Education, Faculty of
Educational and Counselling Psychology, and Special Education (ECPS), Department of
DSpace
UBCV
John, Roger E.
Doctor of Philosophy - PhD
University of British Columbia
There are many articles, chapters and books written about challenges to well-being for Indigenous peoples, but there is limited research that has gathered data from Indigenous Knowledge Keepers about their views on well-being, whether relating to physical health or mental health. Research on the construct of Indigenous mental health and protective factors or determinants is limited, not in quantity, but in its ability to improve the health of Indigenous peoples. It is my belief (and of other Indigenous scholars) that many of the bio-psycho-social-spiritual illnesses that afflict Indigenous peoples result from colonization, not individual pathology or cultural factors. I called my Indigenous research methodology Over the Waves, which is based on St’at’imcets methodology. I asked seven i wa7 zewatets (“those who know”) to share their thoughts and knowledge about well-being. I generated four themes from the data bundles the i wa7 zewatets shared with me: 1) Belonging – know who you belong to and who belongs to you; 2) Wellness is Fluid and Dynamic; 3) Responsibility and Autonomy are equally important in Indigenous wellness and 4) the Assumption of Medicine – medicine is everywhere, inside of us, inside others and around us. I share the data bundles of these themes using the words of the i wa7 zewatets and my lived experience as an Indigenous person and as an Indigenous psychotherapist. In addition to the themes, I also created seven knowledge bundles in the discussion chapter. I call these knowledge bundles “New Currents”, following a water-based theme of locations related to water in St’at’imc territory. The New Currents are thoughts or ideas that stood out for me from the processing of the data bundles. The new currents are: 1) Wellness and Climate (Tsalalh – the Lake); 2) Playing with your Pain (Sk’mkin – Top end of Tsalalh); 3) the Power of Gathering (Scet – drop-off); 4) Reciprocity is ceremony (Kwlsvlqen/Inasket - where the mountain goat people live/translation unknown); 5) Q’waxt - To notice, to observe (Satatqwa7 – St’at’imets name for the Fraser River); 6) Healing is ceremony (Tsek – healing hot springs) and 7) the Assumption of Medicine (Hi7ulmecw – south end of Tsalalh – a place of spirits).
EXPLORING INDIGENOUS CONCEPTS OF WELL-BEING WITH INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE KEEPERS by Roger E. John B.A., University of Victoria, 1995 M.Ed., University of Victoria, 2004 A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY in The Faculty of Graduate and Postdoctoral Studies (Counselling Psychology) THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA (Vancouver) May 2025 © Roger E. John, 2025 ii The following individuals certify that they have read, and recommend to the Faculty of Graduate and Postdoctoral Studies for acceptance, the dissertation entitled: Exploring Indigenous Concepts of Well-being with Indigenous Knowledge Keepers submitted by Roger E. John in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Counselling Psychology Examining Committee: Marla Buchanan, Professor, Counselling Psychology, UBC Supervisor Alanaise Ferguson, Professor, Counselling Psychology, UBC Supervisory Committee Member Margaret Kovach, Professor, Social Work, UBC University Examiner William Borgen, Professor, Counselling Psychology, UBC University Examiner Additional Supervisory Committee Members: Jo-ann Archibald, Professor Emerita, Educational Studies, UBC Supervisory Committee Member iii Abstract There are many articles, chapters and books written about challenges to well-being for Indigenous peoples, but there is limited research that has gathered data from Indigenous Knowledge Keepers about their views on well-being, whether relating to physical health or mental health. Research on the construct of Indigenous mental health and protective factors or determinants is limited, not in quantity, but in its ability to improve the health of Indigenous peoples. It is my belief (and of other Indigenous scholars) that many of the bio-psycho-social-spiritual illnesses that afflict Indigenous peoples result from colonization, not individual pathology or cultural factors. I called my Indigenous research methodology Over the Waves, which is based on St’at’imcets methodology. I asked seven i wa7 zewatets (“those who know”) to share their thoughts and knowledge about well-being. I generated four themes from the data bundles the i wa7 zewatets shared with me: 1) Belonging – know who you belong to and who belongs to you; 2) Wellness is Fluid and Dynamic; 3) Responsibility and Autonomy are equally important in Indigenous wellness and 4) the Assumption of Medicine – medicine is everywhere, inside of us, inside others and around us. I share the data bundles of these themes using the words of the i wa7 zewatets and my lived experience as an Indigenous person and as an Indigenous psychotherapist. In addition to the themes, I also created seven knowledge bundles in the discussion chapter. I call these knowledge bundles “New Currents”, following a water-based theme of locations related to water in St’at’imc territory. The New Currents are thoughts or ideas that stood out for me from the processing of the data bundles. The new currents are: 1) Wellness and Climate (Tsalalh – the Lake); 2) Playing with your Pain (Sk’mkin – Top end of Tsalalh); 3) the Power of Gathering (Scet – drop-off); 4) Reciprocity is ceremony (Kwlsvlqen/Inasket - where the mountain goat people live/translation unknown); 5) Q’waxt - To notice, to observe iv (Satatqwa7 – St’at’imets name for the Fraser River); 6) Healing is ceremony (Tsek – healing hot springs) and 7) the Assumption of Medicine (Hi7ulmecw – south end of Tsalalh – a place of spirits). v Lay Summary Research on what constitutes well-being through the eyes of Indigenous Knowledge Keepers is limited. In this research project, I asked seven i wa7 zewatets (“those who know”) about their thoughts and knowledge about what constitutes well-being. I generated four themes on Indigenous well-being from their words: 1) Belonging – know who you belong to and who belongs to you; 2) Wellness is Fluid and Dynamic; 3) Responsibility and Autonomy are equally important in Indigenous well-being; 4) the Assumption of Medicine – medicine is everywhere, inside of us, inside others and around us. In addition to these four themes, I offer seven additional bundles of knowledge that stem from the research conversations and I call these New Currents: 1) Wellness and Climate; 2) Playing with your Pain; 3) the Power of Gathering; 4) Reciprocity is ceremony; 5) Q’waxt - To notice, to observe; 6) Healing is Ceremony; and 7) the Assumption of Medicine. vi Preface This dissertation is original, independent work by the author, Roger E. John. The current study involved human participants and was therefore reviewed and approved by the University of British Columbia Behavioural Research Ethics Board prior to the commencement of the research. The number of the original certificate pertaining to this research is H20-03167. Generative AI was not used for any aspect of this work. vii Table of Contents Abstract ......................................................................................................................................... iii Lay Summary ................................................................................................................................ v Preface ........................................................................................................................................... vi Table of Contents ........................................................................................................................ vii List of Tables ................................................................................................................................ xv List of Figures ............................................................................................................................. xvi Glossary ..................................................................................................................................... xvii Acknowledgements ..................................................................................................................... xx Dedication ................................................................................................................................... xxi Prologue ..................................................................................................................................... xxii Chapter One: Introduction .......................................................................................................... 1 Purpose(s) ........................................................................................................................... 1 Statement of the Problem .................................................................................................... 6 Research Question .............................................................................................................. 9 Significance of the Study .................................................................................................. 10 My Place in Counselling Psychology ............................................................................... 10 Chapter Two: Literature Review ............................................................................................... 12 Indigenous Populations: Numbers and Social Determinants of Health ............................ 17 viii Health and Social Determinants of Health........................................................................ 18 Education, Employment and Income ................................................................................ 20 Provincial Health Officer Report (2009) .......................................................................... 22 Mental Health Statistics, Concepts and Risk Factors for Indigenous Peoples ................. 23 Statistics ............................................................................................................................ 23 Indigenous Concepts of Mental Health............................................................................. 26 Colonial Trauma................................................................................................................ 31 Racism, Discrimination, Colonization and Illness ............................................................ 33 Inner Resilience as a Protective Factor ............................................................................. 36 Psychotherapy and Indigenous Peoples: Becoming “Pragmatically Beneficial” ............. 37 Chapter Three: Methodology – Going over the waves. Method and Data Processing Finding the river, finding the best fishing spots, choosing your net and processing your catch ........ 42 Naming my St’at’imcets Research Methodology – “Over the Waves” ............................ 44 So, What About Methodology? ......................................................................................... 45 Figure 3.1: An Indigenous Research Paradigm (Wilson, 2008) ....................................... 48 What about Qualitative Research then? ............................................................................ 49 Thematic Analysis: Data Processing – Data Bundles to Knowledge Bundles ................. 51 Research as Ceremony ...................................................................................................... 52 Ethical Considerations and Methodology ......................................................................... 53 Populations of Interest and Participant Selection ............................................................. 55 ix Introducing the i wa7 zewatets – those who know ........................................................... 57 Methods and Procedures – Where the Moccasin Meets the Road .................................... 59 Research Conversations .................................................................................................... 60 Using Questions for Research Conversations ................................................................... 61 Sharing of Findings ........................................................................................................... 62 Trustworthiness –Feedback and Validation ...................................................................... 62 CHAPTER FOUR: Findings ..................................................................................................... 65 Indigenous Well-being in the Words of i wa7 zewatets .................................................... 65 Sea Lion ............................................................................................................................ 67 Orca ................................................................................................................................... 68 Rabbit ................................................................................................................................ 69 Moose ................................................................................................................................ 70 Table 4.1 Indigenous Wellness Themes ............................................................................ 73 Theme 1 - Belonging ................................................................................................................... 74 Reciprocity is Ceremony................................................................................................... 78 Recognition-Thanksgiving ................................................................................................ 80 Observation-Intervention .................................................................................................. 84 Ullusilc: The Medicine of a Gathering of People ............................................................. 86 Interconnectedness ............................................................................................................ 89 x Summary Theme 1 ............................................................................................................ 93 Theme 2 – Wellness is Fluid, Dynamic and Reciprocal ........................................................... 93 Moving from “here to there” ............................................................................................. 94 Adaptiveness ..................................................................................................................... 96 Healing is a Ceremony .................................................................................................... 101 Wellness has Mystery...................................................................................................... 102 Playing with your Pain .................................................................................................... 103 Yaw-uk-miss – the unity of love and pain ...................................................................... 104 Summary Theme 2 .......................................................................................................... 107 Theme 3: Responsibility and Autonomy ................................................................................. 108 Responsibility ................................................................................................................. 108 Mindfulness and Responsibility: Accepting People as They Are ....................................110 Responsibility for Healing Oneself ..................................................................................112 The Climate Crisis and Responsibility ............................................................................115 Autonomy ........................................................................................................................117 Summary Theme 3 .......................................................................................................... 120 Theme 4: Assumption of Medicine .......................................................................................... 122 Resurgence: Revitalizing Ceremony and Ways of Being ............................................... 126 Resurgence: How to Get Well and How to be Well ........................................................ 128 xi Resurgence: “It’s never too late” .................................................................................... 129 Resurgence: Welcoming Home our 2SLGBTQ+ Relatives ............................................ 131 Resurgence and Sobriety ................................................................................................. 133 Summary Theme 4 .......................................................................................................... 134 Chapter Summary ........................................................................................................... 135 CHAPTER 5: Discussion – New Currents in the River ........................................................ 137 Table 5.1 – New Currents and their Place Names .......................................................... 139 How I have Changed During this Research Journey ...................................................... 140 The First Current – Tsalalh: Wellness and Climate......................................................... 143 Figure 5.1 – New Currents in St’at’imc Territory ........................................................... 144 Table 5.2 Key for Figure 5.1 ........................................................................................... 144 Recommendations for the First Current – Tsalalh (Wellness and Climate) .................... 148 Therapists and researchers .............................................................................................. 148 The Second Current - Sk’mkin (Top End): Playing with your Pain ............................... 149 Recommendations for the Second Current: Playing with your Pain .............................. 156 Clients, families and communities .................................................................................. 156 Therapists and Mental Health Programs ......................................................................... 156 The Third Current – Scet – (Drop-off): Ullusilc – The Power of Gathering .................. 157 Recommendations for the Third Current: The Power of Gathering ............................... 161 xii Therapists ........................................................................................................................ 161 Community Members ..................................................................................................... 162 The Fourth Current – Kwlsvlqen and Inasket: Reciprocity is Ceremony ....................... 163 Recommendations for the Fourth Current: Reciprocity is Ceremony ............................ 166 Therapists ........................................................................................................................ 166 Community Leaders and Organizations .......................................................................... 167 The Fifth Current - Satatqwa7a: Q’waxt – To Notice, To Observe ................................ 167 Recommendations for the Fifth Current: To Notice, To Observe ................................... 171 Parents, Family Members and Community Members .................................................... 171 Community Leaders ........................................................................................................ 172 Professionals/Health Systems/Researchers ..................................................................... 172 The Sixth Current - Tsek: Healing is Ceremony ............................................................. 173 Recommendations for the Sixth Current: Healing is Ceremony .................................... 177 Therapists, Health Organizations and Researchers ......................................................... 177 Clients, families and communities .................................................................................. 178 The Seventh Current - hi7ulmecw: The Assumption of Medicine ................................. 179 Recommendations for The Seventh Current: The Assumption of Medicine .................. 181 Mainstream psychotherapy service providers ................................................................. 181 Indigenous and non-Indigenous Health Service Providers and Agencies ...................... 182 xiii Chapter Summary ........................................................................................................... 184 Chapter 6: Conclusion (?) ........................................................................................................ 187 Outcome: Did I answer my research question? .............................................................. 188 Outcome: Did I use an Indigenous Research Methodology?.......................................... 189 Strengths and limitations of the research ........................................................................ 189 Applications of Research Findings and Recommendations............................................ 192 Hu7malh! – our word for “see you later” ....................................................................... 192 References .................................................................................................................................. 193 Appendices ................................................................................................................................. 203 Appendix A: Research Conversation Questions ......................................................................... 203 Appendix B: Invitation for Feedback ......................................................................................... 204 Appendix C: Resources and Suggestions for Indigenous Graduate Students ............................. 205 Appendix D.1: Handwritten Themes List 1 ................................................................................ 206 Appendix D.2: Handwritten Themes List 2 ................................................................................ 207 Appendix E.1: Handwritten Mind Map 1 ................................................................................... 208 Appendix E.2: Handwritten Mind Map 2 ................................................................................... 209 Appendix E.3: Handwritten Mind Map 3 ................................................................................... 210 Appendix F.1: Image of Digital Mind Map using Miro 1 ............................................................211 Appendix F.2: Image of Digital Mind Map using Miro 2 ........................................................... 212 xiv Appendix F.3: Image of Digital Mind Map using Miro 3 ........................................................... 213 Appendix G.1: Indigenous Wellness Themes Table Version 1.0 ................................................ 214 Appendix G.2: Indigenous Wellness Themes Table Version 2.0 ................................................ 215 Appendix G.3: Indigenous Wellness Themes Table Version 3.0 ................................................ 216 Appendix G.4: Indigenous Wellness Themes Table Version 4.0 ................................................ 217 Appendix G.5: Indigenous Wellness Themes Table Version 5.0 ................................................ 218 Appendix G.6: Indigenous Wellness Themes Table Version 6.0 ................................................ 219 Appendix G.7: Indigenous Wellness Themes Table Version 7.0 ................................................ 220 Appendix G.8: Indigenous Wellness Themes Table Version 8.0 ................................................ 221 Appendix G.9: Indigenous Wellness Themes Table Version 9.0 ................................................ 222 Appendix G.10: Indigenous Wellness Themes Table Version 10.0 ............................................ 223 Appendix G.11: Indigenous Wellness Themes Table Version 11.0............................................. 224 Appendix G. 12: Indigenous Wellness Themes Table Version 12.0 ........................................... 225 Appendix G. 13: Indigenous Wellness Themes Table Version 13.0 ........................................... 226 Appendix G. 14: Indigenous Wellness Themes Table 4.1 - Final ............................................... 227 xv List of Tables Table 4.1 Indigenous Wellness Themes 73 Table 5.1 New Currents in St’at’imc Territory 139 Table 5.2 Key for Figure 5.1 144 xvi List of Figures Figure 3.1 An Indigenous Research Paradigm 48 Figure 5.1 New Currents in St’at’imc Territory 144 xvii Glossary Aboriginal Aboriginal is a general or umbrella term that collectively refers to First Nations, Métis and the Inuit in Canada. Given it is found in the Canadian constitution, it is a term often used in legal circles, e.g., “Aboriginal rights.” It is broad, on one hand, because it includes all three groups, but specific, on the other, in that it is not widely used in international contexts. (In the US, for instance, it is not widely understood.) (University of British Columbia, 2024). May be used interchangeably with “Indigenous.” First Nation The term “First Nation” can refer to individuals, but technically refers only to those who have Indian status under Canadian law, as part of a recognized community (or Band). This term is widely used, but there is not a legal definition (UBC, 2024). First Nations Most, but not all, reserve-based communities in Canada refer to themselves as “First Nations,” though some do not. (e.g. some reserve-based communities use their community name from their language). This term is widely used, but there is no legal definition. (UBC, 2024). Indian See “Status Indian”. Indigenous The term “Indigenous” also encompasses all these groups, either collectively or separately, and is a preferred term in international usage, (e.g., the UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples). In its derivation from international Indigenous movements, which is associated more with activism than government policy, it has emerged, for many, as the preferred term for national Indigenous movements, as well (UBC, 2024). Inuit The Inuit are the third main Indigenous (or Aboriginal) group recognized in Canada. Historically located in the Arctic, they are legally and culturally distinct from First Nations — or legally-defined Indians — and Métis (UBC, 2024). The Inuit peoples have distinct dialects depending on their region and the dialects can be distinct to the point that people from xviii different communities or regions may not easily understand one another. There are four Inuit comprehensive land claims regions covering more than one-third of Canada: the Inuvialuit Settlement Region in the Northwest Territories, Nunavut, Nunavik in northern Quebec, and Nunatsiavut in Labrador. Nunavut has three subregions—Kitikmeot, Kivalliq and Qikiqtaaluk—which are called regions (International Journal of Indigenous Health, n.d.). i wa7 zewatets [ee-waa-zoowatich] - the one who knows, the ones who have the knowledge - (John, D., John, J., John, K. personal communication, July 2/2024) Medicine An English word that many Indigenous people use to describe healing properties or a quality of healing; can refer to physical, spiritual, emotional or mental healing. Métis Largely refers to the groups of Indigenous peoples recognized by the Government of Canada who originated from the Métis homelands in the Red River area. Physical World This world, the world of three dimensions. The world of the living. All things physical, that can be touched. s7a7xa spiritual medicine/talent (Northern St’at’imcets language app) Spirit World The world that exists outside of this world; this can mean heaven, the afterlife, this can be an extrasensory dimension where ancestors reside, where the Creator (God) resides. In Indigenous worldview, there is overlap and interaction between the physical world and the spirit world. St’at’imc Name of the writer’s First Nation or tribe numbering 11 communities. “The St’át’imc are the original inhabitants of the territory which extends north to Churn Creek and to South French Bar; northwest to the headwaters of Bridge River; north and east toward Hat Creek Valley; east to the Big Slide; south to the island on Harrison Lake and west of the Fraser River to the headwaters of Lillooet River, Ryan River and Black Tusk.” (St’at’imc Government Services, 2023). St’at’imcets The language of the St’at’imc people xix Status Indian You may encounter, particularly in legal or policy contexts, the terms “status Indian,” “Indian status” or simply “status.” All refer to the government classification system in which “status” confers certain benefits (and historically, certain penalties) … refers only to those who have Indian status under Canadian law, as part of a recognized community (or Band) (UBC, 2024). Tsalalhmec The community to whom the writer belongs and who belong to him – “The people of the lakes” Ucwalmicw St’at’imcets word for Indigenous person Well In good health, free or recovered from illness (Paperback Oxford Canadian Dictionary, 2006, p.1178). Well-being A happy, health and prosperous state or condition (Paperback Oxford Canadian Dictionary, 2006, p.1178) Wellness The state of being well or in good health (Paperback Oxford Canadian Dictionary, 2006, p.1179) xx Acknowledgements I honour and thank my wife, Sylvie Rae Cottell for her love and support during my PhD Journey. I honour and thank our child, Hunter Cottell-John, for his patience, as I regularly disappeared into my office for “homework”. I honour and thank Dr. Marla Buchanan, my supervisor who helped me to bring my dissertation over the finish line. Thank you for your support, patience, and commitment. Thank you for being open to Indigenous ways of knowing, healing and being. I honour and thank my PhD cohort (my homegirls): Karlee, Leah, Tanya, Kirby, Ashley and Meagan. I give thanks to the CNPS professors and psychologists who taught our classes and supervised our practicums. I thank the CNPS staff who keep all the wheels spinning, particular thanks to Karen Yan and Connie Choi. I give thanks to Caroline Kingston at the Centre for Accessibility who helped me to navigate graduate school with an adulthood diagnosis of ADHD. I honour and thank to the Indigenous and allied academic and clinical giants on whose shoulders I was able to stand, this list is not exhaustive – Dr. Rod McCormick; Dr. Suzanne Stewart; Dr. David Danto; Dr. Clare Brant; Dr. Joseph Gone; Dr. Lawrence Kirmayer; Dr. Chris Lalonde; Dr. Linda Tuhiwai Smith; Dr. Graham Hingangaroa Smith; Dr. Lorna Williams; Dr. Maggie Kovach; Dr. Shawn Wilson; Dr. Jo-Ann Archibald; Dr. Rosalyn Ing; Dr. Michael Marker. I give thanks to UVic Counselling Services for supporting me on my journey, particularly Dr. Ai-lan Chia and Dr. Rita Knodel. I also thank my counselling colleagues and all SWC teammates. xxi Dedication I dedicate this work to loved ones whose resilience before my time meant I could live to pursue this degree. I dedicate this work to loved ones whose love, support, and whose example, helped me to do this work. I dedicate this work to the ones who will come after me, and to the generations after them. I dedicate this work to: • My parents, Vincent Samuel Casper John (Pabby) and Matilda John (Maw). • My love, my wife, Sylvie Cottell and my beloved skuza (child), Hunter Cottell-John • My brothers and sisters, Darwyn, Rose, Ivan, Joanne, Eugene, Garry and Sharon. • My nieces and nephews and their children and grandchildren. • My parents-in-law, Dr. Phillip Cottell and Donna Cottell and my sister-in-law Deanna Cottell • Candice, Darius and Gracie. • Tsalalhmec and St’at’imc peoples • Tsalalhmec smúlhatsa – the women of Tsalalh – the backbone of our community and our families. • The people of Lekwungen, Kosapsum and W’SANEC, whose lands I have lived on for over thirty years – I raise my hands to you • The Musqueam people, who lands I studied and lived on for two years – I raise my hands to you. xxii Prologue A prologue is not a standard part of most academic papers or dissertations, but Indigenous peoples do not begin events, discussions or ceremonies with introductions of a topic or introductions of a problem. Instead, ceremonies and events begin with an explanation of the reason for the gathering, introductions of people, acknowledgements and/or prayers. I wish to introduce myself to the reader and provide relational accountability (Kovach, 2009; Wilson, 2008) by acknowledging the space I occupy and by introducing myself. I am a visitor to Lekwungen territory, Tsalalhmeckahn – I am from the community of Tsalalh; St’at’imcmeckahn (I am from the St’at’imc Nation) and Ucwalmickan, I am Indigenous. I am from the Grizzly clan. My father is Vincent Samuel Casper John of Tsalalh, and my mother is Matilda John (nee Terry) from Xwisten or Bridge River. I am an Indigenous man; I am a son, husband, father, stepfather, stepgrandfather, uncle, nephew and cousin. I am an intergenerational survivor or the Residential School System as my mother attended the Kamloops Indian Residential School, and my oldest siblings also attended the Kamloops Indian Residential School. I attended an Indian Day School for first two years of my K – 12 education and then did my schooling at a time when 90% of Indigenous students did not graduate. My parents struggled with alcoholism; my father was a veteran of WWII. Typically, aspects of ‘reflexivity’ occur later in academic papers, but for Indigenous peoples, reflexivity or relationality (Kovach, 2009) is where one begins. 1 Chapter One: Introduction “As long as we keep treating health like the mind and the body are separate, we’ll just keep stumbling along.” (Rabbit) Participant Rabbit was quoting a medicine man that he had worked with when he said the above words. Rabbit saw that in Canada and the United States, there exists some of the most advanced medical systems in the world, but both Indigenous and non-Indigenous people still face significant health challenges, such as obesity, depression, anxiety, diabetes, arthritis and chronic illnesses. These health challenges affect Indigenous peoples in Canada and the United States most of all, whether one is considering social determinants of health (education, employment, access to health care) or physical indicators of health (mental illness, cancer, chronic illness, substance abuse rates). There is a significant gap between the health of Indigenous peoples and non-Indigenous peoples in Canada (Kirmayer, Tait & Simpson, 2009; National Aboriginal Health Organization, 2008; Reading & Wien, 2022), the United States (Joe, 2001), Australia (Tsey et al., 2002) and New Zealand (Durie, 2003). Purpose(s) My purposes for conducting this Indigenous research methodology and an Indigenous research method (research conversation, Kovach, 2009) were to 1) gain a better understanding of the resilience of my parents; 2) ask i wa7 zewatets about their views of well-being; to learn what Indigenous Knowledge Keepers think is important about well-being; 3) attempt to answer this research question through a clinical lens; 4) utilize my findings to contribute to an understanding of Indigenous well-being and to share this knowledge with others to help Indigenous peoples as they continue with their healing from colonization; and 5) explore an Indigenous specific topic in 2 an Indigenous way, from participant selection, to research process to data analysis and thematic processing. To explain my first purpose, understanding the resilience of my parents, understanding their complexities, I need to share more about the history of my family of origin. I was raised in the community of Tsalalh in the late 1960s – 1970’s. My father was born in 1922, and my mother was born in 1930. My father is from Tsalalh (the lake also known as Seton Lake, but our community is called Tsalalh) and my mother is from Xwisten. Xwisten is another St’at’imc community outside of the town of Lillooet. Xwisten community is a steward of our most important salmon fishing grounds on Satatqwa7 – also known as the Fraser River1. Tsalalh translates to lake in the St’at’imcets language, the language of my people. For us, the Tsalalhmec – the People of the Lake, and many St’at’imc people, when we speak of Tsalalh – the Lake or the Tsalalhmec – the People, we know exactly which community and which people we are referring to, so the term is both general and specific. Settler maps call Tsalalh Seton Lake. Xwisten, refers to the river also known as the Bridge River. I do not know the exact translation for Xwisten, but I know it refers to the river and the community that my mother is from. These are the communities that my parents come from, the places that I trace my ancestry to and Tsalalh is where I was raised. The impacts of colonization on my mother and father and their ability to raise their children, me and my seven siblings created one of the purposes of my research. My mother and 1 Following the example of Cree scholar, Dr. Maggie Kovach, who followed Dr. Winona Stevenson’s example, to prioritize Indigenous language, I will put St’at’imcets and words from other Indigenous languages in roman type and their English translations in italics. This indicates that Indigenous languages are the first language in their respective territory. 3 father struggled as parents, struggling with alcoholism, and both struggled with trauma – my father was a veteran of WWII, and my mother was a survivor of the Kamloops Indian Residential School. Both were only a generation removed from the smallpox and influenza epidemics that caused the loss of some 90% of our population. The residual trauma and grief must have been overwhelming. Both lived and worked in an environment where Indigenous people were treated as trespassers in their own land, First Nations people were paid less. First Nations people were often not allowed in restaurants or allowed to use the same public bathrooms as white people. This was not an age of “micro-aggressions,” Indigenous people were seen as less than human. Both my mother and father were taught and learned incredible survival skills–skills of hunting, fishing, working hard, gathering, putting food by2 and contributing to community. They worked very hard to ensure there was food on the table for their children and of holding their heads high. They wished to be self-sufficient people, no matter what the sama7 (non-Indigenous people) said to them or told them what they could and couldn’t do, and what they must do. As Leanne B. Simpson3 (2011) and Ellen Gabriel (cited in Simpson, 2011) said, my parents had done nothing wrong, they had nothing to be ashamed of. And they taught us, that we had nothing to be ashamed of. 2 “Putting food by” is a way of saying, ensuring that you have enough food gathered, hunted, frozen, canned, dried or smoked. Enough, not only to feed your family, but also to contribute to community. I could not find a way to say it in ‘proper’ English. 3 When it does not cause confusion for citations, the first time citing a scholar I will use their full names. This feels more proper to me as a matter of respect and relational accountability. I apologize to any authors whose names I did not fully cite. 4 My parents were amazing people. Both have crossed into the spirit world. My father died from medical causes due to alcoholism at the age of 65. My mother passed away at the age of 89, an amazing life considering all that she had endured. I was only sad that her last few years were a struggle due to physical impairments caused by a stroke, vascular dementia and the trauma from her residential school survival. I am intrigued and amazed by their ability to navigate the tension between their trauma and pain and their incredible resilience and capabilities. This was true even though our home could not have been described as a “happy one” due to alcoholism, poverty and family violence. As I considered their stories and my experience of being raised by them and I wondered how could such resilience persist, despite the oppression and traumatic incidents they experienced? How were they able to pass this resilience on to us, their children and their grandchildren? My parents were amazing grandparents, their love for their grandchildren was a wonder to behold. A purpose of my research is to understand this tension – the tension between their s7a7xa – their spiritual medicine and talent and their trauma caused response. This can also be called Indigenous resilience or survivance (Vizenor, 2008). Survivance is a many-faceted concept and Vizenor’s (2008) description causes me to think of my parents, Vincent Samuel Casper John - Skwimstcen and Matilda John (nee Terry) – Nslilq, they struggled, but they were not “victims”: The nature of survivance is unmistakeable of native stories, natural reason, remembrance, traditions, and customs and is clearly observable in narrative resistance and personal attributes, such as the native humanistic tease, vital irony, spirit, cast of mind, and moral courage. The character of survivance creates a sense of a native presence over absence, nihilism, and victimry. (p.1) 5 My second purpose was to ask Indigenous Knowledge Keepers directly about the matter of Indigenous well-being through their eyes and thus through the eyes of our ancestors. I feel that the closest we can get to the knowledge and teaching of our ancestors (aside from ceremonial or spiritual work) is by asking our i wa7 zewatets to share their knowledge, as they hold the knowledge of our ancestors. I feel that much of the literature on Indigenous well-being is written by “expert,” both Indigenous and non-Indigenous and rarely in the words of the i wa7 zewatets themselves. Of course, what I choose to write is then filtered through my lens, but I have done my best to have my written words reflect or echo the words of the i wa7 zewatets. My third purpose is to present the data, the themes I chose through a clinical lens, such as that of counselling, psychology or medicine. Not to say that the lens of counselling psychology is the only lens that matters, but as a clinician, I believe I hold a particular perspective that will help to convey my findings in a manner that is useful for the provision of psychotherapy or development of programming for the provision of relevant and respectful mental health services for Indigenous clients, families and communities. My fourth purpose was to contribute to the “scaffolding” of Indigenous structures for understanding of wellbeing, to help to create guideposts that could be used by service providers and by Indigenous peoples to help Indigenous peoples with their ceremony of healing from the “soul wound” (Duran, 1995) and “historic trauma response” (Braveheart, 1998) of colonization. And I wanted to contribute to this “scaffolding” by asking Indigenous Knowledge Keepers about their views on well-being and what is important for achieving well-being. My fifth purpose was to investigate the topic of well-being using an Indigenous research methodology; a methodology that asks the questions in an Indigenous way, relates to participants in an Indigenous way and considers the data with an Indigenous ontology and epistemology. 6 Statement of the Problem There are a multitude of “problems” when one considers the health of Indigenous peoples. One of the key challenges for the health of Indigenous peoples is the focus on “problems,” a deficit focus rather than strengths focus. The protective factors that contribute to the resilience of Indigenous peoples have not been fully explored, or considered by mainstream psychotherapy, health research or healthcare systems. This is one of the primary reasons that a multitude of programs and millions (perhaps billions) of dollars of funding have not led to great leaps forward in Indigenous health outcomes. With that said, as a researcher and as a clinician, I would be remiss to not consider the health challenges faced by Indigenous peoples a problem that requires investigation. This investigation was done in a relevant and respectful way, and it could be a step on the path towards healing for Indigenous peoples. The gap in health indicators between Indigenous and non-Indigenous peoples in settler states (countries built on colonization) is well documented, but not clearly understood as the gap has not been reduced by a range of current research approaches. Indigenous peoples in each of these countries face numerous physical, psychological, family and socioeconomic stresses due to the impacts of colonization (Durie, 2003; Gone, 2004; Kirmayer, et al., 2009; Tsey et al., 2002, Weaver, 2019). This includes lower life expectancy, educational underattainment, higher rates of incarceration, the highest rates of children in care and higher incidence of mental illness including alcohol addiction, alcohol abuse, depression, anxiety and post-traumatic stress disorder (Kirmayer et al., 2009; Weaver, 2019). In the past, researchers and mainstream health providers attributed these physical and psychological challenges to cultural factors or an inherent inferiority within Indigenous peoples. This deficit-based misunderstanding of Indigenous peoples was founded upon the residential 7 school system, education systems, child welfare systems, health systems and religious institutions. Each of whom, at some point took it upon themselves to “educate” or “save” Indigenous peoples. This led to a sense of shame for being Indigenous and contributed to a sense of internalized colonization (Freire, 2000, 1970; Memmi, 1965; Simpson, 2011). Leanne B. Simpson (2011) cited Mohawk defender, Ellen Gabriel who stated: “We have nothing to be ashamed of. We have done nothing wrong.” Simpson spoke about the oppressive power of internalized colonization or shame on Indigenous peoples, and how it transforms us into viewing ourselves as victims: Shame traps us individually and collectively into the victimry of the colonial assault, and travels through the generations, accumulating and manifesting itself in each new re-generation. The cycles of shame we are cognitively locked into is, in part, perpetuated and maintained by western theoretical constructions of “resistance”, “mobilization” and “social movements”, By defining what is and is not considered. Through the lens of colonial thought and cognitive imperialism, we are often unable to see our Ancestors. (Simpson, 2011, p.15) Systems and institutions that were supposed to help Indigenous peoples were oppressive and destabilizing. These systems and institutions caused immense harm to our cultures for generations. Many Indigenous people would argue that many of these systems are still oppressing Indigenous peoples. It is clear to Indigenous peoples that colonization and structural racism play a major role in the incidence of a large part of the distress affecting Indigenous peoples (Cavalieri, 2013; Duran and Duran, 1995; Gone, 2004; Kirmayer et al., 2009). Government based mental health services and various mental health professions have been unable, for the most part, to help Indigenous peoples to recover from colonization in a structured 8 and sustainable way (Duran and Duran, 1995; Gone, 2004; Kirmayer et al., 2009; Stewart and Marshall, 2017). There have been many small successes, usually in community based or Indigenous led projects, but few are adopted into mental health programming by government agencies and service providers (AHF, 2008). Indigenous peoples have their own concepts of good health termed “living the good life” (Hart, 2002) or “walking along with the good way of being” (Statimc Outreach Health Services, n.d.). Health is not the same phenomenological experience for different communities of Indigenous peoples, meaning they will each view health in their unique way, resisting the “ethnic gloss”4 (Joseph Trimble, 1990, p.152). But generations of health and social service systems attempted (and continue) to apply a universal model to all Indigenous peoples, whether one speaks of the Bureau of Indian Affairs; Indigenous Services Canada; social service agencies or mental health programs. There is limited research on the efficacy or effectiveness of Indigenous or mainstream healing methods (Gone, 2004, 2011; McCormick, 2009; Schiff & Moore, 2003; Stewart & Marshall, 2017) with Indigenous peoples. Indigenous views of well-being consider physiological factors (rest, diet, exercise, connection with others) but also consider spiritual, mental and land-based factors. Indigenous views of well-being do not mesh well with reductionistic, deficit-based models of health (Gone, 2004; Kirmayer et al., 2009) or programming driven by fiscal years or political will. Indigenous models or constructs of well-being need to be researched so that their key factors can be 4 “For a vast majority of the studies in the ethnic minority drug use literature, descriptions of ethnic and cultural groups tend to rely on the use of broad “ethnic glosses,” superficial, almost vacuous categories which serve only to separate one group from another. Use of such “glosses” gives little or no sense of the richness and cultural variation within these groups …” (Trimble, 1990, pp.152-153) 9 operationalized into modern mental health care systems, not to provide “evidence” that they work, but so that these Indigenous determinants of health can be considered by funders and decision makers. Of course, researchers and clinicians will always need to ensure that principles of ownership and Indigenous sovereignty are respected regarding sacred knowledge. Research Question The research question that I am investigating is: “What is Indigenous well-being according to Indigenous Knowledge Keepers?” The question is general, but I did not want to either limit myself by focusing on a specific research question or overwhelm myself by having a multitude of sub questions. Based on my past research experiences with Indigenous research participants, “less is more”. Indigenous research participants often consider a multitude of perspectives, information and what is appropriate for them to share with a researcher. I had no wish to place artificial boundaries on the scope of the sharing of participants. Particularly when the participants were esteemed Indigenous Knowledge Keepers with encyclopedic levels of knowledge about the topic. Regarding terminology, I chose to use the words “well-being5” and “wellness6” for my research questions and in describing the findings. I felt that the word “health” is a focus on physical health and does not usually consider spiritual, cultural or land-based elements of well-being that are important to Indigenous people. I primarily use the term well-being, but I use wellness when I feel it flows better in the writing in my dissertation. I acknowledge that the definition and use of the word health is expanding to include non-physical aspects of health. 