t t e r m o t i v e . T h i s m o t i v e was the p r o d u c t o f Greek r e l i g i o u s b e l i e f s . I t i s r o o t e d on one I l l hand i n the e a r l y n a t u r e r e l i g i o n and on t h e o t h e r hand i n t h e Olympian c u l t u r e r e l i g i o n . K a l s b e e k (197 5) i n h i s Contours o f a C h r i s t i a n P h i l o s o p h y , w h i c h i s an i n t r o d u c t i o n t o Dooyeweerd 1s tho u g h t , s t a t e s t h a t \"the o r i g i n o f t h e form-matter m o t i v e l a y i n the c o n f l i c t between two r e l i g i o n s , t he e a r l i e r one whi c h c e n t e r e d on t h e v i t a l f o r c e s o f l i f e , and t h e l a t e r one, as s y m b o l i z e d by t h e Olympian gods, which c e n t e r e d on the c u l t u r a l a c t i v i t i e s o f man\" (p. 62). Charac-t e r i s t i c o f t h e form-matter m o t i v e i s i t s d i v i s i o n o f r e a l i t y i n t o two r e a l m s , a lower r e a l m o f m a t t e r and a h i g h e r r e a l m of c u l t u r e . The lower r e a l m was e x p r e s s e d i n t h e w o r s h i p o f Di o n y s u s , god o f o r g a n i c l i f e ; t h e h i g h e r r e a l m , i n t h e w o r s h i p of A p o l l o , the god o f o r d e r , j u s t i c e and l e g a l i t y . T h i s d u a l i s t i c c o n c e p t o f form and m a t t e r i s r e c o g n i z a b l e i n s e t s o f o p p o s i t e s such a s , mind and m a t t e r , t h e o r y and p r a c t i s e , p h y s i c a l and m e n t a l , body and s o u l , and a c t u a l and i d e a l . The second ground m o t i v e t h a t Dooyeweerd i n t r o d u c e s i s a s y n t h e s i s o f Greek and C h r i s t i a n thought p a t t e r n s , and i s c a l l e d \"the s c h o l a s t i c m o t i v e o f n a t u r e and g r a c e \" (p. 63). T h i s second ground m o t i v e was de v e l o p e d by Thomas A q u i n a s . Dooyeweerd (1957) s t a t e s t h a t : A c c o r d i n g t o Thomas, human n a t u r e i s a c o m p o s i t i o n o f a m a t e r i a l body and a r a t i o n a l s o u l as a s u b s t a n -t i a l form, w h i c h , i n c o n t r a d i s t i n c t i o n t o A r i s t o t l e ' s c o n c e p t i o n , i s c o n c e i v e d o f as an i m m o r t a l s u b s t a n c e . T h i s s c h o l a s t i c v i e w has no room f o r t h e b i b l i c a l c o n c e p t i o n o f the r a d i c a l r e l i g i o u s u n i t y o f human 112 e x i s t e n c e . Instead of t h i s u n i t y a n a t u r a l and supranatural aspect i s d i s t i n g u i s h e d i n the c r e a t i o n of man (p. 181, V o l . 1). This d i s t i n c t i o n between a n a t u r a l and supernatural realm found expression during the middle ages.in the r e l a t i o n s h i p between church and s t a t e . I t a l s o d i v i d e d the a r t s i n t o sacred and secular d i v i s i o n s w i t h the r e s u l t that today C h r i s t i a n a r t i s o f t e n i d e n t i f i e d w i t h church a r t only. The t h i r d ground motive i s the motive of nature and freedom. This motive i s the most f a m i l i a r i n our present day. On the one hand, i t i s rooted i n the concept that man i s an autonomous and f r e e being. On the other hand, i t presents nature as a realm which i s determined and which f u n c t i o n s according to laws t h a t can be i d e n t i f i e d through s c i e n t i f i c i n v e s t i g a t i o n s . Nature i s not f r e e , but man i s . In c o n t r a s t to the preceding ground motives Dooyeweerd pro-posed as a d r i v i n g f o r c e f o r the Philosophy of the Cosmonomic Idea the \"ground motive of c r e a t i o n , f a l l and redemption through Jesus C h r i s t i n the communion of the Holy S p i r i t \" (Kalsbeek, 1975, p. 63). This ground motive i s not based on \"the outcome of t h e o l o g i c a l r e f l e c t i o n but the fundamental b i b l i c a l given upon which a l l theology i s based\" (p. 66). C r e a t i o n i s according to Dooyeweerd (1957), not autonomous but i s subjected to the law of the Creator. \"This subjec-tedness i s the very c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of a l l that which has been created\" (p. 99, V o l . . l ) . As such c r e a t i o n \"points beyond i t s e l f and i s not s u f f i c i e n t to i t s e l f \" (p. 100, 113 V o l . 1 ) . The c o n c e p t o f t h e f a l l i s d e s c r i b e d by t h e a u t h o r as f o l l o w s : Our t e m p o r a l w o r l d , i n i t s t e m p o r a l d i v e r s i t y and coherence o f meaning, i s i n the o r d e r o f God's c r e a t i o n bound t o t h e r e l i g i o u s r o o t o f mankind. A p a r t from t h i s r o o t i t has no meaning and so no r e a l i t y . Hence the a p o s t a s y i n the h e a r t , i n t h e r e l i g i o u s r o o t o f the t e m p o r a l w o r l d s i g n i f i e d t h e a p o s t a s y o f t h e e n t i r e t e m p o r a l c r e a t i o n , w h i c h was c p r E e n t r a t e d i n mankind. Thus t h e d i s r u p t i o n o f t h e f a l l permeated a l l t e m p o r a l a s p e c t s o f meaning o f cosmic r e a l i t y (p. 100, V o l . 1 ) . The r e d e m p t i o n p r o c e s s i s t h e r e s t o r a t i o n o f t h e \" d i s r u p t i o n o f t h e f a l l \" . I t i s the r e d i r e c t i o n o f \" a l l t e m p o r a l a s p e c t s o f meaning i n t o f e l l o w s h i p w i t h t h e C r e a t o r , and i n t h a t sense i s t h e o p p o s i t e o f the f a l l . F o r a r t e d u c a t i o n the i m p o r t a n c e o f the c r e a t i o n , f a l l and r e demption ground m o t i v e c o n s i s t s o f s e v e r a l elements. F i r s t , i t s e t s t h e tone f o r a e s t h e t i c e x p l o r a t i o n s . A r t a c t i v i t i e s t a k e p l a c e i n a c o n t e x t w h i c h r e c o g n i z e s the dependence on the C r e a t o r . S e c o n d l y , a e s t h e t i c a c t i v i t y i s t o be p a r t o f t h e r e n e w a l p r o c e s s i n l i f e . T h i r d l y , t h e v a r i o u s meanings o f a r t a r e n o t i n t h e works o f a r t as such but i n man, who i s a t the \" h e a r t \" o f a l l c r e a t e d r e a l i t y . The i m p l i c a t i o n s o f ground m o t i v e s f o r a r t , o r a r t e d u c a t i o n have n o t been c l e a r l y d e f i n e d i n the N e o - C a l v i n -i s t i c l i t e r a t u r e , e x c e p t f o r Rookmaker's a n a l y s i s o f t h e n a t u r e - f r e e d o m m o t i v e i n t h e work o f Gauguin and h i s contem-114 p o r a r i e s . Rookmaker, who was a p r o f e s s o r o f H i s t o r y o f A r t a t t h e F r e e U n i v e r s i t y i n Amsterdam, r e c o g n i z e d i n Gauguin's work a s t r u g g l e between the a r t i s t ' s own views o f r e a l i t y and the demands o f t h e n a t u r a l environment. Rookmaker (1957) s t a t e s t h a t what Gauguin and o t h e r s sought \"was i n f a c t t o get f r e e from the making o f a p h o t o g r a p h i c r e c o r d o f r e a l i t y as seen i n a p o s i t i v i s t i c v i e w , hence t h e freedom o f n a t u r a l -ism\" (p. I l l ) . Y e t \"they d i d not t h i n k o f a b s t r a c t (non-f i g u r a t i v e ) a r t , such as was t o a r i s e some twenty y e a r s l a t e r \" (p. 111). Rookmaker i d e n t i f i e s Gauguin's p e r i o d as a time o f s y n t h e s i s between the n a t u r e and freedom i d e a l s . T h i s s y n t h e s i s i s f u r t h e r d e s c r i b e d i n Rookmaker's Modern A r t and t h e Death'of a C u l t u r e (1970). W i t h r e g a r d t o t h e work o f Van Gogh and Cezanne, Rookmaker men t i o n s , \"they b r o u g h t t o g e t h e r the two g r e a t p r i n c i p l e s o f the modern -p o s t E n l i g h t m e n t w o r l d ; the p r i n c i p l e o f s t a r t i n g from sense p e r c e p t i o n i n o r d e r t o g a i n knowledge o f the u n i v e r s e , and t h e o t h e r g r e a t p r i n c i p l e o f human freedom\" (p. 9 6 ) . The r e s e a r c h m a t e r i a l p r o v i d e d i n t h e N e o - C a l v i n i s t i c l i t e r a t u r e about t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between ground m o t i v e s and a r t , appears t o be l i m i t e d t o the h i s t o r y o f a r t , and does n ot i n c l u d e a r t e d u c a t i o n as such. Y e t w i t h r e s p e c t t o the l a t t e r c e r t a i n o b s e r v a t i o n s can be made. F o r i n s t a n c e , when a r t e d u c a t o r s change t h e emphasis from t h e c h i l d t o th e s u b j e c t m a t t e r , some r e c o g n i t i o n i s g i v e n t o t h e f a c t t h a t t h e i n d i v i d u a l ' s freedom i n a r t has been extended t o a p o i n t where t h e n a t u r e o f a r t as such appears t o be s u f f e r i n g . 