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Barkman, Heather
Donatism emerged in North Africa as a result of disagreements over the proper way to deal with Christians who lapsed during the persecutions. Against the mainstream, Donatists argued that the lapsed could never re-enter the Church. A contested episcopal election of 311, in which the Donatists and the Catholics each elected their own bishop, led to the Donatists appealing to Constantine in 313 to determine the rightful bishop. Constantine sided against the Donatists. From 317-321, he ordered their suppression using measures akin to those of the persecuting emperors: confiscating property, exile, and death. A brief but violent revival of the persecution occurred in 347-348 under his son, Constans. The emperor Julian (361-363) supported Donatism and brought Donatist bishops back from exile as part of a broader program to undermine Catholic Christianity. Augustine of Hippo often wrote against them, and the Council of Carthage in 411 also condemned them. Nevertheless, Donatists made up the majority of North African Christians from the fourth to fifth centuries. The Donatists fade from view during the Vandal invasions of the mid-fifth century.
Poll: Religious Group (v5) Published on: 09 July 2019Date Range: 311 CE - 427 CERegion: North Africa/Africa ProconsularisRegion tags: Africa, Northern Africa, Algeria, Libya,TunisiaThis represents roughly the borders of the Romanprovince of Africa Proconsularis during the Donatistperiod of the 4th and 5th centuries CE.DonatismBy Heather Barkman, University of ManitobaEntry tags: Early Christianity, Christian Traditions, Religious GroupDonatism emerged in North Africa as a result of disagreements over the proper way to deal with Christianswho lapsed during the persecutions. Against the mainstream, Donatists argued that the lapsed couldnever re-enter the Church. A contested episcopal election of 311, in which the Donatists and the Catholicseach elected their own bishop, led to the Donatists appealing to Constantine in 313 to determine therightful bishop. Constantine sided against the Donatists. From 317-321, he ordered their suppression usingmeasures akin to those of the persecuting emperors: confiscating property, exile, and death. A brief butviolent revival of the persecution occurred in 347-348 under his son, Constans. The emperor Julian (361-363) supported Donatism and brought Donatist bishops back from exile as part of a broader program toundermine Catholic Christianity. Augustine of Hippo often wrote against them, and the Council ofCarthage in 411 also condemned them. Nevertheless, Donatists made up the majority of North AfricanChristians from the fourth to fifth centuries. The Donatists fade from view during the Vandal invasions ofthe mid-fifth century.Status of Participants:✓ Elite ✓ Religious Specialists ✓ Non-elite (common people, general populace)SourcesPrint sources for understanding this subject:Notes: On Christian violence in fourth and fifth century North Africa, see Brent D. Shaw. Sacred Violence:African Christians and Sectarian Hatred in the Age of Augustine. Cambridge: Cambridge UniversityPress, 2011. On Christianity in Roman North Africa in general, see J. Patout Burns and Robin M. Jensen,Christianity in Roman Africa: The Development of Its Practices and Beliefs. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans,2014 and Francois Decret, Early Christianity in North Africa. Trans. by Edward L. Smither. Eugene, OR:Cascade Books, 2009. For a comparison with the Melitians, see Heather D. Barkman, "The Church of theMartyrs in Egypt and North Africa: A Comparison of the Melitian and Donatist Schisms", Journal of theSource 1: W.H.C. Frend. The Donatist Church: A Movement of Protest in Roman North Africa. Oxford:Oxford University Press, 1971.—Source 2: Maureen A. Tilley. The Bible in Christian North Africa: The Donatist World. Minneapolis: FortressPress, 1997.—Source 3: Richard Miles, ed. The Donatist Schism: Controversy and Contexts. Liverpool: LiverpoolUniversity Press, 2016. (Within this text, John Whitehouse provides a comprehensive overview ofDonatist scholarship, in "The Scholarship of the Donatist Controversy," pp. 34-53.)—DOI: URL: https://religiondatabase.org/browse/442This work is licensed under the Creative CommonsAttribution 4.0 International license.Please see our Terms of Use here:https://religiondatabase.org/about/creditsPage 1 of 53© 2019 Database of Religious History.The University of British Columbia.For any questions contactproject.manager@religiondatabase.orgCanadian Society for Coptic Studies 6 (2014): 41-58.Notes: Primary sources on Donatism also include several sermons and letters of Augustine. See onlineprimary textual corpora below.Online sources for understanding this subject:Relevant online primary textual corpora (original languages and/or translations):General VariablesMembership/Group InteractionsAre other religious groups in cultural contact with target religion:Notes: Donatists were in cultural contact with mainstream (Catholic) Christians as well as "pagans"(practitioners of traditional Roman religions) and Jews (see J.B. Rives, Religion and Authority in RomanCarthage from Augustus to Constantine. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1995, pp. 17-96 (on public Romancults); 132-172 (on traditional African cults); and 214-222 (on the scant evidence for Jews in Carthage).As the schism between Catholics and Donatists emerged as a result of disagreements over thetreatment of lapsed Christians rather than over any major doctrinal or theological issues, Dontatistsand Catholics retained a shared cultural heritage. For example, Catholics and Donatists revered thesame martyrs, such as the bishop Cyprian, who was martyred in 258. The Catholic "Life and Passion ofCyprian", written by his deacon Pontius may be found online here:http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf05.iv.iii.html. The "Donatist Passion of Cyprian" appears in MaureenTilley's Donatist Martyr Stories: The Church in Conflict in Roman North Africa, 1-5. Liverpool: LiverpoolUniversity Press, 1996. Augustine takes great pains to legitimize Catholic martyrs and delegitimizeDonatist ones, which was a particularly difficult rhetorical task given the shared history. He argued thatDonatist martyrs did not die for the right cause, and therefore their deaths were not true martyrdoms.See Augustine, Serm. 53A.13 (text: Hamman, 1961: 684; translation: Hill, 1990: 83–84): "Blessed are thosewho suffer persecution for the sake of justice. The addition of these last words distinguishes the martyrfrom the bandit; the bandit too, after all, suffers persecution for his evil deeds, and he is not competingfor a prize, but paying the penalty that is his due. It is not the penalty that makes the martyr but thecause." This shared culture was also reinforced by the fact that Donatism did not spread far outside ofNorth Africa (although small pockets appeared briefly in Rome and Spain); thus, the culturalSource 1: Maureen A. Tilley. Donatist Martyr Stories: The Church in Conflict in Roman North Africa.Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 1996.—Source 2: Jean-Louis Maier. Le dossier du donatisme. TU 134, 135. Berlin: Akademie-Verlag, 1987, 1989.—Source 3: Mark Edwards. Optatus: Against the Donatists. Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 1997.—Source 1 URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/301130/donatism—Source 1 Description: Zotero Online Digital Library -- devoted to collecting sources on Donatism. Contains2800 items.—Source 3 URL: http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/1102.htm andhttp://www.newadvent.org/fathers/1603.htm—Source 3 Description: Translations of the letters and sermons of Augustine of Hippo.—Yes—Barkman, Database of Religious History, 2019 Page 2 of 53influences particular to North African Christianity affected both Catholics and Donatists. On NorthAfrican Christian culture, see J. Patout Burns and Robin M. Jensen, Christianity in Roman Africa: TheDevelopment of Its Practices and Beliefs. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2014.Is the cultural contact competitive:Notes: Competition between the Donatists and the Catholics was at times heated and violent.For example, Augustine justified the use of force as sometimes necessary in order to convinceDonatists to return to the Catholic ("true") church in part because Donatists themselves wereaccused of using violence. He writes: 'If, then, we scorned and endured these people who wereonce our fierce enemies and who were attacking our peace and quiet with various sorts ofviolence and ambushes, so that we devised and did nothing at all that might be able tofrighten and correct them, we would really have repaid evil with evil" (Augustine, Epistula 93.2[text: Goldbacher, 1898: 446; translation: Teske, 2001: 378]). The mid-4th century Catholicbishop Optatus of Milevis likewise asserts that any use of force by the Catholics wasprecipitated by Donatist violence. In 347, imperial forces (working on behalf of the Catholicemperor Constans) massacred a Donatist congregation at Bagai. However, Optatus refusesany responsibility for such violence, arguing that it was the Donatists themselves whoescalated the confrontation with Paulus and Macarius (the imperial representatives), andtherefore they are responsible for their own deaths: "Whatever harsh measures may have beentaken to bring about unity, you see, my brother Parmenianus, who ought to bear the blame forit. You say that we catholics requested military force; if that is the case, why did no one at thattime see an armed military force in the proconsular province? Paulus and Macarius werecoming to relieve the poor in every place and exhort individuals to unity" (Optatus, ContraParmenianum 3.4 [text: Ziwsa, 1893: 81; translation: Edwards, 1997: 68]). However, there werealso periods of relative peace and non-violence between the groups.Yes—Is the cultural contact accommodating/pluralistic:Notes: Both Catholics and Donatists viewed their religion as exclusive, leading to thecompetition between groups over who was the legitimate church. See, for example, the waythat Augustine argues that Donatist martyrs are not "true" martyrs because they do not die forthe proper (Catholic) cause: "Blessed are those who suffer persecution for the sake of justice.The addition of these last words distinguishes the martyr from the bandit; the bandit too, afterall, suffers persecution for his evil deeds, and he is not competing for a prize, but paying thepenalty that is his due. It is not the penalty that makes the martyr but the cause" (Augustine,Serm. 53A.13 [text: Hamman, 1961: 684; translation: Hill, 1990: 83–84]).No—Is the cultural contact neutral:No—Is there violent conflict (within sample region):Notes: There were periods of violent conflict, including persecutions perpetrated by imperialauthorities (under Constantine from 317-321 and Constans from 347-348). In 313, the Donatistswrote to Constantine to determine the rightful bishop of Carthage. Needing to consolidateYes—Barkman, Database of Religious History, 2019 Page 3 of 53Does the religious group have a general process/system for assigning religious affiliation:Notes: The rite of baptism was used to initiate members into Christianity. In North Africa the early-second century, adult baptism was the norm so that individuals could make an informed decision (seeTertullian, de Baptismo 18). By the mid-third century, infant baptism was more frequent, but adultbaptism still occurred (see Cyprian, Epistula 64.4.2; cf. de Lapsi, 25). Baptism was also practiced withinDonatism, but the debate about rebaptism loomed large. Following the Decian persecution (250 CE),a debate emerged about whether those who denied Christ during the persecutions needed to berebaptized in order to re-enter the Christian community (see the anonymous mid-3rd c. Treatise onRebaptism [http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0515.htm], and Burns and Jensen, Christianity insupport, Constantine sided with the more inclusive Catholics against the more rigorist andexclusionary Donatists. Between 317 and 321 Constantine used measures akin to those of thepersecuting emperors like Valerian and Diocletian, including exile, confiscation of property,and death. Nevertheless, Donatists continued to thrive and saw those who died underConstantine's persecutions as martyrs in the traditions of the past. Constantine suspended thepersecutions in 321, perhaps in order to focus more closely on consolidating power fromLicinius. Donatists were again persecuted under Constantine's son, Constans. In 347, Constanscalled for the forced unification of Christianity in North Africa and sent two officials, Paulus andMacarius, to enforce the edict. Violence broke out in the town of Bagai after the Donatistbishop organized a group of supporters to defend themselves against the imperialrepresentatives and their military. The Donatists attacked the military scouts; in response, thesoldiers massacred the entire group of Donatists in Bagai. However violent, this persecutionwas short-lived. In 348, Gratus, the Catholic bishop of Carthage, called a council where both theCatholics and Donatists acknowledged that they had committed errors. On these persecutions,see e.g., Michael Gaddis, There is No Crime for Those Who Have Christ: Religious Violence in theChristian Roman Empire. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2005, 50-58, 104-111). Catholicattempts to use imperial interference to punish Donatist apostates led to sporadic outbreaksof violence on both sides during the reigns of Theodosius I, Arcadius, Honorius, and TheodosiusII. The Conference of Carthage in 411 in particular represented a showdown between Catholicand Donatists, with the Catholic bishops advocating for violence. On the Donatist arguments inthis conference, see Maureen A. Tilley, "Dilatory Donatists or Procrastinating Catholics: The Trialat the Conference of Carthage." Church History. Vol. 60, No. 1 (1991): 7-19. Donatists werethreatened "financial, legal, and physical punishments" for their apostasy (see Burns andJensen, Christianity in Roman North Africa, 54-57; Decret, Early Christianity in North Africa, 124-128). Violent rhetoric was also fairly common between religious authorities of opposing groups(see the comment under "Is the cultural contact competitive" for examples). Violence alsooccurred a more local, interpersonal level (see Brent Shaw, Sacred Violence: Sectarian Hatredin the Age of Augustine. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011). However, there werealso extended periods of peaceful interaction.Specific to this answer:Date Range: 317 CE - 427 CEIs there violent conflict (with groups outside the sample region):Notes: Although the persecutions perpetrated by the imperial authorities under Constantineand Constans were initiated from Rome, they did not spread beyond the region of NorthAfrica.No—Yes—Barkman, Database of Religious History, 2019 Page 4 of 53Roman Africa, 187-190). The Donatists asserted that anyone who had been baptized into themainstream (Catholic) church were not really baptized at all, since their baptisms were tainted byimpure bishops and clergy. Thus, the only true baptisms were ones given by Donatist bishops, who didnot fall into apostasy during the persecutions. Those who had been baptized by outside bishops wouldneed to be rebaptized in order to join the Donatist church. In practice, however, this was not uniformlyimposed and contact between Donatists and other Christians continued. On rebaptism and Donatism,see Optatus, Contra Parmenianum Donatistam 1.2; 4.4; 6.1; 6.8 and Burns and Jensen, Christianity inRoman Africa, 195-198. It should be noted that there is no evidence about any difference between theway the rituals themselves were performed.Assigned at birth (membership is default for this society):Notes: While infant baptism was somewhat more common in North Africa by the 4th century,initiation was not automatic. See comment under Does the religious group have a generalprocess/system for assigning religious affiliation (above).No—Assigned by personal choice:Notes: Donatists were characterized by their view of those who lapsed during the persecutionsas being apostates who might contaminate the rest of the community, particularly those inpositions of authority.Yes—Assigned by class:No—Assigned at a specific age:Notes: As noted above, infant baptism did occur, but generally individuals were expected to bebaptized only when they had the ability to understand fully what initiation into the Christiancommunity meant. There was no set age at which this was to occur.No—Assigned by gender:No—Assigned by participation in a particular ritual:Notes: Initiation was symbolized through the ritual of baptism, but baptism was not performedat the moment of conversion. Rather, individuals participated in a limited way in thecommunity as catechumens, who underwent training and education in matters of Christianity.On the process during the period of Augustine (fifth century), see Burns and Jensen,Christianity in Roman Africa, 202-204.Yes—Barkman, Database of Religious History, 2019 Page 5 of 53Does the religious group actively proselytize and recruit new members:Notes: Tentative yes, although the details are unclear and there likely was not an official program ofproselytizing per se. Augustine certainly tries to recruit Donatists to Catholicism, including by means offorce if necessary (see for example Augustine, Epistula 93.2 (text: Goldbacher, 1898: 446; translation:Teske, 2001: 378). The rigorist nature of Donatism and their insistence on the ritual purity of thecommunity against the polluted Catholics suggests that widespread proselytizing would be difficult.(On the Donatists' self-conception as a ritually pure group, see Maureen Tilley, Sustaining Donatist Self-Identity: From the Church of the Martyrs to the Collecta of the Desert. Journal of Early Christian Studies,Volume 5, Number 1 (1997):21-35). However, it should be noted that there is evidence of Donatistsaccepting former Catholics into their midst, seeing anyone baptized by "Caecilianists" (i.e. supporters ofCaecilian, the Catholic candidate for bishop of Carthage during the contested episcopal election) asbeing no different than the unbaptized pagans (see Burns and Jensen, Christianity in Roman Africa,196).Does the religion have official political supportAssigned by some other factor:Yes [specify]: Donatists viewed anyone who lapsed (lapsi) during the persecutions aspotentially contaminating the entire community. Thus, one could not be a lapsed Christianand belong to the community. Donatists opposed the election of Caecilian to bishop ofCarthage on the grounds that had been ordained by Felix of Apthungi, who was said to havedenied food to imprisoned martyrs.—Yes—Is proselytizing mandated for religious professionals:No—Is proselytizing mandated for all adherents:No—Is missionary work mandated for religious professionals:No—Is missionary work mandated for all adherents:No—Is proselytization coercive:Notes: No evidence of Donatists forcibly converting pagans or Catholic Christians, althoughsome violent rhetoric is present on the other side, with Augustine allowing for use of force inconversions if necessary including by means of force if necessary (see for example Augustine,Epistula 93.2 (text: Goldbacher, 1898: 446; translation: Teske, 2001: 378).No—Barkman, Database of Religious History, 2019 Page 6 of 53Notes: Quite the opposite: it was opposed by emperors Constantine and Constans with persecutions in317-321 and 347-348 and later emperors including Theodosius I, Honorius, Arcadius, and Theodocius IIoccasionally interfered on behalf of the Catholics and instituted violence against the Donatists.Constantine’s affiliation with Christianity following his defeat of Maxentius in 312 and the Edict of Milanin 313 created the first opportunity for Christians to seek imperial intervention in their disputes. In 313,the bishop of Carthage died, and both the lenient Catholics and the rigorist Donatists sought to fill theposition with one of their own. When they were not able to reach an agreement with the Catholics, theDonatists appealed to Constantine. After a series of consultations, Constantine sided with the Catholics(who had a presence through the Empire and whose more inclusive policy towards lapsed Christiansprovided him with a larger base of potential supporters). Thus, Donatists were considered to be animperial enemy. Constantine instituted persecutions against the Donatists between 317 and 321. Thepersecution was likely called off in part because it was not working (Donatist self-identity as a churchof the martyrs allowed them to unite around the newly-created martyrs from Constantine’spersecution) and because war with Licinius for sole rule was becoming more imminent, and heneeded to focus his attention elsewhere. Donatist persecution was rekindled under Constantine’s sonConstans, who issued an edict that called for the forced unification of North African Christianity in 347.He sent two officials, Paulus and Macarius, who were involved in a violent incident in a town calledBagai. There, the local bishop summoned supporters to help defend the Donatists. In response,Macarius received military protection from the comes Africae, Silvester. The Donatists attacked themilitary scouts; in response, the soldiers massacred the entire group of Donatists in Bagai. Howeverviolent, this persecution was short-lived. In 348, Gratus, the Catholic bishop of Carthage, called a councilwhere both the Catholics and Donatists acknowledged that they had committed errors. Catholicattempts to use imperial interference to punish Donatist apostates led to sporadic outbreaks ofviolence on both sides during the reigns of Theodosius I, Arcadius, Honorius, and Theodosius II. TheConference of Carthage in 411 in particular represented a showdown between Catholic and Donatists,with the Catholic bishops advocating for violence. On the Donatist arguments in this conference, seeMaureen A. Tilley, "Dilatory Donatists or Procrastinating Catholics: The Trial at the Conference ofCarthage." Church History. Vol. 60, No. 1 (1991): 7-19. Donatists were threatened "financial, legal, andphysical punishments" for their apostasy (see Burns and Jensen, Christianity in Roman North Africa,54-57; Decret, Early Christianity in North Africa, 124-128). On Constantine’s relationship with theDonatist bishops, see Drake, H.A. Constantine and the Bishops. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins UniversityPress, 2000. 210–223. On the hearings that Constantine held, see Gaddis,"There is No Crime," 50–52. Onpossible reasons for Constantine to call off the persecutions, see (Frend, The Donatist Church, 159–162;Shaw, Sacred Violence, 191–193). For more on Constans’ persecution, see Shaw, Sacred Violence, 163-171.Specific to this answer:Date Range: 317 CE - 348 CEIs there a conception of apostasy in the religious group:Notes: The fact that they generally shared the same view of scripture, use of liturgy, ritual practices,and reverence for past leaders like Cyprian did not stop Donatists and Catholics from considering eachother to be apostates. Donatists considered themselves to be the pure church, and indeed the onlychurch that was unblemished by the sins of the lapsed. Both Catholics and Donatists veneratedmartyrs, but Donatists venerated post-Constantinian martyrs (that is, those who were killed byimperial/Catholic authorities). Likewise, Donatists were considered to be apostates by the Catholicslargely because of their different views on the lapsed martyrs and their practices of rebaptism.However, there was also the conception (particularly in the late-4th and early-5th centuries) as schismbeing equivalent to apostasy. Thus, by refusing to unite with the Catholics, the Donatists were guilty ofapostasy. In addition to the persecutions under Constantine and Constans, Catholic attempts to useNo—Yes—Barkman, Database of Religious History, 2019 Page 7 of 53imperial interference to punish Donatist apostates led to sporadic outbreaks of violence on both sidesduring the reigns of Theodosius I, Arcadius, Honorius, and Theodosius II. Donatists were threatened"financial, legal, and physical punishments" for their apostasy (Burns and Jensen, Roman Christianity inNorth Africa, 54-57; cf. Decret, Early Christianity in North Africa, 124-128).Are apostates prosecuted or punished:Notes: See above comment for the more detail about the ways in which Catholic (through theauthorities of the sympathetic imperial government) punished Donatists with persecutionsunder Constantine, Constans, and sporadic violence under later emperors like Theodosius I,Honorius, Arcadius, and Theodosius II. The Donatist martyr text, "The Acts of the AbitinianMartyrs", is particularly focused on condemning the actions of Catholics who either turned overbooks to the Roman authorities during the imperial persecutions or who block Donatistsupporters from bringing food and supplies to the imprisoned confessors. The text asserts, "it isnecessary that all those who handed over the divine testaments and the honoured laws of theomnipotent God and of the Lord Jesus Christ to be burned in profane fires should betormented in the eternal flames of Gehenna and inextinguishable fire." (Acts of the AbitinianMartyrs, 21. Trans. Tilley, Donatist Martyr Stories, 46). Furthermore, simply communicating withindividuals who turned over books results in rejection from the heavenly kingdom. Divinejudgment is also referred to in general, as the author writes, "Would anyone who is strong inthe knowledge of divine law, endowed with faith, outstanding in devotion and most holy inreligion, who realizes that God the Judge discerns truth from error, distinguishes faith fromfaithlessness, and isolates false pretence from sure and intact holiness, God who separates theupright from the lapsed, the unimpaired from the wounded, the just from the guilty, theinnocent from the condemned, the custodian of the Law from the traitor, the confessor of thename of Christ from the denier, the martyr of the Lord from the persecutor, would that personthink the church of the martyrs and the conventicle of traitors is one and the same thing? Ofcourse, no one does. For these repel each other so and they are as contrary to each other aslight to darkness, life to death, a holy angel to the devil, Christ to the Antichrist" (Acts of theAbitinian Martyrs, 22. Trans. Tilley, Donatist Martyr Stories, 46-47).Yes—Apostates are socially shunned and/or publicly vilified:Notes: Donatists believed that Christ had given the power to baptize to his apostles,whose traditions they upheld through the purity of their church. Bishops whocommitted apostasy, or who were in communion with the lapsed, were expelled fromthe community as a way of preventing contamination (Burns and Jensen, Christianityin Roman North Africa, 197-198). In some cases, social segregation of anyone associatedwith these bishops was also encouraged. Social shunning more in rhetorical writing ofreligious authorities like Augustine than in the practice of everyday Christians.Catholics and Donatists continue to live alongside each other, communicate with eachother, etc. Interestingly, both Augustine and an anonymous Donatist writer use theoccasion of raucous martyr feasts to condemn the other side for being more focusedon drinking and merriment than on properly venerating the martyrs. This sharedrhetoric about similar rituals demonstrates the significant areas of cultural overlapbetween the groups. For the Donatist sermon, see Pass. Donati et Advocati 3-4 (PL 8:752-58), trans. Tilley, 52-60. Augustine writes a great deal against martyr feasts, see forexample, Ep. 55.18.34 (CSEL 34.2: 208-9), trans. Teske, 233-34; and Ep. 29.11 (CSEL 34.1:121-22), trans. Teske, 100.Yes—Barkman, Database of Religious History, 2019 Page 8 of 53Wealth, civil rights, and/or social capital are taken by authorities:Notes: The confiscation of goods and property was a standard method for punishingthe subjects of persecution; Constantine and Constans both employed this tool in theirpersecutions of the Donatists.Yes—Do apostates receive corporal punishment:Notes: Violence used not as a means of punishment but as a means of coercion toconvince Donatists to return to the Catholic church. See Augustine's argument thatCatholics must repay Donatist violence with coercive violence of their own. He writes:'If, then, we scorned and endured these people who were once our fierce enemies andwho were attacking our peace and quiet with various sorts of violence and ambushes,so that we devised and did nothing at all that might be able to frighten and correctthem, we would really have repaid evil with evil" (Augustine, Epistula 93.2 [text:Goldbacher, 1898: 446; translation: Teske, 2001: 378]).No—Do apostates receive divine punishment:Notes: It was generally believed that God's wrath would fall upon anyone who did notproperly support the martyrs, or who worked with the authorities during thepersecutions (i.e. the Catholics). The Donatist martyr text, "The Acts of the AbitinianMartyrs", is particularly focused on condemning the actions of Catholics who eitherturned over books to the Roman authorities during the imperial persecutions or whoblock Donatist supporters from bringing food and supplies to the imprisonedconfessors. The text asserts, "it is necessary that all those who handed over the divinetestaments and the honoured laws of the omnipotent God and of the Lord Jesus Christto be burned in profane fires should be tormented in the eternal flames of Gehennaand inextinguishable fire." (Acts of the Abitinian Martyrs, 21. Trans. Tilley, DonatistMartyr Stories, 46). Furthermore, simply communicating with individuals who turnedover books results in rejection from the heavenly kingdom. Divine judgment is alsoreferred to in general, as the author writes, "Would anyone who is strong in theknowledge of divine law, endowed with faith, outstanding in devotion and most holy inreligion, who realizes that God the Judge discerns truth from error, distinguishes faithfrom faithlessness, and isolates false pretence from sure and intact holiness, God whoseparates the upright from the lapsed, the unimpaired from the wounded, the justfrom the guilty, the innocent from the condemned, the custodian of the Law from thetraitor, the confessor of the name of Christ from the denier, the martyr of the Lord fromthe persecutor, would that person think the church of the martyrs and the conventicleof traitors is one and the same thing? Of course, no one does. For these repel eachother so and they are as contrary to each other as light to darkness, life to death, a holyangel to the devil, Christ to the Antichrist" (Acts of the Abitinian Martyrs, 22. Trans.Tilley, Donatist Martyr Stories, 46-47).Yes—Punished in the afterlife:Notes: The Acts of the Abitinian Martyrs suggests that anyone who handedYes—Barkman, Database of Religious History, 2019 Page 9 of 53Size and StructureNumber of adherents of religious group within sample region (estimated population,numerical):Notes: It is notoriously difficult to estimate ancient population