5 A happy, healthy and prosperous state or condition (Paperback Oxford Canadian Dictionary, 2006, p.1178). 6 The state of being well or in good health (Paperback Oxford Canadian Dictionary, 2006, p.1179). 10 Significance of the Study This study will contribute to the development of an Indigenous model of psychology or well-being utilizing Indigenous research methodologies and methods to ask recognized Indigenous Knowledge Keepers about their understanding of mental health, well-being. The colonization “problems” that Indigenous peoples contend with are multiple and daunting, but Indigenous peoples continue to focus on their healing, reviving their cultures, resurging, protecting Indigenous children from a dangerously well-intentioned state, improving safety for women and 2SLGBTQ+ and protecting the land. The larger problems are not the media popular higher rates of PTSD; suicide (in some communities); substance misuse, rather the larger problems are the perpetual colonial stance of mental health agencies, government health agencies and mental professions when it comes to providing services at Indigenous peoples instead of for them or with them. To facilitate the ability of Indigenous peoples to focus on these problems, non-Indigenous institutions of governance, research and health need to recognize their historical roles (and current) roles in the perpetuation of these challenges and work to decolonize their ways, to help Indigenous peoples to take care of themselves. Without such acts of reconciliation, we (both Indigenous and mainstream peoples) will continue to “stumble along” as Rabbit said. My Place in Counselling Psychology I was encouraged to speak to the “place” of my findings in the field of counselling psychology. I deliberately called this section “My Place in the Counselling Psychology” rather than asking if my findings have a place in counselling psychology. I wrote the title in this way, because in qualitative research, the researcher is the instrument and in Indigenous Research Methodologies, the researcher is the methodology. I do not know if my findings, including the 11 methodology and new currents will be warmly welcomed in my field of counselling psychology. I believe my findings and my methodology are a good fit in the field of counselling psychology. I believe that counselling psychology is a branch of psychology that is flexible and can make room for Indigenous Research methodologies. I believe counselling psychology, as a field, is open to considering non-mainstream views of health and well-being. I believe counselling psychology has demonstrated this flexibility through its openness to anti-oppressive lenses such as feminist, Asian, Black, LGBTQ2S+ and others. This is not to say that the counselling psychology is “decolonized”, but I believe as a field it has made some progress. 12 Chapter Two: Literature Review In this chapter I introduce the relevant and current literature on the topic of Indigenous well-being among Indigenous peoples in Canada. The purpose of this chapter is not to provide an exhaustive review of the many commonly known deficit-based statistics that often appear in the media and government reports that share the repeated failures of health systems to improve the well-being of Indigenous peoples. Rather the purpose of this chapter is to provide an overview of the literature about Indigenous well-being that helps to provide a lens to read my dissertation. My literature review was shaped by a multitude of relationships, happenstance (luck or chance) and I would argue in some cases intervention by spirits and ancestors and possibly Creator (which may not be different from happenstance). In my oral defence, my external examiner (an Indigenous female scholar), recommended that I consider an Indigenous “relational approach” (Tynan & Bishop, 2023) when describing the way, I undertook my literature review and the way I laid out my literature review. The external examiner recommended that I read the 2023 article by Lauren Tynan (trawlwulwuy) and Michelle Bishop (Gamilaroi), two Indigenous scholars from Australia. I do not know if it is common practice to acknowledge changes made to a dissertation after the oral defence, but I feel it would be rude for me to not acknowledge the external examiner. Tynan and Bishop wrote about the importance of using a relational approach in literature reviews for Indigenous scholars. Tynan and Bishop found that relationality was a concept or [landmark] (author’s word) missing in many literature reviews or books on Indigenous research methodologies. Tynan and Bishop described how, in their academic context the goals for doctoral students conducting literature reviews were to “find the gap” and establish oneself as an “authority” in the subject area. Although, I never received explicit directions to approach literature reviews in this way, there have been implicit messages in course content 13 about the structure of research from my undergraduate degree to my PhD. I am pleased to say that my doctoral supervisor never directed me to use a restrictive approach in my literature review, nor did any professor in the department. I know that I would have been troubled if I had been explicitly directed to use my literature review to “find gaps” or to establish my expertise. My literature review was influenced by relationships I had formed over the years of my academic, professional and clinical career and included Indigenous scholars such as Margaret Kovach, Dr. Graham Smith, Dr. Linda T. Smith, Dr. Shawn Wilson, Dr. Robina Thomas, Dr. Jacquie Green, Dr. Suzanne Stewart, Dr. Lester Rigney, Dr. Marie Battiste, Dr. Lorna Williams, Dr. Larry Emerson, Dr. Kathy Absolon, Dr. Sandrina Definney, Dr. Richard Atleo, Dr. Michael Marker, Dr. Onowa McIvor, Dr. Jeff Corntassel, Dr. Taiaiake Alfred and the list goes on. I have formed relationships with these scholars and listened to their sharing of knowledge and watched their actions to influence the academy and change the lives of Indigenous peoples for the better. Even if I did not cite all these scholars in my work, at some point I was influenced either by their writing, their words or their very personhood – the way that they did the things they did and the why. I was influenced by the many Indigenous Knowledge Keepers I have come across and had the privilege of meeting (sometimes very briefly) in my life, from my parents, aunts and uncles, community elders, the women who are the backbone of my community, my brothers and sisters, my nieces and nephews, my children, my wife and even the words and thoughts of knowledge keepers captured in books, articles, films and audio recordings. Again, I was influenced not only by their words, but also by their actions, seeing how they did the things they did and why. During my search for books or articles to support designing the structure of my dissertation I came across a book in my library titled Writing Up Qualitative Research (2nd Ed.) by Harry Wolcott (2001), I would consider this a fortuitous moment of happenstance. Harry 14 Wolcott wrote about the “rituals” that had come to be associated with the writing of dissertations, and he challenged many of the pronouncements and requirements that universities cast upon students. Wolcott challenged the very need for a chapter dedicated strictly to a literature review and challenged one professor to show him the rule that doctoral students were required to writer a literature review in their dissertation. The professor conceded that there may not be a written rule requiring a literature review, but Wolcott conceded that the professor could insist that their students write a literature review. Wolcott wished to challenge the mythology of literature reviews, that they are the eleventh commandment on which graduate education and research is based. Wolcott stated that he believed that there are many ways by which students could demonstrate their grasp or mastery of the literature in their respective fields, such as linking to the literature in their discussion and that these linkages are made on a “when and as needed basis” (p.72) or “Such detail seems more likely to come after the presentation of new research than in anticipation of it. I object to the practice simply backing up with a truckload of stuff and dumping it on unsuspecting readers, which seems to be what most traditional reviews accomplish” (p.74). After I read Wolcott’s work, I felt even more comfortable taking a different approach to my literature review and focusing on the literature that I had relationship with, or relationship with the authors and related to my research question, rather than conducting an exhaustive review of the literature. I have been encouraged over the course of my doctoral program to find more recent sources regarding Indigenous mental health. I felt quite challenged by this and felt some fear that a failure to find more recent references would constitute a weakness in my research methodology. I need to thank Tynan and Bishop again for helping me to view my challenge in a new light. As I said at the beginning of this paragraph, a lot of research I cite is dated, but as I 15 searched for more recent findings on constructs and concepts of Indigenous mental health I realized that many recent authors were also citing many of the “dated” authors: Braveheart, Chandler, Duran, Firehammer, Gone, Greenwood, Hart, Kirmayer, Lalonde, McCormick, Mehl-Madrona, Trimble, and Thurman (this list is not exhaustive). There seemed to be a consistent group of scholars whose work was consistently cited relating to Indigenous mental health frameworks and methodologies. I became worried that perhaps there was a significant pool of new and exciting researchers that I was not aware of (and there may be). I realized that my challenge to find more recent references may constitute a “silence” (Tynan & Bishop, 2023, p.51) rather than a “gap” (ibid). As Tynan & Bishop said, silences serve a purpose in Indigenous ways of being, silences encourage people to listen, to reflect and I would add, to slow down. I present my relatively small number of more recent references as indicative of a purposeful silence, both in the field of Indigenous mental health research and the silence is also purposeful on my part. As I stated in another part of my dissertation, I believe there are also significant older sources of information about Indigenous mental health that are being ignored or missed in the pursuit of recency. Sources such as the Sacred Tree Project of Lane et al., (1984, 2012), the research conducted by the Aboriginal Healing Foundation (2006, 2014); research conducted by the National Aboriginal Health Organization (2000-2012) or the volumes of data and information gathered in the Royal Commission on Aboriginal People (1996) or the Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls Inquiry (2019). The amount of knowledge in these sources is staggering and immensely rich, yet, I rarely see these sources cited in recent articles, books or dissertations. Are these sources silenced because they are “dated” and/or because the organization that produced them was deemed redundant? In Indigenous methodologies, isn’t some our oldest knowledge considered to be the most relevant and the most powerful. I let go of 16 my fear of not having the latest research in my references. That is not to say that I believe our quest for new knowledge and new ideas should stop, but sometime the pursuit for the latest sources can distract us from the matter at hand. Some of the research is dated, but many of the problems have not changed over the last forty years and the improvement in the lives and well-being of Indigenous has been minimal for the most part. Some of the data that used to be produced regularly by government agencies has fallen victim to a movement towards not stigmatizing vulnerable populations (e.g. ensuring that health data regarding Indigenous peoples does not cast Indigenous peoples in a negative light) and has led to omitting or not making public data that shows that if Indigenous peoples have poor health indicators in some areas. I argue that the negative light in such instances is cast on health and research systems with power over health services for Indigenous peoples rather than on Indigenous peoples. I also argue that numerous governments who have failed to grant Indigenous people’s agency over their own well-being are the ones to be cast in a negative light. I argue that research that does not provide data on both negative and positive aspects of Indigenous people’s health is not useful and does disservice to Indigenous peoples. I chose not to “dump a truckload” (Wolcott, 2001) of data on Indigenous health to overwhelm readers. That said, I begin with a discussion of the populations of Indigenous peoples and go on to provide figures on some social determinants of health among Indigenous people in Canada. I also share some of the literature on prevalence rates of mental health issues for Indigenous peoples, Indigenous concepts of mental health, and discuss some factors that have been found to negatively affect the mental health of Indigenous peoples and other oppressed groups. I also discuss the concept of inner resilience as a protective factor. 17 Indigenous Populations: Numbers and Social Determinants of Health The populations of Indigenous peoples in Canada and the United States are heterogeneous in language, tribal culture and history of colonization (Chandler & Lalonde, 2009; Fellner, John & Cottell, 2012; Kirmayer et al., 2009; Waldram, 2009). There are common cultural values, but the worldviews, epistemologies, ontologies, rituals, languages and histories of Indigenous peoples vary widely (Chandler & Lalonde, 2009; Kirmayer et al., 2009; Waldram, 2002, 2009). According to Indian and Northern Affairs Canada (2003) there are 614 bands or villages in Canada and 53 different Indigenous languages. As an example, British Columbia has a diverse population of First Nations - there are 24 different Indigenous languages in BC, representing seven out of the eleven Indigenous language families in Canada (Acheson, 1995). According to the 2021 Census (Statistics Canada, 2021), there were 1,807, 250 people in Canada who identified as Indigenous. Indigenous peoples in Canada consist primarily of three groups: First Nations, Métis and Inuit. For the purposes of my dissertation, Indigenous refers to these three groups and other Indigenous peoples such as American Indian, Alaska Native and Eskimo. Of the 1,807,250 people, 1,048,400 identified as First Nations people; 624, 220 identified as Métis and 70, 540 identified as Inuk or Inuit. Indigenous peoples in Canada constitute 5% of the population (Indigenous Services Canada, 2024) and comprise the second largest Indigenous proportion of a national population behind New Zealand’s Maori peoples who comprise 17.4% of the population of New Zealand (Stat NZ, 2024). American Indians comprise 2.9% of the U.S. population (National Council on Aging, 2024). Indigenous peoples in Canada comprise one of the fastest growing and youngest populations in Canada. From 2015 to 2021, the Indigenous population of Canada increased by 9.4% compared to the general population increase of 5.3%; the rate of growth is still almost twice that of the general population but has slowed 18 significantly from earlier decades. Children and youth under 14 comprised 25.4% of the Indigenous population compared to 16% of the general population. The average age of the Indigenous population was 33.6 years compared to 41.8 years for the general population (Statistics Canada, 2021). Health and Social Determinants of Health Over the last two to three decades there has been increasing acknowledgements of the importance of “social determinants of health” (Loppie & Wien, 2022). Loppie and Wien (2022) cited the World Health Organization’s (WHO) definition of social determinants of health: “conditions in which people are born, grow, work, live and age, and the wider set of forces and systems shaping the conditions of daily life. These include economic policies and systems, development agendas, social norms, social policies and political systems” (WHO, 2021, para. 1). Following the approach of the National Collaborating Centre on Indigenous Health (NCCIH), I will provide an overview of some of the most common indicators of health. I will also share data provided by organizations with an Indigenous lens, such as the First Nations Health Authority (FNHA) and NCCIH. FNHA and NCCIH consider both statistical data and social determinants data, which I believe provides a more holistic view of the well-being of Indigenous peoples. I believe this provides both a richer picture and makes the data more relevant (interesting and useful) to Indigenous peoples. I will provide an overview of data on some social determinants of health: education, employment and income. I will also provide an overview of mental health for Indigenous peoples, including some statistics, but also discuss some of the factors that contribute to these deficit-based statistics. Overall health of Indigenous peoples is among the poorest of any group in Canada, as shown in the following indicators of health from Understanding Indigenous Health Inequalities 19 through a Social Determinants Model (2022) (Loppie & Wien, 2022). Life expectancy for Indigenous peoples has improved in the last 20 years but there is still a gap from the non-Indigenous population. In 2019, the life expectancy for First Nations males was 72.6; the life expectancy for a Métis male was 76.9, and the life expectancy for an Inuit male was 70, compared to 81.4 for non-Indigenous males. The life-expectancy for First Nations females was 77.7; 82.3 for Métis females and 76.1 for Inuit females, compared to 87.3 for non-Indigenous females. This report utilized data from Statistics Canada (2018a) on self-reported mental health: 50.5% of First Nations people on-reserve; 61.3% of First Nations people off-reserve; 63.5% of Métis people and 59.5% of Inuit people reported having excellent or very good mental health. By comparison, 71.9% of non-Indigenous people reported excellent or very good general mental health. The First Nations Health Authority (2019) reported on 2015-2016 data from First Nations people only in BC. The First Nations Health Authority reported: 43% of First Nations adults reported that their mental health was excellent (13%) or very good (30%). The National Aboriginal Health Organization (2007) provided figures for a broad range of health determinants for Indigenous peoples in Canada. First Nations, Métis and Inuit peoples. Inuit peoples, on average, paid twice the amount for food as people in other Canadian locations and Nunavut experienced a suicide rate up to 40 times the Canadian average for young men; 33% of Métis children live in low-income families compared to 18% of general Canadian children and 35% of Métis children live in single-parent families compared to 18% of general Canadian children (NAHO, 2007). All First Nations people up to age 65 are at a higher risk for suicide than the Canadian population. In 1999, the suicide rate for First Nations people was 2.1 times that of the Canadian population (Statistics Canada, 2003) but one should remember that rates of suicide vary between areas, tribes and communities within tribes. Suicide rates are 20 statistical calculations and can increase exponentially with one suicide among a small population. (Chandler & Lalonde, 2009). In 2022, Loppie and Wien produced a report on health inequalities using a social determinants model for the National Collaborating Center on Indigenous Health. In this report, price of food was not mentioned, but food insecurity is used as a determinant of health. Food insecurity refers to the types of foods a person has access to in their neighborhood and what they can afford. According to Loppie and Wien’s report, 20.6% of First Nations people living off-reserve experience food insecurity as do 14.3% of Métis people and 26.3% of Inuit peoples. By comparison, 7.1% of non-Indigenous peoples experienced food insecurity. This means that Indigenous peoples are 2 – 3 times more likely to experience food insecurity than non-Indigenous peoples. Education, Employment and Income Education attainment of First Nations people is improving but is still far below the Canadian average, I will share information from different data sources and from different times to show progress and/or lack of progress. In 1997-98, 74% of First Nations children remained in school until Grade 12 compared to 34% in 1987-1988. However, in 1996, the on and off-reserve populations still reported lower on education attainment indicators such as secondary school completion and university admission than the Canadian population (Statistics Canada, 2003). In 2006, (Statistics Canada, 2010) 33% of the Aboriginal population aged 25 – 54 had less than a high school diploma compared to 18% of the non-Aboriginal population. In 2006, (Statistics Canada, 2011) 25% of non-Aboriginal people held a bachelor’s degree or above compared to 9% of Métis; 7% of First Nations people and 4% of Inuit people (Statistics Canada, 2010). The 2006 employment rate for Aboriginal people aged 25-54 was 65.8% compared to 81.6% for the Canadian population (Statistics Canada, 2010). The median income for all 21 Aboriginal peoples was $22 000 compared to $33 000 for non-Aboriginal people; the median income for First Nations peoples was $19 000; for Métis peoples the median was $28 000 and for Inuit peoples the median was just under $25 000 (Statistics Canada, 2010). The 2021 Census showed an improvement in average income and median income for all three groups, but there is still a gap with non-Indigenous peoples. Median Income: First Nations people - $32,400; Métis people - $39,200, and Inuit people - $33,200 – the median income for non-Indigenous people was $41,200. Average income: First Nation people - $41,880; Métis people - $49,400; and Inuit people - $45,640. Non-Indigenous people’s median income was $54,900. In 2021, 16% of Indigenous peoples held a university degree (compared to 36% of the overall population), 23% have obtained a college credential, and 11% have completed apprenticeships—figures that surpass those of the general population (Statistics Canada, 2021). According to the 2021 census (Statistics Canada, 2021), the employment rate for First Nations people was 56.6% for First Nations people; 68.8% for Métis people and 55.2% for Inuit people, compared to 81% for non-Indigenous peoples. Interestingly, the employment rates across all three Indigenous groups increases and even surpasses that of non-Indigenous peoples when considering people with a bachelor’s degree or higher. The employment rate is: 86.5% for First Nations people with a bachelor’s degree or higher; 89% for Métis people with a bachelor’s degree or higher and 89% for Inuit people with a bachelor’s degree or higher. By comparison, the employment rate is 87.7% for non-Indigenous peoples with a bachelor’s degree or higher. There is still a significant gap between Indigenous peoples in Canada and non-Indigenous peoples in Canada for education, employment and income, when considering education below a bachelor’s degree, but employment and income improves dramatically for Indigenous peoples with increased education. 22 Provincial Health Officer Report (2009) In 2009, the Provincial Health Officer of British Columbia provided extensive research, data and recommendations on the health and well-being of First Nations and Métis peoples in British Columbia in the report Pathways to Health and Healing: 2nd Report on the Health and Well-being of Aboriginal People in British Columbia. I will refer first to First Nations peoples and then Métis peoples. This report found that Aboriginal peoples had the highest rates of unemployment, lowest income and lowest levels of educational attainment in Canada (Provincial Health Officer, 2009). These three factors are part of the measure known as the Community Well-Being (CWB) Index developed by O’Sullivan (2006) for Indian and Northern Affairs Canada. The CWB was based on the Human Development Index (HDI) developed by the UN Development Programme in 1990. Canada usually falls within the top 10 of all countries in the world on the HDI. However, when only the HDI of Status Indians is considered, Canada’s rank dropped from 6th to 48th (PHO, 2009). There is a strong link between well-being and education (PHO, 2006) and in 2005-2006 Aboriginal people had a first-time graduation rate (graduated when expected to) of 50.9% compared to 73.3% for the general population (PHO, 2006). In 2001, the unemployment rate (for people 25 years of age and older) for Aboriginal people in BC was 21% compared to 6.7% for the general population (PHO). There are differences in rates for status Indians living on-reserve and those living off-reserve, but both rates of unemployment are higher than the general population. The unemployment rate for on-reserve status Indians was 22.8%; 10.8% for status Indians off-reserve and 4.7% for other residents in 2006. Aboriginal males living on-reserve had an unemployment rate of 26.6% in 2006 compared to 18.2% for Aboriginal females. When Aboriginal males are able to find employment, it is usually focused in trades, transportation, primary industries and process/manufacturing. Aboriginal females tend to 23 be employed in the service industry and administration; the sectors for male employment have shrunk significantly while the sectors for female employment continue to increase (Ball, 2009; PHO, 2009). Aboriginal males tend to be overrepresented in employment sectors that are unsecure and lower paying compared to non-Aboriginal males. They are also underrepresented in professional occupations with higher pay and greater job security (PHO, 2009). With this type of labour market profile, it is little wonder that in contemporary times, Indigenous peoples have struggled to achieve economic or career equality. Mental Health Statistics, Concepts and Risk Factors for Indigenous Peoples Statistics There is limited research on the issues that bring Indigenous clients to psychotherapy and their perceptions of the process. Indigenous clients’ presenting issues are many and varied; they include anxiety; depression; loneliness; grieving for a deceased relative; alcoholism; childhood sexual abuse; identity loss; family violence; substance abuse, PTSD, suicidal ideation; career concerns, academic concerns; spiritual concerns; homesickness, and Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (Beals et al., 2005; Gagne, 1998; LaFromboise, et al., 1990; McCormick, 1997; Morrisette, 2003; Peavey, 1994; Provincial Health Officer, 2009; Larocque, 2002; Garrett & Herring, 2001; Trimble & Thurman, 2002). Three of the most researched and tracked mental health challenges for Indigenous peoples are suicide, alcohol addiction and post-traumatic stress disorder. The patterns of prevalence can vary widely. There have been estimates of suicide rates up to 40 times the average for the non-Indigenous population as noted by the Aboriginal Healing Foundation (2007) and the British Columbia Provincial Health Officer (British Columbia – Provincial Health Officer, 2009). The Aboriginal Healing Foundation published an extensive report in 2007 which 24 indicated that the rate of suicide for First Nations peoples in Canada was two times that of non-Aboriginal people and Inuit peoples had a rate 10 times that of the Canadian non-Aboriginal population. Lalonde (2009) found a wide range of suicide rates among First Nations communities in British Columbia and noted that in many communities with specific characteristics (cultural continuity factors) the suicide rates were lower than the Canadian average. In regard to “alcohol dependence” and “alcohol abuse”, Beals et al. (2005c) used data from the American Indian Service Utilization, Psychiatric Epidemiology, Risk and Protective Factors Project (AI-SUPERPFP) study. Alcohol abuse7 and alcohol dependence are past diagnoses from the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM) of Mental Disorders III-R (American Psychiatric Association, 1987) and the DSM-IV (American Psychiatric Association, 2000) for what is now known as Substance Use Disorder for Alcohol in the DSM-5 (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). The study involved community members from two American Indian (AI) communities (and surrounding area). One AI community was from the Southwest (SW) and one AI community was from the Northern Plains (NP). Beals et al. (2005c) found that the rates of lifetime alcohol abuse were similar for American Indian men from both communities (SW and NP) and they were comparable to men from the general population. The lifetime rate of alcohol abuse was 11.2% for men from the SW community, 12.8% for men from the NP community and 12.6% for men from the general population. The difference was larger for alcohol dependence. The lifetime alcohol dependence rate was 31.1% for AI men from the SW 7 In general, the DSM-IV-TR described alcohol dependence as being “less severe” than alcohol abuse. Generally, dependence included increased tolerance and withdrawal symptoms. Alcohol abuse was seen as more severe as it has more antisocial outcomes, failure to complete responsibilities, loss of work, legal problems, etc. This was revised into one diagnostic category in the DSM-V. 25 community; 30.5% for men from the NP community and 20.5% for men from the general population. Rates of alcohol abuse and dependence were lower among females in both the AI and general populations compared to men. Lifetime rates of alcohol abuse were were 5.1% for women from the SW community; 10.3% for women from the NP community and 6.4% for women from the general population. Lifetime rates of alcohol abuse were similar between the SW women and the women from the general population, but twice as high for NP women. Lifetime rates of alcohol dependence were 8.7% for AI women from the SW community; 20.5% for AI women from the NP community and 8.2% for women from the general population. Again, rates were similar between women from the SW community and the general population but higher for the NP women. Beals et al. (2005c) also calculated lifetime rates of PTSD among men and women from all three groups. For AI men, the lifetime rate of PSTD was 12.8% for SW men; 11.5% for NP men and 4.3% for men from the general population. American Indian men had rates from 3 to 4 times that of men in the general population. Lifetime rates of PTSD were higher for women across all three groups: the PTSD rate for AI women from the SW community was 22.5%; the PTSD rate for NW AI women was 20.2% and 9.1% for women from the general population. American Indian women had the highest lifetime rates of PTSD compared to American Indian men, men from the general population and women from the general population. Beals et al. (2005c) acknowledged the limitations of their study – two American Indian communities could not be taken as representative of all American Indians; there were limitations of the assessment tools; and even the data sets used for the National Comorbidity Study. This study still represents one of the most detailed pictures of rates of alcohol related disorders in American Indian communities and rates of PTSD. 26 From 2004 to 2007, First Nations persons in British Columbia were admitted to hospitals at a rate of 50.6 per 10 000 for mental and behavioural disorders due to substance misuse compared to rate of 11.7 per 10 000 for other BC residents. Rates of hospitalization for schizophrenia; schizotypal, delusional disorders and other neurotic, stress-related and somatoform disorders were also higher for First Nations people in BC, but not as significantly as the substance misuse hospitalization rates (Provincial Health Officer, 2007). These statistics from these reports and studies show that the rates of alcohol related disorders, suicide and PTSD are generally higher among Indigenous peoples than the general population of non-Indigenous people. However, there are still issues related to methodology for gathering data – reliance on service utilization and self-report, differentiation of residence and use of diagnostic categories not normed for Indigenous peoples. Even so, I believe the above findings illustrate the need for more research on Indigenous peoples views of well-being. Indigenous Concepts of Mental Health Holism8 is the most popular or accepted view of mental health and health for Indigenous peoples. Some authors (Gone, 2017; Waldram, 2004) have argued that some Indigenous peoples may have a view of mental health or well-being that allows for a division of mind and body, or an binary approach. Waldram (2004) argued that accepting the viewpoint that Indigenous well-being is only holistic and non-Indigenous viewpoints of well-being are atomistic or discrete, is essentializing and serves neither population well. Joseph Gone (2017) also observed such essentialization is not helpful. As a researcher and psychotherapist, I would be remiss if I did not 8 the treating of the whole person including mental and social factors rather than just the symptoms of a disease. (Paperback Oxford Canadian Dictionary, 2006, 2nd ed., p.462). 27 raise this point. This tension does not have implications for my findings, but I suspect some of my participants would have enjoyed a specific discussion about this matter. Clinically, I have utilized both a binary approach to well-being and a holistic approach in my work with clients. After I have first met with clients and heard their story of what brought them to see me and what they felt was most pressing for them I conduct what I call a Medicine Wheel assessment considering physical, mental, emotional/social and spiritual/creative aspects of the person. Particularly when working with young adults I begin with the physical or medical – how is their sleep; diet, exercise and have they spoken to a doctor about this issue. Many times, significant improvements can be made with behavioural changes (more sleep or exercise, improved eating) or by ruling out possible physical issues (low iron, ADHD, diagnosable depression or anxiety). Once the physical aspects have been addressed, I find work in other quadrants can be more effective. This is not to say that I refuse to consider the spiritual/creative, emotional or mental until the physical aspects have been addressed, but I find this approach to be helpful, if the client has access to a supportive and culturally safe medical professional. I did not become fully aware of Waldram’s research in this area until after my research was underway. It is an area of interest for me for future research. In much of the literature Indigenous concepts of health/well-being authors stated that health does not follow the division of mind and body of the medical model (AHF, 2005; Hart, 2002; Jilek, 1974; Kirmayer, Tait & Simpson, 2009; Kral & Idlout, 2009; Lane et al., (1984, 2012; McCormick 2009; Mehl-Madrona, 1997; Oulanova & Moodley, 2017; Schiff & Moore, 2003) or the focus on pathology and dysfunction within the individual (AHF, 2005) espoused by the mainstream models of mental health. The Medicine Wheel is a model used by many First Nations and Native American peoples to describe a holistic view of well-being or health (AHF, 28 2005; Hart, 2002; Hill, 2017; Lane et al., 1984, 2012; McCormick, 2009). In a Medicine Wheel, well-being or health refers to balance or harmony among the mental, physical, emotional and spiritual domains of an individual (AHF, 2005; Hart, 2002; Lane et al., 1984, 2012; McCormick, 2009). If an individual is out of balance in any of these domains they will no longer be in harmony with their environment or ‘all their relations’ (Hart, 2002; Joe, 2001; Lane et al., 2012; Wilson, 2008). An isolated construct of mental health does not fit into the health ontology of many Indigenous peoples according to the literature. In the literature, health is seen as a dynamic and holistic construct comprised of multiple entities including physical, mental, social, emotional, spiritual and connection to the land (AHF, 2005; Hart, 2002; Lane et al., 1984, 2012). Durie, Milroy and Hunter (2009) cited Swan and Raphael’s (1995) description of Aboriginal health as: The Aboriginal concept of health is holistic, encompassing mental health and physical, cultural and spiritual health. Land is central to well-being. This holistic concept does not merely refer to the ‘whole body’, but in fact is steeped in the harmonized inter-relations that constitute cultural well-being … Crucially, it must be understood that when the harmony of these inter-relations is disrupted Aboriginal ill-health will persist (p.42). There is an alternate view to the idea that the Indigenous view of health is strictly holistic. Waldram (2004) proposed that the commonly accepted theory of Indigenous health being holistic was a result of the influence of “new age” thinkers and influences. Waldram argued that there was evidence within some tribal languages that indicated that some tribes believe there can be a separation between mind and body, and that well-being may not be strictly holistic. Waldram observed that some tribal languages have words that describe concepts of 29 mental illness as being separate from physical health - that there can be a delineation between mental health and physical health. The American Psychiatric Association included “culturally bound syndromes” in the DSM-IV-TR (2000). It is significant that the primary diagnostic manual of North American mental health recognizes the importance of ethnicity and cultural concepts of mental health, though research into non-mainstream models of distress and well-being has not taken flight in psychology and psychiatry, unless by non-majority researchers and allies. Non-mainstream concepts of mental illness or mental wellness have gained a foothold in psychiatry and psychology, but non-majority helpers are often still on the outside looking in, whether Buddhist, Traditional Chinese Medicine practitioners, curaderos from Mexico, shamans from South America or Indigenous healers around the world. Although the list of culture-bound syndromes is small, it provides a starting point in the relationship between North American psychiatry-psychology and Indigenous cultures’ views of mental health. Similar in form to culturally bound syndromes, Duran and Duran (1995), Sandner (1979, 1991) and Waldram (2004) cited Clement’s (1932) work about Indigenous beliefs about the sources of physical, emotional, mental and spiritual distress. Clements theorized that many Indigenous peoples believed that the primary causes of mental illness were: 1) object intrusion; 2) spirit/soul loss; 3) spirit intrusion or possession and 4) illness because of breaking taboos (Clement, 1932; Sander, 1979, 1991; Waldram, 2004). From my own perspective as an Indigenous person, I have heard stories and witnessed ceremonies meant to address some of these causes of illness or distress, but that does not mean that I believe that these, phenomena, are the sole causes or mental illness or that they even cause mental illness. Based on what I heard when I was growing up, some of the phenomena could cause a person to “go crazy”, but they can also cause physical illness leading 30 to gradual or quick death. Ceremonies can help to remove the cause or lessen the symptom or help the person to see the way to make the situation better for themselves, not necessarily “cure” the illness. I believe that Clement’s work has some value, but I do not believe it should be used as the foundational work to develop Indigenous theories of well-being, healing and/or psychology. Others have also questioned the rigor of Clement’s methodologies and his use of sources, both in Clement’s time (Hallowell, 1935) and more recently (Waldram, 2004). Waldram stated that he believes that Clement (most likely unintentionally) created a legend that Indigenous peoples do not see a separation between the mind and the body, and this is an unfortunate legacy for Indigenous peoples and for researchers who wish to do meaningful and helpful research with Indigenous peoples. As I noted in the introduction, Waldram (2002) has proposed that the broadly accepted construct of Indigenous well-being as strictly holistic is also up for debate – Waldram described the idea as “widespread and tenacious” (p.275). Waldram proposed that there are constructs in many Indigenous languages that indicate that mental illness can be a separate construct from physical health and separate from the land and from spirits. In my opinion, Waldram’s wish was not to deconstruct the construct of holism or to challenge Indigenous and non-Indigenous supporters of this model, but to encourage expanded thought, to discourage an essentialist approach that will focus solely on holism. I interpreted Waldram’s (2009, 2002) work as a concern that Indigenous peoples had taken on the holistic view of health and had been supported by non-Indigenous scholars to differentiate Indigenous cultures or worldviews in regard to health from settler worldviews and this has become entrenched. Waldram expressed the view that yes, colonization has taken an incredible toll on the cultures and health of Indigenous peoples, and this has been acknowledged widely in the literature. Waldram wondered though, if Indigenous 31 peoples were so affected, does it not make sense that their cultural models, their views of health have also been affected. Waldram seemed to be saying that there was little acknowledgement of the impact of colonization on Indigenous knowledges of well-being, that despite the traumas of colonization, an essential, Indigenous core of well-being continued, uninterrupted and undisrupted. Kirmayer et al. (2000) also discussed the “homogenizing” effects of “pan-Indian” approaches to spirituality and healing practices. Similarly to how I viewed Waldram’s (2004, 2009) discussion, I believe that Kirmayer et. al (2000) were cautioning against an essentializing or homogenizing approach to Indigenous well-being and healing – to help Indigenous people to avoid self-applying “ethnic gloss.” (Trimble, 1990). Colonial Trauma Many authors believe that the bio-psycho-social-spiritual sicknesses that afflict Indigenous peoples today are a direct result of colonization rather than of intraindividual pathologies or cultural factors (AHF, 2004; BIMRP, 2013; Duran & Duran, 1995; Kirmayer et al., 2009a; Trimble & Thurman, 2002; Weaver, 2009). Duran and Duran (1995) stated that the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-V, APA, 2013) should contain a diagnosis for Colonization to adequately meet the needs of Indigenous clients, families and communities and created the term “Soul Wound” to operationalize the pain caused to Native Americans by colonization. For my master’s project (John, 2004) I used a term that was explicit in the role of colonization as a bio-psycho-social-spiritual pathological factor for Indigenous peoples and related to western psychotherapeutic concepts. I used Duran and Duran’s work as the foundation for my term Colonial Trauma (John, 2004); “Colonial” encompasses bio-psycho-social-spiritual challenges and dispossessions faced by Indigenous peoples as a direct result of colonization. “Trauma” captured symptoms of trauma such as hyperarousal, disturbed affect, 32 shortened sense of the future and diminished ability to form meaningful relationships (American Psychiatric Association, 2000; Levine, 1997). I believed that synthesizing the two words helped to operationalize colonization events like cultural theft, land theft, ancestral trauma and land trauma (John, 2004) that I believe continue to affect Indigenous peoples today and result in symptoms that are described as mental illnesses in the western medical model. PTSD is a diagnosis frequently seen among Indigenous populations (Beals et al., 2005; PHO, 2009). Failing to acknowledge the role that past, current and future acts of colonization play in the bio-psycho-social-spiritual well-being of Indigenous peoples perpetuates the psychological and societal disorders among Indigenous peoples such as substance misuse, suicide, domestic violence and poverty. There are numerous historical factors that led to the current state of health and socioeconomic stress for Indigenous peoples in North America (AHF, 2005; Duran & Duran, 1995; Hart, 2002; Kirmayer, Tait & Simpson, 2009; Mehl-Madrona, 1997). Damage to the structure of Indigenous societies was a direct result of practices of colonization including economic isolation and oppression; restriction of spiritual practices; disempowerment of Indigenous governments as well as the depopulation caused by the introduction of epidemic diseases such as tuberculosis; influenza and smallpox. All these incidents and the loss of 90% of the population caused severe stress to Indigenous societies. Resultant poverty, disempowerment, enforced acculturation and removal from the land and exclusion from economic opportunities created a situation perfectly suited to cause a massive increase in biopsychosocial illnesses and negative patterns. Chrisjohn (2006) proposed that the incidence of biopsychosocial illnesses and difficulties do not represent pathology but constitute a perfectly natural human response to such conditions. 33 Racism, Discrimination, Colonization and Illness Sue and Sue (2008) defined the construct of ethnocentric monoculturalism in place of a strict definition of racism, “the values, assumptions, beliefs and practices of our (American) society are structured in such a manner as to serve only one narrow segment of the population” (p.84). The five components of ethnocentric monoculturalism were described as: 1) belief in superiority of one’s group over others; 2) belief in the inferiority of other groups with less power; 3) having the power to impose standards on other groups; 4) manifestation of ethnocentric values and beliefs in institutions, programs, policies, practices and structures of the society and 5) the invisible veil or assumption of universality. Many of the components contained within the definition of monoculturalism are also found in definitions of colonization. Laenui (2008) defined colonization as consisting of five steps: 1) colonizers deny the existence of any inherent value in Indigenous cultures and the Indigenous people withdraw from their culture (denial and withdrawal); 2) destruction and eradication of physical representations of the Indigenous culture (destruction and eradication); 3) institutions, programs, policies and the like will belittle, denigrate and insult any remaining Indigenous cultural practices (denigration, belittlement/insult); 4) any remnants of Indigenous culture are transformed into the culture of the dominating society and exploited for commercial gain (surface accommodation and tokenism) and 5) any cultural remnants or survivors are transformed into forms acceptable to the dominating culture and exploited (transformation/exploitation) (p.151). There are similar concepts and processes involved in the effects of racism-discrimination or colonial mentality. Research has shown that Indigenous peoples feel that racism and colonization constitute debilitating factors in their lives (Iwasaki & Bartlett, 2006; Iwasaki, Bartlett, Gottlieb & Hall, 2009). The negative physiological and psychological among other oppressed groups has also 34 been shown (Alvarez & Juang, 2010; Gee, Chen, Spencer, See, Kuester, Tran, Takeuchi, 2006; Gee, Delva, & Takeuchi, 2007; Gee, Spencer, Chen & Takeuchi, 2007; Gee, Spencer, Chen & Takeuchi, 2007; Mossakowski, 2007). When asked about the stresses that affect their health, Indigenous participants in studies on diabetes did not focus on diabetes, or the poverty they live with or unemployment, but they emphasized the impact of broader systemic barriers to health including racism and colonization (Iwasaki & Bartlett, 2006; Iwasaki et al., 2009). The research by Iwasaki and Bartlett (2006) and Iwasaki et al. (2009) showed that Indigenous participants felt that racism and discrimination interfered with their physical and psychological health. Research from the Journal of Counseling Psychology (2006-2011) utilized Asian Americans, Asian peoples, African Americans and Filipino Americans as participants. The research on Filipino Americans was probably the most applicable as the article mentioned colonization and racism as a factor on the mental health of Filipino Americans. Filipino peoples experienced colonization at the hands of the Spanish and most recently the Americans (Alvarez & Juang, 2010). Through their literature search, Alvarez and Juang (2010) found other research showing that racism affected the mental health of members of affected groups. Specifically, lifetime and everyday discrimination contributed to depression (Mossakowski, 2003), heart disease, diabetes, high blood pressure (Gee et al., 2006), illegal drug use, prescription drug use and alcohol dependence (Gee, Delva & Takeuchi, 2007). There is a positive relationship between experiencing discrimination or racism and ill health for members of oppressed groups and I believe that similar processes have contributed to the health deficits among Indigenous peoples. Mossakowski (2003), Gee et al. (2007) and Gee et al. (2007) cautioned that they could not posit a causal direction of the relationship between the negative health situations and discrimination- 35 racism, but there is clearly a correlation between experiencing discrimination-racism and having poor health. David and Okazaki (2006) conducted the only study that mentioned the impacts of colonization on the mental health of an oppressed group. Although, this study focused on Filipino Americans there are some aspects of the findings and the research questions that can be applied to Indigenous peoples in North America. David and Okazaki (2006) created the Colonial Mentality Scale (CMS) and conducted an exploratory and confirmatory analysis of the scale with 603 participants utilizing a web-based study. David and Okazaki found that the construct of Colonial Mentality (CM) consisted of five factors: 1) internalized cultural and ethnic inferiority; 2) cultural shame and embarrassment; 3) within-group discrimination against less-Americanized Filipinos; and 4) perception of Filipino physical characteristics as inferior to white characteristics and 5) colonial debt (2006). Some of the limitations of this study were: the data was collected utilizing a computer-based survey, which makes it vulnerable to sampling and respondent bias; the sample was not randomly selected and the distribution was found not to be normal. A rather significant limitation of this study for application to North American Indigenous peoples is that the study was conducted with Filipino-Americans who are living away from their colonized homeland, whereas Indigenous peoples in North America still live in their homeland and the processes of colonization and resultants Colonial Mentality factors are likely different for North American Indigenous peoples. Regardless of limitations, I feel that the study holds value as it is the only quantitative study in the designated time to consider colonization as a factor for the mental health of an Indigenous population. 