115 A l s o , i n c o n f l i c t s between th o s e who s t r e s s the \" d o i n g \" o f a r t , and o t h e r s who emphasize t h e need t o be o n l y c r i t i c a l o r a n a l y t i c a l , t he d u a l i s t i c c h a r a c t e r o f t h e m a t t e r and form m o t i v e appears e v i d e n t . How the v a r i o u s ground m o t i v e s have shaped a r t e d u c a t i o n i s not t h e prime c o n c e r n o f t h i s s t u d y . However, what i s i m p o r t a n t i s t h a t i n t h e development o f a r t e d u c a t i o n f o r N e o - C a l v i n i s t i c s c h o o l s t h e ground m o t i v e o f t h e P h i l o s o p h y o f t h e Cosmonomic Idea forms t h e b a s i s . T h i s means t h a t the a e s t h e t i c domain, as p a r t o f c r e a t e d r e a l i t y , i s never autonomous o r independent. T h i s concept i s i n o p p o s i t i o n t o t h e o t h e r ground m o t i v e s which r e c o g n i z e n a t u r e , g r a c e o r freedom as something w h i c h can be i s o l a t e d o r s e t a p a r t from t h e r e s t o f r e a l i t y . N a t u r e , a c c o r d i n g t o Dooyeweerd, can never be approached as such; i t always e x i s t s i n r e l a t i o n s h i p t o the C r e a t o r and man h i m s e l f . T h i s does n o t mean t h a t d i f f e r e n t a s p e c t s o f r e a l i t y such as b i o l o g y o r a e s t h e t i c s cannot be i s o l a t e d f o r a n a l y s i s , b u t i t does mean t h a t t h e a n a l y s i s w i l l be \" c o l o r e d \" by the i n v e s t i g a t i o r 1 s assumption about t h e o r i g i n o f t he c r e a t i o n and the method o f i n v e s t i g a t i o n s e l e c t e d . Dooyeweerd 1s t h e o r y o f modal a s p e c t s i s r o o t e d i n t h e ground m o t i v e o f c r e a t i o n , f a l l , and re d e m p t i o n . I t t h e r e -f o r e p r o v i d e s a t h e o r e t i c a l a c c o u n t o f the r e l a t i o n s h i p between the C r e a t o r , man, and t h e v a r i o u s a s p e c t s o f r e a l i t y . I n t h i s s t u d y Dooyeweerd's t h e o r y i s p r e s e n t e d as a frame-work f o r the development o f a r t c u r r i c u l a . 116 Theory of Modal Aspects Mutual I r r e d u c i b i l i t y of Aspects In the w r i t i n g s of Chapman, Feldman, L a n i e r and McFee a t t e n t i o n i s g i v e n to the r e l a t i o n s h i p between a r t and v a r i o u s o t h e r a s p e c t s of human experience t h a t are s o c i a l , moral, l i n g u i s t i c or a n a l y t i c . A c c o r d i n g to Dooyeweerd, t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p i s not p e c u l i a r to an a e s t h e t i c experience but \"can be observed i n e v e r y t h i n g t h a t e x i s t s i n temporal r e a l i t y \" (Kalsbeek, 1975, p. 38). Man and t h i n g s a l i k e f u n c t i o n i n an a r r a y of aspects t h a t are i n t i m a t e l y connected. The r e l a t i o n s h i p between these aspects i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by s p h e r e - s o v e r e i g n t y . Sphere-sovereignty i s d e f i n e d by Dooyeweerd (1957) as \"mutual i r r e d u c i b i l i t y \" (p. 101, V o l . 1). To i l l u s t r a t e t h i s mutual i r r e d u c i b i l i t y he uses the f o l l o w i n g i l l u s t r a t i o n : The l i g h t of the sun i s r e f r a c t e d through a prism, and t h i s r e f r a c t i o n i s p e r c e i v e d by the eye of sense i n seven w e l l known c o l o r s of the spectrum. In them-s e l v e s a l l c o l o r s are dependent r e f r a c t i o n s of the u n r e f r a c t e d l i g h t , and none of them can be regarded as an i n t e g r a l of the c o l o r - d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n . F u r t h e r , not one of the seven c o l o r s i s capable of e x i s t i n g i n the spectrum a p a r t from the coherence w i t h the r e s t , and by the i n t e r c e p t i o n of the u n r e f r a c t e d l i g h t the e n t i r e p l a y of c o l o r s vanishes i n t o nothing v • • • • j. As the seven c o l o r s do not owe t h e i r o r i g i n to one another, so the temporal aspects of meaning i n face of 117 each o t h e r have s p h e r e - s o v e r e i g n t y o r modal i r r e d u c i b i l i t y (p. 102, V o l . 1 ) . I n t h i s i l l u s t r a t i o n Dooyeweerd f o c u s e s on t h e manner o r way i n which t h i n g s e x i s t o r f u n c t i o n . K a l s b e e k (1975), on t h e b a s i s o f Dooyeweerd's c o n c e p t s , p r o v i d e s f u r t h e r i n s i g h t about th e i n t e r w o v e n e s s o f the a s p e c t s when he s t a t e s : The v i s i b i l i t y o f t h i n g s , t h e i r a n a l y s a b i l i t y , t h e i r c a p a c i t y t o be c u l t i v a t e d , t h e i r beauty o r u g l i n e s s , t h e i r c a p a c i t y t o f u n c t i o n as a j u r i d i c a l o r economic o b j e c t - t h e s e a r e a l l i n t r i n s i c a s p e c t s o f the i n d i v i d u a l i t y s t r u c t u r e o f t h i n g s . None o f t h e s e a s p e c t s can e x i s t a p a r t from man who s e e s , a n a l y s e s , forms, a p p r e c i a t e s , and causes j u s t i c e t o be done. T h e r e f o r e , a \"Ding an s i c h \" cannot e x i s t ; f o r when a t h i n g i s c o n s i d e r e d a p a r t from the h o r i z o n o f human e x p e r i e n c e w i t h i t s d i v e r s i t y o f a s p e c t s , n o t h i n g i s l e f t o f t h a t t h i n g ;(p. 121) . Order of Modal A s p e c t s Dooyeweerd's t h e o r y o f modal a s p e c t s i n c l u d e s f i f t e e n m o d a l i t i e s w h i c h have t h e i r own c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and p l a c e i n an o v e r a l l s t r u c t u r e . T h i s s t r u c t u r e i s not f i n a l but \"open t o c o r r e c t i o n and e l a b o r a t i o n \" ( K a l s b e e k , 1975, p. 38). The f i r s t a s p e c t i n t h e o r d e r i s the n u m e r i c a l o r mathe-m a t i c a l m o d a l i t y . T h i s a s p e c t r e f e r s t o t h a t which can be c o u n t e d , such as t h e number o f l e a v e s on t h e stem of a r o s e o r t h e number o f p e t a l s on a f l o w e r . The second a s p e c t i s 118 t h e s p a t i a l m o d a l i t y w h i c h r e f e r s t o the space r e q u i r e d by the f l o w e r . The m o l e c u l a r movement i n the p l a n t p o i n t s t o t h e k i n e m a t i c m o d a l i t y w h i c h forms th e b a s i s o f t h e p h y s i c a l and c h e m i c a l a s p e c t o f m o d a l i t y . The o r g a n i c o r b i o l o g i c a l a s p e c t o f t h e p l a n t forms the l a s t m o d a l i t y i n w h i c h the p l a n t f u n c t i o n s as a s u b j e c t . I n a l l t h e f o l l o w i n g a s p e c t s t h e p l a n t depends on human c o n t a c t and i n t e r v e n t i o n . F o r example, the r o s e f u n c t i o n s i n man's s e n s i t i v e a s p e c t ; t h a t i s , i t can be touched, seen o r s m e l l e d . I t f u r t h e r f u n c t i o n s i n man's a n a l y t i c a l a s p e c t s i n c e t h e r o s e can be a n a l y s e d . Through c u l t i v a t i o n , t h e w i l d r o s e has been changed and many v a r i e t i e s a r e a v a i l a b l e today. T h i s c u l t i v a t i o n p r o c e s s r e f e r s t o t h e h i s t o r i c a l m o d a l i t y . The r o s e a l s o f u n c t i o n s i n t h e l i n g u a l a s p e c t ; each p a r t o f t h e p l a n t has a name. S i n c e r o s e - g a r d e n s g i v e o c c a s i o n f o r s o c i a l c o n t a c t among p e o p l e the r o s e a l s o f u n c t i o n s i n the s o c i a l a s p e c t . The r o s e f u n c t i o n s i n t h e economic m o d a l i t y when i t becomes a commodity. Roses show a v a r i e t y o f a e s t h e t i c q u a l i t i e s . When i n someone's garden r o s e s a r e w i l f u l l y d e s t r o y e d , t h e owner may p r e s s c h a r g e s . T h i s p o i n t s t o t h e j u r i d i c a l a s p e c t o f t h e p l a n t . The c o n c e r n and c a r e f o r t h e r o s e i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e p l a n t a l s o f u n c t i o n s i n the m o r a l a s p e c t . The l a s t a s p e c t i n w h i c h the r o s e f u n c t i o n s i s t h e p i s t i c m o d a l i t y . T h i s m o d a l i t y r e f e r s t o the i n d i v i d u a l ' s c oncept about the r o s e i n c o n t e x t o f t h e o r i g i n o f c r e a t e d r e a l i t y . T h i s c o n c e p t i s u l t i m a t e l y based on a f a i t h commitment, whi c h i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f the p i s t i c m o d a l i t y . 