@prefix vivo: . @prefix edm: . @prefix ns0: . @prefix dcterms: . @prefix skos: . vivo:departmentOrSchool "Education, Faculty of"@en, "Educational and Counselling Psychology, and Special Education (ECPS), Department of"@en ; edm:dataProvider "DSpace"@en ; ns0:degreeCampus "UBCV"@en ; dcterms:creator "Gamlin, Sandra J."@en ; dcterms:issued "2010-06-02T23:20:37Z"@en, "1985"@en ; vivo:relatedDegree "Master of Arts - MA"@en ; ns0:degreeGrantor "University of British Columbia"@en ; dcterms:description """A descriptive study was conducted to investigate the adoption experience within the family. Adoptive families who participated in this study were assumed to be a relatively heterogeneous sample of the target population - families with at least one adopted child who had been adopted early in life, and who was presently 14-18 years of age. Thirteen adoptive families participated in the study. Qualitative data regarding each individual's perception of the adoption experience was obtained through semi-structured interviews. Each participant also completed the Family Environment Scale (Moos, 1974), which was used as a descriptive measure only. Data from the interviews underwent a qualitative data analysis to arrive at the themes and patterns that described the adoptee's and the adoptive parents' experiences. Parent-child perceptual discrepancies were also analysed to assess the similarities and the differences in family perceptions regarding the adoption experience. Conclusions that can be drawn based on the results of the qualitative analysis is that adoptive families appear to be vulnerable to problems during the adolescent stage of the family life cycle because of the adoptee's emerging curiosity and the problems of openly communicating these concerns within the family. Results from this study also point to the need for adopting couples to receive education regarding the role of adoptive parenthood, and counsellors who work with adoptive families should be aware of when the factors of adoption can contribute to family difficulties and dysfunction"""@en ; edm:aggregatedCHO "https://circle.library.ubc.ca/rest/handle/2429/25396?expand=metadata"@en ; skos:note "A D E S C R I P T I V E STUDY OF THE ADOPTION EXPERIENCE OF ADOLESCENTS AND THEIR F A M I L I E S by SANDRA J . GAMLIN B. A., U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , 1981 A T H E S I S SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS i n THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES D e p a r t m e n t o f C o u n s e l l i n g P s y c h o l o g y We a c c e p t t h i s t h e s i s a s c o n f o r m i n g t o t h e r e q u i r e d s t a n d a r d THE UNIVERSITY OF B R I T I S H COLUMBIA J u n e 1985 © S a n d r a J . Garni i n , 1985 I n p r e s e n t i n g t h i s t h e s i s i n p a r t i a l f u l f i l m e n t o f t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r a n a d v a n c e d d e g r e e a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , I a g r e e t h a t t h e L i b r a r y s h a l l m a k e i t f r e e l y a v a i l a b l e f o r r e f e r e n c e a n d s t u d y . I f u r t h e r a g r e e t h a t p e r m i s s i o n f o r e x t e n s i v e c o p y i n g o f t h i s t h e s i s f o r s c h o l a r l y p u r p o s e s m a y b e g r a n t e d b y t h e h e a d o f m y d e p a r t m e n t o r b y h i s o r h e r r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s . I t i s u n d e r s t o o d t h a t c o p y i n g o r p u b l i c a t i o n o f t h i s t h e s i s f o r f i n a n c i a l g a i n s h a l l n o t b e a l l o w e d w i t h o u t m y w r i t t e n p e r m i s s i o n . T h e U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a 1956 Main Mall V a n c o u v e r , C a n a d a V6T 1Y3 D a t e D E - 6 r v a n ABSTRACT A d e s c r i p t i v e s t u d y was c o n d u c t e d t o i n v e s t i g a t e t h e a d o p t i o n e x p e r i e n c e w i t h i n t h e f a m i l y . A d o p t i v e f a m i l i e s who p a r t i c i p a t e d i n t h i s s t u d y were assumed t o be a r e l a t i v e l y h e t e r o g e n e o u s s a m p l e o f t h e t a r g e t p o p u l a t i o n - f a m i l i e s w i t h a t l e a s t one a d o p t e d c h i l d who had been a d o p t e d e a r l y i n l i f e , and who was p r e s e n t l y 14-18 y e a r s o f a g e . T h i r t e e n a d o p t i v e f a m i l i e s p a r t i c i p a t e d i n t h e s t u d y . Q u a l i t a t i v e d a t a r e g a r d i n g e a c h i n d i v i d u a l ' s p e r c e p t i o n o f t h e a d o p t i o n e x p e r i e n c e was o b t a i n e d t h r o u g h s e m i - s t r u c t u r e d i n t e r v i e w s . E a c h p a r t i c i p a n t a l s o c o m p l e t e d t h e F a m i l y E n v i r o n m e n t S c a l e (Moos, 1 9 7 4 ) , w h i c h was u s e d as a d e s c r i p t i v e m e a s u r e o n l y . D a t a f r o m t h e i n t e r v i e w s u n d e r w e n t a q u a l i t a t i v e d a t a a n a l y s i s t o a r r i v e a t t h e t h e m e s and p a t t e r n s t h a t d e s c r i b e d t h e a d o p t e e ' s and t h e a d o p t i v e p a r e n t s ' e x p e r i e n c e s . P a r e n t -c h i l d p e r c e p t u a l d i s c r e p a n c i e s were a l s o a n a l y s e d t o a s s e s s t h e s i m i l a r i t i e s a nd t h e d i f f e r e n c e s i n f a m i l y p e r c e p t i o n s r e g a r d i n g t h e a d o p t i o n e x p e r i e n c e . C o n c l u s i o n s t h a t c a n be drawn b a s e d on t h e r e s u l t s o f t h e q u a l i t a t i v e a n a l y s i s i s t h a t a d o p t i v e f a m i l i e s a p p e a r t o be v u l n e r a b l e t o p r o b l e m s d u r i n g t h e a d o l e s c e n t s t a g e o f t h e f a m i l y l i f e c y c l e b e c a u s e o f t h e a d o p t e e ' s e m e r g i n g c u r i o s i t y and t h e p r o b l e m s o f o p e n l y c o m m u n i c a t i n g t h e s e c o n c e r n s w i t h i n t h e f a m i l y . R e s u l t s f r o m t h i s s t u d y a l s o p o i n t t o t h e need f o r a d o p t i n g c o u p l e s t o r e c e i v e e d u c a t i o n r e g a r d i n g t h e r o l e o f a d o p t i v e p a r e n t h o o d , and c o u n s e l l o r s who work w i t h a d o p t i v e f a m i l i e s s h o u l d be aware o f when t h e f a c t o r s o f a d o p t i o n c a n c o n t r i b u t e t o f a m i l y d i f f i c u l t i e s and d y s f u n c t i o n . TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE A b s t r a c t , ( i i ) Table of Contents ( i i i ) Ac-knowledgements {v) CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION 2 Why Focus on the Adopted Ad o l e s c e n t ? ... 3 Statement of the Problem 4 I I REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE 7 A Background Look at Adoption 7 Adoption P o l i c y i n B r i t i s h Columbia 11 Adoptive Family R e l a t i o n s 14 The Adopted Adolescent, 20 P s y c h o h i s t o r i c a l Aspects 22 Psychosexual Aspects 26 P s y c h o s o c i a l Aspects..,., 27 '. The E m p i r i c a l P i c t u r e o f Adoption 30 C l i n i c a l S t u d i e s of Adopted C h i l d r e n . . 3 1 Non^-Clinical S t u d i e s of Adoptees. 41 The Follow-up Research. 45 . The R e t r o s p e c t i v e S t u d i e s . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 I I I METHODOLOGY 5 8 Design , . , . , 58 Qua-lit-i.tative Research Paradigm.. , ... ...58 Sample , - 5 9 Instruments 61 Interview Guides. . .61 Family Environment S c a l e . , .62 Procedure, .63 The Interviews 6 3 Method of Data A n a l y s i s 64 IV RESULTS. . 73 Percent Agreement R e s u l t s . ,....73 Demographic Data 7 3 Family Environment S c a l e A n a l y s i s . 74 Q u a l i t a t i v e Data A n a l y s i s R e s u l t s ..,76 Pr e f a c e , 76 Family Communication 76 Family R e l a t i o n s h i p s . , 85 The Parents' Adoption Experience 93 The B i o l o g i c a l Parents 102 The A d o l e s c e n t s ' Adoption Experience....118 ( i i i ) PAGE Q u a l i t a t i v e D a t a A n a l y s i s Summary 131 V CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 139 C o n c l u s i o n s 139 F a m i l y C o m m u n i c a t i o n 139 F a m i l y R e l a t i o n s h i p s 144 B i o l o g i c a l P a r e n t s 147 P a r e n t s ' A d o p t i o n E x p e r i e n c e 152 A d o l e s c e n t s ' A d o p t i o n E x p e r i e n c e * 155 Summary 159 S u g g e s t i o n s f o r F u r t h e r R e s e a r c h 161 Re c o m m e n d a t i o n s 163 C o u n s e l l i n g I m p l i c a t i o n s 166 R e f e r e n c e N o t e s 171 R e f e r e n c e s . . 172 A p p e n d i c e s 180 A L e t t e r o f I n t r o d u c t i o n 180 B F a m i l y C o n s e n t Form 182 C A d o p t e e s ' I n t e r v i e w Guide., 184 D P a r e n t s ' I n t e r v i e w G u i d e 187 E P a r e n t s Q u e s t i o n n a i r e — 191 F The F a m i l y E n v i r o n m e n t S c a l e & I n s t r u c t i o n s 195 G L e t t e r o f A p p r e c i a t i o n 199 (iy) ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Dr . J o h n Banmen, c h a i r p e r s o n o f my t h e s i s c o m m i t t e e , f o r h i s g u i d a n c e , s u p p o r t , and p a t i e n c e as I l a b o u r e d o v e r t h i s p r o j e c t . D r . R o b e r t C o n r y , f o r h i s a d v i c e r e g a r d i n g t h e c o n t e n t a n a l y s i s , and h i s e n c o u r a g e m e n t . D r . B i l l B o r g e n , who w a i t e d so p a t i e n t l y f o r t h e f i n i s h e d p r o d u c t . Wendy J o h a n n s o n , t h e s e c o n d i n t e r v i e w e r , who c h e e r f u l l y p a r t i c i p a t e d i n t h e i n t e r v i e w i n g p r o c e s s , and p r o v i d e d h e r s k i l l e d s e r v i c e s f o r f r e e . To a l l t h e a d o p t i v e f a m i l i e s who p a r t i c i p a t e d i n t h i s r e s e a r c h , f o r w i t h o u t t h e i r i n t e r e s t , e n t h u s i a s m , and t r u s t , t h i s p r o j e c t c o u l d n e v e r h a v e b e e n c o m p l e t e d . I am v e r y g r a t e f u l t o them f o r t h e i r c o n f i d e n c e i n t h i s r e s e a r c h e n d e a v o r . ( v ) A DESCRIPTIVE STUDY OF THE ADOPTION EXPERIENCE OF ADOLESCENTS AND THEIR FAMILIES CHAPTER I 1 2 I n t r o d u c t i o n F amily t h e r a p i s t s have volumes of resource m a t e r i a l a v a i l a b l e to,, them as an a i d to s t u d y i n g f a m i l y dynamics. In r e c e n t y e a r s , the number of r e c o n s t i t u t e d f a m i l i e s formed through d i v o r c e and remarriage have generated f u r t h e r resource m a t e r i a l r e g a r d i n g the dynamics of s i n g l e parent f a m i l i e s and blended f a m i l i e s . Family t h e r a p i s t s acknowledge t h a t these r e c o n s t i t u t e d f a m i l i e s r e q u i r e , i n many cases, a d i f f e r e n t frame of r e f e r e n c e f o r t r e a t i n g these f a m i l i e s ' problems (Olson, 1970). A f a m i l y group t h a t has r e c e i v e d l i t t l e . ..o •< a t t e n t i o n from f a m i l y t h e r a p i s t s i s the adoptive f a m i l y . Although the adoptive f a m i l y i s a m i n o r i t y i n North American s o c i e t y the dynamics o f the. adoptive f a m i l y warrant s e r i o u s i n v e s t i g a t i o n because of the evidence t h a t suggests t h a t adoptive f a m i l i e s are more v u l n e r a b l e t o s t r e s s and f a m i l i a l problems than b i o l o g i c a l f a m i l i e s (Sorosky, Baran, & Pannor, 1978; K i r k , 1981). For years t h e myth e x i s t e d t h a t to adopt was l i t t l e d i f f e r e n t than b e a r i n g one's own c h i l d r e n ( P r i n g l e , 1967). But many r e s e a r c h e r s now agree t h a t the r o l e s and r e l a t i o n a l norms of the adoptive f a m i l y group depart s i g n i f i c a n t l y from those of the b i o l o g i c a l f a m i l y ( K i r k , 1964; Sorosky e t a l , 1978; S o k o l o f f , 1979). Although adoptions do take p l a c e among step-parents and r e l a t i v e s , i t i s w i t h the p r o c e s s of n o n - r e l a t i v e adoptions w i t h which t h i s r e s e a r h i s concerned. In these i n s t a n c e s the c h i l d has a b i o l o g i c a l , m e d i c a l and g e n e a l o g i c a l h i s t o r y t h a t i s d i f f e r e n t from t h a t o f the adoptive f a m i l y . 3 A l l a n Gurman ( 1 9 8 2 ) , a f a m i l y t h e r a p i s t w r o t e : W h i t a k e r ' s ( 1 9 7 6 ) i d e a t h a t p e o p l e a r e f r a g m e n t s o f f a m i l i e s b r i n g s t o m i n d t h e q u e s t i o n : f r o m w h i c h f a m i l y i s t h e a d o p t e d c h i l d a f r a g m e n t ? To w h i c h f a m i l y t r e e i s t h e c h i l d a t t a c h e d - t h e b i o l o g i c a l f a m i l y , t h e a d o p t i v e f a m i l y , b o t h , o r n e i t h e r ? ( p . 70) The r e s o l u t i o n o f t h i s d i l e m m a a t an i n t e l l e c t u a l o r e m o t i o n a l l e v e l i s n o t a l w a y s an e a s y t a s k f o r t h e a d o p t i v e f a m i l y . F a m i l i e s w i t h a d o p t e d c h i l d r e n o f t e n h a v e u n r e s o l v e d p r o b l e m s r e l a t e d t o t h e s e n s e o f b e l o n g i n g o f t h e a d o p t e d c h i l d and t h e n a t u r e o f t h a t b e l o n g i n g (Gurman, 1 9 8 2 ) . T h i s p r o b l e m i s u n i q u e t o t h o s e f a m i l i e s w here no b i o l o g i c a l t i e s e x i s t . The f a c t o r o f a d o p t i o n a d d s a n o t h e r d i m e n s i o n f o r e x p l o r a t i o n and r e s o l u t i o n i n t h e a d o p t i v e f a m i l y , and c a n g e t i n t h e way o f t h e d e v e l o p m e n t a l t a s k s f a c i n g b o t h p a r e n t and c h i l d ( E r i c k s o n , 1 9 6 1 ) . Why f o c u s on t h e a d o p t e d a d o l e s c e n t ? The f o c u s o f t h e p r e s e n t s t u d y i s on a d o p t e d a d o l e s c e n t s and t h e i r p a r e n t s . A d o p t i o n i s an o n g o i n g p r o c e s s w h i c h a f f e c t s t h e a d o p t i v e f a m i l y members' d u r i n g e a c h s t a g e o f t h e a d o p t e e ' s m a t u r a t i o n ( S o k o l o f f , 1 9 7 9 ) . D e v e l o p m e n t a l l y , a d o l e s c e n c e i s a p o t e n t i a l l y more s t r e s s f u l t i m e f o r t h e a d o p t e e and h i s p a r e n t s b e c a u s e o f p o s s i b l e c o n f l i c t s a r o u n d t h e i s s u e s o f a d o p t i o n . T h i s s u b j e c t w i l l be e l a b o r a t e d on i n c h a p t e r two. M a c k i e ( 1 9 8 2 ) r e p o r t s t h a t many a d o l e s c e n t a d o p t e e s r e f e r r e d t o him f o r t r e a t m e n t a p p e a r e d t o h a v e had t r o u b l e - f r e e c h i l d h o o d s , b u t upon r e a c h i n g a d o l e s c e n c e s u d d e n l y d e v e l o p e d p r o b l e m a t i c b e h a v i o r much t o t h e a n x i e t y and b e w i l d e r m e n t o f t h e i r p a r e n t s . W i n n i c o t t ( 1 9 7 1 ) b e l i e v e s t h a t a l l c h i l d r e n r e o r i e n t t o l i f e a t p u b e r t y and a d o p t e d c h i l d r e n a t t h i s age h a v e a s p e c i a l t a s k and n e e d s p e c i a l i z e d h e l p . He f u r t h e r s t a t e s t h a t a d o p t i v e p a r e n t s a l s o n e e d s p e c i a l i z e d h e l p i n m a n a g i n g t h e i r f e e l i n g s s t i r r e d up by t h e a d o l e s c e n t s ' c u r i o s i t y a b o u t t h e i r o r i g i n s and t h e i r s t r i v i n g s f o r i n d e p e n d e n c e . 4 S t a t e m e n t o f t h e P r o b l e m Many h y p o t h e s e s h a v e been g e n e r a t e d i n an a t t e m p t t o e x p l a i n why t h e a d o l e s c e n t a d o p t e e m i g h t be a t r i s k f o r p r o b l e m s , b u t l i t t l e e m p i r i c a l d a t a h a s b e e n o b t a i n e d f r o m t h e a d o p t e d a d o l e s c e n t t o v e r i f y t h e s e h y p o t h e s e s . A f u r t h e r p r o b l e m i s t h a t t h e a d o l e s c e n t has b e e n s t u d i e d i n i s o l a t i o n f r o m t h e f a m i l y . In o r d e r t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e s p e c i a l p r o b l e m s t h a t a d o p t e d a d o l e s c e n t s m i g h t f a c e , , r e s e a r c h must i n c l u d e a l o o k a t t h e f a m i l y r e l a t i o n s h i p s , and t h e f e e l i n g s and p e r c e p t i o n s o f b o t h p a r e n t and c h i l d s o t h a t t h e d y n a m i c s o f t h e a d o p t i v e f a m i l y r e l a t i o n s h i p c a n be e l u c i d a t e d . A r a r e l y c o n s i d e r e d f a c t o r i n t h e s t u d y o f f a m i l i e s i s t h e l a c k o f c o n g r u e n c e b e t w e e n f a m i l y members' p e r c e p t i o n s o f t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p s and i n t e r a c t i o n s ( O l s o n , 1 9 7 0 ) . O l s o n ( 1 9 7 0 ) b e l i e v e s t h a t t h e l e v e l o f i n t r a f a m i l y s t r e s s may be e l e v a t e d due t o t h e d i s c r e p a n t p e r c e p t i o n s o f p a r e n t s and t h e i r a d o l e s c e n t s r e g a r d i n g f a m i l y i s s u e s and d y n a m i c s . F o r t h e a d o p t i v e f a m i l y , d i s c r e p a n t p e r c e p t i o n s b e t w e e n p a r e n t and c h i l d r e g a r d i n g a d o p t i o n i s s u e s m i g h t be a f a c t o r a d d i n g t o t h e s t r a i n o f a d o p t i v e f a m i l y l i f e , p a r t i c u l a r l y d u r i n g a d o l e s c e n c e . T h i s i s s u e w i l l be e x p l o r e d i n t h e p r e s e n t r e s e a r c h . In o r d e r f o r t h e r a p i s t s t o c o m p e t e n t l y c o u n s e l a d o p t i v e f a m i l i e s an u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e d y n a m i c s o f t h e a d o p t i v e f a m i l y i s , i n t h i s w r i t e r ' s o p i n i o n , a b s o l u t e l y e s s e n t i a l . A d u l t a d o p t e e s h a v e r e p o r t e d t h a t i f t h e s u b j e c t o f a d o p t i o n was r a i s e d i n t h e r a p y t h e y were a s s u r e d t h a t i t was u n r e l a t e d t o t h e i r p r o b l e m , and must n o t be a l l o w e d t o become an e x c u s e f o r t h e i r p r e s e n t d i f f i c u l t i e s ( S o r o s k y e t a l , 1 9 7 8 ) . A d o p t e e s who a r e a l r e a d y o v e r w h e l m e d w i t h c o n f u s i o n and s e l f - d o u b t f i n d t h e i r s e l f - d o u b t r e i n f o r c e d i n a p r o c e s s o f t h e r a p y t h a t d o e s n o t r e c o g n i z e t h a t a d o p t i v e 5 s t a t u s c a n be a s o u r c e o f d i s t u r b a n c e i t s e l f ( S o r o s k y e t a l , , 1978 ) . The a d o p t i v e f a m i l y , l i k e t h e b l e n d e d f a m i l y , d o e s n o t f u n c t i o n l i k e t h e b i o l o g i c a l f a m i l y , and t h e r a p i s t s must become aware o f a d o p t i o n p s y c h o l o g y and r e c o g n i z e when p s y c h o l o g i c a l p r o b l e m s m i g h t be r e l a t e d t o t h e c l i e n t ' s a d o p t i o n e x p e r i e n c e . A g r e a t d e a l o f r e s e a r c h has b e e n c o n d u c t e d by c h i l d w e l f a r e p r o f e s s i o n a l s on a d o p t i o n o v e r t h e y e a r s , b u t u n f o r t u n a t e l y t h e d a t a b a s e r e m a i n s s m a l l c o n c e r n i n g t h e a d o p t i o n e x p e r i e n c e i t s e l f . So much has b e e n w r i t t e n a b o u t t h e a d o p t i v e f a m i l y , and s o l i t t l e on what i t f e e l s l i k e t o be a d o p t e d , t h a t i t s t i m e r e s e a r c h e r s began r e a l l y e x a m i n i n g t h e a d o p t i o n e x p e r i e n c e t h r o u g h t h o s e i n d i v i d u a l s m o s t i n v o l v e d -- t h e a d o p t e e and t h e a d o p t i v e p a r e n t s . A s s e s s i n g t h e c a u s e o f a d o p t i v e f a m i l y p r o b l e m s i s o n l y r e l e v a n t o n c e t h e r e s e a r c h e r knows what h a s b e e n e x p e r i e n c e d . T h e t h e o r e t i c a l n o t i o n s c o n c e r n i n g t h e n a t u r e o f t h e a d o l e s c e n t a d o p t e e ' s e m o t i o n a l p r o b l e m s h a v e b e e n v e r i f i e d o n l y t h r o u g h r e t r o s p e c t i v e a c c o u n t s by a d u l t a d o p t e e s . A d o l e s c e n t a d o p t e e s and t h e i r p a r e n t s h a v e n o t had t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o d e s c r i b e t h e i r e x p e r i e n c e s i n any s y s t e m a t i c s t u d i e s known t o t h i s r e s e a r c h e r . The p u r p o s e o f t h i s s t u d y i s t o e x p l o r e t h e a d o p t i o n e x p e r i e n c e w i t h i n t h e f a m i l y t o f i n d o u t how a d o p t i o n i s e x p e r i e n c e d by a d o l e s c e n t a d o p t e e s and t h e i r p a r e n t s . T h i s w i l l be a c c o m p l i s h e d t h r o u g h i n - d e p t h i n t e r v i e w s w i t h t h e a d o p t e e s and t h e i r p a r e n t s . F o r t h e p u r p o s e s o f t h i s s t u d y , \" e x p e r i e n c e \" i s d e f i n e d a s , t h e r e a c t i o n t o a d o p t i o n i n c l u d i n g t h e e n t i r e r a n g e o f t h o u g h t s , f e e l i n g s , o r b e h a v i o r s w h i c h r e l a t e i n any way t o a d o p t i o n , and t h e m e a n i n g g i v e n t o t h e s e e v e n t s , and t h e e f f e c t on t h e f a m i l i e s ' e v e r y d a y l i v e s . 6 As this study is descriptive in nature, the following questions are addressed: 1. How does the adopted adolescent experience adoption? What problems i f any, do they face? 2. How do the adoptive parents experience adoption? What problems i f any, do they face? 3. Are there any recurring patterns in the adoptive family situation? Are there common themes in the lives of the adolescents, and adoptive parents? 4. What are the similarities or differences between the parents' and adoptees' perceptions of the adoption experience? 5. What implications do these findings have for therapists counselling adopted adolescents, or adoptive parents? By describing the adoption experience from the perspective of the adopted adolescent and the adoptive parents, the information gleaned from this qualitative research can be used by adoption agencies to benefit the adoption process; and counsellors who work with troubled adolescents or families would be more aware of when the adoption situation can create family d i f f i c u l t i e s , and therefore be in a better position to treat the presenting problem(s). CHAPTER I I R e v i e w o f t h e L i t e r a t u r e A B a c k g r o u n d Look a t A d o p t i o n H i s t o r i c a l l y , l e g a l a d o p t i o n i n N o r t h A m e r i c a i s a r e l a t i v e l y new p r o c e s s . A d o p t i o n has e x i s t e d f o r c e n t u r i e s i n most p a r t s o f t h e w o r l d , b u t t h e f i r s t g e n e r a l a d o p t i o n l a w s w e r e n ' t e n a c t e d u n t i l t h e m i d - n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y ( D e r d e y n , 1 9 7 9 ) . E n g l i s h Common Law, t h e f o u n d a t i o n o f much o f N o r t h A m e r i c a n law, d i d n o t r e c o g n i z e a d o p t i o n as a l e g a l p r o c e d u r e u n t i l 1926 ( D e r d e y n & W a d l i n g t o n , 1 9 7 7 ) . D u r i n g t h i s e a r l y p e r i o d o f a d o p t i o n s t h e laws were d e s i g n e d t o meet t h e n e e d s o f t h e a d o p t e r s , n o t t h e a d o p t e d c h i l d . Many a d o p t i o n s were a r r a n g e d c a s u a l l y t h r o u g h n e w s p a p e r a d s s u c h a s ; \"mo t h e r w a n t s t o g i v e up b a b y b oy, two weeks o l d \" , o r \"wanted t o a d o p t a baby g i r l up t o f o u r y e a r s \" ( D e r d e y n , 1 9 7 9 ) . T h r o u g h o u t t h e 1 9 2 0 1 s and 1930 1 s t h e s o c i a l s e r v i c e a g e n c i e s i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s had t o r e c r u i t a d o p t i v e p a r e n t s f o r w h i t e i n f a n t s . N e g a t i v e a t t i t u d e s t o w a r d i l l e g i t i m a c y and t o w a r d b r i n g i n g c h i l d r e n o f \" d i f f e r e n t b l o o d \" i n t o a f a m i l y s e t up s t r o n g b a r r i e r s t o a d o p t i o n ( R e i d , 1 9 5 7 ) . T h i s a t t i t u d e l e d t o a b e l i e f by many a d o p t i o n w o r k e r s t h a t t h e a d o p t e r s w e r e d o i n g t h e c h i l d a f a v o u r by a d o p t i n g h i m / h e r . The p r e s s u r e s a r i s i n g f r o m t h i s r e c r u i t m e n t p o l i c y l e d t o an e m p h a s i s on m a t c h i n g p a r e n t t o c h i l d , and g u a r a n t e e i n g t h a t t h e c h i l d was w i t h o u t p h y s i c a l , e m o t i o n a l o r m e n t a l d e f e c t s ( R e i d , 1 9 5 7 ) . C h i l d r e n who d i d n ' t p a s s t h e t e s t s were u s u a l l y c o n s i d e r e d u n a d o p t a b l e and p u t i n t o f o s t e r c a r e . B a b i e s were h e l d f o r c o n t i n u e d o b s e r v a t i o n and d e v e l o p m e n t a l t e s t s i n o r d e r t o r e a s s u r e t h e a d o p t e r s t h a t t h e b a b y had go o d h e a l t h and i n t e l l e c t u a l p o t e n t i a l . T h i s e a r l y a d o p t i o n p r o c e d u r e p l a c e d g r e a t e r e m p h a s i s upon t h e s t u d y and s c r e e n i n g o f t h e c h i l d t h a n upon t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e a p p l i c a n t s . B u t d u r i n g t h e l a t e 1940's and e a r l y 1950's p s y c h i a t r i s t s and o t h e r p r o f e s s i o n a l s 7 8 began e x a m i n i n g t h e a d o p t i o n a g e n c i e s ' i n f a n t t e s t s and p r o c e d u r e s , and p r e s s u r e began m o u n t i n g on t h e a g e n c i e s t o r e s e a r c h t h e i r p o l i c i e s and p r o c e d u r e s more f u l l y . B o w l b y ' s ( 1 9 5 1 ) r e s e a r c h on m a t e r n a l c a r e and m e n t a l h e a l t h , and t h e s u g g e s t e d e f f e c t o f m a t e r n a l d e p r i v a t i o n on an i n f a n t ' s d e v e l o p m e n t , p r o m o t e d a s h i f t i n e m p h a s i s f r o m h e r e d i t y t o m e n t a l h e a l t h c o n c e r n s . A g e n c i e s were e n c o u r a g e d t o m o d i f y t h e u s e o f i n f a n t t e s t s and p r o m o t e t h e p l a c e m e n t o f c h i l d r e n a t an e a r l i e r a g e . The d e c a d e o f t h e 1 9 5 0 1 s was a p e r i o d t h a t p r o d u c e d a g r o w i n g a p p l i c a t i o n o f m e n t a l h e a l t h p r i n c i p l e s t o a d o p t i o n . P r i o r t o t h a t t i m e l i t t l e s i g n i f i c a n t r e s e a r c h on a d o p t i o n h ad a p p e a r e d i n t h e j o u r n a l s , and much o f t h e t h e o r y and p r a c t i c e was b a s e d on t h e l i m i t e d e x p e r i e n c e o f t h e a d o p t i o n w o r k e r . A d o p t i o n i s now v i e w e d as t h e m o s t s u i t a b l e means o f p r o v i d i n g s t a b l e homes f o r c h i l d r e n whose b i o l o g i c a l p a r e n t s w i l l n o t , o r c a n n o t c a r e f o r t h e m , and s e c o n d a r i l y , p r o v i d i n g c h i l d r e n t o c h i l d l e s s c o u p l e s . D i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e a d o p t e d c h i l d ' s b i o l o g i c a l , m e d i c a l and g e n e a l o g i c a l h i s t o r y f r o m t h a t o f t h e a d o p t e r s has l e d t o t h e s o c i e t a l c o n c e r n t h a t t h e a d o p t e d c h i l d c o u l d s u f f e r f r o m b a d h e r e d i t y . T h i s c o n c e r n , i n t u r n , l e d t o t h e b e l i e f t h a t a d o p t e d c h i l d r e n s h o u l d n o t r e c e i v e a l l t h e r i g h t s and p r i v i l e d g e s due n a t u r a l o r \" b o r n t o \" c h i l d r e n . F o r some t i m e a d o p t e d c h i l d r e n d i d n o t h a v e i n h e r i t a n c e r i g h t s f r o m t h e i r a d o p t i v e f a m i l i e s . In B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a t h e l e g i s l a t i o n was c h a n g e d i n 1953 t o a l l o w a d o p t e d c h i l d r e n t o i n h e r i t f r o m t h e i r e x t e n d e d a d o p t i v e f a m i l i e s . A l t h o u g h t h e c o n c e r n o v e r bad h e r e d i t y , o r bad b l o o d , i s n o t t h e s e r i o u s i s s u e i t o n c e was, t h e i s s u e o f i l l e g i t i m a c y , w i t h a l l i t s n e g a t i v e c o n n o t a t i o n s , h a s f o s t e r e d a p e s s i m i s t i c v i e w o f some a d o p t e e s ' p o t e n t i a l . 9 S o c i a l c l i m a t e i n t h e l a t e 1 9 4 0 1 s and 1 9 5 0 1 s was d i f f e r e n t i n many r e s p e c t s f r o m t h a t o f t h e 1970's and 1 9 8 0 ' s , p a r t i c u l a r l y w i t h r e g a r d t o two key i s s u e s i n a d o p t i o n - h e r e d i t y and i l l e g i t i m a c y ( R a y n o r , 1980 ) . D u r i n g t h e 1940's and 1 9 5 0 ' s , i l l e g i t i m a c y was c o n s i d e r e d s h a m e f u l , and i f a g i r l was i l l e g i t i m a t e t h e r e was t h e f e a r t h a t s h e m i g h t grow up t o r e p e a t t h e \" s i n s \" o f t h e unwed m o t h e r . In f a c t , one o f t h e o r i g i n a l p u r p o s e s o f t h e s e a l e d r e c o r d i n a d o p t i o n was t o p r o t e c t i l l e g i t i m a t e c h i l d r e n f r o m t h e s t i g m a a t t a c h e d t o t h e i r s t a t u s ( B a r a n , P a n n o r , & S o r o s k y , 1 9 7 4 ) . A d o p t i o n l e g i s l a t i o n i n B. C. s t a t e s t h a t \" t h e f a c t o f i l l e g i t i m a c y s h a l l n o t be r e f e r r e d t o i n t h e a d o p t i o n o r d e r \" ( A d o p t i o n A c t RSBC 1979, Ch. 4, s 1 0 ( 5 ) ) , t h u s i n d i c a t i n g t h a t i l l e g i t i m a c y i s s t i g m a t i z e d i n s o c i e t y . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , most a d o p t e e s t e n d t o assume t h a t t h e y a r e i l l e g i t i m a t e b e c a u s e o f t h e n a t u r e o f a d o p t i o n i t s e l f . D u r i n g t h e l a s t d e c a d e c h a n g i n g s o c i e t a l a t t i t u d e s t o w a r d i l l e g i t i m a c y , t h e more common u s e o f o r a l c o n t r a c e p t i v e s , t h e g r e a t e r a v a i l a b i l i t y o f s a f e , m e d i c a l a b o r t i o n s , and t h e i n c r e a s e d number o f unwed m o t h e r s e l e c t i n g t o k e e p t h e i r b a b i e s , has had a t r e m e n d o u s i m p a c t on t h e number o f c h i l d r e n a v a i l a b l e f o r a d o p t i o n . In 1960 a f a m i l y c o u l d a d o p t a h e a l t h y C a u c a s i a n i n f a n t e v e n i f t h e y a l r e a d y had two o r t h r e e c h i l d r e n . In t h e 1 9 8 0 1 s p r o s p e c t i v e a d o p t i v e p a r e n t s must meet e l i g i b i l i t y c r i t e r i a and t h e y f a c e a w a i t o f up t o f i v e y e a r s t o g e t a C a u c a s i a n i n f a n t ( M u r r a y , 1 9 8 4 ) . T r a d i t i o n a l l y , t h e p r o c e s s o f a d o p t i o n has f o l l o w e d a s y s t e m o f s e c r e c y . R e c o r d s h a v e be e n s e a l e d a f t e r an a d o p t i o n i s l e g a l i z e d , and t h e a d o p t e d c h i l d i s \"as i f b o r n t o \" t h e a d o p t i v e f a m i l y . Many a d o p t e e s h a v e grown up n o t k n o w i n g t h a t t h e y were a d o p t e d . By t h e l a t e 1950's a d o p t i o n w o r k e r s were u r g i n g a d o p t i v e p a r e n t s t o t e l l t h e i r c h i l d r e n t h a t t h e y were 10 a d o p t e d e a r l y i n l i f e . The a g e n c i e s w a n t e d t h e c h i l d r e n t o know t h a t t h e y w ere a d o p t e d and t h a t t h e y were w a n t e d o r c h o s e n by t h e i r a d o p t i v e p a r e n t s . ( R a y n o r , 1 9 8 0 ) . A l t h o u g h t h e a g e n c i e s s u p p o r t e d t h i s p o l i c y , many p a r e n t s w o u l d n o t , o r c o u l d n o t b r i n g t h e m s e l v e s t o t e l l t h e c h i l d . T o d a y most w o r k e r s b e l i e v e i t i s i n t h e f a m i l y ' s b e s t i n t e r e s t t o t e l l t h e c h i l d e a r l y , a n d most p a r e n t s t e l l t h e i r a d o p t e d c h i l d r e n now a b o u t t h e c i r c u m s t a n c e s s u r r o u n d i n g t h e i r a r r i v a l i n t h e f a m i l y . In t a c k l i n g r e s e a r c h on a d o p t i o n i t i s i m p o r t a n t t o k e e p i n m i n d t h a t s o c i e t y ' s c h a n g i n g m o r a l s , a t t i t u d e s and v a l u e s h a v e i n f l u e n c e d t h e p r a c t i c e o f a d o p t i o n . I t i s p o t e n t i a l l y h a r m f u l f o r a r e s e a r c h e r s t u d y i n g a d o p t i o n o u t c o m e and a d o p t i o n e x p e r i e n c e t o t r y t o g e n e r a l i z e t o o much f r o m t h e p a s t . M o s t a d o p t e d c h i l d r e n t o d a y know t h a t t h e y a r e a d o p t e d , and c o m m u n i c a t i o n a b o u t a d o p t i o n i s more o p e n t h a n i t was 20 y e a r s a g o , so t h e f o l l o w - u p s t u d i e s o f t h e 1950's and 1960's do n o t c o m p l e t e l y r e f l e c t t h e g e n e r a t i o n s o f t h e 1970's and 1 9 8 0 ' s . I n f o r m a t i o n g l e a n e d f r o m t h i s r e s e a r c h must be i n t e r p r e t e d c a u t i o u s l y , b e a r i n g i n mi n d j u s t when and where i t was d o n e . A c u r r e n t e x a m p l e o f t h e c h a n g e s i n s o c i e t y ' s a t t i t u d e i s t h e C a b b a g e P a t c h d o l l phenomenon t h a t h i t N o r t h A m e r i c a i n 1983. I t i s now t r e n d y f o r y o u n g c h i l d r e n t o p l a y a t b e i n g a d o p t i v e p a r e n t s and t h i s r e f l e c t s a more o p e n a t t i t u d e t o w a r d a d o p t i o n and i t s p l a c e i n t h i s s o c i e t y . I t s h o u l d a l s o be m e n t i o n e d h o w e v e r , t h a t t h i s d o l l c r a z e has a l s o g e n e r a t e d some n e g a t i v e f e e l i n g s f r o m some i n d i v i d u a l s i n v o l v e d i n a d o p t i o n r e f o r m , as t h e y b e l i e v e t h a t t h e m a r k e t i n g a p p r o a c h t a k e n w i t h t h e s e d o l l s h as t r i v i a l i z e d a d o p t i o n and i t s a t t e n d i n g p r o b l e m s . In r e c e n t y e a r s an i n c r e a s i n g l y v o c a l g r o u p o f a d u l t a d o p t e e s h a v e begun p r e s s u r i n g g o v e r n m e n t t o r e a s s e s s i t s p o l i c y and o p e n t h e a d o p t i o n f i l e s . The c o n t r o v e r s y o v e r s e a l e d v s o p e n r e c o r d s g e n e r a t e s much h e a t e d d e b a t e f r o m a l l t h o s e i n v o l v e d i n t h e a d o p t i o n t r i a n g l e - t h e a d o p t e e , t h e a d o p t i v e 11 p a r e n t s and t h e b i o l o g i c a l p a r e n t s . T h i s i s an i s s u e m i r e d i n e m o t i o n a l i s m , and s u b j e c t t o t h e v e s t e d i n t e r e s t o f d i f f e r e n t p r e s s u r e g r o u p s ( B u r g e s s , 1 9 7 6 ) . Q u e s t i o n s t h a t t h i s c o n t r o v e r s y g e n e r a t e s a r e : d o e s t h e g o v e r n m e n t h a v e a r i g h t t o d e n y an a d u l t a d o p t e e h i s / h e r b i r t h r i g h t ; what p r o t e c t i o n do t h e b i r t h p a r e n t s d e s e r v e i f t h e y w i s h t o m a i n t a i n a n o n y m i t y , o r , on t h e o t h e r h a n d , w i s h t o h a v e a r e u n i o n w i t h t h e r e l i n q u i s h e d c h i l d ; and what r i g h t s b e l o n g t o t h e a d o p t i v e p a r e n t s - s h o u l d t h e y h a v e a g u a r a n t e e t h a t t h e y c a n r a i s e t h e i r a d o p t e d c h i l d w i t h o u t o u t s i d e i n t e r f e r e n c e ? T h e s e c o n t r o v e r s i e s h a v e c r e a t e d a new f a c e t t o t h e a d o p t i o n e x p e r i e n c e t h a t no new a d o p t i v e f a m i l y c a n i g n o r e . In B.C., a c t i v i s t g r o u p s s u c h as t h e C a n a d i a n A d o p t e e s ' R e f o r m a r e w o r k i n g t o w a r d p r e s s u r i n g t h e g o v e r n m e n t t o r e e x a m i n e t h e i r a d o p t i o n p o l i c i e s . The m e d i a has a l s o become i n v o l v e d i n t h e s e i s s u e s and h a v e s u b s e q u e n t l y p u b l i s h e d s t o r i e s o f b i r t h p a r e n t / a d o p t e e r e u n i o n s and s e p a r a t e d s i b l i n g r e u n i o n s . The p u b l i c i t y t h a t s t o r i e s l i k e t h e s e g e n e r a t e i s l e a d i n g t o i n c r e a s e d p u b l i c a w a r e n e s s o f t h e a d o p t i o n p r o c e s s , b u t i t i s a l s o c o m p l i c a t i n g t h e p r o c e s s f o r t h o s e i n d i v i d u a l s i n v o l v e d i n t h e a d o p t i o n t r i a n g l e . C o u p l e s who a d o p t t o d a y may n o t h a v e t h e s e c r e c y o f r e c o r d s e n s u r e d i n t h e f u t u r e , and a d o p t i n g c o u p l e s may h a v e t o be p r e p a r e d f o r t h e i r a d o p t e d c h i l d r e n t o i n v e s t i g a t e t h e i r b i o l o g i c a l o r i g i n s . In o r d e r t o f u r t h e r u n d e r s t a n d t h e c i r c u m s t a n c e s s u r r o u n d i n g t h e f o r m a t i o n o f t h e a d o p t i v e f a m i l y , B. C.'s a d o p t i o n p o l i c y i s b r i e f l y o u t l i n e d i n t h e n e x t s e c t i o n . A d o p t i o n p o l i c y i n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a . In B. C. most a d o p t i o n s a r e h a n d l e d by t h e F a m i l y and C h i l d r e n s ' S e r v i c e s d e p a r t m e n t o f t h e M i n i s t r y o f Human R e s o u r c e s . B. C. a d a p t i o n p p j _ i c x _ i s _ _ b a s e d . o n j t h e . p r o v i s i o n s o f t h e A d o p t i o n A c t and i s g e a r e d t o w a r d p r o t e c t i n g t h e i n t e r e s t s o f t h e c h i l d . 12 In 1935 p r o v i s i o n s were made i n t h e A c t t o i n t r o d u c e s e c r e c y o f a d o p t i o n d o c u m e n t s . In B. C , when an a d o p t i o n i s l e g a l i z e d , \"an a d o p t e d c h i l d becomes t h e c h i l d o f t h e a d o p t i n g p a r e n t , a n d t h e a d o p t i n g p a r e n t becomes t h e p a r e n t o f t h e c h i l d as i f t h e c h i l d had bee n b o r n t o t h a t p a r e n t i n l a w f u l w e d l o c k \" ( A d o p t i o n A c t , Ch. 4, s 1 1 ) - In a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h i s l e g i s l a t i o n , a d o p t e d c h i l d r e n r e c e i v e a l l t h e r i g h t s and p r i v i l e g e s t h a t n a t u r a l c h i l d r e n r e c e i v e f r o m t h e i r p a r e n t s . The r e l a t i o n s h i p o f p a r e n t t o a d o p t e d c h i l d c a r r i e s w i t h i t t h e same m u t u a l r i g h t s and o b l i g a t i o n s t h a t e x i s t b e t w e e n c h i l d r e n and t h e i r b i r t h p a r e n t s ( M u r r a y , 1 9 8 4 ) . When c o u p l e s a d o p t a c h i l d t h e y a r e g i v e n n o n - i d e n t i f y i n g b a c k g r o u n d i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e b i o l o g i c a l p a r e n t s i f t h e y want i t . The a d o p t i o n w o r k e r w i l l p r e p a r e a b i r t h f a m i l y h i s t o r y ( d e l e t i n g a l l i d e n t i f y i n g i n f o r m a t i o n ) f o r t h e a d o p t i n g p a r e n t s , and t h i s i s a v a i l a b l e a f t e r p l a c e m e n t . The a d o p t e d c h i l d h as no l e g a l a c c e s s t o t h e s e r e c o r d s , b u t a t 19 y e a r s o f age t h e y c a n a p p l y t o r e c e i v e t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n f r o m t h e P o s t - A d o p t i o n S e r v i c e s d e p a r t m e n t o f t h e M i n i s t r y o f Human R e s o u r c e s . In 1975 t h e B e r g e r C o m m i s s i o n on F a m i l y Law recommended t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t i n B. C. o f an a d o p t i o n r e g i s t r y w h i c h w o u l d h e l p i n t e r e s t e d a d u l t a d o p t e e s and t h e i r b i r t h p a r e n t s t o r e u n i t e ( M u r r a y , 1 9 8 4 ) . Many a d o p t i v e p a r e n t s became a l a r m e d a t t h i s r e c o m m e n d a t i o n , l o b b i e d s u c c e s s f u l l y , and d e t e r r e d t h e g o v e r n m e n t f r o m i m p l e m e n t i n g t h e r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s o f t h e C o m m i s s i o n ( M u r r a y , 1 9 8 4 ) . However, r e q u e s t s by a d o p t e e s t o be p u t i n t o u c h w i t h t h e i r b i o l o g i c a l r e l a t i v e s i s i n c r e a s i n g a l t h o u g h t h e M i n i s t r y o f Human R e s o u r c e s d o e s n o t a s s i s t i n t h e s e r e u n i o n s b u t c o n t i n u e s t o make b a c k g r o u n d i n f o r m a t i o n a v a i l a b l e . 13 The number o f a d o p t i o n s t a k i n g p l a c e i n B. C. h a s d r a m a t i c a l l y s h i f t e d o v e r t h e y e a r s and has begun t o a f f e c t t h e g o v e r n m e n t ' s p o l i c y r e g a r d i n g a d o p t i o n . P r i o r t o t h e 1970's t h e p r o b l e m was h o m e l e s s n e s s . B a b i e s o f t e n w a i t e d i n h o s p i t a l s o r f o s t e r homes f o r some f a m i l y t o c h o o s e them. In 1960, 882 c h i l d r e n were p l a c e d i n a d o p t i v e homes, and i n 1970, 1,943 c h i l d r e n were p l a c e d (MHR R e p o r t , 1970, N o t e 1 ) . In 10 y e a r s t h e p l a c e m e n t o f c h i l d r e n i n a d o p t i v e homes i n c r e a s e d by 120%. I t i s t h e c h i l d r e n o f t h i s d e c a d e , some o f whomare now a d o l e s c e n t s , t h a t h a v e p a r t i c i p a t e d i n t h i s s t u d y . The number o f h e a l t h y C a u c a s i a n i n f a n t s h a s s t e a d i l y d e c l i n e d s i n c e t h e n s o t h a t now t h e demand f o r h e a l t h y i n f a n t s and y o u n g c h i l d r e n f a r e x c e e d s t h e s u p p l y ( M u r r a y , 1 9 8 4 ) . B e c a u s e o f t h i s g r o w i n g demand i t i s now t h e p a r e n t s t h a t a r e b e i n g c h o s e n , n o t t h e b a b i e s . E l i g i b i l i t y c r i t e r i a w e re i n t r o d u c e d i n 1981, so i f y o u want t o a d o p t i n B. C. t o d a y y o u must b e ; a B. C. r e s i d e n t b e t w e e n 22 and 40 y e a r s o f a g e , l e g a l l y m a r r i e d o r l i v i n g common-law, c h i l d l e s s o r w i t h o n l y o n e c h i l d p e r m a n e n t l y i n t h e home, o r u n a b l e t o h a v e any c h i l d r e n (MHR F a m i l y & C h i l d r e n s ' S e r v i c e s P r o c e d u r e M a n u a l , N o t e 2 ) . A p o s i t i v e a s p e c t t o t h e p r e s e n t a d o p t i o n s i t u a t i o n i s t h a t b e c a u s e o f t h e demand f o r c h i l d r e n , more o l d e r c h i l d r e n and s p e c i a l n e e d s c h i l d r e n a r e b e i n g p l a c e d i n a d o p t i v e homes. So w h i l e i t i s a f r u s t r a t i n g , o f t e n s a d e x p e r i e n c e f o r t h e c h i l d l e s s c o u p l e w a i t i n g f o r a b a b y , i n t h i s w r i t e r ' s o p i n i o n , i t i s p r e f e r a b l e t o h a v i n g a g l u t o f a d o p t a b l e b a b i e s and no p e r m a n e n t f a m i l i e s f o r t h e m . A l t h o u g h MHR a r r a n g e s most a d o p t i o n s i n B. C , p r i v a t e a d o p t i o n s do t a k e p l a c e and a p p e a r t o be on t h e i n c r e a s e . T h e s e k i n d o f a d o p t i o n s a r e o f t e n a r r a n g e d t h r o u g h a p h y s i c i a n and t h e n r e g i s t e r e d w i t h MHR. The c h a n g e s 14 i n p o l i c y h a v e b e e n i n f l u e n c e d by t h e s h i f t i n t h e r a t i o o f a d o p t a b l e c h i l d t o a d o p t i v e f a m i l y , and i s c o n t i n u i n g t o e v o l v e t o meet t h e demands o f s o c i e t y . C u r r e n t a d o p t i o n p r a c t i c e , a l t h o u g h d i f f e r i n g f r o m c o u n t r y t o c o u n t r y , and p r o v i n c e t o p r o v i n c e , s t i l l f u n c t i o n s f r o m a r a t h e r l i m i t e d d a t a b a s e r e g a r d i n g t h e n a t u r e o f a d o p t i v e f a m i l y r e l a t i o n s . What has been l e a r n e d a b o u t t h e a d o p t i v e f a m i l y i s d i s c u s s e d n e x t . A d o p t i v e F a m i l y R e l a t i o n s Our s o c i e t y ' s c u l t u r a l v a l u e s h a v e t y p i c a l l y p u t g r e a t e m p h a s i s on b l o o d t i e s and f a m i l y k i n s h i p . A d o p t i o n h a s a c c o r d i n g l y , been v i e w e d as a s e c o n d b e s t a l t e r n a t i v e t o b i o l o g i c a l p a r e n t h o o d . The f a c t t h a t s o c i e t y h a s g i v e n p r i o r i t y t o b i o l o g i c a l p a r e n t i n g c a n r e i n f o r c e f e e l i n g s o f b e i n g d i f f e r e n t , i m p a i r e d , o r i n f e r i o r i n c o u p l e s who a d o p t ( A n d r e w s , 1 9 7 9 ) . M o s t r e s e a r c h e r s g e n e r a l l y a c c e p t t h a t a d o p t i v e f a m i l y r e l a t i o n s a r e s u b j e c t t o s t r a i n s n o t f o u n d i n t h e b i o l o g i c a l f a m i l y ( T o u s s i e n g , 1962; K i r k , 1964; S o r o s k y e t a l , 1 9 7 8 ) . A l t h o u g h a d o p t i o n a u t h o r i t i e s n o r m a l l y make c l e a r t h e l e g a l and a d m i n i s t r a t i v e r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s o f a d o p t i o n t o t h e a d o p t i n g c o u p l e , o f t e n t h e e m o t i o n a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s a r e u n c l e a r . I f i n f e r t i l i t y i s t h e r e a s o n f o r a d o p t i o n , t h e a d o p t i v e p a r e n t s must f a c e t h e r e a s o n s f o r b e i n g u n a b l e t o b e a r t h e i r own c h i l d r e n . O t h e r a d o p t i v e p a r e n t s must come t o t e r m s w i t h t h e i r f e e l i n g s a b o u t i l l e g i t i m a c y . A d o p t i v e m o t h e r s w i l l n o t e x p e r i e n c e p r e g n a n c y and b i r t h i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e i r c h i l d r e n , and t h e a d o p t i n g c o u p l e f a c e s a s e r i e s o f d i f f e r e n t p r e p a r a t o r y e x p e r i e n c e s b e f o r e a s s u m i n g t h e r o l e o f a d o p t i v e p a r e n t s ( P r i n g l e , 1967). K i r k (1981) has c l e a r l y 15 o u t l i n e d 10 s i t u a t i o n a l d i s c r e p a n c i e s - c o n t r a d i c t i o n s b e t w e e n \" c u l t u r a l l y p r o m i s e d e v e n t s \" and a c t u a l p e r s o n a l e x p e r i e n c e s - t h a t t y p i c a l l y c o n f r o n t t h e a d o p t i v e f a m i l y . T h e s e s i t u a t i o n a l d i s c r e p a n c i e s a r e o u t l i n e d on T a b l e 1. K i r k ' s ( 1 9 8 1 ) i n v e n t o r y o f t h e s i t u a t i o n a l d i s c r e p a n c i e s b e t w e e n b i o l o g i c a l p a r e n t h o o d and a d o p t i v e p a r e n t h o o d d o e s n o t h o w e v e r , c o m p l e t e l y a p p l y t o f a m i l i e s w here b i o l o g i c a l c h i l d r e n c o e x i s t w i t h a d o p t e d c h i l d r e n . Some o f t h e r o l e h a n d i c a p o f a d o p t i v e p a r e n t h o o d i s a l l e v i a t e d i n m i x e d f a m i l i e s b e c a u s e o f t e n t h e p a r e n t s d o n ' t h a v e t h e i n f e r t i l i t y b u r d e n t o c o p e w i t h . F a m i l y c o n s t e l l a t i o n has n o t b e e n e x t e n s i v e l y s t u d i e d i n a d o p t i v e f a m i l i e s , b u t t h e o r d i n a l p o s i t i o n o f an a d o p t e d c h i l d , o r t h e p r e s e n c e o f n a t u r a l b o r n c h i l d r e n i n t h e f a m i l y c o u l d be a c o n t r i b u t i n g f a c t o r i n t h e s u c c e s s f u l / u n s u c c e s s f u l a d j u s t m e n t o f a d o p t i v e f a m i l i e s . The m i x e d f a m i l y m i g h t a l s o f a c e some a d d i t i o n a l t a s k s i n i n t e g r a t i n g an a d o p t e d c h i l d i n t o a s i b l i n g g r o u p o f b i o l o g i c a l c h i l d r e n . I n c r e a s e d p s y c h o l o g i c a l s t r e s s may be e x p e r i e n c e d by a d o p t e d c h i l d r e n i n f a m i l i e s w h ere c h i l d r e n d i f f e r i n s t a t u s , and t h e \"own\" v s \" a d o p t e d \" d i s t i n c t i o n c a n s e r v e t o e x e m p l i f y d i f f e r e n c e s ( K r a u s , 1 9 7 8 ) . I n o r d e r t o f u r t h e r u n d e r s t a n d how f a m i l y s t r u c t u r e c a n a f f e c t a d o p t i v e f a m i l y r e l a t i o n s i t i s c l e a r t h a t more r e s e a r c h i s i n d i c a t e d . Once t h e a d o p t i n g c o u p l e r e c e i v e s a c h i l d t h e i r t a s k s as p a r e n t s c o n t i n u e t o d e v i a t e f r o m t h o s e o f b i o l o g i c a l p a r e n t s . One o f t h e a d o p t e r s ! m a i n t a s k s i s t o come t o f e e l and e x p e r i e n c e t h e c h i l d as t h e i r own. J a f f e e & F a n s h e l ( 1 9 7 0 ) r e f e r t o t h i s as e n t i t l e m e n t , t h e a d o p t i v e p a r e n t s must f e e l t h a t t h e c h i l d b e l o n g s t o them, and t h a t t h e y a r e e n t i t l e d t o h i m / h e r . T o u s s i e n g ( 1 9 6 2 ) b e l i e v e s t h a t t h e l a c k o f a TABLE I S i t u a t i o n a l D i s c r e p a n c i e s B i o l o g i c a l P a r e n t h o o d 1. P r e p a r a t i o n f o r a d u l t l i f e p r e s u m e s t h a t t h e r e w i l l be c h i l d r e n . Thus c o u p l e s h a v e a m e n t a l l i n k b e t w e e n m a r r i a g e and t h e a b i l i t y t o h a v e o f f s p r i n g . 2. The c h i l d ' s i m p e n d i n g a r r i v a l makes p o s s i b l e s h a r i n g o f news w i t h f a m i l y & f r i e n d s . 3. B i o l o g i c a l p a r e n t h o o d i s r e w a r d e d i n s o c i e t y . M e d i c a l and h o s p i t a l p l a n s h e l p d e f r a y t h e c o s t s o f a c h i l d ' s a r r i v a l . 4.Once m a r r i e d , t h e c o u p l e h a v e no f u r t h e r r e q u i r e m e n t s t o meet t o make, them e l i g i b l e f o r p a r e n t -h o o d . 5. The b i o l o g i c a l p a r e n t s a r e u l t i m a t e l y i n d e p e n d e n t i n t h e p r o c u r e m e n t o f t h e i r c h i l d . 6. P a r e n t a l s t a t u s i s i n i t i a t e d d u r i n g p r e g n a n c y and f u l l y s e c u r e d a t b i r t h . 7. P a r e n t s a r e e x p e c t e d t o make t h e new b aby one o f t h e i r g r o u p , t o i n t e g r a t e him i n t h e f a m i l y . 8. P r e p a r a t i o n f o r p a r e n t h o o d i s g r a d u a l , p r e g n a n c y p r o v i d e s a t i m e t a b l e t h a t moves them t o w a r d s p a r e n t h o o d g r a d u a l l y . 9. M a t e r n i t y c l o t h e s a c t as an e x t e r n a l s i g n t o o t h e r s o f t h e c o u p l e ' s c h a n g i n g p o s i t i o n , & a s s i s t s them i n m o v i n g t o w a r d p a r e n t h o o d . 1 0 . A t t h e t i m e o f t h e c h i l d ' s b i r t h t h e f a m i l y u s u a l l y g a t h e r s a r o u n d t h e c o u p l e and l o o k s f o r f a m i l y l i k e n e s s i n t h e n e w b o r n , & f r e q u e n t l y t h e y a r e p a r t i c i p a n t s i n r e l i g i o u s c e r e m o n i e s t o a c k n o w l e d g e t h e new b a b y ' s p a r t i n t h e f a m i l y g r o u p . A d o p t i v e P a r e n t h o o d T h e r e i s l i t t l e p r e p a r a t i o n f o r s t e r i l i t y . Not many c o u p l e s e v e r c o n s i d e r s t e r i l i t y as a p o s s i b i l i t y i n t h e i r m a r r i a g e . The u n c e r t a i n t y c o n n e c t e d w i t h a d o p t i o n p l a n s f r e q u e n t l y i n h i b i t s any d i s c u s s i o n w i t h f a m i l y & f r i e n d s . A d o p t i n g c o u p l e s h a v e f e w e q u i v a l e n t a r r a n g e m e n t s t o t a k e c a r e o f t h e c h i l d ' s a r r i v a l . T a x l a w s d o n ' t p r o v i d e f o r t h e d e d u c t i o n o f a d o p t i o n e x p e n s e s . A d o p t e r s h a v e t o show a u t h o r i t i e s t h a t t h e y a r e f i t f o r p a r e n t h o o d . A d o p t e r s a r e u l t i m a t e l y d e p e n d e n t on t h e s e r v i c e s o f a m i d d l e man, i . e . t h e a g e n c y o r l a w y e r . P a r e n t a l s t a t u s i s a t t h e t i m e o f t h e G u a r d i a n r i g h t s r e m a i n i n t h e h a n d s o f o t h e r ? u n t i l a d o p t i o n i s l e g a l i z e d . A d o p t e r s must t e l l t h e c h i l d a b o u t h i s a d o p t i o n and t h i s c a n h a m p e r V t h e i n t e g r a t i o n o f t h e c h i l d i n t o t h e f a m i l y . P r e p a r a t i o n f o r p a r e n t h o o d t e n d s t o be a b r u p t , w i t h no c l e a r - c u t t i m e -t a b l e by w h i c h t o s h a p e t h e i r t h o u g h t s and f e e l i n g s r e p a r e n t h o o d . F o r a d o p t e r s t h e r e a r e few s i g n s t o i m p r e s s on o t h e r s & on t h e m s e l v e s t h e c h a n g i n g p o s i t i o n f o r w h i c h t h e y a r e r e a c h i n g . n o t f u l l y s e c u r e d c h i l d ' s a r r i v a l . 10. In a d o p t i o n t h e r e a r e o f t h i s o r d e r t o mark no c e r e m o n i e s t h e new member's a r r i v a l i n t h e f a m i l y . K n o w l e d g e o f t h e r u p t u r e o f t h e f a m i l y l i n e p r e c l u d e s l o o k i n g f o r f a m i l y l i k e n e s s . ( K i r k , 1981, pp. 31-34) 16 17 b i o l o g i c a l t i e l e a d s t o i n s e c u r i t y f e l t by t h e a d o p t i v e p a r e n t s , and f u r t h e r , t o t h e i r d i f f i c u l t y i n b e l i e v i n g t h e c h i l d r e a l l y b e l o n g s t o them. T h i s a t t i t u d e t e n d s t o c r e a t e a n x i e t y and t e n s i o n i n t h e c h i l d w h i c h c a n , i n t u r n , a f f e c t t h e e n t i r e f a m i l y r e l a t i o n s h i p . The n e e d f o r t h e p a r e n t s t o f e e l e n t i t l e d t o t h e c h i l d , and t h e n e e d o f t h e c h i l d t o f e e l i n t e g r a t e d w i t h h i s a d o p t i v e f a m i l y t e n d s t o c o n f l i c t w i t h t h e a c c e p t e d r e q u i r e m e n t t h a t c h i l d r e n be t o l d a b o u t t h e i r a d o p t i v e s t a t u s ( T r i s e l i o t i s , 1 9 7 3 ) . S t o n e ( 1 9 7 2 ) has r e f e r r e d t o t h i s as a d o u b l e b i n d s i t u a t i o n , a d o p t i v e p a r e n t s f i n d t h e m s e l v e s i n a \" t r e a t h e r l i k e y o u r own, b u t t e l l h e r s h e i s n ' t \" s i t u a t i o n . T h i s c o n f l i c t t i e s i n w i t h a s e c o n d v e r y d i f f i c u l t , b u t i m p o r t a n t t a s k f o r a d o p t i v e p a r e n t s - h e l p i n g a d o p t e d c h i l d r e n b a s e t h e i r i d e n t i t y on t h e c o n c e p t o f two s e t s o f p a r e n t s ( T r i s e l i o t i s , 1 9 7 3 ) . T h i s i s u s u a l l y a c h i e v e d by r e v e a l i n g t h e c h i l d ' s a d o p t i v e s t a t u s a t t h e a p p r o p r i a t e t i m e and t h r o u g h s h a r i n g w i t h t h e c h i l d i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t t h e a d o p t e e ' s o r i g i n s . T h e a c c o m p l i s h m e n t o f a number o f t a s k s f o r t h e a d o p t e e a r e no l e s s i m p o r t a n t t o t h e s u c c e s s o f t h e a d o p t i v e f a m i l y . The a d o p t e d c h i l d m ust e v e n t u a l l y a c c e p t t h e l o s s o f t h e b i o l o g i c a l p a r e n t s and t h e r e j e c t i o n t h a t t h i s i m p l i e s , b u t he must a l s o t r y t o a c c o m o d a t e an image o f t h e b i o l o g i c a l p a r e n t s and h i s g e n e a l o g y i n h i s d e v e l o p i n g s e l f ( T r i s e l i o t i s , 1 9 7 3 ) . Y e t t h e a d o p t e d c h i l d must a l s o come t o f e e l a s e n s e o f b e l o n g i n g i n t h e a d o p t i v e home and i d e n t i f y w i t h t h e a d o p t i v e f a m i l y t o some e x t e n t . The a d o p t e e must i n t e g r a t e t h e c o n c e p t o f a d o p t i o n and what i t means w i t h t h e two s e t s o f p a r e n t s , a t a s k t h a t many a d o p t e e s h a v e g r e a t d i f f i c u l t y w i t h . The t a s k s u n i q u e t o b o t h a d o p t e e and a d o p t i v e p a r e n t 18 c a n be hampered by a number o f v a r i a b l e s t h a t w i l l be d i s c u s s e d when t h e e m p i r i c a l l i t e r a t u r e i s r e v i e w e d . A d o p t i v e f a m i l i e s h a v e a l s o b e e n v i e w e d as more v u l n e r a b l e t h a n o t h e r f a m i l i e s due t o t h e f o l l o w i n g f a c t o r s : 1. P r e g n a n c y s t r e s s - b i r t h m o t h e r s f a c i n g a d o p t i o n o f t h e i r b a b i e s may e x p e r i e n c e g r e a t e r s t r e s s and a n x i e t y w h i c h c a n h a v e p o s s i b l e e f f e c t s on t h e b aby i n u t e r o . 2. The c h i l d may h a v e b e e n e x p o s e d t o an a n x i e t y l a d e n a t m o s p h e r e i n t h e v e r y e a r l y months o f l i f e . 3. The a d o p t i v e p a r e n t s and t h e a d o p t e e a r e u n e s c a p e d l y a f f e c t e d by s o c i e t a l a t t i t u d e s t o w a r d i l l e g i t i m a c y , e i t h e r e x p l i c i t l y o r u n c o n s c i o u s l y . 4. A d o p t i o n i s n o t t h e p r e v a i l i n g p a t t e r n o f c h i l d r e a r i n g and t h e r e f o r e c o n s t i t u t e s a m i n o r i t y g r o u p ( P r i n g l e , 1967, p . 2 7 ) . T h e s e f a c t o r s s u g g e s t t h a t a d o p t i v e f a m i l i e s c a n f a c e h a n d i c a p s r i g h t f r o m t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e f o r m a t i o n o f t h e f a m i l y , a l t h o u g h none o f t h e s e f a c t o r s h a v e b e e n s y s t e m a t i c a l l y e x p l o r e d t o d e t e r m i n e t h e v a l i d i t y o f s u c h a v i e w . A t h e o r y o f a d o p t i v e r e l a t i o n s has b e e n o u t l i n e d by D a v i d K i r k ( 1 9 6 4 ; 1 9 8 1 ) , who i s h i m s e l f an a d o p t i v e p a r e n t . K i r k c o n d u c t e d a number o f r e s e a r c h p r o j e c t s o v e r a 10 y e a r p e r i o d ( p r i m a r i l y t h e 1 9 5 0 ' s ) on t h e s u b j e c t o f a d o p t i o n and a d o p t i v e p a r e n t h o o d . The r e s u l t o f h i s e n d e a v o r s p r o d u c e d h i s t h e o r y o f a d o p t i v e r e l a t i o n s . He p r o p o s e d t h a t t h e t r a n s i t i o n t o a d o p t i v e p a r e n t h o o d was c o n s i d e r a b l y more s t r e s s f u l t h a n t h e t r a n s i t i o n t o b i o l o g i c a l p a r e n t h o o d ( K i r k , 1 9 6 4 ) . K i r k ( 1 9 8 1) i d e n t i f i e d two m a i n themes t h a t s t o o d o u t i n d i f f e r e n t i a t i n g how a d o p t i v e f a m i l i e s c o p e d . A d o p t i v e p a r e n t s a p p e a r e d t o l e a r n t o c o p e w i t h t h e h a n d i c a p a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e i r u n i q u e r o l e by e i t h e r r e j e c t i n g t h e d i f f e r e n c e s o r a c k n o w l e d g i n g t h e d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n t h e i r f a m i l i e s and n o n - a d o p t i v e f a m i l i e s ( K i r k , 1 9 6 4 ) . 19 The \" r e j e c t i o n o f t h e d i f f e r e n c e \" c o p i n g m ethod s e r v e s t o deny t h a t t h e a d o p t i v e f a m i l y s i t u a t i o n i s d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h a t o f b i o l o g i c a l p a r e n t s , w h i l e t h e \" a c k n o w l e d g m e n t o f d i f f e r e n c e s \" c o p i n g m ethod s e r v e s t o a f f i r m t h e p e c u l i a r i t y o f t h e a d o p t i o n s i t u a t i o n ( K i r k , 1 9 6 4 ) . K i r k ( 1 9 6 4 ) a r g u e s t h a t i t i s t h e r e j e c t i o n o f d i f f e r e n c e s c o p i n g s t y l e t h a t p l a c e s t h e a d o p t i v e f a m i l y a t r i s k f o r a d j u s t m e n t p r o b l e m s b e c a u s e t h i s m ethod o f c o p i n g d o e s n o t p r o m o t e c o m m u n i c a t i o n among f a m i l y members a b o u t a d o p t i o n i s s u e s . He b e l i e v e s t h a t t h e r e j e c t i o n o f d i f f e r e n c e s a p p r o a c h may a s s u a g e t h e a d o p t e r s ' p a i n o f t h e i r own i n a b i l i t y t o h a v e b i o l o g i c a l c h i l d r e n , b u t d o e s n o t i n t h e l o n g r u n , f u r t h e r t h e a c h i e v e m e n t o f t h e i r f a m i l y ' s i n t e g r a t i o n ' ( K i r k , 1 9 8 1 ) . T h o s e p a r e n t s who a d o p t t h e a c k n o w l e d g m e n t o f d i f f e r e n c e s c o p i n g s t y l e f i n d t h i s c o p i n g b e h a v i o r c o n d u c i v e t o g o o d i n t e r p e r s o n a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n , a n d , t h e r e f o r e , t o o r d e r a n d s t a b i l i t y w i t h i n t h e f a m i l y ( K i r k , 1 9 6 4 ) . K i r k ( 1 9 8 1 ) a d m i t s t h a t one f a m i l y may n o t c o n s i s t e n t l y d e m o n s t r a t e t h e s e c o p i n g b e h a v i o r s , and t h a t m o s t f a m i l i e s w i l l m i x t h e two c o p i n g m e t h o d s i n t h e i r d a y t o d a y l i v e s . F o r e x a m p l e , t h e r e j e c t i o n o f d i f f e r e n c e s c o p i n g m e c h a n i s m may p r o v e t h e most s a t i s f y i n g mode o f a c c o m o d a t i o n f o r new a d o p t i v e p a r e n t s as i t a i d s t h e a d o p t e r s i n m o v i n g i n t o p a r e n t h o o d i n f e e l i n g t h a t t h e c h i l d i s t h e i r s ; b u t when t h e c h i l d i s o l d e n o u g h t o a s k q u e s t i o n s a b o o u t a d o p t i o n , t h e a c k n o w l e d g m e n t o f d i f f e r e n c e s c o p i n g b e h a v i o r s h o u l d t a k e p r e c e d e n c e . K i r k ( 1 9 6 4 ) r e i t e r a t e s t h a t p a r e n t a l c o p i n g must be o r i e n t e d t o w a r d t h e a c k n o w l e d g m e n t o f d i f f e r e n c e s method as c o n s i s t e n t l y as p o s s i b l e f o r s u c c e s s f u l a d o p t i v e f a m i l y r e l a t i o n s . A h i g h d e g r e e o f a c k n o w l e d g m e n t o f d i f f e r e n c e s b e h a v i o r i s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h empathy w i t h t h e c h i l d and w i t h t h e r e a d i n e s s o f a d o p t i v e p a r e n t s t o t h i n k o f t h e c h i l d ' s b i o l o g i c a l p a r e n t s ( K i r k , 1 9 8 1 ) . 20 T h e c a p a c i t y f o r c o m m u n i c a t i o n w i t h t h e a d o p t e e i s a l s o e n h a n c e d by t h e p a r e n t s ' r e a d i n e s s t o a c k n o w l e d g e t h e d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n b i o l o g i c a l and a d o p t i v e p a r e n t h o o d ( K i r k , 1964 ) . K i r k ( 1 9 6 4) b e l i e v e s t h a t a d o p t i v e p a r e n t s n e e d e d u c a t i o n f o r t h e i r s p e c i a l t a s k s a s t h e i r r o l e i s n o t l a i d down by t r a d i t i o n and l e a r n e d a u t o m a t i c a l l y i n t h e c o u r s e o f g r o w i n g up. He b e l i e v e s t h e r e i s a g e n u i n e p r o b l e m i n b e i n g t h e \" r e a l \" p a r e n t , and a t t h e same t i m e a c c e p t i n g t h e b i o l o g i c a l p a r e n t . K i r k ' s t h e o r y has b e e n w i d e l y a c k n o w l e d g e d by o t h e r p r o f e s s i o n a l s i n t h e a d o p t i o n f i e l d , b u t i t r e a l l y h as n o t been e x t e n s i v e l y t e s t e d by f u r t h e r e m p i r i c a l s t u d i e s . O t h e r a d o p t i o n r e s e a r c h e r s h a v e n o t u s e d t h e two d i f f e r e n t c o p i n g s t y l e s a s d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e s i n t h e i r s t u d i e s . In t h e p r e s e n t s t u d y an a t t e m p t was made t o l a b e l t h e s t u d y f a m i l i e s as RD o r AD, b a s e d on K i r k ' s p r e m i s e s , b u t i t was n o t e d t h a t e a c h f a m i l y a p p e a r e d t o u s e b o t h c o p i n g s t y l e s and no o v e r a l l j u d g e m e n t s c o u l d be made f o r any o f t h e s t u d y f a m i l i e s . F u r t h e r e m p i r i c a l r e s e a r c h i s n e e d e d i n t h i s a r e a t o more c l o s e l y c o r r e l a t e a c c e p t e d t h e o r y w i t h t h e c u r r e n t r e a l i t y o f a d o p t i v e f a m i l y r e l a t i o n s . B e c a u s e t h e f o c u s o f t h i s r e s e a r c h i s on t h e a d o p t e d a d o l e s c e n t and t h e f a m i l y , t h e i s s u e s u n i q u e t o t h e a d o p t e d a d o l e s c e n t w i l l be o u t l i n e d n e x t . The A d o p t e d A d o l e s c e n t F a m i l i e s w i t h a d o l e s c e n t c h i l d r e n f a c e - c h a l l e n g e s and s t r e s s e s w h i c h a r e u n i q u e t o t h i s s t a g e o f t h e f a m i l y l i f e c y c l e ( M a c k i e , 1 9 8 2 ) . I t i s a t i m e when a d o l e s c e n t s e x p e r i e n c e a r a p i d p e r i o d o f m a t u r a t i o n and b e g i n t o move t o w a r d i n d e p e n d e n c e f r o m t h e i r f a m i l i e s . T o n k i n ( 1 9 8 4) has o u t l i n e d f i v e d e v e l o p m e n t a l t a s k s t h a t f a c e t h e a d o l e s c e n t . The f i r s t t a s k i n v o l v e s a c c e p t i n g o n e ' s p h y s i q u e and l e a r n i n g how t o u s e i t e f f e c t i v e l y . T he s e c o n d 21 t a s k i n v o l v e s d e v e l o p i n g a p p r o p r i a t e s e x r o l e s and l e a r n i n g t o be c o m f o r t a b l e w i t h what i t means t o be m a l e o r f e m a l e i n o u r s o c i - e t y . The t h i r d t a s k i s t o a c h i e v e e c o n o m i c and e m o t i o n a l d e p e n d e n c e , e s p e c i a l l y f r o m t h e f a m i l y . F o u r t h , t h e a d o l e s c e n t must d e v e l o p a p p r o p r i a t e p e e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s , and l a s t l y , a d o l e s c e n c e e n d s w i t h t h e f i f t h d e v e l o p m e n t a l t a s k , d e v e l o p i n g an a d u l t l i f e s t y l e i n a r e a s o n a b l e , r a t i o n a l way ( T o n k i n , 1 9 8 4 ) . D u r i n g a d o l e s c e n c e i n t e l l e c t u a l m a t u r a t i o n a l s o t a k e s p l a c e as t h e a d o l e s c e n t r e a c h e s f o r m a l o p e r a t i o n a l t h o u g h t . E r i k E r i k s o n has g r e a t l y i n f l u e n c e d t h e l i t e r a t u r e on a d o l e s c e n t d e v e l o p m e n t w i t h h i s w r i t i n g on y o u t h and i d e n t i t y . H i s work has p r o v i d e d a t h e o r e t i c a l b a s i s f o r t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f what many b e l i e v e t o be t h e s i n g l e m ost c r i t i c a l a s p e c t o f p e r s o n a l i t y d e v e l o p m e n t d u r i n g a d o l e s c e n c e -i d e n t i t y f o r m a t i o n (Adams & M o n t e m a y e r , 1 9 8 3 ) . E r i k s o n ( 1 9 6 8 ) has d e s c r i b e d t h e e s s e n t i a l t a s k o f a d o l e s c e n c e as t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f a s e n s e o f i d e n t i t y . The t e r m i d e n t i t y has b e e n d e f i n e d by E r i k s o n ( 1 9 5 6 ) a s , \" a p e r s i s t e n t s a m e ness w i t h i n o n e s e l f and a p e r s i s t e n t s h a r i n g o f some k i n d o f e s s e n t i a l c h a r a c t e r w i t h o t h e r s \" ( p . 