36 Inner Resilience as a Protective Factor Ceremonies, spiritual practices and medicinal plants are typically the foci of studies of Indigenous methods of health maintenance, but there has been little focus on non-ceremonial activities that contribute to well-being. These activities have been described as leisure activities (Iwasaki & Bartlett, 2006; Iwasaki et al., 2009) and as inner resilience activities (Kirmayer et al. 2009a). The literature illustrated a clear relationship between inner resilience activities and the well-being of Indigenous peoples, particularly for Indigenous men (AHF, 2005; NAHO, 2008). Iwasaki and Bartlett and Iwasaki et al. acknowledged that leisure activities for Indigenous peoples were in a different category than leisure activities for non-Indigenous peoples. They recognized that the activities they investigated with Indigenous participants (e.g., cultural gatherings; practice of cultural activities; spiritual activities; learning or teaching cultural activities) were integral activities to the transmission of cultural knowledge and assisted participants to strengthen their cultural identity as compared to personal recreation. The National Aboriginal Health Organization (NAHO, 2008) found that, for Indigenous peoples, everyday activities such as attending social gatherings, hunting, fishing and drumming and singing were as important as ceremonies for contribution to the achievement, maintenance and regaining of well-being. Grey (2013) observed that cultural events are part of service delivery for mental health. Even though an event or activity may be viewed by mainstream society as a common or recreational activity, Indigenous peoples recognize that these events or activities contribute to their well-being. The contribution of leisure activities to well-being for Indigenous peoples is useful, but I felt that the concept of inner resilience was a more accurate representation of the contribution of these types of activities for Indigenous well-being. Kirmayer et al. (2009) defined inner 37 resilience activities as those activities that permit Indigenous individuals and communities to access “Indigenous sources of resilience” (Kirmayer et al., 2009) including: connection to family, community and all of creation; language; connection to and respect for the earth; healing traditions, ceremony and spirituality; collective agency for decolonization. Kirmayer et al. utilized Heavyrunner and Morris’ (1997) and Heavyrunner and Marshall’s (2003) descriptions of aspects of Indigenous worldviews that contribute to resilience as key sources for their seminal report on inner resilience. The cultural processes included values, beliefs, behaviours related to spirituality, child rearing, respect for nature, generosity, sharing, cooperation, group harmony, autonomy, respect for others. Heavyrunner and Marshall (2003) stated that for Indigenous peoples, resilience is not only about overcoming stress and trauma, but is a natural human capacity to face life’s challenges. This ability to face life’s challenges can be enhanced through spiritual and cultural practices that are part of Indigenous cultures. Resiliency is not a result of rare and special qualities, but a result of the use of cultural and spiritual activities or practices that foster natural resilience (Heavyrunner & Marshall, 2003). Some of the questions in my interviews with IKKs will focus on the importance of inner resilience activities for Indigenous people. Psychotherapy and Indigenous Peoples: Becoming “Pragmatically Beneficial” There has been unrewarded optimism that a shift would occur away from mainstream North American psychological models towards a more culturally relevant or “pragmatically beneficial” (Gone, 2004, p.136) approach for Indigenous peoples’ mental health and well-being rather than being “irresponsibly irrelevant” (p.136). Gone (2004) was speaking primarily to the training of psychologists, but I believe this statement can also be said to true of the development and offering of psychotherapy services to Indigenous communities and research. In 1990, 38 LaFromboise, Trimble and Mohatt (1990) stated that, “One need not be a historian of federal Indian policy to detect movement in the Indian Health Service mental health policy away from conventional psychological thought toward the recognition of culturally sensitive mental health approaches that maintain Indian communities” (p.628). At the time of this paper, it is thirty-five years since LaFromboise et al.’s (1990) paper and twenty-one years since Gone’s (2004) paper. I would argue that Indigenous people are still waiting for a “beneficial” approach to Indigenous mental health. Historically there been a dearth of research on the efficacy of specific psychotherapeutic perspectives with Indigenous clients (Gone, 2009; LaFromboise, Trimble & Mohatt, 1990; McCormick, 2009). Panofsky (2024) found in a scoping review that there has been an increase in studies that consider both mainstream psychotherapy interventions and community/culture-based interventions since the release of the Final Report of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission in 2015. Trimble and Thurman (2002) conducted a literature review and the found that many of the articles published were consisted of observations and recommendations, rather than being strictly research. These articles have value in and of themselves, but they do little to ensure that culturally relevant approaches will meet the requirements to be classified as being empirically supported (Trimble & Thurman, 2002) or provide support for the funding and development of Indigenous or mainstream psychotherapeutic programs. Panofsky (2024) found that when a mainstream therapeutic approach was evaluated for use with an Indigenous population, the adaptation was minimal. Other approaches assessed were largely community based and not always easily transferable outside of that community. Trimble and Thurman (2002) observed that guiding theoretical models have not been developed to organize the findings and to make research meaningful for Indigenous therapists, “without a comprehensive theoretical model, it is difficult to ascribe meaning to the full range of 39 research literature dealing with counselling Indians and Natives. In fact, most of the writing in the field is not guided by any theoretical framework” (p.65). This failure to launch could constitute what Gone (2004) termed “irresponsible irrelevance”. I believe that has led to few “great leaps” forward in research and the resultant failure to develop a clinical or theoretical framework the literature. Despite this, I feel the literature was useful in helping me to develop the focus of my research, speaking directly to Indigenous Knowledge Keepers and utilizing an Indigenous Research Methodology and Method to do so. I do not believe that the aim of my research, or the aim of any Indigenous mental health researcher should be to develop a broad theoretical framework that could be applied to all Indigenous peoples. I do believe the researchers findings or product - their knowledge bundle can be shared or “given” away to others, in the dissertation, in reports written, classes taught, training offered, podcasts or books. Clinically, the bundle can be shared with clients, families and communities. In terms of sharing the knowledge in a particular format, I am guided by my paradigm, a St’at’imc paradigm that has been affected by Colonial Trauma, Education and the lessons I learned growing up, however, though the paradigm is not immutable, it is mine, as a St’at’imc researcher. Shawn Wilson (2008) said “Research paradigms are labels that are used to identify sets of underlying beliefs of assumptions upon which research based. These sets of beliefs go together to guide researcher’s actions.” (p.33). As a researcher-practitioner, my paradigm affects my approach to research and my approach to counselling. Rather, than pursue the development of a theoretical framework that would not respect relationality or respect the agency and location of readers, I prefer to follow Wilson’s example of offering my bundles to you and you will do what you will. If a person chooses to accept the bundle and to utilize it or share, they take on the accountability of sharing or using the bundle in a way that respects your 40 relationality to me, the researcher. Rather than developing a theoretical framework of psychology or counselling I prefer to think of my bundles as scaffolding that others can use to develop their own frameworks for pursuing well-being as individuals, or with their family or community or with clients. Gone (2004) said that for psychologist training programs to become relevant to Indigenous peoples they need to produce trainees who are: prepared for reflective and systematic innovation in their psychological theories of wellness and disorder, and their therapeutic practises of assessment and intervention, and in their institutional conventions for providing helping services., I would argue, research, should provide psychologist trainees (I would include all interested community members, community leaders, researchers, practitioners and mental health agencies) [and] the next generation of professionals who aspire to relevance for indigenous lives must be prepared for sophisticated analysis and inquiry related to the mutually constituting aspect of culture in mind. It is only by respectfully engaging tribal conceptualizations of health and wellness, disorder and dysfunction, ceremony and healing that professional psychologists might come to understand the local ethnopsychology within particular indigenous communities with enough sophistication to formulate alternative kinds of helping interventions that reinforce and extend (rather than subverting and displacing) endangered cultural practises related to tribal notions of self, personhood, emotion, social relations, and spirituality. (p.138) I interpret Gone’s (2004) statements as advocating for an open frame of mind and heart for practitioners who wish to work with Indigenous peoples and be relevant, rather than an established framework or program. My study may not result in a theory of Indigenous psychology, but I believe the findings-bundles could serve other researchers and practitioners to 41 apply to their work with Indigenous peoples, whether in therapy, program development, research or pursuit of funding. My knowledge bundles did take a particular form, for me, and to help to organize my thoughts, I did arrange the bundles in a particular way that work for me in my Discussion Chapter (Chapter 4). 42 Chapter Three: Methodology – Going over the waves. Method and Data Processing Finding the river, finding the best fishing spots, choosing your net and processing your catch My understanding of methodology has grown from the time I wrote my research proposal to the time I completed the research for my dissertation. As I applied the lessons learned about Indigenous methodologies by Jo-Ann Archibald (2008), Margaret (Maggie) Kovach (2006, 2009, 2021); Shawn Wilson (2004, 2008), and Linda Tuhiwai Smith (1999, 2012) to my own research I realized that method is very important. When I write about methodology I will also write about method and the process of thematic analysis I used, largely inspired by Virginia Braun and Victoria Clarke’s (2006) article. It seemed to me as an Indigenous PhD candidate, in the thick of conducting research with i wa7 zewatets – Indigenous Knowledge Keepers, that there were now rich rivers to fish from that spoke about Indigenous ethics of research and Indigenous research methodologies, much richer than when I did my master’s degree in 2004. At that time, Linda’s Smith’s 1999 book was the only source for researchers who wished to conduct research using Indigenous methodologies. However, when it came to the task of processing the rich data from the interviews, I felt the fish had disappeared and it became hard to find nourishment. Many scholars wrote about the importance of conducting research with Indigenous participants using an Indigenous methodology, but few described in detail, how they conducted their data processing. I felt that I had been pointed in the direction of the river, where there were fish to be found, but I was not told where the fish could be found or what the best methods were to catch the fish. Exactly how does one process data? What type of net does one use, set net, scoop net or gill net? Where can the fish be found? What are the best times of day to fish?; what are the currents like in the river? Without this type of specific information about how to fish, one 43 can be at a river and struggle to feed oneself. For this reason, I have chosen to focus my methodology chapter on both methodology and method. You will see in Chapter 5, the Discussion Chapter, that the metaphor of the river and water-based location or locations close to water became important to me. I appreciated the use of metaphor and stories to describe methodology and pedagogy that I read and heard about from the Indigenous scholars mentioned earlier and other Indigenous scholars. In addition to the scholars I mentioned earlier, I was inspired by: Kathy Absolon (2011) – Kaandossiwin – How we come to know; Richard Umeek Atleo (2004) – Tsawalk – A Nuu-Chah-Nulth worldview; Betty Bastien - Blackfoot ways of knowing (2004); Gregory Cajete (2000) – Native Science: Natural laws of interdependence; Sarah Florence Davidson and Robert Davidson (2018)—Potlatch as pedagogy; Vine Deloria, Jr. (2006) – The world we used to live in: Remembering the powers of the medicine men; Fyre Jean Graveline (1998) – Circle works – Transforming Eurocentric consciousness; and Robin Wall Kimmerer (2013) – Braiding sweetgrass: Indigenous wisdom, scientific knowledge, and the teachings of plants. I was so inspired by the writings of these scholars and their use of metaphor I became sidetracked trying to find a metaphor I could use for my research. Coyote must be having a good chuckle with me about that one! In the end, I settled on new currents and places close to water as a metaphor to frame my discussion, but not my findings. I chose to use the theme of the currents and locations related to water in my discussion chapter, rather than findings, but it was in the writing of the discussion chapter that the metaphor came to me. I wondered about this for a time, but I realized that the findings chapter is about the words of the i wa7 zewatets and the discussion chapter is where I share my thoughts, so it seemed appropriate to use the metaphor of the river and water-based locations in the discussion chapter. In both my departmental defense and my external oral defense, I was encouraged to take more “ownership” 44 of my research findings and process, the methodology, method, data processing, findings and discussion. This was mentioned to me by my supervisor, my committee members, my oral defense committee members and the external examiner. I find this thought daunting and I worried that taking more ownership contradicted Indigenous axiologies and methodologies. I think my reluctance is also tied to “imposter syndrome” as well as thoughts about humility. But as I reflected on this matter, I realized that another aspect of relational accountability is taking responsibility for your words and actions. This does not only apply to when a person does something “wrong”, but also to when we do things “right”. It is good to own our actions and words, always. It is important to acknowledge the contributions of others to our work, but it also important to “own” our work, to take responsibility for it. It is our work, so we are always responsible for it. Naming my St’at’imcets Research Methodology – “Over the Waves” For these reasons and following the guidance of people whom I respect (relational accountability), I have arrived at naming my research methodology “Over the Waves”. As I re-reviewed Indigenous dissertations, articles and books based on dissertations (Kovach, 2009. 2019; Wilson, 2004, 2008; Absolon, 2011) I realized that each scholar was influenced by the epistemologies of their tribes and by the teachings of others. If they did their research journey based on the principles of their tribes and ancestors, then they were conducting a Cree Methodology or an Anishinaabe Methodology. If the researcher is the instrument in qualitative research, then the Indigenous researcher is also the methodology when they are fulfilling the conditions of conducting Indigenous research. When I realized this, I realized I felt at peace calling my methodology a St’at’imcets methodology, not the St’at’imcets methodology, but a St’at’imcets Methodology, my St’at’imcets methodology. I arrived at the title of Over the waves 45 based on song that St’at’imc people sing and that is a favorite of my son, Hunter. The song has a particular rhythm and flow that suggests to me, the imagery of our ancestors paddling their canoes in our lake, going from one place to another. To do so, our ancestors had to read the weather, they had to be in good place, physically, mentally and spiritually, they had to remember the different points of the lake – where the wind and currents could shift, where were the different points where they could find shelter if they needed to. Our father spoke often of the different points on the lake, where the best hunting spots were and what to watch for in terms of weather change. I believe this type of navigation, based on the knowledge of our ancestors and our familiarity with the land constitutes a methodology, so I am going over the waves on my research journey. Nilh’ ti – it’s true. So, What About Methodology? Wilson (2008) defined methodology as “the theory of how knowledge is gained” (p.34). My methodology emerges from my position as an Indigenous researcher. I view the process of research both as a journey (Absolon, 2011; Kvale, 1996) and as a ceremony (Absolon, 2011; Archibald, 2008; Kovach, 2009; Wilson, 2008). Kvale proposed that researchers could be travelers rather than miners who extract information. My people, the St’at’imc had a traditional method of inquiry and knowledge dissemination based on a runner or “skesen” who would run to either discover new things or would disseminate information and this description resonates with the metaphor of a researcher as a traveller rather than as a miner who extracts resources. I did not actually travel during my research interviews, as my interviews took place during COVID, travel was restricted and UBC required that research not engage participants in person due to health risks, particularly for elders. 46 The process of research is a ceremony for gaining knowledge and utilized to improve the well-being of humans—views like the Nuu-chah-nulth concept of “oosumich” (Atleo, 2004, p.17). Oosumich are ways that humans manage the tensions or “He-xwa” (p.23) of life forces. He-xwa represents all aspects of life, positive and negative; destruction and creation; and order and chaos. These concepts do not represent binary states, but cyclical processes. I think of the mental health challenges faced by Indigenous peoples as he-xwa that we, as Indigenous peoples, do not have a strong relationship with yet. But our relationship is stronger than the relationship that non-Indigenous health authorities, mental health agencies, service-providers, governments and researchers have with the he-xwa faced by Indigenous peoples. I am utilizing a ceremony (research process) or oosumich to strengthen my relationship with this he-xwa so that I may share the knowledge gained with Indigenous clients, families and communities. I will also share the knowledge with non-Indigenous service providers, agencies and researchers. Ensuring that my research findings are relevant and accessible to Indigenous clients, families and communities, it is a significant part of relational accountability (Wilson, 2008) from a clinical perspective. Both Wilson (2008) and Kovach (2009) emphasized that “why” we do research as Indigenous researchers is just as important as the research that we do and how we do it. Accountability is in place even before we begin our research process. As an Indigenous PhD candidate, we are accountable to our supervisor, committee, department and our institution. There are multiple levels of accountability that we hold from an Indigenous perspective, of course we are accountable to our participants, but even before we begin interacting with our participants, we are accountable to our families, to our communities, to our ancestors, the land, the Creator and our descendants. 47 Wilson (2008) defined epistemology as “the study of the nature of thinking or knowing. It involves the theory of how we come to have knowledge, or how we know that we know something” (p.33) which seems congruent with Indigenous ways of being. You will see that many i wa7 zewatets spoke about the importance of reflection about many matters or questions about thinking, knowledge, about the place of humans in the universe and our relationship with the Creator. Indigenous scholars such as Chief Dan George (1982, 1974) and Phil Lane, Lee Brown, Judy Bopp, Michael Bopp and Elders (2012, 4th ed.) all spoke about the importance of reflection and thinking about how we come to know things, whether through observation, lesson shared by Creator and spirits, the land or being taught by elders. Lane et al. (1984/2012) spoke about the gifts of the North of the Medicine Wheel as relating to thinking and wisdom: The North is the place of winter, of white snows that remind us of the white hair of our elders. It is the dawning place of true wisdom. Here dwell the teachers of intellectual gifts symbolized the great mountain and the sacred lake ... the North of the medicine wheel includes the following capacities: to think; to synthesize; to speculate; to predict; to discriminate; to solve problems; to imagine; to analyze, to understand; to calculate; to organize; to criticize; to remember and to interpret hidden meanings. (p.62) Shawn Wilson (2008) stated that methodology, epistemology, ontology and axiology are part of a circle called an Indigenous research paradigm. Rather than constituting separate sections, these concepts constitute ‘entities’ that are cyclical and contained within a circle (see Figure 3.1). An Indigenous research methodology (IRM) flows from tribal methodologies (Kovach, 2009). Although research paradigms such as feminism, phenomenology and constructivism have been utilized to conduct research with Indigenous peoples, these methodologies did not emerge from tribal methodologies. 48 Figure 3.1: An Indigenous Research Paradigm (Wilson, 2008) It has been proposed that Indigenous research methodologies are a qualitative research paradigm rather than a separate methodology, but Linda Smith (2005) stated that qualitative research methodologies are reflections and in some ways part of the mainstream research colonizing search for knowledge, truth, and power. She believed that qualitative research, as a field, has gifts to offer to Indigenous researchers, but one must always be aware of the hegemonic origins of research. Rigney (1999) stated that Indigenous research has three primary principles: resistance; political integrity and privileging of Indigenous voices which is not typically involved in mainstream qualitative research. Linda Smith (2005) also described the processes involved in the ethical process of resistance as counterhegemonic action. Counterhegemonic action acknowledges the history of colonialism on Indigenous peoples and helps Indigenous peoples to preserve, regain or strengthen their way of life (resistance to colonialism). Political integrity refers to the primacy of Indigenous peoples both in setting the research agenda and carrying out the research. Rigney acknowledged the role of non-Indigenous allies but believed that Indigenous peoples should be in the leadership role of setting the research agenda and conducting the research. Rigney (1999) believed that Indigenous voices should be 49 given a place of primacy by acknowledging Indigenous “lived, historical experiences, ideas, traditions, dreams, interests, aspirations, and struggles” (p.117). What about Qualitative Research then? This is not to say that qualitative research methods and methodology cannot be tools for Indigenous researchers. An Indigenous scholar would be remiss not to acknowledge the benefits of qualitative or quantitative research for research with and for Indigenous peoples. For my research I have found benefits in the work of qualitative research scholars like Robert C. Bogdan and Sari Knopp Biklen (2003); Virginia Braun and Victoria Clarke (2006); John C. Flanagan (1954); Steinar Kvale; Michael Patton (1990) and multiple others. Who not only conducted research using qualitative methodologies, but in many cases developed qualitative methodologies and methods, and helped to create space for qualitative methods in the realm of social sciences. Due to the work of these scholars and others like them, qualitative research methodologies and methods were made available to researchers and allies from oppressed groups who found it challenging to find a space in the world of quantitative research. Mainstream qualitative research has contributed to the creation of space for researchers and communities who were traditionally not represented in the academy. I believe that qualitative research resonates more strongly with Indigenous peoples and other communities who have experienced oppression due to colonialism, sexism, patriarchy, ableism, homophobia, racism and poverty. I also believe that the flexibility and iterative nature of qualitative research methodologies and methods are more amenable to non-mainstream worldviews and ways of being in the world. One challenge of qualitative research methodologies is the confusing nature of methods for data processing—describing accurately of the process to arrive at one’s findings. Thematic 50 analysis is a commonly used description of this approach to data processing but is rarely explicitly described. I was struggling to find a clear description of the process. I am thankful to my supervisor, Dr. Marla Buchanan, who referred me to a 2006 article by Virginia Braun and Victoria Clarke. The article was titled “Using thematic analysis in psychology.” Braun and Clarke described the purposes of their article: Thematic analysis is a poorly demarcated, rarely acknowledged, yet widely used qualitative analysis method … we argue that it offers an accessible and theoretically flexible approach to analysing qualitative data. We outline what thematic analysis is, locating it in relation to other qualitative analytic methods … we then provide clear guidelines wanting to start thematic analysis, or conduct in a more deliberate and rigorous way, and consider potential pitfalls in conducting thematic analysis. (p.77) I found Braun and Clarke’s description of what thematic analysis is to be illuminating. It was rare that there were specific steps and clear descriptions of the process of thematic analysis. Braun and Clarke (2006) emphasized that though thematic analysis is flexible, and data processing is iterative, this does not mean that researchers cannot be rigorous. In fact, Braun and Clarke emphasized that thematic analysis requires rigor, to be valid, how will one know if one has answered their research question or not, if they are not rigorous. A lack of rigor is often cited as one of the criticisms of qualitative research and data processing as there are not established guidelines and methods to follow for data processing, or at least the guidelines, methods and rationale are not commonly listed in the research. It can be more challenging to describe one’s method of coding and theme generation than to produce a table of statistics. 51 Thematic Analysis: Data Processing – Data Bundles to Knowledge Bundles I consider the knowledge that i wa7 zewatets shared with me as data bundles, it is a gift given to me by the participants. It is my responsibility to process this data and transform it into knowledge bundles which can the form of themes and create new clinical and knowledge bundles that will be of use to Indigenous clients, families, communities as well as other researchers and service providers. Braun and Clarke (2006) illustrated a step-by-step approach for thematic analysis and provided a table of steps or “Phases” that researchers could follow. The Phases are: 1) familiarizing yourself with your data; 2) generating initial codes; 3) searching for themes; 4) reviewing themes; 5) defining and naming themes; and 6) producing the report (p.87). I found this table to be very helpful as I began processing the data. The method of thematic analysis described by Braun and Clarke was my main guide for processing the data and generating the themes. Of course, data processing is iterative by nature, so there was much revisiting of the codes chosen, quotes chosen, thought about the names of themes and changing the names of themes. The process was constant, but as Braun and Clarke pointed out, you must finish sometime. I made a specific point of tracking the decisions I made about different codes, quotes chosen and themes chosen. The process began with transcription and reviewing the transcripts. Then as I reviewed the transcripts, I would note thoughts that came to mind. I found that I spent a large part of my energy in organization. I tried using Excel spreadsheets as many researchers had recommended, but this did not work well for me. I then tried tables in Microsoft Word, this worked for a time, but I found it to be very time consuming. I learned of a Mind Mapping App called Miro (Miro.com). I used Miro to hold codes, quotes and possible themes names that I written in Hilroy notebooks, OneNote, Word documents and Excel spreadsheets and my bullet journal. As I plugged the codes and quotes (and my racing thoughts) into Miro, the 52 themes began to take shape, and the lines of organization became clearer. Then I would transfer the themes to a table, and I would consider the theme tables as I began writing and then I would restructure the tables, and I would also revisit my Miro mind maps and rearrange the mind maps. In the end there were multiple lists, mind maps (both handwritten and digital) and tables of themes. In the Appendices I have included: my handwritten lists (Appendices D.1 to D.2); handwritten mind maps (Appendices E.1 to E.3); printouts of parts of three Miro mind maps (Appendices F.1 to F.3); printouts of multiple versions of the Themes table with notations showing my coding process and theme selection (Appendices G.1 to G.13) that results in Table 4.1 – Indigenous Wellness Themes. To me, these represent the hands-on aspect of data processing, like processing fish, deer, or berries, it is not always tidy, but I wished to share what my thematic analysis process looked like. I also wrote copious notes in OneNote to track my data processing and different thoughts that I had about the data, about the words of participants. I remember reading Shawn Wilson’s statement, that he wished he had taken better notes from his research with participants. I took that shared lesson to heart, and I would encourage other researchers to take copious notes but spend time on organization first so that tracking and organization is easier. Research as Ceremony My research utilized Indigenous methodologies to organize, conduct, witness and share the findings or stories obtained from seven Indigenous Knowledge Keepers. Indigenous research methods involve gathering information, organizing information and sharing information (Archibald, 2008; Kovach, 2009; Wilson, 2008). Like Archibald (2008), I view research as a giveaway or potlatch, what my people call xlitcal. I view a xlitcal as a methodology that facilitates knowledge transfer; xlitcal creates exchange in communities; xlitcal requires witnesses 53 for rigor; xlitcal require reciprocity – providing and exchange of service with guests and strengthens relationships. To hold a potlatch requires personal preparation (emotional, mental, spiritual and physical); knowing oneself and being clear on the reasons for conducting the xlitcal; selection of helpers or specialists; deciding who to invite as guests; being clear on the activities that will take place at the xlitcal; how will the xlitcal be witnessed and activities monitored; selection of guests; and ensuring distribution of gifts. Reciprocity and redistribution of resources are also important aspects of xlitcal, but I may not be able to provide standard reciprocity to a singular ‘community’ as I interviewed i wa7 zewatets from different communities. I have shared my research findings and my research process with different audiences, at Indigenous Graduate Student research conferences and with posts on social media. I will give away knowledge bundles as gifts in my xlitcal. Ethical Considerations and Methodology During my oral defense and my departmental defense, I was encouraged to include a section on ethical considerations in my dissertation. I acknowledge that I should have added this section after my departmental defense, but I neglected to do so. This was again raised by my external examiner during my oral defense. I realize that there were two reasons for this as I reflected on the matter: 1) I feel that the i wa7 zewatets choice to participate represents the most powerful review of my research ethics and 2) I feel that my ethical considerations were an intrinsic part of my over the waves St’at’imcets methodology, as ethical considerations should be a critical part, the foundation of any Indigenous research methodology. I felt that as a UBC doctoral student I had addressed possible concerns that the Human Research Ethics Board had. As an Indigenous doctoral student, I felt that if my participants, the i wa7 zewatets had concerns about the ethics of how I was doing my research an interacting with 54 them, they would have raised such questions with me in short order or have spoken to my family or to other mutual connections. As an Indigenous doctoral student, I felt immense respect for the knowledge and medicine of the i wa7 zewatets. I felt that the ethics of conducting research with Indigenous peoples, particularly i wa7 zewatets is incredibly complex and should be addressed when the relationship with the participant is established or when the participant is asked to participate. I suspect that if an Indigenous researcher did not address ethical considerations (or practice good manners) with the i wa7 zewatets, the i wa7 zewatets would ignore the researcher or tell them to go away and come back when they (the researcher) are ready. Since the release of Linda Smith’s (1995) book, Decolonizing Methodologies, there has been a dramatic rise in production of knowledge on ethical research with Indigenous peoples and on Indigenous research methodologies (IRM). I believe that if an Indigenous scholar is conducting their research using an Indigenous research methodology, ethical considerations, practices and methods are built in at the cellular level or even at the level of DNA to utilize a biological metaphor. Many authors have written about the characteristics and practices that show that a methodology is an IRM, but I will utilize Michael Hart’s (2010) description of characteristics of an IRM. Michael cited Cora Weber-Pillwax (2001) who stated that an IRM is a methodology is one that permits Indigenous researchers to be who they are. I would add that an IRM also makes transformation possible for the Indigenous researcher, as one of Shawn Wilson’s (2008) participants said, “if research doesn’t change you, then you aren’t doing it right”. Michael cited Shawn Wilson’s concept of “relational accountability”, that the Indigenous research fulfills their obligations to the world around them and that they remain accountable to all of their relations. Michael cited Margaret Kovach (2001), when she said that Indigenous methodology is about the collective, that research is undertaken with practices of reciprocity 55 built in and with the goal of contributing to the wellbeing of Indigenous people Lastly, Michael stated that an IRM is used to conduct research that includes the assumption that the research will be utilized practically, it will be of use to Indigenous people. I have done my best throughout the research process to interact with the participants in a good and respectful way. I have undergone a significant change process, and I was also able to do my research as an Ucwalmicw, I did not have to park my Indigenous self to do this work. I have done my best to remain accountable to the participants, to Indigenous peoples, to mental health professionals, the academy and to my institution. I have also worked to maintain my responsibilities to my family, to the Creator, ancestors and the land. My goal has always been to produced knowledge bundles and to share them, to produce knowledge bundles that will help researchers and practitioners to aid Indigenous people on their healing journeys, for this to happen, the research findings need to be generated and shared in a format that is accessible to Indigenous people first, and then the professionals and researchers who wish to help. I feel that my doctoral research contains the key elements of an Indigenous Research Methodology, with ethical practices and accountability built in. I believe Indigenous researchers who conduct their research in this way are like artists, hunters, gatherers, leaders, parents and elders, who also hold such principles in their activities. Populations of Interest and Participant Selection My population of interest is Indigenous Knowledge Keepers (IKK) or i wa7 zewatets who are widely recognized as being healthy and who have knowledge about Indigenous concepts of well-being. Shawn Wilson (2008) described an IKK as a person who has a relationship with cultural knowledge. IKK’s are often people who are recognized as such by the community, terms used are Elder, teacher, guide, organizer, medicine person or healer. IKKs who have cultural knowledge about well-being and health are usually widely recognized by a wide range of 56 community members or Indigenous professionals who work in the helping or educational professions. Achieving this level of acknowledgement in Indigenous communities is very challenging and can take a lifetime of work. Receiving this level of acknowledgment does not require a PhD or MD and the training and commitment to receive this level of knowledge can be more difficult than obtaining a PhD or MD. I wanted to explore Indigenous concepts of mental health or well-being with eight to sixteen Indigenous Knowledge Keepers in individual research conversations. Who my participants are, that they are recognized Indigenous Knowledge Keepers, was more important than how many participants I interviewed. I set a range of eight to sixteen participants, and I interviewed seven participants in the end. I selected the range of eight to sixteen participants as the population of IKKs that I am aware of who have the knowledge that I wish to learn about. I attempted to contact approximately ten wa7 zewatets. At first, I had considered asking participants to forward the email of invitation to another i wa7 zewatets, but I realized that relational accountability would require me to follow through on any recommendations and a sample of eight to 20 participants for qualitative research of this nature can become unmanageable quickly, as the amount of data to be processed can become overwhelming. I chose to not ask participants to forward the message to others or to ask for suggestions for other participants. For learning and knowledge generation such an action would have been very exciting but would have meant a significant increase to the amount of work required. In addition, my research activities and the interviews were happening during the COVID pandemic. Qualitative research sample size is determined by the number of people who hold the ‘data’ sought rather than by statistical requirements (Hays & Singh, 2012). 57 I believe there are a small number of i wa7 zewatets who hold the knowledge that I seek, and who I know already or have some connection with. It facilitated my research process to already have relationships with six out of seven of the Indigenous Knowledge Keepers I approached. All participants are recognized and established i wa7 zewatets. I saw the i wa7 zewatets who I did not have a pre-existing relationship with do an opening prayer and welcome at a conference. I was struck by her power of spirit and heart. We never met in person at the conference, but I messaged them as I found their email through the conference website. I reached out via email and they responded. We had a lovely exchange of greetings, and their presence and spirit stayed with me. I decided to reach out to ask them to participate in my research and they agreed. Although some research paradigms frown upon a ‘dual relationship’ with participants, in Indigenous research methodologies, relationality is a key part of the research process (Kovach, 2009; Smith, 1997; Wilson, 2008). I was originally only going to recruit participants from my (my tribe) but based on discussions with two Indigenous scholars (Christian & Young, 2012 – personal communication) whom I respect highly, I decided to also seek out IKK’s outside of my nation, following relational accountability by listening to the directives/suggestions of community members. Introducing the i wa7 zewatets – those who know I chose to maintain the anonymity of participants to the best of my ability, I am not entirely sure why I am choosing to do this, but it feels right to me. Most participants gave permission for their identities to be known, but maintaining their anonymity felt better to me. For this reason, I chose to give the participants a pseudonym animal, based on the geographical location of their people and the energy they walked with. I will now introduce you, to my participants, the i wa7 zewatets who agreed to sit and share with me. 58 Sea Lion: Sea Lion is a traditional knowledge keeper in their community and comes from a family known for leadership. Sea Lion was received many traditional teachings from their grandparents. Sea Lion speaks their language fluently, has written books and spoken extensively on Indigenous pedagogies, ontologies, axiologies and epistemologies. Sea Lion holds a PhD. Moose: Moose is a language teacher, singer, and hunter. Moose believes their best medicine is the land. Moose is always happy to share a smile or a laugh with others. Moose has been involved in leadership and cultural resurgence with their people and tries to live their life in the best way possible, contributing to the well-being of others, and particularly his children. Moose holds a master’s degree. Orca: Orca is a woman from a family recognized for cultural knowledge and community participation from a coastal First Nations community. Orca is a dedicated mother, daughter and aunty. Orca is knowledgeable about the teachings of her ancestors and does her best to help preserve them. Orca has worked in social service positions for many years. Orca stated that she was not fluent in her language, but her cultural and healing knowledge is immense. She is recognized as being “medicine” by many. Eagle: is a recognized and respected language keeper, educator and activist. Eagle is a strong woman from her community and comes from a family of strong women. Eagle is a dedicated mother and grandmother. Eagle holds a PhD. Eagle was raised with old knowledge from knowledge keepers before her and is happy to share her knowledge. Eagle is from an interior First Nation. Rabbit: Rabbit is a recognized speaker on mental health, has worked in many programs including treatment centres, health agencies and post-secondary institutions. Rabbit has collaborated with other established speakers on Indigenous well-being. Rabbit has worked in 59 many places and has gained knowledge from many different tribal practices. Rabbit loves to sing, laugh and travel. Rabbit is from an American tribe. Wolf: Wolf is from an interior First Nation. Wolf is a knowledge keeper and a survivor of a residential school. Wolf is a dedicated father, husband and is dedicated to the well-being of his community and the maintenance and resurgence of traditional values. Wolf loves to sing, laugh and will pray for the people when he feels they need it. Bison: Bison is a language keeper and knowledge keeper. Bison is a dedicated wife, mother and grandmother. Bison lost her parents at a young age, but benefitted from the collective nature of Indigenous family structures and was raised by many. Bison is committed to helping Indigenous people to laugh, to cry and to heal in all the wonderful ways that they can. Bison believes strongly in resurgence – that “it is never too late”. Bison holds a master’s degree and a law degree. Methods and Procedures – Where the Moccasin Meets the Road I describe the process of conducting the research as “the place where the moccasin meets the road”; this is also known as methods and procedures. I initiated consultation with Indigenous Knowledge Keepers (IKK’s) early in my research process, although not the participants in my research. This type of interaction is part of Indigenous research methodology, it is important for researchers to be transparent when conducting research with Indigenous peoples and to be relationally accountable in action and words (Kovach, 2009; Wilson, 2008). For Indigenous peoples to trust the process of research and researchers, even Indigenous researchers, they must be consulted early on about the research project and activities as soon as possible. There are centuries of mistrust of the process of research (Kovach, 2009; NAHO, 2005; Rigney, 1999; Smith, 1995, 2005; Straits et al., 2012; Wilson, 2008) to overcome with every research project. 60 Research Conversations The Indigenous research method I utilized is called a research conversation (Kovach, 2009). Kovach (2009) differentiates conversational method from research interviews in that there is no external parameter such as specific questions, a specific order or a time limit. Kovach (2009) felt that the conversational method demonstrates respect for the guest’s narrative and grants more control to the guest. I found in a past research project (John, 2012) that adhering to a structured interview with set questions and limiting my participation in the interview negatively affected the richness of the data when interviewing Indigenous research participants. A conversational approach allowed for the ebb and flow of a relational process that may or may not follow a specific timeline (Archibald, 2008; Kovach, 2009; Wilson, 2008). A potential challenge of the conversational approach is the time factor as conversations could, theoretically, extend to hours or days depending on the participant, but I believed that it was unlikely that the conversation would extend beyond four hours. In fact, my longest conversation was approximately 2 hours, and my shortest conversation was about 30 minutes. The conversations happened in a variety of ways: some were by telephone, some occurred on Zoom and one took place in person at the request of the i wa7 zewatets9. In the research conversations, I would open by thanking and acknowledging the participants and explaining the purpose of the research conversation and what I hoped to learn. I obtained informed consent from each participant. I opened with a general question in the hopes 9 Research conversations took place from May 28th/2021 to September 28th/2021, following COVID guidelines. 