Forestry, Faculty of
Alumni
Non UBC
DSpace
University of British Columbia. National Parks Research Center
Sheng, Gonghan
Chen, Heyuan
Ferretti-Gallon, Kalifi
Innes, John L.
Wang, Zhongjun
Zhang, Yujun
Wang, Guangyu
National parks have been adopted for over a century to enhance the protection of valued natural landscapes in countries worldwide. For decades, China has emphasized the importance of economic growth over ecological health to the detriment of its protected areas. After decades of environmental degradation, dramatic loss of biodiversity, and increasing pressure from the public to improve and protect natural landscapes, China’s central government recently proposed the establishment of a pilot national park system to address these issues. This study provides an overview of the development of selected conventional protected areas (CPAs) and the ten newly established pilot national parks (PNPs). A literature review was conducted to synthesize the significant findings from previous studies, and group workshops were conducted to integrate expert knowledge. A qualitative analysis was performed to evaluate the effectiveness of the pilot national park system. The results of this study reveal that the PNP system could be a potential solution to the two outstanding issues facing CPAs, namely the economic prioritization over social and ecological considerations that causes massive ecological degradation, and the conflicting, overlapping, and inconsistent administrative and institutional structures that result in serious inefficiencies and conflicts.
landReviewMoving toward a Greener China: Is China’s NationalPark Pilot Program a Solution?Gonghan Sheng 1, Heyuan Chen 1 , Kalifi Ferretti-Gallon 1 , John L. Innes 1 ,Zhongjun Wang 1,2, Yujun Zhang 2 and Guangyu Wang 1,*1 National Park Research Centre, Faculty of Forestry, University of British Columbia,Vancouver, BC V6T1Z4, Canada; jerrys92@mail.ubc.ca (G.S.); jacksonchy@alumni.ubc.ca (H.C.);kalifi.ferretti-gallon@ubc.ca (K.F.-G.); john.innes@ubc.ca (J.L.I.); wangzj814@bjfu.edu.cn (Z.W.)2 National Park Research Lab, School of Landscape Architecture, Beijing Forestry University, 35 Qinghua E Rd,Beijing 100091, China; yjzhang@bjfu.edu.cn* Correspondence: guangyu.wang@ubc.ca; Tel.: +1-604-822-2681Received: 29 October 2020; Accepted: 30 November 2020; Published: 2 December 2020Abstract: National parks have been adopted for over a century to enhance the protection of valuednatural landscapes in countries worldwide. For decades, China has emphasized the importance ofeconomic growth over ecological health to the detriment of its protected areas. After decades ofenvironmental degradation, dramatic loss of biodiversity, and increasing pressure from the publicto improve and protect natural landscapes, China’s central government recently proposed theestablishment of a pilot national park system to address these issues. This study provides an overviewof the development of selected conventional protected areas (CPAs) and the ten newly established pilotnational parks (PNPs). A literature review was conducted to synthesize the significant findings fromprevious studies, and group workshops were conducted to integrate expert knowledge. A qualitativeanalysis was performed to evaluate the effectiveness of the pilot national park system. The results ofthis study reveal that the PNP system could be a potential solution to the two outstanding issuesfacing CPAs, namely the economic prioritization over social and ecological considerations that causesmassive ecological degradation, and the conflicting, overlapping, and inconsistent administrativeand institutional structures that result in serious inefficiencies and conflicts.Keywords: national park; pilot program; environmental sustainability; governance; economic development1. IntroductionNational parks have played an important role worldwide in protecting natural landscapes [1–3].The use of national parks as a significant tool for nature conservation and wilderness preservation hasbeen adopted globally by most countries and utilized to achieve ecological protection and biodiversityrestoration [4].Despite the multiple policies to address ecological issues, biodiversity in China continuesto decline [5]. Protected area management in China is hampered by a complicated hierarchy ofmanagement and inconsistent regulatory standards across various departments, resulting in a lack ofeffective communication and information sharing [6].In 2008, the Chinese government took a step towards improving the quality of protected areaswith the approval of China’s first national park management office and introduced a pilot nationalpark system in 2015. This initiative is regarded as an experimental application of an internationalmodel of national parks, with the expectation that these parks can better serve to protect biodiversityand promote human livelihood [7].Land 2020, 9, 489; doi:10.3390/land9120489 www.mdpi.com/journal/landLand 2020, 9, 489 2 of 23History of National Parks in ChinaAs defined by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN), a protected area canbe considered a national park if it conforms to the following criteria: (1) has a large natural area, (2) isset aside to protect large-scale ecological processes, (3) supports endemic biodiversity, and (4) facilitatescultural, scientific, educational, recreational, and visitor opportunities [8]. Since the introduction ofthe world’s first national park in 1872 (Yellowstone National Park), many countries have adopted anational park system to enhance the protection of their natural landscapes.In China, the conceptualization of protected areas dates back to the Qing dynasty. For instance,forest protection and restoration were codified into Qing statutory laws with the institutionalization ofofficial positions (appointed by the central authority) for management and supervision [9]. However,these protected areas were mainly private “gardens” belonging to nobles, temples, and cemeteries.Since the 13th century, the Bogd Khan region has been considered home to one of the holiest mountainsin Mongolia and is still regarded as a pilgrimage site by Buddhists. In 1783, the Qing governmentlisted Bogd Khan as a protected area due to the increasing demand for wild animals and plants usedin religious activities. In 1996, the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization(UNESCO) officially recognized this as a protected area. In a sense, this is one of the oldest protectedareas in the world. At the end of the Qing dynasty and the beginning of the Republic of China in 1912,the region was still being colonized by western countries, and its national strength was weak. At thattime, managed natural landscapes were dominated by royal and private gardens (parks). Only someprivate gardens were open to the public for free. In the 1930s–1940s, the Chinese government tried tobuild a national park system and developed national parks associated with scenic spots, such as Lushaand Taihu. In 1930, Chen Zhi published the “National Taihu Park Plan”, which was intended to betterpreserve the country’s high-quality natural and cultural resources and to allow the public to enjoy itsnatural scenery. In 1936, after the government of the Republic of China nationalized ownership ofLushan Mountain, it proposed a “National Park Plan” for it, based on the original scenic sightseeingand summer vacation features of Lushan Mountain. This opened the way to the establishment ofChinese national parks. In 1939, with the outbreak of the Second World War and the Chinese Civil War,the construction of the parks was abandoned [10].Since the formation of the People’s Republic of China in 1949, China has been relatively slow inadopting the concept of national parks. While China’s first National Nature Reserve was establishedin 1956 in the region surrounding Dinghu Mountain, a protected area with the expressed objective ofnature conservation, Zhangjiajie National Forest Park was formally introduced in 1982, after Chinaimplemented its Reform and Opening-up Policy in 1978 [2,11]. Consequently, scholars noted a shift inpublic attitude and corresponding policies towards the importance of national parks in mitigatingenvironmental degradation, followed by a proliferation in the number of protected areas in China.Currently, there are over 2700 protected areas under numerous designations (e.g., national naturereserves, national forest parks, national scenic areas, world heritage sites, world geoparks, and nationalmarine protection areas) [12]. However, experts argue that many of these protected