sizes. Decret (2009, pg. 144) estimatesthat the North African population was 6 million, and all Christians (Catholics and Donatists) neverexceeded a population of about 2 million in Late Antiquity. The number of Donatists fluctuated overtime, but did form a majority of the Christian population for much of the period. However, how great ofa majority, and exact numbers of membership, are difficult to discern. An indication of the majoritynature of the Donatists can be gleaned through records of church councils in which the affiliations ofthe bishops were recorded. John Whitehouse presents a breakdown of the bishops mentioned at theCouncil of Carthage in 411, and finds 55% were Donatist and 45% were Catholic. See chart inWhitehouse, "The Course of the Donatist Schism" in The Donatist Schism: Controversy and Contexts,page 17.over texts to the Roman authorities during the persecutions asserts, "should betormented in the eternal flames of Gehenna and inextinguishable fire." (Acts ofthe Abitinian Martyrs, 21. Trans. Tilley, Donatist Martyr Stories, 46).Cursed by "high god":Notes: In the Acts of the Abitinian Martyrs, God's judgment is expected onthose who turned over Christian texts to the Roman's authorities. Unclear if thiswould go so far as being "cursed": "Would anyone who is strong in theknowledge of divine law, endowed with faith, outstanding in devotion andmost holy in religion, who realizes that God the Judge discerns truth from error,distinguishes faith from faithlessness, and isolates false pretence from sure andintact holiness, God who separates the upright from the lapsed, theunimpaired from the wounded, the just from the guilty, the innocent from thecondemned, the custodian of the Law from the traitor, the confessor of thename of Christ from the denier, the martyr of the Lord from the persecutor,would that person think the church of the martyrs and the conventicle oftraitors is one and the same thing? Of course, no one does. For these repel eachother so and they are as contrary to each other as light to darkness, life todeath, a holy angel to the devil, Christ to the Antichrist" (Acts of the AbitinianMartyrs, 22. Trans. Tilley, Donatist Martyr Stories, 46-47).Field doesn't know—Cursed by other supernatural being(s):No—Other divine punishment:No—Estimated population, numeric: 1500000—Barkman, Database of Religious History, 2019 Page 10 of 53Number of adherents of religious group within sample region (% of sample regionpopulation, numerical):Notes: Decret (2009, pg. 144) estimates that all Christians (Catholics and Donatists) made up about33% of the entire population--Donatists were the majority of this, but how large of a majority is difficultto say.Nature of religious group [please select one]:Are there recognized leaders in the religious group:ScriptureDoes the religious group have scriptures:Scripture is a generic term used to designate revered texts that are considered particularly authoritativeand sacred relative to other texts. Strictly speaking, it refers to written texts, but there are also “oralscriptures” (e.g. the Vedas of India).Notes: On Donatist use of scripture, see Maureen Tilley, The Bible in Christian North Africa: The DonatistWorld. Minneapolis, Fortress Press, 1997. In addition to texts of the Hebrew Bible and scriptures thatEstimated population, percentage of sample region: 33—Large religious group (intolerant of other affiliations)—Yes—Is there a hierarchy among these leaders:Yes—"Regional" leaders who oversee one or more local leader(s) (e.g. bishops):Yes—Are religious leaders chosen:Yes—Other leaders in the religious group choose that leader:Specific to this answer:Status of Participants: ✓ Elite ✓ Religious SpecialistsYes—Are leaders considered fallible:Yes—Yes—Barkman, Database of Religious History, 2019 Page 11 of 53would come to make up the New Testament (which would not be codified until c. 367), Donatists alsoviewed the works of Cyprian as having authority. Cyprian was Bishop of Carthage from 248-258 (thus,during two periods of imperial persecution, under Decius and Valerian) and wrote a great deal aboutissues that concerned the Donatists, namely unity, purity, rebaptism, and martyrdom. Donatistsconsidered themselves to be heirs of Cyprian's thought in these respects. Finally, Donatists also madeuse of martyr texts and viewed these as important for demonstrating both proper behaviour for futuremartyrs as well as the legitimacy of their rigorist perspective.Are they written:Notes: On Donatist use of scripture, see Maureen Tilley, The Bible in Christian North Africa: TheDonatist World. Minneapolis, Fortress Press, 1997. In addition to texts of the Hebrew Bible andscriptures that would come to make up the New Testament (which would not be codified untilc. 367), Donatists also viewed the works of Cyprian as having authority. Cyprian was Bishop ofCarthage from 248-258 (thus, during two periods of imperial persecution, under Decian andValerian) and wrote a great deal about issues that concerned the Donatists, namely unity,purity, rebaptism, and martyrdom. Donatists considered themselves to be heirs of Cyprian'sthought in these respects. Finally, Donatists also made use of martyr texts and viewed these asimportant for demonstrating both proper behaviour for future martyrs as well as thelegitimacy of their rigorist perspective.Yes—Are they oral:Notes: However, excerpts from written scripture (including biblical and martyrdom texts)would be read aloud as part of church services. As the literacy rate was low, many peoplewould only have been familiar with these texts from hearing, rather than reading, them.No—Is there a story associated with the origin of scripture:Notes: Scripture was believed to be divinely inspired.Yes—Revealed by a high god:Notes: It is unclear what the difference is between "revealed" and "inspired" (below).The Donatists followed Cyprian in viewing the Bible as being "the voice of God or God'sSpirit filling the human writer". Further, the inspiration of the Holy Spirit also "provideddirectly to the reader a communication from God, a direct interpretation of a text"(Tilley, The Bible in Christian North Africa, 31). On Tertullian and Cyprian's use ofscriptures, see Tilley, The Bible in Christian North Africa, 20-42.Yes—Revealed by other supernatural being:Notes: It is unclear what the difference is between "revealed" and "inspired" (below).The Donatists followed Cyprian in viewing the Bible as being "the voice of God or God'sYes—Barkman, Database of Religious History, 2019 Page 12 of 53Architecture, GeographyIs monumental religious architecture present:Notes: Like other Christian groups, Donatists initially met within people's private homes. Somearchitectural modifications were likely made as the community grew and became more solidified(such as the removal of walls to expand rooms, for example). There was some construction of purpose-built structures before the Diocletian persecution, but archaeological evidence of these does notsurvive. Post-Constantine, Donatist construction of basilicas and cathedrals continued, although thebuildings were occasionally confiscated (or transferred to the Catholics) during the various periods ofpersecution. Donatist churches existed in cities that also had Catholic ones, including Carthage (theDonatist cathedral was known by its Greek name, Theoprepia [Divine Majesty]), Thamguadi, and HippoRegius. Augustine notes that the Donatist building was close enough to the Catholic one that hiscongregation could hear the Donatists' singing (Augustine, Ep. 29.11) (Burns and Jensen, RomanChristianity in North Africa, 87-91). It should be noted that there is no way to tell from thearchaeological structure itself whether or not a building was Donatist. Those churches that have beenclassified as Donatist have been identified based on inscriptions that reference either Donatist bishops(known from records of church councils in which their affiliation is made clear), or by martyrs usuallyassociated with Donatism (but whose affiliation is often more murky). The phrase "Deo laudes" wasonce thought to be enough to identify an inscription as Donatist, but the existence of this phrase inotherwise recognizably Catholic churches and writings has rendered this classification less solid.Furthermore, Catholics often reappropriated Donatist buildings after 411, which erased what otherSpirit filling the human writer". Further, the inspiration of the Holy Spirit also "provideddirectly to the reader a communication from God, a direct interpretation of a text"(Tilley, The Bible in Christian North Africa, 31). On Tertullian and Cyprian's use ofscriptures, see Tilley, The Bible in Christian North Africa, 20-42.Inspired by high god:Notes: It is unclear what the difference is between "revealed" (above) and "inspired".The Donatists followed Cyprian in viewing the Bible as being "the voice of God or God'sSpirit filling the human writer". Further, the inspiration of the Holy Spirit also "provideddirectly to the reader a communication from God, a direct interpretation of a text"(Tilley, The Bible in Christian North Africa, 31).Yes—Inspired by other supernatural being:No—Originated from divine or semi-divine human beings:Yes—Originated from non-divine human being:No—Yes—Barkman, Database of Religious History, 2019 Page 13 of 53evidence might have remained. For more on the difficulties with identifying Donatist archaeology, seeAnna Leone, "Tracing the Donatist Presence in North Africa: An Archaeological Perspective," in TheDonatist Schism: Controversy and Contexts (2016): 317-344.Are there different types of religious monumental architecture:Notes: Christians in North Africa (both Donatists and Catholics) built basilicas (modelled on the Romancivic structure) and converted Roman temples into churches (as with Carthage's Temple of Caelestis).Other types of structures included monasteries (beginning in the late fourth century), saints' shrines,tombs, cemetery churches, and baptistries. For an overview of the archeological evidence, including abreakdown of the ecclesiastical structures by city, see Burns and Jensen, Christianity in Roman NorthAfrica, 87-163). For detail specifically about martyr shrines and other structures related to the cult ofthe martyrs, see Duval, Yvette. Loca sanctorum Africae: Le culte des martyrs en Afrique du IVe au VIIesiècle. Tomes I et II. Paris: École française de Rome, 1982.Yes—Tombs:Notes: Christians in North Africa buried their dead in cemeteries (including surface tombs),catacombs (underground communal burial spaces), as well as in shrines, basilicas, andcemetery churches. Catholic and Donatist cemeteries cannot be readily distinguished fromone another based on either archaeological style or inscriptions (Burns and Jensen, Christianityin Roman Africa, 120-124).Yes—Cemeteries:Notes: Christians in North Africa buried their dead in cemeteries (including surface tombs),catacombs (underground communal burial spaces), as well as in shrines, basilicas, andcemetery churches. Catholic and Donatist cemeteries cannot be readily distinguished fromone another based on either archaeological style or inscriptions (Burns and Jensen, Christianityin Roman Africa, 120-124).Yes—Temples:No—Altars:Notes: Altars located within the nave of the church, although not uniformly within this space.The separation of the altar from the rest of the space suggests that access was restricted forclergy. Altars were covered with cloth and may have held martyrs' relics (Burns and Jensen,Christianity in Roman Africa, 101-102).Yes—Devotional markers:Yes—Barkman, Database of Religious History, 2019 Page 14 of 53Is iconography present:Notes: There is no known iconography that is recognizably "Donatist". It is difficult to identify churchesand other archaeological remains as "Donatist" because they do not differ from their Catholiccounterparts. Those churches that have been classified as Donatist have been identified based oninscriptions that reference either Donatist bishops (known from records of church councils in whichtheir affiliation is made clear), or by martyrs usually associated with Donatism (but whose affiliation isoften more murky). The phrase "Deo laudes" was once thought to be enough to identify an inscriptionas Donatist, but the existence of this phrase in otherwise recognizably Catholic churches and writingshas rendered this classification less solid. Furthermore, Catholics often reappropriated Donatistbuildings after 411, which erased what other evidence might have remained. For more on thedifficulties with identifying Donatist archaeology, see Anna Leone, "Tracing the Donatist Presence inNorth Africa: An Archaeological Perspective," in The Donatist Schism: Controversy and Contexts (2016):317-344.Are pilgrimages present:BeliefsBurial and AfterlifeIs a spirit-body distinction present:Answer “no” only if personhood (or consciousness) is extinguished with death of the physical body.Notes: Martyr shrines (martyrium) were established often at the place of burial, in cemeteriesoutside of the city walls. Major figures like Cyprian (a martyr in both Catholic and Donatisttraditions) may have more than one shrine. There was a shrine to Cyprian on the cite of hisexecution, as well as the place of his burial. Shrines may have different designs, and maycontain inscriptions indicating the martyr being honoured, artistic designs, and even mensae(tabletops) for partaking in the funerary feasts in celebration of the martyrs.Mass gathering point [plazas, courtyard, square. Places permanently demarcatedusing visible objects or structures]:No—Other type of religious monumental architecture:Notes: The largest martyrium is located in Theveste, dedicated to the martyr Crispina. Crispinawas claimed by both Catholics and Donatists, and it is unclear which group claims themartyrium (although Theveste is known for a strong Donatist population). Churches alsocontained inscriptions to martyrs, but this did not necessarily mean their remains werecontained there. See Burns and Jensen, Christianity in Roman Africa, 113-120; Duval, Locasanctorum Africae (throughout).Yes [specify]: Martyria (churches related to martyrs), martyr shrines—Field doesn't know—Yes—Barkman, Database of Religious History, 2019 Page 15 of 53Answering yes does not necessarily imply the existence of Cartesian mind/body dualism, merely thatsome element of personhood (or consciousness) survives the death of the body.Notes: There was no single understanding of the soul in late antiquity, although in general it wasconsidered to be something related to God, and distinct from the body. It is not clear whether theDonatists had a particular viewpoint on the soul, or whether they and the Catholics held shared views(which were likely diverse, but not necessarily split along Catholic-Donatist lines). Augustine hascomplex views on the soul, but generally considers it to be incorporeal, mutable, and created (seeRoland J. Teske, "Soul" in Augustine Through the Ages: An Encyclopedia. Ed. by Allan D. Fitzgerald.Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1999, 807-812).Belief in afterlife:Notes: Yes, although a focus on the afterlife as a reward in martyr texts is not as prominent in post-Constantinian Donatist works as it is in pre-Constantinian texts. See, for example, the beautiful gardenthat awaits Perpetua and her fellow martyrs, in Passio Perpetuae 1.3, composed sometime around 203,in comparison to the lack of discussion of heavenly reward in the Donatist Passion of Maxima,Donatilla, and Secunda, in which the audience is simply told that they "rested in peace, with our LordJesus Christ reigning, who lives with God the Father and reigns with the Holy Spirit forever and ever"(Passion of Maxima, Donatilla, and Secunda, 6. Trans. Tilley, Donatist Martyr Stories, 24). Instead,Donatist texts were more focused on how one's closeness with God allowed for the endurance ofsuffering on earth (Tilley, The Bible in Christian North Africa, 63). This can be seen in the elevation ofmilitary and athletic imagery (which, though present in pre-Constantinian martyr texts, is more centralin Donatist works). For example, one martyr texts describes itself as "an account of celestial battles andstruggles undertaken anew by the bravest soldiers of Christ, the unconquered warriors, the gloriousmartyrs...these enormous battle lines of confessors flew into the field of combat from all sides, andwhere any of them found the enemy, there they pitched the camp of the Lord" (Acts of the AbitinianMartyrs, 1-2. Trans. Tilley, Donatist Martyr Stories, 27-29). There is still an expectation of the afterlife, butthe focus is on the actions of the martyrs, not on the location or form of heaven.Yes—Spirit-mind is conceived of as having qualitatively different powers or properties thanother body parts:Yes—Spirit-mind is conceived of as non-material, ontologically distinct from body:No—Other spirit-body relationship:No—Yes—Is the spatial location of the afterlife specified or described by the religious group:Notes: While the afterlife is generally considered to be :above", the precise location andappearance of the afterlife is not a main focus of extant Donatist literature. Instead, the eternalYes—Barkman, Database of Religious History, 2019 Page 16 of 53Reincarnation in this world:Are there special treatments for adherents' corpses:Notes: Not particular to Donatists, but in general Christian burial practices in North Africa consisted ofwashing the body, anointing it with oil, and dressing it in clean clothes (similar to contemporaryRoman and Jewish practices). Burial should take place relatively quickly after death (some evidence inAugustine's writings indicates same-day burial, but this was not essential). Beginning in the middle ofthe 3rd century, the clergy became more involved with providing burial for the dead, althoughfunerals were still largely centred around the family and there were no specific prayers or liturgyrequired throughout (rather, this varied based on individual status, location, circumstances of death,etc.). On death rituals in late ancient Christianity, see: Carroll, Maureen. Spirits of the Dead: RomanFunerary Commemoration in Western Europe. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011; Rebillard, Éric. TheCare of the Dead in Late Antiquity. Translated by Elizabeth Trapnell Rawlings and Jeanine Routier-Pucci. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2009; Volp, Ulrich. Tod und Ritual in den christlichenGemeinden der Antike. Leiden: Brill, 2002.nature of the heavenly kingdom is emphasized.Afterlife in specified realm of space beyond this world:No—Afterlife in vaguely defined “above” space:Yes—Afterlife in vaguely defined “below” space:No—Afterlife in vaguely defined horizontal space:No—Afterlife located in "other" space:No—No—Yes—Cremation:No—Mummification:No—Barkman, Database of Religious History, 2019 Page 17 of 53Are co-sacrifices present in tomb/burial:Are grave goods present:Are formal burials present:Notes: Formal burials were not specific to Donatists. Christians largely adopted the structure of JewishInterment:Notes: The proper interment of bodies is particularly emphasized in martyr texts, and thelocation of martyr burials became pilgrimage sites for believers. For example, in the Passion ofMaximian and Isaac, some martyrs are killed at sea, but their bodies miraculously wash toshore so that they can be properly buried. The text reads: "Thus the blessed martyrs receivedthe interment due to them. The sisters and brothers provided the burial rites for which they allhad hoped. Thus Christ discredited the ineffectual plans of the traitors. He would not permitthe bodies of such people to remain unburied and he would not defraud the devotion of thepeople in any way, nor would he watch unmoved as the impious fulfilled their vows of crueltywith their blasphemy of his name" (16; trans. Tilley, Donatist Martyr Stories, 74).Yes—Cannibalism:No—Exposure to elements (e.g. air drying):No—Feeding to animals:No—Secondary burial:No—Re-treatment of corpse:No—Other intensive (in terms of time or resources expended) treatment of corpse :No—No—No—Yes—Barkman, Database of Religious History, 2019 Page 18 of 53and Roman burials, but different geographic regions had different rituals. In general, the body waswashed, anointed, and dressed, usually by female relatives. There might be a short period duringwhich the body was displayed in the home and mourners could pay their respects. The family wouldthen take the body to the cemetery in a procession that could be witnessed by the public. At thecemetery, the body was buried (at least initially, no clergy was required to be present for the burial, butsome prayers and hymns may be said. In the late-3rd and early-4th century, clergy participationincreased, and formalized funeral liturgy began to develop). At the graveside following burial, theremay be a funerary feast in which family members shared food and wine and told stories about thedeceased. These commemorative feasts for the dead (called refrigeria) seem to have been slowlyphased out by the Catholics (see Augustine, Confessions 6.2 on Monica bringing food and wine to thegraves of martyrs, and on Ambrose forbidding this practice), but there is some archaeological evidenceto suggest that the Donatists continued this practice. On evidence for Donatist refrigeria, see AnnaLeone, "Tracing the Donatist Presence in North Africa: An Archaeological Perspective," in The DonatistSchism: Controversy and Contexts. Ed. Richard Miles. Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 2016, 335,341. The proper interment of bodies is particularly emphasized in martyr texts, and the location ofmartyr burials became pilgrimage sites for believers. For example, in the Passion of Maximian andIsaac, some martyrs are killed at sea, but their bodies miraculously wash to shore so that they can beproperly buried. The text reads: "Thus the blessed martyrs received the interment due to them. Thesisters and brothers provided the burial rites for which they all had hoped. Thus Christ discredited theineffectual plans of the traitors. He would not permit the bodies of such people to remain unburiedand he would not defraud the devotion of the people in any way, nor would he watch unmoved as theimpious fulfilled their vows of cruelty with their blasphemy of his name" (16; trans. Tilley, DonatistMartyr Stories, 74).As cenotaphs:No—In cemetery:Notes: Christians in North Africa buried their dead in cemeteries (including surface tombs),catacombs (underground communal burial spaces), as well as in shrines, basilicas, andcemetery churches. Catholic and Donatist cemeteries cannot be readily distinguished fromone another based on either archaeological style or inscriptions (Burns and Jensen, Christianityin Roman Africa, 120-124).Yes—Family tomb-crypt:Notes: Christians in North Africa buried their dead in cemeteries (including surface tombs),catacombs (underground communal burial spaces), as well as in shrines, basilicas, andcemetery churches. Catholic and Donatist cemeteries cannot be readily distinguished fromone another based on either archaeological style or inscriptions (Burns and Jensen, Christianityin Roman Africa, 120-124).Yes—Domestic (individuals interred beneath house, or in areas used for normal domesticactivities):No—Barkman, Database of Religious History, 2019 Page 19 of 53Supernatural BeingsAre supernatural beings present:Notes: Although they do not feature prominently in Donatist writings, Christians generally believed inangels (benevolent spirits) as well as daemons (evil spirits, usually). Different groups had differentunderstandings of the exact composition of angels and daemons, although many Christians drew onexamples from Scripture. For example, Paul writes of different kinds of spirits (angels, daemons,archangels, etc.) in Romans 8:38 and 1 Thessalonians 4:16. Many Christian thinkers were also influencedby philosophical views on spiritual beings. The supernatural figure of Satan also appears frequently inmartyr texts.Other formal burial type:No—Yes—A supreme high god is present:Notes: All Christians, including Donatists, believe in one all-powerful God, as described in theOld and New Testaments. He is often referred to as the Father.Yes—The supreme high god is anthropomorphic:Notes: God is often described as "Father". For example, this can be seen in the DonatistPassion of Maxima, Donatilla, and Secunda. In this text, Secunda, a 12-year-old girl,asserts, "It is better for me to defy my father according to the flesh and to love myspiritual Father" (Passion of Maxima, Donatilla, and Secunda 4. Trans. Tilley, DonatistMartyr Stories, 22). However, there is no specifically Donaist art that depicts God inhumanized form.Yes—The supreme high god is a sky deity:No—The supreme high god is chthonic (of the underworld):No—The supreme high god is fused with the monarch (king=high god):No—The monarch is seen as a manifestation or emanation of the high god:No—Barkman, Database of Religious History, 2019 Page 20 of 53The supreme high god is a kin relation to elites:No—The supreme high god has another type of loyalty-connection to elites:No—The supreme high god is unquestionably good:Yes—Other feature(s) of supreme high god:No—The supreme high god has knowledge of this world:Yes—The supreme god's knowledge is restricted to particular domain ofhuman affairs:No—The supreme high god's knowledge is restricted to (a) specific area(s)within the sample region:No—The supreme high god's knowledge is unrestricted within the sampleregion:Yes—The supreme high god's knowledge is unrestricted outside of sampleregion:Yes—The supreme high god can see you everywhere normally visible (inpublic):Yes—The supreme high god can see you everywhere (in the dark, at home):Yes—Barkman, Database of Religious History, 2019 Page 21 of 53The supreme high god can see inside heart/mind (hidden motives):Yes—The supreme high god knows your basic character (personal essence):Yes—The supreme high god knows what will happen to you, what you will do(future sight):Yes—The supreme high god has other knowledge of this world:No—The supreme high god has deliberate causal efficacy in the world:Notes: God is all-powerful within the world and has the ability to influence individuallives. Within the context of Donatism, it is helpful to look at the way God is discussed inmartyr texts. For example, God's presence allows the Abitinian martyrs to "[bear] thepalm of victory over suffering" (Acts of the Abitinian Martyrs 2. Trans. Tilley, DonatistMartyr Stories, 29-30). In another section of the same text, a Christian woman namedVictoria flung herself from a cliff rather than be forced into a marriage. She was savedby "compliant breezes" (i.e. provided by God) and immediately took refuge in theChurch (Acts of the Abitinian Martyrs 17. Trans. Tilley, Donatist Martyr Stories, 42).Yes—The supreme high god can reward:Yes—The supreme high god can punish:Notes: Divine judgment is referred to in the Donatist Acts of the AbitinianMartyrs: "Would anyone who is strong in the knowledge of divine law, endowedwith faith, outstanding in devotion and most holy in religion, who realizes thatGod the Judge discerns truth from error, distinguishes faith from faithlessness,and isolates false pretence from sure and intact holiness, God who separatesthe upright from the lapsed, the unimpaired from the wounded, the just fromthe guilty, the innocent from the condemned, the custodian of the Law fromthe traitor, the confessor of the name of Christ from the denier, the martyr ofthe Lord from the persecutor, would that person think the church of themartyrs and the conventicle of traitors is one and the same thing? Of course, noone does. For these repel each other so and they are as contrary to each otheras light to darkness, life to death, a holy angel to the devil, Christ to theAntichrist" (Acts of the Abitinian Martyrs, 22. Trans. Tilley, Donatist MartyrStories, 46-47).Yes—Barkman, Database of Religious History, 2019 Page 22 of 53The supreme high god has indirect causal efficacy in the world:Yes—The supreme high god exhibits positive emotion:Yes—The supreme high god exhibits negative emotion:Yes—The supreme high god possesses hunger:No—Is it permissible to worship supernatural beings other than the high god:No—The supreme high god possesses/exhibits some other feature:No—The supreme high god communicates with the living:Notes: God is believed to speak directly to the martyrs, often through dreams or visions.Martyrs are also seen as being able to intercede with other Christians on behalf of Godby virtue of being willing to die for him.Yes—In waking, everyday life:Notes: Visions may appear in waking as well as sleep.Yes—In dreams:Notes: Martyrs and others might have dreams in which God offers guidance orsupport. God is usually represented symbolically, as in Perpetua's first vision, inwhich God appears as a shepherd (Passion of Perpetua 4; trans. Musurillo, 111).Yes—In trance possession:Notes: Unclear how some visions might be best understood/described, as oftenthe focus is on the content of the vision rather than on the demeanour of theperson receiving the vision.Field doesn't know—Barkman, Database of Religious History, 2019 Page 23 of 53Through divination practices:Notes: Unclear--visions might be requested, although it doesn't seem asthough there is a set divination process for this. For example, in the Passion ofPerpetua, Perpetua is asked by her companions to request a vision so that theymight know whether they are to face martyrdom. The text reads: "Then mybrother said to me, 'Dear sister, you are greatly privileged; surely you might askfor a vision to discover whether you are to be condemned or freed.' Faithfully Ipromised that I would, for I knew that I could speak with the Lord, whose greatblessings I had come to experience." (Passion of Perpetua 4; trans. Mursurillo,111). Her subsequent vision includes a shepherd (usually understood torepresent God) as well as "many thousands of people clad in white garments",perhaps representing other martyrs or saints. While this text was writtenbefore the Donatist period, it was widely promulgated in North Africa andinfluenced the way other martyr texts were written.Field doesn't know—Only through religious specialists:No—Only through monarchNo—Other form of communication with living:No—Previously human spirits are present:Notes: There was a understanding that martyrs could intercede on behalf of Christians (in theform of healing miracles that may occur after visiting shrines or tombs, for example). Althoughwritten before the Donatist period, The Martyrdom of Marian and James is from Numidia(where Donatism would be prominent) and contains a dream in which Marian sees themartyr-bishop Cyprian welcoming him to heaven (Martyrdom of Marian and James 6;Musurillo, 203). The presence of Cyprian within the dream serves to comfort Marian and hisfellow martyrs. Another North African text from around the same time, The Martyrdom ofMontanus and Lucius contains a vision by a female martyr named Quartillosa, who sees herhusband and son (who were martyred 3 days earlier) in an afterlife. Her deceased martyr sonoffers her comfort (Martyrdom of Montanus and Lucius 8; Musurillo, 221). Both of these textsalso contain