5 7 ) . E r i k s o n ( 1 9 6 8 ) r e i t e r a t e s t h a t t h i s s e a r c h f o r i d e n t i t y becomes e s p e c i a l l y a c u t e d u r i n g a d o l e s c e n c e as a r e s u l t o f r a p i d c h a n g e i n t h e b i o l o g i c a l , s o c i a l , a nd p s y c h o l o g i c a l s p h e r e s o f l i f e . A l l t h e s e d e v e l o p m e n t a l t a s k s a r e t h e same f o r a d o p t e d and n o n - a d o p t e d a d o l e s c e n t s , b u t many r e s e a r c h e r s b e l i e v e t h e f a c t o r o f a d o p t i o n c a n a g g r a v a t e o r a c c e n t u a t e some o f t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s i n h e r e n t d u r i n g t h i s s t a g e o f t h e f a m i l y l i f e c y c l e ( K i r k , 1964; S t o n e , 1972; T r i s e l i o t i s , 1973; S o r o s k y e t a l , 1 9 7 8 ) . E m p i r i c a l e v i d e n c e r e g a r d i n g t h e a d o l e s c e n t a d o p t e e s ' d e v e l o p m e n t i s l i m i t e d . Much o f t h e e x i s t i n g l i t e r a t u r e i s b a s e d on 22 c l i n i c i a n ' s t h e o r e t i c a l n o t i o n s g l e a n e d f r o m e x p e r i e n c e w i t h d i s t u r b e d a d o l e s c e n t a d o p t e e s , o r f r o m r e t r o s p e c t i v e p e r s o n a l a c c o u n t s by a d u l t a d o p t e e s . C o m p a r a t i v e s t u d i e s o f c l i n i c p o p u l a t i o n s o f a d o p t e d and n o n - a d o p t e d a d o l e s c e n t s h a v e p r o d u c e d c o n f l i c t i n g r e s u l t s . N e m o v i c h e r ( 1 9 6 0 ) c o n c l u d e d t h a t a d o p t e d a d o l e s c e n t b o y s were l e s s w e l l a d j u s t e d t h a n n o n - a d o p t e d p e e r s , w h i l e Mech ( 1 9 7 3 ) r e p o r t s t h a t no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s were f o u n d b e t w e e n a d o p t e d and c o n t r o l g r o u p s on m e a s u r e s o f a d j u s t m e n t . F r i s k ( 1 9 6 4 ) s t u d i e d 19 t e e n a g e r s a t t e n d i n g a p s y c h i a t r i c c l i n i c and n o t e d t h a t t h e y w e r e b a l a n c e d i n g e n e r a l b u t d e v e l o p e d p r o b l e m s i n a d o l e s c e n c e . He a t t r i b u t e d t h e i r p r o b l e m s t o c o n f u s i o n o f i d e n t i t y w h i c h l i k e l y c a u s e d an u n f a v o u r a b l e c o u r s e o f d e v e l o p m e n t i n t h e i r f a m i l y . G i v e n t h e i r s t a g e o f l i f e , and t h e v a r i o u s d e v e l o p m e n t a l i s s u e s f a c i n g them, r e s e a r c h e r s h a v e be e n a b l e t o e l u c i d a t e some s p e c i a l p r o b l e m s t h e a d o l e s c e n t m i g h t f a c e due t o h i s / h e r a d o p t i v e s t a t u s . I t i s n o t u n t i l e a r l y t o m i d d l e a d o l e s c e n c e t h a t c h i l d r e n r e c o g n i z e t h a t a d o p t i o n i n v o l v e s a l e g a l t r a n s f e r o f p a r e n t a l r i g h t s and r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s f r o m b i o l o g i c a l p a r e n t s t o a d o p t i v e p a r e n t s ( B r o d z i n s k y , S i n g e r & B r a f f , 1 9 8 1 ) . I t s t a n d s t o r e a s o n t h e n , t h a t w i t h t h i s new c o g n i t i v e s k i l l w i l l come new q u e s t i o n s . S o r o s k y e t a l ( 1 9 7 8 ) , who o b t a i n e d much o f t h e i r i n f o r m a t i o n t h r o u g h i n t e r v i e w s w i t h a d o p t e e s , b e l i e v e t h a t a d o l e s c e n t a d o p t e e s h a v e g r e a t e r d i f f i c u l t y w o r k i n g t h r o u g h t h e p s y c h o s e x u a l , p s y c h o s o c i a l and p s y c h o h i s t o r i c a l a s p e c t s o f t h e i r p e r s o n a l i t y d e v e l o p m e n t t h a n t h e i r n o n - a d o p t e d p e e r s . T h e s e i s s u e s w i l l be o u t l i n e d b e l o w . P s y c h o h i s t o r i c a l A s p e c t s . D u r i n g a d o l e s c e n c e a d o p t e e s r e f l e c t more d e e p l y upon t h e a d o p t i o n p r o c e s s . T h e y r e c o g n i z e t h e e l e m e n t o f c h a n c e t h a t p l a c e d 23 t hem i n one f a m i l y i n s t e a d o f a n o t h e r and t h e i r c u r i o s i t y a b o u t t h e b i o l o g i c a l p a r e n t s may be i n t e n s i f i e d ( B u r g e s s , 1 9 7 6 ) . As a r e s u l t , g e n e a l o g i c a l c o n c e r n s become more o f an i s s u e . T y p i c a l l y , a d o l e s c e n t s d o n ' t c o n c e r n t h e m s e l v e s t o o much w i t h t h e i r g e n e a l o g y o r a n c e s t r y , b u t f o r a d o p t e e s a l a c k o f k n o w l e d g e a b o u t t h e i r o r i g i n s c a n be a c a u s e o f m a l a d j u s t m e n t ( S o r o s k y e t a l , 1978 ) . W e l l i s c h ( 1 9 5 2 ) f i r s t d e s c r i b e d t h i s phenomenon and t e r m e d i t g e n e a l o g i c a l b e w i l d e r m e n t . A g e n e a l o g i c a l l y b e w i l d e r e d c h i l d i s one who e i t h e r h a s no k n o w l e d g e o f h i s n a t u r a l p a r e n t s , o r o n l y u n c e r t a i n k n o w l e d g e o f them ( S a n t s , 1 9 6 4 ) . The r e s u l t i n g s t a t e o f c o n f u s i o n and u n c e r t a i n t y u n d e r m i n e s t h e s e c u r i t y and t h u s a f f e c t s the. c h i l d ' s m e n t a l h e a l t h . A c c o r d i n g t o S a n t s ( 1 9 6 4 ) , who l a t e r e l a b o r a t e d on W e l l i s c h ' s t h e o r y , any c h i l d w i t h a t l e a s t one unknown p a r e n t i s s u s c e p t i b l e t o t h i s p r o b l e m . S a n t s u s e s t h e c h i l d r e n ' s s t o r y , The U g l y D u c k l i n g by Hans C h r i s t i a n A n d e r s o n , t o i l l u s t r a t e t h e p l i g h t o f t h e g e n e a l o g i c a l l y d e p r i v e d . The U g l y D u c k l i n g t e l l s t h e t a l e o f a swan who i s h a t c h e d i n a d u c k f a m i l y . The swan i s r e j e c t e d b e c a u s e he c a n ' t do what t h e o t h e r s i n t h e f a m i l y c a n do as a r e s u l t o f h i s d i f f e r e n t g e n e t i c endowment ( S a n t s , 1 9 6 4 ) . P e r s e c u t i o n l e a d s t o p o o r s e l f - e s t e e m , d e p r e s s i o n , and w a n d e r i n g as t h e u g l y d u c k l i n g s e a r c h e s f o r an i d e n t i t y . T h i s b i r d ' s d i f f i c u l t y , a c c o r d i n g t o S a n t s ( 1 9 6 4 ) , was t h a t none o f t h e d u c k s knew he was a swan, t h e y d i d n ' t know h i s g e n e a l o g y . C o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e y c o u l d n o t u n d e r s t a n d h i s s k i l l s o r h i s p o t e n t i a l . The u g l y d u c k l i n g n e e d e d t o i d e n t i f y w i t h o t h e r s i n o r d e r t o f e e l t h a t he b e l o n g e d , b u t he c o u l d n ' t i d e n t i f y w i t h t h e d u c k s t h a t d i f f e r e d so much f r o m h i m . S a n t s ( 1 9 6 4 ) c o n c l u d e s t h a t many a d o p t e d c h i l d r e n c a n f e e l l i k e t h e u g l y d u c k l i n g . T h i s c o n c e r n o v e r t h e i r g e n e a l o g y 24 may n o t a p p e a r a t e v e r y s t a g e o f d e v e l o p m e n t , b u t e v i d e n c e s u g g e s t s t h a t g e n e a l o g i c a l c o n c e r n s b e g i n i n e a r l y a d o l e s c e n c e ( S a n t s , 1 9 6 4 ) . In a r e t r o s p e c t i v e s t u d y o f a d u l t a d o p t e e s s e a r c h i n g f o r b a c k g r o u n d i n f o r m a t i o n o r b i r t h p a r e n t s , a l l o f t h e a d o p t e e s e m p h a s i z e d t h e i r n e e d t o know a b o u t t h e i r g e n e a l o g y i n o r d e r t o c o m p l e t e t h e m s e l v e s ( T r i s e l i o t i s , 1 9 7 3 ) . I t was d u r i n g a d o l e s c e n c e t h a t t h e y r e p o r t e d t h e m o s t i n t e n s e c u r i o s i t y and d e s i r e f o r t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n , e v e n when t h e i r p a r e n t s had g i v e n them i n f o r m a t i o n b e f o r e ( T r i s e l i o t i s , 1 9 7 3 ) . The s t r e n g t h o f t h e a d o p t e e s ' d e s i r e t o s e a r c h i n t o t h e i r b a c k g r o u n d s u s u a l l y r e f l e c t e d t h e t y p e o f f a m i l y r e l a t i o n s h i p s p r e v a i l i n g a t home. The more u n s a t i s f a c t o r y t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s w e r e , t h e g r e a t e r t h e a d o l e s c e n t s ' d e s i r e t o s e a r c h i n t o t h e i r b a c k g r o u n d s ( T r i s e l i o t i s , 1 9 7 3 ) . T r i s e l i o t i s ( 1 9 7 3 ) d i s c o v e r e d h o w e v e r , t h a t e v e n when s u c h f e e l i n g s were s t r o n g , o n l y a s m a l l number o f a d o p t e e s a c t e d on them, and t h e e v e n t u a l d e c i s i o n t o s e a r c h was m o t i v a t e d by some c r i s i s i n t h e a d o p t e e ' s s u b s e q u e n t a d u l t l i f e s i t u a t i o n . A l t h o u g h t h e t e r m \" i d e n t i t y c r i s i s \" h a s become an o v e r u s e d c l i c h e , f o r a d o l e s c e n t a d o p t e e s t h e t e r m may a p t l y d e s c r i b e what t h e y e x p e r i e n c e . E r i k s o n ( 1 9 6 8 ) s t a t e s t h a t i t i s n e c e s s a r y f o r t h e a d o l e s c e n t t o know a b o u t t h e p a s t i n o r d e r t o p l a n f o r t h e f u t u r e . T h i s i s a p e r i o d when a s y n t h e s i s o f t h e p a s t and f u t u r e t a k e s p l a c e . Where t h e p a s t i s v o i d , t h e r e i s an i n a b i l i t y t o make d e c i s i o n s a b o u t t h e f u t u r e so t h a t t h e a d o l e s c e n t t e n d s t o d r i f t ( S t o n e , 1 9 7 2 ) . F o r t h e a d o p t e d a d o l e s c e n t , t h e l a c k o f k n o w l e d g e a b o u t t h e p a s t c a n l e a d t o i d e n t i t y c o n f u s i o n and t r i g g e r i n t e n s e c u r i o s i t y a b o u t t h e i r o r i g i n s ( T r i s e l i o t i s , 1 9 7 3 ) . The a d o p t e d a d o l e s c e n t has t h e d i f f i c u l t t a s k o f i n t e g r a t i n g i n t o h e r i d e n t i t y two g e n e a l o g i e s , t h e one b e i n g t h a t t o w h i c h s h e i s bound by 25 a s o c i a l b o n d , and t h e o t h e r by a b i o l o g i c a l b ond ( M a c k i e , 1 9 8 2 ) . T h i s t a s k i s a g g r a v a t e d when t h e a d o p t e e has i n f o r m a t i o n r e g a r d i n g t h e b i o l o g i c a l p a r e n t s e i t h e r d i s t o r t e d o r w i t h h e l d f r o m h e r . T o u s s i e n g ( 1 9 6 2) has d e s c r i b e d a number o f c a s e s i n w h i c h a d o p t e d a d o l e s c e n t s s t a r t r o a m i n g a r o u n d a i m l e s s l y , t h o u g h o c c a s s i o n a l l y t h e y c l a i m t o be i n t e n t i o n a l l y s e e k i n g t h e f a n t a s i e d \" g o o d , r e a l p a r e n t s \" . T o u s s i e n g ( 1 9 6 2 ) : 6 a s ' i n t e r p r e t e d t h i s phenomenon as an a c t e d o u t s e a r c h f o r s t a b l e i n t r o j e c t s ( p e r s o n s w i t h whom t o i d e n t i f y ) t h a t were n e v e r p r o v i d e d by t h e a d o p t i v e p a r e n t s . F a n t a s i e s r e g a r d i n g t h e b i o l o g i c a l p a r e n t s c a n p r e o c c u p y t h e a d o l e s c e n t a d o p t e e as s h e t r i e s t o c r e a t e a p i c t u r e o f t h e p a s t b a s e d on what l i t t l e i n f o r m a t i o n m i g h t be a v a i l a b l e . When t h i n g s a r e g o i n g p o o r l y a t home t h e a d o p t e e c a n i m a g i n e t h e o t h e r p a r e n t s u n d e r s t a n d i n g h e r b e t t e r t h a n h e r a d o p t e r s ( B u r g e s s , 1 9 7 6 ) . A d o l e s c e n t f a n t a s i e s c a n a l s o be f o c u s e d on t h e n e g a t i v e a s p e c t s o f t h e i r h e r i t a g e and e x e m p l i f y f e e l i n g s o f abandonment and r e j e c t i o n . I t seems a p p a r e n t t h a t many a d o l e s c e n t a d o p t e e s h a v e a r e n e w e d n e e d t o know a b o u t t h e i r o r i g i n s o r r o o t s , and when t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o e x p l o r e them i s r e m o v e d , i n c r e a s e d a n x i e t y and s t r e s s may be t h e r e s u l t . T h e r e i s c o n s i d e r a b l e c o n t r o v e r s y r e g a r d i n g t h e e x t e n t o f t h e a d o p t e e ' s i n t e r e s t i n k n o w i n g a b o u t , o r m e e t i n g t h e b i o l o g i c a l p a r e n t s . Some r e s e a r c h e r s t h i n k t h e s e c o n c e r n s a r e common t o m o s t a d o l e s c e n t and y o u n g a d u l t a d o p t e e s ( S o k o l o f f , 1979; S o r o s k y e t a l , 1 9 7 8 ) , w h i l e o t h e r s b e l i e v e t h a t t h e c u r i o s i t y i s g r e a t e s t i n a d o p t i v e homes where t h e r e has b e e n s t r a i n e d r e l a t i o n s h i p s and d i f f i c u l t y c o m m u n i c a t i n g o p e n l y a b o u t t h e a d o p t i o n s i t u a t i o n ( T r i s e l i o t i s , 1973; R a y n o r , 1 9 8 0 ) . E i t h e r way, t h e a d o l e s c e n t ' s c u r i o s i t y d u r i n g t h i s t i m e c a n c a u s e t h e a d o p t i v e 26 p a r e n t s a g r e a t d e a l o f a n x i e t y . P s y c h o s e x u a l a s p e c t s . A d o l e s c e n t a d o p t e e s ' c o n t i n u i n g s e x u a l m a t u r a t i o n c a n p r o m o t e a s p e c i a l i n t e r e s t i n t h e n a t u r e o f t h e i r c o n c e p t i o n . I s s u e s o f s e x u a l i t y a r e h e i g h t e n e d i n a d o l e s c e n c e , and t h e a d o p t e e ' s s e x u a l g r o w t h may c h a l l e n g e t h e a d o p t i v e p a r e n t s ' u n r e s o l v e d c o n f l i c t s o v e r t h e i r own s e x u a l i t y o r i n f e r t i l i t y ( T o n k i n , 1 9 8 4 ) . The t e r m s \"bad b l o o d \" o r \"bad s e e d \" , h a v e b e e n u s e d i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e t o r e f e r t o p a r e n t s ' o f t e n s u p p r e s s e d f e a r t h a t t h e i r a d o p t e d c h i l d i s d e s t i n e d t o r e p e a t t h e r e a l o r i m a g i n e d m i s t a k e s o f t h e b i r t h p a r e n t s ( S h a p i r o & S e e b e r , 1 9 8 3 ) . T o n k i n ( 1 9 8 4 ) s t a t e s t h a t t h e s e b e l i e f s a b o u t t h e p r o m i s c u i t y o f t h e b i r t h m o t h e r may be p r o j e c t e d o n t o t h e a d o p t e e and a f f e c t t h e ways i n w h i c h e m e r g i n g s e x u a l i t y i s h a n d l e d w i t h i n t h e f a m i l y . T h i s , i n t u r n , c a n l e a d t o a s e l f - f u l f i l l i n g p r o p h e c y and t h e s e x u a l a c t i n g o u t by t h e f e m a l e a d o p t e e who may b e l i e v e t h a t bad t e n d e n c i e s w e r e t r a n s m i t t e d t o h e r t h r o u g h h e r b i o l o g i c a l p a r e n t s . A d o p t e d a d o l e s c e n t s a r e r e p o r t e d t o h a v e a g r e a t e r t e n d e n c y t o w a r d s e x u a l a c t i n g o u t , p a r t i c u l a r l y g i r l s who h a v e a p r o p e n s i t y t o i d e n t i f y w i t h an image o f a p r o m i s c u o u s b i o l o g i c a l m o t h e r ( S o r o s k y e t a l , 1 9 7 8 ) . R a y n o r ( 1 9 8 0 ) , i n a r e t r o s p e c t i v e s t u d y o f a d o p t i v e f a m i l i e s , r e p o r t e d t h a t t h e r e were s e v e r a l i n s t a n c e s o f s e x u a l a c t i n g o u t among g i r l s i n t h e s t u d y d u r i n g a d o l e s c e n c e . E r i k s o n ( 1 9 6 8 ) w r i t e s t h a t an i n d i v i d u a l who d o e s n o t h a v e a s e n s e o f i d e n t i t y w i l l a v o i d i n t e r p e r s o n a l i n t i m a c y , o r w i l l become i n v o l v e d i n s u p e r f i c i a l , p r o m i s c u o u s r e l a t i o n s h i p s . F o r t h e a d o l e s c e n t a d o p t e e p r o b l e m s i n s o l i d i f y i n g an i d e n t i t y may a l s o c r e a t e p r o b l e m s i n a c h i e v i n g s e x u a l m a t u r i t y . In a d d i t i o n , some c l i n i c a l e v i d e n c e i n d i c a t e s t h a t a d o p t e d a d o l e s c e n t s a r e more v u l n e r a b l e t o i n c e s t u o u s and s e x u a l a b u s e e x p e r i e n c e s t h a n a r e n o n - a d o p t e e s ( T o n k i n , 1 9 8 4 ) . The u n i v e r s a l i n c e s t t a b o o 27 i s r e m o v e d i n a d o p t i v e f a m i l i e s and t h i s may be a c o n t r i b u t i n g f a c t o r t o t h i s p r o b l e m . D a t i n g and h e t e r o s e x u a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s c a n a l s o b r i n g new a r e a s o f c o n f l i c t t o t h e a d o p t e d a d o l e s c e n t n o t a p p a r e n t w i t h t h e i r n o n - a d o p t e d p e e r s . O f t e n t h e l a c k o f k n o w l e d g e r e g a r d i n g t h e i r o r i g i n s r a i s e s q u e s t i o n s and c o n s c i o u s o r u n c o n s c i o u s f e a r s a b o u t d a t i n g a b i o l o g i c a l r e l a t i v e ( S o r o s k y e t a l , 1 9 7 8 ) . T h i s f e a r o f p o s s i b l e i n c e s t w i t h an unknown r e l a t i v e c a n i n c r e a s e t h e a n x i e t y t h e a d o l e s c e n t a l r e a d y f e e l s a b o u t d a t i n g and s e x . I t has a l s o b e e n r e p o r t e d t h a t m a l e and f e m a l e a d o p t e e s may d e m o n s t r a t e a c o m p u l s i v e u r g e t o p r o c r e a t e , t h e r e b y p r o v i d i n g them w i t h t h e i r f i r s t c o n t a c t w i t h a b l o o d r e l a t i v e ( S o r o s k y e t a l , 1 9 7 8 ) . A n o t h e r a r e a w here a d o p t e d a d o l e s c e n t s c a n h a v e s p e c i a l p r o b l e m s i s w i t h t h e i r p e e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s . P s y c h o s o c i a l a s p e c t s . In a d o l e s c e n c e , a c c e p t a n c e by p e e r s and s e x u a l a t t r a c t i v e n e s s a r e p a r a m o u n t . A f e e l i n g o f b e l o n g i n g i s v e r y i m p o r t a n t t o a d o l e s c e n t s and i f an a d o p t e e i s a l r e a d y f e e l i n g a s e n s e o f d i f f e r e n c e due t o h i s a d o p t i v e s t a t u s , any f u r t h e r e x p e r i e n c e o f i s o l a t i o n c a n i n c r e a s e f e e l i n g s o f r e j e c t i o n and abandonment ( S t o n e , 1 9 7 2 ) . A d o p t e d a d o l e s c e n t s who a r e ashamed o f t h e i r a d o p t i v e s t a t u s may a v o i d c l o s e r e l a t i o n s h i p s f o r f e a r o f b e i n g e x p o s e d . Some a d o p t e d a d o l e s c e n t s w i l l l o o k f o r a c c e p t a n c e i n a s o c i a l g r o u p t h a t i s b e l o w t h e s o c i a l l e v e l o f t h e i r f a m i l y . S o r o s k y e t a l ( 1 9 7 8 ) c o n c l u d e t h a t t h i s b e h a v i o r seems t o be an e f f o r t t o f i n d a g r o u p i d e n t i t y c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e p r e d e s t i n e d g r o u p t h e a d o l e s c e n t i m a g i n e s he b e l o n g s t o . In c o n t r a s t , o t h e r a d o p t e e s w i l l c o m p e n s a t e f o r t h e s e f e e l i n g s o f i n a d e q u a c y by w e a r i n g t h e i r a d o p t i o n as a b a d g e and r e a d i l y t e l l i n g e v e r y o n e ( S o r o s k y e t a l , 1 9 7 8 ) . A r e v i e w o f t h i s 28 l i t e r a t u r e seems t o i n d i c a t e t h a t how a d o l e s c e n t s f e e l a b o u t b e i n g a d o p t e d i s an i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r i n d e t e r m i n i n g how s u c c e s s f u l t h e i r p e e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i l l b e . In a d d i t i o n t o t h e t h r e e a s p e c t s o f a d o p t e d a d o l e s c e n t ' s p e r s o n a l i t y d e v e l o p m e n t t h a t h a v e b e e n d i s c u s s e d h e r e , t h e r e i s one o t h e r u n i q u e s i t u a t i o n t h a t s h o u l d be m e n t i o n e d - t h e a d o p t e e ' s p h y s i c a l a p p e a r a n c e . M o s t a d o l e s c e n t s e x p e r i e n c e a n x i e t i e s a b o u t t h e i r p h y s i c a l n o r m a l i t y ( T o n k i n , 1 9 8 4 ) . Whereas m o s t c h i l d r e n c a n l o o k t o t h e i r p a r e n t s o r o l d e r s i b l i n g s t o s e e what t h e y m i g h t e n d up l i k e , a d o p t e d c h i l d r e n c a n ' t do t h a t as t h e y h a v e no common g e n e s w i t h t h e i r f a m i l y g r o u p . A d o p t e d a d o l e s c e n t s d o n ' t know what t h e y a r e g o i n g t o l o o k l i k e , a nd t h i s i n c r e a s i n g c o n c e r n w i t h p h y s i c a l a p p e a r a n c e c a n l e a d a d o p t e e s t o t r y t o e x p l o r e t h e i r b i o l o g i c a l r o o t s more f u l l y ( T o n k i n , 1 9 8 4 ) . P a r n e l l ( 1 9 6 1 ) s t u d i e d how p h y s i c a l r e s e m b l a n c e b e t w e e n f a t h e r s and s o n s a f f e c t e d t h e i r c l o s e n e s s . N i n e h u n d r e d m a l e s t u d e n t s were s o m a t o t y p e d and i t was f o u n d t h a t 7 0 % o f t h o s e s t u d e n t s who g o t a l o n g w e l l w i t h t h e i r f a t h e r s had p h y s i q u e s v e r y s i m i l a r t o t h e m . Where t h e f a t h e r ' s and s o n ' s p h y s i q u e s were v e r y d i f f e r e n t , t h e p r o p o r t i o n o f s o n s who g o t a l o n g w e l l w i t h t h e i r f a t h e r s was r e l a t i v e l y low, 2 0 - 3 0 % . P a r n e l l ( 1 9 6 1 ) s u g g e s t s t h a t i m i t a t i o n o c c u r s much more r e a d i l y w here t h e p e r s o n t h e s o n w a n t s t o i m i t a t e i s s i m i l a r i n s o m a t o t y p e and g e n e t i c s t r u c t u r e t o b e g i n w i t h . In r e v i e w i n g t h i s s t u d y , S a n t s ( 1 9 6 4) c o n c l u d e s t h a t i f d i f f e r e n c e s i n g e n e t i c s t r u c t u r e b e t w e e n n a t u r a l f a t h e r and s o n c a n hamper i d e n t i f i c a t i o n s , i t seems more l i k e l y t h a t i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w i l l be e v e n more hampered when t h e r e i s no h e r e d i t a r y l i n k b e t w e e n f a t h e r and c h i l d . No f u r t h e r e m p i r i c a l s t u d i e s 29 h a v e be e n a b l e t o a s s e s s S a n t s 1 c l a i m , b u t i t seems p l a u s i b l e t h a t a l a c k o f p h y s i c a l s i m i l a r i t y i n t h e a d o p t i v e f a m i l y c a n i n c r e a s e t h e a d o l e s c e n t a d o p t e e s ' a n x i e t y r e g a r d i n g t h e i r p h y s i c a l a p p e a r a n c e . T h i s i s s u e w i l l be d i s c u s s e d a g a i n l a t e r i n t h e p a p e r . One f u r t h e r a s p e c t t h a t a d o p t i v e p a r e n t s may h a v e t o d e a l w i t h when t h e i r a d o p t e d c h i l d r e a c h e s a d o l e s c e n c e i s t h e a d o l e s c e n t ' s u s e o f a d o p t i o n t o g a i n c o n t r o l o v e r t h e p a r e n t s . E s t a b l i s h i n g i n d e p e n d e n c e i s an i m p o r t a n t t a s k d u r i n g a d o l e s c e n c e , and a d o p t e e s h a v e t h e i s s u e o f a d o p t i o n t o h e l p them. S t a t e m e n t s l i k e , \" I d o n ' t h a v e t o l i s t e n t o y o u , y o u a r e n ' t my r e a l m o t h e r \" , a r e u s e d by some a d o l e s c e n t s t o g a i n l e v e r a g e o v e r t h e i r p a r e n t s (Rowe, 1 9 7 9 ) . Rowe (1979) b e l i e v e s t h a t how t h e s u b j e c t o f a d o p t i o n i s h a n d l e d i n t h e f a m i l y i s an i m p o r t a n t i n d i c a t o r o f a d o l e s c e n t b e h a v i o r . I f a d o p t i o n has b e e n d i s c u s s e d o p e n l y and h o n e s t l y i n t h e home, t h e a d o l e s c e n t w i l l be l e s s l i k e l y t o u s e a d o p t i o n t o t r y t o w i n a f a m i l y a r g u m e n t (Rowe, 1 9 7 9 ) . Bohman ( 1 9 7 2 ) n o t i c e d i n h i s s t u d y o f a d o p t i o n w i t h a d o p t i v e p a r e n t s t h a t t h e y seemed t o f e a r t h e a d o l e s c e n t p e r i o d . The a d o p t i v e p a r e n t s f e l t i n s e c u r e a b o u t how t h e y m i g h t h a n d l e t h e t e e n a g e r ' s q u e s t i o n s a b o u t a d o p t i o n . The p a r e n t a l a n x i e t y f e l t d u r i n g t h i s s t a g e may h a v e i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r how t h e a d o l e s c e n t a d o p t e e w i l l d e a l w i t h h i s a d o p t i v e s t a t u s , i f t h e p a r e n t s f e e l a n x i o u s a b o u t i t , i t i s q u i t e l i k e l y t h a t t h e a d o l e s c e n t w i l l t o o . In o u t l i n i n g some o f t h e u n i q u e p r o b l e m s f a c i n g a d o p t e d a d o l e s c e n t s t h a t h a v e been r e p o r t e d i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e , i t i s c l e a r t h a t n o t a l l a d o p t e d a d o l e s c e n t s w i l l e x p e r i e n c e t h e s e d i f f i c u l t i e s . The theme r u n n i n g t h r o u g h t h e l i t e r a t u r e seems t o r e f l e c t t h e a d o p t e e s ' n e e d t o know a b o u t t h e i r o r i g i n s i n o r d e r t o e f f e c t i v e l y a c c o m p l i s h t h e d e v e l o p m e n t a l t a s k s l a i d o u t i n a d o l e s c e n c e . 30 E m p i r i c a l e v i d e n c e t o d i s p u t e o r s u p p o r t many o f t h e t h e o r e t i c a l v i e w s r e g a r d i n g t h e a d o p t e d a d o l e s c e n t i s g r o s s l y i n a d e q u a t e . Many o f t h e e m p i r i c a l s t u d i e s seem t o s t o p s h o r t o f r e c r u i t i n g a d o l e s c e n t s i n t h e i r s a m p l e s f o r r e a s o n s t h a t a r e u n c l e a r . T h i s i s r a t h e r c u r i o u s b e c a u s e t h e r e a r e many t h e o r e t i c a l i s s u e s t o d e b a t e r e g a r d i n g t h e a d o l e s c e n t a d o p t e e . The e m p i r i c a l r e s e a r c h t h a t has b e e n c o m p l e t e d on t h e a d o p t i v e f a m i l y , and t h e f r a m e w o r k i t b u i l d s i n u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e d y n a m i c s o f a d o p t i v e f a m i l y l i f e w i l l be e x a m i n e d n e x t . The E m p i r i c a l P i c t u r e o f A d o p t i o n S t u d i e s on t h e p r o c e s s o f a d o p t i o n h a v e , f o r t h e most p a r t , o r i g i n a t e d f r o m g e n e t i c r e s e a r c h e r s and c h i l d w e l f a r e o r g a n i z a t i o n s . F o r t h e r e s e a r c h e r s i n t e r e s t e d i n g e n e t i c s and t h e h e r e d i t y v s e n v i r o n m e n t c o n t r o v e r s y , a d o p t i v e f a m i l i e s a r e an i d e a l s u b j e c t p o o l . T h e s e s t u d i e s w i l l n o t be d i s c u s s e d i n t h i s l i t e r a t u r e r e v i e w as t h e a d o p t i o n s i t u a t i o n i s u s e d as a medium t o a s s e s s g e n e t i c c o n c e r n s and t h e y do n o t f o c u s on t h e s o c i a l o r i n t e r p e r s o n a l a s p e c t s o f t h e a d o p t i o n e x p e r i e n c e . R e s e a r c h t h a t h a s b e e n s t i m u l a t e d t h r o u g h t h e c h i l d w e l f a r e o r g a n i z a t i o n s h a s a t t e m p t e d t o d e t e r m i n e w h i c h f a c t o r s i n t h e c h i l d , a d o p t i v e p a r e n t s , and s o c i e t y i n f l u e n c e t h e a d o p t i v e p r o c e s s , and t o what e x t e n t t h i s p r o c e s s c a n be f o r e c a s t p r i o r t o p l a c e m e n t (Bohman, 1 9 7 2 ) . P s y c h i a t r i s t s and o t h e r h e l p i n g p r o f e s s i o n a l s became i n v o l v e d i n s t u d y i n g a d o p t i o n when i t was n o t i c e d t h a t a s i g n i f i c a n t number o f a d o p t e d c h i l d r e n w ere s h o w i n g up a t m e n t a l h e a l t h c l i n i c s . A number o f c l i n i c a l s t u d i e s h a v e b e e n done t o a s s e s s t h i s p r o b l e m - a n d t h e y w i l l be d i s c u s s e d i n t h e n e x t s e c t i o n . P r i o r t o t h e 1 9 6 0 1 s v e r y l i t t l e f o l l o w - u p r e s e a r c h had b e e n d o n e t o 31 a s s e s s t h e l o n g t e r m o u t c o m e o f a d o p t i v e p l a c e m e n t s . S o c i a l w o r k e r s who w e r e a s s e s s i n g a d o p t i v e a p p l i c a n t s and m a k i n g p l a c e m e n t s had l i t t l e f a c t u a l k n o w l e d g e o f t h e a d o p t i o n p r o c e s s t o r e l y o n . G r a d u a l l y t h e c h i l d w e l f a r e o r g a n i z a t i o n s b e g a n s t u d y i n g t h i s p r o c e s s i n o r d e r t o g e t b e t t e r i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t how a d o p t i o n w o r k s o u t a f t e r c h i l d p l a c e m e n t and what c o u l d be d one t o i m p r o v e p r a c t i c e and o u t c o m e (Bohman, 1 9 7 2 ) . The s t u d i e s on a d o p t i o n o u t c o m e h a v e u s u a l l y f o c u s e d on v a r i a b l e s w i t h i n t h e a d o p t i v e s i t u a t i o n s u c h a s t h e e f f e c t o f f a m i l y s t r u c t u r e , t h e age o f p a r e n t and c h i l d a t t h e t i m e o f p l a c e m e n t , and t h e r e s p o n s e o f c h i l d a nd p a r e n t t o t h e r e a l i t y o f a d o p t i o n . The d e v e l o p m e n t and a d j u s t m e n t o f a d o p t e d c h i l d r e n , and t h e i s o l a t i o n o f f a c t o r s i m p o r t a n t i n p r e d i c t i n g s u c c e s s o r f a i l u r e i n a d o p t i o n has a l s o b e e n s t u d i e d i n a number o f r e t r o s p e c t i v e s t u d i e s . T h i s e m p i r i c a l p i c t u r e o f a d o p t i o n w i l l be d i s c u s s e d i n t h e r e m a i n d e r o f t h i s c h a p t e r . C l i n i c a l s t u d i e s o f a d o p t e d c h i l d r e n . In 1960 M a r s h a l l S c h e c t e r , a p s y c h i a t r i s t , w r o t e a p a p e r on t h e i n c r e a s e d i n c i d e n c e o f p s y c h i a t r i c d i f f i c u l t i e s i n a d o p t e d c h i l d r e n . O v e r a f i v e y e a r p e r i o d o f p r i v a t e p r a c t i c e he had o b s e r v e d t h a t 13% o f t h e c h i l d r e n he saw were a d o p t e e s , w h i l e t h e e s t i m a t e d number o f a d o p t e e s i n t h e g e n e r a l c h i l d p o p u l a t i o n was o n l y a b o u t 1%. He c l a i m e d t h a t a d o p t e d c h i l d r e n were more l i a b l e t o r e q u i r e p s y c h i a t r i c a t t e n t i o n t h a n t h e i r i n c i d e n c e i n t h e g e n e r a l p o p u l a t i o n w o u l d s u g g e s t . S c h e c t e r ' s ( 1 9 6 0 ) o b s e r v a t i o n s were b a s e d on a s m a l l s a m p l e o f c h i l d r e n s e e n i n p r i v a t e p r a c t i c e , and h i s e s t i m a t e s o f t h e number o f a d o p t e e s i n t h e p o p u l a t i o n was e r r o n e o u s , b u t n o n e t h e l e s s , h i s a s s e r t i o n s r a i s e d many q u e s t i o n s among p r o f e s s i o n a l s i n t h e a d o p t i o n 32 f i e l d . Many t h e o r e t i c a l and c l i n i c a l p a p e r s h a v e b e e n w r i t t e n s i n c e t h e n as r e s e a r c h e r s h a v e t r i e d t o d i s c o v e r why a d o p t e d c h i l d r e n m i g h t be more v u l n e r a b l e t o e m o t i o n a l d i f f i c u l t i e s . Two m a j o r q u e s t i o n s s u r f a c e d i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e t h a t many r e s e a r c h e r s h a v e t r i e d t o a n s w e r : do a d o p t e d c h i l d r e n come t o t h e a t t e n t i o n o f p s y c h i a t r i c f a c i l i t i e s o u t o f p r o p o r t i o n t o t h e i r p r e s e n c e i n t h e g e n e r a l p o p u l a t i o n ; and do t h e c l i n i c a l symptoms d i f f e r b e t w e e n e m o t i o n a l l y d i s t u r b e d a d o p t e d and n o n - a d o p t e d c h i l d r e n ( O f f o r d , A p o n t e , & C r o s s , 1 9 6 9 ) . In t a c k l i n g t h e f o r m e r q u e s t i o n , S c h e c t e r , C a r l s o n , Simmons & Work ( 1 9 6 4 ) s u r v e y e d a number o f p u b l i c and p r i v a t e p s y c h i a t r i c c l i n i c s i n an a t t e m p t t o a s c e r t a i n p e r c e n t a g e s o f a d o p t e e s i n t r e a t m e n t . S c h e c t e r ' s e a r l i e r a s s e r t i o n s were s u p p o r t e d i n t h a t a l l o f t h e s e t t i n g s r e p o r t e d a h i g h e r p e r c e n t a g e o f a d o p t e e s t h a n w o u l d be e x p e c t e d f r o m t h e e s t i m a t e d p e r c e n t a g e o f a d o p t e e s i n t h e p o p u l a t i o n ( S c h e c t e r e t a l , 1 9 6 4 ) . O t h e r r e s e a r c h e r s who h a v e a s s e s s e d t h e p r e v a l e n c e o f e m o t i o n a l p r o b l e m s i n a d o p t e e s h a v e c o n c l u d e d t h a t a d o p t e d c h i l d r e n a r e r e f e r r e d f o r p s y c h i a t r i c t r e a t m e n t a n y w h e r e f r o m two t o f i v e t i m e s as f r e q u e n t l y as t h e i r n o n - a d o p t e d p e e r s ( T o u s s i e n g , 1962; Humphrey & O u n s t e d , 1964; Simon & S e n t u r i a , 1966; M c W h i n n i e , 19.67; Work & A n d e r s o n , 1971; Bohman, 1970; B r i n i c h , 1 9 8 0 ) . On t h e s u r f a c e , t h e s h e e r v o l u m e o f s t u d i e s s u p p o r t i n g t h e i n c r e a s e d i n c i d e n c e o f e m o t i o n a l d i f f i c u l t i e s i n a d o p t e e s a p p e a r t o p r e s e n t a c o n v i n c i n g c a s e , b u t t h e s e r e s u l t s s h o u l d be t r e a t e d c a u t i o u s l y . In a t t e m p t i n g t o a s c e r t a i n w h e t h e r more a d o p t e e s h a v e p s y c h i a t r i c d i f f i c u l t i e s i t i s r e l e v a n t t o know how many a d o p t e e s a r e i n t h e p o p u l a t i o n . O b t a i n i n g an a c c u r a t e s t a t i s t i c i s v e r y d i f f i c u l t b e c a u s e o f t h e number o f p r i v a t e a d o p t i o n s t h a t t a k e p l a c e u n r e c o r d e d , and t h e number o f s a m p l i n g v a r i a b l e s i n v o l v e d i n c o m p u t i n g s u c h 33 a s t a t i s t i c . I n t r a - f a m i l i a l ( r e l a t i v e ) a d o p t i o n s o r s t e p - p a r e n t a d o p t i o n s c o u l d be i n c l u d e d i n a g e n e r a l s t a t i s t i c t h u s s p u r i o u s l y i n f l a t i n g t h e a d o p t i o n r a t e s . A l s o , t h e m a j o r i t y o f t h e s e s t u d i e s h a v e b e e n b a s e d on r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l s a m p l e s and c l i n i c p o p u l a t i o n s t h a t a r e s e l f - s e l e c t e d , s o t h e s e f a c t o r s i n t h e m s e l v e s i n t r o d u c e p o t e n t i a l s o u r c e s o f b i a s . In a d d i t i o n , t h e age r a n g e o f p a t i e n t s , t h e s e x r a t i o , i n come l e v e l o f t h e f a m i l i e s and o t h e r r e l e v a n t v a r i a b l e s h a v e n o t b e e n c o m p a r a b l e a c r o s s s t u d i e s ( R e e c e & L e v i n , 1 9 6 8 ) . K i r k , J o n a s s o h n & F i s h ( 1 9 6 6 ) s t a t e t h a t a d o p t i v e f a m i l i e s a p p e a r t o r e p r e s e n t h i g h e r s o c i o - e c o n o m i c g r o u p s t h a t t e n d t o c o n t r i b u t e d i s p r o p o r t i o n a t e l y t o t h e c a s e l o a d s o f p r i v a t e p s y c h i a t r i c and c o u n s e l l i n g f a c i l i t i e s . G i v e n t h e number o f e x t r a n e o u s v a r i a b l e s and m e t h o d o l o g i c a l f l a w s i n h e r e n t i n t h i s k i n d o f r e s e a r c h i t i s d i f f i c u l t t o t r u l y a s c e r t a i n what t h e p e r c e n t a g e s o f a d o p t e e s s e e k i n g t r e a t m e n t a r e . The s t u d i e s a s s e s s i n g p r e s e n t i n g s y m p t o m a t o l o g y o f a d o p t e e s i n c l i n i c s a m p l e s h a v e f a r e d somewhat b e t t e r t h a n t h e i n c i d e n c e s t u d i e s . The m a j o r i t y o f t h e s e s t u d i e s u s e d c o n t r o l g r o u p s , and a l t h o u g h t h e y d i f f e r i n t h e i r d i a g n o s t i c c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s y s t e m s , m e t h o d s o f s e l e c t i o n and m a t c h i n g , t h e y do p r o v i d e a s o u n d e r b a s i s f o r g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s . M e n l o v e ( 1965) l o o k e d a t symptoms and d i a g n o s e s o f 51 a d o p t e e s m a t c h e d w i t h a c o n t r o l g r o u p o f n o n - a d o p t e d c h i l d r e n and r e p o r t e d t h a t more a d o p t e e s were d i a g n o s e d as h a v i n g a n t i - s o c i a l symptoms and s y n d r o m e s r e l a t e d t o a g g r e s s i v e b e h a v i o r t h a n t h e n o n - a d o p t e e s . A number o f o t h e r s t u d i e s h a v e p r o d u c e d s i m i l a r r e s u l t s ( S c h e c t e r e t a l , 1964; Simon & S e n t u r i a , 1966; R e e c e & L e v i n , 1968; L i f s h i t z , Baum, B a l g a r & C o h e n , 1 9 7 5 ) . A l t h o u g h some a d o l e s c e n t s were i n c l u d e d i n t h e c l i n i c s a m p l e s , i n most o f t h e s t u d i e s d i s c u s s e d t h e s u b j e c t s w e r e c h i l d r e n u n d e r 14 y e a r s o f a g e . 34 T o n k i n (1984) e s t i m a t e s t h a t p r i m a r y c a r e p h y s i c i a n s c a n e x p e c t t h a t a b o u t 1 i n e v e r y 50 a d o l e s c e n t s i n t h e i r p r a c t i c e i s a d o p t e d , and t h a t 1 i n e v e r y 10 o f t h e i r p r o b l e m c a s e s i s a d o p t e d . O f f o r d e t a l ( 1 9 6 9 ) a t t e m p t e d t o e v a l u a t e t h e o v e r a l l s e v e r i t y o f t h e a d o p t e d c h i l d ' s d i s t u r b a n c e and f o u n d t h a t a d o p t e d c h i l d r e n m a n i f e s t e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y more s e v e r e a n t i - s o c i a l b e h a v i o r i n t h e home, s c h o o l and community t h a n a m a t c h e d c o n t r o l g r o u p o f n o n - a d o p t e d e m o t i o n a l l y d i s t u r b e d c h i l d r e n . T h e s e r e s e a r c h e r s f u r t h e r c o n c l u d e d t h a t t h o s e c h i l d r e n a d o p t e d l a t e r t e n d e d t o h a v e more s e v e r e a n t i - s o c i a l symptoms. Humphrey & O u n s t e d ( 1 9 6 4 ) r e p o r t e d t h a t c h i l d r e n a d o p t e d a f t e r s i x months o f age w ere more p r o n e t o a n t i - s o c i a l c o n d u c t , p a r t i c u l a r l y s t e a l i n g and d e s t r u c t i v e b e h a v i o r , w h e r e a s t h o s e c h i l d r e n a d o p t e d i n e a r l y i n f a n c y d i d n o t d i f f e r i n symptoms f r o m n o n - a d o p t e d c h i l d r e n . T h e s e s t u d i e s s u p p o r t t h e v i e w t h a t e a r l y p l a c e m e n t i s a d v a n t a g e o u s t o t h e c h i l d . Some c o n f l i c t i n g r e s u l t s h a v e a l s o b e e n r e p o r t e d i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e . In a s t u d y a s s e s s i n g b o t h i n c i d e n c e and s y m p t o m a t o l o g y o f a d o p t e e s , i t was f o u n d t h a t a h i g h e r i n c i d e n c e o f a d o p t e d c h i l d r e n w ere p r e s e n t e d f o r p s y c h i a t r i c t r e a t m e n t , b u t t h e r e s e a r c h e r s c o u l d n o t d e t e c t any m a j o r d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e p r e s e n t i n g p r o b l e m s , o r i n t h e f a m i l y c i r c u m s t a n c e s t h a t d i f f e r e n t i a t e d t h e a d o p t e d and n o n - a d o p t e d g r o u p s (Sweeny, G a s b o r r o & G l u c k , 1 9 6 3 ) . In a w e l l c o n t r o l l e d s t u d y by A u s t a d & Simmons ( 1 9 7 8 ) , 33 a d o p t e d c h i l d r e n were a s s e s s e d on t h e i r p r e s e n t i n g symptoms. T h e y d i s c o v e r e d s u c h a v a r i e t y o f c o m p l a i n t s and s y m p t o m a t i c b e h a v i o r i n t h e c h i l d r e n t h a t no s i g n i f i c a n t t r e n d s a p p e a r e d t h a t c o u l d d i f f e r e n t i a t e t h e a d o p t e e s f r o m t h e n o n - a d o p t e d c h i l d r e n . What A u s t a d & Simmons ( 1 9 7 8 ) n o t i c e d h o w e v e r , was 35 t h e way t h e symptoms were d e s c r i b e d by t h e p a r e n t s i n t h e s a m p l e . T h e y seemed n o t so o f t e n c o n c e r n e d a b o u t t h e i r c h i l d ' s e m o t i o n a l w e l l - b e i n g as t h e y w ere u p s e t t h a t t h e i r a d o p t e d c h i l d r e n d i d n o t c o n f o r m t o e x p e c t a t i o n s ( A u s t a d & Simmons, 1 9 7 8 ) . The m a j o r i t y o f t h e a d o p t e d c h i l d r e n s ' symptoms f e l l i n t o f i v e m a j o r symptom c a t e g o r i e s - o p p o s i t i o n a l b e h a v i o r , a g g r e s s i v e b e h a v i o r , a n t i - s o c i a l a c t i n g o u t , a c a d e m i c p r o b l e m s , and d i f f i c u l t i e s i n p e e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s . A l t h o u g h t h e r e w ere no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n n o n - a d o p t e d and a d o p t e d c h i l d r e n i n t h e i r p r e s e n t i n g p r o b l e m s , t h i s s t u d y d o e s r e f l e c t o t h e r c l i n i c a l s t u d i e s i n t h a t t h e a d o p t e d c h i l d seems t o h a v e p r o b l e m s o f an a g g r e s s i v e and a n t i - s o c i a l n a t u r e . The r e s e a r c h e r s s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e s u r f a c e b e h a v i o r and symptoms b r i n g i n g t h e a d o p t e d c h i l d t o t r e a t m e n t may r e f l e c t p a r e n t - c h i l d i n t e r p e r s o n a l d i f f i c u l t i e s ( A u s t a d & Simmons, 1 9 7 8 ) . The e v i d e n c e p r e s e n t e d h e r e , a n d i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e , seems t o s u p p o r t t h e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t some a d o p t e d c h i l d r e n and a d o l e s c e n t s s e e n i n p s y c h i a t r i c s e t t i n g s d e m o n s t r a t e s e r i o u s a g g r e s s i v e and a n t i - s o c i a l b e h a v i o r , p a r t i c u l a r l y i f p l a c e m e n t i n an a d o p t i v e home was done p a s t e a r l y i n f a n c y . T h i s i s a p r o b l e m w o r t h y o f f u r t h e r s t u d y and v e r i f i c a t i o n s i n c e t h e o u t l i n e d symptoms a r e o f t e n d i f f i c u l t t o t r e a t and g e n e r a l l y p r e d i c t c o n f l i c t w i t h t h e law i f l e f t u n t r e a t e d ( R e e c e & L e v i n , 1 9 6 8 ) . Why some a d o p t e d c h i l d r e n m i g h t d e v e l o p e m o t i o n a l and b e h a v i o r a l p r o b l e m s has a l s o been s t u d i e d i n an a t t e m p t t o a s s e s s what f a c t o r s w i t h i n t h e a d o p t i v e f a m i l y m i g h t make t h e s e c h i l d r e n more v u l n e r a b l e t o d i f f i c u l t i e s . A number o f t h e o r i e s and h y p o t h e s e s h a v e been a d v a n c e d t o e x p l a i n t h e i n c r e a s e d v u l n e r a b i l i t y o f a d o p t e d c h i l d r e n . T h e s e t h e o r i e s and h y p o t h e s e s a r e d i s c u s s e d n e x t . 36 The e t i o l o g y o f p s y c h o l o g i c a l d i f f i c u l t i e s i n a d o p t e d c h i l d r e n . The m ost commonly c i t e d e x p l a n a t i o n f o r t h e a d o p t e e ' s p r o b l e m s a r e ; t h e a d o p t i v e p a r e n t s and t h e i r p e r s o n a l i t y p r o b l e m s , a n d i n t e r p e r s o n a l p r o b l e m s b e t w e e n p a r e n t and c h i l d ( L i f s h i t z e t a l , 1 9 7 5 ) . A t t e m p t i n g t o a s s e s s t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s among a d o p t i v e p a r e n t s ' p e r s o n a l i t i e s and a t t i t u d e s , and e m o t i o n a l d i s t u r b a n c e i n t h e i r c h i l d r e n i s , o f c o u r s e , v e r y d i f f i c u l t due t o t h e number o f v a r i a b l e s i n v o l v e d , and t h e d i f f i c u l t y i n a s s e s s i n g t h e s p e c i f i c d y n a m i c s t a k i n g p l a c e . I t i s t h e r e f o r e u n d e r s t a n d a b l e t h a t v e r y l i t t l e s o l i d e m p i r i c a l e v i d e n c e e x i s t s . T o u s s i e n g ( 1 9 6 2 ) p o s t u l a t e d t h a t t h e m a j o r r e a s o n f o r e m o t i o n a l d i s t u r b a n c e i n a d o p t e d c h i l d r e n i s an u n c o n s c i o u s and u n r e s o l v e d a v e r s i o n t o p a r e n t h o o d i n e i t h e r one o r b o t h p a r e n t s , p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e m o t h e r . A m o t h e r who has n o t r e s o l v e d , h e r c o n f l i c t a b o u t b e i n g a m o t h e r i s l i k e l y t o d e m o n s t r a t e t h i s c o n f l i c t i n h e r e a r l y r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h h e r c h i l d . T o u s s i e n g ( 1 9 6 2 ) w r i t e s : M o t h e r s who f e e l damaged i n n o t g i v i n g b i r t h and a r e i n c o n f l i c t a b o u t m o t h e r i n g t h e c h i l d , i n t e l l i n g t h e c h i l d a b o u t a d o p t i o n w i l l be l e s s s e n s i t i v e t o t h e c h i l d and w i l l be a p t t o c h o o s e t h e wrong t i m e , o r do i t i n a way t h a t p u s h e s t h e c h i I d f u r t h e r ' i n t o e m o t i o n a l d i f f i c u l t i e s and i n t o f a n t a s i e s r e g a r d i n g b i o l o g i c a l p a r e n t s , ( p . 6 4 ) . I s s u e s r e g a r d i n g i n f e r t i l i t y h a v e f r e q u e n t l y been c i t e d i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e as a r e a s o f p o t e n t i a l c o n f l i c t f o r a d o p t i v e p a r e n t s ( T o u s s i e n g , 1962; Humphrey & O u n s t e d , 1964; K i r k e t a l , 1966; W a l s h & L e w i s , 1969). I f t h e p a r e n t s a r e a d o p t i n g b e c a u s e t h e y c a n ' t h a v e a c h i l d o f t h e i r own, t h e i r f e e l i n g s a b o u t i n f e r t i l i t y and t h e f a c t t h a t t h e y m i s s t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f p r e g n a n c y and c h i l d b i r t h , a r e f a c t o r s t h a t c a n c o n t r i b u t e t o d i f f i c u l t i e s i n t h e i r s u b s e q u e n t r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h t h e a d o p t e d c h i l d ( H e r s o v , 1979). Humphrey and O u n s t e d ( 1 9 6 4 ) i n t e r v i e w e d 53 a d o p t i v e f a m i l i e s r e f e r r e d 37 f o r p s y c h i a t r i c a d v i c e i n an a t t e m p t t o i d e n t i f y p r e c i p i t a t i n g f a c t o r s t h a t m i g h t l e a d a d o p t i v e f a m i l i e s t o e x p e r i e n c e d i f f i c u l t i e s . T h e y i d e n t i f i e d a few f a c t o r s t h a t were u n i q u e t o t h e a d o p t i o n s i t u a t i o n . In o v e r h a l f t h e c a s e s t h e m o t h e r s were o v e r 30 y e a r s o f age when t h e y a d o p t e d t h e i r f i r s t c h i l d , and many o f them had 10 y e a r s o f c h i l d l e s s m a r r i a g e b e f o r e a d o p t i n g (Humphrey & O u n s t e d , 1 9 6 4 ) . A l t h o u g h i n t h e 1980's t h i s d o e s n ' t seem t o be t h a t r e l e v a n t a f a c t o r , Humphrey and O u n s t e d ( 1 9 6 4 ) s u g g e s t e d t h a t l a t e p a r e n t h o o d c o u l d h a v e an e f f e c t on t h e c h i l d ' s d e v e l o p m e n t b e c a u s e o l d e r p a r e n t s h a v e a t e n d e n c y t o be more o v e r p r o t e c t i v e , a n x i o u s and r i g i d . O t h e r r e s e a r c h e r s h a v e a l s o r e p o r t e d l a t e p a r e n t h o o d as a f a c t o r i n t h e s u b s e q u e n t a d j u s t m e n t o f some a d o p t e d c h i l d r e n ( M c W h i n n i e , 1 9 6 7 ; S o r o s k y e t a l 1 9 7 8 ) . W h e t h e r t h e c h i l d had b e e n p a r e n t a l l y d e p r i v e d b e f o r e a d o p t i o n a l s o e m e r g e d as a f a c t o r i n t h e Humphrey and O u n s t e d ( 1 9 6 4 ) s t u d y . M o s t a d o p t i o n w o r k e r s now e m p h a s i z e t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f e a r l y p l a c e m e n t f o r a d o p t i v e c h i l d r e n . They r e c o g n i z e t h e p o t e n t i a l s o u r c e o f s t r e s s on t h e c h i l d i n b e i n g p l a c e d i n a number o f t e m p o r a r y f a c i l i t i e s p r i o r t o a d o p t i o n . One s t u d y has shown t h a t i n f a n t s p l a c e d f o r a d o p t i o n who w e r e moved p r i o r t o t h e t i m e o f d e v e l o p i n g f o c u s e d a t t a c h m e n t s ( a r o u n d 5-6 m o n t h s ) , e x p e r i e n c e d v e r y l i m i t e d d i s t u r b a n c e , w h i l e t h o s e p l a c e d a f t e r t h i s t i m e e x p e r i e n c e d f a r g r e a t e r d i s t u r b a n c e and s t r e s s ( Y a r r o w & Goodman, 1 9 6 5 ) . These r e s u l t s s u p p o r t t h e c o n c l u s i o n s o f O f f o r d e t a l ( 1 9 6 9) t h a t c h i l d r e n p l a c e d a f t e r t h e age o f s i x months e x p e r i e n c e d more s e v e r e d i f f i c u l t i e s . Humphrey & O u n s t e d . ( 1 9 6 4 ) a l s o r e p o r t e d t h a t i n h a l f t h e s t u d y r e f e r r a l s , t h e d i s c l o s u r e o f a d o p t i o n had e i t h e r b e e n m i s h a n d l e d , a v o i d e d o r p o s t p o n e d 38 by t h e p a r e n t s . T h e r e w e r e s e v e r a l i n s t a n c e s where l e a r n i n g o f a d o p t i o n a t t h e wrong t i m e , o r i n t h e wrong way p r e c i p i t a t e d an e m o t i o n a l c r i s i s i n t h e c h i l d ' s l i f e . F e a r o f unknown h e r e d i t y was a n o t h e r f a c t o r t h a t e m e r g ed i n t h e s t u d y . The r e s e a r c h e r s n o t e d t h a t t h i s was u s u a l l y a r e a c t i o n t o t h e c h i l d ' s d e v i a n t b e h a v i o r . A d o p t i v e p a r e n t s h a v e t h e o p t i o n o f b e i n g a b l e t o d e t a c h t h e m s e l v e s f r o m t h e u s u a l p a r e n t a l g u i l t by d i s p l a c i n g t h e b l a m e f o r t h e c h i l d ' s b e h a v i o r o n t o g e n e t i c q u a l i t i e s ( S o r o s k y , B a r a n & P a n n o r , 1 9 7 6 ) . T h i s t e n d e n c y f o r some a d o p t i v e p a r e n t s t o b l a m e t h e i r c h i l d ' s p r o b l e m s on h e r e d i t y has b e e n w e l l d o c u m e n t e d i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e ( C l o t h i e r , 1943; E i d u s o n & L i v e r m o r e , 1953; E l o n e n & S c h w a r t z , 1969; W a l s h & L e w i s , 1969; R a y n o r , 1 9 8 0 ) . In a s t u d y o f a d o p t i v e m o t h e r s i n a c h i l d g u i d a n c e c l i n i c a common s o u r c e o f d i f f i c u l t y f o r them was t h e g u i l t t h e y f e l t a b o u t t a k i n g a c h i l d t h a t d i d n ' t b e l o n g t o them ( W a l s h & L e w i s , 1 9 6 9 ) . T h e s e m o t h e r s had a t e n d e n c y t o d e v e l o p a d e f e n s i v e a t t i t u d e and p r o j e c t t h e s e d i f f i c u l t i e s o n t o t h e c h i l d ' s h e r e d i t y . The p a r e n t s ' f e e l i n g s a b o u t g e t t i n g somewhat o f an unknown c o m m o d i t y when t h e y a d o p t a c h i l d c a n a f f e c t t h e s u b s e q u e n t p a r e n t - c h i l d r e l a t i o n s h i p i n t h a t t h e p a r e n t may become wary e a c h t i m e t h e c h i l d d e m o n s t r a t e s b e h a v i o r t h a t i s f o r e i g n t o t h e f a m i l y . O t h e r r e s e a r c h e r s h a v e c o n c l u d e d t h a t i n c o m p a t i b i l i t y b e t w e e n p a r e n t and c h i l d l e a d s t o e m o t i o n a l d i f f i c u l t i e s i n t h e a d o p t e d c h i l d ( J a c k s o n , 1 9 6 8 ) . J a c k s o n ( 1 9 6 8) d i s c o v e r e d t h a t n e i t h e r t h e e a r l y a d o p t i o n o f t h e c h i l d , n o r t h e manner, n o r t h e t i m e o f t e l l i n g t h e c h i l d a b o u t h i s a d o p t i v e s t a t u s were m a j o r f a c t o r s i n a l l e v i a t i n g e m o t i o n a l d i s t u r b a n c e i n a d o p t e e s . J a c k s o n ( 1 9 6 8) a l s o f o u n d t h a t i n t e l l e c t u a l and t e m p e r a m e n t a l i n c o m p a t i b i l i t y b e t w e e n a d o p t i v e p a r e n t and a d o p t e e was a p r o m i n e n t 39 f e a t u r e i n f o r t y c a s e s o f s e r i o u s l y d i s t u r b e d a d o p t e d c h i l d r e n . M i s m a t c h e s b e t w e e n p a r e n t and c h i l d i n t e m p e r a m e n t and c o p i n g s t y l e s has a l s o b e e n c i t e d by T o n k i n ( 1 9 8 4 ) as an a r e a where p a r e n t - c h i l d c o n f l i c t c a n emerge and f l o u r i s h . I t has a l s o b e e n h y p o t h e s i z e d t h a t a d o p t e d c h i l d r e n a r e n ' t more p r o n e t o d i s t u r b a n c e s t h a n t h e i r n o n - a d o p t e d p e e r s , and t h a t a d o p t i v e p a r e n t s a r e j u s t more a t t u n e t o p s y c h i a t r i c p r o b l e m s and a r e more a p t t o s e e k h e l p f o r t h e i r c h i l d r e n (Sweeny e t a l , 1 9 6 3 ) . O r , a d o p t i v e p a r e n t s a r e more o v e r -p r o t e c t i v e and a n x i o u s a b o u t t h e i r c h i l d r e n and h a v e a t e n d e n c y t o o v e r r e a c t t o n o r m a l d e v e l o p m e n t a l p h a s e s t h a t t h e i r c h i l d i s g o i n g t h r o u g h ( A u s t a d & Simmons, 1 9 7 8 ) . Many r e a s o n s h a v e a l s o been a d v a n c e d t h a t a t t e m p t t o e x p l a i n why e m o t i o n a l l y d i s t u r b e d a d o p t e d c h i l d r e n seem t o be p a r t i c u l a r l y p r o n e t o b e h a v i o r p r o b l e m s o f an a g g r e s s i v e o r a n t i - s o c i a l t y p e . Simon & S e n t u r i a ( 1 9 6 6 ) h a v e o u t l i n e d a f e w o f them: 1. The h o s t i l i t y b e t w e e n t h e p a r e n t s f o r t h e i n f e r t i l i t y i s p r o j e c t e d o n t o t h e a d o p t e d c h i l d . 2. The a d o p t e d c h i l d may a c t o u t t h e u n c o n s c i o u s h o s t i l e and s e x u a l i m p u l s e s o f one o f t h e p a r e n t s . 3. The s i t u a t i o n o f t h e s p e c i a l c h i l d s t o r y where t h e p a r e n t s a r e e n c o u r a g e d t o l e t t h e c h i l d know t h e y g o t h e r s p e c i a l l y , makes i t d i f f i c u l t f o r b o t h t h e c h i l d a nd h e r p a r e n t s t o o p e n l y e x p r e s s a n g r y f e e l i n g s t o w a r d one a n o t h e r . 4. P o t e n t i a l a d o p t i v e p a r e n t s a r e s u b j e c t e d t o s u c h e x t e n s i v e s c r u t i n y by a d o p t i o n a g e n c i e s t h a t when t h e y a r e c h o s e n t h e y h a v e s u c h a r e a c t i o n f o r m a t i o n a g a i n s t t h e i r u n c o n s c i o u s h o s t i l i t y t h a t i t makes i t d i f f i c u l t f o r them t o s e t r e a l i s t i c l i m i t s on t h e i r c h i l d . 