areas are ineffectivein maintaining ecological integrity and are thus considered “Paper Parks”, suggesting they exist inname only [4] (p. 248), [6,11]. One study estimates that, despite an increase in the number of naturereserves (a common protected area designation in China) between 2007 and 2014, their total areadecreased by 3% [13]. Moreover, although China has included the words “national” and “park” inprotected area titles (such as national forest parks, national nature reserves, and national geoparks),they are nominal and without the practical functions of an IUCN-classified national park. Furthermore,China’s protected area management is administered by different government bodies, and thereforemanagement is inconsistently applied throughout this network of conventional protected areas(henceforth CPAs). Experts have referred to CPA management as “fragmented” and messy, failing toprevent environmental degradation while mainly focusing on economic gains [4,6], [14] (p. 762).The development of national parks in China has had two dominant driving forces: a growingmiddle class with an interest in nature-based tourism and recreation, as well as a growing public concernLand 2020, 9, 489 3 of 23over the depletion of natural resources [4]. These two trends are interdependent and correspond to theIUCN’s primary recreational and ecological objectives of a national park. However, growing demandfor outdoor recreation has encouraged CPA managers to prioritize revenue over social and ecologicalconsiderations [4,14], resulting in degradation of the country’s local ecosystems [4,15,16]. Moreover,the administrative and institutional structure of the CPAs has led to conflicting, overlapping, andinconsistent mandates due to the long-lasting involvement of multiple ministries [17–20]. In 2013,China’s Central Committee proposed the “Establishment of a Pilot National Park System” as atop-down design to enhance protected area management for ecological prioritization by addressingthe long-standing administrative and institutional issues [17–19]. In 2017, after further amendments,the park proposal was formally enacted through the Development of a National Park System OverallPlan, which aimed to complete the establishment of ten PNPs by 2020 [19,21,22].The overall goal of this paper is to evaluate the ability of the national park model toresolve two outstanding problems of the CPAs—the economic prioritization over social andecological considerations that causes massive ecological degradation and the conflicting, overlapping,and inconsistent administrative and institutional structures—in order to strengthen nature conservationin China. The main objectives were to evaluate China’s CPAs and the newly introduced pilot nationalpark system (PNP) in order to: (1) identify the deficiencies of CPAs, (2) examine how the PNP modelcan resolve these issues, and (3) to evaluate the early successes and challenges of PNPs. The researchfocused on the following question: could China’s pilot national park program be a solution for theecological and administrative challenges facing CPAs. In the following sections, the term “nationalpark” refers to these newly introduced PNPs, rather than those that function as CPAs. This researchwas conducted through a literature review followed by a series of workshops and discussions withnational park experts working in China.2. MethodsThis research builds on the work published in Wang et al., 2011, as well as the outcomes of thenational park project reviewed in the report on Examining China National Park Potential and Challenges(2010–2013) and the second phase of the Strategic Development of China National Parks in 2017–2019.The research framework and analysis process are indicated in Figure 1. Based on the research objectives,the literature review was conducted to evaluate ten of China’s CPAs and the PNPs. This review followsa traditional, narrative approach by first identifying key information, then synthesizing evidenceon separate topics. The gathering of academic sources, including periodicals, assessment reports,peer-reviewed literature, and government policy documents, involved keywords and acronym searchesthrough the ProQuest Summon database. The literature review included Mandarin literature, primarilyderived from the Chinese Knowledge Resource Integrated Database (CNKI)1.The key words used were “China” combined with “national park”, “protected areas”, “nationalpark pilot”, “national nature reserve”, “national forest park”, “key scenic and historic area”, “geologicalpark”, “scenic irrigational park”, “archaeological park”, “forest and wildlife nature reserve”, “marinepark”, and “cultural relics”. A total of 1028 articles published since 2010 were collected using thesekeywords. This was reduced to 660 by using “subject”, and then to 376 by using “abstract”. We thenused content analysis to analyze the issues presented from each selected article. The frequency ofoccurrence of each environmental issue in the literature was recorded and categorized based on theinstitutional structure of each CPA. The results were then ranked.1 Many first-hand investigations of the study sites are only available In Chinese language, especially for those about China’spilot national parks, since the project has not yet caught enough attention world-widely. Thus, the CNKI database remainsas a crucial source of knowledge for researches in China.Land 2020, 9, 489 4 of 23Land 2020, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 23 Figure 1. The research framework. While the existing 10 PNPs were used for this research, 10 CPAs were selected based on the following four criteria: (1) history of establishment; (2) representativeness of key ecozones; (3) variance in types of governing bodies; and (4) level of popularity as reputed natural or cultural destinations. The performance of China’s PNPs in addressing the identified CPA deficiencies was evaluated. All available literature on park performance was reviewed and included in the pilot national park analysis. Due to the limitations of the available information on the relatively recent pilot national park initiative, additional grey literature from Chinese periodicals and news was included in our review. To ensure the relevancy of the knowledge pertaining to a quickly evolving national system of management, most of the examined literature was restricted to publications from the last 10 years. The parks selected were all designated as a national park by the pilot study. Workshops were also conducted in order to evaluate the success of the pilot national park system. These workshops were co-hosted by the University of British Columbia’s National Park Research Centre and eight national park research groups in China2. 3. Literature Review Findings In this section, we examine the results of the in-depth analysis and evaluation of ten selected CPAs and ten PNPs (Figure 2), undertaken through a comprehensive literature review. 2 These included Peking University, Tsinghua University, Beijing Forestry University, Hainan University, Chinese Academy of Science, Chinese Academy of Forestry, Wuyi Mountain National Park, and the National Park Administration of China, respectively Figure 1. The research framework.While the existing 10 PNPs were used for this research, 10 CPAs were selected based on thefollowing four criteria: (1) history of establishment; (2) representativeness of key ecozones; (3) variancein types of governing bodies; and (4) level of popularity as reputed natural or cultural destinations.The performance of China’s PNPs in addressing the identified CPA deficiencies was evaluated.All available literature on park performance was reviewed and included in the pilot national parkanalysis. Due to the limitations of the available information on the relatively recent pilot nationalpark initiative, additional grey literature from Chinese periodicals and news was included in ourreview. To ensure the relevancy of the knowledge pertaining to a quickly evolving national system ofmanagement, most of the examined literature was restricted to publications from the last 10 years.The parks selected were all designated as a national park by the pilot study. Workshops were alsoconducted in order to evaluate the success of the pilot national park system. These workshops wereco-hosted by the University of British Columbia’s National Park Research Centre and eight nationalpark research groups in China2.3. Literature Review FindingsIn this section, we examine the results of the in-depth analysis and evaluation of ten selectedCPAs and ten PNPs (Figure 2), unde taken through a comprehensive literature review.2 These included Peking University, Tsinghua University, Beijing Forestry University, Hainan University, Chinese Academyof Science, Chinese Academy of Forestry, Wuyi Mountain National Park, and the National Park Administration ofChina, respectively.Land 2020, 9, 489 5 of 23Land 2020, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 23 Figure 2. Map of study areas: the ten pilot national parks (PNPs) and the conventional protected areas (CPAs) included in the study. 