references to disunity within the church community, and place the blame for thepersecutions not on the Roman officials but on the behaviour of other Christians, whichsuggests that they would be appealing to the Donatists, who considered themselves to be theinheritors of the entire martyr tradition. The martyrs were not only able to influence others infull bodily form. For example, in The City of God 22, Augustine recounts miracles that tookplace when Stephen's relics were brought to North Africa. Healing miracles occurred whenindividuals brought items of clothing of the sick or the deceased to the shrine, or when a bodyYes—Barkman, Database of Religious History, 2019 Page 24 of 53was anointed with oil from the shrine.Human spirits can be seen:Notes: Occasionally deceased individuals appear in visions/dreams. For example, in theMartyrdom of Montanus and Lucius, contains a vision by a female martyr namedQuartillosa, who sees her husband and son (who were martyred 3 days earlier) in anafterlife. Her deceased martyr son offers her comfort (Martyrdom of Montanus andLucius 8 (Musurillo, The Acts of the Christian Martyrs, 221). Martyrs are not the onlyhuman spirits that can be seen in dreams/visions, however. In the Passion of Perpetua,Perpetua has two visions of her deceased brother, Dinocrates (Passion of Perpetua 7-8(Musurillo, 115, 117). Again, these texts are not specifically Donatist, but they are fromNorth Africa. As Donatists considered themselves to be the inheritors of the entiremartyr tradition, it is possible that they claimed these texts as well.Yes—Human spirits can be physically felt:Yes—Previously human spirits have knowledge of this world:Yes—Human spirits' knowledge restricted to particular domain of humanaffairs:No—Human spirits' knowledge restricted to (a) specific area(s) within thesample region:No—Human spirits' knowledge unrestricted within the sample region:Yes—Human spirits' knowledge unrestricted outside of sample region:Yes—Human spirits can see you everywhere normally visible (in public):Yes—Human spirits can see you everywhere (in the dark, at home):Yes—Barkman, Database of Religious History, 2019 Page 25 of 53Human spirit's can see inside heart/mind (hidden motives):Yes—Human spirits know your basic character (personal essence):Yes—Human spirits know what will happen to you, what you will do (futuresight):No—Human spirits have other form(s) of knowledge regarding this world:No—Human spirits have deliberate causal efficacy in the world:Notes: The spirits or relics of martyrs are linked to miracles, but the rewards of themiracles are ultimately a result of the power of God, not the martyrs.No—Human spirits have indirect causal efficacy in the world:Yes—Human spirits have memory of life:Notes: In some martyr texts, though not specifically Donatist ones, confessors havevisions or dreams in which previously-deceased people provide comfort, support, orencouragement. For example, in the Martyrdom of Montanus and Lucius, Quartillosasees a vision of her husband and son, who had been martyred days prior. Her soncomforts her and seems to know who she is (Martyrdom of Montanus and Lucius 8.Musurillo, 221). However, it is unclear whether this is always the case, or whethermartyrs are special in this regard.Yes—Human spirits exhibit positive emotion:Notes: Often, martyr texts depict visions in which previously-deceased martyrs or otherreligious figures welcome the confessors to heaven or act to otherwise comfort andsupport the martyrs. For example although written before the Donatist period, TheMartyrdom of Marian and James is from Numidia (where Donatism would beprominent) and contains a dream in which Marian sees the martyr-bishop Cyprianwelcoming him to heaven (Martyrdom of Marian and James 6; Musurillo, 203). Thepresence of Cyprian within the dream serves to comfort Marian and his fellow martyrs.Another North African text from around the same time, The Martyrdom of MontanusYes—Barkman, Database of Religious History, 2019 Page 26 of 53and Lucius contains a vision by a female martyr named Quartillosa, who sees herhusband and son (who were martyred 3 days earlier) in an afterlife. Her deceasedmartyr son offers her comfort (Martyrdom of Montanus and Lucius 8; Musurillo, 221).Human spirits exhibit negative emotion:Notes: Typically, the visions reveal the previously-deceased martyrs providing positiveemotions that serve to comfort and support. While not directed at the person receivingthe vision, in the Passion of Perpetua, Perpetua's deceased brother Dinocrates is shownas suffering in the afterlife. He died of a cancer of the face, and the wound is still visible.He is also dirty and unable to reach the water to quench his thirst. Prayer is revealed toheal and clean him in a subsequent vision, and he is then also able to drink. (Passion ofPerpetua 2.3-3.4). This text was written before the Donatist period, but was popularthroughout North Africa and influenced other martyr texts.Field doesn't know—Human spirits possess hunger:No—Human spirits possess/exhibit some other feature:No—Human spirits communicate with the living:Notes: In general, it was believed that martyrs could intercede with God on behalf ofthe living. Lay Christians could visit martyr shrines to ask for miracles, but would notnecessarily expect to receive direct communication from the martyrs (although theymight see a vision in which the martyr provided instructions). Martyrs didcommunicate with confessors (martyrs-to-be) through visions, usually to offer comfortor reassurance. For example, although written before the Donatist period, TheMartyrdom of Marian and James is from Numidia (where Donatism would beprominent) and contains a dream in which Marian sees the martyr-bishop Cyprianwelcoming him to heaven (Martyrdom of Marian and James 6; Musurillo, 203). Thepresence of Cyprian within the dream serves to comfort Marian and his fellow martyrs.Another North African text from around the same time, The Martyrdom of Montanusand Lucius contains a vision by a female martyr named Quartillosa, who sees herhusband and son (who were martyred 3 days earlier) in an afterlife. Her deceasedmartyr son offers her comfort (Martyrdom of Montanus and Lucius 8; Musurillo, 221).Both of these texts also contain references to disunity within the church community,and place the blame for the persecutions not on the Roman officials but on thebehaviour of other Christians, which suggests that they would be appealing to theDonatists, who considered themselves to be the inheritors of the entire martyrtradition. Usually, there is a sense that the communication is requested by the livingparticipant, by virtue of asking for guidance or strength during their trials, if notdirectly asking for a vision.Yes—Barkman, Database of Religious History, 2019 Page 27 of 53In waking, everyday life:Notes: In the martyr texts, confessors communicate with martyrs in the specificcontext of visions or dreams, but these can come spontaneously. For example,in the Passion of Perpetua (which is not specifically Donatist, but is a significanttext in North Africa), Perpetua spontaneously speaks the name of her deceasedbrother, Dinocrates, while praying, and then has a vision of him. He does nottechnically visit her in waking, everyday life, however.Field doesn't know—In dreams:Notes: Confessors' visions of martyrs often occur in the context of dreams whileimprisoned. For example, although it was written before the Donatist period,The Martyrdom of Marian and James is from Numidia (where Donatism wouldbe prominent) and shows Marian having a dream in which the martyr-bishopCyprian welcomes the martyr Marian to heaven (Martyrdom of Marian andJames 6; Musurillo, 203). The presence of Cyprian within the dream serves tocomfort Marian and his fellow martyrs.Yes—In trance possession:Notes: Unclear how some visions might be best understood/described, as oftenthe focus is on the content of the vision rather than on the demeanour of theperson receiving the vision.Field doesn't know—Through divination processes:Notes: Unclear--visions might be requested, although it doesn't seem asthough there is a set divination process for this. For example, in the Passion ofPerpetua, Perpetua is asked by her companions to request a vision so that theymight know whether they are to face martyrdom. The text reads: "Then mybrother said to me, 'Dear sister, you are greatly privileged; surely you might askfor a vision to discover whether you are to be condemned or freed.' Faithfully Ipromised that I would, for I knew that I could speak with the Lord, whose greatblessings I had come to experience." (Passion of Perpetua 4; trans. Mursurillo,111). Her subsequent vision includes a shepherd (usually understood torepresent God) as well as "many thousands of people clad in white garments",perhaps representing other martyrs or saints. While this text was writtenbefore the Donatist period, it was widely promulgated in North Africa andinfluenced the way other martyr texts were written.Field doesn't know—Only through specialists:Notes: Anyone, whether male or female, lay or clergy, could receive a vision.Confessors (those imprisoned awaiting martyrdom) were believed to have aNo—Barkman, Database of Religious History, 2019 Page 28 of 53closer connection to God by virtue of being willing to die for their faith, andmay have subsequently been seen as being more likely to have visions.Only through monarch:No—Communicate with living through other means:No—Non-human supernatural beings are present:Notes: Although they do not feature prominently in Donatist writings, Christians generallybelieved in angels (benevolent spirits) as well as daemons (evil spirits, usually). Different groupshad different understandings of the exact composition of angels and daemons, althoughmany Christians drew on examples from Scripture. For example, Paul writes of different kindsof spirits (angels, daemons, archangels, etc.) in Romans 8:38 and 1 Thessalonians 4:16. ManyChristian thinkers were also influenced by philosophical views on spiritual beings. Thesupernatural figure of Satan also appears frequently in martyr texts. Often the strugglebetween martyrs and the Roman persecutors is reframed as a struggle between martyrs/Godand Satan. For example, in the Acts of the Abitinian Martyrs, the martyrs are described as "thearmy of the Lord" engaged in a battle "to be fought not so much against human beings asagainst the devil" (Acts of the Abitinian Martyrs 2. Trans. Tilley, Donatist Martyr Stories, 28).Yes—These supernatural beings can be seen:Yes—These supernatural beings can be physically felt:Field doesn't know—Non-human supernatural beings have knowledge of this world:Notes: While not Donatist, Augustine was writing during the Donatist controversy andthere may have been some overlap of ideas. Augustine argues that angels have directaccess to the divine will of God. He also believes that they are able to have knowledgeof creatures within the divine realms and knowledge of created things (Augustine, Onthe Literal Interpretation of Genesis). On Augustine and angels, see Frederick VanFletteren. "Angels" in Augustine Through the Ages: An Encyclopedia, 20-22.Yes—Non-human supernatural beings have knowledge restricted toparticular domain of human affairs:No—Barkman, Database of Religious History, 2019 Page 29 of 53Non-human supernatural beings have knowledge restricted to (a)specific area(s) within the sample region:No—Non-human supernatural beings have knowledge unrestricted withinthe sample region:Yes—Non-human supernatural beings have knowledge unrestricted outsideof sample region:Yes—Non-human supernatural beings can see you everywhere normallyvisible (in public):Yes—Non-human supernatural beings can see you everywhere (in the dark, athome):Yes—Non-human supernatural beings can see inside heart/mind (hiddenmotives):Field doesn't know—Non-human supernatural beings knows your basic character (personalessence):Field doesn't know—Non-human supernatural beings know what will happen to you, whatyou will do (future sight):Yes—Non-human supernatural begins have other knowledge of this world:Field doesn't know—Non-human supernatural beings have deliberate causal efficacy in the world:Notes: Angels appear to humans in visions/dreams as well as when they are awakeand act as intermediaries for God. Donatists (as well as Catholics) generally see angelsYes—Barkman, Database of Religious History, 2019 Page 30 of 53as deputies of God. For example, the Catholic bishop Optatus interprets the Donatistbishop Parmenian as describing angles as the ones who prepare the way for the Spiritto enter the baptismal waters (see Tilley, The Bible in Christian North Africa, 105).These supernatural beings can reward:No—These supernatural beings can punish:No—These supernatural beings have indirect causal efficacy in the world:Field doesn't know—These supernatural beings exhibit positive emotion:Yes—These supernatural beings exhibit negative emotion:Yes—These supernatural beings possess hunger:Notes: While not Donatist, Augustine believes that angles do not need nourishment(Augustine, sermon 362).No—These supernatural beings possess/exhibit some other feature:No—Mixed human-divine beings are present:Notes: This is a difficult question to answer, since Augustine describes Christ in various writingsas both mortal and divine/equal with God. The uniqueness of Jesus in this case leads me toselect "no", as there are no other figures within north African Christianity/Donatism who wouldqualify as "mixed human-divine beings".No—Does the religious group possess a pantheon of supernatural beings:Notes: Although they do not feature prominently in Donatist writings, Christians generallybelieved in angels (benevolent spirits) as well as daemons (evil spirits, usually). Different groupshad different understandings of the exact composition of angels and daemons, althoughYes—Barkman, Database of Religious History, 2019 Page 31 of 53Supernatural MonitoringIs supernatural monitoring present:This refers to surveillance by supernatural beings of humans’ behaviour and/or thought particularly as itrelates to social norms or potential norm violations.many Christians drew on examples from Scripture. For example, Paul writes of different kindsof spirits (angels, daemons, archangels, etc.) in Romans 8:38 and 1 Thessalonians 4:16. ManyChristian thinkers were also influenced by philosophical views on spiritual beings. Thesupernatural figure of Satan also appears frequently in martyr texts. Often the strugglebetween martyrs and the Roman persecutors is reframed as a struggle between martyrs/Godand Satan. For example, in the Acts of the Abitinian Martyrs, the martyrs are described as "thearmy of the Lord" engaged in a battle "to be fought not so much against human beings asagainst the devil" (Acts of the Abitinian Martyrs 2. Trans. Tilley, Donatist Martyr Stories, 28).Organized by kinship based on a family model:No—Organized hierarchically:Yes—Power of beings is domain specific:No—Other organization for pantheon:No—Yes—There is supernatural monitoring of prosocial norm adherence in particular:Prosocial norms are norms that enhance cooperation among members of the group, includingobviously “moral” or “ethical” norms, but also extending to norms concerning honouring contractsand oaths, providing hospitality, coming to mutual aid in emergencies, etc.Yes—Supernatural beings care about taboos:No—Supernatural beings care about murder of coreligionists:Yes—Barkman, Database of Religious History, 2019 Page 32 of 53Supernatural beings care about murder of members of other religions:Yes—Supernatural beings care about murder of members of