5. The a d o p t e d c h i l d i n h i s e f f o r t s t o s t r u g g l e w i t h t h e p r o b l e m s o f who h i s r e a l p a r e n t s a r e and why t h e y g a v e him up, may h a v e a c o n s t a n t i d e n t i t y p r o b l e m and may i d e n t i f y w i t h h i s \" b a d \" b i o l o g i c a l p a r e n t s 40 T o n k i n ( 1 9 8 4) b e l i e v e s t h a t t h e a d o l e s c e n t who p r e s e n t s w i t h b e h a v i o r p r o b l e m s may be an a d o p t e e who has b e e n s e x u a l l y a b u s e d , i s o v e r p r o t e c t e d , o r a c t i n g o u t a p r o j e c t e d b a d s e e d t h e o r y -One l a s t f a c t o r t h a t s h o u l d be m e n t i o n e d h e r e as i t h a s b e e n p r o m i n e n t l y d i s c u s s e d i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e , i s t h e \" f a m i l y r o m a n c e f a n t a s y \" t h a t was f i r s t p o s t u l a t e d by Sigmund F r e u d ( 1 9 0 9 / 1 9 5 0 ) . The f a m i l y r o m a n c e f a n t a s y i s p u r p o r t e d l y a u n i v e r s a l phenomenon i n a l l c h i l d r e n . When any c h i l d r e n f e e l r e j e c t e d by t h e i r p a r e n t s t h e y h a v e a t e n d e n c y t o i m a g i n e t h e m s e l v e s w i t h o t h e r p a r e n t s who a r e more l o v i n g . F o r t h e a d o p t e d c h i l d t h e f a m i l y r o m a n c e f a n t a s y has a r e a l i t y b a s e . E i d u s o n & L i v e r m o r e ( 1 9 5 3 ) i n d i c a t e d t h a t d i s t u r b e d a d o p t e d c h i l d r e n c o u l d n o t s y n t h e s i z e t h e i r a m b i v a l e n t f e e l i n g s f o r t h e i r a d o p t i v e p a r e n t s b e c a u s e two a c t u a l s e t s o f p a r e n t s e x i s t e d , one s e t w h i c h c o u l d be d e s c r i b e d as b a d and t h e o t h e r s e t a s g o o d . E i d u s o n & L i v e r m o r e ( 1 9 5 3 ) c o n c l u d e d t h a t p a t i e n t s i n t h e i r s t u d y p e r c e i v e d t h e i r a d o p t i v e p a r e n t s as i n a d e q u a t e and v i e w e d t h e i r b i o l o g i c a l p a r e n t s as t h e i r a d e q u a t e s e t o f p a r e n t s . O t h e r r e s e a r c h e r s h a v e r a i s e d c o n c e r n s t h a t t h e f a m i l y r o m a n c e s y n d r o m e w o u l d f u r t h e r a s p l i t t i n g o f i d e n t i f i c a t i o n s b e t w e e n b i o l o g i c a l and a d o p t i v e p a r e n t s , and l e a v e t h e c h i l d a t r i s k f o r i d e n t i t y and e m o t i o n a l p r o b l e m s ( A n d r e w s , 1 9 8 0 ) . I t i s q u i t e a p p a r e n t t h a t t h e t h e o r i e s o u t l i n i n g t h e n a t u r e o f t h e a d o p t e e ' s e m o t i o n a l d i f f i c u l t i e s a r e as d i v e r s e as t h e r e a r e r e s e a r c h e r s s t u d y i n g t h e i s s u e s . W h i l e e nough c l i n i c a l e v i d e n c e e x i s t s t o a l l o w r e s e a r c h e r s t o c o n c l u d e t h a t t h e a d o p t i o n p r o c e s s c a n c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f e m o t i o n a l d i s t u r b a n c e , v e r y few e m p i r i c a l s t u d i e s h a v e be e n d o ne t o v a l i d a t e t h e d i v e r s e and c o n f u s i n g h y p o t h e s e s c o n c e r n i n g t h e s t r e s s 41 f a c t o r s i n t h e a d o p t i o n p r o c e s s . What c l i n i c a l and t h e o r e t i c a l p a p e r s do e x i s t , h a v e , as c a n be n o t e d i n t h i s r e v i e w , a d e c i d e l y p s y c h o a n a l y t i c b e n t t o them, w h i c h i s u n d e r s t a n d a b l e c o n s i d e r i n g t h e b u l k o f t h e c l i n i c a l r e s e a r c h was done d u r i n g t h e 1 9 6 0 1 s . The t h e o r e t i c a l p r o b a b i l i t y o f an a d o p t e d c h i l d b e i n g s e e n i n a p a r t i c u l a r p s y c h i a t r i c s e t t i n g seems t o be d e p e n d e n t on a c o m p l e x s e t o f c i r c u m s t a n c e s ' a n d v a r i a b l e s i n c l u d i n g , t h e c h i l d ' s age a t t h e t i m e o f a d o p t i o n , t h e p a r e n t s ' p a r t i c u l a r c o p i n g m e c h a n i s m s , and p a r e n t - c h i l d c o m p a t i b i l i t y ( A u s t a d & Simmons, 1 9 7 8 ) . A much s m a l l e r p r o p o r t i o n o f t h e a d o p t i o n l i t e r a t u r e has b e e n d e v o t e d t o t h e more n o r m a t i v e b e h a v i o r p a t t e r n s o f a d o p t e d and n o n - a d o p t e d c h i l d r e n . T h e s e n o n - c l i n i c a l s t u d i e s h a v e drawn t h e i r s a m p l e s o f a d o p t e d and n o n - a d o p t e d : c h i l d r e n f r o m t h e g e n e r a l p o p u l a t i o n and t h e r e f o r e s h o u l d be more e a s i l y g e n e r a l i z a b l e t h a n t h e c l i n i c s t u d i e s o f a d o p t e d c h i l d r e n . T h i s r e s e a r c h i s d i s c u s s e d n e x t . N o n - c l i n i c a l s t u d i e s o f a d o p t e d c h i l d r e n . As w i t h t h e c l i n i c a l r e s e a r c h , s t u d i e s w h i c h h a v e a s s e s s e d n o n - c l i n i c a l s a m p l e s o f a d o p t e e s h a v e a l s o p r o d u c e d m i x e d r e s u l t s . S e v e r a l s t u d i e s h a v e f a i l e d t o f i n d any s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n a d o p t e d and n o n - a d o p t e d c h i l d r e n i n t h e i r p e r s o n a l i t y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and a c a d e m i c o r e m o t i o n a l a d j u s t m e n t (Mikawa & B o s t o n , 1968; E l o n e n & S c h w a r t z , 1969; |_awder, Lower, A n d r e w s , Sherman & H i l l , 1969 ; N o r v e l l & Guy, 1 9 7 7 ) , w h i l e o t h e r r e s e a r c h e r s h a v e f o u n d s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n t h e two g r o u p s . L i n d h o l m & T o u l i a t o s ( 1 9 8 0 ) s t u d i e d a d o p t e d and n o n - a d o p t e d c h i l d r e n o f e l e m e n t a r y s c h o o l age a n d f o u n d t h a t t h e a d o p t e d c h i l d r e n w ere r a t e d by t h e i r t e a c h e r s as h a v i n g more c o n d u c t 42 d i s o r d e r s , p e r s o n a l i t y p r o b l e m s and s o c i a l i z e d d e l i n q u e n c y t h a n t h e i r n o n -a d o p t e d p e e r s . T h e y a l s o n o t e d t h a t b o y s t e n d e d t o e x p e r i e n c e more m a l a d j u s t m e n t t h a n g i r l s , and d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n t h e s e x e s were g r e a t e r f o r a d o p t e d t h a n n o n - a d o p t e d c h i l d r e n on t h e same t h r e e v a r i a b l e s ; c o n d u c t d i s o r d e r s , p e r s o n a l i t y p r o b l e m s and s o c i a l i z e d d e l i n q u e n c y ( L i n d h o l m & T o u l i a t o s , 1 9 8 0 ) . O t h e r r e s e a r c h e r s h a v e r e p o r t e d s i m i l a r r e s u l t s . Bohman ( 1 9 7 2 ) o b s e r v e d p o o r e r s c h o o l a d j u s t m e n t and a g r e a t e r i n c i d e n c e o f e m o t i o n a l p r o b l e m s i n 10-11 y e a r o l d a d o p t e d b o y s t h a n i n n o n - a d o p t e d b o y s , and he f o u n d no d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n t h e g i r l s i n t h e s t u d y . S e g l o w , P r i n g l e & Wedge (1972) f o u n d a l m o s t t h e i d e n t i c a l r e s u l t s when t h e y m e a s u r e d e m o t i o n a l m a l a d j u s t m e n t among s e v e n y e a r o l d s . The a d o p t e d b o y s d e m o n s t r a t e d g r e a t e r m a l a d j u s t m e n t t h a n t h e n o n - a d o p t e d b o y s , and a g a i n , no d i f f e r e n c e s w ere r e p o r t e d among t h e g i r l s ( S e g l o w e t a l , 1 9 7 2 ) . The f a c t t h a t a d o p t e d b o y s m i g h t m a n i f e s t more p r o b l e m s t h a n a d o p t e d g i r l s i s i n t e r e s t i n g i n l i g h t o f t h e e v i d e n c e t h a t s u g g e s t s t h a t a d o p t e d g i r l s show much more i n t e r e s t i n t h e i r a d o p t i o n t h a n do a d o p t e d b o y s ( F a r b e r , 1 9 7 7 ) . In a l o n g i t u d i n a l s t u d y o f a d o p t e e s f r o m b i r t h t h r o u g h t o l a t e n c y a g e , i t was r e p o r t e d t h a t f e m a l e s showed m a r k e d l y g r e a t e r i n t e r e s t , i n v o l v e m e n t , and a t t i m e s , s u g g e s t i o n s o f more c o n f l i c t a r o u n d t h e i d e a o f a d o p t i o n t h a n d i d t h e m a l e s i n t h e s t u d y ( F a r b e r , 1 9 7 7 ) . F e m a l e s t e n d e d t o d e m o n s t r a t e t h e most i n t e n s e i n t e r e s t i n t h e i d e a o f a d o p t i o n d u r i n g t h e a g e s 8 ' t h r o u g h ' 1 0 : F a r b e r ( 1 9 7 7 ) o b s e r v e d t h a t few m a l e s showed any i n t e r e s t i n t h e i d e a o f a d o p t i o n a t any t i m e . She c o n c l u d e d t h a t t h i s l a c k o f i n t e r e s t m i g h t be due t o d e f e n s i v e m a n e u v e r s t o a v o i d c o n f r o n t i n g t h e i d e a o f t h e i r a d o p t i o n . I f t h i s i s t h e c a s e , a d o p t e d b o y s m i g h t be o b s e r v e d t o e x p e r i e n c e more 43 b e h a v i o r p a t h o l o g y t h a n a d o p t e d g i r l s b e c a u s e t h e y a r e a c t i n g o u t t h e i r c o n f l i c t s , w h i l e t h e g i r l s h a v e a t e n d e n c y t o a s k q u e s t i o n s and v e r b a l i z e t h e i r f e e l i n g s more o f t e n i n o r d e r t o r e d u c e t h e i r c o n f l i c t o v e r t h e i s s u e s o f a d o p t i o n . C l e a r l y , t h i s p u r p o r t e d s e x d i f f e r e n c e n e e d s t o be more t h o r o u g h l y r e s e a r c h e d . A g a i n , as w i t h t h e c l i n i c s t u d i e s , i t i s d i f f i c u l t t o i n t e r p r e t t h e o v e r a l l p i c t u r e r e g a r d i n g a d o p t i o n and a d j u s t m e n t . Some o f t h e n o n - c l i n i c a l s t u d i e s s u f f e r f r o m t h e same m e t h o d o l o g i c a l f l a w s as t h e c l i n i c a l s t u d i e s ; s m a l l s a m p l e s , p o o r l y m a t c h e d c o n t r o l g r o u p s , n o n - c o m p a r a b l e m e a s u r e s and n o n - c o m p a r a b l e age g r o u p s . B r o d z i n s k y , S c h e c t e r , B r a f f & S i n g e r ( 1 9 8 3 ) , t r i e d t o remedy t h i s s i t u a t i o n by d e s i g n i n g a s t u d y t h a t w o u l d o v e r c o m e t h e m e t h o d o l o g i c a l f l a w s o f t h e p r e v i o u s r e s e a r c h . One h u n d r e d and t h i r t y a d o p t e d and 130 n o n - a d o p t e d c h i l d r e n drawn f r o m t h e g e n e r a l p o p u l a t i o n b e t w e e n 6-11 y e a r s o f a g e , were w e l l m a t c h e d on r e l e v a n t d e m o g r a p h i c and f a m i l y v a r i a b l e s . The c h i l d r e n were r a t e d by t h e i r m o t h e r s and by t h e i r t e a c h e r s on a number o f p s y c h o l o g i c a l and e d u c a t i o n a l v a r i a b l e s . O v e r a l l , t h e a d o p t e d c h i l d r e n w e r e r a t e d by t h e i r m o t h e r s as l o w e r i n s o c i a l c o m p e t e n c e , and as m a n i f e s t i n g more b e h a v i o r p r o b l e m s t h a n n o n -a d o p t e d c h i l d r e n . S i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s were n o t e d b e t w e e n a d o p t e d and n o n - a d o p t e d c h i l d r e n on d e p r e s s i o n , s o c i a l w i t h d r a w a l , h y p e r a c t i v i t y , d e l i n q u e n c y , a g g r e s s i o n and c r u e l t y ( B r o d z i n s k y e t a l , 1 9 8 3 ) . M o t h e r s o f a d o p t e d b o y s r a t e d t h e i r c h i l d r e n as h a v i n g more u n c o m m u n i c a t i v e b e h a v i o r , h y p e r a c t i v i t y , a g g r e s s i o n and d e l i n q u e n c y t h a n t h e r a t i n g s made by m o t h e r s o f n o n - a d o p t e d c h i l d r e n ( B r o d z i n s k y e t a l , 1 9 8 3 ) . A l t h o u g h i t c o u l d be a r g u e d t h a t t h e a d o p t i v e m o t h e r s i n t h i s s a m p l e were p e r h a p s j u s t more s e n s i t i v e t o t h e i r c h i l d r e n s 1 p r o b l e m s , o r p e r h a p s 44 t h e y o v e r r e a c t e d t o n o r m a l d e v e l o p m e n t a l i s s u e s , b u t r e s u l t s f r o m t h e t e a c h e r r a t i n g s c o n s i s t e n t l y i d e n t i f i e d a d o p t e e s as b e i n g more p r o b l e m a t i c t h a n t h e n o n - a d o p t e d c h i l d r e n . A d o p t e d c h i l d r e n showed p o o r e r a d j u s t m e n t t h a n t h e i r n o n - a d o p t e d p e e r s on e v e r y s i n g l e s c a l e m e a s u r e d - o r i g i n a l i t y , i n d e p e n d e n t l e a r n i n g , s c h o o l i n v o l v e m e n t , p r o d u c t i v i t y w i t h p e e r s , i n a t t e n t i o n , i n t e l l e c t u a l d e p e n d e n c y , f a i l u r e a n x i e t y , n e g a t i v e f e e l i n g s , u n r e f l e c t i v e n e s s , and i r r e v e l a n t t a l k ( B r o d z i n s k y e t a l , 1 9 8 3 ) . A d o p t e e s , b o t h b o y s and g i r l s , r e c e i v e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y l o w e r t e a c h e r r a t i n g s on s o c i a l c o m p e t e n c e and s c h o o l a c h i e v e m e n t , and s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r t e a c h e r r a t i n g s on s c h o o l -r e l a t e d p r o b l e m s and p s y c h o l o g i c a l p r o b l e m s t h a n n o n - a d o p t e d c h i l d r e n ( B r o d z i n s k y e t a l , 1 9 8 3 ) . T h e s e r e s u l t s a p p e a r t o s u p p o r t t h e v i e w t h a t a d o p t e d c h i l d r e n a r e more v u l n e r a b l e t h a n o t h e r c h i l d r e n t o e m o t i o n a l , b e h a v i o r a l and e d u c a t i o n a l p r o b l e m s . I t s h o u l d be n o t e d h o w e v e r , t h a t a l t h o u g h a d o p t e d c h i l d r e n were r a t e d as more p o o r l y a d j u s t e d i n c o m p a r i s o n t o n o n - a d o p t e d c h i l d r e n , t h e i r b e h a v i o r s t i l l f e l l w i t h i n t h e n o r m a l r a n g e , t h a t i s , t h e y d i d n o t m a n i f e s t r e a l l y s e v e r e p a t h o l o g y , b u t d i s p l a y e d more e x t r e m e f o r m s o f b e h a v i o r t h a n a r e f o u n d i n n o n - a d o p t e d c h i l d r e n ( B r o d z i n s k y e t a l 1 9 8 3 ) . In a d d i t i o n t o t h e c o m p a r a t i v e s t u d i e s t h a t h a v e b e e n c o m p l e t e d r e g a r d i n g t h e r e l a t i v e a d j u s t m e n t o f a d o p t e e s v s n o n - a d o p t e e s , a number o f f o l l o w - u p s t u d i e s h a v e b e e n c o m p l e t e d t h a t h a v e t r i e d t o i d e n t i f y t h e f a c t o r s l e a d i n g t o s u c c e s s f u l o r u n s u c c e s s f u l a d j u s t m e n t o f a d o p t i v e f a m i l i e s . M o s t o f t h e s t u d i e s on a d o p t i o n o u t c o m e a r e d e s c r i p t i v e i n n a t u r e and h a v e r e l i e d on i n t e r v i e w i n g t e c h n i q u e s t o o b t a i n t h e d a t a . Some o f t h e r e s e a r c h h as f o c u s e d on t h e a d o p t e d c h i l d s e v e r a l y e a r s a f t e r p l a c e m e n t i n an a d o p t i v e home ( R i p p l e , 1968; E l o n e n & S c h w a r t z , 1969; 45 Lawder, Lower, A n d r e w s , Sherman, & H i l l , 1969; Bohman, 1 9 7 2 ) , w h i l e o t h e r r e s e a r c h e r s h a v e i n t e r v i e w e d a d u l t a d o p t e e s r e g a r d i n g t h e i r a d o p t i o n e x p e r i e n c e s ( M c W h i n n i e , 1967; J a f f e e & F a n s h e l , 1970; T r i s e l i o t i s , 1973; S o r o s k y e t a l , 1 9 7 8 ) . One o f t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s i n t h i s a r e a o f a d o p t i o n r e s e a r c h i s t h a t by t h e t i m e t h e s t u d i e s a r e p u b l i s h e d and t h e i n f o r m a t i o n d i s s e m i n a t e d , t h e c o n d i t i o n s t o w h i c h t h e y r e l a t e may h a v e c h a n g e d ( P r i n g l e , 1 9 6 7 ) . B e c a u s e o f t h i s f a c t , g e n e r a l i z i n g t h e r e s u l t s o f t h e s e s t u d i e s t o new g e n e r a t i o n s o f a d o p t e e s and a d o p t i v e p a r e n t s must be done c a u t i o u s l y . T h i s r e s e a r c h s h o u l d be s e e n f o r what i t i s - a s g e n e r a l d e s c r i p t i v e i n f o r m a t i o n t h a t c a n h e l p one u n d e r s t a n d how a d o p t i o n i s e x p e r i e n c e d g i v e n t h e t i m e f r a m e and c i r c u m s t a n c e s o f t h e s t u d y . In s p i t e o f t h e l i m i t a t i o n s , t h e f o l l o w - u p r e s e a r c h o f f e r s t h e a d o p t i o n r e s e a r c h e r much new i n f o r m a t i o n on w h i c h t o b u i l d new h y p o t h e s e s . The r e m a i n d e r o f t h i s c h a p t e r w i l l d e a l w i t h t h e r e s u l t s and i m p l i c a t i o n s o f t h i s body o f r e s e a r c h . The f o l l o w - u p r e s e a r c h . The m a j o r i t y o f s t u d i e s a s s e s s i n g a d o p t i o n o u t c o m e r e p o r t t h a t m o s t a d o p t i v e f a m i l i e s do v e r y w e l l ( W i t m e r , H e r z o g , w e i n s t e i n , & S u l l i v a n , 1963; L a w d e r e t a l , 1 9 6 9 ) . W i t m e r e t a l ( 1 9 6 3 ) a s s e s s e d a d o p t i v e f a m i l y f u n c t i o n i n g a f t e r 10 y e a r s and r e p o r t e d t h a t 7 0 % o f t h e f a m i l i e s were f u n c t i o n i n g s u c c e s s f u l l y . S e v e n t y - t h r e e p e r c e n t o f t h e f a m i l i e s s t u d i e d by Lawder e t a l (1969) were r a t e d as g o o d o r s u p e r i o r i n t h e i r a d j u s t m e n t and f u n c t i o n i n g . O t h e r r e s e a r c h e r s h a v e r e p o r t e d s i m i l a r r e s u l t s ( K a d u s h i n , 1970; S e g l o w e t a l , 1972; R a y n o r , 1 9 8 0 ) . G e n e r a l c o n c l u s i o n s h a v e b e e n drawn b a s e d on t h i s k i n d o f r e s e a r c h t h a t t h e e n v i r o n m e n t i s v e r y i m p o r t a n t t o t h e c h i l d ' s d e v e l o p m e n t , and o v e r a l l , c h i l d w e l f a r e w o r k e r s c a n h a v e e v e r y c o n f i d e n c e i n a d o p t i o n as a v i a b l e 46 s u c c e s s f u l method o f c h i l d p l a c e m e n t ( R a y n o r , 1 9 8 0 ) . ... When E l o n e n & S c h w a r t z ( 1 9 6 9 ) c o n d u c t e d a f o l l o w - u p s t u d y o f a d o p t i v e f a m i l i e s , t h e y c o n c l u d e d t h a t a d o p t i o n p e r s e was n o t a c a u s a t i v e f a c t o r i n t h e e m o t i o n a l p r o b l e m s o f a d o p t e d c h i l d r e n , b u t r a t h e r t h e p r o b l e m s stemmed f r o m t h e a d o p t i v e p a r e n t s ' r e a c t i o n s t o t h e i r c h i l d r e n , t h e i r q u e s t i o n s and f e e l i n g s , and t o t h e i m p o r t a n t e v e n t s i n f a m i l y l i f e . Ten p e r c e n t o f t h e s e p a r e n t s r e p o r t e d t h a t t h e i r a d o p t e d c h i l d h ad b e e n u p s e t i n a d o l e s c e n c e a b o u t b e i n g a d o p t e d . L a wder e t a l ( 1 9 6 9 ) r e p o r t i n t h e i r r e s e a r c h on 200 a d o p t i v e f a m i l i e s , s a t i s f a c t i o n i n p a r e n t r o l e , warmth and a f f e c t i o n t o w a r d t h e c h i l d , and a c c e p t a n c e o f a d o p t i v e r o l e were more i m p o r t a n t v a r i a b l e s f o r s u c c e s s f u l a d j u s t m e n t t h a n m a r i t a l s a t i s f a c t i o n , c o m m u n i c a t i o n a b o u t a d o p t i o n , o r r o l e c o m p a t i b i l i t y . I s o l a t i n g what v a r i a b l e s m i g h t p r o m o t e more s u c c e s s f u l a d j u s t m e n t i n a d o p t i v e f a m i l i e s i s d i f f i c u l t , a n d t h e r e s u l t s o f r e s e a r c h e r s ' e f f o r t s a r e s t i l l r a t h e r c o n f u s i n g . However, t h e r e d o e s seem t o be a g r e e m e n t r e g a r d i n g some v a r i a b l e s ' s i g n i f i c a n c e . I t i s g e n e r a l l y a g r e e d t h a t t h e p e r s o n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e a d o p t i v e p a r e n t s and t h e i r a t t i t u d e s h a v e g r e a t b e a r i n g on t h e o u t c o m e o f an a d o p t i o n , w h i l e t h e i r s o c i o - e c o n o m i c s t a t u s , i n c o m e , and e d u c a t i o n a p p e a r t o be i n c o n s e q u e n t i a l (Bohman, 1 9 7 2 ) . P l a c e m e n t o f a c h i l d s h o u l d be d one as e a r l y as p o s s i b l e , b u t t h e r e i s some d i s a g r e e m e n t as t o when i s t h e most a d v a n t a g e o u s t i m e ; and a t l e a s t one s t u d y f o u n d no r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n a c h i l d ' s age a t p l a c e m e n t and a d j u s t m e n t ( R i p p l e , 1 9 6 8 ) . I t i s a l s o g e n e r a l l y a g r e e d t h a t a c h i l d s h o u l d be t o l d e a r l y a b o u t h i s a d o p t i v e s t a t u s , b u t t h e r e i s some d i s s e n s u s r e g a r d i n g what age i s most a p p r o p r i a t e f o r d i s c l o s u r e ; and i n one s t u d y 47 i t was r e p o r t e d t h a t a d o p t e e s who d i d n ' t know t h e y were a d o p t e d d i d n o t d i f f e r f r o m a d o p t e e s who d i d know, i n t h e q u a l i t y o f r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h t h e i r p a r e n t s , o r t h e d e g r e e o f p s y c h o p a t h o l o g y t h e y m a n i f e s t e d as a d u l t s ( E l d r e d , R o s e n t h a l , Wender, K e t y , S c h u l s i n g e r , W e l n e r , & J a c o b s e n , 1 9 7 6 ) . I t seems a p p a r e n t t h a t t r y i n g t o a s s e s s g l o b a l f a c t o r s o f a d j u s t m e n t and a d o p t i o n o u t c o m e i s a f o r m i d a b l e t a s k t h a t n e c e s s i t a t e s c o n t r o l l i n g f o r , and m e a s u r i n g a c o m p l e x number o f v a r i a b l e s . T h i s i s p e r h a p s why t h e s t a t e o f a d o p t i o n r e s e a r c h h a s n o t p r o g r e s s e d t e c h n i c a l l y , o r m e t h o d o l o g i c a l l y , and s t i l l r e l i e s on d e s c r i p t i v e r e s e a r c h t o a l a r g e d e g r e e . However, i t i s f r o m t h i s d e s c r i p t i v e r e s e a r c h t h a t some o f t h e r i c h e s t d a t a e m e r g e s . The most t h o r o u g h a c c o u n t s o f t h e a d o p t i o n e x p e r i e n c e h a v e b e e n o b t a i n e d f r o m a d u l t a d o p t e e s a n d / o r t h e i r p a r e n t s i n r e t r o s p e c t i v e s t u d i e s . T h e s e r e t r o s p e c t i v e s t u d i e s must r e l y on t h e p a r t i c i p a n t ' s \" c a n d o r i n r e s p o n d i n g t o q u e s t i o n s , and i n t h e i r a b i l i t y t o a c c u r a t e l y r e c a l l e v e n t s and f e e l i n g s t h a t t o o k p l a c e i n t h e p a s t . However, t h e p a r t i c i p a n t ' s p e r c e p t i o n o f e v e n t s , i s a v a l i d r e f l e c t i o n o f t h e i r p e r c e i v e d e x p e r i e n c e s and a d d s d e p t h t o t h e i n f o r m a t i o n o b t a i n e d . The i n f o r m a t i o n g l e a n e d f r o m t h e s e s t u d i e s p r o v i d e s a more s o l i d b a s e f o r r e s e a r c h , and t h e p r e s e n t s t u d y has e v o l v e d l a r g e l y f r o m t h i s d a t a . The r e t r o s p e c t i v e s t u d i e s . A l e x i n a M c W h i n n i e ( 1 9 6 7 ) was t h e f i r s t r e s e a r c h e r t h a t t r u l y e x a m i n e d t h e a d o p t i o n e x p e r i e n c e f r o m t h e p e r s p e c t i v e o f t h e a d u l t a d o p t e e . M c W h i n n i e ( 1 9 6 7 ) i n t e r v i e w e d 58 a d o p t e d a d u l t s a g e d 18 t o 60 and c o n c l u d e d t h a t , \" w i t h i n t h e a d o p t i v e home t h e r e a r e p o t e n t i a l p r o b l e m s o f a d j u s t m e n t v e r y d i f f e r e n t i n k i n d f r o m t h e n o r m a l p r o b l e m s o f b i o l o g i c a l p a r e n t - c h i l d r e l a t i o n s h i p s , and t h a t t h e s e c a n r e l a t e t o t h e 48 w h o l e a r e a o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n and a t t i t u d e s a b o u t a c h i l d ' s a d o p t i v e s t a t u s \" ( p . 4 0 7 ) . One o f t h e r e s e a r c h f i n d i n g s was t h a t f a m i l y c o m m u n i c a t i o n r e g a r d i n g a d o p t i o n was l i m i t e d , and when i t o c c u r r e d i t was u s u a l l y one way, f r o m p a r e n t t o c h i l d ( M c W h i n n i e , 1 9 6 7 ) . Even t h o u g h t h e a d o p t e e s w e r e c u r i o u s , t h e y were r e l u c t a n t t o b r i n g i t up and w a i t e d f o r t h e i r p a r e n t s t o m e n t i o n i t . M c W h i n n i e ( 1 9 6 7 ) s u g g e s t e d t h a t p a r e n t s m i g h t n e e d h e l p w i t h c o m m u n i c a t i n g t h e f a c t s o f a d o p t i o n t o t h e i r c h i l d r e n b e c a u s e i t a p p e a r e d t o be s u c h a c l o s e d s u b j e c t a t home. I f c o m m u n i c a t i o n b r e a k s down i n t h e a d o p t i v e f a m i l y , M c W h i n n i e ( 1 9 6 7 ) b e l i e v e s t h a t t h e a d o p t e e w i l l s e e k t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n o u t s i d e t h e home. W h i l e e x p l o r i n g t h e i s s u e s r e g a r d i n g b i o l o g i c a l p a r e n t s , i t was n o t e d t h a t a l t h o u g h many a d o p t e e s t a l k e d o f w a n t i n g i n a d o l e s c e n c e t o meet t h e i r b i o l o g i c a l p a r e n t s , t h e y were e m p h a t i c t h a t t h e y d i d n o t want t h e s e p a r e n t s t o know who t h e y w e r e . O n l y 5 o f t h e 58 a d o p t e e s i n t e r v i e w e d , v i e w e d a r e u n i o n as a way o f f i n d i n g a m o t h e r who w o u l d u n d e r s t a n d them b e t t e r t h a n t h e i r a d o p t i v e f a m i l y ( M c W h i n n i e , 1 9 6 7 ) . T h e s e f i n d i n g s t e n d t o c o n f i r m t h e v i e w t h a t a d o l e s c e n c e i s t h e t i m e when q u e s t i o n s r e g a r d i n g o r i g i n s b e g i n t o p e r c o l a t e , and f u r t h e r s u g g e s t s t h a t i n most c a s e s , t h i s c u r i o s i t y d o e s n o t i n d i c a t e a n e e d f o r r e u n i o n w i t h b i o l o g i c a l p a r e n t s , b u t r a t h e r i t i s a s e a r c h f o r i n f o r m a t i o n r e o r i g i n s . M c W h i n n i e ( 1 9 6 7 ) a l s o n o t e d t h a t a l t h o u g h a d o l e s c e n c e i s a t i m e o f i n t e n s e c u r i o s i t y , t h e r e i s a p e r i o d a r o u n d age 9 when t h e r e i s l i k e l y t o be a g r e a t d e a l o f d i s c u s s i o n a b o u t p a r e n t s and a d o p t i o n among t h e a d o p t e e ' s p e e r s . She s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h i s m i g h t be a goo d t i m e f o r p a r e n t - c h i l d d i s c u s s i o n on t h e s u b j e c t ( M c W h i n n i e , 1 9 6 7 ) . B a s e d on what s h e had f o u n d i n t h e i n t e r v i e w s w i t h a d u l t a d o p t e e s , 49 M c W h i n n i e (1968) e x t e n d e d h e r r e s e a r c h t o i n c l u d e g r o u p c o u n s e l l i n g s e s s i o n s w i t h a d o p t i v e p a r e n t s . Two a r e a s o f d i s c u s s i o n were c l e a r l y a v o i d e d by t h e p a r e n t s ; d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e b i o l o g i c a l m o t h e r , and d i s c u s s i o n a b o u t how much b a c k g r o u n d i n f o r m a t i o n r e g a r d i n g t h e i r c h i l d t h e y c o u l d remember. M c W h i n n i e (1968) c o n c l u d e d t h a t a n x i e t y a b o u t a d o p t i o n l i e s w i t h t h e p a r e n t s , n o t t h e c h i l d , a n d t h a t t h e y f e e l a m b i v a l e n t a b o u t b r i n g i n g up someone e l s e ' s c h i l d . M c W h i n n i e ( 1 9 6 8 ) a l s o n o t i c e d t h a t a l l t h e p a r e n t s i n t h e g r o u p e x p r e s s e d a n x i e t y a b o u t t h e i r c h i l d as an a d o l e s c e n t . The p a r e n t s seemed t o f e e l t h r e a t e n e d by t h i s p a r t i c u l a r s t a g e o f d e v e l o p m e n t and w o n d e r e d w h e t h e r t h e y w o u l d c o p e a d e q u a t e l y as p a r e n t s when t h e i r c h i l d r e n r e a c h e d a d o l e s c e n c e . T h e s e f i n d i n g s s u p p o r t Bohman's (1972) o b s e r v a t i o n s t h a t a d o p t e d p a r e n t s f e e l a n x i o u s a b o u t t h e a d o l e s c e n t s t a g e and wonder how t h e y w i l l c o p e . I f many p a r e n t s a l r e a d y f e e l a n x i o u s a b o u t t h e i r c h i l d ' s a d o l e s c e n t y e a r s , t h e s e f i n d i n g s s u g g e s t t h a t t h i s p a r e n t a l a n x i e t y may s e t t h e s t a g e f o r , o r p r o m o t e , p a r e n t - c h i l d c o n f l i c t as t h e c h i l d r e a c h e s a d o l e s c e n c e . A n o t h e r i n t e r e s t i n g f i n d i n g i n t h e M c W h i n n i e ( 1 9 6 8 ) s t u d y was t h a t some o f t h e e x t e n d e d f a m i l y members o f a d o p t i n g c o u p l e s who a l r e a d y had b i o l o g i c a l c h i l d r e n , were n o t i n f a v o u r o f a d o p t i o n . T h i s was p a r t i c u l a r l y t r u e o f t h e g r a n d p a r e n t s , some o f who were q u i t e r e j e c t i n g o f t h e a d o p t e d c h i l d ( M c W h i n n i e , 1 9 6 8 ) . T h e s e f a m i l y p r e j u d i c e s w o u l d f u r t h e r s e r v e t o c r e a t e a n x i e t y among t h e a d o p t i v e p a r e n t s , and one c a n o n l y s p e c u l a t e as t o t h e e f f e c t t h i s a t t i t u d e m i g h t h a v e on t h e a d o p t e d c h i l d . T he c o n c e r n o f g r a n d p a r e n t s r e g a r d i n g a d o p t i o n , and t h e i r r e s e r v a t i o n s a b o u t t h e i r own c h i l d r e n a d o p t i n g has bee n r e p o r t e d i n some o t h e r s t u d i e s ( R i p p l e , 1968; J a f f e e & F a n s h e l , 1970; R a y n o r , 1 9 8 0 ) . 50 R e s e a r c h i n t o a d o p t i o n o u t c o m e became more p o p u l a r d u r i n g t h e 1970's, and two f o l l o w - u p s t u d i e s w e r e u n d e r t a k e n t h a t t o o k a n o v e l a p p r o a c h t o t h e e x a m i n a t i o n o f a d o p t i o n o u t c o m e ( J a f f e e & F a n s h e l , 1970; J a f f e e , 1974; R a y n o r , 1 9 8 0 ) . A d o p t i v e p a r e n t s and t h e i r a d u l t a d o p t e d c h i l d r e n were i n t e r v i e w e d s e p a r a t e l y t o e x p l o r e t h e ways i n w h i c h a d o p t i o n had a f f e c t e d t h e i r l i v e s . J a f f e e & F a n s h e l ( 1 9 7 0 ) r e p o r t e d on t h e p e r c e p t i o n s o f 100 a d o p t i v e p a r e n t s c o n c e r n i n g t h e d e v e l o p m e n t and a d j u s t m e n t o f t h e i r a d o p t e d c h i l d r e n . In a d d i t i o n , 33 o f t h e p a r e n t s ' a d o p t e d c h i l d r e n t o o k p a r t i n t h e s t u d y . The r e s u l t i n g s e t s o f r e p o r t s w e r e t h e n c o m p a r e d t o o b t a i n a t w o -g e n e r a t i o n p o r t r a i t o f a d o p t i o n o u t c o m e . R a y n o r ( 1 9 8 0) f o l l o w e d a s i m i l a r r e s e a r c h d e s i g n when s h e s t u d i e d t h e a d o p t i o n e x p e r i e n c e o f 60 a d u l t a d o p t e e s and t h e i r a d o p t i v e p a r e n t s . B o t h s t u d i e s c o n s t r u c t e d t h e i r own m e a s u r e s o f f a m i l y a d j u s t m e n t , and an a t t e m p t was made t o i d e n t i f y f a m i l i e s t h a t had a c h i e v e d g o o d a d j u s t m e n t and t h o s e who had f a r e d p o o r l y . As c o u l d be e x p e c t e d , a w i d e r a n g e o f l i f e a d j u s t m e n t was f o u n d w i t h i n e a c h s a m p l e , f r o m a d o p t e e s w i t h s e r i o u s a d j u s t m e n t p r o b l e m s , t o o t h e r s who had e x p e r i e n c e d u n e v e n t f u l l i v e s . However, w i t h i n t h e s e s a m p l e s some f a i r l y c o n s i s t e n t t h e m e s were d i s c o v e r e d . O n l y t h e m o s t s a l i e n t f i n d i n g s w i l l be d i s c u s s e d h e r e b e c a u s e t h e m a s s i v e amounts o f d a t a o b t a i n e d i n t h e s e s t u d i e s w o u l d make r e c o u n t i n g a l l t h e r e s e a r c h f i n d i n g s much t o o l e n g t h y f o r t h e p u r p o s e s o f t h i s r e v i e w . J a f f e e & F a n s h e l ( 1 9 7 0 ) f o u n d t h a t o v e r a l l , t h e a d o p t e e s and t h e i r p a r e n t s p r e s e n t e d c o n g r u e n t a c c o u n t s o f t h e n a t u r e o f t h e a d o p t e e ' s f u n c t i o n i n g o v e r t h e y e a r s , p a r t i c u l a r l y w i t h r e g a r d t o t h e a d o p t e e ' s a c a d e m i c f u n c t i o n i n g , s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s , c u r r e n t r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h p a r e n t s , 51 and d e g r e e o f c l o s e n e s s i n t h e f a m i l y . In t h e a r e a s r e f l e c t i n g a d o p t i o n i s s u e s t h e r e s u l t s w ere m a r k e d l y d i f f e r e n t . T h e r e was i n t e r g e n e r a t i o n a l d i s a g r e e m e n t r e g a r d i n g t h e p a r e n t s ' v i e w o f a d o p t e e s a t i s f a c t i o n w i t h t h e i n f o r m a t i o n g i v e n r e t h e b i o l o g i c a l p a r e n t s , and t h e a d o p t e e s ' v i e w s o f t h e amount o f i n f o r m a t i o n r e c e i v e d . O n e - q u a r t e r o f t h e a d o p t i v e p a r e n t s f e l t t h a t t h e y had g i v e n f u l l i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t t h e b i o l o g i c a l p a r e n t s t o t h e c h i l d , w h i l e o n l y 1/10 o f t h e a d o p t e e s f e l t t h a t t h e i r p a r e n t s had g i v e n them f u l l and t r u t h f u l i n f o r m a t i o n ( J a f f e e & F a n s h e l , 1 9 7 0 ) . More t h a n h a l f t h e a d o p t e e s s a i d t h e y had p r e s s e d f o r more i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t t h e b i o l o g i c a l p a r e n t s , b u t o n l y 1/5 o f t h e a d o p t i v e p a r e n t s g a v e t h e same r e p o r t ( J a f f e e , 1 9 7 4 ) . In an a t t e m p t t o e x p l a i n t h e s e f i n d i n g s , J a f f e e and F a n s h e l ( 1 9 7 0 ) s u g g e s t e d t h a t when a d o p t e e s a s k e d f o r i n f o r m a t i o n t h e y d i d i t i n s u c h a t e n t a t i v e manner t h a t t h e p a r e n t s d i d n ' t r e c o g n i z e what t h e y w a n t e d . R a y n o r ( 1 9 8 0 ) n o t i c e d t h a t a d o p t i v e p a r e n t s f e l t a s e n s e o f i n s e c u r i t y when i t came t o t a l k i n g a b o u t t h e b i o l o g i c a l p a r e n t s and b a c k g r o u n d i n f o r m a t i o n , e v e n when p a r e n t and c h i l d h ad a g o o d r e l a t i o n s h i p , and e v e n when t h e c h i l d became an a d u l t . O f t e n t h e s e p a r e n t s f a i l e d t o p a s s on b a c k g r o u n d i n f o r m a t i o n t h a t m i g h t h a v e h e l p e d t o i n c r e a s e t h e c h i l d ' s p o s i t i v e s e l f - i m a g e ( R a y n o r , 1 9 8 0 ) . B a r a n , P a n n o r & S o r o s k y ( 1 9 7 4 ) i n t e r v i e w e d 60 a d o p t i v e p a r e n t s r e g a r d i n g t h e i r a t t i t u d e s a b o u t t h e b i o l o g i c a l p a r e n t s and b a c k g r o u n d i n f o r m a t i o n , and d i s c o v e r e d t h a t t h e p a r e n t s were e x t r e m e l y p r o t e c t i v e o f t h e i r c h i l d ' s p o s s i b l e e n c o u n t e r w i t h t h e b i o l o g i c a l p a r e n t s . They e x p r e s s e d c o n c e r n a b o u t t h e i r c h i l d b e i n g h u r t by a r e u n i o n and were a d a m a n t l y o p p o s e d t o b i o l o g i c a l p a r e n t s i n i t i a t i n g a r e u n i o n . - A l t h o u g h 52 t h e c o u p l e s e x p r e s s e d i n t e r e s t i n h a v i n g f a c t u a l i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t t h e b a c k g r o u n d s o f t h e i r a d o p t e d c h i l d r e n , i t was c l e a r t h a t t h e i r g r e a t e s t a r e a o f c o n c e r n , and where t h e y n e e d e d t h e m o s t h e l p , r e l a t e d t o t h e i r f e e l i n g s and a t t i t u d e s t o w a r d s t h e b i o l o g i c a l p a r e n t s . The r e s o l u t i o n o f t h e a m b i v a l e n c e t h e y f e l t t o w a r d t h e m d e t e r m i n e d , f o r t h e m o s t p a r t , how t h e y d e a l t w i t h t h e s e i s s u e s when c o n f r o n t e d by t h e i r c h i l d r e n ( B a r a n e t a l , 1 9 7 4 ) . T h e r e now a p p e a r s t o be c o n s i d e r a b l e a g r e e m e n t among r e s e a r c h e r s t h a t b o t h t h e c h i l d ' s and t h e p a r e n t ' s f e e l i n g s a b o u t t h e b i o l o g i c a l p a r e n t s a r e o f c e n t r a l i m p o r t a n c e when e x a m i n i n g a d o p t i v e f a m i l y f u n c t i o n i n g . The r e s e a r c h f i n d i n g s s u g g e s t t h a t a d o p t i v e p a r e n t s h a v e a t e n d e n c y t o f e e l d e f e n s i v e a b o u t t h e i s s u e s i n v o l v i n g b i o l o g i c a l p a r e n t s , and t h a t a d o p t e e s h a v e a t e n d e n c y t o f e e l u n c o m f o r t a b l e and g u i l t y r e q u e s t i n g s u c h i n f o r m a t i o n f r o m t h e i r p a r e n t s . A d o p t e e s who d i d p r e s s f o r more b a c k g r o u n d i n f o r m a t i o n t e n d e d t o e n c o u n t e r more p e r s o n a l and s o c i a l p r o b l e m s and t o e x p e r i e n c e p e r s o n a l i t y d i f f i c u l t i e s as t h e y grew up ( J a f f e e , 1 9 7 4 ) . R a y n o r ( 1 9 8 0 ) f o u n d t h a t a d e s i r e t o make c o n t a c t w i t h t h e b i o l o g i c a l p a r e n t s was r e l a t e d b o t h t o a d o p t e e s a t i s f a c t i o n and t o a d j u s t m e n t . T h o s e a d o p t e e s who had a d e s i r e t o c o n t a c t b i o l o g i c a l p a r e n t s w e r e v i e w e d as b e i n g l e s s h a p p y i n t h e a d o p t i v e home and l e s s w e l l a d j u s t e d t h a n a d o p t e e s who d i d n o t h a v e t h i s d e s i r e ( R a y n o r , 1 9 8 0 ) . However, o u t o f t h e 160 a d o p t e e s i n t e r v i e w e d by R a y n o r , o n l y 21 w i s h e d t o a c t u a l l y meet t h e i r b i o l o g i c a l p a r e n t s , w h i l e a l m o s t a l l o f them s a i d t h e y w o u l d welcome more i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t t h e m s e l v e s . A g a i n , t h e a d o p t e e s ' f e e l i n g s s u g g e s t t h a t a need f o r i n f o r m a t i o n , r a t h e r t h a n a n e e d f o r a r e u n i o n w i t h a b i o l o g i c a l p a r e n t i s a t t h e r o o t o f t h e i r c u r i o s i t y . T r i s e l i o t i s ( 1 9 7 3 ) e x a m i n e d t h e 53 d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n a g r o u p o f a d o p t e e s who were m a i n l y s e e k i n g b a c k g r o u n d i n f o r m a t i o n and a g r o u p o f a d o p t e e s s e a r c h i n g f o r b i o l o g i c a l p a r e n t s i n a r e t r o s p e c t i v e s t u d y c o n d u c t e d i n S c o t l a n d . He c o n c l u d e d t h a t a l m o s t a l l t h e a d o p t e e s who d e s c r i b e d t h e i r home l i f e and f a m i l y r e l a t i o n s h i p s as u n s a t i s f a c t o r y were now s e a r c h i n g f o r t h e b i o l o g i c a l p a r e n t s , w h i l e a s i g n i f i c a n t number o f t h o s e who p e r c e i v e d t h e i r f a m i l y r e l a t i o n s h i p s a s s a t i s f a c t o r y w ere s e a r c h i n g m a i n l y f o r b a c k g r o u n d i n f o r m a t i o n . T r i s e l i o t i s ( 1 9 7 3 ) w r o t e : t h e m a j o r i t y o f a d o p t e e s s e a r c h i n g f o r t h e i r o r i g i n s c o n v e y e d a p i c t u r e o f a l i e n a t i o n a n d p o o r s e l f - i m a g e w h i c h t h e y g e n e r a l l y a t t r i b u t e d t o d e p r i v i n g e x p e r i e n c e s w i t h i n t h e a d o p t i v e home. The s e a r c h f o r b a c k g r o u n d i n f o r m a t i o n was g e n e r a l l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a b e t t e r s e l f -i mage and a more s a t i s f a c t o r y home l i f e ( p . 9 1 ) . T h e s e f i n d i n g s p o i n t e d t o t h e i m p o r t a n c e and q u a l i t y o f f a m i l y r e l a t i o n s h i p s as t h e p r i m a l f o r c e t h a t d e t e r m i n e d t h e s e a r c h and i n f l u e n c e d i t s o b j e c t i v e s ( T r i s e l i o t i s , 1 9 7 3 ) . A c a v e a t s h o u l d be a d d e d h e r e h o w e v e r , as m o s t o f t h e a d o p t i o n s i n t h e T r i s e l i o t i s s t u d y t o o k p l a c e d u r i n g t h e 1940's and 1 9 5 0 ' s . A d o p t e e s o f t h e s e g e n e r a t i o n s had n o t b e e n e x p o s e d to- t h e s e a r c h i n g c o n t r o v e r s y t h a t has become p o p u l a r i z e d i n t h e m e d i a d u r i n g t h e l a s t few y e a r s . The m e d i a a t t e n t i o n and a d o p t i o n r e f o r m p u b l i c s u p p o r t t h a t t h i s i s s u e has r e c e i v e d , h a s moved i t away f r o m t h e s e c r e t i v e , t a b o o t o p i c i t was 30 y e a r s ago i n t o t h e m a i n s t r e a m o f most a d o p t e e s ' l i v e s . T o d a y m o s t a d o p t e e s a r e aware o f t h e s e a r c h i n g i s s u e and t h e c o n t r o v e r s y i t s t i r s among t h e p a r t i e s o f t h e a d o p t i o n t r i a n g l e . F o r t h i s r e a s o n t h e r e s u l t s o f t h e T r i s e l i o t i s ( 1 9 7 3 ) s t u d y h a v e l o s t some o f t h e i r g e n e r a l i z a b i l i t y t o t h e g e n e r a t i o n s o f a d o p t e e s t o d a y . The r e s u l t s o f t h i s s t u d y h a v e h o w e v e r , r e i n f o r c e d t h e p o p u l a r v i e w ( a l t h o u g h i t i s d i m i n i s h i n g ) t h a t a d o p t e e s must be d i s t u r b e d t o want t o s e a r c h 54 f o r p a r e n t s who h a d r e l i n q u i s h e d them a t b i r t h . T h i s v i e w h as f o s t e r e d f e a r and g u i l t i n a d o p t i v e p a r e n t s who ha v e i n q u i s i t i v e c h i l d r e n , and g u i l t and a m b i v a l e n c e i n a d o p t e e s who h a v e a n e e d t o know o f t h e i r o r i g i n s . S o r o s k y e t a l ( 1 9 7 6 ) f o u n d t h a t t h e n e e d t o s e a r c h f o r t h e b i o l o g i c a l p a r e n t s p r o v e d t o be r e l a t e d more t o t h e i n n a t e p e r s o n a l i t y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e a d o p t e e and l e s s t o t h e n a t u r e o f t h e a d o p t i v e f a m i l y r e l a t i o n s h i p when t h e y s t u d i e d s e a r c h m o t i v a t i o n i n a g r o u p o f a d u l t a d o p t e e s . P a r e n t a l s a t i s f a c t i o n h a s be e n u s e d i n t h e p a s t as one o f t h e m a j o r c r i t e r i a o f a d o p t i o n o u t c o m e . When a d o p t i v e p a r e n t s i n t h e J a f f e e & F a n s h e l ( 1 9 7 0 ) s t u d y w e r e q u e r i e d as t o t h e i r o v e r a l l s a t i s f a c t i o n as a d o p t i v e p a r e n t s t h e y g e n e r a l l y r e s p o n d e d f a v o u r a b l y . The m a j o r i t y o f a d o p t i v e p a r e n t s d i d n o t a t t r i b u t e any p r o b l e m s e x p e r i e n c e d t o a d o p t i o n p e r s e , o r t o t h e i r c h i l d ' s a d o p t i v e s t a t u s . E v e n p a r e n t s w i t h p r o b l e m c h i l d r e n r e p o r t e d l i t t l e c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e i r c h i l d r e n s ' a d j u s t m e n t d i f f i c u l t i e s and t h e i r a d o p t i v e s t a t u s ( J a f f e e & F a n s h e l , 1 9 7 0 ) . T h i s d o e s n o t r u l e o u t t h e \" h e r e d i t y \" e x p l a n a t i o n f o r a c h i l d ' s p a r t i c u l a r p r o b l e m t h a t o t h e r r e s e a r c h e r s h a v e f o u n d , o n l y t h a t t h e s t u d y f a m i l i e s d i d n o t b e l i e v e t h a t t h e c h i l d ' s p r o b l e m s were c a u s e d b e c a u s e he was a d o p t e d . T h i s r e f l e c t s K i r k ' s ( 1 9 6 4 ) t h e o r y t h a t t h e \" r e j e c t i o n o f t h e d i f f e r e n c e \" c o p i n g b e h a v i o r may be i n o p e r a t i o n h e r e . Some a d o p t i v e p a r e n t s d o n ' t want t o v i e w a d o p t i v e p a r e n t h o o d as d i f f e r e n t f r o m b i o l o g i c a l p a r e n t h o o d , and a t t r i b u t i n g s p e c i a l p r o b l e m s t o a d o p t i v e p a r e n t h o o d w o u l d do j u s t t h a t . When R a y n o r ( 1 9 8 0 ) a s s e s s e d p a r e n t a l s a t i s f a c t i o n s h e f o u n d f a i r l y c o n g r u e n t p e r c e p t i o n s o f a d o p t e e and p a r e n t a l s a t i s f a c t i o n . However, she c o n t i n u e d t o f i n d t h e t e n d e n c y o f a d o p t i v e p a r e n t s t o bl a m e h e r e d i t y 55 when t h e i r c h i l d r e n had p r o b l e m s , w h i l e t h e c h i l d r e n t e n d e d t o b l a m e t h e m s e l v e s when t h e y had p r o b l e m s ( R a y n o r , 1 9 8 0 ) . P a r e n t s w i t h a t e n d e n c y t o r e l y on h e r e d i t y more o f t e n had c h i l d r e n w i t h b e h a v i o r p r o b l e m s , p a r t i c u l a r l y c h i l d r e n who a c t e d o u t t h e i r p r o b l e m s i n an a n t i - s o c i a l way ( R a y n o r , 1 9 8 0 ) . I t i s u n f o r t u n a t e l y , i m p o s s i b l e i n a r e t r o s p e c t i v e s t u d y t o d e t e r m i n e c a u s e and e f f e c t . D i d t h e s e p a r e n t s h o l d t h e i r v i e w s on h e r i t a b i l i t y b e f o r e t h e y a d o p t e d , o r d i d t h e y f o r m t h e s e o p i n i o n s as a r e a c t i o n t o t h e i r c h i l d ' s p r o b l e m a t i c b e h a v i o r ? An i n t e r e s t i n g a r e a o f i n q u i r y i n b o t h t h e J a f f e e & F a n s h e l ( 1 9 7 0 ) and R a y n o r ( 1 9 8 0 ) s t u d i e s t h a t b e a r s p a r t i c u l a r i m p o r t a n c e t o t h e p r e s e n t r e s e a r c h was t h e p a r e n t s ' p e r c e p t i o n o f t h e i r a d o p t e d c h i l d ' s s i m i l a r i t y t o them. J a f f e e & F a n s h e l ( 1 9 7 0 ) r e p o r t e d t h a t t h e more s i m i l a r t o them i n t e m p e r a m e n t t h e p a r e n t s p e r c e i v e d t h e c h i l d t o b e , t h e more l i k e l y t h a t t h e p a r e n t s r e p o r t e d l e s s p r o b l e m a t i c a d j u s t m e n t i n t h e i r c h i l d r e n . J a f f e e & F a n s h e l ( 1 9 7 0 ) a l s o a s k e d p a r e n t s w h e t h e r t h e y p e r c e i v e d a p h y s i c a l r e s e m b l a n c e w i t h t h e i r c h i l d , h y p o t h e s i z i n g t h a t t h i s m i g h t r e f l e c t t h e d e g r e e t o w h i c h c l o s e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n had d e v e l o p e d b e t w e e n p a r e n t and a d o p t e e . O n l y 10% o f t h e t o t a l s a m p l e o f p a r e n t s saw a c l o s e r e s e m b l a n c e , and f o r p a r e n t s o f h i g h p r o b l e m c h i l d r e n i t was d i f f i c u l t t o v i e w t h e i r c h i l d as a n y t h i n g l i k e t h e m s e l v e s . R a y n o r ( 1 9 8 0) r e p o r t e d t h a t i f t h e c h i l d ' s a d j u s t m e n t was g o o d , p a r e n t s t e n d e d t o r e a d i l y i d e n t i f y w i t h h e r and i f t h e c h i l d h ad e m o t i o n a l p r o b l e m s o r a c h i e v e d p o o r l y , p a r e n t s s e l d o m saw h e r as l i k e t h e m s e l v e s . R a y n o r ( 1 9 8 0 ) c o n c l u d e d t h a t t o l o o k a l i k e , o r s h a r e an i n t e r e s t , o r h a v e a . s i m i l a r p e r s o n a l i t y o r t e m p e r a m e n t , a l l i n c r e a s e d s a t i s f a c t i o n as p a r e n t s f r e q u e n t l y m e n t i o n e d t h e s e p o i n t s w i t h p l e a s u r e . I t has a l r e a d y been m e n t i o n e d how a d o p t e d 56 a d o l e s c e n t s c a n f e e l a n x i o u s a b o u t t h e i r l a c k o f r e s e m b l a n c e i n t h e f a m i l y and how t h i s c a n a f f e c t t h e i r s e n s e o f b e l o n g i n g i n t h e home, b u t i t now a p p e a r s t h a t t h i s i s s u e may h a v e more s e r i o u s l i f e - l o n g c o n s e q u e n c e s f o r t h e a d o p t e e . F e e l i n g s o f b e i n g d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h e i r a d o p t i v e f a m i l y was a s s o c i a t e d w i t h b e h a v i o r p r o b l e m s i n 3/4 o f t h e a d o p t e e s who f e l t t h a t t h e y had no l i k e n e s s t o t h e i r p a r e n t s ( R a y n o r , 1 9 8 0 ) . T h e s e r e s e a r c h f i n d i n g s r e s u r r e c t t h e \" m a t c h i n g \" c o n t r o v e r s y t h a t h a s b e e n d e b a t e d i n t h e a d o p t i o n f i e l d f o r many y e a r s . Some y e a r s ago many a g e n c i e s ' p o l i c y was t o t r y t o m a t c h c h i l d t o a d o p t e r on v a r i a b l e s s u c h as p h y s i c a l t r a i t s , i n t e l l e c t u a l c a p a c i t y , b a c k g r o u n d , e t h n i c i t y , e t c . T h i s a p p r o a c h has r e c e i v e d c r i t i c i s m f r o m a d o p t i o n r e s e a r c h e r s f o r a number o f r e a s o n s . F i r s t o f a l l , i t seemed r a t h e r u s e l e s s t o t r y t o m a t c h an i n f a n t on t h e s e n e b u l o u s v a r i a b l e s , and an i n i t i a l m a t c h on a p p e a r a n c e was, o f c o u r s e , no g u a r a n t e e o f l a t e r r e s e m b l a n c e . A l s o , i t was t h o u g h t t h a t t r y i n g t o m a t c h b a b i e s t o a d o p t e r s d i d n o t o r i e n t t h e a d o p t e r s t o t h e r e a l i t y o f a d o p t i o n and w o u l d e n c o u r a g e them t o p r e t e n d t h e c h i l d was b o r n t o them ( R i p p l e , 1 9 6 8 ) . K i r k ( 1 9 8 1 ) b e l i e v e s t h a t t h e p o l i c y o f m a t c h i n g l e d p a r e n t s t o i g n o r e t h e i n h e r e n t d i f f e r e n c e s o f a d o p t i v e p a r e n t h o o d and e n c o u r a g e d t h e \" r e j e c t t h e d i f f e r e n c e s \" a d o p t i v e p a r e n t r o l e . However t h e f e e l i n g s o f t h e a d o p t i v e f a m i l y members seems t o d i s p u t e t h e v i e w s o f t h e p r o f e s s i o n a l s . M c W h i n n i e ( 1 9 6 8 ) n o t e d t h a t a d o p t i v e p a r e n t s a p p r o v e d o f m a t c h i n g a c h i l d t o a d o p t e r , and t h e y were p a r t i c u l a r l y p l e a s e d when o u t s i d e r s commented on how s i m i l a r t o them t h e c h i l d l o o k e d . B o t h a d o p t i v e p a r e n t s and c h i l d r e n made i t c l e a r t o R a y n o r t h a t a f e e l i n g o f l i k e n e s s was p a r t o f t h e f e e l i n g o f k i n s h i p . One o f t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f u n h a p p y a d o p t i o n s was t h i s s e n s e 57 o f d i f f e r e n c e and n o t b e l o n g i n g on t h e p a r t o f t h e a d o p t e e ( R a y n o r , 1 9 8 0 ) . B o t h a d o p t i v e p a r e n t s and a d o p t e e s e x p r e s s e d p l e a s u r e a t s h a r i n g some s i m i l a r i t i e s , and t h e p e r c e i v e d s i m i l a r i t i e s seemed t o be c o n d u c i v e t o i d e n t i f i c a t i o n b e t w e e n p a r e n t and c h i l d ( R a y n o r , 1 9 8 0 ) . G i v e n t h e p o s i t i v e manner i n w h i c h a d o p t i v e f a m i l i e s p e r c e i v e d s i m i l a r i t i e s a m o ngst t h e m s e l v e s and t h e p r o b l e m s f a c e d by t h o s e a d o p t e e s who f e l t d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h e i r a d o p t i v e f a m i l i e s , i t s u g g e s t s t h a t t r y i n g t o m a t c h c h i l d t o a d o p t e r i s n o t a s d e s t r u c t i v e a p r o c e d u r e as has b e e n i n t i m a t e d , and t h a t a t b e s t i t c a n e n h a n c e f a m i l y i d e n t i f i c a t i o n . In t h e p r e s e n t s t u d y t h e a b s e n c e o f p h y s i c a l s i m i l a r i t y was f r e q u e n t l y m e n t i o n e d by t h e a d o p t e e s as a c c e n t u a t i n g f a m i l i a l d i f f e r e n c e s and r e m i n d i n g them o f t h e i r a d o p t i v e s t a t u s . A l t h o u g h t h e r e t r o s p e c t i v e s t u d i e s h a v e h e l p e d t o i n c r e a s e t h e k n o w l e d g e b a s e r e g a r d i n g a d o p t i v e f a m i l i e s ' f u n c t i o n i n g , more c u r r e n t k n o w l e d g e r e g a r d i n g t h e s t a g e s o f a d o p t i v e f a m i l y l i f e i s n e e d e d , p a r t i c u l a r l y d u r i n g t h e a d o l e s c e n t s t a g e . I t i s h o p e d t h a t t h e p r e s e n t s t u d y w i l l add a new d i m e n s i o n t o t h e a d o p t i o n r e s e a r c h t h a t has a l r e a d y b e e n c o m p l e t e d by e x p l o r i n g t h e a d o p t i o n e x p e r i e n c e o f b o t h a d o p t e d a d o l e s c e n t s and t h e i r p a r e n t s . In o r d e r t o f u l l y u n d e r s t a n d t h e e x p e r i e n c e s o f t h e a d o p t i v e f a m i l y i t i s i m p e r a t i v e t h a t t h e p e r c e p t i o n s o f b o t h p a r e n t and c h i l d be e x a m i n e d . The p r e s e n t s t u d y a d d r e s s e s t h e i s s u e s o f f a m i l y c o m m u n i c a t i o n , f a m i l y r e l a t i o n s h i p s , b i o l o g i c a l p a r e n t s , and t h e i n d i v i d u a l a d o p t i o n e x p e r i e n c e s o f t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s i n t h e s t u d y t o a r r i v e a t a d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e a d o p t i o n e x p e r i e n c e w i t h i n t h e f a m i l y . In t h e f o l l o w i n g c h a p t e r t h e d e s i g n and a n a l y s i s o f t h i s r e s e a r c h i s o u t l i n e d . CHAPTER I I I M e t h o d o l o g y D e s i g n The g o a l s o f t h i s s t u d y were t h r e e f o l d . F i r s t o f a l l , t h e r e was a g o a l t o e x p l o r e and d e s c r i b e t h e a d o p t i o n e x p e r i e n c e o f t h e a d o l e s c e n t a d o p t e e . S e c o n d l y , t h e r e was a g o a l t o e x p l o r e and d e s c r i b e t h e a d o p t i o n e x p e r i e n c e o f t h e a d o p t i v e p a r e n t s , and t h i r d l y , a g o a l t o e x p l o r e and d e s c r i b e t h e s i m i l a r i t i e s and d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n t h e p a r e n t s ' and a d o p t e e s ' p e r c e p t i o n s o f t h e a d o p t i o n e x p e r i e n c e . The q u e s t i o n s and g o a l s p o s e d by t h e r e s e a r c h e r were q u a l i t a t i v e i n n a t u r e , so a c c o r d i n g l y a q u a l i t a t i v e r e s e a r c h s t r a t e g y was i m p l e m e n t e d . The r e s e a r c h was d e s i g n e d as a d e s c r i p t i v e , q u a l i t a t i v e s t u d y b a s e d on s e p a r a t e i n t e r v i e w s w i t h a d o p t e d a d o l e s c e n t s and t h e i r p a r e n t s . Q u a l i t a t i v e r e s e a r c h p a r a d i g m . A q u a l i t a t i v e r e s e a r c h s t r a t e g y a l l o w s t h e i m p o r t a n t d i m e n s i o n s o f t h e c a s e s u n d e r s t u d y t o emerge f r o m t h e a n a l y s i s w i t h o u t p r e s u p p o s i n g i n a d v a n c e what t h o s e d i m e n s i o n s w i l l be ( P a t t o n , 1 9 8 0 ) . Q u a l i t a t i v e d e s i g n s s u b s e q u e n t l y b e g i n w i t h s p e c i f i c o b s e r v a t i o n s a nd b u i l d t o w a r d g e n e r a l p a t t e r n s . C a t e g o r i e s emerge as t h e r e s e a r c h e r comes t o r e c o g n i z e t h e p a t t e r n s . T h i s i n d u c t i v e a p p r o a c h i s i n c o n t r a s t t o t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l , o r d e d u c t i v e a p p r o a c h t o r e s e a r c h w h i c h b e g i n s w i t h s p e c i f i c h y p o t h e s e s and v a r i a b l e s b e f o r e any d a t a i s c o l l e c t e d ( P a t t o n , 1 9 8 0 ) . Q u a l i t a t i v e r e s e a r c h d o e s n o t r e p l a c e t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l , q u a n t i t a t i v e p a r a d i g m , b u t r a t h e r a d d s a new d i m e n s i o n t o how one c a n i n v e s t i g a t e human e x p e r i e n c e . In q u a l i t a t i v e r e s e a r c h t h e i n v e s t i g a t o r i s l o o k i n g f o r t h e c o m m o n a l i t y w h i c h u n d e r l i e s i n d i v i d u a l v a r i a t i o n s ( G i o r g i , 1 9 7 5 ) . I t i s 58 59 r e c o g n i z e d t h a t e a c h p e r s o n ' s e x p e r i e n c e h as u n i q u e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , b u t t h a t some c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s may be common t o a l l i n d i v i d u a l s i n t h e same s i t u a t i o n . In q u a l i t a t i v e d e s i g n s v a l i d i t y i s b a s e d on t h e a c c u r a c y o f t h e a n a l y s i s f o r t h e u n i q u e ' g r o u p u n d e r s t u d y . The r e s u l t s , w h i c h u n c o v e r t h e common e l e m e n t s u n i q u e t o o n e g r o u p , a r e t h e r e f o r e n o t e a s i l y g e n e r a l i z a b l e t c o t h e r p o p u l a t i o n s , r a t h e r t h e s a t i s f a c t i o n and v a l u e d e r i v e d f r o m t h i s r e s e a r c h s t r a t e g y i s i n a d d i n g t o t h e d e p t h and r i c h n e s s o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e phenomena u n d e r s t u d y ( G i o r g i , 1 9 7 5 ) . B a s i c a l l y , q u a l i t a t i v e d a t a c o n s i s t o f q u o t a t i o n s f r o m i n d i v i d u a l s , d e s c r i p t i o n s o f s i t u a t i o n s , e v e n t s , i n t e r a c t i o n s and a c t i v i t i e s . T he p u r p o s e o f t h e d a t a i s t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e p o i n t o f v i e w and e x p e r i e n c e s o f o t h e r p e o p l e ( P a t t o n , 1 9 8 0 ) . S o c i o l o g i s t J o h n L o f l a n d s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e r e a r e f o u r e l e m e n t s t o c o l l e c t i n g q u a l i t a t i v e d a t a , and t h e f o u r e l e m e n t s o u t l i n e d h e r e were i n s t r u m e n t a l i n g u i d i n g t h i s r e s e a r c h : 1. The r e s e a r c h e r must g e t c l o s e e n o u g h t o t h e p e o p l e i n t h e s i t u a t i o n t o be a b l e t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e d e p t h and d e t a i l o f what i s g o i n g o n . 2. The r e s e a r c h e r must aim a t c a p t u r i n g what a c t u a l l y t o o k p l a c e and what p e o p l e a c t u a l l y s a y - t h e p e r c e i v e d f a c t s . 3. Q u a l i t a t i v e d a t a c o n s i s t s o f a g r e a t d e a l o f p u r e d e s c r i p t i o n o f p e o p l e , a c t i v i t i e s and i n t e r a c t i o n s . 4. Q u a l i t a t i v e d a t a c o n s i s t s o f d i r e c t q u o t a t i o n s ( L o f l a n d as c i t e d i n P a t t o n , 1980, p . 3 6 ) . The m a i n method o f o b t a i n i n g q u a l i t a t i v e d a t a i s , o f c o u r s e , t h r o u g h i n - d e p t h i n d i v i d u a l i n t e r v i e w s . S ample ' A d o p t i v e f a m i l i e s who p a r t i c i p a t e d i n t h i s s t u d y were assumed t o be a r e l a t i v e l y h e t e r o g e n e o u s s a m p l e o f t h e t a r g e t p o p u l a t i o n - f a m i l i e s w i t h 60 a t l e a s t one a d o p t e d c h i l d who had bee n a d o p t e d e a r l y i n l i f e by n o n -r e l a t i v e s , and who was p r e s e n t l y 14-18 y e a r s \"of a g e . The s a m p l e o f a d o p t i v e f a m i l i e s w e r e o b t a i n e d t h r o u g h a v a r i e t y o f community r e s o u r c e s . A d v e r t i s e m e n t s were p l a c e d i n one d a i l y n e w s p a p e r ( c i r c u l a t i o n a p p r o x . 2 9 0 , 0 0 0 ) , and one w e e k l y n e w s p a p e r ( c i r c u l a t i o n a p p r o x . 1 0 0 , 0 0 0 ) , on f o u r s e p a r a t e o c c a s i o n s . In a d d i t i o n , 1 0 0 p o s t e r s o u t l i n i n g t h e p r o j e c t were d i s t r i b u t e d t o community c e n t r e s , l i b r a r i e s , and M i n i s t r y o f Human. R e s o u r c e s o f f i c e s i n t h e G r e a t e r V a n c o u v e r a r e a . T h r e e a s s o c i a t i o n s i n d i r e c t c o n t a c t w i t h a d o p t i v e f a m i l i e s - t h e A d o p t i v e P a r e n t s A s s o c i a t i o n , C a n a d i a n A d o p t e e s R e f o r m , and t h e A d o p t i o n R e s e a r c h P r o j e c t , w e r e m a i l e d l e t t e r s o u t l i n i n g t h e s t u d y and a s k i n g f o r t h e i r p a r t i c i p a t i o n and c o o p e r a t i o n i n p u b l i c i z i n g t h e s t u d y . F i n a l l y , f o u r r a d i o s t a t i o n s i n t h e V a n c o u v e r a r e a b r o a d c a s t a n n o u n c e m e n t s o u t l i n i n g t h e p r o j e c t f o r a b o u t f i v e w e e k s . I n t e r e s t e d p a r t i e s were i n s t r u c t e d t o c o n t a c t t h e r e s e a r c h e r by phone o r t h r o u g h t h e m a i l . T h i s s t u d y i s t h e r e f o r e l i m i t e d by i t s d e p e n d e n c e on i n d i v i d u a l s who had e n o u g h i n t e r e s t o r c o n c e r n t o v o l u n t e e r f o r t h e r e s e a r c h . However, i n a d e s c r i p t i v e s t u d y o f t h i s n a t u r e , t h i s was n o t c o n s i d e r e d t o be a s i g n i f i c a n t b i a s i n g f a c t o r . T h i r t y s e v e n i n q u i r i e s were r e c e i v e d o f w h i c h o n l y 21 f i t t h e s a m p l e c r i t e r i a . Of t h e s e 21 i n q u i r i e s , 15 were made by a d o p t i v e p a r e n t s and s i x w e r e made by a d o l e s c e n t a d o p t e e s . The 21 f a m i l y members who e x p r e s s e d an i n t e r e s t i n t h e r e s e a r c h were m a i l e d an i n t r o d u c t o r y l e t t e r ( A p p e n d i x A ) , and a f a m i l y c o n s e n t f o r m ( A p p e n d i x B ) . S i x o f t h e s e f a m i l i e s d e c l i n e d t o p a r t i c i p a t e . Of t h e 15 p a r e n t s who made i n q u i r i e s , two a d o p t e e s d i d n o t want t o p a r t i c i p a t e and two s e t s 61 o f p a r e n t s d i d n o t h a v e t h e t i m e t o p a r t i c i p a t e . Of t h e s i x a d o p t e e s who made i n q u i r i e s , two o f them c o u l d n o t g e t t h e i r p a r e n t s t o p a r t i c i p a t e . T h i s r e d u c e d t h e e l i g i b l e s a m p l e t o 15 f a m i l i e s . Two o f t h e s e f a m i l i e s p a r t i c i p a t e d i n t h e p i l o t i n t e r v i e w s , s o t h e r e s u l t s o f t h e s t u d y a r e b a s e d on 13 f a m i l i e s . In two o f t h e p a r t i c i p a n t f a m i l i e s t h e r e was more t h a n o n e a d o p t e e t h a t w a n t e d t o p a r t i c i p a t e , s o t h e f i n a l s a m p l e c o n s i s t e d o f 15 a d o p t e e i n t e r v i e w s and 13 p a r e n t i n t e r v i e w s . I n s t r u m e n t s I n t e r v i e w g u i d e s . S e p a r a t e i n t e r v i e w g u i d e s were c o n s t r u c t e d f o r t h e a d o p t e e s and t h e p a r e n t s ( A p p e n d i c e s C & D ) . The q u e s t i o n s on b o t h g u i d e s were f o r m u l a t e d by t h e r e s e a r c h e r , b u t w e r e g u i d e d by t h e r e v i e w o f t h e l i t e r a t u r e and t h e work o f o t h e r r e s e a r c h e r s . The i n t e r v i e w g u i d e s p r o v i d e d t h e s u b j e c t a r e a s w i t h i n w h i c h t h e i n t e r v i e w e r was f r e e t o p r o b e , e x p l o r e and a s k q u e s t i o n s i n o r d e r t o e l u c i d a t e t h e s u b j e c t . An i n t e r v i e w g u i d e s e r v e s t o make t h e i n t e r v i e w i n g p r o c e s s more c o m p r e h e n s i v e and s y s t e m a t i c by d e l i m i t i n g t h e i s s u e s t o be d i s c u s s e d ( S e l l i t z , W r i g h t s m a n , & Cook, 1976 ) . D u r i n g t h e d e v e l o p m e n t p h a s e o f t h e i n t e r v i e w g u i d e s , s i x o b j e c t i v e a d o p t i v e p a r e n t s , u n c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e r e s e a r c h p r o j e c t were a s k e d t o c r i t i q u e t h e q u e s t i o n s as t h e y were d e v e l o p e d . T h i s was d one i n o r d e r t o g u age t h e s e n s i t i v i t y o f a d o p t i v e p a r e n t s i n g e n e r a l t o t h e a d o p t e e ' s i n t e r v i e w g u i d e , and t o remove any q u e s t i o n s t h a t were c o n s i d e r e d t o o i n f l a m m a t o r y by t h e r e v i e w e r s . A l l t h e p a r e n t s i n v o l v e d i n t h e s c r e e n i n g f o u n d t h e q u e s t i o n s t o be a c c e p t a b l e and n o n - t h r e a t e n i n g . Two p i l o t i n t e r v i e w s were a l s o c o n d u c t e d w i t h a d o p t i v e f a m i l i e s i n o r d e r t o t e s t 62 t h e c o n t e n t v a l i d i t y o f t h e i n t e r v i e w g u i d e s and t o f a m i l i a r i z e t h e i n t e r v i e w e r s w i t h t h e p r o c e d u r e . T h e i n t e r v i e w g u i d e s were s l i g h t l y r e v i s e d a f t e r t h e p i l o t i n t e r v i e w s i n t o t h e i r p r e s e n t f o r m a t . F a m i l y E n v i r o n m e n t S c a l e ( F E S ) . The F a m i l y E n v i r o n m e n t S c a l e (Moos, 1 9 7 4 ) , i s a 9 0 - i t e m t r u e - f a l s e t e s t d e s i g n e d t o a s s e s s t h e s o c i a l c l i m a t e o f a l l t y p e s o f f a m i l i e s . I t f o c u s e s on t h e m e a s u r e m e n t and d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e i n t e r p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s among f a m i l y members a l o n g t h r e e m a j o r d i m e n s i o n s : r e l a t i o n s h i p d i m e n s i o n , p e r s o n a l g r o w t h d i m e n s i o n , and t h e s y s t e m m a i n t e n a n c e d i m e n s i o n . T e n s u b s c a l e s c o r e s c a n be c o m p u t e d f r o m t h e s e t h r e e m a j o r d i m e n s i o n s . In a d d i t i o n t o t h e s u b s c a l e s c o r e s , a F a m i l y I n c o n g r u e n c e s c o r e c a n be m e a s u r e d by summing t h e d i f f e r e n c e s i n s u b s c a l e s c o r e s f o r e a c h p a i r o f f a m i l y members. I n t e r n a l c o n s i s t e n c y c o e f f i c i e n t s f o r t h e s u b s c a l e s r a n g e f r o m .64 t o .78. T e s t - r e t e s t r e l i a b i l i t y c o e f f i c i e n t s c a l c u l a t e d f o r 47 members o f n i n e f a m i l i e s o v e r an e i g h t week p e r i o d v a r y f r o m .68 t o .86 (Moos, 1 9 7 4 ) . V a l i d i t y d a t a on t h e FES i s l i m i t e d b u t some v a l i d i t y i n f o r m a t i o n i s a v a i l a b l e t h a t i s r e l e v a n t t o t h i s s t u d y . A c o m p a r i s o n s t u d y was made o f 42 c l i n i c f a m i l i e s and 42 m a t c h e d n o r m a l f a m i l i e s on t h e FES (Moos, 1 9 7 4 ) . C l i n i c f a m i l i e s o b t a i n e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y l o w e r s c o r e s on t h e C o h e s i o n , I n t e l l e c t u a l - C u l t u r a l O r i e n t a t i o n , and A c t i v e -R e c r e a t i o n a l O r i e n t a t i o n s u b s c a l e s , , and h i g h e r s c o r e s on b o t h C o n f l i c t and C o n t r o l s u b s c a l e s . C l i n i c f a m i l i e s a l s o o b t a i n e d h i g h e r F a m i l y I n c o n g r u e n c e s c o r e s t h a n t h e n o r m a l f a m i l i e s (Moos, 1 9 7 4 ) . The d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n t h e s e two g r o u p s a r e c o n s i s t e n t w i t h e x p e c t a t i o n s and t h e r e f o r e p r o v i d e some s u p p o r t f o r t h e s c a l e ' s c o n s t r u c t 63 v a l i d i t y . The FES i s b e i n g u s e d i n t h i s s t u d y as a g l o b a l m e a s u r e o f f a m i l y c l i m a t e . I t was n o t u s e d as a d i a g n o s t i c t o o l , b u t a s a d e s c r i p t i v e t o o l t o a i d i n d e s c r i b i n g t h e f a m i l i e s u n d e r s t u d y . The FES i s a l s o a p p r o p r i a t e f o r u s e w i t h a d o l e s c e n t s and a d u l t s and i s e a s i l y a d m i n i s t e r e d i n a b o u t 15 m i n u t e s . P r o c e d u r e When t h e p a r t i c i p a n t f a m i l i e s r e t u r n e d t h e f a m i l y c o n s e n t f o r m s , a n o t h e r p a c k a g e c o n t a i n i n g t h e P a r e n t s ' Q u e s t i o n n a i r e ( A p p e n d i x E) and t h e FES ( A p p e n d i x F) were m a i l e d t o e a c h p a r e n t i n d i v i d u a l l y . The a d o p t e e p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n t h e s t u d y was m a i l e d a s e p a r a t e c o n f i d e n t i a l p a c k a g e c o n t a i n i n g t h e FES and t h e a p p r o p r i a t e i n s t r u c t i o n s . A f t e r t h e f a m i l i e s had r e c e i v e d t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e q u e s t i o n n a i r e p a c k a g e s , t h e r e s e a r c h e r a r r a n g e d a m u t u a l l y c o n v e n i e n t t i m e f o r t h e i n t e r v i e w s . When t h e f a m i l y members met f o r t h e i n t e r v i e w t h e r e s e a r c h e r c o l l e c t e d t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e p a c k a g e s f r o m t h e m . The i n t e r v i e w s . The i n t e r v i e w s c o n d u c t e d were o f a s e m i - s t r u c t u r e d o r f o c u s e d f o r m a t . A s e m i - s t r u c t u r e d f o r m a t was f o l l o w e d b e c a u s e i t has t h e a d v a n t a g e o f b e i n g r e a s o n a b l y o b j e c t i v e w h i l e s t i l l p e r m i t t i n g a more t h o r o u g h u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e p a r t i c i p a n t ' s v i e w s and r e a s o n s f o r them ( B o r g & G a l l , 1 9 7 9 ) . The f o c u s e d i n t e r v i e w p r o v i d e d t h e a p p r o p r i a t e c o m b i n a t i o n o f o b j e c t i v i t y and d e p t h t h a t was r e q u i r e d i n t h i s r e s e a r c h . E a c h i n t e r v i e w was 1-2 h o u r s i n l e n g t h and was a u d i o t a p e d w i t h t h e c o n s e n t o f t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s . The a d o p t i v e p a r e n t s and t h e a d o p t e e were i n t e r v i e w e d s e p a r a t e l y , b u t a t t h e same t i m e . T h i s n e c e s s i t a t e d t h e n e e d f o r two i n t e r v i e w e r s , b u t 64 a l l e v i a t e d t h e p r o b l e m o f f a m i l i e s d i s c u s s i n g s p e c i f i c i n t e r v i e w c o n t e n t and t h u s b i a s i n g t h e r e s u l t s . The i n t e r v i e w s were c o n d u c t e d by t h e p r i m a r y r e s e a r c h e r a n d . a n o t h e r f e m a l e g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t w i t h i n t e r v i e w i n g and c o u n s e l l i n g s k i l l s , and a b a c k g r o u n d k n o w l e d g e o f t h e a d o p t i o n p r o c e s s . The two i n t e r v i e w e r s c o u n t e r b a l a n c e d t h e number o f a d o p t e e and p a r e n t i n t e r v i e w s t h e y d i d s o t h a t a p p r o x i m a t e l y 5 0 % o f t h e p a r e n t i n t e r v i e w s w ere c o n d u c t e d by e a c h i n t e r v i e w e r , a nd 5 0 % o f t h e a d o p t e e i n t e r v i e w s w ere c o n d u c t e d by e a c h i n t e r v i e w e r . In two o f t h e f a m i l i e s t h e r e was more t h a n o n e a d o p t e e t a k i n g p a r t i n t h e s t u d y . The p r i m a r y r e s e a r c h e r i n t e r v i e w e d t h e a d o p t e d s i b l i n g s s e p a r a t e l y , w h i l e t h e s e c o n d i n t e r v i e w e r i n t e r v i e w e d t h e p a r e n t s . The i n t e r v i e w s were e i t h e r c o n d u c t e d i n t h e f a m i l y homes o r on t h e u n i v e r s i t y campus. C o n f i d e n t i a l i t y and p a r e n t -a d o p t e e s e p a r a t i o n d u r i n g a l l t h e i n t e r v i e w s was s t r i n g e n t l y m a i n t a i n e d . A t t h e c o n c l u s i o n o f e a c h i n t e r v i e w t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s were i n v i t e d t o c o n t a c t t h e r e s e a r c h e r i f t h e y s h o u l d r e c a l l a n y t h i n g s i g n i f i c a n t , o r i f t h e y j u s t w a n t e d t o d i s c u s s t h e c o n t e n t o f t h e i n t e r v i e w s a g a i n . T h r e e weeks a f t e r t h e c o n c l u s i o n o f t h e i n t e r v i e w , e a c h p a r t i c i p a n t was m a i l e d a l e t t e r o f a p p r e c i a t i o n ( A p p e n d i x G ) , w h i c h a l s o o f f e r e d them t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o meet f o r f u r t h e r d i s c u s s i o n o r c o u n s e l l i n g i f t h e y so d e s i r e d . No f o l l o w - u p s e s s i o n s were r e q u e s t e d by any o f t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s . M e t h o d o f D a t a A n a l y s i s The f o c u s o f t h e d a t a a n a l y s i s was on i d e n t i f y i n g t h e t h e m e s and p a t t e r n s i n a d o p t i v e f a m i l y l i f e . T he o r g a n i z a t i o n and s u b s e q u e n t a n a l y s e s o f t h e d a t a were p a t t e r n e d a f t e r a method o u t l i n e d by P a t t o n ( 1 9 8 0 ) , b u t w i t h some v a r i a t i o n s d i c t a t e d by t h e demands 65 o f t h e s t u d y and t h e j u d g e m e n t o f t h e r e s e a r c h e r . T h e r e were t h r e e m a j o r p h a s e s t o t h e i n t e r v i e w d a t a a n a l y s i s - a s e p a r a t e a n a l y s i s o f t h e a d o p t e e i n t e r v i e w s , a s e p a r a t e a n a l y s i s o f t h e p a r e n t i n t e r v i e w s , and an a n a l y s i s o f t h e p a r e n t - a d o p t e e s i m i l a r i t i e s and d i f f e r e n c e s r e g a r d i n g t h e i r p e r c e p t i o n s o f t h e a d o p t i o n e x p e r i e n c e . The p a r e n t and a d o p t e e i n t e r v i e w s were a n a l y s e d i n t h e same manner w i t h one e x c e p t i o n . In t w o - p a r e n t f a m i l i e s t h e p a r e n t i n t e r v i e w s were s c r u t i n i z e d f o r p a r e n t a l a g r e e m e n t and d i s a g r e e m e n t . When b o t h p a r e n t s a g r e e d on a r e s p o n s e t h i s was c l a s s i f i e d as one c o n t e n t u n i t . When p a r e n t s d i s a g r e e d , t h e s e r e s p o n s e s were c l a s s i f i e d a s s e p a r a t e c o n t e n t u n i t s and i n c l u d e d i n t h e d a t a p o o l as s u c h . In o r d e r t o e l u c i d a t e t h e method o f a n a l y s i s f o l l o w e d f o r t h e s e p a r a t e i n t e r v i e w s , t h e p r o c e d u r e i s o u t l i n e d b e l o w : 1. E a c h i n t e r v i e w was t r a n s c r i b e d v e r b a t i m . T w e n t y - e i g h t t r a n s c r i p t s were t y p e d and t h e y v a r i e d i n l e n g t h f r o m 12-18 p a g e s . 