3.1. Conventional Protected Areas Based on the criteria listed above, we chose ten CPAs for our analysis (Table 1). These CPAs are well-established, representative of the most common categories of China’s CPAs (national forest parks, national nature reserves, key scenic and historic areas, and national parks), cover three major ecozones (tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf, temperate broadleaf and mixed forest, and montane grassland and shrubland), and are managed by varying governing bodies (municipal, county, and provincial level). By reviewing literature on these ten CPAs, we determined eight outstanding environmental problems (Table 2) stemming from multiple management issues. Table 1. Profile of ten conventional protected areas in China. Name Est. Year Province Area (km2) Ecoregions Governing Body Wuyi Mountain Nature Reserve * 1979 Fujian 565 Tropical and Subtropical Moist Broadleaf Forest Wuyi Mountain National Nature Reserve Administration (Provincial level) Jiuzhaigou Nature Reserve 1982 Sichuan 1320 Montane Grassland and Shrubland Jiuzhaigou National Nature Reserve Administration (County-level) Huangshan Key Scenic and Historic Area * 1982 Anhui 160 Temperate Broadleaf and Mixed Forest Huangshan Scenic Area Administration Committee (Municipal level) Figure 2. Map of study areas: the ten pilot national parks (PNPs) and the conventional protected areas(CPAs) included in he study.3.1. Conventional Protected AreasBased on the crit ria listed above, we chose ten CPAs for our analysis (Table 1). These CPAs arewell-established, representative of the most common categories of China’s CPAs (national forest parks,national nature reserves, key scenic and historic areas, and national parks), cover three major ecozones(tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf, temperate broadleaf and mixed forest, and montane grasslandand shrubland), and are managed by varying governing bodies (municipal, county, and provinciallevel). By reviewing literature on these ten CPAs, we determined eight outstanding environmentalproblems (Table 2) stemming from multiple management issues.Table 1. Profile of ten conventional protected areas in China.Name Est. Year Province Are (km2) Ecoregions Governing BodyWuyi Mountain NatureReserve * 1979 Fujian 565Tropical andSubtropical MoistBroadleaf ForestWuyi Mountain NationalNature ReserveAdministration(Provincial level)Jiuzhaigou Nature Reserve 1982 Sichuan 1320MontaneGrassland andShrublandJiuzh ig u NationalNature ReserveAdministration(County-level)Huangshan Key Scenicand Historic Area * 1982 Anhui 160TemperateBroadle f andMixed ForestHuangshan Scenic AreaAdministrationCommittee(Municipal level)Zhangjiajie NationalForest Park * 1982 Hunan 300Tropical andSubtropical MoistBroadleaf ForestWulingyuan NationalForest ParkAdministration(Municipal level)Land 2020, 9, 489 6 of 23Table 1. Cont.Name Est. Year Province Area (km2) Ecoregions Governing BodyQiandao Lake Key Scenicand Historic Area 1982 Zhejiang 567TemperateBroadleaf andMixed ForestQiandao LakeAdministrationCommittee(County-level)Wutai Mountain KeyScenic and Historic Area * 1982 Shanxi 593TemperateBroadleaf andMixed ForestWutai Mountain ScenicArea AdministrationCommittee(Municipal level)Mount Tai Key Scenic andHistoric Area * 1985 Shandong 242TemperateBroadleaf andMixed ForestMount Tai Scenic AreaAdministrationCommittee(Municipal level)Shennongjia NatureReserve * 1986 Hubei 705TemperateBroadleaf andMixed ForestShennongjia Forest AreaAdministration(County-level)Qilian Mountain NatureReserve 1988Gansu &Qinghai 26,531MontaneGrassland andShrublandsQilian Mountain NatureReserve Administration(County-level)Pudacuo National Park 2006 Yunnan 602MontaneGrassland andShrublandsPudacuo-Shangri-laNational ParkAdministration(Provincial-level) ** The CPAs titled with the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) worldheritage sites [23].3.1.1. Environmental Issues Experienced by China’s CPAsWater Pollution: Water pollution is a major environmental problem that persists in more than halfof our study sites (Table 2), with pollutants primarily caused by human activities. Four of the affectedCPAs show a direct relationship with tourism facilities and activities. In Jiuzhaigou, water pollutantsderived from the untreated, direct discharge sewage from local settlements has led to high mortalityrates amongst aquatic species [24]. Tourist facilities in Zhangjiajie discharge wastewater after little orpoor treatment, reflecting poor environmental awareness amongst local businesses and the negligenceof the CPA management authorities [25]. Water eutrophication also occurs in Qiandao Lake as aconsequence of unprocessed domestic wastewater [26]. Monitoring and law enforcement were foundto be insufficient at Phoenix Valley located in Huangshan [27]. Other contributing factors, includingmining activities and hydroelectric developments, were also found to contaminate water bodies nearthe study sites [28,29].Habitat Alteration and Loss: Habitat loss was observed in six of the study sites, threatening localbiodiversity and ecological integrity. A number of studies have shown that tourism infrastructure inJiuzhaigou, such as footpaths, plank walkways, and traffic routes, fragment natural landscapes [24].The absence of migratory corridor planning further aggravates the fragmentation of natural habitats.Excessive ecotourism also creates widespread damage to ecological corridor connectivity and altersecosystem structure and function [30]. In Qiandao Lake, agricultural expansion, construction ofinfrastructure, and urbanization are the key factors threatening natural habitats [26,31]. Hydro dammingprojects can also alter drainage systems and water cycles, thus harming regional biodiversity [29].Furthermore, human encroachments into natural landscapes are leading to increased instances ofhuman–wildlife conflict [32].Land 2020, 9, 489 7 of 23Table 2. Environmental issues in the selected sites according to the literature.WaterPollutionHabitat Alterationand LossVegetationLossSoilDeteriorationPest Outbreak andInvasive SpeciesNoisePollutionAirPollutionClimateChangeTotal Number ofIssues per CPAWuyi MountainNature Reserve√ √2Jiuzhaigou NatureReserve√ √2Huangshan Key Scenicand Historic Area√ √ √3Zhangjiajie NationalForest Park√ √ √ √4Qiandao Lake Key Scenicand Historic Area√ √ √ √4Wutai Mountain KeyScenic and Historic Area√1Mount Tai Key Scenicand Historic Area 0Shennongjia NatureReserve√ √ √ √ √5Qilian MountainNational Park√ √ √ √4Pudacuo National Park√ √ √ √3Total number ofReferenced Issues 6 6 5 4 3 2 2 1Land 2020, 9, 489 8 of 23Vegetation Loss: Vegetation degradation and loss is another leading issue affecting five of thestudy areas. This is largely caused by land conversion for grazing, establishment of plantations,and other agricultural production, which have effectively reduced the vegetation cover in these areas.Significant grazing in Wutai Mountain, Pudacuo, and Qilian Mountain Nature Reserve has causeddegradation of alpine and subalpine grasslands [33–35]. Other human disturbances and economicdevelopments are resulting in the conversion of natural forest to built-up areas. The harvest of ChineseWhite Pine (Pinus armandii) for building purposes is common in the Shennongjia Nature Reserve [36],and tea production in Wuyi Mountain is driving more land conversion to plantations [37].Soil Deterioration: Four of the study sites face severe challenges associated with the decline of soilconditions and weakened fertility of the land. In Zhangjiajie, walking trails created by tourists havefacilitated human incursions into previously protected natural areas [32]. These infringements not onlyaffect the growth of the adjacent flora but compact the soil and impair the microbial balance within thesurface soil. This makes the surface soil prone to erosion by natural forces such as water and wind,particularly in alpine environments [34]. Discarded waste and trampling by large mammals such ashorses have increased the density of soil and reduced the porosity of the surface layer, leading