119 A t y p i c a l arrangement o f the a s p e c t s and t h e i r main c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s may be l i s t e d as f o l l o w s : A s p e c t 1. a r i t h m e t i c 2. s p a t i a l 3. k i n e m a t i c 4. p h y s i c a l 5. b i o t i c 6. s e n s i t i v e 7. a n a l y t i c 8. h i s t o r i c a l 9. l i n g u a l 10. s o c i a l 11. economic 12. a e s t h e t i c 13. j u r i d i c a l 14. e t h i c a l 15. p i s t i c Main c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o r m e a n i n g - n u c l e i d i s c r e t e q u a n t i t y c o n t i n u o u s e x t e n s i o n m o t i o n energy v i t a l i t y ( l i f e ) f e e l i n g l o g i c a l d i s t i n c t i o n f o r m a t i v e power s y m b o l i c meaning s o c i a l i n t e r c o u r s e f r u g a l i t y i n managing s c a r c e goods harmony ( a l l u s i v e n e s s ) r e t r i b u t i o n (recompensing) l o v e f a i t h ( f i r m a s s urance) ( K a l s b e e k , 1975, p. 100). The o r d e r o f the a s p e c t s i s n o t a r b i t r a r y but f o l l o w s a development from \" e a r l i e r \" t o \" l a t e r \" . F o r example, i n d e s c r i b i n g t h e f u n c t i o n o f a r o s e the k i n e m a t i c and p h y s i c a l -c h e m i c a l a s p e c t p r e c e d e s t h e b i o t i c s i n c e t h e b i o t i c \" l i f e \" depends on t h e s e p r e c e d i n g a s p e c t s . W i t h o u t th e k i n e m a t i c and p h y s i c a l - c h e m i c a l a s p e c t no p l a n t l i f e i s p o s s i b l e . I n c o n t r a s t t o a p l a n t , a r o c k f u n c t i o n s o n l y i n t h e a r i t h m e t i c , s p a t i a l , k i n e m a t i c and p h y s i c a l a s p e c t s and l a c k s t h e b i o t i c 120 a s p e c t . A n i m a l s f u n c t i o n i n an a d d i t i o n a l a s p e c t because they n o t o n l y need space, energy, p h y s i c a l s u b s t a n c e and b i o l o g i c a l l i f e , but they a l s o have sense organs; they can see, hear, s m e l l and t a s t e . The s e n s i t i v e m o d a l i t y i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f a n i m a l l i f e . I t makes a n i m a l s d i f f e r from p l a n t s and r o c k s . Man f u n c t i o n s i n a l l a s p e c t s . Through man a l l t h i n g s , i n c l u d i n g a r t and t h e man-made environment, f u n c t i o n . However, n o t a l l t h i n g s f u n c t i o n i n r e l a t i o n t o man i n t h e same way. The f o l l o w i n g i s an a n a l y s i s o f a n a t u r a l o b j e c t , an o b j e c t i n the man-made envir o n m e n t , and a work o f a r t . S u b j e c t and O b j e c t S i d e o f I n d i v i d u a l T h i n g s I n h i s a n a l y s i s o f a l i n d e n t r e e Dooyeweerd p o i n t s o u t t h a t t h i s t r e e f u n c t i o n s as a s u b j e c t i n t h e f i r s t f i v e m o d a l i t i e s and as an o b j e c t i n t h e r e m a i n i n g . The s u b j e c t s i d e i n c l u d e s t h o s e a s p e c t s w h i c h make l i f e f o r t h e t r e e p o s s i b l e . The b i o t i c m o d a l i t y i s the l a s t a s p e c t i n wh i c h t h e t r e e f u n c t i o n s as s u b j e c t . W i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e t r e e ' s i n v o l v e m e n t w i t h the o t h e r a s p e c t s Dooyeweerd (1957) s t a t e s : Does t h i s mean t h a t t h e t e m p o r a l r e a l i t y o f our l i n d e n i s c ompleted i n t h e b i o t i c a l m o d a l i t y ? I f such were t h e c a s e we would i n d e e d be c o n f r o n t e d w i t h an i n d i v i -d u a l \"Ding an s i c h \" i n i t s m e t a p h y s i c a l sense, o r t o be more e x a c t t h e t r e e would n o t a t a l l e x i s t \" f o r u s \" . A t h i n g e x i s t i n g i n a p r e - p s y c h i c a l modal i s o l a t i o n would be e x c l u d e d from t h e i n t e r - m o d a l t e m p o r a l co-herence o f meaning, n e c e s s a r y f o r human e x p e r i e n c e 121 (p. 56, V o l . 3 ) . From t h e s e n s i t i v e t o t h e p i s t i c a s p e c t t h e t r e e f u n c t i o n s \" f o r us\" as an o b j e c t . We see the t r e e , we a n a l y z e / i t , we c u t i t down and use i t , we g i v e names t o i t s p a r t s , we s o c i a l i z e i n i t s shade, we s e l l i t s wood, we admire i t s shape and c o l o r , we p r o t e c t i t , we c a r e f o r i t , we r e c o g -n i z e i t as p a r t o f c r e a t e d r e a l i t y and e x p l a i n i t s e x i s t e n c e i n terms o f our con c e p t about the o r i g i n o f t h e u n i v e r s e . F o r a l l the man-made t h i n g s , such as t a b l e s and p a i n t i n g s , t h e s u b j e c t s i d e would i n c l u d e o n l y t h e f i r s t f o u r a s p e c t s s i n c e t h e y r e f e r t o the m a t e r i a l s and s i z e o f t h i n g s . Beyond the f o u r t h m o d a l i t y man-made o b j e c t s f u n c t i o n \" f o r us\" i n the o t h e r a s p e c t s as o b j e c t s . A d d i t i o n a l d i s t i n c t i o n s a r e made by Dooyeweerd w i t h r e s p e c t t o the a s p e c t s t h a t f u n c t i o n on the o b j e c t s i d e o f man-made t h i n g s . Each t h i n g , even though i t f u n c t i o n s \" f o r us\" i n a l l a s p e c t s , h a s a l s o , a c c o r d i n g t o Dooyeweerd, two a s p e c t s t h a t g i v e i t i t s u n i q u e c h a r a c t e r and make i t d i s t i n c t from o t h e r t h i n g s . T h i s d i f f e r e n c e between t h i n g s i s e x p r e s s e d i n terms o f v a r y i n g \" i n t e r n a l m o d a l i t y s t r u c t u r e s \" . To c l a r i f y t h i s v i e w p o i n t the f o l l o w i n g s e c t i o n w i l l p r e s e n t an a n a l y s i s o f a c h a i r and a p a i n t i n g i n terms o f t h e i r i n t e r n a l m o d a l i t y s t r u c t u r e . The I n t e r n a l M o d a l i t y S t r u c t u r e o f a Thing I n a f u r t h e r a n a l y s i s o f a t h i n g , Dooyeweerd i n t r o d u c e s t h e c o n c e p t o f q u a l i f y i n g o r l e a d i n g f u n c t i o n s . A q u a l i f y i n g f u n c t i o n g i v e s d i r e c t i o n t o , o r l e a d s a l l t h e p r e c e d i n g 122 f u n c t i o n s o f an i n d i v i d u a l t h i n g . T h i s q u a l i f y i n g f u n c t i o n i s n o t p e c u l i a r t o man-made t h i n g s ? i t i s a l s o p a r t o f t h e p l a n t and a n i m a l domains. F o r i n s t a n c e , i n a p l a n t t h a t f u n c t i o n s i n t h e n u m e r i c a l , t h e s p a t i a l , k i n e m a t i c , p h y s i c a l , and b i o l o g i c a l a s p e c t ; t h e b i o l o g i c a l a s p e c t g u i d e s t h o s e t h a t p r e c e e d i t . The p r e c e d i n g a s p e c t s a r e \" c o l o r e d \" by the b i o l o g i c a l a s p e c t s i n c e the d e s t i n a t i o n o f the p l a n t i s f u l f i l l e d i n t h i s a s p e c t . Of p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t f o r t h i s s t u d y i s Dooyeweerd's a n a l y s i s o f u t e n s i l s o r a r t i f a c t s s i n c e t h e y form an i m p o r t a n t p a r t o f t h e man-made environment, and a r e a l s o i n c l u d e d i n the suggested a r t c u r r i c u l a o f Chapman, Feldman, and McFee. I n h i s a n a l y s i s o f u t e n s i l s Dooyeweerd (1957) s i n g l e s o u t two a s p e c t s