2. E a c h t r a n s c r i p t was p h o t o c o p i e d s o t h a t t h e r e was a m a s t e r c o p y and a w o r k i n g c o p y . 3. The t r a n s c r i p t s were t h e n e d i t e d . O n l y t h a t i n f o r m a t i o n w h i c h had a b s o l u t e l y no r e l a t i o n t o t h e r e s e a r c h q u e s t i o n s were e d i t e d . T h i s i n c l u d e d s o c i a l c h a t t i n g a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e i n t e r v i e w , and some a d o l e s c e n t d i v e r s i o n s i n t o u n r e l a t e d t o p i c s d u r i n g t h e i n t e r v i e w . 4. E a c h t r a n s c r i p t was r e a d and r e r e a d t o g e t a s e n s e o f t h e i n t e r v i e w . W h i l e r e a d i n g , t h e r e s e a r c h e r u n d e r l i n e d p h r a s e s r e l e v a n t t o t h e b a s i c r e s e a r c h q u e s t i o n s and made n o t e s i n t h e m a r g i n s r e g a r d i n g any s a l i e n t t h o u g h t s , f e e l i n g s , o r s u b j e c t s t h a t were b e i n g d e s c r i b e d . 66 Any r e c u r r i n g r e g u l a r i t i e s i n t h e d a t a were a l s o n o t e d i n t h e m a r g i n s . T h i s was t h e f i r s t s t e p i n c l a s s i f y i n g t h e d a t a , t h e p u r p o s e b e i n g t o f a c i l i t a t e t h e s e a r c h f o r t h e m e s . 5. M a j o r c a t e g o r i e s o r t o p i c s were f o r m u l a t e d b a s e d on t h e a r e a s c o v e r e d i n t h e i n t e r v i e w g u i d e , r e s p o n s e s t o t h e i n t e r v i e w q u e s t i o n s , and on t h e n o t e s i n t h e m a r g i n s . The m a j o r c a t e g o r i e s d e t e r m i n e d f o r t h e a d o l e s c e n t i n t e r v i e w s w e r e ; F a m i l y C o m m u n i c a t i o n , F a m i l y R e l a t i o n s h i p s , B i o l o g i c a l P a r e n t s , S e l f P e r c e p t i o n s and S o c i a l R e l a t i o n s . The m a j o r c a t e g o r i e s d e t e r m i n e d f o r t h e p a r e n t s ' i n t e r v i e w s w e r e ; F a m i l y C o m m u n i c a t i o n , F a m i l y R e l a t i o n s h i p s , B i o l o g i c a l P a r e n t s , and A d o p t i o n E x p e r i e n c e . 6. Once t h e m a j o r t o p i c s were e l u c i d a t e d , t h e i n t e r v i e w d a t a was s l i c e d i n t o c o n t e n t u n i t s - s t a t e m e n t s o r p a s s a g e s r e f l e c t i n g t h e c o n t e n t o f t h e i n t e r v i e w s . 7. The r e s u l t i n g c o n t e n t u n i t s were w r i t t e n on 4\"x6\" i n d e x c a r d s and c o d e d w i t h an i d e n t i f i c a t i o n number. F o r t h e a d o l e s c e n t i n t e r v i e w s 487 c a r d s were d o n e , and f o r t h e p a r e n t s ' i n t e r v i e w s , 362 c a r d s • were d o n e . The c a r d s o r c o n t e n t u n i t s were t h e n s o r t e d i n t o t h e m a j o r c a t e g o r i e s . P a t t o n ( 1 9 8 0) recommends u s i n g a c u t and p a s t e m e t h o d o l o g y h e r e , b u t i t was t o o t i m e c o n s u m i n g . I t was more e f f i c i e n t t o w r i t e t h e c o n t e n t u n i t s o n t o c a r d s , r a t h e r t h a n c u t t i n g and p a s t i n g b e c a u s e o f t h e v o l u m e o f d a t a c o l l e c t e d i n t h i s s t u d y . 8. The n e x t s t e p i n v o l v e d d i s c o v e r i n g t h e s u b - c a t e g o r i e s o r t o p i c s . C a r d s w i t h i n e a c h m a j o r c a t e g o r y were s o r t e d and r e s o r t e d u n t i l c l e a r c u t s u b - t o p i c s b e g a n t o e m e r g e . T a b l e s 2 and 3 o u t l i n e t h e n a t u r e o f t h e d a t a c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s y s t e m and t h e r e l a t i v e f r e q u e n c i e s TABLE 2 Adoptee's Interview C l a s s i f i c a t i o n System (1) Family Communication / \\ Revelation Communication re Experience B i o l o g i c a l Parents | (17) Communication re Adoption (61) (19) (2) Family Relationships Rel. with Mother (29) Rel. with Father (26) Rel. with s i b l i n g s (23) (3) References to Self Sense of Belonging ( 1 9 ) / \\ View of Adoptive Status 1(88) Personal views re Adoption ( 1 6 ) View of S e l f ( 4 3 ) Peer Relations ( 1 6 ) (4) References to B i o l o g i c a l Parents / I \\ Fantasies Knowledge of Search Motivation , . Background { ) | ( 7 ) U ) Feelings re Cur i o s i t y re B i o l o g i c a l Origins Parents (31) ( 6 2 ) R e l a t i v e F r e q u e n c y (#) = t h e number o f c o n t e n t u n i t s w i t h i n e a c h s u b - c a t e g o r y TABLE 3 Parents' Interview C l a s s i f i c a t i o n System (1) Family Communication / \\ Revelation Experience ( 1 7 ) CommunRation re Adoption (28) 00 (2) Family Relationships Mother's Relation to Adoptee Father's Relation to Adoptee ( 1 7 ) ( 1 6 ) S i b l i n g s ' Extended Relation to Family Adoptee a t t i t u d e ( 6 ) ( 1 5 ) (3) References to B i o l o g i c a l Parents (4) Adoption Experience Knowledge of B i o l o g i c a l Parents (14 Fantasies re B i o l o g i c a l Parents (18) Perception of Adoptee's c u r i o s i t y (26) \\ Feelings re Searching (21) Early Adoption Experience View of Adoptive status ( 4 7 ) Adoption Motivation |(27) Developmental Issues ( 2 0 ) ( 1 8 ) Recognition of Adoptive Parent Role ( 4 2 ) Personal view re Adoption ( 3 0 ) R e l a t i v e F r e q u e n c y ( # ) = t h e number o f c o n t e n t u n i t s w i t h i n e a c h s u b - c a t e g o r y 69 o f t h e c o n t e n t u n i t s i n e a c h c a t e g o r y f o r t h e a d o p t e e and p a r e n t i n t e r v i e w s . C a t e g o r i e s c a n be j u d g e d by two c r i t e r i a ; i n t e r n a l h o m o g e n e i t y , w h i c h i s t h e e x t e n t t o w h i c h t h e d a t a t h a t b e l o n g i n a c e r t a i n c a t e g o r y h o l d t o g e t h e r , and e x t e r n a l h o m o g e n e i t y , w h i c h i s t h e e x t e n t t o w h i c h d i f f e r e n c e s among c a t e g o r i e s a r e b o l d and c l e a r ( P a t t o n , 1 9 8 0 ) . T h e s e two c r i t e r i a w ere k e p t i n m i n d d u r i n g t h i s p a r t o f t h e a n a l y s i s . When t h e r e i s a l a r g e number o f m i s c e l l a n e o u s o r o v e r l a p p i n g d a t a i t e m s t h i s u s u a l l y i n d i c a t e s p r o b l e m s w i t h t h e c a t e g o r y s y s t e m . B o t h o f t h e s e p o t e n t i a l p r o b l e m s w ere k e p t t o a minimum i n d e v e l o p i n g t h e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s y s t e m . 9. Once t h e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s y s t e m was f i n a l i z e d , an i n d e x o f i n t e r -r a t e r a g r e e m e n t was c a l c u l a t e d t o m e a s u r e r e l i a b i l i t y . T h i s was a c c o m p l i s h e d by m e a s u r i n g p e r c e n t a g r e e m e n t - t h e e x t e n t t o w h i c h a s e c o n d s o r t e r p u t c o n t e n t u n i t s i n t o t h e same c a t e g o r i e s as t h e p r i m a r y r e s e a r c h e r . 10. The c o n t e n t u n i t s were t h e n a n a l y s e d w i t h i n e a c h s u b - c a t e g o r y t o a r r i v e a t t h e t h e m e s and p a t t e r n s i n t h e d a t a . The t h e m a t i c s t r u c t u r e was d e r i v e d f r o m t h e c o n t e n t u n i t s . T h i s p r o c e d u r e i n v o l v e d r e a d i n g and r e - r e a d i n g t h e i n d i v i d u a l c o n t e n t u n i t s , and m o v i n g b a c k and f o r t h f r o m t h e o r y t o d a t a . 1.1. I t i s e a s i e r t o d e f i n e a theme by g i v i n g i l l u s t r a t i o n s t h a n by d e f i n i n g i t i n g e n e r a l i z e d , a b s t r a c t t e r m s . The f i n a l s t e p i n a n a l y z i n g t h e i n t e r v i e w d a t a was t o s e l e c t p a s s a g e s f r o m t h e c a r d s t h a t d e s c r i b e d o r r e f l e c t e d e a c h t heme. T h e s e e x a m p l e s were t h e n t r a n s c r i b e d f r o m t h e c o n t e n t u n i t c a r d s t o d a t a s h e e t s and c o d e d 70 and l a b e l e d w i t h a word o r p h r a s e t o d e n o t e t h e t h e m e . T h i s was d one so t h a t t h e r e s e a r c h e r had a s y s t e m a t i c l i s t o f t h e i d e n t i f i e d t hemes w i t h t h e a t t e n d i n g e x a m p l e s , and t h u s i t was n o t n e c e s s a r y t o go t h r o u g h t h e c a r d s e a c h t i m e t h e r e s e a r c h e r w a n t e d an e x a m p l e o f a p a r t i c u l a r t h e m e . T h i s was o f i m m e a s u r a b l e h e l p when w r i t i n g t h e r e s u l t s s e c t i o n o f t h i s p a p e r . A l t h o u g h an a t t e m p t h a s been made t o o u t l i n e t h e b a s i c s t e p s t a k e n i n t h i s c o n t e n t a n a l y s i s , some o f t h e s t e p s do o v e r l a p s l i g h t l y , o r o c c u r s i m u l t a n e o u s l y as t h e a n a l y s i s p r o g r e s s e s . W h i l e c o n s t r u c t i n g t h e c a t e g o r i e s some the m e s w e r e v e r y c l e a r , and i t was o n l y n e c e s s a r y t o v a l i d a t e them w i t h t h e a n a l y s i s . The s e c o n d p h a s e o f t h e a n a l y s i s i n v o l v e d a c o m p a r a t i v e a n a l y s i s o f p a r e n t and a d o p t e e c o n t e n t u n i t s t o d e t e r m i n e t h e s i m i l a r i t i e s and d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e i r p e r c e p t i o n s o f a d o p t i v e f a m i l y l i f e . A g a i n , t h e b a s i c s t e p s f o l l o w e d i n t h i s a n a l y s i s a r e o u t l i n e d b e l o w : 1. The r e s e a r c h e r s e p a r a t e d t h o s e t o p i c s w here p a r e n t - c h i l d c o m p a r i s o n s c o u l d be made, i . e . F a m i l y C o m m u n i c a t i o n , F a m i l y R e l a t i o n s h i p s , B i o l o g i c a l P a r e n t s , e t c . 2. The c a r d s f o r e a c h p a r e n t - c h i l d d y a d were p u l l e d f r o m t h e d a t a p o o l and t h e n r e - s o r t e d by d y a d i n t o t h e m a j o r c a t e g o r i e s . 3. T h e n s t e p s 10 and 11 o f t h e p r e v i o u s a n a l y s i s were r e p e a t e d t o a r r i v e a t a d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e t h e m e s and p a t t e r n s r e f l e c t i n g p a r e n t - c h i l d c o n s e n s u s r e g a r d i n g t h e i r p e r c e p t i o n s o f t h e a d o p t i o n e x p e r i e n c e . In a d d i t i o n t o t h e q u a l i t a t i v e a n a l y s e s , t h e FES s c o r e s were a n a l y z e d i n a p u r e l y d e s c r i p t i v e m anner. Means and s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n s were c a l c u l a t e d 71 on t h e s u b s c a l e s , and a F a m i l y I n c o n g r u e n c e s c o r e w h i c h m e a s u r e s t h e s i m i l a r i t i e s and d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e p e r c e p t i o n s o f d i f f e r e n t members w i t h i n t h e f a m i l y , was com p u t e d f o r e a c h p a r t i c i p a t i n g f a m i l y member p a i r . D a t a f r o m t h e P a r e n t s ' Q u e s t i o n n a i r e was a n a l y z e d t o o b t a i n d e m o g r a p h i c i n f o r m a t i o n f r o m t h e p a r t i c i p a n t f a m i l i e s . The r e s u l t s o f t h e s e a n a l y s e s a r e d i s c u s s e d i n t h e n e x t c h a p t e r . CHAPTER IV R e s u l t s The r e s u l t s o f t h e q u a n t i t a t i v e and q u a l i t a t i v e d a t a a n a l y s e s a r e s u m m a r i z e d i n t h i s c h a p t e r . The r e s u l t s o f t h e r e l i a b i l i t y c h e c k on t h e i n t e r v i e w d a t a c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s y s t e m a r e a l s o p r e s e n t e d i n t h i s c h a p t e r . P e r c e n t A g r e e m e n t R e s u l t s A g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t f a m i l i a r w i t h a d o p t i o n i s s u e s was g i v e n t h e c o n t e n t u n i t s f r o m e a c h m a j o r c a t e g o r y and t o l d t o s o r t them i n t o t h e s u b - c a t e g o r i e s c o n s t r u c t e d by t h e p r i m a r y r e s e a r c h e r . The number o f m a t c h e s o r \" h i t s \" was r e c o r d e d and t h e n c o n v e r t e d i n t o p e r c e n t a g e o f a g r e e m e n t f o r e a c h m a j o r c a t e g o r y o f t h e p a r e n t and a d o l e s c e n t i n t e r v i e w s . T h e s e r e s u l t s a r e s u m m a r i z e d i n T a b l e 4. D e m o g r a p h i c D a t a T h i r t e e n m i d d l e c l a s s f a m i l i e s p a r t i c i p a t e d i n t h e r e s e a r c h . N i n e o f t h e f a m i l i e s were t w o - p a r e n t f a m i l i e s and f o u r were s i n g l e p a r e n t f a m i l i e s . E i g h t o f t h e f a m i l i e s were c o n s i d e r e d \" m i x e d \" f a m i l i e s , t h a t i s , t h e y had b o t h b i o l o g i c a l and a d o p t e d c h i l d r e n , w h i l e f i v e o f t h e f a m i l i e s had o n l y a d o p t e d c h i l d r e n . The a d o p t i v e f a t h e r s r a n g e d i n age f r o m 40-60 y e a r s (X« 52.5 y r s . ) , and t h e a d o p t i v e m o t h e r s r a n g e d i n age f r o m 36-57 y e a r s (X= 47.5 y r s . ) . F i f t e e n a d o p t e e s p a r t i c i p a t e d i n t h e r e s e a r c h , 11 f e m a l e and 4 m a l e . A g e . r a n g e , f o r i t h e f e m a l e s was 14-17. y e a r s (X-15.3 y r s . ) , and f o r t h e m a l e s t h e age r a n g e was 15-18 y e a r s (X= 16.5 y r s . ) . A l l t h e p a r e n t s i n t h e s t u d y had r e c e i v e d some p o s t - s e c o n d a r y e d u c a t i o n , and had i n c o m e s o v e r $20,000.00 a y e a r . A l l t h e c h i l d r e n 72 TABLE 4 I n t e r v i e w C l a s s i f i c a t i o n S y s t e m I n t e r - R a t e r A g r e e m e n t M a j o r C a t e g o r i e s A d o p t e e I n t e r v i e w s P a r e n t I n t e r v i e w s F a m i l y C o m m u n i c a t i o n 9 5 % 9 5 % F a m i l y R e l a t i o n s h i p s 9 7 % 94% R e f e r e n c e s t o B i o l o g i c a l P a r e n t s 9 3 % 9 1 % R e f e r e n c e s t o S e l f 8 9 % — A d o p t i o n E x p e r i e n c e — 8 9 % 73 74 were a d o p t e d b e f o r e t h e age o f two m o n t h s , w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f one baby who was a d o p t e d a t e i g h t months o f a g e . T h e r e were 13 g o v e r n m e n t a d o p t i o n s and 2 p r i v a t e a d o p t i o n s . A l l o f t h e p a r e n t s i n t e r v i e w e d i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e y were h i g h l y m o t i v a t e d t o a d o p t a t t h e t i m e t h a t t h e y r e c e i v e d t h e i r a d o p t e d c h i l d . F i v e f a m i l i e s a d o p t e d due t o s u s p e c t e d i n f e r t i l i t y , f o u r f a m i l i e s had a t l e a s t o n e r i s k y p r e g n a n c y so d e c i d e d t o a d o p t , and f o u r f a m i l i e s a d o p t e d t o a d d t o t h e i r f a m i l y . One c o u p l e had a b i o l o g i c a l c h i l d a f t e r a d o p t i n g two c h i l d r e n . E i g h t o f t h e a d o p t e e s i n t h e s t u d y were t h e y o u n g e s t c h i l d r e n i n t h e f a m i l y , f o u r w e r e t h e s e c o n d y o u n g e s t c h i l d r e n , and t h e r e were two o n l y c h i l d r e n and o n e s e c o n d o l d e s t c h i l d . N i n e o f t h e s t u d y f a m i l i e s (5 m i x e d , 4 o n l y a d o p t e d ) had c o n s u l t e d a p h y s i c i a n r e g a r d i n g t h e i r a d o p t e d c h i l d ' s s c h o o l r e l a t e d p r o b l e m s o r b e h a v i o r p r o b l e m s . F a m i l y E n v i r o n m e n t S c a l e D a t a A n a l y s i s The d a t a f r o m t h e FES was a n a l y s e d i n a p u r e l y d e s c r i p t i v e m anner. O n l y 11 f a m i l i e s ' s c a l e s were u s e d i n t h e a n a l y s i s b e c a u s e two f a m i l i e s r e t u r n e d i n c o m p l e t e q u e s t i o n n a i r e s . Mean s c o r e s f o r t h e a d o p t e e s and f o r t h e p a r e n t s on t h e FES s u b s c a l e s a r e p l o t t e d i n F i g u r e 1. The a d o p t i v e p a r e n t s p e r c e i v e s l i g h t l y more c o h e s i v e n e s s and e x p r e s s i v e n e s s i n t h e f a m i l i e s t h a n do t h e c h i l d r e n , and a l s o v i e w more m o r a l - r e l i g i o u s e m p h a s i s i n t h e i r f a m i l i e s t h a n do t h e a d o l e s c e n t s . O v e r a l l , t h e a d o p t e e s p e r c e i v e t h e f a m i l y e n v i r o n m e n t o n l y s l i g h t l y more n e g a t i v e l y t h a n do t h e i r p a r e n t s . In a d d i t i o n t o t h e mean s c o r e p r o f i l e s , a F a m i l y I n c o n g r u e n c e s c o r e - t h e e x t e n t t o w h i c h t h e f a m i l y d i s a g r e e s a b o u t t h e i r f a m i l y FIGURE 1 FES Mean P r o f i l e s f o r A d o l e s c e n t s & P a r e n t s > < Z Q O O O L U CD _ l U J o z : < c _ ) on cn on v-O 1-1 M < 2: o C_> SUBSCALES Key C= C o h e s i v e n e s s I C O = I n t e l l e c t u a l - C u l t u r a l O r i e n t a t i o n r ™ E ^ r ! s s i y e n e s s A R O = A c t i v e - R e c . - e a t i o n a l O r i e n t a t i o n T?,1\\= cTonJllct M R E = M o r a l - R e l i g i o u s E m p h a s i s IND= I n d e p e n d e n c e O R G = O r g a n i z a t i o n A0= A c h i e v e m e n t O r i e n t a t i o n C T L = C o n t r o l 75 76 c l i m a t e , was c o m p u t e d . S c o r e s on t h i s m e a s u r e c a n r a n g e f r o m 0-90, w i t h a mean norm o f 16.74 (S.D. 5 . 3 8 ) . The s t u d y f a m i l i e s had a mean o f 14.3 (S.D. 3.45) on t h e F a m i l y I n c o n g r u e n c e m e a s u r e . T h e s e r e s u l t s s u g g e s t t h a t t h e s t u d y f a m i l i e s h a v e f a i r l y c l o s e a g r e e m e n t r e g a r d i n g t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e f a m i l y ' s s o c i a l m i l i e u , a n d t h a t t h e f a m i l i e s i n t h i s r e s e a r c h h a v e f a m i l y p r o f i l e s c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h a t o f t h e n o r m a t i v e f a m i l y s a m p l e s as m e a s u r e d by M o o s ( 1 9 7 4 ) . Q u a l i t a t i v e D a t a A n a l y s i s R e s u l t s P r e f a c e V e r b a t i m q u o t e s f r o m t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s i n t h i s s t u d y a r e f r e q u e n t l y u s e d t o i l l u s t r a t e t h e th e m e s and e x p l i c a t e t h e d e s c r i p t i o n s . The names u s e d a r e f i c t i t i o u s and some i d e n t i f y i n g i n f o r m a t i o n h as b e e n c h a n g e d t o p r o t e c t t h e a n o n y m i t y o f t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s . The r e s u l t s f r o m t h e i n t e r v i e w d a t a a n a l y s e s a r e s u m m a r i z e d w i t h i n e a c h m a j o r c a t e g o r y f o r t h e a d o p t e e and p a r e n t i n t e r v i e w s . When p a r e n t - a d o p t e e c o m p a r i s o n s a r e made t h e y a r e s u m m a r i z e d s e q u e n t i a l l y , t h a t i s t h e p a r e n t s ' p e r c e p t i o n s w i l l t y p i c a l l y f o l l o w t h e a d o p t e e s ' when c o m p a r i s o n s a r e i n d i c a t e d . F a m i l y C o m m u n i c a t i o n A d o p t e e s ' p e r c e p t i o n o f t h e r e v e l a t i o n e x p e r i e n c e . A l l o f t h e a d o p t e e s i n t e r v i e w e d c o u l d n o t remember a s p e c i f i c t i m e when t h e y were t o l d o f t h e i r a d o p t i v e s t a t u s . T h e m o s t f r e q u e n t r e s p o n s e was, \" I ' v e j u s t a l w a y s known t h a t I was a d o p t e d \" . On f u r t h e r p r o b i n g two c l e a r p a t t e r n s e m e r g e d t h a t seemed t o be r e l a t e d t o c h i l d r e n s ' d e v e l o p m e n t a l 77 s t a g e s . A t a g e s 3 t o 4, a d o p t e e s h a v e t h e f i r s t c l e a r memory o f b e i n g e x p o s e d t o a d o p t i o n : Nancy, age 15: I remember t h a t I w o n d e r e d what i s a d o p t e d y o u know, I g u e s s I was a b o u t 3 o r 4, and a boy s a i d s o m e t h i n g a b o u t me b e i n g a d o p t e d and he s a i d t h a t we c o u l d be b r o t h e r and s i s t e r and t h a t c o n f u s e d me. I ' v e a l w a y s known i t f r o m t h e b e g i n n i n g and when he s a i d t h a t I w o n d e r e d w h e t h e r he was m a k i n g i t up s o I went home and a s k e d my mom and s h e t o l d me a g a i n , and t h i s t i m e i t sunk i n d e e p e r , i t was l i k e l e a r n i n g t o s p e a k a l m o s t , i t j u s t s o r t o f f i l t e r e d i n . L a u r a , age 16: I remember b e i n g t o l d and b e i n g k i n d o f c o n f u s e d b e c a u s e I remember b e i n g t o l d a s t o r y a t b e d t i m e , and t h e y t o l d me and I d i d n ' t u n d e r s t a n d , I was o n l y a b o u t 3. L i n d a , age 15: I g u e s s I was a b o u t 3 o r 4 and I was w a l k i n g w i t h my mom and I saw a p r e g n a n t l a d y and I w o n d e r e d i f I came f r o m a tummy, so I a s k e d my mom and s h e e x p l a i n e d i t t o me. B a r b a r a , age 15: When my mom t o l d me s h e s a i d t h e r e was no n e e d t o w o r r y a b o u t i t , t h e y r e a l l y l o v e d me a s t h e i r own d a u g h t e r , and t h a t i n f a c t I was s p e c i a l b e c a u s e t h e y c h o s e me. The way s h e p u t i t was w i t h my b r o t h e r s h e s a i d we a r e s t u c k w i t h him, b u t t h e y c h o s e me so t h a t was s p e c i a l i n i t s e l f , and I ' v e a l w a y s f e l t s p e c i a l . I was 4 y e a r s o l d t h e n . Tom, age 18: I remember b e i n g i n t h e l i v i n g room and my mom and d a d s i t t i n g me down and s a y i n g t h i s i s n ' t i m p o r t a n t a t a l l b u t we s h o u l d l e t y o u know t h a t y o u were a d o p t e d , I g u e s s I was a b o u t 4. I t h o u g h t i t was n e a t t h a t I was a d o p t e d , I j u s t t h o u g h t I was s p e c i a l and my o t h e r b r o t h e r and s i s t e r w e r e n ' t . My p a r e n t s d i d n ' t t e l l me t h a t b u t I t h o u g h t I was s p e c i a l . Q u e s t i o n s r e g a r d i n g a d o p t i o n and t h e a d o p t e e ' s p a r t i c u l a r s t a t u s s u r f a c e a g a i n a r o u n d age 7 o r 8: C h e r y l , age 16: I t h i n k I was a b o u t 7 o r 8 b e f o r e I r e a l i z e d I c o u l d h a v e n a t u r a l p a r e n t s , i t w a s n ' t l i k e r e a l i z i n g , i t was l i k e w o n d e r i n g a l l o f a s u d d e n . R i c h a r d , age 17: I t h i n k I f i r s t remember i t h i t t i n g home when I was a b o u t 7, t h a t i s when I r e a l l y r e a l i z e d w here I was f r o m , i t was when I was a b o u t t h a t age t h a t I r e a l i z e d t h a t I was d i f f e r e n t , n o b ody knew t h a t I was d i f f e r e n t , my mom s a i d s o m e t h i n g a b o u t me b e i n g d i f f e r e n t o r s p e c i a l . 78 Don, age 15: T h e r e was a c l e a r t i m e when I knew, and t h a t was when I was a b o u t 8 y e a r s o l d I had a f i g h t w i t h my b r o t h e r and he b r o u g h t i t up, i t was a w f u l I c r i e d , b u t i t w o u l d n ' t b o t h e r me now i f he d i d t h a t . S h e l l e y , age 17: I j u s t remember a l l o f a s u d d e n t h i n k i n g a b o u t i t when I was 8 y e a r s o l d . I g o t r e a l l y c u r i o u s a b o u t why my p a r e n t s w o u l d g i v e me up, and what i s a d o p t i o n , s o i t s n o t t h a t I n e v e r knew a b o u t i t u n t i l t h e n , i t was j u s t t h a t I s t a r t e d t h i n k i n g a b o u t i t t h e n . U n t i l I was 8 I t h o u g h t e v e r y b o d y was a d o p t e d and t h e n I r e a l i z e d n o t e v e r y b o d y i s a d o p t e d b e c a u s e my b r o t h e r s and s i s t e r w e r e n ' t . L i n d a , age 15: I f o r g o t a b o u t i t u n t i l I was 9 and I f o u n d t h e a d o p t i o n p a p e r s , and I a l m o s t s t a r t e d c r y i n g b e c a u s e I t h o u g h t why d i d n ' t y o u e v e r t e l l me, and s h e s a i d s h e had t o n s o f t i m e s b e f o r e . B u t t h e n I u n d e r s t o o d what a d o p t i o n was. I f e l t as i f my mom had b e e n t r y i n g t o h i d e i t f r o m me a l l t h o s e y e a r s . I was so u p s e t , I f e l t l i k e I was n o t w a n t e d o r s o m e t h i n g , I f e l t r e a l l y m i x e d up. I was s o mad a f t e r a l l t h o s e y e a r s o f t h i n k i n g t h i s i s my mom and f i n d i n g o u t t h a t i t i s n ' t . I k e p t on t h i n k i n g where i s my r e a l mom? I t seems t o ; be a r o u n d a g e s 8 o r 9 i n t h e a d o p t e e s ' l i v e s t h a t t h e r e a l i z a t i o n t h e y a r e a d o p t e d s u d d e n l y e m e r g e s . T h e r e i s an e l e m e n t o f s u r p r i s e i n t h e i r r e v e l a t i o n s , and f o r some, t h e f e e l i n g s o f s h o c k and c o n f u s i o n as t h e y r e a l i z e what a d o p t i o n means f o r t h e m . B r o d z i n s k y e t a l ( 1 9 8 1 ) d i s c o v e r e d t h a t b e t w e e n t h e a g e s o f 8-11, c h i l d r e n s ' c o n c e p t i o n o f a d o p t i o n b r o a d e n s . T h i s c o g n i t i v e c h a n g e p r o b a b l y e x p l a i n s t h e a d o p t e e s ' r e n e w e d i n t e r e s t and wonder i n t h e i r a d o p t i v e s t a t u s . T h e s e r e s u l t s f u r t h e r s u g g e s t t h a t a d o p t i o n k n o w l e d g e r e s u l t s f r o m a g e n e r a l p r o c e s s o f c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e c o n c e p t , and n o t s i m p l y f r o m a g r a d u a l a c c u m u l a t i o n o f f a c t s p r e s e n t e d by t h e p a r e n t s ( B r o d z i n s k y e t a l , 1 9 8 1 ) . 79 P a r e n t s ' p e r c e p t i o n o f t h e r e v e l a t i o n e x p e r i e n c e . A l l t h e p a r e n t s i n t e r v i e w e d i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e y t o l d t h e i r c h i l d r e n as s o o n as p o s s i b l e a b o u t t h e i r a d o p t i v e s t a t u s . The a d o p t e e s ' p e r c e p t i o n s were c o n f i r m e d by t h e p a r e n t s ' p e r c e p t i o n s as a l l t h e p a r e n t s a l s o i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e i r c h i l d r e n had a l w a y s known a b o u t t h e i r a d o p t i o n . However, none o f t h e p a r e n t s were a b l e t o t e l l when t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n had r e a l l y b e e n u n d e r s t o o d by t h e i r c h i l d . The i n i t i a l r e v e l a t i o n e x p e r i e n c e was n o t a c c o m p a n i e d by p a r e n t a l a n x i e t y , t h e p a r e n t s r e p o r t e d t h a t i t o c c u r r e d i n a r e l a x e d manner and t h a t t h e i r c h i l d seemed u n c o n c e r n e d a b o u t i t : M o t h e r : A d o p t i o n was p a r t o f t h e f a m i l y c u l t u r e r i g h t f r o m t h e b e g i n n i n g . We made a c a r e f u l d e c i s i o n n o t t o o v e r o r u n d e r e m p h a s i z e i t . The k i d s n e v e r seemed c o n c e r n e d a b o u t i t t h e n . M o t h e r : W e l l we n e v e r made a s e c r e t o u t o f i t , we j u s t s t a t e d t h e c a s e as i t was, i t j u s t o c c u r r e d n a t u r a l l y , and s h e w a s n ' t b o t h e r e d by i t . Some o f t h e p a r e n t s , on t h e a d v i c e o f t h e s o c i a l w o r k e r had r e a d t h e C h o s e n Baby s t o r y t o t h e i r c h i l d a t b e d t i m e , b u t 54% o f t h e p a r e n t s r e c o u n t e d a \"tummy s t o r y \" t h a t seemed t o t r i g g e r t h e i r c h i l d ' s i n t e r e s t i n b a b i e s : M o t h e r : Some k i d s up t h e s t r e e t s a i d s o m e t h i n g t o D. a b o u t c o m i n g o u t o f my tummy, s o a t nap t i m e I t o l d h i m how i t w o r k s , t h a t he came o u t o f someone e l s e ' s tummy, and t h a t seemed t o s a t i s f y h i m , he w a s n ' t b o t h e r e d by i t . M o t h e r : My s i s t e r was p r e g n a n t and S. w a n t e d t o know how i t g o t t h e r e and s h e a s k e d was I e v e r i n y o u r tummy? So i t s an i d e a l way o f b r i n g i n g up a d o p t i o n , so I t o l d h e r a b o u t i t t h e n . She u s e d t o b r i n g i t up q u i t e f r e q u e n t l y when s h e was 3. M o t h e r : When L. f i r s t f o u n d o u t t h a t s h e came f r o m a n o t h e r l a d y ' s tummy s h e d i d n ' t s a y much a b o u t i t f o r y e a r s , b u t t h e n s h e s t a r t e d a s k i n g q u e s t i o n s l i k e , d i d I come f r o m y o u r tummy? L i k e I had l i e d t o h e r o r s o m e t h i n g , i t b o t h e r e d me a l o t t h a t s h e k e p t a s k i n g me. 80 M o t h e r : I t o l d h e r a b o u t t h e tummy s t u f f when s h e was l i t t l e , , like--.I t o l d h e r how we went s e a r c h i n g f o r h e r and how we f o u n d h e r and s h e u s e d t o g e t me t o t e l l h e r t h e s t o r y o v e r and o v e r a g a i n . B u t when s h e was 3 s h e a s k e d a n e i g h b o r i f s h e came o u t o f h e r tummy b e c a u s e s h e knew s h e d i d n ' t come o u t o f m i n e . T h a t r e a l l y b o t h e r e d me b e c a u s e I d i d n ' t r e a l i z e t h a t s h e was t h i n k i n g a b o u t i t t h a t much a t s u c h a y o u n g a g e . I t was a s u r p r i s e . The a n x i e t y r e g a r d i n g t e l l i n g t h e c h i l d r e n o f t h e i r a d o p t i v e s t a t u s o c c u r r e d w e l l a f t e r t h e i n i t i a l r e v e l a t i o n h a d t a k e n p l a c e , when t h e c h i l d r e n were o l d e n o u g h t o s t a r t a s k i n g p e r t i n e n t q u e s t i o n s . F o r some f a m i l i e s t h e c h i l d s t a r t e d a s k i n g q u e s t i o n s a r o u n d 3 y e a r s o f age, b u t f o r t h e m a j o r i t y ( 6 9 % ) o f f a m i l i e s , t h e c h i l d r e n were o l d e r when t h e y b e g a n t h e r e a l q u e s t i o n i n g , a n d t h e q u e s t i o n i n g p e r i o d r e a c h e d a peak a r o u n d t h e a g e s o f 8 t o 9. The same t i m e as t h e a d o l e s c e n t s remember b e c o m i n g c u r i o u s a b o u t a d o p t i o n . The th e m e s o f a n x i e t y , u n c e r t a i n t y , i n a d e q u a c y and f e e l i n g t h r e a t e n e d , r e f l e c t how 5 4 % o f t h e a d o p t i v e m o t h e r s f e l t a b o u t t h e i r c h i l d ' s c u r i o s i t y a n d q u e s t i o n s : - I t h i n k I f e l t t h r e a t e n e d by a l l t h e q u e s t i o n s . She w o u l d r e p e a t e d l y a s k them, i t w o u l d s a t i s f y h e r f o r a l i t t l e w h i l e and t h e n s h e ' d a s k a g a i n and I'd h a v e t o r e a s s u r e h e r a g a i n . I t was a l i t t l e u n s e t t l i n g , I w a s n ' t s u r e i f I was g o i n g t o g i v e h e r t h e r i g h t a n s w e r and I d i d n ' t want t o make h e r f e e l r e j e c t e d . - I p e r s o n a l l y f o u n d i t f a i r l y t e n s e i n t h a t I was r e a l l y w a n t i n g t o s a y t h e r i g h t t h i n g s . When he was 4 o r 5 he a s k e d , why d i d s h e t h r o w me away? And I d i d n ' t know how t o a n s w e r t h a t , I c o u l d n ' t b e l i e v e a s m a l l c h i l d w o u l d t h i n k l i k e t h a t . - She was a l w a y s a s k i n g , I d r e a d e d t h e n e x t t i m e s h e w o u l d a s k t h i s h o r r i b l e q u e s t i o n , i t was r e a l l y u p s e t t i n g t o h a v e t o k e e p s a y i n g t h a t s h e came f r o m somebody e l s e . - She a s k e d a l o t o f q u e s t i o n s when s h e was 8, s h e w o u l d f r e q u e n t l y a s k how c o u l d my mommy n o t want me. I f e l t u p t i g h t I n e v e r t h o u g h t I w o u l d e i t h e r . I was w o r r i e d t h a t I w a s n ' t h a n d l i n g i t p r o p e r l y . When s h e was a s k i n g a l l t h o s e q u e s t i o n s I t h o u g h t i t m i g h t h a v e a d v e r s e e f f e c t s on h e r . I was more u p t i g h t a b o u t what I was g o i n g t o s a y and w h e t h e r I m i g h t make i t w o r s e . I f e l t i n a d e q u a t e a t h a n d l i n g t h e q u e s t i o n s , I c o u l d h a n d l e t h e m e a s l e s and p r a c t i c a l t h i n g s l i k e t h a t b u t t h i s was d i f f e r e n t . 81 - From t h e n on when s h e was 9 we had a r e a l q u e s t i o n p e r i o d w i t h h e r , who i s my m o t h e r , what d i d s h e l o o k l i k e , why d i d s h e g i v e me up, d i d n ' t s h e l o v e me? And we d e a l t w i t h o n e q u e s t i o n a t a t i m e . When s h e was a r o u n d 9 t h o u g h s h e was a s k i n g t h e s e q u e s t i o n s a l l t h e t i m e , I f e l t t h r e a t e n e d , we went t h r o u g h a r e a l l y h a r d t i m e t h e n . She was r e b e l l i o u s , d i s r e s p e c t f u l , and had n i g h t m a r e s and wet t h e b e d , and t h e k i d s a t s c h o o l were mean t o h e r , e v e r y t h i n g s o r t o f t u m b l e d i n on h e r . The r e p e t i t i o u s n a t u r e o f t h e a d o p t e e ' s q u e s t i o n i n g was q u i t e u n s e t t l i n g f o r many o f t h e a d o p t i v e p a r e n t s . I t i s c l e a r t h a t t h e y d i d n o t u n d e r s t a n d why t h e i r c h i l d r e n were r e p e a t e d l y a s k i n g t h e q u e s t i o n s when t h e y were d o i n g t h e i r b e s t t o a n s w e r t h e m . A l t h o u g h t h e f a t h e r s were aware o f t h e i r c h i l d ' s i n t e r e s t i n b e i n g a d o p t e d , i t was u s u a l l y t h e m o t h e r s who d e a l t w i t h t h e i r c h i l d ' s c u r i o s i t y and r e p e t i t i v e q u e s t i o n s . F a m i l y c o m m u n i c a t i o n r e g a r d i n g a d o p t i o n . A l l o f t h e a d o p t e e s i n t e r v i e w e d b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e s u b j e c t o f a d o p t i o n was an o p e n t o p i c a t home. A l l o f t h e a d o p t e e s p r e s e n t e d a p i c t u r e o f a f a i r l y , r e l a x e d open a t m o s p h e r e i n r e g a r d t o d i s c u s s i o n o f g e n e r a l a d o p t i o n t o p i c s : B a r b a r a , age 15: We t a l k a b o u t i t o c c a s i o n a l l y , i t s u s u a l l y i n a g e n e r a l s e n s e , l i k e a d o p t i n g a c h i l d o r s o m e t h i n g , l i k e i t s n o t me as s u c h , i t s j u s t a d o p t i o n i n g e n e r a l . P a u l , age 16: We m i g h t end up t a l k i n g a b o u t s o m e t h i n g r e l a t e d t o a d o p t i o n , b u t i t s n o t r e a l l y a h o t s u b j e c t t o t a l k a b o u t . S h e l l e y , age 17: I t w o u l d be an o f f h a n d d i s c u s s i o n most o f t h e t i m e . I f we do t a l k a b o u t i t , i t s when I was a baby o r s o m e t h i n g . A l t h o u g h a d o p t i o n was n o t d i s c u s s e d v e r y f r e q u e n t l y i n t h e s t u d y f a m i l i e s , t h e a d o p t e e s p e r c e i v e d t h a t i t was an open s u b j e c t , t h i s m a t c h e d t h e p e r c e p t i o n o f t h e p a r e n t s . The m a j o r i t y ( 8 6 % ) o f t h e a d o p t e e s b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e y i n i t i a t e d m ost d i s c u s s i o n s a b o u t a d o p t i o n 82 when t h e y o c c u r r e d i n t h e home: C h e r y l , age 16: I t a l k a b o u t i t w h e n e v e r I t h i n k a b o u t i t . I a s k why I was a d o p t e d , why d i d t h e y want a g i r l i n s t e a d o f a b o y , t h e r e i s no r e a l f a m i l y d i s c u s s i o n I j u s t t a l k a b o u t i t when I want t o . M a r i e , age 14: I u s u a l l y b r i n g i t up, I wonder a b o u t t h e p e o p l e who had me a l o t and I w o n d e r w h e r e , what my r o o t s a r e and where I come f r o m , t h a t ' s what I wonder t h e most so I do b r i n g i t u p . F o u r t e e n p e r c e n t o f t h e a d o p t e e s i n d i c a t e d t h a t m o t h e r was t h e one t h a t u s u a l l y b r o u g h t up t h e s u b j e c t o f a d o p t i o n : A l i c e , age 14: I d o n ' t t a l k a b o u t i t t h a t much I g u e s s my mom b r i n g s i t up b u t t h e n I won't t a l k t o h e r a b o u t i t , I f e e l s t u p i d . Don, age 15: I d o n ' t t a l k a b o u t i t t h a t much a t home b e c a u s e my b r o t h e r bugs me, i t s u s u a l l y my mom t h a t b r i n g s i t up, b u t I d o n ' t want t o t e l l h e r e v e r y t h i n g I t h i n k b e c a u s e I d o n ' t want t o g e t a n y o n e i n t r o u b l e , l i k e my b r o t h e r y o u know. P a r e n t s ' p e r c e p t i o n o f f a m i l y c o m m u n i c a t i o n a b o u t a d o p t i o n . A l l t h e p a r e n t s i n t e r v i e w e d a g r e e d w i t h t h e p e r c e p t i o n o f t h e a d o p t e e s t h a t t h e s u b j e c t o f a d o p t i o n was an o p e n t o p i c a t home. However, t h e c h i l d r e n and p a r e n t s d i f f e r e d i n t h e i r p e r c e p t i o n s o f who u s u a l l y i n i t i a t e d t h e d i s c u s s i o n s . E i g h t y - f o u r p e r c e n t o f t h e p a r e n t s , p r i m a r i l y t h e m o t h e r s b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e y u s u a l l y b r o u g h t t h e s u b j e c t o f a d o p t i o n up i n t h e home: M o t h e r : We w e r e j u s t h a v i n g a t a l k one day and when he g o t up t o go he s a i d I wonder what my m o t h e r was r e a l l y l i k e , s o i t made me more aware t h a t i t s on h i s m i n d a l o t more t h a n we w o u l d e v e r know. I i n i t i a t e t h e d i s c u s s i o n s m ost o f t h e t i m e , i t s u s u a l l y me t h a t m e n t i o n s i t . M o t h e r : O f t e n I ' l l b r i n g i t up, i f s h e ' s g o t s o m e t h i n g t o s a y I want h e r t o s a y i t . I want h e r t o a c c e p t t h e f a c t t h a t s h e i s a d o p t e d s o I b r i n g i t up. I want h e r t o f e e l c o m f o r t a b l e . S i x t e e n p e r c e n t o f t h e p a r e n t s b e l i e v e d t h a t no one i n p a r t i c u l a r b r o u g h t t h e s u b j e c t up a t home, and t h a t i f i t h a p p e n e d t o come up i t w o u l d j u s t be d i s c u s s e d l i k e a n y t h i n g e l s e . 83 W h i l e f a m i l y d i s c u s s i o n a b o u t g e n e r a l a d o p t i o n i s s u e s was p e r c e i v e d by b o t h p a r e n t s and a d o p t e e s as an open t o p i c , d i s c u s s i o n on a more p e r s o n a l l e v e l was more d i f f i c u l t f o r t h e a d o l e s c e n t s . E i g h t y p e r c e n t o f t h e a d o l e s c e n t s were w o r r i e d a b o u t u p s e t t i n g t h e i r p a r e n t s w i t h t h e i r q u e s t i o n s and c u r i o s i t y a b o u t t h e i r b a c k g r o u n d s : R i c h a r d , age 17:1 w a s n ' t s u r e when I t a l k e d t o my mom a b o u t i t w h e t h e r s h e ' d g e t u p s e t and t h i n k what h a v e I done wrong, why i s he c u r i o u s a l l o f a s u d d e n ? B u t f r o m h e r r e a c t i o n I d o n ' t t h i n k I u p s e t h e r . I t w o u l d be i m p o s s i b l e t o b r i n g up a t h i n g l i k e t h a t w i t h my d a d . S h e l l e y , age 17: I t h i n k my mom was w o r r i e d a b o u t how I'd f e e l a b o u t i t , a b o u t b e i n g a d o p t e d , so t h e r e i s no r e a s o n f o r me t o u p s e t h e r w i t h a l o t o f q u e s t i o n s . A l i c e , age 14: We d o n ' t t a l k a b o u t i t a t a l l , my mom b r i n g s i t up s o m e t i m e s b u t I c h a n g e t h e s u b j e c t , i t f e e l s u n c o m f o r t a b l e t o t a l k t o h e r a b o u t t h e b i r t h p a r e n t s . C a t h y , age 17: I t w o u l d be v e r y h a r d t o s a y t h a t I was c u r i o u s , s o I w o u l d n ' t want t o do t h a t b e c a u s e my mom g e t s u p s e t e a s i l y , s h e w o u l d t a k e i t v e r y p e r s o n a l l y . When I was y o u n g e r I u s e d t o a s k q u e s t i o n s b u t I w a s n ' t a v e r y g o o d c h i l d t h e n . When t h e a d o p t i v e p a r e n t s were q u e r i e d a b o u t d i s c u s s i n g t h e s e a d o p t i o n i s s u e s w i t h t h e i r c h i l d , a l l t h e p a r e n t s i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e y were o p e n and more t h a n w i l l i n g t o d i s c u s s t h e i r c h i l d ' s c u r i o s i t y a b o u t t h e b i o l o g i c a l p a r e n t s w i t h t h e a d o p t e e . In one f a m i l y , t h e m o t h e r p e r c e i v e d c o m m u n i c a t i o n r e g a r d i n g t h e s e a d o p t i o n i s s u e s a s b e i n g o p e n , b u t a t t h e same t i m e s h e was s e n d i n g c o n f l i c t i n g m e s s a g e s t o h e r s o n r e g a r d i n g h e r w i l l i n g n e s s t o d i s c u s s a d o p t i o n : M o t h e r : He showed some a n x i e t y a b o u t b e i n g a d o p t e d and so we t r i e d t o g e t him t o t a l k \" m o re\"about t h e B e a n x i e t i e s b u t he w o u l d n ' t s a y a n y t h i n g . So e v e r y o n c e i n a w h i l e I ' l l m e n t i o n s o m e t h i n g i n c a s e he w a n t s t o t a l k , I ' v e t o l d h i m 84 a b o u t b e i n g s e n s i t i v e a b o u t b e i n g h i s r e a l m o t h e r and he knows t h a t I f e e l s l i g h t l y t h r e a t e n e d b u t he a l s o knows t h a t I'm n o t a f r a i d o f him l o o k i n g up h i s b i o l o g i c a l m o t h e r . I f a c h i l d g e t s t h e m e s s a g e t h a t h i s i n t e r e s t i n t h e b i o l o g i c a l p a r e n t s i s t h r e a t e n i n g o r u p s e t t i n g t o t h e a d o p t i v e p a r e n t s , he w i l l be much l e s s l i k e l y t o d i s c u s s w i t h them h i s f e e l i n g s r e g a r d i n g a d o p t i o n . In t h i s p a r t i c u l a r f a m i l y t h e a d o p t e e had n o t d i s c u s s e d h i s f e e l i n g s a b o u t b e i n g a d o p t e d b e c a u s e he d i d n o t want t o h u r t h i s m o t h e r ' s f e e l i n g s . T h e s e r e s u l t s s u g g e s t t h a t f o r t h e m a j o r i t y o f f a m i l i e s i n t h i s s t u d y , p a r e n t s and a d o p t e e s h a v e d i s c r e p a n t p e r c e p t i o n s r e g a r d i n g t h e o p e n n e s s and t h e q u a l i t y o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n r e g a r d i n g t h e a d o p t e e s ' b a c k g r o u n d . A d o p t e e s ' p e r c e p t i o n o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n w i t h s i b l i n g s a b o u t a d o p t i o n . C o m m u n i c a t i o n w i t h s i b l i n g s r e g a r d i n g a d o p t i o n i s s u e s was v e r y l i m i t e d among t h e a d o p t e e s i n t e r v i e w e d . None o f t h e a d o p t e e s had any r e a l l y p r i v a t e d i s c u s s i o n s w i t h t h e i r s i b l i n g s a b o u t a d o p t i o n , w h e t h e r t h e y w e r e a d o p t e d o r n o n - a d o p t e d s i b l i n g s . T h e r e a p p e a r s t o be a d e f i n i t e l a c k o f s h a r i n g i n b o t h m i x e d and o n l y a d o p t i v e f a m i l i e s when i t comes t o t a l k i n g a b o u t a d o p t i o n : C a t h y , age 17 ( a d o p t e d s i b s . ) : T h e r e i s n o t h i n g t o t a l k a b o u t , I d o n ' t t a l k t o them a b o u t my f e e l i n g s , i t s s o r t o f p r i v a t e I k e e p i t t o m y s e l f . N a n c y , age 1 5 ( a d o p t e d s i b . ) : I d o n ' t t a l k t o my b r o t h e r , he i s n ' t i n t e r e s t e d i n a n y t h i n g I d o . He t h i n k s I'm c r a z y b e c a u s e I want t o f i n d my p a r e n t s . S h e l l e y , age 1 7 ( n o n - a d o p t e d s i b s . ) : T h e y d o n ' t bug me a b o u t i t , t h e y u s e d t o s a y t h a t I was t h e s p e c i a l o n e , b u t I w o u l d n e v e r a s k them a b o u t i t , t h e y n e v e r u s e d i t a g a i n s t me t h o u g h . Don, age 1 5 ( n o n - a d o p t e d s i b s . ) : My b r o t h e r has b u g g e d me a b o u t i t , he u s e s i t a g a i n s t me, I w o u l d n e v e r t a l k t o him a b o u t i t . 85 In one f a m i l y t h a t was i n t e r v i e w e d , t h e a d o p t e d s i b l i n g s c o n f i d e d i n e a c h o t h e r b u t t h e y d i d n o t c o n f i d e i n t h e n o n - a d o p t e d s i b l i n g s : L a u r a , age 16: No, I w o u l d n ' t t a l k t o them ( n o n - a d o p t e d s i b s . ) b e c a u s e t h e y g e t t o u c h y , b e c a u s e e v e n a c o u p l e o f months ago I g o t t h i s b a c k g r o u n d i n f o r m a t i o n f r o m V i c t o r i a , and when t h e y f o u n d o u t t h e y w o n d e r e d why, s o I d o n ' t l i k e t a l k i n g t o them a b o u t i t , i t s l i k e t h e y a r e d e f e n s i v e , I t h i n k i t b o t h e r e d them b u t I do t a l k t o my a d o p t e d b r o t h e r , we t a l k a b o u t i t q u i t e o f t e n . In a n o t h e r f a m i l y i t was s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e r e s e a r c h g a v e them an e x c u s e t o t a l k a b o u t a d o p t i o n , and i f any f a m i l y member was h a v i n g p r o b l e m s t h i s r e s e a r c h m i g h t h e l p t h e m . T h e y w o u l d n o t o p e n l y a s k e a c h o t h e r i f a d o p t i o n was a p r o b l e m f o r them. In b o t h m i x e d a nd o n l y a d o p t i v e f a m i l i e s , t h e a d o p t e e s had a t e n d e n c y t o v i e w t h e i r a d o p t i o n as a p r i v a t e m a t t e r , n o t t o be d i s c u s s e d w i t h s i b l i n g s . F a m i l y R e l a t i o n s h i p s A d o p t e e s ' p e r c e p t i o n o f t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h m o t h e r . When t h e a d o p t e e s d e s c r i b e d t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h t h e i r a d o p t i v e m o t h e r s , m ost o f them d e s c r i b e d f a i r l y c l o s e , warm r e l a t i o n s h i p s . A s e c o n d a s p e c t t h a t t h e a d o p t e e s were q u e r i e d on was t h e i r p e r c e p t i o n o f t h e i r s i m i l a r i t y t o t h e i r m o t h e r s . I t was h y p o t h e s i z e d t h a t t h i s m i g h t r e f l e c t t h e e x t e n t t o w h i c h t h e c h i l d i d e n t i f i e d w i t h t h e p a r e n t . S e v e n t y - t h r e e p e r c e n t o f t h e a d o p t e e s f e l t t h a t t h e y were s i m i l a r i n some r e s p e c t s t o t h e i r m o t h e r s , s u g g e s t i n g t h a t t h e y i d e n t i f i e d w i t h t h e i r m o t h e r s t o some d e g r e e . The a d o p t e e s who f e l t t h e y were s i m i l a r t o t h e i r m o t h e r s a l s o b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e y h ad f a i r l y c l o s e r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h t h e i r m o t h e r s : L i n d a , age 15: My mom and I a r e more l i k e f r i e n d s , we a r e p r e t t y o p e n . I t h i n k we a r e p r e t t y much t h e same, we b o t h h a v e b a d t e m p e r s . 86 B a r b a r a , age 15: We a r e r e a l l y c l o s e , we g e t a l o n g r e a l l y w e l l , I l o o k a t some o f h e r q u a l i t i e s and I t h i n k I'm l i k e h e r q u i t e a b i t . M a r i e , age 14: We a r e b e s t f r i e n d s , s h e i s g r e a t , s h e i s so u n d e r s t a n d i n g , I t h i n k I'm s i m i l a r t o my mom, we t h i n k a l i k e and s t u f f . A l i c e , age 14: S h e ' s l i k e my b e s t f r i e n d s o r t o f b u t w i t h a h i g h e r l e v e l o f r e s p e c t . We a r e p r e t t y o p e n w i t h e a c h o t h e r . We a r e b o t h s e n s i t i v e a n d q u i e t , we a r e a l i k e . T w e n t y - s e v e n o f t h e a d o p t e e s i n t e r v i e w e d b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e y d i d n o t h v e r y c l o s e r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h t h e i r m o t h e r s , and t h e y had a t e n d e n c y t o p e r c e i v e t h e m s e l v e s as b e i n g d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h e i r m o t h e r s : L a u r a , age 16: Our r e l a t i o n s h i p i s n ' t t h a t g o o d . I d o n ' t r e a l l y t a l k t o h e r a b o u t my p r o b l e m s o r a n y t h i n g . I'm d i f f e r e n t f r o m e v e r y o n e i n t h e f a m i l y , I'm a t o t a l l y d i f f e r e n t p e r s o n f r o m my mom. C a t h y , age 17: I d o n ' t s p e a k t o my mom a b o u t i m p o r t a n t t h i n g s , l i k e I w o u l d n ' t t e l l h e r a b o u t p a i n f u l e x p e r i e n c e s s h e w o u l d p r o b a b l y l i k e t o be c l o s e r , I g u e s s o u r r e l a t i o n s h i p c o u l d be b e t t e r , we a r e v e r y d i f f e r e n t i n o u r n e e d s f o r o r d e r and s t u f f l i k e t h a t , o u r t e m p e r a m e n t s a r e d i f f e r e n t . An i n t e r e s t i n g f i n d i n g was t h a t e v e n when t h e a d o l e s c e n t s p e r c e i v e d a c l o s e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n m o t h e r and c h i l d , 3 3 % o f t h e s e a d o p t e e s a l s o i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e y d o n ' t d i s c u s s p e r s o n a l f e e l i n g s w i t h t h e i r m o t h e r s : C h e r y l , age 16: I t h i n k we a r e r e a l l y q u i t e c l o s e , I r e s p e c t h e r an a w f u l l o t , I c a n t a l k t o h e r a b o u t a l o t o f t h i n g s , b u t I d o n ' t t a l k t o h e r a b o u t p e r s o n a l s t u f f , my f e e l i n g s and s t u f f . S h e l l e y , age 17: We h a v e a v e r y c l o s e r e l a t i o n s h i p , we ha v e a c l o s e f a m i l y . I d o n ' t e x p r e s s my p e r s o n a l f e e l i n g s t o my mom t h o u g h . 87 M o t h e r s ' p e r c e p t i o n s o f t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h t h e a d o p t e e . N i n e t y - t h r e e p e r c e n t o f t h e a d o p t i v e m o t h e r s d e s c r i b e d t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h t h e i r a d o p t e d c h i l d r e n a s g o o d , c l o s e r e l a t i o n s h i p s . However, 6 2 % o f t h e m o t h e r s who p e r c e i v e d c l o s e r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h t h e i r c h i l d r e n d i d n o t t h i n k t h e i r c h i l d was s i m i l a r t o them a t a l l i n t e m p e r a m e n t o r m a n n e r i s m s : M o t h e r : I t h i n k o u r r e l a t i o n s h i p now i s q u i t e c l o s e t h i s has b e e n w o r k e d o u t o v e r t h e y e a r s , b u t I t h i n k he i s h a p p y w i t h i t now. He i s d i f f e r e n t t o me, I t h i n k he i s v e r y d r a m a t i c w i t h h i s o p i n i o n s and n o t l i k e me a t a l l . M o t h e r : We b o t h e n j o y a c l o s e r e l a t i o n s h i p , we h a v e an e x c e l l e n t r e l a t i o n s h i p b u t I t h i n k s h e i s p r e t t y d i f f e r e n t f r o m me. S h e ' s more o u t g o i n g and h e r t e m p e r a m e n t i s d i f f e r e n t . M o t h e r : We h a v e a c l o s e r e l a t i o n s h i p , we s p e n d a l o t o f t i m e t o g e t h e r . T h e r e i s a g r e a t d e a l o f t r u s t b e t w e e n u s . She i s q u i t e d i f f e r e n t f r o m me, s h e has a d i f f e r e n t manner t o me, and s h e ' s a n a t u r a l p e r f o r m e r , I'm n o t . S i x t y - t w o p e r c e n t o f t h e m o t h e r - c h i l d d y a d s i n t h i s s a m p l e had d i s c r e p a n t p e r c e p t i o n s r e g a r d i n g t h e i r s i m i l a r i t y t o e a c h o t h e r . A d o p t e e s ' p e r c e p t i o n s o f t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h f a t h e r . F i v e o f t h e a d o p t e e s ' r e s p o n s e s t o t h i s a r e a o f q u e s t i o n i n g were n o t a n a l y z e d b e c a u s e t h e y d i d n o t h a v e v e r y f r e q u e n t c o n t a c t w i t h t h e i r f a t h e r s due t o d i v o r c e i n t h e f a m i l y . S i x t y p e r c e n t o f t h e a d o p t e e s i n two p a r e n t f a m i l i e s i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h t h e i r f a t h e r s were o k a y , b u t n o t v e r y c l o s e , w h i l e 4 0 % i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e y had p o o r r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h t h e i r f a t h e r s : R i c h a r d , age 17: We j u s t s o r t o f s t a y o u t o f e a c h o t h e r ' s way, we h a v e n o t h i n g i n common. Tom, age 18: We h a v e an o k a y r e l a t i o n s h i p I g u e s s , b u t he g e t s on my n e r v e s , we a r e n ' t t h a t c l o s e . M a r i e , age 14: We a r e n ' t t h a t c l o s e , we d o n ' t f i g h t , i t s j u s t n o t t h a t g o o d . 88 S e v e n t y - s e v e n p e r c e n t o f t h e a d o p t e e s a l s o p e r c e i v e d t h a t t h e y were d i f f e r e n t i n t e m p e r a m e n t and m a n n e r i s m s f r o m t h e i r f a t h e r s : C h e r y l , age 16: I'm a l o t d i f f e r e n t f r o m my f a t h e r , my t e m p e r a m e n t and e v e r y t h i n g i s d i f f e r e n t . C a t h y , age 17: We t a l k a l o t b u t I d o n ' t t e l l h im p e r s o n a l t h i n g s , we a r e q u i t e d i f f e r e n t I t h i n k . S h e l l e y , age 17: I g u e s s o u r r e l a t i o n s h i p i s n ' t b a d , b u t he i s v e r y s e t i n h i s ways, we a r e n ' t a l i k e a t l e a s t I c a n ' t s e e i t . My t e m p e r a m e n t i s d i f f e r e n t f r o m h i s . F a t h e r s ' p e r c e p t i o n s o f t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h t h e a d o p t e e s . T h e a d o p t i v e f a t h e r s were aware t h a t t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h t h e i r c h i l d r e n were n o t as c l o s e as t h e m o t h e r - c h i l d r e l a t i o n s h i p s w e r e : F a t h e r : We l i k e e a c h o t h e r , we a r e n ' t as c l o s e as h e r and h e r m o t h e r a r e , s h e ' s l e s s l i k e l y t o t a l k t o me a b o u t t h i n g s t h a t a r e s e r i o u s l y on h e r m i n d . F a t h e r : We h a v e a f a i r l y g o o d r e l a t i o n s h i p b u t h e r m o t h e r . w o u l d be t h e one s h e ' d go t o i f s h e had a p r o b l e m . F a t h e r : She r e s e n t s me b e c a u s e s h e t h i n k s I p l a y f a v o r i t e s w i t h t h e b o y s , s o I r e s e n t t h a t , s h e w o u l d go t o h e r m o t h e r w i t h p e r s o n a l t h i n g s , s h e c e r t a i n l y n e v e r comes t o me w i t h t h a t . F a t h e r : My p e r c e p t i o n o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p i s t h a t h e ' s n e v e r w a n t e d t o do t h i n g s w i t h me, t h e r e i s some b l o c k b e t w e e n u s . He w o u l d n e v e r go and do t h i n g s w i t h me e a s i l y , he has a b e t t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h h i s m o t h e r . The a d o p t i v e f a t h e r s ' p e r c e p t i o n s o f t h e s i m i l a r i t i e s and d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e i r c h i l d r e n were c o n g r u e n t w i t h t h e a d o p t e e s ' p e r c e p t i o n s . T h o s e a d o p t e e s who t h o u g h t t h a t t h e y were d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h e i r f a t h e r s , had f a t h e r s who v i e w e d t h e a d o p t e e as d i f f e r e n t f r o m them, and t h o s e a d o p t e e s who t h o u g h t t h e y were s i m i l a r t o t h e i r f a t h e r s a l s o had f a t h e r s who had c o n g r u e n t p e r c e p t i o n s . 89 P a r e n t s ' and a d o p t e e s ' p e r c e p t i o n s o f s i b l i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p s . P a r e n t s who had o n l y a d o p t e d c h i l d r e n d e s c r i b e d t h e i r c h i l d r e n ' s s i b l i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p s as n o r m a l , t h e y d i d n o t p e r c e i v e t h a t any s i g n i f i c a n t s i b l i n g p r o b l e m s e x i s t e d . The a d o p t e d c h i l d r e n i n t h e s e f a m i l i e s a l s o d i d n o t p e r c e i v e t h a t any p r o b l e m s e x i s t e d among t h e i r s i b l i n g s , t h u s t h e p a r e n t - a d o p t e e p e r c e p t i o n s were c o n g r u e n t r e g a r d i n g s i b l i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p s . S i x t y p e r c e n t o f t h e p a r e n t s i n m i x e d f a m i l i e s a l s o r e p o r t e d t h a t no s i b l i n g p r o b l e m s e x i s t e d , b u t 4 0 % o f t h e p a r e n t s d i d p e r c e i v e some s i b l i n g r i v a l r y b e t w e e n t h e i r a d o p t e d a n d n o n - a d o p t e d c h i l d r e n . The m a i n c o m p l a i n t , a c c o r d i n g t o t h e p a r e n t s , was t h a t t h e a d o p t e e f e l t t h a t t h e o t h e r s i b l i n g ( s ) r e c e i v e d p r e f e r e n t i a l t r e a t m e n t : M o t h e r : In t h e l a s t few y e a r s N. has u s e d h e r b r o t h e r i n a way when s h e ' s mad s h e ' l l s a y he i s y o u r n a t u r a l c h i l d s o he i s y o u r p r e c i o u s one and t h i n g s l i k e t h a t . I t h i n k s h e i s j e a l o u s o f h i m . She s a y s we f a v o r h i m b e c a u s e he i s p o p u l a r o r s o m e t h i n g l i k e t h a t . M o t h e r : S h e ' s e x t r e m e l y j e a l o u s o f h e r s i s t e r , h e r s i s t e r i s h e r d a d ' s f a v o r i t e , and he makes i t v e r y c l e a r and t h a t r e a l l y b o t h e r s h e r , s h e g e t s a l o n g o k a y w i t h t h e o t h e r s t h o u g h . M o t h e r : D.'s b r o t h e r b ugs him a l o t . He's r e a l l y q u i t e mean t o h i m . I t h i n k D. i s j e a l o u s o f him, s o I t h i n k t h e r e i s some s i b l i n g r i v a l r y t h e r e . The a d o p t e d c h i l d r e n i n t h e s e m i x e d f a m i l i e s a g r e e d w i t h t h e i r p a r e n t s ' p e r c e p t i o n s r e g a r d i n g t h e s i b l i n g p r o b l e m s i n t h e i r f a m i l i e s : A l i c e , age 14: My s i s t e r g e t s away w i t h e v e r y t h i n g , s h e i s my d a d ' s f a v o r i t e , i t makes me s i c k . N a n c y , age 15: My b r o t h e r g e t s s p e c i a l t r e a t m e n t . I t ' s my o p i n i o n b u t I f e e l t h a t way. I t h i n k b o t h my p a r e n t s g i v e h i m p r e f e r r e d t r e a t m e n t , t h e y s o r t o f t a k e h i s s i d e . Don, age 15: I d o n ' t g e t a l o n g t o o w e l l w i t h my b r o t h e r , I s t a y o u t o f h i s way. My dad g i v e s s p e c i a l t r e a t m e n t and my b r o t h e r a l w a y s r e m i n d s me a b o u t t h a t . 90 S i x t y p e r c e n t o f t h e a d o p t e d c h i l d r e n i n t h e m i x e d f a m i l i e s m e n t i o n e d t h a t a l t h o u g h t h e y d i d n ' t h a v e any m a j o r d i f f i c u l t i e s w i t h t h e i r s i b l i n g s , t h e y d i d n ' t h a v e c l o s e r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h t h e i r n o n - a d o p t e d s i b l i n g s b e c a u s e t h e y w e r e s o d i f f e r e n t f r o m them: L a u r a , age 16: I'm d i f f e r e n t f r o m e v e r y o n e i n my f a m i l y . I'm n o t c l o s e t o my b r o t h e r s and s i s t e r s b u t I g e t a l o n g w i t h my a d o p t e d b r o t h e r , we a r e c l o s e . T a n y a , age 15: I'm d i f f e r e n t f r o m my b r o t h e r s and s i s t e r s and t h e y a r e q u i t e a b i t o l d e r t h a n me s o we d o n ' t h a v e much i n common. S h e l l e y , age 17: My s i s t e r and I n e v e r u s e d t o g e t a l o n g v e r y w e l l , i t s j u s t t h a t we a r e so d i f f e r e n t . T h e a d o p t e e s ' s e n s e o f b e l o n g i n g . A l l o f t h e a d o p t e e s f r o m o n l y a d o p t i v e f a m i l i e s f e l t t h a t t h e y b e l o n g e d i n t h e i r f a m i l i e s : C h e r y l , age 16: I f e e l l i k e I b e l o n g i n t h e f a m i l y I d o n ' t f e e l l e f t o u t o f a n y t h i n g , i t s l i k e I was meant t o be h e r e . P a u l , age 16: I f e e l t h a t I b e l o n g , I d o n ' t f e e l l e f t o u t , t h i s i s my f a m i l y , I t h i n k i t ' s c r a z y some k i d s b l a m e t h e i r p r o b l e m s on b e i n g a d o p t e d . M a r i e , age 14: I b e l o n g i n t h i s f a m i l y , t h e r e i s a l o t o f s e n s e o f b e l o n g i n g h e r e . Pam, age 14: I b e l o n g , t h e p e o p l e who a d o p t e d me a r e my p a r e n t s . However, i n t h e m i x e d f a m i l i e s , 6 7 % o f t h e a d o p t e e s had d i f f i c u l t i e s i n d e v e l o p i n g a s t r o n g s e n s e o f b e l o n g i n g i n t h e i r f a m i l i e s . Non-a d o p t e d s i b l i n g s c a n r e i n f o r c e t h e f e e l i n g , o f n o t b e l o n g i n g , as c a n t h e p e r c e p t i o n t h a t t h e a d o p t e e ' s p e r s o n a l i t y i s m i s m a t c h e d w i t h o t h e r f a m i l y members: A l i c e , age 14: I t h i n k I b e l o n g s o r t o f , l i k e my b r o t h e r and s i s t e r t h e y a r e q u i t e c l o s e s o t h e y s o r t o f make me f e e l l e f t o u t . I f e e l l i k e I b e l o n g w i t h my mom b u t n o t my d a d . 