to soilerosion. Furthermore, intense afforestation of coniferous trees in Qilian Mountain Nature Reserve hasacidified the deep-stratum soil [35]. The rapid growth of sand breaks in CPAs reduces the extensiveunderground water resources, which negatively impacts the long-term fertility of the land.Pest Outbreaks and Invasive Species: Pest outbreaks have major effects on the overall healthof the ecosystem. The mixed and coniferous forests located in Shennongjia (notably Pinus armandii)are susceptible to outbreaks and are in critical condition [36]. The iconic Huangshan pine trees(Pinus hwangshanensis) are also threatened by a severe wilt disease associated with nematodes [38].An investigation of 150 islands within Qiandao Lake found that over twenty alien species have spreadacross a large area, threatening endemic species and the local ecosystem [26].Noise Pollution: Noise pollution often leads to changes in animal activity patterns and habitatrange. In Pudacuo, noise is above average during the peak tourist season [34]. Excessive noise fromairports disturbs local wildlife, yet the relevant authorities have paid little attention to this issue.Climate Change: On Qilian Mountain, thawing glaciers and contracting permafrost are inducingvegetation degradation, soil erosion, and future water security, all as a result of global warming [35].Air Pollution: Although most of the CPAs are situated far from large urban centers, a few studyareas experienced high levels of air pollution. For example, waste incineration practices in QiandaoLake emit extensive toxic gases (i.e., Dioxin, DXNs). The long lifecycles of these pollutant particlescause secondary pollution when they enter soil or water bodies. Air quality in Zhangjiajie has alsodeclined over time as a result of growing traffic in the park [25] and regional air pollution. Most ofeastern China suffers from reduced visibility associated with poor regional air quality, resulting inmany of the most scenic views in CPAs being obscured.Many of the environmental issues in the study areas can be linked, at least in part, to increasedtourism. Decision-makers in CPAs often prioritize economic objectives over conservation goals,favoring tourism development. The number of “ecotourism” destinations in the country has increasedfrom about 600 in 1990 to over 2700 in 2016 [39].3.1.2. Drivers of Environmental Problems in China’s CPAsThis section seeks to address and explain the issues associated with the existing CPA institutionalstructure and how their governance frameworks directly or indirectly contribute to these environmentalchallenges. These challenges are interrelated and are thus not presented hierarchically.Complicated legislative system: Inadequate management of CPAs in China is a result of anunsound legislative system, ambiguous division of responsibilities, insufficient law enforcement,absence of central funding, and lack of professional capacity [7,14]. Aside from the 1989 EnvironmentLand 2020, 9, 489 9 of 23Protection Law and a few other regulation codes3, legislation addressing tourism and natural resourcemanagement at the national level in China is insufficient [40]. Existing acts and policies overlookregional differences and fail to address land tenure management, finance operations, and zoningclassification [41]. Without a sophisticated legal framework, a complicated and inefficient institutionalstructure for protected areas has evolved.Discordant governing systems: Since the 1980s, the rapid development of the CPA system has led tothe establishment of four ministries and three departments that branch into 13 different categories [42](Figure 3), leading to overlapping and conflicting CPA management objectives. For instance, a 2020study found that approximately 10% of the total PA area in Yunnan, southwest China, had beendesignated under multiple categories and simultaneously managed by more than one institution [43].Although administrative agencies aim to achieve the same conservation goals, their actions are notcoordinated internally [7]. These agencies do not cooperate transparently due to their distinct politicalfocuses, leading to conflicting CPA decision-making and land management implementation. A 2019study found that approximately half of China’s 11 PA categories did not include biodiversity goals [44].This lack of long-term land-use planning and overlapping enforcement power has led to ineffectivecommunication between competing management authorities, exacerbating inconsistent managementstrategies and ineffective law enforcement [7,45]. Residents of the Phoenix village in Huangshan,for example, have complained about the lack of security guards to prevent unlawful acts by tourists onthe river [27]. In Pudacuo, shortages of patrol staff have led to severe overgrazing in local meadows [7].Jiuzhaigou experienced insufficient manpower and training to improve their emergency responseteam [46].China’s decentralized CPA system is further hampered by its management hierarchy, which isadministered at local, provincial, and federal levels [40]. Local authorities often focus on economicdevelopment as the primary tool to increase their revenue [7]. When strict policies are enacted byhigher-level governments that disregard local community needs, local authorities are reluctant tofollow them [40]. Therefore, top-down regulations are not effectively implemented at the CPA-level.Insufficient funding: The management system of China’s CPAs remains ineffective due toinsufficient funding. China’s central government has required “local authorities to fund reserveoperations” since the 1980s [7] (p. 1315). Since then, the federal government has had no furtherobligation to provide funding to enhance development of the CPA system. Funding, therefore,highly depends on entrepreneurial activities within CPAs, often undermining their ecologicalintegrity [47].Inadequate professional capacity: Training of industry professionals and public environmentaleducation programs do not match the CPA development of infrastructure [48]. CPAs, therefore,lack adequate professional expertise and training, resulting in undertrained staff and park managersthat stress investment in physical capital over investment in human capital. Some studies estimate that“only about a third of China’s Nature Reserves’ employees have adequate training”, while the restremain unsuitable for their tasks [7]. It is worth noting that most nature reserves are situated in remoteareas, where employment opportunities are not attractive to recent graduates with better training.Land-use dilemma after China’s forest tenure reform: In 2003, an ambitious tenure reform wasundertaken in China to transfer collective-owned forest land into the ownership of private householdsto better secure their income [49]. However, much of the collective-owned forest land was protectedland within CPAs. The government enacted legal documents, such as the Forest Acts and Regulationson Nature Reserves, imposing tight controls on the operational activities inside CPAs [50]. Althoughfarmers obtained rights to their forestland, they remained under strict rules, and profits from the landhave been curtailed [49]. This inconsistency in the “de-collectivization” land tenure policy both limitsthe capacity to manage protected land sustainably and undermines trust in the local authorities.3 The Nature Reserve Regulation of P.R.C. (1994); The P.R.C. Scenic Area Regulation (2006).Land 2020, 9, 489 10 of 23Land 2020, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 23 Figure 3. The conventional protected area (CPA) institution structure in China before 2018 (adapted from [40,41]). China’s decentralized CPA system is further hampered by its management hierarchy, which is administered at local, provincial, and federal levels [40]. Local authorities often focus on economic development as the primary tool to increase their revenue [7]. When strict policies are enacted by higher-level governments that disregard local community needs, local authorities are reluctant to follow them [40]. Therefore, top-down regulations are not effectively implemented at the CPA-level. Insufficient funding: The management system of China’s CPAs remains ineffective due to insufficient funding. China’s central government has required “local authorities to fund reserve operations” since the 1980s [7] (p. 1315). Since then, the federal government has had no further obligation to provide funding to enhance development of the CPA system. Funding, therefore, highly depends on entrepreneurial activities within CPAs, often undermining their ecological