o r f u n c t i o n s t h a t a r e o f imp o r t a n c e f o r the i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t y p i c a l o f an i n d i v i d u a l t h i n g . One a s p e c t i s t h e q u a l i f y i n g f u n c t i o n and t h e o t h e r the f o u n d a t i o n a l f u n c t i o n . The q u a l i f y i n g f u n c t i o n e x p r e s s e s the d e s t i n a t i o n o r use o f a t h i n g ; t h e f o u n d a t i o n a l f u n c t i o n i t s s t a r t i n g p o i n t . U t e n s i l s and o t h e r man-made p r o d u c t s a l l have t h e i r s t a r t i n g p o i n t i n t h e h i s t o r i c a l a s p e c t as c u l t u r a l o b j e c t s . The a u t h o r e x p l a i n s t h e f o u n d a t i o n a l f u n c t i o n o f a c h a i r as f o l l o w s : A p r i m i t i v e man doesr.not need t a b l e s and c h a i r s t o meet h i s n a t u r a l o r s o c i a l r e q u i r e m e n t s . When he i s t i r e d , t h e ground o r t r e e t r u n k p r o v i d e an adequate r e s t i n g p l a c e . The I n t r o d u c t i o n o f f u r n i t u r e and the c u l t i v a t i o n o f i t s h a b i t u a l s o c i e t a l use a r e dependent 123 on a h i s t o r i c a l d i s c l o s u r e o f human s o c i e t y . We cannot doubt, t h e r e f o r e , t h a t t h e s e u t e n s i l s have a t y p i c a l h i s t o r i c a l f o u n d a t i o n (p. 137, V o l 3 ) . The r e c o g n i t i o n o f t h e f o u n d a t i o n a l f u n c t i o n o r a s p e c t o f i n d i v i d u a l t h i n g s i s n e c e s s a r y s i n c e t h e e a r l i e r a s p e c t s t h a t r e f e r t o t h e m a t e r i a l s and dime n s i o n s o f t h i n g s do n o t e x p l a i n how the t h i n g s come t o be. The second a s p e c t t h a t c h a r a c t e r i z e s man-made t h i n g s i s t h e q u a l i f y i n g f u n c t i o n . T h i s f u n c t i o n i s d i f f e r e n t f o r each i n d i v i d u a l t h i n g . A c h a i r w h i c h f u r n i s h e s o ur home, f o r i n -s t a n c e , i s \" e n c l o s e d i n the m o d a l i t y o f s o c i a l i n t e r c o u r s e . W i t h i n the s t r u c t u r a l s u b j e c t - o b j e c t r e l a t i o n i t i s s u b j e c t t o t h e norms o f s o c i a b i l i t y , c l a s s o r rank o b l i g a t i o n s , s t y l e , and so on\" (p. 138, V o l . 3 ) . Even though e v e r y c h a i r has the h i s t o r i c a l a s p e c t as i t s f o u n d a t i o n a l f u n c t i o n , t h e q u a l i f y i n g f u n c t i o n d i f f e r s , depending on f o r what purpose the c h a i r i s used. F o r i n s t a n c e , Dooyeweerd s t a t e s about the u t e n s i l s i n a c h u r c h t h e f o l l o w i n g : The e n t i r e s t r u c t u r e o f an a l t a r , a c h a p e l , a temple, a c r u c i f i x o r r o s a r y , b e t r a y s t h e i r o b j e c t i v e d e s t i n a t i o n f o r w o r s h i p . The m a j o r i t y o f such t h i n g s a r e c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e s a c r e d c h a r a c t e r o f the sub-j e c t i v e community t o w h i c h they b e l o n g , w h i c h i s o b v i o u s l y q u a l i f i e d by t h e f u n c t i o n o f f a i t h (p. 144, V o l . 3 ) . Another c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f the q u a l i f y i n g f u n c t i o n i s t h a t i t may be changed. A t e a cup may be used as a wine 124 g l a s s , fin a r t i c l e o f d r e s s , such as shawls when ho l o n g e r f a s h i o n a b l e , may become w a l l d e c o r a t i o n s . Y e t \"the l e a d i n g f u n c t i o n o f t h e s e everyday u t e n s i l s i s not t o be c o n f u s e d w i t h t h e s u b j e c t i v e ends f o r w h i c h t h e y can be used\" (p. 143, V o l . 3) > Because \"normal s u b j e c t i v e use i s i n s e p a r a b l y bound t o t h e o b j e c t i v e q u a l i f y i n g f u n c t i o n o f the o b j e c t i t s e l f \" (p. 143, V o l . 3 ) . F u r t h e r , the q u a l i f y i n g f u n c t i o n o f man-made o b j e c t s i n f l u e n c e s a l l the p r e c e d i n g a s p e c t s . F o r example, a c h a i r t h a t i s d e s i g n e d f o r a t y p i s t must be s u i t a b l e f o r i t s t a s k . Such a c h a i r must be a d j u s t a b l e , move e a s i l y and p r o v i d e s u p p o r t f o r t h e human body i n such a way t h a t t h e work i s n o t h i n d e r e d . The d e s i g n o f such a c h a i r i s i n t h i s c a s e d i r e c t e d by t h e e f f i c i e n c y f a c t o r i n t h e economic a s p e c t . The m a t e r i a l s , s i z e , and shape o f t h e c h a i r a r e t o be sub-o r d i n a t e t o i t s q u a l i f y i n g f u n c t i o n arid no d u a l i s m o r t e n s i o n s h o u l d e x i s t between \"the t e c h n i c a l form and i t s l e a d i n g f u n c t i o n \" (p. 138, V o l . 3 ) . The a e s t h e t i c d i m e n s i o n o f t h i s c h a i r must t h e r e f o r e be r e c o g n i z e d as a secondary element and not as i t s l e a d i n g a s p e c t . A r t and i t s Q u a l i f y i n g F u n c t i o n A r t i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by the h i s t o r i c a l a s p e c t as i t s f o u n d a t i o n a l f u n c t i o n and by t h e a e s t h e t i c a s p e c t as i t s q u a l i f y i n g f u n c t i o n . Because o f t h e q u a l i f y i n g f u n c t i o n Dooyeweerd makes a d i s t i n c t i o n between the \" p r a c t i c a l \" a r t s and t h e \" f i n e \" a r t s , o r t h e a p p l i e d o r bound a r t s , and f r e e a r t . I n h i s e x p l a n a t i o n about t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p t h e a u t h o r 125 f o c u s e s on t h e i r h i s t o r i c a l development. T h i s development has shown t h a t \"handwork s e r v e d as an h i s t o r i c a l o c c a s i o n f o r t h e r i s e o f independent p l a s t i c a r t \" (p. 138, V o l . 3 ) . These \"independent p l a s t i c \" a r t s , a c c o r d i n g t o t h e a u t h o r , became more a p p a r e n t d u r i n g t h e l a s t q u a r t e r o f t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y . T h e i r u n i q u e s t r u c t u r e s have emerged. Where i n e a r l i e r t i m e s t h e s e independent p l a s t i c a r t s o r f r e e a r t s were made s u b o r d i n a t e t o t h e s o c i a l needs o f s o c i e t y , today a r t can a l s o be e x p e r i e n c e d \" f r e e l y \" o r i n d e p e n d e n t l y from o t h e r i n t e r e s t s . F r e e a r t o r what Dooyeweerd a l s o c a l l s \"pure\" a r t i s n o t t o be i d e n t i f i e d w i t h t h e \" a r t f o r a r t ' s sake\" movements o f t h e l a s t c e n t u r y . T h i s i d e a i s made c l e a r i n t h e f o l l o w i n g s t a t e m e n t : Our o b j e c t i o n t o t h i s s l o g a n , however, does n o t c o n c e r n i t s i n t e n t i o n t o defend t h e r i g h t o f f r e e a r t i s t i c e x p r e s s i o n a g a i n s t t h o s e who i n t e n d t o make a r t always s e r v e a s p e c i f i c u t i l i t a r i a n o r m o r a l purpose. Our o p p o s i t i o n i s o n l y d i r e c t e d t o t h e a b s o l u t i z a t i o n o f th e a e s t h e t i c m o d a l i t y by r e s t r i c t i n g a work o f a r t t o i t s l e a d i n g s t r u c t u r a l f u n c t i o n and i g n o r i n g i t s p o s t - a e s t h e t i c a s p e c t s (p. 139, V o l . 3 ) . What Dooyeweerd wants t o a v o i d i s t h e r e d u c t i o n o f r e a l i t y i n a e s t h e t i c terms. H i s c o n c e r n s a r e e x p r e s s e d i n somewhat d i f f e r e n t terms by Rader and Je s s u p (1976) who f e e l t h a t \"an i n d i v i d u a l whose l i f e seems e x c l u s i v e l y o r d i s -p r o p o r t i o n a t e l y absorbed i n one i n t e r e s t we r e g a r d him as 126 abnormal\" (p. 177). The main c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f f r e e a r t become more a p p a r e n t i n i t s comparison w i t h t h e a p p l i e d o r bound a r t s . The term \"bound\" a r t r e f e r s , a c c o r d i n g t o Dooyeweerd,to a l l t h o s e forms o f a r t w h i c h s e r v e o t h e r i n t e r e s t s . F o r i n s t a n c e , t h e a e s t h e -t i c q u a l i t i e s o f a c h a i r a r e an example o f \"bound\", a r t . The c h a i r i s n o t a r t as such, but a p a i n t i n g i s . The former i s \"bound\" a r t , the l a t t e r \" f r e e \" a r t . I n \"bound\" a r t the a e s t h e t i c \" l i f e \" i s r e s t r i c t e d . I n \" f r e e \" a r t i t i s emphasized. W i t h r e s p e c t t o f u r n i s h i n g s , t h e a u t h o r mentions t h a t \"the a e s t h e t i c f u n c t i o n can never have the l e a d i n g r o l e i n the s t r u c t u r e o f f u r n i t u r e \" (p. 140, V o l . 