91 Don, age 15: F o r a w h i l e I s o r t o f f e l t l i k e I was d i f f e r e n t j u s t b e i n g a d o p t e d , l i k e I w a s n ' t as much a p a r t o f t h e f a m i l y as t h e y were and i t was p r e t t y b a d , I d o n ' t f e e l as b e l o n g i n g as t h e o t h e r k i d s . L a u r a , age 16: I f e l t l i k e a p a r t o f t h e f a m i l y f r o m t h e b e g i n n i n g I g u e s s b u t when I was y o u n g e r my b r o t h e r and s i s t e r t e a s e d me a l o t , I d i d n ' t f e e l l i k e I b e l o n g e d a t a l l t h e n , o r when I was d e p r e s s e d o r f i g h t i n g i n t h e f a m i l y . When I t h o u g h t I was a m i s t a k e I r e a l l y d i d n ' t b e l o n g t h e n . T a n y a , age 15: So m e t i m e s I l o o k a r o u n d t h e t a b l e when t h e w h o l e f a m i l y i s t o g e t h e r and I t h i n k I'm n o t r e a l l y l i k e t hem, i t s l i k e I d o n ' t b e l o n g and somehow I j u s t g e t a f e e l i n g t h a t my g r a n d p a r e n t s h a v e n ' t a c c e p t e d me y e t . S o m e t i m e s I g e t up and l e a v e t h e t a b l e and j u s t go t o my room. R i c h a r d , age 17: I g u e s s I b e l o n g h e r e b u t n o t t h a t much s o m e t i m e s . I d o n ' t b e l o n g w i t h my d a d we a r e n ' t a t a l l a l i k e , o u r p e r s o n a l i t i e s a r e s o d i f f e r e n t . N a n c y , age 15: I d o n ' t b e l o n g h e r e , t h a t i s t h e f e e l i n g t h a t I g e t . I t s h o u l d h a v e been somebody e l s e , I b e l o n g somewhere e l s e and I d o n ' t know w h e r e . S o m e t i m e s I d o n ' t e v e n f e e l l i k e I b e l o n g on t h i s p l a n e t , I g u e s s t h e r e i s a p a r t o f me w a n t i n g t o b e l o n g somewhere. I t s l i k e y o u r f e e t a r e o f f t h e g r o u n d a nd y o u a r e j u s t f l o a t i n g , f l o a t i n g a r o u n d s i n c e I was b o r n . T h e r e was a t e n d e n c y f o r a d o l e s c e n t s who v i e w e d t h e m s e l v e s as d i f f e r e n t f r o m one o r more f a m i l y members t o a l s o h a v e some d i f f i c u l t i e s d e v e l o p i n g a s t r o n g s e n s e o f b e l o n g i n g i n t h e i r f a m i l i e s , h o w e v e r , t h e m a g n i t u d e o f t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p c a n n o t be d e t e r m i n e d i n s u c h a d e s c r i p t i v e a n a l y s i s . The e x t e n d e d f a m i l i e s ' a t t i t u d e s t o w a r d s a d o p t i o n . P r e v i o u s r e s e a r c h had i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e g r a n d p a r e n t s ' v i e w s on a d o p t i o n had a f f e c t e d some a d o p t i v e p a r e n t s a b i l i t y t o f e e l c o m f o r t a b l e w i t h t h e i r d e c i s i o n t o a d o p t . So t h e a d o p t i v e p a r e n t s i n t h i s r e s e a r c h were a s k e d t o r e c a l l t h e i r e a r l y e x p e r i e n c e s w i t h t h e i r e x t e n d e d f a m i l i e s . S i x t y p e r c e n t o f t h e p a r e n t s 92 i n t e r v i e w e d m e n t i o n e d t h a t t h e i r p a r e n t s had e x p r e s s e d some o p p o s i t i o n o r c o n c e r n a b o u t them a d o p t i n g . H a l f o f t h e s e p a r e n t s were p a r e n t s i n m i x e d f a m i l i e s , w i t h b o t h b i o l o g i c a l and a d o p t e d c h i l d r e n . The a d o p t i v e p a r e n t s were u n p r e p a r e d f o r , and s u r p r i s e d by t h e i r p a r e n t s ' r e a c t i o n s : M o t h e r : E v e r y b o d y was s u p p o r t i v e e x c e p t my f a t h e r . He d i d n o t a c c e p t h e r f o r q u i t e a few y e a r s . I t w a s n ' t h i s g r a n d a u g h t e r i n h i s e y e s b e c a u s e I h a d n ' t g i v e n b i r t h t o h e r . My mom n e v e r s a i d a n y t h i n g t h o u g h . M o t h e r : B o t h o u r m o t h e r s made comments t o me l i k e d i d we know what we were d o i n g , and t h e y d i d n ' t know i f t h e y c o u l d a c c e p t them, I was s u r p r i s e d by t h e i r r e a c t i o n . F a t h e r : The g r a n d p a r e n t s g i v e p r e f e r e n t i a l t r e a t m e n t t o o u r n a t u r a l k i d s , and i t i s q u i t e o b v i o u s , t h e y i g n o r e t h e a d o p t e d k i d s . We d i d n ' t e x p e c t i t and t h e n we t h o u g h t t h e y w o u l d g e t u s e d t o t h e i d e a b u t t h e y h a v e n ' t , t h e y a r e v e r y n a r r o w m i n d e d I t h i n k . M o t h e r : I n e v e r t h o u g h t t h e r e w o u l d be a p r o b l e m b u t t o my amazement t h e r e was a l o t o f o p p o s i t i o n . T h e y t h o u g h t i t was u n e c c e s s a r y and f o o l i s h , what a b o u t t h e o t h e r c h i l d r e n , t h e y h a v e a c c e p t e d h e r as a member o f t h e f a m i l y now, b u t i n i t i a l l y t h e y were v e r y o p p o s e d . T h e s e r e s u l t s s u g g e s t t h a t some f a m i l i e s ' p e r c e p t i o n s and f e e l i n g s a b o u t b i o l o g i c a l t i e s a r e s t r o n g , and t h e i d e a o f a d o p t i o n c a u s e s them some d i f f i c u l t y . In 4 0 % o f t h e f a m i l i e s , t h e e x t e n d e d f a m i l y members e x p r e s s e d p o s i t i v e f e e l i n g s a b o u t t h e c o u p l e ' s i n t e n t t o a d o p t and were d e l i g h t e d t o a c k n o w l e d g e t h e a d o p t e d c h i l d as a member o f t h e f a m i l y : M o t h e r : T h e y were a l l d e l i g h t e d , n o body s a i d a n y t h i n g t o u s , he was j u s t a u t o m a t i c a l l y c o n s i d e r e d a p a r t o f t h e f a m i l y . M o t h e r : Our p a r e n t s were q u i t e e n t h u s i a s t i c , t h e y were a n x i o u s t o h a v e g r a n d c h i l d r e n s o t h e y were p l e a s e d , t h e y f o r g o t t h a t t h e y were a d o p t e d . The P a r e n t s ' A d o p t i o n E x p e r i e n c e 93 The e a r l y a d o p t i o n e x p e r i e n c e . A l t h o u g h a l l t h e a d o p t i v e m o t h e r s i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e y f e l t p r e p a r e d t o a d o p t , on f u r t h e r p r o b i n g i t was d i s c o v e r e d t h a t a c t u a l l y r e c e i v i n g t h e c h i l d and t a k i n g t h e b aby home p r o d u c e d f a i r l y d i f f e r e n t e x p e r i e n c e s f o r m o t h e r s who a l r e a d y had n a t u r a l c h i l d r e n , and m o t h e r s who o n l y had a d o p t e d c h i l d r e n . M o t h e r s w i t h o n l y a d o p t e d c h i l d r e n d i d n o t p e r c e i v e any m a j o r p r o b l e m s d u r i n g t h e e a r l y p e r i o d o f a d o p t i v e p a r e n t h o o d , and d i d n o t a p p e a r t o h a v e any d i f f i c u l t i e s i n d e v e l o p i n g m a t e r n a l f e e l i n g s : M o t h e r : Oh I l a t c h e d on t o h e r r i g h t away, s h e was my b a b y . I t was l i k e s h e was m i n e f r o m t h e s t a r t . M o t h e r : As s o o n as we p i c k e d h e r up f r o m t h e h o s p i t a l s h e was o u r s . We had s p e n t a l o t o f t i m e l o o k i n g a t h e r a t t h e h o s p i t a l so s h e r e a l l y f e l t l i k e m i n e . M o t h e r : W e l l t h e i n s t a n t we g o t him he was o u r s , i t was l i k e t h a t w i t h a l l o f them. I t was v e r y e x c i t i n g . F e e l i n g s o f a n x i e t y , a m b i v a l e n c e and g u i l t w ere e x p e r i e n c e d by 6 3 % o f t h e a d o p t i v e m o t h e r s who a l r e a d y had n a t u r a l c h i l d r e n . Many o f t h e s e m o t h e r s commented on how t h e y t h o u g h t t h e y s h o u l d f e e l , and c o m p a r e d t h e e x p e r i e n c e t o when t h e y had t h e i r own c h i l d r e n . T h e i r m a i n p r o b l e m was i n d e v e l o p i n g m a t e r n a l f e e l i n g s and f e e l i n g c o m f o r t a b l e w i t h t h e a t t a c h m e n t p r o c e s s as i t o c c u r r e d . T h i s p r o b l e m was a c c e n t u a t e d i n two f a m i l i e s where t h e b a b i e s were a c o u p l e o f months o l d e r a t t h e t i m e o f a d o p t i o n : M o t h e r : I n i t i a l l y I d i d n ' t r e l a t e to h e r a t a l l , I t h o u g h t what h a v e t h e y g i v e n me. I t was a w h i l e b e f o r e I h o n e s t l y b e g a n t o t h i n k o f h e r as m i n e , b u t I d i d s t a r t t o t h i n k o f h e r as m i n e t h a n k g o o d n e s s . 94 M o t h e r : I remember f e e l i n g s o r t o f h o l l o w i n my s t o m a c h , I f e l t v e r y n e r v o u s w o n d e r i n g i f I'd made t h e r i g h t d e c i s i o n . I f I'd bee n a 100% h o n e s t and b r a v e I w o u l d h a v e s a i d no, i t was h a v i n g a n o t h e r p e r s o n ' s b aby i n t h e h o u s e as m i n e . I f e l t r e a l l y g u i l t y f e e l i n g l i k e t h a t , b u t o n c e I g o t u s e d t o him I f e l t i l l t h a t I c o u l d a c t u a l l y h a v e t u r n e d h i m down. M o t h e r : I was n e r v o u s , I had my own k i d s and I d i d n ' t know how a d o p t i o n was g o i n g t o f e e l f o r me. I knew t h a t g i v i n g b i r t h p r o d u c e d s t r o n g m a t e r n a l f e e l i n g s b u t I d i d n ' t know what w o u l d h a p p e n w i t h a d o p t i o n . I t was r e a l l y n e r v e w r a c k i n g f o r t h e f i r s t l i t t l e w h i l e . I f e l t r e a l l y i n a d e q u a t e b e c a u s e I c o u l d n ' t r e l a t e t o h e r a t f i r s t , maybe b e c a u s e s h e was a c o u p l e o f months o l d i t was h a r d e r . M o t h e r : I t was b u i l t up how much I was g o i n g t o l o v e i t by my f r i e n d s t h a t i t was e x a c t l y t h e same as h a v i n g y o u r own, so I t h o u g h t what i s wrong w i t h me, why d o n ' t I f e e l t h i s way? I j u s t f e l t a w f u l f o r a l o n g t i m e . I c o u l d n ' t r e l a t e t o t h i s b a by l i k e I d i d w i t h my own c h i l d r e n , I t h o u g h t i t was l i k e a d m i t t i n g I was a b a d m o t h e r , s o I had t o k e e p up t h i s f r o n t t h a t e v e r y t h i n g was g r e a t . I f e l t r e a l l y g u i l t y and f e l t l i k e I was b a b y -s i t t i n g , w here a r e a l l t h e m a t e r n a l f e e l i n g s t h a t I ' v e had w i t h t h e o t h e r k i d s . Nobody i n d i c a t e d t h a t I m i g h t f e e l l i k e t h a t i t was a c o m p l e t e s h o c k , & I g u e s s i t was w o r s e b e c a u s e s h e was a c o u p l e o f months o l d when we g o t h e r . None o f t h e f a t h e r s i n t e r v i e w e d i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e y had any a d j u s t m e n t p r o b l e m s i n b e c o m i n g a d o p t i v e p a r e n t s . F o r t h e f a t h e r s i t was a much s i m p l e r , l e s s e m o t i o n a l t r a n s i t i o n . T he m a j o r i t y ( 8 8 % ) o f t h e f a t h e r s d i d n o t v i e w a d o p t i n g as much d i f f e r e n t t h a n h a v i n g y o u r own c h i l d r e n , r e f l e c t i n g K i r k ' s ( 1 9 6 4) \" r e j e c t t h e d i f f e r e n c e \" c o p i n g m e c h a n i s m . The theme d e t a c h m e n t , seems t o d e s c r i b e t h e f a t h e r s ' r o l e i n t h e b e g i n n i n g s t a g e s o f a d o p t i v e p a r e n t h o o d : F a t h e r : I t was r e a l l y no d i f f e r e n t t h a n p i c k i n g t h e w i f e up f r o m t h e h o s p i t a l w i t h a l l o u r o t h e r c h i l d r e n t h e r e was n o t h i n g d i f f e r e n t , when we t o o k h e r home s h e was j u s t t h e r e , s h e b e l o n g e d t o u s . 95 F a t h e r : I t was j u s t as t h o u g h we b r o u g h t o u r c h i l d home, i t j u s t seemed n o r m a l , I d i d n ' t f e e l n e r v o u s , I d i d n ' t f e e l a n y t h i n g , I d i d n ' t r e a l i z e t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f i t , my w i f e was much more e m o t i o n a l l y c o n c e r n e d t h a n me. F a t h e r : You d o n ' t t h i n k o f t h e c h i l d a s b e i n g a d o p t e d , y o u j u s t c o n c e r n y o u r s e l f w i t h t a k i n g c a r e o f i t . I c a n ' t remember r e a l l y f e e l i n g a n y t h i n g o f any i m p o r t a n c e , we j u s t had a b a b y . R e c o g n i t i o n o f a d o p t i v e p a r e n t r o l e . A l t h o u g h 3 9 % o f t h e p a r e n t s s a i d t h a t t h e y were n e v e r r e a l l y a w a re o f b e i n g a d o p t i v e p a r e n t s , t h e m a j o r i t y ( 6 2 % ) o f t h e a d o p t i v e p a r e n t s r e p o r t e d t h a t t h e y w e r e m o s t k e e n l y aware o f t h e i r r o l e when comments r e g a r d i n g . f a m i l y r e s e m b l a n c e s were made. T h i s was t r u e f o r b o t h m i x e d and o n l y a d o p t i v e f a m i l i e s . The theme \"of a s e n s e o f d i f f e r e n c e was r e c o g n i z a b l e i n t h e p a r e n t s ' r e s p o n s e s : M o t h e r : You do t h i n k a b o u t i t when someone s a y s , oh d o e s n ' t s h e l o o k l i k e y o u , o r g e e y o u r d a u g h t e r has d a r k h a i r and b o t h o f y o u a r e b l o n d e , and t h e n y o u w i l l t h i n k a b o u t i t . F a t h e r : Y eah, i t s f u n n y , most p e o p l e s a y s h e l o o k s l i k e y o u and we d o n ' t know what t o s a y , t h o s e a r e t h e t i m e s y o u a r e aware o f t h e a d o p t i o n . M o t h e r : When somebody s a y s , oh y o u d o n ' t l o o k a n y t h i n g l i k e y o u r mom, t h e n I ' l l t h i n k a b o u t i t , o r someone w i l l s a y y o u l o o k j u s t l i k e y o u r mom and I l o o k a t them l i k e t h e y a r e c r a z y . F a t h e r : When p e o p l e s a y how much o u r n a t u r a l s o n l o o k s l i k e me, and o f c o u r s e t h e y c a n ' t s a y t h a t a b o u t o u r a d o p t e d c h i l d r e n . I d o n ' t know how common i t i s f o r a p h y s i c a l l i k e n e s s b e t w e e n p a r e n t and c h i l d b u t t h e a b s e n c e o f t h a t i s d a m a g i n g o r h u r t f u l t o t h e a d o p t e d c h i l d . You c a n l o o k a t y o u r a d o p t e d c h i l d r e n and n o t s e e a f a m i l y r e s e m b l a n c e . F a t h e r : When p e o p l e s a y , oh y o u l o o k l i k e y o u r f a t h e r t h a t s o r t o f t h i n g . P e o p l e s a y t h a t w i t h o u t t h i n k i n g and R. d o e s n ' t l i k e b e i n g p u t i n t h a t s i t u a t i o n , I t h i n k he f e e l s o b l i g e d t o e x p l a i n h e ' s a d o p t e d . M o t h e r : When I s e e s o m e t h i n g t h a t i s s o d i f f e r e n t f r o m us o r o u r f a m i l i e s , i t makes me wonder where s h e g o t i t f r o m and t h e n I am r e m i n d e d t h a t s h e i s a d o p t e d . 96 M o t h e r : When someone r e f e r s t o t h e d i f f e r e n c e s i n o u r b i o l o g i c a l l o o k s , t h a t ' s when I remember t h e m o s t . A c c e n t u a t i n g t h e s i m i l a r i t i e s o r t h e d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e c h i l d ' s r e s e m b l a n c e t o t h e f a m i l y , o r when p a r e n t s n o t i c e d i f f e r e n t t a l e n t s i n t h e i r c h i l d b o t h s e r v e t o r e m i n d t h e p a r e n t s o f t h e i r r o l e as a d o p t i v e p a r e n t s . When t h e p a r e n t s were q u e r i e d on t h e i r v i e w s r e g a r d i n g t h e s i m i l a r i t i e s o r d i f f e r e n c e s i n a d o p t i v e and b i o l o g i c a l p a r e n t h o o d , 6 0 % o f t h e p a r e n t s w i t h o n l y a d o p t e d c h i l d r e n had a t e n d e n c y t o r e j e c t t h e d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n t h e two t y p e s o f p a r e n t i n g : M o t h e r : We a l l h a v e t h e same p r o b l e m s I t h i n k t h e r e i s no d i f f e r e n c e i f y o u h a v e y o u r own k i d s . M o t h e r : I d o n ' t s e e a d i f f e r e n c e , a d o p t i v e p a r e n t s h a v e t h e same s a t i s f a c t i o n s as o t h e r p a r e n t s . M o t h e r : I d o n ' t t h i n k o t h e r p a r e n t s h a v e a n y t h i n g o v e r u s . F o r t y p e r c e n t o f t h e \" o n l y a d o p t i v e \" p a r e n t s m e n t i o n e d t h a t p a r e n t s w i t h o n l y a d o p t e d c h i l d r e n do l a c k t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o s e e t h e i r g e n e s i n a c h i l d : M o t h e r : H a v i n g a n a t u r a l c h i l d m i g h t p r o v i d e t h e s a t i s f a c t i o n o f s e e i n g y o u r s e l f i n y o u r c h i l d , s e e i n g y o u r t a l e n t s i n t h e m . On t h e o t h e r h a n d , i t c a n be v e r y s a t i s f y i n g t o n o t p u t any o f t h a t o n t o y o u r c h i l d . When y o u h a v e an a d o p t e d c h i l d y o u d o n ' t know what i s c o m i n g so t h a t s k i n d o f n e a t , t h e r e a r e no e x p e c t a t i o n s . M o t h e r : The o n l y t h i n g w o u l d be t o s e e y o u r s e l f i n y o u r c h i l d , and t h a t w o u l d d e p e n d on how i m p o r t a n t t h a t was t o y o u . When y o u h a v e y o u r own c h i l d r e n t h e r e m i g h t be t h a t s e l f - e s t e e m y o u m i g h t f e e l i n s e e i n g . y o u r s e l f o r an i n h e r i t e d q u a l i t y c o m i n g o u t , and w here w i t h n a t u r a l c h i l d r e n s o m e t i m e s y o u c a n s e e t h e r e s e m b l a n c e , n a t u r a l l y y o u w o u l d f e e l good a b o u t t h a t and an a d o p t i v e p a r e n t s d o e s n ' t g e t t h a t . 97 In t h e m i x e d f a m i l i e s , no d i s c e r n i b l e p a t t e r n s c o u l d be f o u n d . Some o f t h e s e p a r e n t s had a t e n d e n c y t o v i e w q u e s t i o n s r e g a r d i n g t h e d i f f e r e n c e s o r s i m i l a r i t i e s i n a d o p t i v e p a r e n t h o o d and n a t u r a l p a r e n t h o o d as r e f e r r i n g t o t hem l o v i n g o r c a r i n g f o r a d o p t e d c h i l d r e n d i f f e r e n t l y t h a n n a t u r a l c h i l d r e n . In an a t t e m p t t o c l a r i f y t h i s i s s u e t h e s e p a r e n t s ' i n t e r v i e w s w ere s c r u t i n i z e d t o t r y t o i d e n t i f y w h e t h e r any o f t h e p a r e n t s f e l l i n t o K i r k ' s ( 1 9 6 4 ) \" r e j e c t \" o r \" a c k n o w l e d g e \" t h e d i f f e r e n c e c o p i n g s t y l e s . No d i s c e r n i b l e p a t t e r n s w e r e f o u n d h e r e , and i t was n o t e d t h a t t h e p a r e n t s made a number o f c o n t r a d i c t o r y s t a t e m e n t s r e g a r d i n g t h e i r p e r c e p t i o n s o f t h e s i m i l a r i t i e s and d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e two t y p e s o f p a r e n t i n g : M o t h e r : I d o n ' t t h i n k t h e r e i s much d i f f e r e n c e i n a d o p t i n g v e r s u s h a v i n g y o u r own c h i l d r e n , I d o n ' t s e e t h e d i f f e r e n c e . T h i s p a r t i c u l a r m o t h e r had s a i d e a r l i e r : M o t h e r : I g u e s s I g a i n e d a l o t f r o m t h e e x p e r i e n c e b e c a u s e i t was q u i t e d i f f e r e n t t h a n h a v i n g my own c h i l d r e n , i t was h a r d e r s o I l e a r n e d f r o m i t , i t s a c h a l l e n g i n g e x p e r i e n c e . And a n o t h e r m o t h e r s a i d : M o t h e r : I d o n ' t l o o k on my r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h A. as b e i n g any d i f f e r e n t t h a n w i t h my n o n - a d o p t e d k i d s . She i s my c h i l d I d o n ' t t h i n k o f h e r as b e i n g a d o p t e d s o no, a d o p t i v e p a r e n t s a r e no d i f f e r e n t t h a n o t h e r p a r e n t s . And t h e same m o t h e r l a t e r s a i d : M o t h e r : H a v i n g an a d o p t e d c h i l d s u r e has been an e x p e r i e n c e , I e x p e c t e d t o g e t a q u i e t l i t t l e g i r l a n d boy was I s u r p r i s e d . I t h a s be e n d i f f e r e n t r a i s i n g h e r t h a n any o f t h e o t h e r k i d s . B e i n g an a d o p t i v e p a r e n t i s h a r d e r y o u h a v e more t o d e a l w i t h . The c o n t r a d i c t i o n s i n many o f t h e a d o p t i v e p a r e n t s ' s t a t e m e n t s , c a s t s some d o u b t on t h e p a r e n t s ' u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e q u e s t i o n and p e r h a p s on 98 t h e i r w i l l i n g n e s s and o p e n n e s s i n d i s c u s s i n g t h i s i s s u e . I t was a l s o c l e a r t h a t t h i s a r e a o f q u e s t i o n i n g was a g r e a t e r p r o b l e m f o r t h e m o t h e r s t h a n f o r t h e f a t h e r s . The f a t h e r s t y p i c a l l y d i d n o t p e r c e i v e any d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n b e i n g an a d o p t i v e p a r e n t o r a b i o l o g i c a l p a r e n t . F u r t h e r r e s e a r c h i s w a r r a n t e d t o c l a r i f y a d o p t i v e p a r e n t s ' p e r c e p t i o n s on t h i s i s s u e , p a r t i c u l a r l y when t h e p a r e n t s h a v e b o t h b i o l o g i c a l and a d o p t e d c h i l d r e n . S o m e t h i n g t h a t m o s t a d o p t i v e p a r e n t s i n t h i s r e s e a r c h w e r e n ' t p r e p a r e d f o r were t h e r e m a r k s o f o t h e r p e o p l e r e g a r d i n g t h e i r r o l e as a d o p t i v e p a r e n t s . S i x t y p e r c e n t o f t h e p a r e n t s i n t h i s s t u d y had p e o p l e o u t s i d e t h e f a m i l y make r e m a r k s a b o u t them p a r e n t i n g an a d o p t e d c h i l d . The p a r e n t s who were s u b j e c t e d t o t h e s e r e m a r k s i n i t i a l l y f o u n d them t o be q u i t e u p s e t t i n g and f e l t d e f e n s i v e a b o u t t h e i r s t a t u s as a d o p t i v e p a r e n t s : M o t h e r : When y o u r c h i l d r e n a r e a d o p t e d most p e o p l e m i n d t h e i r own b u s i n e s s , b u t some p e o p l e s a y a l l k i n d s o f t h i n g s t o y o u , l i k e y o u h a v e t o e x p e c t s h e w i l l be a b a d g i r l b e c a u s e h e r m o t h e r was, o r a l o t o f p e o p l e w o u l d s a y , w e l l s i n c e s h e ' s a d o p t e d y o u d o n ' t know a n y t h i n g a b o u t h e r . T h e y s a y t h o s e t h i n g s w i t h i n t h e h e a r i n g o f t h e c h i l d t o o , so y o u h a v e t o be p r e p a r e d f o r t h a t , a t t h e b e g i n n i n g I w a s n ' t s o i t was u p s e t t i n g . M o t h e r : I t has t a k e n y e a r s t o g e t u s e d t o a l l t h e r e m a r k s o f o t h e r p e o p l e and t h e q u e s t i o n s . I u s e d t o c r y a b o u t i t . E v e r y o n e w ants t o h a v e t h e i r own c h i l d , t o g i v e b i r t h , a n d t h a t i s o u t o f y o u r l i f e a n d y o u h a v e t o a c c e p t t h a t . P e o p l e w o u l d s a y I wonder what t h e r e a l m o t h e r i s l i k e , l i k e who am I , t h e b a b y s i t t e r ? M o t h e r : P e o p l e s a y s u c h i g n o r a n t t h i n g s , l i k e how do y o u f e e l a b o u t t h e a d o p t e d k i d s , c a n y o u h a v e t h e same a f f e c t i o n f o r them, t h a t k i n d o f t h i n g . One woman s a i d t o me, I l o v e my s i s t e r ' s c h i l d r e n d e a r l y , and t h a t must be how y o u f e e l a b o u t y o u r a d o p t e d c h i l d r e n , I c o u l d n ' t b e l i e v e i t , what a t h i n g t o s a y . 99 H e r e d i t y v s e n v i r o n m e n t . When t h e p a r e n t s d i s c u s s e d t h e i r c h i l d ' s d e v e l o p m e n t o v e r t h e y e a r s t h e i r v i e w s on h e r e d i t y and e v i r o n m e n t e v e n t u a l l y e n t e r e d t h e c o n v e r s a t i o n . I n i t i a l l y , many o f t h e p a r e n t s {80%) b e l i e v e d t h a t e n v i r o n m e n t was t h e most i m p o r t a n t e l e m e n t i n s h a p i n g t h e i r a d o p t e d c h i l d ' s p e r s o n a l i t y , b u t t h e i r e x p e r i e n c e s had s h i f t e d t h e i r b e l i e f s somewhat. When p a r e n t s s e e b e h a v i o r o r t a l e n t s t h a t a r e n o t i n s y n c w i t h t h e r e s t o f t h e f a m i l y , t h e r e i s a t e n d e n c y t o a t t r i b u t e t h i s t o h e r e d i t y . T h i s theme was l a b e l e d h e r e d i t y v s e n v i r o n m e n t : F a t h e r : We h a v e l o o k e d a t S. o v e r t h e y e a r s and we h a v e s e e n some i n t e r e s t i n g t h i n g s t a k e p l a c e . S. h a t e s s e w i n g and my w i f e i s v e r y f o n d o f i t . S. l o v e s d o g s and none o f us a r e r e a l l y dog i n c l i n e d , e v e n h e r t a s t e buds a r e d i f f e r e n t , h e r t a s t e i n c l o t h e s a n d j e w e l l e r y i s d i f f e r e n t t o o . We t h i n k s h e was b o r n w i t h t h e s e d i f f e r e n c e s , t h e y a r e d e f i n i t e t r a i t s t h a t s h e was b o r n w i t h . We h a v e n ' t i n f l u e n c e d h e r b e c a u s e t h e s e a r e t h i n g s t h a t a r e n ' t n a t u r a l t o o u r f a m i l y . She came w i t h them, h e r t a s t e s a r e a l i e n t o t h e r e s t o f t h e g r o u p . M o t h e r : I was u n d e r t h e i m p r e s s i o n t h a t t h e e n v i r o n m e n t was more i m p o r t a n t t h a n h e r e d i t y . When we f i r s t a d o p t e d I b e l i e v e d t h a t h e r e d i t a r y t h i n g s were n o t t h a t i m p o r t a n t b u t t h e n t h e way s h e w o u l d ' r e a c t t o . t h i n g s , h e r t e m p e r t a n t r u m s and t h i n g s l i k e t h a t w o u l d be i n f l u e n c e d by e n v i r o n m e n t , b u t now I ' v e c h a n g e d my m i n d . O v e r t h e y e a r s I n o t i c e t h a t t h e r e a r e a l o t o f t e m p e r a m e n t a l t h i n g s t h a t a r e i n h e r i t e d , t h a t t e n d e n c y i s t h e r e and s o m e t i m e s e n v i r o n m e n t means n o t h i n g . M o t h e r : I u s e d t o t h i n k t h a t i n h e r i t e d t h i n g s were 5% and t h e r e s t was e n v i r o n m e n t a l , now I t h i n k i t s t h e o t h e r way a r o u n d . I t h i n k y o u c a n m o l d and s h a p e t h i n g s b u t y o u s t i l l h a v e t h a t f i r s t m o l d t o work w i t h a n d y o u c a n ' t c h a n g e t h a t , so t h a t p e r s o n i s g o i n g t o be shy o r a g g r e s s i v e m o s t l y b e c a u s e o f i n h e r i t e d t r a i t s . M o t h e r : When I f i r s t g o t L. I t h o u g h t I was g o i n g t o s h a p e h e r , I f i g u r e d i t was a l l g o i n g t o be up t o me, l i t t l e d i d I know t h a t a l o t o f i t s h e i s b o r n w i t h . T h e r e i s a l o t i n h e r t h a t I d i d n ' t g i v e h e r , so a l o t o f t h e t h i n g s t h a t a r e g o o d o r bad a r e n ' t f r o m me. T h e r e a r e t i m e s when I t h i n k why i s s h e b e h a v i n g l i k e t h i s I d i d n ' t t e a c h h e r t h a t , 100 and t h e n I t h i n k maybe s h e was b o r n t h a t way. I u s e d t o f e e l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y when s h e was b a d , I u s e d t o t h i n k what am I d o i n g w rong, I d o n ' t do t h a t as much now. Twe n t y p e r c e n t o f t h e p a r e n t s i n t e r v i e w e d who v i e w e d p r o b l e m a t i c b e h a v i o r i n t h e i r c h i l d r e n a l s o had a t e n d e n c y t o l o o k t o h e r e d i t y f o r t h e a n s w e r s . I t seemed t o be t h e i r way o f m a k i n g s e n s e o f t h e i r c h i l d ' s b e h a v i o r : F a t h e r : W e l l i n t h e e a r l y y e a r s we t h o u g h t when y o u a d o p t a c h i l d and l o v e them j u s t as much as y o u r n a t u r a l c h i l d t h a t i t w o u l d f o r m a f a m i l y b o n d , t h a t t h e y w o u l d be an e x t e n s i o n o f y o u r s e l f . We s e e now t h a t t h e r e a r e d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e g e n e s o f some c h i l d r e n , t h a t t h e y a r e so s t r o n g t h a t t h e e n v i r o n m e n t d o e s n ' t make much d i f f e r e n c e . When t h e r e i s an e x t r e m e s i t u a t i o n n o t o f o u r s t r a i n t h e r e must be s o m e t h i n g i n t h e g e n e s t o a c c o u n t f o r i t , t h e i n c r e d i b l e d i f f e r e n c e s . I t h i n k t h a t i s t h e e x p l a n a t i o n y o u a r e f a c e d w i t h w h e n e v e r y o u h a v e a c h i l d who i s e x t r e m e . I t j u s t makes y o u wonder why i s s h e l i k e t h a t , i s i t b i o l o g i c a l o r w h a t ? I f y o u h a v e t h e s e p r o b l e m s y o u t h i n k o f t h a t , i f y o u d o n ' t h a v e p r o b l e m s y o u p r o b a b l y d o n ' t r e a l l y t h i n k o f i t . M o t h e r : I f y o u t r y t o f i g u r e o u t where t h i n g s come f r o m f o r 15 y e a r s we h a v e l o o k e d a t w h e t h e r n a t u r e o r n u r t u r e makes t h e d i f f e r e n c e . I t seems t o me t h a t t h e g e n e s a r e t h e r e and y o u ' v e j u s t g o t t o go w i t h i t and s h e i s n ' t g o i n g t o c h a n g e t h o s e f u n d a m e n t a l s . When y o u ha v e a c h i l d w i t h p r o b l e m s y o u c a n ' t h e l p b u t t h i n k t h a t , e s p e c i a l l y when y o u s e e s u c h d i f f e r e n t b e h a v i o r t o y o u r own. P a r e n t s were a s k e d w h e t h e r t h e y a t t r i b u t e d any p r o b l e m s t o t h e i r c h i l d ' s a d o p t i v e s t a t u s and c l e a r l y t h e m a j o r i t y ( 6 9 % ) o f p a r e n t s d i d n o t p e r c e i v e t h a t t h e i r c h i l d ' s a d o p t i v e s t a t u s had been a m a j o r f a c t o r i n any p r o b l e m s t h e i r c h i l d h a d d e v e l o p e d : M o t h e r : I d o n ' t t h i n k s o ; c e r t a i n l y none t h a t he h a s t a l k e d a b o u t , we h a v e n ' t s e e n any p r o b l e m s t h a t h e ' s had b e c a u s e he i s a d o p t e d . M o t h e r : I t h i n k t h e p r o b l e m s we've had w i t h L. h a v e j u s t b e e n b e c a u s e s h e i s t h e t y p e o f c h i l d s h e i s . I d o n ' t t h i n k any o f h e r p r o b l e m s a r e due t o b e i n g a d o p t e d , i t s j u s t h e r p e r s o n a l i t y , s h e i s a v e r y d e t e r m i n e d c h i l d . 101 F a t h e r : We've had t h e u s u a l ups and downs l i k e w i t h o n e o f o u r own, t h e f a c t t h a t s h e ' s a d o p t e d d i d n ' t make any d i f f e r e n c e a t a l l . T h i r t y - o n e p e r c e n t o f t h e p a r e n t s i n t e r v i e w e d w e r e f a c i n g o n g o i n g d i f f i c u l t i e s w i t h t h e i r a d o p t e d c h i l d r e n ( i . e . a l c o h o l a b u s e , w i t h d r a w a l , i d e n t i t y c o n c e r n s ) , and t h e y had a t e n d e n c y t o s p e c u l a t e t h a t t h e p r o b l e m s e x p e r i e n c e d m i g h t be a c c e n t u a t e d due t o t h e i r c h i l d ' s a d o p t i v e s t a t u s . A g a i n , i t seemed t h a t t h e s e p a r e n t s were t r y i n g t o make s e n s e o f t h e i r c h i l d ' s b e h a v i o r : M o t h e r : He h a s b e e n v e r y a n g r y and f r u s t r a t e d and I p e r s o n a l l y t h i n k a l o t o f i t stemmed f r o m b e i n g a d o p t e d . He's f r u s t r a t e d and a n g r y a b o u t b e i n g a d o p t e d . M o t h e r : The f a c t t h a t s h e i s a d o p t e d has c e r t a i n l y p r e s e n t e d h e r w i t h some p r o b l e m s , I mean she w o u l d a l w a y s h a v e be e n d i f f i c u l t , b u t s h e s a i d t o me, how c a n I do a n y t h i n g u n t i l I f i n d o u t why I l o o k l i k e t h i s ? F a t h e r : I t h i n k i t i s an a g g r a v a t i n g f a c t o r , I t h i n k s h e ' d h a v e had a t e r r i b l e a d o l e s c e n c e anyway and i t s j u s t b e e n made t h a t much w o r s e . S h e ' s o b s e s s e d w i t h b e i n g a d o p t e d . M o t h e r : I t h i n k s h e has had a l o t o f p r o b l e m s c o n n e c t e d w i t h a d o p t i o n b e c a u s e s h e a l w a y s w o r r i e d a b i t a b o u t w a n t i n g t o know a b o u t h e r n a t u r a l m o t h e r , s h e was t h e o n l y one who was e v e r c o n c e r n e d w i t h i t . F a t h e r : S h e ' s be e n v e r y t r o u b l e d , we've n e v e r had s u c h s e r i o u s p r o b l e m s as t h i s . We t h i n k a d o p t i o n has g i v e n h e r more p r o b l e m s . M o t h e r : T h e r e were o t h e r k i d s t h a t w e r e n ' t a d o p t e d so t h e r e was s o r t o f a c o m p a r i s o n t h i n g g o i n g on a l l t h e t i m e and i t was o b v i o u s f r o m t h e b e g i n n i n g t h a t he was d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h e o t h e r k i d s . So h e ' s had p r o b l e m s w i t h t h a t , and i t s c a u s e d him a n x i e t y . T h e s e r e s u l t s s u g g e s t t h a t a d o p t i v e p a r e n t s h a v e a t e n d e n c y t o l o o k t o h e r e d i t y t o e x p l a i n t h e i r c h i l d ' s u n i q u e b e h a v i o r o r p e r s o n a l i t y , and t h a t when p r o b l e m a t i c b e h a v i o r i s d e m o n s t r a t e d , t h e r e i s a t e n d e n c y t o l o o k a t h e r e d i t y o r t h e c h i l d ' s a d o p t i v e s t a t u s as p r e c i p i t a t i n g o r a g g r a v a t i n g f a c t o r s i n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e p r o b l e m . 102 The B i o l o g i c a l P a r e n t s T h i s n e x t s e c t i o n s u m m a r i z e s t h e a d o p t e e s ' and p a r e n t s ' p e r c e p t i o n s r e g a r d i n g t h e b i o l o g i c a l p a r e n t s , c u r i o s i t y , and s e a r c h i n g . A d o p t e e s ' c u r i o s i t y r e g a r d i n g t h e i r o r i g i n s . A d o p t e e s become c u r i o u s a b o u t t h e i r o r i g i n s a t d i f f e r e n t t i m e s and f o r d i f f e r e n t r e a s o n s . T h i r t y -t h r e e p e r c e n t o f t h e a d o l e s c e n t s remembered t h e a g e s 8 o r 9 as b e i n g a t i m e o f i n t e n s e c u r i o s i t y , w h i c h c o i n c i d e s w i t h some o f t h e p a r e n t s ' r e c o l l e c t i o n s and t h e a d o p t e e ' s c o g n i t i v e d e v e l o p m e n t , b u t f o r most o f t h e a d o p t e e s ( 6 7 % ) t h e r e a l c u r i o s i t y b e g a n a f e w y e a r s l a t e r when t h e y r e a c h e d 12 o r 13 y e a r s o f a g e , s o m e t i m e s s p e c i f i c e v e n t s seemed t o t r i g g e r t h e i r c u r i o s i t y : S h e l l e y , age 17: When I was 8 y e a r s o l d t h a t was t h e h e i g h t o f my c u r i o s i t y and a f t e r t h a t I w a s n ' t c u r i o u s a n y m o r e . I was r e a l l y c u r i o u s when I h e a r d o t h e r p e o p l e t a l k i n g a b o u t i t and I w a n t e d t o know more a b o u t my b l o o d p a r e n t s . I a s k e d a l o t o f q u e s t i o n s and I t h i n k t h a t b o t h e r e d my mom more t h a n me. L a u r a , age 16: I t h i n k I r e a l l y s t a r t e d t o wonder when I was a b o u t 8 I w o u l d w a l k down t h e s t r e e t and t h i n k t h a t c o u l d be my mom r i g h t t h e r e y o u know, s o t h a t i s when i t s t a r t e d . A l i c e , age 14: I was a b o u t 12 when I r e a l l y s t a r t e d t h i n k i n g a b o u t i t , I c a n ' t remember t h a t much b e f o r e t h e n . I j u s t s t a r t e d t o wonder a b o u t t h e p e o p l e who had me a l o t . M a r i e , age 14: I was a b o u t 13 and I was a t a r e u n i o n w i t h a l l my mom's r e l a t i v e s a n d I d i d n ' t f e e l l i k e I was p a r t o f t h e f a m i l y and i t r e a l l y b o t h e r e d me and s o I a s k e d my mom a b o u t w here my r o o t s w e r e , t h a t i s when i t s t a r t e d . Don, age 15: When I was a b o u t 12 I f o u n d o u t I had a b r o t h e r somewhere so t h e n I . g o t more c u r i o u s , i t t r i g g e r e d s o m e t h i n g and I w a n t e d more i n f o r m a t i o n . T a n y a , age 15: I was a b o u t 12 I t h i n k and I was r e a l l y c l o s e t o t h i s t e a c h e r who was a b o u t t h e same age as my r e a l mom w o u l d be and s h e w o u l d t a l k t o me and i t j u s t came up so I t a l k e d t o h e r a b o u t b e i n g a d o p t e d and t h a t s o r t o f b r o u g h t i t o u t , so f r o m t h e n on I w a n t e d more i n f o r m a t i o n . 103 The i n t e n s i t y o f c u r i o s i t y v a r i e d among t h e s a m p l e o f a d o l e s c e n t s , b u t a l l t h e a d o p t e e s a d m i t t e d t h a t some c u r i o s i t y e x i s t e d , e v e n among t h o s e a d o p t e e s who a p p a r e n t l y had no d e s i r e f o r more i n f o r m a t i o n t h e r e r e m a i n e d an e l e m e n t o f c u r i o s i t y . W h i l e t a l k i n g t o t h e a d o l e s c e n t s a b o u t t h e c u r i o s i t y t h e y e x p e r i e n c e d , i t was c l e a r t h a t m o s t o f them had a m b i v a l e n t f e e l i n g s a b o u t i t . T h e r e was a l s o an u n d e r l y i n g f e a r o f r e j e c t i o n e x p r e s s e d by some o f t h e a d o p t e e s and c o n c e r n a b o u t n o t w a n t i n g t o h u r t t h e a d o p t i v e p a r e n t s . The theme o f a m b i v a l e n c e a p p e a r e d t h r o u g h -o u t t h e a d o p t e e s ' d i s c u s s i o n s on t h e b i o l o g i c a l p a r e n t s and t h e a c c o m p a n y i n g c u r i o s i t y . A sub theme o f f e a r o f r e j e c t i o n was a l s o n o t e d i n t h e s e a d o p t e e s ' r e s p o n s e s : P a u l , age 16: I ' d l i k e t o j u s t be a b l e t o s e e my m o t h e r w i t h o u t h e r k n o w i n g I'm me. I'd l i k e t o meet h e r some d a y b u t I d o n ' t know what s h e ' s d o i n g , i t c o u l d be v e r y s a d o r h a p p y , b u t y o u d o n ' t know i f t h a t was a s c a r t h a t s h e w a n t s t o k e e p c o v e r e d so I d o n ' t know. C h e r y l , age 16: I f e e l l i k e g o i n g o u t and f i n d i n g h e r , I d o n ' t e v e r want t o f i n d o u t why s h e g a v e me up u n l e s s s h e w a n t s t o t e l l me, I d o n ' t want t o h u r t h e r I j u s t want t o s e e what I'm l i k e . L a u r a , age 16: I o f t e n wonder a b o u t them, i t w o u l d be i n t e r e s t i n g t o s e e what t h e y a r e l i k e , h a l f t h e t i m e I'm s u r e t h e y w o u l d n ' t want t o s e e y o u and t h e y k i n d o f f o r g e t y o u , b u t I ' d l i k e t o s e e them o n c e . Pam, age 14: I d o n ' t want t o meet them, s o m e t i m e s I r e s e n t them g i v i n g me up and s o m e t i m e s I'm g l a d t h e y d i d b e c a u s e o f t h e f a m i l y I g o t . W e l l i t w o u l d be k i n d o f n i c e t o know b u t I m i g h t f i n d o u t t h a t t h e y a r e mean p e o p l e b u t I w o u l d l i k e t o know, b u t t h e n I f e e l mad b e c a u s e t h e y d i d n ' t k e e p me so i t s t h e i r f a u l t , t h e n I t h i n k i t w a s n ' t r e a l l y t h e i r f a u l t b e c a u s e t h e y w e r e s o y o u n g . I ' d l i k e t o know who t h e y a r e b u t I w o u l d n ' t want t o meet them. R i c h a r d , age 17: I o f t e n f e e l v e r y c u r i o u s a b o u t i t , u s u a l l y i t i s n ' t t e m p o r a r y i t s f o r a b o u t a month o r two, I j u s t s o r t o f work i t away, I j u s t s o r t o f s a y t o m y s e l f t h i n k o f t h e n e g a t i v e a s p e c t s and why 104 my m o t h e r w o u l d n ' t want t o s e e me b e c a u s e o f t h e s c a r s i n h e r p a s t , I j u s t k e e p w o r k i n g a t t h a t u n t i l I f o r g e t i t . S h e l l e y , age 17: I d o n ' t h a v e any w r i t t e n i n f o r m a t i o n on my r e a l p a r e n t s and I'm n o t l o o k i n g f o r a n y . The o n l y c u r i o s i t y t h e r e i s i s t h e c u r i o s i t y a n y b o d y w o u l d f e e l , y o u ' l l a l w a y s h a v e i t b u t I h a v e no i n t e n t i o n o f p u r s u i n g i t . I d o n ' t r e a l l y want t o t h i n k a b o u t i t b e c a u s e I'm happ y where I am and' t h e more y o u know t h e more c u r i o u s i t makes y o u , I d o n ' t want t o go l o o k i n g up my p a r e n t s , t h e y p r o b a b l y d o n ' t want t o s e e y o u s o I d o n ' t want t o s e e them. I t was a l s o a p p a r e n t t h a t t h e a d o p t e e s ' c u r i o s i t y r e f l e c t e d a n e e d t o know a b o u t t h e m s e l v e s , i t d i d n o t r e f l e c t a need f o r a r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h a b i o l o g i c a l p a r e n t , b u t r a t h e r a n e e d t o s a t i s f y t h e i r c u r i o s i t y a b o u t t h e m s e l v e s . T h i s theme was l a b e l e d g e n e a l o g i c a l b e w i l d e r m e n t : Don, age 15: I t i s m o s t l y c u r i o s i t y , n o t t o go b a c k and s t a r t a r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h them, i t s j u s t o u t o f c u r i o s i t y . I d o n ' t t h i n k a b o u t i t a l l t h e t i m e , I know I ' l l n e v e r go b a c k t o my o l d m o t h e r , I w o u l d n ' t want t o b u t I w o u l d l i k e t o know who s h e i s and s e e h e r . A l i c e , age 14: I ' d r e a l l y l i k e t o meet h e r b u t I'm n o t s u r e how I'd r e a c t , I want t o f i n d o u t my b a c k g r o u n d t h a t i s a l l r e a l l y , I d o n ' t n e e d a n o t h e r m o t h e r . T a n y a , age 15: I'd j u s t l i k e t o f i n d o u t my r e a l b a c k g r o u n d , j u s t t o know who t h e p e o p l e w e r e , I d o n ' t want t o go b a c k t o them o r a n y t h i n g l i k e t h a t . C a t h y , age 17: I g e t c u r i o u s b u t I w o u l d n ' t t a k e d i r e c t a c t i o n on i t , i t s n o t w o r t h i t , mom and d a d p r o b a b l y w o u l d n ' t u n d e r s t a n d i t and t h e y w o u l d be h u r t , l i k e a r e n ' t t h e y g o o d e n o u g h p a r e n t s y o u know? B u t I w o u l d l i k e i n f o r m a t i o n l i k e m e d i c a l s t u f f t h a t i s a l l t h o u g h . The a d o p t e d a d o l e s c e n t s ' c u r i o s i t y o r g e n e a l o g i c a l b e w i l d e r m e n t a l s o i n c l u d e d a p h y s i c a l i d e n t i t y c o m p o n e n t o r t h e m e . T h e r e was a k e e n i n t e r e s t i n t h e b i o l o g i c a l p a r e n t s ' p h y s i c a l a p p e a r a n c e and w h e t h e r t h e a d o p t e e m i g h t be l i k e t hem. T h i s c u r i o s i t y a p p e a r s t o r e f l e c t t h e a d o l e s c e n t ' s n o r m a l c o n c e r n s a b o u t p h y s i c a l a p p e a r a n c e b u t i n an e x a g g e r a t e d f o r m : 105 E i g h t y - s i x p e r c e n t o f t h e a d o l e s c e n t s m e n t i o n e d t h e i r i n t e r e s t i n t h e i r b i o l o g i c a l p a r e n t s ' p h y s i c a l a p p e a r a n c e : N a n c y , age 15: I want t o f i n d o u t why I l o o k l i k e I do, why I a c t l i k e I d o , e s p e c i a l l y why I l o o k l i k e I do, I w i s h I c o u l d l o o k l i k e my mom. L i n d a , age 15: I t h i n k what d o e s s h e l o o k l i k e , do I l o o k l i k e h e r ? R i c h a r d , age 17: I ' d j u s t l i k e t o be a b l e t o s e e h e r , s e e what s h e l o o k s l i k e t o s e e how s i m i l a r we a r e i n a p p e a r a n c e . M a r i e , age 14: I wonder what my n a t u r a l p a r e n t s l o o k l i k e and i f I ' v e e v e r s e e n them b e f o r e . I want t o f i n d o u t what t h e y l o o k l i k e b u t I'd be a w f u l s c a r e d . C h e r y l , age 16: I'm r e a l l y i n t e r e s t e d i n a p p e a r a n c e and what my m o t h e r was l i k e , i f s h e was a s i n g e r l i k e m y s e l f o r i f s h e e v e r p l a y e d t h e g u i t a r l i k e I do, when I t h i n k a b o u t i t I j u s t want t o s e e what s h e l o o k s l i k e , I j u s t want t o s e e i f I'm a n y t h i n g l i k e h e r . A l i c e , a ge 14: I want t o s e e what s h e i s l i k e , m a i n l y t o s e e what s h e l o o k s l i k e . T a n y a , age 15: I want t o s e e what s h e i s l i k e , l i k e s e e i f we l o o k a l i k e . Tom, age 18: I w o u l d l i k e t o h a v e some p i c t u r e s o f t h e m t o s e e what t h e y l o o k l i k e . I ' v e t h o u g h t a b o u t t h a t a l o t y o u know, why I l o o k l i k e t h i s , I r e a l l y w o u l d l i k e t o s e e some p i c t u r e s o f them, I wonder what s h e i s d o i n g , what s h e l o o k s l i k e . A d o p t e e s ' k n o w l e d g e o f t h e b i o l o g i c a l p a r e n t s . The a d o p t e e s i n t h e s t u d y had v a r y i n g amounts o f b a c k g r o u n d i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e b i o l o g i c a l p a r e n t s , b u t most o f them had r e a d t h e b i o g r a p h y s h e e t s p r e p a r e d by t h e a d o p t i o n a g e n c i e s f o r t h e a d o p t i v e f a m i l y . O n l y two o f t h e a d o l e s c e n t s had n o t s e e n t h e i r b i o g r a p h y s h e e t s . When t h e a d o l e s c e n t s r e c e i v e d t h i s » 106 i n f o r m a t i o n t h e y d e s c r i b e d f e e l i n g s o f e x c i t e m e n t , awe and r e l i e f : M a r i e , age 14: I was f a s c i n a t e d , I j u s t l o v e d i t . I t i s l i k e a p i c t u r e . I'm amazed a t what t h e y a r e l i k e and t h a t I'm l i k e somebody I d o n ' t know. T h e r e w e r e t h i n g s t h e r e t h a t I c o u l d i d e n t i f y w i t h . l i k e t h a t s h e was m u s i c a l and t h i n g s l i k e t h a t . R i c h a r d . , a g e 17: I t was s t r a n g e , i t was a p i e c e o f my p a s t t h a t I 'd n e v e r known a b o u t and i t was e x c i t i n g , h e r e i s s o m e t h i n g on t h e p e o p l e t h a t made me l i t e r a l l y . I was a l w a y s w o n d e r i n g d i d I h a v e an u n d e r a g e m o t h e r and why my f a t h e r l e f t , b u t s h e was 24 s o I was s o r t o f r e l i e v e d t o f i n d t h a t o u t , I d o n ' t know what i t was r e l i e f f r o m , j u s t w o n d e r i n g how I was made. C h e r y l , age 16: I t h o u g h t i t was r e a l l y n e a t g e t t i n g t h a t p i e c e o f p a p e r , l i k e wow, I wo n d e r who I'm g o i n g t o l o o k l i k e , i t was r e a l l y a w e i r d f e e l i n g , i t s k i n d o f a n o t h e r p i e c e b e i n g p u t i n t h e p u z z l e b e c a u s e i t r e a l l y i s a m y s t e r y t o me. L a u r a , age 16: I t s s o r t o f l i k e f i n d i n g o u t a b o u t y o u r s e l f a g a i n , t h i n g s y o u d i d n ' t know a b o u t y o u r s e l f y o u f i n a l l y f o u n d and i t was r e a l l y i n t e r e s t i n g . When t h e a d o l e s c e n t s r e c e i v e d t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n t h e r e was a t e n d e n c y f o r them t o t r y t o f i t t h e m s e l v e s i n t o t h e p i c t u r e t h e y had o f t h e b i o l o g i c a l p a r e n t s . T h e y b u i l t a p i c t u r e on b a r e b o n e s i n f o r m a t i o n and i d e n t i f i e d w i t h i t : R i c h a r d , age 17: I t was r e a l l y w e i r d when I g o t my b i o s h e e t b e c a u s e I c o n f o r m v e r y much t o my m o t h e r and f a t h e r , l i k e my f a t h e r and c o u s i n w e r e r e a l l y i n t o m e c h a n i c s a nd t h a t was i n t e r e s t i n g t o me b e c a u s e I s o r t o f l i k e t h a t t o o . L i n d a , age 15: I was q u i t e s u r p r i s e d t o r e a d i t . I f o u n d o u t my f a t h e r was a s i n g e r and t h a t was i n t e r e s t i n g b e c a u s e I l i k e t o s i n g , and my mom p l a y e d t h e g u i t a r and I p l a y t h e p i a n o , s o e v e r y t h i n g s o r t o f m a t c h e d up and my mom's d e s c r i p t i o n d e s c r i b e d me t o t a l l y . 107 N a n c y , age 15: I h a v e my m o t h e r ' s e y e s and I T h i n k I h a v e my f a t h e r ' s n o s e , h i s e y e b r o w s and h i s c o l o r i n g . I g o t my m o t h e r ' s h a i r and s t r u c t u r e , h e r e y e s a r e t h e same c o l o r as m i n e and h e r p e r s o n a l i t y i s e x a c t l y l i k e m i n e . C h e r y l , age 16: I l o o k e d a t t h e i r d e s c r i p t i o n s and d e c i d e d I l o o k l i k e my m o t h e r b u t I d e f i n i t e l y h a v e my f a t h e r ' s h e i g h t and I t a k e a f t e r my m o t h e r more. Ev e n when t h e a d o l e s c e n t s h ad t h i s n o n - i d e n t i f y i n g b a c k g r o u n d i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e b i o l o g i c a l p a r e n t s , 8 0 % o f t h e a d o p t e e s were n o t s a t i s f i e d w i t h t h e i n f o r m a t i o n t h e y had and d e s i r e d more. I t a p p e a r s t h a t t h e b i o g r a p h y s h e e t s a r e n o t enough t o s a t i a t e t h e a d o p t e e ' s c u r i o s i t y : Don, age 15: I'd a l w a y s l i k e t o know more, l i k e who s h e i s , who i s my s i s t e r b u t y o u know y o u c a n ' t f i n d o u t . Nancy, age 15: The b i o s h e e t s a r e n ' t e n o u g h , t h e law seems t o t h i n k s o , b u t i t i s n ' t e n o u g h t o s a t i s f y y o u . L i n d a , age 15: I w o u l d l i k e t o know more, some t h i n g s a r e r e a l l y i m p o r t a n t l i k e d i s e a s e s and a l s o t h i n g s t h a t h a p p e n e d d u r i n g h e r l i f e . Two a d o p t e e s who had no b i o g r a p h y s h e e t s were s a t i s f i e d w i t h t h e i n f o r m a t i o n t h e y h ad and w e r e n o t i n t e r e s t e d i n k n o w i n g any more: S h e l l e y , age 17: I'm n o t a t a l l i n t e r e s t e d i n k n o w i n g who t h e y a r e , I'm s a t i s f i e d w i t h t h e i n f o r m a t i o n . B a r b a r a , age 15: I'm s a t i s f i e d w i t h t h e i n f o r m a t i o n I h a v e ; I d o n ' t h a v e much o f a d e s i r e t o go o u t and f i n d h e r a t l e a s t a t t h i s p o i n t . T h e s e two g i r l s had bee n v e r y c u r i o u s a b o u t t h e i r o r i g i n s when t h e y w ere 8 and t h e i r p a r e n t s h ad d e a l t w i t h t h e s e i s s u e s a t l e n g t h d u r i n g t h a t t i m e . I t i s p o s s i b l e t h a t f o r t h e t i m e b e i n g t h e s e a d o p t e e s ' i n t e r e s t and c u r i o s i t y i n t h e b i o l o g i c a l p a r e n t s had bee n s a t i a t e d . 108 The p a r e n t s ' s a t i s f a c t i o n w i t h i n f o r m a t i o n r e b i o l o g i c a l p a r e n t s . When t h e p a r e n t s w ere a s k e d what t h e y knew a b o u t t h e i r a d o p t e d c h i l d ' s b i o l o g i c a l p a r e n t s , 92% o f t h e p a r e n t s i n d i c a t e d - t h a t t h e y w e r e n ' t s a t i s f i e d w i t h t h e i n f o r m a t i o n t h e y h a d , and many r e m a r k e d t h a t a t t h e t i m e y o u a r e g i v e n t h e b a c k g r o u n d i n f o r m a t i o n y o u d o n ' t p ay t o o much a t t e n t i o n t o i t : M o t h e r : T h e r e w ere q u e s t i o n s I w o u l d n e v e r h a v e t h o u g h t t o a s k a t t h e t i m e , a l l y o u t h i n k a b o u t i s g i v e me my b a b y . I'm n o t s a t i s f i e d w i t h t h e i n f o r m a t i o n now, t h e r e i s a l o t more I want t o know, t h i n g s c o n c e r n i n g t h e a c t u a l b i r t h , i t makes y o u a n g r y b e c a u s e y o u want t h e i n f o r m a t i o n and nobody seems t o h a v e i t . F a t h e r : A t t h e t i m e we w e r e n ' t c o n c e r n e d w i t h h i s b a c k g r o u n d . When he was 10 he w a s n ' t a c h i e v i n g v e r y w e l l and we w o n d e r e d a b o u t h im and t r y i n g t o f i g u r e h im o u t s o t h a t i s when we went b a c k t o t h e a g e n c y and g o t h i s b i o s h e e t . We w o n d e r e d i s t h e r e a n y t h i n g i n h i s b a c k g r o u n d t h a t w o u l d h e l p u s . We had no w r i t t e n i n f o r m a t i o n on him a t a l l . M o t h e r : T h e y had q u i t e a b i t o f i n f o r m a t i o n on h e r b u t a t t h e t i m e we w e r e n ' t i n t e r e s t e d i n i t . We w a n t e d h e r no m a t t e r what i n f o r m a t i o n came w i t h h e r , now I w i s h we had a s k e d more q u e s t i o n s . M o t h e r : I t was a v e r b a l d i s c u s s i o n when we g o t hi m and a t t h e t i m e y o u d o n ' t p a y a t t e n t i o n y o u a r e t o o e x c i t e d . I t d i d n ' t s i n k i n a t a l l w i t h me t h e n I d i d n ' t know o f what i n t e r e s t i t w o u l d b e . O n l y one p a r e n t was n o t i n t e r e s t e d i n any b a c k g r o u n d i n f o r m a t i o n and was q u i t e s a t i s f i e d w i t h t h e i n f o r m a t i o n t h e f a m i l y had r e c e i v e d : F a t h e r : T h e y d i d n ' t t e l l us much and we d i d n ' t p u r s u e i t . We d i d n ' t s e e any p o i n t . As f a r as I'm c o n c e r n e d t h e l e s s y o u know t h e b e t t e r b e c a u s e ohen I'd h a v e t o t e l l h e r and i f we g e t pumped by h e r t h e n we o n l y know so much, and s o i f s h e was t h e t y p e o f p e r s o n who r e a l l y p u r s u e d t h i s t h i n g t h e n s h e m i g h t h a v e d e c i d e d t o l o o k f o r h e r . T h i s f a m i l y v i e w e d t h e k n o w l e d g e o f t h e b i o l o g i c a l p a r e n t s as a d a n g e r o u s t h i n g , h o w e v e r t h i s a t t i t u d e was n o t t y p i c a l o f t h e f a m i l i e s i n t h e s t u d y . 109 The p a r e n t s were a l s o a s k e d w h e t h e r t h e y t h o u g h t t h e i r c h i l d r e n were s a t i s f i e d w i t h t h e i n f o r m a t i o n t h e y had g i v e n them. The p a r e n t s ' r e s p o n s e s i n d i c a t e d t h a t 8 0 % o f them a g r e e d t h a t t h e i r c h i l d w o u l d p r o b a b l y l i k e more i n f o r m a t i o n . However, 2 0 % o f t h e p a r e n t s who had c h i l d r e n who e x p r e s s e d a d e s i r e f o r more i n f o r m a t i o n d i d n o t b e l i e v e t h e i r c h i l d was i n t e r e s t e d i n more i n f o r m a t i o n . The p a r e n t - c h i l d d i s c r e p a n c i e s i n t h e s e f a m i l i e s i n d i c a t e s t h a t e i t h e r t h e a d o p t e e had n o t c o m m u n i c a t e d t h i s m e s s a g e t o t h e p a r e n t s , o r , t h e p a r e n t s were n o t c o g n i z a n t o f t h e a d o p t e e ' s e x p r e s s e d d e s i r e s . In t h e m a j o r i t y o f f a m i l i e s , t h o s e p a r e n t s who e x p r e s s e d a d e s i r e f o r more b a c k g r o u n d i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e b i o l o g i c a l p a r e n t s a l s o had c h i l d r e n who w e r e i n t e r e s t e d i n o b t a i n i n g more i n f o r m a t i o n . T h e a d o p t e e s ' v i e w s on s e a r c h i n g . E i g h t y - s e v e n p e r c e n t o f t h e a d o p t e e s i n t e r v i e w e d i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e y w o u l d l i k e t o s e a r c h f o r t h e i r b i o l o g i c a l p a r e n t s . However, a l o n g w i t h t h i s d e s i r e t o know o f t h e i r o r i g i n s w e r e a l s o f e e l i n g s o f a m b i v a l e n c e , a p p r e h e n s i o n , and r e j e c t i o n as t h e a d o p t e e s d i s c u s s e d t h i s a s p e c t o f a d o p t i o n . The n e e d f o r t h e s e c h i l d r e n t o know more a b o u t t h e i r p a s t s was s t r o n g , b u t t h e i r r e s p o n s e s a l s o i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e y w o u l d n ' t be l o o k i n g f o r r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h t h e s e p e o p l e , b u t f o r i n f o r m a t i o n t o f i l l i n t h e b l a n k s p o t s : M a r i e , age 14: I want t o f i n d o u t what t h e y l o o k l i k e b u t I'd be a w f u l s c a r e d . I t h i n k i n t i m e I ' l l know more a b o u t my r e a l f e e l i n g s and I ' l l be a b l e t o make t h e r i g h t d e c i s i o n a b o u t l o o k i n g f o r my b i r t h m o t h e r , I w o u l d n ' t want i t t o h a p p e n r i g h t now. .. . R i c h a r d , -age 17: I want t o go b a c k t o t h e h o s p i t a l and c h e c k a d m i s s i o n s when I was b o r n and t r y t o t r a c k h e r down t h a t way. I d o n ' t r e a l l y want t o meet h e r , I want i t t o be o n e -s i d e d , I want t o s e e what s h e ' s l i k e , i f s h e w a n t e d t o s e e me t h e n I w o u l d b u t n o t u n l e s s s h e w a n t e d t h e i n t e r a c t i o n . Tom, age 18: I f I do f i n d them I c o u l d be r e a l l y m e n t a l l y damaged o r do t h e same t h i n g t o them. I w o u l d r e a l l y l i k e t o meet h e r t h o u g h , i t s been b u i l d i n g up f o r a l o n g t i m e . C h e r y l , age 16: I t s g o i n g t o t a k e a l o t o f g u t s t o do i t b u t i t s v e r y i m p o r t a n t t o me. I d o n ' t know i f i t w o u l d h u r t them o r me, i t w o u l d p r o b a b l y h u r t my mom and a l s o i f I s a i d I w a n t e d t o meet h e r and t h e n s e e i n g i f s h e was w i l l i n g t o s e e me. I d o n ' t l i k e b e i n g r e j e c t e d and t h e s e p e o p l e c o u l d s a y t h a t t h e y d o n ' t want t o s e e me and t h e n I ' d f e e l bad b e c a u s e I d o n ' t want t o w a l k a r o u n d f e e l i n g t o t a l l y r e j e c t e d t h i n k i n g t h a t t h e s e p e o p l e t h a t g a v e me up d o n ' t want t o s e e me. L a u r a , age 16: I m i g h t l o s e s o m e t h i n g by s e a r c h i n g b u t I j u s t h a v e t o f i n d o u t , i t d o e s n ' t m a t t e r i f i t s n e g a t i v e . You know y o u want t o and y o u know t h a t t h e y won't l e t y o u i t s v e r y f r u s t r a t i n g , e v e n i f i t m i g h t be n e g a t i v e I w o u l d s t i l l l i k e t o know who t h e y a r e . Don, age 15: I t w o u l d f u l f i l l my c u r i o s i t y , t h e r e i s a p a r t o f my l i f e t h a t i s m i s s i n g and I want t o p u t i t i n p l a c e . I d o n ' t t h i n k t h e r e w o u l d be a n y t h i n g a f t e r t h e m e e t i n g , I d o n ' t t h i n k I 'd e v e r s e e h e r a g a i n , y o u know y o u h a v e n o t h i n g t o s t a r t a r e l a t i o n s h i p o n . A l i c e , age 14: I do want t o f i n d o u t b u t i t d e p e n d s on what t h e y a r e l i k e , I am n o t s u r e t h a t I want t o a c t u a l l y meet them, b u t I t h i n k i t w o u l d be a n e a t e x p e r i e n c e , when I g e t o l d e r I t h i n k I w i l l do i t . N a n c y , age 15: I t s a c t u a l l y s t o p p i n g me f r o m g r o w i n g a n y more. I c a n ' t g e t on w i t h l i f e u n t i l I f i n d t h e m . When I know who I am t h e n I c a n c o n t i n u e . I w o u l d be e x t r e m e l y s c a r e d t h o u g h , i t s a f u n n y t h i n g t o be s c a r e d o f m e e t i n g y o u r own m o t h e r . I may d i e t o m o r r o w and my n a t u r a l m o t h e r may a l r e a d y be d e a d s o I h a v e t o do i t now. T a n y a , age 15: I t h i n k y o u s h o u l d be g i v e n t h e i n f o r m a t i o n when y o u a r e 18 t h e n y o u c a n go f i n d t hem i f y o u want, b u t maybe t h e p a r e n t s d o n ' t want t o s e e y o u and maybe t h a t w o u l d be h a r d t o d e a l w i t h , b u t I w o u l d s t i l l l i k e t o know, I'm g o i n g t o l o o k when I'm o l d e r . I l l And f r o m t h e two a d o p t e e s who had no d e s i r e t o s e a r c h came t h e s e r e s p o n s e s : C a t h y , age 17: I ' v e r e a d a b o u t i t i n b o o k s and n e w s p a p e r s , i t s l i k e i t s a b i g r e u n i o n b u t t h a t ' s s u c h a f a r c e , i t was h e r d e c i s i o n s h e g a v e t h e c h i l d up so t h e r e i s no a t t a c h m e n t a f t e r t h a t . B a r b , age 15: I t h i n k p e o p l e who want t o s e a r c h f o r t h e i r n a t u r a l p a r e n t s a r e n o t s e c u r e i n t h e m s e l v e s l i k e t h e y f i g u r e t h a t t h e y h a v e t o h a v e s o m e t h i n g l i k e t h e y a r e n o t c o m p l e t e , I f e e l c o m p l e t e I h a v e t h a t s e c u r i t y , b e s i d e s , t h e n a t u r a l m o t h e r w o u l d n ' t want t o s e e y o u , so why w a s t e y o u r t i m e . A l t h o u g h t h e s e a d o l e s c e n t s were n o t i n t e r e s t e d i n s e a r c h i n g , t h e r e was a sub-theme o f f e e l i n g s o f r e j e c t i o n i m p l i c i t i n t h e i r s t a t e m e n t s . P a r e n t s ' v i e w s on s e a r c h i n g . When t h e p a r e n t s were a s k e d t o d i s c u s s t h e i r v i e w s on a d o p t e e s s e a r c h i n g f o r b i o l o g i c a l p a r e n t s t h e r e was a l o t o f d i s c u s s i o n . T h i s was a s u b j e c t t h a t e v e r y p a r e n t had a s t r o n g o p i n i o n o n . S u r p r i s i n g l y , a l l t h e p a r e n t s s a i d t h e y w o u l d s u p p o r t t h e i r c h i l d r e n i f t h e y d e c i d e d t o s e a r c h , p r o v i d i n g t h e c h i l d was a t l e a s t 18 y e a r s o f a g e . M o s t o f t h e p a r e n t s d i d n o t t h i n k c h i l d r e n u n d e r t h a t age were m a t u r e enough t o h a n d l e t h e t a s k . A n o t h e r p a t t e r n t h a t was d i s c e r n i b l e i n t h e p a r e n t s ' r e s p o n s e s was t h e i r c o n c e r n t h a t t h e c h i l d m i g h t e x p e r i e n c e f u r t h e r r e j e c t i o n : M o t h e r : I d o n ' t t h i n k y o u n e e d t o do t h a t a t 14 o r 16. I d o n ' t t h i n k t h e y c o u l d h a n d l e i t , t h e y m i g h t be r e j e c t e d w h i c h I t h i n k w o u l d be h o r r i b l e and i t m i g h t p r o v i d e an o u t f o r h e r , y o u know, w e l l I ' l l go and l i v e w i t h my n a t u r a l m o t h e r i f I d o n ' t g e t what I want h e r e . She know t h a t s h e ha s o u r s u p p o r t when t h e t i m e comes, i f s h e w a n t s t o l o o k we w i l l h e l p h e r . 112 M o t h e r : F o r a w h i l e t h e r e I w o u l d h a v e b e e n u p t i g h t a b o u t i t I t h o u g h t how w o u l d I h a n d l e i t , how w o u l d I r e a c t , b u t now I t h i n k s h e c a n h a n d l e i t and by t h e t i m e s h e i s 19 s h e c o u l d c e r t a i n l y h a n d l e i t s o I w o u l d s u p p o r t h e r b e c a u s e I'm s u r e e v e n i f s h e became g o o d f r i e n d s w i t h h e r m o t h e r we w o u l d s t i l l be h e r p a r e n t s , so we'd s u p p o r t h e r . F a t h e r : I w o u l d s a y t o h e r be c a r e f u l t h a t y o u d o n ' t b e t b u r n e d y o u r s e l f and d o n ' t go m a r c h i n g i n t o a - f a m i l y where i t m i g h t h a v e be e n k e p t a s e c r e t , I'd s a y do i t b u t w i t h c a u t i o n and t h r o u g h t h e p r o p e r c h a n n e l s . F a t h e r : She m i g h t f i n d t h e r e s u l t s d i s a p p o i n t i n g b u t I w o u l d n ' t want t o do a n y t h i n g t o s t o p h e r , b u t I'd be a b i t n e r v o u s a b o u t t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s , b u t we w o u l d h a v e t o s u p p o r t h e r . M o t h e r : I w o u l d l i k e R. t o l o o k up h i s m o t h e r f o r h i s own p e a c e o f m i n d . R i g h t now he i s t o o y o u n g t o h a n d l e t h e f e e l i n g s he i s g o i n g t o e x p e r i e n c e b u t when he i s 19 i f he d e c i d e d t o s e a r c h I'd do e v e r y t h i n g I c o u l d t o h e l p h i m . I t s n o t g o i n g t o c h a n g e o u r r e l a t i o n s h i p , I'm a f r a i d t h a t maybe t h e m o t h e r won't want t o a c k n o w l e d g e him and t h a t w o u l d h u r t him d e e p l y , s o I'm a f r a i d f o r him i n a way. M o t h e r : I ' l l h e l p him i f he w a n t s t o f i n d them.