integrity [47]. Inadequate professional capacity: Training of industry professionals and public environmental education programs do not match the CPA development of infrastructure [48]. CPAs, therefore, lack adequate professional expertise and training, resulting in undertrained staff and park managers that stress investment in physical capital over investment in human capital. Some studies estimate that “only about a third of China’s Nature Reserves’ employees have adequate training”, while the rest remain unsuitable for their tasks [7]. It is worth noting that most nature reserves are situated in The State CouncilMinistriesMinistry of Housing and Urban DevelopmentKey scenic and historic area (2006)Urban wetland park (2005)Key national park (2006)Ministry of Environmental ProtectionNature Reserve (1994)Ecological functional reserve (2000)Ministry of Land and ResourcesMineral Park (2006)Geological Park (2009)Ministry of Water ResourcesScenic irrigational park (2004)Other DepartmentsState Forestry BureauForest and wildlife nature reserve (1985)Forest park (1994)State Aministration of Cultural HeritageCultural relics (2007)Archaeological site parks (2009)State Oceanic AdminstraitonMarine Park (2010)Marine Nature Reserve (2000)igure 3. The conventional protected area (CPA) institutio ructure in China b fore 2018 (adaptedfrom [40,41]).Overexploitation of natural resources: In China, legal documents such as the Mineral ResourcesAct 2009, the Nature Reserve Regulation 2011, and the KSHA Regulation 2006 have been established toprohibit unauthorized resource extraction activities in protected areas [51–54]. However, hydroelectricityand mining operations in CPAs are still being conducted, despite existing laws [55]. A 2017 studyestimated that there are 104 quarries, 318 industrial mines, and 335 energy facilities present in China’sNature Reserves [56]. One report suggested that 580 illegal mining and quarry operations were activein 86 national nature reserves [57].Many large hydropower dams, such as those on the Nujiang, the Da Du, and the Minjiang Rivers,are situated in ecologically sensitive areas [58], resulting in further ecological threats. Qilian MountainCPA contains a wealth of water resources for hydroelectricity; currently, there are 42 power stationslocated within the protected area [59]. Design defects of these power facilities along with a lackof environmental assessment prior to construction have resulted in downstream water shortages,drainage basin degradation, and regional biodiversity losses.Land 2020, 9, 489 11 of 23The Ministry of Ecology and Environment and the State Council have both called for thewithdrawal of all mining and quarry companies from nature reserves in 2015 and 2016, respectively.In 2017, the Ministry of Natural Resources announced they would no longer grant mining rights in anyreserves [51]. Although some ecological compensation plans have been proposed, detailed proceduresremain unconfirmed and have delayed efforts to undertake environmental restoration.Overall, the current CPA regulatory system lacks environmental legislation and suffers fromunclear land and administrative demarcation, discordance between governing units at all levels,ineffective law enforcement, a lack of reliable funding, a shortage of nature conservation professionals,insufficient environmental education, and overlapping responsibilities among three tiers of government.Together, these challenges have led to poor management efficiency and effectiveness. These problemshave been recognized by the central government, and the policy response has been to introduce a pilotprogram for a national parks system in China.3.2. Pilot National ParksSince 2015, China has been developing a national park system, which includes 10 pilot nationalparks in 12 provinces across China, covering more than 200,000 km2 of land [21]. These national parksaim to protect the most important flagship species, such as the Giant Panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca),the Siberian Tiger (Panthera tigris ssp. altaica), the Asian Elephant (Elephas maximus), and the SnowLeopard (Panthera uncia), as well as key natural and cultural heritage sites in China. This sectionprovides an overview and evaluation of the ten PNPs.As of 2018, all ten PNP designations have been confirmed. Some basic information for each PNP isgiven in Table 3. On 1 April 2019, the eleventh pilot national park, Hainan Tropical Rainforest NationalPark, was formally established [60], but it was omitted from our analysis as administrative informationwas not available at the time of data collection.Table 3. Profile of the original 10 pilot national parks in China.Name Date of Establishment Province/City Area/km2Pudacuo National Park 2015 Yunnan 602Qianjiangyuan National Park June 2016 Zhejiang 252Wuyi Mountain National Park June 2016 Fujian 983Shennongjia National Park May 2016 Hubei 1170Nanshan National Park July 2016 Hunan 619Siberian Tigers and Leopards National Park December 2016 Jilin, Heilongjiang 14,612Sanjiangyuan National Park January 2018 Qinghai 123,100Great Wall National Park * November 2017 Beijing 60Giant Panda National Park April 2017 Sichuan, Gansu, Shanxi 20,200Qilianshan National Park June 2017 Gansu, Qinghai 52,000* The Great Wall National Park may leave this pilot program due to its complexity in nature, culture, and localpolitics. However, no official announcement has been made. (Sources from [18,19,22,61]).The spatial allocation of the ten PNPs was determined based on the boundaries of existing CPAsas well as each area’s representativeness for multiple identified ecological values. These factors areestablished in Table 4.Land 2020, 9, 489 12 of 23Table 4. Profile of ten pilot national parks in China.Name Overlap with Existing CPAs Protection Value SignificancePudacuo National Park No overlap with existing CPAs but is home to endangered species,geological, wetland, water, and forest landforms• Natural values of geological, wetland, water, and forest landforms• Habitat/biodiversity protection and restoration• Representative of the plateau ecosystem and alpine lacustrine environmentin southwestern ChinaQianjiangyuan National Park• Qianjiangyuan National Forest Park• Gutianshan Nature Reserve• Qianjiangyuan Tourist Attraction• Natural values of water, wetland, and forest resources• Habitat/biodiversity protection and restorationWuyi Mountain National Park• Wuyi Mountain Nature Reserve• Wuyi Mountain Key Scenic and Heritage Area• Wuyi Mountain National Forest Park• Natural value of forest resources• Biodiversity protection for over 7500 flora and fauna species (keybiodiversity hotspot globally)• Representative of the subtropical forest ecosystem in Southeastern ChinaShennongjia National Park• Shenongjia National Forest Park• Shenongjia Nature Reserve• Shennongjia Geopark• Shenongjia Wetland Park• Natural values of geological landforms and forest, water, andwetland resources• Habitat/biodiversity protection and restoration (particularly theSnub-nosed Monkey)Nanshan National Park• Nanshan Tourist Attraction• Jintongshan Nature Reserve• Baiyunhu National Wetland Park• Liangjiangxiagu National Forest Park• Habitat/biodiversity protection and restoration• Natural value of water resources• (Particularly the Yangtze River and the Pearl River Basin)• Representative of the subtropical low-altitude evergreen eco-communitySiberian Tigers and Leopards National Park No overlap with existing CPAs but covers abundant temperateflora and fauna across two provinces• Natural value of forest resources• Habitat/biodiversity protection and restoration (particularly Amur Tigersand Leopards)Qilianshan National Park No overlap with existing CPAs but covers surrounding ecosystemsincluding rivers, forests, glaciers, and desert.• Natural values of water, forest, glacier, and desert resources• Habitat/biodiversity protection and restoration (particularly SnowLeopards, Red Deer, and antelope)• Representative of the natural environment in Northwestern ChinaLand 2020, 9, 489 13 of 23Table 4. Cont.Name Overlap with Existing CPAs Protection Value SignificanceGreat Wall National Park• Badaling Great Wall Heritage• Yanqing Geopark• Badaling Forest Park• Ming Tombs• Cultural/historical value for Chinese civilization• The Great Wall is one of the symbols of Chinese civilization• The Ming Tombs are one of the symbols of Chinese history• Natural values of geological landforms and forest resourcesGiant Panda National Park• Chengdu Research Base of Giant Panda• Existing Mountain Systems of Minshan, Daxiangling, Qinling,Baishuijiang and Ganan.