61 of providing a large space that participants could fill with their knowledge, and I was not disappointed, the first question, asking if participants could share any general thoughts about well-being and if there were a word in their language that means well-being led to incredibly rich conversations. I would interject from time to time or seek clarification, but I felt each conversation was rich, dynamic and led by the participant. It is the researcher’s responsibility to remain open to the fluidity of conversational and circle approaches and to engage with the process rather than remain a distant, objective observer. The initial question would often be answered with a richness of data and knowledge. Sometimes, participants would apologize for going off track or express a worry that they were not answering the question correctly. I thanked them for their sharing and told them that really, they can answer the question how they want to, and it was alright however they answered the question, because it was perfect. Of course, not every bit of knowledge shared, or story heard made it into the themes or the findings chapter, but that is the nature of data processing, like cutting fish or butchering a deer, not everything makes it into the final product. The researcher is the tool, the conduit and I do influence the findings, but I was committed to doing my best to honor the words and the teachings of each i wa7 zewatets. Using Questions for Research Conversations Although Kovach (2009) does not use questions in her expression of the research conversation, I developed a list of questions to serve as a guide or to act as probes. The reason I created a list of questions was to ensure that I was coming to the IKK’s with focus and intent. It has been my cultural teachings that if I have specific knowledge that I am asking IKKs for I need to approach the IKK with intentionality and focus and preparation. The development of questions 62 is part of my preparation and reflection for the ceremony of research conversations. See Appendix A for the questions. Sharing of Findings Of course, the primary product or knowledge bundle of my research is this dissertation. The challenge is to ensure that the knowledge gained or generated does not merely become a book that collects dust in the library or exists solely as an electronic report on some electronic database. Although, the electronic formatting of dissertations has increased access to theses and dissertations I feel it is still important to ensure the research generated is shared as widely as possible. I have shared my presentation at multiple research conferences, and I have shared my findings on social media. I will produce a poster and community accessible paper to summarize the findings in a way that is useful to clients, families and communities. When I find research articles, newspaper articles or books that I think may be of benefit to other Indigenous scholars, students or community members I share these findings on Twitter or on my Facebook account. I have received positive feedback for these efforts, and I have received requests for specific information. I have the hope to continue to share knowledge via social media whenever possible. Trustworthiness –Feedback and Validation When I saw participants in person, I provided them with updates about my research process. Following data processing I provided participants with copies of the theme tables as they evolved, I would then wait 14 days to see if I received any response to my emails. I have provided participants with initial drafts of Chapter 4 – Findings and Chapter 5 – Discussion. The standard for implied consent is 14 days. There was one participant who I did not send copies to for verification, validation or feedback. This participant stated very clearly that they did not wish to be contacted about the research again. They were satisfied that I had followed informed 63 consent and as they did not require further engagement. When the participant gave this directive, I confirmed that I heard them correctly and verified that they did not want any further contact regarding the research. This is an i wa7 zewatets that I have a pre-existing relationship with, and I will approach them again if it seems appropriate, or if they ask me for more information. Participants provided feedback on the chapters and the tables, and I adjusted accordingly. I sent an an email to participants (see Appendix B) with the documents attached for evaluation and feedback. I based my evaluation of the accuracy of the themes on my re-reading of the quotes associated with the themes as I processed the data. There were times when I would begin “thinking ahead” and synthesizing new ideas based on the data. I made myself slow down and revisit the quote and the transcript of the research conversation and ensure that what I was writing was strongly connected with what the i wa7 zewatets had said and not based on my thoughts. This was challenging as my ADHD will sometimes cause me to become excited about a new idea, and I will be very tempted to follow the new stream (or streams) of thought. Many times, I came to the realization that “This doesn’t sound like how this person speaks, this sounds more like me.” At that point, I would sigh (or swear) in exasperation and revisit the quote and the transcript. In terms of resonance of the study with community and fellow counsellors, researchers and other health professionals, I presented preliminary findings at multiple research conferences. The feedback I received was positive and supportive of the work. I have also shared some of the themes from the findings on social media, including Facebook, where there are multiple members of my community and family as “friends”. I have also shared preliminary results on Linked In, where I have many Indigenous colleagues as members of my network. I have shared the findings with fellow counsellors and the feedback has also been very receptive 64 and supportive. In my clinical work I have begun sharing some of the themes with clients and using the themes to help to guide my therapeutic work, in particular Belonging – knowing who you belong to and who belongs to you; that it is “never too late” to establish a relationship the land that you are on; healing a ceremony and that it can be challenging; the concept of Yaw-uk-miss which relates to Playing with your pain; and the Assumption of Medicine (healing is a ceremony). The process of conducting the research for this dissertation was challenging due to the restrictions placed on research activities at the time due to COVID. It was inadvisable to meet with participants directly due to COVID and travel was challenging. I am immensely happy with the findings and again, I say that I was blessed to have had the opportunity to sit with and learn from the i wa7 zewatets. I have found that many of their teachings have been helpful for me personally and for clients. I will do my best to carry their teachings forward. 65 CHAPTER FOUR: Findings In this chapter, I describe themes processed from the transcripts and recordings of the research conversations with the seven i wa7 zewatets (the ones who know). I used the thematic analysis model of Braun and Clarke (2006) and was guided by Indigenous Research methodologies (Kovach, 2021, 2006; Wilson, 2008; Smith, L. 2012, 1995). I prefer the term data processing rather than data analysis, as I consider the processing of data as a process of analysis and synthesis rather than being reductive. Table 4.1 on page 72 lays out the wellness themes and their subcomponents. This chapter describes the following themes regarding Indigenous Wellness Theme 1—Belonging; Theme 2—Wellness is Fluid and Dynamic; Theme 3—Indigenous Responsibility and Indigenous Autonomy; and Theme 4—The Assumption of Medicine. Throughout this chapter, some Indigenous words have been replaced with the phrase “Indigenous word.” This replacement was necessary to protect anonymity as some participants come from small tribes with few fluent speakers, thus making it easy for some readers to identify them. When there are concepts in my Indigenous language that resonate with the words of the Indigenous Knowledge Keepers, I put the words in italics along with a translation. Indigenous Well-being in the Words of i wa7 zewatets In the literature review, I provided an overview of the concept of Indigenous well-being according to past and current literature. I felt it necessary to provide my description of Indigenous well-being based on my research conversations with the i wa7 zewatets. I do not believe this constitutes a theme, but to set the context for my sharing of the themes, I felt it important to provide my processed concept of well-being based on the data viewed. Well-being through Indigenous eyes is a complex fluid process, rather than being one-half of a binary between health and illness. Well-being is a dynamic, fluid and reciprocal state. Reciprocal 66 meaning that well-being depends on a process in which an individual contributes to the well-being of others and others contribute to an individual’s well-being. One Indigenous model of well-being is represented using an Indigenous construct called the “Medicine Wheel.” The Medicine Wheel is commonly illustrated as a circle containing four quadrants, with each quadrant representing a specific aspect of a person, including the physical, spiritual, mental and emotional. This description is an oversimplification of a very complex model, but I will use this simplified version of the Medicine Wheel as an example.10 The Medicine Wheel construct illustrates well-being as an amalgamation of multiple aspects of a person’s body, spirit, mind and heart. Based on the data provided by my participants and my qualitative data processing approach, I propose that Indigenous well-being consists of the four previously mentioned quadrants (body, spirit, mind and heart) and that it is also determined by relationships. These relationships can be to living humans, ancestors, and descendants not yet born. These relationships can also be connections to non-human entities, such as the land (Earth), to spirits, and to the Creator. As a dynamic and fluid state, wellness can ebb and flow, a person can have elements of wellness and unwellness at the same time. Wellness is also created and demonstrated by one’s actions, such as being “friendly” by creating a reciprocal flow of wellness between people, the land, animals, and spirits. I now introduce the participants in this study and provide a brief overview of what “wellness”, “well-being” and/or health meant to them. After introducing you to the i wa7 zewatets I will share the themes that I processed from the data. I had a choice to make of sharing the story or research conversation I had with each participant or generating 10 For an in-depth description of the Medicine Wheel, I refer readers to the book, “The Sacred Tree” (1984), written by Phil Lane, Jr., Lee Brown, Judy Bopp and Michael Bopp. Four Worlds International. British Columbia, Canada. 67 themes or streams across participants. As I proceeded through analyzing the data bundles of recordings and transcripts, the use of themes seemed to resonate with me more. I probably could have chosen either path, there were benefits to both options. I know that if I had chosen to share each participants story the knowledge bundles gained would also have been rich, but I had to choose and I chose to utilize themes. This may be an option that other researchers could choose in the future, to present the themes within each participant’s research conversation. That would also be an incredibly rich approach, but I had to make a choice, and the use of themes resonated with me. Sea Lion Sea Lion is a leader of their people, an Indigenous scholar and a very active patriarch of their family. They have written extensively on Indigenous philosophy and worldview. Sea Lion used a word in their language which they translated to mean “to be friendly.” Sea Lion stated that “to be friendly” is a highly valued characteristic and that it can be indicative of well-being. So when people came into the community they smiled and bowed and smiled and shook hands and they were [friendly] and that’s a very highly valued characteristic of a person . . . If you are not friendly, it, it could mean that you are, that you don’t have good well-being either . . . You’re not friendly because to be friendly is to have a good relationship with somebody . . . which indicates well-being. (Sea Lion) Based on the specific example that Sea Lion provided, being friendly can mean that when a person who is well visits a community, they behave in a friendly manner, and they will be welcomed into the community because they possess this valued characteristic of being friendly. Possessing a friendly way of being increases the likelihood of being received in a friendly way. The visitor then belongs to the community during their visit, and they are remembered 68 afterwards, and this sense of belonging goes with them. Sea Lion described the importance of “being friendly,” and how it is a life teaching: [Indigenous word] means “to go the right way,” so this can now become a teaching {emphasis} it can mean ... [one word of the phrase] is a word for teaching that “to be friendly is to go the right way in life”, so [Indigenous word meaning “friendly”], and [Indigenous word meaning “to go the right way”], becomes a teaching. (Sea Lion) Being friendly is a critical element of well-being according to Sea Lion. It means not only to be welcoming and kind but being friendly is seen as going “the right way in life.” Orca Orca is a woman from an established family of a coastal First Nation and community. Orca is a dedicated mother, daughter and aunty. Orca is knowledgeable about the teachings of her ancestors and does her best to help preserve them and tries to live her life following the values of her people. Orca was asked if they had any thoughts about the general concept of wellness from their Indigenous perspective: Wellness to me ... our people have values and principles, and I always remember, growing up, that the old people always told us to be kind because we don’t know what people are going through. And that’s just the way they talk. Like their English would be broken sometimes and they would say “be friendly” because you don’t know ... what people are going through, maybe they’re having a hard time. (Orca) Orca speaks of wellness in relation to others where wellness occurs if a person is following the principles and values of their people, of their family, of their ancestors. Orca said that they were taught that they should keep an open mind, an open heart for people, even if those 69 people are being unkind. Orca was taught to maintain a resilience of wellness, even when others seemed to be struggling. Rabbit Rabbit is a well-known and respected scholar, professional and speaker on Indigenous health and well-being. Rabbit has been involved in many Indigenous movements and has held significant leadership positions in Indigenous and non-Indigenous organizations, agencies, and communities. I asked Rabbit if there was anything in general that they wished to say about the general conceptualization of Indigenous wellness and their response was: Our health is, in many respects, not getting better. Cancer rates are going up. Diabetes rates are going up in many places. Although we have an incredible health system ... We don’t seem to be getting healthier ... and I remember a great healer from Lummi who once said: “As long as the physical and spiritual aspects of healing are separate, we will continue to ‘limp along’ and he used that exact phrase, we will “limp along.” Physical and spiritual aspects of healing have to come together. (Rabbit) Rabbit speaks of the importance of considering health holistically. The conceptualization of health needs to include physical and spiritual aspects, and the methods of healing must be physical and spiritual. Rabbit observed from their professional experience that many people, both Indigenous and non-Indigenous, are experiencing increasing rates of physical illness, in spite of medical technology being as advanced as it is and a public health system with significant access. Rabbit remembered a traditional healer observing the detrimental effects of a divisive approach to health, that we, as human beings, will continue to “limp along” even with these medical 70 advances and incredible technologies because recognition and acknowledgement of the spiritual component in methods of healing are missing. Moose Moose is a Keeper of their people’s Indigenous language. Moose is a hunter, is very active in contemporary Indigenous society and they believe strongly in the ways of their ancestors. Moose is a dedicated and involved father. Moose does their best to “walk their talk.” Speaking about the general concept of well-being, Moose stated that there are different words for different types of wellness in the Cree language. Some words/concepts are very specific and relate to physical health, while other words convey a broader scope and can carry wider meaning. Moose explains, “Whereas ["mew-maht-sa-win"] (sic) is much more broad, it’s bigger; it ... literally translates to the good life” (Moose). Moose differentiates between the good life as it relates to physical health and as it relates to overall well-being—walking in a good way. [Mew-maht-sa-win] concerns how one lives their life and the effect it has on others, family, friends, strangers, the land, the Creator and spirits. Wellness is not only about one’s internal state, but how the manifestation of that state affects others—how does one’s way of being affect Creation around them. And it’s something that ... we all strive for. We all strived for that traditionally. [“mew-maht-sa-win”]. Living the Good Life. So that’s our concept of wellness ... at one time it related to balance ... and connection to the land, that’s what people meant by ... mew-maht-sa-win. They’re living a good life, they’re living a balanced life, they’re living according to the old laws, they’re living ... the spiritual life, they are living a life in connection to the land. (Moose) 71 Moose discussed many of the underlying concepts contained within the one word, Mew-Maht-Saw-Win. Moose stated that connection to the land is important for wellness. Moose spoke of the importance of living by the “old laws” like how Wolf stated that living by “natural law” is important for wellness. Moose described wellness as a process of “being in balance,” living life in a balanced way. Moose also spoke of the process of “striving” in pursuit of wellness. Wellness is not a singular point that a person achieves, but it is a journey; it can involve moving from “here to there” as Sea Lion noted a “teaching” or a goal to be pursued, and it is achievable, it can be attained with sustained, intentional effort. Based on the words shared by the i wa7 zewatets I posit that Indigenous Wellness is a dynamic and fluid construct. Wellness is a construct based on harmony, it is a process, it is a goal to be pursued, and it is the process of pursuit. I have originally stated that wellness is holistic, but as I spent more time with the data, I realized that may be an oversimplification of the process. I believe I am now more likely to say that wellness is based on harmony, and harmony can exist as a whole or as the connection or flow between components of the whole. Both the individual components of wellness are important and so is the whole, the outcome – wellness or unwellness. But if a person cannot recognize the individual components of wellness as well as the entire state of being (being healthy or unhealthy) it is challenging to maintain or return to a state of wellness. As Waldram (2009) and Kirmayer et al. (2009) observed an essentialist approach to the very idea of wellness can limit a person. A person who is living well is following “old” or “natural” laws and is doing so in a balanced way, a balanced way, ebb and flow and must work on individual components of their life to help to regain harmony. In the next section, I will explore and expand on the four themes that I interpreted from the research conversations 72 with the eight Indigenous Knowledge Keepers. These themes include: 1) Belonging; 2) Wellness is Fluid and Dynamic; 3) Responsibility and Autonomy, and 4) The Assumption of Medicine. 73 Table 4.1 Indigenous Wellness Themes Theme Subtheme/Points Theme 1: Belonging – Knowing who you belong to and who belongs to you • Reciprocity is Ceremony o Recognition-Thanksgiving o “you are medicine for me” • Observation-intervention • Ullusilc – The medicine of a gathering of people • Interconnectedness Theme 2: Wellness is Fluid, Dynamic and Reciprocal • Wellness is fluid, dynamic and reciprocal o Moving from here to there o Adaptiveness: Wellness requires steadfastness, and flexibility o Knowing when to be steadfast or flexible is key • Healing is a Ceremony o Wellness has mystery • Playing with your pain o Yaw-uk-miss –unity of love and pain28 Theme 3: Responsibility and Autonomy - Autonomy and responsibility are not opposites, they are part of the process of harmony. • Responsibility o In general the Collective is primary over the individual with respect for individual choice o Mindfulness and Responsibility o Responsibility for healing oneself o The Climate Crisis and Responsibility • Autonomy o Wa7 t̓u7 wa7! – S/he is doing his/her thing again. Fine, let him/her do it! (St’at’imcets) o q ʷ aasasa iš – That’s just his way” or “That’s just the way she is! (Nuh-chah-nulth) Theme 4: The Assumption of Medicine – Medicine is everywhere and in everyone • Resurgence: Revitalizing Ceremony and Ways of Being o How to Get Well and How to Be Well o Resurgence: “it’s never too late!” o Resurgence: Welcome Home our 2SLGBTQ+ Relatives o Resurgence and Sobriety 74 Theme 1 - Belonging “Knowing who you belong to and who belongs to you” (Bison) I started this theme with the quote by Bison, because it perfectly captured the theme of belonging from an Indigenous perspective. Having a sense of belonging is critical for an Indigenous person’s sense of well-being, to their state of wellness. The state of “belonging’ is created by a process that is lateral (non-linear), reciprocal, dynamic (changing) and intentional (created with intention and action). Belonging refers to a state or process in which an individual “belongs” to other people and other people “belong” to them. “Belonging” does not refer to possession, but to a state, process or dynamic connection built on family relationships, community relationships, responsibility, reciprocity, and kinship. Bison’s quote captures the complexity of multiple relationships in her community that laid the foundation for a sense of belonging that stayed with her for the rest of her life: We’d walk everywhere to get places and we’d kind of mirror what the animals did ‘cuz, we’d steal their runs, right, their pathways . . . everybody’s related, right,? Because we’ve been there since treaty and so if I walk through a path or even up the road wherever it branched off, I knew . . . well, in our language, my auntie or my “little mother” . . . And then you know, I would know all my grandparents and all of my like, I said, my aunties and uncles and all my cousins and my cousins who were like, they were like siblings because again of our kinship system. So everywhere I went, I knew the people I encountered, how I belonged to them and how they belonged to me. (Bison) Bison described how they “walked everywhere” and developed a strong relationship to and knowledge of the land in her community, so the sense of ‘belonging to’ also applies to ‘belonging to’ the land. Bison also described a state of respect for the knowledge and wisdom of 75 the animals as she and her friends “stole” the runs of the deer, as the deer knew the best paths to travel across the land. This familiarity and knowledge of the land, the travelling on the land led Bison and her friends to develop a relationship with the land and they learned who their relatives were, and they knew where their relatives lived. They learned that in community, there were always people around to whom they belonged and who belonged to them. This created a strong sense of connection to land, humans and animals for Bison in her community. Bison experienced multiple traumatic events that could have disrupted her wellness; that could have interfered with her sense of connection to her family and to the land and could have compromised her sense of self. Bison shared that both of her parents died in a motor vehicle accident, and she was raised in the homes of multiple relatives. Bison commented that she was in care of social services for a time and experienced many of the terrifying challenges that Indigenous children are known to experience in the welfare system such as dislocation from culture and land; exposure to racism; neglect and sexualized attention from adults (Sinha & Kozlowski, 2013; Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, 2015). Bison shared that she was also a student at an Indian Day School, and she became very aware of the impact of residential schools on other members of her community. However, the strength of connection she developed and her knowledge that she was never alone, due to the care and love given to Bison by her parents and caregiving relatives, provided significant benefits, or “medicine” and Bison knew a sense of belonging that never left her, even in dark moments. She developed a connection to human relations and spiritual entities. When one belongs to others, be it family or community, these others pray and ask for spiritual protection for loved ones. These spiritual protections can span across generations and can include ancestors or guides who watch over a person that can increase chances of success. 76 As a result of these protective factors, Bison had a sense of belonging that carried her through hard times and led her to many good times. Bison spoke with fondness and appreciation for the experience of being raised by multiple relatives in multiple homes. Bison stated that she would live with a different relative each year until she finished high school and left the community for university. Bison stated: “I never thought of it as being outside my family.” Bison also reported that the caseworker who closed her file with Social Services told her that multiple members of her extended family were upset for a particular reason—“The caseworker noted that some of the family members are jealous because they didn’t get a chance to raise [me].” As Bison shared this last story, I could not help but laugh with joy and she laughed with me. It was wondrous to consider that family members were sad and/or upset, not because of the “burden” of raising another child, but because they never had a chance to experience the gift of another child in their household. Based on stories I have heard or read in Indigenous or non-Indigenous communities about orphaned children, even if they are kin, they can be viewed as a burden and as “another mouth to feed.” I think of the stories heard of children in the child welfare system, who may experience worse situations than those they left, or experience indifference or neglect. All the experiences that Bison shared, the sad stories and the stories of connection, contributed to creating a sense of belonging for Bison—that was a medicine, protective and loving and it is reflected in her joy and laughter of life. Now I turn to my research conversation with Wolf. Wolf is an i wa7 zewatets with an interior First Nation. Wolf is a proud First Nations man who tries to live his life based on the values that he learned from his parents and grandparents. Wolf is a survivor of the Kamloops Indian Residential School. Based on what I have observed of Wolf’s words and action, they are committed to their family, to the land, to helping the Indigenous culture of their community and 77 tribe stay alive. Wolf has been active politically, both within the elected government of his band as in direct action on the front lines. Wolf has stated and demonstrated that he is committed to supporting the resurgence of cultural ways of being. According to Wolf, it seems that developing a sense of “Belonging” hinges on fulfilling one’s responsibilities to their family (ancestors, living relatives and their children and grandchildren), community, animals, Creator and the land itself. One’s sense of belonging, their feeling of being connected to the land, family, culture and community is created, strengthened and maintained by fulfilling cultural and family obligations. This facilitates harmony in the community and wellness in others and in the person fulfilling their obligations. [In order] for us to develop the ability to look after our family, our family systems, our - Mother [Earth], our ceremonies, we have to apply . . . what do you want to call it, when they all move together . . . you know, it creates balance and . . . harmony, there you go. That’s the word. And, in order for us to have that harmony, we have to know what we’re doing. A lot of our people don’t know what they’re doing. You know, we’ve become band office Indians . . . that’s the cycle we need to break. (Wolf) Wolf spoke of the importance of looking after family, ceremonies, and the land itself. Wolf speaks of the importance of maintaining this level of caring and cautions that its importance and practice can be lost because of colonization. Wolf cautioned that community members and family members should continue to follow “natural law” or they run the risk of becoming what Wolf termed “band office Indians.” The “band office” is what many First Nations people call the form of governance established by colonial powers under the Indian Act. This governance structure is one imposed by Indigenous Services Canada and this system reflected the values of 78 the colonizing federal government, to replace Indigenous forms11 of governance, whether hereditary, matriarchical or based on family representation. Up until the 1980’s, this system of governance was strongly overwatched by what used to be known as the Department of Indian Affairs (now called Indigenous Services Canada). Chiefs and councillors could often not make important decisions without obtaining approval from a representative of the Department of Indian Affairs. This made taking action very challenging and it took away the power for independent thinking and decision-making from many community governments (Afred, T., 1999; Fellner, John, & Cottell, 2016; First Nations and Indigenous Studies – UBC, 2009; Kirmayer, Tait & Simpson, 2009; Neu & Thierren, 2003). When Wolf referred to “Indians,” he is referring to First Nations people who have “Indian status” and are recognized by the government of Canada as a member of a First Nation or band. Many First Nations people still use the term “Indian” either out of habit or as an act of reclamation. When Wolf stated that people in their community or tribe have become “band office Indians,” he is referring to a forgetting of tribal or what he refers to as Natural Law and a reliance on settler values – independence, being paid for work, not doing anything you don’t have to as examples. For Wolf, this is indicative of a decrease in wellness in their communities or nation. Reciprocity is Ceremony Many participants described the importance of reciprocity for wellness. Reciprocity is the state of reciprocating – the Oxford Canadian Dictionary (2006) defined reciprocate as “to give and receive mutually; interchange” (p.843). I interpreted the data of Indigenous Knowledge 11 For more information on the creation of the Chief and Council Governance structure see https://indigenousfoundations.arts.ubc.ca/bands/#:~:text=Structure,authorized%20under%20the%20Indian%20Act. 79 Keepers as describing mutually beneficial exchanges as being indicative of a dynamic, intentional state of reciprocity in which both parties have their well-being increased. Wellness for Indigenous peoples depends not only on self-care, but care of each other, whether family, community, tribe, or a stranger. I interpreted the consistent mention of care for others and acknowledgement of beneficial actions as a pattern or ceremony of reciprocity that is dynamic, fluid and perpetual. This ceremony or reciprocity strengthens the sense of belonging for community, family, tribal and all peoples who are Indigenous. Reciprocity and recognition-thanksgivings are foundational to wellness. As readers will see, there is overlap between Theme 1 and Theme 2 for the subtheme Reciprocity is Ceremony. Overlap between themes is accepted in thematic analysis (Braun & Clarke, 2006). Overlap and connection, interdependence and interdependence are acceptable and even taken for granted, not only in Indigenous research methodologies, but also in Indigenous community life. Atleo (2004) described the importance of interdependence which is an important component of reciprocity: Interdependence is taken for granted. A specific Nuh-chah-nuulth teaching associated with the idea of community is that if one doesn’t ask for help when help is needed, then one is not friendly, one is not kind. One is not ahpey…Consequently, a person in need is taught and encouraged to depend upon neighbours, and this interdependence is considered one of the strengths of a traditional Nuh-chah-nulth community. (p.12). Orca is a woman from a well-known and respected family of a Vancouver Island First Nations Community. Orca has worked in Indigenous education and wellness for decades and she follows the principles-based teachings of her people. In response to a question about words in their Indigenous language relating to health or well-being, Orca said, “there’s another word that comes to mind, is when our people speak, they say “You’re a medicine to . . . you’re medicine 80 for us, you’re medicine to me.” Orca described how one person’s contributions, presence, or existence are healing and vitalizing to others. This is a conceptualization of wellness that is relationally based; wellness is increased by relationships and connection. The sharing of one’s medicine with others, which could be a specific action or mere presence with kind words, energy and support, is healing for people who are suffering. What Orca does not say is that this act of “medicine,” of kindness, will be remembered and may be reciprocated in the future, perhaps directly back to Orca or her family or perhaps the “medicine” will be “paid forward.” These acts of medicine or kindness are remembered by the people who received them and the acts of kindness and the ones who did them will probably be recognized formally. For example, when people attend funerals in my people’s territory, people will often donate money, food or do other actions that support the family—usually, any financial or food donations are tracked and will be read out at the feast after the actual burial is completed. The reason for the tracking of donations or services provided is to help the family to remember who helped them in a time of need and the expectation is that the family will try to help those who helped them if the helpers have a time of need in the future. These actions strengthen community cohesion and increase the sense of belonging. Recognition-Thanksgiving Wolf said that he sees recognition and thanksgiving for work done as critical for the wellness of individuals, families, and communities. When Wolf referred to “recognition and thanksgiving,” they described actions of giving goods or money to a person who has done work for a family or community. In addition to material compensation for work done, words of recognition or thanks are shared either personally in ceremony or publicly. Thus, thanksgiving is literally giving thanks in the form of goods, money or acknowledgement and this is an act of 81 reciprocity. The actions of reciprocity themselves constitute ceremony and the reciprocity serves to strengthen the connections between people and strengthens the connections with the ancestors by following tribal/natural law. Wolf saw the forgetting of “recognition” and “thanksgiving” as being a key barrier to Indigenous wellness. Wolf worries that thanksgiving and recognition is gradually being forgotten in some communities: but the other part that’s missing in that and this is where it became another part of disconnect is we forgot recognition and thanksgiving . . . We forget to thank our people for the work they’ve done … We forget to thank the people for, for helping the elders. We forget to thank people for hunting for the elders, for fishing, or for the people that matter. We forget to thank them . . . (Wolf) Acts of “recognition” and “thanksgiving” for cultural specialists or i wa7 zewatets are an integral part of community wellness. If people appropriately compensate i wa7 zewatets, traditional healers and cultural specialists for their highly specialized work, it makes possible that i wa7 zewatets can continue to contribute to the wellness of the community. The act of recognition and thanksgiving creates a sense of belonging for the i wa7 zewatets as they know their work is respected and appreciated and they know that they are loved. This is the sense of belonging they are shown through recognition and thanksgiving, that their work and knowledge are valued. Wolf described a situation in which one of their sons took up hunting, and Wolf told them that it traditionally expected that a hunter’s first catch is given away to those who need it. In this case, the son gave parts of his first deer to elders throughout the community: I asked him “How did it feel?” He said, “You should have seen their faces” [the elders were very, very happy and pleased]. (Wolf told his son), “I know” and, that’s the pride, 82 right? . . . That’s what it’s about . . . . and again, the pride and the recognition that has been given by the people for what he has done is good, because it makes him want to do more and that’s what you want from your young people. Is to do more work for the people, right? . . . And that’s just how it works, my boy, and those are the things that we start to, to look at and recognize out there. And that recognition of our, of our young men to do the work they need to do for the people. (Wolf) Wolf described the situation in which their son received recognition from the elders, in the form of either words or an expression of joy on “their faces.” Wolf observed that this created a feeling of pride in their son and that this good feeling will make it more likely that their son will do similar future acts, which helps their son to feel good and helps the elders or others who receive the food to feel good and to feel cared for. This strengthens the feeling of connection and belonging between the hunter or fisher who gives their catch away and those who receive it. The fisher or hunter sees how their contributions are valued by the community, increasing their sense of belonging. The elders or families who receive the gifts of food have an increased feeling of being cared for and being seen, being loved. They know that they belong to others, that they are seen, they will not be forgotten, they will be looked after, and they are loved. Wolf is saying that Indigenous people have a collective system of reciprocity in place that provides guideposts for community members to look after one another. Our people have to realize that there’s a system designed to look after one another . . . And those are the ones most important to the people, that keeps natural law going. Right? That’s what, that’s about because once we have that natural law is, you know, because we create balance among the things we need to do. If we don’t have that natural law, we don’t have balance. (Wolf) 83 But because of colonization and modernization some people are forgetting this system, or they have not been taught the system, and this decreases the sense of interconnection, responsibility and interferes with the ceremony of reciprocity in a community. Sea Lion described a word in their language that translates to “pushing against,” in this case, pushing against a person as an act of support, to stop that person from falling, due to some affliction they have suffered: another word called [Indigenous word]. [Indigenous word] means “to push against.” You think about somebody that may be falling. If you [Indigenous word], you push against that person who’s falling and prevent that person from falling . . . so it’s applied in so many ways. When people are gathering together to put on a great celebration or feast or something, someone will stand up and say [Indigenous word]! I am pushing up against you, here’s $1000 to help you!" (Sea Lion) “Pushing against” the person, helps them not fall and assures them that they are not alone, that they belong to a people or community who will look after them. I extrapolated the reciprocal nature of this act, based on my knowledge and experiences in coastal cultures. This wellness behaviour or support may be reciprocated in the future if the need arises, for example, if a family that donated or who helped others suffers a loss, the family they gifted will show up and donate or give a gift to them to repay the kindness. The generous act may also be acknowledged at a future gathering sponsored by the afflicted family, and they will acknowledge those people who “pushed against” them and supported them in a time of suffering. “Pushing against” in Sea Lion’s culture is a wellness behavior that creates cohesion or belonging for the afflicted person or people, and it lays the foundation for future acts of reciprocity. In the next few paragraphs, I will 84 describe elements of observation-intervention and interconnectedness in terms of the theme “Belonging.” Observation-Intervention A person’s sense of Belonging is formed not only by explicit rituals and ceremonies but also by everyday micro-actions that are subtle yet powerful. The everyday actions might be direct and explicit, but they may also be subtle and indirect. An example of a subtle action is observation, watching others so that they do not pull themselves out of the circle of care of the community: When I was growing up, I became aware of a term, that I thought was really telling. And that term was [Indigenous word] and it is translated as “to throw oneself away” . . . and I remember an old person, telling me that they watch for people, they watch for that, for people who might be doing that, especially amongst the young, younger people. You know, the, uhm, the teenagers, uh, they watch for them, if they’re cutting themselves off from the group. If they’re sitting, if they move themselves outside of, kind of, like outside of the circle . . . of people, they really watch for that, they don’t say anything … but they’ll do things, to make sure that, to help that person to become, to be part of the group, but they do it in a quiet way. And they also try to think of why that, why, you know, that might be happening. And again, they don’t do things really directly, but they do things, you know, really indirectly, to, to open things up so that person, you know, can share if they want to share or if they just want to, you know, to join, to join the group. And, uh, so, though that was, uhm, very, uhm, that’s really our way and , uhm, and it was, and it was really important to know that. And that’s really, really helped me in my teaching.” (Eagle) 85 Eagle clarified that the act of observation and evaluation of the wellbeing of others is subtle, and intervention is subtle. Carefully observing others quietly and from a distance, as well as subtle forms of supportive intervention are knowledge, practice and teachings that may have been lost or weakened because of colonization. Thus, disrupting traditional systems that supported community and family cohesion. As Eagle pointed out, . . . but it was a very caring way of doing things, and so that, I think that people’s wellbeing was really important to everybody . . . Observing, very observant . . . so observing is, uhm, like is, is something that was really fostered. In different, for people to be aware . . . they just really have a sense of awareness, but not, but not, uhm, [pause] uhm, but you don’t make it noticeable . . . You know, then because in your, in everything, you know, your relationships . . . outside of the family and, in movies, and you know, in social media . . . in school and so, I think it makes it kind of, so people see these two systems, but no, we never have an opportunity to talk about it and you don’t know what is what. (Eagle) Eagle stated that what she observed was that some of her people still have traces of the old way of doing things, and they recognize that they are now doing things in a new, different way, that is not healthy, but they often don’t have time, or make time to talk about the importance of traditional systems or if these traditional systems are being passed on to the next generation. Nor is it being discussed if these systems have been disrupted, then what can be done? Years ago, when I heard Eagle speak, she shared about some research she was interested in doing. She had described how people used to gather around kitchen tables and visit and discuss things. Sometimes the topics were everyday types of topics, but sometimes the topics were critical, such 86 as whether people were following traditional law, how people were doing in the community or in the family, whether there were big issues of governance or land stewardship to consider. I also remembered that Eagle shared that children were often encouraged or required to be present for these types of conversations, so they could listen and learn about topics important for the wellness of the family or the community and how these topics were discussed. As I continued to process the data I began to wonder if there were powerful medicines about gathering and discussion of particular topics that were being forgotten, either being taken for granted or the importance of discussing these topics, clearly and openly was being forgotten. This seems an appropriate time to transition to Ullusilc, the power of gathering. Ullusilc: The Medicine of a Gathering of People “Ullusilc” is a word from the writer’s Indigenous language (St’a’imcets). The word means “when the people are gathering, not a meeting” (John, K. personal communication, March, 2024). Virtually all participants in this study mentioned how being with others, gathering, contributes to a person’s wellness. At first, I thought, “gathering” was a “Coyote Code” (Kovach, 2019) or what is called an outlier in western qualitative research methodologies. An outlier is a piece of data that may not occur frequently enough to be considered a theme, but still provides significant information, and it is important to note. However, as I continued my iterative processing of working with the data, through the sorting of themes table and creating a mind map, I realized that “gathering” is a critical component of belonging and it is a significant subtheme rather than an outlier. Sea Lion described a state of being in which one’s heart is made glad by coming together with family, by coming together with those that one belongs to. The act of gathering with family improves one’s well-being, one’s heart and spirit or soul are ‘made good’ when one comes together with family for a family purpose: 87 [Indigenous Word] is a phrase that can be translated as “my heart has been made good” or “my heart has been made glad” or “my spirit/soul is made good” and this statement is in response to a family gathering for a family purpose. (Sea Lion) The importance of gathering for the wellness of an individual, family or community is both subtle and obvious. Gathering is a powerful process; gathering, connecting with others is cited frequently as a critical component in wellness. I believe that this is why loneliness and isolation is so detrimental to wellness for Indigenous and non-Indigenous people. Being with others can happen when one is with family as a child or adult. It can include attending family gatherings or connecting one to one with another person in a non-ceremonial way, the simple act of visiting. Something sacred and conducive to wellness can emerge from the simple act of gathering, connecting and enjoying each other’s company. Gathering is medicine, gathering is belonging. Eagle described the power of gathering: And so what have I noticed is if you go into our [the Indigenous] world, when people are gathered, people come together and there’s always, lots of sharing . . . and there’s no kind of expectation . . . there are people who like to tell stories for example, and to poke [fun] at people . . . and there’s always lots of laughter. And also the talk … it isn’t really tense, or you know, like or loud . . . people can just listen if they want to listen, they can participate if they want to participate . . . but everybody is a part of it . . . and I think that that’s what’s really important. (Eagle) Eagle described how gathering occurs, how it can look, and she stated that there is no “expectation,” there are no strict rules about how people must behave or what they can say. It does not have to be a serious undertaking; it can be a fun and casual activity. People are welcome to join into the fun, discussion in an active way or they can sit back and just be part of the 88 gathering by being present, but “everybody is part of it;” everyone is included and as Eagle says, “that’s what’s really important,” no one is left out. There is also a connection to observation-intervention as described earlier. Eagle described how elders, healers, community/family leaders will observe everyone at gatherings, and they will take notice if someone is holding back, isolating themselves; they may make note for a later intervention or they may initiate a subtle intervention in the moment. Gathering also allows community and family leaders an opportunity to monitor everyone’s well-being. Moose spoke about the importance of interconnectedness for helping others and helping oneself to be well. First Moose described the importance of one person helping another person. Moose described choices that he made about who he socialized with. Moose stated that he chose to not spend as much time with people whose behaviors were not “nourishing” for him. For example, when Moose stated that he chose to stop drinking alcohol and he no longer spent a lot of time with friends who continued to drink alcohol to excess. The way Moose described this situation, I interpreted as Moose being non-judgmental of those who continued to drink alcohol, but he recognized that continuing to socialize with these friends would not “nourish” him. It would not help him to pursue the life he wanted, it would not take him from “here to there.” As he explains: . . . but I’m not going to get nourishment from them. Where I can get nourishment is if I become the nourisher, if they hit that spot in their life where they need someone, or they need someone to talk to, or they say “Geez, I gotta quit drinking, you gotta help me” or “I keep needing the sweatlodge. Can you pray for me?” Then all of a sudden that relationship changes and you want to be there for your brother . . . . So, yeah, it’s guys 89 that are taking steps to better themselves. Taking responsibility [for themselves and their healing]. (Moose) Moose stated that if you are observing another person who is currently living an unhealthy lifestyle, you may not be able to rely on them for ‘nourishment,’ but you can become ‘nourished’ if you are ready and able to help them when they ask for help. So, even if a person is not well and you help them to become well you will be nourished by the act of helping them—your wellness is helped and their wellness is helped. Wellness is an active, reciprocal process and it is mutually nourishing. Wellness is increased within the helped by the helper’s actions and wellness is increased within the helper by the act of helping—to help another feels good. The helped person is contributing to another person’s wellbeing by allowing themselves to be helped or by asking for help – the process is reciprocal. Here again Moose echoed that “Reciprocity is Ceremony.” Wellness is nurtured in the helped by the compassion of the helper and the act of helping can be reciprocated in the future, either directly to the helper or to others. This is the foundation of belonging—a person knows if they reach out, they will never be alone. Wellness occurs in the helped and the helper in an act of compassion. Wellness can be a mutual process. One person can help another person to be well. In addition to the direct reciprocal benefits, between the helper and the helped, in the ceremony of helping, the community or family of the helper and helped will feel the benefits of this nourishment. Interconnectedness Moose also spoke to the healing power of an intentional, reflexive practice of connection at the spiritual level. I interpreted Moose’s words to mean that we are never truly disconnected or alone, if we understand the interconnectedness of reality/the world/existence and we are mindful of these connections, these relationships through mindful, reflexive activities, such as walking in 90 the woods and making offerings of tobacco on a regular basis. For Moose this reminds them that they are not alone, as well as who and what they are connected to: Well, how I remember it is if I’m smudging it automatically comes back a lot of times or if I take a walk in the woods and take some tobacco, so through ceremony ... in my own head, I’m talking Cree to myself that really helps me to remember [unclear], reminds me of, uh, what I’m connected to. I’m not leaving that tobacco there, for nothing, on the ground. It’s for a reason and it helps to center me being in nature, watching animals and just having this fresh air, feeling the ground and the woods, you know, the energy that you pick up. It connects you with those, ... entities, spiritual entities. And it lets you know you’re part of something a lot bigger. And that you are not alone so that’s how I do it ... Yeah! It’s about your interconnection ... but it’s a lot of threads connecting it to that is [Wa-Koot-too -win] and in Cree, it means “our relatedness.” It means our relatedness, so it’s recognizing our interconnectedness to everything around us, including all life forms, including plants, animals, spirit world. It’s recognizing that interconnectedness and how we can’t, we’re not designed to be, uh, on our own, we’re not designed to be. We’re connected to everything, even when people aren’t around us, we’re still interconnected to the world, around us. And so I think recognizing that as a part of also, [Mew-maht-saw-in]? So it’s a ... pretty important concept. We don’t have a direct word for reciprocity like other cultures do, but this, this word [Wa-koot-ta-win], that is pretty much the same. It’s, ... recognizing the beings and spirits that are around us and ... also recognizing that we’re not like sitting at the top of the pyramid, we’re more part of a circle. So that would be our closest word to reciprocity, reciprocity's kind of built in. . . . Yeah, it’s almost like you don’t even have to name it as such. It’s just there. (Moose) 91 According to Moose’s understanding of his tribal worldview, being connected to all elements of creation – to all life forms, plants, animals, and the spirit world - is an important part of well-being. This teaching of interconnectedness, of belonging, resonates with the words of Bison and Sea Lion. Bison spoke of the importance of belonging, both to the land and to people, the importance of knowing who you belong to and who belongs to you. Bison also spoke of the medicine of connection to land, knowing how the unique taste of the water in your territory, knowing where the water sources are or knowing how the air is different when rain is coming. Sea Lion spoke of the power of connection to other people through acts of kindness, by being friendly, the medicine of connecting to the spirit world through ceremony. The relationships that can have positive effects on a person, family or community’s well-being are not limited by species, space, or time. Relationships are non-linear—the relationships that exist between Indigenous peoples and the animal world, connections to spirits, connection to the land, connection to Creator, connection to ancestors, living relatives, and grandchildren (descendants). Awareness, respect, and intentional maintenance of these relationships, across species, time and space fosters a sense of belonging. These types of practices, including acts of ceremony, tobacco offerings and a mindful reflection on one’s connection to other people, to the Earth, to spirits, and to the Creator are important parts of a wellness practice. These practices are critical to striving for wellness. Moose left space for those who did not grow up with access to traditional teachings of interconnectedness by saying, “but I imagine. . . if they didn’t grow up with [traditional teachings], maybe they would have maybe a harder time. Even if they didn’t necessarily grow up [with them].” I interpreted this statement as an acknowledgement that not all Indigenous people are raised with access to cultural teachings and that this does not exclude a person from 92 accessing these teaching later in life. As Bison and I shared in our conversation, it is “never too late” to pick up the medicines. A key component of both belonging, the ceremony of reciprocity and interconnectedness is maintaining and honouring the connection to Mother Earth: And I think that’s one of the challenges of humanity is to get back in touch with [Mother Earth] and losing touch with that connection to the Earth, that ... intimate connection with the Earth is partly what is screwing up the world. (Moose) I interpreted what Moose said as meaning that, if we, as human beings, “lose touch” with our connection, our relationship with Mother Earth, we compromise Mother Earth’s wellness and we compromise our wellness. This loss of connection can negatively affect not only our health as human beings but leads to larger problems like the climate crisis. The maintenance of this relationship with Mother Earth is a critical aspect of Belonging. Bison said, knowing who belongs to you and knowing who you belong to is a critical aspect of wellness. Specifically including our belonging to Mother Earth and remembering that she belongs to us - in the sense of relationship and responsibility. Wolf also noted that the Earth is getting warmer and warmer due to climate change as way of “purifying” herself. He clarified that this process of purifying is necessary due to the harm that humans have caused to the land and water because we have not maintained a respectful relationship with the Mother Earth. I interpreted Wolf’s use of “purify” to mean that the Earth will cleanse herself of the sickness that we, humans, have caused and in that process, we may also be removed, similar to way that some peoples use the Sweat Lodge for purification, to help to rebalance herself, and the negative impact on humans is a part of the ceremony for Mother Earth. 