3 ) . He f u r t h e r goes on t o say t h a t e l a b o r a t e d e c o r a t i o n s such as c a r v i n g s \"ought n o t t o o b t r u d e a t t h e expense o f t h e p r o p e r c h a r a c t e r \" . However, when t h e s e c a r v i n g s a r e s e p a r a t e d from t h e u t e n s i l t h e y \"must 'be c o n s i d e r e d as f r e e works o f a r t \" (p. 141, V o l . 3 ) . What a p p l i e s t o u t e n s i l s a l s o a p p l i e s t o a r c h i t e c t u r e w h i c h a c c o r d i n g t o Dooyeweerd i s a form o f \"bound1;! a r t . A b u i l d i n g i s never a work o f a r t as such, i t i s d e s i g n e d f o r a p a r t i c u l a r f u n c t i o n . The a r c h i t e c t i s never \" f r e e \" t o e x p r e s s h i s a e s t h e t i c i d e a s , t h e s e i d e a s a r e always sub-o r d i n a t e t o t h e f u n c t i o n o f the b u i l d i n g . The a u t h o r em-p h a s i z e s , however, t h a t : t h i s does n o t mean t h a t i n t h e d e s i g n and c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e b u i l d i n g , a e s t h e t i c r e q u i r e m e n t s must be m i n i m i z e d . I t does i m p l y however, t h a t t h e a r t i s t i s 127 n o t engaged i n t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f a f r e e a e s t h e t i c a l l y q u a l i f i e d o b j e c t (p. 140, V o l . 3 ) . The d i s t i n c t i o n between \"bound\" and \" f r e e \" a r t appears not t o be based on a d i f f e r e n c e i n rank but on t h e v a r i o u s \" d e s t i n a t i o n s \" o r uses o f the i n d i v i d u a l t h i n g s . Dooyeweerd 1s d i s t i n c t i o n : , g i v e s f u r t h e r r e c o g n i t i o n t o t h e p r o c e s s o f d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n i n the a r t s , and e l i m i n a t e s d u a l i s m s between the f i n e a r t s and t h e a p p l i e d a r t s . The Meaning K e r n e l o f the A e s t h e t i c A s p e c t An e s s e n t i a l element i n Dooyeweerd 1s t h e o r y o f m o d a l i t i e s i s t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f t h e prime c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f each a s p e c t . T h i s prime c h a r a c t e r i s t i c i s t h e n u c l e a r meaning k e r n e l t h a t s e t s a p a r t one a s p e c t from a n o t h e r . I n p r a c t i c a l terms i t d e t e r m i n e s the b o u n d a r i e s o f t h e v a r i o u s d i s c i p l i n e s . I t s e p a r a t e s the b i o l o g i s t from th e economist and the psycho-l o g i s t from th e t h e o l o g i a n . I n a r t i t i s t h a t w h i c h makes something p e c u l i a r l y \" a e s t h e t i c \" . : I n t h e development o f N e o - C a l v i n i s t i c p h i l o s o p h y the meaning k e r n e l o f the a e s t h e -t i c a s p e c t has been d e f i n e d i n d i f f e r e n t ways. Kuyper d e f i n e d i t as \"the b e a u t i f u l \" . Dooyeweerd and Rookmaker changed t h i s l a t e r t o \" b e a u t i f u l f i t t i n g n e s s \" . C a l v i n S e e r v e l d (1980), a s u p p o r t e r o f t h e P h i l o s o p h y o f t h e Cosmonomic Idea and s e n i o r member i n p h i l o s o p h i c a l a e s t h e t i c s a t the I n s t i t u t e f o r C h r i s t i a n S t u d i e s i n T o r o n t o n , f i n d s b e a u t i f u l f i t t i n g n e s s \"an unexamined and undeveloped p r e s u p p o s i t i o n , r e p l e t e w i t h Greek o v e r t o n e s \" (p. 122). He b e l i e v e s t h a t b e a u t i f u l f i t t i n g -n ess \" s h o u l d be d i s c a r d e d as an i n a d e q u a t e t r a d i t i o n o f men 128 t h a t today would c e r t a i n l y i n h i b i t l a u n c h i n g an opened - up systematic a e s t h e t i c s \" (p. 124). In h i s i n t r o d u c t a r y s t a t e -ments to Modal A e s t h e t i c Theory, P r e l i m i n a r y Questions (1980) Seer v e l d , who i s w e l l aware of the l i m i t a t i o n s o f d e f i n i t i o n s , w r i t e s t h a t \" a r t i n the t w e n t i e t h century i s i n an e x c e p t i o n a l l y good p l a c e f o r one to look a t what c h a r a c t e r i z e s a r t as such, s i n c e a r t today i s not bound up d e f i n e d l y by other i n t e r e s t s \" (p. 113) . And instead of the b e a u t i f u l or b e a u t i f u l f i t t i n g n e s s , S e e r v e l d argues t h a t \"we do w e l l to c o n s i d e r the n u c l e a r moment of the \" a e s t h e t i c \" s i d e of God-made and man-made t h i n g s to be a matter o f \" a l l u s i v e n e s s \" or \"nuancefulness\". W i t h i n context of the theory of m o d a l i t i e s t h i s would mean t h a t a l l \" f r e e \" a r t such as p a i n t i n g , s c u l p t u r e , printmaking and photography, ought to be developed under the q u a l i f y i n g f u n c t i o n of the a e s t h e t i c aspect w i t h i t s meaning k e r n e l o f \" a l l u s i v e n e s s \" i In \"bound\" a r t t h i s \" a l l u s i v e n e s s \" i s t o be subordinate to the q u a l i f y i n g f u n c t i o n which c h a r a c t e r i z e s the i n d i v i d u a l t h i n g , be i t economic, s o c i a l or ot h e r . In summary i t may be s t a t e d t h a t the theory of m o d a l i t i e s i s a t h e o r e t i c a l account o f the s t r u c t u r e of t h i n g s and how they f u n c t i o n . As such i t i s not r e a l i t y i t s e l f and has i t s l i m i t a t i o n s . Yet i t p r o v i d e s a s t a r t i n g p o i n t f o r the a n a l y s i s of i n d i v i d u a l t h i n g s and t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p to the a e s t h e t i c aspect which makes i t an e s s e n t i a l b a s i c element f o r the development of a r t c u r r i c u l a . 129 A Comparison o f Concepts and T h e i r I m p l i c a t i o n s f o r t h e Development o f A r t C u r r i c u l a i n N e o - C a l v i n i s t i c E d u c a t i o n Common Concerns The c o n c e p t s p r e s e n t e d i n t h i s s t u d y c o v e r a wide range o f t o p i c s i n c l u d i n g s o c i e t y , e d u c a t i o n , and a r t . Many comparisons can be made i n each a r e a . To accommodate the development o f a r t c u r r i c u l a i n N e o - C a l v i n i s t i c e d u c a t i o n , t h e f o l l o w i n g f o c u s e s p r i m a r i l y on t h o s e c o n c e p t s r e l a t e d t o t h e a n a l y s i s and p r o d u c t i o n o f a r t . One o f •./the key f a c t o r s i n the w r i t i n g s o f Chapman, Feldman, L a n i e r and McFee i s t h e i r c o n c e r n f o r a b r o a d e r scope o f a r t e d u c t i o n . None of the a u t h o r s want t o l i m i t a r t e d u c a t i o n t o the s t u d y o f b a s i c elements such as l i n e , t e x t u r e , shape and c o l o r . Each w r i t e r e x p r e s s e s the need t o go beyond th e \" f i n e \" a r t s and i n c l u d e t h e p o p u l a r a r t s , c o m m e r c i a l a r t and i n d u s t r i a l d e s i g n as w e l l . The r e a s o n s f o r t h i s e x p a n s i o n v a r y . B a s i c a l l y , t h e y a r e a c o n c e r n f o r t h e s t u d e n t ' s u n d e r s t a n d i n g and e x p r e s s i o n o f h i s o r her c u l t u r e t h r o u g h a r t , and t h e development o f an awareness about t h e i n f l u e n c e o f media i n t h e i r l i v e s . T h i s broader scope f i n d s a l s o s u p p o r t i n N e o - C a l v i n i s t i c P h i l o s o p h y . By a d o p t i n g t h e a e s t h e t i c a s p e c t as a f i e l d o f i n v e s t i g a t i o n , a r t e d u c a t i o n must go beyond the s t u d y o f t h e \" f i n e \" a r t s , and i n c l u d e t h e s t u d y o f the a e s t h e t i c