• Cultural/historical value for Chinese civilization (Giant Panda is one of thesymbols of China)• Habitat/biodiversity protection and restoration (particularly theGiant Panda)• More than 8000 wild flora and faunaSanjiangyuan National Park• Kekexili National Nature Reserve• Headstreams of Yangtze River, the Yellow River, and theLantsang River• Natural value of water resources (Particularly the Yangtze River, YellowRiver, and Lantsang River)• Habitat/biodiversity protection and restoration(Sources from [18,19,35,36,59,62–71]).Land 2020, 9, 489 14 of 233.2.1. Key Guiding Principles and Reform MechanismsThe establishment of China’s PNP initiative is based on the practical experience of CPAs andthe challenges described above. In order to be included in the pilot national park system, CPAs wererequired to demonstrate that they had the following key guiding principles:Ecological/cultural representativeness: Ecological and cultural values are important considerationsin identifying nationally significant priority conservation areas [72–74]. Currently, more than 50% ofthe CPAs are concentrated in the central and the eastern regions of the country, despite the high naturalresource values present in the western region [75]. In designing the PNP geographic scope, expertsrecommended CPA identification based on this representativeness, as there is no natural ecosystem incentral or eastern China that is large enough to meet the area criterion of a national park [72].State dominance (top-down design): A centralized administrative approach to natural landscapemanagement is key to addressing management inconsistencies resulting from numerous overlappingand conflicting governing units of the current system. There has been widespread support forcentralizing the administration of prospective PNPs [18,76,77]. In this way, park systems can enforcethe important principles of uniformity, standardization, and high efficiency [78].De-commercialization: Conservation is the primary goal of national parks. Shifting the focusfrom profitable economic activities that conflict with conservation objectives in parks to protectionand restoration efforts has been widely emphasized [72–74]. It has been suggested that operationsthat neither consume resources nor damage the environment should be considered. Ecotourism,for instance, has played an important role in the economic and the social development of the GiantPanda National Park, but its persistence will likely depend on better enforcement of the relevantlegislation to ensure the park’s ecological integrity [79]. It has been recommended that the profitsfrom the remaining economic activities be used to serve the surrounding communities and to enhancefuture protection and management of the national park [72].Public participation/engagement: PNPs are seen as welfare goods that provide recreational andeducational benefits to the public at low cost (or even for free) [79]. Ecological education and otherrelated efforts have therefore been highlighted as key approaches to promote public engagement andparticipation in park conservation [18,77,78,80].Science-based management: Science-based decision-making is the key to identifying priority areasand to determine park management strategies. Experts recommend identifying priority areas for PNPinclusion through careful evaluation of science-based criteria and indicators. One study has alreadyevaluated protection values of China’s natural landscapes and identified over 8% of the country’slandmass as priority areas for park planning [81], and another noted a 19% spatial mismatch of priorityareas with current nature reserve locations [82]. It has been emphasized that prospective nationalparks should establish scientific research bases for further environmental or ecological studies thatcontribute to their sustainability [72].Ecosystem integrity: Restoration and maintenance of ecosystem integrity are underscored indiscussions on PNP management plans [74]. Experts suggest establishing the boundary of each nationalpark on the basis of integrated and coherent ecosystems such as mountain chains, hydrographic basins,or habitat type as a geographical unit for demarcation, as opposed to administrative boundaries [72].In this way, the core resource or significance of each national park can be more effectively protected.Given these six guiding principles of PNPs, the development of China’s pilot national park systemcurrently focuses on the following five reform mechanisms.Prioritization of ecological protection: Given their emphasis on ecological integrity, PNPs arefocusing on resource assessment (natural or cultural) by classifying levels of degradation and identifyingbest management practices [18]. PNPs are also re-assessing activities and facilities that could negativelyimpact local ecosystems and are reorganizing land boundaries. This is being approached through anintroduced four-tier zoning system that distinguishes between strict protection zone (SPZ), ecosystemconservation zone (ECZ), native community zone (NCZ), and research education and recreation zone(RERZ) [18,83]. This has already been determined to be effective in some parks [84]. Experts furtherLand 2020, 9, 489 15 of 23suggested specifying a framework for the pilot national park system under an ecosystem servicesapproach to achieve conservation objectives while promoting their social benefits [85,86]. Other studiessuggest adopting a biosphere reserve approach to accommodate anticipated high human activitieswhile preserving core protected areas [87].Unification of management standards: Fragmented or overlapping management systems havebeen a key challenge in China’s CPAs, resulting in poor ecosystem protection and environmentaldegradation. The unification of management standards through a top-down design implementedby a centralized approach can help resolve this issue [18]. The aim is for each national park to bereorganized into vertical management institutions under a single governing body, the National ParkAdministration (Ministry of Natural Resources), under the State Council [18].Clarification of resource ownership: As centralized governance and public interests are twoimportant guiding principles of a national park, studies emphasize that access to these naturallandscapes should be publicly available and state-owned [18,88]. It has been suggested that eachPNP should conduct an initial evaluation of any active or potential resources that can be extractedand then legally transfer them to the state via lease, levy, legal agreement, stock partnership, or assetpurchase [18].Innovation of operating management: Many studies encourage prospective PNPs to modify theirbusiness model to ensure they are operating in the public’s interest. Suggested approaches includeimplementing low-cost or free entrance, thereby encouraging public access [18,88]. Furthermore,public-private partnerships or private operations based on a resource allocation that followsmarket principles have been highlighted as a useful approach to reduce operating costs [18].Studies emphasize the formulation of regulations to ensure that the permitted businesses and tourismare not environmentally harmful [13,80].Promotion of community development: PNP success depends on the quality of the park’srelationship with the surrounding communities [18]. It has been estimated, for instance, that about5500 local residents live in the core protection zone of the proposed Giant Panda National Park [89].If the cancellation of projects and facilities or restrictions on the use of land and resources in the parkimpacts nearby residents, their employment and compensation should be taken into consideration.A good relationship with local stakeholders encourages the public to participate in the planning and themanagement of the park [18]. Where needed, education and training on ecological significance shouldalso be developed to reinforce awareness of environmental sustainability and to further promotecommunity participation.3.2.2. Evaluation of China’s Pilot National Parks in Relation to IUCN’s Admittance Criteria forNational ParksThe key indicators that determine whether an area can be officially categorized as a nationalpark by the IUCN include area, resource class, human footprint index, and functional complexity [77].According to the IUCN, an area under consideration for national park status must encompass more than10 km2, be nationally representative in terms of its resources, have a minimal human footprint index,and promote complex ecological functions (including scientific, educational, and recreational uses).All