other polities:Yes—Supernatural beings care about sex:Yes—Adultery:Yes—Incest:Yes—Other sexual practices:No—Supernatural beings care about lying:Yes—Supernatural beings care about honouring oaths:Yes—Supernatural beings care about laziness:Yes—Supernatural beings care about sorcery:Field doesn't know—Supernatural beings care about non-lethal fighting:Field doesn't know—Supernatural beings care about shirking risk:Yes—Barkman, Database of Religious History, 2019 Page 33 of 53Do supernatural beings mete out punishment:Notes: The Donatists believed that God's wrath would be sent down upon the Catholics (and otherapostates) because of their actions during the persecutions (such as handing over scriptures toauthorities, etc.) The Donatist martyr text, "The Acts of the Abitinian Martyrs", is particularly focused oncondemning the actions of Catholics who either turned over books to the Roman authorities duringthe imperial persecutions or who block Donatist supporters from bringing food and supplies to theimprisoned confessors. The text asserts, "it is necessary that all those who handed over the divinetestaments and the honoured laws of the omnipotent God and of the Lord Jesus Christ to be burned inprofane fires should be tormented in the eternal flames of Gehenna and inextinguishable fire." (Acts ofthe Abitinian Martyrs, 21. Trans. Tilley, Donatist Martyr Stories, 46). Furthermore, simply communicatingwith individuals who turned over books results in rejection from the heavenly kingdom. DivineSupernatural beings care about disrespecting elders:Yes—Supernatural beings care about gossiping:Yes—Supernatural beings care about property crimes:Field doesn't know—Supernatural beings care about proper ritual observance:Yes—Supernatural beings care about performance of rituals:Yes—Supernatural beings care about conversion of non-religionists:Yes—Supernatural beings care about economic fairness:Field doesn't know—Supernatural beings care about personal hygiene:No—Supernatural beings care about other:No—Yes—Barkman, Database of Religious History, 2019 Page 34 of 53judgment is also referred to in general, as the author writes, "Would anyone who is strong in theknowledge of divine law, endowed with faith, outstanding in devotion and most holy in religion, whorealizes that God the Judge discerns truth from error, distinguishes faith from faithlessness, andisolates false pretence from sure and intact holiness, God who separates the upright from the lapsed,the unimpaired from the wounded, the just from the guilty, the innocent from the condemned, thecustodian of the Law from the traitor, the confessor of the name of Christ from the denier, the martyrof the Lord from the persecutor, would that person think the church of the martyrs and theconventicle of traitors is one and the same thing? Of course, no one does. For these repel each other soand they are as contrary to each other as light to darkness, life to death, a holy angel to the devil, Christto the Antichrist" (Acts of the Abitinian Martyrs, 22. Trans. Tilley, Donatist Martyr Stories, 46-47).Is the cause or agent of supernatural punishment known:Notes: God is the only one who can punish. The Donatists believed that God's wrath would besent down upon the Catholics (and other apostates) because of their actions during thepersecutions (such as handing over scriptures to authorities, etc.) The Donatist martyr text,"The Acts of the Abitinian Martyrs", is particularly focused on condemning the actions ofCatholics who either turned over books to the Roman authorities during the imperialpersecutions or who block Donatist supporters from bringing food and supplies to theimprisoned confessors. The text asserts, "it is necessary that all those who handed over thedivine testaments and the honoured laws of the omnipotent God and of the Lord Jesus Christto be burned in profane fires should be tormented in the eternal flames of Gehenna andinextinguishable fire." (Acts of the Abitinian Martyrs, 21. Trans. Tilley, Donatist Martyr Stories, 46).Furthermore, simply communicating with individuals who turned over books results inrejection from the heavenly kingdom. Divine judgment is also referred to in general, as theauthor writes, "Would anyone who is strong in the knowledge of divine law, endowed withfaith, outstanding in devotion and most holy in religion, who realizes that God the Judgediscerns truth from error, distinguishes faith from faithlessness, and isolates false pretencefrom sure and intact holiness, God who separates the upright from the lapsed, the unimpairedfrom the wounded, the just from the guilty, the innocent from the condemned, the custodianof the Law from the traitor, the confessor of the name of Christ from the denier, the martyr ofthe Lord from the persecutor, would that person think the church of the martyrs and theconventicle of traitors is one and the same thing? Of course, no one does. For these repel eachother so and they are as contrary to each other as light to darkness, life to death, a holy angelto the devil, Christ to the Antichrist" (Acts of the Abitinian Martyrs, 22. Trans. Tilley, DonatistMartyr Stories, 46-47).Yes—Done only by high god:Yes—Done by many supernatural beings:No—Done through impersonal cause-effect principle:No—Barkman, Database of Religious History, 2019 Page 35 of 53Done by other entities or through other means [specify]No—Is the reason for supernatural punishment known:Notes: God's punishment is a result of the sin of lapsing during the persecutions (that is,turning over texts to the Roman authorities, avoiding martyrdom, or otherwise failing toproperly support the martyrs).Yes—Done to enforce religious ritual-devotional adherence:Notes: God's punishment is a result of failure to stand firm in the face of persecutions.In some later Donatist writings, this is associated with idolatry--the Catholics knew Godand yet turned away from him towards earthly things. On this, see Tilley, "The Bible inChristian North Africa", 165-166.Yes—Done to enforce group norms:Notes: Somewhat--the Donatist expectation was that their members would retain thepurity of the community at first through their actions during the persecutions (ofresistance to the Roman authorities, and martyrdom, if called upon). After thepersecutions were over, the expectation was that the Donatists would not associatewith anyone (especially officials) who had lapsed during the persecutions because theirsin would act as a contagion to the rest of the community. However, the punishmentitself was not specifically to enforce these norms, but rather a result of these norms notbeing followed.Field doesn't know—Done to inhibit selfishness:No—Done randomly:No—Other [specify]No—Supernatural punishments are meted out in the afterlife:Notes: Those who sinned by lapsing during the persecutions or associating with those who didcould be rejected from heaven and face God's wrath. The Donatist martyr text, "The Acts of theAbitinian Martyrs", is particularly focused on condemning the actions of Catholics who eitherYes—Barkman, Database of Religious History, 2019 Page 36 of 53Do supernatural beings bestow rewards:Notes: Just as God punished those who lapsed during the persecutions, he also rewarded those whostayed strong and either became martyrs or supported the martyrs. The reward of eternal life inparadise with God is available to all pure faithful Christians, as emphasized in martyr texts such as "TheSermon on the Passion of Saints Donatus and Advocatus": "A multiplicity of battles tests you on earth,turned over books to the Roman authorities during the imperial persecutions or who blockDonatist supporters from bringing food and supplies to the imprisoned confessors. The textasserts, "it is necessary that all those who handed over the divine testaments and thehonoured laws of the omnipotent God and of the Lord Jesus Christ to be burned in profanefires should be tormented in the eternal flames of Gehenna and inextinguishable fire." (Acts ofthe Abitinian Martyrs, 21. Trans. Tilley, Donatist Martyr Stories, 46). Furthermore, simplycommunicating with individuals who turned over books results in rejection from the heavenlykingdom.Supernatural punishments in the afterlife are highly emphasized by thereligious group:Notes: While those who sinned by lapsing during the persecutions or associating withthose who did could be rejected from heaven and face God's wrath, the actual natureof this punishment in the afterlife is not a particular focus of Donatist writings. See ingeneral Tilley, The Bible in Christian North Africa.No—Punishment in the afterlife consists of mild sensory displeasure:Field doesn't know—Punishment in the afterlife consists of extreme sensory displeasure:Field doesn't know—Punishment in the afterlife consists of reincarnation as an inferior life form:No—Punishment in the afterlife consists of reincarnation in an inferior realm:No—Other [specify]No—Supernatural punishments are meted out in this lifetime:No—Yes—Barkman, Database of Religious History, 2019 Page 37 of 53crowns you in heaven, and commends you to the Lord Christ" (14; trans. Tilley, Donatist Martyr Texts,60).Is the cause/purpose of supernatural rewards known:Notes: God rewards those who remain faithful. This includes martyrs, who die rather thanrenounce their faith, as well as those who support martyrs during the persecution or veneratemartyrs once the period of persecution is over. For example, "The Sermon on the Passion ofSaints Donatus and Advocatus" notes: "Scrutinizing the hearts of all, God honours with thereward of the martyrs those whom He saw suffering with the full measure of devotion, for Heseeks not the blood but he faith of believers" (9; trans. Tilley, Donatist Martyr Texts, 58).Yes—Done only by high god:Notes: Only God can reward, just as only God can punish.Yes—Done by many supernatural beings:No—Done through impersonal cause-effect principle:No—Done to enforce religious ritual-devotional adherence:Notes: Not necessarily specific ritual behaviour, but devotion is important. God rewardsthose who remain faithful. This includes martyrs, who die rather than renounce theirfaith, as well as those who support martyrs during the persecution or venerate martyrsonce the period of persecution is over. For example, "The Sermon on the Passion ofSaints Donatus and Advocatus" notes: "Scrutinizing the hearts of all, God honours withthe reward of the martyrs those whom He saw suffering with the full measure ofdevotion, for He seeks not the blood but he faith of believers" (9; trans. Tilley, DonatistMartyr Texts, 58).No—Done to enforce group norms:No—Done to inhibit selfishness:No—Done randomly:No—Barkman, Database of Religious History, 2019 Page 38 of 53Messianism/EschatologyAre messianic beliefs present:Notes: Yes - as with other Christian groups, Jesus was considered to be the Messiah who had come toSupernatural rewards are bestowed out in the afterlife:Notes: The reward is specifically related to receiving eternal life in paradise with God.Yes—Supernatural rewards in the afterlife are highly emphasized by the religiousgroup:Notes: Eternal life is frequently mentioned as a reward in Donatist martyr texts, bothfor martyrs and for their adherents.Yes—Reward in the afterlife consists of mild sensory pleasure:No—Reward in the afterlife consists of extreme sensory pleasure:No—Reward in the afterlife consists of eternal happiness:Yes—Reward in the afterlife consists of reincarnation as a superior life form:No—Reward in the afterlife consists of reincarnation in a superior realm:No—Other [specify]No—Supernatural rewards are bestowed out in this lifetime:Notes: The focus is primarily on heavenly rewards (eternal life) after death, which is fitting of areligious group whose identity is focused on martyrdom.Field doesn't know—Yes—Barkman, Database of Religious History, 2019 Page 39 of 53save the world through his teachings, death, and resurrection. It was believed that he would one dayreturn to usher in a new kingdom.Norms and Moral RealismAre general social norms prescribed by the religious group:Notes: Donatists and Catholics followed the same broad set of social norms. They were expected tofollow Scripture for guidance on behaviour and to generally to behave in a modest way.Is there a conventional vs. moral distinction in the religious group:PracticesMembership Costs and PracticesDoes membership in this religious group require celibacy (full sexual abstinence):Notes: Donatist martyr texts reveal that Donatists could be married or celibate. For example, the Actsof the Abitinian Martyrs attests to Donatists who were married ("another married woman namedJanuaria"), who had children ("Saturninus and his four children"), as well as individuals who remainedcelibate ("Maria, the consecrated virgin") (Acts of the Abitinian Martyrs 2; trans. Maureen A. Tilley,Donatist Martyr Stories: The Church in Conflict in Roman North Africa. Liverpool: Liverpool UniversityPress, 1997. 27-49).Does membership in this religious group require constraints on sexual activity (partial sexualabstinence):Does membership in this religious group require castration:Is the messiah's whereabouts or time of coming known?Notes: Although the life and death of Jesus could be placed in history, the time and place of hisreturn were unknown.No—Is the messiah's purpose known:Notes: The purpose of the messiah was to save humans from sin, although the exact nature ofthis salvation was debated among various Christian groups.Yes—Yes—Field doesn't know—No—No—Barkman, Database of Religious History, 2019 Page 40 of 53Does membership in this religious group require fasting:Notes: While it was not required, fasting was an important penitential practice that evolved informality and function over the years. Tertullian, for example, emphasized fasting in relation tomartyrdom in that it helped to prepare the body to undergo the austerity of prisons and the pain oftorture (Tertullian, De Ieiunio 8.3). Cyprian also emphasized the importance of fasting duringpersecution, both as a way of gaining divine support for one's prayers, and especially as part of therepentance of sins (Cyprian, De Lapsi, 29-31, 35). During the time of Augustine, fasting was formalizedand he emphasized connections between fasting days and the life of Jesus (for example, Christianstypically fasted on Wednesday and Friday, which Augustine highlighted as being related to the day ofJesus' arrest [Wednesday] and his execution [Friday]) (Augustine, Ep. 36.13.30). For futher informationon fasting, see Burns and Jensen, Christianity in Roman Africa, 563-569). Donatist martyr textsoccasionally refer to moderation with food, if not official fasting. In The Passion of Maximian and Isaac,the martyr Maximian drinks a bit of wine that miraculously comes to reflect a crown (representing thecrown of martyrdom). Despite this sign and the fact that he only drank a small amount, he vomits itup the next day as he prepares to be martyred (The Passion of Maximian and Isaac, 4. Trans. Tilley,Donatist Martyr Stories, 65-66).Does membership in this religious group require forgone food opportunities (taboos ondesired foods):Does membership in this religious group require permanent scarring or painful bodilyalterations:Does membership in this religious group require painful physical positions or transitorypainful wounds:Does membership in this religious group require sacrifice of adults:"Adults" here referring to an emic or indigenous category; if that category is different from the popularWestern definition of a human who is 18-years-old or older and who is legally responsible for his/heractions, then please specify that difference in the