93 Summary Theme 1 In closing this section on Theme 1, the words of the participants underscored intentional and consistent engagement with others (including non-humans and the land) through ceremony is key to creating and maintaining a sense of well-being. So that a person knows and remembers, “who they belong to, and who belongs to them” (Bison). Creating and maintaining these connections, nurturing a state of belonging requires intentional, reflexive practice that honours the ceremony of reciprocity. Wellness behaviours allow people to be medicine for themselves and to each other. There is a flexibility to wellness practices; wellness does not move in a straight line; wellness can ebb and flow and does not move only in one direction. For example, Bison and Moose referred to the fact that even if a person is not raised in family with access to traditional teachings, it is “never too late” to pick up the medicines. This part of the wellness process led to the gathering process that led to Theme 2 in this study – Wellness is Dynamic and Fluid. Theme 2 – Wellness is Fluid, Dynamic and Reciprocal In mainstream settler society, as well as in the views that some Indigenous people have adopted, wellness is seen as a binary state – a person is well or unwell; they are sick or healthy; they are functional or dysfunctional; regulated or unregulated; an addict or clean and sober. With these binary views come the assumption that there is a limited number of ways to live one’s life in a good way. My conversations with Indigenous Knowledge Keepers led me to conclude that wellness is not a binary state, rather wellness is fluid and dynamic; wellness is more like a river, lake or ocean than a straight line. Bodies of water, or rivers rise and fall, they are constantly in 94 motion and everchanging. An individual, family or community’s state of wellness can have varying elements of wellness or unwellness at the same time A person can be unwell or be on the way to wellness and the potential for wellness is still present. Shawn Wilson (2013) described the space between things as sacred. I believe that the space between wellness and unwellness is a sacred space, it is a ceremonial space - it is the moving from “here to there” described by Sea Lion and echoed by other i wa7 zewatets. Moving from “here to there” In addition to a person’s wellness being a spectrum in which wellness and unwellness can coexist, wellness is also fluid. A person can move towards wellness in the same way that they can move towards unwellness. Thus, wellness is a journey within which a person can choose to move forwards, backwards or stay put. There are different ways to move through the journey or spectrum of wellness. Sea Lion, described this journey when they described the process of a person learning how to be “friendly”: So, to go from here to there, you’re learning how to be friendly. You from not being friendly, [Indigenous word meaning not friendly] to there, where, you are being friendly, and when you get there (emphasis), its [Indigenous word meaning ‘there”, [Indigenous words combined into a new word] meaning to go from “here to there,” so, you have completed a teaching. (Sea Lion) In this instance, Sea Lion referred to the possibility of moving from being “unfriendly” to being “friendly.” To be friendly is perceived as a highly valued and respected characteristic or quality among Sea Lion’s people; it speaks not only to how the person acts, but how they are perceived by others. Even if a person is perceived as being “unfriendly” (unwell), they can transition or transform to a state of being “friendly” or well. Wellness is fluid and dynamic and a 95 person can move from a state of unwellness [e.g., not friendly] to a state of wellness [being friendly] and will have completed a traditional teaching in doing so. As I processed this section of Sea Lion’s interview, I thought of the effects of being ‘friendly’ on others; in addition to friendliness being an indicator of wellness. It is also a contributor to wellness in others, in one’s family, in one’s clan or community, or even among strangers. A person who is friendly contributes to feelings of happiness, contentment, and connection in those around them. This contribution is a key part of the ceremony of reciprocity as described in Theme 1. Moose spoke about the potential for a person to change, to become well or to “move from here to there” and how if a person seems to be wanting to move forward with their life, that they seem to want to live the good life, even if they have had struggles, they are the type of person that he wants to associate with: And then they say actions speak louder than words, so, that’s what I see - somebody who’s living a good life. Even if it’s somebody who made mistakes in the past because none of us are perfect—we all got affected by colonization. We all probably have had to deal with addictions in our families and other forms of abuse, so we didn’t grow up perfectly. But the people that are healthy are the ones that are aware of that and are [unclear] to outgrow that. And you can sense it when somebody is, uh, is a seeker and is, uh, challenge, challenging themselves to be a better human being. Those are the kind of guys I like hanging around. (Moose) Moose acknowledged that people are not “perfect” and that there must be compassion and flexibility to allow for the process of healing, rather than being judgmental or rejecting. 96 Adaptiveness An important component of fluidity in wellness is the ability to adapt to a situation. There are elements of wellness that are built on flexibility and elements of wellness that are built on steadfastness. To survive in the pre-contact Indigenous world required flexibility and steadfastness; a person, family, clan, or community had to be able to adapt to survive famine, or environmental disasters or war with other tribes. People required a strong will to survive. A critical element is the ability to know when to switch between flexibility and steadfastness. For example, if a fishing season is not going well, it is important to persevere as long as possible, perhaps to do offerings, pray and ceremony to ask spirits, Creator or the fish themselves for help. But if a community stays too long, there may be no food for the winter and the community could face starvation. Leaders would need to be able to recognize that a different food source must be sought out. Community leaders needed to be able to know when to switch from a position of steadfastness, to take on a new approach to a situation. The same is true of individuals—it is important to know when to stand fast and when to be flexible. Bison spoke about the importance of being adaptive relating to her people’s experiences with climate change coming to the prairies in times past: Our people were adaptive. Our people didn’t always stay the same, or when Europeans or whoever hit the shore, when they came from wherever they’ve [come] from. There would have been nobody home. We would have gone, we would have been done like the dinosaurs, hey? . . . if we hadn’t adapted? If we’d been rigid . . . if we hadn’t been in tune, we wouldn’t have changed when that drought that happened a little bit before the Europeans got here, that drought in North America that kind of took all the trees and 97 decreased the grasslands. If we had known about that, you know, if we hadn’t adapted to that. Like I said, when the Europeans got here, nobody home! [chuckles] (Bison) Bison shared this story with me as we were discussing her transmission of knowledge to her children, and teachings she wanted them to have, particularly in relation to ways to connect to the land. Bison had shared that her children expressed concern that they were not raised on either of their parent’s traditional territories. Bison said that it is important for people to be adaptive, to not be rigid in their responses to different challenges in life. If the ancestors of Indigenous peoples had been rigid in the past, whether facing climate change or colonization, our people would have died and there would have been “nobody home.” The Indigenous skills of adaptiveness do not apply only to challenges that are historical or affect communities and tribes but have also been important in the day to day life of the careers of Indigenous Knowledge Keepers. Eagle described the types of environments she had to navigate as an Indigenous woman in her career. She also described community and/or family environments where conflict was less likely: It’s [the topic of wellness] one that I’ve been really, interested in for all of my life because so much of our world is dealing with conflict ... and when you’re an Indigenous person, especially if you’re an Indigenous woman I think that you know every place is conflictual. (Eagle) Eagle emphasized how environments can be conflictual and Indigenous women may face racism and sexism in both Indigenous and non-Indigenous environments. Eagle is retired now and would have experienced her early career at a time when many Indigenous environments were rife with sexism brought on by colonization. Respect for women had been forgotten by many Indigenous men at that time. Though Eagle did not explicitly say so, I imagine that she 98 routinely had to navigate conflictual environments. As a result, she would have faced many situations where she needed to discern whether to be flexible or to be steadfast. Eagle had to be discerning in this way to stay in the job, continue to contribute and to advance her career. She also had to navigate these colonized systems in a way that did not compromise her integrity and her well-being. Wellness, or a wellness behavior, is to choose to carry oneself in a good way, even in an environment or situation in which other people or the situations are unhealthy. Perhaps people are being toxic, anti-social and/or practicing lateral violence (Middleton-Moz, 1999).12 A person, who is reasonably well, who has a strong sense of belonging, and who is adaptive, can draw on these resources and be resilient in an unhealthy environment. Eagle illustrated this wellness behavior and resilience. Despite experiencing oppression in many environments Eagle can still laugh about her experiences. Based on what I know of Eagle, these experiences likely happened at the most productive time of her career when it was acutely challenging to make change as an Indigenous woman facing overt and covert oppression. This demonstrates the wellness behavior of striving to maintain one’s focus and one’s sense of self, even when other people or the environment is hostile. I see this understanding of wellness behavior as a point of crossover with Bison’s statements about “playing with pain.” Specifically, these types of experiences are hard, but both Bison and Eagle can still laugh about these painful experiences. 12 “Lateral violence is the shaming, humiliating, damaging, belittling and sometimes violent behavior directed toward a member of a group by others members of the same group . . . . Lateral violence is most often applied to the behaviors of oppressed groups”. (p.116). 99 Eagle described that when a person is facing a hard situation or a challenge, it is best (from a wellness perspective) if they adopt a flexible and non-judgmental approach. She explained “like when things are hard . . . that’s just how it is right now . . . you just, carry on . . . you just have to keep moving forward.” On a personal note, I observed and learned how my own community, the Tsalalhmec value flexibility, when I witnessed, this lesson being relayed to my child in 2022. For our annual tribal gathering, my community organizes community members who will cover the distance from our community to wherever the gathering is hosted in our traditional territory on foot. We do this through a combination of running and walking with the use of vehicles as support caravans. On this one occasion, my family and I caught up with and joined our community members partway along the journey. The event is highly organized but also feels a bit unpredictable as the group splits into multiple units to cover the distance. My child was struggling with the ambiguity of the situation and one of our community leaders observed this. This community leader shared with my child that “as Tsalalhmec, we don’t always know what is going to happen, but we accept this and we carry on.” This wasn’t said in a critical way; it was a respected knowledge keeper sharing a Tsalalhmec value or teaching with my child. Thus, flexibility was demonstrated during the execution of this community tradition and steadfastness is displayed in the continuance of this tradition for over a decade. The tribal gathering which celebrates our Declaration of Sovereignty has been held every year since 1990 (except for the COVID years) and the Tsalalhmec Feather Run has been held since 1999. Moose also spoke of the benefits of adaptiveness and how rigidity in thinking can cause a person’s thinking to become narrow in relation to spiritual and cultural practices: I’ve seen people that are ceremonial. They get bogged down in it, and then ... their thinking becomes really narrow. So just like those Christian fundamentalists, we got our 100 own fundamentalists in the traditional world too. They, they only see what they know and what they’ve been told, and they’re not able to think critically and work beyond that. Sometimes we’ve got to examine our own beliefs and look at the big picture and look at things from different angles. So that’s why critical thinking has helped me even on a spiritual level. (Moose) Earlier, Moose spoke about a person being able to critically look at oneself as a central part of healing and to consider how one’s own unhealthy behaviors have contributed to unwellness. Moose encouraged people to be critical in their thinking, to consider matters from “different angles” and change their beliefs and actions as the situation in front of them requires. Bison shared that they believe the ability to adapt, the ability to be flexible is important for the wellbeing of a person and even the survival of a people. Bison told me about one of her sons who received an award for his work with youth. Bison shared that she and her husband taught their children the value of adaptiveness and when her son spoke to youth he would speak about the importance of adaptiveness. Bison described how she spoke about adaptiveness with this son and the son expressed his and siblings concerns about not growing up in the traditional territory of either their mother or their father: I guess, ‘cause when he was young, I would say, you know, son, even if you know you kids are worried that you didn’t grow up in the same setting as dad and I, our people were adaptive. Our people didn’t always stay the same, or when Europeans or whoever hit the shore, when they came from wherever they’re from. There would have been nobody home. We would have gone, we would have been gone like the dinosaurs, hey? We would have . . . if we hadn’t adapted{emphasis added}. If we’d been rigid, we if we hadn’t been in tune, we, we wouldn’t have changed [in time to survive]. (Bison) 101 Adaptiveness as a skill and a value was important for Bison’s family and community and she transmitted this knowledge to her son and likely her other children as well. This adaptiveness seemed to serve her son well and he received a major award for his work with youth. During his acceptance speech he described how he spoke to the youth about the importance of adaptiveness, how he transferred his mother’s knowledge, her medicine to another generation. Healing is a Ceremony Moose’s words in the previous section demonstrated a respect for the ceremonial space of healing – the space of transition or transformation when a person is trying to make changes in their life. Healing is a ceremony; it is a sacred space between “here” and “there.” As Shawn Wilson (2008) said, “the space between things is sacred”. The power and potential of a person who is moving from “here to there” needs to be respected; and the person who is in their process of change should be seen as someone who can be “medicine” for others. This is a very different perspective from seeing those in the process of healing as “wounded” or “struggling.” I say to many of my clients, that there are no “small steps,” even a small action towards healing is big, and powerful. This reframe has helped many clients to feel a sense of power, of having medicine rather than only being seen as someone who is struggling or unhealthy. Indigenous worldviews in relations to wellness, well-being or health make room for wellness to involve seemingly contradictory concepts such as love, pain, joy, pain, life and death. Many Indigenous peoples’ teachings contain such lessons, for example to enter ceremony is challenging, it requires discipline, courage and determination. In the next paragraph, I will introduce some words that resonated with me regarding using pain to survive hard times. The i wa7 zewatets, Bison, called this “playing with your pain”, it relates to humour and finding joy in hard times. I will then speak about the relationship of this concept to a Nuu-chah-nulth word, “Yaw-uk-mis” (Atleo, 2004) that describes both love and pain. I will also speak about the challenges or 102 even risk that can be contained within healing, both ceremonially and therapeutically I will also discuss the nature of mystery within wellness. Wellness has Mystery Sea Lion, Moose and others spoke of wellness behaviours, and they also spoke of what I termed the ‘mystery’ of wellness; mystery is my word and was not actually said by any of the participants. Mystery is not a main theme, but I believe constitutes an important subtheme of Wellness is dynamic, fluid and reciprocal. In my view, wellness can be a private, mysterious state. An observer cannot truly know a person’s state of wellness just by looking at them. There can be behaviours, words or even spiritual energies that may be detected, but ultimately, a person’s state of wellness cannot be easily discerned by an observer. Moose responded to a question about knowing how an Indigenous man is well or healthy, and referred to himself as an example, Like, there were times in my life, and anyone who knew me or would have met me would assume I was healthy, but I, I’m looking back on things, I wasn’t healthy. And I think it, it’s all, sometimes a matter of perception and, and it’s also based on the health of the viewer who’s doing the judging. (Moose) Moose echoed Sea Lion’s earlier statement that a person’s state of wellness is not easy to discern from the outside. Moose’s comments also aligned with Sea Lion’s comment that the frame of reference of an observer affects how a person’s wellness is perceived. Although the question was asked specifically relating to men, I believe that the unseen aspect of wellness can apply to men, women, and gender-fluid people. Orca also stated that her elders told her that it is important to be friendly to others if they are having a hard time, as a person cannot know what is happening for them. I interpreted this to mean that a person’s state of wellness can be unknown 103 and even if a person is being unfriendly in the moment, it is important to remember they may be suffering in some way that is causing them to act unfriendly and it is important to be kind to the person until you know more about their situation. Playing with your Pain Bison shared a wellness behaviour that I believe relates to Yaw-uk-miss. Bison described the wellness behaviour as “playing with your pain”. In my view, playing with your pain refers to the act of using humour or laughter to cope with painful or tense moments. I do not see this behaviour as an act of avoidance or denial, but as a way of surviving and even thriving through times of crisis, grief or trauma: Humour! Oh, that’s good for health. I . . . reflect on that with the kids . . . I used to work with. Because, I mean, there’s so much can be done with humour. Well, for one thing, you can play with your pain . . . We didn’t have meds, we didn’t have pills for all that, but we did have humour to help us get through that or if you know, we’re in conflict with people . . . that humour helps so much . . . So, I think . . . just think about laughing, you just, you laugh and you have a really good belly laugh. You just loosened everything up and you make room for other emotions . . . You know, you just make space for other things to come in. Good things, you know? So yeah, I think that was our ancestors, or even how I grew up [how they were raised in community] oh, humour was really healing. (Bison) As Bison said, laughing “loosened everything up” and it creates a space for other emotions beyond sadness, grief or denial. The next subtheme is about what I have termed “adaptiveness,” the balance, flow or tension between flexibility and steadfastness. 104 Yaw-uk-miss – the unity of love and pain Dr. Richard Atleo (2004) is an Indigenous scholar and hereditary chief of the Ahousaht of the Nuu-Chah-Nulth First Nation on Vancouver Island. He wrote a book called “Tsawalk – a Nuu-chah-nulth Worldview.” Atleo wrote of a concept called “yaw-uk-miss,” which he framed as the “unity of love and pain.” This term illustrates a foundational concept of Indigenous wellness being fluid and dynamic. Concepts or emotions that may seem contradictory on the surface can co-exist in the same space at the same time: In English, yaw-uk-miss is translated as “love,” but the etymology of the word, clearly incorporates the experience of pain associated with danger. Yaw-uk-miss can also be translated as “pain.” Love and pain exist quite naturally, without contradiction, as a unity of existence . . . A precious baby is born into a world of love and joy, and this state of existence becomes all the more poignant when that baby is lost. If the brevity of life is perceived as a breath in winter, the bloom a beautiful flower in spring, or the sudden appearance of a rainbow in fall, each can be defined as much by its presence as by its absence. Love, like life, is brief; while love is here it is a joy, but soon it is gone and there is grief. Love and pain are inseparable in the Nuu-chah-nulth worldview. (p.30) In my view, Atleo is saying that the Nuu-Chah-Nuulth worldview recognizes that love and pain are critical elements of life. Love does not exist without pain and pain does not exist without love. This acceptance of a spectrum of love and pain in life creates a space in which there can be an understanding of wellness as being on a spectrum—that it is possible to have a space where wellness and unwellness co-exist. Wellness is not necessarily a final destination, but a location that a person, family or community works to stay at or close too with constant and intentional effort. People accept that they will not always be well. There will be joy, but there 105 will also be sadness; that there will be love, but also grief; that there is life, but also death. This principle of understanding reality—that there is love, but in the same word, is contained the word for pain—lays the foundation for a worldview in which wellness can exist on a spectrum. Bison spoke about the complex nature of life – how seemingly contradictory phenomena such as love, and pain can co-exist or how people can survive unpleasant events by sticking together; the sense of belonging builds resilience, “. . . all these kinds of bad things still happen. There was still death, there’s still sickness and of course, there was major trauma, but we seemed to have a way of kind of getting through it together.” This acceptance of suffering or pain makes room for wellness to not be a homogenous continuous state of happiness without disruption. An individual, family or community can have emotions of joy and grief occurring at the same time. In the optimum situations, the joy or healing energy and the energy of connection helps to balance or reduce the psychological and spiritual injury. I have observed this seeming contradiction when a loved one dies in an Indigenous family in which the family supports one another and the community steps forward to support the grieving family. Due to the level of connection within Indigenous communities and families, when a person dies, it can be felt far and wide in the family or community. In this type of situation, many people can be afflicted by grief. The more beloved and influential the person was, the higher the emotional, spiritual, and cultural loss. This is the cost of kinship. The cost is high at these times, but the reward is greater. I had my own experience of this during the processing of data when a beloved sister-in-law died from cancer at the too young age of 60. My sister-in-law, Lemya7, was fun loving, hard-working, a determined protector and steward of our language. She was a mother, aunty, sister, grandma and one of the best fishers and cutters of fish in our community. The loss of her hurt our family very much and hurt me personally very much. Our family gathered and held our traditional wake with her lying in state in her home for four days and four nights. People came from far and wide to pay their respects, to donate money, food, or other goods and to give love and support to our family 106 and to Lemya7’s family of origin. Many people took the opportunity to gather, and it was a time of mourning, but it was also a chance to connect and to reconnect. Many stories were shared of Lemya7’s adventures and of her knowledge of the language and our culture. Many people shared how she had made a difference to our lives and how we saw this legacy reflected in her children. Even in our time of grief we shared laughter, we visited, we gathered, we met new people and marveled as community members arrived to provide solace, to tend the sacred fire, to donate money or food. Even with our grief, heavy in our hearts, we felt the care and compassion of the community, we felt connected, and we knew that we “belonged” to others, and we were not alone. In the next few paragraphs, I will expand on how Indigenous cultures make room for the seeming contradiction of how joy and grief can co-exist. Another seemingly contradictory aspect of wellness is that the pursuit of wellness is not without physical, spiritual, emotional, or relational risk, physically, spiritually. Undertaking the ceremony to achieve wellness can be hard. Sea lion illustrates the dangers involved in ceremonial pursuit of wellness: First, the first syllable of the word in it, is actually a word that means – be careful . . . and the second part of the word (emphasis), . . . refers to what you are engaged in (emphasis), where you are going, up to the mountain, into a cave, out on an isolated beach, all by yourself. No food, no security. You’re out there on a spiritual quest. And you’re out there for a purpose, the purpose is to feed your family. The purpose is, is to face difficulty, so that you can bring home a whale, so that you can bring home food, you can bring home . . . medical knowledge, you can bring home power to help your people . . . (Sea Lion) Ceremonial pursuit of medicine often requires sacrifice or deprivation, whether fasting; physical discomfort, fatigue or loneliness. Deloria (2006) observed that many times, medicine people often underwent a great personal hardship prior to pursuing the path of a medicine person. 107 I believe that suffering can also occur when a person is pursuing a path of healing, moving from unwellness to wellness. Whether one is undertaking an activity such as recovering from addiction or choosing to end relationships that are unhealthy—the process is likely to be hard. The path towards wellness can be difficult and is not without risk. In the case of some ceremonies, there can be risks and suffering due to physical demands, such as hunger due to fasting or being cold and lonely when out on a vision quest on the land. The pursuit of wellness can also be lonely when a person adjusts their life choices and decides to not socialize with others who are making unhealthy choices. The physical discomfort of withdrawal symptoms when choosing to stop using substances can be hard. Emotional turmoil can also be part of undergoing mainstream psychotherapy and/or Indigenous healing ceremonies. Adaptiveness is a quality that permits those who are well to switch their approaches as the situation requires. Summary Theme 2 What became clear to me as I processed the data from the Indigenous Knowledge Keepers was the non-binary state of wellness. Wellness is not a “1” or “0” process, wellness is fluid, a person can move backwards and forwards through wellness. A person can have elements of wellness and unwellness at the same time. Wellness can have elements of love and pain occurring at the same time. Wellness is dynamic, it can require that a person can be both steadfast and flexible, avoiding a dogmatic or rigid approach is key to wellness. Wellness, also a reciprocal process, a person can make themselves well and they can help to make others well. Sometimes a person’s presence is enough to provide medicine for another person. There is also an element of mystery to wellness, an observer cannot always tell a person’s state of wellness by looking at them. In the next section, I will describe the findings of Theme 3: Indigenous Responsibility and Indigenous Autonomy. 108 Theme 3: Responsibility and Autonomy A theme that I processed from the i wa7 zewatets data was that responsibility to others and individual autonomy are important in wellness. All participants in this study spoke of the importance of responsibility to others. There was also consistent, but not universal, reference to the respect for autonomy and the importance of not forcing others to follow a path they do not want to. This tension between responsibility and autonomy creates a tension, between individuals who are members of a community or a family and the collective that they belong to. This tension may be what harmony looks like, or perhaps it is harmony, another part of what Sea Lion termed moving from “here to there.” Harmony does not mean a state of equilibrium of perfect balance between these individuals and collective energies but may be a process of ebb and flow which facilitates wellness within an individual, their family, their community, their people, and their relationships with animals, the Earth, spirits and the Creator. In healthy Indigenous cultures, this state of balance is maintained with ceremony, with gatherings, with ritual, reflexivity and a constant intentional awareness. Participants described how the balance between responsibility and autonomy has been disrupted by colonization, as well as how some community members have forgotten their responsibilities and how the teaching of these responsibilities has been disrupted. Responsibility Wolf described a situation in which he regularly sees other community members becoming defensive when they are directed by community leaders to follow a particular path of action. Wolf stated that he feels that people become defensive and feel that they are being criticized and attacked in these situations, but Wolf clarified that the act of directing others is not meant as an attack, but is meant to 109 encourage behaviors, attitudes and thought based on the teachings of the ancestors and that will contribute to community well-being: because the people need to hear, elders, everybody needs to hear. So, you know, and when you start telling people what to do, and [they] think [you’re] giving [them] shit, no, they just don’t understand tradition, and that Natural Law . . . and that’s the problem, they think they’re catching shit, but the reality is they don’t understand the system that was designed by our ancestors. That kept balance. That’s how we survived here! . . . And it wasn’t, till residential school, when they tried to kill us off that we started to lose it a little bit, but we brought it back. . . . It’s coming back slowly, why? Because some of the elders have passed on their knowledge to us younger people so that we can keep it going. And that’s kind of what it’s all about. So, you know, [some of our] people, don’t know how to take it, because they never had discipline. You know? . . . And that’s the thing, hey? Discipline, we lost our, our discipline teachings. (Wolf) Wolf stated that he feels that some community members have forgotten the skills and ‘discipline teachings’ that ancestors developed to help to keep Indigenous peoples alive and to strengthen relationships. Wolf seemed to be saying that he wished that community members could receive the directives (“telling them what to do”) as sharing of lessons and knowledge, rather than as criticism. I understand that ‘discipline teachings’ are the values and or principles that are meant to guide us when we must do things that are challenging, things that do not bring us immediate benefit or might have a cost to us. For instance, in my community, discipline teachings are using one’s own time, money and equipment to hunt for others, to share traditional foods (berries, fish, etc.) with others who may need it without being asked. This teaching applies even if it means that you will have less for your family. Other instances of such teachings may be 110 the attending of funerals when attending requires a lot of travel, or perhaps you didn’t know the family well or you have not seen the family for a long time. These teachings could also include the requirement of staying until the end of the funeral, even if you need to lose pay from work, use vacation days or sacrifice financially. These teachings provide guidance to do what you can, but sometimes to do more than you are able to, even if it comes at a cost to yourself or your family and to do so without expectation of reward or recognition. Some families or community members may not be capable of reciprocating in the future, but you help anyways, because that is discipline teaching. Mindfulness and Responsibility: Accepting People as They Are An important part of responsibility is what Eagle termed mindfulness. I interpreted her use of this term to mean the process of consistently reflecting on how one’s mood and mindset can have negative or positive effects. Specifically, these effects of mood and mindset could have an impact on completing a task successfully, the outcome of the task, as well as on the wellbeing of the individual doing the task and other people helping with the task. Eagle described how the “old ladies” cautioned her about her mindset and the energy when she was gathering roots. Eagle went on to describe how one’s emotional and mental state can affect other activities: Yeah, and to mindfulness, and this is something that I learned ... when I was quite young. You know how, when you’re young you feel your strength, and I was out root digging with all the old ladies. And before we went into the forest, we had to stop and ... mindfully, pay attention to what happened to us that day … you know, we might have gotten into a fight with somebody ... then you leave that out ... It’s so, you don’t take it into your work. And so, one time, I remember I was digging roots and I was just yanking, you know, I was feeling my strength, I was yanking the roots. And some old lady ... just 111 quietly said to me “you know, if you do that then the roots are going to hide . . . and so, I had to think about, about what I was doing. You know, I had to contemplate and think about ... what I was doing, how I was approaching the task and to alter my behaviour, so that they left it up to me ... that’s all they had to say ... And, so then, it really then being conscious and mindful of your state of being ... and so, to everything you do, to all the work you do. And, that’s what they used to say about, if you’re cooking and you’re angry about something. They say that’s what going to go into the food ... that you’re going to be giving to everybody ... So, it’s just that kind of mindfulness, and awareness, self-consciousness of {unclear] your state of being. (Eagle) In the description of the situation in which Eagle received a teaching from “the old ladies” of her community, we can observe their subtle, but powerful intervention. From what I know of Eagle and her family, I believe that Eagle was raised with traditional values of respecting the words of elders or knowledge keepers and was taught the value of slowing her thoughts and emotions down to process and reflect on the matters at hand. I am struck at how similar the mindfulness process that Eagle describes is to the process of moving “from here to there” mentioned in theme two by Sea Lion. Not only has Eagle had knowledge and skills shared with her, but she intentionally accepted the teaching and acted on it. She was able to change her mental and emotional state for the tasks at hand. Furthermore, the teaching was relayed to Eagle in a way that respected her autonomy. Eagle was not told that how she was doing the task was bad but was told what the consequences of completing the task in a particular state of mind could be – if the roots “hide” from a person, they will have a challenge gathering roots in the future. The roots in question may have been for a medicine, food, or construction of items, but the activity was important enough that the “old ladies” felt is necessary to instruct the young Eagle 112 on the best way to do the work. Eagle stated that she believed that community structure also encourages accepting and respecting others as they are: I think that the other thing is that ... people . . . are socialized to ... be accepting of each other “as you are.” You know {pause] it’s ... [pause] accepting people’s nature, ... you know, the way they are ... it isn’t that everyone had to behave in the same way {emphasis}... it’s really accepting people as they are, which is a very different way of being, I think. (Eagle) As a result of my discussion with Eagle, I reflected on another situation that a dear friend of mine told me about. He told me how one time he was preparing to do some work at a family gathering and he was upset about something. He came into the hall and one of his aunties noticed that he seemed to be in a bad mood. She pulled him aside and told him he needed to go and make his mind right so he could do his work in a good way. She told him not to come back until his head was clear. My friend told me that at first, he was a bit ‘taken aback’ by his auntie’s words, but when he went to gather his thoughts, he realized the importance of what his aunty had shared with him. It was important that he be in a good mindset to do the work he was asked to do. The work was taking place in a sacred space, and he would be representing his family. As a result, to ensure the work was successful, he needed to do the work in a good way. This was his responsibility. Wa7 mall skim ta skwezusemswa! - pay attention to your work! Responsibility for Healing Oneself The balance of responsibility and autonomy is also present in the choices one makes for oneself on their healing journey about how one chooses to go from “here to there.” A person is usually permitted to “do their own thing” to a point before others may feel the need to intervene, first subtly then more directly. In 113 some instances, the subtle interventions of others are enough to influence a person’s choices. For instance, adult caregivers can apply more subtle guidance for youth or gentle guidance can have significant impact in the early stages of a mental health issue. But, for more complex mental health issues, such as addiction or trauma induced mental health crises, subtle interventions may not work. Loved ones and community members might then be in a position where they need to make a choice of whether to continue to try to influence a person’s choices gently and ‘force’ a person to make healthier choices. Sometimes respecting a person’s autonomy can be painful for loved ones, if the choices a person is making leads to suffering. I am aware of some cultural interventions in which individuals have choices removed and they are forced to participate in healing rituals (e.g., exile to a deserted space; enforced time in healing ceremonies), but most communities and families will allow individuals to make their own choices. Even so, if a person chooses not to participate in healing ceremonies or they disregard teachings, it seems that in most instances, the ‘door is always open’ for these individuals to return to the family and community. This context is important to consider when one thinks of the tension that can exist between individual choice and community influence. Ultimately, a person must initiate the steps necessary to maintain and/or resume their wellness. Moose shared their story about how they walked and continue to walk their healing path. They described how they gathered medicine from many different places and tried many different approaches. They also described how they had to be mindful, intentional, and “critical” in their choices, always reflecting on their choices and the outcomes and adjusting: I took a little bit of everything from where I could, you know. I used it to improve my life slowly over the years. I still made mistakes, here and there, so I still have to learn about forgiveness and ... acceptance and looking at my mistakes and admitting my wrongs, making amends, and I’m ... being able to move forward without too much regret and 114 shame for those mistakes. And ... use it as a learning opportunity. So part of that, too is I think, the ability to look at ourselves critically. And so, I think that’s one of the ... biggest tools I picked up was being able to look at myself critically and take responsibility for my own actions. And, uhm, to not give up ... there’s a lot of different phases of my life and it depends what part of my life I look at like early on, early, uh, you know, I ... was told to go to treatment, so I went to treatment when I was suggested that I go to counseling, so I went to western counseling; [it] was suggested I join 12 step program, so I joined the 12 step program. It was even suggested I try Christianity. That part only lasted about three months. [laughter)] (Moose) Moose spoke of actively choosing and trying different ways of healing. Acknowledging their mistakes and looking to the areas they know upon which they can improve. As Moose described his healing journey (“moving from here to there”) he described the reflexivity required. Moose also spoke of the flexibility required in the process, picking a different method, trying it, and finding and switching to another way if the method is not working. Moose spoke specifically of trying Christianity, even though this experiment was short-lived. Moose and I laughed about this experiment, as we both come from communities and families that have experienced oppression due to Christianity, whether through the Residential Schools and Indian Day Schools or the destruction of Indigenous beliefs systems and culture in communities. I acknowledge that some Indigenous people have chosen to follow the path of Christianity and they find it helpful, but in my and Moose’s experiences, considering Christianity for healing was humorous. Yet, Moose seemed to be saying the most responsible action to do was to try everything, even if he had doubts about the approach. To me, this demonstrates a reflexive approach to wellness in which Moose takes responsibility for first considering how they were 115 living their life, deciding that it wasn’t healthy and trying different ways to heal. Moose was open to trying many different methods of healing, rather than rejecting a suggestion outright, he tried many different approaches, whether psychotherapeutic or spiritual. If an approach didn’t work, then Moose would leave it and keep trying different approaches. Moose would continually evaluate his healing process and change methods if he did not feel he was progressing as he wanted to. This requires clarity that one is responsible for their healing process. The Climate Crisis and Responsibility Based on what Moose, Wolf and Bison have said I propose that a large part of the climate crisis is due to humans forgetting their responsibilities to maintain a good relationship with the Earth based or forgetting the teachings of their ancestors. Moose noted that this tension is reflected in an imbalance of such priorities: Yeah, well, those are our most, our most basic instinctual . . . aspects of [unclear] is clean water, clean air, clean [unclear] ... abundant animals, that is our most basic part of our humanity; it’s supposed to be, but they have put the economy before all of that. And, uh yeah, that’s a big mistake. (Moose) The climate emergency is an important example (perhaps the most important) of the tension between responsibility and autonomy, not only for Indigenous peoples, but for all of humanity. The wellness of human beings is dependent on the wellness of Mother Earth, we have a responsibility to look after the Earth, but if we choose to focus instead on “progress” that emphasizes financial wealth and economic development, we are focusing on our individualistic and short-term gains over the health of Mother Earth and over the well-being of our grandchildren. 