-I'm n o t p a r t i c u l a r l y a n x i o u s f o r him t o do i t b u t h e ' s a l l o w e d i f he w a n t s t o do i t . I t w o u l d n ' t b o t h e r me i f he w a n t e d t o s e a r c h , I w o u l d n ' t f e e l t h r e a t e n e d , I'm h i s mom and I d o n ' t t h i n k h e ' l l r u n o f f and l e a v e me. I f he was g o i n g t o s e a r c h I'd t r y t o p r e p a r e him f o r maybe b e i n g r e j e c t e d b e c a u s e I ' v e h e a r d o f t h a t h a p p e n i n g . Two f a m i l i e s were a c t i v e l y i n v o l v e d i n a s e a r c h and t h e s e p a r e n t s f e l t c o m p e l l e d t o a s s i s t t h e i r c h i l d r e n b a s e d on t h e c h i l d ' s e m o t i o n a l p r o b l e m s and t h e c h i l d ' s i n t e n s e i n t e r e s t i n f i n d i n g t h e b i o l o g i c a l p a r e n t s : M o t h e r : I s e e n o t h i n g wrong w i t h s e a r c h i n g , I'm n o t l o s i n g p o s i t i o n , I'm n o t w o r r i e d a t a l l . I t u s e d t o u p s e t me when \"someone w o u l d s a y what a b o u t 113 t h e r e a l m o t h e r b u t I f e e l c o m f o r t a b l e now. I d o n ' t t h i n k L. s h o u l d do t h i s on h e r own, t h e y n e e d a l o t o f e m o t i o n a l s u p p o r t . L. i s v e r y h a p p y t h a t I'm s e a r c h i n g f o r h e r , I c a n u n d e r s t a n d h e r n eed so I am h e l p i n g h e r . M o t h e r : She s a y s I ' l l a l w a y s be h e r m o t h e r b u t s h e ' s g o i n g t o f i n d h e r n a t u r a l m o t h e r . S h e ' s b e e n w a n t i n g t o s e a r c h f o r q u i t e a w h i l e . She s a y s t o me I know y o u a r e a f r a i d , y o u a r e s u p p o r t i n g me b u t y o u a r e a f r a i d , and s h e i s r i g h t . I know t h a t s h e n e e d s t o do t h i s , I u n d e r s t a n d t h i s n e e d t o s e a r c h b u t I g u e s s i t s n a t u r a l t o want t o b e l i e v e t h a t y o u ' v e b e e n s u c h a g o o d p a r e n t t h a t t h i s c h i l d won't m i s s h e r unknown p a s t , s o f r o m t h a t a n g l e y o u f e e l bad and r e s e n t i t . You h a v e t o do t h i s t h i n g b u t I w i s h I d i d n ' t h a v e t o . I hope i t d o e s n ' t h a p p e n t o o s o o n b e c a u s e o f t h e e m o t i o n s i n v o l v e d , I d o n ' t know w h e t h e r s h e w i l l h a n d l e i t i f i t i s a d i s a p p o i n t m e n t . F a t h e r : I'm v e r y s u p p o r t i v e o f i t , i t i s a s i m p l e r i s s u e f o r me I t h i n k . The o n l y a m b i v a l e n t f e e l i n g I h a v e i s t h a t i t c o u l d be h u r t f u l f o r h e r . Maybe s h e w o u l d be d i f f e r e n t i f s h e knew more a b o u t h e r s e l f . Maybe s h e w o u l d s e t t l e down and be t r u e t o h e r s e l f b e c a u s e r i g h t now I t h i n k s h e b e l i e v e s s h e must a c t i n a c e r t a i n way b e c a u s e t h a t i s how s h e i m a g i n e s s h e s h o u l d b e . P a r e n t - a d o p t e e d i s c r e p a n c i e s i n v i e w s o f s e a r c h i n g . A l t h o u g h 8 0 % o f t h e a d o l e s c e n t s a c k n o w l e d g e d t h a t t h e i r p a r e n t s had v e r b a l l y c o m m u n i c a t e d t h e i r s u p p o r t r e g a r d i n g t h e s e a r c h i n g i s s u e , t h e . a d o p t e e s who w e r e n o t a c t i v e l y s e a r c h i n g ( 6 6 % ) , v i e w e d s e a r c h i n g as a p e r s o n a l i s s u e t h a t d i d n o t w a r r a n t p a r e n t a l i n v o l v e m e n t . I t was a l s o c l e a r t h a t t h e s e a d o l e s c e n t s f e l t u n c o m f o r t a b l e a b o u t d i s c u s s i n g s u c h f e e l i n g s w i t h t h e i r p a r e n t s , and i n some c a s e s , had d i f f i c u l t y a c c e p t i n g t h e i r p a r e n t ' s p l e d g e o f s u p p o r t as b e i n g a s i n c e r e o n e : Don, age 15: I t h i n k my mom w o u l d h e l p me i f I w a n t e d t o l o o k b u t I d o n ' t know w h e t h e r I'd go t o h e r f o r h e l p , I ' l l j u s t do i t on my own. 114 R i c h a r d , age 17: My mom seems t o be s u p p o r t i v e b u t I t h i n k I ' l l do i t on my own, I w o u l d l i k e t o do i t w i t h o u t my p a r e n t s k n o w i n g . C h e r y l , age 16: She i s v e r y s u p p o r t i v e , I d o n ' t know i f s h e f e e l s t h r e a t e n e d o r j e a l o u s , I ' d be j e a l o u s i f my d a u g h t e r w a n t e d t o f i n d o u t who h e r r e a l m o t h e r was. I ' l l p r o b a b l y do i t on my own. L a u r a , age 16: I u s e d t o t h i n k t h a t s h e s u p p o r t e d me b u t t h e n o n c e when we w e r e t a l k i n g a b o u t i t s h e s a i d o u t o f t h e b l u e I d o n ' t m i n d i f y o u want t o f i n d them, s o r t o f d o n ' t w o r r y I d o n ' t m i n d , b u t e v e n t h o u g h s h e s a i d t h a t t o me I'm n o t s u r e , I d o n ' t know i f s h e i s b e i n g h o n e s t , b u t I t h i n k I ' l l do i t on my own someday. M a r i e , , age 14: A w h i l e ago I b r o u g h t i t up and i t d i d n ' t work o u t t o o w e l l . She a s k e d me some q u e s t i o n s I d i d n ' t l i k e and I g o t mad a t h e r b e c a u s e s h e a s k e d me where w o u l d I r a t h e r l i v e w i t h my n a t u r a l m o t h e r o r h e r e and I d i d n ' t want t o a n s w e r t h a t b e c a u s e I d i d n ' t r e a l l y know s o I t h i n k I s h o u l d k e e p t h o s e t h i n g s t o m y s e l f . T w enty p e r c e n t o f t h e a d o l e s c e n t s were unaware t h a t t h e i r p a r e n t s w o u l d be s u p p o r t i v e o f a s e a r c h : C a t h y , age 17: I w o u l d n ' t want t o a s k my p a r e n t s a b o u t s e a r c h i n g , my mom i s e x t r e m e l y s e n s i t i v e , and e v e n i f i t d o e s n ' t p e r t a i n t o h e r a t a l l s h e g e t s u p s e t e a s i l y and v e r y h u r t . She w o u l d t a k e i t v e r y p e r s o n a l l y . I t w o u l d be v e r y h a r d t o s a y I was c u r i o u s so I w o u l d n ' t want t o do t h a t . A l i c e , age 14: I'm g o i n g t o do i t , I d o n ' t c a r e i f t h e y h e l p me o r n o t . I w o u l d n ' t want t o t a l k t o my mom a b o u t i t b e c a u s e I t h i n k s h e ' d f e e l l i k e s h e w a s n ' t d o i n g a g o o d enough j o b as a m o t h e r o r s o m e t h i n g and t h a t c o u l d c h a n g e o u r r e l a t i o n s h i p . T h e s e g a p s i n t h e p a r e n t - c h i l d c o m m u n i c a t i o n on t h i s i s s u e s u g g e s t t h a t t h e a d o l e s c e n t s a r e v e r y s e n s i t i v e a b o u t t h i s s u b j e c t and do n o t want t o u p s e t t h e i r p a r e n t s by m e n t i o n i n g t h e i r i n t e r e s t i n s e a r c h i n g f o r b i o l o g i c a l r e l a t i v e s . A p a r e n t ' s v e r b a l p l e d g e o f s u p p o r t 115 i s . n o t e nough t o make t h e a d o l e s c e n t a d o p t e e f e e l c o m f o r t a b l e w i t h t h e i r t h o u g h t s and f e e l i n g s on t h i s i s s u e . A d o p t e e s ' f e e l i n g s a b o u t t h e b i o l o g i c a l p a r e n t s . None o f t h e a d o l e s c e n t s w e r e v e r y i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e i r b i o l o g i c a l f a t h e r s . Some a n i m o s i t y was e x p r e s s e d t o w a r d h i m , b u t 9 3 % o f t h e a d o l e s c e n t s , m a l e and f e m a l e , n e v e r r e a l l y t h o u g h t much a b o u t h i m . The b i o l o g i c a l f a t h e r ' s r o l e i n t h e p r e g n a n c y and s u b s e q u e n t a d o p t i o n was v i e w e d somewhat n e g a t i v e l y : B a r b , age 15: I h a v e n ' t h e a r d t h a t much a b o u t h i m . In a way I t h i n k he i s k i n d o f a j e r k b e c a u s e he l e f t h e r , b u t I d o n ' t h a v e any r e a l l y b a d f e e l i n g s t o w a r d h im I g u e s s . L i n d a , age 15: I d o n ' t r e a l l y t h i n k o f him t h a t much. I d o n ' t r e a l l y want t o t a l k t o h i m . I c a l l h i m a g i g o l o , he r e a l l y h u r t h e r f e e l i n g s b e c a u s e how c o u l d y o u g e t a woman p r e g n a n t and t h e n j u s t t a k e o f f . I'm more i n t e r e s t e d i n my mom. R i c h a r d , age 17: So m e t i m e s I t h i n k h e ' s a r a t b u t I d o n ' t r e a l l y know, i t c o u l d h a v e b e e n h e r f a u l t . I d o n ' t r e a l l y t h i n k a b o u t h i m , I t h i n k a b o u t h e r . S h e l l e y , age 17: I d o n ' t know why b u t f o r some r e a s o n I ' v e n e v e r e v e n t h o u g h t o f h i m . I n e v e r r e a l l y t h o u g h t t h a t t h e r e e v e r was one y o u know? 1 know t h e r e was b u t I ' v e n e v e r t h o u g h t o f h i m . P r o b a b l y b e c a u s e t h e m o t h e r g a v e me up, I t h i n k i n t e r m s o f a m o t h e r b e i n g o u t t h e r e n o t a f a t h e r . O n l y one a d o p t e e was i n t e r e s t e d i n h i s b i o l o g i c a l f a t h e r and he was c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e p h y s i c a l a p p e a r a n c e o f t h e man: Tom, age 18: The o n l y r e a s o n I 'd l i k e t o s e e him i s t o s e e what he l o o k s l i k e , o t h e r w i s e I w o u l d n ' t c a r e . The a d o p t e e s ' f e e l i n g s a b o u t t h e b i o l o g i c a l m o t h e r were r a d i c a l l y d i f f e r e n t t h a n t h e i r f e e l i n g s a b o u t t h e f a t h e r . T h r e e themes e m e r g e d t h a t s e r v e d t o d e s c r i b e how t h e a d o l e s c e n t s f e l t a b o u t t h e b i o l o g i c a l m o t h e r . 116 F o r t y - s e v e n p e r c e n t o f t h e a d o p t e e s had v e r y p o s i t i v e f e e l i n g s t o w a r d s t h i s woman and t h i s theme was s u b s e q u e n t l y l a b e l e d p r i d e , as t h e s e a d o l e s c e n t s s p o k e o f f e e l i n g r e s p e c t and g r a t i t u d e t o w a r d h e r . The s e c o n d theme was l a b e l e d r e j e c t i o n , as 3 3 % o f t h e a d o l e s c e n t s e i t h e r f e l t r e j e c t e d by h e r o r b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e y were j u s t an u n p l e a s a n t memory. The t h i r d theme was l a b e l e d i n d i f f e r e n c e , a s 2 0 % o f t h e a d o l e s c e n t s were n o t aware o f any p a r t i c u l a r f e e l i n g s t o w a r d t h e b i o l o g i c a l m o t h e r : P r i d e C h e r y l , age 16: I t h i n k I'm v e r y p r o u d o f h e r f o r h a v i n g t h e g u t s and f o r c a r i n g e n o u g h a b o u t what my f u t u r e w o u l d b e , s h e g a v e me up k n o w i n g t h a t I w o u l d be r a i s e d p r o p e r l y i n a g o o d home, s o I'm r e a l l y i m p r e s s e d w i t h h e r , t h a t w o u l d be a h a r d d e c i s i o n t o make. M a r i e , age 14: I t h i n k s h e must h a v e b e e n v e r y b r a v e , and s h e must h a v e had a l o t o f g u t s and l o v e i n s i d e h e r t o h a v e t h e b a b y and t h e n g i v e i t up a f t e r g o i n g t h r o u g h e v e r y t h i n g . I t must h a v e b e e n v e r y h a r d f o r h e r b e c a u s e s h e was s o y o u n g , I t h i n k t h a t i s s p e c i a l . R e j e c t i o n N a n c y , age 15: I t h i n k my m o t h e r s h o u l d h a v e b e e n more c a r e f u l , I j u s t g e t mad t h a t I c o u l d n ' t l i v e w i t h a n o r m a l f a m i l y w i t h my p a r e n t s b e i n g my own. I f e e l s h e g a v e me up b e c a u s e s h e w a n t e d t o g e t r i d o f me, b u t I g u e s s i f y o u r own p a r e n t s g a v e y o u up t h a t i s what y o u ' d t h i n k t o o . I t h i n k i t w o u l d h a v e b e e n b r a v e r o f h e r t o h a v e k e p t me e v e n i f s h e was l i v i n g i n a two room a p a r t m e n t . A l o t o f g i r l s p u t t h e i r b a b i e s up f o r a d o p t i o n j u s t t o g e t r i d o f them, t h e y d o n ' t want t o h a v e t h e b u r d e n . I n d i f f e r e n c e S h e l l e y , age 17: I d o n ' t f e e l a n y t h i n g r e a l l y , I d o n ' t f e e l bad o r mad o r h a t e h e r , s h e was j u s t one o f t h o u s a n d s o f p e o p l e who g e t p r e g n a n t and g i v e i t up. She was j u s t someone i n t h e p a s t t h a t g a v e b i r t h t o me. 117 The a d o l e s c e n t s who f e l t i n d i f f e r e n t t o w a r d s t h e b i o l o g i c a l m o t h e r were u n i n t e r e s t e d i n s e a r c h i n g f o r h e r . The a d o l e s c e n t s who h e l d p o s i t i v e v i e w s o r f e e l i n g s t o w a r d s t h e b i o l o g i c a l m o t h e r , a l s o had p a r e n t s who e x p r e s s e d empathy t o w a r d t h e b i o l o g i c a l m o t h e r and h e r s i t u a t i o n and f e l t p o s i t i v e t o w a r d s h e r . P a r e n t s ' f e e l i n g s a b o u t t h e b i o l o g i c a l p a r e n t s . M o t h e r s and f a t h e r s had v e r y d i f f e r e n t e x p e r i e n c e s i n r e g a r d t o t h e i r p e r s o n a l f e e l i n g s a b o u t t h e b i o l o g i c a l p a r e n t s . F a t h e r s v e r y r a r e l y , i f e v e r , t h o u g h t a b o u t t h e b i o l o g i c a l p a r e n t s , and a l l o f them i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e y r e a l l y had no s i g n i f i c a n t f e e l i n g s t o w a r d them a t a l l : F a t h e r : I h a v e no f e e l i n g s f o r them, I d o n ' t know them. F a t h e r : I must c o n f e s s I d o n ' t t h i n k a b o u t t h e b i o l o g i c a l p a r e n t s v e r y o f t e n , i n f a c t , p r o b a b l y n o t a t a l l , h e ' s h e r e , I'm n o t l o o k i n g b a c k . F a t h e r : I h a v e n ' t t h o u g h t o f them f o r y e a r s , I r e a l l y h a v e no f e e l i n g s a b o u t t h e m , I d o n ' t t h i n k a b o u t t h e m . M o t h e r s , on t h e o t h e r h a n d , t e n d e d t o t h i n k a b o u t t h e b i o l o g i c a l m o t h e r on t h e i r c h i l d r e n ' s b i r t h d a y s and on s p e c i a l f a m i l y o c c a s i o n s , w h i l e o t h e r m o t h e r s f e l t some s a d n e s s f o r t h e b i o l o g i c a l m o t h e r ' s l o s s . M o t h e r s c l e a r l y h a d a more e m o t i o n a l t i e t o t h e i r c h i l d ' s b i o l o g i c a l p a r e n t s , p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e b i o l o g i c a l m o t h e r . E i g h t y - f i v e p e r c e n t o f t h e m o t h e r s e x p r e s s e d t h e s e v i e w s : M o t h e r : I t h i n k a b o u t S.'s m o t h e r a l o t . F o r many y e a r s I had t h i s f e e l i n g o f b e i n g s o r t o f l i n k e d t o h e r , I f e l t a l o t o f c o n c e r n f o r h e r f o r many y e a r s . I f e e l a v e r y c l o s e t i e . M o t h e r : I t h i n k o f h e r m o t h e r on h e r b i r t h d a y and I wonder how s h e i s m a n a g i n g , I wonder a b o u t how s h e i s now. 118 M o t h e r : I u s u a l l y t h i n k a b o u t them a t C h r i s t m a s and on b i r t h d a y s . She w o u l d come t o m i n d s o m e t i m e s and I w o u l d t h i n k w e l l s h e m u s t t h i n k a b o u t h e r c h i l d s o m e t i m e s . M o t h e r : I t h i n k I d i d more t h i n k i n g a b o u t t h e b i o l o g i c a l m o t h e r b e c a u s e I f e l t a l w a y s a l i n k , I a l w a y s f e l t s a d t h a t t h i s m o t h e r had m i s s e d s o much. I f e l t e x t r e m e l y f o r t u n a t e t h a t we had h e r c h i l d a nd t h a t i t was somebody e l s e ' s l o s s and t h e r e w e r e many t i m e s when I ' v e t h o u g h t a b o u t h e r . M o t h e r : I t h i n k a b o u t t h e b i r t h m o t h e r a l o t , a t e v e r y b i r t h d a y . E s p e c i a l l y when he was y o u n g e r b e c a u s e I'm s u r e i t must h a v e been a t r a u m a t i c e x p e r i e n c e f o r h e r t o g i v e up t h a t b a b y and I w o u l d l o v e t o meet h e r someday and show h e r t h e b a by b o o k . I d o n ' t t h i n k a b o u t t h e f a t h e r b u t I t h i n k a l o t o f t h e m o t h e r ' s f e e l i n g s b e c a u s e t h o s e f e e l i n g s f o r a c h i l d a r e s o s t r o n g . F i f t e e n p e r c e n t of. t h e m o t h e r s w e r e a l s o r e m i n d e d o f t h e b i o l o g i c a l p a r e n t s when t h e y n o t i c e d a p a r t i c u l a r t r a i t i n t h e i r c h i l d : M o t h e r : t h e t i m e s when I s e e a t r a i t t h a t s h e comes up w i t h I ' l l s o m e t i m e s t h i n k o r w onder i f h e r m o t h e r was l i k e t h a t . M o t h e r : I t h i n k o f h i s m o t h e r b e c a u s e I t h i n k he l o o k s l i k e h e r . I ' v e a l m o s t s a i d t h a t t o him b e f o r e . I wonder what t h e k i d ' s p a r e n t s were l i k e b e c a u s e o f t h e t r a i t s t h a t I s e e . The p a r e n t s , l i k e t h e a d o l e s c e n t s , t y p i c a l l y d i d n o t t h i n k a b o u t , o r h a v e any s i g n i f i c a n t f e e l i n g s f o r t h e b i o l o g i c a l f a t h e r s . The A d o l e s c e n t s ' A d o p t i o n E x p e r i e n c e - R e f e r e n c e s t o S e l f In t h i s s e c t i o n t h e a d o l e s c e n t s ' v i e w s on t h e i r a d o p t i v e s t a t u s , t h e i r f e e l i n g s a b o u t t h e m s e l v e s , and some d e v e l o p m e n t a l i s s u e s a r e s u m m a r i z e d . A d o l e s c e n t s ' a d o p t i v e s t a t u s . In d i s c u s s i n g a d o p t i v e s t a t u s w i t h t h e a d o l e s c e n t s , two p a t t e r n s e m e r g e d t h a t seemed t o d e s c r i b e how t h e y d e a l t w i t h i t . S i x t y - s e v e n p e r c e n t o f t h e a d o l e s c e n t s v i e w e d t h e i r 119 a d o p t i v e s t a t u s as a f a c t o f l i f e : M a r i e , age 14: I t i s a f a c t o f l i f e , I h a v e t o l i v e w i t h i t w h e t h e r I l i k e i t o r n o t , i t s n o t a f f e c t i n g my l i f e r i g h t now. S h e l l e y , age 17: I d o n ' t t h i n k a b o u t i t , i t s s o m e t h i n g t h a t h a p p e n e d when I was b o r n , i t was a l r e a d y d e c i d e d and t h a t d o e s n ' t a f f e c t my l i f e r i g h t now. Don, age 15: I t s n o t a b i g d e a l , I d o n ' t t h i n k a b o u t i t much. The o t h e r p a t t e r n t h a t e m e r g e d was t h e t e n d e n c y o f 3 3 % o f t h e a d o l e s c e n t s t o s p e c u l a t e on how a d i f f e r e n t o u t c o m e m i g h t h a v e a l t e r e d t h e i r l i v e s . T h i s s p e c u l a t i o n seemed t o be t y p i c a l l y r e s e r v e d f o r when t h e a d o p t e e s had d i f f i c u l t i e s a t home: L a u r a , age 16: Spmetimes when I g e t i n t o b i g f i g h t s i n t h e f a m i l y I wonder i f I c o u l d h a v e been i n a b e t t e r f a m i l y . When t h i n g s a r e bad a t home I i m a g i n e m y s e l f i n a d i f f e r e n t f a m i l y . R i c h a r d , age 17: I ' v e a l w a y s w a n t e d t o know how w e l l c o u l d my m o t h e r u n d e r s t a n d me. I seem t o h a v e a p a r t i c u l a r p r o b l e m g e t t i n g my i d e a s a c r o s s t o my l e g a l p a r e n t s , a n d I'm w o n d e r i n g a b o u t my b i o l o g i c a l p a r e n t s how w o u l d t h e y u n d e r s t a n d me. T h a t g o e s t h r o u g h my mi n d a l o t e s p e c i a l l y when I'm h a v i n g d i f f i c u l t i e s a t home. Nanc y , age 15: I o f t e n wonder i f b e i n g a d o p t e d and i f I' d s t a y e d w i t h my n a t u r a l m o t h e r i f e v e r y t h i n g w o u l d be d i f f e r e n t i n my l i f e . T h a t makes me r e g r e t i t b e c a u s e I t h i n k i t w o u l d be b e t t e r . T a n y a , age 15: I j u s t wonder what t h e o u t c o m e w o u l d be i f I was a d o p t e d by somebody e l s e . B e i n g a d o p t e d I s o r t o f f e e l t h a t i t c h a n g e s my l i f e , y o u s p e n d a l o t o f t i m e t h i n k i n g a b o u t y o u r p a r e n t s when y o u c o u l d s p e n d i t on o t h e r t h i n g s . I t s t a k e n up a l o t o f my t i m e , e s p e c i a l l y when t h i n g s a r e b a d a t home. When t h e a d o l e s c e n t s were a s k e d t o d e s c r i b e when t h e y were most k e e n l y aware o f t h e i r a d o p t i v e s t a t u s , two c l e a r c u t themes e m e r g e d . F a m i l y g e t t o g e t h e r s r e m i n d e d 5 3 % o f t h e a d o l e s c e n t s t h e y were a d o p t e d , as d i d 120 comments f r o m o t h e r s r e g a r d i n g t h e a d o p t e e ' s r e s e m b l a n c e o r n o n - r e s e m b l a n c e t o o t h e r f a m i l y members. F o r t y - s e v e n p e r c e n t o f t h e a d o l e s c e n t s m e n t i o n e d t h i s theme o f f a m i l y s i m i l a r i t y : F a m i l y R e s e m b l a n c e Pam, age 14: When p e o p l e s a y I l o o k l i k e my b r o t h e r , o r s o m e t h i n g l i k e t h a t , b e c a u s e we d o n ' t g e t o u r g e n e s f r o m t h e same p e o p l e s o how c a n we l o o k a l i k e ? T h a t r e m i n d s me a l l t h e t i m e . S h e l l e y , age 17: I'm t h e o n l y one w i t h d a r k h a i r and p e o p l e n o t i c e t h a t and i t r e m i n d s me I'm a d o p t e d . C h e r y l , age 16: A l o t o f p e o p l e s a y I l o o k l i k e my mom and we d o n ' t l o o k a l i k e a t a l l , t h a t r e m i n d s me. A l i c e , age 14: I t s r e a l l y f u n n y when someone s a y s , I c a n s e e t h e r e s e m b l a n c e , and s h e ' s n o t e v e n my r e a l m o t h e r , so t h e n I t h i n k a b o u t i t . T h i s theme was a l s o m e n t i o n e d by 6 2 % o f t h e a d o p t i v e p a r e n t s as r e m i n d i n g them o f t h e i r r o l e as a d o p t i v e p a r e n t s . T h i s s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e r e m a r k s o f o t h e r s p e r t a i n i n g t o t h e a d o p t i v e f a m i l i e s ' s i m i l a r i t i e s o r d i f f e r e n c e s i n p h y s i c a l a p p e a r a n c e s e r v e s t o a c c e n t u a t e t h e a d o p t i v e f a m i l i e s ' s e n s e o f d i f f e r e n c e . F a m i l y G e t T o g e t h e r s Tom, age 18: L i k e a t C h r i s t m a s when t h e w h o l e f a m i l y i s t o g e t h e r I t h i n k a b o u t what my o t h e r f a m i l y i s d o i n g , and t h e n I s o r t o f g e t d e p r e s s e d a b o u t i t . I f e e l s a d t h e n and I j u s t go up t o my room. I t l a s t s a d a y t h a t i s a l l , I n e v e r w o u l d t e l l a n y o n e t h o u g h , I j u s t k e e p i t t o m y s e l f , t h a t s when I remember t h a t I'm a d o p t e d . . T a n y a , age 15: A t C h r i s t m a s , e s p e c i a l l y C h r i s t m a s , b u t a t m o s t f a m i l y g e t t o g e t h e r s , b i r t h d a y s and s t u f f I am r e m i n d e d t h a t I'm a d o p t e d . Paul-y age .16: A t C h r i s t m a s , and l o o k i n g a t o t h e r f a m i l i e s , a l o t o f p e o p l e s a y , y o u d o n ' t l o o k l i k e y o u r f a t h e r , and t h a t s when I remember i t t o o , t h a t h a p p e n s a l o t . 121 C a t h y , age 17: When we a r e a l l s i t t i n g a r o u n d t h e t a b l e t o g e t h e r t h a t s when I t h i n k a b o u t i t . L i n d a , age 15: On my b i r t h d a y s m o s t l y , b u t a t o t h e r f a m i l y t h i n g s t o o . W h i l e d i s c u s s i n g t h e i r a d o p t i v e s t a t u s , t h e r e c o g n i t i o n t h a t a d o p t e e s t h e o r e t i c a l l y h a v e two s e t s o f p a r e n t s f o s t e r e d a v a g u e s e n s e o f d i f f e r e n c e i n 6 6 % o f t h e a d o l e s c e n t s . Some o f t h e a d o l e s c e n t s a p p e a r t o h a v e r e c o n c i l e d t h i s f a c t b e t t e r t h a n o t h e r s . T h i s theme' was l a b e l e d s e n s e o f d i f f e r e n c e : A l i c e , age 14: E v e r y t h i n g i s n o r m a l b u t y o u h a v e t h i s t h i n g h a n g i n g o v e r y o u , y o u a r e a d o p t e d and t h e s e a r e n ' t y o u r r e a l p a r e n t s t h a t g a v e b i r t h t o y o u . B u t o t h e r w i s e e v e r y t h i n g i s t h e same. L i k e y o u s t i l l h a v e p a r e n t s t h a t l o v e y o u , b u t y o u know t h e y a r e n ' t y o u r b l o o d s o r t o f , and y o u c o u l d h a v e o t h e r o n e s t h a t c o u l d be b e t t e r o r w o r s e y o u r e a l l y d o n ' t know. Pam, age 14: You know y o u h a v e two d i f f e r e n t f a m i l i e s . I d o n ' t t h i n k t h e r e a r e t o o many g o o d t h i n g s a b o u t t h a t , e x c e p t y o u know y o u h a v e a n o t h e r m o t h e r o u t t h e r e , i t i s d i f f e r e n t i s n ' t i t ? Nanc y , age 15: I s a y t o my p a r e n t s y o u a r e my r e a l p a r e n t s b u t t h e y a r e n ' t . I w i l l a l w a y s f e e l l i k e a s t r a n g e r , i t s l i k e I'm l i v i n g i n a f o s t e r home, I h a v e o t h e r p a r e n t s somewhere s o i t s d i f f e r e n t . C h e r y l , age 16: W e l l a d o p t e d k i d s know t h a t t h e y a r e a d o p t e d and t h e y know t h e y a r e n ' t l i v i n g w i t h t h e i r p a r e n t s , s o t h a t makes them s o r t o f d i f f e r e n t i t s d i f f e r e n t when y o u h a v e two s e t s o f p a r e n t s . C a t h y , age 17: You d o n ' t h a v e any r e a l , r e a l f a m i l y s o y o u c o u l d go o f f t o a n o t h e r p l a c e and s a y y o u a r e somebody e l s e b e c a u s e y o u r name i s n ' t y o u r r e a l name y o u know, i t s d i f f e r e n t when y o u know y o u h a v e o t h e r p a r e n t s somewhere. A n o t h e r s t r o n g p a t t e r n t h a t e m e r g e d i n t h e a d o p t e e s ' d i s c u s s i o n on t h e i r a d o p t i v e s t a t u s was a b e l i e f t h a t an unknown p a r e n t c o u l d be on t h e s t r e e t somewhere. T h i s theme was l a b e l e d i s t h e r e a p a r e n t i n t h e c r o w d ? and 8 0 % 122 o f t h e a d o l e s c e n t s had e x p e r i e n c e d i t . T h i s a p p e a r s t o be a s i t u a t i o n u n i q u e t o i n d i v i d u a l s who h a v e one o r more unknown p a r e n t s . Some o f t h e a d o p t e e s m e n t i o n e d how t h e y w o u l d s c a n t h e c r o w d i n a p u b l i c p l a c e l o o k i n g f o r a f a c e s i m i l a r t o t h e i r s : M a r i e , age 14: I s o m e t i m e s w o n d e r i f I'm w a l k i n g down t h e s t r e e t i f a l l o f a s u d d e n I ' d s e e my b i r t h m o t h e r . Pam, age 14: I c o u l d w a l k down t h e s t r e e t and t h i n k t h a t c o u l d be my mom. C h e r y l , age 16: I t s k i n d o f w e i r d t h i n k i n g y o u c o u l d w a l k p a s t y o u r m o t h e r on t h e s t r e e t and n o t know i t . N ancy, age 15: I c o u l d w a l k by a n y b o d y and t h a t c o u l d by my m o t h e r . C a t h y , age 17: I mean one o f y o u r t e a c h e r s c o u l d be y o u r p a r e n t . R i c h a r d , a g e 17: When I go o u t I l o o k a r o u n d a t a l l t h e p e o p l e and t h i n k w h i c h one c o u l d be my m o t h e r , l i k e I c o u l d w a l k p a s t h e r and n o t know i t . T a n y a , age 15: L i k e when I go t o h o c k e y games o r t h i n g s l i k e t h a t I a l w a y s l o o k a t t h e p e o p l e b e c a u s e one o f them c o u l d be my m o t h e r , l i k e I s t a n d w here t h e s t a n d s a r e and w a t c h f o r p e o p l e t h a t c o u l d l o o k l i k e me. B a r b , age 15: I t s w e i r d t o t h i n k t h a t e v e n a t e a c h e r a t s c h o o l c o u l d be y o u r p a r e n t . Some o f t h e a d o l e s c e n t s who d i s c u s s e d t h i s theme v i e w e d t h e i r s t r e e t s e a r c h as a k i n d o f game, b u t f o r most o f them t h i s t e n d e n c y t o p e r u s e c r o w d s and wonder a b o u t a p o s s i b l e r e l a t i v e b e i n g o u t on t h e s t r e e t had a r e a l i t y b a s e t o i t . The p o s s i b i l i t y o f t h i s h a p p e n i n g was a l l t o r e a l t o t h e m . When t h e a d o l e s c e n t s were a s k e d i f t h e y t h o u g h t b e i n g a d o p t e d had c a u s e d them any s p e c i a l p r o b l e m s , 6 0 % o f t h e a d o p t e e s d i d n o t p e r c e i v e t h a t a d o p t i o n had b e e n a t t h e r o o t o f t h e i r p r o b l e m s , and t h e y a c c e p t e d r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r t h e i r p r o b l e m s w i t h o u t u s i n g a d o p t i o n as an e x c u s e . 123 T h i r t e e n p e r c e n t o f t h e a d o l e s c e n t s d i d c o n f e s s h o w e v e r t o h a v i n g u s e d a d o p t i o n as an e x c u s e t o t e s t t h e i r p a r e n t s : T a n y a , age 15: L a s t y e a r I f e l t l i k e I w a s n ' t one o f t h e f a m i l y . I was r e a l l y c u t o f f f r o m t h e m . I'm k i n d o f e m b a r r a s s e d t o s a y t h i s , I g u e s s i t was p a r t l y c a u s e d by a d o p t i o n , I u s e d i t as an e x c u s e , I f e l t l i k e I was a l l by m y s e l f and I c o u l d n ' t . t a l k t o a n y b o d y a b o u t i t , I r e a l l y f o u n d i t h a r d . C h e r y l , age 16: A c o u p l e o f y e a r s ago I was r e a l l y a w f u l . I remember s a y i n g , I h a t e y o u b e c a u s e y o u a r e n ' t my r e a l m o t h e r and s t u f f l i k e t h a t . I d e c i d e d t h a t I d i d n ' t h a v e t o l i s t e n t o them b e c a u s e t h e y w e r e n ' t my . r e a l p a r e n t s . I t was a g o o d e x c u s e t o g e t away w i t h t h i n g s . T w e n t y - s i x p e r c e n t o f t h e a d o l e s c e n t s d i d h o w e v e r , b e l i e v e t h a t b e i n g a d o p t e d had made l i f e more d i f f i c u l t f o r them: Don, age 15: I t was h a r d e r f o r me t o f i t i n t o t h e f a m i l y b e c a u s e I was a d o p t e d , I d i d n ' t b e l o n g l i k e t h e o t h e r s , a t t i m e s i t was a p r o b l e m f o r me. N a n c y , age 15: I t i s h a r d t o be a d o p t e d , I c a n ' t g e t on w i t h l i f e u n t i l I f i n d my n a t u r a l p a r e n t s , I want t o f i n d them now. R i c h a r d , age 17: I t seems t h a t I c a n ' t g e t a l o n g w i t h my p a r e n t s t o o w e l l . I t h i n k b e c a u s e I'm a d o p t e d t h a t I h a v e some p r o b l e m s g e t t i n g a l o n g w i t h them, we a r e n ' t s u i t e d p e r s o n a l i t y w i s e , I t h i n k i f I was i n a n o t h e r p l a c e i t w o u l d be d i f f e r e n t . A d o l e s c e n t s who p e r c e i v e d t h a t t h e y had p r o b l e m s b e c a u s e t h e y were a d o p t e d , a l s o had p a r e n t s who s p e c u l a t e d t h a t t h e i r p r o b l e m s were a l s o due t o , o r a c c e n t u a t e d by t h e i r a d o p t i v e s t a t u s . On t h i s i s s u e p a r e n t and c h i l d h ad c o n g r u e n t p e r c e p t i o n s . 124 A d o l e s c e n t s ' p e r s o n a l v i e w s on a d o p t i o n . The a d o l e s c e n t s w e r e a s k e d t o o f f e r a d v i c e t o o t h e r a d o p t e d c h i l d r e n as i t was h y p o t h e s i z e d t h a t t h e i r a d v i c e m i g h t r e f l e c t t h e i r own e x p e r i e n c e s . T h i s was l a r g e l y c o n f i r m e d by t h e i n d i v i d u a l r e s p o n s e s , i n t h a t t h e a d v i c e d i d a p p e a r t o r e f l e c t t h e a d o p t e e ' s own e x p e r i e n c e . F o u r t h e m e s , f e e l i n g d i f f e r e n t ( 4 0 % r e s p o n s e ) , s e n s e o f b e l o n g i n g ( 2 7 % ) , g r a t i t u d e ( 2 0 % ) , and s e a r c h i n g ( 1 3 % ) , w e r e d i s c o v e r e d i n t h e a d o l e s c e n t s ' r e s p o n s e s : F e e l i n g D i f f e r e n t P a u l , age 16: T h e r e i s no r e a s o n t o b l a m e t h i n g s on a d o p t i o n , i t d o e s n ' t make y o u any d i f f e r e n t f r o m a n y o n e e l s e . Don, age 15: D o n ' t f e e l d i f f e r e n t b e c a u s e y o u a r e n ' t . W e l l , p e o p l e h o l d i t a g a i n s t y o u t h a t t h e y had no r i g h t t o . You a r e d i f f e r e n t b u t n o t i n t h e ways t h a t t h e y a r e s a y i n g y o u a r e d i f f e r e n t . You j u s t d o n ' t h a v e t h e same m o t h e r , i t s n o t g o o d f o r k i d s t o f e e l d i f f e r e n t , j u s t n o t b e l o n g i n g , I g u e s s t h a t i s t h e p a r t o f f e e l i n g d i f f e r e n t . C h e r y l , age 16: D o n ' t f e e l d i f f e r e n t , and d o n ' t l e t p e o p l e make y o u f e e l d i f f e r e n t y o u a r e t h e same as e v e r y o n e e l s e . S e n s e o f B e l o n g i n g M a r i e , age 14: You b e l o n g , d o n ' t t h i n k y o u d o n ' t b e l o n g t o y o u r p a r e n t s , y o u h a v e known them a l l y o u r l i f e . The o n l y d i f f e r e n c e i s t h a t t h e y j u s t d i d n ' t h a v e y o u . Pam, age 14: I t s i m p o r t a n t t o f e e l l o v e d and t h a t y o u f e e l t h a t y o u a r e p a r t o f t h e f a m i l y , t h e a d o p t i v e p a r e n t s a r e t h e o n e s t h a t b r o u g h t y o u up so I g u e s s t h e y a r e y o u r r e a l p a r e n t s , b u t y o u s h o u l d f e e l t h a t y o u b e l o n g t h e r e . G r a t i t u d e B a r b a r a , age 15: I f a n y o n e has g r e a t p a r e n t s l i k e m i n e and t h e y want t o go s e a r c h i n g f o r t h e i r o t h e r p a r e n t s I ' d s a y t h e y were c r a z y 125 b e c a u s e t h a t s t i r s up a l o t o f r e s e n t m e n t . A l w a y s be g r a t e f u l and t r y t o make y o u r p a r e n t s p r o u d o f y o u . C o n s i d e r y o u r s e l f v e r y l u c k y . S h e l l e y , age 17: Be g l a d f o r what y o u h a v e , i f someone c a r e s e nough t o a d o p t y o u and g i v e y o u a home y o u a r e l u c k y , y o u a r e no d i f f e r e n t f r o m any o t h e r c h i l d r e n . D o n ' t t h i n k y o u h a v e t o p u r s u e y o u r r e a l p a r e n t s b e c a u s e i t s n o t t h a t i m p o r t a n t , be g r a t e f u l y o u h a v e a home and d o n ' t e v e r t h i n k y o u a r e h a t e d by someone b e c a u s e y o u d o n ' t h a v e b l o o d p a r e n t s , d o n ' t f e e l t h a t t h e y j u s t d i s c a r d e d y o u b e c a u s e t h e y d i d n ' t , t h e y j u s t c o u l d n ' t k e e p y o u . And f r o m two a d o p t e e s who were s e a r c h i n g f o r t h e i r b i o l o g i c a l p a r e n t s came t h i s a d v i c e : S e a r c h i n g L i n d a , age 15: I ' v e t r i e d t o c o n v i n c e my a d o p t e d f r i e n d s t o meet t h e i r p a r e n t s , a l o t o f them seem a n g r y and t h e y s h o u l d n ' t k e e p a l l t h e i r f e e l i n g s t o t h e m s e l v e s . . B u t I t h i n k i t w o u l d h e l p them i f t h e y f o u n d o u t w h e r e t h e y came f r o m . N a n c y , age 15: S t a r t l o o k i n g f o r them now b e c a u s e y o u m i g h t n o t a l w a y s g e t t h e c h a n c e . T a l k t o y o u r p a r e n t s a b o u t i t , t e l l them t h a t y o u a r e n o t „ g o i n g t o h u r t t h e i r f e e l i n g s by d o i n g t h i s b u t t h a t i t w i l l a c t u a l l y make y o u c l o s e r t o y o u r a d o p t i v e p a r e n t s , t h a t i s what I t h i n k anyway. The a d o l e s c e n t s were a l s o a s k e d t o g i v e a d v i c e t o o t h e r a d o p t i v e p a r e n t s , and a g a i n , t h e i r s t a t e m e n t s l a r g e l y r e f l e c t t h e i r own e x p e r i e n c e s . S i m i l a r t h e m e s were a l s o u n c o v e r e d h e r e s u g g e s t i n g t h a t t h e s e a r e i m p o r t a n t i s s u e s t o t h e a d o p t e d a d o l e s c e n t . The t h e m e s w e r e f e e l i n g d i f f e r e n t ( 4 0 % ) , s e a r c h i n g ( 4 0 % ) , and e a r l y r e v e l a t i o n ( 2 0 % ) : F e e l i n g D i f f e r e n t P a u l , age 16: T h i n k o f them as y o u r own c h i l d r e n b e c a u s e t h a t i s what t h e y a r e , t h e r e ' s no r e a s o n t o t r e a t them d i f f e r e n t l y t h a n y o u w o u l d t r e a t y o u r n a t u r a l k i d s . L i n d a , age 15: T r e a t them l i k e one o f t h e f a m i l y . T e l l y o u r k i d s e a r l y and k e e p t e l l i n g them s o t h a t t h e y g e t t h e f e e l o f i t . L e t t h e k i d come t o y o u w i t h q u e s t i o n s , d o n ' t make them f e e l d i f f e r e n t . Don, age 15: To p o i n t o u t t h a t y o u a r e n ' t d i f f e r e n t and i f t h e r e a r e o t h e r k i d s i n t h e f a m i l y e x p r e s s t o them t h a t y o u a r e n ' t d i f f e r e n t , t h e n i f t h e k i d s s a y s o m e t h i n g t h e p a r e n t s s h o u l d s a y t h a t i t i s n ' t t r u e b e c a u s e i t i s n ' t n i c e when i t h a p p e n s t o y o u and t h e y make y o u f e e l d i f f e r e n t . S e a r c h i n g M a r i e , age 14: I f a c h i l d w a n t s t o go and f i n d t h e b i r t h p a r e n t s I t h i n k t h e p a r e n t s s h o u l d s u p p o r t them 100%. A l l c h i l d r e n a r e g o i n g t o l e a v e t h e i r p a r e n t s someday and when t h e y do i t i s s a d , b u t t h e y w i l l a l w a y s come b a c k and s a y h e l l o . I f p a r e n t s h a v e t h a t f e a r i t s t o o bad b e c a u s e t h e n t h e y w i l l be k e e p i n g a l o t o f t h i n g s t o t h e m s e l v e s . N a n c y , age 15: u n d e r s t a n d t h e i r k i d s , t h a t t h e y a r e g o i n g t o f i n d them and t h e y a r e n ' t g o i n g t o l e a v e y o u , and t h a t t o l o v e y o u r k i d s f o r what t h e y a r e . L e t them s e a r c h a nd s u p p o r t them, d o n ' t be s e l f i s h a b o u t i t , y o u s h o u l d t h i n k o f y o u r c h i l d f i r s t n o t y o u r s e l f . C a t h y , age 17: D o n ' t be s e n s i t i v e i f y o u r c h i l d e x p r e s s e s an i n t e r e s t i n h e r b a c k g r o u n d o r p a s t d o n ' t t h i n k t h a t i t r e f l e c t s on y o u as a c o u p l e , be open and h o n e s t a b o u t a d o p t i o n , d o n ' t h i d e i t . T r e a t y o u r a d o p t e d c h i l d t h e same as y o u w o u l d y o u r n a t u r a l c h i l d . E a r l y R e v e l a t i o n A l i c e , a ge 14: T e l l t h e i r k i d s r i g h t away, t h a t i s r e a l l y i m p o r t a n t , t e l l them when t h e y a r e so l i t t l e s o t h e y grow up w i t h i t . T a n y a , age 15: T e l l t h e k i d ' , v e r y e a r l y t h a t t h e y a r e a d o p t e d and make them f e e l l i k e t h e y a r e p a r t o f t h e f a m i l y , t h e s o o n e r y o u t e l l them t h e b e t t e r . 127 The a d o p t e e s ' v i e w o f s e l f . In d e s c r i b i n g t h e m s e l v e s , t h e a d o l e s c e n t s ' p e r c e p t i o n s v a r i e d f r o m t h o s e who f e l t p o s i t i v e a b o u t t h e m s e l v e s , t o t h o s e who w e r e c o n f u s e d and a l i e n a t e d . T h e t h e m e s t h a t e m e r g e d h e r e w e r e ; p o s i t i v e s e l f - i m a g e ( 3 8 % ) , i n s e c u r i t y ( 1 6 % ) , and s e n s e o f a l i e n a t i o n ( 4 6 % ) . I t s h o u l d be n o t e d h e r e , t h a t f o r t h e m a j o r i t y o f a d o l e s c e n t s , t h e i r v i e w s o f s e l f were i n t i m a t e l y r e l a t e d t o t h e i r a d o p t i v e s t a t u s : P o s i t i v e S e l f - i m a g e L i n d a , age 15: I f e e l p r e t t y l u c k y , I ' v e g o t a n i c e f a m i l y . I mean I c o u l d be s t u c k i n some bum's h o u s e . T h i n g s c o u l d be b e t t e r a t s c h o o l , b u t I f e e l p r e t t y g o o d a b o u t m y s e l f , I'm d o i n g o k a y b u t I s t i l l want t o f i n d my b i r t h mom. C a t h y , age 17: I'm g e t t i n g b e t t e r I know what I want t o do now. I'm h a p p i e r t h a n I ' v e e v e r b e e n i n my l i f e . I'm a l o t more a c t i v e i n t h e f a m i l y i n p o s i t i v e ways now. I h a v e r e s o l v e d a l o t o f t h i n g s a b o u t b e i n g a d o p t e d . S h e l l e y , age 17: I f e e l q u i t e g o o d , I t h i n k I'm w o r t h w h i l e . I am h a p p y , b e i n g a d o p t e d h a s n ' t been a p r o b l e m f o r me a t a l l . I n s e c u r i t y T a n y a , age 15: I f e e l i n s e c u r e , v e r y i n s e c u r e . I g e t d i s c o u r a g e d s o m e t i m e s a b o u t t h e way I f e e l a b o u t m y s e l f . I h a v e a b a d a t t i t u d e s o m e t i m e s . I f e e l i f my mom knew e v e r y t h i n g a b o u t me s h e ' d h a t e me t o o . I f e e l u n s u r e a b o u t b e i n g a d o p t e d , l i k e what am I d o i n g h e r e s o m e t i m e s y o u know? I t c o n f u s e s me s o m e t i m e s . M a r i e , age 14: I d i d n ' t r e a l l y l i k e m y s e l f b e f o r e , i t s j u s t a f e e l i n g I ' v e had f o r a w h i l e , l i k e i f somebody s a y s I'm p r e t t y I go how c a n y o u s a y t h a t I p u t m y s e l f down a l o t , b u t I'm g e t t i n g b e t t e r , I c a n a c c e p t m y s e l f now, I t h i n k r e a d i n g my b i o s h e e t h e l p e d . S e l f - A l i e n a t i o n N a n c y , age 15: I f i n d m y s e l f s o r t o f i n b e t w e e n now, t r y i n g t o f i n d m y s e l f , b u t i t s k i n d o f h a r d when y o u d o n ' t know who y o u r n a t u r a l p a r e n t s a r e . 128 I'm t r y i n g t o f i n d someone who i s l i k e me, t r y i n g t o f i n d someone who m i g h t l i k e me, I'm j u s t a l i e n f r o m e v e r y b o d y e l s e . L a u r a , age 16: T h i s g i r l t o l d me o n c e how do y o u f e e l k n o w i n g t h a t y o u a r e a m i s t a k e , so I went t h r o u g h a b o u t t h r e e y e a r s t h i n k i n g I was a m i s t a k e , and r e a l l y d e p r e s s e d f o r a l o n g t i m e b e c a u s e I t h o u g h t I was a m i s t a k e . I t was a r o u n d g r a d e 7 t h a t i t s t a r t e d t o b o t h e r me, i t was a w f u l . I c o n t e m p l a t e d s u i c i d e and t h i n g s l i k e t h a t , and now I n e e d t o know a b o u t my b a c k g r o u n d s o I c a n s t r a i g h t e n t h a t o u t , I d o n ' t know what o r who I am. R i c h a r d , age 17: I t s l i k e y o u h a v e n e v e r b e e n b o r n , y o u j u s t p o p p e d o u t o f t h i n a i r f r o m n o w h e r e . Y o u ' v e g o t no b a c k g r o u n d and no h i s t o r y y o u r s e l f , y o u c a n h a v e y o u r p a r e n t s ' h i s t o r y b u t y o u c a n ' t h a v e y o u r own, who g a v e l i f e t o me? A l i c e , age 14: S o m e t h i n g i n s i d e me i s m i s s i n g , I j u s t f e e l l i k e I'm m i s s i n g s o m e t h i n g , i t g o t me t h i n k i n g a b o u t my b a c k g r o u n d . I l o o k i n t h e m i r r o r and wonder who I am, i t s w e i r d . C h e r y l , age 16: O f t e n when I go t o bed a t n i g h t I l o o k i n t h e m i r r o r and s a y who a r e y o u , l i k e I d o n ' t r e a l l y know, I g u e s s t h a t makes me f e e l i n s e c u r e s o m e t i m e s . D e v e l o p m e n t a l i s s u e s - p e e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s . W h i l e t h e a d o l e s c e n t s were d i s c u s s i n g t h e i r s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s and s c h o o l i s s u e s i t became c l e a r t h a t many o f them h a d , a t d i f f e r e n t t i m e s , e x p e r i e n c e d some d i f f i c u l t i e s w i t h t h e i r p e e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s . M o s t o f t h e s e p r o b l e m s were d e s c r i b e d as t y p i c a l c h i l d h o o d p r o b l e m s w i t h f r i e n d s , b u t 4 0 % o f t h e a d o p t e e s d e s c r i b e d p r o b l e m s o f n o t f i t t i n g i n w i t h t h e i r p e e r g r o u p : T a n y a , age 15: A t my o t h e r s c h o o l I had l o t s o f f r i e n d s , t h e n when I came t o t h i s s c h o o l i t t u r n e d o u t I d i d n ' t r e a l l y f i t i n , I d o n ' t h a v e any f r i e n d s t h a t I c a n t a l k t o a b o u t r e a l l y p e r s o n a l t h i n g s . 129 M a r i e , age 14: Some f r i e n d s t u r n e d on me and s p r e a d r u m o u r s a b o u t me a t s c h o o l , and t h a t was a w f u l , I went t h r o u g h a l o t t h e n b u t i t i s g e t t i n g b e t t e r now, b u t s o m e t i m e s I d o n ' t seem t o f i t i n . B a r b , age 15: I t h i n k p e o p l e e i t h e r r e a l l y l i k e me o r h a t e me, I d o n ' t know why. I d o n ' t f i t i n some-t i m e s I g u e s s , one g r o u p o f g i r l s c o u l d n ' t s t a n d me a t s c h o o l and I f o u n d o u t t h e y w e r e j e a l o u s o f me, t h e y u s e d t o c a l l me names i n t h e h a l l . L i n d a , age 15: I d o n ' t g e t a l o n g w i t h my f r i e n d s , n o t v e r y w e l l anyway, I g e t i n t o t r o u b l e a t s c h o o l b e c a u s e I h a v e a b i g mouth and I g u e s s my f r i e n d s d o n ' t l i k e t h a t . S h e l l e y , age IT: M o s t o f t h e r e a s o n I q u i t s c h o o l was b e c a u s e o f t h e o t h e r s t u d e n t s , t h e y a c t immature and b u g g e d me a l l t h e t i m e , I d i d n ' t seem t o f i t i n w i t h them. Th e a d o l e s c e n t s , w i t h one e x c e p t i o n d i d n o t a t t r i b u t e any o f t h e i r p e e r p r o b l e m s t o a d o p t i o n i s s u e s . The one a d o p t e e who d i d was e n g a g e d i n a s e a r c h f o r h e r b i o l o g i c a l m o t h e r and was e x t r e m e l y u n h a p p y : F e m a l e , age 15: I t r e a l l y b o t h e r s me c a u s e I'm n o t l i k e my f r i e n d s i n b e i n g w i t h t h e c r o w d . A l l my f r i e n d s d r i n k and smoke and I d o n ' t do t h o s e t h i n g s and t h a t makes me f e e l more a l o n e b e c a u s e i f my f r i e n d s w ere more l i k e me maybe I w o u l d n ' t h a v e s u c h a f e e l i n g , maybe I'm t r y i n g t o f i n d somebody t h a t i s l i k e me. I l i k e t o be a l o n e m ost o f t h e t i m e b e c a u s e when I'm w i t h p e o p l e I f e e l alone anyway. I j u s t d o n ' t f e e l l i k e a n y b o d y e l s e . I j u s t f e e l t h a t i s p r o b a b l y h a l f t h e r e a s o n I want t o f i n d my m o t h e r b e c a u s e I want t o f i n d someone who i s l i k e me, i f n o t i n p e r s o n a l i t y , i n t h e way we l o o k . I t i s c l e a r f r o m t h i s g i r l ' s s t a t e m e n t s t h a t h e r i n t e r e s t i n f i n d i n g a b i o l o g i c a l p a r e n t was l i n k e d t o h e r u n h a p p i n e s s i n h e r s o c i a l s p h e r e and h e r f e e l i n g s o f a l i e n a t i o n and c o n f u s i o n . However i t i s i m p o s s i b l e t o d e t e r m i n e c a u s e and e f f e c t , more r e s e a r c h i s w a r r a n t e d h e r e t o d e t e r m i n e i f a f e e l i n g o f a l o n e n e s s and a l i e n a t i o n t r i g g e r s t h e i n t e r e s t i n s e a r c h i n g , o r t h e c o n c e r n o v e r a d o p t i o n t r i g g e r s t h e p e e r r e l a t i o n s h i p p r o b l e m s . 130 P a r e n t s ' p e r c e p t i o n s o f c h i l d r e n s ' p e e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s . When t h e p a r e n t s were a s k e d t o d e s c r i b e any p r o b l e m s t h e i r c h i l d r e n had e x p e r i e n c e d t h r o u g h t h e y e a r s , t h e y r e p o r t e d m i n o r s c h o o l b e h a v i o r p r o b l e m s , g e n e r a l b e h a v i o r p r o b l e m s , some i n s e c u r i t y , a n x i e t y , a l l r e l a t i v e l y n o r m a l d e v e l o p m e n t a l p r o b l e m s . B u t a l m o s t h a l f t h e p a r e n t s ( 4 6 % ) a l s o p e r c e i v e d t h a t t h e i r c h i l d r e n had e x p e r i e n c e d f a i r t o s e r i o u s p e e r p r o b l e m s . However, t h e s e p a r e n t s d i d n o t r e l a t e t h e i r c h i l d ' s p e e r p r o b l e m s t o t h e a d o p t i v e s t a t u s : M o t h e r : She has a s o c i a l p r o b l e m , s h e l i k e s t o be t h e c e n t r e o f a t t e n t i o n and s h e s a y s t h i n g s t o h e r f r i e n d s t h a t g e t s h e r i n t o t r o u b l e w i t h t h e m . She i s n ' t v e r y p o p u l a r w i t h them. M o t h e r : S h e ' s had some p e e r p r o b l e m s , i n g r a d e 7 s h e d i d n ' t f e e l l i k e s h e f i t i n and s h e d i d n ' t w a n t t o go b a c k t o s c h o o l . P a r t o f h e r p r o b l e m i s b e c a u s e s h e ' s n o t n i c e and i f y o u a r e n ' t n i c e t o t h e k i d s t h e y won't l i k e y o u . M o t h e r : She i s n o t a b l e t o h a n d l e p e e r s v e r y w e l l . V e r y e a r l y i n l i f e s h e s t a r t e d t o c o m p l a i n a b o u t p e o p l e b u g g i n g h e r and s h e ' d come home f r o m s c h o o l u p s e t . She u s e d t o t e l l me a b o u t t h e f i g h t s w i t h k i d s a t s c h o o l and what t h e y w o u l d do t o h e r . She u s e d t o t r e a t t h e a d o p t i o n w i t h h e r f r i e n d s as s o m e t h i n g s p e c i a l , t h a t s h e was a l i t t l e b i t b e t t e r t h a n t h e y w e r e , b u t as s h e h a s g o t t e n o l d e r t h e a d o p t i o n h a s g o t t e n i n c r e a s i n g l y more d i f f i c u l t f o r h e r . I t h i n k t h o u g h s h e w o u l d h a v e had a l l t h e s e p e e r p r o b l e m s anyway. M o t h e r : She s a y s t h a t t h e k i d s a t s c h o o l a l w a y s .gave h e r a h a r d t i m e , s h e s a y s t h e y were c r u e l t o h e r . I ' m s u r e h e r p e e r p r o b l e m made h e r h a t e s c h o o l , i t w a s n ' t u n t i l h e r l a t t e r y e a r s a t s c h o o l t h a t s h e seemed t o g e t any r e s p e c t f r o m t h e k i d s . The p a r e n t s ' p e r c e p t i o n s r e g a r d i n g t h e i r c h i l d ' s p e e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s m a t c h e d t h e p e r c e p t i o n o f t h e i r c h i l d r e n . T h o s e a d o p t e e s who f e l t t h a t t h e y had some p e e r r e l a t i o n s h i p d i f f i c u l t i e s a l s o had p a r e n t s t h a t c o n f i r m e d t h e i r p e r c e p t i o n s . 131 Q u a l i t a t i v e D a t a A n a l y s i s Summary F a m i l y C o m m u n i c a t i o n A. Two c l e a r p a t t e r n s were d i s c o v e r e d i n t h e a d o p t e e s ' r e c o l l e c t i o n s o f t h e r e v e l a t i o n e x p e r i e n c e . A t a g e s 3 t o 4 t h e f i r s t c l e a r memory o f b e i n g e x p o s e d t o a d o p t i o n was d e s c r i b e d , and a g a i n a t a g e s 7 t o 9 t h e r e i s a p e r i o d o f i n t e n s e q u e s t i o n i n g and c u r i o s i t y . B. B o t h p a r e n t s and a d o l e s c e n t s a g r e e d t h a t t h e r e was no s p e c i f i c t i m e when t h e r e v e l a t i o n o f a d o p t i o n was remembered. T h e r e v e l a t i o n o c c u r r e d i n a n a t u r a l manner i n a l l t h e f a m i l i e s and t h e p a r e n t s h a d no r e c o l l e c t i o n t h a t i t u p s e t t h e i r c h i l d r e n . C. P a r e n t a l a n x i e t y o c c u r r e d d u r i n g t h e q u e s t i o n i n g p e r i o d o f a g e s 7-9. F i f t y - f o u r p e r c e n t o f t h e a d o p t i v e m o t h e r s m e n t i o n e d f e e l i n g a n x i o u s , u n c e r t a i n , i n a d e q u a t e and t h r e a t e n e d by t h e i r c h i l d ' s q u e s t i o n s . D. One h u n d r e d p e r c e n t o f t h e a d o l e s c e n t s p r e s e n t e d a f a i r l y r e l a x e d f a m i l y c o m m u n i c a t i o n p a t t e r n r e g a r d i n g g e n e r a l a d o p t i o n t o p i c s . E i g h t y -s i x p e r c e n t o f t h e a d o l e s c e n t s i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e y i n i t i a t e d d i s c u s s i o n s a b o u t a d o p t i o n i n t h e home. E. One h u n d r e d p e r c e n t o f t h e p a r e n t s a g r e e d w i t h t h e a d o l e s c e n t s t h a t a d o p t i o n was an o p e n t o p i c a t home, b u t 8 4 % o f t h e p a r e n t s t h o u g h t t h a t t h e y were t h e o n e s t h a t i n i t i a t e d t h e d i s c u s s i o n s a b o u t a d o p t i o n i n t h e home. P a r e n t - c h i l d d i s c r e p a n c i e s w e r e n o t e d r e g a r d i n g t h e i r p e r c e p t i o n s o f who g e n e r a l l y i n i t i a t e d t h e f a m i l y d i s c u s s i o n s r e g a r d i n g a d o p t i o n . F. A d o l e s c e n t s had more d i f f i c u l t y d i s c u s s i n g p e r s o n a l i s s u e s r e g a r d i n g a d o p t i o n w i t h t h e p a r e n t s . E i g h t y p e r c e n t o f t h e a d o l e s c e n t s were w o r r i e d a b o u t u p s e t t i n g t h e i r p a r e n t s w i t h q u e s t i o n s a b o u t t h e i r b a c k g r o u n d s . 132 However, t h e a d o p t i v e p a r e n t s p e r c e i v e d t h a t t h e y were open t o d i s c u s s i n g t h e s e i s s u e s , so d i s c r e p a n t p e r c e p t i o n s were n o t e d b e t w e e n p a r e n t and c h i l d r e g a r d i n g t h e c o m m u n i c a t i o n a b o u t t h e a d o p t e e ' s b a c k g r o u n d . G. V e r y l i m i t e d s i b l i n g c o m m u n i c a t i o n was n o t e d b e t w e e n a d o p t e d s i b l i n g s , and b e t w e e n n o n - a d o p t e d and a d o p t e d s i b l i n g s . F a m i l y R e l a t i o n s h i p s A. The a d o l e s c e n t s g e n e r a l l y d e s c r i b e d f a i r l y , c l o s e , warm r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h t h e i r m o t h e r s . S e v e n t y - t h r e e p e r c e n t o f t h e a d o p t e e s f e l t c l o s e t o t h e i r m o t h e r s , and a l s o b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e y were s i m i l a r i n some r e s p e c t s t o t h e i r m o t h e r s . T w e n t y - s e v e n p e r c e n t o f t h e a d o p t e e s d i d n o t p e r c e i v e t h a t t h e y h a d c l o s e r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h t h e i r m o t h e r s , and a l s o d i d n o t b e l i e v e t h a t t h e y were s i m i l a r t o t h e i r m o t h e r s . B. N i n e t y - t h r e e p e r c e n t o f t h e a d o p t i v e m o t h e r s p e r c e i v e d t h a t t h e y had f a i r l y c l o s e , warm r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h t h e i r c h i l d r e n , h o w e v e r , o n l y 3 1 % o f t h e s e m o t h e r s p e r c e i v e d any s i m i l a r i t i e s w i t h t h e i r c h i l d r e n . S i x t y - t w o p e r c e n t o f t h e m o t h e r s who s a i d t h e y had g o o d r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h t h e i r c h i l d r e n d i d n o t p e r c e i v e any s i m i l a r i t i e s b e t w e e n m o t h e r and c h i l d . T h e s e r e s u l t s s u g g e s t t h a t a d o p t e e s who had g o o d r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h t h e i r m o t h e r s a l s o had a t e n d e n c y t o i d e n t i f y w i t h them t o some d e g r e e , w h i l e m o t h e r s who p e r c e i v e d g o o d m o t h e r - c h i l d r e l a t i o n s h i p s d i d n o t h a v e a t e n d e n c y t o i d e n t i f y w i t h t h e i r c h i l d r e n . C. S i x t y p e r c e n t o f t h e a d o p t e e s p e r c e i v e d t h a t t h e y had \" o k a y \" r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h t h e i r a d o p t i v e f a t h e r s , w h i l e 4 0 % o f them i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e y p e r c e i v e d p o o r r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h t h e i r f a t h e r s . S e v e n t y - s e v e n p e r c e n t o f t h e a d o p t e e s p e r c e i v e d t h a t t h e y were d i f f e r e n t i n t e m p e r a m e n t 133 and m a n n e r i s m t o t h e i r f a t h e r s , s u g g e s t i n g l i m i t e d i d e n t i f i c a t i o n . The f a t h e r s had c o n g r u e n t p e r c e p t i o n s r e g a r d i n g t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h t h e i r c h i l d r e n . S e v e n t y - s e v e n p e r c e n t o f t h e f a t h e r s p e r c e i v e d no s i m i l a r i t i e s b e t w e e n p a r e n t and c h i l d , and t h o s e f a t h e r s who p e r c e i v e d p o o r r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h t h e i r c h i l d r e n a l s o had c h i l d r e n who p e r c e i v e d p o o r r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h t h e m . D. One h u n d r e d p e r c e n t o f t h e p a r e n t s i n o n l y a d o p t i v e f a m i l i e s d i d n o t p e r c e i v e t h a t any s i b l i n g p r o b l e m s e x i s t e d . S i x t y p e r c e n t o f t h e p a r e n t s o f m i x e d f a m i l i e s d i d n o t p e r c e i v e t h a t any s i b l i n g p r o b l e m s e x i s t e d . F o r t y p e r c e n t o f t h e p a r e n t s o f m i x e d f a m i l i e s d i d p e r c e i v e s i b l i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p p r o b l e m s , and most f r e q u e n t l y c i t e d t h e p r o b l e m o f p e r c e i v e d s i b l i n g f a v o r i t i s m on t h e p a r t o f t h e a d o p t e e . The a d o p t e e s i n t h e s e f a m i l i e s d i d p e r c e i v e t h a t t h e n o n - a d o p t e d s i b l i n g s r e c e i v e d p r e f e r e n t i a l t r e a t m e n t , s o t h e p a r e n t s and c h i l d r e n i n t h e s e f a m i l i e s d i d h a v e c o n g r u e n t p e r c e p t i o n s . E. S i x t y p e r c e n t o f t h e a d o p t e d c h i l d r e n i n t h e m i x e d f a m i l i e s d i d n o t p e r c e i v e any m a j o r s i b l i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p p r o b l e m s , b u t t h e y d i d m e n t i o n t h a t t h e y f e l t d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h e i r n o n - a d o p t e d s i b l i n g s . F. A l l o f t h e a d o p t e e s f r o m o n l y a d o p t i v e f a m i l i e s f e l t t h a t t h e y b e l o n g e d i n t h e i r f a m i l i e s . S i x t y - s e v e n p e r c e n t o f t h e a d o p t e e s f r o m t h e m i x e d f a m i l i e s had d i f f i c u l t i e s i n d e v e l o p i n g a s t r o n g s e n s e o f b e l o n g i n g i n t h e home. G. S i x t y p e r c e n t o f t h e p a r e n t s i n t h e s a m p l e had f a m i l y members who e x p r e s s e d o p p o s i t i o n t o w a r d a d o p t i o n . H a l f o f t h e s e p a r e n t s a l r e a d y had b i o l o g i c a l c h i l d r e n and t h e o t h e r h a l f were a d o p t i n g f o r t h e f i r s t 134 t i m e . F o r t y p e r c e n t o f t h e p a r e n t s i n t h e s t u d y had e x t e n d e d f a m i l y members who h e l d p o s i t i v e v i e w s t o w a r d t h e i r d e c i s i o n t o a d o p t . P a r e n t s ' A d o p t i o n E x p e r i e n c e A. A l l o f t h e m o t h e r s o f o n l y a d o p t e d c h i l d r e n d i d n o t p e r c e i v e any m a j o r p r o b l e m s d u r i n g t h e e a r l y p e r i o d o f a d o p t i v e p a r e n t h o o d . S i x t y -t h r e e p e r c e n t o f t h e m o t h e r s who a l r e a d y had b i o l o g i c a l c h i l d r e n e x p e r i e n c e d f e e l i n g s o f g u i l t , a n x i e t y and a m b i v a l e n c e d u r i n g t h e e a r l y p e r i o d o f a d o p t i v e p a r e n t h o o d . B. None o f t h e f a t h e r s i n t h e s t u d y p e r c e i v e d any p r o b l e m s d u r i n g t h i s p e r i o d . E i g h t y - e i g h t p e r c e n t o f them d i d n o t p e r c e i v e t h a t t h e r e w e r e any d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n a d o p t i n g and h a v i n g c h i l d r e n b i o l o g i c a l l y . The theme o f d e t a c h m e n t was u s e d t o d e s c r i b e t h e a d o p t i v e f a t h e r ' s r o l e d u r i n g t h e e a r l y p e r i o d o f a d o p t i o n . C. T h i r t y - n i n e p e r c e n t o f t h e a d o p t i v e p a r e n t s i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e y w e r e n e v e r r e a l l y aware o f t h e f a c t t h a t t h e y w e r e a d o p t i v e p a r e n t s , w h i l e 6 2 % o f t h e a d o p t i v e p a r e n t s w e r e . T h e s e p a r e n t s were most k e e n l y aware o f t h e i r r o l e s as a d o p t i v e p a r e n t s when somebody m e n t i o n e d t h e c h i l d ' s r e s e m b l a n c e o r n o n - r e s e m b l a n c e t o them. The theme o f a s e n s e o f d i f f e r e n c e was u s e d t o d e s c r i b e t h i s e x p e r i e n c e . D. S i x t y p e r c e n t o f t h e o n l y a d o p t i v e p a r e n t s r e j e c t e d t h e d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n n a t u r a l and a d o p t i v e p a r e n t h o o d . F o r t y p e r c e n t o f t h e o n l y a d o p t i v e p a r e n t s a c k n o w l e d g e d t h e d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n t h e two t y p e s o f p a r e n t i n g e x p e r i e n c e s by c i t i n g t h e f a c t t h a t o n l y a d o p t i v e p a r e n t s l a c k t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o s e e t h e i r g e n e s i n t h e i r c h i l d . E. No d i s c e r n i b l e p a t t e r n c o u l d be d e t e r m i n e d f o r p a r e n t s o f m i x e d 135 f a m i l i e s r e g a r d i n g t h e i r p e r c e p t i o n s on t h e s i m i l a r i t i e s o r d i f f e r e n c e s i n a d o p t i n g v s h a v i n g y o u r own c h i l d r e n . T h e s e p a r e n t s made a number o f c o n t r a d i c t o r y s t a t e m e n t s r e g a r d i n g t h e d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e two t y p e s o f p a r e n t i n g and i t i s p o s s i b l e t h a t t h e y m i s u n d e r s t o o d t h e q u e s t i o n . F. The theme H e r e d i t y v s E n v i r o n m e n t was- u s e d t o d e s c r i b e t h e t e n d e n c y o f 8 0 % o f t h e a d o p t i v e p a r e n t s t o l o o k t o h e r e d i t y t o e x p l a i n b e h a v i o r o r t a l e n t s i n t h e i r a d o p t e d c h i l d r e n t h a t a p p e a r t o be o u t o f s y n c w i t h t h e r e s t o f t h e f a m i l y . T wenty p e r c e n t o f t h e p a r e n t s w i t h p r o b l e m c h i l d r e n a l s o l o o k e d a t h e r e d i t y t o t r y t o make s e n s e o f t h e i r c h i l d ' s b e h a v i o r . G. S i x t y - n i n e p e r c e n t o f t h e a d o p t i v e p a r e n t s d i d n o t p e r c e i v e t h a t any o f t h e i r c h i l d r e n ' s p r o b l e m s were due t o b e i n g a d o p t e d . T h i r t y - o n e p e r c e n t o f t h e a d o p t i v e p a r e n t s d i d p e r c e i v e t h a t t h e y h ad f a c e d , o r were f a c i n g p r o b l e m s w i t h t h e i r c h i l d r e n t h a t were due t o t h e i r a d o p t i v e s t a t u s . The B i o l o g i c a l P a r e n t s A. T h i r t y - t h r e e p e r c e n t o f t h e a d o p t e e s remembered a g e s 8 t o S as b e i n g p e r i o d s o f i n t e n s e c u r i o s i t y a b o u t t h e i r b i o l o g i c a l p a r e n t s , w h i l e 6 7 % remembered t h e a g e s 12 t o 13 as b e i n g t h e p e r i o d when t h e r e a l q u e s t i o n i n g b e g a n . B. The t h e m e s o f a m b i v a l e n c e and f e a r o f r e j e c t i o n a p p e a r r e p e a t e d l y i n t h e a d o p t e e s ' d i s c u s s i o n s o f t h e b i o l o g i c a l p a r e n t s . C. The theme o f g e n e a l o g i c a l b e w i l d e r m e n t was u s e d t o d e s c r i b e t h e a d o p t e e s ' i n t e r e s t and c u r i o s i t y i n t h e i r b a c k g r o u n d s . T h i s theme i n c l u d e d a p h y s i c a l i d e n t i t y c o m p o n e n t i n t h a t 8 6 % o f t h e a d o p t e e s m e n t i o n e d t h a t t h e y had an i n t e r e s t i n t h e b i o l o g i c a l p a r e n t s ' p h y s i c a l 136 a p p e a r a n c e . D. E i g h t y p e r c e n t o f t h e a d o l e s c e n t s were n o t s a t i s f i e d w i t h t h e i n f o r m a t i o n t h e y had on t h e b i o l o g i c a l p a r e n t s , h o w e v e r , 8 0 % o f t h e s e p a r e n t s d i d p e r c e i v e t h a t t h e i r c h i l d r e n w o u l d l i k e more i n f o r m a t i o n , b u t 2 0 % o f t h e p a r e n t s who had c h i l d r e n t h a t w a n t e d more i n f o r m a t i o n d i d n o t b e l i e v e t h e i r c h i l d r e n were i n t e r e s t e d i n r e c e i v i n g more i n f o r m a t i o n . P a r e n t - c h i l d d i s c r e p a n c i e s were a p p a r e n t h e r e i n t h e f a m i l y c o m m u n i c a t i o n on t h i s t o p i c . E . E i g h t y - s e v e n p e r c e n t o f t h e a d o p t e e s i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e y w o u l d l i k e t o s e a r c h f o r b i o l o g i c a l r e l a t i v e s a t some t i m e i n t h e i r l i v e s . The t h e m e s o f a m b i v a l e n c e , a p p r e h e n s i o n and r e j e c t i o n w ere n o t e d i n t h e i r r e s p o n s e s . F. A l l o f t h e a d o p t i v e p a r e n t s i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e y w o u l d s u p p o r t t h e i r c h i l d ' s s e a r c h , p r o v i d i n g t h e c h i l d was a t l e a s t 18 y e a r s o f a g e . P a r e n t -c h i l d d i s c r e p a n c i e s w e r e n o t e d b e t w e e n t h e p a r e n t s e x p r e s s e d w i l l i n g n e s s t o s u p p o r t t h e a d o p t e e , and t h e a d o p t e e s ' w i l l i n g n e s s t o e n l i s t t h e p a r e n t s s u p p o r t . S i x t y - s i x p e r c e n t o f t h e a d o p t e e s v i e w e d s e a r c h i n g a s a p e r s o n a l i s s u e t h a t d i d n o t w a r r a n t p a r e n t a l i n v o l v e m e n t , d e s p i t e t h e v e r b a l s u p p o r t o f t h e p a r e n t s . T wenty p e r c e n t o f t h e a d o p t e e s w e r e n o t aware t h a t t h e i r p a r e n t s w e r e w i l l i n g t o h e l p them i n s u c h a t a s k , i n d i c a t i n g t h a t f a m i l y c o m m u n i c a t i o n on t h i s i s s u e had n o t t a k e n p l a c e i n t h e s e f a m i l i e s . G. N i n e t y - t h r e e p e r c e n t o f t h e m a l e and f e m a l e a d o p t e e s i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e y n e v e r t h o u g h t a b o u t t h e b i r t h f a t h e r . F o r t y - s e v e n p e r c e n t o f t h e a d o p t e e s d e s c r i b e d f e e l i n g s o f p r i d e when t a l k i n g a b o u t t h e b i o l o g i c a l m o t h e r , 3 3 % d e s c r i b e d f e e l i n g s o f r e j e c t i o n , and 2 0 % d e s c r i b e d f e e l i n g s 137 o f i n d i f f e r e n c e when t a l k i n g a b o u t t h e b i o l o g i c a l m o t h e r . T h o s e a d o p t e e s who f e l t i n d i f f e r e n t t o w a r d s t h e b i o l o g i c a l m o t h e r were a l s o d i s i n t e r e s t e d i n s e a r c h i n g f o r h e r , and a d o l e s c e n t s who had p o s i t i v e v i e w s o f t h e b i o l o g i c a l m o t h e r a l s o had p a r e n t s who h e l d p o s i t i v e v i e w s t o w a r d s t h e b i o l o g i c a l m o t h e r . H. A l l o f t h e a d o p t i v e f a t h e r s e x p r e s s e d no s i g n i f i c a n t f e e l i n g s t o w a r d s t h e b i o l o g i c a l f a t h e r . E i g h t y - f i v e p e r c e n t o f t h e a d o p t i v e m o t h e r s t h o u g h t a b o u t t h e b i o l o g i c a l m o t h e r on t h e i r c h i l d ' s b i r t h d a y and s p e c i a l o c c a s i o n s , w h i l e 15% o f t h e a d o p t i v e m o t h e r s t h o u g h t o f t h e b i o l o g i c a l m o t h e r when t h e y v i e w e d a p a r t i c u l a r t r a i t i n t h e i r a d o p t e d c h i l d t h a t seemed d i f f e r e n t t o t h e m . None o f t h e a d o p t i v e m o t h e r s had any s i g n i f i c a n t f e e l i n g s t o w a r d t h e b i o l o g i c a l f a t h e r s . The A d o l e s c e n t s ' A d o p t i o n E x p e r i e n c e A. S i x t y - s e v e n p e r c e n t o f t h e a d o l e s c e n t s v i e w e d t h e i r a d o p t i v e s t a t u s as a f a c t o f l i f e , w h i l e 3 3 % o f them s p e c u l a t e d on how a d i f f e r e n t o u t c o m e w o u l d h a v e c h a n g e d t h e i r l i v e s . B. F o r 5 3 % o f t h e a d o l e s c e n t s , , f a m i l y g e t t o g e t h e r s r e m i n d e d them t h a t t h e y were a d o p t e d , w h i l e f o r 4 7 % o f them r e m a r