Comments/Sources: box below.Does membership in this religious group require sacrifice of children:"Children" here referring to an emic or indigenous category; if that category is different from the popularWestern definition, please specify that different in the Comments/Sources: box below.No—No—No—No—No—No—No—Barkman, Database of Religious History, 2019 Page 41 of 53Does membership in this religious group require self-sacrifice (suicide):Notes: While suicide was not a requirement of Donatism, critics commonly associated Donatists withhaving an uncomfortable desire for death and with practicing self-killing. While some Donatists likelydid kill themselves (or volunteer for martyrdom), the frequency of this (and the discrepancy betweenthe Donatists and Catholics who engaged in such practices) was certainly exaggerated for rhetoricaleffect. For example, Augustine writes in a letter to an imperial official: "Then it has become a dailysport...for them to kill themselves by jumping off sheer cliffs or by fire or by water. The Devil taughtthem these three kinds of death, so that, when they wished to die and could find no one to frighteninto killing them with a sword, they would hurl themselves from precipices or expose themselves tofire or to water" (Augustine, Ep. 185.3.12). For more on suicide, Augustine, and the Donatists, see Shaw,Sacred Violence, 721-770.Does membership in this religious group require sacrifice of property/valuable items:Does membership in this religious group require sacrifice of time (e.g., attendance atmeetings or services, regular prayer, etc.):Notes: Like Catholics, Donatists held weekly church services (on Sundays) in addition to othercelebrations such as commemorative feasts on the anniversary of martyrs' deaths. Prayer at home alsooccurred, although this would have varied on an individual level.Does membership in this religious group require physical risk taking:Notes: Yes, to some extent - Donatists expected to face persecution and potential torture/execution ifthe opportunity presented itself (other Christian groups asserted that individuals could try to avoidpersecution through various methods including flight or bribery of officials). Donatist martyr textsinclude stories of individuals volunteering for martyrdom, such as the young female martyr Secunda,who is inspired to leave her family and join other martyrs when the procession passes by her window.See the Passion of Maxima, Donatilla, and Secunda in Tilley, Donatist Martyr Stories, 17-24.Does membership in this religious group require accepting ethical precepts:Notes: The main difference between Donatists and other Christian groups (most prominently, theCatholics in North Africa) was not based on ethical behaviour in every day life; rather, it was based onthe perceived actions of the Catholics during the persecutions of the Christians. The Donatists accusedsome Catholic leaders of lapsing during the persecutions (by handing over scriptures, sacrificing to thegods, etc.), thereby polluting the entire community. The Donatists saw themselves as being the puregroup, untainted by these ethical breaches during the persecutions, or by subsequently beingbaptized or ordained by those who had lapsed. Thus, Donatists were expected to not give in topersecutions, and valued martyrdom as the highest ideal. On other general ethical precepts, such asobeying the teachings of the Scriptures and behaving in a broadly moral way, the Catholics andDonatists broadly agreed. On the Donatist self-perception as the pure group among the impureCatholics, see Maureen Tilley, "Sustaining Donatist Self-Identity: From the Church of the Martyrs to theNo—No—Yes—Yes—Yes—Barkman, Database of Religious History, 2019 Page 42 of 53Collecta of the Desert." Journal of Early Christian Studies 5 (1997), 21-35. On the Donatist use ofScripture see Maureen Tilley, The Bible in Christian North Africa. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1997.Does membership in this religious group require marginalization by out-group members:Notes: Donatists strongly believed that sin within the Catholic community was contagious, and sosocial segregation was necessary, especially at the level of church officials. That is, if an official wasordained by someone who was deemed to be an apostate, or who had lapsed during the persecutions,that sin was passed on to the official as well as everyone else in their community. Therefore, theDonatists were able to claim to be the only "pure" community.Does membership in this religious group require participation in small-scale rituals (private,household):Notes: Prayer at home, etc.Does membership in this religious group require participation in large-scale rituals:I.e. involving two or more households; includes large-scale “ceremonies” and “festivals.”Notes: Church services, celebratory feasts in honour of the martyrs on the anniversaries of their deaths.Little is known about the details of the Donatist celebrations, as descriptions largely survive in anti-Donatist writings.Yes—Yes—What is the average interval of time between performances (in hours):Performances here refers to large-scale rituals.Field doesn't know—Yes—On average, for large-scale rituals how many participants gather in one location:Field doesn't know—What is the average interval of time between performances (in hours):Performances here refers to large-scale rituals.Field doesn't know—Are there orthodoxy checks:Orthodoxy checks are mechanisms used to ensure that rituals are interpreted in a standardizedway, e.g. through the supervisory prominence of a professionalized priesthood or other system ofgovernance, appeal to texts detailing the proper interpretation, etc.Notes: The precise nature of these is unclear, as we do not have Donatist texts that provideYes—Barkman, Database of Religious History, 2019 Page 43 of 53Are extra-ritual in-group markers present:E.g. special changes to appearance such as circumcision, tattoos, scarification, etc.Does the group employ fictive kinship terminology:Notes: Like other Christian groups, Donatists conceived of their fellow members as belonging to ametaphorical family, and they used familial terms like "brother" and "sister" to refer to each other in ageneral sense. See for example, the Donatist Passion of Maximian and Isaac, in which the audience forthe text is addressed as "brother and sisters", and in which a group of Christians having a mealtogether is described as "a meal with some of the sisters and brothers..." (Passion of Maximian andIsaac 1, 4. Trans. Tilley, Donatist Martyr Stories, 62, 64). Beyond sibling language, however, familial termslike father and spouse were also used in a metaphorical sense by some Christians. For example,individuals who converted to Christianity, or who sided with the Donatist sect, did so despite theirfamilies' objections; thus, the Christian community took the family's place. An example of this can beseen in the Donatist Passion of Maxima, Donatilla, and Secunda. Secunda is only 12 years old when shedecides to flee her family and join the other martyrs Maxima and Donatilla. They try to dissuade her bypointing out her obligations to her father, but she replies: "It is better for me to defy my fatheraccording to the flesh and to love my spiritual Father." Likewise, Secunda replaces her earthly spousewith a heavenly one: "I seek a spiritual spouse, Jesus Christ" (Passion of Maxima, Donatilla, and Secundasuch information, but it seems likely given their general focus on ensuring the martyrs wereproperly venerated and the Catholic attempts to regulate their own members' behaivourswith regards to martyr veneration.Are there orthopraxy checks:Orthopraxy checks are mechanisms used to ensure that rituals are performed in a standardizedway, e.g. through the supervisory prominence of a professionalized priesthood or other system ofgovernance, appeal to texts detailing the proper procedure, etc.Notes: The precise nature of these is unclear, as we do not have Donatist texts that providesuch information, but it seems likely given their general focus on ensuring the martyrs wereproperly venerated and the Catholic attempts to regulate their own members' behaivourswith regards to martyr veneration.Yes—Does participation entail synchronic practices:Field doesn't know—Is there use of intoxicants:Notes: Wine seems to have been an important element of martyr feasts and contributed tothe celebratory atmosphere, however it does not seem to have been necessary to drink inorder to participate in the ritual. Indeed, there were no spiritual benefits to becomingintoxicated; in fact, over-indulgence was discouraged.No—No—Yes—Barkman, Database of Religious History, 2019 Page 44 of 534. Trans. Tilley, Donatist Martyr Stories, 22).Society and InstitutionsLevels of Social ComplexityThe society to which the religious group belongs is best characterized as (please chooseone):Notes: Donatism was localized within North Africa, although small communities developed in Romeand Spain. Still, North Africa was an important province within the Roman Empire. Its capital, Carthagewas a large and wealthy city, and the province provided much of the grain for Rome. Additionally, theearly 3rd century emperor Septimius Severus was from the province. Donatists interacted with theEmpire because they initially sought imperial intervention on their behalf, and were ultimately thetargets of imperial persecution.WelfareDoes the religious group in question provide institutionalized famine relief:Is famine relief available to the group's adherents through an institution(s) other than thereligious group in question:Does the religious group in question provide institutionalized poverty relief:Fictive kinship terminology universal:Notes: Used for all members of the group, but not universally for outsidersNo—Fictive kinship terminology widespread:Notes: Kinship terminology is not reserved only for martyrs, but rather is used for everyonewithin the religious community (esp. phrases like "brother and sister" for fellow worshippers,and the conception of God as "Father").Yes—Fictive kinship terminology employed but uncommon:No—An empire—No—No—Yes—Barkman, Database of Religious History, 2019 Page 45 of 53Notes: n general, Christians in North Africa were expected to provide support for the poor, widows,orphans, etc. whenever possible. For example, writing in the late second century, Tertullian asserts:"Though we have our treasure-chest, it is not made up of purchase-money, as of a religion that has itsprice. On the monthly day,if he likes, each puts in a small donation; but only if it be his pleasure, andonly if he be able: for there is no compulsion; all is voluntary. [6] These gifts are, as it were, piety'sdeposit fund. For they are not taken thence and spent on feasts, and drinking-bouts, and eating-houses, but to support and bury poor people, to supply the wants of boys and girls destitute of meansand parents, and of old persons confined now to the house; such, too, as have suffered shipwreck; andif there happen to be any in the mines, or banished to the islands, or shut up in the prisons, for nothingbut their fidelity to the cause of God's Church, they become the nurslings of their confession" (Apology,39.5-6; Trans. Thelwall http://www.tertullian.org/anf/anf03/anf03-05.htm). During the middle of thethird century, almsgiving and care for the poor became more central as wealthier Christians providedfor those who were arrested or who fled. Almsgiving was also an important part of repentance forapostasy under Cyprian (see Cyprian's treatise, On Works and Alms). Augustine likewise emphasizedthe importance of giving alms, and even the poor were expected to give what they could. For furtherdiscussion, see Burns and Jensen, Christianity in Roman Africa, 570-580 Evidence that Donatistscontinued the practice of providing food and other goods for imprisoned confessors can be seen in theActs of the Abitinian martyrs, wherein the Catholic bishop refused to allow Donatists to do so: TheCatholic bishop, Caecilian was "stationed...before the doors of the prison, armed whips and lashes so hemight turn away from the entrance and exit all those who brought food and drink to the martyrs inprison, further harming those already wronged by grave injustice. People who came to nourish themartyrs were struck down right and left by Caecilian. The cups for the thirsty inside in chains werebroken. At the entrance to the prison food was scattered only to be torn apart by the dogs" (Acts of theAbitinian Martyrs, 20. Trans. Tilley, Donatist Martyr Stories, 45).Is poverty relief available to the group's adherents through an institution(s) other than thereligious group in question:Does the religious group in question provide institutionalized care for the elderly and infirm:Notes: In general, Christians in North Africa were expected to provide support for the poor, widows,orphans, etc. whenever possible. For example, writing in the late second century, Tertullian asserts:"Though we have our treasure-chest, it is not made up of purchase-money, as of a religion that has itsprice. On the monthly day,if he likes, each puts in a small donation; but only if it be his pleasure, andonly if he be able: for there is no compulsion; all is voluntary. [6] These gifts are, as it were, piety'sdeposit fund. For they are not taken thence and spent on feasts, and drinking-bouts, and eating-houses, but to support and bury poor people, to supply the wants of boys and girls destitute of meansand parents, and of old persons confined now to the house; such, too, as have suffered shipwreck; andif there happen to be any in the mines, or banished to the islands, or shut up in the prisons, for nothingbut their fidelity to the cause of God's Church, they become the nurslings of their confession" (Apology,39.5-6; Trans. Thelwall http://www.tertullian.org/anf/anf03/anf03-05.htm). Evidence that Donatistscontinued the practice of providing food and other goods for imprisoned confessors can be seen in theActs of the Abitinian martyrs, wherein the Catholic bishop refused to allow Donatists to do so: TheCatholic bishop, Caecilian was "stationed...before the doors of the prison, armed whips and lashes so hemight turn away from the entrance and exit all those who brought food and drink to the martyrs inprison, further harming those already wronged by grave injustice. People who came to nourish themartyrs were struck down right and left by Caecilian. The cups for the thirsty inside in chains werebroken. At the entrance to the prison food was scattered only to be torn apart by the dogs" (Acts of theNo—Yes—Barkman, Database of Religious History, 2019 Page 46 of 53Abitinian Martyrs, 20. Trans. Tilley, Donatist Martyr Stories, 45).Is institutionalized care for the elderly and infirm available to the group's adherents throughan institution(s) other than the religious group in question:EducationDoes the religious group provide formal education to its adherents:Is formal education available to the group’s adherents through an institution(s) other thanthe religious group:Notes: No state-sponsored education system. Formal education via either schools or private tutorsdependent on social status, family priority, etc. Children also learned life skills at home from same-gender parents, sons followed their fathers' profession.BureaucracyDo the group’s adherent’s interact with a formal bureaucracy within their group:Notes: I take bureaucracy to mean officials within the church. By the early fourth century, there was anestablished clerical hierarchy in North African Christianity. Indeed, the Donatist schism emerged inpart because of a failure to