116 Wolf, Bison and Moose all made observations about the impact of climate change on Indigenous peoples. Wolf shared direct experiences of climate change (51 degrees C weather) and how we must adapt or die, to return to our old ways or look at what our ancestors did, to survive the coming changes. In Theme 2, in a quote relating to adaptiveness, Bison shared how her people adapted when a drought changed the plains at a time when the plains were not as dry as they are now, and the people had to adapt to the new climate. All three participants spoke to the benefits of utilizing Indigenous knowledges and skills to maintain a respectful relationship with Mother Earth and to survive climate change. In addition to recognizing that our peoples have survived climate change before, Moose and others shared their observations about human beings currently experiencing an exploitative, and even violent relationship with Mother Earth. They outlined that there will be costs to Mother Earth’s children if we do not return to a good relationship with the Mother Earth. Moose shared that: Partly why [we’re] the whole narrative in the world right now is capitalism the whole [unclear] you know ... I think one of the reasons that we are in the trouble we’re in with, uhm, climate change; all kinds of natural disasters and overexploitation of scarce, limited resources. Capitalism is talking about getting more [excess] as a sign of progress, and there’s no limits. It completely clashes not only with our old laws, but it clashes with the view of Nah-koot-a-win, it clashes with the views of Noo-naht-saw-in. It clashes with that ... connection, uh, I think it’s an ancient connection that probably all cultures had at one time … more advanced and they convinced themselves, they were smarter and more advanced, and they lost that sense of [creativity/connectivity], and they began to see these things as the ways of the past that they no longer apply. That I think it was partly created to justify the means to take more than what’s needed. So I think today trying to live by 117 these concepts, if everyone was doing it and we reconnected with the Earth and reconnected with those spirits ... I think the world would have less problems. (Moose) These comments by Moose link with Wolf’s statement about how Mother Earth is purifying herself now. He spoke about how this is happening because we have forgotten the importance of our relationship with her, we have neglected our relationship with the Mother Earth. People, humans in general, have forgotten how to view Mother Earth Through the Eyes of our Ancestors. If we forgot how to view Mother Earth through the Eyes of our Ancestors, to love, nurture and protect Mother Earth as we do our human mothers, Mother Earth will cast us off. This is perhaps our ultimate responsibility, but it is our choice to make, and each of us can influence others, subtly or directly. Autonomy In addition to the importance of maintaining discipline teachings, there is also the significance of respect for the autonomy of others. Eagle stated that she felt that respecting the autonomy of others was an important part of her people’s way of interacting with others, but consistent and intentional observation that could lead to intervention was also important for maintaining family or community well-being. I raised the concept of “non-interference” by Dr. Clare Brant (1990), a Mohawk psychiatrist, to Eagle. But Eagle was cautious about the idea of non-interference. Brant (1990) termed non-interference as “A high degree of respect for every human being’s independence leads the Native to view instructing, coercing, or attempting to persuade another person as an undesirable behaviour. Accordingly, group goals are arrived at by consensus and achieved by reliance on voluntary cooperation” (p.535). I interpreted from my conversations with i wa7 zewatets that there is a process by which autonomy and responsibility co-exist in many Indigenous cultures, particularly as it relates to wellness: 118 Like, to be really perceptive and observant, of people ... That people are really observant of what’s going on with everybody, but nobody makes a big thing of it ... Yeah, and you have to be careful with that, that idea of non-interference ... but people did interfere ... Observing ... is something that is really fostered ... for people to be aware ... they just really have a sense of awareness, but not, ... [pause] but you don’t make it noticeable ... but it was a very caring way of doing things, and I think that people's wellbeing was really ... important to everybody. (Eagle) Eagle stated that community members are observant and aware of how others are doing, but not in intrusive ways. If community members are aware of how fellow community members are doing, they do not need to be dramatic in their interventions. Though, if they observe the situation becoming more serious, community members will become explicit and more open with their interventions. Thus, this type of low-key approach is preventative, rather than reactive because everyone’s wellbeing is everyone’s concern. Eagle emphasized that observation is critical, but subtle. If community or family leaders have a concern about a person’s well-being of if they are being disruptive, they will not intervene immediately. I wonder if the maintenance of this subtle boundary, this skill of observation-intervention, may have been weakened or lost due to the impacts of colonization. The breakdown of traditional observation-intervention systems led to increased individualism and people becoming defensive when others try to intervene. What has taken the place of traditional observation-intervention systems in some family and community structures is an emphasis on privacy and a pattern of defensive reaction to any intervention, whether subtle or explicit, as Wolf described earlier. This echoes an earlier statement in which Wolf observed that people often become defensive when they are “told what to do.” This type of defensive reaction can limit the 119 sharing of knowledge and skills, reduces the connection between community members (a person who offered advice and was rejected may be less likely to offer such advice in the future) and limits the recipient’s opportunities for future learning. Atleo (2011) wrote about the “Principle of Consent” and I believe this principle related to personal autonomy. Atleo (2011) described the balance between autonomy and responsible community-oriented behaviour that was contained in the Nuh-Chah-Nulth word q ʷ aasasa iš: That’s just his way” or “That’s the way she is!”. These are possible translations of q ʷ aasasa iš – a common phrase used to describe characteristic behaviour within traditional Nuh-Chah-Nulth society … used in this way, q ʷ aasasa iš refers to a democratic form of consent defined by a range of behaviour that is mutually agreeable and reciprocal within a society. At first glance, this notion that each person is allowed to think and do as he or she pleases appears to be an archaic [concept]. But this personal freedom is recognized in Nuu-chah-nulth society as limited by the natural laws of creation, such as the law of generosity or the teaching to be friendly, or the admonition to ask for help when needed … In a governance context, q ʷ aasasa iš can be understood to mean a form of democratic consent that allows, by community agreement, freedom of movement, freedom of speech, freedom of thought, freedom to be unique, freedom to grow, and all those freedoms-of-being that do not violate the freedom of others to be. (p.94, p.97). Eagle shared an interaction she had with a researcher who wondered about “privacy” in Indigenous communities and families. The researcher had asked Eagle how people maintained a sense of privacy in closely knit families and communities. Eagle noted that, 120 but, because of the way we lived ... that wasn’t part of our way of doing things, but [extra emphasis] the private space was in people’s own minds ... inside, like so, people didn’t ever probe ... they let you be who you are.” (Eagle) As Sea Lion observed earlier in Theme 1, there was respect for the inner space of everyone. Although there is always a sense of collective responsibility to one another, this collective responsibility co-exists with respect for the autonomy and inner space of others. My people, the St’at’imc, have a related saying in our language, “Wa7 t̓u7 wa7!” which translates to S/he is doing his/her thing again. Fine let him/her do it! To me, this phrase represents a strong sense of respect for a person’s autonomy, and this is echoed by the Nuu-chah-nulth word, q ʷ aasasa iš. Wa7 t̓u7 wa7! – S/he is doing his/her thing again. Fine, let him/her do it! (St’at’imcets) q ʷ aasasa iš – That’s just his way” or “That’s just the way she is! (Nuh-chah-nulth) Summary Theme 3 Responsibility and autonomy are two constructs with a complex relationship in Indigenous wellness. The participants described how responsibility to others, including community, family, the Earth, and spirits, is integral to well-being. They spoke about how it is key to wellness that a person focuses their energies on meeting these responsibilities and that it is not enough to fulfill the obligations automatically, rather the intent and focus is also important. A person needs to practice mindfulness, being aware of why they are doing these actions, and what is important about them meeting these responsibilities. Each person has a responsibility to Mother Earth. If one does not meet their responsibilities to Mother Earth, there can be grave consequences that will impact individuals, their community and ultimately for all of humanity. The current imbalance between responsibility and autonomy is being demonstrated with the 121 current climate crisis that is impacting us all. A person also has responsibility for their own healing, for their own well-being and to make conscious, self-reflective choices on their journey of wellness. There is also respect for an individual’s autonomy. Autonomy, meaning that a person’s choices are respected and that their freedom to choose is respected. Communities and family members prefer not to coerce an individual into a particular course of action. There may be encouragement and support offered, but a person’s freedom to choose is respected, even if the individual’s actions cause suffering for the individual and those around them. In the final theme, I will share what I interpreted from the Indigenous Knowledge Keepers about the Assumption of Medicine. 122 Theme 4: Assumption of Medicine The theme, Assumption of Medicine, refers to a concept found in many Indigenous cultures, that the spirit world is just as real as the physical world and the wisdom and healing energy of the spirit world is always present and accessible (Atleo, 2004; Bopp et al., 1984/2012; Littlebear, 2000). The existence of the spirit world, the influence of the Creator, ancestors, animals, the land and other spirits, is a given, as much as science is accepted in Euro-Settler based societies and cultures. As Bison stated, this acceptance of the presence of the Spirit World is accepted and curiosity about the spirit world is encouraged, “I think those are kind of universal things, but luckily as Indigenous people. You know, we, we we’re encouraged from birth to be to be curious about those things.” As Sea Lion explained: the way of learning of our ancestors, was ... as you’re probably well aware, was, a spiritual focus, which did not exclude {emphasis} empirical, an empirical focus, but placed an emphasis on the spiritual domain. Now, the hard sciences completely disregard the spiritual focus ... because I was born into this ancient way, which happened to have a spiritual focus. I grew up with a kind of assumption {emphasis added} ... because that, that’s what I was born into. And I just took it for granted; it’s not something you really think about, as you’re growing up, you’re growing into it {emphasis added}. (Sea Lion) It is a common acceptance that spiritual energy plays a role in the world. This spiritual energy does not only refer to religion and ceremony, but in daily actions and events, and is present in the way one relates to Creation, to ancestors, to the land, to animals and plants. The ability to benefit from spiritual medicine depends on the strength of one’s relationship with the Spirit World – the strength of this relationship is determined by the observance of ceremony, 123 mindfulness and rituals of remembrance. If a person maintains this strong medicine relationship, they are more likely to benefit from spiritual medicine. Eagle shared about some of the teachings she received about being a woman on her Moontime 13, that due to the spiritual power that women had when they were in this state, she, as a young woman, had to be mindful of the effects of her medicine state, particularly on the men in her family. To Eagle’s family, to the men around her, it was accepted that the spiritual power of women during their Moontime could have a negative effect on the hunter abilities of men, that a woman’s Moontime energies could affect a man to the point that their ability to hunt was compromised and the men could even be put in danger, as the animals could sense the men’s own spiritual power had been weakened. A pamphlet by Toronto Anishinawbe Health (2000), Moontime: Native teachings are about a way of life, described a woman’s Moontime as “The moon time is considered a time of power, second only to the ability of the Great Spirit to give life. That is how strong that power is.” When I was growing up, I learned, I had to be really careful … around that time [Moontime], because my brothers were hunters ... but it was because during that time ... how do I explain it? {pause}, I had a power ... that really could affect my brothers ... and, my father [the power] could put them in danger out there [hunting] ... because the animals can sense ... when I’m in that state ... So, I had to be really conscious ... of our connection ... to the different planes in our existence, not just here [in the physical world, but also] to the spiritual [world] (Eagle) 13 Moontime is a term used to describe the time of woman’s menstrual cycle. For many Indigenous peoples, this is seen as a time of great spiritual power for women. 124 It wasn’t only the ‘power’ of Moontime that I was drawn to in Eagle’s story, but the ‘acceptedness’ of the sacred nature and power of Moontime. It was accepted and known, that this was a powerful time for a woman, and both women and men needed to be aware when women were on their Moontime. The power of Moontime, was accepted as being real and its power was to be respected by both men and women. I mentioned to Eagle, that it was hard for people to know these topics now, because people don’t seem to talk about them as openly, not even as lessons to be passed on to children. In response, Eagle said “That’s why I say, what you’re doing is really important ... I’m hoping that some of these are, you know, like you’re getting others to talk about ... [these types of topics or this kind of knowledge]” (Eagle). I took this statement to mean that Eagle was glad that I was doing this type of research, that I would be sharing the knowledge that she and other Indigenous Knowledge Keepers shared, so that the knowledge could be passed on. Moose described the spiritual tools they use to sustain themselves. The tools can be specific ceremonies, connecting with nature, an intentional mindset and even entering potentially dangerous situation as a means of focusing their mind: I still have my own ceremonies. I smudge, I still have the pipe when times get hard, I pull it out. But mostly I go for walks in the woods. I’m by the beach, by the ocean, I’ll go make a fire somewhere. I’ll go hunting even, and that’s part of my [unclear], it’s part of my feeling free and reconnecting. It’s part of [unclear] reminding me of who I am when I’m walking alone in the woods. Aside from being aware of what’s around me because you have to be alert. I’m also thinking about the ancestors. I’m thinking about those that we’ve lost from this world, already. Thinking about all of those things and just being out there reconnects me because there’s a little bit of danger, and when [unclear] it puts you 125 in a state of being alert, aware and also you’re alone, there’s no distractions anymore. It lets you focus on those things that we just don’t have a chance to look at when we’re busy working. So those, those are more the tools that I, that I use now. (Moose) Moose mentioned specific ceremonies or rituals such as use of a smudge with sage or use of a pipe, but it seems that connection with nature is one of their most preferred methods of maintaining their well-being. I interpreted what Moose described as ceremonies and rituals are important, and his connection with the land and mindfulness or intentionality were important tools to him for maintaining his well-being. Moose described going into the woods by himself. Being a hunter, Moose knows that being by oneself in the woods is potentially dangerous, if you get hurt or lost, there is no one to help you. Moose stated that the danger factor while alone requires them to be more alert and it helps them to focus and to forget the distractions of day-to-day life. Moose described how this solitude allowed them to reflect on their emotions and thoughts and to engage in prayer: “Prayer, the constant conversations that live in my head, being aware of that and, and trying to change that narrative, that inner narrative, inner dialogue, when I can, so that it’s more positive than what usually exists. [laughter]” (Moose). Moose described this practice as giving them space and time to change any self-talk that they need to change to be maintain their well-being. I interpreted Moose’s laughter as an indication that what they find in their thoughts and emotions may be unpleasant painful, but he acknowledges this and works to but he works to make his mindset more nourishing. To me, this action echoes with “playing with your pain,” concept that Bison shared: the thoughts and emotions we sometimes carry may not be pleasant, but we can transform the energy to be nourishing or vitalizing, and sometimes this is done with laughter or humour. 126 Resurgence: Revitalizing Ceremony and Ways of Being One concern that many people express in Indigenous communities is the loss of Indigenous spiritual knowledge due to the impacts of colonization, due to the pandemics, residential schools, oppression by colonial governments or other disruptions to family and community systems of knowledge transfer. Moose spoke to the loss of this type of knowledge, how spiritual power used to be considered to reside within every community member and how he has worked to learn ceremony and obtained spiritual-ceremonial knowledge both from within and outside of his own community: Everyone ... everyone was considered potentially spiritually gifted, and some had that direct access to the spirit world and those were our healers ... medicine people, shaman[s] for lack of a better term ... Their connection to those powers, to their helpers were .... explicit and people saw it and understood it and accepted it ... those people were either feared or respected or a mixture of both ... they were considered powerful people. And nowadays we have very few, if any, left. Speaking for my community, I know we don’t really have any left. We have people like myself who are just learning and have spent time learning from others, and some of us even have to go outside of our own communities because we lost our ceremonies. And so what we have today that everyone thinks is real traditional, a lot of it’s actually ... [pause] a rediscovery. And ... [it] didn't take much to notice that some of those teachings were also mixed, already mixed in with a little bit of pan-Indianism, a little bit of ... sometimes a little bit of new age [chuckles]. (Moose) Moose speaks of resurgence, in reclaiming or rebuilding spiritual practices in communities and cultures ravaged by colonization. It seems to me that Moose speaks of finding courage to explore different ways of rebuilding Indigenous spiritual knowledge and practices, 127 even if one must go outside of one’s community to obtain spiritual knowledge and practices. There are ways to rebuild, even if it means seeking knowledge and ways from outside the culture or community—what is important is to try to rebuild. From what I know of Indigenous spiritual practices, reflection, meditation and prayer can help one to access “medicine” to obtain spiritual assistance or develop new ceremonies, dances, songs or other cultural practices. There are many stories of Indigenous peoples obtaining spiritual and cultural practices through ceremonies involving prayer, reflection and opening oneself up to “helpers” whether they be plants, animals, ancestors, spirits, the land or the Creator14 and new ceremonies were created, and new spiritual knowledge was obtained. At its core, it could be said that all spiritual knowledge is “outside” of our communities, as spiritual knowledge comes from the spirit world, not the physical world. Even the Knowledge Keepers and cultural specialists who hold ceremonial and spiritual knowledge obtain their knowledge and power from the spirit world – they are conduits or messengers from the spirit world. In Moose’s laughter, as he described the use of “new age” ceremonies or “pan-Indian”15 ceremonies, I see another example of “playing with your pain.” There is acknowledgement of the loss of traditional knowledge, but it does not stop or deter Moose, but the pain is acknowledged, with laughter rather than tears, and there is another echo of Bison’s words of playing with your pain. 14 For additional references on these types of practices refer to “Oosumich” in Atleo (2004)) and Deloria (2006). 15 “Pan-Indian” from my perspective, usually relates to ceremonial-cultural practices that have become widely used by different Indigenous peoples, which on one hand is helpful as people lose access to their traditional teachings but can problematic if it “homogenizes” culture or is seen as evidence of assimilation. See Berkmann, S. (2024) for detailed information on “Pan-Indianism”. 128 Resurgence: How to Get Well and How to be Well I asked Moose “How did you get well; how did you know you were well? What were your emotional or mental processes?” I wished to know more about their process of change. “Process of change”16 is counselling language and is a key part for a counsellor or any psychotherapist or helper to understand how a client knows they are well, and how both counsellor and client understand the process of going from “here to there” (Sea Lion). As a therapist, I believe that this knowledge helps the counsellor to slow down the client’s process so the client can learn to recognize progress, stability and lapses. Moose’s response to my question was: Essentially learning to love myself ... accept myself, love myself, essentially, that’s what a lot of it boils down to. And a lot of us have had, you know, things that have interfered in early childhood, things that interfered with our development. You know, like in my case, I didn’t get a lot of affection or reinforcement, positive reinforcement about my identity, in fact, that there were times in my life I got quite the opposite. So I have to rebuild that by changing the script. (Moose) Moose described the process of learning to love and accept themselves as key parts of their process of healing. Moose referred to the harmful effects of not receiving affection or positive messages about their identity when they were a child and stated how their healing work 16 For more information on change process in therapy, see Bandura (1977, 2006) and Messer and Gurman, 2011). Bandura’s understanding of change is based on cognitive behaviourial psychology and considers self-efficacy. Behaviorally based, Bandura’s work has been influential in psychotherapy. Messer and Gurman (2011) provide a summary of curative factors or mechanisms of change (p.16). 129 as required changing their internal dialogue, or “script” from negative to positive, from negative self-talk to self-compassion and critical thinking, self-awareness and mindfulness. I was surprised that Moose stated that he had not always experienced affection and positive feedback in their childhood or other parts of their life. I find Moose to be a very positive person who always tries to uplift others. I thought that this meant that their childhood was free of the challenges that many Indigenous peoples had experienced. But Moose shared that they experienced some of the same challenges that many Indigenous peoples faced in their childhood, these challenges were the result of colonization. As I reflected on my reaction to Moose’s story, it occurred to me that many people may see Moose and other Indigenous Knowledge Keepers as people who “have it all together” and haven’t had struggles. But perhaps Moose and other i wa7 zewatets could benefit from the ceremony of reciprocity as much as any community member. Perhaps, rather than placing i wa7 zewatets on a pedestal, it is important to see them as fellow community members who play an important role, but keep in mind that they deserve recognition and thanksgiving. Wolf said that recognition and thanksgiving are key behaviours that help Indigenous communities to maintain wellness, to encourage and support people looking after one another. Medicine is everywhere, that is one of the assumptions of Medicine. Then we, as fellow community members, could be medicine for Moose in the same way that Moose and i wa7 zewatets are medicine for us – thus reciprocity is ceremony. As Orca said, people can be medicine for each other (“you are medicine for me”.) Resurgence: “It’s never too late” Bison shared their experiences of connecting with the land in their home community and it seemed that when she told her children of the medicine of this connection, they expressed that they felt they could not do the same level of connection since they were not raised on the land in 130 their home community. Bison shared how there is work that needs to be done to “get in sync” with the energy of the land you are on, whether it is your traditional territory or not. Bison acknowledged the unique energetic “hum” of one’s homeland but stated that it is possible to tune into that energy wherever one is. Bison shared how she and her husband strengthened their relationship with the land that they now live on, even though the land is not on either of their traditional territories. Due the pandemic, they spent more time on the land and strengthened their relationship with the land: Things about the kind of the rhythm or the, I don’t know how to talk about it, how everything resonates around you full of spirit. You kinda have to figure that out and try and get in sync with it ... like you said, you’re away from your origin, community of origin, but I think it makes it ... so exciting and so much more, just so much vitality to relationship with a new place you’re at because you know what you’re looking for like, you know that, “Hey, there’s certain, where I come from has a certain, you know, it hums in a certain way, it has certain energy ... because of the spirits, and so I have to try and kind of tune in to that wherever I am. (Bison) As Bison described the lovely and meaningful relationship that she and her partner made with the land that they live on, I offered the statement that “it’s never too late.” When I shared this statement with Bison, I was thinking that clearly, it is never too late to establish a meaningful relationship with the Mother Earth, even if you are not on the ancestral homeland of your own people, you are still on the Mother Earth. I believe this statement echoes with Moose’s statements about revitalizing spiritual practices and ceremony, even if it seems the knowledge has been “lost” or one is far away from home, it is always possible to rebuild this knowledge and practices. 131 Resurgence: Welcoming Home our 2SLGBTQ+ Relatives Moose spoke of the impacts of colonization on the Indigenous way of life, of how we view ourselves as Indigenous people, of how we practice spirituality and of how attitudes and beliefs have become hostile towards Indigenous people who identity as 2SLGBTQ+.17 And some of that need to isolate and hide the identity comes from maybe fear of what the community thinks, so if there are some communities that are homophobic … that’s a bad thing [emphasis] … There are parents who shun their kids over being gay; that’s a bad thing ... and not a part of who we are as Native people. I don’t think that existed traditionally at all. That would not have existed. That’s something we picked up from some churches or somewhere else. (Moose) Moose stated that he believes that rejection of people for being 2SLGBTQ+, is not an Indigenous value, and furthermore, this rejection was not a practice in Indigenous communities prior to colonization. He believes that these attitudes and behaviors are the result of colonization and that they were adopted by some communities because of messaging from Christian churches. I believe that a positive attitude, or acceptance of 2SLGBTQ+ is indicative of the flexibility within Indigenous cultural values. Indigenous cultural beliefs of gender roles and identities were not rigid, there were responsibilities associated with various genders and identities, but a person’s autonomy was respected. A return to a more accepting stance towards 2SLGBTQ+ would require flexibility on the part of communities and families. It takes flexibility to be willing to expand on colonial ideas of gender and sexual orientation, particularly after adopting non- 17 2SLGBTQ+ stands for 2 Spirited, Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transsexual and Queer + Others who sexual orientation or gender identity does not fall within the binary of male-female or heterosexual. 132 accepting views associated with Christianity. Moose stated that over his lifetime he has become supportive of 2SLGBTQ+ people in his community, particularly since he is father to a transgender daughter who was assigned male at birth and now lives their life as a woman. Moose shared that he has observed the challenges that his daughter has gone through during her transition and spoke about living with concerns for his daughter’s safety. Moose stated that based on his experiences as a father and his wellness beliefs, he is a supporter of 2SLGBTQ+ persons. Moose shared how his experiences as a father of a 2SLGBTQ+ daughter has highlighted the importance of acceptance, respect and love in Indigenous communities and families. Moose described how in one case, there was a person in their community who seemed to be what is now considered transgender or gender-fluid, and this person was accepted, respected and perhaps even feared due to medicine powers they were thought to possess: I have become a supporter and ally of those who identify as other ... so I think traditionally they were not shunned ... when I was a boy, there was a man who saw himself as a woman [he] dressed like [a woman] ... there was not really a word for it [being transgender] in my language that I knew of. But that person was still very respected. That person actually might have been even feared by some because it was believed she had spiritual powers ... and, so ... I just remember people just treating her as normal, [chuckles] ... She had two names, some would call her Max, her given name. When she was drinking, she called herself, Maxine ... And she always had her hair done up in hair spray. She was seen as kind of a medicine person, so ... sometimes people would make comments teasing [her] behind the scenes, but they didn't do that out in front of her. [laughter] ... The elders, you know, they ... just treated her as normal, they visited her, they’d have tea with her, she was a part of the community. She wasn’t shunned. 133 In Moose’s story, Maxine, is accepted and respected for who she is for the most part. Bison also shared a story about the acceptance of 2SLGBTQ+ in her community. Bison told me how there was an elected chief in her community who served as chief for many years until he passed away from cancer. Bison shared that the community repeatedly voted for him: In those, in those days. Yeah, so I know your questions were about they were kind of binary, one about female and went to a male, but ... so I guess when I think of health because of my language not being binary? [chuckles] ... A bit more as being on a spectrum ... rather than assigning certain behaviors to males and females as much. So. I don’t know if that's backward thinking, but anyway, that's how I think of it, because the language. Like, even, uhm, in our community, you know, we had two spirited people, I remember. Our chief served. I forget how many terms, four or more until he became sick. He, I think he passed away because of cancer, but we probably just kept, you know, voting him in, voting him in. (Bison) Although neither Bison or Moose’s stories speak to the topic of assessing the wellness of 2SLGBTQ+ Indigenous community members, I feel the stories are significant in demonstrating the importance of adaptiveness for the wellness of a community. That a community cannot be truly well if some members are excluded because they are 2SLBTQ+. I interpreted Bison and Moose’s stories as demonstrations of inclusiveness and respect for 2SLGBTQ+ community members. Resurgence and Sobriety The disorder (or symptom of Colonial Trauma), commonly known as alcoholism is now called “Alcohol Use Disorder” in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders or DSM-5 (American Psychological Association, 2013). For the purposes of this dissertation, I will 134 continue to use the term “alcoholism”. Alcoholism has been a significant health problem for Indigenous people for decades. To reduce or stop the destructive patterns of alcoholism, many Indigenous peoples undertook a path of abstinence. For many people, stopping the consumption of alcohol is seen as a critical part of wellness. Moose stated that they agree that stopping the consumption of alcohol was important for their personal wellness journey, but they felt there was more to their wellness journey after stopping the drinking of alcohol. A lot of friends suggested things along the way and sobriety was a good thing, but I ... but ... it wasn’t everything for me. What it did was cleared up my head and slowly opened the door back to tradition and back into our own ceremonies. (Moose) For Moose, stopping the consumption of alcohol created the external and internal conditions that made it easier for them to return to their traditional practices, thoughts and to access Indigenous healing practices. For them, sobriety is part of the journey to wellness, but one cannot stop at sobriety, there is still work to do on oneself. In this way, pursuing sobriety or stopping the abuse of drugs or alcohol can facilitate the reconnection with one’s culture, but is it just a step on the journey to wellness. I interpret this statement to mean that stopping the consumption of alcohol is a wellness behaviour, but there is more to wellness than being “sober.” A person must continue to work on themselves, to make space and time for their own healing work, of mind, body, heart and spirit and contributing to community or family. Summary Theme 4 The Assumption of Medicine is a multi-faceted theme, Indigenous Knowledge Keepers shared that Medicine is everywhere, medicine is within each of us, both for healing ourselves and being medicine for others. Medicine is outside of us, on the land, in other people, in the Creator, our ancestors and spirits. As I processed the data and knowledge that the Indigenous Knowledge Keepers shared, the interconnections 135 between their words kept resurfacing – each participant’s words and their medicine echoed and resonated. The Assumption of Medicine has two components, that for Indigenous peoples, the Spirit World is just as real as the Physical World and that Medicine is everywhere. In the next paragraph I will use the words of participant to summarize this chapter. Chapter Summary Moose provided a comprehensive description of wellness that I believe provides a perfect summary of the four themes in this chapter: 1) Belonging; 2) Wellness is Fluid, Dynamic and Reciprocal; 3) Responsibility and Autonomy and 4) The Assumption of Medicine. If I’m doing the best that I can if, I’m, if I am able to [unclear] move forward, I’m able to live a life of balance with a little bit of everything with some law, you know, taking care of my body, taking care of my mind, taking care of my spirit, being of service, trying to be helpful to others where I can, and I’m doing my best to be a good provider. That’s all part of “mew-maht-saw-in” ... Yeah! It’s about your interconnection. [There are] ... a lot of threads connecting it to ... [Wa-Koot-too -win] and in Cree, it means “our relatedness.” It means our relatedness, so it’s recognizing our interconnectedness to everything around us, including all life forms, including plants, animals, spirit world. It’s recognizing that interconnectedness and how we can’t, we’re not designed to be on our own, we’re not designed to be. We’re connected to everything, even when people aren’t around us, we’re still interconnected to the world, around us. And so I think recognizing that as a part of also, [Mew-maht-saw-in]? … So it’s ... a pretty important concept. We don’t have a direct word for reciprocity like other cultures do, but this, this word [Wa-koot-ta-win], that is pretty much the same. It’s ... recognizing the beings and spirits that are around us and probably also recognizing that we’re not like sitting at the top of the 136 pyramid, we’re more part of a circle. So that would be our closest word to reciprocity, reciprocity’s kind of built in. (Moose) In this statement, Moose described many of the critical elements of wellness that were covered in Themes 1 to Theme 4. Moose spoke of an individual’s behaviours and choices; how they contributed to the well-being of others; how they looked after themselves and followed Natural Law. Moose spoke about the importance of connection, connection to others, that even when a person is alone, they are still connected and being connected, feeling a sense of belonging is vital for humans. Moose described how reciprocity is ‘built-in’, there is not a word for reciprocity in Cree, but it is foundational, this describes the concept of Reciprocity as Ceremony. Moose described the importance of connection to land, to spirits, to the daily rituals and ceremonies that maintain not only our wellness as human beings, but the wellness of the world. Moose also described the importance of relationship to the Mother Earth, that is it is critical that we, as human beings, are a part of the circle of creation, we are not dominant. This concludes my interpretations of the findings provided by the i wa7 zewatets. 137 CHAPTER 5: Discussion – New Currents in the River I have come to view the processing of the data that the i wa7 zewatets and I co-created as a reflection of the action of water in rivers and lakes. Rivers ebb and flow, lakes rise and fall, and the action of the water causes new currents. In my life as a Tsalalhmec and an Ucwalimicw, I have witnessed the effects of water on the landscape, on the people and on the animals. Water can change the land. Currents can affect the way that humans and animals interact with the water. I feel that co-created knowledge can have the same effect, newly created knowledge can act as new currents to change the academic, clinical and community landscapes. These new currents are what is typically shared in a “Discussion Chapter,” for me, the discussion chapter contains the elements or newly built concepts that stood out for me in this research. This is how I view these domains, as new ‘currents.’ From this point on, I will be referring to “currents” rather than “domains.” In the previous chapter, I shared quotes from the i wa7 zewatets, my impressions of their words and my personal experiences. In this chapter I will discuss the seven new currents that flowed from the themes (see Table 5.1 on p.136). It is these new currents that I wish to leave with you, the readers, for your future consideration, through your lens, I share my thoughts on the data, and you will draw your own conclusions. As Shawn Wilson (2008) stated: I cannot possibly know all of the relationships that have brought other people to their present state, to their point of view. Without knowledge of their point of view, I cannot judge another or the conclusions they make or attempt to make conclusions for them. This is not possible since conclusions are also relational (or relative) … So as a writer, speaker or storyteller, I have a set of obligations to fulfill in my discourse. . . . My role, based on the guidelines of relationality and relational accountability, is to share 138 information or to make connections with ideas . . . My main obligation is to make as many connections or relationship available as possible and to respect the reader’s ability to take in what they are ready to receive or what their current relationship allow. (p.133) In discussion with my supervisor and through my own research process, I realized that I did not want to neatly compartmentalize my dissertation. The process I followed was not linear, and the conversations that I had with i wa7 zewatets were not linear, so why would I write my dissertation in a linear format? As other Indigenous PhD scholars have articulated, a PhD dissertation is a ceremony (Fellner 2016; Kovach, 2008; Wilson, 2004) and ceremonies take the time that they need and the form that they need to. As I neared the end of my data processing, I reviewed the expected structures for a dissertation to help me to make decisions about how I would organize my dissertation. I did not feel comfortable writing in the ways prescribed by different institutions, but I looked to the graduate writing of Indigenous scholars such as Kovach (2008), Wilson (2004), Fellner (2016) and Marsden (2005). I realized each had structured their dissertation in a unique way. What is more, none of these Indigenous scholars wrote their dissertations in a highly prescribed and compartmentalized way. It was through observing their process that freed me to write this chapter the way that worked for me. As (“Maggie”) Kovach wrote, “I yam what I yam” (2008, p.182). Kovach was explaining why she conducted and wrote about her findings in what could be considered a mainstream research way (conducting thematic analysis), but a primary goal of her dissertation was to learn about Nehiyaw (Cree) methodologies. Kovach explained that she learned from Knowledge Keepers, and she did her own internal research (ceremony, reflection, prayer) process. Kovach explained that although she learned about Nehiyaw ways, she also had 139 Table 5.1 – New Currents and their Place Names Current Subtheme/Points The First Current – Tsalalh (the Lake) Wellness and Climate • Reciprocal relationship between humans and Mother Earth needs to be repaired • Mother Earth is purifying herself • The Climate Crisis is a great challenge, for humanity • We need to do what we can, like the little hummingbird The Second Current - Sk’mkin (Top End): Playing with your Pain • Humour is a good antidote for anxiety • Laughter in hard times is good loosening up pain, sadness, grief and making room for other emotions • Laughing and sharing together makes hard times easier The Third Current – Scet – (Drop-off): Ullusilc – The Power of Gathering • Ullusilc is a St’at’imcet word which translates approximately to a gathering that is not a meeting • Gathering is medicine, people can be medicine for each other • Welcoming home our LGBTQ2S+ relatives The Fourth Current – Kwlsvlqen (Where the mountain goat people live) and Inasket (translation unknown): Reciprocity is Ceremony • Daily or ceremonial acts of reciprocity are key for community health and individual health • Reciprocity through ceremony with the Earth and other non-human beings • The power of recognition-thanksgiving to strengthen relationships The Fifth Current - Satatqwa7a (Fraser River): Q’waxt (To Notice, To Observe) • Observation of others is key for monitoring the well-being of all community members • If it seems a person is struggling or isolating themselves there will be respectful and subtle interventions • People watch out for each other; everyone’s well-being was everyone’s responsibility The Sixth Current - Tsek (healing hot springs): Healing is Ceremony • Healing is a ceremony, whether one is participating in ceremony, pursuing sobriety or in counselling for depression, anxiety, etc. • Pursuing healing being seen as a ceremony honors the person doing so instead of stigmatizing them The Seventh Current - Hi7ulmecw (south end of Tsalalh – place of spirits) : The Assumption of Medicine • Medicine is everywhere • The spirit world is as real as the physical world • Healing, or medicine can come from the spirit world as much as from a doctor or hospital • Medicine can be ceremonial or an everyday activity 140 to stay true to herself, her origins as a curriculum developer and as an instructor, to share her findings in a way that is accessible to many, and she had also made this commitment in her research proposal and her ethics proposal. How I have Changed During this Research Journey Shawn Wilson (2008) said that one of his participants told him, that if “research doesn’t change you as a person, then you haven’t done it right” (p.135). I was changed by my research experience. I felt blessed by being able to spend more time with the i wa7 zewatets and as I processed the data and the themes of wellness emerged, I began to apply the themes to my clinical work with clients. As I processed the data and wove the themes, I began to gain a better understanding of the challenges that Indigenous clients faced and had the realizations about some of the patterns I saw in my family and in my community when I was a child, youth and young adult. In my academic journey, I have had to constantly navigate two consistent barriers. In addition to my non-linear Indigenous way of being, I also navigate the world through the neurodivergent lens of ADHD. As an Ucwalimicw, I have been told my whole life that an Indigenous way of being, of viewing the world, of processing information and putting the gained knowledge into the world was either wrong or not sophisticated enough according to mainstream/Eurosettler standards. As a person with ADHD, I have fought my whole life to resist and control my brain’s natural tendencies to think laterally, to follow new ideas, and to organize and present information in a nonlinear way. I learned a lesson about Indigenous epistemology, axiology, and methodology in the way each participant responded to my questions. They often were circular in their thinking, coming back to points, sharing stories and sharing personal experiences and insights. I have learned much about myself during this research journey, as I 141 struggled with doubt and fear of not completing this PhD, I learned I have more ability to overcome and push through barriers. As I pushed through this research process, I had to learn to accept that I was worthy of the support of others and that if I stumbled, it did not mean that I was a bad person. I learned to confront the feelings of “shame” described by Simpson (2011) and say to myself that “I am not a shameful person” and to believe it. To grant myself the grace that I give to clients and to loved ones around me. Shawn Wilson (2008) said that he “internalized” his findings and that his conclusions changed him personally. Margaret Kovach (2021) described the decisions she made to move to her ancestral homeland during her doctorate and the reconnection with the sacred, with family and with her culture. Kovach said that the beauty of Indigenous research methodologies is that they allow us and even require us to tell our story in the research and to share the experiences with others. Jo-ann Archibald (2008) shared how she learned “how to listen in order to find out what they said”, when she was hearing the stories of the elders. Jo-ann said that she realized that when she was first hearing the stories of the elders, she did not know how to listen, and after her research journey, she knows how to listen. I share these stories of the change process of other Indigenous researchers as a way of helping me to gather my thoughts. One of my gifts, is the ability to listen to many people speak and then to either summarize the words of many people or to build on the words, stories and energies of others. As I wrote of the changes experienced by Shawn, Maggie and Jo-ann, I am able to consider my change process a bit more. In addition to gaining faith in myself, I also remember a time during my doctorate when I was driving home for a family gathering. I was in a very challenging place as I was afraid, I was going to have to leave the program. I stopped in a mountain valley on the way into our village to think and to ask for guidance. I did not expect that I would receive any clear messages or signs, as I usually do not receive clear messages and signs from my guides, I 142 believe in them and I know I receive messages and support from the spirit worlds, but I usually must rely on intuition or subtle messages for direction. In this case, I was considering my future and I looked up. There was a beautiful eagle flying over me, and the eagle flew back and forth over me, dozens of times until I said that I received the message, and I thanked the eagle and the ancestors for the clear message. I realized that I have the support of many people in the physical world and in the spirit world, and that I am worthy of such support. That my gifts and skills can make a difference. As I write this chapter and reflect on their process, I realized I also can write in a way that aligns with my own process as an Indigenous researcher. Flowing from the words of the i wa7 zewatets, the seven currents I will describe are: 1) Wellness and Climate Change, 2) Playing with Your Pain; 3) Ullusilc – the Medicine of Gathering; 4) Reciprocity is Ceremony; 5) Q’waxt - to Notice - to Observe; 6) Healing is Ceremony, and 7) the Assumption of Medicine. I will share what stood out to me about these seven currents and I will use the words of the i wa7 zewatets and the work of Indigenous scholars to illustrate these currents. I am also going to use the names of rivers, lakes, or places relating to locations in St’at’imc territory. The place names do not necessarily relate to the nature of the “current,” but the place names are significant to me, and it felt appropriate to attach a place name to each current. At the beginning of each section, I will share some information on the place name and why the place is important to me. At the end of each section, I will provide implications or recommendations for counselling practice or research. I offer these recommendations with humility, and I recognize that readers will take what they want or need to, or they will not. You will find a figure showing the approximate location of these places on Figure 5.1 on p.141. 