d i m e n s i o n o f l i f e i n g e n e r a l . I n p l a c i n g a r t e d u c a t i o n i n N e o - C a l v i n i s t i c s c h o o l s 130 on a broader b a s i s however, r e q u i r e s t h a t a t t e n t i o n be giv e n to c e r t a i n d i s t i n c t i o n s . These d i s t i n c t i o n s a re expressed i n terms of \" f r e e \" a r t and \"bound\" a r t . When Dooyeweerd r e f e r s to \" f r e e \" a r t he i d e n t i f i e s an o b j e c t t h a t has no other f u n c t i o n than t o be a work of a r t , such as a p a i n t i n g , a mural, a s c u l p t u r e , a p r i n t , a photograph, or anything e l s e t h a t i s made independent from any other i n t e r e s t . \"Free\" a r t r e f e r s p r i m a r i l y t o the museum a r t s , i t i s a r t produced with no \" s t r i n g s a t t a c h e d \" . In c o n t r a s t to f r e e a r t a l l bound a r t serves other i n t e r e s t s . Bound art, such as d e c o r a t i o n s , p o s t e r s , p a t t e r n s , f u r n i t u r e , d i s h e s and c l o t h i n g takes second p l a c e i n o v e r a l l c o n s t r u c t i o n of a product. Bound a r t has i t s own unique q u a l i t i e s . I t i s d i f f e r e n t from the q u a l i t i e s o f \" f r e e \" a r t s i n c e c o l o r s and shape are subordinated to the q u a l i f y i n g f u n c t i o n of the i n d i v i d u a l t h i n g . The study of bound a r t w i l l , t h e r e f o r e , have to i n c l u d e an a n a l y s i s of the q u a l i f y i n g f u n c t i o n of i n d i -v i d u a l t h i n g s . A second f a c t o r which f i n d s emphasis i n the w r i t i n g s of Chapman, Feldman, L a n i e r and McFee i s t h e i r concern f o r the r e l a t e d n e s s between a r t and other aspects of human experience. L a n i e r (1976) expressed t h i s concern when he focused on the need i n a r t ed u c a t i o n t o 'attend t o other concerns or. elements i n an a e s t h e t i c t r a n s a c t i o n \" (p. 20) . Chapman (1978) s t a t e s i t as \"the r o l e o f a r t i n s o c i e t y cannot be reduced t o p u r e l y a e s t h e t i c c o n s i d e r a t i o n s \" (p. 115). 131 I n Dooyeweerd's t h e o r y o f modal a s p e c t s the r e l a t e d -ness o f t h e a e s t h e t i c a s p e c t o f a l l o t h e r a s p e c t s i s b a s i c t o i t s s t r u c t u r e . I n t h i s sense N e o - C a l v i n i s t i c p h i l o s o p h y s h a r e s i n the c o n c e r n f o r the stu d y o f a r t i n r e l a t i o n t o the i n d i v i d u a l t h i n g s i n the man-made environment and t h e v a r i o u s a s p e c t s o f human e x p e r i e n c e . T h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p between a r t and o t h e r a s p e c t s o f l i f e i s a l s o acknowledged by Rader and J e s s u p (1976) i n A r t and Human V a l u e s . They s t a t e , \"the v a l u e s found i n a l l a r e a s o f human i n t e r e s t a r e t r a n s m i t t e d by a r t i s t i c e x p r e s s i o n and embodiment i n t o the s t u f f o f a r t \" (p. 179). I n a c c e p t i n g the r e l a t e d n e s s between a r t and o t h e r a s p e c t s o f human e x p e r i e n c e , d i f f e r e n t a r t c u r r i c u l a have been developed. Feldman (1980), f o r i n s t a n c e , has d e v e l o p e d f o u r a r t c u r r i c u l a w h i c h each f o c u s on a d i f f e r e n t r e l a t i o n -s h i p between a r t and one o f t h e o t h e r a s p e c t s i n human e x p e r i e n c e . I n h i s a r t i c l e A n t h r o p o l o g i c a l and H i s t o r i c a l C o n c e p t i o n s o f A r t C u r r i c u l a he men t i o n s : The f o l l o w i n g e s s a y d e a l s w i t h one o f t h e f o u r main t y p e s o f a r t c u r r i c u l u m t h a t I have d i s c u s s e d e l s e -where a t g r e a t e r l e n g t h . The o t h e r s a r e : t h e t e c h -n i c a l c u r r i c u l u m , the p s y c h o l o g i c a l c u r r i c u l u m and the a e s t h e t i c c u r r i c u l u m (p. 7 ) . L a n i e r i n a s i m i l a r way s t r e s s e s t h e need f o r the d e v e l o p -ment o f an a r t c u r r i c u l u m t h a t f o c u s e s on a e s t h e t i c l i t e r a c y . U n d o u b t e d l y , v a r i o u s o t h e r c u r r i c u l a c o u l d be devel o p e d t o f o c u s on t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between a r t and t h e m o r a l a s p e c t , 132 o r the economic a s p e c t . However, when the t h e o r y o f modal a s p e c t s i s b a s i c t o a r t c u r r i c u l a development, the d i f f e r e n -t i a t i o n w i t h i n t h e t o t a l f i e l d o f a r t e d u c a t i o n appears t o be l i m i t e d t o two d i r e c t i o n s . S e e r v e l d (1980), who works w i t h i n the c o n t e x t o f Neo-C a l v i n i s t i c p h i l o s o p h y , a l s o r e c o g n i z e s t h a t a r t i s r e l a t e d t o s e v e r a l o t h e r a s p e c t s . However, he argues t h a t when ±he emphasis i n a r t i s p l a c e d on o t h e r a s p e c t s , t h e e s s e n t i a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f a r t appears t o become secondary. S e e r v e l d ' s c o n c e r n f o r t h e development o f a \" f r e e \" a r t c u r r i c u l u m a r e e x p r e s s e d as f o l l o w s : We a l l know a r t i n a p i n c h can s e r v e as c o l l a t e r a l , become booty, be h e l d onto as s u r e t y , a c t as p l e d g e , be t a k e n as an argument o r s e r v e as c o n v e r s a t i o n p i e c e . But we a l s o know t h a t a r t i s not p r i m a r i l y money, b a i l , s a f e r y , an e t h i c a l , l o g i c a l o r s o c i a l o b j e c t ; 'such f u n c t i o n s do n o t c h a r a c t e r i z e a chanson, n o v e l o r p a i n t i n g . And I dare say i t i s more c l e a r today than a t any time i n cosmogonic h i s t o r y o f \" a r t \" t h a t i f one makes the n u c l e u s o f a r t , so t o speak, an economic c o n f e s s i o n a l o r s o c i a l p r o p e r t y , t h e n you d e n a t u r e a r t i n t o a m a t t e r o f f a s h i o n a b l e p r e s t i g e , penance o r commodity (p. 113). The key c o n c e r n i s here t o f o c u s on t h e n u c l e a r meaning k e r n e l o f t h e a e s t h e t i c a s p e c t and not t o make the emphasis i n a r t s u b o r d i n a t e t o t h e meaning k e r n e l o f an o t h e r a s p e c t such as the s o c i a l o r economic. The i m p l i c a t i o n s o f t h i s 133 approach would be an a r t c u r r i c u l u m t h a t s t r e s s e s the stud y o f \" f r e e \" a r t . I n r e l a t i o n t o Dooyeweerd 1s d i s t i n c -t i o n between f r e e a r t and bound a r t a second c u r r i c u l u m s h o u l d be d e v e l o p e d t h a t f o c u s e s on bound a r t and s t r e s s e s t h e s t u d y o f the a e s t h e t i c a s p e c t i n s u b o r d i n a t i o n o f t h e q u a l i f y i n g f u n c t i o n o f i n d i v i d u a l t h i n g s . I n comparison w i t h t h e c u r r i c u l u m s u g g e s t i o n s by Chapman, Feldman, L a n i e r and McFee t h i s bound a r t c u r r i c u l u m does not t a k e i t s s t a r t i n g p o i n t s i n the a e s t h e t i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f i n d i -v i d u a l t h i n g s . A r t e d u c a t i o n i n t h i s case does not e x p l a i n t h e meaning o f t h i n g s . The s t u d y o f a r t i n t h i s c u r r i c u l u m i s dependent on the r e c o g n i t i o n o f the f u n c t i o n o f each i n d i v i d u a l t h i n g . The b a s i c aim i n t h i s c u r r i c u l u m w i l l be t o d e v e l o p t h e i n d i v i d u a l ' s u n d e r s t a n d i n g about how t h e a e t h e t i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f i n d i v i d u a l t h i n g s h e l p o r h i n d e r i t s main f u n c t i o n . A t h i r d f a c t o r o f common c o n c e r n i s t h a t even though a r t i s r e l a t e d t o many a s p e c t s o f human e x p e r i e n c e i t n e v e r t h e l e s s has i t s own unique c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t h a t can be i d e n t i f i e d and t a u g h t . Chapman (1978), f o r i n s t a n c e , i n c l u d e s a l a r g e s