follow proper procedures in electing a new Bishop of Carthage (thedelegates were supposed to wait for the Numidian bishops to arrive, but instead voted to elect aCatholic bishop before the Numidians arrived to cast their votes). On the development of the order ofthe clergy in North Africa, see Burns and Jensen, Roman Christianity in Africa, 363-439. The purity ofthe clergy was also central to Donatist identity. They regarded anyone who had lapsed during thepersecutions as having the capacity to contaminate the community. Thus, they were illegitimate andwere excluded from the Donatist hierarchy. See, for example, the heavily critical way that the DonatistsActs of the Abitinian Martyrs treats the Catholic bishop, who is accused of violently preventingDonatists from providing food for the imprisoned confessors (Acts of the Abitinian Martyrs, 21. Trans.Tilley, Donatist Martyr Stories, 45).Do the group’s adherents interact with other institutional bureaucracies:Notes: Donatism emerged because of a contested episcopal election, which resulted in competinginstitutional bureaucracies. Donatist officials engaged with Catholic officials (i.e. bishops) frequentlyboth in-person (informally and at church councils) and through letters. Additionally, in manycommunities, there was both a Catholic and Donatist church, and the congregations would haveinteracted in many informal ways through the course of daily life. The Donatists also engaged with theimperial bureaucracy, as Donatist bishops sought imperial support for their position (this wasultimately futile, and emperors such as Constantine and his son Constans initiated persecutionsNo—No—No—Yes—Yes—Barkman, Database of Religious History, 2019 Page 47 of 53against the Donatists).Public WorksDoes the religious group in question provide public food storage:Is public food storage provided to the group’s adherents by an institution(s) other than thereligious group in question:Notes: Imperial/provincial authorities (but not specifically for Donatists alone)Does the religious group in question provide water management (irrigation, flood control):Is water management provided to the group’s adherents by an institution(s) other than thereligious group in question:Notes: Water supply was the domain of the imperial government, executed by local officials.Carthage's water supply came from springs in the mountain near the current town of Zaghouan,about 130km from the city. The aqueduct that carried the water from Zaghouan to Carthage (and thesmaller towns along the way) was constructed at some point in the second century, with portionsbeing added as necessary. Once in Carthage, the water was collected in massive cisterns (today knownas the Cisterns of La Malga) for distribution throughout the city (the cisterns seem to pre-date theaqueduct, but it is not known from where they received their water prior to the aqueduct'sconstruction). For further information, see Wilson, A. I. “Water Supply in Ancient Carthage.” CarthagePapers: The Early Colony’s Economy, Water Supply, a Public Bath and the Mobilization of State OliveOil. Journal of Roman Archaeology Supplementary Series. Portsmouth, RI: 1998. 65-102.Does the religious group in question provide transportation infrastructure:Is transportation infrastructure provided for the group’s adherents by an institution(s) otherthan the religious group in question:Notes: Throughout its history, the Roman Empire constructed an extensive network roads, primarily formilitary purposes. Carthage was destroyed in the Third Punic War in the mid-2nd c. BCE and the citywas rebuilt by Rome in the mid-1st c. BCE. The Romans also built roads throughout the region of NorthAfrica as they expanded their territory.TaxationNo—Yes—No—Yes—No—Yes—Barkman, Database of Religious History, 2019 Page 48 of 53Does the religious group in question levy taxes or tithes:Notes: In general, Christians in North Africa were expected to provide support for the poor, widows,orphans, etc. whenever possible. For example, writing in the late second century, Tertullian asserts:"Though we have our treasure-chest, it is not made up of purchase-money, as of a religion that has itsprice. On the monthly day,if he likes, each puts in a small donation; but only if it be his pleasure, andonly if he be able: for there is no compulsion; all is voluntary. [6] These gifts are, as it were, piety'sdeposit fund. For they are not taken thence and spent on feasts, and drinking-bouts, and eating-houses, but to support and bury poor people, to supply the wants of boys and girls destitute of meansand parents, and of old persons confined now to the house; such, too, as have suffered shipwreck; andif there happen to be any in the mines, or banished to the islands, or shut up in the prisons, for nothingbut their fidelity to the cause of God's Church, they become the nurslings of their confession" (Apology,39.5-6; Trans. Thelwall http://www.tertullian.org/anf/anf03/anf03-05.htm). During the middle of thethird century, almsgiving and care for the poor became more central as wealthier Christians providedfor those who were arrested or who fled. Almsgiving was also an important part of repentance forapostasy under Cyprian (see Cyprian's treatise, On Works and Alms). Augustine likewise emphasizedthe importance of giving alms, and even the poor were expected to give what they could. Augustineadvised wealthy Christians that they did not need to give away all possessions, but that a tithe wasappropriate. He argues: "So, are they to lose their possessions? Let them share, he said, not “Let themgive everything away.” Let them keep what's enough for them, let them keep more than enough. Letus give away a certain part of that. How big a part? A tithe, or tenth part. The scribes and Phariseesused to give tithes. We should be ashamed of ourselves, brothers and sisters. Those people for whomChrist had not yet shed his blood used to give tithes. The scribes and Pharisees used to give a tenth oftheir possessions, in case you should imagine, perhaps, that you are doing something terrific when youbreak your bread to the poor; and it's scarcely one part in a thousand of your wealth." (Augustine Serm.85.4.5. Trans. Edmund Hill. The Works of Saint Augustine: A Translation for the 21st Century. Sermons,(51-94) on the Old Testament. Volume III/3. Page 393). It is unclear whether the Donatists held rigoristviews on wealth like Cyprian, or whether they adhered to tithing like Augustine advocated, orsomething else altogether. For further information on the way property and wealth were discussed inChristian North Africa, see Burns and Jensen, Christianity in Roman Africa, 570-580.Are taxes levied on the group’s adherents by an institution(s) other than the religious group inquestion:Notes: Imperial/provincial authorities (but not specifically for Donatists alone)EnforcementDoes the religious group in question provide an institutionalized police force:Do the group’s adherents interact with an institutionalized police force provided by aninstitution(s) other than the religious group in question:Does the religious group in question provide institutionalized judges:No—Yes—No—No—Barkman, Database of Religious History, 2019 Page 49 of 53Notes: Bishops and other officials may intercede in disputes between congregants, whether religiousin nature or not, and in that way take the place of judges. The Donatist text "Gesta apud Zeonphilum"contains a letter to a community that tried to take their bishop to a civil court. Bishop Fortis advisesthe clergy to follow the words of Paul in 1 Corinthians 6:5-6, which advises the Corinthians to solveproblems within their own community, not within Roman courts (Tilley, The Bible in Christian NorthAfrica, 81).Do the group’s adherents interact with an institutionalized judicial system provided by an aninstitution(s) other than the religious group in question:Notes: Many Donatist martyr texts feature transcriptions of interrogations and trials in which themartyrs-to-be interact with Roman officials within the judicial system. The Christians are condemnedto death as a result of legal rulings. See for example The Donatist Passion of Cyprian, The Acts of SaintFelix Bishop and Martyr (both translated by Tilley in The Donatist Martyr Stories, 1996). Additionally, theDonatist text "Gesta apud Zeonphilum" contains a letter to a community that tried to take their bishopto a civil court. Bishop Fortis advises the clergy to follow the words of Paul in 1 Corinthians 6:5-6, whichadvises the Corinthians to solve problems within their own community, not within Roman courts(Tilley, The Bible in Christian North Africa, 81).Does the religious group in question enforce institutionalized punishment:Are the group’s adherents subject to institutionalized punishment enforced by aninstitution(s) other than the religious group in question:Notes: Roman imperial forces sporadically initiated persecutions, in general aimed at creating "unity"by forcing the Donatists to conform to Catholic teachings with regards to lapsed Christians.Punishment included confiscation of property, forced exile, torture, and execution.Yes—Yes—No—Yes—Do the institutionalized punishments include execution:Notes: Roman imperial forces sporadically initiated persecutions, in general aimed at creating"unity" by forcing the Donatists to conform to Catholic teachings with regards to lapsedChristians. Punishment included confiscation of property, forced exile, torture, and execution.Yes—Do the institutionalized punishments include exile:Notes: Roman imperial forces sporadically initiated persecutions, in general aimed at creating"unity" by forcing the Donatists to conform to Catholic teachings with regards to lapsedChristians. Punishment included confiscation of property, forced exile, torture, and execution.Yes—Do the institutionalized punishments include corporal punishments:Barkman, Database of Religious History, 2019 Page 50 of 53Does the religious group in question have a formal legal code:Are the group’s adherents subject to a formal legal code provided by institution(s) other thanthe religious group in question:Notes: Donatists were subject to Roman imperial law. Many Donatist martyr texts featuretranscriptions of interrogations and trials in which the martyrs-to-be interact with Roman officialswithin the judicial system. The Christians are condemned to death as a result of legal rulings. See forexample The Donatist Passion of Cyprian, The Acts of Saint Felix Bishop and Martyr (both translated byTilley in The Donatist Martyr Stories, 1996).WarfareDoes religious group in question possess an institutionalized military:Do the group’s adherents participate in an institutionalized military provided byinstitution(s) other than the religious group in question:Notes: Christians (not just Donatists) in the Roman army occasionally became martyrs if, for example,they refused to swear allegiance to the emperor. For pre-Donatist examples from North Africa, see theActs of Maximilian and the Acts of Marcellinus (both translated in Mursurillo, the Acts of the ChristianMartyrs, 1972).Notes: Roman imperial forces sporadically initiated persecutions, in general aimed at creating"unity" by forcing the Donatists to conform to Catholic teachings with regards to lapsedChristians. Punishment included confiscation of property, forced exile, torture, and execution.Yes—Do the institutionalized punishments include ostracism:Notes: Roman imperial forces sporadically initiated persecutions, in general aimed at creating"unity" by forcing the Donatists to conform to Catholic teachings with regards to lapsedChristians. Punishment included confiscation of property, forced exile, torture, and execution.Yes—Do the institutionalized punishments include seizure of property:Notes: Roman imperial forces sporadically initiated persecutions, in general aimed at creating"unity" by forcing the Donatists to conform to Catholic teachings with regards to lapsedChristians. Punishment included confiscation of property, forced exile, torture, and execution.Yes—No—Yes—No—Yes—Barkman, Database of Religious History, 2019 Page 51 of 53Are the group’s adherents protected by or subject to an institutionalized military providedby an institution(s) other than the religious group in question:Notes: The Roman military was charged with carrying out Constantine's persecution orders in 317-321.See the account provided in the Sermon Given on the Passion of Saints Donatus and Advocatus (trans.Tilley, Donatist Martyr Texts, 1996, 51-61). Another period of persecution began in 347. The emperorsent two officials, Paulus and Macarius, who were involved in a violent incident in a town called Bagai.There, the local bishop summoned supporters to help defend the Donatists. In response, Macariusreceived military protection from the comes Africae, Silvester. The Donatists attacked the militaryscouts; in response, the soldiers massacred the entire group of Donatists in Bagai.Written LanguageDoes the religious group in question possess its own distinct written language:Is a non-religion-specific written language available to the group’s adherents through aninstitution(s) other than the religious group in question:Notes: By the 4th century, Latin was the liturgical language of the North African church, althoughmany religious officials would also have spoken Greek.Is a non-religion-specific written language used by the group’s adherents through aninstitution(s) other than the religious group in question:CalendarDoes the religious group in question possess a formal calendar:Notes: Tertullian acknowledges the importance of commemorating martyrs, but he does not indicateany formal celebrations on the anniversaries of their deaths. By the time of Cyprian, however, it is clearthat the cult of the martyrs was becoming more organized and that celebrations of the martyrs’“birthdays” were becoming more common. For example, in one letter, Cyprian emphasizes theimportance of keeping a record of the dates of the martyrs’ deaths so that they might be included infuture celebrations. In another, he asserts that such annual commemorations had been going on forgenerations, as he refers to a confessor, Celerinus, knowing what would happen after his martyrdomsince his grandmother and uncles had also been martyrs. In their cases (and therefore in Celerinus’also), Cyprian writes, “[W]e offer sacrifices for them always, as you remember, as often as we celebratethe passions and days of the martyrs with an annual commemoration.” (Cyprian, Ep. 39.3. [CCSL 3B:188-89], trans. ACW 44: 55. Augustine likewise preached special sermons on the feast days of certainmartyrs, and seems to have followed a particular liturgical calendar. A calendar of the church ofCarthage is extant, but it is from the fifth century and it is not clear whether it was promulgatedthroughout the province (indeed, some of the celebrations do not correspond to those found inYes—No—Yes—Yes—Yes—Barkman, Database of Religious History, 2019 Page 52 of 53Augustine's works). See Burns and Jensen, Roman Christianity in Africa, 534-535. No Donatist calendarsurvives, but the focus on celebration of martyrs suggests that they would have kept track of thesedays and honoured them accordingly.Is a formal calendar provided for the group’s adherents by an institution(s) other than thereligious group in question:Food ProductionDoes the religious group in question provide food for themselves:Is food provided to the group’s adherents by an institution(s) other than the religious groupin question:Yes—No—No—Barkman, Database of Religious History, 2019 Page 53 of 53
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