k s a b o u t t h e i r s i m i l a r i t y o r d i f f e r e n c e i n a p p e a r a n c e t o t h e i r f a m i l i e s r e m i n d e d them o f t h e i r a d o p t i v e s t a t u s . S i x t y - t w o p e r c e n t o f t h e a d o p t i v e p a r e n t s a l s o r e p o r t e d t h a t t h i s f a c t o r r e m i n d e d them o f t h e i r a d o p t i v e r o l e . C. E i g h t y p e r c e n t o f t h e a d o l e s c e n t s m e n t i o n e d t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t a p e r s o n on t h e s t r e e t m i g h t be t h e i r m o t h e r o r f a t h e r , t h i s theme was l a b e l e d i s t h e r e a p a r e n t i n t h e c r o w d ? D. S i x t y p e r c e n t o f t h e a d o l e s c e n t s d i d n o t p e r c e i v e t h a t t h e i r a d o p t i v e s t a t u s had c a u s e d them any p r o b l e m s . T h i r t e e n p e r c e n t b e l i e v e d 138 t h a t t h e y had u s e d a d o p t i o n a g a i n s t t h e i r p a r e n t s , and 2 6 % o f t h e a d o l e s c e n t s d i d b e l i e v e t h a t b e i n g a d o p t e d had b e e n a p r o b l e m f o r t h e m . C o n g r u e n t p a r e n t - c h i l d p e r c e p t i o n s were o b t a i n e d on t h i s i s s u e . T h o s e a d o p t e e s who t h o u g h t t h a t a d o p t i o n had b e e n a p r o b l e m f o r them a l s o had p a r e n t s who t h o u g h t t h a t t h e i r c h i l d ' s a d o p t i v e s t a t u s had b e e n a s o u r c e o f d i f f i c u l t y f o r t h e m . E. The a d o l e s c e n t s ' a d v i c e t o o t h e r a d o p t e d c h i l d r e n was d e s c r i b e d w i t h f o u r t h e m e s , f e e l i n g d i f f e r e n t , s e n s e o f b e l o n g i n g , g r a t i t u d e , and s e a r c h i n g . The a d o p t e e s ' a d v i c e t o o t h e r a d o p t i v e p a r e n t s was d e s c r i b e d u s i n g t h r e e t h e m e s f e e l i n g d i f f e r e n t , s e a r c h i n g , and e a r l y r e v e l a t i o n . F. F o r t y p e r c e n t o f t h e a d o l e s c e n t s m e n t i o n e d t h a t t h e y had had p r o b l e m s o f n o t f i t t i n g i n w i t h t h e i r p e e r s , h o w e v e r 8 3 % o f t h e a d o l e s c e n t s d i d n o t a t t r i b u t e t h i s p r o b l e m t o t h e i r a d o p t i v e s t a t u s . F o r t y - s i x p e r c e n t o f t h e a d o p t i v e p a r e n t s p e r c e i v e d p e e r p r o b l e m s i n t h e i r c h i l d r e n ' s s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s . P a r e n t - c h i l d p e r c e p t i o n s were c o n g r u e n t on t h i s i s s u e as w e l l , as t h o s e p a r e n t s who p e r c e i v e d p e e r p r o b l e m s i n t h e i r c h i l d r e n , a l s o had c h i l d r e n who p e r c e i v e d t h a t t h e y had p e e r p r o b l e m s . CHAPTER V C o n c l u s i o n s and R e c o m m e n d a t i o n s In t h i s c h a p t e r c o n c l u s i o n s t h a t c a n be drawn on t h e b a s i s o f t h e d a t a a r e d i s c u s s e d , a r e a s t h a t c o u l d be f o l l o w e d up w i t h f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h a r e o u t l i n e d , and . s u g g e s t i o n s a nd r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s a r e o f f e r e d t o c o u n s e l l o r s who m i g h t work w i t h a d o p t i v e f a m i l i e s . C o n c l u s i o n s In c o n d u c t i n g t h i s t y p e o f d e s c r i p t i v e r e s e a r c h , t h e r e s e a r c h e r must e x t r a c t t h e r e l e v a n t c o n t e n t u n i t s f o r e x a m i n a t i o n . However, when r e v i e w i n g t h e s t u d y ' s o v e r a l l f i n d i n g s i t i s i m p o r t a n t t o b e a r i n m i n d t h a t t h e r e a r e i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s amongst a l l t h e f a c t o r s s t u d i e d , and t h a t t h e i r i n f l u e n c e on one a n o t h e r c a n n o t be w h o l l y i s o l a t e d due t o t h e c o m p l e x r e l a t i o n s h i p s t h a t e x i s t and t h e p a r t i c u l a r m e t h o d o l o g y o f s t u d y . The g e n e r a l t r e n d s and t e n d e n c i e s t h a t e m e r g e d i n t h i s d e s c r i p t i v e r e s e a r c h a r e d i s c u s s e d i n t h e h o p e s t h a t a f u r t h e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e a d o p t i o n e x p e r i e n c e w i l l be g a i n e d . F a m i l y c o m m u n i c a t i o n . A l o n g - s t a n d i n g a s s u m p t i o n i n t h e f i e l d o f a d o p t i o n has bee n t h a t t h e r e v e l a t i o n , o r t e l l i n g t h e c h i l d a b o u t a d o p t i o n i s one o f t h e c e n t r a l and c r i t i c a l t a s k s f a c i n g a d o p t i v e p a r e n t s ( J a f f e e & F a n s h e l , 1 9 7 0 ) . The t e l l i n g o f t h e f a c t s o f a d o p t i o n has bee n l i n k e d t o t h e l a t e r l i f e a d j u s t m e n t o f t h e a d o p t e e ( J a f f e e & F a n s h e l , 1 9 7 0 ) . However, i n t h e p r e s e n t s t u d y t h e i n i t i a l r e v e l a t i o n e x p e r i e n c e was u n c o m p l i c a t e d and u n t r a u m a t i c f o r a l l t h e a d o p t i v e f a m i l i e s i n t e r v i e w e d . The e a s e w i t h w h i c h t h e i n i t i a l r e v e l a t i o n t o o k p l a c e d o e s n o t t r u l y r e f l e c t t h e a d o p t e e s ' l a c k o f c o n c e r n o r i n t e r e s t w i t h t h e i s s u e b e c a u s e 139 140 m ost o f t h e a d o l e s c e n t s d i d n ' t c o g n i t i v e l y g r a s p t h e c o n c e p t o f a d o p t i o n u n t i l a r o u n d t h e a g e s o f 7-9. M o s t a d o p t i o n w o r k e r s recommend t e l l i n g c h i l d r e n t h a t t h e y a r e a d o p t e d b e f o r e t h e age o f f i v e ( B r o d z i n s k y e t a l , 1 9 8 1 ) . B u t i t a p p e a r s f r o m t h e r e s u l t s o f B r o d z i n s k y e t a l ' s ( 1 9 8 1 ) r e s e a r c h and t h e p r e s e n t r e s e a r c h , t h a t p r e - s c h o o l age c h i l d r e n a r e n o t r e a l l y c a p a b l e o f c o m p r e h e n d i n g t h e m e a n i n g o f t h e i r a d o p t i v e s t a t u s . I f p a r e n t s f a l s e l y assume t h a t t h e i r a d o p t e d c h i l d r e n u n d e r s t a n d a d o p t i o n a f t e r t h e i n i t i a l r e v e l a t i o n , t h e y may p r e m a t u r e l y t e r m i n a t e t h e d i s c l o s u r e p r o c e s s ( B r o d z i n s k y e t a l , 1 9 8 1 ) . In f a c t , t h e t e r m s \" t e l l i n g \" and \" r e v e l a t i o n \" i m p l y a o n e - s h o t i n c i d e n t , r a t h e r t h a n an o n g o i n g p r o c e s s t h a t s h o u l d become i n c r e a s i n g l y s o p h i s t i c a t e d as t h e c h i l d m a t u r e s . When t h e c h i l d r e n i n t h i s s t u d y d i d s t a r t a s k i n g p e r t i n e n t q u e s t i o n s , many o f t h e a d o p t i v e m o t h e r s e x p e r i e n c e d f e e l i n g s o f a n x i e t y and c o n f u s i o n . T h e y w e r e u n p r e p a r e d f o r t h e i r c h i l d ' s r e p e t i t i v e , p r o b i n g q u e s t i o n s . T h e i r a n x i e t y was compounded when t h e y b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e y h a d a l r e a d y e x p l a i n e d t h e f a c t s o f a d o p t i o n t o t h e c h i l d . G i v e n t h e c h i l d r e n s ' c o g n i t i v e a b i l i t y , t h e r e p e t i t i v e n a t u r e o f t h e q u e s t i o n i n g seems t o be t h e i r way o f s o r t i n g o u t t h e i n f o r m a t i o n r e c e i v e d and a s s i m i l a t i n g i t i n t o t h e i r c o g n i t i v e s chema. ( T h e c h i l d r e n a r e n o t t r y i n g t o c h a l l e n g e t h e i r p a r e n t s as some o f t h e m o t h e r s i n t h e s t u d y t h o u g h t ) . T h i s i s an a r e a where a d o p t i v e p a r e n t s , p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e m o t h e r s , c o u l d b e n e f i t f r o m p a r e n t a l e d u c a t i o n t o h e l p p r e p a r e them f o r t h i s s t a g e i n t h e i r a d o p t e d c h i l d ' s l i f e . J a f f e e & F a n s h e l ( 1 9 7 0 ) r e p o r t s t h a t t h e f r e q u e n c y o f d i s c u s s i o n i n t h e a d o p t i v e home r e g a r d i n g a d o p t i o n has i m p o r t a n t i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r t h e a d o p t e e s ' image o f t h e m s e l v e s , t h e i r s e n s e o f b e l o n g i n g , and t h e i r f e e l i n g s a b o u t t h e a d o p t i v e p a r e n t s . C o n t i n u a l r e f e r e n c e t o t h e c h i l d ' s a d o p t i v e 141 s t a t u s o r t o t a l a v o i d a n c e o f t h i s f a c t c a n s i g n a l t h e p r e s e n c e o f u n r e s o l v e d c o n f l i c t s i n t h e f a m i l y r e g a r d i n g a d o p t i o n . In t h e p r e s e n t s t u d y i t was n o t t h e f r e q u e n c y o f d i s c u s s i o n t h a t e m e r g ed as i m p o r t a n t , b u t r a t h e r t h e c o n t e n t and q u a l i t y o f t h e c o m m u n i c a t i o n . The a d o p t i v e f a m i l i e s p r e s e n t e d a v i e w t h a t c o m m u n i c a t i o n t o o k p l a c e i n a r e l a x e d , o p e n manner, and t h a t w h e n e v e r a n y o n e w a n t e d t o t a l k a b o u t i t , i t was a c c e p t e d . However, t h e d e g r e e o f c o m f o r t and o p e n n e s s t e n d e d t o r e l y on t h e c o n t e n t o f t h e d i s c u s s i o n s . Many o f t h e a d o l e s c e n t s , a l t h o u g h t h e y may h a v e f e l t c o m p e l l e d t o a s k q u e s t i o n s , d i d n o t f e e l c o m f o r t a b l e w i t h d i s c u s s i o n r e g a r d i n g t h e b i o l o g i c a l p a r e n t s o r t h e i r c u r i o s i t y . Many o f t h e a d o l e s c e n t s i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e y d i d n o t want t o h u r t o r u p s e t t h e i r p a r e n t s , w h i l e many o f t h e p a r e n t s were c a u t i o u s a b o u t what t h e y s a i d f o r f e a r o f m a k i n g t h e c h i l d f e e l r e j e c t e d , o r s t i r r i n g up s o m e t h i n g t h e y c o u l d n ' t h a n d l e . The f i n d i n g t h a t p a r e n t and a d o p t e e had d i s c r e p a n t p e r c e p t i o n s r e g a r d i n g t h e i r b e l i e f s a b o u t who u s u a l l y i n i t i a t e d t h e d i s c u s s i o n s i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e i n d i v i d u a l m e s s a g e s a r e n o t b e i n g g i v e n o r r e c e i v e d i n a v e r y c l e a r manner, a t l e a s t r e g a r d i n g t h e more i m p o r t a n t a d o p t i o n i s s u e s . A p o s s i b l e e x p l a n a t i o n f o r some o f t h e a d o p t i v e f a m i l i e s ' c o m m u n i c a t i o n d i f f i c u l t i e s l i e s i n what V i r g i n i a S a t i r ( 1 9 7 2 ) r e f e r s t o as d o u b l e -l e v e l c o m m u n i c a t i o n . D o u b l e - l e v e l r e s p o n s e s a p p e a r i n v a r i o u s f o r m s , b u t f r e q u e n t l y t h e w ords do n o t m a t c h t h e i n n e r f e e l i n g s , o r a c o m b i n a t i o n o f w ords a r e i n c o n g r u e n t w i t h t h e c o n t e x t . A d o p t i v e f a m i l i e s may be more v u l n e r a b l e t o t h i s t y p e o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n p a t t e n , b e c a u s e o f t h e c i r c u m s t a n c e s o f a d o p t i v e f a m i l y r e l a t i o n s . The p a r e n t s a r e t o l d t o c o m m u n i c a t e t h e f a c t s o f a d o p t i o n t o t h e i r c h i l d r e g a r d l e s s o f t h e i r p e r s o n a l f e e l i n g s , 142 w h i l e a d o p t e e s f e e l c u r i o u s a b o u t t h e i r b a c k g r o u n d s and a s k q u e s t i o n s , b u t f r e q u e n t l y f e e l g u i l t y and a p p r e h e n s i v e a b o u t d o i n g i t . T h e s e k i n d s o f s i t u a t i o n s w o u l d e a s i l y l e n d t h e m s e l v e s t o i n c o n g r u e n t c o m m u n i c a t i o n s . E x a m p l e s o f i n c o n g r u e n t o r a m b i v a l e n t m e s s a g e s were n o t e d i n some o f t h e p a r e n t - c h i l d r e s p o n s e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y when t h e b i o l o g i c a l p a r e n t s w ere d i s c u s s e d . W h i l e b o t h t h e p a r e n t s and t h e c h i l d r e n t y p i c a l l y r e p o r t e d t h a t t h e y w o u l d l i k e more i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e b i o l o g i c a l p a r e n t s , 2 0 % o f t h e a d o p t i v e p a r e n t s who had c u r i o u s c h i l d r e n d i d n o t p e r c e i v e t h a t t h e i r c h i l d r e n w ere c u r i o u s . T h i s p a r e n t - c h i l d d i s c r e p a n c y s u g g e s t s t h a t i n some a d o p t i v e f a m i l i e s t h e a d o p t i v e p a r e n t s a r e e i t h e r u n a w a r e , o r r e l u c t a n t t o a c k n o w l e d g e t h e a d o l e s c e n t s ' n e e d f o r i n f o r m a t i o n c o n c e r n i n g t h e i r o r i g i n s , o r t h e a d o l e s c e n t s a r e u n a b l e o r u n w i l l i n g t o e x p r e s s t h e i r f e e l i n g s t o t h e i r p a r e n t s . A l t h o u g h many o f t h e a d o l e s c e n t s p e r c e i v e d t h a t t h e y c o u l d t a l k t o t h e i r p a r e n t s a b o u t t h e i r i d e n t i t y c o n c e r n s , t h e y were h e s i t a n t t o do s o . Much o f t h e a d o p t e e s ' r e l u c t a n c e t o o p e n l y c o m m u n i c a t e t h e i r f e e l i n g s t o t h e i r p a r e n t s may be due t o t h e i r p e r c e p t i o n o f t h e p a r e n t s ' r e a c t i o n s t o t h e i r q u e s t i o n s . The r e s e a r c h f i n d i n g t h a t a l l t h e a d o p t i v e p a r e n t s s a i d t h e y w o u l d be s u p p o r t i v e i f t h e i r c h i l d w a n t e d t o s e a r c h f o r t h e b i o l o g i c a l p a r e n t s , y e t 6 6 % o f t h e a d o p t e e s s a i d t h e y w o u l d n o t e n l i s t t h e i r h e l p , t e n d s t o s u p p o r t t h i s v i e w . In some c a s e s , t h e a d o p t e e s had d i f f i c u l t y b e l i e v i n g t h a t t h e i r p a r e n t s ' p l e d g e o f s u p p o r t i n t h i s m a t t e r was a s i n c e r e o n e , s u g g e s t i n g t h a t some a m b i v a l e n c e was c o m m u n i c a t e d i n t h e p a r e n t s ' m e s s a g e s . . T h e s e r e s e a r c h f i n d i n g s l e n d f u r t h e r s u p p o r t t o t h e v i e w t h a t 143 a d o p t i v e f a m i l i e s a r e v u l n e r a b l e t o d o u b l e - l e v e l c o m m u n i c a t i o n . However, i n s p i t e o f t h e a d o p t i v e p a r e n t ' s b e s t i n t e n t i o n s i n r e m a i n i n g o p e n and w i l l i n g t o d i s c u s s t h e s e i s s u e s w i t h t h e i r a d o p t e d c h i l d , t h e y may f i n d , as some o f t h e p a r e n t s d i d i n t h i s s t u d y , t h a t t h e a d o p t e e w i l l j u s t f e e l t o o u n c o m f o r t a b l e t a l k i n g a b o u t t h e b i o l o g i c a l p a r e n t s w i t h t h e a d o p t i v e p a r e n t s . A d o l e s c e n t a d o p t e e s c a n make i t d i f f i c u l t f o r t h e i r p a r e n t s t o s h a r e i n f o r m a t i o n w i t h them as t h e y h a v e a t e n d e n c y t o become p r e o c c u p i e d w i t h t h e m s e l v e s and s e e k p r i v a c y i n t h e i r t h o u g h t s ( B u r g e s s , 1 9 7 6 ) . G i v e n t h e a d o l e s c e n t a d o p t e e s ' c u r i o s i t y i n t h e i r b a c k g r o u n d s and t h e i r s e n s i t i v i t y i n d i s c u s s i n g i t w i t h i n t h e f a m i l y , t h e a d o p t i v e p a r e n t s h a v e t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y t o e n s u r e t h a t t h e i r a d o l e s c e n t u n d e r s t a n d s t h a t i t s o k a y t o b r i n g up t h e s e i s s u e s i n t h e home. P a r e n t s who d o n ' t f e e l c o m f o r t a b l e w i t h t h e a d o p t e e ' s c u r i o s i t y o r d i s c u s s i o n s a b o u t t h e b i o l o g i c a l p a r e n t s w i l l i n a d v e r t e n t l y be c o m m u n i c a t i n g t h i s t o t h e i r a d o p t e d c h i l d . S i b l i n g s ' a t t i t u d e s on t h e s e i s s u e s c a n a l s o a f f e c t t h e f a m i l y c o m m u n i c a t i o n w h e r e a d o p t i o n i s c o n c e r n e d , and t h e r e s e a r c h f i n d i n g s t h a t b o t h a d o p t e d and n o n - a d o p t e d s i b l i n g s d i d n o t t a l k a b o u t a d o p t i o n w i t h e a c h o t h e r f u r t h e r i n d i c a t e s t h a t a d o p t i v e f a m i l y c o m m u n i c a t i o n i s somewhat l i m i t e d , a t l e a s t d u r i n g t h e a d o p t e e s ' a d o l e s c e n c e . To s u m m a r i z e , i n a g e n e r a l s e n s e , t h e s t u d y f a m i l i e s d e m o n s t r a t e d g o o d c o m m u n i c a t i o n r e g a r d i n g g l o b a l a d o p t i o n i s s u e s , b u t t h e somewhat p r o t e c t i v e a t m o s p h e r e i n t h e f a m i l i e s r e g a r d i n g t h e more v o l a t i l e i s s u e s o f b i o l o g i c a l p a r e n t s , c u r i o s i t y , a nd s e a r c h i n g , t e n d e d t o i n h i b i t t h e o pen e x p r e s s i o n o f f e e l i n g s , and f u r t h e r , t e n d e d t o p r o m o t e d o u b l e - l e v e l c o m m u n i c a t i o n i n t h e f a m i l i e s . 144 F a m i l y r e l a t i o n s h i p s . A l t h o u g h i n d i v i d u a l f a m i l y r e l a t i o n s h i p s were o n l y e x a m i n e d i n a v e r y g l o b a l s e n s e , i n v i r t u a l l y e v e r y a s p e c t o f p a r e n t i n g , t h e f a t h e r s t o o k a b a c k s e a t t o t h e m o t h e r s . C o m p a r a t i v e r e s e a r c h w o u l d be i n d i c a t e d t o d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r t h i s m i g h t be a t y p i c a l p a t t e r n i n f a m i l i e s d u r i n g t h e a d o l e s c e n t s t a g e o f t h e f a m i l y l i f e c y c l e . An a l t e r n a t e e x p l a n a t i o n i s t h a t t h e f a t h e r s w e r e j u s t n o t as a d e p t as t h e m o t h e r s i n e x p r e s s i n g t h e i r t h o u g h t s and f e e l i n g s and s o t h e r e f o r e d i d n o t c o n t r i b u t e e q u a l l y t o t h e s t u d y . I t was n o t s u r p r i s i n g g i v e n t h i s p a t t e r n , t h a t t h e f a t h e r s had much p o o r e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h t h e i r c h i l d r e n t h a n d i d t h e m o t h e r s . In t h e p r e s e n t s t u d y a r e l a t i o n s h i p e m e r g e d b e t w e e n t h e t e n d e n c y o f a d o p t e e s t o p e r c e i v e s i m i l a r i t i e s b e t w e e n p a r e n t and c h i l d and t h e q u a l i t y o f t h e p a r e n t - c h i l d r e l a t i o n s h i p . A d o p t e e s who f e l t c l o s e t o t h e i r p a r e n t s a l s o p e r c e i v e d s i m i l a r i t i e s , w h i l e t h o s e a d o p t e e s who f e l t t h a t t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p s w e r e n o t c l o s e t o t h e p a r e n t s had a t e n d e n c y t o p e r c e i v e d i f f e r e n c e s i n a p p e a r a n c e and p e r s o n a l i t y . R a y n o r ( 1 9 8 0 ) r e p o r t e d t h a t a d o p t i v e p a r e n t s who v i e w e d t h e i r a d o p t e d c h i l d r e n as s i m i l a r t o them t e n d e d t o f e e l more s a t i s f i e d w i t h t h e a d o p t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p , w h i l e t h o s e who v i e w e d t h e c h i l d r e n a s d i f f e r e n t t e n d e d t o be l e s s s a t i s f i e d w i t h t h e a d o p t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p . T h e s e f i n d i n g s were n o t b o r n e o u t i n t h e p r e s e n t r e s e a r c h . The m a j o r i t y o f a d o p t i v e m o t h e r s i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e y had warm, c l o s e r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h t h e i r a d o p t e d c h i l d r e n , b u t 6 2 % o f them s t i l l had a t e n d e n c y t o p e r c e i v e t h i i r . x h i l d r e n as d i f f e r e n t f r o m them i n a p p e a r a n c e and p e r s o n a l i t y . The p a r e n t - c h i l d d i s c r e p a n c i e s n o t e d h e r e a r e d i f f i c u l t t o a s s e s s . 145 N o n - a d o p t e d i n d i v i d u a l s n o r m a l l y t a k e t h e p r e s e n c e o f o t h e r s w i t h s i m i l a r p h y s i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s f o r g r a n t e d b e c a u s e t h e y h a v e grown up s u r r o u n d e d by r e l a t i v e s . S a n t s ( 1 9 6 4 ) b e l i e v e s t h a t d i f f e r e n c e s i n p h y s i c a l a p p e a r a n c e c a n s e v e r e l y hamper a c h i l d ' s c a p a c i t y t o i d e n t i f y w i t h t h e p a r e n t s . A p o s s i b l e e x p l a n a t i o n f o r t h i s p a r e n t -c h i l d d i s c r e p a n c y i n p e r c e i v e d s i m i l a r i t i e s i s t h a t t h e a d o p t e d a d o l e s c e n t may h a v e a g r e a t e r n e e d t o i d e n t i f y w i t h a f a m i l y member a t t h i s s t a g e o f d e v e l o p m e n t and so l o o k s f o r s i m i l a r i t i e s i n t h e p a r e n t he o r s h e i s c l o s e s t t o o ( i n t h e R a y n o r ( 1 9 8 0 ) s t u d y l i k e n e s s e s were p e r c e i v e d on v e r y s l e n d e r e v i d e n c e ) , w h i l e t h e p a r e n t s c a n be more o b j e c t i v e i n t h e i r a s s e s s m e n t s o f t h e d e g r e e o f s i m i l a r i t y t o t h e i r a d o p t e d c h i l d . However, i t i s c l e a r t h a t more r e s e a r c h i s n e e d e d t o e l u c i d a t e t h e c a u s a l b a s i s o f t h e r e p o r t e d r e l a t i o n s h i p s i n o t h e r r e s e a r c h , and t h e c o n t r a d i c t o r y r e s u l t s o b t a i n e d i n t h e p r e s e n t s t u d y . W h i l e t h e p a r e n t s and a d o p t e e s i n \" o n l y a d o p t i v e \" f a m i l i e s p e r c e i v e d no s i g n i f i c a n t s i b l i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p p r o b l e m s , some o f t h e \" m i x e d \" f a m i l i e s d i d . O t h e r r e s e a r c h e r s ( L a w d e r e t a l , 1969; R a y n o r , 1 9 8 0 ) , h a v e c o n c l u d e d t h a t t h e p r e s e n c e o r a b s e n c e o f n o n - a d o p t e d s i b l i n g s i s n o t r e l a t e d t o o u t c o m e i n a d o p t i v e f a m i l i e s . However, t h e r e s u l t s o f t h e p r e s e n t s t u d y c l e a r l y i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e p r e s e n c e o f n o n - a d o p t e d s i b l i n g s i n t h e a d o p t i v e f a m i l y may be a f a c t o r a f f e c t i n g t h e a d o p t e e ' s a d j u s t m e n t . In some o f t h e m i x e d f a m i l i e s t h e p r e s e n c e o f n o n - a d o p t e d s i b l i n g s t e n d e d t o a c c e n t u a t e t h e a d o p t e e ' s s e n s e o f d i f f e r e n c e , and a l s o a f f e c t e d t h e i r s e n s e o f b e l o n g i n g i n t h e f a m i l y ; two f a c t o r s t h a t h a v e p r e v i o u s l y b e e n l i n k e d t o a d o p t e e s ' a d j u s t m e n t 146 ( J a f f e e & F a n s h e l , 1970; R a y n o r , 1 9 8 0 ) . In one m i x e d f a m i l y i t was q u i t e a p p a r e n t t h a t a s i b l i n g ' s c r u e l r e m a r k s had s e r i o u s l y a f f e c t e d t h e a d o l e s c e n t a d o p t e e ' s s e n s e o f b e l o n g i n g i n t h e home. The r o l e o f e x t e n d e d f a m i l y members, p r i m a r i l y t h e g r a n d p a r e n t s , i n a d o p t i v e f a m i l i e s s h o u l d a l s o n o t be i g n o r e d as 6 0 % o f t h e s t u d y f a m i l i e s r e p o r t e d t h a t t h e y had r e c e i v e d o p p o s i t i o n t o w a r d a d o p t i o n f r o m t h e g r a n d p a r e n t s . I t i s n o t c l e a r w h e t h e r t h e e x p r e s s e d o p p o s i t i o n had any c u m u l a t i v e e f f e c t s on t h e a d o p t e e s as t h e y were g r o w i n g up, b u t one a d o l e s c e n t d i d m e n t i o n t h a t s h e f e l t t h a t h e r g r a n d p a r e n t s h a d n ' t a c c e p t e d h e r , and t h i s had s u b s e q u e n t l y a f f e c t e d h e r s e n s e o f b e l o n g i n g i n t h e f a m i l y . The f i n d i n g t h a t 100% o f t h e a d o p t e e s i n o n l y a d o p t i v e f a m i l i e s and o n l y 3 3 % o f t h e a d o p t e e s i n m i x e d f a m i l i e s h a d d e v e l o p e d a s t r o n g s e n s e o f b e l o n g i n g i n t h e f a m i l y i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e f a c t o r s t h a t d i f f e r e n t i a t e t h e two t y p e s o f a d o p t i v e f a m i l i e s may be c o n t r i b u t i n g t o t h i s g r o s s d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t and m a i n t e n a n c e o f a s e n s e o f b e l o n g i n g i n t h e f a m i l y . A f a c t o r t h a t c l e a r l y e m e r g e d i n t h e p r e s e n t r e s e a r c h was t h e a d o p t e e ' s p e r c e p t i o n o f b e i n g d i f f e r e n t f r o m one o r more f a m i l y members, w h i c h was a g g r a v a t e d by t h e p r e s e n c e o f n o n - a d o p t e d s i b l i n g s and t h e i r a t t i t u d e s t o w a r d s t h e a d o p t e e , and t h e a t t i t u d e s o f t h e g r a n d p a r e n t s . T h e s e r e s e a r c h f i n d i n g s s u g g e s t t h a t t h e i n f l u e n c e o f s i b l i n g s , p a r t i c u l a r l y n o n - a d o p t e d s i b l i n g s , and e x t e n d e d f a m i l y members s h o u l d n o t be u n d e r e s t i m a t e d when p l a c i n g a c h i l d f o r a d o p t i o n , and when l o o k i n g f o r t h e c a u s e o f some a d o l e s c e n t a d o p t e e s ' f a m i l y d i f f i c u l t i e s . F u r t h e r 147 i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f s i b l i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p s and e x t e n d e d f a m i l y r e l a t i o n s h i p s , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n m i x e d f a m i l i e s i s w a r r a n t e d t o s t u d y t h e i m p a c t o f f a m i l y c o n s t e l l a t i o n on t h e a d o l e s c e n t a d o p t e e ' s a d j u s t m e n t . The b i o l o g i c a l p a r e n t s . The manner i n w h i c h t h e a d o p t i v e p a r e n t s d e a l w i t h t h e s u b j e c t o f t h e a d o p t e e ' s b i o l o g i c a l p a r e n t s i s c o n c e i v a b l y one o f t h e most c r u c i a l a s p e c t s o f t h e i r g e n e r a l a p p r o a c h t o t h e e n t i r e a d o p t i o n i s s u e ( J a f f e e & F a n s h e l , 1 9 7 0 ) . W h e t h e r t h e p a r e n t s s t a t e t h e f a c t s o f a d o p t i o n c l e a r l y , o r w h e t h e r t h e y p r o j e c t n e g a t i v e a t t i t u d e s t o w a r d s t h e b i o l o g i c a l p a r e n t s , o r t e n d t o d e n y t h e e x i s t e n c e o f t h e b i o l o g i c a l p a r e n t s , a l l c a n h a v e i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r t h e a d o p t e e ' s s e n s e o f i d e n t i t y , and f o r t h e n a t u r e o f t h e p a r e n t - c h i l d r e l a t i o n s h i p . How t h e a d o p t e e c o p e s w i t h , and a c c e p t s t h e f a c t t h a t a n o t h e r s e t o f \" p a r e n t s \" e x i s t s , a l s o has i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r t h e p a r e n t - c h i l d r e l a t i o n s h i p and t h e a d o p t e e ' s s e n s e o f i d e n t i t y . A l t h o u g h a l l t h e a d o l e s c e n t s i n t h i s s t u d y a d m i t t e d t h a t t h e y f e l t some c u r i o s i t y a b o u t t h e i r b a c k g r o u n d s , t h e i n t e n s i t y o f t h e c u r i o s i t y v a r i e d c o n s i d e r a b l y . However, t h e s i m i l a r i t y and t h e c o n s i s t e n c y o f t h e i r r e s p o n s e s when d i s c u s s i n g t h e s e i s s u e s s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e a d o l e s c e n t a d o p t e e ' s g e n e a l o g i c a l b e w i l d e r m e n t i s n o t b a s e d on a n e u r o t i c , d i s t u r b e d n e e d , b u t r a t h e r i s an e f f o r t t o c o m p l e t e t h e d e v e l o p m e n t a l t a s k o f i n t e g r a t i n g two s e t s o f p a r e n t s i n t o h i s o r h e r i d e n t i t y . T h e i r c u r i o s i t y r e g a r d i n g t h e b i o l o g i c a l p a r e n t s ' p h y s i c a l a p p e a r a n c e r e f l e c t s t h e i r p r e o c c u p a t i o n w i t h e x t e r n a l f a c t o r s , and a l s o s u p p o r t s T o n k i n ' s ( 1 9 8 4 ) v i e w t h a t a d o l e s c e n t a d o p t e e s may e x p e r i e n c e a n x i e t i e s r e g a r d i n g t h e i r p h y s i c a l n o r m a l i t y and may want t o e x p l o r e t h e i r b i o l o g i c a l r o o t s . 148 F u r t h e r e v i d e n c e t h a t a d o p t e d a d o l e s c e n t s may be t r y i n g t o i n t e g r a t e two g e n e a l o g i e s i n t o t h e i r d e v e l o p i n g i d e n t i t i e s c a n be s e e n i n t h e a d o p t e e s ' i n t e r v i e w s t a t e m e n t s r e g a r d i n g t h e i r b i o g r a p h y s h e e t s . T h e r e was an a t t e m p t t o a c c o m o d a t e as much o f t h i s b a r e b o n e s i n f o r m a t i o n as p o s s i b l e i n t o t h e i r own i d e n t i t i e s . I d e n t i f i c a t i o n i s a n o r m a l , i n t e r n a l d e v e l o p m e n t a l p r o c e s s w h i c h f a c i l i t a t e s t h e f o r m a t i o n o f an i d e n t i t y ( E r i k s o n , 1 9 6 8 ) . M a c k i e ( 1 9 8 2 ) b e l i e v e s t h a t t h e t a s k o f i n t e g r a t i n g two g e n e a l o g i e s i s c o m p l i c a t e d by t h e a d o l e s c e n t ' s d i s t a n c e f r o m t h e a n c e s t r a l h i s t o r y o f t h e a d o p t i v e f a m i l y , and f r o m t h e b i o l o g i c a l p a r e n t s whom t h e a d o p t e e has n e v e r e x p e r i e n c e d a s r e a l p e o p l e , and a b o u t whom i n f o r m a t i o n may be u n a v a i l a b l e , w i t h h e l d , o r d i s t o r t e d . A d o p t i v e p a r e n t s c a n h e l p t h e i r a d o p t e d c h i l d r e n a c c o m p l i s h t h i s t a s k by p r o v i d i n g as much b a c k g r o u n d i n f o r m a t i o n as i s a v a i l a b l e t o t h e a d o p t e e . The r e s e a r c h f i n d i n g s t h a t many o f t h e a d o l e s c e n t s e x p r e s s e d f e e l i n g s o f a m b i v a l e n c e and r e j e c t i o n ( e i t h e r i m p l i c i t l y o r e x p l i c i t l y ) , when d i s c u s s i n g t h e b i o l o g i c a l p a r e n t s , seems t o r e f l e c t t h e i r c o n f u s i o n and u n c e r t a i n t y i n s o r t i n g o u t t h e d u a l n a t u r e o f t h e i r h e r i t a g e . I t was c l e a r t h r o u g h o u t t h e i n t e r v i e w s t h a t most o f t h e a d o l e s c e n t s e x p e r i e n c e d c o n f l i c t e d e m o t i o n s when t r y i n g t o e x p r e s s t h e i r f e e l i n g s a b o u t t h e b i o l o g i c a l p a r e n t s , t h e i r c u r i o s i t y , and s e a r c h i n g m o t i v a t i o n . Much o f t h e a d o p t e e s ' e x p r e s s e d a m b i v a l e n c e seemed t o c e n t r e a r o u n d t h e i r d e s i r e t o h a v e more b a c k g r o u n d i n f o r m a t i o n , w h i l e a t t h e same t i m e t h e y f e l t a n x i o u s a b o u t u p s e t t i n g t h e i r a d o p t i v e p a r e n t s . T h e i r s e n s e o f r e j e c t i o n seemed t o be l i n k e d t o t h e i r v i e w s on r e l i n q u i s h m e n t and why t h e y were 149 g i v e n up f o r a d o p t i o n , and t h e i r i m a g i n e d r e u n i o n s w i t h b i o l o g i c a l p a r e n t s t h a t may n o t want t o s e e t h e m . B o t h J a f f e e & F a n s h e l ( 1 9 7 0 ) and R a y n o r ( 1 9 8 0 ) , h a v e r e p o r t e d t h a t a d o p t e e s who had a d e s i r e t o c o n t a c t b i o l o g i c a l p a r e n t s were l e s s happy i n t h e a d o p t i v e home and l e s s w e l l a d j u s t e d . T h i s , was n o t w h o l l y s u p p o r t e d i n t h e p r e s e n t s t u d y . O n l y one a d o p t e e was i n t e r e s t e d i n s e a r c h i n g b e c a u s e s h e was e x t r e m e l y u n h a p p y w i t h h e r s e l f and h e r home l i f e . F o r t h e m a j o r i t y o f a d o l e s c e n t s i n t h e s t u d y t h e i r i n t e r e s t i n s e a r c h i n g a p p e a r e d t o be u n r e l a t e d t o t h e i r s a t i s f a c t i o n w i t h t h e i r a d o p t i v e f a m i l i e s . T h e a d o p t e e ' s c o n c e r n w i t h s e a r c h i n g was p r i m a r i l y t o g a t h e r more i n f o r m a t i o n and t o s e e what t h e b i o l o g i c a l p a r e n t s l o o k e d l i k e . T h e s e r e s u l t s t e n d t o c o n f i r m t h o s e f o u n d by S o r o s k y e t a l ( 1 9 7 8 ) , t h a t t h e s e a r c h i n g m o t i v a t i o n seems more r e l a t e d t o i n n a t e p e r s o n a l i t y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t h a n t o a d o p t i v e f a m i l y r e l a t i o n s h i p s . T h e r e was a l s o no e v i d e n c e t h a t t h e m a j o r i t y o f a d o l e s c e n t s were h o p i n g t o e s t a b l i s h r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h t h e b i o l o g i c a l p a r e n t s a f t e r r e u n i o n . In f a c t , many o f them d e s i r e d o n e - s i d e d r e u n i o n s - t h e y w a n t e d t o s e e t h e b i o l o g i c a l p a r e n t s ' b u t d i d n ' t want t h e b i o l o g i c a l p a r e n t s t o s e e them. M c W h i n n i e ( 1 9 6 7 ) f o u n d t h i s same r e s u l t when s h e i n t e r v i e w e d a d o l e s c e n t a d o p t e e s 18 y e a r s a g o . The a d o l e s c e n t a d o p t e e ' s f e e l i n g s o r d e s i r e t o s e a r c h may c h a n g e as t h e a d o l e s c e n t m a t u r e s , h o w e v e r t h i s f a c e t c o u l d o n l y be s y s t e m a t i c a l l y m e a s u r e d by c o m p l e t i n g , a f o l l o w - u p s t u d y on a d o l e s c e n t a d o p t e e s a t - d i f f e r e n t s t a g e s i n t h e i r a d u l t l i v e s . I t i s a l s o p o s s i b l e t h a t t h e a d o l e s c e n t s ' f e a r o f r e j e c t i o n may be t h e i m p e t u s b e h i n d t h e d e s i r e f o r a o n e - s i d e d r e u n i o n b u t t h i s c o u l d n o t be 150 s u b s t a n t i a t e d i n t h e p r e s e n t s t u d y . I t a p p e a r s t h a t a d o p t i v e p a r e n t s a r e now b e i n g c o m p e l l e d t o a t l e a s t a c k n o w l e d g e t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t t h e i r a d o p t e d c h i l d may want t o s e a r c h someday. The p a r e n t s i n t h i s s t u d y were c e r t a i n l y aware o f t h i s p o s s i b i l i t y , and w h i l e i n d i c a t i n g t h e i r s u p p o r t o f s u c h a v e n t u r e , t h e y w ere a l s o p r o t e c t i v e o f t h e i r c h i l d ' s p o s s i b l e e n c o u n t e r w i t h a b i o l o g i c a l r e l a t i v e . T h e i r a c k n o w l e d g e d s u p p o r t was t e m p e r e d by e x p r e s s i o n s o f a m b i v a l e n c e . T h i s was u n d o u b t e d l y n o t i c e d by t h e i r c h i l d r e n and t e n d s t o a c c o u n t f o r t h e p a r e n t - c h i l d d i s c r e p a n c i e s on t h e s e a r c h i n g i s s u e t h a t h a v e a l r e a d y b e e n d i s c u s s e d . In t h e p r e s e n t s t u d y a s u r p r i s i n g f i n d i n g was t h a t a d o p t e e s and p a r e n t s a l i k e , had l i t t l e , i f any i n t e r e s t i n t h e b i o l o g i c a l f a t h e r . The a d o p t e e s ' and a d o p t i v e m o t h e r s ' e n e r g i e s were a l m o s t e n t i r e l y f o c u s e d on t h e b i o l o g i c a l m o t h e r . In f a c t , some o f t h e a d o p t e e s were s u r p r i s e d when t h e r e s e a r c h e r q u e r i e d them a b o u t t h e b i o l o g i c a l f a t h e r a s t h e y h a d n ' t r e a l l y t h o u g h t o f him b e f o r e . P o s s i b l e e x p l a n a t i o n s f o r t h i s d i s i n t e r e s t a r e ; t h a t u l t i m a t e l y i t i s t h e b i o l o g i c a l m o t h e r who makes t h e d e c i s i o n t o r e l i n q u i s h t h e c h i l d , o r t h e f a c t t h a t some o f t h e a d o l e s c e n t s b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e f a t h e r s had j u s t a b a n d o n e d t h e m o t h e r s , o r p e r h a p s t h i s l a c k o f i n t e r e s t j u s t r e f l e c t s o u r c u l t u r a l v a l u e s and t h e e m p h a s i s on t h e m o t h e r - c h i l d b o n d . The a d o p t i v e m o t h e r s seemed more i n c l i n e d t o a c k n o w l e d g e t h e m o t h e r - c h i l d bond when t h e y t a l k e d a b o u t t h e b i o l o g i c a l m o t h e r and some v i e w e d i t as a k i n d o f l i n k b e t w e e n them. A l t h o u g h t h e s e r e s e a r c h f i n d i n g s n^ay be i n t r i n s i c a l l y i n t e r e s t i n g , t h e t e n d e n c y f o r a d o p t i v e m o t h e r s and a d o p t e e s t o i d e n t i f y more w i t h t h e b i o l o g i c a l m o t h e r t h a n t h e b i o l o g i c a l f a t h e r d i d n o t a p p e a r t o a f f e c t 151 a d o p t i v e f a m i l y r e l a t i o n s . What d i d emerge as a s i g n i f i c a n t f a c t o r was t h e f i n d i n g t h a t when t h e a d o p t i v e m o t h e r s r e p o r t e d p o s i t i v e f e e l i n g s and t h o u g h t s a b o u t t h e b i o l o g i c a l m o t h e r , t h e r e was a l s o a t e n d e n c y f o r t h e i r c h i l d r e n t o h a v e p o s i t i v e f e e l i n g s t o w a r d t h e b i o l o g i c a l m o t h e r . T h e s e f i n d i n g s r e f l e c t t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e a d o p t r v e p a r e n t s ' f e e l i n g s a b o u t t h e b i o l o g i c a l p a r e n t s , b e c a u s e how t h e a d o p t i v e p a r e n t s d e a l w i t h i t may be s i m i l a r i l y r e f l e c t e d i n how t h e a d o p t e e w i l l come t o v i e w t h e b i o l o g i c a l p a r e n t s . As m e n t i o n e d p r e v i o u s l y , a t some l e v e l , most a d o p t e e s do e x p e r i e n c e some s e n s e o f r e j e c t i o n and t h i s was n o t e d i n some o f t h e a d o p t e e s ' r e s p o n s e s r e g a r d i n g t h e i r b i o l o g i c a l p a r e n t s . A d o p t i v e p a r e n t s may be a b l e t o h e l p t h e i r a d o p t e d c h i l d r e n r e d u c e t h e i m p a c t o f t h i s e x p e r i e n c e by p r o j e c t i n g a p o s i t i v e image o f t h e b i o l o g i c a l p a r e n t s and t h e c i r c u m s t a n c e s s u r r o u n d i n g t h e a d o p t i o n p r o c e s s . How w e l l t h e a d o l e s c e n t a d o p t e e r e c o n c i l e s t h e f a c t s o f h i s d u a l h e r i t a g e seems t o be r e l a t e d t o how w e l l t h e p a r e n t a nd c h i l d c o m m u n i c a t e , p a r t i c u l a r l y on i s s u e s p e r t a i n i n g t o t h e b i o l o g i c a l p a r e n t s , on what t h e a d o l e s c e n t has been t o l d a b o u t t h e b i o l o g i c a l p a r e n t s as he was g r o w i n g up, a n d how t h e a d o l e s c e n t f e e l s a b o u t h i m s e l f and h i s a d o p t i v e s t a t u s . A d o p t i v e p a r e n t s may n e e d t o be r e a s s u r e d t h a t t h e i r a d o l e s c e n t ' s p r e o c c u p a t i o n w i t h h i s h e r i t a g e and b a c k g r o u n d d o e s n o t r e f l e c t on them, and t h a t how w e l l t h e y a r e a b l e t o r e c o n c i l e t h e i r f e e l i n g s a b o u t t h e b i o l o g i c a l p a r e n t s may w e l l d e t e r m i n e how t h e a d o p t i v e f a m i l y w i l l s u r v i v e t h e a d o l e s c e n t s t a g e o f t h e f a m i l y l i f e c y c l e . 152 The p a r e n t s ' a d o p t i o n e x p e r i e n c e . W h i l e t h e e a r l y a d o p t i o n e x p e r i e n c e was r e l a t i v e l y p r o b l e m f r e e f o r m o t h e r s o f a d o p t e d c h i l d r e n o n l y , i t was more p r o b l e m a t i c f o r a d o p t i n g m o t h e r s who a l r e a d y had b i o l o g i c a l c h i l d r e n . T h e i r d i f f i c u l t i e s seemed t o be p a r t i a l l y r e l a t e d t o f a u l t y e x p e c t a t i o n s . T h e s e m o t h e r s seemed t o b e l i e v e t h a t a d o p t i o n w o u l d be t h e same a s g i v i n g b i r t h and t h e y were u n p r e p a r e d when t h e a d o p t i o n e x p e r i e n c e d i f f e r e d f r o m t h a t . The r e s e a r c h f i n d i n g s t h a t many o f t h e s e m o t h e r s e x p e r i e n c e d a n x i e t y , g u i l t , and a m b i v a l e n c e d u r i n g t h e e a r l y s t a g e s o f a d o p t i v e p a r e n t h o o d i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e y may n e e d h e l p t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e s i m i l a r i t i e s , b u t a l s o t h e d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n r a i s i n g an a d o p t e d c h i l d and a b i o l o g i c a l c h i l d , and f u r t h e r , t o r e c o g n i z e and a c k n o w l e d g e t h a t t h e b o n d i n g p r o c e s s may be d i f f e r e n t f o r a d o p t e d and b i o l o g i c a l c h i l d r e n . An i n t e r e s t i n g f i n d i n g i n r e g a r d t o t h e s e p a r t i c u l a r m o t h e r s was t h a t i n s p i t e o f t h e i r a d m i s s i o n s t h a t t h e y had had e a r l y a d j u s t m e n t d i f f i c u l t i e s , when t h e y were a s k e d t o d e s c r i b e t h e s i m i l a r i t i e s o r d i f f e r e n c e s i n a d o p t i v e and b i o l o g i c a l p a r e n t h o o d , some o f them d e n i e d t h a t t h e r e was a d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e two t y p e s o f p a r e n t i n g . I t i s p o s s i b l e t h a t t h e s e m o t h e r s d i d n ' t f u l l y u n d e r s t a n d t h e n a t u r e o f t h e q u e s t i o n , b u t an e q u a l l y p l a u s i b l e h y p o t h e s i s i s t h a t p a r e n t s o f b o t h a d o p t e d and b i o l o g i c a l c h i l d r e n a r e h e s i t a n t t o a c k n o w l e d g e t h e d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n t h e two t y p e s o f p a r e n t i n g , o r t e n d t o b l o c k o u t , o r d e n y t h e d i f f e r e n c e s i n o r d e r t o f e e l t h a t t h e y a r e p a r e n t i n g t h e c h i l d r e n e q u a l l y , w i t h o u t any p r e f e r e n t i a l t r e a t m e n t . C l e a r l y , t h i s a s p e c t o f a d o p t i v e p a r e n t i n g m e r i t s a d d i t i o n a l e x p l o r a t i o n . W h i l e K i r k ' s ( 1 9 6 4 ) t h e o r y o f a d o p t i v e r e l a t i o n s a p p l i e s 153 p r i n c i p a l l y t o a d o p t e r s who were c h i l d l e s s p r i o r t o a d o p t i o n , an a t t e m p t was made t o i d e n t i f y t h e s t u d y f a m i l i e s ' c o p i n g s t r a t e g i e s . No c o n c l u s i o n s c a n be drawn as t o t h e r e a l s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e \" r e j e c t t h e d i f f e r e n c e \" o r \" a c k n o w l e d g e t h e d i f f e r e n c e \" c o p i n g s t y l e s i n t h e f a m i l i e s s t u d i e d . S i x t y p e r c e n t o f t h e o n l y a d o p t i v e p a r e n t s had a t e n d e n c y t o r e j e c t t h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e two t y p e s o f p a r e n t i n g , b u t t h e i r r e s p o n s e s were n o t c o n s i s t e n t f r o m q u e s t i o n t o q u e s t i o n , and t h e r e was no e v i d e n c e t h a t t h e s e f a m i l i e s were more p r o b l e m a t i c t h a n any o f t h e o t h e r s t u d y f a m i l i e s . ; In t h e m i x e d f a m i l i e s t h e c o n t r a d i c t o r y r e s p o n s e s made i t i m p o s s i b l e t o d e t e r m i n e any s i g n i f i c a n t p a t t e r n s . S y s t e m a t i c r e p l i c a t i o n o f K i r k ' s ( 1 9 6 4 ) work i s n e e d e d t o f u r t h e r v a l i d a t e t h e s e c o p i n g s t y l e s , and t o a s s e s s w h e t h e r t h e t h e o r y and t h e c o p i n g s t y l e s he p r o p o s e s a r e r e l e v a n t when a p p l i e d t o f a m i l i e s t h a t h a v e b o t h a d o p t e d and b i o l o g i c a l c h i l d r e n . The f i n d i n g t h a t b o t h p a r e n t s and a d o l e s c e n t s r e p o r t e d t h a t t h e y w e r e r e m i n d e d o f t h e i r a d o p t i v e r o l e s when f a m i l y a q u a i n t a n c e s made r e m a r k s a b o u t t h e i r p h y s i c a l r e s e m b l a n c e t o one a n o t h e r , seems t o r e f l e c t o u r s o c i e t y ' s e m p h a s i s on b i o l o g i c a l t i e s . In many f a m i l i e s new a d d i t i o n s t o t h e f a m i l y a r e s c r u t i n i z e d by v i s i t i n g r e l a t i v e s and f r i e n d s t o d e t e r m i n e who t h e b a b y l o o k s l i k e . T h i s i s an a c c e p t e d p r a c t i c e , as i s t h e t e n d e n c y f o r r e l a t i v e s and f r i e n d s t o comment as a c h i l d g r ows up on h i s o r h e r a p p e a r a n c e t o o t h e r f a m i l y members. In a d o p t i v e f a m i l i e s , t h e s e k i n d s o f comments s e r v e t o r e m i n d them o f t h e l a c k o f a b i o l o g i c a l t i e . When a q u a i n t a n c e s r e m a r k e d on e i t h e r t h e d i f f e r e n c e s o r t h e s i m i l a r i t i e s b e t w e e n p a r e n t and c h i l d , b o t h c i r c u m s t a n c e s s e r v e d t o r e m i n d t h e p a r e n t and c h i l d o f t h e i r a d o p t i v e 154 r o l e s . Comments s u c h as t h e s e a p p e a r t o f o s t e r a s e n s e o f d i f f e r e n c e i n b o t h a d o p t i v e p a r e n t s and a d o p t e d c h i l d r e n . F o r a d o p t e d a d o l e s c e n t s t h i s c a n be p a r t i c u l a r l y p r o b l e m a t i c b e c a u s e o f t h e i r n o r m a l d e v e l o p m e n t a l c o n c e r n s r e g a r d i n g t h e i r own p h y s i c a l a p p e a r a n c e and body i m a g e . The t e n d e n c y o f a d o p t i v e p a r e n t s t o l o o k t o h e r e d i t y t o e x p l a i n t h e i r a d o p t e d c h i l d r e n s ' b e h a v i o r was s u p p o r t e d i n t h i s s t u d y . However, t h i s t e n d e n c y was n o t o n l y i d e n t i f i e d when t h e p a r e n t s had p r o b l e m s w i t h t h e i r a d o p t e d c h i l d r e n , b u t a l s o when t h e p a r e n t s v i e w e d s p e c i a l t a l e n t s o r b e h a v i o r s t h a t were d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h e a d o p t i v e f a m i l y . The h e r e d i t y i s s u e c a n be u s e d by a d o p t i v e p a r e n t s t o a l l e v i a t e g u i l t and b l a m e when t h i n g s go awry i n a f a m i l y . F o r any p a r e n t t o f e e l t h a t t h e y h ad f a i l e d w i t h t h e i r c h i l d w o u l d be u n p l e a s a n t , and i n a d o p t i v e f a m i l i e s t h e ' p a r e n t s h a v e t h e o p t i o n o f u s i n g t h e h e r e d i t y e x p l a n a t i o n when t h i n g s go w r o n g . R a y n o r ( 1 9 8 0 ) r e p o r t e d t h a t a d o p t i v e p a r e n t s who had a t e n d e n c y t o r e l y on h e r e d i t y , more o f t e n had a d o p t e d c h i l d r e n w i t h b e h a v i o r p r o b l e m s . The c a u s a l b a s i s o f t h i s a s s o c i a t i o n i s d i f f i c u l t t o d e t e r m i n e , b u t one a d o p t i v e p a r e n t ' s v i e w was t h a t h e r e d i t y i s t h e e x p l a n a t i o n an a d o p t i v e p a r e n t t u r n s t o when a c h i l d d e m o n s t r a t e s s e r i o u s o r e x t r e m e b e h a v i o r . In t h e s e s i t u a t i o n s t h e h e r e d i t y e x p l a n a t i o n c a n be a r a t i o n a l i s i n g e x p e r i e n c e f o r p a r e n t s who a r e d e a l i n g w i t h a b n o r m a l b e h a v i o r . I t a p p e a r s f r o m t h e r e s u l t s o f t h i s s t u d y t h a t a d o p t i v e p a r e n t s u s e t h e h e r e d i t y e x p l a n a t i o n t o make s e n s e o f t h e i r c h i l d ' s b e h a v i o r when i t s d i f f e r e n t , be i t p o s i t i v e o r n e g a t i v e . Where a b i o l o g i c a l f a m i l y m i g h t l o o k t o e x t e n d e d f a m i l y members t o e x p l a i n a c h i l d ' s b e h a v i o r ( i . e . h e ' s j u s t l i k e h i s u n c l e , o r she i n h e r i t e d h e r g r a n d m o t h e r ' s t a l e n t ) , t h e a d o p t i v e f a m i l y l o o k s 155 t o t h e b i o l o g i c a l p a r e n t s ' g e n e s f o r t h e a n s w e r s t o t h e i r d i l e m m a s . F u r t h e r e x p l o r a t i o n o f t h i s u n i q u e f e a t u r e o f a d o p t i v e p a r e n t i n g i s w a r r a n t e d t o a s s e s s what e f f e c t s , i f a n y , t h i s a t t i t u d e may h a v e on t h e a d o p t e d c h i l d . M o s t o f t h e a d o p t i v e p a r e n t s i n t h i s r e s e a r c h d i d n o t p e r c e i v e t h a t any o f t h e i r a d o p t e d c h i l d r e n s ' p r o b l e m s were a t t r i b u t a b l e t o a d o p t i o n . T h e y saw no d i r e c t r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e i r c h i l d ' s a d j u s t m e n t d i f f i c u l t i e s and the' f a c t t h a t t h e y were a d o p t e d . T h e s e r e s u l t s a r e c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h o s e r e s u l t s r e p o r t e d by J a f f e e & F a n s h e l ( 1 9 7 0 ) , t h a t a d o p t i v e p a r e n t s p e r c e i v e d t h a t a d o p t i v e s t a t u s p l a y e d a m o d e s t r o l e i n t h e e t i o l o g y o f t h e i r c h i l d ' s p r o b l e m s . However, i n a s m a l l number o f f a m i l i e s w here f a i r l y s e r i o u s a d o l e s c e n t p r o b l e m s e x i s t e d , b o t h p a r e n t and c h i l d p e r c e i v e d t h a t a d o p t i o n had a c c e n t u a t e d t h e i r p r o b l e m s . T h i s s u g g e s t s t h a t i n f a m i l i e s where s e r i o u s a d o l e s c e n t p r o b l e m s e x i s t , t h e r e i s a t e n d e n c y t o l o o k a t a d o p t i o n as an a g g r a v a t i n g f a c t o r . A g a i n , i t a p p e a r s t h a t t h i s i s one way o f m a k i n g s e n s e o f a b a d s i t u a t i o n . An i m p o r t a n t i m p l i c a t i o n o f t h i s p e r c e p t i o n i s t h a t i n some a d o p t i v e f a m i l i e s t h e f a c t o f a d o p t i o n may become a p a n a c e a f o r a l l f a m i l y d i f f i c u l t i e s . T he a d o l e s c e n t s ' a d o p t i o n e x p e r i e n c e . The r e s e a r c h f i n d i n g t h a t t h e m a j o r i t y o f a d o l e s c e n t s v i e w e d t h e i r a d o p t i v e s t a t u s as a f a c t o f l i f e , and t h a t most o f them d i d n o t p e r c e i v e t h a t t h e i r a d o p t i v e s t a t u s had c a u s e d them any s i g n i f i c a n t p r o b l e m s s u g g e s t s t h a t , i n g e n e r a l , a d o p t e d a d o l e s c e n t s do n o t v i e w a d o p c i o n p e r s e as a s e r i o u s i m p e d i m e n t t o t h e i r l i f e f u n c t i o n i n g o r a d j u s t m e n t . However, an a s s o c i a t i o n b etween t h e a d o l e s c e n t s ' p e r c e p t i o n s o f t h e m s e l v e s and t h e i r c o n c e r n 156 o v e r t h e i r a d o p t i v e s t a t u s was a p p a r e n t i n t h e d a t a . The a d o l e s c e n t s ' s e n s e o f s e l f was r e l a t e d t o t h e i r f o r m a t i o n o f an i d e n t i t y , w h i c h was i n t u r n l i n k e d to' t h e i r a d o p t i v e s t a t u s . The w h o l e p r o c e s s o f i n t e g r a t i n g t h e i r two g e n e a l o g i e s i n t o one s o l i d i d e n t i t y was a t a s k t h a t some a d o p t e e s i n t h i s s t u d y h a d a c c o m p l i s h e d b e t t e r t h a n o t h e r s . Why some a d o p t e e s become u p s e t a b o u t b e i n g a d o p t e d , w h i l e o t h e r s d o n ' t i s d i f f i c u l t t o a s s e s s , b u t some r e s e a r c h e r s h a v e s p e c u l a t e d t h a t s u c h a p e r c e p t i o n i s d e p e n d e n t on t h e a d o p t e e ' s g e n e r a l image o f h i m s e l f o r h e r s e l f ( J a f f e e & F a n s h e l , 1 9 7 0 ) . I f , as E r i k s o n ( 1 9 6 8 ) s u g g e s t s , t h e e s s e n t i a l t a s k o f a d o l e s c e n c e i s t o d e v e l o p a s e n s e o f i d e n t i t y , t h e a d o l e s c e n t a d o p t e e s ' t a s k w i l l be t h a t much h a r d e r due t o t h e d u a l h e r i t a g e o r . g e n e a l o g y t h a t must be i n t e g r a t e d . The a d o l e s c e n t s t h a t d e s c r i b e d t h e m s e l v e s as a l i e n a t e d seemed t o c o n v e y t h e f e e l i n g t h a t t h e i r i n a b i l i t y t o g e t t h e b a c k g r o u n d h i s t o r i e s t h e y w a n t e d was p r e v e n t i n g t h e d e v e l o p m e n t and i n t e g r a t i o n o f a t r u e s e n s e o f i d e n t i t y . E r i k s o n ( 1 9 6 8 ) w r o t e t h a t one n e e d s t o know t h e p a s t i n o r d e r t o p l a n f o r t h e f u t u r e . T h i s s t a t e m e n t was e x e m p l i f i e d by one a d o p t e e who b e l i e v e d t h a t s h e c o u l d n ' t g e t on w i t h h e r l i f e u n t i l s h e f o u n d h e r p a r e n t s and had h e r q u e s t i o n s a n s w e r e d . W h i l e some a d o l e s c e n t a d o p t e e s a p p e a r a b l e t o r e c o n c i l e t h e s e i d e n t i t y i s s u e s q u i t e w e l l , o t h e r s f i n d t h e t a s k o f f o r m i n g t h e i r i d e n t i t i e s a g g r a v a t e d by, o r hampered b y , t h e b l a n k s p o t s i n t h e i r p a s t s . The way t h e a d o p t e e s d e s c r i b e d t h e m s e l v e s seemed t o be u n r e l a t e d t o t h e number o f p r o b l e m s t h e y had e x p e r i e n c e d , o r t h e way i n w h i c h 157 t h e i r p a r e n t s had d e s c r i b e d them. The way t h a t t h e a d o p t e e s d e s c r i b e d t h e m s e l v e s seemed t o be t h e i r own p i c t u r e o f t h e i r p e r s o n a l s e n s e of. i d e n t i t y . More c o n t r o l l e d r e s e a r c h t o m e a s u r e t h e c o r r e l a t i o n s among t h e v a r i a b l e s a f f e c t i n g t h e a d o p t e e s ' p e r c e p t i o n s o f t h e m s e l v e s s h o u l d be c o n s i d e r e d t o f u r t h e r e v a l u a t e t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e a d o l e s c e n t a d o p t e e s ' i d e n t i t y f o r m a t i o n and t h e i r a d o p t i v e s t a t u s . The a b i l i t y t o e n t e r i n t o r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h o t h e r s i s l a r g e l y d e p e n d e n t on t h e s t r e n g t h and q u a l i t y o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l ' s i d e n t i t y ( T r i s e l i o t i s , 1 9 7 3 ) . A l m o s t h a l f t h e a d o l e s c e n t s i n t h i s s t u d y i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e y had e x p e r i e n c e d s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p p r o b l e m s . I t i s p o s s i b l e t h a t t h e p e e r r e l a t i o n s h i p p r o b l e m s t h e a d o p t e e s d e s c r i b e d a r e n o r m a l t e e n a g e r e l a t i o n a l p r o b l e m s , b u t t h e f a c t t h a t t h e a d o p t i v e p a r e n t s h e l d c o n g r u e n t p e r c e p t i o n s r e g a r d i n g t h i s p r o b l e m i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e p r o b l e m s w e r e s e r i o u s e n o u g h t h a t t h e p a r e n t s had n o t i c e d them and v i e w e d i t as a p r o b l e m . T h e s e r e s u l t s s u g g e s t t h a t a d o p t e d a d o l e s c e n t s may be more v u l n e r a b l e t o p e e r r e l a t i o n s h i p p r o b l e m s . The n e e d t o b e l o n g and be a c c e p t e d by p e e r s i s v e r y i m p o r t a n t d u r i n g a d o l e s c e n c e . The p e e r g r o u p p r o v i d e s a f e e l i n g o f a c c e p t a n c e and b e l o n g i n g w h i c h i n t u r n i n c r e a s e s s e l f - w o r t h and f a c i l i t a t e s t h e i n d i v i d u a t i o n p r o c e s s ( M a c k i e , 1 9 8 2 ) . T h e r e f o r e , t h e p o s s i b i l i t y e x i s t s t h a t a d o p t e d a d o l e s c e n t s ' d i f f i c u l t i e s i n d e v e l o p i n g s o l i d i d e n t i t i e s hampers t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e i r s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s . Or, t h e a l t e r n a t e h y p o t h e s i s e x i s t s , t h a t t h e a d o p t e e s ' p e e r p r o b l e m s a g g r a v a t e t h e s u c c e s s f u l c o m p l e t i o n o f i d e n t i t y f o r m a t i o n . The c a u s a l — b a s i s o f t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p s h o u l d be e x p l o r e d f u r t h e r t o d e t e r m i n e what 158 e f f e c t s , i f a n y , a d o p t i o n has on t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s i n a d o l e s c e n c e . W i t h one a d o p t e e i n t h i s s t u d y h e r i n a b i l i t y t o e s t a b l i s h any r e a l f r i e n d s h i p s had l e d h e r t o t r y t o f i n d h e r b i o l o g i c a l m o t h e r . He r h ope was t h a t s h e ' d f i n a l l y f i n d someone who was l i k e h e r . In t h i s i n s t a n c e , h e r f e e l i n g s o f n o t b e l o n g i n g and b e i n g a c c e p t e d had s e e m i n g l y t r i g g e r e d h e r i d e n t i t y c o n c e r n s . T h e r e s e a r c h f i n d i n g t h a t t h e theme o f f e e l i n g d i f f e r e n t t u r n e d up r e p e a t e d l y i n t h e a d o l e s c e n t i n t e r v i e w s s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e a d o p t e e s f e e l somewhat s e n s i t i v e a b o u t t h e i r a d o p t i v e s t a t u s d u r i n g a d o l e s c e n c e . T h i s i s a t i m e i n t h e i r l i v e s when t h e y d o n ' t want t o be d i f f e r e n t , t h e y want t o f i t i n , so p e r h a p s t h e y become somewhat h y p e r s e n s i t i v e a b o u t t h e i r d i f f e r e n c e s . I t was c l e a r t h a t f a m i l y r e l a t e d i s s u e s c o u l d r e m i n d t h e a d o p t e e s t h a t t h e y were d i f f e r e n t . When f a m i l y a q u a i n t a n c e s made r e m a r k s a b o u t p h y s i c a l r e s e m b l a n c e s , o r when n o n -a d o p t e d s i b l i n g s made r e m a r k s a b o u t t h e a d o p t e e s ' s t a t u s , t h e a d o p t e e s f e l t t h i s s e n s e o f d i f f e r e n c e . B u t a s u r p r i s i n g f i n d i n g was t h a t many a d o p t e e s a l s o p e r c e i v e d t h i s s e n s e o f d i f f e r e n c e d u r i n g s p e c i a l f a m i l y g e t t o g e t h e r s . T h i s i s a t i m e when t h e f a m i l i e s s h o u l d be e n j o y i n g e a c h o t h e r s ' company, b u t f o r many o f t h e a d o l e s c e n t a d o p t e e s t h i s o n l y s e r v e d t o r e m i n d them t h a t t h e y had a n o t h e r f a m i l y somewhere. D u r i n g e a r l y and m i d d l e a d o l e s c e n c e t h e a d o p t e d c h i l d ' s c o g n i t i v e d e v e l o p m e n t r e a c h e s t h e l e v e l w h e r e a r e l a t i v e l y s o p h i s t i c a t e d a nd a b s t r a c t a p p r e c i a t i o n o f a d o p t i o n e m e r g e s ( B r o d z i n s k y e t a l , 1 9 8 1 ) . I t i s . . p o s s i b l e , t h a t a d o p t e d a d o l e s c e n t s , w h i l e d e a l i n g w i t h t h e n o r m a l d e v e l o p m e n t a l c o n c e r n s and i d e n t i t y i s s u e s , a r e a l s o t r y i n g t o a s s i m i l a t e 159 t h e i r new a w a r e n e s s o f a d o p t i o n . T h i s new a w a r e n e s s m i g h t f u r t h e r a c c e n t u a t e a s e n s e o f b e i n g d i f f e r e n t as t h e y become more k n o w l e d g e a b l e a b o u t a d o p t i o n and t h e i r \" o t h e r s e t \" o f p a r e n t s . O t h e r a d o p t i o n r e s e a r c h e r s h a v e d i s c u s s e d t h e e x t e n t o f , and i n t e n s i t y o f t h e a d o p t e d a d o l e s c e n t s ' f a n t a s i e s a b o u t t h e i r o r i g i n s ( B u r g e s s , 1 9 7 6 ) . The a d o l e s c e n t s i n t h i s r e s e a r c h t a l k e d v e r y l i t t l e a b o u t f a n t a s i e s . W h i l e f a n t a s i e s c a n be f u e l e d by l i m i t e d i n f o r m a t i o n i t i s p o s s i b l e t h e f a c t t h a t m o s t o f t h e a d o p t e e s had b i o g r a p h y s h e e t s r e d u c e d t h e i r f a n t a s i e s . What f a n t a s i e s w e r e e x p r e s s e d by t h e a d o l e s c e n t s seemed t o h a v e a r e a l i t y b a s e t o t h e m . T h e r e was more o f a f l a v o u r o f wonder and s p e c u l a t i o n t h a n t r u e f a n t a s y . T h e f i n d i n g t h a t m o s t o f t h e a d o p t e e s h a d s p e c u l a t e d a b o u t s t r a n g e r s on t h e s t r e e t b e i n g t h e i r p a r e n t s t y p i f i e s t h e t y p e o f r e a l i t y b a s e d f a n t a s i e s t h e a d o p t e e s d i s c u s s e d . T h i s f a n t a s y a p p e a r s t o be r e l a t e d i n a g e n e r a l s e n s e t o t h e i r i d e n t i t y c o n c e r n s , p h y s i c a l a p p e a r a n c e c o n c e r n s , and w i t h t h e i r s e a r c h , as t e n u o u s as i t may b e , f o r k n o w l e d g e o f t h e i r o r i g i n s . Summary I t i s h o p e d , a s i d e f r o m d e s c r i b i n g t h e a d o p t i o n e x p e r i e n c e f r o m t h e p e r s p e c t i v e o f t h e a d o l e s c e n t a d o p t e e and t h e a d o p t i v e p a r e n t s , t h a t t h e s e r e s e a r c h f i n d i n g s h a v e h e l p e d t o c l a r i f y what f a c t o r s m i g h t h a v e a b e a r i n g upon t h e c o u r s e o f t h e a d o p t i o n e x p e r i e n c e , and what f a c t o r s seem t o be r e l a t i v e l y u n r e l a t e d . The most s a l i e n t c o n c l u s i o n s t h a t c a n be drawn f r o m t h i s r e s e a r c h a r e s u m m a r i z e d b e l o w : 1. A d o p t i v e f a m i l i e s a p p e a r t o be v u l n e r a b l e t o p r o b l e m s d u r i n g t h e a d o l e s c e n t s t a g e b e c a u s e o f t h e a d o p t e e s ' e m e r g i n g c u r i o s i t y , and 160 t h e p r o b l e m s o f o p e n l y c o m m u n i c a t i n g t h e s e c o n c e r n s i n t h e f a m i l y . 2. A l t h o u g h g e n e r a l l y s p e a k i n g , t h e p a r e n t s and c h i l d r e n had f a i r l y c o n g r u e n t p e r c e p t i o n s r e g a r d i n g t h e i r f a m i l y r e l a t i o n s h i p s and d e v e l o p m e n t a l i s s u e s , t h e d i s c r e p a n t p e r c e p t i o n s r e g a r d i n g t h e b i o l o g i c a l p a r e n t s , c u r i o s i t y , and s e a r c h i n g may h a v e e l e v a t e d f a m i l y s t r e s s l e v e l s and a d d e d t o t h e s t r a i n o f a d o p t i v e f a m i l y l i f e . 3. The a d o l e s c e n t a d o p t e e s ' c u r i o s i t y seems t o be a n o r m a l e x p r e s s i o n o f t h e i r d e v e l o p m e n t a l s t a g e and s h o u l d be s a t i s f i e d as much a s p o s s i b l e so t h a t t h e a d o l e s c e n t c a n c o m p l e t e t h e t a s k o f i n t e g r a t i n g h i s o r h e r d u a l h e r i t a g e . 4. A d o l e s c e n t a d o p t e e s , w h i l e a d m i t t i n g t h e y ' d l i k e t o s e a r c h f o r t h e b i o l o g i c a l p a r e n t s , do n o t seem t o be s e a r c h i n g f o r r e l a t i o n s h i p s , b u t f o r i n f o r m a t i o n t o s a t i s f y t h e i r c u r i o s i t y . 5. The s e a r c h m o t i v a t i o n i s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y r e l a t e d t o t h e q u a l i t y o f t h e a d o p t i v e f a m i l y r e l a t i o n s h i p s . 6.It may be common f o r a d o p t e d c h i l d r e n t o g r a p p l e w i t h f e e l i n g s o f b e i n g d i f f e r e n t and r e j e c t e d by t h e i r b i o l o g i c a l p a r e n t s , and t h a t t h e s e f e e l i n g s c a n be a c c e n t u a t e d by t h e f a m i l y d y n a m i c s . 7. The d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n m i x e d and o n l y a d o p t i v e f a m i l i e s s h o u l d be t a k e n i n t o a c c o u n t when e x a m i n i n g a d o p t i v e f a m i l y f u n c t i o n i n g . 8. The r e v e l a t i o n p r o c e s s s h o u l d be v i e w e d as a t a s k t h a t u n f o l d s i n an i n c r e a s i n g l y s o p h i s t i c a t e d manner as t h e c h i l d m a t u r e s . I t i s a l o n g t e r m p r o c e s s r a t h e r t h a n a o n e - s h o t p a r e n t a l o b l i g a t i o n . 