ten PNPs in China meet the area requirement of IUCN. Under the resource class criteria, IUCNfocuses on national representativeness. Although the formation and the operation of China’s PNPsoccur at the national level, some of their resource classes remain at the provincial or the municipallevel [77]. The human footprint index weighs human influence on the ecosystem of the national parkbased on “population pressure”, “land utilization”, and “infrastructure construction” [77]. All ofChina’s PNPs fare poorly with regard to this criterion due to the high influence of humans on theirecosystems. Table 5 is an adaptation of Tian and Fang’s 2017 findings of indicators analyzed in eightPNPs in China and their capacity to meet IUCN’s requirements.Land 2020, 9, 489 16 of 23Table 5. Comprehensive index of eight pilot national parks in China.GreatWallQianjiangYuanWuyiShanShenNongjiaNanShan PudacuoSanjiangYuanSiberian Tigersand LeopardsArea 0.21 1.78 3.99 8.26 4.37 9.27 43.45 13.47ResourcesRichness 11.63 10.47 11.63 11.63 11.63 10.47 11.63 11.63HumanFootprint −17.35 −16.67 −18.03 −7.14 −9.52 −17.69 −3.06 −4.42Functioncomplexity 2.79 5.18 9.47 13.63 8.98 12.01 14.12 15.78OverallScore 0.42 2.07 4.62 9.55 5.42 9.28 38.46 14.34(Source from [77]).Sanjiangyuan National Park is the study area that fits most closely with IUCN’s definition of anational park, whereas the Great Wall National Park fails to meet the IUCN guidelines (Table 5) [77].Of all the criteria, it is clear that human footprint is the most significant challenge for China’s PNPs.The human footprint is aggravated by common park practices that include transportation, mass tourismdevelopment, poor water treatment, and solid waste accumulation [47]. A heavy human footprint is aninevitable issue in China, a country with one of the largest populations that has prioritized economicdevelopment for decades [77].While mitigating the human footprint in PNPs poses a significant challenge, the other criteria arebeing advanced with some success. Regarding park area, for instance, Wuyi Mountain, Shenongjia,and Qilianshan have each almost doubled in size [90]. The Giant Panda National Park aims to consolidate81 individual protected areas to create a cohesive management structure [91]. These efforts indicateChina’s dedication to meeting internationally agreed-upon ecological standards of protected areas.4. Future Considerations in China’s Pilot National ParksAs discussed above, the implementation of a national park system in China is a helpful way toaddress a broad range of administrative, legislative, and social challenges faced by CPAs. Under thissystem, the roles and the responsibilities of various departments are clarified through the introductionof a centralized National Park Administration, efforts in law-making, as well as the amendment ofexisting policies that alleviate the statutory vacuum that characterized the previous system.Figure 4 presents the institutional structure of the PNP system. Under the State Council,the National Forestry and Grassland Administration, which is also officially named as the NationalPark Administration, is responsible for all PNPs [20]. Three of them, the Siberian Tigers and LeopardsNational Park, the Giant Panda National Park, and the Qilianshan National Park, are directly managedby the National Park Administration, as they are cross provincial boundaries. The remaining sevenPNPs are co-managed by the centralized National Park Administration and the provincial governmentswhere each PNP is located. The authority of the co-management is clear and divided such that theNational Park Administration is responsible for ecological protection, natural resource management,public engagement, public education, and scientific research, while the provincial governments areresponsible for the in-park economic development, local community management, public services,natural disaster prevention, and market supervision [20]. Unlike the institutional structure of theCPAs (Figure 3), with the involvement of multiple ministries, issues such as management overlaps andinconsistent mandates can be mitigated in the PNP model due to the vertical administration structure.Land 2020, 9, 489 17 of 23Land 2020, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of 23 4. Future Considerations in China’s Pilot National Parks As discussed above, the implementation of a national park system in China is a helpful way to address a broad range of administrative, legislative, and social challenges faced by CPAs. Under this system, the roles and the responsibilities of various departments are clarified through the introduction of a centralized National Park Administration, efforts in law-making, as well as the amendment of existing policies that alleviate the statutory vacuum that characterized the previous system. Figure 4 presents the institutional structure of the PNP system. Under the State Council, the National Forestry and Grassland Administration, which is also officially named as the National Park Administration, is responsible for all PNPs [20]. Three of them, the Siberian Tigers and Leopards National Park, the Giant Panda National Park, and the Qilianshan National Park, are directly managed by the National Park Administration, as they are cross provincial boundaries. The remaining seven PNPs are co-managed by the centralized National Park Administration and the provincial governments where each PNP is located. The authority of the co-management is clear and divided such that the National Park Administration is responsible for ecological protection, natural resource management, public engagement, public education, and scientific research, while the provincial governments are responsible for the in-park economic development, local community management, public services, natural disaster prevention, and market supervision [20]. Unlike the institutional structure of the CPAs (Figure 3), with the involvement of multiple ministries, issues such as management overlaps and inconsistent mandates can be mitigated in the PNP model due to the vertical administration structure. Figure 4. The pilot national park (PNP) institution structure in China (source from [20]). Five national parks (Sanjiangyuan, Wuyi Mountain, Shennongjia, Nanshan, and Qianjiangyuan) have already begun to adopt policies to shift administration to the more centralized system, establishing a “one national park, same title, single authority” governing structure [19]. Already, there is evidence that these new parks are meeting their objectives. For instance, Sanjiangyuan National Park Authority has formulated several administrative measures that incorporate aspects of The State CouncilNational Forestry and Grassland Administration (National Park Administration)Direct under National park AdministrationSiberian Tigers and Leopards National ParkGiant Panda National ParkQilianshan National ParkCollaboration with provincial governmentsYunan Provincial Government Pudacuo National ParkZhejiang Provincial GovernmentQianjiangyuan National ParkFujian Provincial GovernmentWuyi Mountain National ParkHubei Provincial Government Shennongjia National ParkHunan Provincial Government Nanshan National ParkQinghai Provincial Government Sanjiangyuan National ParkHainan Provincial GovnermentHainan Tropical Rainforest National ParkFigure 4. The pilot national park (PNP) ins tion structure in China (source from [20]).i ti l r s ( ji , i t i , ji , s , i ji )e already begun to adopt policies to shift administration to the more centralized system, establishinga “one nation l park, s me title, single authority” governing structure [19]. Already, there is evidencet at these new parks re meeti g their objectives. For instance, Sanjiangyuan Natio al Park Authorityhas f rmulated several administrative measur s th t incorporate aspects of ecological management andbudget control, alleviating community poverty by creating 7421 jobs while simultaneously pursuingenvironmental protection objectives [92].However, the introduction of the PNP initiative has been criticized for not explicitly addressingreforms to the CPA system and for an apparent lack of centralized leadership [93]. The followingissues have been identified by professionals (e.g., [19,79,81]) as key considerations to future nationalpark management:Land ownership: Much of the land in the PNPs was once owned by collective villagers,local government, or provincial government. The extension of the park regions under the newsystem along with the transfer of land ownership to the central government implies economic lossesfor many farmers and