143 The First Current – Tsalalh: Wellness and Climate Place name: Tsalalh – Tsalalh, means lake in St’at’imcets, the language of my people. Tsalalh is the root word of the name of our people/community – Tsalalhmec – which translates in English to “People of the Lake.” The lake has carried and supported our people for thousands of years. Before the hydroelectric projects disrupted the salmon run, the salmon from Tsalalh also nourished our people. Many of the i wa7 zewatets spoke about the relationship between a person’s wellness and the wellness of Mother Earth. This relationship between people and Mother Earth has multiple processes and is reciprocal. Many Indigenous peoples speak of the connection to the land or to Mother Earth and the responsibilities this relationship entails. As Moose shared: We’re connected to everything, even when people aren’t around us, we’re still interconnected to the world, around us . . . We’re connected to everything, even when people aren’t around us, we’re still interconnected to the world, around us. And so I think recognizing that as a part of also, [Mew-maht-saw-in] … And I think that’s one of the challenges of humanity is to get back in touch with [Mother Earth] and losing touch with that connection to the Earth, that intimate, intimate connection with the Earth is partly what is screwing up the world. (Moose) The responsibility of looking after the land entails respecting the land, acknowledging the land, appreciating the land and not exploiting the land. For many Indigenous peoples, the land, or the Earth, is our most important relatives, the Earth is our Mother – we are supposed to treat our 144 Figure 5.1 – New Currents in St’at’imc Territory Table 5.2 Key for Figure 5.1 1 – Tsalalh – Wellness and Climate 5 – Satatqwa7 – Q’waxt – to notice, to observe 2 – Sk’mkin Playing with your pain 6 – Tsek – Healing is Ceremony 3 – Scet - Ullusilc – Power of Gathering Current 7 – Hi7ulmecw – the Assumption of Medicine 4 – Kwlsvlqen/Inasket – Reciprocity is Ceremony Dark blue – St’at’imc territory border 5 145 Mother with love and respect. Many Indigenous people believe that the land gives back to humans, not only in the form of food, warmth, comfort, water, but also in a form of energy or medicine that is good for a person’s body, spirit, mind and heart. The nature of the relationship is such that many Indigenous peoples have ceremonies that specifically express appreciation and respect for the land, plants and animals. For instance, my own people, the St’at’imc, hold a ‘first fish ceremony’ during fishing season. The first fish caught is released back to Satatqwa7, also known as the Fraser River, to show our respect to the salmon, to show our respect and love for them and our appreciation for their sacrifice of giving their bodies to us so that we can live. I have heard it said that if we do not show our appreciation for the salmon, the salmon will not return. I have heard that other tribes have specific ceremonies that they need to do for the land every year, at specific times and in specific places. Many Indigenous peoples make offerings to the land when they gather berries or medicine. Indigenous peoples do use the resources of the land, but many Indigenous people believe that this must be done in a respectful and reciprocal way, and that there needs to be an offering made. Albert Marshall and Murdena Marshall (2018) addressed this relationship: Where do understandings that nourish our traditional teachings, our traditional knowledges, come from? Mother Earth provides for us, shelters us, feeds us, nourishes us. So, we then must look to her good example for guidance. Our actions toward her must be actions of gratitude. We, too, must be humble, and provide for other living things. We must provide shelter for the vulnerable, medicine for the sick, and nourishment for the hungry. We must always look to Mother Nature to inform us how to live. We do not inform her. (pp.47-48) 146 If ceremonies are not conducted or the respect for Mother Earth is forgotten, there can be consequences – the fish may not return, and the people go hungry. Consequences can also happen on a larger scale, such as the current climate crisis. The Canadian Climate Institute (2023) provides some context about how critical this issue is for humans: • Four times more Canadian forests burned due to wildfires in 2023. • Earth’s average temperature has increased by 1.4 degrees Celsius since the preindustrial era. 1.5 degrees is the point of no return marker. • A CBC news article reported that most of Western Canada’s glaciers will disappear in the next 80 years, leading to less fresh water and increased vulnerability to drought • New temperature records seem to be set every spring and summer for high temperatures in BC. In June 2021, a heat dome settled over BC and many temperature records were broken. The hottest temperature ever recorded in Canada occurred in Lytton, BC at 49.6 C. This was 1000-year event, and its probability was increased due to climate change according to the Royal Meteorological Society. During the writing of this chapter (Summer, 2024), there was a significant forest fire that burned from a third to one-half of the buildings in Jasper, Alberta. British Columbia, the province where I live, was experiencing another significant forest fire season with the number of fires ranging from 325 to 400 fires. Many of the participants in my study spoke of the price that all humans will pay if we, as a species, do not resume a relationship built on respect and reciprocity with the Mother Earth. Wolf stated that Mother Earth will “purify herself,” she will “burn her hair” and we humans will have to survive as best we can. The “purification” and “burning of hair” I believe refers to heat domes and forest fires. During the heat dome of 2021, the area that Wolf lived in had temperatures of 51 degrees Celsius. Though Wolf’s people are 147 already use to a semi-arid climate and forest fires, they will also need to adapt to new extremes in weather and remember the skills and teachings of the ancestors. Wolf shared that to help his grandson to adapt to the heat he was bringing his grandson into the sweatlodge. The well-being of all humans is at risk. All peoples, both Indigenous and settler, must resume a respectful relationship with Mother Earth if we are to survive. I chose to start with this current, because I believe it is one of the most important sections of this dissertation; however, I found it challenging to consider what suggestions I could make for counselling practice or research to address the climate crisis or to help clients struggling with climate anxiety, which has also been called “ecoanxiety18”? The situation is so big, how could one address or help a client to address the climate crisis in a 50-minute session? I have heard of “climate anxiety”, but I have observed that many Indigenous peoples, particularly those that live on and defend their homelands, have known of the danger to Mother Earth for decades, so they are aware that there is danger to the Mother Earth and ultimately all humans. Many Indigenous peoples are doing their best to protect the land and to maintain a reciprocal, loving relationship with the Mother Earth. This is based on my professional observations as a counsellor, conversations, and experiences in my lifetime as an Indigenous person. 18 “Watching the slow and seemingly irrevocable impacts of climate change unfold, and worrying about the future for oneself, children, and later generations, may be an additional source of stress (Searle & Gow, 2010). Albrecht (2011) and others have termed this anxiety ecoanxiety.” (Clayton et al., 2017, p.27) 148 Recommendations for the First Current – Tsalalh (Wellness and Climate) Therapists and researchers • To recognize and “prescribe” the healing power of being in nature – going for hikes, walks outside, walks in the woods are healing. Encourage clients to connect or reconnect with nature. • To remember to connect with the outside world. • If clients are feeling overwhelmed with how to help Mother Earth – tell them the story of the Little Hummingbird – In which a little hummingbird fights a raging forest fire, one beakful of water at a time. When asked by the other animals what difference he thinks he can make, he says “I’m doing what I can.” (Yahgulanaas, 2010) • To recommit to helping Mother Earth, by whatever means you can – recycle soft plastic, commute by bike or bus; buy a hybrid or EV vehicle; donate to environmental causes; hold your political leaders accountable (write an email or letter); eat a vegetarian meal once/week; fly less – “Do what you can.”19 • To connect with the land that you live and work on, even if it is not your “homeland,” as Bison said, “it is never too late” to create a meaningful relationship with the land. • Counsellors, psychologists and other helping professions should be prepared to help clients, families, and communities to recover from the trauma, pain and loss caused by different 19 For information on more ways to help the environment see https://news.stanford.edu/stories/2024/01/eight-simple-meaningful-eco-friendly-actions-can-incorporate-life and https://www.huffpost.com/entry/how-to-help-the-environment_l_5e1f9811c5b674e44b92119a 149 climate disasters, from atmospheric streams, landslides, forest fires, and heat domes. Helpers can stay up to date on how to help people through these times. The Second Current - Sk’mkin (Top End): Playing with your Pain Place name: Sk’mkin or “Top End” is the place name for the eastern end of Tsalalh (Seton Lake). My family (in my paternal grandparent’s time – in the late 1800’s and early 1900’s) and other Tsalalhmec families used to camp here to dry fish. Tsalalh is 21.9 kilometers long. Our village is at the western end of Tsalalh (Seton Lake) about 16 km away. Bison stated that a person can get through hard times, not only by thinking positively or ignoring pain, but also by using humour as a way of “playing with your pain.” Bison referred to humour as healing and described ways in which people can “play with their pain” to help to reduce suffering and create feelings of joy and vitality during difficult times: Humor, oh, that’s good for health! I mean, there’s so much can be done with humour. Well, for one thing, you can play with your pain . . . we did have humour to help us get through that. Or if … we’re in conflict with people or that humour helps so much . . . just think about laughing … you laugh and you just have a really good belly laugh. You just loosen everything up and you make room for other emotions . . . You know, you just make space for other things to come in, good things, you know. I think that our ancestors [knew the power of laughter] or even [when] I grew up, oh, humour was really healing … (Bison) When a person laughs, when they “play with their pain,” it makes room for emotions other than pain, fear and/or grief. “Playing with your pain” is a wellness response rather than avoidance or denial. A person may be feeling pain, fear, or grief for legitimate reasons, but playing with their pain can turn them back towards wellness. 150 I listened to a podcast called Metawewin. According to google, Metawewin is a Cree word that translates to “game” or “sport”. The focus of the podcast is “sports, games, fitness, health and wellness and the relationship Indigenous peoples have with sport through ceremony.” (Buffalo, 2024). The podcast is produced by a Cree man, Elijah Buffalo who has an interest in sports, health and wellness. In this episode, Elijah interviews his father, Melvin Harrison Buffalo, a residential school survivor, activist, and accomplished athlete in his childhood and youth. The interview took place a few months before Melvin passed away and it took some time before Elijah was able to listen to the interview and create the podcast. I listened to the podcast and was struck by how Melvin played with his pain; Melvin shared some hard stories, but often with aspects of humour. At the beginning of the interview, Melvin shares his English name and his Cree name. Melvin said his Cree name is Kiseyiniw, which translates to Old Man. Melvin said he was given the name when he was very young by the elders, since he was “knee high to a duck”. I share this part of the story to illustrate how humour seemed to be a standard part of Melvin’s approach to life. This came through in the stories he shared about growing up when racism against Indigenous peoples was explicit, of experiencing residential school, experiencing moments, events and discipline that would be thought to harsh for children in contemporary times. I will share two examples from Melvin’s interview, one is an indirect example, not in Melvin’s words, but in Elijah’s words, the podcaster. In the introduction to the podcast, Elijah describes the context to the interview and acknowledges his father’s passing and his grief. Elijah then provides an explanation about one part of the interview in which he laughed at one of his father’s story’s that was about a terrible situation, but Elijah described how he thought his father’s use of humour was a tool of survival: 151 ... in this conversation, he [Melvin] shares a specific story about burying bodies and the way that he tells it has a bit of humor to it. And I sort of laugh. And in reflecting on this, I felt pretty bad, but I didn't mean any disrespect by it. And in reflection, I think that the way in which he tells it, and he introduces sort of this humorous aspect of something so terrible that it shows the humanity in the experiences that they went through, and in which humor probably helped them survive. (Buffalo, 2024) To provide some context, the residential school Melvin was at had a graveyard and was tasked with burying bodies from around the area. In the story, the deceased person was not a fellow student but a person from one of the surrounding communities and it is not clear if the person was Indigenous or non-Indigenous. The story involved a situation which I have heard a similar story from one of my older brothers about some of the challenges involved with burying people, for more details I encourage people to listen to the podcast20. I do not feel the story is disrespectful and I do not feel Elijah was disrespectful for laughing, but this was a way that Melvin could make a disturbing situation more tolerable. Melvin also shared a story about how he and other boys used shoelaces to keep their hands raised when they were sleeping at an “Indian hospital”, a hospital specifically for First Nations people. Melvin shared that he and other boys who were in the hospital for treatment from tuberculosis were told by nuns (who were the nurses) that if they didn’t keep a hand raised while they slept, the “Angel of Death” would take them, and they would die. Melvin shared how scared he and the other boys were until they 20 For the specific podcast go to: https://podcasts.apple.com/ca/podcast/metawewin/id1601438529?i=1000671386095&r=351 152 thought of the shoelaces. (Buffalo, E., 2024). I would say the use of humor and stories constitutes “survivance” (Vizenor, 2008) as Melvin refuses to engage in “victimry” (Vizenor, 2008, p.1) and uses story and humour to demonstrate resistance, vitality and growth to his son. Humour is used as an important teaching tool in many Indigenous knowledge systems to pass on knowledge. Many traditional stories of tricksters like Coyote and Raven (Atleo, 2004; Cajete, 2000; Mehl-Madrona, 1997, 2003) contain elements of humour to help people to learn important values and principles of living a good life. Atleo (2004) described one such story about Raven that illustrates this approach to humour: In other stories, Son of Raven likes to take the easy way through life, which always creates unanticipated problems. In one story previously alluded to, instead of devising an appropriate strategy of his own, Son of Raven decides to copy Eagle’s fishing style. Eagle dives from a great height and swoops swiftly down upon an unsuspecting salmon. One requirement for this strategy, among others, is keen eyesight. All Nuu-chah-nulth people know that Son of Raven has very poor eyesight; as a consequence, he mistakes a dark reef in the water for a salmon, knocking himself unconscious, and floats away unceremoniously with his legs up in the air. (p.19). This lesson that Atleo shares is a foundational story about Son of Raven. It teaches that a person must develop their own methods for themselves, rather than being lazy (as Raven often is) and doing exactly what others are doing. This story is foundational for Nuh-Chah-Nuulth culture, and it contains elements of humour and pain. Listeners laugh at Raven’s folly and Raven suffers because of their misjudgements, but the lesson is more likely to be remembered as a result. The storyteller and listeners are playing with Raven’s pain. 153 Atleo (2004) also shared the story of Son of Raven obtaining daylight for the Nuu-chah-nulth people. This is another foundational story and Son of Raven eventually succeeds, but things do not go exactly as he had hoped: In this desire for light, there is also evident a natural desire to do great deeds. The desire for heroic exploits is a natural condition of human existence. Heroic exploits can be public and widely acclaimed or virtually shrouded in secrecy … However, Son of Raven also failed more times than he succeeded, and this is another teaching about the human condition … Whenever Son of Raven transforms himself, and blunders under the influence of an overly inflated ego, it is often to the merriment of story listeners. He becomes, quite comically, a giant king salmon rather than the smaller sockeye salmon and creates a bizarre image that is so obvious to the other community that the strategy fails. At the same time, it is useful to remember that although Son of Raven’s blunders create a comic effect, these are acts of real power. Son of Raven has never gone away or become extinct. His capacity for blunder and transformative power remain to this day. (pp.11-12). The acknowledgement, or making plain, the existence of both love and pain is a response pattern that emerges from an Indigenous epistemology that acknowledges the world as it is. This viewpoint acknowledges that there is both love and pain, grief and joy, and that there is life and death. Atleo (2011) uses the Nuu-Chah-Nulth term, Yaw-uk-miss to describe this viewpoint: Yaa?askmis [yaw-uk-miss] is the Nuu-chah-nulth word for “love”, and it is also the word for “pain”. It is the perfect word to reflect the polarity of existence and its potential unity – love on one side and pain on the other, with both merged into one experience . . . All Nuu-chah-nulth chiefs are taught to love their museim, their people. This kind of love 154 involves integrating love and pain, both of which exist naturally and independently within a polarized reality. Undeveloped, unmanaged, ungoverned, or unexamined love and pain remain separate and incomplete. For the ancient Nuu-chah-nulth, pain as the co-root of love is part of the elegance of the creation in the context of developmental challenges, which renders pain unavoidable.” (p.159-160) The acknowledgement of the harmony or flow between two concepts of love and pain are key foundational pieces in many Indigenous epistemologies. Playing with one’s pain is an action that is based on this ancestral knowledge and taking this action is an act of resurgence and resistance to 500+ years of colonization. To me, playing with one’s pain is an important part of resilience and is a way that many Indigenous peoples have survived hardship, both pre-contact and post-contact. Life for many Indigenous people was hard. There were many beautiful aspects of life, but there was also suffering and uncertainty. For example, if there was a poor hunting season or a poor fishing season, or if plant food sources had a poor growing year, it would mean extreme hardship for the people. There was also war between tribes and natural disasters. I believe that Yaw uk miss is how Indigenous peoples thrived emotionally and spiritually through these hardships. Rather than turn outwards to influence and control the environment, they turned inward to gain spiritual understanding and power to navigate this challenging existence. This is a teaching that many contemporary Indigenous people could draw strength from to contribute to their healing and to the resurgence of Indigenous cultures. Indigenous people recognize that life can be hard. When there are stresses due to colonization and even when there are not stresses due to colonization, they find a way through. As Bison described: “all these all kinds of bad things still happen. There was still death, there’s 155 still sickness and of course, there was major trauma. But we seemed to have a way of kind of getting through it together.” Eagle echoed this observation about the resilience of the people when she shared that people must practice a form of mindfulness, when things go badly, but a person must also practice mindfulness and acceptance when things go well. As Eagle said, “I learned not take it personally when things were going badly, but I also learned to not take it personally when things were good [laughter].” Suffering can occur in large part when individuals and societies cannot find ways to understand how or why things happen in life, particularly when life seems to be filled with pain. If a person accepts that there will be pain and one can play with that pain, the potential for joy returns. As Bison said, “When you laugh, you make room for other emotions to come in, even if things are hard.” The current, playing with your pain can have many implications and recommendations for counselling and for life in general. Playing with one’s pain highlights the importance of humour and laughter as medicines, both for healing and learning. It is also important for helping professionals to encourage humour, laughter and joy in families and communities. One of the most harmful effects of the residential school system was to remove joy and laughter from children. Recognizing the healing power of such joy activities is helpful for healing, as Bison said, laughter and humour makes room for other emotions. In virtually every conversation with an i wa7 zewatets, laughter, jokes and teasing were shared – even when discussing painful topics or sharing painful experiences. The i wa7 zewatets use humour and joy to live their lives. I remember an occasion when I was asked to be the facilitator for a workshop about health in St’at’imc territory. At the end of that day, there was a door-prize raffle and there were many lovely door prizes that had been donated allowing virtually every participant to receive a door 156 prize. I noticed a pattern after about 5 door prizes had been handed out that there was no joy in winning a prize. I noticed that when a winner was coming to the front of the room to choose a prize, they looked like they were being called to the principal’s office, and it seemed no one was expressing happiness for the person who won. I took into consideration that many of the participants were residential school survivors, but I felt I needed to encourage some celebrating. At this point, I shared my observation, that nobody seemed to be happy about winning and nobody seemed to be happy for others winning. I suggested that participants smile, be happy, and clap in celebration of winning a prize. I encouraged everyone sitting at the table of the person who had won a prize to clap and celebrate for them (or I’d keep their prize – joke). Some folks still seemed reluctant to celebrate and be happy, but most participants took part and there were more overt expressions of happiness in the rest of our time together. Recommendations for the Second Current: Playing with your Pain Clients, families and communities • To reconnect and reawaken the medicine of joy and laughter. Joy and laughter are often missing from families and communities who carry many of the trauma of colonization. It is time to reclaim our joy. • To recognize and value the medicine of “playing with one’s pain”, recognize and appreciate that joy through laughter, even at hard things, can make room for other emotions. Therapists and Mental Health Programs • I encourage therapists and mental health programs to support laughter and joy activities, both for clients and for themselves. To be as willing to fund getting together for fun and visiting, as much as a therapy group or new medication. 157 • I encourage therapists to allow clients to “play with their pain”, to recognize the power of “survivance”, laughter is not denial, laughter can be survivance, it can signal strength and courage. A refusal to be made a victim. The Third Current – Scet – (Drop-off): Ullusilc – The Power of Gathering Place name – Scet’ – “drop-off” refers to the location on Satatqwa7 (the Fraser River) where Xwisten (the Bridge River) meets Satatqwa7. This is a significant fishing ground for the Statimc people and one of the richest sources of salmon on Satatqwa7. (John, A., John, K., John, V., Terry, T. Personal Communication September 26/2024) (Sam Mitchell via Bouchard and Kennedy, 1992). As I processed the data of the i wa7 zewatets, the power of gathering stood out for me. I recognized the healing power of gathering through my lens as an Indigenous person, as well as my lens as a counsellor who works primarily with Indigenous clients. As I shared earlier, the St’at’imcets word, ullusilc means “a gathering, not a meeting” (John, K. March, 2023/2024 personal communication). These “gatherings” can be formal (ceremonial) events, or they can be more informal times of coming together or social events. Eagle spoke of people coming together and laughing, teasing one another or visiting. Eagle observed how, in these moments, there was of the opportunity to observe everyone and that it was in these times of coming together that it would be noted if people were hanging back or isolating themselves. She also spoke about how efforts would be made to bring individuals who appeared to be struggling and/or isolated back into the group. This ensured that if a person was becoming disconnected or their sense of belonging was weakening, that their connection with others would be revitalized. 158 A “gathering” does not need to be many people. Sometimes the medicine of gathering or connection can occur between two people. Orca also quoted a statement she had heard in her community, that sometimes people will say to another person, “you are medicine for me.” Another person can help a person to heal when they come together, when they gather. As I considered the power of gathering, I was reminded of a scene from a documentary titled “Kuper Island: Return to the Healing Circle” (Welsh & Campbell, 1997). The documentary shared the stories of survivors who attended the Residential School. Survivors and their families came together to hold a ceremony to help heal the suffering of the survivors who had attended the school. The students called the school “Alcatraz,” a notorious maximum-security prison in the United States, also located on an island. This nickname was given by the students as a reflection of the harsh treatment and abuse they faced there, as well as the risks that students took when they tried to swim to escape from the island (some children drowned in their attempts to escape). In one scene in the documentary, two brothers are talking to one another about their experiences at the residential school. In the documentary two brothers are talking to one another about their experiences of abuse for the first time. I will share the dialogue of the brothers, Tony Charlie and James Charlie. Tony is 45 and James is 42 at the time of filming and this is the first time they have discussed their residential school experiences since leaving the school: Tony: “It surprises me, to a point, but I think maybe I should have disclosed to my brother, because all along, I think we could have been the, the very good support to each other, because we both came from the same residential school kind of thing. I think we could have been very supportive in many ways, a lot earlier, sooo . . ., yeah . . .” 159 James: “That’s it, that’s the thing that the schools set out to do, hey? They set out to conquer us, mind, body and spirit. They did a pretty damn good job. Just like you’re saying, you’re my brother. And I’m 43 and you’re 45 … first time we talked about this … Tony: “Mm-hm” James: “It just, kind of … where the hell have, we been for the past 20 years, 25 years?” This dialogue between, the brothers Tony Charlie and James Charlie, seems a perfect illustration of the disrupting effect of colonization between family and community members. I noted, that for me, it was important to state their names, Tony Charlie and James Charlie, to attach their names to their story, so their stories are heard again, and not forgotten. Tony said, I should have spoken to him, (his brother) he could have helped me, but for reasons unknown to the brothers, they had never spoken of their experiences until the day of filming. When a family or community has been traumatized by a shared traumatic event or history, like a residential school, it is not uncommon for community or family members to either avoid the painful memories by avoiding each other or have only surface conversations and never speaking of the trauma (Brave Heart, 1998; 1999). This avoidance is done with the intention of avoiding emotional pain by avoiding others and/or avoiding deep, emotional conversations. As a result of these ways of coping of survival, the medicine of ullusilc can be limited or lost. Family and community may not “visit” anymore, or only come together for specific events, hunting, fishing, weddings, funerals, ceremonies, but the healing power of gathering is not accessed, as people do not share their true emotions with one another and/or they utilize alcohol to numb the pain or to allow emotions to be expressed. Another important part of the power of gathering would be to utilize the power of gathering to welcome home our LGBTQ2S+ relatives. With the influence of Christianity came 160 an exclusion and shaming of community members who were not cisgender or heterosexual. Based on the data bundles shared by Bison and Moose, there used to be space in many Indigenous communities for LGBTQ2S+ community members. LGBTQT2S+ community members were also often seen as respected community members and could achieve positions of leadership and many had spiritual power. In many cases, LGBTQ2S+ community members were significant contributor to communities and families. As Moose observed and as is seen in research LGBTQ2S+ youth often face significant hurdles in modern society, whether in Indigenous or non-Indigenous communities and families. The risk of suicide and other harms are exponential for LGBTQ2S+ youth. Perhaps ullusilc, the power of gathering and observation-interventions could be used to explicitly and openly acknowledge and value LGBTQ2S+ community members, particularly youth. I believe there is more acceptance now of LGBTQ2S+ community members, but there are still stories of exclusion and open hostility. Indigenous communities and families lose valuable skills and spiritual power when LGBTQ2S+ community members are excluded, and the lives of youth can be lost if it is not made clear that LGBTQ2S+ community members are respected, loved and welcomed. It is time to see them and to bring our LGBTQ2S+ relatives home! Gathering does not only refer to sharing physical space, but it also refers to emotional connection and seeking to connect with others, either to socialize or to offer help, express concern or ask for help. There can be several behaviours that indicate emotional connection or a desire to connect emotionally to other people. For example, do people ask about each other’s well-being? Are they truthful when they share with others how they are doing? Or do they say “I’m okay” when they are sad, lonely, or angry? If one person sees another person suffering, do they approach them and ask “Are you okay? Do you need anything?” or do they avoid asking? 161 Asking for help can be just as important as offering help. Atleo (2012) wrote about the strength of asking for help in Principles of Tsawalk: an important Nuu-chah-nulth teaching, which is often forgotten today, is to ask for help whenever help is needed, not just when things become exceedingly difficult. The ability to ask for help strengthens any family or community, and it is also necessary to personal growth and to developing a measure of independence. Strong individuals who are occasionally in need of assistance make for a strong society. (p. 95) Gathering or Ullusilc, is medicine. It helps to strengthen connections, and it strengthens belonging. Whether at potlatch, Christmas dinner, coffee, pow-wow, craft fair, gas station visits or at a funeral, gathering provides the context to conduct the ceremony of reciprocity. When people do not gather, when they do not engage with others, they are depriving themselves of medicine. Recommendations for the Third Current: The Power of Gathering Therapists • Support clients and communities to reconnect with the medicine of ullusilc. Encourage clients to reconnect, to attend gatherings rather than isolate. If a client’s family or community is not accessible, encourage the client to build or maintain connection with others, whether a cultural group; connecting with community of origin; joining a club or team. • Sometimes clients will say there are no gatherings, encourage clients to organize gatherings, or to invite someone for coffee. Gathering does not mean the connection has to be a potlatch or pow-wow, it can be meeting for a cup of coffee or lunch. • It can be critical to support and encourage those struggling with depression, anxiety, grief or loneliness to seek out opportunities to engage with others. Sometimes, as simple an action as 162 going to a coffee shop or library can help to reduce isolation and loneliness. People can gain medicine or energy from the presence of others, even if they do not engage directly with others. Community Members • Indigenous communities and organizations already recognize the medicine of gathering. Community and organization leaders can continue to encourage and support gathering while being explicit about the medicine of gathering. • Perhaps Indigenous and community leaders can explicitly target community members prone to isolation or who may be overlooked. I remember one of my brothers-in-law describing a Christmas Concert in his community, single men were specifically targeted to receive gifts. Single men are often overlooked in these types of events. My brother-in-law described how emotional many of the men became when they received their gifts. • Children and youth are often described as the future of Indigenous peoples, but many Indigenous communities and organizations still seem to struggle to provide adequate supports, access to teachings and even safe gathering spaces for Indigenous youth. Volume 3 of the Final Report of the Aboriginal Healing Foundation (2006) listed many successful initiatives. Communities and organizations could revisit this report and institute the suggestions. There is no need for another study. Some of the recommended and/or successful programs included: creating a safe drop-in space for Indigenous youth; implementing organized sports programs (basketball leagues; all night floor hockey tournaments during spring break); life skills training; healthy sexuality education; mentoring opportunities with positive adult role models, particularly elders; opportunities to learn traditional skills; 163 opportunities to be on the land or water; adults modelling healthy lifestyles; peer support. For more information, please see the Aboriginal Healing Foundation Report. • For non-Indigenous organizations, funders and government agencies to recognize the medicine of gathering and to treat gathering and gatherings as medicine and as programs that contribute to Indigenous wellness as much (perhaps more so) as any medication or medical procedure. This means being as willing to accept proposals that create long-term gathering opportunities as much as any “evidence-based practices” or medications that have passed Randomized Controlled Testing. As an Indigenous therapist and community member, I would say that the medicine of gathering has passed thousands of years of empirical testing. • For urban and on-the-land leaders, governments, and care providers to make it clear that LGBTQ2S+ adults and youth are seen, respected, and loved. That the time of exclusion and hostility is over; even though there will still be instances of hostility, a clear statement by leaders and care providers can go a long way towards bringing the medicine of LGBTQ2S+ relatives back to Indigenous families and communities. They are medicine for us and it is time for adults and communities to be medicine for LGBTQ2S+ youth. It is time to welcome them home. The Fourth Current – Kwlsvlqen and Inasket: Reciprocity is Ceremony Place name: I have heard two names for this location on Tsalalh (Seton Lake). “Inask7it” (K. John, personal communication) – the word is often pronounced Retasket – the exact translation is unknown. This is an important hunting and gathering place for our family. Our father tried to establish grapes and other crops here and shared stories of his experiences here as a child. Another name for this location is “Kwsvlqen” (where the mountain goat people live) (I. M. Peter – Personal Communication). There is a story of Tsalalhmec (the Lake people) that there were a 164 tribe of Mountain Goat people. These goats were strong spiritual beings, who, in their mountain goat form were able to jump from one side of the lake to the other (at its widest parts, the lake is over 2 km wide). As I wrote about Theme 2 – Wellness is Dynamic and Fluid in the previous chapter, I saw within the statements from Indigenous Knowledge Keepers the importance of reciprocity for the wellness of Indigenous persons, families and communities. It has become clear to me that reciprocity is a critical component of individual, family, community and tribal wellbeing. Reciprocity is not merely an exchange of gifts, services, and/or money, but it is medicine. Reciprocity helps to heal people. It helps people to feel loved, to show love and to feel a sense of connection. The patterns of the behaviours that constitute reciprocity and their importance to wellness make reciprocity a ceremony. These ceremonies of reciprocity can be sacred, complex rituals or they can be smaller actions, such as making an offering of tobacco, giving a handshake or a hug or a small gift. These ceremonies can take place between people, between people and animals, between people and the land, between people and spirits, and/or between people and the Creator. A ceremony for maintaining the land is an act of reciprocity. Cajete (1997) described the process of maintaining wellness: Tribal origin myths contained the recipe or precedent for the development of ceremonies and rituals within the expression of a particular tribal way of life. This dynamic balance in the natural order had to be maintained and reestablished through ceremony and ritual, the proper execution of prayer, and care of oneself and one’s community. (p.119) Cajete described ceremony as a way of maintaining the dynamic balance of life, whether for a person’s well-being, for a good harvest or to ensure good weather for the well-being of the community. A ceremony consists of an act of offering or of sacrifice, for example, a person may 165 put down tobacco when they have gathered berries or medicine from a particular patch of land, to thank the plant spirits, to thank the land and to thank the animals in that place and to thank the spirits in that place. This offering is an act of gratitude and a sign of respect and appreciation. Many Indigenous peoples believe that if you do not do these acts of reciprocity, the land will not be as rewarding for you the next time you come. Sea Lion described these acts of reciprocity within the cultural gatherings of his people. Sea Lion built this statement on an Indigenous word from his language that I removed to protect his confidentiality. Sea Lion described a specific action of “pushing against” another person or family to support them: another word called [Indigenous word]. [Indigenous word] means “to push against”. You think about somebody that may be falling. If you [Indigenous word], you push against that person who’s falling and prevent that person from falling . . . so it’s applied in so many ways. When people are gathering together to put on a great celebration or feast or something, someone will stand up and say [Indigenous word]! I am pushing up against you, here’s $1000 to help you! Sea Lion did not specifically mention the reciprocity involved but based on my limited knowledge of this ceremonial-governance system, if this action takes place at a gathering, the action is noted and remembered by the receiving family. In the future, if the donating family needs help, the recipient will respond in kind. The action of giving is ceremony, the act of receiving is ceremony and the documenting or remembering of the action is ceremony. These actions, the giving, the receiving and the remembering are all part of the ceremony. Together it creates a web of support. 166 Thanksgiving-recognition is also important in the Ceremony of Reciprocity. Wolf stated that he feels many Indigenous peoples have forgotten the importance of thanksgiving and recognition. Giving thanks for work that is done and providing recognition for work done are important parts of a system of reciprocity. If a person does good work, they feel good when they are thanked and recognized for doing the work. The work does not need to be extravagant. It can be as simple as giving part of one’s successful hunting trip to elders or families that need it, or part of one’s fishing catch or berries from gathering. The acts of giving can be done at cultural events such as pow-wows, potlatches or memorials. Recognition of these acts can be having one’s name read out at an event, or an elder being grateful, happy and appreciative. I believe that if person who does a compassionate act (giving food to others, helping others) receives recognition and thanksgiving, they will good and they are more likely to repeat the action. They will feel good for the recognition. They will feel valued and appreciated. The ones who received the compassionate act will feel loved, and they will know that they matter, they will know that someone is looking out for them as is done with observation-intervention (Theme 1 – Belonging). Recommendations for the Fourth Current: Reciprocity is Ceremony Therapists • To support the ceremony of reciprocity, therapists could speak to clients about the importance of reciprocity in their lives. If clients have a spiritual practice, therapists could provide general suggestions about prayer, offerings and giving back to the land. • Therapists could encourage clients to practice thanksgiving in their relationships – from saying thank you to others in a genuine and heartfelt way, to giving small gifts of appreciation, whether to parents, grandparents, knowledge keepers, friends or partners. Also 167 encouraging clients to accept thanksgiving. I have observed that there seems to be a lot of weight and emphasis placed on “humility” and not expecting thanks or acknowledgement for work done, but this seems to have gone overboard, and people who do good work, will often resist accepting thanks. I believe there is a place for humility, but accepting thanksgiving, helps to strengthen the bonds between people, it does not weaken them. I believe the difference may be when thanksgiving is “expected.” Community Leaders and Organizations • Many community leaders and organizations already know more than I could ever suggest, and their ways of showing thanks are not my ways. However, I believe that many in some communities, the importance of thanksgiving has been forgotten, or it is done in a way that is a shadow of what it used to be. For example, sometimes knowledge keepers and or cultural specialists are given tobacco or blankets, and this is seen as appropriate for the work done. Many knowledge keepers will say this is fine, because receiving rewards is not why they do the work. However, many times knowledge keepers and others must expend significant amounts of their own time, of money for travel and lodging, not to mention their own physical energy and time away from family. In this light, providing i wa7 zewatets with hundreds of dollars in honoraria, gas money, money for lodging or large gifts seems more appropriate than a pouch of tobacco or a blanket or a gas card. This is not to minimize the ceremonial value of tobacco, blankets or other ceremonial items, but Wolf said, in the past, we gave the i wa7 zewatets “the best of what we had,” in thanksgiving for the work they did. The Fifth Current - Satatqwa7a: Q’waxt – To Notice, To Observe Place name: Satatwqa7 – St’at’imcets name for the Fraser River. One of the largest rivers in North America. Source of one of the most significant salmon runs. The river now carries the 168 name of Settler explorer, Simon Fraser, but First Nations people along the river have names that are thousands of years old for the river, which is the lifeblood of many people and the land itself. Q’waxt is a St’at’imcets word which translated means “to notice, to observe.” As I introduced in the earlier discussion of the third current, Ullusilc - The Power of Gathering, non-intrusive, consistent and attentive observation can be an important tool for families and communities to maintain the well-being of members. I found that “observation-intervention” is an important community-based strategy for the maintenance of well-being. Wolf and Eagle both described the ways in which observation and intervention were used in communities or families. Eagle described a quiet method of observation for monitoring others, particularly youth: I remember an old person, telling me that they watch for people, they watch for that, for people who might be doing that, especially amongst the young, younger people. You know the teenagers, they watch for them, if they’re cutting themselves off from the group. If they’re sitting, if they move themselves outside of the circle of people, they really watch for that, they don’t say anything … but they’ll do things, to make sure that, to help that person to become, to be part of the group, but they do it in a quiet way . . . . . . but it was a very caring way of doing things, and so that, I think that people’s wellbeing was really important to everybody . . . so observing is something that was really fostered. Observers who practice quiet and consistent observation could monitor the family and group participation of youth and adult community members. If the observers, elders or other community leaders saw a person was isolating or not doing well, they could intervene and reconnect the group member back into the group. If adults or youth are trained and encouraged to consistently observe and pay attention to the mood, engagement and words of others, it could 169 help in detecting mental health or spiritual issues that might otherwise go undetected. Ruby Peter (2021), a Cowichan i wa7 zewatets, clarifies the importance of observing others: There’s always a way to help, to reach a goal, to help yourself, to look around. This is something the Old People always said, “Don’t just sit – you watch, you listen, you hear and study what is happening with your children and what is surrounding you. Know the people that surround you here on Earth. If you’re on the reserve . . . get to know them [the families], help them if they need help. . .. I was trained right from nine, ten years old, young, to understand, to know, to hear, to listen, to watch and to study people, to know what is happening.” (pp.2-4). The observation-intervention system also plays a role in the maintenance of community values, principles and “Natural Law” (Wolf). Wolf described a situation in which he had experienced some community members becoming defensive when he or other i wa7 zewatets try to advise them about doing activities or living life according to “Natural Law,” or tribal laws, values and principles: . . . because the people need to hear, elders, everybody needs to hear. So, you know, and when you start telling people what to do, and [they] think [you’re] giving [them] shit, no, they just don’t understand tradition, and that Natural Law . . . and that’s the problem, they think they’re catching shit, but the reality is they don’t understand the system that was designed by our ancestors. That kept balance. That’s how we survived here! . . . And it wasn’t, til residential school, when they tried to kill us off that we started to lose it a little bit, but we brought it back. . . . It’s coming back slowly, why? Because some of the elders have passed on their knowledge to us younger people so that we can keep it going. And that’s kind of what it’s all about. So, you know, [some of our] people, don’t how to take 170 it, because they never had discipline. You know? . . . And that’s the thing, hey? Discipline, we lost our, our discipline teachings (Wolf) As articulated in Theme 3 – responsibility: autonomy discussed in chapter four, I believe this sharing from Wolf also relates to this system of observation and intervention. Wolf describes how he or other community leaders try to impart knowledge about the good way of living to fellow community members and find that they are sometimes rebuffed. This defensive attitude interferes with the passing on of knowledge and with the system of observation-intervention. Ruby Peter (2021), who is another, i wa7 swetats, shared a similar point of view in her book, What was said to me – the Life of a Sti’tum’atul’wut, a Cowichan Woman: I have studied families, and I have heard from families that they have lost some of their culture, and writing this book might help them bring back some of the teachings that they missed out on so they can pass it on to their children, and have a better life for their children and grandchildren that are still coming up. In different families there is teachings; it’s in groups, families from the beginning of time, and they know their background, and they have their own teaching of many different things – raising children or puberty time, teenagers. We have always followed Elder’s ways of teaching children, a cultural way. (p.1) Wolf, Ruby Peter, and Eagle, all hold a view that the observation-intervention is important for the well-being of families and communities, particularly for the well-being of children and youth. These three i wa7 swetats are all mindful of the state of well-being of the children and families around them. They are constantly observing and ready to intervene if necessary. 