161 S u g g e s t i o n s f o r F u t u r e R e s e a r c h D e s c r i p t i v e r e s e a r c h , w h i l e h e u r i s t i c i n n a t u r e , o f t e n g e n e r a t e s more q u e s t i o n s t h a n i t a n s w e r s . F u r t h e r e x p l o r a t i o n o f t h e f i n d i n g s f r o m t h i s r e s e a r c h a r e i n d i c a t e d t o more f u l l y v a l i d a t e t h e t h e m e s and t r e n d s t h a t a p p e a r e d i n t h e d a t a . The r e s u l t s f r o m t h e p r e s e n t s t u d y s u g g e s t t h a t f u r t h e r e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n m i x e d and o n l y a d o p t i v e f a m i l i e s i s w a r r a n t e d . In a d d i t i o n , a s t u d y s h o u l d be u n d e r t a k e n t o s t u d y t h e e f f e c t s o f a d o p t i o n i n m i x e d f a m i l i e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h e a r e a s o f f a m i l y c o n s t e l l a t i o n and s i b l i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p s . How d o e s t h e f a m i l y s t r u c t u r e a f f e c t t h e a d o p t e e a t d i f f e r e n t s t a g e s , and how do t h e p a r e n t s c o p e w i t h t h e r o l e s o f b e i n g b o t h a d o p t i v e and b i o l o g i c a l p a r e n t s ? F u r t h e r s y s t e m a t i c e x p l o r a t i o n o f K i r k ' s ( 1 9 6 4 ; 1981) t h e o r y o f a d o p t i v e r e l a t i o n s i s a l s o i n d i c a t e d , as t h e o r e t i c a l l y i t a p p e a r s s o u n d , b u t e m p i r i c a l l y t h e s u p p o r t i n g e v i d e n c e i s l i m i t e d . Due t o t h e e x p l o r a t o r y n a t u r e o f t h e p r e s e n t r e s e a r c h i t was n o t p o s s i b l e t o f u l l y e x a m i n e t h e i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s o c c u r r i n g among t h e v a r i a b l e s . W h i l e t h e p r e s e n t s t u d y o u t l i n e d t h e t r e n d s and t e n d e n c i e s i n t h e d a t a , a f u r t h e r s t u d y s h o u l d b u i l d on t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n by i n c o r p o r a t i n g m e a s u r e s o f a d j u s t m e n t t o i d e n t i f y t h e c o r r e l a t e s o f g o o d and p o o r a d o p t i v e f a m i l y f u n c t i o n i n g d u r i n g t h e a d o l e s c e n t s t a g e . An a t t e m p t t o a s s e s s t h e c a u s a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e t w e e n t h e i d e n t i f i e d t h e m e s and i s s u e s s h o u l d be u n d e r t a k e n as w e l l . A f a i r l y s m a l l s a m p l e was u s e d i n t h i s s t u d y . . G r e a t e r g e n e r a l i z a b i l i t . y c o u l d be o b t a i n e d t h r o u g h t h e p r o c u r e m e n t o f a l a r g e r s a m p l e o f a d o p t i v e 162 f a m i l i e s and more r i g o r o u s s a m p l i n g t e c h n i q u e s , i f p o s s i b l e . I t i s c l e a r t h a t q u e s t i o n s r e g a r d i n g t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e a d o p t e d c h i l d r e q u i r e more r e s e a r c h , i d e a l l y u s i n g l o n g i t u d i n a l d e s i g n s . F u t u r e r e s e a r c h i n t h i s v e i n c o u l d i n c o r p o r a t e a l o n g i t u d i n a l d e s i g n s t r a t e g y t o d e t e r m i n e i f t h e . t r e n d s and t e n d e n c i e s t h e a d o l e s c e n t d i s c u s s e d i n t h i s r e s e a r c h a r e u n i q u e t o t h e i r d e v e l o p m e n t a l s t a g e , o r t e n d t o t y p i f y what a d o p t e e s i n g e n e r a l e x p e r i e n c e . How m i g h t t h e a d o l e s c e n t a d o p t e e ' s v i e w s c h a n g e as he o r s h e m a t u r e s ? W h i l e a g r e a t e r number o f f e m a l e s t h a n m a l e s p a r t i c i p a t e d i n t h i s r e s e a r c h , no j u d g e m e n t s c o u l d be made r e g a r d i n g t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s o f t h i s . I t h a s b e e n s u g g e s t e d t h a t more f e m a l e s a r e s e n s i t i v e t o g e n e t i c h e r i t a g e i s s u e s and s o f e m a l e a d o p t e e s may h a v e more i d e n t i t y c o n c e r n s t h a n m a l e a d o p t e e s ( K a d u s h i n , 1 9 7 0 ) . F u t u r e r e s e a r c h s h o u l d l o o k a t t h e s e x d i f f e r e n c e s i n a d o p t e d a d o l e s c e n t s ' e x p e r i e n c e s t o a s s e s s t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h i s v a r i a b l e i n a d o p t i v e f a m i l y f u n c t i o n i n g . C o m p a r a t i v e r e s e a r c h b e t w e e n a d o p t e d and n o n - a d o p t e d f a m i l i e s may be i n d i c a t e d a t some p o i n t , b u t t h e b e n e f i t s o f t h i s p u r s u i t may be n e g l i g i b l e d ue t o t h e i n h e r e n t d i f f i c u l t i e s o f m a t c h i n g s a m p l e f a m i l i e s , and f i n d i n g an e q u a l number o f w i l l i n g p a r t i c i p a n t s . The l a s t s e c t i o n o f t h i s p a p e r w i l l o f f e r r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s t o i n d i v i d u a l s w o r k i n g w i t h f a m i l i e s who h a v e a d o p t e d a d o l e s c e n t s . 163 R e c o m m e n d a t i o n s S e v e r a l o f t h e f i n d i n g s f r o m t h i s s t u d y p o i n t t o t h e n e e d f o r a d o p t i n g c o u p l e s t o r e c e i v e e d u c a t i o n r e g a r d i n g t h e r o l e o f a d o p t i v e p a r e n t h o o d . D a v i d K i r k ( 1 9 8 1 ) has a l s o s t r e s s e d t h a t a d o p t i v e p a r e n t s n e e d e d u c a t i o n f o r t h e i r s p e c i a l t a s k s . He b e l i e v e s t h a t t h e r e i s a g e n u i n e p r o b l e m i n b e i n g t h e r e a l p a r e n t , and a t t h e same t i m e a c c e p t i n g t h e b i o l o g i c a l p a r e n t s . A l t h o u g h t h e a d o p t i o n a g e n c i e s s c r e e n p r o s p e c t i v e a d o p t i n g c o u p l e s f o r t h e i r s u i t a b i l i t y a s p a r e n t s , l i t t l e a t t e n t i o n i s p a i d t o e d u c a t i n g t h e c o u p l e r e g a r d i n g what t o e x p e c t as an a d o p t i v e p a r e n t o r how t o d e a l w i t h d e v e l o p m e n t a l i s s u e s as t h e y a r i s e . A d o p t i v e p a r e n t h o o d p r e s e n t s u n i q u e c h a l l e n g e s t o p a r e n t s , a n d t h e n e e d f o r a l l p a r e n t s t o be w e l l i n f o r m e d r e g a r d i n g c h i l d r e a r i n g i s b e c o m i n g w e l l r e c o g n i z e d . P r e - a d o p t i o n c o u n s e l l i n g , o r a d o p t i v e p a r e n t e d u c a t i o n p r o g r a m s w o u l d a l l o w t h e a d o p t i n g c o u p l e t o e x p r e s s t h e i r a n x i e t i e s and a p p r e h e n s i o n s i n a s u p p o r t i v e e n v i r o n m e n t , and a l s o h e l p them t o a d j u s t t o t h e c h a n g i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e f a m i l y u n i t . A d o p t i v e p a r e n t e d u c a t i o n p r o g r a m s w h i l e f u n c t i o n i n g l i k e o t h e r p a r e n t i n g g r o u p s , w o u l d i n c l u d e t r a i n i n g i n c o m m u n i c a t i o n s k i l l s , t e a c h i n g p r o b l e m s o l v i n g s k i l l s , b u i l d i n g p o s i t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p s , e t c . , b u t w o u l d a l s o f o c u s on t h e i s s u e s p e r t i n e n t t o a d o p t i v e p a r e n t i n g . The r e s e a r c h f i n d i n g s f r o m t h e p r e s e n t s t u d y i n d i c a t e t h a t a d o p t i v e p a r e n t e d u c a t i o n p r o g r a m s w o u l d be a p o s i t i v e s t e p i n a l l e v i a t i n g some o f t h e s t r e s s i n h e r e n t i n b e c o m i n g a d o p t i v e p a r e n t s , and i n p a r e n t i n g t h e c h i l d r e n t h r o u g h a d o l e s c e n c e . The f o l l o w i n g r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s a r e b a s e d on t h e 164 r e s u l t s ' f r o m t h e p r e s e n t r e s e a r c h : 1. A d o p t i v e p a r e n t s s h o u l d be o r i e n t e d t o t h e v i e w t h a t a d o p t i o n i s a l i f e l o n g p r o c e s s , i t d o e s n ' t e n d when t h e l e g a l p a p e r s a r e s i g n e d . I t w i l l come up a g a i n and a g a i n d u r i n g t h e c h i l d ' s l i f e . 2. A d o p t i v e p a r e n t s s h o u l d be o r i e n t e d t o t h e f a c t t h a t t e l l i n g a c h i l d a b o u t h i s / h e r a d o p t i v e s t a t u s i s a p r o c e s s t h a t s h o u l d become i n c r e a s i n g l y s o p h i s t i c a t e d as t h e c h i l d m a t u r e s . I f c o u p l e s a r e e d u c a t e d a s t o t h e c h i l d ' s c o g n i t i v e d e v e l o p m e n t and t h e s t a g e s o f t h e c h i l d ' s i n t e r e s t i n a d o p t i o n , t h e y w i l l be more p r e p a r e d f o r t h e i r c h i l d ' s r e p e t i t i v e q u e s t i o n s and be l e s s l i k e l y t o o v e r r e a c t o r f e e l t h r e a t e n e d by t h e s i t u a t i o n . 3. The r e s e a r c h f i n d i n g t h a t m o s t o f t h e a d o p t i v e p a r e n t s i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e y were d i s s a t i s f i e d w i t h t h e i n f o r m a t i o n t h e y had r e c e i v e d on t h e b i o l o g i c a l p a r e n t s , a n d , a t t h e t i m e t h e y were t o o e x c i t e d t o a s s i m i l a t e i t , s u g g e s t s t h a t p a r e n t s s h o u l d g e t w r i t t e n i n f o r m a t i o n f r o m t h e a g e n c i e s as s o o n as t h e y a d o p t . T h i s w o u l d p r e v e n t memory f a i l u r e s and m i s p e r c e p t i o n s o f v e r b a l i n f o r m a t i o n f r o m o c c u r r i n g . M o s t i m p o r t a n t l y t h o u g h , i s t h a t t h e p a r e n t s w o u l d h a v e t h e i n f o r m a t i o n when t h e c h i l d a s k e d f o r i t and t h i s m i g h t p r e v e n t any u n n e c e s s a r y p a r e n t - c h i l d c o n f l i c t s . 4. A d o p t i n g c o u p l e s who a l r e a d y h a v e b i o l o g i c a l c h i l d r e n s h o u l d be e d u c a t e d r e g a r d i n g t h e i m p a c t o f f a m i l y c o n s t e l l a t i o n and t h e i s s u e s t h a t may a r i s e f o r an a d o p t e d c h i l d w i t h n o n - a d j p t e d s i b l i n g s . P a r e n t s w i t h m i x e d f a m i l i e s s h o u l d , a l s o l e a r n t h a t t h e a t t a c h m e n t p r o c e s s may 165 f e e l d i f f e r e n t w i t h an a d o p t e d c h i l d , and t h a t t h i s i s a n o r m a l e x p e r i e n c e t h a t r e q u i r e s a p e r i o d o f a d j u s t m e n t . T h i s m i g h t a l l e v i a t e some o f t h e g u i l t and a n x i e t y t h a t was d e s c r i b e d by some o f t h e a d o p t i n g m o t h e r s i n t h i s s t u d y . 5. A d o p t i n g c o u p l e s s h o u l d r e a l i z e t h a t i n t h e f u t u r e t h e r e may no l o n g e r be a g u a r a n t e e t h a t t h e i d e n t i t y o f t h e b i o l o g i c a l p a r e n t s w i l l r e m a i n c o n f i d e n t i a l . T h e y s h o u l d e x p l o r e t h e i r f e e l i n g s r e g a r d i n g t h e s e a r c h i n g i s s u e b e c a u s e , as a d o p t i v e p a r e n t s t h e y w i l l be f a c e d w i t h i t s o o n e r o r l a t e r . 6. Some o f t h e a d o p t i v e p a r e n t s i n t h i s s t u d y were v e r y u p s e t by t h e r e m a r k s o f o t h e r s , and f e l t d e f e n s i v e a b o u t t h e i r s t a t u s as a d o p t i v e p a r e n t s . B e c a u s e t h i s s o c i e t y ' s c u l t u r a l v a l u e s e m p h a s i z e t h e b i o l o g i c a l t i e , a d o p t i v e p a r e n t s s h o u l d be p r e p a r e d f o r o t h e r p e o p l e ' s r e m a r k s r e g a r d i n g t h e i r r o l e as p a r e n t s . T h e y s h o u l d r e a l i z e t h a t i t r e f l e c t s a c u l t u r a l b i a s and n o t an i n d i v i d u a l s l u r . 7. Some o f t h e a d o p t i v e p a r e n t s i n t h i s s t u d y f e l t t h a t t h e r e was a l a c k o f s u p p o r t a f t e r t h e i r a d o p t i o n had be e n f i n a l i z e d . The n e e d o f a d o p t i v e p a r e n t s t o r e c e i v e c o n t i n u o u s s u p p o r t i f r e q u i r e d s h o u l d be r e c o g n i z e d . I t i s p l a u s i b l e t h a t many a d o p t i v e p a r e n t s w o u l d be h e s i t a n t t o s o l i c i t h e l p i n a c r i s i s f r o m t h e a d o p t i o n w o r k e r t h a t p l a c e d t h e i r c h i l d . A f t e r a l l , t h e p a r e n t s were s e l e c t e d by t h e a g e n c y t o be p a r e n t s and t h e a d o p t i v e p a r e n t s m i g h t f e e l h u m i l i a t e d , o r e v e n t h r e a t e n e d t o r e t u r n t o t h e a g e n c y f o r h e l p . I t i s t h i s r e s e a r c h e r ' s v i e w t h a t o n g o i n g c o u n s e l l i n g s e r v i c e s s h o u l d be made a v a i l a b l e t o 166 a d o p t i v e f a m i l i e s , b u t t h e s e s e r v i c e s s h o u l d r e m a i n s e p a r a t e f r o m t h e a d o p t i o n a g e n c y . I f a d o p t i v e p a r e n t s a r e e d u c a t e d as t o t h e s i m i l a r i t i e s and d i f f e r e n c e s i n a d o p t i v e p a r e n t h o o d , and t h e number o f u n i q u e s i t u a t i o n s t h e y may be f a c e d w i t h , t h e y w i l l be i n a b e t t e r p o s i t i o n t o d e a l w i t h p r o b l e m s b e f o r e t h e y e s c a l a t e . An i n f o r m e d p a r e n t who c a n f o r s e e p o t e n t i a l p r o b l e m s w i l l be more e f f e c t i v e a t d e a l i n g w i t h an i s s u e b e f o r e i t r e a c h e s a c r i s i s p o i n t and r e q u i r e s p r o f e s s i o n a l i n t e r v e n t i o n . A p r e v e n t a t i v e a p p r o a c h i s u s u a l l y more e x p e d i e n t and p r e f e r a b l e t o c r i s i s i n t e r v e n t i o n . However, d u r i n g t h e f a m i l y l i f e c y c l e , t h e a d o p t i v e p a r e n t s may f e e l t h e n e e d t o c o n s u l t a t r a i n e d c o u n s e l l o r t o d i s c u s s t h e i r a d o p t e d c h i l d ' s n e e d s . R e c o m m e n d a t i o n s f o r c o u n s e l l o r s t r e a t i n g a d o p t i n g f a m i l i e s a r e o u t l i n e d n e x t . C o u n s e l l i n g i m p l i c a t i o n s . W h i l e b i o l o g i c a l and a d o p t i v e f a m i l i e s i n g e n e r a l , f a c e t h e same d e v e l o p m e n t a l t a s k s , t h e f i n d i n g s and c o n c l u s i o n s o f t h i s s t u d y i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e f a c t o r o f a d o p t i o n c a n i n c r e a s e t h e s t r e s s i n an a d o p t i v e f a m i l y , p a r t i c u l a r l y d u r i n g t h e a d o l e s c e n t s t a g e o f t h e f a m i l y l i f e c y c l e . Many a d o p t i v e f a m i l i e s w o u l d b e n e f i t f r o m f a m i l y c o u n s e l l i n g d u r i n g t h i s t i m e . In o r d e r t o be h e l p f u l t o t h e s e f a m i l i e s , i t i s t h i s r e s e a r c h e r ' s o p i n i o n t h a t c o u n s e l l o r s must u n d e r s t a n d t h e v a r i o u s f a c t o r s u n i q u e l y i n h e r e n t i n a d o p t i o n , and r e c o g n i z e t h e s i m i l a r i t i e s , b u t a l s o t h e d i f f e r e n c e s i n a d o p t i v e and b i o l o g i c a l p a r e n t h o o d . C o u n s e l l o r s who work w i t h a d o p t i v e f a m i l i e s must be aware o f t h e p o s s i b l e e f f e c t s o f a d o p t i o n , b u t a l s o must be a b l e t o e v a l u a t e t h e i n d i v i d u a l p e r s o n a l i t y p a t t e r n s 167 o f t h e f a m i l y members t o d e t e r m i n e what a d o p t i o n means t o them (B l u m , 1 9 7 6 ) . C o u n s e l l o r s who a r e p r e s e n t e d w i t h a t r o u b l e d a d o p t i v e f a m i l y n e e d n ' t v i e w t h e symptoms o f t h e f a m i l y as a l w a y s r e f l e c t i n g a d o p t i o n i s s u e s , b u t t h e y s h o u l d be a b l e t o d e t e r m i n e how t h e f a c t o r s o f t h e a d o p t i o n e x p e r i e n c e a r e i n f l u e n c i n g t h e p r e s e n t i n g p r o b l e m and t h e f a m i l y d y n a m i c s . T h i s a b i l i t y c a n be l e a r n e d t h r o u g h k n o w l e d g e o f how t h e a d o p t i o n e x p e r i e n c e c a n a f f e c t f a m i l i e s . C o u n s e l l i n g p a r e n t s d u r i n g t h e i r a d o p t e d c h i l d ' s a d o l e s c e n c e s h o u l d f o c u s on t h e n e e d s o f a d o p t e d a d o l e s c e n t s and what t h e i r e m e r g i n g c u r i o s i t y means. A d o p t i v e p a r e n t s s h o u l d be r e a s s u r e d t h a t t h e y w i l l c o n t i n u e t o be t h e r e a l p a r e n t s and t h a t t h e a d o p t e e ' s c u r i o s i t y r e f l e c t s a d e v e l o p m e n t a l n e e d f o r b a c k g r o u n d i n f o r m a t i o n . H e l p i n g t h e a d o p t i v e p a r e n t s d e t a c h t h e m s e l v e s e m o t i o n a l l y f r o m t h e i r c h i l d r e n ' s i n t e r e s t i n t h e i r o r i g i n s s h o u l d be a p r i m a r y g o a l f o r t h e c o u n s e l l o r ( S o k o l o f f , 1 9 7 9 ) . A d o p t i v e p a r e n t s must come t o r e a l i z e t h a t t h e a d o p t e e ' s p r e o c c u p a t i o n w i t h t h e b i o l o g i c a l p a r e n t s d o e s n o t u s u a l l y r e f l e c t a n e e d t o f i n d new p a r e n t s , b u t r e f l e c t s a n e e d f o r i n f o r m a t i o n t o s a t i s f y t h e c u r i o s i t y . D e t a c h i n g t h e m s e l v e s f r o m t h i s p r o c e s s w i l l a l l o w t h e p a r e n t s t o be more a c c e p t i n g o f t h e a d o p t e e , and e n a b l e them t o be more s u p p o r t i v e . A d o p t i v e p a r e n t s h a v e o f t e n b e e n c o u n s e l l e d t h a t a d o p t e e s n e e d a p o s i t i v e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w i t h t h e i r o r i g i n s , b u t t h e y a r e r a r e l y h e l p e d t o work t h r o u g h t h e i r own n e g a t i v e a t t i t u d e s o r f e e l i n g s t o w a r d s t h e b i o l o g i c a l p a r e n t s ( S o r o s k y e t a l , 1 9 7 8 ) . C o u n s e l l o r s may n e e d t o s p e n d some t i m e w i t h t h e p a r e n t s t o e d u c a t e them a b o u t t h e a d o l e s c e n t ' s n e e d t o know, and t o 168 h e l p them d e a l w i t h some o f t h e i s s u e s t h a t t h e a d o l e s c e n t ' s q u e s t i o n s h a v e s t i r r e d up. W h i l e f a m i l y c o u n s e l l i n g s h o u l d be t h e u l t i m a t e g o a l f o r t h e r a p i s t s t r e a t i n g a d o p t e d a d o l e s c e n t s and t h e i r f a m i l i e s , t h e t h e r a p i s t must a l s o r e c o g n i z e t h e n e e d o f t h e a d o l e s c e n t t o meet w i t h o u t t h e p r e s e n c e o f t h e p a r e n t s . As n o t e d i n t h i s r e s e a r c h , many o f t h e a d o p t e e s f e l t u n c o m f o r t a b l e t a l k i n g t o t h e i r p a r e n t s a b o u t t h e i r i d e n t i t y c o n c e r n s . B e c a u s e o f t h e i r r e l u c t a n c e t o d i s c u s s some o f t h e s e i s s u e s , i n i t i a l l y t h e a d o p t e e s h o u l d be a l l o w e d t o e x p r e s s h i s / h e r c u r i o s i t y and c o n c e r n s p r i v a t e l y . Many o f t h e a d o l e s c e n t s i n t h i s s t u d y had n e v e r t a l k e d t o a n y o n e a b o u t t h e i r f e e l i n g s r e g a r d i n g a d o p t i o n . A f t e r t h e i n t e r v i e w t h e y t y p i c a l l y r e m a r k e d on how n i c e i t had been t o h a v e somebody j u s t l i s t e n t o them. T h e y were h o w e v e r , e q u a l l y c o n c e r n e d t h a t what t h e y had d i s c u s s e d w o u l d n o t be r e p e a t e d t o t h e i r p a r e n t s . I t was t h e r e s e a r c h e r ' s o p i n i o n t h a t most o f t h e a d o l e s c e n t s had b e n e f i t e d f r o m t h e i n t e r v i e w s b e c a u s e t h e y c o u l d t a l k t o an o u t s i d e r o p e n l y a b o u t t h e i r f e e l i n g s and c o u l d u s e t h e m e e t i n g as a f o r u m i n w h i c h t o e x p l o r e t h e i r i d e a s . A d o p t e d a d o l e s c e n t s n e e d t o be r e a s s u r e d t h a t t h e i r c u r i o s i t y and t h e i r f e e l i n g s a r e n o r m a l . M o s t o f t h e a d o p t e e s i n t h e s t u d y were s u r p r i s e d t o f i n d o u t t h a t someone e l s e f e l t l i k e t h e y d i d . C o u n s e l l o r s who work w i t h a d o p t e d a d o l e s c e n t s must n o t v i e w t h e i r c o n c e r n s o v e r t h e b i o l o g i c a l p a r e n t s as b e i n g an a t t e m p t t o s a t i s f y n e u r o t i c n e e d s . The a d o l e s c e n t a d o p t e e n e e d s a v e r y s u p p o r t i v e , n o n -j u d g e m e n t a l e n v i r o n m e n t i n w h i c h he o r s h e c a n e x p l o r e t h e s e v e r y i n t e n s e f e e l i n g s . C o u n s e l l o r s s h o u l d be a b l e t o h e l p t h e a d o p t e d 169 a d o l e s c e n t a c h i e v e i d e n t i t y i n t e g r a t i o n by e x p l o r i n g t h e f a c e t s o f t h e b i o l o g i c a l p a r e n t s and t h e s e a r c h i n g m o t i v a t i o n w i t h t h e a d o p t e e ( B l u m , 1 9 7 6 ) . The f i n d i n g s o f t h e p r e s e n t s t u d y a l s o i n d i c a t e t h a t a d o l e s c e n t a d o p t e e s a p p e a r t o be v u l n e r a b l e t o f e e l i n g s o f r e j e c t i o n and f e e l i n g d i f f e r e n t . M e e t i n g w i t h o t h e r a d o l e s c e n t a d o p t e e s i n a g r o u p e x p e r i e n c e m i g h t h e l p t o m i t i g a t e t h e a d o l e s c e n t s ' f e e l i n g s o f b e i n g d i f f e r e n t . ; The g r o u p a t m o s p h e r e m i g h t h e l p t o a l l e v i a t e t h e a d o p t e e s ' a n x i e t y a b o u t b e i n g a d o p t e d , and o f f e r a s u p p o r t i v e e n v i r o n m e n t i n w h i c h t o d i s c u s s p e r s o n a l i s s u e s r e l a t e d t o t h e i r a d o p t i v e s t a t u s . D u r i n g a d o l e s c e n c e , t h e a d o p t e e may n e e d t o r e a f f i r m h i s / h e r s e n s e o f b e l o n g i n g i n t h e f a m i l y . When f a m i l i e s c h o o s e t o d e n y t h e f a c t s o f a d o p t i o n , t h i s i n h i b i t s t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f t h e a d o p t e e b e c o m i n g a r e a l member o f t h e f a m i l y (Gurman, 1 9 8 2 ) . The c o u n s e l l o r c a n f a c i l i t a t e t h e a d o p t e e ' s n e e d t o b e l o n g by c o n d u c t i n g f a m i l y s e s s i o n s w h e r e t h e d e t a i l s o f t h e a d o p t i o n a r e e x p l o r e d . R e d u c i n g t h e t e n s i o n and c o n f l i c t i n t h e f a m i l y w i l l a l s o h e l p t h e a d o p t e e r e a f f i r m a s e n s e o f b e l o n g i n g . When t h e c o u n s e l l o r j u d g e s t h a t t h e a d o p t i v e f a m i l y i s r e a d y f o r e x p l o r a t i o n o f t h e a d o p t i o n i s s u e , t h e p r o b l e m s o f p o o r c o m m u n i c a t i o n s h o u l d be d e a l t w i t h d i r e c t l y . B o t h p a r e n t s and a d o p t e e must l e a r n t o c o m m u n i c a t e o p e n l y and c o n g r u e n t l y r e g a r d i n g t h e b i o l o g i c a l p a r e n t s and t h e a c c o m p a n y i n g f e e l i n g s . F a m i l y t h e r a p i s t s r e c o g n i z e t h a t f a m i l y s e c r e t s , m y t h s , and p h y s i c a l and e m o t i o n a l c u t - o f f s , c a n c o n t r i b u t e t o i n d i v i d u a l d y s f u n c t i o n , \" s o \" t h e f a c t s o f a d o p t i o n must be o p e n l y c o m m u n i c a t e d i n a d o p t i v e f a m i l i e s ( B l u m , 1 9 7 6 ) . The 170 t h e r a p i s t must be a b l e t o f a c i l i t a t e t h i s p r o c e s s . The c o u n s e l l o r s h o u l d a l s o be aware o f when f a m i l y s t r u c t u r e c a n be a c o n t r i b u t i n g v a r i a b l e t o t h e a d o p t e e ' s f u n c t i o n i n g . W h e t h e r an a d o p t e e i s f r o m a m i x e d f a m i l y o r o n l y a d o p t i v e f a m i l y may b e a r some r e l a t i o n s h i p t o t h e n a t u r e o f h i s / h e r d i f f i c u l t y . C o u n s e l l i n g an a d o p t i v e f a m i l y s h o u l d be no more d i f f i c u l t f o r t h e c o u n s e l l o r i f t h e c o u n s e l l o r h as an u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f a d o p t i v e f a m i l y f u n c t i o n i n g . L o i s Blum ( 1 9 7 6 ) has s u c c i n c t l y summed up t h e r o l e o f t h e c o u n s e l l o r i n w o r k i n g w i t h a d o p t i v e f a m i l i e s , s h e w r i t e s : h e l p i n g f a m i l i e s f e e l c o m f o r t a b l e w i t h t h e c u r i o s i t y , t h e d i f f e r e n c e , t h e s a m e n e s s , and t h e n e e d f o r t h e i r a d o p t e d c h i l d t o come t o t e r m s w i t h h i s own d u a l i d e n t i t y s h o u l d be t h e a i m o f a l l c o u n s e l l o r s d e a l i n g w i t h a d o p t i v e f a m i l i e s ( p . 2 4 8 ) . How e f f i c i e n t l y a c o u n s e l l o r w i l l a c c o m p l i s h t h e s e t a s k s o r g o a l s w i l l d e p e n d on t h e e x t e n t o f h i s / h e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e a d o p t i o n e x p e r i e n c e w i t h i n t h e f a m i l y . R e f e r e n c e N o t e s P r o v i n c e o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , M i n i s t r y o f Human R e s o u r c e s A n n u a l R e p o r t , 1970. P r o v i n c e o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , M i n i s t r y o f Human R e s o u r c e s ( 1 9 8 4 ) . F a m i l y and C h i l d r e n ' s S e r v i c e s P r o c e d u r e M a n u a l , S e c t i o n 10, 2.10.1 - 2.10.27. 171 R e f e r e n c e s Adams, G. R., & M o n t e m a y o r , R. ( 1 9 8 3 ) . I d e n t i t y f o r m a t i o n d u r i n g e a r l y a d o l e s c e n c e . J o u r n a l o f E a r l y . A d o l e s c e n c e , 3 ( 3 ) , 193-202. A n d r e w s , R. ( 1 9 7 9 ) . A c l i n i c a l a p p r a i s a l o f s e a r c h i n g . P u b l i c W e l f a r e , Summer, 15-21. A n d r e w s , R. ( 1 9 8 0 ) . A d o p t i o n : l e g a l r e s o l u t i o n o r l e g a l f r a u d ? A d v a n c e s i n F a m i l y P s y c h i a t r y , 42, 4 7 9 - 4 9 9 . A u s t a d , C , & Simmons, T. ( 1 9 7 8 ) . Symptoms o f a d o p t e d c h i l d r e n p r e s e n t i n g t o a l a r g e m e n t a l h e a l t h c l i n i c . C h i l d P s y c h i a t r y and Human D e v e l o p m e n t , 9, ( 1 ) , 2 0 - 2 7 . B a r a n , A., P a n n o r , R., & S o r o s k y , A. ( 1 9 7 4 ) . A d o p t i v e p a r e n t s and t h e s e a l e d r e c o r d c o n t r o v e r s y . S o c i a l C a s e w o r k , 55, 5 3 1 - 5 3 6 . Blum, L o i s . ( 1 9 7 6 ) . When a d o p t i v e f a m i l i e s a s k f o r h e l p . P r i m a r y C a r e , 3, ( 2 ) , 2 4 1 - 2 4 9 . Bohman, M. ( 1 9 7 0 ) . A d o p t e d c h i l d r e n a ns t h e i r f a m i l i e s : A f o l l o w - u p s t u d y o f a d o p t e d c h i l d r e n , t h e i r b a c k g r o u n d , e n v i r o n m e n t , and a d j u s t m e n t . S t o c k h o l m : P r o p r i u s . Bohman, M. ( 1 9 7 2 ) . A s t u d y o f a d o p t e d c h i l d r e n : T h e i r b a c k g r o u n d , e n v i r o n m e n t and a d j u s t m e n t . A c t a P a e d i a t r i a S c a n d i n a v i a , 6 1, 9 0 - 9 7 . B o w l b y , J . ( 1 9 5 1 ) . M a t e r n a l c a r e and m e n t a l h e a l t h . G e n e v a : W o r l d H e a l t h O r g a n i z a t i o n . B o r g , W., & G a l l , M. ( 1 9 7 9 ) . E d u c a t i o n a l r e s e a r c h an i n t r o d u c t i o n . ( 3 r d e d . ) . New Y o r k : Longman I n c . B r i n i c h , P. ( 1 9 8 0 ) . Some p o t e n t i a l e f f e c t s o f a d o p t i o n on s e l f and o b j e c t r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s . P s y c h o a n a l y t i c S t u d y o f t h e C h i l d , 35, 107-133. B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a A d o p t i o n A c t ( 1 9 7 9 ) . C h a p t e r 4, s e c . 1-16. 172 B r o d z i n s k y , D., P a p p a s , C , S i n g e r , L . , & B r a f f , A. ( 1 9 8 1 ) . C h i l d r e n s c o n c e p t i o n o f a d o p t i o n : A p r e l i m i n a r y i n v e s t i g a t i o n . J o u r n a l o f P e d i a t r i c P s y c h o l o g y , 6, 177-189. B r o d z i n s k y , D., S c h e c t e r , D., B r a f f , A.', & S i n g e r , L. ( 1 9 8 3 ) . P s y c h o l o g i c a l and a c a d e m i c a d j u s t m e n t i n a d o p t e d c h i l d r e n . U n p u b l i s h e d m a n u s c r i p t , R u t g e r s u n i v e r s i t y , D e p a r t m e n t o f P s y c h o l o g y , New J e r s e y . B u r g e s s , L. ( 1 9 7 6 ) . The a r t o f a d o p t i o n . W a s h i n g t o n , D. C : A c r o p o l i s B o o k s . C l o t h i e r , F. ( 1 9 4 3 ) . The p s y c h o l o g y o f t h e a d o p t e d c h i l d . M e n t a l H y g i e n e , 2 7 , 22 2 - 2 3 0 . D e r d e y n , A. ( 1 9 7 9 ) . A d o p t i o n a n d t h e o w n e r s h i p o f c h i l d r e n . C h i l d P s y c h i a t r y and Human D e v e l o p m e n t , 9_ ( 4 ) , 2 1 4 - 2 2 6 . D e r d e y n , A., & W a d l i n g t o n , W. ( 1 9 7 7 ) . A d o p t i o n t h e r i g h t s o f p a r e n t s v e r s u s t h e b e s t i n t e r e s t s o f t h e i r c h i l d r e n . J o u r n a l o f A m e r i c a n Academy o f C h i l d P s y c h i a t r y , ]_6 ( 2 ) , 2 3 8 - 2 5 5 . E i d u s o n , B., & L i v e r m o r e , J . ( 1 9 5 3 ) . C o m p l i c a t i o n s i n t h e r a p y w i t h a d o p t e d c h i l d r e n . A m e r i c a n J o u r n a l o f O r t h o p s y c h i a t r y , 2 2 , 7 9 5 - 8 0 2 . E l d r e d , C , R o s e n t h a l , D., Wender, P., K e t y , S., S c h u l s i n g e r , F., W e l n e r , J . , & J a c o b s e n , B. ( 1 9 7 6 ) . Some a s p e c t s o f a d o p t i o n i n s e l e c t e d s a m p l e s o f a d u l t a d o p t e e s . A m e r i c a n J o u r n a l o f O r t h o p s y c h i a t r y , 46, 2 7 9 - 2 9 0 . E l o n e n , A., & S c h w a r t z , E. ( 1 9 6 9 ) . A l o n g i t u d i n a l s t u d y o f e m o t i o n a l , -s o c i a l , and a c a d e m i c f u n c t i o n i n g o f a d o p t e d c h i l d r e n . C h i l d W e l f a r e , 48, 72-78. 174 E r i c k s o n , R. ( 1 9 6 1 ) . C o u n s e l i n g a f t e r l e g a l a d o p t i o n . C h i l d W e l f a r e , 40, 2 1 -28. E r i k s o n , E. ( 1 9 5 6 ) . The p r o b l e m o f ego i d e n t i t y . J o u r n a l o f t h e A m e r i c a n P s y c h o a n a l y t i c A s s o c i a t i o n , 4, 5 6 - 1 2 1 . E r i k s o n , E. ( 1 9 6 8 ) . I d e n t i t y , y o u t h and c r i s i s . New Y o r k : N o r t o n . F a r b e r , S. ( 1 9 7 7 ) . Sex d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e e x p r e s s i o n o f a d o p t i o n i d e a s . A m e r i c a n J o u r n a l o f O r t h o p s y c h i a t r y , 47 ( 4 ) , 6 3 9 - 6 5 0 . F r e u d , S. ( 1 9 5 0 ) . F a m i l y r o m a n c e s . In J . S t r a c h e y ( E d . ) , C o l l e c t e d P a p e r s ( V o l . 5, pp. 7 4 - 7 8 ) . L o n d o n : H o g a r t h P r e s s . ( O r i g i n a l work p u b l i s h e d 1909) F r i s k , M. ( 1 9 6 4 ) . I d e n t i t y p r o b l e m s and c o n f u s e d c o n c e p t i o n o f t h e g e n e t i c ego i n a d o p t e d c h i l d r e n d u r i n g a d o l e s c e n c e . A c t a P a e d o p s y c h i a t r i c a , 31, 6-12. G i o r g i , A. ( 1 9 7 5 ) . C o n v e r g e n c e and d i v e r g e n c e o f q u a l i t a t i v e and q u a n t i t a t i v e m e t h o d s i n p s y c h o l o g y . In A. G i o r g i , C. F i s h e r & E. M u r r a y ( E d s . ) , D u q u e s n e s t u d i e s i n p h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l p s y c h o l o g y V o l . 2. ( p p . 7 2 - 7 9 ) . P i t t s b u r g h : D u q u esne U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s . Gurman, A. ( 1 9 8 2 ) . The a d o p t e d c h i l d i n f a m i l y t h e r a p y . The A m e r i c a n J o u r n a l o f F a m i l y T h e r a p y , 10 ( 3 ) , 7 0-73. H e r s o v , L. ( 1 9 7 9 ) . The p s y c h i a t r i s t and modern a d o p t i o n p r a c t i c e . In C h i l d a d o p t i o n ( p p . 1 7 2 - 1 8 9 ) . L o n d o n : The A s s o c i a t i o n o f B r i t i s h A d o p t i o n & F o s t e r i n g A g e n c i e s . Humphrey, M., & O u n s t e d , C . ( 1 9 6 4 ) . A d o p t i v e f a m i l i e s r e f e r r e d f o r p s y c h i a t r i c a d v i c e I I . The p a r e n t s . B r i t i s h J o u r n a l o f P s y c h i a t r y , 110, 5 4 9 - 5 5 5 . 175 J a c k s o n , L. ( 1 9 6 8 ) . u n s u c c e s s f u l a d o p t i o n s : A s t u d y o f 40 c a s e s who a t t e n d e d a c h i l d g u i d a n c e c l i n i c . B r i t i s h J o u r n a l o f Med. P s y c h o l o g y , 41_, 3 8 9 - 3 9 8 . J a f f e , B. ( 1 9 7 4 ) . A d o p t i v e o u t c o m e : A t w o - g e n e r a t i o n v i e w . C h i Id W e l f a r e , 53 ( 4 ) , 2 1 1 - 2 2 4 . J a f f e , B., & F a n s h e l , D. (.1.970). • How \" t h e y f a r e d i n a d o p t i o n : A f o l l o w - u p s t u d y . New Y o r k : C o l u m b i a U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s . K a d u s h i n , A. ( 1 9 7 0 ) . A d o p t i n g o l d e r c h i l d r e n . New Y o r k : C o l u m b i a U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s . K i r k , H. D. ( 1 9 6 4 ) . S h a r e d F a t e . New Y o r k : F r e e P r e s s . K i r k , H. D. ( 1 9 8 1 ) . A d o p t i v e k i n s h i p a modern i n s t i t u t i o n i n n e e d o f r e f o r m . T o r o n t o : B u t t e r w o r t h & Co. K i r k , H. D., J o n a s s o h n , K., & F i s h , A. ( 1 9 6 6 ) . A r e a d o p t e d c h i l d r e n e s p e c i a l l y v u l n e r a b l e t o s t r e s s ? A r c h i v e s o f G e n e r a l P s y c h i a t r y , 14, 2 9 1 - 2 9 8 . K r a u s , J . ( 1 9 7 8 ) . F a m i l y s t r u c t u r e as a f a c t o r i n t h e a d j u s t m e n t o f a d o p t e d c h i l d r e n . B r i t i s h J o u r n a l o f S o c i a l Work, 8 ( 3 ) , 3 2 7 - 3 3 7 . Lawder, E . , Lower, K., A n d r e w s , R., Sherman, E . , & H i l l , J . ( 1 9 6 9 ) - A f o l l o w -up s t u d y o f a d o p t i o n s : P o s t - p l a c e m e n t f u n c t i o n i n g o f a d o p t i o n f a m i l i e s . C h i l d W e l f a r e L e a g u e o f A m e r i c a . L i f s h i t z , M., Baum, R., B a l g u r , I . , & Cohen, C. ( 1 9 7 5 ) . The i m p a c t o f t h e s o c i a l m i l i e u upon t h e n a t u r e o f t h e a d o p t e e s ' e m o t i o n a l d i f f i c u l t i e s . J o u r n a l o f M a r r i a g e and t h e F a m i l y , F e b . , 2 2 1 - 2 2 8 . 176 L i n d h o l m , B., & T o u l i a t o s , J . ( 1 9 8 0 ) . p s y c h o l o g i c a l a d j u s t m e n t o f a d o p t e d and n o n - a d o p t e d c h i l d r e n . P s y c h o l o g i c a l R e p o r t s , 46, 3 0 7 - 3 1 0 . M a c k i e , A. ( 1 9 8 2 ) . F a m i l i e s o f a d o p t e d a d o l e s c e n t s . J o u r n a l o f A d o l e s c e n c e , 5, 167-178. M c W h i n n i e , A. M. ( 1 9 6 7 ) . A d o p t e d c h i l d r e n - How t h e y grow up: A s t u d y o f t h e i r a d j u s t m e n t as a d u l t s . L o n d o n : R o u t l e d g e & Kegan P a u l . M c W h i n n i e , A. M. ( 1 9 6 8 ) . G r o u p c o u n s e l l i n g w i t h 78 a d o p t i v e f a m i l i e s p a r t I . C a s e C o n f e r e n c e , H , 4 0 7 - 4 1 2 . Mech, E. V. ( 1 9 7 3 ) . A d o p t i o n : A p o l i c y p e r s p e c t i v e . In B. C a l d w e l l & H. R i c u i t t i ( E d s . ) , R e v i e w o f c h i l d d e v e l o p m e n t r e s e a r c h V o l . 3 . ( p p . 4 6 7 - 5 0 8 ) . C h i c a g o : U n i v e r s i t y o f C h i c a g o P r e s s . M e n l o v e , F. ( 1 9 6 5 ) . A g g r e s s i v e symptoms i n e m o t i o n a l l y d i s t u r b e d a d o p t e d c h i l d r e n . C h i l d D e v e l o p m e n t , 36, 5 1 9 - 5 3 2 . Mikawa, J . , & B o s t o n , J . ( 1 9 6 8 ) . P s y c h o l o g i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f a d o p t e d c h i l d r e n . P s y c h i a t r i c Q u a r t e r l y S u p p l e m e n t , 42, 2 7 4 - 2 8 1 . Moos, R. ( 1 9 7 4 ) . F a m i l y work and g r o u p e n v i r o n m e n t s c a l e s m a n u a l . C a l i f o r n i a : C o n s u l t i n g P s y c h o l o g i s t s P r e s s , I n c . M u r r a y , P. ( 1 9 8 4 ) . A d o p t i o n p o l i c y . The B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a M e d i c a l J o u r n a l , 26 ( 3 ) , 144-145. N e m o v i c h e r , J . ( 1 9 6 0 ) . C o m p a r a t i v e s t u d y o f a d o p t e d b o y s and n o n -a d o p t e d b o y s i n r e s p e c t t o s p e c i f i c p e r s o n a l i t y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ( D o c t o r a l d i s s e r t a t i o n , New Y o r k U n i v e r s i t y , 1 9 6 0 ) . D i s s e r t a t i o n A b s t r a c t s I n t e r n a t i o n a l , 20, 4722. N o r v e l l , M., & Guy, R . ( 1 9 7 7 ) . A c o m p a r i s o n o f s e l f - c o n c e p t i n a d o p t e d and n o n - a d o p t e d a d o l e s c e n t s . A d o l e s c e n c e , 12, 4 4 3 - 4 4 8 . 177 O f f o r d , D., A p o n t e , S., & C r o s s , L. ( 1 9 6 9 ) . P r e s e n t i n g s y m p t o m a t o l o g y o f a d o p t e d c h i l d r e n . A r c h i v e s o f G e n e r a l P s y c h i a t r y , 122, 110-116. O l s o n , D. ( 1 9 7 0 ) . M a r i t a l and f a m i l y t h e r a p y : I n t e g r a t i v e r e v i e w and c r i t i q u e . J o u r n a l o f M a r r i a g e and t h e F a m i l y , 32, 5 0 1 - 5 3 8 . P a r n e l l , R. W. ( 1 9 6 1 ) . I d e n t i f i c a t i o n i n c h i l d r e n , p a r e n t s and d o c t o r s . In R. M a c K e i t h & J . S a n d l e r ( E d s . ) . P s y c h o s o m a t i c A s p e c t s o f P a e d i a t r i c s . O x f o r d : Pergamon. P a t t o n , M. ( 1 9 8 0 ) . Q u a l i t a t i v e e v a l u a t i o n m e t h o d s . C a l i f o r n i a : S a ge P u b l i c a t i o n s , I n c . P r i n g l e , M. ( 1 9 6 7 ) . A d o p t i o n - f a c t s and f a l l a c i e s . L o n d o n : Longmans, G r e e n & Co. L t d . R a y n o r , L. ( 1 9 8 0 ) . The a d o p t e d c h i l d comes o f a g e . L o n d o n : G e o r g e A l l e n & U nwin. R e e c e , S., & L e v i n , B. ( 1 9 6 8 ) . P s y c h i a t r i c d i s t u r b a n c e s i n a d o p t e d c h i l d r e n : A d e s c r i p t i v e s t u d y . S o c i a l Work, J_, 101-111. R e i d , J . ( 1 9 5 7 ) . P r i n c i p l e s , v a l u e s and a s s u m p t i o n s u n d e r l y i n g a d o p t i o n p r a c t i c e . S o c i a l Work, 2 ( 1 ) , 2 2 - 2 9 . R i p p l e , L. ( 1 9 6 8 ) . A f o l l o w - u p s t u d y o f a d o p t e d c h i l d r e n . S o c i a l S e r v i c e R e v i e w , 42, 4 7 9 - 4 9 9 . Rowe, J . ( 1 9 7 9 ) . The r e a l i t y o f t h e a d o p t i v e f a m i l y . In C h i l d a d o p t i o n ( p p . 8 9 - 9 6 ) . L o n d o n : The A s s o c i a t i o n o f B r i t i s h A d o p t i o n & F o s t e r i n g A g e n c i e s . S a n t s , H. ( 1 9 6 4 ) . G e n e a l o g i c a l b e w i l d e r m e n t i n c h i l d r e n w i t h s u b s t i t u t e p a r e n t s . B r i t i s h J o u r n a l Med. P s y c h o l o g y , 37, 133-141. S a t i r , V. ( 1 9 7 2 ) . P e o p l e m a k i n g . P a l o A l t o , C a l i f o r n i a : S c i e n c e and B e h a v i o r B o o k s . 178 S c h e c t e r , M. ( 1 9 6 0 ) . O b s e r v a t i o n s o f a d o p t e d c h i l d r e n . A r c h i v e s o f G e n e r a l P s y c h i a t r y , 3, 21-32. S c h e c t e r , M., C a r l s o n , P., Simmons, J . , & Work, H. ( 1 9 6 4 ) . E m o t i o n a l p r o b l e m s i n t h e a d o p t e e . A r c h i v e s o f G e n e r a l P s y c h i a t r y , 10, 109-118. S e g l o w , J . , P r i n g l e , M., & Wedge, P. ( 1 9 7 2 ) . G r o w i n g up a d o p t e d . W i n d s o r , E n g l a n d : N a t i o n a l F o u n d a t i o n f o r E d u c a t i o n a l R e s e a r c h i n E n g l a n d and W a l e s . S e l l i t z , C , W r i g h t s m a n , L . S., & Cook, S. ( 1 9 7 6 ) . R e s e a r c h m e t h o d s i n s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s ( 3 r d e d . ) . New Y o r k : H o l t , R i n e h a r t & W i n s t o n . S h a p i r o , C , & S e e b e r , B. ( 1 9 8 3 ) . Sex e d u c a t i o n and t h e a d o p t i v e f a m i l y . S o c i a l Work, 28, 291- 2 9 6 . S i m o n , N., & S e n t u r i a , A . ( 1 9 6 6 ) . A d o p t i o n and p s y c h i a t r i c i l l n e s s . A m e r i c a n J o u r n a l o f P s y c h i a t r y , 122, 8 5 8 - 8 6 7 . S o k o l o f f , B. ( 1 9 7 9 ) . A d o p t i v e f a m i l i e s n e e d s f o r c o u n s e l l i n g . C l i n i c a l P e d i a t r i c s , JJ3 ( 3 ) , 184-190. S o r o s k y , A., B a r a n , A., & P a n n o r , R. ( 1 9 7 6 ) . The e f f e c t s o f t h e s e a l e d r e c o r d i n a d o p t i o n . A m e r i c a n J o u r n a l o f P s y c h i a t r y , 133 ( 8 ) , 900-904. S o r o s k y , A., B a r a n , A., & P a n n o r , R. ( 1 9 7 8 ) . The a d o p t i o n t r i a n g l e . New Y o r k : A n c h o r P r e s s . S t o n e , F. H. ( 1 9 7 2 ) . A d o p t i o n and i d e n t i t y . C h i l d P s y c h i a t r y and Human D e v e l o p m e n t , 2 ( 3 ) , 120-129. Sweeny, D., G a s b a r r o , D., & G l u c k , M. ( 1 9 6 3 ) . A d e s c r i p t i v e s t u d y o f a d o p t e d c h i l d r e n s e e n i n a c h i l d g u i d a n c e c e n t r e . C h i l d W e l f a r e , 42, 3 4 5 - 3 4 9 . 179 T o n k i n , R o g e r . ( 1 9 8 4 ) . A d o l e s c e n t s and a d o p t i o n . The B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a M e d i c a l J o u r n a l , 2§_ ( 3 ) , 152-153. T o u i s s i e n g , P. W. ( 1 9 6 2 ) . T h o u g h t s r e g a r d i n g t h e e t i o l o g y o f p s y c h o l o g i c a l d i f f i c u l t i e s i n a d o p t e d c h i l d r e n . C h i l d W e l f a r e , 42, 5 0 - 6 5 , 71. T r i s e l i o t i s , J . ( 1 9 7 3 ) . In s e a r c h o f o r i g i n s : The e x p e r i e n c e s o f a d o p t e d p e o p l e . L o n d o n : R o u t l e d g e & Kegan P a u l . Walsh,E.. D., & L e w i s , F..(1969). A s t u d y o f a d o p t i v e m o t h e r s i n a. c h i l d g u i d a n c e c l i n i c . S o c i a l C a s e w o r k , 50, 5 87-594. - ; \" W e l l i s c h , E. ( 1 9 5 2 ) . C h i l d r e n w i t h o u t g e n e a l o g y : A p r o b l e m o f a d o p t i o n . M e n t a l H e a l t h , L3, 4 1 - 4 2 . W i n n i c o t t , D. ( 1 9 7 1 ) . A d o p t e d c h i l d r e n i n a d o l e s c e n c e . In R. Tod ( E d . ) , S o c i a l work i n a d o p t i o n : C o l l e c t e d p a p e r s ( p p . 1 3 5 - 1 4 3 ) . L o n d o n : Longman G r o u p L t d . W i t m e r , H., H e r z o g , E . , W e i n s t e i n , E . , & S u l l i v a n , M . ( 1 9 6 3 ) . I n d e p e n d e n t a d o p t i o n s . New Y o r k : R u s s e l l Sage F o u n d a t i o n . Work, H. H., & A n d e r s o n , H. ( 1 9 7 1 ) . S t u d i e s i n a d o p t i o n : R e q u e s t s f o r p s y c h i a t r i c t r e a t m e n t . A m e r i c a n J o u r n a l o f P s y c h i a t r y , 127, 9 48-950. Y a r r o w , L., & G o o d w i n , M. ( 1 9 6 5 ) . Some c o n c e p t u a l i s s u e s i n t h e s t u d y o f m o t h e r - i n f a n t i n t e r a c t i o n . A m e r i c a n J o u r n a l o f O r t h o p s y c h i a t r y , 35, 4 7 3 - 4 8 1 . APPENDIX A L e t t e r o f I n t r o d u c t i o n 180 APPENDIX B F a m i l y C o n s e n t Form 182 183 APPENDIX B F a m i l y C o n s e n t Form D e p a r t m e n t o f C o u n s e l l i n g P s y c h o l o g y F a c u l t y o f E d u c a t i o n U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a We, t h e f a m i l y members, a g r e e t o v o l u n t e e r t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n t h e r e s e a r c h as o u t l i n e d i n t h e a c c o m p a n y i n g l e t t e r as u n d e r t a k e n by S a n d r a Garni i n , a s t u d e n t i n t h e M a s t e r o f A r t s p r o g r a m i n t h e a b o v e named d e p a r t m e n t . We u n d e r s t a n d t h a t any i n f o r m a t i o n we p r o v i d e w i l l be k e p t s t r i c t l y c o n f i d e n t i a l , and t h a t any o f us may r e f u s e t o a n s w e r any q u e s t i o n , o r may w i t h d r a w f r o m t h i s s t u d y a t a n y t i m e w i t h o u t p r e j u d i c e . As a p a r t i c i p a t i n g f a m i l y member i n t h i s s t u d y , I am w i l l i n g t o c o m p l e t e t h e r e q u i r e d q u e s t i o n n a i r e s , t h e F a m i l y E n v i r o n m e n t S c a l e and t h e P a r e n t s ' Q u e s t i o n n a i r e , and p a r t i c i p a t e i n an i n t e r v i e w w i t h t h e r e s e a r c h e r . I a g r e e t o a l l o w t h e i n t e r v i e w t o be a u d i o t a p e d u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e c o n f i d e n t i a l i t y o f t h e s e t a p e s and t h e m e a s u r e s b e i n g t a k e n t o e n s u r e same. S i g n e d , D a t e ( a d o p t e e ) P a r e n t a l C o n s e n t f o r c h i l d r e n u n d e r t h e age o f 16: I c o n s e n t t o my c h i l d ' s p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n t h i s s t u d y I do n o t c o n s e n t t o my c h i l d ' s p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n t h i s s t u d y APPENDIX C A d o p t e e s ' I n t e r v i e w G u i d e 184 APPENDIX C 185 Adoptee's Interview Guide Introduction; As you know I am doing a study to further understand the experience of adoption and what i t means to both the parents and the adoptee. I would l i k e you to t e l l me about your experiences as an adoptee i n as much d e t a i l as you can, as though you were t e l l i n g me a story with a beginning, a middle, and an end. I'd l i k e to remind you that t h i s interview i s private and your parents won't hear anything that i s sa i d between us. I'd l i k e to s t a r t t h i s interview by learning a l i t t l e about you and the other members of your family, what your i n t e r e s t s are, what you do i n your spare time and things l i k e that. (Interviewer should lead c l i e n t into a general discussion on school, family c o n s t e l l a t i o n , peer and s i b l i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p s , u n t i l rapport i s e stablished and the c l i e n t i s f e e l i n g comfortable with the interviewer). Area 1 - Revelation Experiences ... Can you remember the f i r s t time that you found out that you were adopted? T e l l me about t h i s experience. ... How o l d were you? ... I f other c h i l d r e n i n the family ...... do you ever t a l k to them about adoption? (Explore with the c l i e n t ) ... How often i s adoption discussed i n your family? Who i n i t i a t e s these discussions? When? Area 2 - The B i o l o g i c a l Parents ... Have your parents given you any information about the b i o l o g i c a l parents, how do you f e e l about this? Are you s a t i s f i e d with i t ? ... I t seems that many adopted kids have a natural c u r i o s i t y about t h e i r o r i g i n s - how do you f e e l about this? Have you had t h i s experience? ... Do you f i n d that as you get older you get more curious or les s ' curious? Area 2 - The B i o l o g i c a l Parents Cont'd. 186 ... Have you ever talked to your parents about t h i s c u r i o s i t y ? When? What happened? ... . How do you f e e l about the woman that gave b i r t h to you? Do you have any fee l i n g s about the b i o l o g i c a l father? ... Sometimes counsellors t a l k about a f e e l i n g of belonging somewhere, usually i t ' s to one's family. I was wondering how you might experience t h i s , can you describe your f e e l i n g of belonging to your family? Area 3 - Relationship Dimensions ... Sometimes adopted kids have a s p e c i a l place i n the family, I was wondering what i t ' s l i k e i n your family, do you sometimes f e e l s p e c i a l , when, .... or I wonder i f you f e e l as i f you get away with more because you are adopted? ... Have you ever had any problems that you think were caused because you were adopted? (Describe) ... What are some of the fee l i n g s you experience when you think about adoption? ... What are the. good things about being adopted? ... Describe your r e l a t i o n s h i p with your Mom? Dad? Siblings? ; ... What i s your current view of your Mom? Dad? Siblings? ... Are you s i m i l a r or .different to your mom and dad i n your temperment? How are you s i m i l a r or d i f f e r e n t ? ... I f you had the chance what advice might you give to other adopted children? What advice might you give to other adoptive parents? ... At what times and i n what circumstances are you most keenly aware of the fact that you are adopted? ... How do you view yourself at th i s time i n your l i f e ? ... How do you view your adoptive status at t h i s time i n your l i f e ? ... What motivated you to p a r t i c i p a t e i n this research? ... What do you think about a l l the things we've discussed tonight? ... Do you think any of the discussion we've had tonight has helped you? How? APPENDIX D P a r e n t s ' I n t e r v i e w G u i d e 187 APPENDIX U 188 Parents' Interview Guide Introduction: I am doing a study to further understand the experience of adoption, and what i t means to the parents and the c h i l d . I would l i k e both of you to t e l l me about your experiences as an adoptive parent i n as much d e t a i l as you can. I recognize that each of you may have experienced some events d i f f e r e n t l y and as I am interest e d i n your personal experiences i t ' s okay i f you don't always agree with one another. I have some p a r t i c u l a r areas I would l i k e to explore with you, but for the most part I would l i k e to ju s t be l i s t e n i n g to your story, i s t h i s clear? To s t a r t things o f f I would l i k e f o r each of you to t e l l me about your early experience - how and why you become adoptive parents. Area 1 - Ea r l y Adoption Experience ... What circumstances led to your d e c i s i o n to adopt? ... Did you have a preference f o r a boy, g i r l , or age of race of child? ... How w e l l prepared did you f e e l (emotionally, p h y s i c a l l y , s o c i a l l y ) when n o t i f i e d that a c h i l d was available? ... What was your experience l i k e when you f i r s t received your c h i l d -i s that what you expected? ... A f t e r your c h i l d came home with you can you remember how long i t was before you began to f e e l that t h i s c h i l d was yours - describe t h i s experience. ... Did you experience any problems during t h i s period - describe. ... O v e r a l l , how s a t i s f i e d were you with the early adoption experience, were your expectations met - how, describe. Area 2 - The Revelation Experience One aspect of adoptive parenthood that seems to be d i f f i c u l t for some parents i s t e l l i n g t h e i r c h i l d that he/she i s adopted. How was th i s experienced i n your family. T e l l me how i t happened. ... Was i t planned, or did some c r i s i s p r e c i p i t a t e i t ? ... How old was your c h i l d , what did you say to him/her? Area 2 - The Revelation Experience Cont'd 189 . H o w did you experience t h i s moment with your c h i l d , how did you f e e l about this? ... How did you t e l l other c h i l d r e n i n the family, what did they do? ... Think back now, what was your c h i l d ' s response to t h i s revelation? ... Try to r e c a l l what happened i n the family a f t e r t h i s r e v e l a t i o n , did you notice any change i n your c h i l d ' s behavior? ... How often has adoption been discussed i n your family since t h i s time? What kinds of events p r e c i p i t a t e these discussions - describe. Area 3 - The B i o l o g i c a l Parents When you adopted your c h i l d I suppose the agency made a v a i l a b l e to you some information on the b i o l o g i c a l parents. Was t h i s information s u f f i c i e n t , how did you f e e l upon re c e i v i n g i t ? ... How often would you say you.think about the b i o l o g i c a l parents? What are your f e e l i n g s and fantasies about the b i o l o g i c a l parents? ... In your opinion does your c h i l d seem curious or interest e d i n his/her b i o l o g i c a l parents. I f so, when did you begin to notice t h i s c u r i o s i t y , how do you respond to i t , how do you f e e l when he questions you. How do you perceive him? ... Some adopted youngsters reach a stage i n t h e i r l i v e s when they become preoccupied with t h e i r o r i g i n s and curious about b i o l o g i c a l parents. I f at some time your c h i l d wanted to have more information re b i o l o g i c a l parents and maybe decided to search f o r them, how would you handle t h i s , how would you f e e l - describe. ... How s a t i s f i e d do you think your c h i l d i s with the information he/she has received from you re the b i o l o g i c a l parents? Area 4 - Developmental & Relationship Issues In looking r e t r o s p e c t i v e l y at your c h i l d ' s development thus f a r , have there been any stages that you have found p a r t i c u l a r l y d i f f i c u l t or s p e c i a l , or f o r some reason stands out i n your mind? Describe. ... Describe your r e l a t i o n s h i p with t h i s c h i l d , how do you think your c h i l d views t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p , i s t h i s c h i l d s i m i l a r to, or d i f f e r e n t from you i n temperment and mannerisms? Area 4 - Developmental & Relationship Issues Cont'd 190 ... Some adoptive parents experience greater d i f f i c u l t i e s than others, have you as adoptive parents been faced with any problems you a t t r i b u t e to the adoption s i t u a t i o n ? Describe. ... Do you think other parents have s a t i s f a c t i o n s that you don't and v i c e versa, do you think adoptive parents have s a t i s f a c t i o n s that other parents don't. Describe. ... In your opinion, do you think that your c h i l d may have faced s p e c i a l problems due to his/her adoptive status? Describe. ... At what times and i n what circumstances are you most keenly aware of the fact that you are an adoptive parent? ... How has being an adoptive parent affected you, what have you experienced that you could share with others, what advice might you o f f e r to prospective adoptive parents? ... What motivated you to p a r t i c i p a t e i n t h i s research? APPENDIX E P a r e n t s Q u e s t i o n n a i r e 191 192 APPENDIX E Parents Questionnaire 1. Age Sex 2. Number of years you have been married 3. Number of years of marriage before c h i l d was adopted 4. Age of c h i l d when adopted 5. Type of adoption ( i . e . p r i v a t e , government, etc.) 6. General Educational Level: some high school [ | graduated from high school | [ some college of t e c h n i c a l school | | Bachelor's degree | | Graduate school | | Graduate degree 7. Combined Family Income: under 10,000 | [ 10,000 to 20,000 1 1 20,000 to 30,000 30,000 to 40,000 over 40,000 8. I f any other c h i l d r e n i n the family please l i s t t h e i r birthdate & sex: birthdate sex birthdate sex birthdate sex birthdate sex Parents Questionnaire Cont'd (2) 9. How would you currently rate your r e l a t i o n s h i p with your (adopted) c h i l d : very close somewhat close [ | neither close nor distant | | somewhat distant I very d i s t a n t [ | 9A. I f you have other ch i l d r e n as w e l l , please rate your r e l a t i o n s h i p with them i n the blank space below. 10. This i s a c h e c k l i s t of children's behavior problems. Please check any of the items that your family has had any p a r t i c u l a r d i f f i c u l t y with i n the past concerning your adopted c h i l d : academic problems f e a r f u l reactions sleeping d i f f i c u l t i e s temper tantrums mood swings aggressive behavior j ealousy disobedient behavior dependency problems withdrawn behavior f. peer r e l a t i o n s h i p problems 11. Have you or any member of your family sought help through counselling services or physicians regarding family d i f f i c u l t i e s ? YES NO If yes BRIEFLY o u t l i n e the nature of the problem: (3) 194 12. O v e r a l l , how would you rate your (adopted) c h i l d ' s adjustment: Poor F a i r Good Excellent 13. How often would you say the subject of adoption i s discussed i n your home: Never Very R e l a t i v e l y Somewhat Very Infrequently Infrequently Frequently Frequently 14. How motivated did you f e e l to adopt a c h i l d : Not Motivated S l i g h t l y Quite Highly At A l l Motivated Motivated Motivated 15. Please rate the extent to which you f e e l your c h i l d ' s mannerisms and, temperament are s i m i l a r to your own: Not At Somewhat Very A l l S i m i l a r S i m i l a r S i m i l a r That's a l l , thank you f o r taking the time to answer these questions. APPENDIX F . The F a m i l y E n v i r o n m e n t S c a l e and I n s t r u c t i o n s 195 196 APPENDIX F The F a m i l y E n v i r o n m e n t S c a l e & I n s t r u c t i o n s As part of t h i s project on the Adoption Experience, we would l i k e you to complete the following questionnaire. Some of the questions are designed to obtain demographic information from you (only parents w i l l complete t h i s form) and the Family Environment Scale i s a ques-tionna i r e designed to assess each i n d i v i d u a l ' s perception of t h e i r family l i f e s t y l e . Completion of these questionnaires w i l l take about 15-20 minutes to complete. Your name i s not to be entered on any questionnaire, and a f t e r you have completed the questionnaire please s e a l i t i n the accompanying c o n f i d e n t i a l envelope. PLEASE NOTE: As a voluntary p a r t i c i p a n t i n th i s study, you have the right to discontinue responding and to withdraw at any time, and f o r any reason. Your responses to these questions w i l l not be revealed to any other member of your family, and i n order to protect the i n t e g r i t y of the study, please do not compare answers or discuss your responses to the questions with other members of your family u n t i l you have completed the material and sealed i t i n the envelope. A l l research material c o l l e c t e d w i l l be completely c o n f i d e n t i a l . I f these questionnaires are completed, i t w i l l be assumed that consent has been given. 1. T r 2.. T r 3. T r 4. T F 5. T F 6. T F 7. T F 8. T F 9. T F 10. T F 11. T F 12. T F 13. T F. 14. T F 15. T F ; 16. T F 17. T F 18. T ' F 19. T F 20. T F 21. T F 22. T F 23. T- F 24. T F 25. T F 26. T F 27. T r 28. t F 29. T F 30. T F 31. T F 32. T F 33. T F 34. T F 35. T F 36. T F 37. T F 38. T F 39. T F 40. T F 41. T F 42. T F 43. T F 44. T F 45. T F 46. T F 47. T F FAMILY ENVIRONMENT SCALE j g y Family members r e a l l y help and support one another. Family members often keep (.heir feelings to themselves. We f i g h t olot i n our family. Ue don't do things on our own very often in our family. We f e c i i t i s important to be the best at whatever you do. We often talk about p o l i t i c a l and s o c i a l problems. We spend most weekends and evenings at home. Family members attend church, synagogue, or Sunday School f a i r l y o f t e n . A c t i v i t i e s in our family arc pretty c a r e f u l l y planned. Family members are r a r e l y ordered around. We often seem to be k i l l i n g time at home. \" _ We say anything we want to around, home. Family members' r a r e l y become openly angry. In our family,'we are strongly encouraged to be Independent. Getting ahead In l i f e Is very Important In our family. We r a r e l y go to l e c t u r e s , plays or concerts. Friends often come over for dinner or to v i s i t . We don't say prayers in our family. We are generally very neat and o r d e r l y . There are very few rules to follow i n our family. We put a l o t of energy Into what we do at home. It's hard to \"blow o f f steam\" at home without upsetting somebody. Family members sometimes get so angry they throw things. - . . . . We think things out for ourselves i n our family. How much money a person makes Is not very important to us. Learning about new and d i f f e r e n t things i s very important in our family. Nobody In our family Is a c t i v e ' i n sports, l i t t l e league, bowling, e t c . We often talk about the r e l i g i o u s meaning of Christmas, Passover, or other h o l i d a y s . It's often hard to f i n d things when you need them in our household. There i s one family member who makes most of the decisions. There i s a f e e l i n g of togetherness In our family. We t e l l each other about our personal problems. Family members hardly ever lose t h e i r tempers. We come and go as we want to In our family. We b e l i e v e In competition and \"may the best man win\". We are not that Interested • in c u l t u r a l a c t i v i t i e s . We often go to movies, sports events, camping, e t c . We don't believe in heaven or h e l l Being on time Is very Important in our family. There are set ways of doing things at home. We r a r e l y volunteer when something has to be done at-home. If we f e r l l i k e doing something on the spur of the moment, wc often Just pick up and go. Family members often c r i t i c i z e eacli other. There i s very l i t t l e privacy in our family. We always s t r i v e to do things just a l i t t l e better the next time. We r a r e l y have I n t e l l e c t u a l d i s c u s s i o n s . Everyone in our family has a hobby or two. Faintly members have s t r i c t ideas about what Is right and wrong. 198 People change their minds often In our family. There Is a strong emphasis on following rules in our family. Family members r e a l l y back each other up. Someone usually gets upset If you complain In our family. Family members sometimes h i t each other. Family members almost always r e l y on themselves when a problem comes up. Family members r a r e l y worry about Job promotions, school grades, e t c . Someone i n our family plays a musical Instrument. Family members are not very involved i n recreational a c t i v i t i e s outside work or school. Wc believe there arc some tilings you ju s t have to take on f a i t h . Family members make sure t h e i r rooms arc' neat. Everyone has an equal say In family decisions. ' There Is very l i t t l e group s p i r i t In our family. . Honey and paying b i l l s Is openly talked about i n our family. If there's a disagreement i n our family, we try hard to smooth things over and keep the peace. Family members strongly encourage each other to stand up f o r t h e i r r i g h t s . In our family, we don't try that hard to succeed. Family members often go to the l i b r a r y . Family members jometimes attend courses or take lessons f o r some hobby, or i n t e r e s t (outside of school). In our family each person has d i f f e r e n t Ideas about what Is r i g h t and wronj Each person's duties are c l e a r l y defined In our family. \" We can do whatever we want to In our .family. We r e a l l y get along well with each other. We are usually c a r e f u l about what we say to each other. Family members often try to one-up or out-do each other. It's hard to be by yourself without hurting someone's f e e l i n g s i n our hous \"Work before play\" i s the r u l e In our family. Watching T.V. i s more important than reading In our family. •. Family members go out a l o t . The Bible Is a very important book In our home. ' -Money i s not handled very c a r e f u l l y in our family. .• Rules are pretty I n f l e x i b l e i n our household. There Is plenty of time and at t e n t i o n f o r everyone i n our family. There are al o t of spontaneous discussions In our family. In our family, we believe you don't ever get anywhere by r a i s i n g your vole We are not r e a l l y encouraged to speak up for ours'elves i n pur family. Family members are often compared with others as to how well they are doin at school or work. Family members r e a l l y l i k e music, a r t , and l i t e r a t u r e . Our main form of entertainment i s watching T.V. or l i s t e n i n g to the rad i o . Family members believe that i f you s i n you w i l l be punished. Dishes are usually done immediately a f t e r eating. You can't get away with much In our family. APPENDIX G L e t t e r o f A p p r e c i a t i o n 199 "@en ; edm:hasType "Thesis/Dissertation"@en ; edm:isShownAt "10.14288/1.0054311"@en ; dcterms:language "eng"@en ; ns0:degreeDiscipline "Counselling Psychology"@en ; edm:provider "Vancouver : University of British Columbia Library"@en ; dcterms:publisher "University of British Columbia"@en ; dcterms:rights "For non-commercial purposes only, such as research, private study and education. Additional conditions apply, see Terms of Use https://open.library.ubc.ca/terms_of_use."@en ; ns0:scholarLevel "Graduate"@en ; dcterms:title "A descriptive study of the adoption experience of adolescents and their families"@en ; dcterms:type "Text"@en ; ns0:identifierURI "http://hdl.handle.net/2429/25396"@en .