local governments [13]. Therefore, the biggest challenge to making this landtransition successful is providing compensation to the farmers or the local governments for their losses.Qianjiangyuan National Park pilot has already had some success in its transition, as most local residentsreported no change in their net annual income (53%), and some (37%) reported a net increase [94].That said, the compensation should be based on their income level prior to the PNP establishmentto ensure that the local residents and the governments do not experience economic losses due to theland transition. Scholars have concluded that the issues of land transition or ownership should beresolved by respecting the will of local residents, strictly specifying and managing the process of landacquisition, increasing the standard of compensation, and balancing the goal ecological protection andthe provision of benefits to local residents/farmers [20].Personnel: The transformation of China’s CPAs selected to become national parks implies a shiftin management from the regional/provincial level to the national level. Likewise, the management ofLand 2020, 9, 489 18 of 23human resources must also be transitioned into the centralized system. As a result, park staff whoseexpertise of park management was at the regional/local level might be struggling in their nationalpositions. This personnel shift has yet to be organized in a way to best facilitate skill transitions.We recommend that a personnel re-training program be instituted to help regional/provincial parkstaffs accommodate their new centralized management positions at the national level.Economic re-zoning: Re-zoning economic activities in order to facilitate better conservation effortswhile ensuring local livelihoods could prove to be a challenge. It has been estimated, for example,that 11.7% of panda habitat within existing protected areas of the Sichuan portion of the Giant PandaNational Park has no restrictions on either timber extraction or human disturbance [95]. However,this results in significant changes to the distribution of economic benefits for those people who used towork inside park boundaries. Experts suggested offering alternative employment in park managementor tourism. Furthermore, some studies have suggested that it is possible for concessions to remain withinnational parks as long as they are guided by a concessions program that prioritizes natural resourcesas a public good [96]. Although there may be other opportunities, such as tourist transportation oraccommodation in local communities, the economic redistribution of these opportunities is a challenge.Traditional knowledge: A significant debate has emerged over whether to resettle localcommunities living inside the park (risking human rights violations) or allow them to remain(risking an adverse human footprint). This debate suggests that the PNP system is not an inclusivebottom-up mechanism [97]. Furthermore, removing local communities risks the loss of traditionalecological knowledge (TEK), which is very important for the effective management of protectedareas [98]. Balancing the contributions of these communities with their human footprint in theparks is a necessary element to engaging local park support. To address this, the PNP authoritiesshould carefully design the native community zone (NCZ) of each PNP so that local communities areincentivized to relocate there voluntarily, embracing the principles of informed consent, participation,and sufficiency to maintain their quality of life [99]. Further, local stakeholders (especially TEK holders)should join the decision-making table with scientists and policymakers for the ecological managementof the PNP system [20]. The Shennongjia and the Giant Panda National Parks have already employedlocal residents as ecological guardians in the parks [20].Financial management system: It is expected that the national government takes financialresponsibility as PNPs transition from a local to a more centralized system. Although this transitionfrees provincial governments from the financial burden of funding the parks, it also deprives provincialgovernments of some profits via tax revenues. However, activities such as commercial re-zoning or theapplication of TEK must rely on local stakeholders. As a result, provincial or municipal governmentsmay remain financially responsible for park operations. Thus, the revenue distribution and partnershipbetween the central and the provincial governments must be managed carefully. A financial designmanaging the disbursement of funding from the centralized National Park Administration to localactors for PNP operations and management seems to be a fair solutionLaw enforcement: A lack of effective law enforcement to ensure environmental protectionhas been a challenging issue for China’s CPAs, resulting in significant environmental degradation.Most environmental regulations and prohibitions exist in name only, since law enforcement is limitedto warning individuals and companies that violate rules without de facto punishments. Althoughthe administration of PNPs has been centralized at the national level with an increased focus onenvironmental protection, approaching improved law enforcement in these regions remains a challenge.The PNP authorities should begin designing and codifying the de facto punishments into a statutorylaw system.5. ConclusionsThe reforms identified here, aimed at helping the establishment of national parks in China,could inform other countries whose protected areas have faced similar administrative challenges orenvironmental pressures. For instance, not unlike China, Indonesia is experiencing protected areaLand 2020, 9, 489 19 of 23erosion due to infrastructure development and discordant governance [100]. Indonesian scholars candraw lessons from China’s experiences and avoid the mistakes made during China’s transition to anational park system.Still in its early stage of development, China’s pilot national park system remains disorganizedin practice and is not currently able to address the challenges articulated in this study effectively.Possible solutions to perfect this model should integrate lessons learned from other countries withwell-developed national park systems. For now, we strongly suggest that the central authoritiesin China prioritize the development of a set of laws and regulations applicable to national parks.Canada’s national park legal system provides an appropriate model, as its comprehensive natureencompasses by-laws including but not limited to wildlife, endangered species, hunting, fireproofing,traffic, architecture, and community involvement. [101]. Future work on China’s national park systemcould focus on adaptation to current trends and challenges by adopting some of the best practicesdeveloped in other parts of the world. Furthermore, as the pilot national park system is still in itsearly stages, an evaluation of its success might be premature. A follow up study should examine thesystem’s effectiveness after the final stages of implementation.Author Contributions: G.W.: Conceptualization, Methodology, Writing—Review & Editing. J.L.I.: Conceptualization,Review & Editing. G.S.: Resources, Data Curation, Writing—Original Draft. H.C.: Resources, Data Curation,Writing—Original Draft. Y.Z.: Resources, Data Curation. K.F.-G.: Resources, Data Curation, Writing—OriginalDraft, Writing—Review & Editing. Z.W.: Writing—Original Draft. All authors have read and agreed to thepublished version of the manuscript.Funding: This research was supported by the UBC Global Seminar Program and the one-month Go Global Studytour to China, and the APFNet Research Project (APFNet 2017 Sp2-UBC).Acknowledgments: We would like to thank Jun Yang of Tsinghua University, Dihua Li of Peking University,Jian Wu of Renmin University of China, Wenqiang Xu of the Chinese Academy of Science, Xiqiang Song ofthe National Park Research Institute at Hainan University, Wenzhou Cheng of Wuyi Mountain National Park,Zhaogang Duan of the Giant Panda National Park, Lvbei Yi of Sanjiangyuan National Park, and Guangcui Dai ofthe National Park Administration of China for co-hosting research workshops and roundtable discussions and,more importantly, for their insights into national park and protected areas management in China.Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.References1. Nagendra, H. Do parks work? 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Moving toward a Greener China: Is China’s National Park Pilot Program a Solution?
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