171 The main implication of this current is to recognize the importance of the traditional systems of observation-intervention for the health and well-being of Indigenous families and communities. This could mean a change to health practices in family and community, making responsibility for the health of family and community members the responsibility of family and community members rather than of professionals and health care systems. For research, this could mean a closer qualitative and observational examination of the system of observation-intervention, what does it look like when a family or community is intentionally observant, what are the criteria for initiating intervention? Recommendations for the Fifth Current: To Notice, To Observe Parents, Family Members and Community Members • In many Indigenous families and communities, the well-being of a person was everyone’s responsibility. As Eagle mentioned earlier, elders or adults were always monitoring others, particularly the youth and children. Ruby Peter (2021) also mentioned this practice among her people. That a person, who had been taught their responsibilities would always look out for others, “I was trained from nine, ten years old, young, to understand, to know, to hear, to listen, to watch and to study people, to know what was happening” (p.4). It may be helpful for families to be encouraged to resume the practices of observation-intervention again. There are many stories of people who feel they are alone, or that they cannot reach out to others for help, and they suffer in silence and isolation. Observation-intervention practices could help to alleviate this matter, rather than a person’s well-being being an individual responsibility, it may be helpful and strengthening for all members of a family or community, to practice observation-intervention in a mindful, intentional way. As Ruby Peter (2021) described earlier, perhaps this level of training can occur earlier in childhood, so that children 172 are taught to be mindful of the well-being of others. However, it would need to be clear, that if there are adults present, the ultimate responsibility does lie with the adults. There would need to be a balance, so that children do not become parentified. • Parents could initiate a system of observing behaviours within their children intentionally. Adults can begin to observe each other and intervene gently and increase intervention as necessary. Ruby Peter said that she had been trained from a young age to be observant and to mind the well-being of others. Eagle also said that all people were encouraged to watch out for the state of well-being of others. Community Leaders • Community leaders can encourage and model intentional and non-intrusive observation-interventions with others, being intentional and respectful. If community leaders intentionally model actively observing and intervening (in a respectful way), community members will see the example that the well-being of everybody is everybody’s responsibility. Professionals and health care systems can help, but community leaders are often viewed as the primary care providers for our people. Professionals/Health Systems/Researchers • Professionals in health systems and researchers could consider changing their approach to observation and intervention in working with Indigenous peoples. It has been the tendency of non-Indigenous systems and professionals to intervene without intention and without consulting Indigenous peoples. There have been a wide range of programs and techniques forced upon Indigenous families and communities. It has been my observation, that non-Indigenous systems, researchers and professionals often do not consider the knowledge, worldview and experiences of Indigenous peoples. Dr. Evan Adams said in Determinants of 173 Indigenous Peoples’ Health (2018), “Indigenous peoples live at the margins of the dominant society not because we want to [be there] but because we have been shoved there” (p. xiii). Government programs that had the health of Indigenous peoples as their focus ranged from have often been “irresponsibly irrelevant” (Gone, 2004). Canada is reputed to have one of the most advanced medical systems in the world, but the health of Indigenous peoples’ inhabitants is among the lowest in the developed world. Contemporary medical programs meant to help Indigenous peoples rarely consider Indigenous views of well-being. Non-Indigenous systems and professionals need to practice self-observation in an honest way and to consider intervention in an intentional (rather than reactive) way that respects the autonomy and knowledge of Indigenous peoples. As Rabbit shared a teaching from another i wa7 zewatets “we’ll just keep stumbling along” as long as non-Indigenous systems do not view health through a holistic lens. A respectful and calm approach will likely result in being “pragmatically beneficial” (Gone, 2004), more so than applying bio-medical systems and techniques in the hopes that they will work or because they “should” work. The Sixth Current - Tsek: Healing is Ceremony Placename – Tsek – is the name for healing hot springs in southern St’at’imc territory. There is a story that a powerful group of spiritual beings known as utszím’alh or the Transformers travelled through the land to help to make the land better for the people. The Transformers hot springs, Tsek, these hot springs were a place where elder mothers brought men to be raised and trained as chiefs and medicine people. Ceremony is often described as a sacred and spiritual process. Typically, ceremony is thought of as a vehicle or means to healing, not as the act of healing itself. Shawn Wilson (2008) shared these words of an i wa7 zewatets: 174 A ceremony according to Minnecunju Elder, Lionel Kinunwa, is not just the period at the end of the sentence. It is the required process and preparation that happens long before the event. It is, in Atkinson’s (2002b) translation, dadirri, the many ways and forms and levels of listening. It is in Martin’s (2003) terminology, Ways of Knowing, Ways of Being and Ways of Doing. It is the knowing and respectful reinforcement that all things are related and connected. It is the voice from our ancestors that tells us when it is right and when it is not. (pp.60-61). Atleo (2004) defined ceremony according to Nuu-chah-nulth language and worldview, explaining that ceremony is an important process that is often done to bring medicine to the people or one’s family. Atleo described ceremony as a very serious undertaking that is not without risk. He explains that, often, the process can be hard and can cause suffering. The idea of Healing as Ceremony stood out to me as I revisited the words of i wa7 zewatets, Moose. Moose described two examples of signs that indicate a person is on a healing path. Firstly, he described the type of person that he would like to associate with as someone who is trying to live their life in a good way and trying to make changes for themselves, even if they are not doing so perfectly. Secondly, Moose described how, even if a person is struggling and not doing their healing process perfectly, he would not judge, criticize nor turn them away. Prompted by Moose’s observations and Atleo’s teaching that ceremony can be hard and can be dangerous, I thought of my own path and healing journey. I also thought of the healing paths of my brothers and sisters, as well as the healing journeys that I have had the honour of witnessing for clients over the years. To heal oneself can be challenging. There can be a cost. In our informed consent forms for counselling, we advise clients that counselling can lead to life changes that may not always be pleasant, and that the process can have costs, as well as benefits. Ceremony often requires 175 sacrifice. Sacrifice of time, of money, and of comfort. As a ceremony, healing can cause suffering but still be medicine. Eduardo Duran is a Native American psychologist who has spent his career creating space for Indigenous worldviews and ways of healing in the field of psychology. Duran (2006) described a different approach to diagnosis by viewing it as a naming ceremony in which a person or the entity causing the sickness receives a name: Traditional healing in most Aboriginal cultures is based on the belief that illness itself has a consciousness that relates to the psyche and/or body of the individual. Belief that illness is conscious leads to the ideal that all illness has a distinct purpose that eventually will teach and bring wholeness to the individual. . . The key purpose in naming a sickness in Traditional Healing is to restore a relationship with the energy of the sickness . . . Once the patient and healer discover the identity of the illness, the illness can be asked about its purpose and about what it is trying to teach the patient and the healer . . . Illness is viewed as having a dualistic nature. If the energy of the illness is not harmonized, then the illness will have a negative impact on the patient. Harmonizing with an illness occurs by making conscious contact with the consciousness of the illness. (Duran, 2006, p.32) The way Duran described the process of redefining the relationship with illness brought an element of the sacred, of ceremony to a mainstream psychotherapeutic process, a process that was missing the spiritual component. The spiritual realm is of primary importance to many Indigenous and non-western cultures. In transforming the delivery of diagnosis into a naming ceremony, of the illness itself, Duran acknowledged that healing is ceremony, even in clinical psychology. 176 In ceremony, there are no small steps, everything is important – the time at which the ceremony occurs can be critical, offerings of tobacco or other medicine for the spirits or Creator can be important, the colour of materials can be important and all contributions, from providing food, to gathering medicines to minding a fire are important. In my view, the same applies to a person’s process of change, everything is important and everyone (whether human, spirit, animal or Creator) who contributes is important. A large part of my therapeutic work with clients involves slowing the process down so that they gain awareness of their processes and come to know their mental illness21 or unhealthy behaviours in a new way. I have worked with many Indigenous and non-Indigenous clients who experience symptoms of a mental illness/neurodivergence and/or have been repeating unhealthy behaviour patterns they do not realize are present. I have observed that clients often do not take the time to reflect on what has happened nor do they wish to truly establish a relationship with the illness/neurodivergence or behaviour causing them harm or discomfort. In my practice with clients, I slow the process down and ask clients to reflect on what is happening for them in these moments. I sometimes ask them to feel their emotions, even if the emotions are uncomfortable, or to reflect on what they feel in their body and/or in their spirit in that moment. I invite them to truly come to know the illness/disorder or the repetitive behaviour/thought/emotion that causes them suffering. Sometimes, when clients are making progress, they move quickly past these moments of healing without noticing or by minimizing the significance of their own progress. I have come to the realization “that there are no small steps” when it comes to the process of healing. Healing is a 21 I will refer to a person’s diagnosis (anxiety, depression, ADHD, ASD, PTSD, etc) as an illness or neurodivergence. 177 ceremony in which everything can matter and be critical. I often see a look of what I interpret to be wonder or surprise on the faces of clients. They may then try to disregard the importance of these outlier emotions stating, “well, it doesn’t happen that often” or “it won’t last.” In these exchanges I share that, “yes, possibly, but it did happen – you felt joy/anger”, or I might note that “it may not last, but there is also the possibility that it could last, and you could feel like this more and more.” When I point out to clients that there are no small steps, I hope that I am opening them up to possibilities and helping them to move them towards the understanding that even the smallest step matters, everything matter when healing is ceremony. I believe that ceremony is a mechanism for altering time and space – that amazing things can happen in ceremony. I feel when clients are given the space and time to look at their healing process, they come to realize that they have entered a ceremonial space. These can be powerful moments in therapy sessions. I encourage clients to consider these moments when they are “out in the world”, that they reflect on these times of change, in the moments that they are happening. Then they can gain awareness of their process and be responsible for their own ceremony of healing. Recommendations for the Sixth Current: Healing is Ceremony Therapists, Health Organizations and Researchers • I recommend that therapists, health organizations and researchers accept the view of healing as a ceremony. Entering any modality of healing can be considered ceremony, obtaining diagnosis; entering Cognitive Behavioural Therapy; Trauma Therapy or trying medication can all be considered ceremony. To try to heal oneself is a sacred process and therapists, health organizations and researchers should recognize for Indigenous peoples (perhaps all peoples) healing is ceremony. This will result in a more culturally safe and relevant 178 approaches to mental health for Indigenous peoples. Perhaps then, mainstream psychology and health systems could begin to see more uptake by Indigenous peoples and efficacy. Clients, families and communities • Indigenous clients, families and communities who wish to pursue healing could view their pursuit of healing as ceremony, as a sacred process. If a person is working on themselves through counselling, substance use treatment or improving their physical well-being, viewing themselves as being a person in ceremony on a sacred path, as opposed to being “in recovery” or “mentally ill.” This strengths-based approach will help to remove the stigma often associated with seeking help. • I would encourage clients, family members and community members to recognize any progress that a person makes. Many times, clients do not recognize the value of the work that they have done. This lack of recognition does not help their healing process and, in fact, can act to delay the progress towards well-being. Noticing when clients are struggling to give themselves credit for the work that they are doing and reminding them that “there are no small steps” can contribute to the client’s healing process. Anything from getting out of bed for a depressed person or going to work or school should be noted as huge steps in healing. Similarly, for a person who wants to stop using substances, a lapse is not failure, it is just a lapse, progress can be as small as being able to hold off using substances for an hour or one day. Being recognized for progress rather than being criticized for failure is more likely to lead to change. 179 The Seventh Current - hi7ulmecw: The Assumption of Medicine Place name: hi7ulmecw – the land at the south end of Tsalalh, considered to be a place of spirits. “All things are sacred”, “medicine is everywhere” and “there is a bridge between the physical world and the spirit world” were thoughts that kept coming to me as I reviewed the knowledge the i wa7 zewatets shared and these commonly held Indigenous beliefs or “assumptions” have been described by many i wa7 zewatets (Aboriginal Healing Foundation, 1997; Atleo, 2004; Deloria, 2006; Duran, 1995; Lane, Brown, Bopp & Bopp, 1984; Mehl-Madrona, 1997). There are many “assumptions” in mainstream psychology and science that are taken as “laws” or basic principles of human nature and existence itself (Cajete, 1996; Deloria, 1995; Duran, 1995). Some of these “assumptions” about human nature and the very nature of existence include the assumption that Euro-based understanding of psychology and existence is the level by which all cultures and their health care models are measured (Deloria, 1996; Duran, 1995; Heinrich, Heinen & Noranzayan, 2010; Sue, 1987). Another assumption of Euro-settler based mainstream psychology is that the research that has been conducted is “objective” and/or value or culture neutral, denying inherent bias against non-Euro-settler clients and communities (Gone, 2011; Heinrich, Heinen & Noranzayan, 2010; Trimble & Thurman, 2002). Another assumption or perhaps value judgement or tendency of mainstream psychology is to deny or minimize the role of spirituality or religion in health and healing (Duran, 1995; Trimble & Thurman, 2002) and the application of “ethnic gloss” (Trimble, 1990) to treat all Indigenous peoples as a homogenous group, who have one culture with a single view of health, culture and the makeup of the mind, body, and spirit. Many Indigenous and non-western cultures have an “assumption” about the power of the “spirit world,” or what is called metaphysical or religious worldviews (Atleo, 2004, 2011; Bopp 180 et al., 1984/2011; Deloria, 2006). One term that many Indigenous scholars and i wa7 zewatets use to describe the beneficial role of the spirit world in health and healing is “medicine” (Deloria, 2006; 1995). This is the term that I use to signify objects or practices that hold a quality of healing that originates from the spirit world or that has quality of mystery. To many Indigenous peoples the power of this medicine is just as real as pharmacological, or healing methods found within the medical model. To many Indigenous peoples, the spirit world is also just as real as the physical world. This is an “assumption of medicine.” Atleo (2004) articulates the presence of the spirit world: Nuu-chah-nulth people did not differentiate between the spiritual and physical dimensions but simply assumed that the interaction between the two realms was normal. It was well understood that all things come from the spiritual realm. One means of initiating a positive interaction with the spiritual realm is called oosumich. Oosumich is a secret and personal spiritual activity that can involve various degrees of fasting, cleansing, celibacy, prayer and isolation for varying lengths of time depending upon the purpose …Whatever powers or gifts were sought, the principle behind oosumich remain the same; that effective access to the spiritual dimension from the physical dimension was absolutely necessary. (p.17) Not only is the existence of the spiritual realm accepted, but it was also accepted that interaction with the spiritual realm is “normal.” It was so normalized in Indigenous ways of knowing and being that there were standard operating procedures for accessing the healing power, knowledge and skills from the spiritual realm. Such ceremonies involved various actions by the person seeking to access the medicine of the spiritual realm. There are involved rituals and/or ceremonies that could require extensive time, effort and personal sacrifice, but there are 181 also many day-to-day activities that a person can undertake to access the medicine of the spirit world. Moose described many of these ceremonies in his description of his approach to maintaining personal wellness: Well, how I remember it is if I’m smudging it automatically comes back a lot of times or if I take a walk in the woods and take some tobacco, so through ceremony. . . in my own head, I’m talking Cree to myself that really helps me to remember [unclear], reminds me of, uh, what I’m connected to. I’m not leaving that tobacco there, for nothing, on the ground. It’s for a reason and it helps to center me being in nature, watching animals and just having this fresh air, feeling the ground and the woods, you know, the energy that you pick up. It connects you with those, uh, entities, spiritual entities. And it lets you know you’re part of something a lot bigger. Moose stated how he can undertake many of the ceremonial activities regularly and that it can be as simple for them as going for a walk in the woods, putting down an offering of tobacco or thinking in their Indigenous language. Moose specifically mentioned how he utilizes these activities to connect with the spiritual realm, and this reminds him that everything is connected. As Atleo termed it in his language – Heshook-ish Tsawalk – “everything is connected” (2004, p. xi) and this is a powerful assumption of medicine. Recommendations for The Seventh Current: The Assumption of Medicine Mainstream psychotherapy service providers • Should consider the role of Indigenous spirituality (accessing the healing power of the spirit world, for example, spiritual practices) in the provision of services for Indigenous clients. A non-appropriative approach could be achieved through training by Indigenous healers or psychotherapists. There would need to be guidance for appropriate use of the training and 182 ways to assure that non-Indigenous psychotherapists do not appropriate Indigenous cultural knowledge. • Mainstream training institutions could include Indigenous medicine ways in their curriculum for the training of all health service providers, again, ensuring respectful learning of the knowledge and not appropriating the knowledge. Indigenous and non-Indigenous Health Service Providers and Agencies • Creating a training model of Indigenous healers: I had a conversation with a supervisor when working with an Indigenous agency. We discussed the possibility of creating a funded apprenticeship system to that trainees could receive financial support or be paid for their training while training with Indigenous healers, medicine people or elders. Funding could be provided so these apprentices are able to dedicate themselves fully to learning and practicing skills under the supervision of an i wa7 zewatets. This would facilitate the transmission of knowledge and ensure specialists with this knowledge continue to provide services for future generations. Currently, there are many younger people who are interested in doing this type of learning, but they often need to do so while also working a “9 to 5 job” to support themselves and their families. Some initiatives to support Indigenous healing knowledge and practices have occurred or are underway (Aboriginal Healing Foundation, 200922 ; Centre for 22 An Aboriginal-managed, national, Ottawa-based, not-for-profit private corporation established March 31, 1998 and provided with a grant of $350 million dollars by the federal government of Canada as part of Gathering Strength—Canada's Aboriginal Action Plan. The Aboriginal Healing Foundation was given an eleven-year mandate, ending March 31, 2009, to encourage and support, through research and funding contributions, community-based Aboriginal directed healing initiatives which address the legacy of 183 Addictions and Mental Health, 2024; National Aboriginal Health Organization, 200623). There are challenges to this approach, one cannot simply elect to become a medicine person, as medicine people are often chosen by spirits, animals or the Creator (Deloria, 2006). Establishing a working relationship with a medicine person or “holy one” (Deloria, 2006) can take time and not every person is suitable for the work. It is not as simple as completing the required courses at a post-secondary institution, selection/recruitment can be at the direction of spiritual forces and a person must be willing to undertake the sacrifices required (Deloria, 2006). However, the health system should find a way help build a funded apprenticeship system. • One of colonization’s most damaging impacts has been to separate Indigenous people from their spiritual practices (Duran, 1995; Gone, 2011; Trimble & Thurman, 2006). Due to this impact of colonization, therapists, government services and organizations should never assume all Indigenous clients have knowledge about the spiritual realm. Service providers who incorrectly assumes that an Indigenous client has knowledge of spiritual practices can be retraumatizing the client and/or can creating breaches in the relationship or can cause physical and sexual abuse suffered in Canada’s Indian Residential School System, including inter-generational impacts. See https://www.ahf.ca/announcements/ 23 The National Aboriginal Health Organization (NAHO) was an organization which promoted of health and well-being of all First Nations, Inuit and Métis individuals, families and communities. Well-being and health was promoted by the NAHO through research, Indigenous Traditional Knowledge, capacity building, and community initiatives. NAHO ceased operation in 2012 after fundings cuts by the federal government. See http://archives.algomau.ca/main/?q=node/26004 for more information about NAHO. 184 Indigenous clients to reject services. Indigenous clients should not be discriminated against or have assumptions made about them. • Helping professionals, health authorities, post-secondary institutions and government agencies need to stop attempting to create “one size fits all” programs for Indigenous peoples. The heterogeneity and diversity of Indigenous peoples is simply too great for such a homogenizing approach. Chapter Summary In closing this chapter, I would like to say that these are the “new currents” I saw in the river, in the ebb and flow of knowledge shared by the i wa7 zewatets. I believe these currents are both new as well as built on old knowledge, knowledge that our ancestors used for thousands of years to help us to navigate the world. Colonization has brought many new changes to the river that we need to navigate now, from hydroelectric dams to landslides that blocked the salmon runs and even to the source of water itself, melting the glaciers that used to be a constant presence. The old knowledge of our ancestors and the wisdom and knowledge of our i wa7 zewatets can help us to navigate the rough waters ahead. Whether the knowledge relates to us, as human beings, changing our ways to turn the tide of human caused climate change by recognizing that our wellness is connected to the wellness of Mother Earth (Tsalalh – Wellness and Climate Change). There is also the recognition and the acceptance that suffering, discomfort, pain, is a part of life, and I believe by “playing with your pain” (Bison) Indigenous people transform the pain into energy to help us to survive and eventually to thrive by playing with our pain (Sk’mkin – playing with our pain). The health benefits of gathering and connection (Scet’- Ullusilc – the power of gathering) to others is generally accepted for both Indigenous and non-Indigenous peoples. I believe that colonization and mental illness can cause Indigenous people to forget the 185 medicine of gathering particularly when we are suffering, is probably the most important time to gather. When we gather, we are able to exercise the healing power of reciprocity (Kwlsvlqen - Ceremony of Reciprocity). I believe acknowledging acts of reciprocity as a ceremony recognizes the medicine of acts of reciprocity, whether it is recognition and repayment in a formal ceremony; thanking someone for their contribution; making an offering to animals and plants for the gift of food or daily acts of thanks to Mother Earth. Q’waxt – to notice or to observe others and to intervene (Satatwqa7 – Current 5) is a foundational system of monitoring and observation for Indigenous peoples. The observation is continuous, but respectful – leading to a balance between social responsibility and respect for autonomy, but people observe because they care. Recognizing Healing as Ceremony (Tsek – sacred hot springs) – Current 6) is important and recognizing the sacred nature of being on a healing path, whether seeking treatment for cancer; entering counselling for depression or going into sweatlodge or a vision quest. These are all sacred activities and worthy of respect and focus, both by the person in healing and those around them. The Assumption of Medicine (Hi7ulmecw – land with spirits – Current 7) is an assumption meant more for non-Indigenous service providers, health agencies and researchers, but it can also be a reminder for Indigenous and non-Indigenous people. Medicine is everywhere, all around us and within us. Many Indigenous people are raised with these assumptions, that the Spirit World is real as the physical world, that our ancestors and guides walk with us, that there is another place to seek help and strength from. Colonization has affected the ability of many of us to access this place, but the medicine is still there. If non-Indigenous service providers and researchers can adopt these assumptions as well as they adopt the assumptions of western science, then we will all have a better chance of healing ourselves and Mother Earth. 186 To illustrate the importance of considering new currents, or new ways to navigate this river of knowledge and health care, I will share a story - I remember once, reading on social media that a health authority was excited for a new program to provide services to First Nations communities in a new way. I remember being excited to hear about a new approach to the provision of health care to remote Indigenous communities, I thought perhaps it would be a story of the implementation of Indigenous ways of healing or a blending of western and Indigenous healing methods. Instead, I was disappointed when I learned that the new method of health care was the use of drones to provide medication to remote First Nations communities. Clearly, my idea of what constituted a “new” and “innovative” method for health care differed from the health authorities’ vision. A new vision of health care will require not only use of new technologies or medications but expanding the scope of healthcare to include the assumption of medicine. I share the new currents and the recommendations as knowledge for others to pick up or not pick up. It is not my place to tell you, the reader, what do to. I do not know your context, I do not know your story, your history, your ancestors or your grandchildren. All I can do it put the knowledge bundles out there for you to take or not take as you please and I can only hope that you will use them well, fulfilling the obligations of our relationship. 187 Chapter 6: Conclusion (?) This is supposed to be the chapter where I tie everything up in neat bow. You will probably not be surprised that this is not going to happen. But we have made it to the end of this research journey together. I hope that you have had appreciated as I have, the words, wisdom, wit and gifts that the i wa7 zewatets shared. I hope that the knowledge bundles that I have gifted to you may be useful in your work. As a practitioner I have already found many of the bundles to be useful in my work with Indigenous clients. I need to convey this to the i wa7 zewatets. I have been so busy trying to bring my PhD journey to its conclusion that I forgot to let my participants know that their words and knowledge, the gifts they shared with me are benefitting others. It is hard for me to believe that this PhD journey is ending, my ADHD and numerous life events (both losses and gains) contributed to the journey being longer than I expected it to be. The process of the research and my time in the academy has changed me. I have learned much about myself and my capabilities, my vulnerabilities, and areas to continue to work on myself. I am thankful to say that I have learned to accept that others care for and support me, and that I am worthy of this support. Whether the support comes from my wife, my child, my daughter, my cohort mates (who will all be lifelong friends), my siblings, my parents (including in-laws and stepparents) and Indigenous community members, both on the land in Tsalalh and in the urban Indigenous community of Victoria. Opening myself up to receive these gifts of support is an act I ask clients to do for themselves on a regular basis. I have finally been able to do this for myself. Other parts of the journey have been less joyful, many instances of grief, the loss of my mother, my stepfather, my father-in-law, two aunts, two uncles, my father-in-law and most recently our little Shi-Tzu, Kika7. All have crossed into the spirit world during this journey. I remember them all with love. In terms of my transformation, my moving from here to there, I 188 believe I have gained a better understanding of the resilience that helped my mother and father to move through life as they did. They had a rich depth, a treasure trove of knowledge about the language and ways of our people. I believe my grandparents and other ancestors taught them resilience through modelling and perhaps through explicit lessons. All the spoken words lessons would have been in St’at’imcets, our first language and the teachings must have been incredibly rich. Our parents seemed to exemplify generosity, knowing who you belong to and who belongs to you, recognizing that medicine is everywhere and the importance of being connected to creation. The knowledge and skills they were given combined with their inherited gifts and supports from the spirit world gave them the ability to support us, even when they could not always be their best selves. Their resilience and gifts continue to be echoed in their children, their grandchildren and future generations to come. I believe they would be proud and I believe that I understand them a bit better because of my research journey. Outcome: Did I answer my research question? I say “yes”, I did answer my research question. What is wellness according to Indigenous Knowledge Keepers? Well, the i wa7 zewatets answered the question. I accepted the data bundles they so generously gifted me with and created new knowledge bundles, in the form of themes and new currents. I have used the knowledge bundles in my clinical work with students and I have used the knowledge bundles to help me to grow in my own life. Many clients have been uplifted by the thought that they are not “in recovery” or “looking to manage their anxiety”, but they are in ceremony. And there are no small steps in this ceremony, everything counts. Sharing that wellness is dynamic, that a person can have elements of wellness and unwellness at the same time is liberating for many clients. I have shared the research in progress over the last two years 189 at conferences and social media, but I look forward to being able to share the knowledge bundles in their fully processed form and to continue to xlitcal, the giveaway of the knowledge bundles. Outcome: Did I use an Indigenous Research Methodology? Yes, yes, I used an Indigenous Research Methodology to answer my question, the methodology and method were Indigenous, and I named the methodology “Over the Waves”, paying homage to the skills, knowledge and respect that my answers used to navigate the water in our territory. I have the great fortune of being able to speak with both Margaret Kovach and Shawn Wilson during my doctoral studies. Not always to ask about my research, but also to learn about their work and to see how their research and methodologies continues to evolve. Another component of the Indigenous Research Methodology occurred when I approached language teachers and speakers in my family and tribe for assistance with words to describe concepts or places. Engaging in these learning moments with my family, whether my nephew who is a language teacher or my older brothers and sisters who are regaining the language that residential school tried to take away from them was immensely rewarding. We engaged in this process in modern way, setting up different chat groups using social media. Strengths and limitations of the research I believe the greatest strength of the research is that I was able to hear directly from i wa7 zewatets, what they believed wellness to be, how to achieve wellness and how to maintain wellness. I believe it is both a strength and a limitation, that the participants came from many different First Nations and locations. A strength in that the diversity was amazing, and yes there were also similar data bundles shared with me by different participants from different tribes. This diversity could also be considered a limitation as the research cannot be said to be representative of any single community. I feel the strength outweighs the weakness in this case. I say without a 190 doubt, that the i wa7 zewatets who shared with me are some of the most knowledgeable and gifted i wa7 zewatets in the country. The opportunity to sit and listen to them share was amazing, an experience I will always be grateful for. Future Directions, Suggestions – new, “new” currents? I am ending some of my headings in this chapter with a question mark, because that is how I would speak these words if I were giving a presentation. I am trying to write as if I were speaking to either family or community members or fellow students. One consideration for future research for myself, would be to investigate whether health or wellness is holistic through an Indigenous lens? This question fascinates me, and I believe essentializing Indigenous or non-Indigenous health will cost both peoples. I do not believe that essentialism is an Indigenous approach nor is it supposed to be an approach of western science. I wonder how asking this question or speaking on this topic at Indigenous conference would be received? Would it be a case of acknowledging the elephant in the room or of pointing out the chief is not wearing any clothes? I wonder? But I believe that this question is one that should be investigated. There is justification to the criticism that the medical model has not contributed sufficiently to healing for Indigenous peoples, but I believe an argument can also be made that an unquestioning acceptance of “holism” will not contribute to Indigenous peoples healing either. I do not believe that Indigenous methodologies of healing can be binary in their approach. I believe the development of Indigenous Research Methodologies should continue. I have had some realizations during my research and writing journey, such as the importance of owning one’s words and findings as part of accountability. I believe that with Indigenous Research Methodologies, the researcher is not only the “instrument”, but also the methodology. If our research methodology is based on ancestral knowledge or knowledge gained through 191 relationships with Indigenous scholars (both in person and through accessing the knowledge of others) then the Indigenous researcher is the methodology. I believe these types of approaches may help to free Indigenous scholars from feeling they need to “justify” or “qualify” their methodologies as being valid. After submitting my dissertation, I will consider ways to share the findings in a way accessible and useful to community members, service providers and to Indigenous graduate students. I have found a lot of benefit by reading the theses and dissertations of Indigenous scholars like Margaret Kovach (2008), Shawn Wilson (2004), Karlee Fellner (2016), Dawn Marsden (2022), Marie Battiste (1984), Rosalyn Ing (2000), and Robina Thomas (2000) (this list is not exhaustive). Indigenous researchers often produce theses and dissertations, and they are “put on a shelf” and forgotten about until some student comes across the research in a search for knowledge. Sometimes dissertations or books are put into a book form and go on to have a new life, or they are converted to an article. I found the lessons contained within the original sources to be very helpful, as the authors described their processes, their trials and successes on their research journey. I have decided to add a list of suggestions and tips for Indigenous graduate students to the appendices of this dissertation to help those who come behind. Another area of interest to me is the vast repository of data and findings conducted over the last 29 years, since the release of the Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples (RCAP). The Final Report of was released shortly before the 21st century began. There was initial excitement over the findings and many people were accessing the reports. Of course, various federal governments from various parties and under different leaders have failed to follow through on the recommendations of RCAP. This is a shame, as millions of dollars of research and thousands of hours of labour (both by researchers and Indigenous community members) went into the 192 report. Probably in part due to the failure of successive federal governments to fulfill their obligations, many people lost interest in the report and the research from RCAP is rarely mentioned. However, this is often excitement at funding more research and developmental programs to search for answers that already exist in RCAP. I mentioned RCAP specifically, but the same could be said of the vast repository of research and program information developed by the National Aboriginal Health Organization and the Aboriginal Healing Foundation. These programs also stopped receiving funding despite unbridled success in research, program evaluation, program development, funding of research and knowledge transfer. A future direction for me, will be spend more time with these reports and to ensure that new researchers and communities are aware of these resources. Applications of Research Findings and Recommendations I addressed recommendations and applications of the research findings in Chapter Four. I find that many times, community members must often read through hundreds of pages of academic writing to find the most relevant parts. I chose to make my recommendations, short and earlier in this dissertation. To make the research accessible and digestible, for my research to be “pragmatically beneficial” (Gone, 2004) rather than to force readers to make their way through six chapters of academic writing to find recommendations for application. Hu7malh! – our word for “see you later” I believe that is all I have to say at this point. As I said earlier, I hope these knowledge bundles are of use to you. I acknowledge and thank everyone who contributed to my work. I give thanks to the land I am on and the people who care for it. Nilh ti7! – that’s it! 193 References Aboriginal Healing Foundation. (2006). Final Report of the Aboriginal Healing Foundation—Measuring Progress: Program Evaluation (p. 438). 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Yahgulanaas, M. N. (2010). The little hummingbird. Greystone. 203 Appendices Appendix A: Research Conversation Questions Faculty of Education Vancouver Campus Educational & Counselling Psychology, And Special Education 2125 Main Mall Vancouver, B.C. Canada V6T 1Z4 Phone 604-822-0242 Fax 604-822-3302 www.ecps.educ.ubc.ca Principal Investigator: Dr. Marla Buchanan, Professor (Supervisor) Department of Counselling Psychology University of British Columbia Co-Investigator: Roger John, PhD (Candidate) Department of Counselling Psychology University of British Columbia Questions to ask Participants for Research Conversation [Exploring Indigenous Concepts of Well-being with Indigenous Knowledge Keepers] 1. Before we begin, is there anything about yourself that you wish to share? Or any reflections or thoughts that you have on this research project? 2. If you speak your traditional language, is there a term in your language (or another language) that relates to well-being? Whether, holistic, emotional, physical, spiritual or physical? a. Can you share anything additional about this term? 3. What are the ways that a person, or you yourself, maintain well-being? a. For example, are there specific activities or practices that a person should follow in order to achieve or maintain well-being or harmony? 4. How, do you, know or recognize when an Indigenous man is healthy? a. Probe: What behaviours or attitudes are shown by a healthy Indigenous man? 5. How do you know or recognize when an Indigenous woman is healthy? a. Probe: What behaviours or attitudes are shown by a healthy Indigenous woman? 6. How, do you know or recognize when a person who identifies as trans-gender, queer, bisexual or lesbian is healthy? a. Probe: What behaviours or attitudes are shown by this person? 7. Are there any additional thoughts you wish to share about this topic, the topic of Indigenous well-being? 204 Appendix B: Invitation for Feedback Faculty of Education Vancouver Campus Educational & Counselling Psychology, And Special Education 2125 Main Mall Vancouver, B.C. Canada V6T 1Z4 Phone 604-822-0242 Fax 604-822-3302 www.ecps.educ.ubc.ca Email/letter Transcript for Invitation for Feedback [Exploring Indigenous Concepts of Well-being with Indigenous Knowledge Keepers] Principal Investigator: Dr. Marla Buchanan, Professor (Supervisor) Department of Counselling Psychology University of British Columbia Co-Investigator: Roger John, PhD (Candidate) Department of Counselling Psychology University of British Columbia Dear, (Participant) Hello, it is Roger John, PhD Candidate at UBC and researcher for the research project, Indigenous Concepts of Well-being. As an Indigenous Knowledge Keeper who participated in a research conversation you are receiving a copy of this document for your approval and/or feedback. Please review the document to ensure accurate representation of your words and experiences. Also, if you see any information that you do not wish shared publicly in my dissertation, conference presentations, articles or future presentations, please notify me and I will remove the identifying information or remove the information you do not wish shared publicly. Please feel free to contact me either by phone at ###-###-### or via email at #######@student.ubc.ca to notify me of changes required or of approval. Please not that if you do not reply within 14 days of the date of this email/letter your consent and/or approval of the document in its current form is implied. Kukwstumckacw/thank you Roger John, PhD (Candidate) 205 Appendix C: Resources and Suggestions for Indigenous Graduate Students These are tools and strategies that I found helpful on my research journey that may be helpful to you. These are not in any order of priority. I have not received any sponsorship from any private companies or influencers mentioned. Learn to use Citation Software: I do not know what citation software have become by the time you are reading this list. I began my doctoral program using a program called RefWorks which then transitioned to Zotero at UBC. I recommend taking workshops at your university on using citation software. It can save you immense amounts of time to create your bibliography. In the case of Zotero, you can also use Zotero to “store” pdfs of articles and create notes on those articles. YouTube has many helpful videos on using Zotero and Zotero has an extensive help section. Choose one to three methods for notetaking. Again, I do not know what technology will be like when you read this, but notes are a key part of research and learning. I recommend choosing one to three methods of notetaking and/or experimenting with different methods early on in your degree program. Whether physical notebooks which are nice, but also time consuming, typing is faster. Whether OneNote, Pages on a Mac, but find what works for you. Spend time creating an organizational system for yourself early in your program. Probably about midpoint in my dissertation process, I was becoming lost in the amount of information I was tracking. I was alternating between analogue notebooks, a bullet journal, OneNote, Zotero, Excel, an index card system and file folders. I learned of an organizational system called Zettelkasten, which is German for “slipbox” or “notebox”. Once I became familiar with the Zettelkasten method I was able to create an index hierarchy I could use analogue or digitally. I create a hierarchy/index system in my notebooks, my bullet journal, file folders system, OneNote and in Zotero. The system is malleable and can be adapted. I’m sure there are a multitude of systems out there, but this one worked for me. I encourage students to spend time choosing an organizational system early in their program. I found resources on Zettelkasten on Youtube and using a websearch. Planning and Organization is Productivity – for my ADHD brain, I found it a struggle to justify dedicating time to organization, choosing an organizational system and fine tuning it. My brain would often tell me, “you’re wasting time doing this organization stuff! It’s not work, it’s not productive!” However, the amount of time I lost due to disorganization and not being easily able to find what I needed, was much more than an hour a week spent on organization. Use technology: This can mean Chrome extensions or other browser extensions that can assist you, such as extensions that link to citation software, extensions that help with focused reading or read out webpages. There are many possibilities. Using free narrator functions on your PC or Mac for notes or writing papers. If conducting qualitative research that requires transcription, ask your supervisor or the REB if you can use transcription software. Consider finding a mind-mapping software to help with data analysis. Some companies have a charge but might waive the fee or provide a student rate. Ask what you may be able to access through your institution. 206 Appendix D.1: Handwritten Themes List 1 207 Appendix D.2: Handwritten Themes List 2 208 Appendix E.1: Handwritten Mind Map 1 209 Appendix E.2: Handwritten Mind Map 2 210 Appendix E.3: Handwritten Mind Map 3 211 Appendix F.1: Image of Digital Mind Map using Miro 1 212 Appendix F.2: Image of Digital Mind Map using Miro 2 213 Appendix F.3: Image of Digital Mind Map using Miro 3 214 Appendix G.1: Indigenous Wellness Themes Table Version 1.0 215 Appendix G.2: Indigenous Wellness Themes Table Version 2.0 216 Appendix G.3: Indigenous Wellness Themes Table Version 3.0 217 Appendix G.4: Indigenous Wellness Themes Table Version 4.0 218 Appendix G.5: Indigenous Wellness Themes Table Version 5.0 219 Appendix G.6: Indigenous Wellness Themes Table Version 6.0 220 Appendix G.7: Indigenous Wellness Themes Table Version 7.0 221 Appendix G.8: Indigenous Wellness Themes Table Version 8.0 222 Appendix G.9: Indigenous Wellness Themes Table Version 9.0 223 Appendix G.10: Indigenous Wellness Themes Table Version 10.0 224 Appendix G.11: Indigenous Wellness Themes Table Version 11.0 225 Appendix G. 12: Indigenous Wellness Themes Table Version 12.0 226 Appendix G. 13: Indigenous Wellness Themes Table Version 13.0 227 Appendix G. 14: Indigenous Wellness Themes Table 4.1 - Final
Thesis/Dissertation
eng
Counselling Psychology
Vancouver : University of British Columbia Library
Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International
Graduate
Buchanan, Marla
Exploring Indigenous concepts of well-being with Indigenous knowledge keepers
Text