e c t i o n i n her c u r r i c u l u m s u g g e s t i o n s t h a t d e a l s w i t h t h e development o f a r t s k i l l s , such as the r e c o g n i t i o n o f a r t medium and a r t form, the u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f symbolism and d e s i g n elements. Feldman (1970) l i k e w i s e emphasizes t h e need t o d e v e l o p t h e s t u d e n t ' s a r t t e c h n i q u e s , t h e i r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e v i s u a l elements such as shape and c o l o r , and t h e i r a b i l i t i e s t o e v a l u a t e works o f a r t . McFee (1977) a l s o p r o v i d e s d e t a i l e d 134 i n s t r u c t i o n s f o r the t e a c h i n g o f d r awing and d e s i g n . T h i s c o n c e r n f o r t h e s t u d y o f t h e e s s e n t i a l elements o f a r t i s a l s o s h a red by t h e s u p p o r t e r s o f t h e N e o - C a l v i n i s t i c p h i l o s o p h y . S i n c e Kuyper's c o n c e p t of sphere s o v e r e i g n t y t h e p e c u l i a r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f a r t have become more c l e a r -l y d e f i n e d and i t s r e c o g n i t i o n as a s e p a r a t e d i s c i p l i n e f u r t h e r e s t a b l i s h e d . However, l i t t l e a t t e n t i o n has been g i v e n t o s k i l l and t e c h n i q u e a n a l y s i s . I n comparison w i t h t h e o t h e r a u t h o r s t h e f o c u s i n N e o - C a l v i n i s t i c c o n c e p t s of a r t has been on a r t s r e l a t i o n t o o t h e r a s p e c t s and t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f i t s prime c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o r n u c l e a r meaning k e r n e l . I n summary, the i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r the development o f a r t c u r r i c u l a i n N e o - C a l v i n i s t i c e d u c a t i o n might be s t a t e d i n t h r e e p o i n t s . ; . F i r s t , t h e scope o f the a r t program s h o u l d i n c l u d e t h e f r e e a r t s and the bound a r t s . S e c o n d l y , two c u r r r i c u l a s h o u l d be developed,: a \" f r e e \" a r t c u r r i c u l u m based on t h e h i s t o r i c a l f o u n d a t i o n f u n c t i o n and the a e s t h e t i c q u a l i f y i n g f u n c t i o n w i t h t h e c o n c e p t o f \" a l l u s i v e n e s s \" as i t s p r i m a r y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c ; and a bound a r t c u r r i c u l u m t h a t f o c u s e s on t h e a e s t h e t i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f i n d i v i d u a l t h i n g s w hich have a q u a l i f y i n g f u n c t i o n o t h e r than the a e s t h e t i c . T h i r d l y , t h e a r t programs must i n c l u d e the development of a r t s k i l l s and t h e awareness o f a l l u s i v e n e s s , t h e p r i m a r y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f the a e s t h e t i c a s p e c t . P o i n t s o f R e f e r e n c e The a r t c o n c e p t s p r e s e n t e d i n t h i s s t u d y p r o v i d e s e v e r a l 135 p o i n t s o f r e f e r e n c e f o r the development o f a r t c u r r i c u l a i n N e o - C a l v i n i s t e c s c h o o l s . I n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e t h e o r y o f modal a s p e c t s a t t e n t i o n i s g i v e n by Chapman, Feldman, L a n i e r and McFee t o the s t u d y o f m a t e r i a l s , the s t u d y o f space (McFee), the development o f eye and hand c o o r d i n a t i o n t h r o u g h \" s e e i n g t o draw and drawing t o see\" (McFee), t h e n u r t u r e o f s e n s i t i v i t y t o c o l o r , shape and l i n e (Chapman) and the d e v e l -opment o f a r t a n a l y s i s . A l s o , emphasis i s p l a c e d on h i s t o r i c a l development o f t h e a r t s , the r e c o g n i t i o n o f s o c i a l f a c t o r s i n a r t (Chapman, Feldman and McFee), t h e development o f p e r s o n a l e x p r e s s i o n t h r o u g h a r t , and t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f s y m b o l i c meaning. F u r t h e r , c o n s i d e r a t i o n i s g i v e n t o t h e m o r a l a s p e c t i n L a n i e r ' s and Feldman's w r i t i n g s and t h e r o l e o f a r t i n r e l i g i o u s ceremonies (Chapman). These p o i n t s o f r e f e r e n c e may be d e f i n e d i n d i f f e r e n t terms f o r each a u t h o r . Because o f t h e s e d i f f e r e n c e s t h e i r use out o f the o r i g i n a l c o n t e x t may be p r o b l e m a t i c . However, i n t h e i r scope t h e s e p o i n t s o f r e f e r e n c e r e l a t e t o most o f t h e modal a s p e c t s , and as such t h e y p r o v i d e r e l e v a n t m a t e r i a l f o r f u r t h e r a n a l y s i s and t h e development o f N e o - C a l v i n i s t i c a r t c u r r i c u l a . The Theory o f Modal A s p e c t s and i t s I m p l i c a t i o n s f o r A r t C u r r i c u l a F r e e A r t C u r r i c u l a I n the development o f a f r e e a r t c u r r i c u l u m , f i r s t c o n s i d e r a t i o n s h o u l d be g i v e n t o the f o u n d a t i o n f u n c t i o n 136 and q u a l i f y i n g f u n c t i o n o f the a e s t h e t i c a s p e c t . S i n c e t h e f o u n d a t i o n f u n c t i o n f o r a r t i s e x p r e s s e d i n t h e h i s t o r i c a l a s p e c t , a f r e e a r t c u r r i c u l u m must i n c l u d e t h e s t u d y o f t h e h i s t o r i c a l developments o f t h e a r t s . Such a s t u d y s h o u l d i n c o r p o r a t e an a n a l y s i s o f Western a r t on t h e b a s i s o f the ground m o t i v e p r e s e n t e d e a r l i e r i n t h i s s t u d y . F u r t h e r , i n t h i s h i s t o r i c a l s u r v e y a t t e n t i o n s h o u l d be g i v e n t o t h o s e works o f a r t t h a t have been \" f o r m a t i v e \" i n t h e development o f d i f f e r e n t s t y l e s s i n c e the p r i m a r y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h e h i s t o r i c a l a s p e c t i s \" f o r m a t i v e power\".' S e c o n d l y , i n a f r e e a r t c u r r i c u l u m emphasis s h o u l d be g i v e n t o the s t u d e n t ' s awareness o f t h e \" a l l u s i v e \" c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f a r t . T h i s awareness may be n u r t u r e d t h r o u g h the a n a l y s i s o f works o f a r t and s t u d i o p r o d u c t i o n s . A second s e t o f c o n s i d e r a t i o n s i n r e l a t i o n t o the t h e o r y o f modal a s p e c t s i s t h e s t u d y o f the v a r i o u s a s p e c t s i n c o n t e x t o f \" f r e e \" a r t e x p r e s s i o n . S t u d e n t s need t o be s k i l l e d i n t h e s e l e c t i o n o f a p p r o p r i a t e m a t e r i a l s f o r t h e i r a r t works. They must be t e c h n i c a l l y p r e p a r e d t o work, g i v e form t o t h e s e m a t e r i a l s . V o c a b u l a r y s t u d i e s and r e c o g n i t i o n o f s y m b o l i c meanings o f m a t e r i a l s and images w i l l need a t t e n t i o n . S t u d e n t s must a l s o be made aware o f the s o c i a l a s p e c t i n a r t w h i c h f o c u s e s on the p l a c e o r s t a t u s o f a p a r t i c u l a r work i n s o c i e t y . C o n s i d e r -a t i o n must a l s o be g i v e n t o t h e economic a s p e c t . Cost o f m a t e r i a l s i s but one element o f t h i s . Other f a c t o r s i n 137 t h e economic a s p e c t r e l a t e t o the manner by which t h e work i s produced and t h e e l a b o r a t i o n o f forms. The l a t t e r touches on \"how much\" can be e x p r e s s e d w i t h \"how l i t t l e \" . S t u d e n t s must a l s o be made aware o f t h e i r m o r a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s i n a r t . T h i s means t h a t b e s i d e s \" s e l f \" e x p r e s s i o n a t t e n t i o n i s g i v e n t o the p r o d u c t i o n o f a r t \" f o r o t h e r s \" . T h i s a r t \" f o r o t h e r s \" must be d i r e c t e d towards the needs and j o y s o f th o s e p e r s o n s the s t u d e n t s c a r e f o r . F i n a l l y , t he s t u d e n t s must be made aware o f the c o n c e p t s o f r e a l i t y e x p r e s s e d i n a work o f a r t . These c o n c e p t s a r e p r i m a r i l y concerned w i t h the a r t i s t ' s v i e w o f man, n a t u r e and t h e C r e a t o r . Bound A r t C u r r i c u l u m The c o n s i d e r a t i o n s f o r t h e development o f a bound a r t c u r r i c u l u m stem from t h e q u a l i f y i n g f u n c t i o n o f i n d i v i d u a l t h i n g s . A l l o t h e r a s p e c t s , i n c l u d i n g the a e s t h e t i c , a r e o f \"secondary\" i m p o r t a n c e . T h i s means f o r an a r t c u r r i c u l u m t h a t t h e st u d y o f c o l o r , m a t e r i a l s , shape o r t e x t u r e must be r e l a t e d t o t h e p r i m a r y purpose o f t h i n g s . I t f u r t h e r i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e a e s t h e t i c q u a l i t i e s s t u d i e d i n a bound a r t program w i l l be o f a d i f f e r e n t n a t u r e than t h o s e i n a f r e e a r t program. Bound a r t has i t s own unique c h a r a c t e r -i s t i c , d i f f e r e n t from t h o s e o f f r e e a r t as w e l l as from the a e s t h e t i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f n a t u r e . F o r example, t h e c o l o r schemes f o r t o o l s , u t e n s i l s o r machinery a r e n o t de t e r m i n e d by t h e same s t a n d a r d s as i f they were works o f f r e e a r t . Nor i s the shape o f an a u t o m o b i l e t h e \" f r e e \" e x p r e s s i o n o f the d e s i g n e r . 138 A second c o n s i d e r a t i o n f o r the development o f a bound a r t c u r r i c u l u m i s the need t o n u r t u r e t h e s t u d e n t s ' aware-ness o f t h e a e s t h e t i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h i n g s i n c o n t e x t o f t h e i r h i s t o r i c a l development. Bound a r t , as w e l l as f r e e a r t , has i t s f o u n d a t i o n a l f u n c t i o n i n t h e h i s t o r i c a l a s p e c t . F o r t h i s r e a s o n a t t e n t i o n s h o u l d be g i v e n t o h i s t o r i c a l s u r v e y s o f a e s t h e t i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f i n d i -v i d u a l t h i n g s w i t h t h e same q u a l i f y i n g f u n c t i o n . L a u r a Chapman (197 8\\, i n her s u g g e s t i o n s f o r c r a f t s and p r o d u c t d e s i g n , s t r e s s e s s i m i l a r needs when she s t a t e s : Compare v e r y s i m p l e and v e r y e l a b o r a t e v e r s i o n s o f the same o b j e c t - an embroidered o r l a c e t a b l e c l o t h and a c o t t o n c l o t h o r v i n y l c o v e r . Have c h i l d r e n d e s c r i b e d i f f e r e n t o c c a s i o n s when e a c h . v e r s i o n might be used, how p e o p l e u s i n g t h e o b j e c t might f e e l , how t h e p e r s o n owning t h e o b j e c t m i g h t c a r e f o r i t . I n the same way, compare t r a d i t i o n a l forms o f an o b j e c t w i t h u n u s u a l o r i n n o v a t i v e forms o f t h e same k i n d o f o b j e c t (p. 323). F i n a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s f o r a bound a r t c u r r i c u l u m a r e t h e st u d y o f elements p r e c e d i n g t h e h i s t o r i c a l a s p e c t . These s t u d i e s would m a i n l y f o c u s on a n a l y s i s o f m a t e r i a l s arid e x p l o r a t i o n s o f the appropriateness o f i n d i v i d u a l t h i n g s i n r e l a t i o n t o human di m e n s i o n s and p h y s i c a l f u n c t i o n s . W i t h i n c o n t e x t o f t h e bound a r t c o n c e p t , c u r r i c u l u m m a t e r i a l s may be s e l e c t e d from v a r i o u s s o u r c e s as l o n g as t h e s e m a t e r i a l s a r e p r e s e n t e d i n such a way t h a t the 139 a e s t h e t i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a t h i n g are r e c o g n i z e d as de-pendent on the primary f u n c t i o n f o r which the o b j e c t was designed. In c o n c l u s i o n , the bound a r t c u r r i c u l u m w i l l cover many t o p i c s presented i n the w r i t i n g s of Chapman, Feldman, L a n i e r and McFee, i n c l u d i n g the s t u d i e s of space, a r c h i t e c -t u r e , product d e s i g n and other c u l t u r a l o b j e c t s . I t s o v e r a l l concern i s w i t h the development of the student's a e s t h e t i c c onsciousness. The student's awareness of s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e s , group f u n c t i o n s and r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s i s i n t h i s approach a p r e r e q u i s i t e to the study of a r t . In a bound a r t c u r r i c u l u m students must be prepared to s t r u g g l e w i t h the a e s t h e t i c q u a l i t i e s of p r i n t e d m a t e r i a l s i n \"keeping\" w i t h the message. A d v e r t i s i n g a r t must focus on the economic aspect of goods and not on aspects i r r e l e v a n t to the f u n c t i o n of the products. In r e l a t i o n to the student's care f o r o t h e r s , the bound a r t c u r r i c u l u m must p r o v i d e ways t h a t w i l l enable the i n d i v i d u a l s or groups to express t h i s concern w i t h c e r t a i n a e s t h e t i c \" i n g r e d i e n t s \" . Symbolic and imagit-na.tive means must be e x p l o r e d to g i v e body to e t h i c a l and r e l i g i o u s concerns. A f a c t o r of major importance i n the bound a r t c u r r i c u l u m i s t h a t the a e s t h e t i c dimensions are always seen i n the l i g h t of the primary f u n c t i o n of t h i n g s Which means t h a t the primary f u n c t i o n of an i n d i v i d u a l t h i n g e x p l a i n s the a r t more so than the a r t e x p l a i n s the meaning of the i n d i v i d u a l t h i n g . 140 3. 4, 5. 6. 7. p h y s i c a l t h i n g p l a n t a n i m a l Diagram o f t h e M o d a l i t y S t r u c t u r e and t h e S u b j e c t F u n c t i o n s o f Man, A n i m a l , P l a n t and P h y s i c a l T h i n g s A s p e c t s 1. a r i t h m e t i c 2. s p a t i a l k i n e m a t i c p h y s i c a l b i o t i c s e n s i t i v e l o g i c a l 8. h i s t o r i c a l 9. l i n g u a l 10. s o c i a l 11. economic 12. a e s t h e t i c 13. j u r i d i c a l 14. m o r a l 15. p i s t i c man 141 Diagram o f t h e F o u n d a t i o n a l and Q u a l i f y i n g F u n c t i o n o f a C h a i r A s p e c t s 1. a r i t h m e t i c 2. s p a t i a l 3. k i n e m a t i c 4. p h y s i c a l 5. b i o t i c 6. s e n s i t i v e 7. l o g i c a l 8. h i s t o r i c a l 9. l i n g u a l 10. s o c i a l 11. economic 12. a e s t h e t i c 13. j u r i d i c a l 14. m o r a l 15. p i s t i c k i t c h e n c n a i r o f f i c e c h a i r t h r o n e c h u r c h pew s u b j e c t f u n c t i o n s obj e c t f u n c t i o n s 142 Diagram o f the F o u n d a t i o n a l and Q u a l i f y i n g F u n c t i o n o f a Work o f A r t A s p e c t s 1. a r i t h m e t i c 2. s p a t i a l 3. k i n e m a t i c 4. p h y s i c a l 5. 6. b i o t i c s e n s i t i v e a s p e c t s d i r e c t e d by q u a l i f y i n g f u n c t i o n 7. l o g i c a l 8. h i s t o r i c a l f o u n d a t i o n a l f u n c t i o n w i t h 9. l i n g u a l f o r m a t i v e power as main c h a r a c t e r i s t i c 10. s o c i a l 11. economic 12. a e s t h e t i c q u a l i f y i n g f u n c t i o n w i t h 13. j u r i d i c a l a l l u s i v e n e s s as main c h a r a c t e r i s t i c 14. m o r a l 15. p i s t i c 143 B i b l i o g r a p h y A r n s t i n e , D. 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The P r e s b y t e r i a n and Reformed P u b l i s h i n g Co., 1959. "@en ; edm:hasType "Thesis/Dissertation"@en ; edm:isShownAt "10.14288/1.0055086"@en ; dcterms:language "eng"@en ; ns0:degreeDiscipline "Education"@en ; edm:provider "Vancouver : University of British Columbia Library"@en ; dcterms:publisher "University of British Columbia"@en ; dcterms:rights "For non-commercial purposes only, such as research, private study and education. Additional conditions apply, see Terms of Use https://open.library.ubc.ca/terms_of_use."@en ; ns0:scholarLevel "Graduate"@en ; dcterms:title "Basic concepts for art curricula development in neo-calvinistic education"@en ; dcterms:type "Text"@en ; ns0:identifierURI "http://hdl.handle.net/2429/23288"@en .